«*U!BRARYOf
£
UNIVERJ/^
O
STANDARD CYCLOPAEDIAS FOR YOUNG OR OLD
CHAMPLIN'S
YOUNG FOLKS' CYCLOPEDIAS
By JOHN D. CHAMPLIN
Late Associate Editor of the American Cyclopcedia
Bound in substantial red buckram. Each volume complete
in itself and sold separately. I2mo, $3 oo per volume,
COMMON THINGS
New, Enlarged Edition, 850 pp. Profusely Illustrated
"A book which will be of permanent value to any boy or girl to
whom it may be given, and which fills a place in the juvenile library,
never, so far as I know, supplied before." — Susan Cooltdge.
PERSONS AND PLACES
New, Up-to-Date Edition, 985 pp. Over 375 Illustrations
" We know copies of the work to which their young owners turn
instantly for information upon every theme about which they have
questions to ask. More than this, we know that some of these copies
are read daily, as well as consulted; that their owners turn the leaves
as they might those of a fairy book, reading intently articles of which
they had not thought before seeing them, and treating the book simply
as one capable of furnishing the rarest entertainment in exhaustless
Quantities." — N. Y. Evening Post.
LITERATURE AND ART
604 pp. 270 Illustrations
"Few poems, plays, novels, pictures, statues, or fictitious characters
.hat children— or most of their parents— of our day are likely to inquire
about will be missed here. Mr. Champlin's judgment seems unusually
sound.*' — The Nation.
GAMES AND SPORTS
By JOHN D. CHAMPLIN and ARTHUR BOSTWICK
Revised Edition, 784 pp. 900 Illustrati6ns
" Should form a part of every juvenile library, whether public or
.private." — The Independent.
NATURAL HISTORY
By JOHN D. CHAMPLIN, assisted by FREDERICK A. LUCAS
725 pp. Over 800 Illustrations
" Here, in compact and attractive form, is valuable and reliable in-
formation on every phase of natural history, on every item of interest
to the student. Invaluable to the teacher and school, and should be ~n
every teacher's desk for ready reference, and the children should be
taught to go to this volume for information useful and interesting." —
Journal of Education.
HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
NEW YORK CHICAGO
THE
YOUNG FOLKS' CYCLOPEDIA
OF
GAMES AND SPORTS
BY
JOHN D. CHAMPLIN
LATB ASSOCIATB BDITOR Of THE AMERICAN CYCLOPAEDIA
AND
ARTHUR E. BOSTWICK
tCUtb numerous Illustrations
NEW YORK
HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
Copyright, 1890,
BT
HENRY HOLT & CO.
M
G3ST
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
THE YOUNG FOLKS' CYCLOPEDIA OF GAMES AND SPORTS is a
compendium of recreations of all kinds, including indoor and out-
door games and plays, athletic and rural sports and pastimes, chem-
ical and mechanical experiments and amusements, and every similar
thing that can interest a wide-awake boy or girl. Like the other
volumes in the Young Folks' Series, it is in cyclopaedic style, a
novelty in a work of this kind, rendering its articles easy of refer-
ence, and combining other advantages never before united in a
similar volume. Intended primarily for the family, for the use of
children and youth of all ages, it will be of equal value to the
adult, as it includes the official rules, given word for word, of ath-
letic sports and standard games, and the official records of athletic
meets and events, thus making it a work of reference for the settle-
ment of disputed questions relating to such matters. To insure
accuracy, such articles as require it have been revised by competent
experts.
Among the features of the work are a brief historical sketch of
each game or sport, the description of foreign varieties of each, a
full illustration of the text by accurate plans and diagrams, and a
system of etymology, as in the other volumes of the series, giving
the derivation of names and technical terms. While the " padding"
characteristic of too many such works has been rigorously excluded,
the endeavor has been to make the explanations full enough for
simplicity and clearness. Unlike many other works on sports and
games published in this country, which are merely reprints of Eng-
lish books, this cyclopaedia has been written for American use from
the American standpoint, even such a game as Cricket being treated
as it is played in the United States.
While the illustration is very full, no picture has been inserted
for its own sake, or otherwise than as an aid to the understanding
of the text or the elucidation of different periods of games and
sports.
iv PREFACE.
A large number of works on sports and kindred subjects, in
many languages, have been consulted and freely used in the prepara-
tion of this book, which is believed to be more comprehensive in its
scope than any other similar publication. The editors are indebted
to Messrs. A. G. Spalding & Bros, for permission to print the foot-
ball rules of the University Athletic Club, and the official rules of
other athletic sports.
In the present edition the description and rules of all such sports
as baseball, football and tennis have been brought carefully down
to date, the articles on cycling and golf have been greatly enlarged
in view of the increased popularity of both, and other changes have
been made to increase the value of" the book.
NEW YORK, January 10, 1899.
NOTE. — Through an oversight of the editors, credit was not given
in the earlier editions to Mr. Dan Beard for sundry devices and sug-
gestions derived from the "American Boys' Handy Book," and to
Messrs. Munn & Co., publishers of the Scientific American, for several
illustrations.
THE
YOUNG FOLKS' CYCLOPEDIA
GAMES AND SPORTS.
ds printed in LETTERS LIKE THESE are explained in their alphabetical places.
references C. C. T. and C. P. P., are to the " Young Kolks' Cyclopaedia of Common
Things," and the "Young Folks' Cyclopaedia of Persons and Places," companion volumes to
this, which explain a great deal not coming within the plan of this book.
A— B— C. A game played by any
number of persons with a pack of
CARDS, on each of which are a letter
of the alphabet and a picture. The
pack is placed face upward on the
table, and each player in order names
an object in the picture on the top
card which begins with the letter on
that card. Any one who cannot do so
in less that one minute is out. No
Agon Board ready for Playing.
ADJECTIVES. A game played by
any number of persons. One writes
a letter, leaving blank spaces for the
adjectives, and then asks the other
players, in order, to furnish the miss-
ing words without knowing what
has been written. The letter is then
read aloud. The game may be varied
by leaving blanks for other words
than adjectives, but in that case each
one must name an object which has
already been named. When all the
players but one are out, that one
takes the card, and the other cards
one by one are treated in like man-
ner, beginning in each case with the
player who took the previous card.
He who takes most cards is the
winner.
ACTING CRAMBO. See CRAMBO.
*•*•:*•
Position of Men at End of Game.
player must be told what part Oi
speech he is expected to supply.
AGON, or the QUEEN'S GUARDS.
A game played by two persons on a
six-sided board like that represented
in the pictures. Each player has
seven pieces, a Queen, which is
slightly higher than the others, and her
six Guards. Each places his Queen
on the corner space in front of him,
AIR-PUMP
AIR-PUMP
and the guards are then arranged
alternately on the outermost row as
shown in the first illustration. The
object of the game is to get a Queen
into the ce; .ter with herGuards ranged
on the six spaces around her.as shown
in the second figure, and the player
whofirst gets his pieces in thisposition
wins. The players move alternately
after the first move has been decided.
Any piece may be moved one space
forward or sideways, but never back-
ward. If any Guard gets between
two hostile pieces so that the three
form a straight line on adjacent
spaces, such Guard must be taken up
for the next move, and placed some-
where on the outermost row. If the
Queen gets in a similar situation she
must likewise be taken up, but she
may be placed anywhere on the
board.
In playing, it is well to try to ar-
range the pieces so that several of
the enemy's Guards can be taken up
in succession, rather than to throw
back one piece alone, for in the latter
case that piece is often able to secure
a good position. As no piece can be
moved backward he who has a man
in the rear has an advantage. It is
a good plan to keep one man back
and hurry the others forward, keep-
ing them together as close as pos-
sible.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. None but the Queens must oc-
cupy the center space.
2. Of two or more pieces liable to
be thrown back at one time, the
Queen, if she be one, must be taken
up first, and the others may be
taken in any order the player chooses,
the removal of each piece counting
as a move.
3. If a piece be touched prepara-
tory to moving, it must be moved or
the move be lost.
4. If the six Guards are placed in
the circle surrounding the center
space, leaving the Queen outside, the
player of them forfeits the game.
AIR-PUMP, Experiments with an.
The common air-pump is described
in C. C. T. A simpler one may be
made with a large glass jar or bottle,
closed with a rubber stopper having
a hole through it. Into the hole put
a short piece of glass tubing, over the
end of which fit a piece of rubber
tubing, about an inch
and a half long (See
Fig. I). Exhaust the
lungs, apply the mouth
to the tube and suck.
Pinch the rubber tube
tightly to prevent air
entering the bottle, and
after exhausting the
lungs again, repeat the
process. If the air is to
Fig. i. be kept exhausted for
some time, a pinch-cock (see CHEM-
ICAL EXPERIMENTS) should be fast-
ened to the rubber tube. In this
way about three-quarters of the air
can be removed from the jar.
EXPERIMENTS.
1. Put into the jar a small vaseline
or other wide-mouthed bottle, with a
piece of thin rubber cloth
tied over the top. On ex-
hausting the air, the cloth
will bulge up like a bal-
loon (See Fig. 2). This
is caused by the air trying
to get out of the bottle,
owing to the lightening of
the pressure above it.
2. Instead of exhausting
the air, condense it, by
forcing the breath into the
bottle, pinching the rub-
ber tube between breaths, as before.
The rubber cloth on the
small bottle will bulge in-
ward (see Fig. 3), owing
to the increased pressure
above it.
3. Replace the short
glass tube with a longer
one, c, having a jet b (see
CHEMICAL EXPERI-
MENTS) on the end inside
the jar. Exhaust the air
as before, and then keep-
ing the rubber tube pinched, hold the
jar upside down, and put the end of
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
AIR-PUMP
ALCOHOL
Fig. 4-
the rubber tube into a glass of water
d. On releasing the tube the water
will spirt up through the jet into
the bottle, making a little
fountain (See Fig. 4).
This is because the pres-
» ri|i sure of the air on the
All surface of the water in
the bowl forces it up
into the jar, where the
pressure is less.
4. Turn the glass tube
so that the jet will be
outside, seeing that the
tube nearly reaches the
bottom of the jar. Pour
[fir in water enough to cover
an inch or two of the
end. Put the rubber
tube over the jet, and
condense the air in the jar, as in Ex-
periment 2. Quickly pull off the
rubber tube, and a foun-
tain like that in Experi-
ment 3 will play from
the jet (See Fig. 5).
5. In the vaseline
bottle used in Experi-
ments I and 2, or a
similar one, fit a stopper
and jet like those used
on the large jar in Ex-
'periment 4. Partly fill
it with water, place it
inside the jar, exhaust
the air, and a fountain
will play from the jet.
(See Fig. 6). Fie- 5-
6. In the vaseline bottle put a bent
tube reaching nearly to the bottom
on the inside and about
as far down on the out-
side. Put enough water
into both bottle and jar
to cover well the ends of
the tube. Exhaust the
air. All the water will be
forced out of the bottle.
Let in the air again.
More water will run in
from the jar than was in
the bottle to begin with.
Steam vacuum. A partial va-
cuum may be produced also by
Fig. 6.
means of steam. If a little water be
boiled in a flask, the steam will drive
out all the air, and if the flask be
then corked and cooled by placing
it in water the steam will condense
to water, leaving nothing in its place
but a little cool water-vapor. The
cork must be put in carefully, and
the flask withdrawn from the heat at
the same time, otherwise the steam
might force the cork out again. By
connecting the cork by means of
rubber tubing with another bottle or
jar, the air in the latter may be
greatly rarefied and many of the
above experiments tried. If a toy
rubber balloon, with no air in it, be
fastened to the under side of a glass
tube passing through the cork, so
that it will be inside of the flask
when it is corked, the balloon will
swell up and fill the flask as soon as
the flask is cooled ; the outside air
rushing in to fill the vacuum made
by condensing the steam.
ALCOHOL, Experiments with.
(Read CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS).
Alcohol is described in C. C. T. To
make it, mix about a quarter of a
glass of molasses with a glass and a
half of water, add a little yeast, and
set the liquid in a warm place for
two or three clays. During this time
it will ferment and bubbles of gas
will rise from it, which may be col-
lected if the liquid is in a corked
flask with a delivery tube leading to
the bottom of a jar. The gas is
CARBONIC ACID, as may be shown
by shaking it with lime-water. The
liquid now has alcohol in it, which
must be separated from it by DIS-
TILLING. Instead of condensing
the vapor at once, however, it is first
led into a bottle which is kept at a
little below the boiling point of water,
by being heated over a water bath.
Most of the steam condenses in this
bottle, but the alcohol, which will not
condense at so high a temperature,
goes on to the next bottle, which is
kept in ice-cold water. Test the
liquid thus obtained by trying to light
some of it on a glass rod. If it will
ALICE IN WONDERLAND
ALL FOOLS' DAY
not burn, it is not strong enough,
and must be distilled over again.
Not more than a quarter of the
liquid must be boiled away, for by
that time most of the alcohol is
gone from it.
EXPERIMENTS.
1. Try to dissolve different sub-
stances in alcohol. It will be found
that oily or gummy substances, which
will not dissolve at all in water, will
do so in alcohol.
2. Mix equal quantities of alcohol
and water together, after measuring
each in a graduated tube. The
liquid will shrink in mixing so that
the mixture will not measure as
much as the sum of the two quan-
tities.
3. Drop alcohol on the still sur-
face of a basin of water. There will
be a little dimple, or pit, where it
strikes, because the heavier and
stronger fluid on the surface around
it pulls it away.
4. Put a teaspoonful of raw white
of egg in a glass, and pour on it
about a tablespoonful of alcohol. It
will be cooked, as if by heat.
5. Fill a glass with alcohol and into
it drop a very little of any aniline dye
in the form of powder. These dyes
may be obtained of a druggist. The
dye will descend into the fluid in a
colored thread which will branch
out into two or more, and these in
turn will divide, so as to resemble
the growth of a plant. If the alco-
hol be contained in a tank with par-
allel glass sides (see PRISM), the
phenomenon may be thrown on to a
screen with the HELIOSTAT, and as
the lens reverses the object the col-
ored threads will appear to grow up-
ward, thus increasing the resem-
blance to a tree.
ALICE IN WONDERLAND. A
game played by any number of per-
sons, with 52 cards bearing pictures
of characters in the story of that
name. The cards are divided into
three sets : 16 picture-cards with a
star in the corner, numbered from i
to 16; the same picture-cards with-
out the star, numbered in like man-
ner ; and 20 cards without pictures,
numbered from I to 20. In each set
the cards rank according to their
numbers, but a star card is higher
than any other, and a plain picture-
card is higher than a plain numbered
card. At the beginning of the game,
each player is given seven cards.
The eldest hand leads. If he lead a
picture card, the next must play its
mate (from the other picture-set), if
possible ; otherwise a card from the
same set. If a plain numbered card
be led, the next player must play
another of that set. If he have no
card of the set led, he may play what
he chooses. Each in turn plays in
like manner, but if a picture card has
been played it must be followed by
its mate if possible, even if the lead
was a plain card. If more than one
picture card has been played, the
first must be mated first, if possible.
When each has played one card, he
who played the highest card takes
the trick and leads for the next one.
When the hands have been played,
each scores 10 points for each pair
among the cards he has taken, 20
for Alice and 20 for the Pool of
Tears, if he have them ; and he who
has taken most cards scores 10. The "
player with the greatest number of
points wins the game.
ALL FOOLS' DAY. April Fool
candy can be made by dipping balls
of cotton in melted chocolate, so that
they will look like chocolate-creams,
or by covering a lead pencil, cut in
half, with frosting so that it will look
like white candy.
April Fool cake can be made by
covering a tin pan, turned upside
down, with frosting, and an April
Fool custard by lining a glass closely
with white or yellow paper and cov-
ering it with tissue paper on which
there is a little white of egg beaten
to a froth. An April Fool pie is
made of ordinary pie-crust either
with nothing but air within it, or
stuffed with sawdust. Coarse yellow
soap cut into pieces makes very good
ALL FOOLS' DAY
ALL FOURS
April Fool cheese. These decep-
tions served once or twice during a
meal will be almost certain to catch
some one. An April Fool whistle
can be made as shown in the illustra-
tion, and filled with flour, which
will fly into the face of any one who
tries to blow it. A B (Fig. i) is a
tin tube, stopped by two pieces of
cork. One at the end has holes in
it and a glass tube through it, as
shown in Fig. 2. The other figures
explain themselves.
The oldest April Fool trick was to
send some one on a fruitless errand,
generally for some absurd or impos-
sible thing, such as a " stick with
only one end," a " crooked straight
edge," etc. This trick was generally
practiced on some young apprentice,
and he was sent in search of the ob-
ject from one place to another till he
was tired. Sometimes he was sent
to a shoemaker for some " strap oil,"
which was generally understood to
mean a thrashing with a strap.
History. The origin of the cus-
tom of deceiving people on the first
of April is unknown, though many
have tried to explain it. Some say
Fig. i.
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
April Fool Whistle.
Fig. 4.
that the sending boys on silly er-
rands is to commemorate the send-
ing out by Noah of the dove, when
it found nothing to rest on. Others
connect it with the Hindoo feast on
March 31, called Huli, which is cele-
brated in a similar way. The custom
seems to have been taken to England
and Germany from France, where
an April fool is called Potsson
d ' Avril (April fish). Some think
that this refers to the fool's allow-
ing himself to be caught like a fish,
but others say it is a corruption of
Passion d' Avril (April passion or
suffering), and that the custom of
sending people about on fruitless
errands arose from an old Morality,
or Miracle Play, representing Christ
sent backward and forward between
Herod and Pilate. In France, even
the highest dignitaries condescended
to take part in the sport. It is re-
lated that a high ecclesiastic gathered
a great crowd to hear him preach on
the first of April, and, when he had
ascended the pulpit, made the sign
of the cross, cried out "April Fool!"
and went down again. In Scotland
the April fool is called a "gowk"
(cuckoo).
ALL FOURS (Called also Old-
Sledge, Seven-Up, and High-Low-
Jack). A game played with a full
pack of CARDS, which rank as in
Whist. It is usually played by two
ALL FOURS
ALL FOURS
persons, or by four acting as part-
ners, as in Whist ; but it may be
played also by three or four persons
without partnership. In the two-
handed game, the dealer gives each
player six cards, three at a time, and
turns up the next card as trump. If
it be a knave he scores one point at
once, as further explained below.
The non-dealer then looks at his
hand. If he is satisfied with it, he
says " I stand," in which case play
begins at once ; but if not, he says
" I beg." The dealer may then
either say " Take one," allowing his
opponent to score one point before
play begins, or he may lay aside the
trump and deal three more cards to
each, turning up the next as a new
trump. If the new trump is of the
same suit as the old, three more cards
must be dealt again to each player,
and so on till a trump card of a
different suit is turned. This is
called " running the cards for a new
trump." In playing, suit must be
followed if possible, except when the
player chooses to trump. The points
that may be made in one hand are
four, as follows :
High. The holder of the highest
trump out scores one point.
Low. The original holder of the
lowest trump out scores one point,
whether he takes the trick containing
it or not.
Jack. The player that wins the
trick containing the knave of trumps,
or who turns it up as trump when
dealing, scores one point.
Game. The player whose tricks
contain cards the sum of whose values
is the greatest, scores one point,
counting
Ace
King
Queen
Knave
Ten
as
4
3
2
I
IO
The other cards count nothing toward
Game ; hence a hand may be played
when no Game is made, neither
player holding either court cards or
tens. If there be a tie, — that is,
when each player holds an equal
number for game, it is scored by the
eldest hand. It may happen that a
single card may score more than one
point, or all four points ; thus, if a
player hold only one face card, the
Knave of trumps, and his opponent
have no face card, trump, ten, nor
Ace, the Knave will score High, Low,
Jack, and Game. He who first scores
seven points, wins.
In the three and four handed
games only the player at the dealer's
left has the option of " standing " or
" begging," as in the two-handed
game, and the method of playing is
the same. If new cards are dealt,
they must be dealt to each of the
players. In the four-handed game,
each may play for himself, or two, as
partners, against the other two.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. In cutting for deal, the Ace
counts as the highest card.
2. If the dealer expose any card
but his own, or make a misdeal, he
must deal again.
3. The points must be scored in
the order, High, Low, Jack, Game ;
thus, if the players stand six to six in
the score, and one has High, while
his opponent has the other three, the
one that has High goes out. But
when Jack is turned up as trump, it
must be scored immediately, thus
taking precedence of all other points.
4. A turned-up Jack is to be
scored, even if the opponent begs,
and the trump is thus changed.
5. No one may beg more than
once in a hand, but if the hands are
unsatisfactory after the cards have
been run, a new deal may had by
agreement of all the players, or they
may agree to run the cards again ;
but no suit can be trump that has
already been turned as such in the
same hand.
6. Should the same suit be turned,
in running the cards, till the pack
has all been used, there must be a
new deal.
7. In the four-handed game, only
ALL FOURS
ALL FOURS
the dealer and the player on his left
may look at their cards before the
latter decides whether to stand or
beg, and, if he begs, the others may
not look at their hands till the dealer
tells whether he will " give one," or
run the cards for another trump.
The game is called All Fours from
the points that can be made in one
deal ; High, Low, Jack, Game (or
more commonly High-Low-Jack),
from the names of the points ; and
Seven-Up, from the number of points
that win the game.
Pitch. A kind of All Fours, in
which no trump is turned, the first
suit led being considered the trump
suit. The eldest hand thus has the
privilege of leading or pitching the
trump, from which the game gets its
name. The method of playing is the
same as in All Fours, except that
there is no begging. In case of a
tie for Game, too, neither player can
score Game. With these changes,
the rules are the same as in All
Fours.
Auction Pitch (called also Com-
mercial Pitch). A kind of All Fours,
in which the trump card is not
turned, but led or pitched by the
player making the highest bid for the
privilege. The game may be played
by any number of persons, usually
not more than eight. After the deal
the eldest hand, who is called the
seller, asks each in turn, going to-
ward the left, what he will bid for
the privilege of pitching the trump.
Each bids as many points as he
thinks he can make, and each has
but one bid.
The seller, who has the last say,
may either sell to the highest bid-
der— that is, permit him to pitch the
trump — or he may decline to sell
and pitch the trump himself at the
same price offered by the highest
bidder; but he is not obliged to out-
bid him. If he accept the bid, he
adds the number of points bid to his
own score at once before playing
begins. The player who has won
the privilege must lead a card of the
suit he has made trumps, and the
game proceeds as in All Fours. The
player who pitches the trump,
whether it be the highest bidder or
the seller, scores, if successful in
playing, all the points he may make ;
but if he fail to make as many points
as the highest bid, that number of
points is deducted from his score and
he cannot count any of the points
made in that hand. If no bid is
made the seller must pitch the trump.
The scoring is usually done by
giving each player ten to begin with,
subtracting what he wins, and add-
ing what he loses, so that the winner
is he who first gets rid of all his
points. The score can be very readily
kept by writing two X's, each of which
stands for five. For the first point
the middle of one X can have a ring
drawn around it, and one of the arms
can be crossed off for each point
made afterward.
Pedro Sanchp, or Sancho Pedro.
A kind of Auction Pitch in which
the dealer sells the privilege of mak-
ing or pitching the trump, and the
players may bid over and over again
in turn, till all are satisfied. Any
number of persons may play, but six
or eight is the most convenient num-
ber and makes the best game. The
cards are dealt as in All Fours, but
nine or twelve cards instead of six
may be dealt to each player, by agree-
ment, if the number be small. High,
Low, and Jack count each one point,
as in All Fours, but Low counts for
him who takes it, not for the original
holder. Game, too, counts one point,
but is won by the player who takes the
ten of trumps. The five of trumps
(called Pedro) counts five points, and
the nine of trumps (called Sancho)
nine points, each in favor of the player
who wins the trick containing it.
The game is usually for fifty points,
and is scored as in Auction Pitch.
The points must be scored in the
order High, Low, Jack, Game, Pedro,
Sancho.
Dom Pedro. When a Joker, or
blank card, is used in this game, it is
ALLITERATION
8
AMALGAMS
called Dom, and the game Dom
Pedro. No matter what suit is
trumps, the Joker is always a trump,
though it may be taken by any other
trump; but, though the lowest trump,
it cannot score for Low. It is scored
last in order, or below Sancho, and
counts the one who wins it fifteen
points. When the game is played
with a Joker, it is for 100 points.
Sancho may be omitted from the
game, which is then called Pedro.
California Jack. A kind of All
Fours played usually by two or four
persons. After the deal, the dealer
turns the rest of the pack (called the
stock) face upward, and the exposed
card is the trump. He then either
slips the trump into the middle of the
pack, or shuffles the cards after which
they remain face upward on the table.
After each trick is taken, the dealer
gives the top card of the stock to
the winner, and one card to each of
the other players in order, to the
left, holding each card face upward.
Thus each continues to have six
cards in his hand as long as the
stock lasts. The points are High,
Low, Jack, and Game, as in All
Fours. As all the pack is used,
High will always be the Ace, and
Low the two of trumps. The latter
counts for the taker, not the original
holder as in All Fours. He who
first makes ten points wins.
The chief feature of this game is
the fact that the topmost card of the
stock is always visible, and if it is a
high one each player wishes to take
the trick, so as to get it. Hence
there is some interest in playing
each trick, whereas in all other kinds
of All Fours a player cares to take
only tricks containing cards that
count. Care must be taken not to
expose any but the top card of the
stock.
ALLITERATION. A game played
by any number of persons, each of
whom is required to write a story in
which each word shall begin with a
given letter of the alphabet. The
stories may be required to be of **••»
same length, as agreed on before-
hand, or a given time may be
allowed for writing. When all have
finished, the stories are read aloud,
and he whose story is the best, as
decided by a majority of the players,
is declared the winner.
ALPHABETICAL TRAVELS. A
game played by any number of per-
sons. Each of the players, who sit
in a row, tells, in order, to what place
he will travel and what he will do
there, always using for principal
words (such as nouns, adjectives,
and verbs), those beginning with a
single letter of the alphabet. The
first player takes A, the second B,
and so on. Thus the players, in
order, may say:
" I am going to Africa, to Ask an
Arab for Apricots."
" I am going to Boston to Buy
Baked Beans."
" I am going to California to Cut
Curious Capers."
" I am going to Damascus to Dine
on Delicious Doughnuts."
" I am going to Elizabeth to Eat
Eggs Egotistically.'' And so on
through the alphabet.
Any one unable to give a sentence
of this kind may be required to pay
a forfeit, or a score may be kept, the
successful ones being given one
point. In this case the company
may be divided into sides. The
method of playing must be agreed
upon beforehand.
ALUM, Experiment with. Heat a
small quantity of crystalline alum in
an earthenware crucible. It will turn
to a white powder, and expanding
will overflow the crucible. (See also
CRYSTALLIZATION.)
AMALGAMS. Compound of mer-
cury with other metals. Mercury
dissolves most metals at ordinary
temperatures, as may be seen by ex-
periment. The amalgam is often
made more quickly if the metal be in
the form of scrapings or powder, and
if both it and the mercury be heated.
Three curious kinds of amalgam are
formed in the following experiments :
AMMONIA
AMMONIA
1. Sodium Amalgam. Into mer-
cury contained in a glass dish put
some thin strips of sodium and stir
with a glass tube. The metals will
unite with a crackling noise and a
flame. As drops of metal are fre-
quently thrown out it is best to cover
the dish while the action is going on.
The appearance of the amalgam
varies according to the proportion of
sodium used. Thirty parts of mer-
cury to one of sodium form a solid
mass. If three or four times as
much mercury is used the result is a
thick liquid, and with quantities be-
tween these two extremes the amal-
gam is a more or less thick paste.
2. Ammonium Amalgam. Half
fill a test tube with a strong solution
of sal-ammoniac in water and pour
into it a small quantity of sodium
amalgam. The liquid will expand
and push itself out of the tube in a
pasty, frothy mass. This has been
supposed by some persons to be an
amalgam of mercury and the metal
ammonium, which is believed to be
present in ammonia. It breaks up
soon into mercury and ammonia.
3. Gold Amalgam. Suspend a
piece of gold leaf in a bottle con-
taining mercury. The mercury
vapor will amalgamate with the gold,
turning it gradually gray. (The use
of mercury for extracting gold from
its ore is described in C. C. T., arti-
cle GOLD).
AMMONIA, Experiments with.
(Read article on CHEMICAL EXPER-
IMENTS). Ammonia is described in
C. C. T. The common ammonia
water sold at drug stores is ammonia
gas mixed with water. The gas can
be obtained from this, by heating it
in a flask, the delivery tube from
which passes to the top of an inverted
jar, since the gas is lighter than air.
A piece of red litmus paper, held at
the mouth of the jar when it is full,
will turn blue (see TEST PAPERS).
The gas cannot be collected over
water because it dissolve- in water so
easily.
Another way to obtain the Fas is
to mix a teaspoonful of pulverized
sal-ammoniac \\ith twice as much
freshly slaked LIME, first allowing
the lime to cool. Add just enough
water to make the mixture lumpy
when stirred. Heat it gently in a
flask, collecting the gas as before.
The ammonia in this case comes
from the sal-ammoniac, which is
composed of chlorine and ammonia.
The chlorine prefers the lime to the
ammonia, and so lets the latter
escape.
EXPERIMENTS.
I. The Ammonia Fountain. Fill
a bottle with ammonia gas as de-
scribed above, and stop it with a
cork through which passes a small
glass tube, ending in
a jet inside the bottle.
Dip the exposed end
of the tube into a
glass of water, and
after a time the water
will spurt up into the
bottle of ammonia,
forming a little foun-
tain. The reason is
that water and am-
monia have a great
liking for each other.
The gas in the tube
dissolves in the water
into which it projects,
and the pressure of
the air on the surface
of the water in the
glass forces it up to
take the place of the dissolved
ammonia. Thus more gas is dis-
solved, and so the fountain keeps
on playing till all the gas is gone.
It often takes a long time to start
the fountain, because the tube is
filled with air, and the action does
not begin till the ammonia reaches
water. The experimenter will have
to wait patiently, or he may hurry
matters by pouring a little water
into the tube. If the water in the
glass be colored with red litmus, it
will turn blue as it enters the am-
monia (see TEST PAPERS). The
experiment will succeed better if the
AMMONIA
10
ANAGRAMS
a
ammonia be perfectly dry, so it may
be passed through a drying bottle
before collecting. See that the cork
and tube are perfectly tight, or the
fountain will not play.
2. To Burn Ammonia. To burn
a jet of ammonia gas it must be
surrounded by OXYGEN. Connect
the delivery tube d from the drying
bottle to a long glass jet
around which is placed
an argand lamp chim-
ney, as shown in the
figure, the top of the
chimney a being on a
level with the top of the
jet. It will be found im-
possible to light the am-
monia gas flowing from
the jet unless a current
of oxygen be passed
through the lamp chim-
ney from a tube b, when
it will take fire with a
yellow flame. Instead of surrounding
the ammonia with oxygen, the two
gases may be mixed, by passing a
stream of oxygen through strong am-
monia water in a flask or bottle. Heat
the flask, and the mixed gases can
then be lighted at its mouth.
3. Sal-ammoniac. Into the bot-
tom of a glass pour a few drops of
strong ammonia water, and shake it
about so that it will wet the sides of
Argand
Burner.
Sal-ammoniac Cloud.
the glass. Into another glass pour,
in like manner, HYDROCHLORIC
ACID; place a sheet of paper over
one glass and then put the other
on it, bottom upward. After waiting
a moment, pull the paper away,
when the glass will fill with a dense,
white cloud. This cloud is formed
of particles of sal-ammoniac, which
is made of chlorine and ammonia.
4. Ammonia from Cheese. Am-
monia may be obtained from cheese
in the following manner. Place in a
test tube a bit of cheese and some
caustic potash, and heat over an
alcohol lamp. The odor of ammo-
nia will soon be perceived, and if a
piece of turmeric paper be held over
the tube it will be turned brown,
showing that an alkali is present.
The ammonia is formed by the union
of the nitrogen and hydrogen which
are present in cheese.
ANAGRAMS. A game played
with printed letters of the alphabet,
like those used in playing LOGO-
MACHY. Each player forms a word
and then, mixing the letters compos-
ing it, gives it to his right-hand
neighbor, who is required to arrange
the letters again in their proper
order. This is the usual method,
but as thus played Anagrams is
rather an amusement than a game.
It may be played as a game by re-
quiring each player to give his word,
at the same time, to each of the
others. Whoever guesses all his
words soonest, or guesses most of
them in a given time, is declared
winner. In this method no two per-
sons have exactly the same list of
words to solve. That all may be
equal in this respect, some one not in
the game may give the words to all.
Forming Anagrams has long been
a favorite amusement, and much in-
genuity has been shown in trans-
forming a word, by changing its let-
ters into another defining it or related
to it in some way. Some of the
anagrams made in this way are as
follows :
Telegraph. — Great help.
Reformations. — To sin far more.
Old England. — Golden land.
The following was made by Dean
Swift
ANAMORPHOSES
II
ANAMORPHOSES
Transubstantiation, — Sin sat on a
tin tar tub.
The game of Anagrams is called
in France Le jeu de mots (the Game
of Words), and is played with bits
of wood or bone resembling DOMI-
NOES, having a capital letter on one
end and a small one on the other.
Alphabet Game. A kind of Ana-
grams, where, instead of the actual
letters of the word to be guessed, the
guesser is given an arrangement of
dots, single ones representing conso-
nants, and double ones vowels. Thus,
the word "Philadelphia" would be
denoted thus :
The guesser is allowed to ask " Is
it a city ? " " Is it a person ? " or
any similar question which can be
answered by " Yes " or " No." The
number of these questions can be
limited by agreement. This game is
called in Germany Das Buchstabir-
spiel (the Letter Game).
ANAMORPHOSES. Drawings in
which the objects represented are
twisted out of shape, but can be seen,
in their proper proportions by using
some special device. The simplest
kind can be made as follows. Sup-
pose Fig. I is the picture to be trans-
formed. Divide it into squares, as
shown. Then draw a straight line
a<$(Fig. 2) equal to the side^4 /?of the
square, divide it into the same num-
Fig. i.
ber of parts, and draw lines from each
point of division to some point below
as V. Draw VS parallel with the
base line, and from any point S on
Fig. 2.
it draw a line to the point a. At the
places where this crosses the other
lines draw parallels to the base line.
The figure a c db will now be divided
into the same number of parts as the
original square, but of a different
shape. The picture is now re-drawn
in this new figure, placing in each
part what was in the corresponding
square. The greater the number of
squares into which the original pic-
ture was divided, the more accurately
this can be done. By looking at the
distorted picture from a point near
the paper just above V, it will appear
in its right shape. This point varies
according to the positions of the
points V and S, but is easily found
by trial.
Another way of drawing the same
12
ANGLING
kind of anamorphosis is to prick pin-
holes in the original picture so as to
trace the outlines, and then hold it
upright just in front of a candle so
that the light shining through the
pin-holes forms the picture on a sheet
of paper laid before it on the table.
The outlines are then traced on this
sheet by following the illuminated
lines with a pencil, and the picture
is afterward rilled in in detail. If
the original picture be removed and
the distorted one looked at with the
eye placed exactly where the candle
was, it will be seen in its proper
shape. (See Fig. 3.)
Anamorphoses are sometimes
made, which appear of their proper
shape when viewed in a cylindrical
or conical mirror. Such distorted
pictures can often be bought at toy
stores, but they are very difficult to
draw properly.
ANGLING, or FISH POND. A
game played by an even number of
persons, who angle for toy tish with
a miniature pole and hook and line.
The fish, which maybe made to look
like real fish, or may be simply little
pieces of wood, are fitted with rings
Angling.
about 1-16 of an inch in diameter,
and have on them numbers in regu-
lar order. For four players, about
" Fish."
forty fish, are generally provided.
The players sit opposite each other,
and each is given five fish for his
" private pond," which are placed in
front of him, while the rest are put
in the middle of the table to form the
" large pond."
The game begins by two of the
players fishing in each other's ponds,
each holding his pole, and trying to
lift one of the fish by passing the
hook through the ring. The first
one to do so cries, " Caught ! " and
his opponent takes the fish in his
hand, while the successful angler
ANORTHOSCOPE
ANORTHOSCOPE
guesses whether its number is odd
or even. If the guess be correct he
takes the fish into his own pond, and
the same pair fish again as before,
but in the large pond. As long as
one of them is successful, the same
pair continue to fish, alternately in
each other's ponds and the large
pond. When there is a wrong guess,
the fish is put into the large pond, if it
has been taken from a private pond,
and into the opponent's pond if from
the large pond, and the next two
players begin to fish. If the players
catch fish at the same time, the one
who first calls out "Caught," is
given the preference. If both call at
once, he who guesses correctly is
preferred, and if both guess correctly,
the fish are returned to their respec-
tive ponds for another trial. The
game is ended when any pond, large
or private, is empty, and he wins who
has most fish. If two have the same
number, the sum of the numbers
marked on the fish decides the game.
When only two play, each private
pond should contain ten fish.
Angling is much played as a PRO-
GRESSIVE GAME. When it is thus
played, an increased number of fish
is needed ; each player may be pro-
vided with a rod and line, or there
may be two for each table.
ANIMAL, VEGETABLE, AND
MINERAL. See TWENTY QUES-
TIONS.
ANORTHOSCOPE. An optical
toy which distorts figures viewed
through it. It consists of two discs,
on one of which the figure to be
viewed is painted, while in the other
there are slits through which the
observer looks, as in the ZOETROPE.
The discs are so arranged as to
revolve in opposite directions, and
the disc bearing the figures is made
transparent, so that it may be seen
by holding it up toward the light.
The figures are usually so drawn
that when viewed by the unaided eye
they are unrecognizable, but when
placed in the anorthoscope they are
restored to their proper shape. The
arrangement and results of the toy
depend somewhat on the relative
velocity of the disks. We will sup-
pose that the disk bearing the slit is
made to revolve once, while that
with the figure does so four times.
Then there must be four slits in the
front disk, arranged thus -J-, and,
whatever figure may be drawn on
the other disk, five distorted figures,
all alike, will be seen by looking
through the slits. ' The illustrations
on page 14 show the appearance of
two designs, first as seen with the
naked eye, and then through the slits.
The reason why the toy produces
this effect will now be given. First
suppose there is only one slit in the
front disk, and only a dot, instead of
a picture, on the other. Suppose the
disk to start with the dot just behind
the slit. As the back disk turns four
times as fast as the front one, the dot
will pass behind the slit four times
before they get around into the same
position again. Thus the eye will
see five dots on the rear disk instead
of one. If there are four slits at
right angles the result will be the
same, for each will pass the dot in
the same place as the others. But
there cannot be more than four. The
same will be true of a large figure as
of a dot, but each of the multiplied
figures will be shut together, like a
fan, so as to extend only one-fifth as
far around the circle as before. That
is, supposing the circle to be divided
into 360 degrees, if the picture extend-
ed around sixty degrees, it will appear
in the anorthoscope to extend over
only twelve degrees. This shutting
together is a consequence of the rapid
movement of the rear disk past the
front one. If this reduction in size
took place in all directions, the figure
would be the same shape, only
smaller, but it takes place in only one
direction, that is, around the circle,
hence the figure is twisted out of
shape.
A/iy figure may be drawn on the
disk so that it will appear in its proper
shape when viewed through the an-
ANORTHOSCOPE
ANORTHOSCOPE
orthoscope. Suppose the figure to
be that of a card as shown in the
illustration. Draw lines from the
center of the disk through the angles
of the card, and others to the points
I, 2, 3, etc., at intervals of any de-
sired number of degrees, say five, as
in the plan on page 15. The position
of the card should be so arranged
that the lines passing through the
corners will be multiples of five de-
grees apart. (The degrees may be
laid off with a curved scale, called
a protractor, sold by any dealer
Anorthoscope Designs.
in drawing materials.) Then draw
an equal number of lines from the
center, twenty -five degrees apart
to the points i', 2', 3', 4', etc., repre-
senting the first lines opened out like
a fan. Take any line of the figure,
and measure the distance, from the
center, of the point where it crossed
each of the radii first drawn, and
make a dot on the corresponding
new radius at just that distance.
For instance, measure the distance
from the center to the left-hand cor-
ner on the radius drawn to i, and then
lay it off on the radius drawn to i'.
Join all the dots so made by a curved
line, and do the same with all the
other lines of the figure. Care must
ANORTIIOSCOPE
ARCHERY
be taken that the original figure does
not take up more than one-fifth of
the disk ; otherwise the adjoining
figures, as seen in the anorthoscope,
will overlap.
Anorthoscopes can be made which
will multiply the figure seen as many
times as desired, shutting it together
to a corresponding degree. The
number of figures seen is always one
greater than the number of revolu-
tions the back disk makes while the
front one is going around once, and
the number of slits, always one less
than the number of figures, must be
disposed at equal distances around
the disk. Thus, if it makes eight to
the front disk's one, nine figures will
be seen, each of which reaches only
one-ninth as far around the circle as
the original. In this case there must
be eight slits.
The anorthoscope may be made to
work in many other ways besides the
one described here. If the disks re-
volve in the same direction the num-
ber of revolutions can be so adjusted
as to combine several figures into
Plan for Drawing.
one, instead of expanding one into
several. By slightly varying these
figures an effect is obtained like that
of the ZOETROPE.
The anorthoscope is not commonly
sold at toy stores. The disks can
easily be made as above described,
but it is more difficult to make the
disks revolve at exactly the proper
rate. This can be effected by means
of cog-wheels arranged as shown in
the illustration. If the number of
cogs on the larger of the two parallel
wheels be four times that on the
smaller, the latter will revolve four
Wheels for Anorthoscope.
times as fast. The number on tin
crank-wheel is immaterial. The ai-
rangement can be made at any
machine shop.
The anorthoscope is the invention
of Prof. Plateau, a Belgian scientist.
The name is from the Greek anor-
thos, crooked, and xkopein, to see.
ARCHERY. The best bows are
made of a single piece of Italian or
Spanish yew, or of two pieces joined
at the handle, but good bows are
made also of lancewood or ash. A
good bow is largest in the middle
and tapers toward the ends, which
are usually tipped with horn with
notches to hoid the cord. The force
required to draw a 28-inch arrow to
its head in any bow measures that
bow's strength, which is expressed in
pounds. Ttie distance to the head
of such an arrow is 27 inches, so if a
4O-pound weight, tied to the middle
of a bow string, will pull it just 27
inches below the bow (held horizon-
tally), the latter is a 4o-pound bow.
The best arrows are made of red
deal wood with a piece of harder
wood fastened to them at the point
or " pile." At the opposite end three
strips of feather are glued, to make
ARCHERY
16
ARCHERY
the arrow fly accurately. Sometimes
the feathers are cut in triangular
shape and sometimes they are
curved. The latter method, called
balloon feathering, is generally con-
sidered the best, though perhaps not
the easiest. The best arrows are
made in England, and their weight
is expressed in English shillings and
pence. The regulation length is 28
Bracer and Glove.
inches for six-foot bows, and 25 for
women's bows, which are from four
and a half to five feet long.
Thimbles of leather (called " finger
stalls "), open at the end, are usually
worn on the forefinger, middle-finger,
Target.
and third finger of the right hand, so
that the finger tips may not be blis-
tered by the bow-string. They
should fit closely and should be of
as thin material as will properly
guard the fingers. Other forms of
protection for the fingers may be
substituted. Many archers wear also
a " bracer," or arm guard of hard
leather, fastened by straps to the left
arm near the wrist, to protect it from
the bow-string. A leather or tin
case called a quiver may be fastened
to the archer's belt to hold his arrows,
and a tassel of worsted is appended
to wipe the dirt from them. The
targets used in archery matches are
made of a pad of straw covered on
one side with cloth, and hung on a
tripod so that its middle is about
four feet from the ground. In the
center is a gilt, or yellow spot, called
the gold (or sometimes the " bull's
eye"), and around this in order are
bands of red, blue, black, and white.
The archer scores a larger or smaller
number as he strikes one or another
of the colors. Thus :
An arrow in the rjold generally counts 9
" " " " red " *' 7
" " " " blue " " 5
" black 3
" " " " white " i
The score is sometimes kept by
pricking the shots on a card shaped
like a target, as shown in the illus-
tration on page 17.
ARCHERY
ARCHERY
The targets most used in England
were formerly supported on Butts, —
walls of sodded earth serving as
backing for discs of paper. Butts
should be 6 feet high and 8 feet long.
Instead of the backing of straw sold
at toy stores, a box filled with earth
may be used. Another simple kind
of target is a " clout," or disc of
pasteboard, stuck in the cleft end of
a stick, the other end of which is
pushed into the ground.
An archer's equipments are often
kept in a cupboard called an Ascham,
after Roger Ascham, a writer on
archery. It is shaped like a small
wardrobe, about six feet high and
three wide. About three feet from
the bottom is a shelf with holes in it,
in which are supported the bows
and arrows, while hooks on the sides
bear the bracer, gloves, and other
necessary articles.
Roving. — Instead of firing from
the same point, archers sometimes
move about and shoot at improvised
targets, which is called " roving."
One of the party of archers selects a
tree, or other object, to be shot at,
and he who hits it is allowed to
choose the next one. If no one hits
it, he whose arrow falls nearest is
allowed the choice.
Hunting. — Expert archers say
that hunting with a bow and arrow
is a more fascinating sport than
Score Card.
hunting with a gun. The shooting
makes no noise, and so does not
frighten the game. Shooting at
wild game requires more skill than
shooting at an ordinary target. Good
practice for shooting at birds may be
obtained by using a black rubber
ball, about four inches in diameter,
suspended by a string from the limb
of a tree.
The rules governing archery
matches or " meetings " are given
below.
The first thing for the beginner in
archery is to learn to " string" his bow
properly ; that is, to fit the bow string
to it so that it will be ready for use.
When unstrung the bow is nearly
straight. The bow-string has a loop
at each end like that in the illustra-
tion. Slipping the larger loop over
one end of the bow held upper-
most, and sliding it down below the
" nock " or groove for the string, the
archer fits the smaller one into the
lower nock, and then taking the
middle of the bow in his right hand
presses the lower end of the bow on
the ground in the hollow of his right
foot, the back of the bow next to the
foot, as shown in the illustration. By
then pulling with the right hand and
pushing with the left, near the upper
end of the bow, it will be bent, and
ARCHERY
18
ARCHERY
at the same time the left hand can
push the upper loop into its nock.
Bow-string Loop.
The bow-string should be two or
three inches shorter than the bow.
In a strung bow the string should
be about six inches from the wood at
the middle in a six-foot bow, and
correspondingly nearer in a smaller
one. When the bow has been
strung the archer holds it upright by
its middle in his left hand, and
taking an arrow in his right, fits its
notch to the middle of the bow-
string, the shaft being on the left
side of the bow and resting on the
left hand. He then hooks the first
three fingers of his right hand around
the string, so that it rests on the
finger-balls, the end of the arrow
being between the first and second ;
and extending the left arm, pulls the
string with the right, at the same
time drawing the arrow with it till
its head nearly touches the bow.
Then both string and arrow are re-
leased, by unhooking the fingers
gently, and the shot is made. The
best posture for the archer, while
shooting, is with the left side toward
the target, the body nearly erect,
and the feet about six inches apart.
The best archers hold the bow up-
right while shooting, but lean the
top a little to the right, which keeps
the arrow in place and enables
the string to be drawn more
easily.
Accuracy in shooting depends
chiefly on three things : the draw,
the aim, and the release. It requires
long practice to draw the arrow and
string back steadily, and if this is not
done, a good shot cannot be made.
The arrow should be drawn back to
a point just under the chin, and not
to the eye, which the beginner may
think is necessary for a correct aim.
It is of no use to " sight " along the
arrow, for it does not fly straight to
the mark, but describes a curve in
the air. If the arrow is pointed
directly at the target, except at very
short distances, it will strike the
ground in front of the mark. This
is equally true of a firearm ; the bul-
let moves in a curve, not a straight
line, but it moves very fast, and so,
except for very long distances, the
I1 ,--**
, 15 /
'Ij, //
»
Stringing.
curve is very flat, and the gun or
pistol can be aimed at the mark.
ARCHERY
ARCHERY
But the arrow moves much more
slowly, and sixty yards away from
the target it must be pointed above
the target. The point which the
arrow-head must seem to cover at
any particular distance is called the
" point of aim " for that distance,
and is best learned by trial. The
string should always be drawn back
to the same spot before taking aim,
otherwise the arrow-head would seem
to the eye to cover different points.
The best plan is to draw the arrow
back three-fourths of its length, then
pause an instant to take aim, and then
draw it the rest of the way and loose
Shooting.
it. The release, or loosing the ar-
row, requires great care, as it is easy,
in letting go, to move the arrow to
one side, thereby destroying the aim.
The fingers should slip easily from
the string, and should not follow it.
One who hopes to become a good
archer should practice the draw, the
aim, and the release, till he has per-
fect command of them, and should
always perform them in the same
way, never changing to try experi-
ments.
At archery club meetings, the con-
testants generally take turns, each
shooting three arrows at a turn, un-
til each has shot a number previously
agreed upon. This entire number is
called a " round." The rounds gen-
erally shot are :
The " York Round," consisting of —
72 arrows at 100 yards.
48 ' 80 '
24 " " 60 '
144 arrows.
The " American Round," consisting of—
30 arrows at 60 yards.
30 " 50 '
30 ' 40
90 arrows.
The " Columbia Round" (for women), consist-
ing of —
24 arrows at 50 yards.
24 " 40
24 " 3°
72 arrows.
Where a large number are to
shoot, several targets are used, and
the contestants are divided into par-
ties, each of which uses the same
target throughout the match.
RULES FOR ARCHERY MEETINGS.
1. A Field Captain shall be ap-
pointed who shall have entire control
of the ranges, targets and order of
shooting, and he shall appoint a
Target Captain for each target, who
shall direct the order of shouting at
his target.
2. Each Target Captain shall ap-
point a Scorer and a Herald to act
at his target. The Scorer shall keep
a record of each arrow shot, upon
blanks provided for the purpose by
the association. The Herald shall
announce the result of each shot.
3. An arrow must remain in the
target until the value of the " hit " is
recorded, otherwise the " hit " shall
not be counted.
4. The targets shall be four feet
in diameter, and placed on easels,
the center of the "gold " being four
feet from the ground.
5. The " gold " shall be 9T'5 in
diameter, and each ring shall be 4T8ff
inches in width.
6. The value of colors shall be :
ARCHERY
20
ARCHERY
Gold, 9 ; red, 7 ; blue, 5 ; black, .3 ;
white, I.
7. In case an arrow cuts two
colors, it shall count as having hit
the inner one.
8. All disputes shall be referred
for decision to the Captain of the
target where they arise.
9. Every archer shall shoot with
arrows bearing his mark, and every
arrow leaving the bow shall be
deemed as having been shot, unless
the archer can reach it with his bow
while standing inside the line from
which he is shooting.
10. No person, unless competing
for prizes, shall be allowed within
the bounds of the Archers' grounds
during the progress of the shooting.
Cross-Bow. — The ancient cross-
bow is described below, under His-
tory. The modern toy is a bow
fixed on a gun-stock, and fired by
a trigger like that in the illustration.
The bow-string, when drawn, is
hooked over the trigger and the
arrow is placed in a groove. The
trigger, which turns on a pivot, is
held at the bottom by an elastic
band, which keeps it in position.
Cross-bow.
The arrows shot by a cross-bow
are properly called bolts, and are
shorter than those shot from a long-
bow. Pieces of wood three or four
inches long, loaded at the head by
driving in a nail, make good bolts.
A small cross-bow, often called a
watch-spring gun, can be made by
using a piece of watch-spring for a
bow. The spring should be about six
inches long. Little arrows, or shot,
may be used in such a gun, which
will carry about 50 feet. In firing
shot, fit the gun with a tin barrel
made of a blow-gun tube. A stick
fitting loosely in it has the bow-
string passed through a hole in its
rear end. The spring may also be
arranged as shown in the illustration
on page 21. The stick must be so
long that when the bow is bent the
end does not pull out of the tube.
Elastic Cross-bow. — This bow is
made of a stiff piece of wood, as it is
not intended to bend. Its convex
side is toward the shooter. The
string is made of strong india-rubber
cord whose elasticity sends the arrow
or bolt.
History. — The bow and arrow
were in use ail over the world in
times so ancient that we have no
record of them. This is proved from
arrow-heads dug up in many places ;
and from other things found with
them we know that they were made
long before men were acquainted
with the use of metals, in the Stone
Age, so called because all weapons
and tools were then made of stone.
These ancient arrow-heads, some-
times six inches in length by two in
breadth, were used both in war and
in hunting enormous wild animals
now extinct. The earliest records
we have tell of skilled archers among
the Asiatic nations and the Egyp-
tians ; and the first explorers of the
American continent found the natives
expert in the use of the bow. Among
the best archers of antiquity were the
Persians, Parthians, Numidians, and
Cretans. The archers in the Persian
army were so numerous and let fly
such clouds of arrows that a Persian
once boasted to a Greek that they
would darken the sun at mid-day.
The Greeks and Romans employed
foreign archers. The poet Virgil
describes an archery match where a
bird tied to a mast was the target.
One marksman cut the string with
his arrow, and as the bird flew away
another killed it.
Archery was practiced in England
from the earliest times, but the Sax-
ARCHERY
21
ARCHERY
ons and Danes used the bow prob-
ably only for hunting. The illustra-
tion from an old manuscript shows an
ancient Saxon bow and arrow. The
Normans, however, made it a military
weapon, and their archers won the
battle of Hastings, which brought
England under Norman rule. From
this time the English long-bowmen
became the most famous in the world,
and did much toward making their
country great and powerful. The
kings of England were so anxious
that skill in archery should not de-
cline, that they frequently discour-
aged and even forbade other amuse-
ments and exercises. The price of
bows was regulated by law. In the
Watch-spring Gun.
reign of Edward IV. dealers were
compelled to sell them at three shil-
lings and fourpence each (about 83
cents), but in Queen Mary's time the
price was fixed at six shillings and
eightpence ($1.56) for the best bows,
and two shillings (50 cents) for an
inferior kind.
Roger Ascham, an Englishman,
who wrote, in 1544, a book on arch-
ery called " Toxophilus " (the bow-
lover), gives directions for shooting
which are much the same as those
approved by good archers to-day.
He says that the ancient style of
drawing the bow was to the right
Egyptian Archer.
breast, but he prefers that it be
drawn to the ear, the method of the
English archers. He advises young
archers to shoot at lights in the
night, that they may learn to look at
the mark in aiming, and not at the
arrow.
Ancient archers were skilled in
shooting long distances. By an act
of Parliament passed in the reign
of Henry VIII., persons who had
reached the age of twenty-four years
were forbidden to shoot at any mark
less than 220 yards' distance. But
the statement, often made, that a
good archer could hit a peeled willow
wand at 300 yards, is believed by
expert modern archers to be an
ARCHERY
22
ARCHERY
absurdity. Prince Arthur, son of
Henry VII., was a fine shot with the
bow, and from him good marksmen
were frequently called Arthur. Henry
VIII., while attending an archery
meeting, was so pleased with the
shooting of a Londoner named Bar-
low, who lived at Shoreditch, that he
gave him in jest the title of " Duke
of Shoreditch," and the captain of
Saxon Bow and Arrow.
the London archers was long known
by this name. In 1583,3! a grand
shooting match, the " Duke," with a
retinue of mock marquises and earls,
and a throng of about 7000 follow-
ers, all quaintly dressed, paraded in
London.
The cross-bow or arbalast, which
came into use about the nth century,
was more in vogue on the continent
of Europe than the long-bow; but
in England the archers disliked the
new weapon, because it took less
skill, and laws were passed against
it. It consisted of a short bow fixed
at the end of a stock somewhat like
a gun-stock, on the top of which was
a barrel slit so as to let the string be
pulled back until caught by the trig-
ger. When the trigger was pulled,
the string was released and springing
through the slit drove the arrow out
of the barrel.
The best arbalasts had steel bows,
and required the aid of a crank to
draw them. They shot short arrows,
called bolts or quarrels, so swiftly
and with such force that they often
pierced heavy armor. The cross-
bow was the most deadly weapon in
the world before the invention of
fire-arms. The use of the bow sur-
vived long after that event, but when
the improvement of musketry caused
the bow to be given up as a weapon,
archery became merely an amuse-
,nent and remains so at the present
day. In 1844 there was a great re-
vival of the sport in England, and
there are now in that country more
than eighty large clubs, some of
Arbalast.
which are centuries old. In the
United States scientific archery has
only recently come into favor, though
the bow has always been used as a
ARMY SOLITAIRE
ARMY SOLITAIRE
toy. In 1879 was formed a National
Archery Association, which holds
meetings every year and awards gold
medals as prizes.
ARMY SOLITAIRE. A SOLI-
TAIRE game of CARDS, played with
one full pack. The first card taken
from the pack, whatever it may be,
and the similar cards of the other
suits are called foundation cards.
These cards whenever they ap-
pear are placed to form the
corners of a square of nine cards,
places being reserved for them till
they appear. From these founda-
tions, " towers," one of each suit,
must be built up by placing on each-
in order the other cards of the same
suit up to the King. If the founda-
tion card is an Ace, the tower will
thus include all the cards, but other-
wise not. Other cards than the foun-
dations are placed to form the five
remaining cards of the square, till all
the places are occupied. After that,
a card may be placed on any of them
Shooting at the Butts with the Cross-Bow.
which ranks just above or just below
it, without regarding suit. If a card,
which will go on neither the towers
nor in the " reserve corps," as the
other piles are called, is turned, it
must be laid aside to form " stock."
The top card of any pile of the re-
serve corps may be placed on any
other pile, either a tower or another
reserve pile, if it belongs there.
Thus, a Ten on a reserve pile may
be put on a Nine of the same suit on
a tower; or on a Nine or Knave of
any suit on another reserve pile, and
when any pile of the latter is entirely
used, the top card of the stock is
taken to fill the vacant space. When
all the cards are used, the stock is
shuffled and played. This is usually
done only once, but sometimes the
player continues to do so till he com-
pletes his towers, measuring his skill
by the number of shufflings of the
stock. Skill is required in arranging
the reserve corps so that it will best
aid the building of the towers. The
game is often more difficult with a
small tower to build (as when a Nine
ARTIFICIAL WOOD
24
ATHLETIC GAMES
or Ten is the foundation) than with a
higher one, for the useless cards clog
the reserve corps. Sometimes, in-
stead of stopping at the King, the
towers are built higher, going on
with the Ace, Two, Three, etc., till
the whole suit is used, ending with
the card just below the foundation
card. Sometimes the reserve piles
are built only downward instead of
in either direction. This game of
Solitaire is said to have been much
played by the soldiers during our
Civil War.
ARTIFICIAL WOOD. A solution
of copper in strong ammonia has the
property of dissolving woody fibre.
To make it, half fill a quart bottle
with ammonia and put into it a
bunch of straight copper wires, of
such a length that about half will be
above the water. They should be
allowed to stand thus several months,
the bottle being shaken occasionally
and the cork removed for a few
minutes once in a while to admit
more air, which is necessary to the
formation of the solution.
Cut old newspapers into disks
about an inch in diameter, and clip
the disks on the edges so that they
can be readily molded to a curved
surface. They may now be partially
dissolved in the solution, and will
then adhere closely to form a solid
mass, like wood.
The disks are best put in shape
over a mold. For instance, if a thin
glass flask be used, they can be
molded over its surface, and then
the flask can be broken by a sudden
blow, leaving a wooden bottle when
the fragments are removed. The
solution should be poured, a little at
a time, into a flat dish, and frequently
renewed. The disks are soaked in
it for a few minutes, till they feel
slippery, and then molded over the
bottle. Rubber finger-tips may be
used to prevent injury to the fingers
from the strong ammonia. After
one layer has been applied, another
is put on, till the desired thickness is
obtained. In the same way, after a
little practice, other articles may be
made. The paper disks are not
simply stuck together, like paste-
board, but form a solid wooden mass,
and may be soaked in boiling water
without coming apart.
ATHLETIC GAMES, properly
speaking, include all manly sports
requiring physical strength, such as
BASE BALL, FOOT BALL, FENCING,
and the like, but in the ordinary use
of the term it means only those in
which each man contends for him-
self alone. The sports in which
several work together as a " team "
are treated under their own titles.
In this article are described only
those feats included in the champion-
ship contests of athletic societies, to-
gether with a few additional ones
sometimes seen at collegiate and
other contests. The games usually
found on the programmes of the
Amateur Athletic Union, the chief
athletic association in the United
States (see p. 38), are as follows:
ico yards dash, 220 yards dash,
One-quarter mile run, One-half mile
run, and the One mile run ; also,
Running five miles.
Hurdle racing, 120 yards with hur-
dles 3 ft. 6 in., 220 yards with hurdles
2 ft. 6 in.
Walking one mile, Walking three
miles, Walking seven miles.
Running high jump, and the
Broad jump.
Pole leaping, Putting the shot,
Throwing the hammer, Throwing
56 Ib. weight, Bicycle racing, Indi-
vidual Tug of War, and Tug of War
with teams of five men.
Each of these games is called an
"event."
Rule I.— Officials.— Section I. All
amateur meetings shall be under the
direction of : A Games Committee,
One Referee, Two or more Inspect-
ors, Three Judges at Finish, Three
or more Field Judges, Three Time-
keepers, One Judge of Walking, One
Starter, One Clerk of the Course,
One Scorer, One Marshal.
Sec. 2. If deemed necessary, as-
ATHLETIC GAMES
ATHLETIC GAMES
sistants may be provided for the
Judge of Walking, the Clerk of the
Course, the Scorer, and the Marshal,
and an Official Announcer may be
appointed.
Rule II. — The Games Committee.
The Games Committee at any club
meeting shall be composed of mem-
bers of the Club holding the meet-
ing.
This Committee shall have juris-
diction of all matter not assigned by
these rules to the Referee or other
games officials. (See also Rule XV).
Rule III.— The Referee shall de-
cide all questions relating to the
actual conduct of the meeting, whose
final settlement is not otherwise
covered by these rules.
He alone shall have the power to
change the order of events as laid
down in the official programme, to
add to, or to alter the announced
arrangement of heats in any event.
Rule IV.— The Inspectors. It
shall be the duty of an Inspector to
stand at such point as the Referee
may designate ; to watch the com-
petition closely, and in case of a
claim of foul to report to the Referee
what he saw of the incident.
Such Inspectors are merely as-
sistants to the Referee, to whom they
shall report, and have no power to
make any decisions.
Rule V. — The Judges at Finish
shall determine the order of finish-
ing of contestants, and shall arrange
among themselves as to noting the
winner, 2d, 3d, 4th, etc., as the case
may require.
Their decision in this respect shall
be without appeal, and in case of
disagreement a majority shall govern.
Rule VI.— The Field Judges
shall make an accurate measurement,
and keep a tally of all trials of com-
petitors in the high and broad jumps,
the pole vault, the weight compe-
titions, and the tug of war.
They shall act as judges of these
events, and their decisions shall like-
wise be without appeal. In case of
disagreement a majority shall govern.
In all weight competitions and jumps
for distance, a small flag, placed in
the ground, shall denote the best
throw or jump as the contest pro-
gresses.
Rule VII. — The Timekeepers
shall individually time all events
where time record is called for.
Should two of the three watches
mark the same time and the third
disagree, the time marked by the two
watches shall be accepted. Should
all three disagree, the time marked
by the intermediate watch shall be
accepted.
Theflas/t of the pistol shall denote
the actual time of starting.
In case only two watches are held
on an event, and they fail to agree,
the longest time of the two shall be
accepted.
Rule VIII.— The Starter shall
have sole jurisdiction over the com-
petitors after the Clerk of the Course
has properly placed them in their
positions for the start.
The method of starting shall be by
pistol report, except that in time
handicap races the word "go " shall
be used.
An actual start shall not be ef-
fected until the pistol has been pur-
posely discharged after the competi-
tors have been warned to get
ready.
When any part of a competitor
shall touch the ground in front of his
mark before the starting signal is
given, it shall be considered a false
start.
Penalties for false starting shall be
inflicted by the Starter, as follows:
In races up to and including 300
yards, the competitor shall be put
back one yard for the first and an-
other yard for the second attempt ;
in races over 300 yards and including
600 yards,~two yards for the first and
two more for the second attempt ;
in races over 600 yards and including
1000 yards, three yards for the first
and three more for the second at-
tempt; in races over 1000 yards and
including one mile, five yards for the
ATHLETIC GAMES
26
ATHLETIC GAMES
first and five more for the second at-
tempt ; in all races over one mile, ten
yards for the first and ten more for the
second attempt. In all cases the
third false start shall prevent his com-
peting in that event.
The Starter shall also rule out of
that event any competitor who at-
tempts to advance himself from his
mark, as prescribed in the official
programme, after he has given the
warning to " get ready."
Rule IX. — The Clerk of the
Course shall be provided with the
names and the numbers of all entered
competitors, and he shall notify them
to appear at the starting line before
the start in each event in which they
are entered.
Rule X. — The Judge of Walking
shall have sole power to determine
the fairness or unfairness of walking,
and his rulings thereon shall be final
and without appeal.
He shall caution any competitor
whenever walking unfairly ; the third
caution to disqualify, except that he
shall immediately disqualify any com-
petitor when walking unfairly during
the last 220 yards of a race.
He shall control his assistants, and
assign to them such of his duties as
he may deem proper.
Rule XL — The Scorer shall re-
cord the order in which each com-
petitor finishes his event, together
with the time furnished him by the
Timekeeper.
He shall keep a tally of the laps
made by each competitor in races
covering more than one lap, and shall
announce by means of a bell, or
otherwise, when the leading man en-
ters the last lap.
He shall control his assistants, and
assign to them such of his duties as
he may deem best.
Rule XII. — The Marshal shall
have full police charge of the enclo-
sure, and shall prevent any but offi-
cials and actual competitors from
entering or remaining therein.
He shall control his assistants, and
assign them their duties.
Rule XIII.— The Official An-
nouncer shall receive from the Scorer
and Field Judges the result of each
event, and announce the same by voice
or by means of a bulletin board.
Rule XI V. — Competitors shall re-
port to the Clerk of the Course im-
mediately upon their arrival at the
place of meeting, and shall be pro-
vided by that official with their proper
numbers, which must be worn con-
spicuously by the competitors when
competing, and without which they
shall not be allowed to start.
Each competitor shall inform him-
self of the time of starting, and shall
be promptly at the starting-point of
each competition in which he is en-
tered, and there report to the Clerk
of the Course.
Under no condition shall the at-
tendants be allowed to accompany
competitors at the start or during any
competition except in match races,
where special agreements may be
made.
Rule XV. — Protests against any
entered competitor may be made ver-
bally or in writing to the referee, or
a member of the Games Committee,
before or during the meeting. If
possible the Committee shall decide
such protest at once. If the nature
of the protest or the necessity of ob-
taining testimony prevents an imme-
diate decision, the competitor shall
be allowed to compete under protest,
and the protest shall be decided by
the Games Committee within one
week, unless its subject be the ama-
teur standing of the competitor, in
which case the Games Committee
must report such protest within forty-
eight hours to the Secretary of the
A. A. U.
Rule X VI. — Track Measure-
ment. All distances run or walked
shall be measured upon a line eighteen
inches outward from the inner edge
of the track, except that in races on
straightaway tracks the distance shall
be measured in a direct line from the
starting mark to the finishing line.
Rule X VII. — The Course. Each
ATHLETIC GAMES
ATHLETIC GAMES
competitor shall keep in his respec-
tive position from start to finish in
all races on straightaway tracks, and
in all races on tracks with one or
more turns he shall not cross to the
inner edge of the track, except when
he is at least six feet in advance of
his nearest competitor.
The Referee shall disqualify from
that event any competitor who will-
fully pushes against, impedes, crosses
the course of, or in any way interferes
with another competitor.
The Referee shall disqualify from
further participation in the games,
any contestant competing to lose, to
coach, or in any way impede the
chances of another competitor either
in a trial or final contest.
Rule XVIII.— The Finish of the
course shall be represented by a line
between two finishing posts, drawn
across and at right angles to the sides
of the track, and three feet above
which line shall be placed a tape
attached at either end to the finishing
posts. A finish shall be counted
when any part of the winner's body,
except his hands or arms, shall touch
the tape at the finish line. The tape
is to be considered the finishing line
for the winner, but the order of fin-
ishing across the track line shall de-
termine the positions of the other
competitors.
A description of each of the stand-
ard events, except the Bicycle race
and the Tug of War, which are de-
scribed separately, will now be given.
A list of the best records in each is
given in the Appendix.
Men who engage in athletic sports
for a money prize or for a portion of
the gate receipts are termed profes-
sional athletes, and are not allowed
to compete in amateur contests. The
National Amateur Athletic Union
has adopted the following definition
of an Amateur :
" One who has not entered in an
open competition ; or for either a
stake, public or admission money or
entrance fee ; or under a fictitious
name ; or has not competed with or
against a professional for any prize
or where admission fee is charged ;
or who has not instructed, pursued
or assisted in the pursuit of athletic
exercises as a means of livelihood, or
for gain or any emolument ; or whose
membership of any Athletic Club of
any kind was not brought about or
does not continue, because of any
mutual understanding, express or
implied, whereby his becoming or
continuing a member of such Club
would be of any pecuniary benefit to
him whatever, direct or indirect, and
who shall in other and all respects
conform to the rules and regulations
of this organization, will^ be con-
sidered an Amateur."
An open competition is one in
which any one who wishes may enter.
Walking.— It is very difficult to dis-
tinguish between walking and run-
ning, and on this account many so-
called " walking matches " are made
Slow Stride.
what is called " go as you please"
matches; that is, the contestant is
allowed to walk, run, jump, or move
in any way he chooses, so long as he
receives no aid. To be what is
ATHLETIC GAMES
28
ATHLETIC GAMES
called a " fair " walker, the athlete
must touch both heel and toe to the
ground, first the former and then the
Free Stride.
latter, he must not bend the knee
while his foot is on the ground, and
he must never have both feet in the
air at once. The difficulty experi-
enced in justly deciding whether a
walker is fair or not has led to many
disputes. A fast walk, following the
rules, is not a graceful gait nor a
natural one, and can be learned only
by practice. The illustrations show
two different kinds of strides.
Running. Running any distance
from 100 to 400 yards is called
" sprinting," while covering all dis-
tances of a mile or over is termed
long-distance running. To make
quick time, especially in sprinting, a
good start is essential, and many
methods of starting have been
adopted by skilled runners. Some
crouch down, placing the left foot
forward, holding the right arm out,
and the left parallel with the right
leg; some stand with both heels
together, jumping forward at the
flash of the pistol, and others stand
with one side in advance of the other.
(Not allowable by U. A. A. rules.)
It has been found almost impossi-
ble to time a short run with perfect
accuracy. The timing is done with
a " stop watch " which is arranged
with a long, fine pointer-hand, which
moves completely around its dial once
every minute, and with a small spring
Start of Foot Race.
at the side by pressure on which the
watch can be started or stopped at
any instant desired.
The timer starts his watch on see-
ing the flash of the pistol, and stops
it when the man he is timing crosses
the mark. The time can then be
read off. A pointer, however, can-
not be made to travel uniformly. It
goes by little jumps, and until re-
cently the jumps were made every
fifth of a second. The time, there-
ATHLETIC GAMES
29
ATHLETIC GAMES
fore, was doubtful by this amount,
for when the watch was stopped it
could not be told whether the hand
had just finished a jump or was
about to start on a new one. In a
fifth of a second a good sprinter moves
about two yards, and races are often
won by a few feet.
Jumping. There are four kinds of
jumps, the running high, the running
broad (or long), the standing high,
and the standing broad (or long).
The high jumps are made over a
light bar supported on pegs inserted
one inch apart in two upright posts.
The pegs project on the side of the
posts away from the jumpers, so
that if the jumper strike the bar with
his foot he will simply lift it from
the pegs and not be thrown down.
Sometimes in practice a cord,
weighted at each end, is used in-
stead of a bar, but this is not
allowed in match contests.
At each succeeding round the bar
is raised usually an inch, but some-
times more. In the standing broad
jump the contestants are sometimes
permitted to hold dumb-bells or
weights in their hands, but in the
ordinary broad jump this is not
allowed. Where, however, this is
done, the jumper casts the weights be-
hind him while in mid-air and is thus
carried forward a greater distance.
The rules of the National Amateur
Athletic Union governing jumping
are as follows :
Section i. A fair jump shall be
one that is made without the assis-
tance of weights, diving, somersets,
or hand springs of any kind.
In all handicap jumps the scratch
man shall be entitled to try last.
Sec. 2. The Running High Jump.
The Field Judges shall decide the
height at which the jump shall com-
mence, and shall regulate the suc-
ceeding elevations.
Each competitor shall be allowed
three trial jumps at each height, and
if on the third trial he shall fail, he
shall be declared out of the com-
petition.
Competitors shall jump in order as
placed in the programme ; then those
failing, if any, shall have their second
trial jump in a like order, after which
those having failed twice shall make
their third trial jump.
The jump shall be made over a
bar resting on pins projecting not
more than three inches from the up-
rights, and when this bar is removed
High Jump.
from its place it shall be counted as
a trial jump.
Running under the bar in making
an attempt to jump shall be counted
as a "balk," and three successive
" balks" shall be counted as a trial
jump.
The distance of the run before the
jump shall be unlimited.
A competitor may decline to jump
at any height in his turn, and by so
doing forfeits his right to again jump
at the height declined.
Sec. 3. The Standing High Jump.
The feet of the competitor may be
placed in any position, but shall
leave the ground only once in making
an attempt to jump. When the feet
are lifted from the ground twice, or
two springs are made in making the
attempt, it shall count as a trial
jump without result.
With this exception the rules gov-
erning the Running High Jump shall
govern the Standing High Jump.
ATHLETIC GAMES
ATHLETIC GAMES
Sec. 4. The Running Broad
Jump. When jumped on earth, a
joist five inches wide shall be sunk
flush with it. The outer edge of this
joist shall be called the scratch line,
and the measurement of all jumps
shall be made from it at right angles
to the nearest break in the ground
made by any part of the person of the
competitor.
In front of the scratch line the
ground shall be removed to the depth
of three and the width of twelve
inches outward.
A foul jump shall be one where
the competitor in jumping off the
Long Jump.
scratch line makes a mark on the
ground immediately in front of it,
and shall count as a trial jump with-
out result.
Each competitor shall have three
trial jumps, and the best three shall
each have three more trial jumps.
The competition shall be decided
by the best of all the trial jumps of
the competitors.
The distance of the run before the
scratch line shall be unlimited.
Sec. 6. The Standing Broad
Jump. The feet of the competitor
may be placed in any position, but
shall leave the ground only once in
making an attempt to jump. When
the feet are lifted from the ground
twice, or two springs are made in
making the attempt, it shall count as
a trial jump without result.
In all other respects the rule gov-
erning the Running Broad Jump
shall also govern the Standing Broad
Jump.
Sec. 7. The Three Standing
Broad Jtimps. The feet of the com-
petitor shall leave the ground only
once in making an attempt for each
of the three jumps, and no stoppage
between jumps shall be allowed. In
all other respects the rules governing
the Standing Broad Jump shall also
govern the three Standing Broad
Jumps.
Sec. 8. Running Hop, Step and
Jump. The competitor shall first
land upon the same foot with which
he shall have taken off. The reverse
foot shall be used for the second
landing, and both feet shall be used
for the third landing.
In all other respects the rules gov-
erning the Running Broad Jump
shall also govern the Running Hop,
Step and Jump.
(In the Running High Jump a
line called a balk line is sometimes
drawn three feet in front of the bar,
and if the competitor passes this he
is credited with a trial, whether he
actually attempts to jump or not.)
In the running broad jumps, the
space cleared depends partly on the
way in which the spring is made, and
partly on the impetus gained by the
run. Before 1 870 almost every cham-
pionship contest was won with a
jump of less than 20 feet, but now
many a one who is a good sprinter
can clear that distance. Some au-
thorities think the reason for this is
that jumpers now take longer and
swifter runs than formerly, and that
the impetus thus gained carries them
a greater distance.
In both the high jumps, some
ATHLETIC GAMES
ATHLETIC GAMES
jumpers draw their legs up under
them, straightening them forward as
they pass the bar, and others swing
them to one side as they clear it.
In running for a jump, the last few
steps should be slightly shorter than
the usual stride.
Hurdle Racing consists in a com-
bination of running and jumping.
These races are usually either 120
yards or 220 yards in length, the num-
ber of hurdles to be leaped being ten.
The height varies from 2 feet 6 inches
to 3 feet 6 inches, and the hurdles
are placed at equal distances along
the course. The contestants start
together as for a running race, leap-
ing each hurdle as it is reached.
Skilled runners take exactly three
steps between every two hurdles in
the 1 20 yard course and always
springing from the same foot.
Each hurdle, as it is reached, is
cleared at a single stride, the jumper
usually jumping from his right foot
and landing on his left. He thus
continues down through the hurdles,
keeping his stride as in ordinary
running, the only difference being
that in every third stride he leaps
into the air a sufficient height to
clear the hurdles.
The rule of the National Amateur
Athletic Union for hurdle races is as
follows:
Different heights, distances, and
number of hurdles may be selected
for hurdle races.
In the 1 20 yards hurdle race, ten
hurdles shall be used ; each hurdle
to be three feet six inches high.
They shall be placed ten yards apart,
with the first hurdle fifteen yards
distance from the starting point, and
the last hurdle fifteen yards before
the finishing line. In the 220 yards
hurdle race ten hurdles shall be used,
each hurdle to be two feet six inches
high. They shall be placed twenty
yards apart, with the first hurdle
twenty yards distant from the start-
ing mark, and the last hurdle twenty
yards before the finishing line.
In hurdle races of other distances
and with different numbers of hur-
dles, the hurdles shall be placed at
equal intervals, with the same space
between the first hurdle and the
starting point and the last hurdle
and the finishing line, as between
each of the hurdles.
In making a record it shall be
necessary for the competitor to jump
over every hurdle in its proper posi-
tion.
Pole Leaping consists in leaping
with the aid of a stout wooden pole.
The pole is generally made of ash,
about 1 1 inches in diameter, and
Pole Leaping — First Position.
fifteen feet long. It should be quite
smooth, and shod with an iron
point at one end. To leap with
the pole, the athlete stands holding
Pole Leaping — Second Position.
it as in the first illustration, the arms
being bent and the hands the dis-
tance of the shoulders apart, the right
hand toward the iron-shod end of
the pole. Both palms may be up-
ATHLETIC GAMES
ATHLETIC GAMES
ward, or that of the right hand
downward. The jumper then ad-
vances the right foot, and places the
shod end of the pole on the ground
at as great a distance as he deems
expedient without moving his feet or
hands, as in the second position;
Pole Leaping — Third Position.
then, looking toward the end of the
pole, he springs forward and passes
on the left side of the pole, as figured
in the third and fourth positions,
his whole body being held as nearly
as possible in a straight line. As
his feet touch the ground he brings
Pole Leaping — Fourth Position.
the pole to the first position again.
The leap may be made with the left
foot and hand advanced, in which
case the leaper passes the pole on
the right.
The high jump with the pole is
made in like manner, save that when
the athlete is directly above the barrier,
he loosens his grasp on the pole, and
pushing it back, allows it to fall on
one side while he himself descends
upon the other.
To leap a distance or clear an ob-
stacle, the jumper takes his position
about 50 feet from the spot where
he is to make his leap ; then, holding
the pole directly in front of him with
the pointed end raised a foot or more
from the ground, advancing slowly
at first, and then more quickly, he
approaches the spot at a run, and
keeping his eye fixed on the place
where he has determined to plant his
pole, sets it into the ground and
makes his leap into the air at the
same instant. The rules of the Na-
tional Amateur Athletic Union for
pole vaulting are similar to those for
jumping.
Putting the Shot. This contest
consists in balancing the "shot," —
usually an iron ball weighing sixteen
pounds, — on the hand, held just over
the shoulder, and then by throwing
the weight of the body forward and
straightening the arm, hurling the
weight forward as far as possible.
The rule of the National Amateur
Athletic Union regarding this feat is
as follows :
The shot shall be a solid sphere,
made of metal and weighing at least
16 or 24 pounds, as the event may
call for.
It shall be put with one hand, and
in making the attempt it shall be
above and not behind the shoulder.
The competitor shall stand in a
circle seven feet in diameter, on four
feet of the circumference of which
shall be placed a board four inches
high, at which the competitor must
stand when the shot leaves his
hand.
A fair put shall be one where no
part of the person of the competitor
shall touch in front of the circle or
on the board in making the attempt.
A put shall be counted as foul if
the competitor steps over the front
half of the circle or on the board,
ATHLETIC GAMES
33
ATHLETIC GAMES
before the measurement of his put is
made.
The measurement of all puts shall
be made from the nearest mark made
by the shot to a point on the circum-
ference of the circle, on a line with
the object mark and the center of
the circle.
Foul puts and letting go the shot
in making an attempt shall be counted
as trial puts without result.
A board similar to the one in front
may be used at the back of the circle.
The order of competing and num-
ber of trials shall be the same as for
the running broad jump. Shots shall
be furnished by the Games Commit-
tee. Any contestant may use his
private shot, if correct in weight and
shape ; in which case the other con-
testants must also be allowed to use
it, if they wish.
Putting the shot is interesting as a
display of strength, but no one should
try it who has not developed his mus-
Putting Shot— First Position.
cles by other means, as the exertion
required is very violent.
Throwing the Hammer. This is
an old Scotch game, and, like putting
the shot, requires a large amount of
strength and skill. The term " ham-
mer" is rather misleading. It is
simply a metal ball into which is
fastened a supple hickory handle.
Putting Shot— Second Position.
The thrower grasps the handle near
the end with both hands and whirling
the ball around his head once or
twice at arm's length, suddenly loos-
ens his hold and allows it to fly
through the air.
The rules of the Amateur Union
governing this event are as follows :
The hammer-head shall be a metal
sphere. The handle shall be of
wood, the length of handle and head
combined shall be four feet, and the
combined weight shall be at least
sixteen pounds.
All throws shall be made from a
circle, seven feet in diameter.
The competitor may assume any
position he chooses in making an at-
tempt.
A fair throw shall be one when no
part of the person of the competitor
shall touch outside of the circle in
making the attempt.
A throw shall be counted foul if
the competitor steps over the front
half of the circle before his throw is
measured.
ATHLETIC GAMES
34
ATHLETIC GAMES
Foul throws and letting go of the
hammer in an attempt, shall count as
trial throws.
The measurement of all throws
shall be made from the nearest mark
made by the head of the hammer, to
a point on the circumference of the
circle, on a line with the object mark
and the center of the circle.
The order of competing and num-
ber of trials shall be the same as
prescribed for the Running Broad
Jump.
Hammers shall be furnished by
the Games Committee. Any con-
testant may use his private hammer,
Throwing Hammer.
if correct in weight and shape; in
which case the other contestants
must also be allowed to use it, if they
wish.
The thrower, in some contests, is
allowed to run as far as he pleases
before throwing the hammer, so long
as he does not cross the " scratch
line " from which the measurement
is made. Sometimes he is allowed
to run a fixed distance, as seven feet,
and sometimes he is permitted to
turn around once before throwing.
Some throwers hold the hammer in
one hand, and some in both.
Throwing the 56-lbs. Weight.
Like the hammer, this weight i?
thrown with a handle, but instead of
a straight stick, an iron ring or tri-
angle, about six inches in diameter,
is fastened to the weight by means of
an iron staple. In this way the
weight can be lifted and swung like
a pail or a basket. In some contests
the thrower is allowed to follow the
weight on throwing it, and some-
times a run is allowed. The weight
is sometimes thrown from between
the legs, and sometimes from the
side. Sometimes the contest is to see
how high, and not how far, the weight
can be thrown, and it is then said to
be " thrown for height."
The Amateur Athletic Union rules
for this event are as follows :
Section i. The weight shall be a
sphere made of metal, with a metal
handle attached. Their combined
weight shall be at least fifty-six
pounds, and the combined height
shall be sixteen inches, but no flexi-
ble attachment will be allowed.
All throws shall be made from a
circle seven feet in diameter.
The competitor may assume any
position he chooses in making an
attempt.
Foul throws and letting go the
weight in an attempt shall count as
a trial throw without result.
The order of competing and num-
ber of trials shall be the same as
laid down for the jumping contests.
Sec. 2. In Throwing for Dis-
tance. A fair throw shall be one
where no part of the person of the
competitor shall touch in front of
the circle in making an attempt.
A throw shall be counted foul if
the competitor steps over the front
half of the circle before his throw is
measured.
The measurement of all throws
shall be made from the nearest mark
made by the sphere of the weight, to
a point on the circumference of the
circle, on a line with the object mark
and the center of the circle.
Sec. 3. In Throwing for Height,
ATHLETIC GAMES
35
ATHLETIC 'GAMES
a barrel-head three feet in diameter
shall be suspended in the air.
A fair throw shall be one where
no part of the person of the competi-
tor shall touch in front of the circle
in making an attempt, and where
any part of the weight or handle
touches any part of the barrel-head.
A foul throw shall be one where
the competitor touches outside the
circle before letting go the weight.
The measurement of all throws
shall be from a point on the ground
drawn directly under and parallel to
the lowest point of the barrel-head.
The order of competing and num-
ber of trials shall be the same as for
the running broad jump. Weights
shall be furnished by the Games
Committee. Any contestant may
use his private weight, if correct in
weight or shape ; in which case the
other contestants must also be
allowed to use it, if they wish.
Besides these standard games, the
following are sometimes included :
Throwing the Base Ball. The
thrower is generally allowed to run
a certain distance before he throws,
and the distance is measured from
the line where he delivers the ball to
the place where it strikes. This
contest is seldom found on the pro-
grammes at athletic games of the
present day.
Kicking the Football also finds a
place in many college athletic exhibi-
tions. The competition is sometimes
for accuracy and sometimes for dis-
tance, and the ball is kicked either
from the hand or from the ground
according to agreement. When the
contest is for accuracy, two tall posts
are set in the ground twenty feet
apart, and between these a cross-
bar is fastened at a height of ten
feet from the ground. The contest-
ants then take their stand behind a
line twenty-five or thirty yards from
the poles, and the contest lies in see-
ing who can cause the greatest num-
ber of balls to pass between the posts
and over the bar, in a given number
of kicks.
Tossing the Caber. This is a
Scotch feat, and is a feature of
Caledonian games. It is, however,
seldom an event in the meetings of
American athletic associations.
The caber is the trunk of a young
tree and is heavier at one end
than at the other. The athlete
holds it perpendicularly, large end
upward, balanced against the chest,
and running, endeavors to toss it
so that it falls on the large end
and turns over. It is usually made
so large that at first none of the con-
testants can perform the feat, and
then a piece is sawn off each time,
after all have tried, until some one
succeeds. If more than one is suc-
cessful, the one who tosses the caber
farthest is the winner.
The Sack Race is a race between
contestants enveloped up to the neck
in cloth bags or sacks. Such a race
is usually held to furnish amusement
for the spectators, but sometimes as
a genuine athletic sport.
High Kicking. A tin plate is sus-
pended horizontally by three strings,
like the pan of a balance, from an arm
arranged to slide up and down an
upright post. The pan is raised
gradually higher and higher until
only one of the contestants is able to
touch it with his foot. A high kick
may be made either running or stand-
ing, and jumping may or may not be
allowed. The conditions are fixed
by the club holding the contest.
AThreo-Legged Race. This race,
like the sack race, is run chiefly for the
amusement of the spectators. The
athletes run in pairs, the left leg of
one being fastened to the right leg of
the other, both at the knee and ankle.
The men are obliged to keep perfect
step, and with practice are able to
attain considerable speed.
Wheelbarrow Race. Sometimes
in games held for amusement merely,
the contestants are required to wheel
wheelbarrows. The sport is increased
when the racers are blindfolded.
Records. When a person has per-
formed one of the standard athletic
ATHLETIC GAMES
ATHLETIC GAMES
feats and has been properly timed or
his distance properly measured, such
time or measurement is said to be his
record. The athlete who has made
the best record for a given feat is
said to " hold the record." There is
much difference of opinion as to
what a " record " is, some thinking
that the measurement of any feat at
any time is enough to make it good,
while others insist that the feat must
be performed at a public meeting
and under the superintendence of
proper officers. Many so-called re-
markable records are accounted for
by the fact they were improperly
timed -or made on badly measured
tracks. It is generally agreed,
also, that a running record must
be made at one of the standard
distances (see above), and that it is
absurd, for instance, to talk of the
best record at 155 yards. Any one,
if this were allowed, might make him-
self a champion by running some
particular distance which no one had
been timed on before. A list of the
usual championship games has al-
ready been given. The record
rules of the National Amateur Union
are as follows :
A new record at any distance in
walking, running or hurdling, in or-
der to stand, shall be timed by at
;;mt»; ;; -:
Greek Foot Race.
least three time-keepers, and a new
record at jumping, pole vaulting, or
in the weight competitions, shall
be measured by at least three meas-
urers.
The Amateur Athletic Union will
not recognize any new record, unless
a report of it is made to the Secre-
5ary of the Union, properly supported
by the affidavits of the time-keepers
or the measurers, as the case may
be.
History. Among the ancients
athletics were held in high esteem.
The grand athletic contests of the
Greeks are described in C. P. P., in
the article OLYMPIA. (See also the
history of GYMNASTICS.)
Athletic games have always been
in favor in England. In the reign
of Henry II., the youth of London
had assigned them, near the city,
fields where they practiced " leaping,
wrestling, casting of the stone, and
playing with the ball."
Henry V. was fond of athletics,
especially of running, and is said to
have been " so swift a runner that
he and two of his lords, without
bow or other engine, could take
a wild buck in a large park."
Henry VIII. excelled in throwing
ATHLETIC GAMES
37
ATHLETIC GAMES
the hammer, and his secretary,
Richard Pace, advised noblemen's
sons to devote themselves to athletic
sports, " and leave study and learn-
the children of meaner
But with the rise of what
"the new learning," some
began to speak slightly
of athletics, and even Roger Ascham
in his book on Archery says that
" running, leaping, and quoiting be
too vile for scholars." The upper
ing to
people."
is called
scholars
classes became divided in opinion on
the subject, but athletic sports con-
tinued in favor with the common
people. In a poem, published in
1608, a shepherd is made to say :
" I can both hurle and sling,
I run, I wrestle, I can well throw the bar."
The illustrations, taken from an
old manuscript, show favorite trials
of strength in the time of Queen
Elizabeth.
Athletic sports were usually prac-
Sports in Queen Elizabeth's Time.
ticed also on church festivals, but the
Puritans objected to them and from
that time became opposed to all
such sports. James I. issued in 1617
a " Book of Sports," in which he
named those that were lawful on Sun-
day. When this was re-published by
Charles I. it was severely condemned
by the Puritans. When the Stuarts
were restored, however, foot racing,
wrestling, and other such contests
were revived.
Great annual athletic meetings
were held before the Norman con-
quest in different parts of England,
in very ancient times. One of
these, at Bath, is described by Addi-
son in the Spectator (Vol. II., 161).
These meetings.which were generally
in connection with fairs, lasted almost
until the present time, and gave rise
to modern athletic associations. In
the i8th century, besides these rustic
meetings, people began to walk and
run on wagers or for prizes, and per-
sons of high rank, who for many cen-
turies had looked down on such exer-
cises, sometimes took part in them.
AUCTION
THE AUCTIONEER
Many of the contests were ridiculous,
as for instance when there was a race
between cripples, or a man on stilts
raced with a runner, or when a jockey
bearing a man on his shoulders con-
tended against a fat man. Some
accounts of records made in those
days are absurd. For instance, a
man is said to have walked 102 miles
in twelve hours. But athletic sports
did not become popular with all
classes till the present century, dur-
ing which they have been reduced to
a system, especially in England and
the United States.
There are now in the United States
several thousand athletic societies,
many of which have gymnasiums,
some of them elegantly equipped.
There are more than twenty such
clubs in New York City alone. The
New York Athletic Club, formed in
1868, has a large club-house contain-
ing bowling alleys, swimming tanks,
and one of the largest and best gym-
nasiums in the country. Nearly every
college in the United States has its
athletic association and gymnasium.
The college clubs are united in the
Intercollegiate Athletic Associa-
tion, and this, with most other ath-
letic associations in the country, is
governed by the rules of the Ama-
teur Athletic Union, which regulates
nearly all the athletic contests held in
the United States.
The first association of the kind
was the National Association of
Amateur Athletes of America. A
few years ago dissensions arose
in this association, and in October,
1887, a large number of the clubs
withdrew and united under a new
organization known as the Amateur
Athletic Union. The two associa-
tions continued thus for two years,
but in the summer of 1889 they
united, retaining the new name of
the Amateur Athletic Union.
AUCTION, a game played by any
number of people with counters, rep-
resenting money, and cards, on each
of which is a picture of some article
to be sold by auction, with its de-
scription and supposed money value.
One of the players is chosen for
auctioneer, and the counters are dis-
tributed equally among the others.
The auctioneer then takes the cards
and reads the description of the first
article to be sold. The players bid
for it, as in a real auction, and it is
sold to the highest bidder, who puts
the counters representing the price
by themselves in front of him. The
auctioneer then sells the next card
and so on till all are sold. The
player who has made the best bar-
gains wins, and this is found out by
counting the value of the articles he
has bought, and that of the counters
he has paid, which are in a pile in
front of him. He wins, whose pur-
chases exceed in value the price paid
for them by the greatest amount.
If a player bid more money than he
has, it is a Bluff Bid. Unless he
succeeds in getting the article, no
notice is taken of it ; but if, when he
is called upon to pay, he is unable to
do so, he must return one of his
cards to the auctioneer. If he have
none, he must return the first one he
purchases.
AUCTIONEER, THE, a game
played by any number of persons, one
of whom acts as auctioneer. Each of
the other players writes on a slip of
paper the name of some article, and
folds it once. The auctioneer then
marks one of the slips, adds a blank
one, and mixes them all in a hat.
Each of the company draws a slip,
and he who gets the blank slip is put
up at auction by the auctioneer,
each player bidding the article on his
slip. The holder of the marked slip
bids last, and the person bid for is
sold to him. He may then require
his purchase to perform some feat,
and then the game is repeated. The
auctioneer, instead of marking a slip,
may simply open one and look at
it, afterwards accepting the bid of
the person who draws it when-
ever it may be offered. One slip
always remains in the hat. The
auctioneer should look at it, and if
AUNT SALLY
39
AUTHORS
it be the blank or the marked slip,
the players must draw again. The
auctioneer should give a comical de-
scription of the person to be sold,
praising his appearance and good
qualities.
AUCTION PITCH. See ALL
FOURS.
AUNT SALLY, a game played by
any number of persons, who throw
sticks at the head of " Aunt Sally,"
a block of wood shaped and painted
to resemble the face of an old col-
ored woman. This is placed upon a
MISS ALCOTT
LITTLE WOMEN
LITTLB WOMEN
LITTLE MEN
OLD-FASHIONED GIRL
EIGHT COUSINS
LITTLE MEN
OLD-FASHIONED GIRL
EIGHT COUSINS
MISS ALCOTT
Aunt Sally.
pole set into the ground, and decor-
ated with an old woman's cap. A
dress is then put upon the figure and
a tobacco pipe is stuck into the
mouth. Sometimes pipes are stuck
into the ears also.
The players stand about twenty-
five feet from the figure, and, in
turn, throw sticks, twenty inches to
two feet in length, at Aunt Sally's
head, trying to break the tobacco
pipes. The side pipes count, each,
one point, and the front one, two
points. He who scores most points
in a given number of throws is the
winner.
AUTHORS, a game played by any
number of persons with cards, on
which are printed or written the
name of an author and the titles of
several of his works. The printed
cards may be bought at toy stores,
but much amusement may be had
by writing them out, introducing re-
cent books and new authors The
same titles, including that of the au-
thor, are on as many cards as there
are titles, but arranged in different
order, and the name at the top,
which is in larger letters than the
others, is called the name of the
card. All the cards with the same
words on them, taken together, form
a book. Thus two of the cards in
one book may appear as follows :
In this book there would evidently
be five cards. Sometimes there are six
or more cards in a book, but all the
books in the pack are of the same size,
and there are usually twenty books
in a pack. Sometimes the cards have
numbers at the top, which are the
same for all of the same book. The
cards are distributed evenly by any
one of the players, and then the one
on the dealer's left calls by name for
any card he wants from some one of
the other players. If the player asked
has the card he must give it to him:
and the first player then calls for
another card, and continues thus to
call for cards till he asks for one
which the other player does not have ;
then the privilege of asking passes to
the next player at his left, and so on.
As soon as any one succeeds in get-
BACHELOR'S KITCHEN
40
BACKGAMMON
ting into his hand all the cards in a
book (which is the object of the
calling), he lays them down together,
near his place, and none of them can
be called for any more. The calling
goes on till all the pack is then dis-
tributed into books, and then he who
has most books wins. When the
cards are numbered, the winner is
determined sometimes by adding
the numbers on the books taken,
the one who has the highest sum
winning.
By listening attentively to the calls
of the other players, one can generally
get a very good idea of how the cards
lie, and ask accordingly. If a player
has called successfully for a card and
has not laid aside the book containing
it, the others know he still has it, and
the next player, if he has been watch-
ful, will call for the card. Again,
if a player asks another for a card
and is refused, all the others know
that neither of them has it. In gen-
eral, after calling for cards he is sure
he can get, a player should try to
complete the books in his hand that
are most nearly full.
History. Authors is possibly de-
rived from an old English game
called " Spade, the Gardener," played
with a pack of ordinary cards, from
which all cards below the tens have
been thrown out.
Each of the four kings is given a
name, and the other cards of the
suit are regarded as his family. Thus,
the King of Spades is called Spade,
the Gardener ; the Queen, Spade,
the Gardener's Wife ; the Knave, his
son; the Ace, his servant, and the Ten,
his dog. In like manner, the King
of Clubs is called Club, the Constable;
the King of Hearts, the Good Natured
Man, and the King of Diamonds,
Vicar Denn. Each of these has also
his wife, son, servant, and dog. The
object is to get all the cards into
one hand, and when all a player's
cards are gone he retires from the
game.
The earliest similar game played
with special cards seems to have
been " Doctor Busby," where the
cards had pictures representing num-
bers of various " families,"each family
constituting a book. The game of
Doctor Busby is still sold at toy
stores, but Authors, and similar
forms of the game, are more popular.
Among the similar games, all played
in the same way, are " Famous Men"
(where one book consists of Inven-
tors, one of Soldiers, one of Artists,
and so on), " Queens of Literature"
(where all the authors named are
women)," Poets," and "Gems of Art "
(where each book contains the names
of pictures in some famous art gal-
lery). There are similar games in
French and German, devoted not only
to Authors but to familiar things to
aid in learning the languages.
B
BACHELOR'S KITCHEN, a
game played by any number of per-
sons, who sit in a row, all except one,
who goes from player to player, ask-
ing each what he will give to the
bachelor's kitchen. When all have
answered, the leader asks each all
sorts of questions. The one ques-
tioned must give as his answer the
name of the article he agreed to con-
tribute. If he gives any other an-
swer, or laugh, he must pay a forfeit.
When the questioner has succeeded
in making any one laugh, or is satis-
fied that he cannot do so, he goes on
to the next.
BACKGAMMON, a game played
by two persons, each with 1 5 pieces,
or men, and 2 dice, on a board like
the one shown below. The men, of
two colors, are usually the same as
those used in checkers, and a back-
gammon board is generally made,
for convenience sake, on the inside
BACKGAMMON
of a checker board. The board is
divided into two pairs of tables by a
line through the middle called the
bar (which is a raised partition when
the game is played inside a checker-
board), and each player has a home,
or inner table, and an outer table.
In the cut, A is Black's home or in-
ner table, and B his outer table ; and
C is White's home, or inner table,
and D his outer table. Each table
has six points in it, of two colors
placed alternately, generally black
and white or black and red. The
points in the inner table, beginning
at the edge of the board, are some-
times given French names, as the
ace, deuce, trois, quatre, cinq, and
Backgammon Board.
six points, but in the United States
they are more commonly called by
the numbers from one to six. For
convenience sake, the numbers in
the illustration are continued across
the board to 12. The point num-
bered 7 is sometimes called the bar
point. The men are set as in the
illustration, part of them being, it
will be noticed, in the enemy's tables.
The object of each player is to get
his own men around into his own in-
ner table, where he can play them
off, as will be shown hereafter. In
doing this, the two move in opposite
directions, Black from White's inner
table into White's outer table, then
across into his own outer table, ami
finally into his own inner table, or
following the course C D B A in the
cut, while White moves in the direc-
tion A B D C into his home or inner
table. The moves are decided by
throwing DICE, of which each player
has two. When a player makes his
throw, he calls out the number of
points on the top of the dice (as 4-
2, 6-3, or double 4) and then plays
any of his men a number of points on
the board equal to the number
thrown. He may play one man as
many points as are on the two dice,
or he may play each number with a
different man. If he throws two
like numbers (called doublets) he
plays double what he throws. For
instance, if he throws two 4's he has
the right to play four 4*5 instead of
two, and these moves may be made
all together or separately. If the
point at which any move ends is oc-
cupied by two or more hostile men,
that move cannot be made, and if the
player cannot move at all, he must
wait till his next turn. If the point
has only one hostile man on it, it is
called a blot, and the move can then
be made (which is sometimes called
hitting the blot). The man so hit,
or captured, is taken from the board,
or placed on the bar. Its owner can
make no move till he has entered his
piece again in his opponent's inner
table, by playing it as if it were on a
point just before the ace point. If
each point on this table has two or
more hostile men on it the player
whose man is up cannot play at all
till his opponent has moved some of
them. Generally, leaving a man un-
covered, that is, leaving only one
man on a point, should be avoided,
and when doublets are thrown, the
men are usually moved in pairs for
this reason ; but skillful players often
make blots on purpose, either because
they are willing to take the risk in
order to move their men quicker, or
in order that the men, when taken
up, may enter anew, and gain the
enemy's rear so as to be able to cap-
ture his men. When all a player's
BACKGAMMON
BACKGAMMON
men have reached his inner table, he
begins to play them off the board,
which is called casting off, throwing
off, or bearing off. In casting off,
the pieces count according to the
point they are on. For instance,
throwing 5 and 2 entitles a player to
cast off one man from his five point
and one from his two point, or one or
both the numbers may b'e played as
moves. It is an advantage to keep
the points in the table covered as
evenly as possible, so that every
throw of the dice may be of use. If
there are no men on the proper point,
and no move can be made, men from
a lower point may be thrown off.
The player who first throws off his
men wins the game. If his oppo-
nent has thrown off any of his men,
a victory counts as a single game, or
hit ; if he has not thrown off any, it
counts as a double game, or gam-
mon ; and if he has a man up, or one
in either of the winner's tables it
counts as a triple or quadruple game
(as agreed on), or backgammon.
Skillful players will often make dif-
ferent moves according as they wish
to make a gammon or a hit.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. The first move is decided by
lot ; each player throws a single die,
and the one that gets the highest
number plays first, having the privi-
lege of moving from these throws,
taken together, or of throwing as
usual, as he pleases.
2. If a man is taken from any
point, it must be played, and when it
has been placed on a point and left,
the move cannot be made over again.
3. If the owner of a man that has
been taken up cast off another man
before entering the one taken up,
all the men so cast off must be
treated as if they had been taken up.
4. If a player throw and play out
of turn, and his opponent has thrown,
the move can be changed only by
consent of both players.
First Plays.
The following, which are usually
considered the best first moves in
playing for a hit, will be understood
by reference to the illustration at the
beginning of the article. In all these,
it will be seen that the object is, first
to cover important points in the play-
er's own tables, and then to get his
men out of the enemy's tables.
1. If double aces are thrown (the
best of all first throws), two men
should be moved from the player's 6
to his 5 point, and two from his 8 to
his 7 point, as it is desirable to pre-
vent the enemy from gaining these
points.
2. Double 6's ; two men from I to
7 in the opposite tables and two from
the opposite 12 to the player's 7.
3. Double ,3's; two from 8 to 5,
and two from 6 to 3, in the player's
tables, thus protecting the 5 and 3
points.
4. Double 2*s ; two from 6 to 4 in
the player's tables, protecting the 4
point, and two from I to 2 in the
opposite tables, thus advancing one
step toward getting out of the ene-
my's tables.
5. Double 4*5 ; two from I to 5
in the opposite tables, and two from
the opposite 12 to the player's 9.
6. Double 5's ; two from the op-
posite 12 to the player's 8 and then
to his 3.
7. 6 and ace ; one from opposite
12 to the player's 7, and one from 8
to 7, thus securing the bar point.
8. 6-2; one from the opposite 12
to the player's 5. (In this and simi-
lar plays, where two moves are made
at once, it must be remembered that
the two are distinct, and that if one
is blocked it cannot be made. But
either number may be played first,
and thus a block may often be
avoided or a hostile man taken.)
9. 6-3, 6-4, 6-5, and 5-4 ; in each
case play one from the opposite ace
point as far as it can go.
10. 5-3; one from 6 to 3, and one
from 8 to 3 in the player's tables.
11. 5-2; two from the opposite
12 ; one to the player's 8, and one to
his ii.
BACKGAMMON
43
BACKGAMMON
12. 5-1 ; one from the opposite 12
to the player's 8, and one from the
opposite ace point to 2.
13. 4-3 ; two from the opposite 12 ;
one to the player's 9, and the other
to his 10.
14. 4-2 ; one from 8 to 4, and
one from 6 to 4 in the player's
tables.
15. 4-1 ; one from the opposite 12
to the player's 9, and one from the
opposite ace point to 2.
16. 3-2 ; two from the opposite
12 ; one to the player's 10, the other
to his ii.
17. 3-1; one from 8 to 5, one from
6 to 5 in the player's tables.
1 8. 2-1 ; one from the opposite 12
to the player's n, and one from the
opposite ace point to 2.
Russian Backgammon, or Trie-
Trac, a kind of backgammon in
which the men are not set on the
board in the beginning, but are en-
tered, as if they had been taken up.
Both players enter in the same table
and move in the same direction.
The player may move before enter-
ing all his men, but if a man be taken
up, it must be entered before any-
other play can be made, and if this
is impossible its owner loses his turn.
If doublets are thrown, after playing
them the numbers on the opposite
sides of the dice are also played, and
then the player is allowed another
throw ; thus he can keep on playing
so long as he throws doublets and
can make his moves. But if he can-
not make any move his play must
stop. The privilege of playing the
numbers on the opposite side of the
dice is sometimes not given to the
first throw of doublets. It is some-
times extended by letting any one
who throws an ace and a two play
doublets of them and both of the
opposite numbers (six and five), and
then, after playing them, throw
again. The rules are the same as
for ordinary backgammon.
Spanish Backgammon, or Jac-
quet. In this form of the game there is
no taking up, and a single man there-
fore can hold a point. Each player
places his men in five rows of three
each in his opponent's inner table.
The first man moved must be carried
into the player's own inner table be-
fore another is moved, but after that
Abacus.
the men can be moved in any order
the player chooses.
History. The origin of backgam-
mon is unknown. It is said to have
been invented about the loth century,
though a similar game was played
by the ancients on a board called an
Abacus. It was first called Tables,
Backgammon in the ijth Century.
and is mentioned under this name
by Chaucer, Shakespeare, and Bacon.
In monkish Latin it was called Tab-
ularum Ludus (Game of Tables).
The tables were not always as they
are now. In the illustration, show-
ing two players of the I3th century,
BAGATELLE
44
BAGATELLE
the form at that time is plainly shown .
There is no bar on the board and
there seem to be but eight points.
In the I4th century the board was
divided like ours, but the points were
of only one color. There were many
ways of playing, in some of which
three dice were used and the men all
set in the opponent's inner table.
Tables was one of the indoor games
that James I. recommended to his
son Prince Henry in his book of
advice called " Basilikon Doron "
(The Royal Gift). The word back-
gammon is thought by some to be
from the Welsh and to mean little
battle. Others think it is Saxon and
means back-game, from the setting
back of the men when taken up ; and
others still that it is Danish and
means the tray game, from the shape
of the board. In Germany it is
called Puff (Clatter), probably from
the rattling of the dice or the pieces
on the board. The French Tric-
Trac, which is the same in German,
and was anciently called tick-tack in
English, is named in the same way.
In Germany, backgammon is also
called Brettspiel (board-game), and
so is draughts.
BACK-HANDED EUCHRE. See
EUCHRE
BADMINTON. See LAWN TEN-
NIS.
BAGATELLE, a game played by
any number of persons with cues and
balls like those used in BILLIARDS,
but smaller, on a table something
like a small Billiard table, cushioned
only at the sides, or on a cloth cov-
ered board, which can be laid on an
ordinary table. Nine balls, two of
which are colored, are used. At the
lower end of the table are nine holes,
numbered in order, and in front of
the holes is a spot a on which one of
the colored balls, often called the
King Ball, is placed. At the upper
end of the table is another spot, b, and
between it and the holes a line called
the string line, as in Billiards. Each
player in turn plays his eight balls
one by one, the colored one first, by
placing each on the spot behind the
string line and striking it with his
cue, as in Billiards,
toward the holes.
The object is to
place the balls, in-
cluding the King
Ball, in the holes,
and the player scores
the numbers of such
holes as he can fill,
the colored balls
counting double.
Thus the highest
score would be 62,
made by filling all
the holes, the colored
balls being in the
Nine and Eight
holes. Such a score
is very unusual. He
wins who scores most
points in a number
of rounds agreed up-
on before the game.
If any ball rebounds
J 0 o
•
1 ° •
e 1
1 <*
1
Bagatelle
Board.
beyond the string line, it must be
removed from the board till the next
player's turn. At
the end of each turn
the board is cleared,
and the King Ball
placed on its spot,
as in the beginning.
The three-ball game
of BILLIARDS may
be played on a Baga-
telle board, caroms
counting one each,
and each hole its
proper number as in
ordinary Bagatelle.
Mississippi, a kind
of Bagatelle played
with a bridge or row
of stalls which is
placed on the board
just in front of the
holes. The stalls
are numbered from
one to nine, but no
ball is allowed to
hits the side of the
/f «0 ©\
n
T
^nnnnnnnnn
Mississippi
Board.
score unless it
board before entering them.
BAGATELLE
45
BALANCING
Tivoli, a simpler form of Bagatelle,
played on a board about four feet
long and eighteen inches wide, hav-
ing a channel at one side up which a
marble is shoved with a stick. The
upper end of the board is curved,
and this end is raised slightly during
the game, so that the marble rolls
down the board, and after bounding
from the iron pins with which it is
Tivoli.
studded, stops either in a hole in the
board or in one of several compart-
ments at the bottom. The holes and
compartments are all numbered, so
that the player must score some-
thing. But in some forms of the game
there is a channel on the other side
of the board also, so that if the mar-
ble is played with too much force it
rolls around the rim and goes into
the opposite channel, scoring noth-
ing. There is often a King Ball also,
which, if knocked down, increases
the score.
Railroad Bagatelle, a kind of Tivoli
in which the balls are rolled down
an inclined trough running from side
to side of an upright frame by the
side of the board, which is usually
square, and contains numerous pins
and several numbered holes or stalls,
as in the common game. At the
foot of the " railroad " a movable
switch is sometimes placed, which
delivers the ball in any desired direc-
tion. A spiral tube of wire some-
times takes the place of the trough or
railroad.
Tivoli is called in France Billard
Anglais (English Billiards), and
forms of it are also known as
" Cockamaroo " and " German Bil-
liards." The word Bagatelle is
French, and means a trifle. Tivoli is
the name of a place near Rome, where
a stream rushes through a cave or two
and is divided up so as to make many
waterfalls. Possibly the eccentric
course of the ball suggested the name.
BALANCES. See SCALES.
BALANCING. In beginning to
practice, balance at first a pole five
to ten feet long on the end of the
forefinger held horizontally, or on the
outstretched palm of the hand. As
the pole tips to one side, move the
hand slightly to that side, so as to
keep it always beneath the whole
pole. The eye should be fixed on
the top of the pole, where its motion
is most easily seen. When the
learner can balance one pole, he
should try another of a different size.
It will be found that the taller the
pole, the more easily it is balanced.
It is almost impossible, for instance,
to balance a lead pencil for the reason
that when the tall pole leans an inch
to one side it is still almost verti-
cal, while the lead pencil, in leaning
an inch, inclines very perceptibly.
Other objects may now be tried. In
balancing an object of irregular
BALANCING
46 BALANCING EXPERIMENTS
shape, as a chair on one of its legs, it
should first be supported with the free
hand and moved about till the bal-
ancer finds that the center of gravity
is nearly over the point of support.
Objects may be balanced also on the
chin, the nose, or other parts of the
body, the only difficulty being that
these cannot be moved so easily and
quickly as the hand. Balancing is
excellent train-
ing for the eye
and muscles.
Several per-
sons with the
same number of
poles of equal
size may play a
balancinggame.
At a signal each
balances h i s
pole on his right
palm, and he
who keeps his
pole up longest
scores a point.
The players
then balance on
the left palm,
then on the
right and left
forefingers, suc-
cessively ; the
other fingers,
the nose, the
chin, and on any
other parts of
the body they
may agree upon.
He who scores
most points is
Ancient Balancer, the winner.
Skilled balanc-
ers, who make a profession of ex-
hibiting their powers, perform
many wonderful feats. The Jap-
anese are especially skillful. Good
balancers can poise many objects
one above another, or several ob-
jects at the same time on differ-
ent parts of the body. The illus-
tration from an old manuscript
shows a skilled balancer in the I4th
century.
BALANCING EXPERIMENTS
AND TOYS. These all depend on
the principle that if the center of
gravity of a body be below its point
of support it cannot be overturned.
I. Stick two penknives in a lead
Fig. i.
pencil, one on each side (Fig. i). The
pencil may then be balanced on the
finger. If disturbed, it will not fall,
Fig. 2.
but will rock backward and forward
till it is at rest again.
2. To balance a coin edgewise on
the point of a needle. The needle is
fastened in the cork of a bottle. The
coin is firmly fixed in a slit cut in
BALANCING EXPERIMENTS 47 BALANCING EXPERIMENTS
another cork, in which two forks are
stuck, as shown in Fig. 2.
3. Fill a quart bottle with water and
place on the rim of the neck a cork
in which two forks are stuck, as in
Fig. 3. The water may now be
§ poured out of the bottle,
the cork remaining bal-
anced.
4. The Tumbler.
This is a toy, consisting
of the figure of a man,
made of pith or some
other light substance,
standing on the flat side
of a half bullet. This
figure cannot be over-
turned, but insists on
Fi standing upright. Fig-
ures of soldiers called
"Prussians," constructed in this
way, were once sold in Paris (See
by passing a rod over them, would
at once start up again. The figure
of a dancing master thus mounted is
called the " bowing beau."
5. The Prancing Horse, This is
a figure of a .horse having fixed to it
a weight by a bent wire, as in
Fig. 5. If the horse's hind legs be
placed on the edge of a table, the
weight being beneath it, he will not
fall forward but prance up and down,
if rocked. The toy can be made by
cutting the figure from light wood.
6. The Dancing Class. An ex-
periment in balancing, performed
with two bottles, two knives, and a
Fig. 5-
Fig. 4). They were formed into
ranks, and being made to bow down
Fig. 6.
wine-glass. The corks of the bottles
are sharpened at the top to an edge,
and the knives and wine-glass of
water are balanced on them as shown
in Fig. 6, which can be done after
a few trials. Any small, heavy ob-
ject, such as a small key, is now
tied to the end of a thread and low-
ered into the water. The added
weight will cause the wine-glass to
descend, and, by moving the key up
and down, the glass may be made to
dance as it were on the blades of the
knives.
7. A weight may be balanced
BALL JUGGLING
48
BALL JUGGLING
with the aid of a nail and key, if ar-
ranged as shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7.
BALL JUGGLING, tossing a ball
from one hand to another in various
ways, as an amusement, or a training
for the eyes and muscles. The best
balls for the purpose are of hollow
brass, two inches in diameter. Any
balls of about this size may be used,
such as tennis balls, but they must
all be exactly equal in size and weight.
By mastering each of the
following exercises before
the next, any one who pos-
sesses patience, and gives
time to practice, may be-
come a good ball-juggler.
I. Vertical Fall. (Fig.
I.) This is simply throw-
ing the ball up so that it
will fall directly into the
hand, which must not be
moved sidewise. The ball
must be thrown three or
four feet into the air. Both
hands must attain equal
skill.
2. Inside Fall. (Fig. 2.) Throw
the ball with the right hand so that it
will curve as if the left hand were to
catch it, but, instead, move the right
Fig. i.
hand to the left to receive it. The ball
should always fall in exactly the same
place, so that it can be caught with
the eyes shut. Repeat with the left
hand, curving the ball to the right.
3. Outside Fall. Same as the In-
Fig. 2.
side except that the hand is held
across the body and the ball curved
to the outside, being caught with the
hand in its natural position. The
inside and outside falls should be
practiced alternately.
4. Parallel Fall. (Fig. 3.) The
Vertical Fall is
performed with
the hand in its
natural position,
then in that of
the other, that is,
held across the
body. The falls
in the two posi-
tions alternate.
5. Outside and
Inside Fall.
(Fig. 4.) The
ball is thrown
in a curve from
the right hand
to the left and back, alternately.
First, the curve is made three feet
high, and then it is lowered gradu-
ally till the ball moves in a straight
line from one hand to the other, form-
ing the Horizontal Pass (Fig. 5).
6. Double Vertical Fall. (Fig. 6.)
The Vertical Fall with both hands, a
ball in each. They are first thrown
Fig. 3.
BALL JUGGLING
49
BALL JUGGLING
up alternately so as to keep one or
the other always in air, and then
Fig. 4.
both at once, to exactly the same
height.
7. Double Inside FalL (Fig. 7.)
The Inside Fall with two balls one in
Fig. £
each hand. The tracks of the balls
would naturally cross, and that they
may not interfere that of the ball
from the right hand
is made higher than
the other.
8. Triple Pass.
(Fig. 8.) The same
as the last, with the
addition of a third
ball.which simply fol-
lows in the path of
the others. The in-
troduction of a third
ball will complicate
matters and require
even more practice
than the preceding
exercises.
9. Triple Over
and Under Pass. Like the last (Fig.
9), except that one of the balls from
the left hand to the right is sent
higher than either of the others, so
Fig. 6.
that one ball is always seen moving
from left to right above two others,
Fig. 7-
which are changing hands in a lower
curve.
10. Shower. (Fig. 10). The balls
J*
/ ^--OK. \
(/ XX
Fig. 8.
follow exactly the samp path, going
from one hand to the other by the
Fig. 9-
Inside Fall and back by the Horizon-
tal Pass. Showers can be performed
BALL JUGGLING
BALLS AND BALL GAMES
with two, three, or four balls. A two-
ball shower may be performed with
one hand, in which case either the
Fig. 10.
Inside or Outside Fall is used, and
one of the balls, after being caught,
is carried by the hand back to the
Fig. ii.
throwing place, while the other is in
the air.
ii. Fountains, combinations of
the Inside and Outside Falls. In the
Single Fountain (Fig. ii), a ball is
used by each hand and with each the
outside fall is performed. In the
Double Fountain (Fig. 12), each hand
showers two balls, and the balls do
not pass from one hand to the other.
The natives of the South Sea
Islands are said to be very skillful at
ball juggling, using small round
fruits, or balls made of rolled leaves,
and keeping as many as five in the
air at once. Sometimes, also, a sort
of bat, made of a stick of wood with
a short cross-piece at the end, is
used to strike the ball, instead of
tossing it up with the hand.
BALLS AND BALL GAMES.
Games in which a ball is used have
been played since the most ancient
times. Greek and Roman writers
tell different stories about the inven-
tion of such games, but probably
none of these are true. The ball, is
such a simple toy, and so easily made,
that it has doubtless been used by all
nations from the earliest times, and
it is not necessary to suppose that it
was derived by them all from one
tribe or people. It was known to
the Egyptians, and the picture, from
an old wall-painting, shows a game
played by them, in which two of the
players sat on others' backs. Homer
describes in the " Odyssey " a game
of ball played by a Greek princess
and her companions to the sound of
music. The Greeks called the ball
Sphatra, from which we get the word
sphere, and the Roman name for it
was Pila. Both nations were very
fond of playing with it, and both had
many games, in most of which a
small ball was thrown from one
player to another. The Greeks val-
ued it so highly that they had special
teachers of the game in their gymna-
siums ; and the Athenians erected a
statue to a skillful ball-player named
Aristonicus. The Emperor Augus-
tus was fond of the sport, and after
his time it was commonly played just
before taking a bath, in a room at-
tached to the bathing house, The
Romans also played with a large ball
BALLS AND BALL GAMES
BANDILORE
like a foot-ball, called Follis, but
they seem to have thrown instead of
kicked it. In one game, called Har-
pastum (from a Greek word meaning
to snatch), each player tried to get
possession of the ball, as in modern
FOOT-BALL. In Brittany, a game like
Harpastum was played till modern
times with a sort of foot-ball stuffed
with hay, called Soitle. Two com-
munes usually fought for it, each try-
ing to carry it home, and men were
so often maimed and wounded in
the struggle that the game was sup-
pressed by law. The Australian na-
tives have a similar game, where a
ball of opossum skin is " hunted
out" as in FOOT-BALL and then strug-
gled for. They call it Marn Gook,
In another class of games, played with
a large ball, the players try to put it
across the enemy's boundary instead
Egyptian BalL
of carrying it within their own. The
Greek eptkoinos (common ball) was
of this class, as are the modern Hurl-
ing and FOOT-BALL. The former,
which is an Irish sport, consists in
trying to carry by hand a large ball
across the opposite boundary, which
Roman BalL
may be distant by several miles. The
struggle for possession of the ball is
often severe and the game is very
rough. No ball game played with a
stick, like HOCKEY, POLO, or CRO-
QUET, was known in Ancient Greece
or Rome, and this kind of .game
seems to have originated in the East.
The bat and ball games, such as
CRICKET, BASE BALL, and CAT,
seem to be still later, like the vari-
ous TENNIS games, including Racket,
Fives, and HAND BALL, where the
ball is sent against a wall. But all
these forms of Ball have so many
points in common that it is difficult
to trace their history, and authorities
generally differ as to the exact course
of their development. What is
known of each is told in the separate
article treating of it. The illustra-
tion, from a painting in the baths of
Titus, shows four persons playing
some kind of a ball game before en-
tering the bath.
BANDILORE, a toy consisting of
two discs joined at the center and
having a string wound between them.
The player takes one end of the
string and allows the bandilore to
fall, revolving as the string unwinds.
Just before it reaches the end of the
BARBERRY BUSH
BAROMETER
string he gives it a quick jerk up-
wards, and the spin it has acquired
will then wind the string in the op-
posite direction, and cause the toy to
ascend. It can thus be kept moving
up and down, as long as the player
pleases.
History. The origin of the Bandi-
lore is not certain-
ly known, though
some say it was
invented to amuse
an East Indian
princess. It was
brought in 1790
from Bengal to
England, where it
became fashion-
able under the
name of the
"Quiz." Thence
it was taken to
Normandy, where
it was called "Jou-
jou." Soon after-
ward it became the
fashion in Paris.
The toys were made of all kinds of
materials, from sugar to gold, and
some of them were as large as dinner
plates. The Duke of Orleans gave to
a French lady a Bandilore set with
diamonds, valued at 2400 livres. The
toy is now known in France as Z'.Zs#2/-
grant (The Emigrant), because it was
in favor with the nobility at the begin-
ning of the French Revolution, when
many of them were forced to emigrate
to other countries.
BANJO, Experiments with. See
VIOLIN.
BARBERRY BUSH, a singing
game played by any number of
children. All join hands in a ring,
and circle around, singing:
Bandilore.
They then stop, and rubbing their
hands together to imitate the wash-
ing of dishes, sing:
This is the way we wash our clothes,
Wash our clothes, wash cur clothes,
This is the way we wash our clothes,
So early on Monday morning.
The players then circle as before,
singing the chorus with " Tuesday "
substituted for Monday. So the
game goes on, the successive verses
being generally as follows :
This is the way we iron our clothes,
So early on Tuesday morning.
This is the way we scrub our floor,
So early on Wednesday morning.
This is the way we mend our clothes,
So early on Thursday morning.
This is the way we sweep the house,
So early on Friday morning.
This is the way we bake our bread,
So early on Saturday morning.
This is the way we go to church,
So early on Sunday morning.
The chorus is repeated before each
verse, with the insertion of the proper
day of the week.
Sometimes the Mulberry bush is
mentioned instead of the Barberry
bush. The last line is also sung,
All of a Monday morning,
or
All on a frosty morning.
BAROMETER. The barometer
and its history are told of in C. C. T.
To make a mercury barometer, take a
glass tube four feet long, and about
a quarter of an inch in inside diame-
ter, and bend it into a U shape, at
about afoot from one end, so that the
longer branch shall measure at least
33 inches. Make the bend gradually,
allowing several inches at the turn
(see directions for glass working,
under CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS).
Here we go round the bar-ber - ry bush, the bar - ber - ry bush, the bar-ber-ry bush.
Here we go round the bar-ber - ry bush so ear - ly on Mon - day morn-ing.
BASE BALL
53
BASE BALL
Seal the long end air-tight by melt-
ing it, and then fill that end with
mercury by pouring it little by little
into the short end, then turning
the tube so that the mercury will
run around the bend. This will re-
quire much patience, as the long end
of the tube is full of air which finds
difficulty in bubbling past the heavy
mercury in a small tube. The tube
and mercury should both be warmed
so as to be dry, and the mercury
must be perfectly clean. When the
long end of the tube and the bend are
full, hold the tube upright and the
mercury in the long end will fall a
little way, leaving an empty space
at the top. If it does not, pour a
little mercury out of the short end.
The distance between the level of
the mercury in the short end and that
in the long end will be about 30 inches.
To measure the height readily, and
so tell whether the barometer is ris-
ing or falling, fasten the tube to a
smooth board by bands of cloth,
tacked at the ends, and nail to the
board, between the branches of the
tube, a three-foot rule. Then if the
mercury in one branch stands at 4
inches, and the other at 33^ inches
the difference, in this case 29^ inches,
is the height of the barometer.
BASE BALL, a game played by
eighteen persons, nine on a side, on
a field marked with bases as in the
diagram.
The field and implements are fplly
described in the appended rules.
The players on the side in the
field are named the Pitcher and the
Catcher (who together are often
called the " battery "); the First, Sec-
ond, and Third Base-keepers or Base-
men ; the Short-Stop ; and the Right,
Center, and Left Fielders. The three
last mentioned are called the Out-
field ; the others, the In-field. Be-
fore the game the two leaders or cap-
tains usually decide by lot which
shall have the choice of innings, and
the winner may choose to go to the
bat or into the field. In match
games the captain of the home club
has choice of the innings. The
players on the side that goes to the
field, who are often called the "outs,"
take up the positions shown on the
diagram. Each baseman generally
stands near his base ; the other
players may vary their positions con-
siderably, except the Pitcher, who,
while delivering the ball, must stand
within certain limits, as shown in
Rules 8 and 29 below.
The Pitcher now throws the ball
toward one of the other side, called
the " Batsman," who stands at home
base. If the Batsman strike at the
ball without hitting it, he is said to
have made a " strike. " If the ball is
" good," — that is, passes over the
home base not higher than the Bats-
man's shoulder and not lower than
his knee,— it is counted a "called
strike," although he make no attempt
to hit at it. A strike is also called,
as a penalty, on the batsman in cer-
tain other cases. (See Rule 43, be-
low.)
If the ball is not good and the
player does not strike at it, it is said
to be a " ball, " or a " called ball."
All " strikes " and " balls " are called
by an umpire, who stands near the
Batsman and decides each point as
it comes up. (Two umpires are
sometimes necessary. See Rule 56,
below.) If the player strike the
ball and it fall within the lines in
the diagram called the " foul lines,"
it is said to be a " fair ball," and
the player becomes a " base-runner "
and immediately starts toward the
"first base." If the batted ball be
a " ground hit " to the infield, the
player getting the ball should throw
it quickly to the First Baseman.
Balls hit along the ground to the
outfielders are seldom thrown to
First Base, because the runner
would reach the base long before the
ball. It is oftentimes a better play
to throw the ball to some other base
when there are other runners on
base. This will be explained later.
If the Batsman can touch first
base before the Baseman standing
BASE BALL
54
BASE BALL
on the base catches and holds the
ball, the former is said to have
" made his base," and remains there ;
otherwise he is said to have been
" put out," and he does not bat
again until the eight other players
on his side have had their turn " at
the bat." If, however, the ball,
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X\ ,'' UMPIRE* \x
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A
Diagram of Field.
>w
when struck, instead of being fair,
falls outside the foul lines it counts
for nothing, unless it be caught on
the " fly " by one of the other side,
which puts the Striker out. The
Striker cannot make his base on it,
and it is neither a strike nor a ball.
When a ball is just touched by the
bat and flies directly back of the
Batsman, it is called a " foul tip."
Sometimes a foul tip is hard to
tell from a simple strike. If three
BASE BALL
55
BASE BALL
strikes are called by the umpire, the
Striker must run for his base, and the
ball, after it passes the home plate,
is treated just like a fair ball struck.
If the Catcher catches it and holds
it, or if he can get it to first base be-
fore the Batsman, the latter is out.
If four balls are called, the Batsman
is allowed to " take his base " — that
is, to run to first base without any
hindrance.
Sometimes the batsman soh;ts the
ball that, although he is himself put
out, he enables a base-runner to reach
another base. He is then said to
have made a " sacrifice hit."
When a player either has been put
out or has made his base, another
Shoe Plate.
one of the same side takes his place
as Batsman. The striking order is
decided before the game and re-
mains the same throughout. When
a base-runner has reached first base,
his object is to pass in succession
second, third, and home base, and if
he succeed in reaching the last-
named without being put out, he
scores one run for his side. He can
be put out, after he has reached first
base by being touched with the ball
in the hands of one of the opposite
side while he is not touching a base,
and in other ways as told in Rule
50; but these do not often occur.
He cannot be put out while he
is standing on a base ; but as two
players cannot occupy the same base
at the same time, he must leave the
base before the base-runner follow-
ing him reaches it. When a player
is thus compelled to leave his base,
he is said to be " forced." A base-
runner usually keeps close to his base
while the ball is near him, but when
it is in the hands of the Pitcher or
the Catcher he " leads off " a short
distance toward the next base, so as
to be ready to run to it should the
Batsman strike a fair ball. When a
foul ball is struck, all base-running
after the ball leaves the bat is void,
and the runners must return to the
bases from which they started, re-
touching the bases they have just
left. Sometimes a base-runner can
make his next base by leading off
and then running while the ball is
being thrown by the Pitcher to the
Catcher, hoping to reach the base
before the latter can throw the ball
to the Baseman. This is called
" stealing a base." If the ball is
thrown to the Baseman before the
runner makes his base, he may then
try to return to his former base, if it
has not been occupied by another
player. The basemen on each side
of him then usually try to put him
out by throwing the ball from one to
the other, while they walk toward
each other, keeping the runner be-
tween them till one is near enough to
touch him. This is called " run-
ning out between bases," but it does
not happen often with skillful play-
ers. Sometimes, in such a case,
the runner will manage to slip past
one of the basemen and make his
base. In any case where there is a
dispute as to whether a man has been
put out or not, the umpire decides,
as he does in all disputed points
throughout the game. Sometimes a
baseman, after putting out a man,
can get the ball to another base
in time to put out someone else, or
a fielder, after catching a fly and
thus putting the striker out, may
throw out a base-runner. These and
similar cases are called "double-
plays. " If three men are thus put
BASE BALL
BASE BALL
out, it is a " triple-play," but this
occurs very seldom. When the
Catcher lets a ball from the Pitcher
pass him (called a " passed ball "),
and the back-stop is placed at ninety
feet back of the home plate, the
runner may take as many bases
as he is able. When the back-stop
is not so placed, only one base is al-
lowed. Sometimes the Batsman will
strike the ball so far that he can
safely run to second or third base, or
even around to home base. In the
last case he makes a " home run,"
while at the same time sending in
all the base-runners ahead of him, if
any are on base at the time. Thus,
by a skillful hit when the bases
are " full," a Batsman may enable
four runners to score. As soon as
three players are out, the sides
change places, and, if no one has
reached home base, the score for
that inning of the side that has just
left the bat is nothing, no matter
how many men may be on bases.
The game goes on as before with the
sides reversed, and when three men
of the second side have been put out
the first inning is ended. In any
inning that man goes first to the bat
whose name follows, in the batting
order, that of the one who last com-
pleted his time at the bat (not the
one who was out last or the one who
went to the bat last) in the previous
inning.
The game consists of nine such in-
nings, and the side that scores the
most runs is the winner. If the same
number of runs has been scored
by each side at the end of the ninth
inning, a tenth must be played, or
more, if necessary, till the game
is decided. Each inning is divided
into halves, during each of which a
different side is at the bat. At the
end of an entire inning, when the
sides have been at the bat the same
number of times, the innings are said
to be " even" ; but when the side
that struck first has been at the bat
once more than the other, the innings
are said to be " uneven." If the
side that would go to the bat last is
ahead at the middle of the ninth or
any subsequent inning, the last half
of that inning is omitted, as it could
not affect the result of the game, but
only increase the winners' score.
Similarly, if the side last at bat scores
the winning run before putting out
its three men, the rest of the inning
is omitted.
If a player reaches his base, he
does so either because he made so
good a hit that the best fielding
could not have put him out, or
because one of the fielders did not do
his duty. In the former case, the
Batsman is said to have made a base-
hit, or a two-, three-, or four-base hit,
as the case may be ; in the latter case,
the fielder is said to have made an
" error." Likewise, a fielder that
allows a base-runner to make a new
base, when he might have stopped
him, makes an error. A run made
entirely without the aid of errors
on the opposite side is called an
" earned run." Errors, base-hits, and
earned runs are scored, not because
they count in deciding the results,
but because they serve to show
whether a game is won by the skill
of the winners or the carelessness
or bad playing of the losers ; and
they also show which are the best
players on a side. They are more
carefully considered under Scoring.
The Catcher. This player usually
wears gloves, made for the purpose,
to protect his hands, a cage, or
mask, of strong steel wire over his
face, and sometimes a padded
body protector, as in Figure I.
When there are no men on bases,
and the batsman has less than two
strikes, the Catcher usually stands
back and takes the Pitcher's balls on
the first bounce, or allows them to
strike the high board fence at his
rear without trying to catch them.
When the Batsman has two strikes,
the Catcher stands close to him
(called playing close to.or behind, the
bat), so that at the next strike he
may catch the ball on the fly, and so.
BASE BALL
57
BASE BALL
put the striker out. When there
is a man on third base, he also
Catcher. — Fig. i.
plays close to the bat, so as to give
the base-runner no chance to reach
Catcher. — Fig. 2.
home. He keeps on the lookout to
see that no men " steal " bases, and
tries to " throw them out " if possi-
ble. He tries to catch those foul
balls that are struck to the Batsman's
rear, and any fair balls that fall but
a short distance in front of the
Home-plate. When a fair ball falls
between Catcher and Pitcher, or in
any other case where it is doubtful
which player should take a ball, the
captain of the side calls out the
name of the one he wishes to catch
it. Besides these duties, the Catcher
generally acts as Home-Baseman.
Pitcher.
The Pitcher. His chief duty is to
throw his ball so that the Batsman
will find difficulty in striking it. For
this purpose he often throws the ball
in a curve, so that the Batsman is
puzzled to know just where it will
cross the home-plate. This is done
by giving the ball a twist as it
is thrown. A swiftly moving ball
pushes the air in front of it into
a sort of elastic cushion, and if the
ball is twisting at the same time the
cushion will be a little more elastic on
BASE BALL
BASE BALL
one side than on the other, pushing
the ball slightly sideways, and thus
making its path a curve. By mak-
Straight Delivery.
ing the ball twirl in one direction or
another,the skillful Pitcher can curve
it to the right or to the left upward
In-Curve.
or downward, so that only a bats-
man of equal skill can strike it at all.
The illustrations show the positions
of the hand and body for various
curves. It requires
much judgment to
make a curved ball
pass over the
Home-plate, for
when it leaves the
Pitcher's hand it
seems as if it were
going to pass to
one side. That the
Catcher may not
be puzzled as well
as the Batsman,
the Pitcher makes
signals, usually by
moving his hand or
Straight Delivery. jlead' to Jell the
Catcher how the
ball is to be curved. When he is
.pitching the ball, he must not step
In-Curve.
outside of the lines that determine
his position, as laid down in the
rules. While engaged in pitching the
ball the Pitcher must also keep close
watch of the base-runners, trying to
put them out by throwing the ball to
the bases when
they are off
their guard.
He should also
be ready to
" back up" the
Catcher, or
stand behind
him, when the
ball is thrown
in from the field
to put a runner
out at home.
Sometimes he
backs up the
First Baseman
in like manner.
The Pitcher
must not pre-
tend to deliver
the ball without doing so. If he
does, he is said to have made a
" balk," and the Batsman is allowed
to go to first base. (See Rule 32.)
TJie Baseman.
The principal duty
of the Baseman is
to guard his base
and be ready to
put out any base-
runner who is try-
ing to make it.
The First Base-
man usually does
this simply by
catching the ball
and touching his
base before the
runner — the
others, in most
cases, put the run-
ner out by touch-
ing him with the
ball before he
reaches the base.
When, however, the runner is
" forced " the basemen need only
touch the base before the runner
Out-Curve.
BASE BALL
59
BASE BALL
while holding the ball. The base-
men also act as fielders, and render
assistance, when
they can, in back-
i n g up other
players.
The Fieltkrs.
The duty of the
fielders is to catch
all fair and foul
balls they can " on
the fly," and to
" field " or throw
all balls as quickly
as possible to the
proper place. This
place varies ac-
cording to the
state of the game
and the position
of the fielder. If
there is no man on Third Base,
and there is one on First and
on Second Base, the ball goes
either to Second or Third Base, ac-
Drop.
a man's scoring. But if the fielder
sees he cannot possibly get the ball
to Home Base in time, he throws
Short Stop.
it to one of the other bases. Or, if
there are already two out, he may
throw it to First Base, knowing
that no matter if there is a man on
Batsman.
Fielder.
cording to the chances for inter-
cepting the runner. If there is a
man on Third, the ball is usually Third Base his run cannot count after
thrown to Home Base, for it is j the third out. It requires careful
of the first importance to prevent i judgment in the fielder to know ex-
BASE BALL
60
BASE BALL
actly what to do in many cases, and
he must decide instantly, as a sec-
ond's delay might lose the game. An
out-fielder may be idle during a great
part of the game, but he must be
ready to act at any moment, and on
no account allow a ball to pass him.
The Short Stop is an in-fielder,
placed where batsmen are very apt
to strike their balls, as experience
shows.
The Batsman. The Batsman
strives to strike his ball in the place
where it is least expected, or where
it will be hardest to reach. If he sees
that the Pitcher is giving him a good
ball, he usually strikes at it, for it will
be counted as a strike whether he
does so or not ; but a bad ball he lets
pass him, unless he sees that he can
make a good hit with it. As soon as
the Batsman strikes a ball he runs,
HARVARD.
10
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c.
B
rl
C-4
F-R
B-A
2.
F-S
F-R
llf
K-H-A
Z
S-H
in
Total,
Grand Total,
i
10
/o
5"
Umpire,* „ Time, .
without waiting to see whether it be
foul or fair, returning to his bat if the
umpire decides it to be foul. In
striking, some batsmen swing the
bat and others merely push it against
the ball. Usually the striker steps
forward just as he hits, to give more
force to his stroke.
The Base Runner is usually aided
by the advice of a " coach," one of
the men on his own side, who must
stand outside the 50 foot line (see
diagram.) When running for a base a
good player often finishes by throw-
ing himself at full length, and sliding
toward it, either feet-foremost or
head-foremost, thus avoiding the
touch of the baseman. Skillful base
runners have signals by which they
inform the batsman when they are
going to " steal" a base, thus en-
abling him to hit to better advantage.
BASE BALL
6l
BASE BALL
For instance, if a runner on First
Base tries to steal Second Base, the
Second Baseman will run to protect
his base, leaving the field open, and
a hit between the two bases will be
a good one. Much of the success of
the game depends on skillful base-
running.
Score. The principal duty of the
Scorers, of which there are generally
two, — one for each side, — is to keep
record of all the runs and outs as
they occur, so as to be able to tell
at any time the state of the game.
They usually do still more than this,
keeping a complete record of the
progress of the game, as will be shown
below. The score is kept in a blank
book prepared for the purpose, of
which there are various forms. One
page of one of them is represented
below. It will be seen that the names
10
SrA
ss
M-8
P-A
i
S-A
±B
S-A
Z
4
B-B
fee
rf
-s-A
3
z
+C.
3
F-2
z
of
fl-A
P-A
If
F-S
1
Total,
Grand Total,
Z
1
If-
Scorers ,__
Tale,
of the players, in the order in which
they come to the bat are arranged in
the first column. Opposite them, in
the second, are abbreviations show-
ing their positions. These differ
with different Scorers, but those given
below are Catcher, H ; Pitcher, P ;
1st baseman, A ; 2<i baseman, B ; 3d
baseman, C ; Short-stop, S ; Right
fielder, R ; Left fielder, L ; Center
fielder, M. Each of the next ten col-
umns is devoted to the runs and outs
of an inning. In the other columns,
in order, are recorded the total runs
of each player, his base hits, the men
he has put out, the men he assisted
to put out (called "assists "),and his
errors. As soon as the first Batsman
leaves the Home-plate, the Scorer's
work begins. If the Batsman is put
out the Scorer writes in the first
inning-column, opposite the player's
BASE BALL
62
BASE BALL
name, what looks like a fraction.
Below the line is the number of the
out (in this case, I). Above is an
abbreviation telling how he was put
out. If he was put out by one of the
players throwing the ball to a base-
man, the letters denoting those play-
ers are used, separated by a dash ;
thus, P — B means that the Pitcher
threw the ball to the 2d baseman.
K means " struck out " ; f., a fly
catch ; 1, f., a foul fly ; and b. b., first
base taken on called balls. If, in-
stead of going out, the Striker makes
a base, he must have made a base
hit, or someone, on the opposite
side, made an error. If the former,
the mark -+- is put down for a single
base, ± for a two-base hit, or £ f°'~
a three-base hit. If the latter, a dot
is put opposite the erring player's
name in the error column on the
other page. When a player scores,
a dot is put opposite his name in the
inning column. At the close of the
game the total runs, base hits, put-
outs, and assists are summed up
from the score and entered in their
respective columns. To sum up the
put-outs, the number of times a
man's letter appears, after a dash, is
entered in the put-out column on the
opposite page, for if R — B for in-
stance appears opposite a man's
name, that man was put out of
course by the Second Baseman on
the opposite side. The total num-
ber of put-outs for each side in an
even nine-inning game is 27, and if
they foot up more or less, there has
been some mistake. The " assists "
are summed up by treating, in like
manner, the letters before the dashes.
The assists need not number 27
altogether, for some men are put out
without assistance, as when a fly is
caught. When the score is published
only the columns that are lettered
at the top are given. Often two
columns of base hits are entered ;
one of "base hits" simply, the
other of " totals." In the former
each hit is counted as one, whether
for one or more bases ; in the latter
a two-base hit is counted as 2, and a
three-base hit as 3. This is all that
a young scorer will care to do, but
the National League rules require
still more. When the score is an-
nounced to the public, as by printing
it in a newspaper, of course only final
figures are given. The standard
method is to give the players' names
in one column, and then in succes-
sive columns the number of times
at bat, runs, base hits, sacrifice hits,
put-outs, assists, and errors. This
is followed by a summary giving the
score in each inning, and a large num-
ber of particulars, such as bases
stolen, home-runs, double and triple
plays, called balls, wild pitches, etc.
What are called the batting and field-
ing percentages of the players are
often calculated at the end of a series
of games. The former is the percent-
age of base hits in the total number
of times at the bat ; the latter the
percentage of " chances accepted "
in the total number of " chances
offered." The chances offered to a
fielder are found by adding his put-
outs, assists, and errors ; the chances
accepted, by subtracting the errors
from this sum. Thus, if a player
has put out 25 men, assisted to put
out 1 8, and made 9 errors, he has
had 52 chances, of which he has
accepted 43, and his fielding per-
centage is f| X ico, or nearly 83 per
cent.
The proper scoring of errors is
very difficult, especially as there the
scorer has no time to wait and think.
Good scorers often differ as to
whether a base has been gained by
a hit or an error, and their scores
would therefore read differently in
this respect. The rules given below
contain some directions on this
point. To be able to take the score
of a ball game properly adds much
to its enjoyment, and spectators
often amuse themselves in this way.
The score given above is that of a
game between the Yale and Harvard
university nines, and from it may be
read a very good account of the
BASE BALL
BASE BALL
game. The reader will see that the
first Harvard player made a run,
though" not on a base hit. The
second struck a ball to the second
baseman, who threw it to first base,
putting him out ; the third struck to
third base with a like result, and the
fourth struck to the first baseman,
who picked up the ball and made
the third out, ending the inning.
Rules of the Game. The rules
given below are substantially those
adopted by the National League and
the American Association of Profes-
sional Base Ball Clubs. Those parts
which refer to matters of discipline
are omitted. Many of the rules
apply to match games between or-
ganized clubs, and therefore do not
apply to cases where sides are chosen
just before the game, but it can be
seen at a glance which rules thus
apply.
THE BALL GROUND.
RULE I. — The Ground must be
an inclosed field, sufficient in size to
enable each player to play in his posi-
tion as required by these rules.
RULE 2. — To lay off the lines
governing the positions and the play
of the game known as Base Ball,
proceed as follows :
From a point, A, within the
grounds, project a right line out into
the field, and at a point B, 154
feet from point A, lay off lines B C
and B D at right angles to the line
A B ; then, with B as center and
63-63945 feet as radius, describe
arcs cutting the lines B A at F and
B C at B G D at H and B E at I.
Draw lines F G, G E, E H and H F,
and said lines will be the containing
lines of the Diamond or infield.
THE CA TOMER'S LINES.
RULE 3. — With F as center and
90 feet radius, describe an arc cut-
ting line F A at L, and draw lines
L M and L O at right angles to F
A ; and continue same out from F
A not less then 90 feet.
THE FOUL LINE.
RULE 4. — From the intersection
point, F, continue the straight lines
F G and F H until they intersect
with the lines L M and L O, and
then from the points G and H in the
opposite direction until they reach
the boundary lines of the grounds.
THE PLA YERS* LINES.
RULE 5.— With F as center and
50 feet radius, describe arcs cutting
lines F O, F M at P and Q;
then, with F as center again and 75
feet radius, describe arcs cutting F
G and F H at R and S ; then from
the points P, Q, R and S draw lines
at right angles to the lines F O, F
M, F G and F H,and continue same
until they intersect at the points T
and W.
THE CAPTAIN AND COACHEK'S
LINE.
RULE 6. — With R and S as cen-
ters and 15 feet radius, describe arcs
cutting lines R W and S T at X and
Y, and from the points X and Y
draw lines parallel with lines F H
and F G, and continue same out to
the boundary lines of the ground.
THE THREE-FOOT LINE.
RULE 7.— With F as center and
45 feet radius, describe an arc cut-
ting line F G at I, and from I out to
the distance of 3 feet draw a line at
right angles to F G, and marked
point 2 ; then from point 2, draw a
line parallel with the line F G to
a point 3 feet beyond the point G,
and marked 3 ; then from the point
3 draw a line at right angles to line
2, 3, back to and intersecting with
line F G, and from thence back
along line G F to point I.
THE PITCHER'S PLA TE.
RULE 8.— With point F as center
and 60.5 as feet radius, describe an
arc cutting the line F B at a point 4,
and draw a line 5, 6, passing through
point 4 and extending 12 inches on
either side of line F B ; then with
line 5, 6, as a side, describe a paral-
lelogram 24 inches by 6 inches.
THE BASES.
RULE 9.— Within the angle F,
describe a square the sides of which
shall be 12 inches, two of its sides
lying upon the lines F G and F H,
BASE BALL
64
BASE BALL
and within the angles G and H
describe squares the sides of which
shall be 15 inches, the two outer
sides of said square lying upon the
lines F G and G I and F H and H I,
and at the angle E describe a square
whose sides shall be 15 inches and
so described that its sides shall be
parallel with G I and I H and its
center immediately over the angular
point E.
THE BA TS MAN'S LINE.
RULE 10. — On either side of the
line A F B describe two parallelo-
grams 6 feet long and 4 feet wide
(marked 8 and 9), their length being
parallel with the line A F B, their dis-
tance apart being 6 inches added to
each end of the length of the diagonal
of the square within the angle F,
and the center of the length being
upon said diagonal.
RULE II.— The Home Base at F
and the Pitcher's Plate at 4 must be
of whitened rubber, and so fixed in
the ground as to be even with the
surface.
RULE 12.— The First Base at G,
the Second Base at E.and the Third
Base at H must be of white canvas
bags, filled with soft material and
securely fastened in their positions
described in Rule 9.
RULE 13. — The lines described in
Rules 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 10 must be
marked with lime, chalk, or other
suitable material, so as to be dis-
tinctly seen by the umpire.
THE BALL.
RULE 14. SECTION i. — Must
not weigh less than five nor more
than five and one-quarter ounces
avoirdupois, and it must measure
not less than nine nor more than
nine and one-quarter inches in cir-
cumference.
SEC. 2. For each championship
game two regulation balls shall be
furnished by the home club to the
umpire for use. When the ball in
play is batted to foul ground and
out of sight of the umpire, the other
ball shall be immediately brought
into play. As often as one of the
two in use shall be lost a new one
must be substituted.
THE BA T.
RULE 15. — Must be entirely of
hard wood, except that the handle
may be wound with twine or a
granulated substance supplied, not
to exceed eighteen inches from the
end.
It must be round, and it must not
exceed two and three-quarter inches
in diameter in the thickest part, nor
exceed forty-two inches in length.
THE PL A YERS AND THEIR
POSl TJONS.
RULE 16. — The players of each
club in a game shall be nine in num-
ber, one of whom shall act as cap-
tain, and in no case shall less than
nine men be allowed to play on each
side.
RULE 17. — The players' positions
shall be such as may be assigned
them by their captain, except that
the pitcher, while in the act of de-
livering the ball to the bat, must
take the position as defined in Rules
8 and 29.
RULE 18. — Players in uniform
shall not be permitted to occupy
seats on the stands, or to stand
among the spectators.
RULE 19. SECTION i. — No player
shall attach anything to the sole
or heel of his shoes other than the
ordinary base ball shoe plate.
SEC. 2. The catcher and first
baseman are permitted to wear a
glove or mitt of any size, shape, or
weight. All other players are re-
stricted to the use of a glove or mitt
weighing not over ten ounces, and
measuring in circumference, around
the palm of the hand, not over four-
teen inches.
PL A YERS1 BENCHES.
RULE 20. — The players' benches
must be furnished by the home club
and placed upon a portion of the
ground outside of and not nearer
than 25 feet to the players' lines.
One such bench must be for the ex-
clusive use of the visiting club, and
one for the exclusive use of the
home club.
BASE BALL
BASE BALL
THE GAME.
RULE 21. SECTION i. — Every
championship game must be com-
menced not later than two hours
before sunset.
SEC. 2. A game shall consist of
nine innings to each contesting nine,
except that
(a.) If the side first at bat
scores less runs in nine innings than
the other side has scored in eight
innings, the game shall then ter-
minate.
(if.) If the side last at bat in
the ninth inning scores the win-
ning run before the third man is out,
the game shall terminate.
A TIE GAME.
RULE 22. — If the score be a tie at
the end of the nine innings, play shall
be continued until one side has
scored more runs than the other in
an equal number of innings, pro-
vided, that the side last at bat scores
the winning run before the third man
is out, the game shall terminate.
A DRAWN GAME.
RULE 23. — A drawn game shall
be declared by the umpire when
he terminates a game on account of
darkness or rain, after five equal
innings have been played, if the score
at the time is equal on the last even
innings played ; except when the side
that went second to bat is then at the
bat, and has scored the same num-
ber of runs as the other side, in
which case the umpire shall declare
the game drawn without regard to
the score of the last equal innings.
A CALLED GAME.
RULE 24. — If the umpire calls
" Game" on account of darkness or
rain at any time after five innings
have been completed, the score shall
be that of the last equal innings
played, except, that the side second
at bat shall have scored one or
more runs than the side first at
bat, in which case the score of the
game shall be the total number of
runs made.
A FORFEITED GAME.
RULE 25. — A forfeited game shall
be declared by the umpire in favor
of the club not in fault, at the request
of such club, in the following cases :
SECTION i. If the nine of a club
fail to appear upon the field, or being
upon the field, fail to begin the game
within five minutes after the umpire
has called " Play " at the hour ap-
pointed for the beginning of the
game, unless such delay in appearing,
or in commencing the game, be un-
avoidable.
SEC. 2. If, after the game has
begun, one side refuses or fails to
continue playing, unless such game
has been suspended or terminated
by the umpire.
SEC. 3. If, after play has been
suspended by the umpire, one side
fails to resume playing within one
minute after the umpire has called
" Play."
SEC. 4. If a team resorts to dila-
tory movements to delay the game.
SEC. 5. If, in the opinion of the
umpire, any one of the rules of the
games is willfully violated.
SEC. 6. If, after ordering the re-
moval of a player, as authorized by
the Rules, said order is not obeyed
within one minute.
SEC. 7. If, because of removal
of players from the game by the
itmpire, there be less than nine
players in either team.
SEC. 8. If, when two games are
scheduled to be played on the same
afternoon, the second game be not
commenced within ten minutes of
the time of completion of the first
game. The umpire of the first
game shall be the timekeeper.
NO GAME.
RULE 26. — " No game " shall be
declared by the umpire if he shall
terminate play on account of rain or
darkness before five innings on each
side are completed. Except in a
case when the game is called, and
the club second at bat shall have
more runs at end of its fourth
innings than the club first at bat
has made in its five completed
innings; in such case the umpire
shall award the game to the club
BASE BALL
66
BASE BALL
having made the greatest number of
runs.
SUBSTITUTES.
RULE 27. SECTION i. — In every
championship game each side shall
be required to have present on the
field, in uniform, a sufficient number
of substitute players to 'carry out the
E revision which requires that not
:ss than nine players shall occupy
the field in any innings of the game.
SEC. 2. Any such player may be
substituted at any time by either
club, but a player thereby retired
shall not thereafter participate in the
game.
SEC. 3. The base-runner shall
not have a substitute run for him
except by the consent of the captains
of the contesting teams.
CHOICE OF INNINGS— CONDITION OF
GROUND.
RULE 28. — The choice of innings
shall be given to the captain of the
home club, who shall also be the
sole judge of the fitness of the
ground for beginning a game after
rain, but, after play has been called
by the umpire, he alone shall be the
judge as to the fitness of the ground
for resuming play after the game has
been suspended on account of rain.
THE PITCHER'S POSITION.
RULE 29.— The pitcher shall take
his position facing the batsman with
both feet square on the ground, and
in front of the pitcher's plate; but in
the act of delivering the ball to the
bat, one foot must be in contact
with the pitcher's plate, defined in
Rule 8. He shall not raise either
foot, unless in the act of delivering
the ball to the bat, nor make more
than one step in such delivery.
A FAIRLY DELIVERED BALL.
RULE 30. — A Fairly Delivered
Ball to the bat is a ball pitched
or thrown to the bat by the pitcher
while standing in his position and
facing the batsman, the ball so
delivered to pass over any portion of
the home base not lower than the
batsman's knee nor higher than his
shoulder.
AN UNFAIRLY DELIVERED BALL.
RULE 31. — An Unfairly Delivered
Ball is a ball delivered by the pitcher,
as in Rule 30, except that the ball
does not pass over any portion of the
home base, or does pass over the
home base, above the batsman's
shoulder or below the line of his
knee.
BALKING.
RULE. 32.— A Balk shall be :
SECTION I. Any motion made
by the pitcher to deliver the ball
to the bat without delivering it.
SEC. 2. Any delivery of the ball
to the bat while his (pivot) foot
is not in contact with the pitcher's
plate, as defined in Rule 29.
SEC. 3. Any motion in deliver-
ing the ball to the bat by the pitcher
while not in the position defined
in Rule 29.
SEC. 4. The holding of the ball
by the pitcher so long *s, in the
opinion of the umpire, to delay the
game unnecessarily.
SEC. 5. Standing in position and
making any motion to pitch without
having the ball in his possession, ex-
cept in the case of a "block-ball,"
as provided by Rule 35, section 2.
When the pitcher feigns to throw
the ball to a base he must resume
the above position and pause mo-
mentarily before delivering the ball
to the bat.
If the pitcher fails to comply with
the requirements of this rule the
umpire must call " A balk."
SEC. 6. The making of any mo-
tion the pitcher habitually makes in
his method of delivery, without his
immediately delivering the ball to
the bat.
SEC. 7. If the pitcher feigns to
throw the ball to a base and does
not resume his legal position and
pause momentarily before delivering
the ball to the bat.
DEAD BALLS.
RULE 33.— A Dead Ball is a ball
delivered to* the bat by the pitcher
that touches any part of the bats-
man's person or clothing while
BASE BALL
BASE BALL
standing in his position without be-
ing struck at, or that touches any
part of the umpire's person or cloth-
ing while he is standing on foul
ground without first passing the
catcher.
RULE 34. — In case of a foul strike,
foul hit ball not legally caught out,
dead ball, or base-runner put out for
being struck by a fair-hit ball, the
ball shall not be considered in play
until it is held by the pitcher stand-
ing in his position and the umpire
shall hare called play.
BLOCK BALLS.
RULE 35. SECTION i. — A Block
is a batted or thrown ball that is
touched, stopped, or handled by any
person not engaged in the game.
SEC. 2. Whenever a block occurs
the umpire shall declare it and
the base-runners may run the bases
without being put out until the ball
has been returned to and held by the
pitcher standing in his position.
SEC. 3. In the case of a block, if
a person not engaged in the game
should retain possession of the ball,
or throw or kick it beyond the reach
of the fielders, the umpire should
call " Time " and require each base-
runner to stop at the last base
touched by him until the ball be re-
turned to the pitcher standing in his
position and the umpire shall have
called " Play."
THE BA TSMAWS POSITION-ORDER
OF BA TTING.
RULE 36. — The batsmen must
take their position within the bats-
man's lines, as defined in Rule 10, in
the order in which they are named
in the batting order, which batting
order must be submitted by the
captains of the opposing teams to
the umpire before the game, and
this batting order must be followed
except in the case of a substitute
player, in which case the substitute
must take the place of the oiiginal
player in the batting order. After
the first inning the first striker in
each inning shall be the batsman
whose name follows that of the last
man who has completed his turn —
time at bat — in the preceding inning.
RULE 37. SECTION i. — When
their side goes to the bat the players
must immediately return to the
players' bench, as defined in Rule
20, and remain there until the side
is put out, except when called to the
bat or they become coachers or sub-
stitute base-runners ; provided, that
the captain or one player only,
except that if two or more base-
runners are occupying the bases
then the captain and one player, or
two players, may occupy the space
between the player's lines and the
captain's lines to coach base-runners.
SEC. 2. No player of the side " at
bat," except when batsman, shall
occupy any portion of the space
within the catcher's lines, as defined
in Rule 3. The triangular space
behind the home base is reserved for
the exclusive use of umpire, catcher,
and batsman, and the umpire must
prohibit any player of the side " at
bat" from crossing the same at any
time while the ball is in the hands
of, or passing between, the pitcher
and catcher, while standing in their
positions.
SEC. 3. The players of the side
"at bat "must occupy the portion
of the field allotted them, but must
speedily vacate any portion thereof
that may be in the way of the ball,
or any fielder attempting to catch or
field it.
THE BA TTING RULES.
RULE 38. SECTION i.— A Fair
Hit is a ball batted by the batsman
— while he is standing within the
lines of his position — that first
touches " fair " ground, or the per-
son of a player, or the umpire, while
standing on fair ground, and then
settles on fair ground before passing
the line of first or third base.
SEC. 2. A Foul Hit is a similarly
batted ball that first touches " foul "
ground, or the person of a player, or
the umpire while standing on " foul "
ground.
BASE BALL
68
BASE BALL
SEC. 3. Should such " fair hit "
ball bound or roll to foul ground,
before passing the line of first or
third base, and settle on foul ground,
it shall be declared by the umpire a
foul ball.
SEC. 4. Should such " foul hit "
ball bound or roll to fair ground and
settle there before passing the line
of first or third base, it shall be
declared by the umpire a fair ball.
RULE 39. — A foul tip is a ball
batted by the batsman while stand-
ing within the lines of his position
that goes foul sharp from the bat to
the catcher's hands.
RULE 40.— A bunt hit is a ball
delivered by the pitcher to the bats-
man who, while standing within the
lines of his position, makes a deliber-
ate attempt to hit the ball so slowly
within the infield that it cannot be
fielded in time to retire the batsman.
If such a " bunt hit " goes to foul
ground a strike shall be called by
the umpire.
BALLS BATTED OUTSIDE THE
GROUND.
RULE 41.— When a batted ball
passes outside the grounds, the
umpire shall decide it Fair should it
disappear within, or Foul should it
disappear outside of the range of the
foul lines, and Rule 38 is to be con-
strued accordingly.
RULE 42. — A fair batted ball that
goes over the fence shall entitle the
batsman to a home run, except, that
should it go over the fence at a less
distance than two hundred and
thirty-five (235) feet from the home
base, when he shall be entitled to
two bases only, and a distinctive line
shall be marked on the fence at this
point.
STRIKES.
RULE 43. — A Strike is :
SECTION i. A ball struck at by
the batsman without its touching
his bat ; or,
SEC. 2. A fair ball legally de-
livered by the pitcher, but not struck
at by the batsman.
SEC. 3. Any intentional effort to
hit the ball to foul ground, also in
the case of a " bunt hit," which
sends the ball to foul ground, either
directly, or by bounding or rolling
from fairground to foul ground, and
which settles on foul ground.
SEC. 4. A ball struck at, if the
ball touches any part of the bats-
man's person.
SEC. 5. A ball tipped by the
batsman, and caught by the catcher,
within ten feet from home base.
RULE 44. — A Foul Strike is a ball
batted by the batsman when any
part of his person is upon ground
outside the lines of the batsman's
position.
THE BATSMAN IS OUT.
RULE 45.— The Batsman is Out :
SECTION i. If he fails to take
his position at the bat in his order of
batting, unless the error be dis-
covered and the proper batsman
takes his position before a time " at
bat " is recorded, and, in such case,
the balls and strikes called must be
counted in the time "at bat" of the
proper batsman, and only the proper
batsman shall be declared out, and
no runs shall be scored or bases run
because of any act of the improper
batsman, provided, this rule shall
not take effect unless the out is
declared before the ball is delivered
to the succeeding batsman. Should
batsman declared out by this rule be
sufficient to retire the side, the
Proper batsman the next innings is
the player who would have come
to bat had the players been out by
ordinary play.
SEC. 2. If he fails to take his
position within one minute after the
umpire has called for the batsman.
SEC. 3. If he makes a foul hit
other than a foul tip, as defined in
Rule 39, and the ball be momen-
tarily held by a fielder before touch-
ing the ground ; provided, it be not
caught in a fielder's hat or cap, or
touched by some object other than a
fielder before being caught.
SEC. 4. If he makes a foul strike.
SEC. 5. If he attempts to hinder
BASE BALL
BASE BALL
the catcher from fielding or throw-
ing the ball by stepping outside the
lines of his position, or otherwise
obstructing or interfering with the
player.
SEC. 6. If, while the first base
be occupied by a base-runner, three
strikes be called on him by the
umpire, except when two men are
already out.
SEC. 7. If, after two strikes have
been called, the batsman obviously
attempts to make a foul hit, as in
Rule 43, section 3.
SEC. 8. If, while attempting a
third strike, the ball touches any
part of the batsman's person, in
which case base-runners occupying
bases shall return as prescribed in
Rule 49, section 5.
SEC. 9. If he hits a fly ball that
can be handled by an infielder while
first and second bases are occupied,
or first, second and third with only
one out. In such case the umpire
shall, as soon as the ball is hit,
declare infield or outfield hit.
SEC. 10. If the third strike is
called in accordance with section 4,
Rule 43.
SEC. 11. The moment a bats-
man is declared out by the umpire,
he (the umpire) shall call for the
batsman next in order to leave his
seat on the bench and take his posi-
tion at the bat, and such player of
the batting side shall not leave his
seat on the bench until so called to
bat, except as provided by Rule 37,
section I, and Rule 52.
BASE-RUNNING RULES.
RULE 46. — WHEN THE BATS-
MAN BECOMES A BASE-RUNNER.
The Batsman becomes a Base-
runner :
SECTION i. Instantly after he
makes a fair hit.
SEC. 2. Instantly after four balls
have been called by the umpire.
SEC. 3. Instantly after three
strikes have been declared by the
umpire.
SEC. 4. If, while he be batsman,
without making any attempt to
strike at the ball, his person or cloth-
ing be hit by a ball from the pitcher
unless, in the opinion of the umpire,
he plainly avoids making any effort
to get out of the way of the ball
from the pitcher, and thereby permits
himself to be so hit.
SEC. 5. Instantly after an illegal
delivery of a ball by the pitcher.
An illegal delivery of the ball is
made if the pitcher's pivot foot be
not in contact -with the rubber plate
at the time of the delivery of the
ball, or if he takes more than one
step in delivery, or if, after feign-
ing to throw to a base, he fails to
pause momentarily before deliver-
ing the ball to the bat.
BASES TO BE TOUCHED.
RULE 47. — The base-runner must
touch each base in regular order,
viz., first, second, third and home
bases, and when obliged to return
(except on a foul hit) must retouch
the base or bases in reverse order.
He shall only be considered as
holding a base after touching it,
and shall then be entitled to hold
such base until he has legally
touched the next base in order or
has been legally forced to vacate it
for a succeeding base-runner. How-
ever, no base-runner shall score a
run to count in the game until the
base-runner preceding him in the
batting list (provided there has been
such a base-runner who has not
been put out in that inning) shall
have first touched home base with-
out being put out.
ENTITLED TO BASES.
RULE 48. — The base-runner shall
be entitled, without being put out,
to take the base in the following
cases:
SECTION I. If, while he was bats-
man, the umpire called four balls.
SEC. 2. If the umpire awards a
succeeding batsman a base on four
balls, or for being hit with a pitched
ball, or in case of an illegal delivery
— as in Rule 46, section 5 — and the
base-runner is thereby forced to
vacate the base held by him.
BASE BALL
70
BASE BALL
SEC. 3. If the umpire calls a
"Balk."
SEC. 4. If a ball, delivered by
the pitcher, pass the catcher, and
touch the umpire, or any fence or
building within ninety feet of the
home base.
SEC. 5. If, upon a fair hit, the
ball strikes the person or clothing of
the umpire on fair ground.
SEC. 6. If he be prevented from
making a base by the obstruction of
an adversary, unless the latter be a
fielder having the ball in his hand
ready to meet the base-runner.
SEC. 7. If the fielder stop or
catch a batted ball with his hat or
any part of his uniform except his
gloved hand.
RETURNING TO BASES.
RULE 49. — The base-runner shall
return to his base, and shall be en-
titled to so return without being put
out :
SECTION i. If the umpire de-
clares a foul tip (as defined in Rule
39), or any other foul hit not legally
caught by a fielder.
SEC. 2. If the umpire declares a
foul strike.
SEC. 3. If the umpire declares a
dead ball, unless it be also the fourth
unfair ball and he be thereby forced
to take the next base, as provided in
Rule 48, section 2.
SEC. 4. If the person or clothing
of the umpire interferes with the
catcher, or he is struck by a ball
thrown by the catcher to intercept a
base-runner.
SEC. 5. The base-runner shall
return to his base if, while attempt-
ing a strike, the ball touches any
part of the batsman's person.
WHEN BASE-RUNNERS ARE OUT.
RULE 50. — The Base-runner is
Out:
SECTION i. If, after three strikes
have been declared against him
while batsman and the catcher fail
to catch the third strike ball, he
plainly attempts to hinder the
catcher from fielding the ball.
SEC. 2. If, having made a fair
hit while batsman, such fair hit ball
be momentarily held by a fielder
before touching the ground, or any
object other than a fielder ;
PROVIDED, it be not caught in a
fielder's hat or cap.
SEC. 3. If, when the umpire has
declared three strikes on him while
batsman, the third strike ball be
momentarily held by a fielder before
touching the ground ; PROVIDED, it
be not caught in a fielder's hat or
cap, or touch some object other
than a fielder before being caught.
SEC. 4. If, after three strikes or a
fair hit, he be touched with the ball
in the hand of a fielder before he
shall have touched first base.
SEC. 5. If, after three strikes or a
fair hit, the ball be securely held by
a fielder while touching first base
with any part of his person be-
fore such base-runner touches first
base.
SEC. 6. If, in running the last
half of the distance from home base
to first base, while the ball is being
fielded to first base, he runs outside
the three-foot lines, as defined in
Rule 7, unless to avoid a fielder
attempting to field a batted ball.
SEC. 7. If, in running from first
to second base, from second to
third base, or from third to home
base, he runs more than three feet
from a direct line between such
bases to avoid being touched by the
ball in the hands of a fielder ; but in
case a fielder be occupying the base-
runner's proper path in attempting
to field a batted ball, then the base-
runner shall run out of the path, and
behind said fielder, and shall not be
declared out for so doing.
SEC. 8. If he fails to avoid a
fielder attempting to field a batted
ball, in the manner described in
sections 6 and 7 of this rule, or if
he, in any way, obstructs a fielder
attempting to field a batted ball, or
intentionally interferes with a thrown
ball ; PROVIDED, that if two or more
fielders attempt to field a batted
ball, and the base-runner comes in
BASE BALL
BASE BALL
contact with one or more of them,
the umpire shall determine which
fielder is entitled to the benefit of
this rule, and shall not decide the
base-runner out for coming in con-
tact with any other fielder.
SEC. 9. If, at any time while the
ball is in play, he be touched by the
ball in the hands of a fielder, unless
some part of his person is touching
a base he is entitled to occupy ; PRO-
VIDED, the ball be held by the
fielder after touching him.
SEC. 10. The base-runner in
running to first base may overrun
said base, without being put out for j
being off said base, after first touch- ;
ing it, provided he returns at once
and retouches the base, after which
he may be put out as at any other
base. If, in overrunning first base,
he also attempts to run to second
base, or after passing the base he
turns to his left from the foul line,
he shall forfeit such exemption from
being put out.
SEC. ii. If, when a fair or foul
hit ball (other than a foul tip as
referred to in Rule 39) is legally
caught by a fielder, such ball is
legally held by a fielder on the
base occupied by the base-runner
when such ball was struck (or the
base-runner be touched with the ball
in the hands of a fielder), before he
retouches said base after such fair
or foul hit call was so caught ;
PROVIDED, that the base-runner
shall not be out, in such case, if,
after the ball was legally caught as
above, it be delivered to the bat by
the pitcher before the fielder holds
it on said base, or touches the base-
runner with it; but if the base-run-
ner, in attempting to reach a base,
detaches it before being touched or
forced out, he shall be declared
safe.
SEC. 12. If, when a batsman
becomes a base-runner, the first
base, or the first and second bases,
or the first, second and third bases,
be occupied, any base-runner so
occupying a base shall cease to be
entitled to hold it, until any follow-
ing base-runner is put out, and may
be put out at the next base, or by
being touched by the ball in the
hands of a fielder in the same man-
mer as in running to first base at any
time before any following base-
runner is put out.
SEC. 13. If a fair hit ball strike
him before touching the fielder, and,
in such case, no base shall be run
unless forced by the batsman becom-
ing a base-runner, and no run shall
be scored or any other base-runner
put out.
SEC. 14. If, when running to a
base, or forced to return to a base,
he fail to touch the intervening base,
or bases, if any, in the order pre-
scribed in Rule 47, he may be put
out at the base he fails to touch, or
being touched by the ball in the
hands of a fielder in the same man-
ner as in running to first base ; PRO-
VIDED, that the base-runner shall not
be out in such case if the ball be
delivered to the bat by the pitcher
before the fielder holds it on said
base, or touches the base-runner
with it.
SEC. 15. If, when the umpire
calls " Play," after any suspension of
a game, he fails to return to and
touch the base he occupied when
"Time" was called before touching
the next base ; PROVIDED, the base-
runner shall not be out, in such case,
if the ball be delivered to the bat by
the pitcher before the fielder holds it
on said base or touches the base-
runner with it.
WHEN BA TSMAN OR BASE-RUNNER
IS OUT.
RULE 51. — The umpire shall
declare the batsman or base-runner
out, without waiting for an appeal
for such decision, in all cases where
such player is put out in accordance
with these rules, except as provided
in Rule 50, sections 10 and 14.
COACHING RULES.
RULE 52. — The coacher shall be
restricted to coaching the base-
runner only, and shall not be allowed
BASE BALL
BASE BALL
to address any remarks except to the
base-runner, and then only in words
of necessary direction ; and shall
not use language which will in any
manner refer to, or reflect upon a
player of the opposing club, the
umpire or the spectators, and not
more than one coacher, who may be
a player participating in the game,
or any other player under contract to
it, in the uniform of either club, shall
be allowed at any one time, except,
that if base-runners are occuping two
or more of the bases, then the cap-
tain and one player, or two players
in the uniform of either club, may
occupy the space between the
players' lines and the captains' lines
to coach base-runners. To enforce
the above the captain of the opposite
side may call the attention of the
umpire to the offense, and, upon a
repetition of the same, the offending
player shall be debarred from further
participation in the game, and shall
leave the playing field forthwith.
THE SCORING OF RUNS.
RULE 53. — One run shall be scored
every time a base-runner, after hav-
ing legally touched the first three
bases, shall touch the home base
before three men are put out.
(Exception) — If the third man is
forced out, or is put out before
reaching first base, a run shall not
be scored.
GENERAL DEFINITIONS.
" Play " is the order of the umpire
to begin the game, or to resume play
after its suspension.
" Time " is the order of the umpire
to suspend play. Such suspension
must not extend beyond the day of
the game.
" Game " is the announcement by
the umpire that the game is ter-
minated.
An " Inning" is the term at bat of
the nine players representing a club
in a game, and is completed when
three of such players have been put
out, as provided in these rules.
A " Time at Bat " is the term at
bat of a batsman. It begins when
he takes his position and continues
until he is put out or becomes a base-
runner; except when, because of
being hit by a pitched ball, or in case
of an illegal delivery by the pitcher,
or in case of a sacrifice hit purposely
made to the infield which, not being
a base-hit, advances a base-runner
without resulting in a put-out, except
to the batsman, as in Rule 45.
" Legal " or " Legally " signifies as
required by these rules.
SCORING RULES.
BA TTING.
No time at bat shall be scored if
the batsman be hit by a pitched ball
while standing in his position, and
after trying to avoid being so hit,
or in case of the pitcher's illegal
delivery of the ball to the bat which
gives the batsman his base, or when
he intentionally hits the ball to the
field, purposely to be put out, or if he
is given first base on called balls.
A base-hit should be scored in the
following cases :
When the ball from the bat strikes
the ground within the foul lines and
out of reach of the fielders.
When a hit ball is partially or
wholly stopped by a fielder in
motion, but such player cannot
recover himself in time to handle the
ball before the striker reaches first
base.
When a ball is hit with such force
to an infielder that he cannot handle
it in time to put out the batsman.
(In case of doubt over this class of
hits, score a base-hit and exempt the
fielder from the charge of an error.)
When a ball is hit so slowly
toward a fielder that he cannot
handle it in time to put out the
batsman.
That in all cases where a base-
runner is retired by being hit by a
batted ball, the batsman should be
credited with a base-hit.
When a batted ball hits the per-
son or clothing of the umpire. In
no case shall a base-hit be scored
when a base-runner has been forced
out by the play.
BASE BALL
73
BASE BALL
FIELDING.
Where a batsman is given out by
the umpire for a foul strike, or where
the batsman fails to bat in proper
order, the put-out shall be scored to
the catcher. In all cases of " out "
for interference, running out of
line, or infield fly dropped, the
" out " should be credited to the
player who would have made the
play but for the action of the base-
runner or batsman.
An assist should be given to each
player who handles the ball in assist-
ing a put-out or other play of the
kind.
And generally an assist should be
given to each player who handles or
assists in any manner in handling
the ball from the time it leaves the
bat until it reaches the player who
makes the put-out, or in case of
a thrown ball, to each player who
throws or handles it cleanly and
in such a way that a put-out results,
or would result if no error were
made by the receiver.
ERRORS.
An error shall be given for each
misplay which allows the striker or
base-runner to make one or more
bases when perfect play would have
insured his being put out, except
that " wild pitches," " bases on
balls," bases on the batsman being
struck by a " pitched ball," or in
cases of illegal pitched balls, balks
and passed balls, all of which com-
prise battery errors, shall not be
included in said column.
One Old Cat, a kind of base ball
played by any number of persons.
The Home base is the only base, and
the positions of the players are Bats-
man, Catcher, Pitcher, and any num-
ber of fielders, called First Field,
Second Field, and so on. The
striker keeps his place till he is put
out. He is out if a fair fly or a foul
bound is caught, all balls being fair
that strike in front of the base, or if
the Catcher catch, the ball after his
third strike. If the ball is not caught
at the third strike he has three more,
and no strikes are counted except
those actually made. When the
striker is put out he takes the place
of the lowest fielder. Each fielder
then rises one step in rank, and First
Field becomes Pitcher, while Pitcher
takes the Catcher's place, and
Catcher goes to the bat. Some-
times, when a fair ball is caught,
the fielder who makes the catch
is allowed to go to the bat at once.
The Batsman takes the lowest place
as before, but only those lower than
the successful fielder rise in rank.
One Old Cat is sometimes varied
by having two bases. Home and
First Base, and making the Bats-
man run to the latter and back when
he strikes a fair ball. If he does so
without being put out at Home,
he scores a run. There is no First
Baseman.
Two Old Cat. This differs from
One Old Cat only in having two
Batsmen, to whom the ball is pitched
alternately, the Catcher for one act-
ing as Pitcher for the other. The
fielders are partly behind one Bats-
man and partly behind the other.
Single-Handed Base, a kind of
Base Ball resembling One Old Cat,
with a First Base, except that there
is a First Baseman, who can put the
striker out as in the regular game.
No count is kept of runs ; but if the
Batsman reaches his base safely the
Baseman goes to the bat, and the
two thus alternate till one of them is
put out. When there is an out, the
players change positions as in One
Old Cat, except the Baseman, who
continues at his post, and alternates
with the new Batsman.
History. Games of ball in which
a feature is running from one base or
goal to another have probably been
played for a long time, and games of
some sort in which a bat is used are
stiil older (see CRICKET). The illus-
tration, from an old manuscript,
shows a game of " club ball " in the
I4th century. In 1748 the family of
the Prince of Wales are said to have
played " Base Ball," and in 1798
BASE BALL
74
BATTLEDORE, ETC.
Miss Austen in one of her novels
speaks of a game of the same name
as being played by girls. A game of
" Base Ball " is still played in Eng-
land, by little girls, in which the
striker hits the ball with her hand,
and then runs from one goal to
another, while those on the opposite
side strive to hit her with the ball by
throwing it while she is between
bases. Another English game of
Base Ball, played by boys or men, is
Club Ball in the I4th Century.
called Rounders. It has been said
many times that American Base
Ball is derived from Rounders, but
some writers deny this, and the only
ground for the assertion seems to be
the similarity of the games, which
have, very likely, a common origin.
Similar games are favorites in other
European countries. In Dentches
Ballspiel (German ball) the field is
nearly square and the striker stands
on one of the sides. There are but
two bases, and the striker runs from
one to the other and back. If the
ball is thrown at him and hits him,
while running, he is out. The last
one out can call for three strikes, as
in Rounders. The French " Balle
au Camp " (Camp Ball) is also like
Rounders, except that the ball is
struck with the hand, no bat being
used. The shape of the field (called
the Camp) and the number of bases
vary in different places. In a form
of the same called Balle Empoisonte
(Poisoned Ball), the base-runner may
kick the ball out of his way, but must
not touch it with his hands, it being
considered " poisoned."
The first regular Base Ball club
in the United States is believed
to have been the " Knickerbocker "
of New York, formed in 1845.
Others soon followed, a uniform
set of rules was adopted by a
convention of clubs it) 1857, and in
1858 " The National Association of
Base Ball Players " was organized.
In 18593 rule was passed forbidding
paid players to take part in matches,
but this was often broken, and in
1868 it was repealed. In 1871 the
first association of paid or " profes-
sional " players was formed, and
now there are several such. The old
" National Association " is not now
in existence, and the principal asso-
ciations of amateur players are the
various college associations. Base
Ball is now widely known as the
American national game, and it is the
only outdoor game that is played al-
most exclusively in the United States.
The principal difference between the
present game and its earlier forms
is that while at first the pitcher was
compelled to pitch or toss the ball
to the striker, as his name shows, he
is now allowed to throw it. The
result is that the ball is harder to hit
and fewer runs are made. For-
merly, in a match game, it was not
unusual for each side to make thirty
or fortv runs.
BATTLEDORE AND SHUTTLE-
COQK, a game played by any num-
ber of persons. The implements
are shown in the accompanying
figures. The Shuttlecock is usually
made of cork loaded with lead, or
sometimes of rubber, and crowned
with feathers. The Battledore is
sometimes made entirely of wood,
but better of parchment stretched
over a wooden frame, and it is often
strung with twine or catgut, like a
lawn TENNIS racket. The object of
the game is simply to prevent the
Shuttlecock from falling to the
ground by striking it from one
player to another with the Battledore.
The shuttlecock has in the air a spin-
ning motion caused by the feathers.
In whatever direction it is struck, it
always turns so that the cork goes
BEAN BAGS
75
BELL AND HAMMER
foremost, for the same reason that a
vane points toward the direction
from which the wind is blowing.
The Germans call this game Feder-
ball (Featherball). As they play it,
he who lets the Shuttlecock fall loses
a point, and when thirty points have
been lost the game is ended ; he who
has lost fewest points being the win-
ner. The French call the game le
volant (The Flyer). The Chinese,
who are very skillful players, strike
the shuttlecock with the sole of their
Battledores and Shuttelcocks.
feet. Badminton, a game played
also with Battledores and a Shuttle-
cock, is noticed at the end of the
article on lawn TENNIS.
History. The game was played
at least 500 years ago. In the I7th
century it was a fashionable game.
In a comedy printed in 1609 occur
the words, " To play at shuttlecock
methinks is the game now." The
Battledore is named after a similar
instrument once used for beating
clothes in washing. The word
(sometimes spelled Battledoor) is
thought by some to be the Spanish
batallador, a combatant, but it is
more probably related to the words
bat and beat. The Shuttlecock is
so called because it is driven back-
ward and forward like a shuttle in
weaving. Some think it is for
Shuttle cork, and some that it is called
a cock on account of its feathers.
BATTLE GAME, THE. See
Fox AND GEESE.
BEAN BAGS, a game with cloth
bags, partially filled with beans,
played by any number of persons.
After choosing sides, the players
stand in two lines facing each other.
Each line has a chair or table, at
each end, on one of which are piled
half the bean bags. At a signal, the
player in each line nearest his pile of
bags seizes them one by one and
passes them along the line ; as they
reach the other end of the line they
are placed on the chair or table at
that end, and the side which first
transfers all its bags wins the game.
Each player must have hold of only
one bag at a time, and must hold
that in only one hand at a time,
passing it from one hand to the other
and from that to the next player in
order. If a player pass a bag
wrongly, or drop it, his side loses
the game. There should be an um-
pire to decide all disputed questions.
This game of bean bags is more
amusing when it is played with bun-
dles of clothes-pins loosely tied to-
gether, as it is difficult to hand the
clothes-pins down the line without
dropping some of them.
BELL AND HAMMER, a game
played by any number of persons,
with counters, dice, and five cards,
which bear respectively the figures
of a White Horse, an Inn, a Bell, a
Hammer and a Bell and Hammer
together. The dice bear not only
numbers, but also blanks and the
figures of a bell and hammer. One
of the players is chosen as cashier,
who distributes an equal number of
counters to each. He then sells by
auction, to the one who bids the
highest number of counters, the five
cards, separately. The counters thus
paid are placed in the middle of the
table to form the pool, to which each
player pays four counters more. The
players then throw the dice in order,
the cashier first and then the others
in any order he may choose, but the
same order must be preserved dur-
ing the game. If any one throw all
blanks, each player must pay one
counter to the holder of the White
BEZIQUE 7
Horse, but if with the blanks the
Bell or Hammer, or both, be thrown,
the holder of the corresponding card
must pay one to the White Horse.
When numbers are thrown with the
Bell or Hammer the cashier pays
their sum in counters from the pool
to the holder of the corresponding
card ; when numbers and blanks are
thrown, the cashier pays the amount
of such numbers from the pool to the
thrower. Where the sum of the
numbers thrown exceeds the number
of counters in the pool, nothing is
5 BEZIQUE
paid from the pool, but the player
who would otherwise have received
pay pays the excess to the holder of
the Inn. After the Inn has begun
thus to receive, if all blanks are
thrown, the players do not pay, as
before, but the White Horse pays
one to the Inn. If Bell or Hammer,
or both, be thrown with blanks after
the Inn begins to receive, the holder
of the corresponding card pays one
to the Inn. The game is won by the
player having the largest number of
counters at the close of the game.
Bell and Hammer Implements.
The game ends when some player
takes all the counters in the pool,
and such player acts as cashier for
the next game. Bell and Hammer
is much played in Germany, where it
is called Glocke und Hammer (Bell
and Hammer) or Schimmel (Horse).
BEZIQUE, a game of CARDS
played by two, three, or four persons,
with as many EUCHRE packs as there
are players. The two-handed game
will be described first. The cards
rank as follows : Ace, Ten, King,
Queen, Knave, Nine, Eight, and
Seven. The players cut for deal and
the highest deals eight cards to each ;
three, two, and three at a time. The
cards that are left are called the
stock, and are placed where each
player can reach them. The dealer
turns up the top card of the stock
as a trump and lays it near the stock.
Should it be a seven, he scores ten.
The non-dealer now leads any
card he chooses, and his opponent
follows, but he is not obliged to fol-
low suit nor to win the trick. The
winner of the trick scores ten for
every Ace and every Ten in the trick,
and may also lay on the table in
front of him any group of cards
that is named in the list given below,
scoring the proper number of points
for it. This is called making a decla-
ration, and the cards so laid down
are said to be declared. They are
still part of his hand, though they
remain on the table, and he may
play them like the others. After
the declaration, if there is any (other-
wise immediately after the trick is
taken),the winner adds to his hand the
top card of the stock, and his oppo-
nent takes the next one; thus each has
eight cards as at first. The winner
of the last trick leads, and the play-
ing, declaring, and drawing go on
till the stock is exhausted. After
B£ZIQUE
77
B£ZIQUE
this no more declarations may be
made, and each player takes into his
hand those of his cards that still lie
on the table. In the subsequent play
suit must be followed, and the second
player in each trick must take it if
he can. The winner of the last trick
scores ten.
The cards are then dealt again and
the game goes on as before, till one
of the players has scored the winning
number of points. This is agreed
on before the game, but is usually
JOOO.
The groups of cards that may be
declared, and the points that may be
scored for each, are as follows :
Seven of trumps counts 10
[This card may be exchanged for
the trump card, if the holder choose,
instead of being laid on the table.]
A Common Marriage (King and
Queen of any suit but trumps)
counts 20
A Royal Marriage (King and
Queen of trumps) counts 40
Bezique (Queen of Spades and
Knave of Diamonds) counts 40
Double Bezique (two b£ziques)
counts 500
Four Aces count 100
Four Kings 80
Four Queens 60
Four Knaves 40
A Sequence (Ace, Ten, King,
Queen, and Knave of trumps)
counts 250
Players are not obliged to make a
declaration if they do not wish to do
so. The same card can be declared
more than once if the second group
so declared is of a different kind
from the first. Thus, if a Bezique
is lying on the table, a King of
Spades may be laid down and mar-
ried to the Queen that forms part of
it, and afterward four Kings may be
declared by putting down three
more Kings, but a King or Queen
can count in only one marriage, and
an ace or face card in only one group
of four ; a Double Bezique counts as
a group of a different kind from
a Bezique, and therefore may be
formed by adding one Bezique to
another already declared. At least
one card of a group must be laid on
the table for the first time when it
is declared ; thus, if four Kings and
a Bezique lie already on the table,
one of the Kings cannot be married
to the Queen in the Bezique. So,
also, cards may be added to a Royal
Marriage to form a Sequence, but
if a Sequence is declared first, the
Royal Marriage it contains may not
be declared afterward. Any number
of groups may be declared at once
when they are entirely separate, but
not when one or more cards appear
in more than one group. When the
Seven of trumps is exchanged for the
trump card as explained above, the
latter is placed among those of the
player's cards that are held up, and
must not be declared till he has won
another trick. Of course no card
can be declared that has been played
in a trick.
In playing, the beginner must
think of two things ; the value of
his cards in making declarations, and
their power to take Aces and Tens.
If the player has no declaration to
make and cannot take an Ace nor a
Ten by winning a trick, it is rather
a disadvantage to him to win it. As
suit is not followed, except at the
end of the game, it is unsafe to lead
an Ace or a Ten, as they will prob-
ably be trumped. Yet it is often
better to do this than to play a
King or Queen that has not yet
been married. By carefully watch-
ing his opponent's play, especially
that from the declared cards, a
player may often judge correctly the
strength of his hand.
Scoring the Aces and Tens is often
left till the end of the hand, when
each player, gathering up the tricks
he has taken, reckons them all at
once ; but it is simpler to score for
them as they are taken. The score
may be kept with pencil and paper,
but score cards like the one in the
illustration are commonly used, hav-
ing three pointers, for tens, hundreds.
BEZIQUE J
and thousands. In the figure the
score marked is 3520.
RULES OF THE GAME.
I. If either player is dealt less than
eight cards the number must be
Bezique Marker.
made up from the stock, or the non-
dealer may call for a new deal, if he
has not seen his hand.
2. If the dealer gives his adversary
more than eight cards, the latter must
not draw till he has played all but
seven. If the dealer gives himself
more than eight, the other may draw
the surplus cards and place them on
the stock.
3. If the dealer shows a card in
dealing, the other player may call for
a new deal.
4. If a player draw out of turn, his
opponent may add twenty to his own
score, or take twenty from that of
the offender, unless he has drawn his
own card before noticing the mistake.
5. If a player draw two cards at
once, his opponent may look at their
faces and give the offender whichever
he pleases.
6. There is no penalty for showing
the wrong card by mistake, or for
leading out of turn, but, if the other
player has not followed such a lead,
he may correct it if he wishes.
7. Neither player may look at the
tricks already played.
8. If a player revoke after the cards
on the table have been gathered up,
or if he refuse to take a card that is
led, when he can do so, his opponent
shall score all Aces and Tens in the
last eight tricks.
9. A mistake in scoring, or an
3 BEZIQUE
omission to score, may be corrected
at any time during the hand.
Three-Handed Bezique. Three
EUCHRE-packs are used, and each
one plays for himself. Triple Bezique
(three Queens of Spades and three
Knaves of Diamonds) counts 1500,
and the game is usually for 2000
points.
Fou r-H anded B eziq ue. Four
packs are used, and the players may
play as partners or each for himself.
In the former case a player may de-
clare when his partner takes a trick,
and Beziques in the hands of part-
ners may be declared as Double or
Triple Beziques. In playing the
last eight tricks in Four-Handed
B6zique the winner of the previous
trick and his left-hand opponent
sometimes play by themselves, and
then the other two play in like man-
ner. The players should agree be-
forehand whether this is to be done.
In Three and Four Handed Be-
zique the rules are the same as in the
two-handed game, except that if a
player lay a card on the table by
mistake or lead out of turn he must
leave the exposed card on the table,
and cannot use it in declaring. But
if all the other players follow a
wrong lead, it cannot be changed,
and there is no penalty.
Bezique Panache. In this form
of the game, four Aces, four Kings,
four Queens, or four Knaves, do not
count when two or more of them are
of the same suit.
Bezique is also played sometimes
without turning up any trump, and
the trump suit is that of the first
Marriage that is declared, which is
thus necessarily a Royal Marriage.
Bezique probably originated in
France, where the name is spelled
Bdsigue. It was introduced into
Paris in 1826, but had been a favor-
ite in some of the French provinces
for a long time before. The word
Besigue is derived by some from the
German besiegen (to conquer) ; and
by others from the Latin bijugum (a
yoke), from the yoking together of
BEZIQUE
79
BEZIQUE
two cards in the Bezique and the
Marriages.
Sixty-Six, a kind of Bezique. In
the two-handed game one pack is
used, from which all cards below the
Nine are left out. Each player is
dealt six cards, three at a time, and
the only groups that can be de-
clared are Common and Royal
Marriages, which count as in ordi-
nary Bezique. A player who de-
clares a marriage must lead one of
the declared cards. The cards
count as follows to the winner of
the trick containing them :
Ace ... 1 1 Queen ... 3
Ten ... 10 Knave . . 2
King ... 4 Nine . . . o
When a player has scored 66 it
counts him one point toward game,
and the remaining cards in hand are
not played. If he makes 66 before
his opponent scores 33 it counts him
two points, and if before his oppo-
nent wins a trick, three points. The
scoring must be done mentally. He
who first makes seven points wins
the game. When a player thinks he
can make 66 without drawing any
more cards, he may turn down the
trump, if he has the lead, and draw-
ing ceases. This is called closing,
and may take place even at the open-
ing of the game, before a card has
been drawn. After the trump is
turned down, the cards are played
as if the stock were exhausted, suit
being followed and the second player
being obliged to take the trick if
he can. In closing, the last trick
counts nothing. If the player who
closes fails to make 66, his opponent
scores two points, and if a player
close before his opponent has won
a trick, and fails to make 66, his
opponent scores three points. When-
ever a player announces that he has
made 66 his opponent may look at
the cards to see whether he is cor-
rect. It will be seen that the two
together cannot make less than 130.
If this is evenly divided, so that each
has 65, neither scores, but the win-
ner of the next hand scores an extra
point. In all other respects Sixty
Six is played like Bezique, and the
rules are the same. The Nine of
trumps can be exchanged for the
trump card, like the seven in Be-
zique, but counts nothing.
Three-Handed Sixty-Six. The
dealer gives each of the other players
six cards, but none to himself, and
when the hand is played scores the
same number of points as the win-
ner of the round, but the dealer is
not allowed to score his seventh
point. The game is frequently
played thus in Germany.
Four-Handed Sixty-Six. The
sevens and eights are added to the
pack, and partners are decided upon
by dealing the cards, face upward,
until aces have fallen to two of the
company, who must play together.
The player who received the first
ace deals first. The whole pack is
dealt, and the last card, which is
turned as trump, is the dealer's prop-
erty. There is thus neither drawing
nor closing, and there is also no de-
claration of marriages. The players
must follow suit if possible ; other-
wise, they must trump if they can ;
and when trumps are led, each must
try to take the trick. The last trick
counts ten. If at the end of the
round the winning partners have
scored 66 it counts them ona
point toward game, if 100, two
points, and if they have won every
trick, three points. He who takes
the Ten of trumps scores a point at
once, thus winning the game if he
have six points, though his opponents
may be ahead in other respects. In
Germany there are forms of this
game called Mariage (Marriage) and
Sechsundsechzig (Sixty-six) and the
four-handed game is called Kreutz-
martage (Cross-marriage).
Pinocle, a kind of Bezique played
with two packs from which all the
cards but the Aces, Tens, Kings,
Queens, Knaves, and Nines have
been discarded. In the two-handed
game each player receives twelve
cards, four at a time. The game is
BILLIARDS
80
BILLIARDS
1000 points, toward which the cards
that are won in tricks count as in
Sixty-Six, and the groups of cards
that are declared, as in Bezique, with
the additions and exceptions noted
below. In this game Bezique is
called Pinocle, a group is called a
Meld, and declaring is called meld-
ing.
Double Pinocle counts 300
A Sequence
Eight Aces
Eight Kings
Eight Queens
Eight Knaves
150
count 1000
800
" 600
400
The Nine of trumps is treated like
the Seven in Bezique, and when the
stock is exhausted the last twelve
tricks are played like the last eight
in Bezique. Only one Meld can be
made at a time, and a Pinocle, if
melded, cannot be used as part of a
Double Pinocle. In all other respects
the game is played like Bezique.
Three-Handed and Four-Handed
Pinocle. The cards are all dealt,
four at a time; suit must be fol-
lowed, and the trick taken, if possible.
At the beginning of the game, each
player in order, beginning at the
dealer's left, melds what he has, and
the meld is noted, but cannot be
Fig. i. Position in Playing Billiards.
added to his score till he has taken a
trick. In the four-handed game
each plays his first card before thus
melding. When four play the game,
they may play as partners or each
for himself.
BICYCLING. See CYCLING.
BILLIARDS. Billiard tables origi-
nally were six feet wide by twelve
feet long, with openings cut through
the cushion rails at each corner and
at the centers of each side rail.
Pockets of worsted network were
attached to these openings, into
which the balls would drop. The
table now generally in use, however,
is the carom table, without pockets.
Tables five feet by ten are used by
the great experts in their match con-
tests, while public rooms, hotels,
BILLIARDS
8l
BILLIARDS
clubs, and private houses are mostly
fitted with four and a half by nine
tables. Pocket tables of both these
sizes are still used for pool. Smaller
tables are built to order to suit pur-
chasers.
Billiard balls are usually made of
ivory, but sometimes of a patent
composition. Composition balls are
cheaper than ivory but are little used
for billiards, though generally for
pool. Standard billiard balls are 2f
inches in diameter. Pool balls vary
in size from 2^ to 2f inches.
Cues are from 4 feet 6 inches to 4
feet 9 inches in length, and are from
i| inches to i| inches in diameter at
the butt, and vary from ^ to f of an
inch in size at the top ; and varying in
weight from 12 to 21 ounces. Figs.
I, 2, and 3 show the various ways
of holding the cue, which should be
o
Fig. 2. An Alternate Position of Left
Hand.
held loos«ly when preparing for the
stroke, and never " grabbed " except
when making a " draw " (see below).
In billiards proper, there are
four balls, two white, one being
distinguished from the other by a
black spot, and two red, one dark
and the other light ; but experts
and professional players usually
play games in which only three balls
are needed, two white and one red.
Each carom table has on it two
spots, along an imaginary line drawn
lengthways through the centre from
the middle nails or " sights " in
the head and lower cushions : the
first, opposite the second "sight,"
is sometimes called the light red
spot, the second, opposite the sixth
"sight," the dark red spot, because
they mark the positions of those
two balls in the opening of the
American four-ball game. On
pocket tables there is a third spot
three inches from the lower cushion,
on which the white ball not played
is placed on opening the game and
after being pocketed ; and other spots
are used for playing pool and the
English game. A line supposed to
be drawn across the table through
the light red spot is called the
string-line, because it is used in
" stringing " for lead — that is, choice
of balls and first play : each player
plays a ball from within this line
at the head of the table against
the cushion at the foot, and he whose
ball stops nearest the head cushion
on the return wins the choice.
Four Ball, or American Garnet
This game is now played on a carom
table for 34 points up. But the
game may be for any number of
points agreed upon. The leader
plays his ball from within the string
line, so as to pass the dark red ball,
but not rebound past it or strike it.
His opponent then plays his ball in
like manner, attempting to strike the
white ball, and one of the red balls.
If he strike the two balls, it is called
a carom, and counts one point. If
he strike all three balls, he counts
two. The striker's ball may rebound
from a cushion any number of times
before the carom is completed. As
long as the striker can carom he can
continue his hand or inning. The
obligation to hit the white ball first
holds only in the opening stroke, and
afterwards during the game each may
play his ball at any of the other
balls.
Three-Ball Billiards, or French
Caroms- There is but one red ball,
which is " spotted " on the lower
spot. One white ball is placed on
the upper spot, and the player who
has first turn places his ball not
more than six inches from it and
within the string. The first player
BILLIARDS
82
BILLIARDS
must hit the red ball with his own
before striking his opponent's ball
(though only at the opening stroke,
as in the four-ball game). In other
respects the game is like the four-
ball game.
The best recorded run at the three-
ball carom game is 1531, made by
Maurice Vignaux in Paris, France, in
1880, in a match contest played with
George F. Slosson of New York.
Harvey McKenna, in playing an
exhibition game in Boston, Mass., in
1887, made a run of 2572, but the
critics and experts of the world do
not accept this as a record. The
best run at the four-ball carom
game, 1483, was made by I. McDev-
itt in New York, in 1868.
In match games, a space 4$ inches
square at each corner of the table
is called the "crotch," and when the
centers of both object-balls are
within a crotch, the player is not al-
lowed to make more than three
caroms unless he force one of the
Fig. 3. Using the Bridge.
balls out of the crotch. This rule is
to prevent players from making long
runs in the corner of the table, as
can be done by one of moderate
skill.
Balk Line Game. Four lines
are drawn on the table each at a
distance of eight to fourteen inches,
as may be agreed, from one of the
cushions, forming eight compart-
ments or spaces. Not more than
two successive caroms can be made
on object balls the centers of which
are within any one of these spaces.
All these games can be played by
three persons, if they use alternate
white balls, or four if they are di-
vided into sides, those on the same
side using the same ball in turn.
Pocket Game. This game is
played on a six-pocket or a four-
pocket table, the side pockets being
sometimes omitted. If the cue-ball
strikes the obiect-ball so as to drive
BILLIARDS
BILLIARDS
it into a pocket, or " pocket " it, it is
a " winning hazard " and counts a
point. If a player tries to pocket a
ball and fails and does not carom,
his inning comes to an end. Car-
O
Fig. 4.
oms count as in the ordinary game,
and the winner must make 100
points.
Practical Suggestions. The art
of playing billiards is not so much
Fig. 5-
the art of making the balls go as
they are aimed, as of overcoming
their tendency to go as they are
limed. If a ball strikes another ball
Fig. 6.
or a cushion, its natural tendency
is to rebound at the same angle that
it struck on; for instance, (See Fig. 4)
if the ball strikes the cushion on the
line AO, its natural tendency is to
go off to A' : if struck along BO it
goes to £', and if along CO to C'\
but suppose that while your ball is
at B another ball that you want to
hit after striking the cushion is at A',
then you must strike the ball at B on
its right side, as to give it a spinning
motion which will prevent its run-
ning out as far as B' . Or if you
wanted it to come nearer the mid-
dle of the table, say to C, you should
give it the opposite spinning motion
by striking it on its left side. The
Fig. 7.
same would be true if the cue-ball
were to first strike another ball in-
stead of striking the cushion. The
effect of side twist on the rebound of a
ball, either from another ball or from
a cushion, is to make it bound farther
to the side on which the cue struck
it. In addition to the twists toward
the side, a ball can be given a twist
forward or backward. If a ball is
struck by the cue square in the cen-
ter, as at A (Fig. 5) and strikes the
object-ball square in the center, the
BILLIARDS
84
BILLIARDS
cue-ball will part with all its motion
to the object-ball and will stop still,
the object-ball going on in the same
line. But if the cue-ball is struck
above the center, as at C, it gets an
extra twist forward which will make
it follow the object-ball, and if it is
struck on one side as well as above
the center, it will not follow straight,
but will follow toward that side, so
that it may strike a second ball on
that side of the table of the object-
ball ; thus (See Fig. 6), A being
twisted forward and to the right
does not stop at B, but follows on
to the right to A', and the object
ball B goes on to B' .
The reverse of this is true when A
Fig. 8.
instead of being struck above the
center is struck below, as at B (Fig.
5), but not pushed. It gets a
backward twist. The ball B in
Fig. 6 would go on to B' and A
would roll back to its original posi-
tion at A. This stroke needs prac-
tice, however, as, if the cue does
not leave the ball as soon as it has
struck it, but pushes it a little, the
twist will be destroyed. This back-
ward twist is generally termed a
" draw," and the forward one a
" follow." The side twist is some-
times termed "English."
It is very seldom that the balls
are in such positions that strokes can
be made without follow, draw, or
twist. The art of playing billiards
is not so much the art of starting the
cue-ball straight for the object, as of
starting it with just the proper twist
to make it behave as you wish after
it has struck the object.
If the cue is held as in D (Fig.
5), it makes a " jump " stroke and
causes the ball to bound into the
air. The position marked E is
called massJ and makes the ball roll
backward, or move on a curve. The
manner of holding the cue in the masst
is shown in Fig. 7. Both jump and
masst are too difficult for beginners.
If the cue-ball strikes the object-
ball squarely in the center, it is called
a " full ball "; if it barely scrapes the
edge it is a " fine ball," and balls
between these extremes are called
BILLIARDS
BILLIARDS
" half ball," " quarter ball," and so on.
(See Fig. 8). The dotted lines show
how the object-ball will move after
each of these shots. In general, the
more widely the object-ball, after
being struck, departs from the first
direction of the cue-ball, the less the
cue-ball will depart from its first
direction, but the force with which
the cue-ball is struck has much to do
with the result. The harder the cue-
ball is struck, the more will it depart
from its first direction, as in Fig. 9,
where i shows the hardest stroke, etc.
These strokes should all be prac-
ticed by the beginner, who will learn
by experience the result of each.
The diagrams, Figs. 10, n, 12, and
13, show various shots, which, in
some shape or other, are constantly
offering. The full lines show the
path of the cue-ball before it strikes
the object-ball ; and the broken line,
its course after it has bounded from
the object-ball.
Fig. 10 shows two shots : in the
left hand one, the ball a must be
struck forcibly above the center and
just graze b. In the right hand one,
the cue-ball d must strike e half-ball.
In Fig. it, the cue-ball g on the left
must be struck sharply on the left
side below the center. The one in
the middle (a simple " follow shot ")
shows how a carom can be made,
even when the three balls are in a
straight line ; the cue-ball a must be
played forcibly at b, the merest shade
to one side. Then b will strike c
on the other side and pass to that
side of it ; c will go to the cushion
and come back to meet a, which
will follow on to it. In the shot on
the right, d must be played high on
the left side, full at e.
In Fig. 12, the cue-ball a on the
right hand must be played low on
the right side. The cue-ball on the
left, d, must be played forcibly on
the right side below the center.
In Fig. 13, the ball a on the left
must be played high on the right side,
striking b as a three-quarters ball;
the cue-ball on the right must be
played very low on the right side so
as to hit between e and the cushion,
striking both at nearly the same in-
stant.
RULES OF THE GAME.
These are usually changed slightly
[or each particular match. The ones
given below are simplified from those
generally observed.
1. In stringing for lead, if a
player's ball touch his opponent's
after the latter has stopped, the
former loses choice and lead. If the
balls strike while both are moving
the players must string again. In
stringing, one ball must not reach
the bottom cushion before the other
is in motion.
2. In the lead, if the ball led do
not pass the dark red ball, or if it
bound back past it, or if it jump
from the table, or strike either red
ball, the leader's opponent may take
the lead instead, or he may place
the offender's ball five inches from
the center of the lower cushion, or
require him to lead over again.
3. Should the first player fail to hit
the white ball first, or if any player
during the game fail to hit a ball, a
point is added to his opponent's score.
4. If a player's ball goes off the
table, a point may be added to his
opponent's score, and the ball re-
mains off the table until its next turn.
But, in the three ball game, no forfeit
is required, and the ball is " spotted."
If possible it is placed on the spot at
the head of the table ; if that be oc-
cupied, on the spot at the foot, and, if
the latter be occupied, in the center
of the table.
5. Balls forced off the table shall
be spotted as above, but each ball
must be placed on its own spot if
possible. The cue-ball if it go off
the table must be played from the
string, as at the opening of the game.
When the cue-ball is thus played
it must not be played directly at any
ball or cushion behind the string line.
6. Should a player play with the
wrong ball, he cannot count, and the
position of balls must be transposed,
BILLIARDS
86
BILLIARDS
unless the player has made his sec-
ond stroke before the error is dis-
covered ; in which case he may con-
tinue to play with the same ball, or
have the balls changed. But at the
end of the run the position of the
balls must be transposed.
7. Should both white balls be off
the table together and a player pick
up the wrong one, and play with it,
the stroke is good.
8. The striker must not play till
every ball on the table is at rest.
9. The cue must be withdrawn
before the cue-ball touches the object-
ball.
10. The cue must touch the ball
but once.
Fig. 10.
Fig. ii.
11. The player must keep at least
one foot on the floor while playing.
12. No player can score by a play
violating any of the four preceding
rules.
13. If the cue-ball is touching
another ball the player must play
first upon some other ball than the
one the cue-ball touches.
In the Three Ball game the balls
are generally " spotted " when the
cue-ball touches another, and the
striker plays as in opening the game.
14. If the cue-ball touch two balls
or more so that it is impossible to
play first on some other ball, the
balls must be spotted as at the begin-
ning of the game, and the player
whose turn it is may choose whether
he or his opponent shall lead.
BILLIARDS
BILLIARDS
Pool, a game played on a pocket-
table, in which the object is not to
carom, but to pocket the balls.
There are several kinds.
Fifteen Ball Pool. There are fif-
teen object-balls, colored, and marked
with numbers from I to 15. The
deep-red ball, which bears the highest
number, is placed on its usual spot,
and the others are placed close to-
gether to form a triangle of which it
is the point, the base of the triangle
being toward the lower cushion.
Any number of persons may play,
all using the same white ball, in an
order decided by lot before beginn-
ing. The first player plays the
cue-ball from within the string line;
Fig. 12.
after that it is played from wher-
ever it may be, unless it leaves the
table, when it must be played from
within the string line. A player
scores the number of the ball or
balls that he pockets, unless he
pocket one or more object balls and
the white ball, in which case the
object-balls must be placed on the
dark-red spot or directly behind it,
while three points are deducted
from the player's score. Three
points also are deducted from the
score of any one who misses a bali,
or plays his ball so that it leaves
the table. As in ordinary Billiards,
an inning ends only when the player
fails to score. A player may play
against any object-ball, even when
the cue-ball touches it, and the cue
BILLIARDS
83
BILLIARDS
need not leave the cue-ball before it
strikes the object-ball. Every pocket-
ed ball remains pocketed'«xcept the
white, as described above, so 120 is
the highest number of aggregate
points that can be made.
Rules of the Game. Billiard rules
8, 10, 11, and 12 apply to this game,
and in addition the following:
1. When the cue-ball is played
from within the string line, it can
be played directly at no ball in the
string. But if all the object-balls
are in the string, the one nearest
the line may be spotted and played
on.
2. If the player move his ball be-
fore making his stroke, it shall be
considered a stroke. If he move an
object-ball, either before or after a
stroke, he loses his hand and the
moved ball must be replaced.
3. If a player play out of turn, the
balls shall be replaced; and he can-
noi count unless he make more than
one stroke before the mistake is dis-
covered, when the play is good.
Pyramid Pool. This differs from
Fifteen Ball Pool only in the manner
of counting. Each ball pocketed
counts one point, and 15 is therefore
the highest score that can be made.
The rules are the same as those of
Fifteen Ball Pool. The score is
often kept by placing each ball, as it
is pocketed, in a frame, containing
a sort of trough for each player.
Whenever a player pockets the white
ball, or misses a shot, one of the
balls in his trough is replaced on
the table.
Pin Pool. Five small wooden pins
are set up in the centre of the table;
each having a number marked on the
table beside it, as in the figure.
4«
3. 5. 2.
I «
The pins are placed about 2J<
inches apart so that the balls can pas:
between them without touching.
The object of the players is to over-
turn the pins, or move them at least
two inches from the spots where
they were placed. Two white balls
and one red are used ; the red ball is
spotted about five inches from the
ower cushion and one of the white
Dalls is placed on the dark red spot.
After the order of play has been
determined by lot, each player draws
a little ball from a bag, or is given
one by some person not a player.
These balls are numbered in order,
and are called the private balls.
Each player keeps secret the num-
ber on his private ball till he has
overturned pins the sum of whose
numbers, with that on his ball,
exactly equals 31, when he wins
the game. But if the sum is more
than 31, he is said to be "burst "
and is out of the game, unless he
claim what is called" the privilege."
In this case he draws a new private
ball, and, after choosing between the
old and new, discards one of them
and continues in the game.
The game is begun thus. After
the white and red ball have been
spotted^as explained above, the lead-
er plays at either with the remain-
ing white ball from within the string
line, or he may place his own ball
upon the spot at the head of the
table, and the next player must then
play. The second player and the
others after him may play at or with
any of the three balls, red or white.
Pins must not be played at directly,
but must be overturned by a rebound
of the cue-ball from a cushion or an
object-ball, except when two balls
are in contact, when either may be
played directly at the pins. If a
player knock down the four outside
pins in one shot, leaving the middle
one standing, he wins the game at
once, no matter what his score is.
All pins knocked down are replaced
before the next shot.
Rules of the Game. I . No player
may claim privilege after the next
stroke has been made.
2. When a player claims privilege,
his order in playing is not changed.
3. If a player miss, pocket his ball,
or cause it to leave the table, it must
BILLIARDS
89
BILLIARDS
be spotted five inches from the cen-
ter of the lower cushion ; or, if that
spot is occupied, on the dark-red
spot ; or, if that spot is occupied, on
the light-red spot.
4. If a pin be knocked down, and
a ball roll into its place, the pin must
not be replaced till the ball is moved
in course of play.
5. A pin is considered knocked
down when it has been moved two
inches, even though it remain upright.
6. Pins must be knocked down by
rebound of the cue-ball from a cush-
ion or an object-ball ; or by an ob-
ject-ball so set in motion, except
when two balls are in contact, when
either can be played directly.
History. Little is known of the
origin of Billiards, some authorities
saying that it was invented in France,
others ii>/£ermany, and still others in
England.** It seems to have been
derived from BOWLS or Pall Mall
(see CROQUET) ; and it is said that
Henrique Devigne, who lived in the
time of Charles IX. of France, first
gave it form and rule. Louis XIV.
was advised by his physician to prac-
tice the game after eating, to aid di-
gestion, and since his time it has
been a favorite in France. It was
played in England certainly as early
as the 1 6th century, for Shakespeare
in "Antony and Cleopatra," makes
Cleopatra say, " Let us to billiards."
In the earliest times the game was
played by driving a ball through a
ring which turned on a pin fastened
in a table or on the floor. A game
Ancient Billiards.
called Rural Billiards is still played
thus in England. When it began to
assume the present form, the balls
were struck or pushed with a sort of
mace, but about 1789 the cue came
into general use. When the game
was first played in the United States,
the use of the cue was forbidden to
all but skillful players, lest the cloth
on the table should be injured. This
was before the introduction of leather
cue tips which are now used every-
where. The top of the table, now of
slate or marble, covered with cloth,
was formerly of wood. The cush-
ions were first stuffed with list, then
made of india rubber, and now they
are generally of a combination of
various substances as suggested by
Michael Phelan, an American player
and billiard-table manufacturer. In
the old form of cushions the ball
sank in a little way, so that it never
bounded correctly; but the modern
cushions are comparatively hard on
the outside, with an elastic backing.
A table was once made in this coun-
try with cushions stuffed with curled
hair.
The game was introduced into the
United States in the first years of
this century, and it is nowplayed more
here than in any other country in the
world. The early tables all had
pockets; pocketing a red ball counted
3, a white ball 2 ; caroming on the
2 reds counted 3, and on a red and
a white, 2, so that it was possible,
and not unknown, for a single stroke
to count 13. The game was ico
points up. This game began to go
| out of use about 1860, as cushions
! were improved by Phelan, and con-
j sequently longer rolls and more com-
90 BILLIARD BALL AND CUES
plex caroms were possible. First the
side pockets were left off the tables,
and, by about 1870, the corner pock-
ets disappeared too. Meantime how-
ever, the French, the best players
in the world, had used smaller tables,
without pockets, so as to make com-
plex caroms.
The games already described are
those now generally played in the
United States. The English game em-
ploys not only caroms but winningand
losing hazards, as in the old Ameri-
can game, but both kinds of hazards
score in the player's favor. Other
games played in England are the
White winning game, the White los-
ing game, the Red winning game.and
the Red losing game, in all of which
caroms do not count at all. In Ger-
many a kind of pool is played called
Wurst Partie (The Sausage Game),
because the balls are placed in a line
supposed to look like a sausage.
The Russians have a kind of billiards
called Carline or Caroline which re-
Billiard* in 1610.
sembles the American game, and
very many other kinds are played
in different countries.
The word Billiards (French Bil-
lard} is from the French btlle, a
ball. Carom or Carrom is from the
French Carambole, meaning the
same thing. The origin of this last
word is unknown, but some think it
is a corruption of Quatre Bottles
(four balls). In England a carom is
called a cannon. The word cue is
the same as the French queue, which
means a tail or handle.
BILLIARD BALL AND CUES, ex*
periment with. Place two billiard
cues side by side on the table, so as
to make a railway on which a billiard
ball may roll. The small ends of
the cues should touch, while the
large ends are so far apart that the
ball may be just placed between
them. If a ball be now placed on
the cues at the small ends, it will run
to the large ends, apparently rolling
up hill, though it really descends
slightly, as will be seen by observing
it closeity.
BIRDS FLY
BLIND MAN S I'.'JFP
BIRDS FLY| a game played by
any number 01 persons, generally
young children. One of the players
calls out " Robins Fly " or " Cats
Fly " (using the name of any bird or
animal he chooses), at the same
time holding up both his hands. If
the creature mentioned be one that
can fly, all the others raise their
hands also, but if it cannot fly, all
keep their hands down. Those who
raise their hands when they ought
not, or keep them down when they
should raise them, pay forfeits. In
France this game is called Pigeon
Vole (The pigeon flies), and in
Germany its title is Alles was
Federn hat fli'egt hoch (Everything
which has feathers flies high).
BLACK ART. See GUESSING
THE SIGN.
BLACKNESS, Experiment on.
No paint nor substance in the world
is perfectly black, for they all reflect
a little light ; but a design or figure
may be made as follows, which will
be nearly so, appearing even darker
than the surface of black velvet.
Paint a pasteboard box black on the
inside, or cover the inside with dead-
black cloth. Cut a small hole in the
cover, not larger than one-tenth its
area, and then holding the box so
that no light enter the hole directly,
it will appear intensely black. If
the hole be shaped to represent
some figure, an imp, for instance,
and the outside of the cover coated
with black cloth or painted black,
:he figure will appear dark in con-
trast even with its black background.
The reason is that almost no light
at all reaches the inside of the box,
which is accordingly nearly quite
black. This kind of black is called
" Chevreul's Black," after a French-
man who invented the method of
producing it.
BLACK PETER, a game of
CARDS played by any number of per-
sons, not exceeding twelve. At the
beginning, if necessary, one or more
small cards are thrown out of the
7"Ck, so that those that remain may
be divided evenly among the players.
They are then dealt, one at a time,
and the last is turned up as trump.
The cards rank as in WHIST. The
object of the game is to take neither
Black Peter (the Knave of Spades)
nor the last trick in the hand, and
with these exceptions it makes no
difference who takes any of the
tricks, except to decide the lead.
Each player's score is credited with
10 points in the beginning, and at the
end of each hand one point is sub-
tracted from the score of the player
who took Black Peter, and one from
him who took the last trick. He
whose score is first reduced to noth-
ing is the loser, and is also called
Black Peter, while he who has the
highest score is the winner. Some
amusing penalty for Black Peter to
pay may be agreed on beforehand.
(See FORFEITS.)
BLIND MAN'S BUFF, a game
played by any number of persons,
one of whom is blindfolded by tying
a handkerchief over his eyes. The
object of the blind-man is to catch
one of the others. If he guess cor-
rectly the name of the one caught,
that one must take his place as blind-
man ; if the guess be wrong, he must
try to catch some one else. The
players usually try to mislead the
blind-man and turn his attention in
various ways.
RULES OF THE CAME.
1. One who has been caught may
be touched by the blind-man any-
where above the waist, but must not
be pinched nor made in any way to
utter a sound.
2. The blind-man must make his
guess in one minute, or let the cap-
tive go.
3. No capture shall count that is
made while looseness of the hand-
kerchief allows the blind-man to see,
no matter how little.
4. If any player is fairly held, even
for an instant, he is caught, and must
not try to get away, but a mere touch
does not count.
BLIND MAN'S BUFF
92
BLIND MAN'S BUFF
Still Pond, a kind of Blind Man's
Buff in which the players do not run
about, but keep each in one place,
without making the slightest noise.
The blind-man gives them time to
take what positions each wishes, and
then cries " Still Pond ! " (or, some-
times, " Still Proving, no Moving,")
after which no one but him may
move, or make a noise. The players
generally prefer to hide under tables
or on chairs, but one may often stand
still in the middle of the room with-
out being found. The rules are the
same as for common Blind Man's
Buff.
Seven Steps, a variation of Still
Pond, in which each of the players is
allowed to take not more than seven
steps to escape from the blind-man.
The steps may be taken at any time
after he calls " Still Pond ! " In
other respects the game is played like
Still Pond.
French Blind Man's Buff. The
players form a ring, hand in hand,
and the blind-man stands in the
middle holding a wand, or cane.
The players dance around him till he
raps on the floor. When they stop,
he holds out the cane, and the one
to whom it points must grasp the
end. The blind-man then asks any
three questions he pleases, all of
which must be answered in a
changed voice. The blind-man
guesses who is talking ; if he is right,
the two change places; but if he is
wrong, the players dance about him
again, and the game goes on. This
is also called Blind Man's Wand,
Buff with the Wand, Indian Buff,
and, in New York, Peggy in the
Ring.
Blind Man's Buff with Numbers,
a form of the game in which the
players, who are all numbered, sit
around the room, while the blind-
man stands in the middle. He calls
out two numbers, and their owners
must change places, the blind-man
trying to catch them as they do so.
No one can be caught after he has
taken his seat. In this y»fQf> the
blind-man does not have to guess
the name of the one that he catches.
Sometimes, instead of numbers, the
players take the names of towns,
and the blind-man calls out, for
instance, " Let New York go to
Chicago," when he wishes the players
with these names to change places.
Jingling, a kind of Blind Man's
Buff, played by any number of per-
sons in a square place, inclosed by
ropes, tied to corner-stakes. One of
| the players, who is chosen "Jingler,"
or " Bell man," has his hands tied
behind his back and a bell fastened
around his neck, while all the others
are blindfolded. The blind-men try
! to catch the Jingler, guided by his
bell, and the Jingler tries to deceive
j them in every way he can. Two
blind-men often seize each other,
j each believing the other to be the
Jingler. When any player succeeds
in catching the Jingler, the two
change places. In England, Jin-
gling matches are popular at country
fairs. If the Jingler can avoid his
pursuers for a given time, he is the
winner, otherwise the prize is given
to the blind-man who catches him.
The size of the space or " ring " in
which the game is played, depends
on the number of players and their
agility. A few trials will usually
determine the proper size. If the
Jingler keeps too long from being
caught, it is too large ; if he is
caught too soon, it should be larger.
In some parts of England a pig is
placed in the ring instead of the
Jingler, and the blind-men are
armed with whips. He who hits
the pig becomes its owner. The
i sport is usually more amusing to the
spectators than to the contestants,
as they are apt to give each other a
sound beating before any one suc-
ceeds in hitting the pig.
Spoons, a kind of Blind Man's
| Buff in which the blind-man holds a
large tablespoon in each hand. The
other players circle around him till
he cries " spoons ! " when he ad-
vances and tries to guess who any
BLIND MAN'S BUFF
93
BLIND MAN'S BUFF
player is, by touching him with the
spoon only. If he guesses correctly
the player takes his place, otherwise
the players circle around him as be-
fore.
History. — Blind Man's Buff is a
very old game. The Greek youths
played it, calling it muia chalkl
(brazen fly). The old English name
for it was Hoodman Blind. People
often wore head-dresses called hoods,
and the blind-man turned his over his
face, while the others used theirs to
strike him with, as shown in the illus-
Hoodman Blind.
tration, taken from an old manuscript
in the Bodleian library at Oxford.
It was also sometimes called Harry-
racket and Hoodwink. The English
had other blindfold games, one of
which is shown in the second illus-
tration. The French call it Colin
Maillard, which, it is said, was the
name of a warrior in the loth cen-
tury, who continued to fight in a
battle after both his eyes were put
out. His full name was Jean Colin,
and he was surnamed Maillard
(Mallet-wielder) from his favorite
An Old English Blindfold Game.
weapon. The Germans have several
names for the game, among which
are Blinde Kuh (Blind Cow), and
Maus v« Finstern (Mouse in the
Dark). The Italians call it Mosca
Cieca (Blind Fly) ; the Norwegians,
Blind Thief, and the Poles,
Man. French Blind Man's Buff fs
called in Germany Blinde Kuh im
Kreise (Blind Cow in the Ring), or
"Piep." The name Blind Man's
Buff is probably from the blows, or
buffets, that the blind-man gets from
his companions.
BLIND MAN'S SINGING
94
BLOWPIPE
BLIND MAN'S SINGING
SCHOOL, a game played by any
number of persons, one of whom is
blindfolded and takes the part of
teacher, while the others personate
scholars. The scholars sing the
scale, each singing one note, in or-
der, to the syllable " Ah." They
can sing correctly or not, as they
please. When the teacher thinks
he recognizes a voice, he says
" Stop ! " and, calling the scholar
by name, makes some correction or
criticism. If the name is given in-
correctly the singing goes on ; but
if it is right, the scholar and
teacher must change places. After
the new teacher is blindfolded, the
pupils must change seats, so that
they cannot be recognized by the
directions from which their voices
come.
BLOCKADE, a SOLITAIRE game
of CARDS, played with two full packs.
The Kings and Aces are placed in
two rows as they come from the
pack. On the Kings, families are
built by piling downward, and on the
Aces, upward. Cards which cannot
be so used are placed in rows of ten
each, face upward, on the table, one
row directly below another. Any
card in the upper or lower row may
be used in bui'ding, or any card
having an empty space above or
below it. Those having other cards
above and below them are said to be
blockaded, and cannot be used.
When all the possible cards have
been played at any time, the spaces
must be filled in regular order from
the pack. The player has the privi-
lege of using one blockaded card in
building, after the pack is exhausted.
BLOTTING-PAPER, Experiment
with. Fill a goblet to overflowing
with water, lay over it a thick sheet
of blotting-paper, and on this place a
pane of glass, or a plate. After the
water has soaked a little into the
paper the goblet will adhere to it so
strongly that it may be picked up by
the glass and even made to stand out
sidewise from it. The reason is that
the blotting-paper soaks out some of
the water from the inside of the
glass, reducing the pressure there,
and so the pressure of the air outside
holds goblet and glass together.
With care the glass or plate can
be dispensed with and the experi-
ment performed with the paper alone.
BLOWPIPE, Experiments with
the. The ordinary blowpipe is a
metal tube shaped as shown in the
illustration. When the short end
(which is usually made of platinum
to prevent its melting) is
placed in a flame and the
mouth applied to the other
end, a long, pointed, very-
hot tongue of flame is pro-
duced by blowing. The
flame may be that of a
candle, an alcohol lamp, or
a gas burner. If a candle
is used, the wick is bent
over at right angles so as
not to interfere with the
blowpipe. If gas is used,
a flat brass tube is slipped
over the burner as shown
in Fig. 2. Fig. 3 represents
the blowpipe flame. Blowpipes,
burners, and everything needed for
the experiments described in this
article can be bought
of any dealer in
chemical supplies.
The flame, as shown
in Fig. 3, consists
of a central blue
part, B, and an •
outer part A, of an-
other color. Either
of these parts may
be made larger at
the expense of the
other by varying the
force of the breath, as will be found
by experiment.
Blowing. It is often necessary to
keep the flame steady for several
minutes. In order to do this, the
operator must be able to take breath
through his nose, while blowing
The effort should be simply to keep
the cheeks constantly distended,
Fig. i.
Blow-
pipe.
BLOWPIPE
95
letting their elasticity drive the air
out through the pipe.
EXPERIMENTS.
I. Melting. Take a small platinum
wire or a bit of lime, and hold it in
various parts of the blowpipe flame.
(Objects may be so held by a pair of
platinum forceps.) The wire will shine
more brightly in some places than
Fig. 3-
others, and it will thus be found that
the hottest part of the flame is just at
the tip A (Fig. 3), where it is almost
invisible. Hold various substances,
bits of glass, stone, or metal in this
part of the flame, and it will be found
that some melt easily in it, while
others do not.
2. Oxydizing. Near the end of a
strip of fine charcoal make a cavity
by pressing the edge of a coin on it
and turning it around. Put in the |
cavity a bit of lead or antimony and
hold it in the tip of the flame A.
The heat will oxydize it, that is,
cause it to unite with the oxygen of
the air. A colored film or coating
of the oxide will form around the
metal. Other metals may be tried
in the same way. Some will form
colored films and others will not.
3. Reducing. Mix together small
equal qualities of dry washing soda
and lead oxide. Put a little in the
charcoal cavity, and heat it in the
inner blue part of the flame, near the
tip B, regulating the flame so that \
the mixture is surrounded by it.
After a time little globules of lead
will be seen in. the mass. It may
then be cooled, put with water into
a little mortar and broken up, when
the beads of lead can be picked out.
The lead came from the lead oxide,
whose oxygen left it to unite with the
gases of the blue flame. This is
called reducing and the blue flame is
called the reducing flame. Oxides
of other metals may be treated in like
manner.
Borax Beads. Fix a piece of
platinum wire in a cork for a handle,
and make a little loop at the end
of the wire. Heat the loop red hot
and dip it into powdered borax, some
of which will stick to it. The borax
may now be melted to a transparent
bead, which will remain on the wire
loop. This bead has the property of
dissolving many of the oxides of
metals, which give it different colors,
as may be seen by trial. A minute
speck of oxide is sufficient. If the
bead be then held in the reducing
flame, the metal may often be ob-
tained from the oxide, forming a glob-
ule in the center of the bead, whence
it may be taken out, when cool, by
breaking with the hammer.
BLOW THE FEATHER, a game
played by any number of persons
sitting in a square around a stretched
sheet, which they hold just below
their mouths. On the sheet is placed
a feather, which each must try to
keep away from him by blowing it
toward some one else. If it touches
any one he pays a forfeit. The
game is played also by persons sit-
ting around a table and trying to
keep the feather in the air by blow-
ing it. If any player allow it to fall
to the table in front of him, or to
touch him, he pays a forfeit.
The game is sometimes called
" French and English," in which
case the players divide into two
parties, which sit on opposite sides
of the room. The room is divided
into two "Camps " by a line drawn
through the ' middle. Each side
chooses a champion, who strives to
blow the feather so that it will fall
to the ground in the opposite Camp.
When one succeeds, the other be-
comes a prisoner and leaves the
game. He is replaced by a second
BLUE VITRIOL
96
BOAT-BUILDING
champion, and the game goes on till
all on one side have been taken
prisoners.
BLUE VITRIOL, Experiments
with. Blue Vitriol, or Sulphate of
Copper, is described in C. C. T. under
VITRIOL. If the blue liquid left in
the flask in making SULPHUR DI-
OXIDE be evaporated over a water
bath, crystals of blue vitriol will
finally appear.
1. If a crystal of blue vitriol be
heated in a test-tube, it will turn to
a white powder, and water will con-
dense in the upper part of the tube.
A drop of water on the powder will
at once restore the original blue
color.
2. Make a strong solution of blue
vitriol, and dip into it a knife-blade,
carefully cleaned and free from
grease. In a few minutes, copper
will be deposited on the blade, mak-
ing it look as if made of that metal.
BOAT-BUILDING. Toy boats
may either have hulls built of sep-
arate pieces or be cut out of a solid
block. The latter method, being the
easier, will be described first. The
best wood to be used is even-
grained, well-seasoned yellow pine.
The dimensions of the block used for
naking a cutter yacht may be two
/eet long, five inches wide, and five
inches deep, but the size and pro-
portions may of course be varied to
suit the builder. The block is first
planed and squared, and then
straight lines are drawn from end to
end along the middle of two oppo-
site sides. The ends of these are
connected by similar lines across the
ends of the block. All these lines
must be carefully measured and
drawn. On the side chosen for the
deck a line is drawn across the mid-
dle at right angles to the long line,
and then the deck plan is laid out as
in the diagram. The curved lines
must pass through the ends of the
cross line, but their shape may be
varied to suit the builder, provided
the sides are exactly alike.
The first part to be shaped should
be the " counter," or overhanging
stern, which is made as shown in
the diagram at the place marked
" After end of the block of timber."
Curves representing sections across
the hull at different points are now
drawn on paper, and pieces of card-
board called section molds are cut out
to fit them. The block is turned deck
downward, and the wood cut away
with chisel and gouge till it fits the
proper piece of cardboard at each
place. As the wood nears its final
shape care should be taken not to
cut away too much, and the molds
should be applied frequently. Be-
sides these cross sections, lengthwise
sections may also be used, which will
make the work still more accurate.
Both sections are shown in the dia-
grams, and others may be tried exper-
imentally by the builder, or copied
from the lines of large yachts. The
diagrams at the top and bottom of the
page show a method of laying them
off from a drawing. The lowest fig-
ure show? the sweep of the lines from
bow to stern at different levels, the
outside lines denoting their shape at
the top and the inside ones near the
keel. A set of horizontal lines for the
different levels are then made as
shown in the square figure to the
left, which must be just as high as
the block used. To find the shape
of the cross section at any place, for
instance the third vertical line from
the right (marked C in the upper-
most figure), measure off the dis-
tance of each curved line from the
center, on the same line at the bot-
tom of the page, and lay off the
respective distances on their corre-
sponding levels at the left. When the
points so formed are joined, a curved
line will result like that marked C in
the small figure at the top, and this
will be the shape of the section at C.
In the same way the sections at the
other vertical lines may be found
and molds made fr.om them.
The fullest part of the hull should
be at the " midship section," or just
half way between the stem and stern.
BOAT-BUILDING
97
BOAT-BUILDING
AT. 1 AT.
How to Plan a Boat.
BOAT-BUILDING
98
BOAT-BUILDING
The hull is now turned over and
hollowed out with gouges, leaving
the sides thick at first, and thinning
them gradually. The upper half
Arrangement of Masts.
inch of the sides should be made
very thin, for bulwarks, and a ledge
should be left just below for the
deck to rest upon. This is made of a
thin piece of pine, cut to the proper
shape. Some boats require a false
keel to make them float properly.
This is of lead, shaped in a mold
made of three laths nailed together
to form a narrow channel, which
with the dimensions given above
must be an inch and a half in depth
and three-eighths of an inch thick.
The channel is stopped at the ends
with wood, so as to be exactly the
length of the boat's keel. Six or
eight nails are driven into the bot-
tom of the mold, so that they will
project from the lead keel when
molded, and enable it to be fast-
ened to the boat. The bottom of the
mold should therefore be thin, so
that it can easily be pulled away
from the nails. The mold is now
filled with melted lead, which is
taken out when it has hardened, and
may then be shaped with a plane, as
if it were of wood. The lower end
of the false keel, at the bow, should
be rounded.
Before nailing down the deck, holes
must be bored in it for the mast and
rudder. The hole for the mast in a
boat of the size described should be
half an inch in diameter, and eight
inches from the bow. A similar
hole must be bored part way through
the bottom of the hull to fix the
lower end. The mast should be
half an inch in diameter, and is best
made of pine. It is made in two
parts, the lower of which must meas-
ure, between the deck and the top-
mast, just three times the greatest
width of the vessel, in this case fif-
teen inches. Adding four inches for
the part below the deck, and two and
a half for the mast-head, the total
length becomes twenty-one and a
half inches. The mast must be
rounded with a plane, or by whit-
tling, and the mast-head (the upper
two and a half inches) must be whit-
tled down to half its diameter, to join
it to the topmast. A quarter of an
inch at the top must be made still
smaller. The topmast is fastened to
Ribs, Keel, and Keelson.
the lower mast by two " caps," seen
in the illustration, the lower one rest-
ing on the lower part of the reduced
portion, and the upper one fitting
BOAT-BUILDING
99
BOAT-BUILDING
the narrowest part. These may be
made of hard wood or of brass. Be-
fore fixing the mast in the .place pre-
pared for it, about a dozen brass
rings are placed on it. A cross-tree
of flattened brass wire equal in length
to the width of the boat is fastened
at the top of the lower cap, and,
through holes drilled in the ends,
cords pass from the top of the mast
to the bulwarks. These are called
stays. The arrangement of these
and other parts of the rigging for a
cutter yacht is shown in the figure.
(For definitions of the various terms
used, and hints on rigging different
styles of boats, see the article on
SAILING.) The bowsprit should have
a length of about twice the beam,
and a notch should be cut in the stem
of the boat to receive it.
Instead of having a hull hollowed
out of a block of wood, the boat
may be built up like a real one. The
keel is first made, then the stem and
stern posts are set up, and then the
I. Mast
a. Topmast
3. Bowsprit.
Jib.
Foresail.
Mainsail.
Topsail.
Gaff.
Boom.
Shrouds.
Topmast Shrouds.
Runner.
Preventer.
Topmast Stay.
Forestay. •
Bobstay.
Boom Lifts.
Ensign Halyards.
Mainsail Halyards.
Throat of Mainsail.
22.
•3-
»4-
25-
26.
27-
B&
Crosstree.
Leech of Mainsail.
Mainsheet.
Tiller.
Companion.
Bulwarks.
Hull.
Ensign.
Burgee.
Foresheet.
ribs, which are sawed out of wood
with a scroll saw, in curves, which are
given by the cardboard models de-
scribed above. The ribs are fitted in
notches in the keel, held in place by
glue, and then a strip of wood called
the keelson is laid along the inside
and nailed down to both ribs and
keel, as shown in the figure. Then
flexible boards, not more than one-
eighth of an inch thick, are nailed
over the ribs with fine brads, to form
the planking, the cracks between be-
ing filled in with putty. The rest of
the construction is the same as with
hollowed-out boats.
Sai7s. Patterns should first be
cut from paper and adjusted in place,
and, when these have been cut to the
proper shape, they should be copied
in white muslin. Each sail should
be hemmed around the edges. The
BOB£CHON
100
BOILING
luff of the mainsail is sewed to the
rings on the mast, and its upper edge
is fastened to the gaff by cords. The
lower edge is fastened to the boom
only at the corners.
BOAT RACING. See ROWING.
BOBECHON, a game played by
any number of persons with the toy
shown in the illustration, which is
made as follows : Make a tight
roll of flannel or cloth, about three
inches high and half an inch in di-
ameter, and secure it by winding
thread around it. Sew this to the
center of a circular piece of fur or
very thick cloth, an inch and a
half in diameter, so that it will stand
upright on this circle as a base.
This toy is called the Bobechon. It
Bobechon.
is placed upright in the center of an
ordinary dinner plate, and a small
coin is laid on the top of the flannel
roll. The object is to remove both
Bobechon and coin from the plate
with a flexible rod or cane, like the
end of a fishing rod. The coin need
not keep its place on the flannel roll,
so long as both it and the Bobechon
fall clear of the plate. The players
take turns, and he who succeeds
most times, in a number previously
agreed upon, is the winner.
The task seems an easy one, but
it is really very difficult, as will be
seen on trial. If the rod be applied
near the base, the Bobechon with its
coin may be slid along till it reaches
the slop:'ng edge of the plate, and if it
is then given a push, the coin will fall
off into the plate. If, on the other
hand, the rod be now applied to the
upper part of the toy, it will tip over,
throwing the coin outside, but itself
falling on the plate. The proper
way is to press the end of the rod on
the farther edge of the plate so that
it curves downwards, as shown in
the second figure, the lower part of
the curve touching the flannel roll
just where it is sewed to the circle.
The Bobechon is then pushed slowly
along till it reaches the sloping edge,
when by a peculiar twist of the rod,
learned only by practice, both it and
the coin can be thrown without the
plate. The toy is shown in the up-
per part of the cut ; the way of re-
moving it in the lower.
Bobechon is a French game, and
is said to be much used by sharpers
in that country, who, being prac-
ticed, can always succeed, while their
victims, who think the task very easy,
always fail.
BOILING, Experiments in. I.
The boiling of water is described in
C. C. T. in the article STEAM. It is
best observed by filling a test-tube
(see CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS) a
quarter full of cold water, and hold-
ing the lower end in the flame of
an alcohol lamp or Bunsen burner.
Little bubbles will first form and
stick to the sides of the tube. By
and by these will disappear, and
other little bubbles, like white specks,
will form in the lower part of the
liquid, and rise toward the top, but
will disappear before they get there.
