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State  of  California 
The  Resources  Agency 


Department  of 
Water  Resources 
Bulletin  No.  160-74 


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Department  of 
Water  Resources 

Bulletin  No.  160-74 


The  California  Visiter  Plan 

Outlook  in19^ 


November  1974 


^  •  ^  ^^1  ^  nl  |j 


The  State  of  Camornia  TDepartment  of 

Resources  Agency  Water  Resources 


Norman  B.  Livermore,Jr.  Ronald  Reagan  John  R.Teerink 

Secretary  for  Resources  Governor  Director 


Satellite  "photograph"  of  Colifo 
ERTS  "photo"  (See  page  x) 


FOREWORD 


Water  development  has  done  more  to  enhance  the 
economy  and  environment  of  California  than  any  of 
man's  other  activities.  From  a  hostile  climate  has  come 
the  livelihood  of  20.9  million  people  and  a  major  por- 
tion of  the  nation's  food  supply.  California  today  is 
the  result  of  the  planning  and  management  of  its  water 
resources  by  local,  state,  and  federal  agencies.  Califor- 
nia tomorrow  will  also  depend  on  continued  wise  re- 
source management  but  is  challenged  by  increasingly 
complex  issues  that  will  affect  the  quality  of  life. 
Water  development  is  a  part  of  these  interrelated 
issues  and  must  be  viewed  in  a  broader  context  than 
in  the  past.  An  affluent  society  with  its  water  demands 
satiated  can  afford  to  consider  a  larger  value  system. 

Momentous  events  and  trends  have  occurred  during 
the  past  four  years  since  our  last  statewide  water  re- 
source assessment  was  made.  Some  of  these  events 
and  trends  have  already  affected  the  water  picture  in 
definable  ways,  while  the  effects  of  others  are  yet  to 
mature.  Some  major  examples  are  the  establishment  of 
stringent  goals  for  water  quality  improvement  and 
waste  management,  the  substantial  new  demands  for 
cooling  water  for  thermal  electric  power  plants,  the 
reservation  of  one-fourth  of  the  State's  surface  water 
resources  in  a  Wild  and  Scenic  River  System,  the  in- 
creasing worldwide  demand  for  agricultural  products, 
widespread  litigation  seeking  delay  or  curtailment  of 
water  development  programs,  and  the  escalating  costs 
of  energy. 

While  these  and  additional  events  have  occurred, 
other  significant  trends  have  continued  that  also  affect 
the  State's  water  resources.  Population  has  continued 
"to  increase,  but  at  a  rate  less  than  during  the  1960s, 
reflecting  the  national  trend,  and  thereby  stretching 
our  presently  developed  water  supplies.  Irrigated  ag- 
riculture has  continued  to  increase  at  about  the  same 
rate  as  during  the  previous  reporting  period. 


On  a  statewide  basis,  the  California  water  outlook 
is  favorable.  There  are,  however,  areas  facing  distress 
and  some  uncertainties  in  the  future  that  will  require 
corrective  action.  The  continued  increase  of  salinity 
in  many  of  the  local  ground  water  basins  and  in  wa- 
ter from  the  Colorado  River  will  be  detrimental  to 
many  water  users.  The  continued  overdraft,  currently 
over  one  and  one-half  million  acre-feet  per  year,  in 
the  San  Joaquin  \'alle\-  will  have  a  permanent  ad- 
verse economic  effect  on  the  user  and  will  deplete 
some  portions  of  the  basin.  Conveyance  facilities  are 
necessary  to  bring  developed  water  supplies  to  the 
areas  of  need  in  the  valley. 

The  inland  siting  of  thermal  electric  power  plants 
will  impose  a  significant  water  requirement  on  water 
deficient  areas  of  the  State.  To  meet  this  requirement 
every  effort  should  be  made  to  use  our  poorer  quality 
water  supplies  such  as  agricultural  drainage  and  other 
waste  water  to  the  extent  feasible.  Where  agricultural 
waste  water  can  be  used,  the  drainage  disposal  prob- 
lem could  be  reduced. 

Current  litigation,  if  successful,  will  have  a  serious 
adverse  effect  on  several  areas  of  the  State.  Alterna- 
tives to  projects  in  contention  are  limited  and  costly. 
The  full  ramifications  of  these  law  suits  cannot  be 
determined  at  this  time. 

Thorough  study  needs  to  be  given  to  alternatives 
that  would  continue  to  stretch  our  water  supplies. 
The  reclamation  of  waste  water,  including  demineral- 
ization  of  brackish  water,  appears  to  be  the  most 
promising  today.  While  research  and  development  of 
alternatives  continues,  it  is  incumbent  on  all  users  to 
achieve  more  eflicient  use  of  the  water  supplies  now 
available.  Several  significant  policy  issues  relating  to 
water  resource  management  need  careful  and  thought- 
ful public  and  legislative  consideration  if  we  are  to 
most  effectively  meet  our  future  water  needs. 


V        John  R.  Teerink,  Director 

Department  of  Water  Resources 
The  Resources  Agenc\' 
State  of  California 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Page 

FOREWORD    i 

ORGANIZATION      _ viii 

CALIFORNIA  WATER  COMMISSION  _ ix 

INTRODUCTION      ^ _ _ _ i 

The    Outlook    in    1974 i 

General    _ _  j 

Concerning    Growth    _ _ _ j 

Concerning  Water   Demands  — _ 2 

Concerning    Present   Water   Supplies    _ 2 

Concerning   New    Water    Supplies    _ _...  2 

Concerning  Regional   Water   Supply   and   Demand    _. 3 

Concerning    .\Jtemative    Futures    . _ _ 4 

California's   Water    Resources    . ._ ._ 5 

State   Responsibility   for   Water   Development   . 5 

Organization  of  Bulletin   160-74 _ 7 

CHAPTER  I.    HISTORIC  AND  RECENT  EVENTS  9 

California  Water  Plan  9 

Transition   to  the  Present    .._ _ 10 

National  Water  Commission  Report  _ 11 

Environmental  Considerations  in  Water  Management  _ 14 

Public    Involvement    _ 14 

Water  Rights  Decisions  _ _ _ _ 14 

California  Wild  and  Scenic  Rivers  Act _. 16 

NEPA   and   CEQA        _..._ _ 16 

Litigation    18 

Comprehensive    Water    Quality    Control    Planning    19 

State-Federal   and   Interstate   Activities    ._ 20 

Cooperation  with  U.  S.  Water  Resources  Council  20 

Western  U.  S.  Water  Plan  Study  . 21 

Salinit\-   of   Colorado   River   . _ _ _ 21 

Western    States   Water   Council    _ 23 

California   State-Federal   Interagency    Group   23 

Interstate    Water   Compacts   _ _ 24 

Land   Use  Planning  and   Controls  24 

Land  Use  Policy  and  Control  Legislation  24 

The    "Quiet    Revolution"    _ 26 

Land  Use  Planning  and  the  Department  of  Water  Resources  29 

CHAPTER  II.    KEY  WATER  POLICY  ISSUES 31 

Cooling  Water  for  Electric  Energy  Production  31 

Water    Deficiencies    —_ 33 

Cost  Sharing  of  Environmental  Enhancement 34 

Water   Quality    Improvement    35 

\Vater  Supplies  as  a  Growth  Regulator 36 

Role  of  Water  Exchanges  in  Water  Management 36 

Public  Interest  in  Agricultural  Drainage  ..._ . 38 

Flood    Damage    Prevention   39 

Water  Pricing  Policy  and  Its  Effect  on  Demand _...  40 

Water  Use  Efficiency  and  Its  Effect  on  Demand _...  40 

Economic  Efficiency  as  a  Basis  for  Water  Management 42 

Supplemental   Water  Through  Waste  Water  Reclamation 42 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS-Continued 

Page 

CHAPTER  III.    ALTERNATIVE  FUTURES  FOR  CALIFORNIA  _ 45 

Projected   Needs _  45 

Population . _  45 

Trends  and  Influences 45 

Alternative   Population   Projections , 46 

Agricultural    Production    _  49 

Trends  and  Influences 49 

Alternative  Projections  of  Irrigated  Crop  and  Land  Acreage _..  54 

Electrical   Energy 58 

Trends    and    Influences 58 

Alternative    Future    Projections _ 59 

Thermal   Power   Plant   Siting 60 

Trends  and  Influences  on  Other  Water  Related  Needs 61 

Recreation,    Fish    and    Wildlife    61 

Flood   Control   „    — _ 64 

Environmental    Quality    65 

Water   Quality    _ 65 

CHAPTER  I\'.    DEMANDS  FOR  WATER  67 

Urban  Water  Use  67 

Agricultural   Water  Demands   69 

AVater  for  Power  _._ 72 

Recreation,   Fish    and   Wildlife   75 

Strcamflow    .Maintenance    75 

Wildlife    Habitat   Protection   76 

Fisher>-   Mitigation   and    Enhancement _ 77 

Applied   Water  Demands   78 

Other  Water  Demand  Considerations 80 

Environmental   Enhancement   80 

Water  Qualit>-   Control . 82 

Flood   Control   8  J 

Energ>'   Generation 85 

Navigation _ 88 

^^ummary  of  Water  Demands  88 

CHAPTER  V.    SOURCES  OF  WATER  AND  WATER  MANAGEMENT  91 

Surface   Water  Regulation   . 91 

Recent  Water   Projects   . 91 

Central   \'alle>'   Area   Water  Projects   95 

North   Coast   Area   Water  Projects   96 

i*'Ground   Water _ . __.. 96 

Activities  by  the   Department   of  Water  Resources  97 

Ground    Water    Conditions    _. _ _ 101 

Waste    Water   Reclamation 104 

Use   of  Reclaimed   Waste   Water   106 

Potential  Future   of  Waste   Water  Reclamation 106 

Cost  of  Waste  Water  Reclamation .'.  108 

Activities  by  the  Department  of  Water  Resources : 109 

Legal  Requirements  and  Public   Acceptance 109 

Costs    of   Desalting   110 

Energ>'    Required _ 1 1 1 

Activities  b>-   the   Department  _ Ill 

Future   Potential   of  Desalination 113 

Gcothernial   Water   Potential 113 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS-Continued 

Page 

Weather  Alodification  _ 115 

Management    Concepts    and    Practices    117 

More   Effective   Use   of   Water   117 

■     More   Effective   Use   of   Facilities   _  119 

Ground  Water  Modeling  _  119 

Waterway  Management  Plans  120 

Flood   Control   .  _.  122 

Water   Quality   Control   Planning   124 

Introduction    124 

Purposes  of  the  Plans   __ __  125 

Plan  Preparation  _ 125 

Planning   Criteria    and    Constraints   126 

Planning    Strategy    . 127 

Plan    Reports   1 30 

Public  Participation  _ _. _ _...  1 30 

Basin    Problems    _ 131 

CHAPTER  VI.    WATER  SUPPLY  AND  SUPPLEMENTAL  DEMANDS  139 

Available  Water  Supplies   _ 141 

Local    Surface    Water    Projects    141 

Ground  Water  Safe  Yield  141 

The   Central   V^alley   Project   142 

Other   Federal   Water   Developments 144 

The   California  State  Water  Project 144 

Waste  Water  Reclamation 146 

Desalting 146 

Summary   of   Available   Water  Supplies 146 

Effect  of  State  Water  Resources  Control  Board — Decisions  on  Water  Supply  150 

Decision    1379    150 

Decision   1400 150 

Decision  1422  150 

Supplemental   Water  Demands  151 

Analysis  of  Central  \'alley  Project  and  State — Water  Project  Capability  and  Demands..  152 

Project  Water  Supplies   152 

The  Peripheral  Canal  152 

Water  Demands  on  the  Central  Valley  Project 152 

Water  Demands  on   the   State  Water  Project  155 

Comparison  of  Supply  and  Demand 155 

Summary  of  Regional  Water  Supply  and  Demand 157 

APPENDIX.    WORKSHOPS  FOR  BULLETIN  NO.  160-74 181 

TABLES 

Number  Title 

1  California  and  U.  S.  Population  and  Percent  Increase  by  Decades,  1920-1974  46 

2  Population    Factors      ._ _ 46 

3  California    and    United    States    Populations    _  46 

4  Population  in  California   1972,   1990  and  2020 47 

5  1972  and  Projected  Irrigated  Land  Area  and  Irrigated  Double  Crop  Acreage 55 

6  Projected   Requirements   for   Electrical   Energy 60 

7  Projected  Additional  Generation  Requiring  Cooling  Water 60 

8  Additional   Inland   Thermal   Power   Generation 61 

9  Existing  and  Projected  Fishing  and  Hunting  Uses  of  California's  Fresh  Water  Fish 

and   Water   Fowl   Resources   ._  _ _ 62 

10  Per  Capita  Water  Use  in  Selected  Communities . 67 

11  1972   and  Projected  Urban  Applied  Water  Demand 68 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS-Continued 

TABLES  (continued) 

yumhcr  Title                                                                                            Page 