These rapidly increase in numbers
and size and go higher and higher.,
till finally they burst from the top,
when it is seen that they consist of
steam. When they vanish before
reaching the top a simmering or
" singing " noise is heard. After-
ward the noise is the bubbling sound
of boiling. The first formed bubbles,
which stick to the sides, are com-
posed of air, which was dissolved
in the water. The others are com-
posed of steam, but as fast as they
BOILING
101
BOILING
get further away from the heat of
the flame they condense back to
water, making the sound of simmer-
ing. By and by the water gets so
hot all the way through that they
can rise out of the top.
2. Buy a small chemical thermo-
meter, which is simply a thermome-
ter without any tin case, so that it
can be put into liquids to get their
temperature. The scale is marked
directly on the glass tube. One can
be made by taking an ordinary ther-
mometer, scratching the divisions of
the scale on the tube with a diamond,
or a sharp file, and then removing
the bulb and tube from the case.
Put the thermometer into water be-
fore it begins to boil, being careful
that it does not touch the bottom or
sides of the vessel. As the water
gets hotter, the mercury will rise
until it boils, when the thermometer
will stand at about 212°, if it has a
Fahrenheit scale, or at 100° if it is
Centigrade (See THERMOMETER, in
C. C. T.). Chemical thermometers
usually have the Centigrade scale,
but if the one used has been made
from an ordinary thermometer it will
probably be Fahrenheit. This tem-
perature is called the boiling point.
If you now try to make the thermo-
meter rise higher by continuing to
hold it in the boiling water, you will
find it impossible. No matter how
much the heat is increased, the mer-
cury will not rise any more, but the
water will simply boil away faster.
The reason is, that as soon as the
water begins to boil all the heat is
used in turning it to steam and not
in raising its temperature.
3. Boil some water for ten or fif-
teen minutes ; let it cool and then
heat it again with the thermometer
in it. By keeping it very still, you
will probably find that it can be
raised several degrees above the boil-
ing point, without causing it to boil.
If some scraps or filings of metal be
now cast into it the water will at
once begin to boil, and the mercury
will fall to the boiling point. The
reason is that water with air dis-
solved in it boils sooner than pure
water, and by boiling it once the air
is driven out, so that at the second
heating it rises higher than 212°.
But when scraps of metal are
dropped in they carry air with them,
and boiling begins.
4. Find the boiling point of water
with various substances — for instance
salt or sugar — dissolved in it. In all
cases it is higher than the boiling
point of pure water. The reason is
that it takes some heat to separate
the water from the salt or sugar
when it is turning to steam.
5. Boil water in a glass flask, and
while it is boiling cork the flask
tightly, and remove it at once from
the flame. When it stops boiling
pour cold water over the flask, and
it will begin to boil again. This
may be done several times. The
same result will follow if the flask be
plunged into cold water. The rea-
son is that when a flask of boiling
water is corked the space above the
water is filled with steam, when this
steam is turned to water by being
cooled some of the pressure is re-
moved from the surface of the water,
which, accordingly, begins to boil
again, since it is easier for the bub-
bles of steam to get out of the water.
6. Some time when you go up on
a high mountain, take with you a
chemical thermometer and an alco-
hol lamp, and find the boiling point
of water there. It will be lowef
than 212°. This is because not stf
much air is pressing on the water on
the summit as in the valley below.
Sometimes the height of mountains
is measured by finding the boiling
point of water on their summits. On
a mountain 6000 feet high, water
boils at about 200° Fahrenheit, in-
stead of 212°.
7. Find the boiling points of other
fluids than water. It will be found
that some are higher and some are
lower, and that it is impossible to
boil some of them at all — oils for
instance.
BOOKBINDER
102
BOOK NOTICES
8. Pour a little ether into a test-tube
<ind hold it in the hand. The heat of
the hand will cause it to boil, its boil-
ing point being only 99° Fahrenheit.
9. Mix together water and bisul-
phide of carbon, both previously
heated to 113° Fahrenheit. The
mixture will at once begin to boil.
This is because, contrary to the
usual rule, a mixture of these two
liquids boils at a lower temperature
than either of them separately.
10. Weight a piece of ice as large
as the tip of the little finger, by tying
a bit of lead to it, so that it will sink
to the bottom of a test-tube of water.
Incline the tube and hold it in a flame
so that the upper part of the water
will be heated. The water above
the ice may thus be boiled while the
ice remains unmelted. The reason
is that the water is a poor conductor
of heat. If the ice be above the
place where the heat is applied, the
experiment does not succeed, because
hot water, being lighter than cold,
ascends and melts the ice.
BOOKBINDER, a game played
by any number of persons, who sit
in a circle, each holding a book on
the back of his clenched fists. One,
who has been chosen bookbinder
and stands in the middle of the
Manner of Holding Rook.
circle, goes to any player and seizing
that player's book attempts to rap
his knuckles, which the holder of the
book tries to avoid by pulling back
his hands quickly. If the book-
binder succeed in this, the player
whose knuckles he raps changes
places with him ; otherwise, he re-
places the book and tries to do the
same with someone else. The book-
binder may pretend to seize a book
without actually doing so, and if the
holder pulls away his hands so that
the book fall, he must take the lead-
er's place as if his knuckles had been
rapped. The leader can make this
game very exciting if he run quickly
from one to another, pretending to
take up one book and then seizing
another, thus keeping the players
constantly on the lookout.
BOOK NOTICES. A game played
by any number of persons, each of
whom has a pencil and sheet of
paper. The players usually sit
around a taMe, and each begins the
game by writing at the top of the
paper the pretended title of a book.
The papers are then folded so as to
hide what has been written, and
passed to the left. Each then writes,
just under the hidden title, the word
" or " and follows it by a pretended
sub-title. After this, the following
are written in like manner, the pa-
pers being folded and passed, after
each writing, as before. (3) The
word "by," followed by a person's
name (generally that of one of the
players); (4) the words "author
of," followed by another title ; (5)
the word "or " followed by another
sub-title ; (6) a pretended critical
notice of the book ; (7) the name
of a newspaper or magazine.
The number of titles and notices
may be increased at the pleasure of
the company. When the papers are
finished they are passed to the left
again, and read aloud, one by each
player; or one of the company may
be chosen to read them all. An ex-
ample of one of the papers thus writ-
ten is as follows : " The Witch's
Fate; or, A Treatise on Soap Boil-
ing, by James M , author of The
Heavenly Bodies; or, What I Found
in My Hat. This work, by its pro-
found learning and fascinating style,
can scarcely fail to place the author
in the same rank with Shakespeare.
London Times."
BOOMERANG
103
BOOMERANG
BOOMERANG, a flat curved piece
of wood, used as a missile. When
held by one end and thrown, it
moves in a curve, and if thrown
skillfully can be made to return to
the place from which it started.
Several boomerangs can be made, as
shown in the illustration, from a
piece of hickory wood, 1, half an inch
thick, by steaming it thoroughly,
and then bending it so that the sides
Making Boomerang.
are nearly at a right angle. The wood
can be held in shape by tying it, till it
is dry, and then strips about a quarter
of an inch thick may be sawed from
it, each of which when shaped with a
knife will be a boomerang. The
shape is shown at 2, and the end-
wise view, when it is sawed across
the middle, at 3. A single boom-
ng may be cut or sawed from
*• lat piece of wood, but it will
apt to split. A small boom-
erang may be cut from pasteboard,
and sent by placing it on a book
with one end projecting over the
right edge. The book is held in
the left hand and the end of the
boomerang struck with a ruler or
paper-cutter held in the right hand.
The best pasteboard boomerangs are
Sending a Paper Boomerang,
about an inch long, and can be
snapped with the forefinger from the
edge of a book. To throw a wooden
boomerang accurately requires great
skill, and can be learned only by
practice. The instrument is held
like a club in throwing it, the con-
vex side outward. A large open
Australian Throwing a Boomerang.
space should be taken for the trial,
since the boomerang may curve in an
unexpected direction.
The boomerang is used as a
weapon by the natives of Australia,
who throw it with great skill, making
it strike an enemy in the back, while
he is advancing toward them.
BOSTON
104
BOSTON
BOSTON, a game of CARDS,
played by four persons with a full
pack. The cards rank as in Whist.
The pack is usually shuffled only at
the beginning of the game. Before
each succeeding deal it is cut, each
player having the right to do so once,
the dealer last. Shuffling is omitted
that cards of the same suit may be
kept together. The dealer gives each
player thirteen cards, four, four, and
five at a time. The eldest hand may
now say " I pass," or undertake to
win five or more tricks (called " bid-
ding"). Each player, in turn, has
the same privilege, but each must
pass if he cannot bid to take more
tricks than any one before him.
When a player bids, the one that
bid just before him may bid higher
if he can, before the next one to the
left has the privilege. If all the
players pass, there is a new deal.
Otherwise the bidding goes on
around the table till all but one pass,
but no one that has already passed
may bid. The remaining bidder
names the trump, and playing be-
gins, the eldest hand leading. If the
bidder wins as many tricks as he bid,
or more, he scores the number of
points shown in the table given be-
low; otherwise each of the other
players scores that number. In-
stead of bidding to take a certain
number of tricks, a player may bid
" Great Misery " or " Little Misery,"
and he may do this when he has al-
ready passed. He who bids Great
Misery must play his cards so as not
to take a single trick. If he take
one, he loses. He who bids Little
Misery must discard one card, and
play the other twelve without taking
a trick. In either case there is no
trump. A player may bid either
Great or Little Misery Ouverte
(French for Open), in which case he
must lay his cards face upward on
the table and play them in that man-
ner. These bids rank differently, as
is shown in the following list of bids,
where they are given in their order,
beginning with the lowest :
1. Five Tricks, or Boston.
2. Six Tricks.
3. Seven Tricks.
4. Little Misery.
5. Eight Tricks.
6. Nine Tricks.
7. Great Misery.
8. Ten Tricks.
9. Eleven Tricks.
10. Little Misery Ouverte.
11. Twelve Tricks.
12. Great Misery Ouverte.
13. Thirteen Tricks or Grand
Slam.
When all the players pass, instead
of having a fresh deal, what is called
Misery Partout (Misery All) is some-
times played by agreement. In this
case there is no trump, and each
tries to take as few tricks as he can.
Each scores 10 for every trick he has
less than each of the others. Thus,
if A takes four tricks ; B the same ;
C three and D two, since D has one
less than C, two less than B, and
two less than A, he scores 50. C
scores 20, in like manner, and A and
B score nothing.
The following table shows the
number of points to be scored by a
player taking all the tricks he bid, or
more :
U)
'-£. '
y g
TRICKS TAKEN.
HW
5
6
7
8
9
IO
II
12
'3
5
12
12
13
13
14
M
14
15
15
6
IS
16
16
I?
18
'9
2O
20
7
18
20
21
22
23
24
26
8
23
24
26
28
29
3'
9
32
34
36
39
41
10
42
45
48
5*
II
63
68
72
12
106
"4
»3
1 66
If a player does not take as many
tricks as he bid, he is said to be " put
in for " the number of tricks that are
wanting, and each of the other play-
ers, all whom play against him, score
the number of points he is " put in
for." The following table shows
what his opponents score in each
c;\se:
BOSTON
105
BOSTON
Ba
TRICKS "Pur IN FOR."
HW
i
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
ii
12
*3
5
ii
31
31
4»
5°
6
'5
24
35
45
55
66
7
19
29
40
5°
60
73
82
8
23
34
46
56
67
78
89
no
9
33
44
57
68
80
92
103
"5
127
10
44
56
70
82
94
107
119
132
MS
'57
ii
67
80
95
109
"3
138
'Si
165
180
194
208
12
"3
130
148
165
182
200
217
234
252
270
286
304
"3
177
198
222
241
262
284
3°5
326
348
369
39°
412
433
The bidder of Little Misery loses
or wins 20 points ; of Great Misery,
40; of Little Misery Ouverte, 80;
and of Great Misery Ouverte, 160.
The score may be kept with count-
ers, in which case they are divided
equally among the players at the be-
ginning. If the bidder win, each of
the others gives him as many count-
ers as the points he wins; if not, he
gives each of them as many as the
points he loses.
Boston is often played with two
packs, in which case while the dealer
is giving cards from one pack his
partner turns up the top card of the
other. The suit of the turned-np
card is called "First Preference";
that of the same color, " Second
Preference "; while the two remain-
ing suits are called common suits.
When a player bids anything but a
Miser)', his left-hand neighbor may
say" I ' eep," meaning that he under-
takes to win the same number of
tricks by making one of the prefer-
ence suits trump. This is called
" playing in color." The next player
may say " I keep over you," meaning
that he undertakes to do the same
with the turned-up suit as trump.
This is called " playing in trump."
A bid in color is always preferred to
a common bid of the same rank, and
one in trump to one in color.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. In cutting for deal, the lowest
deals.
2. If there be a misdeal, or the
dealer expose any of the other play-
ers' cards, there must be a new deal.
3. If two packs are used they
must be used alternately for dealing.
4. If a player deal out of turn or
with the wrong pack, and complete
the deal unnoticed, it must stand;
and the player at his left deals next.
5. No player who passes may
afterward bid during the same hand,
unless he bids a Misery.
6. If a card be led or played out of
turn, it must be taken back into the
owner's hand, unless the whole trick
has been played.
7. Cards so taken back, or other-
wise exposed must be played when
they are called for, unless playing
them would cause a revoke.
8. Only the last trick may be
looked at.
French Boston, or Boston de Fon-
tainebleau. In bidding, the suits
rank as follows, beginning with the
highest : Diamonds, Hearts, Clubs,
Spades. Each bidder must name
with his bid the suit he purposes to
make trumps (except of course in
the case of a Misery, when there is
no trump), and the same bid in a
higher suit is given preference over
it. The bids to win a certain num-
ber of tricks are called Six Levees,
Seven Levees, and so on, and the
Grand Slam is called " Chelem," or
'' Grand Boston." There are two
new bids : " Picolissimo " (ranking
between Seven and Eight Levees),
in which the bidder discards one
card as in Little Misery, but tries to
win one trick, neither more nor less ;
and " Grand Boston on the Table,"
in which the bidder exposes his hand
and tries to win every trick. The
highest bidder, if he has bid to take
BOSTON
106
BOTTLE TRICK
not more than ten tricks, may call
for a partner or " Whister." Any
player that is willing to aid him may
answer " Whist," and the two to-
gether must then take three more
tricks than the number that was bid.
The partners share in profit and loss.
If two or more players answer
" Whist," that one is accepted who
sits nearest the bidder's left hand.
The number of points or counters
won or lost by the bidder is shown
in the following table:
Five Levees (Boston), . . . . 10
Six Levees, . 30
Little Misery, ....*.. 75
Seven Levees, 50
Picolissimo, 100
Eight Levees, 70
Grand Misery, 1 50
Nine Levees, 90
Little Misery on the Table, . . 200
Ten Levees, no
Grand Misery on the Table, . 250
Eleven Levees 130
Twelve Levees, 150
Chelem, or Grand Boston, . . 400
Chelem on the Table, .... 600
The above figures are for the
cases where Clubs or Spades are
trumps. If Hearts are trumps 10
must be added to each number, and
if Diamonds are trumps, 20 must be
added to each number. For every
trick taken beyond the number bid,
5 must be added.
The Ace, King, Queen, and
Knave of Trumps are called honors.
If the successful bidder hold the
majority of them, each one that he
has more than his opponents counts
as an extra trick. Thus, if he hold
three honors to his opponents' one,
he is said to be "two by honors,"
and scores for two extra tricks. If
he hold all the honors, he is " four
by honors," and scores for four
extra tricks. Honors do not count
as tricks bid ; for instance, if a
player bid Six Levees, and take only
five tricks, he loses, even if he have
four honors. In all other respects,
French Boston is played like the
common game. The player who
plays alone, without a Whister, is
sometimes said to play " Independ-
ence."
History. Boston is said to have
originated in this country. Some
writers say that it was taken to
France by Benjamin Franklin and
named after his native city. French
authors say that the terms " Misery "
and "Independence" refer respec-
tively to the sufferings of the Amer-
icans in the Revolution and the
cause for which they fought. Boiteau
says: " Boston is the North American
Whist ; it was born in the war of
independence; it is a political mani-
festo." However this may be, Bos-
ton has never been a popular game
in this country, but became a great
favorite in France, and was much
played in Paris in the first half of
this century. It is similar to other
French games, and is probably of
French origin, the name Boston
and the terms " Independence," etc.,
being introduced at the time of the
American Revolution. Boston is
played in Germany and England also
under the same name.
BOTTLE LIFTED WITH A
STRAW. A bottle may be lifted
with a stout straw, if it be bent and
arranged within the bottle as shown
in the illustration on next page.
BOTTLE, to Crawl into- Lay a
bottle on the floor with the neck
toward an open door. Say that you
propose to try to crawl into it, if the
audience will keep so still as not to
disturb the experiment, and talk and
act any hocus-pocus you please about
the difficulties and dangers of the
experiment. Make a fuss about ar-
ranging your dress, etc., etc. Go in-
to the open room and face the audi-
ence, squint hard at the bottle, alter
your position once or twice, get on
your hands and knees, get up and ad-
just the bottle again, go out again,
and after just enough fuss, but not
too much, crawl in to the bottle.
BOTTLE TRICK. To pick up
a handkerchief from the floor by the
BOTTLE TRICK
107
BOUTS-RIMES
teeth while balancing a bottle on the
head : Bow the head well forward,
Lifting Bottle with a Straw.
and place an empty claret or cham-
pagne bottle on the crown. Gradu-
on both knees. Bend forward with
the arms in advance, and parted
about two feet, until they touch the
floor. Extend the legs one by one
backwards, swing forward between
the arms so that most of the weight
is on them. Seize the handkerchief
by the teeth (Fig. 2), or the tongue
ally lower the body on one leg (Fig.
l), and come to a kneeling position
Bottle Trick— Fig. 2.
may assist, and rise as you descended.
The bottle will invariably fall a little
out of the perpendicular, but with a
little practice can be easily kept in
balance. The handkerchief should
be bunched high, and placed about
four feet in front of the body when
upright.
BOUTS-RIMES (pronounced boo
re-mdy), a game in which each player
writes on a slip of paper four or
more words that rhyme alternately,
as boy, long, toy, strong. The slips
are mixed ; each player draws one,
and must then write a verse whose
lines end, in order, with the words he
has drawn. The number of words
and the order in which they rhyme
may be varied by agreement of the
players at the beginning of the game,
and the subject of the verses may
also be given out, increasing the dif-
ficulty of the task.
History. This game is French
in origin, as its name shows. It is
said to have been originated in 1648,
by the poet Dulos, who was accus-
tomed to write the rhymes of his
sonnets before he filled in the other
words. His friends, amused at this,
devised a game on the same plan,
and it became very popular in French
society. Bouts-Rimes means rhymed
ends. The Germans call it Endreim-
spiel (end-rhyme-play). The follow-
ing verses are said to have been
written by Horace Walpole, on
BOWLING
108
BOWLING
drawing the four words, brook, why,
crook, I:
THE GENTLE SHEPHERD.
I sits with my toes in a brook.
And if any one asks me for why,
I hits 'em a rap with my crook,
And " 'tis sentiment kills me," says I.
Machine Poetryf a kind of Bouts-
Rimes where the rhymes are given
by the holders of several cards. A
pack of playing cards is dealt to the
company in order, one at a time.
One player begins by throwing out
any card and calling out a word.
The players who hold the correspond-
ing cards in the other three suits do
likewise, in order, to the left, each
fiving a word to rhyme with the
rst player's. The player of the
last card must make a stanza of four
lines ending with the four words in
the order in which they were given.
.If a player hold more than one card
of the same kind he may play them
one after the other, or wait till the
second round, as agreed by the com-
pany before the same begins. In-
stead of having all the rhymes in the
stanza the same, two may be given
alternately, or in any way the play-
ers choose. Sometimes the first
player makes the " poetry " instead
of the last player, and the game may
be varied in other ways.
Instead of giving simply a word,
the players may each furnish an en-
tire line of the stanza.
Another method is for one player
to select a sonnet from the works of
any poet, and then read aloud, in
order, the final words of each line,
waiting after each till every player
has composed a line ending with
that word. The players thus com-
pose poems the last words of whose
lines are alike, but which differ
widely in other respects.
BOWLING, the game of bowls,
originally played on smooth turf, but
now more generally on long, narrow
platforms called alleys. The alleys,
about 60 feet long and 4 feet wide,
are usually constructed of narrow
strips of yellow pine, set edgewise,
and made very smooth and nearly
level. At the lower end is a de-
pressed space, commonly floored
with tan-bark or sawdust, and
padded at the back to break the
force of the balls, which are returned
to the players by an attendant. The
pins used are about 1 5 inches around
at the thickest part, and 15 or 16
inches high. Balls (bowls) are of
different sizes, to suit the taste of
the players, varying from 5 to 10
inches in diameter.
Ten Pins, the game of bowls most
common in the United States. The
pins, ten in number, are set up on
spots arranged in a triangle, as
shown in the figure :
o o o o
o o o
o o
o
The pin at the point of the triangle,
which is toward the player, is called
the King Pin. The players take
turns, and continue to bowl in the
same order during the game, which
lasts until each has had ten turns.
Each player scores one point for
i every pin he knocks down, and is al-
lowed to bowl three balls in each
turn, unless he knocks down all the
pins before he has used that number,
in which case his play ceases. If he
overturn them all with one ball
(called making a " ten-strike ") he is
said to have a " double spare," and
whatever he makes with the first two
balls in his next turn counts on the
former turn as well as on the latter.
Thus, if a player make 10 with his
first ball, he stops playing. If, in his
next turn, he make with the three
balls 4, 2, and 3 respectively, he
scores 16 for his first turn and 9 for
his second, the 4 and 2 counting
twice. If the first ball of the second
turn also make a ten-strike, then the
first of the third turn counts as part
of each of the three turns. If the
pins are down after two balls have
been played, the player has a " single
spare" or "spare," and reckons in
the same way what he makes with
BOWLING
109
BOWLING
the first ball of his next turn. If a '
spare or double spare be made in the ;
tenth turn, the player rolls one or |
two extra balls. If a player make a
spare, a cross is marked opposite his
score for that turn ; if he make a
double spare, a double cross is used.
This way of scoring, which is some-
times called " counting old and new,"
is generally used, but the players
may agree on any other ; for instance,
if a player make a ten-strike, the pins
may be set up again, and he may
finish rolling his three balls before
the next player takes his turn.
The scores are usually kept with
chalk on blackboards at the side of
the alleys. He wins whose score is
the highest at the end of the game.
The players may be divided into two
sides, in which case the points made
by those on each side are added to
determine the winning side. Where
there are two alleys, the players use
them alternately, and the pins are set
up on one alley, while bowling is go-
ing on at the other. Where there
are only two players, they often bowl
at the same time on different alleys,
but they should change alleys at the
end of each game.
Rules. The following rules are
substantially those of the Amateur
Athletic Bowling League, which
have been adopted also by the Ama-
teur Athletic Union. Those relating
merely to matters of discipline have
been omitted :
1. The game adopted to be played
by clubs belonging to this League,
shall be what is known as the Amer-
ican Ten Frame Game.
2. In the playing of match games
there shall be a line drawn upon the
alleys sixty feet from the head or
front pin.
3. In the playing of match games,
any wooden ball may be used that
does not exceed twenty-seven inches
in circumference.
4. The game shall consist of ten
frames on each side, when, should
the number of points be equal, the
play shall be continued until a ma-
jority of points upon an equal num-
ber of frames shall be attained, which
shall conclude the game. All strikes
and spares made in the ten frame
shall be completed before leaving the
alley and on same alley as made.
5. In playing all match games, ten
players from each Club shall con-
stitute a full team.
6. Players must play in regular ro-
tation, and after the first inning no
changes can be made except with
the consent of the Captains.
7. In match games two alleys only
are to be used ; a player to roll but
one frame at a time, and to change
alleys every frame.
8. The umpire shall take great
care that the regulations respecting
the balls, alleys, and all rules of the
game are strictly observed. He shall
be the judge of fair and unfair play,
and shall determine all disputes and
differences which may occur during
the game.
9. In all matches the umpire shall
be selected by the Captains of the
respective teams, and he shall per-
form all the duties in Rule 8, except
recording the game, which shall be
done by two scorers, one of whom
shall be appointed by each of the
contending clubs.
10. Neither umpire, scorer, or
player shall be changed during the
match, unless with the consent of
both Captains, except for reasons of
illness or injury, or for a violation of
these rules, and then the umpire
may dismiss any such transgressors.
11. No person except the Captains
shall be permitted to approach or
speak with the Umpire, scorers, or
players during the progress of the
game, unless by special request of
the Umpire.
13. Should either Club fail to pro-
duce its players within thirty min-
utes after the game is called, the
Club so failing shall admit a defeat,
and the game shall be considered as
won, unless the delinquent Club fail
to play on account of the recent
death of one of its members, and
BOWLING
no
BOWLING
sufficient time has not elapsed
to enable them to give their oppo-
nents due notice before arriving at
the place appointed for the match.
14. A player must not step on or
over the line in delivering the ball,
nor after it has been delivered, until
it leaves the alley. Any ball so de-
livered shall be deemed " foul," and
the pins (if any made on such ball)
shall be placed in the same positions
as they were before the ball was
rolled. It is also considered a foul
ball if any part of the person should
touch any part of the alley beyond
the line before the ball leaves the
alley. All foul balls shall count as
balls rolled.
1 5. Should any ball delivered leave
the alley before reaching the pins, or
any ball rebound from the back
cushion, the pins, if any, made on
such balls shall not count, but must
be placed in same position as they
were before the ball was rolled. All
such balls to count as balls rolled.
1 6. In all match games, two per-
sons to act as Judges shall be chosen,
one by each Captain, who shall take
their positions at the head of the
alleys and see that the pins are
properly set up, and that no one in-
terferes with them in any way until
the player is through rolling. They
will immediately report to the Cap-
tains any irregularities that they may
notice during the game.
24. A regulation pin must be used
in match playing. Each pin to be
from fifteen to sixteen inches in
length, fifteen inches in circumfer-
ence at the thickest part, and two
inches across the bottom.
26. In match games the dead
wood must be removed from the alley
after each ball. Should a pin fall on
the removal of the dead wood, it is
to be re-spotted.
27. Sufficient space shall be ' al-
lotted to the participants in the game,
to which none but members of the
teams shall be admitted.
Nine Pins, a bowling game in
which the king pin is omitted, and
the object is to leave one pin stand-
ing. He who does this in three balls
or less scores one, and as each has
ten turns, no more than ten points
can be made.
Cocked Hat, a bowling game in
which only the three corner pins of
the triangle are set up. The method
of playing is the same in Ten Pins.
The player scores a point for each
pin he overturns, and " spares " are
played as in Ten Pins. The game
is difficult, as the three pins are so
far apart that it is hard to knock
more than one at a time.
Four Back, a bowling game in
which only four pins are set up,
forming a straight line across the
rear of the alley. Each pin knocked
down counts one point, and Spares
are scored as in Ten Pins.
Parlor Ten Pins. There are sev-
eral forms of Ten Pins to be played
in the parlor. In one, pins about a
foot high are set up at one end of
the room, and bowled at from the
other with balls about the size of
TEN
Parlor Ten Pins with Elastic Cord.
Croquet balls. In another a minia-
ture alley four or five feet long is
used, which can be placed on a table.
The pins are about three inches
high and the balls the size of mar-
BOWLING
III
BOWLING
bles. In still another, a post stands
by the side of the pins with an arm
projecting over them, and from
the arm a ball is hung by a string.
The player swings the ball against
the pins so as to overturn them. In
Germany this is played as a lawn
game, the post being two or eight
feet high and the pins ordinary ten-
pins. It is called there Wurfkegel-
spiel (Throw-Bowling). In another
form the pins stand on a triangular
frame which can be placed on a table.
The ball is fastened to one of the
angles of the frame by an elastic
cord. The player holding the ball
stretches the cord about fifteen feet
and then releases.it, so that the ball
will strike the pins. Another kind is
played on a board like a BAGATELLE
board, the balls being moved by a
spring. In all these forms of the
game the method of scoring may be
the same as in regular Ten Pins, or
a special method may be agreed on
by the players before the game.
History. — The game of bowls,
still a favorite in England and Scot-
land, was practiced as early as the
twelfth century. It is played on a
bowling-green, on which the turf is
closely shaven and rolled, surrounded
by a shallow trench. A small round
white ball, called the Jack, is placed
at one end, and the object of the
players is to roll their bowls so that
they shall stop near as possible to
this mark. The bowls, which are of
Bowling in the i3th Century.
hard wood, six or eight inches in di-
ameter, are not quite round, but a
little one-sided (sometimes they are
loaded with lead on one side), so
that a peculiar twist is needed to
make them go where wanted. The
players are generally divided into two
sides, and each man on each side has
two bowls. The side whose bowls
stop nearest the Jack counts one
point in the game for each bowl. The
number of points to be considered
the game is decided before bowling
begins.
The earliest form of this game is
shown probably in the accompany-
ing illustration, taken from an Eng-
lish manuscript of the thirteenth
century, in which the object rolled at
is a pin pointed at the top. The
French called this form of the game
Carreau (paving stone), from the
square stone upon which the pin
was set.
Bowls was a favorite with the
Dutch, and the early citizens of New
York (then New Amsterdam) used
to play it on the ground still called
Bowling Green, near the lower end
of Broadway. In Paris, the game
was played on the ramparts of the
city, which were hence called Boule-
vards (from boule, a ball), a name
now given to the streets that oc-
cupy their site. Bowling alleys
were first built at noblemen's houses
in England. Henry VIII. had sev-
eral constructed at the Palace of
Whitehall. They became popular
and many were built in London, but
BOXING
112
BOXING
as they grew to be places of resort
for bad characters, many laws were
made against them, and finally, in
1728 they were abolished, and the
statutes against them were not re-
pealed till 1845.
Our game of Ten Pins is derived
from an old English form of bowls
called Kayles, Cayles, or Keiles, a
corruption of the French Quilles
(cones, from the shape of the pins)
still played in France under that
name. The Kayle pins were set in
a row and were of various numbers.
Sometimes a stick was thrown at
them instead of a ball. Kayle pins
were afterwards called Kettle or Kit-
tle pins, and then Skittle-pins, and a
bowling game called Skittles is still
a favorite in England. There were
also other bowling games. Nine
Pins, the original form of Ten Pins,
Kayles.
or the game as we play it, came into
favor after the abolition of alleys in
England. It was also known there
as Long Bowling and Dutch Rub-
bers. The tenth pin is said to have
been added to evade a law prohibit-
ing the sport because it was used for
gambling.
There are a few ten-pin alleys
in London, but this form of the game
is not played much outside of the
United States. There has recently
been a great revival of interest in
bowling in some parts of the Eastern
States. Near New York many places
have regular bowling clubs, which
are sometimes formed into county
leagues, and play regular series of
games annually for the champion-
ship.
BOXING, the art of fighting with
the fists. The boxer's hands are
usually covered with gloves padded
on the back with hair two or three
inches thick to prevent injury from a
blow.
Correct Position. The boxer usu-
ally stands with his left foot advanced,
and on a line with his adversary, his
right being in the rear and turned
Boxing Gloves.
slightly outward, resting his weight
chiefly on the right leg. The fists
are closed, not too tightly, and the
arms are held as shown in Fig. I.
Advancing and Breaking Ground.
In advancing the right foot is never
put before the left, as in walking, but
follows it, falling nearly on the place
BOXING
BOXING
from which the left was raised. Thus
in advancing and retreating the two
feet keep at about the same dis-
Fig. i.
tance. Retreating is called " break-
ing ground," and is always per-
formed by first moving the right
foot backward and then drawing the
left back to the place just occupied
by the right.
Fig. 2.
Both on Guard. The boxers stand
so facing each other that the left
fist of one is on a level with the
other's wrist and their left toes are
15 to 1 8 inches apart. Thelefthand
is used for striking when the oppo-
nent is just within distance, and the
right when he is close. A skillful
boxer makes his blows from the
shoulder, and renders them more
effective, when he wishes, by throw-
ing the weight of his whole body
forward (Fig. 2). Blows made by
swinging the arms like a windmill
should never be used by a beginner.
The learner should take care never
to hit fiercely when out of distance,
as it jars the muscles. The left foot
and hand should be kept well in
front, and after delivering a blow the
boxer should move to the right, thus
keeping away from his opponent's
right arm.
Guards. — Blows may be met by
" guarding " or " stopping." The
former means receiving an adver-
sary's blow on the right or left arm
as the occasion demands, the latter
is planting a sudden blow which pre-
vents the opponent's hit from reach-
ing its destination. Thus, if the
boxer sees that his enemy is about to
deliver a body-blow with his left, he
may guard with the right, or stop
the intended hit by delivering a quick
blow at the adversary's face before
he can get his head down, which
would be his natural position in de-
livering the blow. In guarding the
blows should be caught on the
muscles of the forearm slantingly,
and never, if possible, on the bone.
To be a skillful boxer it is best to
BOXING
114
BOXING
take lessons of one who is proficient
in the art, as it is difficult to teach it
on paper.
The four principal blows made use
of in boxing, with their recognized
guards, will now be described. They
are
1. Left hand at the head.
2. Left hand body-blow.
3. Right hand at the head.
4. Right hand body-blow.
The first is met by leading off in
like manner at the opponent's head,
at the same time throwing up the
right or guard arm to catch his blow
(Fig. 3). Care must be taken not to
obstruct the sight, for the boxer
must never take his eye from his
opponent. Each boxer thus makes
the same blow (Fig. 4), and the same
guard at once. This movement,
which is very common, is called the
" double lead and stop."
Fig. 4.
In guarding the left hand body-
blow, the boxer should bear in mind
that it will fall on his left side and
therefore must be taken on his left
arm. The right arm must therefore
be put up at once and the left arm
dropped across the body, keeping the
elbow well into the side and the fore-
arm braced firmly against the ribs.
As the blow is taken the boxer should
" break ground " a little.
For a right hand blow at the head
the usual guard is to raise the left
elbow quickly, pointing it nearly in
the direction of the coming blow, and
at the same time drop the left fist
toward the body, turning the palm a
little outward. Leaning forward the
boxer catches the blow on the fore-
arm, near the elbow, and and at the
same time retires slightly.
To guard the right hand body-
Fig. 5.
blow, the left hand is dropped
almost at full length, the fist touch-
ing the inner side of the left thigh,
and at the same moment the shoulder
is raised quickly toward the chin
rounding the whole upper arm over
the chest, and slightly turning the
left side (Fig. 5). The heart and the
whole of the left side are thus com-
pletely shielded.
Feinting, pretending to strike one
blow when another is intended. A
feint may be made by an actual
movement of the hand, or simply by
glancing at one place and then strik-
ing at another.
Ducking. A movement of the
head in sparring, called "head-work "
or " ducking," generally accompanies
a counter (explained below), the head
being bent toward the hand which
delivers the counter. The rule is
always to duck in the opposite di-
rection from the enemy and not to
raise the head till the boxer is out of
BOXING
BOXING
his reach.
" ducks."
There are three distinct
I. The duck to the right, allowing
a blow to
(Fig. 6).
pass by the left ear
Fig. 6.
2. To the left, letting a blow pass
to the right.
3. Forward, lowering the head so
that the blow passes directly over it.
(Fig. 7).
The boxer must be careful not to
duck too soon, or his opponent will
have time to change the direction of
his blow. When ducking the oppor-
tunity should always be taken to de-
liver a blow at the same time.
Fig. 8.
Counters. A " counter " is a blow
given by a boxer when he sees his
adversary about to strike, and is
accompanied by a motion to ward off
Fig. 9.
the opponent's attack. In a " plain "
or "straight" counter both boxers
strike at once with the same hands.
The blows may both take effect
(Fig. 8) or both men may duck
(Fig 9). In a "cross counter" as
one boxer leads off the other strikes
across the former's arm. The
right hand cross-counter is given by
BOXING
116
BOXING
stepping in 10 to 15 inches as the
opponent leads at the head, ducking
to the left, turning the body so as to
bring the right arm well up, and
striking with it over the opponent's
outstretched left. The blow is natu-
rally delivered upward at the jaw or
chin, and the fist performs a quar-
ter circle to the left (Fig. 10). To
master this blow constant practice
and great agility are required.
Body-Blows. Though the head
and face are the main points of at-
tack, the boxer should never let pass
an opportunity to strike his adver-
sary's chest or stomach. Such op-
Fig, 10.
portunities will generally offer when
the opponent is leading at the head
with either of his hands. When he
does so, instead of ducking, guard-
ing or countering at his head, the
boxer should aim a blow at his body,
but as this necessitates stepping in
closer, it should be certain that there
is plenty of room behind fora retreat.
A feint at the heacl.when a body-blow
is intended, often causes the opponent
to throw up his right arm, thus ex-
posing himself. In giving a left
hand body-blow, duck to the right
(Fig. 6) ; in a right hand blow to the
left, to avoid a possible counter.
The right hand blow does not re-
quire such a long step forward as
the left.
Upper Cuts. These blows should
always be given when an opponent,
trying to get in a body-blow, lunges
forward with head in advance of his
body. Drop the left fist a little and
draw the arm back as far as possible ;
Fig. ii.
then swing it up quickly between the
opponent's hands so as to strike his
chin or nose (Fig. 1 1 ). The blow is
aided by swinging the body upward.
Fig. 12.
A skillful boxer often tempts his ad-
versary to try an upper cut by throw-
BOXING
117
BOXING
ing his head forward, and then, duck-
ing, gives a heavy left hand body-
blow, so an upper cut should rarely
be tried against a clever adversary.
Side Step. This is executed by
ducking smartly to the right as the
opponent steps in, passing rapidly
under his left arm by a movement
like a run and jump combined, and
facing him again by turning sharply
to the left. This is an effective way
of avoiding furious rushes, but must
be as quick as lightning, and re-
quires long practice. In Fig. 12 the
boxer on the right is just getting out
of reach by the side step.
In-Fighting. This takes place
when a boxer succeeds in getting
both his arms inside his opponent's,
when he can give several blows in
rapid succession, striking by swing-
ing the shoulders forward and not by
drawing the arm back (Fig. 13).
Sometimes a boxer leads with two
blows in succession, striking with
left hand at the face, for instance,
and then with the same hand, or with
the right hand, at either face or body.
The beginner should practice each
blow and guard separately, slowly at
first, and then increasing in rapidity,
returning to the position of guard
after each blow.
The boxer should avoid getting ex-
cited, should fix his eyes on his op-
ponent, and should try to tell by his
movements what his intentions are.
He should never do the same thing
twice in succession. In some boxing
contests wrestling forms a part, but
in others it is forbidden. In general
a boxer should avoid getting to close
quarters with a heavier adversary,
and with a taller opponent should
direct his blows at the body.
Supplementary Exercise. Prac-
tice with Indian clubs and dumb-
bells (see GYMNASTICS) is good for
the boxer, but his special exercise is
that known as " punching the bag."
Three kinds of bags are commonly
used ; the first or heavy bag, weighs
10 to 20 pounds and is made of
chamois skin or kid stuffed with
horse-hair. It is suspended from the
ceiling by a rope. The method of
using it is to set it swinging and then
follow it about, hitting it as it moves
away from the boxer. The heavy
bag should not be used by a beginner.
The light or flying bag is of inflated
India rubber. The object is never to
let the bag get past without hitting
it, and as it flies about very rapidly,
this is excellent training for quick
movement. The third bag is the
one most generally in use. It resem-
bles the flying bag, but is attached to
the floor as well as to the ceiling and
does not require quite as much
agility to hit.
Boxing is valued highly as an
exercise and also because it trains
the learner to use his fists in his own
defence, which he may at some time
or other have occasion to do.
Thomas Hughes, in his story of
" Tom Brown's School Days at
Rugby," says : " Learn to box then,
as you learn to play cricket and foot-
ball. Not one of you will be the
worse, but very much the better for
learning to box well. Should you
never have to use it in earnest, there's
no exercise in the world so good for
the temper, and for the muscles of
the back and legs. " Boxing matches
now form part of many of the indoor
meetings of athletic associations.
BOXING
118
BOXING
RULES,
The following are the boxing rules
of the National Amateur Athletic
Union :
1. In all open competitions the
ring shall be roped, and of not less
than 12 ft. or more than 24 ft.
square.
2. Competitors to box in light
boots or shoes (without spikes) or in
socks.
3. Weights to be bantam, 105 Ibs.
and under ; light, 135 Ibs. and under ;
middle, 158 Ibs. and under.
4. In all open competitions the
result shall be decided by two judges,
with a referee. A timekeeper shall
be appointed.
5. In all competitions the number
of rounds to be contested shall be
three. The duration of the rounds
in the trial bout shall be limited to
three minutes each. In the " finals "
the first two rounds shall be three
minutes each, and the final round
four minutes. The interval between
each round shall be one minute.
6. In all competitions, any com-
petitor failing to come up when time
is called shall lose the bout.
7. Where a competitor draws a
bye, such competitor shall be bound
to spar such bye for the specified
time, and with such opponent as the
judges of such competition may ap-
prove.
8. Each competitor shall be en-
titled to the assistance of one second
only, and no advice or coaching
shall be given to any competitor
by his second, or by any other per-
son, during the progress of any
round.
9. The manner of judging shall be
as follows : The two judges and the
referee shall be stationed apart. At
the end of each bout each judge
shall write the name of the competi-
tor who, in his opinion, has won, and
shall hand the same to an official ap-
pointed for the purpose. In the cases
where the judges agree, such official
shall announce the name of the win-
ner, but in cases where the judges
disagree, such official shall so inform
the referee, who shall thereupon him-
self decide.
10. The referee shall have power
to give his casting vote when the
judges disagree, to caution or dis-
qualify a competitor for infringing
rules, or to stop a round in the event
of either man being knocked down,
provided that the stopping of either
of the first two rounds shall not dis-
qualify any competitor from com-
peting in the final round. And he
can order a further round, limited to
two minutes, in the event of the
judges disagreeing.
11. That the decision of the judges
or referee, as the case may be, shall
be final.
12. In all competitions the deci-
sions shall be given in favor of the
competitor who displays the best
style and obtains the greatest num-
ber of points. The points shall be:
for attack, direct clean hits with the
knuckles of either hand on any part
of the front or sides of head, or
body above the belt ; defense, guard-
ing, slipping, ducking, counter-
hitting, or getting away. Where
points are otherwise equal, consider-
ation to be given the man who does
most of the leading off.
13. The referee may, after caution-
ing the offender, disqualify a com-
petitor who is boxing unfairly, by
flicking or hitting with the open
glove, by hitting with the inside or
butt of the hand, the wrist or elbow,
or by wrestling or roughing at the
ropes.
14. In the event of any question
arising not provided for in these
rules, the judges and referee to have
full power to decide such question or
interpretation of rule.
History. Boxing was said by the
Greeks to have been invented by
Theseus ; and Pollux, Hercules, and
other Greek heroes are described as
excelling in, it. It was one of the
important features of the Olympic
games (C. P. P., article OLYMPIA.)
Instead of boxing gloves, the ancients
BOXING
119
BREATH FIGURES
used the cestus, an arrangement of
leather strips wound around the
hand and sometimes up the arm as
far as the elbow. These were some-
times loaded with lumps of lead and
were very dangerous. In ancient
boxing contests the right arm was
used chiefly for striking and the left
for warding off blows.
The Romans liked to look at exhi-
bitions of boxing, but considered it
undignified to take part in them.
Boxing was revived in England in
Cestua.
the eighteenth century, when it be-
gan to be called " the noble art of
self-defense." A teacher of boxing
named Broughton, who is said to
have invented the boxing-glove at
this time, gave public exhibitions of
his skill in a theater, which he built
for the purpose. Boxing contests
without gloves, called prize-fights,
were also held, but they became so
brutal that laws were passed against
them, and at present boxing is prac-
ticed by respectable people only as
a form of athletic exercise. It is in
favor principally in England and the
United States.
Savate. The French are not
skilled in the English system of box-
ing, but practice a kind called Savate,
in which the head and feet, as well as
the fists, are used for attack and de-
fense. It is said that those skilled in
the method have defeated some of
Savate.
the best English boxers, whose
guards, though perfect against a
blow from the fist, would often be
no defense at all against one from
the foot. The sailors of the French
navy are trained every day in Savate,
in which they are very expert.
BREATH FIGURES, Experiments
on. l. Trace a figure with the fin-
ger on a pane of glass. Nothing
will be seen until the plate is breathed
on, when the figure becomes visible.
2. Lay a coin on a freshly polished
plate of glass or metal. After sev-
eral minutes remove the coin and
breathe on the metal, when an image
of the coin will appear. The result
will be the same if the coin is polished
instead of the plate on which it is
laid.
3. Breathe on the surface of a
pane of glass which has been in con-
tact for several years with an en-
graving. In many cases the lines of
the engraving will become visible on
the glass.
Explanation. On the surface of
all solids gathers a layer of gas,
vapor, and fine dust, which is re-
moved by polishing and altered by
BREATH PORTRAITS
120
BUCK
the contact of other solids. If the
object be breathed upon the breath
will condense more easily on some
parts than others, according to the
state of this layer, and any marks
made on it will hence become visible.
BREATH PORTRAITS. To finely
powdered fluor spar add enough
sulphuric acid to make the mixture
of the proper thickness to be used as
ink. With a quill pen, write or draw
with it on the surface of plate glass.
After the fluid has been on the glass
five to ten minutes wash it off with
water. The surface of the glass
under it will be slightly eaten away,
but so little that it will not be noticed
unless the glass is breathed upon,
when the design or writing will stand
out clearly. The effect is very striking.
BROTHER, I AM BOBBED, a
trick, in the form of a game, in which
any number of persons take part.
Two persons, to act the part of
"brothers," are selected, of whom
one must not have played the game
before. The brothers are blind-
folded and kneel back to back, and
the other players stand around them
in a circle, each with a knotted hand-
kerchief. The " brother " who does
not understand the game is told that
the players are to hit one of the
brothers with a handkerchief from
time to time, and the one hit is to
cry out " Brother, I am bobbed ! "
The other must then respond, " Who
bobbed you ? " and the first must
guess who hit him. He is told that
if the guess be correct the person
who struck him will have to change
places with him. When the game
has begun, however, the " brother "
who knows the trick removes the
handkerchief that covered his eyes,
and, knotting it, strikes his compan-
ion. When asked, "Who bobbed
you ? " the latter of course makes a
wrong guess. This is kept up till
the victim suspects that he is de-
ceived. The " brother" who knows
the trick should occasionally cry out
" Brother, I am bobbed," to keep up
the illusion.
In France this game is called
" Frtre, on me bat " (Brother, some
one strikes me).
BRUNETTE AND BLONDE, a
SOLITAIRE game of CARDS, played
with two packs. The first eight
cards played are laid in a row, and
on each of them are placed others in
descending order, but of different col-
or alternately. Thus, on a red nine a
black eight must be placed ; on this
a red seven, and so on. Whenever
the Aces appear they are placed in a
row by themselves, and on them are
built families in ascending order,
without regard to suits, except that
no card must be placed on one of the
same color. The families may be
built up by using cards as they come
from the pack, or the top cards of the
piles. All cards that cannot at once
be used are laid aside to form stock,
which can be shuffled and relaid
twice. If the families can be com-
pleted thus, the player wins.
BUCK, a game played by two per-
son, one of whom places his arms
across his breast, or rests them on
his knees, and bends forward, rest-
ing his head against a fence, tree, or
wall. This is called " giving a back."
The other player sits astride the back
of the first, and holding up one or
more fingers, says, " Buck, Buck,
how many horns do I hold up ? "
The first player guesses, and if his
guess is correct the two change
places ; but if the guess is wrong, the
rider gets down, leaps on again, and
holds up one or more fingers again
with the same question. So the game
goes on as long as the players choose.
The " buck " is sometimes blindfold-
ed, and a third person often acts as
umpire, to see that there is fair play.
History. This game is very old.
Petronius Arbiter, a writer in the
time of the Roman Emperor Nero,
describes a man playing it with a
boy. The boy " mounting as on horse-
back, smote his shoulders with his
open hand, and laughing said, 'Bucca,
Bucca, quot sunt hie? ' ' (Bucca,
Bucca, how many are here ? )
BURIED WORDS
121
BUTTON, BUTTON
In another form of the game, a child
hides his head in another's lap, and
the latter says :
*' Mingledy, mingledy, clap, clap, clap,
How many fingers do I hold up? "
or some similar rhyme. The game,
in all its forms, is probably related
to MORA.
In France a game resembling this,
called Les Metiers (The Trades), is
played. The player who makes the
back chooses a trade and the name
of something connected with it, for
instance, shoemaking and wax. The
trade is announced, but the article
kept secret. Each player in turn
must then say, as he mounts the back,
" A good shoemaker must have good
leather," or " good pegs," or any-
thing else he pleases. Whoever
mentions the word chosen by the
player who makes the back must
take his place.
BURIED WORDS, a game played
by two or more persons, one of whom
gives a sentence in which a word is
concealed by being formed partly of
one of the words in the sentence,
and partly of one or more imme-
diately following. Thus the word
" London " is concealed or " buried "
in the sentence, " Do not let the rain
fall on Don Carlos," as will be seen
if the proper letters be capitalized,
thus, " Do not let the rain falL ON
DON Carlos." The one who gives
out the sentence must state that the
buried word is the name of a city, per-
son, flower, article of food, or what-
ever it may be, and the first one who
guesses it correctly scores a point.
The guesser then gives out another
sentence, and the game goes on for
any length of time agreed on, or till
some orte has scored a certain num-
ber of points. After a little practice
words can thus be buried very skill-
fully. The hardest ones to guess
are those in which pronouncing the
words gives no clew. Thus in the
following, " buried fruits," the former
can be guessed by pronouncing the
sentence slowly, while the latter can-
not:
"Some, fairy OR ANGEI must
have done this." " The baboon and
aPE ARe both curious animals."
The best plan m burying a word
is first to see whether it contains an-
other word within it. Thus in bury-
ing the word " Orange " it is seen
that the word " rang " is so contained.
A sentence must now be constructed
with the word " rang " in it, while
the word just before must end with
" O," and that just following begin
with " e." Thus : " They danced a
fandango, rang Edward's door bell,
and behaved very wildly." It will
be seen that the word is thus " buried "
much more deeply than in the other
example given.
A somewhat similar game, played
in Germany, is there called Worte
Verbergen (Word-hiding). The title
or first verse of some well-known
song or poem is selected by one of
the players, who, in answer to any
question, returns a reply including its
first word. To a second question he
gives an answer containing the first
two words in succession, and so on,
till the line is guessed. Thus, sup-
pose the song " A life on the ocean
wave" be chosen. The following
may be the questions and answers :
Q. How do you do ?
A. A little better, thank you.
Q. Where do you spend the sum-
mer?
A. In the country. I enjoy a life
spent outdoors.
Q. Who was your grandfather ?
A. He was the celebrated Dr.
Bobus, who sacrificed a life on the
altar of science by visiting the North
Pole.
By this time the title will probably
be guessed by the repetition of the
word " life." The most difficult lines
to guess are of course those contain-
ing small and frequently used words
at the beginning.
BUTTON, BUTTON, a drawing-
room game, played by any number of
persons. The players sit in a circle
around the leader, who stands holding
a button between his hands, the palms
BUTTONS
122
BUZZ
of which are pressed together. The
others hold their hands in the same
manner, and the leader goes to each
in turn, saying, " Hold fast what I
give you," passing his hands between
those of the player he addresses, and
gives the button, while doing this, to
any one of the players he chooses,
but without showing to whom he
has given it. When he has made
the round of the circle, he says to
each player in turn, " Button, But-
ton, who has the button ? " and each,
as he is asked, must guess. Then the
leader calls out, " Button, Button,
arise," and the holder of the button
stands up. This game is usually
played by very young children, an
older one acting as leader, In some
parts of the United States a ring is
used, and the corresponding verses
are,
" Biddy. Biddy, hold fast my gold ring
Till I go to London and back again.
Another form used is, "Fox, Fox,
who's got the box ? "
BUTTONS, a game played by any
number of children, each of whom
has a button. The players stand in
line and toss their buttons at a hole
in the ground about twelve feet dis-
tant. They then take turns in play-
ing, beginning with the one whose
button came nearest to the hole, and
Method of Holding the Hand in Button.
try, by striking the buttons with the
thumb as they lie on the ground (see
illustration), to drive them into the
hole. When any one succeeds, the
button he drives in becomes his prop-
erty. When he misses, the next one
takes his turn. The hand is held
stiffly in playing, the thumb being
extended, and the motion is made
with the whole hand,
Spans, a button game played by
two persons. The buttons are thrown
against a wall, and if a player's but-
ton falls within a span of his oppo-
nent's he may aim at it as described
above. If he strike it, he wins it. A
span is the distance from the end of
the thumb to that of the little finger
when the hand is extended.
BUZZ, a game played by any
number of persons. The players sit
in a circle, and, beginning at any
point, call out the numbers, one,
two, three, etc., in order. Instead of
the numbers in writing which the
figure 7 is used, and also of those
that are multiples of seven, the word
" Buzz " must be spoken. Thus,
Buzz must be substituted for 7, 14,
21, 27, 28, 35, 37, 42, 47, 49, and so on.
For the seventies. Buzz-one, Buzz-
two are used, and for 77, Buzz-buzz.
Any one that mentions such a num-
ber by name, or says Buzz in the
wrong place, or calls out a wrong
number, must pay a forfeit, and then
begin the game anew by calling out
" One ! " If the one whose turn it
is waits longer than while any one
counts five he must pay a forfeit.
Buzz should not be played by seven
people, for then one of them would
always have to say buzz when his
turn came.
Buzz-Fizz, the game of Buzz, with
the addition that every multiple of
three is called " Fizz," of five,
" Quack," and of eleven, " Cock-a-
doodle-doo. " Where a number con-
tains two or more of these as a fac-
tor the names of all the factors are
given, the smallest first. Thus, 15
would be " Fizz-Quack "; 77, " Buzz-
cock-a-doodle-doo "; and 105, " Fizz-
Quack-Buzz."
CALAERASELLA
123
CALABRASELLA
C
CACHINOLE. See SQUAILS.
CALABRASELLA, a game of
cards played by three persons, with
a pack from which the tens, nines,
and eights are excluded. Each player
is dealt twelve cards, two at a time,
and the four remaining in the stock
are placed face downward on the
table. After the deal, the eldest hand
has the choice of " passing" or
" playing." If he say " I pass," the
player at his left has the same op-
tion, and so on. If all pass, the hand
is abandoned and the deal passes to
the left. The first player who says
" I play," must play against the two
others as partners. Before he plays
he may ask for any Three he chooses,
and the holder must give it to him,
receiving a card in exchange. If no
one has the Three asked for, he
must not demand another, but if he
have all the Threes in his own hand
at the beginning of the game he
may ask for a Two. He then dis-
cards from one to four cards and
selects an equal number from the
stock, first announcing the number
of cards he will put out. He must
discard at least one card, and must
show to the other players the cards
he takes in. The playing then be-
gins, the eldest hand having the
lead. There are no trumps, and
suit must be followed if possible. In
playing, the cards rank as follows :
Three (highest), Two, Ace, King,
Queen, Knave, Seven, Six, Five,
Four (lowest). The winner of the
last trick takes also the discard (in-
cluding any cards of the stock that
are left). Each Ace taken counts the
winner of the trick 3 points, and
each Three, Two, King, Queen, or
Knave, i point. The last trick
founts 3 points. Either side scores
what it has made in excess of the
other side, each of the partners
scoring the whole number of points
made by their side. Thus, if the
partners have 22 points and the
single player 13, each of the former
scores 9 points. The number of
points to be played for is agreed on
aefore the game.
The eldest hand should say, " I
play," if he have a fair hand.
Try to win as many counting cards
as possible, especially Aces, which it
must be remembered may be taken
in play by either Threes or Twos.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. The players cut for deal, and
the lowest Calabrasella card deals.
2. In case of a misdeal, the same
player deals again.
3. If the Discard contain too few
cards the partners may either throw
up the hand or require the single
player to correct the mistake ; if it
contain too many, the single player
loses the tricks to which he cannot
play.
4. If the single player demand a
Two when he has not all the Threes,
the partners may throw up the hand
if they choose.
5. If a card is asked for and not
obtained, and it is found not to be in
the stock, the single player may ask
for it again and then alter his dis-
card.
6. If the single player expose a
card, or lead or play out of turn,
there is no penalty, but the mistake
must be corrected unless the trick
has bern completed. If one of the
partners expose a card, the single
player may call on him to play it at
any time. If either of the partners
lead out of turn, and the error is dis-
covered before completing the trick,
the single player may call on the
right leader to lead a particular suit ;
or, if it is his own lead, he may thus
call a suit at the first opportunity.
13. If a player revoke, he must
forfeit nine points.
14. No trick can be looked at after
it is taken.
CALIFORNIA JACK. See ALL
FOURS.
CALL-BALL
124
CAMERA OBSCURA
CALISTHENICS. See GYMNAS-
TICS.
CALL-BALL, CALLIE BALL, or
BALLIE-CALLIE, a game of ball
played by any number of persons,
with a hard rubber ball. The ball
is thrown against a wall by one of
the players, who at the same time
calls out the name of one of the
others. The player named must
strike the ball as it bounds back,
calling another name as he does so.
If he miss it he must pick it up, and
call "Stand!" whereupon the other |
players, who have begun to run as j
soon as he makes the miss, stand [
still. He throws the ball at one,
and if he strikes him that one must
throw the ball at the wall, as before. !
If he miss the player at whom he
throws, he must place himself against
the wall while the others throw the
ball at his back in turn, as in- ROLY
POLY.
This game was common in New
England many years ago, and is
still played in Austria. The English
poet Herrick alludes to a similar
game in his lines :
" I call, I call ; who doe ye call ?
The maids to catch this Cowslip ball.
In the Middle Ages boys and
girls played a kind of call-ball where
he who obtained possession of it
threw it to the one he loved best.
CAMERA LUCIDA, an arrange-
ment to aid in drawing the outline
of small objects. There are several
kinds, but the simplest is made as
follows :
paper on the table between yourself
and the object, and on the farther
edge of the paper rest the edge of a
pane of glass. Incline the glass
toward you, and presently you will
see in it the reflection of the object to
be drawn. At the same time you
will see the paper through the glass.
The glass may now be rested against
a book to keep it in position. Hold
your pencil on the paper under the
glass and see whether you can see
the reflection and the pencil point
plainly at the same time. If either
of them looks double while you are
fixing your eyes on the other, it
shows that the object is either too
far away or too near. Move the
book on which it rests backward and
forward until you can see both
the reflection and the pencil point
plainly. Keeping the eye perfectly
Fig. i.
Sit at a table in front of the object,
which should be supported on a
book (Fig. i). Lay a sheet of white
Fig. 2.
still, the outline of the reflection can
now be followed on the paper with
the pencil, and thus a very exact
picture can be drawn. The picture
will be of the same size as the object,
hence only small objects, like flowers,
insects, coins, or small wood-cuts,
can be used. To draw large objects
or landscapes by tracing in the same
way, a CAMERA OBSCURA may be
used, as in PHOTOGRAPHY, but a
large Camera Lucicla is sometimes
arranged as in Fig. 2. The words
CAMERA LUCIDA are Latin for Light
Chamber.
CAMERA OBSCURA, To make
a rough camera, take a little paste-
CAMERA OBSCURA
125
CAMERA OBSCURA
board box (Fig. i), like those in
which pens are sold, and make a
pinhole in the middle of the cover,
working the pin about fit
to enlarge the hole a
a little. Remove one
end of the cover, and
in the corresponding
edge of the box cut
a notch just large
enough to see through
into the box when
the cover is on. On
a sunny day, hold the box with the
pinhole toward any bright object
and look down into the end through
the notch, holding the eye close,
so that no light can get in except
through the pinhole. A picture
will be seen on the back of the
box, inside, in which the bright
parts of the landscape can be eas-
ily distinguished. The picture will
grow clearer as the eye becomes
accustomed to the light. By moving
the box so that the pinhole turns in
a different direction, the picture will
change. The smaller the pinhole
is, the less blurred the picture will
be, but it will be also less bright.
With a hole about TJff of an inch in
diameter the picture will be quite
bright, but so blurred that it is hard to
tell different objects from each other.
The box should not be more than
an inch deep, as the farther the back
is from the pinhole, the less distinct
the picture will be. In the evening,
such a camera will give an excellent
picture of a lamp or candle, and even
of a person's face held very near a
bright light. The way the picture
is made may be understood by look-
ing at Fig. 2, where the lines rep-
Fig. 2.
resent rays of light from different
parts of an object passing through
the pinhole and striking the back of
the box. When the cover is taken
from the box, rays from all parts of
the object strike every part of the
box at once and are mixed together,
hence there is no picture, but only a
white blur.
A camera which will make the
picture bright without blurring it may
be made by using a glass lens (See
LENSES, EXPERIMENTS WITH).
These experiments show how a lens
will throw a picture, and the picture
can be seen to better advantage if the
lens be fixed in a hole in the side of
a box. The observer may work at
the picture through a hole in the top
of the box, or the back of the box
may be made of thin white paper, so
that the picture will show on the
other side. There is a certain dis-
tance from the lens for every object,
where its image will be plainest, so
it is a good plan to make the back
of the box so that it can be slid in
and out. Find the distance at which
the lens makes the plainest picture of
near objects before choosing the box,
and then select one of the right
depth. Remove the back, and saw
off the edges so that it can be made
to slip in as far as desired. Nail a
stick to it to serve as a handle by
which it may be pulled in and out.
Hat Camera. A camera can be
made also from a stiff felt or silk hat,
CAMPHOR
126
CAMPING OUT
if it have a ventilating hole in the
top of the crown. If there are more
than one of these holes, all but the
central one may be stopped with
paper. A piece of thin paper is then
pinned over the bottom of the hat,
which is held with the top toward
the part of the landscape to be ob-
served. A black shawl is thrown
over the hat and the observer's head,
but care must be taken that it does
not hang over the ventilating hole.
CAMPHOR. Experiments with,
I. Place a piece of gum camphor on
water. After a time it will begin to
move about on the surface, and will
continue its motion till it is dissolved.
The reason is that it dissolves more
rapidly at some places than at others,
so that the surface of the water pulls
more strongly on-it in one direction
than in another. The bit of cam-
phor may be set on fire, and will then
burn as it moves about.
2. Dust lycopodium powder over
the surface of a dish of water by
shaking it in a muslin bag. The
water should be covered with a very
faint layer of the powder. Dip into
the water the end of a rod or stick
of gum camphor. The lycopodium
at once moves back from the cam-
phor, and begins to revolve in several
wheel-shaped figures.
In order that this experiment may
succeed the vessel and water must
be quite clean, and the day should
be dry and fine, so that the camphor
film will evaporate soon after it forms.
3. Dissolve a bit of camphor the
size of a pea in a drachm of benzine.
Keep the solution in a phial in whose
cork a pin is stuck, head downward,
so that it protrudes into the liquid.
Fill a concave microscope slide with
clear water, and touch the surface
with a little of the benzine-camphor
liquid on the head of the pin. The
drop, viewed through the microscope,
behaves very curiously, little drops
detaching themselves from its sides
and moving about in all directions.
4. Pour a thin layer of water into
flat-bottomed shallow dish. Cut a
rod of gum camphor one-quarter
inch square, following the grain of
the gum, which can be seen on hold-
ing it up to the light. Touch the
bottom of the vessel with this stick,
and the water around it will be
thrown into waves or ripples, which
will continue till the end of the stick
is dissolved away. The reason is
that the water is first drawn up
toward the stick as it would be
toward the finger or a glass rod.
But, a film of camphor forming on its
surface, this is altered so as to act
toward the stick as mercury would
toward glass, that is, the water is
depressed. It recovers itself, and
the action goes on very rapidly.
5. Place a piece of gum camphor
in a tightly stoppered bottle, and let
it stand awhile in a warm room.
Then set it close to a window and
the side next the window will become
covered with minute camphor crys-
tals. This is because the camphor
evaporates, and the coolness caused
by the window condenses the vapor
again. It was once thought that the
light influenced the crystallization,
but it will take place at night in the
same way. Marks on the glass, invisi-
ble before, will often be shown by the
arrangement of the camphor crystals,
just as those on window panes often
are by frost crystals. Thus, if the
interior of the bottle be wiped out
roughly with a moist cloth, and then
allowed to dry, the crystals are apt
to form along the lines made in wip-
ing. (See also BREATH FIGURES.)
CAMPING OUT. One kind of
camping may be in connection with
a WALKING TRIP, the campers
spending their nights in a tent in-
stead of at a hotel or farm-house,
and preparing their own meals.
Each person may carry about twenty
pounds of luggage in a knapsack or
haversack, or in a roll, whose ends are
joined to make a ring which is
thrown over the shoulder, as shown
in the illustration. Each should
take a rubber blanket, a woolen
blanket, a change of clothing, towel,
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127
CAMPING OUT
soap, comb, and toothbrush, besides
his share of the general luggage,
which includes the tent, cooking
utensils, hatchet, and food. An
easier but more expensive way is to
have all the luggage carried in a
wagon, leaving the walkers free. A
larger tent and more implements can
thus be carried, and the expense is
usually not great if divided among
several. It is often a good plan to
buy a horse and cart for such an
expedition, selling both at the end of
the journey. If the camp is not to be
moved, the tent may be still larger,
and many useful fixtures, such as
Fig. i.— The Camper— Loaded.
tables, a stove, an oven, bedsteads,
etc., can be set up by any one of
ingenuity.
Location. A camp should be on
dry ground, sloping so as to give
drainage, and near good drinking
water. Favorite sites are on moun-
tains, at the edge of woods, on the
bank of a lake, or on the seashore.
Expenses. These vary at the pleas-
ure of the camper, and according to
the number in the party. Mr. John
M. Gould, in his book on " How to
Camp Out," relates that three boys,
including himself, once went on a
twelve days' camping trip and spent
but one dollar apiece during that
time. They " carried coffee, sugar,
pork, and beef from home, and ate
potatoes three times a day." Frank
E. Clark, in an account of three
weeks' camping on the seashore,
gives the following list of expenses
for six persons :
Tent for three weeks . . $ 9.00
Provisions taken with us . . 22.00
Stove and cooking utensils . 15.00
Fresh provisions bought at the
beach 15.00
Incidentals . 20.00
Total $81.00
or $4.50 per week for each camper.
In general, the expense depends
almost entirely on the way in which
the campers are willing to live.
GIRLS' CAMPS. What has been
said above applies also to campers
of the other sex, or of both sexes,
except that ladies must not be ex-
pected to bear any hardships. A
party of girls, in charge of an older
woman may camp together very
pleasantly in not too wild a coun-
try, hiring a man to do the hard
work, such as pitching the tent.
When the campers are of both
sexes, the ladies will naturally be
allotted the cooking and other
housework, while the men do the
rougher work.
Insects. Campers are often an-
noyed by mosquitos and black flies,
especially in the woods, and, where
these pests exist, mosquito netting
must be taken for protection at night.
Many preparations for keeping in-
sects away by applications to the
face and hands are to be bought, but
most old campers prefer to drive
them away by making what is
called a " smudge." A fire is built
to windward of the camp and smoth-
ered with wet wood and damp leaves,
so as to make a dense smoke.
The " smudge " is disagreeable, but
is a welcome relief after insects.
Rainy Days. If the rain is a cold
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128
CAMPING OUT
one, it is often necessary to build a
fire just outside the tent, but it
is difficult to keep one alive in a
hard storm. If there is a stove
in the camp, it may be brought
inside the tent, the pipe projecting
through the door, but unless this is
on the leeward side the smoke will
be blown back into the tent. An-
other way is to build a fire in a hole
just outside the tent and conduct the
smoke through a trench under the
tent, covered with flat stones, the
crevices being cemented with clay.
It is difficult to make this smoke-
tight, but when it is so, it warms the
tent well.
Each one of the campers should
have his special duties assigned him.
This may be done on trial at first, till
it is seen for what work each is best
fitted. Thus, in a camp of three,
one may do the cooking, and another
the dishwashing, while the third has
general charge of the tent and its
surroundings.
Tents. The material is usually
heavy drilling or duck for large tents.
The simplest kind is a Shelter-tent,
which consists merely of pieces of
cloth with buttons and buttonholes
at the edges, by which several can
be fastened together. The button-
holes are near the edge, and the
buttons several inches nearer the
center. The pieces carried by the
soldiers of the United States army
in the Civil War were about five feet
square. They can be fastened to-
Fig. 2.— Shelter Tent.
gether, and put up in various ways ;
for instance, by throwing two over a
ridge pole supported on two forked
uprights, and fastening them at the
bottom, by driving pegs through the
buttonholes, or through loops of rope
sewed there for the purpose. If two
more pieces be buttoned across the
ends, the tent is entirely inclosed.
The tent poles and pegs are not car-
ried, but cut at the spot where the
tent is pitched. A shelter-tent (Fig. 2)
is the best to use where the campers
walk from place to place and carry
all their own baggage. An end piece
may be made to fit the end exactly,
and sewed to one of the side pieces
instead of buttoning it, if desired.
The tent should usually be pitched
with a right angle at the roof, but
the angle must be sharper in rainy
weather. Shelter-tents may be made
also of rubber, which are perfectly
waterproof, but heavy to carry.
An A tent, or Wedge-tent (Fig. 4) is
pitched overaridge pole like a shelter-
tent, but is made all in one piece. A
common size is about
seven feet high, seven feet
long, and eight feet wide.
One end is usually closed,
while the other has an
opening in the middle,
closed by a flap hanging
on the inside. Around
the bottom of the tent is
sometimes hung a strip
of cloth called a sod-cloth,
to keep out draughts and
prevent the edge of the
tent from touching the
ground and rotting. Fig;. 3.
Around the edge are also Tent Pin<
sewed loops of rope called " beck-
ets," through which wooden pins
(Fig. 3) are driven into the ground,
when the tent is pitched.
The best tent for a permanent
camp, or one where the heavy lug-
gage is carried from place to place
on a wagon, is the Wall-tent (Fig. 5).
This is shaped like a house, with side
walls about four feet high, and ridge
pole about nine feet from the
ground. At the corners of the eaves
and at every seam along their sides
loops of rope are fastened, and
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129
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through each of these is passed a
rope called a " guy," about ten feet
long, knotted at one end so that it
will not slip through the loop. The
other end is passed around a peg
driven into the ground at such a dis-
tance that the guy will have the
same slope as the roof, and so keep
the roof stretched. That the guys
may be tightened easily, pieces of
wood called " fiddles " are used,
about five inches long, two inches
wide, and an inch thick, having two
holes bored through them three
inches apart, just large enough to
admit the rope. The end of the guy
is passed through one of these holes
and back through the other, and
then knotted. The loop thus made
is passed around the peg, and the
guy is then tightened by pulling up
the fiddle as high as it will go.
Around the bottom of the tent,
which also has a sod-cloth, are beck-
Fig. 4. — " A " Tent, or Wedge-tent.
cts, through which pegs are driven.
A second roof called a " fly " is used
with a wall-tent to keep out the rain,
since the roof is not sharp enough to
shed rain by itself. It passes close
over the ridge pole, but is lifted seve-
ral inches above the inner roof at
the eaves, and projects about a foot
beyond it. It is kept stretched by
guys whose pegs are driven into the
ground some distance beyond those
of the roof. The end poles of an A
or wall-tent should have iron pins at
the top, which fit into holes in the
ridge pole, and the latter should
have ferrules on the ends to prevent
splitting. The end poles should be
made too high for the tent at first, as
it stretches with use. At first, the
poles can be sunk in the ground a
little way to make them short
enough. Tent pins should be of
tough wood, and have a notch near
the top to hold the rope.
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'30
CAMPING OUT
A shallow trench must be dug
completely around the tent, after it
is pitched, to carry off the water in
case of rain. If the tent is on a hill-
side, no trench need be dug at the
lower side. In a permanent camp, a
board floor may be laid in the tent.
Shelters. In the woods, shelters
of poles and boughs are often used
instead of tents. The simplest is
made by placing a ridge pole across
two forked uprights and then leaning
poles and boughs against it from one
or both sides. A rustic cottage (Fig.
6) may be made by trimming the
branches from four trees standing as
nearly as possible at the corners of
a square, leaving part projeciing as
a rest for cross poles, thus forming a
framework. These cross poles are
tied to the uprights with willow
withes, and then branches are woven
in by passing them inside one pole,
outside the next, and so on. A roof
Fig. 5.— Wall-tent
slanting in one direction is made in
the same way and thatched with
grass so as to shed water. If four
trees cannot be found in the proper
position, upright posts set in the
ground may be substituted for one
or more of them.
Sleeping. The simplest way to
sleep in camp is on the ground, laying
on it first a rubber blanket and then a
woolen one. Evergreen boughs or
dried leaves may be placed underneath
the rubber blanket to make a bed,
and the whole may be raised above
theground byabedstead of polessup-
ported on forked sticks. One of the
best camp beds is a light folding cot
(Fig. 7), covered with canvas, which
may be bought at a furniture store. In
a permanent camp a double mattress
may be laid on the floor of the tent,
over a rubbef blanket, making room
for several sleepers. Each camper
must have one rubber blanket and
CAMPING OUT
CAMPING OUT
one woolen one. A pillow adds
greatly to comfort, but must be dis-
pensed with if each carries his own
luggage. In any case, beds and bed-
ding must be carried out of the tent
and thoroughly aired every morning.
Unless a mattress is used, the camp-
er's bones will be apt to ache for one
Fig. 6. — Framework of Rustic Cottage.
or two nights, but he will soon get
accustomed to his hard bed. The
camper may also sleep in a hammock
when the weather admits of sleeping
in the open air. There is usually
hardly room for one inside the tent.
Cooking. The simplest way to
cook is over a wood-fire in the open
air. A kettle may be hung over the
fire from a cross bar resting on two
forked uprights, and any food th?»t
requires boiling can thus be pre-
Kig. 7. — Camp Cot.
pared. Broiling can be done by
holding the food in small pieces over
the coals with sharp sticks if a grid-
iron has riot been brought. For
frying, the fire is built over a smooth
stone, and scraped away from it when
the stone is sufficiently heated. The
stone is then carefully wiped, and is
CAMPING OUT
132
CANDLE
usually hot enough to fry several
fish, or the flat stone may be placed
on the top of a fireplace made of
stones, and used for cooking while
the fire is under it. An oven for bak-
ing can be built of stones. Where
Fig. 8. — Stone Stove.
there is clay, one can be made by
covering with it a cask or barrel em-
bedded in a bank. A fire is built in
the barrel, which both burns it away
and bakes the clay hard, making the
oven. Such an oven is used by first
building a fire in it and then scraping
the fire away, and putting in the food
to be baked. In every permanent
camp, an ice box should be provided
for provisions. This may be made
by sinking an ordinary dry goods
box or barrel in the ground, and if
the box is sunk deep enough, ice
may be dispensed with. A hole
should also be dug at some distance
from the tent where all kinds of swill
and refuse may be thrown and cov-
ered with earth every few days. The
supply of food to be taken to camp
depends largely on how much the
campers expect to provide for them-
selves by hunting or fishing. Eggs
and milk can often be obtained from
a neighboring farm house. The
necessaries for most campers are
bread or crackers, coffee or tea, sugar
and salt. Where the campers walk
from place to place carrying their
own luggage, food must generally
be bought from day to day wher-
ever it can be obtained. Where the
camp is permanent, the stock of pro-
visions is limited in size and variety
only by the purses of the campers
and the ability of the one who does
the cooking. A small stove is often
necessary in a large camp, and many
different kinds of camp stoves are
now to be bought. A kerosene
stove is always useful in making a
cup of tea or coffee at short notice,
or in cooking on a rainy day.
CANDLE-MAKING. Very good
tapers can be made with old candle-
ends, a little tin pan, such as are
used for baking muffins, a lead-pen-
cil, some tin-foil and some string.
Make a mold by shaping tin-foil
around the pencil. Melt some of
the candle-ends in the pan by hold-
ing it over a lighted candle-end,
and then pour the wax into the
mold, into which a piece of string
has been put for a wick. Hold
the mold upright till the wax has
set and then lay it aside for a few
moments, after which the tin-foil
can be unwound, leaving a little wax
taper. Larger ones can be made
by using something larger to shape
the mold, an old chair-rung for in-
stance.
A mold may be made also of a
rolled sheet of note-paper tied with
string, and stopped at one end with
a cork. The wick should be fast-
ened at one end to the cork with a
tack, and at the other to a match or
bit of wood, laid across the roll. If
the mold be made thus, of paper,
the tallow must be allowed to
thicken a little before it is poured in,
or it may soak through.
If a large candle is to be made,
the tallow is most easily obtained by
melting beef or mutton fat cut into
bits, and skimming out the pieces
of thin skin and tissue from it. If
desired, wax may be melted and
used in the same way.
CANDLE, Experiments with,
The candle flame is described in the
article FlRE (C. C. T.), and a few
experiments with it are given there.
Others will now be told about.
A tallow candle about an inch
and a quarter in diameter is the
CANDLE
133
CANNONADE
best for these experiments, though
an ordinary one will answer. Such
a tallow candle may be made accord-
ing to the directions in the article on
CANDLE-MAKING.
Experiment I. Take a piece of
wire gauze like that used for strainers
or window screens, and press it down
on the candle flame. The flame will
not pass through the gauze, but will
flatten out beneath it, so that one can
look down into the center of it. The
space inside, where there is no fire,
will thus be seen plainly. The
reason that the flame cannot pass
through the gauze is that the wires
conduct the heat away very rapidly,
cooling the flame so much as to put
it out before it can get through.
Experiment 2. Let the candle
burn till the wick in the flame is
quite long and then blow it out with
a quick puff. If the air is still, a
stream of smoke will rise from the
wick. Touch a lighted match to
this smoke half an inch or so from
the candle, and the flame will run
down to the wick, lighting the candle
again. Sometimes the smoke can
be lighted an inch or more from the
wick. The reason why this smoke
burns, is that it is the gas which
forms the candle flame, and which
continues to rise from the wick for
a few seconds after the flame is put
out.
Experiment 3. Blow out the can-
dle as in Experiment 2, and hold the
gauze so that the stream of smoke
will rise through it. Light it above
the gauze, and it will run down to
the gauze, but will not pass through
it. (See also CARBONIC ACID,
Exp. ii.)
Experiment 4. Bring a plate
quickly down on the candle flame
and raise it at once without moving
it sidewise. The flame will leave a
ring of soot on the plate. This is
because the empty space in the mid-
dle of the flame deposits no soot.
Experiment 5. Place a lighted
candle-end on the table and put a
glass dish or goblet over it. It will
burn dim and finally go out. This
is because it has used up all the
oxygen in the air under the dish.
Experiment 6. Stick a lighted
candle-end on a bit of wood, so that
it will float upright in a pail of water.
Then press a glass tumbler down
over it, pushing it to the bottom of
the pail. The candle will burn
under water as long as it has oxygen
enough. The air under the tumbler
prevents the water from entering
and putting out the candle. Try
the same experiment, using, instead
of a tumbler, a lamp-chimney with
the hand held tightly over the top.
After pushing it down to the bottom
of the pail, remove the hand so that
the water can push the air out at the
top. The water will rise inside the
chimney, carrying the candle with it.
Experiment 7. Thrust the head
of a match very quickly into the dark
center of a candle flame. It will
melt but not burn. This is because
there is no air in the inside of the
flame.
CANNONADE, a game played on
a circular board with marbles and a
TEETOTUM, which can be spun like
a humming TOP. Around the edge
of the board are six little wooden
towers called castles, protected by
wires on all sides except toward the
middle of the board, where about
15 marbles are placed. One of the
players is chosen as Gunner, and
each of the others selects a castle.
Each one begins the game with an
equal number of counters, and each
castle-owner bets as many as he
pleases on his castle. The Gunner
then spins the teetotum in the midst
of the marbles, and the teetotum
and marbles dash about the board
knocking down some of the castles.
A wire screen around the edge of
the board prevents their leaving it.
When the teetotum has stopped, the
owner of each fallen castle pays to
the Gunner his stake, multiplied by
the figure which came uppermost on
the teetotum, or twice as much if all
the castles were knocked down.
CANOEING
134
CANOEING
The owner of each castle that re-
mains standing receives twice his
stake from the Gunner. Each
player acts as Gunner in turn. If
Cannonade Board.
there are fewer players than castles,
each in succession takes two or
more. Instead of the method of
scoring described above, any other
may be agreed on by the players, be-
fore the game. A simple method is
for the Gunner to score one for each
fallen castle, and for each owner of a
castle left standing to score two.
The only skill shown is in making
the teetotum spin as long as pos-
sible.
In another form of the game, pins,
like Ten pins, are placed on the
board, among which the top spins,
knocking down some of them.
CANOEING. Canoes are light
boats sharp at both ends, and pro-
pelled by a paddle, the boatsman
looking toward the bow. Pleasure
canoes, in general, are of two kinds :
paddling canoes and sailing canoes.
Canoes may be built of bark, skins,
canvas, paper, wood, or metal.
The length of open canoes varies
from 10 to 17 feet, the breadth from
2 to 3 feet, and the depth is 8 or 9
inches. The paddler kneels on a
cushion on the bottom of the canoe.
The decked canoe usually has a keel
and ribs of oak, and bulkheads near
either end. It has a board floor, a
seat for the paddler, and movable
back and foot boards. The double
bladed paddle is of
pine or spruce, from
six to twelve feet
long, and jointed in
the center for con-
venience of stowage
and to aid in feath-
ering.
To enter a canoe
without upsetting re-
quires caution. It is
best to place one
foot on the bottom,
then one hand on
either gunwale, then
both feet on the bot-
tom, and sit down as
soon as possible,
bearing most of the
weight on the hands
until seated. The paddle is held in
both hands, and the boatman dips the
Canoe : Side View, Top View, and
Cross Section.
blade so as nearly to cover it, as far
forward as he can reach on one side
Canoe Paddles.
of the boat, and then draws it steadily
back, thus propelling the boat. With
CANOEING
135
CANOEING
a single paddle all the strokes are on
the same side of the boat till the pad-
dler changes for rest, and
the boat is steered by giv-
ing the paddle a twist at
the end of the stroke.
With the double paddle
the strokes are made on
alternate sides, thus keep-
ing the course straight.
The unused blade will be
in position to make the
second stroke when the
first is finished. The blades
of a double paddle are
usually set at right angles
so that the one not in the
water will always cut edge-
wise through the air, and
the wrist must therefore be turned
slightly just before putting the blade
to swim. In canoe races, "upset
races " are often included, where
Canoeist Using Double-bladed Paddle.
Method of Holding Double-bladed
Paddle.
into the water. Short paddles must
be held almost perpendicularly in the
water. The paddle
can be managed bet-
ter by sitting high,
but there is more
danger of upsetting.
In racing, the seat is
generally placed near-
ly on a level with the
deck. In order to
be prepared for an
upset, the canoeist
should practice fall-
ing out and getting
into his place again
from the water. He must dress
lightly, and should not attempt to
paddle a canoe without knowing how
is required, at a
the course of the
each contestant
given signal, in
race, to overturn his canoe, scramble
in from the water, and go on to the
finish.
The sailing canoe has either a
keel or a center board, which is now
often made to fold up like a fan,
when not in use. The sail may be
either the lug, leg-of-mutton, or
lateen (see SAILING). Two or three
battens (thin strips of wood) are
sometimes fastened across the lower
part of the sail. A canoeist has
estimated that the use of these bat-
tens enables a canoe to carry more
sail, in the ratio of 7 to 5. Battens
make the sail set flatter. The masts
Sailing Canoe.
are very light, and can be taken down
in a moment. The yard and boom
are generally of some light wood.
CANOEING
136
CANOEING
The rigging is as simple as possible,
and so arranged that the canoeist
need not leave his seat to work it.
There is usually a rudder, managed
with foot steering gear when the
canoeist sits or lies in the bottom, as
formerly in England ; but in this
country usually by a tiller fastened
to a yoke near the hatch, where it is
close at hand. The English have
now generally adopted the American
plan. The rudder should be hung
so that it will extend below the keel
and keep its hold on the water, even
when the canoe lifts her stern clear
at every wave.
In England canoeists generally lie
down in the bottom of the canoe,
while in this country they sit on
deck except when sailing before the
wind. Canoe sailing differs in some
respects from ordinary boat sailing.
(See SAILING.) If the canoeist can-
not hold his boat upright by his own
weight he should " luff " so as to
ease her a little, and if that does not
answer he should slack the main
sheet. If it blows very hard he
should take in sail altogether.
Many canoes have sliding seats,
made in two pieces, the upper slip-
ping sidewise over the lower to
either side so that the crew can sit
away out to windward and balance
the boat in a far heavier wind than
would otherwise be possible. In
tacking, the canoeist throws his
weight forward and to leeward,
shifting it as the canoe passes the
wind's eye. Jibing is more danger-
ous in a canoe than in a sailboat,
the canoeist being obliged to shift
his weight suddenly to avoid over-
Camp-stove for Wood.
turning. More than one hundred
pounds of ballast may be carried in
a sailing canoe in bags of about 25
pounds each. As much as 175
pounds was formerly carried, but at
present the most expert canoeists
rarely carry ballast when racing.
Unless a canoe is very well bal-
lasted, sail should never be kept on
it when the sea is high enough to
Fig. i. — Frame of Canoe Tent.
break on board. The canoe should
never be allowed to get broadside to
the wind, except when it is abso-
lutely necessary, as in turning. In
heavy water, the course should be
zig-zag, and heavy seas must be
dodged. If it is necessary to take a
wave, it must be done with the end
of the canoe toward it, and the canoe
should be allowed to slide sidewise
down the back of the wave. In run-
ning before the wind, the canoeist
removes the back board, and, when
it is necessary, stops the canoe's
CANOEING
137
CAPACITY FOR HEAT
headway by back strokes of the pad-
dle. If the bows run under water,
the halyards must be let go at once.
The paddle should always be ready
for use, and it is well to have a cork
belt at hand. If the canoe should
capsize, the canoeist must climb
over it, let go the main halyard, haul
on the down-haul, and get the main-
sail on deck, before trying to right
the craft. In beaching a canoe, the
sail must first be taken in, the rud-
der triced up and the hatch taken
off. The canoeist then leaps out in-
to shallow water with the painter,
and hauls the boat on shore. Some
special forms of tents for use by
canoeists on their excursions are
Fig. 2. — Canoe Tent.
shown in the following illustrations,
of which Fig i shows the frame of a
canoe tent, Fig. 2 a canoe tent with
its canvas cover, and Fig. 3 a tent
for use on shore.
History. Canoes were used by
the natives of all parts of North
America before its discovery by Eu-
ropeans. The Indians made their
canoes either of birch bark or of
hollow logs, and paddled them with
great speed. In British America on
the Pacific coast the natives use
canoes of cedar logs with extended
prows, and with curious figures
painted on the sides. Some of them
are very large ; one in the National
Museum at Washington being 59
Fig. 3.— Shore Canoe Tent.
feet long, 8 feet wide, and 4 feet 8
inches deep. In Canada canoe clubs
for recreation have existed since the
days of New France. About 1854
the improved civilized canoe was
introduced into England by John
Macgregor, Esq., of London. Then
it was imported to this country by
W. L. Alden, who founded
York Canoe Club in 1871, and since
that time the popularity of the sport
has increased rapidly all over the
Northern United States and Canada.
CAPACITY FOR HEAT, Experi-
ments on. i. In a bullet-mold make
bullets of lead, zinc, tin, sulphur, and
antimony. Prepare a cake of wax
or paraffine, about half an inch thick,
CAPPING VERSES
138
CARBON
by melting it and pouring it into a
pan, and then lay the cake across
the top of a tumbler. Put the bul-
lets into boiling water for a few min-
utes and then place them all at once
on the cake of wax. They will melt
it and some will fall through, but
some much more quickly than others.
Still others will get only half-way or
quarter-way through the wax. This
is because they contained different
quantities of heat, although they were
all at the temperature of boiling water.
2. Weigh out the same amount of
lead, sulphur, and copper scraps, and
put them all into boiling water, or
into hot oil, so that they will have
the same temperature. Fill three
glasses with water at the same tem-
perature, and put the lead into one,
the sulphur into another, and the
copper into the third. Stir the water
in each continually, and test from
time to time with a chemical ther-
mometer. The water containing
the sulphur will be hottest, and that
with the copper next, while that into
which the zinc was put will be the
least hot. The reason is the same as
that given for experiment i.
CAPPING VERSES, a game
where one player quotes a line of
poetry, and the next a line in the
same metre rhyming with it, which
will make sense. In this way an en-
tire poem is made of separate quota-
tions by the company. This game
can be played in this form only by
those who are very familiar with poe-
try, but almost any one with pencil
and paper may cap verses, if allowed
to consult all the volumes he desires.
The paper may be passed from one
player to another, each adding a line,
or each may make an entire poem.
CARBON, Experiments with.
(Read CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS.)
Carbon is described in C. C. T. To
obtain it, the gases must be driven
off by heat from some substance con-
taining carbon, hydrogen, and oxy-
gen. Such things are called hydro
carbons, and include most vegetable
substances.
1. Arrange the apparatus as if to
make oxygen, and half fill the igni-
tion tube with powdered bituminous
coal. On heating it a gas will be
collected over water which is ordi-
nary illuminating gas, but impure. It
may be lighted in the jar in which it is
collected, but the jar must not stand
an instant mouth upward, cr the gas
will escape, being lighter than air.
What remains after all the gas is
driven off is a form of carbon called
coke.
2. If the tube is filled with shav-
ings of wood instead of coal, what
remains after the gas is driven off is
the form of carbon called charcoal.
3. Put spirits of turpentine into an
alcohol lamp, light the wick, and
cover it with a wide-mouthed jar, just
raising one edge of the jar above the
table by placing a bit of wood under
it. The lamp will give off black
smoke in volumes, which will collect
on the inside of the jar. This is the
form of carbon called lampblack.
4. Hold a piece of charcoal under
water. It will rise to the surface if
allowed to do so, and if held down
will give bubbles of air. Heat an-
other piece red-hot for some time
and then put it quickly under water.
Few bubbles will rise and the char-
coal will remain under of itself. The
reason is that charcoal is very porous
and contains much air, unless this is
driven off by heat.
5. Fill an inverted glass test tube
with AMMONIA and hold it over a
saucer of mercury, the
mouth of the tube in
the mercury. Heat a
L I piece of charcoal red-
Hi hot, and hold it under
I the mercury till it is
I cool. Then put it up
I into the tube. It will
I absorb the ammonia,
I and the pressure of the
air outside will then
force the mercury up
into the tube to take its place.
6. Put some powdered charcoal
into a bottle filled with SULPHUR-
CARBONIC ACID
139
CARBONIC ACID
ETTED HYDROGEN and shake it
about. The bad odor of the gas
will disappear.
7. Put two pieces of raw meat
about an inch square side by side on
the ground, covering one .with
powdered charcoal. Place a heavy
box over the two, so that no animal
can get at them. If the weather be
not cold, the uncovered piece will
spoil in a few days, while the one
covered with charcoal will give off
no bad odor.
8. Arrange apparatus as if to make
OXYGEN, but put into the ignition
tube about a teaspoonful of red
oxide of mercury and charcoal, mixed
together. Heat, and collect over
water, the gas which is formed. On
the sides of the tube will be found
little drops of mercury. The reason
is that the charcoal has taken away
oxygen from the oxide of mercury
and left the mercury behind. The
charcoal and oxygen form carbonic
acid gas, which is the gas that was
collected over water.
CARBONIC ACID, Experiments
with. (Read CHEMICAL EXPERI-
MENTS). Carbonic acid gas is de-
scribed in C. C.T. It can be made
by burning charcoal or wood,
but is then mixed with nitrogen
from the air. (See C. C. T.) It
may be made pure as shown in Ex-
periment 8, under CARBON, but a
better way is to arrange apparatus as
for making HYDROGEN, putting in,
instead of zinc, a handful of small
lumps of marble, as big as peas.
Either sulphuric or hydrochloric acid
may be used, but the latter is better.
Instead of marble, old mortar, pieces
of oyster shells, or limestone will j
answer, though not so well. The
carbonic acid comes from the marble,
which is carbonate of lime.
I. Place the delivery tube in a
glass of lime water so that the gas
will bubble up through it. The lime
water will soon become milky. This
is caused by the formation of car-
bonate of lime in minute particles.
If the current be continued long
enough the water will become clear,
but if it is boiled it will grow milky
again.
2. Blow into a glass of lime water
through a glass tube or the stem of a
clay pipe. The lime water will
become milky from the cause ex-
plained above, because we breathe
out carbonic acid gas from the lungs.
A stream of air blown" into lime
water from a bellows will not make
it milky, unless the room is very
close and a good many people have
been breathing in it.
3. Carbonic acid is so much
heavier than air that it will remain in
an uncovered jar. Into a jar of it
dip a lighted match, bit of burning
paper, or lighted candle. Each will
be put out, as if by water.
4. Place a lighted candle in an
empty glass and put it out by pour-
ing a glass of carbonic acid over it.
5. Pour carbonic acid into a wide
mouthed jar or deep preserve dish,
nearly filling it. Blow a soap bubble,
throw it into the jar or dish and it
will float on the gas.
6. Fasten to a wire a piece of
MAGNESIUM ribbon about six inches
long, light it, and put it into a jar of
carbonic acid. It will not be put out
but will burn, leaving a quantity of
white and black flakes in the jar.
The white are magnesium oxide.
The black are carbon from the car-
bonic acid.
7. Arrange a wire stand for sev-
eral candles, one above the other.
Light them and cover them with a
tall jar. The candles will burn dim
and then go out, the top one first,
and then the others, one by one.
Carbonic acid is formed by their
burning, but it is so hot that instead
of being heavier than air as when
cold, it is lighter, and rising to the
top puts out the upper candles first.
8. Collect the breath over water
by blowing through a tube, into a
jar, arranged as described under
CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS. Place
a piece of glass over the mouth of
the jar and then, turning it right side
CARBONIC ACID
CARDS, AND CARD-GAMES
up, set it on a table. A taper may
now be extinguished by lowering it
into the jar, or any of the experi-
ments performed with gas made
from marble and sulphuric acid may
be repeated.
9. Pour into a flask or large bottle
a strong solution of caustic soda,
filling about one quarter of it. On
this carefully pour pure water, letting
it run down the inside of the flask, so
that it will float in a thin layer on
the soda. Instead of water one may
use kerosene oil, which does not re-
quire care in pouring, as it cannot
help floating. Make carbonic acid
gas, as described above, and fill the
rest of the bottle with it. Have
ready a cork, pierced by a tube
having an empty toy balloon attached
to the lower end. When the bottle
is full of the carbonic acid, insert the
cork so chat the balloon is within the
flask. Then shake the flask, so as
to disturb the layer of water or oil
and bring the gas into contact with
the soda. The balloon will at once
become distended and may even
burst, if the bottle is large enough.
The reason is that caustic soda ab-
sorbs carbonic acid very readily, and
the outside air rushes into the bal-
loon to fill the place of the absorbed
gas.
10. Make a solution of carbonic
acid gas, by passing it into water, and
put some freshly gathered leaves into
a flask of it. Stand the flask upside
down, in a shallow dish of water,
and set it in bright sunlight. Little
bubbles will be seen to form on the
leaves and rise from them gradually
until they collect in the upper part of
the flask. After a clay or so, place a
piece of glass under the mouth of
the flask and turn it right side up.
The gas collected is oxygen, as will
be seen by ligh'ing a splinter, blow-
ing it out so as to leave a glowing
coal, and then dipping it into the
mouth of the flask. The oxygen
came from the leaves, which take in
carbonic acid and breathe out oxy-
gen, just as we take in oxygen and
breathe out carbonic acid. (See
PLANTS in C. C. T.)
ii. On some bits of marble in the
bottom of a glass jar, pour sulphuric
or hydrochloric acid. Carbonic acid
will be made which will rise and fill
the jar, driving out the air and over-
flowing gently like water. The room
should be very still. Lower a candle
which has been lighted for some
time into the jar. If this is done
carefully the vapor from the wick
will continue to burn for a few
seconds above the surface of the
heavy gas, though the flame on the
wick itself is put out. By quickly
raising the candle it can be lighted
again.
CARDINAL'S HAT, THE. A
game played by any number of per-
sons, who take the names of Red-
cap, Blue-cap, Yellow-cap, etc. A
player who takes the part of the Car-
dinal accuses one of them of stealing
his cap, when the following dialogue
ensues :
Player. "Not I, sir."
Cardinal. " Yes, you, sir."
Player. " Not I, sir."
Cardinal. " Who then, sir ? "
Player. " Yellow-cap, sir,"
giving the assumed name of any
player he chooses, who is then in turn
accused by the Cardinal. If any one
name a color not chosen by any
player he must pay a forfeit. Some-
times a piece of wood, representing
the hat, is actually hidden, and the
Cardinal tries to find where it is by
rapping the fingers of each player
with his cane.
A similar game to this, called
" The Abbot of St. Gall has lost his
nightcap," is played by children in
Switzerland, and an old English
game called " The Parson has lost
his fuddling cap " was also probably
like it.
CARDS AND CARD-GAMES,
Cards used in playing card-games
are printed on sheets of cardboard,
which are afterward cut apart. Their
manufacture is described in the Cyclo*
paedia of Common Things. They
CARD-GAMES
141
CARDGAMES
are usually made rectangular, though
sometimes with rounded corners,
and are generally 3^ inches long, by
2^ inches wide. They are put up in
collections of fifty-two cards each,
which, taken together, are commonly
called a pack (Italian pacco, a packet)
of cards. In some parts of the
southern United States, however, a
pack is still called a deck of cards,
the term used in England two or
three centuries ago, which had its
origin probably from the fact that
the cards are piled regularly one
over another (the word deck being
from the Anglo-Saxon decan, to
cover). Shakespeare uses the word
in King Henry VI. (Part in., Act v.,
sc. i), where he says,
" The king was slyly finger'd from the deck."
While a full pack of cards al-
ways consists, in America and in
England, of fifty-two cards, smaller
packs, for playing special games,
are sometimes put up. Thus, a
Euchre, Ecarte, Piquet, Bezique or
Pinocle pack contains only thirty-
two cards, the twos, threes, fours,
fives, and sixes of each suit being
left out. In the United States an
extra card, sometimes blank and
sometimes printed with a suitable
device, called the Joker or Imperial
i. The Sun.
2. Time.
3. Tower Struck 4. Last Judgment,
by Lightning.
Cards of Charles VI.
Trump, is generally put into each
Euchre pack, making thirty-three.
It is frequently added also to each
full pack, making fifty-three in all ;
but as this card is used only occa-
sionally, it is not considered as be-
longing to a pack, and in this book
a pack of cards is always understood
to mean fifty-two cards.
The cards in every pack are divided
into four groups of thirteen, called
suits (because in each they follow in
regular order), each of which is dis-
tinguished by a special mark or sym-
bol. Two of these suit-marks, or
symbols, called Hearts and Dia-
monds, are red ; and two, Clubs and
Spades, are black. The origin of
their names will be explained under
the history of cards. In each suit,
three cards — the King, the Queen,
and the Knave, or Jack — are picture
cards, called face, figure, or court
cards, and sometimes also honors.
The other ten are numeral cards,
called pip, point, or spot cards, be-
cause they are marked by pips, or
spots, numbering from one up to
ten. The card with one spot or pip
is called the Ace, and the Two-spot
and the Three-spot are sometimes
called respectively the Deuce and the
Tray ; but ordinarily the cards are
named as in the following table :
CARD-GAMES
142
CARD-GAMES
RED SUITS. BLACK SUITS.
Hearts. Diamonds. Clubs. Spades.
Ace - - -
Four
Three - -
Two
The Ace of Spades has generally
on it the name and address of the
manufacturer, and in England, where
the government taxes cards, a stamp,
showing that the tax has been paid,
is also put upon it. In some
countries the Ace of Diamonds is the
stamp card. If the value of the
cards followed their natural order,
the King would be the highest card,
and the Ace the lowest ; but in
Whist the Ace is lowest only in cut-
ting, and outranks the King in play-
ing, and in other games it has differ-
ent values. In Cribbage only, is the
Ace the lowest card in playing. In
some games the Tray is the best
card, and in others, the Five-spot, the
Ten-spot, etc. These variations in
the value of cards have much to do
with the differences in games.
CUSTOMS AND TERMS.
In almost all card games, certain
customs and terms are common.
These are described here to avoid
repetition, and are not explained in
the article on any particular game,
unless they differ, in that game, from
the ordinary rule.
Shuffling, the mixing of the cards
before playing a game. This is usu-
ally done by the dealer, who holds
part of the pack loosely in one hand,
and slides in the rest of the cards
with the other, so as to mix them
thoroughly. Expert players have
other ways of shuffling, which may
be learned by practice. Each
player has a right to shuffle, if he
chooses, before the dealer, but it is
generally done by the dealer only.
The cards should be shuffled before
each deal.
Cutting, the dividing of the pack
by one of the opposite players, so as
to insure a fair deal. After shuffling,
the dealer lays the pack near his
right-hand neighbor, who lifts off
part of the cards, and places them
on the table beside the rest of the
pack. The dealer then puts the re-
mainder upon the part lifted off,
and takes up again all the cards,
CARD-GAMES
CARD-GAMES
which are then ready for dealing.
In cutting, at least as many cards as
there are players must be lifted, and
at least that number must be left in
the pack. The dealer has no right
to shuffle again after the cards have
been cut. As cutting was originally
an attempt to prevent cheating, it
may be omitted in many games,
though any of the players has a
right to demand it. Sometimes the
person to whom the pack is offered
for cutting, taps it with his finger,
meaning that he is willing to omit
the cut.
Dealing. The distribution of the
cards to the players is called dealing;
and he who distributes them is called
the dealer. The dealer must be
selected before either shuffling or
cutting. This is usually done by
cutting for deal ; that is, each player
lifts part of the pack, showing the
bottom card of what he has lifted,
and he whose card wins has the
right to deal. In some games the
lowest and in others the highest card
cut determines the deal, and in some
the value of the cards in cutting
differs from that in playing. In-
stead of cutting for deal a card may
be given to each player, face upward ;
he that has the winning card be-
coming the dealer. In some games
the cards are dealt one by one till
some particular one appears, and the
player to whom that card falls is
dealer. Any one of these methods
5. Emperor.
6. Empress.
Naibis.
7. Pope.
8. Hermit.
may be adopted in any game, by
agreement.
When the cards have been shuffled
and cut, the dealer takes the pack
in his left hand, and with his right
gives one or more at a time (accord-
ing to the game) to each player in
regular order, beginning with the
one at his left. In some games all
the cards are dealt, in others part of
the pack is left. The deal is an ad-
vantage in games where the trump
card is part of the dealer's hand, as
will be explained below, and in some
other games for special reasons.
The cards are usually dealt several
times in the course of a game, and
each player deals in turn, the deal
around the table to the
passing
left.
Misdeal, a mistake made in deal-
ing. In most games the cards are
divided equally, so that the dealer
gives the last one to himself. If the
last card falls to any one else, he has
made a misdeal. When any player
discovers that he has not the proper
number of cards, or when any of his
cards are dealt to him face upward,
he may demand a fresh deal. In
games where the deal is an advan-
tage the dealer is usually punished
for his mistake by giving it to his
left-hand neighbor, but in other
games the same player usually deals
after a misdeal.
CARD-GAMES
144
CARD-GAMES
Hand. The cards that are dealt
to each player are called his hand,
and those that are left, if any, are
named the stock, or talon. Where
the hands are large it is better for
each player to arrange his cards by
suits, but this should be done so as
to avoid giving his opponents any
information. When each has played
all his cards, a hand is said to have
been played, and there is a new deal.
Trump. In most card games,
after the deal, the dealer turns face
upward a card, which is called the
trump-card, or trump. Sometimes
this is the last card dealt, in which
case it forms part of the dealer's hand,
and may be taken up with his other
cards, after one round has been
played. Sometimes it is the top card
of the stock, or is taken from the
middle of the stock, and in some
games one of the players, usually the
dealer, is allowed to exchange one
of his cards for the trump card.
Cards of the same suit as the trump
are called trumps, and usually rank
above those of other suits. Thus,
the lowest trump is a higher card
than an Ace or King of any other suit.
When the Joker is used, it is always
a trump, and is the highest card in
9. Seven of Cups. 10. Seven of Swords. n. Seven of Money. 12. Seven of Clubs.
Italian Cards.
the pack. In some games, one or
more cards of other suits are re-
garded as belonging to the trump
suit, as is explained in the articles
on those games. All but the trump
suit are called lay suits, and a card
of any such suit a lay card.
Playing. After the trump has
been turned and each player has
arranged his cards, the one on the
dealer's left, who is called the eldest
hand, plays one of his cards face
upward, and each player follows in
order, to the left, until all have
played. The cards so played are
called a trick, and the one who plays
the first card in the trick is said to
have the lead, and is called the
leader. In most games each must
play, if he can, a card of the same suit
as the leader ; this is called follow-
ing suit. If he cannot follow suit
he may play what he pleases, which
is often called renouncing, and if he
then chooses to play a trump, it is
called trumping or ruffing. If he
renounce when he is able to follow
suit, it is called revoking. The
player making a revoke may be pun-
ished for his offense in various ways.
CARD-GAMES
145
CARD-GAMES
In some games a player is allowed to
trump even if he can follow suit.
The trick is the property of the one
playing the highest card of the suit
led, unless one or more players
trump, in which case the highest
trump played takes the trick. The
player taking the trick then has the
lead for the next one. Each keeps
his tricks in a pile near him, face
downward.
Discarding. In some games a
player is required or allowed to re-
move one or more cards from his
hand. This is called discarding.
The discarded cards are usually
placed either in or under the stock,
or by themselves, face downward.
Score. Each player must keep
count of the number of points he
has made, which is called keeping
score. The points are determined
differently in different games. Some-
times they are so few and so easily
remembered that each can keep
score mentally, but pencil and paper
are usually required. In some
games score is kept with two cards,
by placing one partly over the other,
so as to show a number of pips cor-
responding to the points won. Score
cards of several different kinds can
13. Seven of Cups.
14. Seven of Swords. 15. Seven of Money.
Spanish Cards.
16. Seven of Clubs.
be bought, some of which are for
use in one particular game, and
others in various games. In some
games score is kept by means of
counters or "chips," which are usu-
ally round flat pieces of ivory, bone,
or celluloid.
Four counters, or chips, are some-
times used for scoring up to ten
points, being arranged as shown
below. It will be noted that a single
counter placed at the top always
counts three, but at the bottom five.
o
oo
ooo
o o o o
o
O 0
o
ooo
9
10
00
0
ooo
o
o
o
o
o
00
o
For the numbers from ten to
twenty an oblong counter is some-
times laid above the others, thus:
000
and so on.
Partners. In many card games
each player wins or loses by himself,
but in many others, where there are
four players, two play against two,
and in a few this is the only way of
playing. Those who play together
are called partners, and sit opposite
each other. Only one score is kept
for the two, and their tricks are
placed in the same pile, for they win
or lose together.
Partners are sometimes decided
on by cutting, the two who cut
CARD-GAMES
146
CARD-GAMES
the highest cards playing together
against the other two.
HISTORY OF CARDS.
Playing cards were probably first
made in Italy in the I4th century.
The Chinese say that they were
invented in the reign of their em-
peror, Se-un-ho, in 1120, and some
European writers have tried to prove
that they were first brought into
Europe from India by the Gipsies,
while others have asserted that
they were introduced into Spain by
the Moors, but there is no positive
evidence to support any of these
theories. The common story that
they were invented in 1392 for the
amusement of the French king,
Charles VI., grew out of a record,
found among the royal accounts, of
a payment made to a painter for
" three packs of cards in gold and
various colors, and ornamented with
several devices, to carry before the
lord our king for his amusement."
But this shows that cards were then
well known, rather than that they
were then first made, and that these
were special ones painted finer than
usual for the personal use of the king.
Some cards, said to be part of one
of these packs, are preserved in the
Paris Library (see I, 2, 3, 4), but the
best authorities consider them Vene-
tian cards of the I5th century.
17. Seven of Hearts. 18. Seven of Leaves. 19. Seven of Bells.
German Cards.
20. Seven of Acorns.
It is now generally conceded by
the latest writers on the subject, that
cards originated in Italy (probably in
Venice) about 1350. The first packs
were probably wholly of figure or
picture cards, containing no numeral
or pip-cards, and were purely em-
blematic— that is, representing some
person or symbol. These cards,
called Naibis (a term supposed by
some to be derived from the Arabs,
and still preserved in the Spanish
name for cards, naypes), had noth-
ing to do with games of chance, but
were intended for instructive amuse-
ment, like the game of Authors and
many similar games played by young
folks to-day. Some of the writers of
that century prohibit the playing by
children of Dice and other games of
hazard, but recommend Naibis.
These Naibis, or emblematic cards,
differed somewhat, according to time
and country, but generally were
partly of full-length figures, illustra-
tive of some corrdition of life, such
as an Emperor, an Empress, a Pope,
a Hermit (5, 6, 7, 8),) and partly of
symbolic designs, such as the World,
the Sun, the Moon, a Tower struck
by Lightning, the Last Judgment, etc,
as in those of Charles VI. Each
one had at the top a number in Ro-
man numerals, and at the bottom,
below the design, its name, generally
in French. Exactly how many Nai-
CARD-GAMES
147
CARD-GAMES
bis were in a pack originally is not
known, but the number probably
differed at different times.
Toward the end of the I4th cen-
tury it is supposed that these instruc-
tive cards were adapted, by certain
changes, to the use of older persons,
in the hope of restraining them from
playing Dice and other games of haz-
ard. Part of the original Naibis be-
ing selected, certain other cards, in-
tended to teach a moral lesson, such
as Death, Temperance, the Devil,
and the Last Judgment, were added,
making the whole number of such
cards 22. To these were added 56
other cards, divided into four suits
of fourteen cards each, each suit
made up of four picture or coat-cards
(corrupted into court-cards), repre-
senting a King, a Queen, a Cavalier,
and a Valet, or man-servant, and of
ten numeral, or pip-cards,' numbered
from one to ten. These additions
made the full pack consist of 78
cards, divided into five suits, the 22
Naibis forming a suit by themselves,
superior to the other four suits. For
this reason they were sometimes
called also atuttt (French atouts,
above all), and trionfi (French trz-
omp/ie.i, triumphs), from which comes
our word trumps. The pack of cards
thus made was called by the Italians
Tarocchi, because used to play the
game of that name, and by the
French Tarots.
The use of cards spread rapidly
throughout Europe, but different peo-
ple soon began to alter the mode
of combining them and their sym-
bols, according to their own notions.
In Florence, the number of emblem-
atic cards was increased to 41, mak-
ing 97 in all. In Bologna, the pack
was reduced to 62, and finally the
first of the five suits, the emblematic
cards, was thrown out altogether and
one coat-card, or honor, was dropped
from each of the remaining suits,
making the pack 52, the number now
generally in use. The coat-card
generally omitted was the Cavalier,
but the Spaniards, who would not
allow the figure of a lady on their
cards, dropped the Queen, and the
Germans sometimes kept an upper
and a lower Knave in place of the
Queen and Knave. The Spaniards
also threw out the four Ten-spots,
making the pack to consist of but 48
cards. In the early cards, the figures
on the honors bore some resemblance
to the persons they were intended to
represent, but about the reign of
Henry VII. of England, they began to
take the grotesque forms which have
since been most popular. Most
English and American cards still
show the costumes of Henry VII.
and Henry VIII., though the full
length figures have mostly given
place to busts, printed double, and
in reverse, on each honor, that the
card may be the more easily known,
whichever way it may be thrown on
the table. Attempts to produce a
better type of figures on cards have
generally met with failure, as most
card players prefer the ancient style.
Toward the latter part of the I5th
century, the French began to name
the Kings, Queens, and Knaves on
their cards, giving them historic or
legendary titles, such as La Pucelle,
(The Maid, that is — Joan of Arc),
the Dukes of Burgundy and Nor-
mandy, etc., and Helen, Venus, La
Sybille, etc. About the time of
Henri IV., the Kings were generally
called David, Alexander, Caesar, and
Charlemagne ; the Queens, Rachel,
Argine, Pallas, and Judith ; and the
Knaves, Hector, Lancelot, Roland,
and Hogier ; and these names were
afterward generally employed until
the custom ceased. At the time of
the French Revolution, when royalty
was discarded, the signs of royalty
were removed from the French
cards ; the Kings were replaced by
sages and philosophers, the Queens
by emblematic figures of virtues and
liberties, and the Knaves by warriors
or Roman heroes. Napoleon had
these changed for artistic designs
by the painter David, but after the
Emperor's downfall the people pre-
CARD-GAMES
148
CARD-GAMES
ferred to go back to the old style.
Other attempts, in later times, to
make cards vehicles of information,
to teach arithmetic, grammar, geog-
raphy, history, mythology, etc., have
also failed.
The signs or marks of the four
suits of cards have varied in different
countries. The earliest used in
Italy were coppe (cups, 9), spade
(swords, 10), denart (money, 11),
and bastoni (clubs, 12). These were
called by the Spaniards copas (cups,
13), espadas (swords, 14), oros or
dineros (money, 15), and bastos
(clubs, 16). The Germans early
employed other marks ; herzen or
roth (hearts, 17), laub or griin
(leaves, 18), schellen (bells, 19), and
eicheln \acorns, 20). The French,
23. Oamel.
Hindoo Cards.
24. Horse.
during the second quarter of the
1 5th century, adopted the signs
of cceurs (hearts), carreaux (dia-
monds), trtfles (trefoils), and piques
(pikes). The trtfles were taken
probably from the German eicheln
or acorns, which they somewhat
resemble ; &&& piques from the Ger-
man grun, or leaves, though they
got their names from a fancied re-
semblance to a pike head. These
marks have since been generally
adopted by all other nations, except-
ing the Spaniards, who still use the
old Italian marks. Other symbols
have, however, been in vogue at
different times, the Germans, about
the beginning of the I5th century,
CARD-GAMES
H9
CARD-GAMES
using animals, flowers, fruit, etc.
One old German set has for suit
marks dogs, falcons, stags, and
ducks ; another, rabbits, parroquets,
pinks, and columbines ; and a third,
lions, monkeys, parrots, and pea-
cocks. In 1862, during the Civil
War in the United States, cards
were printed in New York with
eagles, shields, flags, and stars for
suit marks, and a colonel, the God-
dess of Liberty, and a major, for
King, Queen, and Knave. The
English seem to have adopted all the
French suit marks together with
the French names for the two red
suits, but to have taken the Italian or
Spanish names for the two black
suits, calling trefles clubs, a transla-
tion of the Italian bastoni or the
Spanish bastos ; and piques spades,
which is derived from spade or es-
•padas, the Italian and Spanish words
for swords.
Cards were at first made much
larger than now, some of the early
German ones being seven by four
inches. They were, too, sometimes
made square, and sometimes circu-
lar. Hindoo and Persian cards are
often circular, about 2^ inches in di-
ameter, though those used in Tehe-
ran are generally of the European
size and shape. Hindoo cards are
sometimes of eight suits of twelve
each and sometimes of ten suits of
twelve each. The suit marks are
birds, swords, suns, moons, etc.
(21, 22, 23, 34). Persian cards have
generally 96 in the pack, with suns,
moons, harps, sabres, etc., for suit
marks. Chinese cards are long and
narrow, from 2^ to 2 inches long by
I to \\ wide (25, 26). They are
printed with black ink on thin white
cardboard, and the backs are black,
red, or plain white. Japanese cards
are much like the Chinese, differing
only in their marks.
The earliest card game played is
supposed to have been Tarocchi, in-
vented at Venice, played with 78
cards, called from it Tarocchi cards,
or. in French, Tarots. This was
followed by the Florentine game of
Minchtata, played with 97 cards;
by the Bolognese game of Taroc-
chino, with 62 cards, and by the
Venetian game of Trappola, with 40
cards. Frusso (Flush), Bassetta,
and Primtera, were also other early
Italian games. Primiera, called in
Spain and England Primero, and in
France Prime and Ambtgu, was the
ancestor of our Brag and Poker. In
Germany, one of the earliest games
played was Landsknecht spiel (Foot-
soldiers'-game), called in French
Lansquenet. The oldest Spanish
game is probably Ombre (Hombre,
man), called Omber in England,
where, as well as in France, it was
25. Court Card. 26. Pip Card.
Chinese Cards.
once much played. There were
many modifications of it, among
them Quadrille and Solitaire. Eng-
land has no national game of cards,
unless Whist may be so considered,
the games played there being de-
rived from Italy, Spain, or France.
Primero, one of the earliest, was
fashionable from the reign of Henry
VIII. to that of James I. It was suc-
ceeded by a game called Mauve ;
then came Gleek, Omber, Quadrille,
Reversis, and Bassett ; and finally
Ruff, and Honors, which, about
1650, led to Whist. The card games
CASINO
ISO
CASINO
usually played now are described in
special articles in this book.
CASINO, or Cassino, a game of
CARDS played best by four persons,
but sometimes by two, three, five,
six, or even more. The players may
be divided into two sides, or play
each for himself. The dealer deals
from a full pack four cards, one at a
time, to each player and lays four
more face upward on the table, either
as he deals or all at once. When
the players' cards are gone, four
more are dealt to each one until the
pack is used up, but none are put on
the table except at the first deal.
The leader (or elder hand) can take
not only all cards of the same value,
among those on the table, but also
any cards the number of whose
spots, added together, equals his.
Thus a Nine will take not only all
other Nines on the table, but at the
same time a Five and a Four ; a Six
and a Three ; a Seven and a Two :
an Eight and an Ace ; a Four, a
Three, and a Two ; or any other
cards which will make nine when
their spots are added. Face cards
can take only corresponding face
cards. If the leader has no card that
will take anything, he must lay some
card on the table, but if he has left
in his hand a card that will take the
card laid down, in connection with
others on the table, he can make a
pile of the cards he is able to take,
at the same time announcing to the
other players with what card he
means to take them at a subsequent
time, though not necessarily his next
turn. If the cards so piled form a
single group it is called " building,"
if several groups, it is " calling," or
duplicating. Thus if a player com-
bine a Six from his hand with a Two
and an Ace on the table, and say
" Nine," it is only a "build," but if
he include in the pile a Nine-spot on
the table or another group the sum
of whose spots is nine, he must say
" Nines " (using the plural) and it is
a "call." The cards of neither a
build nor a call can be taken separ-
ately by pairing, but an adversary
may raise a build in amount by the
addition of another card, while a call
cannot be raised. A call must be
taken by the card it represents, either
alone or with other similar piles.
The second player may likewise take
what he can with his card, or build,
or call, remembering in either case
that a build can always be treated
like a single card, while a call can-
not.
If he can do none of these things
he must lay down a card with the
others. The players in turn have
the same choice till the pack is ex-
hausted. When the pack has been
played, he who takes the last trick
takes also the rest of the cards on
the table. Each player then counts
his points according to the table
given below :
Big Casino (the Ten of Diamonds)
counts 2
Little Casino (the Two of Spades) I
Each Ace I
The greatest number of Cards . 3
The greatest number of Spades . i
Besides this, when a player has
taken all the cards on the board at
once (except at the end of the game)
it is called a sweep, and counts I.
A sweep is generally marked by
facing or turning over one of the
cards in the pile of tricks belonging
to the player who makes it, so that,
when the points are counted at the
end of the hand, there is no trouble
in remembering it.
The person or side first making
ten points usually wins the game ;
but when only two persons or sides
are playing, the count is sometimes
made by giving to him who makes
the greatest number of points in a
hand only the difference between his
points and those of his opponent,
while the latter scores nothing ; thus,
if A has 8 and B has 5, A scores 3
and B nothing; while if they are
equal, neither scores. If three play
in this way, the two lowest add their
points and subtract their sum from
the highest, and no one scores when
CAT
CAT
this sum equals or exceeds the
highest. The game is made longer
by counting thus, but it can hardly
be done when more than three are
playing separately, as usually no one
could score.
In playing Casino, when no card
on the table can be taken it is best to
lay down face cards. These are of
the least use in one's own hand and
the hardest to take on the table,
since no combinations can be made
with them. Care should be taken in
laying down an ace, for in taking it
with another ace your opponent wins
two points for the final count at
once, and it is also the easiest card
to combine. It would be better even
to lay down Big Casino, for that can
be taken only by a ten. After the
learner has played the game once or
twice other suggestions will soon
offer themselves.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. The tricks must not be examined
nor counted before all the cards are
played.
2. If the dealer show a card before
any of the four in the middle are
dealt, or if he dealt too many or too
few cards to any one, he must deal
again.
History. The word casino is
Italian and means little house. Club
houses where people meet for amuse-
ment are often called casinos, and
this game may have been so named
because it was a favorite at such
places.
Kapak, or Russian Casino. In
this form of the game the Knave
counts ii, the Queen 12 and the
King 13. There is no "building."
Sweeps are called " Kapaks," and
Big Casino and Little Casino are
called respectively the " Good Ten "
and " Good Two." Clubs count
instead of Spades, as in ordinary
Casino, and the " Good Two " (Little
Casino) is the Two of Clubs. In all
other respects Kapak is played like
ordinary Casino.
CAT, a game played by any num-
ber of persons with a piece of wood
called a Cat. The Cat is a piece of
wood about six inches long and \yz
or 2 inches thick, sharpened at both
ends. If it is laid either on level ground
or with one end projecting over a
hole, and the end be struck down
quickly with a bat, it will rise in the
air, twirling,
and may then
be struck away
The Cat. with the bat.
The game may
be played in various ways. In the
simplest, a large ring is made and
one player, standing within it, strikes
the cat as described above. If it fall
within the ring, he is out and another
player takes his place. If it fall out-
side he guesses how many lengths of
the stick it is from the center of the
ring. The distance is then measured,
and if it is less than his guess, he is out;
but if not, he scores that number of
points and has another turn. After
as many rounds as have been agreed
upon, the player scoring the most
points wins.
Another way of playing is to make
as many holes in the ground as there
are players on a side ; the holes are
made as nearly as possible in a circle
and at equal distances. A player, with
a bat, stands at each hole, and all
the players on the other side stand
ouside the circle. One of the bats-
men strikes the Cat, and then all run
around the circle. Every time they
reach new holes the side scores one
run. The next player in order then
strikes the Cat, and so on. But if a
player on the other side can throw
the Cat between any two holes be-
fore the player who has left one of
them reaches the other, the runner
is out, and when one or more play-
ers are out (whichever has been
agreed) the sides change places.
When each side has been at the bat
the number of times previously agreed
upon, the game is ended, and the side
that has made most runs wins.
This game is very old. It was
known to the Venetians in the i6th
century. It is a common sport also
CAT'S CRADLE
152
CAT'S CRADLE
in Hindostan, where it is called
Gulli Danda. It may have been
taken to India by Venetian traders.
CAT'S CRADLE, a game played
by two persons with a string, four or
five feet long, whose ends are tied
together. The string, which is held
Fig. i.
on the hands of one of the players, is
removed by the other, and so on al-
ternately ; it assuming a different form
each time. Some of the variations, of
which there are many, are shown in
Fig. 2.
the illustrations. The player who
begins holds his hands in front of him
with the palms toward each other, and
the string passing around the backs.
He then takes a turn around the
Fig. 3-
string with each hand so that it also
passes across each palm. He then
passes the middle finger of his right
hand under the part that crosses the
opposite palm, and pulls it back as
represented in Fig. I. After he has
done the same thing with the left
middle finger, the string appears as
Fig. 4-
in Fig. 2. The second player now
seizes the upper strings, with the fin-
ger and thumb of each hand, as
shown in Fig. 3, pulls them over the
outside string, and pushing them up
Fig. 5-
inside, takes the strings off in the
shape shown in Fig 4. Other varia-
tions are shown in the illustrations
which follow. Each is made from
some previous arrangement by one
Fig. 6.
player's taking the string from the
hands of the other. The proper
way of doing this may be studied
out by the learner, who may also
CATCH THE TEN
153
CAYENNE
invent many of new figures to suit
himself. The different arrangements
are often called by special names.
In Germany some of them are " The
Single Cross." " The Double Cross."
" The Water " and " The Violin."
History. This game, which is
Fig. 7.
probably of great antiquity, is found
in nearly all parts of the world.
The Dyaks, or natives of Borneo, are
very skillful at it, making many kinds
of puzzling figures, and the Maoris
of New Zealand are also fond of it.
The latter call it Mam', the name of
Fig. 8.
their national hero, by whom they
say it was invented. Its various pat-
terns represent incidents in Mani's
life, and other events, forming a kind
of pictorial history of the country.
CATCH THE TEN, or Scotch
Whist, a game of CARDS played by
two to eight persons with a pack
from which the Twos, Threes, Fours,
and Fives are omitted. If it is nec-
essary, one or more of the Sixes may
also be left out, that the cards may
be equally divided. The cards rank
as in Whist, except in the trump
suit, where the Knave is higher than
the Ace. When two persons play,
three hands of six cards are dealt to
each, which must be kept separate
and played in the order in which
they are dealt. When three play,
two hands are dealt to each in like
manner. When more than this num-
ber play, each is dealt one hand, the
cards being divided evenly. In all
cases the last card is turned for
trump. Six persons may play in two
partnerships of three each or three of
two each ; and eight may form two
sides of four each or four of two
each. The players must sit so that
no two on the same side are together.
The cards are played as in WHIST.
Each card above the party's share in
the tricks taken scores one toward
game. Thus, if three are playing
each one's share of cards is 12, and
if one of them takes 5 tricks (15 cards)
he scores three points. In like man-
ner, if four are playing, two against
two, and one side take 6 tricks (24
cards) they score 6, the share of the
party being 18. In addition, the five
highest trumps count for those who
take them as follows :
Knave, n
Ace, 4
King 3
Queen, 2
Ten, 10
It will thus be seen that the prin-
cipal object of the game, aside from
making tricks, is to take the one con-
taining the Ten of Trumps, for the
Knave, being the highest card, can-
not be taken from its owner.
Hence the name " Catch the Ten."
He who has the Ten should try to
save it by playing it on a trick already
taken by his partner, or by trumping
with it. If a player have the two
highest trumps, he should lead them,
in hope of catching the Ten, or of
enabling his partner to save it. In
other respects the rules for playing
are similar to those of Whist. If a
player revoke, his side loses the game.
CAYENNE, a game of CARDS,
played by four persons, two against
two, with a full pack. The cards
are dealt as in WHIST, and the dealer,
after turning the last as trump, de-
cides which of four games shall be
played. These are called respec-
tively, " In Suits," "Grandissimo,"
" Cayenne," and " Nullissimo." The
THE CENTAUR
154
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
game In Suits is like WHIST except
that the dealer turns clown the trump
card and makes a new trump, and
every trick more than six counts 2
points. In the Cayenne game the
turned trump is retained and the odd
tricks count 4 each. In the Grand-
issimo game there is no trump, and
the odd tricks count 6 each.
Nullissimo is like Grandissimo ex-
cept that the object is not to take
tricks, and the odd tricks count 4
apiece to the opposite side. The
Ace, King, Queen, Knave, and Ten
are called Honors. Three Honors
count 2, Four Honors 4, and Two
Honors 6. It will be seen that the
more difficult the game the more
valuable are the tricks. If the dealer
has a long suit and knows he can
get the lead, he will probably choose
to play Grandissimo. If he has a
very poor hand he will choose Nul-
lissimo.
CENTAUR, THE, a diversion in
which two boys or men personate a
Centaur, a creature of Greek mythol-
Fig. i. — The Centaur.
ogy, half man and half horse. One
player stands erect, and the other,
behind him, bends his body so that
his back is horizontal, and holds
the first player's hips with his hands,
as in Fig. i. A table-cover or shawl
is thrown over the second player and
pinned around the waist of the first,
and a tail, like a horse's, is made of
strips of cloth or paper and pinned
to the shawl in the rear. The Cen-
taur should hold a bow and arrow in
his hand, and have a cloak thrown
loosely over his shoulder and over
one arm, while the other is bare (See
Fig. 2). Two Centaurs may engage
Fig. 2. — The Centaur.
in a combat, but this requires some
practice. There should be signals
arranged between the front and rear
performer, so that the latter will
know what to do, and the two should
also practise the ordinary paces of
the horse, such as walking, trotting,
and galloping. Imitation hoofs of
pasteboard may be made and fast-
ened over the shoes.
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE, Experi-
ments on^ i. Tie a stone or any
other heavy object to the end of an
elastic cord and swing it around in a
circle by the other end of the cord.
The cord will be stretched. The
reason is that the stone strives to
move in a straight line ; the cord
confines it to a circle, hence the stone
stretches the cord in its effort to get
away. This outward pull exerted
by the stone is generally called cen-
trifugal force (Latin centriim, centre,
and fitgo, to fly). Let go the cord
and the stone will fly off as if it had
been thrown in the direction in which
it was moving when it was released.
CHARACTERS
155
CHARACTERS
2. Half fill a quart pail with water,
tie a cord about two feet long to the
handle, and swing the pail in a circle.
The water will not fall out, even
when the pail is upside down. The
reason is that its centrifugal force
makes it press against the bottom of
the pail.
3. Take the same pail, and after
twisting the string tightly, allow it
to untwist, spinning the pail horizon-
tally, or use a TWIRLER to make it
spin. The water will heap itself up
against the sides of the pail, leaving
a hollow in the centre. The faster
the pail spins, the higher the water
will be at the edge, and as it stops
spinning the water surface will grow
level again.
4. Put into the pail equal quantities
of water and some kind of oil that
will float on it. Spin as before, and
the water will seek the edge of the
pail, leaving the oil within. It is on
this principle that machines are made
to separate the cream from milk in a
few minutes.
5. Suspend a small fish-globe by
tying a string around the top, which
should have a groove. Spin it as
before, and then pour into it about a
tumblerful of water. The water
will leave the bottom entirely, and
form a ring around the middle of the
globe.
6. Wet a TOP and then spin it.
The water will be thrown off in spray
from all sides.
CHARACTERS. The name of two
different games. I. A game played
by any number of persons, one of
whom leaves the room while the
others agree on some historical char-
acter he is to represent. He is then
called back and each player asks
him a question or makes a remark
to him as if he were the character
agreed upon. From these questions
he must try to guess what character
he is supposed to represent, and if
he succeeds, the person whose ques-
tion enabled him to do so must
represent the next character. 'The
questions are usually put so as to
puzzle the guesser as much as possi-
ble. For instance, if Washington be
the character agreed upon, one player
may ask, " Do rifle balls bound from
you as if you were made of rubber? "
(referring to his remarkable escape
in the French and Indian war) ;
another, " Do you think mid-winter
the best time for crossing rivers ? "
(referring to the passage of the Dela-
ware) ; and another, " Have you
outgrown your early fondness for
destroying fruit trees?" Instead of
historical characters, persons well
known to all the company are some-
times selected, which often makes the
game more amusing.
II. A game in which each player is
given one letterof the name of an his-
torical character, the players seating
themselves in the order in which the
letters occur in the name. Each one
then selects another character whose
name begins with the particular let-
ter assigned to him, and the player
sent out, being re-called, tries to
guess each of these by questioning
the others one by one, in any order
he pleases. He is not to be told
whether or not he has guessed aright,
but when he thinks he has found out
several he may guess the name of the
character agreed on by the company
and must be told whether this guess
is correct. If it is not, he must find
out more initial letters and try again.
The player whose letter enables him
to guess correctly must take his
place as guesser for the next game.
If the name selected has more let-
ters than the number of players,
several of them may take two or
more, and if there are more players
than letters, part or all of the name
may be repeated ; but the guesser
must be told, in the first case, which
players have more than one letter,
and the order of those letters, and,
in the second case, which player has
the last letter of the name.
Century Court, a kind of Charac-
ters, in which the person who leaves
the room is given the name of a
whole century instead of a single
ACTING CHARADE
I56
CHECKERS
character. On his return he is
charged with all the crimes of the
century and praised for all its good
men or events. As in the game just
described, this goes on till the person
guesses the century he is supposed
to represent.
ACTING CHARADE, a play, the
scenes of which represent respect-
ively the syllables of some word and
the whole of that word. Thus, the
word may be carpet, when there
would be three scenes, representing
the words Car, Pet, and Carpet. The
different scenes may be parts of the
same play, or each may be complete
in itself. Acting charades may be
learned from printed books, like other
plays, but usually the performers
merely agree on the plot and fill in
the dialogue to suit themselves, as
the play goes on.
For an evening's amusement, the
company may be divided into two
parties, each with a leader. One of
the parties acts a charade while the
other forms the audience and tries to
guess the word represented, and
then the parties change places.
A word or syllable may be acted
by being actually represented, or by
being mentioned frequently. Thus,
the syllable " car," in the above exam-
ple may be acted by representing the
interior of a car, with passengers
and conductor, though the word
itself is not once spoken, or any other
scene may be given in which a car is
a subject of conversation. Of these
two methods, the former is the best
where it is possible. Charades are
most enjoyable when there has been
least preparation. Scenery and cos-
tumes should be made from the
materials nearest at hand. The
leader should act as stage manager
and the other players should obey
him exactly. He should tell each
what to do, taking advice and sug-
gestions from the others, but always
deciding himself on the course to be
followed. It is better merely to in-
dicate the general plot, leaving the
players tp use what words occur to
them at the moment. Two persons
can thus often make a very comical
dialogue without any previous re-
hearsals, and, as all are equally with-
out preparation, a failure is not dis-
graceful.
CHECKERED GAME OF LIFE,
a game played by two persons on a
checkered board, with counters and
a TEETOTUM. The squares bear
numbers and also pictures descrip-
tive of different events in a man's
life, beginning with his birth and
ending in various ways, some success-
ful, others not, the object being to
reach the Temple of Fame at the top
of the board. The players each
enter in turn a counter in the first
square, and their course of play is
determined entirely by twirling the
teetotum, there being no skill in the
game. He who first reaches the
Temple of Fame wins.
This is the type of a great number
of games, all probably derived from
Backgammon or Patches!, and many
having for an object the combination
of instruction with amusement. The
oldest of such games was probably
the Game of Goose, which was play-
ed as long ago as 1800. This was
called in France Jeu de I'Oie (Game
of Goose), and in an old French col-
lection many similar games are de-
scribed, among them those of " His-
tory," " The Revolution," " The
Atlas," "The Navy," and "The
Monuments of Paris."
CHECKERS (called Draughts in
England), a game played by two
persons, each of whom has 12 pieces
or men, on a checkered board divided
into 64 squares of two colors, gener-
ally black and white. It may be
played either on the black squares,
as it usually is in America, or on the
white squares, as it always is in
England, but on whichever color it
is played, the board must be so placed
that a square of the same color shall
be in the lower left-hand corner. In
the accompanying diagrams, for con-
venience of illustration, the game is
supposed to be played on the white
CHECKERS
157
CHECKERS
squares. The checkers, or men,
which are also of two colors, and
are all equal, are arranged at the
beginning of the game in three lines
on each side, as shown in Fig. I :
The players take turns in moving,
and each has but one move at a
time. The men are moved diagon-
ally (corner-wise), one square at a
time, either to the right or to the left,
but always forward. If, however,
a man reaches the last line of squares
on the opposite side of the board, it
becomes a King, is covered by having
another one put upon top of it (or
sometimes by turning it over, if it is
made with a crown on the
under side), and it may then
move either backward or
forward, but still only one
square at a time. When
two hostile men meet each
other, the one having the
move can capture the other,
if there is a vacant square
next beyond it, by jumping
over it into that square. The
man thus jumped is removed
from the board. If several
men are exposed with a va-
cant square behind each,
they may all be jumped at
once and all removed from
the board, the capturing man
being left on the last square
occupied. If a man be in a
position to be taken, the
player having the move must
capture it. If he neglect to
capture it and make some
other move, the opponent may let
the move stand and remove from
the board the man which ought to
have made the capture. The man
thus forfeited is said to be huffed,
or " blowed," sometimes accom-
panied with the gesture, and the
player who thus huffs has then the
right to make his own move, for the
act of huffing does not count as a
move. If, however, the player having
the right to huff prefers not to do so,
he may insist on his opponent's
capturing the piece, and then the
man improperly moved must first be
replaced on the square from which
he was moved. As two or three
men may sometimes be captured at
once, the player neglecting to take
all of them may be huffed by his
opponent. This often happens to
young players, who do not readily
see all the men which may be jumped.
The object of the game is to capture
all the men of the opposite player,
or to block them so that they cannot
move. If, towards the close of a
! game the two players are so evenly
I balanced that neither can win
I — as, for example, when each has
m v m "° m -=• mm.
Checker Board.
Fig. i. — Arrangement of Men.
one king — the game is said to be
drawn.
The Move. The player who occu-
pies such a position on the board that
in the ordinary course of play he can
force his opponent's men into a con-
fineH position is said to " have the
move." There are several ways of
finding out who has the move,
which will be learned easiest by
playing with some one who under-
stands the game, or by playing
through the games given below.
When one has not the move, one can
CHECKERS
I58
CHECKERS
often win it by skillful playing. Hav-
ing the move does not mean having
the first move, for the first player
has no advantage over his oppo-
nent. The second player really has
the move, but it is of no advantage
to him so early in the game. Dur-
ing the game the move is sometimes
with one and sometimes with
the other side, but the skillful
player will generally keep it
at the close of the game.
It is customary to number
the squares of the board in
the way shown in Fig. 2,
as the moves of the game
are always given by num-
bers, as in the columns be-
low. By playing through
these games, the beginner
will easily learn what are the
best moves on each side.
Openings. There are a
great many ways of begin-
ning the game of Checkers.
These, which are called
" openings," have generally
received special names.
Some of them are given
below :
The Ayrshire Lassie :
ii — 15 24—20
8— ii 28—24
The Bristol :
1 1 — 1 6 24 — 20
1 6 — 19
Sometimes any game begun by
the move ii — 16 is called Bristol.
The Cross :
ii — 15 23—18
The Defiance :
11—15 23— *9
9—14 27—23
The Dyke :
ii — 15 22 — 17
15—19
The Fife :
ii — 15 23 — 19
9—14 22 — I/
5—9
The Glasgow :
ii — 15 23 — 19
8— II 22 — 17
ii — 16
The Laird and Lady :
11—15 23—19
8 — II 22 — 17
9—13
The Maid of the Mill :
II — 15 22 — 17
8— ii 17—13
15—18
Checker Board.
Fig. 2. — Method of Numbering.
The Old Fourteenth :
11—15 23—19
8 — ii 22 — 17
4-8
The Invincible :
11—15 24 — 19
The Single Corner :
11—15 22—18
The Souter :
11—15 23—19
9 — 14 22 — 17
6-9
The Whilter :
11—15 23—19
9 — 14 22 — 17
7— ii
The Will o' the Wisp :
11—15 23—19
9—13
The " Bristol " was so named by
the player Anderson in compliment
to the checker players of Bristol,
England. The " Defiance " is so
CHECKERS
159
CHECKERS
named because it prevents the
GAME II.
formation of the " Fife " game.
BLACK. WHITE.
The " Dyke " is so called because
9 to 14 22 to 18
in many of its positions the men are
ii " 15 18 " 9
formed in lines. The " Fife " was
5 " 14 25 " 22
named in 1847 after Wylie, a player
15 " 19 23 " 16
from Fifeshire, Scotland. The
12 " 19 24 " 15
" Glasgow " was named in like man-
10 " 19 22 " 17
ner from Sinclair of that city in 1828.
The " Laird and Lady," " Maid of
6 " 10 27 " 24
16 " 15 17 " 10
the Mill," and " Souter " (shoemaker)
7 " 14 29 " 25
were named from people whose favor-
ite openings they were. The " Old
8 " II 2$ " 22
14 " l8 22 " 17
Fourteenth " was the fourteenth
l8 " 22 17 ' 14
game in Sturges's work on checkers.
22 " 25 21 ' 17
The " Whilter " (a Scotch word,
25 " 29 17 « 13
meaning a confusing change), and
4 " 8 32 ' 27
the " Will o' the Wisp " are named
3 " 7 24 ' 20
from the unexpected plays they
15 " 18 14 • 9
often introduce.
19 " 23 26 ' 19
Sample Games. In these games
Black is supposed to be at the top
l8 " 22 27 ' 24
White wins.
and White at the bottom of the
GAME III.
board. Care should be taken to
WHITE. BLACK.
crown each man that reaches the
22 tO 1 8 II tO l6
king-row. GAME T>
2$ " 22 10 " 14
24 " 20 i 6 " 19
BLACK. WHITE.
II tO 15 22 tO 1 8
23
' ID 12 " 19
15 " 22 25 " l8
18
'15 7 " 10
8 " n 29 " 25
20
' 16 14 ' 18
4 " 8 25 " 22
29
'25 9 ' 14
12 " 16 24 " 20
27
'24 5 ' 9
10 " 15 27 " 24
24
'20 8 « 12
16 " 19 23 " 16
31
'27 i • 5
15 ••• 19 24 " 15
15
' II 10 " 1$
9 " 14 18 " 9
22
1 17 l8 " 22
ii "25 32 " 27
17
« I 22 " 31
5 " 14 27 " 23
II
'8 4 " ii
6 " 10 16 " 12
16
• 7 3 •« 10
8 " ii 28 " 24
i
'6 31 ' 24
25 ' 29 30 " 25
6
'13 5 ' 9
29 ' 22 26 " 17
13
'6 2 ' 9
II ' 15 20 " l6
3°
'26 9 • 14
15 ' 18 24 " 20
26
'22 14 ' 18
18 ' 27 31 " 24
22
' 17 19 " 23
14 ' 18 16 " ii
28
' 19 15 " 24
7 ' 16 20 ' ii
17
' 14
18 ' 23 ii ' 8
Drawn.
23-27 8 ' 4
RULES OF THE GAME.
27 ' 31 4 ' 8
I. The choice of men and the first
31 '27 24 ' 20
move in the first game must be de-
27 ' 23 8 ' ii
cided by lot ; the most common way
23 ' 18 ii ' 8
is for one of the players to hold one
1 8 '15 Black wins.
of the men in his hand, and let the
CHECKERS
160
CHECKERS
other guess whether it is black or
white. The winner of the choice
has the right either to play first or to
call upon his opponent to do so.
After the first game, the men should
be changed each game, so that each
player shall use the black and the
white by turns, and not become so
accustomed to either as to be unable
to use the other, and the first move
is to be taken by turns, whether the
game be won or drawn.
2. Neither player must touch the
squares of the board nor point at the
board with his finger, and never
touch a piece unless he means to
move it.
3. If the men get out of
place, a player may first tell
his opponent that he intends
to replace them and then do
so ; but if, after they are set
right, a player touches a
piece, it being his turn to
play, he must move it, if
possible.
4. When a man is in a
position to be taken, the
player having the move must
capture it ; and the opposite
player may insist on his do-
ing so, or may huff the man
having the right to capture,
as he chooses. After huff-
ing, the player may then
make his own move.
5. No matter how long a
man has been liable to cap-
ture, it may at any time be
huffed, or the opponent may at any
time be obliged to capture it.
6. When two or more men are
liable to capture, the player having
the move may take whichever he
chooses ; for example, if one can be
captured in one way and two in
another way, he may take either the
one or the two.
7. If a player delays moving more
than three minutes, his opponent may
request him to play ; and if he does
not move within five minutes after
being requested to, he loses the game.
8. When, n^ar the close of the
game, only a few men are left, the
player having the stronger force may
be compelled at the pleasure of the
referee to finish within a certain num-
ber of moves ; and, if he cannot do
this, the game is declared drawn.
[For example, if two kings remain
against one king, the referee might
require the former to win in twenty
moves — that is, twenty on each side.]
Give-Away, or the Losing Game,
a game having the same moves and
rules as checkers, in which the player
who first gets rid of all his men wins.
The object of each player is to force
his opponent to capture as many men
as possible, and, by opening his own
Fig. 3. — Polish Checkers.
game freely, especially the squares in
his king-row, to compel him to make
kings. It is thus the opposite of
checkers. Although not so difficult
to play as the latter, it requires con-
siderable skill and attention to play
well. Great care is necessary to
keep the move, for the player who
has it ought to win.
Polish Checkers, The board and
the men are arranged as in common
checkers and the moves of the men
are the same — that is, always for-
ward diagonally, and one square at
a time ; but in capturing, the men
CHECKERS
161
CHECKERS
have the privilege of jumping either
forward or backward. When a man
reaches the opposite King-row, it is
crowned a king as in the other game,
but it has far greater powers, similar
to those of a bishop in chess. It
may move not only one square at a
time, backward or forward, but it
has also the privilege of passing over
several squares, and even the whole
length of the diagonal, when the
passage is free, at one move. The
method of capture, both of the men
and of the kings, may be explained
easiest by Fig. 3, the game being
supposed to be played on the white
squares, as it generally is in Europe.
If White has a man at 20,
and Black has unsupported
men at 16, 7, 6, 14, 23, and
24, White, having the move,
may capture them all and
finish at square 20 again.
In this long jump or succes-
sion of jumps, White, it will
be noticed, enters the oppo-
site King-row at 2, but does
not stay there, for he is
obliged to keep on jumping
until he has captured all the
men which can be taken ;
and he does not thus win the
right to be made a king, as
that can be only when the
man remains in the King-
row. Good players will take
advantage of this, when they
cannot keep thei1" opponent
from getting into their King-
row, and by putting a man or two
in the way of capture, lead him out
of it again into the middle of the
board. It is sometimes good play to
throw away even three men, espec-
ially toward the end of a game, to
keep the enemy from getting a King.
The men jumped must not be re-
moved from the board until the cap-
turing man has finished and is at
rest, because the latter cannot pass
twice over any square with a man on
it, but must stop behind that man
which, but for this rule, it might
jump. But a vacant square may be
passed or repassed several times in
the course of one move, provided
that no man is leaped a second time.
The king has even more power than
the bishop in chess, for in moving
he may not only pass from one end
of the board to the other, but in
capturing he may also make angles.
For instance (Fig. 4), if a king stand
at 1 8, he may move to any square on
the line from 4 to 29, or from 5 to
32. Again, if a White king stands
at 31 and Black men or kings are at
22, 6, 16, and 24, the former captures
them all by jumping to the squares
13, 2, 20, and 27, where he rests.
From this it will be seen that
Fig. 4. — Polish Checkers.
though the common man can jump
a piece only when there is a vacant
space next beyond it, the king can
pass to any empty square on the
diagonal. The king having so great
power can keep out of his opponent's
way much more easily than in com-
mon checkers, and with skillful
players many games are drawn. If,
at the end of a game, White has only
one king while Black has three,
White can draw the game if he can
get on the central line between 4 and
29, and know how to play properly.
If he cannot get on the central line.
CHECKERS
162
CHECKERS
Black may win in several ways, but
the game is drawn if he does not do it
in fifteen moves. When a player who
has only one king, while his oppo-
nent has a king and two men, offers
to crown the two men so as to oblige
him to win in fifteen moves, the
opponent must accept the offer or
the game is drawn. When at the
end of a game, one party has a king
and a man against three kings, it is
best to sacrifice the man as soon as
possible, as the game is more easily
defended by a king alone. When
two men of one color are so situated
that an opponent can move between
Fig. 5. — Pyramid.
them, and thus be in a position to
leap either way, it is called a lunette.
This situation happens much oftener
in the Polish than in the common
game, and it is frequently a snare
laid by good players to catch the
unskillful ; for by moving into the
lunette in hope of catching one of his
opponent's men the poor player often
finds himself entrapped and forced to
lose several of his own. With these
few exceptions the rules of Polish
checkers are the same as those for
common checkers. This game is
usually played on the continent of
Europe on a board with 100 squares,
each player having 20 men arranged
in four rows ; but in Germany it is
often played as in America — on a
common checker-board of 64 squares,
with the usual number of men.
Pyramid, a game in which the men
are arranged in the form of a pyra-
mid, as in Fig. 5. The moves are
always diagonally forward, and hos-
tile men must be jumped as in check-
ers, but the man jumped is not
removed from the board. The
player's object is to form his men in
the same pyramid that was occupied
at first by his enemy, and he who
does this soonest wins. This is the
simplest game that is played
on a checker-board, though
considerable skill may be
shown in moving the men
and getting threm in position.
Hal ma, or Hoppity, a kind
of PYRAMID played on a
checker-board of 256 squares
by two or four persons with
men shaped like the Pawns
in CHESS, though common
checkers may be used, as
shown in Fig. 6. In the two
handed game each player
has 19 men which are placed
closely together in opposite
corners of the board, as in
Fig. 6, occupying both dark
and light squares. The play-
er's object, as in Pyramid, is
to move his own men into
the places of their opponents,
but either friends or enemies can be
jumped, and in any of the possible
eight directions, which increases the
interest. The simple move can also
be made in any direction. In play-
ing, an arrangement of the pieces in
a row with an empty space between
each two, into which a man may
jump, is called a ladder, because a
piece can sometimes go from one
end to the other in a single move,
by a series of leaps. Ladders should
be arranged as much as possible
where they will aid the player's own
men, and avoided where they will
help his opponent. The game may
CHECKERS
I63
CHECKERS
be divided into three parts, the first
part called the Gambit, which con-
sists in getting all the men outside
the squares originally occupied ; the
second or Melee, when the opposing
men are mingled ; and the third or
Packing, getting the pieces into order
on the opposite side. When four
persons play, each has but 13 men,
arranged in the same kind of a
figure as in the two-handed game.
Each may play for himself, or the
opposite players may be partners, in
which case each tries to help the
other as much as possible, instead
of hindering him.
Fig. 6. — Halma.
Japanese Checkers. This is
played on a board like the one in the
figure made from one of 100 squares
by joining alternate pairs, forming
oblong figures, which are the only
ones used in playing (See Fig. 7.)
Each of the players, who sit oppo-
site, has 9 men like Pawns in chess,
though ordinary checkers may be
used, as in the illustration, and also
a Mikado, and a Daimio. The Mi-
kados and Daimios are like the men
in shape, but of different size, the
former being the larger. Each
player places five men in the row
nearest him, and four men with the
Mikado in the second row, the
Mikado being in the middle, as
at M in the diagram. No man
can jump the Mikado, but for the
CHECKERS
164
CHECKERS
first one that reaches the King-row
a Daimio is substituted, who is al-
lowed to jump the Mikado. In all
Fig. 7. — Japanese Checkers.
other respects the game is precisely
like ordinary checkers.
History. The game of checkers
is supposed to be older than chess.
A game somewhat like it was known
in Egypt more than four thousand
years ago, and pictures representing
King Rameses II, called Sesostris
by the Greeks, who lived about 1400
B.C., playing it with some of the
women of his household are still to
be seen on the walls of his palace at
Thebes. One of these is shown in
the accompanying illustration, in
which only the edge of the board is
seen, but the checkers are like little
ten-pins.
Other forms of Egyptian checkers
are shown in the following, taken
from pictures on temples or from real
pieces found in the tombs. Some
of these are made of ivory and
some are earthenware ; and some of
them have heads of cats, dogs, and
other animals. How the Egyptians
played the game is not known, but
the modern Egyptians play it just as
we do. It was not
known in Europe
until about the
sixteenth century,
when it is sup-
posed to have been
brought from the
East. The word
checkers is derived
from the squares
of the board.
Draughts me; ns
simply moves. In
Italy the game* is
called dama, and
in Germany Da-
men, both of which
mean ladies; and
in France it is
called Le jeu de
dames, the Ladies'
Game. In all these
countries, where
the Polish game is
mostly played, the
king is called the
queen. The prin-
cipal draught-games played by the
ancients were the Ludus Latrun-
culorum (Soldiers' Game) of the
Romans, and the Plinthion or Poll's
Rameses II. playing Checkers.
(noTug) of the Greeks. In both of
these a man could be captured only
by placing an opponent's man on
CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS 165 CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS
each side of him. The Greeks called
the men Dogs. The donkey boys
in Cairo, Egypt, play a game like
this, and some think Alexander the
Great carried it to Egypt. The Chi-
nese have a Checker game called
Wei-Chi (Game of Circumvention),
in which a man is taken by being
surrounded with four hostile men.
Captain Cook found the Sandwich
Islanders playing a Checker game
with black and white pebbles on a
board of 14 by 17 squares. Some
writers think that our Checkers is
Egyptian Checkers.
not derived directly from any of the
ancient games, but is a lower form
of CHESS, which in its turn was de-
veloped from an old Hindoo Draught
game.
CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS.
These should be tried if possible in
a room used for nothing else, in the
attic, the cellar, or an outbuilding.
Old clothes must be worn, or, better
still, an apron with sleeves, made to
cover the whole body. A plentiful
supply of water should be at hand.
An old table or a large packing box
may be used to try the experiments
on. The different experiments are
told about in separate articles, but
processes used in all or several of
them are described here to avoid
repetition.
Heating. This may be done by an
ordinary alcohol lamp, or, where there
is gas, with a Bunsen burner (Fig. i),
Fig. i. — Bunsen
Burner.
to be bought at a chemical ware-
house, which gives a hot flame with-
out much light. An ordinary lamp
or gas flame would
deposit soot on the
vessel heated. A
home-made Bunsen
burner can be ob-
tained by inverting a
glass funnel over a
gas jet as shown in
Fig. 2. The gas
mixes with air and
burns without smoke.
When gas is used the
burner is connected with an ordinary
gas burner by rubber tubing. When
a glass vessel is to be heated it
should be placed on a piece of wire
gauze, shaped to
receive the bot-
tom. The gauze
is laid on an iron
ring with three
legs by which it
is held over the
lamp. These
rings, called
tripod stands,
(Fig. 3) can be
bought, but four „.
c . Fig. 2. — Home-made
pieces of strong gBunsen Burner>
wire laid cross-
wise, their ends resting on blocks of
wood, will do. To heat the contents
of a vessel slightly, it is placed over
a water bath, which can be made of
Fig. 3.— Tripod Stand.
a tin patty-pan with a cover of tin
in which a hole has been cut with
strong scissors. The hole must be
the same size as the bottom of the
CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS 166 CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS
flask or bottle to be heated. Partly
fill the pan with water, put the flask
in the hole, and then boil the water.
Class working. To bend glass-
tubing hold it in the tip of the lamp
flame as shown in the picture, turn-
Fig. 4.— Bending Glass Tube.
ing it slowly around and moving it
forward and backward to heat a con-
siderable length of it. The sense of
feeling will tell when it can be bent.
Bend it slowly and carefully, remov-
ing it from the flame, and putting it
back when it needs to be softened
more. Practice will enable any one
to make a good bend. Do not bend
at a right angle but make a succession
of gradual bends, carrying the tube
around in a curve. To make a glass
jet, heat as before, draw the ends of
the tube straight apart till the heated
part is about as large as the lead in a
pencil. When cool, scratch this neck
with a file, when it will easily break.
Two pieces of glass tubing may be
united by melting the ends and press-
ing them together, but a better way
is to use a piece of rubber tubing,
which makes a flexible joint. Ordi-
nary tubing can be broken squarely
off by first making a scratch with a
three-cornered file, and then break-
ing it. If the glass and the working
tool be kept wet with spirits of turpen-
tine, tubes can be filed completely
apart or a hole can be bored through
a sheet of glass with a rat-tail file.
Collecting Cases under Water.
Fill a pan with water deep enough to
cover entirely the jar in which the gas
is to be collected, when laid on its side.
Lay the jar on its side till it is full of
water, and then turn it mouth down-
ward, the opening being kept
under water. The water will not
run out of the jar. If there is
the least bubble of air in it the
filling must be done over again.
Support the jar on two strips of
wood, so that its mouth will still
be under water, or stand it on a
tin saucer, turned upside down,
having a hole cut in its side and
one in its bottom, as shown in
Fig. 5. Fasten to the end of the
glass tube leading from the bottle
in which the gas is made, a piece
of rubber tubing about two feet
long. Push the end under the
saucer through the hole in the
rim, and up in into the jar through
the hole in the top. As the gas is
made, it will bubble through the wa-
ter to the top of the jar, where it
collects, pushing the water gradually
out at the bottom.
Filtering. To separate a powder
from a liquid it is necessary to use
filter paper which may be bought in
small circular pieces. Fold one of
the pieces, A, as shown in Fig. 6 at
B, expand it as at C, and placing it in
a glass funnel, as at D, pour upon
it the mixed liquid and powder. The
Fig. 5. — Collecting Gases under Water.
liquid will slowly pass through the
paper, leaving the powder behind.
Gas-holder. Where gases are to
be kept in any considerable quan-
tity, a gas-holder is needed. It may
be bought of a dealer in chemist's
CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS
167
CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS
materials, or made as follows. Take
two tin pails, one about two inches
less in diameter than the other, and
several inches shorter. Remove the
handles of both, and have a tinman
cut a hole in the bottom of the
smaller pail, soldering to it a tube
about an inch long, and just large
enough to fit tightly the size of
rubber tubing you wish to use. Fill
the larger pail with water, and press
the other down into it, letting the
air escape through the tube. When
all the air is replaced with water,
slip a piece of rubber tubing over the
tin tube and connect it with the bottle
Fig. 6. — Filtering.
where the gas is making. As the
gas enters the upper pail, the pail
will rise in the water. When enough
has been collected, close the rubber
tube with a pinch cock, to prevent
the gas from escaping till it is wanted.
When gas is wanted, remove the
pinch cock and place a slight weight
on the upper pail. Another kind of
gas-holder which can be bought, is
made of rubber, like a bag.
Corks. Choose corks that are cut
across the grain rather than with it,
as they are tighter. Corks may also
be made tighter by dipping them in
melted paraffine. To fit a glass tube
in a cork, bore a hole in the cork a
little smaller than the tube, using a
sharp knife or, better, a cork-borer
(see list below). Moisten the tube,
and work it through the hole. Rub-
ber stoppers with one or more holes
may be bought, and the holes not in
use may be plugged with pieces of
glass rod. When they get hard they
may be softened by soaking them in
turpentine. Ordinary corks may be
softened and made easier to bore by
rolling them under foot.
The chief things needed to perform
the experiments described in this
book, besides those mentioned above,
are given below in an alphabetical
list, with the prices for which they
can usually be obtained, though these
vary a good deal.
A R TICLES FOR CHE MIC A L EXPERI-
MENTS.
Alcohol. Price, about 60 cents a
quart.
Alcohol Lamp. Price, 30 to 50
cents.
Ammonia Water. Strong. Price
about 40 cents a quart.
Antimony. Price, 20 cents a
pound.
Balance. Useful for weighing,
but not necessary, as the druggist
will weigh substances in the desired
amounts when they are bought.
Bismuth. Ask for metallic bis-
muth. Price, about 20 cents an
ounce.
Bisulphide of Carbon. Be care-
ful not to bring it near a flame, as its
vapor is very inflammable. Price, 20
cents a pound.
Bituminous Coal. This can be
obtained of a blacksmith, if no dealer
is near.
Blue Vitriol or Copper Sulphate.
Price, 8 cents a pound.
Caustic Soda. Price, 15 cents a
pound.
Chalk. Ask for carpenter's chalk,
Blackboard crayons are not made
of real chalk. Price 3 cents a
pound.
Chlorate of Potash. Price, 25 cents
a pound.
Copper. Scraps can be obtained
of a plumber. Old cartridge shells
CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS
1 68
CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS
Fig. 7.
Deflagra-
tion
Spoon.
may be used. Price of clippings at
a chemist's, 40 cents a pound.
Cork Borers. In sets of 6 ; price,
about $i.
Deflagration or Co m bus t i on
Spoon. Price, 15 cents. One can
be made by attaching to a
wire a piece of chalk with
a hollow scooped in it.
Drying Bottle, a bottle
to dry gases. The stopper
must have in it two tubes.
The one by which the gas
enters reaches nearly to
the bottom, the other by
which it leaves is short.
Fill the bottle with lumps
of unslaked lime, or with
pumice stone soaked in
strong sulphuric acid.
Dutch Leaf. In "books";
price, 15 cents.
Files. About 6 inches long;
price, 30 cents.
Filter Paper. Price, from 8
cents to 82 cents per hundred
sheets, according to size.
Fish Globe. Price, about $r.
Flasks. Half-pint size, 15 cents
apiece. The flasks in which olive
oil sometimes is sold can , ,
be used.
Fluor Spar. Price, ^o
cents a pound.
Funnels. Price, about
10 cents apiece.
Glass Tubing and rods
(ask for soft glass).
Price, 35 cents a pound,
j'j inch inside diameter
is about the size needed
for tubes, but if rubber
stoppers are used the
tubes should be bought
to fit the holes in the
stoppers.
Gold Leaf. In "books";
price, 40 cents.
Graduated Tube or "graduate."
Price about 50 cents. One good
enough for the experiments in this
book can be made by scratching lines
on a test tube a quarter of an inch
apart.
c.c.
62' F.
ioe=H>
70^30
60-||-40
Hydrochloric Acid (ask for it
"chemically pure"). 20 cents a
pound.
Ignition Tubes, for making oxy-
gen. Price, 20 cents.
Iodine. Price, 35 cents an ounce.
Iron Sulphide. Price, 15 cents a
pound.
Jars, or wide-rnouthed bottles.
Fruit jars or pickle bottles can be
used. " Bell jars " or receivers cost
from 45 cents to $5, according to
size.
Jets of glass ; directions for mak-
ing given above.
Lamp Black ; directions for mak-
ing in article CARBON.
Lead, Sugar of, or Acetate of
Lead. Deadly poison. Price, chemi-
cally pure, 10 cents an ounce.
Lime, unslacked (caustic lime).
Price, 5 cents a pound.
Lime Water. Made by dissolv-
ing a little unslacked lime in water
and letting it stand till clear.
Lime, Chloride of, or " bleach-
ing powder." Price, 10 cents a
pound.
Litmus. Price, 10 cents an ounce.
Magnesium Ribbon. Price, 75
cents an ounce.
Manganese Dioxide, or black ox-
ide. Price, 15 cents
an ounce.
Marble, lumps of,
can be obtained at a
marble cutter's for lit-
tle or nothing.
Mercury. Price, 60
cents a pound.
Mercury, Red Ox-
ide of. Price, 10
cents an ounce.
Nitric Acid, chem-
ically pure. Price, 17 Fig 9 _
cents a pound. Cock.
Phosphorus. Price,
15 cents an ounce. Keep in a bot-
tle of water, and never touch with
the naked hand.
Pinch Cock, for closing rubber
tubing. Price, 30 cents.
Potassium. Price, 50 cents a
drachm.
CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS
169
CHESS
Rubber Stoppers. Price, $2.25 per
pound. Get them to fit the flasks
and bottles you intend to use.
Sal Ammoniac, Price, 10 cents a
pound.
Sugar of Lead. See Lead.
Sulphur. Price, 5 cents a pound.
Comes in two forms : roll or stick
sulphur, called also brimstone, and
flowers of sulphur, or powdered
sulphur.
Test Tiibes. Size 5 X f inches.
Price, 35 cents a dozen. Old medi-
cine phials will sometimes serve the
purpose.
Fig. io.— Test Tube and Holder.
Thistle Tube. Price, about 1 6
cents.
Test Tube Holders. (A folded
strip of paper, passed around the
tube, is a good substitute).
Tin. Pure tin-foil. Price, io
cents an ounce. Common tin-foil
often has lead in it.
Fig. it.— Thistle Tube.
Tripod. Small size. Price, 20
cents.
Turmeric Paper. Price, 80 cents
a quire. A few cents worth is all
that is needed.
Turpentine, Spirits of. Price, 20
cents per pint.
U-shaped l^ubes. Price, about io
cents each.
Universal Support (see Fig. 12.)
Price, $2.
Watch Spring, old, to be obtained
of any watchmaker.
Wax, yellow. Price, 45 cents a
pound.
Wire. All kinds to be bought at
a hardware store.
Wire Gauze. Price, a few cents
a foot.
Fig. 12. — Universal Support.
Yeast. Small yeast cake, costs 2
cents at a grocery.
Zinc, granulated, for making hy-
drogen. Price, 30 cents a pound.
Clippings of old zinc will do.
CHESS, a game played by two
persons on a board containing 64
squares, of two colors arranged al-
ternately, generally black and white
or red and white. Each player has
1 6 chess-men, of a different color,
each consisting of eight " Pieces " and
eight " Pawns." The Pieces are
King, Queen, two Rooks or Castles,
two Bishops, and two Knights, and
each of these has a Pawn, or soldier.
The men are generally carved figures,
but sometimes round, flat pieces, with
the figures of the men on the top.
At the beginning of the game the
board should be so placed as to
have a white square at each player's
right. The lines of squares running
up and down the board are usually
called " files," those from right to
left " ranks " or lines, and those
cornerwise " diagonals. " By a simple
system, each square on the board
has a name taken from the piece
commanding it at the beginning of
the game. This is most easily shown
in the following diagram, Fig. I ;
CHESS
170
CHESS
• It will be seen that the square on
which the King stands at the begin-
ning of the game is named the King's
square, the one in front the King's
2d, next the King's 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th,
7th, and 8th. These count the same
from the other side of the board, so
that one player's King's 8th square
is the other player's King's square.
The Queen's squares are named in
the same way ; and the Bishops,
Knights, and Rooks are named
King's Bishop, Knight, or Rook, or
Queen's Bishop, Knight, or Rook,
according as they stand on the King's
or the Queen's side. The Pawns
are named after the pieces in front
of which they stand, thus: King's
Pawn, Queen's Pawn, King's Bish-
op's Pawn, Queen's Rook's Pawn, etc.
•bS-a-&
•bS-*H-&
•bs-a-b
•bS'5
•bg'X
•bS'3'X
•bg'lX'X
•bS'H'X
Q.R.8.
Q.Kt.8.
Q.B.8.
Q.8.
K.8.
K.B.8.
K.Kt.8.
K.R.8.
Q.R.7.
Q.Kt.7.
Q.B.7.
Q.7.
K.7.
K.B. 7.
K.Kt.7.
K.R.?.
•E-H-&
•E-ix-6
•E-3-&
•E-b
•E'X
•E-a-x
•E'iX'X
•£-a-x
Q.R.6.
Q.Kt.6.
Q.B.6.
Q.6.
K.6.
K.B.6.
K.Kt. 6.
K.R. 6.
Q.R.5.
Q.Kt.s.
Q.B.S.
Q.s.
K.5.
K.B.5.
K.Kt.s.
K.R.s.
•s-H-b
•s-ix-0
•s-a-0
•s-5
•s-x
•S'3'X
•S'lX'X
•S-H-X
Q.R.4-
Q.Kt.4.
Q.B.4.
Q-4.
K.4.
K.B. 4.
K.Kt.4.
K.R. 4.
•9-H-&
•9-«r&
•9-a-e>
•9-5
'9'X
'9'a'X
•9-»X'X
'9'H'X
Q.R.3.
Q.Kt.3.
Q.B.3.
Q-3.
K.3.
K.B.3.
K.Kt.s.
K.R.3.
M'H-5
•^x-0
•z-a-5
•^•5
•^•a
•4-a-x
•^x-x
'^'H'X
Q.R.3.
Q.Kt.s.
Q.B.s.
Q.s.
K.3.
K.B. 2.
K.Kt.s.
K.R.s.
•8-H-5
•8'lX-fc
•8-a-&
'•8-5
'8'X
•8'a'x
•8-WTX
'8'H'X
Q.R.Sq.
Q.Kt.Sq.
Q.B.Sq.
Q.Sq.
K.Sq.
K.B.Sq.
K.Kt.Sq.
K.R.Sq.
Fig. i. — Method of Notation.
The following are the abbrevia-
tions used :
K ------ King
Q ..... Queen
B Bishop
Kt. - - - - « Knight
R Rook
P ..... Pawn
Sq. ..... Square
Ch. or 4-, • - - Check
Dis. Ch. - - Discovered Check
J - - - Checkmate
X - - - - takes
A move is described by giving
the name of the piece and the
square to which it is moved.
Thus, Q to K.B. 4, or simply Q—
K.B. 4, means that the Queen is
moved to King's Bishop's fourth
square.
CHESS
171
CHESS
In the diagrams in this article the
pieces will be designated thus :
King, .... <£&
Queen, . .
Bishop, . .
Knight, . .
Rook,. . .
J.
Pawn,
At the beginning of a game the
men are set as in Fig. 2.
By means of this simple notation
games not only can be completely
described on paper in a brief space,
but they can be played by telegraph
or post, the contestants be-
ing hundreds or thousands
of miles apart. Very skillful
players are also thus enabled
to play games blindfolded,
the moves being described to
them as they are made. Paul
Morphy, a celebrated Ameri-
can player, could carry on
eight games at once in this
way, without seeing any of
the boards.
The first move being de-
cided, the players take turns,
each moving one man at a
time. The men are moved
each in a different way, as
described below, but no piece
except the Knight can pass
over another man in mov-
ing. When a man can be
moved to a square occupied
by a hostile man, the move
can be made, and the hostile
man, which is said to be taken,
or captured, is removed from the
board. A man is said to " com-
mand " any square to which it can
move, and a man that can be cap-
tured is said to be " en prise "
(French for "in position to be
taken "). Each player's object is to
"checkmate" his opponent's King,
and to effect this he endeavors to
weaken his enemy's force by captur-
ing as many of his men as possible.
How the King is checkmated will be
described below.
MOVEMENTS OF THE MEN.
King. The King can move but
one square at a time (except in cast-
ling), but this move may be forward,
backward, sidewise, or diagonally in
either direction. Unless he is on the
edge of the board he thus commands
eight squares. The King is the only
piece that cannot be taken. When
the square on which he stands is
commanded by an enemy's piece
he is said to be " in check." He
is not allowed to move into check,
even to take a man, and a square on
which he would be in check is there-
fore said to be " guarded." When
WHITE.
Fig. 2. — Method of Setting the Men.
either player moves any of his men
so as to put his opponent's King in
check he must cry " check ! " as a
warning, and the King is then said
to be " attacked." If a player checks
by moving out of the way a piece
that was between the King and the
CHESS
172
CHESS
checking piece, it is called a " dis-
covered check." If, at the same
time, the moved piece also gives
check, it is called a " double check."
The player whose King is in check
must either move him out of check,
move a man between him and the
checking piece, or capture the latter.
When none of these things is possi-
ble, the King is checkmated, and his
side has lost the game. As stated
above, the object of each player is to
checkmate his opponent, and all the
moves are made with this end in
view. When the King, though not in
check, cannot move without going
Fig. 3. — Moves of the Knight.
into check, and his owner can move
no other man, there is said to be a
" stalemate," and the game is consid-
ered drawn.
Once only, in the game, the King
has the privilege of making, with one
of the Rooks, under certain condi-
tions, a double move called " castling."
Castling may be performed on either
the King's or the Queen's side of the
board. If on the King's side, it is
done by moving the King to K.Kt's
square and then placing the King's
Rook on K.B's square ; if on the
Queen's side, by moving the King to
Q.B's square, and then placing the
Queen's Rook on Queen's square.
This move has a double object : to
remove the King from danger and to
bring the Rook into play. The condi-
tions under which the move may be
made are as follows : The King must
not have moved ; must not be in
check ; and must not pass, in making
the move, over or on to any square
attacked by any man of the enemy ;
the Rook must not have moved ; and
there must be no piece between the
King and the Rook with which he
castles.
Queen. The Queen, the most
powerful of the pieces, can move in
a straight line in any direc-
tion, forward, backward, side-
wise or diagonally over as
many squares as are unoccu-
pied. Thus, if she is in the
middle of the board, and the
way is clear, she commands
27 squares, as will be seen by
trial.
Rook. The Rook, or Castle,
which is next in power to the
Queen, can move backward,
forward, or sideways, but not
diagonally, as many squares
as the way is clear. He thus
commands 14 squares, and is
the only piece whose range is
not lessened by being placed
on a corner square.
Bishop. The Bishop can
move diagonally forward or
backward, but only on squares
of the same color on which he stood
when the game began. One of a
player's Bishops is therefore always
on white squares, and the other al-
ways on black squares.
Knight. The Knight can move
one square either backward, forward,
or sidewise, and then one diagonally.
Thus the Knight in the middle of
the diagram (Fig. 3), can move to
any of the squares marked with a
Knight. It is possible for the
Knight to move thus in succession
to every square of the board, occu-
pying each square only once. This
is called the Knight's Tour. One
CHESS
173
CHESS
way of performing it is shown in
Fig. 4.
The Knight can move whether the
squares he passes over are clear or
not, and he is the only piece which
can thus leap over another man when
moving. When a Knight gives check
therefore, it is useless for his oppo-
nent to move another piece between
him and the King. The Knight is
too the only piece which can be
moved at the opening of the game,
as it can leap over the Pawns which
close the whole of the second rank.
Unless the Knight can be captured,
his check always forces the attacked
King to move, as the Knight can
leap over any blocking man.
6 SB §8
a la SB a
E JK « K
K, a s a
H a E w
a x a a
Fig. 4.— Knight's Tour.
Pawn. The Pawn moves straight
forward in the file on which it stands ;
its first move may be either one or
two squares, but after that it moves
only one square at a time. When a
Pawn while being moved two squares
passes over a square commanded by
a hostile Pawn, the latter is not de-
prived of its privilege of capture and
may take it just the same as if the
Pawn had remained in the attacked
square. This is called taking en
passant (Fr., in passing). In cap-
turing, the Pawn takes one step
diagonally, to the right or the left, to
the square occupied by the man
taken, and after that continues on
that file until it makes another cap-
ture. When a Pawn reaches the last
square of the file on which it is mov-
ing, it is said to be "Queened," and
receives the power and name of a
Queen or of any other piece the
owner chooses, except the King.
The player must at once notify his
opponent as to whether the Pawn has
become a Queen, Knight, Bishop,
or Rook, as it sometimes happens
that the making of a Knight would
win a game which a Queen would
only lose or draw. A player may,
therefore, toward the end of a game,
have two or more Queens, two
Bishops on the same color, etc. A
second Queen is often indicated by
replacing the Queened Pawn by a
Rook turned bottom upwards
When two of the player's Pawns
are on the same file, they are said to
be " doubled," and when one stands
alone, and unprotected by other
Pawns, it is called an " Isolated
Pawn." A Pawn which is obstructed
by no hostile Pawn, either on the
same file or on those to the right and
left, is said to be a " Passed Pawn."
The Exchange. When a player
by taking an opponent's piece exposes
one of his own to capture, he is said
to " make the exchange." In mak-
ing exchanges the relative value of
the pieces and Pawns must be care-
fully considered. Aside from the
added values which certain positions
give to the men as the game advan-
ces, the following rule gives the
average value of each class of men :
The Queen is equal in value to two
Rooks; to two Bishops and a Knight ;
to two Knights and a Bishop ; or,
nearly to eight Pawns.
A Rook is equal to a Bishop and
one or two Pawns, or to a Knight
and one or two Pawns.
Bishops and Knights are of nearly
equal value ; each is equal in value
to three Pawns. The relative value
of Bishops and Knights depends
greatly on the more or less crowded
condition of the board. When the
lines are open the long stride of the
Bishop gives him an advantage, but
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174
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in a close position, the leap of the
Knight, together with the greater
difficulty of calculating on his move-
ments, increases his value beyond
that of the Bishop.
The value of the Pawns is greatly
increased as they approach the Queen
row.
Drawn Games, It has already
been explained that a stalemate is a
drawn game. Other ways in which
the game may be drawn will now be
described.
i. When a player with an infe-
rior force finds an opportunity to
BLACK.
9, in
- 5- — White to play and mate in two moves.
give such a check that his opponent,
either upon moving his King or in-
terposing a piece, subjects himself to
a continued series of checks, it is
called "perpetual check."
2. Where there is not force enough
to effect a mate.
3. Where one player has force
enough to mate, but is not skillful
enough to do so in the required fifty
moves (see Rule 21).
4. Where both players continue to
repeat the same series of moves
through fear of each other.
The moves and general character
of the game have now been told, but
it can be learned only by actual play.
It is advisable to castle early in the
game, and on that side upon which
the King can be best protected from
attack. The King's side is usually
adopted for the reason that there are
fewer pieces on that side to get out
of the way.
General Observations. The King
becomes specially valuable when the
other principal pieces have been
taken. It is good play to check early
in the game if by so doing castling
is prevented, but it is bad play ever
to check without an object.
, When a player's King is
checked, he should interpose,
if possible, some piece that at-
tacks the checking piece, but
never one of greater value.
The Queen being the most
valuable of the pieces, care
must be taken that she is not
placed on an open file or di-
agonal in line with the King,
permitting the enemy to pin
her with a Bishop or Rook.
The Queen not being able to
move from the line, since the
King would be left in check,
has to exchange. This is
called "losing the exchange."
The same term is used also
when a Rook is exchanged
for a Bishop or Knight.
The Rook can do little at
the opening of the game, but
later, especially after the
Queens have been exchanged, it is a
very important piece.
The Bishop is of especial value in
attacking a Knight or Rook. The
King's Bishop being of special value
by reason of his power of attacking
the opposing King at the beginning
of the game, should, if possible, be
retained, whilst, it would be well to
endeavor to exchange a Queen's
Bishop for the opponent's King's
Bishop.
The Knight should not be allowed
to get to the side of the board, as his
power is much lessened there. The
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175
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Knight often opens the game, and a
skillful player can make him a very
powerful piece.
In playing the Pawns the player
should try to obstruct the way of the
enemy and keep his own clear. The
Pawns united have great power, but
separated very little. The player
who has Pawns at the end of a
game, while his enemy has none,
generally wins. The most important
parts of a game are the beginning
and ending, and a few special cases
of these will be described.
The following are illustrations of
the use of the names and ab-
breviations, and also of the
check and checkmate :
First : Suppose the men to
be as in Fig. 5.
If it be White's turn to play
he can mate in two moves, as
follows :
2. ±5. to a. 5 ais.
3. R. frQ. sq. tal
4. R.-K. 6 +
5- R.-K. 4 +
shown in Fig. 6, called the Tread-
mill :
WHITE. BLACK.
1. Kt. to B. 3 4- P. takes Kt. (forced).
2. B. to B. 5 dis. + K. to K. 4.
sq. takes B.+ R. takes R.
K.-Q. 5.
K.— B. 4.
6. R.— B. 4 -f K.— Q. 3.
7. R.-B. 6 -f K.-K. 4.
8. R.— K. 6 etc.
and draws by Perpetual Check, the
Rook going ' round like a wheel,
while the King steps from one rung
of the ladder to the other.
GAME FOR PRACTICE.
The beginner who has no experi-
WHITE.
1. Q.— K.R. sq.
2. Q.XR. mate.
1. Q.-K.R. sq.
2. R.XR. mate.
BLACK.
i. Either R.XR,
i. R. moves else-
where.
White plays for his best
move — i, Q. — K.R.sq. Now,
if Black with one of his Rooks
takes one of the white Rooks,
White plays 2, Q. XR., and
can now say " check," for his
Queen commands the square
on which the black King is,
and would take him, were he
any other piece. The black
King having now no piece
which can be interposed, and two of
the three adjacent squares being
occupied by his own pieces and the
third being likewise attacked by the
hostile Queen, the King is check-
mated. If, instead of moving a
Rook to the end of square, Black
plays one of his Rooks but one, two,
or even five squares, then one of the
white Rooks captures it and mate is
given in the same manner. It is
evident that the black Pawn cannot
be moved, because the King would
then be in check of the white Queen.
An example of Perpetual Check is
a
WHITE.
Fig. 6.— The Treadmill.
enced player for a teacher will learn
much about the moves and the dif-
ferent situations by playing, on the
board, the following practice game,
making each move slowly and care-
fully, and trying thoroughly to under-
stand the reasons given for it.
The game, with the comments on
the different moves, is from the trea-
tise on Chess by Howard Staunton.
WHITE. BLACK.
1. P. to K. 4. i. P. to K. 4.
2. B. to Q.B. 4. 2. B. to Q.B. 4.
This constitutes the King's Bish-
op's opening (see following).
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I76
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3. Q.toK.R. 5.
This threatens to checkmate Black
by taking the K.B. Pawn with the
Queen, and also threatens K.'s Pawn,
but it is rarely right to play the
Queen so soon. Black easily protects
himself by the following move :
3. Q. to Q. 2.
4. Kt. to K.B. 3. 4. P. to Q. 3.
Here, White attacks Black's K.
Pawn again, but Black again defends
it by bringing up another man.
5. Kt. to K.Kt. 5.
This brings three pieces to attack
Black's K.B.P., which is defended by
only two.
5. Kt. to K.R. 3.
Black here defends by bringing up
a third piece. A skillful player would
probably make instead an attack in
another place, for instance by threat-
ening White's Queen with Kt. to
K. B. 3.
6. Kt. to Q.B. 3.
This move threatens to attack the
Queen at Q. 5.
6. P. to Q.B. 3.
Black guards against the attack.
7. Castles. 7. Castles.
(Moving the K. (In the same way.)
to K.Kt.'s sq.
and the R. to
K.B.'s sq.)
As a rule, beginners should castle
early in the game.
8. P. to Q.'s 3. 8. Kt. to Q. 2.
Black acts wisely here in not at-
tacking the Queen at once by playing
Q.B. to K.Kt. 5.
9. K. to K.R. sq.
The object of this move is to
strengthen White's attack on the
opposite King. He wishes to throw
forward his K.B. Pawn, but while
the King stands on Kt.'s sq. moving
the Pawn would expose the King to
check from the opposing Bishop.
Therefore, he moves his King as
above.
9. Kt. to K.B. 3.
This forces White to move his
Queen, and makes Black's King
secure, for a time.
10. Q.toK.R. 4. 10. P. to Q. 4.
Very well played, for if White
does not take this Pawn with Pawn
his Bishop is driven back ; while, if he
does take it, he gives Black a chance
to attack the white Queen with K.Kt.
ii. P. takes Q. P. u. Kt. to K. B. 4.
This forces White to move his
Queen, and there is but one square
to which he can move her, all the
others being attacked.
12. Q.toK.R. 3. 12. Kt.toK.6.
Black thus attacks at the same
time White's Q. with his B., and R.
with his Kt.
13. Q. to K.R. 4.
Instead of this he might have
moved his foremost Pawn to Q.'s
6th, threatening the black Queen,
but the Queen might then have re-
treated to her own square, where she
would be safe.
13. Kt. takes R.
14. Q.Kt. to K.'s 4.
Black exposes his Kt. to capture
(see move 17), and White therefore
simply exchanges his Rook for his
enemy's Knight. This is called " the
exchange." White loses the ex-
change in this instance because a
Rook ranks above a Knight. But
in return for this loss he is enabled
to attack the black King again.
14. P. to K.R. 3.
If Black had taken Kt. with Kt.,
White would have checkmated by
taking K.R. P. with Q. If he had
taken Q.P. with P., White would
have checkmated in two moves by
taking Kt. with Kt., checking, and
then K.R. P. with Q., checkmating.
15. P. to Q. 6.
White defends himself by keeping
up the attack. This is better than
to move back the threatened Knight.
15. B. takes P. at Q. 6.
If Black had taken the Knight
with Pawn instead, he would have
lost the game. White would have
taken P. with his Q.'s B., and check-
mate would follow, as the learner
can discover in a few minutes' study.
16. Kt. to K.B. 3. 16. Kt. takes Kt.
17. Q. takes Kt. 17. K. to R.'ssq.
1 8. K. to Kt.'s sq.
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177
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White loses time here. His ob-
ject is to take the Knight, but the
Knight cannot escape and it would
have been better to try to prevent the
advance of Black's K.B. Pawn.
18. P. to K.B. 4.
19. Q. to K. 2.
It wou d have been better to play
Q. to K.R. 4, for now Black is likely
either to release his Knight, or gain
another piece in return for him.
19. P. to K. 5.
20. Kt. to K.Kt.'s 5.
If Black should now try to take
the Knight, he would lose the game.
20. Kt. takes K.R. P.
Black has now contrived to free
the Knight.
21. P. takes P. 21. P. takes P.
22. Q.to K.R. 5.
Having lost a Rook, White can-
not afford to take the Pawn with
his Queen and exchange Queens.
He prefers to try and gain a Rook
for his Knight.
22. Kt. toK.Kt. 5.
Black does not attempt to prevent
him.
23. Q. to K.Kt. 6.
White had better have checked
with his Kt. at K.B. 7, as he in-
tended.
23. B. to K.B. 4.
Black might safely have taken the
Kt. with his K.R.P.'
24. Q. to K. R. 5.
White could have gained the
Rook for his Knight by giving check
with the Knight, but then he would
have had to exchange Queens, and a
Queen would be a greater loss to
him than to Black, since White's
force is smaller.
24. P. to K.Kt. 3.
This prevents White from ex-
changing the Knight for the Rook,
and he retires.
25. Q. to K.R. 4. 25. B. to Q.B. 4.
The Black threatens to take
White's Q. by first taking K.B. P.,
and to prevent it White must move
his Queen or interpose his Q.
Bishop.
26. B. to K. 3.
This costs White two pieces for
one (see next three moves), but the
other course would have been as bad.
26. B. takes B.
27. P. takes B. 27. Q. takes Kt.
White can now be beaten by any
experienced chess player.
28. Q. to K.'s sq. 28. Kt. takes P.
29. Q. toQ.B. 3(ch.) 29. K. to R. 2.
30. Q. to Q. 2. 30. Q.R. to Q.'s sq.
31. Q. to K. 2. 31. B. to K.Kt. 5.
32. Q. to K.'s sq. 32. Kt. takes KKt.'s F
33. K. takes Kt. 33. B. to K.R. 6.
Black thus gives a double check.
34. K. takes B. 34. R. to B. 6 (ch.)
35. K. to R. 2. 35. Q to R. 4. (ch.)
36. K. to Kt. 2. 36. Q. to Kt. 5 (ch.)
37. K. to R. 2. 37. R. to R. 6.
Checkmate.
Black thus wins the game in 37
moves.
OPENINGS OF GAMES.
Some of the different ways of
beginning the game have received
special names, and a few of these will
now be given. It will be noted that
in most of them the King's Pawn is
moved first. This is because it clears
the way not only for the King, but
for the Queen and the King's Bishop.
The Knight's Opening.
WHITE. BLACK.
1. P. to K. 4 P. to K. 4.
2. Kt. to K.B. 3.
The King's Bishop's Opening.
1. P. to K. 4. P. to K. 4.
2. B. to Q.B. 4.
The Queens Bishop's Pawn's
Opening.
1. P. to K. 4. P. to K. 4
2. P. to Q.B.3
The King's Gambit.
1. P. to K. 4. P. to K. 4.
2. P. to K.B. 4. P. takes P.
The word Gambit is derived from
an Italian term used in wrestling,
meaning a tripping up. In the above
opening, and similar ones, a Pawn
is placed where it may be taken, so
that the player losing the Pawn will,
by reason of the loss of time caused
to his opponent, be able to bring his
strong pieces into position and will
regain the Pawn, perhaps with in-
terest, at a later stage of the game.
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178
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If the opponent take the offered
Pawn, that constitutes the Gambit,
but he often refuses so to do. There
are many Gambits, known generally
by the names of the players who
devised them. The King's Gambit,
given above, is considered one of the
safest openings for beginners. There
are numerous variations of all these
different openings, and numerous
methods of defense. For instance,
in the Knight's opening, Black may
make any of the following for his
§1 r w/m.y if wffi/?,. ^ mm.
HI * m.
7. — White to play and mate in four moves.
second move. Each has been favored
by skilled players.
Q.Kt. toQ.B. 3.
P. to Q. 3.
K.Kt. to B. 3.
or Q.Kt. to B. 3.
If this last move is followed by
WHITE. BLACK.
3. B. to Q.B. 4. 3. B. to Q.B. 4.
the opening is called the Giuoco
Piano (Italian for Plain Game).
ENDINGS OF GAMES.
A game may end in various ways.
If a player have a Queen and King
against a King, he should win easily.
With a Rook and King against a
King, he should win in not more
than 20 moves. With a King,
Bishop, and Knight only against a
King the game can be won also, but
it requires some skill to do it, and
the checkmate can be given only in
a corner of the color on which the
Bishop is running. With a King
and one or two Knights only, or
with a King and one Bishop only,
checkmate cannot be given, and the
game is drawn. The method in
each case is to drive the opposing
King to the edge of the board. With
a King and two Bishops
against a King this is much
harder to do, but it can be
done in about 30 moves. He
who desires to become a skill-
ful player should study the
different cases that occur at
the end of a game, examples
of which can be found in
any handbook or treatise on
Chess.
PLA YING WITH ODDS.
In a game between a skilled
player and a beginner, the
former often gives the latter
odds, that is, does, or agrees
to do, something to his own
disadvantage so that the con-
test may be more nearly even.
Sometimes he plays with a
" Ringed Pawn," that is, he
marks one of his Pawns by
putting a ring over it, or in
some other way, and agrees
to checkmate with that particular
Pawn. If he cannot do so, he loses
the game. Sometimes the experi-
enced player " gives the Pawn and
move," that is, he takes his King's
Bishop's Pawn from the board, and
allows his opponent to move first.
In like manner he sometimes gives
Pawn and two moves, two Pawns
and a move, a piece and one or more
moves, or any of these without the
move (see Rule 5).
CHESS PROBLEMS.
Chess Problems consist of certain
arrangements of pieces, with which
it is required to checkmate in a
given number of moves. The study
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179
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of these problems is a great aid to
the Chess player, and books have
been published which contain noth-
ing else. To show what they are
like three problems are given below.
The learner should try hard to solve
them before looking at the answers.
First Problem (Fig. 7).
I. White. K. to Q.B. 5.
It will be seen by a little study
that the only piece Black can move
is his King, and the only move the
King can make without go-
ing into check is K. to K. 5.
2. White now moves B. to
K.Kt. 2 (check).
Black's only move is K. to
K. 4 (retiring to his former
post).
3. R. to Q.B. 2. P. takes .R.
(Black's only move.)
4. White moves Queen's
Pawn two squares (as he is
allowed to do, since it has
not yet moved), and check-
mates.
Second Problem (Fig. 8).
White. Q. — Q.B. 8. Now
if Black moves his Queen or
the Knight at - Q.R. 4, to
Q.B. 5, White plays his
Knight to Queen's sq.,
checkmating, because the
black piece just played
blocks the square previously Fig. 8,
guarded by the Knight.
If Black move the Knight at
K. 4 anywhere, he leaves the
Pawn at Q. 6 unguarded and
White plays 2, R. takes P., mate.
If Black move his Queen in any
other way than to Q. B. 5, or if he
move his Bishop anywhere, then
White plays the Kt. at B. 7 to
Q. 5., or Q.Kt. 5, giving check-
mate, as the Kt. cannot be taken on
account of discovering a check from
the Queen.
Third Problem (Fig. 9). The
following ingenious position, by the
great chess master Petroff, aptly il-
lustrates the moves of the Knight in a
crowded board. The disastrous re-
treat of Napoleon (the Black King)
from Moscow, in 1812, the harass-
ing of his troops by the Cossack
cavalry (the white Knights), the
crossing of the river Berezina (the
white diagonal tunning from K.R.
sq. to Q.R. 8), and the final blow de-
livered by the Russian emperor in
person, are graphically depicted.
The White K.R.'s sq., K.R. 8 sq.,
and Q.R. sq., represent St. Peters-
burg, Paris, and Moscow respect-
ively.
— White to play and mate in two moves.
SOLUTION.
WHITE. BLACK.
i Kt. to Q. 2, giving double check and forcing
the Black K. to go to his Rook'
3 Kt trom y. 2 to Kt. sq. -J-
4 Kt o R. 2 4- K. o Kt. 4.
5 Kt o R. 3 4- K. o R. 3.
6 Kt o Kt. 4 4- K. o R. 2.
7 Kt o Kt. 5 4- K. o Kt. sq.
8 Kt o R. 6 4- K. o B. sq.
o Kt o R. 7 4- K. o Q. 2.
10 Kt o Kt. 8 + K. o K. 2,
11 Kt o B. 8 4- K. o B. sq.
12 Kt o Q. 7 4- K. o Kt. sq.
13 Kt o K. 7 -j- K. o R. sq.
14 K.Kt. 3, discovering check and ma e.
RULES OF THE GAME.
The following rules, in substance,
are used by all Chess players in the
United States, being condensed from
those adopted by the FiftK American
Chess Congress.
oR. 6.
o Kt. 5.
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i So
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1. The Chess board must be so
placed that each player has a white
corner square nearest his right hand.
2. A deficiency in number, or a
misplacement of the men, at the be-
ginning of the game, when discov-
ered, annuls the game.
3. If a player, undertaking to give
odds of a Piece or Pawn, neglect to
remove it from the board, his adver-
sary, after four moves, has the choice
of going on with the game, or begin-
ning it again.
4. When no odds are given, the
players must take the first move of
WHITE.
Fig. 9. — Retreat of Napoleon.
each game alternately, drawing lots
to see who shall begin the first game.
5. The player who gives the odds
has the right to move first, unless
otherwise agreed. Whenever a
Pawn is given it must be the King's
Bishop's Pawn.
6. A Piece or Pawn touched must
be played, unless, a man not being in
proper position, the player, before
touching it, gives notice of his inten-
tion to arrange it by uttering dis-
tinctly the words " J'adoube " (I re-
place). But a Piece or Pawn over-
turned or displaced accidentally may
always be touched to put it back.
When the player's hand has once
quitted the piece moved, the move
must stand.
7. While a player holds the Piece
or Pawn he has touched, he may play
it to any square to which it may
legally move.
8. Should a player touch one of
his opponent's men without giving
notice that he is only arranging it,
he must take it, if he can, and if
not, he must move his King ; but if
he can do neither, then there is no
penalty.
9. If a player touch more than one
of his own men, he must
move either one that his op-
ponent may name.
10. If a player take one of
his adversary's men by mak-
ing a false move, his opponent
may compel him to take it
with a man which can legally
take it ; or, to move his King.
11. Should a player take
one of his own men with
another, his adversary may
compel him to move either.
12. If a man be played to
a square to which it cannot
legally be moved, the player's
adversary may require him to
move the man legally, or to
move his King.
13. If a player make two
moves in succession, the ad-
versary may take his choice
as to which one shall stand.
14. Penalties can be enforced only
at the time an offense is committed,
and before any move is made there-
after.
15. A player cannot castle — (i) if
the King or Rook have been moved,
(2) if the King be in check, (3) if
there be any piece between the King
and the Rook, (4) if the King pass
over any square attacked by the ad-
versary. For attempting to castle
illegally, the player doing so must
move either the King or Rook, as his
adversary may dictate.
1 6. If a player touch a Piece or
Pawn that cannot be moved without
CHESS
CHESS
leaving the King- in check, he must
replace the Piece or Pawn and move
his King, but if the King cannot be
moved, no penalty can be inflicted.
17. No penalty can be enforced
for any offense committed against
these rules in consequence of a false
announcement of " check," nor in
consequence of the omission of such
announcement, when legal " check "
be given.
18. If the King has been in check
for several moves, and it cannot be
found how it happened, the player
whose King is in check must take
back his last move, and free the King
from check ; but if the moves made
after the check are known they must
all be taken back.
19. A willful displacement or over-
turning of the men forfeits the game.
20. Every Pawn which has reached
the last line of squares must be im-
mediately exchanged for a Queen, or
any other piece the owner may
choose, except a King, even though
all the pieces remain on the board.
21. If a player remain at the end
of the game with a Rook and Bishop
against a Rook, with both Bishops
only or with the Knight and Bishop
only, or if it be doubted near the end
of a game, whether it will be a win
or draw, or a win be possible, but
the skill to force the game question-
able, then either player may demand
that the fifty following moves be
counted. If, at the end of these
fifty moves on each side, no check-
mate has been given, the game is
drawn.
22. If a player agree to checkmate
with a particular Piece or Pawn, or
on a particular square, or engage to
force his adversary to stalemate or
checkmate him, he is not restricted
to any number of moves.
Give-away Chess. A form of the
game which has recently come into
use. Not requiring so much deep
thought, and being full of sudden
and unlooked-for surprises, it offers
a quie't relaxation after the tiring
head work of a game of regular Chess.
The Give-away game differs from
the ordinary one in this, that a play-
er must invariably take a man when
offered. When two or more men
can be taken, the player has a choice,
except when the King is in check ; in
such case the checking piece must
be taken, and in any event the King
must be gotten out of check. The
game is won in two ways. When a
player is unable to force his antagon-
ist to mate him, or gives him " sui-
mate," as it is called. Secondly,
when he forces his antagonist to
capture all his men, leaving his King
alone on the board.
A good player strives to get rid of
his Pawns as rapidly as possible.
Fifteen or twenty moves may be
easily calculated ahead in this game
on account of the large number of
forced moves.
It differs greatly from the Give-
away game in CHECKERS, because
in the latter game he who has, at
the end of the game, the superiority
of force can win, whereas in the
corresponding Chess game it is not
possible to say whether it is best to
hold a lesser or greater number of
pieces than your antagonist.
Four-handed Chess. This game
is now played in all the principal
clubs on both sides of the Atlantic.
It is played on a board which
may be described as an ordinary
Chess board taken for a center, to
which is added four other boards,
placed one on each side. These
added boards are but three squares
deep, that is, they have each 24
squares. The whole has, therefore.
1 60 squares.
A player sits at each of the sides
of the board, the two players facing
each other playing as partners, and
the move changes from the player
who has just moved, to his opponent
on the left. Two sets of men are
used, the one black and white and
the other red and blue, the red and
black being used by one pair of
partners, and the blue and white by
the other pair. The men are set in
CHESS
182
CHESS
the same manner as in the two-
handed game, with the exception
that the Kings are placed upon the
right of the Queens, and the men are
moved as in the ordinary game. No
international code has, as yet, been
adopted for this variety of the game,
although several books upon the sub-
ject have been published in England
and Germany. The rules here given
are those in use in New York, and
differ but slightly from those of
Europe.
RULES OF THE GAME.
I. Before beginning a game an
agreement must be arrived at as to
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Four-handed Chess Board.
whether the games shall be consulta-
tion ones or not. It not, then perfect
silence regarding the play must be
maintained between the partners
under penalty of the loss of the game.
2. The men are placed in the two
first rows of the four wings of the
board in the same manner as in
ordinary Chess, except that the Kings
must all be placed on the right of
Queens ; the Kings, therefore, do
not face each other as in the regu-
la'r game.
3. The three rows of the -wings
form the territories of the four Kings,
and the 64 squares of the main
CHESS
183
CHESS
board forms the neutral or fighting
ground.
4. The Pawns may be moved one
or two squares on the first move of
each, afterwards but one. A Pawn
having reached the other side of the
board, remains blocked. [In Europe
the rule is that the Pawn changes
direction upon reaching the four-
teenth rank. The question, however,
is of very little importance, since the
chance of a Pawn in the four-handed
game reaching the other side of the
board is not one in a thousand.]
4. A Pawn having pushed against
another Pawn or piece, no matter to
whom it belongs, cannot move until
the obstacle is removed, or a man
should be, or come upon, the con-
tiguous diagonal so that it may be
taken by it.
5. Pawns are Queened only upon
the King row of one of the enemies'
territories. These squares can only
be reached by the Pawns moving
diagonally when capturing the ene-
my's men. As soon as a Pawn
reaches one of the three ranks of
the enemy's territory, it changes its
direction of motion and moves to-
ward the King row of the territory
just reached. At the same time it
receives a great increase in power, for
it can capture a man on any of the
four contiguous diagonals. If, how-
ever, by reason of taking a man it
returns to its own territory, or to the
neutral ground, then it loses its added
force and takes up its original direc-
tion. This change of the force and
direction of the Pawn causes no con-
fusion, as its position proclaims its
power.
6. The game is won only when
both the opposing Kings are check-
mated.
7. When one of the Kings has
been checkmated, his pieces are dead
for the time being, and none of them
can be captured or the squares upon
which they stand be occupied by a
man, either friend or foe.
8. A King is not officially in check
until his turn comes to move.
9. A King is not mated until his
turn comes to move, when, if in
check and unable to get out of it, he
is checkmated.
10. A partner is not required to
cover a check to his partner's King,
nor is he prevented (interdicted)
from moving one of his pieces and
thereby uncovering a check upon his
partner.
1 1 . A checkmate having been re-
leased by one partner removing a
piece, or otherwise, the other part-
ner having to move also before the
checkmated King, cannot take one
of the latter's pieces, as the check-
mate is not officially annulled until
the mated King's turn comes to
move.
12. Castling is permitted in this
game, but cannot be made use of
until the game is far advanced.
13. When one of your antagonists
is checkmated, his men being dead,
your King may move to and remain
upon any square commanded by the
dead pieces. The moment, how-
ever, the mate is released, your King
comes into check and must be got-
ten out when your turn comes to
move. This rule does not apply to
Kings, which cannot be brought
into close proximity at any time.
Method of Play. If great care be
not taken in the opening, mate will
be given on the third or fourth move.
The opening move generally adopted
is Pawn to Q.B. 3 for the first three
players, and P. to K. 3 by the fourth
player. This move of P. to Q.B. 3
is made in preference to the old
move of i, P. to K. 3, because it is at
once defensive and attacking. The
fourth player is compelled to play i,
P. to K. 3, to prevent getting into
trouble.
A check in this game is much
more to be feared than in an
ordinary game, for the reason that
the partner of the man who gives
the check seizes the opportunity to
inflict all the damage he can upon
the one who is in trouble. The great
aim, therefore, of a player of this
CHESS
184
CHESS
game, is to endeavor to have a check
threatened against one or both of his
opponents' Kings and keep his own
King so covered up that his oppo-
nents cannot give him check. Un-
like the ordinary two-handed game,
the Queens are brought out in the
early part of the game because their
power of giving check is very great.
Before making a move, the partner's
position must be carefully examined
as well as the player's own, and if he
see that the former is in greater
straits than himself he is called upon
to sacrifice himself and aid his friend.
Ability and promptness in doing
this is considered one of the great
virtues in Four-handed Chess.
The King's Rook's Pawn moved
two squares is a strong defensive
move and is frequently made as a
second or third move.
A double check by each of the
opponents must be carefully avoided,
as the result is often a mate.
The order of succession of the
moves must be carefully considered,
as a failure to observe which of the
opponents will first move will spoil
a player's calculations and result in
disaster.
History. The origin of Chess has
been claimed by many nations and
ascribed to various persons. Some
writers say that it was invented by
Japhet, the son of Noah ; others by
King Solomon, the Greek Palamedes.
Han-sing, a Chinese Mandarin, Shat-
reuscha, a Persian astronomer, etc.
But these stories are purely imag-
inary.
Thanks to the recent researches
of Dr. Forbes, all doubts have been
set at rest, and the best modern
writers concur in the belief that the
game is of Hindoo origin. Dr.
Forbes has discovered in Hindoo
literature documents dating back to
3000 years B.C., describing a game
which certainly represents, in a
primitive form, the modern game of
Chess. It was called Chaturanga,
which means Four Parts, because it
was played by four persons. The
board had 64 squares, as now, but
all of the same color. Each player
had four Pawns and four Pieces —
King, Elephant, Horse, and Ship,
corresponding to our King, Bishop,
Knight, and Rook. The moves were
at first determined by throwing
DICE, but afterward the player
moved which he pleased. The King,
Horse, Ship, and Pawns moved like
our King, Knight, Rook, and Pawns,
but the Elephant (our Bishop),
could advance only two squares at a
time. The Hindoos took the game
One of Charlemagne's Chessmen.
to Persia, where the name was cor-
rupted to Shatranj, and from that
country it spread to Arabia, and
thence to Europe, being probably
taken first to Spain by the Moors.
But before the game left India the
number of players was reduced to
two, each with a double set of men
as at present. Instead of having two
Kings, however, one of them was re-
duced to a mere counselor or general
(our Queen), who was allowed to
move only one square diagonally.
During the Middle Ages, but at what
times is not known, the powers of
the Bishop and Queen were increased,
CHESS
185
CHESS
the Pawns were allowed to jump two
squares at the first move, and cast-
ling was introduced.
The names of the Chessmen vary
in different countries, though the
principal piece is everywhere called
Ancient Chess Kings.
the King, and the second, Queen or
Lady. The latter, as has been said,
was originally a minister or general,
called in Persian Farz or Firz,
Modern Chessmen.
which in Europe became Farzia or this was corrupted into Vierge
Fercia. Some say that in France (Virgin), and thus the piece came to
CHESS
1 86
CHESS
be called Dame (Lady). The Per-
sian Pil (Elephant) became in Ara-
bic Al-Fil, and in Spanish Alferez.
The French Fou (fool) is corrupted
from the same word. The German
Ancient Chessmen.
name is Laufer (runner), and the
pieces are called Bishops in no lan-
guage but English. The Hindoo
Roka (ship) becomes our Rook and
the Italian Rocca. The latter word
means a rock or fortress, so the
piece is called also Castle in English,
Tour (tower) in French, and Thurm
(tower) in German, and is made to
look like a Tower. The Cavalry
piece, which was a Horse in India,
has become a Knight in English and
Cavalier in French, though it is still
made like a Horse's head. The Ger-
mans call it Springer (leaper). The
Pawn was first called Foot Soldier, in
French Pzon, whence our Pawn.
The Germans call the Pawns Bauern
(peasants).
The game itself is called in French
Game of Chess with Living Chessmen. (See page 188.)
£checs, and in German Schach,
which, with our word Chess, are
probably all from the Persian Shah,
King, though some say they are from
the old Hindoo name of the game,
Chaturanga. The word checkmate
is probably from the Persian Shah-
mat (the King is dead).
From its earliest history Chess has
been a favorite game with great men.
Timur or Tamerlane, the Tartar con-
queror, invented what he called the
"Great Game," on a board of no
squares, and invited the principal
men to play with him in every town
he entered, sending them away with
presents, whether he lost or won.
The Caliph Haroun Al Raschid, sent
to Charlemagne a fine set of Chess-
men, one of which is shown in the
illustration. The game was a fav-
orite also with Voltaire, Napoleon,
Frederick the Great, and many other
celebrated persons.
Chess is said to be the only game
now considered harmless by all relig-
ious sects, but in the Middle Ages
it was often condemned with other
games by the rulers of the church.
In the countries most remote from
CHESS
18?
CHESS
European influence it is still played
in the old way, with the original
Hindoo or Persian moves ; but in
most parts of the world it is played
The Automaton Chess Player. (See page 188.)
as with us. A great many books
have been written about it, one of the
first of which was by Abul Abbas, a
physician of Bagdad, in the year 899.
The first to bring Chess into public
notice in this country was Benjamin
Franklin, who also wrote an essay
on "The Morals of Chess." The
game was little played here, how-
ever, before 1825. In 1858 Paul
Morphy, an American, was Chess
champion of the world, and he is
considered by some the finest player
that ever lived.
The forms of Chessmen have varied
from time to time. The Persians
and Arabs, and other Mohammedan
peoples, being forbidden by their
religion to have images of any kind,
usually made their pieces in rude
shapes, though sometimes with an
Europe, they assumed many shapes,
some of which are shown in the pic-
The last figures on page 185
approach to a figure. In Christian j show examples of modern Chessmen^
CHIVALRY
1 88
CHLORATE OF POTASH
In the Middle Ages the game was
sometimes played by numarchs with
living Chessmen in a court yard paved
to represent a Chess board, as shown
on page 186. A circular chess-boaid
was sometimes used in old times.
The numbers in the illustration cor-
respond to the following names : I,
King; 2, Queen; 3, Rock (Rook);
4. Aliin (Bishop); 5, Knight; 6,
Pawn.
A so-called Automaton Chess
Player was first exhibited in Vienna,
in 1769, by Wolfgang von Kempe-
len, an Austrian mechanician, and it
was bought about 1805 by John
Maelzl, who brought it to this
country. It consisted of a figure of
a Turk seated behind a box which,
when opened, appeared to be nearly
full of machinery that was supposed
to move the figure, but it was after-
ward discovered that a man ingeni-
ously concealed in the box was the
real player. The man could tell what
pieces were moved by means of little
magnets under the board, which rose
or fell as the squares were occupied
or not, the Chessmen containing
pieces of iron. In 1842 the automa-
ton was bought by a gentleman in
Philadelphia, and in 1854 it was de-
stroyed by fire in that city, but sev-
eral imitations of it have since been
exhibited, in which the figure was
called by various names, such as
" Mephisto " and " Ajeeb." It is of
course impossible to make a mere
machine which will play a game like
Chess.
CHIVALRY, a game played by
two persons on a board like that in
the figure. The squares are alter-
nately light and dark, and the letters,
spots, and stars are gilt. Each
player has twelve pieces like Pawns
in CHESS and eight others, slightly
different, called Knights. Each
places his common pieces on the
two rows of spots nearest him, and
his Knights on the squares marked
K. , and the players take turns in mov-
ing, the object being to occupy the
two opposite gold stars with any two
pieces. Both Knights and men have
three kinds of moves.
1. The common move, by which
the piece advances one square in any
direction, like the King in CHESS.
2. The canter, by which a piece
leaps a friendly piece to the next
space beyond in any direction, pro-
vided that space is vacant. The
leaped piece remains on the board.
The same piece can make as many
canters as it wishes in one move,
but is not obliged to canter at all.
3. The jump, by which a piece
leaps an enemy's piece in any direc-
tion, provided there is a vacant space
just beyond. The jumped piece is
removed from the board. The jump
®®
®
®
®®
®
Chivalry Board.
must be made, if there is a chance,
and as many as possible must be
made by the same piece in one move.
The plain pieces can move, canter,
or jump, but can never combine two
of these methods in one play. The
Knights can combine the canter and
jump, provided that all canters pre-
cede all jumps, but cannot combine
a simple move with either of the
others. The game differs from
CHECKERS in allowing a piece to
pass over one on the same side. It
is entirely a game of skill.
CHLORATE OF POTASH, Ex-
periment with. Melt a teaspoonful
of chlorate of potash in a test-tube.
CHLORINE
189
CHOOSING SIDES
and when it begins to boil drop into
it a bit of charcoal the size of a pea.
The charcoal will take fire and jump
about in the tube. The reason is
that heating the chlorate of potash
sets free the OXYGEN in it, and it is
this that causes the charcoal to burn
so vividly.
CHLORINE, Experiments with.
Chlorine gas is described in C. C. T.
The easiest way to make it is to put
a few teaspoonfuls of chloride of
lime in the bottom of a glass jar,
and pour on it just enough dilute sul-
phuric acid to cover it. Chlorine
will at once begin to be formed, and
owing to its weight will remain in
the jar if a piece of paper be placed
over the mouth to prevent draughts.
The experimenter must avoid breath-
ing the gas, as it is very irritating to
the lungs. If it be desired to keep
the jar clean, the chloride of lime
maybe put into a small wide-mouthed
bottle, like a vaseline bottle, which is
lowered into the jar by a string tied
around the neck, and the sulphuric
acid is then poured into the small
bottle by means of a funnel. When
enough gas has been made to fill
the jar, the little bottle is withdrawn
by means of the string. The chlo-
rine, made in this way, comes from
the chloride of lime. Chlorine may
be prepared in several other ways,
but the one just given is the simplest.
In making and experimenting with
this gas, it is best to stand in a
draught, so that what escapes may
be carried awav from the experi-
menter.
EXPERIMENTS.
i. One-third fill a small jar of
chlorine with water ; then place the
hand tightly over the mouth of the
jar and shake the contents a few
minutes. It will be found that the
hand sticks to the jar, as if the air had
been partially pumped out by an air
pump (C. C. T.). The reason of this
is that water dissolves chlorine easily
and thus makes the pressure in the
jar less than that of the air without.
Note. Owing to the attraction of
chlorine for water it often gets laden
with moisture, and to insure the
success of some of the following ex-
periments, the gas may have to be
dried. This may be done by shaking
in the jar several bits of pumice stone
wet with strong sulphuric acid.
2. It will be found impossible to
burn a jet of chlorine in the air, but
it may be burned in hydrogen, using
the apparatus described in the arti-
cle OXYGEN, for burning oxygen in
hydrogen.
3. Lower a burning candle, or a
lighted wood-splinter, into a jar of
chlorine. It will continue to burn,
but will give off a dense black smoke,
The reason is that chlorine likes
hydrogen but not carbon (see C. C.
T.). Candles and wood contain
both these elements, so the chlorine
unites with the hydrogen and throws
off the carbon in a cloud of black
particles.
4. Dip in oil of turpentine a bit
of cotton fastened to the end of
a piece of wire. Heat it by holding
it over a stove for a moment, and
then plunge it into a jar of chlorine.
If it has been warmed enough it will
take fire, burning with a dense black
smoke.
5. To bleach with chlorine. Hang
in a jar of chlorine a bit of colored
cloth, or a flower, and the color will
be taken out. Ink spots can be re-
moved from cloth or paper in the
same way. It is necessary that
either the chlorine or the article to
be bleached be slightly moist, as dry
chlorine will not bleach. A solu-
tion of the gas, called chlorine water,
may be prepared as in experiment I,
and can be used for bleaching or as
a disinfectant. Pour some on any
ill-smelling or colored substance, and
in most cases the bad odor, or the
color, will disappear.
6. Into a jar of chlorine sprinkle
powdered antimony. It will take fire
as it enters the gas.
CHOOSING SIDES, or Choos-
ing Up. In many games where
the players are divided into two
CHOOSING SIDES
190
CHRISTMAS SPORTS
opposite parties, some way of choos-
ing sides is necessary. In most
cases two captains are first agreed
upon. The captains decide which
shall have first choice, and then, in
turn, choose the other players, one
by one. As soon as a player is
chosen he stands near his captain.
The first choice is determined by
lot, and there are many ways of
deciding it, some of which are given
below.
I. By drawing cuts. One captain
holds in his hand a long and a short
piece of paper or wood, of which he
shows only the ends. The other
draws one of them, and the player
holding the short piece has first
choice.
II. By throwing up a coin. One
captain throws a coin into the air
while the other cries either " head "
or '' tail." If the side of the coin
which he mentions comes uppermost,
he has first choice ; otherwise, the
tosser has it. The side with the
date on is always considered the
head ; the other the tail.
III. In games played with a racket,
the racket is used as the coin is
above, except that the cries are
" rough " and " smooth," correspond-
ing to the rough and smooth sides
of the racket.
IV. In games played with a bat or
Fig. i. — Choosing Sides.
stick of any kind, like baseball or
hockey, the first choice is often de-
cided thus: One of the captains, A,
holds the bat upright, and throws it
to the other B, who catches it in one
hand, also holding it upright. A
then grasps the bat in one hand
above where B is holding it and as
Icose to B's hand as possible. B
then lets go and grasps the bat above
A's hand in like manner. Thus they
go on in turn, and the one who holds
the bat nearest its end (as in Fig. I,
without letting his hand reach be-
yond it), has first choice. A hand is
judged to be below the end of the bat
when a stick laid across that end,
Fig. 2.— Choosing Sides.
as in Fig. 2, does not touch the
hand.
V. A number of playing cards
equal to that of the players, half red
and half black, may be shuffled and
then dealt one to each. The holders
of black cards play on one side, and
those of red cards on the other.
VI. One of the captains shuts his
eyes or turns his back on the other,
who holds up as many fingers as he
chooses and says " Odd or even ? "
If the first named captain answer
correctly, he has the first choice ; if
not, the other has it.
CHRISTMAS SPORTS. Christ-
mas Day, the 25th of December, is
celebrated throughout the Christian
world by the giving of presents in
different ways, which will be de-
scribed separately.
Christmas Trees. The present
are hung on an evergreen tree, which
CHRISTMAS SPORTS
191
CHRISTMAS SPORTS
is decorated and lighted with candles.
The best Christmas trees are of
spruce, but hemlock, cedar, or any
evergreen may be used. A symmet-
rical and graceful tree should be
selected, one whose limbs incline up-
ward but little, and stout enough to
bend but slightly when laden with
presents.
Stands to keep the tree upright
may be bought in cities, but one can
easily be made from an old packing
box by nailing strips of wood across
to hold it in place, as shown in the il-
lustration. If the tree is tall, the box
should be weighted by filling with
stones, or sand, after it is put in its
place. A sheet or rug should be
spread on the floor to catch candle
Manner of Fastening Tree.
drippings, and another one over
the box and close around the
tree.
Decoration. Many beautiful or-
naments of glass or metal are to be
bought at toy-shops for tree decora-
tion ; others may be made at home.
Almost anything bright colored or
shining looks well on a Christmas
tree. Pasteboard cut into odd shapes
and covered with gilt or colored
paper, bits of new tin or looking
glass, or small fruits, may be used
with effect. Pop corn strung on
thread and intertwined among the
branches looks well. Fruit or nuts
may be painted with gold paint, or
covered with gilt paper, and hung to
the tree with colored ribbon.
Lighting. Trees are usually
lighted with colored tapers, about
three inches long, fastened to the
branches with holders. The best
holders are fitted to a wire, which
Candle Holders.
in most cases.
has at the lower
end a colored ball
the weight of which
keeps the candle
upright. Others
are fastened to the
branch with sharp
ends but have the
disadvantage that
a motion of the
branch tips them.
Both kinds are
shown in the cut.
The candles should
be distributed as
evenly as possible.
A row of candles
along only one
branch looks bad
Each candle should
be lighted and allowed to burn a
few seconds before putting it in place.
In placing the candles, it should be
seen that all loose things above them
are trimmed off, so that there is no
danger of fire. One or two extra
candles should be provided to light
the tapers with, and a sponge or rag
saturated with water to extinguish
any that appear likely to set fire to
the tree. It should be the sole busi-
ness of one person, while the tree re-
mains lighted, to take charge of the
sponge, and each candle, as it burns
down into the socket, should be put
out. A tree may be lighted with gas
by having a gas-fitter run pipes up
the back of the trunk and along the
branches, but nothing equals the
effect of tapers. There should be
plenty of them : a small tree six feet
high should have not less than 50,
and larger sizes in proportion. A
CHRISTMAS SPORTS
192
CHRISTMAS SPORTS
tree twelve feet high would need
about 400 candles.
Presents. The presents may be
hung on the tree, or placed on the
box and floor beneath. Presents on
the tree are fastened to the branches
by strings or ribbons, which are to be
cut by the one who removes them.
Each present should be marked
plainly with the name of giver and
receiver, which should be read aloud
when they are taken down. Instead
of a Christmas tree, the presents are
sometimes hung on a ladder, on the
rounds of which tapers are fastened,
the presents and decorations being
hung to it just as to a tree. The
ladder should be wound with a green
wreath before decorating. A Christ-
mas ladder is much more easily pre-
pared than a tree, and looks very
well.
Christmas Ship. Presents may
be hung also on a toy ship instead
of on a tree. The ship may be
bought at a toy shop, and the pres-
ents should be placed inside and
hung on the masts and rigging, which
are wound with greens and decorated
with tapers. Or the model of a
floating ship may be made, water
being represented by green cloth,
beneath which, under the ship, is a
box, where the presents are stowed,
and from which they can be taken
out through the hatchways.
Bran Pie. Presents are some-
times given in a large imitation pie,
which is placed on the table Christ-
mas morning. The presents, wrapped
in paper, are put into a large pan
and the spaces between them filled
with bran or sawdust. The top is
covered with pie crust, which is
browned in the oven, provided none
of the presents can be injured by
heat. Another way is to make the
top of the pie of thick brown paper.
When set on the table, part of the
crust is removed and the presents
are taken, one by one, out of the
bran.
Stockings. Small Christmas pres-
ents are often put into stockings,
hung by the fireplace on Christmas
eve, larger ones being laid on chairs
near by. Sometimes a large stock-
ing, several feet long, made especially
for the purpose, is hung up to receive
all the presents.
Santa Claus. Santa Claus may
be personated by a boy or man
dressed in a thick fur coat, cap, and
gloves, and stuffed out with pillows
so as to look very fat. His face
should be so muffled that only eyes
and nose are visible, and his nose
and cheeks should be colored red
with carmine.
There are several effective ways
of having Santa Claus enter the room.
One way is for him to rattle a string
of sleighbells just outside, first very
softly, and then louder and louder as
if his sleigh were approaching ; finally
he cries " Whoa! " and then enters
the house — through a window if it
can be arranged ; otherwise through
the door. He may carry the presents
on his back in a pack, or they may
be already arranged on a tree for him
to distribute.
Another way is to place a wooden
mantel in front of a door, and cover
the upper part of the doorway with
cloth, so that the whole looks like a
chimney-piece. Santa Claus can
thus enter the room through the
fireplace under the mantel, as if he
had come down the chimney. A
chair should be placed at one side of
the doorway, behind it, and Santa
Claus should step down from it, so
that to those on the other side he
will appear to be descending from the
roof. He may carry all his presents
at once, or, if there are too many,
leave them in the " chimney," and
return now and then for a fresh
supply. Large stockings may be
hung on either side of the imitation
chimney-piece, into which he may
cram the presents, which are then
taken out by some one else and dis-
tributed. The one who takes the part
of Santa Claus should talk in a gruff
voice as he gives the presents, mak-
ing remarks appropriate to each one.
CHRISTMAS SPORTS
History. The celebration of a day
as the birthday of Christ was begun
very early. By some it is said to
have been instituted by Pope Teles-
phorus, who lived early in the second
century. At first different days were
kept in different parts of the world,
the Eastern churches observing gen-
erally some day in April or May. In
the fourth century learned men were
ordered to determine the exact birth-
day of Christ, and they settled on
the 25th of December, which has
since been adopted by all Christians,
though it is probable that that was
not the day after all. It is said that
this date was originally celebrated
at Rome because a heathen festival
called the Saturnalia had been held
at that time, and so the common
people would not have to change
their time of revelry. During the
middle ages Christmas was cele-
brated by the performance of re-
ligious plays called " mysteries " or
" moralities," where different people
took the parts of the Virgin Mary,
Joseph, King Herod, etc. These
plays are acted even now in some
parts of Germany, and the illustra-
The Star-bearer, Mary and Joseph, and the Angel.
tions show the costumes of some of
the characters. The festival was
also the time for singing, dancing,
and all kinds of revels. " Feasts of
Fools and Asses," as they were
called, were held, in which every-
thing serious was burlesqued. These
were sometimes called " December
liberties." In Germany and the
North of Europe the season became
especially devoted to children. In
England the Christmas festivities in
every large house were in charge of
a " Lord of Misrule," or " Abbot of
Unreason," and they continued till
Candlemas Day, February 2. In
every house was built a great fire of
logs, the largest of which, called the
" Yule log " (Yule being the ancient
Saxon name for Christmas), was
brought into the house with great
ceremony. Among the favorite
Christmas games were giving rid-
dles, HOT COCKLES, Snap Dragon
(See HALLOWEEN), FORFEITS, and
dancing. The Christmas dish was
a boar's head, which was brought in
on a silver platter with much cere-
mony. The custom of decorating
houses and churches with greens is
CHRISTMAS SPORTS
194
CHRISTMAS SPORTS
said to have been derived from the
ancient Druids, who thought that if
a green branch was suspended in
the house the good spirits of the
Satan.
woods would take refuge in it dur-
ing the cold of winter. The Puri-
tans disapproved of Christmas rev-
elry, and put a stop to it largely
when they came into power. The
last " Lord of Misrule " in England
is said to have been appointed in
1627.
In many parts of Europe it is cus-
tomary for a man with a mask over
his face, dressed in outlandish fash-
ion, to go the rounds of the houses in
a village, pretending that he is going
to punish bad children. This char-
acter is called Ruprecht in Germany,
Krampus in lower Austria, Hans
Trapp in Alsace, and has other names
in other places. Sometimes he ac-
companies a man dressed as St.
Nicholas or Santa Claus, or a girl
dressed as the Christ-child, who
brings presents.
The Christmas tree is supposed to
be derived from the old German leg-
end that the world was a great tree
whose top was in Paradise. It was
first decorated in honor of the god-
dess of spring while the Germans
were still pagans. At the time of
the Reformation, the Protestants,
who wished to break away from all
Roman Catholic customs, adopted
this tree for their Christmas festivities
instead of the Presipio, or manger,
which is still used largely in Roman
Catholic countries. Some Presipios
cost large sums of money and rep-
resent the Holy Family gathered
around the infant Jesus, while angels
sing in the clouds above. Presipios
are used in churches and in private
houses, just as we have Christmas
trees for Sunday - schools and at
home.
In Poland, Christmas gifts are
hidden in various places thoughout
the house, and the members of the
family search for them. In Sweden
and Denmark presents are wrapped
up in all sorts of queer ways, some-
times in bundles of hay or wool, and
thrown in at doors or windows at
unexpected times. The packages
are called Jueklapps (Christmas
boxes). Each one is labeled with
the name of the person for whom it
The Three Kings.
is intended, and sometimes a verse
or quotation is added.
Settlers from different countries
brought their various customs with
them to this country, so our cele-
bration of Christmas is made up of
CIRCULAR SAW
195
CLAP IN AND CLAP OUT
those of several nations. The Eng-
lish brought theirs to Virginia, the
Dutch to New York, and the Swedes
to Delaware. In New England,
owing to the opposition of the Puri-
tans to the celebration of the day, it
was not observed at all in old times.
The Christmas tree is taken from
The Pharisees.
Germany, and the legend of Santa
Claus (St. Nicholas) was brought
by the Dutch to New York. In the
South the day is made the occasion
for setting off fire-crackers and fire-
works, which makes it seem much
like Fourth of July in the North.
CHROMOTROPE. See FOURTH
OF JULY.
CIRCULAR SAW, a toy consist-
ing of a disk of tin, through which
are bored two holes from an inch to
an inch and a half apart, and equi-
distant from the center. A string
two or three feet long is passed
through each of these holes, and the
ends tied. Holding one end in each
hand so that the disk is in the mid-
dle, the player twirls the disk till the
string is well twisted, and then pull-
ing his hands apart, forces the string
to untwist and spin the disk. At
the moment when all the twist is out
of the string the hands are brought
slowly together again, and the disk
goes on twirling, twisting the string
in the opposite direction. By pull-
ing the hands apart again, the disk
will spin in the opposite direction,
and it can thus be kept on spinning
as long as the player chooses. Teeth
can be cut on the edge of the disk to
imitate a circular saw. The edges
of the holes in a tin saw cut the
string, so similar toys are sometimes
made of stiff pasteboard, but these
are not so durable. The saws are
sometimes called water cutters, be-
cause, when the edge is made to
touch the surface of the water in a
basin, a shower of spray is sent out.
The toy may be made of any con-
venient size, but it is usually from
three to six inches in diameter.
CLAP IN AND CLAP OUT, a
game played by any number of boys
and girls. The boys stand each be-
hind a chair, and the girls go into
another room. One of the players,
who acts as keeper of the door be-
tween the two rooms, asks one of
the boys to choose a girl. The door-
keeper then opens the door and calls
the girl thus chosen, who must sit
Circular Saw.
down in one of the chairs. If she
sit in front of the boy who chose her,
he kisses her and she keeps her seat,
but if not, all the boys clap their
hands as a sign that she is wrong,
and she must leave the room again.
The door-keeper asks another boy
to choose, and the game goes on
till all the chairs are filled. The
boys then leave the room, the girls
CLIPPED SQUARES
196
COASTING
stand behind the chairs, and the
game is repeated. The play is often
varied by calling in three or four at
a time.
CLIPPED SQUARES, a game
played by any number of persons,
with paper and scissors. Each
player cuts a square, and then clips
it into four pieces by two straight
cuts of the scissors. He then mixes
the pieces and passes them to the
player on his left. All the players
now try to arrange the bits so as to
make the original square, and at the
expiration of five minutes, or any
other period agreed on beforehand,
those who have been successful score
one point. Each one now passes
his pieces to the left again, and so on
till each has had before him all the
clipped squares, in regular order.
He who has scored most points is
the winner. The time limit must be
arranged according to the skill of
the players. If no one has solved
his puzzle at the expiration of the
time it should be longer ; if almost
all have succeeded, it should be
made shorter.
The task of putting the pieces to-
gether seems very simple at first,
but in reality it is difficult. The four
pieces can be put together in no less
than 256 different ways, only one of
which forms a square.
The game can be played as a
SOLITAIRE by simply clipping a
square and then trying to put it to-
gether again, which will be found
almost as difficult as though the
clipping had been done by another
person.
CLUB SWINGING. See GYMNAS-
TICS.
CLUMPS, a guessing game played
by any number of persons. Two of
the players, who act as captains,
choose sides, and then each captain
sends one of his men out of the room.
The two thus sent agree on the
name of any person or object, real
or fictitious, to be guessed by the
rest of the company. Each of the
two then sits down among the
players of the opposing side, who
try to guess the object that has been
selected, by asking him questions, to
which he is permitted to reply only
" yes," " no," or " I do not know."
The players on the side that succeeds
first in guessing announce the fact
by clapping their hands, and the
winning captain can then choose a
man from the defeated side. Two
men are then sent out again, and the
game may go on till all but one of
the players on one side have been
chosen, when it must cease, because
two on a side at least, are necessary,
one to ask questions, and one for
the enemy's side to question. As
this generally takes a long time, an
hour may be agreed on beforehand,
when the players are to be counted,
and the side with the greater number
wins. The sides are often called
Clumps.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. The two Clumps must sit in
separate rooms or, if this is impossi-
ble, at opposite ends of the same
room.
2. The questioning shall begin at
exactly the same time on each side,
by any signal that may be agreed on.
3. To avoid confusion, the captain
on each side shall put the questions
for his Clump, which may be sug-
gested to him by members of the
Clump in any order.
4. If any question is put in such a
form that it cannot be answered by
"yes," "no," or "I do not know,"
no answer at all shall be made.
5. As soon as the subject is guessed
each of the questioned players shall
return to his own Clump, unless he
be the one chosen by the winning
side.
6. Neither of the captains shall be
chosen.
COASTING. (See C.C.T., Sleigh).
There are three principal ways of
riding on a sled ; sitting, lying, or
kneeling on one knee, each of which
positions has its advantages. In
sitting, if the rider runs against any-
thing his feet bear the shock, but he
COASTING
197
COASTING
cannot easily take a run in starting.
In lying flat, the coaster starts by
holding his sled upright in both
hands, taking a short run, then
stooping and throwing himself face
downward on the sled. Besides the
advantages gained by such a start it
is easier to steer in this position, but
he is more apt to be hurt in a col-
lision, since his head is foremost.
Many coasters prefer the third
position, kneeling on one knee, or
jitting sidewise on the rear of the
3led, and steering with one leg,
which is trailed behind. This is the
best plan when more persons than
one are on the same sled. All sit
upright but the hindmost one, who
does the steering. The steersman
should keep a sharp lookout ahead
for curves and obstacles of all kinds.
On a hill crowded with coasters,
it is the duty of those who are walk-
ing up to keep out of the way of the
sliders. A coaster should never
descend a hill on which there is a
vehicle going either way, and if
there is much passing, there should
be no coasting there at all. In many
places coasting on such hills is for-
bidden by law, but in some towns
certain streets are set apart specially
for the use of coasters.
The two chief kinds of sleds are
the high and the low, the former
sometimes called cutters, and the
latter in some piaces " pickerel " or
" pig-stickers." The former have
runners of open framework, shod
with iron ; the latter have solid wood
runners shod with bars of steel,
fastened only at the ends. The run-
ners of the high sleds curve upward
sharply in front, while those of the
low ones curve but slightly and end
in a sharp point. The low sleds are
best suited for a coaster lying flat,
and for smoothly worn hills, while
the others are fitted for tracks on
which the loose snow is an inch or
so deep. The sleds called " bobs "
or " double rippers " are formed by
joining two ordinary sleds of the
same height by a plank ten to twenty
feet long. This plank is fastened
firmly to the rear sled, and pivoted
to the forward one so that it will
turn freely. The steering is usually
done with the forward sled ; if it
projects beyond the plank, the
steersman lies at full length and
holds the curved ends of the runners
one in each hand, thus being able to
turn the rudder-sled in whichever
direction the bob is to be steered.
Sometimes the pivot on which the
sled turns is brought up through the
plank and fitted with a lever, so that
the helmsman may sit upright as he
steers. A short bob may have both
sleds fixed, and be steered behind,
like an ordinary sled, and sometimes
the guiding is done with an extra
runner, something like the rudder of
an ice-boat. In any case, the last
passenger on the bob starts it by
running and pushing, and jumps into
his seat just as the proper speed is
attained.
Some bobs are expensively made
of fine wood, beautifully polished
and fitted with cushions for the pas-
sengers. There is usually a hand-
rail on each, by which the coasters
may hold on.
Accidents in coasting, as in other
sports, occur usually through heed-
lessness or neglect. With a single
sled, the coaster is responsible only
for his own safety, but in " bobbing "
a load of from four to ten passengers
are at the mercy of the steersman,
and they should be careful to ride
with no one who is not clear-headed
and prudent. If the hill is a proper
one and the bob or sled is well
steered, coasting is as safe as any
other sport.
Coasting has undoubtedly been fol-
lowed as a sport in cold countries
from the most ancient times in some
rude form or other. Even animals
practise it, the otter being very fond
of sliding down slippery banks either
of mud or snow, on his belly. The
sport was probably first reduced to
a system in Russia. (See the history
of TOBOGANNING.)
COBALT CHLORIDE
198
COINS
COBALT CHLORIDE, Experi-
ments with. I. Write on a piece of
paper with an ink made of cobalt
chloride dissolved in water. The
marks will be nearly invisible till
heated, when they will turn greenish
blue.
2. Draw a landscape in ordinary
ink, afterward filling in the leaves
and grass with cobalt chloride. The
picture will represent winter or sum-
mer according as it is damp or dried.
COHESION FIGURES. Figures
formed by dropping oil on water.
Let a drop of pure sperm oil fall into
Oleographs of Tallow and Lard.
a basin or plate full of water. The
drop will quickly enlarge into a cir-
cular film of oil, which breaks at the
edges into ragged holes. Finally the
center becomes filled with little holes,
forming curious figures. The film
continues to change for about half an
hour. Castor oil gives smaller figures,
and in general every kind of oil gives
figures of a different shape. These
figures can be preserved by laying a
piece of glazed paper carefully on
the surface of the water after the
film has assumed the desired shape.
The paper is then laid on an inked
plate, or an inked roller is passed
over it. The ink sticks to the paper
except where the oil has made it
greasy, hence the cohesion figures
appear in white on a black ground.
These are sometimes called oleo-
graphs. The illustrations show oleo-
graphs of tallow and lard.
COINS, Tricks with. i. Head
or Tail. To tell blindfold whether
a spun coin falls head or tail upward.
The coin used must be prepared by
cutting on the edge of one face a
minute notch causing a little point of
metal to project. When the coin is
spun, if it goes down with the notched
side underneath, this point will catch
on the table causing the coin to fall
suddenly, instead of gradually as it
otherwise would. With a little prac-
tice the two sounds may be easily dis-
tinguished.
2. To rub One Coin into Two.
Previously stick a coin with wax
underneath a table, close to the edge.
Borrow a similar coin and rub it
violently with the ball of the thumb
against the edge of the table. The
fingers will thus naturally be beneath
the table, and the waxed coin can
easily be removed at any time and
added to the one that is being
rubbed.
3. The Wandering Coin. Have
ready two coins each slightly waxed
on one side. Borrow a similar coin
and secretly exchange it for one
of the waxed ones, which is then
laid on the table, waxed side upper-
most. Draw two cards from a
pack, and take them in the same
hand with the other waxed coin,
which will thus stick to the under-
199
COINS
most. Lay this card on the table near
the coin which is already there and
cover that coin with the other card,
pressing lightly on it so that it will
stick. A coin may now be made
to appear under whichever card the
performer wishes, for if he bends the
card slightly upward in lifting the
coin will not stick to it ; otherwise it
will. To the audience it will appear
as if there were but one coin, which
the performer caused at will to pass
from one card to the other.
4. The Animated Coin, Have
ready a long piece of black thread,
to one end of which is fastened a bit
of wax. The waxed end lies on the
table in front of the performer ; the
other is held by an assistant in an
adjoining room. On the table stands
an ordinary goblet. The performer
borrows a coin, and contriving to
stick the wax to it throws it into the
goblet, calling on the spectators to
ask it questions which it will answer
by jingling in the glass. It may be
agreed that one clink shall mean
" yes " and two " no." The assistant
must be near enough to hear the
questions, and answers them, ac-
cording to his fancy, by pulling the
thread, making the coin jump up and
down in the glass.
5. Coin and Card. Balance a card
on the tip of your forefinger. On
Coin and Card.
top of it balance a coin about the
size of a nickel five cent piece. Hit the
edge of the card a smart horizontal
blow with some object like a pencil,
or snap it with your finger, if you can
do it directly forward without tend-
ing to drive the card up or down,
and the card will fly away, leaving
the coin balanced on your finger.
6. Coin and Goblet. Support a
'Coin and Goblet.
glass goblet upside down on two
coins, as shown in the picture, on
a table covered with a cloth. Place
a third coin within, and ask the com-
pany to remove it without touching
or removing the glass. This may
be done by scratching on the cloth
near the glass.
7. Coins in Water. Fill a glass
Coins in Water.
goblet brimful of water, and then
ask the company how many coins
COIN COPYING
200
COMMERCE
':an be dropped in without spilling it
over. The guesses will all be too
fimall, for a surprising number can be
Out in if it be done carefully.
COIN COPYING. To obtain an
'ixact copy, in copper, of a coin or
neclal, first make a mold of wax or
Blaster of Paris. A wax mold is
nade by pressing the coin down on
i piece of warm wax, brushed over
vith sweet oil to prevent sticking.
\ plaster of Paris mold is made by
itting a little paper rim around the
:oin and pouring into it a mixture of
Dlaster of Paris and water, which will
'icon become hard. In this case the
• :oin should be brushed over with
,'iweet oil for the same reason as
before. The mold must then be
covered thickly with finely powdered
graphite, which can be obtained by
crushing either graphite stove black-
ing or pencil leads. When the mold
is well covered with a thin layer of
this, it is attached to the negative
wire of a battery and hung in a solu-
tion of copper sulphate (blue vitriol).
The positive wire of the battery is
attached to a copper coin suspended
in the same vessel. The electric
current will decompose the copper
sulphate depositing copper on the
mold. After a time the layer of
copper may be pulled off the mold,
and its lower surface will be an exact
copy of the coin from which the
mold was made. The process is ex-
actly like that of ELECTROPLATING.
COIN WINDMILL. A coin can be
made into a toy windmill with the
aid of two pins. Lay the coin flat
on a table or on the knee and press
the points of the pins against opposite
edges, keeping the pins exactly in
the same straight line. The coin
may now be lifted by the pins, but if
it hangs vertically this shows that it
is not perfectly balanced, and another
trial must be made. When it is
properly balanced it will keep hori-
zontal as it is lifted. By blowing
on one side, the coin may now be
made to spin very rapidly between
the pins.
COLLISION BALLS, Experiments
with. Take half a dozen large glass
marbles and paste a little strip of
leather to each so that it may be sus-
pended by a thread. The paste
should be slightly moistened gum
tragacanth, which, though it does
not hold the leather to the glass when
wet, sticks strongly after it dries. In-
sert a broom straw between theleather
and glass before the paste is dry,
and afterwards, when it is removed,
a hole will be left for the thread.
These glass balls must be hung side
by side on a frame or to the edge of
a table or shelf. They should just
touch each other, without pressing
against each other at all.
EXPERIMEN TS.
1. Draw aside the end ball and
let it fall against the next. All the
balls will remain at rest save the
one at the other end which will fly
off. As it falls back against its
neighbor the first one will fly aside
again, and so the end balls will con-
tinue to move alternately. Soon the
middle balls will begin to move a
little and at the end the whole half-
dozen balls will sway to and fro
slightly. If the balls were perfectly
elastic the middle balls would never
move, but always remain still as
at first. The first ball struck is
squeezed together a little, and ex-
panding, squeezes its neighbor, and
so on till the last ball is reached,
which, having no neighbor, flies
aside.
2. Draw aside the two end balls
and let them fall together. The two
balls at the opposite end will fly off
together.
COMMERCE, a game played by
any number of persons, with one or
more full packs of cards, according
to the size of the company. The
dealer gives each player five cards,
two and three at a time, and then
deals five others face upward on the
table. The latter are sometimes
called the " widow." The player at
the dealer's left may exchange any or
all of his cards for an equal number
COMMERCE
201
COMPASS
in the widow, placing those he dis-
cards face upward on the table with
those he leaves, or he may "pass,"
that is, decline to exchange. The
next player in order has the same
privilege, and so on till each has had
two chances, but any player who
passes on the first round must do
the same on the second. The hands
are then shown, and he who has the
lowest retires from the game. The
value of the hands is the same as in
DRAW POKER. At the close of the
next hand another player retires, and
so on till only one is left, who is the
winner. Sometimes, if the company
is large, two or three players retire
each time instead of one. In this
case, if more than one player is left
at the end, he who has the highest
hand wins. There are many varie-
ties of this game ; some of the most
common of which will be described.
A retired player is sometimes
allowed to enter the game again if
he can induce an active player to
speak to him. In this case the
player who so speaks must retire
from the game.
Sometimes a player does not retire
until he has twice
held the lowest
hand.
The game is of-
ten played with-
out any widow.
Each player in
turn must either
trade, barter, or
stand. In trad-
ing, the player ex-
changes one of his
cards for the top
card of the remain-
ing pack, the re-
jected card being placed under the
pack ; in bartering, he exchanges a
card with his left-hand neighbor ; if
he is satisfied with his hand as it is,
he says " I stand." No player's
left-hand neighbor may refuse to
barter, unless he intends to stand.
In bartering, each may select the
card he wishes to exchange, but may
not see the other player's card till
the change is made. When any
player stands, trade and barter cease,
and the hands are shown at once.
When parties are given at which
this game is played, it is customary
for the hostess to give one or more
prizes to the winners. Sometimes
a boy's prize and a girl's prize are
offered, in which case the boy and
girl holding the lowest hands respec-
tively retire at the end of each round.
Three-Card Commerce. Each
player is dealt three cards, and the
hands are as follows in the order of
their value, beginning with the high-
est:
1. Tricon, three cards of a kind.
2. Sequence, three cards in succes-
sion.
3. Flush, three cards of the same
suit.
4. A Pair, two cards of a kind.
5. Point, the greatest number of
pips on the cards held, counting the
Ace as eleven, and face cards ten
each.
COMPASS, A simple mariner's
compass may be constructed as fol-
lows. Magnetize an ordinary knit-
Home-made Compass.
ting needle, E (see MAGNETS), and
pass it through a small cork, F, from
side to side, so that the cork is exactly
in the middle of the needle. Thrust
a pin lengthwise through the same
cork, and then stick in it two sharp-
ened matches, C, so that they project
downward diagonally. On the ends
of the matches fix balls of wax. The
COMPLIMENTS
202
COMPRESSED MAN
whole arrangement can now be
balanced on a thimble, D, by resting
the point of the pin in one of the
little holes on the top. If the knit-
ting needle is not horizontal, pull it
through the cork to one side or the
other, or alter one of the wax balls.
The whole is placed in a common
earthenware pudding dish, T, and
covered with a pane of glass. A disk
of paper, A, with the points of the
compass marked on it, may be fixed
under the needle, when the whole
arrangement will appear like the
illustration. For experiments with
the compass see MAGNETS.
COMPLIMENTS, a game played
by any number of persons, who sit
in a circle. One of the players begins
by wishing that he were some animal,
bird, or other object, living or not, as
he may choose. He asks his right-
hand neighbor to give a reason for
this choice and the answer must not
be complimentary. He then asks
the same question of his left-hand
neighbor, who must return a com-
plimentary reply. Each player makes
a similar wish in turn and asks the
same questions of his neighbors.
Should any one's answer be compli-
mentary, instead of uncompliment-
ary, or the reverse, the offender must
pay a forfeit.
For example, suppose the player
wishes to become a dog. His right-
hand neighbor may give as a reason,
" That you may indulge your pro-
pensity for making hideous noises";
and his left-hand neighbor may say,
" Because of the faithfulness, intelli-
gence, and noble character of the
animal."
COMPRESSED MAN, THE, a
trick performed by two boys. One
asks the other if he is willing to be
compressed to half his height, and the
two then retire from the room. One
stands in front of the other and two
poles are placed on their shoulders
to imitate the poles of a bier or
stretcher. A small pillow is placed
across the poles behind the rear boy,
who leans his head back upon it and
rests his arms at full length along
the poles, which must be long enough
to allow his hands nearly to reach
the back of the forward boy. Boots
are placed on his hands, and then
his arms are covered with a blanket.
Fig. i. — Compressed Man.
This arrangement causes him to
look as if he were carried by two
men on a stretcher, reduced to a
heighth of about three feet. The
spectators will not notice at first that
Fig. 2. — Compressed Man.
the rear bearer's head is invisible, or
they will think that it is underneath
the stretcher, concealed by the
blanket.
Fig. i shows the arrangement
CONDUCTION OF HEAT
203
THE CONFESSOR
before the blanket is put on ; Fig. 2,
the appearance afterward. An " ex-
tended man " can be made in a sim-
ilar manner by placing the boots on
sticks held in the hands of the rear
performer, but the effect is not so
striking. While the performers are
absent from the room one of them
should saw a piece of wood, while
the other should groan, and a little
sulphur may be burned to excite the
interest of the spectators.
CONDUCTION OF HEAT, Experi-
ments on. I. Take a copper wire,
an iron wire, and a glass rod, and
dip them in melted wax, so as to
form a coating on each. Lay them
on a table with the ends projecting
about two inches over the edge and
crossing each other. Hold an alco-
hol lamp under the place where they
cross so as to heat them all equally.
The conduction of the heat along
the rods can be traced by the melt-
ing of the wax, which will take place
fastest on the best conductor of heat.
Beyond a certain point on each rod
the wax will not melt. This is be-
cause the heat escapes from the air
on all sides of the rod, so that there
is not enough left to melt the wax
beyond that point. The wax, how-
ever, will be melted much farther on
a good conductor than on a poor
one.
2. To the lower surface of an iron
rod stick at intervals, by means of
wax, balls of wood or bullets. Heat
one end of the bar in an alcohol
flame and the balls will drop off one
by one as the wax is melted, begin-
ning with the one nearest the flame.
If bars of different substances be
used, it will be seen that some of
them conduct the heat of the flame
faster than others.
3. Hold a scrap of paper beneath
a wooden penholder so that half is
in contact with the wooden handle
and half with the metal part that
holds the pen. Hold the penholder
and paper over the flame of an alco-
hol lamp, and the part touching the
wood will be charred, while that un-
der the metal is yet white. This is
because the metal conducts the heat
more quickly than the wood does.
4. Place one within another two
tin pails, of such sizes that when to-
gether there will be a space about
two inches wide between them. Fill
this space, including that at the bot-
tom, with old newspaper crumpled
into balls and packed in very tightly.
Fill the inside pail with water at
100° Fahrenheit, put on the cover,
pack the space above it with paper,
and then put on the -outer cover.
This arrangement makes a vessel
which conducts heat very slightly.
If the water is tested after several
hours its temperature will be only a
degree or two lower, whereas water
in an ordinary pail will cool to the
temperature of the room in the same
time.
5. Water may be boiled in a paper
box, as shown in the illustration, ow-
ing to the fact that the heat is all
Boiling Water in a Paper Box.
required to boil the water, so that
the paper is kept below the charring
point.
THE CONFESSOR, agame played
by any number of persons, one of
CONSEQUENCES
204
CONTUMACY
whom is chosen as confessor and the
others personate penitents. Each
of the players is given a pencil and a
slip of paper. The confessor writes
on his slip what he wishes to con-
sider the capital sin, and, then, ad-
dressing the player at his left desires
him to confess his sins, at the same
time handing him a TETOTUM. The
penitent spins the tetotum. on a
table, and the number that it turns
up shows how many sins he must
confess. He writes them on his paper
and hands k to the confessor, who
reads the sins aloud, and then pro-
ceeds to the next player on the
right. Any player who confesses
the capital sin, or any one of the
sins that have already been confessed,
must pay a forfeit. The name of the
capital sin is not told to the company
till all have confessed. Then, if
desired, another confessor is chosen
and the game goes on, entirely new
sins still being required, on penalty
of a forfeit. The game is made
more amusing if the confessor and
the penitents act out their parts. If
it is so agreed before the game, any-
one who laughs may be made to pay
a forfeit.
CONSEQUENCES, a game played
by any number of persons, each with
pencil and paper. The players
usually sit around a table and the first
writes at the top of his paper an ad-
jective describing a man, then folds
the paper over the word so as to
hide it, and passes it to his left-hand
neighbor. Each then writes, just
under the hidden word, the name of
a man, either a historical character or
some acquaintance, and folding the
paper, passes it as before. After this
the following things are written in like
manner, the paper being folded and
passed after each. (3) An adjective
describing a woman. (4) A woman's
name. (5) Where the man and
woman met. (6) What he said.
(7) What she replied. (8) What
the consequences were. (9) What
the world said. When all these
have been written, the papers are
mixed in the middle of the table,
and each player draws one which he
must read aloud ; or, all the papers
may be read by one player, chosen
for the purpose. The reader fills in
the words necessary to make a con-
nected story.
The names of the players are
often used with amusing effect.
For instance, one of the papers may
read, " The gentlemanly Henry VIII.
and the slovenly Mary B — — , met in
the Metropolitan Museum. He
said, ' Do you like apples ? ' and
she replied, ' Not on Sundays.' The
consequence was a tremendous ex-
plosion, and the world said, ' What
else could you expect ? "
The words and sentences written
may be varied as agreed on at the
beginning of the game. For in-
stance, " What he gave her " and
" What she gave him " are often put
in. In its simplest form the game
consisted of writing merely a man's
name, a woman's name, where they
met, and the consequences.
A different way of playing the
game is for the players to write each
of their words or sentences on a
separate card or slip of paper, num-
bering them as above. The slips are
then gathered in piles, each pile
containing those of one number,
and each player draws one from
each pile, arranges them in order,
and reads the story that results.
Or, if there are just as many players
as piles, each may be given one, and
then each, in the order of the num-
bers, may read one of his cards.
The game may be played many
times with the same cards if each
pile is shuffled after every read-
ing. Sometimes words or sentences
printed on cards of different colors
are sold at the toy shops, to be used
in playing this game or similar
ones.
CONTUMACY, a game of cards
played by three persons with a
EUCHRE pack. The players cut for
deal, and he who cuts the lowest
card gives three cards to each player.
COPENHAGEN
205
CORN AND BEANS
Beginning with the eldest hand, each
may then discard his hand, if not
satisfied with it, and call for a new
one. No one can discard part of a
hand, and when any player has said
he is satisfied he must keep his hand.
Each of the other players may thus
draw two new hands, and the dealer
may draw three. The dealer then
leads from any suit he pleases, and
names another. The other players
are expected to play in the named
suit, taking just as if they were fol-
lowing suit. Thus, if the dealer
lead the Five of Clubs and says
" Hearts," the Six of Hearts will take
the trick, but the Six of Clubs will
not. If either player wish to play a
suit which has neither been named
nor played, he can do so, but to take
the trick his card must be the second
one above the card which would
otherwise take it. He may play thus
from choice or because he cannot do
otherwise. In either case he is said
to be " contumacious." It will be
seen that the first contumacious
player in any round has two suits to
choose from, but one at third hand,
where the second hand has already
been contumacious, has but one.
Thus, if the dealer lead the Four of
Spades, and say " Hearts," and the
second player (choosing to be con-
tumacious) play the Six of Clubs, the
third, if he also is contumacious,
must play a Diamond higher than
the Seven to take the trick. But in
the named suit (Hearts), a Seven
would take it. The dealer continues
to lead till the hands have been
played. He must not name the
same suit twice in succession, nor
must he name the suit he leads.
The cards rank as in ECART&, the
Ace being between the Ten and
Knave. The Ace of Spades is a
special card, and is not allowed to
win a trick in contumacy. When
played in the named suit it has its
ordinary value, but when led it must
always take the trick.
COPENHAGEN, a game played
by any number of persons, who stand
in a circle holding a rope whose ends
are tied together. One of the play-
ers stands in the middle of the ring,
and tries to slap the hands that hold
the rope, using only one of his own
hands at a time. The players must
always hold the rope with at least
one hand, and can try to escape being
slapped only by changing hands
rapidly, taking hold first with one
and then with another. If anyone's
hand is slapped or he lets the rope
go altogether, he must take the place
of the one in the ring. As the game
is often played, a girl tries to slap
only boys' hands and a boy only
girls' hands, and when a hand is
slapped the players kiss as they
change places.
CORK, Experiment with a. Place
in the neck of a wide-mouthed bottlt
a cork considerably too small for it
and try to blow it into the bottle.
Instead of going in, it will generallj
fly out. The reason is that the
blowing compresses the air within
the bottle and this, recoiling like a
spring, drives the cork out. To suc-
ceed, the experiment must be tried
with bottle and cork perfectly dry so
that one will not stick to the other.
CORK, The, a game in which the
players try to knock a cork from the
top of a bottle. The bottle is placed
on a table and the cork set loosely on
the neck so that it can easily be
knocked off. Each player in turn,
standing on the opposite side of the
room, holds his arm directly before
him, with forefinger extended. He
must then walk slowly toward the
bottle and with a single movement of
the arm knock off the cork without
disturbing the bottle. The player
wins who succeeds in doing this the
greatest number of times in a num-
ber of turns previously agreed upon.
The task, though seemingly easy, is
really difficult. Most players will
strike above the cork, the reason
being that he has an involuntary fear
of hitting the bottle.
CORN AND BEANS, a game
played by any number of persons,
COTTON
206
COUNTING OUT
one of whom, called the Professor,
reads questions from a card, while
the others hold cards bearing the
answers. The Professor's card
bears any number of questions,
usually forty, on historical or other
subjects, and there are the same
number of other cards each con-
taining the answer to one of the
questions. After a Professor has
been chosen, the answer-cards
are distributed equally among the
others. A quantity of corn and
beans, for use as counters, is also
distributed equally. The Professor
begins by reading any question he
chooses. The holder of the answer
must cry " Corn ! " and all the oth-
ers must cry " Beans ! " If the
holder cry first, he reads the answer
and hands the card to the Professor.
If one or more cry " Beans " first, he
must give each of them a corn or
bean and hold the answer-card till
the question is asked again. If any
one cry either " Corn " or " Beans "
wrongly, he must give a corn or bean
to each of the others. If the Profes-
sor ask a question which has already
been answered, the first one to dis-
cover it cries " Corn and Beans," and
changes places with the Professor,
who becomes an ordinary pupil. The
game lasts until the Professor has all
the answer-cards. Should any one
pay out all his corn and beans, he
must borrow of a neighbor. The
first one to dispose of his answer
cards is called the " Model Scholar ";
the first one out of corn and beans,
the " Bankrupt," and the player hav-
ing most corn and beans at the end
of the game, the " Millionaire."
COTTON, Experiment with.
Take a glass nearly full of alcohol,
and as much loose cotton wool as
can be held in an ordinary stiff hat.
Put the cotton into the alcohol, a
little at a time, pushing it down with
a glass rod slowly, so that the alcohol
will have time to soak it thoroughly.
It will be possible to put all the cot-
ton into the glass without making
the alcohol run over. The reason is
that the cotton really takes up very
little room, as would be seen if it
were squeezed or pressed together
very tightly.
COUNTING OUT, deciding who
shall be leader of a game, or take
some special part in it. In this
country the one who takes such a
part is called " It." In England he
is sometimes called " He," in France
Le (It), and in Germany he is said to
be daran (in). Sometimes to be It
is a desirable thing, and sometimes
not. When it is desirable, the
players often shout " I choose to be
It," or some similar form of words,
and he who shouts first is given the
post. When it is undesirable, it is
often agreed that all shall run to
some tree or gate, and that he who
gets there last shall be It. The
question is often decided by lot in
some of the various ways described
under CHOOSING SIDES. Sometimes
one of the players numbers the
others, counting from one to seven
and then begining again. Each
seventh player drops out, till finally
only one is left, who must be It.
But the most common method is by
"counting out rhymes," of which
there are a great number. The
players stand in a row, and one recit-
ing the rhyme, points to them in
order, indicating one at each word.
He to whom the last word falls,
drops out of the line, and the rhyme
is thus repeated till only one is left,
who must be It. The counter-out
of course points to himself in the
proper order. Most counting out
rhymes have a whole word for each
beat or accent, but, some have more
than one, and in this case some
counters-out point once for each
word, and others once for each ac-
cent. Thus in the lines, —
Little boy driving cattle,
Don't you hear his money rattle,
some persons point only for the
accented words in the second line,
while others point for each word.
Several of the most common count-
CRAMBO
207
CRAMBO
ing-out rhymes are given below.
Most of them have almost countless
variations.
Overy, uvery, ickory, Ann,
Fillisy, follasy, Nicholas John,
Queevy, quavy, Irish Mary,
Stingalum, stangalum, Buck.
Eeny, meeny, mona, my,
Barcelona, bona, stry,
Kay bell, broken well,
We, wo, wack.
Intery, mintery, cuter}', corn,
Apple seed, briar thorn,
Wire, briar, limber lock,
Three geese in a flock ;
One flew east, one flew west,
One flew over the cuckoo's nest,
O-u-t, out !
One, two, three, four,
Lily at the kitchen door,
Eating grapes off the plate,
Five, six, seven, eight.
Monkey, monkey, bottle of beer,
How many monkeys are there here ?
One, two, three,
Out goes he (or she).
Stick, stock, stone dead,
Set him up, set him down,
Set him in the old man's crown.
Onery, twoery, dickery, davery,
Hallibone, crackabone, tenery, lavery,
Discontent, American pine,
Humble-ey, bumble-ey, twenty-nine.
One-i-zol, two-i-zol, zig-i-zol, zan,
Bobtail, vinegar, tickle, and tan,
Harum-scarum, Virgin Marum,
We, wo, wack.
COURT TENNIS. See TENNIS.
COVENTRY, The Earl of. See
EARL OF COVENTRY.
CRAMBO, a game played by any
number of persons, who try to guess
a word by means of another which
rhymes with it. One of the players
thinks of a word, and then tells the
others what it rhymes with. The
players who guess do not speak the
words that occur to them, but tell
their meaning. Thus, one chooses
the word pin, and says, " I think of
a word that rhymes with tin." An-
other asks, " Is it a part of the face ? "
and the answer is, " No, it is not
chin." " Is it a loud noise ?" "No,
it is not din," and so the game goes
on till the word is guessed. Those
guessing often try to make the
meanings they give hard to under-
stand, so that most of the guessing
is on the other side. If the one
who thinks of the word cannot
understand his questioners he may
ask them to repeat the question dif-
ferently. The guesses need not be
made by the players in order.
Acting Crambo, or Dumb Crambo,
a kind of Crambo in which, instead
of telling the meaning of the words
that are guessed, the players act
them in dumb-show. Two of the
company generally choose sides, and
one side leaves the room, returning
to act its guesses after being told
what the chosen word rhymes with.
The acting may be done by one per-
son and be simply a movement of
the hand or body; as, for instance,
in guessing the words " shake " or
" bend," or the whole side may act
a long CHARADE. Sometimes a
game played in this way will last a
whole evening. The game of QUES-
TIONS AND ANSWERS is also some-
times called Crambo, but it is quite
different.
History. The name Crambo was
given in old times to several rhyming
games. The Spectator speaks of
" those who play at Crambo or cap
verses." The word means a rhyme,
and is said to be from the Latin
crambe (repetition). This word
meant cabbage in Greek, and came
to signify a tiresome repetition
through the proverb, " a cabbage
twice boiled is death."
The natives of the Samoan Islands
in the Pacific Ocean play a kind of
Crambo. A traveler there says: " One
party would choose the names of
CRIBBAGE
208
CRIBBAGE
trees, and another the names of men.
Those who sided with the trees
would say, ' There is the Tan tree ;
tell us a name which will rhyme
to it.' "
CRIBBACE, a game of CARDS
played by two, three, or four persons,
with a full pack. Two-handed six-
card Cribbage, the common game in
this country, will be described first :
Points. The following is a list of
the points that can be made in Crib-
bage.
A pair (two of a kind, as two
Queens or two Eights) counts 2.
A pair royal (three of a kind)
counts 6.
A double pair royal (four of a
kind) counts 12.
A sequence (three or more cards
in succession, of the same suit or
not), counts as many points as there
are cards in it. In a sequence the
Ace counts below the Two, and not
above the King. Any number of
cards the sum of whose spots is 15
(counting face cards as 10), counts 2.
A Knave of the same suit as the
trump card counts i (called " one for
his nob"). Turning up a Knave as
trump counts the dealer 2 (called
" two for his heels "). A flush (four
or five cards of the same suit), counts
4 or 5 as the case may be.
The deal is determined by cutting
(see CARDS ), and six cards are dealt
one by one to each player. Each
now takes out two cards from his
hand to form what is called the Crib.
This is the property of the dealer,
but he must not look at it till the
hand is played ; the four cards that
form it are placed by themselves,
face down, on the table. The non-
dealer now cuts the pack, and the
dealer turns up the top card of the
lower pile as trump. Beginning
with the non-dealer, the players in
turn then lay down their cards, one
by one, face upward, each making a
pile of his own. As each card is put
down, its owner calls out the sum of
the spots on all the cards which
have been played (face cards count-
ing 10) ; thus, A may put down a
Six and say "six," B a Seven and
say "thirteen" and A a Queen and say
"twenty-three." When thirty-one
is reached the counting begins over
again. If either one makes exactly
thirty- one he scores two points, and
if neither can do so he who comes
nearest.it scores one, which is called
a " go." Thus, taking up the play
of A and B where we left it, sup-
pose B plays a Five and calls out
" twenty-eight." If A has nothing
lower than Four he must say " Go,"
meaning that B can score one for a
Go, as he has come nearest 31. If
B can play again, he must do so
before scoring, and if he can make
31 he scores two instead of his Go.
He who plays the last card in the
hand also scores one. In playing, if
any of the groups in the above list
are formed, except a flush, he who
plays the last card in the group
scores for it but the cards must be
played in succession. The cards of
sequence may be put down in any
order ; thus, 2, 5, 3, 4, would be
counted by the one playing the last
card as a sequence of four (2, 3, 4, 5) ;
and if the next player should then
play an Ace, he would count a se-
quence of five (i, 2, 3, 4, 5). The
same cards can be counted again to
make a higher group : thus, if A
plays an Eight, and B another Eight,
making a pair and scoring two. A
may play a third Eight, making with
the other two a pair-royal, and scor-
ing six. But when thirty-one is
reached, all making of groups must
begin anew. Fifteen counts only at
the beginning of play; thus if A plays
a Six, B a Ten, and A a Five, A
cannot call the Ten and the Five
fifteen. Making points during play is
called, from the mode of counting,
" Peg¥mg-" When play is over,
each gathers up his hand and reck-
ons up the points in it. The non-
dealer counts his first, and is said to
" have first show." This is an ad-
vantage, especially at the end of a
close game, when he who has first
CRIBBAGE
209
CRIBBAGE
show often wins. The cards must
be spread on the table face upward,
so that both players may see. In
reckoning, the trump card counts as
part of each hand. All the cards in
one group cannot be counted as part
of a larger group as in playing, but
any number less than the whole can
be so counted. Thus, if a player
have three Queens he can count them
only as a pair royal and not as
separate pairs also ; and if he have
for instance, Nine, Ten, Knave, Queen,
he can count only a sequence of four
and not the separate sequences of
three. But if he have Nine, Ten, and
two Knaves, or Nine, two Tens, and a
Knave, he can count two sequences
of three, only two cards -being the
same in both groups. This is called
a double sequence of three, and evi-
dently scores eight, counting the pair.
A double sequence of four would in
the same way count ten. So, too,
with one Five and three face cards,
three fifteens can be formed, and
with two Fives and two face cards
four fifteens.
The dealer counts his Hand
before looking at his Crib, and the
Hand and Crib are reckoned
separately. The trump card is
counted with the Crib also, and the
Crib is reckoned like the Hand, ex-
cept that a flush of four does not
count in it. In counting fifteens the
score is added to the word fifteen ;
thus, if a player has three of them he
says he has fifteen-six, and if five
of them, fifteen-ten. Experienced
players reckon their hands very fast,
and this part of the game is excellent
training in addition. After the
reckoning, the players deal alter-
nately, until one has made 61
points, which wins the game. The
score may be kept simply with pencil
and paper, but it is usual to mark it
with pegs on a Cribbage board like
that in the illustration. In marking,
each player uses one side of the
board, his peg traveling the outside
row of holes, returning by the inside
row, and finishing in the end hole.
Each player usually has two pegs,
and the points are marked with them
alternately, so that the number of
Cribbage Board.
holes between them always shows
the last score that was made.
The game will be made clearer by
carefully playing through the follow-
ing sample hand. Suppose the cards
to be dealt and that they are dis-
tributed as follows, A being the
dealer.
A puts in the Crib a pair of Eights,
because they form a group with
nothing else in his hand, and because
the Crib is his own. If it had been
B's Crib he would have hesitated
before giving his opponent a pair.
B should put in his Seven and Queen,
leaving himself a flush. The cards
in brackets thus form the Crib. B
cuts, and A turns up the Five of
Clubs.
B leads with his Four of Clubs, say-
ing " four."
A plays his Four of Spades, saying
" eight" (and scoring two for a
pair).
B (having no Seven to make 15)
CRIBBAGE
210
CRIBBAGE
plays his Six of Clubs, saying " four-
teen."
A plays his Five of Hearts, saying
" nineteen " (and scores three for
the sequence 4, 5, 6).
B his Nine, saying " twenty-eight."
A (having no card that will make
with this 31, or less), says " Go " (and
B scores one).
A plays his King, saying " ten."
B his Knave, saying "twenty."
A his Six, saying " twenty-six "
(and scores one for the last card).
The score in pegging thus stands 6
for A to I for B. B, having first
show, spreads out his hand. The
O 0
O O
* *
*.*
• •? »
4, 4.
* *
* *
* *
V
X
trump card makes one fifteen with
his Knave, another with his Four and
Six, and his Nine and Six make a
third. His cards and the trump card
are all clubs. Therefore his score is
" fifteen-six ; a flush of five makes
n, and one for his nob makes
12." A has two fifteens in his own
hand, and can make two more by
using the trump. His Four, Five, and
Six, with the trump, give him a
double sequence of three as before
shown. His score is " fifteen-eight,
and a double sequence of three
makes 16." The points in the crib
are " fifteen-six and a pair makes
eight." A's total score for the hand
is 30, and B's is 13.
Five-Card Cribbage. Each player
has five cards, two of which he dis-
cards for the Crib as before, leav-
ing him only three. The method of
play is the same as in the six-card
game, except that when thirty-one is
reached, play stops, and the remain-
ing cards are not put down. A
flush of three counts in the hand, but
not in the crib, where it must consist
of five cards as before. In opening
this game, the non-dealer is allowed
three points to begin with. Five-
card ci ibbage is considered a more
difficult game than six-card. It re-
quires more skill, and is preferred by
many players.
Three-Handed Cribbagef a kind of
Cribbage played by three persons,
each on his own account. Each has
five cards, and an extra one is dealt
to the crib, to which each adds one
card. The board for this game is
three-sided.
Four-Handed Cribbage, a kind of
Cribbage played by four persons, in
partnerships of two. Each is dealt
five cards and discards one for the
crib. The one at the dealer's left
cuts for the trump and begins to
play, and the others follow in suc-
cession to the left. The method of
playing and the rules are the same
in three-handed and four-handed as
in two-handed cribbage, but more
care is required, the greater the num-
ber of players. The board for four-
handed is like that for two-handed
cribbage. The counting is done by
one player on each side, and neither
of the others may touch the pegs.
Skill in Cribbage is shown both in
laying out, or discarding, for the
Crib, and in playing the cards. In
the former the player must bear in
mind to whom the Crib belongs. If
it were his own he would not object
to discarding a pair or a fifteen,
CRIBBAGE
211
CRIBBAGE
whereas if it were his opponent's he
would probably prefer to spoil his
own hand rather than to give his
enemy an advantage unless he were
very far ahead. In Five-card Crib-
bage it is considered of more impor-
tance to " balk " or spoil an oppo-
nent's Crib, than to keep good cards i
for one's own hand, since the Crib
is larger than either hand. As re-
gards sequences a player should
avoid discarding close cards for his
opponent's Crib, and choose them
for his own. It is a good plan to j
retain a sequence in hand if possi-
ble, as there is a good chance of the !
turn-up card's making it a double
sequence.
In playing, the best card to lead is
one below a Five, as the adversary
cannot then make fifteen. A good
player frequently declines to make a
pair or small sequence, suspecting
that his opponent desires him to do
so that he may then make a pair
royal, or larger sequence. For the
same reason, if it is possible to make
either fifteen or a pair the former
should be chosen. Numbers which
•vould enable the adversary to make
fifteen and a pair, or a thirty-one
and a pair, at the same time, should
be avoided. Thus a player should
never count fourteen or thirty with
an Ace, thirteen or twenty-nine
with a Two, twelve or twenty-eight
with a Three, and so on.
In counting the hand, beginners
often overlook points. They should
therefore look over the hand syste-
matically, taking fifteens first, for in-
stance, sequences next, and then, in
order, pairs, flushes, and nob.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. The player who cuts the lowest
card deals, Ace counting as low.
2. There must be a fresh cut for
deal after each game, unless a rub-
ber is to be played, when the deal
alternates throughout the rubber.
3. The cards must be dealt one at
a time. If two are dealt at once, the
dealer may correct his mistake, if he
can do so by moving only one card,
otherwise there must be a new deal.
4. If the dealer expose one of his
adversary's cards, or give either too
few or too many cards, the adversary
may take two points and call for a
fresh deal, but he must do so before
looking at his hand. Except that if
too few cards have been given the
non-dealer, he, after looking at his
hand, may ask to have it completed,
instead of demanding a new deal.
5. If a player deal out of turn, and
the error is discovered before the
trump is turned, there must be a new
deal by the proper person, but if the
trump has been turned the deal is
good. The one who should have
dealt deals next, and so on alter-
nately as if no mistake had been
made.
6. The dealer may insist on his
adversary discarding first.
7. If a player discard, having too
many cards, his adversary may score
two, and either call for a new deal
or draw the surplus card from his
opponent's hand.
8. If a player discard, having too
few cards, he must play out the hand
with the number he has.
9. If a player take back a dis-
carded card, his opponent may score
two and call for a new deal.
10. The Crib must not be touched
during play.
11. If the dealer turn up more
than one card for trump, the non-
dealer may take his choice of them.
12. If the dealer turn up a Knave,
and neglect to score for " his heels "
before he has played, he loses the
two points.
13. No card that is properly played
can be taken up again, but if one is
laid down, making the count more
than 31, it must be taken back, and
there is no penalty.
14. If a player say " Go " when he
has a card that can be played, his
opponent may require it to be played,
or mark two points.
15. In reckoning, a player's Hand
or Crib must remain in full sight till
CRICKET
212
CRICKET
his opponent is satisfied that the
count is correct.
16. If a player score too much, the
adversary may correct him and add
the same amount to his own score.
If he score too little, the adversary is ]
not bound to correct him.
17. A player's pegs must not be |
touched by his opponent, except to !
correct a false score ; nor by himself,
except in scoring. If he displace his
foremost peg he must put it behind
the other.
1 8. When a player has quitted his
peg, he cannot alter his score.
CRICKET, a game of ball, played
usually by 22 persons, 1 1 on each
side. It is played on a field arranged
as in the diagrams below. Two I
" wickets " are set up, 22 yards apart, ;
each consisting of three upright sticks
called stumps, 27 inches high, so
close together that the ball cannot
pass between them. Across the top
generally decided by lot, and the
game is then begun by the players of
the side that has the field taking
positions round the wickets.while two
of the other side take position one in
front of each wicket, inside the Pop-
ping Crease, with bats like those in
the illustration. The duty of each
of these players, who are called Bat-
ters, is to keep himself from being
put out as explained below, and to
make as many runs as possible.
The players on the fielding side
take whatever positions in the field
their captain directs. There are al-
ways a Bowler and a Wicket Keeper,
but the positions of the other men
vary with the opinions of the captain
and the changes of the bowling. The
first diagram shows an arrangement
of the field for fast bowling and the
II
10
U.
s.
U.
Fig. i. — Field for Fast Bowling.
S. S., Strikers ; U. U., Umpires ; i, Bowler ; 2,
Wicket-keeper ; 3, Point : 4, Slip ; 5, Third man
up ; 6, Cover point ; 7, Mid-off ; 8, Long-off ;
9, Long-on ; 10, Mid-on ; n, Short-leg.
x. Pad. 2. Wicket.
Cricket Implements.
Bat.
of each wicket are placed two pieces
of wood called bails. In front of
each wicket and 4 feet from it is a
line marked on the ground called a
Popping Crease, and in line with
each wicket is a Bowling Crease
similarly marked, 6 feet 8 inches
long, having at its end short lines at
right angles to it called Return
Creases. The choice of innings is
s.
10
II
Fig. 2. — Field for Slow Bowling.
S. S., Strikers; U. U., Umpires; i. Bowler; a,
Wicket-keeper ; 3, Longstop ; 4, Point ; 5, Slip ;
6, Cover slip ; 7, Cover point ; 8 Mid-off ; 9; Mid-
on ; 10, Short leg ; n, Long leg
second one for slow bowling. The
names of the various positions in
which the captain distributes his
CRICKET
213
CRICKET1
men, as he deems most advanta-
geous, vary slightly in different places,
but are usually those given in the
diagrams of the field inserted below.
The Bowler begins play by deliver-
ing the ball at the opposite wicket,
standing with one foot behind the
Bowling Crease. The Batter tries to
protect the wicket by striking the
ball with his bat. If the ball neither
is struck nor hits the wicket, the
Wicket Keeper returns it to the
Bowler. If any part of the wicket is
knocked down, the Batter is " out,"
and another takes his place, and so
on in an order decided on by the
captain of the batting side. If the
player strike the ball far enough he
may run to the opposite wicket,
changing places with the batsman
there, who runs at the same time
with him. If the two cross the pop-
ping creases of the wickets toward
which they run, or put the bat inside
them before either wicket is knocked
down (either by the ball thrown by a
fielder or by a fielder with the ball in
hand), they together score one run.
Otherwise the one who leaves the
knocked-down wicket is out, unless
they have crossed, when he who
approaches it is out. The players
may make as many runs as they can,
crossing to and fro several times, and
scoring one for each run. A player
who is out takes no farther part in
the game until all on his side are out.
The side wins which makes the
greater number of runs in two in-
nings, or sometimes in one inning, if
it be so agreed. An inning is com-
pleted when both sides have been at
the bat and have been put out.
When the Bowler has bowled a cer-
tain number of balls (generally five
in England and Canada, and six in
the United States) at one wicket, the
Umpire calls " over," and the next
" over " is bowled at the opposite
wicket, the fielders all changing their
places correspondingly.
Besides the- ways of putting out
the Batter that have been mentioned
he may be put out by a fielder's
catching and holding the batted ball
before it strikes the ground, by his
knocking down his own wicket, when
in the act of playing the ball, stopping
the ball with his body, or in other
ways described in the rules below.
The batsman and wicket keeper,
when playing against fast bowling,
generally have the legs protected by
guards, and wear buckskin gloves.
The size of the bats and ball is
regulated by the first and second
rules below. The duties of some of
the players will now be described in
detail.
The Bowler. The Bowler is the
most important player on the field.
He sometimes varies his balls, like
the Pitcher in BASE BALL, deliver-
ing some fast, some slow, some with
one twist and some with another, so
as to puzzle the batter. But as a
rule a fast or slow Bowler will stick
to his particular style, as his field is
set for that style only, and a change
of even one ball might prove ex-
pensive. The figure shows the
courses of the balls as delivered by
different bowlers. The ball usually
bounds once, and the place where it
bounds is called the " Pitch." If the
ball is pitched close to the batsman,
it is called " full pitched " ; if it
pitches sooner than a full pitched
ball it is " short pitched," and if later,
" over-pitched." A ball that does
not hit the ground before reaching
the batsman is called a " full ball."
A short pitched ball, reaching the
wicket by a long bound, is a " long
hop " ; an over-pitched ball, which
can be hit back or "driven," is a
" half volley " ; one that strikes the
ground just where the batsman's bat
is, is a " Yorker," and one which keeps
close to the ground after it pitches,
is a " shooter." One which bounds
several times is a "grounder" or
" sneaker." Grounders and full balls
are too easily played by good bats-
men to be used often, but are some-
times effective. If the bowling be
fast, the ball will move in almost a
straight line from the Bowler's hand
CRICKET
214
CRICKET
to the Pitch ; if slow, in more or less
of a curve. In underhand bowling,
formerly more used than now, the
ball rises from the Bowler's hand in
a very decided curve. This is called
"lobbing." The different twists
given the ball make it bound high or
low or to one side as the Bowler may
wish, the ball rolling slightly on the
ground during the instant it touches
it, and so varying its direction as it
rises. The Bowler suits his balls to
Fast Round-arm.
Medium Pace.
Slow Round-arm.
Low Underhand (Lobs).
Break in from Leg.
Screw Ball.
Different Kinds of Bowling.
the Batsman, trying to give him
those hardest for him to play. He
should hold the ball with his fingers,
not in the hollow of the hand, take a
short run before delivering the ball,
and " pitch " it as near to the Bats-
man as the latter's style of hitting
will allow. If the Bowler send the
ball outside the limits of the opposite
Bowling Crease, it is a " wide ball " ;
if he does not follow the rules in
delivering it, it is " no ball," and in
CRICKET
215
CRICKET
either of these cases, when the um-
pire so calls it, at least one run is
scored for the opposite side (see
Rule 13). After an "over" has
been bowled by one player another
Bowler takes his turn. Sometimes
The Bowler.
the same player acts as Bowler
and Wicket Keeper alternately. If
an " over " is bowled without a run
being made, it is called a " maiden
over " or " maiden." Besides deliver-
ing the ball, it is also the Bowler's
place to watch for chances to put
the Batsman out at the wicket near
which he stands.
The Batter. The Batter wears
leg pads and gloves, both of which
should fit easily. He should select
a bat to suit his size, and should
practice with the same one with
which he intends to play in a match.
Heavy bats send the ball farther
than light ones, when given the
same speed, but as it requires greater
strength to give them that speed, the
Batter, when in doubt as to weight,
should choose the lighter of two
bats. The Batsman should stand
easily, with his two heels not more
than a few inches apart. Before the
Bowler delivers the ball the Bat-
ter should "take guard," as in the
illustration. The stump nearest the
Batter is called the " leg stump," the
other outside one the " off stump,"
and the third the " middle stump."
If the Batter hold his bat directly
before the middle stump, he is said
to " take middle," if in front of both
the middle and leg stumps, to " take
middle and leg" for guard. The
bat should be held about three inches
inside the popping crease. The right
or " pivot " foot should be placed as
near as possible to the wicket with-
out being in the way of any part of
it. The object of thus taking guard
is to find out where to place the feet
so as best to guard the wicket with
the bat.
As the Bowler begins to run be-
fore delivering the ball, the Batter
straightens himself, raising his bat
slightly, and when the ball is de-
livered he draws the bat back to the
bails of the wicket, where he holds it
till he is ready to strike. If he lean
slightly toward the wicket, in strik-
ing, he is said to " play back," while
if he lean toward the ball he " plays
forward." In general the former is
better, especially for learners, as it
gives a longer time to see the ball.
The skillful Batter plays forward or
Taking Guard.
back according to the way in which
the Bowler gives him the ball, and
the beginner can best learn by ex-
perience which to do in any case.
In general, he should so bend his
CRICKET
216
CRICKET
body that the bat strikes the ball
about one-fourth the length of the
blade from its end ; that is, in the
thickest part. When the Batsman
"has command of the pitch," that
is, can nearly reach with his bat
(held straight) the spot where the
Preparing for Action.
ball bounds, he should play forward,
always holding the bat close to the
ground, so that the ball will not go
underneath as it rises from the
bound. The reason for playing such
balls forward is that any twist the
Bowler may have given the ball, that
it may bound in an
unexpected direc-
tion, has not time
to act. The hits
which a Batter may
make are given dif-
ferent names, ac-
cording to the di-
rection and manner
of striking the ball.
If it is hit toward
" Point," " Cover
Point," or into the
" Slips," it is a
" cut "; if it is hit
forward on the
" half volley " it is
a "drive"; if it is hit to the "on
side " back of the wickets, it is a
" leg hit," and if it is sent in this
direction by allowing the ball to hit
the bat, it is a " draw."
The Batter at the opposite wicket
should be ready to run, but must be
careful not to do so till the ball is out
of the Bowler's hand. He may get
a start by beginning to run as soon
as the ball is delivered, but should
not go so far that he cannot return
in time to save his wicket if no hit
is made. Neither need run unless
he wishes, but if one runs the other
must, otherwise a wicket
would be left unguarded.
It is best for the Batter
to decide whether to run,
when the ball is hit in
front of the wicket, and
for his partner to decide
when the hit is behind
the wicket.
The Wicket Keeper.
This player always wears
leg pads and gloves. He
stands in a stooping po-
sition behind the wicket,
varying his distance from
it according to the swiftness of the
bowling, but he must not stand
over it, or with hand or foot in front
of it, till the ball has passed the
wicket or been struck. After that
he may stand where he chooses, but
if the Batsmen are running he should
Playing Forward.
so stand that the ball will be thrown
in to him over the wicket, which he
will thus be able to put down with-
out turning around. He should also
be on the watch for a chance to put
down the wicket when the Batter is
not on his ground (called " stumping
out"). As soon as he receives the
CRICKET
217
CRICKET
ball from the Bowler he should re-
turn it easily. If the Wicket Keeper
allow a ball that has not hit the bat
to pass him, and so give the Bats-
man a chance to make a run, such a
run is called a " bye." If the ball hit
the Batsman's person (not his bat or
hand) and he make a run,
it is a " leg- bye." As the
Wicket Keeper has a bet-
ter view of the field and
the ball than any other
player, he is generally the
captain of the team, and
directs, or communicates
with the other Fielders
and the Bowler, by a sys-
tem of signs previously
agreed upon.
Point is the most im-
portant of the remaining
fielders, as he has more
chances for catches than
the others. In case of a hit he often
" backs up " the Wicket Keeper, or,
if it is a long one, runs out toward
the fielder nearest the ball, in case
there should be a short throw.
The duty of the Long Stop is
principally to prevent byes. When
other chance of putting it down
quickly. Of late years owing to the
increasing skill of Wicket Keepers,
the custom of playing a man in this
position has been almost entirely
given up, the extra man thus gained
being used elsewhere. The posi-
The Cut.
the Batsmen are not running he re-
turns the ball to the Wicket Keeper,
but in case of a run he sometimes
throws to the Bowler in hope of put-
ting a man out at the opposite wicket.
Sometimes he throws directly at the
nearest wicket, where there is no
Playing Back.
tions of all the fielders are varied by
the captain in many ways to suit
different styles of bowling and strik-
ing, so that the field looks quite
differently at one time and another.
Only the Bowler, Wicket Keeper,
and Long Stop keep about the same
places. These changes of position
are directed by signs from the cap-
tain.
Scoring. A sample score card is
given on pages 220-221.
The runs are kept by making
opposite the player's name marks
which are summed up in the
" Total " column after he is out.
Abbreviations often used in the
" Out " column and elsewhere in
the score are :
b. bowled
c. caught
st. stumped
l.b.w. leg before wicket
h.w. hit wicket
w. wides
n.b. no balls
B. byes
l.b. leg byes
The runs made or allowed for
Wides, No Balls, Byes, and Leg
Byes are kept separately at the
CRICKET
218
CRICKET
bottom of the score, and added to
the Grand Total for the innings.
In the Out column the name of the
person who put the Batsman out is
always mentioned, and if he was
caught out, the Bowler's name is also
Leg Hit.
put down, since his bowling con-
tributed to the result.
The right half of the score card
consists of a Bowling Analysis,
which is made as follows : opposite
the name of each Bowler a record is
kept of each of his balls. If it
results in neither a run nor in
putting down a wicket it is re-
corded by a dot ; If runs are
made from a ball, the number of
such runs appear in place of the
dot. If a wicket is put down, the
letter W is put in place of a dot.
" Wides " and " No balls " are
kept record of by themselves and
all are footed up at the close of
each inning. Thus a " Maiden
Over" appears thus — ::: or (:.: if
only five balls are allowed). An
Over where two runs were made
from the second ball and none
from the third would be
on the
record. If the last ball put down
the wicket, it would be shown by
the mark ' ' ^ Sometimes, in case
of a Maiden Over, the letter M is
made by joining the dots, so that
Maidens can be counted up more
quickly in running the eye over the
record. The following are the
rules of Cricket as adopted by
the Marylebone Cricket Club of
London, they contain the latest
revisions and the famous altera-
tions of 1889.
The M. C. C. rules govern the
play of all matches in England
and Australia. In the United
States they are generally followed
except that six balls instead of
five are bowled to the Over. The
Cricketers' Association of the
United States has adopted cer-
tain modifications of the M. C.
C. rules, but in no case are the
changes of much importance.
I. A match is played between
two sides of eleven players each,
unless otherwise agreed to ; each
side has two innings, taken alter-
nately, except in the case pro-
vided for in Law 53. The
choice of innings shall be de-
cided by tossing.
2. The score shall be reckoned by
runs. A run is scored : — i. So often
as the Batsmen after a. hit, or at any
time while the ball is in play, shall
have crossed, and made good their
Wicket Keeper.
ground, from end to end. 2. For
penalties under Laws 16, 34, 41, and
allowances under 44. Any run or
runs so scored shall be duly recorded
by scorers appointed for the purpose.
The side which scores the greatest
CRICKET
219
CRICKET
number of runs wins the match. No
match is won unless played out or
given up except in the case provided
in Law 45.
3. Before the commencement of
the match two umpires shall be ap-
pointed, one for each end.
4. The ball shall weigh not less
than five ounces and a half nor more
than five ounces and three-quarters.
It shall measure not less than nine
inches nor more than nine inches and
one quarter in circumference. At j
the beginning of each innings either
side may demand a new ball.
5. The bat shall not exceed four
inches and one-quarter in the widest
part ; it shall not be more than
thirty-eight inches in length.
6. The Wickets shall be pitched
opposite and parallel to each other at
a distance of twenty-two yards.
Each Wicket shall be eight inches in
Width and consist of three stumps,
with two bails upon the top. The
stumps shall be of equal and suffic-
ient size to prevent the ball from
passing through, twenty-seven inches
out of the ground. The bails shall
be each four inches in length, and
when in position on the top of the
stumps shall not project more than
half an inch above them. The
Wickets shall not be changed dur-
ing a match, unless the ground be-
tween them become unfit for play,
and then only by the consent of both
sides.
7. The Bowling Crease shall be in
a line with the stumps; six feet
eight inches in length ; the stumps
in the center ; with a return crease
at each end, at right angles behind
the Wicket.
8. The Popping Crease shall be
marked four feet from the Wicket,
parallel to it, and be deemed unlim-
ited in length.
9. The ground shall not be rolled,
watered, covered, mown, or beaten
during a match, except before the
commencement of each inning and
of each day's play, when, unless the
in-side object, the ground shall be
swept and rolled for not more than
ten minutes. This shall not prevent
the batsman from beating the ground
with his bat nor the batsman nor
bowler from using sawdust in order
to obtain a proper foothold.
10. The ball must be bowled ; if
thrown or jerked the umpire shall
call " No ball."
11. The bowler shall deliver the
ball with one foot on the ground be-
hind the Bowling Crease, and within
the Return Crease, otherwise the um-
pire shall call " No ball."
12. If the bowler shall bowl the
ball so high over or so wide of the
Wicket that in the opinion of the
umpire it is not within reach of the
striker, the umpire shall call " Wild
ball."
13. The ball shall be bowled in
Overs of five balls from each Wicket
alternately. When five balls have
been bowled, and the ball is finally
settled in the bowler's or wicket-
keeper's hands, the umpire shall call
" Over." Neither a " No ball " nor
a " Wide ball " shall be reckoned as
one of the " Over."
14. The bowler shall be allowed
to change ends as often as he pleases,
provided only that he does not bowl
two Overs consecutively in one in-
ning.
15. The bowler may require the
batsman at the Wicket from which
he is bowling to stand on that side of
it which he may direct.
1 6. The striker may hit a "No
ball " and whatever runs may result
shall be added to his score ; but he
shall not be out from a " No ball " un-
less he be run out or break Laws 26,
27, 29, 30. All runs from a " No
ball " otherwise than from the bat
shall be scored " No balls," and if no
run be made, one run shall be added
to that score. From a " WTide ball "
as many runs as are run shall be
added to the score as " Wide balls,"
and if no run be otherwise obtained
one run shall be so added.
17. If the ball not having been
called " Wide " or " No ball " pass the
CRICKET
220
CRICKET
striker without touching his bat or
person, and any runs be obtained,
the umpire shall call " Bye "; but if
the ball touch any part of the strik-
ers person (hand excepted), and any
run be obtained, the umpire shall
call " Leg bye." such runs to be
scored " Byes " and " Leg byes " re-
spectively.
1 8. At the beginning of the match
and of each innings the umpire at
the bowler's Wicket shall call " Play ";
from that time no trial ball shall be
allowed to any bowler on the ground
between the Wickets, and when one
of the batsmen is out, the use of the
bat shall not be allowed to any per-
son until the next batsman shall
come in.
19. A Batsman shall be held to be
" out of his ground " unless his bat
in hand or some part of his person
SCORE
Bowlers.
Wides
Overs, with runs &c. from each ball.
t/KU2i*tJ/
M
M
M
252
M
M
MMK4
M
M
Summary Of Rnwlinp, Z— Innings o£_
_c.c.
Bowler*. ££.t±^^S\g^=l^ Bowlers. £*, ^ I" ^ I^I^^UJ
3t
/^ ? //r <3 2 /,j- //
Total
r^ ^- fi^s^JZ, (ffa t*nM<
MarkB for Iio«lin; AnaljsU
ILR. J&A- J*s
Kutt. BI/M, Wda and Ab laU» da rut ajftct UuiUm Overt.
be grounded within the line of the
Popping Crease.
20. The Wicket shall be held to be
" down " when either of the bails is
struck off, or if both bails be off when
a stump is struck out of the ground.
The Striker is out —
21. If the Wicket be bowled down,
even if the ball first touch the
striker's bat or person : " Bowled."
22. Or if the ball from a stroke of
the hand or bat, but not the wrist,
be held before it touch the ground
although it be hugged to the body
of the catcher : "Caught."
23. Or if in playing at the ball,
provided it be not touched by the
bat or hand, the striker be out of his
ground and the Wicket be put clown
by the Wicket keeper with the ball or
with hand or arm with ball in hand:
" Stumped."
CRICKET
221
CRICKET
24. Or if with any part of his
person he stop the ball, which in the
opinion of the umpire at the bowler's
Wicket shall have been pitched in a
straight line from it to the striker's
Wicket and would have hit it : "Leg
before Wicket."
25. Or if in playing at the ball he
hit down his Wicket with his bat or
any part of his person or dress:
" Hit Wicket."
CARD.
26. Or if under pretense of run-
ning or otherwise either of the
batsmen willfully prevent a ball
from being caught : " Obstructing
the field."
27. Or if the ball be struck or be
stopped by any part of his person
and he willfully strike it again, ex-
cept it be done for the purpose of
guarding his Wicket, which he may
do with -his bat, or any part of his
Order
Batsmen.
Runs as scored.
How and. where
put out..
Innings
/i, .Ji •jh/ie
\o 0&
2jl_
10
11
9~f- Wf^ifc
12
Remarks_
ItfLnA
won by.... ............ . ............ by
Total f rom^he bat-
Bye
M.o balls
Total of _
Total for the Match
Runs at the fall of each wicket
Order of coining out
(by numbers)
or hiti) from built called at utta or
enter batman't
Ha ballt are tcortd at Vfidu or Xo ball* and do not
person except his hands : " Hit the
ball twice."
Either Batsman is out —
28. If in running or at any other
time while the ball is • in play he be
out of his ground and his Wicket be
struck down by the ball after touch-
ing any fieldsman, or by the hand .or:
arm with ball in hand of any fields-
man : " Run out."
29. Or if he touch with his
or take up the ball while in play, un-
less at the request of the opposite
side : " Handle the ball."
30. Or if he willfully obstruct any
fieldsman : " Obstructing the field."
31. If the batsmen have crossed
each other, he that runs for the
Wicket which, is put down is out ; if
they have, not crossed, he .that has
left the Wicket which is put down is
o-,t.
CRICKET
222
CRICKET
32. The striker being caught no
run shall be scored. A batsman
being run out, that run which was
being attempted shall not be scored.
33. A batsman being out from any
cause the ball shall be " dead."
34. If a ball in play cannot be
found or recovered, any fieldsman
may call " Lost ball," when the ball
shall be " dead " ; six runs shall be
added to the score ; but if more than
six runs have been run before " Lost
ball " has been called, as many runs
as have been run shall be scored.
35. After the ball shall have been
finally settled in the Wicket keeper's
or bowler's hand, it shall be dead ;
but when the bowler is about to de-
liver the ball, if the batsman at his
Wicket be out of his ground before
actual delivery, the said bowler may
run him out ; but if the bowler throw
at that Wicket and any run result, it
shall be scored " No ball." .
36. A batsman shall not retire
from his Wicket and return to it to
complete his innings after another
has been in without the consent of
the opposite side.
37. A substitute shall be allowed
to field or run between Wickets for
any player who may during the
match be incapacitated from illness
or injury, but for no other reason, ex-
cept with the consent of the opposite
side.
38. In all cases where a substitute
shall be allowed, the consent of the
opposite side shall be obtained as to
the person to act as substitute and
the place in the field which he shall
take.
38. In case any substitute shall be
allowed to run between Wickets the
striker may be run out if either he or
his substitute be out of his ground.
If the striker be out of his ground
while the ball is in play, that Wicket
which he has left may be put down
and the striker given out, although
the other batsman may have made
good the ground at that end, and
the striker and his substitute at the
other end.
40. A batsman is liable to be out
for any infringement of the laws by
his substitute.
41. The fieldsman may stop the
ball with any part of his person,
but if he willfully stop it otherwise,
the ball shall be " dead" and five
runs added to the score ; whatever
runs may have been made five only
shall be added.
42. The Wicket keeper shall stand
behind the Wicket. If he shall take
the ball for the purpose of stumping
before it has passed the Wicket, or if
he shall incommode the striker by
any noise or motion, or if any part of
his person be over or before the
Wicket the striker shall not be out
excepting under Laws 26, 27, 28, 29,
and 30.
43. The Umpires are the sole
judges of fair or unfair play, of the
fitness of the ground, the weather,
and the light for play; all disputes
shall be determined by them, and if
they disagree the actual state of
things shall continue.
44. They shall pitch fair Wickets,
arrange boundaries where necessary,
and the allowances to be made for
them, and change ends after each
side has had one innings.
45. They shall allow two minutes
for each striker to come in and
ten minutes between each innings.
When they shall call play the side
refusing to play shall lose the match.
46. They shall not order a bats-
man out unless appealed to by the
other side.
47. The umpire at the bowler's
wicket shall be appealed to before
the other umpire in all cases except
in those of stumping hit Wicket, run
out at the striker's Wicket or arising
out of Law 42, but in any case in
which an umpire is unable to give a
decision he shall appeal to the other
umpire whose decision shall be final.
48a. If the umpire at the bowler's
end be not satisfied of the absolute
fairness of the delivery of any ball he
shall call " No ball."
48b. The umpire shall take espe«
CRICKET
223
CRICKET
cial care to call " No ball " instantly
upon delivery : " Wide ball " as soon
as it shall have passed the striker.
49. If either batsman run a short
run the umpire shall call "One
short," and the run shall not be
scored.
50. After the umpire has called
" Over " the ball is " Dead," but an
appeal may be made as to whether
either batsman is out ; such appeal,
however, shall not be made after the
delivery of the next ball nor after
any cessation of play.
51. No umpire shall be allowed to
bet.
52. No umpire shall be changed
during a match unless with the.con-
sent of both sides except in case of
violation of law 51 ; then either side
may dismiss him.
53. The side which goes in second
shall follow their innings if they have
scored 80 runs less than the oppo-
site side.
54. That on the last day of a match
or if a one day match at any time,
the in-side shall be empowered to
declare the innings at an end.
One Day Matches. I. The side
which goes in second shall follow
their innings if they have scored 60
runs less than the opposite side.
2. The match unless played out,
shall be decided by the first innings.
3. Prior to the commencement of
a match it may be agreed that the
over consist of five or six balls.
Single Wicket. A kind of Cricket,
which may be played by two or more
persons on a side. There is but one
Wicket and one striker at a time, and
a bowling crease or stump 22 yards
in front of the wicket. The laws are,
where they apply, the same as the
above, with the following alterations
and additions.
I. One Wicket shall be pitched as
in Law 6 with a bowling stump oppo-
site to it at a distance of twenty-two
yards. The bowling crease shall be
in a line with the bowling stump and
drawn according to Law 7.
five players on a side bounds shall
be placed twenty-two yards each in
a line from the off and leg stump.
3. The ball must be hit before the
bounds to entitle the striker to a
run, which run cannot be obtained
unless he touch the bowling stump
or crease in a line with his bat, or
some part of his person, or go beyond
them and return to the
popping
crease.
4. When the striker shall hit the
ball one of his feet must be on the
ground behind the popping crease,
otherwise the umpire shall call " No
hit," and no run shall be scored.
5. When there shall be less than
five players on a side neither byes,
leg-byes, nor overthrows shall be
allowed, nor shall the striker be
caught out behind the Wicket nor
stumped.
6. The fieldsman must return the
ball so that it shall cross the ground
between the Wicket and the bowling
stump or between the bowling stump
and the bounds ; the striker may run
till the ball be so returned.
7. After the striker shall have
made one run, if he start again he
must touch the bowling stump or
crease and turn before the ball cross
the ground to entitle him to another.
8. The striker shall be entitled to
three runs for lost ball and the same
number for ball willfully stopped by
a fieldsman otherwise than with any
part of his person.
9. When there shall be more than
four players on a side there shall be
no bounds. All hits, byes, leg-byes,
and overthrows shall then be allowed.
10. There shall be no restriction
as to the ball being bowled in overs,
but no more than one minute shall
be allowed between each ball.
Wicket, a kind of Cricket once
much played in parts of the United
States. The Wicket is low and
broad, the bail being four or five feet
long on stumps about six inches
high, placed one at each end. The
ball is larger and softer than a Cricket
2. When there shall be less than | ball, and the bat shaped something
CRICKET
224
CRICKET
like a hockey stick with a large flat
end, or a lacrosse stick having its
lower end entirely of wood instead
of being strung. The method of
playing was similar to Cricket. It has
not been played much since 1865.
The largest individual scores at
Cricket are as follows :
England, 485, A. E. Stoddart,
Hempstead, Aug. 4, 1886. Austra-
lia, 328 (not out), W. Bruce, Mel-
bourne, Jan. 19 and 26, 1884.
Canada, 204, A. Browning, Ottawa,
July i, 1880. United States, 182
(not out), C. S. Farnum, Philadel-
phia, July ii, 1885.
The largest recorded total scores
in one inning are as follows :
British, 920 runs, Orleans Club,
Rickling Green, England, Aug. 4-5,
1882.
American, 418, Germantown Club,
Philadelphia, June 18 and 28, 1887.
History. Cricket was probably
at first a mere game of bat and ball,
without the Wicket, and French au-
thors say it was derived from the
French Crosse, which is also called
Criquet. The name is probably
from the Saxon Cric, a crooked stick,
referring to the early bats, which
were curved, instead of straight as
now. In the wardrobe account of
King Edward I. for the year 1300, is
an item in which is mentioned playing
at Creag, supposed to have been an
early form of Cricket. At first the
only players seem to have been bats-
man and bowler ; fielders appear for
the first time in a picture of 1344.
In the 1 5th century the game was
called " Hondyn and Hondoute "
(Hand in and Hand Out), showing
that there was then an In and an
Out side. Under this title it was
among the games forbidden by Ed-
ward IV. in 1477, as interfering with
the practice of archery. The first
appearance of the present name is in
1593, in a lawsuit about a piece of
ground, in which a man testified that
he had played " at Crickett " there
fifty years before. Early in the i8th
century the game became popular,
being played by all classes of people,
and in 1751 Frederick, Prince of
Wales, died from a hit with a Cricket
ball while playing at Cliefden House.
It was a favorite especially in the
southern counties of England, and
matches between players in the dif-
ferent counties began to be held,
which have continued to the present
day. There are now Cricket clubs
in every village in England, and it is
known as the national game of that
country.
I n the early history of cricket, as has
been said, the Wicket did not exist.
A circular hole was used instead,
into which the ball was bowled.
The first Wicket consisted of one
stump only 18 inches high, then a
second was placed two feet from it,
and they were connected by a cross-
bar. The hole was still retained
between the stumps. About 1775
the third stump was added, and the
Wicket was gradually made smaller,
till in 1817 it reached its present size.
The bats were made first with a
sweeping curve, the present straight
bats coming into use about 1825.
The bowling was always underhand
till 1 785, when round arm or straight
arm bowling was introduced. It
was declared unfair, but since 1825
has been adopted, and in 1864 all re-
strictions as to the height of the arm
in bowling were removed, causing a
revolution in the game, by giving
much greater power to the bowler.
In the United States it has been
played since the middle of the i8th
century, but it has never been popu-
lar. The earliest recorded match
in this country was between eleven
men from London and eleven from
New York, and was played on May
I, 1751, where Fulton Market now
stands, in New York city. The
New Yorkers won. A club was
formed in Boston in 1809, and Benja-
min Franklin took to Philadelphia
from England a copy of " The Laws
of .Cricket," still in possession of a
club in that city. Cricket is now
played principally in and about Phil-
CROOKED MAN
225
CROOKED MAN
adelphia, though there are 150 organ-
ized clubs in the United States, and
in 1878 the Cricketer's Association of
the United States was formed. Base
Ball has always been more popular
here. Ball players say that Cricket
is too slow, since a game generally
lasts a whole day or even two days,
whv,.eas a hall game is over in a few
hours.
Since 1859, English and Australian
Cricketers have made several tours
in the United States and Canada
and have as a rule been victorious.
Matches are played annually be-
tween the United States and Canada
in which the former generally gets
the best of it. In 1874 and 1875 a
Philadelphia team won a silver cup
at Halifax and Philadelphia, respec-
tively, against British and Canadian
teams. In 1878 and 1882 Austra-
lian teams came to this country and
won or drew every match they
played ; in 1879 two English teams
met with similar success, and during
this year an Irish team won every-
where except in Philadelphia, where
it was badly beaten ; but in 1884 a
Philadelphia team won eight matches
in England, losing five and drawing
five. In 1885 a strong English team
received, at Philadelphia, the first de-
feat inflicted on organized English
cricketers in this country, but in 1886
another English team won every
match they played in the United
States. " In 1887 a Canadian team
visited Great Britain and played
eighteen matches, winning four, los-
ing five, and drawing nine-."
" In 1888 an Irish team was suc-
cessful everywhere in this country
except in Philadelphia, where they
were twice defeated."
" In 1889 a second Philadelphia
team visited Great Britain playing
twelve matches, of which it won four,
lost three, and drew five." But
attempts to arouse general interest in
the sport in the United States have
met with little success.
CROOKED MAN, a game played
by any number of persons, in which
each player jumps from one to
another of a series of pictures drawn
on a floor or pavement. The pic-
tures illustrate roughly the nursery
rhyme :
" There was a crooked man.
He went a crooked mile,
And found a crooked sixpence
Against a crooked stile ;
He bought a crooked cat,
Who caught a crooked mouse,
And they all lived together in a little
crooked house."
There are seven pictures, represent-
ing the words at the end of each
line ; that is, a man, a milestone, a
sixpence, a stile, a cat, a mouse, and
Crooked Man Diagram.
a house. These are drawn with
chalk close together in any desired
order', and each is surrounded with
a circle. One of the players takes
his place in the middle of the group
of pictures, and the others sing the
rhyme to any well-known tune which
can be made to fit it, for instance
"John Brown's Body." At the last
word of each line he must jump to the
corresponding figure. The verse is
then repeated, and this time he
must jump to the figure just before
it is mentioned, giving a second
jump at the proper word. While
the last line is sung, he must step
CROQUET
226
CROQUET
from one figure to the other as fast
as he can, going over them all, and
ending on the last at the last word.
If he jumps to a wrong figure, puts
his feet outside the circles, turns
quite around, or jumps before the
proper time, he must pay a forfeit.
The players take turn in jumping
like the first.
This game is played in a slightly
different form by German students.
CROQUET. A lawn game played
with mallets and balls, on a field set
with nine or ten wire arches or
wickets, and two Stakes, generally
of wood. An ordinary Croquet set
contains eight balls, each of a differ-
ent color or marked by a different
colored ring, and eight mallets, each
similarly marked, to correspond with
the balls. The two stakes also are
painted with rings of the same col-
ors, arranged in the same order.
The arches and stakes are set in
various ways, for the most common
of which see Fig. I, in which the un-
broken line marks the course of the
ball from the starting point to the
lower stake, and the dotted line its
return path. If played on an un-
limited field, as a park, or lawn, the
boundary is designated by a white
cord fastened to stakes, A, B, C, D.
Any ball passing beyond this border
may be returned for play to the point
where it left the field. The dotted
inner border F, G, H, I, represents a
line 30 inches from the outer border,
and when the field has a fixed bor-
der, made by placing boards four or
five inches high (not more) on edge
around it, balls, having passed to, or
over this border, are placed on this
inner line for convenience of striking.
On grounds without a lawn, this in-
ner line is marked by a slight scratch
in the soil. The letters e, e, e, e, rep-
resent corner pieces 18 inches long.
This style of ground, with fixed bor-
der, and field carefully scraped and
sanded and rolled, was for many
years (till 1889) the standard field of
the National Association.
The game may be played by two,
four, six, or eight persons, but two
or four make the best game.
Four-handed Croquet is played
exactly like the two-handed game,
except that each player has but
one ball, so that the two balls on
one side are played by partners in-
stead of by the same person. In Six
Lower Stake .
Starting ny
Point •
Stake
D 0
Fig. i. — Croquet Ground.
and Eight-handed Croquet each
player has a ball, and there are two
sides as before. The order of play
must be decided on before the game
is begun and kept the same through-
out, no one playing directly after any
of his partners. The length of time
required for a Six or Eight ball game
is such that it is rarely engaged in.
When two play, each player uses two
balls ; when more than two, each
player generally has but one ball. In
all tournament contests by members
of the National Association there are
two players, each playing two balls
(see Scientific Croquet below),
but friendly or social games, so
CROQUET
227
CROQUET
called, have four players, each, of
course, using one ball, the first and
third, and the second and fourth, be-
ing partners. The following de-
scription is of the two-handed game.
The players take turns, each using
his two balls alternately, in the order
of their colors on the stakes. The
first play may be decided by lot.
Play is begun by placing the ball
half-way between the starting stake
and the first arch, and striking it
with the mallet, generally so that
it will pass through the first arch.
If, however, the arches are nar-
row, a good player rarely attempts
to make the first arch at the outset,
but strikes so as to leave his ball at
the lower end of the field, or at some
distance from the starting point, pre-
ferring to wait till he has all the balls
in play and then, by their help, make
several arches, as described below.
The player's object is to pass through
each of the arches in turn, strike the
opposite stake, called the turning
stake, and then return to the starting
stake in like manner, by the path
shown in Fig. I. A ball after hav-
ing been struck from the starting
point is generally regarded " in
play," whether such ball has made
the first arch or not. Early rules
recognized the " booby " as one who
attempted, but failed, to make the
first arch, but this term is now
discarded.
When a player's ball passes
through an arch, or hits the lower
stake, he is said to " make a point."
When his ball, from a stroke of the
mallet, hits another, either friend or
foe, it is said to " roquet " it. This
gives the privilege of roquet-croquet,
which must be taken, and is done by
placing the player's own ball in con-
tact with the roqueted ball, and then
striking the former so as to move,
however slightly, the roqueted ball
and sending his own by the same
stroke a greater or less distance as
may be desired. After making a
point, and also at the beginning of
every turn, the player has the privi-
lege of roqueting any ball he may
choose, but no ball can be roqueted
more than once in any turn unless a
point be made. Then the player's
ball is said to be " alive " on all the
Position by Split Shot.
balls, and when he has played on all,
he is " dead " on them. There are
two ways of taking roquet-croquet.
The one above described is called
"loose" croquet, because neither ball
is held during the stroke. The other
is " tight " croquet, when the playing
ball is placed against the roqueted
ball, and held either between the
fingers or by the foot so that when it
is struck the object ball moves in any
desired direction. If the struck ball
moves from the hand or from under
the foot, it is called a "flinch " and play
ceases. The hand is used upon care-
fully prepared grounds to prevent the
CROQUET
228
CROQUET
indentations made by holding a ball
firmly under the foot.
The privilege of roquet-croquet,
being continued after every point
made, enables a skillful player to
make several arches, frequently the
entire round from start to finish, in
one turn. This is called " making
a run," in which sometimes only one
ball is " used," either his own or his
opponent s, but so placed each time
beyond the arch to be made that
when the playing ball passes through
the arch it can use the other to get
in front of the next arch (called
" getting into position ").
In loose Croquet, roquet-croquet
be taken by means of several
kinds of strokes, or " shots," so
called: " follow shots," in which one
ball follows the other more or less
closely according to the skill of the
player ; " split shots " (Figs. 2 and 4),
in which they move in different direc-
tions, and " slice shots " (see Fig. 3).
In Figs. 2 to 6 the player's ball is
lettered A and the roqueted ball B,
except in Fig. 4, where C shows the
direction of the mallet-stroke, and
A and B that of the balls respectively.
In the " slice shot," the object ball is
only slightly displaced or made only
Fig. 3.— Slice Shot.
to shake, this latter being deemed suf-
ficient to prevent the player from
losing his shot, for if either of these
shots be attempted and the object
ball be not moved play ceases, and
the struck ball may be returned or
not (according to the wish of the
opponent) to the position it had be-
fore the stroke. In the follow shot,
the balls will roll off together if the
stroke be slow and pushing, but if it
be sharp and quick, only the object
ball will go to any great distance.
By varying the direction and speed
of stroke, a skillful player can send
each of the balls exactly where he
wishes them to go.
Many players have one end of their
mallets made of soft rubber, by an
ordinary stroke of which both balls
will go the whole length of the field
together.
When a player's ball has made all
the points in the game except strik-
ing the finishing stake, it is called a
Rover, but remains in the game to
assist his other ball till it also be-
comes a Rover. Rovers can be put
out only by partners, and when a
Rover is thus made to hit the stake,
and his partner, without removing
the other ball from the field, fails to
hit the stake on the next shot neither
is regarded as out. They must go
out in successive shots by the same
player. A Rover has no additional
privilege of play on account of being
a Rover.
Suggestions. In Croquet, the
skillful player tries to keep his own
CROQUET
229
CROQUET
balls together as much as possible
and to separate those of his oppo-
nent. That one of the enemy's balls
played last (called the " innocent
ball," because it can do no harm
till three others have had their turns)
can be used and left near either of a
player's balls without danger, but
the other ball (called the " guilty "
or " danger " ball) should either be
sent to a distance after it has been
used, or so placed that the wire of
an arch or a stake will be between
it and the other balls. In the latter
case it is said to be " wired." Figs.
5 and 6 show two different methods
of wiring.
When his ball is wired, a skilled
player may, provided the ball be far
enough from the wire to allow it,
make what is called a " jump shot,"
by striking the ball downward so
that it bounds over the wicket.
When no obstruction prevents one
ball from hitting another the shot is
said to be " open." Bold and con-
fident players, especially in friendly
or social contests, frequently take the
danger ball with them in making
a run, "tying it up," or "wiring" it,
just before an attempt to make the
difficult center or basket arch (some-
times called also the cage. This
style of play is universally adopted
by skilled players). A player should
not try to roquet the danger ball at
all, if by missing it he would give it
a better chance for play than it had
before. At the end of a play, or at
the beginning, when there is little
chance of a run, the player should
place his ball where it will aid his
other ball.
Field and Implements. Croquet
is usually played on closely shaven
turf, but skilled players prefer a
ground of rolled earth, sanded (very
slightly) to hold the balls. The size
of the field varies from 40 by 60 to
60 by loo feet, the latter being un-
necessarily large ; the match games
of the National Association are
played on fields about 45 by 80 feet.
The arches or wickets are often as
wide as 6 or 7 inches, but on the
grounds of clubs belonging to the
National Association they are only
3| inches wide, making it difficult for
a ball to make its arch unless it be
directly in front of it. The wickets
are sunk about 6 inches in the ground
and usually set in buried blocks of
wood to make them more firm. The
inside measurements of Fig. i are as
follows : The stakes are 7 feet from
the middle point of the end border,
with five arches in a straight line be-
tween them, the center one being a
double one, formed of two arches
placed 1 8 inches apart and set cross-
wise of the ground. It is 7 feet
from each stake to the first arch,
which is 7 feet from the second arch.
The side arches are about 14 feet
from the second arches nearly or
quite at right angles. But in case
the field selected should be of dif-
ferent dimensions from those given
above, any similar setting of arches,
with proportionate distances, will
prove satisfactory. [For diagram
and construction of grounds adopted
in 1889 by the National Association
see Scientific Croquet.} The mallets
Fig. 4.— Split Shot.
are made in various styles and sizes,
and of different materials, according
to the owner's taste, there being no
restriction in any respect. Those
approved by the National Associa-
tion either have solid heads of box-
wood, brass-ringed, 7 to 7$ or 8
CROQUET
230
CROQUET
inches long by 2± to 2\ inches in
diameter; and handles from 8 to 15
inches long, or have hard rubber ends
firmly ringed with brass rings shrunk
on, these ends screwing on to a
center piece of beautiful wood, into
which the handle screws, so as to be
readily taken apart for convenience
in carrying (see Fig. 7).
Though short-handled mallets like
those just described are now pre-
Fig. 5. — Wiring by Direct Roquet
Croquet.
fered by skilled players, the ordi-
nary mallet handles are from 3 to
4 feet long, so that the player may
strike his ball without stooping. The
ordinary balls are of wood, lignum
vitae being the best, but balls of
various compositions are used. The
National Association has adopted
hard rubber balls, 3} inches in diam-
eter, so that in passing through a
wicket a ball has only one quarter of
an inch of spare space, or an eighth
of an inch on each side. The colors
adopted are the national colors, red,
white, and blue, and always in that
order, therefore easy to be remem-
bered. The fourth ball is the natural
color of the rubber, black, and fol-
lows in order ; so that red and blue
are partners, and black and white
their opponents. Metal or wooden
spring " clips," so called (patent
clothes fasteners are excellent for the
purpose), colored to correspond with
the balls, are placed on the tops of
the arches to determine without dis-
pute the arch through which the ball
of corresponding color must next
pass.
[Balls and clips can be very easily
painted by using a solution of white
shellac in alcohol, and mixing with
this as wanted, Chinese vermillion
for red, Prussian blue with a little
zinc white for a light blue, and zinc or
flake white for white, painting with
separate brushes and mixing colors
in separate dishes. Thus painted
they will dry in a few minutes and
wear for several days.]
Scientific Croquet, As played by
experts the game differs from ordi-
nary croquet in many particulars,
some of which have been hinted
at in the previous description. To
be full in all respects, we append
the description of the grounds
adopted in 1889 by the National As-
sociation, and also the rules amended
to June, 1890. [Although the grounds,
as here described, are those upon
which all tournament contests shall
be played, some clubs, owing to
the expense required to change, still
adhere to the style as given in
Fig. i.]
The plan of the ground is as shown
in Fig. 8. A full-sized ground is
45 by 80 feet ; the ground to be
raised two inches at the border, the
slope extending thirty inches into
CROQUET
231
CROQO,.*
the field, the base of which is the
boundary line. The stakes or posts
are to be one inch in diameter, and
one and one-half inches high, situ-
ated at the base of the rise at the
center of the width of the grounds.
Fig;. 6.— Wiring by. Split Shdt.
The first wicket to be seven feet from
the post ; the second seven feet from
Fig. 7.— a a. Brass Rings ; £, center piece
of wood screwing into the hard rub-
ber ends.
the first, each on a line extending
though the middle of the field. The
side arches to be five feet from the
foot of the rise On a line with the
second arch from each stake ; the
cage, or double wicket in the
center, to be eighteen inches long
and three and three-eighth inches
between the wires, and set at right
angles with a straight line drawn
from stake to stake. The border at
the top of the slope is to be made of
maple or other hard wood, about
four by six inches, laid flat to serve
as a cushion, whence caroms can be
made. The corner pieces to be of
same material and eight feet long,
inside measurement. All arches ex-
cept the center arch to be three and
one-half inches in the clear.
CROQUET 2
In this game four balls make a
set, and two or even three games of
four balls each, thus accommodat-
ing eight or twelve persons, may
be played on the same ground, and
with but little confusion or interrup-
tion, provided one set of balls is
Fig. 8.— S S, Stakes ; a a, Boundary ;
continuous line going, dotted line
returning.
colored, another set numbered, and
the third marked with rings to dis-
tinguish the sets and the players.
This is frequently done in the West-
ern States, where the grounds are
covered, and play is enjoyed regard-
less of cold or storm outside.
RULES OF THE GAME.
The following are the rules adopted
by the National Croquet Association
of America :
I. Interfering with Players. No
player or other person shall be per-
mitted to interfere with the result of
a game by any word or act calcu-
lated to embarrass the player, nor
2 CROQUET
shall any one except a partner speak
to a player while in the act of strik-
ing.
2. Order of Colors. The order
of colors shall be Red, White, Blue,
Black.
3. Mallets. There shall be no re-
striction as to kind or size of mallet
used — one or two hands may be
used in striking.
4. No player shall change his
mallet during a game without per-
missio'n of his opponent, except in
case of accident, or to make a " jump
shot."
5. Should a ball or mallet break
in striking, the player may demand
another stroke, with a new ball or
mallet.
6. Clips or Markers. Every player
shall be provided with a clip or in-
dicator of the same color as his ball,
painted on one side only, which he
must affix to his arch next in order
in course of play, before his partner
plays, with the painted side toward
the front of the arch. Should he fail
to do so his clip must remain upon
the arch it rested on before he
played, and he must make the points
again. Should he move his marker
beyond or back of the point he is for,
his attention must be called to such
error before he plays again, other-
wise it shall stand. Should a player
put a ball through its arch, he must
move the corresponding clip to its
proper arch before the next ball is
played, otherwise the clip remains
as before.
7. Opening of Game. All games
shall be opened by scoring from an
imaginary line through the middle
wicket and playing toward the turn-
ing stake. The balls must be so
played that they rest below the first
arch from the turning stake, and if
dislodged, must be replaced — all
balls being in play from where they
rest, the ball nearest the stake play-
ing first.
8. Balls— How Struck. The ball
must be struck with the face of the
mallet, the stroke being delivered
CROQUET
233
CROQUET
whenever touching the ball it moves
it. Should a stake or wire inter-
vene, the stroke is not allowed, unless
the ball is struck at the same time,
and if the ball is moved, without
being struck by the face of the mal-
let, it shall remain where it rests,
and should a point (or roquet) be
made, it shall not be allowed, except
by the decision of the umpire as to
the fairness of the shot. All balls
moved by a foul shot may be re-
placed or not at the option of the
opponent.
9. When making a direct shot
(i. e. roquet) the player must not
push or follow the ball with his
mallet ; but when taking croquet
from a ball (two balls being in con-
tact), he may follow his ball with the
mallet ; but must not strike it twice.
10. If a player strikes his ball be-
fore his opponent has finished his
play, the stroke shall stand, or be
made over, at the option of the op-
ponent.
11. Should a ball rest against or
near a wire, and the umpire or other
person agreed on should decide that
in order to pass through the arch, an
unfair or push shot must be made,
it shall not be allowed if made.
12. Foul Stroke. Should a player
in making a stroke move with his
mallet any other than his object
ball, it shall be a foul, and his
play ceases, and all balls moved
shall be replaced as before the stroke
or remain where they rest, at the op-
tion of the opponent.
13. If a dead ball, in contact with
another ball, moves on account of
the inequality of the ground, while
playing the other ball, away from it,
the player does not lose his shot.'
14. Balls — When not to be
Touched. A ball must not be touched
while on the field, except after a ro-
quet, when it is necessary to place
it beside the roqueted ball for the
purpose of croquet, or to replace it
when it has been moved by acci-
dent— except by permission of the
opponent.
15. Roquet and Croquet. A ball
roquets another when it comes in
contact with it by a blow from the
player's mallet, or rebounds from a
wicket or a stake ; the border also
when it comes in contact with it
when croquet is taken from another
ball.
1 6. A player after making a ro-
quet shall not stop his ball for the
purpose of preventing its hitting an-
other. Should he do so his play
ceases, and all balls shall be re-
placed as before the stroke, or re-
main, at the option of the opponent.
17. Roquet gives to the player the
privilege of croquet only, and play
must be made from the roqueted
ball.
1 8. If a player in taking a croquet
from a ball fails to move it, such
stroke ends his play, and his ball
must be returned, or left where it
stops, at the option of the opponent.
19. A player, in each turn of play,
is at liberty to roquet any ball on
the ground once only before making
a point.
20. Should a player croquet a ball
he has not roqueted, he loses his
turn, and all balls moved by such
play must be replaced to the satisfac-
tion of the umpire, or adversary.
Should the mistake not be discovered
before the player has made another
stroke, the play shall be valid, and
the player continue his play.
21. In taking croquet from a ball,
if player's ball strikes another to
which he is " dead," such stroke
does not end his play.
22. If a player roquets two or
more balls at the same stroke, only
the first can be roqueted.
23. Making of Points. A player
makes a point in the game when his
ball makes an arch or hits a stake in
proper play.
24. If a player makes a point, and
afterwards at the same stroke roquets
a ball, he must take the point, and
use the ball. If the roqueted ball is
beyond the arch, as determined by
Rule 45, and playing ball rests through
CROQUET
234
CROQUET
the arch, the arch is held to be first
made. [Note. While this is not
mathematically correct, the rule is so
made to avoid disputes and difficult
measurements.]
25. If a ball roquets another, and
afterwards at the same stroke makes
a point, it must take the ball and
reject the point. (See note to
Rule 24.)
26. A player continues to play so
long as he makes a point in the
game, or roquets another ball to
which he is in play.
27. A ball making two or more
points at the same stroke, has only
the same privilege as if it made but
one.
28. Should a ball be driven through
its arch, or against its stake by cro-
quet or concussion, it is a point made
by that ball, except it be a Rover.
29. Playing on Dead Ball. If a
player play by direct shot on a dead
ball, all balls displaced by such shot
shall be replaced in their former posi-
tion, and the player's ball placed
against the dead ball on the side
from which it came ; or all balls shall
rest where they lie, at the option of
the opponent.
30. If a player, in making a direct
shot, strike a ball on which he has
already played, i. e. a dead ball, his
play ceases. Any point, or part of a
point or ball struck, after striking the
dead ball, is not allowed. And both
balls must be replaced in accordance
with the preceding rule. A dead
ball displaced by other than direct
shot shall not be replaced.
31. If playing ball in passing
through its arch strike a dead ball
that is beyond the arch, as deter-
mined by Rule 45, the ball shall not be
considered a dead ball if playing ball
rests through its arch, and the point
shall be allowed.
32. Balls Moved or Interfered
with by Accident or Design. A ball
accidentally displaced, otherwise than
as provided for in Rule 12, must be
returned to its position before play
can proceed.
33. If a ball is stopped or diverted
from its course by an opponent, the
player may repeat the shot or not as
he chooses. Should he decline to
repeat the shot, the ball must remain
where it stops, and, if playing ball,
must play from there.
34. If a ball is stopped or diverted
from its course by a player, or his
partner, the opponent may demand
a repetition of the shot if he chooses —
Should he decline to do so, the ball
must remain where it stops, and, if
playing ball, must play from there.
35. If a ball, while rolling, is
stopped or diverted from its course
by any object inside the ground, not
pertaining to the game or ground,
other than provided for in Rules 33
and 34, the shot may be repeated or
allowed to remain at the option of the
player. If not repeated the ball must
remain where it stops, and, if playing
ball, play from there.
36. Balls in Contact. Should a
player, on commencing his play, find
his ball in contact with another, he
may hit his own as he likes, and then
has subsequent privileges the same
as though the balls were separated
an inch or more.
Concerning Botindary. [The boun-
dary is a line extending around the
field, usually thirty inches from the
border and parallel with it.]
37. A ball shot over boundary line
or border must be returned at right
angles from where it stops before
play can proceed.
38. A ball is in the field, only when
the whole ball is within the boundary
line.
39. No play is allowed from be-
yond the boundary line, except when
a ball is placed in contact with an-
other for the purpose of croquet.
40. If a player strikes his ball when
over the boundary line, he shall lose
his stroke and the balls shall be re-
placed or left where they stop, at the
option of the opponent.
41. If a player roquet a ball off the
field by a direct shot his play ceases,
and the roqueted ball is placed on the
CROQUET
235
CROQUET
boundary opposite the point where
it lay before being thus hit. But if a
ball off the field is hit from a croquet
the hit shall not be allowed, the ball
shall be properly replaced in the field,
and the play shall not cease.
[The three following rules apply to
grounds square-cornered and with-
out slope.]
42. The first ball driven over the
boundary line into a corner must be
placed on the corner at the intersec-
tion of the two boundary lines.
43. If a ball, having been struck
over the boundary line, is returnable
at the corner, another ball being on
or entitled to the corner, it shall be
placed on that side of the corner on
which it went off.
44. If two balls, having been shot
over the boundary line, rest directly
behind one another at right angles
with boundary line, they shall be
placed on the line alongside of each
other in the direction from whence
they were played off. This can oc-
cur only when the centers of the two
balls rest directly behind one another
at right angles with the boundary
line.
45. Ball — When Through an
Arch. A ball is not through an
arch when a straight edge, laid
across the two wires on the side from
whence the ball come, touches the
ball without moving the arch.
46. Balls — When in Position. If
a ball has been placed under an
arch, for the purpose of croquet, it
is not in position to run that arch.
47. If a ball be driven under its
arch from the wrong direction, and
rests there, it is not in position to
run that arch in the right direction.
48. If a ball shot through its arch
in the right direction, rolls back
through or under that arch, the
point is not made, but the ball is in
position if left there.
49. Hitting Ball while Making
Wicket. The cage wickets may be
made in one, two, or more turns,
provided the ball stops within limit
of the cage.
50. Any playing ball within, or un-
der, a wicket, becomes dead to ad-
vancement through the wicket from
that position, if it comes in contact
with any other ball by a direct shot.
51. Rovers. A Rover has the
right of roquet and croquet on every
other ball once during each turn of
play, and is subject to roquet and
croquet by any ball in play.
52. Rovers must be continued in
the game until partners become
Rovers, and go out successively, and
a Rover that has been driven against
the stake cannot be removed to make
way for the next Rover.
53. Playing Out of Turn, or
Wrong Ball. If a player plays out
of his proper turn, whether with his
own or any other ball, or in his proper
turn plays the wrong ball, and the
mistake is discovered before the next
player has commenced his play, all
benefit from any point or points
made is lost, and his turn of play
forfeited. All balls moved by the
misplay must be returned to their
fonTier position by the umpire or ad-
versary. If the mistake is not dis-
covered until after the next player
has made his first stroke, the error
must stand.
54. Points Remade. If a player
makes a point he has already made,
his marker not being on that point,
and the mistake is discovered before
the proper point is made, the play
ceases with the shot by which the
wicket was remade, and the marker
remains where it stood at the begin-
ning of this play. All balls shall be
left in the position they had at the
time the wicket was remade. If not
discovered before the proper point is
made, the points so made are good,
and play proceeds the same as if no
error had been made.
55. Error in Order of Play. If
any error in order is discovered after
a player has struck his ball, he shall
be allowed to finish his play provided
he is playing in the regular sequence
of his partner's ball last played. In
case of dispute as to proper sequence
CROQUET
236
CROQUET
of balls, it shall be decided by the
umpire ; if there is no umpire, by lot.
No recourse shall be had to lot un-
less each party expresses the belief
that the other is wrong.
56. At any time any error in order
is discovered, the opposite side shall
follow with the same ball last played
(the proper sequence) ; but before
playing, their opponents shall have
privilege to demand a transposition
of adversaries' balls.
Example. Black plays by mistake
after Red — the error is not discov-
ered— Blue plays in the proper se-
quence of his partner Red, and see-
ing that Black has just played, is
thus led to believe it the innocent
ball, and upon concluding his play
leaves Black by Red. Now if error
in order is discovered the player of
Red and Blue can demand that the
position of Black and White be trans-
posed.
57. Changing Surf ace of Ground.
The surface of grounds shall not be
changed during a game by either
player, unless by consent of the um-
pire, and if so changed at the time of
playing the shot shall be declared
lost.
58. Direction through Wickets.
In making all side or corner arches,
the playing ball shall pass through
them toward the center.
59. Penalty. If a rule is violated,
a penalty for which has not been
provided, the player shall cease his
play.
TERMS USED IN CROQUET.
To Roquet. To hit with one's own
ball another ball for the first time.
To Croquet. To place player's
ball against the roquetted ball and
then striking his own ball, moving
both.
In Play. A ball is in play so long
as points are made, or balls hit, in
accordance with the rules.
Points. See Rule 24.
Dead Ball. A ball on which the
player has played since making a
point. It is then dead to the player
till he makes another point.
Direct Shot — Roquet. This is a
direct shot, whether the ball in pass-
ing to its destination does or does
not carom from a wire, a stake, or
the border.
Drive or Block — English " Rush."
A roquet played so as to send the
object ball to some desired spot.
Slice or Cut. To drive the object
ball to a desired position, by causing
player's ball to hit it on one side.
Run. The making of a number
of points in the same turn.
Set up. To locate the balls, so as
to afford facility for making the next
point or run.
Wiring. To leave the balls so
that the next player finds a wire or
stake between his ball and the object
ball.
Object Ball. The ball at which
the player aims.
Jump Shot. Striking the ball so
as to make it jump over any obstacle
between it and the object aimed at.
To do this, the ball should be struck
with considerable force on the top
just back of the center.
Guilty or Danger Ball. The
next ball to play on the adversary's
side.
Innocent Ball. The last played
ball of the adversary.
Rover. A ball that has made all
the points except the last.
Loose Croquet. Striking a ball
when it is in contact with another,
where it has been placed for the pur-
pose of Croquet, thus moving both
balls.
Tight Croquet. Holding with the
hand or foot a ball placed against
another for the sake of croquet, thus
allowing only the latter to be moved.
Carom. Rebounding from an arch,
a stake, a ball, on the border.
Variations. The most important
variation in the game is the " tight
croquet," which is often substituted
at pleasure for the roquet-croquet or
" loose croquet." This method, em-
ploying either the hand or the foot,
has been already described. In the
early form of the game the tight
CROQUET
237
CROQUET
croquet was the usual method, but
it has long been discarded by scien-
tific players, except in the Western
States, where it is carried to a high
degree of skill. The word " croquet "
as formerly used, always meant the
tight croquet, but is sometimes used
by modern players to designate loose
croquet. To avoid confusion the ap-
propriate adjective should be used.
Some of the preceding rules can be
Pall Mall.
construed and used only in " loose
croquet." All others may be used
for tight croquet, and adopted there-
fore. The Western Clubs use the
rules of the National Association
herein published, which are sufficient
for all purposes. Tight croquet
gives a splendid chance for showing
skill in placing balls, accurate hitting,
and driving balls, as the act of cro-
quet leaves the playing ball near
where the roqueted ball rested.
Dead Ball Game. In this a ball
is after the first turn never alive on
any ball if such ball has been once
hit since making an arch. This
form of the game is rarely played
because of its great difficulty.
Parlor Croquet. Croquet sets for
use in the parlor are sold at toy
shops. The hoops are mounted on
stands so that they will stand up-
right on the floor, and hoops, mal-
lets, and balls are all
smaller than those used
in the lawn gamet the
mallet handles being
usually from one to
three feet long. Some-
times, however, a bil-
liard or other level
cloth-covered table,
with elastic border, is
fixed with arches and
stakes, like a diminutive
croquet field. This af-
fords an opportunity for
much skill with short-
handed mallets and
ivory balls, and as an
indoor amusement is
next to billiards.
History. It is
thought that croquet is
derived from the an-
cient game of Paille-
Maille (Ball - Mallets)
which was played in
France as early as the
1 3th century, and which,
under the name of Pall
Mall, was fashionable
in England in the time
of the Stuarts, and has
given its name to one
of the principal streets
in 'London. Pall Mall,
or Mall, was played
with a mallet, a ball,
and two hoops, or a
hoop and a stake. . From the name
of this game is derived our word
pell-mell.
Croquet, as it is now played, was
taken to England from Ireland,
where it was introduced from France.
The illustration shows a kind of cro-
quet played in that country in 1826.
\ •
p
Croquet i n
France in
1826.
CROSS QUESTIONS
238
CRYSTALLIZATION
It was first played in Ireland as a
fashionable game about 1852, and in
England about 1856. It was intro-
duced into the United States about
1865, and for many years was the
most popular of lawn games ; but of
late it has been almost superseded in
England, and in many parts of the
United States, by Lawn TENNIS.
Since its introduction into the United
States croquet has been much modi-
fied. The number of arches has been
increased, their positions have been
changed, and the size of the ground
has been diminished. In 1882 the
National Croquet Association was
organized in New York* And since
that year it has held annual tourna-
ments. The clubs in the Association
are mostly from New England and
the Middle States. The chief
Western clubs, whose style of play
is slightly different, have never been
represented, though they have been
invited.
The Association has fine grounds
at Norwich, Conn., where the annual
tournaments have been held since
1883. Cottage City, Martha's Vine-
yard, is a great place for croquet
during the summer season. The
grounds there are among the finest
in the country, and it is a general
practice ground for many during the
summer who participate afterwards
in the annual tournament at Nor-
wich.
CROSS QUESTIONS, a game
played by any number of persons,
who sit in a circle. Each puts a
question to his fight hand neighbor,
and receives an answer. Each of
the players in turn then repeats aloud
the question that his left hand neigh-
bor asked of him and the answer
that his right hand neighbor gave.
In order that the result may be more
amusing, it should be agreed before-
hand what kind of questions are to
be asked. For instance, it m;iy be
agreed that each is to ask why his
neighbor does a certain thing, real Or
fictitious. Thus B asks C, on his
right hand, " Why do you sit so near
the fire ? " C answers, ' Because I
like the heat." A asks B, " Why
did you fall into the water yester-
day?" and he replies, ''Because I
went too near the edge." When it is
B's turn, he must tell A's question
and C's answer, thus, " Why did you
fall into the water?" "Because I
like the heat," and so on.
The game is often played by giving
the right hand neighbor a predica-
ment and the left-hand a solution,
and then telling the predicament that
comes from the left and the solution
from the right, It is then called
Predicaments.
CRYSTALLIZATION, Experi-
ments in. I. Dissolve salt in water
till it will hold no more, and then dip
a slip of glass into the solution, so
that When it is removed it will be
wet with the liquid. Watch the
glass, holding it in the sun, and
presently little specks will appear in
the film of liquid. These will grow
larger, and others xvill appear, until the
glass is covered with crystals of salt.
If the formation is watched through
a magnifying glass it will be more
interesting;
2. Try, in the same way, other sub-
stances which will dissolve In water,
such as sugar, washing soda, sal am-
frioniat, chlorate of potash, or alum.
The crystals formed by each sub-
stance have their own shape and
method of formation"} some branch-
ing out over the glass like the growth
of a plant.
3. Project the growing crystals on
the Wall by holding them before a
lens in a beam of light from a HELI-
OSTAT, as directed under MAGIC
LANTERN, and the crystals will ap-
pear enormous and seem to grow
very rapidly.
4. Dissolve in hot water as much
alum as it will hold, and place in the
solution any object you wish to cover
with crystals. Set the solution in a
quiet place, and in a few hours crys-
tals of alum will be deposited on all
of the objects. In this way baskets
made oT iron wire may be covered,
CRYSTALLIZATION
239
CUP AND BALL
or dried grasses may be made to look
as, if laden with frost.
5. Fill one third of a bottle or jar
with silicate of soda, often called
" soluble glass," and the rest with
clear water, and shake till the two
fluids have thoroughly mixed. Then
drop into the bottom of the jar crys-
tals, the size of a pea, of one or more
of the following substances : alumi-
num sulphate, potash alum, proto-
sulphate of iron, copperas, or blue
vitriol. If the jar is large several
may be used. Set the jar in a quiet
place and in a few hours a growth of
crystals will begin from each sub-
stance, branching upward like vege-
tation, but different in each case.
When the growth has reached the
surface it may be stopped by pour-
ing water gently into the jar, which
will carry off the soluble glass grad-
ually in the overflow. The crystals
may thus be preserved, but if the jar
is to be moved a layer of sand quar-
ter or half an inch thick must be put
into the bottle to begin with, the
crystals of alum and the other sub-
stances are pressed down into this
with a glass rod, and are thus held
firmly in their places.
6. Put a twig or bit of a shrub in
a jar, stem upward. Drop a few
crystals of benzoic acid on a plate
of hot iron, and invert the jar over
them. The crystals will turn to va-
por which will crystallize again on
the shrub in a form resembling hoar
frost.
7. Dissolve in a quantity of hot
water, sufficient to half fill the glass
or tube in which the experiment is to
be tried, ten times its weight of hypo-
sulphite of soda. Having warmed a
tall narrow glass, or test-tube, by
means of boiling water, pour the
solution slowly into it. Make a simi-
lar solution of acetate of soda and
pour carefully in above the first solu-
tion, on which it will float. On this
pour a layer of boiling-hot water.
Allow the solutions to cool slowly,
and then lower into the glass a crys-
tal of hyposulphite of soda on the
end of a thread. It will pass through
the upper solution without disturb-
ing it, but as soon as it reaches the
lower one, that one will crystallize at
Crystallization. Experiment 7.
once. A similar crystal of acetate of
soda is now lowered into the upper
solution which then crystallizes in
like manner.
CUP AND BALL, a game played
by one or more persons with a
wooden or ivory ball connected by a
string with a shallow cup, just large
enough to fit the ball, on the end of
a handle about a foot long. The
other end of the handle is pointed
and made to fit a corresponding hole
in the ball. The game consists in
trying to catch the ball in the cup.
The player, taking the cup by its
handle, throws the ball upward in the
air and catches it in the cup as it
falls. This is easily done after
sufficient practice. If more than one
person play, each has a trial in turn,
and he who catches the ball after a
stated number of trials, agreed on
beforehand, is the winner. When
the player can easily catch the ball
in the cup, he should try to do so by
sticking the pointed end of the handle
in the hole. The illustration shows
CUPID COMES
240
CURLING
the cup held in position to catch
the ball on the point. This requires
freat skill, for to do it the ball must
e given a twirling motion around
the axis passing through the hole.
In catching the ball in the cup, the
latter must be placed under the ball
and lowered quickly, so that the two
are both moving in the same direc-
tion as the ball strikes it ; otherwise
the ball is apt to bound out of the
Cup and Ball.
cup. In France the cup and ball is
called Le Bilbouquet (Ball-bouquet).
Henri III., King of France, and his
courtiers were fond of playing with it,
and it came into great favor again in
the reign of Louis XV. In that time
a gentleman of fashion always carried
a cup and ball of ivory, and even
actors and actresses appeared on the
stage in tragedy bearing the toys.
Says a French writer: "It must
have been rather amusing to hear
Orestes or Phedra breathing forth
tragic fury with cup and ball in
hand." Its popularity in France was
still great at the time of the Revolu-
tion, when it was succeeded in favor
by L' Emigrant. (See BANDILORE.)
CUPID COMES, an alphabetical
game played by any number of per-
sons, each of whom tells how Cupid
Comes, in answer to a question. The
answers must begin with the letters
of the alphabet in order, and must
all end in " ing." Thus, the first
player says to his neighbor " Cupid
Comes." The neighbor asks " How
does he come ? " and the first
player replies, for instance, " An-
gling." The second player then says
to the third : " Cupid Comes," and,
in answer to the same question, re-
plies " Boiling." So the game goes
on till the alphabet is exhausted.
Sometimes it is then repeated, the
answers ending in " ly." Cupid then
is said to come Amiably, Bravely,
Cautiously, etc. Sometimes the
letter A is used by all the players in
the first round, B in the second
round, and so on. The game thus
lasts longer. In this case, any one
who gives an answer already given
must pay a forfeit.
CURLING, a game played on the
ice by any number of persons, divided
into two sides, who try to slide stones
as near as possible to two points
called " Tees." A rink or course is
laid out on a piece of strong ice
about 7 yards wide and not less than
50 yards in length. At the opposite
ends of the rink, 38 yards, apart, are
two small holes called " Tees,"
around each of which a circle 14 feet
in diameter is drawn. The space
inside of this circle is called the
" brough " or " tee-head," and two
smaller circles are drawn inside to
make measurement more easy.
Four yards behind each Tee a hack
is cut in the ice, or a piece of corru-
gated iron, called a "crampit," 3^
feet long by i foot in width, is placed
for the player to stand on when de-
livering his stone, making the whole
distance played 42 yards. Seven
yards in front of each Tee is a mark
called the hog score, and if any stone
fails to pass this it is called a " hog."
Curling stones are made of various
kinds of granite, and weigh from 30 to
50 pounds each. They are flattened
spheres in shape, not more than 36
inches around and not higher than
one-eighth their greatest circum-
ference. The handles are made of
CURLING
241
CURLING
iron or brass, nickel or silver plated,
with a grip for the hand of ebony,
hardened rubber or ivory, screwed to
a bolt running through the stone.
Each player has a pair of curling
stones, and the sides are divided by
lots into sets of two opponents each.
Each pair of opponents play their
stones alternately,
and then the next
pair plays. Each
player tries to slide
his stone as near to
the Tee as possible,
and also to knock
away any of his op-
ponents' stones that
have already been
played. In delivering,
the stone is slightly
raised from the ice
and then slid along
toward the furthest
Tee, with more or
less force as the oc-
casion requires. It is
better play for the
first shot to lie three
feet in front of the
Tee than one foot
behind it, as the for-
mer may be " touched
up " (driven nearer
the Tee) and the lat-
ter " touched out "
unless well guarded.
Each player, besides
trying to knock his
opponent's stones out
of the " brough," tries
to guard his own
side from danger of
being knocked out.
When a stone hits
the inside of another
and bounds in toward
the Tee it is called an " invvick," and
when it strikes the outside of another
and knocks the latter inward it is
called an "outvvick." The skillful
player, also by sliding his stone with
a twist, causes it to describe a curve
and thus sometimes reaches the Tee
in spite of the fact that another stone
Curling Rink.
appeared directly in its way. When
a stone on the Tee is knocked out of
the circle by another which remains
within it the shot is called a " chap
and lie " ; when a stone on the Tee is
partially guarded by another outside,
and yet an opponent succeeds in
knocking it off, he is said to " chip the
winner." If a stone is very near the
Tee, those on the same side as its
owner strive to place their stones so
as to protect it from the enemy's
attacks. When all have played, the
distances of the various stones from
the Tee are determined with the aid
of the " broughs." Every stone that
is nearer the Tee than any on the
Curling Stone.
opposite side scores one point or one
" shot," as it is called. Each one
then takes a turn at the opposite Tee
in the same order as before, and the
game thus goes on till one of the
sides has won.
The way in which a game shall be
won depends on agreement made
beforehand. It may be done by the
side that first scores 21 or 31 shots,
or the one that scores most shots in
21 or 25 "ends" or innings; or by
the one that is ahead at the end of 3
or 4 hours play.
RULES OF THE GAME.
I. Four yards behind each Tee a
circle 18 inches in diameter shall be
drawn, on the left hand side of the
line joining the Tees, and just touch-
ing it. In this circle each player
must stand when playing his stone
at the more distant Tee, if he be
right-handed. If left-handed he
must stand in a similar circle on the
right of the central line.
CURLING
242
CURLING
2. No stone shall count that is
without the farther edge of a circle,
or " brough " drawn with a radius of
7 feet from the Tee as a center.
3. A straight line called a " hog
score " is drawn across the rink at a
distance from each Tee equal to one-
sixth the entire length of the rink.
Every stone not reaching this line is
called a " hog," and is taken off the
ice except it strike another stone
lying on the line.
4. No stone shall be changed after
the beginning of a game, unless it be
broken, in which case the largest
piece is scored for the play in which
it was broken.
5. If the played stone rolls and
stops on its side or top it shall not
be counted, but put off the ice.
6. If the handle parts from the
stone in playing, the player must
keep hold of it, otherwise he shall
not be entitled to replay his shot
turn.
7. No player must cross the rink,
or go on it except when sweeping in
accordance with the following rule.
8. Both parties may sweep the
rink ; the player's party while the
stone is moving from the middle line
to the Tee, and the opposite party
after it passes the Tee. All sweep-
ing must be from side to side, and
no sweepings must be left in front of
a sliding stone.
9. If a player's stone be obstructed
by his own party it shall be put off
the ice ; if by the opposite party it
shall be placed where the skip of
the side to which it belongs may
direct.
10. If a player play out of turn his
stone may be stopped and returned,
but if the mistake is not discovered
till the stone is at rest, the opposite
party is allowed the choice of letting
the shot stand and adding one to
their score, or of declaring the round
void.
11. If a player play a wrong stone,
it may be stopped and returned, but
if allowed to come to rest, it shall be
replaced by his own.
12. No shot shall be measured till
the end of the round.
13. The "skips" or captains of
the two sides have exclusive control
each of his own party. Each, when
it is his turn to play, appoints some
other player to take temporary
charge. The skips decide on the
order of play, direct where their men
shall stand, and how they shall sweep,
and decide disputed questions. If
they cannot agree, the dispute shall
be referred to an umpire or some out-
sider. No one but the skip on his
own side shall address any player in
the act of sliding his stone.
History, Curling originated in
Scotland, where it has been a favorite
for three hundred years. It is played
there by all classes of people, a
wealthy landowner sometimes acting
as skip for one party, while the leader
of the other is a common laborer.
The game was first played on this
continent at Montreal about the
beginning of this century, being in-
troduced there by Scotchmen. It
is now played in all parts of the
United States wherever a sheet of
ice can be had, Americans having
rapidly become experts at the game.
Owing to intense cold and snow-
storms in Canada covered rinks are
mostly used, lighted and used in the
evening as well as by daylight. The
unwritten laws of curling against any
gambling or betting on the game, or
profanity on the ice, are very em-
phatic and rigidly enforced. The
Grand National Curling Club of
America, organized in 1867, and
having now 44 associated clubs, has
clone a great deal toward populariz-
ing the game, and reducing it to a
science in this country. Matches for
several championship medals are
played for annually under its aus-
pices. The records in the oldest of
these, that for the Gordon medal, are
given in the appendix. Besides these
" rink medals," others called " point
medals" are contended for, the ob-
ject being to play perfectly certain
shots, such as " inwicking," " out-
CURVE OF DESCENT
243
CYCLING
wicking," " chap and lie," and " chip
the winner."
Curling stones are greatly im-
proved of late years both in appear-
ance and usefulness, the best being
made from granite quarried at Ailsa-
craig, a barren island on the Scottish
coast. They are known as gray,
blue, and red hones. The word
" Curling " applies to the curves in
which skilled players send their
stones to avoid obstacles. Similar
games are known in Holland as Cal-
luiten, in Flanders as hisblocken
(ice-blocks), and in Germany as Eis-
kugeln (ice-balls).
CURVE OF QUICKEST DE-
SCENT. The shape of the trough
down which a marble will roll in
the shortest time from one point
to another is not a straight line,
as one might think, but a curve
called a cycloid. Such a trough
can be made as follows : To draw
the cycloid, procure a circular piece
of board or thick pasteboard, a ruler,
or straight board more than half
as long as the circumference of the
circle, and some sheets of blank
newspaper. The size may be as
large as desired, but a good one is
made by taking a circle two feet in
diameter and a ruler about four feet
long. Lay the paper on a smooth
floor and the ruler upon it. Cut a
notch in the edge of the circle to
hold the point of a lead pencil. Lay
the circle on the paper with the
notch touching the ruler, place the
pencil point in the notch, and roll the
circle along the ruler, taking care
that it does not slide at all. The
curve drawn by the pencil held in the
notch is a cycloid. When the notch
has reached the top, that is, when the
circle has rolled half-way around,
stop. To make the trough, take a
strip of pine wood an inch wide and
thin enough to bend easily. Bend it
to the curve, as it lies on the floor,
and hold it in shape by sticking pins
into the floor on each side of it. Then
lay down a stiff piece of wood, also an
inch wide, parallel with the ruler and
touching the curve at the point where
the drawing was stopped. Fasten
the curved and straight strips to-
gether by nailing pieces of lath from
one to the other, so that the curved
piece will keep its shape. Set the
arrangement upright, the straight
piece forming the base, and glue
strips of paper along the side of the
curved piece to form a trough. It
will be found that a marble will roll
down this curve quicker than down
any other line connecting the same
points. To show this, troughs can be
made of various shapes, including
one straight line. If marbles be held
at the top of these and released all
at the same time, the one on the
cycloid will always get to the bottom
quickest.
Another curious thing about this
curve is that a marble takes the same
time to roll to the bottom of it, no
matter where it starts. For instance,
if one marble be held at the top
and another half-way down, and
both be released at once, the upper
one will strike the lower one just as
it gets to the bottom. This curve is
often called the Brachistochrone,
from the Greek brachistos, shortest,
and chronos, time.
CYCLING. The early forms of
bicycle are described in the article
j VELOCIPEDE (C. C. T.). About a
' thousand varieties of bicycles and
tricycles are now made, but they all
belong to five or six classes or types.
They have frames of steel, but gener-
ally the rims of the wheels, and
sometimes the handle-bars, are of
wood, and the wheels have hollow
rubber tires which are inflated with
air. The pedals, by which the feet
operate the wheels, have rubber bars
or steel plates, and the axles revolve
on what are called " ball bearings,"
that is, the axle rests near its ends,
and revolves, on rows of little steel
balls to lessen the friction, as shown
in Fig. I. The bicycles now almost
universally used are of the type
originally for a short time called the
" rover," from the name of the first
CYCLING
244
CYCLING
one of the kind that became popular.
They were also known as" safeties,"
although there were other types of
so-called safety bicycles, the name
Fig. I. — Ball Bearings.
being given to almost any bicycle
which differed in shape and con-
struction from the high or " ordi-
nary " bicycle. The French still
call the type " bicyclettes." The
wheels are generally of the same size,
28 inches in diameter, and 26 or 24
for children. The rear one drives
and the front one steers. The pedals
are in the middle between the
wheels, and are generally connected
with the rear wheel by a chain,
although in chainless wheels some
other device, such as a rod with
gears at the ends, is substituted.
Bicycles for women have the upper
cross tube of the frame curved down-
ward toward the bottom bracket so
as to remove everything in the way
of a skirt. The small-wheeled cycle
was originally called a " safety " be-
cause there was less danger of a
fall from it than from the type of
wheel then in common use — that
with a very large wheel in front.
The old type still retains the name
of " ordinary," though it is no
longer used. It had no gear, and
the cranks to which the pedals are
attached were directly on the axle
of the large wheel. The " Star,"
which was a transition form, had
the small wheel in front, and the
large wheel was worked by levers,
as seen in Fig. 3. The early safeties,
of the Kangaroo type, which was
practically a small " ordinary," were
often called " dwarf " bicycles be-
cause the front wheel was much
smaller than in the ordinary kind.
Another kind of safety bicycle, called
the "Otto," after its inventor, de-
serves notice only as a curiosity, be-
ing unlike other bicycles in having its
wheels side by side, thus resembling
a tricycle without its small wheel.
The rider's seat was placed between
them, above the axle, and he was
supposed to keep his balance by the
way he worked the pedals. There
was a prop behind to strike the
ground if the machine tipped back-
ward. This kind of bicycle has
never been used in the United States
and but rarely in England. It re-
quires special practice to ride it.
Fig. 2. — "Ordinary" Bicycle.
The Tandem bicycle is intended
to be ridden by two persons tandem
— that is, one in front of the other.
Both riders work pedals, connected
CYCLING
245
CYCLING
with the axle of the rear wheel by two
chains. The machine may be con-
structed so that it may be steered by
either or both riders. When the
front seat is adapted for women's
use, having a drop-frame, the tandem
is called a " combination " tandem.
Bicycles for three, four, or more
riders are also occasionally made.
They are called, respectively, " trip-
lets," "quadruplets," "quintuplets,"
etc. It is possible to attain great
speed on them, as the gear can be
made very high.
Tricycles. The tricycle is a three-
wheeled machine which can be
ridden by either girls or boys. It
is safe, and runs very easily and
smoothly. It is used by women and
elderly people, especially in England.
The kind shown in Fig. 6 is the one
now generally in use. One of the
first to become popular was known
as the " Cripper " type, said to have
had a race with these machines in
New York in 1888, but they havenever
been used practically, except perhaps
to give practice in rawing. Another
Fig. 3. — Star Bicycle.
been named from Robert Cripps, a
famous English rider.
Tandem tricycles are also occa-
sionally used. The " Sociable " tri-
cycle has its two seats side by side,
instead of one in front of the other.
One kind of tricycle, called the
" Road Sculler," is worked by the
hands by an action similar to row-
ing. Several professional oarsmen
Fig. 4. — Safety Bicycle.
curious tricycle, for use on a railway
track, is shown in Fig. 9. The
wheels have flanges like car wheels,
and the small wheel is directly be-
hind one of the large ones, so as to
run on the same rail.
Various fittings and
equipments are used on
almost all cycles, espe-
cially if the rider is taking
a long trip. A cyclom-
eter is an arrangement
connected with the wheel,
usually fastened to the
front axle, which shows
the distance traveled by
the cycle. A lantern is
generally required to be
carried at night ; it is se-
cured sometimes to the
hub of the forward wheel,
to the fork-side, but more
generally on the head, just
below the handle bars.
Lanterns serve the double
purpose of showing the
rider the condition of the road in
front of him, and of preventing colli-
sions by making his coming known
to others. They are usually oil
lamps with powerful reflectors, but
electric lamps with portable batteries
have been made, and one kind uses
acetylene gas, which is generated as
it is wanted by chemical means.
Bells or alarms are carried to give
CYCLING
246
CYCLING
warning of the cycle's approach.
Some make a continuous noise, like
an electric bell, or clock alarm,
while others give a single stroke, and
Fig. 5. — Ladies' Bicycle.
still others can be operated in either
way. They are generally operated
by pressing a lever. Instead of a
bell, a whistle was formerly much
used, but most local regulations now
require a bell.
An arrangement of steel and
leather straps for carrying baggage
is usually attached to the cycle on
a long trip. One of the devices used
is shown in Fig. 14.
The rider should carry with him
also a tool bag (Fig. 15), containing
a wrench, an oil can, a piece of cloth,
chain lubricant, and a tire-repairing
kit, for use in keeping his machine
Fig. 6.— Tricycle.
in order and repairing it in case of
accident.
Bicycle riding can be learned in
cities in special riding-schools es-
tablished for the purpose, but it is
possible to learn on an ordinary road,
and some think this preferable, be-
cause after learning on a smooth
floor it is difficult, at first, to ride in
Fig. 7. — Tandem Tricycle.
the street. The learner may get on
his bicycle at first while an assistant
holds it, mounting not being prac-
ticed till later. The first thing to be
learned is the balance, which is ac-
quired only by practice. The great
art consists in turning the forward
wheel very slightly toward which-
ever side the bicycle begins to fall.
It is necessary to have aid at first
from some experienced rider, though
some authorities advise that the
balance be learned by riding down a
very gentle incline without placing
Fig. 8. — Tandem Safety.
the feet on the pedals at all. When
the learner can make the descent suc-
cessfully, he may begin to use the
pedals, at first merely placing his
feet on them, and gradually begin-
ning to use a little force. The foot
CYCLING
247
CYCLING
should not be held rigidly when
pedaling, using force only on the
down stroke, but the crank should
be pushed forward at the top of the
stroke and back at the bottom. In
order to do this the heel should be
dropped at the top and raised at the
bottom. This is called "ankle mo-
tion."
Position. The rider sTiould sit
erect unless he wishes to attain a
high speed, is running against the
wind, or is mounting a hill, when it
lightens the work somewhat to lean
forward over the handles. The
handles should be held lightly, and
the rider should practice steering
with one hand. It is possible also
to ride without touching the handles
at all, guiding the bicycle simply by
altering ihe balance. The bicycle
can be slowed by using the brake or
by " back pedaling," that is, by
pressing down on each pedal slightly
Fig. Q;— -Railvvay tricycle.
as it rises, A skillful rider can thus
regulate his speed when descending a
moderate hill, exactly as he wishes.
In learning to use the brake, it Should
be applied cautious!^ at first, , The
sole of the shoe may be used as a
brake by applying if to the front tire1;
care being taken to place it side-
ways, so that the t6e will hot be
drawn into the fork. This requires
much care and skill.
" Coasting " is riding downhill
without touching the pedals, the feet
being on the " Coasters," which are
rests fastened on the front fork, or
on the crown of the fork itself. Skill-
ful, ft clefs Coast swiftly down steep
hills. The learner should not try it
till he has practiced level riding for
seven or ,eig.ht weeks, and should
then begin bn a gentle, smooth in-
cline; A bicycle should never be
used to coast on a rough hill or an
unknown hill, nor on a hill where
CYCLING
248
CYCLING
there are other vehicles. The rider
should never let the machine get
beyond his control.
Mounting and Dismounting, Dis-
mounting is better learned before
mounting, as it is easier. To dis-
Fig. lo. — Cyclometer.
mount by the pedal, which is the
usual . method, the rider slows his
machine, and as the descending pedal
reaches its lowest point he steps' oft
from it, throwing the other leg" over
the frame. Mounting by the pedal
is the reverse of this, anil. is the
only method that can -be used on a
woman's wheel.
To learn to mount from the step
the rider should learn tO'steer. the
machine while standing on the step,
without trying to gain the saddle.
When he can do this he should slide
gentle into the saddle while the ma-
chine is moving slowly.
Tricks. Many fancy tricks which
can be learned only by imitation and
practice are performed by skilled
bicyclists on their machines. They
include vaulting in and out of the.
saddle, dismounting by throwing
one leg over the»handles, riding side-
saddle, and balancing the machine
on one wheel. Bicycle olubs often
perform many difficult evolutions to-
gether, going through a sort of drill.
Rules of the Road. After the in-
troduction of the bicycle there was
some doubt as to its rights and
privileges on the road, but the courts
of nearly every State have ruled that
it is a vehicle, with all the rights of
one. In most large places bicycles,
like other vehicles, are not allowed
on sidewalks. Cycles approaching
each other or other vehicles are
obliged to turn out to the right, and
a cycle overtaking another vehicle
passes it oh its left. If there is no
room to pass unless the other vehicle
turn aside, the cyclist should ring
his bell, and where the room for
passage is very narrow, he must dis-
mount and lead his cycle past the
other vehicle. In the evening the
lantern should always be lighted.
Bicycles are most used in the
neighborhood of cities or large
towns, where there are hard, smooth
roads. Tours or trips on bicycles
should be planned with reference to
theconditioh of the roads; and, to aid
in this, bicycle guides are now pub-
lished, by many of the State divi-
sions of the League of American
Wheelmen giving lists and descrip-
tions of practicable routes.
Fig. ii.— Cycle Bell.
Tires. The .modern pneumatic
tires are a source of trouble to many
wheelmen, as they are apt to be
punctured, which lets out the air and
makes it almost impossible to ride
on them. They are of two kinds — •
CYCLING
249
CYCLING
double-tube and single-tube. In
vthe former an inner tube of thin
rubber holds the air, while a thick
outer one takes the wear, and in the
latter the two tubes aft united into
one. Each form has its advocates.
Many so-called " unpuncturable "
tires are made ; but, in general, if a
tire is elastic and easy-riding, it is
easily punctured ; if tough and hard,
it is non-elastic and hard to ride.
Every rider should learn how to re-
pair slight punctures, and should
Fig. 12. — Lamp and Luggage Carrier.
carry with him one of the numerous
outfits sold for that purpose.
Gear. With the old-fashioned
" ordinary " wheel the relation be-
tween the revolution of the pedals
and the speed of the wheel depended
wholly on the diameter of the front
wheel. The larger the wheel the
further the machine would travel
for one turn of the cranks. Hence
the speed was limited by the size of
the wheel. With the modern form,
as the cranks are not fastened to the
axle of the wheel, this relation
depends on the relative sizes of the
front and rear sprockets, and is not
so limited. The larger the front
sprocket is in proportion to the
rear one, the higher the possible
speed. What is called the "gear "
of a wheel is a distance equal to the
diameter of the old " ordinary," that
will go as far in one turn of the
pedals. It is found by multiplying
the diameter of the wheel (generally
28 inches) by the ratio of the number
of teeth on the front to those on the
rear sprocket. Thus, if the front
sprocket has 20 teeth and the rear
one 8, the gear is 28 x Y~> or 70 ;
that is, the wheel corresponds to
an old " ordinary " with a front
wheel 5 feet 10 inches in diameter.
The higher the gear the slower it is
necessary to move the feet, but the
greater the pressure that
has to be put on the
pedals. High gears make
hill climbing more diffi-
cult. Most gears are be-
tween 60 and 76, and
the lower ones are better
for the general rider,
though each one must de-
cide by experience which
will suit him best.
Bicycle Racing. Races
on bicycles are now in-
cluded among the events
of almost every outdoor
athletic meeting. See
ATHLETICS. Great speed
has been attained on these
machines. A bicycle can
not only go faster than a horse
for a short distance, but it can keep
up with one for a long distance.
The League of American Wheelmen,
which is the only national associa-
tion of bicyclists in this country,
though there are numerous local
clubs, has now more than 100,000
members. It was formed in 1880
to secure the rights of riders in the
courts, and, having done this, is now
turning its attention to the improve-
ment of 'highways. It has a division
in nearly every State, the chief officer
of which is called a Consul. It pub-
lishes a weekly paper called the " L.
A. W. Bulletin/' which is sent to each
member for twenty-five cents. The
following rules are condensed from
those of the League governing
bicycle racing, which have been
adopted also by , the National
CYCLING
250
CYCLING
Amateur Athletic Union, are as
follows :
RULES FOR BICYCLE RACING.
Records. The standard table of
recognized records shall be 1-4, 1-3,
1-2, 2-3, 3-4, I mile, and all even
miles upward ; no intermediate dis-
tances.
Records against time may be
made at an open meeting, or in
private, and with or without pace-
makers.
The Board will consider flying-
start only in records against time ;
standing-start only in competition
records.
A competition record must be
made in a race between men.
Records made with the assistance
of other than recognized cycling
machines, propelled by man power,
will be recorded separately.
In unpaced events, or dufing un-
paced record trials, there shall be no
pacing devices, and only the rider
making the trial shall be on the
track.
Tracks. Tracks shall be meas-
ured on a line drawn eighteen inches
out from a well-defined, fixed and
continuous inner curb or pole ; no
record shall be allowed on a track
otherwise measured.
Machines Excluded. The Board
reserves the right to exclude from
the racing path any and all machines
which, in its judgment, do not
come within the commonly accepted
meaning of the term "bicycle,"
either by peculiarity of construction
or by undoubted mechanical advan-
tages which they may possess.
Road Racing. The League of
American Wheelmen regards racing
on the public highways as an unlaw-
ful practice, and refuses to recognize
and legislate for such form of the
sport except to forbid the competing
together therein or pacemaking one
for the other, of amateurs and pro-
fessionals.
Should any part of a road race
be run upon the track, such part
immediately becomes subject to
track rules.
TRA CK RULES.
Officials; their Powers and Duties.
The officers of all race meetings
and cycling events shall be a referee,
who must be an amateur wheelman,
three judges at the finish, three time-
keepers, one starter, one scorer, one
clerk of the course, with assistants
if necessary, and one umpire for each
turn of the track, or more, at option
of the referee. The referee, judges,
and clerk of the course shall consti-
tute the Executive Board.
The referee shall have general
supervision of the race meeting.
He shall give judgment on protests
received by him, shall decide all
questions or objections respecting
foul riding or offenses which he may
be personally cognizant of, or which
may be brought to his attention by
an umpire or other officer.
The judges shall decide the posi-
tions of the men at the finish. In
case of disagreement the majority
shall decide.
The timekeepers shall compare
watches before the races are started,
and shall note any variance ; they
shall each time every event, and in
case of disagreement the intermedi-
ate time of the three watches shall
be the official time. Time shall be
taken from the flash of a pistol. In
case two watches of the three mark
the same time, that shall be the
official time.
The scorer shall record the laps
made by each competitor, the order
of the men at the finish as given him
by the judges, and the time as given
him by the timekeepers. He should
indicate the commencement of the
last lap by ringing a bell as the
riders pass over the tape for the
final lap, but the riders must keep
count of the laps for themselves.
It shall be the duty of the starter,
when it has been reported to him by
the clerk of the course that all the
competitors are ready, to see that
CYCLING
CYCLING
the timekeepers are warned, and,
before starting the men, to say,
" Mount " ; in a few seconds after
to say, " Are the timers ready ?
Are the starters ready ? " and, if no
reply to the contrary be given, to
effect a start by a report of a pistol.
Should the pistol miss fire, the start
may be made by the word " Go."
The starter shall announce to the
competitors the distance which they
are to ride. The starter may, at hi*
Fig. 13.— Tool Bag.
discretion, put back for a distance
any competitor starting before the
signal is given. In case of a false
start, the competitors shall be called
back by the starter by the ringing of
a bell or pistol fire and restarted.
In case of a fall or accident within
thirty feet of the scratch line, the
contestants shall be recalled by the
starter by the ringing of a bell or
pistol fire, and the race started over
again.
The clerk of the course shall call
competitors in ample time for each
event, and see that they are provided
with numbers properly worn. He
shall report the contestants to the
scorers, see that they are on their
appointed marks, and call the num-
bers for the scorers as they cross
the line at the end of each lap.
It shall be the duty of the umpire
to stand at such part of the field as
the referee may direct, to watch
closely the riding, and immediately
after each race to report to the
referee any unfair riding he may see.
Positions. The drawing for posi-
tions in each event shall be done by
the promoters of the meeting, and
the positions of the men shall appear
on the programme. When it be-
comes necessary to draw for posi-
tions on the grounds, the work shall
be done by the clerk and starter in
conjunction. In heat races the
winner of a heat shall take the pole
(or inside position) the succeeding
heat, and the other riders shall take
their positions in the order assigned
them in judging the last preceding
heat. When two or more riders
make a dead heat, they shall start
for the succeeding heat in the same
positions with reference to the pole
that they occupied at the finish of
the dead heat.
When races are run in heats and
a final, the winner of the fastest heat
shall take the pole in the final, the
winner of the second fastest heat
the next position, and so on. If
more than one qualifies for the final
from each heat, the second man in
fastest heat shall be next outside
the winner of slowest heat, and so
on. Only the winners of positions
in the trial heats, as stipulated by
the terms of the race, shall compete
in the final.
No one shall be allowed in a final
because of a foul or an accident in
a trial heat.
Should two or more riders make
a dead heat of any qualifying place
in a trial heat, they shall both be
allowed to enter the final heat, ex-
cept in the National Championship.
Should two or more riders make a
dead heat of any final, or a dead
heat for second or any lower place
for which there is a prize, they may
decide by lot who shall take the
prize, or may again ride the distance
to decide the race, at the discretion
of the referee.
Starts. All starts shall be from
the inside of the track, and, except
in a flying-start event, shall be from
a standstill, with the left hand
toward the curb, and the machines
shall be held in position by an
attendant (the front wheel touching
the starting line) until the signal is
given by starter. Attendants, when
CYCLING
252
CYCLING
pushing off competitors, must keep
behind the mark from which the
competitors actually start. Should
any part of the attendant touch the
track in front of the mark, the com-
petitor may be disqualified. Unless
excused by the referee, every rider
who enters in a handicap race must
start in same.
Finish. The finish of all races
shall be judged by the first part of
the front wheel which touches the
tape fastened flat on the ground at
the winning post, and no rider
shall be allowed a finishing posi-
tion who abandons the track and
afterward returns and crosses the
tape.
Riding. Riders shall pass on the
outside (unless the man passed be
dismounted), and must be at least
a clear length of the cycle in front
before taking the inside, but on
entering the homestretch in the last
lap of a race, the foremost rider or
riders must keep to that part of the
track first selected ; and the hind-
most rider or riders, when there is
sufficient room to pass on the inside
or anywhere on the homestretch
without interfering with others, shall
be allowed to do so. A rider shall
not change from the inner to the
outside of the track during any part
of a race when another rider is so
near that in altering his position he
interferes with or impedes the prog-
ress of the rider. No rider shall
touch another.
No rider during a race shall turn
his head to look, backward, remove
his hands from the handle-bars, or
otherwise ride in a careless or un-
skillful manner, thereby imperiling
the safety of other riders.
Competitors may dismount dur-
ing a race at their pleasure, and may
run with their cycles if they wish to,
but they must keep to the extreme
outside of the path whenever dis-
mounted. If a rider be dismounted
by accident, or to change his
machine, an attendant may hold his
Machine while he mounts it, and he
shall so mount at the extreme out-
side of the path.
Time Limits. The referee may
place a time limit on any race except
handicap, team, and lap races. The
time limit shall not be announced
to the contestants until their arrival
at the tape, preparatory to the start
of the race. If the competitors
finish within the limit, they shall
receive the prizes. If they fail to so
finish, and the referee is convinced
by their riding and the time that
they endeavored to reach the limit,
he may award the prizes.
Pacemaking. A general pace-
maker may be put in any race by
the race promoter, having previously
notified the referee of the fact. He
shall assist no single rider, but shall
act to increase the speed of the race
in general. He shall, if a single
rider only, be entitled to any place
or prize he may win, if he starts
from the scratch, or may be re-
warded by a special prize, within the
limits of the class.
Tandems, or pacing machines
carrying more than two riders, may
be put in to pace competitions only
by -written consent of the member of
the Racing Board in charge of the
district.
Track Privileges and Decoriim.
No person whosoever shall be
allowed inside the track except the
officials of the meet. The handi-
cappers of the meet shall at all
times, however, have track privi-
leges. Authorized persons shall
wear a badge. Competitors or
pacemakers not engaged in a race
actually taking place shall not be
allowed inside or on the track. No
one shall be allowed to " coach "
competitors on the track. No
shouting or remarks by trainers or
attendants to encourage certain
riders or disconcert others shall be
permitted.
Choice of Machines and Costumes.
Choice or change of machine and
choice of costume shall not be
limited except that shirt shall not
253
CYCLING
bare shoulders, and breeches must
reach to the knees.
In races distinctly stated on the
programme of events to be for a
particular class of machine, this rule
shall not apply so far as choice and
change of machine are concerned.
Safety bicycle races shall be limited
to machines whose driving wheel
does not exceed thirty-six inches in
diameter.
Competitors to Wear Numbers.
Every competitor shall receive in
the dressing-room a number, •corre-
sponding with his number on the
programme, which must be worn
on his back or right shoulder dur-
ing the race. He shall inform him-
self of the times at which he must
compete, and wait the call of. the
clerk in the dressing-room.
Definition of, Races. A novice
race is open only to those who have
never won a prize, in a track race,
and shall be the first race of the
meet. A novice .race is a class race.
A class race is only open to those
who, *ip to date of the closing 06 the
entries, have not won the first: posi-
tion in a track race or trial ". beat in
the same or better time than the
class under consideration! In all
class races the time limit-.shall J^e
the time of the class. .; .If -the com-
petitors fail to finish within the limit,
and it is a good day, good track, and
there are pacemakers, the referee
shall declare it no race. If they fail
to finish in the time limit, and there
are no pacemakers, or it is not (in
the judgment of the refejee) a good
day, or it is not a good track, and
the referee is convinced by their rid-
ing that they endeavored to reach
the limit, and were not able to do so
because of the absence of any one or
all three, conditions, he may award
the prizes, ;
Jn a lap race the position, of the
first three men shall be. taken at the
finish of every lap.. .The first i,nap
shall score three .points, the second
man shall score two points, and the-
third man shall score one point,, arid
no others shall score. The contest-
ant who crosses the line first at the
finish shall, for that lap, score four
points. The competitor who scores
the greatest number of points shall
be declared the winner, but any con-
testant, in order to secure a prize,
must ride the entire distance and be
within 150 yards of the finish when
the first man crosses the tape at the
end of the last lap. The i5O-yard
mark must be marked by a flag.
In a team race the positions of all
the riders starting shall be taken at
the end of the race.
The first man shall count a num-
ber of points equal to the number of
men starting, the second one less,
and so on.
The team scoring the greatest
number of points shall be declared
the winner.
A team shall be limited to three
riders, each of whom shall have been
a member of the club, entering the
team for at .least three months pre-
vious to date of event. Each team
member must also have resided
within five miles of the city or town
where the club has its headquarters
for at least six months previous tp
the date of contest. •.• ' ,'
In a heat race t(ie position of
each rider must be taken at the
finish of each heat.' The first man
shall count a number equal to that
of the contestants in the first heat,
the second man shall count one less,
the third two less, and on on. The
competitor who scores the greatest
number of points shall be declared
the winner.
Or, as an alternative, which must
be stated on the programme as rule
or alternative, in running a heat
race, such event may be conducted
under the rule outlined below:
When the race is best two out
of three heats,, the ;winner is .not
reached. until one rider _has won two
heats, either through virtue of finish-
ing first or by the, disqualification of
a competitor, or competitors who
may finish . in , ,f ront and Jose such
CYCLING
254
CYCLING
position or positions through ruling
or rulings of the referee. The
second and other prizes shall be dis-
tributed according to the standing
of the rider in the summary, heat
winners to be placed before all those
who have occupied lesser positions,
and in case two riders are tied by
finishing an equal number of times
in the same position, the one occupy-
ing the best position in the conclud-
ing heat shall be awarded the prize.
In every heat a rider must finish
within 150 yards of the winner or be
adjudged distanced. In case a rider
fails to win one heat in three, he will
Fig, 14.— English Cycle Post,
be disqualified from any subsequent
heats that may be necessary to de-
cide the prizes.
Entries in a consolation race shall
be limited to those who have not
won a prize in any event of the
meeting ; provided, however, if only
a single prize is given in the team
race, members of the winning team
shall not be considered to have won
a prize and shall be eligible to the
consolation race,
In a pursuit race the conditions
must be printed on the programme
or announced to the spectators.
In a handicap race the marks
must be printed on the programme,
and the men must start from the
marks assigned by the hanclicapper
in trial heats and finals.
In. middle-distance races (10 to
100 miles) the terms and conditions
must be printed on the programme.
Igntfra'nce of Rales No Excuse.
Ignorance of any of the foregoing
rules will riot he considered a valid
excuse for violation.
ff&ferpi The early history of the
bicycle and the tficycle is given in
the article Velocipede, in C. C. T.
CYCLING
DANCING IMP
Since the introduction of the bicycle
proper (about 1876), so many im-
provements have been made in it that
it is now a very impor-
tant machine and has
found many uses which
were once scaicely
thought of. One of the
greatest differences be-
tween the modern bicycle
and the old velocipede
is in the construction of
the wheels. They were
formerly made like those
of a carriage, with
stout wooden spokes, the
weight resting on each
spoke in turn as it came
underneath the hub. Now
the spokes are of steel
wire, and the weight is
supported by the spokes above the
hub, which is hung, as it were, from
the rim of the wheel. Thisplan, which
is called the " suspension principle,"
by enabling the builders to make
light wheels, has done much toward
perfecting the modern bicycle.
Many grown people use cycles now
for health as well as recreation ;
many travel long distances on them ;
they are used in delivering letters
and parcels, and in England and
IS- — Military Cycle.
Germany soldiers are trained to ride
the military cycle. Cycling has be-
come a very popular pastime, and
has grown to be something beyond
mere boy's sport. Bicycles were
first made in the United States in
1878, and hundreds of bicycle
manufactories are now situated in
this country.
D
DANCING
IMP. Join tight-
ly with sealing
wax the halves
of a walnut shell
from which the
kernel has been
removed. Fast-
en alittle wooden
doll, three or
four inches long,
by threads to the
nut, weighting
the doll frith shot
or otherwise, so
that the nut will
float in water
with as little of
its shell above
the surface as possible. Make a
Dancing Imp.
hole with an awl in the lower side
of the nut and float it in a jar of
water, filled within an inch or two of
the top. Tie a piece of India-rubber
cloth tightly over the top of the jar.
If the India-rubber be now pressed
with the finger the doll will sink, and
when the pressure is removed it will
rise again. This is because the pres-
sure forces some water into the nut
through the hole in the bottom, and
the additional weight is just enough
to sink it. This toy is called also
Ludion or Bottle Imp, and small
ones were sold on the streets of New
York in 1889 under the name of
" McGinty," being supposed to il-
lustrate the popular song " Down
went McGinty to the Bottom of
the Sea."
DICE
256
DICE
DEVIL ON TWO STICKS. See
FLYING CONE.
DIBS. See JACK STONES.
DICE (plural of die), small white
cubes of ivory, bone, or celluloid,
used in gaming. Each of the six
faces or sides of a die is marked by a
different number of black spots or
dots, from i to 6. The dots are so
arranged that the sum of the dots on
opposite sides is always seven ; that
is, the One and Six, the Two and
Five, and the Three and Four are
opposite each other. As in cards,
the one, two, and three-spots are
often called respectively, the Ace,
Deuce, and Tray. In playing, one pr
more of the dice are shaken and
thrown from a dice-box upon a table.
This is called a throw, and the num-
bers on the uppermost faces of the
dice are said to have been thrown.
The throw is unfair if a die rolls on
the floor ; if any one touches it while
it is rolling on the table ; if it is
tilted on edge against some obstacle ;
or if one die rests on the top of
another.
Dice are used to determine the
moves in games like Backgammon
and Parchesi, but several games may
be played with them alone.
Raffling or Raffles, a game of
dice, played by any number of per-
sons with three dice. Each, in turn
throws till he throws two numbers
alike, called a Pair. When all have
thrown, he who made the highest
throw wins. Pairs rank according
to the number of spots on the paired
dice, and a triplet, or three of a kind
ranks higher than any Pair. Thus,
a pair of Fives is higher than a
pair of Fours, but three Twos is
still higher.
Centennial, a game of Dice played
by two or more persons, each for
himself, or by partners, two or three
on a side. The players use three
dice at a time, and not only the
numbers thrown, but the sum of any
two or of all of them counts toward
the score. The object is to score the
lumbers from I to 12 in order, and
then, the numbers in reverse order
back to i. Each player may throw
until he, fails to score, when the
turn passes to the left. Each player
keeps his score by writing the num-
bers on paper as he makes them,
and then crossing them out in re-
verse order. He whose numbers are
crossed out first wins the game.
Several numbers may be scored in
one throw : thus I, 2, and 3 score
all the numbers, up to 6. Part-
ners have only one score between
them, and the numbers thrown
by each count toward it.
Help Your Neighbor, a game of
dice played by any number of per-
sons, with one die. Each player
marks the numbers i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, on
paper. The. one who begins the
game then throws the die and marks
out of his figures the number he
throws ; and he continues throwing
as long as he can mark off the number
thrown. When he throws a number
that he has already marked off, the
player on his left crosses it off his own
score, and then takes his turn. Each
player does likewise, and he whose
score is all crossed off first wins.
If, in the course of the game, neither
a player nor his left-hand neighbor
have the number that is thrown,
the nearest player on the left who
has it marks it off.
Draw Poker. The players use five
dice, which are first thrown at one
cast, and then any or all of them
may be thrown again ; just as in the
card game each player may draw
new cards. The " hands " are the
same as in ordinary DRAW POKER,
save that there is no Flush and
that there can be five of a kind,
which ranks above four of a kind
and is the highest possible hand.
The highest hand wins the pool.
As every one sees the hands of all
1 the other players, there is no " bet-
ting."
Multiplication. Three dice are
thrown by each player, who, leaving
the highest on the table, throws th«
other two again, and then the low-
DICE
257
DICTIONARY
est of these is thrown a third time.
The sum of the first two is multiplied
by the third, and the player whose
result is the highest wins the game.
Vingt-et-Un. Two dice are used,
and each player throws as many
times as he wishes. He, the sum of
whose throws is nearest 21, is the
winner. But if any one throw more
than 21 he loses. Vingt-et-Un is
French for Twenty-one.
Dice with Eight Sides. Dice
formed of four-sided pyramids, fas-
tened base to base, have recently
been invented in France. Each die
has thus eight sides, on which are
marked numbers from two to nine.
The value of a throw is the product
of the numbers thrown ; thus, with
two dice it may be anywhere from
four to eighty-one. These dice
are intended to be used by children,
to make them familiar with the multi-
plication table. They are called also
octahedral dice, from the Greek
okto, eight, and hedron, side.
History. Dice have been known
since the earliest times. The Greeks
said that they were invented by
Palamecles at the siege %of Troy.
Plutarch says they were devised by
the Egyptians ; and bone or ivory
dice have been found in Thebes,
Egypt, similar to those now in use.
They are mentioned by Homer in the
Odyssey, in the Rig Veda (one of the
sacred books of the Hindoos), and in
other ancient writings. The Greeks
and Romans gave to the various
throws the names of heroes and
gods, the best being called Venus,
after the goddess ,of love. The
game was very popular in Rome,
where rich men, in the latej days of
the empire, sometimes staked their
fortunes on a single throw. The
Romans used two kinds of dice ;
tali, made of the huckle bones from
the legs of sheep and goats, or to
imitate them, and tessercz, cubical
like our dice. The ends of the tali
were left blank because they were
so narrow, and the four other sides
Were numbered I, 3, 4 and 6. With-
out the numbers the tali were played
like our JACK STONES. Dice con-
tinued to be played so widely in
Europe that in the Middle Ages there
were in France academies where
dice games were taught, and the
makers of dice formed a separate
company. They were many times
forbidden, because used for gamb-
ling, and it is said that CARDS were
originally devised to turn people's
attention from them. A curious dice
box once in use in England is shown
Old English Dice-box.
in the illustration. The dice used in
it had no spots at all, and the value
of the throw depended on where they
fell when put into the funnel-shaped
tube at the top.
Dice made of huckle bones, or to
imitate them, are still used in Eastern
countries, where the different throws
are given names, as among the
ancients. Thus the Arabs call the
Ace " Thief," the Three " Lamb,"
and the Six " King "; and the Turks
call the Three " Peasant " and the
Four " Knight."
The origin of the word die is not
certainly known, though in some
form it appears in every language in
Europe. The late ' Latin form was
dadus, which some think is from
datus (a thing given or thrown forth)
and some from the Arabic dadd, a
die.
DICTIONARY or VERBARIUM, a
game played with pencil and paper,
by any number of persons, who try
to see which can make the largest
number of words from the letters
composing a larger word, called the
Head-word. The word to be used,
DICTIONARY
258
DISTILLATION
which should contain as many vowels
and as few double letters as possi-
ble, is first agreed upon, and each
player writes it plainly at the head of
his sheet of paper. Each then writes
all the words he can think of, that
can be made from letters in the
Head-word. Those beginning with
its initial letter are taken first, and a
given time (usually from two to five
minutes) is allowed in which to write
them. At the end of that time the
players count their words, and he
who has made the longest list reads
it. Any word that is on all the lists
counts nothing, but other words
count each as many points as the
number of players who have omitted
it. Afterwards each of the other
players reads any words on his list
that have not been marked. All
words are crossed out as they are
read. After this, words beginning
with the second letter of the Head-
word are written, and so on till the
last letter has been reached. The
player who scores the greatest
number of points wins.
The game may often be made
more interesting by choosing sides,
but the sides should contain the
same number of players, otherwise
an omission would add more to the
score of one side than to that of the
other. The game is excellent train-
ing for rapidity of thought. The
player's ability to write long lists of
words quickly, increases greatly with
practice, so that a beginner is almost
always defeated.
RULES OF THE GAME.
I. At the beginning the players
must agree as to what classes of
words are allowable. One of the
standard dictionaries may be selected,
and any word allowed that can be
found in it ; or, no word may be
allowed that the writer cannot de-
fine correctly. This prevents put-
ting down groups of letters that
sound like words, in hope that they
may be in the dictionary. It must
also be settled whether plurals in s
and different moods and tenses of the
same verb are to count as separate
words or not.
2. No letter may be repeated in
any of the words, unless it is also re-
peated in the Head-word.
3. A time-keeper shall be selected
who shall keep his watch open before
him. No one shall write before the
time-keeper says " begin," nor after
he says " stop. "
The word Verbarium is Latin and
means a place where words abound.
The game is sometimes called in
New England " Androscoggin."
DIFFRACTION GRATING, Ex-
periment with a. Paint one side of
a square of glass with India ink or
liquid blacking, so that light cannot
shine through it, and then, with the
point of a needle, rule parallel lines on
it about one-tenth of an inch apart,
scratching quite through the layer of
black. Look through this glass at a
candle flame, or the edge of any
bright object, standing about twenty
feet from it. Move the glass toward
the eye and from it till it is at the
proper distance, when one or more
rainbow colored spots will be seen
on each side of the flame. These
spots can often be seen by half clos-
ing the eyes, and looking at the flame
through the eyelashes, which thus
take the place of the grating. The
colors are produced by the interfer-
ence of the light passing through the
various scratches in a way which can-
not be explained here, for want of
room.
DISTILLATION. The process of
distillation is described in C. C. T.
under ALCOHOL. To make a sim-
ple still to distill water (See CHEMI-
CAL EXPERIMENTS) fit a flask or
test-tube with a stopper and de-
livery tube connecting with a flask or
bottle (Fig. i). The first flask or
tube is partially filled with water and
supported or held over an alcohol
lamp, and the second stands in a
basin of cold water. The water
should come up much farther around
the bottle than shown in the illustra-
tion. When the water in the first flask
DISTILLATION
259
DISTILLATION
begins to boil, the steam passes over
to the second flask, where it con-
denses. The cold water in the basin
must be replaced as fast as it begins
to get warm.
A better way is to keep the cold
water continually changing so that
it will never grow warm. This can
be arranged as follows. Fasten to-
gether two or three argand lamp-
chimneys with putty or plaster of
Paris, so as to form a long tube as
shown in Fig. 2. Close each end with
two-holed rubber stopper or cork.
Fig. i. — Simple Still.
Through one of the holes in each
pass a glass tube so that it runs
through the lamp chimneys with-
out touching the sides. Support
this arrangement about six inches
from the table by placing it on two
blocks of wood. Connect one end
of the glass tube with a kettle in
which the water is to be boiled, and
under the other place a cup to
receive the distilled water. The
tube should incline a little toward
Fig. 2. — Home-made Still.
this cup. In the other hole of
each stopper put a short glass tube,
connecting the lower one with a cold
water faucet and the other with a sink.
The lamp chimneys will thus be kept
full of cold water, constantly chang-
ing. A bath tub is a good place in
which to set up the still, for then the
escaping cold water cannot possibly
harm anything.
For method of distilling alcohol,
See ALCOHOL, EXPERIMENTS WITH.
DOI.LS
260
DOMINOES
DOLLS. The manufacture of
dolls is described in C. C. T. Many
games can be played with dolls, some
of which will be described.
Doll Show. Several children
meet in one place, each bringing her
dolls. Prizes should be offered for
the prettiest doll, the most neatly
dressed doll, the doll who has trav- I
eled farthest, and so on, at the i
pleasure of the exhibitors. All i
present should vote on the award, |
and the doll receiving the greatest
number of votes is given the prize.
Paper Dolls. The paper dolls
sold at toy shops are merely colored
pictures printed on thick paper, .
which are to be cut out with scis-
sors. Any picture can be cut out
and used as a paper doll, but if it is
not on stiff paper it must have j
another thickness fastened to it to
stiffen it. Paper soldiers, bought at
the stores in sheets, may be cut out
and stiffened in the same way.
Paper dolls and soldiers may be
made to stand up by fastening them
with glue or brads to the side of a
small block of wood. Wooden
button-molds make the best stands :
stick a thin sliver of wood into the
hole and then glue the paper doll to
it. Paper furniture also may be |
bought at toy shops. After it is i
cut out it must be bent into shape
and fastened by pasting down flaps ]
which are cut out with it. Simple i
articles of furniture can be made by |
drawing them on thick paper, Bristol
board, or card-board, and then cut-
ting them out. The places for bend-
ing are cut half through with a sharp
knife. The cut must be made in
each case on what is to be the out-
side of the corner.
Vegetable Dolls, Dolls can be
made of corn husks by putting a
number of them together and tying
thread around the neck and waist.
The arms are formed of a separate
piece of twisted husk drawn through
the body crosswise, and both arms
and legs are wound with thread to
make them stiff. Another kind of
doll may be made with an ear of
corn for a body, a small green apple
for a head, hair of corn silk, and
bonnet and dress of husks.
Still other kinds are formed with
inverted flowers for dresses and seed
vessels for heads, fastened together
with thread. In all these cases, the
eyes, nose, and mouth must be
marked with ink.
DOMINOES, flat pieces of ivory or
bone, generally backed with ebony,
used in playing various games.
They are usually about two inches
long, one inch wide, and a quarter of
an inch thick. The face, which is
commonly white, is divided by a line
into two squares; each of which either
is blank or has on it from one to six
round spots or pips, grouped like
those on DICE. A domino having
the same number.of spots in each of
its squares is called a doublet.
Others are named from the number
of spots in both squares : thus, the
Four-six has four spots in one square
and six in the other. A single spot
is often called Ace, and two and
three spots are called Deuce and
Tray, as in CARDS.
Twenty-eight Dominoes are used
in playing games, the spots being
arranged as follows : Double-blank,
Blank-ace, Blank-two, Blank-three,
Blank-four, Blank-five, Blank-six ;
Double-Ace, Ace-two, Ace-three,
Ace-four, Ace-five, Ace-six ; Double-
Two, Two-three, Two-four, Two
five, Two-six ; Double Three, Three-
four, Three-five, Three-six ; Double-
Four, Four-five, Four-six ; Double-
Five, Five-six ; Double-six. The
picture shows them all but the
blanks.
In the ordinary game of Dominoes,
which can be played by from two to
four persons, the Dominoes are first
mixed as they lie on the table backs
upward, and then each player draws
seven. If any are left, they form
what is called the "pool." Each
usually stands his Dominoes on their
sides in front of him on the table,
placing them in a curved line, spots
DOMINOES
261
DOMINOES
inward, so that the other players can-
not see them. The player having
the highest doublet leads by placing
any Domino he pleases on the table,
face upward. The player on his left
must then play a Domino one of
whose squares matches one of its
squares. The two are placed in
line, with the matched ends touch-
ing, and then each player in order to
the left must match in like manner
one of the ends of the line thus formed,
as in the illustration. If a doublet is
played, it is often placed crosswise
instead of endwise in the line. If
any one cannot play, and any Domi-
noes remain in the pool, he must draw
them, one by one, before his neigh-
bor's turn, till he can play or till the
pool is gone. The player who first
Dominoes.
gets rid of all his pieces cries " Domi-
no "and scores the sum of the spots
on his opponents' remaining Domi-
noes. If it happens that no one can
play, while each has Dominoes left,
the game is said to be blocked, and
he who has the smallest number of
spots on his remaining Dominoes
scores as before. When " Domino "
is announced, or the game is blocked,
the Dominoes are mixed again, each
draws seven, as before, and the game
goes on. He whose score firs*
reaches 100 usually wins the game;
but the necessary number may be
made greater or less by agreement.
Sometimes the game is varied by
allowing no drawing after each has
taken his seven Dominoes.
Muggins, a game of Dominoes
Domino Game.
in which each player draws five at
the beginning. If any one plays so
that the sum of the spots on the end
squares of the line is 5, 10, 15, or 20,
he scores that number of points. If
the leader play a Domino, the sum of
whose spots is five or ten, he scores
in like manner. Thus if a Four is at
one end and a Two at the other he
who can match the Two with a Two-
six scores to, since the sum of the
end spots will equal that number
after his play. So also if a Double-
four is sfl*one end and any one plays
a Double-six on the other he scores
20. In other respects Muggins is
like the ordinary game.
Bergen Game, a game of Domi-
noes in which each player draws six
at the beginning. When a player
DOMINOES
262
DOMINOES
makes both ends of the line alike, he
is said to make a Double Header,
and scores two. When he plays so
that there is a doublet on one end,
and the other end is of the same
value he is said to make a Triple
Header, and scores three. He who
announces " Domino," scores one.
If the game is blocked, the player with
the smallest number of spots on his
remaining Dominoes scores one, but
the holder of a doublet cannot score,
even if he have less spots than the
others, unless all have doublets, when
he who has the smallest number of
doublets scores. If all have the
same number of doublets, he scores
that has the lowest. The number of
points in this game is small, usually
10 or 15.
Matadore, a game of Dominoes in
which the pieces, instead of being
matched, are placed so that the sum
of the spots on touching ends of two
Dominoes is always seven. Thus a
Five must join a Two, a Six an Ace,
and so on. The Double-blank, and
the three Dominoes with seven spots
(the Six-ace, Five-two, and Four-
three) are called Matadores, and can
be played at any time. It will be
noted that only a Matadore can be
played to a blank. Each playe/
draws three Dominoes at the begin-
ning of the game, and he who has the
highest doublet, or the highest piece,
if there are no doublets, leads. If any
one cannot play, he must draw Domi-
noes one by one in succession from
the pool till he can play, or till the
pool is gone. He must play if he can.
But when only two persons play the
game, three Dominoes must be left
in the pool, so that neither player
may know exactly what the other has.
The scoring is the same as in the
ordinary game. In Matadore the
player with the smallest number of
Dominoes usually tries to block the
game by playing blanks. Has oppo-
nents can prevent him by playing
only Dominoes that match blanks
already on the table.
Tidley-Wink, a game cf Domi-
noes, played by four, six, or eight per-
sons. Each draws three Dominoes
to begin with, and the one with the
highest double leads it. The other
players follow, in order, each match-
ing the Domino played just before
him, as in the ordinary game. Any
one who cannot play must wait till
his turn comes again. Any one who
plays a Double is allowed to play
another Domino to it, if he can, be-
fore the next player takes his turn.
He who first gets rid of his three
Dominoes calls out " Tidley-Wink,"
and wins the game.
Poker. Each player is given five
Dominoes and the game proceeds as
in DRAW POKER with cards, save
that there is no drawing. The
hands, in the order of their value, be-
ginning with the highest, are
1. An Invincible. — Five Doubles,
or Four Doubles and a Six.
2. A Straight Six. — A sequence of
sixes, as Six-Two, Six-Three, Six-
Four, Six-Five.
3. Four Doubles.
4. A Straight Five.
5. A Full.— Three Doubles and
two of a suit.
6. A Straight Four.
7. Three Doubles.
8. A Flush. — Five of a suit not in
sequence.
9. A Pair. — Two Doubles.
10. The highest Domino in a hand
that is none of the above. A Double
always ranks above any other.
Card-games with Dominoes. Sev-
eral games commonly played with
cards may also be played with Domi-
noes. In this case the larger num-
ber on each Domino shows the suit,
and the other number the rank in
the suit. Thus, a doublet stands at
the head of each suit, and the suits
do not contain the same number of
Dominoes. The Five-suit consists
of Double-five, Five-four, Five-three,
Five-two, Five-ace, Five-blank, and
the Two-suit contains only Double-
two, Two-ace, Two-blank. But the
trump-suit contains all the Dominoes
that bear the number of that suit,
DOMINOES
663
DOMINOES
whether the other number be smaller
or larger ; thus, if the Three-suit
is trumps the cards in it rank as
follows : Double-three, Three-six,
Three-five, Three-four, Three-two,
Three-ace, Three-blank. Of course
those trump-cards that would ordi-
narily be counted in other suits must
be omitted from these suits; thus, in
the case just given, the card next be-
low the Six-four is the Six-two, be-
cause the Six4hree (or Three-six) Is
a trump.
Domino Euchre, the doublet of
the trump suit is Right Bovver ; the
next lower doublet is Left Bovter;
but when Blank is trump the
Double-Six is Left Bbwef; the
player who draws the lowest Domino
is termed the dealer. After th'e
drawing for deal the Dominoes are
mixed again and each player in turn,
beginning at the dealer's left-, draws
five, The dealer then turns face Up*
ward one of the Dominoes that fe--
main, and its lafger number sh6fl%
the trump'SUit, He that orders up,
takes up, assists, or makes the trump,
always leads, but in other, respects
the game is played as it is with Cards.
Domino Rouhc6i This can .be
played by not more than four per-
sons. When two or three play, the
Dominoes in the po6l are ofteVi
divided in more than one Dummy or
Dumby (that is— extra hand), so that
each has the privilege of taking one,
even if the player before him has
already done so. When four play*
there is only one Dummy, but it con-
sists of seven pieces. The dealer is
chosen, the trump 'turned, and the
Dominoes drawn as in Domino
Euchre ; in other respects the game
^s played as it is with cards,
Bingo, the game of SiXTV-^SlX
played with Dominoes by two per-
sons. Each player draws seven
Dominoes at first, and orte more
after each trick, as in the (rard-'game.
The blanks count as seven spots;
and the Double^blank, tfhich is
called Bingo, is the highest Domino,
taking even the Double of trumps.
The game consists of seven points.
He who first makes 70, scores one
toward game. If he make 70 before
his opponent make 30, he scores 2,
and if he make 70 before his oppo-
nent has won a trick, he scores 3.
If a player capture the Double of
trumps with Bingo he scores one.
In reckoning the 70 points, the
Double of trumps counts 28, and all
Other doubles and trumps according
to the total number of the spots, but
the remaining Dominoes have no
value, The winner of a trick may
announce or declare certain combi-
nations a$ in the card game, These,
With the points they count toward 70,
are as follows t
Two Doubles, 20
Three " 40
Four " $0
Five •* 6b
Six " 70
if Bingo be among the doubles,
the group counts to more, In other
respects the game is played like
History t Dominoes are said by
different writers to haVe been in-
vented by the Hebrews, Greeks, or
Chinese; They were introduced into
France from Italy about 1750, and
irnto England some years later, A
ctomiho was a black cloak or hood
worn by monks* and some think the
name of the game is derived from
the fact that one side of the Domino
is usually black. Other writers sug-
gest that the game was allowed in
convents, because it was so simple,
and that the monks, on playing their
last piece, said in Latin " Benedica-
mat Domino" (bless the Lord),
which was afterward shortened into
Domino. A story is told also of a
monk who played the game against
the commands of his superior, and
for punishment was obliged to re-
peat a Latin psalm, and from the
word Dommo in it, he afterwards
named the game ; but all these deri-
vations seem rather fanciful.
Domino Whist. See SEVENS AND
EIGHTS.
DONKEY
264
DOUBLE PENDULUM
DONKEY, a game played by any
number of people, who try, blind-
fold, to fasten a tail on the picture of
A tailless donkey. The picture,
which is about four feet square, is
Dinned on the wall at one end of a
room, and each player in turn, stand-
ing at the other end, is blindfolded
Mnd given a cloth tail and a pin with
'vhich to fasten it to .the picture. He
who first fastens the tail in the right
place wins. This is a difficult feat,
and the sight 'of the donkey
covered with tails, 'some pinned
to his head and others to his
legs, creates a great deal of
amusement. Donkey Parties
are sometimes given, at which
this game is the principal enter-
tainment. The player is some-
times informed by the laughter
of the company as to whether
he is at the right place or not
and hence may be guided to
the proper spot, so sometimes
the game is. made more difficult
by requiring him to pin the tail ^
to the part of the donkey he
touches first. . . ^
DO.UBL£ JUMP, a • SOLI- Vj|
TAIRE game of CARDS, played '
with onq full pack. The cards
are laid down in one long row. ^
Whenever the player sees two
cards of the same suit, or of the
same value, separated by two
other cards, -he may take up
the one toward the left, and
place it on the other. This is
called a double jump, since the .
two cards between are passed
over. A jump brings new cards
next one another and may giv.e
at once an opportunity for another
jump. , When the top car.d of a pile
thus. corresponds with another, two
cards distant, the whole pile goes
with the top card in its jump. . .The
object, is. thus to. .bring all the cards,
into one pile. When but..three piles
are., -left, only one need, be jumped,
and when -but two, one can be placed
OB. the other. if the top cards corre-
spond in suit or value.
DOUBLE PENDULUM, Experi-
ments with the. Suspend a small
glass funnel by setting it in a hole in
a board or flat cork about three
inches in diameter, hung by strings
as in the picture. These strings are
united above the funnel at r. The
whole arrangement is suspended
from the ceiling or from a frame, by
two strings, tied to hooks about four
feet apart, and united below at the
funnel. The funnel should hang as
Double Pendulum.
closely to the table as possible at its
centej. Tie the two supporting
strings together frrmly at one fourth
thejr length from the funnel. Fill
the'funnel with sand, and then hold
it a'tpne corner of the.table, stopping
up the tube with one finger. Let it
g6 and -it will swing off in a curve,
which .will be marked on the table
by the sand. Tie-the strings in a
different place. and. the curve will" be
different. By careful trial,-
DOUBLETS
265
DOUBLETS
curious curves can thus be traced.
These curves are called Lissajous's
curves, after the Frenchman who dis-
covered them. They are the same
that are produced in the experiment
of VIBRATING RODS.
DOUBLETS, a writing game
played by any number of persons.
Two words of the same number of
letters are first agreed upon, and each
of the players endeavors to connect
them by a column of other words
called " links," each of which shall
differ from the one before it by only
a single letter. Thus " Cat " and
" Dog " may be connected in many
ways, of which two examples fol-
low:
Cat Cat
Cot Pat
Cog ' Put
Dog Pug
Dug
Dog
The object of the game is to make
as few links as possible. There are
several methods of scoring. Thus,
the player who makes the greatest
number of links may score nothing
and each of the others one point for
each link less than this ; or, the one
who has the least number of links
may score a number previously
agreed on, and each of the others as
many points less as he has less links.
The best plan in joining the
doublets is to write them side by
side and then work downward from
each. Thus, suppose the words
agreed on are Hand and Legs.
When these are written side by side,
it is seen that the H in Hand must
be turned into an L, which is done by
writing " Land." The G in Legs
must become an N, so " Lens " is
written underneath. The word
" Lend " now completes the chain,
which reads
Hand
Land
Lend
Leans
Legs
In this case, as in the first example
given, each link forms a step to-
ward the desired end, every change
being from one of the letters of the
first doublet to the corresponding
one of the second ; but sometimes
this is impossible. Thus if Chin and
Head are the Doublets only one of
the letters of either can be substi-
tuted at once for the corresponding
one of the other. This is the N in
Chin, which can be changed to D, so
that the words stand :
Chin Head
Chid
Looking now at the word Head, it
is seen that the letter E must be
turned into H. The first letter of
a word whose second is H, is likely
to be S or T. Take the word Shed
and it can be connected with Head
as follows :
Head
Heed
Seed
Shed
After trying in vain to connect
chid and shed the former link is
rejected, and a new road tried. The
first letter of chin is turned to S mak-
ing Shin, and the connection is soon
made as follows :
Chin
Shin
Ship
Shop
Shod
Shed
Seed
Heed
Head
The game of Doublets makes also
an interesting SOLITAIRE game. The
easiest doublets to connect are those
in which the vowels in one corre-
spond in position to vowels in the
other, and consonants to consonants.
The difficulty increases also with the
length of the words.
Doublets was invented and named
by the author of " Alice in Wonder-
land," whose assumed name was
" Lewis Carroll." He wrote a book
on the subject, giving many interest-
ing examples of doublets connected
DRAUGHTS OF AIR
266
DRAUGHTS OF AIR
by links. It is said, however, that a
similar game was played in this
country before the appearance of
this book.
DRAMATICS. See PRIVATE
THEATRICALS.
DRAUGHTS. See CHECKERS.
DRAUGHTS OF AIR, Experi-
ments on. i. Open on a crack the
door between a cold room and a
warm one, and hold a lighted candle
at various heights, close to the
crack. No windows must be open
in either room. At the top of the
door the flame will be blown toward
the cold room, and at the bottom
toward the warm room. About
half-way up there will be a place
where the flame is blown very little,
or not at all. The reason is that
cold air, being heavier than warm
air, flows into the warm room along
the floor, and forces the warm air
out at the ceiling. Instead of a
candle flame, smoke from what is
called " touch paper " may be used
to show the direction of the currents.
Touch paper is made by dipping un-
glazed paper in a solution of salt-
petre. When dry, it burns with
smoke but not with flame.
2. Cut in the top of a tight shal-
low pasteboard box two holes, each
about an inch in diameter, and place
over each an argand lamp chimney.
Experiment 2.
In one hole stand a candle cut to
such a length that it will project
about half an inch above the top.
Light the candle, and then hold
burning touch paper over the other
lamp-chimney. The smoke, instead
of rising, will go down one chimney,
and after it has filled the box will
rise through the other. The reason
is that the burning candle makes a
draught up its chimney and if the
box is tight so that no air can get in
through cracks, to supply the place
of what is going out, air must come
down the other chimney.
3. Hold the hand tightly over the
chimney where the draught is down-
ward. The candle in the other
chimney will begin to burn feebly
Experiment 3.
and smoke, and will go out if there
are no cracks for air to get in. The
reason air does not get to it down its
own chimney is that the upward
draught there is too strong.
4. Another way of trying Experi-
ments 2 and 3, is to hang in an ordi-
nary lamp chimney a partition cut
out of tin, shaped as in the picture.
The candle is set a little to one side
of (he chimney, and there is then an
upward draught on one side of the
partition, and a downward draught
on the other. The candle may be
put out as in Experiment 3.
5. Bore several holes through a.
board, and enlarge some of them at
one end so that they will be conical
in form. Suspend a square of paper,
by a string, two or three inches from
the board, and from the other side
DRAUGHTS OF AIR
267
DRAW POKER
blow through the holes at it. On
blowing through a straight hole, the
paper will be carried back, but on
Experiment 5.
blowing through a conical hole from
the small end, the paper will hang
Experiment 6.
perfectly still. If a lighted candle
be used instead of the paper, the
flame will even be directed toward
the board when blown at through a
conical hole. The reason is, that
the breath is kept together in a
stream by the straight hole, whereas
it disperses to all sides in the conical
hole, and carries with it some of the
air on the other side of the board so
I that a slight return current is caused.
I This principle is used in ventilating
rooms where it is desirable to avoid
a direct draught.
6. Cut out a spiral like the one de-
scribed in the article FOURTH OF
JULY, and suspend it over a lamp
Experiment 7.
as shown in the illustration. The
up-rush of hot air will cause it to
twirl.
7. A wheel cut out of paper in the
shape shown above will also twirl in
a draught of hot air, or when fanned
as shown in the illustration.
DRAW POKER, a game of cards,
played by from two to six persons,
with a full pack. Five cards are
dealt to each, one at a time, and then
each in turn, beginning at the deal-
er's left, may discard any or all of
these, and call for as many new ones
as he discards, which the dealer
must give him from the top of the
DRAW POKER
268
DRAW POKER
stock. This is called drawing. The
player who holds in his hand the
highest group of cards, after draw-
ing, is the winner.
The groups are as follows, begin-
ning with the lowest :
*
4*4
+ * +
4*4
i. A Pair. Two cards of the
same rank (accompanied, of course,
by three other cards, as each player
holds five).
2. Two Pairs (accompanied by
one other card).
X
'
4. 4.
* *
O 0
3. Three of a Kind, or a Triplet.
Three cards of the same rank (with
two other cards).
S0
***
0 0
* +
0 0
+**
o o
o0o
0°0
o o
:*:
:*:
4. A Straight. Five cards in regu-
lar order, not all of the same suit.
In counting straights, the ace ranks
either below the Two or above the
King, but must stand at the end.
Queen, King, Ace, Two, Three is,
therefore, not a straight.
*«*
0 0
0 0
o o
5. A Flush. Five cards of the
same suit, not in regular order.
6. A Full House, Full Hand, or
full. Triplets and a Pair together.
* *
4*
^.
O 0
o <:>
4 4
4.4
4*4
4 4
7. Four of a Kind.
***
***
* 4-
8. A Straight Flush. A Straight,
with cards all of the same suit.
When Straights are not counted,
as is very rarely the case, a Straight
Flush ranks as a common Flush, and
is beaten by a Full and by Fours.
Of two groups of the same kind,
9
- 4
* *
<?
* 4
<?
4 4
* 4
BEATS
+*+
*4.*
***
4 4
that containing the highest card is
the higher, If the two highest cards
are the same, then the next to the
highest decide the rank, and so on.
If the groups be exactly the same,
the other cards of the hand deter-
mine which shall win. When there
is no group, the hand having the
highest card wins, if the two highest
are the same ; then two next highest,
etc.
The score in Poker is kept with
counters, or "chips," usually round,
flat pieces of ivory or bone. There
DRAW POKER
269
DRAW POKER
are several methods, but the follow-
ing is the simplest :
At the beginning of the game, the
counters are divided equally among
the players. Each, before looking at
his hand, must put in the middle of
the table a number of counters, agreed
O 0
0 0
o
0
0
o°o
?0?
0
O /s v
0 O
0 O
o
0
BEATS
*
***
***
***
***
*4.4>
X
***
A A
* *
*
* *
on beforehand, and which is the
same for each hand during the game.
This is called the "ante" (Latin
ante, before), and the antes together
form the pool. When the drawing
is finished, the eldest hand may
either say, " I stay out," in which
case he takes no further part -in the
hand, or. he may place any number
of counters, up to a limit agreed on
before the game, commences, in the
pool; more or less according to the
_strengttj of his hand^. This is called
lii$ "bet." The player" at his left
'jnay stay out, .or he may place in the
'pool the same number of chips as
nis neighbor (which is called " see-
BEATS
"A pair of Kings.
A pair of Tens.
ing"), or he may put in more (which
is called "raising" or " going bet-
ter "). The third piayer may stay
•out, see* or raise the second player,
and so on, with each in turn, one
.or more times around, 'either- till all
* but one of the players stay out, .when
~*that one takes the pool without-show-
•ing his hand, or till' all the4 playe-rs
in the game have "seen " the one
1 'that raised last. In the latter case,
they are said to " call " the player
that made the last raise (or the eldest
hand, if no raise was made), who
must then show his hand. If none
of the others has a better hand, they
let him take the pool without show-
ing their hands ; otherwise the higher
hands are shown and the winner
takes the pool. The game may be
played a certain length of time, and
when it is over he wins that has
most counters.
Sometimes they who wish cards
in the beginning of the game are re-
quired to add to their antes. Some-
times "the players also make bets
before they have drawn. Sometimes
the ante is large or small, as the
eldest hand chooses. A common
method is to require each to ante
twice as much as the eldest hand,
who makes good the rest of the ante
at his next turn, unless he stays out.
A player often bets high on a
weak hand,, in hope that the others,
thinking he has a strong one, will
prefer to stay out. This is called
"bluffing." -It is often possible to
detect a bluff- by watching a player's
expression, unless he be -very skillful
at concealing his thoughts. The
only part of Poker in- which skill can
be shown is in discarding. If a pair
is dealt to a player, he should gener-
ally discard the other three cards,
hoping to dra~w another of the same
kind. If he hold four of a suit, he
should often discard the fifth, hoping
for -a Flush. By noticing how many
cards a player calls for, some idea
may often be gained of the strength
of his hand.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. If any player be given more or
less -than five cards there must be a
new deal, provided the mistake is
noticed before -that player looks at
his-handi otherwise, the.deal is good,
and the player whose hand is .wrong
must stay out.-
2. A41 the players must discard
before cards are given to any one.
3. Discarded cards must be piled
face downward in* front ofthe next
dealer, and must not be touched.
4. If any player be given more
DRIVING
270
DRIVING
cards than he asked for, the dealer
must draw one of them and return
it to the stock ; but if the player look
at his hand before noticing the mis-
take, he must stay out.
History. Poker is derived from
Primero or Prime, one of the oldest
card games, which was a favorite as
early as 1500. It was played in vari-
ous ways, but generally four cards
were dealt to each player, and the
principal groups were Flush, Prime,
and Point. ' Flush was the same as
in Poker, Prime was one card of
each suit, and Point was reckoned
as in PlQUEl\ but with different
values for the cards. When a player
"raised the ante" he Was said to
"vye." Shakespeare represents King
Henry VIII. as playing Primero with
the Duke of Suffolk. Primero was
elaborated in France, in the I7th cen-
tury, into Ambigu, in which the
Straight, the Straight Flush, Four of
a kind, and Three of a kind, were in-
troduced. About this time a game
called Post and Pair, derived from
Primero, was played in the west of
England, and from this came Brag,
on which Hoyle wrote a treatise in
1751. In the game of Brag each
player said " I brag," as he raised
another player. Our Poker is siniply
the English Brag with variations.
DRIVING. The beginner should
practice with a single horse. The
driver in America sits on the right
side of the vehicle, and if entering
from the left should get in before his
companion to avoid passing over or
under the reins, which should always
be in some one's hands unless an at-
tendant be at the horse's head.
The horse should always be re-
strained from moving off Until the
driver gives him an indication to
start. Many horses acquire the
habit of starting when they hear any
one get into the vehicle, from being
struck with the whip by the driver
as soon as he starts» The horse,
expecting the lash, starts up to
avoid it. To drive in the English
style the driver should hold the
reins in his left hand, leaving the
right free to hold the whip or to
assist in turning or guiding the horse,
or when a strong pull is necessary.
The right rein, D, should be held be-
tween the first and second, or second
and third fingers, and the left, N, be-
tween the forefinger and thumb, the
ends passing through the palm of the
hand under the fingers. (See Fig. i»)
The knuckles of the hand should
be turned to the left, The horse is
guided by pulling the rein on the side
toward which he is to turn, which
may be doiie by twisting the hand
Up Or down, or by pulling the re-
quired rein with the right hand,
The reins should be held short
enough to enable the driver to check
the horse quickly without leaning
fa"r back or taking a fresh hold, but
not so short that he is obliged to
lean too far forward or extend his
arm awkwardly. The left elbow
should be held Well back and low
down and the arm allowed to play
lightly from the shoulder. The right
hand is used to hold the whip and to
steady and guide the horse. It is
best for the driver to sit high, .for
this enables him to give a steady pull
on the reins when necessary. To
make the horse go faster, he should
be encouraged with the voice, the
Whip being used only when neces-
sary. The use of the whip depends
a great* deal on the horse; some ani-
mals will not bear it at all, while
others cart Scarcely be made to go
Without it. Some horses' Will go best
With a tight rein, and some with a
loose one ; but the driver should
DRIVING
271
DRIVING
always "feel" the horse's mouth.
To stop a horse the word " whoa ! "
is generally used, the driver at the
same time pulling steadily on the
reins. All sudden starts and stops
should be avoided, as the result is to
give those in the vehicle an un-
pleasant jerk.
Driving a Pain The horse on the
right is called the off horse and the
one to the left the near horse. These
terms arose from the custom of the
driver's walking on the left hand
side of his team, whence the left
horse was near him and the right
one farther off. Most of what has
been said above applies also to driv-
ing a pair, but in addition the driver
must see that each horse does his
share of the work, as some horses
have a habit of shirking. The driver
should watch the traces, and, if he
sees that one of the team keeps his
side loose, while the other's are tight,
the offender should be touched with
the whip.
Driving Tandem. Two or more
horses are sometimes driven one in
front of the other. The forward
horse in this case is called the leader,
and the one next the carriage the
wheeler. A horse, to make a good
leader, must be specially trained,
otherwise he is apt to step over the
traces or to turn around and face
the wheel-horse. Tandem driving
is the most difficult kind and should
not be attempted by a beginner.
Four-in-Hand. Fig. 2 shows the
method of holding the reins in driv-
ing four-in-hand. N L is the near
leader's rein, O L is the off leader's,
N W the near wheeler's, and O W
the off wheeler's. Directions for
driving four-in-hand cannot easily be
given in print, but showing the
method of holding the reins may be
worth while. The guiding and
steadying is done with the right
hand as in pair horse driving.
Rule of the Road. When two
vehicles meet, each turns to the
right. In England the rule is to
turn to the left, thus giving the driver
who sits on the right a full view of
the vehicle he passes, so as to avoid
collision. It may be that the opposite
rule was adopted in America because
when the country was newly settled,
the roads were narrow and poor, so
that it was more necessary for the
driver to see to his outer wheels than
his inner. It is always better for
a beginner to turn too soon rather
than to wait, for sometimes the
vehicles are approaching each other
faster than he thinks. If one of the
drivers sees that the spot where the
vehicles are likely to meet is bad for
passing, he should stop at the right
side of the road, and the other should
then drive quickly past him, so that
he will have to wait as short a time
as possible. Care must be taken in
turning corners, or in passing a cross-
road, lest there be a collision. When
a vehicle is overtaken, it should be
passed to the left, unless it is a
heavily laden wagon on the left of
the road, and no other vehicle is ap-
proaching, when it may be passed on
the right. If a vehicle overtake
another in a narrow road, the for-
ward one should either keep ahead,
or, if the driver does not wish to do
so, he should turn to the right and
let the other pass. If he does neither,
the one in the rear should call to him
and ask him politely to do one or the
other.
Accidents. Collisions will usually
be avoided if the above directions are
followed. The other common acci-
dents are runaways, and the giving
way of some part of the harness.
DRIVING
272 DROP THE HANDKERCHIEF
The reader is referred to what is said
of runaways in the article on RIDING.
When a horse runs it is usually safer
to remain in the vehicle than to jump
out ; many more people have been
injured by the latter than by the
former course. If a horse acts un~
easy or stops without apparent rea-
son, it is very likely that something is
the matter with the harness. In such
a case the driver should alight at once
and see what the matter is. If the
harness breaks, it may usually be
fastened with twine, so that it will
hold till he can drive home, or if
not to be had the check rein may be
taken off and utilized, or the throat
lash even may be useful.
Figs. 3 and 4 show two curiosi-
ties of driving, the first a proposed
vehicle where the horse is beneath
the cart ; the second a proposed
chaise to be run by a spring or other
motor attached to the rear wheels.
DROP THE HANDKERCHIEF, a
game played by any number of chil-
dren, who stand in a ring, facing
inward. One of the boys, chosen for
the purpose, walks or runs around
the outside of the ring, holding a
handkerchief in his hand, which he
drops behind some girl. As soon as
she sees it, she must pick it up and
run after him. If she catches him,
they kiss, and she returns the hand-
kerchief for him to drop again ; but
DUCHESS OF LUYNES
273
DUCK AND DRAKE
if he can make the circuit of the ring
and stand in the space she left, she
must take his place. She then drops
the handkerchief behind some boy,
who runs after her, and the game
goes on as before, a girl always drop-
ping the handkerchief behind a boy,
and a boy behind a girl. The player
who drops the handkerchief may run
around the circle in either way, and
the one behind whom it is dropped
must always follow in the same
direction. Sometimes a player does
not see that the handkerchief is lying
behind him, in which case the drop-
per simply runs around the circle,
picks up the handkerchief, and hand- ]
ing it to him, takes his place. No
player may tell another, by word or
sign, that the handkerchief is lying
behind him. The player who drops
the handkerchief sometimes says, as
he runs around the circle,
" I dropped my handkerchief yester-
day,
I found it to-day,
I list it, I lost it,
I threw it away."
DUCHESS OF LUYNES, a SOLI-
TAIRE game of CARDS, played with
two packs. The first four cards
dealt from the pack are placed in a
row, face upward, and the fifth and
sixth are laid aside to form Stock.
Four more are laid on the first four,
and two more in the Stock, and so on
till the pack is used. The player's
object is to form eight piles of fami-
lies, downward from four Kings, and
upward from four Aces, following
suit. For this purpose the top card
of any pile may be used in course of
play, or the top card of the Stock.
But when the top card of a pile is
used, its place is not supplied from
the pack, the next card being placed
where it would have been if the pre-
ceding had not been used. When
the pack is exhausted, the Stock can
twice be shuffled and relaid, and then
Stock and piles can be shuffled and
relaid in four piles, omitting the Stock.
DUCK, or DUCK ON THE ROCK,
a game played by any nunlber of
persons, each with a stone, about the
size of a man's two fists, called a
Duck. One of the players, chosen
by lot, places his Duck on a stone
with a smooth top, and stands near
it, while the others take their position
behind a line eight or ten yards dis-
tant, and try to knock it off with
their Ducks, each in turn. As soon
as each has thrown his Duck, he
runs up to it and watches his chance
to carry it back to the line. If the
one whose Duck is on the rock can
touch any of the others while carry-
ing back his Duck, before he reaches
the line, the one so caught must take
the catcher's place, putting his own
Duck on the rock. But if the Duck
is knocked from the rock, its owner
must replace it before he can touch
any one.
In playing this game, if the owner
of the Duck on the rock is skillful, he
can often keep three or four of the
other players out of the game by
preventing them from picking up
their Ducks. In this case the only
means of relief is for some one to
strike the Duck from the rock, for
then its owner is helpless till he has
put it back.
Emperor, a kind of Duck, in which
a wooden figure called the Emperor
is placed on the top of a post about
1 8 inches high. A player called the
Prime Minister stands near it. The
; .other players have each a wooden
ball like a croquet ball. The game
j is played exactly like Duck, the play-
j ers trying to knock the Emperor off
| his post by throwing or pitching balls
at him. The game can be continued
for a specified time, at the end of
which he who has been Prime Min-
ister the least number of times, or
has hit the Emperor the greatest
number of times, is victor.
DUCK AND DRAKE, or Skipping
Stones, a game played by any num-
ber of persons, each of whom throws
a flat stone into the water so that it
will rebound. He whose stone skips
the greatest number of times is the
winner. The stone should be held
DWARF
274
EARL OF COVENTRY
between thumb and forefinger and
given a slight whirling motion so
that it will strike the water with its
flat side and not edgewise. The
Greek boys played this game with
flat shells or pieces of tile, and called
it epostraktsmos (Tile Skipping). In
English, " to play at ducks and
drakes," has come to mean spend-
ing one's money extravagantly.
DUMBBELLS. See GYMNASTICS.
DUMB CRAMBO. See CRAMBO.
DWARF, THE, an amusement
in which two persons take part.
One of them stands behind a table
and places his hands on it, while the
other stands behind the first and
passes his arms around him as in
Fig. i. The head and body of the
second person and the legs of the
first are hidden by curtains, which
is easily managed if the table be
placed in a doorway. Shoes are
Fig. i.
then placed on the hands of the
first player, and a • child's trousers,
or kilt skirt over his arms. A
jacket is put on over his shoulders
and the arms of the hidden player,
and an excellent imitation of a dwarf
is thus formed. (Fig 2.) The face
should be disguised as much as pos-
Fig. 2.
sible, and the dwarf may be dressed
fantastically to represent a Turk or
Moor. A third person should act
the part of exhibitor, giving a comic
account of the dwarf's history. The
dwarf may deliver a speech, appro-
priate gestures being made by the
player who furnishes the arms. The
gestures are apt to be ludicrous, as
the second player usually has trouble
in fitting his action to the words of
the first. The dwarf can dance and
perform many remarkable feats,
such as rubbing his head with his toe,
or putting both feet in his mouth at
once.
E
EARL OF COVENTRY, THE, a
game of CARDS, played with a full
pack. All the cards are dealt. The
eldest hand leads any card he
chooses, saying "There's a good
King," or " There's a good five" (or
whatever card it may be). The
next player to the left who has a
EARS
275
EASTER EGGS
card of the same rank plays it saying
" There's another good as he." The
third and fourth are then played in
like manner, with the words :
"There's the best of all the three,"
and " There's the Earl of Coventry."
The player of the fourth card leads,
and so the game goes on, the player
who first gets rid of all his cards
being the winner.
EARS, Experiments with the. i.
Let one person be blindfolded and
sit in a chair, folding his arms. Let
another hold two coins between the
thumb and forefinger of the right
hand, and put the left forefinger be-
tween them so that they will click
together when the finger is suddenly
pulled out. Let him thus make a
click in various places near the
blindfolded person, while the latter
guesses the direction from which
the sound comes. It will be found
that he can tell easily so long as the
sound is nearer one ear than the
other, but whenever it is made in
any spot equally distant from both,
he cannot tell where it is.
2, Tie about three feet of twine at
the middle to the knob of a poker.
Twirl the ends of the twine around
the forefingers, and stop up the ears
with these fingers. If the swinging
poker be knocked against the wall,
or struck with anything, the person
holding it will hear deep tones like
those of a bell. If a silver table spoon
be used instead of a poker, the sound
of a higher-toned bell will be imitated.
3. Have a tinman solder two
pieces of iron wire
to two disks of
tin, a, b, each large
enough to cover the
ear, in the shape
shown in the pic-
ture. When the
disks are pressed to
the ears and the
point c, where the
wires join, is ap-
plied to any sound-
ing body, the sound will be much
magnified.
Experiment 3.
4. Let one person hold to his ears
the ends of a piece of waxed thread
six or eight feet long. Let a second
person hold the thread stretched by
its middle point and taking the two
parts of the thread together between
his thumb and forefinger, near the
others' face, rub them along, keep-
ing the thread taut. The result will
be a sound like thunder in the ears
of the first-named person. If the
rubbing be with jerks, and some-
times done with the finger-nail, the
sound of short, cracking thunder
will be imitated.
EASTER EGGS, colored and or-
namented eggs, used as presents or
playthings at Easter. The eggs,
called also pasque, pace, or paas
eggs, are usually colored by being
boiled in dye, of which various colors
may be bought at any druggist's.
An egg may be colored also in a
pretty pattern by sewing it up
tightly and smoothly in a piece of
common calico, and then boiling it.
If the calico be not of fast colors, the
pattern will be reproduced on the
egg shell. Eggs too may be gilded
by painting them over with gum or
varnish and then laying on gold leaf.
The " gold paint " sold by druggists
will produce a similar effect though
not so brilliant. Colored eggs may
be ornamented by drawing designs
on them with tallow, or any greasy
substance, before boiling. The dye
will not color the parts touched by
t^e grease, and the design will there-
fore appear in white. More delicate
designs may be drawn by scratching
with the point of a needle, or the
blade of a penknife, after the egg
has been dyed. If the eggs are
boiled hard, they may be kept any
length of time. If preferred, the
eggs may be " blown " before they
are dyed. This is done by making
a small hole in each end, applying
the mouth to one of them, and blow-
ing the contents of the egg out of the
other. The tallow design should be
drawn before blowing, that the shell
may not be broken, and care must
EASTER EGGS
276
EASTER EGGS
be taken not to crush it in dyeing.
Egg shells may be engraved by
drawing designs on them with melted
wax, or varnish, and then dipping
them in strong vinegar. The vinegar
will eat away the shell except where
it is protected by the wax, and when
the wax or varnish is removed, the
design will be in relief. Wax can
be removed by scraping ; varnish by
washing with alcohol. If the egg be
dyed before removing the wax, the
design will be in raised white lines on
a low colored ground. In this case
the vinegar must be washed off be-
fore dyeing.
The eggs may also be decorated
by pasting little pictures, such as
may be bought at toy stores, over
the shells, and the eggs, when fin-
ished, may be placed in little nests
of moss and twigs. They are some-
times served in a tin pan filled with
sand, in which the eggs are buried.
This is often called an " ostrich
nest." Blown eggs may be strung
on ribbons and hung up for orna-
ments. One way of playing with the
Quaint Easter Eggs.
eggs is for some one to hide them in
different parts of the house on the
evening before Easter, and for the
rest of the family to look for them.
They become the property of those
who find them.
In some parts of England and
Holland, and in many places in this
country, especially the parts settled
by the Dutch, the cracking of pasque
eggs is a common sport on Easter
Monday. One person holds his egg,
the small end upward, in his hand,
and lets another try to break it by
striking his downward upon it. Af-
ter several taps, one generally breaks ;
the cracked one belongs to the victor,
who keeps on trying other eggs until
his own is broken. A small, sharp-
pointed egg is generally best for this
sport, and sometimes one egg will
break a dozen others before giving
way itself. In Washington, in the
White House grounds, children play
games with their Easter eggs by
rolling them down hill. Two roll
their eggs together, and he whose
egg is unbroken takes the other, if it
is cracked. Sometimes several thou-
sand children play thus at one time.
EASTER EGGS
277
ECARTE"
Egg-rolling on Easter is also com-
mon in Germany, where tracks of
sticks, laid side by side, are made for
the eggs. The sport begins at mid-
night on Easter-even, and lasts till
about three o'clock in the morn-
ing. Not only eggs, but apples also,
and little cakes, are used. In Bohe-
mia, children roll many eggs in a
row, letting them start all at once, to
see which will reach the bottom of
the hill soonest. In the north of
England, Easter eggs are also played
with like balls, by tossing them up in
the air.
In Germany a number of eggs are
placed in a basket and one person
tosses them, one by one, into another
basket filled with soft shavings, while
another runs to a spot agreed on,
and back again. He who does his
task the sooner wins the eggs.
In Ireland, the game we call " Go
BANG " is played by sticking eggs in
the sand. It is there called " Bunch-
ing Eggs."
Easter eggs are sometimes dressed
as dolls, faces being marked or
painted on them. They may be
made also into other quaint shapes,
(see illustration). Artificial Easter
eggs, some of them large and filled
with candies, may be bought at con-
fectioners.
History. The custom of Easter
eggs is very old, and is thought by
some writers to be derived from the
ancient Egyptians, who regarded
eggs as a sacred emblem of the re-
newal of mankind after the Del-
uge. The early Christians seem to
have regarded eggs as symbols of
the resurrection of the dead, since
the chicken escapes from the shell as
from a tomb. In old times as many
as twenty dozen richly decorated
eggs were piled on one dish and
kept on the table during Easter
week. Every one who came to the
house was invited to eat an Easter
egg with the host, and it was con-
sidered impolite to refuse. In Spain
and Italy public sports with eggs
formed part of the Easter festivities.
In Russia, people call on their friends
on Easter, as we do. on New Year's
Day,-. and exchange eggs with them.
In Persia, a festival of eggs is cele-
brated on New Year's Day.
ECARTE (a-car-tay), a game of
CARDS played by two persons, with
a EUCHRE pack. The cards rank as
usual, except that the Ace comes be-
tween the Knave and the Ten, in-
stead of above the King. Five
cards are dealt to each player, three
and two, or two and three at a time,
and the top card of the stock is
turned up as trump.^ Should it be a
King the dealer scores one. If the
non-dealer is satisfied with his hand,
he leads at once ;. if not, he says, " I
propose," or sometimes, " Cards,"
meaning that he wishes to exchange
part or all of his hand. The dealer
may say " I refuse," in which case
play begins, or he may say " I ac-
cept," and then each lays aside as
many cards, face downward, as .he
wishes to exchange. Putting aside
the trump, the dealer first gives his
opponent as many cards from the
stock as he has discarded, and then
does the same to himself. If the
non-dealer is still dissatisfied, he
may propose again and again, until
he gets a hand that suits him or
until the dealer refuses.
Before play begins, if either
player holds the king of trumps, he
says " King" and scores one point.
The non-dealer now leads, and the
cards are played, suit being followed
if possible. The second player in a
trick must always win it if he can,
and, if he can do so in no other way,
he must trump.
The player who wins either three
or four tricks is said to gain the
point, and scores one. If he win all
five, he gains the vole and scores
two. If the elder hand play without
proposing and fail to gain his point
his opponent scores two, whether he
make point or vole. In like manner,
if the dealer refuse, and fail to gain
his point, his opponent scores two.
This applies only to the first pro-
£CAKT£
278
posal and refusal of a hand. After
one discard there is no penalty for
playing without further proposal or
for refusing a second proposal. He
who first makes five points wins the
game.
The hands which should be
played without proposal are called
Jeux de Regie (regulation plays), and
are learned by heart by skillful
players.
They are as follows :
1. All hands with three trumps.
2. Hands with two trumps, that
contain also three cards of a suit, or
any three cards whose average value
is high.
3. Hands with one trump which
contain also King, Queen, and Knave
of a suit ; four of a suit, one being
King; three of a suit, one being
King or Queen, and the fifth card
being a Queen.
4. Hands with no trump, which
contain four face cards or three
Queens.
Good players rarely lead trumps in
Ecart£ unless they have three or
more, and the Jeux de Regie are
therefore based on the number of
trumps and not on their value, since
a low trump is as good as a high one
for trumping in. It will be seen that
aside from the number of trumps,
the Jeux de Regie depend first on
the value of the other cards in the
hand, and, secondly, on whether they
are all of one suit br not. Similar
reasons should decide the dealer to
refuse a proposal. But a player with
the King of trumps in his hand, with
other cards that make him certain of
winning his point, should propose
for one card ; for there is a chance of
the opponent refusing, and then he
would gain two points instead of one.
Usually, good players discard at
least three cards at first, when they
propose, and throw out all except
trumps and Kings.
Since the trick must be won, if
possible, it is usually good play to
lead the highest of the strongest
suit, that the opponent may be
forced to trump. A skillful player
changes his method of play accord-
ing as he wishes to make only a
point or the vole, or sees that he can-
not make the point and wishes to
prevent his adversary from making
the vole. In the last case he tries to
make one trick, rather than risk
anything for the chance of taking
more.
More may be risked when the
dealer is within one of going out,
since it then makes no difference
whether he make one point or two.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. If there be a misdeal or any of
the non-dealer's cards be exposed,
he may call for a new deal.
2. If a player omit to announce
the King of trumps before playing his
first card, he loses the right to an-
nounce it.
3. A proposal or refusal cannot be
taken back, nor can more cards be
taken than the number first an-
nounced.
4. Discards must be placed face-
downward on the table and cannot
be looked at afterwards.
5. If either player take more or
less cards than he discards, or if the
dealer give more or less than were
asked for, his opponent may demand
a new deal. If he choose, he may
correct the number by drawing a
card from the hand if it is too large,
or by adding to it from the stock, if
it is too small.
6. If the dealer accept when there
are not enough cards in the stock to
give each as many as he wishes,
the non-dealer is entitled to all he
has asked for ; or, if there are not
enough, to as many as there are left.
7. The dealer may accept on con-
dition that there are enough cards
for both.
8. If a card be led in turn, or be
played to, it cannot be taken back.
9. If a player revoke, or fail to win
the trick when he is able, his oppo-
nent may require the hands to be
played again.
10. An omission in the score must
ECHO
279
EGGS
be corrected before the next trump
is turned.
History. Ecarte" is a French game,
and gets its name from the verb
tcarter, to discard, from the privilege
given to the players of discarding
cards from their hands. It is said to
be a modification of Triomphe, which
gave rise also to Whist. Some say
that the game, taken to Louisiana by
the French, was the origin of the
American game of Euchre.
ECHO, a game played by any
number of persons, one of whom is
ch6sen to tell a story, .and the others
take the names of various characters
or objects that are to be mentioned
in it. When the story teller men*
tions the assumed name of a player
once, that ptayer must repeat it twice,
and if it is mentioned twice in succes-
sion, it must be repeated once* Any
player who does not echo his name,
or who repeats it the wrong number
of times, must pay a forfeit. The
object of the story teller is to make
his story so entertaining that the
players will forget to echo. If the
story is to be about a fight with a
wolf, for instance^ the', nam'es as-
sumed by the players might be hun:
ter, gun, powder, bullet, knife* cave,
rock, tree, etc.; or if a shipwreck is
the subject, the names might be ship;
captain, mate, mast, Sail, tiller, keel,
passenger, wave, \vind> etc. This
game differs little from that of STAGE
COACH, where the players rise and
turn around when their names are
mentioned, instead of echoing them.
ECHOES, Experiments on. Ech-
oes are caused by the reflection of
sound from some object, as the side
of a house, a rock, or a hill.
i. To measure the distance of the
object which produces the echo.
With his watch in harid» let a person
shout a single short syllable, as "Ha ! "
or " Oh ! " and count the nurriber of
seconds before it. returns. As sound
travels about if 2$ feet a second, the
number of seconds multiplied by
If25 gives the distance traVe'letl by
the voice in going to the object and
back, and half of this is the distance
of the object causing the echo. If
the echo- is returned by an object
only a few hundred feet away, so
that the time is only a fraction of a
second, the following method should
be employed. Call out " Ha ! " and
repeat the word just as you hear the
echo, being careful to pronounce the
syllable just with the echo and not
after it. This will be possible with
a little practice. Do this ten or
twelve times, observing the number
of seconds, between the first call and
the last echo* Suppose that this was
seveh seconds and that the syllable
were called ten timesv Then each
echo took seven-tenths of a second,
and the distance; found a£ before,
is about 394 feet.
EGGS, Experiments with. i.
Take two eggs of the same size, one
raw and the other hard-boiled. Sus-
pend them to nails or gas-futures by
fixirtg an elastic band around each,
lengthwise, and fastening a string to
the band at one end of the egg.
The bands should be broad enough
to .clasp th'e egg firmly. Twist the
Sf rings to the same degree; and then
allow them to untwist at the same
finie, so as to cause both eggs to
spin around. The hard-boiled One
will continue to do so for some time,
but the raw egg will soon stOp; The
reason is that the contents of the
latter are liquid and not connected
with the shell. Only the shell is set
twirling by the untwisting string, and
the friction of the mass inside soon
stops it.
2. Spin on a plate the same eggs
used in Experiment i. The hard-
boiled egg Will spin easily and is
easily stopped. The raw one is hard
to set spinning, but after it has once
begun, if the egg be" stopped by plac-
ing the palni of the hand on it, it
will start spinning again as soon as
the hand is removed; The reasoti is
that, though the shell is stopped, the
liquid interior of the egg keeps up
its motion' arid'starts the shell again
as s'oOn as it is released. The egg
EGGS
280
ELECTRIC BATTERIES
will sometimes begin thus to spin
again after it has been held several
seconds.
3. Make a strong brine of salt and
water and it will be found that an
egg will float on it. Try to float the
egg in pure water, and it will sink
to the bottom. Now, pour brine
through a glass funnel to the bottom
of the vessel, and the water and egg
will;both rise, floating on the brine.
When the vessel is full, the egg will
be suspended just between the brine
and the water, half of it in ea"ch.
4- Shake -an egg till the mem-
brane inclosing the yelk is broken.
The yelk will sink below the white,
making the lower end heavier, and
the egg will then stand on end with-
out aich Columbus is said to have
puzzled some Wise men for a long
time by telling them an egg could be
stood on end. After they had tried
lo do it in vain, he showed them
how, by breaking 'the shell a little
by tapping the end on the floor.
But if he had known this experi-
^ _fxperirnent_5>. .. : -.. » ••
frierit, he could '.have. done it without
"even breaking the sfiell.
5. Remove the shell from a hard-
boiled egg, and select a wide-
mouthed water-bottle, with a neck
a little smaller than the egg. Thrust
into the bottle a burning piece of
paper, and a moment later place the
Experiment 6.
egg, end down.jn the mouth of, the
bottle, "it will be forced into the bot-
tle by the pressure of the outside air,
that within haying been rarified "by
the heat of the burning paper.
6. Take two egg-cups of the size
intended for holding the egg to be
eaten from .the shell. Stand one on
a table In front of you, and the other
just beyond it. Blow suddenly and
smartly where the egg and cup
touch, directly in front of you. With
luck, your breath, added to the air
under the egg, will lift the egg and
tumble it over into the second cup.
.ELECTRIC BATf ERIES,.Expen-
merits^ with. Some electric batteries
.are described v in the '' article ti Elec-
riai"y,\in C. C T. The most" coixi-
raoti Hi)3s~_can te; _ Jboji'ght,' ready
made,, of dealers .in "telegraph, sup-
plies. The following experiments
will aid in understanding their work-
ing:
I. Fill a glass three-quarters full
ELECTRIC BATTERIES
281
ELECTRIC BATTERIES
of water, and mix with water the
about two tablespoonfuls of sulphu-
ric acid. Put into the glass a strip
of copper and a strip of zinc, each
about three or four inches long and
an inch wide. Bubbles of HYDRO-
GEN begin to rise from the zinc, as
in the experiment in making that
gas. No such bubbles rise from the
copper, because the acid does not
act on it. Now touch together the
tops of the two strips. Immediately
most of the bubbles rise from the
copper instead of the zinc, because
an electric circuit has been com-
pleted ; a current flows through the
acid from the zinc to the copper, and
the bubbles are attracted to the lat-
ter in a way that cannot be explained
here. They are still caused by the
acid acting on the zinc, not on the
copper ; for if the strips are left in
the liquid long enough the zinc,
not the copper, will be eaten
away.
2. Take the zinc from the liquid,
or dip a fresh piece into the liquid for
a few seconds, to clean the surface,
and then rub a little mercury over it,
making it look bright and silvery.
Repeat Experiment i, and no bub-
bles at all will rise from the zinc,
whether it touches the copper or not.
If it does not touch the copper,
neither will be eaten away by the
acid ; but if the two touch, the zinc
will be eaten away as before. Zinc
thus prepared is said to be amal-
gamated.
3. Instead of touching the zinc and
copper together, touch one end of a
wire to one of them, and the other
end to the other, No matter how
long the wire is, as soon as they are
connected by it, bubbles will begin
to rise from the copper. In this case
the wire forms part of the electric
circuit. Take two wires, each twenty
feet long or so, and touch one end to
each metal. Let another person go
into an adjoining room, and there
touch together the other ends of the
wires. When he does so, bubbles
Will rise from the copper. It is pos-
sible, by arranging signals, to make
thus a sort of TELEGRAPH.
4. If the two ends of the wires be
attached to a GALVANOMETER
(arranged for use with a strong cur-
rent), the turning of the needle
will show that electricity is passing
through it. If a nail be wrapped in
a piece of paper, and the wire wound
about it a dozen times, the nail will
be found to be a MAGNET while the
current is passing.
5. Keep the wire connected with
the galvanometer and it will be seen
that the needle is turned less and
less, until finally it almost comes
back to its north and south position,
showing that the current is growing
weaker. If this does not happen
before one piece of zinc is eaten
away, replace the first with another
piece. There are two reasons why
the current grows weaker. First,
the acid is used up ; and secondly,
the copper gets covered with bubbles
of hydrogen, which stick to it.
6. In like manner try strips of
various metals first in one liquid and
then in another. It will be found,
by using the galvanometer, that
almost any two metals, immersed in
any acid or salt liquid, give an elec-
tric current, which is generally more
powerful if one of the metals is
strongly acted on by the liquid and
the other not.
Gravity Battery. This is the
easiest effective battery to make.
Gravity Battery.
Take a glass preserve-jar, and bend
ELECTRIC BATTERIES
282
ELECTRIC BATTERIES
a strip of zinc into a cylinder half
as high as the jar, and just small
enough to slip into the mouth. The
zinc must be amalgamated either
before or after the cylinder is made.
With a pair of pliers bend the zinc
outward in various places around the
top of the cylinder so that it will
catch on the edge of the jar and
hang in it. Then take a sheet of
copper small enough to lie flat in the
bottom of the jar, and a piece of cop-
per wire about a foot long, covered
with India rubber, or some substance
resembling it. This can be bought
of a dealer in telegraph supplies, but
if none is at hand coat the wire by
dipping it in melted wax three or
four times. Wire insulated with
silk will not do. Scrape away about
two inches of the coating, make a
hole in the edge of the copper, and
insert the wire, bending it over and
hammering it down to make a good
connection. Put into the jar crystals
of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol),
broken into pieces as large as hazel
nuts, making a layer about half an
inch thick. Lay the copper plate
flat on this layer and then put in
about two inches more of the sul-
phate. Put the zinc cylinder in place
and bring the coated wire from the
copper through its inside. Fasten
another wire to the upper part of the
zinc. This wire neea not be insu-
lated. The wire attached to the
copper is called the positive wire of
the battery, and the other the negative
wire. When the battery is to be
used, the jar is filled with water, and
a little sulphuric acid or common
salt is put in to start the action.
This battery will work steadily for
months, only requiring to be filled up
with water as fast as it evaporates,
but it must be kept still and not
shaken. It can be bought ready-
made in various forms, one of which,
used by the Western Union tele-
graph company, is shown in the
illustration.
Another form of this battery is
made by laying the copper plate on
top of the sulphate of copper and
covering it with a layer of clean sand
or sawdust about an inch and a half
thick.
The gravity battery does not be-
come weaker and weaker, because
as fast as the sulphate of copper in
the water is used up more of it is
dissolved from the layer in the
bottom. Instead of bubbles of hy-
drogen, a thin layer of copper is
deposited on the copper plate, which
of course does not hinder the work-
ing of the battery. Sulphate of zinc
is produced by the eating away of
the zinc, but it dissolves in the water,
floats on the heavier solution of
sulphate of copper and does not
interfere with it. For this reason
the name " Gravity " is given to the
battery, because in it the two liquids
are separated by their weight. In
the second form described, the sand
aids in keeping them apart.
Grenet Battery. This is made of
plates of zinc and gas carbon in a
mixture of sulphuric acid and bichro-
Grenet Battery.
mate of potash. The cells are usu-
ally made like bottles with wide
necks, and hence it is often called
ELECTRIC BATTERIES
283
ELECTRIC BATTERIES
the " bottle battery." The zinc is so
made that it can be pulled up out of
the liquid with a rod, when not in
use. The liquid, which is used in
some other batteries also and is often
called " battery fluid," is made as fol-
lows : Dissolve two pounds and a
quarter of bichromate of potash in
one gallon of warm water and when
it has cooled add a pint of sulphuric
acid. It requires renewing from
time to time. The Grenet battery is
very strong when the fluid is fresh.
It weakens somewhat soon after-
wards, and then keeps steady for
many weeks, provided it is not used
continuously.
Leclanche Battery. These cells
are generally sold as square glass
bottles G having in the middle a rod
C of carbon packed in a mixture M
of various substances, and in one
corner a rod of zinc Z. The carbon
rod has fastened to its top a copper
Leclanche Battery.
cap L to make the connections more
easily. The bottle is filled with a
strong solution of sal-ammoniac in
water. This battery lasts many
months without attention, but can
be used only for a few seconds at
a time. It weakens rapidly, but
recovers just as rapidly when not in
use.
Bunsen Battery. A rod of carbon
is contained in a porous earthenware
cup filled with nitric acid, and this,
in turn, is placed in a glass jar of
Bunsen Battery.
sulphuric acid diluted with about four
times its volume of water. A zinc
cylinder surrounds the porous cup.
The nitric acid gives off disagree-
able fumes, so this battery is not
pleasant to use, though one of the
strongest known. The fumes may
be lessened by putting nitrate of
ammonium into the acid, or, for the
acid the " battery fluid " used in the
Grenet cell may be substituted. The
Grove battery differs from the Bun-
sen only in having a platinum plate
instead of the carbon rod.
Uses of Different Batteries. The
Gravity battery can be used for al-
most any purpose. The Grenet gives
a good current for a short time, the
Leclanche is used where the current
passes for only a few seconds at a
time, as in electric bells, and the
Bunsen where a very powerful con-
tinous current is wanted, as in elec-
tro-plating.
It is not necessary to use insulated
wire in making connections about the
batteries, but it is better to do so,
because otherwise, when two wires
happen to touch, they will make a
connection which is not wanted.
Ordinary copper wire can be cut
with a strong pair of scissors. Wire
is sold in numbered sizes, whose di-
ELECTRIC BATTERIES
284
ELECTRIC BATTERIES
ameter is shown by the accompany-
ing picture of a wire gauge. There
are various ways of fastening wires
to the battery-plates and to each
other. The simplest is to make a
hole in the plate with an awl, insert
Wire Gauge.
the wire, bend it over, and hammer
it down tight. To fasten one wire
to another simply twist each around
the other ,ntvl hammer or pinch them
together with pliers. Wires and
plates should be scraped bright with
a knife wherever connections are
made. Brass " binding screws " for
making connections are sold by deal-
ers in telegraphic supplies and are
very convenient. They should be
screwed ; tightly. Much de-
pends on making good, tight,
clean connections, and too
much care cannot be taken
with them.
Whenever zinc plates are
used they should be amalga-
mated frequently. To see
whether the task has been
properly don,, immerse the
plate for a minute in the acid,
and if any bubble arise from
it, the amalgamation, in the
spot where it appears, is not
perfect.
When a battery is quite
strong it may be tested, to see
if it is in working order, by
holding one wire against a
common file, and drawing the
other quickly over the rough
surface. A stream of sparks
will fly from the file if the current
be good.
Connections. One jar with its
plates of metal and liquid is generally
called a cell or element. The power
V
Binding Posts and Screw.
of a battery is different according to
the way in which its cells are con-
nected. They may be connected
" abreast," or " tandem," or in a
combination of the two. What this
means will be understood by looking
at the diagrams. In Fig. I, where
the cells are connected " tandem,"
every copper plate of one cell is joined
to the zinc of the next, leaving one
zinc unconnected at one end and one
copper at the other, between which
ELECTRIC CLOCK ALARM 285 ELECTRIC CLOCK ALARM
is the telegraph wire or whatever the
current is to pass through. In Fig.
2, where the cells are " abreast," all
the zincs are connected together, and
all the coppers. In Fig. 3 the cells
are in two sets, the three cells in each
set being abreast and the two sets
tandem. In Fig. 4 the cells in each
Fig. i.
set are tandem and the two sets
abreast. In each of the figures the
zinc is marked Z and the copper
C, and the direction of the current
is shown by arrows. Which of
Fig:. 2.
these arrangements gives the strong-
est current depends on the resistance
it has to overcome. Where this is
very great, as in electroplating, or in
the electric light, the tandem arrange-
ment is best ; but when it
is small, the other is best.
The exact arrangement
can always be calculated by
expert electricians, but for
a beginner the best plan is
to find it out by trying various
ways.
ELECTRIC CLOCK
ALARM. Any clock may be
simply fitted with an alarm
which will ring by electricity.
The alarm is an ordinary elec-
tric bell, which may be bought
of a dealer in electric supplies.
The battery to operate it may
also be bought or may be
made (see ELECTRIC BATTERIES).
In a block of wood fix an upright
piece of thick iron wire, so that it
will stand as high as the top of th
clock face. Around this wind one of
the wires from the battery so that
the end will project three or four
inches horizontally. Bend about an
inch at the end, at right angles. By
setting the block of
wood in front of the
clock face, and sliding
the wire spiral up or
down the iron wire, the
end may be brought
opposite any desired
"~r™"" figure, and the bent part
may be so arranged that
the minute hand will
pass over it while the
hour hand will strike it. The
other battery wire is connected
with one of the wires of the
bell, and the other bell wire
with any of the metal parts of
Fig. 4-
the clock. When the hour hand
reaches the desired hour it touches
the bent wire, and the current, pass-
ing, rings the electric bell. The
ELECTRIC INDUCTION
286
ELECTRICITY
bent wire must then be removed, so
Electric Clock Alarm.
that it will not obstruct the hour
hand.
ELECTRIC INDUCTION, Experi-
merits on. i. Wind insulated wire
in five or six layers around a large
spool, or around a roll of pasteboard
half an inch in diameter, and wind a
similar coil on a roll large enough to
slip over the first. Connect the ends
of the first to the wires of a GALVAN-
OMETER, and those of the second to
an electric battery. Suddenly slip
the larger wire over the smaller and
the galvanometer needle will move to
one side but will quickly come to rest
again. Pull the coil away suddenly
and the needle will move to the other
side. The reason is that when a
wire through which a current is pas-
sing is moved nearer another wire or
is pulled away from it, a current,
called an induction current, passes in
the second wire while the first is mov-
ing; the induction current varies in
direction according as the wires ap-
proach or recede ; and this is why
the needle moves in opposite direc-
tions in the two cases.
2. Place the larger coil around the
smaller one while the circuit in the
former is broken, and then close the
circuit. The needle will move in
the same direction as when the coil
was approached. Open the circuit
again. The needle will move as if
the coil were taken away. To open
and close the circuit quickly a " key "
may be used made as described under
TELEGRAPH.
3. Connect the large coil with the
galvanometer and the small one with
the battery and repeat all the fore-
going experiments. The results will
be the same.
4. Instead of the coil attached to
the battery, use a strong bar magnet.
When it is thrust into the coil the
needle will move one way, and when
it is removed it will swing the other
way. If the opposite pole be used,
the direction of these swings will be
reversed. Some think the reason the
magnet behaves exactly like a coil of
wire with a current passing through
it, in this and other cases, is that
oach particle of iron in the magnet
has a little electric current running
around it.
In this last experiment a little
dynamo-electric machine was made,
on exactl) the same principle as those
which furnish the currents for the
electric lights in our streets. In the
large dynamos electro-magnets are
used, and the coil moves instead of
the magnet.
ELECTRICITY, FRICTIONAL,
E:.pe;imentc with, Frictional elec-
tricity, or electricf y produced by
rubbing, is described in C. C. T.
under ELECTRICITY. The experi-
ments which follow should be tried
in a perfectly dry room. Moisture
in the air always lessens the effects
and often entirely prevents them.
Experiments. — I. Warm a rubber
comb and then rub it briskly for a
few seconds with a silk handkerchief
or woolen cloth. It will then attract
small, light objects, such as bits of
paper, feathers, or wool. The best
plan is to tear paper into bits about
a quarter the size of the little fin-
ger nail, and hold the comb over a
ELECTRICITY
287
ELECTRICITY
pile of them, bringing it gradually
nearer until the paper flies up to it.
After each bit has clung to the comb
for some time it will drop away.
Try the same experiment with a glass
rod and a stick of sealing wax. Cut
little figures out of tissue paper and
place them beneath a sheet of glass
held by books as shown in the illus-
tration. By rubbing the top of the
Experiment i. — Electric Dancers.
glass with flannel they may be made
to jump up and down.
2. Make two balls, the size of a
pea, of pith or paper, and hang them
with sewing silCto pins on the edge
of a shelf. Present the comb or glass
rod to one of these. It will first be
attracted, and after clinging to the
rod for a while will fly away. Soon
after it will be attracted again, and
so on. The reason for this is that
the comb has on it only positive
electricity. It therefore attracts the
negative electricity in the pith ball,
but when the ball has clung to the
comb a short time its negative elec-
tricity unites with some of the posi-
tive electricity on the comb, leaving
only positive, which is repelled by
that on the comb.
3. Try the same experiment with
the glass rod.
4. Rub the glass rod with silk, and
when it has driven the ball away,
present to the ball the comb rubbed
with flannel. It will attract the ball.
The reason is that glass rubbed with
silk has on it positive electricity,
while the comb rubbed with flannel
has negative electricity.
5. When the pith ball is repelled,
present to it the flannel with which
the comb was rubbed and it will be
attracted. This is because the rub-
bing cloth always has on it the kind
of electricity opposite to the sub-
stance rubbed.
6. Rub the glass rod with flannel
and then with silk, and it can be
seen by using the pith ball, as above,
that its electricity is different in these
two cases.
7. Hang the glass rod in a sling
or stirrup of wire, suspended by
strong sewing silk. Rub it with silk
and then present the silk to one end.
It will be attracted by the silk, for
the reason given in Experiment 5.
Present to it another glass rod
rubbed with silk. It will be re-
pelled.
8. Take a large, strong sheet of
drawing paper, heat it thoroughly,
and lay it on a wooden table. Rub
it with a piece of woolen cloth till it
sticks to the table, and then place a
bunch of keys in the middle of the
paper. Raise the paper by two
corners and let some one present his
finger to the keys, when a bright
spark will pass from one to the other.
In dry weather, with careful heating
and handling of the paper, the spark
may be nearly an inch long.
9. Electrify a toy rubber balloon
by striking it with a piece of flannel,
or a catskin. When so electrified,
it can be made to stick to the wall or
ceiling. Two electrified balloons sus-
pended from the same point will re-
pel each other and hang at an angle.
10. Seal a platinum wire in one
end of a glass tube by holding the
wire in the tube and turning it about
ELECTRIC LIGHT
288
ELECTRIC MACHINE
in the flame of a spirit lamp. Touch
tne end of the wire to an ELECTRO-
SCOPE, and pour warm mercury into
the tube drop by drop. The bits of
gold leaf in the electroscope will fly
apart, showing that the friction of
the mercury on the glass has devel-
oped electricity.
The article ELECTRIC MACHINE
tells how to produce larger amounts
of frictional electricity, and the article
LEYDEN JAR tells how to collect it
in quantity.
ELECTRIC LIGHT. The sim-
plest arrangement for producing the
arc light is as follows : Procure two
rods of gas carbon, such as are used
for street electric lights (see figure).
These may be bought of a
dealer in electric supplies.
Around the middle of each
wind five or six times a piece
of copper wire several inches j
long, so as to leave free about
three inches at each end of
the wire. File one end of the |
wire to a point and fix it i
firmly in the board which is
to form the base of the light, j
Insert the other end in a bind- j
ing post screwed in the same j
board. The rod is thus sup- j
ported horizontally about two !
inches above the board. Fix j
the other rod in the same j
way, with its end just touch- '
ing that of the first rod. On i
the other end of each rod slip j
a piece of rubber tubing two
inches long so that the rods
can be handled when the cur-
rent is passing. The spiral
of wire around each rod should
be tight enough to hold them
lightly together, but loose
enough so that the rod can
be moved backward and for-
ward with a twisting or screw-
ing motion. The end wires
of an electric battery are now
connected to the binding posts.
The more powerful the battery the
stronger will be the light, but at
least from 20 to 40 Bunsen cells
Car-
bon
Rod.
must be used. As soon as the
current passes through the rods
of carbon they will fly apart a
little way and the electric light will
appear between them. After a little
time they burn away, so that it is
necessary to push them nearer, by
taking hold of the part protected by
the rubber tubing.
To produce the incandescent light,
pass the current of an electric bat-
tery through a fine platinum wire an
inch long. It will be heated and
give off light. This shows the prin-
ciple of the incandescent light. The
lights commonly in use have a slen-
der charred thread instead of wire,
and are surrounded by a globe from
which the air has been removed, so
that the thread cannot burn away.
ELECTRIC MACHINE, a machine
for the production of FRiCTluNAL
ELECTRICITY. A simple one may
be made as follows. Bore a hole in
the bottom of a smooth glass jar,
by using a broken rat-tail file kept
wet with turpentine. Fit a cork or
wooden stopper in the mouth of the
jar, bore a hole in the middle, and
through this and the hole in the bot-
tom of the jar fit tightly a wooden
axle. Both holes must be exactly
in the middle, so that the jar will re-
volve evenly when the axle is turned.
Nail an upright piece to each end of
a board a little longer than the jar,
and in each bore a hole large enough
for the axle to turn easily. Support
the jar between these uprights, and
fix a crank-handle to one end of the
axle, so that the jar may be revolved.
If a piece of flannel be now pressed
against the jar while it is turned,
electricity will be developed. To
collect the electricity, saw off a piece
of broom handle a little shorter than
the jar, round off the ends, and stick
in it a straight row of pins, about a
quarter of an inch apart. Cut off
the heads with a stout pair of scis-
sors and file the ends to a point.
Then cover the whole piece of wood
smoothly with tin-foil. Support this
arrangement so that the points of all
ELECTRIC MACHINE
289
ELECTRIC MACHINE
the pins nearly touch the jar. The
wood must be supported on glass,
so that none of the electricity may
escape to the ground. This may be
done by boring a hole in the middle,
and fitting into it the neck of a bottle,
previously filled with sand or shot to
make it stand steady. If, now, the
flannel be pressed on the glass jar,
on the side opposite the points, and
the handle turned, the electricity will
be gathered by the points and col-
lected on the piece of wood covered
with tin-foil, which is often called the
"prime conductor." When the hand
is presented to the prime conductor,
a spark will fly between them. To
save the trouble of pressing the flan-
nel against the glass by hand, a
" rubber," made of leather stuffed
with curled hair, may be fastened to
an upright, so as to press continually
against the jar. The rubber should
be as long as the jar, and about an
inch wide. To hold it against the
glass, drive a nail under the jar and
pass an elastic rubber band around
this and the upright piece on which
the cushion is supported. A piece
of silk, oiled on the outside, is often
Simple Electric Machine.
fastened to the cushion and drawn
over the top of the jar nearly as far
as the collecting points. This pre-
vents the electricity on the glass from
escaping into the air before it reaches
the collecting points. In case the
cushion rubber is used, it should be
smeared with an AMALGAM made by
melting together equal parts of zinc
and tin and then adding two parts
of mercury. The mixture is pow-
dered in a mortar before it is quite
cold, and then made into a paste
with lard.
The picture shows a simple ma-
chine made with a little more care,
but easily put together with any one
who can use tools. A is the base,
15 the supporter of the rubber, D the
glass cylinder, E the a\le, F the
crank, G the prime conductor, and
H its support.
The electricity collected by the
points will be positive electricity.
Negative electricity collects on the
rubber, and may be gathered if the
rubber has a wooden back coated
with tin-foil. In this case the col-
lecting points must be joined to the
earth by a chain or wire. The
whole machine must be kept very
warm and dry or it will not work at
ELECTRIC MACHINE
290
ELECTRIC MACHINE
all. This is because moist air is a
good conductor of electricity, which
therefore escapes on all sides as soon
as produced, instead of collecting on
the prime conductor.
Experiments with the Electric Ma-
chine. I. Make an insulating stool
by placing a board on four inverted
tumblers of thick glass. Let a person
stand on this stool, and touch the
prime conductor, while the machine is
working. He thus becomes charged
with electricity. If he is lightly
charged, his hair will begin to stand
on end. If another person, standing
on the ground, now presents his
hand to the charged person, a spark
will pass between them. This ex-
periment may be varied in many
amusing ways ; for instance, one
may try to shake hands with the
person on the stool, when a spark
will pass between their fingers, or
he may touch the tip of the other's
nose or his ear.
Electric Breeze. 2. Fasten a pin,
or other point, on one end of the
prime conductor with a bit of wax,
taking care that no wax gets between
the pin and the conductor. When
the machine is working, a little
breeze will blow from the point of
the pin. This may be felt by hold-
ing the face or hand in front of the
point, or seen by holding a candle
flame there (Fig. I). The breeze is
Electric Breeze — Fig. i.
caused by the repulsion of electrified
particles of air from the point. It
will be found impossible to draw a
spark from the point, because its
electricity is thus carried away by
the air so fast that enough does not
collect to make a spark. This is the
reason that it is necessary to have
all parts of the prime conductor
smooth and round except the collect"
ing points. If there are any rough-
nesses on it, the electricity will pass
off quietly from them and no spark
can be obtained.
3. Stand a lighted candle on the
prime conductor and point a pin at
it ; it will show that there is also a
Fig. a.
breeze from the pin when held in the
hand (Fig. 2).
4. Let a small jet of water flow
through a tube of brass or other
metal. Connect the tube with the
electric machine, and the water will
sp:rt out in all directions, the elec-
trified drops repelling one another.
5. Paste parallel strips of tin foil
on a pane of glass, and connect them
alternately on the two sides so as to
make one continuous conductor, pass-
ing backward and forward, from side
to side. With a sharp pointed knife
or a knitting-needle draw a figure or
design on the glass by scraping
through the tinfoil. Connect the
strip of tinfoil with the prime con-
ductor at the top and the ground at
the bottom, and work the machine.
The electricity will pass along the
strip, making a spark every time it
has to jump one of the places where
the foil was scraped away, and thus
the design will appear in lines of
light. An arrangement of this kind,
ELEC. DECOMPOSITION
291
ELEC. DECOMPOSITION
mounted on a stand, is shown in
Fig. 3-
Fig. 3.
ELECTRICAL DECOMPO-
SITION, Experiments on. i. De-
composition of 'Water. Connect the
end wires of an electric battery, by
means of platinum wire, to bits of
platinum foil about an inch long by
quarter of an inch wide. A hole
should be punched in one end of the
foil, the wire inserted, bent over, and
hammered down so as to hold the
foil tight. The wire is then bent
so that it holds the foil up
straight, and placed in a glass
finger bowl or broad dish of
some kind. The dish is filled
with water mixed with a little
sulphuric acid to help it conduct
the electric current. The water
must cover the foils and no kind
of wire other than platinum must ^
touch the water, lest the acid
should act on it. Fill two test-
tubes with the acidulated water,
Snd invert them over the foils,
the mouths beneath the water,
taking care that no air enters. When
one tube has been inverted, one per-
son should hold it while the other is
being prepared. The tubes may be
held in place, if desired, by pinning
strips of paper tightly around them
and hanging them by string to the
edge of a shelf, or by a clamp stand,
which can be bought of a chemical
dealer. Such dealers generally have
for sale the complete apparatus de-
scribed above (see illustration), but
it is quite easy to make it. When
the electric current flows, bubbles of
gas begin to rise from the platinum
foil, which are caught in the test
tubes. The amount of gas collected
over the foil connected with the neg-
ative pole of the battery is about
twice as great as that collected over
the other. When sufficient has been
obtained, place the thumb under
each tube, lift it out and turn it
mouth upward. The gas which col-
lected fastest will burn with a blue
flame when a lighted match is ap-
plied to it. It is HYDROGEN. The
other will cause a spark on the end
of a wood splinter to burst into
flame. It is OXYGEN. The electric
current broke up or decomposed the
water into these two gases. If the
bubbles do not rise at first it is prob-
able that all the connections are not
good, or else the battery is not strong
enough. It is best to use several
cells, connected tandem (see ELEC-
TRIC BATTERIES).
Hydrochloric Acid. The appara-
Decomposition of Water.
tus described above cannot be usev.
for this because CHLORINE is one of
the gases produced, and it would eat
away the platinum ; so pieces of gas
carbon are used instead. This can
be obtained of dealers in electrical
ELECTRICAL TOUCHSTONE 292
ELECTROPHORUS
supplies. A glass tube, bent into U
shape, is filled with the acid, to which
some common salt is added to pre-
vent the chlorine from being dis-
solved as soon as it appears. A
Decomposition of Hydrochloric Acid.
piece of carbon is hung in each
branch of the tube and each is con-
nected with one pole of the batter)'.
When the current passes, chlorine
appears at the pole A and hydrogen
at B.
Salts. Almost all salts (see C. C.
T.) can be decomposed by electricity
into an acid and a base. The salt
used is dissolved in water and decom-
posed in a U tube, as described
above. The production of an acid
in one tube and an alkali or base in
the other can be shown by means of
TEST PAPERS. Salts which have a
metal for one of their components
deposit that metal on one of the
poles. Experiments in the decom-
position of such salts are described
under ELECTRO-PLATING.
ELECTRICAL TOUCHSTONE,
an electrical toy. Powder finely part
of a stick of red sealing wax and
some stick sulphur, and mix the two
until the mixture has a yellowish
pink color. Then tie up the powder
in a muslin bag, so that when the
bag is shaken a cloud of the sulphur
and wax dust may be produced.
Next, mark on a sheet of vulcanized
rubber with bits of various metals.
The marks will of course be invisi-
ble, but by dusting the sulphur and
wax over the rubber they at once
become visible, the wax gathering
along the lines made by the some of
the metals, and the sulphur along
those made by the others, so that
some appear traced in red and the rest
in yellow. The metals whose lines
appear in red are zinc, iron, mag-
nesium, and cadmium ; those whose
marks attract the yellow powder are
tin, nickel, silver, antimony, bismuth,
platinum, copper, and gold. The
reason of all this is that when the
powders are mixed the particles are
electrified, the sulphur negatively and
the wax positively. The part of the
rubber over which the metal passes
is also electrified, positively by some
metals and negatively by others, and,
as the rubber is a non-conductor,
the electricity remains along the
lines. When the powder is dusted
on the plate, then the wax is at-
tracted to the negative lines and the
sulphur to the positive.
Other powders than those given
above may be used ; a mixture of
red lead and sulphur being often em-
ployed. The experiment succeeds
still better if the vulcanized rubber
rests on a sheet of tin foil of the same
size. Instead of using metals the
lines may be traced with the knob
of a charged LEYDEN JAR.
The name Electrical Touchstone
was given the device by its inventor,
Prof. Guthrie, from the stone called
the touchstone, used by jewelers to
test the purity of the precious metals.
ELECTROPHORUS, an arrange-
ment for obtaining larger quantities
of FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY than
can be got simply by rubbing. It
consists of a plate of metal resting
on some non-conductor. The sim-
plest way to make one is to cut out
a circular piece of tin and fit a non-
conducting handle to it by melting
the end of a roll of sealing wax and
sticking it in the middle of the tin.
Warm a pane of ordinary window
glass and rub it briskly with silk, so
as to electrify it. Then press the tin
down on it. touch the finger to the
ELECTROPHORUS
293
ELECTROPHORUS
upper surface of the tin, remove the
finger and lift the tin, as shown in
the figures. On presenting the ringer
to the tin an electric spark can now
be drawn from it. It is better to lay
the glass on some metal surface, for
instance, the top of a stove, or a
piece of looking-glass may be used,
since that has metal on the under
side.
A better electrophorus can be
made as follows. Have a smooth
piece of board, about a quarter of an
inch thick, sawed into the shape of a
Simple Electrophorus.
circle, a foot in diameter, and then
round off the sharp edges with a
knife, finishing with sand-paper so
that there shall be no rough places
or angles about it. Bore a hole in
the center, in which fit a glass rod or
piece of tubing for a handle. Glue
tin foil to this wooden disk, com-
pletely covering it, being careful to
smooth it down so that there is not
the least roughness. The lower part
may be of glass, as before, of vulcan-
ized sheet rubber, or of resin melted
and molded in a flat cake. The
mode of working is the same. The
electrophorus can be used for charg-
ing a Leyden jar as well as an ELEC-
TRIC MACHINE. The working of
the apparatus is as follows. The
electricity in the glass plate pulls
apart the two kinds of electricity in
the tin, attracting one to the under
surface, and repelling the other to
the upper surface. If the tin were
now simply lifted off the plate the
two kinds would unite again, but by
touching the upper surface with the
finger, before lifting, the kind on that
surface is drawn off, leaving the tin
charged with only one kind of elec-
tricity. If the finger remains on the
tin after it is lifted, the electricity
drawn off goes back again, and the
tin shows no electrification. A sim-
ple electrophorus can also be made
thus. Take a lacquered tea-tray
about a foot long, and cut out a sheet
of thick wrapping paper, large enough
to cover the level part of the tray.
Gum strips for handles at each end
of the paper. Place the tea-tray on
Tea Tray Electrophorus.
two tumblers, and after heating the
paper as hot as possible without
charring it, lay it on a table and vio-
lently rub it with a dry clothes brush.
Then place the paper on the tray,
touch the tray, lift the paper, and on
presenting the finger again to the
ELECTRO-PLATING
294
ELECTROSCOPE
tray a spark may be drawn from it.
This may be repeated several times
without rubbing the paper again.
ELECTRO-PLATING. To plate
with silver, dissolve equal quantities
of nitrate of silver and cyanide of
potassium in water, separately, and
mix the two solutions. (Great care
must be taken with the cyanide of
potassium, as it is very poisonous.)
The liquid will become turbid owing
to the formation of a precipitate.
Add more of the cyanide solution till
this precipitate almost, but not quite,
disappears. The solution now con-
tains cyanide of silver. Place in the
solution a piece of silver (such as a
coin), and the article to be plated,
connecting the coin with the positive
pole of an ELECTRIC BATTERY, and
the article with the negative pole.
The article to be plated must first be
thoroughly cleaned with ammonia,
to remove grease. The electric cur-
rent will decompose the cyanide of
Electro-plating.
silver, depositing the silver on the
article to be plated. The silver thus
deposited has its place taken by part
of the coin, which is slowly dissolved.
The plating will be done faster the
more powerful the battery. If sev-
eral cells are used, they should be
connected tandem (see ELECTRIC
BATTERIES). When the coat of sil-
ver is as thick as desired, the article
is removed and polished with whit-
ing. The best metals to plate are
brass or copper, or the alloys called
German silver and Britannia metal,
of which plated forks and spoons are
commonly made. Most other metals
have to be coated with copper before
they can be silver plated. Iron can
be covered with copper by simply
putting it in a solution of BLUE
VITRIOL.
Cold-Plating. The process is the
same as that just described, except
that chloride of gold is used instead
of nitrate of silver, and a gold coin
is attached to the positive pole of the
battery.
Nickel-Plating. The same proc-
ess is used, except that the solution
is formed of salts of nickel, dissolved
in water. A piece of nickel may be
suspended from the positive pole,
but it is sufficient to add salts of
nickel to the solution as fast as it
becomes weakened.
The figure shows the arrangement
of apparatus for any kind of plating,
a, a, a, are bits of the metal used,
B, B, B, the articles to be plated, d
and e two metal rods, and D the bat-
tery.
ELECTROSCOPE, an instrument
for showing whether or not a body is
charged with electricity, and, if so,
whether it is positive or negative.
A simple one can be made as fol-
lows. Take a flask or bottle, clean
and dry it, and insert in the cork a
piece of glass tubing about an inch,
long. Cut a disk of tin or zinc,
about an inch and a half in diameter,
and drill two holes in it, one at the
center and the other near the edge.
Have one end of a brass or copper
wire soldered in the central hole.
Fill the glass tube with shellac,
softened by warming, and before it
is hard run the wire through it so
that the disk is an inch or so above
the tube. The lower end of the wire
is cut off and bent at right angles so
that it will be about in the middle of
the bottle when the cork is in place.
Now gum to the sides of the hook
made by thus bending the wire, two
leaves of " Dutch Metal " (which
can be bought of a sign-painter),
each half an inch broad and long
enough to reach within an inch of
the bottom of the bottle. The cork,
with its wire, is now inserted in the
bottle.
ELECTROSCOPE
295
ELEPHANT
To ascertain whether a body be
electrified, bring it near the disk
without touching-. If it be elec-
trified, the leaves of Dutch metal
will fly apart, for the charged body
draws near itself one kind of elec-
tricity and repels the other to the
leaves. The leaves, being both thus
charged with the same kind of elec-
tricity, repel each other. But this
does not tell us what kind of elec-
tricity the body possesses. To find
out this, the electroscope must be
charged by touching the disk with a
body whose kind of electricity is
known. For instance, we know that
wax rubbed with flannel is electrified
negatively. By touching the disk
with a piece of wax so rubbed, we
cause the leaves to diverge, and on
removing the wax they should re-
main apart for some time, if the in-
strument has been well made. By
now bringing the body to be tested
near the disk, without touching it, the
leaves will either collapse or fly
farther apart. If the former, the
body is positive ; if the latter, nega-
tive.
Instead of this the electroscope
may be charged by touching it with
the body to be tested, and then a
body whose electricity is known may
be brought near it. If the body is
Electroscope.
large it may be connected with the
electroscope by a wire, one end of
which is fastened to the disk by
hooking it in the hole in the edge.
The electrical pendulum, or sus-
pended pith ball, may also be used
as an electroscope, as described in
the article on FRICTIONAL ELEC-
TRICITY.
ELEPHANT, THE, a diversion in
which two persons imitate an ele-
phant. One stands behind the other,
as in Fig. i, both bending their
bodies so that their backs are hori-
zontal, and the rear one rests his
head and his hands on the one in
front of him, as shown in the illus-
tration. The first one holds a black
cane with a curved handle to rep-
resent the elephant's trunk, and the
second has in each hand a roll of
white paper for tusks. The tusks
must be long enough to project in
front of the trunk. A gray shawl is
now thrown over both boys, two
pieces of gray cloth are pinned in
the proper places for ears, and
round bits of white paper, with
black spots in the middle, are fas-
tened on for eyes (see Fig. 2). As
ELEPHANT
296
ELEPHANT
Fig. i.
Fig. 2.
theanimnl walks, the trunk should be
swayed slowly to and fro. A show-
man, gaudily dressed in colored
shawls, with a white turban, should
accompany the elephant, and ex-
hibit him to the company. It adds
to the amusement if the showman
pretends to speak in the Hindoo lan-
guage, and what he says is explained
to the audience by an interpreter. He
can also lie down and let the elephant
walk over him and perform other
tricks usually shown in menageries.
Sports like this were common in
England in old times, as is shown
Man Dressed as a Deer.
ELLS OF CLOTH
297
EUCHRE
by the illustration, taken from
an old manuscript. One man is
seen dressed as a deer, while
another beats a drum for him to
dance.
ELLS OF CLOTH, a children's
game played by any number of boys
or girls, two of whom represent a
weaver and a merchant, while the
others are called ells of cloth. The
ells stand in a row, holding hands,
and stretching apart as widely as
possible. The cloth is then said to
be unfolded. After making a bar-
gain with the weaver, the merchant
" measures " the cloth by taking hold
of each ell by his hands. He then
goes away, as if to get his money,
whereupon each of the other players
turns to one side, and clasps the one
in front of him tightly around the
waist, the weaver taking his place at
the head of the line. On the mer-
chant's return he is told that his
cloth is folded and that he must un-
fold it. He then tries to make one of
the players loosen his hold, by seizing
the weaver's hands and pulling him
about. As soon as any one lets go,
he must stand on one side, and the
game begins again. It may be con-
tinued till only one ell of cloth is left,
or for any time the players choose.
Sometimes those who let go are re-
quired to pay a forfeit.
ENGLISH AND AMERICANS.
See TUG OF WAR.
ETCHING, The preparation, by
etching, of plates from which pictures
are printed, is described in C.C.T.,
under ENGRAVING. Directions for
etching an autograph or design
deeply on brass or copper are given in
this book in the article NITRIC ACID.
To etch on glass, cover it with a
thin layer of wax, as directed in
that article, and scratch the design
to be etched, as in the case of the
metal. In an old saucer mix a tea-
spoonful of powdered fluor-spar with
enough sulphuric acid to make a
paste. Place the glass, waxed side
down, over the saucer and then heat
the mixture gently for two or three
hours. The heat must not be great
enough to melt the wax, and the
saucer must be placed so that the
fumes arising from the paste will not
be breathed by any one, as they are
poisonous. A good place is on the
hearth of an open fireplace, or at the
back of a range provided with a
hood for the escape of the odors of
cooking. When the glass is re-
moved, the wax must be cleaned off
with turpentine, and the design will
be seen etched in the glass. The
etching is done by the fumes of
hydro-fluoric acid, which rise from
the saucer and eat into the glass
where it has been exposed by scrap-
ing away the wax.
EUCHRE (yoo'-ker), a game of
CARDS, played by two, three, or four
persons, with a pack from which all
cards lower than the Seven are ex-
cluded. In the lay suits, the cards
rank as in WHIST, but in the trump
suit the Knave, which is called the
Right Bower, is the highest card.
The other Knave of the same color
is called the Left Bower, and ranks
next, both the Bowers being higher
than the Ace. Thus, if Clubs are
turned as trumps, the Knave of
Clubs is the highest card, the Knave
of Spades next, the Ace of Clubs
next, and then the other clubs follow
in the usual order. The Left Bower
is also regarded as a trump in fol-
lowing suit. In the two-handed
game, which will be described first,
the dealer gives each player five
cards, two and three at a time. He
may give the two cards or the three
cards first, but he must not give, for
instance, two to his opponent and
then three to himself. After dealing,
he turns the top card of the stock
face upward as trump. The non-
dealer looks at his hand, and, if he
thinks he can take three tricks, says
"I order it up." The dealer then
takes the trump into his own hand,
and discards his weakest card,
placing it under the stock. If he is
not strong enough to order it up, he
says " I pass." The dealer may then
EUCHRE
298
EUCHRE
either take up the trump as if it had
been ordered up, saying, " I take
it up," or he may pass, turning
the trump card face downward,
and saying, " I turn it down."
If the dealer pass, his opponent
can now name any suit he chooses
as trumps except the one turned
down, saying, for instance, " I make
it Spades," or, " I make it Hearts."
If he does not choose to make
the trump, he may pass again
and the dealer is given a chance to
do so. If the dealer does not make
the trump there must be a new deal.
As soon as the trump is ordered up
or taken up, or a new trump is
made, play begins. Suit must be fol-
lowed, but when this cannot be done
anything may be played. If the player
that orders up, takes up, or makes a
trump, win three tricks, he scores a
point. If he fail to win three tricks
he is euchred and his opponent
scores two points. If either player
take all five tricks, he is said to make
a " march," and scores two points.
Four tricks count no more than three
tricks. Each player usually keeps
score by means of two of the small
cards that were thrown out of the
pack, either a two and a three, or a
three and a four, placing one on the
other so as to show as many pips as
he wishes.
Three-Handed Euchre. Each
player in turn has the option of
passing or ordering up, beginning at
the dealer's left, and if each passes
and the dealer turns it down, each
has a chance to make the trump,
as in two-handed euchre. If a
player order up, take up, or make
the trump, his two adversaries gen-
erally play together against him, and
if they euchre him, each scores two
points. Because two often play thus
against one, the three-handed game
is often called "cutthroat euchre."
In the three-handed game a march
usually counts three. The play varies
according to the score. Thus, when
A, B, and C are playing, if A takes
up the trump, and C has already
three points, so that two more would
put him out, it is for B's advantage
to let A make a point rather than
join with C to euchre him.
Four-Handed Euchre. This is al-
ways played in partnership, two
against two. Each player has a
chance to adopt or make the trump,
as before, but the dealer's partner
must say " I assist," instead of " I
order it up," if he wishes his partner
to take the trump card into his hand.