12  1972  and  Projected  Agricultural  Applied  Water  Demand      _ 72 

13  Power  Plant  Fresh  Water  Cooling  Requirements 74 

14  Summary  of  Flow   Maintenance   Agreements  75 

15  Applied  Water  Demands  for  Fish,  Wildlife  and  Nonurban  Area  Recreation  78 

16  1972  and  Projected  Applied  Water  Demands  by  Alternative  Futures  89 

17  1972  and  Projected  Net  Water  Demands  by  Alternative  Futures  90 

18  Projects   Completed    by    Local    Agencies    1971-1974   94 

19  Summary'  of  Urban  Waste  Water  Production,  Disposal,  and  Reclamation 

Practices,   1972   105 

20  Intentional  Use  of  Reclaimed  Water  in   1972  106 

21  Municipal  and  Industrial  Waste  Water  Production  in  Coastal  Metropolitan  Areas 107 

22  Mandatory  Waste  Treatment  Requirements,  Public  Law  92-500  125 

23  Basin  Planning  Organizations 126 

24  Base    Conditions    for    Planning   _ 128 

25  Major  Features  of  the   Central  Valley  Project  , 142 

26  Other  Federal   Water   Projects   in   California   144 

27  Summary  of  1972  and  Projected  Water  Supplies,  Net  Water  Demands,  and 

Supplemental  Demands  by   Hydrologic  Study  Areas  ._ 146 

28  Comparisons  of  Supplemental  Demand  between   Bulletin  No.   160-74 

and    Previous    Bulletin    151 

29  Net  Water  Demands  on  the  Central  Valley  Project  15J 

30  Possible  Additional  Demands  on  the  Central  Valley  Project  153 

31  Net  Water  Demands  on  the  State  Water  Project  under  Present  Contracts  155 

32  Possible  Demands  on  the  State  Water  Project  in  Addition  to  Present  Contracts  155 

FIGURES 

Number  TitU 

1  H>'droIogic    Cycle    5 

2  Hydrologic  Study  Areas  of  California 6 

3  Average    Annual    Runoff   in    Million    Acre-feet   7 

4  Water   Quality   Control    Planning    Basins    19 

5  California  Historical  and  Projected  Population  Growth 47 

6  United  States  Historical  and  Projected  Population  Growth 48 

7  Per  Capita  Consumption  of  P'arm  Products  in  the  United  States 50 

8  Average   Yields   of  Selected   Farm   Crops  in   California   53 

9  Historical  and  Projected  Irrigated  Land  Area 54 

10  Irrigated   and    Urban    Areas   56 

11  Highlights  of  Changes  in  Irrigated  Land  Use,  1967-1972 57 

12  Historic   and   Projected   Electric   Energy   Requirements 59 

13  California  Population  and   State  Park  System   Attendance 62 

14  Heat    Balance    Diagram     _ _ 73 

15  Projected   Demands   for   Fresh   Cooling   Water 74 

16  Water   Use   for  Recreation,   Fish   and  Wildlife   77 

17  Pumped    Storage   Sites    Under   Consideration 85 

18  Geothermal    Resource    Areas    86 

19  Major  Surface  Water  Supply  and  Conveyance  Facilities  1974 . _. 92 

20  Projects  Completed   Under  the   Davis-Grunsky   Act   1971-1974 _.     94 

21  Ground  Water  Change  During  Dry  Period,  1960-1965 98 

22  Ground  Water  Change   During  Wet  Period,   1965-1970 . 99 

23  Waste   Water   Reclamation   Facilities   107 

24  Thermal  Anomalies  in  the  Imperial  Valley  Area 114 

25  Weather  Modification    Target  Areas  in   1971-1972 116 

26  Statewide  Planning  Strategy  for  Water  Quality  Management  129 

27  Distribution  of  Natural  Runoff  in  California  by  Hydrologic  Study  Area  139 

28  Total  Surface  Water  Supply  and  Present  Uses  and  Commitments  140 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS-Continued 

FIGURES  (continued) 

Number  Title  Page 

29  Statewide  Water  Demand  and  Usable  Water  Supply  148 

30  Projected   Net  Water   Demands   and    Dependable   Water   Supply — Central 

Valley    Project _ 154 

31  Projected  Net  Water  Demands  and   Dependable  Water  Supply — State 

Water  Project     __ „ _ _ 155 

32  Net  Water  Demands  and  Water  Supply — North  Coastal  Hydrologic  Study  Area    ..  158 

33  North  Coastal  Hydrologic  Study  Area _ 159 

34  Net  Water  Demands  and  Water  Supply — San  Francisco  Bay 

Hydrologic   Study   Area   -^ 160 

35  San  Francisco  Bay  Hydrologic  Study  Area  _ 161 

36  Net  Water  Demands  and  Water  Supply — Central  Coastal  Hydrologic  Study  Area  ....  162 

37  Central   Coastal   Hydrologic   Study   Area 163 

38  Net  Water  Demands  and  Water  Supply — South  Coastal  Hydrologic  Study  Area  ....  164 

39  South  Coastal  Hydrologic  Study  Area _ 165 

40  Net  Water  Demands  and  Water  Supply — Sacramento  Basin 

Hydrologic   Study   Area   166 

41  Sacramento  Basin   Hydrologic   Study   Area _ 167 

42  Net  Water  Demands  and  Water  Supply — Delta-Central  Sierra 

Hydrologic  Study  Area  168 

43  Delta-Central   Sierra   Hydrologic    Study   Area   169 

44  Net  Water  Demands  and  Water  Supply — San  Joaquin  Hydrologic  Study  Area 170 

45  San  Joaquin  Hydrologic  Study  Area 171 

46  Net  Water  Demands  and  Water  Supply — Tulare  Basin  Hydrologic  Study  Area  172 

47  Tulare  Basin  Hydrologic  Study  Area 173 

48  Net  Water  Demands  and  Water  Supply — North  Lahontan  Hydrologic  Study  Area ...  174 

49  North  Lahontan  Hydrologic  Study  Area 175 

50  Net  Water  Demands  and  Water  Supply — South  Lahontan  Hydrologic  Study  Area  176 

51  South  Lahontan  Hydrologic  Study  Area 177 

52  Net  Water  Demands  and  Water  Supply — Colorado  Desert 

Hydrologic   Study   Area   178 

53  Colorado   Desert    Hydrologic    Study    Area 179 


PLATES 

(In  pocket  at  back  of  bulletin) 

1.  Surface  Water  Resources  Development  in  California 

2.  Irrigated,  Irrigable  and  Urban  Lands 


State  of  California 
The  Resources  Agency 

DEPARTMENT  OF  WATER  RESOURCES 


RONALD  REAGAN,  Governor 

NORMAN   B.   LIVERMORE,   JR.,   Secrefory  for  Resources 

JOHN  R.  TEERINK,  Direcfor,  Department  of  Water  Resources 

ROBERT  G.  EILAND,  Depufy  Director 


DIVISION  OF  RESOURCES  DEVELOPMENT  . 

Herbert  W.  Greydanus Division  Engineer       ■( 


This  bulleiin  was  prepared  by 

Charles  A.  McCullough.... ._ Chief,  Statewide  Planning  Branch 

Jerry  D.  Vayder Supervising  Engineer,  W.  R. 

wUh  major  assisiance  from 

Ralph  G.  Allison  Lionel  J.  Lerner 

Vernon  C.  Bengal  L.  Ernest  Moberg 

Earl  G.  Bingham  William  G.  McKane 

Walter  W.  Bourez,  Jr.  Maurice  D.  Roos 

Stanley  W.  Cummings  Glenn  B.  Sawyer 

Robert  M.  Ernst  Price  J.  Schreiner 

John  R.  Glcvinovich  Betty  F.  Wade 

Caroline  J.  Grubbs  Richard  J.  Wagner 

Marian  P.  Hogen  Wendell  D.  Walling 

Jacob  W.  Holdermon  James  M.  Wardlow 

Jean  H.  Jaquith  Jock  H.  Wyatt 

Paulyne  D.  Joe  Mitzi  A.  Young 


Assistance  was  provided  by  the  District  Offices  of  the 

Department  of  Water  Resources 

under  the  direction  of 

Albert   J.    Dolcini    Disfricf  Engineer,  Northern  District 

Robin  R.  Reynolds _. District  Engineer,  Central  District 

Carl   L.  Stetson _ District  Engineer,  San  Joaquin  District 

Jack  J.  Coe _ _ District  Engineer,  Southern  District 


Contributions  were  made  by  many  individuals  in  other 
Department  of  Water  Resources  units 

Section  on  Water  Quality  Control  Planning  was  prepared  by 
State  Water  Resources  Control  Board 


State  of  California 
Department  of  Water  Resources 

CALIFORNIA  WATER  COMMISSION 


IRA  J.  CHRISMAN,  Chairman,  Visalia 
CLAIR  A.  HILL,  Vice  Chairman,  Redding 


Mai  Coombs  Garberville 

Ray  W.  Ferguson  Ontario 

Ralph  E.  Graham  -- San  Diego 

Clare  W.  Jones  — — Firebaugh 

William  P.  Moses San  Pablo 

Samuel  B.  Nelson  .— Northridge 

Ernest  R.  Nichols  Ventura 


Orvilie  L.  Abbott 
Execufive  Officer  and  Chief  Engineer 

Tom  Y.  Fujimoto 
Assisiant  Executive  Officer 


Copies  of  this  bulletin  at  $5.00  each  may  be  ordered  froir 

State  of  California 

DEPARTMENT  OF  WATER   RESOURCES 

P.O.   Box  383 

Sacramento,  California  95802 
Make  checks  payable  to  STATE  OF  CALIFORNIA 
California  residents  add  6  percent  sales  tax. 


FRONTISPIECE 

This  "photograph"  of  the  State  was  produced  from 
imagery'  collected  by  the  Earth  Resources  Technology 
Satellite  (ERTS-1)  orbiting  at  a  distance  of  about  570 
miles  above  the  earth.  The  electronic  instruments  in 
the  satellite  scanned  the  terrain  and  recorded  light  re- 
flected back  from  the  earth  in  four  spectral  bands  (2 
visible,  2  infrared).  This  data  was  then  telemetered 
to  a  data-processing  facility  and  reconstructed  into 
four  separate  black  and  white  "photographs"  each 
covering  the  same  100  x  100  mile  area.  The  Depart- 
ment used  three  of  the  four  "photographs"  of  each 
area  and  a  color  additive  process  to  create  the  thirty- 
four  color  "photographs"  used  to  make  this  mosaic 
of  the  State  of  California,  which  has  been  reduced 
from  its  original  1: 1,000,000-scale  for  presentation  in 
this  report.  In  this  format,  green  vegetation  appears 
red.  The  advantage  of  the  infrared  bands  are  that 
they  enhance  the  presence  of  green,  growing  vegeta- 
tion compared  to  other  land  features. 

The  sharpest,  most  cloud-free  images  available  were 
selected,  therefore,  the  dates  of  the  individual  images 
var\'.  This  is  the  principal  reason  for  the  color  tone 
differences  between  neighboring  photos  in  the  mosaic. 

The  resolution  obtainable  with  these  images  is  ap- 
proximately 200  feet,  which  is  sufficient  for  recon- 
naissance level  interpretation  of  certain  aspects  of 
vegetation  and  other  land-related  conditions  consid- 
ered in  water  resource  planning.  The  Department  of 
Water  Resources  is  investigating  potential  uses,  which 
include  determining  irrigated  land  use  change,  extent 
of  double  cropping,  urban  land  use  change,  change 
in  vegetation  cover  of  watersheds,  and  areal  extent  of 
snow  cover. 


INTRODUCTION 


Bulletin  No.  160-74  is  the  third  in  a  series  of  reports 
updating  the  California  Water  Plan,  originally  pub- 
lished in  1957  as  Department  of  Water  Resources 
Bulletin  No.  3.  The  California  Water  Plan  is  a  com- 
prehensive master  plan  to  guide  and  coordinate  the 
use  of  California's  water  resources  for  all  beneficial 
purposes  to  meet  present  and  future  needs  in  all  parts 
of  the  state.  The  plane  is  not  a  specific  blueprint  for 
construction  but  is,  rather,  a  flexible  pattern  which  can 
provide  information  and  guidance  relating  to  the  use 
of  the  state's  water  resources,  its  future  water  require- 
ments, and  sources  of  water  supply  for  California. 

In  this  bulletin,  the  Department  of  Water  Resources 
has  departed  from  the  previous  practice  of  develop- 
ing a  single  forecast  of  future  water  requirements,  and 
has  used  for  the  first  time  a  concept  of  "alternative 


futures".  Under  this  concept,  four  different  estimates 
of  future  water  requirements  are  developed,  each  re- 
lating to  different  scenarios  as  to  future  conditions 
and  events  that  affect  water  use  and  demands. 

Data  collected  b\'  the  Department  of  Water  Re- 
sources since  publication  of  Bulletin  No.  160-70  four 
years  ago  show  that  water  use  in  California  between 
1967  and  1972  has  increased  a  moderate  1.4  million 
acre-feet,  or  some  4  percent,  corresponding  generally 
to  a  moderate  population  increase  of  1.4  million  peo- 
ple, or  7  percent,  and  an  increase  in  irrigated  area  of 
300,000  acres  or  4  percent.  Anal\'sis  of  present  and 
past  conditions,  together  witii  studies  and  estimates  of 
future  conditions — using  the  alternative  futures  ap- 
proach— indicates  the  following  outlook  for  water  re- 
sources management  in  California. 


The  Outlook  in  1974 


General 

1.  The  status  of  developed  and  available  water  sup- 
plies compared  to  present  demands  for  water  is  still 
favorable — the  situation  affords  time  for  consideration 
of  all  alternative  sources  for  future  water  supply,  in- 
cluding techniques  for  more  efficient  use  of  water  to 
reduce  demands.  This  outlook  is  premised  on  comple- 
tion of  Auburn  Dam  on  the  American  River,  New 
.VIelones  Dam  on  the  Stanislaus  River,  and  Warm 
Springs  Dam  on  Dry  Creek  in  the  Russian  River 
Basin,  and  the  Peripheral  Canal  being  constructed  and 
in  operation  by  1980. 

2.  How  far  into  the  future  this  condition  will  e.xtcnd 
depends  on  the  completion  of  additional  conveyance 
facilities  needed  to  deliver  already-  regulated  supplies 
to  various  .service  areas  in  the  State. 

3.  The  extent  to  which  available  supplies  will  cover 
future  requirements  is  considerably  less  certain  in  1974 
than  it  appeared  to  be  in  1970  because  of  highly 
significant  events  and  trends  that  have  occurred  dur- 
ing the  last  four  years — major  factors  being  the  estab- 
lishment of  additional  water  requirements  for  water 
quality  improvement  and  salinity  control;  the  move- 
ment toward  siting  of  power  plants  at  inland  locations 
rather  than  on  the  coast,  also  leading  to  a  sub- 
stantial additional  water  requirement;  and  the  world- 
wide leap  in  demand  for  agricultural  products. 

4.  In  addition,  no  new  water  projects  that  would 
develop  additional  supplies  of  any  significance  have 
been  authorized,  either  by  state,  federal,  or  local 
agencies  in  California  during  the  past  four  years,  and 
virtually  every  attempt  to  begin  construction  of  pre- 
viously authorized  projects  or  units  of  such  projects 
has  met  with  litigation  seeking  to  delay  or  stop  such 


construction — a  condition  which,  along  with  the  wild 
river  legislation  and  the  coastal  zone  initiative,  clearly 
reflects  a  widespread  public  interest  and  concern  with 
protection  and  preservation  of  the  natural  environ- 
ment. 