If a player thinks, before playing
has begun, that he has a strong
enough hand to do without his part-
ner's aid he says, " I play it alone,"
and his partner takes no further part
in the hand. If he makes all five
tricks alone, he scores four points ;
if he makes less than three tricks, he
is euchred, and the adversary scores
two points.
In playing the game the beginner
should remember that to order up
the trump requires a stronger hand
than to take it up, since in the latter
case the trump card is taken into his
own hand; in the former, into that of
an opponent.
In making a trump, other things
being equal, make it the other suit of
the same color as the one turned
clown (called " making it next in
suit "), if opposed to the dealer,
otherwise make it one of the other
suits (called " crossing the suit ").
The reason for this is that as the
dealer and his partner both passed,
it is likely that neither of them had
one of the bowers, and the same
cards will be bowers if the trump is
made " next in suit."
The lead depends largely on what
the actions of the other players show
their hands to be. Thus, if the
dealer has taken up the trump, the
eldest hand should not lead trumps,
but when (in playing the four
handed game) the eldest hand's part-
ner has ordered up or made the
trump, the eldest hand should lead
his best trump.
A skillful player will vary his play
according to the state of the score.
EUCHRE
299
EUCHRE
Thus, if the dealer and his partner
are four to their opponent's one
(called a " bridge ") the eldest hand
often orders up upon a weak hand,
thus preventing one of the other side
from playing alone, gaining four
points, and thus winning the game.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. Players must cut for deal, and
the lowest deals, the Ace ranking
below the two.
2. If the dealer give any one too
many or too few cards, there must
be a fresh deal, unless the misdeal
was caused by an interruption from
his opponent.
3. If a card is exposed during the
deal, there must be a new deal un-
less one of the players has looked at
his hand, but the deal is not forfeited.
4. If a player deal out of turn, his
deal is good if the mistake is not dis-
covered before the first lead.
5. The dealer has not discarded
till he has placed his rejected card
under the stock. Before he has done
so he may change his discard, but
afterwards he may not touch it.
6. If a card be led by mistake
before the discard, it cannot be
taken back.
7. A player making the trump
cannot change it after naming it.
8. A player may play alone only
when he orders up, takes up, or
makes a trump, or when his partner
assists, orders up, or makes a trump.
9. He may not play alone after
passing a trump or the making of a
trump, nor when his opponents
adopt or make the trump.
10. A player cannot announce,
after the lead has been made, that
he will play alone.
11. The partner of one who plays
alone must place his cards face
downward on the table and let them
so remain during the hand.
12. After the trump card has been
taken up, the dealer must tell its
suit to any one who asks, but he need
not tell what card it is.
13. Any card that is exposed, or
played out of turn and taken back,
must be played whenever its holder is
called upon to do so by his opponent,
unless such a play would be a revoke.
But if a trick has been completed
from such a lead it must stand.
14. If a player revoke or refuse to
play an exposed card on call, his op-
ponents may score two points and
the offender may score nothing that
he has made in that hand ; but if a
revoke is discovered before the of-
fender plays again, the only penalty
shall be to treat the wrongly played
card as exposed.
Railroad Euchre. A Joker is ad-
ded to the pack, ranking always as
the highest trump. If a player de-
cides to play alone, he may call for
his partner's best card, and discard
one from his own hand. Either of
the opponents is then allowed to
play alone on the same conditions,
and if a euchre is made under these
circumstances, the score is four
points. If the Joker is turned as
trump, the next card also must be
turned to decide the trump suit, but
the Joker may be taken in hand, in-
stead of the trump card, if the trump
is taken up or ordered up.
Set-back Euchre. This may be
played by two or more persons, each
for himself. At the opening of the
game each player's score is credited
with five points. When he makes a
point it is subtracted from the score,
and when he is euchred he is set
back two points, which are added to
his score. He whose score is first
reduced to nothing, wins.
Six-Handed Euchre. Three per-
sons play in partnership against
three others. The players sit so
that no two partners shall be
together. No trump is turned, but
each of the players in order, begin-
ning at the dealer's left, has the
option of passing or bidding for the
privilege of naming the trump,
stating as his bid the number of
tricks he thinks he and his partners
can take, and the suit he wishes for
trumps. Thus, he may say " I bid
three on Spades," meaning that with
EUCHRE
300
EVERLASTING
spades for trumps he undertakes to
win three tricks. If a player cannot
raise a previous bid he must pass.
The suit of the highest bidder be-
comes the trump, and he also leads.
If the players on his side win the
number of tricks that he bid, they
score that number of points ; if they
fail, the opposite side score the same
number. No more than the bid can
be scored, though more tricks be
taken. The game is usually 25
points. Sometimes these are credit-
ed to each side at the outset and the
score kept as in Set-back Euchre.
Sometimes two sevens are thrown
out of the pack before the game, so
that all the cards are dealt, but often
they are retained, and, after dealing,
the two cards that are left (or three,
if a Joker is used) are placed, face
downward, on the table. These
cards, called the Widow, are the pro-
perty of the highest bidder, and he
may exchange any or all of them for
an equal number of his own cards.
The method of scoring, and the use
of the Widow and Joker must be
settled by agreement at the begin-
ning of the game.
Some players admit the playing of
lone hands, in which case the score is
counted as in Napoleon, ten points
being won or lost. He who plays a
lone hand must announce it before
looking at the Widow.
Napoleon, a kind of Euchre played
by from two to seven persons. The
players bid for the privilege of making
the trump, as in Six-handed Euchre,
but no one tells what suit he bids on
but the highest bidder, who an-
nounces the trump just before lead-
ing. Each one plays for himself.
The score is usually kept with
counters, which are divided equally
among the players before the game
begins. If the highest bidder win
the number of tricks he bid to make,
each of the others gives him that
number of counters; if he fail, he
gives that number to each of them.
If he bid to take all five tricks, he
must say " Napoleon," in which case
the number of counters won or lost
is ten, or double the bid. If the
highest bidder lead again after win-
ning the number of tricks he bid to
make, he must play all five tricks out,
and if he do not take them all, he
loses. The number won or lost in
this case is but five, since he did
not bid Napoleon. Instead of using
counters, the score may be kept as
in Six-handed Euchre.
When seven play this game, the
four six spots must be added to the
pack ; when four or less play, the
sevens, or the sevens and eights, may
be rejected. When the game is
played by four people in partnerships
of two, it is called French Euchre.
In this case the game is fifteen
points, which are scored as in Six-
handed Euchre.
Back-Handed Euchre. The play-
ers hold their cards with the faces
toward the table, so that each sees
all the hands but his own. Each
one plays at random, and of course
following suit is impossible. The
game can be made very amusing, a
player sometimes making a trump,
when all but himself can see plainly
that he has not a single card of that
suit. But there is also more chance
for skill than might be supposed, for
by looking carefully at the other
hands, a player may gain some idea
of his own.
History. Some writers say that
Euchre was first played by French
settlers in Louisiana, and that both
the game and its name are corrup-
tions of the French £CART£.
Others think it was first played in
Pennsylvania, and still others that
it had its origin in Germany. It
seems certain that the Bowers were
so called from the word Bauer
(peasant), a name sometimes applied
in Germany to the Knaves. Where-
ever it originated it is now played
more in the United States than in
any other land.
EVERLASTING, a game of cards
played by any number of persons
with one or more full packs. All
EVERLASTING
301
EXCELSIOR
the cards are dealt one by one, and
each player, without looking at those
given him, places them, face down-
ward, in a pile in front of him. The
one at the left of the dealer then
plays his cards, in the middle of the
table, one by one, as they come, till
he throws out a face card or an Ace.
If it is an Ace, it is said to " call for "
four cards from the next player ; if a
King, three ; if a Queen, two ; and if
a Knave, one ; that is, that player
must begin to throw out the proper
number of cards one by one, but if
he throws out an Ace or face card
before completing the number he
must stop and let his left hand neigh-
bor play to that card. If any one
plays all the cards called for, without
putting down a face card or Ace, all
the cards on the table become the
property of the player next before
him. Thus, suppose A plays an
Ace, which calls for four cards as
explained above ; if B plays those
four cards without putting down an
Ace or face card A takes the trick,
but if B's second card, for instance,
is a Queen, he must stop and let C
play to that Queen. The lower face
cards take most tricks, since they
call for fewer cards, and the chance
of the next player's turning up a face
card is therefore less. But as no
one may look at his cards, but is
obliged to play them as they come,
skill does not enter into the game at
all. When any player takes a trick,
he places it face downwards, under
his pile, and the game thus goes on
till some one has taken all the cards,
thus becoming the winner. This
rarely happens in a short time, and
it is best to agree beforehand on an
hour when the game is to cease.
The one that has the largest pile is
then the winner.
RULES OF THE GAME,
1. No one may change the order
of cards in his pile or in the middle
Df the table.
2. When all a player's cards are
gone, he is out of the game.
EXCELSIOR, a SOLITAIRE game
of CARDS, played with a full pack.
The cards are dealt one by one, to
form a figure like that below. They
are placed on the numbered spaces,
in order, except when an Ace or
King appears. The Aces must be
laid on one of the spaces marked A,
beginning at the top, and Kings in
like manner are put in the spaces
marked K. When the last numbered
space is filled, the player puts his
next card on the first space again,
and so goes on piling cards over and
over again on the numbered spaces,
till all the cards are dealt. The
Aces and Kings, placed separately as
Excelsior.
explained above, are called Foun-
dation cards, and the player's object
is to build piles on them, by suits, in
regular order, upward from the Aces,
and downward from the Kings. In
dealing, if any card fall on one of the
four corner piles that can be used at
once in building, it may be so used.
But if such a card fall on one of the
side piles, it can only be used when
that side pile adjoins the Foundation
card on which it belongs. In either
case, when a card is so taken,
another is at once dealt in its place.
EYES
302
EYES
After all the cards have been dealt,
any top card can be used in building.
The top card on any corner or side
pile may be placed on any other of
those piles whose top card is just
above or just below it in rank, and
of the same suit. The cards may
be examined at any time. The
cards in the side and corner piles
may be twice redealt. If, after they
have been played the third time, the
piles on the Foundation cards can
be completed, the player has won ;
otherwise, he has been defeated.
EYES, Experiments with the^
The eyes are described in C.C.T.
1. Hold up the forefinger about a
foot from the face, and look at an
object beyond it, a tree for instance.
The forefinger will appear double.
Then look at the forefinger, and
the tree will appear double. The
reason is that when the two eyes
are looking at the forefinger the
right eye sees the tree on the right
side of the finger, and the left eye
sees it on the left side. When
they are both looking straight at the
tree, each sees the forefinger in a
different place. If one eye be cov-
ered it is impossible to see either
forefinger or tree double.
2. Place two bits of white paper on
a table, about two feet apart. Cover
the left eye, and with the right look
steadily at the left piece of paper, at
the same time walking slowly back-
ward. A snot will be found where
the ngnt nancl bit ot paper will dis-
appear. By looking with the left
eye at the right hand bit, the left
hand bit can be made to vanish in
like manner. By moving the head
ever so little forward or backward
the bit of paper will be made to
appear again. The nearer the pieces
are together the nearer the eye has
to be placed to them to make one
disappear. If, instead of bits of
paper on a table, pencil dots two
inches apart on a sheet of paper be
tried in the same way, one will van-
ish when the paper is held about six
inches from the eye. In each case
the reason is that the retina of every
person's eye has a blind spot in it,
and when the image of the paper or
pencil dot falls directly on that spot,
it cannot be seen.
3. Hold the eye two or three-
inches from the perpendicular edge
of some object seen against a bright
background, part of a window sash,
for instance, or, if it be night, a ruler
leaning against the shade of alighted
lamp. Shut one eye, and holding the
edge of a sheet of paper close to the
other move the paper to and fro.
The edge of the object will seem to
move out to meet it. Repeat the
same thing, standing about twenty
feet away from the window sash or
ruler, and the edge will appear to
shrink away from the paper.
4. Let one person hold a candle,
lamp, or some other bright object in
front of another's eye. He will see
in the eye three reflections. One is
from the outside of the eyeball,
another from one surface of the lens
inside the eye, and the third from the
other surface of the lens.
5. Cut out of black paper two ex-
actly similar figures, crosses for in-
stance, and place them side by side,
almost touching, on a sheet of white
paper. Hold them about three
inches in front of the eyes, and three
figures will be seen instead of two.
The middle one consists of two, the
image of the right hand figure, as
seen by the right eye, being added to
that of the left hand figure as seen
by the left eye.
6. To see stereoscope pictures
without a stereoscope. The stereo-
scope is described in C. C. T. Hold
a stereoscope picture before the eyes
and by fixing them as if to look at a
distant object make the picture ap-
pear double, as in Experiment I.
With practice, the eyes can be so
controlled that the two pictures
nearest each other can be made to
overlap and melt into one. in which
objects will stand out just as when
seen through the stereoscope.
7. Place a scrap of colored paper
EYES
303
EYES
or cloth on a gray ground, and look
steadily at it for about a minute.
Snatch the scrap away and in its
place will be seen a spot of exactly
the same shape but a different color.
If the scrap is green, the spot will be
red, which is the complementary or
opposite color to green ; if yellow
the spot will be violet. If, instead of
Fig. i. — Experiment 7.
pulling the paper away, the eye be
directed to the ceiling, the spot will
be seen there. These spots, which
are often called "ghosts," are caused
by the action of light on the retina.
The accompanying figure (Fig. i) is
a good one to experiment on. Look
at it steadily for some time and then
look at the ceiling, where it will short-
ly appear in black on a white ground.
8. Light a splinter of wood, and
whirl it about in a dark room. It
will seem like a circle of fire. This
is because the image of the lighted end
remains in the eye while it is being
twirled around. For other experi-
ments, showing that images remain
in the eye for a fraction of a second,
see THAUMATROPE, ZOETROPE, and
Chameleon TOP.
9. In a room in which there is no
other light, hold a candle before one
eye, closing the other. The candle
must be moved up and down a little
on one side of the eye and two or
three inches from it. Presently there
will appear black shadows on a red-
dish ground, looking somewhat like
leafless trees. These are the shadows
of the blood-vessels on the retina.
10. Hold a pin so near the eye
that it appears quite blurred. Look
at it in the same position through a
pinhole in a piece of paper, and it
will be seen distinctly. In this way
a pinhole in paper may be used
to look at other small objects. It
does not magnify them, but enables
us to hold them much closer to the
eye than we otherwise could.
11. Roll up a sheet of paper and
look through it with one eye, keep-
ing the other open. Hold up the
left hand in front of the other eye,
close to the farther end of the roll,
and you will seem to be looking
through a hole in your hand.
12. Divide a white pasteboard
disk into an even
number of sec-
tions and black-
en every other
one, as shown
in Fig. 2. Spin
the disk rapidly
by means of a
TWIRLER and
by looking at it
steadily it will
appear tinted,
the color changing wjth the speed of
rotation. The disk generally ap-
pears greenish first, and then pinkish.
Another way of performing the ex-
periment is to cut away sectors from
a black disk and then rotate it be-
tween the eye and a cloudy sky.
The sky will gradually assume
different tints which vary with the
speed of the disk. None of these
colors are real, but caused by the ex-
citement of the optic nerve by a rapid
succession of darkness and light.
13. Cut in a piece of cardboard
two square holes, each about half an
inch square and a quarter of an inch
apart. Procure a number of bits of
glass of various colors, about an inch
square, and fasten two behind the
holes in the cardboard by means of
Fig. 2.
Experiment 12.
EYES
304
EYES
elastic bands. Buy of an optician
what is called a double-refracting
prism, a piece of Iceland-spar or j
calc-spar which makes objects seen |
through it appear double. Hold the
card up to a window or lamp and
look through a prism at it. Each
colored hole will appear double, and
by holding the prism at the proper
distance, one color can be made to
overlap the other, so that the eye
sees a mixture of the two. Note
what this is. Now unfasten the bits
of glass and look through both to-
gether at the light. The mixed
color is entirely different from that
obtained before. The reason is that
in the first case one color really
added its effect to the other, whereas
in the second case the color seen is
merely that remaining after each
glass has strained certain colors out of
the sunlight. Thus, suppose blue and
yellow glass be tried. A mixture of
pure blue and yellow light makes
white, so the color seen through the
prism will be whitish gray. But,
when looked through together the
glasses will appear green, because the
rays of light are the only ones which
will pass through both yellow and
blue glass. In the same way red and
green appear orange by the first meth-
od and dark green by the second ; red
and blue seem first violet and then
deep red ; and yellow and red appear
first orange-yellow, then orange-red.
14. Darken the room and admit a
little daylight (not direct sunlight)
through an opening. With this throw
the shadow of a rod or other object
on a white wall or screen, and light
a candle, so as to throw a second
shadow. Alter the size of the open-
ing through which daylight is ad-
mitted, so as to make the two
shadows as nearly as possible of the
same intensity. The shadow thrown
by the candle is really white, since it
is the only part of the wall on which
pure daylight shines alone, yet by
contrast it appears blue. If it be
looked at through a roll of black
cardboard or paper the part of the
wall about it will continue to appear
blue, even when the candle is put
out, but on removing the roll from
the eye, it seems white again, and
cannot be made to look blue except
by lighting the candle a second time.
15. With a pair of compasses
draw six or eight concentric circles,
as near one another as possible.
Make four dots, dividing the outer-
most circle into equal parts, and then
join these dots by straight lines,
drawn with the aid of a ruler. (Fig.
3.) These lines will appear to be
curved inward. This is because they
cross the circles at different angles.
Fig. 3. — Experiment 15.
and the judgment of the observer
cannot help attributing this, in part,
to the curvature of the line.
16. Hold horizontally, a little be-
low the eyes, a rod about a foot long,
with its near end six or eight inches
from the face and its opposite end
pointing directly away. Look at the
near end, and the two images of the
rod will appear like a V, with the
point toward the face. Fix the eyes
on the farther end, and the V will
have its point away from the face.
17. Press the closed eye with the
finger tip close to the nose. A dark
spot with a light border will be seen
on the other side of the eye. If the
eyeball be pressed on the outside the
spot will be seen on the inside.
EYES
305
EYES
1 8. Rub or press the closed eyes for
some time, and designs and spots of
various shapes and colors will be seen
changing of themselves or accord-
ing to the varying pressure. These
spots are all caused by the excitement
of the optic nerve by pressure.
19. Draw a number of lines con-
verging to a point toward either the
right or the left, and then draw sev-
eral upright lines of the same length
across these as in Fig. 4. If any one
Fig. 4. — Experiment 19.
who does not know, be asked which
is the largest of the upright lines,
he will be apt to point out the one
crossed by the greatest number of
the converging lines.
20. After reading for some time
with one side toward a window, close
the eyes alternately, and it will be
seen that the paper of the book has
a greenish tinge when seen by that
eye alone which was next to the
window. This effect is stronger if
the light be very bright.
The reason is that the light, shin-
ing through the blood-vessels in the
eyelid, tries that part of the eye that
appreciates red, and so a white page
appears to it slightly tinted with the
complementary or opposite color,
green.
2 1 . Observe the letter S in a book,
for instance the one just given. The
bottom and top seem to be of about
the same size. Turn the book up-
side down and look at the same
letter. What is now the bottom
appears much the smaller part.
The reason is that the eye tends to
magnify the upper part of a figure.
For this reason the lower half of the
S's are usually made a little larger
than the upper, to balance this ten-
dency, but when the letter is inverted
the larger half is now at the top and
so looks larger still.
22. Cut out two pieces of paper of
exactly the same size, shaped as in
Fig. 5. — Experiment 22.
Fig. 5, and place them as there
shown. The eye will usually judge,
at first sight, that the lower is the
longer. If the pieces be made of
different colors, to distinguish them,
and their places be changed, one will
seem to have decreased and the other
to have increased.
23. Make a pinhole in a card and
hold it three or four inches before
the eye. Hold a pin-head as close to
the eye as possible and it will be
seen, upside down, in the pinhole.
This is because, though the pin is
much too near the eye to form an
image on the retina, the ray of light
through the pinhole causes it to cast
a shadow there. This shadow is
upright, whereas the images of ob-
jects are inverted, so, as they appear
right side up, the shadow appears up-
side down. If several pinholes be
made instead of one, the pin-head
will be seen in each one of them, be-
cause each ray of light throws a
separate shadow of the pin-head on
EYES
306
EYES
a different part of the retina. Any
object of similar size may be used in-
stead of the pin, and if it be moved
in any direction the shadow will be
seen to move in the contrary direc-
tion. If the eyelashes be allowed to
fall over the eye, their shadows will be
seen to move upward in the pinholes.
24. Look at Fig. 6. The horizon-
tal lines appear to be nearer to-
gether at the middle than at the
ends, but this is not so. They
are quite straight and parallel.
The appearance is due entirely to
the diagonal lines above and below
them.
25. Look at anything having a
| regular pattern, such as a piece of
figured cloth or calico, or better still
a piece of wire netting or the seat of
a cane-bottomed chair. By relaxing
the eyes so that they will be fixed on
1 a point beyond the object, the two
| images of the figured surface may
' be made to appear to slide one over
the other, and by practice may be
Fig. 6. — Experiment 24.
made to stop where the observer
pleases. If he thus causes the im-
age of each figure to coincide with
the one next to it, the surface will
seem farther from his eye and the
figures larger. If he causes the
images to overlap still more, so that
each falls on the second one from it,
the effect will be increased, and so
on. If he fixes his eye on a point
nearer him than the surface, the
latter will appear nearer, and the
figures smaller. If the observer
cannot direct his eyes to one point
while noticing another he should hold
his finger either in front of the sur-
face or behind it, and look directly at
it, trying at the same time to watch
the figures on the surface.
This experiment requires consid-
erable practice, and some peopl«
find it more difficult than others.
When properly done the effect is
striking.
FAMOUS NUMBERS
307
FANORONA
the image on the retina is dis-
torted.
27. View a straight line, a, through
26. Darken the room and cover
one window with cloth or paper
having the figure of a cross cut
through it. Look steadfastly at this
for a few seconds and then look at
the wall of the room. The "after
image " of the cross will be seen.
If the eye be now directed, with-
out moving the head, to one of the
corners of the room the arms of
the cross will appear twisted so
that the cross will look thus *f» or
thus J^.
This is because the eyeball is
twisted a little in turning it toward Fig. 7. It will appear to broaden
the corner of the room, so that as it nears the eye.
Fig- 7.— Experiment 27.
a pinhole, o, in a card, as shown in
F
FABA-BAGA. See BEAN BAGS.
FAGGOTS. See Fox AND
GEESE, II.
FAMOUS NUMBERS, a game
played by any number of persons,
each of whom writes a number on a
slip of paper. The slips are mixed in
a hat, and each player draws one.
Each in order must then explain for
what the number he drew is famous,
or pay a forfeit. For instance, the
number three may be said to be
celebrated on account of the Three
Graces. Two for Shakespere's
" Two Gentlemen of Verona." Ten
for the Council of Ten, and so on.
FANORONA, a game played by
two persons, with 22 white and 22
black pieces or men, arranged on a
Fanorona Board.
board like that shown in the diagram.
The players sit opposite each other,
and take turns in moving. A piece
may be moved to any adjacent un-
occupied angle, forward, backward,
diagonally, or to either side. If,
when any move is made, a piece is
face to face with one of the enemy's,
no vacant space being between, all
of the enemy's pieces extending in
unbroken line in the direction of
attack are captured and removed from
the board. If the line is interrupted
by a vacant space, or hostile piece,
the men are captured only as far as
such space or piece. He who suc-
ceeds first in capturing all his oppo-
nents' pieces wins the game.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. The first player is allowed only
one move.
2. After the opening of the game,
each player is allowed to move, using
any piece he pleases, so long as he
continues to capture. When he
ceases to capture, his opponent be-
gins his turn.
3. A player must not return at
once to a point he has just left.
4. A player must not capture in
any direction immediately after mak-
ing a capture in the opposite direc-
tion.
Fanorona is the national game of
the natives of Madagascar, who have
reduced it to a science. In Mada-
gascar a defeated player is not al-
FARM YARD
308
FEELING
lowed to play his second game on
the same footing as the first, but
must play a new form of it, called
Vela. In this form the defeated
player plays first, and the other ex-
poses to capture such pieces as he
chooses, till seventeen have been
taken, but these can be taken only
one at a time. Until the entire num-
ber are captured, the owner of them
can make no captures. The game
then goes on as in the ordinary way.
A defeated player is allowed to play
only the Vela game, till he has won
a victory.
FARM YARD, THE, a trick in the
form of a game. One of the com-
pany, chosen as leader, tells the
others that they must sit in a circle,
and each personates some animal.
He says that he will first whisper in
the ear of each what noise he is to
make, and that all must rise and
make their noises at a given signal.
He then whispers to each, directing
them all to remain quiet, except one,
whom he tells to bray like a donkey.
When the signal is given, the victim
of the trick rises and brays, while
the others sit still.
FARRAGO. See SYNTHESIS.
FAST RUNNERS, a running game
played by any odd number of per-
sons. All but one are arranged in a
column by pairs, all facing toward
the same end of the column. The
remaining player stands alone at the
head of the column, and at a signal
from him the two at the foot divide
and run on the outside of the lines
past the head, after which they take
different directions. If the one at the
head can catch either before they
meet again and join hands, that one
must take his place, and he becomes
the partner of the other, standing
close to the head of the line. If the
couple join hands before either is
caught, they stand close to the head,
and the unsuccessful runner is at the
head again. At the signal the couple
now left at the foot begin to run in
like manner, and so on till the play-
ers are tired. Neither of the runners
can be touched until he has passed
the head of the column.
In Germany this game is called
Fang Schon (Begin now), and in
Russia "It Burns," from the cries of
the runners. In Belgium it is called
" Bride and Bridegroom," and in
Suabia Brautlauf (The Bride Chase).
These last names seem to show that
it is derived from the old custom of
requiring the bridegroom to carry off
the bride by force, or pretend to do so.
FEELINC, Experiments on, i.
Cross the forefinger and middle fin-
ger of one hand, and with the tips
feel a marble or small pebble held in
the palm of the other. It will feel as
if there were two marbles. The
reason is that the marble is felt at
the same time by the two sides of the
fingers which are usually farthest
from each other, and the mind can-
not help concluding that there are
two marbles. The best way of per-
forming the experiment is to let some
one else cross his fingers, shut his
eyes, and guess how many marbles
he feels. If more than one held in
the hand, guessing becomes still
more difficult.
2. Prick a person's hand with two
pins held very close together. It
will be found that he cannot tell
when you use two points and when
only one, provided the points touch
him exactly at the same time. On
some parts of the body the pins may
be held about half an inch apart be-
fore the two separate pricks can be
feels. The reason is that the nerves
of the skin form a network which is
much closer in some places than in
others. Where the meshes are very
large the nerves cannot distinguish
two sensations which are very near
together. If blunter points be used
than those of pins, the effect is more
striking.
3. Take a long hair, and with the
thumb and forefinger of one hand
pull it through those of the other,
first in one direction and then in the
other. It will be found that it slips
easily one way and will scarcely slip
FEMME SOLE
309
FEMME SOLE
at all in the other. The reason is
that each hair is covered with a kind
of scales which grow in one direc-
tion, and it is therefore easier to rub
the hand over it one way than the
other, though the scales cannot be
seen with the naked eye. The direc-
tion in which it is easiest to stroke
hair is always down, or from the root,
hence it is always possible to tell by
feeling which end of a hair grew
nearest the root.
4. Fill one glass with water almost
as warm as the hand can bear,
another with cold water, and a third
with lukewarm water. Hold one
hand in the warm water and the
other in the cold water for about 15
or 20 seconds, and then put them
into the lukewarm water. It will
feel warm to the hand which has
been in the cold water, and cold to
the other. The reason is that we
cannot really tell the temperature
of objects by the touch, but only
whether they are warmer or colder
than ourselves.
5. Put a piece of iron and a piece
of wood into the ice box of a re-
frigerator, and let them remain sev-
eral hours, long enough for both
to get ice cold. Then take them in
the hand, and the iron will feel colder
than the wood. Put them in a
moderately warm oven for half an
hour, and feel them again. This
time the iron will be the warmer.
The iron may be even too hot to
hold, while the wood can be taken
up easily. The reason is that iron is
a better conductor of heat than wood.
Heat therefore goes from the iron to
the hand, when it is hot, faster than
it does from the wood, and iron takes
heat away from the hand faster when
it is cold.
FEMME SOLE, a game of CARDS,
played by three persons with a full
pack. The deal is determined by
cutting, the lowest card indicating
the dealer. He separates a EUCHRE
pack from the full pack, and deals
eleven cards, one by one, to each of
the other players and ten to himself.
He then takes the remaining cards
of the full pack, called the Stock,
shuffles them, and gives them to the
player on his right to cut. The card
cut determines the trump suit, and
the dealer then takes the Deuce of
that suit from the stock, to complete
his own hand. There is thus in play,
besides the regular Euchre pack, one
Deuce, which, as the trump changes,
is sometimes of the trump suit and
sometimes not. It always ranks as
the highest card in the pack, except
when played in its own suit, where
it is lowest, as in Whist. The high-
est trump is the Queen, called Femme
Sole (a French term used in law to
mean an unmarried woman). The
eldest hand now leads any card ex-
cept the Deuce. Suit must be fol-
lowed, if possible (except that the
Deuce may be played out of suit),
and the trick must be taken, if possi-
ble. The winner scores one for the
trick, which he takes into his own
hand, making the hands equal again
by giving to each of the other players
one of his cards, according to the
following plan :
1. If one of the others holds
Femme Sole, and the other the
Deuce, he gives to the holder of each
card a card in its suit.
2. If the two should be in the
same hand he gives a card in the
Deuce suit to that hand, and placing
the Deuce in the stock, substitutes
for it any other Deuce he pleases,
telling what it is, as he does so.
This is called " clearing the Deuce."
To the third player he gives any card
he chooses.
3. If the Deuce and Femme, or
either of them, are in his own hand,
he gives a trump to the player with
the highest trump, and any card to
the other player.
4. Should he not be able to do as
he should, he may give out any card
he pleases, but then is not allowed
to score for the trick.
The winner shuffles and cuts the
stock for a new trump after each
trick, but there is no fresh deal till
FENCING
310
FENCING
the close of the game, which is won
by the first player who makes eleven
points.
The general rules for playing are
as in WHIST. It is best to lead from
a long suit, and in giving out after
each trick, low cards should be cho-
sen. Deuce is least valuable when
it is unsupported by other
cards of the same suit, for
then, by leading that suit,
an opponent may force the
holder to play it, when it
will be taken, being low in
its own suit. When a player
gets the privilege of " clearing the
Deuce," therefore, he should select,
as the new Deuce, one of whose suit
the holder of the Deuce has very few.
FENCING, exercising with foils.
Fencing foils are tipped with metal
or gutta percha buttons, so that no
injury can result from a touch, but
both contestants usually wear leather
jackets to protect them in case a
button should break off, and each
resting under the wrist. The foil
should be held lightly, but so that the
fingers will take an instantaneous
grip, (see Fig. 2.) The various move-
ments in fencing, which are chiefly
called by French names, will now be
described. By carefully learning
their names, and practicing them,
Fig. i. — Fencing Mask.
has over his face a mask of wire
gauze (see Fig. i) and a padded
glove on his right hand.
The foil should be held with the
hilt (or handle) flat in the han-d, the
thumb being stretched along the
upper side, a.nd the pommel, or end,
Fig. 2. — Holding FoiL
beginners will soon be ready to apply
them and vary them in actual con-
tests, when parrying or thrusting.
The principal kinds are the Engage,
the Guard, the Thrust, and the
Parade. The Engage is a position
where the adversaries' foils touch
each other ; the Guard is a position
of the foil intended to protect its
holder; the Thrust is a forward mo-
tion of the foil toward the opponent
in an endeavor to touch him ; and
the Parade is a movement of the
foil to parry, or turn aside, a thrust.
Any of these positions or movements
may be in Prime, Seconde, Tierce,
Carte (or Quart). Quinte, Sixte, Half
Circle or Octave (words derived from
the French numerals from I to 8),
according to the way in which the
foil is pointed and held, as will now
be explained. What are called the
lines of defense are illustrated by
Fig. 3, which is supposed to show
the body of the fencer's opponent
divided into quarters by two lines, a
horizontal and a vertical. The space
on the right is called the outside, and
that on the left the inside, and the
quarters, called the ' lines of de-
fense," are thus the Inside high,
Outside high, Inside low, and Out-
side low. Each of these quarters
may be defended by two different
positions of the foil. In each the
sword-hand is supposed to be oppo-
site the center and the foil extending
into the quarter to be defended.
Before engaging in a regular con-
FENCING
FENCING
test, the fencers must practice some
of the most common positions and
movements. Each fencer first as-
sumes what is called the first posi-
tion, by placing the right heel in the
hollow of the left foot, and holding
the foil just below the hilt, between
the thumb and fingers of the left
hand, so that it hangs at the left side
(Fig. 4). The right arm hangs down
easily and the right side is turned
toward the opponent. The fencer
then takes " second position " (Fig.
Fig. 3. — Lines of Defense.
5), by bending his right arm across
his body, and taking the foil by the
hilt, and "third position" (Fig. 6),
by raising both hands above the
head, sliding the foil through the left
thumb and fingers till they hold it
near the button. Both knees are
now slightly bent till they are directly
above the toes, and the fencer steps
out about two feet with his right
foot, the knees being kept bent. The
foil is now released with the left
hand and brought down so that the
point appears to cover the oppo-
nent's left eye. The right arm,
which holds the foil, is bent, the el-
bow drawn in, and the hand on a
level with the chest. To balance the
right arm and foil, the left arm is
still held up in a curve, the palm to-
ward the right, and about as high as
the top of the head. The body is
upright and supported on both legs.
The fencer is now " on guard in
carte " (see Fig. 7).
The guard " in tierce " differs from
this only in reversing the hand, so
that the nails are half-turned down-
ward, and in stretching the arm a
little outward, to cover the outside
of the body. When two fencers en-
gage in carte (see Fig. 8), each has
his foil on the right of his adver-
sary's, that is on his adversary's
inside, so the guard of carte is
called an " inside guard." In the
engage of tierce the foils touch on
the other side, it being an " outside
guard." When a fencer shifts his
foil from carte to tierce, or vice versa,
he is said to "disengage." This is
done in carte or tierce by lowering
the foil just enough to clear the ad-
versary's, and raising it on the other
side. In engaging, the foils are
crossed at a point about nine inches
from the point. The most common
guards, besides those already de-
scribed, are those of half-circle and
octave. The half-circle guard is an
inside low guard, usually to protect
against a thrust in second or low
carte (see below). To take it, the
hand is raised to the left shoul-
der, the elbow turned in, and the
point of the foil is held on a level
with the adversary's waist. The
octave is a low outside guard, gener-
ally used against the thrust of octave
(see Fig. 9). The hand is raised to
the chest, with the point of the foil
on a level with the lower part of the
adversary's chest. In disengaging
from the guards of half-circle and
octave, the foil is slipped over that
FENCING
312
FENCING
of the opponent, not under, as in
tierce.
Thrusts. The usual thrusts are
made by means of the half longe (or
lunge) and the longe. To make the
half-longe, the fencer stands on
Fig. 4. — First Position. Fig. 5. — Second Position. Fig. 6. — Third Position.
guard and first straightens the right
arm, bringing the hand up as high as
his face, and additional impetus is
gained by throwing the left hand
down, palm outward, so that the arm
is parallel with the leg ; simultane-
Fig. 7. — On Guard in Carte.
ously, the left knee is straightened
and the weight of the body thrown
on the right leg, without moving
either foot from the ground. The
full longe is made in like manner,
but by also stepping forward with
FENCING
313
FENCING
the right foot as the weight is thrown
on it (see Fig. 10). Reversing these
movements so as to bringthefenceron
guard again, is called " recovering."
When the fencer, being on guard,
wishes to advance, he moves the right
foot forward about a foot, and in-
stantly, almost at the same time, fol-
Fig. 8. — Engaged in Carte.
lows with the left, so that the dis-
tance between his feet remains the
same. In retiring, the left foot
makes the first movement.
The thrusts usually take their
name from the .position of the fencer
when he makes the longe. Thus
the straight thrust in carte is made
Fig. 9. — Guard of Octave.
'from the engage in carte. Whenever
the fencer sees that his opponent is
not " covering " or protecting him-
self, there is said to be an " open-
ing." In like manner, the semi-
circle thrust (also called low carte)
is made from the semicircle guard,
and the octave thrust in like manner,
FENCING
FENCING
The thrust in carte over the adver-
sary's arm is made from the guard
in tierce and differs from the thrust
in tierce only having the nails turned
upward. The thrust in second is
made from the engage of tierce
by dropping the point of the foil
under the adversary's wrist. The
fencer sometimes recovers from a
thrust to the same guard as before,
and sometimes to a different one.
What is called the Time-thrust is
made when an adversary is dilatory
or not well covered. It is made
by opposing the adversary's foil
strongly, and then longing quickly.
Parades. The simplest parades
are those of carte and tierce, which
are called upper parades. That of
carte is made from guard in carte by
throwing the' hand about six inches
inward making an upward turn with
the wrist, and at the same time
drawing the foil back slightly, thus
throwing off the opponent's foil.
The point of the foil, the body, and
the legs should be kept in the same
plane while executing the movement.
The parade in tierce is likewise macie
from the guard in tierce by stretch-
ing the arm obliquely downward to
the right about six inches. The
parades of octave and half-circle are
performed by bringing the foil into
the positions of the octave and half-
circle guards, and there turning aside
Fig. 10. — The Longe.
the opponent's foil. The parade of
prime is made from the engage of
tierce by bending the arm and wrist,
raising the hand to the chin, draw-
ing the arm inward at the same time,
and pointing the foil toward the
lower part of the opponent's chest.
Counters, or Round Parades.
These are performed by following
the foil of the adversary in a small
circle. For instance, being engaged
in carte, if the fencer's opponent dis-
engage he follows the latter's blade
closely with his own by moving the
wrist only, so as to join him again
in carte. The parade of countei
tierce is made in like manner, only
in the reverse direction. The half-
circle, octave, and other counters are
made similarly.
Feints, movements intended to
deceive an adversary and force him
to uncover himself. The feint of
One, Two (sometimes called by the
French name Une, Deux) is per-
formed by two disengagements.
For instance, when disengaging from
carte to tierce, if the opponent takes
the guard of tierce, the fencer may
quickly disengage back to carte and
FENCING
315
FENCING
longe. The same feint in reverse
order can be performed when en-
gaged in tierce. The feint of One,
Two, Three (or Une, Deux, Trots)
is performed in like manner by three
disengagements, the last accom-
panied by a longe.
Cut over the Point, a movement
executed by a fencer when his oppo-
nent holds his hand low and the
point of his foil high. Being engaged
in carte, it is performed by raising
the wrist so as to pass the foil over
that of the adversary without expos-
ing the body by moving the arm.
At the same moment the thrust of
carte over the arm is given. This is
called the cut over the point from
carte to tierce (see Fig. 11); that
from tierce to carte is performed in
like manner.
Appels, Beats, and Glizades.
These are movements intended to
confuse an adversary. An appel is
performed by beating on the floor
with the right foot : a beat, or beat
on the blade, is executed by sharply
striking the adversary's foil ; and a
glisade by gliding the foil along that
of the opponent, at the same time
extending the arm.
The Salute. Previous to a fencing
contest it is customary for the fencers
to go through certain movements as
Fig. ii. — Cut over Point.
a form of courtesy (see Fig. 12).
These movements are also useful as
exercises for the learner. The first
three positions having been taken as
already described, the fencers take
guard in tierce, each with his foil out
of the line of his opponent's body,
and then each beats twice with his
right foot. One then asks the other
other to thrust first, whereupon the
latter longes in carte, but without
touching the body, by this means
measuring his distance. After the
one who thrust has recovered, each
brings his right foot up to the hollow
of the left, drops his left hand, and
brings his right hand under his chin,
with the foil raised vertically. He
then pet forms the parades of carte
and tierce, bringing his hand under
his chin again, at the close of each ;
then by a circular movement of both
hands passes quickly' to the guard of
carte. The one who first thrust,
now makes six disengages. At
each disengage from carte to tierce,
his opponent parries in tierce, at the
same time turning the hand, nails
FENCING
FENCING
downward, and dropping the point
of his foil. When the thruster takes
guard in tierce the opponent en-
gages, at the same time making an
appel. Each disengage back to
carte is similarly met, the foil being
turned in a half circle, nails up, af-
ier the parry. After making the six
disengages thus, the fencer feints
One, Two, without thrusting, re-
covers in tierce, brings his right foot
into the hollow of his left, and drops
his left hand to his side. He then
asks his opponent to thrust, and the
whole salute is performed again,
the movements being interchanged.
Skilled fencers do not put on the
mask till after finishing the salute.
The Assault. A regular fencing
contest in which each fencer tries to
touch the other by using any of the
movements described, in any order.
In the assault each fencer should
look steadily in his opponent's eyes,
so as not to betray the movements
he intends to make. It is well to act
at first on the defensive to discover
what are the favorite thrusts or
feints of an adversary. At the same
time the latter should use all the
different movements, as much as
possible, in order not to give such
Fig. 12. — The Salute.
information. A good fencer must
not only be able to longe, recover,
advance, and retreat quickly, but
must also have what is called a good
opposition ; that is, he must always
stand with his right side toward his
adversary, and cover himself well
with his foil. He must be able, by
the pressure of his adversary's foil
on his own, to tell what the latter
intends to do, and must be able and
ready to take advantage of all open-
ings his adversary gives, without
giving any himself.
The following examples serve to
show how some of the movements
already described are used, and
would be good for beginners to
practice.
Ex. i. The fencers engage in
carte.
A drops his point and thrusts in
low carte.
B thrusts straight.
A parries B's thrust in carte, and
thrusts again in low carte.
B parries, disengages to tierce,
and thrusts carte over the arm.
A parries, and having disengaged
returns a thrust in carte.
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317
FENCING
B parries in carte, then drops his
point and thrusts in low carte.
Ex. 2. Engaged in carte.
A retreats.
B advances, keeping on guard in
carte.
A retreats again.
B advances, disengaging to tierce.
[B should advance at the same
moment that his adversary retreats,
and when the latter advances he
should retreat.] Being engaged in
carte again,
A thrusts in carte.
B forms the parade in carte and
delivers its straight thrust.
A thrusts in carte again.
B throws it off as before, and, dis-
engaging to tierce, thrusts carte over
the arm.
A disengages and thrusts carte.
B parries in carte, disengages,
thrusts carte over the arm.
A parries, and thrusts in tierce.
B makes the parade in tierce, and
delivers a straight thrust.
Ex. 3. Engaged in carte. B holds
guard low and point high.
A cuts over the point and thrusts
carte over the arm. Engaged in
tierce.
B disengages and thrusts carte.
A parries with octave.
B disengages over A's arm as he
recovers, and thrusts in low carte.
Engaged in carte.
A feints One, Two, and thrusts.
B forms counter-parade in carte,
and gives a quick return thrust in
low carte.
A makes an appel, at the same
time beating on B's blade, and then
thrusts straight carte.
B parries, and disengages.
A counters, performs a glizade,
drops his point, and thrusts in octave.
It is good practice for one of the
fencers to make all his thrusts,
feints, etc., while the other simply
remains on guard, using the proper
parades as he needs them. The
second fencer should then thrust and
the first parry.
In fencing matches, the contes-
tants fence for a stated time, and he
that makes the greatest number of
hits in that time is declared the win-
ner. The hits are sometimes re-
quired to be within certain lines,
which are chalked on the breast.
If one fencer hit the body and the
other the mask at the same time,
only the hit on the body is counted.
If one of the fencers drop his foil,
any hit made by his adversary, after
seeing the foil drop, is not counted,
but a hit is good if made before see-
ing it drop.
RULES.
The following rules for fencing
matches are those of the Amateur
Athletic Union, and were adapted
from the rules of Adolph Ruze of
Paris.
1. Jury. The jury is formed of
at least three members, who judge
without appeal.
2. Position. The jury must place
themselves on both sides of the
fencers, looking toward their chests,
so as to judge as well of the value of
the touch as of its artistic quality.
3. Director of the Competition.
A director shall be chosen from
among the members of the jury, who
shall always give the signal to begin
the assault.
4. Stopping the Assault. When
any member of the jury shall call
" Halt ! " the contestants must take
the first position and lower the points
of their foils.
5. Formation-of the Bouts. Com-
petitors to fence according to draw-
ing. The committee in drawing
lots for the preliminary bouts will
endeavor to arrange them so that
members of the same club shall not
be drawn against each other. In
the finals, however, the order of
bouts will be No. I to fence with
No. 2, and so on through the list.
6. Odd Number of Contestants.
Rule to be " miss and out " — i.e. the
beaten contestant retires entirely
from the contest. If the number of
the contestants is odd, one of the
defeated will be drawn to fence th«
FENCING
FENCING
odd man ; if beaten, the odd man
retires also.
7. Winner of Bout, The con-
testant making the first five touches
to win his bout.
8. The Question of Artistic
Merit. The jury in deciding the
bout can add one point to the losing
contestant if they think his general
form in fencing superior to his oppo-
nent. Should the score, by addition
of this one point be made equal, they
shall fence for three more points.
This method of judging is based
upon the idea that the contest is
intended as an exhibition of skill
rather than the mere securing of
points.
9. Value of a Touch. Touches
to count only when made upon the
body within the limits defined by a
cord sewed on the fencing jacket,
under supervision of the committee.
Any contestant, however, who shall
turn his back on his adversary, during
a bout, shall forfeit one point for
each offense.
10. The Avoided Touch. When-
ever there is a clear intention on the
part of the one touched to avoid the
point, either by a movement of arm
or body, his adversary shall score
one point.
1 1 . Slap and Touch. A touch is
of no value when the point is twisted
on the body after the slap of the foil.
12. Foul Touches. A touch,
whether fair or foul, stops the riposte
(the return thrust). •
13. Simult aneoiis Attack.
Double-touches, occasioned by both
contestants lunging at the same time,
are considered bad form, and in case
of second offense, one point shall be
deducted from each contestant. This
punishment consists in increasing the
fatigue, imposing upon both con-
testants the obligation of regaining
the point taken away.
14. Validity of the Attack in the
Double-touch. From the point of
view of skill, the party attacking with
the hand high and in opposition is
always in the right, and his blade
should be parried by the party at-
tacked, in order to avoid the double-
touch.
The stop touch is allowed when
the attack is in the low line and not
in opposition.
Double-touches are in general an-
nulled.
15. Renewal or Delay of the
Attack. The touch scored in the
renewal or in the delay of the attack
is valuable if the parry made to the
first attack has not been followed by
a riposte, or when the riposte has
been slow.
1 6. Corps-a-Corps. The jury
stop a corps-a-corps as soon as
made, since it may serve to cover
irregularities.
17. Of Contestants at Close Quar-
ters. When one of the contestants
shall be driven into a corner, the
director shall halt and replace them
so as to leave ample space behind
each, and so that the precept " to
retreat is not to flee " may be ap-
plied.
1 8. Disarmament. A disarma-
ment shall not count a touch, but a
touch scored immediately following
upon a disarmament shall count.
19. Changing Fencing Hand.
Each contestant must fence through-
out the contest with the hand he
begins with.
20. Costume. Each competitor
shall wear a dark fencing jacket and
dark trousers, so that the white
chalk marks can be easily seen.
Each competitor shall also wear
in the foil contest a fencing belt not
exceeding four inches in width.
21. Space. Space allowed con-
testants to fence in shall be thirty
feet in length.
22. Conclusion. See that the
meetings do not relapse into a hand-
to-hand struggle, that it be an exact
representation of the art and beauty
of fencing.
History. Fencing was practiced
in ancient times as a means of
attack and defense with swords, and
exhibitions of it were given in the
FENCING
319
FENCING
Roman arenas by gladiators. It
afterwards fell into disuse when the
custom arose of protecting the body
by heavy armor, but when anror
was abandoned it came again into
fashion. The continual brawls and
contests between factions in Italy
made it a necessary part of every
one's education there, and Italians
became very expert fencers. It was
imported thence into Spain, France,
and England. The sword used by
the Italians was the rapier, which
was long and flexible, with a sharp
point, but no cutting edge, and
modern fencers always use foils
shaped like the rapier unless some
other shape is specially mentioned.
Fencing may be practiced with a
broadsword, bayonet, or stick, but
the method in these cases differs
somewhat from that described
above. In the old Italian school of
fencing there were eight kinds of
parries, called primo, secondo, ttrzo,
etc. (first, second, third, etc.), and
from these the French terms now
used are derived. The early Italians
and Spanish aided the management
of the sword with the dagger and
cloak, and allowed the fencer to
shift his position to the right and
left in making his defense ; but when
fencers became more expert, and
attacked with greater velocity, the
dagger and cloak became an incum-
Fig. 13. — Fencing about 1600.
brance rather than an aid. The
rapier became a favorite sword for
duels, since it was the fairest to both
sides, as it depended least on mere
brute force. Before its introduc-
tion into England in Elizabeth's
reign, duels were fought without re-
gard to equality of arms, and any
advantage, fair or unfair, was seized
upon at once. Though dueling is
wrong, fair fighting is to be preferred
to unfair, so the introduction of
fencing with the rapier did much for
civilization. Now that duels are not
fought, there is no use for the rapier
as a weapon, since soldiers do not
wear it, but fencing with the foils
is still a favorite exercise, and fenc-
ing with the heavy swords used by
soldiers is, of course, taught them.
Fig. 13, taken from an old German
book, published in the I7th century,
shows two fencers of that date.
Authorities say there is no single
exercise which combines so many
advantages, as fencing, since it brings
into play the muscles of every part
of the body, expands the chest, dis-
tributes the circulation equally, and
gives delicacy of touch, while render-
ing the hand steady and light. In
1536 a book on the art of fencing
was published by a Venetian named
Marozzo, and since his time many
works on the subject have appeared,
one of the best of which is the little
handbook in the " All England "
series (1889).
FIFTEEN IN A ROW
320
FIFTEEN PJZZLE
FIFTEEN IN A ROW, a SOLI-
TAIRE game of CARDS, played with
two full packs. At the beginning of
the game all the cards are laid on
the table, faces upward, in rows of 15
each, the last row containing but 14.
The cards of each lower row lie
partly on those of the next row
above. The player's object is to
build up the cards in families, by
suits, upward from four Aces (one of
each suit) and downward from the
four corresponding Kings. For this
purpose one can begin with any in-
dependent card, that is, any card
that has no other resting on it. Any
independent card may also be placed
on any other independent card of the
same suit, just above or just below
it in rank. At the beginning of the
game only the cards in the lowest
row are independent, and if there
are no Kings or Aces there, and none
can be freed, they may be taken from
the next higher row and their places
filled by pushing up the cards just
below, until one King and one Ace
have been obtained to begin building
up the families. When all the cards
have been removed from any line it
is called a Street, and any indepen-
dent card may then be placed in it.
If the families can be completed the
player wins.
FIFTEEN PUZZLE, a SOLITAIRE
game played with fifteen numbered
Fifteen Puzzle.
blocks of wood in a shallow box,
arranged as in the figure.
The object is, having first arranged
the blocks in any order desired, to
bring them into the order represented
above simply by sliding them past
one another, without taking any from
the box. We learn by the rule of
permutations in arithmetic that 15
numbers can be arranged in r.o less
than i, 307,674,368,000 different ways.
In half of these arrangements the
game can be won, and in half it can-
not. To find whether any given
arrangement can be solved or not,
write the figures on the blocks in a
straight line, as they occur in the
box, and then bring them back to
order by changing the places of two
adjoining ones at a time, as illus-
trated below. If it requires an even
number of changes, the game can be
won from the arrangement, if an odd
number, not. Thus suppose the ar-
rangement is as follows :
Write the numbers thus, 12375
4 6 8 9 14 15 12 13 10 n. Find
the number of changes, two by two,
necessary to correct the order. To
bring the Four into place it must
change places, first with the Five and
then with the Seven, that is, two
changes are required. In like man-
ner, the number of changes required
to bring each of the numbers, in
order, into its proper order will be
found to be:
To bring the 4 into place 2
7
10
n
12
'3 '
Total, 16
an even number.
The game can therefore be won by
this arrangement.
The player must remember that
each number must be changed only
with an adjoining one ; thus, it would
not give a correct result to exchange
the Four and Seven at once, and call
that one change. The best plan is
to write the numbers on bits of paper,
so that they can be shifted about
easily.
Trial will show that although the
necessary number of changes varies
FILBERTS
321
with different ways of changing, it
will always remain even or odd, as
the case may be. The reason that
the arrangements with an even num-
ber of changes are the only soluble
ones is that the blocks can be moved
about only in such a way as to give
an even number of changes. The
learner can convince himself of this
by trial, remembering always to ar-
range the blocks so that the right
hand lower corner is vacant, before
counting the changes. As any even
number of changes can be made,
any odd arrangement can be brought
down to that in which there is only-
one more change necessary ; but one
being still an odd number, that
change can never be made. Thus,
if the last line reads 13, 15, 14, while
the rest of the blocks are in order, it
is impossible to win the game.
The Fifteen game was invented
in this country, and became very
celebrated about 1880. Before its
properties were studied many people
wasted a great deal of time in trying
to win it from impossible arrange-
ments.
FILBERTS, Experiments with.
Minute dents are often seen in the
ends of filberts. These dents are
the ends of very small channels
which lead completely through the
nut. If one of them be pricked with
a pin and the end of a hair inserted,
it "is possible, with great care and
patience, to push the hair quite
through the nut. Necklaces of fil-
berts, strung on hairs in this way,
have been made, but the experiment
succeeds only after many trials and
with great patience.
FIRE-DRAWINGS. Make a solu-
tion of saltpetre in water and with
a splinter of wood draw designs,
figures, or letters on a piece of un-
glazed paper. When dry, the paper
will appear as if nothing were on it.
If a glowing coal be now touched to
part of the design it will take fire,
burning with a good deal of smoke,
but no flame, and the fire will trace
out the design marked on the paper,
not burning any part untouched by
the saltpetre. The design, of course,
should not be interrupted, but must
Fire Drawing.
be in continuous lines. The illus-
tration represents the drawing of an
elephant thus made.
FISH, FLESH AND FOWL. See
THREE ELEMENTS.
FISHING. Fishing with hook
and line is called angling, from
angle, the old name for a hook.
Hooks are of various shapes and
are generally known by the name
of the place where they were originally
made, as the Limerick or Aberdeen
hooks ; by the name of the maker, as
the Kirby or O'Shaughnessy; or by
the fish they are intended to catch,
as Bass, Salmon, or Trout hooks.
Among the hooks shown on the next
page are the New York trout and
bass hooks (Figs. 1 1 and 1 2), the Kirby
bowed (Fig. 4). the Carlisle (Fig. 13),
the Aberdeen (Fig. 7), the Kinsey
(Fig. 2). and the Sneck (Fig. 9).
Hooks may be either hollow-pointed,
like the Limerick (Fig. 3), or bowed,
like the Kirby (Fig. 4), but Kirby
hooks are also made hollow pointed.
As a rule a straight hook is the best ;
that is, one whose point is in line with
the shaft and not kirbed or bent to
one side, for it more surely hooks the
fish. Most kinds of hooks are now
made with ringed ends, flatted ends,
knobbed ends, or plain ends. Lime-
rick hooks formerly always had plain
ends, but are now made also with
Fig. i. Gang-hooks. Fig. 2. Kinsey hook. Fig. 3. Limerick hook. Fig. 4. Kirbjr
hook. Fig. 5. Barbless hook. Fig. 6. Snap-hook, open. Fig. 7. Aberdeen hook.
Fig. 8. Snap hook, shut. Fig. 9. Sneck hook. Fig. 10. Treble hook. Fig. 11. New
York trout hook. Fig. 12. New York bass hook. Fig. 13. Carlisle hook. Fig. 14.
Sizes of hooks, i to 16.
322
FISHING
FISHING
ringed ends, as shown in Fig. 15.
The Barbless hook (Fig. 5) has,
instead of a barb, a sharp piece of
wire extending across the opening of
the hook, making it almost impossi-
nie for a fish to escape after he has
once hooked himself, but such hooks
Fig. 15. — Sizes of Hooks.
are little used. The snap-hook (Fig.
8) has two hooks, which are set to-
gether like a trap, and which spring
apart (Fig. 6) after they are in the
fish's mouth, thus holding him
securely. The treble hook (Fig. 10)
consists of three hooks fastened to-
gether. Several treble hooks are
often placed one bdow the other in
what are called " gangs " (Fig. i).
Figs. 14 and 15 show the sizes
of hooks and the numbers denoting
them. Some kinds of hooks are in-
tended to be used without bait.
The spoon-hook, of which two kinds
are shown in Fig. 16, has on it a
Fig. 16. — Spoon-hooks. Fig. 17. — Squid.
piece of polished metal shaped some-
thing like the bowl of a spoon.
When it is drawn rapidly through
the water the spoon twirls, and as it
flashes along attracts the fish, which
snaps at it and is caught by the
hook. This kind of fishing is called
trolling and is successful with blue
fish, lake trout, pickerel, and other
fish. For pickerel fishing several
hooks and artificial flies are often
fastened to the spoon. The line is
fastened to a spoon-hook by a little
swivel so that when the hook twirls
it does not twist the line.
The hook used in blue-fishing has
its shank covered with a cigar-shaped
piece of white metal called a squid
(Fig. 17), which is sometimes cov-
ered with eel-skin, with the silvery
FISHING
FISHING
side outward. The squid, which is
often shaped like a little fish, glistens
when drawn through the water, and
attracts the fish just as the spoon-
hook does.
Snells. The end of the hook is
generally attached to a piece of fine
silkworm gut called a snell, which,
being hard to see under water, pre-
vents the fish from discovering that
a line is fastened to the hook.
Kooks may be bought already at-
tached to snells, which are either
single or double. Instead of snells,
some hooks are fastened to gimp
(a kind of coarse thread), and hooks
for catching very large fish are at-
tached to wire.
Lines. Fish-lines are made of
linen, hemp, silk, or hair, and cheap
Fig. 18.
Fig. 19.
Fig. 20.
Fig. 21.
Floats.
ones of cotton. For small lake or
pond fish, linen or hemp is gen-
erally used, and for salmon or
trout, braided silk or silk and hair.
In fishing from a boat, in a lake or
on salt water, the line is generally
held in the hand, but in fishing from
shore it is usually attached to a rod.
Sinkers and Floats. The sim-
plest sinkers are little pieces of sheet
lead fastened to the line by pounding
them around it, or bullets cut in half,
and the simplest floats are ordinary
bottle corks tied to the line, but one
can buy both floats and sinkers.
Most floats are made of cork and
quill, and are intended to be fast-
ened to the line at both ends. Fig.
1 8 is called an "egg-shape" float,
and Fig. 19 a " barrel shape." Fig.
21 shows adjustable floats, with the
manner of placing them on the line.
P'igs. 22-24 show different shapes of
sinkers.
FISHING
325
FISHING
Rods are made of any tough and
elastic wood. For fly-fishing, split
bamboo is best : for other kinds of
fishing, lancewood, ash, or hickory
Figs. 22, 23, 24. — Sinkers.
may be used. A good bamboo rod
weighs from 4 to 12 ounces and is
from 8 to 13 feet long. What are
called double-handed rods, for catch-
Fig. 25.
Ring Guide.
Fig. 26.
Tie Guide.
ing large salmon, may be 20 feet long
and weigh two or three pounds.
Rods are usually made in sections or
joints, which can be taken apart and
carried easily. In the simplest kind
of still-fishing, the line is fastened
directly to the end of the rod, but it
is better to wind it on a reel, fixed on
the rod where the angler can reach
it, running the line through little
guides on the rod, till it reaches the
tip. The length of the line can thus
be varied at will by winding up the
reel. The guides through which the
line passes are either "ring guides "
(Fig. 25), being fastened to xhe rod
by rings around it ; or " tie guides "
(Fig. 26), which are tied to the rod.
Reels are of many kinds. Most of
them are operated by turning a
Fig. 27. — Automatic Reel.
handle, but there are " automatic "
reels containing a spring A, which
winds the line when the angler
presses a lever C (see Fig. 27).
Fig. 28. — Home-made Reel.
The line passes through the guide
B, and the reel is fastened to the
FISHING
326
FISHING
pole at D. A home-made reel
(Fig. 28,) can be constructed by
fastening an ordinary spool between
the prongs of a forked stick which
are tied together at the top with
string or wire. The spool is fitted
with a crank made of wire.
Bait. The bait may be some-
thing on which the fish naturally
feeds, or anything resembling it. The
bait used for each kind of fish is
described below. The most com-
mon baits for fishing near shore are
the ordinary earth-worm (called
angle-worm because it is so often
used in angling), live minnows, the
grubs or larvas of insects, grass-
hoppers, and artificial flies. In some
places, especially in Europe, what
are called " pastes " are used for
bait. There are many kinds, some
of the most common being made of
wheat boiled in milk, or bread and
bran softened with water and made
into balls. In salt water fishing,
sand-worms, pieces of raw fish, clam,
lobster, and the little crabs called
" fiddlers," are also commonly used.
For most fishes the bait should be
put on so as to conceal the hook as
much as possible, but some are so
greedy that they will bite even at a
hook without bait. In baiting with
worms, the hook should be run
through the worm lengthwise until
it is hidden, leaving a little hanging
Fig. 29. — Fly-book.
from the point. Small fis"h are
usually placed on the hook by pass-
ing the hook through the body at the
mouth and out at the tail. Artificial
flies are also permanently attached to
hooks, and are used for catching fish
that will jump from the water at
insects. The flies of which Anglers
usually keep a variety, in cases called
fly-books (Fig. 29), can be bought,
or made at home, the materials being
feathers, fur, hair, silk-worm gut. silk,
and tinsel. The beginner may learn
to tie his own flies from some ex-
perienced fly-fisher, but flies may be
bought so cheaply that most anglers
prefer to buy them ready-made at the
fishing-tackle stores. They are not
always made to imitate natural ones
exactly, though anglers differ as to
whether fish bite better at imitations
or not. Sometimes trout will rise at
almost anything. Fly fishing is de-
scribed more fully below.
Nets. The only net used by
sportsmen is the landing net, to take
a fish out of the water when it has
been brought to the surface by means
of the hook and line. It is merely a
small net stretched over a hoop of
wood or metal, and provided with a
wooden handle.
A small net, called a scoop-net,
much like a landing net, is frequently
used to catch little fish in brooks, by
boys for amusement and by older
fishermen to obtain bait. A good
scoop-net can be made by binding
FISHING
327
FISHING
Fig. 30.
Head of Fish Spear.
together the ends of the prongs of a
forked sapling to form a hoop, leav-
ing the main
stem for the
handle, and
then sewing
around the hoop
a bag of mos-
quito-netting.
Spears. Eels,
pickerel, and
many other fish
are sometimes
taken with
spears (Fig. 30),
especially in
winter, through
holes in the ice,
in the manner
described below.
The spear gener-
ally used is
shown in Fig. 30.
Spearing fish is thought by many
to be good sport, but anglers gener-
ally condemn it, and in some States
the law prohibits taking certain kinds
of fish in this way.
Fly Fishingi Before fishing with
the artificial fly, the angler must first
learn how to "cast" or throw the
lines so that the fly will settle on the
water just where he wishes, in imita-
tion of a real fly. Skillful fly-casters
can throw out more than ninety feet
of line with accuracy, but in practice
thirty feet is generally all that is
wanted, and the beginner should
use but nine or ten feet. Fly-casting
can be learned on any level spot of
ground, as well as near the water.
To begin with, a small piece of wood,
about an inch square, should be tied
to the end of the line instead of bait.
Holding the rod in the right hand,
the reel on the under side, the learner
draws out about eight feet of line
with his left hand and then, holding
the piece of wood in his left hand,
raises the rod with his right till the
line is taut. He then releases the
wood and the elasticity of the rod,
aided by a slight upward motion,
throws the line over the angler's head
where it straightens out behind his
back. This is called the " back cast."
Before it touches the ground — bet-
ter before the end is lower than his
head — the rod is moved forward,
casting the line straight out in front.
The forward motion is made chiefly
by the wrist. For the second back
cast the line is raised directly from
the ground, without taking hold of
the piece of wood again. The line
should be lengthened gradually, till
twenty or thirty feet can be cast, and
the learner should also practice cast-
ing at a mark, which may be any
small object on the ground. In fish-
ing from the bank of a stream it is
important to know how to make the
back cast without letting the line
drop below the head, for otherwise it
is likely to catch in bushes or shrubs.
The beginner should, if possible, seek
instruction from an angler when
learning to cast the fly ; once seeing
it done is worth many pages of
printed instructions.
In actual fishing, the angler casts
his fly time after time till a fish rises
to the surface and seizes it. Some-
times the fish will not bite unless the
fly is dropped directly over their
heads. As soon as the fly is taken,
the angler must " strike," that is
raise the pole with a sudden jerk, to
drive the hook into the fish's jaws,
otherwise the fish may release the fly
without hooking himself. When the
fish is hooked it will try to get free,
and here the skill of the angler
shows itself. After allowing the
fish to tire itself by lashing to and
fro, and letting it unwind plenty of
line from the reel, the fisherman
draws it in by turning the reel crank,
whenever the fish is tired enough to
permit. But with a strong fish, he
must sometimes let the line run out
to prevent its being broken. This
alternate pulling in and releasing is
called "playing." Sometimes it is
kept up for hours, until the fish is
near enough to be taken from the
water with a landing net, or, if it
be a very large fish, with a big hook
FISHING
328
FISHING
on the end of a rod, called a gaff.
" Flaying " a fish is the angler's great
sport. A fish may escape, after be-
ing hooked, by tearing itself from
the hook, by breaking the line, or by
cutting it against sharp rocks, and
the angler should take care that the
fish is not allowed to give a sharp
and sudden pull.
Fish Spearing through Ice. A
board shelter or cabin, of convenient
size, which can be moved about from
place to place on the ice, is some-
times built. It may be just large
enough for the fisherman to sit in,
say four feet high, and four feet
square at the bottom, sloping to two
feet square at the top, and usually
has no floor (see Fig. 31). It must
ig. 31. — Frame of Spearman's Cabin.
be quite dark, so that the only light
comes up through the ice, thus enab-
ling the fish to be seen clearly. The
fisherman sits on a box or block of
wood, holding in his hand the spear,
which has barbed tines. The handle,
of spruce or light pine, and 9 to 12
feet long, projects through a hole
in the top of the shelter, the light
being shut out by a loose piece of
cloth, tacked to the edge of the hole,
and fitting closely around the spear
handle. The cloth should be large
enough to allow the spear to move
from side to side of the hole, by
wrinkling. In the middle of the
cabin a hole about a foot in diameter
is cut through the ice. Through
this the fisherman lowers a line, hav-
ing on its end a decoy fish. This
may be easily made of a piece of
pine, painted white, with the back
dark gray, fitted with tin fins, and
weighted with lead. The line is
fastened to its back by a bent
pin, and by experiment the fins can
be so arranged that when the line
is pulled up the fish will move ahead,
as if it were swimming. The fisher-
man continues to move this decoy
about in the water until he sees that
it has attracted a fish. The decoy is
now gradually lifted with the left
hand and the spear is slowly lowered
with the right till it is about a foot
above the fish's back, when it should
be given a sudden thrust. The line
may be thrown over the knee and
the spear managed with both hands.
If the fish is caught, it should be put
outside the door of the shelter. A
cabin like the one described is com-
fortably warm, even when the ther-
mometer is very low outside. Some
fishermen build cabins having floors,
seats, and a small charcoal or oil
stove, so that a whole day can be
passed in them. The best times for
fish-spearing through ice are just
before and just after sunset, during
a snow-storm, or when the day is
partly cloudy.
Snaring. Fish can be snared
through the ice from a shelter like
that used for spearing. The pro-
cedure is exactly the same, save
that instead of a spear the fisherman
uses a slip-noose made of fine copper
or brass wire attached to the end of
a line. The line must not be jerked
with too much force, or the wire
snare may cut the fish in two. Trout
can be snared in like manner with
horsehair nooses. In most of the
States it is forbidden to snare or spear
trout, bass, and other food fish ; and
anglers generally regard with dis-
favor any method of capture except
with hook and line.
A mode of fishing sometimes pra-
ticed in the Southern States is called
FISHING
329
FISHING
Five or six empty jugs
are tightly corked, and floated in the
water. To the handle of each is
fastened a line about five feet long,
fitted with a sinker and a baited
hook. As the jugs float with the cur-
rent, they are followed and watched
by the fisherman. When a fish is
hooked, the jug to which the line is
fastened begins to bob up and down
and darts about in all directions.
Such a jug is at once pursued and
the fish hauled in.
A device used by fishermen, in
tending several set lines on the ice, is
called a tip-up. In its simplest form,
a stick is laid across the ice hole, and
to it is fastened at right angles an-
other stick a foot or two long, having
the line fastened to one end, and on
the other a small red flag. The
flag rests on the ice till a fish is
hooked and then it is waved up and
down by the struggles of the fish, at-
tracting the notice of the fisherman.
The following is a list of the
principal game-fish of the United
States, with a few words about each.
The appearance of most of them is
described in C. C. T., in separate
articles.
FRESH-WA TER FISH.
Dace. Among the first fish usually
caught by boys in fresh water are
the various minnows sometimes
called shiners and chubs, the most
common of which is the dace or
roach. The dace is found in most
of the brooks and ponds in New
England and the Middle States, and
is caught with a light rod, and worms
or artificial flies as bait.
Sun fish, also called " Sunny,"
" Pumpkin seed," Pond Perch, Roach,
and Bream. It is found in brooks
over a large area in the United States
(sometimes in salt tidal rivers), and
is good eating. It is caught with
small hooks and tackle, and worms
as bait, and will also take the arti-
ficial fly. The blue sunfish, blue
bream, or copper nosed bream is
fished for in the Southern States with
artificial flies and affords good sport.
The common bream of Southern
waters is sometimes caught with a
bait made of brown bread and honey.
Yellow Perch. This favorite of
young fishermen is common in most
parts of the Eastern States, and
furnishes sport most of the year
round, being taken in summer with
worm or minnow bait. In winter
it is fished for through holes cut in
the ice, the bait then used being the
white grub found in decayed wood.
In the spring the perch will rise to
the fly. In weight the perch rarely
exceeds two pounds, though speci-
mens have been caught of twice that
weight.
Pike-Perch. This fish sometimes
called the Glass Eye, Wall eyed Pike,
Ohio Pike, or Ohio Salmon, though
it is neither pike nor salmon, is
found in the Southern States, the
great lakes, Western New York, and
Canada. In Canada it is called the
Doree, and another Canadian fish of
the same species is called the Sandre.
The pike-perch is bold and greedy
and is readily taken with the hook,
witH almost any small fish for bait.
In Lake Champlain it is sometimes
caught by trolling. The weight of
the pike-perch is from one to five
pounds. Its flesh, which is white, is
highly esteemed in the West.
Pickerel. The Pike or Pickerel
family includes the Muskallonge or
Maskallonge (sometimes called the
'Longe),andthe Northern Pickerel, of
the great lakes; the Common Pickerel,
found in all the ponds and streams
of the Northern and Middle States ;
the White Pickerel of the Ohio and
other western rivers ; and the Black
Pickerel of Pennsylvania. They are
all distinguished by length of body.
The muskallonge, which, though of
the pike family.is not a gigantic pike,
as some think, attains sometimes a
weight of 50 and even 80 pounds.
The pike seldom grows to be more
than three feet long, but the muskal-
longe has been known to attain seven
feet, especially in the Michigan lakes
and in 'he upper waters of the Mis-
FISHING
330
FISHING
sissippi River. The finest muskal-
longe are caught in Rice Lake,
Canada, and good-sized ones, though
not the largest, in the St. Lawrence
River. They are generally caught by
trolling with a spoon. The common
pickerel or pond pike is perhaps the
commonest of all game fishes in the
United States. It weighs, on an
average, about five pounds. All the
pickerel are voracious, and destruc-
tive not only to small fish but to
frogs and water rats. There are
many modes of catching them, and
they will take almost any kind of
bait, but they are caught best by
trolling with a gorge hook, or fishing
with a snap hook.
Cat-fish, Bull-head, Bull Pout, or
Horned Pout. These, which are
nearly related, are found in all North
American waters. Cat-fish are found
in the great lakes and in the West
as well as in salt water, and bull-
heads in most all fresh water. They
have no scales, the skin being either
naked or protected by large plates.
The largest cat-fish weigh 150
pounds. The flesh of the smaller
kinds is rich, and in some places is
considered a great delicacy. All the
cat-fish are greedy biters, and will
take almost any kind of bait. The
ordinary bull-heads of the Eastern
States are caught on muddy bottoms
with worms as bait ; they bite best
at night. The kind called " channel
cat," found in the West and South,
is very gamy and caught with heavy
tackle and minnow bait. In the
Southern States " jugging," described
above, is a favorite method with the
negroes of catching cat-fish.
Black Bass is found in many
lakes and streams east of the Rocky
Mountains, and is much prized as a
game fish. It is often caught with
minnows, frogs, or grasshoppers, or
by trolling with a Spoon hook, but
rises readily at an artificial fly. The
rods used are about 10 feet long and
stiffer than those used for trout.
In weight the black bass runs from
two to four pounds for full grown
fish, in Northern waters. Specimens
have been taken weighing seven
pounds and more. In the South, the
fish are much larger. Florida bass
have been caught exceeding twenty
pounds. The colors of the black
bass vary in different waters ; they
have received many local names.
They are called Trout in most parts
of the South, Chubb in Virginia, and
Welshmen in the Carolinas.
Eels bite freely at worms, or bits
of meat, and are also taken by
spearing and by " bobbing." Eel
bobs are made by stringing angle-
worms in a bunch on a piece of
stout thread at the end of an ordinary
fish line. The eels bite at the bunch,
and, their teeth becoming entangled
in the thread, they are drawn ashore.
Eels bite best at night and frequent
muddy bottoms. Salt water eels are
often captured in a sort of trap called
an eel-pot.
The Sucker is very commonly
found in fresh waters in the North-
ern States and is well know to country
boys. It bites readily at angle-worm
bait, and is often caught through the
ice in winter. A favorite mode of
capturing suckers is by means of a
slip-noose of horsehair or copper
wire, and they are also speared.
Carp was imported from Europe
about 1855, and is now found in
many Eastern waters, and also in
California and Oregon. It frequents
muddy waters, and is not readily
captured by angling, though it will
sometimes take worms, artificial flies,
and a bait of flour paste.
Chub, Honey-head, or River Chub.
This fish is widely distributed in fresh
waters. It takes the hook readily,
and is caught with worms or min-
nows, the tackle used being the same
as for black bass.
Grayling. This fish is found
along the Northern border of the
United States, and catching it is con-
sidered fine sport. It is best caught
with a fly, but bites also at worms
and insects.
Salmon. The true salmon if
FISHING
331
FISHING
caught chiefly in Canadian rivers, and
in the Penobscot River of Maine,
from about the middle of May to the
end of July, while on the way up
from its annual visit to the sea, to
deposit its spawn or eggs in fresh
water. The fish deposit their eggs
in the gravelly bed of the upper parts
of the rivers in the autumn and then
return to the sea. The young fish,
when first hatched, are called Pinks
or Paer, in their second year Smolts,
and in their third Grilse. In fishing
for salmon, artificial flies of various
kinds are used.
Trout. The Speckled, Brook, or
Mountain Trout, which ranks second
only to the salmon as a game fish,
also migrates, or visits the sea, when
it is possible for it do so. It is found
in clear, cold streams and lakes ; and
is caught with angle-worms, artific-
ial flies, and minnows. In meadow
brooks and mountain streams the
fish caught do not average more than
a pound in weight ; but, in the rivers
and lakes of Maine and Canada,
speckled trout of four to six pounds
are not uncommon, while speci-
mens have been caught weighing ten
pounds. The lake trout is found in
the great lakes, where it is often
called the Mackinaw trout, and in the
lakes of Northern New York, New
England, and Canada. In the great
lakes it sometimes reaches a weight
of forty pounds; but in the other
localities named it is much smaller.
The lake trout is taken by trolling
with minnow or spoon bait, and also
by still-fishing near the bottom in
deep water.
White Fish, found in the great
lakes, is much prized for food. It is
caught usually in nets called " pound
nets," from 500 to 1000 feet long.
The net is stretched on poles, and
ends in a pocket or trap, into which
the fish swim and are caught by
thousands.
SA L T- WA TER FISff.
The Ciinner, also called the Salt-
water Perch, Chogset, Burgall, Nib-
bier, and Blue Perch, is found in
great numbers along the coast of the
United States. It is usually one of
the first salt water fish caught by
boys, and will bite readily at almost
any bait. Clams' heads are often
used. Light tackle is employed.
Gunners often annoy fishermen very
much by nibbling off their bait,
when they wish to catch larger fish.
Flat Fish are more gamy than
the cunner, and excellent eating.
They have flat bodies and large
mouths. The tackle and bait are
like those used forcunners.
Flounder. This fish is taken all
along the Atlantic coast, and bites
best in spring and autumn. It is
caught either with light tackle and
clam or lobster bait, or in set-nets,
and sometimes by spearing at night.
Striped Bass, or Rock Fish.
Though" a sea fish, it enters tidal riv-
ers to spawn, and often runs up
fresh water streams in search of
food. Next to the members of the
salmon family it is considered the
best game fish in the United States.
It attains sometimes seventy or eighty
pounds, but those weighing about
eight pounds have the best flavor.
It bites at nearly every kind of bait,
and even at a white rag or bit of
cotton, and it can also be caught with
the artificial fly. A line baited with
small fish is often cast directly into
the surf, as in fly-casting. In troll-
ing for it, the best bait is the min-
now. Great care is necessary in
landing the fish after it is hooked,
for it is very strong, makes long and
rapid runs, and is not easily tired.
The Sea Bass, also called Black-fish,
is caught on the coast of the Northern
States in May, June, and July. It is
sometimes caught from the shore,
but generally from boats at some
distance from land. It bites best at
the turn of the tide, and is caught
with black-fish tackle, and clams or
shrimp for bait.
Sea Chub. This fish is common in
the South and occasionally appears as
far north as New York. It was found
there in abundance during the visit
FISHING
332
FISHING
of Gen. Lafayette to this country in
1836, and hence is often called the
Lafayette. It is prized as a delicacy.
Weak Fish. It is found on al-
most all the coasts of the United
States between June and December.
In the South it is often miscalled
Trout, which fish it much resembles
in flavor. Its weight is generally
from a few ounces up to seven or
eight pounds, and it is asserted that
sometimes weighs 25 to 30 pounds.
It is caught during flood tide, usu-
ally with clarn bait. A large hook
of tine steel is used on account of the
fish's large mouth and soft jaws. The
same tackle is used as for black bass.
Weak Fish must be eaten within
three or four hours after it is caught,
as its flesh soon gets soft. Some say
that the name " Weak," was given
because the mouth is easily'torn by
the hook ; some that it is a corruption
of "Wheat Fish," since it is caught
when wheat is ripe ; and others
assert that it is corrupted from the
originaHndian name, Squeteague.
Sheepshead. This is naturally a
Southern fish, but is taken along the
coasts of the Northern States from
June till October. It generally weighs
seven or eight pounds, but sometimes
as much as seventeen. It has a head
sloping abruptly to the snout and
large oblong scales ; is of a dull silver
color with coppery gleams, and has
five dark arched bands across the
back and tail. Its head and forehead
are black and the chin is marked
with patches, which, with its peculiar
profile and prominent teeth, give it
a fancied resemblance to the head of
a sheep. It a wary and hard fish to
hook and to land. Sheepshead is
delicious eating and highly prized by
epicures. Special hooks are made
for sheepshead fishing ; clam, crab,
or fiddler bait is the best. Sheeps-
head are found about wrecks, sunken
timbers, the piles of wharves, or on
a rock bottom, and hand-line fishing
is commonly practiced, though the
use of rod and reel affords better
sport.
Scup, or Scuppog. It is called
also the Porgie, Porgy, or Paugie, and
is found all along the Atlantic coast.
It is caught generally from a row boat
with a hand line, a medium sized
hook, and a sinker heavy enough to
carry it to the bottom. Clam bait is
commonly used, though the fish bite
well at shrimp.
Blue-fish. It is called also the
Skipjack, and sometimes the Horse
Mackerel, or the Snapper, is found
on the American coast from Brazil to
Massachusetts, and is common also
in Europe. Full-grown Blue-fish
are one to three feet long, and weigh
four to ten pounds. They are usually
caught with a squid, as described
above, trolled from a sailboat, or
thrown out and drawn in from shore.
They often run in " schools," through
which the fishermen sail to and fro,
trolling their lines, and taking the
fish with great rapidity. They swim
near the surface, and leap at any
living thing they see. When fresh
from the water they are delicious eat-
ing, but their delicate flavor is lost if
they are kept more than a few hours.
Small blue-fish are caught from
the shore in New England, during
the early autumn, with light tackle
baited with clams or minnows, at
which they bite greedily.
Mackerel are commonly taken in
seines, but may be caught in much
the same way as blue-fish, though
the squids used are smaller. They
will bite also at hooks baited with
small bits of mackerel skin, or even
with bits of white or red cloth.
Smelts. These fish are taken
along the coast north of New Jersey
in large seines, but will bite also at
hooks. They run up the rivers to
spawn like salmon, and in Maine and
the British provinces they sometimes
pass their lives wholly in fresh water.
Smelts are caught in Maine, through
the ice, with what is called the " um-
brella tackle," consisting of an ar-
rangement made like an umbrella
frame without the handle. To the
end of each rib hangs a short line
FISHING
333
FISHING
with a hook, and the whole is sus-
pended from a fish-pole by a single
line, fastened at the place where the
top of an ordinary umbrella handle
comes through.
Herring. This fish, which runs
into the mouths of all the northern
and northeastern rivers of America,
is greatly sought for food. It is usu-
ally caught with a net, but may. be
angled for with an artificial fly in the
spring. It is colored blue above and
silvery white below. The shad, which
is of the same family as the herring, is
likewise generally taken with a net,
but can sometimes be caught with
the fly, affording excellent sport. The
shad is a dusky blue above, with
brown and green tints. His sides
are silvery white, with a tinge of. cop-
per color. It is considered by many
the most delicious of all table fish.
Tantog, or Black-fish. It is found
from South Carolina to Massa-
chusetts Bay, and is usually caught
best near rocks, sunken wrecks, or
deserted docks. The grounds it
frequents are often " baited " by
throwing crabs or clams into the
water, in hopes of enticing it to come
there to feed. Black-fish usually
weigh two to ten pounds. The
ordinary bait is soft clams, fiddler
crabs, or bits of lobster. Two hooks
are generally used, with snells of
twisted gut, one twelve, and one
fifteen inches long. Either hand-
lines or rods are used.
Fish caught in deep salt water,
such as the Cod, Haddock, Whiting,
and Halibut, are not usually classed
as game fish, being caught chiefly
for a livelihood. They are some-
times taken for spprt, but this con-
sists merely in the frequency of the
biting, for they offer little resistance,
and are hauled in by mere strength.
They are all found everywhere north
of New York, and pleasure parties
are sometimes formed to catch them.
Cod and. haddock are caught off
Block Island, on the Rhode Island
coast, salted clams or pieces of fish
being used for bait. The line is a
heavy cotton one from 400 to 600
feet long, with a sinker weighing
twelve ounces or more, and very
large hooks.
FISH LA ws.
Most of the States have laws
regulating the fishing for food and
game fish. Thus, it is forbidden to
capture trout, bass, and other fish
by netting or spearing, or in any
way except with hook and line.
Fishing is permitted only during cer-
tain months, which are called the
"open season." TheState,county,and
town laws are frequently changed,
and, therefore, the table which follows
is probably not quite exact. Some
States forbid taking fish under a cer-
tain size or weight. In general, the
purpose of the law is to forbid fishing
methods that will destroy the supply.
Heavy fines, and even imprisonments,
are the penalties for violating the fish
laws ; but anglers consider it a point
of honor to obey the laws and to
influence others to obey them. The
laws apply to fishing in private
waters as well as in those that are
public. The following table shows
when fish are in season in States
where the catching of such fish is
regulated by law. To find what fish
are in season in "any particular
month, the reader must look down
the column under the name of the
month. The fish, opposite whose
names there is a black line in that
column, are then in season. The
shorter black lines mean first half of
the month, when printed toward the
left ; and last half when toward the
right. By beginning with the fish's
name ami following the line toward
the right, it can be seen, in like
manner, during what time it can be
legally taken. For instance, the
table shows that the trout season in
Illinois begins on February 15, and
ends on June 15. These' times
are only approximately correct, as
legislatures are constantly changing
them. The sportsman to be abso-
lutely safe should therefore make
special inquiry in each case.
FISHING
334
FISHING
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5
Trout.
—
_
__
-
•~~
— ~
^^
Iowa
Maine (by citizens)
—
—
—
—
Massachusetts 1
and Minnesota [
Michigan and New York ...
—
—
_
New Hampshire (with hook and line)
(in anyway)
New Jersey
New Mexico
North Carolina /
-
West of the Blue Ridge )
Ohio
—
^^_
Pennsylvania (speckled)
— — —
—
-"•
(Lake)
Vermont
—
—
-
Salmon.
Illinois
.—
-
Maine (with hook and line)
" (in all ways)
-
""
—
E
~
Massachusetts
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Black Bass.
—
__
Illinois
—
—
—
^—
~~~
— ~
~~~
—
New Hampshire
Vermont
—
Grayling.
New Hampshire
Shad.
California
— —
—
—
—
—
Blue Fish.
In Southern Waters
—
In Northern Waters
Shad.
On North Atlantic Coast
Mackerel.
Weak Fish.
Sheepshead.
I n Northern Waters
Sea Bass.
In Southern Waters
Black Fish.
Muscalonge.
Dakota
Pike and Pickerel.
—
^
—
—
—
—
New Hampshire
FISHING
335
FISHING
Perch.
Maine ..4.... .
New Hampshire
Herring.
District of Columbia
Smelt.
Maine (except by hook and line).
Massachusetts . .
Trespassing". If the bottom of a
stream is owned by any one, as it is in
some cases, the owner alone has the
right to fish in it, even if it is deep
enough to float a boat. If it is not
deep enough for boats, then the right
belongs to the owner of the land on
the nearest bank, no matter how
wide the stream might be. In tide
water, the right to fish belongs to
the State, and it is usually free to all;
but in some cases the State grants it
to particular persons. When a per-
son fishes in water without the per-
mission of the one who owns the right
to do so, he is a trespasser. What
has been said on this subject, under
HUNTING, applies to fishing also.
Some States have made special laws
on this subject, but in general the
law is as it has been given above.
History. The earliest tribes of
men caught fish with what are
Fig. 32. — Ancient Bronze and Stone
Gorges.
called gorges (see Fig. 32), pieces of
pointed stone about an inch long,
and having a groove in the middle
for the line. The bait was put on so
as to cover the gorge, which turned,
after it was swallowed, across the
fish's gullet and held it fast. One
of these gorges, dug up in France,
was used in what is called the Stone
Age, before man understood the use
of metals, and is estimated to be
eight or nine thousand years old.
Later, in the Bronze Age, gorges of
bronze were used, and then hooks
of bone and of bronze (see Figs. 33-
Fig. 33. — Ancient Bone Hooks.
34). The Indians of California used
hooks made of shell (Fig. 35). On
the coast of France hooks are some-
times made of thorns, and the Piute
Indians use the spine of a cactus.
The Bible shows us that the use of
hook and line was known, very early,
to the Jews. The question in the
book of Job, "Canst thou draw out
Leviathan with a hook ? " is supposed
to refer to it. The prophet Isaiah
says, " The fishers also shall mourn,
and all they that cast angle in
the brooks." Among the ancient
Greeks and Romans angling was
much practiced, and Antony and
Cleopatra and the Emperor Trajan
were fond of it. The sport has
always been a favorite with many
great men, among them Lord Nelson,
Sir Walter Scott, and Sir Humphrey
FISHING
336
FLAT-BOATING
Davy. More than a thousand books
on angling have been written in
Fig. 34. — Ancient Double and Single
Bronze Hooks.
English alone, the first of which, by
Juliana Rerners, was mirilished in
Fig. 35. — Snell Hook.
1496. One of the most celebrated
is " The Compleat Angler," by Isaac
Walton, a noted angler, which first
appeared in 1653 and has been repub-
lished many times. The fifth edition
(1676) was accompanied by a second
part, giving instructions for fly fish-
mg» by h's adopted son Charles
Cotton, and the two are now always
printed together.
FISH POND. See ANGLING.
FIVES. See RACKETS.
FLAT-BOATING. Broad, flat-bot-
tomed boats, called flatboats, bear-
ing a wooden cabin, are used on
shallow rivers and inlets by sports-
men. A flatboat is easily built by
any one with a taste for carpentry
The hull should be about 14 feet
long, 6 feet wide, and 18 inches
deep, of two-inch pine planks, with a
bottom of half-inch boards nailed on
lengthwise. The whole should be
calked with oakum and painted with
coal-tar. The cabin is a framework
covered with thin plank, and is about
five feet high, and six feet square.
In front of the cabin two oar-locks
are fastened, which may be made of
notched boards, and near the bow a
small mast is set up. Another oar-
lock, for the steering oar, is placed
at the stern. The boat is propelled
by rowing, and sometimes also by a
square sail. It is slow, but its object
is simply to furnish shelter to the
sportsman, and enable him to move
about from place to place in search
of fish or game. It can float in
water too shallow for a rowboat.
A simpler kind of flatboat, which
has been named a Crusoe-raft, is a
raft of logs, joined together by cross
strips, fastened by wooden pegs
driven through auger holes. On the
raft is a sort of tent made of bent
saplings, covered with cloth, like the
top of an old-fashioned emigrant
wagon. For oars, long poles, with
flat boards at the ends, may be used,
and the tent should be floored with
small sticks and partially filled with
hay or straw. Such a raft may be
built in the woods, floated down a
river, and then abandoned, the boat-
ing party returning by rail. A flat-
FLOUR
337
boat journey is a kind of CAMPING
OUT on the water and the outfit should
be much the same as for a camp on
land. An oven of stones may be
built on the boat, so that cooking
may be done on board.
FLOUR, an Explosion with. Any
fine flour can be used in this experi-
ment, but the best is ordinary corn
starch. Nail together two boards,
each about eighteen inches square, in
the shape of a V, so that they make an
angle of about 60 degrees. Lay the V
on its side and at the top of the angle,
fasten a candle by a wire, so that it
projects into the space within the
boards about an inch. Place within
the V about a handful of corn starch,
and, having lighted the candle, blow
the starch toward the angle vigor-
ously with an ordinary bellows. A
dense cloud of flour will rise at the
angle, and as it passes the candle it
will take fire with a sudden puff,
making a mass of flame. If the
cloud does not catch fire at first it is
probably because it is not thick
enough. This can be remedied by
using more corn starch, or blowing
it more vigorously.
To blow the side out of a box
with an explosion of this kind, remove
one side of a wooden box about eight
or ten inches square, and replace it
with thick brown wrapping paper,
gummed on tightly. Bore a hole in
one of the lower corners to admit the
bellows nozzle, and another in the top
for ventilation. Put in a handful of
corn starch through the hole in the
top, and lower a lighted candle
through the same hole with a wire,
bending the wire so that the candle
will hang within the box. Blow with
the bellows through the lower hole,
and after a few trials an explosion
can be produced which will blow
out the paper side of the box.
The reason why flour explodes
thus, when it is in the form of a
cloud, is that then each particle
is surrounded by oxygen enough to
burn it (see FIRE, in C. C. T.), and
yet the particles are near enough for
the fire to pass from one to the other
so that they flame up all at once.
FLOWERS, Changes of Color in.
Pour some common ether into a
wine-glass, and to it add about one-
tenth its bulk of strong ammonia
water. This mixture has the prop-
erty of changing the colors of many
flowers when they are dipped into
it. Some whose colors are red or
violet, such as the red geranium, the
violet, the periwinkle, the lilac, the
rose, and the heliotrope, are turned
bright green. The upper petal of
the violet sweet pea becomes dark
blue and the lower petal green. The
streaked carnation becomes brown
and bright green. White flowers
generally turn yellow or orange,
but yellow ones are not changed.
The action of the liquid is so quick
that flowers can be spotted simply
by sprinkling it over them. Similar
changes can be produced by using
ammonia alone, through not so quick-
ly. The ammonia may be poured on
a glass plate and covered with an in-
verted dish, containing the flowers.
Asters acquire an aromatic odor
when thus treated. The colors of
flowers which have been turned
green in either of these ways may
be somewhat restored by placing
them in a vessel over hydrochloric
acid. (See also SULPHUR.)
FLUORESCENCE, Experiments
on. See QUININE.
FLY AWAY, a game played by any
number of persons, with marbles,
and an upright frame, seven inches
high, on which are hung five small
weights by elastic cords. The cords
are kept stretched by fastening the
weights to a cross bar near the
ground, but, if one of the weights is
struck by a rolling marble, it is un-
fastened and the elastic pulls it up
quickly, so that it seems to fly away.
The players take turns in rolling one
or more marbles at the frame, and
when a weight is struck the player
scores whatever number is written
above it. In another form, the
weights are replaced by little boards
FLYING CONE
338
FOOT BALL
which, on being struck with the
marbles, turn over, showing a comi-
cal picture on the other side.
FLYING CONE, or Devil on Two
Sticks, a toy consisting of two cones
joined at their points (see A, in illus-
tration), and made to spin in the air
RIGHT HAND
Flying Cone.
by means of a string a yard long,
fastened by two sticks, each about
two feet long. The toy is first laid
on a table with the string under it, the
player holding one of the sticks in
each hand. The cone being near
the right-hand stick, the player lifts
that steadily so as to make the cone
revolve. By tossing it up a little way
the string can be brought back to
the same point, and by repeating the
process the cone is made to spin very
rapidly. The skillful player can then
toss it high into the air, and catching
it, make it dance on the tightened
string, cause it to roll up one of the
sticks to his arm, and perform many
other feats.
History, This toy had its origin
in China, where peddlers use it to
announce their approach by its hum-
ming. The Chinese form is much
larger than ours, and consists of two
cylinders of metal or bamboo united
by a thin stem. The string makes
a running knot around the stem, and
no sticks are used in spinning it.
On its introduction into Europe,
early in this century, it assumed its
present form. In France, where it
it called Le diable (The Devil), it
was at one time so popular that, says
a French writer, the toys " were
made of the most valuable woods
and even of glass. They were played
with in parlors and on roofs, in
public places and
promenades ; the
sport was not con-
fined to children,
but ladies and even
persons of emi-
nence strove to ex-
cel in it, often to
the great risk of
the glass and por-
celain in parlors,
and often, too, with
danger to the heads
of the passers by,
when the Devil was
sent from afar by
an inexpert player."
The English
scientist, Maxwell, a professor in the
University of Cambridge, devoted
much time to studying the move-
ments of the Double Cone in the
air, and succeeded in completely
explaining it mathematically.
FLYING TOP. See TOPS.
FLY THE GARTER. See LEAP
FROG.
FOLLOW MY LEADER, a game
played by any number of persons,
one of whom is chosen as leader,
while the others follow him and do
whatever he does. The players
form in line behind the leader, who
generally begins the same by doing
some simple thing like leaping, hop-
ping, or shouting. If any of the play-
ers fail to perform any of the leader's
feats, that player must fall behind
all those who were able to do so.
The game may be made exciting by
a good leader, but he should be care-
ful not to lead his followers into
danger.
FOOT AND A HALF. See LEAP
FROG.
FOOT BALL, a game played by
22 persons, 1 1 on each side, with a
FOOT BALL
339
FOOT BALL
large oval ball, usually of inflated
rubber with a leather cover, on a
field 330 feet long and i6ofeet wide.-
At each end is a goal made of two
posts i8i feet apart, with a crossbar
10 feet from the ground. The
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Goal Line. Goal Line.
(18^ feet.)
( Goal. )
160 feet.
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Touch in Goal.
•aun IBOO -aun FOQ
Touch in Goal.
Diagram of Field.
posts project several feet above the
crossbar. The end boundaries of
the field are called goal lines. The
space beyond these lines, on either
end and between the extended side
lines, is called a Goal. The space
FOOT BALL
340
FOOT BALL
outside the side lines and between
the extended goal lines is called
Touch, and the space at the corners
of the field, between the extended
goal and side lines, is called Touch-
in-Goal, as shown in the figure.
Usually the field is marked also with
cross-lines every five yards, to aid
the referee in determining how far
the ball has advanced. These lines
give the foot-ball field the look that
has led to its popular name of " the
gridiron." Two of them, the fifth
from each goal respectively, are
called the "25-yard lines." All the
lines are marked with lime. Each
party or " team " consists of eleven
persons, namely, seven Rushers or
Forwards, a Quarter Back, two
Half Backs, and one Full Back or
Goal Tend. The opposing players
face each other, and each side tries
to carry or kick the ball toward the
opposite goal, and either to touch
the ball to the ground behind the
goal (called "making a Touch-
down ") or to kick it over the cross-
bar between the goal posts (called
" kicking a Goal "). In general, the
Rushers try to carry the ball for-
ward and also to protect the Half
Backs and Full Back, who do all the
kicking.
The Center Rusher or " Snapper-
back," should be a large, powerful
man, but it is not necessary that he
should run fast. His neighbors on
either side are called " Guards,"
those next to these the " Tacklers,"
and the farthest ones the " End
Rushers," who must be good gen-
eral players and fine runners. The
Quarter Back's position is the most
responsible on the field, as it rests
with him to determine the direction
of the playing, and at critical mo-
ments he may even change the cap-
tain's policy. When the ball is held
by the enemy the Quarter Back plays
as a Rusher or Half Back. The
best players in this position have
usually been rather small men. The
Half Backs should possess coolness
and pluck, and must run, kick, and
tackle well. The Full Back must be
a long kicker and fine tackier, so
•that it will be almost impossible for
a hostile man to pass him. The
captains usually direct the play of
their men by secret signals pre-
viously agreed upon.
The leaders of the sides toss up
before the game, and the winner
takes either the " kick-off " or the
choice of goals.
The players on each side now
stand with their backs toward their
own goal — the seven Rushers in a
line, the Quarter Back just behind,
then the Half Backs a few yards
away, and finally the Full Back a
dozen yards or so to the rear. The
side having the " kick-off " places
the ball in the center of the field, and
one of that side kicks it toward the
opposite goal. As soon as it is kicked
it is said to be " in play." Before
that, all on the kicking-off side stand
behind the kicker, and all on the
opposite side must stand at least 10
yards before the ball. The player
who next gets possession of the ball
has the choice of kicking it, of run-
ning with it, or of throwing it to
some other player on his own side,
but he must throw it sideways or
back, never straight or diagonally
forward. If he run with it, the
opposed players may try to stop him
by seizing or "tackling" him any-
where above the knees. He may
try to keep them off by pushing
with his open hand, but not with his
closed fist. It requires skill as well
as strength to stop a good runner.
Sometimes four or five men will be
unable to hold him, while at others a
small player will stop a large one
almost instantly. If he be tackled,
and the ball fairly held, he must say
" Down," and a player on his side,
usually the Snapper-back, then puts
the ball on the ground for a " scrim-
mage." The opposing rushers form
in two lines, facing each other, each
on their own side of the place where
the ball was down. The Snapper-
back takes the ball and " snaps " it
FOOT BALL
341
FOOT BALL
(see note under Rule 6) back to the
Quarter Back, who passes it io an-
other player on his own side. That
player may then try to carry it
through the opposing rush line or
kick it, but if in three successive
" clowns " by the same side the ball
is not advanced 5 yards, or taken
back 20 yards, it must then be
kicked, or surrendered to the oppo-
nents on the next failure to advance.
When a ball is kicked, anyone on
the opposite side who catches it
fairly, without stepping from his
place, at the same time making a
mark with his heel on the ground,
may have a " free kick." The op-
ponents may then come up to that
mark, but must not pass it till, after
retiring as far as he wishes, the one
who made the catch kicks it. He
may take a " drop-kick," or a
" punt," or hold the ball for a " place-
kick " (all of which are described
in Rule 2, below), but if he takes
a place-kick the opponents may
advance, or " charge," as soon as
the ball touches the ground. When
in the course of the game a player
succeeds in getting the ball near
enough to his opponents' goal, he
may try to kick a goal, which he may
do in any way except by a punt, or he
may touch the ball down in Goal,
which iscalled making a Touchdown.
His side must then make a " Try at
Goal," either by a place-kick or a
punt-out as described in Rules 24
and 25. When a side has the ball,
but is hard pressed, near its own
goal, it may gain a temporary advan-
tage by taking the ball back across
the goal line and making a Safety
touchdown, or " Safety," as described
in Rule 4 (d). The ball can then be
carried straight out, not more than
25 yards from the goal line, and
kicked. Till it is so kicked the op-
posing side must not come nearer
the goal line than 25 yards. A
" Safety " counts against the side
making it, but if the ball is kicked
or carried across the goal line by
one of the opposite side and then
comes into possession of the owners
of the goal, who touch it down, it is
called a Touchback, and does not
count against them. If the ball
crosses the side lines, or " goes in
touch," it is put in play again, as
described in Rule 22.
During the game every player is
either " off-side " or "on-side" and
only those " on-side " can take active
part in the game. Rule io tells
when a player is off-side and how
he is put on-side again. The ball
must be either " in play " or " dead,"
and while it is " dead " no play may
I .. — «j
Ju
Drop Kick.
be made. For instance, when a
Safety has been made, the ball is
dead till it is put in play, according
to rule, by a kick-out. Till it is so
put in play, the player holding it
may not run with it, kick it, nor
throw it, and the opposing players
must make no effort to get pos-
session of it. Rule ii gives all
the cases where a ball is dead. All
disputed points during a match game
are decided by a referee, an umpire,
and a linesman, as described in Rule
29. In a practice game one person
often does duty for all three.
A game consists of two halves,
each 35 minutes long, with a ten-
minute intermission ; and the side
scoring the greatest number of
FOOT BALL
342
FOOT BALL
points wins. The points are deter-
mined by the Goals, Touchdowns,
and Safeties as explained in Rule 26.
The details of the game will be
better understood by studying the
rules given below.
The balls used for playing are of
various kinds. The Rugby, once
used in all foot-ball games in this
country, is oval, and consists of an
India-rubber bladder with a leather
case. The English Association ball
has also a bladder and case, but is
Foot Balls.
round. These different kinds of ball
are made in various sizes, from 20 to
33 inches in circumference. Foot-
ball players now usually wear canvas
jackets lacing in front, and trousers
of fustian or some other stout ma-
terial, padded over the knees and
thighs. Long woolen stockings are
worn, and sometimes the Forwards
use shin-guards. Slices are of
leather or canvas, with leather-strips
or spikes on the sole. The Quarter
Back, Center Rush, and Full Back
often wear simply knit jerseys.
Foot-ball Rules. Substantially as
adopted in 1898 by the University
Athletic Club:*
EQUIPMENT, OFFICALS, ETC.
RULE I.— (a) The game shall be
played upon a rectangular field, of
dimensions described in the preced-
ing article.
(b) The game shall be played by
two teams of eleven men each.
(L~) The officials shall be a referee,
an umpire, and a linesman.
(//) The foot ball used shall be of
leather, enclosing an inflated rubber
* In the same year associations of Western and
Southern colleges adopted rules of their own
which differ slightly from these.
bladder. The ball shall have the
shape of a prolate spheroid.
DEFINITION OF TERMS.
RULE 2.— (a) A Drop-Kick is
made by letting the ball drop from
the hands and kicking it the instant
it rises from the ground.
(t>) A Place-Kick is made by
kicking the ball after it has been
placed on the ground.
(c) A Punt is made by letting the
ball drop from the hands and kick-
ing it before it touches the ground.
(d) A Kick-Off' is a place-kick
from the center of the field of play,
and cannot score a goal. (Rule 8.)
(e) A Kick-Out is a drop-kick,
place-kick, or punt made by a player
of the side which has made a safety
or a touchback.
(f) A Free Kick is a term used
to designate any kick when the op-
ponents are restrained by rule from
advancing beyond a certain point.
RULE 3.— (a) The ball is Out of
Bounds when it or any part of the
player who holds the ball touches
the ground on or outside the side
line or side line extended.
(b) If the ball is kicked so that it
goes out of bounds before crossing
the opponents' goal line, it shall be-
long to the opponents. If, however,
it strikes any player who is on-side,
and then goes out of bounds, it shall
belong to the player who first ob-
tains possession of it.
RULE 4. — (a) A Touchdown is
made when the ball in possession of
a player is declared dead by the
Referee, any part of it being on,
over, or behind the opponents' goal
line.
(b) The point where the touch-
down is marked, however, is not
where the ball is carried across the
line, but where the ball is fairly held
or called " down."
(c) A Touchback is made when
the ball in possession of a player
guarding his own goal is declared
(lead by the Referee, any part of it
being on, over, or behind the goal
line, provided the impetus which
FOOT BALL
343
FOOT BALL
sent it to or across the line was
given by an opponent.
(d) A Safety is made when the
ball in the possession of a player
guarding his own goal is declared
dead by the Referee, any part of it
being on, over, or behind the goal
line, provided the impetus which
caused it to pass from outside the
goal to or behind the goal line was
given by the defending side.
RULE 5. —A Punt-Out is a punt
made by a player of the side which
has made a touchdown to another
of his own side for a fair catch.
RULE 6. — (a) A Scrimmage takes
place when the holder of the ball
places it upon the ground and puts it
in play by kicking it forward or
snapping* it back.
(b) If, after the snapper-back has
taken his position, he should volun-
tarily move the ball as if to snap it,
the scrimmage has begun.
(c) When snapping the ball back,
the player so doing must be on-side,
the hand or foot used in snapping
the ball excepted. (Rule 10.)
RULE 7.— (a) A Fair Catch con-
sists in catching the ball after it has
been kicked by one of the opponents
and before it touches the ground, or
in similarly catching a punt-out by
another of the catcher's own side,
provided the player, while making
the catch, makes a mark with his
heel. It is not a fair catch if the
ball, after the kick, was touched by
another of his side before the catch.
Opponents who are off-side shall not
interfere in any way with a player
attempting to make a fair catch, nor
shall he be thrown to the ground
after such catch is made unless he
has advanced beyond his mark.
(b) If a side obtains a fair catch,
the ball must be put in play by a
punt, drop-kick, or place-kick, and
the opponents cannot come within
ten yards of the line on which the
fair catch was made ; the ball must
* Snapping the ball means putting it back by
hand or foot with one quick and continuous
notion from its position on the ground.
be kicked from some point directly
behind the spot where the catch was
made, on a line parallel to the side
line.
RULE 8.— A Goal is made by kick-
ing the ball in any way, except by a
punt, from the field of play over the
crossbar directly over one of the up-
rights of the opponents' goal.
RULE 9. — Charging is rushing
forward to seize or block the ball or
to tackle a player.
RULE 10. — (a) In a scrimmage no
part of any player shall be ahead of
the ball when it is put in play.
(Exception under Rule 6, c.)
(b) A player is put off-side if the
ball in play has last been touched by
one of his own side behind him.
No player, when off-side, shall touch
the ball except on a fumble or a
muff, nor shall he interrupt or
obstruct an opponent with his hands
or arms until again on-side. No
player can, however, be called off-
side behind his own goal line.
(<:) A player being off-side is put
on-side when the ball has touched
an opponent, or when one of his own
side has run in front of him, either
with the ball, or having been the last
player to touch it when behind
him.
(d) If the ball, when not in pos-
session of either side, is touched
when inside the opponents' ten-yard
line by a player who is off-side, it
shall go as a touchback to the de-
fenders of that goal.
RULE ii. — The ball is Dead:
(a) Whenever the Referee or
Umpire blows his whistle or declares
a down.
(b) When the Referee has declared
that a down, touchdown, touchback,
safety, or goal has been made.
(c) When a fair catch has been
heeled.
(d) When it has been downed
after going out of bounds.
RULE 12. — (a) The length of the
game shall be 70 minutes, divided
into two halves of 35 minutes each,
exclusive of time taken out. There
FOOT BALL
344
FOOT BALL
shall be ten minutes' intermission
between the two halves.
(b) The game shall be decided by
the score at the end of the two halves.
(c) Time shall not be called for
the end of a half until the ball is
dead, and in case of a touchdown,
the try-at-goal shall be allowed.
(d) Time shall be taken out
whenever the game is unnecessarily
delayed or while the ball is being
brought out for a try-at-goal, kick-
out, or kick-off, or when play is
for any reason suspended by the
Referee or Umpire. Time shall be-
gin again when the ball is actually
put in play.
(<?) No delay shall continue more
than two minutes.
RULE 13. — (a) The captains shall
"toss up " before the beginning of
the game, and the winner of the toss
shall have his choice of goal or kick-
off. The ball shall be kicked off at
the beginning of each half. When-
ever a goal, following a touchdown,
has been tried or a goal from the
field has been kicked, the side de-
fending that goal shall kick off.
The teams shall change goals at the
beginning of the second half. The
same side shall not kick off at the be-
ginning of two successive halves.
(b) At kick-off, if the ball goes out
of bounds before it is touched by an
opponent, it shall be brought back
and kicked off again. If it is kicked
out of bounds a second time it shall
go as a kick-off \p the opponents.
If either side thus forfeits the ball
twice, it shall go to the opponents,
who shall put it in play by a scrim-
mage at the center of the field.
(c) At kick-off, if the ball is kicked
across the goal line and is there
declared dead when in the posses-
sion of one of the defending side, it is
a touchback. If it is declared dead
thus in possession of the attacking
side, it is a touchdown.
(d) At kick-off and on a kick from
a fair catch, the opposite side must
stand at least ten yards in front of
the ball until it is kicked. On a
kick-out, the opposite side cannot
stand nearer the goal than the 25-
yard line, except on a kick-out made
after a drop-kick upon the first down
inside the 25-yard line, when the
15-yard line is the restraining mark.
(See Rule 23, exception.)
RULE 14.— (<0 The side which
has a free kick must be behind the
ball when it is kicked.
(b) In the case of a kick-off, kick-
out, or kick from a fair catch, the
ball must be kicked a distance of at
least ten yards towards the oppo-
nents' goal from the line restraining
the player making the kick, unless it
is stopped by an opponent ; other-
wise the ball is not in play.
RULE 15. — (a) Charging is law-
ful, in case of a punt-out or kick-off,
as soon as the ball is kicked ; and
the opponents must not charge until
the ball is kicked.
(b) In case of any other free kick,
charging is lawful: (i) When the
player of the side having the free
kick advances beyond his restraining
line or mark with the ball in his pos-
session ; (2) When he has allowed
the ball to touch the ground by
accident or otherwise.
(c) If such lawful charging takes
place, and if the side having the
free kick fails to kick the ball, then
the opponents may line up five yards
ahead of the line which restrained
them before charging. In that case,
the side having the free kick must
kick the ball from some point
directly behind its mark, if the free
kick resulted from a fair catch,
and in other cases from behind the
new restraining line.
RULE 1 6. — (a) The snapper-back
is entitled to full and undisturbed
possession of the ball. The op-
ponents must neither interfere with
the snapper-back nor touch the ball
until it is actually put in play.
(b) In snapping the ball back, if
the player so doing is off-side, the
ball must be snapped again, and if
this occurs again on the same down
the ball goes to the opponents.
FOOT BALL
345
FOOT BALL
(r) The man who snaps back and
the man opposite him in the scrim-
mage cannot afterward touch the
ball until it has touched some player
other than these two.
(if) If the man who puts the ball
in play in a scrimmage kicks it for-
ward, no player of his side can touch
it until it has gone ten yards into the
opponents' territory, unless it be
touched by an opponent.
(<?) The man who first receives the
ball when it is snapped back shall
not carry the ball forward beyond
the line of scrimmage unless. he has
regained it after it has been passed
to and has touched another player.
RULE 17. — (a) Before the ball is
put in play no player shall lay his
hands upon, or by the use of his
hands or arms interfere with, an op-
ponent in such a way as to delay
putting the ball in play.
(b\ After the ball is put in play,
the players of the side that has the
ball may obstruct the opponents with
the body only, except the player run-
ning with the ball, who may use his
hands and arms.
(c) The players of the side not hav-
ing the ball may use their hands and
arms, but only to get their opponents
out of the way in order to reach the
ball or stop the player carrying it.
RULE 18. — (a) Before the ball is
put in play in a scrimmage, if any
player of the side which has the ball
takes more than one step in any
direction, he must come to a full
stop before the ball is put in play.
When the ball is put in play by a
scrimmage :
(b) At least five players of the side
having the ball must be on the line
of scrimmage.
(c) If five players, not including
the quarter back, are behind the line
of scrimmage and inside of the posi-
tions occupied by the players at the
ends of said line, then two of these
players must be at least five yards
back of this line, but all of these
players may be nearer than five
two of them are outside the positions
occupied by the players at the ends
of said line.
RULE 19. — A player may throw,
pass, or bat the ball in any direction
except toward his opponents' goal.
RULE 20. — (a) If a player having
the ball is tackled, and the move-
ment of the ball stopped, or if the
player cries " clown," the Referee
shall blow his whistle, and the side
holding the ball shall put it down for
a scrimmage.
(b) As soon as a runner attempt-
ing to go through is tackled and
goes down, being held by an oppo-
nent, or whenever a runner having
the ball in his possession cries
" Down," or if he goes out of bounds,
the Referee shall blow his whistle,
and the ball shall be considered
down at that spot.
(c) There shall be no piling up
on the player after the Referee has
declared the ball dead.
RULE 21. — (a) It, in three con-
secutive downs (unless the ball
crosses the goal line), a team has
neither advanced the ball five yards
nor taken it back twenty yards, it
shall go to the opponents on the
spot of the fourth down.
{b) When a distance penalty is
given, the ensuing down shall be
counted the first down.
RULE 22.— If the ball goes out of
bounds, whether it bounds back or
not, a player of the side which
secures it must bring it to the spot
where the line was crossed, and
there either
(a) Touch it in with both hands at
right angles to the side line and then
kick it ; or
(b) Walk out with it at right
angles to the side line, any distance
not less than five nor more than
fifteen yards, and there put it down
for a scrimmage, first declaring how
far he intends walking.
RULE 23. — A side which has
made a touchback or a safety must
kick out, from not more than twenty-
yards to the line of scrimmage if ) five yards outside the kicker's goal.
FOOT BALL
346
FOOT BALL
If the ball goes out of bounds before
striking a player, it must be kicked
out again, and if this occurs twice in
succession, it shall be given to the
opponents as out of bounds on the
tvventy-five-yard line on the side
where it went out. At kick-out, the
opponents must be on the twenty-
five-yard line or nearer their own
goal, and the kicker's side must be
behind the ball when it is kicked.
Should a second touchback occur
before four downs have been played,
the side defending the goal may have
the choice of a down at the twenty-
five-yard line, or a kick-out.
RULE 24. — (a) A side which has
made a touchdown must try at goal,
either by a place-kick or a punt-out.
(b) After the try-at-goal, whether
the goal be made or missed, the ball
shall go as a kick-off at the center
of the field to the defenders.
RULE 25. — (a) If the try be by
a place-kick, a player of the side
which has made the touchdown
shall hold the ball for another of his
side to kick at some point outside
the goal on a line parallel to the side
line passing through the point where
the touchdown was declared. The
opponents must remain behind their
goal line until the ball has been
placed upon the ground.
(fi) If the try-at-goal is to be pre-
ceded by a punt-out, the punter shall
kick the ball from the point at which
the line parallel to the side line, and
passing through the spot of the
touchdown, intersects the goal line.
The players of his side must stand
in the field of play not less than five
yards from the goal line.
(c) The opponents may line up
anywhere on the goal line except
within the space of ten. feet on each
side of the punter's mark, but they
cannot interfere with the punter. If
a fair catch be made from a punt-
out, the mark shall serve to deter-
mine the positions as the mark of
any fair catch, and the try-at-goal
shall then be made by a place-kick
from this spot, or any point directly
behind it. If a fair catch be not
made on the first attempt, the ball
shall go as a kick-off at the center of
the field to the defenders.
(d) The holder of the ball in any
place-kick may be off-side or out of
bounds without vitiating the kick.
RULE 26. — The following shall be
the values of plays in scoring: Goal
obtained by touchdown, 6 points ;
goal from field kick, 5 points ; touch-
down failing goal, 5 points ; safety
by opponents, 2 points.
RULE 27. — (a) No one having
projecting nails or iron plates on his
shoes, or wearing upon his person
any metallic or hard substance that
in the judgment of the Umpire is
liable to injure another player, shall
be allowed to play in a match. No
sticky or greasy substance shall be
used on the persons of the players.
(b) A player may be substituted
for another at any time at the, dis-
cretion of the captain of his team,
and the player who has been re-
placed cannot return to the game.
(c) There shall be no tripping or
tackling below the knees.
PENALTIES.
RULE 28. — A foul is any violation
of a rule. [The latest rules prescribe
minutely the penalties for each kind
of foul. In general, when the of-
fending side has the ball, it is pun-
ished by being made to surrender it
to the other side; if not, the ball is
advanced from 5 to 15 yards.]
DUTIES OF OFFICIALS.
I. — The Referee.
RULE 29. — The Referee is respon-
sible for the enforcement of Rules
I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 (a and b) ; 7 (except
as relates to interference, throwing
catcher, and positions of players); 8,
ii, 12, 13 (except <•/) ; 14, £/ 16, e;
19, 20 (a and b); 21, 22, 23 (except
as relates to positions of players) ;
24, 25 (except as relates to positions
of players and interference) ; 26.
In making his decisions the
Referee must recognize and allow
precedence to any penalty inflicted
by the Umpire fora foul.
FOOT BALL
347
FOOT BALL
The Referee's decisions are final
upon all points not specified in the
duties of the Umpire.
The Referee shall see that the ball
is properly put in play, and he is
judge of its position and progress.
At the beginning of a game and
after time has been taken out, he shall
ascertain from each captain that his
team is.ready, before ordering play.
He is sole authority for the score
of the game and is judge of forfeit-
ure of the game under the rules.
The Referee may appeal to the
Umpire and Linesman for testimony.
//. — The Umpire.
The Umpire is responsible for the
enforcement of all rules whose in-
fringement is punishable by a dis-
tance penally or by the surrender of
the ball to the opponents, except 13,
b ; 16, e ; 19. and 23, viz. : Rules 6,
c; 9, 10, 13 (f; 14 a; 15, 16, (except
#) ; 17, 1 8, 20 c; 27.
The Umpire is judge of the con-
duct of the players, and his decision
is final regarding such fouls as are
not specifically placed within the
jurisdiction of the Referee.
The Umpire is judge of charging,
and of the positions of players when-
ever the ball is put in play.
He may appeal to both the Ref-
eree and Linesman for testimony in
cases of fouls seen by them.
The Umpire shall not blow his
whistle nor declare the ball dead,
nor call time, except to grant a
penalty for a foul committed.
///. — The Linesman.
The Linesman shall, under the
supervision of the Referee, mark
the distances gained or lost in the
progress of the play.
He shall be provided with two
assistants, who shall remain outside
the field of play and who shall use, in
measuring distance, a rope or chain.
The Linesman shall, under the
direction of the Referee, also keep
the time and shall notify the captains
of the time remaining for play, not
more than ten nor less than five
minutes before the end of each half.
History. Foot ball was a favorite
game in ancient Greece and Rome.
The game comes to us from England,
where it has been played for cen-
turies. It was customary at one
time for the different villages in the
Midland counties to play against
each other, and desperate strug-
gles often took place which some-
times grew into riots and produced
long and bitter feuds. Foot ball was
early played at the great English
schools, and at each of them new
features were introduced, till several
forms of the game were developed.
About 1860, foot-ball clubs began to
be formed near the large cities, and
on May 8, 1866, these clubs sent
delegates to a convention, and
adopted rules, excluding features of
the school games that were consid-
ered too rough. Foot ball, as thus
played, did not become popular in
this country till about ten years after
the adoption of these rules. 1111875
Harvard and Yale played their first
game of foot ball with Rugby rules,
and soon afterwards the game be-
came a favorite at other colleges.
The game just mentioned was played
with eleven men on a side, and this
is the number that the present col-
lege rules allow, though in the
years 1878 and 1879 it was played
with fifteen on a side. The game
is played in this country from about
the 1st of October till the end of
November. The last official foot-
ball guide contains records of 77
school and college teams and of
6 others,, chiefly from athletic
clubs. To play foot ball well re-
quires strength, skill, and cour-
age, and an English general once
attributed much of the pluck of
the English troops to their experi-
ence of the game. It is very rough,
and often results in injury to the
players, but the roughness is now
restrained, by strict rules, within
reasonable limits, and a slight degree
of danger adds to the fascination of
the game for most persons. There
are no professionals, or paid foot-ball
FORFEITS
348
FORTUNE-TELLING
clubs, and the game is seldom played
by men more than twenty-five years
old.
FORFEITS, a game played by any
number of persons, in which articles
given up by each of them are
restored on the performance of
some difficult or ridiculous feat.
Usually the forfeits have been paid
in a previous game, as punishment
for breaking some rule. One of the
players, who has been selected as
judge, sits in a chair, while another,
who must know to whom the forfeits
belong, holds them over the judge's
head one by one, saying : " Heavy,
heavy, what hangs over your head ? "
The judge then asks, " Fine or
Superfine ? " to which the other
answers " Fine," if the owner of the
forfeit is a boy, or, " Superfine," if a
girl, adding, " What shall the owner
do to redeem it ? " The judge then
tells what the owner must do to get
back his property. Sometimes in-
stead of the first question the follow-
ing is used : " Here is a forfeit,
a very fine forfeit. What shall be
clone to redeem it?" A few of
the most common tasks are given
below.
Forfeits for either boys or girls :
1. Plow out a candle as it is passed
rapidly back and forth before the
mouth.
2. Place a candle at one end of
the room, and then walk toward it
blindfold from the other, and blow it
out.
3. Laugh in one corner of the
room, sing in another, cry in the
third, and whistle in the fourth.
4. Bow to the prettiest person in
the room, kneel to the wittiest, and
kiss the on? you love best.
5. Count any required number
backward.
6. Pay a compliment to each per-
son in the room.
7. Hop around the room on one
foot.
8. Kiss your shadow.
9. Answer " No " to a question
from each one of the company.
10. Answer five questions without
saying " yes" or " no."
11. Make a courtesy to each girl in
the room, and a bow to each boy.
12. Make a speech on any subject
assigned by the judge.
13. Repeat a sentence after the
judge without making a mistake.
F)rfeits for boys only:
1. Crawl under the table on all
fours and bark like a dog.
2. Stand on your head, or try to
do so, in the middle of the room.
3. Hold one foot in your hand, and
hop on the other around the room.
4. Join your hands and jump
through your arms.
5. Sit on the floor and rise without
the aid of your hands.
5. Pick three coins from the floor
with your teeth.
7. Jump up and catch in your
teeth a piece of paper pinned on the
wall just above your head. (Some-
times called " browsing.'1)
8. Kiss the sole of each shoe.
9. Balance a ruler on your chin or
nose.
Forfeits for two persons :
1. Each holds a lighted candle,
and they pass and repass each other,
while they hold the following dia-
logue, without smiling :
" The King of Morocco is dead."
" Sad news ! Sad news ! "
" Alas ! "
" Alas ! "
2. Two or more boys are "trussed"
(see TRUSSING GAME) and placed in
a row. The end boy is pushed over,
and they all go clown like a row of
building blocks.
3. Hop on one foot from one end
of the room to the other, and back.
He who does this in the quickest
time redeems his forfeit ; the other's
is returned to the pile.
4. Two are blindfolded, and re-
quired to start from opposite corners
of the room and shake hands.
FORTUNE-TELLING, a sport in
which one person pretends to fore-
tell what is going to happen to
another. If this is done merely as a
FORTUNE-TELLING
349
FORTUNE-TELLING
game, it often furnishes much harm-
less amusement. Games of SOLI-
TAIRE are often played as fortune-
telling games, and others are de-
scribed in the articles on HALLOW-
E'EN, and SPORTS WITH FLOWERS
AND FRUIT.
A simple fortune-telling game is
played with a disk of paper over
which turns a pointer. The pointer
may be cut out of wood, and
fastened to the center of the
disk with a pin, on which
it can turn easily. The pin
should be bent as in the
cut so that the pointer will
not rub against the paper.
Around the edge of the disk
are numbers in regular order,
and on a separate piece of paper
are written sentences predicting good
or evil fortune. For instance :
" You will inherit a large sum of
money."
" You will marry a widow 60 years
old."
" You will move to California with-
in a year."
Some of the sentences may also be
warnings. For instance :
" Beware of a red-haired boy."
" Keep away from Twenty-third
street."
Indeed, the sentences may be varied
almost infinitely to suit the writer.
They must be numbered in order to
correspond with the numbers on the
disk. The players, one by one, set
the pointer in motion, and each, not-
ing the number opposite which it
stops, seeks his fortune in the sen-
tence opposite the corresponding
number. Sometimes the sentences
are written directly on the disk, but
it is not possible to have much variety
in this way. A numbered disk can
be used with various sets of sen-
tences.
Fortune-telling with Cards. I. A
method which, like the one above,
requires no skill is to place face up-
ward, in a row, four Kings, if the
person whose fortune is told be a
girl, or four Queens, if it be a boy.
The boy or girl gives to each card the
name of an acquaintance, calling
them after boys, if they are Kings,
and girls, if Queens. The names
are usually kept secret till the close
of the game. The fortune-teller now
takes the cards one by one as they
come from the pack, and lays one
oeneath each of the four Kings or
Queens, then four others on these,
and so on. Whenever he deals an
Ace or face card (called a " turning
card ") he turns the King or Queen
above it a quarter-way around, so
that when four turning cards have
fallen on the pile below any King or
Queen it will be turned completely
around. When one has been thus
turned quite around, the fortune-
teller announces that the person
whose name it bears is the "best
friend " of the one whose fortune is
told. He then continues, in the same
way, till the other three complete
their turns. The one whose fortune
is being told is informed, in order,
that these are :
The one whose best friend he is ;
The one he loves best ; and,
The one he is to marry.
Sometimes when one card has
made a complete turn, the pack is
gathered up, the Kings replaced, and
the operation begun anew. Thus it
may happen that the same card
turns first twice, thrice, or even four
times. The Kings or Queens must
all be turned in the same direction,
so that one which has turned a
quarter-way around can be told from
one three-quarters around. The
best direction is that in which the
hands of a watch move. Double-
headed cards must of course be
marked to distinguish one end from
the other.
II. Another method, which re-
quires quickness and skill in the for-
tune-teller, is to deal the cards slowly
face upward on the table just as they
come from the pack, and by attaching
some meaning to each one to pretend
to predict the future. This shouM
be done as quickly as possible and
FORTUNE-TELLING
35°
FORTUNE-TELLING
can be made very amusing. Each
fortune-teller should decide on a
system of his own ; but some of the
usual meanings attached to cards
are as follows :
King or Queen — man or woman.
Knave — boy or villain.
Red face-cards — blondes.
Black face-cards — brunettes.
Diamonds — wealth.
Hearts — love.
Clubs — violence, war, or force.
Spades — hard work.
Thus, suppose the cards to fall as
indicated below, the fortune-teller
might talk somewhat in this way.
The words suggested by the cards
are in italics. " You will have a
slight quarrel (i) with a dark man,
(2) and will have to spend a great
deal of money (3) to get out of your
trouble, but a light woman (4) will
fall deeply in love (5) with you, and
give you all you want. But her love
will grow less (6) and less (7), until
finally she will run off with a dark
haired villain (8), and leave you to
•work for your living."
Fortune-Telling by Dots, The
person whose fortune is to be told is
directed to make four horizontal
rows of pencil dots, without count-
ing the number in each. The for-
tune-teller now counts them, and
makes opposite each row a single
spot if its number is odd, or two
spots, if even. Thus, if the rows of
dots are as follows :
o •»••••••«
• •
the fortune-teller would place his
spots as shown at the right, forming
a sort of figure. There are sixteen
possible kinds of these figures and
each is given a name, as shown
below.
The usual method is for the in-
quirer to ask a question, which is
answered by the fortune-teller in
accordance with the figure resulting
from the dots. The meaning of the
figures is further explained below.
I. Gain : A distinguished suitor,
riches, a wish fulfilled, a happy re-
sult, regaining lost property, many
friends, new clothes, sickness cured,
etc.
- 2. Loss : Extravagance, dancing,
music, unfaithfulness, deceit, false
friends, bitter enemies, thieves, etc.
3. Joy : A betrothal, a pleasant
change, victory, advancement, and
honor, etc.
4. Sorrow : Quarrels with friends,
an unfortunate speculation, an
anonymous letter, shipwreck, an
accident, sickness, etc,
5. Union, or Harmony : Hopes
fulfilled, the discovery of treasure,
advancement, plots, conspiracy.
6. Captivity : Something caught
or reached, an interrupted journey,
buried goods, a mine, treacherous
love, death, honor attained, etc.
7. White : Good fortune, a short
life, a happy marriage, increase of
wealth by silver, certainty.
8. Red : Wounds, death in a
foreign land, bad fortune, fire.
9. The Public : Mingled good and
bad luck, enemies and friends, much
work, tears, and journeys.
10. The Road : also both good
and bad. In case of right manage-
ment all will turn out well, otherwise
badly.
FORTUNE-TELLING
351
FORTUNE-TELLING
11. The Dragon's Head : A good
sign, though what is wished for will
meet many obstacles.
12. The Dragon's Tail : A bad
sign, desolation, bereavement.
13. Great Luck : The full attain-
ment of all wishes, wealth, honor,
love, etc.
14. Little Luck : Good fortune,
though not as great as the above, a
moderate amount of success, etc.
15. The Maiden : Success in even
a less degree than the last.
16. The Youth : Bad luck in a less
degree than Number 12.
From what has been given above,
the skillful fortune-teller will be able
to return an elaborate answer to any
Gain.
5
Loss.
6
Joy.
7
Sorrow.
8
Union.
9
Captivity.
IO
White.
ii
Red.
12
The Public.
13
The Road.
14
The Dragon's Head.
IS
The Dragon's Tail
16
Great Luck.
Little Luck.
The Maiden.
The Youth.
question. It is a good plan, espe-
cially if the result shows nothing but
evil, to try again, and combine the
two results in one prediction.
Palmistry, fortune telling by
means of the palm of the hand.
Different parts of the hand are
called "mountains" and named
after the seven planets known to the
ancients, including the sun and
moon. The lines on the palm also
are given names. Both " moun-
tains " and lines are shown in the
cut.
The mountains have different
meanings according as they are
high or low ; the lines according
as they are complete or broken, as
shown in the following table :
THE LINE OF COMPLETE. BROKEN.
Life Long Life Short Life
The Liver Health Sickness
The Brain Wisdom Stupidity
The Table Evil Good
FORTUNE-TELLING
352
FOURTEEN
Venus
Jupiter
Saturn
The Sun
THE MOUNT OF HIGH.
Love
Honor and
Rank
Riches
Good for-
tune
( Luck on a
The Moon •]
Mercury Adroitness
( B a d for-
Mars - - •? tune in
( war
History. In ancient times most
people believed that certain persons
could predict the future. Fortune-
journey
LOW.
Hate
Humble
condition
Poverty
Bad fortune
111 fortune
on a jour-
ney
Blundering
Good for-
t u n e in
war
i. Mount of Venus. 2. Mount of Ju-
piter. 3. Mount of Saturn. 4. Mount of
the Sun. 5. Mount of Mercury. 6. Mount
of the Moon. 7. Mount of Mars.
A. Line of Life. B. Line of the Liver.
C. Line of the Brain. D. Line of the
Table.
telling was carried on regularly at
the temples of some of the Greek
gods, the most celebrated of which
was that of Apollo at Delphi (see C.
P. P.). The Roman fortune-tellers,
called harusptces, were consulted be-
fore undertaking any public enter-
prise. They pretended to tell for-
tunes by examining the bodies of
slaughtered animals or fowls, by the
flight of birds, by the appearance of
the heavens, and by all sorts of signs
and omens. In the Middle Ages the
favorite method of fortune-telling
was by Astrology (science of the
stars, from Greek aster, star, and
logos, a word), a pretended science
by which events were foretold from
the appearance and positions of the
planets. The people called Gipsies
often tell fortunes for money, gener-
ally by means of palmistry. With
the increase of education belief in
real fortune-telling has disappeared,
though ignorant or foolish people
are now and then deceived by some
rogue, who pretends to be able to
tell them about the future. Fortune-
telling is now used by sensible people
merely as a game. At fairs, a girl,
dressed usually as a Gipsy, often
tells fortunes for money, and, if she is
clever, is sometimes very successful.
FOUNTAIN, To make a. In the
side of an ordinary wooden pail,
close to the bottom, bore an auger
hole, and plug it with a cork or rub-
ber stopper through which passes a
glass tube about two inches long
(see CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS).
Put the pail on a high shelf, and at-
tach to the glass tube enough rubber
tubing to reach to the nearest sink,
or out of doors. At the end of the
rubber tube fasten a glass jet. If
the pail be tilled with water and the
rubber tube closed with a pinch-cock,
the fountain will play when the cock
is opened.
FOURTEEN, a SOLITAIRE game
of CARDS, played with two full packs.
Five rows of five cards each are first
laid out at random to form a square.
If in any row, either crosswise or up
and down, there are two cards the
sum of whose pips is 14, they must
be taken out, and their places filled
with the next two in the pack, in the
same order in which the cards were
first laid down. The Knave, Queen.
FOURTH OF JULY
353
FOURTH OF JULY
and King count respectively as II,
12, and 13. If no cards can thus be
removed, two may exchange places,
but this cannot be done twice in
succession and is allowed only before
the pack has all been used. When
the pack is exhausted, the lower row
is taken up, shuffled, and used to fill
the spaces in what remains of the
square. Then the next row is
treated in like manner. If this can
be continued till all the cards are
gone, the game is won.
FOURTH OF JULY, or Indepen-
dence Day, the anniversary of the
signing of the Declaration of Inde-
pendence. It is a National holiday,
and is made the occasion of many
sports, chief among which, for boys,
are the discharge of fire-crackers and
fire-works.
Decoration. The colors for Fourth
of July decorations are of course the
National colors, red, white, and blue.
Foremost among the decorations
should be a large United States flag
(C. C. T.), to be raised on a staff on
or near the house. The flag has a
piece of rope sewed along the edge
next the Union, the ends of which
project a little and are made into
loops. When the flag is to be raised,
the ends of the halliards are fastened
to these loops, and the flag is then
pulled to the top of the pole, when
the halliards are fastened below
around a cleat near the bottom.
The illustrations show the process of
raising (Fig. i), and the appearance
of the flag when raised (Fig. 2).
The proper time to raise the flag
is at sunrise, when it should be given
a national salute; as many guns as
there are States in the Union. Fire-
crackers, or even torpedoes.will do for
this, if you have no cannon. Other
flags, of all sizes, may be draped about
a house in many ways. A rosette may
be made of a flag by laying it flat on
the floor (Fig. 3), pulling the middle
of one edge down (Fig. 4), and then
pinning together the halves of that
edge (Fig. 5). The flag is then
arranged in rough folds from the
center to the outside of the rosette,
and projecting corners are pinned
under, so as to make the edge cir-
cular (Fig. 6). The whole must be
pinned together firmly as it lies 01*
on the floor, and then it can be fast-
ened with tacks to the wall of the
Fig. i.
house. If, instead of one flag, two
be pinned together lengthwise, so
that the unions adjoin, the stars will
be at the center of the rosette. Many
other designs can thus be formed of
one or more flags, by any one with
FOURTH OF JULY
354
FOURTH OF JULY
ingenuity. • Strips of colored bunting
may be arranged in festoons, or
wound spirally about the posts of
verandas. Little flags, about six
inches long, can be utilized by fast-
ening then in rows, or arranging them
to form figures or letters. Patriotic
Fig. 2.
mottoes may be made of letters cut
out of red and blue paper, and framed
in flags. For the interior of the
house, red, white, and blue flowers
are the best decoration. Portraits of
eminent Americans, draped in flags,
may be displayed on the walls, and if
there is in the house some relic of the
Revolution, an old sword or musket,
Fig. 3-
for instance, it should be brought out
and similarly draped.
Evening Decorations. In the even-
ing the house and yard may be illumi-
Fig. 4-
nated; that is, brilliantly lighted.
nated; that is, brilliantly lighted.
The simplest way to illuminate a
Fig. 5.
house is to open wide all the blinds
and curtains and place one or more
FOURTH OF JULY
355
FOURTH OF JULY
lights in each room. The house
may be made more brilliant by plac-
ing candles in the windows. Cross
bars are often made to fit on the in-
side of the sash, and on these, bits of
candle about three inches long are
fastened in rows. Colored designs
may be cut from tissue paper and
hung in the window, with lights
directly behind them. Designs made
thus can be pasted on the panes and
will give the effect of stained glass at
a distance. They can be washed off
afterwards with hot water. Chinese
or Japanese lanterns are very effec-
tive. The usual way of arranging
them is on strings, or wires, which
are festooned from one tree or post
to another.
Fire-crackers and Fire-works.
These are ' described in C. C. T.
The noise of fire-crackers, when
set off in packs, is much increased
by placing them under a box or bar-
rel. When fired singly, the knot
at one end of the pack must be
untied, and the crackers can be then
easily pulled out, one by one. It is
usually better to break off part of the
fuse before lighting, as the end
burns slowly and is apt to go out.
If the cracker is to be exploded in
the air, it should be held in the hand,
and thrown just as the fuse has
burned clown to the end. Many
fuses burn by fits and starts, so one
should never bend down close to a
cracker to see whether or not the
fuse has gone out. Persons have
been seriously injured by the explo-
sion in their faces of crackers,
especially of cannon-crackers, an
accident with which might be
serious. Poor crackers may be
Fig. 7. — Fizzer.
made into " fizzers " by breaking
them in two, placing on the ground,
and applying a piece of punk to the
broken place, taking care that the
fingers are not in the way of the
flame which shoots out. A fizzer
may be held in the thumb and finger,
in such a way that the flame cannot
reach the hand, from whichever
end of the cracker it may issue.
Fire-crackers may be fired by elec-
tricity, by winding around the fuse,
close to the cracker, a piece of plati-
num wire connected with an ELEC-
TRIC BATTERY. When the circuit
is closed the wire will be heated red-
hot, lighting the fuse and exploding
the cracker. The wire should be
connected with the battery before
trying to fire the cracker, to see
whether it will heat it red-hot. If
not, either the wire is too large or
the battery not strong enough.
Very fine iron wire will do as well as
platinum if it can be obtained, and
is not so expensive. To explode
the cracker instantaneously, which
is not done by the above method, a
needle must be passed through it,
and the wire threaded through the
hole thus made, instead of being
wound around the fuse. For an
FOURTH OF JULY
356
FOURTH OF JULY
ordinary exhibition of fire-works, a
post must be prepared for tire-wheels,
and a trough for rockets. It is a
good plan to have the wheels fastened
to the post all ready to light, and to
see that they revolve easily, so that
there will he no trouble when even-
ing comes. If it should be necessary
to start the wheels, as it often is, it
should be remembered that they turn
in the opposite direction from that
of the sparks. The rocket trough
can be made of two boards, each
Fig:. 9-
above five feet long and four inches
wide, nailed together at right angles
along the edges. It is leaned against
a fence, and the rockets are placed
in it, one by one, just before firing
(Fig. 8). Tripod rockets require no
trough but stand alone, the stick
being made in three pieces, which
open out to form legs like those of a
three-legged table (see Fig. 9).
Fire-crackersandfire-worksareusu-
ally lighted by punk, which is made
of any substance which will smolder
slowly without flaming. One kind
may be made at home by soaking
strips of ordinary thick pasteboard
in salt and water, and other kinds
may be bought. Instead of punk,
pieces of exploded fire-crackers may
be used. It can be put out by rub-
bing the lighted part off on a stone.
Chromotropesi revolving colored
designs, lighted from behind.
They consist of two parts, a fixed
and a moving part. The fixed part
(Fig. 10) may be almost any design,
Fig. 10.
cut out of thick paper ; the moving
one (Fig. 11), which revolves behinc
it, is painted with transparent colors
on oiled paper in a spiral pattern.
FOURTH OF JULY
357
FOURTH OF JULY
Or it may be composed of strips of
colored tissue paper pasted on a
background of white tissue paper.
The moving part is stretched on a
barrel hoop, across which a lath is
nailed (Fig. 12). A hole is bored
Fig. 12.
through the center of the lath so
that the whole can be made to re-
volve on a nail in an upright post,
close behind the fixed design. One
or more lamps are held just behind
theChromotrope, and then the barrel
hoop is spun around by a person
standing at one side. The effect is
very pretty, as the changing colors
are seen through the holes in the
fixed piece, and forms a good sub-
stitute for fire-works. Chromotropes
made of glass are often shown on
screens by means of the MAGIC LAN-
TERN. The word Chromotrope is
from two Greek words, chroma,
color, and trepein, to turn. It is
sometimes called, also, "Chinese fire-
works." The inventor, Mr. Allen, an
Englishman, called it " pyreido-
trope," from the Greek pur, fire,
idein, to see. and trepein, to turn.
Another kind of Chromotrope con-
sists of three disks which partially
overlap, as shown in Figs. 13 and 14.
Each disk has several different colors,
and as the disks revolve the colors
appear to change. These can be
mpHe on a large scale for exhibition
on the Fourth of July in the same
way as those described above, by
Fig. 13. — Front View.
stretching oiled paper or tissue paper
over barrel hoops.
Fig. 14. — Rear View.
Day Fire-works, colored paper cut
into different shapes and scattered
through the air in various ways.
The simplest way is to throw them
from a window. Descriptions of
some kinds are given below, and
others can easily be devised.
I. The Whirligig. A square
piece of paper is cut and folded to
FOURTH OF JULY
358
FOURTH OF JULY
make a windmill as shown in Fig. 15.
A pin is passed through the mid-
15-
die, the point is bent into a hook,
and to it is fastened a slight weight,
like a very small pebble, or a shot,
wrapped in tissue paper and hooked
to the pin. When such a whirligig
is thrown from a window it will spin
rapidly as it falls, and a number of
them of various colors, falling at once,
make a pretty sight.
2. Spirals. These can be cut
Fig. 16.
from circular pieces of paper as
shown in Fig. 16, and then pulled
rig.
out, as in Fig. 17. When dropped,
they too will spin around.
3. Shreds of gilt or silvered paper :
and stars, circles, or other figures of
the same material may be thrown
into the air in great numbers.
4. Bombs. Another way of dis-
charging Day Fire-works is by means
of a bomb, which consists of from
four to eight whalebones fastened
to two curtain rings. The rings are
tied together with three strings. The
whalebones are fastened tightly to
the lower ring but the ends are
merely caught under the upper one,
so that a slight knock will dislodge
them (see Fig. 18).
Quantities of paper fire-works are
secured very loosely around the top
Fig. 18.
ring, so that when the whalebones
are released they will be thrown 'in
all directions. There are several
ways of setting the bombs off. One
is to fasten a string to the lower ring,
pass it through the upper, and then,
holding the end, drop the bomb, giv-
ing the string an upward jerk just as
it reaches its full length. Another
is to pass it over an upright fixed
pole, arrange the string as before,
pass it over a pulley at the top, and
haul up the bomb. When the top
ring hits the pulley, the whalebones
Fig. 19.
will be dislodged and the fireworks
will fly (see Fig. 19).
Balloons. Large balloons are de-
scribed in C. C. T. Toy balloons,
FOURTH OF JULY
359
FOURTH OF JULY
made of tissue paper, which can be
bought at toy stores or made at
home.are often sent up on the Fourth.
Home-made balloons are constructed
by pasting together gores cut out of
tissue paper and shaped as in Fig. 20.
Fig. 20.
One of these is folded lengthwise
down the middle and a second placed
on it so that only a little margin of
the first shows ; this margin is lapped
over and pasted to the second, which
is then folded lengthwise like the
first. The desired number of gores
is pasted together thus, and then the
free edges of the first and last are
pasted, thus forming the complete
balloon. The shape of the balloon
depends on the shape and number of
the gores. Different shapes are shown
in Figs. 21, 22, and 23. The length of
Fig. 21.
the line A B, allowing for pasting,
multiplied by the number of gores, is
the circumference at the neck, and
that at the largest part may be found
in like manner. The length of the
balloon will be somewhat less than
that of the gores, The best shape
for a balloon is as nearly spherical as
possible. A narrow balloon, or one
Fig. 22.
with a neck, takes fire easily. When
the tissue paper has been pasted, a
circle of wire the size of the opening
at the neck, is made, with two cross
pieces at right angles, and fastened
by lapping the paper over it and
pasting. A paper loop is pasted at
Fig. 23.
the top of the balloon, and a small
ball of lamp-wick, about an inch
thick, is rolled together and fastened
by passing wire through it (Fig. 24).
The ends of the wire are hooked so
that the wick can quickly be fastened
FOURTH OF JULY
360
FOURTH OF JULY
Fig1. 24.
to the wire cross at the neck of the
balloon. A plan of the arrangement
is shown in Fig. 25, and
a perspective view in
Fig. 26. To send up
the balloon the best
plan is to make a fire
of sticks or shavings
on the ground, and put
above it a piece of stove pipe to
conduct a current of the heated air
upward. The neck of the balloon
is held over this by one person, while
another holds the top up by a stick
passed through the paper loop.
Where the balloon is full of hot air,
the wick is saturated with alcohol,
Fig. 25.
hooked to the wire cross pieces, and
lighted, and the balloon, being re-
leased, rises in the air. Care must
be taken to hold it so far above the
fire that there is no danger of its
burning. The balloon would rise a
little way without any lighted wick,
but the latter is necessary to keep
the air within it heated. For a small
balloon it is not necessary to build a
Fig. 26.
fire, but simply to light the wick, and
hold the balloon till the air is heated
enough ; but a large balloon needs a
better and quicker mode of filling it
with hot air. If a wind is blowing,
the balloon should be sent up from
the sheltered side of a building, and
care must also be taken that no tree
or building is near enough to its path
to obstruct it as it rises.
Toy balloons are sometimes ar-
ranged to carry up fire-works which
are set off in the air. Any fire-work
not too heavy may be fastened by a
string to the middle of the cross
pieces, a piece of slow-burning fuse
being attached and lighted just be-
fore the balloon is sent off. In the
case of most fire-works the explosion
would destroy the balloon. A small
rocket may be thus taken up, being
suspended by two strings, so that it
will point horizontally, or slightly up-
ward. A good plan is to open a
roman candle, take out the stars,
and wrap each in tissue paper with
a little powder. The stars are then
arranged at intervals on a string and
a fuse running through them all is
lighted at the lower end as the bal-
loon is set off. The stars explode
one by one in the air.
Parachutes, (C. C. T.). Toy para-
chutes can be made by crossing two
long pieces of string cornerwise on a
square piece of tissue paper, and
then pasting another piece to it, so
that the string is thus fastened be-
tween. The ends of the string are
then tied together and fastened to a
small weight, for instance, a lead
fish-line sinker. The parachute may
be attached to a fuse, like the fire-
works, so that when the fuse burns
up to it, it will fall. It should be
fastened to the balloon at the mid-
dle of the paper, where the strings
cross, and will hang down like a
closed umbrella ; but when it falls it
will open and then drop very slowly.
Fire-works may be fastened to a
parachute instead of to the balloon.
Fourth of July Parties. Public
celebration of the Fourth used
always to include the reading of the
Declaration of Independence, a
patriotic oration, and a parade.
Fifty years ago such celebrations
were held in almost every town ;
FOX AND GEESE
361
FOX AND GEESE
The orations were often very flowery
and boastful, a style of talking now
often called " Fourth of July oratory."
These public celebrations are less
frequently held than formerly, but
friends now often meet at a party or
a picnic, and indulge in amusements
appropriate to the day. An excur-
sion to some place of historical
interest may be made, especially if
it be connected with Revolutionary
history.
FOX AND GEESE, a name
given to several different games. I.
A game played by two persons, one
of whom has one piece, or man,
called the Fox, and the other 17 men,
called Geese, on a board like that in
Fig. i. The Fox is usually larger
Fig. i. — Fox and Geese.
than the Geese, and of a different
color. At the beginning of the
game the pieces are placed as shown
in the illustration, the Fox being in
the middle of the board. The play-
ers take turns, the Fox moving first.
The pieces may move from one dot
to the next along any line. The
object of the Geese is to pen up the
Fox so that he cannot move, and that
of the Fox is to capture so many of
them that they cannot do this. The
Fox may capture a Goose by leaping
over it, if the space next beyond it
be unoccupied, as in CHECKERS, and
the Goose so leaped is removed from
the board. The Fox is not obliged
to leap when he has a chance, but
may move instead, if he wishes.
The Fox cannot be penned anywhere
by less than six Geese, as will be
seen by looking at the board, and
therefore when only five Geese are
left, the Fox has won. If the Geese
are played skillfully, it is said that
they must always win, and the game
is therefore sometimes played with
two Foxes. Holes may take the place
of the dots on the board and the
game is then played with pegs or
marbles instead of men. It may be
so played on a SOLITAIRE board.
The Battle Came, or Siege, a
kind of Fox and Geese in which part
of the board is separated from the
rest, as shown in Fig. 2.
This is called the Fortress, and is
occupied at the opening of the game
by two Sharpshooters, who corre-
spond to the two Foxes in the older
game. The rest of the board is called
the Battlefield, and is occupied by
24 common Soldiers, who are like
the Geese. The Sharpshooters may
stand anywhere within the For-
tress at the beginning of the game,
and they can move from one spot to
the next, in any direction, to any part
of the board. A Sharpshooter can
take any Soldier by leaping over him
to the next spot beyond, if it is vacant,
as in CHECKERS. The Soldiers can
move forward (either straight or diag-
onally), or sidewise, if in so doing
they approach the Fortress, but never
backward, and they cannot take the
Sharpshooters by leaping. The
player who moves the Soldiers wins
if he can place his men so that the
Sharpshooters cannot leave the For-
tress, or if he can pen them up in
any part of the Battlefield, so that
they cannot move at all. The one
who has the Sharpshooters wins if
he can take so many of the Soldiers
that not enough are left to pen him
up. This is done when he has cap-
tured all but nine. As a Sharp-
shooter, when in the middle of the
board, can move in any one of eight
different directions, he has great
power. The same Sharpshooter is
FOX AND OEESE
362
FOX AND GEESE
allowed to make as many leaps as
he can in one turn, as in Checkers.
History. This variation of Fox
and Geese is called in Germany
Fig. 2. — Battle Game, or Siege.
" Belagerungspiel " (The Beleaguer-
ing Game). Though it is an old
game, a description of it was recently
published in a New York paper as if
it were a new invention.
Chinese Fox and Ceese. This is
played on a board like that in Fig. 3,
which also shows the arrangement of
the men. The Commander (corre-
sponding to the Fox) is placed in the
middle and surrounded by 26 sol-
diers (corresponding to the Geese).
The Commander may take a soldier
by leaping, as in CHECKERS, and all
the pieces may move forward, back-
ward, or sidewise. The object of
the soldiers is to pen up the Com-
mander in the triangular space a, c, b.
As in ordinary Fox and Geese, the
soldiers will always win in this game,
if it is played well. It is sometimes
called the " Chinese Rebel Game,"
and the Chinese call it Yang Lo See,
after the leader of a famous rebellion.
<h- ( >
Fig. 3. — Chinese iox and Geese.
French Military Game. This re-
sembles Chinese Fox and Geese, A
FOX AND GEESE
363
FOX AND GEESE
black piece, called an Army Corps,
corresponds to the Fox, and the three
pieces of a different color called
Brigades of Cavalry, to the Geese.
The object of the Cavalry, as in the
other forms of the game, is to pen up
the Army Corps so that it cannot
move. The Army Corps is allowed
to move in any direction along a
line, but each Brigade of Cavalry can
'move backward only once during the
game, all other moves being forward
or sidewise. The Army Corps is
given the first move. This game is
said to have been devised by Louis
Dyen, a French army officer, in
1886. It has been shown in a French
scientific paper that, as in other
forms of the game where there is one
Fox, the Geese (in this case the Bri-
gades of Cavalry) must win, if played
properly.
II. A game played by any number
of persons, one of whom takes the
part of the Fox and the others stand
in a double circle, facing inward.
At one place in the circle there are
three players instead of two as shown
in Fig. 4. The object of the Fox is to
o o
o o Oo
o ~ o
o o
Fig. 4. — Fox and Geese, or Tierce.
touch the outside one of three, who
tries to escape by running into the
circle and standing inside two of
the others, thus exposing the outside
player to the Fox. If any one is
caught he must take the Fox's place.
When the number of players is large
there may be two or more groups of
three. The Fox may not enter the
circle, and there should be plenty of
room left between the groups of
players, so that the Geese may run in
easily.
In England this game is some-
times called Round Tag and Tierce.
Its ancient name was The Faggots,
the pairs of players, one in front of
the other, being called Faggots, and
the Fox and Goose the Hound and
Hare. A similar game was played
there in ancient times, called Trick
the Rabbit.
In France it is called Deux c'est
assez, trots c'est trap (Two is Com-
pany, Three is a Crowd), and in
Germany, Den Dritten Jagen (Hunt
the Third).
III. An outdoor game played by
any number of persons on a figure
marked on the ground or in the snow,
like that in Fig. 5. There may be any
Fig. 5.— Fox and Geese.
number of circles and lines accord-
ing to the number of players and
the size of the ground. One of the
players is selected as Fox, and the
others represent Geese. The Geese
may run on any of the paths, but
the Fox must keep on the straight
ones. If he touch any one of the
Geese, that one must take his place
as Fox. In some parts of New Eng-
land this game is called Pickadill.
FRENCH AND ENGLISH. See
TUG OF WAR.
FRENCH SOLITAIRE
364
FUSIBLE METALS
FRENCH BLIND MAN'S BUFF,
See BLIND MAN'S BUFF.
FRENCH SOLITAIRE, a SOLI-
TAIRE game of CARDS, played with
one full pack. The four Aces are
placed in a row, as they appear, and
the other cards on these, in order,
without following suit. Cards that
cannot be so placed must be ar-
ranged in four piles beneath the
others, without regard to suit or
rank. The top card of a lower pile
must be placed on one of the upper
piles whenever possible. It requires
skill so to place the cards in the
lower piles that they will be available
in making the upper piles. No cards
in any of the lower piles must be
looked at, except the top card.
This is one of the simplest Soli-
taire card-games. It is made more
difficult by requiring the upper piles
to be made in suits, and still easier
by permitting the player to examine
the lower piles.
FUN ALIVE, a game played by
any number of persons with 8 large
cards called " Game Cards," and
40 smaller " Forfeit Cards." The
Game Cards are all blank except one,
called the " Catch Card," on which
the words "Fun Alive" are printed
in large letters. On each of the For-
feit Cards a FORFEIT is printed.
The Forfeit Cards are spread, face
downward, in the middle of the table,
and the same is begun by one player's
taking the Game Cards, shuffling
them, and presenting them to his
left-hand neighbor, who draws one.
If it be the Catch Card, he must at
once draw a Forfeit Card, and do as
it directs. Then the player who
draws, shuffles the Game Cards and
presents them to his left-hand neigh-
bor, and so on. When a player
draws a blank card he takes no For-
feit Card, and the next one draws at
once. The game continues thus as
long as the players choose.
FUNGO, a game of ball played
by any number of persons with a
BASE-BALL and bat. One player
takes the bat, and tossing the ball
into the air strikes it before it
falls. The other players, who stand
from 50 to 200 feet from the batter,
try to catch the ball. The batter
usually holds the bat in his right
hand, tosses the ball into the air with
his left, at the same time raising the
bat, and then, seizing the bat with
both hands, strikes the ball before it
falls. Fungo is generally played to
give the fielders in BASE-BALL prac-
tice in " fly-catching " or catching
the batted ball before it bounds, but
it is often played merely for amuse-
ment. In the latter case it may
be agreed that when a catch is made,
the catcher shall take the batter's
place.
FUSIBLE METALS, To make.
Fusible metals are alloys (see C. C.
T.) which will melt at a very low
temperature. Many of them are
made of bismuth, lead, and tin. The
fusible metal called Rose's Metal is
made by melting in an iron spoon
some bismuth with half its weight
of lead and half its weight of
tin. The resulting alloy will melt
in boiling water. If the melted
metal be poured into a test tube it
will expand on cooling, and break
the tube.
These fusible metals are made use
of in many ways. For instance,
many factories are now fitted with
water pipes running over the ceil-
ings of all the rooms. These are
fitted at intervals with nozzles closed
with plugs of fusible metal. If a
fire should start in any room the
heat would melt out the plugs near
it at once, and the water, rushing
through the nozzle, would put it out.
Common solder is another example
of a fusible metal, though this must
melt at a higher heat, so that it
will bear that of a ordinary cook
stove.
GALLANTY SHOW
365
GALLANTY SHOW
G
GALLANTY SHOW, a kind of
shadow pantomime, in which the .
characters are represented by figures '
cut from cardboard. A frame about
three feet high by four wide is fixed
in a doorway, and covered with white
cloth tightly stretched, tacked on
the side toward the spectators. The
rest of the doorway is screened by
curtains, and the exhibitor stands on
the opposite side. A piece of tape,
stretched close to the frame along
its bottom, holds the figures by
means of cardboard continuations
of their legs. The exhibitor, by
means of these continuations, which
project below the tape, can slide the
figures along, make them rock
backward and forward, or cause
them suddenly to disappear by pull-
ing them downward. Scenery of
various kinds may be fastened to
the sides or top of the frame, and if
a scene is desired which will fill the
whole frame, the cloth may be re-
placed by a sheet of paper on which
such a scene, cut out of thin paper,
is pasted. A forest or the interior
of a building may thus be repre-
sented. With some practice, scen-
ery can be built up of different thick-
nesses of paper, so as to show any
number of degrees of light and
shade, after the mannerof the porce-
lain transparencies often hung in
windows. The " high lights " of the
scene have no paper pasted on them
at all. The deep shadows should
have several thicknesses, and the
shades between these extremes
more or less according to the de-
sired tone. For the stained glass
windows of a church, colored tissue
paper may be used, and the sun,
moon, or flowers may also be repre-
sented in color in the same way.
If desired, the arms or heads
of the figures may be made to
work on pivots, and moved by
thread so fine that its shadow is not
noticed by the spectators. The
performance may be a pantomime,
or the exhibitor may talk for the
various characters. The figures
not used should be placed on a
chair or shelf within easy reach of
the exhibitor, or held by an assist-
ant. A procession can be repre-
sented by gluing figures upright on
a piece of tape stretched around
two wooden wheels, or large spools.
One of these is fitted with a crank,
by turning which the tape is moved
Gallanty Show.
steadily. Only the upper part of
the tape must be thrown on the
screen, as the figures on the tower
half are heads downward. The
shadows must pass out of sight be-
fore they begin to turn downward,
and must not come into view again
till they have ceased to rise. A
continual procession thus passes
GALVANIC TASTE
366
GALVANOMETER
across the screen as long as the
crank is turned. A great many
curious effects can be produced, as
in SHADOW PLAYS. Thus, a man
can be shown climbing out of a
chimney or jumping into a croco-
dile's mouth. These effects are even
more simple in a gallanty show, for
the figures and scenery are both
smaller and easier to manage. Care
should be taken to make all the
movements as naturally as possible.
History. A gallanty show is called
in France Les Ombres Chinoises
(Chinese Shadows). This form of
entertainment is said to have orig-
inated in China ; at any rate, it has
long been a favorite there. It was
brought thence to Germany, and in
1770 a theatre specially devoted to
it was established in Versailles,
France, by Seraphin, who conduct-
ed it for many years and was suc-
ceeded in its management by his
nephew of the same name.
GALVANIC TASTE, Experi-
ment on. Place a piece of zinc
above the tongue and a silver coin
below it, or "vice versa, and after
.leaving them there a few seconds,
to get used to the taste of the
metals, touch the edges over the
tip of the tongue. A singular taste,
or sensation, will be at once felt in
the tongue. The reason of this is
that the metals, with the tongue be-
tween them, form a little ELECTRIC
BATTERY, and when the circuit is
closed, by touching the metals a
very slight current flows through
the tongue.
The taste is slightly different, ac-
cording to which metal is above
and which below, being slightly
acid in one case and alkaline in
another. Some people think this
is because the salt fluids in the
tongue are decomposed by the
current into an acid and an alkali
(see ELECTRICAL DECOMPOSITION).
A similar experiment may be per-
formed with a strip of zinc and a
silver spoon, by putting one as far
as possible between the lower lip
and gum, and the other between
the upper lip and gum, and then
touching the ends. Just as they
touch, a flash of light will appear to
pass before the eyes.
GALVANOMEtER, an instrument
for showing the direction and force
of electric currents. Some kind of
galvanometer is needed for many of
the electric experiments described
in this book. The simplest kind
consists merely of a magnetized
sewing-needle, hung horizontally by
a thread ; or a pocket compass may
be used. The following experi-
ments may be tried with such a
galvanometer.
1. Allow the needle to come to
rest, when it will point north and
south. Hold a wire, whose ends
are connected with an ELECTRIC
BATTERY, over it lengthwise. The
needle will turn, and if the current
in the wire is strong enough, will
come to rest nearly at right angles
to the wire.
2. Reverse the current in the
wire by exchanging the ends which
are connected with the battery.
The needle will turn in the opposite
direction.
3. Hold the wire just under, in-
stead of just over, the needle. It
will turn in the opposite direction.
4. Make a loop of the wire so that
the current will flow in one direc-
tion above the needle and in the
opposite direction below it. The
needle will turn farther than before.
These experiments, which were
discovered by Oersted, a Danish
physicist, first showed scientists that
there was a connection between elec-
tricity and magnetism, and they were
therefore the beginning of the tele-
graph, the dynamo, and many of the
wonderful inventions of our day.
To detect very slight currents it
is necessary to surround the needle
with many coils of wire. Thus very
expensive and delicate galvanom-
eters are constructed, but a simple
one can be made by any one, as fol-
lows :
GALVANOMETER
367
GENTEEL LADY
Make a wooden frame. A, about
four inches square and about an
inch thick, either glued together or
fastened with brass or wooden pins.
No iron or steel must be used.
Wind on it about 60 turns of insu-
lated number 16 wire, in three layers,
leaving a space in the centre, as
shown ;n the nirfirf. Insert the
Home-made Galvanometer.
ends of the wire in the brass bind-
ing-screws H and K. Fix an arch
of copper wire, D, in the frame, on
which is a cork, E. From the cork
is suspended a narrow strip of paper-
G, by a silk fibre or a hair, F. No
twisted thread must be used. The
hair is best fastened to the paper by
wax. Through the lower part of
the paper thrust a magnetized sew-
ing-needle, H, and through the up-
per part a copper wire, I, about 2-J-
inches long, for a pointer. The
paper must be so suspended that
the needle will turn freely between
the upper and lower windings of
wire, and the pointer above the
wire, where it will be easily seen. If
desired, a dial or disk of paper, M,
may be laid over the wire just under
the pointer. A hole must be cut in
the centre, to allow the suspended
strip of paper to turn. This gal-
vanometer must be kept out of the
least draught of wind, and it is best
to cover it with a glass globe, or with
a box, N, having a glass top, O.
When it is to be used with weak
currents, it must be turned so
that the coils of wire are parallel
with the needle, that is, north
and so-uth. When
the instrument is used
with stronger currents
it must be placed at
first so that the coils
will point across the
needle. When the
current passes turn the
instrument back slow-
ly till the coils are
north and south. A
strong current must
not be passed through
it when the coils are
parallel with the
needle, or the needle
will spin around,
twisting the hair and
making it necessary to
hang it over again.
GAS BURNED
THROUGH A HAND-
KERCHIEF. Tie an or-
dinary handkerchief tightly over a
gas-burner with metal tip, as shown
in the illustration on next page.
Unless the tip be metal, the experi-
ment will not succeed. Turn on the
gas and light it, and it will burn with-
out even scorching the handkerchief,
which may be removed uninjured
when the gas has been turned off.
The reason the handkerchief is not
burned is that there is not great
heat in the lower part of a gas-
flame, and what there is, is con-
ducted away rapidly by the metal
tip of the burner. If the tip be
not metallic the heat will not be
conducted away, and the handker-
chief will be scorched.
GENTEEL LADY, a game played
by any number of persons. The
leader of the game says to the player
on his right, "Good morn ing, genteel
GENTEEL LADY
368
GEOGRAPHY
lady.always genteel; I, a genteel lady,
always genteel, come from yonder
Gas burned through a Handkerchief.
(See page 367.)
genteel lady, always genteel, to tell
you that she has an eagle with a
golden beak." This sentence is re-
peated by each in turn to his right-
hand neighbor, and then goes the
rounds again as many times as the
leader chooses, each time with an
addition to the description of the
eagle. Thus, in the second round,
it may be "with a golden beak and
silver feathers;" in the third, "with
a golden beak, and silver feathers,
and steel claws," and so on. Every
time that any player makes a mis-
take, a piece of paper is twisted in
his hair to resemble a horn, and he
is then called " one-horned," " two-
horned," etc.. as the case may be,
instead of "genteel." Thus, if a
player have no horns, while his
left-hand neighbor has two, and his
right-hand neighbor one, he should
address the latter with the words,
"Good morning, one-horned lady,
always one-horned ; I, a genteel
lady, always genteel, come from
yonder two-horned lady, always
two-horned, to tell you," etc. An
extra horn is given for every mis-
take, and the number generally in-
creases rapidly. The game lasts as
long as the players desire, or it
may cease when one of them has
a number of horns that is agreed
upon beforehand. Sometimes, at
the close of the game, each player
pays as many forfeits as he has
" horns" on his head. In beginning
the game, the leader may substitute
anything he chooses for the " eagle;"
thus, he may speak of a house with
a gold chimney, diamond windows,
and iron roof; or a locomotive with
a paper smoke-stack and India-rub-
ber wheels.
Sometimes the first player in-
forms the second that his "ship has
just come from China, laden with
apricots" (or anything beginning
with A). The next adds an article
beginning with B. and so on through
the alphabet. The " horns " are
sometimes lighted paper lamp-
lighters, but their use is dangerous.
This game had its origin in France,
where it is called " Le Chevalier
Gentil" (The Gentle Knight).
GEOGRAPHY, the name of sev-
eral games, all of which require a
knowledge of geography.
I. The players choose sides, and
the leader of one side commences by
calling out the name of a city or town
beginning with A, and then count-
ing ten distinctly. Before he fin-
ishes counting the leader of the
other side must call out the name
of another city beginning with
A, and then count in like man-
ner. This goes on till the leader
of one side is able to count ten
before his opponent can think pf a
city that has not been named. The
winner chooses as his follower one
of the opposite side, and then begins
the game anew, this time using
names of towns that begin with B.
The leader can be chosen only when
he is left alone on his side. When
either side has chosen all the players
on the other, it wins, and the game
GEOGRAPHY
369
GEOGRAPHY
ends; but if all the letters of the
alphabet have been used, and players
remain on each side, the larger party
is declared the winner. No one but
the leader may call out the names,
but the other players on his side
think of new ones and whisper them
to him one by one as he needs them.
At first the names usually follow
one another as quickly as they can
be spoken, but when the memory
of the players is almost exhausted,
they come slowly. A longer time
for thought may be given by count-
ing 25, or even 50, instead of ten,
and the game may also be varied by
using names of rivers or mountains,
or those of historical characters.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. No city may be named more
than once, but different places of
the same name may be used, if their
situation is clearly defined, either by
giving the State or country where
they are, or in any other way;
as, "Stratford. Connecticut," and
" Stratford-on-Avon," or " Phila-
delphia, where one of the seven
churches was situated." In such a
case only the name, not the ex-
planation, must be spoken before
the word " ten."
2. In case an unfamiliar place is
named, the side that used it may
be required to tell where it is. If
they cannot do so, or do so incor-
rectly, the opposite side may choose
one of their players and proceed to
the next letter.
II. The leader on one side calls
out any letter, and says, " Sea,"
" Bay," " Mountain," " City," or
some other division of water or
land. The leader on the other side
names one beginning with the letter
mentioned, and is followed by all
on his side in regular order. If any
one pause, the leader of the first
side counts ten, and says, " Next !"
and the pausing player takes his
seat unless he can answer while
the leader is counting. The leader
of the second side now calls out a
letter and a division of land or
water, which the players on the first
side must give in like manner, and
the sides continue to alternate thus.
If any one make a mistake, such as
giving to a river the name of a
mountain, or using the wrong initial
letter, it musi be corrected by some
one on the same side before the
opposite leader says " Miss," other-
wise the opposite side scores 2, and
the turn comes to an end. If no
one on a side makes a mistake or
is obliged to take his seat, that side
scores 3. A side wins when it has
scored 10, or when all on the other
side have taken their seats.
III. Another game of geography
is played with pencils and paper,
every one writing all the geographi-
cal names he can think of, begin-
ning first with A, then with B, and so
on through the alphabet, a minute
or more being allotted to each let-
ter. If all have the same name on
their lists, it scores nothing, but
others score as many points as the
number of players who have omitted
it, as in the game of DICTIONARY.
IV. Another geographical game
is played with a board on which is a
map, having holes in place of spots
to represent cities. Each hole has
its corresponding peg with the name
of the city on it, and the object
of the game is to place the pegs
aright. The game may be played
in various ways. A single player
may treat it as a game of PATIENCE,
placing all the pegs and then com-
paring an ordinary map with the
board, to see whether he has suc-
ceeded or not. When there are
several players the pegs may be dis-
tributed equally, and then each in
turn places one of them in a hole.
After each play the other players
examine the peg, and in turn have
a chance to say whether or not they
think it is rightly placed. If all
agree that it is right, the player
scores one point ; if one or more
think it is wrong, a map is consulted,
and if the objectors are right they
GIVE-AWAY
370
GOLF
each score one, while if they are
wrong one point is subtracted from
the score of each. The number of
points necessary to win should be
agreed upon beforehand.
A board for playing the game can
be made by pasting an ordinary map
on a smooth piece of wood, and bor-
ing gimlet holes through the dots
representing the cities. The name
of each city must be carefully erased
with pen and ink, and then little
wooden pegs must be provided,
which may be made of matches.
The names may be written on the
side of the pegs, on a place shaved
flat with a knife, or on bits of paper
glued to the top of the pegs.
GIVE-AWAY. See CHECKERS.
GLASS OF WATER, Experiment
with. See COINS, Experiment 7.
GO-BANG, a game played by two
to five persons, each of whom has
usually 50 pieces or men, on a board
divided into 256 squares colored al-
ternately dark and light. The pieces
are of different colors, and each
player has one color, that one set
may be distinguished from the others.
The players take turns, each in order
placing on the board one of his
pieces, on any unoccupied squares,
dark or light. The object is to get
five in a row, either diagonally or
from side to side of the board, and
he who succeeds in doing this wins
the game. When the players have
put all their pieces on the board,
they may move them one at a time
to any unoccupied adjacent square,
in any direction.
Go-Bang may be played on an
ordinary checker-board, each player
having twelve pieces. Sometimes
the total number of pieces is made
equal to the number of squares, in
which case there can be no moving
of pieces, and the game ends when
all are placed on the board, if no one
has made a row of five before that
time.
Go-Bang is a Japanese game, and
means in the Japanese language
"Five-Board." "Go" (Five) is the
Japanese name of the game. It is
said to have been played in China
(where it is called Kee) 2000 years
before Christ, and to have been car-
ried about the 8th century A.D. to
Japan, where it is a great favorite.
The Japanese have schools for the
study of the game, and a periodical
is published in their country devoted
entirely to it, just as we have papers
devoted to Chess. The Japanese
play it on a board of more than 300
squares.
GOLF, a game played by any
number of persons with sticks or
clubs like SHINNY sticks, and small
balls about an inch and a half in
diameter. The ball, formerly of
leather stuffed with feathers, is now
usually made of gutta-percha,
" nicked " or cut in crossed lines on
the surface, to roughen it.
The course, usually circular and
properly between three and five
miles long, is marked out on a piece
of open ground, and at intervals on
it are cut holes four inches in di-
ameter and from 100 to 500 yards
apart. The golf grounds are usually
called " links," because the sandy
stretches by the seashore, known in
Scotland by this name, are there re-
garded as best adapted to it. The
links should contain "hazards" — a
general term for obstacles of any
sort (see Rule 15, below). Two
players, starting from the first hole,
take turns in striking their balls into
the next, and he who does so in the
fewest strokes scores a point or " a
hole," as it is called. They then
play for the next hole in like manner,
and so on till they have gone around
the course (usually eighteen holes).
If they make any hole in the same
number of strokes, that hole is scored
by neither. He who scores the
greatest number of holes with the
fewest strokes wins. The reckoning
of the strokes is made technically
thus: If a player's opponent has
played one more stroke than he, the
player's next stroke is called " the
like "; if two more, " the one off
GOLF
371
GOLF
two," if three more, " the one off
three," etc.
Each p:ayer has his own ball, and
clubs of various shapes and sizes.
He selects the one he needs at any
particular time, according to the
natue4 of the ground, and the others
are carried by an attendant called
a " caddie." Each club has its
peculiar name. All have wooden
handles, but are called " wood-
clubs" or "irons," according to the
material of the head. A wood club
shod or soled with brass is called a
" brassie." The following is a com-
plete list of golf clubs : Wood
Clubs— Drivers, Long Spoons, Mid
Spoons, Short Spoons, Daffy, Bras-
sie Niblicks, Bulger Drivers, Bulger
Brassies, Brassies, Putters. Irons —
Cleeks, Iron Niblicks, Putting Cleeks,
Driving Cleeks, Lofting Irons, Driv-
ing Irons, Mashies, Gun Metal Put-
ters, Medium Irons. The Driver or
Play Club is generally used if the
distance from the hole is too great to
be covered in a single stroke ; the
Putter for striking the ball into a
hole ; the Spoon (now generally
superseded by the iron clubs) for
getting the ball out of a depres-
sion in the turf, called a "cup";
the Sand Iron for driving the ball
out of a sand-pit or "bunker."
Should the ball lie deep in the
sand, or beside a stone, the Cleek
or the Niblick may be used. Some
golfers use the iron-headed clubs as
" Putters." Besides these there are
the Driving Iron (not so long a
driver as the Cleek, but able to pitch
the ball higher); the Lofting Iron, for
lifting the ball very high ; and the
Mashie, a compromise between Loft-
ing Iron and Niblick, used for short
approaches. A set of six clubs is
considered enough for an expert, and
the beginner can get along with two
or three. In striking the ball, the
club must be held with both hands
as close together as possible, the left
being about two inches from the end.
The club, grasped firmly with the
left and guided with the right, is
lifted over the shoulder, and brought
down sharply on the ball, letting the
lower end just scrape the ground.
•f!IMIWU-» ,Ml,,>
l?*f ,,":; .""•J*5
f »-:::. v?t~,i
Driving.
The club should follow the ball in
the stroke. The distance to which
the ball can be sent depends more
Putting.
on the manner of hitting than the
actual strength used. The exact
manner of standing, called the
GOLF
372
GOLF
" stance," is a matter about which
there is a great difference of opinion
among good golf players. The ob-
ject is to stand so and at such a dis-
tance that the ball will be struck
squarely behind and exactly in the
middle of the club-head. If it
strikes too near the end of the head
(called the " toe ") or too near the
bend (called the " heel ") it is said to
he " toed " or " heeled " and will
swerve to one side or the other.
The majority of players place the
right foot a little in advance. When
thus standing, ready to strike, the
player is said to " address " the ball.
Before striking the ball it is custom-
ary to sway the club gently over it
to measure its position. This move-
ment is called the " waggle " and is
done with the wrists only.
The last stroke between any two
holes, by which the player tries to
place the ball in the hole, is called
putting (pronounced to rhyme with
cutting), and is the most difficult
part of the game, the preliminary
strokes, called driving, being much
more simple. The ground for some
distance around each hole is usually
covered with smooth turf and called
the " putting green " (see Rule 30,
below). In putting, the nature and
condition of the ground, the position
of the playing ball, and that of his
adversary's must all be taken into
consideration, as well as the state of
the score, on which it sometimes de-
pends whether the player will risk a
difficult " put " or not. The stroke
that drives the ball on the putting
green is called the " approach shot."
In putting, a rapid straight stroke is
called a " gobble," and a successful
long stroke a "steal." When the
opponent's ball lies directly between
the player's and his hole it is called
a " stimy," and when the player
sends his ball over the obstacles he
is said to " loft over the stimy."
When the player strikes the ground
as well as the ball, he is said to
" baff," and when his club razes the
grass slightly he is said to " scruff."
When a hole has been gained the
player lifts his ball and places it on
a little heap of sand called a " tee,"
from which he plays it toward the
next hole. When a ball is thus
placed it is said to be " teed."
RULES OF THE GAME. *
The following rules are substanti-
ally those of the St. Andrew's Royal
and Ancient Golf Club, as modified
in 1897 by the United States Golf
Association :
1. The game of golf is played by
two or more sides, each playing its
own ball. Two sides of single play-
ers constitute a match called a " sin-
gle." Two sides of two players each
constitute a " Foursome."
2. The game consists in each side
playing a ball from a tee into a hole
by successive strokes, and the hole is
won by the side holing its ball in the
fewest strokes, except as otherwise
provided in the Rules. If two sides
hole out in the same number of
strokes, the hole is halved.
" Match Play," in which the player
has an opponent, is decided by the
number of holes won.
" Medal Play," in which all the
players are called "competitors," is
decided by the aggregate number of
strokes.
Unless otherwise agreed, a match
shall consist of the play of the game
over eighteen holes of the links.
3. The teeing ground shall be in-
dicated by two marks placed in a
line at right angles to the course, and
the players shall not tee in front of,
nor on either side of these marks,
nor more than two club lengths be-
hind them. A ball played from out-
! side the limits of the teeing ground,
! as thus defined, may be recalled by
the opposite side.
The option of recalling a ball is in
all cases forfeited unless exercised at
once before another stroke has been
played.
The hole shall be four and one-
quarter inches in diameter, and at
j least four inches deep.
GOLF
373
GOLF
4. The ball must be fairly struck
at and not pushed, scraped, nor
spooned, under penalty of the loss of
the hole.
Any movement of the club in-
tended to strike the ball is a
stroke.
5. The game commences by each
side playing a ball from the first tee-
ing ground. In a match with two or
more on a side, the partners shall
strike off alternately from the tees,
and shall strike off alternately during
the play of the hole.
The players who are to strike
against each other shall be named at
starting, and shall continue in the
same order during the match.
The player who shall play first on
each side shall be named by his own
side.
6. If a player shall play when his
partner should have done so, his
side shall lose the hole, except in
case of the tee shot, when the stroke
shall be recalled at the option of the
opponents.
7. The side winning a hole shall
lead in starting for the next hole,
and may recall the opponent's stroke
should he play out of order. This
privilege is called the " honor."
8. One round of the links, gener-
ally eighteen holes, is a match, unless
otherwise agreed upon. The match
is won by the side which gets more
holes ahead than there remain holes
to be played, or by the side winning
the last hole when the match was all
even at the second last hole.
9. After the balls are struck from
the tee, the ball furthest from the
hole to which the parties are playing
shall be played first, except as other-
wise provided for in the Rules.
10. Unless with the opponent's
consent, a ball struck from the tee
shall not be changed, touched, nor
moved before the hole is played out,
except as otherwise provided for in
the Rules.
11. In playing through the green,
all loose impediments within a club
length of a ball, which is not lying in
or touching a hazard, may be re-
moved.
Ice, snow, and hail within a club
length of the ball through the green
may be removed ; but on the putting
green it may only be removed as
provided in Rule 34.
12. Before striking at the ball the
player shall not move, bend, nor
break anything fixed or growing near
the ball, except in the act of placing
his feet on the ground and in soling
his club.
13. A ball stuck fast in wet ground
or sand may be taken out and re-
placed loosely in the hole which it
has made.
14. When a ball lies in or touches
a hazard, the club shall not touch
the ground, nor shall anything be
touched or moved before the player
strikes at the ball.
The club shall not be soled, nor
the surface of the ground be touched
within a radius of a club length from
the ball.
When a ball lies on turf in a hazard
or surrounded by a hazard, it shall
be considered as being on the fair
green ; t. <?., the club may be soled.
15. A hazard shall be any bunker
of whatever nature — water, sand,
loose earth, mole-hills, paths, roads
of railways, whins, bushes, rushes,
rabbit scrapes, fences, ditches, or
anything which is not the ordinary
green of the course, except sand
blown onto the grass by wind or
sprinkled on the grass for the pres-
ervation of the links, or snow or ice
or bare patches on the course.
16. A player, or a player's caddie,
shall not press down nor remove any
irregularities of surface near the ball,
except at the teeing ground, under
the penalty of the loss of the hole.
" Near the ball " shall be consid-
ered within a club length.
17. If any vessel, wheelbarrow,
tool, roller, grass-cutter, box, or other
similar obstruction has been placed
upon the course, such obstruction
may be removed.
18. When a ball is completely cov-
GOLF
374
GOLF
ered with fog, bent, whins, etc., only
so much shall be set aside as that
the player may have a view of his
ball before he plays, whether in a
line with the hole or otherwise.
19. When the ball is to be dropped,
the player shall drop it. He shall
front the hole, stand erect behind the
hazard, keep the spot from which the
ball was lifted, or in the case of run-
ning water, the spot at which it en-
tered, in a line between him and the
hole, and drop the ball behind him
from his head, standing as far be-
hind the hazard as he may please.
The player must drop the ball
himself, not his caddie nor his part-
ner. A dropped ball shall not be
considered in play until at rest.
20. When the balls in play lie
within six inches of each other,
the ball nearer the hole shall be
lifted until the other is played, and
shall then be placed as nearly as
possible into its original position.
21. If a ball lie or be lost in water,
the player may drop a ball under
the penalty of one stroke.
22. Whatever happens by accident
to a ball in motion, such as its being
deflected or stopped by any agency
outside of the match, or by the fore-
caddie, is a "rub of the green," and
the ball shall be played from where
it lies. Should a ball lodge in any-
thing moving, such ball, or if it can-
not be recovered, another ball, shall
be dropped as nearly as possible at
the spot where the object was when
the ball lodged in it. But if a ball
at rest be displaced by any agency
outside of the match, the player shall
drop it, or another ball, as nearly as
possible at the spot where it lay.
On the putting green the ball may be
replaced by hand.
23. If a player's ball strike, or be
accidentally moved by an opponent
or an opponent's caddie or clubs, the
opponent loses the hole.
If the player's ball strike the other
competitor or his caddie or clubs, it
is a " rub of the green," and the ball
shall be played from where it lies.
If a player's ball at rest be accident-
ally or intentionally moved by the
other competitor or his caddie, the
ball must be replaced.
24. If the player's ball strike or be
stopped by himself or his partner
or either of their caddies or clubs, or
if, while in the act of playing, the
player shall strike the ball twice, his
side loses the hole.
25. If the player, when not making
a stroke, or his partner or either of
their caddies, touch their side's ball,
except at the tee, so as to move it, or
by touching anything cause it to
move, the penalty is one stroke.
Except at the tee, if the ball move
while the player is addressing it, the
player loses one stroke.
Except at the tee, if the ball be
struck while moving, the penalty is
one stroke ; /. e., one stroke for the
moving and one stroke for the play.
Except at the tee, if struck at
while moving and missed, one stroke
shall be counted for the moving and
another for the miss.
26. A ball is considered to have
been moved if it leaves its original
position in the least degree and stops
in another.
27. A player's side loses a stroke
if he play the opponent's ball, unless :
(i) the opponent then play the
player's ball, whereby the penalty is
canceled, and the hole must be
played out with the balls thus ex-
changed ; or (2) the mistake occur
through wrong information given
by the opponent, in which case, the
mistake, if discovered before the op-
ponent has played, must be rectified
by placing a ball as nearly as pos-
sible where the opponent's ball lay.
28. If a ball be lost, and be not
found within five minutes, the player's
side loses the hole.
Where both balls are lost at the
same time, neither side wins the
hole, which should be called halved,
irrespective of the number of strokes
that either side may have played.
29. A ball must be played wher-
ever it lies, or the hole given up,
GOLF
375
GOING TO JERUSALEM
except as otherwise provided for in
the Rules.
30. The term " putting green "
shall mean the ground within twenty
yards of the hole, excepting hazards.
31. All loose impediments may be
removed from the putting green,
except the opponent's ball, when at
a greater distance from the player's
than six inches.
32. In a match of three or more
sides, a ball in any degree lying be-
tween the player and the hole must
be lifted, or, if on the putting green,
holed out.
33. When the ball is on the put-
ting green, no mark shall be placed
nor line drawn as a guide.
The player may have his own or his
partner's caddie to stand at the hole,
but none of the players, nor their cad-
dies, may move so as to shield the
ball from or expose it to the wind.
34. The player or his caddie may
remove (but not press down) sand,
worm casts, or snow lying around the
hole or on the line of his put. This
shall be done by brushing lightly
with the 'hand only across the put
and not along it. Dung may be re-
moved to a side by an iron club, but
the club must not be laid down with
more than its own weight.
35. Either side is entitled to have
the flag stick removed, when ap-
proaching the hole. If a ball rest
against the flag stick when in the
hole, the player shall be entitled to
remove the stick, and if the ball fall
in, it shall be considered as holed
out in the previous stroke.
36. A player shall not play until
the opponent's ball shall have ceased
to roll, under the penalty of one
stroke. Should the player's ball
knock in the opponent's ball, the
latter shall be counted as holed out
I in the previous stroke. If, in play-
| ing, the player's ball displace the
opponent's ball, the opponent shall
have the option of replacing it.
A player having holed out his ball
in the like or the odd, may knock
away the opponent's ball from the
lip of the hole, and claim the hole,
if he had holed in the like, or a half
if he had holed in the odd.
37. A player shall not ask for
advice, nor be knowingly advised
about the game by word, look, or
gesture from anyone except his own
caddie or his partner or partner's
caddie, under the penalty of the loss
of the hole.
38. If a ball split into separate
pieces, another ball may be put down
where the largest portion lies ; or if
two pieces are apparently of equal
size, it may be put where either piece
lies, at the option of the player. If
a ball crack, or become unplayable,
the player may change it on intimat-
ing his intention to his opponent.
39. A penalty stroke (a stroke
added to the score of a side for in-
fringing rules) shall not be counted
the stroke of a player, and shall not
affect the rotation of the play.
History. Golf is a Scotch game,
and is derived from the same sources
as SHINNY and POLO. It is a great
favorite in Scotland, and has been
called the national game of that
country. It became popular in Eng-
land and her colonies long ago, but it
was almost unknown in this country,
except among natives of Scotland,
till about 1890, after which it gained
rapidly in favor, and about 1895 be-
came a very fashionable sport. The
United States Golf Association now
includes nearly one hundred clubs.
As early as 1457 Golf was for-
bidden by law, lest it should inter-
fere with Archery, but in 1744 the
city of Edinburgh voted a silver
club to be played for every year.
Charles I. of England was fond of
the game, and James II. was expert
at it. The word Golf is derived from
the Dutch Kolf, a club. It is \>\o-
nounced^v^and sometimes spelled
that way.
GOING TO JERUSALEM, a game
in which the players sit at first in
two rows of chairs placed closely
back to back in the middle of a
room. A march is played on the
GOOD FAT HEN
376
GRACE HOOPS
pianoforte, or some one not in the
game may sing or whistle. As soon
as the music begins, all rise and
march in line around the chairs.
While they are marching, some one
who is not playing takes away one
chair from the end of the line. The
music stops suddenly, and all who
can do so, sit down. Of course one
player is left standing, as one chair
has been taken away ; and that
player is out of the game. The
music begins again, and the game
goes on, a new chair being taken
away each time until only one play-
er is left. He is said to " get to Je-
rusalem."
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. No one must touch a chair
while marching, on penalty of being
put out of the game.
2. If two players sit on the same
chair at once, the umpire shall de-
cide which has the right to it, and
in case of doubt may order the play-
ers to march again.
3. The person who removes the
chair shall act as umpire.
History. This game is known also
as " Musical Fright."
In England it is sometimes called
" The Watchman," but instead of
marching to music, and seating
themselves when it stops, the play-
ers choose a captain or" fugleman,"
and follow him about the room, re-
peating the lines,
" The Watchman comes, beware, beware !
He'll spy us, if we don't take care."
The other players imitate the
leader's movements and when he
seats himself they all do likewise.
Sometimes when only three players
are left, the game is ended by hold-
ing a mock trial in which they are
the accused.
GOOD FAT HEN, A. See RE-
PEATING GAMES.
GRABOUGE, a game of CARDS
played by four persons, two against
two, with 12 full packs. The dealer
deals to each player 21 cards, one at
a time, which are piled face upward
at each player's right, to form what
are called "Desperation Piles."
The rest of the cards are divided
equally among the players, and are
placed in piles, face downward.
The one who has the lowest
card on the top of his Desperation
Pile begins to play, and the others
follow in regular order to the left.
Each, in playing, turns up five cards,
one by one, from those that are
back upward, and lays them in four
piles before him, face upward. As
fast as the Aces appear they are
laid in the centre of the table, and
on them the Twos, Threes, and so
on, are placed in order, without
regard to suit. He who puts on the
King takes the trick. Besides the
five cards turned up by each, the
top card of his Desperation Pile, or
any exposed card of his four piles,
may be used by any player, to put
on the packs in the centre of the
table, and his partner also may as-
sist, where it can be done without
turning up a card. Each trick
counts one to the side taking it. If
any Desperation Pile remain after
all the others have been used, every
card in it counts one to the oppo-
site side.
GRACE HOOPS, or GRACES, a
game played by any number of per-
sons (each of whom has two sticks
about four feet long) with wooden
rings or hoops from 12 to 18 inches
in diameter. A player, holding a
stick firmly in each hand, places
the hoop over them, crosses them,
and then draws them quickly apart,
thus sending the hoop into the air
towards another player, who catches
it on his sticks; and the sport thus
goes on, each player receiving the
hoop in turn. More than one hoop
can be kept in the air if the players
are expert. It may be agreed that
when a miss is made it shall be
scored against the person missing,
and that at the end of a certain
time the one having the fewest
misses shall be winner of the game.
Or, each player may have a hoop,
GRAND MUFTI
377
GUESSING THE SIGN
tossing it up and catching it again
on his own sticks, in which case he
Grace Hoops and Sticks.
who can do so the longest time,
without a miss, wins.
The Grace Hoops sold at toy
stores are usually covered with vel-
vet or colored cloth. The Germans
call this game Reifeniverfen (Ring-
throwing) and each player has but
one stick. In France it is called
Les Graces (The Graces), as with us,
because when skilfully played it is
a graceful sport.
GRAND MUFTI, THE, a game
played by any number of persons,
all of whom form a ring, excepting
the Grand Mufti, who stands in the
middle. The Grand Mufti strikes
an attitude or makes a ridiculous
gesture, saying at the same time
either," Thus says the Grand Mufti,"
or " So says the Grand Mufti." If
the former, each of the other players
must imitate him ; if the latter, no
one must move. Any one that im-
itates the Grand Mufti when he
should not, or fails to do so when
he should, must change places with
him. If two or more thus break
the rules the Grand Mufti selects
one of them to take his place.
GROMMETS, or RING TOSS, a
game played by any number of per-
sons, who try to throw rings over
an upright peg. The rings, ten in
number, may be made of wood or
of tarred rope covered with cloth,
and are usually about five inches in
diameter. The peg, which is about
12 inches long, may be driven into
the ground, or fastened to a base-
board. The players take turns,
standing at whatever distance from
the peg may be agreed
on beforehand (usually
about 15 feet), and
each throws all the
rings, one by one, be-
fore the next one's
turn. He who throws
the greatest number
of rings over the peg
wins the game. The
players may throw each
for himself or may
be divided into sides,
and each may have two or more
turns as agreed upon beforehand.
Grommet is a word used by sailors
to mean a ring of rope, and the
game was first played on shipboard.
When more than one stake is used,
as is sometimes the case, they are
given different values, and some-
times they are fixed on a board
which can be placed on the floor or
raised at an angle. Several differ-
ent forms of the game are to be,
bought at toy stores, some of which
are called Pitchette.
GUESSING THE SIGN, a game
played by any number of persons,
two of whom are chosen to act as
questioner and guesser. These two
retire from the room and agree on
a secret sign. The players select
any object in the room and after
telling the questioner what it is, call
in the guesser. The questioner
then names any number of objects,
one at a time, and by giving the
secret sign at the proper moment,
enables the guesser to tell the one
chosen. The company must guess
what the sign is, and when that has
been done, the player who guesses
it takes the place of the one from
whom he guessed it. The game
must be repeated as often as the
company desires, using the same
sign, either till it is guessed or till
the company gives up trying to do
so, when the two that know it may
tell it or not, as they please.
The simolest si^ns are motions of
GUESSING THE SIGN
378
GUESSING THE SIGN
the hands or body, or changes in
the tone of voice, made by the
questioner as he names the object
chosen ; but these are usually
guessed in a few trials. An ingen-
ious questioner and guesser will
often invent a sign that can be
guessed only after playing the game
several evenings. Several signs are
given below as examples :
1. "The Black Art." The ques-
tioner always mentions some black
object just before that which the
company has chosen. Although this
sign is so simple, it is very puzzling
to one who has never heard of it,
nor any like it. It can be varied in
many ways ; for instance, the object
chosen may be the first, second, or
third after something white, some-
thing made of glass, or something
worn by a particular person.
2. The object chosen and several
others, usually not more than five
or six in all, are placed in a row,
and the questioner and guesser
agree that they shall be thought of
as numbered, either from right to
left or left to right. The questions
are also numbered in order, and are
so asked that the object chosen is
mentioned in the question that has
the same number. Thus, suppose
five objects are arranged in the fol-
lowing order:
a hat, a book, a glove, a handkerchief, a pen,
1234 5
and that they are numbered as above
in the minds of the questioner and
guesser. The handkerchief is shown
by the company. The questioner
asks :
(i) "Is it the glove?" "No." (2)
"The hat?" "No." (3) " The pen ?"
"No." (4) "The handkerchief?"
"Yes." It will be seen that the
guesser says " no " whenever the
numbers of the question and object
are different, and " yes " as soon as
they coincide. The questioner
must be careful, of course, not to
make the numbers agree before he
reaches the chosen object. It is still
more puzzling if the questioner
simply points to the objects, with-
out speaking a word. This sign is
guessed by hardly more than one
out of a hundred persons.
3. The questioner may say, " well "
or "then" before one of li is ques-
tions, agreeing that the object
chosen shall be mentioned in a
given number of questions after
I that.
4. The question may mention an
! object made of the same material as
! the one chosen directly before it.
I In this case he must be careful not
I to have an object follow one of the
same material anywhere else in his
questions.
5. " The Wizard of the Esist, or
The Magic Stick." The questioner
tells the company that the guesser
will remain outside the room and yet
tell the name of the person to who..i
he points his stick. This is done
by always pointing to the person
who spoke last just before the
guesser left the room. The ques-
tioner should encourage conversa-
tion. When the " Wizard" is shown
as a parlor trick, as it frequently
is, the questioner may pretend to
perform magic incantations, and
point in turn to several players, say-
ing as he does so: "The Wand
passes !" When he points to the
one that spoke last before the
guesser went out, he says, " The
Wand rests!" and the gucccer,
who must be within hearing, in-
stantly names the player indicated.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. The sign must remain exactly
the same till it has been guessed by
the company. The slightest change,
as altering the direction of number-
ing in example 2, is forbidden by
this rule.
2. Any of the company may ask
the questioner to put his questions
under certain conditions, for instance
with his eyes shut, or his hands be-
hind his back. He must comply,
but if he knows that the condition
GUITAR
379
GYMNASTICS
would prevent giving the sign, he
may simply say so without taking
up time in the trial.
3. Any player who thinks he has
guessed the sign, may take the
place of the guesser to test his
knowledge, for one or more trials,
as the questioner may agree.
GUITAR, Experiments with. See
VIOLIN.
GYMNASTICS properly include
those exercises that are taken in-
doors for the purpose of developing
the body. Outdoor exercises, such
as walking, running, rowing, etc., are
now called ATHLETICS, and the
prominent idea in them is sport or
recreation.
Gymnastic exercises are usually
practised in specially arranged build-
ings called gymnasiums, because
the association of many people to-
gether for exercise enables them to
have more complete apparatus and
the instruction of experts that could
not otherwise be obtained. Gym-
nastic exercises have been classified
as Light and Heavy, without regard
to the amount of exertion required.
Those exercises are called Light
where no apparatus is used (free
gymnastics), and where the exercise
is obtained by moving the apparatus
(calisthenics) as dumb-bells, wands,
etc.
Heavy gymnastics are those exer-
cises where the body is the resist-
ance moved, the apparatus being
fixed, as exercises on the horizontal
and parallel bars, rowing, etc.
The exercises described in this
article come chiefly under the head
of light gymnastics. The more vio-
lent exercises are appropriate only
for those who wish well developed
muscles.
The regular practice of some of
the gentler forms of gymnastics
should be begun early in life, and
more difficult movements taught as
the child acquires strength.
The outdoor sports and games of
children furnish enough exercise in
Heavy gymnastics until the age of
twelve or fourteen years ; but after
that age, and especially in the win-
ter, when the weather forbids out-
door sports, such as skating, some
form of exercise that shall teach how
to control and handle the body may
well be undertaken.
Some exercises develop particular
muscles or groups of muscles, while
others develop nearly every muscle.
Some exercises make the joints
supple, while others tend to make
them stiff. Some exercises make
the muscle act slowly and power-
fully, while others give swiftness
and deftness without great strength.
Aside from the development of
the muscles, gymnastic exercises
are important to health, because
they help the system to throw off
waste material ; and by improving
the circulation they bring new ma-
terial to all parts, so that growth is
promoted, and each organ is better
supplied with what it needs.
It is evident that the mind will
get more recreation or rest from ex-
ercise if it is pleased or amused.
Therefore the gymnast must be
interested in his work, and not
merely exercise from a sense of
duty. This is the reason why games
like Base-ball or Tennis often do
more good than a regular system of
exercise. Gymnastics are made
amusing in various ways. The feats
on the horizontal bar and similar
ones are entertaining in themselves,
because they give an exhibition of
both strength and skill that is re-
assuring to the performer, and make
him feel that he can do something
that not many others can do, and we
all like to excel in something. The
more monotonous movements, like
those with dumb-bells,etc., are often
made interesting by being performed
by a large number of persons at
once accompanied by music. When
performed by one person alone, it
is a good plan to whistle or sing or
count, making the motions in time.
Where a motion is to be repeated
over from ten to twenty times.
GYMNASTICS
380
GYMNASTICS
counting grows very tiresome ; but
if the performer takes notice of the
part of the tune where he must
change from one motion to an-
other, he need not count at all, so
long as he keeps time.
Gymnastic exercises, to be of
benefit, should be performed regu-
larly, the simpler kinds daily.
A short rest should be taken after
each group or series of movements,
especially if the heart has been
made to beat rapidly. Some slow
exercises can be taken at the end of
a series that will tend to make the
heart beat more slowly before actual
rest begins, as it is not a good plan
to begin or stop violent exercise
suddenly. The exercise should only
be continued until the gymnast is
slightly fatigued and never until he
is tired. One set of muscles may
be weaker than others and hence
tire sooner; but this should never
be an excuse for not giving the
weak parts the most attention and
exercise. The work should simply
be made lighter.
The best time for exercise de-
pends on the occupation of the per-
son. For children at school the
best time is at an intermission, in
order to give mental rest by the
change. For those persons who
can control their time as they wish,
the morning hours from ten to
twelve, if the midday meal is eaten
at i o'clock, are best ; but for those
who are obliged to keep still all day,
the evening from eight to ten o'clock
is preferable to any hour before
seven in the morning. Gymnastic
work should not be done just before
or after meals, because then the
blood is needed at the stomach, and
the tendency of the system is to
send it to the surface more freely
during and after exercise. Sleep
may be delayed by too vigorous ex-
ercise immediately before retiring,
so a short period of rest and amuse-
ment should follow, so that the ex-
citement of the heart will subside,
and the gymnast will sleep soundly.
Costume. The best dress for a
gymnast is a pair of easy-fitting
white flannel trousers, a gauze un-
dershirt from which the sleeves have
been cut, and a pair of canvas shoes
without heels. He should also have
a knit "sweater," or a blanket-coat,
reaching well down to the heels to
put on while resting, or after ex-
ercise while waiting for a rub-down.
A belt should not be worn, as it
prevents free action of the abdomi-
nal muscles and hinders digestion.
The same may be said of corsets.
The dress of girls should be loose
enough to avoid any restraint of ac-
tion. The divided skirt is preferable
for heavy gymnastics.
Free Exercises are movements
without any apparatus. They are
of many kinds, but only a few are
described here. In addition to those
given below, the ones given farther
on as dumb-bell exercises may be
made free by performing them
without the dumb-bells.
1. Turn the head slowly alter-
nately to the right and left, looking
over each shoulder.
2. Bend the head forward and
backward steadily, and then from
side to side.
3. Rotate the head, bending it
forward, to the left, back, and to
the right.
4. The reverse of No. 3. (These
four exercises strengthen the mus-
cles of the throat and neck.)
5. With the hands on the hips, or
outstretched, and without moving
the feet, twist the body as far as
possible to the right and left, al-
ternately. The head must move
with the body, but not independent-
ly of it.
6. With the hands on the hips,
bend the body forward and back,
and from side to side, and then ro-
tate it as the head was rotated in
exercise 3.
7. Raise and lower the shoulders.
8. Bend the elbows and move
them, together with the shoulders,
forward and backward.
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9. Raise the body up as far as
possible by standing on tiptoe.
10. Raise the toes high as pos-
sible, standing on the heels.
11. Raise the thigh up against the
abdomen on alternate sides by bend-
ing the leg.
12. Raise the heel up to the
buttock on alternate sides.
13. Stretch the arms in front,
palms together, and throw them as
far back as possible, on the same
level, keeping the body erect.
14. Clenching the fists, as the
arms are held at the sides, lift them
suddenly till they are extended
straight forward. Return them in
like manner.
15. Raising the fists to the shoul-
ders, extend the arms quickly
straight upwards. Return in the
same manner.
16. Extend the arms on each side,
palms up, and bend the elbows till
the tips of the fingers touch the
shoulders.
17. Standing, with legs a little
apart, and arms hanging in front,
describe circles with the fists, using
each arm in turn, and keeping them
perfectly straight. First describe
each circle to the right, then both to
the left, then one to the right and
the other to the left.
1 8. With the hands on the hips,
raise each leg in turn, so that it is
at right angles with the body.
Keep both legs straight.
19. In addition to the preceding,
swing the leg backward as far as
possible, keeping the body upright.
20. With the knee raised, throw
the leg straight out in front, and
then bring it to the ground.
21. Sit down slowly till the
thighs touch the calves.
22. Lie on the back and raise the
legs up to a perpendicular position.
Each exercise should be repeated
a stated number of times, beginning
perhaps with 10 and increasing
to 25, and as rapidly as the gymnast
is able. Such exercise may be made
entertaining if it is performed by
several at once, keeping perfect time
in their movements, with or with-
out music.
Other free exer-
cises are named
from actions which
they imitate, such
as hewing, mowing,
hashing, and chop-
ping (see illustra-
tions). The free
exercises described
are suitable for
both boys and girls,
and most of the ex-
ercises which fol-
low under the
heads of dumb-
bells, wands, and
Indian clubs are
also appropriate
Hewing. for girls, except
Mowing.
that the apparatus used should
be lighter.
Wand Exercises. These require a
straight smooth stick four feet long
and three fourths of an inch in
diameter. An ordinary broom-
handle or cane can be used.
1. The wand is held in both hands,
palms downward. The arms are
first extended straight down, and
then raised above the head without
bending the elbows. The body is
held erect throughout the move-
ment.
2. The arms being held down as
before, the wand is raised to the
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382
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chest by bending the elbows out-
ward.
3. The arms are extended straight
forward, and returned to the chest.
4. From the chest the arms are
extended straight up and then
brought down so that the wand rests
on the shoulders behind the head.
5. The wand is held at the ends
as in exercise No. I, and then car-
ried to the same position behind the
back.
6. With the wand held straight
above the head, the body is bent
backward and then forward, keeping
the knees unbent, and bringing the
cane as near the floor as possible.
7. With the wand above the head
as before, the body is bent as far as
possible to the right and left.
8. With the wand above the head,
the right arm is advanced and the
left moved back, and vice -versa.
9. With the arms extended for-
ward, the body is turned to and fro
from right to left, without moving
the feet.
10. The wand is rested on the
floor, both hands grasping the top,
and the heels are raised from the
ground so as to stand on tiptoe.
11. From the same position, keep-
ing the heels above the floor, the
gymnast sits so that his thighs rest
on his calves, and then rises again.
12. The wand extended down-
ward is touched to the floor by
stooping, and then raised above the
head.
The exercises just given call into
play nearly all the muscles in the
body. When they have been learned
in proper order, each should be ex-
ecuted four times, as rapidly as
possible. The number of times
should be gradually increased to
twenty-five.
Dumb-bell Exercises. A dumb-bell
consists of two pieces of wood or
metal nearly -ound like a ball con-
nected bv a bar long enough to form
a good handle. The weight may
vary from a few ounces up to a hun-
dred pounds, but heavy durnb-bells
Dumb-bells.
Fig. i.
are only used for trials of strength
and not for developing muscle.
The ordinary weight is from one to
six pounds.
The position for work with'dumb-
bells (see Fig. i) is
standing erect, with
heels together and feet
at an angle of about
60°, arms at the sides
and a dumb-bell
grasped firmly in each
hand. Each move-
ment is usually per-
formed eight times.
There are many move-
ments, of which only a
few are given here.
i. Move the bells
out far enough to clear
the thigh and twist the
arms vigorously by
turning the forward
end of the bell out-
ward, then inward as far as possible.
2. Stand as before, and bend the
arm from the elbow till the forearms
are extended straight forward. Then
twist the bells as before.
3. Keeping the arms straight,
raise them forward from the sides
till they are on a level with the
shoulders, and then twist as before.
4. Draw the elbows to the sides,
and double the arms so as to bring
the bells to the shoulders.
5. Bring up the bells as in the last
exercise, and then carry them up
until the arms are extended verti-
cally. Then twist as in the first ex-
ercise.
6. Bring the bells to the shoulder,
extend the arms to the right and
left, and twist as before.
7. Bring the bells up under the
armpits as far as possible.
8. Bring the bells to the armpit,
and then thrust them out to sides.
9. Bring the bells to the armpit,
and then thrust the arms straight
up.
10. Repeat No. 8, bringing the
bells down to the chest and then to
the first position.
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383
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11. Repeat No. 9, carrying the
bells down to the shoulders, then
straight out to each side, back to
the chest, and down.
12. Repeat No. 9. and then bring
them down together as near as possi-
ble to the toes, with a sweep, bend-
ing the body and keeping legs
straight at knee.
13. Repeat No. 12, stoop, and
recover to first position. Then take
a long step forward with the right
foot, keeping the left leg straight
and the left arm parallel with it, but
extending the right arm so as to
form nearly a straight line with the
left. Then bend the extended arm,
bringing the bell to the shoulder,
and repeat. Practise the extension
about ten times, stretching the arm
well out and holding the trunk
straight. The exercise is then re-
peated with left leg and arm ad-
vanced, and then both arms are ad-
Dumb-bells. — Fig. 2.
vanced (Fig. 2), first with the right
leg and then with the left.
14. Keeping the arms straight,
bring them up to the horizontal
position at the sides ; then swing
them around in front until they
touch, then let them fall to sides.
Then reverse the movement.
15. Swing the bells up in front
until the arms are horizontal, then
sweep them apart and back as far as
possible, then raise them up untill
the bells strike overhead, then bring
them to the chest, etc., bring the
bells to the chest. This and the
preceding exercise should be re-
peated, first taking a step forward
with the right foot and then one
with the left foot.
1 6. Bring the bells to the armpits,
then carry them straight up, and
twist the body to the left as far as
possible without moving the legs.
In this position bring the bells to
the chest, and lift and lower them
ten times or more. Repeat, twisted
to the left.
17. Raise the bells overhead and
then sink till the calves touch the
thighs (Fig. 3). In this position, go
through as many
of the simple exer-
cises as desired,
rising and falling
again after each
exercise.
1 8. Sit as before,
but as the body
sinks, the bells
must be brought
to the chest. Then
extend the arms
horizontally to the
sides, and sweep
them around to
the front till the
bells strike. Re-
cover to the chest.
Apparatus for
Heavy Cymnastics.
Some of the more
common and use-
ful pieces of ap-
paratus found in every gymnasium,
with the exercises easily performed
on each are as follows :
i. The Horizontal Bar is a bar of
hickory, or other hard and tough
wood, about six feet long and one
and three-quarter inches in diam-
eter.
It is usually strengthened by a
steel cord and can be adjusted to
any height by sliding up or down in
grooves in the upright posts to
which it is lastened at each end.
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384
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Horizontal bars of this form are
used for vaulting or jumping by
grasping the bar firmly with the
hands and using the arms to assist
in carry ing the body up and over the
bar. The modern method of sus-
pending the bar is by iron posts rest-
ing on the floor and held firm by
guys of copper wire, or by hang-
ing all from the ceiling. The ad-
vantage of this form of support is
that the bar can be easily removed
and leave the floor free, and the bar
is held much firmer when in place.
The bar should be kept clean by
wiping frequently with a dry cloth,
especially when the handsare sweat-
ing freely. Powdered rosin should
never be used on the bar, as it makes
the bar sticky, and blisters or pulls
the skin from the palms in the diffi-
cult movements.
The first exercise on this bar may
be to jump up to it, catching it with
the hands so as to hang at full length.
The bar should be placed at such a
height that the feet will clear the
ground. Some
gymnasts hold the
bar with the
thumb on the op-
posite side from
the fingers, and
some with it on
the same side.
While hanging at
full length, draw
the body steadily
up till the chin is
above the bar
(Fig. i), and then
lower it slowly un-
til it hangs again
F'S-1- at full length.
This feat should be practised till
it can be done several times in
succession. The learner should
now practise hanging by each hand
alternately, then "walking" along
the bar, hand over hand, and then
swinging the body backward and
forward till he can bring it up al-
most into a horizontal position.
To get on the bar (Fig. 2), the
body is raised till the chin is above
the bar, and then the right side is
allowed to fall while the left leg
Horizontal Bar.
Horizontal Bar. — Fig. 2.
is raised, bending the knee, and
thrown over the bar. The right
leg is then swung back and forth
till sufficient impetus is gained to
aid the gymnast
in bringing him-
self uprightabove
the bar which
passes between
his legs (Fig. 3).
In this position
he should prac-
tise swinging,
fi rst backward
and t h e n f or-
ward around the
bar, ending each
time in the up-
Horizontal Bar. right position.
Fig- 3- In the backward
swing (Fig. 4), which is the easier,
the hands should be in front, and
Horizontal Bar. — Fig. 4.
in the forward swing (Fig. 5), be-
hind the bar. In each, the arms
GYMNASTICS
385
GYMNASTICS
should be kept straight and the
body erect, and
the swing should
be begun with
sufficient impe-
tus to carry the
body entirely
around the bar.
In this move-
ment the left leg
is kept well fixed
and the bar rests
at about the mid-
dle of the thigh.
The learner
may now throw
the right leg also
over the bar, and
learn to balance
himself on it in
various sitting positions without
holding by his hands. The sitting
Horizontal Bar.
Fig:- 5-
Horizontal Bar. — -Fig. 6.
swings, backward (Figs. 6-7) and
forward (Figs. 8-9), should now
be tried. These
are more difficult
than the swings
Just described,
because the
weight is thrown
entirely on the
arms, except
when the gym-
nast is above the
bar, whereas be-
fore he hung on
one leg. The sit-
ting swings will
require much
practice, the
Horizontal Bar.
Fig- 7-
chief difficulty being in getting quite
around into the sitting postureagain.
If this cannot be done, the gymnast
should drop to the ground and then
get on the bar again. If, while sit-
Horizontal Bar. — Fig. 8.
ting on the bar, the learner throws
himself backward as if to swing, but
unclasps h i s
hands and
bends his
knees, he will
hang by his
legs, head
downward.
He may then
swing back-
ward and for-
ward till he is
high enough
t o straighten
his legs and
come to the
ground on his
feet.
Horizontal Bar.— Fig. 9. Hanging or
Trapese Bar, a bar similar to a
horizontal bar, but hanging by two
ropes like a swing. The same feats
may be performed on it, but with
more difficulty, since it is not fixed.
Parallel Bars, two bars supported
on posts side by side. They should
be from four and a half to five feet
high, from 16 to 19 inches apart, and
more than two inches in diameter.
The bars are sometimes oval and
sometimes round.
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386
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The gymnast must first practise
supporting the weight of his body
Parallel Bars. — Fig. i.
with a hand on each bar, the arms
being held straight down, and he
Parallel Bars.— Fig. 2.
should then "walk " along the bars,
taking a step alternately with each
Parallel Bars.— Fig. 3.
hand. Then the body is allowed to
drop a little, the bent elbows point-
Parallel Bars.— Fig. 4.
ing backward on a level with the
shoulders (Fig. i), and he should
Parallel Bars.— Fig. 5.
advance by jumps, both hands strik-
ing the bars at once. This move-
Parallel Bars.— Fig. 6.
GYMNASTICS
387
GYMNASTICS
ment is aided by drawing the feet
up and kicking down with them at
the instant of jumping. Then, sup-
porting the body near the centre of
the bars, as at first, the gymnast
swings back and forth, and then
throws his legs over one of the bars
in front of him (Fig. 2). Return-
Parallel Bars. — Fig. 7.
ing to his original position, he next
throws them over the same bar be-
hind him (Fig. 3), and repeats
these exercises with the other bar.
One leg is then thrown to each side
in front, so that the learner is astride
Parallel Bars.— Fig. 8.
of both bars at once (Fig. 4). This
is also done behind (Fig. 5). The
last few exercises may be combined
in various ways, and performed
swiftly.
The gymnast next stands between
the bars, seizes them with his hands
on the outside, and then raises his
legs in front till the bodv is inverted
the head hanging directly down and
the legs projecting straight upward
(Fig. 6) ; then the movement is,
continued till the legs hang down
on the other side, the hand still
holding the bar behind the gym-
Parallel Bars.— Fig. 9.
nast's back (Fig 7). He should
then return without touching the
ground with his feet.
Parallel Bars. — Fig. 10.
Another exercise on the parallel
bars is called Pumping or Dipping.
The learner first swings back and
forth, his arms being straight, till he
can bring himself up into a horizon-
tal position, facing downward (Fig.
8). Then while in this position
GYMNASTICS
388
GYMNASTICS
Vaulting Horse. — Fig. i.
he bends his elbows (Fig. 9), and
thus swings for-
ward. When he
comes back again
h e straighte n s
out his arms and
brings himself
into a vertical
position, his feet
being high in the
iir(Fig. 10). As
he swings for-
ward he bends
his elbows again
as he passes the
horizontal posi-
tion, and so he
goes on as long
as he wishes.
Vaulting Horse.
Fig. 2.
The Vaulting Horse, a large
block of wood, rounded at the top
Vaulting Horse.— Fig. 3.
to resemble somewhat a horse's
back, and covered with leather.
Two pommels, fixed in the back to
Vaulting Horse.
Fig. 5.
Vaulting Horse. — Fig. 4.
represent those of a saddle, are so
made that they can be removed if
necessary. The
first exercise on
the " horse" is to
place one hand on
each pommel and
jump astride it,
but without touch-
ing it, the weight
being supported
by the arms (Fig.
i). The forward
leg is now with-
drawn over the
horse, and then the rear one is ad-
vanced, without touching the horse.
Next the legs are changed in like
manner, both at once, the body
being still held up by the arms.
The learner next kneels on the
horse between the pommels (Fig. 2)
and t h e i
springs o ff
(Fig- 3).
landing up-
right with
his feet on
the ground.
Next, b e-
striding the
horse behind
Vaulting Horse.— Fig. 6. Qne of the
pommels, facing it, and with a hand
on each pommel, the (Fig. 4) gym-
nast throws his legs up and brings
GYMNASTICS
389
GYMNASTICS
his body around so as to bestride the
horse behind the other pommel.
The learner should next practise
jumping over the horse with a hand
on each pommel, starting with a
run. First the legs should be
brought between the hands (Fig.
5), and then outside of them (Fig.
6), letting go at the proper time.
Hanging Rings, Swing Rings, or
Travelling Rings, are iron rings
covered with leather or rubber, and
each suspended by a rope (See illus-
Hanging Rings.
tration). Sometimes several are
hung in a row, and the gymnast be-
ginning at one end, takes the first
ring, swings himself to the second,
grasps that, and lets go of the first,
after drawing back with it, and so
on down the whole line.
Many feats may be performed
with a pair of these rings. Taking
one in each hand, the gymnast
draws himself up till his chin is
above them and then holds each
alternately at arm's length, the other
being close to the shoulder. Then
both are held out together in the
same manner and the body is al-
lowed to sink slowly till it hangs at
full length.
Another exercise is to swing to
and fro, drawing up the body while
ascending and letting it down while
descending. By this means the
height of each swing is increased.
There are many other positions in
swinging, which are easily found out,
such as with the elbows bent and
the rings held close to the back.
Many exercises similar to those on
the horizontal and parallel bars can
be performed on the rings also.
Rope and Pole Climbing. A rope
for climbing should be securely fast-
ened to a beam, if indoors, or the
limb of a tree out of doors. The
climber grasps the rope with both
hands, one above the other, and
crosses his feet, having the rope be-
tween them (Fig. i). While the
hands pull the body up, the
rope is allowed to slip be-
tween the feet ; but the feet
grasp it tightly, while the
hands, one at a time, are
raised to a new hold. The
body is thus supported, first
by both hands, then by the
left hand and the feet, and
lastly by the right hand and
the feet. In descending,
the feet are used as a brake
to regulate the velocity,
while the hands are lowered
one past the other (Fig. 2).
A pole is climbed in like
manner, but the feat is
more difficult, because the
pole is thicker and rigid
Rope- and therefore harder to
Climbing, grasp, than the rope, espe-
F1£- *• cially with the feet.
Ladders. These may be fixed hor-
izontally, seven or
eight feet above
the ground, ver-
tically or inclined
at an angle.
Often two are in-
clined together,
forming an in-
verted V (A.)-
These may be used
both above and
below, by ascend-
ing and descend-
ing with hands
and feet, or hang-
ing from the hands
alone. After ad-
Rope-Climbing.
Fig. 2.
vancing one round at a time, the
GYMNASTICS
390
GYMNASTICS
learner should try to skip one or
more rounds.
Lifting. This exercise should
only be practised under the direc-
tion of an instructor, and then only
by persons of mature age, with well
developed muscles, especially the
abdominal muscles, as rupture may
be caused by the violent strain.
Such violent exercises as lifting,
TUG OF WAR, etc., have a tendency
to check the development of the
bones, and hence leave the person
smaller than he might be at matur-
ity.
By training the muscles carefully,
and gradually increasing the
amount lifted, athletes have been
able to raise enormous weights.
The greatest feats of lifting have
been performed with a sort of har-
ness passing over the shoulders.
This was used by Dr. Winship, of
Boston, who succeeded in lifting
from the ground with it 2600
pounds. In lifting without a har-
ness, the gymnast stands on a plat-
form beneath which is the weight,
furnished with two handles. The
lifter grasps these, bends his legs
slightly, straightens his back and
arms, the shoulders being on a line
with the feet and hips. The legs
are then steadily straightened, the
strain thus coming on every part.
The weight is lifted but an inch or
two. Sometimes the lifter is aided at
first by a spring on which the
weight rests. Some of the best lift-
ing feats are recorded in the appen-
dix.
The chest weights, or " pulley
weights," are held in place by two
parallel guide rods and fastened to
a rope passing over a hinged pulley
at height of the shoulder to the hand.
They are made double for the pur-
pose of exercising both sides at the
same time.
This is the best single piece of
apparatus that has yet been de
vised for general exercise. The
weight is easily adjusted to the
strength of the person using it, and
there is little danger of straining
even a feeble person.
Exercises, i. Standing facing the
apparatus take a handle in each
hand so that the hands will be about
a foot from the pulleys when the
arms are extended.
(a) Raise the arms up to a perpen-
dicular position and return, repeat-
ing as many times as desirable.
(b) Spread the arms apart, and re-
turn as before.
(c) Lower the arms to the sides
and return.
(d) Combine (a) and (c).
(e) Combine (a) and (c), bending
over so as to bring the hands as
near the toes as possible without
bending the knees.
2. Standing with the side toward
the apparatus, using one hand at a
time, (a) raise the arm up to a
perpendicular position beside the
head and return.
(b) Sweep the arm around in
front horizontally, keeping it stiff.
(c) Bring the arm down to the
side.
(d) With the arm farthest from
the machine, describe the horizon-
tal movement similar to (b).
(e) With both hands together ex-
ecute (b) and (d).
(T) With both hands execute (c),
except that one arm is carried back
of the body as far as possible, while
the other sweeps by in front.
3. Standing with the back to the
apparatus, many simple movements
like those mentioned before can
be executed. If the left arm be
the weaker, the movements should
be repeated more times with that
side, or the weight made slightly
heavier.
4. It will be seen that by putting
the foot in the handle, as a stirrup,
and balancing on the o;her leg,
while executing movements with
the first, a good amount of exercise
will be given the legs and hips.
Tumbling. The various kinds of
GYMNASTICS
391
GYMNASTICS
tumbling, such as somersaults,
hand-springs, lying on the ground
and springing directly to a standing
posture, depend largely on practice
and can scarcely be taught in a book.
They are performed chiefly by pro-
fessional acrobats, but many ama-
teurs attain great skill in them.
Directions for only the simplest
kinds are given.
The Backspring (Fig. i). The
Tumbling. — Fig. i.
gymnast lies on his back and places
the palms of his hands flat on the
ground above his head. Then,
Tumbling. — Fig. 2.
raising the legs over the head, he
gives a spring from the hands and
shoulders, throwing his feet quickly
forward, and drawing the heels
close to the buttock, the object
being to come into a standing post-
ure with a single effort. The
hands should be brought forward
when the feet are nearly on the
ground, that the balance may be
preserved.
Handspring. (Figs. 2 and 3.) The
gymnast stands erect, the right
leg forward, and bending slightly
backward raises his hands high
above his head, palms up. He then
springs forward, placing his hands
Tumbling. — Fig. 3.
on the ground, and throws his legs
over, the left first. Just as the legs
go over, he springs from his arms
and lands upright on his feet.
Back Handspring (Fig. 4). The
Tumbling. — Fig. 4.
gymnast stands erect, his legs
slightly apart and his arms raised
above his head, elbows pointing to
GYMNASTICS
392
GYMNASTICS
the front and palms upward. He
then bends down slightly, quickly
throws arms and head back, bends
the body backward, and at the same
time throws his legs up over his
head, pitches over on his hands, and
springing from them alights on his
feet.
Forward Somersault. The gym-
nast stands erect with arms above
his head, and after a short run
jumps up from both feet, throws the
arms down, and the head and shoul-
ders quickly forward, at the same
time bending the knees, and turns
completely over in the air, alighting
on his feet. When the jump is
made, he sometimes seizes the under
part of the thighs, just above the
knees, pulling them up to the body.
This, which is called the " catch,"
assists the somersault.
Backward Somersault. The gym-
nast raises his arms, then brings
them down with a quick sweep and
raises them again, at the same in-
stant with a spring throwing the
legs over the head and catching the
thighs, as described above.
All tumbling exercises require
constant practice and great perse-
verance. To avoid dangerous falls,
the gymnast should wear what are
called " lungers" (Fig. 5), consist-
Tumbling. — Fig. 5. Lungers.
ing of a leather belt about an
inch and a half wide, buckled
around his waist. On each side of
the belt are secured rings, to each
of which a rope four feet long is
tied. An assistant holds each rope
while the gymnast is practising,
and if he is in danger of a fall they
can thus save him. The lungers
are especially useful in giving the
learner a feeling of confidence, for
since he knows he is in no danger
of falling, he will be much bolder in
his attempts. All the feats de-
scribed above are performed on a
thick mattress.
Special Apparatus. Modern gym-
nasiums are provided with all kinds
of machines for developing special
muscles. For instance, to strength-
en the muscles of the neck, a pulley-
weight is used like those already de-
scribed, having a small semicircular
net at the end of the rope. By plac-
ing this on the back of the head and
lifting the weight by moving the
head backward and forward, the
muscles in the back of the neck are
exercised, and by shifting its posi-
tion the other neck muscles maybe
exercised in like manner. There
are also machines to imitate special
motions, such as rowing, canoe
paddling, wrestling, and rope-climb-
ing. The best gymnasiums now
contain also dynamometers (from
two Greek words meaning strength-
measurers) for testing the muscles,
spirometers (breath-measurers) for
measuring the capacity of the lungs,
and other arrangements to test the
development of the gymnast.
Indian Club Swinging. Indian
clubs are made of wood. Formerly
they were sometimes weighted with
lead, but this is wrong, as the exer-
cise depends largely on the speed
and combination of movements.
The exercise is more for rendering
the joints supple than for increas-
ing the size of the muscles, though
it does both ; and swiftness and ac-
curacy of movement should be aim-
ed at rather than the exhibition of
great strength. The number of
movements possible with two clubs
is almost numberless, and new ones
can be invented by the learner, but
all consist of combinations of three
distinct motions called circles — the
straight-arm circle, the bent-arm
circle, and the wrist circle. In the
first the club is swung around at
arm's length; in the second the circle
GYMNASTICS
393
GYMNASTICS
is made with the arm well bent at
the elbow, the shoulder being the
centre, as in the straight-arm circle ;
and in the third the club is moved
through a circle of which the hand
is the centre. The third or wrist
circles are made by the muscles of
the forearm and hand.
All circles should be as near plane
circles as possible, and the body held
erect and firm while the clubs are
in mction.
The swinger should be able to
stand quite close to a wall without
hitting it with the clubs while he is
swinging. In beginning to swing,
the learner should stand with heels
Indian Clubs. — Fig. i.
together, leaning a little forward to
throw the weight on the balls of the
feet. He should begin with one
club, holding it in what is called the
starting position, with which every
movement is begun and ended.
In this position the club is held
vertically in front of the shoulder,
as shown in the dotted part of Fig.
I. All circles are called inside
circles if the club moves first toward
the swinger's head ; if in the other
direction they are outside circles.
If the club moves directly forward
or backward, it is said to describe a
forward or backward circle.
For convenience, all the swings of
one kind are described together, but
it is not necessary for the learner to
master all of one kind before going
to the next. A good order for the
learner to follow is given below.
To perform the straight-arm
circles, lift the club till it is held at
arm's length, and then describe a
circle toward the head for the inside
circle, or toward the outside of the
body for an outside circle (Fig. 2).
Indian Clubs.— Fig. 2.
It will be seen that all inside circles
with the right hand are in the same
direction as all outside circles with
the left, and vice versa. When one
circle is finished the club must al-
ways be brought down into the
starting position before beginning
the next. When the learner has
mastered the inside
and outside straight-
arm circles, with
either hand, he
should practise the
ben t-a r m circles,
which are those
behind the back.
Raising the club
from the starting
position, it is lifted
over the head and
allowed to drop
down behind the
Indian Clubs.
Fig. 3-
head (Fig. 3) and shoulder, being
GYMNASTICS
394
GYMNASTICS
brought up to position by rotating
the wrist. This is me inside bent-
arm circle. The outside circle is
just the reverse, the club moving
out from the shoulder (Fig. i) and
dropping, being then brought up
behind the head by the wrist move-
ment, and then coming to position.
Wrist Circlest These are exe-
cuted whhthearm in any position, as
extended straight in front (Fig. 4),
or toward one side, straight down-
ward close to the body, or bent at
the side. The club is held vertically
\
Indian Clubs.— Fig. 4.
in position at first, and then allowed
to fall forward or backward. Its
impetus, aided by an effort of the
wrist, brings it upright again, thus
completing the circle. The learner
should try to perform each wrist
circle several times without stop-
ping. He should avoid the tempta-
tion to bend the elbow a little, and
strive ..o hold the arm perfectly stiff.
The distinction between inside and
outside circles is the same as that
given above, and besides this, every
circle can be made on either side of
the arm, so that for nearly every
position of the arm there are four
wrist circles. All the circles de-
scribed above should be learned by
name, so that their combinations
can be readily performed when
named.
Combinations. The inside straight-
arm circle and the inside bent arm
circle behind the back are perform-
ed alternately (Fig. 5), passing di-
\
Indian Clubs. — Fig. 5.
rectly from one to the other, with-
out bringing the club back to the
starting position till the two swings
have been made several times. The
arm circle is made first, and when it
is completed, as the club is held
straight up at arm's length, it is
dropped over the head into the in-
side bent-arm circle. On the com-
pletion of this, the arm is straight-
ened again vertically, and the club
moves on in another straight-arm
circle. In the same way the out-
side straight arm and bent-arm
circles can be combined (Fig. 6).
In combining the inside straight-
arm . with the outside bent-arm,
or vice versa, the change from one
to the other is best made at the ex-
treme right and left points of the
swing, passing the arm instead of
the club over the head. Thus,
neither circle is quite completed,
and the club is not brought to a
vertical position, till it is returned to
the starting point. In like manner,
GYMNASTICS
395
GYMNASTICS
bent-arm and wrist circles and
straight arm and wrist circles may
be combined, or all three kinds
together. The wrist circle may be
introduced at any point of the
Indian Clubs. — Fig. 6.
swing, but the best place is when
the arm is farthest from the body,
as this gives plenty of room.
Combinations with both Clubs.
Any of the simple or combined
swings described can be performed
with both clubs at once, or each
club may execute a different circle.
It is evident that if the two clubs
describe the same circles at the same
time, the clubs will move in the oppo-
site direction, and will cross (Fig. 7),
Indian Clubs. — Fig. 7.
so that it requires skill to avoid
striking them together. On the
other hand, when one club executes
an inside movement, and the other
the corresponding outside move-
ment, the circles are in the same
direction and the clubs move parallel
Indian Clubs. — Fig. 8.
to each other (Fig. 8). Instead of
executing the same circle simul-
taneously, however, one arm may
perform one kind of circle while the
other is executing another (Fig. 9).
Indian Clubs. — Fig. 9.
Thus, where the movement consists
of a straight-arm and bent-arm cir-
cle, the right hand may execute the
former while the left is doing the
latter, and vice versa. With this
method there is never danger of
the clubs striking, for when they
cross one is in front of the swinger
and one behind. In another way
of swinging, one club follows the
other, but half a circle behind, so
that the clubs are not executing
the same part of a circle at any
moment. These are called " Fol-
low " or " Windmill " movements.
GYMNASTICS
396
GYMNASTICS
It would be well for the novice
in the art of club-swinging if he
could receive personal instruction
from some adept ; but practice and
work are what counts for most in
gaining success in this, as in many
other accomplishments. Then be-
gin with the simple movements and
practise them until they seem easy.
1. Straight-arm circles outside.
2. " " inside.
3. " " forward at
side.
4. Straight-arm circles backward at
side.
5. Bent-arm circles outside.
6. " " inside.
7. Wrist circles forward or inside.
8. " " backward or out-
side.
Follow these with the simplest
combinations, and each day try
something new. The left hand
should by this time be as pro-
ficient as the right.
The following list of combinations
may be a good order in which to
learn new movements :
1. Combination of inside straight-
arm and bent arm circles as already
described.
2. Combination of outside straight-
arm and bent-arm circles.
3. Double swing both clubs. Both
clubs are held in the starting posi-
tion, and then the right hand begins
the inside straight-arm, while the
left at the same time begins the
inside bent-arm circles. These two
circles are finished at the same
instant, when the right takes up the
bent-arm, and the left the straight-
arm movement. The learner will
probably find the use of the two
clubs difficult at first, and the move-
ments must be gone through with
slowly until they become very famil-
iar when the speed is increased.
4. Double swing. No. 2 with both
hands, one arm doing the straight,
and the other the bent-arm outside
circle, as above.
5. No. i with the right, and No. 2
with the left, one doing the straight-
arm while the other executes the
bent-arm outside circle. The right
begins with the inside suaight, and
the left with the outside bent.
6. No. 5 reversed ; that is, No. 2
with the right, and No. i with the
left.
7. No. 5 in parallel motion, that
is, both hands doing the straight
and both the bent-arm circles at the
same time. Both hands begin with
the straight-arm motion, the right
with the inside and the left with the
outside circle. The clubs should
be kept at the same distance during
the whole movement, so that they
move in exactly parallel lines.
8. No. 6 in parallel motion.
9. No. 3 in cross motion, both
hands starting on the inside straight-
arm. The clubs cross, twice in front
and twice behind and it will doubt-
less be found difficult at first to
prevent them from striking. The
proper way is to swing them in
slightly different planes, and when
each hand becomes accustomed to
its own path, the movement can be
executed almost mechanically with-
out danger of the clubs interfering.
It should be performed very slowly
at first, and the clubs kept far apart
in crossing.
10. No. 4 in cross motion, both
clubs startingon the outsidestraight-
arm circles.
11. No. 5 in "follow" or "wind-
mill" motion. The right starts
with the inside straight-arm, and
just as it has half completed the
circle, the left starts with the out-
side straight-arm. Thus the right
club keeps half a circle ahead of the
left, and when the movement is
correctly done, they should always
extend in opposite directions, one
pointing up while the other is down,
and one to the right while the other
is to the left. Some swingers bring
the clubs nearer together than this,
making the movement more like
one in parallel motion.
12. No. 6 in windmill motion.
GYMNASTICS
397
GYMNASTICS
In this the left hand leads off with
the inside straight-arm circle, the
right following with the outside.
The left keeps half a circle ahead.
13. Wrist Circles. These may be
introduced earlier if desired. All
the simple wrist circles should be
practised with the arms in various
positions, first with one hand and
then with both. Wrist circles may
be substituted for the bent arm cir-
cles in all the exercises given above.
They may be introduced while the
arm is extended to right or left, or
with the arm bent so that the hand
is close at the shoulder.
When the learner has proceeded
thus far, he will be able to devise
his own combinations.
All the combination movements
described above have been to the
right and left, the plane of motion
being always parallel to the line
toed by the swinger. Combinations
of straight-arm circles forward and
backward at the side (Nos. 3 and 4
of simple movements) may be
readily combined with wrist circles
at the side (Fig. 10) and make very
Indian Clubs. — Fig. lo.
effective movements for exercise.
Descriptions of a few special
swings will now be given.
Stop Swings. In these each club
is brought down with a slap on the
opposite arm, from which it re-
bound?, reversing the circle.
Turning Swing. This begins with
one or more forward wrist swings
outside the arm with both hands,
and then one hand executes a for-
ward bent-arm, while the other per-
forms a forward straight-arm circle.
At the same time the swinger turns
half way around, always toward the
hand which is doing the straight-
arm circle, so that he finishes fac-
ing in the opposite direction, the
arm describing the bent-arm circle
having passed over his head as he
turns. Several more wrist circles
are then executed, and the gymnast
turns back again in the same man-
ner.
An exercise for a heavy club (Fig.
n) is to raise the club from the
Indian Clubs. — Fig. n.
starting position, drop it over the
head, and let it hang behind the
shoulder. Then throw it over as if
to strike, describing a forward
straight-arm circle, and ending with
the club extended horizontally be-
hind the back. The club must then
be carried back to the starting-point
before repeating. A similar exer-
cise with two clubs is to throw them
over the shoulders, return to start-
ing position, make bent-arm circles
at the sides, and then a forward
straight-arm to the horizontal posi-
tion behind the back, as before. The
clubs are then returned to the start-
ing position. In these exercises, as
in the others, the motion of the
two clubs may be exactly alike, or
the right hand may execute one
part of the circle while the left is
doing the other.
GYMNASTICS
398
GYMNASTICS
Feats of Club Swinging. On Feb.
1 8, 1886. at Bath, Me., Edward
Brown swung a pair of Indian clubs,
weighing 8 pounds, i£ ounces each,
continuously for 6 hours, 20 min-
utes.
On Jan. 7, 1885, at New Haven,
Conn., W. W. Dudley swung 100
separate combinations each 4 times,
in 23 minutes, 36 seconds.
Indian clubs are said to have been
brought to England from Persia by
an officer in the British army, but
their origin is not known with cer-
tainty.
History. Systematic exercise has
long been practised. In ancient
Greece it formed part of the educa-
tion of every boy, and was contin-
ued during manhood. The Greek
games, which were largely exhibi-
tions of skill in gymnastics, are de-
scribed in C.P.P. Gymnastics were
employed also, as with us, as a cure
for disease, and finally they were
taken charge of by government
officers. Public gymnasiums were
erected first in Sparta and then in
Athens, where some of them be-
came celebrated as the places in
which great philosophers lectured
to their pupils.
Among the exercises taught were
dancing, leaping, pitching the dis-
cus or QUOIT, throwing the javelin
and bar, riding, swimming, rowing,
swinging, climbing, and archery.
Gymnasiums in imitation of the
Greeks were built also at Rome, but
gymnastics never became popular
there. In the middle ages gymnas-
tics was represented by knightly ex-
ercise, such as the tournament, and
among the lower classes by wrest-
ling, running, and archery, but sys-
tematic training of the muscles was
but little practised. In the I7th
century it began again to be popu-
lar. The illustration shows a form
of vaulting-horse in use at this pe-
riod. In the i8th century there was
a great gymnastic revival in Ger-
many, and in 1810, when Prussia
was under the rule of Napoleon, a
teacher named Jahn, with others,
established throughout the country
gymnastic schools, whose pupils did
good work in the expulsion of the
French in 1813. These schools
were copied in nearly every country
in Europe. From them sprang the
Ancient Vaulting-horse.
associations called Turnvereine
(gymnastic societies), which were
soon afterward suppressed by the
Prussian government, which feared
that they would spread liberal ideas.
In 1848 they were reorganized,
and now many of them exist in this
country, where they have been
formed by German emigrants.
These societies have done much
to make gymnastics popular in the
United States, and they were aided
by the interest the colleges have
taken in the subject.
The finest gymnasiums in the
United States are owned by the
athletic societies, and the whole
history of gymnastics is very closely
connected with that of ATHLETICS.
The two words are often used to
mean almost the same thing.
The only exercises described un-
der Athletics in this book are those
which commonly form part of the
outdoor or "field" meetings of ath-
letic societies, while in this article
we have described those usually
practised in a gymnasium, or at
home, for the sake of health.
HALEY-OVER
399
HALLOWE'EN PARTY
H
HALEY-OVER, a game of ball
played by any number of persons,
divided into two opposing parties.
The parties stand on opposite sides
of a building, and one of the players
throws a base-ball over the roof.
The players on the other side try to
catch the ball, and if any one suc-
ceeds he runs around the building
and tries to hit one of his oppo-
nents with the ball, either by throw-
ing it or running with it in hand.
If any one is hit, he has to join the
side of the hitter. If the ball is not
caught, it is thrown back over the
building in the same way as at first.
When a ball has been thrown, those
on the throwing side have no means
of knowing whether it has been
caught or not until it either appears
again over the roof, or in the hand
of an opponent, running around
the corner, hence every one must
be on the lookout. The game lasts
until all the players are on one side.
The name Haley-Over is probably
from the old word hale, meaning
to draw or drag, from the drawing
over of the defeated player to the
opposite side. The game is much
played in some parts of New Eng-
land.
HALLOWE'EN PARTY, an en-
tertainment given on All Hallows
Eve, or Hallowe'en, the night before
All Saints' Day (Nov. i). The
amusements of this evening were
supposed in ancient times to foretell
future events. Some of them are
described below.
i . Each person, alone with a look-
ing-glass in one hand and a candle
in the other, walks down stairs
backward into a dark cellar or
basement. It was supposed that
each would- see in the glass the face
of his or her future wife or husband.
Sometimes, instead of this, each
runs around the outside of the house
three times, with his mouth full of
water.
2. Each person melts some lead
in an iron spoon, and pours it
through a wedding-ring or through
a key (Fig. i) into a vessel of water.