5.  The  quality  of  the  State's  water  supply  is  gen- 
erally quite  satisfactory,  with  the  significant  exception 
of  the  Colorado  River  and  some  localized  ground 
water  problems,  and  may  be  expected  to  be  maintained 
and  improved  as  the  result  of  the  basin  plans  for  water 
quality  management  currently  being  developed  by  the 
State  Water  Resources  Control  Board. 

6.  While  the  urban  areas  of  the  State  should  experi- 
ence no  significant  or  extensive  water  shortages  during 
the  next  20  years,  the  prospects  of  providing  water  for 
any  large  expansion  of  irrigated  agriculture  in  Cali- 
fornia to  meet  increased  demands  for  food  and  fiber 
worldwide  arc  not  considered  optimistic  under  the 
general  conditions  prevailing  at  the  present  time. 

Concerning  Growfh 

1.  In  1974  the  population  of  California  was  20.9 
million  people,  reflecting  a  continued  slowing  in 
growth  rates,  and  it  may  range  from  a  low  of  23.6  to 
a  high  of  27.4  million  by  1990,  or  an  increase  of  13 
to  31  percent.  By  2020,  the  population  may  range 
from  26.5  to  43.3  million,  or  an  increase  of  27  to  107 
percent. 

2.  Of  the  total  state  area  of  100  million  acres,  ur- 
ban development  currently  occupies  2.6  million  acres 
and  may  increase  to  between  2.9  and  3.3  million  by 
1990.  Urban  land  use  in  2020  may  range  from  3.2  to 
4.4  million  acres — still  less  than  5  percent  of  the  total 
area  of  the  State. 


1 


3.  Irrigated  agriculture  increased  at  an  average  rate 
of  60,000  acres  per  year  from  about  8.5  million  acres 
in  1967  to  about  8.8  million  in  1972.  Irrigated  area  may 
range  between  9.2  and  10.2  million  acres  by  1990,  an 
increase  of  5  to  16  percent.  In  2020,  irrigated  land 
may  ranage  from  9.4  million  to  11.4  million  acres,  an 
increase  from  7  to  29  percent.  The  Department  of 
Water  Resources'  land  classification  surveys  show  22 
million  acres  of  irrigabl  land  in  California. 

Concerning  Water  Demands 

1.  Urban  water  use  is  now  about  5  million  acre-feet 
annually,  and  future  demands  are  expected  to  range 
from  6.2  to  7.1  million  acre-feet  in  1990,  an  increase 
of  22  to  41  percent.  By  2020,  urban  use  may  range 
from  7.2  to  11.4  million  acre-feet.  Urban  water  use 
today  accounts  for  about  1 3  percent  of  total  ^\•ater  use 
in  the  State. 

2.  Present  agricultural  water  use  is  32  million  acre- 
feet  of  applied  water  annually,  or  about  85  percent  of 
total  water  use  in  the  State.  Demands  for  agricultural 
water  in  1990  are  expected  to  range  from  34  million 
to  38  million  acre-feet,  an  increase  of  from  7  to  19 
percent.  By  2020,  agricultural  water  demands  may 
range  from  35  to  42  million  acre-feet  annually. 

3.  If  two-thirds  of  the  projected  increase  in  thermal 
electrical  generation  is  located  at  inland  sites,  up  to 
400,000  acre-feet  of  cooling  water  will  be  required  by 
1990,  and  as  much  as  1.1  million  acre-feet  could  be  re- 
quired by  2020. 

4.  Total  annual  applied  water  demands  for  all  pur- 
poses in  California  are  projected  to  increase  from  the 
present  37  million  acre-feet,  and  may  range  from  41 
to  46  million  acre-feet  in  1990,  an  increase  from  10  to 
24  percent  annually.  By  2020,  the  total  applied  water 
demands  may  range  from  43  to  55  million  acre-feet 
annually. 

5.  Net  water  demands  in  California,  which  reflect 
the  opportunities  to  reuse  return  flows,  are  projected 
to  increase  from  the  1972  level  of  31  million  acre-feet 
annually,  and  may  range  from  34  to  38  million  acre- 
feet  by  1990,  an  increase  of  11  to  23  percent.  By  2020, 
total  net  water  demands  may  range  from  36  to  46  mil- 
lion acre-feet  annually. 

6.  With  full  use  of  presently  foreseen  supplies,  the 
supplemental  water  requirements  are  expected  to  range 
from  1.6  million  to  3.8  million  acre-feet  annually  by 
1990,  and  from  2.6  to  9.6  million  acre-feet  annualK* 
by  2020. 

Concerning  Present  Water  Supplies 

1.  California's  present  water  needs  are  being  met  by 
existing  state,  federal,  and  local  projects,  and  in  some 
areas,  especially  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  by  overdraft- 
ing  ground  water  supplies.  More  water  is  available 
from  the  existing  projects  than  is  being  used  now,  and 
this  reserve  can  be  used  to  satisfy  increasing  demands 


for  a  number  of  years,  providing  necessar\'  conveyance 
facilities  are  constructed  in  a  timely  manner.  One  such 
facility  is  the  Peripheral  Canal  which  will  provide  con- 
veyance of  water  for  several  regions.  Other  facilities 
are  mentioned  in  the  regional  outlooks  later  in  this 
section. 

2.  Supplemental  water  requirements  currently  aver- 
age 2.4  million  acre-feet  per  year  and  are  being  met 
primaril)'  through  ground  water  overdraft.  The  major 
overdrafted  areas  are  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  the 
Central  Coast,  and  Southern  California. 

3.  Total  overdraft  of  ground  water  basins  has  de- 
creased in  the  past  four  years  by  about  500,000  acre- 
feet  per  year,  due  to  new  water  brought  into  the 
western  San  Joaquin  \'alley  by  the  State  Water  Proj- 
ect and  the  San  Luis  Division  of  the  Central  Valley 
Project,  thus  replacing  to  some  extent  previous  ground 
water  use.  Remaining  overdrafts,  of  which  the  largest 
is  1.4  million  acre-feet  on  the  east  side  of  the  San 
Joaquin  \'alley,  are  not  considered  permanent  sources 
of  water  supply.  The  Cross  Valley  Canal,  under  con- 
struction by  the  Kern  County  Water  Agency,  will 
alleviate  some  of  the  overdraft  in  the  San  Joacjiiin 
Valley.  Further,  a  possible  mid-valley  canal,  being 
studied  by  the  Department  of  W^ater  Resources  and 
the  Bureau  of  Reclamation,  could  provide  additional 
alleviation  of  part  of  the  remaining  San  Joaquin  Val- 
ley overdraft. 

4.  Intentionally  reclaimed  waste  water  furnished 
about  180,000  acre-feet  of  usable  water  supply  in 
1972,  most  of  which  was  for  agricultural  irrigation. 
An  additional  530,000  acre-feet  of  waste  water  was 
indirectly  reclaimed,  returned  to  the  surface  and 
ground  water  supply  and  reused. 

5.  In  1974,  virtually  no  water  suppl>'  from  desalt- 
ing plants  was  being  used  in  California,  and  none  at 
all  was  furnished  from  geothermal  sources. 

Concerning  New  Water  Supplies 

1.  Tiic  location,  character  of  streamflow,  and  pres- 
ent stage  of  development  of  California's  surface  w  ater 
resources  are  such  that  the  only  areas  in  the  State 
where  there  is  any  substantial  physical  potential  for 
development  of  additional  water  supplies  arc  in  the 
north  coastal  area  and  the  Sacramento  Ri\er  Basin. 
Alore  than  25  percent  (18  million  acre-feet)  of  the 
total  stream  runoff  in  California  is  set  aside  and  not 
available  for  water  suppl\'  dc\'clopment  under  existing 
law  for  wild  and  scenic  rivers  in  the  north  coastal 
area  (although  the  law  docs  require  the  Department 
of  Water  Resources  to  report  in  1985  on  the  need 
for  water  suppl>'  and  flood  control  projects  on  the 
Eel  River  and  its  tributaries).  There  is  a  potential  for 
additional  development  of  water  in  the  Sacramento 
Basin,  although  such  development  will  be  costly  be- 
cause the  more  economical  sites  have  already  been 
developed. 


2.  Conjunctive  use  of  ground  water  basins  and  sur- 
face supplies  can  achieve  more  effective  use  of  exist- 
ing surface  water  supplies  and  would  help  conserve 
water  that  would  otherwise  spill  from  surface  reser- 
voirs during  periods  of  high  water.  Additional  study 
and  exploration  of  the  State's  ground  w  ater  basins  arc 
needed  to  adequately  assess  the  potential  for  conserv- 
ing additional  surface  water  resources  through  con- 
junctive operation. 

3.  The  California  Aqueduct  will  have  access  ca- 
pacity for  several  years  that  could  be  used  to  convey 
surplus  water  from  Northern  California  for  recharge 
of  overdrawn  ground  water  basins  in  Southern  Cali- 
fornia. 

^■\.  Reclamation  of  \\aste  water,  including  highly 
saline  agricultural  waste  water,  may  provide  an  im- 
portant source  of  industrial  water,  particularly  for 
cooling  in  power  plants.  Reservations  regarding  the 
safet_\'  of  reclaimed  water  from  a  health  standpoint 
greatly  limit  its  use  for  human  consumption  and  re- 
strict projecting  future  use  for  municipal  water  sup- 
ply purposes.  To  adequately  evaluate  the  role  of  waste 
water  reclamation  in  meeting  the  supplemental  de- 
mands, the  Department  of  Water  Resources  is  par- 
ticipating in  projects  of  applied  research. 

5.  Desalting  of  sea  water  on  a  large  scale  does  not 
currently  appear  practical  due  to  high  costs  and  ex- 
tremely large  energy  requirements.  Desalting  may  be 
used  for  a  variety  of  smaller  applications,  however, 
over  the  next  10  to  30  years,  particularly  to  treat 
brackish  waste  water  for  use  as  cooling  \\ater  in  power 
plants.  In  coastal  communities  requiring  supplemental 
water  supplies,  there  may  be  limited  possibilities  for 
desalting  sea  water  by  distillation.  Inland  communities 
with  brackish  ground  water  supplies  may  find  the 
membrane  processes  (reverse  osmosis  and  electrodial- 
\sis)  practical. 

6.  Geothermal  resources  in  the  Imperial  X'alley 
could  provide  California  with  additional  energ\',  and 
possibly  \\  ater  supplies.  These  could  help  meet  local 
municipal  and  industrial  water  demands  or  might  be 
blended  \\ith  Colorado  River  water  to  reduce  the  sa- 
linity of  water  supplies  from  the  river.  To  this  date 
however,  it  has  not  been  demonstrated  that  develop- 
ment of  geothermal  water  supplies  is  feasible,  either 
from  an  economic  or  environmental  point  of  view. 

7.  There  are  several  operational  weather  modifica- 
tion programs  in  California  and  in  other  states.  It  has 
not  been  possible  to  determine  the  extent  to  which  a 
consistent  increase  in  precipitation  and  streamflow 
can  be  attained.  Several  studies  and  pilot  projects  are 
under\\a\-  but  their  success  is  problematical.  Conse- 
quently, it  is  not  prudent  at  this  time  to  rely  on 
weather  modification  as  a  feasible  source  of  future 
water  supply.  In  addition,  there  are  as  yet  unresolved 
problems  of  environmental  effects  and  legal  questions. 


Concerning  Regional  Wafer  Supply  and  Demand 

1.  North  Coastiil.  Overall  water  supplies  are  abun- 
dant, amounting  to  nearly  40  percent  of  the  total 
\\ater  resources  of  the  State.  However,  there  are  scat- 
tered local  shortages  during  the  dry  season  when 
streams  are  low.  In  the  interior  (upper  Klamath  River 
Basin  including  the  Shasta  and  Scott  Rivers)  present 
supplies  are  nearlv  completely  used  and  significant 
expansion  would  require  additional  water  develop- 
ment. 

Only  minor  increases  from  present  water  demands 
are  projected  for  the  region  in  1990,  most  of  which 
is  expected  to  be  met  from  increased  ground  water 
pumping  and  remaining  surface  supplies.  The  minor 
increase  in  supplemental  demand  is  mostly  due  to  in- 
creases in  wildlife  requirements. 

2.  San  Francisco  Bay.  This  region  presently  has 
enough  water  to  take  care  of  its  requirements,  except 
for  a  few  scattered  areas  in  the  North  Bay  and  Rus- 
sian River  basins.  Overall  water  supplies  appear  ade- 
quate for  1990,  but  the  distribution  of  supplies  does 
not  correspond  with  the  pattern  of  projected  demand. 
Therefore,  a  supplemental  demand  of  from  30,000  to 
80,000  acre-feet  per  year  is  indicated,  primarily  in 
Santa  Clara,  Marin,  and  Napa  Counties.  The  near  fu- 
ture supply  assumes  completion  of  Warm  Springs 
Dam  and  Reservoir.  If  that  water  supply  of  115,000 
acre-feet  is  not  available,  major  shortages  in  Sonoma 
County  also  would  be  expected  by  1990.  Completion 
of  the  North  Bay  Aqueduct  of  the  State  Water  Proj- 
ect will  provide  capacity  for  an  additional  12,500 
acre-feet  annuall\-  for  Napa  County. 

3.  Central  Coastal.  Water  demands  in  this  region 
presently  exceed  dependable  supplies  by  about  140,000 
acre-feet,  per  year,  with  the  difference  showing  up 
as  ground  water  overdraft.  This  has  resulted  in  sa- 
linity intrusion  in  certain  coastal  aquifers.  The  quality 
of  ground  water  is  poor  in  the  area  around  the  City 
of  Santa  Barbara  and  some  locations  along  the  Santa 
Maria  River.  New  supplies  to  Santa  Barbara  and  San 
Luis  Obispo  Counties  from  the  Coastal  Aqueduct  of 
the  State  Water  Project  will  help  meet  demands,  but 
projected  increases  in  1990  water  demands  would  leave 
a  shortage  between  200,000  to  280,000  acre-feet  per 
year.  The  bulk  of  the  shortage  would  be  in  the  north- 
ern portion  of  the  region,  including  the  Salinas  \'al- 
ley  and  the  service  area  of  the  authorized  San  Felipe 
Division  of  the  Central  X'^alley  Project. 

4.  Soj/tb  Coastal.  Water  demands  in  1972  had  be- 
gun to  outstrip  the  supplies  available  from  sources 
other  than  the  State  Water  Project.  New  supplies 
from  the  State  Water  Project  should  be  more  than 
adequate  to  meet  1990  water  demands,  even  with  the 
projected  reduction  of  about  780,000  acre-feet  per 
year  in  Colorado  River  supplies  including  some  re- 
allocations for  power  plant  cooling  in  the  desert  areas. 
The  increase  in  State  Water  Project  supply  and  its 


substitution  in  part  for  Colorado  River  water  should 
markedl\'  lower  the  dissolved  salts  content  of  South- 
ern California  water  supplies.  Indicated  annual  1990 
demands  range  from  650,000  to  1,030,000  acre-feet 
less  than  1990  total  water  supplies  assuming  the  full 
contractual  commitments  of  the  State  Water  Project 
are  available  to  the  region. 

5.  Sacramento  Basin.  Although  overall  supplies  in 
this  region  appear  adequate,  not  all  locations  have 
sufficient  dependable  water  supplies  at  present.  The 
indicated  current  annual  deficit  is  estimated  to  be 
240,000  acre-feet  and  could  increase  to  as  much  as 
500,000  acre-feet  by  1990  for  the  highest  demand  pro- 
jection, or  could  be  slightly  less  than  current  levels  for 
the  lowest  demand  projection.  Most  of  the  projected 
supplemental  demand  in  1990  is  expected  to  occur  on 
the  west  side  of  the  Sacramento  Valley  and  in  several 
upland  basins. 

Significant  additions  to  present  water  facilities  in- 
clude completion  of  the  Tehama-Colusa  Canal  in  the 
Sacramento  Valley  and  Indian  \"alley  Reservoir  on 
Cache  Creek,  both  currently  under  construction. 

6.  Delta-Central  Sierra.  Estimated  1972  supple- 
mental demand  was  about  120,000  acre-feet  per  year, 
mostly  in  the  Folsom  South  Canal  service  area  in  Sac- 
ramento and  San  Joaquin  Counties.  Completion  of  the 
Folsom-South  Canal  and  possibly  a  Hood-Cla)'  intertie 
from  the  Sacramento  River  will  meet  this  demand. 
Other  supplemental  demands  ranging  from  80,000  to 
220,000  acre-feet  would  remain.  Completion  of  the 
North  Ba\-  Aqueduct  of  the  State  Water  Project  will 
enable  43,000  acre-feet  annually  to  be  supplied  Solano 
County  from  the  Delta. 

7.  San  Joaquin  Basin.  The  estimated  present 
ground  water  overdraft  in  this  region  is  about  250,000 
acre-feet  per  year,  mainly  in  iMadera,  southeastern 
Merced,  and  eastern  Stanislaus  Counties.  The  assumed 
additional  Central  \'alley  Project  supply  of  New 
Melones  Reservoir,  plus  some  additional  use  of  other 
sources,  is  not  expected  to  completely  end  the  over- 
draft. Supplemental  demands  ranging  from  130,000 
to  670,000  acre-feet  are  projected  for  1990. 

8.  Tulare  Basin.  Estimated  1972  ground  water 
overdraft  was  slightly  over  1,300,000  acre-feet  per 
year,  significantl\-  less  than  the  1,800,000  acre-feet 
amount  in  1967.  The  improvement  is  due  to  new  water 
supplies  from  the  Central  \'alley  Project  and  the  State 
Water  Project  to  service  areas  on  the  w  est  side  of  the 
basin,  with  some  1,500,000  acre-feet  provided  in 
1972.  By  1990  projected  deliveries  would  be  increased 
by  about  another  1,300,000  acre-feet  per  year,  but 
increases  in  demand  and  continued  overdraft  in  areas 
not  served  by  state  and  federal  facilities  would  still 
leave  supplemental  demands  or  continuing  ground 
water  overdrafts  ranging  from  920,000  to  1,920,000 
acre-feet  per  year.  A  possible  mid-valley  canal  could 
convey  surplus  water  to  the  east  side  of  the  basin  to 


partially    alleviate    overdrafted    ground    water    condi- 
tions. 

9.  North  Lahontan.  Water  demands  by  1990  could 
range  from  a  slight  decrease  to  a  minor  increase  over 
the  present  net  demands  of  430,000  acre-feet  per  year. 
Some  of  the  current  deficiency  in  firm  water  supply, 
about  40,000  acre-feet,  is  expected  to  be  met  by  con- 
tinuing ground  water  development.  There  is  a  pro- 
jected 1990  supplemental  irrigation  demand  of  about 
20,000  acre-feet  per  year.  The  high  cost  of  water 
development,  however,  will  make  it  difficult  to  meet 
this  requirement. 

10.  South  Lahontan.  Estimated  present  annual 
ground  water  overdraft  amounts  to  about  120,000 
acre-feet.  Projected  State  Water  Project  entitlement 
supplies,  if  delivered  in  1990,  could  completely  elim- 
inate the  current  overdraft  and  could  add  from  70,000 
to  100,000  acre-feet  per  year  to  underground  storage 
in  the  Antelope  \'alley-Moiave  River  areas. 

11.  Colorado  Desert.  Only  modest  increases  of 
130,000  to  150,000  acre-feet  per  year  in  agricultural 
and  urban  applied  water  demands  are  projected  for 
this  region  in  1990.  The  estimated  1972  annual  ground 
water  overdraft  of  almost  40,000  acre-feet  could  be 
mostly  eliminated  by  use  of  State  Water  Project  sup- 
plies. The  only  significant  new  t\'pe  of  demand  would 
be  that  for  power  plant  cooling  which  could  range 
from  40,000  to  130,000  acre-feet  per  year  in  1990, 
part  of  w  hich  is  expected  to  be  served  from  the  Colo- 
rado River  entitlement  of  the  Metropolitan  A\'ater 
District  of  Southern  California. 

Concerning  Alfernafive  Futures 

1.  None  of  the  four  alternative  futures  presented  in 
this  bulletin  was  designed  to  represent  a  most  prob- 
able future.  If  such  a  projection  were  to  be  developed, 
it  would  most  likely  result  in  a  statewide  water  de- 
mand somewhere  within  the  range  of  alternative  fu- 
tures II  and  III. 

2.  Selection  of  a  futurc(s)  as  a  basis  for  making  a 
decision  should  reflect  the  degree  of  flexibility"  to 
change  a  decision.  In  other  words,  as  long  as  it  is  not 
necessar\'  to  make  a  final  decision,  alternative  futures 
should  be  examined  and,  when  it  becomes  necessary- 
to  adopt  a  course  of  action,  a  single  future  must  be 
selected. 

3.  In  evaluating  actions  to  meet  the  short  range 
1990  needs,  the  Department  of  ^^'ater  Resources  con- 
cludes that  alternative  future  II  is  a  reasonable  basis 
since  it  \\  ould  be  um\  ise  to  risk  water  shortages  due 
to  unplanned  rates  of  growth.  In  evaluating  actions 
to  meet  2020  needs  the  Department  concludes  that 
alternative  future  III  provides  flexibilit_\-  yet  is  a  rea- 
sonable basis  as  use  of  this  alcernati\e  future  minimizes 
the  likelihood  of  ovcrsizing  facilities  and  overcommit- 
ment of  resources. 


California's  Water  Resources 


California's  natural  water  supplies  are  derived  from 
an  average  annual  precipitation  of  200  million  acre- 
feet — the  equivalent  of  more  than  65  trillion  gallons. 
About  65  percent  of  this  precipitation  is  consumed 
through  evaporation  and  transpiration  by  trees,  plants, 
and  other  vegetation  (Figure  1).  The  remaining  35 
percent  comprises  the  State's  average  annual  runolT 
of  71   million  acre-feet. 

Water  information  compiled  by  the  Department  of 
Water  Resources  and  presented  in  this  report  is  shown 
by  1 1  hydrologic  study  areas  covering  California,  Fig- 
ure 2.  Average  runoff  in  the  hydrologic  areas  is  shown 
in  Figure  3.  The  wide  disparity  in  runoff,  both  from 
\'car  to  year  and  between  major  drainage  areas,  cre- 
ates the  need  for  the  storage  and  conveyance  of  sur- 
face water  and  the  extensive  use  of  ground  water. 
As  shown  in  Figure  3,  the  greatest  amounts  of  runoff 
are  available  in  areas  with  the  fewest  people,  i.e.,  the 
North  Coastal  area  and  the  Sacramento  Basin.  As  Cali- 
fornia has  grown,  its  surface  water  s\'stems  have  been 


expanded  to  large-scale  transfer  systems,  involving  the 
storage  and  transportation  of  water  almost  the  entire 
length  of  the  State.^ 

A  continuing  major  water  problem  todajf'is  the 
maintenance  of  a  proper  balance  bervveen  the  use  of 
the  State's  water  resources  and  protection  and  en- 
hancement of  the  natural  environment.  Prior  to  the 
1960s,  environmental  benefits  for  the  preservation  of 
cultural  resources  and  aesthetic  areas,  including  open 
and  green  space,  wild  rivers,  and  wilderness  regions, 
iwere  not  usually  included  in  water  project  planning. 
Alany  such  benefits  were  difficult  to  identify  and  are 
still  difficult  to  measure  because  they  cannot  be  as- 
signed a  value,  and  the  technique  of  cost  and  benefit 
analysis  to  determine  relative  value  of  a  proposed 
project  is  no  longer  adequate.  Accordingly,  to  reflect 
today's  widespread  concern  for  the  natural  environ- 
ment, water  resources  planning  has  been  broadened 
to  include  consideration  of  aesthetic  and  ecological 
effects. 


State  Responsibility  for  Water  Development 


California's  responsibility  for  the  development  and 
wise  use  of  her  water  resources  is  set  forth  in  various 
sections  of  the  California  Water  Code.  The  Depart- 
ment of  Water  Resources  and  the  State  Water  Re- 
sources Control  Board  each  are  assigned  specific  duties 


in  the  Code.  The  Board  regulates  activities  that  affect 
quality  and  rights  to  use  of  the  waters  of  the  State. 
Water  Code  Section  10005,  in  addition  to  establishing 
the  California  Water  Plan,  assigns  the  Department  of 
Water  Resources  the  responsibility  for  updating  and 


e 


EVAPORATION 

AND 

TRANSPIRATION 


PRECIPITATION 


Figure    1.      Hydrologic  Cycle 


NC  -  NORTH  COASTAL 

SF   -  SAN  FRANCISCO  BAY 

CC  -  CENTRAL  COASTAL 

SC  -  SOUTH  COASTAL 

SB   -  SACRAMENTO  BASIN 

DC  -  DELTA-CENTRAL  SIERRA 

SJ    -  SAN  JOAQUIN  BASIN 

TB  -  TULARE  BASIN 

NL  -  NORTH  LAHONTAN 

SL   -  SOUTH  LAHONTAN 

CD  -  COLORADO  DESERT 


Figure  2.      Hydrologic  Study  Areps  of  California 


supplementing  the  Plan.  The  Department  carries  out 
this  rcsponsibilit)'  through  a  statewide  planning  pro- 
gram, which  guides  the  selection  of  the  most  favor- 
able pattern  for  use  of  the  State's  water  resources, 
considering  all  reasonable  alternative  courses  of  ac- 
tion. Such  alternatives  are  evaluated  on  the  basis  of 
technical  feasibility  and  economic,  social,  and  institu- 
tional factors.  The  program  comprises: 

•  Periodic  reassessment  of  existing  and  future  de- 
mands for  water  for  all  uses  in  each  of  the  hy- 
drologic  study  areas  of  California. 

•  Periodic  reassessment  of  local  water  resources, 
water  uses,  and  the  magnitude  and  timing  of  the 
need  for  additional  water  supplies  that  cannot  be 
provided  locally. 

•  Appraisal  of  various  alternative  sources  of  water 
— ground  water,  surface  water,  reclaimed  waste 
water,  desalting,  goethermal  resources,  etc. — to 
meet  future  demands  in  areas  of  water  deficiency. 

•  Determination  of  the  need  for  protection  and 
preservation  of  water  resources  in  keeping  with 
protection  and  enhancement  of  the  environment. 

•  Evaluation  of  water  development  plans. 


Figure   3.      Average  Annual  Runoff  in  Million  Acre-feet 


Organization  of  Bulletin  160-74 


Bulletin  No.  160-74  and  its  summar\-  report  have 
the  same  format,  which  consists  of  six  chapters.  Chap- 
ter 1  discusses  historic  and  recent  events  in  water 
resources  planning  and  development  in  California,  in- 
cluding recent  environmental  planning,  mea.sures  to 
enhance  water  quality,  and  the  recent  interest  and 
close  involvement  of  the  public  in  environmental  en- 
hancement. Chapter  1  also  touches  on  a  recent  Na- 
tional Water  Commission  report,  which  indicates  pos- 
sible forthcoming  changes  in  U.  S.  water  policies. 
Finally,  the  chapter  reports  on  California's  cooperative 
activities  with  federal  water  agencies  and  other  west- 
ern states,  and  briefly  describes  recent  trends  in  land 
use  planning  and  controls. 

Chapter  2  presents  a  discussion  of  important  water- 
policy  issues  for  consideration  by  legislators,  admin- 


istrators and  the  public.  Chapter  3  presents  alternative 
future  projections — of  population,  agriculture,  and 
electrical  energy.  In  addition.  Chapter  3  discusses  the 
trends  and  influences  that  affect  other  water-related 
needs,  such  as  (a)  recreation,  fish,  and  wildlife,  (b) 
environmental  quality,  (c)  water  quality,  and  (d) 
flood  control. 

in  Chapter  4,  the  alternative  future  projections  pre- 
sented in  Chapter  3  are  discussed  in  terms  of  future 
water  demands. 