The lead will cool in curious shapes,
HALLOWE'EN PARTY
400
HALLOWE'EN PARTY
which were supposed to be pro-
phetic. Any one who is ingenious
can cause much amusement by in-
terpreting these shapes. For in-
stance, if one of them looks like a
shoe, it may be said that the owner
will marry a shoemaker, or is going
to have a pair of new shoes, or it
may mean a wedding, as an old shoe
is often thrown after newly-wedded
couples " for good luck." Lead can
easily be melted in any coal fire.
Great care should be taken in pour-
ing it through the ring or key, or
serious burns may result.
3. Snap-dragons. These, which
must be prepared before the party,
consist of slips of paper with verses
written on them. The slips are
folded very small, and wrapped in
lead or tin foil. They are then
placed in a large dish, and covered
with water, over which alcohol, or
spirits, is poured and set on fire.
While it is burning, each person in
turn must snatch one of the snap-
dragons from the dish. The verse
he gets is supposed to tell his for-
tune. This furnishes much fun if!
the verses are written skilfully. The j
"dragons " should be placed in an j
earthen or tin-plate dish. Silver j
should not be used, as it melts too
easily. The dish must be placed in
the middle of a bare table, for drops
of burning spirits are often splashed
about, and great care must be taken
that they set nothing on fire. In
floating the alcohol on the water it
should be poured on the side of the
dish and allowed to flow down
gently ; otherwise the two liquid^
will mix.
4. Each person takes a greased
needle and floats it in a basin of
water. This requires some care,
but can be done if the needle is put
down evenly and gently. The best
way is first to lay on the water a
bit of very thin tissue-paper and
place the needle on it. In a short
time the paper will become wet and
sink to the bottom, leaving the
needle floating on the water. Owing
to a phenomenon called capillarity,
the needles behave very curiously.
Some run to the edge of the dish
and stick there, while some rush
together and cling together, avoid-
ing others. The manner in which
one person's needle behaves toward
another's causes amusement, and
may be supposed to be prophetic.
5. Bobbing for Apples. Apples are
placed in a tub of water, and each
in turn tries to pick one out with
his teeth. Sometimes each apple
is inscribed with a name, which is
supposed to be that of the future
husband or wife of the person who
picks it out. Sometimes also each
apple bears a letter, and each guest
picks out two. The letters are sup-
posed to be the initials of the guest's
future husband or wife.
6. On a table are placed three
dishes, one of clear water, one of
soapy water, and one empty. Each
guest is blindfolded, and after the
positions of the dishes have been
changed so that he does not know
which is which, he advances and
puts his finger into one. If it be
the one of clear water, he will marry
happily ; if the soapy water, he will
marry a widow ; and if the empty
one, he will not marry at all.
7. Nutshell Boats. These are
made by pouring melted wax into
halves of walnut-shells, in which are
short strings for wicks. Several
persons float these boats in a tub of
water, after lighting the wicks, and
the way in which they ride is sup-
posed to show what the future life
of the owner will be.
8. Kaling. Two persons are blind-
folded and required to walk to the
vegetable garden, where each pulls
up the first cabbage-stalk he finds.
From the shape of the stalk, the
fortune of him who pulls it up is
inferred. The dirt clinging to the
roots represents wealth.
9. Apple and Candle. — At one end
of a stick, about eighteen inches
long, is fastened an apple, and at the
other end a lighted candle (,Fig. 2).
HALMA
401
HAND-BALL
The stick is then suspended from
the ceiling by a string fastened at
its centre, and swung backward and
Fig. 2.
forward, while the players, one by
one, try to catch the apple in their
teeth.
10. The Raisin. A raisin is strung
at the middle of a string or thread
about a yard long, and two persons
take each an end of the string in
his mouth. Whoever, by chewing
the string, reaches the raisin first, is
allowed to eat it.
History. Superstitions persons
believed in old times that spirits
walked abroad on Hallowe'en, and
that they would assist people to
know the future by performing the
feats, some of which are described
above. Nobody believes this now,
yet the feats are often performed
for amusement on Hallowe'en. In
some parts of England it is called
" Nut-Crack Night," from the cus-
tom of eating nuts on that evening.
HALMA. See'CHECKERS.
HAND-BALL, a game played by
two or four persons with a small
ball, which they strike with their
hands against a wall. The game
may be played in a court or room
having walls on all four sides, or out-
of-doors against the wall of a build-
ing. In the latter case lines are
drawn on the wall and the ground
to represent the side walls, and
when a ball goes outside these lines
it is supposed to have struck a side
wall. A board called the Back-
board, or a line representing it,
bounds the court on the fourth
side, and a line, called the Ace
Line, is drawn parallel to the front
wall and Back-board half way be-
tween them. The two-handed game
will be described first. The play-
ers toss up for the " first hand, "and
the winner stands inside the Ace
Line, while his opponent stands
outside of it. The former is called
the striker and the latter the player.
The striker begins the game by
bounding the ball on the ground
and then striking it with his hand
so that it rebounds from the front
wall. This is called a " service."
The ball must be served so that it re-
bounds outside the Ace Line. If it
does not, it is said to be a short ser-
vice. If the striker make three suc-
cessive short services, or if the ball
bound on a side wall before striking
the front wall, or if it bound outside
the Back-board, it is a " hand-out,"
and the striker and player change
places. If the striker serve the ball
properly, it must be struck by the
player with his hand, either before
it strikes the ground or after the
first bound, so that it bounds from
the front wall. This is called a " re-
turn." If he fail to return it prop-
erly, the striker scores one point,
called an ace. If he do return it,
the striker must bound it again
from the front wall, and if he fail, it
is a hand-out. After the service,
the ball may strike the ground any-
where in the court inside the Back-
board. This goes on till the striker
has scored or made a hand-out,
when an inning is said to have been
played. He and his opponent
change places, and the latter be-
comes striker in his turn After
the first inning, an inning ends only
when there is a hand-out, and the
striker continues to serve after he
scores. The player first making 21
aces wins the game. As will be
seen by the rules, it is sometimes
allowable to strike the ball with the
HAND-BALL
402
HAND, EXPERIMENTS
foot. When four play, two against
two, the partners serve and receive
alternately. During the service the
strikers' partner stands with his
back to the side wall or side line,
but after the return all take part in
the game.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. If the striker or his partner
stop the ball intentionally before it
bounds after leaving the front wall,
or while on its way to the front
wall, it is a hand-out.
2. If a ball struck by the player
strikes the striker or his partner, it
shall be played over again.
3. When a ball is served short to
the player he has the privilege of
striking it with his hand or foot; if
it is struck with the foot and fails
to go upon the front wall, it does
not score for the striker. If It is
struck with the hand and fails to
strike the front wall, it is an ace for
the striker.
4. If a ball is served short to the
player and he strikes it with his
foot upon the front wall, the striker,
after returning it on the wall, has
the privilege of preventing the play-
er from striking it again.
5. If a ball is struck with the
foot and assisted by the hand on to
the front wall, it is foul, and counts
an ace against the offender.
6. When the player is about to
strike the ball, and his opponent
jostles him or gets in his way inten-
tionally, it is an ace or a hand-out.
7. The contestants are allowed
one minute at the expiration of each
game before commencing another.
8. In a double match the striker's
partner will stand with his back
against either side wall, inside of
the Ace Line, until the ball leaves
the front wall.
9. If a ball served to the player
goes over the Back-board or strikes
the gallery before bounding on the
floor, it is a foul.
10. The striker shall call time be-
fore serving the ball, and shall not
serve the ball before the player or
players are outside of the line.
11. A foul must count as such
whether the players play it or not.
12. In striking the ball the player
shall not touch the ball with any
part of his person other than the
hand or foot, under a forfeit of an
ace or hand-out.
13. If the striker in serving the
ball strikes himself or his partner
with the ball and it goes over the
Ace Line, it is at the option of the
player whether he plays to it or
not.
14. In case there are qnly bound-
ary lines drawn, and no side walls,
if the ball after striking the front
wall rebounds outside the side
boundary line, such ball is foul, and
is a hand out.
15. All disputed balls may be de-
cided by a referee chosen by the
players, whose decision in all cases
shall be final.
The early history of hand ball is
probably the same as that of TEN-
NIS, which was formerly played by
striking the ball with the hand.
Temari, or Japanese Hand -ball,
The ball used by the Japanese to
play this game is about two inches
in diameter, and generally of cotton,
wound with thread. The players,
usually girls, stand in a circle, and
one, taking the ball throws it down-
ward on the ground, striking it back
as it rises. She continues thus till
the ball bounds away from her,
when the player toward whom it
bounds, or who is nearest its direc-
tion, must strike it back. When
any player misses a stroke, or fails
to make the ball rebound, she is out
of the game, which continues until
only one player is left. That one is
said by the Japanese to gain the
honor of kachi (victory), and leads
off in the next game.
HAND, Experiments with the. I.
Press the finger-tips of one hand
forcibly against those of the other
and open and shut the hands
slightly. After a few seconds it is
HANGING GAME
403
HANGING GAME
easy, on shutting the eyes, to be-
lieve that there are coins between
the finger-tips.
2. Hook the fingers of each hand,
holding them as widely apart as
possible, and then move the hands
backward and forward through the
air rapidly and forcibly for several
seconds. The air currents between
the fingers make them feel as if the
hands were full of cotton or some
other woolly substance.
3. Holding one hand horizontal,
palm downward, and fingers closed,
blow through the crevice between
the first and middle fingers. If a
piece of paper two or three inches
square be placed just under this
crevice, it will stick to the hand,
though you are blowing directly
against it. The reason is, that the
current carries away some of the
air between the paper and the hand,
reducing the pressure, and the pa-
per is thus held up against the hand
by the greater pressure of the air
below it.
4. Look closely at the inside of
the fingers, particularly at the ends.
It will be seen that they are covered
with very small furrows, running in
curved lines. By using a lens, these
furrows can be seen more plainly.
To make them plainer still, rub the
finger lightly over a piece of chalk.
The chalk will fill the furrows,
which will thus be traced in white.
A print of the furrows on paper can
be obtained by spreading ink thinly
on a piece of glass or a sheet of pa-
per. When it is nearly dry, press
the finger lightly on it and then on
a sheet of white paper. After a few
trials very good prints can be made.
The arrangements of these furrows
are said to be different in any two
persons and to remain the same
throughout one's life. An interest-
ing experiment would be to verify
this by taking a print of the same
finger every year for a number of
years.
HANGING GAME, THE, a game
played by two persons, one of whom
puts on paper a row of dots, one for
each letter of a familiar proverb,
while the other tries to guess the
proverb. The dots are separated
into groups corresponding to the
different words ; for instance, for
the proverb "Make hay while the
sun shines " they would be placed
thus:
The guesser begins by saying
" Write down an E " (or any other
letter he chooses). If there is an
E in the proverb, the other writes
it down in place of the correspond-
ing dot. If there are two or more,
he writes which of them he chooses.
The guesser then suggests another
letter, and so on till enough are
written down to enable him to
guess the whole proverb.
In one corner of the paper is
drawn rudely a picture of a gallows,
with a rope dangling
from it, as in Fig. i.
When the guesser
makes his first mis-
take, ordering the
other player to write
down a letter not con-
tained in the prov-
erb, a little circle,
representing a man's
Fig. i.
head, is added to the rope on the
gallows (Fig. 2). At his second
mistake a neck is added, and, for
the successive mistakes after that, a
body, arms, legs, and feet, so that
the gallows appears as in Fig. 3.
/T\ / \
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3-
If the whole man is thus hanged
before he can guess the proverb, he
loses the game, otherwise he wins.
When it is found that the guesser
has become very expert, it may be
HARDNESS
404
HARE AND HOUNDS
agreed that he shall not have so
many chances, by "hanging" both
legs or both arms for a single mis-
take. The guesser may show con-
siderable skill in choosing his let-
ters. At first it is best to suggest
those that occur oftenest, such as
the vowels, the letter S, etc. After-
ward, the letters already written
may suggest others ; for instance,
if a word stands " t. e," it must be
"the," "tie," or "toe," and its place
in the sentence will often decide
which is right. A dot standing by
itself must be I, O, or A (see
also SECRET WRITING). The only
chance the other player has for
skill, except in the selection of his
proverb, is when the guesser sug-
gests a letter of which there are
more than one in the sentence, in
which case he should of course write
the one that he thinks will be of the
least help in guessing. The guesser
is usually allowed as many guesses
as he chooses, which may be made
at any time, but it is better to make
a wrong guess count as a mistake.
If the guesser is careful, he need
not make a wrong guess, for prob-
ably no two proverbs have exactly
the same number of letters in their
words, taken in the same order.
Instead of a proverb, it may be
agreed that the dots are to repre-
sent any sentence which makes
guessing more difficult. The game
can be made harder also by not
separating the dots into groups.
The name, "The Hanging Game,"
is from the way in which the mis-
takes are scored.
HARDNESS, Experiments on.
When one substance will scratch
another, the first is said to be harder
than the second. It is an interest-
ing experiment to make a list of all
the substances one can obtain, in
the order of their hardness. Some-
times one substance will be the
hardest in the list for a long
time, till finally another is found
which will scratch it. To try the
experiment fairly, a sharp point or
edge must be found to scratch with.
It will be seen that hardness has
nothing to do with brittleness ;
glass, for instance, being much
harder than soapstone, for it will
scratch it easily. Yet it is not diffi-
cult to break a pane of glass with a
lump of soapstone.
HARE AND HOUNDS, or PAPER
CHASE, a running game played by
any number of persons. One or
two of the players are chosen as
hares, and each is provided with a
bag filled with small clippings of
paper, called the " scent." The
hares start off together, the rest of
the players, called hounds, not be-
ing allowed to see the direction
they take. After from five to fifteen
minutes, according to agreement,
the hounds set off in pursuit. The
hares, as they run, throw out, now
and then, handfuls of the scent, by
which means the hounds are enabled
to follow them. They may try to
puzzle their pursuers by turning
back, or taking a new direction sud-
denly, or in other ways. The run may
be for a certain number of miles, or
for a certain length of time, agreed
on at the start. If a hound catches
one of the hares in the specified dis-
tance or time, he wins, otherwise
the hares win. If a hound catches
sight of the hares, he and his com-
panions may not run toward them
directly, but must follow the scent,
though it is sometimes allowed if
previously agreed upon. Where
boys play the game, instead of using
paper " scent," the hare sometimes
carries a piece of chalk, with which
he makes a cross, or other mark on
a fence, a stone, or the pavement,
and the hounds follow by these
marks. When the hares are strong
and skilful, they can often elude the
hounds with very little start. Some-
times there are formed regular Hare
and Hound clubs, which hold
" meets " or runs at stated times,
and have rules by which these runs
are regulated. In summer the
" scent " should be of white paper;
HARE AND HOUNDS
405
HARE AND HOUNDS
in winter of black, so as to be seen
easily on the snow.
Sometimes the hares can deceive
the hounds by laying a false scent
faintly, while the real one is strong.
The hounds will generally conclude
that the hares are trying to make
them take the strong scent, and
will therefore follow the faint one.
If one hare is a better runner than
his companion, he is given the task
of laying all the false scents, other-
wise the two do so by turns. In
case the hares are allowed to lay the
handfuls of scent so far apart that
there is delay in finding it, it is very
seldom that they are caught by the
hounds. The sport then consists
in a contest between the latter to
see who shall reach the end of the
run soonest. Sometimes two rival
clubs form the pack of hounds, and
the victory is decided by adding to-
gether the numbers representing
the order in which each member of
the club reaches the finish. Thus,
suppose that two clubs of five men
each, distinguished by the colors
red and blue, come in in the follow-
ing order : Red, blue, red, red, blue,
blue, blue, red, blue, red. The score
would be as follows :
Red.
I
3
4
8
10
26
Blue.
2
29
Red is therefore the winner, the
smaller numbers representing those
who come in first.
The Germans call this game
Schnitzeljagd (Scrap-hunt).
RULES OF THE GAME.
The National Cross Country As-
sociation, to which most of the
Hare and Hound clubs in the United
States belong, has adopted the fol-
lowing rules for the sport.
1. Slow Chases. — There shall be
two Hares, one Master of the Pack,
and two Whips, to be appointed by
the Club Captain or other recog-
nized authority.
2. The Hares shall be allowed a
start of from five to ten minutes, at
the discretion of the Captain.
3. The Master, who shall act
also as Pacemaker, shall have sole
control of the Pack, and until
the break is ordered, he shall, at
his pleasure, appoint temporary
Pacemakers at any period of the
chase.
4. The members of the Pack
must keep within hailing distance
of the Master, and under ordinary
circumstances must always keep
behind the Master until the break
for home is ordered.
5. Only one break shall be
ordered by the Master, and then
only for home ; such break shall
never be more than a mile.
6. It shall be the duty of the
Whips to keep the Pack together,
and to collect and assist all strag-
glers.
7. Fast Chases. — In fast chases
there shall be two Hares, who
shall be allowed a start of from
five to fifteen minutes, to be fixed
by the Captain after considering
the relative ability of both Pack
and Hares.
8. The scent shall be laid from
the start, and each hound may run
at his own pace.
9. It shall be in the discretion of
the Captain or other officer acting
in his stead, to order a break for
home or to allow the Pack to race
from start to finish.
10. General. — Club runs shall be
runs for which no scent is laid,
but in all other conditions must
conform to those of a slow chase.
11. In all chases the Hares shall
lay a fair and continuous trail
throughout, and shall not be
allowed to double on their trail;
they shall be allowed to cross ford-
able streams only, and must sur-
HEARTS
406
HEARTS
mount all obstacles over which they
lay the trail.
12. In all chases the Hares must
keep within hailing distance of each
other.
13. Under no circumstances must
the Pack follow the line of sight
when the Hares are seen, but must
always follow the trail.
14. In all chases the break for
home shall be indicated by a scat-
tered bunch of paper, different in
color from that used on the trail.
1 5. Touching one of the Hares by
any member of the Pack shall con-
stitute a catch.
16. If the Hares do not finish to-
gether, the time of the last Hare in
shall be considered the time of their
arrival.
17. A Slow Pack may be started
at the discretion of the Captain in
all runs and chases (except for
prizes), under the control of a Mas-
ter and two Whips. A start of one
minute for each mile estimated to
be covered shall be allowed by the
Fast Pack.
Hare and Hounds is a very old
sport in England. In an old com-
edy of the i6th century a schoolboy
is represented as saying ;
" And also when I play and hunt the fox,
I outrun all the boys in the school."
This refers to the modern Hare
and Hounds, which as late as the
last century was called Hunt the
Fox, or Hunt the Hare. In 1868 it
was adopted as a sport by older
persons, and it has ever since held
a place among athletic sports.
HEARTS, a game of cards,
played by two to twelve persons,
with a full pack, and any desired
number of COUNTERS. The count-
ers are divided equally among the
players, and the cards are then
dealt, one by one, as in whist. For
instance, if six are plavinjj, each will
have eight cards, and four cards
will be left. Those that are left are
laid aside for a time. As soon as
the cards are dealt, the one at the
left of the dealer puts one or more
counters in the middle of the table,
a large number if he has a good
hand, but otherwise a few. This
is called the " ante," and the antes
of all the players together form the
"pool." Each of the others must
place in the pool, for his ante, as
many counters as the first player
put in. Some players put in three
counters each to form the pool be-
fore the cards are dealt. Beginning
at the dealer's left, each then plays
one card, following suit if possible,
he who plays the highest taking the
trick, and then leading. The taker
of the first trick takes also the
cards, if any, that were left over in
dealing. The rank of the cards is
the same as in WHIST, but there are
no trumps. The object of the game
is to take no Hearts, and so long as
none are played it makes no differ-
ence who takes the tricks except
to decide who shall lead. The play-
ers usually try to get rid of their
high cards at the beginning of the
game, and Hearts should never be
led unless by watching the cards
played, the leader is sure that the
trick must be taken by some one
else. Large Hearts should be thrown
away in preference to all other
cards. When all the cards have been
played, each player must place in the
pool a counter for every card of the
Heart suit that he has taken. The
pool is then divided among those
who have no hearts ; but if every one
has some, the counters remain to
form part of the next pool. Some-
times this is varied by giving the
pool to him who has least Hearts.
The game can be played for any
length of time agreed on, and at the
end of that time the one who has
most counters is the winner. If
any one has given out all his count-
ers, he may be allowed to borrow
from some one; but his debt, if un-
paid, must be remembered in count-
ing up to see who has won.
In Hearts, a low hand is general-
ly a good hand. High Hearts are
HEARTS
407
HEARTS
very bad to have, and so are high
cards of any suit that has been
played once or twice. It is there-
fore best to lead a high card of
Heliostat. (See page 408.)
some suit that has not been played, I It is of course always safe to lead
or a low card of some other suit. ' the lowest Heart, and generally safe
HELIOSTAT
408
HEN
to lead one of the lowest three.
When a player is obliged to take a
trick he should do so with the high-
est card possible and, in general, he
should always try to get rid of high
cards in any way except by taking
a trick on which a Heart has been
played or is likely to be played.
The player must watch how the
cards fall as carefully as in WHIST,
and special account must be kept of
the Hearts.
The Double or Eagle Garnet Each
player, instead of paying the pool
one chip for each Heart he takes,
gives for an Ace, 14; a King, 13;
a Queen, 12 ; a Knave, u ; and for
each of the other cards as many as
the spots it bears. Sometimes an
Ace counts, 5 ; a King, 4 : a Queen,
3 ; a Knave 2 ; and each of the other
cards, i.
HELIOSTAT, an arrangement for
throwing sunlight into a room,
much used in experiments with
light. The light is reflected in by
means of a mirror, but, as the sun
is continually moving, the mirror
also must move, or else the direc-
tion of the sunbeam would change.
In very fine heliostats this is done
by clock-work, but in the one about
to be described, which can be made
by any one, it is done by hand.
The illustration shows the different
parts of the instrument. AB is a
board which fits in a window, CC
two ordinary iron brackets, and D a
shelf. The size of all these parts is
given by the scale at the bottom of
the cut. H is a round wooden
rod turning freely in a hole in the
board AB and in the block K. It
is kept from slipping by the wooden
washer M fitting tightly over it.
The other end has a slot in it in
which turns a wooden semicircle G,
screwed to the back of a board N, to
which is fastened a piece of silvered
glass (not ordinary looking-glass)
by means of elastic bands. The
sunlight is reflected from this to
another mirror, O, on the shelf D,
and thence through the hole B into
the room. The rod with its slot is
shown separately at JI, and the
semicircle at G.
The proper working of the whole
arrangement depends on getting
the rod H at the correct angle.
The angle made by this rod with a
horizontal line must equal the lati-
tude of the place where it is used,
for instance 40° 45' at New York or
42° 22' at Boston. If this is done,
when the heliostat is put in a
window facing directly south the
rod H will point to the pole-star.
Since the sky appears to turn
around the pole-star, the daily mo-
tion of the sun can be followed by
simply turning the rod H from time
to time, thus keeping the reflected
sunbeam in the same direction.
But since the sun changes place a
little every day the mirror N will
have to be tilted at a slightly dif-
ferent angle every day by turning
it around the middle point of G.
In case the room has no window
which faces the south exactly, the
one which does so most nearly
must be selected and the board
twisted a little in the sash so that
it will look directly southward.
The upper part of the window, and
all other windows in the room,
must be covered with shawls or
blankets so that no light can enter
except the beam sent from the helio-
stat. It is a good plan to have a
plain wooden table just under the
opening through which the beam
comes, for making experiments.
HEN, THE. A game played by
any number of persons who sit in
a row. The leader, who is at the
end, says to his neighbor, " I have a
hen," and each in turn must repeat
the words to his nearest neighbor.
When they have reached the farther
end of the line the player at that
end asks of the one next him,
" Has she feathers?" And when
this question has travelled back to
the leader he returns the answer
"She has feathers." Then follow
in like manner the questions and
HERBARIUM
409
HEXME:
answers, " Can she walk ? " She
can walk." " How does she walk ?"
" Wiggledy-woggledy, wiggledy-
woggledy." (As each player says
this he imitates the walk of a
chicken with his hands). "Can
she crow ?" " She can crow."
" How does she crow ?" (each
then imitates the crowing of a
rooster).
The object of the game is to keep
from laughing, which is usually
difficult. Any one who laughs or
makes a mistake in repeating the
questions and answers must pay a
forfeit.
This game is played by German
children, who call it " Entchen
Verkaufen1' (Duckling Buying).
HERBARIUM, a collection of
dried plants. The collector should
be provided with a tin botanical
case, or with two or three dozen
sheets of thick soft unglazed wrap-
ping paper between two boards.
The sheets of paper and boards
should be a little larger than the
sheets, or scrap-book, in which it
is intended to preserve the plants.
Each specimen, as it is gathered, is
placed in the case, or between two
of the sheets of paper. On reach-
ing home, the collector must trans-
fer his plants to fresh sheets of
paper of the same kind, placing
three or four sheets between each
pair of specimens, and must place
on the board at the top any conven-
ient weights, such as books, or
bricks. After letting them remain
thus twenty-four to forty-eight
hours, they must be removed to
fresh paper and pressed again for
an equal length of time. The damp
paper from which they are taken
should be dried before the fire, or
in the sun, before using again. The
specimens must now be mounted,
or fastened to separate sheets of
paper. This may be done either by
gumming down the whole plant, or
by pasting little paper bands across
parts of it. The latter method ad-
mits of removing the specimen if
desired, or changing it to a fresh
sheet. The plants may be mounted
in a scrap-book, but the better
way is to put each on a separate
sheet. The sheets may be kept
in a box, under a light weight.
A bit of camphor in the box will
preserve the dried plants, but the
best plan is to look them over thor-
oughly every six months, thus air-
ing them well. Care should be
taken not to put them away in the
box unless they are quite dry, other-
wise they will mould.
The name of the plant should be
marked on each sheet, with the
date and place of its collection. If
the collector is a student of botany,
he will of course add the botanical
name, and will arrange his leaves
by genera and species. The botani-
cal collector will have to be careful
about some things which need not
trouble one who collects merely for
amusement. He must take care to
have his specimens show well all the
characteristic points of the plant,
and each should bear fruit or seed-
vessel, if possible, as well as flower.
Sea-weed. To prepare sea- weed
for mounting, the specimen must be
floated on the surface of water in a
bowl or soup-plate, and then the card
or paper to which it is to be fast-
ened is slipped under it. If the pa-
per is not stiff.it should be supported
on a slip of glass or of tin perforated
with holes to allow the water to drain
off. The sea-weed should now be
arranged on the card, under water,
with a camel's hair brush, and any
unnecessary parts removed with
scissors. The paper and sea-weed
together are now removed, laid on
blotting-paper, and covered first
with a piece of linen, and then with
another piece of blotting-paper.
After this it is pressed like any other
specimen. Most sea-weed will ad-
here to paper of itself, but some
specimens require a little muci-
lage.
HEXMEX, a game played by two
persons, with slate and pencil, or
HIDE AND SEEK
410
HITCHINSON FAMILY
paper and pencil. Each makes on
the slate marks like the following,
« t t t t t t t t t t-
the first sign representing a king and
the others common soldiers. Each
can have only one king, but as many
soldiers as he pleases. One of the
players now takes his pencil and re-
peats a nonsense rhyme, keeping
time to it by pointing at the signs,
in regular order, first to one of his
own and then to one of the other
player's. The soldier or king on
wliom the last word falls is dead,
and is crossed or rubbed out. The
other player repeats the operation,
and so on alternately till one of
the kings is dead. The owner of
the living king is then the victor.
Any ordinary COUNTING-OUT rhyme
may be repeated. In Germany,
where it is much played, the follow-
ing is one of the common rhymes
used, and gives the game its name :
Hex mex Mere mex.
Peter Paul Potn-pex,
SchUtgt alle bosen Buben mil der Kugel
auf den Kopf Mause todt.
Which is in English :
Hex mex, Mary mex,
Peter Paul Pom-pex,
Knocks all bad boys with a stick on the
head dead as mice.
HIDE AND SEEK, or HIDE AND
WHOOP. See 1 SPY.
HIDE THE HANDKERCHIEF, a
game played by any number of per-
sons, one or more of whom look for
a hidden object, generally a hand-
kerchief. The game is played in
various ways. Sometimes one
player hides the object and all the
rest look for it ; and sometimes only
one or two look, while the others
tell them whether they are near or
far from the object, generally by
saying " cold " when they are far
away, " cool " when not quite so far,
" warm " when near, and " hot "
or " burning " when very near. He
who finds the object first hides it
again. The game is often called
" Hide the Thimble," or by other
names, according to the object used.
Magical Music, a kind of Hide
the Handkerchief, in which the
seeker is told by music, generally
that of a piano-forte, whether he is
near or far from the object. The
music may be softer as heapproaches
the object, ceasing altogether when
he has found it, or it may be louder
as he comes nearer the object. The
" music " is often made by striking
a poker against a pair of tongs.
Hide in Sight, a kind of Hide
the Handkerchief, in which the ob-
ject, usually something unnotice-
able, like a small coin, is placed
where it may be seen without re-
moving anything, for instance, on
the floor, or on a table or chair.
One of the players thus places it
while the others are out of the
room. The latter enter at a signal
and begin to look for the object.
As soon as any one sees it he sits
down quietly, while the others go
on looking. He who is last to sit
down places the object for the next
c f* p -rrt Vi
HIGH-LOW-JACK. See ALL
FOURS.
HITCHINSON FAMILY, THE.
Four or more grotesque life-size
FIG. i.
figures are painted on a canvas cur-
tain, through which holes are cut
HOCKEY, OR SHINNEY
411
HOCKEY, OR SHINNEY
where the faces of the figures should
be. (See Fig. i). Into these holes
the performers put their faces, from
the rear of the curtain, making a
comical effect from the front (Fig.
2). They may thus give any kind
of concert or minstrel performance.
Some of the figures may be made
tall and others short, the persons
behind the curtain standing on
chairs, or kneeling on the floor, as
FIG. 2.
the case may require. A showman
may introduce the "family " to the
audience, giving a comical history
and description of each member.
The name " Hitchinson Family "
is in imitation of the "Hutchinson
Family," a popular band of singers
who went around giving concerts
from about 1840 to 1860.
HOCKEY, or SHINNEY, a game
played by any number of persons,
each of whom has a stick with a
curved end, called a hockey, or shin-
ney, with which he tries to drive a
small ball past a line called the
goal-line. The field has two goal-
lines about 300 or 400 feet apart, and
is bounded on the sides by lines
about 200 feet apart, as shown be-
low. An umpire having been se-
lected, the players choose sides, anc4
side line
300 feet
side line
each side elects a captain. The cap-
tains decide in any way they please,
usually by lot, which shall have the
knock-off, and which the choice of
goals, the winner taking whichever
of these privileges he likes. The
players then stand each with his
back to his own goal, and at a dis-
tance from it not greater than one
third the length of the field. The
captain of the side which has the
knock-off, or some one chosen by
him, then places the ball on the
ground as far forward as he chooses,
within the above-stated limits, but
equally distant from both side lines,
and strikes it with his hockey. As
soon as it moves, any player is free
to go to what part of the field he
chooses, his object being to prevent
the ball's passing over his own goal-
line, and to drive it across the ene-
my's line. The side which does this
first wins the game.
The sticks used in playing hockey
may be of different sizes at the pleas-
ure of the player, but the curved end
is generally not more than four inches
long. They are sometimes bent
from straight sticks, but oftener cut
from saplings, part of the root form-
ing the curve. When the game is
played on the ice, as it often is, a
lighter stick should be used, as less
force is required to drive the ball.
The ball is commonly of rubber,
about two inches in diameter, but a
small block of wood called a nun, of
about the same size, is often used in-
stead. The ball is better, for it is
not so dangerous. Hockey is not
played by regular clubs, like foot-
HOCKEY, OR SHINNEY
412
HONEY-POTS
ball or base-ball, and the rules differ
somewhat in different places. Those
usually followed are given below.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. Each captain shall place his
players as he pleases, sending some
forward to try to drive the ball across
the enemy's goal-line (called " run-
ning in "), and some backward to
defend his own line (called " lying
back").
2. Each player must strike the ball
from right to left. If he do so in
any other way, he may be told by
his opponent to " shinney on his
own side," and at the third offence
he shall be disqualified by the um-
pire and must leave the field. (In
many places, when no umpire is
chosen, custom allows a player to
strike an offender against this rule
on his shins, but this should not be
permitted.)
3. No player shall strike another's
hockey except in so far as he must
do so in trying to drive the ball.
(In. many places, when two players
meet, each tries to knock the other's
stick from his hands before touch-
ing the ball, but this should not be
permitted, as it places skill below
mere strength.)
4. With the exception of the cases
staled in the two following rules,
no one shall touch the ball with his
hand.
5. When the ball is driven over
one of the side lines, the player who
reaches it first shall take it in his
hand, and going to the point where
it crossed the line, throw it on the
ground near any player he pleases,
either back toward his own goal, or
directly across the field, but not to-
ward the enemy's goal.
6. When the ball falls into a hole,
or isin any place out of which it can-
not be driven with hockeys it shall
be withdrawn with the hand, by or-
der of the umpire, and thrown by
him between any players of opposite
sides, chosen by the captains.
7. Questions not touched by these
rules shall be decided by the um-
pire.
History. Some authorities think
that POLO, or hockey on horseback,
was the original form of the game.
The modern form of hockey wai
played long ago in England, where
it was also called Hookey and Haw-
key. Some say that the name is
from Hock-day, a holiday thatcele*
brated the expulsion of the Daned
from England, and others that it is
from the hooked sticks with which
the game is played. Games simi-
lar to Hockey are LACROSSE and
GOLF.
HONEY-POTS, a game for very
small children, any number of whom
may represent honey-pots, while
older persons take the part of honey
merchant and customers. The
honey pots sit on the floor or grass
Weighing a Honey-pot.
in a row with hands clasped under
their bent knees. After a dialogue
between the merchant and a cus-
tomer, in any words they please, the
latter selects a honey pot, and they
proceed to weigh it. This is done
by taking the child by the arms and
swinging him backward and forward
till he is compelled to unclasp his
hands and allow his feet to touch
the ground or floor. The pot is
supposed to weigh as many pounds
as it has had swings. Another cus-
HONORS
413
HOOPS
tomer may now appear, or the same
one may make some objection and
desire to try another pot.
In another similar game played in
England, the child who lets go' is
called "Rotten Egg," which is re-
garded as a disgrace. The game in
Italy is called " Weighing." The
child, after being lifted, is made to
jump over one of the arms of his
bearers. If he escapes, he is sup-
posed to be going to Paradise, other-
wise to the infernal regions. There
are similar French and German
games.
HONORS, a SOLITAIRE game of
CARDS, played with two packs. The
Two of Spades. King of Hearts, Ace
of Diamonds, and Queen of Clubs
are placed in a row, and below them
the King of Spades, Queen of
Hearts, Knave of Diamonds, and
Ten of Clubs. On these cards the
others are to be built in families,
following suit; building upward on
the upper row and downward on the
lower, ending in each case with the
card next in rank to the one at the
bottom. In playing, the cards are
laid off from the pack in two rows
of ten each, except those that are
available for building, which are
laid at once in their proper places.
A card may now be placed on
each of these twenty in any order
the player wishes, and when this
has been done three more cards may
be laid off from the pack. An
empty space in the rows may be
filled with the top card of any pile,
and any top card that becomes avail-
able is used at once in building. If
the families can be completed thus,
the player wins.
HOODMAN BLIND. See BLIND
MAN'S BUFF.
HOOK 'EM SNIFFEY, a game
played by any number of persons
with a ring at the end of a long
cord tied to the limb of a tree. A
hook is driven into the tree, and the
players in order try to swing the
ring so that it will catch on the
hook. He who succeeds scores a
point. Instead of a tree an upright
post with a crossbar is often used.
Sometimes, instead of one hook, a
board is arranged with several
hooks, each of which has a number
under it. In this case the successful
player scores the number of the
hook on which he hangs the ring.
After any number of turns agreed
on, he who has scored the highest
number of points wins.
HOOPS. To trundle a hoop well
requires considerable skill. It is
more difficult to do it slowly than
swiftly, but those skilled in the art
can keep one in motion even while
walking. The strike should be made
directly forward, and not at all on
the side of the hoop, otherwise the
motion will be unsteady. It may be
steadied by holding the stick flatly
against the sides alternately, and it
is steered in the same way. The
best part of the stick to strike with
is a point distant from the hand by
two thirds of its length. This is
what is called the centre of percus-
sion. In any other place the full
! force of the blow is not utilized.
The hoop can also be trundled by
holding the stick firmly against the
middle, and pushing, not striking.
Some sticks, especially iron ones for
driving iron hoops, are made with a
hook at the end for holding the
hoop when trundled in this way.
The fact that a hoop is easier to
keep up when rolling swiftly de-
pends on the principle that a rapid-
ly revolving body requires more
force to move it out of its plane
than one which is not revolving at
all, or but slowly. The same prin-
ciple is shown in the TOP, or the
BICYCLE.
Hoop Games. Several games can
be played with hoops. In one, the
players form in two lines, facing
each other, each with his hoop
in hand. At a signal, the lines
advance, and each must guide his
hoop between two of the opposite
line. The game can be varied by
agreeing that if anyone let his hoop
HOOPS
414
HOP SCOTCH
fall, or do not guide it properly
through the opposite line, he shall
be out of the game. Then, after the
players have passed forward and
backward a number of times agreed
on beforehand, the side on which
the greatest number of players re-
mains is declared the winner. In
another game the players try to run
through their hoops both ways,
keeping them rolling at the same
time. He who can thus go through
his hoop most times, while the
hoop is rolling any distance agreed
upon, is the winner. This game
requires large hoops. A difficult
feat is to keep more than one hoop
rolling at once, or to trundle a large
and a small hoop, making the small
one pass through the large one at
intervals.
Hoop Races, races in which each
contestant trundles a hoop. He
wins who first crosses the finish line,
or who first drives his hoop across
it, as may be agreed beforehand.
In another kind of race, he wins
who crosses the finish line last,
without letting his hoop fall, the
object of the contestants being to
trundle their hoops as slowly as pos-
sible.
Turn-pike, a game played by any
number of players, about half of
whom have hoops. Lots are drawn
for the hoops, and those who fail
to draw them are called toll-
keepers. A large circle, from 100
to 150 feet in diameter, is marked
out, and at equal distances on this
each toll-keeper puts up his toll-
gate, consisting of two stones three
or four inches apart. The other
players drive their hoops around
the circle, and if any fail to send his
hoop through one of the toll-gates,
or strike the stone on either side, he
becomes toll-keeper, and the toll-
keeper at that gate takes his hoop.
Posting, a modification of the
game of Turn-pike. Each one of
the toll-keepers has a stick suitable
for driving a hoop. Whenever a
hoop reaches a gate, the j
changes places with the toll-keeper,
who drives it as far as the next gate,
changing in turn with the toll-
keeper there. Whoever allows a
hoop to fall, is compelled to leave
the game for one round, or to pay a
forfeit, or is punished in whatever
other way may be agreed upon be-
forehand.
HOPPITY. See CHECKERS.
HOP SCOTCH, or POTS, a game
played by any number of persons,
each of whom drives a pebble from
one part to another of a figure on
the ground by hopping or stepping
in various ways. The figures may
be drawn on the ground with a
pointed stick, or marked with chalk
on a pavement or floor. Several
forms of the figure are given be-
low, B being the one commonly
in use in New York, where the game
is usually called Pots. The num-
bers are not put down when the
game is played, but are given here
for convenience. The player be-
gins by standing outside the figure
at the lower end, and throwing a
pebble, shell, or bit of wood into
the place marked i, and then, step-
ping into it with his right foot,
jerks or kicks the pebble out to-
ward the place where he began, with
that foot. He then steps back to
the starting-place, throws the peb-
ble into No. 2, steps with his left
foot into No. i and with his left
into No. 2, and jerks the pebble out
as before. He thus goes on, throw-
HOP SCOTCH
415
HOP SCOTCH
ing the pebble into each place in the
order of the numbers, stepping up
to it through the spaces, putting
only one foot in each, and after
kicking the pebble back to the
starting- place, stepping out in re-
verse order. This is then repeated,
except that the player hops into
each space instead of stepping. Or
hopping on one foot, he kicks the
pebble with that foot successively
into each space, and then back
again in like manner. If he throw
the pebble wrongly, or upon a line,
or put two feet into any space, or
step on a line, or do not jerk the
pebble back as far as the-starting-
place, or if he put both feet on the
ground while hopping, his turn
ends and the next player begins.
When a player's turn comes again,
he goes on with the game where he
left it, and he is the winner who
first goes through the required
tasks. The game may be varied
at pleasure. It is played differently
in different countries, and even in
different towns. Sometimes the
player, when he reaches the pebble,
is required to place it on his toe,
and then, kicking it into the air, to
catch it in his hand.
The figure marked D is used in
Scotland, E in Germany, and F and
G in France. The spaces are often
given different names. Sometimes
they are all called " beds ;'' and the
last bed is called in England the
"plum pudding" or "cat's head."
The game is called "Pottle" in
some parts of England, and " Pee-
vers," " Peeverals," or " Pabals " in
Scotland. The German name is
" Paradies hiipfen " (Paradise- Hop-
ping), the end space being named
" Paradise," and in Austria it is
called " Tempel-hupfen" (Temple-
Hopping), one of the spaces being
called Tempel (the Temple). In
France, where it is called Marelles,
the end space is " Paradise," as in
Germany, and the 5th in the one
marked G is "Enfer" (Hell) over
which the player must leap. The
6th is called " Reposoir" (the Rest-
ing Place), and there the player
can stand on both feet. The French
also have La Marelle Ronde (Round
10
G
Hop-Scotch Figures.
Hop Scotch), where the figure is
spiral as shown in the diagram, and
La Marelledes Jours (Hop Scotch
of the Days) where the spaces are
named for the days of the week.
HOT COCKLES
416
HOW DO YOU LIKE IT
History. Hop Scotch is proba-
bly a very old game. The earliest
mention of it in England is in Poor
Robin's Almanac for 1667, where it
is called Scotch Hoppers. A French
authority speaks of it as having been
La Marelle Ronde.
"much in vogue before the intro-
duction of cards in his country."
The name Marelles, by which it is
called there, is also that for what we
call NINE MEN'S MORRIS. It is a
common boys' game even in India,
where it is called Ekaria Dukaria,
and where the figure is shaped thus :
It has been suggested
that it was carried to
India in the sixteenth
century. The word
"scotch" in the com-
mon name of the game
means to strike, and is
probably from the strike
given to the pebble by
the foot.
HOT COCKLES, a game played
by any number of persons, one of
whom kneels with his head in an-
other's lap, while the rest of the
players strike him in turn. As each
one does so, the kneeling player
guesses who struck him, and when
he is successful, the striker must
take his place.
History. Hot Cockles is a very
old game, having been played at
least five hundred years ago. The
poet Gay refers to it in the lines :
" As at Hot Cockles once I laid me down
And felt the weighty hand of many a clown,
Buxoma gave a gentle tap, and I
Quick rose and read soft mischief in her eye."
A variation of this game, called
Frog in the Middle, was once popu-
lar in England. One player, called
the Frog, sat on the ground and was
buffeted by the others, standing
around, till he could catch one of
them, who then took his place.
The Greeks had a game similar to
Frog in the Middle, which they
called Chutrinda (the Pot Game),
the Frog being named Chutra (Pot).
The name Hot Cockles is said to
be a corruption of the French
Hautes Coquilles (warm hand). The
French call it Main-chai{de, and in
the middle ages its name was Qui
fery (who struck) ? A picture on
an ancient tomb in Egypt shows
that a similar game was played in
that country.
HOW DO YOU LIKE IT? A game
in which one of the players guesses
a noun, agreed upon by the others,
by their answers to three questions.
The questions are usually " How do
you like it?" "When do you like
it?" and "Wheie do you like it?"
The guesser, who goes out of the
room while the company chooses a
noun, conies in and asks each in
turn the first of these questions. If
he cannot guess, he asks the sec-
ond, and then the third, and if he
is still unable to tell what the word
is, he must pay a forfeit, or he may
be sent out again while another
word is chosen. The game is usu-
ally made more puzzling by select-
ing a word with two different mean-
ings, like pen (an enclosure) and
pen (a writing implement), or two
words of similar sound, such as bell
and belle, rain and reign, or quay
and key. For instance, with the
words hair (of the head) and hare
(an animal) different answers to the
question where do you like it might
HUNTING
417
HUNTING
be " on my head," " in a stew," " in
a pillow," or " running about in the
woods." Instead of the last ques-
tion given above, " Where will you
put it?" is sometimes used.
HOW MANY MILES TO BABY-
LON ? See THREAD THE NEEDLE.
HUNTING. In this article, hunt-
ing will be treated as a sport, though
even sportsmen generally consider
that it is not right to kill an animal
for pleasure alone. Game must be
killed for eating, unless it is a dan-
gerous creature or a nuisance.
Thus, it is not considered sports-
manlike to shoot song-birds not
good for food, but it is thought
proper to hunt an animal like the
fox, though his flesh cannot be
eaten, because he is destructive.
There are many different methods
of hunting, and some animals have
to be pursued in special ways, but
the most common method of kill-
ing game in this countrv is by
shooting, to which this article will
chiefly be devoted. The use and
care of guns is described in the
article on SHOOTING. Shooting
may be enjoyed in the open field, in
the woods, called " cover," or " cov-
ert" by sportsmen, from the French
covert (covered), or on the water.
The sportsman often has the assist-
ance of dogs, which are trained to
point out the game when they scent
it, and to " retrieve" it, or bring
it to their master when it is killed.
When boys begin to hunt, they
generally shoot at a bird on the
ground or in a tree, or wherever
they see one ; but older sportsmen
think the true way is always to
"flush" the bird first and shoot it
"on the wing," that is, while flying.
Of course this requires more skill,
but a successful shot made in this
way gives the sportsman more pleas-
ure. It is estimated that not more
than two or three birds are killed
out of every five fired at, so that a
young sportsman need not be dis-
couraged because he does not hit
every bird.
Two persons often go on a shoot-
ing expedition together, in which
case the rule must be observed that
one sportsman must never shoot at
a bird which is flying toward his
companion. More than two persons
cannot usually shoot together with
advantage, except on opposite sides
of a river or in some similiar posi-
tion, where the parties drive the
game backward and forward from
one to the other. A sportsman
should never fire across his compan-
ion's face, or at any bird which
flies so that it must cross him, until
he to whom the bird belongs has
missed it with both barrels of his
gun. Birds flying directly away
from both sportsmen are taken al-
ternately, unless several rise at
once, when each man should fire at
those on his own side. When a
bird is shot the shooter should ob-
serve carefully where it falls, noting
some object near by. Birds which
alight should also be carefully ob-
served, which is called " marking,"
and is often difficult for any but
practised sportsmen. One should
be certain, in doing this, that the
bird has actually alighted, and has
not merely flown behind some ob-
ject which hides it from sight.
Dogs. The different kinds of
dogs are described in the article
DOG, in C. C. T. The following
rules for their management in shoot-
ing birds are substantially those
given by " Frank Forrester" (W.
H. Herbert) in his " Manual for
Young Sportsmen."
1. Never do that for which you
would punish a dog, as running af-
ter a " winged" bird (one shot in
the wing so that it cannot fly).
2. Never hunt your dogs with
other dogs not well trained, as their
example will do them harm.
3. Never hurry them when they
are pointing.
4. When the birds rise, make the
dogs " down" for one or two sec-
onds. This tends to make them
steady, and even if the sportsman
HUNTING
418
HUNTING
does not fire, it gives him time to
" mark."
5. If a dog devour a fallen bird,
do not chase him, as that will only
excite him, but call to him till he re-
turns, and then, making him drop,
put the check cord on his collar,
drag him back to the place where
he started, whipping him and re-
buking him, and make him lie there
several minutes.
6. In buying a dog, try to learn
the exact mode of hunting and
words of command used by his
former owner, and, if possible, con-
form to them.
7. Never punish a dog unless you
are certain that he cannot fail to
understand the reason.
8. Never allow a dog to commit
a fault because you are afraid of
losing time or losing birds by cor-
recting him. Correction should
be by the voice, the whip, and by
making the dog pause and recog-
nize his fault. Never kick a dog,
and use the whip as little as possi-
ble ; but when it is used, use it so
that it will be remembered.
9. Make as little noise as possible
in calling a dog. Dogs which are
always shouted at get so that noth-
ing but a shout will turn them. If
possible, they should be trained to
follow the motion of the hand.
10. Make friends with your dog,
without absolutely caressing him,
as soon as you have done punishing
him, and before allowing him to rise.
11. When he is at point, never al-
low him to flush his game without
giving the order " on," and then in-
stantly saying " Drop."
12. When he is down, never allow
him to rise until you have ordered
him " up."
13. When a bird is killed, whistle
and say " Dead," at which he should
come to you. Then say " Seek" or
" Find," when he must draw up and
point the dead bird.
14. When he is pointing thus,
never allow him to recover the bird
till you order him to " fetch."
15. When he has retrieved, he
should deliver the bird into his
master's hand ; otherwise he may at
some time lay one down where it
cannot be easily reached.
16. Never break a sporting rule
in order to recover a wounded bird
or get a shot at a live one.
17. Never lose your temper.
The behavior of dogs in the
hunting-field depends much on
their treatment at home.
Every dog should have a separate
kennel, which should be movable,
and without a bottom. It should
stand on a board floor or platform,
and inside should be placed plenty
of fine pine shavings for the dog to
lie on. Straw and other similar
substances are apt to cause vermin.
Dogs may be fed on table scraps
and given meat sparingly. They
should be supplied with plenty of
pure water, care being taken to
change it frequently. Exercise
every day and frequent bathing in
hot weather is necessary. In the
country they should be taken out
for a run of an hour or so every
day. Before the shooting season
they are improved by a fast run un-
der a wagon, which hardens their
feet and makes them capable of
greater endurance. Where space
can be had, the dogs should be al-
lowed to run about in a yard, in-
stead of chaining them to the ken-
nels. Dogs thus treated will need
less outside exercise. Where there
is not much room for dogs to run
about, a good plan is to fasten the
chain to a ring which is free to run
backward and forward on a strong
wire stretched between two posts,
or along the side of the house or
barn.
The following table shows the
charges suitable for small game.
Different sportsmen vary them con-
siderably. The larger wild animals
are generally shot with a rifle.
Special hunting methods are de-
scribed below under the name of
each kind of game.
HUNTING
4TO
HUNTING
GAME.
Gauge
Pow-
der.
Drains
Shot.
Oz.
Size and
Kind of
Shot.
Sora, Rail, etc..-<
Woodcock
2
6
0
o
2j
3*
t
*t
i
10 Trap
10 Shot
i|
9 Shot
,i
ii
Quail
«t
8 Trap
3T
8 Trap
Pra rie Chicken..
Ruffed Grouse. ..
Squ rrel
o
2
O
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Snipe, wading birds which fre-
quent marshes and flat lands (C.
C. T.). They appear in meadows
and salt marshes in the spring about
the same time with bluebirds. In
windy weather they often rise high
in the air in "whisps" or knots of
10 or 20, and it is then hard to
shoot them. Good snipe-shooting
depends much on chance, but the
best time for it is when after a cold
storm the weather has cleared off
warm. Windy weather is always
favorable, if the wind is not too
high. In England dark days are
considered good ones for snipe, but
that is not the rule in this country.
The snipe rises toward the wind,
therefore the shooter should move
in the direction in which the wind
is blowing. The birds will then
rise directly in front of him and fly
off to his right or left, so that he
can get a cross-shot, which is con-
sidered the best. The time to
shoot is just after the snipe rises,
when the bird " hangs in the wind "
for an instant. After that he flies
off rapidly. When the birds are
abundant they may be hunted with
any kind of a dog, or with none at
all ; but when they are scarce and
the sportsman is obliged to go over
much ground to get them, the dog
should be a quick one. At the
same time he must stand stiffly and
not try to crawl in on the bird, and
should be taught to stop or drop at
the motion of his master's hand or
the report of the gun. The dog
should be encouraged to pass over
unlikely ground as fast as possible,
but where there are probably snipe
he should be given his own time
and not hurried.
Bay Shooting. In this method
the sportsmen lie hidden in boats
covered with reeds moored in the
small pools left by the tide, where
the birds come for food. On the
margin are placed " decoys " or
"stools," which are imitation birds
made of wood, rubber, or tin.
From twenty to forty of these are
generally used. The sportsman
imitates the note or whistle of the
birds, till, seeing the decoys, they
begin to settle among them, when
he fires into a group. In this way
the birds can be shot in large num-
bers. Sometimes the sportsman is
concealed among bushes on shore
instead of in a boat, but in any case
he must keep perfectly still, and it
is often necessary to wait thus for
hours before the birds can be in-
duced to come within shot.
Woodcock. (SeeC. C.T.). These
birds hide during the day in marshy
thickets, seeking for their food.
They fly in a rising straight line
ti'l they reach the top of the
bushes, and then horizontally till
they light again, which they do by
making a quick zigzag movement
and then settling down at once. A
knowledge of this method of flying
and lighting is necessary to the
sportsman in order that he may
know where to find the birds.
Some sportsmen walk along the
outside of the covert, allowing their
dogs to run in and flush the birds.
HUNTING
420
HUNTING
but others make it a rule always to
follow their dog and never allow
him to flush the birds. Summer
woodcock rise more sluggishly than
autumn birds, and are more easily
shot.
Grouse. (See C. C. T.) Of the
several grouse found in the United
States the two principal ones are the
ruffed grouse and the pinnated
grouse or prairie chicken. Other
species are the spruce partridge or
Canada grouse, and the blue and the
sharp-tailed, which are found in the
West and the northwest. All the
varieties have stout bills, short,
feathered legs, and dark plumage.
The ruffed grouse is wrongly called
the partridge in New England and
the pheasant in some of the Middle
and Southern States. It frequents
thick woods, and its color is so much
like that of the ground that it is hard
to see. The bird is wild and shy and
has a way of running far ahead of
the dogs and then rising, out of
range of shot. When suddenly
disturbed it rises with a loud whir
and flies swiftly, often taking refuge
in the branches of a tree. Grouse
are often hunted with dogs of any
kind, which flush the game, after
which it is shot in a tree; but a
more sportsmanlike method is to
use only pointers or setters and to
shoot the birds on the wing. The
ruffed grouse is the most wary and
cunning of all land game birds
found in the northern States, and
its successful pursuit requires much
practice and skill on the part of the
shooter. The birds are sometimes
snared, but in most States this is
forbidden by law, and it is consid-
ered unsportsmanlike. The pinna-
ted grouse, generally called prairie
chicken, or prairie hen, is numer-
ous on the Western prairies and
rarely found in timber. In dry
weather on the prairie, where no
water is to be found, it is often
necessary to carry water with the
hunting party for the dogs to drink.
Quail. (See C. C. T.). This bird
is called the partridge in th<
Southern States, but there are m
true partridges in this country, h
is also commonly called Bob White
from the fancied resemblance o\
the call of the cock bird to thesa
words. There are nearly fifty kinds
of quail, all having a stout depressed
bill, short tail, and brown plumage
spotted with black and streaked
with yellow. They are generally
found in groups called coveys, in
wheat stubbles and thickets at the
edge of woods, near cultivated land.
The birds are found in the Eastern
and Middle States, but they are
most numerous in the Southern
States and the southwest. Quails
are shy, and fly very swiftly. When
they light they do not dart down
nor wheel about, but fly gradually
lower till they near the ground,
when they bring feet and tail down
together and then flap the wings.
Unless they are seen to do this, it
is unsafe for the hunter to assume
that they have lighted. They often
give out no scent for some time
after they have dropped, and in this
case it is best to note where they
are, and return to them after trying
other places. The quail is the
most abundant and most widely
distributed of the Eastern game
birds. It is more easily brought to
bag than the grouse or woodcock,
and is game which the young
sportsman may pursue with success.
They are hunted with pointers or
setters, which discover the birds by
their scent and stand on point until
the sportsman comes up, flushes the
quail, and shoots them flying.
Wild Fowl. The wild water-fowl
hunted as game-birds are the swans,
geese, and ducks. They are migra-
tory, going to the far North in
spring, to breed, and returning to
the far South in autumn. The great
routes of migration are along the
Atlantic and Pacific coasts, and
through the Mississippi Valley. On
their passage to and from theif
summer homes, they stop to rest
HUNTING
421
HUNTING
and feed in the bays, lakes, ponds,
and streams, wherever there is food
for them. Wild rice and wild celery
are favorite articles of food with
wild fowl ; it is the wild celery that
gives their fine flavor to canvas-
back and redhead ducks, two vari-
eties that are considered great lux-
uries for the table. Sportsmen
sometimes plant wild rice in waters
where there is no natural food to
lure the ducks. In winter wild fowl
abound in southern waters. One
kind of wild goose is called Brant.
The kinds of ducks most valued by
sportsmen are Canvasbacks, Red-
heads, Mallards, Teal, Pintail, and
Woodduck. Ducks abound es-
pecially on the shores of lakes in
the Northern States, the New Jer-
sey coast, Delaware and Chesa-
peake Bays, Currituck Sound, the
Mississippi Valley, and the lakes
and bays of the Northwest, such as
Puget Sound, and the Willamette
and Columbia Rivers. Wild fowl are
hunted in a variety of ways, some-
times by stealing upon them while
they are feeding or resting, but
usually by shooting them as they
fly from one place to another.
In the latter case the hunter must
carefully conceal himself by some
form of screen or blind, as it is
called. One favorite method,
adopted when the fowl fly to and
from their feeding grounds, is for
the hunter to station himself, well
concealed, in a point of land over
or near to which they fly, and to
shoot them as they pass. A com-
mon device is to put out decoys,
which are images of ducks, made
of wood or other material. These
are anchored in the water, and
are so arranged as to appear to be
Turkey Call.
alive; the ducks, seeing them, fly
to join their company, and are shot
before alighting on the water, or at
rest. Sometimes tamed wild ducks
are used as decoys, and call to their
wild fellows. The gunner often
uses a peculiar whistle or duck-call,
with which he imitates the notes of
the wild fowl, and attracts their at-
tention to his decoys. In the Chesa-
peake Bay and elsewhere duck
hunters lie in sink-boats, which are
sunk in the water until their edges
are level with the surface, and shoot
as the birds fly over. Another
form of blind, called a battery, is
a box sunk in the sand or in shal-
low water, where the gunner lies
concealed. Sometimes trained dogs,
of the breed known as the Chesa-
peake Bay dog, are made to run up
and down the shore, and by their
antics excite the curiosity of the
birds, which approach to see what
the dogs are doing. This is called
"toling." Ducks fly very swiftly
and they are wary birds. Duck-
shooting requires much skill, and
is often attended with hardship
and exposure.
Wild Turkey. This fowl abounds
in most of the Southern and some
of the Western States, and is usually
decoyed by using a " call " or whistle,
imitating the noise made by the
bird. Turkey calls of several kinds
can be bought of dealers in sport-
ing goods, but some sportsmen can
make the call without their aid.
The sportsman usually hides him-
self in a thicket and makes the call
till a turkey, attracted by it, comes
within range. Turkeys may be
hunted also without the call. They
HUNTING
422
HUNTING
leave a trail when walking, so that
they are easily tracked by a dog,
but they are so timid that it is hard
to get within range in this way.
They are often shot at their roosts,
the hunter surprising them at dawn
before they have flown.
The Upland Plover, or Bartram's
Sandpiper. This bird frequents in-
land pastures, and is much esteemed
as food. It is very shy and difficult
to appoach except by some trick.
In Rhode Island it is hunted from
two-wheeled chaises, in the bottom
of which the huntsman sits, while
the chaise drives around the bird in
gradually narrowing circles. The
huntsman has his leg on the step
ready to spring out and fire the
moment the bird rises. Success
depends largely on the skill of the
driver. Another trick is to use
trained ponies, which move closer
and closer to the bird while feeding,
the huntsman standing concealed by
the animal's forelegs and shoulder.
Some sportsmen build houses of
boughs, in which they wait for the
birds to alight near by.
The Rail. This small bird fre-
quents the rice flats on the sea-
shore of the Southern States, and
the borders of tidal rivers like the
Delaware, or the New Jersey flats.
The rail runs swiftly, and though it
has a strong scent, can with dif-
ficulty be forced by dogs to take
flight. The birds fly slowly, and
for short distances. The best
method of hunting them is from
boats, at flood tide, the birds being
forced to take wing by running
them down. They must DC killed at
the first shot, as otherwise they dive,
hide in the thickest reeds, and
are very hard to find. The skill lies
more with the man who " poles " or
pushes the boat than with the hunts-
man, for the birds fly so slowly that
they can hardly be missed by any
one who is a fair shot. One sports-
man has sometimes killed more
than one hundred of these birds
during a .single tide. Rail-bird
shooters also find on the same
grounds the reed-bird or rice-bird,
which is the bobolink of northern
meadows in spring and summer.
In September the reed-birds are
found in immense numbers in the
wild-oat fields ; and many thou-
sands of them are killed for market.
In the South, where they are known
as rice birds, they do great damage
to the rice crops.
Pigeons. (See C. C. T.) These
birds, once so numerous, have now
almost disappeared from the eastern
United States, owing to the way
in which they have been killed
in pigeon-shooting contests (see
SHOOTING).
Cranes. (See C. C. T.) Cranes
are found in the South and West.
Whooping cranes are hunted in
the Mississippi Valley for their
plumage. In Oregon the sandhill
crane is called "Chinese Snipe,"
because it is eaten by the Chinese.
Deer. The different kinds of deer
are described in C. C. T. They are
found chiefly in wild regions. In
the Eastern States, the best regions
for deer-hunting are the Adirondack
Mountains, the Maine woods, and
the western part of Pennsylvania.
They abound in the Blue and
Alleghany Mountains, in Arkansas,
Michigan, the Rocky Mountains,
and on the Pacific slope, but they
are being killed so rapidly that
there is danger that they may be
exterminated. Many States have
passed laws regulating deer-hunt-
ing. Deer are hunted in various
ways. In the South the sportsmen
usually ride on horseback, and dogs
are put on the trail, who chase the
deer past the huntsmen. In some
parts of the South there are hunting
clubs, organized expressly to hunt
deer in this way. In Georgia and
Florida, deer are often shot by
torch-light in the swamps, and in
Kentucky and Tennessee hunting
parties often camp in the woods for
several weeks. In Arkansas the
game is hunted chiefly on foot, the
HUNTING
423
HUNTING
sportsman being careful not to get
to windward of the deer. Some-
times the hunter, by pinning a red
handkerchief across his breast, so
excites the curiosity of the deer
that the animal keeps still until he
is very near him. The deer in the
Adirondacks are fast decreasing in
number, though the time for killing
them is limited by law. The
methods used there are still-hunting
over freshly fallen snow, the hunter
tracking the deer until within
range; "Jack hunting," where a
lantern called a "Jack "is carried
on a pole in the bow of a boat, or
on the sportsman's head, to dazzle
the deer and make him stand still
for a moment; and hunting with
dogs. In the last-named method,
the dogs drive the deer past the
hunter, who is stationed on a " run-
way," or drive it into the water
where it is shot swimming by hunts-
men from the shore or in boats.
Rifles and shotguns loaded with
buckshot are used for deer-hunting.
Bears. The bear is described in
C. C. T. Bears are found through-
out the United States in wild
places, such as the Catskill and
Adirondack Mountains in the East,
the mountains of North Carolina
and West Virginia, the swamps
of South Carolina, Georgia, and
Florida, the "bottom lands" of
Arkansas, and the mountains and
' forests of the far West. They are
usually hunted with rifles and by the
aid of dogs. The black or brown
bear, unless it be a mother with cubs,
is apt to be inoffensive till wounded.
The grizzly, though formidable, is
hunted for sport quite extensively.
Fox. The fox is described in C. C.
T. He is found wild chiefly in the
Southern States, especially around
the Blue and Alleghany Moun-
tains. In some parts of the country,
•especially in New England, he is
hunted with a gun like other wild
animals, hounds being employed to
drive the game to the hunter, who
stations himself where the x is
likely to pass ; but in some other
parts of the country sportsmen
think that the proper way to hunt
him is with a pack of hounds. The
hounds follow the trail of the fox
till they overtake and kill him, and
the huntsmen follow on horseback,
each striving to be " in at the death."
The fox adopts many kinds of
tricks to deceive the dogs and throw
them off the scent, and the trail often
leads over very rough country, so
that to follow it requires great skill
in riding. In some of the Southern
States large packs of hounds are
kept for fox-hunting, and women as
well as men are fond of the sport.
There are fewer foxes in the North-
ern States, but near some of the
large cities are associations called
" hunts " for the purpose of hunting
the animals. Where foxes cannot
be found, one is brought from a
part of the country where they
abound, and sometimes instead of
following a fox, the hounds are
made to trace the scent of a bag
filled with anise seed, which has
been dragged over the ground. The
first one of these hunting clubs was
formed in Hackensack, N. J., in
1875. Some of the chief ones are
the Rockaway Hunting Club and
the Meadow Brook Hunt on Long
Island, the Essex County Hunt in
New Jersey, the Radnor and Rose-
tree Hunts near Philadelphia, the
Myopia near Boston, the Elkridge
Hunt of Baltimore, and the Prince
George County Hunt, most of
whose members live in Washington,
D. C. These hunts, in addition to
the usual society officers, have a
Master of the Hounds, who has
charge of the horses and dogs, and
appoints places for the meets.
Hares or Rabbits. Hares are usu-
ally hunted with dogs, which drive
out the game to the hunter. The
beagle is the best dog for this pur-
pose. In the West the large hare,
known as the jack rabbit, is coursed
with grayhounds, which chase the
game on the prairies, the huntsmen
HUNTING
HUNTING
following on horses. The Jacks, as
they are called, are exceedingly
swift runners, but are often over-
taken by the hounds.
Squirrels. Of all game animals
no one furnishes more sport to the
young hunter than does the black or
gray squirrel. For squirrel-hunting
a dog is useful to point out the tree
where the game is in hiding; and
for this purpose almost any dog
with a good nose will do. The
proper weapon is a small bore-rifle,
though the shotgun is often used ;
but the rifle calls for the most skill
and gives better satisfaction in every
way. Other animals hunted in the
United States are the Raccoon, the
Wolf, the Lynx, the Couguar, and
the Opossum, and sometimes the
Alligator and the Eagle. These,
all of which are described in C.C.T.,
are usually shot with the rifle.
Game Laws, Most States have
passed statutes for the preservation
of game.
Methods. In New York deer
cannot be taken by traps, spring-
guns, or similar devices. They
must not be hunted with dogs in
St. Lawrence and Delaware counties,
and in other counties only in cer-
tain prescribed seasons. It is for-
bidden to kill fawns. In New York,
New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, wild
fowl must not be killed with swivel
or punt-guns, or by any other device
except such a gun as is ordinarily
raised to the shoulder and fired.
In New York it is unlawful to hunt
wild fowl at night or with a " float-
ing battery " or to use a decoy more
than twenty rods from shore, except
in certain bays in Long Island, in
Lake Ontario, and in Hudson River
below Albany. In New York it is
unlawful also to shoot wild fowl
from any steam or sailing vessel.
Game birds in general may not be
trapped in any of these States. In
New York hares and rabbits may
not be hunted with ferrets, except
in orchards or nurseries by their
owners. In New Jersey non-resi-
dents of the State are not allowed
to hunt in certain counties without
becoming members of one of the
Game Protective Societies. Rub-
bing the nests of wild birds or
killing song-birds is unlawful in all
the States mentioned.
Trespassing. In most cases it is
necessary for the sportsman to hunt
o i land belonging to other people.
The best plan is to obtain permis-
sion, which in this country is usually
given readily, but often huntsmen
have become so accustomed to kill
game in a certain spot without hin-
drance, that they think they have a
right to do so. Courts, however,
have decided that, no matter what
the custom is, sportsmen cannot
claim a legal right to hunt on other
people's land, nor even to stand on
the public road and shoot over the
fence, or send in a dog. In any
such case the sportsman is really
trespassing, and although the owner
of the land usually does not care,
the sportsman should always re-
member that the owner has a right
to order him to leave. If he refuse,
and do not leave after a reasonable
time, the owner may then use neces-
sary force, but not till then. The
owner has no right, for instance, to
set a savage dog on the trespasser
whom he finds on his land. In some
States special laws have been made
against sportsmen who enter land
when they are forbidden by a
printed and posted notice.
The owner of a piece of land does
not own the live game on it, in the
same way that he owns his horses,
dogs, or chickens, but he has the
exclusive right to kill it so long as it
is on his land. This right is called
his property in game. But game is
the property of no particular person
till he has killed it. The question as
to who owns game killed by a tres-
passer has never been settled in the
United States.
Some States allow hunting priv-
ileges to its own citizens which
they deny to those of other States.
HUNTING
425
HUNTING
Their right to do this has been
denied by some people, but the
Supreme Court of the United
States has decided that it is allowa-
ble to make such laws with regard
to oyster-fishing, and probably all
similar laws would be supported in
like manner.
Seasons. Most of the States have
laws regulating the times when the
several species of game may be
killed. See Tables following, The
black lines show months the game
is " in season." A short black line
in the columns means first half of
month, when printed toward the
left; and last half, wh«r: toward
right. Figures to the left of short
lines mean in season from that date,
and to right, to that date. These
times are only approximately cor-
rect, as legislatures are constantly
changing them. The sportsman to
be absolutely safe should therefore
make special inquiry in each case.
The intent of these laws is to protect
the game during its breeding season,
so that birds may not be killed while
nesting and rearing their young nor
before the young birds shall have
grown large and strong enough to
care for themselves. The time when
game may lawfully be killed is called
the "open season," and during that
period the game is said to be " in
season." The period when it cannot
be killed is called the " close sea-
son," and the game is then said to be
"out of season." In most States it is
forbidden also to have in possession
or to sell game in the close season.
History. The pursuit of wild birds
and animals was probably under-
taken at first to obtain food, or for
protection; but it must have begun
very early to be thought of as a
sport, for the oldest nations whose
history we knew so considered it.
In the great eastern kingdoms the
Kings and their courtiers were very
fond of the sport, and the sculptures
on the ruins of Nineveh and other
great cities of Assyria and Persia
often represent hunting scenes. The
kings of Persia owned many vast
hunting parks, in which were kept
wild animals. These parks were
called by the Greeks paradeisos,
from which we get our word Para-
dise. The Greek and Roman le-
gends are full of hunting stories.
The Greeks were fond of the sport,
and Xenophon and other Greek
authors wrote books about it, from
which it appears that hares, boars,
stags, lions, panthers, and bears
were among the game hunted.
In Egypt the huntsmen formed A
class by themselves, either hunting
on their own account, or acting as
the attendants of the nobility.
Sometimes trained lions were em-
ployed by tnem instead of dogs,
just as the cheetah, or hunting
leopard, is used in India at the
present day, and the huntsman
sometimes rode in a chariot, dis-
charging arrows at the game when
he came within range. Allusions
in the Bible to huntsmen and their
nets and snares show that in Pales-
tine trapping was a favorite mode of
securing game ; but spears and ar-
rows were also sportsmen's weapons.
The horse and dog were not used
in hunting by the Jews. King Herod
was a successful huntsman, and is
said to have killed forty boars, wild
asses, and deer in a single day. The
Romans viewed hunting, like other
sports, less as an occupation for
gentlemen than as a spectacle, and
exhibitions of hunting were often
given in the great amphitheatres.
Sometimes the beasts were killed by
attendants, and sometimes the peo-
ple were allowed to rush in and
carry away what they could get, in
which case no dangerous animals
were brought in. Sometimes large
trees were taken up and planted in
the arena, to make it look like a
forest. In one of these hunting
spectacles, which were called Vena-
tiones, there were 1000 ostriches,
looo stags, looo boars, 1000 deer,
and numbers of wild goats, wild
sheep, and other smaller animals
HUNTING
426
HUNTING
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HUNTING
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" (Ruffed)
Indiana
•^MM
" (Ruffed)
" (Ruffed)
j
(Ruffed)
Minnesota (Pinnated, white-breasted,
and sharptailed)
—
—
—
Minnesota (Ruffed)
Mississippi (Ruffed)
__
__
__
Missouri (Pinnated and Ruffed)
Montana
^~
—
—
Nebraska
Nevada
___
___
__
New Hampshire (Ruffed)
___
New Jersey (Ruffed)
New York (Ruffed and Pinnated)
" '• Queens and Suffolk Coun-
ties (Ruffed)
^~
—
^~
-—
Ohio (Pinnated)
" (Ruffed)
Oregon
" (Pinnated)
Pennsylvania (Ruffed and Pinnated).
Pike County (Ruffed). . .
Rhode Island
•"
— "-
—
"3
" (Ruffed)
^^^
Tennessee, all counties
^__
" some counties. .. ...
^_
___
—r-*
HUNTING
428
HUNTING
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Texas (Pinnated)
—
—
Uiah
—
West Virginia (Ruffed and Pinnated).
Wisconsin (Ruffed, Pinnated, and
Sharptailed)
—
—
,^_
Wyoming (Pinnated, Sharptail, and
Wild Water Fowl.
Alabama (Wild Duck)
Arkansas, *' "
California, " " all counties.. .
" " some counties.
Connecticut (Wild Duck, Geese,
Brant)
District of Columbia (Wild Duck,
Geese, Brant)
Georgia (Wild Duck) generally
Indiana (Wild Duck)
—
—
— 10
10—
—
—
—
—
Iowa (Wild Duck. Geese, Brant)
Kentucky (Wild Geese, Woodduck,
Teal, or other Duck)
Maine (Wood Duck, Black Duck, or
other Sea Ducks).
Maryland (Wild Fowl), all counties..
" some counties.
Massachusetts (Wood or Summer
Duck, Black Duck, Teal)
Michigan (Water Fowl)
Minnesota (Aquatic Fowls)
Montana (Wild Geese and Ducks) ..
Nevada "
New Jersey, Barnegat Bay, and trib-
utaries (Ducks, Geese, Brant)
New York (Wild Duck, Brant)
" " in Long Island waters. ..
North Carolina Cunibuck County,
(Wild Fowl)
—
-
—
—
10—
—
t2—
—
—
" Pike County (Wood
or Summer Duck)
Rhode Island (Wood, Black, or Gray
Duck)
Rhode Island (Dusky Duck, Summer
Duck, Blue or Green Winged Teal)
Tennessee, Montgomery and Cheat-
ham Cos (Duck)
Vermont (Wood Duck)
" (Wild Geese and Ducks)....
Virginia (Wild Water Fowl, except
Wood Duck and Sora)
Washington ("Wild Ducks)
West Virginia (Wild Ducks, Geese,
and B'.'uit)
Wisconsin (Wood, Mallard, and Teal
Ducks)
Wyoming (Wild Fowl)
Rail.
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New York (Queens and Suffolk Coun-
ties)
Pennsylvania
HUNTING
429
HUNTING
Woodcock.
Connecticut
Delaware
District of Columbia
Georgia, Morgan County
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kentucky
Maine
Maryland, all counties
" some counties
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Nevada
New Jersey
New York
North Carolina, New Hanover Co..
Ohio and Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
Tennessee (generally)
Vermont
Virginia
Wisconsin
Doves and Pigeons.
Alabama, some counties
" all counties
California
Georgia, some counties
" Bibo County
Kentucky
Massachusetts
Mississippi
Missouri ,
North Carolina
Rhode Island (when netted o
trapped)
South Carolina
Wisconsin
Hares and Rabbits.
Alabama, Lawrence County
Delaware, some co unties
" all counties
Kentucky, some counties
Maryland, all counties ,
" some counties ,
Massachusetts
New Hampshire
New Jersey
Pennsylvania and New York.
Rhode Island
Snipe.
Dakota
District of Columbia
Michigan
Nevada
New Jersey
New York, Queens and Suffolk Coun-
ties
North Carolina, New Hanover Co. . .
Tennessee (generally)
Wyoming
Squirrels.
Connecticut (gray)
Kentucky, some counties (black,
gray, or fox squirrels)
Massachusetts (gray)
New Hampshire (gray)
New Jersey (gray and red).
New York (gray and black). .
Absolutely protected within 3 miles of nesting-place.
HUNTING
43°
HUNTING
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Pennsylvania (gray and black) Pike
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Elsewhere
— —
— —
.^—
Rhode Island (gray)
—
^—
— —
—
Water Animals.
Iowa (.Beaver, Mink, Otter, Muskrat)
Maine (same, with Sable and Kisher).
Montana (Beaver, Otter, Fisher)
Nebraska (Mink and Muskrat)
New Hampshire (Mink, Beaver,
Sable, Otter, Fisher)
—
—
—
—
—
~
Ohio (Muskrat, Mink, Otter)
Utah (Beaver, Otter)
Vermont (Mink, Beaver, Otter,
Fisher)
m^—
.^^
Wisconsin (Otter, Mink, Martin,
Muskrat, Fisher)
_ ^_
.^__
Plover.
Dakota
mm
^_
•••-
_^_
_^
Maine
__
— •
__
"^^™
— —
=
Missouri
Nevada
—
__
—
^^
__
—
_
_
New York, Queens and Suffolk Coun-
is—
__
_
—
__
—
_—
— -
^^~
^^~
^~—
Tennessee, Montgomery and Cheat-
^^_
^^_
_^_
_^_
Rice Bird.
^^_
__
___
___
Reed Bird. See RAIL.
Elk, Moose, Antelope, Buffalo. See
DEER.
Robin, Lark, Bobolink.
Gull, Tern, Sea Swallow.
Starling.
_
Mountain Sheep. _
(Elsewhere prohibited.)
Colorado. Hunting prohibited till
1895.
Washington
—
— —
—
^~—
—
Elsewhere, where found, included
with DEER.
Hunting has always been a more
favorite sport with the northern
than with the southern nations of
Europe. The early inhabitants of
Britain are said to have kept good
hunting-dogs, and under the Saxon
kings the sport was reduced to a
system. Alfred the Great was an
expert huntsman when a boy of
twelve. The love for the sport was
carried to such an extent that laws
had to be made prohibiting hunting
on Sunday, and forbidding monks
to hunt in the woods with dogs.
People were also forbidden to inter-
fere with the king's hunting, but
any man could hunt where he
chose.
When the Normans conquered
England, they brought with them
much finer horses and hounds than
those the Saxons had used, but
they made hunting a privilege of
the nobles alone, and passed cruel
laws forbidding the common people
to indulge in it. These laws, called
HUNT THE RING
431
HYDROCHLORIC ACID
Forest Laws, drove many of the
Saxons into rebellion, and some, like
the famous Robin Hood (see C. P.
P.), became outlaws. These laws,
little by little, were removed; yet
even at the present day, the law in
England is very severe against
hunting on land belonging to
another person. Such hunting is
called poaching, and the game-
keepers who have charge of the
game on large estates are obliged to
keep constantly on the watch for
poachers, who are generally pun-
ished severely. In this country
the owners of enclosed ground
usually allow people to hunt there,
but they have always the right to
forbid it, as explained above.
HUNT THE RING. See HUNT
THE SLIPPER.
HUNT THE SLIPPER, a game
played by any number of persons,
with an ordinary slipper. The play-
ers sit on the floor in a circle, except-
ing one, who stands in the middle.
Those in the circle pass the slipper
quickly around the ring either be-
hind their backs or beneath their
bent knees, and the one in the
middle tries to find out who has it
at every moment. If he can call
the name of the person in whose
hands it is, that person must take
his place. It is usual for the players
to pretend to pass the slipper when
it is not in their hands, and to try in
many ways to mislead the one look-
ing for it. Instead of a slipper a
ring is often used, strung on a long
cord, on which it is slid along from
one player to another. If the
players keep their hands moving
along the cord, it is very difficult to
tell where the ring is. In this form
the game is called Hunt the Ring.
In France Hunt the Ring is
called Le Furet (The Ferret), and the
player within the circle is named
the Hunter. During the game the
players sing a song, beginning :
" II court, il court, le Furet,
Le Furet du bois. mesdames;
II court, il court, le Furet,
Le Furet du bois joli."
In English this is
" He runs, he runs, the Ferret,
The Ferret of the woods, ladies;
He runs, he runs, the Ferret,
The pretty Ferret of the woods.
HUTCHINSON FAMILY, a game,
or trick, played by any number of
persons. Those who know the
game retire to an adjoining room
and are supposed to personate the
Hutchinson family, to whom the
others are brought in one by one to
be introduced. The "family," who
all stand in a row, imitate, as ex-
actly as possible, whatever the
guest says or does, until he sits
down, when he joins the family, and
another person is brought in.
Sometimes, when the guest under-
stands the joke, he can turn it on
the members of the " family," by
doing something difficult to imi-
tate.
HYDROCHLORIC ACID, Experi-
ments with. Hydrochloric acid is
a gas made up of hydrogen and
chlorine (see C. C. T.). It is called
also muriatic acid. It is sold in
drug-stores in liquid form, the gas
being dissolved in water. If this
liquid be heated it will give off the
gas again. The liquid may be held
over an alcohol lamp, in a bottle or
flask from which a delivery-tube
leads to the bottom of a jar. The
gas, being heavier than air, will stay
in the jar till it is full. The gas
may be made also by gently heat-
ing common salt and sulphuric
acid in a flask. Pieces of rock salt
the size of a pea should be used, for
with ordinary pulverized salt the
action is too quick, causing the
mixture to froth. The gas is col-
lected as before. It is transparent,
so the only way to tell when the
jar is full is to hold a strip of blue
litmus paper near the topi (See
TEST PAPERS.)
EXPERIMENTS.
I. The Fountain. This is made
in the same way as the AMMONIA
fountain, except that the water must
be colored with blue litmus, and
HYDROGEN
432
HYDROGEN
will turn red as it enters the upper
bottle. The result is explained in
the same way, hydrochloric acid
gas having a great liking for water.
2. Fill a long test-tube with the
dry gas, and invert it over a saucer
of mercury, letting the mouth of the
tube dip below the mercury. Put
a bit of ice into the tube by pushing
it under the mercury. The ice and
gas will both disappear, and the
mercury will rise in the tube. This
is because the gas likes water so
well that it forces the ice to melt,
and is then dissolved by the water
which is made. The pressure of the
outside air then forces the mercury
up into the tube to take the place
of the dissolved gas.
See also Experiment 3 under AM-
MONIA.
HYDROGEN, Experiments with.
Processes and things merely al-
luded to in this article are freely
explained in that on CHEMISTRY,
EXPERIMENTS IN. Hydrogen gas
is described in C. C. T. To make
it, bore two holes in the cork of a
wide-mouthed bottle, like those in
which pickles and jam are sold,
making sure that the cork is sound
and tight. Through one of the holes
put a " thistle-tube," and through
the other a delivery-tube, the end
of which is bent to collect the gas
over water. The thistle-tube must
reach nearly to the bottom of the
bottle, but the deli very- tube must
end near the top. Into the bottle
put about a dozen small pieces of
zinc. Scraps of zinc can be bought
at a plumber's, and cut up with a
pair of shears. Each piece should
be bent or twisted a little, so that it
will not lie flat on the bottom of the
bottle. Instead of zinc, nails or
scrap-iron may be used. The cork
with its two tubes must now be put
in place. Be sure that it is tight
(hydrogen being quite explosive);
blow into the delivery tube till the
water rises into the funnel of the
thistle tube, and then stop up the
end of the delivery-tube with the
tongue. If the water stays at the
same height in the other tube
the bottle is tight, if not, the cork
must be covered with sealing-wax.
When all is tight, half fill the
bottle with water, by pouring it
through the thistle-tube. Then
pour in sulphuric or hydrochloric
acid slowly, half a tea-spoonful
or so at a time, until bubbles be-
gin to rise pretty briskly from
the zinc. Gas will soon bubble up
into the receiver. If it does not,
pour in more sulphuric acid, and if
it Still refuses to appear it is proba-
ble that the cork is not tight, and
that the gas is escaping into the
air. The first jarful of hydrogen
made must be thrown away, for it
is mixed with the air which was in
the bottle to begin with, and a mix-
ture of hydrogen and common air
is very explosive. When one or
more jars of pure hydrogen have
been collected, the experiments de-
Making Hydrogen.
scribed below may be tried with it,
or a large quantity may be made
and stored in a gas holder for future
use. The hydrogen made in this
way comes from the acid used (see
ACID in C. C. T.) The other sub-
stances in the acid prefer the zinc
or iron to the hydrogen, and so let
it go and unite with the metal in-
stead. The substance so formed is
sulphate of zinc or iron, if sulphuric
acid be used, and chloride of zinc or
iron, if the acid is hydrochloric
Any of these dissolves in water un-
HYDROGEN
433
HYGROSCOPE
less there is too much acid in it,
when it sticks to the metal and
stops the action. For this reason it
is not well to put in too much acid.
EXPERIMENTS.
1. Holding a jar, in which hy-
drogen has been collected, mouth
downward, touch a lighted match
to it. If the gas is pure, it will
burn quietly. Repeat the experi-
ment, holding the mouth of the
jar upward, the gas will burn quick-
ly with a high flame. This is be-
cause hydrogen is lighter than air
and so escapes and mixes with it
when the opening of the jar is up-
permost.
2. A jarful of hydrogen may be
poured up into an empty jar. That
the gas has really been poured into
the empty jar may be proved by
touching a match to it.
3. Remove the end of the delivery-
tube and substitute a glass jet. If
the hydrogen is pure it may be
lighted at this jet, and will burn with
a very pale blue flame. This experi-
ment must not be tried till several
jars of gas have been collected, for
if the gas in the bottle is impure it
will explode. It is a good plan to
wrap a cloth around the bottle, so
that if there be an accident broken
glass will not be thrown about. A
jet of hydrogen burning thus is
called the " Philosopher's Candle."
4. Hold a glass tube twelve or fif-
teen inches long and about one and
a half inches wide over the flame of
the Philosopher's Candle, and move
it up and down. A position will be
found where the tube will give out
a musical sound. If it does not, the
size of the jet and tube are not fitted
to each other, and one or the other
should be made larger or smaller.
The sound is caused by a great
number of little explosions, so close
together that they form a musical
sound. (See SOUND, C. C. T.)
5. Blow soap-bubbles with the
gas, as described in the article SOAP-
BUBBLES. The gas must be drawn
from a gas-holder for this purpose.
If the bubbles be blown with a mix-
ture of hydrogen and air, or hydro-
gen and OXYGEN, each will explode
with a loud report, instead of burn-
ing, when touched with a lighted
match.
HYDROSTATIC BELLOWS. A
scientific toy, made as follows : Cut
out two pieces of board of the same
size and shape, either square or
round, and about two feet in diam-
eter. Connect them by nailing
leather to their edges, so that when
it is stretched they will be about six
inches apart. The apparatus must
be water-tight. Bore an auger-hole
in one piece of board, and fit in it
tightly the end of a piece of lead-
pipe five or six feet long. Place the
bellows on the ground with a heavy
weight on it, so that the boards will
be pressed together. Support the
pipe upright and pour water into it
through a tin funnel. The upper
board of the bellows will rise, raising
the weight. If the experimenter
stand on the bellows, he can raise
his own weight by pouring water
into the tube. The reason is, that
in fluids pressure is carried equally
in all directions. If the pipe is one
square inch in section, then every
square inch of the bellows-boards is
pressed on by a weight equal to the
water in the pipe ; and if the bellows
be large, the entire pressure may
thus amount to several hundred
pounds.
HYGROSCOPE, an instrument
to show whether the air is moist or
dry. One of the simplest is made
by taking a hair or piece of cat-gut
a foot or two in length, and hang-
ing it by one end to a nail in the
wall, tying to the other end a small
weight, just sufficient to stretch
the hair tight. Hair or cat-gut
will lengthen by absorbing moisture
from the air, so the hair becomes
longer in moist than in dry weather.
To show a slight change in the
length of the hair, a splinter of
wood is fastened at one end to the
HYGROSCOPE
434
HYGROSCOPE
hair near the weight, and is pivoted
on a pin very near that end. A slight
movement of the end fastened to the
hair, will thus cause
a greater one in the
other end. The
illustration shows
one a little more
carefully made. Fas-
tened to the upper
part, d, of the frame
is a screw a b to
tighten the hair, c
is the hair, and p
the weight. To re-
lieve it of the ten-
sion caused by the
weight, the hair is
passed over a pul-
ley, to w-hich the
pointer is attached.
A little thermom-
eter is fastened to
the side of the
frame.
Hair Hygroscope. This kind of hy-
groscope can be
made also of twisted cat-gut, which
untwists by absorbing moisture. The
little houses with figures of a man
and woman, one of whom appears
in moist and the other in dry
weather, are made in this way.
Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometer.
This form of hygroscope consists of
two thermometers hung side by side.
Around the bulb of one is tied a
piece of soft cloth, the end of which
dips into a cup of water. The cloth
soaks up the water, and keeps the
bulb continually wet. The evapora-
tion of the water on the bulb keeps
it cooler than the other, so it always
stands lower. On very dry days
the water evaporates fast, and the
wet bulb thermometer stands much
lower than the other, while on
Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometers.
damp days the water does not evap-
orate so quickly, and so it stands
only a little lower. Hence the in-
strument is used to tell whether the
air is dry or damp.
Phial Barometer. This is really
a kind of hygroscope, because it does
not measure the pressure of the air,
but shows only whether it is dry or
moist. Cut off about half of the
neck of a common glass phial (see
CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS, direc-
tions for glass-working) and nearly
fill it with water, which may be col-
ored if desired. Place the finger
over the mouth of the phial and in-
vert it; the water will not run out
even when the finger is removed.
Suspend the phial, neck downward,
by a string. In dry weaiher the un-
der surface of the water is either
level or concave, but in damp
weather a drop appears at the mouth
of the phial, and keeps enlarging
till it falls. This is caused by the
deposition of moisture from the air.
ICE
435
ICE-BOATS
ICE, Expe rime nts with. In a
room below the freezing point place
a lump of ice, whose ends rest on
two chairs, tables, or boxes, and
hang a weight of several pounds over
the ice by an iron wire. The wire
will cut gradually through the ice,
but the block will freeze together
again above it, so that in time the
weight will fall to the floor, the wire
having cut completely through the
block, which nevertheless remains
sound and whole.
ICE-BOATS, The present ice-
boats, or yachts, as they are some-
times called, are made on the plan
shown in Figs, i and 2, of two beams
crossed, and braced with iron stays.
The runners, three in number, are
at the ends of the cross-beam (called
the " runner plank ") and at the
rear of that running lengthwise
(called " centre timber"). On the
forward end of the centre timber
is bolted the bowsprit. The rear
runner serves as a rudder. The for-
ward runners are fastened by a bolt
on which they can rock forward and
backward. There is one mast, which
is placed slightly in advance of the
cross-plank. An oval box, holding
two persons, is fastened just above
the rudder; except for this the
boat is merely a frame. The larg-
est ice-boats are 50 to 60 feet long,
and 25 or 26 feet wide. They are
rigged as sloops, cat-boats (see Fig.
3), or with a lateen sail (see SAIL-
ING). Ice-boats may sail faster than
the wind, as shown by Fig. 4:
Suppose the wind to be blowing
in the direction of the arrow at the
rate of twenty miles an hour ; then, if
A B is a mile, the boat cannot sail
that distance directly before the
wind in less than three minutes; but
the friction of the runners on the ice
is so slight, that it will sail along A C
in almost the same time. As A C is
about two miles, the boat would be
going twice as fast as the wind. Ice-
boats thus attain wonderful speed.
On February 12, 1879, the " Lucille "
sailed from Poughkeepsie to New
Hamburg, on the Hudson River,
nine miles, in seven minutes and ten
seconds. At another time the
" Snow Flake " is said to have made
the same distance in seven minutes,
and in 1882 the " Haze " did the
same, making at one time two miles
in one minute. Many similar in-
stances of great speed are related,
but it is hard to get an official rec-
ord, for ice-boats go fastest when
least expected, and the time made
in regular races, as shown below, is
far slower than that just given,
though still very great.
The sails of the boat are set near-
ly fore and aft, and the boat is man-
aged almost entirely by the rudder,
the speed being so great that the
helmsman has no opportunity to
ICE-BOATS
436
ICE-BOATS
change the position of the sail. If
the sail must be reefed, the boat is
Fig. a.
brought into the wind and the crew
disembark to reef it. The boat is
stopped usually by bringing her with
thrust down to act as a drag. The
boat is anchored by bringing her
into the wind, loosening the jib-
sheets, and turning tlie rudder
crosswise. The ice boat obeys her
rudder very easily, and the steers-
man must be always on his guard,
for if he turn it too suddenly the
boat will spin around, throwing
the crew out. To cross a crack,
some sailors first head the boat so
her head to the wind, and then
slackening the sheet. Many ice-
boats have a brake which can be
Fig. 4.
as to " spill" (or lose) the wind and
then run over the crack so that both
forward runners cross it at the same
time ; and some disembark and help
the boat over. Others would sim-
ply slack both sheets and let the
boat's momentum carry her over.
The wind often forces the boat over
so that the weather-runner is lifted
clear of the ice, leaving only the lee-
runner and the rudder.
The boat is then said to " rear,"
and must be eased by bringing her
into the wind, if the boat is beating
to windward. One or two men
often stand on the windward runner,
to keep it down. The greatest
speed, running free, is made by steer-
ing across the wind till a maximum
velocity is reached, and then steer-
ing down the wind without slacking
the sheet. The momentum will
carry the boat faster than the wind
for some distance, when she must
again be brought up and headway
regained. The yachtsman often
.wears coverings of wire gauze over
his eyes and mouth to keep out fly-
ing snow.
The strain on the timbers of an
ice-yacht makes it necessary that
they shall be perfect in grain and
well seasoned. The runners are
ICE-BOATS
437
ICE-BOATS
Ice-boats on the Hudson.
made of iron or steel. Iron runners
wear at first, but by use acquire
Crossing a Crack.
what is called a " water polish," the
surface becoming very hard. Many
boats have two sets of runners,
sharp ones for smooth ice and strong
winds, and duller ones for rough or
soft ice.
A Tom Thumb ice-boat holds
only one person, and can be made
by nailing boards together as in the
diagram. The runners are made of
skates. The rear one, or rudder, is
screwed to the end of a stout wood-
en upright which passes through a
hole at the rear of the main plank.
To this upright a horizontal handle
is fastened, forming the tiller. The
steersman sits just forward of the
tiller with his feet on the cross-
plank. The rudder may be omitted,
the rear skate being fixed, like the
others; but in this case the steers-
man must have on skates and steer
with his feet. Any simple sail may
be used.
The chief ice boat clubs in the
United States are on the Hudson
River and the Shrewsbury River in
New Jersey. A silk challenge pen-
ICE-BOATS
438
ICE-BOATS
nant, thirty feet long, is raced for
every year. The winner can be
challenged in the following year by
Tom Thumb Ice-boat.
any organized club in this country
or Europe. A list of winners of the
pennant, with their times, is given
in the appendix.
The following are the chief sail-
ing rules of the Hudson River Ice
Yacht Club:
RULE I. — The following sailing
rules and regulations shall govern
and control all the regattas and all
the races of this Club, and all con-
tests sailed under its auspices, un-
less otherwise specified between
parties making a match.
RULE II. — Classification. Yachts
shall be divided by sail area into
four classes as follows: First class.
measuring 600 square feet of sail
area and over ; Second class, meas-
uring 450 and under 600 square
feet; Third class, measuring 300
square feet and under 450 ; Fourth
class, measuring less than 300.
RULE III. — Objections. If any
objection be made with regard to
the starting of any ice-yacht in a
race, such objection must be made
in writing to the Regatta Commit-
tee at least one hour before a regatta.
RULE IV. — Entry of the Yachts.
Unmeasured or unrecorded yachts,
or yachts in arrears to this Club,
cannot be entered for any race.
RULE V. — Touching Buoys, etc.
An ice-yacht touching any mark,
boat, or buoy, used to mark out
the course, shall forfeit all claim
to the prize, except as in cases
specified in Rules VII, IX, X.
RULE VI.— Rule of the Road.
When two yachts have to cross
each other on the opposite tacks,
the one on the starboard must
invariably keep her course, and the
one on the port tack must keep
away and pass to leeward, or tack
short, when the smallest doubt
exists as to her being able to
weather the other. All expenses of
damages incurred by yachts on op-
posite tacks running on board each
other, fall upon the one on the port
tack, unless the one on the star-
board tack has kept away with the
intention of passing to leeward, in
which case the expense of damage
falls upon the yacht on the star-
board tack, because, by her keeping
away, she may have prevented the
other passing to leeward. Should a
vessel on the port tack attempt to
weather one on the starboard tack
when it does not seem possible to
do so, the latter, rather than keep
away, should put her helm down.
Nothing should induce a vessel on
the starboard tack to keep away.
RULE VII. — Courses. Any ice-
yacht purposely bearing away or
altering her course to leeward, and
thereby compelling another ice-
yacht to bear away to avoid a col-
lision, shall forfeit all claim to the
prize, and pay all damages that may
ensue — unless, when two ice-yachts
are approaching the wind ward shore,
a buoy or stake boat, together with
a free wind, and so close together
that the weathermost cannot bear
away clear of the leewardmost, and
by standing further on would be in
j danger of running on shore, or
I touching a buoy or stake boat ; then
! such leewardmost ice-yacht, on being
, requested to bear away, is imme-
ICE-BOATS
439
IDENTIFICATION
•diately to comply, and will forfeit all
claim to the prize by not doing so.
The weathermost ice-yacht must,
however, bear away as soon as the
one she hails, if she can do so with-
out coming into contact.
RULE VIII. — Rounding Buoys,
etc. When rounding a mark, boat,
or buoy, the ice-yacht nearest
thereto is to be considered the
headmost ice-yacht ; and should
any other ice-yacht in the race com-
pel the ice-yacht which is nearest
to any mark, boat or buoy; to touch
said mark, boat, or buoy, the ice-
yacht so compelling her shall forfeit
all claim to the prize ; her owner
shall pay for all damages that may
occur; and the ice-yacht so com-
pelled to touch a mark, boat, or
buoy, shall not suffer any penalty for
such contact.
RULE IX. — Courses. Ice-yachts
going free must invariably give way
for those by the wind on either tack.
RULE X. — Courses. When two
ice-yachts (by the wind) are ap-
proaching the shore, a mark, boat,
or buoy, together, and so close to
each other that the leewardmost
cannot tack clear of the weather--
most, and by standing further on
would be in danger of running on
shore, or touching a mark, boat, or
buoy; such weathermost ice-yacht,
on being requested to put about, is
immediately to comply, and will
forfeit all claim to a prize by not
doing so. The leewardmost ice-
yacht must, however, tack at the
same time as the one she hails, if
she can do so without coming into
contact.
RULE X I. — Pushing. Unfair
pushing is strictly forbidden in any
race for a prize ; any ice-yacht in-
fringing upon this Rule, in the
opinion of the Regatta Committee,
shall forfeit all claim to the prize.
RULE XII.— Ballast. No ice-
yacht shall increase or diminish
ballast during a race.
RULE XIII. — Time of Perform-
ance. SECTION i. In case the
distance assigned for the race shall
not have been performed in the
time specified by the Regatta Com-
mittee, the race shall be repeated
at such time as the Regatta Com-
mittee may appoint.
SEC. 2. If any ice-yacht, however,
shall perform the distance in time
specified for her class, it shall be
deemed a race for that class.
History. Ice-boats have been
used in the north of Europe for
several centuries, but they have
never been brought to such perfec-
tion there as in the United States.
In Holland and Russia they are
hardly more than sleds with sails,
and sometimes they are sail-boats
mounted on runners. The princi-
pal improvements in ice-boat build-
ing have been made by the clubs on
the Hudson River, the first of which
was formed in Poughkeepsie, N. Y.,
in 1861, but the sport is practised on
harbors, lakes, and streams through-
out the northern United States and
in Canada.
IDENTIFICATION, GAMES OF,
games in which part of the players
try to guess the names of the others
from the appearance of their eyes,
ears, noses, or fingers. The players
are divided into two parties, and
stand in adjoining rooms, in the
doorway; between the posts of which
is stretched a sheet of cloth or paper
with a hole in the middle. Each of
one party now puts a finger through
the hole, and each of the other
party guesses who its owner is. As
the guesses are made, they are re-
corded, and when all have guessed,
he who has made the most correct
guesses is declared the winner.
The parties then change places.
Instead of fingers, noses, ears, or
hands may be put through the hole,
or each may apply one eye to it.
There may be only one guesser, and
as soon as he makes a correct guess
the person guessed may take his
place.
In another game those whose
names are to be guessed kneel down
ILLUSTRATED BALLADS
440
I LOVE MY LOVE
in a row, and their heads and faces
are covered with long paper funnels,
each having two holes for the eyes.
To the bottoms of the funnels is
pinned a sheet, which hangs to the'
ground, concealing their bodies.
Each one of the guessers now takes
a lighted candle, and looking at the
I
Identification.
eyes through the holes in the paper
funnels, guesses who each one is.
When all have guessed, the paper
funnels are removed. Another
method of identification is by the
voice. French BLIND MAN'S BUFF
is a game of this kind.
ILLUSTRATED BALLADS, ballads
illustrated by PANTOMIME or TAB-
LEAUX. The ballad is read or
sung by a concealed person. If it
be illustrated by pantomime, the ac-
tion should accompany the ballad
from beginning to end; but if by tab-
leaux, they may be shown at inter-
vals, when required. Any ballad
telling a simple story may be thus
illustrated. Instead of a ballad, a
narrative poem may be taken, such
as Longfellow's " Evangeline," or
" Miles Standish."
I LOVE MY LOVE, a game
played by any number of persons,
who usually sit in a circle. The one
who begins says, for instance, " I
love my love with an A, because
she is amiable; I hate her with
an A, because she is avaricious. I
took her to the sign of the Antelope,
and treated her to apples and ale'
Her name is Anna, and she lives in
Andover." The words in italics
may be varied as the speaker
chooses, but must always begin
with A, and if the player is a girl,
she must of course speak of her
love as a boy. When the first play-
er has finished, the one on his left
repeats the sentence, and so on till
all have done so, but the words in
italics must be entirely new in each
case. When a player mentions any
one of them a second time, or can-
not think of a suitable word, he
must pay a forfeit. When all the
players have used the letter A, the
sentence is repeated again by all in
turn, using words that begin with
B, and so on through the alphabet,
except that X, Y, and Z, and some-
times U, V, and W, are omitted.
When a large number play the
game, it is often difficult for those
whose turns come last to think of
words that have not been used, and
the turns should therefore be taken
alternately in different directions;
that is, to the right for A, to the
INDIAN CLUBS
441
IODINE
left for B, and so on. The sentence
given above is very commonly used
in the game, but it may be varied
at the pleasure of the company.
History, The game of I Love my
Love was formerly very simple, and
consisted in saying " I love my love
with an A, because he is agreeable,
amiable, attentive," and so on, using
all possible adjectives beginning
with an A, while the next player took
up B in the same way. The game
is called in France " Lejeu de 1'al-
phabet" (The Alphabet Game). It
is sometimes called "Alphabetical
Compliments." The game can be
varied in many ways. For instance,
each player may represent a mer-
chant, the first saying " My name is
Atreus, I come from Attica, I deal in
Antiquities, and am going to
jEtna ; " the second, " My name is
Byron, I come from Barbary, I deal
in Bananas, and am going to Bos-
ton ; " and so on through the alpha-
bet. Games of this kind are called
in Germany Spzelen mit gegebenen
Anfangsbuchstaben (Games with
Given Initials).
INDIAN CLUBS. See GYMNAS-
TICS.
INITIALS, a game played by any
number of persons. The leader be-
gins by addressing to any player a
remark whose words begin with the
initials of that player's name in
their proper order, or some epithet
beginning with those initials. The
others, one by one, address the
same player in like manner. When-
ever the player so addressed can
answer one of the others with a
sentence or epithet beginning with
the latter's initials, before the next
player can speak, the players must
all address the one so answered, and
so the game goes on. For instance,
if the player's initials are A. E. B.,
he may be addressed with " An ex-
quisite beau !" " Are eggs break-
able ?" "Apples excite boils." "An
early bird," etc.
A similar game is known in Ger-
many as Namenspiel (The Name
Game). In it the names or epithets
are given one by one by each player
to his neighbor, who must guess to
whom they refer. They may apply
to some one in the company or to
some well-known person or histori-
cal character.
INK, Experiment with. Dissolve
one half teaspoonful of salt in a
tumblerful of water. Dip a pen
in ink, filling it not too full, and
touch with it the surface of the
water. The ink will descend into the
tumbler in curiously shaped drops.
INTELLECTUAL SALAD, a guess-
ing game played by any number of
persons. Any number of cards are
first prepared, on each of which is
written a quotation, with its au-
thor's name. The cards are decor-
ated with green leaves of tissue
paper, and placed in a salad bowl.
One of the company takes them out
one by one and reads the quotations,
while the others guess the authors'
names. The first one who guesses
correctly, in each case, is given the
card to keep as a memento.
IODIDE OF MERCURY, Experi-
ment with. Mix together solutions
of iodide of potassium and corrosive
sublimate (the latter should be used
with care, as it is very poisonous).
A bright scarlet powder will be
formed, which may be separated by
filtering (see CHEMICAL EXPERI-
MENTS). This powder is iodide of
mercury. When rubbed on paper
it leaves a beautiful scarlet stain,
but on heating the paper over an
alcohol lamp, the stain turns yellow.
If the stain be rubbed over with the
fingers it will turn scarlet again.
j The change takes place gradually if
' the yellow stain be scratched with
a pin. The reason is that iodide of
mercury crystallizes in two forms,
one of which is red and the other
yellow. The red form is changed to
the yellow by heat, and the yellow
crystals are broken up into red ones
again by rubbing,
IODINE, Experiments with. The
iodine used in these experiments
IRON BURNED IN A CANDLE 442
I SUSPECT
is a bluish black solid. The liquid
iodine used in medicine is really
iodine dissolved in alcohol.
1. Take a piece of iodine and heat
it in a bottle. It will not melt, but
give off a beautiful purple vapor.
2. Powder some iodine fine, and
put a very little of it (about as
much as will lie on quarter of an
inch of the small blade of a knife)
into a small saucer. Pour in
enough strong ammonia water to
cover it, and let it stand for about
20 minutes. Then either stir the
powder up, and filter it (see CHEM-
ICAL EXPERIMENTS) or pour off most
of the ammonia, and then pour the
powder on a piece of blotting-paper, j
Place the filter-paper or blotting-
paper where it will dry in the sun.
When it is perfectly dry, rub a stick
on the powder, or even brush a
feather over it, and it will explode
with a crackling noise. Though it
has not changed in looks, the iodine
has been made by the ammonia into
a very explosive substance called
Nitrogen Iodide. The reason why
so little iodine was used, is that
otherwise the explosion might be
dangerous.
IRON BURNED IN A CANDLE,
Take any piece of iron, as a bit of
wire, or a nail, and scrape it with a
knife above the flame of a candle.
Very small bits of the iron are
scraped off which, although they
cannot be seen with the naked eye,
take fire as they fall into the flame,
and burn with beautiful sparks.
I SPY, an out-door hiding game
played by any number of persons.
One of the players, who is usually
chosen by COUNTING OUT, remains
near the goal (which may be a tree,
stone, or other object) and, shutting
his eyes, counts a number previously
agreed upon, generally one hun-
dred. Meanwhile, the others hide,
each where he pleases, and when
the player at the goal has finished
counting, he goes out in search of
them. When he sees one he names
him. saying, " I spy James Smith,"
or whoever it may be. Both now
run for the goal. If the hider
touch it first, without being touched
himself, he is safe. If the seeker
can not catch any of the players he
spies, nor touch the goal before
them after he spies them, he must
close his eyes again while they all
hide as before ; but if he has caught
or touched the goal before one or
more players, the first one of them
must take the seeker's place in the
second game. The hiding players
need not wait to be spied, but may
run in and touch the goal whenever
they think they can do so safely.
This game is sometimes played in
England by dividing into two par-
ties, one of which hides and the
other seeks. If the seeking party
spy two of the hiders before two
others reach goal, they hide in the
next game, otherwise the same
party hide again.
Hide and Whoop or Hide and Seek,
a kind of I Spy played by little chil-
dren. Those who hide call out
" Whoop !" when they are ready,
and the seeker then looks for them.
In the simplest form of the game
there is no goal, and the one that
is found first becomes seeker in the
next game. Another game some-
times called Hide and Seek, is called
in this book HIDE THE HANDKER-
CHIEF.
The Greeks played a game of
Hide and Seek called Apodidras-
kinda (The Shunning Game), where
one sat down and closed his eyes,
while the others hid. He who was
found first took the seeker's place.
IMPERIAL, See PlQUET.
I SUSPECT, a game of cards
played by any number of persons
with one or more full packs. The
cards are dealt one by one, so as to
be as evenly distributed as possible.
The eldest hand leads a card, face
downward, calling out at " the
same time the name of a card,
which maybe the one he laid down
or some other. The next player to
the left now plays in like manner
I SUSPECT
443
JACK-STONES
and must call the name of the card
next higher than the one named by
the eldest hand. The others in
turn do the same. Thus if A leads,
calling " Six," the others in turn, as
they play, say "Seven," "Eight,"
" Nine," " Ten,1' " Knave," etc.
When King is reached the next
player begins at " One " again. This
goes on till some one suspects that
the card played is not the same as
the card called, when he must say
" I suspect " The suspected person
then shows the card he played. If
the suspicion is correct, the offender
must take into his hand all the cards
on the table; if it was unfounded,
the accuser receives the cards. He
who first gets rid of all his cards is
the winnei.
A just accusation may always be
avoided by playing the proper cards
in order, but this is impossible with
a small hand, hence it is always safe
to suspect the holder of a few cards.
The last card should always be sus-
pected, since there is only one
chance in thirteen of its being right.
If a player can get all four cards of
the same name into his hand, he is
of course, certain to suspect rightly
any one whose turn it is to play
one of those cards. A skilful player
rarely plays the right card unless he
thinks some one is watching him,
and saves as many kinds of cards as
he can, getting rid of duplicates.
When his hand is small, he tries to
hide the fact by diverting the atten-
tion of the company to some one
else.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. No player can be suspected
after the next in order has played
his card.
2. A player may conceal his hand
as he pleases, to hide the fact that
it is small, but he must always show
it on demand of any one of the
company.
3. The game may be continued
after one player's cards are gone,
till all the cards are in one hand. In
this case any one out of the game
may suspect, and if he suspect
wrongly he must enter the game
again.
This game is called also "I
Doubt it," and " You Lie."
JACK'S ALIVE. See ROBIN'S
ALIVE.
JACK-STONES, a game played
by one or more per-
sons with five small
pebbles, or little
pieces of iron
'shaped as in the
illustration. These
are thrown up and
caught in various
Jack-stone. ways, and if more
than one plays, he wins who first
succeeds in going through in order
with a certain number of exer-
cises. These exercises differ in
kind and number in different
places; but some of them are
given below.
1. The five Jack-stones are thrown
into the air and caught all together
on the back of the hand.
2. One of the Stones is tossed up
and caught in the hand and on its
back alternately. At the successive
catches the player calls out " Five !"
" Ten ! " " Fifteen ! " " Twenty! " and
so on by fives up to One Hundred.
3. Ones. The Jack-stones are held
in the hand, and one, called the
"Jack," is thrown into the air, while
the four others are laid on the floor
or table in time to catch the Jack as
he comes down. These are then
picked up, one by one, each one
while the Jack is thrown into the
air. When all have been taken into
the hand they must be laid down
JACK-STONES
444
JACK-STONES
as before, ready for Two's. Only
one hand must be used.
4. Twos, Threes, and Fours. The
same as ones, except that the Stones
are picked up first two at a time;
then three and one at a time ; and
then all four at a time.
5. The Stones are all taken in the
hand and laid down, first one at a
time, then two at a time, and so on,
always while the Jack is in the air.
Each time after all are laid down,
they are picked up all at once.
6. Riding the Elephant. The four
Stones are placed in a line, and with
the Jack on the back of his hand the
player traces a curved line in and
out among them with his forefinger.
At the end he tosses up the Jack,
and picks up all the Stones before
catching it, all with one hand.
7. Set the Table. Four Stones are
placed in a heap, and one by one are
set at the corners of a square, while
the Jack is in the air.
" Peas in the Pod."
8. Peas in the Pod. The left hand
fs laid on the table with the ends of
the thumb and forefinger joined.
Into the circle thus formed the
Stones are pushed, one by one, while
the Jack is in the air. The hand is
then removed and all are picked up
together.
9. Horses in the Stable. Similar
to the above, save that the fingers of
the hand are outstretched and one
Stone pushed into each opening.
All these exercises, of which
there are very many, require the
player to do something with the
Jack-stones while the Jack is thrown
into the air, and they all require
" Horses in the Stable."
practice. Some of them can be
mastered only after hours or even
days of hard work. A game of
Jack-stones between two or more
persons is thus only a trial to see
which is most perfect in the exer-
cises.
History. Jack-stones is mentioned
by the Greek poet, Aristophanes, as
a girl's game more than two thou-
sand years ago, and it has been a
common amusement from that time
to, this. The illustration shows a
Greek girl playing. The ancients
Greek Girl Playing Jack-stones,
played it with the knuckle-bones of
sheep, and it is still so played in
Europe, but in this country pebbles
JACK-STRAWS
445
JUSTICE IS BLIND
or iron Jack-stones are commonly
used. In England it is called
"Dibs." "Cockall" was an old name
for it, and the French call it Osselets
(little bones).' Sometimes, also, it
is played with m;irbles, and the
jack is often of a different size or
color from the rest. The name
" Jack-stones " is probably a cor-
ruption for " Chuck Stones." In
Scotland small pebbles are called
" chuckie-stanes." In Germany it is
called Handtopsen or Knochelchen,
and the Jack receives in various parts
of that country different names.such
as Hecker, Dopser, and Hopper.
Oti-dama,or Japanese Jack-stones,
the game of Jack-stones played
with little bags about an inch and
a half square, partially filled with
rice. Some of the figures of Oti-
dama differ from those of ordinary
Jack-stones. Seven bags are often
used, and the Jack is sometimes
made of a different shape. The
name is in Japanese O-tedaina,
from O te tama (The Hand-balls).
The game is common in Japan, and
pebbles also are used in playing it
there, as with us.
JACK-STRAWS, a 'game played
by any number of persons with little
sticks of ivory or wood of equal
length, generally between four and
six inches. Some of these sticks,
called Jack-straws, and usually
twenty to one hundred in number,
are plain, and some carved to look
like various objects, as weapons,
tools, garden implements, and the
like. The players sit around a
table, and the one who begins takes
up the Jack-straws in one hand, in a
bundle, and then holding them up-
right and touching the table, sud-
denly lets go, so that they fall out-
ward in all directions. Each in turn
then tries to pull from the pile with a
little hook, made for the purpose,
as many of the straws as he can,
one at a time, without shaking any
of the others. If he shakes any
Jack-straw ever so little, he must
stop, and the turn passes to the
next. When the pile is gone, he
who has the most Straws wins.
Sometimes the Straws are marked
with different numbers, and then at
the close of the game each adds his
numbers, and he who has the high-
est wins. The game is sometimes
called Jerk-straws, and perhaps the
common title is a corruption of this.
The English often call it Spillikins,
and the Germans Feder Spiel (the
Pen Game). The French call Jack-
straws lonchets, or Honchets (from
Joncher, to strew), and name partic-
ular pieces the King, the Queen, and
the Knight. These are of different
shapes from the others, and being
more difficult to extract from the
pile, count more than the common
straws, the King being valued at 20
points, the Queen at 10, and the
Knight at 5.
JACOBY, a game of cards played
by three persons with a full pack.
Four hands are dealt, as in WHIST,
with a Dummy. The cards in
Dummy's hand are sorted in se-
quences, the highest first, begin-
ning with Clubs, followed in order
by Hearts, Spades, and Diamonds.
The cards are played as in WHIST,
except that each player is for him-
self. Dummy follows suit when he
can, always playing his highest
card, and when he cannot follow
suit he plays the first card in his
hand, arranged in the order de-
scribed. He is never allowed to
take a trick, and therefore never
leads. If he play a card that would
ordinarily take the trick, it goes to
the next highest card played. The
object is to get rid of the Jacks.
Each trick counts one, but for each
Jack taken a number must be de-
ducted from the score. Thus, for
the Jack of Clubs, 4 is deducted ; for
the Jack of Hearts, 3 ; for the Jack
of Spades, 2 ; and for the Jack of
Diamonds, i. He who first makes
ten points wins the game.
JUSTICE IS BLIND, a game played
by any number of persons, one of
whom, representing Justice, is blind-
KALEIDOSCOPE
440
KALEIDOSCOPE
folded. Justice is given a seat in
the middle of the room, and then a
second player leads up the players,
one by one, and asks Justice's opin-
ion of each. Whenever the opinion
is correct, as decided by a majority
of the company, Justice changes
places with the person judged.
KALEIDOSCOPE. The ordinary
toy kaleidoscope is described in C.
C. T. A large one, to furnish
amusement at an evening party,
may be made thus : The lid of a
piano is opened and rested on piles
of books, so that it forms an angle
of 60 degrees with the top, and the
whole is then covered with the
piano-cloth, or with a large table
cover. The polished top and lid of
the piano take the place of the
glass mirrors in the small kaleido-
scope, and when objects are held or
moved at one end they will appear
in beautiful and complicated designs
to any one looking in at the other.
The cover should hang down over
the end at which the observer
stands, so that he may put his head
under it. The objects at the other
end, which may be anything bright
or colored, must be shaken about
and changed rapidly. Thus the
exhibitor may first twirl a bouquet
of artificial flowers in front of the
kaleidoscope, then shake his fingers
there, then dangle two or three
silver spoons at the end of a string,
then look in and make a face, and
so on: The objects should be
brightly lighted, but the lamp or
gas fixture should be placed so that
it does not show in the kaleido-
scope. The reason why the reflec-
tions appear in a regular design in
a kaleidoscope will be understood
by looking at the figure, which, if
looked at from the left, may repre-
sent a section of the piano-lid and
top, M and M'. The top M will be
reflected in the lid M', appearing as
the dotted line just beyond, and
this reflection behaves like a real
mirror, so the lid is reflected in it.
appearing as the next dotted line.
In the same way the reflections
shown by the other dotted lines
appear. Therefore the observer
sees eight polished surfaces radi-
ating from the middle point, and if
any object A is held between the
lid and top, it will appear also
between every pair of these reflected
Principle of Kaleidoscope.
surfaces. Thus eight objects, a, b,
a', V , etc., are seen arranged in a
regular design, of which only one i&
real, the others being reflections
The centre of the design is always
the angle between the piano top
and lid. By varying this angle, the
number of reflections, and therefore
the shape of the design, will be'
changed, there being more images
as the top and lid are brought near-
er together. A kaleidoscope for
use with the MAGIC LANTERN can
be made by placing two mirrors
against the screen, at an angle, and
throwing between them the image
of a slide made of two pieces of
glass having heads or fragments of
glass between them. The image
can be varied, as in the ordinary
kaleidoscope, by shaking the slide.
KENO
447
KING'S CASTLE
The audience must sit on the op-
posite side of the screen from the
lantern.
Diffraction Kaleidoscope, a toy
depending on the principles ex-
plained under DIFFRACTION GRAT-
INGS. It has one of these gratings,
ruled with a diamond-point on
glass, for an eye-piece, and for ob-
jects disks of pasteboard with nee-
dle holes in various patterns. These
can be arranged to suit the fancy
of the observer. The light passing
through these holes, when viewed
through the grating, produces va-
rious beautiful colored patterns.
Tube Kaleidoscope. Paint a glass
tube (for instance the straight part
of an Argand lamp chimney) black
on the outside. Look through
this at a pin-hole in a piece of
paper, and several circles of light
will be seen, one within another.
Any design or figure looked at will
in like manner be reflected in cir-
cles, making a curious effect. The
tube may be closed at one end by
two pieces of glass, between which
are placed beads or other small
colored objects, as in an ordinary
kaleidoscope.
KENO. See LOTO.
KEY OF THE KING'S GARDEN.
See REPEATING GAMES.
KING AND QUEEN, a game or
trick in which any number of per-
sons may take part. All who have
never played the game before are
sent out of ths room. A boy and
girl are then selected as King and
Queen and seated on a throne made
of two chairs, placed about two feet
apart and covered with a shawl or
rug. The covering is stretched
while the King and Queen take
their seats, and their weight keeps
it smooth, so that the throne looks
like a solid bench, covered with a
shawl. The other players are then
asked to come in one by one. As
each appears, one who is chosen for
the purpose introduces him to the
King and Queen and says that they
wish him to sit between them. Just
as he is about to take his seat the
King and Queen rise and allow him
to fall between the chairs. He then
takes his place among the other
spectators, and witnesses the recep-
tion of his companions. The King
and Queen must rise exactly at the
right moment. If they do so too
soon, the victim will have time to
save himself; if they wait until he
has rested his weight on the shawl,
he will discover the trick and get
up quickly.
KING ARTHUR WAS KING WIL-
LIAM'S SON, a singing game played
by boys and girls. A row of hats is
placed on the floor, and the leader
of the game, putting the first one on
his head, marches about and sings to
the tune of " Maryland, My Mary-
land":
" King Arthur was King William's son,
And when the battle he had won,
Upon his breast he wore a star,
And it was called the sign of war."
He then picks up the next hat and
puts it on the head of any one he
chooses, who must then follow him
while they sing the same verse.
This goes on till all the company are
in line. Sometimes the first line is
"King William was King James's
(or King George's) son." A kissing
game is played by adding to this
stanza, or a similiar one, the lines,
" Star of the East, Star of the West,
Star of the one you love the best,
Down on the carpet you must kneel,
As the grass grows on the field,
Salute your bride and kiss her sweet,
And rise again upon your feet."
This game is played in this and
other ways in Ireland, and is com-
mon in the Middle and Southern
United States.
KING C/ESAR. See PEELAWAY.
KING'S CASTLE, a game in which
several players try to dislodge one
from some position he has chosen.
It is called in France Le Rot De-
tront (The Dethroned King). The
King selects for his castle a hillock
or mound, and the other players try
to dethrone him by pushing or
pulling him down. Sometimes
KING'S LAND
448
KITE-FLYING
only pushing is allowed. During
the civil war in England between the
Parliament and Charles I., the Puri-
tans besieged Hume Castle, and the
commander, when ordered to sur-
render, replied,
" I, William of the Wastle,
Am now in my castle,
And a' the dogs in the town
Winna gae me gang down."
This rhyme is supposed to have
been quoted from a boy's game of the
time, probably the same as that just
described. In Pennsylvania the de-
fender of the castle says :
" Hally, hally, hastle,
Come into my new castle."
In a variation of the game all the
players act as defenders except one,
who tries to gain entrance, saying :
" Hally, hally, hastle,
Get off my new castle."
KING'S LAND, See TAG.
KITE-FLYING. The article KITE
in C. C. T. describes several forms of
Japanese Kite.
Kites, and tells some interesting
things about them. A Japanese
form is shown in the illustration,
easily made from the thin slips of
bamboo in a Japanese fan, and
covered with tissue-paper. The
points in which skill is especially
shown in making a kite are the
arrangement of the string and the
tail. Two or more short strings are
fastened to the kite frame and these
are joined in a knot, to which the
kite string is afterward tied. The
kite (without its tail), if lifted by
this knot, should hang with its sides
perfectly even and the point where
the tail is to be attached a little
lower than the top. If, in flying,
the kite plunges sidewise, it is prob-
ably because this knot is too high;
if it whirls around, the knot is too
low.
The tail should never be less
than twelve times, and may be even
twenty times, the length of the kite.
It may be made of string with
stuff " bobs " of folded paper three
inches long placed at intervals of
three inches, or it may be of strips
of cloth tied together, in which case
it should be somewhat shorter. To
fly a kite, one person must hold it
in the air as high as he can, while
the other stands about fifty feet dis-
tant in the direction from which
the wind is blowing, with the
string in his hand. At a signal
from the latter, the former releases
the kite, while the latter runs
towards the wind till the kite has
mounted a little way. He then lets
out string till the kite is as high as
he wants it to go. The running is
for the purpose of increasing the
force of the air striking the kite, as
near the ground the wind is apt to
be light. In a strong wind it is
often unnecessary to run at all.
When a kite has reached such a
height that the weight of string
attached to it is all it can carry, it
will go no higher by itself, but the end
of the string may be attached to a
second kite which may be sent up
in the usual manner. One kite after
another may thus be sent up till their
combined pull is all that the flyer
can hold. Two kites sent up in
this way can be made to pull a car-
riage, the main kite being pre-
KITE-FLYING
449
KNAVE'S DIAL
ceded about 100 feet by a smaller
one, called a pilot kite, which can
be turned to one side or the other
by strings, and the carriage can
thus be guided somewhat. Benja-
min Franklin once allowed himself
to be drawn across a river by a kite,
when he was bathing.
While the kite is in the air, if little
pieces of paper with holes in the
middle be strung on the string, the
force of the wind will carry them up
to the kite. These are called " mes-
sengers." Messengers made like a
toy paper windmill will twirl around
as they rise.
Kite-fighting, a contest between
two kite- flyers to see which can
capture or disable the other's kite.
With ordinary kites this is done
by entangling the tail of one in
the string of the other. The kite
whose tail is thus entangled is said
to be captured. To capture a
hostile kite, the flyer must
make his own kite pass under
the string of the other and
then let out twine; when his
kite has fallen behind that of
the enemy he pulls it in rapid-
ly. Kites with broken glass
or knife blades fastened to the
tail are some-
times used in
these contests,
the object in
this case being
to cut the op-
ponent's string
by sweeping the
tail across it.
They should be
six-sided. The
pieces of glass
for the tail are
obtained by
chipping them from
a thick glass bottle.
Pieces with one edge
sharp and the other
thick and blunt are
selected, and three are
fastened to the string
all point outward. Strips of wood
are now bound to the string length-
wise between the knives to keep
them in place. Kite-fighting origi-
nated in China, where it is a favor-
ite sport.
History. Kites appear to have
been brought into Europe from
China or Japan, where they were
first used. The English name is
from a supposed resemblance to the
bird called a Kite. The French call
the kite cerf -volant (flying stag), the
Scotch name it Dragon, and the
Germans call it Drache which means
the same thing.
KNAVE'S DIAL, a SoLITAlREgame
of CARDS, played with one or two
full packs. All cards of the suit of
the first one played are placed, as
they appear, in a circle to represent
the numbers on a clock dial, the
Queen counting as u andtheKingas
Kite-cutter.
at one point with wax, so that they
Knave's Dial.
12. The Knave is placed in the cen-
tre. On this dial is placed another
of a differently colored suit, and so
on till all the cards are used. Cards
that cannot at once be put in place
are laid aside to form stock, and
the stock can be shuffled and relaid
twice. If the four dials can thus
KNIGHT OF THE WHISTLE
45°
KNITTING-NEEDLE
be formed, one above another, the
player wins.
KNIGHT OF THE WHISTLE, a
trick, which the victim supposes to
be a game. The person who is to
be duped is told that the game con-
sists in passing a whistle around a
circle of pluyers, while one, standing
in the middle, is required to find it
by its sound, as it is blown from
time to time. Whoever "counts
out " for the game must arrange
that the player in the middle is
some one who does not know the
trick, which will now be explained:
Tlie whistle is fastened to one end
of a string about two feet long, at
the other end of which is a bent pin.
The pin is hooked into the clothes
of the player in the middle of the
ring, so that the whistle always hangs
behind him. It is blown by some
one, and the seeker turns quickly to
find it, thus carrying it in front of
some one else, who blows it again.
The victim of the trick is thus kept
turning from side to side till he dis-
covers the deception. The pin can
be hooked into his clothes without
his noticing it by making him kneel
down and close his eyes, and then,
after going through a mock cere-
mony, declaring him a "Knight of
the Whistle," and striking him on
the back. While this is going on,
the whistle can be attached to him
unobserved. The players should
pretend to pass the whistle from one
to the other so as to increase the
deception.
KNIGHTS OF SPAIN, a game
played by three boys, representing
Spanish knights, and any number of
girls, representing a mother and her
daughters. The mother and daugh-
ters sit in a row, and the knights ad-
vance to ask the hand of one of the
latter in marriage. A dialogue is
carried on in verse, of which there
are many varieties. The following
is one common form :
KNIGHTS.
" Here come three lords out of Spain,
A courting of your daughter Jane."
MOTHER.
' My daughter Jane is yet too young
To be ruled by your nattering tongue."
KNIGHTS.
' Be she young or be she old,
"Tis for the price she may be sold.
' So fare you well, my lady gay,
We must turn another way.1'
MOTHER.
' Turn back, turn back, you Spanish Knight
And scour your boots and spurs so bright."
ONE OF THE KNIGHTS.
' My boots and spurs they cost you nought,
For in this land they were not bought?'
MOTHER.
' Turn back, turn back, you Spanish Knight,
And cnoose the fairest in your sight."
ONE OF THE KNIGHTS.
' I'll not take one nor two nor three,
But pray Miss (Mary) walk with me."
The knight then takes the hand
of the girl named and walks around
the room with her. On his return
he says :
" Here comes your daughter safe and sound,
In her pocket a thousand pound.
'* On her finger a gay gold ring, —
I bring your daughter home again."
Sometimes the girl runs away and
is pursued by her mother or the
knight.
History. This game is played in
many different forms throughout
Europe. The English and Scotch
versions are similar to ours, but in
Spain the "knights" represent an
embassy from the Moorish king.
The verse probably dates from the
middle ages. In the last century
the game was very popular in the
United States, and it is still played
somewhat. Another version of the
game begins " Here comes a duke
a-roving," sometimes corrupted into
"We are three ducks a-roving."
KNITTING NEEDLE, Experiment
with a, Heat a knitting-needle
to redness in an alcohol flame,
holding it by a cork on one end
so that the fingers may not be
burned. Dip the red hot needle
into cold water, and then hold it
again in the flame. It will change
KNURR AND SPELL
45 1
KNURR AND SPELL
color curiously, turning first yellow,
then orange, crimson, violet, blue,
and finally gray. The reason is,
that a film of rust forms on the
needle, which alters its color as it
grows thicker. In tempering steel
(see KNIFE in C. C. T) these colors
are carefully watched, for the kind
of steel depends on the time when it
is taken from the fire and cooled.
If the knitting-needle be cooled
when it is yellow, for instance, it
will be much harder than if cooled
when it is blue.
KNURR AND SPELL, corrupted
into " Northern Spell," a game
of ball played by any number of
persons, with trap, bat. and ball.
The trap is like that used in TRAP
BALL. The bat, represented in the
illustration, is of wood with a han-
dle of cane, four or five feet long.
Knurr and Spell.
The ball is of wood or white porce-
lain, about an inch and a half in di-
ameter. The players take turns at
the bat, and, sending the ball into
the air from the trap, as in Trap
Ball, try to knock it with the bat
as far away as possible. The dis-
tance of the spot where the ball
strikes from the trap is measured
in yards, and after each player has
had a certain number of turns, the
distances made by each are added
together. He whose sum is largest
is the winner. In striking the ball,
the bat is held in both hands by the
end of the handle, and whirled
around the player's head. The dis-
tance to which the ball can be driv-
en depends less on force than on
skill, which can be gained only by
practice.
This game is played chiefly in the
north of England. The bat used
is called the Knurr (a knot or
knob), and the trap the Spell.
LACROSSE
452
LACROSSE
LA C R O S S E, an out-door game
played by 24 persons, 12 on a side,
each of whom has a stick, orcrosse,
like that shown in the illustrations,
and fully described in Rule I. below.
At each end of the playing-field,
which is as near 125 yards long as
possible, is a goal consisting of two
posts, six feet high and the same
distance apart. Each side faces
one of these and tries to carry or
throw toward it with the crosse a
solid rubber ball, somewhat smaller
than a base-ball. The side that suc-
ceeds in propelling the ball through
their r-pponents" goal, either by
throwing or striking it with the
crosse, or by kicking it, scores a
goal, and the side that gains the
greatest number of goals in the
allotted time (see Rule IX., Sec. 8),
wins the game.
The titles of the players and their
positions at the beginning of the
game are given belcw, those defend-
ing the lower goal being in italics.
(Goal)
Goal-keeper
Po i n t Inside Home
Cover Point Outside Home
First Defence FirstAttack
Second Defence Second Attack
Third Defence Third Attack
Centre Field Centre Field
Third Attack Third Defence
Second Attack Second Defence
First Attack First Defence
Outside Home Cover Point
Inside Home Point
Goal-keeper
(Goal)
The players generally remain near
these positions throughout the
fame. In the Defence half of the
eld, the players, as a rule, try to
throw the ball as nearly as they can
the full length of the field, and at
the same time land it at about Cover
Point at the other end ; while the
Attack half usually run toward their
opponents' goal until " checked," or
stopped, when they " pass" the ball
to another of their team, who, in
Facing.
turn, does the same, each player re-
turning to his original position up-
on surrendering the ball. Thus, if
the Attack are well trained and play
well together, one of them will
eventually have a good opportunity
to "shoot for goal." At the open-
ing of the game, the ball is " faced"
in the centre of the field ; that is,
placed on the ground there between
the crossed sticks of the two op-
posing players whose positions are
each Centre (see list of positions),
and who must each have one knee
on the ground. When " Play" is
called, each Centre has one of three
methods of play to adopt: either he
can use some trick to obtain the
ball himself (and this is the most
frequently used), or else he can draw
his stick rapidly away, trying to
force the ball behind him, where
one of his team is always ready to
receive it, should the Centre be
successful. In the third and
last method, which the Princeton
College Lacrosse Team invented, he
may, by jumping up on his feet and
keeping his body between the ball
and his opponent, give a player on
his side a chance to run up and ob-
tain the ball. The ball must not be
LACROSSE
453
LACROSSE
touched with the hand, however, at
any time, by any player, except the
Goal-keeper. He who succeeds in
getting it after the " face" may
strike it with his crosse, run with it
in his crosse, or throw it by means
of his crosse. The opposing team
try to get the ball from him, either
by striking his crosse with their
crosses, or by " body-checking"
him, that is to say, running into
him bodily. Care must be taken,
however, not to run against an op-
ponent's back, and not to use one's
hands, arms, or legs in " body-
checking."
A line drawn six feet in front of
each goal is called the " Goal-crease,"
and no attacking player is allowed
inside it until the ball has passed
Cover Point. The Goal-keeper,
while defending the goal, stands
inside the " Goal-crease," and is al-
lowed privileges that are denied to
the other players. (See Rule XII.)
Picking up and Carrying. A
player, when running, always picks
up the ball by pushing his crosse
under it; when standing, however,
he hooks the ball towards him with
his crosse and then pushes it under,
the ball rolling on by its own im-
petus. In pushing the crosse, the
player leans down so that it will not
make too great an angle with the
ground. When the ball is already
running toward the player he has
merely to let it roll up on his crosse,
but the crosse must be held at a
greater angle the faster the ball is
coming. If the ball is rolling very
fast and the crosse is held so as to
offer too gentle an incline, the ball
is likely to bound up into the
player's face. If the ball comes on
a swift bound, the player should be
able, by not standing directly in
front of it, to catch it in his net
without any difficulty, the old idea of
"blocking" or knocking it straight
downward and catching it when it
rises, being entirely given up, nowa-
days, as in doing that too much
valuable time is lost. When it
comes on the fly it is received on
the net, the crosse being drawn back
slightly as the ball strikes it.
A "liner" is caught by a player's
moving to one side, holding his
crosse in a horizontal position, and
allowing it to " give " a little when
the ball strikes it. All these move-
ments (and many more could easily
be described) require a great deal of
practice to render them successful.
Running and Dodging. As a
rule, each team has its own method
of play, but good critics consider it
poor play to keep the men running
until " checked ;" it being far better
to save their strength by teaching
the Defence to throw as far and as
accurately as possible, and the Attack
to " pass " among themselves as
quickly and accurately as possible.
In running, the ball is held on the
crosse, which is inclined slightly
downward in front of the player,
the inclination increasing with the
speed. The ball is kept in place
partly by the resistance of the air,
and rests against the stick of the
crosse, which is turned slightly to
one side for the purpose. When the
runner meets an opponent, he must
take care to prevent the latter from
striking his crosse, and at the same
time prevent "body-checking."
Sometimes he changes the crosse
from one hand to another, or even
turns his back, which makes it diffi-
cult for the enemy to get at his
crosse. Sometimes, with a quick
wrist-movement, he throws the ball
over his opponent's head, or to one
side, running on and catching it
again before his antagonist has time
to turn. On the other hand, the
player who is trying to get the ball
strives to knock it out of the run-
ner's stick, or else, which is far more
customary nowadays, he tries to
upset him by "body-checking."
One method of knocking a ball out
of a runner's stick is to strike the
crosse down, not hitting the ball,
which may then be caught in the
air.
LACROSSE
454
LACROSSE
Throwing. This is the term
applied nowadays strictly to the
Defence who "throw" the full length
of the field. The act of sending the
ball from one Attack man to another
is now termed either " tipping," or
" passing," and that of attempting
to send the ball between the posts a
" shoot for goal." When an Attack
player with the ball finds that he
can run no farther and that dodging
is useless, he passes the ball to
another player on his own side,
either one who is farther forward,
or who has a clear field before him.
There are many kinds of throws, of
which only a few will be described
here. Of Defence throws, the best is
to turn the back in the direction in
which the ball is to be thrown and
raise the crosse straight up, so as to
throw over the head. Skilful
Throwing backward.
players throw thus with great accu-
racy of aim, and the plan has the
advantage that, as the thrower's
back is toward the checking player,
it is hard for the latter to interfere.
The crosse must be turned side-
wise a little to prevent the ball's
falling off, as the player turns, and
the throw is made chiefly from the
elbow, the crosse being stopped
suddenly just before the hands
touch the face.
Perhaps the most universal, and
certainly the best Attack throw is
made by bringing the crosse around
to the right side, then raising it,
and throwing from the shoulder.
Tipping may be done in two ways :
either by a single players' tossing
the ball a foot or so and catching it
again, repeating this performance
as he runs, or else by two players
running along together, and as each
is compelled by opponents " check-
ing" them to do so, tossing or pass-
ing the ball a few feet from one to
the other. (See Rule XII.) Other
details of the game are given in the
following playing rules of the New
England Amateur Lacrosse Associa-
tion. Those of the rules relating to
the discipline of the association and
having nothing to do with the game,
are omitted.
RULE I. — The Crosse, SEC. i.
The crosse may be of any length to
suit the player ; woven with cat-
gut, which must not be bagged.
(" Cat-gut " is intended to mean
raw-hide, gut, or clock-strings ; not
cord or soft leather.) The netting
must be flat when the ball is not on
Goal Tend.
it. In its widest part the crosse
shall not exceed one foot. A string
LACROSSE
455
LACROSSE
must be brought through a hole at
the side of the tip of the turn (to
prevent the point of the stick catch-
ing an opponent's crosse). A lead-
ing string resting upon the top of
the stick may be used, but must not
be fastened, so as to form a pocket,
lower down the stick than the end
of the length strings. The length
strings must be woven to within
two inches of their termination, so
that the ball cannot catch in the
meshes.
SEC. 2. Players may change their
crosse during a match.
RULE II.— The Ball. SEC. I.
The ball must be of sponge rubber,
manufactured by the New York
Rubber Co. In each match a new
ball must be used, furnished by the
home team. It shall become the
property of the winning team.
SEC. 2. The ball shall be of the
size of the ball marked No. 40, regu-
lation by the New York Rubber Co.
RULE III.— The Goals. SEC. i.
The goals must be at least 125
yards from each other, and in any
position agreeable to the captains
of both sides. The top of the flag-
poles must be six feet above the
ground, including any top orna-
ment, and six feet apart. In matches
they must be furnished by the chal-
lenged party.
RULE IV. — The Goal Crease.
SEC. I. No attacking player must
be within six feet of either of the
flag poles, unless the ball has passed
Cover-point's position on the field.
RULE V.— Referee. SEC. i. The
Referee shall be selected by the
captains.
SEC. 2. Before the match begins,
the referee shajl see that properly
qualified Umpires are selected, as
provided for in Rule VI. All dis-
puted points and matters of appeal
that may arise during his continu-
ance in office shall be left to his de-
cision, which, in all cases, must be
final, without appeal.
SEC. 3. Before the match begins,
he shall draw the players up in lines,
and see that the regulations respect-
ing the ball, crosses, spiked soles,
etc., are complied with. He shall
also see that the regulations respect-
ing the goals are adhered to. He
shall know before the commence-
ment of a match the number of
games to be played, the time for
stopping, and any other arrange-
ments that may have been made by
the captains. He shall have the
power to suspend, at any time during
the match, any player infringing
these laws — the game to go on dur-
ing suspension.
SEC. 4. When " foul " has been
called by either captain, the referee
shall immediately cry " time," after
which the ball must not be touched
by either party, nor must the players
move from the positions in which
they 'happen to be at the mo-
ment, until the referee has called
'"play." If a player should be in
possession of the ball when "time" is
called, he must drop it on the ground.
If the ball enters goal after " time "
has been called, it shall not
count.
SEC. 5. The jurisdiction of the
referee shall not extend beyond the
match for which he is appointed ;
and he shall not decide in any
matter involving the continuance of
a match beyond the day on which
it is played. The referee must be
on the ground at the commence-
ment of and during the match. At
the commencement of each game,
a.id after "fouls" and "balls out of
bounds," he shall see that the ball is
properly faced, and, when both sides
are ready, shall call "play." He
shall not express an opinion until he
has taken the evidence on both
sides. After taking the evidence, his
decision in all cases must be final.
Any side rejecting his decision, by
refusing to continue the match,
shall be declared losers.
SEC. 6. When game is claimed and
disallowed, the referee shall order
the ball to be faced for, from
where it is picked up ; but in no
LACROSSE
MS 6
LACROSSE
case must it be closer to the goals
than ten yards in any direction.
RULE VI.— Umpires. SEC. I.
There shall be one Umpire at each
goal. They shall not be members
of either club engaged in a match,
nor shall they be changed during
its progress without the consent of
both captains.
SEC. 2. Their jurisdiction shall
last during the match for which
they are appointed. They shall not
change goals during a match.
SEC. 3. No person shall be al-
lowed to speak to an umpire, or in
any way distract his attention, when
the ball is near or nearing his goal.
SEC. 4. They shall stand behind
the flags when the ball is near or
nearing their goal. In the event of
game being claimed, the umpire at
that goal shall at once decide
whether or not the ball has fairly
passed through the flags, his de-
cision simply being "game" or " no
game," without comment of any
kind. He shall not be allowed to
express an opinion, and his decision
shall in all cases be final, without
appeal.
SEC. 5. In the event of the field
captains failing to agree upon the
umpires, after three nominations (in
accordance with this rule) have
been made by each party, it shall be
the duty of the referee to appoint
one or more umpires, as may be re-
quired, who shall not be one of the
persons objected to, who must be
duly qualified, as required by this
rule.
SEC. 6. Only the captain of either
side and one other player by him ap-
pointed shall have the right to call
" foul," and the referee shall not
stop the game when " foul " is
called by any one else. In cham-
pionship matches they shall be ap-
pointed the day previous.
RULE VII. — Captains. Captains
to superintend the play shall be
appointed by each side previous to
the commencement of a match.
They shall be members of the club
by whom they are appointed, and
no other. They may or may not be
players in the match ; if not, they
shall not carry a crosse, nor shall
they be dressed in lacrosse uniform.
They shall select umpires and
referees, as laid down in these rules,
toss for choice of goals, and the cap-
tain and one player appointed by
him shall be entitled to call "foul "
during a match. They shall report
any infringement of the laws during
a match to the referee.
RULE VIII. — Names of Players.
The players on each side shall be
designated as follows : " Goal-keep-
er," who defends the goal ; " Point,"
first man out from goal ; " Cover-
point;" in front of Point ; " Centre,"
who faces; "Home," nearest op-
ponent's goal; others shall be termed
" Fielders.'
THE GAME.
RULE IX.- -Miscellaneous. SEC.
3. The game must be started by the
referee facing the ball in the centre
of the field between a player on each
side. The ball shall be laid upon the
ground between the sticks 'of the
players facing, and when both sides
are ready the referee shall call
" play." The players facing shall
have their left side toward the goal
they are attacking, and shall not be
allowed to use a left-handed crosse.
SEC. 4. A match shall be decided
by the winning of most goals in
every match, unless otherwise agreed
upon. Games must in all cases be
won by putting the ball through the
goal from the front side.
SEC. 5. Captains shall arrange,
previous to a match, whether it is to
be played out in one day, postponed
at a stated hour in the event of
rain, darkness, etc., or to. be con-
sidered a draw under certain circum-
stances, and if postponed, if it is to
be resumed where left off.
SEC. 6. If postponed and re-
sumed where left off, there shall be
no change of players on either
side.
LACROSSE
457
LACROSSE
SEC. 7. Either side may claim at
least five minutes' rest, and not
more than ten, between each game.
SEC. 8. The time of game shall
be two half hours, with ten minutes
rest between.
SEC. 9. No change of players
must be made after a match has
commenced, except for reasons of
accident or injury during the game.
SEC. 10. Should any player be
injured during a match, and com-
pelled to leave the field, the oppo-
site side shall drop a man to
equalize the teams. In the event
of any dispute between the field
captains as to the injured player's
fitness to continue the game, the
matter shall/at once be decided by
the referee.
RULE X. — Spiked Soles. No
player must wear spiked soles or
boots, and any player attempting to '
evade this law shall be ruled out of
the match.
RULE XI.— Touching Ball ivith\
the Hand. The ball must not be j
touched with the hand, save in cases
of Rules XII and XIII.
RULE XII .—Goal- Keeper. The
goal-keeper while defending goal
within the goal-crease, may pat
away with his hand, or block the
ball in any manner with his crosse
or body.
RULE XIII. — Ball in an Inacces-
sible Place. Should the ball lodge
in any place inacessible to the crosse,
it may be taken out with the hand,
and the party picking it up must
" face " with his nearest opponent.
RULE X.lV.—Ball out of Bounds.
Balls thrown out of bounds must be
" faced " for at the nearest spot
within the bounds, and all the play-
ers shall remain in their places until
the ball is faced. The referee shall
see that this is properly done, and
when both sides are ready shall call
play. The "bounds" must be dis-
tinctly settled by the captains before
the commencement of the match.
RULE XV. — Accidental Games.
Should the ball be accidentally put
through a goal by one of the players
defending it, it is game for the side
attacking that goal. Should it be
put through the goal by any one not
actually a player, it shall not count.
RULE XVI.— Ball Catching Net-
ting. Should the ball catch in the
netting, the crosse must be struck
on the ground to dislodge it.
RULE XVII.— Fouls, and Penal-
ties for Same. The following shall
constitute fouls, and be punished as
such by the referee :
SEC. i. No player shall grasp an
opponent's crosse with his hands,
hold it with his arms or between
his legs, nor shall any player more
than six feet from the ball hold his
opponent's crosse with his crosse,
run in front of him, or interfere in
any way to keep him from the ball
until another player reaches it.
SEC. 2. No player with his
crosse or otherwise shall hold, de-
liberately strike or trip another, nor
push with the hand, nor wrestle
with the legs so as to throw an
opponent.
SEC. 3. No player shall hold the
ball in his crosse with his hand or
person, or lay or sit on it.
SEC. 4. No player shall charge
into another after he has thrown the
ball.
SEC. 5. The crosse or square
check which consists of one player
charging into another with both
hands on the crosse, so as to make
the crosse strike the body of his
opponent, is strictly forbidden.
SEC. 6. No player shall interfere
in any way with another, who is in
pursuit of an opponent in posses-
sion of the ball.
SEC. 7. "Shouldering" is al-
lowed only when the players are
within six feet of the ball, and then
from the side only. No player must
under any circumstances run into
or shoulder an opponent from
behind.
SEC. 8. The referee shall be the
judge of fouls, and shall call time
to decide them only at the request
LACROSSE
458
LADY OF THE MANOR
of the captains or the men ap-
pointed by them.
SEC. 9. When a foul is allowed
by the referee, the player fouled
shall have the option of a free
" run " or "throw" from the place
where the foul occurred. For this
purpose all players within ten feet
of said player shall move away to
that distance, all others retaining
their positions. But if a foul is
allowed within twenty yards of the
goal, the man fouled shall move
away that distance from goal before
taking the run or throw allowed
him.
SEC. 10. If a foul is claimed
and time called, and the foul then
not allowed, the player accused of
fouling shall be granted a free
" run " or " throw " under the con-
ditions above mentioned (Sec. 9).
SEC. ii. No player shall throw
his crosse at a player or at the ball,
under any circumstances : and such
action will be considered a "foul."
Should a player lose his crosse
during a game, he shall consider
himself " out of play," and shall not
be allowed to touch the ball in any
way until he again recovers it.
Kicking the ball is absolutely pro-
hibited to players without a crosse.
SEC. 12. Any player considering
himself purposely injured during
play, must report to his captain,
who must report to the referee, who
shall warn or suspend the player
complained of.
SEC. 13. For deliberate fouls
which occasion injury to opponents
or affect the result of the game, for
the first offence, the referee shall
have power to suspend the player
committing it for the rest of the
game (not match) ; for a second
offence, the referee may remove
the offending player and compel
his side to finish the match short-
handed.
SEC. 14. Any player deliberately
striking another, or raising his hand
to strike, shall be immediately ruled
out of the match.
RULE XVIII.— Settlement of Dis-
putes. In the settlement of any
dispute, whether by the umpires or
referee, it must be distinctly under-
stood that the captains, with one
player each to be selected by them,
have the right to speak on behalf
of their respective clubs; and any
proposition or facts that any player
may wish brought before the referee
must come through the captains or
the players selected by them.
RULE XIX. — Flag-pole Down.
In the event of a flag-pole being
knocked down during a match, and
the ball put through what would
be the goal if the flag-pole were
standing, it shall count game for the
attacking side.
History. Lacrosse, in one form
or another, is said to have been
played by the North American
Indians from a very early time, to
teach their young men strength and
endurance. The game is described
by early French missionaries to
Canada, and the Jesuits named it
La Crosse, from the stick with
which it was played, which resem-
bled the French Crosse or hockey-
stick. The original meaning of the
word is a bishop's staff, or crozier,
shaped something like a hockey-
stick. The Chippewa name was
Baggatinaway. On June 4, 1763,
the fort at Michilimackinack (now
Mackinaw, Mich.) was surprised
and taken from the English by a
party of Indians who pretended to
be playing a game of Lacrosse. The
game is still a favorite with the
Canadian Indians, among whom are
to be found its finest players. It is
widely played by Canadians, and
has been called their national game,
holding the same place with them
that Base-ball does in this country.
It has lately been introduced into
the United States, where it finds
some favor, and numerous clubs
have been organized to play it.
LADY OF THE MANOR, a SOLI-
TAIRE game of CARDS, played with
two full packs. Four piles of
LAMP-LIGHTER
459
LAWN BILLIARDS
twelve cards each are placed in a
row, one pile at a time. The rest
of the cards are now divided into
thirteen piles, which are placed in a
semicircle above this row. Each of
the thirteen piles contains only
cards of the same value, and they
are arranged in regular order, from
Ace to King. The player's object
is now to form families, without
following suit, by placing the eight
Aces in a row below, and building
upwards from them. Cards may
be taken for this purpose from the
top of any of the four original piles,
or from these in the semicircle. If
the families can be completed, the
player wins. The semicircle should
be resorted to only in case of neces-
sity.
LAMP - LIGHTER, Experiments
with. Lamp-lighters were formerly
used instead of matches for lighting
lamps, being lighted at a fire. They
are made by rolling up strips of
newspaper about eighteen inches
long and one and a half inches wide,
beginning at one corner. The large
end is folded over to prevent un-
winding. In performing the follow-
ing experiments keep away from
draughts.
1. Light the lower end, hold the
lamp-lighter slantingly, and as the
flame moves towards the upper end,
a tongue of flame still burns at the
charred lower end. Blow this out,
allowing the other to burn, and its
place will be taken by a stream of
smoke. This smoke may be lighted
like gas.
2. Leave the large end of a lamp-
lighter open, and holding it at that
end, to prevent unwinding, and light
the lower end. There is now no
second flame, but the smoke pours
from the upper end, and may be
lighted as before.
3. Repeat Experiment 2, holding
the charred end over the mouth of
a jar or wide-mouthed bottle. Pinch
the upper end after the smoke has
begun to stream out, and it will pour
out of the lower end, without burn-
ing, into the bottle, which it will fill.
Light the smoke in the bottle and it
will take fire with a sudden flash.
4. Fill the bottle with the smoke,
'out allow it to subside. Repeat six
or eight times, and several drops of
a yellow liquid will be collected.
Heat these in a tin spice-box over a
flame, and smoke will again be pro-
duced, which may be burned as
before.
LAWN BILLIARDS, a lawn game
played by from two to ten persons,
with balls like CROQUET balls, which
they try to drive through a ring.
The implements are shown in Fig. i.
The ring, which is of metal, is just
large enough to allow a ball to pass
through it, and is set loosely in a
wooden or metal peg, driven into
Fig. i.
the ground, as in Fig. z, so that it
can revolve easily. The balls are
propelled with a cue, consisting of a
wooden handle three or four feet
long, with a small ring fixed in the
end at an angle. Each player may
have one of these, or each may use
the same one in succession. The
object of each is to drive his ball
through the ring, which scores one
point. If a ball bounds through
from another ball, it counts two
Fig. 2.
points. No ball must be pushed or
thrown through the ring. Each
player has only one turn, whether
he is successful or not. Instead of
trying for the ring, any one may en-
deavor to knock another's ball out
of position, or to strike the side of
LAWN TENNIS
460
LEAF PRINTS
the ring, and so turn it edgewise
to another ball. Skilful players
can sometimes send their balls
through the ring when it is turned
almost edgewise, by striking it on
one side, causing it to turn around
and catch the ball. The ground
may be surrounded by a wooden
border, one side of which is seen in
Fig 2.
LAWN TENNIS. See TENNIS.
LAWYER, a game played by any
number of persons, who usually sit
in two rows of chairs, facing one
another, excepting one who stands
between the rows. The player who
stands, called the lawyer, asks a
question of any of the others, and the
one who sits opposite must answer
it. If the player addressed answers,
or if the one opposite him does not
begin to do so before the lawyer
counts ten, the one making the mis-
take must pay a forfeit and take the
lawyer's place. If both make mis-
takes, the lawyer may decide which
is to take his place. The one who
answers must do so as if he had
been spoken to directly ; thus, if the
question is " Are you fond of row-
ing?" the opposite one must not
answer, for instance, " Yes, he enjoys
it very much," but "/enjoy it very
much." The players may sit in a
circle instead of in two rows. In
this case the one opposite may
answer, as before, or the right or
left hand neighbor of the person
questioned, as is agreed upon be-
forehand.
Though the questioner is now
usually called the lawyer, the game
is probably named from the fact
that the questioned player has some
one to answer for him, just as a
lawyer sometimes acts for his
client.
LEAD, Experiments with. I. With
a sharp knife cut away part of two
leaden bullets so as to make a flat
surface on each. Press these sur-
faces together with a slight screwing
motion, and they will adhere so
tightly that it is difficult to pull them
apart. In this way several bullets
may be made to stick together.
2. Melt some lead in an iron
spoon. A gray scum will form on
the top. Still holding the spoon in
the fire, stir the lead with a piece of
iron, and in time it will all turn to
the gray substance that formed the
scum. If the lead be weighed be-
fore it is melted, and again after it
has turned to the gray substance, it
will be found to have gained in
weight. This is because the gray
substance has in it not only the lead
but also some OXYGEN from the air,
which united with the lead to make
lead oxide, or litharge.
3. Put a teaspoon ful of litharge
in a quarter of a glass of strong
vinegar. The vinegar will dissolve
it, forming lead acetate or SUGAR
OF LEAD, with which may be per-
formed the experiments described
under that title. It is very pois-'m-
ous, so must be used carefully.
4. Pour a few drops of sulphuric
acid into the vinegar in which the
litharge was dissolved, and a white
powder will at once appear. This
is sulphate of lead. The lead, hav-
ing a greater liking for sulphuric
acid than for vinegar, left the latter
and united with the former.
LEAD TREE, a curious formation
made by the action of zinc on a
salt of lead. Make a strong solu-
tion of lead nitrate or lead acetate,
suspend in it a strip of zinc, and set
it in a quiet place. Beautiful lead
crystals will form in the liquid, re-
sembling the growth of a plant.
The cause is chemical action. The
acid in the lead salt (see SALTS in
C. C. T.) prefers zinc to lead, and
so takes it up instead. The lead as
it is thus slowly displaced forms the
crystals seen.
LEAF PRINTS. Prints of leaves
resembling lithographs may be made
by the following method. The im-
plements required are a small ink-
roller, such as is used by printers to
ink type (one three inches long may
be bought for forty cents), quarter
LEAF SKELETONS
461
LEAP-FROG
of a pound of dark green printers'
ink, which is sold in tubes, and
some unglazed paper. The ink
must be thinned by adding two or
three drops of balsam copaiba to a
salt-spoonful of ink. The thinned
ink is spread evenly on a pane of
glass with the roller, which is then
passed over the leaf it is desired to
print. If the leaf stick to the roller,
it is a sign that the ink needs more
thinning. The leaf is then pressed
down on the paper and leaves a
perfect impression. The paper
should be slightly dampened, which
is best done by keeping it in the
cellar. If the leaf is very large, it
should be inked a little at a time.
If it is finely veined, the under sur-
face may be used to print from :
otherwise the upper surface gives
the best results, If the leaf be soft,
it should be covered with a few
thicknesses of newspaper before
printing, and if it is irregular in
thickness, the thinner parts may be
covered with paper. The best way
to apply the pressure is with an
ordinary copying press ; but it may
be done in any other way, as for in-
stance with books, or merely by
rubbing the thumb over the leaf.
With practice excellent leaf-pictures
may thus be made.
LEAF SKELETONS, the bleached
framework of leaves, from which all
the skin and pulp have been re-
moved. They can be used in vari-
ous ways for decoration. The best
time to prepare them is early in the
summer, when the leaves are tender.
Dissolve four ounces of washing-
soda in a quart of boiling water and
add two ounces of slaked lime.
Boil this liquid a quarter of an hour,
and then, after it has cooled, pour
off the clear fluid. Boil the leaves
in this till the skin and pulp are so
tender that they can easily be re-
. moved from the skeleton by rub-
bing between the fingers. Rub
them thus carefully in cold water,
and then bleach them by soaking
fifteen minutes in a quart of water
to which has been added one tea-
spoonful of chloride of lime. Dry
the skeletons by rubbing them
gently on blotting paper.
LEAP-FROG, a game played by
any number of persons, each of
whom in turn leaps over the others,
one by one. The players stand
in a row, about fifteen feet apart,
each resting his hands on his
thighs and bending his head for-
ward. This is called " making a
back." The player at one end of
the line takes a short run, and leaps
over each of the others, placing his
hands on their backs and letting his
legs pass one on one side and one
on the other. The player who is
leaped assists the leaper by rising
slightly and then stooping. The
players may stand side by side, in
which case the leaper goes over
them sidewise, or they stand in file,
in which case he leaps from their
backs over their heads. When he
has thus gone over the whole line,
he " makes a back " at the proper
distance, and the player who is
thus left in the rear becomes the
leaper.
Foot and a Half, a leap-frog
game where the person to be
jumped over moves by degrees
farther and farther from the point
where the jump begins. A line is
drawn (sometimes called the "gar-
ter ") to mark the beginning of the
jump, and whoever steps on it must
take the place of the player leaped
over. After the players in turn
have leaped, the last cries " Foot
and a Half !" and the player who is
making the back thereupon places
his right heel in the hollow of his
left foot, advances the latter so that
its hollow covers his right toe, and
then brings up his right foot to its
original position. The players then
leap again, always beginning at the
"garter," after which the back ad-
vances again in like manner, and
the game goes on till some one
treads on the "garter, "or fails in
leaping. The unsuccessful one then
LEGITIMIST,
462
LENSES
makes a back and another game
begins.
This game is called also " Fly the
Garter " and " Foot it." Sometimes
it is varied by allowing the last
player in the first round to make a
back at the spot he reaches in his
jump. The back thus changes at
each round, and as the position is
moved forward such a distance each
time, the players are often allowed
one jump, or a hop, skip, and jutrp,
between the garter and the back.
In France Leap-frog is called Le
Saut de Mouton (The Sheep's Leap).
Besides the varieties described
above, French boys play one called
Saut de Mouton avec Mouchoirs
(Sheep's Leap with Handkerchiefs),
in which each leaper is required, in
his first turn, to lay his handerchief
on the back of the player he leaps,
and at his second turn to pick off
his own handkerchief, leaving the
others. Another variety is called
" Sheep's Leap with Crowns." Each
leaper places on his head a crown
made of a twisted handkerchief, and
at the moment of leaping takes it
off and throws it on the ground
before him. At his second turn he
must pick up his own crown without
moving his feet from the place
where he alighted, though he may
bend in any direction or even throw
himself at full length. If his crown
touch any of the others, or if he
touch any of them in picking it up,
he must make a back in his turn.
The boy who makes the back is
called in French Le Patient (The
Patient).
LEGITIMIST, THE, a SOLITAIRE
game of CARDS, played with two
full packs. A King is placed at the
player's left, and then in order, as
they appear, a Queen, Knave, Ten,
Nine, Eight, Seven, and Six. On
each of these a card next below it in
rank is placed, and so on, till, when
the piles are completed, the top
cards will be Ace, King, Queen,
Knave, Ten, Nine, Eight, and Seven.
The cards that cannot be used at
once are placed aside to form stock,
which can twice be taken up,
shuffled, and relaid. The player
must take care to notice when his
piles are completed. As each ends
with a different card, an inattentive
player is apt to build some of them
too far.
LENSES, Experiments with.
Lenses are described in C. C. T.
Very fine ones can be bought of an
optician, but the experiments de-
scribed here can be performed with
simple ones. A burning glass is a
double convex lens, and, so are some
spectacle glasses.
1. Photographic Lens. Let one
person hold up a handkerchief, or a
blank sheet of writing-paper, ten or
twelve feet in front of a window, and
let the other hold a lens between the
paper and the window. By moving
it, now nearer the paper and now
nearer the window, a place will be
found where a picture of the window,
upside down, will be seen on the
paper. The picture will be plainer
if the other windows in the room
be closed, and still plainer if the
lens be surrounded with a piece of
pasteboard, so that no light can
shine on the paper except that
which passes through the lens. The
picture is called an image. In like
manner an image of any thing
bright can be made. This is the
way an image is thrown on the
plate in PHOTOGRAPHY.
2. Microscopic Lens. Hold a lens
very close to some small thing, and
move it about a little. A place will
be found where, by looking through
the lens, the small object will appear
larger. This is the way a lens Js
used in The MICROSCOPE.
3. Telescopic Lens. Let one per-
son hold a lens, as in Experiment i,
and then let the other, dropping the
handkerchief or sheet of paper, look
through a second lens, placed close
behind it, at the window. Move it
forward and backward a little till a
clear view of objects outside the
window is obtained. This is the way
LEYDEN JAR
LEYDEN JAR
lenses are used in the most common
kind of TELESCOPE.
4. Burning Glass. On a sunny
day, hold a lens so as to make a
bright image of the sun on a board.
The board will soon begin to smoke
because of the heat of the image.
5. Caustic Curve. Instead of hold-
ing the board squarely in front of
the lens, tip it so that the rays will
strike it slantingly. A curve of light,
called a caustic, will be seen on the
board. This is because most lenses
do not turn the rays accurately to
one spot.
6. Prismatic Lens. Look through
a lens at a line of light such as the
edge of a white house on which the
sun is shining. It will probably
appear colored, since the lens acts
like a PRISM.
7. Water Lens. A good lens is
made by placing a drop of water on
a pin-hole in a piece of card-board.
This magnifies small objects very
well.
8. Bottle Lens. A glass bottle
filled with water may be used as a
lens, as shows in the illustration.
Bottle Lens.
LEYDEN JAR, a device for ob-
taining large charges of electricity.
A simple one can be made by filling
a glass tumbler about two thirds
full of shot and inserting a silver
teaspoon (see Fig. i). The tum-
bler must be held in one hand, while
the teaspoon is presented to an
ELECTRIC MACHINE, or an ELEC-
TROPHORUS. If the latter is used,
it must be lifted and discharged
several times, a spark passing each
time to the teaspoon. If now the
experimenter presents his other hand
to the teaspoon, the jar will be dis-
Fig. i.
charged and he will get a shock
equal to the sum of all the little
sparks that have passed to the jar.
The jar should receive very few
sparks before its first discharge, to
avoid giving the experimenter a
severe shock ; but afterwards the
number of sparks received may be
increased till the shock of discharge
is too great to be borne.
A better jar, capable of storing
large quantities of electricity, may
be made as follows (see Fig. 2.):
Coat a glass bottle or jar inside and
out with tin-foil, or, if
the mouth of the bot-
tle is too small for
reaching the inside
easily, pour in shot.
The foil or shot must
reach the same height
on both sides of the
bottle, and must not
come within two or
three inches of the top.
Insert in the cork a
thick iron or copper wire, which
projects into the shot, or, in case
foil is used, has a brass chain fast-
ened to the end, which lies on the
Fig. 2.
LEYDEN JAR
464
LEYDEN JAR
bottom and gives contact with the
inside coating. The upper end of
the wire should terminate in a metal
ball. A leaden bullet may be
soldered to it, or a wooden ball
coated with tin-foil may be used.
This jar may be charged and used
exactly like the one already de-
scribed, but it is not necessary to
take it in the hand at all. All that
is required is that the outside have
some connection with the ground
while the knob is receiving shocks.
This can be effected by winding
around it, as it stands on the table,
one end of a metal chain, and let-
ting the other hang on the floor.
Such chain can be bought at any
hardware store.
To discharge the jar when the
charge is too great to be taken
through the body, a discharger is
necessary, which may be made thus
(see Fig. 3): Take a bottle, small
Fig- 3-
Fig. 4.
enough to be held conveniently in
one hand, and through the cork at
right angles to the bottle, pass a
piece of copper wire twelve or
fifteen inches long. Bend the wire
into a semicircle curving outward
from the bottle, and fix balls on the
ends like that on the jar. By hold-
ing the bottle in the hand and
touching one ball to the knob of
the jar and the other to the outside
coating, as in Fig. 4, the jar may be
discharged without injury, the elec-
tricity passing through the copper
wire.
Fulminating Pane, a kind of Ley-
den jar made of a flat pane of glass
having tin-foil pasted on both sides.
The edge of the.e^ass should be left
uncovered at least an inch all around
the foil. The pane is charged and
discharged just like the jar ; that is,
it is charged by placing one coating
in contact with an electrical ma-
chine, and the other in connection
with the ground, and discharged by
joining the two coatings with some
conductor of electricity.
The explanation of the way in
which the jar or pane acts is this :
One coating, being charged with one
kind of electricity, positive for in-
stance, attracts the negative electric-
ity on the other coating, and repels
its positive to the ground. The two
kinds of electricity in the jar are
prevented from uniting by the glass,
but when the coatings are joined
they rush together. Jars of thin
glass will hold larger charges, be-
cause the nearer the coatings are the
stronger the attraction is; but on the
other hand, the glass must not be
too thin or it may be broken.
EXPERIMENTS.
1. Make a Leyden jar whose coat-
ings can be removed while it is
charged. This can be done by using
a smooth glass tumbler as the jar,
and making the coatings of several
thicknesses of foil, so that they will
keep their shape when removed.
The coatings are not pasted to the
glass, and the rod and knob of the
ordinary jar are omitted. Fasten a
bit of sewing silk to the inside coat-
ing. After charging the jar, first lift
out the inside coating, and then lift
the glass from the outer coating. If
the two coatings are now joined there
will be no discharge ; but after they
are replaced the jar can be dis-
charged. The reason of this is that
the charge is not contained in the
coatings, but in the substance of the
glass.
2. Make a jar whose coatings are
of mercury, by setting a small tum-
bler in a larger one, and pouring
mercury between them and into the
smaller one. Charge this jar as be-
fore, and then, lifting the small glass
LEYDEN JAR
465
LEYDEN JAR
out, pour its contents into the large
glass, and mix the two coatings to-
gether. Set the jar up as before,
and the jar can then be discharged,
though its coatings have been min-
gled. The reason is the one already
given in Experiment i.
3. Charge a jar, and after letting
it stand several minutes discharge
it. Let it stand a minute longer
when it may be discharged again
without charging. In this way several
sparks may often be obtained from
one charge, each more feeble than
the preceding. The reason is that
the electricity penetrates the glass,
and does not come out all at once.
4. Take two call-bells ; place them
on glass dishes and connect one to
the knob of the jar and the other
to the outside coating by means of
chains or wires. Suspend a bit of
wood coated with tin-foil, the size
of a small pea, by a silk thread just
midway between the two bells. The
jar being charged, the copper will
swing backward and forward from
one bell to the other, ringing each
as it strikes. After a time this will
discharge the jar, the electricity
being carried in small quantities
from one coating to the other by
the copper. If the experiment does
not succeed, it may be because the
bells are too far apart, because the
bit of copper is too heavy, or
because the jar is not charged
enough.
5. Make a Leyden jar whose outer
coating consists of varnish sprinkled
while yet soft with metallic powder,
for instance the bronze powder used
in painting. Tin-foil is pasted over
the bottom, and there is also a band
of foil about an inch wide around
the jar at the top of the outer coat-
ing. The wire connecting with the
inside coating is bent over on the
outside till the knob is about three
quarters of an inch from this band
of tin-foil. The jar is then hung by
the wire to the knob of an electrical
machine (see Fig. 5). When the
machine is worked, brilliant sparks
pass between the knob to the outer
coating, lighting up the jar.
6. Leyden Battery. A battery is
made up of several jars, all the outer
coatings and all the inner coatings
being joined. This can be effected
by placing the jars in a wooden box
Fig- 5-
lined on the bottom with tin-foil,
and joining the knobs with copper
wire. A strip of tin-foil leads from
the bottom of the box to the edge,
and when this strip is connected
with one of the knobs by a dis-
charger, the battery is discharged.
The battery gives a powerful spark,
and the experiments which follow
can be performed better with it than
with a single jar.
7. Through the corks of two glass
bottles pass crosswise thick copper
wires or rods, having at one end
balls like that on the jar, and bent
at the other into hooks. Glue a
piece of glass an inch or two square
flat on the top of the cork of a third
LEYDEN JAR
466
LEYDEN JAR
bottle, somewhat lower than the
other two. Place the taller bottles
so that the knobbed ends of the
wires will touch the glass plate, and
be about an inch apart. Connect
the hooked end of one of the wires
by a wire or chain to one coating of
a Leyden jar or battery, and that of
the otl er wire to the other coating
by a discharger (see Fig. 6). A
spark will pass directly across the
glass, and through any substance
placed on it. By this means the
effect of the electric spark on all
kinds of substances can be observed.
By placing pieces of different kinds
of metal close to the knobs so that
the spark will pass between them,
; its color can be varied. This is be-
i cause the heat turns a little of the
Fig,
metal to vapor, which colors the
spark. The color can also be varied
by passing it through different gases
(see HYDROGEN and CARBONIC
ACID). If the charge is passed
through a small wire it will heat it
red hot, or perhaps will melt it.
If gunpowder be placed on the
glass plate, the discharge will scat-
ter it without setting it off; but if
a wet string be placed in the circuit,
the spark will light the powder.
The reason is that an ordinary spark
is too sudden to set the powder off,
but the wet string makes it a little
slower.
If the spark be passed through a
lump of sugar, one or more eggs,
or fruit, they will be lighted up and
shine (if the experiment be tried in
the dark) for a little while after the
spark has passed.
If the spark be passed through a
sheet of gold leaf pressed between
two pieces of silk or glass, the gold
will be turned to a violet powder.
6.
If the spark be passed through a
bit of unglazed paper, wet wirh a
solution of iodide of potassium,
brown spots will appear on the pa-
per. This is because the iodide is
separated into iodine and potash,
and the former makes the brown
spots.
8. Place a steel wire inside a glass
tube, and wind around it insulated
copper wire. Discharge a Leyden
battery through this wire, and the
steel wire will become a MAGNET.
9. Spin by means of a TWIRLER
a disk on which are lines, figures, or
pictures. If the disk spin rapidly
none of the figures will be visible ;
but if'the room be darkened, and a
Leyden jar be discharged, the disk
will seem to stand still, so that
everything on it can be seen plainly.
This is because the spark lasts a
very short time, so that while it
lights the room the disk changes
position very little, and seems to the
eye to be perfectly still.
LIGHT MEASURING
467
LIGHT MEASURING
10. Twist together two thickly in-
sulated pieces of copper wire four
or five feet in length. (Insulated
wire may be bought of a dealer in
telegraph supplies.) Hold the ends
of one piece in the hands, and dis-
charge a Leyden jar. A shock will
be felt, although the two wires are
not connected. The electric current
which passes through the hands in
this case is said to be an " induction
current."
1 1. Place a fulminating pane on a
table, the lower surface being con-
nected with the earth. Lay a coin
on the upper surface, and then
charge the pane. If any one now
try to remove the coin he will re-
ceive a shock. The coin may safely
be offered to any one who will pick
it up at the first trial.
LIGHT MEASURING, or PHO
TOMETRY. The intensity of light
is measured in "candle-power;" so
to measure the brightness of a lamp
it is necessary to find how much
brighter or dimmer it is than a
candle. Two of the simplest ways
are given below :
i. About six inches in front of a
white wall stand a bottle with a
stick fixed in its mouth (Fig. i).
Fig. i.
Place the candle b about two feet
distant, and the lamp a by its side.
Each will throw a shadow of the
Fig. 2.
stick on the wall; that thrown by
the lamp is marked a', and that of
the candle b'. By moving either
lamp or candle sidewise, the edges
of the shadows maybe made just to
touch. It will be seen that one is
not as dark as the other. Now
move the lamp slowly back, keeping
the edges of the shadows close to-
gether, until they are of the same
shade. Then measure the distance
of the lamp and candle from the
wall, and find out how many times
farther the lamp is than the candle.
The square of the number thus ob-
tained will be the candle-power of
LIVES
468
LITTLE LOTS
the lamp. Thus, suppose the can-
dle is two feet from the wall, and
the lamp six feet. It is three
times as far as the candle, and its
candle-power is three squared, or
three times three, that is, nine. The
standard candle is one weighing one
sixth of a pound, and burning 120
grains an hour. A " number six "
sperm candle with the wick kept
trimmed to about half an inch will
be nearly right. Fig. 2 shows the
same kind of comparison made be-
tween a lamp, C, and a candle B.
The screen is a sheet of paper held
between two books, and the object
that throws the shadow is an un-
lighted candle, A. The shadows
are shown at E and F.
2. On a piece of smooth, unglazed
paper make a grease-spot the size
of a quarter-dollar, so that light
will shine through it evenly and
clearly. Pin the paper to two books
set up on each side of it, and place
the candle on one side and the lamp
on the other, at equal distances.
From the candle side the spot will
now appear light on a dark ground,
and from the lamp side it will look
dark on a light ground. The rea-
son of this is that the grease-spot
lets through the light, hence it looks
brighter on the side opposite the
brighter light. Now move the lamp
slowly away, or bring the candle
nearer, till the spot appears of the
same shade as the surrounding
paper. Measure the distances of
lamp and candle, and find the can-
dle-power as before.
EXPERIMENTS.
1. Find the candle-power of a
lamp and then put a piece of glass in
front of it, and find the candle-power
again. It will be much less, as only
part of the light gets through the
glass.
2. Find the candle-power of a
lamp with the flame turned broad-
side and then edgewise. It will be
greater in the former case.
LIVES, a game of CARDS, played
by any number of persons with a
full pack. The dealer gives each
player, in order, one card. Each
player in turn, beginning at the
dealer's left, now has the right to
exchange his card for that of his
left-hand neighbor. If he does not
choose to do so, he says, " I stand."
If he does choose, the neighbor is
obliged to exchange with him, un-
less he holds a King. The dealer,
instead of exchanging, cuts the
pack, if he wishes, and takes a card
from the middle. As the object is
to avoid holding the lowest card, the
players who have high cards should
"stand," and those with low ones
should exchange. Ace counts as
the lowest card. If a player ex-
change an Ace, Two, or Three, he
must announce it aloud and those
who have higher cards will of course
stand. Any player who gives to
his right-hand neighbor a worse
card in exchange will also stand.
The holder of the lowest card, when
all have either stood or exchanged,
is said to " lose a life." If the
dealer, in drawing from the pack,
get a King, he loses a life. Any
player losing three lives must re-
tire from the game, which is con-
tinued till only one player is left,
who is declared the winner.
This game is called in England
" Ranter-go- Round." It resembles
COMMERCE, and may be the original
form of that game. A former way
of scoring was with counters on a
board resembling a NINE MEN'S
MORRIS board, the players' counter
being pushed nearer and nearer to
the centre as his " lives " were suc-
cessively lost. When the counter
reached the centre, its owner went
out of the game.
LETTERS. See LOGOMACHY.
LITTLE LOTS,a SOLITAIRE game
of CARDS, played with a EUCHRE
pack. The cards are dealt in eight
piles of four each, only the last or
top card of each pile being turned
face upward. Any two top cards
that match must be laid aside, and
LIVING STATUARY
469
LOGOMACHY
the next cards turned up in their
places. This is repeated as long as
possible, and if all the cards can be
thus matched the game is won.
Should any pile remain, containing
only two cards, the player may look
at them, and if they match they are
laid aside like the others.
This game is said to be a favorite
in Switzerland.
LIVING STATUARY, tableaux in
which the performers are dressed
to represent statues, either singly
or in groups. The statues are
draped entirely in white cloth, wear
canton flannel skull-caps to which
cotton wicking is sewed for hair,
white stockings, white slippers or
sandals, and white cotton gloves,
to which are sewed sleeves made of
white cotton stockings. The face
is whitened with fine chalk, mag-
nesia, or bismuth. If the drapery
is arranged skilfully and the stat-
ues can remain perfectly motion-
less, the effect is fine. Celebrated
statues or groups may thus be imi-
tated, or entirely original ones may
be arranged. Pedestals may be
made of tables and boxes covered
with cotton sheeting. The statues
show best against a black or dark
background in a pale blue light,
which may be produced by putting
light blue glass in front of the
lamps. All the " properties " that
appear in the groups must either
be covered with white cloth or
painted white.
Living statuary is sometimes used
in connection with ordinary tab-
leaux, to adorn a royal palace or
garden.
LOGOMACHY, a game played by
any number of persons with small
squares of cardboard, on each of
which is printed a letter of the al-
phabet. It is sometimes called "Let-
ters, "and "Word-making and Word-
taking." The players sit around
a table, in the middle of which the
cardboard letters are heaped, blank
side upward. They are thoroughly
mixed and then each player draws a
letter to see which shall open the
game. He who d raws a letter nearest
to the beginning of the alphabet is
the first player. After the letters
thus drawn have been returned to
the pile, which is mixed again, the
first player draws a letterand places
it, face upward, by itself on the table
to begin what is called the pool.
The player on his left does likewise,
and so on, in order, till some one
draws a letter which forms a word
with others in the pool. He then
places those letters in front of him
so that they spell the word. The
next player may take his word from
him by combining with it his drawn
letter, or any letters in the pool, or
both, so as to form a different word
or he may combine his drawn letter
with others in the pool to form an-
other word. If he can do neither,
he places his drawn letter in the
pool like the others. So the game
goes on, each player having the
chance of taking a word from any
other player, making a new word
of his own, or adding his letter to
one of his own words. He wins
who first gets a number of words
agreed upon beforehand (usually
ten) and holds them while a round
is played. Thus, A may get ten
words, but he has not won till B, C,
D, and the others have each a
chance to take one or more from
him. If they cannot, A is the win-
ner; but if one of his words is taken
from him, the game goes on as be-
fore.
In this game, the practised player
knows by heart the words that can
be taken away, and what letters can
take them, so he plays quickly; but
the beginner must study each word
carefully. If he can take no word,
he should add his letter to one of
his own words, if possible, to pre-
vent its being taken by another
player. Some words, especially the
small ones are almost sure to change
hands at once. Thus, " pat " can
be taken by e (making " pate," or
"tape") by h ("path"), by n
(" pant "), by r ("rapt " or " part") or
by s (" spat " or " past "). This is
LOGOMACHY
470
LOTO
evident, but few see before
some study (for instance) that
" stream " can be taken by a /
(making " mastery ") or others still
more difficult.
It is a good plan for a beginner to
practice alone, forming words, and
twisting them about in every pos-
sible way, so as to become familiar
with the changes that may be made.
If the player can make a word either
from the pool or by taking one
from another player, he should in
general prefer to make the one
that is least likely to be taken
from him. But if one of the play-
ers has nearly ten words, the others
should try, first of all, to reduce
his number.
The rules of Logomachy differ
with the players. Certain points
should always be settled before the
game, such as the dictionary to be
used as a standard, the use of plu-
rals, etc., and the length of time to
be allowed for each play. The
rules that follow may thus be modi-
fied to suit the players.
RULES OF THE GAME.
\. No one shall touch the pile of
letters but the one whose turn it is
to play.
2. The player must draw the let-
ter which he touches first.
3. While he is considering his
play, his letter must lie on the
table, in plain sight.
4. A letter must be played within
two minutes after it is drawn.
5. Each player's words must be
in plain sight, and turned so that
the others can read them most
easily.
6. No player may form a word
that he cannot define, at least well
enough to show that he is not form-
ing it at random, in hope that such
a word may be found in the dic-
tionary.
7. Singulars and plurals shall be
considered different words. [Some-
times a plural in s is considered the
same word as its singular.]
8. If any player can form or take
a word with the letters in the pool,
he may do so before drawing his
letter.
The word Logomachy is formed
Greek words, and means from two
Word-contest.
LONDON BRIDGE, a game played
by any number of children. Two
leaders form an arch with uplifted
hands, under which the others
march in line, si.iging, " London
Bridge is falling down, my fair
lady !" When they desire, the lead-
ers lower the arch, catching one of
the players. The one thus caught
is asked which of two articles he will
have, and according to his answer,
as previously agreed, he is made to
stand behind one or the other of the
leaders. When all have been caught,
the leaders and their followers end
the game by pulling against each
other as in a TUG OF WAR. Some-
times the song sung while the line
is marching has several verses.
History. This game is mentioned
by the French author, Rabelais, in
1533, under the name of " Fallen
Bridge." In Germany the keepers
are called Devil and Angel, King
and Emperor, or by other names.
In France the game is called
" Heaven and Hell." The Germans
of Pennsylvania call it " Die Holldnd-
isch Bruck " (The Holland Bridge),
and in Massachusetts it is some-
times called " Charlestown Bridge."
In parts of Ireland an actual bridge
is made of boards, and one player
takes the part of the Devil, who
breaks it down at intervals, while
the song is sung.
LOTO, or LOTTO, a game of
chance played by any number of
persons, with numbered cards and
counters. The cards are usually 24
in number, and each is divided into
'27 squares in three rows. Five of the
nine squares in each row have num-
bers on them and four are blank;
thus there are 15 numbers on each
card. The whole 24 cards have
thus 360 numbers, which are the
LOTO
471
LUMINOUS PAINT
numerals from i to 90 four times
repeated. The numbers on each
card are not selected with any sys-
tem, but are put down at random ;
thus, one of the cards may appear as
in the figure. The counters are
shown below.
M 177
57 62 I 90
Loto-Card and Counters.
For convenience, the numbers
from i to 9 are placed in the first
column, those from 10 to 19 in the
second, and so on. Each person is
given one or more of these cards,
according to the number of players,
and each has also 15 counters for
each card. One of the players, or
some one not in the game, holds a
bag filled with counters numbered
from i to 90, and drawing them one
at a time, reads each aloud as it is
drawn. Whenever a number is
thus read each player who has it on
one or more of his cards places a
counter over it on each card. He
who first covers all the numbers on
one card wins the game. Loto par-
ties are often given, at which the
winners receive prizes, and the game
is sometimes varied by giving prizes
to those who first have two, three,
four, and five counters on the same
line. The game is almost entirely
one of chance, the only effort re-
quired being to watch the cards
carefully as the numbers are read
out, to make sure that each one
read is covered.
Object, or Spelling Loto. The
numbers are replaced by letters,
each line on the cards spelling the
name of an object, a picture of
which is shown at the end of the
line, as in the illustration.
Other varieties, bearing pictures of
flowers, or other objects, are known
as Historical, Botanical, or Geo,-
graphical Loto, and are played in
the same manner as numbered or
spelling Loto.
History. Lotto is Italian for lot.
In the time when Genoa was a re-
public, a magistrate of that city
chose the members of his council,
it is said, by placing 90 names in an
urn and drawing five. The people
began to bet on the successful
names, and soon, substituting num-
Spelling Loto-Card.
bers, devised agamblinggame which
became very popular. From this
our Loto is derived. It was taken
from Italy to Germany about 1750,
and to France in 1776. In France
the numbers on the cards are some-
times given curious names. For
instance, the 4 is called " The Com-
missary's Hat," the 22 " The Two
Chickens, "and the 69 "The Infalli-
ble." In the western United States
the Loto numbers are placed in a
vessel of peculiar shape, and drop
out one by one on pressing a spring.
The game is then called Keno.
LUMINOUS PAINT. Paint which
will glow at night may be made as
follows : Wash oyster shells per-
fectly clean in warm water, and heat
them for half an hour in a coal fire.
When they are cool, pound them in
a mortar, removing and throwing
away all gray pieces. When the
white part has been reduced to
powder, put some of it into a cruci-
ble with an equal quantity of flow-
ers of sulphur, in alternate layers.
Cement the lid of the crucible with
sand mixed with glue, and bake it
LYCOPODIUM
472
MAGIC LANTERN
for an hour in hot coals. The re-
sulting; powder should be white, and
any of it that is gray should be re-
moved. Make the white powder
into a paint with gum arabic and
water. The powder is sulphide
of lime formed by the union of the
lime of the oystershells and the
sulphur. Objects painted with it
will glow faintly for a long time
after dark. If the interior of a room
be covered with it, the room will be
filled with a faint light even on the
darkest nights.
LYCOPODIUM, Experiments with.
Lycopodium consists of the spores
or seeds of a kind of moss, and is
one of the finest and lightest pow-
ders known. It may be bought at
a druggist's.
1. Put a little of the powder on a
piece of paper, and blow it into a
candle-flame. There will be a sud-
den flash of light. This method is
sometimes used on the stage to imi-
tate lightning.
2. Half fill a bottle with the pow-
der, and tilting it forward and back-
ward, observe how it runs almost as
freely as water. This is because the
particles are very fine and slip over
each other easily.
3. Dust a layer of the powder
over the surface of water in a basin.
Plunge a finger into the water an
inch or so. It will not be wetted
at all, but will have a little of the
dry powder on it when it is with-
drawn. The reason, as is easily
observed, is that a layer of the pow-
der envelopes the finger as it enters
the water, and keeps it from getting
wet.
4. Lower a coin into the water by
a thread. It will be kept from get-
ting wet in the same manner.
5. Drop water on the layer of
powder. It will gather itself into
drops like beads.
6. Dust Lycopodium over a piece
of glass, and look through it at a
candle-flame. A halo will be seen
around the flame as if there were a
fog or mist between it and the ob-
server. This effect is produced by
the smallness of the particles, which
are about the size of the water-drops
in fog.
M
MAGIC LANTERN, an arrange-
ment for showing lighted pictures
Magic Lantern.
in a dark room by means of lenses
(see LENS, in C. C. T.). The pict-
ures, which are on slips of glass
called slides, are either photo-
graphed, or painted with transpar-
ent colors. They are lighted from
behind, and an enlarged image of
them is thrown by the lenses on
the wall or on a screen, where it
may be seen by a large number of
people. The lamp E (see figure) is
generally enclosed in a case B, of
sheet-iron or tin, at one end of
which the lenses AA' are fixed.
Between these and the lamp is a
place where the exhibitor may push
in the glass slides on which are the
pictures. The farther the lantern
is from the wall or screen on which
the pictures are thrown, the larger
the pictures will be ; but as the same
quantity of light has then to be
spread over a larger surface, they
MAGIC LANTERN
473
MAGIC LANTERN
will be dim unless the light is
powerful. In the large lanterns used
at public entertainments, where
the pictures are often 20 or 30 feet
in diameter, the lamp is a calcium
light (see CALCIUM in C. C. T.) or is
furnished by the electric arc (see
ELECTRIC LIGHT) ; but in the
smaller ones, sold at toy stores, an
oil lamp is generally used, which
gives enough light for pictures sev-
eral feet in diameter.
Magic Lantern pictures may be
thrown on a smooth white wall, or
on a sheet, stretched so that there
are no wrinkles in it. If the for-
mer, the lantern must be placed
among, or behind, the spectators ; if
the latter, it may be placed on the
other side, for the pictures will
show through the sheet. Before
giving an exhibition the best dis-
tance for the lantern must be de-
cided on by trial. The lantern is
first placed where the spot of light
is as large as the wall or screen will
admit. A picture is then slipped in,
and the outer lens-tube C D pushed
in and out (called focusing) till the
picture on the wall is clear and
distinct. Some lanterns are focused
by turning a little screw on the lens-
tube. If the picture is not bright
enough, the lantern is moved a
little nearer and focused again.
The pictures will be reversed on the
wall, so they must be put into the
lantern upside down, and pushed to
the right when they are to move to
the left of the screen.
A set of pictures is usually sold
with each lantern, but they can
be bought separately. Sometimes
amusing pictures are made to move
or change suddenly before the eyes
of the spectators. The exhibitor
may make his own pictures by
painting them on slips of glass, or
by PHOTOGRAPHY.
Dissolving Views, magic lantern
pictures, one of which appears to
change slowly into another. Two
lanterns are so placed that they
throw their pictures on exactly the
same spot. Each has a cover which
can be placed over its lens-tube.
A picture is placed in each, one of
which is shown while the other is
shut off. If the cover be placed
slowly on the lens-tube of the first,
while that of the second is with-
drawn gradually, the first picture
will fade out while the other ap-
pears. The effect is better if, in-
stead of covering the lenses, the
light can be turned off and on with-
out opening the lanterns. One
lamp is then turned down and the
other is turned up at the same time,
making the change much more
gradual. A simple magic lantern
can be made at home by placing a
kerosene lamp in a wooden box
from one to two feet square, cutting
a hole above the chimney for
draught. Opposite the lamp must
be cut a round hole about two
inches in diameter, and just inside
this hole is placed a small globe,
such as is used for fish, full of water.
Several inches from the globe, out-
side the box, is placed the picture,
and beyond it is held an ordinary
burning glass, or single magnifying
glass. By moving it forward and
backward, the position will be found
where a clear and distinct picture
is cast on the screen.
Instead of a lamp, a beam of sun-
light from a HELIOSTAT may be
used. With this, pictures must be
shown in the day-time, but they may
be enlarged greatly, since sunlight
is so powerful. The lenses may
be simply set in holes in blocks
of wood so that they will stand up-
right on the table in front of the
heliostat, and the picture is held in
one hand at the proper distance.
Not only magic lantern pictures,
but images of all sorts of small ob-
jects may be thrown on a screen in
this way.
Water Lantern. A simple substi-
tute for lenses is the Water Lan-
tern, represented in the picture,
which is made as follows : In a
wooden box, open at one side, fix a
MAGIC LANTERN
474
MAGIC LANTERN
mirror at an angle of 45°, held in
place by slats nailed to the sides of
the box and facing the open side,
so as to reflect upward the horizon-
tal beam from the heliostat. In
the top of the box is a hole, five
Water Lantern.
inches in diameter, in which rests a
hemispherical glass dish five and
one half inches across, made by
cutting off part of a plain glass fish-
globe or gas-globe. When filled
with water this takes the place of
the condensing lens of the magic
lantern. The smaller lens is sup-
ported on a shelf, which stands on
a wooden slide with a slot in it,
enabling it to be fixed at any height
by tightening a screw, as shown in
the illustration. This lens is made
like the other, but is about four
inches in diameter and correspond-
ingly shallow. On the sides of the
shelf are two upright pieces of
wood, between which is swung a
looking-glass about seven by four
inches.
The beam of light, passing up-
ward through the two water-lenses,
may be sent in any desired direction
by this upper mirror. If placed at
an angle of 45°, it will direct the
beam horizontally toward the
screen. The picture or object to
be shown is to be laid on the lower
lens, and focused by raising or low-
ering the upper shelf. A magic
B
90°
E
Plan of Attachment for Showing Photo-
graphs.
lantern may be made to show ordi-
nary photographs, engravings, etc.,
but as they do not transmit light
like the glass slides, they must be
placed where the light will shine
full on their faces, and yet where
they will be directly before the lens.
To do this, the arrangement of the
lantern has to be changed a little,
MAGICAL MUSIC
475
MAGIC WHEELS
a slightly larger box being required,
because the lamp has to stand on
one side. An arrangement which
can be used with an ordinary magic
lantern can be made as follows :
A five-sided box is made, whose
top and bottom have the shape
shown in the diagram. The sides
A B and E are each 5^ inches long,
and the others, C and D, 3^ inches.
The lens-tube is unscrewed from
the nozzle of the lantern, and a hole
just large enough to receive it is
cut in the side B. In the side C
another hole is cut to receive the
nozzle. The two holes must have
their centres at the same height.
In the side E a square hole is cut a
little larger than a cabinet-sized
photograph, and in it is fitted a
shutter, to whose inside a photo-
graph may be fastened by little
clips or buttons turning over the
corners, or in any other way de-
sired. The light in such an ar-
rangement requires to be very
strong to throw a good image more
than a few feet, but with a calcium
Lantern with Attachment.
light an image of almost any object
can be thrown to a great distance.
The lantern with its attachment is
shown in the last figure.
MAGICAL MUSIC. See HIDE
THE HANDKERCHIEF.
MAGIC PICTURE. Fasten to-
gether two panes of clear glass about
a foot square, so that they are sepa-
rated by a very thin space, about
one twenty-fifth of an inch, or the
thickness of about seven of the
leaves of this book. This can be
done by placing bits of pasteboard
of this thickness between the panes
at the corners. The panes are fast-
ened at their edges by a paste made
of powdered chalk and white of egg,
and then bordered with paper, a
small aperture being left to pour
into the space between the glasses
the following composition :
Melt together at a low heat 150
grains of tallow and 15 grains of
white wax ; add 30 grains of clear
linseed oil. When well mixed,
fill with the mixture the space be-
tween the panes, and close the
aperture. The mixture will be
opaque when cold, but a slight de-
gree of heat, such as that obtained
by holding it in the sun's rays, will
make it transparent. If an engrav-
ing or chromo be now glued to one
of the panes with its face toward
the glass, it will be invisible till the
glass be slightly heated, when it
will appear.
MAGIC PICTURES. Draw pict-
ures on paper with a mixture of gal-
lic acid and mucilage. This will not
be visible when dry, but if the paper
be sprayed with a solution of cop-
peras in an ordinary atomizer, the
lines will turn black. An exhibi-
tion of magic portraits may be ar-
ranged by hanging up sheets on
which comic pictures have been
drawn with the mixture. A mem-
ber of the company is asked whether
he wishes his portrait taken, and
the spray is directed on one of the
pictures, which is then given him to
examine.
MAGIC WHEELS, THE, an optical
toy, made as follows : Cut out of
card board two wheels about an inch
in diameter, each having at least
eight spokes. The wheels need no
rims, as the spokes alone produce
MAGIC WHEELS
476
MAGNETS
the desired effect. The shape may
be like Fig. i, or Fig. 2. Fix the
Fig. i. Fig. 2.
wheels about a half inch apart on a
.splinter of wood, an inch and a half
long, which passes through their
centres, forming a sort of TOP or TEE-
TOTUM. Spin this on something
which will contrast with the spokes ;
— on a dark ground if the card-board
be white, and on a light ground if it
be dark. While it is spinning, look
rat it at an angle, so that the spokes
:on one side of the upper wheel will
overlap those on the opposite side
of the lower wheel, which are mov-
ing in the contrary direction. An
appearance will be seen like that in
j Fig. 3. By moving the eye up and
down, so that more or less of the
upper and under spokes will over-
lap, the curves will change their
position and form. The same can
be seen by using only one wheel and
spinning it beneath a lamp, or in
sunlight, so that the shadow will
take the place of the second wheel.
The same toy can be made in larger
form by nailing slats crosswise on
one another and mounting them on
an axle. When the wheels are
twirled with different velocities the
curves will change. The curves can
also be seen by twirling an inverted
Japanese umbrella like a top, being
formed by the ribs and their sup-
ports.
Another form of the toy can be
obtained by makinga teetotum with
one wheel, like that described above,
and spinning it over a sort of grat-
ing of bars, cut from card-board.
The curves seen will be different
from those in the picture. The
curves which are seen result from
the fact that the spokes, in re-
volving across one another, cut off
the light more of the time in some
places than in others. These there-
fore appear more opaque, and in the
cases given above they form curves.
MAGNESIUM, Experiments with.
Magnesium is described in C. C. T.
1. Coil a strip of magnesium rib-
bon around a lead-pencil. Hold the
coil by putting a piece of iron wire
through, it and light one end of the
ribbon with a match. It will burn
brightly.
2. See CARBONIC ACID, Experi-
ment 6.
MAGIC STICK, THE. See GUESS-
ING THE SIGN.
MAGNETS, Experiments with.
Magnets and their proper ties are
described in C. C. T. Bar or
horse-shoe magnets can be obtained
at toy stores. The horse-shoe shape,
shown in the illustration, is for
convenience. The
bit of metal laid
across the ends is
called an armature.
If the north and
south poles of his
magnet are not
marked, the experi-
menter should first
find out which they
are. This can be
done with a bar mag-
net, by placing it in
a little sling made of
Horse-shoe cloth or thick paper,
Magnet. and suspending it by
a thread, so that it hangs horizon-
MAGNETS
477
MAGNETS
tally. No articles of iron or steel
should be anywhere near it. It will
presently point north and south, and
the ends can then be marked with the
letters N and S, or in any other way
desired. Or the poles can be discov-
ered at once by means of a pocket
compass. The end of the magnet
which attracts the north end of the
compass magnet is its south pole.
The same pole should repel the south
end of the compass magnet. It is
just as well to test the magnet, even
if the poles are marked, for it maybe
a French magnet ; and as in France
the words north and south, ap-
plied to the poles of a magnet, mean
just the opposite of what they do
here, the result would be confusing.
EXPERIMENTS.
I. Magnetization. Lay a needle
on the table, and draw one of the
poles of the magnet over it several
times, always in the same direction.
The needle will become magnetic,
the end at which the magnet pole
began to be drawn over it becoming
a pole of the same name. A better
way is to use opposite poles of two
magnets, bringing them together in
the middle of the needle, and draw-
ing them apart toward the ends. It
is well to magnetize several needles
of different sizes, for use in the fol-
owing experiments.
• 2. Try to magnetize pieces of soft
iron — nails, for instance. It will be
found that they became magnets in-
stantly, as soon as the magnet
touches them, or even when it is
held near them ; but when it is taken
away the magnetism leaves them,
except, perhaps, a very slight trace.
To detect very feeble magnetism,
not strong enough to attract even
very small bits of iron, use a pocket-
compass. Apply the compass to
the ends alternately, and if one end
of the needle is attracted at one end
and the other at the other, it is cer-
tain that the object is a magnet.
3. Magnetization by the Earth.
Hold an iron poker nearly, but^not
quite, vertical, the lower end point-
ing a little to the west of north.
By testing with a compass-needle,
as above, it will be found to be a
magnet; but as soon as it is held in
any other position it ceases to be so.
It may be made to retain some of
its magnetism for a short time by
striking it several sharp blows with
a hammer while it is held in the
position just described.
4. A String of Magnets. Apply
a small nail to the end of a magnet
held in the air. The nail becomes
a magnet for the time being, and will
thus support another nail. In this
way a long string of nails can be
hung from the original magnet when
it is a strong one. But if the first
nail be pulled from the magnet, its
magnetism leaves it, and hence the
whole string of nails falls apart.
5. Magnetic Transparency. Put
a piece of paper between the magnet
and a piece of iron. The iron will
be attracted as strongly as before.
If iron filings be scattered on a sheet
of paper, they will arrange them-
selves in different figures if the pole
of a magnet be moved about under
the paper. Substances through
which a magnet will attract in this
way are called " magnetically trans-
parent." It will be interesting to
try a large number of substances, and
see which are magnetically trans-
parent and which are not. The
substances must all be thin, unless
the magnet used is very strong.
6. Magnetic Curves. Place a
sheet of paper over a magnet, and
scatter over it fine iron filings.
Gently tap the paper, and the filings
will arrange themselves in lines,
following what are called the " lines
of force " of the magnet. If two
or more magnets be used instead
of one, and placed in different posi-
tions, the lines of force become
quite complicated. They will differ
according as the magnets are laid
on their sides, or held under the
paper endwise, one pole touching
the paper. The illustration shows
MAGNETS
478
MAGNETS
them as they appear over the poles
of a horse shoe magnet. To pre-
serve these curves, prepare the paper
by rubbing over it a piece of wax,
the end of which has been warmed.
The paper will thus be coated thinly
with wax. When the filings have
arranged themselves, hold the paper
over a hot stove ; this will melt the
wax, which, when it has cooled, will
retain the filings in place. A small
magnetic needle suspended close
over the curves, while the magnet
is still beneath, will set in the direc-
tion of the curve at the point where
it is. A method by which the filings
Magnetic Curves.
may be made to arrange themselves
as they fall, without any jarring,
and hence may be arranged directly
on a freshly- varnished pane of glass,
is as follows : Magnetize two needles
of the largest size so that the point
of one and the eye of the other shall
be north poles. Stick them side by
side in a piece of cork, and the free
ends will then be opposite poles.
Pick up a quantity of filings with
these needles, shake off the loose
ones, and then, holding them over
the glass under which is the large
magnet, jar them off a few at a time.
Each filing has been magnetized by
its contact with the needle, and
hence will arrange itself properly as
it falls.
Drop a little melted paraffine on
Experiment 7.
the first layer of filings, and hold
over them a hot fire shovel that it
may melt and run in among them
thoroughly. Then shake on another
ayer in the same way as the first,
and so on. In this way the curves
may be built up into the air, pre-
senting many striking forms.
7. Magnetic Poles. Take two bar
magnets of equal strength, and hold-
MAGNETS
479
MAGNETS
ing one horizontally, hang a nail or
key from one of its poles A. Then
slide the other over it, the pole B
of opposite name to the end from
which the nail hangs being in ad-
vance. When it comes above the
nail, the nail will drop, the influence
of the two opposite poles balancing
each other.
8. Fill a glass tube with steel fil-
ings, or small steel brads, and mag-
netize it as in Experiment i, taking
care not to shake it. It will act in
all respects like an ordinary magnet,
but if it be shaken, so as to alter
the position of the filings, the mag-
netism will disappear. This is not
because the filings are demagnet-
ized, but because, their poles being
turned in opposite directions, the
effects balance each other.
5a
A d O
9- Take a short iron bar, a stove-
holder, for instance, and lay it on a
table near a compass, so that one
end of the holder may be on one
side of the north end of the compass-
needle, near enough to draw it aside
a little. Approach the north pole
of a magnet to the other end of the
stove-holder and the compass-
needle will recede. The reason is,
that at first the compass-needle
made the iron a magnet with its
nearest end a south pole, but after-
ward the influence of the stronger
magnet turned it into a magnet with
poles reversed. If, instead of the
northpole of the magnet, the south
pole be presented to the stove-
holder, the compass-needle will be
attracted more strongly instead of
being repelled.
*£
rfr &
18 a
Floating Magnet Figures.
10. Try the above experiment, us-
ing a large mass of iron, a stove, for
instance, instead of a small bar.
The result will be the same, but
will take place more slowly. The
reason is that magnetism takes time
to travel through iron, and this
time may be noticeable in the case
of a large mass like a stove.
11. Repellent Magnets. Tie two
bits of iron wire to the ends of a
thread several inches long, and
hang them by the middle of the
thread over a pin in the edge of a
mantel, or in any way so that they
do not touch the wall. Then bring
either pole of a magnet underneath
the wires, and they will repel each
other more and more, as the mag-
net is held nearer. The reason is,
that the wires both become mag-
nets under the influence of the
magnet under them, and their like
poles being near each other, they
repel each other. If sewing-needles
be used instead of iron wire, they
will continue to repel each other
slightly after the magnetism is taken
away, having become permanently
magnetized.
12. Floating Magnet Figures.
Magnetize any number of steel sew-
ing-needles of the same size, so
that their points are north poles
MAGNETS
480
MAIDS AND BACHELORS
and float them vertically in water
by sticking them through bits of
cork so that their eyes just project
above the cork. The pieces of cork
should be as small as will sustain
the needles. Hold the north pole
of a strong magnet above the float-
ing needles, and they will group
themselves in regular figures, de-
pending on the number used. Some
of these are shown in the figure.
It will be seen that sometimes the
same number of needles can form
more than one figure, and jarring
the vessel of water often causes one
figure to change into another. In
the diagram, the number of magnets
in the figures is marked over or un-
der each, and when the same num-
ber form more than one figure, the
different ones are denoted by letters.
13. Magnetism and Heat. Heat
a nail red-hot and then try to attract
it by a magnet. It will be found
impossible, but as the nail cools it
will be more and more attracted,
till when it has entirely cooled it
will be attracted as strongly as ever.
Heat a magnet red hot. It will
lose its magnetism completely, and
will not regain it on cooling.
14. Magnet and Needle. A horse-
shoe magnet must be used for this
experiment. Magnetize a threaded
needle by rubbing it always in one
direction on one pole, returning it
in an arc through the air. Taking
the end of the thread (which may
be only an inch or two long) be-
tween finger and thumb, suspend
the needle over the pole that at-
tracts it, the point being about
quarter of an inch from the magnet.
Then, with a circular sweep of the
hand, to keep the point in its posi-
tion, draw the eye down toward the
other pole. If this is done skil-
fully, the needle will remain sus-
pended horizontally just above the
magnet.
Electro-Magnets. A bar electro-
magnet can be made by winding
insulated copper wire around a bar
of soft iron. To make horse-shoe
magnets, which are more generally
useful, a bent bar is similarly wound,
but it must be remembered that if
one pole is wound from left to
right, the other must be wound
from right to left. The wire will
Electro-Magnet.
then be arranged as if a single bar
had been wound in the same direc-
tion for its entire length and then
bent. This will be seen by winding
string around a flexible stick, and
then bending it.
The size of wire used depends on
circumstances. The larger it is,
the less resistance it has to the elec-
tric current ; but on the other hand,
the larger it is, the farther removed
each successive layer of wire is from
the bar, which lessens its effect.
So, if the magnet is to be used in a
long circuit, where the resistance is
great any way, and the addition of
more makes little difference, small
wire should be used ; otherwise,
larger wire. Several layers of the
wire should be wound on : trial will
show the best number in each case.
The ends of the winding wire being
connected with an ELECTRIC BAT-
TERY, some of the experin ents de-
scribed above may be repeated.
(See also TELEGRAPHS.)
MAIDS AND BACHELORS, a game
played by equal numbers of boys
and girls. The boys go into an ad-
joining room, and then each boy and
each girl chooses a trade or employ-
ment, which must not be the same
for any two boys or two girls. The
j girls march around in a circle, each
MAKING A WILL
481
MANOMETRIC FLAME
making signs to represent the oc-
cupation she has chosen ; the car-
penter pounding nails, the washer-
woman washing clothes, and so on.
The boys then form in line and
march in, each representing his
chosen trade in like manner. The
boys walk around the girls in the
opposite direction and, at a signal,
each seeks the one with the same
trade as himself. Those left with-
out partners are called Maids and
Bachelors.
MAKING A WILL, a game played
by any number of persons, one of
whom represents a lawyer, and the
other his client, who is about to
make a will. The lawyer writes
down a numbered list of articles
supposed to belong to his client, and
then asks him to say to whom he
will leave each, mentioning them
only by number. He writes down
what the client says, and when the
latter has bequeathed all, the lawyer
reads them, with the names of the
persons to whom they have been
left. Two other players are then
chosen as lawyer and clienti
MANOMETRIC FLAME, Experi-
ments with. Take a piece of pine,
A (See Fig. i), one inch thick, one
and one half inches wide, and nine
inches long, and bore, one inch
Fig. I. Manometric Flame Apparatus.
MANOMETRIC FLAME
482
MANOMETRIC FLAME
from its top, a hole an inch in di-
ameter, and one eighth of an inch
deep. In a block, B, of the same
width, three quarters of an inch
thick and two inches long, bore a
similar hole. Bore a half-inch hole
through the first piece in the centre
of the shallow hole, and through
the second piece bore two three-
sixteenth inch holes; one straight
through the centre, and one oblique-
ly downward just below it, but open-
Fig. 2. Manometric Flames.
ing into the shallow hole. Fit
short glass tubes E and C into the
half-inch hole, and the oblique three-
sixteenth inch hole, and into the
other hole fit a glass jet, D (see
CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS), bent at
right angles. All the tubes can be
fitted by wrapping them in paper
coated with glue. Over the shallow
hole in A, glue a piece I, of very
thin sheet-rubber, and then glue the
other block to this, so that the rub-
ber separates the shallow holes.
Remember that the end of the nine-
inch piece with the hole in it goes
to the top, and that the oblique hole
MANOMETRIC FLAME
483
MAP MAKING
in the other block, must point down-
ward. Fasten the two blocks firmly
together with tvtfine. Secure the
nine-inch piece to a board, so that
it will stand alone. Attach to the
largest tube a piece of large rubber
tubing with a paper cone, G, at the
end, like that used in some of the
experiments on SOUND FIGURES.
From a piece of wood one foot
long, four inches wide, and quar-
ter of an inch thick, cut a square,
with two rods, H and K, projecting
from it, as shown in the illustration.
On each side of the square fasten a
piece of thin silvered glass M, by
winding twine around the top and
bottom. Point the shorter rod
bluntly, and with it make a dent
for it to be twirled in, in a piece of
wood, K, which is glued on the end
of a brick, L. Connect the oblique
tube C with a gas burner by rubber
tubing. The gas will enter one side
of the box formed by the shallow
holes in the blocks, and, issuing at
the jet, may be lighted. Now, if a
note be sung into the cone, the vi-
bration of the air on the other side
of the sheet-rubber will push it in
and out, and so make the gas-flame
rise and fall. To see it rise and fall,
however, the mirror must be used.
Hold the mirror by the longer rod,
and placing the shorter in the dent
prepared for it, just in front of the
flame, twirl it between the finger
and thumb. When no sound is
made, the flame as seen in the mir-
ror will be drawn out into a long
band of light. But when a note is
sung into the cone, this band breaks
up into a row of tongues of flame,
snowing that the gas-jet is jumping
up and down very rapidly. The
appearance of the tongues differs
with the note sung, or the noise
made in the cone, and many inter-
esting experiments can be tried with
different notes and sounds. Fig. 2
shows some of the various appear-
ances.
These flames are the invention
of Prof. Konig, a German scientist,
and are called " Manometric," from
the Greek manos, thin, and metron,
measure, because the varying den-
sity of the air on one side of the
rubber is, as it were, measured by
the jumping up and down of the
flame.
A simpler apparatus than the
above, which often gives good re-
sults, is made from a tin tube nar-
rowed at one end, so that by means
of rubber tubing a glass tube may
be fastened to it. The end of the
glass tube, which is drawn out to a
jet, is placed in the middle of a can-
dle-flame. By singing into the tube
and examining the flame with a re-
volving mirror, as before, the vibra-
tions may be observed.
MAP MAKING. The simplest
kind of map to make is one of a
room, or what is called a "ground
plan." The first thing to decide on
is the scale, or size, of the map.
This should depend somewhat on
the division of the scale or rule
used. If the inches are divided into
tenths, then five feet may be repre-
sented on paper by one inch, so that
one foot would be represented by
two-tenths of an inch. But if the
inches are divided into eighths, then
it would be better to represent four
feet by an inch, so that one foot
would be represented in this case
also by two of the small divisions.
The simplest kind of a room to map
is one where all the corners are
right angles. All that is needed is
a " square " or " triangle " having
one right angle, so that a " square
corner " can be drawn from it.
Begin at any corner of the room,
measure to the nearest corner, and
then draw on the paper a line of
corresponding length. Measure the
next side and draw the next line at
right angles to the first. Keep on
in this way till the starting point is
reached. If the last angle does not
come out a right angle, some mis-
take has been made.
If the room has not all its corners
right angles, as for instance the one
MAP MAKING
484
MARBLES
shown in Fig. i.then instead of meas-
uring the line A C, the dotted lines
A B and B C must be drawn on the
floor, taking care that B is a right
angle. These are laid down on the
map in light pencil lines, and then
FIG. i.
the points A and C are joined, after
which A B and B C can be rubbed
out. D E and D F are used in like
manner. The lines can be made on
the floor with thread attached to
pins, or by laying down sticks.
Some rooms have curved walls, as
FIG. 2.
in Fig. 2. These curves are almost
always parts of circles, and the first
thing to do is to find the centre of
the circle. This is done by taking
any two points, A B, joining them
by a line, finding the middle and
then drawing there a line at right
ang'es to it. The same is done with
two other points C and D, and the
point O, where the two lines meet,
is the centre of the circle. By
measuring the perpendicular dis-
tance of O from the nearest wall, its
place may be found on the chart,
and then by using a pair of com-
passes the circular part of the wall
can easily be drawn.
To draw the plan of a whole
house the same method is followed.
In drawing the plan of a piece of
ground in the same way, the plot,
if irregular, should be inclosed as
nearly as possible by straight lines
at right angles, and by parts of
circles. When these have been
FIG. 3.
mapped, as in Fig. 3, the irregular
lines may be drawn by the eye.
MARBLES. The manufacture of
marbles is described in C. C. T.
Many games are played with them,
most of which are variations of
those described below.
Ring Came. A ring is drawn on
hard ground with a pointed stick, or
on a pavement or floor with chalk,
and each player places in it one or
more marbles, as agreed before-
hand. A line is drawn six or seven
feet distant, and each player shoots
a marble from it toward the ring, he
who comes nearest to the centre
being allowed the first turn. This
is sometimes called "lagging."
The players in turn now shoot at
the marbles in the ring, trying to
knock one or more of them out.
As long as anyone succeeds, he con-
tinues to play, shooting each time
from the spot where his own marble
rested after the previous shot. The
marbles he strikes out of the ring
become his property if the game is
"for keeps," or "in earnest," but
are given back to their former
owners at the close, if the game is
" for fun." When a player fails to
strike any marbles out of the ring,
he ceases to play, leaving his own
marble where it lies. Any player
may shoot at another's marble left
thus outside the ring, instead of at
those in the ring. A marble thus
MARBLES
485
MARBLES
hit is said to be " killed," and the
player who kills it wins not only
that marble but any that its owner
has already won in the game. If a
player's marble remain in the ring, it
is "dead" also, and its owner must
place back in the ring all the
marbles he has won. The owner of
a marble dead in either of these
ways takes no further part in the
game.
Marbles are often simply tossed
by the hand, but the proper way of
shooting is to flip them from the
closed hand with the thumb. The
Manner of Shooting.
second, third, and little fingers are
closed tightly, the thumb bent, its
end being caught under the middle
finger, and the forefinger, then bent
over so that its tip touches the
thumb. The marble is placed on
the forefinger nail, and then by
straightening the thumb it can be
sent with great accuracy by a skilled
player. Sometimes, when the mar
bles are simply rolled, instead of
being shot thus, if an opponent cries
" Knuckle down tight !" the marble
must be shot properly, the knuckle
of the forefinger touching the
ground. The shooter is often al-
lowed various privileges if he can
claim them before his opponent for-
bids him. Thus, if he say " Round-
ings," he has the privilege of shoot-
ing from any point at the same dis-
tance from his mark. But if his op-
ponent says " Fen roundings " first
he cannot take the privilege. The
word " fen " which is used in all
similar cases, is thought to be a
corruption of " defend," in the old
sense of "forbid."
The form of the ring, the number
of marbles placed in it, and the dis-
tance of the starting line vary in
different places, and the game is
often given some fanciful name in
allusion to the changed shape of
the ring. Thus, forms of the game
played in New York City are called
" In the Fat," and " In the Soup."
Instead of starting from a straight
line, or " offing," the players some-
times shoot from any part of an
outer circle.
Fortifications, a kind of marbles
originally played in France. The
ground is marked out to represent
a fort, and the players try to knock
the marbles fairly outside the
lines. Each may start from any
outside line, and make his first shot
at the marbles in the inside figure,
called the "fortress." In other
respects this is like the Ring Game.
Pyramid. Inside a ring about
four feet in diameter are placed four
marbles, three closely together and
the fourth on top, forming a pyra-
mid. Each player shoots from a
spot previously agreed upon. Any
one who hits the pyramid receives
as many marbles as he can knock
out of the ring. Any one who fails
to hit it, gives a marble to one of
the players, who has charge of the
ring, and is called the banker.
When all the marbles aie gone from
the ring, another player becomes
banker. The banker must furnish
the four marbles which form the
pyramid at the opening of each
game.
Bridge. This is played with a
board, through which are cut sev-
eral arches, each of which has a
number over it. The players take
turns in serving as banker, as in
the last game. Each player gives
the banker a marble before he
shoots, and the banker pays him
back a number of marbles equal to
the number over the arch through
which he shoots. If he does not
shoot through an arch, the player
gets nothing, and if he misses the
bridge altogether, he gives the bank-
er another marble.
Three Holes, a marble game
based on somewhat the same prin-
486
MATCHES
ciples as GOLF. It is played in
many ways, but in all three little
boles are made in a row, each about
two inches across and one inch deep.
They may be three or four feet apart,
or more, if the players are skilful.
An "offing," or starting-line, is
drawn about a yard from the first
hole. The players in turn shoot
from this line at the first hole, and
when anyone has lodged his marble
in it, he shoots from that hole either
at the second or at the marble of
any other player. Each marble re-
mains where it stops, till the owner's
next turn. Any one whose marble is
struck is put out of the game. When
the second hole is made, the third
hole is shot at from the second, and
he who first gets his marble into it
wins the game, and takes all the re-
maining marbles. But a game may
be won also by a player who has
gained only one hole, by striking
his opponents and putting them all
out.
Sometimes, when a player has
gained the first hole, he can make
the others, in turn, place their
marbles in front of that hole and
shoot at them from the starting-
line. If he hit, the owner of the
marble he hits is out of the game,
and the next in turn puts up his to
be fired at. But as soon as the
player misses one of the marbles, his
turn comes to an end.
Sometimes the player is required
to make the three holes, one after
another, nine times, before he wins,
but he is allowed to shoot from as
great a distance from each hole as
he can measure by stretching out'
his hand, from little finger to thumb.
This is called " taking a span."
Battle Game, an in-door game of
marbles played by two persons
with equal numbers of marbles,
representing the soldiers. Players
sit on the floor, on opposite sides of
the room, so that the seams of the
carpet or joints in the floor run from
right to left. Each player places his
marbles as he pleases on his own
side of the seam, or line nearest the
middle between that and the next
seam toward him, which is called
his "dead line." One marble is
used by both players to shoot with,
alternately, and the object of each
is to knock his opponent's men be-
yond their dead-line. Any man
driven beyond this line, either di-
rectly by the shooter, or by one of
his fellow soldiers, is dead; and he
who first " kills " all his opponent's
men is the winner. The hand must
not be advanced beyond the dead-
line in shooting. If a player hit one
of his own men by accident, driving
him beyond the middle line, such
man becomes a prisoner, and may be
placed by the opponent as one of his
own.
MATCHES, Experiment with.
Place two matches in the end of a
small pasteboard match-box, as
shown in the illustration, and a third
Experiment with a Match-box.
between them. Light the third one
in the middle, and then ask the com-
pany to guess which of the upright
matches will take fire first. All
guesses will be wrong. Neither of
the upright matches will take fire,
for when the lighted match has
burned through, the others, acting
MAY-DAY SPORTS
487
MELTING ICE
as springs, will break it in two and
throw it aside to some distance,
putting it out. This experiment
resembles that of the TOOTHPICK
COMB.
MAY-DAY SPORTS. The chief
sport for May-day (the ist. of May)
is dancing around the May-pole. A
pole, decorated with flowers, may be
set up on any lawn, but in the
Northern States, where May-day is
often cold and cheerless, a smaller
pole may be erected in the house, by
fastening it to a box or frame, like a
CHRISTMAS-TREE. An even num-
ber of colored ribbons may be tied
to the top, each being held at the
end by a child. Half of them hold
the ribbons in their right hands and
the rest in their left. All move for-
ward, half going in one direction and
half in the other. First those going
to the right pass under the ribbons,
and then those going to the left, so
that finally the ribbons are woven
around the pole.
At a May-day party, one of the
girls should be chosen Queen of the
May, and should then be given con-
trol of all the games. She may
select any number of maids of honor
to assist her.
May-Baskets, little baskets of
flowers hung upon the door-knobs
of friends by children in New Eng-
land. This must be done silently,
for it is considered a disgrace to be
caught.
History. May-games have been
common from the earliest times.
The ancient Romans celebrated a
festival of the kind called Floralia,
in honor of Flora, the goddess of
flowers. In England the Druids
were accustomed to light bonfires
on the hills on May-day to welcome
the spring. On the eve of the day
the young men of each village, both
in England and on the Continent,
went to the woods and cut a May-
pole, which was decorated and set
up in some open place, and on the
following day all the people danced
about it. Many of our singing
games are thought to be derived
from this dance about the May-
pole. It was also customary to
choose the prettiest maiden or the
village as queen of the May. Early
on May-day morning young men
brought bouquets or boughs laden
with blossoms, and placed them at
some girl's door or under her
window. These were called in
England May-buskets (bushes), of
which our word May-baskets is prob-
ably a corruption. May games
were forbidden in England in Puri-
tan times, but many of the customs
connected with them survived and
were brought to this country by the
earliest settlers. They are not ob-
served to-day as much as they were
fifty years ago, but in New England
the hanging of May-baskets is still
common, and May-poles are now
and then put up in various parts of
the country. Many are to be seen
in Central Park, New York, every
May-day, set up by the school-
children, who march thither with
them in procession through the
streets. In some parts of France a
procession of young girls, dressed in
white, is formed on May-day. At
their head is the prettiest, with a
white veil, a crown of flowers, and
a candle in her hand. They go from
door to door, singing and asking
from every one a contribution for
the adornment of the church altar.
Similar processions are also to be
seen in other European countries.
In Cornwall, England, a miniature
ship, decorated with flowers, is
borne about.
MELTING ICE, Experiments on,
i. Put lumps of ice into a pail
of water, and, after stirring for a
time, take the temperature of the
water with a thermometer. It will
be found to be at the freezing point.
Put the pail over a fire, and con-
tinually stir the contents. Before
the ice has melted, test the temper-
ature again, and it will be found
still at the freezing point. The
reason is, that all the heat of the fire
MENAGERIE
488
MENAGERIE
goes to melt the ice, and does not
begin to make the water hotter till
all the ice is melted.
2. Mix warm and cold water to-
gether till it has exactly the temper-
ature of 176° Fahrenheit. Weigh a
lump of ice, and put exactly the
same weight of the water into a
pail. Crack the ice into small bits
and put it into the water. When it
is all melted the water will be at the
freezing point. The experiment
will not succeed exactly unless the
pail is a bad conductor of heat, for
otherwise the heat of the room will
affect the water. A good plan is to
arrange the pail as described in CON-
DUCTION OF HEAT.
MENAGERIE, a game played by
any number of persons, each of
whom has a full pack of cards and
takes the name of an animal, reptile
or bird. Each player shuffles Iris
pack and then places it face down-
ward before him. The first player,
(who is selected in any way the
company choose) then takes his
top card and places it, face upward,
where all may see it. Each in turn,
toward the left, does the same, and
on the second and succeeding
rounds the card that each turns is
placed on the first, forming a
second pile of cards for each player.
When any one turns over a card
that is the same as any other on the
table that he can see, he must call
out the assumed name of its owner,
and its owner must call out his
assumed name. Whichever does
so first must give the other all of
his cards that are face-upward. He
who first gets rid of all his cards wins,
but the game may be continued till
one of the players is left with all the
cards on the table. Instead of names
of animals, any others may be chosen
that the company agree upon, and
if they are long and hard to remem-
ber, the game is more amusing.
RULES OF THE GAME.
i. In turning the cards, each
player must turn the face from him
and not toward him.
2. Any dispute, as to which player
speaks first, shall be decided by vote
of the players.
3. When a player has turned over
the last card of his pile, so that all
his cards are face upward, he must
turn the pack face downward and
proceed as before.
MENAGERIE, a trick in the form
of a game. Those who have played
the game before are taken into
another room to represent the
menagerie, while those who are ig-
norant of it remain as spectators.
One of the former, chosen as exhib-
itor, calls the spectators, one by one,
into the exhibition room, asking
each as he does so what animal he
prefers to see first. The spectator
is led up to what looks like a cage,
but when a cloth is removed he
finds himself looking at his own face
in a mirror. Each spectator re-
mains in the exhibition room to
laugh at those who follow. The
cage can be made of chairs covered
with a table-cloth or shawl, and the
mirror should be placed at one end
so that it looks, when properly
draped, like a sort of window.
Another way to play the game is
to arrange a box about two feet
square, and from four to six feet
long, open at both ends, but having
a sliding door in the middle. The
whole is draped with cloth. Two
spectators are admitted at a time,
and after each has told what animal
he wishes to see, one is told to look
in at one end of the den and the
other at the other. The sliding
door is then raised and each finds
himself gazing into the other's face.
When no box has been prepared,
a piano, arranged as for a KALEID-
OSCOPE, may be used instead, the
sliding door being dispensed with;
but in this case it must be ar-
ranged to have the two spectators
look into the den at exactly the
same time or the trick will fail.
MENTAL PHOTOGRAPHS, a
game played by any number of per-
sons with pencil and paper. A list
of questions is first agreed upon as to
MENTAL PHOTOGRAPHS
489
MERCURY BUBBLES
the likes and dislikes of the person
addressed, such as " What is your fa-
vorite color ?" " Who is your favor-
ite historical character?" and so on.
One of the players, who acts as lead-
er, then reads the questions aloud,
one by one, and the others answer
them on paper, numbering the re-
plies to correspond with the ques-
tions The papers containing the
answers are then given to the leader,
who reads one at a time in connec-
tion with the questions. The play-
ers try to guess, from the kind of
answers given, who the writer is.
Of course the writer must try to an-
swer the questions honestly, or else
there will be no use in guessing from
the answers who he is. Sometimes
" Mental Photograph Albums," with
printed questions, are kept by people
who wish to record thus the feelings
of their friends. Such albums were
very popular at one time.
The questions should be agreed
upon by the company, and varied to
suit the tastes or ages of the players.
A sample-list is given below :
1. What virtue do you most ad-
mire?
2. What vice do you most abhor ?
3. Who is your favorite prose
author?
4. Who is your favorite poet ?
5. What is your favorite novel ?
6. What is your favorite game ?
7. In what are you most extrava-
gant?
8. How do you prefer to save
money?
9. What do you think the pleas-
antest season ?
10. What is your favorite picture ?
11. What is your favorite statue?
12. What is your favorite flower?
13. What is your aim in life ?
14. What is the sweetest word ?
15. What is the saddest?
1 6. What is your favorite man's
name ?
17. What is your favorite woman's
name ?
1 8. What is your greatest fault ?
19. What do you most desire ?
Another way of playing the game
is to have several written or printed
sets of answers to questions such as
those given above. These sets are
numbered, and are held by the one
who asks the questions. Each
player in answer to one of the quer-
ies gives a number at random, and
the leader then reads the corre-
sponding reply. This form of game
is called in Germany Die Beichte
(The Confession).
MERCHANTS, THE, a game in
which the players personate mer-
chants, and each guesses, from his
country and the initial letter of the
article, what his neighbor has for
sale. The players being seated in
line, the one at the end begins, for
instance: "I am an English mer-
chant, and I sell C— ." The next in
line must supply the article, which
may be carpets, china, cheese, cloth-
ing, or any production of England,
but must be nothing not made or
grown there, like coffee or cinna-
mon. Any one who violates this
rule must pay a forfeit, and his
turn passes to the next. Whoever
names a correct article then an-
nounces in like manner his own
country and the first letter of what
he sells, and the game goes on thus,
as long as the players choose. It
should be played mpidly.
MERCURY-BUBBLES. Pour into
a large tumbler a layer of mercury
about half an inch thick, and place
it under a water faucet, from which
water issues at
high pressure.
The glass first
fills, and then
little balls of
mercury are
seen floating
about in it.
These balls are
bubbles of mer-
cury, filled with
water, which
has been car-
ried down by
the force of the jet, and float in the
water as soap-bubbles do in air. For
the success of the experiment it is
Mercury Bubbles.
MERCURY FOUNTAIN
49°
MICROPHONE
necessary that the water should
issue from the faucet with force
enough to carry it down to the mer-
cury through the water in the tum-
bler.
Bubbles can also be blown on the
surface of mercury under water by
blowing through a glass tube filled
with water, whose end is just under
the mercury surface.
MERCURY FOUNTAIN. Provide a
bottle with a rubber stopper having
two holes (see CHEMICAL EXPERI-
MENTS). Through one of the holes
pass a glass tube bent into U shape
at its lower end, and through the
other a glass tube having its upper
end drawn out to a jet. Fill the
bottle with water, and, placing the
finger over the jet, pour mercury
into the other tube. When the fin-
ger is removed, the weight of the
mercury will force the water out of
the jet in a stream. Six inches of
mercury in the tube will raise the
water to a height of several feet.
MERELLES. See NINE MEN'S
MORRIS.
MESMERISM, atrick in which one
person pretends to mesmerize an-
other. The one to be mesmerized,
called the "subject," who must be
unacquainted with the trick, is told
to sit opposite the operator, who
calls for two soup-plates filled with
water. By previous arrangement,
the bottom of one has been black-
ened by holding it over a candle,
and this one is given to the subject.
The latter is directed to fix his eyes
steadily on the operator's face,
and to imitate every motion as ex-
actly as possible. The operator
then dips his finger in the water in
his plate, rubs it on the bottom, and
then draws a line on his face.
The subject does the same, except
that as the bottom of his plate is
blackened, he thus makes a black
mark on his face. As his eyes are
fixed on the operator's face, he
does not percieve that his finger-
tip is black. When the operator
has thus caused him to decorate
his face as much as he chooses, he
tells the subject that his will must
be very strong, as he finds it impos-
sible to place him under the mes-
meric influence. The subject may
then be shown his face in a mirror.
A variation of this trick is called
in France Le Singe (The Monkey).
The one who represents the monkey
sits opposite another person andeach
is given a hat but the monkey's
hat has been previously blackened
on top. The monkey is told, as in
the trick just described, that he must
imitate all the motions of the one
opposite, who from time to time
rubs his face with his hat. In this
trick there is no pretense of mes-
merism, but the victim is told that
the motions he is required to imitate
are very difficult, and that he who
succeeds in doing so perfectly will
win the game.'
MICROPHONE, a device for mak-
ing very low sounds audible at a
distance. A si tuple one can be made
by any one who possesses an ELEC-
TRIC BATTERY and a telephone.
Cut off two pieces of lead-pencil
in which the lead is as large as pos-
sible, one two inches long and the
other half an inch. Sharpen the
tirst at both ends, and split the other
lengthwise, so that half the lead will
be in each piece. Make a little pit
with a sharp knife in each lead, stick
i the short pieces of pencil in holes
j in a board two inches apart, and
I support the long piece between
them, each of its points resting in
one of the little pits ; insert a copper
wire in each of the holes from the
j opposite sides, so that each may be
in contact with one of the short leads
j One of these wires leads to one pole
; of the battery, and the other, after
: passing through a telephone, to the
i other pole. The board bearing
j the pencils is fastened upright. If
now the telephone be held to the
ear while some one scratches the
board bearing the pencils, the
scratch will be plainly heard in the
telephone. In like manner other
MILK-LAMP
49 I
MIND-READING
slight noises will be reproduced, such
as the ticking of a watch held against
the board. In delicate forms of the
instrument the footsteps of a fly
walking across the board can be
heard. The microphone will work
better if, instead of lead-pencil,
pieces of gas carbon be arranged
Microphone.
in the same way. Gas carbon can
be obtained at gas-works, or of a
dealer in electrical supplies, as it is
used in electric lights.
The reason why the sound is
magnified in the telephone is this :
The " lead " in a pencil (which is
really not lead at all, but graphite),
is a substance whose resistance to
the electric current varies greatly
with pressure. Scratching on the
board, or making any other slight
noise, joggles the pieces of lead-
pencil. They push against each
other, their resistance is altered, and
hence the current passing through
the telephone varies. Now, a vari-
able current in a telephone produces
a sound (see C. C. T., TELEPHONE)
hence the noise made on the board
is reproduced.
The word microphone is from
the Greek micros, small, 9&A phoneint
to hear.
MILK-LAMP, THE. Admit a sin-
gle ray of light intoa darkened room,
as explained under PRISM, and with
a mirror reflect the beam down into
a tumbler of water with which a few
teaspoon fuls of milk have been
mixed. The milk will shine with a
brilliant white light, lighting the
whole room.
MIND-READING, a game played
by any number of persons, one
of whom leaves the room, while
the others agree on some simple
thing for him to do. The player
without is then called in, and one
of the company takes him by the
hand, at the same time thinking in-
tently of the thing agreed upon.
He must not move unless the first
player moves. The player who
went out must keep his mind quiet,
trying to think of nothing in particu-
lar, moving in any direction he feels
impelled to move, and doing what-
ever he feels impelled to do. The
player will often do the very thing
which he was required by the com-
pany to do.
People are not agreed as to the
reason for this. Some think that
the player's mind is really influenced
by that of the one who holds his
hand, others that success is reached
by mere chance, and others still that
the player who has his mind fixed
on the required act thinks of it so
strongly that he cannot help show-
ing the other, by unconscious mus-
cular movements, what is to be
done. It is generally found that
certain players succeed better when
they are leaders, and others when
they -are led. Instead of merely
taking hands, the player who goes
out often holds the back of the
other's hand against his forehead.
Sometimes the one who goes out
hold's no one's hand at all, but the
entire company think very earnestly
of what they have agreed he shall do.
Exhibitions of mind-reading ire
sometimes given in public by men
MIRRORS
492
MISS JENNIA JONES
who make it a business, and they do
many wonderful things; but in such
cases it is hard to tell whether the
performers are honest in what they
do, or deceive the spectators by
some trick. A society has been
formed in England to investigate
mind-reading and similar things
scientifically, and its reports say
that it has discovered people who
are remarkable mind-readers. For
instance, it is claimed that one per-
son was able to tell the taste of
different substances placed in
another person's mouth, and to
draw figures thought of by other
people. There are still many people,
however, who think that there is no
such tiling as mind-reading, and
that these results were produced by
chance or deception. However this
may be, mind-reading, when played
as a game, as just described, fur-
nishes much amusement. The tasks
agreed upon should be very simple
at first. For instance, the player
may be required to go and stand
before some article or person in the
room. When some one is found
who seems to be able to do this
well, the difficulty may be increased ;
thus he may be required to walk up
to any object and lift it, to a chair
and sit in it, or to a person and
shake hands with him.
MIRRORS, Experiments with.
Some of the properties of mirrors
are described in C. C. T., in the
article on LIGHT.
1. Stand between two mirrors
which face each other directly. A
long line of images of yourself will
be seen, the farthest ones vanishing
in the distance. If a candle or
other bright object be held in the
hand, the number of images which
can be traced is much larger.
2. Place two small mirrors edge
to edge, and open and shut them,
like the leaves of a book, the reflect-
ing sides being within. Place
between them a lighted candle, or
some other bright object, and its
images will increase in number as
the mirrors shut together, and lessen
as they open. (See KALEIDO-
SCOPE.)
3. In a dark room hold the hol-
low side of a bright silver table-
spoon, forming a concave mirror,
before the face and a candle-flame
between the spoon and your eyes.
A small image of the flame, upside
down, will be seen about half an
inch in front of the spoon. Hold
the back of the spoon toward you,
forming a convex mirror, and a
small erect image of the flame will
appear behind it.
4. Paint the outside of an argand
lamp chimney black, and look
through it, toward the light, at a pin-
hole in a piece of cardboard. It
will appear as several circles of
light.
5. Hold a glass of water above
the eyes, and look up into it
through one of the sides. The
reflection of objects below will be
seen in the under side of the water
surface.
6. Cut out a letter or design from
thick paper and paste it on a small
mirror. If letters are used they
must be turned wrong side out, as
they appear when viewed in a look-
ing-glass. If the mirror be held in
sunlight so as to reflect a beam on
a shaded wall, the letter or design
will appear there in black on a
light ground.
MISS JENNIA JONES, a singing
game played by any number of
children. The following is one of
many similar versions: A girl
represents Miss Jennia Jones, and
another her mother. Miss Jones
stands behind her mother's chair or
sits in her lap. The other players
form a ring around the two, and
one by one advance and sing a
verse, the mother answering in like
manner. The tune is the same as
in the " Barberry Bush." For
instance :
" I've come to see Miss Jennia Jones,
Miss Jennia Jones, Miss Jennia Jones,
I've come to see Miss Jennia Jones
And how is she to-day ? "
MIXTURE OF LIQUIDS
493
MIXTURE OF LIQUIDS
" She's up-stairs washing,
Washing, washing,
She's up-stairs washing,
You can't see her to-day."
Each player asks the same ques-
tion, and the mother returns the
same answer, substituting in each
case a different occupation, as
"cooking," " ironing," or "baking."
At last she is said to be " sick,"
then " worse," and then " dead,"
when the players sing all together,
" What shall we dress her in,
Dress her in, dress her in,
What shall we dress her in,
Shall it be blue ?
" Blue is for sailors,
Sailors, sailors,
Blue is for sailors,
So that will never do."
Various other colors are then
suggested, and each is rejected in
like manner, till white is men-
tioned, which is accepted.
Miss Jones is then buried, after
which the players sing :
" I dreamt I saw a ghost last night
Under the apple-tree."
Miss Jones jumps up, the players
run in all directions, and she tries
to catch one, who must represent
Jennia Jones in the next game.
History. This game has been
long played in the Middle States.
A similar Scotch game has for the
name of the heroine Jenny Jo
(Jenny Joy, or Sweetheart) so "Jen-
nia Jones " is probably a corruption
of " Jenny, my Jo." The game
seems to be derived from an old
love ballad, where the heroine dies
of a broken heart. The reasons
given for rejecting the different
colors vary with the locality. Thus
red is sometimes said to be " for
joy," and sometimes " for firemen."
Yellow may be " for glad folks," or
" for Orangemen," and so on.
MIXTURE OF LIQUIDS, Experi-
ments on; i. Put in a bottle equal
quantities of mercury, sand, water,
and olive oil. When the bottle is
shaken they will form a turbid mix-
ture ; but when it is allowed to
stand a few moments, they will sep-
arate into four distinct layers, the
mercury at the bottom, the sand
next, the water next, and the oil at
the top. They will remain thus, no
matter how long the bottle is kept.
This arrangement is sometimes
called the "phial of the four ele-
ments," the mercury representing
fire, the sand earth, the water water,
and the oil air.
This experiment may be varied
as follows : Use as liquids mercury,
solutions of white and blue vitriol,
(sulphates of zinc and copper) water,
and alcohol. Have ready a leaden
bullet, two balls of wax weighted
with shot so that they will just float
respectively in the white and blue
vitriol, and a cork weighted so that
it will sink in alcohol but float in
water. Place these four in the
bottom of a tall jar and pour in the
liquids in the order given above.
All the balls will rise when the
mercury is poured in, and one will
be left behind with each of the
other liquids, so that the balls will
be distributed throughout the jar at
the close. If the lightest liquids
are poured in first, one ball will
rise as each is introduced. In this
case each must be poured in through
a glass tube, so that it will not mix
with the others. When the glass
tube is pulled out, it should be held
an instant in each liquid, so that
currents will not be formed. The
liquids used in this case, all but the
mercury, will mix with each other
if stirred, so the phial cannot be
shaken.
2. Fill a glass half full of water,
and then make a strong solu-
tion of blue vitriol in about a quar-
ter of a glass of water. Put a
funnel in the glass of clear water,
the end resting on the bottom, as in
the figure, and pour into it quietly
and slowly the solution of blue
vitriol. Being slightly heavier than
pure water, it will remain at the bot-
tom of the glass if it is kept still,
and by holding it up to the light the
line between the blue liquid and the
MIXTURE OF LIQUIDS
494
MONETA
water will be seen to be quite sharp.