Chapter  5  discusses  potential  supplemental  sources 
of  water  supply  and  water  qualit\-  planning.  Chapter 
6  relates  the  alternative  future  projections  of  water 
demand  presented  in  Chapter  4  to  existing  developed 
supplies  and  gives  estimates  of  future  supplemental 
w  atcr  demands. 


CHAPTER   I 

HISTORIC  AND  RECENT  EVENTS 


Water  resources  development  in  California  during 
the  last  century  has  progressed  through  the  efforts  of 
numerous  private  individuals  and  companies  and  public 
agencies  at  the  local,  state,  and  federal  levels.  Although 
many  of  the  resulting  water  projects  and  programs 
have  been  large  in  compass  and  purpose,  initial  efforts 
were  primarily  directed  toward  solution  of  localized 
water  requirement  problems.  The  aggregate  expendi- 
ture by  local  agencies  exceeds  the  state  and  federal 
costs. 

The  first  irrigation  supplies  were  diverted  from 
nearby  streams,  without  storage,  and  agricultural  lands 
irrigated  were  limited  to  those  that  could  be  watered 
from  available  low  summer  flows.  However,  the  need 
for  storage  reservoirs  to  capture  the  winter  runoff  and 
hold  it  until  the  summer  irrigation  season  was  soon 
recognized  and  construction  on  several  important  dams 
was  started  in  the  1880s.  Later,  the  large  metropolitan 
areas  of  the  State,  under  pressure  of  increasing  require- 
ments and  diminishing  resources  of  local  water,  found 
it  necessary  to  develop  remote  sources  of  water  supply 
and  construct  extensive  conveyance  systems  across 
mountains  and  deserts  to  satisfy  their  needs. 

The  need  to  plan  for  the  development  of  the  State's 
water  resources  on  a  broad  scale  was  recognized  over 
a  century  ago,  and  the  first  broad  investigation  of  the 
irrigation  problems  of  California  was  made  by  a  board 
of  commissioners  appointed  by  the  President.  The 
commission's  report,  published  in  1874,  outlined  a 
hypothetical  irrigation  system  for  the  San  Joaquin  and 
Sacramento  Valleys.  Other  investigations  by  federal 
and  state  agencies  followed  during  the  next  several 
decades.  Reports  on  these  investigations  contain 
meteorological  and  streamflow  data,  with  notes  on 
irrigation,  drainage,  and  flood  control,  all  of  which 
proved  of  great  value  in  planning  for  water  develop- 
ment in  the  years  that  followed. 

Comprehensive  investigations  of  the  water  resources 
of  California  \\ere  first  made  by  the  State  Engineer 
in  the  1920s.  Initial  reports  of  these  investigations  were 
presented  in  a  series  of  bulletins  by  the  State  Division 
of  Engineering  and  Irrigation  and  later  by  the  State 
Division  of  Water  Resources.  A  report  giving  results 
of  investigations,  and  outlining  revised  proposals,  \\  as 
published  in  1930  as  Division  of  Water  Resources 
Bulletin  No.  25,  entitled,  "Report  to  Legislature  of 
1931  on  State  Water  Plan."  It  outlined  a  coordinated 
plan  for  conservation,  development,  and  utilization  of 
the  water  resources  of  California.  In  1941  the  plan 
was  adopted  by  the  Legislature  and  designated  the 
"State  Water  Plan".  In  a  series  of  bulletins  following 
Bulletin  No.  25,  the  Division  of  Water  Resources  out- 


lined in  greater  detail  plans  for  coordinated  develop- 
ment of  the  water  resources  of  the  Central  Valley 
w  hich  formed  the  basis  for  the  Central  Valley  Project. 

California  Water  Plan 

In  1947,  the  Statewide  Water  Resources  Investigation 
was  initiated  by  the  Division  of  Water  Resources  for 
the  State  Water  Resources  Board  in  response  to  legisla- 
tion enacted  in  1945  and  1947.  This  investigation  en- 
tailed a  three-fold  program  of  study  to  evaluate  the 
water  resources  of  California,  to  determine  present  and 
probable  ultimate  water  requirements,  and  to  formulate 
plans  for  the  orderly  development  of  the  State's  water 
resources  to  meet  its  ultimate  water  requirements. 

The  first  phase  of  the  statewide  investigation  com- 
prised an  inventory  of  data  on  sources,  quantities,  and 
characteristics  of  water  in  California.  The  results  are 
available  in  a  bulletin  "Water  Resources  of  Califor- 
nia"*, published  in  1951.  This  bulletin  comprises  a  con- 
cise compilation  of  data  on  precipitation,  runoff  of 
streams,  floodflows  and  frequencies,  and  quality  of 
water  throughout  the  State.  The  Bulletin  showed  the 
average  annual  supply  from  the  State's  streams  to  be 
about  71  million  acre-feet.  In  addition  CaUfornia  uses 
water  from  the  Colorado  River. 

The  second  phase  dealt  with  present  and  ultimate 
requirements  for  water.  The  associated  bulletin, 
"Water  Utilization  and  Requirements  of  California"t, 
was  published  in  1955.  This  report  comprises  deter- 
minations of  the  1950  level  of  water  use  throughout 
the  State  for  all  consumptive  purposes,  and  forecasts 
of  ultimate  water  requirements  based,  in  general,  on 
the  capabilities  of  the  land  to  support  further  balanced 
development. 

The  final  phase  of  the  Statewide  Water  Resources 
Investigation  was  presnted  in  1957  as  "The  California 
Water  Plan".t  The  report  describes  a  comprehensive 
master  plan  to  guide  and  coordinate  the  planning  and 
construction  of  works  required  for  the  control,  protec- 
tion, conservation,  and  distribution  of  the  water  of 
California,  to  meet  present  and  future  needs  for  all 
beneficial  uses  and  purposes  in  all  areas  of  the  State. 
The  Plan  is  designed  to  include  or  supplement,  rather 
than  to  supersede,  existing  water  resource  develop- 
ment works,  and  does  not  interfere  with  existing  rights 
to  the  use  of  water. 


*  Bulletin  No.  1,  "Water  Resources  of  California,"  State  Water  Resources 

Board.  1951. 
t  Bulletin    No.    2,    "Water    Utilization    and   Requirements  of   California," 

State  Water  Resources  Board,  1955. 
I  Bulletin   No.    3,   "The   California   Water  Plan,"    Department   of   Water 

Resources,  1957. 


The  urgency  of  California's  water  problems  was 
illustrated  at  the  time  by  citing  the  rapid  growth  of 
the  State.  In  1940,  just  before  the  beginning  of  World 
War  II,  California  had  a  population  of  about  6,900,000. 
By  1950  the  population  had  increased  to  about  10,600,- 
000,  and  by  1955  it  had  increasd  to  more  than  13,000,- 
000.  Industrial  expansion  during  the  war  years  was 
needed  to  supply  the  United  States  and  her  allies  with 
vast  amounts  of  food,  arms  and  other  material.  After 
the  war,  industry  continued  to  e.xpand  in  order  to 
provide  Americans  and  others  with  goods  and  services 
they  had  foregone.  Concurrently,  the  demand  for 
water  increased  significantly. 

Another  result  of  this  growth  was  the  need  for 
larger  quantities  of  agricultural  products,  and  Cali- 
fornia had  the  land  and  climate  to  fulfill  this  demand. 
The  State  also  needed  water  to  irrigate  the  additional 
acreage,  and  this  represented  a  dramatic  increase  in 
water  requirements.  The  total  requirement  for  water 
in  California  for  all  consumptive  purposes  in  1950  was 
about  21  million  acre-feet,  and  it  was  forecast  in  Bul- 
letin No.  2  that  this  would  ultimately  increase  to 
over  51  million  acre-feet. 

The  California  Water  Plan  includes  many  facts  and 
forecasts.  It  presents  an  evaluation  of  the  water  supply 
available  to  the  State,  and  an  estimate  of  water  require- 
ments, both  present  and  future,  for  all  purposes  that 
could  then  be  foreseen.  The  plan  identifies  water- 
sheds where  studies  indicated  that  surplus  water  ex- 
isted and  others  where  a  deficiency  in  supply  was 
projected.  It  identifies  existing  and  prospective  water 
problems  and  it  contains  suggestions  as  to  the  manner 
in  which  the  waters  of  the  State  should  be  distributed 
for  the  benefit  and  use  of  all  areas.  The  plan  proposes 
objectives  toward  which  future  development  of  water 
resources  should  be  directed  and  defines  objectives  in 
terms  of  potential  physical  accomplishments  which 
could  be  used  to  measure  the  merits  of  projects  pro- 
posed by  any  agency.  It  also  took  cognizance  of  other 


Natomas  Ditch  in  Sacramento  County 


possibilities  for  augmenting  the  State's  water  supplies. 
It  discussed  and  evaluated  the  potentialities  of  sea 
water  conversion,  waste  water  reclamation,  artificial 
increase  of  precipitation  and  waste  water  management. 
Finally,  it  demonstrated  that  the  water  available  to  the 
State  is  adequate  for  full  development  of  the  land  re- 
sources of  the  State. 

The  very  magnitude  of  the  task  involved  in  the 
formulation  of  the  California  Water  Plan  was  such 
that  detailed  sun-eys  and  economic  and  financial 
analysis  could  not  be  undertaken.  The  plan  was  re- 
garded as  a  broad  and  flexible  pattern  into  which  fu- 
ture definite  projects  could  be  integrated  in  an  or- 
derly fashion  when  needed.  It  was  also  anticipated 
that  the  plan  would  be  altered  and  improved  as  more 
detailed  studies  were  undertaken  in  the  light  of  future 
events. 

The  completion  of  the  California  Water  Plan  and 
the  publication  of  Bulletin  No.  3  completed  the  State- 
wide Water  Resources  Investigation;  it  by  no  means 
signified  the  termination  of  planning  activities  by  the 
Department  of  Water  Resources.  It  marked  only  the 
beginning  of  an  intensive  and  continuing  program  of 
study  of  the  needs  for  specific,  local,  and  statewide 
water  programs,  analysis  of  their  economic  justifica- 
tion and  financial  feasibility,  and  determination  of  the 
recommended  priority  of  their  implementation.  It  was 
envisioned  that  the  study  program  would  enable  the 
planning  endeavor  to  keep  pace  with  the  needs  of  a 
rapidly  growing  state. 

The  State,  in  1951,  selected  the  California  State 
Water  Project,  first  known  as  the  Feather  River  Proj- 
ect, as  a  feature  of  the  California  Water  Plan  to  be 
constructed  by  the  State. 

Transition  to  the  Present 

In  the  decade  following  publication  of  the  Cali- 
fornia Water  Plan,  rapid  population  growth  in  Cali- 
fornia continued,  and  with  it  the  demand  for  devel- 
opment of  additional  water  supplies  for  all  purposes. 
The  Department  of  Water  Resources  published  a  re- 
port, "Implementation  of  the  California  Water 
Plan",*  in  1966.  It  assessed  the  changes  which  had  oc- 
curred during  the  10-year  period  since  the  formula- 
tion of  the  California  ^^'ate^  Plan. 

During  this  period  all  areas  of  economic  activity, 
including  employment,  personal  income,  construction, 
retail  sales,  corporate  profits,  and  farm  receipts  ad- 
vanced to  higher  levels. 

The  growth  in  population  of  nearly  5,750,000  peo- 
ple during  that  decade  represented  an  increase  of  al- 
most 45  percent  over  the  1955  population  of  13,000,- 
000.  California,  with  18,750,000  people  in  1965,  was 
becoming  the  most  populous  state  in  the  nation.  Con- 
tinued growth  at  this  rate  would  increase  future  pop- 

*  Bulletin   No.    160-66,   "Implementation   of   the   California  Water  Plan," 
Department  of  Water  Resources,   1966. 


10 


ulations  to  more  than  35,000,000  bv  1990  and  54,- 
000,000  in  2020. 

The  second  report  in  the  Bulletin  160  series,*  was 
released  4  years  later.  In  the  period  between  1966  and 
1970  California  experienced  a  dynamic  era,  not  only 
in  water  project  implementation,  but  also  in  the  con- 
sideration of  water  resource  development  within  the 
framework  of  the  overall  environment. 

The  rapid  rate  of  growth  of  California's  population 
that  had  occurred  during  the  1940s  and  1950s  de- 
creased sharply  in  the  mid-1960s  as  a  result  of  both 
reduction  in  births  and  immigration.  By  1970,  the 
trend  indicated  that  California's  population  would 
probably  increase  to  about  29,000,000  in  1990  and 
45,000,000  in  2020,  instead  of  35,000,000  and  54,000,- 
000  respectively,  as  projected  in  1966. 

Bulletin  160-70  reported  that  applied  and  net  water 
requirements  for  1967  were  36,000,000  and  28,000,000 
acre-feet  respectively.  Applied  water  requirements 
are  quantities  needed  annually  at  all  farm  headgates 
and  urban  distribution  system  intakes.  Net  water  re- 
quirements reflect  the  allowance  for  probable  reuse 
of  water  ^\•ithin  each  area.  The  bulletin  also  reported 
that  projected  applied  water  demands  for  California 
in  1990  and  2020  were  expected  to  be  42,000,000  and 
48,000,000  acre-feet  respectively.  The  projected  net 
water  demands  for  1990  and  2020  were  given  as  35,- 
000,000  and  40,000,000  acre-feet,  respectively. 

A  significant  conclusion  in  Bulletin  160-70,  result- 
ing from  the  projections  of  a  reduced  rate  of  popula- 
tion grow  th,  was  that  projected  future  water  demands 
in  California  would  also  grow  at  a  slower  rate.  As  a 
result  it  was  postulated  that  more  time  would  be  avail- 
able to  develop  new  water  supplies  than  had  been 
thought  in  1966,  and  that  additional  conservation  fa- 
cilities of  the  State  Water  Project  would  not  be 
needed  until  possibly  the  mid-1990s.  It  was  pointed 
out,  however,  that  additional  conveyance  facilities  to 
deliver  conserved  water  to  areas  of  need  were  re- 
quired. 

The  temporary  adequacy  of  developed  water  sup- 
plies was  received  with  loud  applause  b>'  some  and 
with  reserved  dismay  by  others.  The  record  of  the 
public  hearings  on  Bulletin  160-70  held  during  1971 
shows  that  many  Califomians  were  pleased  to  hear 
that  population  growth  was  slowing  down  signifi- 
cantly and  that  this  would  reduce  the  demands  on 
water  resources.  Others,  however,  saw  this  as  possibly 
a  hasty  conclusion  and  sought  to  remind  the  Depart- 
ment of  Water  Resources  that  California  still  had 
numerous  water  problems  for  which  solutions  were 
required. 

A  number  of  significant  events  have  occurred  in  the 
last  four  years,  some  of  which  have  tended  to  place 
an  increased  burden  on  the  State's  water  resources  and 


Bulletin    No.     160-70,    "Water    for    California,    the    California    Water 
Plan,  Outlook  in    1970,"  Department  of  Water  Resources,  1970. 


some  of  which  have  directed  more  attention  to  those 
factors  affecting  the  future  use  of  water  resources.  At 
the  federal  level,  the  National  Water  Commission  has 
published  probably  the  most  comprehensive  report 
ever  seen  on  water  management;  a  National  Environ- 
mental Policy  Act  has  been  adopted;  Congress  has 
given  considerable  attention  to  a  National  Land  Use 
Policy;  and  principles  and  standards  have  been  estab- 
lished by  the  Water  Resources  Council  and  adopted 
by  the  President  that  add  environmental  quality  as  an 
objective  for  planning. 

At  the  state  level  California  has  adopted  a  Wild  and 
Scenic  Rivers  Act  which  dedicates  about  one-fourth 
of  the  State's  surface  water  flow  to  scenic  and  recre- 
ational use;  an  Environmental  Quality  Act  similar  to 
the  federal  legislation  has  been  adopted;  and  several 
major  administrative  decisions  concerning  water  rights 
have  focused  attention  on  natural  environmental  and 
esthetic  uses  of  water. 

National  Water  Commission  Report 

The  National  Water  Commission's  report,  "Water 
Policies  for  the  Future",  published  in  June  1973,  is 
probably  the  most  comprehensive  analysis  of  federal 
water  policies  and  practices  ever  seen.  It  is  also  the 
most  far-reaching  in  its  recommendations. 

The  Commission,  composed  of  seven  members  ap- 
pointed by  the  President,  was  established  for  a  5-year 
term  by  an  act  of  Congress  in  September  1968.  Duties 
of  the  Commission  were  stated  in  the  act  to  be: 

"The  Commission  shall    (1)   review  present  and 
anticipated  national  water  resource  problems,  mak- 
ing such  projections  of  water  requirements  as  may 
be   necessary   and   identifying   alternative   ways   of 
meeting   these   requirements — giving   consideration, 
among  other  things,  to  conser\'ation  and  more  ef- 
ficient use  of  e.xisting  supplies,  increased  usability 
by  reduction  of  pollution,  innovations  to  encourage 
the  highest  economic  use  of  water,  interbasin  trans- 
fers, and  technological  advances  including,  but  not 
limited    to,    desalting,    weather    modification,    and 
waste   water  purification   and   reuse;    (2)    consider 
economic  and  social  consequences  of  water  resource 
development,  including,  for  example,  the  impact  of 
water  resource  development  on  regional  economic 
growth,   on  institutional   arrangements,   and   on  es- 
thetic  values   aff^ecting   the   quality   of   life   of   the 
American  people;  and   (3)  advise  on  such  specific 
water  resource  matters  as  may  be  referred  to  it  by 
the  President  and  the  Water  Resources  Council." 
Commissioners  served  on  a  part-time  basis  and  were 
forbidden  to  hold  any  other  position  as  officers  or  eni- 
plo\ees  of  the  United  States.  Five  million  dollars  was 
authorized  for  the  five  years  of  work.  The  Commis- 
sion's final  report  consists  of  approximately  600  pages 
and  its  17  chapters  cover  all  the  items  in  the  foregoing 
statement  of  duties. 


11 


The  Commission  in  its  summary  stated  that  a  rela- 
tively small  number  of  themes  emerge  in  the  report. 

"First,  the  report  emphasizes  that  the  level  of  fu- 
ture demands  for  water  is  not  inevitable  but  derives 
in  large  part  from  policy  decisions  within  the  con- 
trol of  society." 

"A  second  recurring  theme  of  the  Commission's 
report  is  that  it  sees  a  shift  in  national  priorities  from 
development  of  water  resources  to  restoration  and 
enhancement  of  water  quality." 

"Third,  the  Commission  believes  that  water  re- 
source planning  must  be  tied  more  closely  to  land 
use  planning." 

"Fourth,  the  Commission  recommends  policies 
which  will  lead  to  the  conservation  of  water — 
policies  which  will  motivate  better  use  of  water  and 
reduce  water  losses  b\'  improved  efficiency." 

"Fifth,  the  Commission  believes  that  sound  eco- 
nomic principles  should  be  applied  to  decisions  on 
whether  to  build  water  projects." 

"Sixth,  the  Commission  believes  that  laws  and  legal 
institutions  should  be  reexamined  in  the  light  of 
contemporary  water  problems." 

"Seventh,  the  Commission  believes  that  develop- 
ment, management,  and  protection  of  water  re- 
sources should  be  controlled  by  that  level  of 
government  nearest  the  problem  and  most  capable 
of  effectively  representing  the  vital  interests  in- 
volved." 

The  report  devotes  considerable  attention  to  plan- 
ning for  water  resources  development  and  control. 
In  general,  it  advocates  an  increased  level  of  planning 
at  local  or  regional  levels  supported  by  federal  funding. 

In  its  consideration  of  agriculraral  matters,  the  re- 
port relied  heavily  on  a  number  of  alternative  future 
models  of  agricultural  development  prepared  for  the 
Commission  by  professors  at  Iowa  State  University. 
The  alternatives  involved  different  assumptions  for 
farm  policy,  population,  water  price,  exports  and 
technology.  In  addition,  the  report  discussed  the  pro- 
jection of  past  trends  in  agriculture  including  the 
OBERS  *  projections. 

Concluding  their  discussion  of  this  topic,  the  Com- 
mission's report  states  on  page  141: 

".  .  .  there  appears  to  be  adequate  productive 
capacity  in  the  Nation's  agriculture  to  meet  food 
and  fiber  demand  under  various  alternative  futures 
at  least  until  the  \ear  2000.  In  such  case  there  would 
be  no  need  in  the  next  30  \'ears  to  continue  fedcrall\' 
subsidized  water  resource  development  programs  to 
increase  the  agricultural  land  base  of  the  country, 
but  where  the  Federal  Government  has  executed 
contracts  to  complete  water  projects  alrcad\-  begun, 
such  projects  should  of  course  be  completed. 


^  Office  of  Business  Economics  and  the  Economic  Research  Service.  Term 
is  still  in  use  although  OBE  was  reorfianized  in  1972  and  renamed 
Bureau  of  Hconomic  Analysis. 


"Even  if  none  of  the  alternative  futures  assumed 
in  the  Iowa  State  Universit)'  studies  adequate!) 
project  the  actual  supply  and  demand  for  food  and 
fiber  for  the  >ear  2000,  there  is  still  no  justification 
for  subsidizing  reclamation  projects.  If,  for  example, 
export  demand  for  food  and  fiber  greatly  exceeds 
the  amount  contemplated  in  an\-  of  the  alternative 
futures  considered,  that  demand  should  nevertheless 
be  satisfied  in  the  most  efficient  wa\'." 

In  leading  to  this  conclusion,  the  Commission  did 
note  that  the  OBERS  projections  used  by  federal 
agencies  contemplated  a  much  larger  need  for  irrigated 
agriculture  than  the  Iowa  State  model  but  it  expressed 
the  belief  that  the  Iowa  State  assumptions  were  rea- 
sonable. 

The  State  of  California  in  its  comments  on  the  re- 
port noted  the  Iowa  State  models  were  "what  if" 
models  but  had  been  used  to  set  the  tone  of  the  report. 
This  was  believed  unrealistic  and  to  have  led  to  some 
erroneous  conclusions.  The  State  in  its  comments  also 
termed  unrealistic: 

a)  Use  of  a  constant  level  of  foreign  export  in  all 
but  one  model 

b)  Assumption  of  greatl\'  increased  water  prices 

c)  Assumed  shifts  of  agricultural  production  from 
irrigated  to  nonirrigated  lands. 

The  effect  of  the  Commission's  recommendations 
would  probably  be  to  reduce  the  number  and  scope 
of  future  irrigation  projects,  except  those  in  areas 
where  long-growing  seasons  provide  sufficient  repay- 
ment capacit\-  to  pa\'  the  full  costs  of  extensive  w  ater 
projects. 

The  report  dealt  in  detail  \\  ith  financing,  construc- 
tion, and  repa\mcnt  of  federal  water  projects.  Its 
principal  recommendations  concerned  repayment.  It 
advocated  that,  in  addition  to  elimination  of  subsidies 
for  irrigation,  water  supply,  flood  control  and  navi- 
gation, project  costs  also  be  repaid  in  full  b\-  the  direct 
beneficiaries.  While  one  could  suppose  that  financing 
and  construction  b\-  federal  agencies  would  continue, 
it  w  ould  ccrtainl\  follow  that  w  ithout  historic  federal 
nonreimbursable  capital  expenditures  for  these  types 
of  projects,  the  number  of  such  projects  w  ould  rapidly 
decrease.  The  present  program  of  grants  for  water 
qualit)'  control  facilities  would  be  continued  under 
the  Commission's  recommendations  for  about  10  years. 

The  Commission  made  a  number  of  recommenda- 
tions regarding  intcrbasin  transfers  of  water.  The 
economic  criteria  for  justifying  such  projects  and  the 
amount  to  be  paid  1)\-  beneficiaries  of  such  projects, 
including  the  principle  that  areas  of  origin  should  re- 
ceive monetary  compensation  for  net  losses  occurring 
as  a  result  of  the  transfer,  appear  to  be  overl)'  restric- 
tive and  would  undoubtcdl\-  preclude  any  intcrbasin 
transfers  whatsoever. 

The  Commission  recommended  the  definition  and 
quantification  of  Indian  water  rights.  It  also  rccom- 


12 


mended  that  Congress  make  available  financial  assist- 
ance to  Indian  tribes.  This  would  enable  those  tribes, 
which  lack  the  funds,  to  make  economic  use  of  the 
water. 

The  Commission  made  other  recommendations  too 
numerous  to  list  in  detail.  However,  a  few  are  sum- 
marized here.  In  its  recommendations  regarding  use 
of  water  projects  to  promote  regional  economic  de- 
velopment it  stated  that, 

".  .  .  under  certain  conditions,  water  develop- 
ment may  be  helpful  as  one  of  the  several  ingredients 
necessary  to  encourage  regional  economic  develop- 
ment and  population  growth,  or  to  preserve  existing 
development.  However,  water  developments  differ 
widely  in  the  effects  they  induce.  Congress,  in  mak- 
ing judgments  as  to  whether  water  development 
should  be  used  to  aid  regional  growth,  should  re- 
quire evaluations  of  certain  critical  growth  factors 
in  order  to  enhance  the  effectiveness  of  develop- 
ments and  reduce  offsetting  losses  in  other  regions. 
These  factors  include:  market  demands,  availability 
of  substitutes  for  water  services,  competitive  ad- 
vantage of  the  region,  and  the  potential  for  capital- 
izing on  growth  opportunities." 
It  commented  on  population  distribution  by  saying 
that, 

".  .  .  federal  water  programs  can  be  easily  adjusted 
to  support  whatever  population  distribution  policy 
the  nation  adopts.  However,  water  programs  are  not, 
in  and  of  themselves,  adequate  to  effectuate  a  na- 
tional policy  concerning  where  people  will  live." 
The  Commission  recommended  that  the  Principles 
and  Standards  that  were  then  being  recommended  by 
the  Water  Resources  Council  in  regard  to  Planning 
Water  and  Related  Land  Resources  be  adopted  except 
that  the  discount  rate  should  be  the  interest  rate  on 
long-term  federal  securities  rather  than  the  opportu- 
nity cost  of  money  that  had  then  been  included  in  the 
recommended  Principles  and  Standards.  The  Principles 
and  Standards  w  ere  later  put  in  force  by  the  President. 
Subsequently,  Congress  directed,  in  a  flood  control  bill 
(P.L.  93-251),  use  of  a  discount  rate  equal  to  the 
interest  rate  on  long-term  federal  securities. 

The  report  recommended  a  close  relationship  be- 
tween land  use  and  water  and  other  planning  as  indi- 
cated in  its  seven  key  issues  noted  at  the  outset.  It 
spoke  in  favor  of  water  pollution  control  but  recom- 
mended that  the  Federal  Water  Pollution  Control  Act 
Amendments  of  1972  should  be  revised  to  restore  the 
policies  that  (1)  water  is  polluted  when  its  quality 
has  been  altered  by  the  activities  of  man  to  such  a 
degree  that  reasonable  present  and   pro.spective  uses 


as  designated  by  public  authorities  are  impaired,  and 
that  (2)  the  objective  of  pollution  control  should  be 
to  protect  the  designated  uses.  This  and  other  recom- 
mendations in  regard  to  this  subject  will  undoubtedly 
be  given  much  consideration  in  studies  by  the  National 
Commission  on  Water  Quality  and  by  the  committees 
of  the  Congress  who  are  engaged  in  oversight  activities 
regarding  Public  Law  92-500  at  the  present  time. 

Finally,  the  report  touched  on  basic  data  and  re- 
search for  future  progress.  It  recommended  that  the 
Water  Resources  Council  direct  that  planning  studies 
include  an  assessment  of  research  needed  to  support 
planning  objectives.  It  also  recommended  organiza- 
tional changes  in  the  agencies  in  Federal  Government 
that  deal  with  water  resources  research. 

The  State  of  California,  in  commenting  on  the  re- 
view draft,  agreed  with  most  of  the  recommendations 
on  water  resources  planning.  The  State,  however,  dis- 
agreed with  many  of  the  conclusions  regarding  the 
future  of  irrigated  agriculture  that  were  expressed  by 
the  National  Water  Commission. 