Let the liquids stand in a still place
for a week or more. In a few days
the line between the two liquids will
become blurred, and after a time
they will be completely mixed, the
blue liquid, though heavier, having
crept up into the water. This is be-
cause the particles of liquids are in
continual motion, even when they
seem to us to be still. The result of
this motion is called diffusion.
3. Color some bi-sulphide of car-
bon with iodine and pour a few drops
into a test-tube, or bottle half full of
water. The colored liquid will sink
to the bottom. Leave the bottle
alone for a long time, and, though
the liquids do not seem to mix, the
bi-sulphide grows less, and finally
disappears entirely. The odor near
the bottle shows that it has evapo-
rated, though it was under water.
4. Make some " vegetable parch-
ment," as described in Experiment
4, under SULPHURIC ACID, and tie
it tightly over the large end of an
argand lamp chimney, so that it will
hold water. Cut about two thirds
from the small end (see CHEMICAL
EXPERIMENTS, directions for Glass-
working) and fit it with a stopper or
cork in which is a glass tube. Fill
the vessel thus formed with a solu-
tion of blue vitriol, and press down
the cork so that the liquid will rise
slightly in the tube. Suspend the
chimney parchment end downward,
in a glass of water. In an hour or
two it will be seen that the liquid
has risen in the tube. The two
liquids have been mixing through
the parchment, but the water, since
it is lighter, has come in faster than
the blue vitriol has gone out, so
there is more liquid in the vessel
than there was at first. The mix-
ing of liquids through porous par-
titions is called Osmose, from a
Greek word meaning " impulse."
MONETA, a game played by any
number of persons with a pack of
fifty cards, on which are pictures of
coins of the United States. There
are five each of the one-cent, two-
cent, three-cent, five-cent, ten-cent,
twenty-cent, twenty-five cent, and
fifty-cent pieces, five silver dollars,
and one each of the gold dollar,
quarter eagle, three-dollar piece, half-
eagle and eagie. Four cards are
dealt to each player, and four are
placed face upwurd on the table,
forming the Bank. Beginning at the
dealer's left, each in turn may ex-
change one card at a time for two
or more of the same value in the
Bank. Thus, a quarter-dollar may
be exchanged for two dimes, a three-
cent piece, and two cents. The
cards thus taken from the Bank are
placed by themselves to form what is
called the player's Safety Fund. Any
player, if he can take nothing, may
" build'' as in the game of CASINOS
That is, he may place a piece of
money on another, or others from
his hand, in the Bank, saying"!
build," provided he can take them
at his next turn. Any succeeding
player may take the pile if he can,
or add to the build, but the pieces
cannot be taken separately. If a
player can neither take nor build,
he must place a card with the
others in the Bank. Four more
cards are given to each player by
the dealer whenever they are need-
ed. When all the cards have been
used, if any remain in the Bank, the
taker of the hist card chooses one.
the player at his left another, and
MOON
495
MOSAIC
so on till all are gone. Each player
scores the money value of the cards
in his Safety Fund, and, in addition,
ten cents for each card. Since each
card counts thus in addition to its
face value, as many cards as possible
should be taken ; thus, it is better
to exchange a dollar for four quar-
ters than for two half-dollars.
MOON, Observations on the, The
moon is described in C. C. T. The
curious things on its surface may be
seen by any one who has a common
opera-glass. The best time to look
at the moon is not when it is full,
as people are apt to suppose, but
when it is waxing or waning. The
part to look at is the line that di-
vides the bright from the dark sur-
face. At this line, it is sunrise on
the moon when it is waxing, and
sunset when it is waning. Near it
the shadows are longer and more
noticeable, just as they are on the
earth at sunrise or sunset. The
outlines of the lunar mountains can
thus be seen much more plainly
than when the sun is shining down
full upon them, as it is at full moon.
By watching carefully, the shadows
can be seen to change as the line of
sunrise or sunset moves slowly over
the moon's surface. The principal
things to be noticed on the bright
surface of the moon are the dark
patches, which were formerly
thought to be seas, and the bright
streaks that run over the surface;
but with an opera glass these are
not nearly so interesting to watch as
sunrise and sunset on the lunar
mountains.
MURIATIC ACID, Experiments
with. See HYDROCHLORIC ACID.
MORA, or MORRA, A game played
by any number of persons, who hold
up fingers and guess at the total
number. A leader is appointed,
who counts three, or makes some
other signal, and at that instant
each holds up as many fingers as he
chooses and shouts out his guess.
He whose guess comes nearest to
the total number of fingers held up,
gains a point, and he whose points
soonest amount to a number pre-
viously agreed on, wins the game.
Every one must make his guess and
hold up his fingers at the signal, if
he holds up any fingers at all ; but
any one may guess and hold up no
fingers. No one must change the
number held up, and each must
keep his hand raised till the leader
can count the fingers.
Mora is a very ancient game, and
is played in all parts of the world,
generally by only two persons. The
Romans called it Dtgitis Mzcare
(flashing or snapping with the
fingers), and the Italian name of
Mora, or Morra, is said by some to
be derived from Mtcatura, another
form of the Roman title. The
French call it Mourre,
The game is a great favorite in
China. In the Friendly Islands a
kind of Mora is played called Liagt,
The players sit opposite each other,
and make signs with the hands at
the same time. The player whose
turn it is holds up either his open
hand, his closed hand, or his fore-
finger. His opponent does likewise,
and if he chance to make the same
sign, it becomes his turn, and neither
gains. But if the first player can
make one or other of the signs five
times in succession without his op-
ponent's doing the same, he scores
a point. Five points win the game,
and the score is kept by throwing
down little sticks held in the left
hand.
MOSAIC, a writing game played
by any number of persons. Each
writes a word on a slip of paper, and
after the slips are mixed, one of the
players draws and reads them one
by one. Each writes them down in
the order in which they are read,
and must then write a story contain-
ing the words in that order. The
game may be made more difficult
by requiring the story to be within
a specified length, or written within
a certain time; and it may be made
easier by allowing the players to in-
MRS. JARLEY'S WAX-WORKS 496
MUGGINS, OR SMUT
troduce the words in any order they
please.
MRS. JARLEY'S WAX-WORKS, a
theatrical entertainment suggested
by the character of Mrs. Jarley and
her wax-works, in Charles Dickens's
story of " The Old Curiosity Shop."
One of the performers, dressed like
an old woman, takes the part of
Mrs. Jarley, a little girl represents
Little Nell, and two boys act as at-
tendants. The rest of the perform-
ers represent wax figures, arranged
singly, or in groups. When Mrs.
Jarley wishes to exhibit a figure, she
calls on the attendants to bring it
forward. They stand, one on each
side of the figure, double up its
arms at the elbow, and then each,
placing his hands under one of the
figure's elbows, carry it to the front
of the stage. The figure must hold
its elbows stiffly at its side, but after
reaching the front, the arms are
straightened out by the attendants.
After giving a comical description
of the figure, in which Little Nell
aids by pointing to the various feat-
ures with her wand, as each is men-
tioned, Mrs. Jarley orders one of
the attendants to wind it up, which
he pretends to do, with a large
imitation key. At the same time
a person behind the scenes turns a
watchman's rattle, to imitate the
sound of winding. The figure then
goes through movements, practised
beforehand, and then is set back in
its place, as before, by the attend-
ants. The motions of each figure
must be appropriate to the charac-
ter it is supposed to represent.
They should be simple, and per-
formed in a series of stiff jerks, as if
worked by badly-oiled machinery.
The face should be immovable, and
the can iage stiff and awkward. The
motion should grow slower toward
the end, as if the machinery were
running down, and should stop
with a jerk in the midst of a move-
ment. The attendants should then
bend the arms or body back into the
original position.
The attendants may have dust-
brushes, and carefully dust the fig-
ures before bringing them forward.
It adds to the amusement if a care-
less attendant overturn one of the
figures. The figure should fall stiffly
forward, putting out his hands just
before he reaches the ground. This
requires practice, but if well done is
very effective. The attendants then
try to lift him, one at the head and
one at the feet, when he bends at
the waist, and has to be straightened
out again. With a little ingenuity,
many laughable variations may be
introduced. The figures should
practise their motions until they are
perfectly familiar, and they should
also hear Mrs. Jarley 's account of
them several times before the per-
formance, otherwise some of the
jokes, being unexpected, may cause
them to lose their gravity.
The stage should not be crowded
with figures, and if there are more
than can be ranged around it at
once, there should be more than
one scene. There may thus be
shown a " Historical Chamber," a
"Chamber of Horrors," a "Shakes-
peare Chamber," and so on, at the
pleasure of the performers.
MUGGINS, or SMUT, a game
played by any number of persons,
usually not more than six, with a
full pack of CARDS. The cards are
dealt, one by one, and each player
places his. face downward, in a pile
before him, without looking at
them. Beginning at the dealer's
left, each one in order then turns up
a card, and places it face upward,
forming a second pile for each play-
er, as the game goes on. When an
Ace is turned up, it is placed in the,
middle, and on each Ace the other
cards of its suit must be placed in
order, as they appear, ending with
the King. Any card that cannot be
placed on one of the middle piles
can be put on any other visible card
on the table that is just above it or
just below it in value, without re-
gard to suit; thus, if a Ten is turned
MUGGINS, OR SMUT
497
MUMBLE THE PEG
up, and there is no Nine on the top
of any of the middle piles, it may
be placed on a Nine or a Knave on
top of any player's pile. So long as a
player can thus dispose of his cards,
he can continue to turn up ; but
when he cannot do so, the turn
passes to the next. Each player's
object is to get rid of all his cards,
and the one who does so first, wins,
if he can sit till the end of the game
without being " mugginsed." A
person is said to be " mugginsed " if
he breaks any of the rules of the
game, when the players cry " Mug-
gins," and each gives him a card.
The rules are very strict, and should
be studied carefully. They may be
changed, or new ones may be added
at the pleasure of the players. Much
of the fun of the game consists in
watching for some player to break
one of the rules.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. No one must touch the table,
or his cards, except when playing.
2. Each player, in turning a card,
must take it with both hands by the
corners farthest from him, and turn
it face outward.
3. As long as he can dispose of
his card by placing it in the middle,
or on some other player's pile, he
may continue to play ; but when he
can no longer do so, he must place
his card on the one of his piles
which is face upward, and say
" Stop;" but if a player is mugginsed,
his play ends at once.
4. A player may not be mugginsed
for not saying " Stop," till the next
one has begun to play.
5. Before a player turns his card
he must look at the top card of his
face-upward pile, and see whether
that can be disposed of. If it can,
he must place it, and then look at
the one under it, and so on ; and in
no case may a card be turned over
before this is done.
[For instance, suppose A has on
top of his face-upward pile a Knave
and under it a Nine. B's pile shows
a Knave on the top. A looks first
at his own Knave, and, seeing that
it cannot be played, turns up a card,
which proves to be a Queen. He
places this on B's Knave, and must
then place on it his own Knave be-
fore turning another card. The
Nine which is thus exposed cannot
be played, so he turns up another
card, which we will suppose to be a
Ten. He places this on B's Knave,
and then puts on his nine before
turning again. If he turns up a card
that cannot be played, he must lay
it down, saying " Stop."]
6. If a card can be played either
in the middle of the table or on a
player's pile, it must go in the mid-
dle ; and if it can be put on any one
of two or more players' piles, it
must go on the one that is first met
in moving to the left around the
table.
7. When a player's cards are all
face upwards, he must turn the pile
over (saying " Flop " as he does so)
and begin again.
8. When a player comes to his
last card he must, before playing it,
turn it over three times in the air,
saying " Muggins " each time, then
blow it thrice and snap it once.
When it has been played, he must
not utter a sound during the rest of
the game. If he does, he is " mug-
ginsed," receives a card from each
player, and enters the game again.
The other players may do what they
choose (without touching him) to
make him speak or laugh aloud.
9. In giving a card to a " mug-
ginsed " player, each shall draw
such card from the bottom of his
back-upward pile, and the mug-
ginsed player shall place them un-
der his own pile.
The game is sometimes called
Smut, from the old custom of black-
ening the face of the last player to
get rid of his cards.
MULBERRY BUSH. See BAR-
BERRY BUSH.
MUMBLE THE PEG (corrupted
into Mumbledypeg), the name of
MUMBLE THE PEG
498
MUMBLE THE PEG
two different games. I. An out-
door game played by a number of
players usually not exceeding four,
each with a stick of wood about
eighteen inches long and two or
three inches thick, pointed at one
end, called a peg. Each player, in
an order which is decided before
the game begins, throws his peg so
that it may stick in the ground. He
has bui one throw at a time, whether
he succeeds or not, and in either
case his peg remains where it sticks,
or lies, till his next turn. Any
player, in making his throw, may try,
in doing so, to knock the peg of
another player out of the ground, or
to move any peg that is lying on the
ground. If he succeed in doing
either of these, and at the same time
put his own peg into the ground, he
must knock the peg so overturned
or moved as far as he can with his
own peg, and then try to stick his
own peg into the ground three times
before the owner of the other can
do so once. If he succeed, the owner
of the other peg is out of the game ;
if not, that owner holds his peg in
his hand till his next turn. The
game goes on till only one player is
left, who is the winner.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. A peg shall be judged to be in
the ground when any other peg can
be placed under it without touching
it.
2. When a peg is thrown, it shall
touch no other before leaving the
player's hand. This game is very
old. The Greeks played it, calling
it Kandalimos. In England it is
known as Loggats ; in France as
Riding to Rome, and in Germany
each locality has a different name
for it. The Swiss call it Hornig-
geln (probably The Horn Yell), the
Austrians Schmerpecken (probably
Greasy Sticks), the Suabians Stockles
(Little Sticks), and the Bavarians
Pickeln (Picking).
A game somewhat like it is played
on horseback by the Turcomans and
other tribes, in Central Asia and
India. The Oriental name is Neze
Baze, and the English call it Tent
Pegging. A peg like those used in
fastening tents is driven into the
ground, and the players in order try
to knock it out with their lances as
they ride past. '
II. A game played by any num-
ber of persons, each with a pocket-
knife, one of whose blades is open.
Each player, in turn, tries to throw
his knife so that it will stick in the
ground or the floor. Any one who
does not succeed in three trials is
out of the game. Any knife shall
be judged to be in the ground when
the handle of another knife may be
held under it without touching it.
When all have tried, holding the
knife in one wav, another way is
tried, and so on, till only one player
is left, who is the winner. The ways
of throwing the knife, and the order
in which they come, are different in
different places. The following or-
der, or something like it, is com-
mon :
I. The knife is held by the handle
and thrown as in Fig. i.
Fig. i.
2. The same, holding the knife
by the blade.
3 and 4. The same, with the left
hand.
5, 6, 7, and 8. The four preceding,
making the knife turn a complete
somersault before striking the
ground.
9. The knife is laid lengthwise on
MUSICAL
499
MUSICAL GLASSES
the palm of the right hand, with the
blade pointing outward.
10: Same, with the blade inward.
II and 12. Same, with knife held
across the palm, the blade pointing
first to the right and tiien to the
left.
13-16. The four preceding, with
the left hand.
17-24. The eight preceding, mak-
ing the knife turn over before strik-
ing.
25. Place the point on the knee,
and throw as shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2.
26. The same, with the handle on
the knee.
27 and 28. The two preceding,
with the left hand and knee.
These are all sometimes repeated
with the blade at right angles with
the handle.
These two games derive their
names from the custom, still some-
times followed, of making the loser
in each pull out with his teeth a
small peg, which is so driven into
the ground by the winner that the
end is level with the surface.
MUSICAL, a SOLITAIRE game of
CARDS, played with one full pack.
An Ace, Two, Three, and Four of
any suit are placed in a line, and
under them, respectively, a Two,
Four, Six, and Eight, thus :
1234
2468
In playing, any card may be placed
on one of the lower line, if the num-
ber of the former's pips is the sum
of those on the card it is placed on
and the one just above; thus, a Three
may be placed on the Two, or a Nine
on the Six. The Knaves count as
1 1, the Queens as 12, and the Kings
as 13. If the sum of the two cards
exceeds 13, the excess only is
counted ; thus, Queen and Four, in-
stead of being 16, counts only as 3.
Any card that cannot be used is
placed aside to form Stock, and the
top card of the Stock can be used
at any time. The Stock can be
twice shuffled, and played again. To
win, all the cards must be placed on
the piles, when the top cards in the
lower row will all be Kings. This
game is entirely one of chance, and is
not often played successfully. It is
called Musical because the cards are
laid out in two scales of numbers.
MUSICAL FRIGHT. See GOING
TO JERUSALEM.
MUSICAL GLASSES. If the mois-
tened finger be rubbed around the
edge of a glass finger-bowl or an or-
dinary goblet of thin glass as in the
illustration, a clear musical sound
will be produced. This note is
higher or lower according to the
size of the finger-bowl and the
amount of water in it. By choosing
Musical Goblet.
bowls of different sizes and pouring
in water to different depths, it is pos-
sible to tune them to the notes of
the musical scale, so that tunes can
be played upon them. A set of
glasses of the same size may even
MUSICAL NEIGHBORS
500
MY SHIP
be tuned thus simply by pouring
different quantities of water into
them. The giass sounds for some
time after the ringer has left ; hence
chords can be played by rubbing one
after another. When the player
wishes a note to cease, he touches
with his finger the rim of the glass
which is producing it.
MUSICAL NEIGHBORS, a game
played by any number of persons,
half of whom are blindfolded. The
blindfolded players are seated in
a row, alternate chairs being left
empty. The others stand in the
middle of the room till commanded
by the leader to be seated, when
they sit quietly in the empty chairs.
The leader then gives the command
"Sing," and plays some well-known
air on the pianoforte. The un-
blindfolded players sing it together
till the leader says " Silence," and
then each of the blindfolded players
is required to name his right-hand
neighbor. Each who does so cor-
rectly changes places with the one
whose name he guesses, who must
submit to be blindfolded in turn.
The unblindfolded players then
stand in the middle of the room
again, and the game is repeated as
many times as the players please.
To make the game a success, all
the players must begin to sing at
the word of command. The voices
may be disguised at pleasure. The
game may be varied by allowing
each to make whatever noise he
pleases, instead of singing a song.
MY AUNT'S GARDEN. See RE-
PEATING GAMES.
MY HOUSE, YOUR HOUSE, a game
played by any number of persons
sitting around a table, in the middle
of which is a circle about five inches
in diameter. The circle may be
drawn with chalk, or made of pa-
per. A slip-noose is made at one
end of a cord about a yard long,
and the other end is tied to a cane.
One of the players holds the cane,
and the slip-noose is laid around
the chalk circle. When he says
" My House," each of the other
players must touch the tip of his
forefinger to the table inside the
circle; and when he says " Your
House," each must withdraw his
finger and place it on the table in
front of him. The commands " My
House," "Your House," may be re-
peated as fast as the speaker pleases,
and in any order he wishes. Any
one who does not put his finger in
the circle at the command " My
House," or who takes it out except
at the command "Your House,"
must pay a forfeit. When the player
with the cane says " Your House,"
he is allowed to tighten the noose
quickly, trying to catch any fingers
that remain in the circle. If he
succeed, the person whose finger is
caught must take his place, and the
game goes on.
MY LADY QUEEN ANNE, a guess-
ing game played by any number of
persons, who sit in a circle. A ball
is hidden about the dress of one of
the players, and another, who stands
within the circle, guesses where it
is. First the players in the ring
sing:
" My Lady Queen Anne, she sits in the sun,
As fair as a lily, as brown as a bun.
The King sends you three letters and bid*
you read one."
The one in the middle answers:
" I cannot read one, unless I read all.
So pray you, , deliver the ball.
If the person guessed have the
ball, he changes places with the one
in the centre, otherwise the game is
repeated till a successful guess is
made.
MY SHIP, a game played by any
number of persons, some of whom
have not taken part in it before.
Each player is asked what his ship
is laden with, and is expected to
mention an article beginning with
the first letter of either of his names.
Thus if his name is John Smith, he
may say, for instance, " Jews-harps,"
"Sunfish,""Jelly,"or"Soup." Those
who have not played before are not
MYTHS
NEEDLES
told of this condition, and vhenever
they mention something beginning
with the wrong letter, are told that
the ship cannot enter port with such
a cargo. They are usually much
puzzled by observing that a cargo
proper for one person is not allow-
able for another. This game is
played under several different
names. In one form, each is asked,
" What will you take to the picnic,"
and if the answer does not begin with
the proper letter, the player is told
that he will not be allowed to go.
MYTHS, a guessing game played
by any number of people. One
player begins by asking a question of
some other, relating to an historical
or fabulous event he has in mind.
The person addressed must reply in
such a way that the questioner will
know whether he has guessed it cor-
rectly or not. If correctly, the
questioner lets him know by a
second remark, but without giving
information to the other players.
If incorrectly, the questioner must
guess to what event the player
thought he referred. If he cannot
do so, he must tell the company
what he had thought of, and the
event thought of by the questioned
player becomes the " myth." For
instance, A says " How do you like
shoes ?" B answers " Made of Glass. "
A. " Not Cinderella." C. " When I
want to catch a train, they are in-
valuable "(guessing correctly that A
referred to Jack the Giant Killer's
"shoes of swiftness"). A. "Then
you should enter for a pedestrian
contest" (thus letting C know that
his guess is correct).
Whenever two players have
guessed correctly, the subject must
be told to all the others.
NAPOLEON. See EUCHRE.
NECKTIE PARTY, a young peo-
ple's entertainment, at which each
girl wears a colored apron, and pro-
vides a necktie also of the same
material. The neckties are placed
in a room by themselves, and each
boy, as he enters, must choose one
and put it on. The girl who wears
the corresponding apron is under
his special charge for the evening.
He must see that she enjoys her-
self, take her in to supper, and see
that she reaches home in safety.
Of course, the same number of boys
and girls should be invited.
NEEDLES, Experiment with.
Having cut out a piece of cork
somewhat like that in the illustra-
tion, thrust the point of a .needle
through one side, at A, and let its
eye rest loosely on the other, at B.
Stick the point of a second needle
into the cork through the eye B of
the first, and stick a third by the
side of the second. Hold the mid-
dle of the first needle in the flame
of a candle, by means of the cork,
and as it expands with the heat it
will push the needle in its eye out
Experiment with Needles.
of the perpendicular, as will be seen
by comparing it with the third
NEGRO MINSTRELS
502
NEWMARKET
needle, which remains upright. On
taking the cork away from the can-
dle, the horizontal needle contracts,
and the other becomes upright again.
NEGRO MINSTRELS. In such a
performance, young people some-
times lose much by omitting details
that at first may seem obvious or
well known. In seating a minstrel
troupe, do not do it in a straight
line, but in a semi-circle with the
ends towards the audience. Put
the funny men at the ends, and in
the middle put the " interrogator,"
or serious man, whose dignity is in-
tended to make the others seem the
funnier. Let the funny men ask
their conundrums of him, and let
him do no interrupting ; the funny
men must do all that. It's well for
the interrogator to repeat each
conundrum very distinctly. If
" Bones " or " Sambo," asks in negro
dialect, " Mr. Johnsing, why am you
like de mudder of General Jawge
Washington?" let the interrogator
repeat very distinctly, " Why am I
like the mother of General George
Washington?" Unless this is done,
the question of the conundrum is
very apt to be lost amid the laugh-
ing and confusion of such a show.
In some shows, the interrogator re-
peats the answer too.
Although the piano has no place
in a minstrel show, there is no se-
rious objection to playing it behind
the scenes in connection with the
music made before them.
NEWMARKET, or STOP, a game
of cards, played by any number of
persons with a full pack, from
which the Eight of Diamonds has
been removed, and with four addi-
tional cards, called the pool. The
pool-cards, which are the Ace of
Spades, King of Hearts, Queen of
Clubs, and Knave of Diamonds, are
laid face upward, by themselves.
Before the deal, each player places
counters agreed on on whichever of
the pool-cards he pleases. Not all
the pool-cards need have counters
on them, and several players may
place their counters on the same
card. The entire pack is dealt, one
at a time, including an extra hand,
which is placed face upward where
all can see it. The eldest hand
now leads, generally the lowest card
he holds of any suit where he has
the King, or if he has no King, of
his longest suit, and he declares the
card as he leads. (Ace ranks below
the Two.) The holder of the next
higher card must then play and
name it, then the holder of the card
above that, and so on till no one
else can play. He who plays the
last card, which is called a stop-
card, takes the trick and leads for
the next. The stop-cards are the
four Kings, because there are none
higher ; the Seven of Diamonds, and
the cards just below those in the
extra hand, because the next higher
ones are not in the game ; and all
cards just below any which have
been already led. He who first gets
rid of all his cards receives from
each of the other players a counter
for every card remaining in that
phiyer's hand. During the game,
whenever a card is played corre-
sponding to a pool-card, he who
plays it takes all the counters on the
pool-card, and any player not getting
rid of a card corresponding to a
pool-card must place upon the
pool-card, for next hand, as many
counters as are already upon it.
A card cannot be declared until
it is shown.
Only one card can be declared at
a time.
There is often a doubt whether a
stop-card has been declared in time
to stop another one declared appar-
ently simultaneously. In this case,
and in all others, the dealer is
referee ; or the player at his left, if
the dealer is interested ; or the
player next at the left, if the ques-
tion happens to concern the two
first mentioned.
The game, as above detailed, is
subject to the following variations:
Sometimes the pool-cards are all
hearts, and the ten is added.
Sometimes the eldest hand alone
NEWMARKET
5°3
NINE MEN'S MORRIS
puts counters on the pool-cards, or
"garnishes," putting one counter
on the lowest, two on the next, etc.
Sometimes the " extra hand " is
dispensed with. Beginners had
better do so.
Sometimes the Seven of Dia-
monds is an " arbitrary" stop-card,
that is, can be played whenever its
holder pleases, he thus seizing the
lead.
Sometimes the Nine of Diamonds
is also made an arbitrary stop-card.
In this case, when one arbitrary
stop-card is played, the holder of
the other can follow with it if he
sees fit. The use of the two arbi-
trary stop-cards is recommended.
Sometimes the choice of suit for
arbitrary stop-cards is auctioned off,
the dealer acting as auctioneer, and
the eldest hand making first bid.
If no bids are made, diamonds re-
main the suit. If another suit is
bid for, diamonds may then be bid
for also. After the auction :
(a) The successful bidder places
the counters he bids, in the centre
of the table.
(b) The player first "out" takes
the aforesaid counters.
(c) If the players adopt that form
of the game in which the pool-cards
are all hearts, the other suit of the
same color as the one chosen by
auction, is entitled, as played, to the
counters on the pool-cards.
The skill shown in this game is
in knowing what to lead, and in
remembering what has been played,
so as to know when any card be-
comes a stop-card. The preferable
leads are from suits in which the
leader hclds a stop-card. When the
lead cannot be kept in this way, aces
and the cards just above those in the
extra hand should be led. Arbitrary
stop-cards should not generally be
played early in the hand.
History. Newmarket is derived
from an old form of the game called
Pope Joan, in which the Nine of
Diamonds was called the Pope, and
entitled the holder to certain priv-
ileges. In the play " A School for
Scandal " Sir Peter Teazle speaks
of " playing Pope Joan with the
Curate." Pope Joan is the heroine
of a legend of the Middle Ages,
which tells how a woman, dressed
as a man, became a priest and was
finally elected Pope. The name
Newmarket is probably from the
English town of the same name.
NIGGER BABY. See ROLY POLY.
NINE HOLES. See ROLY POLY.
NINE MEN'S MORRIS, a game
played by two persons, each of whom
has nine pieces, or men on a board
like that in the illustration.
None of the pieces, which are of
two colors, are on the board at the
opening of the game. The players
take turns in placing their men, one
at a time, on the places marked with
numbers in the diagram, and after-
ward in moving them from one
spot to the next, in any direction,
along the lines. Each player's ob-
ject, both in placing the men and
in moving them, is to form a row of
Morris-board.
three of his own pieces; and when
this is done, he may take from the
board any hostile piece (called
" pounding"); but he must not dis-
turb a row of three, if there is any
other that he can take. Usually he
who first takes off all the hostile
pieces wins, but sometimes, when a
player is reduced to three men, he
loses the game. The game is played
NITRIC ACID
504
NIVERNAISE
also on a board with diagonal lines
at the corners, and sometimes, when
either player has had all his men
captured but three, he is allowed to
'• hop," that is, to play a man to any
vacant spot on the board.
The player must avoid crowding
his men together, and try to place
them on the corners. He should
devote himself to blocking his op-
ponent, as well as to getting his own
men into lines. When possible, it
should be arranged to make more
than one line in successive moves.
When by moving one man back-
ward and forward two lines can be
alternately made and broken, the
player is said to have an " open
and shut."
Thus, if a player has pieces at 17,
20, 23, 21, and 24, by moving that at
17 to 18 and then back again, he can
continue to make rows of three till
his opponent can bring up a piece
to block him.
History. Nine Men's Morris was
played at least five hundred years
ago, and the board then in use was
exactly like the one in the illustra-
tion. In France, it was played with
pawns or men, but in England com-
monly with stones. Shepherds in
England sometimes cut the lines in
the ground and make holes for dots.
Shakespeare, in describing a stormy
season, says:
"The Nine Men's Morris is filled
up with mud." The game was
called also Five-penny Morris, and
Nine-penny Marl. The French call
it Merelles, which is from a Greek
word meaning divisions or par-
titions. Morris may be from the
same word, but it is also the name
of a dance, and some think that the
game was so called from moving
the pieces backward and forward as
in a dance.
NITRIC ACID, Etching with,
Nitric acid is described in C. C. T.
To etch with it on copper or brass,
warm the metal, and then rub it
with a piece of wax so that the
metal will be covered with a thin
layer of wax. After it has cooled,
draw in the wax the design to be
etched, with the point of a knife, a
needle, or any other sharp instru-
ment, taking care to reach the sur-
face of the metal. Then cover the
metal with strong nitric acid. Soon
bubbles will appear along the
scratches made by the knife. Let
the metal stand a few minutes
longer, and then wash it in water
and remove the wax, either by heat-
ing and rubbing, or with turpentine.
The design will be found etched or
eaten into the metal surface. This
is because Nitric Acid does not act
on wax, hence the wax layer protects
the metal, except where the layer
was scraped away with the knife.
Pour Nitric Acid on a bit of
" Dutch leaf," which is very thin
brass or bronze used by sign painters.
The leaf will dissolve in the acid.
Put a bit of real gold leaf in each
of two test-tubes or bottles, pouring
Nitric Acid on one, and HYDRO-
CHLORIC ACID on the other.
Neither will dissolve the gold, but
if the contents of the bottles be
mixed, the gold will dissolve. This
mixture of acids is called aqua regia
(Latin for royal Water), because it
is the only liquid which is able to
dissolve gold.
NITRIC OXIDE, Experiment with.
To make Nitric Oxide gas, ar-
range the apparatus exactly as for
making HYDROGEN, except that
copper clippings are put into the
bottle instead of zinc, and Nitric
Acid poured into the water instead
of sulphuric. When a jarful of the
gas has been collected over water,
remove the jar and turn it mouth
upward. The gas, being lighter
than air, will rise; but, though it was
colorless in the jar, as soon as it
enters the air outside it appears as a
cloud of reddish brown vapor. The
reason of this is that it unites with
the oxygen in the air to form another
gas called Nitric Peroxide, whose
color is red.
NIVERNAISE, a SOLITAIRE game
NOBLESSE OBLIGE
NONSENSE
of CARDS played with two full
packs. The player lays the first four
cards played in his left hand in a
vertical line, and four more on nis
right, and then places six piles of
four each, one pile at a time, in a
row between. The Aces and Kings
in the side rows, or on top of the
piles, are now removed and placed
in two rows below, Aces in one row,
Kings in another. Any Ace or
King thus uncovered in a pile is
placed in like manner. The player's
object is to build up families by
suits, downward from the Kings and
upward from the Aces. He may
use, in building, the top card of any
pile, or any card in the side rows.
Vacancies in the side rows are filled
either from the top of the piles or
from the pack. When all possible
cards have thus been used in build-
ing, four more are placed on each
pile, and so on till the pack has been
used. The piles may be shuffled
and relaid till the families are com-
pleted, the number of times the
player is obliged to do so being a
measure of his skill.
NOBLESSE OBLIGE, a game of
CARDS played by three persons with
a EUCHRE pack. The dealer, who
is determined by the lowest cut, lays
aside the four Aces, and then deals
the other cards one by one, placing
the last, or twenty-eighth card, face
upward on the table. The dealer,
if he can, leads a card of the same
suit as the twenty-eighth card. If
he cannot, the lead passes to the
next, and if the next cannot, to the
third player. Who ever leads thus
places the twenty-eighth card in front
of him and counts it as a trick.
Play now goes on, as in WHIST, but
with the following differences : If
a player hold both court cards and
plain cards in any suit, he cannot
win a trick second or third hand un-
less a court card has already been
played in that trick. If no court
card has been played, he must play
his lowest plain card, losing the
trick. If he hold only plain cards,
or only court cards, in any suit,
there is no limitation on his play.
The winner of the last trick takes
also the four Aces.
The score is one for each trick
won (including the twenty-eighth
card), two for the four Aces, and
one for each court card held at the
opening of the hand. The player
with the highest score wins, each
hand being a game by itself, or the
players may agree on a number of
points to be played for.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. If there is a misdeal, the deal is
lost, and passes to the next player
on the left.
2. If a card be exposed, it is
named, and the dealer takes posses-
sion of it, placing it on one side.
The exposer loses one point.
3. A revoke, or attempt to win a
trick where the rules forbid, loses
the offender all score for honors,
and the tricks gained, by thus break-
ing the rules.
4. The dealer must see all penal-
ties enforced.
5. Only the trick preceding the
one in play may be seen.
Noblesse Oblige is a French prov-
erb, meaning " Rank imposes obli-
gation," that is, more is expected of
a noble than of a common citizen.
The name is given to this game on
account of the obligation not to
take the trick which the holding of
" nobles " (court cards) imposes on a
player.
NONSENSE, a game played by
any number of persons, sitting in a
circle, who make a comical sentence
by each furnishing one part of
speech. One of the players begins
by whispering to his left-hand neigh-
bor an article: the latter whispers
to his left hand neighbor an adjec-
tive, and then in turn the others
whisper in like manner a noun sin-
gulur, a verb, an adverb, a number,
an adjective, and a noun plural.
Each in order then tells the word
whispered to him, and a sentence is
NORSEMAN
506
NORSEMAN
thus formed; for instance, " The
solemn grasshopper ate gleefully
forty-three infuriated lobsters." The
parts of speech may be varied to
suit the players.
They are sometimes printed on
cards of different colors, the nouns,
for instance, being blue, the adjec-
tives red, and so on. These are
dealt to the players, and then each
one reads a card of the proper color
at random. A kind of SOLITAIRE
may be played with these cards,
the player arranging them in rows,
backs upward, in the proper succes-
sion of colors, and then turning
them over.
The following are examples of
other arrangements of the parts of
speech. Article, adverb, adjective,
noun, adverb, verb, article, noun.
Adverb, adjective, noun-plural,
verb, noun-plural, conjunction, verb,
adjective, adjective, noun.
NORSEMAN, a game of CARDS
played by two to ten persons, with
a full pack. Only a EUCHRE pack
of 32 cards is used in playing, the
remainder, called the " Low Pack,"
being used only to determine the
trump. The two-handed game will
be described first. The deal is de-
cided by cutting, the lowest card
dealing. In both cutting and play-
ing the cards rank as in ECARTE\
the Ace ranking between the Ten
and the Knave. The dealer gives
each player five cards, one at a time,
and then cuts the Low Pack for his
opponent to turn the trumps, of
which there are two, one in a red
and the other in a black suit. The
top card of those remaining on the
table is turned foF the first trump,
and the next one of a different color
for the other. Each of these trump
suits counts as such only in its own
color. Thus, if Spades and Hearts
be the trumps, a Spade will take any
Club, but is treated like a card of
an ordinary suit with regard to
Hearts and Diamonds. When the
trumps are turned, each player has
the privilege of discarding three
cards or less, and supplying their
places from the stock. The elder
hand discards first, and if he take
less than three, the dealer may take
what he leaves in addition to his
own three. Either or both may re-
fuse to discard at all. Both must
discard before either take cards
from the stock. After the discard,
each of the players throws two dice,
one with red and one with black
spots. The sum of the spots on the
two black and two red dice, respec-
tively, determine two cards, one in
the black and one in the red trump
suit, which are the highest trumps
in tliose suits for that hand. These
are called Rovers, or Special Trumps.
Thus, if one player throw a red
five and a black four, and the other
a red four and a black six, the Nine
of the red trump suit and the Ten of
the black trump suit tire the Rovers.
The Ace counts as either one or
eleven, and the Knave as twelve.
The King and Queen are never
Rovers. If the sum of the spots in
either color should be less than
seven, there is of course no Rover
in that color, since seven is the low-
est card in the Euchre pack. When
the dice of one color are Ace and
Ace, or Ace and Two, the trumps
of that color are degraded to t,he
rank of ordinary cards for that
hand. When Spades are trumps,
the Knave of Spades is called
" Norseman," and will take any card
in the pack. Norseman is the only
card that is a trump outside its own
color.
Each player now looks at his
hand, and if either has both Rovers,
or Norseman and a Rover, he wins
the game at once, without playing
a card. This is called winning " by
hand." If Norseman be also a
Rover, his holder also wins by
hand. If no one wins thus, the
elder hand leads, and the cards are
played as in Euchre, or any ordinary
two-handed game of cards.
Suit must be followed if possible;
if not, a trump of the same color as
NORSEMAN
507
NORSEMAN
the card led must be played. If
neither of these things can be done,
a card of the other color may be
thrown away. Norseman and the
Rovers may be " reneged," that is,
their holder is not obliged to follow
suit with them, but may play them
when he pleases. Each trick taken
counts one, and the same player
continues as dealer till one of them
has won the game, either by making
five points, or " by hand," as de-
scribed above.
Four - handed Norseman! Two
play as partners against the other
two, partners sitting opposite, as in
WHIST. Five cards are dealt to
each. The dealer and elder hand
throw the dice to determine the
Rovers. The players discard in
order, beginning with the elder
hand. He and the next player may
not discard more than three apiece ;
but if they take less, the others may
each take what his partner left.
Thus, if the best player takes two
cards and the second none, the
third may take four and the fourth
six. In this way twelve cards, all
that remain in the stock, may be
taken. In other respects the game
is played like two-handed Norse-
man.
Three handed Norseman^ The
Low Pack is not used. After deal-
ing, the dealer places the stock be-
fore the player on his right, who is
called Poney, and cuts. Poney
turns up the top card of those re-
maining on the table, as first trump,
and the next of the other color as
the other trump. The intermediate
cards, if there be any, he takes into
his own hand, where they are called
Reserved Cards. Each player must
discard his whole hand, or none at
all, and if Poney discard, he must
reckon the Reserved Cards as part,
or all, of the cards he takes in.
Should there be more than five Re-
served Cards, he may return which
he pleases to the stock. If Poney
does not wish to discard, he must
lay aside all his Reserved Cards.
The holder of a Rover, or Norse-
man, must lead it at the first op-
portunity.
Norseman as a Round Game.
Any number less than ten may
play,' and five cards are dealt to
each from the full pack. Each
player has two dice, one with red
and one with black spots. To de-
termine the dealer, the cards are
thrown around, and he to whom the
first Ace falls, deals. The trumps
are determined before dealing, the
player on the dealer's right cutting
while the dealer turns them up.
After the deal, each player throws his
dice, and each one's dice, with those
of the dealer, determine the Rovers
for his own hand. Before playing
begins, each one in turn, beginning
with the eldest hand, either lays his
Rovers face upward on the table,
securing one for each, or declares
that he has none. Rovers thus laid
down remain so till played. In
play, the Rover last played is al-
ways considered the highest. Thus,
if one player put down the Ten of
Hearts, it being a Rover, and the
next the Three of Hearts, it being
also a Rover, the latter takes the
trick, unless some one else plays
another Heart, Rover, or Norse-
man, afterward. Each trick counts
one point, except the last, which
counts two. Whenever Norseman
is played, its holder scores two at
once. The first player to score ten
wins the game. The elder hands
thus have an advantage, which is
offset by that given the younger
hands in allowing the later Rover
always to take the earlier. The
deal does not pass to the left, but is
determined anew each hand, as at
first.
Instead of turning trumps before
ihe deal, there may be no trumps
at all, in which case the sum of the
red spofs, for instance, on the dice
thrown by any player and the dealer
makes a red card of either suit in
that player's hand a Rover. In this
case, two Rovers of the same color
NORTHERN SPELL
508
OATS-PEAS-BEANS
count only one point, though they
must both be laid on the table.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. A misdeal loses the deal, and
one point is deducted from the deal-
er's score.
2. No hand can be altered after
all have discarded.
3. A revoke or a neglect to play
a trump of the same color, where it
is possible, loses the offender one
point.
4. The dice must remain on the
table, as thrown, throughout the
hand.
5. A card played out of turn can-
not be taken back.
6. Any player may count the
stock, or ask about exposed or
played Rovers (This rule applies
particularly to the Round Game).
NORTHERN SPELL. See KNURR
AND SPELL.
NOUGHTS AND CROSSES. See
TIT-TAT-TO.
NOVELS. A game played by any
number of persons, with pencil and
paper. The players usually sit
around a table, and after they have
agreed on the title of the novel
they are to write, one of them be-
gins it, writing a given number of
lines. He then folds over the paper
so as to hide what he has written,
and then hands it to the player on
his left, telling him onJy the last
word he wrote. That player must
continue the story as well as he
can, and then each in turn takes it
up, each writing the same number
of lines and each telling his neigh-
bor the last word. The last player
must write an ending to the story,
which is then unfolded and read
aloud. If it is desired, more than
one story can be written at the
same time, each beginning and end-
ing at different players from the
others. Besides the subject of the
novel, the names of its hero and
heroine can also be agreed upon
beforehand.
NUMBER ELEVEN, a SOLITAIRE
game of CARDS, played with one or
two full packs. The cards are played
so as to form two rows, six in one and
and five in the other. Any two cards
on the table, the sum of whose pips
is ii, are now laid aside, and their
places filled from the pack. If
I King, Queen, and Knave are in one
row, or of one suit, they also may
be removed. This goes on till the
pack is out, or there are no cards
on the table which can be removed.
If the former is the case, the player
has won.
0
OATS - PEAS - BEANS, a game I dance about a boy who stands
played by any number of children, within. As they dance they sing
who join hands in a circle and I
ley grows. Oats, peas, beans and
You nor
nor no - body knows how oats, peas, beans and bar - ley grows.
Then they stop, and letting go of
hands sing to the same tune,
Thus the farmer sows his seed,
Thus he stands to take his ease,
Stamps his foot and claps his hands,
And turns around to view his lands.
While the first line is sung, each
swings his hands as in sowing seed ;
during the second, each rests his
hand son his hips ; during the third,
each stamps his foot and claps his
OBSERVATION
5°9
OBSERVATION
hands ; and in the fourth, each turns
around. Then joining hands again,
they circle about as before and sing
to the same tune,
Waiting for a partner,
Watting for a partner,
Open the ring and take one in,
And kiss her when you get her in.
The circle then stops and the boy
within selects a girl from the play-
ers, whom he kisses, and who must
then stand beside him in the ring.
Joining hands again, the players
circle about them, saying :
Now you're married you must obey,
You must be true to all you say,
You must be kind, you must be good,
And make your husband chop the wood.
The boy now joins the other play-
ers in the circle, leaving the girl
alone within, and the game begins
anew, the only difference being that
a boy is chosen from the circle in-
stead of a girl.
This game is said to be unknown
in Great Britain, but it is common
in most of the other countries of
Europe. It is mentioned by the
chronicler Froissart in the I4th cen-
tury. In France, Spain, and Italy,
there are also verses telling how the
farmer reaps, and describing his
other labors. Some people think
the game was originally played by
peasants in seed-time, in the belief
that it would make the corn grow.
OBSERVATION, a game played
by any number of persons, each with
a pencil and paper. Any number
of articles, of any kind are placed
on a table in the centre of a room,
and the players, forming in line,
march into the room, around the
table, and out again. Each then
writes on his paper the names of as
many of the articles on the table as
he can recollect. The longest list
is then read, and the reader scores
for each article as many points as
the number of players who have not
its name on their lists. As each ar-
ticle is read, its name is crossed off
by all who have it, and, when the
longest list has been exhausted, any
remaining names on other lists are
read in like manner. When a dis-
pute arises as to whether any article
has been sufficiently or properly de-
scribed, it may be decided by a ma-
jority vote, or by an umpire, not one
of the players, especially chosen for
the purpose.
Unconscious Counting, a kind of
Observation, in which each player
tries to tell at a single glance the
number of dots on a piece of paper.
The dots, from 10 to 15 in number,
are made in irregular order, and the
paper is then shown quickly to each
player for so short a time that it is
impossible for him to count them
one by one. The best plan is to
make large dots and hold the paper
up for an instant where all can see
it at once. If it is shown to each
separately, it is hard to make the
intervals of time exactly equal, and
therefore strictly fair to all. He
who comes nearest to the right
number scores a point; or if the
nearest guess is made by two or
more players, each scores a point.
Another group of dots is then made
and shown to the players.
After this has been repeated a
number of times agreed on before-
hand, he who has made most points
is declared winner. The one who
makes and shows the points does
not take part in the guessing, and
is chosen from among the players
for each game. Another method
of scoring is to give each player the
difference between his guess and
the real number of dots. The one
who has the fewest points at the
end of the game is then the winner.
To avoid the influence one player's
estimate might have on the others,
each must write his guess on a piece
of paper before any of the guesses
are announced.
The power of thus estimating, or
unconsciously counting a number of
objects, is largely increased by prac-
tice. An English arithmetician
named Dase could thus give the
number of sheep in a flock, or of
books on a shelf, up to thirty, at a
ODD AND EVEN
OLD STAGER
single glance. Nearly any one is
able thus to count three or four, and
sometimes more, and the number is
easily extended. In practising un-
conscious counting, the number of
dots should be gradually increased,
and arranged at first in regular or-
der, the arrangement being made
more and more irregular.
ODD AND EVEN, a game played
by two persons, one of whom holds
any number of small objects, while
the other guesses whether that
number is odd or even. If he guess
correctly, he wins. The objects are
usually such as can be held in the
closed hand, such as pennies, beans,
or pebbles, but fingers may be held
up instead.
History. This amusement is very
old. The Romans called it Par
Jtnpar (Odd-Even) and the Greeks
named it also Zuga 4 Azuga (Yokes
or no Yokes), for what reason is un-
known. The name may be a cor-
ruption, since the similar Sanskrit
words yuj and ayuj mean odd and
even.
OLD MAID, a game played by any
number of persons, usually not more
than six, with a pack of cards, from
which three of the Queens have been
taken. The remaining Queen, usu-
ally the Queen of Hearts, is called
the Old Maid. The cards are dealt
one by one, and then each one
throws on the table all the matches
or pairs of like cards that he has in
his hand. Each then, beginning at
the dealer's left, draws a card from
the hand of the player at his right.
If the card so drawn matches any
that he has, the two are thrown on
the table; otherwise the turn passes
to the player at his left. When all
the cards have been matched ex-
cepting the Old Maid, the player
holding that card is said also to be
the Old Maid. Much of the amuse-
ment of the game is caused by the
efforts of the player who finds the
Old Maid in his hand so to place
her that she will be drawn by his
neighbor. Sometimes the matches,
instead of being thrown out all at
once, are played in turn, one at a
time, so that, if one player begins to
draw before his neighbor, he may
break one of that neighbor's pairs
in drawing. Sometimes, instead of
takingout three Queens at the begin-
ning, a card is drawn from the pack
at random and laid aside, and at the
end of the game one of the mates
of that card is left in a player's
hand, the other two having been
matched. This form of the game
is not so interesting as the other, as
in it no one knows what card is Old
Maid.
Packs of special Old Maid cards
are sold at toy stores, bearing all
kinds of comic figures, including
one of the Old Maid. With these
the game is played in the same way
as with ordinary playing cards, save
that no cards are thrown out of the
oack at first, as there is but one Old
Maid.
In Germany this game is called
Schivarzer Peter (Black Peter),
though it is not like our game of
that name. Instead of a Queen,
one of the Knaves is used, and the
alayer left with it has his face black-
ened with soot.
OLD SLEDGE. See ALL FOURS.
OLD STAGER, THE, a SOLITAIRE
game of CARDS played with two
packs. Three rows of thirteen cards
each are first laid down. Whenever
a King falls directly below a card of
the same suit, it may be removed to
the adjoining place and the space
left is filled with the next card.
The Aces, as they come, are laid in
a row, and families are piled on
them in order, by suits, ending with
the Kings. For this purpose only,
the lowest row of cards can be used,
except when there is a free space
below some other card, when that
card may be taken. Cards allowable
to play thus are called free cards.
Any free card can also be placed on
any other free card just above or
just below it in value, following suit.
Useless cards are laid aside to form
OLD WITCH
OLIVER TWIST
stock, of which the top card can be
used to build, or to fill a space in
the rows. The next card on the
pack can also be used for these pur-
poses, except when the vacancy is
in the top row, when only the stock-
card may be used. If the families
are not formed by the time the
pack is gone, the three bottom cards
of the stock may be taken in hand
and played as before.
OLD WITCH, a game played by
not more than ten children, one
representing a mother, one a witch,
aud the others daughters, of whom
the eldest is often called Sue, and
the others are named after the days
of the week, Sunday, Monday, Tues-
day, etc. The mother, going out,
charges her eldest daughter to take
care of the rest. The witch then
calls, and steals one of the children.
This is repeated till all the children
are gone. The witch then names
each child after some eatable (often
after different kinds of pies), and
offers them to the mother to eat.
The latter recognizes her children
one by one, and sends them home.
There are many varieties of this
game, some of which are played
partly in verse. Instead of Sue, a
servant is left in charge in some
versions of the game. The witch
gets the servant out of the way by
telling her that the kettle is boiling
over. On the mother's return, the
eldest daughter, or servant, when
asked where the stolen child is,
offers all kinds of excuses, suggest-
ing that he is down cellar or under
the table. The methods of playing
the game are many, but its main
features are the same everywhere.
Sometimes the witch is named
"Old Mother Cripsy Crops," or
" Hipplety Hop."
History. The game of Old Witch,
in various forms, is common in
Europe, and is probably many cen-
turies old, being a sort of drama
founded on a fairy tale. There are
many German forms, of which one,
" Old Urschel," corresponds nearly
to ours. In Sweden the mother is
called Lady Sun. In some countries
a hen and her brood are substituted
for the mother and children. Some-
times the children represent pots of
honey, as in the game of HONEY-
POTS.
OLIVE OIL, Experiment with.
Pour a little oil into a glass of water.
The oil will float on the surface of
water. Pour some into a glass of
alcohol, and the oil will sink. The
object is now to make such a mix-
ture of alcohol and water that the
oil will neither rise nor sink in it,
but stay wherever it is placed. This
is done by trying various propor-
tions. When the right one has been
obtained the oil will sink just below
the surface and form a perfect
globe. By pouring more of the
mixture above it, the globe of oil
is made to float motionless in the
centre of the fluid. The reason the
oil forms a globe is that that is the
natural form of any mass of liquid
when there is nothing to pull it out
of shape.
OLIVER TWIST, a game played
by any number of persons, with a
pack of cards on which are pict-
ures representing the characters in
Charles Dickens's story of "Oliver
Twist." Each character is on two
cards, except Oliver Twist and the
Artful Dodger, who have but one
each. All the cards are dealt to the
company, one by one, and then the
holder of Oliver shows it to the
company and returns it to his hand.
Each now places on the table all
the matches, or duplicates, in his
hand, and then each in turn, begin-
ning at the dealer's left, draws a
card from his right-hand neighbor
and throws on the table the match,
if any, that it makes with a card in
his own hand, as in OLD MAID.
When anyone draws Oliver, he
shows it and calls " More," where-
upon each of the others gives him a
card. The holder of Oliver need
not match unless he chooses. The
holder of Artful Dodger is allowed
ONE OLD OX
OXYGEN
to draw two cards at a time, save
when he is also the holder of Oliver.
The game goes on till no cards are
left but Oliver and Artful Dodger,
when the latter must be thrown on
the table, and the holder of Oliver
wins.
ONE OLD OX. See REPEATING
GAMES.
ONE, TWO, AND THREE, a game
played by any number of people,
one of whom leaves the room, while
the others agree on three objects or
persons. These are numbered, and
the player outside is then called in
and asked what he will do with one,
two, and three. If he decides to do
what is possible under any circum-
stances, another person takes his
place; but if one or more of his
wishes are impossible, he pays a
forfeit for each and goes out again.
For instance, the company may
decide on the steeple of Trinity
Church (one); the president of the
United States (two); and a goat
(three). On being called in, the
player who left the room says, " I
will paint One sky-blue; I will en-
close Two in a dry-goods box and
ship it to Australia; and I will hold
a conversation in Latin with Three".
The first two, though absurd, are
possible, but the third is not, under
any circumstances whatever, so the
player pays one forfeit and leaves
the room again.
OPERA CLASS, Experiment with
an. It is an interesting experiment
to find the magnifying power of
an opera-glass, which can easily be
done as follows: Hold one tube
of the glass in front of one eye and
nothing before the other eye, so
that two images of the object looked
at will be seen at once, one natural
size and the other magnified. It
can then be easily estimated how
much higher one is than the other.
In ordinary opera-glasses the height
is magnified from two and a half to
three times. Field-glasses some-
times magnify as much as seven
times. To tell the magnifying
power still more exactly, a tape-
measure should be looked at through
the glass in the same way. If one
foot on the magnified image is as
long as two feet eight inches, for
instance, on the natural image, the
glass magnifies two and two-thirds
times. Instead of a tape-measure a
brick wall may be looked at, or any-
thing having regular divisions.
OTI-DAMA. See JACK-STONES.
OXYGEN, Experiments with.
(Names and processes merely allud-
ed to in this article are fully ex-
plained in CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS.
Oxygen gas is described in C. C. T.)
To make it, equal quantities of pow-
dered chlorate of potash and black
oxide of manganese are mixed, and
a glass phial about two inches long is
one-third filled with the mixture.
The neck is closed with a cork,
through which passes a tube, whose
other end is arranged to collect
the gas under water. The bottle is
supported on its side by two blocks
of wood so that it can be heated by
an, alcohol lamp or Bunsen burner
placed under it. Heat first the part
of the mixture nearest the delivery-
tube. If the gas is made too rapid-
ly, remove the flame for a moment.
The oxygen can be stored in a gas-
holder, if desired, and kept for future
use. The oxygen made in this way
comes from the chlorate of potash
(see Potash, C. C. T.), and is sepa-
ra.ed from the other elements in that
substance by the heat applied to it.
The only use of the oxide of man-
ganese is to cause the gas to escape
slowly and regularly, thus prevent-
ing an explosion; but how it does
this has not been satisfactorily ex-
plained.
Another way of making oxygen
is to heat red oxide of meroury in
the apparatus just described. Oxy-
gen is a little heavier than air, so if
the jar in which it has been collected
over water be turned right side up
very carefully, the gas will not es-
cape if the air is still; but it is bet-
ter to lay a piece of glass over the
OXYGEN
513
OXYGEN
mouth of the jar. The glass may
be slipped under the jar before it is
removed from the water, which will
prevent any loss while it is being
turned over.
Experiments. Light a splinter of
wood, and after it has burned a few
seconds, blow out the flame, so as to
leave the end glowing, and then
plunge it into the oxygen. It will
light again with a puff, and burn
brightly. This is because pure oxy-
gen feeds flame much better than
when it is diluted with nitrogen, as
in ordinary air (See Air, C. C. T.).
For the same reason any substance
will burn more brilliantly in oxy-
gen than in air. Substances used
are best held in the oxvgen in a
deflagrating :poon, but may be in-
troduced in any other way. Most
substances so burned produce dis-
agreeable fumes, which may be
Deflagrating Spoon in Jar.
kept from escaping by covering the
jar with a piece of pasteboard
through which the handle of the
spoon passes: The things that burn
with the prettiest effects are: char-
coal (a piece the size of a pea ; light
it by holding the spoon in a gas-
flame before putting it into the oxy-
gen); sulphur (observe the same
directions) ; and iron. The iron
should be in the form of fine wire,
or a steel watch-spring may be used.
Heat the end of the wire and then
dip it in powdered sulphur, some
of which will stick. Then light the
sulphur, and thrust the iron into the
oxygen. The burning sulphur will
presently light the iron, which will
burn, sending out brilliant sparks.
Oxygen will not burn in air, as
may be seen by trying to light a jet
of it from a gas-holder. But it will
burn in hydrogen, as can be shown
thus, with a little skill. Cut the
bottom from a bottle and hang it by
its neck from a nail. Through the
cork pass a tube from a gas-holder
full of hydrogen, and regulate the
flow so that when the gas is lighted
at the bottom of the bottle it will
burn there quietly. Do not light
the gas till the air is all driven from
the bottle. From another gas-holder
pass a stream of oxygen through a
glass jet, and raise this jet into the
bottle. As the jet passes through
the burning hydrogen, the oxygen
issuing from it will take fire, and it
will continue to burn in the hydro-
gen within the bottle. The reason
of this is that when most things
burn t,.ey unite with the oxygen of
the air; but as oxygen of course can-
not unite with itself, it is necessary
to surround it with some other gas
for which it has a liking. Instead of
hydrogen, ordinary illuminating gas
may be used, and instead of a bottle,
a lamp chimney, or anything of glass
that is open at both ends. In all
cases the upper end must be tight,
so that the hydrogen may not escape
at the top.
P'S AND Q'S
514
PANTOGRAPH
P'S AND Q'S, a game played by
any number of persons. Each in
turn gives the name of a historical
personage, and his left-hand neigh-
bor names the place where that per-
sonage has gone to fight. The lat-
ter must be either the native place
of the character, or the name of
some battle in which he took part,
and must begin with no letter pre-
ceding P and Q in the alphabet.
Each player warns the next to
•' mind his P's and Q's." If this
rule is broken, the offender pays a
forfeit, and the next player names a
place which does not violate the
rule. For instance :
1. "Julius Caesar has gone to
fight at" —
2. " Pharsalia. Grant has gone to
fight at" —
3. "The Wilderness." "Sherman
has gone to fight at" —
4. " New Hope Church."
This last requires a forfeit, since
its first letter, N precedes P in the
alphabet.
The fifth player supplies a proper
answer; for instance, "Savannah,"
and the game goes on till the players
are tired, or a sufficient number of
forfeits have been collected.
PAIR OF SHOES, a game played
by any number of persons with two
packs of cards, one bearing pictures
of men of various trades or profes-
sions, and the other pictures of
shoes. In both packs each picture is
borne by two cards. At the beginn-
ing of the game the shoe cards are
in a pile on the table, face upward.
Four of the other cards are dealt to
each player, and four on the table,
face upward. When any player's
cards are gone, the dealer gives him
four more, and so on till the pack is
exhausted. Each player, in turn,
takes from the table any card which
he can match from his hand, places
the two cards by themselves, and
then takes the top shoe- card. If he
can match nothing, he places his
card on the table with the others,
not taking a shoe-card. If a player
have a card with a policeman on it
(called a police-card) he can either
take all the cards on the table, and
two shoe-cards, or lay it on the table,
saying " Police," when all the players
must place their cards on the table,
and the holder of the police-card
may take as many matches as there
are, with a shoe-card for each. But
if he call " Police" and any player
have the other police card, the latter
may take the former and three shoe-
cards. Each player keeps his shoe-
cards by themselves, and at the
chose of the hand throws out all
those not in pairs. The rejected
ones are used in the next hand, and
so on till they are all paired, when
the holder of the most pairs of shoes
wins. Any hand comes to an end
when the shoe-cards have been all
taken, no matter whether the other
cards have all been dealt or not.
PALMISTRY. See FORTUNE-
TELLING.
PANTOGRAPH,
an instrument
F
Pantograph.
PANTOGRAPH
515
PANTOMIME
for copying maps or drawings, or
enlarging or reducing them in size.
A simple one may be made by fast-
ening four pieces of wood together,
as shown in the diagram. They
can turn freely on each other at C,
B, G, and H. At A is fixed a lead-
pencil, and at C a metal point. The
end F is fixed to the table, so that
it will turn freely. Now, if a map be
placed under C and a piece of blank
paper under A, and if C be moved
along the lines of the map, A will
draw a similar map twice as large.
If the pencil be placed at C and the
metal tracer at A, the map will be
reduced in size one half. These
proportions may be altered by
changing the positions of the points
G and H where the pieces of wood
are hinged together, so long as the
opposite sides of the figure C, G,
H, B, are always kept equal.
All parts of the pantograph should
be supported at the same distance
from the table, so that the motion
may be even. The best way is to
form the hinges at G, H, and B by
screwing in ordinary screw-eyes from
below, and to put in a fourth close
by the pencil A, or a sharpened
screw with two nuts, as L, may be
used. The tracer C may be a steel
nail of such a length as just to clear
the table when the machine rests
on the screw-eyes, and the end F
turns on a steel nail in a small block
of wood screwed to the table. The
heads of these screws must be sunk
in the block so that they do not pre-
vent the stick from turning, or the
block may be of the shape shown at
K, with the fastening screws at the
sides. If the pieces of wood be
marked off in inches and fractions
of an inch, it will be easy to vary the
size of the drawing. This can be
done by bearing in mind that the
line drawn by the point A is always
as much larger than that drawn by
C, as the line A B is larger than C
H. Hence if the drawing at A is to
be made four times as large as that
at C, the hinge must be moved half
way up to C. Since the opposite
sides of the diamond must be kept
equal, G must also be moved half
way down to B.
A simpler pantograph than this,
though it is not nearly so exact, can
be made as follows : Take an elas-
tic band from one eighth to one
quarter of an inch wide and cut it
open, so as to make a single straight
piece. Stick a pin through each
end, and drive one of these pins into
the table. Between the pins tie the
elastic band tightly around a lead-
pencil, as near the point as possible.
If the free pin be now moved over
the lines of any figure with the right
hand, the pencil will trace the same
figure on a reduced scale. The
elastic must always be straight from
pin to pin. It will be necessary to
press lightly on the pencil with the
left hand, to make it mark distinct-
ly, but care must be taken that it is
allowed to follow its own course.
The drawing is always reduced,
never enlarged, by this kind of pan-
tograph. The scale depends on the
position of the pencil ; if it is half-
way between the pins, the drawing
will be reduced to one half the orig-
inal size ; if it is at one fourth the
distance from the fixed to the free
pin, the drawing will be one fourth
the original size, and so on.
PANTOMIME, acting without
speech. An entire play may be given
in pantomime, or charades may be
acted in it. In any case, the plot must
be simple and the incidents such as
to be easily understood by the specta-
tors without the aid of words. Pan-
tomimes generally depend for their
effect largely on stage machinery,
by whose aid strange or comical
transformations take place. Many
of these can be arranged only on a
large stage, but others are more sim-
ple. For instance, objects can be
made to disappear suddenly from the
stage by fastening thread to themand
jerking them to one side; and a ta-
ble is easily provided with one or
more holes in the top through which
PAPER BANDS
PAPER BANDS
an unseen performer takes away ar-
ticles or supplies their places with
others. Similar devices of many
kinds may be arranged, and any one
practised in sleight-of-hand tricks
can introduce many variations.
In acting a pantomime, certain
gestures and expressions are almost
always used to express the same
passions or feelings ; thus, Anger
is represented by scowling fiercely
and clenching the fists ; Hate, by
turning away the head and making
a motion as if pushing some one
away with the palm; Love, by press-
ing the hands over the heart, with
or without kneeling; Sorrow, by
weeping or wringing the hands, and
so on. Pointing with the finger is
a gesture often used, and a ques-
tion is denoted by raising the eye-
brows. In comic pantomime, boards,
or pieces of pasteboard, with words
printed on them in large letters,
are sometimes displayed where an
idea cannot be conveyed by signs.
Noises are often introduced, such
as the barking of dogs, whistling,
or crowing.
The custom of " mummers " or
maskers, persons dressed in odd
costumes parad ing about the streets,
which is still kept up in some places
in this country on Fourth of July
or New Year's Day, and in Europe
at the Carnival, was a sort of pan-
tomime. The illustration shows
some ancient English maskers.
PAPER BANDS, Experiments
with. Take three strips of paper,
each about an inch wide and six
inches long, and make them into
bands by pasting the ends together.
Paper Bands.
In pasting the first bring the ends
together squarely to make an ordi-
nary ring, as at i in the illustration;
with the second, give one end a
English Maskers.
twist before pasting it to the other, i two twists, as at 3. Cut each band
as at 2 ; and with the third, give it 1 in two lengthwise along the dotted
PARLOR RACE
PATCH ESI
line. From the first will be obtained
two separate rings as at i' ; from
the second, a single ring of half the
width and twice the diameter, as at
2' ; and from the third, two rings
linked together, as at 3'.
PARALLELS. See PROVERBS.
PARLOR RACE, a game played
by four to eight persons, with 52
cards, each bearing the name of a
race-horse. Each name is on four
cards, so that there are thirteen
horses in all. The horses are num-
bered from i to 13. There are
three ways of playing the game,
called respectively the Flat Race,
the Hurdle Race and the Scrub
Race.
Flat Race. Enough of the cards
numbered 13 are thrown out to
make each player's number the
same, and the remainder are then
divided equally. Each names his
favorite racer, which should be the
one of which he has most in his
hand. The eldest hand leads a
card, calling out its number, and
the next player puts down any card
he pleases, adding its number to that
of the previous card, and calling out
the sum. Each in turn does the
same, until some one plays a card
which makes the sum 31. This
card is called the winner of the heat,
and its holder leads for the next
heat. Every player must win if
he can. If a player have no card
that will make the sum 31 or less,
he must say " I pass," and the next
in order must play. If all the play-
ers pass, it is a " dead heat." When
the cards are out, they are dealt
again, and the game goes on till
some racer has won four heats.
The player who named it as his
favorite wins the game. It makes no
difference whether a player's favor-
ite wins in his own hand or in that
of some one else. Often a player
is obliged to win a heat with an-
other's favorite. By watching the
cards as they fall, it is possible for
a player to guess in whose hands
his favorites are, and to play in such
a manner that they will be obliged
to win.
Hurdle Race. The sum of the
cards played may be as large as 33,
but no card which makes it either
29 or 30 must be played. The
number 31 is called the Hurdle,
and a racer making the sum 31 is
said to " stumble on the Hurdle,"
and is not allowed to win the heat.
When the sum is 28 or less, any racer
making it either 32 or 33 " leaps
the Hurdle" and wins the heat.
When a horse stumbles, the next
player counts from the number
from which the stumbler started.
No player is allowed to pass to
avoid stumbling. In other respects
the Hurdle Race is like the Flat
Race.
Scrub Race. All the cards are
dealt. The leader lays down a card,
and those like it must be played at
once. If any player has more of
them than any other player, he
takes the trick but if each have one,
or if two have two a piece, the trick
belongs to no one. This is entirely
a game of chance.
PATCHESI, or PARCHESI. A
game played on a board like the
one in the illustration, by two, three,
or four persons, each with four
PATCHESI
PATCHWORK STORY
pieces, or men, and one die. The
players sit around the board, and
each places his men in the circle
at his right. Thus, the player who
sits at A places his men in B, and
so with the others. In the beginning
The players throw their dice, with-
outtaking turns, until some one has
thrown a five. That player enters
one of his men on the colored space
at the left of his circle ; for in-
stance, if it be A, he enters his
man at C. The players then take
turns in throwing, beginning at his
left hand. Each makes one throw
at a time, but no one can play till he
throws a five, when he enters one
man, like the first player. When
his next turn comes, he moves his
man forward a number of spaces
equal to the number he throws
with his die. If he throw another
five, he may enter another man,
or move the one on the board for-
ward five spaces, as he pleases.
Each player moves his meji around
the board, going from right to
left, till they reach the red path
directly in front of him (called his
gravel path), and then up this path
into Home. (A's gravel path is
indicated by the letter G). •
RULES OF THE GAME.
I. If a player throw a six, he plays
twelve, and must throw again. A
second six gives him the same privi-
lege; but if he throw six a third
time in the same turn, he must
place his foremost man in his circle
to be entered again as at the begin-
ning of the game.
II. If a player can move any of
his men into a space already occu-
pied by a single man belonging to
an enemy, he may do so, and take
that man up, placing him in the
circle where he began the game,
where he must be entered as before.
III. No man can be taken up
when he is on a colored space
(called a safety point) ; and as only
one man at a time can occupy such
a point, a player loses his turn if
the only moves he can make bring
him into occupied safety points.
[As the space on which a player
enters his men is a safety point, he
cannot enter if it is occupied either
| by an enemy's man or one of his
own.]
IV. Two of the same player's
men in one space form a blockade,
which neither he nor any one else
may pass, and neither of the men in
a blockade can be taken up.
V. More than two men cannot be
placed on the same space.
VI. When a player is on his
gravel-path he cannot move if he
throw a number larger than is nec-
essary just to take him home. [For
instance, if he is on the fifth space
from the end, he cannot play a six,
and if he is on the last space, he
can play only an ace.]
The game of Patches! resem-
bles Russian BACKGAMMON, from
which it differs by requiring always
the same number to enter, by al-
lowing not more than two men on
one point, by giving a separate
space to each player when he
throws off his men, and by the use
of safety points and blockades.
Some of these differences make it
more complicated, but the fact that
each player has only four men tends
to simplify it.
History. This game, which is of
I Hindoo origin, is called in India
Pachisi. It is widely played in
i Asia, in some countries with flat
tamarind seeds instead of dice.
I The Spanish explorers found at
i the court of Montezuma, the Aztec
ruler of Mexico, a similar game,
called Patolli, played like Back-
gammon, but on a cross-shaped
table. Marked beans supplied the
place of dice. Some people think
the game had been brought to
Mexico from Asia.
PATCHWORK STORY, a story
made up of words and sentences
cut from newspapers and pasted
on a sheet of blank paper. Several
persons may join in the amusement,
PATERNAL
519
PEANUT BUM
one of whom superintends it, and
pastes the words on the paper,
while the others look over news-
papers for suitable words and sen-
tences, and cut them out. Each
word, or combination of words,
should be cut out cleanly and care-
fully. The paster makes a line of
mucilage on the paper before him,
and then, taking up the word or
letter he wants with a pin or the
point of a sharp knife, presses it
into place. By using care, even
separate letters may thus be com-
bined into a word, which looks as if
it had been printed as it stands.
An amusing effect is produced by
inserting sensational headings, or
cuttings from advertisements, at in-
tervals in the story. Care should
be taken to have the paper look
neat, and each sentence should be-
gin with a capital, as in writing.
Punctuation marks may be filled in
with a pen and ink, or cut from a
newspaper, like the letters.
The plot of the story may be
decided on beforehand, and then
newspapers may be searched for
suitable words and sentences; but
a better way is first to cut out all
sorts of word combinations, and
then fit them together to make the
story, searching only for a word or
words now and then to make the
connections. In this way a very
laughable tale may be put together.
Instead of a story, a patchwork let-
ter may be written to some absent
friend, even the address being made
in the same way and pasted on the
envelope.
PATERNAL, a SOLITAIRE game of
CARDS, played with a full pack.
The four Aces are first placed in a
row, and then the other cards are
laid, as they come, in piles of three,
spreading each pile a little, so that
all the cards in it can be seen. The
suits are to be completed by placing
all the cards in order on the Aces.
For this purpose only the top card
of a pile can be taken, except that,
once during the game, a card may
be drawn from the interior of a
pile — but this privilege should gen-
erally be reserved till the end. In
addition, any top card of a pile may
be placed on any other top card of
the same suit just above or just be-
low it in rank, thus freeing the one
beneath. The piles may be twice
taken up, shuffled together, and re-
laid. Sometimes, instead of allow-
ing the player to re-lay the cards
and to draw one, he is given the
privilege of taking a King from the
top of any pile, to form the bottom
card of a new pile.
Skill must be used in changing
about the top cards so as best to
aid the completion of the suit piles.
Trios, a variation of Paternal.
The Aces are not laid down at first,
but put down with the rest of the
cards in the piles as they come.
The last two piles contain only two
cards each. The Aces are put out
as they are freed by changing the
top cards and the rest of the suits
placed on them in order, as before.
Top cards may be placed on other
top cards of the next higher rank
only, but without regard to suit. A
face card may also be placed on a
similar face card.
No pile may contain more than
three cards at any time during the
game, and there is no drawing nor
relaying.
PATIENCE, GAMES OF. See
SOLITAIRE.
PEANUT BUM, a scramble for
peanuts, in which any number of
persons may take part. A bag of
peanuts, containing at least a bushel,
is emptied in the middle of a large
room with a bare floor. The con-
testants stand around in a ring, and,
at a signal, rush forward. The object
of each is to get the most peanuts,
and to prevent the others from get-
ting any, if possible, by pushing and
pulling.
History. The Peanut Bum was
once a common sport at Yale Col-
lege, but is now discontinued. Early
Jn the college term one was held at
PEANUT SPREE
520
PEANUT SPREE
each of the Freshmen society halls,
the carpets being taken up and
everything prepared for the event.
Only Freshmen and Sophomores
took part, the members of the two
upper classes looking on. The
Freshmen were expected to pro-
vide the peanuts, but the Sopho-
mores, being better organized, and
having the advantage of experience,
generally succeeded in carrying
away most of them. Many quarts
of the nuts were trampled under
foot in the struggle, and the bag
containing them was torn into pieces,
which were borne away as trophies.
The sport seems to have begun
about 1865. In 1880 the college
authorities abolished the Freshmen
societies, and since that time no
Peanut Bums have taken place.
PEANUT SPREE, an entertain-
ment in which various feats are
performed with peanuts, the win-
ners receiving prizes. Any number
of persons may take part, but from
six to ten is best. A leader is chosen,
who arranges the programme of
events, calls the names of those who
are to take part, takes down their
records with pencil and paper, an-
nounces the winner, and decides
disputed points. Several quarts of
peanuts are then spread on a table
in the middle of the room. A list
of events is given below, and others
may be devised to suit the fancy of
players or the leader.
1. A dish of any kind is filled with
peanuts, and each player guesses
now many it contains. He who
comes nearest to the right number
wins a prize.
2. He who can hold the greatest
number of peanuts in one hand,
without the assistance of the other
in placing them there, wins a prize.
3. A peanut is suspended by a
thread, and on the floor is placed a
vase whose neck is just large enough
to receive it. Each player, holding
the thread so that the peanut is a
foot or more above the vase, tries to
drop it in. The one who succeeds
wins a prize. If no one succeeds at
the first trial, each has another, and
Peanut Spree, No. 3.
so on. If two or more succeed,
they try again, holding the peanut
higher, until only one is able to do
it.
4. Each person is given five pea-
nuts, and at a signal all begin to
shell them. He who finishes first
wins a prize. The inner skins must
be carefully removed, and no nut
must be split into more than the
two pieces into which it naturally
divides. If a nut be broken, the
player may take another to replace
it.
5. Five peanuts are placed on a
chair at one end of the room. Each
player in turn must take them one
by one and place them on a
chair at the opposite end of the
room, returning them in like man-
ner. The one that does this most
quickly wins the prize. Throw-
ing the peanuts is allowed, but if
one so thrown does not remain in
the chair, the player loses his chance
for the prize.
6. A large pin is stuck upright in
the floor, and each player in turn
pitches five peanuts at it, one by
one. He who succeeds in making
PEANUT SPREE
521
PEA-SHOOTER
a peanut remain nearest the pin
wins the prize.
7. Each shells a number of pea-
nuts, and he who can catch the
greatest number in his mouth, in
succession, after throwing them in-
to the air, wins a prize.
8. A player is chosen by lot to
stand at one end of the room with
open mouth, while each of the
others try to pitch five peanuts into
it, one at a time. He who is most
successful wins a prize. The one
into whose mouth the nuts are
thrown may be the player making
the worst record in the event just
preceding.
9. Peanuts are strewed over the
floor of the room about a foot apart,
and he who takes the least time to
go from one end to the other and
back, without treading on a peanut,
wins the prize.
Other events may also be intro-
duced, in which peanuts play no
part. For instance :
10. A finger-ring is suspended
from a chandelier. He who can
walk up to it and, without pausing,
stick a pencil or penholder through
it, wins a prize.
u. A row of chairs is placed in
the middle of the room, and he who
can go in the least time from one
end to the other, passing to the
right of one chair and the left of
the next, without touching a chair
wins a prize.
12. A passage is selected from
some book not familiar to any of
the company, and he who can read
it correctly, upside down, in the
least time, wins the prize.
13. He who reads a similar pas-
sage at the greatest distance wins a
prize. The book may be propped
upright on a table, and each player
in turn advances toward it till he
can read the passage, which he
whispers to the leader, to make sure
that he has done so correctly. His
distance from the book is then
measured.
The prizes, which equal the events
in number, should be wrapped up
in packages, so that it is impossible
to tell what they are, and placed
by themselves. Each prize-winner
chooses his own prize and opens it
immediately. One or two of the
prizes should be useful or valuable
articles, and the others ridiculous,
or merely blanks. It increases the
fun if the packages be marked
with laughable titles or mock direc-
tions to the opener. Sometimes a
prize is given to the person who
gains most prizes during the enter-
tainment.
PEA-SHOOTER. A tin tube two
or three feet long is commonly used,
and a supply of peas is usually
kept in the mouth. Instead of peas,
Pea-shooter.
little wads of paper or lumps of putty
may be used, and the toy is then
sometimes called a Putty Blower.
For shooting at a target little darts
may be used, whence the toy is often
known as Pulf and Dart. The
Darts.
darts may be bought at toy shops
or made from bits of stick consider-
ably smaller than the tube, and about
two inches long. A wad of yarn or
worsted, like the bottom of a short
tassel, is fastened to one end, by
winding with linen thread, and a
small steel nail is fixed in the other
end, so that the dart will stick in the
target. Great care must be used to
shoot these darts only at a target, as
some one might be hurt by them.
In shooting, the aim should be quick,
and as there can be no sighting,
since the tube is held in the mouth,
PEASE PORRIDGE
522
PEG-TOP
the " point of aim " for different dis-
tances must be ascertained, exactly
as in ARCHERY. The natives of
Borneo use tubes ten or twelve feet
long as weapons, blowing through
them poisoned darts. For the toy,
a tube about three feet long will do.
PEASE PORRIDGE, a game play-
ed by two persons, who sit opposite
each other and strike each other's
hands, keeping time to the following
verse :
" Pease porridge hot.
Pease porridge cold.
Pease porridge in the pot
Nine days old."
The movement of the hands varies.
A common method is as follows :
For the first, second, and fourth
lines, each player slaps his knees with
both hands ; then each slaps the
other's right hand with his own,
palm to palm ; and then the same is
done with the left hands. For the
third line the order is, slap the knees,
both hands at once, the one player's
right to the other's left, right hands,
and left hands.
PEDRO SANCHO. See ALL
FOURS.
PEEL-AWAY, a game played by
any number of persons on a field
divided into three parts by two
parallel lines, generally from 100 to
300 feet apart. The two outer parts
of the field are called goals, as is
shown below. Sometimes the field
GOAL.
GOAL.
has side lines (dotted in the figure,)
beyond which no player may go, but
often the field is unbounded at the
sides. At the beginning, one ol
the players stands in the middle ol
the field facing the others who
are in one of the goals. He cries
" Pom, pom, peel-away, come away
I'll get you away," and they must
then run toward the other goal.
As they do so, he tries to touch as
nany as possible, while they are be-
tween the goal-lines. All touched
must join him in the centre of the
leld. They all shout " Pom, pom,
jeel-away" together, and the other
players then run back across the
ield to the goal where they were at
first, the ones caughtaiding in trying
to touch them. The game goes on
till all have been touched, the last
one touched being the winner. The
one touched first stands in the
middle of the field to begin the next
^ame. The game is played best on
the ice by skaters. Instead of the
shout given above, the single word,
" peel-away" is often used.
This game is called in England
King Caesar, or sometimes Rushing
Bases. The player who fust stands
in the middle of the field is called
the King, and he must clap each
one he catches three times on the
head, saying each time, " I crown
thee King Caesar." A player is
allowed to return to the same goal
If he hops out of it ; but if he put
down both feet, he must run to the
opposite one. Unless a player is
properly crowned, he may return to
his goal, and when the Kings
greatly outnumber the others, they
may run in and try to pull the latter
over the base-line.
PEG-TOP, or PEG IN THE RING,
a game played by any number of
persons, each of whom has a com-
mon wooden TOP with an iron point,
or peg. A circle about a yard in
diameter is drawn on the ground
with a stick, or on a pavement with
chalk or charcoal, but bare ground
is best. Any one who wishes begins
by spinning his top in the circle,
and the others follow in o der, try-
ing at the same time to split one of
the tops in the ring. If any player
fail to cast his top into the ring, or
to set it spinning, or if it remains in
the circle after it stops spinning, he
must let it stay for the others to
throw or " peg" at; but if it spin or
roll out, or is knocked out by any
PENCIL SKETCHES
523
PENDULUMS
other top, the owner may take it
up, and play as before, in his turn.
Each player thus tries to split one
of the tops without driving any
from the ring, but this is usually
very difficult. The tops used are
best made of hard wood like box-
wood, and should have long pegs,
as they are then more apt to spin
out of the ring. If a top that
"sleeps," or spins in one place, is
used, it generally stays in the ring
and becomes a mark for the other
players. In spinning, the cord
should be wound several times
around the peg, as well as the top,
and the string should have a button
at the end. Skilful plavers are
able so to cast their tops as to hit
any spot they wish. As the game
is sometimes played, any one that
knocks a top out of the circle is
allowed to keep it.
PENCIL SKETCHES, a game
played by any number of persons,
each with pencil and paper. Each
player first draws the head of a man,
woman, or animal, and then folds
down the top of the paper so as to
hide all the drawing except a very
little at the bottom. Each then
passes his paper to his left-hand
neighbor, who adds a body to the
head, folding and passing as before.
The feet and legs are next drawn,
and then the papers are unfolded
and shown to the company. The
sketches are often very amusing.
PENDULUM, a lawn game played
with rings and a pendulum. The
rings, which are 8 inches in diam-
eter, are not more than six in num-
ber, and each has a different color
and a different value. They are
fitted with prongs several inches
long, so that they can be made to
stand upright in the ground. The
pendulum is a heavy ball suspended
by a rope eight feet long from a
ring sliding on a wire between two
posts eight feet high and six feet
apart. The rings are placed in line
between the posts, and the object of
each player, after choosing a ring,
is to swing the pendulum so as to
catch it and pull it from the ground.
If successful, he scores the number
marked on the ring, and has an-
other turn until he fails. A line
may be made on the opposite side
of the rings, and anv ring carried
Pendulum.
over it may score double its number.
If a player hits a ring he did not
choose, it is accounted a miss. The
game may be played by any num-
ber of persons, each for himself, or
divided into opposing parties. The
winning score is fixed upon before-
hand, or the game may be played
for a certain length of time, at the
end of which the person or side
with the highest score wins.
PENDULUMS, Experiments with.
The best pendulums for these ex-
periments are made of the bobs
used by carpenters for their plumb-
lines, which can be bought at any
hardware store. Or any small heavy
object can be used, if it is easily
fastened to a string. Suspend the
pendulum bobs by twine of different
lengths to screw-eyes fastened in
the upper part of a door-casing.
One should be made so that it can
be lengthened or shortened at will,
by passing the twine through the
screw-eye, and holding it in the
hand, or winding it loosely about a
tack driven in the side of the door-
way. By pulling on this string the
pendulum will be shortened.
PETER CODDLE'S TRIP
524
PHOSPHORUS
EXPERIMENTS.
1. Set all the pendulums swing-
ing. The longer they are, the slow-
er they will swing.
2. Make one of the pendulums
swing an inch or so, and then make
it swing two or three feet. It will
take just as much time to make the
short swing as the long one.
3. Count the number of swings
any of the pendulums makes in a
minute, and then arrange the ad-
justable one so that it makes twice
the number. It will be just quarter
the length of the first.
4. Take down all the pendulums
but one. Set this swinging, and
then, when it is at its lowest point,
strike it sidewise. It will keep on
swinging, but in a different direc-
tion. Strike it when it is at one
end of its swing, and it will then
move in a circle.
5. Make a heavy pendulum by
suspending a chair with stout twine.
Tie a fine piece of sewing-silk to
the chair. Try to swing the chair
by giving a single pull on the silk
and it will break ; but it may be
made to swing by a series of gentle
pulls given at equal intervals. To
know at what interval to give the
pulls, hang the movable pendulum
so that its bob is at the middle of
the chair, and then swing it. Give
the silk a slight pull at each swing
of this pendulum.
See also DOUBLE PENDULUM.
PETER CODDLE'S TRIP TO
NEW YORK, a game played by any
number of persons. The story of a
countryman's trip to the city is
printed in 'a little book, with blanks
left for many of the words. Words
to fill these blanks are printed on
small cards, one on each card. One
of the company is appointed to read
the story, and the cards are distrib-
uted equally among the others.
When the reader comes to the first
blank, the player on his left reads
his first card to fill it, and the other
blanks are filled in the same way by
the other players, in order. The
players should listen carefully for
the blanks, and read the cards quick-
ly, so that the story may be as
smooth as possible.
There are a multitude of games
of this kind, and a new one can be
made by any ingenious person.
Among those to be bought at toy
stores are, " Jotham Podd's Trip to
Paris," *' Japhet Jenkins," " Travels
of Sam Slick," and " An Excursion
to Coney Island."
PHIAL BAROMETER. See HY-
GROSCOPE.
PHIAL OF THE FOUR ELE-
MENTS. See MIXTURE OF LIQUIDS.
PHILOPENA. See FLOWER AND
FRUIT SPORTS.
PHOSPHORUS, Experiments with.
Phosphorus is described in C. C. T.
In experimenting with it, great care
is necessary, because it takes fire on
exposure to the air. It must be
kept, handled, and cut under water.
EXPERIMENTS.
1. Cover a piece of phosphorus
the size of a pin- head with a tea-
spoonful of lamp-black (see CAR-
BON, Exp. 3), which has been heated
and allowed to cool. The phos-
phorus will melt and finally take
fire, owing to contact with oxygen
absorbed from the air by the lamp-
black.
2. Dissolve a bit of phosphorus
in bisulphide of carbon, and wet a
piece of unglazed paper with the
liquid. The paper should not be
held on the hand, but on the end of
a wire. Take it into a dark room,
and as it dries it will shine beauti-
fully and finally take fire. Letters
or designs can be marked on the
paper with a brush dipped in the
liquid, but the brush must be put
into water as soon as it is used.
3. Phosphorus Torpedo. Cover a
bit of phosphorus, the size of a pin-
head, with powdered chlorate of
potash, and twist it up in a bit of
tissue-paper. On being struck with
a hammer, it will explode.
4. To make Red Phosphorus. Heat
PHOTOGRAPH WHIST
525
PHOTOGRAPHY
a small bit of phosphorus in a test-
tube or bottle with a very little
iodine. The phosphorus will turn
red, and will be found to have al-
most none of the properties of com-
mon phosphorus, being odorless,
not giving off light in the dark, and
not being easily lighted by rubbing.
5. Place a piece of phosphorus
under hot water. It will melt. Now
bring a current of oxygen into con-
tact with it and it will burn under
water.
6. Put a crystal of iodine on a
slice of phosphorus. They will
take fire at once.
7. The Phosphorus Sun. Place a
bit of phosphorus the size of a pea
on a piece of chalk about an inch
square, having its top hollowed a
little. Fill with oxygen a fish-globe
about a foot in diameter, and invert
it over the phosphorus, first lighting
the latter with a hot wire. The
phosphorus will burn in the oxygen
with great brilliancy.
8. Place in a bottle a tablespoonful
of ether and a piece of phosphorus
twice the size of a pea. Let it stand
several days, shaking it occasionally.
The resulting liquid will make the
hands or face shine in the dark
when they are rubbed with it. If a
little be poured on a lump of sugar,
which is then thrown into hot water,
the phosphorus and ether will* rise
to the surface and take fire.
Put a bit of phosphorus into a flask
containing a little water, and then
boil the water; the phosphorus will
burn with great brilliancy.
PHOTOGRAPH WHIST, a game
played by four persons, with any
number of old card-size photographs,
which are dealt as in whist. Each
plays one in turn, and the ugliest
photograph takes the trick. If
there is doubt, a fifth person should
be chosen as umpire, to decide.
This game is productive of a good
deal of amusement for a few min-
utes, but care should be taken, in
selecting the photographs, that no
one's feelings are likely to be
wounded. It is best played at home
with photographs from an old album.
PHOTOGRAPHY. If adouble con-
vex lens (C. C. T.,LENS), such as that
in an ordinary magnifying glass, be
held at the proper distance between
any,object and a white screen or wall,
an image of the object will be thrown
on the wall. Thus, if such a lens be
held near a wall having a window
opposite it, and moved backward
and forward, a position will be found
where the lens throws on the wall a
distinct picture of the window, up-
side down. In photography, such a
picture is thrown by a lens on a sur-
face covered with some substance
very sensitive to light. Light
changes the color of the substance,
so that the whole picture is printed
on the prepared surface. The effect
of the light, however, is not visible
till the picture is washed in another
chemical, called a "developer." It
is then washed , in a third fluid to
"fix" it, or make it permanent. If
the lights and shadows are arranged
in the picture as they are in nature,
it is said to be a "positive"; but gener-
ally the chemical used is turned
black by light, so that the lights and
shadows are reversed. Such a pict-
ure is called a " negative" and to
make a positive from it, it is fixed
over a sheet of chemically prepared
paper. The light shines through the
negative, blackening those parts of
the paper most that are most ex-
posed, that is those that are light in
the negative; hence the lights and
shadows are reversed again on the
paper, and appear in their proper
•places. This is called " printing."
The ordinary instruments and
processes used in photography will
now be described.
Camera. The photographic cam-
era is a box with a lens at one end
i for throwing an image of the object
! whose picture is to be taken. The
image is formed at the back of the
I box, on a piece of ground glass,
which can be adjusted at the proper
i distance from the lens. The most
PHOTOGRAPHY
526
important part of the instrument
is the lens. Cameras can be bought
as low as two dollars, but the lenses
of such cameras are poor and will
not make a clear image. Experts
advise the beginner to pay at least
ten dollars for his camera. Modern
cameras are made in many different
Camera.
styles, and fitted with many patent
devices, which it is impossible to
describe here. The best cameras
have what is called the " single
swing," by which the ground glass
can be tilted forward or backward,
so that parts of a landscape at differ-
ent distances may all be brought to
a distinct focus. The best cameras
have also a shifting front, by which
the lens can be raised or lowered,
thus bringing more or less of sky or
foreground into the picture. These
and other arrangements are useful
but not essential.
Lens, A good lens must have
depth of focus, that is, it must clearly
define both distant and near objects;
a good field, that is, it must take in
many objects at once; and it must
be fairly rapid in its action. It
should be provided with " stops,"
that is, covers with holes of various
sizes, so that more or less light may
be admitted to the plate. For in-
stantaneous pictures very expensive
lenses are needed.
Focussing -c lot k. This is to cover
the operator's head when he is ad-
justing the camera, to keep out the
light. It should be about a yard
square, of any material that is per-
fectly opaque. It may be made of
water proof cloth, so as to protect
the camera in case of rain.
Focussing-glass. This is a little
magnifying glass used to examine
the image on the ground glass to
see if it is perfectly distinct.
Plate-holder. This is a device for
keeping the sensitive plate from the
light till it is ready to be used. It
is then fixed on the back of the cam-
era, in place of the ground glass,
being so arranged that when a slide
is withdrawn the sensitive surface
of the plate receives the image.
Dark Room, For handling the
plates before and after taking the
picture, it is necessary to have a
room or closet into which no light
can possibly penetrate. The door
must be tight and there should be
no windows. A large closet will
answer all purposes, but many ama-
teur photographers have rooms
specially built for this purpose. The
closet should be as large as possible,
to avoid discomfort from heat and
bad air. It may be ventilated by
means of crooked tin tubes, painted
PHOTOGRAPHY
527
PHOTOGRAPHY
black on the inside, fastened to a
hole in the outer wall. It should
be remembered that the faintest
glimmer of outside light may spoil
tne plates. To enable the worker
to see, a " ruby lantern" must be
used. This is a lantern covered
Lantern for Dark Room.
with ruby-red glass, the light from
which does not affect the plates.
Many kinds are in the market, one
of which is shown in the illustration.
Instead of it, a lamp with a close
shade of red tissue paper may be
used, but the lantern is best. In this
room must be placed all arrange-
ments for developing and fixing the
negatives, as described below. These
include shelves, a sink, running
water, and three shallow trays of
iron, glass, or rubber, for immersing
the plates or prints. The same
chemical should always be used in
the same tray. The illustration
Rubber Tray.
shows a hard rubber tray, which may
be bought of .dealers in photo-
graphic supplies. The sink may be
made of a large baking-pan having
a pipe soldered to the bottom to
carry off the water to a pail below.
Running water may be obtained by
putting a faucet in an ordinary
wooden pail, which stands on a shelf
above the sink. Over the faucet is
slipped a rubber tube long enough
to reach to the sink. For preparing
the proper solutions, four "gradu-
ates" or measuring-glasses, are need-
ed, one each of eight, four, and two
ounces, marked with drams and one
to measure minims, and for weigh-
ing chemicals a pair of scales is
necessary.
Plates. Formerly every photog-
rapher prepared his own plates, but
now they are generally bought ready
for use. There are many kinds,
some for landscape, some for instan-
taneous pictures, some for transpar-
encies, and so on. All come in dif-
ferent sizes, and are packed by the
dozen in paper boxes. The face, or
sensitive side, of the plate can always
be told from the back by its duller
lustre. In preparing to take a pict-
ure, the first thing is to fill the plate-
holder, which must be done in the
dark room, the face of each plate
being carefully brushed with a broad
soft camel's-hair brush to remove
dust. Each plate should be held at
the corner only. Plate-holders
generally hold two plates, and these
should be put in back to back, so as
to face outward. It requires prac-
tice to do this without touching the
sensitive side of the plates, especi-
ally as the light in the dark room is
very dim.
Taking the Picture. Place the
camera so that the lens points to-
ward the object or view to be taken,
and then, throwing the focussing-
cloth over the head, move the rear
part of the camera forward or back-
ward till the image on the ground
glass is distinct. It often requires
practice to see any image at all,
at first, but by moving the eye back-
ward and forward, it can be made to
PHOTOGRAPHY
528
PHOTOGRAPHY
appear. Before the final focussing,
the camera should be moved so that
just the objects desired appear on
the ground glass. To include more
of the upper part of the landscape,
the sliding front may be raised. If
this throws some of the lower ob-
jects off the glass, the camera should
be moved farther back. The focus is
now made perfectly distinct for
some one object in the middle fore-
ground, the operator viewing its
image carefully with the focussing-
glass. The images of more distant
and nearer objects will probably
now be a little blurred. To remedy
this, one of the " stops" must be put
on the lens. The largest should be
tried first, and then a smaller one,
till all parts of the picture are equally
distinct. No smaller one than ab-
solutely necessary should be used,
as the smaller the stop, the less light
falls on the plate. If there is an ob-
ject in the very near foreground, it
will be necessary to use the swing-
back to make its image distinct.
The cap must now be placed over
the lens, the ground glass removed,
and the plate-holder put in its place,
the focussing-cloth being thrown
over it as it is taken from the box
where it is kept, and remaining over
it till it is returned to the box.
This is necessary that light may not
reach the plate through some crack
in the holder. The slide is with-
drawn, and then the light is admitted
to the plate by removing the cap
from the lens, taking care not to
shake the camera in so doing.
When the exposure is finished, the
lens is recapped, the slide returned,
and the plate-holder replaced in its
box.
For the time of exposure, no rules
can be given. It must be deter-
mined in every case by experience,
as it varies with the light, the lens,
the plate, the stop used, and the
kind of picture. The time may
thus vary from almost nothing, with
a- very sensitive plate and bright
light, to 10, 15, or 20 seconds with
poor light. In general a hazy or
yellow light requires a longer time
than clear weather, and the hours
near noon less time than late after-
noon. Spring foliage requires less
time than the same in summer, and
a sea view than a landscape. After
the photographer has had experience
he will judge of the time required
by comparing the kind of view, the
light, and the other conditions, with
those of some previous picture he
has taken. A second or two more
or less is not fatal to success, but
over-exposure is easier to remedy
than under-exposure. The be-
ginner should make several expos-
ures of the same view, and note
which one turns out best. The
plate-holder should be marked after
each exposure with the time, stop
used, and other data to be remem-
bered.
Developing. This process requires
great care, and must be carried on
in the dark room. There are many
developing fluids, each of which has
its advocates. The following direc-
tions show how to make one of the
best. The solution is made in two
parts, which are mixed as they are
needed. Each may be held in a
twelve-ounce bottle. The following
chemicals are needed :
Sulphite of soda, crystals, I Ib.
Carbonate of potash, granulated, "
Carbonate of soda, " "
Pyrogallic acid, 4 oz.
Sulphuric " I "'
Bromide of potash, I "
Solution I. Dissolve two ounces,
by weight, of sulphite of soda in
eight measured ounces of soft
water, add slowly half a dram of
sulphuric acid, and then 240 grains
of pyrogallic acid. Pour in enough
water to make eight ounces of mix-
ture. In warm weather fifteen grains
of bromide of potassium may be
added to prevent too rapid working.
This solution is labelled " Pyro."
It must be used only so long as it is
perfectly clear.
PHOTOGRAPHY
529
PHOTOGRAPHY
Solution 2. Dissolve one ounce
each of carbonate of potash and
soda in five ounces of water. Add
enough water to make eight ounces.
Each solution should be poured
into its bottle through a wad of
clean cotton placed in a funnel.
When the developing solution is
needed, the two solutions are mixed
and diluted, in the proportion of
one part of each to two parts of
water.
To develop the plate, lay it in
one of the trays, face upward, and
pour the solution over it with a
sweeping motion. Then move the
tray so that it will be washed evenly,
gently breaking all air-bubbles with
the finger-tip. The picture will
shortly begin to appear on the plate,
the very light parts first (which of
course are black in the negative).
If the plate is under-exposed, the
details of the picture will refuse to
appear; if over-exposed, the whole
picture will appear suddenly. The
negative should be examined by
holding it up to the light from time
to time, and as soon as the details
are distinct enough, the plate is
thoroughly washed with a stream of
clear water from the rubber tube.
If it is known beforehand that a
plate is over-exposed, only half the '
ordinary quantity of the second so- 1
lution is used, and a few drops of a '
solution of bromide of potash are I
added (50 grains to the ounce of;
water). The bromide makes the
process slower, the second solution
hastens it; so by varying the propor-
tions, a developer may be made to
suit a plate more or less over-ex-
posed.
Fixing. Two solutions are needed
for fixing: one composed of one part
of alum to ten of water, the other
of one part of hyposulphite of soda
(called " hypo " for short) to five of
water. The trays for fixing should
be about two inches deep, and
enough solution is placed in each to
cover a plate. When the negative
has been washed, after developing, \
it is placed in the alum solution for
four or five minutes, washed again,
and then in the "hypo" solution
till no whiteness is seen on the plate,
looked at from the back. This
should take not more than ten min-
utes; the " hypo " should be renewed
if it works slowly. Fixing may be
carried on in a weak light, and after
it is finished the plates may be ex-
posed to strong light without injury.
If the fixing is not thoroughly done,
however, the negative will not last.
After fixing, the plates are placed in
a large pail of water, for several
hours, the water being changed
every twenty or thirty minutes, and
they are then allowed to dry, with-
out being heated.
Varnishing. This is not necessary
unless the plates are to be preserved
a long time. Prepared varnish (to
be bought of a dealer in photo-
graphic supplies) is poured on the
plate, which is lowered first at one
end and then at the other, so that
the varnish flows evenly over the
surface. The surplus is drained
into the bottle from one corner, the
plate being rocked to and fro to
prevent drying in ridges.
Printing. Paper all ready for
printing may be bought, or it may
be prepared by soaking albumenized
paper in a bath of nitrate of silver,
composed as follows:
Water, 64 ounces.
Nitrate of silver, 8 "
Ammonia nitrate, 2 "
Magnesia, " I ounce.
Ammonia, one drop to each
ounce of solution.
This solution is used over and
over again, adding nitrate of silver
and ammonia from time to time.
The condition of the solution may
be tested by putting enough shot
into a glass tube closed at one end to
float it upright in a bottle of the
liquid. Make a scratch on the tube
at the level of the liquid. As the
latter gets weaker the tube will sink
lower, and enough nitrate of silver
PHOTOGRAPHY
53°
PHOTOGRAPHY
must be added to float the tube at
the same level.
The silver solution is poured into
a glass tray, or one of shellacked
wood, and the sheets of paper floated
on it, albumen side down. One
corner should touch the surface first,
and the rest of the sheet be lowered
evenly, so that no air-bubbles may
get under it. Light bits of wood
are laid on the paper to keep the
corners down. The paper should
be floated from one minute and a
quarter to two minutes (longest in
winter), and then pressed between
blotting papers and hung up to dry
in the dark. Before printing, the
paper, whether ready-prepared or
home made, must be exposed for
from fifteen to thirty minutes to the
vapor of ammonia, longest in cold
weather. This is done most con-
veniently by hanging the sheet over
twine in a box, in the bottom of
which is a tray of strong ammonia
water.
Printing-frame.
For printing, a frame like that
shown in the illustration is usually
used. The negative is placed in it
film up, and on it is laid the sensi-
tive paper, film down. The two are
secured by the springs pressing
against the back of the frame, and
then exposed to sunlight. The pro-
cess must be watched carefully, by
opening the back of one side of the
frame to see how far it has pro-
gressed. The print should be much
darker than the finished picture is
to be. After printing, the pictures
must be washed in clear water,
which is changed thrice, letting
them remain each time about ten
minutes.
Toning. This process changes the
color of the print from reddish
brown to brownish black. A stock
solution should first be made by
dissolving 15 grains of chloride of
gold and sodium in 15 ounces of
water. To make a toning bath for
twenty prints, add three ounces of
this to 10 ounces of water in which
have been dissolved a pinch of
cooking-soda and a pinch of com-
mon salt. The bath must be kept
slightly alkaline, and should be
tested with litmus paper (see TEST
PAPERS). If it does not turn red
litmus paper blue, more soda should
be added. The prints are to be
toned, about a dozen at a time, by
laying them one by one face down-
ward into a tray partially filled with
the bath. It should be seen that
they do not stick together. The
bath should be kept at a tempera-
ture of about 70°, which in a cold
room may be done by setting the
tray on a hot-water bottle. In ten
or fifteen minutes the red color of
the prints will turn to a purplish or
brownish black. If the process is
kept up too long they will become
slate colored.
If the prepared silver paper be
used, the following recipe gives
better results : Add to the gold so-
lution a solution of cooking soda,
drop by drop, till it turns red litmus
paper blue. Add 10 grains of ace-
tate of soda and 18 ounces of water.
Fixing the Prints. Soak them
fifteen or twenty minutes in a
bath formed by dissolving in one
gallon of water a pound of hyposul-
phite of soda and a tablespoonful
each of cooking- soda and common
salt. The part used should be
thrown away. After fixing, the
prints should be soaked three or
four minutes in strong salt and
PHOTOGRAPHY
PHOTOGRAPHY
water. They should then be thor-
oughly washed, the water being
changed eight or ten times.
Blue Prints. These are made on
blue or cyanotype paper (Greek,
fyanfls,b\ue). The process of print-
ing is as already described, the paper,
as manufactured, being all ready to
put into the printing-frame with the
negative. No toning and fixing is
necessary, the print requiring only
to be washed in pure water till the
drippings cease to be yellowish.
Hydrochloric acid makes the color
bluer, and sulphuric acid renders it
greenish. A few drops of either are
sufficient. Ammonia turns the color
to purple and makes it lighter.
The ease of blue printing has
made it popular with amateurs, and
many use it for taking ''proofs"
even when they desire to print after-
ward in the regular way.
Bromide Prints. Bromide of silver-
paper is very sensitive, and is used
where quickness is sought and for
enlargements. The paper is so sen-
sitive that thin negatives are best
printed by the light of a kerosene
lamp. To enlarge a picture, the
negative should be fixed in a hole
in the wall in front of a HELIOSTAT,
and a lens so placed that a sharp
enlarged image of the negative is
thrown on the sensitive paper, which
is supported on an upright board.
No light should enter the room ex-
cept that which comes through the
lens.
The print does not show at first,
but requires to be developed, so
that it cannot be told directly when
the printing is finished, as with an
ordinary photograph. The photog-
rapher must learn the proper time
for exposure in various cases by ex-
perience, as in taking the picture.
Bromide prints are developed and
fixed as follows : The developer i
made by mixing three solutions,
which are kept on hand separate-
Sohition i. One pound of oxalate
of potash to three pints of hot water
Add sulphuric acid till it turns blue
•itmus paper red.
Solution 2. One pound of proto-
sulphate of iron to one quart of hot
water. Add one-half dram of sul-
phuric acid.
Sohition 3. One dram of bromide
of potassium to one quart of water.
Just before developing, mix six
ounces of No. i and one ounce of
No. 2, and use cold. No. 3 is used
to restrain the action in over-expos-
ure, but too much of it spoils the
print. The developer, when mixed,
should be of a clear dark red. If
turbid, it is unfit for use. The image
appears slowly. When it is done,
wash the print several times in a
solution of one ounce of citric acid
in a quart of water, then rinse in
pure water, and finally f x in a solu-
tion of three ounces of "hypo" to
a pint of water. Fixing takes about
ten minutes. Wash the pi int, place
it in the alum bath, and then wash
again. Dry by hanging on a line,
not between blotters. Bromide
prints last much longer than ordi-
nary ones. They may be used for
book illustrations, without mount-
ing, by soaking in five ounces of
glycerine mixed with twenty-five
ounces of water.
Mounting. Before mounting, the
print should be trimmed to the de-
sired shape, which is generally done
by laying on it a glass or metal form
and cutting around the edge. A
knife may be used, but specially
made cutters, formed of a small
wheel, are preferable. The print
should be laid, when cutting, on a
piece of glass covered with paper.
Glass alone dulls the cutter, and
wood is too soft.
The prints are secured to the
cardboard mounting with paste,
whicli must be very smooth and free
from lumps. All air-bubbles must
be pressed out from between the
print and the card, and no more
paste used than is absolutely neces-
sary.
Burnishing. After mounting, the
PIANO
532
PIANO
pictures may be passed through a
burnisher, like that shown in the
picture. The photograph should
not be perfectly dry, and should
have its face rubbed with fine scrap-
ings of castile soap.
Taking Portraits Indoors. The
sitter should be placed obliquely
near one window in the room, the
light being shut out from all others
by white muslin or paper shades.
If the shadows are too strong, light
should be reflected from the oppo-
site side from a sheet hung over
a clothes-liorse. The background
should be plain and simple.
Hints on Landscapes. A land-
scape should not DC photographed
from the shadow side, as it appears
too sombre. The best time for
taking landscape views is in the
morning or early afternoon, but late
afternoon is the best time for cloud
effects. When a body of water
appears in the picture, a point of
view should be chosen where the
water will not appear as a sheet of
white. Distant views are best taken
when the air is clear and free from
haze or smoke, though a partially
cloudy sky gives an excellent light.
Flash-Light. Places which are
always too dark to photograph by
sunlight may be taken by flash-
light. Magnesium "cartridges " to
produce this light may be bought
of dealers in photographic material.
In using them, focus must first be
made with the aid of lamp or gas-
light. The lens is then capped, the
slide drawn, all lights put out, the
lens uncapped, and then the car-
tridge is lighted, making a sudden,
short, and brilliant light, which takes
the picture. The lens is then re-
capped and the plate removed.
PIANO, Experiments with a, The
Piano is described in C. C. T. The
following experiments can be per-
formed by any one who understands
the elements of music.
I. Place sheets of music on the
wires. The notes will now have a rat-
tling sound, and a tune on the piano
will sound somewhat as if played on
the banjo.
2. Press down very gently the
keys belonging to any desired chord,
so as to make little or no sound,
and hold them down, while some
one brushes the wires gently with
some light object, such as a feather
or a straw. The chord will be
heard very softly, as if played far
away. By changing the notes, being
careful to press them down so gently
as to makeno noise, while the feather
still sweeps the wires, the player
may modulate, or even play a very
slow piece of music. The reason is,
that ordinarily a damper rests
against each wire, which is raised
when the corresponding key is
pressed; hence the feather causes
only those wires to sound which are
undampened. The wires must be
lightly brushed, as otherwise all of
them might sound, in spite of the
dampers.
3. Press down one key, gently, as
before, and then strike the one an
octave below it, very hard, not
holding it down. When the sound
has been sufficiently dampened, the
pressed-down key will be heard
sounding clearly. The reason is,
that the note struck is composed of
several notes, being in fact a chord,
and these cause the corresponding
wires to vibrate in sympathy. The
other notes which will vibrate in
like manner are the fifth above the
octave, the second octave, and the
third and fifth above that. These
are called overtones. Thus, if a
C in the lower part of the piano be
struck, any or all of the following
notes will sound, if their keys be
first pressed down and held down.
Note struck.
PICKADILL.
GEESE, III.
Keys pressed down.
See Fox AND
PIGEON FLYING
533
PIQUET
PIGEON FLYING,
pigeon is described in
The carrier
C. C. T.
These birds are sometimes matched
one against another, just like
horses or boats, so that Pigeon
Flying has become a sport. The
birds are carried away long dis-
iances from their homes in baskets,
released at the same time and
place, and the one that reaches its
roost soonest wins the race. The
quickest times and longest flights
made by pigeons in contests of this
kind are given in the Appendix.
PILLOWS AND KEYS, or PILLOW
AND KEY, a game played by any
number of boys and girls. All sit in
a circle, and a boy taking a cushion
or pillow, lays it at the feet of any
girl he chooses and kneels on it.
The girl must kiss him, and then,
taking the cushion, places it in like
manner before any boy, while the
first-named boy takes her seat.
Sometimes a rhyme is repeated by
the kneeling player, for instance '
" Had I as many eyes as stars in the skies,
And were I as old as Adam,
I'd fall on my knees, and kiss whom I please,
Your humble servant, madam."
This game is said to be derived
from an old dance called the " Cush-
ion Dance."
PIN DRAWINGS, a game played
by any number of persons, with
pencil and paper. Sheets of paper,
one for each player, are laid in a
pile, and five pins are held about
three feet above them, between the
thumb and forefinger of the leader,
who drops them on the paper. At
the spot where each of the pin-
heads lies, another pin is then
driven through all the thicknesses
of paper, so that pin-holes are made
in each, in the same positions.
Each player must now draw on his
paper a human figure, so that one
pin-hole is included in the outline
of the head, and one in that of each
hand and foot. Animals or birds
may be drawn instead, varying the
number of pin-holes and the re-
quirements of the game to suit the
players. At the close of the draw-
ing, each player should write under
each picture the name of the one
he supposes to have been the ar-
tist. Sometimes grains of rice are
dropped on the paper instead of
pins, to show where the head,
hands, and feet of the figure must
Pin Drawings.
be made. The illustration shows
the spots where the pins or rice are
supposed to have fallen, and three
different figures drawn from these
spots.
PINOCLE, See BEZIQUE.
PIQUET, a game of CARDS played
by two persons with a EUCHRE
pack. The players cut for deal, and
highest deals, Ace being high in
cutting, as in playing, and the other
cards ranking as in WHIST. The
dealer gives twelve cards to each
player, two at a time, and places
the stock where both can reach it.
If the hand of either player contains
no face card, it is called carte
blanche (white card), and he scores
10 at once. He must deal the
cards on the table quickly, one by
one, and then take them up ngain
that his opponent may see he has
no face card. The non-dealer may
now discard five cards, or less, sup-
plying their places by an equal num-
ber from the top of the stock. He
PIQUET
534
PIQUET
must discard at least one. If he
discards less than five, he must tell
how many, and may then look at
those of the upper five cards of the
stock that he did not take. Thus,
if he discard two, he takes two from
the stock, and may look at the next
three. The dealer need not discard
at all, unless he wishes ; but he is
entitled to ail the cards that are
left in the stock, or as many of
them as he wants, and discards as
many as he takes. He must take
his cards from the top of the stock
as they come, even if they have al-
ready been looked at. In every
case the discard must be decided
on and made before any cards in
the stock are taken up.
Discarding is followed by what is
named "calling and showing," in
which the players see which has the
highest of certain groups of cards.
These groups are of three kinds:
I. Points; 2. Sequences; 3. Quat-
orzes and Trios.
Point is won by the player who
has the greatest number of spots in
any one suit, reckoning Ace as u,
and face cards each as 10. He who
wins Point scores one for each card
in the suit.
Sequences (Latin, sequens, follow-
ing) are three or more cards of the
same suit in regular order. They
rank : first, according to the number
of cards, and second, according to
the highest card in the sequence.
Thus, a sequence of five cards is
always higher than one of four; but
of two sequences of four, — King,
Queen, Knave, Ten, for instance, is
higher than Queen, Knave, Ten,
Nine. Sequences count one for
each card, and 10 points more if
there are five or more cards; thus,
a sequence of three counts 3, but
one of seven counts 17. The holder
of the highest sequence scores for
all the sequences he holds, but the
other scores for none of his. The
sequences are often given French
names, being called respectively
tierce, quart, quint, sixieme, sep-
tieme, and huitieme, according as
they consist of three, four, five, six,
seven, or eight cards. A sequence
whose highest card is Knave or
King, for instance, is called a "se-
quence to a Knave" or " to a King;"
thus, a Queen, Knave, and Ten of
the same suit form a "tierce to a
Queen." If Ace is the highest card,
it is a sequence major (Latin, ma-
jor, greater, because it is greater
than any other sequence of the
same number of cards).
Quatorzes and Trios are four cards
or three cards of a kind, higher than
a Nine-spot, and are called simply
four Queens, three Aces, or whatever
they may be. The value depends
on that of the cards that form the
group, but any Quatorze is higher
than any Trio. A Quatorze counts
14, and hence its name, which is the
French for fourteen. A Trio counts
3. The holder of the highest Oua-
torze (or Trio, if there be no Qua-
torze) scores for all his Quatorzes
and Trios, but the other player
scores for none of his.
The scoring of all these groups
proceeds as follows: The non-dealer
calls the amount of his Point (the
sum of the spots of his highest suit,
as explained above). If the other
have nothing greater, he says
" Good," and the winner shows
all the cards of his winning suit;
but if the other has the same, he
says " Equal," and neither scores; if
he has a suit that will beat it, he
says "Not good." If he says
" Equal," or " Not good," he neither
shows his own cards nor scores till
his opponent has led the first card,
as shown below. The sequences
are then taken up in like manner,
the elder hand telling what his high-
est is, and the other replying "Good,"
" Equal," or " Not good," as before.
Lastly the Quatorzes and Trios are
considered together.
Playing now begins, the eldest
hand leading first, and the winner of
PIQUET
535
each trick leading for the next, as
in most card games. Suit must be
followed if possible, otherwise any
card may be played. Any one that
leads a "counting card" (Ace, King,
Queen, Knave, or Ten) scores one,
whether he takes the trick or not ;
and he who takes a trick with a
counting-card likewise scores one.
He who takes the last trick scores an
additional one (thus he scores two
if he takes it with a counting-card).
The player that takes the majority
of tricks scores 10 for cards. If he
take every trick (called winning a
Capot), he scores 40. If each takes
six tricks, neither scores for cards.
If a player score 30 in hand
and play before his opponent scores
anything, he wins Pique, and scores
an extra 30. If he score 30 in
hand alone before his opponent
scores, he wins Repique, and scores
an additional 60. Carte Blanche
counts toward a Pique or Repique,
but a Capot does not.
The game is 100. It is customary
not to write down the score till the
end of the hand. Before that time,
each player, as he wins a point, adds
it mentally to his previous score for
that hand only, and announces the
total aloud. But as the whole score
nears ico, it is necessary to remem-
ber what it is, as the game ceases as
soon as either player's score reaches
that amount.
It must be remembered that al-
though the dealer does not show and
score his winning groups till the
first card is led, they are looked
upon as if they had been recorded
in their proper place, in counting
for Pique and Repique. Thus, if
the elder hand scores 30 by his
Sequences and Quatorzes, while his
Point is " not good," he does not
repique the dealer, whose score is
regarded as being made in its proper
place, though he is not obliged to
show his winning suit till later.
In playing Piquet the chief things
for the beginner to note are :
1. That the discarded cards and
the ones shown by his opponent, to-
gether with those in his own hand,
give him the means of making
a good estimate of his enemy's
strength.
2. That in discarding, all of a
long suit should usually be kept to
make Point.
3. That as the elder hand leads
and there is no trump, he can play
a bolder game than his opponent,
and need not keep small cards to
guard a King or Queen, as his oppo-
nent should. An experienced play-
er will often omit to call his best
groups, preferring to lose, for the
time being, rather than give his op-
ponent valuable information. The
learner is advised to play through
carefully the following sample hand.
A deals.
**
***
* *
o o
A's hand is :
**
* *
00
V
0 O
00
0^0
o o
V
O 0
O 0
PIQUET
536
PIQUET
B discards :
*
***
***
***
* *
•!• 4-
9 9
0 0
(He keeps his longest suit, Spades,
for Point, and discards the small
cards of the other suits, as by so
doing he breaks up no sequence,
Quatorze, or Trio. He does not
keep the Eight of Diamonds as a
guard to his King, since he has the
lead.)
B draws :
***
* *
**+
9~9l
99
9V9
9 9
A discards :
B (calling his Point) says "Forty-
one."
A (seeing he has 47 in Diamonds)
replies " Not good."
B says " A Tierce Major."
A says " Good " (since he has no
higher sequence), and B shows
and says " 3 " (scoring).
B says " Four Kings."
A says " Good."
B (who need not show them un-
less A demands it) says " 17, and
three Queens make 20."
B plays
and says "21."
A now shows his Point :
say ing "5."
A plays
B plays
A plays
B plays
A plays
B plays
A plays
B plays
A plays
°^o
0<>0
0 0
o0o
%«
0 0
0 O
O 0
0 0
A A
*A*
A' A
+ A
. (ist trick.)
, saying " 22."
. (2d trick.)
, saying " 23."
. (3d trick.)
, saying "24."
, (4th trick.)
, saying " 25."
, saying "6." (5th
trick).
A (who has thus gained the lead)
99
99
99
9*9
plays
B plays
, saying " 7.
. (6th trick.)
PIQUET
537
PIQUET
B plays
, saying "8."
. (7th trick.)
, say ing "9."
, saying " 26." (8th
trick.)
B (leading again) plays
saying "27."
. (gth trick.)
A plays
B plays
A plays
B plays
A plays
B plays
O 0
O 0
0 O
O^O
* *
, saying "28."
. (loth trick.)
saying " 29."
*
. (iithtrick.)
(which does not
count, as it is not a "counting card.")
A plays
0<>0
0<>0
O O
, and B, counting
one for last trick, says " 30."
B has taken the majority of tricks,
SO he has "cards," which counts 10,
and his score stands 40 to A's 9 for
the hand.
In playing, where a person sees
that he is sure to take tricks with
more than one card in a suit, he
generally lays them down all at once
to save time. So, in the above game,
beginning after the first trick, B
\fwr\ is
might put down his
and
together saying " 24,"
for the Knave has just been played,
and they are therefore the three
highest cards in the suit.
Three-handed Piquet. The dealer
gives each player eight cards. The
eldest hand can take four cards, the
next player two, with any left by the
first, and the third as many as re-
main. Points, etc., to be "good,"
must be in excess of those held by
each of the other players, but they
score as in two handed Piquet. A
Pique usually scores 20 extra points,
a Repique 40, and a Capot 30, but
there are several other modes of
scoring these chances.
Other Kinds of Piquet. Several
varieties of the game, differing from
the standard Piquet in some minor
particulars, are played in Europe.
For instance, in Portland Club
Piquet, introduced in 1873, the
Point is not always estimated simply
by counting one for every card held
in it ; but if its pips happen to
amount to 34, 44, 54, or 64, the
Point counts as 3, 4, 5, or 6 points
respectively. In these cases the
Point scores one less than it ordi-
narily would.
RULES OF THE GAME.
i. If there be a misdeal, or the
dealer expose one of his opponent's
cards, he must deal again ; but if
only one card be dealt wrongly (as
when one player has thirteen and
the other eleven, or when one has
PIQUET 5.
thirteen and there are only seven in
the stock) the non-dealer may let
the deal stand, if he choose, and the
numbers shall be corrected in dis-
carding.
2. If the elder hand have Carte
Blanche, he must announce it at
once, but need not show it till after
the discard. If the dealer have it,
he need neither declare nor show
it till his opponent has discard-
ed.
3. After a player has touched the
stock he cannot alter his discard
unless there has been a misdeal, or
the other player wrongly announces
the number of cards he takes, or
fails to announce it.
4. If a player take more cards
from the stock than he ought, he
must play the hand through, but
only his opponent may score. If he
take less than his due, his opponent
may reckon, as tricks won, all cards
that cannot be played to.
5. The elder hand may look at
any cards that he declines to take
from the stock. The dealer may
look at what he leaves, after the
other has led a card ; but if he does
so, his opponent may also look.
6. A player may examine his own
discard at any time.
6. If a player call a lower group
than the highest he holds, he must
abide by his call ; but if he call a
group he does not hold he must
correct his mistake.
8. When the elder hand has led,
or the younger played to it, neither
can reckon anything that has been
omitted.
9. A player may at any time re-
quire his opponent to show him all
unplayed cards that have already
been shown in reckoning, or may
ask for any information about such
cards.
10. A card once played cannot be
taken up unless it has been led out
of turn and the adversary has not
played to it, or unless it is a revoke.
In the latter case all cards played
after the revoke are taken again into
the player's hands and played over
again.
n. Both players' tricks may be
examined by either at any time.
12. Errors in adding or marking
the score may be made right at any
time during the game.
Imperial, a kind of Piquet, in which
a trump is turned. The King isthe
highest card in the pack, and the
Ace ranks between the Knave and
the Ten. The face-cards, the Ace,
and the Seven, are called Honors.
There is no discarding. The top
card of the stock is turned for trump,
and this trump-card is treated as
part of each player's hand in reck-
oning Point and groups of cards.
Of the Piquet groups, the only ones
that count in Imperial are quarts-
major and groups of four Honors,
both of which are called Imperials.
Each player scores for whatever
Imperials he has, but Point is scored
only by the holder of the highest,
as in Piquet. The elder hand first
shows and scores his Imperials, and
then calls his Point. Before reply-
ing to the call, the younger shows
and scores his Imperials, and then
says " Good " or " Not good " to
the call of Point. If good, the
elder shows and scores it ; if not,
the younger waits till after the
lead before doing so. as in Piquet.
If either have Carte Blanche, only
that and Imperials are scored;
there is no Point, and the hand is
not played. In playing, only
Honors are scored for, and alwavs
by him who takes the trick contain-
ing them.
In scoring,' an Honor turned up
counts the dealer one; Carte Blanche
scores 12; an Imperial scores 6;
Point scores i. Each Honor
won in play counts one. Each
trick taken more than six counts
one. When a player's score is six,
no matter how gained, he is said to
have scored an Imperial. When, in
the course of a hand, either player's
score amounts to that of one or
more Imperials, his opponent's score
PIQUET
539
PLANETS
is reduced to the next lowest whole
number of Imperials, called " taking
down." Thus, suppose A has 4
points and B 3 ; if B make 3 more,
all A's afe taken away, and the
score is I Imperial to nothing in
B's favor. Similarly, if A have 25
points and B 4, and B gain 2, the
score is A. 4 Imperials; B, I Imperial.
But if each player has one or more
Imperials in hand, neither takes
down his score. The number of
Imperials that shall win the game
is decided on beforehand. It is
usually about six (36 points).
In playing, the most noticeable
difference from Piquet is due to the
trump. Trumps should be led if
the hand is strong in them (that is,
if there are four or more). If a
plaver is forced to trump, he should
do so with a low Honor, to score it.
If a player think, from the score,
that he can make an Imperial, and
that his adversary cannot, he should
try to force the hitter to make neces-
sary points before the Imperial is
scored, that it may take them down.
This is called "playing to the
score."
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. If the dealer turn the wrong
card, or more than one card, for
trump, he must show his hand to
his opponent, who, without looking
at his own hand, may either require
the right card to be turned, or call
for a new deal.
2. If a player look at any of the
stock cards, his adversary may call
for a fresh deal, if he have not seen
his own cards. If he have seen
them, he may call on the offender
once during the hand to lead some
particular suit.
3. All Imperials must be shown
before they can be scored. If a
player do not show his Imperials at
the proper time, as described above,
he cannot score them.
In other essential points, the
laws of Imperial are the same as
those of ordinary Piquet.
History. Piquet is one of the
oldest of the card games still played.
It is generally supposed that it
originated in France, where it was
also called Cent (Hundred), though
the same game under the name of
Cientos was early known in Spain.
It was called Sant (corrupted from
Cent) in England till the middle of
the seventeenth century, when the
French name of Piquet was adopted.
What is now called the Point in
Piquet was known in old times in
France as Ronfle, and some writers
think that the game was developed
from the old Italian Ronfa. Others
think that it may have been derived
from the Saxon game of Schwerter
Karte (Sword Cards), which would
i account for the name, the French
j Pique (pike) as a suit mark being
the same as the Spanish Espada
j (Sword). Some French writers say
| that Piquet was so named after a
i man who invented it; others say
that it was named from the Pique,
one of its features, but without ex-
i plaining the latter ; while still others
i suggest that the name means " Le
\jeu piquant" (The exriting game).
The word is also written Picquet,
and in English Picket.
PITCH. See ALL FOURS.
PITCHETTE. See GROMMETS.
PLANETS. Observations on. The
planets are described in C. C. T. in
the article UNIVERSE. The only
ones about which anything more
can be seen with an opera glass than
j with the naked eye are Venus and
j Jupiter. Planets constantly change
position in the heavens, so that no
directions can be given for finding
them to one who has not studied
astronomy. The best way is to
wait until one of them is morning
or evening star, which can be seen
by any almanac.
Venus. It can be seen through an
opera-glass that Venus has phases
like the moon, changing from a thin
crescent to a full disk, and then back
again to a crescent; but instead of
being repeated every month, as with
PLANK
540
POETICAL BUTTERFLY
the moon, these changes take nearly
nineteen months. When Venus is
full she is nearly eight times as far
away from the earth as when she is
new, so her apparent changes of
size and shape are quite apparent.
Jupiter. This planet has. four
moons, which are invisible to the
naked eye, but can be seen through
an opera-glass. They always appear
in a straight line, and change posi-
tion very rapidly. If they are looked
at two nights in succession, this
change of position enables the ob-
server to tell them from stars, which
they resemble.
PLANK, a game played by two to
four persons, with 12 cards and 24
counters. Each of the cards bears
three squares, arranged as in the
figure, and colored red, white, and
blue, the order of the colors vary-
ing on different cards.
flanit-caru.
The counters are divided into
four sets, marked respectively with
the letters A, B, C, and D, and in
each set there are two red, two
blue, and two white counters. The
cards are divided equally among
the players, and each is given a set
of counters. The player at the
dealer's left lays down a card face
upward, and places a counter on a
square of the same color. The
player at his left may place a
counter on the same card, or lay
another card close by its side, plac-
ing a counter on the second card,
and the other players in turn have
the same choice. When the cards
and counters have all been played,
each may move one of his counters
to a vacant space of the same color.
He who first gets three of his count-
ers, red, white, and blue, in a row,
either lengthwise or across the
cards, wins the game. No counter
may be placed on a square of a dif-
ferent color.
PLANTING, a game played by
any number of persons, in which
each in order tells what he has
planted and what came up. The
articles planted may be objects or
persons of any kind, but they must
come up as plants or trees, having
some punning connection with the
thing planted. Thus, one player
may say: " I planted Shakespeare,
and Sweet William came up;" an-
other. " I planted a pack of cards,
and W(h)istaria came up."
PLATINUM, Experiments with. i.
Heat a bit of platinum wire red-hot
in the flame of a Bunsen burner.
Turn off the gas, and turn it on
a^ain at once. The wire will
remain red-hot, though it does
not light the gas again. The
reason is, that platinum con-
denses gases on its surface,
and the mixed gas and air
of the burner being thus con-
densed, unite and give out
enough heat to keep the wire
red-hot, though not enough
to light the gas again.
2. Cut a star, or any other figure,
from a piece of platinum, and suspend
it by a platinum wire in a wine-glass
by fastening the wire to a nail laid
across the top of the glass. Put a
little alcohol into the glass, about a
quarter of an inch from the object,
light it, and when the platinum is
red-hot, smother the flame by plac-
ing a piece of paper or card-board
on the top of the glass. By lifting
the cover now and then to let air
into the glass, the platinum figure
will remain red-hot and throw out
a bright light, until all the alcohol
is exhausted. The effect is very
beautiful in a dark room.
POETICAL BUTTERFLY, THE. A
game played by any number of per-
sons, one of whom, called the But-
POETS
54i
POLO
terfly, names the others after trees,
flowers, birds, or insects. The But-
terfly pretends to fly from one to
another, asking each for his story,
and then commenting on it as he
pleases. Each of the players, when
thus addressed, must give some
quotation, or mention some tale or
legend, about the tree, flower, bird,
or insect he represents. Thus, the
Apple-tree may allude to the story
of William Tell, and the Robin to
that of Cock Robin, while the Black-
bird may quote :
" Four and twenty blackbirds
Baked in a pie."
POETS, a game played by any
number of persons, with pencils
and paper. Each writes on a slip
of paper the name of some well-
known author, and on another slip
a quotation from his works. The
names are then placed in one pile,
and the quotations in another, and
each player draws a slip from each
pile. Each, in order, then reads his
slips aloud, and declares whether
or not the quotation drawn is from
the writings of the author. If not,
he is required to give a quotation
from the writings of the author
whose name is on his slip, and to
name the author of the quotation
on the other slip. If he makes any
mistake he must pay a forfeit. An-
other way of playing the game,
which makes it entirely one of
chance, is simply to exact a forfeit
from those players who draw slips
on which the names and quotations
do not correspond. This game is
called in Germany Dichter Er-
r ashen (Guessing Poets).
POLISH CHECKERS or
DRAUGHTS. See CHECKERS.
POKER, Experiment with. Heat
a poker red hot, and then look
along its side at an object ten or
twelve feet distant. If the poker is
held correctly, three images of the
object will be seen close to the sur-
face, one of which is upside down.
These images are caused by reflection
from the heated air close to the
poker. A similar reflection from
the air close to the hot sand of a
desert is called Mirage (a French
word meaning reflection).
POLO, the game of HOCKEY
played on horseback or roller skates.
In the horseback game, called
Equestrian Polo, the players ride on
ponies not more than 14 hands
i inch in height, usually Mexican
Mustangs. The sticks, or mallets,
are from 49 to 52 inches long, with
heads of willow-wood and flexible
handles covered with buckskin. The
balls are made of light wood. The
grounds are about 750 yards long
and 500 feet wide, and have at each
end two goal-posts, 24 feet apart.
At the beginning of the game the
leaders toss for goals, and the play-
ers on each side take position in
front of their goal behind a line
drawn about 12 yards from it. The
ball is thrown into the centre of the
field by the umpire, and the game
begins. Sometimes the game is
opened by " charging,'" in which
case the players stand only a few
feet from the ball, and rush upon it
at the word " play ;" but as this is
hard on the horses, it is usually
omitted, except in the opening game
of a match. The object of the game,
as in similar ones, is to strike the
ball between the opposing goal-posts,
called winning a goal. A match
game usually consists of three in-
nings of twenty minutes each, with
two minute intervals for rest, and
the side making the most goals in
the sixty minutes of play wins the
game. In case of a tie, the game is
continued till one party makes an-
other goal.
RULES OF THE GAME.
The following are the rules of the
Westchester Polo Club :
1. The grounds to be about 750
feet long by 500 feet wide, with a
ten-inch guard from end to end on
the sides only.
2. The height of the ponies must
not exceed 14 hands i inch.
POLO
542
PDLO
3. The balls to be of wood, with
no other covering than paint, and
about 3 inches in diameter. The
mallets to be such as are approved
by the Steward.
4. The goal-posts to be 24 feet
apart, and light enough to break if
collided with.
5. Match games between pairs
shall be for periods of 30 minutes,
time between goals included, unless
otherwise specified.
6. Match games between teams of
four shall be three periods of 20
minutes each, actual play, time be-
tween goals and delays not counted,
with 10 minutes between the periods
for rest, unless otherwise specified.
7. Each team to choose an um-
pire, and, if necessary, the two um-
pires to appoint a referee, whose de-
cision shall be final.
8. Each team sliall have a substi-
tute in readiness to play when a
match is on.
9. There shall be a captain for
each team, who shall have the
direction of positions and plays of
his men.
10. No captain shall allow a mem-
ber of his team to appear in the
game otherwise than in the Club
uniform.
11. No person — players, umpires,
and referee excepted — shall, under
any circumstances, be allowed upon
the ground during the progress of
the game.
12. It is forbidden to touch an ad-
versary, his pony, or his mallet, with
the hand or mallet during play, or
to strike the ball when dismounted.
13. The game to begin with a
charge, the contestants taking their
positions behind the chalk-line,
which is to be 30 feet from the goal-
posts. When the signal to charge
has been given by the referee, the
first and second players must keep
to the left of the ball until it has
been touched.
14. In case of an accident to a
player or pony, or for any other
reasonable cause, the referee may
stop the game, and the time so lost
shall not be counted. When the
game is resumed, the ball shall be
thrown between the players, who
shall be lined up at the point at
winch the ball stopped. But if the
game is stopped on account of a
foul, the ball is to be thrown in at
the place at which the foul occurred.
15. When the limit of time has
expired, the game must continue un-
til the ball goes out of bounds, and
such over-time shall not be counted.
16. In case of an equal number of
goals having been made at the end
of the third period, the game to be
continued until one side makes the
winning goal.
17. When the ball goes out of
bounds at the sides, it must be
thrown in from the place at which it
went out, by the referee, or by ar, im-
partial person, between the two sides,
which shall be drawn up in line
facing each other. When the ball
goes out at the ends, the side de-
fending that goal is entitled to a
knock-out from the point at which
it crossed the line. When the play-
er having the knock-out causes un-
necessary delay, the umpire m;iy
throw a ball on the field and call
plays. No opponent shall come
within 50 feet of a player having the.
knock-out, until the ball has been
hit.
1 8. A player requiring a mallet
during the game, must ride to the
end or side line. It must not be
brought on the field to him.
19. Foul riding is careless and
dangerous horsemanship, and lack
of consideration for the safety of
others. A player in possession of
the ball has the right of way, and
no one shall cross him unless at
such a distance as to avoid all possi-
bility of a collision.
20. The referee may suspend a
player for the match for foul riding,
or he may award the opposing side
a half goal.
Polo on Roller Skates, or Rink
Polo, a game played by opposing
POLO
543
POLO
teams of five players in a rink or
other large hall. The ball is of rub-
ber, and the sticks, which are curved
at the end, are about five feet
long and one inch in diameter. The
goals, set ten feet from the ends of
the rink, are cages six feet wide,
three feet deep, and three feet
high, and to count as a goal, the
ball must be struck into the cage
and remain there.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. To start the game, the ball is
placed in the middle of a straight
line joining the centres of the goals,
and at the whistle of the referee is
charged upon by a player on each
side, who shall start, without aid,
from a point on aline with his goal
and 1 8 inches to the left of it.
2. The side scoring most goals in
a half hour's play wins the game.
3. To count as a goal, the ball
must remain in the cage. It must
not be removed thence by any per-
son but the referee. Should any
player touch the ball in the cage
either with his person or stick, or
anything else that indicates his in-
tention to remove the ball, the ref-
eree shall decide a goal for the
other side.
If a ball go out of bounds, the ref-
eree shall blow his whistle to call
game, and place the ball at a point
opposite where it went out, at least
four feet from the rail. In recom-
mencing play, the players who do so
must stand in position to knock
the ball up or down, not across, the
rink with their backs toward the
sides, the ball to be midway between
two players.
5. Game shall be called by the
referee whenever a foul occurs, or
whenever one is claimed, unless the
. referee is satisfied that no just claim
exists. Upon claim of foul, if game
is to be renewed, the ball must be
placed where the foul occurred.
6. It shall be deemed a foul: i.
If any player stop or strike the ball
when any part of his person is
touching the surface. 2. If any
player catch or bat the ball with his
hands or arm. 3. If any player
(save the goal-tend, who may do so)
kick the ball with his foot .or skate,
though he may stop the ball with
either. 4. If any player strike down
the stick of his opponent, or if any
player trip or strike another inten-
tionally with stick, hand, or skate.
5. If any player throw his stick in
the pathway of a player or at a ball.
6. If a player raise his stick above
his hip in striking a ball. But in
case the ball is in the air, above the
hip, he can raise his stick to stop
it.
7. Any act by any player that is
manifestly intended as an interfer-
ence with another may be declared
a foul by the referee, upon com-
plaint of the captain of the offended
side.
8. Three fouls (other than when
the ball leaves the bounds) made by
either side during a contest for a
goal, shall constitute a goal for the
opposite side.
9. If the referee decide that a foul
made by the goal-tend prevented a
goal, one shall be adjudged for the
opposite team.
10. All games shall be played on
rink skates with plain boxwood
revolving rollers, without the use of
additional appliances to hinder the
free running of such rollers. Any
woods, rubber, or any other material
attached in any manner to any
skate, shoe, or boot, is positively
prohibited.
11. The ball must not be struck
hard, but may only be " nursed" or
" coached."
12. No person, except the players
and referee, shall be allowed on any
part of the surface during a game.
13. If the rusher, whose place it
is to charge upon the ball to start
the game, tries to start before the
whistle is blown, or does not start
from the designated spot, the ref-
eree must warn him once; and if
he persists, the referee has the
POLO
544
POLO
authority to call for a new rusher
to start the game.
Parlor Polo Board.
Parlor Polo, a game founded on
Polo, played by two persons on a
board like that in the illustration.
The squares are colored alternately
white and blue, except those occu-
pied by men at the beginning of the
game, which are red. Each player
has six pieces or men, like CHECK-
ERS, called Goal Tend, Cover Point,
two Rushers, and two Half Backs,
whose positions at the opening of
the game are shown in the figure. A
small figure of a polo player on
horseback, called the Ball, is placed
in the middle of the board. Each
player sits behind his own goal, and
each plays in turn, throwing two
dice to determine his moves. The
colored squares alone are used.
Any man may be moved a number
of colored squares equal to the sum
of the numbers thrown, diagonally
in any direction, either in a straight
or zig-zag line, provided he does
not pass over any other man in so
doing, nor retrace his steps in the
same move. The Rushers must
move first, and the Goal Tend must
not leave the goal; but aside from
this the men are all alike. When a
man moves exactly into the square
occupied by the Ball, he is said to
"have the Ball," and it is placed on
him. He can now take the Ball
with him in his moves (called
" carrying " it), or he may " throw "
it, that is, move the Ball like a
man. The thrown Ball can pass
over the heads of as many men as
necessary, but it can be thrown
only in a straight line. A player
may take the number on one of his
dice as a move, with or without the
ball, and the other as a " throw," but
he can divide them in no other way.
Thus, if he throw six-three, he can
move up six squares and throw the
Ball three, or vice -versa, but he can-
not, for instance, move seven squares
and throw two. He wins who first
plays the Ball, either by throwing
or carrying it to one of the squares
in the opposite goal. The Ball
should usually be carried as far as
possible, and then thrown over the
heads of the opponent's men.
History. Polo has been traced
back as far as the 8th century, when
it was played in Persia and called
Chitgdn, the name of the long-
handled mallet used in the game.
There is a story that Darius sent
Alexander a ball and Chugdn, as an
insulting hint that he was more fit
to play polo than to go to war. It
is undoubtedly the equestrian game
called "Tennis" in the Arabian
Nights. The Byzantine Greeks
played it with a stick somewhat
like a LACROSSE stick, having at the
end a network of gut strings. The
game was played both on foot and
on horseback. The foot game (our
Hockey) was carried to France
under the name of Chicane (prob-
ably a corruption of Chugdn) and
f rom th is we get our word chicanery,
meaning trickery, from the tricks
employed in the game. Equestrian
Polo was introduced into England
by some cavalry officers about 1865,
and the first game was played near
Folkestone. There are now many
Polo clubs in Great Britain and sev-
eral in the United States. The first
club in this country was the West-
chester, which played on the
POOL
545
PORTRAITS
Grounds at Fifth Avenue and noth
treet, New York City, still known
as the Polo Grounds, though they
are not now used for the purpose,
the club having removed its head-
quarters to Newport, Rhode Island,
where frequent matches are played
every summer. A kind of Polo has
long been played by the Indians of
Arizona, who use any kind of a
stick they wish, and strike to and
fro any object, as a stone or piece
of wood. There are no sides, each
player acting for himself.
POOL. See BILLIARDS.
POPE JOAN. See NEWMARKET.
POP-GUN, a toy gun worked by
compressed air. The simplest kind
is the Potato Pop-gun, which is
made as follows : Fit loosely to a
piece of goose-quill about three
inches long, cut off squarely at the
ends, a wooden piston or ramrod.
Cut a raw potato into
slices about as thick as
a silver dollar, and press
each end of the quill on a
slice, so that both ends
will be plugged with little
pellets of potato(^). Ifone
of these be now pushed in
with the piston (s), the
other will fly out with a
popping noise. The air
within is first compressed
and then, expanding, drives
out the bit of potato before
it. The remaining piece is
now pushed forward to
the end of the quill, the
vacant end pressed again
on a slice of potato, and
the gun is ready to be
fired once more.
A larger gun can be
made of a tube of brass or
glass, with a piston made
Pop-gun, g winding twine around
the end of a stick till it will ex-
actly fit the bore. A cork is inserted
at one end of the tube and driven
out by suddenly pushing the piston
in at the other. Pop-guns of all
kinds are sold at toy shops. In one
kind the piston is in the middle,
and there is a cork at each end, so
that it can be fired either by pulling
or by pushing the piston. In an-
other, a piece of paper fastened
tightly over one end is broken by
the force of the compressed air.
POROSITY, Experiment on. Por-
ous substances are those which are
filled with minute holes, or pores.
Half fill a glass with boiling water,
and lay over the top a piece of
pasteboard, over which invert an
empty dry glass. The moist vapor
arising from the water will soon be
seen also in the upper glass, having
passed through the pasteboard. In
this way many kinds of substances
may be tried: wood, cloth, India-
rubber, glass, etc., and it will be
found that some of them are porous
enough to let water vapor through
them, while others are not.
PORTRAITS, a game played with
pen, ink, and paper by any number
Autograph Portrait.
of persons. Each writes his name
on a slip of paper, with as many
PORTRAITS
546
POTATO RACE
flourishes, and as much ink, as pos
sible. Each then folds his paper
once, the fold running lengthwise
through the middle of the name,
and passes it to the right. The
person who receives it presses his
A finger on the fold at A,
then draws it from B to
B C, from B to E, and from
C to D. He thus makes
c a series of blots within,
and when the paper is
unfolded, a rude and comical resem-
blance to a human figure will be
found. This is supposed to be the
portrait of him whose name was
written on the paper. As a general
thing, the more ink used in writing,
the more amusing will be the por-
trait.
The picture shows an "autograph
portrait" thus taken. The game
is sometimes called " Smudge-
ography. "
PORTRAITS AND SENTIMENTS,
a game played by any number of
persons, who sit in a row. Each
whispers to his right-hand neighbor
the name of some person, and to his
left hand neighbor some sentiment,
original or quoted, supposed to be
written under the portrait of that
person. Each then announces aloud
whose portrait has been presented
to him, and what is inscribed under
it. For instance, a player may be
given the portrait of Bluebeard
with the inscription: "He was an
indulgent husband, and an estima-
ble gentleman." The names chosen
may be those of the players, or
those of famous characters, real or
fictitious, ancient or modern.
POTASSIUM, Experiments with.
Potassium is described in C. C. T.
i. Throw a piece of potassium on
water as described in C. C. T.
2. Throw a piece on a large sheet
of blotting-paper which has been
wet with red litmus water (see TEST-
PAPERS). The potassium will run
about the paper, leaving a blue
track caused by the formation of
potash (see C. C. T.)
3. In a block of ice about six
inches square, bore a hole half an
inch wide and two inches deep, en-
larging the bottom of the hole to
form a cavity. Drop into it a
piece of potassium the size of a pea.
It will take fire and burn beautifully.
The experiment should be tried in
a warm, dark room.
4. To Fire a L 'annon with an Icicle.
Load a toy cannon, and on the gun
powder on the touch-hole put a
piece of potassium as big as a pin-
head. When this is touched with a
piece of ice it will blaze up, setting
fire to the powder.
POTATO RACE, a running game
played by any number of persons.
A circle about forty feet in di-
ameter is marked out as a race-
course, and across it at any point is
marked a straight line A B ten feet
Course for Potato Race.
long, half outside the ring and half
inside. On this line spots are
marked at intervals of six inches.
Each contestant must take a potato
from a basket placed near the ring
at C, opposite the line, and running
around the circle place it on the
first spot on the line. As he goes
on past the basket he takes another
potato, which he places on the sec-
ond spot, and so on till ten minutes
have passed. After placing each
potato the runner must return to
the ring without stepping over the
line, and each potato must be placed
exactly on its proper spot. Three
POUND PARTY
547
PREFERENCE
judges are appointed, one of whom
stands at the potato basket, one at
the line, and one in the middle of the
circle to call out the runners' names
in order and keep the time.
Any runner who takes more than
one potato, or fails to take any, who
skips a spot, or does not place his
potato properly, is declared out of
the race at once. Instead of pota-
toes, apples, or any small objects
can be used. The course and line
may be marked with lime or flour
on grass, and the spots for the pota-
toes with dark earth, or by short
cross-lines.
POUND PARTY, an entertainment
to which each guest is required to
bring something weighing exactly a
pound. These may be eatables,
toys, useful articles, or whatever
the giver pleases. Each package is
numbered and laid aside as it is re-
ceived. When the guests are ready
for the distribution of the parcels,
numbered cards, or slips of paper,
are passed around and each draws
one. Some one then takes the
packages one by one, calling its
number aloud; the holder of the
corresponding number becomes its
owner, and must open it in the pres-
ence of the company.
PREDICAMENTS. See CROSS
QUESTIONS.
PREFERENCE, or SWEDISH
WHIST, a game of CARDS, played
with a full pack, generally by four
persons, but sometimes by five or six.
The four-handed game will be de-
scribed first. The pack being placed
face downward on the table, each
player draws a card from it. The
holders of the highest two play to-
gether as partners, the other two
playing against them. The one who
draws the lowest card is allowed to
select his place at the table, and deals
first. Ace is considered the lowest
card in thus drawing, but in playing
the cards rank as in WHIST. The
game resembles ordinary Whist, but
differs in the following points: The
trump is determined by bidding
thus : the eldest hand names the
suit he prefers, and then the others,
in order, to the left; but eacli must
name a suit higher in rank than the
preceding player, or say " I pass."
Hearts ranks as the highest suit, and
after it, in order. Diamonds, Spades,
and Clubs. The highest suit bid is
taken for trump, unless some one
bids " Preference," or says " I Pre-
fer," when the game must be played
without any trump. Preference is
higher than any other bid, and as
soon as it is bid, play begins at
once.
In practice, the bids of Clubs and
Spades are now used as an invitation
to the player's partner to demand
Preference, Spades being the
stronger invitation. If all pass, the
party may agree to play " Millissi-
mo," the object then being to avoid
taking tricks. Honors and tricks are
scored as in Whist, but the score is
multiplied by 3, if Clubs are trumps ;
by 4, if Spades ; by 5, if Diamonds ;
by 6, if Hearts ; and by 8, if Prefer-
ence or Millissimo has been played.
In the case of Millissimo, not those
who take the tricks, but their oppo-
nents, score. In addition, a Little
Slam (12 tricks) counts 10 points, a
Grand Slam (13 tricks) counts 20;
the first game in a rubber counts 10,
and the second (if won immediately
after the first), 20. All these points
remain the same, no matter what
the trump is.
A game ends when one party has
made 20 points in tricks alone. A
rubber ends when two consecutive
games have been won by the same
side. After the first rubber, the
dealer and the player at his left
keep their seats, and the others
change. After the second, the
player opposite the dealer changes
with the one who has not played
with the dealer. This series of
three rubbers constitutes what is
called a " complete game." Each
player keeps his own score, credit-
ing himself with all points made by
himself and each of his partnersj
PRISM
548
PRISM
and after the thiid rubber, he who
has most points is declared winner.
As the end of the " small game " is
determined by the points made by
tricks alone, it is convenient to
score rhem by themselves.
When five play, one always stays
out of the game, he who drew the
highest card staying out of the first
rubber, the next to the highest out
of the second, and so on. Each, on
entering the game, sits opposite the
player who drew the lowest card.
When six play, two stay out in like
manner.
PRISM, Experiments with a, The
prisms used to separated white light
into its different colors (see Light
in C. C. T.) are three-sided. Such
prisms are sometimes used also for
ornaments on chandeliers or lamps.
Larger ones are somewhat expen-
sive, but a good prism can be made
by fastening three squares of glass
on a glass bottom, and filling with
water the three -sided vessel so
formed. The joints are made water-
tight with putty.
EXPERIMENTS.
i. Look through a prism at the
edge of any bright object, or at a
sheet of white paper pasted on black
Experiment 2.
paper. It will appear colored, in
narrow stripes of red, yellow, and
blue.
2. Hold a prism P (see illustra-
tion), in a beam of sunlight admitted
through a hole S, into the room.
If possible, shut out all light from
the room except the one beam. This
may be done by closing the shutters
at all windows but one, and covering
that with sheets of thick wrapping-
paper, in one of which is cut a
small hole to admit the beam. The
spot of light made by the beam
on the wall or floor will show seven
colors, which will be farther apart
the larger the prism. The colors
violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow,
orange, and red are denoted in the
picture at I H by their initial letters.
3. Take a bit of red sewing-silk,
and hold it in each one of the colors.
If the room is perfectly dark, the
silk will appear black, or almost so,
in each of them except the red. In
like manner, yellow silk will appear
black in each color except the yel-
low. This is because each piece of
silk is able to reflect only its own
color.
4. Look through a prism at the
flame of an alcohol lamp in which
salt has been dissolved. It will not
appear colored at all, because such
a flame is pure yellow and cannot
be separated into other colors.
This is the only pure
color easy to obtain.
5. Receive the colored
spot on a hand-mirror,
so as to reflect it to the
ceiling, and tip the
mirror rapidly, so as to
make the spot move
backward and forward.
It will appear white, be-
cause the effect is the
same as if the colors
were mixed together
again.
With the aid of a
HELIOSTAT the colors
can be separated mucn
farther, into a ban. 1
called the spectrum. The beam
of light from the heliostat should
be admitted to the room through
PRISM
549
PRISONER'S BASE
a narrow slit from one-eighth
to one-quarter of an inch wide.
This slit may be cut in a sheet
of paper which is pinned over
the hole through which the light
passes. In front of the slit is placed
a lens at such a distance as to throw
a clear image of the slit on the op-
posite wall, or on a handkerchief
held up before it. The prism is
then placed in front of the lens.
The spectrum will be thrown to one
side, where it must be received on a
white wall or screen. This must be
exactly as far from the prism as the
wall or place where the clear image
of the slit was formed, otherwise
the spectrum will not be clear. If
the wall is just at the right distance,
and the slit is narrow enough, verti-
cal black lines are seen across the
spectrum. These black lines are
caused by the sun's atmosphere,
which stops some colors of light
and lets others through. Colored
liquids also let through part of the
light and stop other parts, as may
be seen by placing various liquids
in the path of the ray. For this
purpose a thin transparent vessel is
needed. One may be made by
fastening together with shellac var-
nish two pieces of window glass,
about four inches square, an inch
apart, by means of wood strips on
three sides. Carmine dissolved in
weak ammonia water, placed in this
vessel and held in front of the
light, either between the slit and
lens, or between lens and prism,
only lets through a little of the red
light, if the solution is strong.
When it is weakened, two upright
black bands will be seen across the
spectrum in the greenish -yellow
part of it. A little blood, mixed
with water, also gives two bands,
but they are in a slightly different
place from the carmine bands. This
is an easy way of telling carmine
from blood, though their colors are
almost exactly alike. By trying all
sorts of colored substances, dis-
solved in water, it will be found that
each cuts off the light in a different
way.
PRISONER'S BASE, an out-door
game played by any number of per-
sons, though the best number is
from 12 to 16. Two "Bases," or
enclosures, are marked off, each
large enough to hold half the
players, and two " Prisons " a little
smaller, from one to two hundred
feet from the Bases, according to
convenience. Two methods of lay-
ing out the ground are shown in the
diagrams. The players are divided
Prison
Prison
Fig. i.
B's
Prisoi
A's
ison
A's
Base
B's
Base
Fig. 2.
Prisoners' Base Grounds.
into two opposing sides, each of
which occupies one of the Bases.
A player from one side begins the
game by running beyond the bounds
of his Base, and one on the opposite
side pursues him. A second man
from the first party chases the pur-
PRISONER'S BASE
550
PRIVATE THEATRICALS
suer, and so on, each party sending
out as many men as they choose.
If any one is touched, while out of
bounds, by a player on the opposite
side, who left bounds after him, he
must go to the Prison belonging to
the enemy, and stay there till he is
released by one of his own side.
The Prison of each side is opposite
the Base of the other side, as shown
in the diagrams. No one is allowed
to touch the catcher as he returns
to his Base, which he must do at
once. A prisoner can be released
by any one of his friends who can
run from his Base to the Prison
without being caught.
The prisoner and his friend are
then allowed to return to their Base
in safety. But if a player is caught
while attempting a release, he must
himself go to Prison. The game is
won by the party that succeeds in
getting all its enemies into Prison
at the same time. It is necessary
for a player to remember who Of his
opponents left their Base before him
and who after him, so that he may
know whom to chase and whom to
avoid. When a large number of
players are out of bounds, this
makes the game quite complicated.
The game of Prisoner's Base was
played in England as early as the
fourteenth century, for a proclama-
tion in the reign of Edward III.
forbids children to play it in the
avenues of the Palace of Westmin-
ster during the sessions of Parlia-
ment, as it annoyed the members.
Shakespeare also probably alludes
to it in the play of Cymbeline, where
he speaks of
"... Two striplings, lads more like to run
The country base than to commit such
slaughter. '
It was a favorite in the county of
Cheshire, and was played by men as
well as by boys. As played there,
no Prisons were used ; thess? were
added in the county of Essex.
About 1770 a match game of Pris-
oner's Base was played in London
between twelve gentlemen of Chesh*
ire and twelve of Derbyshire.
PRIVATE THEATRICALS. If the
theatricals are held in a hall, the
stage and its accessories will usually
be found ready ; if in a private
house, a stage must be arranged
specially for the occasion.
Stage. The only things absolute-
ly necessary are that the stage shall
be separated from the audience
by a curtain, or sliding doors, and
that it shall have at least one
door in the side. In a house where
there are double parlors, separated
by sliding doors, one room may be
used as the stage and the other for
the audience. If there is only one
long parlor, a curtain may be hung
across one end. It is better that the
floor of the stage be raised, but in a
private house this is generally too
much trouble. It may be arranged,
however, by laying boards on sup-
ports called "horses," all of which
may be hired at a carpenter's shop.
Scenery. The scenery on a small
stage is usually of three kinds: (i)
" the drop," or curtain at the back
of the stage, (C D in the plan), on
which is painted a landscape, a
street, or a representation of the
interior of a building ; (2) " flies," or
" borders," strips of painted canvas
hung across the top of the stage at
intervals, to represent sky or ceil-
ing; and (3) "wings." or framework
covered with painted canvas (W in
the plan), which slide in grooves, or
are otherwise fastened at the sides
of the stage, inclined a little away
from the audience. When an interior
is represented these are often re-
placed by one large piece of canvas,
called a " flat." In large theatres
elaborate scenes are often "built
up " to look as much as possible
like reality. In a private house
plays are usually chosen that require
but one scene, generally the mten'or
of a room, which is easily represent-
ed ; but any one with a talent for
painting, and the necessary time,
may paint drops, flies, and wings.
F
•50 o o o o o o o o o o <T
P A
B.C.
L.U.E.
R.U.E.
C
D
Plan of Stage.
FF, foot-lights ; AB, curtain ; CD, drop ; C, centre ; LC, left centre ; RC, right centre ;
LUE, left upper entrance ; RUE, right upper entrance ; WW, wings ; P, prompter ;
YY, exits.
Models of these may be bought of
dealers in theatrical material. For
a hall unprovided with scenery, an
interior scene can easily be arranged
by getting three frames made at a
carpenter's, the size of the required
walls. There should be a real door
in each, and at least one " practi-
cable " window ; that is, a window
that will actually open. The frames
must be covered with wall-paper
and held in place by braces. If pos-
sible, a space should always be left
behind the rear scene, so as to
secure a passage from one side of
the stage to the other. This is gen-
erally impossible in a private house.
Very good garden scenes can be
made with potted plants. The dif-
ferent parts of the stage, and its
Entrances, are given special names,
which are abbreviated into letters.
If a person stand in the middle of
the stage, facing the audience, he
is said to be in Centre. The part of
t,he stage on his right hand is Right,
that on his left hand, Left. The
direction toward the audience is
"down," and toward the back of
the stage "up." When there are
wings, the spaces between them are
"entrances." When there are two
on each side of the stage, they are
the Right Upper, the Right Lower,
the Left Upper, and the Left Lower
entrances. When there are more,
they are often numbered. In a flat,
there are real doors. In a private
house one door usually has to do
duty for two, or more entrances.
The abbreviations used for these
various terms are as follows
C. Centre.
R. Right.
L. Left, or Lower.
R.H. Right Hand.
L.H. Left Hand.
E. Entrance.
U. Upper.
F. Flat.
D. Door.
For instance, L.C. means Left of the
PRIVATE THEATRICALS
552
PRIVATE THEATRICALS
Centre, L.H.F.. CD., Left-Hand
Flat, Centre Door, and R.L.E.
Right Lower Entrance.
Fig. i.— Foot-light.
Lightning. The stage is lighted by
a row of lamps or gas-jets along the
Fig. 2. — Foot-light Screens.
front, called foot-lights (FFF in the
plan), by one or more rows above,
Fig. 3.— Tin Foot-light Screen.
between the flies, and by lights be-
tween the wings. The foot-lights
are placed in a sort of trough, so
that they are invisible to the audi-
ence, as in fig. i;or they are screened
by pieces of wood or tin, as in figs. 2
and 3. These screens may be cut
from tin, as in fig. 3, so that they
will stand alone.
Where gas is used, it should be
so arranged that any or all the jets
can be regulated by one man, who
may thus darken the stage at pleas-
ure. If lamps are used, a narrow
strip of cloth should be hung close
inside the foot-lights. It lies on the
stage unobserved till the string on
which it hangs is stretched tight,
when it rises and darkens the stage.
Fig. 4. — Portifere Curtain.
In a private house where the stage
is not raised, there are no foot-lights,
and lamps should be placed on the
floor, and on tables or boxes at each
side of the stage close to the cur-
tain, where they will not be seen by
the audience, as in fig. 5.
Curtain. The position of the fold-
ing or sliding curtain on the stage is
shown at AB in the plan of the stage.
In a private house, doors may be
used instead of a curtain, or an
ordinary portiere may be hung by
rings on a cord stretched across the
room as shown in fig. 4. It may be
drawn aside by a cord, tied to the
last ring, A, on one side, and run-
ing thence, through the screw-eye
B in the wall, and then to the hand
of the curtain-puller. It can be
closed by another string fastened to
the same ring, but running through
the screw-eyes C and D. Two cur-
tains may be tacked to a pole or
strip of wood at the top, and drawn
aside, as in fig. 6, by strings passing
from the inner lower corners to
screw-eyes on either side, through
two or more rings sewed on the in-
side of the curtains, in a diagonal
line from corner to corner, as shown
in the figure, where one curtain is
down, and the other partly raised.
PRIVATE THEATRICALS
553
PRIVATE THEATRICALS
Fig. 5. — Arrangement of Lamps in House.
when the strings are let go, the cur-
tains will fall by their own weight.
A curtain can be drawn directly up
rings, brought up through all the
rings above it ; then through a
screw-eye on the strip of wood at
Fig. 6. — Side Curtains.
(as in fig. 7) by tacking a strip of
wood to it at the bottom, and then
sewing to it vertical lines of rings
two or three feet apart, the rings in
each line being one or two feet
apart. A cord must be tacked to
the bottom strip below each line of
Fig. 7. — Curtain with Rings.
the top of the curtain, or on the
ceiling; and then across to a screw-
eye above the curtain -puller. By
pulling all these cords at once, the
curtaiu is gathered up into folds.
PRIVATE THEATRICALS
554
PRIVATE THEATRICALS
Curtains that roll up (fig. 8) are
fastened firmly at the top and
tacked at the bottom to a wooden
roller, three or four inches in diam-
eter. A stout cord is tacked to
the roller at one end, beyond the
curtain, and then wound around it
a number of turns equal to the
length of the curtain. The cord is
then passed over a pulley in the
ceiling. When the cord is pulled,
Fig. 8. — Curtain with Roller.
it will, by unwinding, turn the roller,
and thus roll up the curtain. The
roller should be on the inside el
the curtain, and therefore the cord
should be so wound that the end
leaves the roller on the inside. H
the curtain is wide, there must be on
the other end a similar cord passed
over a pulley, across the stage at
the top, and then down to the cur-
tain-puller. (In the illustration the
pulley is made much lower than it
should be, so as to appear in the
picture.) A very small curtain may
)e put up with ordinary window-
shade fixtures.
After a play has been selected, a
tage-manager, a property-man, and
a prompter must be selected. The
duties of any two of these, or of all
three, may be undertaken by the
same person. In any case, none of
them must be a performer. The
stage-manager should be a person
of experience, and should have full
authority in all matters pertaining
to the arrangement of the stage, the
conduct of rehearsals, and the per-
formance of the play. If no such
person is available, it is better to
have an inexperienced chief than
none at all. It may be agreed that
such a manager is merely to decide
in disputed questions.
The prompter must sit at one side
of the stage, close to the curtain, (P.
in the plan), and "prompt" those who
forget their parts; that is, tell them
the next three or four words. He
should be present at every rehearsal,
and not only know the play thor-
oughly, but the manner of each actor,
so that he may know an intentional
pause from one caused by forgetting
a speech. There should be no oc-
casion for prompting at all ; but if
there is, it should be done quickly
and plainly, yet in such a tone that
the audience cannot hear. Usually
the prompter should also act as cur-
tain-puller, and see that all noises,
calls, etc., are made that are re-
quired off the stage, unless such are
to be made by some particular one
of the characters. Thus, a knock,
a footstep, a cough, the noise caused
by the breaking of a piece of glass,
should usually be made by the
prompter; and that he may not for-
get what he has to do, he should go
over the plav beforehand and mark
on the margin all places where such
noises are to come in.
The property-man takes charge
of all properties, that is articles of
any kind used in the course of the
PRIVATE THEATRICALS
555
PRIVATE THEATRICALS
play, such as letters to be read,
meals to be served, or flowers to be
carried. He must go over the play
carefully beforehand, make a list of
the properties, and see that .they are
all prepared. He must make notes
on the margin of his copy of the
play at the places where the various
properties are needed, and see that
they are ready at the right time.
Thus, if one of the characters is to
walk in smoking a cigar, the prop-
erty-man must see that he has the
cigar before going in ; and if a waiter
is to bring in water on a tray, it is
the property-man's duty to have
ready the tray and glasses. These
things are often left to the actors
themselves, but it is better to entrust
them to one man who has memo-
randa of them all, and knows exactly
where each is needed.
Rehearsals. The stage-manager ;
requires each performer to know his
part thoroughly before the first re- j
hearsals. Before beginning to study, |
each one should read the whole play I
carefully several times. Long solilo- '
quies and speeches may be learned
separately, but conversation must be
studied in connection with the other
parts. One who can commit to1
memory easily may learn all of those ;
portions of the play where he ap- (
pears, including not only his own :
part, but those of the other actors. !
Otherwise, he should learn the last
few words of each speech just pre
ceding one of his. These words,
which are called his " cue," enables
him to know where the other actor
has finished speaking. It is an aid
to the learner for some friend to
hear him recite his part, reading the '
speeches of the other actors as they
come in ; or the learner may hold
the book before him and read the .
play, reciting his own speeches as !
they occur. If possible, each actor j
should have a complete copy of the
play. If this cannot be arranged,
each part should be copied legibly,
with all its cues, and, that all may
study intelligently, the play should
first be read aloud to the performers.
At the first rehearsal, the various en*
trances, positions, and attitudes of
the play must be decided on. Many
of these are given, in printed plays,
but the minor ones can be varied.
Those that are finally adopted must
not be changed, for then each per-
former will associate each speech
with some definite part of the stage,
or some particular action, and he
will thus remember better both the
words and actions. After the first
two or three, the rehearsals should
be as much like actual perform-
ances as possible, and there should
be at least one " dress rehearsal,"
where every detail of costume and
every property is exactly as it -is
to be when the play is given. During
the first rehearsals, if the stage-man-
ager sees a fault, or anything that
might be improved, he stops the
players at once, explains the point
to them, and then requires them to
repeat the passage according to his
views. But all such corrections
should be made in the early re-
hearsals. During the last ones it is
of the first importance that the play
should go smoothly and without
interruption. The number of re-
hearsals required will depend on the
skill of the actors. In ordinary
cases, several rehearsals are usually
occupied in learning the parts, it
being very difficult to make the
performers study them properly at
home. The best plan is for the stage-
manager not to appoint the first
rehearsal till each actor, separately,
gives notice that he has memorized
his part and is ready to begin.
Two faults common to most be-
ginners are that they do not speak
loud enough, and that they speak too
fast. Every word, even those parts
of the dialogue supposed to be in
low tones, should bespoken as if to
the person that sits farthest from
the stage. The actor is apt to think
that he is really speaking for his
fellow-actor to hear instead of for
the audience.
PRIVATE THEATRICALS
556
PROGRESSIVE GAMES
Costumes. The proper costumes
are usually indicated at the begin-
ning of a printed play, but these may
often be varied by the actors accor
ing to circumstances. Sometimes
the action of a play is supposed by
the author to take place in some past
age simply for the sake of the pic-
turesque costumes, and when these
cannot be obtained, the performers
may wear modern dress without
making other than trivial changes
in the text. In dressing for the
etage, the actors should remember
that delicate effects, such as would
be seen in a drawing-room, are lost
to the spectators.
Making up. Painting the face so
as to change the expression, putting
on false wigs, whiskers, etc., is
called " making-up." False hair is
best hired at acostumer's, but when
none is accessible, very good wigs
can be made by sewing hair on
skull-caps of cloth. A negro's wig
can be made of the curled hair used
to stuff furniture, and light-colored
hair can be imitated by using flax,
tow, or jute. Beards, side-whiskers,
and moustaches can be made in like
manner on cloth, and fastened to
the face either with fine sewing silk,
adhesive plaster, spirit gum, or flour
paste.
For blackening the face, or mak-
ing dark lines, an ordinary bot-
tle cork burned in the flame of a
candle or lamp answers very well.
Burned cork is hard to wash off.
To remedy this, sweet oil or vaseline
may be rubbed over the face before
the cork is applied. For reddening
the face, carmine is generally used,
and for whitening, lily-white, both of
which may be bought at any drug-
gist's. Paints specially prepared for
"making up" can be bought at a cos-
turner's. For giving to the face any
desired expression, the best way is
to assume that expression, as nearly
as possible, before a mirror, and then
trace the wrinkles of the face with
black lines. In general, parts of the
(ace intended to look hollow should
be blackened, as they will then ap-
pear in shadow. Where there are
foot-lights, it should be remembered
that they cast the shadows of the
chin and nose strongly upward over
the face, and to counteract this
effect lily-white should be freely
used. But the amount of " making
up " must depend largely on the dis-
tance of the audience. In a private
house it should be very slight.
PROGRESSIVE GAMES, games
played by any number of sets of
people at once, where the winners
of each game move to a different
table. The games commonly played
are EUCHRE, WHIST, HEARTS, and
ANGLING, but others may be substi-
tuted. The tables are numbered,
and it is decided who shall sit at
each of them usually by passing
around numbered cards, which also
serve as score-cards. Partners
can be decided on at each table
by cutting the cards, but it is
usual to have the score-cards
decorated in pairs, and those players
having the same device on their
cards play together. All begin to
play on the stroke of a bell on table
No. i. When the players at that
table have finished one game, the
bell is struck again, and all playing
ceases. Those players who are
ahead at each table when the bell
sounds, have their score-cards
marked usually by sticking on them
a small gilt paper star or by punch-
ing a hole in them ; the losers' cards
are marked by a star or figure of
some other shape or color, or left
unmarked. The winners now move
to the next table, those at table 4,
for instance, going to table 3, and
these at table 3 to table 2 ; while
those at the head table go down to
the last. Playing then begins again,
and so the game proceeds till some
hour agreed upon beforehand. A
prize is usually given by the lady of
the house to the player who has the
largest number of winner's stars.
Sometimes there are several prizes,
and often a " booby prize " is given
PROHIBITED WORDS
557
PROVERBS
to the one getting most of the loser's
stars or marks. There may be one
or more tables called " booby
tables," the losers at which receive
a special mark, and he who has most
of them is given the booby prize.
Just after the winners change tables,
they may also change partners with
those whom they find at the new
table, or the same partners may be
kept ; but whichever is done, all
should follow the same rule through-
out the evening. Sometimes, in-
stead of the winners moving up,
the losers move down, in which case
the game is called " Drive." Some-
times the winners move up till the
head, or " King " table is reached,
and at this table the losers move
down to the lowest or " Booby"
table. The only games suited to
PROGRESSIVE EUCHBE.
Y JAN. 16^, 1889.
WON.
LOST.
Score Card.
progressive playing are those that
are short, so that a great number of
changes can be made in an evening.
They must also be such that it is
easy to tell which side is ahead at
any time, for when the players at the
first table finish and strike the bell,
those at the other tables are usually
in the midst of a game. For these
reasons, Euchre is one of the best
games to play in this way, the form
called Railroad Euchre being gener-
ally preferred.
PROHIBITED WORDS, a game in
which the use of certain words is
not allowed in answering questions.
The words are those often used in
conversation, such as Yes, No, Why,
But, or any others like them, and are
agreed upon by the company before
the game. One of the players is
chosen to ask the questions, which
may be on any subject. He asks
one of each player, in order, pur-
posely framing them so that it will
be difficult to answer without using
a prohibited word. When any one
does so, the offender pays a forfeit
and takes the questioner's place.
This game is said to be of Italian
origin.
PROTEAN CARDS, a pack of 104
cards, 52 printed in black and 52 in
red. Each card bears a letter of the
alphabet on its upper half, and a
numeral on its lower. A great
number of games
can be played
with these cards,
many of which
are nearly the
same as the prin-
c i p a 1 games of
CARDS and DOM-
INOES. They can
be used also for
LOGOMACHV and
other letter
games. The cards are sold at toy-
stores.with a little book describing 50
games that can be played with them.
Protean cards were invented by Mrs.
Mary Mapes Dodge (C. P. P.),
the editor of " St. Nicholas." Pro-
tean means easily changing its
shape, from Proteus, the name of a
fabulous divinity who could take
different forms at will.
The cards are called Protean be-
cause so many different games can
be played with them.
PROVERBS, a game in which one
of the players tries to guess a prov-
erb chosen by the rest of the com-
pany. The guesser goes out of the
room, and when the proverb has
been chosen, each player in order is
given one of the words that com-
pose it. The guesser is then called
Protean Card.
PROVERBS
558
PROVERBS
in, and asks a question of each
player, who must introduce his word
into the answer. Thus, suppose the
proverb chosen to be " Make hay
while the sun shines." The first
player may be asked " How do you
do this evening?" and may answer
" Very well, but your questions
make my head ache." The second
question may be, " What have you
been doing this afternoon ?" and the
answer, " Playing in the barn, on
the hay," and so on. If the proverb
is guessed, the one whose answer
gave the clue must take the guesser's
place. If it is not, the guesser must
pay a forfeit and go out again.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. If there are more players than
words in the proverb, the words
may be given out twice or more;
and if there are fewer, some of the
players may take two words. In
either case, the guesser must be
told, when he begins, where the
proverb ends, which players have
two words, and whether they intend
to put those words in the same
answer or different answers.
2. The word must be given exact-
ly as it appears in the proverb ; not
in another tense, mood, or number.
3. If the guesser fails, he may try
the same proverb again, after paying
his forfeit, or call fora new one.
Shouting Proverbs, a kind of
Proverbs in which, at a signal
from the guesser, all the players
shout their words at once. This
may be repeated a number of times
agreed on beforehand. If the guesser
tries to listen to all the words at
once, he will find it very hard to
understand any of them ; but if he
stands near one player at a time and
listens only to him, the proverb is
easy to guess. For this reason the
guesser may be required to stand at
an equal distance from all the play-
ers. They may sit in a circle, while
he stands in the middle.
Acting Proverbs, a kind of Prov-
erbs in which the players choose
sides, and one acts an impromptu
play, illustrating a proverb, while
the other side tries to guess what
proverb is meant.
Parallels, a game in which one of
the players tells a story to illustrate
some familiar proverb, while the
others guess what it is. The story
continues till the proverb is guessed
correctly, when the successful guess-
er becomes story-teller in his turn.
One way of playing is to choose
sides. The sides stand in opposite
lines, and astory told by a player on
one side must be guessed by some
player on the other side. At the
expiration of some fixed time, gen-
erally from half an hour to an hour,
the side one of whose members is
telling a story is declared the win-
ner.
Split Proverbs. The company sits
in a circle, and one, beginning the
game, throws a handkerchief at an-
other of the players, saying, as he
does so, the first part of a proverb,
which the other must immediately
finish by adding the last half of a
different proverb. The two must
make a complete sentence, but it
may be nonsensical or ridiculous.
The one who throws the handker-
chief counts ten distinctly as he
does so, ;md if the other does not
begin to finish the sentence by the
timethe first has ended his counting,
he must pay a forfeit. The one at
whom the handkerchief was thrown
then continues the game by throw-
ing it at another player and begin-
ning another proverb. For the sake
of illustration some examples of
split proverbs are given below :
A rolling stone — knows his own
father.
A wise son — gathers no moss.
Make hay while the sun — sweeps
clean.
In Germany this game is called
Verkehrte Sprich'Worter (Perverted
Proverbs).
PUMPS
559
PUMPS
PUMPS. Pumps are described in
C. C. T. To make a suction-pump,
take an ordinary ar-
Cil jya gand lamp chimney,
f(l <SSig and if the long part is
not of the same size
throughout, cut about
an inch and a half from
the top (see directions
for glass-working in
C H EM I CA L EXPERI-
MENTS). Fit a rubber
stopper with one hole
into the bottom of the
chimney, put a short
piece of glass tubing
in the hole (not allow-
ing it to project above
the stopper), and to
Fig- i t-h's ^t a rut)ber tube, a ,
Home-mkde (see Fig. i), as long as
Suction-pump, may be desired, to ;
reach to the water, c, to be pumped. j
To make the piston, take a rubber
stopper, d, a little smaller than the
upper part of the chimney, and make
it fit tightly by winding it with twine,
if necessary. This stopper must have
two holes. Through one fit the
end of a glass rod, e, for a piston-
rod, letting the lower end project a
little, and winding it with twine
just above and just below the stop-
per, so that it can
pull through neither
way. Over the hole
in the lower stopper,
and over the second
hole in the stopper
that serves as piston-
head, fasten valves
made of bits of rub-
ber cloth or leather,
Fig. 2. Valve, secured at one edge
with one or two tacks, so that they
will flap up and down. The valve is
shown more plainly in Fig. 2. At
the top of the chimney fit another
stopper with two holes, through one
of which the glass piston-rod slides,
while in the other is fitted a glass
tube,/, to deliver the water.
To make a force-pump (Fig. 3),
the lowest stopper must have two
holes, and the valve-hole in the
piston-head must be plugged. With
the other hole is
connected an air-
chamber b, made of
a vaseline bottle,
as shown in the
figure. The stop-
per of this air-
chamber has two
holes. Over the
one that connects
with the pump is a
valve. The other
is fitted with a jet.
Steam -Pump.
Fig. 3. Force-pump. Fill a flask (see
CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS) half full
of water, and close it with a tight
cork or rubber stopper, through
which passes a glass tube reaching
nearly to the bottom. To the tube
fasten three or four feet of rubber
tubing. Place the flask over an al-
Fig. 4.
cohol lamp or Bunsen burner, and
the water will presently rise in the
tube and flow out of the end. The
reason is, that it is forced out by the
pressure of the heated water vapor
in the upper part of the flask.
Pumps without a Piston, i. Take
a glass tube several feet long, and
PUMPS
560
PUNCH AND JUDY
large enough to be stopped conven-
iently with the finger or thumb.
Plunge the end in the water, and
then stopping the open end, draw it
quickly up, but not far enough to
pull the lower end out of water.
Continue this up-and-down motion
rapidly, always opening the tube
while pushing down and stopping it
while pulling up. The water will
rise, and finally flow out at the top
of the tube at each downward push.
2. Hold a common glass funnel,
large end downward, in a pail of
water (see Fig. 4.), and rapidly move
it up and down. The water will
rise into the small end, and with
practice may be made to spout out
of it for some distance.
PUNCH AND JUDY, a theatrical
entertainment, in which the per-
formers are puppets, operated by an
unseen person. The puppets are so
made that the exhibitor can slip his
hand and wrist into their bodies, in-
serting his forefinger into the head
Punch and Judy Show.
and his thumb and second finger
into the arms. The exhibitor shows
the puppets to the audience through
an opening about two or three feet
square, just above his head ; only
two appear at a time, one being
operated by each hand. The open-
ing may be made by hanging a cur-
tain in an ordinary doorway be-
tween two rooms, so that it just
hides the exhibitor when he stands
upright. Another arrangement is
made by taking a dry-goods box two
or three feet square and hanging or
PUNCH AND JUDY
PUNCH AND JUDY
supporting it against the wall. The
front and bottom of the box must
be open, and from the front and
sides curtains hang to the floor, con-
cealing the exhibitor. In either
case an ornamental wooden or
pasteboard frame may be placed
around the opening on the side
toward the audience, and it is con-
venient to have a shelf at the bottom
of the opening, projecting outward
to form a sort of stage.
The chief characters are always
Punch and his wife Judy, but many
others are usually introduced, gen-
erally including a doctor, a police-
Fig:, i.
man or constable, and a hangman.
Punch has a hooked nose and chin,
pointing toward each other, and is
the only one of the puppets whose
Fig. 2.
legs are seen by the audience-
They are made to hang loosely, so
that he can dance on the stage. He
holds a stick about a foot long, by
Fig-. 3. — Punch (i), Judy (2), and Hangman (3).
pressing it with his arm against his i with the knife into the nose and
side. When he strikes anyone with
it, his whole body bobs forward.
The heads of the puppets are paint-
ed on rolls of cardboard, as in Fig.
i, or cut out of hollow pieces of
wood like Fig. 2, when they look
like Fig. 3. The projecting ridge
on one side of the cylinder is shaped
chin. In any case the figures have
a hole at the bottom for the exhibi-
tor's forefinger; the bodies are fas-
tened to them with glue or tacks.
The exhibitor speaks for each of
the performers, and carries on a
sort of drama, generally opening
with a scene between Punch and his
PUNCH AND JUDY
562
PUSS IN THE CORNER
Fig. 4.— The Baby.
wife Judy. Punch disposes of the
other characters
one by one, by
killing them
with his stick,
and throwing
their bodies on
the stage. At
the close, the
hangman comes
to execute him,
but Punch pre-
tends he does
not know how
to put his head into the noose, and
when the hangman undertakes to
show him, Punch pulls the rope
and hangs the executioner himself.
. The gallows is one
* *| upright stick with
Ua cross beam, and
fits into a hole in
the shelf. At the
end of the beam
are two holes,
through which
passes a string, se-
cured at one hole
by a knot, and
forming a sort of
noose between the
two. The action
of the rest of the
drama depends on
Fig. 5.— Gallows, the ingenuity of
the exhibitor. Punch speaks in a
peculiar squeaking voice, and gives
a sort of squeal of joy at the dis-
comfiture of his enemies. The
squeak may be produced by an in-
strument called a Punch and Judy
Trumpet (see Fig. 7), made of two
half rings of wood and a bit of rib-
bon. The manner of speaking must
be learned from some one who
knows it. Those performers who
have not yet made their appear-
Fig;. 6— Punch and Judy dressed for the Play.
Fig. 7. — Punch and Judy Trumpet.
ance must be laid on a chair or
hung on hooks, within easy reach
of the exhibitor.
PUSH PIN, a SOLITAIRE game
of CARDS, played with two packs.
The cards are laid out in a straight
line, face upward, as they come
from the pack. Any card that lies
between two of the same suit, or
two of the same value, as any two
Hearts, or any two Queens, is
pushed out of place, and two or
more of the same suit between two
of the same value may also be
pushed out. The card at one end
of the row may be removed to the
other, or, what is the same thing,
the cards may be placed in a circle.
The player wins if he can push out
all cards but two.
PUSS IN THE CORNER, a game
played by several persons, each of
whom stands in the corner of a
room. One player, chosen as Puss,
stands in the middle. As the others
change corners, two by two, which
they try to do when the Puss is not
looking, he attempts to slip into one
PUZZLE DRAWINGS
563
QUAKER MEETING
of the corners, and if he succeed,
the player thus left out must be
Puss in his turn. The game may
be played out of doors, when trees,
posts, or stones may be used as cor-
ners. In such a case, Puss has only
to touch the tree or stone after one
player has left it, and before the
player with whom he is changing
places touches it.
PUZZLE DRAWINGS, a game
played by any number of persons,
each with pencil and paper. Each
player draws on his paper some
kind of a line, straight, curved,
angular, or all three, and the papers
are folded and mixed. Each then
selects one, and must draw a figure
that is partly formed by the line on
the paper. Those who do not suc-
ceed must pay forfeits. One who is
used to the game can often make a
creditable picture with a line so
jagged and irregular that the task
seems impossible.
PYRAMID. See CHECKERS.
QUADRALET, a game played
by any number of persons with 49
square pieces, completely filling a
shallow square box. One of the
pieces is marked with a black dot,
and of the others half are white and
Quadralet. — Fi^. i.
half brown. The pieces are ar-
ranged in a pattern, and the dotted
one removed. If the game is
played as a SOLITAIRE game, the
player's object is to make the white
and brown pieces change places
completely, by moving them one by
one into an adjacent empty space.
When more than one play, he wins
who can do this in the least number
of moves. For instance, if the
eleces are arranged at first as in
ig. i, they will look as in Fig. 2
when the game has been won. If
the player finds it necessary to
Quadralet. — Fig. 2.
move a piece back, that counts as
a move. The word Quadralet is
from the Latin Quadratum, a
square.
QUAKER MEETING, a game
played by any number of persons,
who have handkerchiefs tied around
their heads, and are supposed to
represent Quakers. A leader is
chosen, who takes the other play-
ers, one by one, into another room,
and tells each some ridiculous thing
to do, such as to walk across the
room on all fours grunting like a
pig, or to go around kissing the
furniture (see FORFEITS). When
all have been thus instructed, the
QUEEN DIDO IS DEAD
564
QUERIES
players sit around the sides of the
room, and the leader points to
them, one by one. Each, as he is
pointed out, must do the task as-
signed him.
During the game none of the
players must speak, laugh aloud, or
make any other noise with the
mouth or lips, under penalty of a
forfeit.
This game is called Quaker Meet-
ing, because at the religious ser-
vices of the Society of Friends
(called Quakers) all present often
sit for a long time without speak-
ing a word or making a sound.
QUEEN DIDO IS DEAD, a game
played by any number ot persons,
who stand in a circle, or in a row.
The player who begins the game
says to his neighbor, "Queen Dido
is dead !" The neighbor inquires
of the speaker, " How did she die ?"
and the answer is, " She died doing
so." As the last word is spoken,
the speaker begins to shake his
right hand up and down, and he
continues the motion through the
game. The second player now re-
peats this conversation with the one
next him, and when it has gone
the round of the company all are
shaking their right hands. During
the second round the speaker, at
the word "so," begins also to shake
his left hand ; on the third round,
to stamp his right foot; on the
fourth, his left; and on the fifth, to
nod his head. By this time the
appearance of the company is very
laughable, and all are generally
tired ; but if it is desired to con-
tinue the game, each player, as he
says "She died doing so," may be-
gin to run around in a small cir-
cle.
There are many variations of this
game. In one of them, called " My
Aunt Ion, "the conversation is, "Do
you know my Aunt Ion?" "No."
" My Aunt Ion does so." In an-
other, called " Neighbor, neigh-
bor," it is, " Neighbor, neighbor,
how art thou ?" " Pretty well, I
thank thee. How's the neighbor
next to thee ?" " I don't know, but
I'll go see." Here each player be-
gins to make the new motion as he
asks the first question.
QUEEN'S PARTY, THE, a SOLI-
TAIRE game of CARDS, played with
one pack. The first sixteen cards,
in the pack are laid, as they appear,
in four rows of four each, forming
a hollow square. These cards are
called the Ante-chamber, and the
space within them is named the
Audience Hall. The cards, repre-
senting guests, are taken from the
Ante-chamber, or directly from the
pack, and placed in the Audience
Hall in their proper positions, which
are as follows: The King and Queen
of Hearts at the top, of Diamonds
at the bottom, of Clubs at the
right, and of Spades at the left.
The Queens are placed on the
Kings, and each pair must enter the
Audience Hall together.
The Aces (called Emperors) are
in like manner accompanied by the
Knaves, which are placed on them,
and are laid in the corners of the
Audience Hall. On the Knaves are
placed in order the other cards
(called common people) following
suit. Spaces left by guests, in pass-
ing from the Ante-chamber, are
filled from the pack, and those
cards that can be placed neither in
the Ante-chamber nor at once in
the Audience Hall, are laid aside to
form stock, the top card of which
can also be used at any time. If
the whole pack can be brought thus
into the Audience Hall, the player
wins.
QUERIES, a writing game played
by any number of persons. Each
writes at the top of a piece of paper
a question on some historical or
other subject, and then puts the
answer at the bottom, folding up
part of the paper so as to hide it.
The papers are now passed around
in regular order. Each one an-
swers the queries to the best of his
ability, folding the paper to hide his
QUICK MOTION
565
QUININE
answer. Finally, the papers are un-
folded and read.
QUICK MOTION, Experiments on.
The following experiments are all
explained by the fact that motion
can be imparted to objects but grad-
ually, and that when it is done sud-
denly the objects often prefer to
break or give way, rather than pass
the motion along, though it seems
easier to do the latter.
i. Place a silver dollar on a visit-
ing card, the edge of the card pro-
jecting half an inch beyond the edge
of the table. If the card is moved
gradually, it will carry the coin with
it ; but if it be snapped suddenly it
will slide under the coin, which will
not move. If the coin and card be
placed on a wine-glass when the ex-
periment is tried, the coin will fall
into the glass.
Experiment 2.
2. Pile about ten checkers one on
another. If one in the middle of
the pile be pushed slowly with the
edge of a ruler, the pile will be over-
turned ; but if it be struck sharply
with the ruler, taking care to give a
perfectly horizontal blow, it may be
knocked from the pile, leaving the
remainder upright.
3. Suspend a small stick by one
end from a string several feet long.
If the stick be pushed slowly by
a heavier stick, it will simply
swing; but if struck sharply, it may
be broken, the string moving very
little.
4. Fix two screw-eyes on opposite
sides of a croquet ball, and to each
tie thread just strong enough to sus-
tain the ball. Hang the ball up by
Experiment 4.
one of these threads. If the other be
pulled slowly, straight downward,
the upper string will break ; but if it
be jerked suddenly, the lower one
will break.
5. Fix a needle at each end of a
broomstick, and support it by rest-
ing the needles on the edges of two
wine-glasses, which stand on chairs.
By striking the broomstick violently
in the middle with a stout stick, it
may be broken without injuring the
glasses.
QUININE, Experiments with. I.
Dissolve some quinine by putting a
few grains into a bottle of water and
leaving it two or three days, shak-
ing it occasionally. It will dissolve
quicker if a little tartaric acid, or a
drop of sulphuric acid be added.
Admit a sunbeam from a HELIOSTAT
into a darkened room, and place
a piece of dark blue glass over the
aperture. Hold the bottle of quin-
ine solution in the beam of light
and it will glow with a curious blue
QUOITS
566
QUOITS
color which seems to come from
within the fluid. By holding a
bottle of pure water beside it, the
difference between them will be per-
ceived at once.
2. Into a glass of clear water held
in the beam of blue light pour a
little of the quinine solution. It
will appear like a slowly descending
blue cloud.
This property of quinine is called
fluorescence. Another fluorescent
substance is chlorophyl, the green
coloring matter of leaves. It can
be obtained by boiling tea leaves,
pouring off the water and adding
more from time to time, till it ceases
to taste of tea. Then soak the
leaves in hot alcohol, which will dis-
solve the chlorophyl. This solution
treated like the quinine above gives
a red light. A solution of madder
mixed with alum produces a yellow
fluorescence, soot dissolved In alco-
hol, a greenish blue, and petroleum
a green.
Holding the Quoit.
QUOITS, a game generally played
on level sward, by two or more
persons, with flat iron rings or disks,
which are pitched at a goal or hub.
The hubs, sometimes called motts,
are usually two pins driven into the
ground, about eighteen yards apart.
The players, who may be either two
or three playing singly against each
other, or four or six divided into
equal sides, are each provided with
an equal number of quoits, gen-
erally two. Each player, in turn,
stands beside one hub and pitches
his quoits so that they will fall and
be as near as possible to the other
hub. The first figure shows the
manner of holdingthe quoit. Some-
times an expert player succeeds in
encircling the hub with one of his
quoits (called making a " ringer"),
but this is very difficult.
This and other positions of the
quoit at the hub are shown in the
last figure. A is a ringer, B is called a
" cutter," and C is said to be "pitched
true."
Position of Quoits at the Hub.
After the first player has pitched
all his quoits, the second player
takes his turn, and then the others,
if there are more than two. When
all have played, all go to the other
hub and reckon up the points, he
whose quoits lie nearest to the hub
counting one point for each quoit ;
but each quoit entitled to count must
be nearer the hub than any of the op-
ponent's quo:ts. The quoits aregen-
erally numbered or otherwise mark-
ed so that those belonging to each
player can be easily known. When
the points have been reckoned, the
players then pitch their quoits at the
other hub, and so on alternately
until the game is won by one of
the players or sides getting the re-
quisite number of points. The
number of points in the game is
agreed on by the players beforehand,
but it is usually eleven or twenty-
one. He who rings the hub counts
ten points towards the game. Boys
QUOITS
567
QUOTATIONS
often play quoits with flat stones,
which may easily be rounded so as
to make them almost as good as
iron ones. They use also a small
stone instead of an iron pin for a
hub.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. The hub-pin must be driven in
SO as to project not more than half
an inch above the surface.
2. Each player may select quoits
of any size he chooses.
• 3. In pitching, each player must
stand within three feet of the hub.
4. The distance of a quoit from
the hub must be measured from the
middle of the hub to the nearest
visible point of the quoit. Thus,
if the quoit is stuck into the ground,
the part beneath the surface does
not counf.
Parlor Quoits. Quoits for use in
the parlor are sold at toy stores.
They are usually made of rubber,
Discobolus.
and the hub, or short stake, at
which they are pitched, is fixed in
a board which is placed on the
floor.
A game called " faba baga," which
is also sometimes called " parlor
quoits," is played by tossing bean-
bags at a hole in a board.
History. Pitching quoits was a
favorite amusement among the an-
cients. The Greeks and Romans
played with a kind of quoit called a
discus, which had no hole in it, but
was solid, like a plate. The illustra-
tion shows the celebrated Greek
statue called the discobolus (dis-
cus-thrower), the work of the sculp-
tor Myron, of which there are copies
in the Vatican and elsewhere.
In England the hub or pin was
formerly called the " hob." Country-
men, who could not get quoits of
the proper form, played with horse-
shoes, and in some parts of England
a quoit is still -called a " shoe." The
word quoit is from the provincial
English coit, to throw.
QUOTATIONS. A game played by
any number of persons, who sit in a
row or circle. One begins by re-
peating a quotation, either prose
or poetry, and the next must then
give one, the first word of which
begins with the same letter as the
last word of the quotation just given.
The game goes on thus as long as
the players choose. Any one who
does not give his quotation in one
minute (or any other time agreed on
before the game) pays a forfeit. In-
stead of paying a forfeit, he may be
required to leave the game, and it
may thus be continued till only one
is left, who is declared the winner.
Any player may be required to tell
the author of his quotation, or even
the book, poem, or play where it is
to be found, if it is so agreed. The.
following example shows how the
quotations may follow each other :
" Know ye the land where the Cypress and
Myrtle." — Byron
" Man never is, but always to be, blest."— Pope,
" Belgium's capital had gathered there.
Her beauty and her chivalry." — Byron.
" Come and walk with us, the Walrus did be-
seech."— Carroll.
etc., etc.
RACKETS
568
RACKETS
R
RACKETS, or RACKET (some-
times spelled Racquet), a game
played by two or four persons with
rackets and a ball, in a court sur-
rounded by four walls. The floor is
evenly paved, and marked as in
the diagram :
E
A
C
D
B
Racket Court.
For double matches, with two
persons on a side, the court was
formerly 80 by 40 feet, but for single
matches it was smaller. Of late
years the standard court for both
kinds of matches has been 63 by
31^ feet. The walls E, F, G, H are
black on the inside, and the balls
used are sometimes whitened by
shaking them in a bag with some
white powder, so that they will leave
marks on the black wall where they
strike. The front wall, H, should
be 30 feet high, and is faced with
Elanks to the height of 20 inches
x>m the floor. The part so faced is
called the " Telltale." About 10
feet from the floor is a horizontal
white line called the " Service-line,"
or " Cut-line." A and B are called
" Service-spaces," or sometimes
"Rings;" C and D the Right and
Left Courts ; and E F the " Short-
line." In the rear of the court is
often a gallery for spectators, which
is protected by netting. In the
court there is usually an attendant
called the Marker, who scores for
the players and acts as umpire. The
rackets used are similar to TENNIS
rackets, but longer and smaller in
the face, and the balls are hard,
about an inch in diameter, weighing
an ounce.
The players decide by lot, or in
any other way they choose, on the
one to begin the game, who is called
the " In-player" or " Man in.'' He
stands in one of the service-spaces,
and with his racket strikes or
serves" the ball so that it bounds
from the front wall above the cut-
line into one of the courts : C, if he
served from B ; and D, if from A.
One of the players on the o^her side,
called the Out-player, stands in
readiness to " take the service," that
is, to strike the ball either on the
bound or before it has reached the
ground. The Out-player may stand
wherever he wishes, but in case of a
double match, the two other players
must stand behind the In-player till
the ball is served.
If the ball is served wrongly, it is
a fault, and when the server makes
two consecutive faults his " hand is
out," that is, he becomes the Out-
player, and his adversary serves.
After a good service the ball is
struck by the players alternately
against the front wall above the
Telltale, and may fall in any part of
the court. It may be hit on the
" fly," or on the bound, but if any one
fails to hit it, or hit it out of the
court, it counts against him, putting
his hand out, if he be the In-player,
and scoring a point, or "Ace," for
his opponent, if he be the Out-
player. The game continues till
one side, by making 15 aces, wins
the game.
After the service, the ball may
strike one or more of the other walls
of the court after it has bounded
from the front wall, and a skilful
player often makes very puzzling
strokes by driving the ball into a
RACKETS
569
RAIN STORM
corner, where it bounds about from
one wall to another. This is the
principal difference between Rack-
ets and LAWN TENNIS. In Rackets,
as in the latter game, the player can
make the ball bound in different di-
rections by " cutting" it, and as the
ball has four walls to bound from,
as well as the floor, a "cut" often
causes it to take a very unexpected
course.
RULES OF THE GAME.
The following rules are those of
the New York Racquet Court Club,
and have been adopted by the Na-
tional Amateur Athletic Union :
1. The game to be 15 up. At 13
all, the out- players may set to 5 ;
and at 14 all, to 3 ; provided this be
done before another ball is served.
[" Set to 5 " means that instead of
playing the remaining 2 Aces of the
fifteen, 5 Aces are played. " Set to
3," that instead of the remaining
one Ace 3 are played.]
2. On commencing the game, in
a double match, whether odds be
given or not, the side going in first
to serve shall have but one hand ;
but in a single match the party re-
ceiving odds shall be entitled to
them from the beginning.
3. The ball shall be served alter-
nately right and left, beginning on
whichever side the server chooses.
4. The server must stand with at
least one foot in the " service box,"
and serve the ball over the line on
the front wall and within the proper
service-court; otherwise it is a
"fault." Serving two faults, missing
the ball, or the ball served striking
anywhere before it reaches the front
wall, is a hand-out.
5. All balls served or played into
the galleries, hitting a beam, iron
rod, the telltale, or any wood or net-
ting, or above the cemented lines of
the courts, although they may re-
turn to the floor, count against the
Striker.
6. A ball, to be fair, must be
truck before or on the first bound,
and must not touch the floor, the
galleries, the telltale, or any wood or
netting, or above the cemented lines
of the courts, before or after reach-
ing the front wall.
7. Until a ball has been touched
or bounded twice it may be struck
at any number of times.
8. Only the player to whom a ball
is served may return it.
9. A ball touching the striker or
his partner before the second bound
loses a hand or an ace.
10. If a fair ball hit the striker's
adversary above or on the knee, it
is a " let," and shall be played over ;
if below the knee, it counts against
the striker.
11. The out-players may once only
in each game exchange courts to re-
turn service.
12. Every player should try to
keep out of his adversary's way.
When a "hinder" is claimed it shall
be decided by the marker.
13. The marker's decision, on all
questions referred to him, shall be
final. If he is in doubt he should
ask advice ; and if he cannot decide
positively, the ace is to be played
over.
History. Rackets is a modifica-
tion of Court TENNIS. It has long
been popular in England and Ire-
land, and has been recently intro-
duced into this country, where sev-
eral clubs have been formed to play
it. The New York club has a fine
court on 26th Street, near the corner
of Sixth Avenue.
Fives, a kind of Rackets in which
the palm of the hand is used instead
of the racket. There is only a front
wall in the court, the others being
replaced by lines drawn on the
ground. In Italy is played a kind of
Fives called Pallone, in which the
ball is struck with the arm, protected
from wrist to elbow with a guard of
heavy leather.
RAILROAD BAGATELLE. See
BAGATELLE.
RAIN STORM, Imitation of. Boil
Canada balsam in a flask, over an
RANK AND FILE
570
REFLECTION OF SOUND
alcohol lamp. Clouds of turpen-
tine drops will form in the upper
part of the flask, and if a cold glass
rod be inserted, these will condense
and fall like rain.
RANK AND FILE, a SOLITAIRE
game of CARDS, played with two
packs. The first eleven cards are laid,
as they appear, in a row on the table,
face upward, and the rest of the
cards in similar rows below as long
as the pack lasts. The object is to
pile the cards in families ; down-
ward from four Kings, following
suit, and upward from four Aces.
For this purpose such cards as are
wanted are used as they appear
from the pack, instead of putting
them in rows. Any card in the
first row can also be used, and the
two right-hand cards of each of the
other rows. When there is a va-
cancy in the first row, it is filled
from the pack, but other vacancies
are not filled. When the pack is
exhausted, any card can be used
that has no card directly below it.
When a line is clear from top to
bottom, any King that can be played
may be placed in it. If the families
cannot be completed thus, the
player, beginning at the lower left-
hand corner, takes up the cards in
the opposite order from that in
which he laid them down, and re-
lays them, without shuffling, as at
first. . The cards can thus be re-laid
twice; and if the families can be
completed thus, the player wins.
READER, a game played by any
number of persons, each of whom
assumes a trade or profession, ex-
cept one, who is chosen to act as
Reader. The Reader selects a
passage from any book, either prose
or poetry, and reads it aloud, stop-
ping at intervals to point at one of
the other players. The one at
whom he points must at once sub-
stitute for the next word, which
must be a noun, some one connect-
ed with his assumed trade, and then
the Reader goes on. Any one who
does not at once respond, or puts
in a word not connected with his
trade, must pay a forfeit. Some-
times the reader copies the passage
on paper, calling for the words, as
before, and then reading the whole
aloud.
For instance, suppose the players
assume respectively the occupations
of carpenter, grocer, plumber, hack-
man, physician, and painter, and
give in order, as they are required,
the words italicized in the following
verse, which the reader selects from
Horatius at the Bridge, with this
result :
" Then out spake brave Jack-fltine,
The_/?0«r barrel of the furnace,
To every horse upon this ipecac
Putty cometh soon or late.'1
REFLECTION OF SOUND, Ex-
periments on the. Experiments on
the reflection of sound at a dis-
tance are described under ECHOES.
1. It may be observed in a room
by cutting two large holes in a card
board disk about a foot in diameter.
The disk is placed on a TWIRLER,
and the experimenter, standing close
to it on one side, blows a toy
trumpet so that the sound will be
reflected from the disk, near the
top, to a person on the other side
of the room. When the trumpet is
blown and the disk rotated at the
same time, the listener will hear a
successive strengthening and weak-
ening of the sound, resembling beats
(see VIOLIN, Experiment 5). This
is caused by the passage of the holes
before the trumpet, letting the
sound through instead of reflecting
it to the listener.
2. Let one person sound the
trumpet at one end of the room,
while another, standing at the op-
posite end, holds a common palm-
leaf fan before his ear. When the
fan is slowlv twirled by the handle,
a change in the sound is heard, be-
cause it is reflected better in some
positions than in others.
3. In front of a concave mirror, r,
at w (see illustration) hang a watch,
or support it on a block of wood.
REPEATING GAMES
571
REPEATING GAMLS
Sound Mirrors.
Place the ear at e, in front of
another concave mirror, r*, placed
at some distance. It will be found
that the ticking is heard more dis-
tinctly there than elsewhere. The
sound is reflected in the direction
shown by the dotted lines and ar-
rows. The point c is the centre of
the sphere ot which the mirror r
forms a part. Ordinary choppmg-
bowls will do very well for mirrors,
as they will reflect sound, though
they do not reflect light.
REPEATING GAMES, games in
which the players in turn repeat a
sentence after one who is chosen
leader. At each round the leader
adds something, and the whole, in-
cluding additions, must be repeated
by all in turn, as in the child's story,
"The House that Jack Built."
Those who fail, either drop out of
the game or pay a forfeit. Any one
may invent sentences for such a
game. They should be as ridiculous
as possible and contain many long
words. A few collections of sen-
tences commonly used for such
games is given below.
I. The following nonsense story,
composed by the English actor,
Foote, is very well known : " She
went into the garden to cut a cab-
bage-leaf to make an apple-pie,
when a great she-bear, coming up the
street, poked his head into the shop.
What! No soap ! So he died, and
she very imprudently married the
barber, and there were present the
Pickaninnies, and the Gobillilies,
and Garulies, and the Grand Pan-
jandrum, with the little round but-
ton at the top ; and they all fell to
playing Catch as Catch Can, till the
gunpowder ran out at the heels of
their boots." This can be divided
into such parts as the leader chooses,
for use in the game. In the remain-
ing games the original sentence and
additions are numbered.
II. My Aunt's Garden. i. "I
come from my Aunt's Garden, — oh
such a pretty garden ! In my Aunt's
Garden are four corners."
2. " In the first corner grows an
elegantine —
Give me your heart, and I
will give you mine."
3. " In the second corner grows a
rose so fair —
I would embrace you, but I
I do not dare !"
4. "In the third corner grows a
crimson pink —
Tell me of whom you most
frequently think."
5. (Each player, after repeating
the sentences, whispers a name to
his left-hand neighbor.)
6. " In the fourth corner grows a
poppy red-
Repeat to us all what just
now you said."
7. (Each repeats aloud what he
whispered.)
Another form of " My Auiu s
Garden."
1. See my Aunt's Garden ! Oh
what a pretty Garden !
2. In my Aunt's Garden there is
REPEATING GAMES
572
RIBBONS
a tree. Oh how pretty is the tree in
my Aunt's Garden !
3. On the tree in my Aunt's
Garden there is a branch. Oh how
pretty is the branch on the tree in
my Aunt's Garden !
4. On the branch on the tree in
my Aunt's Garden there is a nest.
Oh how pretty is the nest on the
branch on the tree in my Aunt's
Garden !
5. In the nest on the branch on
the tree in my Aunt's Garden there
is a bird. Oh how pretty is the
bird in the nest, etc.
6. The bird in the nest on the
branch on the tree in my Aunt's
Garden bears in his beak a billet
with the words, " 1 love you." Oh
how pretty are the words " I love
you" on the billet in the beak of
the bird, etc.
III. The Key of the King's Garden.
1. I sell you the key of the King's
Garden.
2. I sell you the string that holds
the key of the King's Garden.
3. I sell you the nail where hangs
the string, etc.
4. I sell you the beam, in which
is the nail, etc.
5. I sell you the rat that gnawed
the beam, etc.
6. I sell you the cat that killed
the rat, etc.
This can be continued at the
pleasure of the Leader.
IV. The Good Little Man,
1. I sell you my good little man.
2. I sell you the house of my good
little man.
3. I sell you the door of the house,
etc.
4. I sell you the lock of the door,
etc.
And so on at pleasure.
V. One Old Ox.
f. One old ox, open ing oysters.
2. Two toads, totally tired, trying
to trot to Tewksbury.
3. Three tame tigers taking tea.
4. Four fat friars fanning the
fainting fair.
5. Five fairies fending fireflies.
6. Six soldiers shooting snipes.
7. Seven salmon sailing in Sol-
way.
8. Eight elegant engineers eating
excellent eggs.
9. Nine nimble noblemen nibbling
nonpareils.
10. Ten till-tinkers taking two-
pence.
11. Eleven electors eating early
endive.
12. Twelve twittering titmice tee-
tering on the tip-top of a tall tree.
VI. The Good Fat Hen.
1. A good fat hen.
2. Two ducks and one good fat
hen.
3. Three squalling wild geese, two
ducks, and one good fat hen.
4. Four plump partridges, three
squalling wild geese, etc.
5. Five hundred Limerick oysters,
four plump partridges, etc.
6. Six pairs of Don Alphonso's
tweezers, five hundred Limerick
oysters, etc.
7. Seven hundred Macedonian
horsemen drawn up in line of baU
tie, etc.
8. Eight cages of Heliogabalus
sparrowkites, etc.
9. Nine sympathetic, epithetic,
didactic propositions, etc.
10. Ten helioscopic, periscopic,
pharmaceutical tubes, etc.
11. Eleven flat-bottomed fly-boats
floating from Madagascar to Mount
Prunello, etc.
12. Twelve European dancing-
masters sent to Egypt to teach the
Egyptian mummies to dance and
sing, etc.
A kind of repeating game called
GENTEEL LADY is told about in an
article by itself. QUEEN DIDO, and
the games like it, are also repeating
games, but the things repeated are
motions of the head and limbs, in-
stead of words.
RESEMBLANCES. See WHAT IS
MY THOUGHT LIKE.
REVIEWERS, THE. See BOOK
NOTICES,
RIBBONS, a game played by any
RICH MAN
RIDING
number of persons in a circle, each
one of whom holds one end of a
ribbon, all the other ends being
united in the hand of the leader
of the game, who stands in the cen-
tre of the circle. when he says
" Pull," they must let go, and when
he says " Let go," they must pull
the ribbons. Any one obeying the
leader's order is obliged to pay a
forfeit.
RICH MAN, a game of CARDS played
by three persons with a EUCHRE
pack. The player who cuts the
lowest card deals, and is called Rich
Man. He gives himself ii cards and
each of the others 10, turning up
the remaining card as trump. Each
of the other players in order, begin-
ing at his left, may then demand of
him a card with one more pip than
some one card in the asker's hand,
and if the dealer have it, he must
exchange with the asker. For in-
stance, if a player have a Nine, he
may ask the dealer to exchange a
Ten for it. Suits are not mentioned.
If the dealer have two or more Tens,
he would be allowed to give which-
ever he chose. If he have not the
card asked for, he says so, and the
next playerasks.no one beingallowed
a second chance. In case the cards
are exchanged, the third player must
not see of what suits .they are.
Play then begins, the eldest hand
leading. Suit need not be followed,
but the trick must be taken if pos-
sible. Court-cards have no rank
and cannot win, and a trick com-
posed entirely of them is always
taken by the leader. The highest
plain card of the suit led takes the
trick, unless an equal one of the
same color has been played, when
Diamonds always take Hearts, and
Clubs take Spades. If Hearts or
Spades are trumps, the trump suit
is highest in its own color; but a
trump has no power to take unless
led or played to a trump lead. There
is therefore no " trumping in." Af-
ter the fifth trick is taken, the dealer
is allowed to play the trump card,
but he cannot take it in hand.
winner of each trick scores one,
and the dealer scores two additional
points, but 3 points are forfeited
for each failure to take a trick when
possible, and 3 points by the dealer
for withholding a card in the begin-
ning of the game, if he has it.
RIDING. The art of riding can
be acquired by practice only, but
instruction from a good master is
worth its cost. In this country the
American, English, and German
styles are all practised.
The German style is rapidly pass-
ing out. The American style is
generally practised in the Western
and Southern States, while in the
Middle States the English style has
become the fashion. The Germans
teach to sit with a straight, stiff
body, shoulders well thrown back,
toes up and turned partly out, and
heels well down, the back of the
calf of the leg gripping the horse
tightly. The American style is to
ride with the body in an easy posi-
tion, the toes lower than the heels,
the knees grasping the saddle firm-
ly, and the toes, only, in the stirrup.
The English style is a natural posi-
tion of the body, the foot thrust
all the way into the stirrup, the toes
slightly lower than or on a level
with the heel. The American style
is suited to riding easy-gaited horses
only, or on military saddles, while
the English style is suited to park
riding as well as to rough riding and
hunting.
The saddle and bridle should
always be examined before mount-
ing. See that the throat-latch (the
strap under the throat) is loose
enough to easily pass your four
fingers between it and the throat ;
that the curb-chain hangs in the
chin groove and is loose enough to
pass a finger between it and the jaw,
whilst the bit hangs naturally ; that
the saddle rests where it would lie
easiest before fastening the girths :
neither high up on the shoulder nor
so far back that it will work forward;
RIDING
574
RIDING
M
Double Bridle.— A, Cheek ; B, Cheek of snaffle head-piece ; C, Throat-latch ; D, Nose-
band ; E, Front ; F, Snaffle, or Bridoon-bit ; GG, Curb-bit ; H, Curb-chain ; I, Lip-strap ;
KK, Snaffle-reins ; LL, Curb-reins ; M, Head-piece.
that the girths are not crossed or
wide apart, and that they are tight,
but not so tight as to give the horse
pain.
The snaffle-bit, used alone or
with the curb, should be high
enough in the mouth to touch its
corners, but not wrinkle the skin ;
the curb an inch and a half below
the corner of the mouth.
To Mount, i. Stand on the left
side of the horse near his shoulder,
the body three quarters facing him,
the right shoulder farthest from
him ; take the reins up in the right
hand and place them in the left.
Grasp a lock of the mane with the
left hand a little forward of the
shoulder in such a manner as may
be most convenient, meanwhile
holding the reins firmly but not
pulling upon the horse's mouth.
2. Now take the stirrup in the
right hand, putting the left foot into
it. If you can take it without the
use of the hand, so much the bet-
ter.
3. Put the right hand well over
on the right side of the cantle of the
saddle (pressing downward to help
prevent the saddle turning).
4. Rise with a good spring from
the right foot.
5. Throw the right leg over,
clearing the horse's back, withdraw-
ing the right hand at the same
time, and sink gently into the sad-
dle; release the mane; turn the
right foot inward and you will easily
find the stirrup. (The forward end
of stirrup as it hangs, should be
turned away from the horse in put-
ting the foot in.) Lengthen the reins
in the left hand by letting them
RIDING
575
RIDING
slide through the fingers or by pull-
ing them through with the right.
If a whip is carried, grasp it in the
palm of the right hand, butt up,
Another method of mounting is i,
to stand opposite the saddle-girths ;
English Saddle.— A, Pommel ; B, Cantle;
C, Skirt ; D, Flap ; E, Panel ; F, Stirrup ; G,
Stirrup-leather ; H, Roll ; I, Dee, for fasten-
ing hunting-flask ; K, Staple, for fastening
breast-plate ; LL, Girths ; M, Tread of stir-
rup.
2, grasp the pommel of the saddle
with the right hand, which also
holds the reins; 3, take the stirrup
in the left hand and insert the
foot ; 4, take a lock of the mane,
half-way up the neck, in the left
hand, thumb uppermost; 5, then
proceed to get on as described
above. This method does away with
removing the support of the right
hand as the leg is thrown over the
horse's back. After one has learned
to ride it is well to practise mount-
ing from the right side, reversing
the methods given
above.
To Dismount*
Grasp the mane near
the shoulder with the
left hand, which also
holds the reins;
place the right hand
on the right skirt ; to
steady the body withdraw the right
foot from the stirrup, and whilst
throwing it over the saddle slide the
right hand back to and grasp the
cantle, to ease the descent.
Restlessness in being mounted is
often caused by the rider's foot
tickling the horse's side, but oftener
from rough treatment, or allowing
the horse to rush off the moment
the rider is seated : he should always
be made to stand a few seconds.
If he starts before you are ready to
rise from the ground, say "whoa"
and shorten the reins with the right
hand to check him, then let them
slide through the fingers to posi-
tion. It is better to mount only half-
way, not throwing the leg over, and
come back to the ground to quiet
him than to get on whilst he is mov-
ing. He may often be made to
stand by shortening the right rein
or reins, thus pulling his head to
the right and holding it there until
mounted. A simple way to make
him stand, if very restive, is to let
the groom pick up his off fore-leg
and hold it close to the horse's
elbow. Some horses do not like to
have their heads held by a groom
while being mounted and will be
quiet so soon as released.
The Seat. Sit without putting
the feet into the stirrups, the weight
of the body resting on the buttocks ;
shoulders back ; elbows close,
though not pressed to the body ;
the thighs grasping the saddle ; the
RIDING
57<5
RIDING
The Seat.
legs, beiow the knees, hanging per-
pendicularly, and back far enough
to cover the girths ; toes slightly
in ; the side of the calf of the leg
and the inside of the knee will then
be found to grasp the saddle ; the
whole body at ease. A strong grip
at the knee and with the inside of
the calf is as important as the thigh
grip and is easily secured by turn-
ing the toes well in. The foot
should be nearly parallel with the
horse's body. The shapes of differ-
ent men require modifications in
the seat, but a good rule to bear in
mind is "toes in and heels down."
The length of the stirrup-leathers
should now be regulated so as to
make the bottom of the iron hang
about an inch higher than the hol-
low of the foot just in front of the
heel of the boot, when "the seat"
will remain as above described, ex-
cepting a slight throwing forward
and raising of the knees. The
length of stirrup, however, must be
regulated, somewhat, by the feeling
of comfort after trial. Having once
ascertained this length it will be
found convenient to note it by
measuring from the finger-tips, rest-
ing on the buckle of the stirrup (the
latter, of course, being against the
stirrup-bar of the saddle) toward the
arm-pit, with the stirrup and leather
under the arm. See how near the
arm-pit the bottom of the stirrup
comes, and thereafter, keeping this
point in mind, the rider may know
whether his stirrups are about the
right length before mounting on
any saddle.
One of the quickest ways to learn
"balance" and to get "shaken
down " into the saddle is to ride
on a pad a few times, or in the sad-
dle without the stirrups, upon a
gentle horse in a riding-school, if
possible ; or, if no riding-school
be available, have the halter left on
RIDING
577
RIDING
with the bridle and fasten to it a
rope twenty or twenty-five feet long ;
let an attendant hold this and cause
the horse to trot in a circle and at
tlie same time retain control of
him.
It is a good plan to practice rid-
ing without stirrups (crossing them
over the front of the saddle). In
road or park riding the stirrups may
be under the ball of the foot. In
hunting or rough riding the foot
should be pushed "home," that is,
as far into the stirrup as it will go.
Never use too small stirrups ; there
is danger of the foot catching in
case of a fall. Stirrups with broad
" treads " (the bottom where the
foot rests) are the most comfortable.
Do not ride the same horse upon
all occasions , frequent changes
give ease and security to one's seat
and teach general management.
In first rides, only a snaffle-bit
Snaffle-bit.
and a single pair of reins should be
used, one rein being held in each
hand. Any horse fit for a beginner
will start upon the rider mewing
and loosening the reins and press-
ing the heels slightly. To turn,
pull the rein on the side in the
direction toward which you wish
to go. If intending to turn, do
not commence pulling until quite
ready to change direction. Do not
raise the elbows or hands in turn-
ing. To stop, slightly raise and
draw in the reins, ceasing the pull
as soon as the horse stops. Most
Southern and Western horses are
trained to guide by simple pres-
sure of the reins on the side of the
neck opposite to which it is de-
sired to turn, and all well-trained
saddle-horses should be so trained.
Having become accustomed to the
motion of the horse at a walk, he may
be made to trot by steadying the
reins, leaning slightly forward and
pressing the legs against his side,
clucking to him, or touching him
lightly with the whip if necessary.
There are two methods of riding at
the trot : the close-sitting, and rising
in the stirrups. In the former, the
rider gives himself up to the mo-
tions of the horse, holding the body
and legs without stiffness. It is
possible for the rider who has at-
tained good " balance" to sit upon
most trotting- horses without being
thrown noticeably from the saddle,
though on a rough-gaited horse it is
very fatiguing.
In "rising to the trot," the rider
partly raises himself and is partly
thrown up from the saddle at every
other step of the horse, using the
knee as a pivot, aided by a slight
pressure upon the stirrups. This
rising is easily acquired, but must
only be attempted when the rider
feels the rise to be in accord with
the step of the horse. Do not allow
the legs from the knees down td
swing backward and forward ; noth-
ing is more awkward. Keep the
head and shoulders well back. Be
careful not to throw the waist for-
ward at each rise : it is better even
to throw the head and shoulders
forward to overcome this most
awkward fault.
The Canter is an acquired form of
slow galloping. When a horse be-
gins to canter, he turns himself a lit-
tle to one side, that he may advance
the fore-leg he is going to " lead"
with, and he may be made to take
this gait from a walk or slow trot,
by lightly pulling and raising the
rein, at the same time touching him
RIDING
578
RIDING
with the heel, pressing with the leg
behind the girths and throwing the
greater part of the weight of the
body on the side opposite the one it
is intended to have him "lead,"
and causing him to increase his
speed, at the same time curbing
him. If the rider wishes him to
start off with the right leg, the left
rein must be slightly tightened and
the left flank touched, and vice-
versa. In cantering in a circle or
on a short curve, the horse should
always lead with the inside leg, that
is, the leg toward the centre of the
curve. The reins should be held
firmly but gently.
Mr. E. L. Anderson, a modern
authority, holds that " if the horse
is lightened in front (that is, made
to raise his legs by a ' play ' of the
bit) he maybe lightened more upon
one side than upon the other by in-
creased action of the bit upon that
side." He therefore advocates that
if we wish " to make the horse
gallop by leading with the right
side, we shall lighten that side by a
' play' of the right rein, and bend
the croup by an application of the
left spur."
In the canter and gallop the body
should not be held stiffly from the
waist upward, but move with the
horse.
The Gallop is a natural pace, and
consists of a succession of leaps,
in which the legs of one side leave
the ground after, but pass beyond,
the legs of the other side. The
horse " leads" or starts to gallop as
in the canter, and may be made to
" lead " as described above.
In riding the gallop, the rider's
body is thrown slightly back,
the knees hold the horse's sides
firmly, but not too tightly, and the
hands are held low. In fast gal-
loping the rider sometimes stands
in the stirrups, holding by the knees
to the saddle flaps, and bending for-
ward from the waist. The canter
and gallop are easier for women, if
the horse lead off with his right
foot ; but he should be made to
lead off sometimes with the right,
and sometimes with the left.
Holding the reins, Fig. i.
Holding the Reins. If only one
pair of reins is used, they should be
held in the left hand, by placing all
the fingers between them but the
forefinger, and then turning the
ends under that finger and grasping
them between it and the thumb.
If it is desired to shorten the hold,
the grasp can be loosened, the end
taken in the right hand, and the
left hand pushed up. In holding
the reins thus, the thumb should
be pointed forward, the little finger
near the pommel, and the elbow
close at the side. The right rein is
now the upper one, and either it or
the left can be pulled at pleasure by
simply turning the wrist, without
lifting the hand.
When the rider has gained ex-
perience, and rides with two pairs
of reins, different styles of holding
them are adopted. The follow-
ing is one of the most common:
c s
Holding the reins, Fig. 2.
RIDING
579
RIDING
The snaffle reins are held in the left
hand, separated by the last three
fingers and coming out between the
forefinger and thumb, the curb reins
being held in the same hand, the
near rein between the third and
fourth finger and the off between
the second and third, the ends com-
ing out between the ends of the
snaffle reins. Some riders place the
curb reins on the outside and the
snaffle reins inside, arranging the
fingers as above. All the reins may
Holding the Reins, Fig. 3.
SS, Snaffle-reins ; CC, Curb-reins.
be carried in the right hand in the
same manner if desired. Some
riders hold the reins as in figure 3.
If it is desired to ride with both
hands, the reins being in the left,
the right hand (which holds the
whip, butt uppermost) may be placed
in front of the left hand and take
the right snaffle rein between the
first anH second fingers, the thumb
under it, not removing it from the
left hand. Or both the right curb
and right snaffle may be taken in
the right hand as in Fig. i, remov-
ing them from the left hand or not,
as desired. These methods may
be practised with reins or pieces of
tape before taking a riding lesson.
After a little practice, the rider can
pull on which ever rein he wishes.
Either the curb or snaffle may be
the tight, or riding, rein at will;
but it is not well to ride with both
tight at the same time. The reins
between the fingers should be held
well up toward the knuckles and
the hands firmly closed. As a rule,
the hands should be held low and
not far forward : about over the
pommel of the saddle will give pull
enough to control the average horse
and yet not look awkward. The
learner should avoid depending on
his reins to hold himself on his
horse, and should be able to keep
his seat without their aid.
Leaping. A horse can be taught
to leap by leading him over a bar,
say, sixteen feet long, supported in
any convenient manner. At first
the bar should be held so low that
he can step over it, and gradually
raised until it will be necessary for
him to jump. Care should be taken
not to force or frighten him. Four
or five leaps in a day are enough.
When a horse is well trained he will
jump moderate obstacles either from
a stand still or a walk. After he has
learned to jump with the leading
rein, he may be mounted and put
through the same course. He should
not be punished for refusing unless
he be a rogue. A nervous horse
should be handled gently, and ca-
ressed and rewarded after his lesson,
which should be ended after a jump,
never after a refusal. In jumping
from a standstill or walk, the rider
first pulls lightly upward on the reins,
speaking, and pressing his legs to the
horse's sides to force him forward.
As he rises, the rider bends slightly
forward; but when the horse is in
the air, he leans back, both to keep
his balance and to receive the shock
of landing without being pitched
forward, resuming the erect position
as the horse's hind legs reach
the ground. This leaning back may
be learned upon a gentle horse by
raising- the right hand and throwing
it back as if to slap him on the hind
quarter as he rises. The reins are
held not too tightly till the horse's
fore-feet strike the ground when
they are tightened to give him sup-
port. In the leap from the trot
or canter the rider takes nearly
RIDING
580
RIDING
the same position as in the gallop,
but not leaning forward as in the
standing leap. The bit is used only
to direct the horse to the object
over which he is to jump, the ten-
sion being eased just before he rises,
that he may extend his neck, and
resumed, as he lands, to steady him.
If sluggish, the horse may be
touched with the whip or spur, be-
hind the girths, before he comes to
the jump, but not at the instant he
takes it, nor should he be encouraged
by a cry, or by doing anything that
might cause him to swerve. Ahorse
can make a flying high leap best
when he approaches it in a slow gal-
lop, and the rider should never at-
tempt to make him jump at so great
a speed that he cannot collect him-
self for the leap. A high speed also
prevents the horse from deciding
where he should begin the leap, and
confuses him. Only very expert ri-
ders are warranted in interfering
with a horse in taking his jumps;
most horses jump best if allowed to
" take off," or leave the ground, as
they please, the rider only steadying
them a little if they rush at the ob-
stacle. There is a great deal of non-
sense in the idea that a horse can
be " lifted " and " helped " over his
jumps ; and it is usually novices, or
very young persons, who attempt
these feats : one might as well try
to " lift himself by his boot-straps,"
as to " lift " ahorse over a jump. If
the horse is sluggish, he must be
enlivened with whip or spur, or by
moving the bit in his mouth ; but
not the instant he is to " take off "
the ground. The rider must not
pull his horse as he rises, nor whilst
he is in the air — to do so shortens
the jump: if the rider cannot sit
the jump, after a few trials, without
the support of the reins, he had
belter improve his seat before con-
tinuing the sport.
In training a horse to jump, he
should be made to leap only a few
times at first, as he uses muscles
not usually put to a strain, and,
moreover, will learn to dislike it if
made tired. Horses seem to like
jumping in the field with the excite-
ment attending the hunt, but some
of the best judges say they never
like it: they certainly dislike being
" schooled," and jumping in cold
blood. Always save your horse
in hunting: take the fewest jumps
necessary, and go through a break
in the fence, or through a gate,
when you can. Ease your hoise in
going over plowed ground, or up
hill. If waiting at a " check," dis-
mount and loosen your girths, and
shift your saddle an inch either
way
Balking. If a horse refuses to
move, or balks, wait quietly for
I a minute and he will often go on.
| Sometimes he can be made to go by
i moving the reins gently, and urging
| him with voice or whip ; sometimes
| by pulling him around in the di-
i rection which he least resists; or,
i often by turning him around, sharply
; andquickly, a numberof times (thus
I confusing him), and then starting in
i the desired direction. A little dirt
i from the road put into his mouth
| often so distracts a balky horse's
i attention from his obstinacy that he
I will move on.
i Rearing. The young horse is
i apt to rear if pulled and excited.
; When he rises, loosen the reins, even
i if you must hold on by the mane or
| neck; press the legs closely to him,
i well back : this has a tendency to
i bring his hind legs forward, and ex-
| perts often use spurs, applied well
i back, to bring him down. Try to
I keep him moving either forward or
j in a circle, and pull his head toward
j either side if he is about to rise. If
| he is about to fall backward, try to
j throw yourself off to one side. A
i confirmed rearer is too dangerous
I to ride.
Shying. Shying is sometimes
i caused by near-sightedness, or other
\ defect in the eyes, but it is generally
\ the result of habit arising from bad
i breaking. If from the latter cause
RIDING
RIDING
it can usually be overcome ; if from
bad eyesight, never. In riding a shy-
ing horse, the first requisite is that
" the rider shall not shy himself."
He should not let the horse know
that he is expecting him to shy, as
he communicates his timidity to the
animal, who loses confidence in both
himself and his rider. Whilst the
rider should be on his guard, he
should not, by change of seat or
reins, lead the animal to think some-
thing is about to happen as he ap-
proaches an object : he should ride
straight ahead, apparently paying no
attention to the object or the horse.
If he shys or sheers from freshness,
keep him in a straight line by pull-
ing his head toward the object and
giving him pressure with the leg on
the opposite side. If he stops or
turns around, make him go, even if
you must whip him (behind the
girths), especially if his shying be a
mere pretence. If the object be
really frightful much kindness
should be used, with firmness. A
steady rein and plenty of "nerve"
in the rider will usually overcome
shying, as the horse gains confi-
dence in himself through his confi-
dence in his rider. He should not
be forced to face an object which
really frightens him. He may be
gotten to pass it by turning his head
from it. and pressing him on the
side toward 'which his head is turned.
If the object is moving toward the
horse it is best to turn his head from
it and his side toward it, stopping
him, or moving gradually, until the
object has passed.
Horses will often pass an object
and not shy at a similar one again,
if given a chance to examine it and
touch it with the nose after being
gently gotten up to it. Never
whip a horse for shying after he has
passed the object, as he will soon
acquire the habit of running after
each shy, as he expects the whip.
A horse may often be made to
pass an object without shying by
quietly pulling his head away from
it as he begins to notice it, and
thus attracting his attention to
something else : he cannot think of
two things at the same time.
If a horse is evidently confirmed
in the habit, he is not fit to ride, and
should be disposed of and put to
work where he can do no harm.
Bolting. If a horse bolts, or
rushes from control of the bit,
loosen the reins a moment and
give them a sudden jerk, or sharply
"saw "him: that is, pull the reins
alternately on either side quickly
and sharply, keeping his head up.
Some authorities say that by
gathering the reins so short in the
left hand that it presses against the
mane, and then passing the right
hand down (on either side as close
as possible to the bit and pulling
the horse's head quite around to
one side, any bolter may be stopped.
It is best to stop the horse, if possi-
ble, so soon as he starts faster than
the rider wishes him to go, before he
has gotten into the running stride.
But if he does run, try to keep your
seat ; and if there is a clear road, let
him go until he begins to tire, and
then give him the whip until he is
run out and glad to stop.
In most cases horses acquire vices
through being maltreated, though
some animals are vicious by nature.
The rider should seldom use his
whip to punish his horse, and the
spur should never be so used. But
when the whip is used for pun-
ishment, it should be sharply ap-
plied two or three times. If used to
make the horse go forward when
backing, it should be taken in the
right hand, and a sharp cut be given
over to the left side, behind the sad-
dle girths, and brought back very
quickly on its rebound, and struck
on the right side, behind the girths.
To do this expertly requires some
practice off the horse, but it is
worth the time, as it does not
give the pain on one side only,
and cause the animal to swerve.
Skilled riders advise that a contest
RIDING
582
RIDING
between the horse and his rider al-
ways be avoided, if possible, by
turning the horse's attention to
something else. Never strike on
the shoulder, as the horse naturally
draws back, or swerves, from the
blow.
A bad rider sometimes punishes
his horse for not understanding what
he is wanted to do, when the fault is
with the rider himself, who either
does not know how to make his
desire known, or does not do so
clearly. A well-trained horse is
always willing to obey, and does so
the moment he understands. To
punish him for not understanding
is usually one step toward making
him vicious. Authorities differ
much on the subject of training
horses, but it is safest to err on the
side of kindness. A rider who does
not lose his temper has a great ad-
vantage. A nervous horse with high
courage may be a perfect saddle-
horse in the hands of a self-con-
trolled rider, and useless in those of
a cruel, loud-voiced one.
In country-road riding, always
pick the softest paths ; and if the
road be macadamized, ride on the
edges. Ride slowly on descents,
with shoulders back, and walk your
horse down hills.
Pulling. Many horses pull, when
first leaving the stable, from lack of
work, and soon calm down. Some
horses of a nervous disposition pull
through anxiety to go ahead : such
animals can be ridden with com-
fort only through gentle treatment
and light hands. Often they will I
not pull unless pulled by the rider. J
Easy bits, such as a snaffle, bar,
either rubber covered, should be
used alternately, every few days.
Horses with low, heavy shoulders,
carrying low heads, are apt to pull,
and are not fit for saddle use. If a
horse with a good mouth begins to
pull and bear down upon the bit, it
will often be found that his feet are
becoming contracted or "sore,1' or
that he is stiff in his front legs. This
bearing upon the bit is an effort to
transfer a part of his weight.
A good veterinary should be con-
sulted in such a case.
Hands. A rider is said to have
" bad hands " when he continually
pulls at his horse's mouth. " Good
hands," or " light hands," seem to
be natural with some riders, and al-
most impossible to cultivate in
others. Women oftener have good
hands than men, perhaps because
they are not as strong and are
more sensitive. Often a woman
can ride with ease a high-strung
nervous horse, which may be a
puller, or even a run-away, under
a rough-riding man. The rider
must learn to "give and take"
with the reins. If the horse pulls,
use force enough to bring him to
the pace required, aided by a kindly
and quietly spoken word, like
" there," or "walk" (but not "whoa,"
which should always mean stop), and
then gradually loosen the reins.
Always hold the reins tightly in the
hands, whether pulling or not.
Unless great force is required,
hold the fore-arms at right angles
to the body, with the hands down-
ward at the wrist, as in playing a
piano. It will be found that there
is strength enough at the wrists for
the control of most horses, — cer-
tainly for well broken ones, — and
that the hands will grow "light"
as they "give and take" from the
wrist with the motion of the horse's
head whilst in action. If a horse
bears down upon the bit, his head
may be brought up by raising the
hands and moving the snaffle reins
sharply and quickly from side to
side; or, if he is persistent, by rais-
ing either hand with a sharp pull
upwards, ten or twelve inches.
If the tendency of the horse is to
carry his head too low, carry the
hands somewhat high. If he has
the opposite tendency, carry the
hands low.
Spurs. No beginner should wear
spurs : they are a source of dangef
RIDING
583
RIDING
except when worn by experienced
horsemen, and no rider who turns
his toes outward should put them
on.
Stumbling. A stumbling horse
should never be ridden. The fault
may arise from some curable disease
of the feet, but usually from weak
knees or legs. If mounted on a
stumbler, keep his head up and
make him move at a lively pace by
aid of whip or spur.
Bits. Most horses go well with
the double bit; that is, the curb
and snaffle or bridoon, as shown in
the picture of the bridle. But some
horses with very tender mouths
or nervous dispositions go better
with the snaffle alone : it may be
used with two reins, but without
the extra head-piece (B) in picture.
A few horses go well with the curb,
but dislike the additional mouth-
piece of the snaffle. For these the
Pelham bit may be used.
Pelham Bit.
Riding Hints to Girls. A girl
should not ride every day, and long,
until she is sixteen, unless she
have a second saddle, with the pom-
mels on the right side, to enable her
to sit on different sides of the horse
on alternate days. In very young
girls the muscles are weak, and the
spine and shoulders may grow
crooked. No girl ought to ride un-
less she likes to and is fearless. A
horse quickly knows if his rider is
afraid and soon becomes master. A
woman's saddle should have a fiat
seat (Martin & Martin, of 5th Ave-
nue, New York, who have their
workshop in London, or Peat & Co.,
Piccadilly, London, make them).
The stirrup should be plain, or of
the kind shown on the saddle illus-
tration, not the old-fashioned slip-
per. Riding should be practised
without using the stirrup: it gives
great confidence, balance, and free-
dom. Of course it is not intended
to recommend long rides without a
stirrup ; but only practise during
exercise in the school or at some
safe spot. The rise to the trot can be
done without it, and should not de-
pend too much upon it: bygrasping
the upright-head firmly with the
right leg and pressing the left knee
against the leaping-head, or lower
pommel, the rise can be accom-
plished with the slightest aid from
the stirrup, and in fact should be
so ridden.
To make the horse canter, leading
with his right leg, pull his head
slightly to the left with the left
rein and press him quickly with the
left heel. To make him lead with
the left foot pull the right rein and
tap him with the whip, behind the
girths, on the right side, where the
heel would touch him if on that
side.
A woman or girl, in mounting,
should place her right hand on the
upright-head, and her left foot in the
left hand of an assistant, held about
16 inches from the ground. She
places her left hand on his right
shoulder, and his right hand is under
her left arm-pit. The assistant
counts one, two, three. At three, she
springs upwards, the assistant aid-
ing her by rising. Being on the
saddle, she places her right knee
over the upright-head. The assistant
sees that her left foot is placed in
the stirrup and fastens the elastic
straps for holding the skirt in place.
In dismounting, after first releasing
the right leg and the dress from the
pommel and turning from the for-
RIDING
584
RING BALL
ward position, she holds her arms
at her sides and simply slips off the
horse, her assistant placing a hand
under each elbow, thus bringing her
down lightly. Women should keep
A
A, Upright-head ; B, Leaping-head ; C,
Seat ; D, Safe (corresponding part on right
of Saddle is the Flap) ; E, Stirrup-leather ;
F, Stirrup ; G, Secondary Stirrup (which
turns down ?.nd releases foot in case of a
fall) ; H, K, Girths ; I, Balance Girth.
shoulders and hips squarely to
the front, looking straight between
the horse's ears. The right leg
above the knee lies flat on the sad-
dle, while the right knee grasps
the upright-head firmly. Below the
knee the leg is drawn back, and the
toes are bent downward. The left
knee is close to the saddle, and the
leg below the knee hangs easily
down. The foot in the stirrup is
held parallel to the horse's side.
The rules of the road in riding
are the same as for driving, and
should be followed very carefully,
both in the park and on the road.
See under article on DRIVING.
RING BALL, a game played by
any number or persons with a soft
ball of rubber or stuffed cloth. The
players form a circle, euch standing
near a base, which is usually a stone.
The bases are at equal distances;
the size of the circle may be large
or small, provided one stand-
ing inside it can easily throw
to all the bases. At the
beginning of the game any
player takes the ball and
throws it into the air. The
one nearest whom it stops
must stand within the cir-
cle. The one at his right
now takes the ball and throws
it at the player in the circle. If he
misses, he also must go into the
circle; if he hits, all leave their
bases and run where they please,
till the one hit gets the ball, when
he shouts " Halt !" and all must stop.
In either case, the one thrown at
throws the ball in turn at some one
of those on the circumference of the
circle, but if he has been obliged to
go out of the circle to get the ball,
he must return inside before he can
throw. The one he hits must join
those inside the circle. If he hits
nobody, all return to their bases.
The one hit, or the one nearest the
ball, takes the next turn at throw-
ing it. So the game goes on, till
all but one are inside the circle.
This one now takes the ball, and
running around the circle, outside,
where he pleases, tries to hit those
within, while they strive to get the
ball and hit him. The player out-
side has the advantage, for he can
run back as far as he wishes, while
they cannot leave the ring. Those
whom he hits are "dead," and must
retire outside the ring. If he
"kills" all without being hit him-
self, lie is victor. But if he be hit,
he and all he has " killed " must go
within the circle, while the others
take their stand at whatever bases
they choose, and the game proceeds
as before.
This ball game is played in Ger-
many, where it is called Krezsball
(Ring Ball). In Switzerland it is
585
ROLY-POLY
named Eck und Krtppe (Corner and
Fence), the point inside the circle
where the players stand being the
"Eck," and the circle itself the
" Krippe."
RING TOSS. See GROMMETS.
RING TRICK. The following trick
requires the use of a second ring,
similar to the one borrowed ; hence
it is best to borrow only a plain gold
ring.
To pass a ring through a table,
sew a ring to the middle of a hand-
kerchief by a piece of silk about
four inches long. Borrow a similar
ring, and pretend to wrap it in the
handkerchief without really doing
so. Then give the handkerchief to
one of the company to hold. He
will feel the sewed ring and think
it to be the borrowed one. If there
is no light from behind the per-
former, he may first hold up the
handkerchief with the suspended
ring on the side away from the
company to show them that it is
empty. Ask the company to choose
at what point the ring is to pass
through the table, and, placing a
tumbler on the spot ask the hand-
kerchief holder, keeping his hand
on the ring within it, to hold it di-
rectly over the tumbler. Then
drop the handkerchief over the
tumbler, and ask him to let the ring
go, when it will be heard to fall into
the glass. Borrow a high hat, and
take it in the hand holding the bor-
rowed ring in such manner that
the fingers, covering the ring are
just inside the crown. The inside
of the hat may then be shown to
the company. Placing the hat on
the floor just beneath the tumbler,
the performer gently drops the ring
into it and then, pulling the hand-
kerchief with its attached ring away
from the tumbler, invites one of the
company to examine the hat, where
he will, of course, find the borrowed
ring.
ROBIN'S ALIVE, a game played
by any number of persons, who sit
the game lights a piece of twisted
paper or bit of wood and repeats
the verse :
" Robin's alive, and alive he shall be ;
If he dies in my hand
My mouth shall be bridled, my back shall
be saddled,
I'll be sent as a slave to Barbary."
As soon as the verse is recited the
paper is handed to the next player,
who also repeats the lines, and so it
goes around the ring. The one in
whose hand it goes out must pay a
forfeit. This game is called also
Jack's Alive, and each player repeats
those two words only as he holds
the lighted paper.