The  State  observed  that  the  substitution  of  flood- 
plain  management  for  structural  remedies  for  flood 
control  has  definite  limitations  in  California  due  to  the 
extensive  areas  flooded  in  the  Central  Valley  prior  to 
construction  of  levees.  In  Southern  California  much 
development  is  necessarily  located  on  alluvial  cones 
which  were  built  by  streams  that  wandered  over  the 
surface  of  the  cones  in  recent  geologic  time  and  if  not 
restrained  will  continue  to  do  so. 

The  State  also  disagreed  with  economic  criteria  pro- 
posed for  interbasin  transfers  of  water.  The  Com- 
mission's recommendation  that  an  interbasin  transfer 
should  be  the  least  cost  source  of  water  supply  for  a 
given  purpose  is  contrary  to  the  concepts  of  multi- 
objective  planning  w  herein  all  needs,  purposes  and  uses 
are  considered  in  an  integrated  planning  process. 

It  is  difficult  to  predict  the  degree  to  which  the 
Commission's  recommendations  will  be  implemented. 
The  budgetary  programs  of  the  present  administration 
and  some  attitudes  of  Congress  seem  to  be  considerably 
in  tune  with  some  of  the  Commission's  recommenda- 
tions in  regard  to  water  supply,  flood  control  and 
navigation.  Few  new  starts  have  been  authorized  and 
funding  of  construction  has  been  substantially  reduced. 
This  is  probably  due  in  part  to  the  Commission's  re- 
flecting current  public  expressions  of  priorities  and  in 
part  to  the  Administration  and  Congress  recognizing 
the  independent  views  expressed  by  the  Commission. 

It  seems  unlikely  that  congressional  approval  of  the 
repayment  policies  recommended  by  the  Commission 
will  occur  in  the  near  future  if  at  all. 

The  report  is  worth  careful  review  by  anyone  with 
serious  concern  for  federal  water  policies  and,  in  fact, 
for  water  policies  in  general. 


13 


Environmental  Considerations 
in  Water  Management 

The  term  "environment"  has  more  than  one  mean- 
ing. To  many  people,  it  is  the  surroundings  in  \vhich 
they  live  or  work.  To  others,  it  is  more  closely  as- 
sociated with  natural  conditions  and  the  land  and  re- 
sources that  have  not  yet  been  significantly  affected 
by  man's  activities. 

Under  the  first  usage,  much  of  the  desirable  en- 
vironment of  California  has  been  created  by  develop- 
ment and  use  of  the  State's  water  resources.  This  en- 
vironment includes  lawns,  shade  trees,  and  ornamen- 
tal shrubbery  around  homes  and  in  cities;  orchards 
and  green  fields  that  make  up  several  million  acres 
of  irrigated  lands;  and  the  many  reservoirs  that  pro- 
vide recreation  activit\^  for  millions  of  the  State's 
residents. 

For  decades  in  California  multiple-purpose  water 
projects  have  been  designed  and  constructed  to  pro- 
vide for  environmental,  as  well  as  many  other,  uses. 
However,  in  the  last  few  years,  many  additional  en- 
vironmental factors,  largely  natural,  have  been  intro- 
duced. 

The  Porter-Cologne  Water  Qualitj'  Control  Act, 
adopted  by  California  in  1969,  reflected  a  tough  new 
attitude  toward  water  pollution  problems.  At  both  the 
national  and  state  levels  sweeping  legislation  was  en- 
acted to  protect  environmental  quality:  the  National 
Environmental  Policy  Act  (NEPA)  of  1969  and  the 
(California)  Environmental  Quality-  Act  (CEQA)  of 
1970.  In  addition  much  litigation  has  been  introduced 
in  the  federal  and  state  courts  with  respect  to  environ- 
mental considerations  in  the  area  of  water  resources 
development  and  management. 

A  new  planning  thrust  at  both  state  and  local  lev- 
els toward  the  development  of  supplemental  sources 
of  water  through  waste  water  reclamation  and  the 
more  efficient  use  of  water  is  also  indicative  of  the 
emphasis  on  environmental  protection.  There  is  a 
growing  awareness  that  water  is  a  finite  renewable 
resource  which  must  be  protected — both  now  and  for 
generations  to  come. 

Public  Involvement 

Most  of  the  legislation  protecting  the  environment 
can  be  traced  to  firm  public  support.  Public  opinion 
polls  taken  in  the  late  1960s  and  early  1970s  showed 
strong  sentiment  toward  natural  environmental  pro- 
tection. 

Governing  bodies  at  all  levels — Congress,  the  Cali- 
fornia Legislature,  local  boards  and  commissions — re- 
flected the  concern  of  their  constituents  in  approving 
CEQA,  NEPA,  the  California  Wild  and  Scenic  Rivers 
Act,  the  Federal  Water  Pollution  Control  .^ct 
Amendments  of  1972,  and  resolutions  supporting  "no 
growth". 


In  California,  citizens  also  voiced  their  concern  di- 
rectly by  passing  the  California  Coastal  Zone  Conser- 
vation Act  of  1972,  an  initiative.  That  same  year, 
Colorado  voters  rejected  a  bid  to  hold  the  Winter 
Olympics  in  their  State,  largely  on  an  argument  that 
the  environment  would  be  harmed. 

Individual  members  of  the  public,  and  various  or- 
ganizations, have  also  attempted  to  achieve  environ- 
mental goals  through  litigation.  Public  appeal  to  the 
courts  began  in  the  mid-60s.  It  is  generally  believed 
that  these  early  cases  spawned  the  federal  and  state 
environmental  laws  which  became  effective  in  1970. 

Since  1972,  newer  considerations  have  begun  to 
weigh  heavily  on  the  public  mind  such  as  the  energy 
crisis  and  inflation.  The  environment  is  still  a  major 
concern,  however.  Environmental  considerations  are 
now  a  part  of  the  public  conscience — and  they  are 
likely  to  remain  so. 

Water  Rights  Decisions 

The  State  Water  Resources  Control  Board 
(SWRCB)  in  1971,  1972,  and  1973  rendered  three  de- 
cisions which  imposed  conditions  on  water  develop- 
ment in  California  of  far  greater  consequences  than 
ever  before.  These  decisions  could  influence  water 
project  planning  far  into  the  future.  At  this  time,  the 
three  decisions  are  under  review  in  the  federal  or 
state  courts. 

Decision  1379  would  require  greater  outflows  from 
the  Sacramento-San  Joaquin  Delta  into  San  Francisco 
Bay  and  the  Pacific  Ocean  than  had  been  considered 
in  previous  planning  and  operation  studies  and  would 
reduce  the  quantities  of  water  available  for  delivery  to 
homes,  farms  and  industries  served  by  the  Central 
\'alley  Project  and  the  State  Water  Project.  Decision 
1400  would  require  increased  flows  in  the  American 
River  below  the  diversion  for  the  Folsom-South  Canal 
and  thus  reduce  the  quantities  of  water  available  for  a 
direct  gravity  diversion  to  users  in  the  service  area. 
Decision  1422  would  limit  the  amount  of  water  that 
could  be  stored  in  New  Alelones  Reservoir  on  the 
Stanislaus  River  until  water  is  needed  for  users  in 
service  areas  in  other  parts  of  the  San  Joaquin  \'alley. 

In  issuing  Decision  1379,  the  State  Water  Resources 
Control  Board  set  water  quality  standards  in  the  Sac- 
ramento-San Joaquin  Delta  to  protect  agricultural, 
municipal,  industrial,  and  fishery  uses;  as  \\d\  as  for 
the  maintenance  of  neomysis  awatschensis,  the  opos- 
sum shrimp,  which  is  a  principal  food  of  juvenile 
striped  bass.  Salinir>'  standards  were  also  set  for  Sui- 
sun  Marsh  for  \\  ildlife  maintenance. 

Decision  1379,  in  effect,  establishes  standards  and 
directs  the  Bureau  of  Reclamation  and  the  Depart- 
ment of  Water  Resources  to  operate  their  valley  water 
projects  to  maintain  water  qualit\'  in  the  channels  of 
the  Delta  equal  to  or  better  than  those  set  out  in  the 
standards,  doing  so,  either  by  discontinuance  of  proj- 


14 


Waterwa/s  of  the  Sacramento-San  Joaquin  Delta 


ect  diversions  or  by  release  of  stored  water.  A  further 
provision  of  the  Decision  would  require  increased 
Delta  surveillance  and  water  quality  monitoring  that 
would  measure  environmental  factors  and  enable  the 
correlation  of  the  physical  parameters  to  the  key  re- 
sources of  the  area. 

The  many  ramifications  and  secondary  effects  of 
Decision  1379  on  water  development  in  California  are 
a  continuing  subject  for  discussion  by  water  interests 
and  environmentalists.  The  SWRCB  will  reopen  this 
decision  not  later  than  July  1,  1978,  to  consider  pos- 
sible modifications  of  the  decision. 

Decision  1400  affects  plans  of  the  Bureau  of  Recla- 
mation to  divert  much  of  the  flow  of  the  American 
River  to  users  in  service  areas  in  Sacramento  and  San 
Joaquin  Counties.  In  1957,  the  Bureau  agreed*  to  fish 
releases  of  250  cubic  feet  per  second  (cfs)  from  Jan- 
uary 1  to  September  14,  and  500  cfs  from  September 
5  to  December  31,  below  Nimbus  Dam.  Additional 
releases  also  are  made  to  meet  the  existing  water  rights 
and  water  supply  contracts  and  agreements  with  down- 
stream users. 

Decision  1400,  which  was  applied  to  Auburn  Reser- 
voir by  the  State  Water  Resources  Control  Board, 


'  State  Water  Rights  Decision  D-893,  March  18,  1958. 


calls  for  greatly  increased  flows  for  fishery  and  rec- 
reation purposes  in  the  American  River  from  Nimbus 
Dam  to  its  junction  with  the  Sacramento  River.  The 
required  flows  range  from  1,250  to  1,500  cfs  in  normal 
water  years. 

For  nearly  rvvo  decades  water  stored  in  Folsom. 
Reservoir  was  released  to  the  American  River  because 
the  Folsom-South  Canal  had  not  been  constructed. 
This  resulted  in  providing  larger  summer  flows  than 
had  occurred  before  Folsom  Dam  was  built.  During 
this  period  an  e.\tensive  fishery  developed  in  the  river, 
and  local  residents  developed  plans  for  and  began 
using  the  new  recreational  potential  of  the  river  area 
during  the  summer  months.  Decision  1400  would  allow 
the  fishery  and  recreational  benefits  to  continue  to  a 
greater  extent  than  contemplated  for  conditions 
authorized  by  the  Congress.  The  water  could  flow 
down  the  American  River  into  the  Sacramento  River 
and  be  diverted  from  that  river  near  Hood.  A  pumping 
plant  and  canal  would  then  be  used  to  put  the  water 
into  the  Folsom-South  Canal  near  Clay  at  increased 
cost. 

Decision  1422  restricts  storage  in  the  federal  New 
Alelones  Reservoir  to  less  than  half  of  the  total  reser- 
voir capacity.  The  restriction  will  be  reconsidered  by 
the  State  Water  Resources  Control  Board  when  the 


15 


white  water  rotting  on  the  Eel  River 

Bureau  of  Reclamation  demonstrates  a  specific  need 
for  the  water  that  can  be  obtained  from  the  capacity 
of  the  upper  part  of  the  reservoir.  The  storage  limita- 
tions will  preserve  a  popular  "whitewater"  area  (which 
exists  because  of  releases  from  headwater  reservoirs  for 
power  generation)  and  will  protect  some  limestone 
caves  and,  possibly,  some  archeological  and  historical 
sites.  D-1422  provides  for  a  project  yield  that  will 
satisfy  adjacent  service  area  demands  for  irrigation, 
water  quality  control,  and  fish  and  wildlife  preserva- 
tion and  enhancement — and  the  use  of  the  same  waters 
for  power  generation  but  with  much  less  output.  It 
defers  significant  impaimient  of  upstream  recreational 
values  until  a  need  for  the  additonal  water  can  be 
demonstrated.  The  reservoir  available  at  the  lower 
water  level  would  provide  very  limited  recreation 
opportunity  as  compared  to  recreation  on  the  reservoir 
at  the  higher  level. 

California  Wild  and  Scenic  Rivers  Act 

During  the  four  year  period  since  publication  of 
Bulletin  160-70,  the  citizens  of  California  have  ex- 
pressed a  strong  interest  in  preserving  certain  free- 
flowing  rivers  in  their  natural  condition  and  appear- 
ance. These  expressions  have  resulted  in  two  acts  by 
the  California  Legislature. 

In  1971,  the  Legislature  passed  SB-1285  (Chapter 
761,  Statutes  of  1971)  which  directed  the  Resources 
Agency  to  prepare  waterway  management  plans  for 
20  rivers  and  tributaries  in  Northwestern  California. 
These  rivers  include  essentially  all  of  the  coastal  stream 
systems  from  the  Smith  River  on  the  north  to  the 
Russian  River  on  the  south.  The  Big  Sur  and  Little 
Sur  Rivers  in  the  central  coastal  region  were  later 
added  to  this  study  list. 

The  management  plans  being  prepared  pursuant  to 
Chapter  761  are  to  include  provisions  for  necessary 
and  desirable  flood  control,  water  conservation,  recre- 
ation, fish  and  wildlife  preservation  and  enhancement, 
water  qualit\'  preservation  and  enhancement,  stream- 
flow  augmentation  and  free-flowing  rivers. 


In  the  following  year,  the  Legislature  passed  and 
the  Governor  signed  into  law  SB-107  (Chapter  1259, 
Statutes  of  1972)  known  as  the  California  Wild  and 
Scenic  Rivers  Act.  This  act  added  provisions  to  the 
Public  Resources  Code  which  established  a  State  Wild, 
Scenic  and  Recreational  Rivers  System.  The  Califor- 
nia Act  is  similar  in  concept  to  that  established  at  the 
Federal  level  through  passage  of  the  Federal  Wild  and 
Scenic  Rivers  Act  of  1968  (P.L.  90-542). 

Eight  rivers  were  designated  for  inclusion  in  the 
State  system.  These  are  the  entire  Smith  River  and 
major  portions  of  the  Klamath,  Trinity,  Scott,  Sal- 
mon, Eel,  and  Van  Duzen  Rivers  and  the  American 
River  (north  fork  and  lower  main  stem). 