Sometimes the last line is sung,
" If it dies in my hand you may back-saddle
me."
" Back-saddling " consists in plac-
ing the one in whose hand the light
went out on his back on the floor,
and piling chairs on him.
ROLY-POLY, or NINE HOLES, a
game of ball played by any number
of persons, generally nine. As
many holes as there are players,
each large enough to receive the
ball, are dug about a foot apart, the
whole forming a square. Around
them a line .is drawn, about four or
five feet from the outside holes, and
ten or fifteen feet from this line, in
any direction, is marked the position
of the Roller. Each player now
chooses a hole, and one, selected by
lot as Roller, takes his post, ball in
hand. Each of the others roust have
one foot on the boundary line
around the holes. The Roller tries
to roll the ball into one of the holes.
If he make three consecutive misses,
a pebble is placed in his hole. If he
succeeds, the player in whose hole
the ball stops seizes it and throws it
at any of the others, except the Rol-
ler. If he hit the one at whom he
throws, the latterhashishole marked
with a pebble and becomes Roller;
if he miss, his own hole is so
marked, and he becomes Roller in
turn. He who throws the ball must
in a circle. The one who begins I stand on the boundary line as he
ROLY-POLY
586
ROPE-WAVES
does so, unless he chooses to hold
the ball and wait his chance, instead
of throwing itatonce, in which case
he may stand three feet from the line.
The other players must run for
safety; but if the thrower hold the
ball, they may save themselves from
being hit by running back within
the boundary line before he can
strike them with the ball. If the
Roller send the ball into his own
hole, he must run forward and throw
the ball like any one else; but as he
is so far from his hole, he is at a dis-
advantage, and he always tries, if
possible, to send the ball into some
other one's hole. The first player
who gets three pebbles in his hole
must stand with his back to the
others, usually with his face to a
wall, and throw the ball as far as he
can over his shoulder. The others
in turn, each standing where the ball
stops, may throw it at him as hard
as they choose ; but whoever hits
him in any other part of the body
than the back must change places
with him. Sometimes he who has
three pebbles is considered out of
the game, and his hole is stopped
up. This goes on until only one is
left. He is the winner, and is
allowed to throw the ball at each of
the others, as described above, in the
order in which they went out. Each
throws the ball over his shoulder to
determine the spot from which it
may be thrown at him.
History. Roly Poly is a very old
English game. It is sometimes
played in England with hats instead
of holes, and is then often called
Egg Hat. In this case the ball is
pitched instead of rolled. The
French call it Balle aux Pots (Pot
Ball) and it is called also Roll Ball.
The Germans have a game called
Neunloch (Nine Holes), but the ob-
ject of the player is simply to throw
his ball into the holes in a certain
order. At Yale College, where the
game is much played by the Senior
class, it is called Nigger Baby, or
African Infant, or sometimes Niger
Infans, which is the same name in
Latin.
The scoring stones placed in the
holes are often named " Babies."
In Austria they are similarly called
Kinder (children).
In a variety called Scheiben
schiessen (Target Shooting), the
nine holes are of different sizes and
arranged in the form of a cross, the
smallest in the centre. He who
hits the centre hole first is called
the King, and he who does- so next
is called the Marshal.
ROPE-WAVES, Experiments with.
Procure a piece of rope from 20 to
50 feet long, the longer the better;
but, if the experiments are to be
tried indoor, the rope cannot be
longer than the room used. The
rope must not be at all stiff; the
best kind is cotton window-cord.
1. Tie the rope to some object,
such as a door-knob, if indoor, or
a tree or a fence outdoors, so that
it will be pretty tight. Hold the
other end of the rope in the hand.
By jerking it quickly downward, a
downward curve or depression may
be made to run along the rope to
the other end, where it will be re-
flected and return as an upward
curve. Or tie the other end of the
rope to a chair, stretch it as tight as
desired, and then sit on the chair
to hold it. When the rope .is struck
with a stick, a similar wave will run
along it, more swiftly the tighter the
rope is ; so it can be seen better in
a long rope. than in a short one.
2. Send a downward curve, as
before, and just as it is reflected
send an upward curve. The two
upward curves meeting in the mid-
dle of the rope will be added, and
make it swing violently.
3. Send a downward curve, and
just as it starts to come back as an
upward curve, send another down-
ward curve. The opposite curves
meeting in the middle of the rope
will destroy each other there, so the
ROUNCE
587
ROWING
middle of the rope will remain
nearly still, while the parts on either
side swing up and down. The still
point is called a "node." (See
VIOLIN, Experiments on.)
4. Try these experiments with
the cord stretched tight and then
loose. It will be found that the
tighter the cord the faster the waves
travel.
5.' Send an upward or downward
curve, as before, and as it is reflected
send a curve to meet it by striking
the rope sidewise. The result will
be to make the rope move in a cir-
cle when they meet.
ROUNCE, a game of CARDS
played by not more than nine per-
sons, with a full pack. The cards
rank as in WHIST. Each player is
dealt five cards, two and three at a
time, as in EUCHRE, and an extra
hand of six cards, called " Dummy,"
is dealt in the middle of the table.
If the eldest hand is satisfied, he
says " I ptay :" otherwise, he says " I
pass," and, throwing down his cards,
may either retire from the game
during that hand, or take up Dum-
my. If he retire, the next player
to the left has the same choice, and
so with the others in order. After
Dummy has been taken up, the
others must either play their hands
or retire. He who takes up Dum-
my discards one of its cards. If the
dealer choose to play without Dum-
my, he may take the trump card
into his hand and discard one of his
own cards. Play then begins, the
eldest hand leading. Suit must be
followed, if possible, otherwise any
card may be played. The winner
of a trick must lead trumps, if he
can. At the beginning of the game,
each player is credited with 15
points, one of which is subtracted
for every trick that he makes. If
he fail to make a trick, he is said to
be "rounced," and five points are
added to his score. He wins whose
score is first reduced to nothing.
The points are often marked by
crosses, as in AUCTION PITCH.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. In cutting for deal, low deals,
and Ace is low.
2. The Dummy must be dealt
three cards at a time, each three
being given before the dealer gives
any to himself.
3. If there be a misdeal, the
dealer is rounced, and the deal
passes to the next player.
4. Whoever takes Dummy must
play it.
5. If all the players up to the one
on the dealer's right have refused
to play, that one must play his
hand, take Dummy, or allow the
dealer to score 5.
6. If a player revoke, expose a
card, or fail to lead a trump, when
possible, after taking a trick, he is
rounced.
In Germany this game is called
Rams, and is played with a Euchre
pack. If a player hold no trump, he
is allowed to play his poorest card
face down, which calls for a trump
from every other player.
ROUND TAG. See Fox AND
GEESE, II.
ROWING, the art of propelling a
boat by means of oars. The differ-
ent kinds of row-boats and oars are
described in C. C. T., under Row-
boat. The oarsman sits upright
on the thwart, or stationary seat,
with his feet against the stretcher,
which should be at such a distance
that the knees will be bent, but so
that the hands will easily clear
them. The knees are held about a
foot apart, the heels close together,
and the toes turned out. The
handle of the oar is grasped natural-
ly with both hands, one, called the
inside hand, at the extreme end, the
other, or outside hand, from one-
and-a-half to two inches from it.
The thumbs are usually underneath
though some rowers hold the thumb
of either the inside or outside hand
above the oar. The rower begins
by inclining the body forward, keep-
ing the back straight and the head
erect, and stretching out his arms
ROWING
588
ROWING
The Catch.
as far as possible. The oar is now
dropped into the water (called the
" catch ") and the rower begins to
pull at the same time. He should
avoid both pulling before the oar
strikes the water and waiting for an
instant afterward. Some oarsmen
hold the blade of the oar at right
angles to the water as they dip it
and others incline the front of the
blade a little forward. The blade of
the oar should be dipped just
enough to cover it, and it should
be kept at the same depth during
the stroke.
The learner should avoid pulling
Middle of Stroke.
the blade of the oar through the
air before it strikes the water, as is
the usual way with beginners. The
result of this fault is called " clip-
ping,"or in other words it makes the
stroke short. The power should be
applied the moment the oar touches
the water. The blade should be
dipped sufficiently deep to avoid
its slipping through the water as is
ROWING
589
ROWING
the case with what is known as "sur-
face dipping." In stretching out the
arms they precede the movement of
the body, both going forward to-
gether, but the hands moving faster
than the body.
After pulling steadily, using the
back and legs as well as the arms,
the stroke is finished when the body
is slightly inclined backward and the
knees nearly straight. The oar is
then lifted from the water, and the
Finish of Stroke.
body brought back to the first posi-
tion ready to begin another stroke.
This is called the " recover," and
was formerly often executed with a
sudden movement so as to waste as
little time as possible. But oarsmen
now favor a slower recover, to avoid
straining the muscles of the abdo-
men, which are used in the move-
ment. It has been said that the
recover is really the most fatiguing
part of the stroke. The hands
should move forward a little faster
than the body. But others make
the movement with the arms first,
lest they should cramp the body.
At the instant the body has reached
the proper position, the oar is
dropped into the water and the
second stroke begun. If an oarsman
wait an instant before "catching,"
he is said to "hang," and he should
equally avoid catching before he has
finished going forward, thus splash-
ing water. The oar should be carried
as low as possible during the re-
cover, the height depending on
whether the water is rough or
smooth. When the beginner has
learned these movements so that he
can execute them without looking
at his oar, which should never be
done by the finished oarsman, he
should " feather" on the recover.
Feathering is turning the blade of
the oar parallel with the surface of
the water during the recover, so that
the resistance of the air will be as
little as possible. To feather prop-
Fig, i. Fig. 2.
Feathering.
erly the wrist of the inside hand
should be curved a little upward
during the stroke (Fig. i) and at its
ROWING
59<>
ROWING
close ; just as the oar is lifted out of
the water, the wrist is lowered and
the back of the hand thrown a
little upwards (Fig. 2) so as to turn
the oar blade through a right angle.
Just before the catch, the movement
is reversed, so that the oar is ready
to take the water again. As to the
rapidity of the stroke, opinions dif-
fer, but most oarsmen prefer a long
and steady stroke, though some of
the most successful racing crews
have pulled very rapidly. The rate
of stroke is determined to a great
extent by the length of the race,
being faster for short races. A rapid
stroke is exhausting and cannot be
kept up long, and it is also difficult
to execute the stroke properly if it is
very swift. The oarsman should
keep exact time with the others in
the boat. To "back water," or cause
the boat to move in the opposite
direction, the oarsman reverses his
oar and pushes instead of pulling.
The movement is made principally
by the arms, the body resting in a
natural position. If he is pulling a
pair of sculls, the same rules apply,
except that each oar is pulled by
one hand. By holding the oars
firmly and in exactly, the same
manner, the oarsman may be sure
that the catch and feather are made
at the proper angles without look-
ing to see. The oarsman should be
careful to pull both sculls with the
same force, otherwise the boat will
turn toward the weaker side. If he j
has no one to steer he should bring j
some point in the stern of the boat |
into line with a tree or other object
on shore and then keep them in line.
If the stern swerves toward the left,
for instance, he must pull a little
harder on his right- scull to bring it
back again. If he wishes to turn
quickly he must back water with
the oar on the side toward which
he wishes to turn, and row with
the other. Where several row in
one boat, the steering is often done
by the bow oar. Where the boat is
steered with a rudder, the rudder
is managed either by the bow oar,
who operates it with his feet, by an
arrangement of cords and levers, or
by a coxswain, who sits in the stern,
and who also gives the necessary
orders to the oarsmen, telling them
when to begin to row and when to
stop rowing. He does this because
he is the only one in the boat who
faces in the direction of motion.
The rules to be observed by the
steersman, whether he be coxswain
or one of the oarsmen, are generally
as follows: "Inside" means to-
ward the shore, " outside " toward
the middle of the stream.
1. Boats goingwith the stream or
tide take the outside, and those
against stream or tide the inside.
2. Boats meeting keep to the
right.
3. A boat overtaking another
must keep clear of it.
4. A boat with a coxswain must
yield as far as possible to one with-
out a coxswain.
5. A row-boat must give way to
a sail-boat.
6. A boat with a less number of
oars must give way to one with a
greater number.
Sliding Seats. Almost all racing
boats now use sliding seats, which
add greatly to the power of the
oarsman, enabling him to use the
muscles of his legs in pulling.
Other advantages are the fact that
the body does not need to be bent
forward or backward, to a position
where the muscles of the back can-
not be used to advantage, as in
ordinary rowing ; the prevention of
cramp by the alternate bending and
stretching of the leg, and the ability
to maintain a better pace for a
longer time. In a quick "spurt"
the sliding seat is thought by
some oarsmen to be a disadvan-
tage, as it gains power at the ex-
pense of velocity ; but some of the
best authorities do not agree with
this conclusion. The seats either
slide on a sort of brass rails or roll
on little steel balls, the object being
ROWING
591
ROWING
to make the friction as small as
possible.
When the oarsman uses a sliding
seat, the body begins to swing first,
and then he pushes the seat back,
both movements blending together,
until the legs are almost straight.
The swing of the body and the slide
together determine the length of
the stroke. The slide should not
be made too soon, and for a begin-
ner should be only a few inches,
being increased as the oarsman be-
comes more expert.
The oar, in rowing, acts as a lever.
The principle is the same as when
a weight is lifted by the middle of a
stick, the end resting on the ground.
In the case of the oar the end rests
in the water instead of on the
ground, and the boat is "prized"
along, so to speak, by t'i » oarsman.
The blade of the oar does not remain
perfectly still, like the end of the
stick on the ground, but moves
through the water a litile, so that
some power is lost. It is evident
that the oar should be held so that
the water will resist its motion as
much as possible.
The action of the rudder is as
follows : If the boat is moving
straight ahead, and the rudder is in
line with it, there will be no press-
ure from the water on either side ;
but as soon as the rudder is turned,
for instance, to the right, the water
will press on its right side and push
the stern of the boat over toward
the left, which will alter the boat's
direction toward the right. In the
same way, turning the rudder toward
the left causes the boat to turn to
the left. Hence the rudder must
always be turned in the direction the
boat is to go. In a row-boat the
rudder is usually managed by means
of cords, one of which is attached to
each end of a cross-piece at its top.
The power should be applied to the
rudder lines steadily, so as not to
throw the boat to one side or the
other, as is the case if the line is
pulled quickly and then relaxed.
Ordinary boats are kept in the
water, but the finer kinds are usually
kept in a boat-house. The large
boat-houses owned by college row-
ing associations, or city boat-clubs,
usually contain, besides space for
stowing away many boats, dressing-
rooms for oarsmen, with a special
closet or locker for each one's
clothes, bath-rooms, a lounging or
reception room, and often a work-
shop for building or repairing
boats. The house is of course on
the edge of the water, and in front
of it is usually what is called a
"float," being a floating floor, or
raft, moored loosely to piles or
posts, but unconnected with the
house, so that it will rise and fall
with the water. Such a float is in-
dispensable where there is a tide.
From the boat-house to the float
lead one or more gangways, fastened
to the former, but merely resting
on the latter. To launch a barge or
shell, the oarsmen, each on his own
side and in his own position, carry
it on their shoulders to the edge of
the float. At the word of command
from the captain, those on the side
next the water slip underneath, and
then all on one side, holding by the
edge, let the boat gently into the
water. The head of the boat usual-
ly points up stream or against the
tide, though no attention is paid to
this point by many crews. The out-
side oarsmen get in first at the com-
mand (for instance), " Hold Star-
board, in Port !" The starboard oars-
men hold the edge of the boat while
the port oarsmen get in, take their
seats, and ship (or put in place) their
oars, which are given them by an as-
sistant. At the order " Hold Port,
in Starboard !" the port oarsmen,
sitting in the boat, hold the edge of
the float while the others get in and
ship their oars. All the oars being
held in position, those on one side
projecting over the water, and those
on the other over the float, one or
more assistants take the latter and
push the boat steadily, sidewise,
ROWING
592
ROWING
away from the float. When the
oars are all clear, the coxswain be-
gins to give his orders, his first care
being to turn the boat's head in the
right direction. To this end he com-
mands " Pull Number 2 !" "Back
water number 3 !" or any similar
order he pleases. When the boat
is in the right position, he commands
" Ready !" and an instant afterward
" Give Way ! "
Boat Racing, Boat races are
usually held on lakes or large rivers
where the water is smooth. The
course is either straight away, that
is, in a straight line, or with a turn,
the boats going and returning over
the same course. The place where
the race begins is called the Start,
and that where it ends the Finish.
In a course with a turn, the Start and
Finish are at the same point. The
course is sometimes marked by
buoys bearing colored flags, and
each boat is assigned a definite
path, in which it is obliged to keep,
so that there is no danger of one's
interfering with the other (called
" fouling "). Eight-oared races are
rowed, if possible, over a straight-
away course. If a turn is necessary,
each boat should have its own stake
to turn, to avoid fouling. One of the
best straight-away courses in the
country — that at New London, Con-
necticut, where the annual race be-
tween Yale and Harvard is rowed —
is four miles long, but the usual
length is one and a half miles. The
New London course is on the
Thames River, which is very broad
at this point, so that there is plenty
of room for yachts to anchor near
the Finish. The city authorities
keep all boats off the river during
the race, so that there is no inter-
ference with the crews. The only
craft allowed behind the racing
boats are the tugs bearing the re-
feree and newspaper reporters, and
the college launches, and these are
all required to keep so far in the
ar that they cannot interfere with
the race. If such boats come too
near racing shells, the latter are
held back by the suction. A rail-
road runs along the riverside, and
a train of platform cars fitted with
seats, called an " Observation train,"
or " Moving Grand Stand," keeps
abreast of the boats, so that specta-
tors can see the whole of the race.
The following are the rowing
rules of the National Association of
Amateur Oarsmen, adopted also
by the National Amateur Athletic
Union :
RULES.
Starting. \. All boat races shall
be started in the following manner :
The starter, on being satisfied that
the competitors are ready, shall
give the signal to start.
2. If the starter considers the
start false, he shall at once recall the
boats to their stations ; and any
boat refusing to start again shall be
disqualified.
3. Any boat not at its post at
the time specified shall be liable to
be disqualified by the umpire.
4. The umpire may act as starter
if he thinks fit ; where he does not
so act, the starter shall be subject to
the control of the umpire.
5. Boats shall be started by their
sterns, and shall have completed
their course when the bows reach
the finish.
Water. 6. A boat's own water is
its straight course, parallel with
those of the other competing boats,
from the station assigned to it at the
start to the finish.
7. Each boat shall keep its own
water through the race, and any
boat departing from its own water
will do so at its peril.
8. The umpire shall be sole judge
of a boat's own water and proper
course during the race.
Fouls. 9. It shall be considered a
foul when, after the race has com-
menced, any competitor, by his oar
boat, or person comes in contact
with the oar, boat, or person of an-
other competitor ; unless, in the
ROWING
593
ROWING
opinion of the umpire, such contact
is so slight as not to influence the
race.
10. No fouling whatever shall be
allowed ; the boat committing a
foul shall be disqualified.
11. The umpire may, during a
race, caution any competitor when
in danger of committing a foul.
12. The umpire shall decide all
questions as to a foul.
13. A claim of foul must be made
to the umpire by the competitor
himself, and, if possible, before get-
ting out of his boat.
14. In case of a foul, the umpire
shall have the power — («) To place
the boats (except the boat commit-
ting the foul, which is disqualified)
in che order in which they come in ;
(b) to order the boats engaged in
the race, other than the boat commit-
ting the foul, to row over again on
the same or another day ; (c) to
re-start the qualified boats from the
place where the foul was committed.
Accidents. 15. Every boat shall
abide by its accidents, except when,
during a race, a boat while in its
own water shall be interfered with
by any outside boat, the umpire
may order the race to be rowed over,
if, in his opinion, such interference
materially affected its chances of
winning the race.
Assistance. 16. No boat shall be
allowed to accompany a competitor
for the purpose of directing his
course or affording him other assist-
ance. The boat receiving such di-
rection or assistance shall be dis-
qualified at the discretion of the
umpire.
Umpire. 17. The jurisdiction of
the umpire extends over the race
and all matters connected with it,
from the time the race is specified
to start until its final termination,
and his decision in all cases shall be
final and without appeal.
18. The judge at the finish shall
report to the umpire the order in
which the competing boats cross the
line, but the decision of the race
shall rest with, and be declared by,
the umpire.
19. Any competitor refusing to
abide by the decision, or to follow
the directions of the umpire, shall
be disqualified.
20. The umpire, if he thinks
proper, may reserve his decision,
provided that in every case such de-
cision be given on the day of the
race.
21. Contestants rowing a dead
heat shall compete again after such
interval as may be appointed, and
the contestant refusing to so row
shall be adjudged to have lost the
race.
Turning Races. 22. In turning
races, each competitor shall have a
separate turning stake, and shall
turn from port to starboard. Any
competitor may turn any stake other
than his own, but does so at his
peril.
Juniors. An oarsman who has
never won a race, nor pulled in one
with those who have done so, is
called a junior, and special races are
sometimes held in which only
juniors are allowed to row. Com-
petitions with members of his own
club, however, are not considered
to affect an oarsman's standing as
a junior.
Rowing Machines. Many ma-
chines have been devised to give to
an oarsman, indoors, the same prac-
tice that he would get in a boat.
In the simplest of these he sits on
a sliding seat and pulls on a handle
about 1 8 inches long, to which is
attached a cord running over a pul-
ley and fastened to a weight beneath
the floor. This does not exactly
represent rowing, however, for the
weight exerts a constant pull,
whereas the resistance of the water
to the oar is not the same at all
points. The weight, too, assists in
the recover, while the oar does not.
In the best rowing machines real
oar handles are so arranged that
pulling on them operates a piston
in a cylinder filled with water, or
ROWING
594
ROWING
Rowing Machine.
winds up a spring as in the one
shown in the illustration. The Yale
and Harvard crews now practice
rowing during the winter in real
boats in large tanks of water in
their gymnasiums.
History. In ancient times the larg-
est vessels were propelled with oars
arranged in rows called banks, one
above another. Boat-racing was not
uncommon among the Greeks and
Romans, and Virgil describes a nice
in the fifth book of the ^Eneid. The
illustration opposite shows a Greek
rowing vessel, or galley, as it is
pictured on an ancient monument.
In the middle ages large galleys
in use on the Mediterranean sea,
were manned by slaves and crimi-
nals who had been condemned to
row in them as a punishment. The
ancient Britons used boats of wicker-
work covered with skins, called
coracles, which they propelled with
paddles, and similar craft are still
to be . seen in Wales. Alfred the
Great introduced long galleys from
the Mediterranean into England for
use in war. In early times, before the
introduction of carriages, rowing
was a very common means of tran-
sit for kings and nobles in England,
and by the I2th century large num-
bers of men were employed on and
about the rivers as watermen. In
1 5 14 they had become so numerous
that laws were passed for their reg-
ulation. At the present time the
watermen are employed chiefly on
lighters and steam-boats. The earli-
est record of boat-racing in England
is of the establishment of a prize by
Thomas Doggett, an actor, in 1715,
to celebrate the anniversary of the
accession of George I. to the throne.
It was to be rowed for annually on
the Thames by six young water-
man's apprentices, and consisted of
a red coat with a large silver badge
on the arm. This prize, called
" Doggett's coat and badge " is still
competed for by the Thames water-
men. In 1775 a rowing-race, called
a regatta (Italian r eg at a) was held
on the Thames, in imitation of simi-
lar contests or festivals held in
Venice, and since that time rowing
or sailing contests have been com-
monly called by this name. Early
in the present century clubs began
ROWING MACHINES
595
ROWING MACHINES
Greek Galley.
to be formed for pleasure rowing,
and about the same time it was
taken up as a sport by the English
public schools and universities.
Eton had a crew in 1811, and in
1817 beat the watermen in a four-
oared race. In 1829 the first race
was rowed between Oxford and
Cambridge, on the Thames, and
since 1856 these two universities
have rowed every year. Since 1839
there has been also a great regatta
annually at Henley-on-Thames. In
this country amateur rowing began
at about the same time as in Eng-
land, but it did not become popular
so soon. The first recorded race
was between crews from New York
City and Long Island, in 1811, and
took place with four-oared barges
with coxswains on the North River.
The New York boat, the " Knicker-
bocker," won. The first regular
amateur boat club in America — the
Castle Garden Amateur Boat Club
Association, was organized in 1834.
At the present time there are hun-
dreds of such clubs, most of which
are banded together in rowing asso-
ciations for the purpose of giving
yearly regattas. The largest of
these, the National Association of
Amateur Oarsmen, was formed in
1873-
The first American College boat
club was formed at Yale in 1843,
and the next at Harvard in 1844,
and the two colleges rowed their
first race in 1852. Since that time
they have met almost every year,
sometimes alone, and sometimes in
connection with other colleges. A
list of all the intercollegiate races
held up to the present time, with
the times of the contending crews,
is given in the Appendix.
Since the introduction of boat-
racing, the racing-boat has been
greatly changed. At first it was 35
feet long and 6 feet beam, and
weighed 700 pounds. The oars
were clumsy, of great size, and load-
ed with lead at the handle, while the
blades were wide and flat. As early
ROWING MACHINES
ROYAL STAR
as 1828 rude wooden outriggers were
attached to boats, but the outrigger
as it is now used was invented by
Henry Clasper, of Newcastle, Eng-
land, who built his first boat with
them in 1844. The sliding seat and
the swivel rowlock were both in-
vented by Americans. The former
was devised by J. C. Babcock, who
put one, in a sculling-boat in 1857,
but the device was not perfected
till 1870, nor generally adopted till
several years later.
At Oxford and Cambridge there
are a large number of boat clubs,
which compete every year for the
honor of being what is called " the
head of the river." As the rivers
on which they row are too narrow
to allow boats to pass easily, the
shells are arranged in a line at equal
distances apart. The object of each
is to strike against, or " bump " the
boat in front of it, and when this is
done, the bumped boat yields its
place to the other. This is repeated
several times, and the boat that
wins or keeps a place at the
head is the victor. This arrange-
ment is not necessary in any of the
American colleges where boating is
practised, for all of them row on
wide bodies of water. At Yale and
Harvard each class has its boat club,
and there is a class regatta twice a
year. These regattas, like the
" bumping races" at the English
universities, serve to train oarsmen
for the University crews. For an
eight-oared University crew 15 or 20
men are usually selected several
months before the race, and the
necessary eight are picked out from
among these afterward, when it has
been seen who are the best.
Many substitutes for oars, in pro-
French Velocipede Boat.
pelling a boat, have been proposed,
and some of them actually used.
Most are on the principle of the pad-
dle-wheel, and are worked like a
tricycle. The illustration shows one
invented by a Frenchman. The
swan-boats in Central Park, New
York, are propelled in this way, and
the Prince of Wales has one of a
similar kind at his estate of Sand-
ringham.
ROYAL STAR, a game played by
any nu'mber of persons, with an
eight-pointed wooden star, and eight
wooden balls. The rays of the star
are arranged so as to fall out if
struck by the balls, and each ray is
of a different color, the balls being
painted to correspond. The players
take turns in throwing the balls at
the star. Each scores one point
every time he hits a ray with a ball
of a different color, two points when
he hits one with a ball of the same
color, and has three points deducted
from his score when he misses the
RUSHING BASES
597
SAILING
star altogether. Each player throws
all the balls before the next takes
his turn, and the game ends after a
number of rounds previously agreed
oru The game may be played with
counters, when, instead of having
points taken from his score, one
who misses is required to place three
counters in the middle of the table.
These, with others paid in like
manner, form the pool, which is
taken at the end of the game by
the player having the highest
score.
RUSHING BASES, See PEELA-
WAY.
RUSSIAN BACKGAMMON, See
BACKGAMMON.
s
SADDLE MY NAG, a game played
by any number of persons. Sides
are chosen, and the leaders decide
by lot who shall have first innings.
The losers arrange themselves as
follows : One stands almost upright,
but bending slightly forward, his
hand resting against a wall or tree ;
a second puts his head on the back
of the first ; a third in like man-
ner on the back of the second, and
so on, till all on that side are in
line. Each player may hold to the
clothes of the one in front of him,
cross his arms on his breast, or rest
his hands on his knees. One of
the other players now runs, places
his hands on the back of the one
at the rear of the line, and leaps
as far forward as he can. The rest
of those on his side follow in order,
until all are on the backs of the
other side. If all can remain on
without touching the ground with
any part of the body while the
leader counts twenty; or if any of
the other party sink down under
their weight, or touch the ground
to support themselves, the riders
keep their innings and the game
is repeated. Otherwise the sides
change places.
SAILING. The hulls of boats are
of various sizes and shapes, but all
have the forward end (called the
bow) sharp, that it may cut through
the water. The after end, called
the stern, is fitted with a rudder,
with which the boat is steered.
This rudder, which is the same in
principle as that of a row-boat (see
ROWING), is managed in small boats
by means of a handle or lever, called
a tiller ; when the tiller is pushed to
one side, the rudder turns to the
opposite side ; and (as explained
under ROWING) as the boat turns to
the same side as the rudder, the
tiller must be moved to the side
opposite to that in which the steers-
man wishes the boat to go. The
right-hand side of the boat, as
one faces the bow, is called the
starboard side, and the left-hand
the port side (formerly called lar-
board). To " port the helm," or
" put the helm to port," means to
push the tiller toward the port or left
side, thus turning the boat to the
starboard or right. Large boats are
generally steered with an upright
wheel connected with the rudder
by ropes, cogs, or otherwise. Small
boats are sometimes entirely open,
but generally half-decked, and larger
ones usually have a covered cabin.
The bottom of a boat's hull, called
the floor, may be almost flat, or it
may be more or less curved. The
depth of a boat below the water's
surface is called her "draught." If
this distance is two feet, for example,
she is said to " draw two feet of
water." Of course the draught is
greater if the boat be loaded. The
difference of draught between the
bow and stern of a boat is sometimes
called the drag. It is the best plan
to ballast or " trim" small boats so
that the stern sinks a little deeper
than the bow.
The boats called cutters draw a
SAILING
598
SAILING
great deal of water, and are narrow
and sharp at the bottom. This
kind of boat is much liked in Eng-
land. Most American yachts are
broader and draw less water, and
one kind of boat, the sharpy, is al-
most flat-bottomed. Some sail-
boats have a keel, or ridge of wood
running from bow to stern on the
outside of the hull at its bottom,
Section of Hull of an English Cutter.
and others have a centreboard, a
flat board which is let down at one
end through a slit in the middle of
the boat. Still others, generally
small boats, have a leeboard, which
is let down at one side. All these
devices are meant to prevent the
boat from drifting sidewise, so that
she will move most easily forward.
Sail-boats usually have rowlocks at
the side so that they can be rowed
when there is no wind.
The arrangement of masts and
sails constitutes the " rig" of a boat.
The area of the sail in an ordinary
boat should not much exceed the
length of the boat multiplied by its
extreme breadth. In most boats the
sails are hung to spars or poles,
which are raised and lowered on the
mast by ropes called halliards. If
the spar hangs across the mast, it is
called a yard, and the vessel is said
to be square-rigged ; but only large
craft, like ships and brigs, are rigged
in this way. Pleasure boats are
generally fore-and-aft rigged, that is,
the spars are fastened to the mast
by one end, and the sail is therefore
all on one side of the mast. The
bottom of the sail is fastened to a
longer pole, called a boom. In all
boats the rope by which the sail is
controlled is called the sheet. The
tackle by which it is managed by
the sailor is
shown in the
illustration.
One of the
simplest rigs is
the spritsail,
which is nearly
square. There
is no boom, and
in place of the
. gaff alight pole,
Tackle of Main-Sheet. n ^
called a sprit,
fastened at the lower end, or " foot,"
SAILING
599
SAILING
to the middle of the mast, and at
the other end to the upper corner
of the sail. The side of the sail
toward the mast (called the luff of
the sail) is laced to it with cords,
and the foot of the sprit rests in a
loop of rope. When the foot is
taken from the loop, the sail can be
folded up against the mast and tied
to it. The mast is usually made, in
this case, so that it can be taken
down or "unstepped" and laid in
the bottom of the boat. The sheet
is fastened to the lower outer corner
of the sail. Such a sail may be used
on an ordinary row-boat or on a
CANOE.
Another simple rig is the "leg-
of-mutton," a triangular spritsail,
having its sprit nearly at right
Device for Unstepping Mast.
angles with the mast, and therefore
taking the place of a boom rather
than of a gaff, as seen in the picture.
The mast used with a sprit- or leg-
of-mutton sail is sometimes made
so that it can be unstepped by the
boatman without his leaving his
seat. The device used is plainly
shown in the illustration. Another
simple rig, called the balance-lug, is
shown in the next illustration^
The most common rig for ordi-
nary sail-boats is the cat-rig, and
Balance-lug.
boats thus rigged are called cat-
boats (in England Una boats). The
Cat-boat.
sail, which is like an ordinary main-
sail with gaff and boom, is hoisted
to its place by halliards, of which
there are usually two, one to raise
the outer end of the sail (called the
peak), and one the inner corner
(called the throat). The sheet is
fastened to the boom. The sail,
which slides up and down the mast
SAILING
600
SAILING
by means of hoops or rings, is gen-
erally fitted with two or three rows
of short ropes called reefing-points,
Sloop- rig. Sail, Plans, and Lines.
by which its size may be lessened
in case the wind blows strong.
This is done by letting down the
sail and tying one or more of these
rows of ropes on one side of the
sail to corresponding ropes on the
other side. When the lower row is
thus tied, the sail is said to be single-
-reefed ; and when the second row,
is used double-reefed. Cat-boats
are usually broad, draw but little
water, and have centre-boards. As
they have but one sail, they are
more easily managed and safer than
other boats, and are therefore the
best kind for boys.
The sloop-rig differs from the
cat-rig in having a jib in addition
to a mainsail. The mast is set a
little farther aft, to make room for
a bowsprit, a spar projecting from
the bow, with a rope called a stay
extending from its end to the top of
the mast. On this stay the jib, which
is fitted with rings on one edge, is
pulled up and down by means of the
jib halliards. Sometimes more than
one jib is used, in which case the
others are called the jib-topsail
and flying-jib. Sometimes in a
light breeze a large jib, called a bal-
Yawl.
loon-jib, is used. The jibs are also
called headsails. Sometimes a spar
called a jibboom is fastened to the
end of the bowsprit and projects
beyond it, when many headsails are
carried. In addition to the main-
SAILING
601
SAILING
sail, sloops often carry above it a
topsail, called, from its position
above the gaff, a gaff-topsail, and
in light winds another triangular
one called a spinnaker, fastened to
the mast and spread at the foot by
a boom. All these are shown in the
illustration.
The yawl, in addition to the sloop-
rig, has a " jigger," or small mast, at
Sharpy.
the stern. The boom of the main-
sail is short, to make room for this
new mast. As has been said, the
English sloops called cutters are
narrow and draw a great deal of
water. To keep them upright in
the water they are loaded with lead
at the keel, sometimes with many
tons' weight,
side ballast.
This is called out-
Nearly all boats are
obliged to carry ballast of some
sort, but it is generally inside bal-
last, that is, it is placed in the bot-
tom of the boat. It usually con-
sists of pieces of iron or lead, or bags
of gravel or sand. Ballast helps to
prevent capsizing, and permits the
boat to carry more sail. In small
boats it is often shifted from one
side to the other in tacking, which
will be explained below. All cut-
ters have keels, but the ordinary
American sloop may have either a
keel or a centre-board.
Cutters may have a deep
cabin entirely below the
deck, but in the centre-
board sloop part of the
deck must be raised to
give the necessary depth
beneath it, and in cat-
boats, except large ones,
there is no room for any
cabin at all. The cat-boat
is decked at the bow and
stern and around the
sides, having an open
space in the middle called
the cock-pit.
A narrow, flat-bottomed
boat, called a sharpy, is
much used on Long
Island Sound and about
New York, and a similar
craft, called a pound boat,
is popular on the great
lakes. There are one or
two masts, usually with a
leg-of-mutton sail, though
the pound boat has two
sails, like a small sloop's
mainsail, Large sharpies
with jibs and a small mast
in thestern are called Ros-
lyn yawls, after the home of the de-
signer, Thomas Clapham, of Roslyn,
Long Island. The lateen rig, which
is shown in the next illustration, is
mainsail and jib in one. It is not
much used except on small boats
like canoes. The kind of sail-boat
used, and its rig, depend much on the
water in which it is to sail. A boat
for use on smooth sheltered water
would not be appropriate for the
open sea, and vice versa. For rivers
and small lakes, a boat of wide beam
SAILING
602
SAILING
and light draught is needtd, with a
small sail, on account of the sudden
flaws of wind common on such
waters. The sail may be a leg-of-
Lateen.
mutton, a balance-lug, or something
similar. For bays and arms of the
sea a larger boat of greater draught
is proper, with a mainsail, or jib and
mainsail.
A vessel like a raft, which can
move in any direction on the water,
will always drift before the wind,
but if the vessel have a keel, or a
centreboard, so that it moves most
easily in one line, it will move chief-
ly in that line, no matter in what
direction the wind is blowing. If
the boat could not drift at all side-
wise, it would not move at all if
the wind were at right angles to
it. All boats drift more or less, but
the object of the keel and centre-
board in sailing-boats is to reduce
the drifting as much as possible.
At first we shall suppose that the
boat cannot drift at all sidewise.
In Fig. r. supposing a sail, S, to be
set up directly across the boat ; if
F
\ /
/ \
Fig. i.
the wind were blowing in the direc-
tion A, B, or C, the boat would
move forward ; if as at D, E, or F,
backward, since it cannot move side-
wise. Now the force of the wind
always presses squarely against the
sail, no matter if it is blowing
at an angle. Thus, in Fig. 2,
Fig. 2.
if the wind is blowing with the
large arrow, and the sail is turned
as at A, the wind will act just as
if it were blowing with the dotted
arrow, only with less force. As
the boat can move only forward
or backward, it will go forward,
since the force is in the rear of the
sail. Now, if the boat and sail be
turned as at B, the effect of the
same wind will be as if it blew
with the second dotted arrow;
the boat will move forward at
another angle, and by turning
to and fro, following the dotted
path, it will make progress, on
the whole, in the direction from
which the wind is blowing. This
turning from one side to another,
in a zig-zag path, is called tack-
ing, or beating to windward. When
a boat is headed nearly against the
wind, it is said to be sailing "close
to the wind." If a boat did not
SAILING
603
SAILING
drift at all sidewise, it could thus
sail almost direct!}' against the wind ;
but drifting prevents this. The
closer the course is to the wind, the
more force there is to make the
boat drift, and the less to move
it forward. To be able to sail close
to the wind is a great advantage
in a boat, as will be seen from
Fig. 3. The boat A, which can sail
closer to the wind than B, has to
tack less and can follow a shorter
path in going from X to Y.
When the boat tacks, the wind
strikes on the opposite side of the
sail, and swings the boom to the
other side of the boat. The more
closely to the wind the boat is sail-
ing, the more nearly in a line with
the boat the sail must be. This
is arranged l>y hnuling aft the sheet.
When the boat is running before
the wind, the sheet is so fastened
that the sail is nearly at right angles
with the boat. When the boat is
headed directly toward the quarter
fiOtn which the wind blows, the
sail will swing directly to the rear
of the mast, and the boat is said to
"come to," or " heave to." In this
position the only effect of the wind
will be to drift the boat slowly back-
ward. The art of managing a sail-
boat is best learned from one who is
skilled in it. The sailor sits on
the windward side of the tiller, so
as to manage it better. (Wind-
ward means the direction from
which the wind comes, and leeward
that toward which it blows.) If he
is sailing to windward he must
watch the edge of the sail next
the mast. If it shivers, or flaps,
that is a sign that the boat is too
close to the wind, and the tiller
must be pulled a little to windward
(called putting the helm up). This
will turn the head of the boat a
little farther from the wind so that
the air will fill it smoothly again.
When ready to tack, or " go about,"
he should push the helm to leeward
(called putting the helm down or
" a-lee"). This will turn the boat's
head so that she first comes into the
wind r.nd then as she continues to
turn, the wind will presently strike
the opposite side of the sail, and
it swings across the boat, which
then starts away on the other
tack. The helm must be pushed
down gently that the boat's head-
way may not be stopped, and the
sail will swing over easily. The
learner should not try to sail too
close to the wind, nor have his
sail "trimmed too flat," that is, too
much in line with the boat. In
sailing to leeward the helmsman
watches the outer edge of the sail
(railed the leech). If it begins to
flap he should either let the sail out
farther by " paying out" the sheet,
or put up the helm. In sailing to
leeward, if the course requires the
sail to be swung over from one side
to the other, it is most safely done
by turning the boat quite around, so
that the boat is close to the wind
as the sail swings, just as in tacking.
Another way is by '-jibing," which
is done by hauling in the sail slowly,
and at the same time putting the
helm up till the sail is perfectly flat,
then letting out the sheet and al-
lowing the sail to swing out on
the other side. The object is to
prevent the wind's catching the for-
ward side of the sail suddenly and
blowing it overquickly, which might
SAILING
604
SAILING
capsize the boat. Jibing is danger-
ous because the sail swings over
so violently that it is apt to carry
away the rigging or capsize the
boat. It should be avoided if the
wind is blowing hard, and it is more
safe to loosen or " ease off " the
peak halliards a little first. Care
must be taken that the boat does
not jibe by accident, when sailing
before the wind. A change in the
course without letting out the sail
so as to keep the wind at its rear;
or the dipping of the boom into the
water so as to swing it back, may
have this result. When the wind
is blowing fresh, the sail is often
reefed, as explained above. When
a sail is to be reefed it has to
be lowered before tying the reefing
points. If the wind blows very
hard, the boat should be brought
into the wind, and sometimes it
may be necessary to lower the sail.
In reefing, the points of a second or
third reef should never be tied till
those of the preceding ones are
secured. This is to enable the
sailor to let out the reefs one by
one, as soon as the boat is able
to carry more sail.
Landing. In making a landing,
the boat's head is always brought
into the wind, and the boatman
must therefore land on one side
or another of the dock, according
to the direction of the wind.
RULES.
When sailing among other craft
the following rules, which are uni-
versally observed, must be borne in
mind :
1. Boats on the port tack must
keep clear of those sailing on the
starboard tack. In all cases of doubt
the boat on the port tack must give
way.
2. Boats sailing before the wind
must give way to those going on
either tack.
3. In case two boats are sailing
before the wind, the one having the
wind on the port side must keep out
of the other's way. (The side on
which the boorn is settles the ques-
tion as to direction of wind.)
4. If both have the wind on the
port side, the windwardmost must
give way. But in any event the
overtaking boat must keep clear of
the one it is overtaking.
5. If two boats meet, both must
put their helms to port.
6. In a race, if two boats approach
a shore or buoy, and the one to lee-
ward has not room to tack so as to
clear the other, and yet would be
in danger by keeping on her course,
she must hail the other, which must
tack at once. The leeward boat
must tack as soon as there is room
to do so.
NAUTICAL TERMS.
In ordinary conversation, these
should generally be pronounced as
spelled but sailors have their own
pronunciation (indicated in paren-
thesis), which is commonly used on
board a boat.
Abaft. Toward the stern.
About, Togo. To go on the other
tack.
Beam. The greatest width of the
boat.
Beating. Tacking to windward.
Belay. To fasten a rope to a cleat
by winding or twisting it around.
Bend. To fasten, as a sail or rope,
to a boom or yard.
Bobstay. A rope extending from
the end of the bowsprit diagonally
downward to the cutwater.
Boom. A spar to keep the foot of
a sail stretched. The word is the
same as beam.
Brails. Ropes to assist in furling
sails. From the old French bracieul,
a leather breeches-band.
Broach to. To come up quickly
into the wind when running before
a heavy sea.
Cat's Paws. Little puffs of wind.
Clews. The lower corners of sails.
Cockpit. The place where the
passengers sit in a partly decked
boat.
SAILING
605
SAILING
Combing. The raised board sur-
rounding the cockpit.
Close-hauled. Sailing as close as
possible to the wind.
Close to the wind. Nearly in the
direction from which the wind is
blowing.
Crank. Easy to overturn, opposed
to stiff.
Cringle. A loop of rope, either
plain, or made around an iron ring,
and attached to a sail. Cringle
means a ring.
Down, To put the helm. To push
the tiller to leeward.
Down-haul. A rope to pull down
a sail.
Draught of water. The depth of
the lowest part of the boat beneath
the surface of the water.
Foot. The lower edge of a sail.
Fore. Forward.
Fore-and-Aft. Lengthwise of the
boat.
Foremast. The forward mast of
/essels having more than one mast.
Foresail (fore-s'l). The principal
sail on the foremast of a fore-and-
aft rigged vessel.
Furl. To fold a sail and lash it to
the boom or mast.
Gaff. The spar to which the up-
per part of a fore-and-aft sail is fast-
ened. From the French gaffe, a
long pole with a hook, used in fish-
ing.
Gasket, a rope for lashing a furled
sail to the spar or mast. From the
French garcette.
Grapnel. A small anchor having
several claws, ^romgrapple.
Grommet. A ring of rope or metal,
Derived from the French gourmette,
curb-chain.
Gunwale (gun-nel). The topmast
board or plank that forms the side
of a boat.
Halliard, or Halyard. A rope for
hoisting a sail. Derived from haul
and yard.
Hawser, a large rope. From the
German, haltseil, hold-rope.
Hawse-hole, or Hawse-pipe. A
hole through which passes the hagr-
ser or chain that holds the anchor.
Head. The top of a sail.
Helm. The steering apparatus.
From the Anglo-Saxon, helma, rud-
der.
Hoist. The part of a fore and aft
sail that slides up and down the
mast.
Jibs. Triangular sails set on ropes
reaching from the foremast to the
bowsprit.
Jibboom. A spar extending from
the end of the bowsprit.
Jibe. To swing the boom from
one side to the other, while sailing
before the wind.
Jigger. The small mast in the
stern of a yawl, also called the
mizzen.
Keel. A timber running from bow
to stern at the bottom of the boat.
From the Anglo-Saxon ceol, keel.
Keelson, (kel-son). A timber run-
ning over the keel above the floor-
timbers.
Knot. A nautical mile (in the
United States 6,o8oJ feet), so called
because it is the distance between
two knots on the log line, by which
distances at sea are measured.
Larboard (lar-burd). The left-
hand side of a vessel (looking for-
ward) now generally replaced by the
word " port," to avoid confusion
with " starboard." It is probably
contracted from lowerboard, be-
cause the left side was considered
inferior in rank.
Lee, or Leeward (loo-ard). The
side toward which the wind blows,
originally a place sheltered from the
wind. From the Anglo-Saxon hleo,
a shelter.
Leech. The after-edge of a fore-
and-aft sail. Probably from the
Latin licium, a thread.
Luff. The forward edge of a sail.
To luff, or luff up, is to steer close to
the wind. Luff may be from the
German luft, air.
Mainmast. The principal or
largest mast.
Mainsail (ma.\n-s'\). The large sail
of a cat-boat or sloop.
SAILING
606
SAILING
Miss Stays. To fail in trying to
tack.
Mizzenmast. The after-mast in
three-masted vessels.
Off. Away from the point from
which the wind blows, as in " Keep
her head off."
Peak. The point of the sail at the
outer end of the gaff.
Port. The left-hand side of a boat
looking forward (see Larboard).
Rake. Inclination, as " the rake
of a mast," "a raking stern-post."
Masts are usually given a rake aft
to bring their weight and that of
sails and rigging farther aft. The
word is from the Anglo-Saxon rae-
can, to reach.
Ratlines. Ropes fastened across
the shrouds, making ladders by
which the sailors in large vessels
can climb to the masts.
Reef. To fold part of the sail and
fasten it together in order to lessen
the surface exposed to the wind.
The folded part of the sail is called
also the reef. From the Anglo-
Saxon reaf, a garment.
Rig. The arrangement of masts,
sails, and ropes in a boat. From
the Anglo-Saxon ivrigan, to cover.
Rigging. The ropes of a boat, di-
vided into standing rigging, the
rope used to strengthen the masts,
and running rigging, the ropes used
to work the sails.
Serve. To wind yarn or cloth
around a rope's end to prevent its
ravelling, or around any part to keep
it from wearing away by rubbing.
Sheet. A rope fastened to the low-
er outer corner of a sail or to the
boom, to haul it in and keep it in
place. From the Anglo-Saxon Sceo-
tan, to cast or extend.
Shrouds. In large vessels, ropes
extending from the head of the
lower mast to strong timbers at the
sides of the vessel. They serve to
strengthen the masts. See ratline.
Slack. Applied to a boat with a
tendency to turn her bow from the
wind, owing to improper construc-
tion.
Spar. A general term for masts,
yards, booms, gaffs, and the like.
Spinnaker. A large triangular
sail used by sloops in a light wind.
Splice, to fasten the ends of two
ropes by interlacing the strands.
It is nearly the same word as
" split," the strand being pulled
apart.
Sprit. A light spar extending
from the middle of the mast to the
outer corner of the sail, used in place
of a gaff. From the Anglo-Saxon
spreot, a spear or pike.
Starboard (star-burd). The right-
hand side of a boat (looking for-
ward). From the Anglo-Saxon ste-
oran, to steer, and bord, a border.
Stay. A rope to steady a mast,
extending diagonally forward from
its top. Stays also extend between
the masts and from the upper masts
to the sides.
Staysail (stay-s'l). A sail spread
on a stay.
Stem. The upright timber at the
end of a vessel's bow to which the
ends of the planking are fastened.
Stern. The rear end of a boat.
From the Anglo Saxon steam, a
helm, because the helm is placed
there.
Stiff. Keeping upright, opposed to
crank ; a boat is stiff when the
wind makes her incline very little.
Applied to a wind or breeze, stiff
means strong.
Tack. The lower fore-corner of
a fore-and-aft sail, or a rope attached
to that corner; also the direction of
a boat when sailing to windward.
A boat is on the starboard tack
when the wind is on the starboard
side; on the port tack when the
wind blows against the port side.
A boat is said to tack in changing
from one tack to another. Tack
means to fasten. The first meaning
is the original one, the other being
derived from it, as the tack holds
the corner of the sail when the wind
crosses it obliquely.
Taut. Tight.
Tarpaulin. Tarred canvas, from
SAILING
607
SAILING
tar, and pauling, provincial English
for the covering of a cart.
Topsail. The second sail above
the deck.
Tiller. The rudder handle ; from
the provincial English tiller, the
handle of anything,
Trysail (try-s'l). A small fore-
and-aft sail.
Thro-at. The inner concave end
of the gaff or boom, which fits
around the mast.
Topping-lift. A rope to hold the
end of the boom clear of the cabin,
in a large boat.
Up, To put the helm. To put the
tiller to windward.
Vangs. Ropes to steady the gaff
in a large boat, running from its
peak to the sides of the boat. From
the Dutch vangen, to seize.
Wear. To turn the boat so that
the wind will be on the other side,
without tacking, the bow being
turned away from the wind, and the
sail jibed over.
Weather. Windward, toward the
wind.
Weather-helm. A boat is said
to have a weather-helm when the
tiller must be kept to the weather-
side.
Wind. The direction from which
the wind is blowing ; used in " bring-
ing a boat's head into the wind."
" turning her head out of the wind,"
"toward the wind," ' away from the
wind," etc.
Windward. The direction from
which the wind blows.
Yaw. To go out of the proper
course. From the provincial Ger-
man gagt'ln, to totter or shake.
Knots. Some of the simplest
kinds of knots are described in
C. C. T. Besides these, the fol-
lowing are useful. They are de-
scribed in this article because they
are used so often on a sail-boat ; but
every one should understand how
to tie them.
In making a knot, any bend or
loop in the rope is called a " bight"
(^Anglo-Saxon bige, a bending). The
part of the rope not bent in making
the knot is called the "standing
part." Some knots are made pur-
posely very tight, so that they will
last forever, and others are made
to be easily untied.
The Plain Overhand Knot (see C.
C. T.) may be made at the end of a
rope, either to prevent its untwist-
ing, or to keep it from passing
through a hole. For it may be sub-
stituted the Figure Eight (see C.
C. T.), which is easier to untie than
the plain overhand.
Boat Knot. An overhand knot
whose end is not passed through
the bight, but secured by a spike or
piece of wood on withdrawing,
which the knot unties at once.
Square or Double Knot. This is
formed of two overhand knots, and
is the most common knot for fasten-
ing two ends together, but it is
made incorrectly by most people.
The right way to tie it is shown
in Figure i, and the
wrong way in Figure
2 ; it will be seen that
in the former the
bight on one side
passes over both ropes
and on the other side
Fig. i. under both, whereas
in the latter, called a " granny knot,"
each bight passes over one rope and
under the other.
When it is tied pro-
perly a strain on it
only makes it hold
more tightly, and yet
it can be loosened at
once by pulling the
2- bights apart. It is
secure only when the ends tied are
of the same sized rope. This knot
is sometimes called a reef knot, as
it is used for fastening the reef
points.
Bowline. This forms a loop
which cannot slip, and is useful in
a great number of ways. It is
shown in C. C. T., but as it is
important, the method of tying it is
described here in more detail. A
SAILI NG
608
SAILING
loop is made and the end passed up
through it as in Fig. 3, and then
the end is passed
over the rope
above the loop
and through the
loop from behind,
as in Fig. 4.
When the knot is
tightened, it will
not slip. By
'£• 4 pulling the rope
in a bight through the loop thus
formed, the best slip noose is made.
This is called a "running bow-
line." A " bowline on a bight"
can be made in the middle of a long
rope when it must be done imme-
diately, and there is no time to find
an end, as when a rope is to be
thrown to a drowning man. The
rope doubled is first tied, just
as in Fig. 3 (see Fig. 5.), but then
the end e is pulled
apart and brought
down over the bight,
as shown by the
dotted lines.
Knots for fastening
ropes to hooks,
spars, or rings are
often " hitches," or
"bends."
One of the simplest hitches is
a half hitch, shown inC. C. T.
A timber hitch, shown in Fig. 6,
is useful for
fastening a
rope to a post
in a hurry.
It holds
tight under a
strain, but it
loosens as
soon as it is
Fig. 6. relieved.
Clove hitch. This is shown in
Fig. 7. The coils thus made are
thrown over a post and drawn tight,
or the end of the rope may be
twisted around the post as shown in
Fig. 8, where the end a is repre-
sented as fastened to the standing
part with a half hitch.
Fig. 5-
Blackwall hitch. This is really
no knot at all, but is useful for
Fig. 8.
hanging a weight from a hook. It
will be seen from Fig. 9, where it
is shown, that the
heavier the weight,
the tighter the end of
the rope is jammed
against the hook.
In fastening the
end of two ropes for
hauling, the simplest
Fig. 9. method is to use the
Common Bend (C. C. T.).
Splicing* When two ropes are
fastened together, end to end, with-
out a knot, they are said to be spliced.
Ropes must be spliced instead of
knotted when they are to run
through a pulley over anything
on which the knot might catch.
The appearance of a nicely spliced
rope is shown in Fig. 10. To make
Fig. 10.
a "short splice," untwist the strands
at the ends which are to be joined,
and bring the ropes together so that
the strands of one alternate with
those of the other, as in Fig. u.
SAILING
609
SAILING
The strands must be interweaved
tightly, but they are shown loose in
the figure to make it plainer. Then
take any strand, for instance that
marked a, pass it over/, and under
e, which is lifted up for the purpose
Fig. n.
with a tapering piece of wood or iron,
called a marling-spike. Each strand
is treated in the same way, then each
is shaved down to about half its
thickness, and the intertwining is
repeated.
An " eye splice" is made by mak-
ing a bight and splicing the end into
the standing part.
For a " long splice" more of the
ropes must be untwisted than for a
short splice. After the strands have
been laid alternately as before, un-
twist one strand, as a, still further,
for several turns, and in the vacant
place thus left twist
the opposite strand/.
At the place where
they join, cut off all
of each but a few in-
ches.shave both down
about one fourth, and
tie them with an
overhand knot.
Shave the ends down
another fourth, pass each over the
other and under the two next
strands, cutting off the ends as they
appear. One of A's strands is then
worked into B in like manner, and
the third pair of strands is shaved
and knotted in the same way at the
original junction. This splice, if
neatly made, does not increase the
Sailing-car
SAILING
6ro
SALIC LAW
thickness of the rope apprecia-
bly.
Parcelling is covering rope with
strips of tarred canvas to protect
it. When a rope is wound tightly
with spun yarn, it is said to be
" served." Rope's ends are served
to keep them from ravelling, and
splices are often botli parcelled and
served. When the channels between
the strands of a rope are filled, it is
said to be " wormed." Parcelling is
also kept down by a kind of chain
stitch called " marling."
In Fig. 12 the rope is " wormed "
at a and " served" at b,
and " marling '' is shown
at c.
Sailing-Cars. On some
western railways cars
propelled by the wind are
often used instead of
hand-cars to transport
laborers and their tools.
The car, which is about
the size of an ordinary
hand-car, is fitted with
one or two masts. In
one car the mainmast is
eleven feet high, and
both masts together
carry about eighty square
feet of canvas.
It" is said that these cars have
sailed at the rate of forty miles per
hour directly before the wind. As
they are confined to the rails, and
therefore cannot tack, they cannot
beat to windward, but it is said that
they can sail very close to the wind.
An ancient sailing-car, which
probably never existed except on
paper, is shown in the last picture,
taken from an old book.
For the history of Sailing, see
YACHTING.
SALIC LAW, a SOLITAIRE game
of CARDS, played with two packs.
A King is selected from the packs
before playing begins, and laid, face
upward, on the table. Cards that
cannot be used, as described below,
are placed on this King until an-
other one appears, when it is laid
-c
Fig. 12.
beside the first, forming the base
for another pile of useless cards,
till its place is taken by a third, and
so on. In a row just beneath these
piles the Queens are placed, as they
Ancient Sail-car.
appear, and below these the Aces.
On the latter are placed, in order of
rank, the Twos, Threes, and so on,
up to the Knaves, not following suit.
The top card of any of the piles
above the Kings can be used at any
time. When the pack is exhausted,
the top card of any pile can be
placed on any uncovered King,
freeing the card beneath it. The
player is allowed to draw one card
from the interior of one of the piles,
and may look at any of the piles to
see how they are arranged. If the
player is successful, all the cards of
the two packs will be arranged on
the table in three rows of piles at
the end of the game, a face card at
the top of each pile.
The. Salic law is a law that forbids
women to come to the throne in
some monarchies of Europe, and
this game is so called because the
Queens take no part in it.
SALT
611
SCALES
SALT, Experiments with. Make
a strong brine by shaking salt and
water together in a bottle, until the
water will dissolve no more. Color
the brine with any ink that will mix
with water. Make a pile of salt on
a plate, and pour the colored brine
gradually into the plate. It will
rise in the pile of sale by capillary
attraction (See SMALL TUBES) till
the whole pile is colored. The
experiment will not succeed with
water, because it will dissolve the
salt in the pile ; but the brine has so
much salt in it already that it can-
not take up any more.
2. Fill a glass funnel with salt,
packing it in tightly ; invert it on a
plate, and fit over the narrow end
the mouth of an empty toy balloon,
which has been kept very full of air
a long time so that it will inflate
with little force. Pour gradually
into the plate some colored brine,
prepared as before. It will mount
higher and higher in the funnel,
driving before it the air, which will
inflate the toy balloon. The ex-
periment will not succeed unless the
salt is packed tight and unless the
balloon has been well stretched,
so as to inflate easily.
SANCHO PEDRO. See ALL
FOURS.
SAND, Experiments with. i. Fill
a toy rubber balloon, or any kind
of rubber bag, with clean, dry
sand and shake it down thoroughly.
Fasten in the neck a piece of glass
tubing which is allowed to dip
beneath the surface of a glass of
water. Squeeze the sand. It might
be expected that it would be pressed
closer together, driving out air into
the water, but vhis cannot be done
by the hardest pressure. On the
contrary, the bulk is actually in-
creased by squeezing, as is shown
by some of the water rising into the
tube. The reason is that the grains
of sand are closely packed and fitted
together so that when they are
disarranged by squeezing they oc-
cupy more space.
2. Shake down the sand as be-
fore, pour in water till the bag is
quite full, and tie up the neck of the
bag. The bag will now be found to
be quite hard and rigid, though it is
full of sand and water. The reason
is that the sand cannot be squeezed
without altering its position and in-
creasing the space between the
grains, but as the bag is closed and
nothing can enter to fill the extra
space, the bag will not yield to pres-
sure at all.
The property of sand shown in
these experiments is shared by shot,
marbles, and almost any small
objects. It was discovered in 1886
by Prof. Reynolds of England, who
called it "Dilatancy."
SCALES. The different kinds of
scales are told about in C. C. T. A
pair of scales which will weigh
pretty well up to ten pounds or
so can be made thus. Take a stout,
even stick, about three feet long,
and bore a hole about an inch
from each end, and a third in the
middle, exactly half way between
them. Take two shallow tin pans
six or eight inches in diameter, and
make three holes with an awl at
equal distances around the edge
of each. Tie in each hole the end
of a piece of string about sixteen
inches long, and unite the three
strings at their other ends, so that
the pan will hang horizontal. Tie
each pan to the stick by means
of the end holes, so that they hang
at the same distance. Hold the
scales by a loop of string passing
through the middle hole. If prop-
erly made, the pans should bal-
ance, the stick being horizontal. If
they do not, then either the pans
do not weigh the same, or the third
hole is not exactly in the middle.
Put sand in one pan till it balances,
and then untie the pans from the
stick and exchange them. If they
do not balance, this proves that the
hole is i;ot in the middle, and a new
stick must be prepared. If they
do balance, the scales are now all
SCALES
612
SCALES
right, but the sand must always be
kept in the pan in which it was put.
Even if the scales balance perfectly
at first, it is just as well to change
the pans. To make weights, go
first to a druggist and ask him to
weigh out some sand in a glass
bottle, so that bottle, sand, and cork
shall weigh just, quarter of a pound
together. Place this in one scale of
the balance, and pour sand into the
other till there is an exact balance.
Then put the bottle into the same
scale with the sand, and into the
other an empty bottle, its cork ly-
ing beside it. Pour sand into this
bottle till it balances all in the other
scale, when it will weigh, of course,
half a pound. Cork it and label it,
and keep it for the half pound
weight. In this way, by using the
weights already obtained to weigh
new ones, as many as desired may
be made. These scales will do very
nicely for rough weighings.
Steelyards. To make steelyards,
take a stick about three feet long
and bore two holes, one about an
inch from one end, and the second
about an inch from the first. From
the end hole hang a scale-pan, as
shown above, and in the other fasten
a loop to hold the steelyard by. Fill
a bottle with sand till it weighs about
half a pound — exactness does not
matter. Suspend it by the neck to a
short loop and slip the loop over the
long end of the stick. Put a pound
weight on the scale, and slide the bot-
tle along till it just balances. Make a
notch at this place. Put two pounds
in the scale and slide the bottle
along till it balances again, making
another notch and marking it " 2 "
with a pencil. So go on till you
have a notch for every pound.
Notches for the half pounds can be
cut exactly half way between, which
will not be far out of the way. To
weigh six pounds, for instance, hang
the bottle in the six-pound notch,
and then put in the pan whatever
you wish to weigh, till it balances.
Spring Balance. Take a piece of
elastic cord which can be stretched
to a length of six or eight feet.
Fasten one end to a nail near the
ceiling, and at the other end tie a
wire hook, to which are to be hung
the articles weighed. Tie a bit of
colored sewing-silk around the elas-
tic cord just above the hook. Now
fasten successively to the hook the
different weights obtained by means
of the scales described above, and
make a pencil mark on the wall at
the spot opposite which the silk
stops, each time. Then anything
which stretches the elastic just as
much as the half pound weight, for
instance, must weigh exactly half a
pound. To weigh many pounds, a
large and strong elastic must be
used.
Torsion Balance, a weighing ma-
chine in which the object weighed is
balanced by the " torsion " of a wire,
that is, its effort to untwist. A sim-
ple one can be made as follows:
Torsion Balance.
Fasten an iron wire, A B, firmly
across a wooden standard like that
shown in the picture. At its middle,
H, secureone end of a stripof strong,
light wood, C and D. This may be
done by filing flat surfaces on oppo-
site sides of the wire, splitting the
end of the wood, fitting the cleft
over the wire, and then winding it on
both sides. of the wire with strong
waxed thread. The strip should
project horizontally, or point slight-
ly upward, when at rest. About an
inch from the end tack to the strip
a light paper box, D, to hold the ob-
ject to be weighed. At the end of
the strip, which must be pointed, an
SCANDAL
613
SECRET WRITING
upright wooden post, F G, is fixed
for the scale to be marked on. A
pencil mark is made on this, opposite
the point of the lever, and then an
object whose weight is known is put
into the box. Suppose this to weigh
an ounce. Mark the spot to which
the lever falls, and then divide the
space between the two marks into
as many equal parts as you wish.
If it be divided into ten parts, each
will represent a, tenth of an ounce.
The size of the balance may be large
or small, as desired. A short, strong
wire will weigh large quantities — a
long, thin one, very small ones. By
using a fine platinum wire, and a
wisp of straw for a lever, the hun-
dred-thousandth part of an ounce
may easily be weighed.
SCANDAL, a game played by any
number of persons, who sit in a row
or circle. One of them whispers a
story in the ear of his neighbor, and
he, in turn, whispers it to the next,
and so on till it reaches the last, who
relates it aloud. The first player
gives it as he told it at the beginning,
and it will generally be found that
the two stories are quite differ-
ent. Instead of a story, a single sen-
tence spoken very fast may be used.
This game isnamed Scandal, because
it shows how stories are often
changed in passing from mouth to
mouth. This game is called also
Russian Gossip.
SCOTCH WHIST. See CATCH
THE TEN.
SECRETARY, THE, a game played
with pencils and paper by any num-
ber of persons. A leader is chosen
called the Secretary, who gives to
each player a slip of paper. After
each has written his name on the
slip and returned it to the Secretary,
the latter shuffles the slips, and gives
one to each person, at random, tak-
ing care that no one sees any name
but that on the slip given him.
Each then writes under the name on
his slip his opinion of the person
bearing it, and then all the slips are
given again to the Secretary, who
reads them, one by one, aloud. As
they are read the person about, whom
the opinion is written guesses who
its author is, and if the guess is cor-
rect the author pays a forfeit. Some-
times the players are required to
write their opinions in verse, and
sometimes, when there are few play-
ers, each writes an opinion of every
other, instead of only one. When
there are few players, the opinions
may be whispered by each one to the
Secretary, instead of writing them
down. That no one may venture
to say anything disagreeably person-
al, the Secretary should announce
the author of each opinion at the
close of the game.
Another way of playing is for
each one to write on his slip an as-
sumed name, instead of his real one.
After the second distribution of
slips, each writes a description of the
person he supposes to have adopted
the name on the slip. The Secre-
tary reads these one by one, an-
nouncing the owner of the name at
the end of each.
SECRET WRITING, The sim-
plest and commonest kind of secret
writing is that in which every letter
of the alphabet is represented by
some letter, figure, or mark, and
always by the same one. The cor-
respondents must each have a key
consisting of th j letters of the alpha-
bet written in line, and under each
the character that is to represent it.
Thus abcdefghijklmn
'rq4b503mzats 9 d
opqrstuvwxyz j j
wxukihyaf t § I
ing a letter, the figures in the lower
row are used instead of those above,
and the one who receives it writes
down on a piece of paper for each
character the one just above it.
Thus the following sentence :
z ow/db r kwqzdi d$ih zd hm5 rxxs$
hk55 means " I found a robin's nest
in the apple-tree." But though this
kind of writing looks so mysterious,
it is easily read. For instance, sup-
pose the key to the above sentence
SECRET WRITING
614
SECRET WRITING
to be unknown. By looking over it
carefully, the first and last letters of
the third word frorr. the end are seen
to be the same as the first and the last
two of the last word. Now as " hm5 "
is the only word of three letters in
the sentence, it is probably "the."
The last word then reads t.ee (put-
ting dots for unguessed letters),
which must be " tree." The word be-
tween " the " and " tree " very likely
is the name of the tree. It ends with
" e," and its second and third letters
are the same. By tryingthe names of
several kinds of trees, it is found that
" apple " is the only one that answers.
Now the letters standing alone, "z"
and " r," are probably " I " and " a ;"
and as the latter is the first letter in
" apple," the former must be "I."
The word of two letters befoie " the"
must therefore be either " it," " is,"
or "in," and the word before it is
te.t, se.t, or ne.t. The first would
have to be " tent " or " test," neither
of which makes sense. The second is
either " seat " or " sent." and the last
can only be " nest." If it wer^ "seat,"
the last three letters of the previous
word must be " isa," if "sent," they
are " isn ;" if " nest," they are " ins."
The second seems impossible, and if
we select the letters " r . . ins nest,"
it is probable that " robin's nest " will
occur to us at once. By trial in the
same way the second word
is found out, and thus
the whole sentence is
guessed. A long letter is
much easier to guess* than
a single sentence, for then
the same characters oc-
cur over and over ayain,
and words like "the"
can be told at once from
their appearing so often.
This kind of writing
can be made harder by
making no spaces between
the words, which the
one who has the key can
easily separate after he
has written ' down the
right letters. But even
then it is possible to guess it by
patient work, remembering that
the letters occurring oftenest are
the vowels.
Another way of varying this kind
of writing is to agree on ten or
twelve signs which shall mean noth-
ing at all, and which may be put in
anywhere. Thus, if c, e, f, j, and 1
were such, the first three words
of the sentence given above might
stand Cjzowe7dlbfjne. The reader
who has the key simply strikes out
the signs which mean nothing, or
disregards them in reading.
Another kind of secret writing is
that in which every letter is repre-
sented by a single character, but not
always by the same one. There are
many ways of effecting this. For
instance, under the letters of the al-
phabet may be written three or more
different rows of characters. The
first time a letter occurs, it is repre-
sented by the corresponding charac-
ter in the first row, the second time
by the one in the second row, the
third time by that in the third row,
the fourth time by the one in the first
row again, and so on. The charac-
ters in the three rows must be all
different, else even the reader who
has the key may be confused. An-
other way is to form an alphabet
square like that below.
abcdefghijklmnopq rstuvwxyz
bcdefghijklmno pq rstuvwxyza
cde f g h i jklmn o pqr s tuvwx y z ab
defghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
eftrhijklmnopq rstuvwxyz a
f fa i j k Imnopq r s t uvwxyz
bc
abed
b c dc
M
ghi j klmnopqr s t uvwxyza b c d ef
hi j k Imnopqrs tuvwxyzab c d c fg
ijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcde f p h
jk Imnopqrstuvwxyz abed e fghi
klmnopqrstuvwxyzabcde f
Imnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefg
mnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefi
n o p q
opq r
PQ
bed
bed
f
K h i J
h i i k
i i k i
j k 1 m
f
e f g K
f gh i
E i f i i
hijklmnopq
k 1 m n o
i j k 1 m n
j k I m n d'
k 1 at no p
s tuvwxyz
s t uvwxyza
t uvwxyzabcd e
stuvwxyzabcdef
r s t uvwxyzabcd e f g
stuvwxyzabcdef gh i j k Imnopq
tuvwxyz abcdefgh i j k Imnopq rs
uvwxyz abcdefg Ti i j k lmnop<irst
vwxyzabcdefghi j it 1 mnopqrs tu
wxyzabcdefghiiklmnopqrstuv
xyzabc d efghii klmn opqrs tu vw
yzabcde fgh iJK imno pqrst uvwx
zabcde fghijklmno
stu vwxy
SECRET WRITING
SECRET WRITING
A word is then agreed on by the
correspondents as " key-word."
Let us suppose it to be " Cyclopae-
dia." When a sentence is to be
written, the key-word is first writ-
ten under it. Thus :
I hope to see you on Monday next,
c yc 1 o pa edi acy c 1 o paedi acyc.
To find the letter representing any
given letter in the sentence, begin
at that letter on the left of the al-
phabet square, and follow a horizon-
tal line till you come immediately
below the corresponding letter of the
key-word. Thus, the first letter in
the sentence is " I," the correspond-
ing one of the key-word is " c."
The letter in the same line with " I,"
which has " c " at the top of its col-
umn, is found to be "k." In the
same way, beginning at " h " and
running along the line until we are
under "y," we find "f" for the second
letter. The sentence reads thus
when completed:
K fqas io whm yqs qy adnhdg ngvv.
To translate it, the one who re-
ceives it writes the key-word above
it, and then, beginning at the left of
the square with each key-word
letter, follows the line till he comes
to the letter just under it in the
cypher. The letter at the top of
the column will be the one he
wants. Evidently this kind of
secret writing cannot be translated
without the key- word ; but when
that is once obtained, the task is
easy. If the sentence is separated
into words, some of them may
often be guessed, after several
trials, and the key-word found out
by the alphabet square. To avoid
this, the correspondents may run
their words together, or use a long
sentence as a key- word — a proverb
or quotation, for instance. Many
Other ways of making different
characters represent the same letter
at different times may be devised
with a little ingenuity.
Another kind of secret writing is
that in which each word is repre-
sented by a separate character, or
by another word. If each word is
to have its own character, as in the
Chinese language, then each corre-
spondent must have for his key a
list of the words likely to be used,
and the character belonging to
each. This is awkward, and is sel-
dom done. An easier way is to
select some dictionary or vocabulary
in which words are arranged alpha-
betically, and agree that each word
shall be represented by the word in
the same position a certain number
of pages ahead. This method was
used in the famous political "cy-
pher dispatches" in 1876. For in-
stance, suppose Webster's Diction-
ary (edition of 1890) be selected, and
it be agreed that every word shall be
represented by the one three pages
farther on. Then " day," which is
the second word on page 336, is rep-
resented by " debit," the second
word on page 339, and so on. An-
other way is to select a book, and
refer to a word by giving its page
and number. Thus, 153-87 might
mean the 87th word on the i53d
page. Of course pages should be
chosen in which the desired word
comes near the top, to save count-
ing. It may be agreed that when a
line is drawn beneath the number,
the counting is to be done from the
bottom.
But the most secret kind of writ-
ing is that in which the very fact
that there is any secret message at
all is concealed. Any one who sees
a letter written in one of the ways
described above, knows at once that
there is something to be concealed,
and the object is sometimes to hide
even that fact. This is usually done
by writing what appears to be an
ordinary letter in such a way that
certain words, taken in order, form
the secret message. For instance,
it may be agreed that every seventh
word in the letter shall makeup the
message. Suppose it is wished to
send the message, "Our plan has
failed." Some such letter as the
following may be written. " Dear
SEEGA
616
Fred : Will you come to our house
on Tuesday, the 3oth ? Our plan is
to have a little picnic. Has John
been in town lately? He failed to
put in an appearance yesterday."
The seventh words of this note, as
will be seen by counting, make up
the desired message. Another way
to mark the words forming the mes-
sage, is for each of the correspond-
ents to have a sheet of blank paper
with holes cut in various places, the
holes in the two sheets matching
exactly. The writer places his
sheet over the paper on which he
wishes to write, and writes the
words of his message through the
holes. Then he removes the sheet
and fills up the spaces with other
words, so as to make the whole read
like an ordinary letter. The one
who receives it places his sheet of
paper over it, and reads the message
at once through the holes. Both
these methods require some skill.
An easier way is to mark the words
of the message by writing them in a
slightly different hand, or by placing
a minute dot, or other sign, under
each ; but this, unless done very
skilfully, is apt to betray the secret.
Still another kind of secret writ-
ing is that which is done, wholly or
in part, with "sympathetic ink."
This is some fluid which is invisible
when first put on the paper, but is
brought out by heating or applying
some chemical. The whole letter
may be written in the ink, or it may
be used simply to mark words in
what appears to be an ordinary
letter.
If the letter be written with water
in which chloride of cobalt has been
dissolved, the writing will be invisi-
ble till it is heated. If it be writ-
ten with a weak solution of boiled
starch, it will appear blue when
brushed over with iodine. Words
written with copperas dissolved in
water appear brilliant blue when
the paper is dipped in a solution of
prussiate of potash.
SEEGA, a game played by two
persons on a checker-board of
twenty-five squares (five on each
side), with twenty-four men of two
colors, generally black and white.
An ordinary checker-board and men
will do if the board be reduced in
size by strips of paper. It is played
alternately and consists of two parts
— placing the men and moving
them. The player having first
move places two of his men
wherever on the board he chooses,
either on adjoining or far separated
squares. The second player lays
down two men in like manner, and
this is continued alternately until
all the men have been placed on
the board, care being taken by both
players to leave the centre square
unoccupied.
When the men are thus placed,
the first player moves one of his
men backwards, forwards, or side-
ways, but never diagonally. Evi-
dently the first move must be into
the middle or vacant square. Each
player tries to move so as to catch
one of his adversary's men between
two of his own in horizontal or in
perpendicular lines, not in a diago-
nal. A man so caught is removed
from the board. If, however, in
moving, one player moves one of
his own men between two of his
opponents, he suffers no loss ; a
capture must be forced by the op-
ponent. If the player who has cap-
tured one of his adversary's men
can put a second or a third in danger
by moving his own again, he has
the right to do so ; but this move
must be made before he has laid
down the captured man.
If one player becomes blocked
and unable to move, the other
either continues moving until he
opens a way for the first, or he has
to remove one of his own men from
the board, selecting one that per-
mits the first player to move. The
game is continued until one or the
other player has lost all but one of
his men.
The method of placing the men
SEEGA
617
SEE-SAW
and the various moves will be easily
learned from the following illustra-
tive game, the diagram showing
the men as placed before moving :
•
•
o
o
o
•
o
0
•
o
o
o
•
•
o
o
•
•
0
0
0
•
•
•
B
D
Setting the Men.
White (Mr. W.). Black (Dr. B.).
1 i C and 2 C 3 D and 3 E
2 3 A and 36 4 C and 5 C
326 and 46 2 D and 4 D
4 2 E and 4 E I B and 5 D
5 i D and 58 2 A and 4 A
6 5 A and i E I A and 5 E
Moves.
7 2Cto3C 2Dto2Cx2B
and 3 C
8 361030 2Ato2B
X 2 C
9 3Ato2A 2Bto3Bx3E
and to 3 A x 2
A
10 i C to 2 C i B to i C
11 2Cto2B i A to i B
12 2Bto2C 3Dto3Cx2C
13 2Eto2D 30 to 3D
14 iEto2E 3Dto^Ex4E
X3E
and 3 C to 4 C
X4B
i C tc i D
5 C to 5 B
15 2Dto2C
16 i D to i E
17 5 B to 4 B
18 46 to 36 4Cto3Cx3B
19 2Eto2D 4Dto3Dx2D
20 iEto2E iDtoiEx2E
And Black wins
History. Seega is an Egyptian
game, probably of great antiquity.
It is played much by the peasantry
in Egypt and by the Bedouins in
the desert, generally with black and
white pebbles in holes made in the
ground. The common game is
with twenty-five holes or squares,
like that described, but it is some-
times played with forty-nine squares
and forty eight men, or with eighty-
one squares and eighty men, though
the latter makes it of tedious length.
The holes or squares in the seega
or board are called by the Egypt-
ians oyoon (eyes), and the men kelb
(dogs). Lane, in his " Modern
Egyptians " (3d ed., 1842), says :
" Several Seegas have been cut upon
the stones on the summit of the
great pyramid, by Arabs who have
served as guides to travellers."
Dr. H. Carrington Bolton, of New
York, to whom we are indebted
for an account of the game, saw it
played by Bedouins in the desert
of Mt. Sinai with pebbles in the
sand. The game given herewith
was actually played by him with a
friend on a Peninsula and Oriental
steamer.
SEE-SAW, a board balanced at
its middle over a block of wood or a
fence rail. A person sits on each
end, and the two, by pushing with
their feet against the ground, make
the ends move up and down alter-
nately. The board should be as
long as possible without bending,
and the point on which it is bal-
anced should be so high that the
feet of the person on one end are
well off the ground when those of
the one on the other end are touch-
ing it. Sometimes a third person,
called the " Candlestick," stands in
the middle and aids the motion
first with one foot and then with
the other.
When those who ride on the see-
saw are equal in weight, the plank
must be balanced exactly in the
middle, but otherwise it must rest
SENSITIVE FLAMES
618
SENSITIVE FLAMES
Ancient See-Saw.
on a pivot nearer the heavier per-
son. The light rider, therefore, has
a longer ride, and moves faster than
the other.
See-sawing is a very old amuse-
ment. An ancient French see-
saw, called Bascule Double (Double
Swing-down) is shown on the fol-
lowing page. The boards swing on
pivots A A in a standard E, and
move at right angles to each other.
B is a cushion, C is a back for the
rider to lean against, and D a handle
for him to hold on by.
SENSITIVE FLAMES, Experiments
witta Nail a block of wood. A, to a
block, D, as shown intlieillustration,
and fasten at the top of A a wire,
B, with a ring five inches in diame-
ter at one end. Lay a piece of wire
gauze, C, over the ring. Make a
glass jet, E (see CHEMICAL EXPERI-
MENTS), of tubing about quarter of
an inch in outside diameter, the
diameter at the opening being about
three quarters of this. Bend it at
right angles, and stick it with wax
on the block E with its tip about
two inches under the gauze. Con-
nect the jet with a gas burner by
rubber tubing, and light the gas
above the gauze, where itshouldburn
in a thin conical flame about four
inches long. This flame is so sen-
sitive to noises, that at the sound of
a hiss, a whistle, a jingling, or the
clapping of the hands, it shrinks at
once to a small blue flame.
Sensitive Flame.
2. Cover the flame with a tube, T,
from seven inches to two feet long,
and from three-quarters of an inch
to one and a half inches in diam-
eter. The best size is about one foot
long by one and one-fourth inches in
diameter. The tube rests lightly on
the gauze. The flame is now still
moresensitive to high, sharp sounds.
SETTO
619
SHADOW PICTURES
If the gauze and tube be raised
slowly, the flame shortensand finally
begins to " sing " loudly. The gauze
should now be lowered till the sing-
ing just ceases, when the flame be-
comes very sensitive, beginning to
sing at the slightest sharp sound,
but ceasing when the sound stops.
The responses are so quick that
when, for instance, the word " sen-
sitive " is pronounced, the flame
sings twice, once for each S.
SETTO. See SYNTHESIS.
SEVENS AND EIGHTS, or DOM-
INO WHIST, a game of CARDS played
by any number of persons with a
full pack. The scoring is done with
counters, any number of which are
distributed equally among the play-
ers at the beginning of the game.
The whole pack of cards is dealt,
one at a time, and th'en each plays
in turn, beginning with the eldest
hand. The object of the players is
to place the Sevens and Eights in
two rows on the table, and then all
the other cards in order, by suits.
Thus, opposite the Sevens of Hearts
mrst be placed in order the Six,
Fhe, Four, Three, Two, and Ace of
Hearts; and opposite the Eight, the
Nine, Ten, Knave, Queen, and King
of the same suit. No card can be
put down out of its regular order
except Sevens and Eights, which
can be played at any time. Only
one card is played at a time. Each
one must play if he can, and if he
cannot, he must place a counter in
the middle of the table to form
part of the Pool. He who first gets
rid of his cards takes the Pool and
in addition each of the other play
ers gives the winner a counter for
every card left in his hand.
Of course the first card played
will be a Seven or an Eight, and the
opportunity for playing will gener-
ally be greater as the game goes
on. A good player often holds
back a Seven or Eight as long as
possible, thus preventing others
from playing, increasing the pool,
and enabling him to get rid of his
cards before them. If there is not
room enough on the table for the
whole pack to be spread out, the
other cards may be piled on the
Sevens and Eights.
The game is sometimes called
Domino Whist because the cards
are matched on the table somewhat
as in DOMINOES, but it does not at
all resemble WHIST.
SEVEN UP. See ALL FOURS.
SHADOW PICTURES, shadows
thrown on a wall or screen so as to
form pictures in various ways. The
most common shadow pictures are
made by holding the two hands so
that their shadows will resemble
some animal or bird. To make
such pictures well requires consider-
able skill. The position of the
hands in making several of them
is shown in the full-page illustra-
tions.
Another kind of shadow pictures
is made by cutting out figures from
sheets of paper and throwing their
shadows on a sheet hung in a door-
way, the spectators sitting on the
opposite side. The best size for the
pictures is about three feet long by
two feet high. They may be made
by cutting out parts of any large
woodcut like those in the illus-
trated papers, but care must be
taken that the figures selected are
in profile, so that their shadows will
look well. If the exhibitor has any
skill at all in drawing, a better way
is to make pictures especially for
the purpose. They may be drawn
on an ordinary newspaper, and no
matter how crude they are, they
usually look well in shadow. All
the pictures are made on paper of
the same size, and then the sheet in
the doorway is covered with papers
pinned to it, all but a space in the
middle just large enough to show
the pictures, which will then appear
in brilliant white on a dark back-
ground. There should be two ex.
hibitors, each of whom holds a cor-
ner of the picture so that it hangs
close against the sheet. If there is
SHADOW PICTURES
620
SHADOW PICTURES
i. Old Man ; 2. Elephant ; 3. Doe ; 4. Rabbit ; 5. Horse ; 6. Negro ; 7. Bear ;
8. Walrus.
SHADOW PICTURES
621
SHADOW PICTURES
9, Chamois; 10. Hound ; u. Wolf; 12. Goat ; 13. Squirrel ; 14. Bird Flying;
15. Mastiff ; 16. Mephistopheles.
SHADOW PICTURES
622
SHADOW PICTURES
only one exhibitor, the pictures
must be fastened to sticks, one end
of which he holds ; otherwise he
would be obliged to stand between
the lamp and the picture. The
pictures must be so drawn that no
part that is to be cut out completely
surrounds a dark part, otherwise
the latter will have no support. If
necessary, however, such a part may
be fastened by pasting very narrow
strips of paper from it to other
parts of the picture. The shadows
of the strips will not show at a
little distance. After practice, these
pictures can be made very rapidly;
and as a lamp and a sheet are the
only apparatus necessary to show
them, an exhibition can be prepared
at an hour's notice. Some of the
figures may be cut out of separate
slips of paper, and arranged so that
they may be moved about, which
will add to the amusement.
Shadow pictures may also be cut
out of paper so as to show as dark
figures on a white ground, like sil-
houettes. Sometimes they are so
Shadow Pictures Cut from Papers.
ingeniously made that it is difficult
to tell what they -represent till the
shadow is thrown on the wall. In
the illustration, Fig. I shows how
the paper is cut. Fig. 2 is a sharp
shadow thrown by it, and Fig. 3 a
blurred shadow. The last gives the
proper effect.
Portraits may be made for exhibi-
tion by throwing the sitter's shadow
in profile on a sheet of paper pinned
against the wall. The outline of
the shadow is traced with a pencil
and then cut with scissors. The
portrait will be light on a dark
ground or dark on a light ground,
according as the outside or inside of
the paper is used to cast the shadow.
Such portraits may be preserved by
pasting them on black paper, and
they may then be framed or kept in
a portfolio. Care should be taken
in tracing the outline that the
sitter remains perfectly still, and in
cutting it out that the scissors fol-
Drawing a Silhouette,
low the line exactly. A very small
deviation alters the expression.
SHADOW PICTURES
623
SHADOW PICTURES
Magic Dancci A second curtain,
called the magic curtain, is stretched
about two feet behind the white
sheet on which the figures are to be
thrown. This magic curtain must
be perfectly opaque, being made of
thick black cloth, or of canvas
painted black. In it are several
holes which vary in size according
to the size of the figures to be ex-
hibited, and are arranged as the
figures are to be grouped. The lat-
ter may be cut out of paper which
is pinned over the holes, or they
may be painted in colors on glass
like a magic lantern slide. If now
the exhibitor stand behind the
magic curtain with a lighted taper,
such as are used for Christmas trees,
an image of each figure will be
SHADOW PICTURES
624
SHADOW PLAYS
thrown on the screen in front. If
he hold a taper in each hand, two
images of each figure will appear,
and if he move the tapers from side
to side, or in curves, the figures
will appear to move about in like
manner. By multiplying the num-
ber of tapers, the figures can be
made to perform the most compli-
cated kind of dance. The other
tapers should be held by persons
whose movements are controlled by
the exhibitor by means of signals
previously agreed on. One may hold
several tapers by fixing them on
cross-pieces nailed on a stick, but
the images cast by those tapers will,
of course, always preserve the same
distance from each other. The
effect is heightened if any of the
figures can be made to disappear at
will, as will be the case if the holes
can be stopped up. The best plan
is to stretch the magic curtain in a
doorway and nail across it thin
battens, one just. above each hole.
Pasteboard flaps are then sewed to
the curtain under each hole, and
when shut over the holes are fast-
ened to the batten by a wooden but-
ton; or, cloth flaps may simply be
pinned over the holes by an assist-
ant. The following is an example
of what may be done with this
arrangement. Suppose that there
are four holes at the corners of a
square, and that the figures in them
represent old women in various
attitudes. It is well to have some
of the figures so drawn that they
may be made to move either way
without seeming to go backward.
The holes are all stopped at first, so
that the screen is dark. One of the
flaps is removed, a taper is lighted,
and an old witch starts out on the
curtain. By moving the taper she
is made to run back and forth, and
leap into the air. The operator
must remember that the figure
always moves in the opposite direc-
tion from the taper, so that to make
it leap up he must move the taper
down. A second taper is now
lighted and another similar figure
appears. The two run forward and
backward, and leap over and under
each other, finally running together
and melting into one. Another flap
islet down and a different oldwoman
appears. Thus by lighting and ex-
tinguishing the tapers and stopping
and unstopping the holes, one by
one, the figures can be made to ap-
pear, disappear, and dance about in
the greatest confusion. In order
that one figure may not interfere
with another, the operator should
practise his movements first, while
some one on the opposite side of
the screen tells him of the effect.
This is necessary, since he cannot
I himself see the screen on which the
pictures are thrown.
SHADOW PLAYS, plays, in which
not the actors, but their shadows, are
seen by the audience. They may
be spoken plays or pantomime. In
any case, a large sheet is hung in
a doorway, on one side of which the
audience sit, while the actors per-
form on the other, their shadows
being cast on the sheet by a single
lamp, which should be as bright
as possible. With more than one
lamp, double or triple shadows would
be cast. Some skill is required al-
ways so to act that the shadows will
show the action distinctly. Profiles
should be shown on the sheet as
much as possible. Where the
shadow-play is given in a hall, the
shadows are thrown on a curtain of
white muslin, which must be made
with tightly-sewed seams. The
shadows can be made more distinct
by wetting the sheet or curtain just
before the performance, which may
be done with a sponge. Some of
the most striking effects in a
shadow-play are produced by a per-
former's stepping over or under the
lamp. In the first case he appears
to the spectators to jump up through
the ceiling, and in the second to
sink through the floor. In those
parts of the play where any one is
to step over the lamp, it should be
SHADOW PLAYS
625
SHADOW PLAYS
placed on the floor about six feet
from the curtain. Directly behind
it should be placed a wooden box a
little higher than the lamp, on which
the actor can step. This box serves
also to protect the lamp from being
overturned. When a player is to go
under the lamp, it is slowly raised
by an attendant, who takes good
care to stand so that his shadow
will not fall on the screen. At
other times, the lamp should stand
on a low table about ten feet from
the curtain. Some person should
be given special charge of it, and
should rehearse the pantomime with
the performers, so that he will know
exactly when to move the lamp.
The position of the light must be
changed very gradually in all cases.
The performers should stand as
close as possible to the curtain, as
the shadows will. then be nearly of
the natural size, and moving the
lamp has less effect on them. The
arms must be held at equal distances
from the light, otheiwise one will
appear larger than the other. Step-
ping over the lamp should be done
quickly and with a single movement.
All small "properties" are made
of pasteboard, and when signs are
needed they are cut out so that the
letters appear in white on a dark
ground. Sawdust or oatmeal is the
best representative of water or
blood. As any two objects in line
with the lamp throw shadows in the
same place, many comical effects'
may be produced. For instance,
Shadow Plays. — Fig. i.
the shadow of a pasteboard house
may be thrown on the curtain, and
a man rising slowly behind it may
appear to come out of the chimney
(Fig. i). Or, in the same way, a
man may be shown leaping into a
crocodile's mouth, as in Fig. 2. As
many of these ridiculous effects as
possible should be introduced in
the play. The chief advantage of a
shadow pantomime is that these
effects are very easily arranged,
whereas in an ordinary pantomime
they require the aid of apparatus
which is difficult to make and often
expensive.
SHEEPFOLD
626
SHOOTING
Shadow Plays. — Fig. 2.
SHEEPFOLD, THE, agame played
by any number of persons, two of
whom are chosen as "Wolf "and
"Lamb," while the others join hands
in a circle, to form the " Sheepfold,"
inside of which is the Lamb. The
Wolf endeavors to break through
the joined hands so as to reach the
Lamb, but if he does so, the Sheep-
fold opens on the opposite side, let-
ting the Lamb out, and closing in
time to imprison the Wolf. The
latter now tries, in the same man-
ner, to get out, and if he does so the
Lamb is admitted again. If the
Wolf succeeds in catching the Lamb,
the two players between whom he
broke through the sheepfold last
become Wolf and Lamb in their
turn.
SHOUTING PROVERBS. See
PROVERBS.
SHOEMAKER'S WAX, Experi-
ment with. Place a cake of shoe-
maker's wax on three or four small
corks. On the cake put several
leaden bullets. Leave the wax
alone, and in the course of several
weeks the corks will work through
the wax to the top, while the
bullets will go to the bottom.
The reason is that shoemaker's
wax, although very tough, has
some of the qualities of a liquid.
Hence the light corks rise to the
top and the heavy bullets fall to the
bottom, just as they would in water,
if thev are only given time enough.
SHOOTING, the firearms gener-
ally used for sport are the shot-
gun, the rifle, and the pistol. For.
the general description and history
of guns, see C. C. T, under Rifle.
The rifle and pistol are used for tar-
get shooting. In the field the rifle
is best adapted to furred game —
squirrels, deer, etc.; and the shot-
gun to bird shooting. Shotguns are
single-barrelled or double-barrelled.
The single is cheaper and lighter;
the double h;is the advantage of
giving a quick second shot. In a
muzzle-loader the charge is inserted
in the barrel at the muzzle and
pushed in with a ramrod ; in a
breech-loader it is inserted into
SHOOTING
627
SHOOTING
the chamber at the breech, the
gun being opened or "broken" for
the purpose. Muzzle loaders are
now almost entirely superseded by
modern breech-loaders ; the former
cost less, but the latter are more
convenient to handle, more safely
and more rapidly leaded, and de-
cidedly more effective in their
work. With a breech-loading shot-
gun the sportsman need never turn
the muzzle of his gun toward him-
self. The charge in a gun consists
of powder, shot, and wads, which in
a breech-loader are contained in a
metal or paper case called a shell,
having in its base a cap or primer of
percussion powder which explodes
Fig. i. Fig. 2.
Fig. 4.
when struck by the hammer of the
gun.
The "action" of guns, both that
by which they are opened or
" broken " to put in the cartridges,
and that by which they are fired,
usually differs with the maker.
Most guns must be cocked, before
shooting, that is, the hammer must
be pulled back ready to fall on the
cap; but hammerlessguns are made
which are cocked by opening the
gun to insert the cartridge, and
which cannot be set off accidentally
by dropping them on the hammer,
as the others can.
Cartridges already loaded may be
obtained at gun-shops, or shells may
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7-
Fig. 9.
Figs. 1-3. Swabbers.
Fig. 7. Recapper.
Fig. 8.
Reloading Tools.
Fig. 4. Decapper. Fig. 5. Cartridge-holder. Fig. 6. Charger
Fig. 8. Cartridge-extractor. Fig. 9. Charge-measurer.
be bought and loaded at home.
Metal shells may be reloaded as
often as desired ; but paper shells
are commonly used only once.
The tools for reloading are a de-
capper, for removing the old cap,
a recapper for putting in a new
one, a funnel for pouring in the
powder and shot, a wad-seater,
a block for holding the shell, and
for paper shells a creaser or
crimper by which the shell is
creased, or its edge turned over, to
hold the charge in place. Some of
these are shown in the illustra-
tion. The new cap should be
inserter1 before loading; for if it
explodes then no harm can be done.
The powder is then poured in,
then wads are inserted, then the
shot, and then a lighter wad. Wads
are bought ready-made. If the gun
is a muzzle-loader, the charge, in
the order described above, is put
directly into the gun instead of into
a cartridge. The quantity of powder
and shot, and the size of shot used,
varies with the object to be shot at.
Loads for different kinds of game
are given in the article on HUNT-
ING. The ordinary charge for
guns with nur-^er 10 bore is from
SHOOTING
628
SHOOTING
4 to 4^ drams of coarse powder
and ij ounces of shot; for 12-bore,
3 to 3$ drams of powder and i£
ounces of shot ; for J4-bore, 2$ to 3
drams of powder and $ to i ounce
of shot ; and for i6-bore, 2^ to 2|
drams of powder and f to I ounces
of shot. The extreme load is 4
drams of powder in a 12-bore, and
5 drams in a ro-bore gun.
The sizes of shotguns are des-
ignated by numbers express-
ing the gauges or diameters of
their bore, as 10 gauge, or 10-
bore, 12-gauge, etc. The origin
of these numbers was this : A ball,
of which 10 weigh a pound, fits a
lo-gauge ; balls weighing 12 to the
pound fit a i2-gauge, etc. ; hence
the higher the number of the gauge
the smaller is its diameter. Bores
range from 4 (large) to 20 (small) ;
those in common use are m's and
I2's. Guns are cylinder-bored, that
is with the bore of the sama diam-
eter from chamber to muzzle ; or
choke-bored, that is, having the
bore " choked " or constricted at a
point just back of the muzzle for
the purpose of keeping the shot
together in their flight through the
air. The constriction is from
of an inch to y^f of an inch.
The relative merits of choke- and
cylinder-bores are these : A choke-
bore, delivering its shot in a more
compact mass, will kill more surely
at greater distance; but it requires
more careful aim; it is specially
adapted to wild-fowl shooting. A
cylinder gun, because it spreads the
shot over a wider circle, requires less
careful aim, and is preferable where
the game is shot at short range.
Young sportsmen usually prefer a
cylinder-bore. Many sportsmen
prefer to have the right barrel of a
double-barrelled gun cylinder-bored
and the other choke-bored. The
right barrel is used at close range,
and the left at long range, because
it scatters the shot so little. Choke-
bored barrels were described as
early as 1787 by a Frenchman
named De Marolles, but he did not
approve of them and they have been
adopted only recently. Jeremiah
Smith, of Rhode Island, devised a
successful mode of choke-boring in
1827, and was perhaps the first to
do so, though the credit is given by
some to other inventors. The
merits of the system were first ex-
explained to the public in 1879 by
Joseph W. Long, in his book on
" Wild-Fowl Shooting." Mr. Long
says that choke-boring doubles the
closeness of the " pattern " on the
target at 40 yards.
The shooting qualities of guns
are determined by shooting at a
target, usually a sheet of paper,
placed at a distance of 40 yards
from the muzzle of the gun. On
the paper, before or after the gun is
fired, is drawn a circle 30 inches in
diameter. The marks made by the
shot pellets which strike \\ ithin this
circle constitute the " pattern." If
a large proportion of the entire
charge strikes within the 3O-inch
space, the gun is said to "pattern
closely;" and if the shot are evenly
distributed, to "pattern evenly;"
the pattern isalso designated by the
number of the pellets. The force
with which the shot are projected
is measured by their penetration
through the leaves of a book or a
pad of paper. A gun which gives
good penetration is said to ' shoot
hard."
The stocks of guns vary in length,
and crook, bend, or "drop, "to fit
different shooters. The length and
bend should be such that when the
gun is brought to the shoulder the
rib or top of the barrels should be in
line with the eye and a mark on the
same level with the eye. A long-
armed shooter will require a long
gun-stock ; a long-necked shooter a
stock with much drop. In selecting
a gun care should be taken to choose
one that fits the shooter.
Safety. To avoid accidents with
a shot-gun or rifle, the following
rules should be observed:
SHOOTING
629
SHOOTING
1. The sportsman must always
treat a gun as though it were
loaded, even if he knows it to be
unloaded.
2. He should never allow the
muzzle to point toward himself or
any other person.
3. He should never put his hand
over the muzzle.
4. He should take out both cart-
ridges before climbing a fence, get-
ting into a wagon, or entering a
house. If the gun is a muzzle-
loader, the caps should be removed
in like circumstances, though some
people think it unwise to keep a
loaded gun in the house uncapped,
because some one, thinking it un-
loaded, might then put on a cap,
snap it, and so discharge the gun.
But if Rule i is closely observed,
this will never be done.
Cleaning. Most people clean their
guns after each day's use, but some
think that they should never be
cleaned. The best way to clean
them is to wash thoroughly with
very hot water and then oil lightly.
Trap Shooting. As shotguns are
generally used to shoot birds when
on the wing, the first acquirement
of the beginner should be to aim
quickly and correctly. To attain
this practice should first be had on
a mark at rest, and when, after re-
peated tests, the ability has been
acquired to bring the gun to the
shoulder with correct aim, the
learner should practise hitting small
objects thrown into the air, etc.
The best practice of this kind is
trap shooting. A simple trap may
be made of an elastic strip of wood
4 feet long, 3 inches wide, and half
an inch thick, one of whose ends is
nailed to a heavy board, which is fas-
tened to the ground by driving
stakes through holes in it. The mid-
dle of the strip is supported at such
a height that its other end can easily
be bent down and fastened to the
board by a notched trigger. The
end of the strip that is thus secured
has a small tin box-lid fastened on it,
and when the strip is released, by
pulling a string tied to the trigger,
anything placed in the box-lid, such
as an apple or a potato, is thrown
into the air, where it can be shot at.
The traps sold by dealers in sporting
Fig. 10. — Trap.
goods (Fig. 10) are made with steel
springs, and throw up artificial tar-
gets, generally called " pigeons," of
which there are numerous patterns,
in general shape like a saucer (Fig.
11). The clay pigeon is very thin
and brittle, so that a single shot
can break it. When thrown, these
" pigeons" imitate very closely the
apparent shape and flight of a bird,
Fig. ii. — Clay pigeon,
the rounded edge, which is upward,
looking against the sky like the out-
line of the back and wings. Glass
balls were formerly much used in
trap-shooting, but have now gone
out of fashion. The moving targets
must be brittle, for it is hard to tell
whether they are hit or not, unless
the shot breaks them. For this
reason also very small shot cannot
be used, and the gun must not
scatter its shot. The trap gives the
object shot at great speed at first,
so if the ball flies away from the
shooter he must fire very quickly.
The shooter must stand so that
his arms may be free to move swiftly,
His weight rests equally on both
SHOOTING
630
SHOOTING
feet, the left being somewhat ad-
vanced, and the upper part of the
body bent forward a little. The
right hand holds the pistol-grip of
the gun, the forefinger touching
the trigger, and the barrel rests in
the left hand, pointing slightly up-
ward. At the word " Pull " the
trap is sprung by an assistant, and at
the same instant ilie right hand must
be raised so that the gun comes to
the level of the right eye, the breech
resting in the hollow of the right
shoulder. The rib between the
barrels should be directly under the
eye. While doing this, the shooter
looks steadily at the point toward
which he intends to fire, and when
the gun is pointed toward it, he
pulls the trigger. Long practice is
required properly to bring the gun
into position, to aim, and to fire, all
at once. Many skilful marksmen
never take aim by following the
mark with the gun as it moves,
(called " making a poke shot,"), but
aim and fire instantly, called a " snap
shot." This is especially the best way
in trap-shooting, for a second's delay
enables the object to get beyond
safe range, as it moves very swiftly,
In hunting, besides the "snap
shot," there is another method
called the "swing-shot," in which
the sportsman swings his gun, till it
is a certain distance in front of the
bird, and then fires. Some keep
the gun moving steadily, some
stop it at the moment of firing, and
others give it a quick motion to
one side. The distance of the point
aimed at in front of the moving
object depends on the speed of the
latter and its distance from the gun,
and must generally be learned by
experience. If the object to be
hit is a bird instead of something
thrown from a trap, the rules for
handling the gun are the same.
Other details will be found in the
article on HUNTING.
In trap-shooting matches each
shot is scored as a hit or a miss. In
one style of trap-shooting the com-
petitors who tie on their scores are
divided into classes, and the several
prizes are awarded to these classes.
Thus if in a match at no targets each,
with six shooters and 3 prizes, A and
B hit 10 each, C, D, and E hit 9, and
\ 20yda/
\
iA
/
Shooter's score.
Diagram A.
\
Shooter's score.
Diagram B.
F hits 8, the prizes are awarded
thus : ist to ties of 10, 2d to ties of
9, and 3d to F who scored 8. A
and B, who tied on 10, may divide
i st. prize, or shoot off to decide
which shall have it ; but the one
SHOOTING
631
SHOOTING
who is defeated in shootingoff the tie
receives nothing, and cannot claim
2d nor 3d, even though his score
Shooter's scores.
Diagram C.
Shooter's score,
Diagram D.
is actually better than those of the
winner of the other prizes.
RULES OF TRAP-SHOOTrNG.
The following rules for matches
are selected from those of the Amer-
ican Shooting Association.
I. Judges and Referee. Sec. I. —
Two judges and a referee, or a
referee alone, shall be selected to
judge.
Sec. 2. If the judges cannot
agree, the referee shall decide, and
his decision shall be final in all
tournament or sweepstake shooting.
Sec. 3. In individual matches a
a referee, scorer, and puller may be
agreed upon and named by the con-
testants.
3. Special Duties of Referee. The
referee shall see that the traps are
properly set at the beginning of a
match, and are kept in order to the
finish. He shall endeavor to make
the targets conform to the flight
and direction indicated in Rule 12.
He shall test any trap upon applica-
tion of a shooter at any time, by
throwing a trial bird therefrom.
He may at any time select one or
more cartridges from those of a
shooter at the score, and must do
so when the shooter is challenged
by a contestant, and he shall publicly
test the same for proper loading ; if
a cartridge is found to be improperly
loaded, the shooter shall suffer the
penalty as provided for in Rule 16.
4. Balk. If any contestant is
balked or interfered with, or there
is other similar reason why it should
be done, the referee may allow an-
other bird.
5. Shooter at the Score. In all
contests the shooter must be at the
score within three minutes after his
name is called to shoot, or he for-
feits his rights in the match.
6. Scorer. A scorer shall be ap-
pointed by the management whose
score shall be the official one. All
scoring shall be done with ink or
indelible pencil. The scoring of a
lost bird shall be indicated by a o,
and of a dead bird by a i.
7. Keeping the Score. Sec. i. The
call for a broken bird shall be " Dead
bird," and the call fora missed bird
shalt be " Lost bird."
Sec. 2. When two judges and a
referee are serving, one of the
judges shall announce the result of
each shot distinctly, and it shall be
called back by the scorer. If the
second judge disagree with the
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632
SHOOTING
decision of the judge calling, he
shall announce it at once before an-
other bird is thrown, and the referee
shall decide it. In the event of an-
other bird being thrown before the
referee's decision, the bird so thrown
shall be " No bird."
8. Broken Birds. A bird to be
scored " Dead bird" must have a per-
ceptible piece broken from it while
in the air; a " dusted " bird is not a
broken bird. No bird shall be re-
trieved for shot marks. If a bird
be broken by the trap, the shooter
may claim another bird, as provided
for in Rule 19; but if he shoots, the
result must be scored.
9. Announcing the Score. At the
close of each shooter's score the
result must be announced; if claimed
to be wrong, the error, if any, must
be corrected at once.
10. Screens. Either pits or screens,
or both, may be used, but the
screens must not be higher than is
actually necessary to fully protect
the trapper.
11. Arrangement of Traps. All
matches shall be shot from three
or five traps, set level, five yards
apart, in the segment of a circle
(see Diagrams A and C), or in a
straight line (see Diagrams B and
D). When in a segment of a circle,
the radius of the circle shall be
eighteen yards. In all cases, the
shooter's score shall not be less
from each trap than the rises pro-
vided for in Rule 14. The traps
shall be numbered from No. i on
the left to No. 3 or No. 5 on the
right, consecutively, according to
the number used, as shown in the
diagram.
12. Adjusting Traps. Sec. i. All
traps must throw the birds a dis-
tance not less than 40 yards nor
more than 60 yards, and each trap
must be tested for this standard dis-
tance before the shooting begins.
If any trap be found too weak to
throw the required distance, a new
trap or spring, that will, must be
substituted.
Sec. 2. The lever or projecting arm
of the trap shall be so adjusted that
the elevation of the bird in its flight
at a distance of 10 yards from the
trap, shall not be more than 12 feet
nor less than 6 feet, and the angles
of flight shall be as shown on the
diagrams.
Sec. 3. After the traps are set
for these angles, if the bird for any
reason shall take a different course,
it shall be considered a fair bird,
provided the trap has not been
changed.
13. Pulling the Traps. Sec. I.
The puller shall be placed at least
six feet behind the shooter, and
when the shooter calls " Pull," the
trap, or traps, shall be instantly
sprung. In single bird-shooting, he
shall pull the traps as decided by a
trap pulling indicator, if one is
used.
Sec. 2. Traps may be pulled in
regular order from Nos. i to 3, or I
to 5, or vice versa, if so decided by
the management.
Sec. 3. If the shooting is from
traps to be pulled in regular order,
the shooter may refuse a bird from
a trap not so pulled ; but if he shoots
the result shall be scored.
Sec. 4. If the trap is sprung be-
fore, or at any noticeable interval
after the shooter calls " Pull," he
can accept or refuse the bird ; but
if he shoots the result shall be
scored.
Sec. 5. Should any puller not pull
in accordance with the indicator,
he shall be removed, and another
puller substituted.
14. The Rise. In single bird shoot-
ing the rise shall be :
1 8 yards for lo-bore guns.
16 yards for 12-bore guns.
14 yards for 14 and i6-bore guns.
13 yards for 2o-bore guns.
In double bird shooting the rise
shall be :
1 6 yards for lo-bore guns.
14 yards for i2-bore guns.
12 yards for 14 and i6-bore guns.
1 1 yards for 2o-bore guns.
SHOOTING
633
SHOOTING
15. Calibre and Weight of Gun.
No gun of larger caliber than a 10-
bore shall be used, and the weight
of all guns shall be unlimited.
1 6. Loads. Charge of powder un-
limited. Charge of shot:
For lo-bore guns, i 1-4 ounces.
For 12-bore guns, i 1-8 ounces.
For 14 and i6-bore guns, i ounce.
For 2o-bore guns, 7-8 of an ounce.
17. Loading Guns. In single bird
shooting, only one barrel shall be
loaded at a time, and the cartridge
shall not be placed in the barrel
until after the shooter has taken
his position at the score. In double
bird shooting both barrels shall be
loaded at the score. Cartridges
must be removed from the gun be-
fore leaving the score.
1 8. Position of Gun. Any the
the shooter may adopt.
19. Allowing another Bird.
(Known or Unknown Angles.)
Sec. i. The shooter shall be al-
lowed another bird for the follow-
ing reasons :
A — For a bird broken by a trap.
B — For any defect in the gun or
the load, causing a miss-fire.
Sec. 2. When the shooting is at
known angles he shall have another
bird from the same trap; but if the
shooting is at unknown angles he
shall have another bird from an un-
known trap, to be decided by the in-
dicator, except in case it be the last
trap, when the shooter has a right
to know which trap is to be sprung ;
in this case he shall have another
bird from same trap.
20. Single Bird Shooting. Each
contestant shall shoot at three or
more birds before leaving the score,
when the traps are set in the seg-
ment of a circle. It two birds are
sprung at the same time it shall be
declared " No bird."
21. Double Bird Shooting. Both
traps must be pulled simultaneously,
and each contestant shall shoot at
three pairs consecutively, thrown as
follows : If three traps are used,
the first pair shall be thrown from
traps i and 2 ; the second pair from
2 and 3, and the third pair from i
and 3. If five traps are used, the
first pair shall be thrown from traps
2 and 3, the second pair from 3
and 4, and the third pair from 2
and 4. If only one bird is thrown
it shall be declared " No birds." If
a bird is lost for reasons stated in
Rule 19, it shall be declared "No
birds." If one be a fair and the
other an imperfect bird it shall be
declared " No birds." If both birds
are broken by one barrel it shall be
declared " No birds." If a shooter
fire both barrels at one bird inten-
tionally, it shall be scored " Lost
birds ;" but if the second barrel be
discharged accidentally it shall be
" No birds."
Summary. A contestant must
shoot at two whole birds while both
are in the air, and breaker miss one
with each barrel to have his score
count, and the referee shall be
as prompt as possible in calling "No
birds," and prevent unnecessary
shooting when a bird is broken by
the trap.
22. Rapid Firing System. When
the traps are set in a straight line
and the rapid firing system is to be
used, there shall be a screen before
each trap on which shall appear the
number of the trap, from No. i on
the left, and each shooter shall stand
at score opposite the trap from
which the bird is to be thrown for
him to shoot at ; after he has shot
at his first bird he shall pass to next
score to the right, and so continue
until he reaches the end of score,
when he shall return to the score
opposite No. i, and continue as be-
fore until his score is finished. If
shooters are annoyed or there is
delay in shooting by the smoke of
previous shots, the traps may be
pulled in reversed order, commenc-
ing with the trap on the right.
History of Trap-shooting. Until
about 1875 live wild pigeons were
used for targets at shooting-
matches. They were thrown into
SHOOTING
634
SHOOTING
the air by spring traps much like
those just described, and shot on the
wing. Sometimes several thousand
were killed in one match. Those
that were missed escaped, but many
were only wounded, and the sport
was a cruel one, so Captain Bo-
gardus, a well-known marksman,
suggested that hollow glass balls
should be used instead. As these
represented birds neither in shape
nor in manner of flight, George
Ligowsky, a Cincinnati sportsman,
invented the saucer-like "clay pig-
eons" which, with various other
artificial targets, have nearly every-
where taken the place of live
birds in shooting-matches. Skilled
marksmen have shown wonderful
accuracy in trap-shooting.
Trap-shooting is said to have been
the means of greatly improving
modern shot-guns, as it lias shown
marksmen that the old guns were
not fit for firing at such swiftly-
moving small objects.
Rifle Shooting. The rifle is de-
scribed in C. C. T. As the range
of this weapon is so great, even
more attention must be paid to
holding and aiming, than with the
shot-gun. In hunting, the rifleman
often rests his rifle on a tree or
fence to take aim, but no such rests
are allowed in target shooting. In
firing a rifle from an upright posi-
tion the left shoulder is thrown
forward, and the right foot placed
a step behind the left. The right
hand holds the stock with the
thumb uppermost, and the forefinger
hooked around the trigger. The
left arm, with bent elbow, holds the
rifle barrel. The marksman bends
his head to the ri»ht, touching the
stock with his cheek, and closing
his left eye, looks with the right
along the barrel, bringing both
sights into line. He aims first
below the target, then raises the
rifle slowly, pauses an instant just
as the target is in line with the
sights, and then pulls the trigger.
The butt of the rifle should be held
firmly to the shoulder, to counter-
act the recoil of the weapon. Nearly
every one holds his rifle a little dif-
ferently. Some riflemen kneel on
the ri«ht knee in firing, and rest the
left elbow on the left knee, sitting
either on the heel or side of the
right foot. In long-range shooting
the marksmen usually sit or lie on
the ground, and there are many
positions, some of which are curi-
ous. Long-range shooting is diffi-
cult, for the marksman has to make
allowance for the force of the wind,
the attraction of gravity, and the
drift or deviation of the ball caused
by the twist of the rifling. To cor-
rect the aim for the wind and for
SHOOTING
635
SHOOTING
drift, the rear sight is often arranged
so that it can be shifted sidewise,
and the rifleman must know just
how much to move it for a given
range and force of wind. Riflemen
describe the direction of the wind
by the numerals on a clock-face.
The marksman is supposed to be
standing in the middle of the clock-
face, and the target is at the figure
XII. A wind directly from right to
left is then blowing from the figure
III., and is called a " Three o'clock
wind." A wind from a point just
to the left of the target is called an
" Eleven o'clock wind," and so on.
Gravity pulls the ball down so much
in going a long distance that in fir-
ing at a range of. 1000 yards the rifle
must really be aimed at a point
about 80 feet above the target, but
the rear sight can be moved up and
down, so that the sights are in line
with the target while the rifle is
actually pointing above it. If the
sights of a rifle get out of line, the
rifle should be fixed in a vise and
fired at a target. The sights must
then be fixed in line with the hole
made by the bullet.
Rifle-Matches. In a rifle match
the competitors shoot at several
different distances, called ranges.
At Creed moor, on Long Island,
there are ten ranges, one at every
hundred yards, from looup to 1000,
but all these are not used in the
same match. The ranges selected
depend on the ability of the con-
testants, and the kind of rifle used.
In a beginner's match with Flobert
rifles, for instance, the ranges might
even be 10, 2^, and 50 feet. The
targets are usually the same for
each range, the distance being regu-
lated by the places (called firing-
points), at which the marksmen
stand. Each competitor in turn
fires a number of shots previously
agreed upon, at the shortest range,
and then the competitors go to the
next firing-point. When two par-
ties (called teams) are competing
•one against the other, the men in
the opposing teams fire alternately.
In skirmish firing (introduced at
Creedmoor in 1886), teams of six
men fire ' at a time, advancing
rapidly from one firing-point to
another, till they have shot from all
of them, and then retiring in the
same way. Targets to be used in
only one match may be made of
wood, but permanent targets are
made of iron painted white, with
black division lines. After each
shot an attendant (called the mark-
er) notes where the bullet struck,
and then covers its mark with
white paint, after signalling the
score, as will presently be ex-
plained. While he is so doing, a
danger signal is displayed, so that-
no one may shoot when he is in
front of the target. During the
shooting he retires to a bullet-proof
shelter. Behind the target should
be a bank of earth, so that no shots
may do harm. In a match not held
on a permanent range, great care
must be taken to set up the target
against a hillside. With very small
rifles, many people think it neces-
sary only to see that there is a thick
high fence, or the side of a building,
behind the target, which may be
made of paper pinned to the fence ;
but there are really no rifles which
can be used thus safely. People
have been killed by Flobert rifle
bullets passing through a wall. The
targets are square or oblong, and
have painted on them three con-
centric circles. The space within
the smallest is called the Bullseye,
between that and the second the
Centre, between the second and
third the Inner, and the remainder
of the target the Outer. Some-
times the Inner is bounded by a
square instead of a circle. The size
depends on the range. At Creed-
moor there are three classes of
targets. The first (Fig. i), used at
ranges of more than 600 yards,
measures 6 by 12 feet. The Bulls-
eye is 36 inches in diameter, the
Centre 54 inches, and the Inner is a
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636
SHOOTING
Fig. i.
Plan of Targets.
Fig. 2.
Fig- 3-
square of 6 feet. The second class
target (Fig. 2), used at ranges of
from 300 to 600 yards, is 6 feet
square. The Bullseye is 22, the
centre 38, and the Inner 54 inches
in diameter. The third class (Fig.
3), used at distances less than 300
yards, measures 4 by 6 feet. The
Bullseye is 8, the Centre 26, and the
Inner 46 inches in diameter. For
very small distances the size should
be still further decreased.
The marker signals the hits to
the scorer in any way that may be
agreed on. At Creedmoor a Bulls-
eye is signalled by showing a white
disk, a Centre by a red disk, an
Inner by a white and black disk, and
an Outer by a black disk. When a
bullet hits the target after striking
something else, it is called ^.ricochet
(French for rebound), and is sig-
alled by waving a red fl»g twice,
from side to side, in front of the
target. When a shot strikes the
target support, the flag is raised
and lowered thrice in front of the
target.
The scores of the various hits are
as follows :
Bullseye, 5
Centre, 4
Inner, 3
Outer, 2
RULES OF RIFLE SHOOTING.
The following rules for rifle
matches are condensed from those
of the National Rifle Association :
I. Rifle matches shall be in charge
of an Executive officer, a scorer, and
'a Range officer.
2. The Executive officer shall
have general control of the conduct
of the match, and the Range officer
shall have charge of all the firing
points.
3. The competitors will be sta-
tioned not less than four yards in
rear of the firing points, until called
by the scorer to take position at the
firing point. The scorer will sit
close behind the firing-point stake.
4. As each shot is signalled, the
scorer shall announce the name of
the competitor and the value of the
shot, and at the end of the score
announce in like manner his name
and total score. The-score shall be
open to inspection at all times by
any competitor.
5. No sights must be used that
cover the target so as to conceal
the danger signal.
6. No artificial rests must be
used.
7. A breech-loader must not be
loaded, nor a muzzle-loader capped,
before the competitor takes his
position at the firing point.
8. Any objection to the record of
a shot must be made before the
next is fired.
9. When two shots strike the
target simultaneously, the shot hav-
ing the higher value shall be marked
first, and the competitor whose
proper turn it was to shoot will
be credited with that value.
10. Any alteration in the score
must be signed by the Range officer.
11. When the danger signal is
displayed, competitors about to fire
will be required to open the breech-
lock of their rifles (if breech-load-
SHOOTING
637
SHUFFLE-BOARD
ers). If they leave the firing point,
they must withdraw the cartridge.
12. No rifle shall be cleaned or
wiped out except between ranges.
13. If any competitor is not ready
to fire when his name is called, he
shall forfeit his turn.
14. Competitors will be allowed
one minute to each shot.
15. Ties. Ties shall be decided
by the total score made at the long-
est distance ; or if those scores are
also tied, by the total score at the
second distance. If that is a tie,
then by the fewest outers in the
entire score; by the fewest inners
in the entire score ; and by inverse
order of shots, counting singly from
the last to the first. In team shoot-
ing, if there be still a tie, the com-
petitor making the highest score on
each side shall fire five rounds at
the longest distance.
16. Any competitor violating one
of the rules, or refusing to obey an
officer of the match, shall not be
allowed to compete further.
17. Any competitor firing when
the danger flag is shown, or know-
ingly discharging his rifle except at
his target, shall not be allowed to
compete further. This does not
apply to a person accidentally firing
at the wrong target when no danger
signal is up.
1 8. Any competitor found with a
loaded rifle, except at the firing
points when about to shoot, shall
not be allowed to compete further.
19. Any competitor firing his
irifle accidentally may be required to
withdraw from the match by the
(executive officer.
History of Rifle Shooting. Rifle
clubs have existed in this country
[for a long time, but scientific rifle
matches and organized target prac-
•tice began in 1873. The National
iRifle Association was organized in
.1871, and, with the aid of the State
<of New York, established in 1873
tthe rifle range at Creedmoor on
ILong Island, where many matches
ihave since been held. About 25,-
ooo men now shoot there every
year.
SHUFFLE-BOARD, or SHOVEL
BOARD, a game played by two or
four persons with iron weights,
which are slid along a board sprink-
led with fine sand. The board is 30
feet long, with slightly raised edges
to keep the weights from sliding off
sidewise. Lines are drawn across
the board five inches from each
end, one for a starting line and the
other for a finishing line. There
are eight weights, or " pieces," weigh-
ing about a pound each, and divided
into two sets of four each. The
players are divided into opposing
sides, and each side has one of
the sets of pieces. Each player in
turn, standing at the starting line,
slides his pieces along the board.
Each piece that projects partly over
the edge of the board scores three
points, and each that lies on the
finish line or between it and the
edge of the board is said to be "in,"
and scores two points. If no piece
is in, the one nearest the line scores
one. After a round has been played,
the players go to the other end of
6
1
8
7
5
3
2
9
4
x^x'
Ocean Shuffle-Board.
the board and play toward what was
the starting line, and they thus
change places after each round. Or
the sides may play in opposite direc-
tions, each keeping its own end of
the board. The side wins that first
scores 21 points.
Shuffle- board is much played on
SIEGE
638
SINGLE-LINE DRAWING
the decks of ocean steamers, but
differently from the way just de-
scribed. A figure is chalked on
the deck like that shown below.
The weights used are of wood, and
are pushed from a distance of nine
or ten paces by a long staff with a
curved end. The players take turns,
but nothing is scored till the end of
the round, when each is given the
number of points marked in the
square occupied by his piece. An
enemy's weight may be knocked
out of the figure altogether, or
a friend's shoved in, by a blow
from a succeeding player. If a
weight remain in the semi-circular
space nearest the players, ten is
subtracted from its owner's score.
The winner must make exactly 50
points ; all in excess of that number
are subtracted instead of added ;
thus if a player's score be 46 and
he make 8 more, 4 points are
added to bring him up to 50, and the
remaining 4 are subtracted, mak-
ing the total still 46. In like man-
ner 48 and 3 would make 49, and so
on.
History. Shuffle-Board was played
long ago in England, and its origin
was probably similar to that of
BOWLING, QUOITS, and CURLING.
It was sometimes played on tables
with pieces like checker-men.
Shuffle-Board was forbidden by
law in the reign of Henry VIII., as
one of the games that turned the peo-
ple from the practice of ARCHERY.
SIEGE. See Fox AND GEESE.
SIMON SAYS, a game played by
any number of persons, who sit in a
circle, or around a table. The leader
says, " Simon says thumbs up," hold-
ing out his clenched fist with the
-thumb uppermost ; " Simon says
thumbs down," reversing it ; or
"Simon says wiggle-waggle," mov-
ing his thumb back and forth. The
rest of the players must imitate him
whenever he uses the words " Simon
says," but when he says simply
"Thumbs up," "Thumbs down," or
"Wiggle-waggle" no attention is
paid to him and the position of the
players' hands is not changed. If
any one obeys the leader when he
should not, or fails to obey when he
should, he must pay a forfeit. The
leader tries to give his orders in
such rapid succession that some
of the players will be confused and
make a mistake.
SINGLE-LINE DRAWING. Puz-
zles are often given out in which it
is required to draw a certain figure
F
C D G
Single-line Drawing.
H
without taking the pen from the
paper or retracing a line. This
kind of drawing may be called
single-line drawing. Given any fig-
gure whatever, the following rule
will tell whether it can be thus
drawn, and if not, with how few
lines it can be drawn.
Count all the points in the figure
where an uneven number of lines
meet. There will always be an even
number of such points, if there are
any at all. Half this number will
be the fewest number of lines with
which the figure can be drawn.
Thus, of the four figures shown, the
first has no points where an uneven
number of lines meet, the second
has two, namely A and C (BC and
CD counting as separate lines) the
third has four, E, F, G, and H, and
the fourth six.
Therefore, when a figure is given
to be drawn in a single line, the first
thing to do is to see whether it be
possible so to draw it. Then, if it
SIPHON
639
SIPHON
be possible, begin at one of the
points where an uneven number of
lines meet, but if there are no such
points, any point may be taken as
the starting-point. When a crossing
is reached, it is better always to
adopt some one plan and to follow it
on all similar occasions to avoid
confusion. For instance, the line
to the right of the one you are
on may be taken, supposing that
you are facing the direction of mo
tion of your pencil. Or, you may
plan so as always to cross a line,
never taking the adjoining one.
But if there is no system and you
sometimes take one way and some
times the other you will often find
that you have left part of the figure
undrawn.
SIPHON, an instrument for draw-
ing liquid out of a vessel over the
side. It consists of a U-shaped
tube, one of whose branches is long-
er than the other, The tube is first
filled with the liquid and then the
shorter arm is dipped in the vessel,
when the liquid will flow over the
bend and out of the longer arm. A
simple siphon may be made by bend-
ing a glass tube (see CHEMICAL
EXPERIMENTS) or of a piece of rub-
ber tubing. Instead of first filling
the siphon with the liquid, the short
end may be placed in the vessel and
the mouth applied to the long end.
The liquid is brought over by suck-
ing it, and when it has started it
will continue to flow. The action
should not be started thus, of
course, unless the liquid is harmless.
EXPERIMENTS.
i. Using a bent rubber tube for
a siphon, raise and lower the outer
end while the water is running.
It will be found that the water
will run faster the lower the 'end
is, and will stop when the end is
just on a level with the surface of
the water. The reason is that the
difference of weight of water in the
two branches of the tube makes the
Water flow. The greater the differ-
ence, therefore, the faster the water
will run, and when there is no dif-
ference at all, it will stop. The part
of the small end that is under water
does not count as part of the tube.
2. Plug the lower end of an ar-
gand lamp-chimney with a cork or
rubber stopper through which passes
the long branch of a glass tube
bent into the form of a siphon, the
bend and short branch being inside
the chimney. Let water flow into
the chimney through a tube much
smaller than that used for the
siphon. As soon as the level of the
water reaches the bend of the
siphon it will fill the siphon and be
at once discharged. Then the supply-
tube will fill the vessel again, and so
on, the discharges taking place at
regular intervals. This arrange-
Exp. 2. Tantalus's Cup.
ment is often called "the cup of
Tantalus," from the old Greek
legend of Tantalus, who was said to
be doomed to stand up to his chin
in water, which receded every time
he tried to drink it. The illustra-
tion shows the form of the toy sold
by makers of chemical apparatus.
Cups are sometimes made contain-
ing figures of Tantalus, in which a
siphon is concealed. Water is allow-
ed to run in till it reaches the mouth
of the figure, when it suddenly runs
out. It is supposed by some people
that intermittent springs, which
flow at regular intervals, are natural
siphons of this kind. The arrange-
ment is used practically to " flush "
or wash out sewer-pipes at regular
intervals.
SIREN
640
SIREN
Cloth Siphon, Cut a strip of cloth
an inch or two wide and about a
foot long. Let one end dip in a
glass of water raised six or eight
inches above the level of the table
by means of books, and let the
other hang down into an empty
glass standing on the table. The
cloth, acting as a siphon, will in
a short time transfer the water from
the upper to the lower glass.
SIREN, an arrangement for show-
Sfren.
ing that musical notes are made up
of a regular succession of noises. A
simple one can be made by having
cut out a disk of sheet-iron about a
foot in diameter, with holes large
enough to admit a lead-pencil
around the edge. A similar row
containing half as many holes is
made a little nearer the centre. The
holes in each of these rows must
be at equal distances apart. The
disk has also a hole in the middle
so that it can be fastened to a
TWIRLER. A glass tube, drawn out
at one end to a jet (see CHEMICAL
EXPERIMENTS), is fixed to the end of
a rubber tube. The other end of the
tube is held in the mouth, while the
jet is held pointing toward one of
the holes in the disk. The twirler
is now turned, and by blowing
through the tube a succession of
puffs is heard as the stream of air
passes through the holes. By turn-
'
SIXTY-SIX
641
SKAT.
ing faster this series of noises can
be made to pass into a musical note,
though in this rough form of siren
it is mixed with a whistling or hiss-
ing sound. The faster the disk
twirls the higher the note is, and
the smaller row of holes always
gives a note an octave lower than
the other. If the disk is large
enough, the notes of the musical
scale can be formed by making sight
rows of holes containing successive-
ly the following numbers, or num-
bers proportional to them : 24,
27, 30, 32, 36, 40, 45, 48. If a
glass tube having a cork in one end
be placed with its mouth toward the
disk, as in the illustration, the
sound will grow suddenly louder
when the disk reaches such a rate
of speed as to give the note to
which the tube responds, and this
may be varied by pushing the cork
backward or forward in the tube.
SIXTY-SIX. See BEZIQUE.
SKAT, a ga-ne of CARDS, played
by three, four, or five persons, with a
EUCHRE pack. Only the three at the
dealer's left take active part in the
game at a time. The dealer gives
five cards to each active plaver, lays
two cards face downward on the
table to form what is called the
"Skat," and then deals five more
cards to each. The cards may also
be dealt three, four, and three at a
time, or two at a time, in which
case the skat may be laid out be-
tween any two of the rounds.
The privilege of playing any one
of several different games is now
sold to the highest bidder, as follows:
The eldest hand first decides on
the game that he can play best, de-
pending on the cards in his hand,
and says, " I ask." (The names of
the different games, and the values
of the corresponding bids, are given
below.)
The player on his left then makes
his bid, by mentioning the kind of
game he can play best, and the eld-
est hand, if its value is larger than
his own estimated bid, says, " I pass."
If his own bid is the larger, he says
"Yes," and then the other may bid
again or pass. This is repeated till
one or the other passes. The third
active player then bids against the
one that did not pass, in like man-
ner. When bidding is over, the
highest bidder announces the name
of his bid and playing begins. The
object of the highest bidder is to
make 61 points in the hand. If he
does, he scores the amount of his
bid ; if not, each of the others, in-
cluding the silent players, if there
are any, scores that amount. (An
exception, in the case of the bid
called " Nuil," is explained below.)
In playing, suit must be followed,
but if that is impossible any card
may he played. In reckoning the
necessary 61 points, the cards count
as follows for the player taking the
trick containing them :
Ace, n.
Ten, 10.
King, 4.
Queen, 3.
Knave, 2.
The Nines, Eights, and Sevens
have no counting value.
In the lay suits the rank of the
cards, beginning with the highest,
is Ace, Ten, King, Queen, Nine,
Eight, Seven. The four Knaves,
which are always the highest trumps,
are called " Matadores." and their
rank, beginning with the highest, is
Knave of Clubs, Knave of Spades,
Knave of Hearts, Knave of Dia-
monds. (The bid " Null" is an ex-
ception to this also, as explained
below.) All trumps count as Mata-
dores in bidding.
The Bids. In some of the bids
the suit on which they are based
must be mentioned, and the value
depends on the trump and on the
number of Matadores held, as will
be explained. The bids are as fol-
lows:
i . Simple Game, or Simple. When
the highest bidder has bid a simple,
the suit named in his bid becomes
trumps, unless he chooses to change
SKAT
642
SKAT
it to a higher suit. (The suits rank
is the same order as the Matadores.)
The successful bidder takes the Skat
into his hand, and then discards two
(including one or both of the Skat
cards if he wishes).
2. Tourne (too r- nay). The suc-
cessful maker turns up as trump one
of the Skat cards, and then, taking
the Skat into his hand, discards as
in simple. But if the turned-up
card is a Matadore or a Seven he
may change his bid as explained
under Grand Tourne", and Null
Tournd.
3. Solo. The trump is the suit
announced by the highest bidder in
his bid, or he may change it to a
higher suit. The Skat is not looked
at till the close of the hand, when
the value of its cards is added to
the lone player's count.
4. Grand Solo. This is like Solo,
except that no suit is announced
with the bid, and the only trumps
are the four Matadores.
5. Grand Ouvert. Like Grand
Solo, but after the first trick is taken
all play with their cards lying face
upward on the table.
6. Grand Tojtrne". When the
highest bidder has bid Tourne, and
turns up a Matadore, he may change
his bid to Grand, still taking up the
Skat cards, but he may not change
if he has looked at the other Skat
card.
7. Null Solo. The player making
this bid undertakes to win no trick
at all, otherwise he loses. No points
are reckoned, the Knaves cease to
be Matadores, and the cards rank
as in whist. There is no trump,
and the lone player plays without
the Skat.
8. Null Ouvert. The same as
Null Solo, except that after the first
trick the hand of the bidder is laid
face upward on the table, while his
opponents play as usual.
9. Grand Null Ouvert, or Revolu-
tion. The cards of all the players
are turned face upward on the table
before the first card is led. The
opponents of the highest bidder can
exchange what cards they please
before playing begins, and can also
consult during the game. The lone
player takes the Skat into his hand
10. Null Tourne. When the bid
derof Tourne turns a Seven he may
change his bid to Null, before look-
ing at the other Skat card. He
takes the Skat into his hand as be-
fore, but there is no trump.
11. Null Tourne" Ouvert. After
taking up the second Skat card in
Null Tourne he can again change
his bid and play as in Null Ouvert.
It will aid the learner to remem-
ber these bids if he recollects :
1. That in Tourne bids (French
Tourne", turned) the Skat cards are
taken into the hand, and that one
of them is turned for trump (though
in Grand Tourne and Null Tourne
it does not count as such) ;
2. That in Solo bids (Italian Solo,
alone) the Skat is not looked at till
after playing is ended ;
3. That in Grand bids the four
Matadores are the only trumps ;
4. That in Ouvert bids (French
Ouvert, open), one or more hands
are exposed while playing; and,
5. That in Null bids the rank of
the cards and method of counting
is changed.
It will be noted that with some of
these bids it is much easier for the
bidder to make his 61 points than
with others, and they are accord-
ingly given different values, which
the winner adds to his score as be-
fore stated. The value of any bid
is calculated by multiplying its unit-
value (given below) by a number
depending on the Matadores in
hand and other things, as explained
farther on. The unit-values are as
follows :
In Diamonds, Hearts, Spades, Clubs.
Simple, i 234
Tourne, 5678
Solo, 9 10 ii 12
Grand Tourne, 12; Grand Solo, 16;
Grand Ouvert, 24. Null Tourne
SKAT
643
SKAT
16; Null Solo, 24; Null Tourne
Ouvert, 32 ; Null Solo Ouvert, 48.
Revolution, 72.
It will now be explained how the
numbers are obtained by which the
unit-values must be multiplied.
Matadores. In announcing any
bid except a Null bid, the bidder
must say how many Matadores he
has in unbroken order, beginning
with the highest. In bidding, all
trumps count as Matadores. If he
has not the highest Matadore
(Knave of Clubs) he can announce
none. If he has the highest but not
the next, he bids " with one Mata-
dore," no matter how many lower
ones he has. If he has the highest
three, but not the fourth, he must
bid " with three Matadores," and
so on. In the bids where the Skat
cards are not looked at till the play-
ing is over, any Matadores in the
Skat count in reckoning the value
of the hand. Thus if a player bid
"with three Matadores," having
also the fifth, and the fourth is in
the Skat, his bid is reckoned as if it
had been "with five Matadores."
Absence of Matadores counts the
same as their presence, as without
these cards the difficulty of winning
is increased. Thus, if a player has
not the highest, he can bid " with-
out one Matadore;" if the highest
three are wanting, " without three
Matadores" and so on. In forming
the multiplier of the unit-value,
bids with or without I Matadore
count i ; with or without 2 Mata-
dores count 2 ; with or without 3
Matadores count 3 ; and so on.
Schneider and Schwartz. If a
player make 91 points in playing
he makes his opponents Schneider
(German Schneider, a tailor), and if
he makes all the points (120) he
makes them Schwartz (German
schwartz, black). In these cases he
is also said to win Schneider or
Schwartz. If he lose, and his op-
ponents make 91 or 120 points, they
win Schneider or Schwartz.
A player may bid to make
Schneider or Schwartz, in which
case he loses altogether if he does
not do so. The value of these points
differs according as they are made
when bid or not bid. They count
toward forming the multiplier as
follows :
Schneider made, not bid, I.
Schneider bid and won, 2.
Schwartz made, not bid, 3.
Schwartz bid and won, 4.
(The loss of a player when he bids
and loses Schneider or Schwartz is
told below).
The value of a bid is found by tak-
ing its unit-value, and multiplying
by the sum of the points for Mata-
dores and Schneider or Schwartz,
plus one. Thus, to find the value of
a Spade-Tourne bid, without four
Matadores, in playing which a
Schneider is won:
The Unit Value is 7.
Four Matadores count 4.
Schneider won, not bid, counts I.
We must therefore multiply 7 by
4+1 + i, or 6, and obtain 42 as the
value of the bid. This seems diffi-
cult at first, but with a little prac-
tice the value of any bid can be told
very quickly.
If a player bid to make Schneider
and fails to make his 91 points, his
opponents score what he would
have scored had he won. If he
fails to make even 31 points, mak-
ing himself Schneider, they score
in addition what his bid would have
been worth without his announced
Schneider.
In the case given above, if the
player had bid to make Schneider
and won, he would have made 49.
If he had lost, his opponents would
score 49. If he was made Schneider
in addition, they would score 49 +
35, or 84.
The game of Skat differs accord-
ing to the bid that is made, and to
give an example of each would take
too much space. The following
hints may aid the beginner:
The highest bid on which 61
points are likely to be won should
SKAT
644
SKAT
be made. Making 61 points de-
pends not so much on the counting-
cards in hand as on those that are
likely to be captured.
In those bids where the trump is
turned, not made, the player should
have high Matadores and other
high cards to begin with.
Solo bids require stronger cards
than bids where the Skat is taken
into the hand.
Null should not be bid unless the
player has three Sevens, and no
commanding card in his hand.
Grand should usually not be bid
without four Matadores, unless the
other cards are very high.
In playing, the highest bidder
should remember that all cards not
in his own hand are against him
(except when the Skat is not taken
up). On the contrary, each of the
opponents is in doubt as to whether
his friend or his enemy holds any
card that is not in his own hand.
The opponents of the bidder can
assist each other in many ways. It
is better for the one at the left to
get the lead, for then the other will
play last, and can put on a counting-
card or not, according as his part-
ner or the lone player has taken the
trick.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. Before the game begins, each
player draws a card from the pack.
He who draws the lowest is dealer,
and the others sit at his left in
order, beginning with the holder of
the next to the lowest, and ending
with the holder of the highest card.
If two players draw cards of the
same value they must draw again.
2. The deal passes in order to the
left, but if more than three play,
the dealer is never an active player,
cards being dealt only to the three
in order at the dealer's left hand.
3. Each player must count his
cards before he raises them, to
make sure he has the right number.
4. If a misdeal is discovered be-
fore a card is led, there must be a
fresh deal by the same dealer; but
if play begins while a player has the
wrong number of cards, his side
forfeits the game.
5. If players on both sides begin
to play with the wrong number of
cards, that hand does not count,
and the deal passes to the next.
6. If a player deal out of turn and
play has begun, the deal is good,
and the next deal passes to the
player on his left.
7. In case of two bids of equal
value, the elder hand has prefer-
ence.
8. The successful bidder may
change his bid to a higher, but not
to a lower one.
9. If a player revoke, his side
loses the hand, unless the revoke
is corrected before the next lead.
10. If a card be led, or played,
out of turn, it must be withdrawn,
unless all have played.
11. A card so withdrawn, or ex-
posed in any other way, must be
played afterward at the command
of an opponent, unless such play
would be a revoke.
12. Only the last trick may be
looked at.
13. If either or both of the Skat
cards are lifted by one who is not
entitled to do so, his side loses the
game.
14. If the bidder, after the first
trick has been played, and before
the next lead, sees that he is sure
to be beaten, he may throw down
his cards and give his opponents
their points, thus securing himself
against being made Schneider or
Schwartz.
History. Skat is a German game.
It is said to have originated in
Altenburg in the present century,
and is probably a mixture of Hom-
bre, Solo, and other games. It is
very popular in Germany, where
many different kinds of Skat are
played. The kind described here,
which is played in America, is
called in Germany Reichskat (Regu-
lation Skat).
SKATING
645
SKATING
SKATING. Skates are ground
either perfectly flat on the bottom,
or with a slight groove, so that the
sharp edge holds the ice. The bot-
tom may be straight, or slightly
curved like a rocker. They were
formerly always secured to the foot
by straps, but now usually by
clamps, fastening with a screw or
lever.
Strap Skates.
In the strap skate, if a strap breaks
it can be replaced in an instant or
mended at any harness-maker's,
Clamp Skates.
whereas a broken clamp skate can
usually be mended or replaced only
with great trouble, unless the wearer
lives in a city, and even then he
must wait some time. But, on the
other hand, the strap skate can be
buckled securely to the foot only by
pulling the straps so tight that they
interfere with the circulation of the
blood, making the feet cold and un-
comfortable. It also takes much
time to put it on properly. Any
clamp skate can be put on in a few
seconds, but all are apt to come off
under great strain unless the clamps
have been properly adjusted. Those
in which the clamps are fitted with
spikes sometimes tear off part of
the sole of the shoe. Screw skates
are simple, and can be tightened
easily ; but the screw is apt to loosen,
and in those where the strain comes
directly upon it, it often breaks.
Taking all things into considera-
tion, a lever skate is best if it is
properly used, but skaters with weak
ankles should use a heel-strap in
addition. Shoes with thick soles
must be worn, that the pressure of
the clamps may not bend them, and
the clamps should be properly ad-
justed to the shoes once for all, so
that the skates may be fastened by
simply moving the lever, without a
series of trials to see when the
clamps fit properly.
The beginner's chief difficulty
usually is to keep the ankles stiff.
When this has been overcome, he
may try walking on the ice on his
skates. He will see that it is nec-
essary to turn the foot that remains
on the ice a little to one side to
prevent its slipping back while he is
advancing the other, and also that
the less he lifts the forward foot the
better, it being easier to slide it
along the ice, while the rearward
foot pushes. At the end of the
slide, or stroke, the rear foot is
brought for ward ready to make a
stroke in its turn. The skate-marks
will be something as in Fig. I. (In
the diagrams, the full lines show
the track of the left foot, the dotted
ones tha'i of the right. The foot-
print shows always the position of
the skate at the beginning of the
stroke.) At the end of each stroke,
the foot which is about to leave the
j ice gives a sidewise push to give
, impetus to the other. The body
SKATING
646
SKATING
must be inclined so as to throw its
weight on the advancing foot. The
rear foot may now be held in the
air till the forward one has finished
its stroke, and the stroke may be
lengthened by giving a more vigor-
ous push, as in Fig. 2. Plain skat-
ing of this kind may be varied in
several ways. Thus it may be
changed to a motion resembling
running, the strokes being nearly
straight ahead and the push given
by turning the toe slightly. This is
Fig. i.
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
an awkward motion, but much used
in playing running games, where
quick dodging is necessary. The
pushing foot, instead of being lifted
from the ice, may remain on it, the
push being given gradually so that
the skate-marks are like Fig. 3.
A push is given by the left foot at
2, and by the right foot at i, but
after the stroke has been learned
this push is scarcely perceptible even
to the skater. The body is inclined
in the direction of the stroke, as in
ordinary skating.
From this point the skater should
practise with a view to using the
outside edge. If in making the
stroke the opposite shoulder should
be thrown a little forward, and the
body inclined toward the advancing
side, the skate will rest on its outside
edge and the skate-mark will be
more of a curve, as in Fig. 4 or Fig.
5. To avoid changing to the inside
edge of the skate, in giving the
push for the next stroke, the rear
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
foot may be crossed over the ad-
vancing one in beginning the stroke,
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
after being swung slowly around to
aid the advancing foot in making
Fig. 8.
the curve. Skilful skaters can
easily make a complete circle on
SKATING
647
SKATING
the outer edge of one skate, and
another on the other in an opposite
direction, as in Figs. 6 and 7, thus
moving over and over on a figure 8.
Inside Edge. Figs. 8 to n show
the same strokes made on the inside
edge of the skate, which is some-
what more difficult.
Fig. 10. Fig. ii.
Combinations. By using the out-
side edge always with one foot and
the inside with the other, a circle is
described on the ice in the direction
of the foot that skates on the out-
Fig. 12.
Fig. 13.
side edge. Each foot must be
crossed over the other at the begin-
ning of its stroke, but the foot on
the outside of the circle must be
crossed farther than the other. Figs.
12 to 15 show other combinations of
inside and outside edge.
To skate backward, the learner
must reverse the directions given
above for skating forward, begin-
ning by trying to walk backward
slowly on his skates. By combining
the inside and outside edges, for-
ward and backward, a great variety
Fig. 16. Fig. 17.
of fancy steps can be executed, of
which hints for several are given in
Fig. 18. Fig. 19.
the diagrams. Figs. 16 to 22 show
backward motions alone. Figs. 23
SKATING
648
SKATING
to 26, combinations of forward and
backward. The simpler ones may
be understood without explanation1
In Fig. 13 the feet follow nearly the
same path, the left leading. In Fig.
25 the feet both move forward at
Fig. 20.
Fig. 22.
first, the left on the
outer edge from i
to 2, and the right
on the inner from
4 to 5, then both
change to the
backward stroke,
the left taking the inner and the
Fig. 25.
right the outer edge. In Fig. 26
there is a change from forward to
backward, or the reverse, at each
angle in the curve. Fig. 27 shows
attitudes in skating.
Fig. 26.
Stopping. When the skate run-
ners are not curved up behind, the
easiest way to stop is to rise on one
or both heels, thus digging them
into the ice. When the skates are
curved behind, one skate may be
held at right angles to the forward
direction and tipped slightly, so that
its edge will scrape. Another way
is to place both feet in nearly a
straight line, the heels toward each
other, so that the skater describes
a circle, till his motion is spent, or
the feet may be held firmly at a
slight angle with the toes pointing
a little inward.
Safety. A skater may glide over
unsafe ice by motion previously
gained where it would be dangerous
to make a stroke. Ice will also sup-
port one lying flat on it when it
would break if he stood upright, be-
cause when he is lying down his
weight is distributed, instead of
pressing all on one spot. The
strongest ice is that generally
known as "black" ice, being per-
fectly clear and free from air bub-
bles. It is not really black, but
perfectly transparent, and the skater
over it can sometimes see objects
at the bottom of the stream dis-
tinctly at a depth of fifteen or twen-
ty feet. It appears black because
it does not reflect the light of the
sky, as bubbly or snow-ice does.
Black ice half an inch thick, which
SKATING
649
SKATING
rests directly on the water, will bear
a skater. It is very tough, and
bends greatly before it breaks, little
cracks running through it in all di-
rections. Ice filled with bubbles is
Fig. 27.
not so tough, and ice which has
snow mixed with it is weakest of all.
Snow ice two inches thick is no
safer than black ice half an inch
thick. It bends very little and
cracks suddenly. In general, it is
best not to venture on ordinary ice
till it is three or four inches thick,
and to examine carefully in a thaw.
When the water in a pond or river
falls after the ice has formed, the
ice falls with it in the middle, but
is held up by the shore on the edges.
Near the shore, therefore, it is not
supported by the water, and is more
apt to break. It often parts from
the shore by its own weight, or
long cracks run along the banks
with a loud noise, called " boom-
ing." Ice on any water is safe in
some places and unsafe in others.
Springs or currents of slightly
warmer water may prevent the
water from freezing, making "air-
holes," or even large open spaces.
The channel of a river, or the parts
of a lake near the inlet or outlet,
usually freeze last, because the wa-
ter there is in motion ; and when
they freeze, they usually become
covered with black ice, so that it is
difficult to tell at a distance whether
they are open or not. No skater
should venture on such a place till
he knows it to be safe. On lakes
surrounded by hills, gusts of wind
often blow continually in certain
places, keeping the water in mo-
tion, so that it does not freeze, and
there are there-
fore large open
spaces. When a
skater is in
doubt as to
whether ice will
bear or not, the
best way is to
test it by throw-
ing a heavy
stone on it.
Should the skat-
er find that he
is on a weak
spot, he should
not stop, but turn in a sweeping
curve and get off as quickly as
he can, without straining the ice
by taking a stroke, if he is going
fast enough. If necessary, he
may lie down and roll to a place
of safety. If he go through the ice
and the water be over his head,
there is nothing to do but to seize
the edge of the hole and cry for
help. As he goes in he should
stretch out his arms on either side
as far as possible. If he has slipped
into an air-hole, the surrounding ice
may be strong enough to let him
climb out unaided. His compan-
ions should get a board or fence-
rail and shove it out to him. If
none is at hand, one skater should
lie flat on the safe ice and one lying
behind should push him, holding
his feet, as near the hole as possible;
another may, if necessary, lie be-
hind the second, and so on until
the line reaches safe ice. So long
as each holds tightly, no one can be
carried under the ice even if it break
again.
Unless the weather is very cold
the skater should not wear his over-
coat. He may wear a knit woollen
jacket under his coat. Skaters often
build fires on the ice, which, es-
pecially at night, adds much to the
SKATING
650
SKATING
sport. A fire may be built on mod-
erately thick ice without danger, for
the layer of ashes that forms beneath
it is a non-conductor of heat, and
prevents the ice from melting.
Skating Contests, These are of
two kinds — races and contests of
skill in fancy skating. The former
are usually governed by the same
laws as running races (see ATHLET-
ICS), and the latter are regulated by
the rules given below, or similar
ones. The programme of events is
made out beforehand, and includes a
number of well-known movements,
ending with an exhibition of " spe-
cialties," in which each skater per-
forms such other figures as he
wishes. When a skater begins to
execute his figure he is said to " take
the surface." The judges decide at
the opening of the contest on a scale
of marking, which may range from
o for the poorest up to 10 for the
best.
RULES OF SKA TING CONTESTS.
1. The judges shall, at the com-
pletion of each movement in a con-
test, mark on a slip of paper the
number of points for each contest-
ant, and deposit the slip in a closed
box ; these slips shall not be referred
to till the close of the contest, when
the judges shall foot up all the slips,
and the number of points gained by i
each contestant shall constitute
their award, which shall be final.
In case of a tie the contest shall be
decided by a general display of com-
bined movements at the option of
the contestants.
2. The order of taking the sur-
face by each contestant shall be de-
cided by lot, and the number of
figures to be executed shall be de-
termined as nearly as possible by
the number of contestants.
3. No point shall be given for a
movement under the head of spe-
cialties, if the skater who executed
it has executed the same movement
during the programme; but if the
skater, under a particular figure ex.-
ecutes a movement which the judges
rule to belong to another figure, or
to specialties, the skater shall have
the right to execute that figure in
its proper place.
4. In specialties, the leading con-
testant shall execute one specialty,
which his opponent shall then exe-
cute if he can ; the second contest-
ant shall then execute another, to
be copied by his opponent, if he can,
and so on, leading alternately till
the contestant whose turn it may
be to lead shall not be able to exe-
cute any more, when he shall sit
down, and the judges shall score on
the merits up to that point.
5. When the contestant falls in
executing any movement he sliall
forfeit one point; if, however, the
judges unanimously consider the
fall to have been occasioned by un-
avoidable accident (such as an ob-
struction in the surface, or the
breaking of a skate), they may allow
him to recommence the figure with-
out forfeit. In specialties, a fall
only counts against the skater in the
particular specialty in which it oc-
curs. When any part of the person
except the feet or hands touches the
surface, the skater is considered to
have fallen.
Skier or Snow skates. These hold
a middle place between ice-skates
and SNOW-SHOES. They are much
used by the Norwegians, who are
very skilful with them. Formerly
regiments of soldiers in Norway
were equipped with skier, on which
they performed many remarkable
evolutions; but the last body of this
kind was disbanded in 1860. The
ski is a strip of wood 5 feet long,
2j to 3J inches wide, and i to i£
inches thick, tapering toward the
ends, and having the toe turned
up to the height of about 4 inches.
The movement of the snow-skater
is a sort of shuffle, and the skilful
wearer can go on these skates very
swiftly along a level surface of hard-
ened snow, or even up a steep in-
cline, by zig-zaggmg. Down-hill
SKATING
651
SKATING
motion requires no effort, the skater
simply coasting, as on a sled.
Roller-skating. In 1819 skates
having three rollers of copper in
place of the runner were used in
Paris, but they were not popular.
On April 16, 1849, they were used
in the same city in the skaters'
ballet in Meyerbeer's opera of " The
Prophet." But the first successful
roller-skate was invented in 1869
by James L. Plimpton, of New
York. It rests on four wooden
wheels, two at the toe and two at
the heel, so hinged that they remain
flat on the surface even when the
foot is inclined to one side. The
principle is shown in the illustra-
tion, in which AB represents the
foot-piece, RR two of the rollers, e
an inclined pivot on which the
roller-axle turns, and which is fast-
ened to the foot-piece at a. If the
body inclines, turning over in the
direction of the lower arrow, the
foot-piece tips up as shown at vx,
and the wheels are thrown around
so that the skater moves off in the
direction of the arrow z. The
curve described by the skater is
thus toward that side on which he
inclines his body, just as in skating
Principle of the Roller-skate.
on ice. Roller-skating began to
be popular in the United States
about 1875, and from 188410 1886 it
amounted to what is often called a
"craze." Every town had its rink,
and there were few persons who
did not at least try the sport; but
since that time it has declined in
favor. Many games were played
on skates in the rinks, especially
POLO. The principal difference be-
tween ice-skating and roller-skat-
ing is that the later requires more
exertion, since the friction is great-
er ; but the motion is not quite the
same, and a good ice-skater is often
unable to use roller-skates the first
time he tries them on.
History. Skating probably origi-
nated in the north of Europe, where
skates have long been used to travel
from place to place on the ice; but
skating as a sport has been devel-
oped in temperate countries where
there is less snow, such as England,
Germany, Holland, and the United
States. In Holland, where there
are many canals, skates are widely
used.
The earliest skates were of bone
fastened to the feet with cords.
Such skates were used in London
in the reign of Henry II., but the
sport first became common in Eng-
land in 1662, after the restoration
of the Stuarts. It was not until
1830 that the first club devoted to
figure-skating was formed in Eng-
land, but since that time the art has
been greatly developed, and hun-
dreds of new figures invented, some
of which require the co-operation
of as many as eight skaters. Ameri-
can skaters also are very skilful in
figure-skating, and they hold the
best records for fast skating. The
fastest times for various distances
are given in the appendix.
In 1886 the National Skating As-
sociation was organized, and it has
since held annual contests for the
championship in or near New York
SKATING
652
SKATING
City. The events in these contests
are races for one hundred yards,
one furlong, quarter mile, half mile,
one mile, five miles, ten miles, and
twenty-five miles, and a trial of
skill in figure-skating.
Skate-sailing, On a windy day it
is possible to move very rapidly, let-
Skate-sailing. — Fig. i.
ting the wind blow the skater along,
especially if he hold out his overcoat
on both sides, or carry an open um-
brella; but to get back, it is nec-
essary to skate against the wind.
If the skater carries a frame fitted
with a sail, so that he may turn
it at an angle with his course, he
may with practice "tack" back like
a sail-boat (see SAILING).
Skate-sailing. — Fig. 2.
There are several forms of skate-
sails. The oldest is stretched on an
Skate-sailing.— Fig. 3.
oblong frame about three feet high
by six feet long, and carried by a
spar running horizontally along the
middle. The " Cape Vincent" rig
(Fig. i) is triangular, the longest
side being from eight to fifteen feet
long. The " Norton rig (Figs. 2, 3)
invented by Col. Charles L. Norton
(late president of the Canoe Club),
of New York, consists of two sails,
each about three feet three inches
square, fastened together corner-
SKATING
653
SKATING
wise, about a foot apart, by a spar
made of two strips of wood, as seen in
the illustration. The skater stands
between the sails (Fig. 3), thus
having nothing to obstruct his view.
The sails are kept stretched by being
buttoned to the ends of the spar and
yards, and are connected by a short
rope. Any of these rigs may be
made of light wood and stout cot-
ton cloth. The rig is held firmly in
the hands or under the arms, and
any one who understands SAILING
a boat will be able to move in any
direction by its aid, if there is plenty
of wind.
The English Rig is a small lateen
sail (see Sailing) fastened to a mast
which rests in straps bound around
one of the skater's legs. He holds
the rig by passing one arm around
the mast, and grasping the upper
spar with the other (Fig. 4). It has
Skate-sailing. — Fig. 4.
the disadvantage of being fastened
to the sailor, so that he cannot eas-
ily get loose in case of accident.
Skate-sails have long been in use
in Norway, Denmark, and other
northern countries (Fig. 5 shows
one of the rigs used there), but they
have only recently been introduced
into this country. The sport has be-
come popular in some towns.
The following rules are suggested
by Colonel Norton for the govern-
ance of skate-sailing regattas. The
nautical terms are explained in the
article on SAILING.
Skate-sailing. — Fig. 5.
RULES OF SKATE-SAILING.
1. Those on the port tack must
give way to those on the starboard
tack.
2. When moving side by side, or
nearly so, on the same tack, those
to windward must give way to those
to leeward when requested to do
so, if there is an obstacle in the
course of the leeward most. But
the leeward skate-sailor must go
about or change his course at the
same time as the windward skate-
sailor, or as soon as he can without
coming into collision. The new
direction must be kept at least un-
til the obstacle has been cleared.
3. When side by side, as in Rule
2, and approaching a windward ob-
stacle, the leewardmost must give
way when requested to do so. But
the windwardmost must change his
course at the same time as the lee-
wardmost, or as soon as he can do
so without coming into collision,
and the new direction must be kept,
at least until the obstacle has been
cleared.
4. When running free, it rests
with the rearmost ones to avoid col-
lision.
5. Those running free must al-
ways give way to those on either
tack.
6. Violators of any of the forego-
ing rules in the course of a race
shall forfeit all claim to victory.
7. A touch, whether of person or
of rig, constitutes a collision, either
with another skate-sailor or with a
mark or buoy, and he who is re-
sponsible for it, under the rules,
forfeits all claim to the victory.
SKIPPING ROPE
654
SLINGING
8. No means of locomotion other
than that afforded by the wind are
permissible during a race.
SKIPPING ROPE. See JUMPING
ROPE.
SKIPPING STONES. See DUCK
AND DRAKE.
SLAP-JACK, a game played by
not more than ten persons, with a
full pack of cards. The cards are
dealt and placed as in EVERLAST-
ING, but each player plays only one
card at a time. When a Knave or
"Jack" is thrown on the table, all
the players try to slap it, and the one
who does so first takes all the
cards in the middle of the table and
adds them to his pile. The object
is to obtain all the cards, and he
who does so is the winner.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. Each player must turn his
cards face outward so that the
other players will see them first.
2. No one, except the player,
shall touch the table, or raise his
hands above it till before seeing the
face of the card that is being turned,
and the player may do so only so
much as may be necessary in turn-
ing and playing his card.
3. If one or more players slap a
card that is not a Jack, the one that
slaps first shall receive a card from
each of the other players from
the bottom of their piles.
SLINGING, the art of sending mis-
siles with the sling. The simplest
sling consists of an oblong piece
of leather with a slit in the middle
Sling.
and a string fastened to each end.
The end of one of the strings is
looped. The slinger places on the
leather a pebble which the slit holds
in position, and holds the ends of
the strings in his hand : one tightly,
aided by the loop, through which
he passes his middle finger, and the
other loosely. After whirling the
sling around his head, he releases
the loose string, and the stone flies
off. Slings are made also entirely of
leather. Practice is required to
send the stone accurately, for unless
the loose string is let go exactly at
the right time it will fly off in the
wrong direction. The best missiles
to use are perfectly smooth and
round clay marbles.
A kind of sling can be made by
slitting a stick at the end so that it
will hold a pebble securely, but not
too firmly. The stick is held by the
other end, and with it the pebble
can be thrown to a great distance.
Apples are sometimes thrown in
this way, but they are usually stuck
on the end of the stick, which is
sharpened instead of being cleft.
The reason why missiles can be
thrown swifter and farther with the
aid of a sling than with the hand is
that the sling or stick adds, as it
were, to the length of the arm.
The longer the sling or stick, the
swifter the pebble, provided it is
not too long for the strength of the
slinger's arm.
Throw-Stick, a sort of sling for
throwing a lance or long arrow.
It is cut from a flat piece of wood,
SIDE VIEW.
Throw-Stick.
and has a projecting tooth at one
end, as shown in the illustration.
The thrower takes the throw-stick
by the end opposite the tooth, and
placing the butt of the hmce against
the tooth, supports it with the
thumb and first finger of the hand
which holds the stick. Releasing
it, he propels it at the same time
by a slinging motion of the throw-
SLINGING
655
SLINGING
stick, which can be learned only by
practice. With one of these sticks,
a skilled thrower can send a javelin
much farther than with the hand
alone. They are the invention of
the natives of Australia, who use
them in war and the chase.
Catapult, a kind of sling in which
the missile is shot by force of a
stretched elastic cord. Catapults
may be bought at toy-stores, or
made by selecting a forked stick in
the shape of the letter Y, the prongs
being about two inches apart, and
fastening to each one end of a stout
India-rubber band. The stem of the
Y is held in the left hand, and a small
pebble or shot being placed in the
middle of the band, it is drawn out
Catapult.
as far as possible and then let go.
The band, snapping back, sends the
missile with great force. The size
of the rubber band used depends on
the strength of the shooter and the
size of the missile. The weapon is
improved by fastening a concave
piece of leather in the middle of the
band, to hold the missile. In this
way a volley of bird-shot may be
sent at once. Catapults may be
used by skilled shooters with almost
as much effect as fire-arms, and they
are nearly as dangerous, not to the
shooter, but to other people. Their
use is usually forbidden by law in
the streets of large towns and cities,
but in the country they may be
made the source of much amuse-
ment.
Solas, a kind of sling. One to
catch birds may be made as follows :
Six marbles, round stones, or leaden
bullets are wrapped tightly in cloth,
forming a sort of
bag around each,
and to each is fas-
tened a piece of
string about two
and a half feet
long. The other
ends of the strings
are tied together.
The bolas is held
by the tied end,
whirled around
the head, and
thrown into the
air, when the
heavy ends will
fly apart, so that
the whole spreads
over a space
about five feet in
diameter. A
bolas thrown into
a flock of birds
generally brings
Bird Bolas. one down, either
by stunning or by entangling it.
History. The use of slings is prob-
ably older than that of bows and
arrows. In the Bible, it is related
Saxon Slinger.
that in the time of the Judges there
were 700 men of the tribe of Ben-
jamin who were so expert with the
sling that they "could sling stones
SLING THE MONKEY
656
SMALL TUBES
at a hair-breadth and not miss," us-
ing their left hands. The sling was
early known in Europe, and the
Romans, who used it as a military
weapon, probablv introduced it into
Britain. The picture represents the
manner of using it among the Sax-
ons in the 8th century. Slings
used with very large stones were
sometimes attached to a staff three
or four feet long, and whirled with
both hands. As late as the isth
century an English poet, writing
on " Knyghthode and Batayle "
(Knighthood and Battle), advises
every warrior to learn the use of the
sling, because it could be easily
carried and stones could be picked
Ancient Slingers.
up anywhere. The last illustration
shows ancient slingers in a tower.
SLING THE MONKEY, a game
played by any number of persons,
one of whom takes the part of the
Monkey. He is fastened to a
branch of a tree by a rope, tied
around his waist, of such a length
that his feet can just reach the
ground. All the players, including
the monkey, are armed with knotted
handkerchiefs. The monkey is
" basted," or struck, by the others,
and tries to baste them in his turn.
If he succeeds in striking any one,
that one must take his place.
The monkey should swing him-
self about by the rope from one side
to the other, and, that he may have
free play, the branch from which he
is suspended must be at consider-
able height. Sling the monkey is a
favorite game on shipboard.
Fox, a game resembling that just
described, except that the monkey
is called the Fox, and can neither
strike nor be struck while he is in his
" den," represented by a circle
marked on the ground. Even when
he is out of his den he can strike
only when he is standing on one leg,
and if he put the other to the
ground he must retire to his den
before trying to strike again.
Baste the Bear, a kind of Fox,
in which the player attacked, called
the Bear, has no handkerchief, but
is defended by another player, who
takes the part of his keeper. The
Bear must remain on his hands and
knees and must keep some part of
his body inside the den. The
keeper holds one end of a rope,
about four feet long, which is tied
to the Bear's leg, and must not let
go of it. The Bear may aid the
keeper in any way, so long as he
keeps on all-fours and does not go
entirely outside of the den. Any
player struck by the keeper's hand-
kerchief must take the Bear's place.
Each Bear is allowed to choose his
own keeper.
SMALL TUBES, Experiments with,
i. Take a number of small glass
tubes, varying in size from a ther-
mometer tube to one quarter of an
inch thick. Thrust the ends into
water (Fig. i), and the water will
rise in each, but higher in the
smaller tubes. The water also rises
Fig. i. Fig. 2.
higher at the side of the tubes than
in the middle.
2. Put the tubes into mercury
(see Fig. 2). The mercury will be
lower inside the tubes than outside.
It will sink lowest in the smallest
tubes, and will be lower at the sides
of the tubes than in the middle.
SMOKE RINGS
657
SMOKE RINGS
mercury.
3. Hold two pieces of glass to-
gether like a wedge, and dip them
sidewise into water and then into
The water will rise higher
where the plates
are close together,
and the mercury
will fall lower
there. In each
case the surface
of the liquid will
form a curve.
Fig. 3 shows how
Fig. 3-
two pieces of glass
may thus be held
together by a rubber band, being
kept apart at the wide-open side
by two bits of wood. The curve
made by the water surface within
the wedge is also shown.
SMOKE RINGS, Experiments
with. I. Cut in the bottom of a
pasteboard box a foot square a
round hole about as large as a silver
dollar. Over the open top of the
box pin a handkerchief tightly. Fill
the box with smoke by burning
touch-paper in the hole (see AIR
CURRENTS), or in any other way. ]
Then by tapping on the handker-
chief, as the box stands on its side,
smoke rings will issues from the
hole, like those which smokers
sometimes blow from their mouths.
The experiments described below
may be performed with a box like
this, but it is better to make a larger
one as described in the next experi-
ment.
2. Take a dry-goods box about two
feet square, and saw a hole about
three inches in diameter in the bot-
tom (see Fig. i). Tack tightly over
monia in one flask or bottle and
hydrochloric acid in another, and
support them so that they can be
heated beneath with alcohol lamps.
Fit the corks with short tubes of
bent glass or rubber whose ends
pass through small holes into the
box. By heating the flasks the
fumes of the ammonia and the
acid are thus led into the box where
they mix, making a dense white
smoke. It will not be necessary to
heat the flasks all the time, but only
at intervals when the smoke gets
Fig. i. Box for Smoke Rings.
the top a piece of heavy muslin, and
stand the box on its side. To keep
it full of smoke, place strong am-
Fig. 2.
thin. By tapping on the muslin
large and beautiful smoke rings are
driven out of the hole in the box.
3. Tap lightly on the box ; the ring
will move slowly. Give a hard tap ;
it will go swiftly, thus the speed of
the rings can be regulated at will.
4. Hold the hand or the face in
front of one of the rings. Even if
it be moving slowly a puff of air will
be felt. The reason is that the
particles of air in the ring are mov-
ing around and around, those on
the outside backward and those on
the inside forward. These latter
make the puff of air, for though the
whole ring may be moving forward
slowly, its particles may be revolv-
ing quite fast. See Fig. 2, where
the small arrows show the motion
of the smoke in the ring, and the
large one that of the ring as a
whole.
5. Send a ring across the room
against a lamp or candle. It will
be put out.
6. Try experiments 4 and 5 with-
out any smoke in the box. The
result is the same. This is so be-
cause the rings are made of air.
The only use of the smoke is to
SMOKE RINGS
658
SMOKE RINGS
make them visible. Where it is
desired to blow out a candle with
an invisible ring it is best to try first
with a visible one, and then keep
the box and the candle in the same
positions so that the ring will be
sure to strike the candle.
7. Send two rings from the box,
one close after the other. If they
are close enough the one in the
rear will contract and go through
the front one, which then, being
itself in the rear, will do the same
thing in turn. This will be re-
peated till the rings are broken up
by rubbing against each other. In
practice it is hard to make them
do it more than once each.
8. This requires two smoke boxes.
Send rings from both so that they
will strike at various angles. They
will bound from one another as if
made of India-rubber. But if one
Fig. 3-
ring strike another flatly, as they
move in exactly opposite directions,
the two will simply grow larger and
larger till they break, remaining in
the place where they strike.
9. Rings similar to these can be
formed in water by dropping into it
a solution of permanganate of pot-
ash or some other bright-colored
salt. As each drop descends in the
water it takes the form of a ring,
which soon breaks up into several.
10. Another way of producing
them is to drop hydrochloric acid
into a weak solution of mercuric
nitrate. The two liquids act on one
another chemically, producing a
cloud of mercuric chloride which
descends into the vessel in the form
of a vortex ring.
11. Smoke rings can be formed
in water as shown in Fig. 3. Bore a
hole in the side of a glass jar close
to the bottom. Pass througli the
cork a glass tube reaching nearly to
the bottom of the jar, bent at right
angles near the top, and drawn out
to a jet at its upper end. Half fill
the jar with water, place the thumb
over the hole, and hold the end of
the jet in a candle flame. On re-
Fig. 4-
moving the thumb so that a little
water may run out, some smoke will
be drawn down into the bottle and
Fig. 5.
rise in a ring to the surface. If
this be repeated a series of rings
will be formed like those in Fig. 4.
Fig. 5 shows a curious " collar " of
SMUT
659
SNAP THE WHIP
smoke formed around the bottom
of the tube. In Fig. 3 the jar has
a faucet in the hole at the side, but
it can be stopped with a wooden
plug just as well.
SMUT.' See MUGGINS.
SNAKE'S TAIL, a game played by
any number of persons, one of whom
is selected as Catcher, and the oth-
ers form in single file to represent
a snake, the last player being called
the Snake's Tail. Each player in
the file places his hands on the
shoulders of the one in front of
him. At the opening of the game
the Catcher stands about twenty
feet from the head of the file, facing
him, and at a signal tries to catch
the Tail without pushing any one in
the row. The Snake defends its
tail by moving about in any way,
but if the row breaks itself it is a
foul, and the Tail is considered as
caught. When the Tail is caught,
he becomes Catcher in turn, and the
Catcher takes his place at the head.
Another way of playing the game
is to allow the Catcher to name any
one in the row as the one he in-
tends to catch. If he catches the
one named, they change positions.
The player at the head of the line
may stretch out his hands to im-
pede the Catcher's progress, but is
not allowed to push him.
History. This is a Japanese game.
Its name in Japan is Hebi no o wo
toro (Catching the snake's tail).
The second form of the game is
called Ko wo toro (Will catch a
child). The head of the row in this
case is called the Mother and the
other's children. The game begins
by the catcher's shouting "Will
catch a child." The Mother asks
"Which child do you want?" and
when the Catcher names his choice,
she replies " Try to catch if you
can," when the game begins.
SNAP, a game played by any
number of persons with 36 cards.
Each card bears a figure or design,
and every design is on three cards.
The cards are distributed equally,
and each player places his share,
without looking at them, in a pile,
face downward, before him. Each
in order then turns over his top
card and places it, face upward,
as the beginning of another pile.
When a player turns a card having
the same design as one on the top
of another player's exposed pile,
both must say " Snap," and he who
says it first takes the exposed pile
of the other. When a player's cards
are all turned, he reverses his ex-
posed pile. Cards taken from oth-
er players are placed underneath
the back -upward pile. He who
gets possession of the whole pack
wins the game.
SNAP THE WHIP, an out-door
game played by any number of per-
sons, who stand side by side in line,
holding hands. The line is usually
formed in order of size, the largest
players at one end, and the smallest
at the other. All run forward till
three or four at the large end sud-
denly stop, causing the rest of the
line to swing around sharply like
the lash of a whip when it is
snapped. The strain is so great
that usually two or more of the
players are forced to let go their
hands, and those at the smaller end
are thrown down if they are not
careful. The game is best placed
on skates. In this case, when the
line breaks, the fragments shoot off
with great velocity, like stones from
a sling. The best way to hold
hands in this game is to form a sort
of hook by bending all the fingers
of one hand, and hold the neighbor-
ing player's hand as in the picture.
Butcher's Grip.
This arrangement (sometimes
called the "Butcher's Grip ") enables
the player better than any other to
resist a straight pull.
SNEEZING
660
SNOW IMAGES
SNEEZING, a game played by any
number of persons. A leader is ap-
pointed who gives to each a syllable
ending in "sh,' or some similar one
sounding like part of a sneeze, as
" ash," " esh," " ish," " osh," " oush,"
"aish,"or "ashoo." At a given sig-
nal from the leader, all the company
pronounce their syllables together.
The effect is amusing, sounding like
a sneeze if it is properly produced.
SNOWBALL FIGHTS, contests be-
tween two parties armed with snow-
balls. The object of one of the
parties should be to drive the
others from some position, which
the latter strive to hold. This is
generallv a fort built of snow, and a
snow fight should usually be the
siege of a snow fort. One kind of
fort is built of great balls of snow,
made by rolling, which are placed
in the desired form, and then ce-
mented together with snow. To
give such a fort a finished look, it
should be smoothed, the wall being
made sloping on the outside and
perpendicular inside. Another way
to make a snow fort is to dig it from
a drift, piling up on every side the
snowtaken out. If the drift is firm-
ly packed, snow may often be taken
out in great square blocks, with
which a regular wall can be built.
In making a fort, care should be
taken to shape it so that the be-
siegers will be exposed to fire at all
points. The simplest form is a
square, but if the besiegers advance
close to the fort at the middle of
one of the sides, it is not easy to fire
at them except at the corners, and
then the defender has to lean far
over the wall, exposing himself too
much. This fault can be remedied
by making the fort the shape in the
figure. In this way every point in
the outside wall of the fort is ex-
posed to fire from the inside. Here
the best place for the besiegers to
assault is on one of the sides of the
points, for these are exposed to fire
from one side only ; whereas the
part between two points is under
fire from both sides. These princi-
ples are the same that have to be
taken into consideration in building
real forts. Snowballs should be
made so they will sting when they
strike, without doing any injury.
They should therefore never be
soaked in water, nor allowed to
freeze. To use such missiles is like
throwing stones, and a snowball
fight with them ceases to be a
sport. When the garrison of a fort
is closely besieged, the best throw-
ers are often statiqned at the walls,
while others make snowballs for
them. The snowball makers, how-
ever, should be changed as often
as possible to give them a share
of the real sport. As soon as a cer-
tain number of besiegers succeed in
getting into the fort, the victory
should be given to them and the
parties should change sides.
SNOW IMAGES. Images may be
made of snow in two different ways:
by sticking together balls or lumps
of snow, or by making a mass of
snow and then carving the image
out of it. The former is the usual
way, but better images can be made
bv the other method. The snow
should be slightly moist, when a
large mass may be collected by roll-
ing a ball till it has gathered a great
quantity. Another similar ball is
then rolled and lifted to the top of
the first. For a tall figure, a third
SNOW-SHOEING
661
SOAP
will be needed. The best tool to
cut and shape the mass is a mason's
trowel, but a shingle or other thin
flat piece of wood may be used
instead. In this way, figures of
men, birds, and animals may be
made.
If the arms of the image are to
be extended, a stick should be
thrust through the body so as to
project on each side, and the sriow
moulded over it. An image often
made by boys is that of a man fitted
with an old hat, with cinders for
eyes and a clay pipe in its mouth,
and then used as a target for snow-
balls. A snowballing match may be
held with such a figure, as in the
game of AUNT SALLY.
SNOW SHOEING, walking on soft
snow by means of snow-shoes, or
wooden frames strung with thongs.
Snow-shoes, which are shown in the
illustration, are usually made each
Snow-Shoer.
of a single light strip of hickory or
ash, whose ends are bent until they
meet, and then bound together for
from 6 to 10 inches. Thin pieces
of flat wood are fitted across this
frame to strengthen it, and it is then
woven with thongs or tendons, so as
to make a sort of basket-work.
The shoe is from three to six feet in
length, and from 12 to 20 inches
wide. It is fastened to the foot by
a toe-strap and two thongs that
pass over the instep. The toe of
the foot points toward the rounded
end of the snow-shoe. That the
foot of the wearer may not be ham-
pered, the heel is left free to rise
and fall without the shoe, and a
hole is left in the basket-work under
the toe-strap, into which the wear-
er's toe sinks at every step. It is
difficult to walk on snow-shoes, and
to attain skill requires much prac-
tice. The shoe is not lifted as in
ordinary walking, but rather slipped
over the snow. Skilled snow-shoers,
however, walk with as much ease
over deep drifts of soft snow as on
hard ground, the basket-work bear-
ing the weight of a man in places
where without.it he would sink out
of sight. Experts raise the shoe a
little with the toe at the beginning
of the step, letting the end trail,
keep head and shoulders erect, and
glide the shoes one over the other.
Beginners are apt to catch the toe of
one shoe under the edge of the oth-
er, and so trip themselves up. The
Norwegian snow -skates, or skier,
which are half skate and half snow-
shoe, are described in the article on
SKATING.
SOAP, Experiments with. Soap is
described in C. C. T. i. To make
hard soap as an amusement, a few
ounces of castor-oil and half a
dozen sticks of caustic soda are
needed. The caustic soda should be
handled very little and kept in a
tightly corked bottle. Dissolve half
an ounce of the soda in a gill of soft
water, and pour into it an equal vol-
ume of the oil ; on stirring, the mix-
ture becomes turbid. Boil it gently
for half an hour, then add about a
gill of water, bring it again to the
boiling point and put in a large tea-
spoonful of fine salt. After the
SOAP BUBBLES
662
SOAP BUBBLES
mixture has cooled an hour or two
the soap will be found collected in
a layer at the top, from which it is
easily removed. To make soft-soap
caustic potash must be used instead
of caustic soda.
2. Dissolve shavings of castile-
soap, or any pure white soap, in
boiling water, and add to part of it
a teaspoon'ful of sulphuric or hy-
drochloric acid, diluted with con-
siderable water. A greasy white
substance rises to the top. This is
stearine, which is often used in
making candles.
3. To another part of the soap
solution made in experiment. 2 add
some lime-water. The mixture be-
comes white and nearly solid after a
time. This is because "lime soap"
is formed, which water will not dis-
solve. It is this which is formed
when soap is used with hard water.
SOAP BUBBLES, bubbles made
by blowing into a film of soap solu-
tion. The solution may be made by
dissolving any kind of soap in warm
water, but better bubbles will be
made if glycerine be added. One'
of the best solutions for making
bubbles is formed after the following
recipe :
Into a pint bottle half filled with
distilled or rain water, put one ounce
of white castile-soap shavings.
Shake the bottle till the soap dis-
solves, and if it will not do so add
more water. Then add one gill of
glycerine, shake, and allow to settle.
The bowl of a common clay to-
bacco-pipe is dipped into the liquid
so that the rim just touches the sur-
face, till on raising it a film is
stretched across the bowl. By blow-
ing carefully into the stem of the
pipe the film will stretch out into a
bubble and then by a quick jerk of
the pipe to one side the bubble will
be detached and will float away, its
elasticity closing at once the hole by
which the air entered it. If it is
strong it will bound on the floor or
table, and can be rolled along by
blowing it with the breath. Finally,
evaporation makes it very thin and
it bursts into spray. If the solution
is not strongenough, the bubbles are
weak, and burst before they are
fully blown. The better the solu-
tion, the larger the bubbles can be
made, but it is better to begin by
making small ones, and gradually
increasing their size. After the
bubble has been blown, the end of
the pipe should be closed with the
finger, for the bubble is elastic and
tends to grow smaller, driving out
again the air that was blown into it.
Too much of the liquid, or a mass
of froth, must not be taken up with
the pipe, as it collects at the bottom
of the bubble and often breaks it
by its weight. Such a collection of
froth may often be removed by
touching it with the finger.
Cas Bubbles. By fitting one end
of a piece of rubber tubing over a
gas-burner, and the other over the
end of a clay pipe, bubbles can be
blown after a little practice, by
turning on the gas little by little.
As the gas is lighter than air, these
bubbles will rise to the ceiling, and
if a lighted match be touched to
them, they will burn in the air.
Still lighter bubbles can be made by
blowing them witli HYDROGEN.
Bubbles blown with a mixture of
OXYGEN and HYDROGEN gases ex-
plode in the air with a loud report
when they are lighted, but this mix-
ture is dangerous, and should be
used only bvan experienced person.
Soap Bubble Parties, entertain-
ments at which the blowing of soap
bubbles is the chief feature. Prizes
are usually offered, which are
awarded in various ways. Each
person may be allowed a certain
number of trials, and he who blows
and detaches the greatest number
of bubbles may be declared winner.
Or each one may blow till he
makes a certain number of bubbles,
and he whose bubbles last longest
may receive the prize. Or each
may be required to roll his bubble
across the table by breathing on it.
SOAP BUBBLES
663
SOAP BUBBLES
Sometimes two goal-posts or pegs
about six inches long and three or
four inches apart are placed at the
end of the table, and the bubble
must be blown so as to roll between
them. The sport may thus be varied
in many ways. Care should be
taken to test the liquid, which
should be in good condition before
the blowing begins.
Experiments with Bubbles. I. A
huge soap bubble can be blown by
covering the hands well with suds
and then holding them so as to form
a cup, as in drinking from the hands,
but leaving a small hole at the bot-
tom. The mouth is then held
about a foot from the hands and a
current of air is blown into them.
Bubbles a foot or more in diameter
can be blown in this way.
2. Soap bubbles can be made to
ns~j-~ ^ carry little figures cut
from tissue-paper.
One of these figures
is attached by thread
to a disk of paper D
about as large as
one's finger-nail, by
passing the thread F
through the paper
and knotting it (Fig.
i). When the bub-
ble is blown, and be-
fore it is detached,
the thread is taken
between thumb and
finger and the disk
applieS to the side
of the bubble (Fig.
2). If properly done
it will glide down to
the lower part, where
it will stick. The
bubble can then be
detached, and it will
float away, bearing the figure with
it. The bubble should be blown
with a glass tube, so that a very
little shake will detach it.
3. Bubbles blown from melted
rosin in the same way as soap-bub-
bles, retain their form for many
Fig. i.
months, and possess a silvery lustre
which makes them very beautiful.
4. Pour some ether into a wide-
mouthed jar and then drop a soap
bubble into the jar, where it will
float on the heavy vapor of the
ether. (See also CARBONIC ACID.)
Let it remain a few seconds and
then remove it by pulling the jar
down from under it. When a
lighted match is touched to the
bubble it will flash into flame. This
is because some of the ether vapor
has entered the bubble through the
soap-film.
5. Blow two bubbles, and while
they are hanging to the pipes try to
make them join, placing the finger
over the end of the pipe-stem so as
to keep the bubbles the same size.
No matter how forcibly they are
pushed together, they will bound
from each other as if made of India-
rubber, and will not join. But if
an electrified body be brought near
them they will unite at once into a
single bubble.
6. The colors on a soap bubble
may be thrown on a screen by plac-
ing a lens in the path of a sunbeam
from a HELIOSTAT and holding the
bubble just beyond the focus of the
lens, where the rays begin to spread
apart. The colors will be thrown
on the walls and ceiling of the room,
and very beautiful changes of tint
will be seen as the walls of the
bubble grow thinner.
7. Make a stand of a piece of wire
like the tripod stands described
under CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS.
With a little practice a bubble can
be made to rest upon it and remain
a long time. The bubble may be
pierced with a pin or cut with a
knife without breaking, so long as
the pin or knife are perfectly clean,
but if either have the smallest par-
ticle of grease on them the bubble
will break at once
The beautiful colors of soap bub-
bles are due to what is called the
interference of light, caused by the
SOAP FILMS
664
SOLITAIRE
thinness of their walls. The same
colors can be seen in any very thin,
Fig. 2.
transparent substance, like a sheet
of mica, or a film of oil floating on
the water. Thecolor is different as
the thickness varies, and scientists
have thus been able to measure the
latter. Probably the most skilful
soap-bubble blower living is Mr. C.
Vernon Boys, an English scientist,
who has performed many interesting
experiments with bubbles. Among
other things he is able to blow one
bubble inside another.
SOAP FILMS, Experiments with.
The bubbles made of soap film are
described under SOAP BUBBLES.
The following experiments can be
tried with the soap-water used in
making bubbles: i. Dip the large
end of a glass funnel into the
water. The film formed will run
into the funnel. This is because it
is so elastic that it shrinks to as
small a size as possible. If a bottle
be blown at the large end, and the
neck left open, the bubble will
shrink, driving out the air within
it. A skilful operator can blow out
a candle by the air thus expelled.
2. Make a circle of wire, and
touch it to the soap-water, lifting off
a film which stretches across the
circle. Place carefully on this film
a small ring of silk thread, which
has been wetted with the soap-
water. Break the film inside this
ring, and the thread will be stretched
into a perfect circle by the elastic
film on all sides of it.
SOLITAIRE, any game played by
one person. The oldest solitaire or
solitary game is played on a circular
board in which are
either 37 or 33 holes
arranged as in the
figures. The form
with 33 holes, which
is now generally
used, is the same
that is used for play-
ing Fox AND GEESE.
In the second fig-
ure it is arranged
also for the form
of Fox and Geese
called the Battle Game. In each of
these holes is a peg, though some
Solitaire Boards.
boards are made with depressions,
instead of holes, in which marbles
are placed. One peg or marble
being taken out by the player, a
peg two holes distant from the
vacant spot is placed in it, and the
SOLITAIRE
665
SOLITAIRE
peg over which it jumps is taken
C4 to A 2
G 3 to E 5
from the board, like a captured man
C2 " C4
C7 " £7
in CHECKERS. Another peg is
04 " 62
£4 " E 6
jumped into one of the two vacant
E 2 " C 2
£7 " E5
holes now on the board, and tnis
D6 " 04
B3 " DS
is kept up as long as possible, a peg
D 4 " D 2
ES cs
being taken from the board at each
D i " D 3
Ai C3
move. The player's object is either
£4 " £2
03 B i
to remove all but one of the pegs
E i " £3
Ci C3
from the board or to leave those
G2 " £4
C6 C4
that remain at the end in some
£4 " E2
C4 C2
given arrangement.
Gi " E3
A3 Ai
The marbles may thus be removed
£2 " £4
Ai C3
from the board in several ways, no
F3 " DS
C2 C4
matter what marble is taken at the
£7 " ES
C4 A 2
beginning. Suppose the holes in
DS " F3
the modern board to be numbered
3. Remove D 3.
(This applies
in vertical rows and lettered in the
also to E 4, D 5, and C 4.)
horizontal rows as below :
F i to D 3
C 4 to C 2
C i D i E i
F 3 " F i
C i " C 3
C 2 D 2 E 2
G i " E 3
C6 " C4
AiBi C3 03 £3 FiGi
G 3 " G i
C4 " C 2
A2B2 C4 04 £4 F2G2
D 3 F i
A 2 " C 4
A3B3 Cs D s ES F3G3
G i £3
E 5 " C 5
C6 D6 E6
D 5 F 3
Cs C 3
C7 D 7 £7
£7 • E 5
E3 E 5
Fi ' De
C •> " C A
There are only seven different
J ^~^ D
C c ' F c
\-t £ ^4
Di " D i
cases, and a solution of each is given
v_x 5 n, 5
D7 ' D 5
o
E i " E 3
below.
The direction C 4 to C 2, for in-
stance, means that the marble in C 4
is to be placed in the empty hole
C 2 and the marble between them
C7 ' Cs
C4 " C6
A3 " Cs
C 2 " C 4
AT " C •?
D3 •• Fi
C 4 " £4
E5 " £3
F i " 03
removed from the board.
f\ 1 \^i J
4. Remove D 6.
(This solution
i. Remove 04
applies also to B 2,
D 2, and F 2.)
D2 to 04 C2 to C4
D 4 to D 6
C 6 to ' C 4
F i " D 3 A i " C 3
F 3 " D 5
A3 " C 5
E i " E 3 D 3 " B i
•J J
£7 " E 5
A i " A3
£4 " £2 A3 ' Ai
C7 « E7
D5 " B3
C i " E i A i ' C 3
£4 ' E6
A3 " Cs
Ei"E3 D s '03
£7 • E 5
C4 " C6
E6 " £4 03 ' Bi
£2 ' £4
C6 " £6
G 3 " E 5 B i « B 3
Gi E3
£4 " £2
DS " F3 B3 • DS
G3 Gi
E2 " C2
Gi " G3 DS ' F3
D3 F i
C 2 " C 4
G3"Es F2 'D4
Gi E 3
E6 " £4
63 " D s C4 ' £4
Bi 03
B 2 " D 4
C7 " Cs £3 ' ES
Ci C3
D 3 " D 5
C4 " C6 F3 • DS
Ei C i
F2 » D4
£7 " C7 D6'D4
C4 C 2
04 " D 6
C7 " C 5
Ci C3
2. Remove A 2. (By changing the
5. Remove C i.
(This applies
numbers this solution is good for
also to each of the seven other corner
«_U1 \
SOLITAIRE
666
SOLITAIRE
C 3 to C i
C 6 to E 6
The form of solitaire board with
A i " €3
E7 " £5
37 holes is now seldom seen, so but
03 " B i
£4 " E 6
one method of removing the pegs is
A3 " A i
€7 " £7
given. The notation is like that
A i " C 3
£7 " £5
above, save that the B and F
63 " B i
F 3 " D 5
columns have each five holes instead
B i " 03
€4 " £4
of three.
E 2 " C 2
C5 " £5
Remove C i
Ci ' 03
£4 ' £2
Ei ' E3
E 5 •• E 3
E2 ' £4
Gi ' £3
E i to C i C 4 to C 6
03 •« D i C6-E6
Ei «« 17 T T?F- t r\ fi
G2 ' £4
r* t T"*
£4 ' E 2
3 ii I r 5 "*
G i " E 3 E4'E6
£4 ' E 2
IT A « IT t
€3 ' E 3
Et < I.' r
B i « D2 £7 • E 5
i. <> 1 . 4
n3 « F5
3
Ei ' Ci
€4 'C2 C 2 '€4
C i • C 3 €4 • £4
U 3 "3
C6'C4 E4"E6
6. Remove C 2.
(This applies
C4 • C 2 E 6 " C 6
also to C 6, E 2, E
6, B i, B 3, F i,
E 4 ' E 2 D i " D 3
and F 3.)
E i ' E 3 F i " D 2
C 4 to C 2
£7 to E 5
E6 " £4 D2 " 04
C i " C 3
F 3 ' D 5
£4 " £2 04 " D6
A 2 " €4
C6 ' E6
Ai"C3 07 " D 5
€4 " C 2
€7 ' £7
A 2 " C 4 B 5 " D 6
E i " C i
E7 ' E5
A 3 « C5 D5 •• D7
C i " C 3
C4 ' C6
G 2 " E 4 €7 " E 7
E2 " C2
E4 " C4
G3 " £5
C 2 " C 4
A i " C 3
r* , T-»
C3 " C5
C 6 " €4
E/™* —
This game of Solitaire was fash-
ionable in France about 1700, and
E 4 E 2
Gi ' £3
£2 ' E 4
F3 ' F i
G3 • Gi
Gi ' £3
Dt T*
5 C5
€4 " C6
A3 " C5
C6 " €4
E3 " C3
€4 " C 2
some writers say that it was in-
vented by a prisoner in the Bastile
for his amusement. Others say
that it was suggested to a French-
man in America by the way in
which the Indians stuck their ar-
5 F 3
7. Remove C 5.
(This also applies
rows in the quiver when they re-
turned from hunting. Others still
to C 3, E 3, or E 5
)
derive it from the Magic squares
E 5 to C 5
£2 to C 2
early in use in the East. Leibnitz,
£3 " E 5
C i " C 3
the great German mathematician,
D3 " D5
D 3 " B i
was very fond of the game, and said
E 6 " E 4
B3 " D5
of it : " It is good to play reasoning
C5 " E5
B i 63
games, not for themselves, but be-
E 4 " E 6
A3 C5
cause they aid in perfecting the art
C3 " C5
A i A3
of thinking."
G i " £3
D3 B3
In England the name is some-
£2 " £4
A3 C$
times translated, and it is called
G3 " Gi
C6 €4
"The Solitary Game." In eastern
F 3 " F i
E6 C6
Switzerland it is known as Rath-
Gi " G3
C7 C5
hausabheben (City-hall Lifting), or
E 4 " E 2
C4 C6
In das Nagelloch Spring en (Jump-
C i " €3
£7 C7
ing into the Peg-hole).
B i " D 3
C7 CS
Solitaire with Cards, or Patience.
€3 " Ci
In these games the player's object
SOUND FIGURES
667
SOUND FIGURES
is to arrange the cards in some par-
ticular order, generally in what are
called " families," a family being the
whole series from Ace to King,
whether of one suit or not. Famil-
ies may he formed by piling or
" building" upward, that is, by al-
ways placing a higher card on the
one next below it, or downward, in
the opposite way. The pack or
packs, sometimes with the exception
of certain cards which are laid face
upward on the table, is first shuffled.
The cards are then held in the play
er's hand, backs upward, and played
one by one, always turning them
face upward. In building, cards
are sometimes taken from the pack
in this way, sometimes from an ar-
rangement of card piles on the table,
and sometimes from either. The
player is generally allowed to place
any top card of these piles on any
other just above or below it in re ik,
freeing the cards underneath that
they may he used in building. This
is sometimes called " making mar-
riages." Cards that cannot be
used are placed aside to form what
is called stock, and this stock may
generally be shuffled and used over
again once or twice.
The arrangements of cards in
these games are often given fanciful
names, and success depends some-
times on the skill of the player, and
sometimes entirely on chance. The
different games of card Solitaire or
Patience are described in separate
articles in this book.
In some countries games of Pa-
tience are used as fortune-tellers,
the playersupposing that some pro-
ject will turn out well or ill accord-
ing as he is successful or not in his
game.
SOUND FIGURES, Experiments on.
i. Bay at a hardware store a piece
of sheet-brass one-eighth of an inch
thick and six inches square. If it
is not perfectly flat, have it ham-
mered flat. Have the sheet cut in-
to a circle and rounded off at the
edges, and have a hole three six-
teenths of an inch in diameter cut
in the centre. If the disk has been
hammered it must now be heated
red-hot in a stove and cooled slowly.
From a broom-handle cut off a
piece six inches long and fix one
end firmly in a heavy block of wood.
Round off the edges of the other
end and then screw the brass disk
to it. By drawing a violin-bow
over the edge of the disk a sound
maybe produced. This should be
practised till the note is clear and
strong. Sprinkle sand on the disk
and it will dance about while the
note is sounding. This is because
the disk is vibrating.
Now touch the edge of the disk
with the finger, and draw the bow
at a place one eighth of tne dis-
tance around the disk. The sand
will gather into two lines at right
angles, one of which starts from the
finger. The reason is that the disk
now vibrates in parts, one part mov-
ing up while another is moving
down, and the lines between these
parts have no motion; hence the
sand settles on them. By drawing
the bow at different distances from
the finger, or by touching the disk
in more than one place, while some
one else draws the bow, many other
sand-figures can be made, some of
which are shown in the illustrations,
Fig. i.
If lycopoditim powder (whicn ~an
be bought of a druggist) be mixed
SOUND FIGURES
668
SOUND FIGURES
with the sand, it will form curious
little heaps and whirlpools while
the disk vibrates. Instead of being
round, the sheet of brass may be
square, as in Fig. i, which shows a
form mounted on a standard, to be
bought of any dealer in physical ap-
paratus.
2. Make a cardboard cone about
ten inches long, two and one half
inches in diameter at its larger end,
and small enough at the other to fit
into a rubber tube about two feet
long. While one person is making
the disk vibrate, let another hold
the large opening of the cone over
various parts of it, at the same
time applying the end of the
rubber tube to the ear. When
the middle of the cone is
exactly over one of the sand-
lines, scarcely any sound at all
will be heard, and the nearer the
cone is to a sand-line, the weaker the
sound will be. This is because, as
stated above, the disk does not vi-
brate at the sand-lines, and the
parts of the disk on opposite sides
of any line are always moving in
opposite directions, one going up
while the other is going down.
Hence their effedts on the air in the
cone balance, and there is no sound
there.
Instead of a brass plate, one of
glass may be used in these experi-
ments. It should be six or eight
inches square, and should have its
sharp edges smoothed down with a
file moistened with turpentine. It
o 3 ft 6
Fig. 2.
may be supported at the centre on
an ordinary spool by pressing it
XX
3 { O
ofo
JL
W5
down firmly with the thumb, just
over the spool. Figs. 2 and 3 show
a variety of sound figures. In Fig.
2 the position of the bow is marked
b, and that of the finger/.
The figures can also be produced
without a bow in the following
manner : In a flat lump of lead fix
a piece of lead-pencil about an inch
long, having on its end a common
rubber eraser. This serves as a
Standard. To the central point of
a common window-pane, attach by
sealing-wax a glass tube three six-
teenths of an inch in diameter and
twenty inches long. Place the plate
on the standard, so that the end of
the tube is just over the rubber
eraser. Holding the upper end of
the tube in one hand, rub it gently
up and down with the moistened
thumb and forefinger of the other.
The tube is thus thrown into vibra-
tion, and causes the pane to vibrate
also. Sand strewn on the glass will
assume figures similar to those ob-
SPATTER-WORK
669
tained by the other methods. In
this experiment the plate is caused
to vibrate from the centre instead
of from the edge.
SPATTER-WORK, Procure a box
three inches deep, and as large as
desired. Remove the bottom and
top, and tack wire netting (which
can be bought at a hardware store)
over the top. The edges of the bot-
tom must be covered with cloth, so
that the box will not injure what-
ever it stands on. On the paper
which it is desired to decorate with
spatter-work lay some leaves, a fern,
a design cut out of paper, or any-
thing flat, and then place the box
over it. Dip an old nail-brush in
ink and draw it across the wire net-
ting. The ink will spatter through
Spatter-work.
in fine drops on the paper. When
the work is as dark as desired, the
leaves or paper design is removed,
and its shape will be seen in white
on the spattered background. If
part of the leaves are removed be-
fore the spattering is finished, the
design will be in two shades, white
and gray. The veins of the leaves
may be drawn afterward with pen
and ink.
SPECULATION. I. A game of
CARDS played by any number of per-
sons with a full pack. At the begin-
ning of the game, each player is given
an equal number of counters, and
eachplacesonthetable a number pre-
viously agreed upon to form the pool,
the dealer usually being required to
put in more than any of the others.
Three cards are dealt to each, one
at a time, and the last is turned as
trump. The hands are placed face
downward on the table, each in
front of its owner. Beginning at
the dealer's left, each player in order
turns up his top card till some one
turns a higher trump than the
trump card. The owner of this
higher trump may then offer to sell
to the one bidding the highest
number of counters for it, whose
property it then becomes. The
player on the new owner's left then
begins to turn up again, and so on
till a still higher trump appears,
which may be sold as before. The
dealer has the privilege of refusing
to turn up any card till a higher
card than the trump card appears,
and of selling either the trump card
or his whole hand. Any one turn-
ing up a five or knave of a lay suit
pays one counter to the pool. When
the cards have all been turned, the
owner of the highest trump takes
all the counters in the pool. When
the game is played at evening par-
ties, after a certain number of
rounds the one having most coun-
ters is given a prize. If any player
look at his hand or play out of
turn, he forfeits his privilege of tak-
ing the pool, even if he have the
highest trump.
II. Another game is played as
follows: Two packs are used, one
of which is all dealt to the players,
one card at a time, and the other
placed face downward before the
dealer. Four or five cards are drawn
from this pack without being
looked at, and placed face down-
ward by themselves, each with a
different number of counters piled
on it. The players may look at their
hands and show them to each other.
At a signal, they begin the game by
bargaining with one another for any
cards they wish, each buying from
whom he pleases, at any price
SPECULATION
670
SPELLING MATCH
agreed upon. This either goes on
for a time previously agreed upon,
or the dealer may be allowed to
stop it when he likes. He then
turns up the cards of the unseen
pack, one by one, and the holders
of the corresponding cards give
them up. When all have been
given up, the holders of the remain-
ing cards (which of course corre-
spond to those laid aside) take the
counters that were piled on them.
The game then begins again, and
after a number of rounds previously
agreed upon the player having the
largest number of counters is usu-
ally given a prize.
In playing the game a player may
choose to sell all his cards, hoping
to make a large number of counters
in this way, and giving up his
chance for the prize cards, or he
may prefer to buy as many cards as
he can, hoping to get the prize cards
in this way. The price of cards is
generally small at the opening of a
game and increases toward the end,
hence it is often desirable to buy at
first and then sell. Sometimes the
dealer turns part of the unseen pack
and then allows more bargaining.
Sometimes a number of the cards
are not called for, and he who has
most remaining is given a prize.
Sometimes the holders of the prize
cards are given separate prizes in-
stead of counters, and the game may
be varied in many other ways, at
the pleasure of the players.
III. A game played by any num-
ber of persons with cards, on some
of which are written the names
of stocks, and on others words
that occur in those names. Thus
on one card might be " West-
ern Union Telegraph," or "Lake
Shore," and on others " Western," or
"Shore." The cards are distributed
evenly, and each player piles his
hand in front of him, backs up.
Each, in order, turns a card, and the
first to turn a "stock" card says,
" I speculate on Western Union, "or
whatever it may be. The' first one
after him that turns up a card bear-
ing one of the words in the name
of that stock takes all of the specu-
lator's cards that have been turned
over. So the game goes on till
some one has all the cards, thus
winning the game. When any one
has turned over all in his pile he
turns the whole pile back into its
former position.
SPELLING MATCH, a contest be-
tween two parties to see which con-
tains the best spellers. A number
of people may choose sides (see
CHOOSING SIDES), or the match
may be between two schools or
societies. The numbers should be
equal, unless otherwise agreed be-
forehand. Each side must have a
leader or captain, and the oppcsing
parties generally sit or stand in two
rows opposite one another, the cap-
tains at the head. Some one, not
on either side, selected for the pur-
pose, now gives out a word to be
spelled to each side alternately, first
to the first player on one side, then
to the first on the other, then to
the second on the first side, and so
on. When any one spells a word
incorrectly, the same is given out
again till it is spelled correctly; and
if it is so spelled on the side which
did not miss it at first, the captain
of that side is allowed to choose
any one of the opposite party, who
must then take his place on the
winning side. If the word is spelled
correctly by a member of the side
on which it was first missed, there
is no choosing. The match goes
on thus till one side has all the
players. A captain cannot be
chosen till he is the only one re-
maining on his side. Instead of
being given out by an outsider, the
words may be given out by the cap-
tains, each giving out to the players
in the opposite party. When one
party orthe other haswon the match,
it is often ended by "spelling down."
In this process words are given
out in regular order, and those who
miss sit down, until only one is
SPELLING-MATCH
671
SPHEROIDAL STATE
left, who is considered the victor.
Sometimes there are no sides at all,
and the spelling down constitutes
the whole match. In this case
prizes are often given to the players
who sit down last. Sometimes, in-
stead of passing the word to the
next player when it is missed, the
one who gives the words announces
the correct spelling, and then gives
out a different one. This is the
fairest method in the case of words
which can be spelled in only two
ways, so that if one is wrong the
other must be right. A good plan
is to allow the one who misses the
word first to decide whether or not
it shall be given out again. Spell-
ing-matches are not really means
of finding out the best spellers, but
they are often exciting sport. The
fairest kind of spelling-match is one
where the words are written by each
contestant, all writing the same
word at the same time. When all
have finished, the words are spelled
correctly by the leader, and each
player scores one for every word he
has written as it should be. The
side with the highest score wins.
The following rules give an idea of
how a public spelling-match should
be conducted. They may be modi-
fied or changed as desired.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. The officers of the match shall
consist of a leader and one or more
judges.
2. The leader shall give out only
such words as may be decided on
before the match. For instance, he
may be limited to words contained
in a certain dictionary or spelling-
book, or to words not obsolete, or
to words of a certain number of
syllables.
' 3. Any contestant is at liberty to
demand that the leader pronounce
the word again, or that he define it.
4. If the word given out be
spelled correctly, the leader shall
say " Right," and at once give out
another word. If it be spelled in-
correctly, he shall say " Wrong,"
and either give out the same word
again, or another one, as has been
agreed before the contest. If he
give out a different word, he shall
first spell correctly the word missed.
The speller may appeal to the
judges either on the ground that he
spelled the word correctly and was
misunderstood by the leader, or
that his way of spelling is allowable.
In the first case the judges may
take the opinion of other players,
or decide on their own. In the
second, they shall consult such
books of reference as were agreed
on before the contest, and if the
spelling given is allowable it is ad-
judged correct. [The best plan is
to select two or more dictionaries
as standards ; say Webster's and
Worcester's, and allow any spelling
given in either.]
5. No contestant shall be allowed
more than one minute from the
time when he understands the
word, and if he delay longer than
that time he shall be considered to
have failed.
Pronouncing Matches. The same
rules apply to these as to spelling-
matches, except that the leader
spells the words and contestants
pronounce them. Instead of spell-
ing them, the leader may display
them written or printed on placards,
or lists of the words may be dis-
tributed to the contestants at the
opening of the match.
SPHEROIDAL STATE, Experi-
ments on the. i. When warm water
is dropped on arf ordinarily hot
stove it turns quickly to steam ; but
if the stove be red hot, the water
forms itself into one or more little
balls, and rolls about, taking a long
time to evaporate. As a stove-top
is flat, the water usually rolls off, so
the experiment can be tried better
by holding the bowl of a metal table-
spoon in an alcohol flame till it is
red hot and then dropping warm
water into it. The handle must be
inserted in the split end of a piece
672
SPOIL-FIVE
O'i wood so that the hand will not
be burned. Let the spoon cool, and
when it has cooled enough the little
ball of water will suddenly turn to
steam. This state in water or any
other liquid is called, the spheroidal
state, because the liquid takes the
shape of a flattened ball or spheroid.
The reason it does not dry up at
once is, that the water is supported
on a kind of cushion of steam so
that it does not touch the metal
at all.
2. Put into a cold silver spoon a
drop of water in which sulphide of
sodium has been dissolved. It will
turn black, because sulphideof silver
is formed. Now try the above ex-
periment with a drop of such water,
and the spoon will not be blackened
till it has cooled down below red
heat. This is because the liquid,
when in the spheroidal state, did
not touch the spoon at all.
SPHYGMOCRAPH, an arrange-
ment for recording the beats of the
Sphygmograph. — Fig. i.
pulse. A simple one can be made
by fastening a bit of looking-glass
to the wrist just above the pulse,
with an elastic band, as in Fig. i.
The mirror is held in a beam of
light so as to reflect a spot on the
wall, and this spot moves with each
beat of the pulse. The room should
be darkened if possible, all light be-
Sphygmograph. — Fig. 2.
ing shut out save that which falls on
the mirror. Another form, some-
times sold as a toy, is shown in
Fig. 2.
The word sphygmograph is from
the Greek sphugmos, the pulse, and
graphein, to write.
SPOIL-FIVE, a game of cards
played by two to ten persons with a
full pack. The rank of the cards is
peculiar. In the red suits it is as in
WHIST, except that the Ace ranks
below the Two. In the black suits
the order is reversed below the
Knave, the Ace coming next, and
then the Two, Three, Four, and so
on to the Ten, which is lowest. The
Ace of Hearts is always a trump,
and the order of the cards in the
trump suit is Five, Knave, Ace of
Hearts, Ace of trumps, King,
Queen, and then as in common
suits. The following table shows
the order briefly :
Common Suits.
BLACK.
Trumps.
RED. BLACK.
SPOIL-FIVE
673
SPOIL-FIVE
Common Suits.
RED. BLACK.
Trumps.
RED. BLACK.
Five cards are dealt to each player,
usually two and three at a time,
as in EUCHRE, and the top card
of the stock is turned as trump.
When only two play, the non-dealer
is often allowed to ask the dealer
for another trump, and if the latter
agrees the second card is turned.
This is called " Fiving it." If the
trump card is an Ace, the dealer has
the privilege of " robbing," that is,
he may discard any card he chooses,
placing it face downward under the
pack, and take the Ace into his
hand. The dealer must rob, if at
all, before the eldest hand plays. If
any player holds the Ace of trumps
in his hand, he must rob before he
plays his first card. When a common
suit is led, any player may trump,
though able to follow suit ; but if he
hold no trump he must follow suit
if possible. If a trump is led, suit
must be followed, except that the
Five of trumps, the Knave of trumps,
and the Ace of Hearts need not
be played when an inferior trump is
led. This is called " reneging." Thus,
if the Two of trumps is led and
a player have no trump but the
Knave, he need not follow suit ; but
if the Five had been led, he would
be obliged to play the Knave. A
player who takes three tricks in one
hand wins the game, and playing
ceases as soon as any one has taken
three tricks. If no one wins, the
game is said to be "spoilt." If the
score is kept with counters, each
contributes to the pool a number
previously agreed upon, and the
whole pool is taken by the winner.
When the game is "spoilt," the
pool remains, and each puts in more
counters (usually half or a third of
the original number). Sometimes
every trick taken counts five, and
he who gains a fixed number of
points (usually 25 or 45) wins the
game When the game is 45, the trick
won by the best trump out counts
ten, unless some one has taken
enough tricks to win the game be-
fore that trump is played. When
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trumps.
SPOONS
674
SPORTS WITH FLOWERS
the game is scored thus, if any one
take all five tricks he wins at once.
This is called "Jinking it." Some-
times jinking is allowed also in the
regular game. In that case, when a
player has taken three tricks he
may continue to play. If he take all
the tricks, he wins double the pool ;
but if not, he wins nothing at all.
In Spoil-Five it is considered best
to lead the worst card and to reserve
good cards till the third trick. A
non-leader should trump, if he
h(,lds only one trump (unless it can
renege), but two trumps should be
reserved.
Unless a player has a very strong
hand, he should try to " spoil " the
game, and to this end should allow
no one to get more than one trick,
if possible. When only two play, it
is, of course impossible to " spoil "
the game.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. The deal is determined accord-
ing to agreement either by dealing
the cards one at a time, in which
case he who receives the first Knave
deals, or by cutting, in which case
lowest deals.
2. If there is a misdeal, the deal
passes to the left.
3. If a player deal out of turn he
may be stopped before the trump is
turned. If he is not so stopped, the
deal is good, and passes to his left
as if he had dealt in turn.
4. If a player neglect to rob be-
fore he plays to the first trick, he
loses the right to rob, and can win
nothing that hand.
5. If a player rob when he is not
entitled to do so, or leads or plays
wrongly, or reneges when he is not
entitled, he cannot win in that hand.
(This is culled " hanging " the hand.)
SPOONS. See BLIND MAN'S
BUFF.
SPORTS WITH FLOWERS AND
FRUIT. A variety of sports and cus-
toms are connected with flowers and
leaves, most of them observed only
by young children. By plucking the
petals of the daisy or any similar
flower, they pretend, in play, that
they can tell different things about
their future lives. Thus the fol-
lowing rhyme is repeated, one word
as each petal is plucked :
" Rich man, poor man, beggar man, thief,
Doctor, lawyer, Indian chief."
This is repeated over and over again,
and the word spoken as the last
petal is plucked is supposed to tell
what the child's condition is to be
if a boy, or if a girl, whom she is to
marry. In the same way, to dis-
cover where he will live, he says,
" Big house, little house, pigsty,
barn;" to tell what his dress is to
be, " Silk, satin, calico, rags," and
to find what he is to ride in, " Coach,
wagon, wheelbarrow, chaise." Flow-
ers are asked questions in this way
in many parts of the world. In
Switzerland the list of occupations
runs :
" Nobleman, beggar, farmer, soldier, student,
Emperor, king, gentleman."
In this country, instead of pulling
petals, the verse is often repeated
while touching the buttons of the
coat or dress. In Italy the leaves
are plucked from the branch of a
tree in the same manner. In the
same way young girls pretend to
find out whether their sweethearts
love them, saying:
" He loves me, he loves me not,"
or,
" A little, much, passionately, not at all."
To find out when they are to be
married, they repeat, while plucking
the petals,
" This year, next year, some time, never;"
Dandelions gone to seed are often
called " dandelion clocks," and chil-
dren amuse themselves by trying to
see in how few puffs they can blow
away every seed. The number of
puffs required is supposed to tell
the time of day. Sometimes, if all
the seeds can be blown off in three
puffs, it is considered a sign that
the successful one will be married
within a year, or that his mother
SPORTS WITH FLOWERS
675
SPORTS WITH FLOWERS
wants him. Dandelions are also
used to make chains and curls.
Chains are made by cutting off the
head of tne flower and pushing the
small end of the stem into the large
end, thus making a circular link ;
another link is fastened to it by
putting the second stem through
the first before it is closed, and so
very long chains can be made.
This way of making chains is very
ancient, and gave rise to the Ger-
man name Kette-blume (Chain-
flower). Dandelion curls are made
by splitting the stems into strips
and putting them into water, when
they curl up curiously. By splitting
a stem part way, making some wide
and some narrow strips, the form
of the curls may be varied.
Violets are used in the following
sport : Each of two boys holds one
of the flowers by the end of the
stem, and placing them so that the
stems will touch at about their mid-
dles, gives a sudden jerk, so that
the flowers will catch together.
One of the flowers is almost certain
to be pulled off the stem, and the
uninjured one is the victor. Some-
times a violet with a strong stem
will come off best in many such
contests.
The Magic Rose. Dust some
finely powdered aniline red over a
white rose, and then shake it off.
Sprinkle the rose with cologne wa-
ter and it will turn red. The reason
is that the alcohol in the cologne
dissolves the fine particles of aniline
which remain on the rose, rendering
their color visible.
Sports with Leaves. The leaves
of the lilac, the " live forever,"
and some other plants and shrubs
have a thin, light-colored skin on
the under side, by scratching which
with a pin a dark mark is made.
These leaves can thus be used to
write messages on and to play many
kinds of writing-games. Leaves
with long stems can be fastened to-
gether by pushing the stem of one
through the other, as shown in the
illustration. In this way crowns,
garlands, baskets, and other things
may be made. Leaves with short
Leaf-chain.
stems may be used in like manner
by pinning them with long thorns
or pine-needles. A drinking cup
can thus be made which will hold
water long enough to carry it from
a spring to the mouth.
Sports with Grass. An inter-
esting game is played thus with
grass : An even number of blades
SPORTS WITH FLOWERS
676
SPORTS WITH FLOWERS
(about ten is the best number) is
selected by each player. The blades
should be from six to twelve inches
long. Each lays his blades side by
side, and, sitting down, holds one
end of the branch between his
knees. He ties the free ends firmly
together in pairs, and then, placing
the knotted ends between his knees,
ties the others in like manner.
Each now examines his bunch of
grass to see how it is tied together.
Those who have tied their grass so
as to form a perfect circle are win-
ners. The next best arrangement
is a circle of all the blades but two,
the others forming a little circle by
themselves. The next is a circle of
all but four, these forming a sepa-
rate circle, and so on. In any case
two circles linked together are bet-
ter than two entirely separate.
There are thirty ways in which ten
blades can be thus arranged, and
the more blades are used the greater
will be the number of arrangements.
With ten blades there is a very
slight chance of making a perfect
circle. With four blades the pos-
sible results are only three; perfect
circle, two circles linked, and two
circles unlinked. The game is en-
tirely one of chance, as no one is
allowed to look at the knots on one
end while tying the others. The
game is often played as a SOLITAIRE.
Sometimes the bunch of grass is
given the name of a playfellow, and
the player pretends that his success
in tying it tells him how much
that playfellow likes him. Another
sport witli grass is to place a blade
between the thumbs and blow on it,
which, if correctly done, makes a
rouyh, screeching note. The thumbs
are held so that there is a little
crack between them, and the edges
of the blade must be stretched ex-
actly in the middle of this crack.
The broader the blade, the lower
the note, and a very high tone can
be made by using a thin shred.
The note can also be varied by
bending the thumbs a little, thus
tightening and loosening the blade
of grass.
Creen, a game or custom preva-
lent among children in some parts
of Georgia and South Carolina.
One points the finger at any other
with whom he is playing, or whom
he may meet, saying, "Green."
The one addressed must then pro-
duce a leaf, bit of grass, or the
like from some part of his dress.
Children hide leaves in their shoes
and other unlikely places with the
object of making their playmates
think that the "green" lias been
forgotten. It is considered a dis-
grace not to be able to produce
the green when it is called for, and
sometimes a forfeit is required from
the one so caught.
This game was probably brought
to this country by French Hugue-
nots. It was played long ago in
France, and is still common in some
parts of that country, where per-
sons of all ages take part in it at
certain seasons. The French ex-
pression " Prendre sans verd" (to
catch anyone without green), means
to take by surprise, and is derived
from this game. The custom is
probably an old MAY-DAY game.
Sports with Nuts. The ancient
Roman boys played with round nuts
as we do with marbles. At the
present day they are used in such
simple games as ODD OR EVEN,
and for carving into various shapes,
particularly little baskets, a circle
of the shell being left for a handle,
and the meat cleaned out. The
horse-chestnut is most used for this
purpose, as its shell is thin and
easily cut. Pretty baskets may be
made also of filberts and hazelnuts,
and even of cherry pits. Cherry
pits too may be made into chains
by cutting them with a sharp pen-
knife into rings, which, when cut
open at one side, may be opened
enough to put another ring
through.
Acorn cups can be used as play-
dishes, and with a little trimming
SPORTS WITH FLOWERS
677
SPORTS WITH FLOWERS
with a knife may represent cups,
saucers, or plates.
Pea-nuts may be used in playing a
variety of games, some of which
are described in the article on PEA-
NUT SPREES.
Philopena, a game played by two
persons with nuts, usually almonds.
When a person finds one of these
with two kernels in it, he may ask
any one he chooses to eat a philo-
pena with him. If the one asked
consents, each eats one of the ker-
nels, and whoever says the word
" Philopena" first on meeting the
other after the end of a certain time
(usually after the day on which the
philopena is eaten) is entitled to a
present from the other.
A more common way of eating a
philopena is called Give and Take.
If either of the players takes any
object whatever from the other's
hands, the giver is entitled to say
" Philopena" and receive a present.
This arrangement goes into force
as soon as the philopena is eaten.
Constant watchfulness is required
to avoid being caught, and the play-
ers use all sorts of tricks to throw
each other off his guard. For in-
stance, one may pass the other a
plate at table, or hand him a book
or other article to look at.
The Philopena is said to have
originated .'n Germany, where it is
called Viel-ltebchen (much beloved),
and some think that the first part
of the word Philopena is a corrup-
tion of this name, the Latin word
poena (punishment) being added be-
cause the gift was thought to be a
penalty. Others think that the
first part is from the Greek philos
(a friend).
Fruit Sports. Children eating ap-
ples give them names, and then
count the seeds to decide their own
fate. The following rhyme is re-
cited while counting:
•' One, I love ; Two, I love ;
Three, I love, I say :
Four, I love with all my heart,
And Five, I cast away.
Six, he loves ; Seven, she loves ;
Eight, both love ;
Nine, he comes ; Ten, he tarries ;
Eleven, he courts ; Twelve, he marries."
This rhyme is at least a century
old, and probably much older.
To Make Designs on Growing
Fruiti While the fruit is still green
fasten on the side exposed to the
sun letters or designs cut from tin-
foil, or from thin sheet-wax, such as
is used for making wax flowers.
The foil or wax will prevent the sun
from coloring the skin of the fruit
underneath, and if it is removed
Cucumber Horses.
SPORTS WITH FLOWERS
678
SQUAILS
when the fruit is ripe the letters
will be left in light green. Fruit of
some other color than green when
ripe should of course be chosen.
Among the best for the purpose are
rosy apples.
Cucumber Horses. The illustra-
tions show how toy horses can be
made from cucumbers and matches.
Still more life-like ones can be made
of crook-necked squashes.
Apple-skin Bird. Cut a thin slice
from an apple (Figs. I and 2) and
then pare the skin from it in one
piece, leaving some of the apple
adhering to it, and including a bit
of the stem at the top, as shown in
Fig. 3. Cut through all but the
thin outer skin near the top of the
strip (Fig. 4) and then, holding it j
between the thumb and finger just
below the cut, pinch it slightly (Fig.
5). The effect of pinching is to
Apple-skin Bird.
move the top part backward and
forward, like a bird pecking at some-
thing. If a piece of bread be held
in one hand and the bird be marie
to peck at it, the resemblance at a
little distance is quite striking.
Other sports with fruit, nuts, etc.,
are described in the article on HAL-
LOWEEN.
SQUAILS. A game played by any
number of persons, usually four or
six, with disks of wood, like CHECKER
men, called squails. The players,
divided into two sides, sit alternately
around a table with a smooth top,
in the centre of which is a short
metal column called the Process.
Each player has two squails, which
are numbered or colored to distin-
guish them from the others, and
each in turn plays a squail toward
the Process by placing it so that
the edge projects from the table,
and then striking it with the palm
of the hand. The object is to get
as near the Process as possible.
The player may play his squail from
any part of the table edge that he
can reach with either hand while
sitting in his chair. He may try to
drive friendly squails nearer the
Process, or knock those of the en-
emy away. Any played squail fall-
ing from the table, or going within
three inches of the edge, is " dead "
for that round. At the close of the
two rounds the side which has the
nearest squail to the Process scores
one for each squail nearer than any
of the enemies'. If a player knock
the Process from the table, or
within three inches of the edge, the
opposing side scores two and the
Process is replaced.
Cachinole. A kind of Squails
placed on a circular board, in the
centre of which is the Process. The
squails are snapped with the fingers
from the edge of the board.
Squails and Cachinole are practi-
cally the game of CURLING adapted
to in-door playing. The principal
difference between them and the
similar out-door games is that the
players shoot from all sides toward
a centre, instead of from one end to
the other of a rink or alley.
The natives of the Friendly and
Samoan Islands, in the South Pa-
cific Ocean, play a game like Squails,
called Laffo, in which the players
pitch beans upon a mat, trying to
strike off those of the other players.
STAGE-COACH
679
ST. HELENA
STAGE-COACH, a game in which
all the players sit in a circle except
one, who stands in the middle.
Each of those sitting takes the
name of some part of a stage-coach,
of some article of dress of a passen-
ger, or of something else connected
with a stage ride. The one in the
middle of the room then tells a
story, bringing in these names as
often as he pleases. Whenever he
speaks the name a player has taken,
that player must rise and turn
around, or pay a FORFEIT. When
the word "stage-coach" is spoken, all
must rise and turn. The story ends
with the words " the stage turned
over," at which all change seats.
In the confusion the story-teller
tries to slip into a chair, and if he
succeeds, the one left standing must
take his place and tell a similar
story. Of course there must be
only chairs enough in the game for
those sitting. If the story-teller
gets a seat, he may take the name
of the one left standing, or choose
a new one. If he is unsuccessful,
he must tell another story. This
game may be varied in many ways :
thus, the story may be about a sea
voyage, and the players may be
named after parts of a ship.
This game is similar to that of
ECHO, where instead of turning at
certain words the players repeat
them after the story teller. The
Germans call it " Die Reise nach
Jerusalem" (The Journey to Jerusa-
lem), but it is entirely different from
our "GoiNG TO JERUSALEM."
STARCH, Manufacture of.
Starch may be made from flour as
follows : Mix flour with enough
water to make a stiff dough, and
then knead or roll it between the
fingers on a piece of muslin stretched
over a bowl or dish, pouring on a
little water every few seconds. The
water that flows through the mus-
lin carries with it a white matter,
which gradually settles to the bot-
tom and may be collected. This is
starch. When all the starch has
thus been removed from the dough,
a sticky mass remains, which is
called gluten.
STATUARY. See LIVING STATU-
ARY.
STEAM-WHEEL. A simple kind
of steam-engine can be made as
follows : Fasten the lid of a tin
baking-powder box to the box with
shellac varnish, and punch two holes
in the side of the box, one about as
large as a pin and the other as large
as a slate-pencil. The latter must
be fitted with a wooden plug. This
box is the boiler of the engine. It
must be glued between two upright
posts fixed in a board, so that the
pin-hole is on top. The upright
posts rise about two inches above
the boiler and bear, on an axle
made of stiff iron wire, a wheel like
a water wheel, or the paddle-wheel
of a steamboat. This can be made
by taking a large pill-box, cutting
slits in the sides, and drawing slips
of pasteboard through the slits so
that they project about half an
inch. The slips are steadied by
filling the box with damp sand be-
fore putting on the lid. This wheel
is arranged so that one side is di-
rectly over the pin-hole. The
boiler is now supplied with water
through the plugged hole, and an
alcohol lamp is placed under it.
When the water begins to boil, the
steam will issue from the pin-hole,
and striking the paddles of the
wheel, will spin it around very rap-
idly. If a grooved wooden wheel
be glued to one side of the paddle-
wheel, it may be connected by a string
to one of the moving toys which
are sold at toy-stores to be set in
motion by miniature steam-engines.
ST. HELENA, a SOLITAIRE game
of CARDS played with two packs.
The four Kings of one pack are laid
in a row on the table, and under
them the four corresponding Aces.
Cards are then placed, as they come,
in a row above the Kings, and in an-
other below the Aces ; and then
two cards are placed at the right of
STILL POND
680
STOCK EXCHANGE
the rows and two at the left. The
whole pack is distributed in this or-
der. The player's object is to build
up families by suits, downward from
the Kings and upward from the
Aces, and whenever a card can be
placed in its proper order it is so
placed ; but those that fall in the
upper row can be used only on the
Kings, and those in the lower row
on the Aces. The side cards can
be used on either row. After the
pack has been distributed, the top
card of any pile can be placed on
any other top card just above or
below it in rank ; and when a card is
thus uncovered that can be used in
building, it is so used, bearing in
mind the restriction noticed above.
If it is necessary to pick up the
outer rows, reshuffle them and re-
lay them. It may be done once,
and then any cards may be used in
building, no matter on what row
they fall. This game is said to have
been played much by Napoleon in
exile on the island of St. Helena,
and this gives it its name.
STILL POND. See BLIND MAN'S
BUFF.
STILTS, poles or crutches to raise
the feet above the ground in walk-
ing. The stilts are held as shown
in the picture. As usually made,
each stilt has a step
of wood, on which a
foot is placed ; but
some stilts have in-
stead a loop or stir-
rup of leather, into
which the foot is
thrust. The latter
kind is dangerous,
for if the wearer trip
or lose his balance
and fall, the feet are
apt to become entan-
gled, whereas in the
other case he can
easily jump from the
stilts to the ground.
Skilful walkers have
Stilts. their stilts strapped
tightly to their legs, so that they
may use their hands freely. The art
of walking on stilts depends on the
principles of BALANCING, and is best
learned by practice. The learner
should mount at first from a stump
or fence, high enough to step at
once onto his stilts. It is impos-
sible to stand still on stilts without
the aid of a staff, for the ends of
the poles do not offer so broad a
support as the feet ; but by taking
little steps in one direction and an-
other, the walker may remain near
one spot as long as he pleases. It
is easier to balance the body on
long stilts than on short ones, for
the same reason that it is easier to
balance a long pole than a short one.
In the Landes, a marshy tract of
country near Bordeaux, France, the
shepherds make great use of stilts
(C. T. T.). In this and other regions
where necessity has compelled the
use of stilts, various stilt-games are
played.
The illustration below, from an
old manuscript, shows the use of
stilts in ancient times.
Ancient Stilts.
STOCK EXCHANGE, THE, a game
played by any number of persons,
with a pack of cards. The players
sit in a circle, and one of them, tak-
ing the cards in his hand, gives them
STOP
681
SUGAR OF LEAD
one by one to his left-hand neighbor,
calling out the name of each card
as he does so, three times in quick
succession. His neighbor, as he re-
ceives them, hands them to the
next player, calling out their names
in like manner. The noise and con-
fusion increases with each card
handed out, and is supposed to re-
semble the sounds heard in the
Stock Exchange, where the brokers
are calling out the names of the
stocks they wish to sell or buy. If
the circle is not large enough for the
whole pack to go around, the player,
at the right of the dealer holds the
cards, as they reach him, instead of
passing them. Thus the noise
grows gradually less, and finally sub-
sides when all the cards have gone
around. Sometimes, when a Knave
appears, instead of naming 't the
holder says H'm, H'm, H'm, thus
imitating the undertone of conver-
sation ; and when an Ace is passed,
the one who passes it cries Oh ! Oh !
Oh!
STOP. See NEWMARKET.
STRING-BALL, a game played by
any number of persons with a hard
rubber ball, suspended by a string
from the limb of a tree or from a
stick projecting from a window.
The string should be from 10 to 15
feet long, and the ball should hang
about three or four feet above the
ground. One of the players strikes
the ball with his hand, so that it
swings, and those toward whom it
moves try to catch it before it swings
back past its lowest position. Should
any one succeed, the striker is out
and another takes his place; if not, he
scores one point and strikes again,
keeping on till he is put out. The
order in which the players are to
strike, and the number of turns
each is to have, is decided at the
beginning of the game.
Another method is for the striker
to try to hit the ball so hard that
the cord will be wound one or more
times around the branch or stick to
which it is fastened. Each has but
one trial at a time, and scores as
many points as the cord makes turns
around the branch. The cord is
unwound after each trial so that the
ball hangs as at first.
This «is a German game, and its
name is a translation of the German
name Schnurball.
STRING-STICKS, an arrangement
of sticks and string shown in the
first figure. The string appears to
B
String-sticks. — Fig. i.
pass directly through the top of the
sticks, as it can be pulled back and
forth by the ends A and B. A sharp
knife can be passed down between
the sticks at C, apparently cutting
the string, yet it can be pulled back
and forth as before. The second il-
lustration shows the real arrange-
String-sticks. — Fig. 2.
ment of the string, which makes
this possible. The string does not
pass through EF at all, but down the
sticks and through the hinge (D in
Fig. i).
SUGAR OF LEAD, Experiments
with. Make a strong solution of
sugar of lead, and add hydrochloric
acid or a solution of common salt.
SULPHUR
682
SULPHUR DIOXIDE
A fine precipitate of chloride of !
lead will be forme»l. Boil the solu-
tion and this will be dissolved, but |
on cooling it is deposited in beauti- j
ful crystals, sometimes called " The j
Silver Shower." i
2. Repeat the above experiment,
adding iodide of potassium to the
solution of sugar of lead instead of,
hydrochloric acid. The crystals of
iodide of lead formed on cooling are
bright yellow, and the experiment is
hence often called " The Golden
Shower."
SULPHUR, Experiments with, Sul-
phur is described in C. C. T.
1. Place in a test-tube enough bits
of stick sulphur, or flowers of sul-
phur, to half fill it. Heat the sul-
phur in an alcohol lamp flame and
it will melt. At first it forms a ;
light yellow liquid ; but if it be
heated more it turns dark, and be-
comes so thick that it will not run
out even if the tube be held upside
down. If it be heated still more, I
it becomes fluid again and finally
boils, giving off a light yellow va-
por. While it boils, pour half of it
into a glass of cold water and set
the rest away to cool. That which
was poured into the water forms a
dark mass like India-rubber, which
does not resemble sulphur at all,
and that which cools in the test
tube forms long yellow crystals.
The first is called amorphous sul-
phur, from two Greek words mean-
ing "without form."
2. To dissolve sulphur. Sulphur
will not dissolve in water or alcohol,
but it will in carbon disulphide. If
the solution be poured on a plate
and dried, the sulphur will be de-
posited in crystals; but, as can be
seen with a magnifying glass, these
are not the same kind of crystals as
those obtained by cooling in the
first experiment, being shorter and
blunter. The amorphous sulphur
will not dissolve even in carbon
disulphide.
3. To bleach with sulphur. Light
a small piece of sulphur, and hold
over it some colored flowers in an
inverted glass. The flowers will be
turned white, either entirely or in
spots. Dip the flowers in very
weak sulphuric acid or ammonia,
and the color will be partially re-
stored. The bleaching is done by
the gas called sulphur dioxide, which
is made when sulphur is burned.
More experiments with this gas are
described in the article on it.
4. Mix seven grains of powdered
sulphur with four grains of fine iron
filings, and heat the mixture in an
ignition tube. They will combine
to form sulphide of iron.
SULPHUR DIOXIDE, Experiments
with. Sulphur dioxide gas may be
made by burning sulphur, as shown
in Experiment 3 in the preceding
article. It is hard to collect it when
made thus, and it is also impure.
A better way is to put two or three
teaspoonfuls of small scraps of cop-
per into a flask, cover them with
strong sulphuric acid, and heat the
mixture. The delivery-tube from
the flask must lead to the bottom
of a bottle where the gas will col-
lect, as it is heavier than air. It
will be perceived by the smell that
the gas is the same as that produced
by burning sulphur. The liquid re-
maining in the flask is colored blue
with BLUE VITRIOL. By passing
the delivery-tube into a bottle of
water, the gas will dissolve, forming
sulphurous acid, which may be used
in bleaching, like the gas.
EXPERIMEN TS.
I. To turn sulphur dioxide gas to
a liquid. This can be done by ap-
plying cold or pressure, but the lat-
ter method is not safe without spe-
cial apparatus. The first method
is easy if care be taken. The de-
livery-tube first leads the gas into a
bottle packed in ice, and it next
passes through a drying bottle, and
then through a U tube packed in
pounded ice and salt. The gas will
condense into a heavy oily liquid at
the bottom of the U-tube. If the
SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN 683
SULPHURIC ACID
tube be one with a stop-cock at both
ends, they may be turned, and the
liquid can thus be kept any length
of time. Otherwise it will evapo-
rate again into the gas. The evap-
oration of the liquid produces great
cold, as will be seen in the following
experiments.
2 Put a little mercury in a watch-
glass or butter plate, pour liquid
sulphur dioxide over it, and blow a
current of air across it with a bel-
lows. The mercury will be frozen.
3. Pour some liquid sulphur di-
oxide on the bulb of an alcohol
thermometer wrapped in cotton.
It will sink very low. A mercury
thermometer will not do so, because
the mercury would be frozen.
4. Pour a quantity of the liquid
sulphur dioxide into ice-cold water.
Some of it will sink to the bottom.
Stir this with a glass rod and it
will boil at once, while some of the
water will freeze.
SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN,
Experiments witht (Read thearticle
CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS.) Sul-
phuretted hydrogen, also called
hydrogen sulphide, is a gas com-
posed of hydrogen and sulphur.
It should be made out of doors or
in an out-building, for it has a very
bad odor, like that of rotten eggs.
It can be made like HYDROGEN,
using, instead of zinc, lumps of iron
sulphide as large as the tip of the
little finger. The gas can be col-
lected over hot water, or led into a
bottle of cold water, in which it will
dissolve.
EXPERIMENTS.
1. All the experiments given
under HYDROGEN can be repeated
with sulphuretted hydrogen. When
burned in a jar it will deposit a thin
crust of sulphur on the inside.
2. Fill a bottle with chlorine and
another with sulphuretted hydrogen
and bring them mouth to mouth.
Sulphur will be deposited. The
same result will follow if chlorine
water and sulphuretted hydrogen
water be mixed.
3. Hold a wet silver or copper
coin in a stream of the gas or dip it
in sulphuretted hydrogen water.
The coin will be blackened.
4. Make a drawing or write a sen-
tence on a piece of paper with sugar
of lead dissolved in water. It will
be invisible when dry. Dip it in
sulphuretted hydrogen water, and
the writing or drawing will show
plainly in black. The reason is,
that while sugar of lead is white,
sulphide of lead (which is formed
when it touches sulphuretted hydro-
gen) is black.
SULPHURIC ACID, Experiments
with. Sulphuric acid is described
in C. C. T. (Read also the article
CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS.) i. Put
a few teaspoonfuls of water into a
glass, and on it slowly pour about
twice as much sulphuric acid in a
fine stream. Stir the liquid with a
test-tube containing a little alcohol
or ether. Enough heat will be de-
veloped to boil the liquid in the
tube. Even water will boil in the
tube, but not so readily.
2. Make a thick syrup by dissolv-
ing sugar in hot water. Put a few
teaspoonfuls into a glass and pour
sulphuric acid in it slowly, at the
same time stirring it with a glass
rod. The acid will turn the syrup
into a mass of black spongy char^
coal, as shown in the figure. If the
Experiment 2.
syrup is not thick enough, the mass
will be half liquid.
3. Dip bits of wood into strong
sulphuric acid. They will be
charred as if by heat.
4. Dilute some sulphuric acid
with about half its volume of water,
and when it has become cold, dip
into a piece of unglazed paper, let-
SULTAN
684
SUN-DIALS
ting it stay about a quarter of a min-
ute. Rinse the paper in water, then
in very weak ammonia, and then in
water again. The paper will be
much tougher than before, being
changed to a substance called vege-
table parchment. The time it
should remain in the acid varies
with the kind of paper used, but by
trying several times very tough
parchment can be made.
SULTAN, a SOLITAIRE game of
CARDS, played with two full packs.
One Ace of Hearts and the eight
Kings are removed from the pack
and arranged on the table as fol-
lows : One King of Hearts (called
the Sultan) is placed in the centre,
with the Ace of Hearts just above
him, and below him the other King
of Hearts. On each side of the
Ace are laid the Kings of Clubs,
just below them the Kings of Dia-
monds, and below these the Kings
of Spades, representing respectively
War, the Treasury, and Industry.
The back is now snuffled, held back
upward, and playing begins. The
first four cards are laid in order on
one side of the figure already formed,
with their ends toward the figure,
and the next four on the other side
in like manner. These eight cards
are called the Sultan's Divan. The
piles of suits are now to be com-
pleted in order, by placing on the
Kings the Aces, Twos, Threes, and
so on up to Queens, using cards
from the pack, any card from the
Divan, or the top card of the Stock,
which consists of the cards that
cannot be used, piled on one side.
The Ace of Hearts is also built upon
in like manner. When a place in
the Divan is empty it must be filled
at once, either by the next card
played, or the top card of the Stock,
as the player chooses. When the
game is ended, it shows the Sultan
surrounded by his eight Queens.
SUN-DIALS, The use of sundials
and the form of one kind are de-
scribed in the article CLOCK in
C. C. T. There are many other
kinds, all of which can be con-
structed with a little care. One of
the simplest consists of a circle or
disk of metal, having its circumfer-
ence divided into twenty-four equal
parts, numbered from one to twelve
twice over, as in Fig. i. Zinc is
the best material for all the dials,
as it does not rust and is easily
marked and cut. In the centre is
fixed a straight pin called a style,
which must be exactly perpendicu-
lar to the disk. The accuracy of
the dial depends on this, and on
its being placed so that the style
points in the same direction as the
earth's axis. This may be brought
about in two ways. In one, a little
hole is made through the metal
disk, close to the style, and then,
on a clear night, the dial is so
placed that by looking through this
hole, the north star is brought into
line with the style. In the other
method a triangle is cut out of
pasteboard (see Fig. 2) having the
A angle C just
equal to the
latitude of the
place. This
can be done
by finding the
latitude on a
C Fig. 2. B map, and then
making the angle with the aid of a
SUN-DIALS
68S
SUN-DIALS
piece of metal marked off in de-
grees, called a protractor, which
can be bought of any dealer in draw-
ing materials. Fix this triangle,
with the aid of a compass, so that
the end B points due north and the
base BC is horizontal. Then fix
the dial so that the style points
along the line AC, the free end be-
ing toward A. The figure 12 must
be exactly below the style.
Globe-dial, A dial can be made
of an ordinary school globe, mounted
on an axis which points toward the
north pole (see Fig. 3). The globe
middle of the trough from end to
end, whose shadow points out the
Figr- 3-
is divided into twenty-four parts by
meridians of longitude, which are
numbered from I to 12 twice over,
one six o'clock meridian being ex-
actly on top of the globe, and the
other at the bottom. There is no
style, the hour being pointed out by
the line between the light and dark
part of the globe. As this is rather
blurred, the dial is not very exact.
Trough-diaL This is formed of a
semi-circular trough of tin or zinc
closed at the end as shown in Fig. 4.
Straight lines divide it lengthwise
into twelve equal parts which are
numbered from 6 A.M. to 6 P.M., the
twelve o'clock line being at the
bottom. Instead of a stvie a w.re is
stretched lengthwise across the
Fig. 4.
hours. The trough must be placed
in a north and south direction.
Horizontal Dial. This is more
common than the others just de-
scribed, but is harder to make be-
cause the dial is not divided into
equal parts. To make one exactly
requires the use of mathematics,
but one can be made roughly as
follows : Fix a disk or square plate
of zinc on a post, so that it will be
perfectly level, and in the middle
drive a pin for a style, inclined as
before in the direction of the north
star. The triangle in Fig. 2 may be
cut out of zinc and soldered to the
dial, its edge AC answering as a
style. Watch the shadow of the
style, and mark each hour on the
edge of the dial where the shadow
falls at that hour. Only the time
used must be sun time — not true
time. The difference between these
two sorts of time will now be ex-
plained.
Correction. If the earth moved
around the sun at a uniform speed,
the sun dial would always indicate
the true time, but it moves faster at
some times than at others, so that
a correction must usually be added
to or subtracted from the hour it
points out, and the same correction
must be used in marking the hours
on the dial. A table of these cor-
rections (expressed in minutes) is
given below. All corrections
marked + are to be added to the
reading of the dial to get the true
time, and all marked — are to
be subtracted. In marking the
dial, where it is necessary to get
sun time from true time, the cor-
rections marked — are added to the
SUN-SPOTS
686
SWAYlt«
true time, and those marked + are
subtra;ted. All the days of the
month are not given, but the cor-
rections for the omitted ones can
easily be calculated. Thus, the cor-
rection for Jan. 5 is + 5$, and chat
for Oct. 12. is — 13.
Jan.
25
30
— 2
- 3
21
24
- 7
- 8
i
4
+ 4
+ 5
May
27
3°
- 9
— 10
6
+ 6
i
^— (J
Oct.
8
+ 7
17
- 4
ii
+ 8
28—3
3
— ii
'3
16
+ 9
+ 10
June
7
10
— 12
— 13
19
+ H
4
— 2
H
— 14
23
+ 12
10
— I
19
-15
27
+ 13
19
+ I
27
— 16
3i
+ 14
24
+ 2
Nov.
3
Feb.
+ H
29
+ 3
July
10
17
-16
-i5
19
+ H
4
+ 4
21
— '4
26
+ 13
10
+ 5
25
— '3
March
19
+ 6
28
— 12
3
+ 12
Aug.
Dec.
4
+ II
i
+ 6
I
— II
12
+ 10
ii
+ 5
2
— 10
15
+ 9
16
+ 4
6
— 9
»9
+ 8
21
+ 3
8
— 8
22
+ 7
25
+ 2
10
- 7
25
+ 6
29
+ I
12
- 6
28
+ 5
April
4
5ept.
— i
H
16
18
i
I
+ 4
7
— 2
21
— 2
4
+ 3
10
— 3
23
— I
8
+ 2
13
~ 4
27
+ I
12
+ i
16
- 5
29
+ 2
19
^^ I
18
— 6
3*
+ 3
SUN-SPOTS, Observations on.
The sun is described in C. C. T.
The spots on it may be seen through
an ordinary opera-glass, the eyes
being protected from its rays as fol-
lows: Procure two strips of window-
glass one inch wide and two inches
long, and smoke one of them over
a lamp or candle flame till the sun
can be seen through it without
hurting the eyes. Fasten the
pieces of glass together, smoked
side inward, by elastic bands, keep-
ing them apart by slips of paper
pasted at the ends, so that the
smoked side will not rub. The
pieces of glass can now be fastened
over the eye-pieces of the opera-
glass by a large elastic band around
the middle. The spots can now be
seen easily. When a spot shaped
so that it can be recognized is seen,
it should be watched from day to
day, and will be seen to change its
place. The reason is that the sun
is turning on its axis like the earth,
carrying the spot around with it.
The average number of sun-spots
does not remain the same, but is
greatest every eleven years. The
last year when there was the largest
number was 1881, and the next will
therefore be in 1892. Until about
that time there will be more and
more of them, and then they will
decrease in number till about 1897,
when they will begin to increase
again.
SWAYKA, a game played by any
number of persons with an iron pin
eight or nine inches long, and any
number of iron rings varying in di-
ameter from two inches to one foot.
The pin, which is called the Swayka
(its name in Russian), is so sharp
that it will stick upright when
thrown either at the ground or a
board floor. The rings are placed
in any order on the ground, and the
players try to throw the Swayka so
that it will stick upright within one
of them. Their object is so to
place it in each one of the rings in
any order.
RULES.
1. The players take turns, each
(laving only one throw in a turn.
2. A player may throw first at
whichever ring he chooses, but he
must announce beforehand which
one it is, and if he throws the Swayka
into any other it counts as a miss.
3. Whoever can place the Swayka
in all the rings in regular order 01
SWEDISH WKIST
687
SWIMMING
size, beginning with the smallest
and ending with the largest, receives
the name of King, has general con-
trol of the game, acts as umpire,
and has the right to order any one
to pick up the Swayka for him.
When he reaches the largest he
must begin at; the smallest again,
otherwise he cannot remain King.
He holds the title as long as he can
throw successfully in that order.
If two or more players earn the
right to be King they must throw
together, the other players omitting
their turns till all but one have
missed.
4. No player may throw a second
time at the same ring till he has
placed the Swayka in all the other
rings.
5. When a player misses, all the
rings he has thrown into count for
nothing, and he must throw, at his
next turn, into the next larger ring.
If he miss that, he must take the
next larger at his following turn,
and so on till he is successful or
misses the largest ring.
6. Whoever misses the largest
ring is out of the game, and is
obliged to pick up the Swayka for
his companions till some one else
misses that ringand takes his place.
7. The game may last as long as
desired. If so agreed, he who has
been King the greatest number of
times during the play is victor.
Swayka is a Russian game, and
is said to be very popular in that
country.
SWEDISH WHIST. See PREFER-
ENCE.
SWIMMING, the art of propelling
one's self through the water by the
arms and legs.
Learning to Swim. The learner
should choose, if possible, a grad-
ually sloping shore with gravelly
or sandy bottom, where there is
no current. If he is not used to
the water, he must first accustom
himself to being under it by ly-
ing down on the bottom, where it
is only one or two feet deep. He
will thus, after practice, be able to
enter the water without gasping,
and will learn that it is easy to keep
his body afloat by a very slight push
of the hand against the bottom, as
shown in Fig. i. He should try to
Fig. i.
open his eyes under water, and when
he puts his head out he must re-
member to breathe outward before
inhaling, thus expelling the water
from his nostrils. After he has ac-
quired confidence, he should wade
out to a depth of about four feet,
and try to swim to shore, using the
simple chest stroke, or swimming
" dog-fashion," as explained below.
At first he will probably splash
;ibout rather aimlessly with hands
and feet; but as soon as he sees that
he can keep himself afloat, he will
be able to follow directions more
exactly. When he sinks he can
sustain himself by pushing with one
hand against the bottom — but this
should be done as seldom as pos-
sible. WThen he can swim a few
strokes without this aid, he should
begin at a greater distance from
shore, and so on, until he is perfect-
ly at home in the water. This will
probably be only after much patient
practice, though some learners make
faster progress than others.
This is not the only way of learn-
ing to swim. Some people advise
the learner to jump at once into
water over his depth, trusting to
his instinct and to his natural strug-
gles to get to shore; but this should
never be tried unless some older
person is near to rescue the swim-
mer in case of need. Timid people
should never try it at all. Another
SWIMMING
688
SWIMMING
method is for a teacher or compan-
ion to support the learner, by plac-
Fig. 2.
ing a hand beneath him till he has
learned to make the proper motions
and is able to keep himself up. In
another method a band around the
learner's chest is fastened by a rope
to the end of a pole held by an as-
sistant (see Fig. 2), who thus gives
the swimmer aid as long as he needs
it. Some teachers say that the
learner ought to practise his strokes
lying across a chair, before he tries
them in the water, but others con-
sider this unnecessary. The various
kinds of swimming strokes will now
be described.
Breast-stroke. This is the ordi-
nary stroke and the one generally
useo! by learners. Fig. 3 shows the
position of starting as seen from
above, and Fig. 4 the attitude as
seen from one side. The hands are
brought under the chin, fingers to-
gether, and palms down and slight-
ly hollowed. The arms are then
pushed straight forward, keeping
the hands together till they are at
German Swimming School.
full length. The hands are now
separated and brought obliquely
backward and downward (called
line with the shoulders, when the
hands are brought in edgewise till
they are together just beneath the
" striking out") till the arms are in j chin, as at first. Some swimmers
SWIMMING
689
SWIMMING
take a longer stroke than this, bring-
ing the hands down as far as the
hips. While the hands are making
Fig. 3-
this stroke, the feet and legs make
a corresponding one. The knees
are bent so that they will be as far
apart as possible, while the feet are
together, and the legs are then
kicked back and out so that the
soles of the feet press flatly against
the water. The legs must then be
closed stiffly, like a pair of scissors,
forcing the water out from between
them, and so pushing the swimmer
forward. When they are closed the
knees must be opened again as at
first.
The arm and leg strokes must be
made at the same time, the feet be-
ing drawn up as the hands are ad-
vanced, the kick being made quickly
as the hands begin to strike out, and
the legs being closed when the
hands have about half finished the
stroke. Fig. 4 shows the proper
angle for the body to make with the
water surface. The head should be
kept back as far as possible, that it
may be supported by the lungs.
The breath should be in time with
Fig. 4.
the stroke, the lungs being empty
when it is being made, and full when
the swimmer is drawing in his limbs
for a new one. The reason for this
is that the body is lighter when the
lungs are full of air, and there is
greatest need of their sustaining
power between strokes.
Beginners are apt to place most
reliance on the arm movement, pay-
ing little attention to the legs ; but
the leg stroke is really as important
as that of the arms, or even more im-
portant, as some teachers think. The
swimmer will be able to go much
farther without tiring himself if he
uses his legs properly than if he sim-
ply kicks with them.
Side-stroke. The swimmer lies
on his side instead of his breast.
Either side may be used, but most
swimmers prefer the right, since the
right arm can then be used to the
greatest advantage. The head is
turned so that the chin rests against
the uppermost shoulder, and lies as
deeply in the water as possible.
The face may be kept above water,
or it may be above only when the
forward impulse raises it a little.
The lower hand is advanced under
water on a level with the head, and
SWIMMING
690
SWIMMING
then is brought downward at arm's
length. It is returned by bending
the elbow and wrist, so as to give as
little resistance as possible. While
this hand is being advanced, as just
described, the upper hand is used
like an oar, the fingers being bent
at right angles to the arm. Thus
the hands are used alternately, each
doing its work in turn. At the
same time the upper leg is kicked
out in front of the body, and brought
around like an oar, the foot being
stretched out in a line with the leg,
and the lower leg is stretched out
beyond the back, and brought
around to meet the other. Both
legs are then drawn in for another
stroke, as in the chest-stroke. The
side stroke requires more practice
than the chest-stroke, but the body
offers less resistance to the water in
this stroke than in any other. It is
often used by skilled swimmers as a
rest in going long distances.
Overhand Side-stroke (Fig. 5).
This is like the one just described,
except that the uppermost arm is
Fig:. 5-
advanced out of water instead of
under it, as shown in the illustra-
tion.
Swimming Dog-fashion. The arms
are moved alternately outward,
downward, and then inward, with a
pawing motion, but without leaving
the water. The motion of the legs
may be as in the chest-stroke, or
they may be kicked backward alter-
nately. This stroke is often used
by beginners, and is the natural one
for most people, though not the
best for ordinary use.
Swimming Turtle-fashion (Fig. 6).
Like the last stroke, except that the
arms are thrust forward alternately
above water, the body turning from
side to side. This stroke is swift,
Fig. 6.
but more tiresome than the chest-
stroke.
Swimming on the Back. There
are several methods. In one. the
swimmer lies on his back, keeping
his face barely out of water. The
legs are inclined downward and
held together, the stroke being made
entirely with the hands. The arms
are kept closely at the swimmer's
sides and he propels himself by a
rapid twisting motion of the hands
from the wrist, the back of the hand
being uppermost to begin with, and
the palm at the end of the stroke.
The chest stroke may also be used
in swimming on the back. The
swimmer may advance head first or
feet first, as he chooses, and he may
use hands alone or feet alone in
making his stroke. When the arms
are not used they should be folded
on the chest, or held straight along
the side.
There are many other methods of
swimming, and every good swim-
mer usually has a stroke differing
a little from every other. When
one has mastered the simple strokes,
he can invent other methods to suit
his fancy. Some of the styles used
by skilled swimmers, besides those
already mentioned, are :
i. The corkscrew stroke, in which
the body turns under water, appar-
ently screwing its way forward.
This is done by a patting motion of
the soles of the feet, the swimmer
steering with one hand, which is held
straight forward.
SWIMMING
691
SWIMMING
2. Swimming with one hand or
foot, or both feet, out of water.
This is useful where a swimmer
wishes to carry his clothes across a
deep stream.
3. Swimming with hands and feet
bound, or with one hand holding
one foot.
Diving, entering deep water head-
first by leaping. The water should
be more than six feet deep, or the
swimmer may injure himself by
striking against, the bottom. Va-
rious attitudes in diving are shown
in the accompanying illustrations,
but that commonly preferred is the
Diving Forward.
one where the diver extends his
hands above his head. Sometimes
a spring-board is used to aid the
leap. Before beginning to dive the
swimmer should master the ordi-
nary strokes, and should be able to
keep his eyes open under water.
He must leap so that he will enter
the water head first, for if he strikes
flat on his chest the shock is severe.
When the dive is made properly
there is no splash, the body enter-
ing the water smoothly. When be-
neath the water he may strike out,
keeping under as long as possible,
and rising at a distance from the
place where he entered, or he may
rise at once, aiding himself by a
Diving Sideways.
downward movement of the hands.
The depth to which a diver goes be-
pends on the angle at which he
enters the water, and on his move-
ments beneath it. Skilful divers
often bring up stones from a depth
of twelve or fifteen feet, while on
the other hand they can dive without
touching bottom when it is only six
or eight feet below the surface. A
very deep dive is often aided by
carrying a stone in one hand. The
learner may begin diving by stand-
ing in water up to his waist and
plunging into it head first. He
should try diving from a moderate
height before he ventures to leap
from a high bank or from a spring-
board. Some swimmers dive feet
foremost ; but this requires skill to
keep upright, if the jump is from a
high place; and if the swimmer
strikes on his side or does not hold
his feet together, he may be badly
SWIMMING
692
SWIMMING
injured. Jumping into the water
from a low bank, however, is per-
fectly safe, and requires no skill.
When a swimmer dives frequently,
he should fill his ears with oiled
cotton. People who have large nos-
trils are often obliged to stop them
up in like manner, and bovs, when
diving, often hold the nose in one
hand ; but this is awkward and can
only be done when diving from a
very low bank, or from a row-boat.
Floating. The human body is a
very little lighter than water, on an
average, but the head is heavier
than water. If left to itself, there-
fore, the body tends to float, bnt
with back upward, the head hang-
ing down beneath the surface. To
float on one's back, keeping the
mouth and nostrils out of water, so
as to breathe, requires skill and con-
fidence. The lightest part of the
body is the lungs, and the swimmer's
effort should be to alter the posi-
tion of the limbs and body above
and below the lungs, so that there
will be a perfect balance. One of
Floating.
the best floating positions is that
where the swimmer extends his
arms above his head, throws the
head back, and draws up the legs
under the thighs. The body is not
horizontal, but inclines downward
toward the legs, the back being
slightly hollowed. The only parts
of the body above water are the
chin, mouth, and nose. A more
difficult position is the horizontal,
the body being held straight and
stiff, the legs close together. The
toes, chest, face, and fingers are just
above the surface. It is also pos-
sible to float perpendicularly. Con-
fidence is more essential to floating
than anything else. The beginner
usually feels that he is going to sink,
and throws up his hands, with the
result that he goes down, his body
not being light enough to sustain
his arms out of water. The learner
should remember that his body will
float of itself so long as it is nearly
under water, and that there is no
danger of his sinking unless he tries
to raise head or limb. In assuming
the floating position, all the move-
ments must be made slowly and
under water. The lightness of the
body will be increased by keeping
the lungs as full as possible. To
one who is skilled in floating the
sensation is delightful, and swim-
mers often rest themselves thus in
still water. In rough water it is of
course impossible.
Treading Water. To tread water
the swimmer assumes an upright
Treading Water.
position, only the head being above
water, and moves his legs as though
walking upstairs, pushing down-
ward against the water with the
soles of his feet. Very slight exer-
tion is required to keep the head
SWIMMING
693
SWIMMING
above water, but the swimmer must
not try to keep it too high, remem-
bering that when more of the body
is above the surface, it is harder
work to sustain it. Another method
is to move both feet together, as in
the chest-stroke — but this causes the
body to rise and fall with each ef-
fort. In either method the arms
may be held straight at the sides,
or " akimbo," or folded across the
chest.
Swimming in Rough Water. The
swimmer should learn his strokes
in still water, but when he has mas-
tered them he should practise them
also in rough water. He should
try to go through the waves rather
than over them. In the surf it is
necessary to look out for the under-
tow, which is a strong current of
water flowing outward from the
shore underneath the waves which
are rolling in. If the swimmer lets
his legs drop too low, this current
will strike them and pull him back.
He should not, therefore, let them
hang at an angle with the surface,
as ordinarily, but should swim
with his whole body as near as pos-
sible on the top of the wave. The
upper current will then help him
get to shore.
Cramp. Swimmers are sometimes
attacked in the water by cramp, a
contraction of the muscles of the
arm or leg, making it impossible to
use the affected limb. Many swim-
mers have been drowned by an at-
tack of this kind, yet there is no
danger if one keep his presence of
mind. The trouble can often be re-
lieved by rubbing, changing posi-
tion, or a powerful effort to
straighten the cramped limb, but
if not, the swimmer should float or
paddle to the shore, or until aid
arrives. The chief thing is not to
loose courage, for the best swim-
mer, if he do this, is no better off
than one who does not know how to
swim at all.
Swimming Apparatus. Many de-
vices have been invented to aid
Swimming Propeller.
swimmers (see illustration), but I before them while learning the use
none are recommended for learn- j of the legs. Life preservers, or de-
ers, except that some teachers ad- vices to keep the body afloat, are
vise their pupils to push a plank useful where it is necessary to keep
SWIMMING
694
SWIMMING
in the water a long time, or where a
person who does not know how to
swim is obliged to jump into the
water ; but they are a hindrance
rather than an aid to real swim-
ming. Those provided in steam-
boats and ships for use in case of
accident are usually wide strips of
Captain Boyton's Suit.
cork or inflated rubber covered
with canvas. Some are tied on
close under the arms, and others
are arranged to be put on like a
waistcoat. Care must betaken that
the preserver does not slip to the
lower part of the body, for then the
head will go down and the feet up.
Other devices to aid swimmers
consist of plates to be fastened to
the hands and feet, but the most cel-
ebrated invention of this kind is the
SWIMMING
695
SWIMMING
inflated India-rubber suit of Cap-
tain Paul Boyton, shown in the
illustration. By putting on lliissuit
a man makes a boat of himself, and
can paddle or sail, as he wishes,
carrying provisions with him. In
one of these suits Captain Boyton
has performed many remarkable
feats, such as crossing the English
Channel on May 28, 1875, in twenty-
four hours, descending the Danube,
460 miles, in six days, in May, 1876,
and floating from Cedar Creek,
Montana, to St. Louis, Mo., 3580
miles, which took him from Sep-
tember 17 to November 20, 1881.
General Advice. The swimmer
should not stay too long in the
water. Usually twenty minutes at
a time is long enough. The head
should be wet before going in, for
as cold water drives the blood from
the surface of the body as it touches
it, there might be a rush of blood to
the head if it were the last part of
the body to enter the water.
It is wrong to bathe just after a
meal. At least two hours should be
allowed to pass after eating before
entering the water.
It is a good plan for the swimmer
to accustom himself to swim with
his clothes on. This may be of
great use in case of accident. He
should also practise undressing, or
at least removing his heavier gar-
ments, while in the water. Where
it is necessary to plunge into the
water at once to save life, only the
coat and shoes should be removed.
Life-saving. It is often difficult
to bring to shore a person who is
drowning, for such people sometimes
lose their presence of mind and
grasp the rescuer so that he cannot
swim. If the person to be saved
has a clear head, he should be di-
rected to place his hands lightly on
the hips of the rescuer, who can
then easily swim ashore with him ;
but if the drowning man has lost
his presence of mind, the rescuer
should approach him from behind,
if possible, and push him to shore,
or even drag him by the hair, or by
an arm or leg. If possible, his head
should be supported, but this is not
absolutely necessary. He should
be brought to shore as quickly as
he can be, either above or below
water. In case he is insensible when
brought to shore, or apparently
drowned, the water must first be
forced from his lungs, and he must
then be made to breathe. Many
ways of effecting this have been rec-
ommended. In all cases there must
be no delay, as to wait even a few
seconds may cause the loss of life.
The patient should not even be re-
moved to shelter, as that takes time,
but he must be treated in the open
air. Efforts to make the blood cir-
culate must not be made till the pa-
tient begins to breathe.
To remove water from the throat,
place the rescued man on the ground
face downward, with one arm under
the forehead, when the fluid will
drain away. Breathing may now
begin. If not, it may be excited by
smelling-salts, by tickling the throat
with a feather, by rubbing the chest
and face, or by dashing cold water
on them. If this is not successful,
the motions of breathing must be
imitated. Lay the patient on his
face, supporting the chest by a
folded coat. Turn him gently on
one side, and a little beyond, and
then back again. As the body is
turned back on the face, the back
should be pressed firmly between
the shoulder-blades. These move-
ments must be repeated every four
or five seconds. When the patient
is on his chest, the air is forced
from the lungs, and when he is
turned on his side the air enters
again. While these efforts are be-
ing made, the hands and feet should
be dried, the body stripped and dry
clothes or coverings put on, without
interfering with the movements de-
scribed.
History. Men have been able to
swim from the earliest times. The
Israelites knew how, as we learn
SWIMMING
696
SWIMMING
from the Bible, and there are refer-
ences to swimming on the Assyrian
tablets in the British Museum. The
ancient Greeks thought it so neces-
sary that one of their proverbs, de-
scribing an uneducated man, was,
" He knows neither how to read and
write, nor how to swim." Swimming
was taught to the Greek youths, es-
pecially the Spartans, as a part of
their regular athletic training (see
the history of ATHLETICS). The Ro-
man soldiers were trained to swim,
and swimming-races formed part of
the Roman athletic contests. Julius
Caesar once saved his life by know-
ing how to swim. The Romans
built enormous bathing-houses, of
which there were 850 in the city at
one time, one of which had a swim-
ming-tank measuring 200 by 100
feet. The art has always been prac-
tised more or less, but in the last
century it was opposed in Europe by
many teachers and physicians who
thought that it injured the health,
and people did not learn it as gener-
ally as they do now. In the begin-
ning of this century it came again
into favor, and now almost every
one thinks that both boys and girls
should know how to swim. Swim-
ming-schools are to be found in all
countries, but the art is taught most
carefully in France and Germany.
In France the method of learning
the stroke before entering the water
is in favor. It is said that out of
twenty-six military cadets taught in
this way, who were made to enter
the river Marne, nineteen swam at
once without further instruction.
In this country this method is not
favored. A recent writer on the
subject says : " Ten minutes' work
in the water is worth ten hours on a
chair." The first writer on swim-
ming in this country was probably
Benjamin Franklin, whose advice
to learners is often quoted. It is
much the same as that given above,
except that he advocates plunging
at once into water breast deep after
a white stone or other object, for
the purpose of teaching the swim-
mer the buoyancy of his own body.
Swimming-races, though not as
common as other kinds, are fre-
quently held, and skilled swimmers
often attempt feats in the water,
such as long distance swims, long
swims under water, and the like.
The records of some of these are
given in the Appendix. It should
be remembered that these are in-
fluenced greatly by the direction of
the current or tide, or the fact that
some were performed in a tank
where the swimmer had to turn fre-
quently.
RULES FOR SWIMMING RACES.
The rules of the National Ama-
teur Athletic Union for swimming-
races are as follows :
Sec. i. Officials shall consist of
one referee, three Judges at the fin-
j ish, three Time-keepers, one Starter,
one Clerk of the Course, with assist-
ants, if necessary.
Sec. 2. Duties and powers of these
officials shall be the same as is pre-
scribed for them in the foregoing
rules (see ATHLETIC GAMES).
Sec. 3. In the 100 yards swim-
ming-race, each competitor shall
stand with one or both feet on the
starting-line, and when the signal is
given shall plunge. Stepping back,
either before or after the signal, will
not be allowed.
Sec. 4. The half mile and one
mile start shall be the same as the
loo yards, except that competitors
may start in the water (tread-water
start) from an imaginary line.
SEC. 5. A competitor shall keep
a straight course, parallel with the
courses of the other competitors,
from his starting station to the op-
posite point in the finish line. Com-
petitors will be started ten feet apart,
and each one is entitled to a straight
lane of water, ten feet wide, from
start to finish. Any contestant who,
when out of his own water, shall
touch another competitor, is liable
SWINGING
697
SWINGING
to disqualification — subject to the
discretion of the Referee.
SEC. 6. Each competitor shall
have finished the race when any
part of his person reaches the finish
line.
SWINGING. Swings are made
usually of a single rope, fastened at
both ends, two to six feet apart, to
the limb of a tree or a cross-piece
of timber. The rope must be of
such a length that the loop hangs
within three or four feet of the
ground. In the loop is fastened a
wooden seat, on which the person
who swings sits while a companion
pushes him forward. The push is
repeated every time the swing re-
turns to its original position, and it
thus rises a little higher each time,
till the pusher can run quite under
the swing, giving it a parting push
as it swings up out of his reach.
The longer the swing is the pleas-
anter the motion, for the person in
a long swing moves more nearly in
a straight line than in a short one,
and the time of a swing is longer.
A swing about thirteen feet long
should go backward and forward
in two seconds, one twenty-nine
feet long in three seconds, and one
fifty-two feet long in four seconds.
The time is nearly the same, no
matter whether the swing be sent
high or low ; if it be sent high it
moves faster, so that it goes over its
path in about the same time. The
person who sits in the swing may
move himself by pulling the ropes
back, leaning backward and stretch-
ing out his feet every time the
swing moves forward. It is better
still to stand in the swing while ex-
ecuting this movement. Two per-
sons standing in a swing face to
face and doing this alternately may
make the swing rise very high.
This is called " pumping " or " work-
ing." Each must stoop down, lean
backward, and push his feet for-
ward while the swing moves in the
direction he is facing.
Sometimes the person sitting in
the swing jumps from it, and con-
tests may be held by two or more
persons, in which each tries to jump
farther than the others ; but such
jumping is dangerous, and may re-
sult in injury to one not accustomed
to it. In thus jumping the forward
impetus is given entirely by the
swing, and the skill of the jumper
is shown only in knowing when to
jump. If he wait too long, until
the swing is nearly at the end of its
path, it moves so slowly that he will
be given scarcely any forward move-
ment ; and if he jump too soon, the
swing will not be far enough ad-
vanced.
The simplest form of seat for a
swing is a board with a V-shaped
notch in each end, which is fitted
into the rope, and kept in place by
the weight of the swinger. In an-
other form the rope is put through
a hole in each end of the board be-
fore fastening it at the top ; or if
the swing is made of two ropes,
each is passed through one of the
holes of the seat and tied beneath.
Seats are sometimes made with
backs and arm-rests. Such a seat
may be formed of an old chair by
removing the legs and fastening the
rope to the seat. Two holes should
be bored on each side, through each
pair of which a rope is passed, and
the ends of each of these ropes are
tied to one of the swing ropes.
In pushing a rope-swing care
must be taken that it is not given
a motion to one side, or a twist.
If it acquires either of these mo-
tions, the best plan is to stop and
begin again. To stop a swing the
pusher must wait till it has reached
the point nearest to him, and then,
seizing the seat or ropes with both
hands, run forward with it, holding
back with all his strength. The
body should be inclined backward,
and the heels dug into the ground
at every step. The farther apart
the ropes of the swing are at the
top, the size of the seat remaining
the same, the less likely it will be
SYNTHESIS
698
SYNTHESIS
to move sidewise. When the ropes
are very near together, it is almost
as easy to move the swing sidewise
as straight ahead ; but when they
are far apart, the backward and for-
ward motion is the easier, as will
be seen by trial. When the ropes
are farther apart and slope toward
the seat, the swing is also less likely
to twist. But, on the other hand,
when the ropes are far apart it is
harder to keep one's seat. A swing
that will neither move sidewise
nor twist can be made by fasten-
ing the ends of the rope to
trees 30 to 50 feet apart.. The
motion of such a swing is delight-
ful, but it requires great skill to sit
in it. Swings that will not twist
are made also entirely of wood.
They are usually hung in a wooden
framework, which may be set up
anywhere. Some kinds are set in
motion by the swinger, who presses
with his feet on a board in front of
the swing.
SYNTHESIS, or SETTO, a game
played by any number of persons
with 64 cards, 25 of which contain
each one root of a word ; 19, three
prefixes (or beginnings of words)
each; and 15, three suffixes (or
ends of words) each. There are
also five prize-cards, each with one
suffix. Words can be formed by
putting a prefix before a root or a
suffix after it, or both. Thus, with
the root act, the prefix trans and
the suffix ion can be formed the
words transact, action, and transac-
tion.
At the beginning of the game
each draws a card, and he who gets
the first prefix deals. There are
several ways of playing. In the
first method four cards are dealt to
each player, and four are placed
face upward on the table. When
all have played their cards as de-
scribed below, the dealer gives four
more to each, and soon till all have
been dealt, but no more are dealt to
the table. The player at the deal-
er's left begins the game by trying
to make a word by combining cards
on the table, using any of the pre-
fixes and suffixes he pleases. If he
can do so, he places the word in
front of him, and it becomes his
property. Whether he has been
able to do so, or not, he then plays
one of his own cards, and tries to
combine it with some card or cards
on the table in like manner to form
a word. If he cannot, and has
other cards in his hand which will
form a word with the one he is
playing, with or without any on the
table, he may play, saying " I form,"
giving the word he intends to make,
and piling together the cards that
form part of it. He must take it
as soon as possible, and can play on
no other word before he does so.
Any other player may take it by
forming the announced word, but
no other. If the player can neither
take a word nor forrn, he must lay
his card with the others on the ta-
ble. The next player has the same
choice, but instead of using his card
to form a word with those in the
middle of the table, he may add it,
if possible, to the word the first
player made, thus taking it away
from him. The other players go
on in like manner, each in his turn.
When a word made by any one has
remained uncaptured during one
round, it cannot be taken after-
ward. When all the cards have
been played, he who has taken the
(largest number of cards scores 3
points ; and every word of 4 sylla-
bles scores i point, of 5 syllables
2 points, and of 6 syllables 3 points.
When a player takes all the cards
from the middle of the table, he is
said to have made a " sweep " as in;
CASINO, and every sweep counts a
point for him who makes it. In
addition, the five prize-cards each
count toward game the number of
points marked on it. He who has
most points wins the game.
Another way of playing is to give
six cards to each, and put none on
the table. The players must not
SYNTHESIS
699
SYRUP
look at their cards. They play, in
order, till some one can make a
word with the cards on the table,
when he takes it as before. Any
player may retake it by putting on
another syllable at any time during
the game. But if a player can take
more than one word in one turn, he
may do so, and such words cannot
then be retaken.
A third method is to remove the
root-cards. Twelve cards are placed
on the table, face upward, and the
players have no cards, but each, in
playing, may use any root in the
English language.
In a fourth way of playing, the
prizes are removed and four cards
dealt to each. No one looks at
his cards. The first prefix or suf-
fix card played is called the Leader.
A player may take all cards on the
table any of whose syllables is the
same as a syllable on the card he
plays. The greatest number of cards
like the Leader scores 3, every syl-
lable like one on the Leader scores
i, and the greatest number of cards
taken scores 2. The game is 13
points.
These games may be varied, or
others devised, at the pleasure of
the players. The word Synthesis
is from two Greek words meaning
a putting together.
Farrago. The same game as Syn-
thesis, except that each card bears
but one syllable. Farrago means a
mixture. It was originally a Latin
word, meaning a kind of mixed
fodder for cattle.
SYRINGE. The force-PUMp is
really only a syringe arranged to
throw a steady stream. Simpler
ones can be made as follows.
i. Cut off the top of a smooth
round glass bottle so far below the
neck that the remainder will be of
the same size all the way down (see
instructions for glass working under
CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS). Fit to
it a piston like those described under
PUMP, without a valve. Now make
a tiny hole in the side or bottom of
the bottle, either by directing the
tip of a BLOW-PIPE flame on the glass
or by boring with a file moistened
with turpentine. The smaller the
hole, the greater the force with
which the water can be driven out
by pushing in the piston.
2. A syringe may be made also
from a piece of any kind of wood
that contains pith. The pith must
first be punched out, and then one
end of the pipe thus made must be
plugged with a bit of wood hav-
ing a small hole in the centre.
The piston can be made as be.
fore.
SYRINX, or Pan-pipe, an ancient
musical instrument. One can be
made by a boy with an ear for
music, of any wood that contains
pith. Punch out the pith, and plug
one end with a wooden stopper.
By blowing across the open end, a
rough musical sound can be made.
By cutting different lengths and
trying them, a perfect scale may be
obtained. The pipes should now be
fastened side by side to across strip
so that all the open ends are in line,
when a tune can be played on them
with a little practice.
SYRUP, Experiment with. Three-
quarters fill a bottle with very
thick syrup, and then, having corked
it, turn it upside
down. After most
of the syrup has de-
scended to what is
now the bottom of
the bottle, what re-
mains will form
into a curious
shape resembling a
water-spout, large
at the top and ta-
Experiment with pering at the bot-
Syrup. torn. The taper-
ing part twists about curiously till
all the syrup has run down, which
takes several minutes.
TABLEAUX
700
TAG
T
TABLEAUX, or TABLEAUX
VIVANTS (French for " Living
Pictures "). A theatrical enter-
tainment in which the performers
neither move nor speak. The ef-
fect depends entirely on the dress,
attitude, expression and grouping,
as in a picture. Unless an artist is
stage manager, tableaux are best
made by copying an actual paint-
ing as nearly as possible in group-
ing, costume and background ; or, if
an engraving be copied, the colors
may be arranged at pleasure. The
chief thing to remember as regards
colors is that the picture must
neither be too sombre nor contain
brilliant colors close together,
whether on the figures or in the
background. As it is very difficult
for the performers to keep perfectly
still, tableaux can be shown for
only a few seconds at a time, and it
is well to raise and lower the curtain
several times. The great changes
of scene necessary between the
tableaux and the short time during
which they can be shown often
makes such exhibitions tiresome,
and everything possible should be
done to reduce the waits between
the scenes. To this end no per-
former should take part in two
consecutive tableaux, and as soon
as the curtain falls on one scene
the actors in the next should be
ready to take their places. If possi-
ble, one background should be ar-
ranged behind anoth^., so that it is
necessary only to take away the first
to show the second. One method
is to make three frames, represent-
ing picture-frames, at the rear of the
stage, either with or without sepa-
rate curtains. Tableaux can be ar-
ranged behind these during the ex-
hibition of one on the stage. It is
then necessary only to lower the
curtain while the actors leave the
stage, raise the background curtain
which concealed the frames in the
rear, and then raise the stage-cur-
tain again, disclosing the new tab-
leau. If the frames have separate
curtains they may be raised and low-
ered alternately, one tableau being
prepared while another is exhibited.
Some of the frames may be made
so as to show only the head and
shoulders, in which case it is merely
necessary for the actors to stand
behind them. The background, in
the case of small frames, should be
black or very dark cloth. The il-
lusion is heightened by having fine
black gauze stretched between the
stage and the audience. Instead
of an ordinary curtain several cur-
tains of white gauze may be let
down, one by one, and then raised
in the same way; the effect being
to cause the picture to fade away
gradually. This is especially effec-
tive when some slight change in
the position of the actors is all that
is necessary between two tableaux.
One of the frames at the rear may
be used to show a sort of panorama,
a line of figures passing slowly be-
hind it, each stopping for a few
seconds at the proper place. The
figures may represent historical or
mythological characters ; and a lec-
turer may describe them, pointing
to each with a wand. In all tab-
leaux, since the figures are seen on
one side only, no care need be taken
of that part of the costume turned
away from the spectators. The
faces should be colored or made up
in the same way as for theatricals.
TAG, A game played by any
number of persons, one of whom
tries to touch or " tag " any of the
others he can. If he succeeds, the
one tagged must take his place.
No player can be tagged when
touching the " goal," or " bye,"
which is any object agreed upon,
such as a tree, fence, or stone.
Sometimes, instead of some partic-
ular object, anything made of a
TAG
701
TAKE CARE
given material is considered a
" bye " — such as anything of stone,
iron, or wood. The game is then
called " Stone Tag," " Iron Tag,"
or "Wood Tag," as the case may
be. The first tagger is generally
selected at the opening of the game
by COUNTING OUT.
Cross Tag. There is no goal
in this form of the game, but any
player who is chased can be relieved
by any other player running be-
tween him and the one trying to
tag him. The latter must then run
after the player who ran between,
till he in turn is relieved. When
any one is tagged, he must take the
pursuer's place as before.
Tree Tag. Each player chooses
a tree as his goal, and cannot be
captured while touching it except
by some other player's going around
it three times. When any player is
touched by another, or captured at
his tree, the tree of the one who
captures him becomes his goal.
The game ends when all the play-
ers are at one tree.
Squat Tag. When a player
who is pursued is tired, he is al-
lowed to stoop or squat close to
the ground, the pursuer not being
allowed to touch him while in this
position. The number of squats
allowed varies from two to eleven.
King's Land. A kind of Tag
played by any number of persons,
one of whom, representing the
king, stands within boundaries
agreed upon at the beginning of
the game. The other players can
be touched by him only when they
venture inside the boundary ; and
when they do so they call out,
"I'm on king's land; king can't
see !" or similar words. By running
in and out again on all sides they
strive to confuse the king and
divert his attention from one to
the ether.
In Connecticut the forbidden
land is sometimes called Van Die-
men's Land, in New York Dixie's
Land, and in Philadelphia Golden
Pavement. The name for it in
Devonshire, England, is Judge
Jeffrey's Land, from the cruel
judge of that name who lived in
the reign of James II.
This game is sometimes called
Rook's Castle, and the old English
name for it was Tom Tiddler's
Ground. The German boys, when
they play it, say :
" King, I'm in your land ;
I'll steal your gold and silver sand ! "
In France, the king is called the
Crow, and French children playing
this game, say, " I am in your
castle, Crow, and I shall always be
there."
A similar game, though not a
game of Tag, is KING'S CASTLE.
Several kinds of Tag are played
in France. In one, called Chat
Percht (Cat on a Perch), a player
cannot be caught when his feet
do not touch the ground ; as, for
instance, when he is on a bench
or clinging to a tree. . Chat Coupt
(Cut Cat) is our Cross Tag. In a
kind called Mere Garuche (Mother
Garuche ; probably from gare,
meaning " take care ! ") the players,
called Children, as they are caught
must hold the hands of the first
pursuer, and thus all must pursue
together. Any pursuer may seize
and detain whomever he can ; but
the original pursuer, Mother Ga-
ruche, must touch him before he is
regarded as caught.
Gorilla. A kind of Tag in
which the pursuer is called the
Gorilla. The other players howl
and make any kind of noise, but
the Gorilla keeps perfectly quiet.
As soon as he touches any player
he begins to howl, while the
touched player, becoming Gorilla,
stops howling. The players know
who is Gorilla by his silence, and
can thus avoid him.
TAKE CARE. A game played by
any number of persons in several
ways. In one of the most com-
mon, flour is packed tightly into a
bowl, which is then turned over
TALKING MACHINES.
702
TEA-KETTLE
and removed, leaving the flour in a
mound. On top of this is placed a
small coin. The players in turn
then remove each a part of the
flour with a knife, and whoever lets
the coin fall must pick it from the
flour with his teeth. Sometimes
each one says " take care " as he
cuts off his portion of the flour,
and the game thus receives its
name.
There are many substitutes for
the flour and coin. One of the
best is a card-house of two cards
on a pile made of the rest of the
pack loosely thrown together.
Each player removes one card, and
he who allows the card-house to
fall must pay a forfeit. The game
may be played out of doors with a
little flag stuck in a pail of sand,
from which each player removes a
little on the end of a stick.
TALKING MACHINES, A ma-
chine to say the word " Mamma "
can be made as follows: Take a
toy trumpet, and hold ing the small
end in the mouth place the two
hands over the funnel. By blow-
ing through the trumpet and open-
ing and shutting one hand the
syllable " Ma " can be produced
quite plainly. By repeating this
the word " Mamma " can bespoken.
A very good imitation of the
human voice can be made also by
stretching two india-rubber bands
across the end of an
empty spool (see
illustration). The
edges of the bands
should be close to-
gether without
overlapping. On
blowing through
the other end of the
spool the bands vi-
Talking Spool. brate like. th.f h,U'
man vocal chords,
and make a sound something like
the voice, which changes with the
force of the breath.
TASTE, Experiments on, I. To
find which of the company has
the most delicate sense of taste,
dissolve a little sugar in water so
as to make a slightly sweet solu-
tion. Pour half of this into a glass
and replace it with pure water.
Put half the diluted liquid into a
second glass, replace it with pure
water, and so on till the liquid can-
not be distinguished from ordinary
water. The liquid must not be too
strong to begin with, or too many
dilutions will be required. Care
should be taken to keep the glass-
es in proper order, as, if they
should be mixed, it would spoil the
experiment. Now place on the
table the glass containing the
strongest solution, and one of pure
water, and let the company enter
one at a time, blindfolded. Give
each to drink several times from
the two glasses, in any order you
please, asking him after each taste
whether he had pure or sweet-
ened water. Care should be taken
to have glasses alike, and filled to
the same height. Those who tell
incorrectly are considered " out."
Those who make no mistake take
part in a similar trial in which the
next weaker solution is used. This
goes on till only one is left who
can taste the sugar-water, who is
declared to have the most delicate
taste.
The experiment may be tried
over again, using first salt and
then vinegar, instead of sugar. It
will often be found that he who has
the most delicate taste for sugar
cannot detect acids as easily as
some one else.
2. Prepare three glasses of water,
dissolving a little quinine in one,
salt in the second, and leaving the
third pure. After holding some
of the bitter or salt water in the
mouth for a few seconds, swallow
some of the pure water, and it will
taste sweet.
TEA-KETTLE. A game played
by any number of persons, one of
whom leaves the room while the
others agree upon a word with sev-
TEETOTUM
703
TELEGRAPHS
eral different meanings, or upon
two or more words pronounced
alike. The player who went out
now returns and asks each in turn
a question. The word or words
agreed on must be introduced sev-
eral times in the answer, but instead
thereof the word "tea-kettle"
must be substituted. If the word
is compounded with another or
with a prefix or suffix the word
" tea-kettle " must be similarly com-
pounded. Thus, suppose rain,
rein, reign, to be the selected
words. The first question may
be, " How do you do? " to which
the answer is returned : " Not very
well, for I was out yesterday in the
biggest tea-kettle of Queen Victo-
ria's tea-kettle." The next may be
asked, "Do you enjoy riding?"
" That depends on the tea-kettles,
and also on whether it is tea-ket-
tle-ing or not." The player from
whose answer the word is guessed
becomes questioner in turn, leaving
the room while another word is de-
cided on.
TEETOTUM. See TOPS.
TELEGRAPHS. The electric tel-
egraph is described in C. C. T. un-
der this head. A simple one on
Morse's system may be made as
follows : To telegraph between two
stations requires two sounders, two
keys, a battery and a line of wire.
Sounder. Make a small electro-
magnet (see MAGNETS) about two
Fig. i.
inches long. Fasten it on its side
on a strip of board by tacking strips
of cloth or leather over it, and from
a piece of bent wire over it suspend
the armature by threads so that it
will hang as close as possible to
the poles without touching them.
(See Fig. i.) When a current passes
through the magnet wire the arma-
u
Fig. 2.
ture will be attracted and will make
a clicking sound. Put in two brass
screws behind the armature, so that
it will touch them as it hangs, and
then attach it by pieces of elastic
to another screw at a distance of
two or three inches, so that the
elastic will pull it back against
the screws when the current is off,
thus making another click. The
elastic must not be so strong as to
prevent the magnet's drawing the
armature to itself. The mode of
holding back the armature is shown
on a larger scale in Fig. 2.
Key. Procure two strips of brass,
one two inches long and the other
Fig. 3.
four. Punch a hole in one end of
each and screw them to the same
board with the sounder, at right
angles to each other, the free end
of the long piece just lying across
the middle of the short one. Bend
the long piece upward a little, near
the screw, so that in its natural po-
sition it will not touch the short
piece. (See Fig. 3.) By pressing
the end of the long piece d@wn,
contact can be made between the
two, and if they are to be left in con-
TELEGRAPHS
704
TELEGRAPHS
tact the long piece can be caught
under the free end of the short one
by turning it aside on the screw as
a pivot. (See Fig. 4.) The wires
Fig. 4.
are attached to the strips by being
wound once around the screws,
just before screwing them down
tight.
Battery. The best battery to
use is a Gravity (see ELECTRIC
BATTERIES), but any other will do
except the Leclanche and similar
cells, which weaken very fast when
the current is passing. In a tele-
graph the current has to pass all
the time, for if the circuit were
broken at one station it would be
impossible to signal from the other
when a message was to be sent.
The best place for the battery is in
a box under the table on which the
instruments stand.
Line Wire. The size of the wire
between the stations depends
somewhat on distance. In tele-
graphing from one room to anoth-
er in the same house, small insula-
ted wire may be used, which may
ie secured along the edge of the
floor, where it will not be seen, by
means of double-pointed carpet
tacks. If the line is to be out-
doors ordinary telegraph wire
should be used, which is fastened
to trees or posts by insulators, so
that the current may not be drawn
away. Glass insulators may be
bought of a dealer in telegraph sup-
plies, but simple ones can be made
of rubber tubing cut into pieces
about an inch long. A nail is driven
through the tubing lengthwise into
a tree, and the wire is wound once
or twice around it.
Ground Connection. Where the
two stations are in the same house,
the circuit consists of wire both
ways, but where the line passes
outdoors the current passes one
way through the wire, and back
through the ground. Where there
are gas pipes, connection with the
ground can be made by simply
winding one end of the wire tightly
around one where it is exposed.
Where there are no gas pipes a wire
must be carried to the ground,
where the end is attached to a cop-
per plate about a foot square and
buried deep enough to be con-
stantly in moist ground.
Connections. The different in-
struments may be connected in any
order desired, but the following
directions should be observed by
those who wish exact instructions.
Connect one wire of the battery
with the ground wire, and the oth-
er with one end of the wire around
the electro-magnet of the sounder.
The other magnet wire is connect-
ed with one of the brass strips of
Fig. 5.— B. Battery. GG. Ground plates. KK. Keys. L. Line.
PPP. Poles. SS. Sounders.
the key, and the other strip with
the line wire, as shown in Fig.
5. -At the other station the same
connections are made, except that
there is no battery, so that one of
the magnet wires is connected
directly to the ground wire. If
there are to be one or more stations
between the end ones, each must
have its key and sounder. The
TELEGRAPHS
70S
TELEGRAPHS
wire is " grounded "only at the end
stations. The connections are best
made by brass binding screws,
which can be bought of a dealer in
telegraph supplies ; but they can be
made almost as well by winding the
ends of the wires tightly around
each other, and pounding them
close together with a hammer.
The better the connections the
better the telegraph will work.
Telegraphing. The alphabet used
is the Morse, described in C. C. T.
This consists of a combination of
dots and dashes. To make a dot,
the key is merely tapped down
with the finger, so that contact is
made for an instant only. To make
a dash it is held down a little long-
er. The operator at the other end
must read the message by sound.
He can hear the click made by
the armature striking the magnet
when the key is pressed down, and
the click made by its hitting the
screws behind it when the key is
raised and the elastic pulls it back.
If the interval between these two
clicks is short, he knows a dot
has been made; if a little long-
er, a dash. With a little prac-
tice it will be easy to read thus,
even when messages are sent
very swiftly. To practice read-
ing it is not necessary to have
a telegraph instrument — any-
thing which will make two
clicks in the same manner
will do; for instance, a stick
moved backward and forward
between two fence palings.
The keys must be kept press-
ed down all the time at all sta-
tions, except when a message
is being sent. A signal or call,
consisting of any arrangement
of dots and dashes, must be
agreed on, to be given before a
message ; and no message should
be sent till the signal has been
given and answered, showing that
some one is at the other station to
receive it. The answer may con-
sist of a repetition of the signal or
some other combination of dots
and dashes. If there are more
than two stations, each must have
a different call, for all the sounders
on the line click when a message is
sent.
Wheatstone Telegraph. In this
telegraph the receiving instrument
consists of a galvanometer, and the
key is replaced by a commutator,
or arrangement for reversing the
current.
Galvanometer. The instrument
described in the article under this
head can be used, but a pin must
be stuck in the dial card just on
each side of the needle, so that it
may move only a small fraction of
an inch, otherwise time would be
lost in waiting for it to stop swing-
ing. When the current flows one
way the needle turns to the right,
and when it is reversed, to the left.
The Morse alphabet may be used,
one direction meaning a dot and
the other a dash.
Commutator. A simple commu-
tator, or current reverser, can be
Fig. 6.
made as follows : Fasten two
strips of brass C and D (see Fig. 6)
to a block of wood by screws at C
and D, and at the other end fasten
two cross strips, A E and B F, the
former passing below and the latter
above the two first strips. Bend
TELEGRAPHS
706
TELEGRAPHS
the strips C and D upward so that
when at rest they will press against
B F. Join the line wires to C" and
Z?and the battery wires to A and B.
Then, by pressing down the strip D,
the current travels in the direction
of the arrows marked i, and, if the
strip C be depressed, in the other
direction. There must be a battery
at each end of the line ; but, as will
be seen by observing the way the
commutator makes connections,
only the battery at the signalling
station furnishes current to the
wire.
Electro-Chemical Telegraph. Dis-
solve some ferrocyanide of potas-
sium in water, and soak unglazed
paper in the solution. Connect
the paper with the negative pole
of an ELECTRIC BATTERY, and con-
nect the positive pole with a steel
nail. Write with the nail on the
paper, and a blue mark will be
produced. This is because the
chemical on the paper is decom-
posed by the electricity, forming
Prussian blue. Now let one person,
with the paper and nail, remain in
one room and the wire which con-
nects with either pass through
another room, through a key, to
make and break the circuit. The
person with the nail draws it across
the paper so as to make a straight
line, while another telegraphs with
the key, using Morse's alphabet.
The dots and dashes will appear in
blue on the paper, since whenever
the key is down the current passes
and the Prussian blue is formed,
but when the key is up the nail
makes no mark at all.
Flash Telegraph, The simplest
way to telegraph by flashes of
light is to place a common kero-
sene lamp in a soap box, cutting
a hole in the top to admit the
chimney, and boring several holes
in the bottom to admit air. At
the end is a hole about two inches
in diameter, covered by a shut-
ter made of a flat piece of wood
screwed loosely to the box by one
corner, so that it can swing down
over the hole. Each telegrapher has
a box arranged in this way, and the
signals are sent by opening and
shutting the shutters. The best
way is to use the Morse alphabet,
opening the shutter for only an
instant to represent a dot, and
longer for a dash. This telegraph
can be used as far as the light of a
kerosene lamp can be seen. To
distinguish the light from that of
other lamps near it the hole may
be covered with colored glass. If
the apparatus is to be used in the
open air some kind of glass, either
clear or colored, must be put over
the hole to prevent the wind from
putting out the lamp.
Heliograph, or Sun Telegraph.
The flash telegraph just described
can be used only for short distances,
but the sun's rays, reflected by a
mirror, can be seen twenty or thirty
miles, and sometimes even farther.
The sending and receiving stations
are usually on the tops of high hills.
To be sure that the ray is sent in
just the right direction, the mirror
must first be made steady and yet
free to turn. It may be supported on
a tripod or gimbals, such as a com-
pass is hung on, but a simpler way
is for a boy to hold it firmly in his
lap as he sits on the ground. For
long distances a large mirror
several feet square should be used.
Scratch away a bit of the silvering
as large as a pin-head from the
back and then, looking through
the hole thus made toward the
place where the signal is sent, bring
some small object into the line of
sight. The object must be steady
and not large enough to obstruct
the beam. The best thing is a bit
of wire supported on another
tripod, or, more simply, nailed
against a tree so that it projects to
one side. Now, all the boy with
the mirror has to do is to see that
he keeps it steady and throws his
beam of light on the wire, for this
is in line with the distant point
TELEGRAPHS
707
TELEPHONE
where the signal is to be sent.
The light can be cut off for a great-
er or less time by holding a piece
of cloth, a board, or a coat in front
of the mirror, and thus the Morse
alphabet can be used as before.
Other Uses of the Morse Alphabet.
This alphabet can also be adapted
to hundreds of other systems of
telegraphy where electricity is not
used. Wherever two kinds of sig-
nals can be sent from one point to
another where they are observed
by any of the senses, one signal can
be used as a dot and the other as a
dash, and hence they can be com-
bined to form letters. The follow-
ing examples show how the signals
can be received through any of the
five senses.
Hearing. Two persons may com-
municate with each other by long
and short whistles or by raps on a
table.
Sight. Besides the flash tele-
graph described above, motions of
the hand or of a flag to the right and
left may represent dots and dash'es,
or, by night, lanterns of two differ-
ent colors may be used, one for
dots, the other for dashes. In a
crowded room two persons may
thus communicate by motions of
the head or finger, unnoticed by
the rest of the company.
Touch. Taps with the finger or
light scratches with a pin may be
used in the same way.
Smell. A person blindfolded and
having his ears stopped may have
a message sent him by means of
two odors, for instance by holding
a rose and a violet near his nostrils.
Taste. Two substances may be
touched to the tongue in like man-
ner, or an ordinary electric-tele-
graph message may be received by
means of the GALVANIC TASTE,
the end of one wire being placed
on the upper surface of the tongue
and the other beneath it, and the
electro-magnet being dispensed
with. This requires some practice,
but has been done successfully.
TELEPHONE. The electric tele-
phone is described in C. C. T., un-
der this heading. An acoustic or
non-electric telephone which works
well for short distances can be
made as follows : Procure two
pieces of smooth pine boa.d six-
teen inches long by thirteen wide,
and three-eighths of an inch thick.
Cut in each a hole nine inches in
diameter, and bevel the edges of
the holes on one side of
the board (see Fig. i).
To the ends of each
board, on the side not
bevelled, nail strips of
pine three inches wide,
one-half inch thick, and
thirteen inches long, so that the
side view will be as in Fig. 2.
Now buy a calfskin drum-head
(which can be obtained of a dealer
in musical instruments), and
cut out of it two round pieces
large enough to be tacked
over the holes in the boards
just prepared. The skin
which is placed on the bev-
elled side of the hole should " ""' "
not be stretched tightly over it,
but only enough to smooth it. The
tacks must be put in close together,
and about half an inch from the
edge of the skin. The skin is now
stretched by hanging a weight to
it. In an old-fashioned
©copper cent bore two
holes large enough to ad-
mit number 15 copper
F wire (Fig. 3). Pass a
piece two or three feet
long through one hole and back
through the other, twist the ends
together (Fig. 4) and then
pass them through a hole
exactly in the centre of the
skin, from the tacked side.
Place the board on the
edges of two tables (Fig. 5),
so that the wire will be be-
tween them, and hang to it about
thirty pounds. Wet the skin on
both sides with a moistened sponge,
and it will stretch, forming a con-
Fig. 4-
TELEPHONE
708
TELEPHONE
cave surface (Fig. 6). After two or
three hours, when it is dry, remove
the weight, and the skin will keep
this shape. This arrangement is
Fig. 6.
called the " disk." It may be bor-
dered with leather, as shown in Fig.
7. Now bore a hole in the wall of
the house where the
telephone wire is to
pass through it, and
screw the disk to the
wall so that the hole in
the middle will be ex-
actly opposite that in
the wall (see Fig. 8). For the " line
wire" from one disk to the other
(which is fastened in like manner
at the other end of the
line) number 15 copper
wire is the best. One end
of the wire is passed
through the hole in the
wall and that in the disk,
from the outside, through
Fig. 7.
a copper cent, or large button, as
described above (Fig. 4), then out
again, and secured by twisting
around the main wire. The wire
L
must not touch the sides of the hole
through which it passes, nor must
it touch a tree or wall between the
two stations. If it must pass around
a corner it must be
kept from touching
by means of little
loops of cord called
insulators. The best
insulators are made
of pieces of cord
four inches long and
three-sixteenths of
an inch in thick-
ness. The ends are
brought together
Fig. 8.
(Fig. 9) and secured by winding
with fine copper wire (Fig. i o). As
many of these insu-
lators as are needed
are strung on the
wi^e before it is put
up (Fig. 1 1), and the
wire can be kept
uu away from any ob- „.**
Fig- 9- { . J Fig. 10.
stacle by tying one
to a tree or pole (Fig. 12). The
wire should never be bent at a right
angle, but two insu-
lators may be used, as
in Fig. 13, where the
wire a b is seen carried
around a corner.
The wire attached
to the disk at the far-
ther end should be on-
ly a few feet long, and
the main wire should F-
be tightened before
the two pieces are connected. The
Fig. la.
tightening can be done by a pulley
screwed to the outside wall of the
house at the farther station. When
the line is as tight as possible, one
person should hold it while another
fastens to it the short wire from
the other disk by making a " tele-
graph splice," shown in Fig. 14.
TELEPHONE
709
TENNIS
The tighter the wire the better
the telephone will work. If it still
sags it may be tightened by tying
it by insulators to the limbs of
Fig. 13.
trees above it, thus making
it higher in the middle
than at the ends. In speak-
ing, the mouth should be
held directly in front of
the button on the disk,
about six inches from it.
Fig. 14.
Lovers' Telegraph. A simple
acoustic telephone made of tin box-
es, paper and string. Remove the
top and bottom from two baking-
powder boxes, and over one end
of each tie tightly a piece of parch-
ment paper (see SULPHURIC ACID,
experiment 4). Through a hole
in the middle of each paper pass
one end of a piece of waxed
cord, and prevent it from pulling
through by knotting it. The cord
thus connects the two boxes ; and
if a person holding one speak into
it, he can be heard by one who holds
the other box to his ear. The cord
between the boxes must not touch
anything. If the cord is too long,
its weight will break the parch-
ment paper, but if the heads of
V
Lovers' Telegraph.
the boxes are made of drum-head
skin it can be made much longer.
TENNIS. A game played with a
ball and a bat strung with gut,
called a racket. There are two
kinds — Court Tennis, or Tennis
proper, and Lawn Tennis. The
latter is more common and simpler.
Rackets.
and will therefore be described
first.
Lawn Tennis is played by two,
three, or four persons, on a piece of
ground called a court, of the shape
and size shown in the diagrams.
The balls are of hollow rub-
ber covered with cloth ; the
rackets, or racquets, are
strung with cord or gut, as
seen in the illustration.
The courts may be on
smooth turf or hard bare
ground, or the game may be
played indoors on a bare
wooden or cemented floor
The lines are marked out-
doors with whitewash, powdered
marble dust, high grass or white
TENNIS
710
TENNIS
tape, and indoors with chalk or I which a net is strung across the
paint,
grams,
At A and B, in the dia-
are two posts, between
court. The smaller rectangles into
which the lines divide the court
A, Pole.
Side ! Line.
Side i Line.
B, Pole.
SINGLE COURT (FOR TWO PLAYERS).
Dimensions : Length, 78 feet ; Width, 27 feet; from Net to Service Lines, 21 fctt.
(Height of net, centre 3 feet, sides, 3% feet).
A, Pole.
Side i Line.
Service
Side Line.
d
c
1
c
1-1
3
B
B
i
•
I
ervice
Side Line.
Side ! Line.
B, Pole.
DOUBLE COURT (FOR TWO, THREE, OR FOUR PLAYERS).
Dimensions : Length, 78 feet ; Width, 36 feet ; Net to Service Line, 21 feet ; Service Side
Line to Side Line, 4}^ feet. (Height of net, center 3 feet, sides 3% feet.)
are also called courts. The illus- ting the side lines and ladies' fig-
tration given below represents a ures, it will represent a two-handed
four-handed game ; but, by omit- I erame as well.
TENNIS
711
TENNIS
The two-handed game will be
described first. The players decide
by lot who shall have the first turn,
and on which side of the net each
shall play. Usually one throws a
racket into the air and the other
calls out "rough" or "smooth."
Each racket has a rough and smooth
side, and, if the one that calls has
named correctly the side that falls
uppermost, lie may take choice of
turns or choice of courts as he
pleases. Otherwise his opponent
has the same privilege. If the win-
ner of the toss elect to choose which
turn he will take, his opponent has
choice of courts, and vice versa.
Each player now goes to his own
side of the net, and the one who has
obtained the first serve standing be-
hind the rear line of his court (called
" base line ") at the right, as shown
in the figure (see Rule 6 below),
strikes the ball with his racket over
the net and into the court next the
net on his left. This is called " serv-
ing." If the ball fails to go over the
net or strikes in the wrong court it is
said to be a " fault" and the server
must try again. If his second service
is also a fault it is called " doubles,"
and his opponent scores a point.
If the ball touch the net, but go over
it, it does not count as a service,
but is called a "let," and played
over again. While the player is
serving, his opponent, who is called
the " striker-out," stands where he
pleases. When a fault is made he
cries out " Fault." When he gets
a good ball he must strike it, after
it has bounded once, so that it will
pass over the net into any of the
courts on the opposite side. This
is called " returning " the service.
After the return, the ball may be
struck either on the first bound or
before it has bounded. If the lat-
ter, it is said to be " volleyed." The
players strike the ball from one to
the other across the net in this way
till one of them fails, either by
missing the ball entirely, or by strik-
ing it into the net, or by sending it
beyond the boundary of the entire
court. His opponent then scores
a point. After the service a ball is
good even if it strikes the net in
going over. When two faults
have been made, or either player
does not return the ball properly,
there must be another service by
the same player as before, but this
time from the left of his service
line into the court next the net on
his right, his opponent changing
position also so as to receive the
service. The same player serves
each time till the game is ended,
first from one rear court and then
from the other. His opponent serves
in the second game, and they alter-
nate thus as long as they play; but
a player must always serve from
the right at the beginning of a
game, no matter which court he
served from last.
The method of scoring in Lawn
Tennis is peculiar. When a player
has no points his score is called
" Love," and when neither has a
point the score is "Love- All." The
first point a player scores is called
" Fifteen," the second " Thirty,"
the third " Forty," and the fourth
" Game," except as noted below.
The state of the score is described
by calling out together the points
of the players, that of the server
first. Thus " Forty-Love " means
that the server has forty to his op-
ponent's nothing, and " Fifteen-
Forty" that he has fifteen to his
opponent's forty. " Thirty-All "
means that each has thirty. The
one whose score reaches the
" Game " point first, wins. But
whenever the score is " Forty- All "
it is called " Deuce," and then the
next point is not " Game," but
"Advantage" (usually called " "Van-
tage"). If the player winning
'Vantage gains the next point, he
scores Game, otherwise the score
is brought down to Deuce again.
Hence, .when the score is once
Deuce, the game often lasts a long
time with evenly-matched players.
TENNIS
712
TENNIS
When the server has 'Vantage,
the score is called 'Vantage In ;
when his opponent has it, 'Vantage
Out. When a player has won six
games he has won a " set," no mat-
ter whether his opponent has won
five games or none at all ; so an or-
dinary set may include from six to
eleven games. Where the players are
evenly matched it is often agreed
that " 'Vantage sets " shall be
played. In this case no player wins
till he is two games ahead of his
opponent, and a set may therefore
consist of any number of games
over eleven (see Rule 23).
Double Lawn Tennis.
In reporting the score of a set
the number of games won by each
player is given, separated by a dash.
The score of a series of sets is rep-
resented by several such combina-
tions, separated by commas; and
in each the first number is the
score of the winner of the whole se-
ries. Thus the abbreviated score
"Jones beat Smith 6-0, 4-6, 6-j; "
means, that in the first set, Jones
won six games to Smith's none, in
the second, four to Smith's six, and
in the third, six to Smith's five,
thus winning two out of three sets.
During the game each player
tries to make his opponent fail,
sometimes by striking the balls into
an unexpected part of the court or
-fi«-o» <y nne side of the court and
TENNIS
713
TENNIS
then on the other, so as to tire him
out in running forward and back-
Fig, i.
ward to return them. Sometimes
the balls are so struck that they
will bound in an unexpected direc-
Fig. a.
tion. This is done by "cutting," as
will be explained below. Some of
the different modes of striking the
ball, in service and return, are shown
in the figures. Figs. 1-3 and 6
represent methods of service, and
Figs. 7-10 return strokes. Practice
and judgment are required to
choose the proper one. Some tennis
players stand close to the net after
they have served, and volley all the
balls the more difficult way; others
prefer to stand at the service line and
take most of them on the bound.
Fig. 3-
To cut the ball is to strike it so
that it will spin in the air, by hold-
ing the racket not squarely but a
little siclewise. If it be made to
spin, as shown by the curved arrow
in Fig. 4, while moving from left to
right in the direction of the large
arrows, the spin will tend to make
the ball roll forward along the
ground, so it will bound forward
much closer to the ground than
might be expected. In Fig. 5 the
spin tends to make the ball roll
backward along the ground, so it
will bound not so close to the
ground as it otherwise would ; it
TENNIS
714
TENNIS
may bound straight up, or even
backward a little. By giving the
Q
Fig. 4.
Fig- 5-
ball
a spin in other directions it
can be made to bound in various
ways. With practice it is possible
to tell from the way a ball is struck
just what kind of a cut it has been
given, and so what kind of a bound
Fig. 6.
to expect . so, skillful players gener-
ally use the cuts only in connection
with very swift strokes. A stroke
that is sometimes used close to the
net is made by loosening the hold
on the racket just as it hits the ball.
The ball thus bounds very little
from the racket, and simply drops
over the net, very close to it. In
playing, it is often necessary to
strike the ball while running, and
good players learn to vary the force
of their strokes according as they
fun with the ball or against it. The
various ways in which the racket
must be held, according as the ball
Fig. 7-
is high or low, to the right or left,
can best be learned by practice.
Some players learn to use the racket
with either hand.
TENNIS
715
TENNIS
In serving, the different methods
of striking a ball can he made more
effective than in returning; for in
serving the player's own time can
be taken, and he can throw his ball
into the air to strike it as he wishes ;
but in returning there must be no
delay and the ball must be taken as
Fig. 9.
it comes, often with a spin or in an
awkward place. It is therefore of
great importance to learn to serve
well.
Three and Four-Handed Lawn
Tennis. The game is played by one
person against two, or by two on a
side. The court is widened for the
play after the service, but the ser-
vice courts remain the same size, as
shown in the figure already given.
In the three-handed game the
single player serves every alternate
game. In the four-handed game,
the order of serving and receiving is
agreed on at the beginning of the
set, and continues the same till the
end, but partners must serve alter-
nately. (See Rules 31-34, below.)
After the service all the players
take part in the game, one on each
side usually playing close to the net,
and the other in the rear, or one
playing in left and the other in right
hand courts, called " playing sides."
RULES OF THE GAME.
(As adopted by the National Lawn Tennis
A ssacfation.)
The Court, i. The Court is 78
feet long and 27 feet wide. It is
divided across the middle by a net,
the ends of which are attached to
two posts, standing 3 feet outside of
the court on either side. The height
of the net is 3 feet 6 inches at the
posts, and 3 feet in the middle. At
each end of the court, parallel with
the net, and 39 feet from it, are
drawn the base lines, the ends of
which are connected by the side
lines. Halfway between the side
Hues, and parallel with them, is
drawn the half court line, dividing
the space on each side of the net
into two equal parts, the right and
left courts. On each side of the net,
at a distance of 21 feet from it, and
10.
parallel with it, are drawn the ser-
vice lines.
The Balls. 2. The Balls shall
measure not less than 2^| inches,
nor more than T.\ inches in diameter ;
and shall weigh not less than iy|
ounces, nor more than 2 ounces.
The Game. 3. The choice of
TENNIS
716
TENNIS
l§
a
B
•
W/JSPMM
pamfflmp.
0
a
c
Court Tennis Court.
sides, and the right to
serve in the first game,
shall be decided by toss ;
provided that, if the win-
ner of the toss choose the
right to serve, the other
player shall have choice of
sides, and vice versa, or
the winner of the toss
may insist upon a choice
by his opponent. If one
player choose the court,
the other may elect not to
serve.
4. The players shall
stand on opposite sides of
the net ; the player who
first delivers the ball shall
be called the server, and
the other the striker-
out.
5. At the end of the
first game the striker-out
shall become server, and
the server shall become
striker-out ; and so on
alternately in all the sub-
sequent games of the set,
or series of sets.
6. The server shall
serve with one foot on
the ground immediately
behind the base line ; the
other foot may be any-
where except touching the
base line or the ground
within the court. He
shall deliver the service
from the right to the left
courts, alternately ; be-
ginning from the right.
7. The ball served
must drop between the
service line, half-court
line, and side line of the
court, diagonally opposite
to that from which it was
served.
8. It is a fault if the
server fail to strike the
ball, or if the ball served
drop in the net, or be-
yond the service line,
or out of court, or in the
TENNIS
717
TENNIS
wrong court ; or if the server do
not stand as directed by law 6.
9. A fault cannot be taken.
10. After a fault the server shall
serve again from the same court
from which he served that fault,
unless it was a fault because he
served from the wrong court.
1 1. A fault cannot be claimed after
the next service is delivered.
12. The server shall not serve till
the striker-out is ready. If the latter
attempt to return the service, he shall
be deemed ready.
13. A service or fault delivered
when the striker-out is not ready
counts for nothing.
14. The service shall not be vol-
leyed, that is, taken before it has
touched the ground.
15. A ball is in play on leaving
the server's racket, except as pro-
vided for in law 8.
16. It is a good return, although
the ball touch the net ; but a service,
otherwise good, which touches the
net shall count for nothing.
17. The server wins a stroke if
the striker-out volley the service,
or if he fail to return the service
or the ball in play ; or if he re-
turn the service or the ball in
play so that it drops outside of
his opponent's court ; or if he
otherwise lose a stroke as provided
by law 20.
18. The striker-out wins a stroke
if the server serve two consecutive
faults; or if he fail to return the ball
in play ; or if he return the ball
in play so that it drops outside
of his opponent's court ; or if he
otherwise lose a stroke as provided
by law 20.
19. A ball falling on a line is
regarded as falling in the court
bounded by that line.
20. Either player loses a stroke if
the ball touch him, or anything that
he wears or carries, except his racket
in the act of striking ; or if he touch
the ball with his racket more than
once ; or if he touch the net or any
of its supports while the ball is in
play ; or if he volley the ball before
it has passed the net.
21. In case a player is obstructed
by any accident, not within his con-
trol, the ball shall be considered
a " let." But where a permanent
fixture of the court is the cause of
the accident, the point shall be
counted. The benches and chairs
placed around the court shall be
considered permanent fixtures. If,
however, a ball in play strike a
permanent fixture of the court
(other than the net or posts)
before it touches the ground, the
point is lost ; if after it has touched
the ground, the point shall be
counted.
22. On either player winning his
first stroke, the score is called 15 for
that player ; on either player winning
his second stroke the score is called
30 for that player ; on either player
winning his third stroke, the score
is called 40 for that player; and the
fourth stroke won by either player is
scored game for that player, except
as below : If both players have won
three strokes, the score is called
deuce ; and the next stroke won by
either player is scored advantage
for that player. If the same player
win the next stroke, he wins the
game ; if he lose the next stroke, the
score returns to deuce and so on
until one player wins the two strokes
immediately following the score of
deuce, when game is scored for that
player.
23. The player who first wins six
games wins the set; except as below :
If both players win five games, the
score is called game all ; and the
next game won by either player is
scored advantage game for that
player. If the same player win the
next game, he wins the set ; if he
lose the next game, the score returns
to games all ; and so on, until either
player wins the two games immedi-
ately following the score of games
all, when he wins the set. But
the committee having charge of any
tournament may in their discretion
TENNIS
718
TENNIS
modify this rule by the omission
of advantage sets.
24. The players shall change sides
at the end of every set ; but the um-
pire, on appeal from either player
before the toss for choice, shall
direct the players to change sides at
the end of the first, third, fifth, and
every succeeding alternate game of
each set ; but if the appeal be made
after the toss for choice, the umpire
may only direct the players to change
sides at the end of the first, third,
fifth, and every succeeding alternate
game of the odd, or deciding, set.
If the players change courts in the
alternate games throughout the
match as above, they shall play in
the first game of each set after the
first in the courts in which they
respectively did not play in the first
game of the set immediately pre-
ceding.
25. When a series of sets is played,
the player who served in the last
game of one set shall be striker-out
in the first game of the next.
26. In all contests the play shall
be continuous from the first service
till the match be concluded ; pro-
vided, however, that between all
sets after the second set either
player is entitled to a rest, which
shall not exceed seven minutes ; and
provided, further, that in case of an
unavoidable accident, not within the
control of the contestants, a cessa-
tion of play which shall not exceed
two minutes may be allowed between
points ; but this proviso shall be
strictly construed, and the privilege
never granted for the purpose of
allowing a player to recover his
strength or wind. The umpire in
his discretion may at any time post-
pone the match on account of dark-
ness or condition of the ground
or weather. In any case of post-
ponement, the previous score shall
hold good. Where the play has
ceased for more than an hour, the
player who at the cessation thereof
was in the court first chosen shall
have the choice of courts on the re-
commencement of play. He shall
stay in the court he chooses for
the remainder of the set. The last
two sentences of this rule do not ap-
ply when the players change every al-
ternate game as provided by rule 24.
27. If a player serve out of his
turn, the umpire, as soon as the mis-
take is discovered, shall direct the
player to serve who ought to have
served. But all strokes scored be-
fore such discovery shall be counted.
If a game shall have been completed
before such discovery, then the ser-
vice in the next alternate game shall
be delivered by the player who did
not serve out of his turn, and so on
in regular rotation.
28. There shall be a referee for
every tournament, who shall have
general charge of the matches.
There shall be an umpire for each
match and as many linesmen as the
players desire. The umpire may
act as linesman also. The umpire
shall have general charge of the
match and shall decide upon and
call lets and also decide whether the
player took the ball on the first
or second bounce. The umpire
shall also decide any question of in-
terpretation or construction of the
rules that may arise. The decision
of the umpire upon any question
of fact, or where a discretion is al-
lowed to him under these rules,
shall be final. Any player, however,
may protest against any intrepreta-
tion or construction of the rules
by the umpire, and appeal to the
referee. The decision of the ref-
eree upon such appeal should be
final.
The court shall be divided be-
tween the linesmen, and it shall be
their only duty to decide each for his
share of the court where the ball
touched the ground, except, how-
ever, the linesmen for the base line,
who shall also call foot faults. The
linesman's decision shall be final.
If a linesman is unable to give
a decision, because he did not see,
or is uncertain of the fact, the urn-
TENNIS
719
TENNIS
pire shall decide or direct the stroke
to be played again.
THREE-HANDED AND FOUR-HAND-
ED GAMES.
29. The above laws shall apply to
the three-handed and four-handed
games, except as below :
30. For the three-handed and four-
handed games the court shall be 36
feet in width ; 4^ feet inside the
side lines, and parallel with them,
are drawn the surface side lines.
The service lines are not drawn be-
yond the point at which they meet
the service side lines, as shown in the
diagram.
31. In the three-handed game, the
single player shall serve in every
alternate game.
32. In the four-handed game, the
pair who have the right to serve
in the first game shall decide which
partner shall do so ; and the op-
posing pair shall decide in- like man-
ner for the second game. The
partner of the player who served in
the first game shall serve in the
third, and the partner of the player
who served in the second game shall
serve in the fourth, and the same
order shall be maintained in all the
subsequent games of the set.
33. At the beginning of the next
set, either partner of the pair which
struck out in the last game of the
last set may serve ; and the same
privilege is given to their opponents
in second game of the new set.
34. The players shall take the
service alternately throughout the
game ; a player cannot receive a
service delivered to his partner ; and
the order of service and striking out
once established shall not be altered
nor shall the striker-out change
courts to receive the service, till the
end of the set.
35. It is a fault if the ball served
do not drop between the service line,
half-court line, and service side line
of the court, diagonally opposite to
that from which it was served.
36. It is a fault if the ball served
do not drop as provided in law 35,
or if it touch the server's partner or
anything he wears or carries.
Court Tennis. Tennis played in-
doors in a court or room, a plan of
which is given. The court nearly
fills an entire building, which is
lighted from the roof. The playing
space is 96 by 32 feet, and is sur-
rounded on three sides by a corridor
(a, a, a) about 6 feet wide, called the
Penthouse, with a sloping roof about
7 feet high. The part of the Pent-
house at the rear of the court is
called the Dedans, and is occupied
by spectators. It is separated from
the court by an open grating, c c,
while the rest of the Penthouse is
closed, except for spaces at b b,
through which the court is entered,
and for six small square windows —
three in each court. The floor of the
court is of smooth asphalt, and the
walls are covered with cement and
painted black to the height of 18
feet. Across the middle of the
court is stretched a net ; the space
on one side of it is called the Service
side, that on the other the Hazard
side. On that wall of the Hazard
court at d there is a projection like
a chimney, called the Tambour, and
in the Penthouse near it, at^, there
is a square opening called the Grille.
Part of the courts is divided into
spaces called Chases, as shown in
the figure, which are numbered on
the wall from I to 6. The server
stands in the Service court and
serves the ball on the wall over the
Penthouse at g. The ball must
strike on the Penthouse roof, and
then roll off into the receiving court.
The player in the Hazard court
strikes it on the bound where he
likes, so long as it first strikes the
ground on the opposite side of the
net. Thus, he may strike it against
the nearest wall so that it bounds
back across the net. The scoring is
as in Lawn Tennis, except that the
server may win a point by sending
the ball into a " winning opening" —
that is, the Grille, or the window in
the Penthouse nearest the end wall.
TENNIS
720
TENNIS
If a player fail to strike the ball
before the second bound, then, ex-
cept on the hazard side beyond the
service line, a " chase " is said to be
made. Note is taken of the cross
line at which the ball bounded ; but
if only one chase is made it does
not affect the score till one of the
players scores forty, when they
change sides and " play for the
chase." The player who allowed
the chase to be made tries to re-
turn the ball nearer to the end wall
than the point at which it was
marked, in such a way that it will
bound a second time. As often as
his opponent returns the ball he
tries again until he either succeeds
or misses. If he succeed, he is
said to " win the chase " and scores
the strike ; if not, it is given to his
adversary. The ball need not be
returned if it fall " worse " than
the marked chase — that is, nearer
the net on either side — in which
case the chase is lost without
farther play. Whenever two chases
are marked, the players change
sides and play for them at once.
In playing for chases, as in other
play, he who sends the ball into
a "winning opening" gains the
stroke.
History. Tennis is said by some
to be derived from one of the
Roman ball games introduced into
Gaul by Roman soldiers. It was
mucli played in Europe in the
Middle Ages, at first by kings and
nobles, but it soon became popular
with the common-people. It was
introduced into England early in
the 131)1 century. From being an
open-air sport it came to be played
in closed courts, probably at first
the court of a castle or monastery,
whence the irregular shape of the
present court had its origin. In early
times the ball was struck with the
hand, and the French still call the
game Jeu de Paume (the Palm
Game). Afterward the hand was
provided with a glove, as is still done
in the Basque country. On the glove
strings were then stretched, and then
the racket was invented. At one time
it was not uncommon for one player
to use his hand, while his opponent
had a racket. The outdoor form,
which was the earlier, as has been
said, continued to be played in va-
rious ways, but the present variety,
as played here and in England, was
introduced in England about 1874.
It is claimed that it was invented
by Major Walter Wingfield, of the
the British army, who attempted
unsuccessfully to take out a patent
for it in that year. His court was
divided on one side into two squares,
while on the other the server stood
in a diamond-shaped space.
Lawn Tennis soon became popu-
lar, and generally took the place of
Croquet, which preceded it. In
1881 a National Lawn Tennis Asso-
ciation was formed by the chief
clubs in this country, which has
since given a tournament every
summer, usually at Newport.
The origin of the word Tennis is
not certainly known. Some writers
say it is from the French tenez !
(look out !) which they suppose to
have been the exclamation of early
players when the ball was served.
Other suggest that it is from the
Latin tcenia (a band), for the mark
or line over which the balls are
served. The word was first printed
in English in Gower's " Ballade to
King Henry IV." (1561), where it is
spelled " Tennes " and accented on
the last syllable ; but there were
many other ways of spelling it, such
as Tenise and Teneys. The word
racket (French raquette) is said by
some to be from the Latin retis (net),
by others from the Dutch racken (to
stretch), and by others from the
Low Latin racha (the wrist), from
the old manner of hitting the balls
with the hand or wrist. The French
outdoor tennis is called Longue
Paume (Long Tennis), and is played
over a low stretched cord instead of
a net. The indoor game is called
Conrte Paume (Short Tennis).
TENNIS
721
THAUMATROPE
Tennis lost its popularity in France
during the Revolution, because it
was played so much by the nobility.
The peculiar method of scoring
in Tennis had its origin thus : In
France the " chases " were num-
bered up to fourteen ; so when the
first stroke was won the marker
called out " Fifteen," for a lower
number would mean that the ball
had made a second bound at the
corresponding chase. A stroke thus
came to be called Un Quinze (a
Fifteen), so that two strokes natu-
rally scored thirty, and three strokes
forty-five. The " five " was subse-
quently omitted from the last num-
ber. The term Deuce is from the
French a deux (equal).
When the doors of the National
Assembly were closed by the King
of France just before the Revolu-
tion, the members met on June 20,
1789, in a Tennis court in Versailles,
and swore that France should have
a constitution. This oath is known
in history as le serment du Jeu de
Paume (the Tennis oath).
Badminton. A kind of Lawn
Tennis in which shuttlecocks (see
BATTLEDORE) are used instead of
balls. It may be played in a parlor,
or in the open air, by two, four, six,
or even more players, divided into
two opposing sides. The court may
be of various sizes, but the best is
28 feet long by 20 broad, the service
line being 10 feet from the base line.
The net, which is only a foot deep,
is suspended 5^ feet above the
ground. The rackets used are the
same as in Lawfl Tennis. The
shuttlecocks are usually loaded with
lead or rubber, and are sometimes
made so that they may be tightened
by interlaced strings. The game
is played like Lawn Tennis, except
that, as shuttlecocks cannot bound,
they must always be " volleyed,"
and when one falls to the ground it
counts against the player missing it.
Badminton is named from the
country-seat of the Duke of Beau-
fort, in England.
TENT PEGGING. See MUMBLE-
THE-PEG.
THAUMATROPE. A toy consist-
ing of a square or a disk of paste-
board having pictures on both sides.
The disk has strings, by which it
can be twirled so rapidly that the
eye can see the pictures on both sides
at once. This is possible because
the image of anything seen remains
in the eye about one-eighth of a sec-
ond, and as it does not take so long
as that for the disk to turn around,
the images of both sides are in the
eye at the same time. Parts of a
figure may be represented on one
side of the disk and the rest on the
other in such a way that when the
disk is twirled the figure is seen
complete. Thus, the man in the
illustration will appear to be riding
the horse.
Drawing Thaumatrope Figures.
The simplest figures to draw are
those whose parts do not have to
fit together very exactly. For in-
stance, a cage may be drawn on
one side and a bird on the other,
and when the disk is twirled the
bird will appear in the cage, but its
position does not matter much. The
figure on the opposite side of the
disk from the spectator must be up-
side down, so that when it turns
over to his own side it will be up-
right. In the case of parts of figures
which must fit together exactly more
care is required, as for instance when
some of a man's limbs are drawn on
one side of the disk and the rest on
the other. The required figure should
be selected from a book, or drawn
entire on a sheet of paper, and then
the parts to be drawn on each side
of the disk must be traced on separ-
ate pieces of tracing paper.
Two straight lines, A B and C
D, must be drawn across the picture,
and their traces lightly penciled
across both the partial drawings.
One of the partial drawings is now
pasted on one side of a piece of
pasteboard and pinholes are pricked
through it at A, B, C, and D, or
THAUiMATKOPE
722
THREE-FACED PICTURES
points near them on the lines ; the
oilier partial drawing must be pasted
on the other side ot the pasteboard
upside dim ii. but so that the lines
A 13 and C D join the pinholes made
from the oilier side. Thus the two
Thaumatropes.
partial pictures will exactly corre-
spond in position. The pasteboard
is now cut into any convenient shape
— a disk is best, but not necessary —
and the figures may be painted or
details added to suit the maker. It
is best to put only outlines on the
tracing paper, so that the work will
not be wasted if a mistake is made
in pasting. The middle strings
must be fastened at the ends of the
line A li, and the others, if there are
more than one, at equal distances
above and below, so that the card
will twirl about this line ;
otherwise the figures will
not blend correctly. It
does not matter how the
lines A li and C D are
drawn in the first place so
long as they cross, but
their position must be
traced exactly on the par-
tial drawings.
Many comical effects can
be produced by the Thau-
matrope. A man may be
drawn on one side and a
bottle on the other so that
the man will appear to be
drinking when the disk is
twirled. In the same way
can be shown a house, and the same
house in flames ; a sleeping man,
and the same man attacked by rats,
and countless other designs. If the
axis on which the card twirls is
changed a little, the position of the
figures changes. This can be ef-
fecled by using two strings only on
BA
Drawing Thaumatrope Figures.
each side, and having one of these
on one side made of stiff elastic.
When the string is pulled, the
axis of the card will change, and
with it the relation of the fig-
ures. Thus, in the case of the man
drinking, the hand may appear
slightly raised at first, and, on
tightening the string, piay be visibly
lifted to the mouth.
THEATRICALS. See PRIVATE
THEATRICALS.
THREE-FACED PICTURES. Pic-
tures which will appear differently,
THIRTY-ONE
723
THREAD THE NEEDLE
according as they are viewed from
the right, the left, or directly in
front. They can be made as fol-
lows : Select any three pictures of
Fig. i.
exactly the same size, on paper of
the same thickness. Cut them in-
to vertical strips about one-third of
an inch wide, numbering the strips
in each case so that their relative
places may be remembered. Then
paste the strips on to thin paper;
first the three strips numbered one,
then those numbered two, and so
on. The result will be a confused
picture as wide as all the three orig-
inal pictures together and of the
_ 7~^-«^_Ut|
— c iafo; c 'aW c 'ajbj c lajb;
— IJi • ; I i ; j i i
Fig. 3.
same height as one of them. (See
Fig. i, where the three kinds of
strips are lettered a, b, and c, re-
spectively). This is then folded up
like an accordion or fan (Fig. 2),
every third strip, c, remaining flat,
while the others are pushed to-
gether. The latter are now pasted
firmly to one another, so that the
picture seems to be divided verti-
cally by fences or partitions of pa-
per. The whole may now be
mounted on pasteboard and will
show one or the other of the three
pictures, according to the point
from which it is viewed.
THIRTY-ONE. A game of cards
played with a full pack, by any
number of persons not exceeding
sixteen. Three cards are dealt
to each, and three more are placed,
face upward, in the middle of the
table. Each player, in turn, ex-
changes one of his cards for one in
the spare hand, until some one is
ready to show his hand, or stops
changing. The highest hand is one
containing cards all of the same suit,
the sum of whose pips is 31 (reck-
oning Ace as u, and face cards as
i o each). Next in rank are three
cards of a kind (three Kings being
highest and three Aces lowest), and
after that, in order, hands all of
the same suit, the sum of whose
pips is less than 31. Whenanyone
has 31 he shows his hand at once,
and wins the game. When any one
cannot better his hand by exchang-
ing, and still has not 31, he an-
nounces the fact, and then the oth-
ers, in turn, can each exchange once
more, after which all show their
hands, and the highest wins.
Another way of playing is to keep
the score with counters, each player
being given two or three at the be-
ginning. He who has the lowest
hand puts one in the centre of the
table, and the game goes on till only
one has any counters left. That one
is then declared the winner.
THREAD THE NEEDLE. A game
played by any number of persons,
who join hands to form a line. The
player at one end, whom we will
call A, and the one at the other
end, whom we will call B, begin the
game by a dialogue in verse as fol-
lows :
THREE ELEMENTS
724
THREE LIVES
How many miles to Babylon ? "
Threescore miles and ten."
Can I get there by candle-light ? "
' Oh yes, and back again."
1 Then open the gates as high as the sky.
And let King George and his train pass
by."
B and the player next him then
lift their joined hands as high as
possible, and A, with the others
behind him, pass under. This is
then repeated, B becoming the in-
quirer and threading the needle in
-his turn.
History. The game is an old one,
and the verse is said in many differ-
ent ways, one variation of the last
two lines being :
" Then open the gates without more ado,
And let the King and his men pass through."
The verse is sometimes used also
in a game like PEELAWAY, when it
ends :
" Yes, if your legs are long as light,
But take care of the old gray witch by the
hillside."
Threading Grandmother's Needle.
A form of the game in which the
dialogue is between the two on one
end and the others. It is as follows :
" Grandmother's eyes are grown so dim
Her needle she can't fill."
" Our eyes are very bright and good ;
Thread it for her we will."
THREE ELEMENTS, THE; or,
FISH, FLESH, AND FOWL. A
game played by any number of
persons, who sit in a circle. One of
them, who is chosen in any way the
company pleases, stands in the
middle, holding in his hand a hand-
kerchief or soft ball. This he
throws suddenly at any one of the
players, crying out one of the three
words Earth, Air, or Water, and
then counting ten. If the player
whom the ball strikes cannot speak
the name of some creature that
lives on or in the element named,
before the other has finished count-
ing, he must pay a FORFEIT and take
the place of the one in the middle
of the circle. Otherwise the play-
er in the middle of the circle must
throw the ball at some one else.
Sometimes the words Fish, Flesh,
and Fowl are used, instead of the
names of the elements. If desired,
the forfeits may be omitted.
RULES OF THE CAME.
1. The name of the element may
be spoken as soon as the ball is
thrown, but the counting may not
begin till it strikes the player.
2. In counting, every word must
be pronounced clearly.
3. In case of doubt as to whether
the name of the creature has been
spoken before the counting is fin-
ished, a majority of the players
shall decide.
4. All birds shall be considered
to live in the air.
5. Amphibious animals may be
regarded as living either in water or
on the earth.
THREE KINGDOMS, THE. See
TWENTY QUESTIONS.
THREE LIVES. A word game
played by any number of persons.
The first player thinks of a word
and gives its first letter. The sec-
ond thinks of one beginning with
that letter and gives the second let-
ter. The third thinks of one be-
ginning with these two letters and
gives the third. This goes on till
some one is unable to think of a
word beginning with all the letters
given, or till some one's letter fin-
ishes a word of four or more letters.
In either of these cases the player
is said to "lose a life," and the one
next in order begins a new word.
When any one has lost three lives
he drops out of the game, and the
victor is he who remains in at the
last. Thus, suppose the first player
thinks of " House," and says " H."
The second thinks of "Happy"
and says " A." The third thinks of
" Harness " and says " R." The
fourth thinks of " Harpy," but can-
not say " P " because that com-
pletes the word " Harp," so he
thinks of " Harlem " and says " L."
The fifth is unable to think of any
word beginning with " Harl," and
THREE THINGS
725
TIDDLEDY WINKS
so loses a life. When only two or
three are left in the game it be-
comes more exciting, each one try-
ing to give the word such a turn
that the next will either not be able
to go on with it, or will be forced
to complete it. When a player
cannot go on, and has thus lost a
life, he may require from any one
before him to tell what his word
was; otherwise a player might
merely add a letter without think-
ing of any word at all.
THREE THINGS, A game played
by any number of persons sitting
in a row or circle. The one who
begins gives to his left-hand neigh-
bor the names of three things be-
ginning with the same letter, which
the latter must then connect in
some way, and then give three
other things to the next in the line.
When any one is unable to connect
the names he receives he must pay
a forfeit, and the names are passed
along to the next player. Thus,
the first player gives out " Hen,
Ham, and Heaviness." The second
says: "The hen tried to eat the
ham. and found that heaviness in
the crop resulted. I give Door,
Dinner, and Duty." The third says:
" I opened the door to go in to
dinner, when I had to go back to
fulfill a forgotten duty," and so on.
THROW THE HANDKERCHIEF.
A game played by any number of
persons, who sit in a circle. One
stands in the centre and begins the
game by throwing a handkerchief
at some one in the circle, who at
once throws it at some one else,
and so on. If the one in the centre
can touch a player who is holding
the handkerchief, or can catch it
when thrown by any player, such
player must take his place. A large
towel is often used instead of a
handkerchief. It should not be
tied in a knot, but allowed to
spread out when thrown, as this in-
creases the difficulty of throwing,
and the fun of the game.
THROWING LIGHT. A guessing
game played by any number of per-
sons. Two of the players privately
agree on some object, and then
converse about it without naming
it, trying to mystify the rest of the
company. This is called " Throw-
ing light " on the object chosen.
As soon as one of the others thinks
he has guessed it, he joins in the
conversation, and aids in throwing
light. If one of the original play-
ers thinks, from what he says, that
the guess is not correct, he says " I
challenge you," and the guess must
be whispered in his ear. If it is in-
correct, the guesser must sit with
a handkerchief over his face till he
is able to " throw light " correctly.
The game goes on thus till only one
of the players is left in the dark.
It is allowable to choose two words
of the same sound but different
meanings, as in HOW DO YOU LIKE
IT ? and use either meaning at
pleasure, so as to make " throwing
light" more difficult.
THUS SAYS THE GRAND MUFTI.
See GRAND MUFTI.
TIDDLEDY WINKS. A game
played by any number of persons,
singly or as partners, on a table
covered with a thick cloth. Each
player is provided with a set of six
small counters and one large one,
all of the same color, the different
players having different colored
sets. A little basket or cup, gen-
erally of ivory or celluloid, is placed
in the centre of the table, and each
player ranges his small counters in
front of him in a line about eight
inches from it. The object of the
game is to snap each of the smaller
counters, by pressing on its edge
with the larger one, so as to make
it jump into the basket, and he
wins who first gets all his counters
in. The players take turns, but he
who is successful in snapping a
counter into the basket has the
privilege of playing until he fails.
After a player has played out all
his counters from the starting line,
he can play, when his turn comes,
TIN, EXPERIMENTS
726
TIP
any of his counters wherever it
may lie ; but he is not allowed to
touch any of his adversary's coun-
ters, and if any of his own be cov-
ered, and no other be available,
he must wait until his adversary
has uncovered one before he can
play. A player may not intention-
ally cover any of his opponents'
counters. If a counter fall off the
table, it must be replaced one inch
from the edge where it fell off.
Partners sit opposite each other,
and may play each other's counters
after they have left the starting
line.
Variations. The game may be
played with several variations by
marking, around the basket on the
cloth with French chalk, a ring
about four inches in diameter.
1. Any counter falling within
this ring is to be considered dead,
the winner being he who gets most
counters into the basket.
2. Any counter falling within the
ring must be returned to its place
in the starting line, and played out
by the player at his next turn.
3. If a counter fall within the
ring, the next or any other player
during that round, is at liberty, if
he choose, to play it (instead of
his own) to any part of the table he
may consider best for himself. If
it be not played thus, the player to
whom it belongs can play with it
at his next turn in the usual way.
4. Mark on the cloth any figure,
such as a circle, a square, etc., and
divide it into numbered segments
or parts. Several games may be
played with these, the counters
scoring according to the number of
the part they fall in.
Tiddledy Winks may be played
also as a PROGRESSIVE GAME, on
any number of tables.
TIERCE. See Fox AND GEESE,
II.
TIN, Experiments with. Tin is
described in C. C. T. i. Take an
ordinary piece of tin-plate and
hold it over the flame of an alcohol
lamp till the tin begins to melt;
then thrust it into cold water. This
will harden it. Rub the surface
first with a piece of paper wet with
a mixture of weak nitric and hydro-
chloric acids, and then with one
wet with caustic soda dissolved in
water. The surface of the tin will
then be seen to be formed of crys-
tals like frost on a window-pane.
2. Place some metallic tin (not
tin-plate) on a playing card and
hold it over the flame of a spirit
lamp. .The tin can be thus melted
without burning the card (see illus-
tration). The reason is that the
Melting Tin on a Card.
metal conducts heat so well that it
leads the heat away from the card
before the latter has time to burn.
TIP. A game played by any num-
ber of persons. A'pile of favors is
placed on a table, consisting of par-
cels of candy or any desired articles,
and each takes his turn at selecting
from them. Before doing so, the
player turns his head while some
one touches any one of the articles.
This is called the Tip, and the
player may select and keep any fa-
vor he pleases till he touches the
Tip, when the turn passes to the
next. As all know what the Tip is
except the one selecting, his choice
affords much amusement to the
company.
TIP CAT
727
TIT-TAT-TO
This game is popular in Germa-
ny, and is appropriate for children's
parties.
TIP-CAT. See CAT.
TISSUE PAPER, Experiment with.
Make a cylinder of tissue paper four
or five inches high and two or three
inches in diameter, and, standing
it upright on a table, set it on fire
from above. It will turn to cinder
as it burns, and the cylinder will
bend inward above to form a sort
of dome, which the hot air under-
neath, when it has been nearly con-
sumed, will carry up into the air
five or six feet. This experiment
often has to be tried several times
before it succeeds, but when it does
it is very striking. The mass of
light cinder really forms a small
hot-air balloon, like those described
under FOURTH OF JULY.
TIT-TAT-TO, or NOUGHTS AND
CROSSES. A game played by two
persons on a slate, or with pencil
and paper. A figure is first marked
on the slate, or paper, like the one
in Fig. i, but without the numbers,
which are here only for conven-
ience of reference. The players
take turns in putting marks in the
. Fig. i.— Tit-tat-to.
places numbered in the illustra-
tion, and each tries to get three of
his own marks in a row, and to pre-
vent his opponent from doing so.
One player usually chooses an x
for his mark and the other an o.
The following game should be
played out on paper. The num-
bers refer to the first illustration.
The x's
X
o
x
o
x
o
and
i
5
2
3
7
4
8
6
o's
are now are
ranged as in Fig. 2, and the o's
have won. The winner points to
his row of three and says, " Tit, tat,
to ; three in a row." In the above
O
X
Fig. 2.— Tit-tat-to.
game the player who chose x for
his mark made a mistake in his last
play. If he had put his mark on 6
instead of on 8, he would have pre-
vented his opponent from making
a row. The game is so simple that
with two skillful players it always
endsinadraw; that is, neither gets
a row of three.
Tit-tat-to resembles NINE MEN'S
MORRIS, and they may be derived
from the same game. The ancient
Romans played a game somewhat
like it, as we learn
from a passage in
Ovid s " Art of
Lc»re." In Ireland
the game is called
Tip Top Castle.
The game of GO
BANG also seems to
be a form of it.
In Germany the
Fig. 3.— Muhlen-
spiel.
game is called Muhlenspiel (The
Mill Game), and played with peb-
bles or grains of corn on a diagram
like Fig. 3.
TIVOLI
728
TOBOGGANING
The pebbles can be placed on
any of the nine places where lines
meet, and whoever first gets three
in a row says " Trip, trap, troll ;
meine muhle ist voll " (Trip, trap,
troll ; my mill is full). NINE MEN'S
MORRIS is called by the Germans
Doppelmuhle (Double-Mill).
TIVOLI. See BAGATELLE.
TOAD, THE. A SOLITAIRE game
of CARDS, played with two packs.
The first thirteen cards are placed,
as they appear, in one pile, called
the Toad. The rest of the pack is
arranged in five piles, in any order
the player wishes. As the Aces ap-
pear they are placed in a row, and
on them families are built upward,
without following suit. The top
card of any of the piles may be
used for this purpose. The player
will try, of course, to arrange the
piles in the best order for building,
in the cases where it is allowed.
Success depends on the order in
which the cards fall in the Toad.
Toboggan.
TOBOGGANING. Coasting on
toboggans, or sleds without run-
Manner of holding Toboggan.
ners. Toboggans are made of
tough elastic wood from one-eighth
to one-quarter of an inch thick,
and vary in length from four to
eight <feet, and in breadth from
sixteen to twenty-four inches.
Across the upper side ribs or cleats
of wood are fastened to give them
strength, and along the side are
hand-rails, to which the coasters
may cling, and to which cushions
are often strapped. The front is
bent backward in a curve to form
a sort of dashboard. The slides
on which toboggans are used are
either natural or artificial. In this
country the latter are most com-
mon. Natural slides are apt to be
uneven, and contain little mounds,
called in Canada cahots, which
make the toboggan leap into the
air and cause accidents. The ar-
tificial slides are frameworks of
timber supporting a slideway of
boards which is covered with snow
and ice. The highest point may
be forty or fifty feet above the
ground. These slides are often
built on the side of a hill, where
part of the descent is natural.
There are also double slides, con-
sisting of two slides side by side,
but with the incline in opposite
directions, so that after descending
one the coaster has only to ascend
TOBOGGANING
729
TOBOGGANING
a flight of steps to be at the top of
the other slide. At the top of the
slide is a starting platform, and
leading from this are chutes, or
flat-bottomed troughs, in which
the toboggan runs. There may be
several of these, each from four to
six feet wide, with raised side-
boards to keep the toboggan on
the chute. Below the chutes is
generally a natural slide with a
very slight inclination, and some-
times hay is placed at the bottom,
to stop the toboggans. On one
side of the slides is a flight of steps,
and by its side a dragway on which
the toboggans are drawn up.
The plan shows how such a slide
is built. The chutes are packed
with snow, or sometimes with a
mixture of snow and sawdust
mixed with water and allowed to
freeze. If the packing is done
properly, the surface should be
perfectly smooth, and the tobog-
gans will attain great speed — often
as great as a mile a minute. The
makers of one kind of toboggan
have advertised that with their
toboggan a speed of three miles
per minute may be reached. Yet,
on properly built' slides toboggans
are safer than ordinary sleds,
for they cannot leave the chute ;
and as they have no runners and
are close to the ground, they rare-
ly upset.
Steering. The toboggan is guid-
ed either by short sticks of wood
in the hands or with the foot.
The right foot is generally used, and
the steerer kneels or lies on his
side. The principle is the same as
that by which a sled is steered.
By touching the ground with the
bit of wood or the foot on one side,
that side is made to go slower and
the toboggan turns in that direc-
tion. A toboggan is easier to steer
than a sled. On some slides steer-
ing with bits of wood is forbidden,
as it tears up the surface.
The toboggans made in Canada
are commonly of one piece of
wood, with a smooth flat bottom.
Toboggans are made in the United
States of slats rounded on the bot-
tom, so that each is a sort of low
CROSS SECTION
OF PLATFORM.
Plan of Slide.
runner. Some toboggans are shod
with steel. The rail at the side is
often made to yield to the motion
of the toboggan, so that it bends
easily. The screws that fasten it
should not appear on the bottom,
TOBOGGANING
730
TOOTHPICK BOMB
for if they project they increase the
friction and tear the ice on the
slide; and if they are sunk into
the wood, the snow collects in the
holes and roughens the bottom.
Toboggan Yachts. Snow yachts
have been built and sailed on the
prairies of the great West. They
are shaped and rigged like ICE-
BOATS, but have toboggans instead
of runners, the rear, or steering to-
boggan, being only six inches wide.
One of these toboggan boats is
thirty-two feet long and fourteen
feet beam, has a mast twenty feet
high and a boom twenty-two feet
long. She is sloop-rigged, and is
said to have made forty miles an
hour. Snow yachts cannot sail
close to the wind. (See SAILING.)
When they wish to " go about,"
they do so by " wearing."
Water Toboggan. A toboggan
used by bathers. The slide is cov-
ered with little rollers, over which
the toboggan glides easily, and it
ends in the water. T*he coasters,
clad in bathing suits, shoot down
the slide with great velocity and
over the surface of the water for
many rods. When the force of the
toboggan is spent, it is allowed to
sink, and the coaster swims to the
shore. The toboggan is recovered
by a string attached to it. One of
these slides is at Fort Hamilton,
on New York Bay.
History. The word toboggan is
a corruption of the Indian odabag-
gan. Toboggans were used by the
northern Indians, before the dis-
covery of this continent, for the
transportation of game, furs, and
other goods. They were drawn
either by dogs or by men, and were
well adapted for travelling on the
deep snow. They were originally
fastened together entirely with
deer-thongs, but now metal rivets
or screws are used.
During the French and Indian
wars and in the Revolution tobog-
gans were used for transporting
military stores and equipments in
northern campaigns. About 1835
British officers in Montreal intro-
duced tobogganing as a sport by
coasting down Mount Royal. The
sport grew quickly in popularity,
and the artificial slide, which had
long been in use in Russia, was
Russian Slide.
soon introduced. In this country,
tobogganing was first practised in
northern New England near the
Canadian boundary, but within a
few years it has been popular in
other regions. In 1884 a large
slide was erected in Saratoga, New
York; and since then others have
been built in various parts of the
United States. At the "winter
carnivals" in St. Paul, Minnesota,
Burlington, Vermont, and other
cities — in imitation of the one held
annually in Montreal, Canada — to-
bogganing is one of the favorite
sports, and there are parades of the
members of toboggan clubs, clad
in gayly-colored uniforms.
TOM TIDDLER'S QROUND. See
TAG.
TOOTHPICK BOMB. A toy
made by interlacing four wooden
toothpicks. Place three in the
form of a triangle, so that the end
of each rests on that of the next.
Now push them together as far as
possible, and lock them by weaving
in a fourth under one pick, over
the next, and under the third. This
can be done after a few trials. Lay
TOPS
TOPS
the bomb on a plate, with one end
projecting over the edge, and light
that end with a match. When the
end has burned down to the place
where two picks cross, they will be
released and their spring will throw
all the toothpicks into the air.
TOPS. See the article in C. C. T.
String Tops. The string is wound
sometimes around the body of
the top, which is grooved for the
purpose, or around an upright peg
at the upper end. The former
kind is spun by being thrown on
the ground, while the end of the
string, ending in a loop or button,
is retained in the hand. The cuts
show the way of holding in Eng-
land and this country. As the top
English Manner of Holding Top.
moves through the air the string
unwinds, giving it a whirling mo-
tion which keeps up after it has
struck the ground. Other tops
have generally a handle by which
the top is held in one hand while
the string is pulled by the other.
The handle is loose enough to allow
the top to whirl as the string un-
winds, and is either withdrawn
when the top is set going or re-
mains on the top as it spins. Some
American Manner of Holding Top.
tops can be set going in the air and
then placed on the floor.
Whip Tops are set in motion by
twirling with the fingers, and then
the whirling is increased and kept
up by whipping the top with a
piece of cord, usually fastened to a
whip handle. This requires some
Whip Top.
skill. An eel-skin is said to make
the best whip, as it is soft and clings
to the top when it strikes it.
Spring Tops have a handle or
cap, fitted over the upper end,
which is held in one hand while the
top is turned round by the other.
This winds up a spring in the han-
dle, which, when the top is placed
on the floor, is set loose, and, un-
winding, spins the top, when the
handle is then pulled off. Spring
tops are apt to get out of order,
and are not much used.
Teetotums. Little tops called
teetotums are spun by twirling
them with the fingers. They have
usually from four to eight flat sides
or edges, on each of which is a letter
or number. Teetotums are used
in playing several games, to deter-
mine the moves, each player twirl-
ing the teetotum in turn and play-
ing according to the letter or num-
ber that is uppermost after the top
has fallen on its side.
Humming Tops are made hollow,
with a hole in one side, past which
the air rushes as they spin, making
the air within vibrate and causing a
humming sound. (C. C. T.) Some
hummingtopsare fitted with oneor
more reeds, or vibrating tongues of
metal, like those that make the
sounds in a parlor organ, and they
thus give a district musical note,
TOPS
732
TOPS
sometimes a whole chord. They
are sometimes arranged so that
the note changes as they spin fast-
er or slower.
A humming top may be made
from an ordinary cylindrical bak-
ing-powder or spice box. Make a
hole exactly in the middle of cover
and bottom, and push a lead pencil
through the box, the point pro-
jecting about half an inch. Lift
the cover slightly and with a strong
pair of scissors cut a slit in the box
about two inches long and one-
eighth of an inch wide. Replace
Humming Top.
the cover, and the top is complete.
If the lid does not fit tight it
should be fastened on with glue.
It is spun by means of a handle
made of a piece of lath three or
four inches long with a hole in one
end large enough to admit the
lead pencil freely. The string is
wound on the pencil above the box,
the hole in the handle is placed
over the pencil, the end of the
string is brought up through the
hole, and the string is then pulled
with one hand while the handle is
held in the other. These tops are
often made by boys in France.
Color Tops or Chameleon Tops.
Tops bearing a flat disk or plate
painted in various colors. When
the top is spun, these colors appear
blended or mixed together. A
loose circle of paper or leather,
with part cut away, is placed on
Color Top.
the disk, and may be pushed
around so as to expose different
colors. When the top is spinning,
Design for Color Top. — Fig. 2.
if this piece be touched, it will
move, and the exposed colors will
be different, so that the top will
seem to change its color. Rings
TOPS
733
TOPS
of colored paper and various de-
signs like those shown in the illus-
tration can also be dropped on the
disk and made to overlap in vari-
Appearance of the Spinning Wires.
ous ways, which also changes the
color of the spinning top. Color
tops usually have a hole in the top
of the stem, into which bits of wire
of various shapes can be put. When
the top is spinning, these wires
whirl round so rapidly that they
look like glass vessels or dishes.
They are best seen against a black
background. Color tops are usu-
ally spun in little glazed saucers,
so that they keep their motion for
a long time.
If a disk with rows of holes in it
be pJaced on a spinning color top,
the central hole being larger than
the handle of the top, it will
gyrate on being touched, and the
holes will appear like a delicate
lace-pattern, changing with each
touch. If shining steel buttons
be glued to the top of the disk, the
appearance on spinning will be still
more beautiful.
French Top. A case in which are
packed a number of small tops
shaped something like saucers.
The case and its contents are set
spinning in the usual way, and
French Top.
then, holding it by a loose handle,
the spinner shakes the case, and
the tops within fall out one by one
and continue to spin on the floor
Dutch Rackets.
Dutch Rackets. A game played I stead of being strung, is made
with a top and a racket, D (see entirely of wood, one side being
illustration), about the size of that I slightly hollowed and the other
used in LAWN TENNIS, which, in- ' fitted with little cups, each of which
TOPS
734
TOPS
is marked with a different number.
The top B is spun on the hollowed
side of the racket by the string C,
pulled through the standard A,
and the player then tosses it into
the air, turns the racket over, and
catches the top in the cups in suc-
cession, till it falls to the ground or
stops spinning, scoring each time
the number marked in the cup in
which he catches it. The screw
E is for tightening the racket.
Flying Top. A toy consisting of
a stick to which are fastened three
Flying Top.
vanes with oblique surfaces. The
string is wound around the stick
or spindle, which is then placed in
a stand. The end of the string is
passed through a hole in the side ol
the stand, and being pulled causes
the top to turn rapidly around.
When it has attained sufficient
speed it rises high in the air, from
the action of the vanes, which work
in the same way as the screw pro-
peller of a steamer.
Fly-Fly. A form of flying top in
which the force is derived from
a twisted rubber band. The flyer or
cap holding the vanes turns freely
on the spindle, and a thick piece
of india-rubber is fastened to the
flyer at one end, and at the other
to the spindle. If the spindle be
held firmly in one hand and the
flyer turned with the other, the
rubber will be twisted, and when re-
eased it untwists, turning the fl;er,
which propels the Fly-Fly through
the air. (Figs. 1-3.) The height to
which it will rise depends on the
size of the vanes and the elasticity
of the india-rubber band. Fig. 2 is
worked by pressing down and pull-
Fly-Fly . — Fig. i.
ing upthe beam A A, which is guard-
ed by a slot in one of the uprights.
Magnetic Top. A top consisting
of a flat disk of iron pierced in the
middle by an axle, pointed at one
end. When it is spun like any oth-
er top and a magnet is presented to
it, the top avoids the magnet, be-
ing repelled instead of attracted,
though it is of iron. When the
top is still, however, or spinning
very slowly, it is attracted, like any
other piece of iron. The reason
is that when the top spins fast the
magnet induces electric currents in
TOPS
735
TOPS
the iron disk, which really becomes
a small dynamo-machine. The ef-
fect of these currents is to repel the
magnet, and their action is strong-
er than its attraction for the iron,
unless it is spinning slowly. With
a copper top the repulsion is even
greater ; but the tops are made of
iron because it seems stranger that
a metal which is usually attracted
by a magnet should ever be re-
pelled.
Fly-Fly.— Fig. 3.
Travelling Top. A top which
rolls instead of spinning. A simple
one can be made thus : Cut out a
flat circular piece of wood or tin
about three inches in diameter and
make in the edge two notches ex-
actly opposite each other. Tie to-
gether the ends of a piece of strong
twine about three or four feet long
and pass it around the legs just
above the knees. Twist the string
by means of a stick thrust be-
tween the strings. When it is
twisted, remove the stick and put
the disk in its place, the string
holding it by the notches on its
TOPS
736
TOURMALINE
edge. Now release the disk and
force the cord to untwist swiftly by
pulling the knees apart. The string
will make the disk revolve with it
till it has untwisted.
How Tops Spin. When not in
motion, a top cannot be made to
stand on its point, but when it is
spinning it does so easily. The
reason is that every part of the top
is then moving around with great
force, and when the top tips a little
to one side, so that the part on
that side tends to fall toward the
ground, that part of the top is
whirled around quickly to the other
side and another part takes its
place. The falling motion is there-
fore turned to one side, and instead
of tipping over the top merely gy-
rates; that is, the stem moves
around in a circle. This is hardly no-
ticeable when the top is spinning
very fast, but as the rubbing of the
point against the floor stops it grad-
ually, it gyrates more and more, and
finally touches the ground. But
tops which gyrate or "wabble"
when they begin to spin, usually
become quiet in a few seconds, and
remain so as long as they are spin-
ning fast. They are then said to
" sleep." The motion of a top has
been studied by many learned men,
and requires mathematics to ex-
plain it completely. The earth
spins in its course like a great top,
and it also gyrates like one, but
very slowly, the North Pole taking
more than 25,000 years to describe
one of its circles.
The Romans called the top dux-
urn, the name of the box tree, be-
cause they used that kind of wood
in making it. It is alluded to by
the Latin poets as a children's toy,
and has been a favorite with all
nations.
TOURMALINE, Experiments with.
Slices of the mineral called tour-
maline can be bought of an opti-
cian. If one slice be held in the
left hand and another in the right,
and if the latter be slowly turned
around, while the experimenter
looks through them at the sky, it
will be found that there is one
position where it is impossible to
see through them. (See Fig. i.)
Looking through them at a card
pierced with a hole and placed be-
tween the experimenter and the
light, he will find that as he turns
one tourmaline quite around, the
hole will disappear and reappear
again twice. While they are in
the position where the hole cannot
be seen, let some one hold a very
thin piece of mica between them.
The hole will at once become vis-
ible, and if the tourmaline near-
est the eye be turned, beautiful
colors will be seen, changing one
into another. The light, after it
has passed through the first tour-
maline, is said to be polarized.
Most reflected light is also partial-
ly polarized, as may be seen by
looking through one tourmaline
at the light reflected from glass,
polished furniture, water, or even
from the sky. When the tourma-
line is turned, the light will grow
brighter and dimmer by turns,
though it will not disappear entire-
ly. If a piece of mica be held be-
tween, as before, the same colors
will be seen. An arrangement for
polarizing light by reflection may
be made by laying on a board a
piece of glass painted black on the
under side, and supporting on one
side of it the tourmaline, mounted
in a cork which fits in a hole in an
upright bit of wood. The hole
must be bored diagonally, so that
the cork makes an angle of about
55 degrees with the flat glass. This
particular angle is the best, but it is
not necessary to be exact. Place
TRADES
737
TRAP BALL
Fi
the arrangement in front of a
window where the light from the
sky can be reflected from the black
glass and then observed through
the tourmaline. The latter can be
turned by turning the
cork in the hole. On do-
ing so, it will be seen that
the light reflected from
the black glass is well po-
larized. Examine a num-
ber of transparent objects
by placing them just be
low the tourmaline, and
it will be seen that some
show colors and some do
not. CRYSTALS of different sub-
stances deposited on glass should
be tried, also pieces of glass. In-
stead of a tourmaline, an arrange-
ment of crystals called a Nicol
prism may be used. This is still
better, as it allows more light to
pass. It can be bought of any
dealer in scientific apparatus.
Glass shows the prettiest colors
and figures when it is in a state of
strain from uneven cooling. To
prepare it, take pieces a quarter of
an inch thick and about an inch or
an inch and a half square, and
heat them red hot on a piece of
slate in a coal fire, or over a Bun-
sen burner. Let them cool on a
piece of cold iron. They will not
break if they have been heated
enough. Instead of the tourma-
line or Nicol prism, the following
arrangement may be employed.
(See Fig. 2.) Bore a hole length-
wise through a cork about an inch
and a half long, and then cut it in
two diagonally, making an angle
of about 34 degrees with the axis,
as shown in the picture. Glue to
the diagonal surface of the lower
half of the cork six plates of very
thin glass, separating them by tis-
sue paper glued at their edges.
Then glue on the upper half of the
cork, so that the round hole in it
seems continuous with that in the
lower half. Two of these arrange-
ments may be used instead of the
two tourmalines, or one may be
used with the apparatus for polar"
izing by reflection.
Objects can be made of thin
sheets of mica, which show beauti-
ful colors when examined by polar-
ized light. Among these are a
piece bent into a half cylinder,
held in place by strips of gummed
paper ; two such half cylinders,
crossed ; a cone, made by cutting a
small sector out of a mica circle
and then bringing the edges to-
gether; a wheel, each of whose
spokes is twisted a little, and bars
of mica crossed in various ways.
TRADES. A game in which each
of the players pretends, in dumb
show, to work at some trade — the
shoemaker sewing a shoe, the
carpenter hammering or sawing,
etc. One of the company is chosen
as leader, and whenever he drops
his trade for that of another player,
that player must take up the one
that the leader has just left, while
all the others stop their motions.
Whenever the leader resumes his
original trade, the others begin to
work at theirs, as at first. Any one
who makes a mistake must pay a
forfeit.
TRAP BALL. A game played by
any number of persons with a trap,
bat, and ball. The trap is made of
wood, of the size and shape of a low
shoe, having in it a spoon-shaped
lever, arranged as shown in the il-
lustration. The ball is like a small
Trap and Ball.
base ball, and the bat like a short
cricket bat, to be used with one
hand. The players divide into two
parties, one of which takes position
in the field, while those on the
other, one by one, take turns at
the bat. The batter places the ball
in the trap, and by striking the free
TRAP BALL
738
TRAPPING
end of the lever with his bat sends
the ball into the air. He then tries
to hit it as far as he can. If he
miss his stroke, or strike the ball
beyond the side boundaries, or if
a fielder catch the ball before it
touches the ground, he is out, and
the next player takes the bat. Oth-
erwise, the fielder who stops the ball
bowls it at the trap, and if he hits
it, or the ball stop within a bat's-
length of it, the striker is out. If
not, the striker estimates the dis-
tance of the ball from the trap
in bat-lengths, and calls it out. If
it be within the actual distance, he
scores toward game the number of
bat-lengths called; but if it be more
than the real distance, he is out.
When a player is out, he takes no
further part in the game till all his
side are out, when the sides change
places. Those who do not go out
continue to strike and score, in or-
der, till all are out. When each
side has finished its turn at the bat,
the game is at an end, and the side
with the largest score wins.
Sometimes, instead of the trap,
a piece of wood called a Splent is
used. A little hole is made in the
ground with the bat, the splent is
placed with one end in the hole,
and the ball is put on that end.
When the end of the splent outside
of the hole is struck with the bat,
the ball rises, as from the trap.
Trap ball is a very old game.
Old English Trap Ball.
The illustration, Irom an ancient
English manuscript, shows a form
of it.
Figure Four Trap.
TRAPPING. Catching animals
or birds by means of traps or snares.
It is not considered honorable to
trap wild game that is usually killed
by sportsmen with the gun, but
troublesome and dangerous ani-
mals are properly caught in this
way, as well as fur-bearing creat-
ures, like the mink or beaver. The
best traps are the common steel
traps, to be bought at hardware
stores, and which are made of sev-
eral sizes. An easily made trap Is
the Figure Four, so called from
its shape. It consists of a heavy
stone or log supported by three
notched sticks placed as shown in
the picture. The separate pieces
are shown in Figs, i, 2 and 3, and
the completed trap in Fig. 4. The
animal trying to remove the bait
from the end of the pointed stick
brings the stone down upon him,
and is crushed to death. When a
log is used, a row of stakes is driven
into the ground on each side of it,
TRAVELLER
739
TRUSSING GAME
and it falls between them. For
catching animals alive, there are
various forms of traps made of
wire or wood. The simplest is a
contrivance having a swinging door
which will open only inward. The
animal pushes up the door to get
at the bait, and is unable to push
his way out again.
A trap for small burrowing ani-
mals, called the Jug-trap, is made
by burying a jug or other earthen-
ware vessel, having a hole knocked
cut of the upper part. A passage
is made from the surface to the
hole, and the animal entering it
falls into the jug and is caught.
TRAVELLER, THE. A game
played by any number of persons,
one of whom represents a traveller.
The others are numbered, and each
receives several counters, or bits of
paper, bearing his number. The
traveller then asks them, in order,
for any information he chooses
about the places to which he is
going. As soon as he is given some
that is correct he takes a counter
from whoever gives it, and asks the
next player a different question.
After a specified time, or number
of rounds, the traveller examines
the counters in his possession, and
the player who gave him most in-
formation becomes traveller in his
turn.
TRIC-TRAC. See BACKGAMMON.
TRICYCLING. See CYCLING.
TRIPLET. A game of cards
played by three persons with a full
pack and any number of counters,
which are divided equally. The
dealer — the player who cuts the low-
est card (ace being high) — gives
two cards to each. Each looks at
his cards, and places in the centre
of the table a number of counters
agreed on beforehand. One more
card is then given to each by the
dealer, who turns the next card as
trump. Any player may now de-
clare that he wishes to win " by
hand," whereupon all must show
their hands, and the highest wins.
The three kinds of hands in or-
der from the highest to the low-
est are as follows :
1. A Triplet — three cards of a
kind. 'If there are two triplets,
the highest wins, but one contain-
ing a " special card," or a face card
of trumps, beats any other. The
" special cards " are the Three of
Trumps, Spades, and Hearts.
2. A Tierce — any three cards in
regular order, regardless of suit.
If there are two, the highest wins,
and one containing a special card,
or face card of trumps, always wins.
3. Three of a suit, according to
the total number of pips — a special
card counting 13, an ace 12, and a
court card 1 1 . If one of two other-
wise equal hands contains a face
card of trumps, it beats the other.
If any one wins by hand there is
no playing. If no one declares
that he wishes to do so play begins,
the eldest hand leading. Suit is
not followed. In play, only face
cards of the trump suit rank as
trumps. No card can be taken by
one of the same color unless the
latter be a trump. Any card of a
common suit, or any plain card of
the trump suit, may be taken by a
higher card of opposite color; but
any card may be taken by a trump
face card, and this by a special
card. The Threes of Clubs and
Diamonds, when not trumps, are
the lowest cards in their respective
suits. To win in play, a player
must take two out of the three
tricks. If no one does this, the
same dealer deals again from the
stock without shuffling anew. He
who wins takes all the counters in
the middle of the table ; but if no
one wins, they remain and accumu-
late.
TRUSSING GAME, THE. A
game played by two persons, each
of whom tries to overturn the oth-
er, after both have been tied or
" trussed," as follows : The player
seats himself on the floor ; his
hands, pi iced palm to palm, are
TRUTH
740
TUG OF WAR
bound together at the wrist with a
handkerchief, and his legs are tied
in like manner above the ankles.
The knees are then drawn up, the
arms placed over them, and a stick
about four feet long pushed over
one arm, under botn knees, and
out again over the other arm.
The player can now move no part
of his limbs except his toes. If he
is overturned the ends of the stick
prevent his falling on his side, but
he cannot right himself without
aid. Two players, " trussed " in
this way, are placed opposite each
other in the middle of the room,
their toes just touching. The ob-
ject of each is to tip his opponent
over by means of his toes, and he
who first does this is the winner.
If either of the players falls over,
he must be placed in position
again by the spectators.
It is related that an English
gentleman, having captured some
thieves in his house at night, with
his servants' aid, " trussed " them
thus, to secure them until morning,
and tipped them over on one side,
with such success that the robbers
were not able to move from the
place where they were left.
This game is called also " Chick-
en Fight," or "Cock Fight."
TRUTH. A game played by any
number of persons, with two packs
of cards. The fust pack is dealt, one
card at a time, to the players ; the
second is placed face downward, in
front of one chosen as leader of the
game. The leader begins by asking
a personal question beginning with
" who," as " Who is the prettiest in
the room ? " or " Who will be mar-
ried first ? " at the same time turn-
ing over the top card of the second
pack. The one of the players who
has the same card in the first pack
is supposed to be the one referred
to in the question. He must hold
up the card matching the one
turned, as soon as he sees it, and
then give it to the leader, who lays
the two cards aside. The player who
had the matching card next asks a
question, the leader turning up at
the same time another card ; and
so the game goes on till the cards
have all been used. The inquiries
may be complimentary or other-
wise.
TUG OF WAR, A sport in which
any number of persons, divided in-
to two parties or " teams," pull a
rope in opposite directions. The
tug may be pulled in two ways: in
the first, there is no limit of time,
but the teams pull until one has
pulled the other over a given line ;
in the second, the pulling is for a
certain number of minutes, and at
the end of that time the team wins
on whose side the middle of the
rope is. In both methods the mid-
dle of the rope is marked, usually
by tying a piece of colored cloth
around it, and a person acting as
judge or referee holds it exactly
over the line as he gives the signal
to begin pulling. In the first meth-
od, instead of requiring one team
to be pulled over the line, two
points in the rope are sometimes
marked, at equal distances from
the middle point, and the team
that first pulls the opposite one of
these across the line is the winner.
The second method is often used
indoors, where the tug is pulled
" from cleats ; " that is, where each
player has a wooden cleat or strip,
nailed on the floor, to brace his feet
against while he is pulling.
Four men make a team, and the
one furthest from the cleat is called
the "anchor," the one nearest the
cleat being No. i.
The rules of the National Ama-
teur Athletic Association for tugs
of war are as follows :
Tugs of war shall be pulled on
cleats made of wood ; same to be at
least four inches thick, six inches
high, and twenty-two inches long,
and at least six feet six inches apart.
The distance from the clamp in the
centre to the first cleat on either
side shall be not less than six feet.
TUG OF WAR
741
TUNING FORKS
The cleats shall be set on edge
and bolted to the board.
The rope shall be a man ila, three
stranded rope, not less than four
and a half nor more than five inch-
es in circumference. There shall
be a clamp equi-distant from the
first cleat on either side, which shall
be sufficient to hold the rope in
position until released.
This clamp shall not make any
appreciable kink in the rope. Any
position may be assumed before
the pistol is fired. No mechanical
device shall be used for hold ing the
rope. No belt other than one to
protect the body shall be used.
The flanges to hold the rope in
place shall not be constructed so
as to bind on the rope in any posi-
tion that the anchor may assume.
Leather shields and gloves may
be used, and adhesive substances
may be put on the same. The belt
shall not weigh more than twenty
pounds. Competitors shall not use
weights in unlimited pulls, but in
pulls limited to specified weights,
competitors may use weights, pro-
viding the total weight of the team,
including weights, does not exceed
the limit.
The standard time limit for each
pull shall be five minutes, and a rest
of not less than ten minutes shall be
allowed each competitor between
trial pulls. A shorter or longer
time limit may be agreed upon for
other than championship contests.
When tugs of war are limited
to teams of a given weight, com-
petitors shall be weighed beforv
competing. They shall be weighed
as they pull ; i.e., including cloth-
ing, shoes, belt, etc.
The weighing-in shall be done
immediately before the pull.
No knot of any kind shall be tied
in the rope, and the rope shall not
be passed more than once around
the body of the anchor.
In no case shall any man pull on
more than one team in a contest,
and no substitute shall be allowed
to pull on any team that has pulled
a trial.
In case a team gains three feet
from its opponents, it shall be
awarded the pull.
Immediately before the pull the
captains of the opposing teams
shall draw their numbers. If there
are only two teams, two out of three
pulls shall decide. With three
teams — i and 2 pull, the loser pulls
3, and the winners pull the final.
With four teams — i and 2, 3 and 4;
the winners pull the final. With
more than four teams, have a pre-
liminary round of as many contests
as the total number of contestants
exceeds 4, 8, 16 or 32, and drop the
losers. This leaves in 4, 8, 16 or
32 contestants, and the game then
proceeds regularly with no byes or
uneven contests. There shall be
no byes. If there is a second prize
it shall be competed for by all
teams beaten by the winning team
only.
In case of a tie both teams shall be
credited with a win, and new num-
bers shall be drawn.
No pull shall be awarded by less
than half an inch.
The individual tug of war shall
also be governed by the team rules,
and the contestants must pull from
the first cleat from the clamp.
History. The tug of war had its
origin in a boys' game sometimes
called in England " French and
English," and in this country
" English and Americans," in
which two parties pulled one
against the other at the ends of a
rope. Since it has been reduced to
a systematic sport it has found a
place in the programmes of most
athletic meetings. (See ATHLET-
ICS.)
TUNING FORKS, Experiments
with. The tuning fork is a two-
pronged instrument used by mu-
sicians to tune their instruments
by, since it gives a pure, true note.
Two of these forks will be needed,
giving notes about a half a tone
TUNING FORKS
742
TUNING FORKS
apart. They may be bought at a
music store.
A tuning fork may be sounded
by rapping it on the edge of a ta-
ble, by pressing the prongs togeth-
er with the teeth and then sudden-
ly releasing them, or by striking it
with a stick.
EXPERIMENTS.
Sound a tuning fork, and while
it is vibrating touch the end to a
bare table. This sound will be
greatly increased. This is because
the table vibrates in sympathy with
the fork, so that there is a larger
sounding surface.
2. Sound the fork and hold it in
succession close to the mouths of
bottles and jars of various sizes,
pouring in water while the fork is
vibrating. When the volume of
air in the jar is just large enough,
it will vibrate in sympathy with the
fork, giving out a loud sound.
3. Turn the fork around slowly
while it is over the jar. The sound
will rise and fall in loudness, being
almost nothing when the corners
of the prongs a/e toward the jar.
Hold the fork up to the ear, turn-
ing it in like manner, and the same
result will follow. This is because
in this position the sound-waves
from the inside of the prongs
interfere with those from the out-
side.
4. Make a cardboard or paper
roll, just large enough to go over
one prong of the fork, and while it
is in the position where it makes
least noise, either in front of the
ear or over the jar, slip the roll over
one prong. The sound will at once
increase, owing to the fact that the
waves from one prong are cut off
and cannot interfere with those
from the other.
4. Make a wooden box about six
inches long, four inches wide, and
two inches thick, open at the ends.
This is called a resonance box,
and makes the fork sound louder,
just as a table does ; but it is more
convenient, because it can be car-
ried about in the hand. Sound a
fork, touch it to a resonance box,
and walk slowly toward the wall
with the fork. The note given will
be now louder, now fainter. This
is caused by the interference of the
sound reflected from the wall with
that proceeding directly from the
fork.
5. Hold two forks tuned to the
same note on resonance boxes sev-
eral feet apart. They can be tuned
together by sticking bits of wax on
the prongs of the one which gives
the highest note. The wax will
load the prong, making it move
more slowly and give a lower note.
Sound one of the forks, and after
a few seconds stop it. The other
one will be found vibrating slightly.
Its note can often be heard by
placing the ear to the opening in
the resonance box. If this does
not succeed, the vibration can be
detected by holding against one of
the prongs a bit of glass as large
as a pea, fastened to a thread by
means of sealing-wax. This is a
case of "sympathetic vibration,"
other examples of which are given
under VIOLIN. The experiment
will not succeed unless the forks
be tuned to the same note.
6. Load one of the forks with
wax so that it is almost, but not
quite, in tune with the other. Sound
them both at once, and " beats "
will be heard, just as in Experiment
5, under VIOLIN.
7. Sound a fork and dip the
prongs into a basin of still water.
The vibration will cause curious
ripples.
8. Gum a piece of tin-foil or a
bristle to one prong of a fork ; set
the fork vibrating, and then draw
it over a piece of smoked glass.
The vibration of the fork will make
the bristle draw a wavy line on the
glass.
9. Touch one end of a long rod
or pole to a resonance box, and
touch a vibrating tuning fork to
the other end. The rod will con-
TUNING FORKS
743
TUNING FORKS
duct the sound, which will come
apparently from the box.
10. Sing the same note as that
given by a tuning fork. Stop, and,
holding the mouth in exactly the
same position, hold the vibrating
fork close in front of it. The
mouth will act like the jar in Ex-
periment 2, increasing the sound.
If the mouth be fixed as if to sing
any other note, the result will not
be the same — the sound being in-
creased very little, or not at all.
11. Bore a hole in a block of
wood about an inch and a half
square and fit in it the stem of the
tuning fork. Place a tumbler of
water on a resonance box, and
after sounding the fork, dip the
block in the water. The sound will
be conducted through the water to
the box, which will strengthen it
just as if the fork had been placed
directly on the box.
1 2. Place a piece of window glass
three inches square over the mouth
Fig. i.
of a glass tumbler, seeing that it
touches the rim all around. Slide
the glass slowly to one side, hold-
ing a vibrating tuning fork to the
opening. When it reaches the
right size, the air in the tumbler
will give out a loud sound, in
answer to the fork. (See A, in
Fig. i.)
13. Take a piece of thin paper,
and, having wet it, paste it over the
mouth of the tumbler. When it is
dry, cut away part atone end so as
to make a hole bounded by the
edge of the tumbler and a straight
line. Make this hole small at first,
but cut away more and more of
the paper till the air within an-
swers the tuning fork as before.
Sprinkle a little sand on the paper
and sing the note given bjr the
fork. The sand will dance up and
down. (See B, in Fig. i.)
14. Tilt the tumbler by placing a
book under one side (see B, in il-
lustration), so that the sand almost
runs down the paper by its own
weight. If the proper note be now
sung in any part of the room the
sand will begin to move down the
paper, but it will not move for any
other note. If the gamut be sung,
for instance, the sand will keep
still till its own note is reached,
when it will move at once.
15. Dip the mouth of a tumbler,
five or six inches deep, into a soap
solution (see SOAP BUBBLES), and
then slide the glass plate through
the soap water under the mouth.
Take tumbler and glass out of the
water and stand them on the table.
TUNING FORKS
744
TURKS AND RUSSIANS
Slide off the glass while sound-
ing the fork as in Experiment 12.
There will be a soap film over the
opening thus made, which, as soon
as the air in the tumbler responds
to the fork, will be covered with
curious wrinkles. To see these to
advantage, the light of the sky
must be reflected from the film.
16. Tune two wide - mouthed
bottles or glasses of equal size, by
slipping pieces of glass over their
Fig. a.
mouths, as in Experiment 12, so
that each will strengthen the vibra-
tion of the tuning fork. Stand one
upright and lay the other on its
side on a pile of books so that the
mouths of the bottles just touch.
The bottle on the books is kept
from rolling off by bits of wax, and
the glass over its mouth is held in
place in the same way. Vibrate
the fork and hold it horizontally
between the mouths of the bottles.
A position will be found where
almost no sound at all is heard.
This is because the sound from one
bottle interferes with that from the
other. If a piece of paper be
slipped between the fork and the
mouth of either bottle the sound
will at once be heard again (Fig. 2).
17. Suspend alight piece of card-
board by a string near a vibrating
tuning fork ; it will be attracted.
Hold a candle flame near the fork ;
it will be repelled. This is because
the sound-waves in air attract
bodies heavier than air, and repel
those which are lighter.
18. Tie a silk thread six inches
long to one prong of a tuning fork,
and to the other end of the thread
fasten a button or other object of
slight aveight. Vibrate the fork,
holding it horizontally, and the
thread will also vibrate, dividing up
into segments, between which are
points of no motion, or " nodes."
(See VIOLIN, Experiment 2.) The
number of segments seen when the
fork is held with prongs side by
side is double that when one prong
is over the other. The number of
segments is also greater when the
weight on the thread is less.
TURKS AND RUSSIANS. A game
played by two persons with slate
and pencil. About a quarter of
the slate is marked off by a line at
each end, and in each of the com-
partments so marked off are made
a number of dots about the size
of a pin-head, those at one end
representing Turks and the others
Russians. The number of Turks
and Russians may be large or small,
as agreed on, but must be equal.
At one end of each compartment
is a small square which serves as
a battery. Each player, in turn,
places the point of his pencil in his
own battery, and then draws a line
quickly in the direction of his ene-
my's men. The line must have no
angles in it, but may be straight or
curved. Those dots through which
the line passes are considered dead
men, and he who first kills all of
the enemy's men is the winner.
Sometimes the players are required
TWELFTH DAY
745
TWENTY QUESTIONS
to shut their eyes or turn away
their heads, when drawing their
lines.
TWELFTH DAY. The sixth day
of January ; so called because it is
the twelfth day after CHRISTMAS.
It is also the feast of the Epiphany,
on which is celebrated the visit of
the three Magi, or Wise Men, to the
infant Christ. In ancient times
Twelfth Night was celebrated with
great merriment and many games,
and Twelfth Night parties are occa-
sionally given now. As the wise
men who visited Christ are said by
tradition to have been three kings,
one of the chief amusements of
Twelfth Night is the choosing of a
King and Queen by means of col-
ored beans baked in cakes, whence
it is sometimes called the " Bean
King festival." One cake is cut
into pieces and given to the boys
and the other to the girls, and
the boy and girl who find the
beans in their pieces become King
and Queen. Cards having written
on them various titles, such as
Prime Minister, First Lady in Wait-
ing, etc., are now placed in two
bags, the boys' titles in one bag
and the girls' titles in the other.
Enough blank cards are mixed
with them to make the whole num-
ber equal that of the guests. Each
guest now draws a card and as-
sumes the title, if any, written on it.
The hostess may provide appropri-
ate costumes for the King, Queen,
and Courtiers. The evening is
usually spent in playing games.
Among the amusements of Twelfth
Night in ancient England were the
blowing up or burning of paste-
board castles. A pastry stag, out
of which flowed blood made of
claret, was sometimes served on the
table, and the guests pelted each
other with eggshells filled with
rose-water. Shakespeare's play of
this name was so called because
written for a Twelfth Night party.
TWENTY QUESTIONS, A game
played by any number of persons,
divided into two opposing parties,
one of which tries to find out, by
twenty questions and one or more
guesses, a subject chosen by the
other.
Captains. In order to avoid con-
fusion, questions are asked and
answered only by the captains or
leaders of the two parties ; but be-
fore each question there is a con-
sultation of all the players on the
side that is to ask it, and the best
answer is decided on by the other
side in the same way.
Umpire. An umpire is generally
chosen beforehand, to decide dis-
puted points, and to avoid dispute
he may take down in writing each
question and answer as it is spoken.
Time Limit. In order to avoid
taking too. much time, it is usual to
require a question or answer to be
given within a certain time after
the preceding answer or question.
This time limit (usually three or
four minutes) is agreed upon at the
beginning of the game.
Guessing. When the questioning
side have asked their twenty ques-
tions, or as many as they wish, they
proceed, through their captain, to
guess the subject. Sometimes only
one guess is allowed, sometimes two
or three, as agreed on before the
game. If more than one is permit-
ted, all but the last may be asked
during the questioning. Thus, if
there are to be three guesses, the
questioners may ask ten questions,
then make a guess ; then six more,
then make another guess, and so
on. But if the last guess is wrong,
wherever it may be made, the guess-
ers lose the game. The subject
must be guessed exactly as it is
chosen. For instance, if it is " Mr.
B.'s left eye," and the guess be "One
of Mr. B.'s eyes," the answer must
be " No." But if the question be
asked, " Is it one of Mr. B.'s eyes? "
the answer is "Yes." Then, if
more than one guess is allowed, the
right and left eyes can be guessed
in succession. If not, " Is it his
TWENTY QUESTIONS
746
TWENTY QUESTIONS
right eye ? " should be asked ; and
when the answer "No" is given,
the guess " Mr. B.'s left eye " will of
course be made. But if the party
have asked their twentieth ques-
tion, and have but one guess, they
must take their chances of hitting
it correctly.
GENERAL ADVICE.
Subject. In choosing a subject
it should be remembered that those
that appear difficult are often
easy to guess. If the questioners
are skillful, and not likely to over-
look anything, the difficulty de-
pends simply on the number of sep-
arate things that must be found out
in order to know the subject defi-
nitely. This kind of difficulty is pos-
sessed by a subject like " The sec-
ond pane of glass from the upper
left hand corner of the upper sash,
in the third window from the east-
ern front corner of the second
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Question Diagram.
story of the New York City Hall.
Here, after finding out that the
subject is " A pane of glass," at
least seven more questions are re-
quired to locate it, since questions
like "In what part of the City Hall
is it ? " are barred out, the answer
being a part of the subject. By
making the subject complex
enough, it can thus be made im-
possible to guess it even in twenty
questions ; but subjects of this kind
do not add to the interest of the
game, and they should be restricted
by rule.
Another kind of difficulty is pos-
sessed by subjects which are either
far away or immaterial, like the
" Garden of Eden," or " Courage."
A beginner might be quite unable
to guess either of these, but each
consists of but one thing, and eith-
er may be guessed in a comparative-
ly few questions. The best subjects
are those that combine these two
kinds of difficulty, as " The petal of
a rose on the east side of the Garden
of Eden," or "The Courage of Israel
Putnam in entering the wolf's den."
Subjects may also be adapted to
the questioners. If they are not
well acquainted with history, an
TWENTY QUESTIONS
747
TWENTY QUESTIONS
historical subject may be chosen,
and so on.
Questions! In playing the game
the questions should be asked ac-
cording to some system, and the
same system should be followed
throughout. If one idea is followed
out for two or three questions, and
then abandoned and another taken
up, twenty questions may easily be
asked without getting much infor-
mation. The more general ques-
tions should be asked at the be-
ginning, the object being to divide
the field of conjecture. This may
be made evident by a diagram
(shown on the previous page) sup-
posed to contain all the things in
the world. These are divided by
the vertical black line into Real
and Imaginary, and these again by
the horizontal dotted line into
Thoughts and Things. The space
within the inner circle is supposed
to be the Past, that between the
two circles the Present, and that
outside the Future. So if the ques-
tion be asked, " Is it real or imag-
inary ? " and the answer be " Real,"
everything in the right or imag-
inary side is left out of considera-
tion. If the questioner next finds
out that it exists now, he may con-
fine himself to the space inside the
inner circle, and so on. The dia-
gram can be made much more elab-
orate, or divided according to a
different plan. The one given will
serve as an illustration, and the
reader can amuse himself by trying
to construct others.
One system of questioning that
may be followed with a real object
is to locate it exactly, which may
often be done by a few skillful
questions. The object, though
real, may be one of a class, as " a
shoe," in which case it cannot be
located, but the nearest or most
prominent one of the class may be
inquired about. Or, instead of
locating the object, its form, size
and color may be found out exact-
ly, or its use may be investigated ;
but whatever line of questions is
begun should be continued. In
some cases, however, a skillful
player will see, after one or two
questions, that the kind of queries
he is making will be of no use, and
he then often prefers to change his
tactics, even at a loss. For in-
stance, if the first few questions as
to form, color, and size show that
the object is one whose appearance
is totally unfamiliar, so that a full
description would not help the
questioner, that kind of questions
should be abandoned. If the ob-
ject is real but not now existing, it
is a good plan to find out whether
it is of historical interest.
If the first question shows that
the subject is imaginary, it should
at once be asked whether it is
mentioned in a book ; and if so,
where. Most imaginary subjects
can be reached thus. If the object
is immaterial, it may be ascertained
first whether it is an event, a
thought, a quality, a sound, etc.
Such subjects are generally hard to
guess, but experience will suggest
various lines of questioning that
may be followed. As material ob-
jects are easiest to guess, a quality
of character, or a thought is often
best connected with some person.
The question may be asked, " Name
some person who possessed this
quality of character in a high de-
gree." " On what occasion did he
show it?" etc. Often while the
questioner is following out his
plan, an answer will give him a
hint of some " short-cut" to the
desired end. In general, the
questioner should not be afraid
to ask questions in the begin*
ning, but should never ask par*
ticular questions before general
ones. Usually he can cut off a large
part of the field of possibility left
him, at each stroke, and this should
be his general object. He should
never alter his plan of attack ex-
cept for some special reason. If a
particular question be asked first,
TWENTY QUESTIONS
748
TWENTY QUESTIONS
it is often wasted. For instance,
suppose the subject be " The sound
of Patrick Henry's voice in the
Virginia House of Burgesses," the
question, " What is its shape ? "
would be useless, and would not
have been asked had the questioner
first found out that the subject was
immaterial. Beginners often waste
many questions in this and similar
ways.
When the questioners are al-
lowed more than one guess, one or
two may be made in the midst of
the game to test a theory ; but
when only one is allowed it should
not be made until the guessers are
sure they are right, unless all their
questions have been asked. When
the questioners think they know
the subject, they had better test
their knowledge by a particular
question rather than by a guess ;
but this should never be done un-
less there is very good reason, for
if the suspicion is unfounded, a
question has been wasted.
Answers. The answering side
should be careful to tell everything
the question calls for, but no more.
For instance, if the subject be
" The blue Union of the American
Flag," and the question is asked,
" What is its color ?" The answer
" Blue " would not be correct.
" Blue and white " would be the
proper answer. " Blue with white
spots " would tell also the arrange-
ment of the colors, which is more
than the question called for.
The following classified examples
of subjects may be valuable to the
beginner in showing him how they
can be varied, and also in indicat-
ing the best order of questioning :
MATERIAL REAL SUBJECTS.
General. — A book ; a man ; a ring.
Particular. — The blue book on the
table ; Mr. S.; Mrs. B.'s ring,
Complex. — The third book from the
left on the upper shelf of alcove
202 in the Blank library, etc.
Historical. — Martin Luther's Bible ;
Charles II.; the ring with which
Prince Albert wedded Queen
Victoria.
MATERIAL IMAGINARY SUBJECTS.
Particular. — The book Mr. L.
dreamed about the other night.
Mythological. — The Sibyl's book ;
the Cyclops ; the ring of the
Nibelungs.
Fictitious. — Arthur Pendennis ;
Aladdin's ring.
Historical. — The book Job wished
his enemy to write.
IMMATERIAL REAL SUBJECTS.
General. — Courage ; a sound ; a
thought; an event.
Particular. — Mr. B.'s courage ; the
ticking of the clock; Mr. B.'s
thought about this subject ; the
party yesterday.
Complex. — The first note Madame
X. sang to day, in her first solo
at the opera.
Historical. — Gen. Custer's courage
at the Big Horn; the cheers that
greeted Sheridan on his ride
from Winchester ; the thoughts
of Napoleon after Waterloo;
the signing of the Declaration
of Independence.
IMMATERIAL IMAGINARY SUB-
JECTS.
Particular. — The courage I
thought he had.
Mythological. — The sound of Vul-
can's hammer; the beauty of
Venus ; a council of the gods.
Fictitious. — " The sound of ham-
mers, blow on blow," in Long-
fellow's " Building of the Ship; "
the shipwreck, in Shakespeare's
" Tempest."
It is often difficult to classify a
subject ; for instance, some might
call a dream real but immaterial,
and others might consider it im-
aginary.
The first of the two sample games
which follow is from the short
treatise on Twenty Questions by
" Hotspur," and was played in
Lenox, Mass., in 1880. It was un-
derstood at the beginning that the
subject was Biblical. The second
game is of historical interest, the
TWENTY QUESTIONS
749
TWENTY QUESTIONS
questioner being George Canning,
English statesman. The two games
show also the advance that has
been made in questioning since
Canning's time. It will be noticed
that most of the questions in this
second game are alternative ; that
is, contain the word " or ; " and
each question systematically cuts
the field of possibility left open by
the last.
Came I.
1. Is this subject mentioned in
the Old, or in the New Testament ?
— The New.
2. In what book ? — Acts.
3. With whom is it most inti-
mately connected ? — One of the
Apostles.
4. What was his name ? — St.
Paul.
5. Material or immaterial ? —
Material.
6. What are its component
parts ? — Vegetable matter.
7. What is its shape ? — An elon-
gated oval.
8. What is its size ? — About
three-eighths of an inch in length,
by about one-sixteenth of an inch
in breadth and thickness.
9. What is its color ? — Yellowish.
10. What is its use? — A means
of preserving life.
11. In what way? — Various
ways.
12. On the especial occasion you
have in mind, in what way? — By
being thrown away.
1 3. Whose life was it the means
of preserving? — The lives of St.
Paul and his companions.
14. Who threw it away? — St.
Paul and his companions.
15. Where were they when they
threw it away ? — On the Mediter-
ranean.
1 6. From what did it preserve
their lives ? — From death.
17. Death in what form ? — Death
by drowning.
Correctly guessed. " A grain of
wheat of the cargo of the ship
which carried St. Paul to Malta."
Came II.
1. Does it belong to the animal,
or the vegetable kingdom ? — To the
vegetable.
2. Is it manufactured or unman-
ufactured ? — Manufactured.
3. Is it a solid, or liquid ? — A
solid.
4. Is it a thing entire in itself, or
in parts? — In parts.
5. Is it for private use, or public?
—Public.
6. Does it exist in England, or
out of it? — In England.
7. Is it single, or are there oth-
ers of the same kind ? — Single.
8. Is it historical, or only exis-
tent at present? — Both.
9. For ornament, or use ? — Both.
10. Has it any connection with
the person of the king? — No.
11. Is it carried, or does it support
itself ? — The former.
1 2. Does it pass by succession ? —
[Not answered, on account of un-
certainty; but, by agreement, the
question was counted one in the
game.]
13. Was it used at the corona-
tion ? — Yes.
14. In the Hall, or Abbey? —
Probably in both ; certainly in the
Abbey.
15. Does it belong specially to
the coronation, or is it used at other
times? — It is used at other times.
1 6. Is it exclusively of a vegetable
nature, or is it not in some parts a
compound of a vegetable and min-
eral ? — Exclusively of a vegetable
nature.
17. What is its shape? [Objected
to as too particular, though it
would now be considered perfectly
proper. It was withdrawn, and not
counted.]
17. Is it decorated, or simple?
[Objected to, but the objection not
sustained.] — Simple.
1 8. Is it used at the ordinary cer-
emonial of the House of Commons
or House of Lords? — No.
19. Is it ever used by either
House ? — No.
TWENTY QUESTIONS
75°
TWENTY QUESTIONS
20. Is it generally stationary, or
movable ? — Movable.
Guessed correctly by Mr. Can-
ning. '"The wand of the Lord
High Steward." (The Lord High
Steward of England was in ancient
times the first officer of state in the
English court, but now, as at the
time of this game, there is no reg-
ular holder of the office. A tem-
porary Lord High Steward is ap-
pointed to take part in coronations
and the trials of peers. He has a
wooden wand of office, which he
breaks when his duties are over.)
Variations. Several variations
are sometimes made in the game.
One player may select a subject and
allow the others to question him,
either through a captain or in rota-
tion.
When two parties play one
against the other, the captains may
be dispensed with, and the ques-
tions and answers given by the
players in order.
The game may be played for
points, in which case each side
questions during a given number
of games, and answers during the
same number, the players on the
sides remaining the same. The
number of questions asked in each
game is scored to the askers, wheth-
er the subject be guessed or not,
and the side having the less num-
ber of points wins. In this way
of scoring, to guess the subject in
twenty questions counts no more
than to fail altogether. This may
be remedied by agreeing that a
failure to guess shall count more
than twenty against the askers. It
may be agreed that the answerers
shall be limited in their choice of a
subject, the others undertaking to
guess it in less than twenty ques-
tions. Thus the subject maybe an
event in American History, and ten
questions may be allowed.
When the game is played by
young children, more than twenty
questions may be allowed, or the
number may not be limited at all.
Learners may begin with a large
number of questions, and gradually
diminish it as they become more
expert. Skilled players think that
it is possible, if the questions are
asked properly, to guess any subject
in twenty questions, and that most
subjects can be found out in from
fifteen to eighteen.
The Three Kingdoms, or Animal,
Vegetable, and Mineral. A kind of
Twenty Questions in which the first
question is " To which of the
three kingdoms does it belong?"
or "Is it Animal, Vegetable, or
Mineral?" It was formerly con-
sidered that everything in nature
belongs to the Animal kingdom,
the Vegetable kingdom, or the
Mineral kingdom; but there are
many things hard to classify thus,
and as subjects are now taken that
are not material — such as thoughts,
words, or ideas — it is rarely asked.
In the old game of Animal, Vege-
table, and Mineral the number of
questions was often unlimited,
while the answers were required to
be merely " Yes " and " No," as in
CLUMPS.
RULES OF THE GA ME.
1. The umpire is elected by ma-
jority vote before the game. There
is no appeal from his decisions.
2. The captains, if any, shall be
chosen by vote of each side.
3. The parties shall determine by
lot which shall question first, and
afterwards they shall do so alter-
nately.
4. The umpire shall takedown in
writing the subject and each ques-
tion and answer.
5. The subject must have, or
must have had, an actual existence
either in fact, fiction, or imagina-
tion. It may be material or imma-
terial.
[This rule bars subjects like " The
sound of a hammer that was not
heard at the building of Solomon's
temple," which we are told was
once actually chosen.]
6. Any question may be asked
TWENTY QUESTIONS
751
TWIRL THE PLATTER
whose answer is not part of the sub-
ject. For instance, if the subject
be " A button on Mr. Smith's coat,"
and the guessing party have found
that it is a button on some one's
coat, it is not allowable to ask " On
whose coat is it ? " The question
" With what person is it most near-
ly connected ? " is often objected to
for a like reason. The legality of
this question and others in doubt
must be decided by the umpire.
7. It is not allowable to ask two
or more questions at once; thus,
" What is its shape and size ? "
must count as two questions.
8. If there are captains, they
must in all cases give the questions
and answers, and no attention
need be paid to a question put by
any other player.
9. If there are no captains, the
questions are put and answered by
the players in regular order, and no
question asked out of that order
need be heeded.
10. If it is impossible to answer a
question exactly, as correct an an-
swer as possible must be given, and
at the same time its defects must be
pointed out. Thus, if " Napoleon's
little finger-nail " be the subject,
and the question be " What was its
size ? " although of course the ex-
act answer cannot be given, the
answer should be " Probably about
one-third of an inch in diameter;
we do not know exactly." [The
simple answer, " We do not know,"
though literally true, is not allow-
able in such a case, but sometimes
no other can be given , in which case
the umpire should permit it.J
1 1. A vague question may be an-
swered vaguely. Thus, " Where is
it situated?" "In the United
States." The question in this case
should be, "In what city or town is
it?"
12. An answer made by a player
not a captain, or out of regular or-
der is not counted as an answer, but
the questioners may use whatever
information they gain from it. But
the answering side may endorse it
if they please, and then it is treated
as their regular answer.
13. When the players ask and
answer in order, any one may de-
cline to take his turn, and must
then wait until the next round.
14. After each question or an-
swer is written down by the um-
pire he shall call " Time," and the
following answer or question must
then be given within the time-
limit previously agreed upon.
15. If any side fail to give its
question or answer within the
time-limit, the opposing side gain a
question ; that is, an extra question
is allowed if they are the question-
ers, and one less if they are the
answerers. A question is thus
gained for every expiration of the
time-limit; thus, if the time-limit
be five minutes, and the answering
party take sixteen minutes to con-
sult over an answer, the askers are
allowed twenty-three questions.
History. Twenty Questions is
said by some persons to have been
invented by George Canning, the
English statesman, who was born
in 1 770, and it is sometimes called in
England the Canning Game; but
it probably existed in some form
long before his time. Not only
Canning but other eminent men,
including William Pitt, were fond
of the game. Pitt once guessed
the subject "The stone on which
Walworth, Lord Mayor of London,
stood, when he struck Wat Tyler
down, in Richard II. 's time."
About 1880 the game became very
popular in the eastern United
States, but it had been played in
this country many years before that
time.
TWIRL THE PLATTER. A game
played by any number of persons
with a tin or earthenware plate.
The players stand in a circle, and
one of them, who may be chosen in
any way, begins the game by twirl-
ing the plate on the floor in the
middle of the circle, calling out at
TWIRLER
75*
TWIRLER
the same time the name of one of
the other players. That one must
catch the platter before it falls to
the ground, and then twirl it again,
calling out the name of some one,
as before. Any player failing to
catch the platter before it falls must
pay a forfeit. Sometimes the play-
ers are numbered, and the one who
twirls the plate calls out a number
instead of a name.
TWIRLER, An arrangement for
spinning objects rapidly, used in
some of the scientific experiments
described in this book. It consists
usually of two wheels fixed on a
stand, and so connected by a band
that by turning a handle fixed to
one, the other revolves very rapidly.
The object to be twirled is fixed to
this second wheel. Twirlers can
be bought of dealers in scientific
or school supplies, or its place can
be supplied by the wheel of a toy
cart. Turn the cart bottom up-
ward, pin or tack the object to be
twirled to one side of the wheel, and
twirl it from the other side with the
forefinger. If the object is to be
twirled horizontally — as, for in-
stance, a pail of water — the cart
may be placed on its side on a table
with the wheel to be used pro-
jecting over the edge. The cart is
kept in place by putting a weight
on it. The string supporting the
object is now tacked as near the
middle of the hub as possible, and
the wheel twirled as before.
An excellent twirler can also be
made as follows: Support aboard
from six to twelve inches wide and
a few feet long, by placing one end
under the top of a door-way, open-
ing the door slightly, so that the
middle of the board rests on it.
Over the free end of the board
hang a circle of twine so long that
the lower end reaches within two
feet of the floor. This end should
be provided with a hook. If the
twine now be twisted and the ob-
ject to be twirled hung on the hook,
the untwisting of the cord will
make the object spin. It will
move still more swiftly if it is as-
sisted to untwist by pressing down-
ward with a stick just above the
twisted part. A flat piece of cork
may be strung on the twine a little
above the end, and kept in place
by knots. On this colored disks
of paper may be placed, producing
the same effects when spun as the
color TOP.
UGLY MUG
753
UNCLE JOHN
u
UGLY MUGi A singing game,
played by any number of persons.
A leader is chosen, who stands fac-
ing the rest of the company. They
must imitate every gesture that he
makes, and those who can do so
sing with him. He sings, to the
tune given below :
put my right hand
I put my right hand out,
— I 1 —
give my right hand shake, shake, shake, and turn my - self a - bout.
As he sings he suits the action to
the words, first stretching out his
right hand, then facing in the op-
posite direction and extending it
again, then shaking it, and finally
turning back to his first position.
In like manner he then sings :
' I put my left hand in," etc.
' I put my both hands in," etc.
' I put my right foot in," etc.
' I put my left foot in," etc.
' I put my both feet in," etc.
' I put my ugly mug in," etc.
To " put both feet in " the play-
ers jump forward, and to shake
them they dance up and down. At
the last line the players stretch their
heads forward. Sometimes those
who laugh are required to pay for-
feits.
In England this game is called
"Hinkumbooby" or "Looby Loo-
by," and the verse begins :
" Looby, Looby, Looby,
All on a Saturday night."
UNCLE JOHN. A singing game
played by any number of boys and
girls. The players dance hand in
hand in a circle singing :
Uncle John is very sick ;
What shall we send him ?
A piece of pie, a piece of cake,
A piece of apple dumpliag.
What shall we send it in ?
In a piece of paper.
Paper is not fine enough ;
In a golden saucer.
Whom shall we send it by ?
By the king's daughter.
Take her by the lily-white hand,
And lead her o'er the water.
The dancers then sit down, and
the last down (supposing it to be a
girl) selects a friend and whispers
in her ear the initials of some boy.
She then takes her place in the
ring, but facing outward, while the
friend announces the initials, and
the players again circle and sing :
" X. Y., so they say,
Goes a-courting eight and day.
Sword and pistol by his side.
And to be his bride.
He takes her by the lily-white hand
And leads her o'er the water ;
Here's a kiss, and there's a kiss
For Mr. 's daughter."
The one whose initials were
given then kisses the girl who
gave them ; she faces inward, and
the gajne goes on as before. If the
player last down was a boy, his full
name is given in the first line of
the last-quoted stanza, and the
initials he gives are inserted in the
fourth line.
VALENTINE PARTY
754 VEGETABLE INSTRUMENTS
VALENTINE PARTY. An enter-
tainment at which each guest
gives a valentine to every other.
The party must be given on or
near St. Valentine's day, February
1 4th. The hostess informs each
guest beforehand what he or she
is expected to do, and at least a
day beforehand each guest must
send in his valentine. On the
evening of the party some one
appointed by the hostess reads
them all aloud, giving each to the
person to whom it is addressed,
after it is read. Assumed names
are usually signed to the val-
entines, which may be sentimental
or ridiculous, as the writer pleases.
Sometimes each guest is allowed
to write as many or as few val-
entines as he wishes; and if the
hostess finds, on looking them
over, that any guest has received
none, she either writes him one her-
self or asks some one else to do so.
VEGETABLE MUSICAL INSTRU-
MENTS. Rude musical instru-
ments of several kinds can be made
from trees or vegetables. Some of
these are described below.
Willow Whistles. A green willow
stick from two to five inches long
is cut, as in Fig. i. The bark is
loosened by pounding it carefully
with a smooth stone or the handle
of a pocket-knife till it will slip
off. A thin slice of wood is then
cut from the notch A to the end
of the stick at B, and then the
bark is slipped on again. (See Fig:
2.) If the whistle has been proper-
ly made, blowing at the end B will
make a shrill noise.
Willow whistles were once sup-
posed to have the power of causing
rain. Swiss children, when they
make these whistles, sing " Franz,
Franz, lend me your pipe," which
is supposed once to have been an
appeal to a water spirit.
Squash Trumpets. From the leaf-
stalk of a squash or pumpkin vine
the leaf is cut through the fleshy
part so that the hollow stalk will
be closed at that end. A slit about
an inch long is then made length-
wise, close to the closed end.
When that end is placed in the
mouth so that the slit is entirely
within, a harsh note may be pro-
duced by blowing. If little holes
are cut in the stem different notes
Fig. i.
Fig. 4.
Vegetable Musical Instruments.
may be produced by stopping
these with the fingers ; and by
cutting them at the right distance
apart — which may be done after a
few experiments — a tune can be
played. (See Fig. 3.)
Corn-stalk Fiddle. A piece of
corn-stalk is cut so that a joint
will be at each end. Part of the
edges of the concave side are then
slit so as to detach two cords, the
joints holding them at the ends.
Then two bits of stick are cut, of
the thickness of a slate pencil and
about an inch long, and one is
pushed under the cords at each
end, to raise and tighten them.
This makes the fiddle. (Fig. 4.)
The bow is made in like manner
VIBRATING RODS
755
VIBRATING RODS
of a smaller piece of stalk, and
when one is drawn across the other
a squeaking noise results.
VERBARIUM. See DICTIONARY.
VIBRATING RODS, Experiment
with. Obtain two pieces of white
pine, each four feet long, one inch
wide, and quarter of an inch thick.
On the flat side, close to the end
of each, fasten with wax a bit of
silvered glass one inch square.
Fill two dry-goods boxes (A and
B, Fig. i) about fourteen inches
square, with sand, to serve as
steady supports for the rods. Fas-
ten one rod, C, upright to. one
of the boxes by two screws so that
the rod projects above the box
just thirty inches. The other rod,
D, is held horizontally across the
Vibrating Rods— Fig. i.
side of the other box by two bits
of wood, F, G, screwed across it
but not into it, so that the rod may
be slipped forward and backward.
Over the mirror of the upright rod
is pasted a piece of paper one inch
square with a hole in its centre a
quarter of an inch in diameter. A
beam of light from a heliostat or a
lamp is allowed to enter the room.
In case a lamp is used, it must
be covered all but the opening
through which the light passes,
and a LENS must be set in the
beam so as to make the rays
parallel. The box supporting the
upright rod is so placed that the
beam falls squarely on the mirror
at the end of the rod. The other
box is placed on a table, and the
horizontal rod is slid out till just
thirty inches of it are beyond the
box. The box is now disposed so
that the beam is reflected from the
upright rod to the mirror on the
horizontal rod, and thence to the
wall, or a screen at S, where it ap-
pears as a bright spot. If the up-
VIBRATING RODS
756
VIBRATING RODS
right rod be made to shake to and
fro by giving it a pull and letting
it go, the spot becomes a verti-
cal line, which grows shorter and
shorter till the rod stops. In like
manner, if the horizontal rod is
Vibrating Rods— Fig. a.
Vibrating Rods— Fig. 3.
Vibrating Rods— Fig. 4.
made to shake, there will be a
bright horizontal line on the
screen. If both rods together be
made to shake, the result will be a
figure like those obtained with the
DOUBLE PENDULUM, but
more clear and beautiful.
much
The
kind of figure depends on the
VIOLIN
757
VIOLIN
length of the horizontal rod. With
the length given above — that is,
where the vibrating rods are equal
— it will be like that in Fig. 2. Un-
less the rods have been very exact-
ly adjusted, the figure will change,
becoming in turn each of those
represented in the illustration.
Other curves are shown in Figs. 3
and 4, and many others still will
be obtained by sliding the rod D
in and out.
VIOLIN, Experiments with a.
These can be tried equally well on
a banjo, or guitar, but a violin bow
is necessary for some of them.
1. Loosen all the strings but
one — preferably one of the middle
strings. Pluck or bow it first ex-
actly in the middle and then close
to one end, listening carefully.
There is a difference in the sound,
which has more " twang " when the
string is plucked at the ends. This
is because the note given by the
string is composed of several faint
ones, called " overtones," beside
the loud one which is most plain-
ly heard, and more overtones are
present when the string is plucked
at the end.
2. Press the finger firmly down
Sonometer.
exactly on the middle of the string,
and sound it again. The note
heard will be an octave higher than
the original note. Touch the finger
lightly to the same spot, and sound
the note as before. The result will
be the same, but by looking closely
it will be seen that both halves of
the string are vibrating. By press-
ing the string at a third its length
from the bottom and drawing a
bow across the smaller part, the
fifth above the note given by the
whole string is obtained. By touch-
ing the same spot lightly and
bowing as before, the whole string
can be made to vibrate, the longer
part vibrating in halves. The whole
string thus vibrates in three parts.
The points between the vibrating
parts, which are almost still, are
called " nodes." If it cannot be
seen that the string is vibrating in
parts, bend a little narrow strip of
paper and hang it over the string
where the node ought to be. When
the string is made to vibrate the
paper will be agitated only a little,
whereas if it be moved along a little
way it will shake violently, or be
thrown off the string. By touch-
ing different points of the string a
skilled violin player can make it
vibrate in four, five or more sec-
tions. Notes thus produced are
called "harmonics."
This experiment will succeed
better if a Sonometer is used, which
is easily made as follows : Take a
piece of violin string, or piano wire,
a little longer than the table you
wish to use. Tie it to a nail at one
end of the table and pass it over
a pulley screwed horizontally into
the other end. To the end of the
string tie a tin pail filled with sand,
VITESSE
758
VOLTAIC PILE
nails or scraps of iron. It may,
instead, be fastened to a second
nail, as in the diagram, but the
other way is best, as the pull on
the string can then be easily al-
tered. The string should now be
flat on the table, or nearly so.
Cut wedge-shaped sticks of wood
and place them under the string,
as shown in the picture at A, B
and D. By letting the wedges at
the ends remain and moving the
third, the same results will follow
as if the string were touched with
the finger. Two ways of vibrating
are shown in the diagram, the
nodes being at C. The weight of
the pail can be varied by taking
out or putting in nails or sand,
thus stretching the string to the
desired degree.
3. Sound a string and then
touch it lightly in the middle. It
will give the octave faintly.
4. Loosen all the strings of a
violin but two, and tune those to
the same note, pluck one, and then
stop it ; the other will continue to
sound. Tune one slightly higher
or lower than the other, and try
the same experiment. The second
String will still sound, but not as
loud or as long as before. This
is called " sympathetic vibration."
The notes which are most sympa-
thetic, or are set in motion most
easily by a vibrating string, are the
same note, its octave, the fifth
above the octave, the second oc-
tave, and the third and fifth above
that. This is shown best by experi-
ments on the PIANO.
5. Tune the two lower strings as
nearly as possible to the same note,
and loosen the others. Place the
ear behind the drum, if the instru-
ment be a banjo, or close to the
openings in the body, if it be a
violin or guitar. Pluck the two
strings together, and the resulting
sound will be heard, first louder
and then softer, in waves or pul-
sations. These are called beats.
If they are not heard, raise or low-
er the pitch of one of the strings
a little. The beats will be slower
the nearer in tune the two strings
are, and faster the farther they
are apart; but if the notes are not
very near, the beats will be so fast
that they cannot be distinguished.
They can be heard still better with
TUNING FORKS.
VITESSE. A game played by two
persons, each with a full pack of
CARDS. Each player sits with his
pack face downward before him,
and at a signal both begin to turn
over their cards one by one, face
outward, and throw them on the
table. They do not take turns, but
each plays as fast as he can, repeat-
ing as he does so the names of the
thirteen cards from Ace to King,
over and over again, one for each
card he turns. Whenever the card
turned is the same as the one called
out, he must lay it by itself, and
begin again at the Ace in calling
out. The player who first lays
aside thirteen cards in this way
wins. But if a card is once passed
that should have been thrown out,
the player must go on as if it had
been any other card. The game
of Vitesse thus requires quickness
of hand and eye, and at the same
time close attention, and a prac-
tised player will always win over a
beginner, though it looks so sim-
ple.
The word Vitesse is French, and
means Quickness.
VOLTAIC PILE, A kind of ELEC-
TRIC BATTERY, named after its
inventor, Alexander Volta. A sim-
ple one may be made as follows :
Take a glass tube about an inch in
diameter — an argand lamp chim-
ney from which the lower part has
been removed may be used. Paste
two sheets of ordinary gold paper
back to back and cut out disks just
large enough to slip into the tube.
The disks can be cut several at a
time by first folding the paper. Cut
an equal number of disks in like
manner from silver paper, and then
VOWELS, THE
759
WALKING TRIPS
make a pile of them, gold alter-
nating with silver. The tube must
thus be filled with the disks pressed
together as tightly as possible, and
closed at each end with a cork,
through which passes a wire touch-
ing the end disk. A LEYDEN JAR
may be charged with such a pile
by connecting one wire with the
knob and the other with the outer
coating. The electricity in the pile
will last a long time,
VOWELS, THE. A game played
by any number of persons who sit in
a row. Each, in turn, asks a question
of his right-hand neighbor, at the
same time requiring him to answer
without using some one vowel. If
the vowel is used in the answer,
the offender pays a forfeit.
w
WALKING TRIPS. In making a
walking trip as few things as pos-
sible should be carried, as every
pound of weight adds to the fa-
tigue. In this article only neces-
sities are considered.
Outfit. The shoes should fit the
feet easily, and the soles should
be neither so heavy that their
weight is uncomfortable, nor so
•light that the feet feel through
them the roughness of the ground.
Low shoes should not be worn, as
they admit dust and dirt. For
climbing rocky hills or mountains
heels filled with iron nails are best,
as they hold to the rocks. Steel
should not be used, as it is hard and
slippery. The inside of the sole
should be perfectly smooth. A
roughness or lump which would not
be noticed in an ordinary walk may
become painful after a tramp of
twenty or thirty miles. The best
plan is to wear movable leather
in-soles. As soon as the least lump
is perceived the shoe should be
taken off, the sole removed, and
part of its under surface pared off
with a sharp knife, just under the
uncomfortable spot. If this is done
faithfully, the soies will be perfectly
fitted to the feet at the end of a
day's walk, and the trouble of doing
it will be amply repaid by the in-
creased comfort. This simple meth-
od of adapting the sole to the foot
was devised by Russell A. Bigelow,
a New York lawyer. Some people
put sweet oil or salve on the feet
when they begin to chafe, and they
should be washed frequently.
The other articles of dress may
be according to the fancy of the
wearer, so long as they are easy-
fitting and comfortable. For warm
weather, gauze underclothing and a
loose flannel shirt are best, with a
light jacket to wear when not walk-
ing. For colder weather the shirt
may be tighter at the wrists and
neck and the underclothing thick-
er. In all seasons knee-breeches
and a soft hat are best. One can
buy a knapsack, which may be
strapped on the back, or, if his bun-
dle is small, it may be carried in
the hand. It is generally better to
carry a small weight in the hand
than in a knapsack. Other articles
that may be carried are slippers, to
rest the feet at night (some think
that these should be taken, even if
nothing else is); a change of under-
clothing; needle and thread ; but-
tons ; adhesive plaster ; fish-line
and hooks; extra handkerchiefs;
pen, ink and paper; a ball of twine
and matches. If the trip is to last
more than a few days, so that a
change of underclothing is posi-
tively necessary, it may be packed
in a valise and sent by express to
some town on the road. One valise
WALKING TRIPS
760
WALKING TRIPS
can usually be made to answer for
a party of four or five.
A cane or staff is a great aid in
climbing, or in the latter part of the
day, when the walker is tired ; but
as it is often in the way, it is best to
cut a fresh one when it is wanted.
Shelter and Foodi In some parts
of the country it is possible so to ar-
range the trip that every night shall
be spent at a hotel. Otherwise it is
necessary to ask for shelter at
farmhouses, or in a very wild coun-
try to CAMP OUT ; but this requires
extra luggage. In some parts of
the United States it is very easy to
get shelter for the night at a farm-
house ; elsewhere it is often impos-
sible. If the walking party wish to
stay at farm-houses, they should in-
quire beforehand of some one who
knows the country whether they
can do so without trouble. The mid-
day meal should be light, unless a
rest of several hours is taken after
it. No food should be taken when
tired, and it is best to rest at least
half an hour before eating. The
pedestrian is apt to be very thirsty,
especially on a warm day. Many
authorities say that no water at all
should be taken while walking, and
that the blood should be cooled by
simply bathing the wrists and tem-
ples freely at intervals, or plunging
the arms into water up to the el-
bows. Others drink freely of spring
water. Perhaps it is best for each
to decide for himself which way is
best.
Distance and Hours. Unless the
walker has been used to walking
eight or ten miles a day, he should
go not more than fifteen miles on
the first day, and increase this dis-
tance by two or three miles a day
till he feels he has reached the limit
of comfort, say twenty-five or
thirty miles. The tendency of be-
ginners is to walk as far as they
can the first day, with the result
that they are too lame on the next
day to go more than five or six
miles without pain. Ten hours a
day at a rate of three miles an
hour is quite enough. In a long trip,
lasting many weeks; the muscles
become hardened, and much more
than this can be done — thirty-five
miles a day, or perhaps even forty ;
but this is an extreme. For most
boys under eighteen years, twenty
miles will be found quite enough ;
and this distance must be lessened,
if weight is to be carried. The
best time to walk is in the morn-
ing and late in the afternoon,
taking a long rest at noon, before
and after the mid-day meal. It is
best both to retire and to rise early.
If the legs and feet feel hot and full
of blood while walking, it is a great
relief to lie on the back and hold
them up as straight as possible
against a tree or wall for a few
minutes. If the whole body is tired,
one of the best resting postures is
to lie flat on the face on the ground.
This is said to be a favorite position
with the Indians when tired. But
there is no reason why more than a
pleasant degree of fatigue should
ever be felt, if the walker does not
overdo.
The walker generally suffers from
sunburn during the first two or
three days, but it usually ceases
after a time. The second day of
the march is generally most fatigu-
ing. The change of life and ex-
citement often keep him from
sleeping soundly through his first
night, and he often feels tired when
he wakes. The fresh air makes
him very thirsty, and his stomach
often becomes disordered. These
symptoms, however, will soon pass
away. No medicines nor alcohol
should be taken, though laxative
food, such as fruits, is good.
Routes. The general road to be
followed should be studied on the
map before starting, leaving the
exact route to be decided on from
day to day. For parts of the country
that are tke resorts of tourists there
are guide-books, giving the best
routes, the names of hotels on the
WANDERING CARD
761
WATCH, EXPERIMENTS
road, and much other information.
If part of the route lies over a
country where there is no road, the
direction of the nearest town must
be found out from a map or other-
wise. A pathless walk of more than
an hour requires a compass. While
walking in a forest it is necessary
to get the right direction only at
first; it can be kept by "lining"
trees. This is done by selecting
three trees on a line with the eye
in the proper direction; after the
nearest is passed another is taken,
beyond the last, so that three are
always kept in view. It is never safe
to trust to instinct to keep in a
straight line in the woods, for most
people naturally walk in a circle,
owing to the fact that one leg is
slightly stronger than the other.
Persons lost in the woods have oft-
en travelled thus in a circle, some-
times for days.
Party. A large party is more en-
joyable in some respects, but it has
the disadvantage that some will al-
ways want to walk farther than oth-
ers.and that it is difficult to agree on
the route, the hours, and the rest-
ing places. The best plan is either
to choose a leader with power to
decide these things, or for all to
agree to follow the wishes of a ma-
jority. When one person walks
alone, he can do exactly as he
pleases, but such a trip is apt to be
lonely, and it is also dangerous, for
in case of accident there is no one
to give or obtain aid.
WANDERING CARD. A SOLI-
TAIRE game of CARDS, played with
one full pack. The first 1 3 cards
that are taken from the pack are
laid in a row, as they come, face
upward. The next 13 are laid on
these in the same order. As each
of the second 13 is played, the
number of the pile on which it is
placed is spoken, and if the num-
ber of pips on the card is the same,
the card is laid aside, and the
next card is laid on the next pile.
Knaves count as n, Queens 12, and
Kings 13. This is repeated till the
pack is out, when there will be four
cards in each pile, except where a
card has been put aside. The top
card of those laid aside is now
taken and slipped under the pile
having the corresponding number.
The top card of that pile is slipped
under its proper pile, and so on till
one is reached that is in its proper
place. Then the next card of those
laid aside is taken, and so on till
all have been used. The player
has won if the pack is arranged at
the end of the game in 13 piles
each of which contains four cards
of the same value.
Clock, The. A variation of the
preceding game. Cards are placed
in twelve piles of four each, face
downward in a circle, and num-
bered to correspond with the fig-
ures on a clock dial. The thir-
teenth pile is placed in the centre.
The top card of the middle pile is
now turned and placed face up-
ward under its proper pile, and so
on, as in the game just described.
WATCH, Experiments with a.
1 . Close the ears tightly, and hold
the watch firmly between the teeth.
The ticking will be heard distinctly,
because the sound is conducted
through the teeth and the bones
of the head to the inside of the ear.
2. Let one person hold the watch
against the end of a long pole, and
let another press the other end of
the pole against his ear, or hold it
between his teeth. He will hear
the watch tick distinctly, the sound
being conducted along the pole.
3. Let one person hold the watch
and another walk slowly away till
he just ceases to hear the ticking.
Let the first person now hold the
watch in front of a con cave mirror,
such as is used for lamp reflectors.
The second person will find that he
can hear the watch tick if his ear is
directly in front of the mirror, but
that the sound ceases if he moves
to one side or the other. (See RE-
FLECTION OF SOUND.)
WATCH, TRICK WITH
762
WATER DROP
WATCH, Trick with.
i. To indica.e on the dial of a
watch the hour secretly thought of
by another. Taking a pencil, the
performer taps with it the hours
on the dial, asking the other to
count the taps mentally, beginning
from the number he thought of.
Thus, if the number were six, he
must count the first tap as seven,
the next as eight, and so on. He
is instructed to say "Stop" as
soon as he reaches the number
twenty, when the performer's pen-
cil is found to point to the number
thought of. The trick is performed
as follows : The first seven taps
may be given on any numbers
whatever, but the eighth must in-
variably be given on the number
XII, the ninth on XI, and so on
backward around the dial. When
the spectator, having reached 20,
says " Stop," the tap will be made
on the number he thought of. The
reason is easily understood by
those who understand algebra. Let
x be the number thought of. Then
the first tap is numbered x+i and
the eighth x + 8. But if x — i2, x+8
=20, and the spectator will "Stop,"
therefore the tap must be made on
the figure XII. If x = n, x+8 = i9
and x-i-9=2o, therefore the ninth
or next tap must be made on the
figure XI, and so on.
WATCHMAN, THE. See GOING
TO JERUSALEM.
WATCHWORD GAME, THE. See
DICTIONARY.
WATER CLOCK. A device for
telling time by means of water. A
simple one can be made as follows :
Stop up one end of an argand lamp
chimney with a cork, through
which passes a glass jet (see CHEM-
ICAL EXPERIMENTS) drawn out so
fine that water will pass through it
only in drops. Fill the chimney
with water, marking the level by a
scratch made with a diamond or
sharp file. As the level slowly falls,
mark it anew every fifteen minutes
or oftener, as desired, making lar-
ger marks every hour. The chim-
ney can now be used as a clock by
filling if and letting the water be-
gin to drop exactly at some hour.
If it be desired to distinguish small-
er inteivals of time, the water must
be allowed to drop out faster, so
that the level will fall more quick-
ly ; but then the clock requires fill-
ing oftener, unless a long tube be
used. The marks on the tube will
be closer together at the bottom
than on top, for, as the level falls,
the pressure decreases and the wa-
ter drops out more and more slow-
ly. To be exact, the clock must be
kept at the same temperature, as
otherwise the water will flow out at
different rates of speed.
The water clock was used by the
Greeks, who called it Clepsydra
(from kleptein, to steal away, and
hu(tor, water).
WATER CUTTER. See CIRCU-
LAR SAW.
WATER DROP, Experiment with
a large. Across a barrel-hoop, from
fourteen to twenty-four inches in
diameter, stretch thin sheet india-
rubber. Pour water on it, and
it will sag downward, making a sort
of bowl. Continue to pour water
in gradually, and finally the rubber
bowl will all at once change its
shape. Dip out a little water, and it
will take its old shape again. The
sheet of rubber filled with water is
like a huge water drop, only it can-
not wholly detach itself and fall to
the ground like a real drop. The
change of shape can also be pro-
duced by dipping the hand into the
water. An amusing way of show-
ing the experiment is to drop a
coin into the water and then ask
some one to pick it out. As soon
as the hand is thrust under water
the rubber bowl will drop down-
ward, carrying the coin farther away
from the hand. To perform this
experiment properly it is necessary
that the rubber should be neither
too tight nor too loose at the be-
ginning. The proper tightness va-
WATER MILL
763
WATER WHISTLE
ries with the size of hoop, and is
best found by trial.
WATER MILL, or WATER EN-
CINE. To make a water mill, take
two glass tubes (see CHEMICAL EX-
PERIMENTS) about a foot long, and
bend two inches of each at each
end at right angles, but in different
planes, so that if the bent part at
one end be held vertical that at the
other will be horizontal. Looking
along the tube from one bend, held
vertical, the other bend must be in
the same direction in both tubes ;
that is, both must be to the right,
or both to the left. Make a jet at
one end of each tube. In one end
of a glass cylinder (an argand lamp
chimney will do), fit a cork or rub-
ber stopperwith twoholes. In these
holes fit those ends of the tubes
at which the jets were not made.
The tubes extend in opposite di-
rections, and the jets therefore
point to opposite sides. Suspend
the lamp chimney by tying a string
around it at one end, and then fill
it with water. As the water runs
out through the jets the reaction
will make the mill spin around.
WATER PRESSURE, Experiments
on. i. Bend a piece of glass tubing
into the shape of a letter U, but
with one branch much shorter than
the other. The longer branch may
be six inches long and the shorter
one inch. Pour mercury into the
tube till it stands about half an
inch high in each branch. Thrust
the tube under water so that the
opening of the long branch re-
mains above the surface, and the
mercury will rise in the long branch.
The deeper the tube is in the water
the higher the mercury rises. For
a depth of six inches it rises about
half an inch. The mercury is
pushed up by the pressure of the
water on the smaller branch of the
tube, and the pressure increases
with the depth of water.
2. Plunge the tube to any depth
in a pail of wate-, say five inches ;
note the height of the mercury, and
then plunge it to the same depth
in a bath-tub full of water. The
mercury will rise to the same height
in both cases. The reason is that
water pressure depends on the
depth, not on the amount of water
in the vessel.
3. Attach a thread to the centre
of a circular disk of cardboard
about an inch and a half in diame-
ter, by passing through it a sewing
needle and knotted thread. Pass
the thread through an argand lamp
chimney so that the disk can be
held firmly against one end by the
thread. While it is so held, push
that end of the chimney down into
a pail of water. The upward pres-
sure of the water will hold the disk
to the end of the chimney without
the aid of the string. Pour water
into the chimney, and when that
on the inside has reached the level
of that on the outside, the disk
will fall. The reason is that the
upward pressure of the water on
the disk is just equal to that of the
water that was poured in, so that
the pressure on both sides balanced,
and there was nothing to hold the
disk up.
4. To the end of a glass tube
about half an inch in diameter tie
tightly an india-rubber bag or bal-
loon, and fill the balloon with water,
which may be colored, to make it
more easily visible. Thrust the
balloon into water, and the colored
water will rise in the tube farther
and farther as the balloon sinks
deeper.
WATER WHISTLE. A whistle
may be played under water by at-
tending to the following directions:
Buy a tin whistle or flageolet at a
toy shop ; close the hole nearest the
mouth-piece by putting wax over it,
and connect the mouth-piece with
a water faucet. Stand the whistle
upright in a jar tall enough to hold
it and turn on the water, which will
run through the whistle. Fill the
jar, and overflow it. If the flow
be now carefully regulated, a low
WAX WORKS
764
WEDGE, EXPERIMENTS
but distinct musical note will be
heard, caused by the water flowing
through the whistle.
WAX WORKS. See MRS. JAR-
LEY'S WAX WORKS.
WEAVING. The process of
weaving is explained in C. C. T.,
in the article Loom. It is possible
Weaving — Fig. i.
to weave on a small scale with no
other tools than two lead-pencils, a
piece of cardboard and some yarn
or string. Cut the cardboard (which
may be an ordinary visiting card),
as shown in Fig. I, making slits
Weaving— Fig. 2.
about an inch long, and punching
holes half-way between them along
the horizontal line. Lay the pen-
cils on a table so that about two-
thirds of each will project over
the edge, supporting them by a
book laid on the ends (see Fig. 2).
The pencils should be about six
inches apart. Now tie one end of
a piece of yarn several yards long to
one of the pencils near the table
pass the other end through the first
hole in the card, around the other
pencil, back through the adjoining
slit, around the first pencil, through
the next hole, and so on — always
passing it through a hole in one
direction and back through a slit.
After all the holes and slits have
been passed through thus, tie the
yarn. The yarn thus arranged
forms the warp of the cloth, and
the card takes the place of the
healds, for by pushing it up and
down it will be seen that one set
of threads is brought first above
and then below the other. Cut a
shuttle out of cardboard in either
the shapes shown in Fig i, and
wind yarn upon it for the weft.
Pull the card up, pass the shut-
tle between the warp threads in
one direction ; then push the card
down and pass the shuttle back,
and continue until the piece of
cloth is as large as desired. To
take the place of the batten, and
make the weft threads lie close, an
ordinary paper-cutter can be used.
WEDGE, Experiment with. Hinge
together two boards about a foot
square, or fasten them with leath-
er on one side. Cut a piece of
wood into wedge shape and place
it inside the hinged boards be-
tween two lead-pencils, used as
rollers. The small end of the
wedge must be turned outward,
and its angle must be less than that
made by the hinged boards. On
pressing the boards together, the
wedge, instead of rolling inward on
the pencils, as might have been ex-
pected, is pressed outward. This
is because the wedge tends to move
in the direction which allows the
boards to come nearest together. If
the wedge moved inward the pencils
would also roll inward, and force
the boards farther apart. If the
angle of the wedge be equal to that
of the boards, it will not move at
WEIGHING IN WATER
765
WHIRLWIND BOX
all when the boards are pressed ;
and if the angle is greater, it will
move inward.
WEIGHING IN WATER, Experi-
ments on, i. Weigh a piece of
metal or stone with a pair of scales.
Then tie the object to one of the
scale pans with a piece of string
and let it hang in a glass of water
while weighing it. It will be found
to weigh less than before. This is
because the water partly supports
the weight of the object.
2. Fill a goblet with water so
that it runs over, and then float on
it a block of wood. Some of the
water in the glass will be forced
out by the wood. Balance an
empty glass on a pair of scales.
Place the wood in the opposite
scale and balance it by pouring
water into the glass. Pour this
water into the first goblet used,
and it will just fill it again. The
reason is that any floating body
displaces a quantity of water ex-
actly equal to its own weight.
3. Balance a glass of water on
one pair of scales and hang a piece
of lead from one pan of another
pair, balancing this also by weights.
Let the lead dip into the water,
when both balances will be de-
stroyed— the pan containing the
water growing heavier and that
with the lead growing lighter. Re-
store the balance again in both
cases by pouring sand into the
lighter pan. Afterward balance
these quantities of sand against
each other, and they will be found
to be equal. The reason is that
the water bears up part of the
weight of the lead, but adds to its
own weight in so doing by an equal
amount.
WHAT IS MY THOUGHT LIKE?
A game in which one of the play-
ers thinks of an object and then
asks each of the others to guess
what that thought is like. When all
have answered, the questioner then
tells his thought, and asks each of
the company to tell how his guess
resembles it. Much skill is often
required to give a good answer.
In another form of the game
each writes the names of two ob-
jects on separate slips of paper, and
when all the slips have been well
mixed each draws two. Each then
writes in verse the resemblance
between them, and finally all the
verses are read aloud. This game
is sometimes called Resemblances.
WHIRLWIND, THE. A game
played by any number of persons,
all but one sitting in chairs placed
close together in a circle. The
players face inward and one stands
in the centre of the circle, leaving
one chair unoccupied. At a sig-
nal each player changes to the
chair just at his right, and then to
the next one, the whole circle mov-
ing around thus as fast as possible.
The player in the middle tries to
secure a chair, and when he does
so the one on his right must take
his place.
WHIRLWIND BOX. An arrange-
ment by which a little whirlwind
can be made. Take a soap-box,
remove the bottom and fasten the
Whirlwind Box.
cover to the box with hinges, so
that it will open and shut like a
door. Place a handful of small
bits of tissue paper in front of tht
box, and shut or open the door
suddenly. There will be a minia-
ture whirlwind, as is shown by the
motion of the bits of paper,
WHIST
766
WHIST
WHIST. A game of cards played
with a full pack by four persons, two
in partnership against the other two.
The cards rank in order as follows :
Ace, King, Queen, Knave, Ten, Nine,
Eight, Seven, Six, Five, Four, Three,
Two, the last being the lowest. In
cutting for deal, however, the Ace
is the lowest card. Partners are
generally decided by cutting the
cards, the two highest and the two
lowest playing together. The one
cutting the lowest card is the dealer.
Each player deals in his turn, and
the right of dealing goes to the left.
The partner of the dealer shuffles
the cards for the ensuing deal, and
must place them to the left of the
next dealer. The player on the
dealer's right cuts the pack, and in
dividing it must not leave fewer
than four cards in either packet.
The dealer, beginning with the player
at his left, deals one card at a time
to each until the whole pack is dealt,
thus giving to each player thirteen
cards. The last, or trump card, is
turned face up on the table, and re-
mains there until the first trick has
been played, when the dealer takes
it into his own hand. Two packs of
cards are usually played with, to save
time, the second pack being shuffled
while the dealer is dealing the first.
The thirteen cards received by each
player is termed a hand, and the four
hands termed a deal. The player at
the left of the dealer leads. Each
must follow suit, if he can, and the
highest card of the suit led wins the
trick. The winner of the trick then
leads, playing a card of any suit he
chooses, and so on in turn until all the
cards, making thirteen tricks, have
been played. If a player be not able
to follow suit, he may play a trump or
a card of any other suit he chooses.
If he trump, he wins the trick (as
trumps take all other suits), unless
another player trumps over him —
that is, plays a higher trump. A
player renounces when he does not
follow suit ; if he renounces, and has
cards in that suit, he revokes. When
all the cards have been played out
the side having the most tricks
counts towards game one point for
each trick taken in excess of six
tricks. Thus, the side making seven
tricks scores one point, eight tricks
two points, and so on.
The game of ten points, called
Long Whist, in which honors are
scored, is now seldom played. The
Honors are the Ace, King, Queen,
and Knave of trumps. If two part-
ners hold all four of these, either
separately or together, they score
four points towards the game. If
they hold any three of them, they
score two points. When each party
holds two honors — that is, when
they are evenly divided — neither
party scores, and it is then said that
"honors are easy." The honors
can be counted only by those to
whom they have been dealt, and not
by those who win them in playing.
They must be announced at the end
of the hand, and before the first card
of the next hand is dealt, or they
cannot be counted.
Short Whist, a game of five points
where honors are scored, is usually
played in England. In playing a
rubber — which is the best two out of
three games — the winners gain (i)
a treble, or gain of three points,
when their adversaries have not
scored ; (2) a double, or gain of two
points, when their adversaries have
scored less than three ; (3) a single,
or gain of one point, when their
adversaries have scored three or four.
The winners of the rubber gain two
points, called the rubber points, in
addition to the value of their games.
When the rubber consists of three
games the number of points made
by the losers is deducted from the
number made by the winners.
The American game is of seven
points without honors.
A good player usually leads from
the suit in which he has most cards
(called his " long suit "). The reason
of this is that he wishes to draw all
the other cards of that suit from the
WHIST
767
WHIST
other players. Then, when all the
trumps have been played, if he gets
the lead he can take a trick with
every remaining card of the suit, no
matter how small it is. When a
player has enough of the highest
cards in a suit lo win all the others
from the other players, he is said to
have " complete command " of it.
If he has the highest cards, but not
enough to win all the others, he has
temporary command. When com-
plete command of a suit has been
obtained, as described above, it is
said to be " established." A player
will know by his partner's lead what
the latter's long suit is, and can aid
him in establishing it by leading it in
turn. As the success of this plan
depends on getting an opponent's
trumps out of the way, a good player
leads trumps if he have as many
as five, even if they are small ones.
The particular cards that should be
led in different cases are given in the
rhyming rules below.
On the first round of a suit second
in hand should usually play high, if
had it been his lead he would lead
high, and low if he would lead low.
but on the second round he should
play the winning card. The second
player should not trump if he has
many trumps, but wait till, by lead-
ing them, he may exhaust those of
his opponents. But if he have only
two or three, the best way to use
them is in trumping.
The third player is expected to
take the trick, if his partner has not
done so, or at any rate to play his
best card, so that the trick will cost
the fourth player as dear as possible.
But if he hold the highest card out
and the second below it, he often
plays the latter, which is called
"finessing." The reason for doing
this is that the chances are two to
one that the fourth player does not
hold the next to the highest card.
If he does, the third player loses no
more than he would have done by
any other play: if he does not, a
trick is won. This combination
of cards — for instance, Ace and
Queen, or King and Knave — is
called a Tenace (French, tenace,
strong), and the third player is said
to " finesse against " the middle
card. A player should particularly
watch his left-hand neighbor; for if
the latter prove weak in any suit it
is not necessary for the former to
play so high, when he is third in
order.
The fourth player should, of
course, take the trick with as small
a card as he can, if his partner has
not already taken it.
When anyone leads a suit in
which he knows another player has
no card, he is said to " force " that
player, for he gives him no choice
except to lose the trick or to trump.
It is generally considered bad for a
player to force his partner when that
player has few trumps, for it is then
probable that his partner has many,
which he wishes to keep till he can
lead them. But if he has found out
that his partner does not wish to
lead trumps, or that the opponents
do, then he should force. It is
always right to force the strong
trump hand of an opponent.
When a player has no cards of
one suit and his partner has none of
another suit, it is often of advantage
for them to lead those suits alter-
nately. Thus, suppose A has no
Spades and B has no Hearts.
When they discover that this is the
case, A leads a Heart, which B
trumps, and then returns a Spade,
which A trumps. This is called
cross-ruffing, or seesawing. If a
player sees that his opponents are
likely to establish a cross-ruff, he
should at once lead a trump, no
matter how low ; for even if the
trick is taken, it requires two of the
enemy's trumps to do it, while in a
cross-ruff each of those trumps
would take a trick.
When a suit is led in which a
player has no cards, and he either
cannot trump or does not wish to do
so, he puts on the smallest card of
WHIST
768
WHIST
his weakest suit. This is called
" throwing away " or " discarding."
When a player is strong in trumps
and wishes them led, it is customary
to make what is called the "signal
for trumps " or " trump signal."
This is done by discarding tirst a
rather high card and then a lower
one, instead of the lower one first, as
would he the ordinary rule.
Directions how to play Whist have
been put in rhyme by William Pole.
Some of them are given below :
Your first lead makes your partner understand
What is the chief component of your hand;
And hence there is necessity the strongest
That your first lead be from your suit that's
longest.
In this, with Ace and King, lead King, then
Ace;
With King and Queen, King also has first
place;
With Ace, Queen, Knave, lead Ace, and then
the Queen;
With Ace, four small ones, Ace should first be
seen;
With Queen, Knave, Ten, you let the Queen
precede;
In other cases, you the lowest lead.
Ere you return your friend's, your own suit
play;
But trumps you must return without delay.
When you return your partner's lead, take
pains
To lead him back the best your hand contains.
If you received not more than three at first,
If you had more, you may return the worst.
If second hand, your lowest should be played.
Unless you mean " trump signal" to be made;
Or, if you've King and Queen or Ace and King,
Then one of these will be the proper thing.
Mind well the rules for trumps — you'll often
need them.
When you hold five, 'tis always right to lead
them;
Or if the lead won't come in time to you;
Then signal to your partner so to do.
When, second hand, a doubtful trick you see,
Don't trump it if you hold more trumps than
three;
But having three or less, trump fearlessly.
When weak in trumps yourself, don't force
your friend,
But always force the adverse strong trump
hand.
For sequences stern custom has de> reed
The lowest you must play, if you don't (ead.
When you discard, weak suit you ought to
choose, '
For strong ones are too valuable to lose.
While many of these plays are in
use, the American leads are con-
sidered better on account of show-
ing number in suit.
SUITS WITH ACE AT HEAD.
Holding Ace, King, and three or
more small ones, lead Ace, then
King.
Holding Ace, King, and two
small ones, lead King, then Ace.
Holding Ace, King, Queen, and
one small one, lead King, then
Queen.
Holding Ace, King, Queen, and
more than one small one, lead
Queen, then Ace with five, King
witli more than five.
Holding Ace, King, Queen,
Knave, lead King, then Knave.
Holding Ace, King, Queen,
Knave, and small one, lead Knave,
then Ace with five, King with six,
and Queen with more than six.
Holding Ace, Queen, Knave, Ten,
lead Ace, then Ten.
Holding Ace, Queen, Knave, and
one small one, lead Ace, then
Queen. With two or- more small
ones follow the Ace with Knave.
Holding Ace and four or more
small ones, lead Ace, and follow
with fourth best. Many players
lead fourth best.
IN TRUMPS.
Holding Ace, King and five, lead
Ace, then King. Holding less than
five, lead fourtli best.
Holding Ace, King, Queen,
Knave, lead King, then Knave.
All other suits headed by Ace are
the same as in plain suits.
SUITS WITH KING AT HEAD.
Holding King, Queen, Knave,
and Ten, lead King and follow with
Ten.
Holding King, Queen, Knave, and
more than one small card, lead
Knave. If you have five in suit,
follow with King ; if more than five,
with Queen.
Holding King, Queen, Knave,
with or without one small card, lead
King, then Knave.
Holding King, Queen, and small
cards, trumps, lead Queen, if you
WHIST
WHIST
have seven or more in suit, or if you
hold the Ten with five in suit. If
you have fewer than seven trumps,
or do not hold the Ten, lead the
fourth best card.
Holding King, Queen, and small
cards, common suits, lead King, if
you have four or less than four ; if
more than four, lead Queen.
Holding King, Knave, Ten, Nine,
with or without small cards, lead
Nine. If the Nine wins, follow with
Knave, if you have four in suit ;
with Ten, if you have more than
four. But if the Nine forces the
Queen, or Queen and Ace, follow
with King, if you have four in suit;
with Knave, if five ; and with Ten,
if more than five.
Holding King, Knave, and Ten,
alone, lead Ten ; with small ones,
lead fourth best.
Holding King, Knave, and small
cards, or King and small cards, lead
the fourth best.
SUITS WITH QUEEN A T HEAD.
Holding Queen, Knave, Ten, and
Nine, with or without small cards,
lead Ten. If you have four in suit,
follow with Queen ; if more than
four, with Knave.
Holding Queen, Knave, and small
cards, or Queen and small cards,
lead the fourth best.
SUITS WITH KNA VE AT HEAD.
Holding Knave, Ten, Nine, Eight,
with or without small cards, lead the
Eight. If you have four in suit,
follow with Knave; if five, with Ten ;
and with more than five, with Nine.
Holding Knave, Ten, Nine, and
small cards, or Knave and small
cards, lead the fourth best.
SUITS WITHOUT HONORS.
Holding four or more small cards,
lead the fourth best.
RULES.
The following general rules will
enable the learner to remember the
leads :
Lead the Ace, if you have King
and more than four in suit (except
in trumps), or if you hold Queen and
Knave also.
Never lead the King with more
than four in suit.
Never lead the Queen with less
than five in suit.
Never lead the Knave with less
than five in suit. If you lead Ace
from a long suit, and do not hold
King, or Queen and Knave, follow
with your original fourth best. When
the Queen, led from a King-Queen
suit wins, follow with the fourth
best remaining.
In opening a suit with a low card,
lead the fourth best.
Never lead from a single card, as
it is apt to mislead your partner.
Dummy. This is played by three
persons, a fourth hand, called Dum-
my, being exposed on the table.
The laws are the same as those of
Whist, with the exception that (i)
Dummy deals at the commencement
of each rubber; (2) Dummy is not
liable to the penalty for a revoke ; (3)
Dummy's partner is not liable to any
penalty for an error whence he can
gain no advantage.
Double Dummy is played by two
persons, each having a dummy, or
exposed hand, for his partner. The
laws are the same as in Dummy
Whist, except that there is no mis-
deal.
RULES OF THE GAME.
1. If there is a misdeal, the deal
passes to the next player, unless the
mistake was caused by an interrup-
tion from an opponent, in which case
the same player deals again.
2. If a card be exposed by a player,
a new deal by the same dealer may
be demanded by his opponents, if
they have not looked at their hands.
3. A player must not deal for his
partner without his opponents' per-
mission.
4. The dealer must take the trump
into his hand after his first play,
and after that no one may ask what
it is, but any one may ask what the
trump suit is.
5. A card wrongly exposed on the
WHIST
770
WHIST
table must be played whenever it is
called for, unless so playing it would
cause a revoke.
6. If a player lead out of turn, he
must take back his card, which is
treated as exposed ; but if all the
others have played to the lead, it is
considered good.
7. If the third hand play before
the second the fourth may also play
before the second.
8. If the third hand have not
played, and the fourth play before
his partner, the latter may be called
on to win or not to win the trick.
9. If a player revoke, his opponent
may score 2 points, unless he dis-
cover his error before the trick is
turned and quitted, in which case
he may change his play, and the
wrongly played card is simply treated
as exposed.
10. A revoke cannot be claimed
after the cards have been cut for the
following deal.
11. After a trick has been turned
and quitted it cannot be looked at.
Bridge Whist. A game that is
played, after the lead of the first card,
like Dummy Whist.
The differences lie mainly in the
declaration of trumps, the differing
values of suits, increasing values by
going over, methods of scoring and
rubber count.
The dealer does not turn a trump.
He has the option of making it, but
if he does not wish to do so his part-
ner must make it.
The value of the tricks above six
varies as follows, according to the
trumps declared — spades count 2,
clubs 4, diamonds 6, hearts 8, and
"no trump" 12. After the declara-
tion of trump suit the adversaries
have the right to go over (that is,
double the value) ; the dealer's left-
hand adversary having the first right
to do so ; if he does not wish \o go
over, or double, he says to his part-
ner, " May I play ? " His partner
must answer " Play " or " Over." If
either adversary goes over, the dealer
and his partner have the right to go
over them, the player who declared
the trump having the first right ; and
the going over may be repeated until
both side are satisfied. After the
leader — the player at left of dealer —
plays his first card, the dealer's part-
ner places his hand on the table face
up and the dealer plays it as in
Dummy Whist.
Honors are Ace, King, Queen,
Jack, and Ten of the trump, or the
four aces when " no trump " is de-
clared. Honors are credited to the
original holders, and are valued as
follows : Three honors held between
the partners (called simple honors)
count the same as two tricks, four
honors are equal to four tricks, five
honors equal to five tricks, four
honors in one hand equal to eight
tricks, four in one hand and the fifth
in partner's equal to nine tricks, and
five honors in one hand equal to ten
tricks.
In " no trump " three aces be-
tween partners count thirty, four
aces between partners forty, and four
aces in one hand one hundred.
Slam is thirteen tricks scored in-
dependently of the revoke penalty,
and adds forty to the honor count.
Little Slam is twelve tricks simi-
larly counted, and adds twenty to the
honor count.
Chicane (one hand void of trumps)
is equal in value to simple honors ;
that is, if partner of player having
Chicane scores honors, he adds the
value of three honors to his score ; :
while if the adversaries score honors
it deducts an equal value from them.
The value of honors, Slam, Little
Slam, and Chicane is in no wise
affected by going over.
Each game consists of thirty trick
points. The rubber is the best of
three games ; if the first two games
be won by the same partners the
third is not played. Tricks and hon-
ors are scored in separate columns.
At the conclusion of a rubber the
total score for tricks and honors is
added up and 100 added to the win-
ners' score — the lesser score is then
WHIST
771
WHIST
deducted from the greater, the
remainder being the value of the
rubber.
The penalty for a revoke is at the
option of the adversaries, who may at
the end of the hand take three tricks
from the revoking player and add
them to their own, deduct the value
of three tricks (in the hand where
the revoke occurred) from the score
of the adversaries, or add the value
of three tricks to their own score.
The penalty for a revoke takes
precedence of all other scores.
Dummy is not liable to the penalty
fora revoke. No player should pur-
posely incur a penalty because he is
willing to pay it, nor should he make
a second revoke to conceal a first one.
Duplicate Whist is that form of
the game of Whist in which each
deal is played only once by each
player, but in which each hand is
played over again so as to bring the
play of teams, pairs, or individuals
into comparison.
Each player, when it is his turn to
play, must place his card face up
before him, leaving it there until all
have played to the trick, when he
must turn it over with the ends to-
wards the winners of the trick.
When the deal is played each player
must place his hand in the tray or
other device, face clown, and the
trump card is placed face up on top
of the dealer's hand.
The points made on each deal are
recorded on score cards made for that
purpose, as the game of seven points
is not played in Duplicate Whist.
leralache, or Russian Whist. This
is exactly like our Whist, except that
there are no trumps. The scoring
varies according to agreement, but
is generally as in Long Whist.
History. The game of Whist is
traced back by some to the Italian
Trtonfo, the French Triomphe, one
of the first card games ; but others
say that the game of Trump, from
which Whist is derived, was not the
same as these games, and originated
in England. Trump was played in
England in the beginning of the i6th
century and was probably very simi-
lar to the game of Ruff and Honors,
or Slam, which followed it. Ruff
and Honors was played by four per-
sons with a full pack of 52 cards, but
only twelve were dealt to each, four
being left in the stock, the topmost
card of which was turned for trump.
The holder of the ace of trumps was
allowed to exchange four cards for
those in the stock, and the game was
nine points ; but in other respects
the game was like Long Whist.
The first known mention of Whist
in print was in a book called " The
Motto," published in 1621, where
it is spelled WThisk. The earliest
known use of the present spelling is
in Butler's " Hudibras " (1663). For
about fifty years after this it was
spelled indifferently either way.
Cotton, in his " Compleat Gamester "
(1674), says : " Whist is a game not
differing much from this [Ruff and
Honors], only they put out the
Deuces and take in no stock." The
game was thus played with 48 cards.
Whist is mentioned in George Farqu-
har's play of " The Beaux's Strat-
agem" (1707), and in 1715 Alexander
Pope speaks of it in one of his epis-
tles. About 1725 the game was
made ten points, and began to be
played with 52 cards again. In
" Whist-and-Swabbers," which was
much played about this time, cer-
tain cards called Swabbers entitled
their holders to part of the money
wagered on the game, no matter who
the winners might be.
The game was much studied by
a party of gentlemen who frequented
the Crown Coffee House in London
in 1730, and then it began to be
played in its modern form. Richard
Seymour, in his " Compleat Game-
ster, for the use of the Young
Princesses," published in 1734, has
an article on " Whist, vulgarly called
Whisk." He gives an account of
the game as it was played in his time,
from which it appears that it was
then much used by card-sharpers, a
WHIST
772
WINDMILL, THE
full account of their various methods
of cheating being given, with the
way to defeat them. " Formerly,"
he says, " it was usual to deal four
cards together ; but it is demon-
strable there is no safety in that
method ; but now the cards are
dealt round one and one at a time,
as the securest and best way." It
also appears from this book that
two-handed and three-handed Whist
were sometimes played. In the lat-
ter, each player had twelve cards,
and, says Seymour, " always two
strive to suppress and keep down
the rising man." About this time
Whist began to be a fashionable
game, and in 1743 appeared an
anonymous treatise upon it. of
which it is thought Edmund Hoyle
was the author. At this time Hoyle
gave lessons in Whist for a guinea
each, and he did so much for the
game that he is often called the
" father of Whist." It was then
thought necessary for all well-edu-
cated people to know how to play it.
In the " Rambler " for May 8, 1750,
occurs the passage, " Papa made
me drudge at Whist till I was tired
of it ; and Mr. Hoyle, when he had
not given me above forty lessons,
said I was one of his best scholars."
Since Hoyle's time there have been
many writers on the game.
Whist had been treated as though
the art of the game depended on
arbitrary rules, but it is now granted
that all rules for play depend on
general principles. The modern
game is but an elaboration of the old
one. Before Hoyle, Matthews had
an idea of the discard, which is
now accepted by all advanced
players. In the writings of Des-
chapelles, a noted French player,
and of Clay, Drayson, and Caven-
dish, celebrated English players,
the rules of the Crown Coffee House
(1728) are still the important ones.
They were (i) " Lead from your
strong suit. (2) Study your partner's
hand. (3) Attend to the score."
Hoyle understood that it was neces-
sary to unblock, without knowing
how to do it systematically. These
writers all had a desire to show
length and strength of suit, which
has been met by N. B. Trist, of New
Orleans, who, in American Leads,
proposes a systematic course of play
when opening, and continuing leads
from strong suits. Within the last
forty years Short Whist has been
substituted for Long Whist in Eng-
land. The signal for trumps has
also been introduced, and is now
recognized as legitimate, although
at first it was strongly opposed by
many of the best players.
Whist means silence ; and it is
supposed that the game was so
named from the necessity of silence
while it is being played.
WHISTLE, Experiment with a,
Fit over the mouth-piece of a toy
fife or whistle the end of a rub-
ber tube several feet long. Blow
through the tube, and at the same
time swing the whistle around in a
circle so that it will sound while
swinging. If a person twenty or
thirty feet distant listens to the
whistle, he will hear its sound grow
alternately sharper and flatter, as it
approaches him and recedes from
him. This is because the pitch of
sound depends on the speed with
which the sound-waves reach the
ear, and they get to the ear faster
when the sounding body itself is
moving toward the listener.
WHO WAS HE ? A game played
by any number of persons. One
begins by giving a brief sketch of
some historical character, and then
asking " Who was he ? " He who
makes the first correct answer
gives another similar sketch, and
so on as long as the players choose.
WICKET. See CRICKET.
WINDMILL, THE. A SOLITAIRE
game of CARDS, played with two
packs. An Ace is placed on the
table to begin with, and the first
eight cards played are laid in order
in a circle around it, so as to re-
semble the sails of a windmill, but
WINDMILL
773
WINE GLASSES
leaving a space within. In this
space the first four Kings are
placed, one above the Ace, one be-
low it, and one on each side. One
family is to be formed on each of
the Kings by piling downward, and
The Windmill.
four families on the Ace by piling
upward, beginning another family
with another Ace when the one
before it is completed. Suit need
not be followed in any of the piles.
In piling, the sails of the windmill
may be used, each being at once re-
placed by the next card played.
Useless cards are laid aside to form
stock, of which the top card can be
used at any time, instead of playing
from the pack.
WINE GLASSES, Experiments
withi i. Dip two wine glasses un-
derwater, and while they are there
bring them mouth to mouth, see-
ing that both are completely full.
Lift them out together and stand
them on the table, one being on the
other and both still full of water.
It will be found that the upper one
can be lifted up a very little way
without any of the water running
out. Holding it in this way, pour
slowly on the foot of the upper
glass some red wine, or some al-
cohol colored with carmine. (See
Fig. i.) It will run off the foot
in drops, fall on the side of the
Fig. i.
glass and trickle down to the open
space between the two glasses,
WINE GLASSES
774
WOLF
when it will enter the water and
rise into the upper glass. The
water in the upper glass can, with
Fig. 2.
care, be colored red in this way,
while that in the lower glass re-
mains transparent. The wine or
alcohol rises in the water because
it is lighter.
2. Fill a soup plate with water,
and on a cork or an inverted but-
ter plate in the middle place a
crumpled piece of paper as large
as one's fist. Set fire to it and at
once turn a goblet over it. The
water will be drawn up into the
goblet. (See Fig. 2.) The reason is
that the paper, in burning, exhausts
the oxygen under the goblet, re-
ducing the pressure there, and the
pressure of the outside air then
forces up the water.
3. Fill a glass with water so that
it almost overflows, and then place
over it a sheet of paper which
touches both the edge of the glass
and the surface of the water. Turn
the glass upside down, and the
water will not run out. (See Fig.
3.) To guard against accidents,
this should be done over a basin
or sink. A piece of glass may be
used instead of paper ; but if the
tumbler be tilted a little to one side
it will slide off. To prevent this,
bits of cork may be glued to it on
the inside.
4. Place a lighted candle in a gob-
let or large wine glass. After it has
burned a few seconds, lay on the
glass a piece of wet paper having a
hole cut in the middle, and then
press down on it another glass in-
verted. The paper is to make the
two glasses fit together very tightly.
Soon after the upper glass has been
pressed down on the lower, the can-
dle will go out for want of air, and it
will be found that the two glasses
stick together very tightly, so that
the lower can be lifted by the up-
per, and so that it requires consid-
erable force to pull them apart.
This is because some of the air
inside, heated by the candle, has
risen out of the glass, so that the
Fig. 3.
pressure outside is greater than that
within, and the two glasses are thus
held together.
WIZARD OF THE EAST. See
GUESSING THE SIGN.
WOLF. An outdoor hiding game,
played by any number of persons.
One of the players, chosen Wolf
by COUNTING OUT, hides, while the
rest of the party stay near the
goal or bye, which may be a tree,
stone, or other object. When
they have waited a minute or so,
WOLF
775
WRESTLING
they cry out " Coming ! say noth-
ing ! " and, if there is no reply, they
go out in different directions to
look for the Wolf. If the Wolf is
not ready when he hears the cry he
must shout " No ! " and the oth-
ers must then wait a reasonable
time before they shout again.
When any one finds the Wolf he
cries " Wolf ! " to let the others
know, and all then run to the goal.
If the Wolf can touch any of them
before they reach it, the ones caught
become Wolves also, and hide with
him next time ; but if he catches no
one he must hide again alone. The
game goes on till all are Wolves and
the first one caught by the
Wolf is Wolf at the beginning
of the next game. The Wolf
often does not wait to be
found, but runs out whenever
he thinks there is a good
chance to catch anyone. If he
can get to the goal before any
of the others he can generally
touch many of them as they
come in. In such a case one
of the best runners can often
lead the Wolf away on a chase
while the others run in to the
goal. The game may be block- TZI
ed by the Wolf's keeping close
to the goal in such a case, or
by his insisting on chasing a
player he cannot catch. The
players, therefore, before the game,
should agree either that the Wolf
must select some one player to
pursue, and allow that player to re
turn to goal if not caught in a cer-
tain time, or that all the players
must run in to goal, letting the
Wolf touch whom he can. When
there are several Wolves they may
hide in the same place or different
places, as they choose, and any one
of them may run out when he
pleases. If the Wolves arrange
among them where they shall hide
and how they shall run out, they
usually succeed in catching more
players than when each follows a
method of his own. Any player
who wishes may remain at the goal,
instead of running out to look for
the Wolves.
This game is sometimes called
" Whoop " in England. There is
never more than one player that
hides, and he tries to catch but one.
The one caught carries his captor
to the goal on his back, and then
hides in his turn.
WORD MAKING AND WORD
TAKING. See LOGOMACHY.
WRESTLING, A sport in which
one person tries to throw another
to the ground. There are several
kinds, which differ chiefly in the
manner in which thecontestants are
Wrestling — Fig. i.
allowed to hold one another. The
simplest and best kind for boys is
the kind first practised in Cumber-
land, England. In this country this
form of wrestling is commonly
called " backhold " catch. In it the
contestants are allowed to hold
each other in only one way, which
is arranged before the wrestling
begins. The wrestlers stand chest
to chest, each placing his chin on
the other's shoulder and grasping
him around the body, as shown in
Fig. i, the right arm of each being
under his opponent's left. They
are allowed to use every means to
throw each other, except kicking or
similar injurv. and if either con-
WRESTLING
776
WRESTLING
testant unclasps his hands he isre-
garded as beaten, just as if he had
een thrown. A wrestler is con-
sidered thrown when both shoul-
Wrestling — Fig. 2.
ders touch the floor. The object
of each contestant in this kind
of wrestling should be to force his
right shoulder beneath his oppo-
nent's arm-pit. To prevent this,
the latter must keep his left arm
pressed in as far as possible. Each
tries to throw the other by swing-
ing him sidewise, pulling him for-
ward, or pushing him backward, at
the same time trying to trip him
in various ways. Some of the de-
vices employed are described below.
The Back-heel. The wrestler puts
his foot behind his opponent's
heel and tries to bend him over it.
To meet this, the latter may loosen
his hold or turn his side.
The Buttock. The wrestler turns
as far as he can to the right, then
he straightens up and at the same
time throws his left leg back of his
opponent's left, which will enable
him to bend him over backward for
a fall by doubling him over his hip.
To meet this the opponent will
hold him tight, and at the moment
of his trying to trip, he will endeav-
or to lock his left leg from the in-
side around the left of his adver-
sary, and then bend him over back-
ward for a fall. This last is called
a " back-hank."
The Hank. The wrestler turns
sidewise, twists his leg about that
of his adversary, and pulls him
backward. To meet this the op-
ponent should lean forward and
strengthen his hold.
The Click. The wrestler pulls
his opponent forward to make him
resist by dragging back, and then
suddenly ceasing, trips him up with
one foot.
The Hipe. The wrestler forces
his shoulder under his adversary's
right arm, lifts him up as far as pos-
sible, and at the same time catch-
ing the opponent's left leg with his
right, drags it up. If properly done,
this brings the opponent down on
his back. The hipe may be per-
formed with the left shoulder and
leg ; and though this is not so easy,
if it fails, the wrestler is left in a
position for a Buttock.
Dog Fall. This occurs when both
wrestlers fall to the ground togeth-
er. They must then break their
hold, rise, and begin the contest
anew.
Wrestling— Fig. 3.
In another method, the hold is
not arranged at the beginning of
the contest, but the wrestlers stand
face to face with their hands held
out before them, as shown in Fig. 2.
WRESTLING
777
WRESTLING
The object of each is now to seize
his opponent under the latter's arms
which is called getting the " un-
derhold," and is an advantage. In
Fig. 3 the boy whose back is toward
the spectator has the underhold.
The opponent tries to prevent this
by pushing aside his hands. Neither
may succeed in getting the under-
hold, in which case the wrestling is
similar to that just described. If
either get the underhold, he may
throw his opponent by lifting him
up bodily or by drawing him for-
ward by the waist and pushing
backward against his breast, as well
Wrestling — Fig. 4.
as in the other ways described.
Sometimes tripping is not allowed
in this kind of wrestling, and some-
times several other holds are al-
lowed, such as seizing the head
with one or both hands or with the
arm taking the shoulders or arms
with one or both hands ; seizing
the legs ; or a combination of any
two of these holds.
In the shoulder grip, shown in
Fig. 4, the wrestler seizes his oppo-
nent by the shoulders with both
hands, pulls him outwards, to right
or left, and throws him with a sud-
den jerk, using any trip that is avail-
able.
One of the arm grips is shown in
Fig. 5, where the wrestler seizes his
opponent with both hands by the
left fore-arm, pulls him quickly for-
ward, and, putting the arm over his
shoulder, throws him, as shown in
the cut. Fig. 6 shows a method of
throwing by a leg grip.
In Collar and Elbow, or Cornish
wrestling, the hold is by the jacket,
Wrestling — Fig. 5.
as the name indicates. When the
contestants are allowed to take any
hold they please above the waist,
the method is called " Graeco Ro-
man ; " and when any hold what-
ever is permitted, it is called
Wrestling— Fig. 6.
" Catch as Catch Can." The rules
of the kinds of wrestling most gen-
erally used in public contests in this
country are given below.
WRESTLING
778
WRESTLING
COLLAR AND ELBOW.
i. The men shall wear short coats
or jackets made of canvas, not ex-
tending below the hips, with strong
Wrestling— Fig. 7.
collar and elbow, suitable for the
grasp of an opponent. They shall
wear rubber sandals on the feet.
2. Each man shall take hold of
the collar of his opponent with his
right hand, while with the left hand
he must take hold of the right el-
bow.
3. Both men shall stand up breast
and breast, with limber arms, and
show fair and equal play with the
feet.
4. Either man breaking his hold
with one or both hands, to save
himself from a fall, shall forfeit said
fall.
5. All falls must be square back
falls ; either two hips and one shoul-
der or two shoulders and one hip
to be on the carpet simultaneously,
to constitute a fall.
6. Striking upon the face, side
or knees is no fall, and nothing
shall be allowed for forcing a man
from such positions to his back.
Going down on one or both knees
is fair, as long as no holds are
broken.
7. A rest of at least ten and not
more than twenty minutes shall be
allowed between each fall.
8. The first fall, best two in three
or three in five, shall win, according
to mutual agreement.
9. The ring shall be twenty-four
feet square, and nobody shall be al-
lowed inside except the referee and
two umpires.
CA TCH AS CA TCH CA N.
1. The contestants can take any
hold, trip or lock they please.
2. To constitute a fall, two shoul-
ders must strike the floor simulta-
neously.
3. Long or short drawers must be
worn, and nothing heavier for the
feet will be allowed than socks and
thin slippers.
4. A rest of at least ten and not
more than twenty minutes shall be
allowed between each fall.
5. The umpires shall take their
positions at a proper distance from
the contestants, and there remain,
and will not be allowed to talk to or
advise the principals during the
contest. They shall however have
the right to call the attention of
the referee to any point which, in
their judgment, may require his
decision.
6. Doing anything to injure an
opponent shall be considered foul.
For each violation of this rule the
offender shall be deemed to have
lost a fall, and the referee shall have
the power to award the match to
the injured party.
Wrestling— Fig. 8.
GRJECO-ROMAtf.
i. Wrestlers are allowed to take
hold anywhere between the head
and the belt or waist. Grasping
the legs is strictly forbidden.
WRESTLING
779
WRESTLING
2. The men shall use open hands,
and are not allowed to strike or
scratch, to clasp one of their own
hands within the other, nor inter-
lace their fingers ; but they can
grasp their own wrists, to tighten
their hold around their opponent's
body or otherwise.
3. The principals shall have their
finger-nails and hair cut short, and
must wrestle either barefooted or in
their socks.
4. Should a wrestler fall on his
knee, shoulder or side, a new start
must be made.
5. Should the principals roll over
each other, the one whose shoul-
der shall touch the ground first is
deemed conquered.
6. A rest of not less than ten
nor more than twenty-five minutes
shall be allowed between each bout.
7. Two shoulders touching the
ground simultaneously constitutes
a fall.
History. Wrestling contests have
been held since the earliest times.
They formed part of the Greek
athletic games. At first the Greeks
used to wear belts in these contests,
Wrestling — Fig. 9.
but finally their use was forbidden
and the wrestlers contended naked,
their bodies being made slippery
with oil. In the middle ages wrest-
ling was a sport only among the
lower classes, though knights and
nobles often looked on at wrestling
bouts. They were very rough, and
the wrestlers were frequently maim-
ed or even killed. A mediaeval
wrestling match is shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 8, from an old manuscript,
shows an early English wrestling
match in which the contestants
mounted on the shoulders of other
men. In early times (Hth and 1 5th
centuries), in England, such matches
were held on feast days before the
Lord Mayor and aldermen of Lon-
don, dressed in their robes of office.
After the Reformation the sport
was not in favor, yet it was kept up
in the west and north of England
and by students at the Universities.
Advocates of athletic sports tried
hard to bring it into favor again,
but physicians thought it caused
rheumatism and ague, and it was
not until about 1826 that it began
to be revived. Since that time it
has been popular.
The Japanese are famous wrest-
lers. . Fig. 9 shows one of their con-
tests.
YACHTING
780
YACHTING
YACHTING. Much information
about different kinds of boats and
rigging will be found in the article
SAILING. There are now in this
country about 75 yacht clubs, 20 of
which are in New York and 10 in
Boston. Only a few of the boats are
large racers, the great majority of
the 2000 boats on the official lists
being comparatively small. Besides
these, there are many thousand
others whose owners belong to no
club. The yacht clubs all hold
races once or twice a year, and of-
fer prizes for the fastest yacht. As
the boats are of many different
sizes, what is called a system of
time-allowances is adopted, that
small boats may race on even terms
with larger ones. The object is
to give a greater time-allowance
the smaller the boat, and then
credit it with the difference be-
tween this calculated time and
the real time. Thus the time-al-
lowance of a small boat may be 2
minutes per mile. If the course is
20 miles long, and she makes it in
80 minutes, her corrected time
would be 80-40, or 40 ; while a
larger boat, with a time-allowance
of half a minute, whose actual time
was but 56 minutes, would be
credited with 56-10 or 46, and
would therefore be beaten. There
has been much discussion over the
proper method of calculating time-
allowances, and each club general-
ly adopts its own rules. The Eng-
lish rule is based on the length
and beam, which is one reason
why English yachts are so nar-
row, the time-allowance being thus
larger. The New York clubs use
now a measurement based on sail-
area and length, and the New
England Racing Association one
based on length alone. In the
former system the allowance varies
from nothing for the largest yacht
up to 136 seconds per mile for the
smallest; and in the latter, from
nothing for a boat 116 feet long
up to 5 minutes 29 seconds for one
only 12 feet long. The yachts in a
club are usually divided into class-
es, according to their rig and
measurement for time-allowance.
Steam launches and yachts.
Steam launches are usually long
and narrow, and have no decks.
The boiler, which is upright, is
placed in the centre of the boat,
the engine aft, and the boat is
driven by a screw propeller. The
length varies from thirty to forty
feet, the beam from seven to nine,
and the draft from two and a half
to three feet.
Steam yachts are larger than
launches, with decks and cabins,
and some of them are fitted up
with great magnificence. The
largest steam yacht in this country
is the Alva, owned by W. K. Van-
derbilt, which is 285 feet long and
has 32.3 feet beam. Steam yachts
generally have also masts and sails,
to be used in case of accident to
the machinery.
Some steam yachts have what is
called a safety-coil boiler, in which
a coil of pipe contains the water,
and there is no danger ot explo-
sion. Small launches have what
are called naphtha engines, in which
the expansion of a small quantity
of naphtha vapor drives the piston.
These engines occupy little room,
and can be run by any one. To
run a steam-engine a license from
the United States Government is
required. The only steam yacht
club in this country is the Ameri-
can Yacht Club, formed in New
York in 1883. There are several
systems of time-allowance for steam
yacht racing, most of which are
based simply on the ^ngth of the
yacht. In the system devised by
Dr. C. E. Emery, a yacht 50 feet
long is allowed a speed of 9.94?
VACHTING
781
YACHTING
knots an hour, and one of 300 feet
18.074 knots; so that if the for-
mer should make 12 knots in a race
while the latter made 19, the small-
er yacht would be considered the
winner. The best recorded time
made by a steam yacht was from
Larchmont, N. Y.,to New London,
Conn, (about 90 miles), in 4 hours,
34 minutes, 57 seconds, by the
Atlanta, July 15, 1886.
History. Sailing for pleasure is
a very old form of amusement. In
the 1 7th century Englishmen were
accustomed to buy their pleasure-
boats from the Dutch, and called
them yachts, from the Dutch jagt,
a swift form of sailing vessel. The
first yacht race on record was
in 1661, between Charles II., King
of England, and his brother the
Duke of York, afterward James II.
The first organized yacht club
was the Cork Harbor Water Club,
of Cork, Ireland, formed in 1720,
which was soon followed by the
Royal Yacht Club and others in
England. The yachts of this pe-
riod were broad, had blunt or
"bluff" bows, and drew but little
water. The fourteen sail-boats
owned by Charles II. varied in
length from 31 to 66 feet, in beam
from I2}^to2i.6feet,andindraught
water from 6 to 7.6 feet. Before
the present century Americans
adopted a longer, deeper and nar-
rower boat. The English followed,
and have gone on in the same di-
rection until the English " cutter "
has become the narrowest and
deepest of yachts. I n this country,
on the other hand, the tendency
has been to return to boats of the
old type, called by some people, in
derision, " skimming dishes," be-
cause they are broad and shallow.
One reason why the English favor
such deep boats is because of the
rough seas and deep water near
England, and deep vessels sail bet-
ter in very rough water. In this
country the first yacht club, the
New York Club, was formed in 1844.
In 1851, during the World's
Fair in London, a keel schooner-
yacht, called the America, built for
the purpose, was sent to England
from New York to compete with
English yachts. She raced, Aug.
22, 1851, fifteen English yachts, for
a silver cup, and won it. This
victory created great interest in
yachting in both countries. In
1857 the cup won by the America
was given by her owners to the
New York Yacht Club, to be held
till won by some foreign yacht. A
list of the races for it, all of which
have been held near New York,
over a forty mile course, is given in
the appendix.
ZOETROPE
782
ZOETROPE
ZOETROPEi A toy by which a
succession of figures in different
attitudes are made to appear like
a single one in motion. The sim-
plest form of the toy consists of two
Zoetrope — Fig. i.
disks fastened on the same axis six
or eight inches apart, so that they
will turn on it together. The
Zoetrope — Fig. a.
figures are arranged on one, as
shown in Fig. i, and in the other
are a number of slits equal to that
of the figures. The figures repre-
sent some action at successive in-
stants ; thus, in the first picture the
man has his bow drawn to one
side ; in the next it is pushed a
little farther along, and so on. If
any one look through the slits
while the discs are turned, and
direct his attention to any one
spot, he will see a different picture
in that spot every time a new slit
comes in front of his eye, and he
will not see one picture moving
away from the spot and another
coming up, because the pasteboard
Zoetrope— Fig. 3.
between the slits then comes be-
tween. Thus he will see in the
same place a succession of momen-
tary pictures, each in a slightly
different posture, and it will seem
to him as though he saw the man
playing the bass viol. In this way
an endless variety of movements
may be counterfeited.
The disk bearing the figures is
often made a little smaller than the
one with the slits, and fastened
with it on the axis at the same
point (see Fig. 2). The observer
then looks through the slits at a
mirror, and the effect is the same
ZOETROPE
783
ZOETROPE
>!lfej>*
a?
si.
ZOETROPE
784
ZOETROPE
as before. The zoetrope in this
shape is more easy to manage.
Another form is a round box, open
at the top, which revolves on an
upright stand (Fig. 3). The fig-
ures are on strips of paper which
fit around the inside of the box,
and the slits are vertical ones
in the edge. Six such slips are
shown in Fig. 4. The observer
looks through the slits toward the
figures on the opposite side of the
box. The effect is the same as be-
fore, though in this case the figures
and slits are moving in opposite
directions. An arrangement has
been devised by a Frenchman for
showing the zoetrope to a large
audience with the aid of the
MAGIC LANTERN. The word zoe-
trope is from the Greek zoe, life,
and trepdn, to turn. The toy
is also called the Magic Wheel
and the Zoopraxiscope, from the
Greek zoe, life, praxis, action, and
skofetn, to see.
BY ALICE CALHOUN HAINES
For Young Folks from 9 to 16 Years old.
PARTNERS FOR FAIR
With illustrations by FAITH AVERY. $1.35 net
A story full of action, not untinged by pathos, of a boy
and his faithful dog and their wanderings after the poor-
house burns down. They have interesting experiences with a
traveling circus; the boy is thrown from a moving train, and
has a lively time with the Mexican Insurrectos, from whom he
is rescued by our troops.
THE LUCK OF THE DUDLEY GRAHAMS
Illustrated by FRANCIS DAY. 300 pp., I2mo. $1.35 net.
A family story of city life. Lightened by humor and an
airship.
"Among the very best of books for young folks. Appeals especially
to girls." — Wisconsin List for Township Libraries.
"Promises to be perennially popular. A family of happy, healthy,
inventive, bright children make the best of restricted conditions and
prove themselves masters of circumstances." — Christian Register,
"Sparkles with cleverness and humor." — Brooklyn Eagle.
COCK-A-DOODLE HILL
A sequel to the above. Illustrated by FRANCIS DAY.
296 pp., I2mo. $i.35 net.
"Cockle-a-doodle Hill" is where the Dudley Graham family
went to live when thej' left New York, and here Ernie started
her chicken-farm, with one solitary fowl, "Hennerietta." The
pictures of country scenes and the adventures and experiences
of this household of young people are very life-like.
"No better book for young people than 'The Luck of the Dudley
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HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
PUBLISHERS Cvm'12) NEW YORK
COMPANION STORIES OF COUNTRY LIFE
FOR BOYS By CHARLES <P. &URTON
THE BOYS OF BOB'S HILL
Illustrated by GEORGE A. WILLIAMS. 12mo. $1.30.
A lively story of a party of boys in a small New England
town.
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boy will read it eagerly to the end ... quite thrilling adventures." —
Chicago Record-Herald.
"Tom Sawyer would have been a worthy member of the Bob's Hill
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uncommon _relish. ... A jolly group of youngsters as nearly true to
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covers." — Christian Register.
THE BOB'S CAVE BOYS
Illustrated by VICTOR PERARD. $1.30 net.
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Illustrated by H. S. DELAY. 12mo. $1.30 net.
The "Bob's Hill" band spend a vacation in Illinois, where
they play at being Indians, hear thrilling tales of real Indians,
and learn much frontier history. A history of especial inter-
est to "Boy Scouts."
"Merry youngsters. Capital. Thrilling tales of the red men and
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THE BOY SCOUTS OP BOB'S HILL
Illustrated by GORDON GRANT. 12mo. $1.30 net.
The "Bob's Hill" band organizes a Boy Scouts band and
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the Northwestern Reservation.
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Illustrated by GORDON GRANT. $1.30 net.
A tale of Boy Scouts on their summer vacation.
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BY CARROLL WATSON RANKIN
STORIES FOR GIRLS
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Years ago, a manufacturer built a great dock, jutting out
from and then turning parallel to the shore of a northern
Michigan town. The factory was abandoned, and following
the habits of small towns, the space between the dock and
the shore became "The Cinder Pond." Jean started life in the
colony of squatters that came to live in the shanties on the
dock, but fortune, heroism, and a mystery combine to change
her fortunes and those of her friends near the Cinder Pond.
THE CASTAWAYS OF PETE'S PATCH
Illustrated by ADA C. WILLIAMSON. $1.35 net.
A tale of five girls tnd two youthful grown-ups who enjoyed
unpremeditated camping.
DANDELION COTTAGE
x Illustrated by Mmes. SHINN and FINLEY. $1.35 net.
Four young girls secure the use of a tumbledown cottage.
They set up housekeeping under numerous disadvantages, and
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THE ADOPTING OF ROSA MARIE
A sequel to "Dandelion Cottage." Illustrated by Mrs. SHINN.
$1.35 net.
The little girls who played at keeping house in the earlier
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to a little Indian girl.
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Illustrated by MARY WELLMAN. 12mo. $1.35 net.
Interesting, amusing, and natural stories of a girls' club.
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HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
PUBLISHERS NEW YORK
BOOKS OF PLAYS FOR YOUNG FOLK
DESIGNED FOR USE IN THE SCHOOLS
By CONSTANCE D'ARCY MACKAY
PATRIOTIC PLAYS AND PAGEANTS
PAGEANT OF PATRIOTISM (Outdoor):— Prologue by the Spirit
of Patriotism, * Princess Pocahontas, Pilgrim Interlude, Ferry Farm
Episode, " George Washington's Fortune, * Daniel Boone : Patriot,
Benjamin Franklin Episode, Abraham Lincoln Episode, Final
Tableau, March of Players.
PAGEANT OF PATRIOTISM (Indoor) a variation of the above.
HAWTHORNE PAGEANT (for Outdoor or Indoor Production):—
Chorus of Spirits of the Old Manse, Prologue by the Muse of Haw-
thorne, First Episode (In Witchcraft Days), Dance Interlude,
Second Episode ^Merrymount), Procession of Player Folk.
The portions of the pageants marked with a star (*) are sepa-
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THE HOUSE OF THE HEART
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INCLUDES: — "The House of the Heart" (Morality Play)—
"The Enchanted Garden" (Flower Play— "A Little Pilgrim's
Progress" (Morality Play. — "A Pageant of Hours" (To be given
Out of Doors)— "On Christmas Eve." "The Elf Child." "The
Princess and the Pixies." "The Christmas Guest." (Miracle
Play.) Etc.
"An addition to child drama which has been sorely needed."— Boston
Transcript.
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And Other Folk Plays. $1.20 net; by mail $1.30.
CONTENTS: — "The Silver Thread" (Cornish); "The Forest
Spring" (Italian); " The Foam Maiden " (Celtic); "Troll Magic"
(Norwegian); "The Three Wishes" (French); "A Brewing of
Brains" (English); "Siegfried" (German); "The Snow Witch"
(Russian).
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