The  Secretary  for  Resources  is  required  to  adminis- 
ter the  system  in  accordance  with  management  plans 
to  be  prepared  by  the  Resources  Agency  and  ap- 
proved by  the  Legislature.  These  plans  are  presently 
under  preparation  with  the  Smith  River  plan  sched- 
uled as  the  first  for  completion. 

Each  river  component  of  the  system  is  to  be  ad- 
ministered by  the  Secretary  so  as  to  protect  and  en- 
hance the  scenic,  recreational  and  related  values  for 
which  it  was  included.  This  is  to  be  done  without 
unreasonably  limiting  the  other  resource  values,  such 
as  lumbering  and  grazing,  where  the  extent  and  nature 
of  such  uses  do  not  conflict  with  public  use  and  en- 
joyment of  these  values. 

Except  for  the  Eel  River,  the  Wild  and  Scenic 
Rivers  Act  precludes  state  agency  participation  in 
planning  and  construction  of  projects,  such  as  dams 
and  reservoirs,  which  would  directly  affect  the  free- 
flowing  natural  condition  of  the  riv^ers.  In  the  case  of 
the  Eel,  the  Department  of  Water  Resources  is  re- 
quired to  report  to  the  Legislature  in  1985  on  the  re- 
sults of  authorized  studies  as  to  the  need  for  flood  con- 
trol and  water  conservation  facilities.  That  report  will 
form  the  basis  for  leeislative  liea'in-T-;  to  determine  if 
segments  of  the  Eel  River  should  be  deleted  from  the 
system. 

Preparation  of  the  management  plans  required 
under  both  Chapter  761  of  1971  and  the  Wild  and 
Scenic  Rivers  Act  is  being  accomplished  by  a  task 
committee  within  the  Office  of  the  Secretary  for  Re- 
sources, comprised  of  members  from  the  Departments 
of  Water  Resources,  Fish  and  Game,  Conservation, 
and  Parks  and  Recreation.  The  studies  in  progress  are 
discussed  in  subsequent  chapters  of  this  bulletin. 

NEPA  and  CEQA 

The  National  Environmental  Polic\-  Act  of  1969 
(NEPA)  was  signed  into  law  on  New  Year's  Day 
1970.  In  California,  the  Environmental  Quality  Act 
of  1970 — which  is  more  commonly  known  as  the  Cali- 
fornia Environmental  Quality  Act  (CEQA) — became 
effective  on  November  23,  1970.  These  two  legislative 
acts  clearly  set  forth  a  national  policy  and  a  state  pol- 


16 


North  Fork  of  the  Smith  River,  a  designated  wild  river 


u 


icy  which  requires  all  public  agencies  to  give  full  con- 
sideration to  environmental  effects  in  planning  their 
programs.  Both  acts  emphasize  the  need  to  achieve  a 
productive  harmony  between  man  and  nature. 

The  broad  scope  and  general  language  of  both  laws 
have  made  their  implementation  by  public  agencies 
difficult.  Since  their  enactment,  there  has  been  a  proc- 
ess of  legal  challenge,  court  ruling,  and  legislation  or 
public  agenc\'  accommodation  and  implementation. 
While  this  process  is  probably  far  from  complete,  the 
basic  outlines  of  procedures  for  implementation  of  the 
r\vo  acts  are  now  becoming  apparent. 

NEPA  requires  that  all  agencies  of  the  federal  gov- 
ernment include  in  every  recommendation  or  report 
on  proposals  for  legislation  and  other  major  federal 
actions  significantly  affecting  the  quality  of  the  human 
environment  a  detailed  statement  by  the  responsible 
agency  of  the  environmental  impact  of  the  proposal. 
The  statement  is  known  as  an  Environmental  Impact 
Statement  (EIS).  Federal  agencies  must  prepare  EISs 
for  their  own  proposals  and  for  others'  proposals 
which  require  approval  or  funding  by  a  federal 
agenc\'.  It  is  in  this  latter  wa\'  that  many  state  and 
local  proposals  come  under  the  provisions  of  NEPA. 

CEQA,  on  the  other  hand,  applies  to  all  public  agen- 
cies in  the  State  of  California  except  federal  units. 
CEQA  requires  all  public  agencies  to  consider  the 
environmental  consequences  of  all  of  their  activities. 
Under  CEQA,  Environmental  Impact  Reports  (EIRs) 
are  to  be  prepared,  generally,  for  projects  which  may 
have  a  significant  effect  on  the  environment.  They  do 
not  have  to  be  prepared  for  projects  which  fall  within 
exempted  categories,  which  are  specifically  excepted 
by  law,  or  which  will  not  have  a  significant  effect  on 
the  environment.  "Significant  effect"  is  defined  in  the 
State  Guidelines  for  Implementation  of  CEQA  as  a 
"substantial  adverse  impact  on  the  environment". 
Under  CEQA,  then,  the  requirement  for  preparation 
of  EIRs  is  applicable  to  a  project  which  may  have  a 
significant  effect  on  the  environment.  The  activities  of 
nongovernmental  entities  come  under  the  provisions 
of  CEQA  whenever  those  activities  require  approval 
or  funding  by  a  public  agency  in  California. 

It  is  probable  that  the  full  impact  of  the  passage  of 
NEPA  and  CEQA  in  1970  will  not  be  known  for 
many  years,  but  it  is  reasonable  to  assume  that  these 
laws  will  continue  to  have  a  profound  influence  on 
water  management.  It  is  difficult  to  accommodate  the 
requirements  of  these  laws  in  projects  now  underway 
that  were  planned  and  authorized  prior  to  enactment 
of  the  laws.  The  longer  term  effect  of  the  laws  should 
be  to  improve  planning,  and  it  is  probable  that  fifteen 
years  from  now,  planners  will  recognize  them  as  a 
valuable  part  of  the  water  management  process. 

Lifigation 

The  courts  have  pia\cd  an  increased  role  in  water 
resources  development  during  the  last  several  years. 


Most  litigation  that  has  been  instituted  against  agencies 
planning  or  constructing  \\ater  projects  has  been 
brought  by  individuals  or  groups  who  believed  that 
the  projects  would  have  important  adverse  effects  on 
the  environment  or  that  insufficient  attention  had  been 
given  to  environmental  considerations  in  planning  the 
projects.  Many  of  the  suits  were  brought  under  the 
National  Environmental  Policy  Act  (NEPA)  or  the 
California  Environmental  Quality  Act  (CEQA). 

In  California,  lawsuits  have  delayed  some  projects 
but  to  date  no  water  projects  have  been  totally  aban- 
doned due  to  litigation  alone.  Many  of  the  lawsuits, 
however,  are  still  in  various  stages  of  trial  or  pretrial 
or  have  been  appealed  to  higher  courts.  Some  of  these 
will  not  be  decided  for  several  years. 

Many  of  the  uncertainties  of  the  federal  and  state 
environmental  protection  acts  have  now  been  resolved 
and  the  degree  of  compliance  w  ith  these  acts  by  proj- 
ect constructors  is  increasing.  There  will  still  be  dis- 
agreements, however,  between  those  seeking  to  avoid 
changing  the  environment  through  the  prevention  of 
further  development  and  those  planning  and  construct- 
ing water  projects  who  may  have  a  different  assessment 
of  the  balance  between  environmental  benefits  and 
detriments.  Significant  cases  interpreting  the  National 
Environmental  Policy  Act,  the  California  Environ- 
mental Quality  Act  or  otherwise  involving  water  proj- 
ects are  summarized  briefly  below. 

The  right  of  a  court  to  review  an  agency's  environ- 
mental impact  report  (EIR)  after  that  agency  has 
found  its  own  work  satisfactory  was  established  in  the 
case  of  Environmental  Defense  Fund,  Inc.  v.  Coastside 
County  Water  District,  27  Cal.App.3d  695  [104  Cal. 
Rptr.  197]  (1972). 

The  premiere  CEQA  case  is  Friends  of  Maumioth  v. 
Board  of  Supervisors  of  Mono  County,  8  Cal. 3d  247 
[104  Cal.Rptr.  761]  (1972)  which  held  that  private 
activities  subject  to  the  discretionary  approval  or  co- 
operation of  a  public  agency  must  include  an  environ- 
mental analysis  by  the  public  agency.  That  analysis 
must  be  written  in  an  environmental  impact  report  if 
the  activity  may  have  a  significant  adverse  impact  on 
the  environment. 

The  court  in  County  of  Inyo  v.  Yorty,  32  Cal.App. 
3d  795  [108  Cal.Rptr."  377]  (1973)  held  that  an  EIR 
was  required  for  projects  begun  before  the  enactment 
of  CEQA  if  that  on-going  project  had  not  progressed 
to  the  point  of  no  return  or  if  substantial  changes  were 
proposed  after  the  Act  became  law. 

The  Environmental  Defense  Fund  \.  Annstrong  case 
involved  a  challenge  to  the  adequacy  of  the  Corps  of 
Engineers  environmental  impact  statement  (EIS)  on 
the  New  Melones  Dam  prepared  pursuant  to  the  re- 
quirements of  NEPA.  The  Corps  revised  its  EIS,  v\hich 
was  then  found  legally  sufficient  by  the  Ninth  Circuit 
Court  of  Appeals  and  the  Corps  is  proceeding  with 
construction. 


18 


Another  group  of  cases  are  at  trial  or  on  appeal.  In 
the  Sierra  Club  v.  Morton  case  in  the  federal  district 
court  in  San  Francisco,  the  Sierra  Club  has  sued  the 
Department  of  Water  Resources  to  stop  or  limit  the 
export  of  water  from  the  Delta  through  the  California 
Aqueduct  of  the  State  Water  Project.  The  Sierra  Club 
also  seeks  to  stop  or  delay  the  proposed  Peripheral 
Canal. 

In  Boii'ker  v.  Morton,  also  in  the  federal  district 
court  in  San  Francisco,  the  plaintiffs  are  attempting  to 
force  the  Department  to  limit  the  deliver)'  of  project 
water  to  land  holdings  of  160  acres  or  less.  That  acre- 
age limitation  exists  under  federal  reclamation  laws 
and  the  plaintiffs  believe  that  because  the  State  Water 
Project  has  benefited  from  the  operation  of  the  San 
Luis  joint  use  facilities,  the  federal  limitations  should 
be  applied  to  the  entire  State  Water  Project. 

T\\o  cases.  Friends  of  the  Earth  x.  Brinegar  in  fed- 
eral court  in  San  Francisco  and  Friends  of  the  Earth  v. 
Walton,  in  state  superior  court  in  San  Francisco,  have 
challenged  the  use  of  the  Peripheral  Canal  alignment 
as  a  borrow  site  for  land  fill  in  the  Interstate  5  highway 
project.  The  suits  charge  that  the  digging  involved 
would  constitute  the  beginning  of  the  canal  before  an 
EIR  on  the  canal  had  been  approved. 

There  have  been  several  cases  involving  numerous 
parties  which  seek  to  set  aside  the  State  Water  Re- 
sources Control  Board's  Decision  1379,  concerning 
Delta  Water  Quality,  and  Decision  1400,  concerning 
American  River  flows.  A  closely  related  case.  United 
States  V.  State  of  California  in  federal  district  court 
in  Sacramento,  was  brought  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Reclamation  seeking  a  declaration  that  its  water 
rights  are  not  subject  to  State  Water  Resources  Con- 
trol Board  regulations. 

A  suit  to  halt  the  U.S.  Corps  of  Engineers'  Warm 
Springs  Dam  has  been  brought  in  federal  court  in  San 
Francisco.  The  Warm  Springs  Task  Force  v.  Corps  of 
Engineers  case  challenges  the  adequacy  of  the  Corps' 
environmental  impact  statement  prepared  pursuant  to 
the  reqiurements  of  NEPA.  Also,  Auburn  Dam,  and 
the  Auburn-Folsom  South  Canal,  \\  hich  are  U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Reclamation  projects,  have  been  challenged 
in  federal  court  in  Sacramento  in  National  Resources 
Defense  Counsel,  Inc.  v.  Stannn  case  on  the  grounds 
that  the  Bureau's  EIS  was  not  adequate. 

Another  case  involving  the  Auburn-Folsom  South 
Canal  is  the  Environniental  Defense  Fnnd  x.  East  Bay 
Municipal  Utility  District  in  federal  court  in  San  Fran- 
cisco. That  suit  seeks  to  compel  the  East  Bay  Munici- 
pal Utility  District  to  abandon  its  agreement  w  ith  the 
U.S.  Bureau  of  Reclamation  for  Auburn-Folsom  South 
Water  and  to  reclaim  waste  \\  ater  instead. 

Comprehensive  Water  Quality  Control  Planning 

In  1970,  the  Porter-Cologne  Water  Qualit\-  Act  re- 
placed the  former  Division  7  of  the  Water  Code.  This 


Act  required  the  implementation  of  a  statewide  pro- 
gram for  the  control  of  the  quality  of  all  water  of 
the  State.  To  implement  the  Act,  the  people  of  Cali- 
fornia in  1970  approved  the  Clean  Water  Bond  Law, 
which  made  the  proceeds  from  the  sale  of  |250  million 
of  state  general  obligation  bonds  available  for  assisting 
local  governmental  agencies  to  correct  and  avoid  pol- 
lution of  water  of  the  State.  Over  |6  million  from 
these  funds  were  allocated  for  the  development  of 
plans  for  water  quality  control  within  16  planning 
basins  covering  the  State.  These  basins  depicted  on 
Figure  4,  are  essentially  the  same  areas  or  further  di- 
visions of  the  planning  areas  used  by  the  Department 
of  Water  Resources  for  this  report  and  shown  in 
Figure  2. 

Section  303(e)  of  the  Federal  Water  Pollution  Con- 
trol Act  Amendments  of  1972  ordered  each  state  to 
have  a  continuing  planning  process  for  water  quality 
control  of  interstate  water.  Over  |2  million  in  federal 
funds  were  allocated  to  the  State  Water  Resources 
Control  Board   (SWRCB)  Study. 

The  Board  contracted  with  seven  basin  contractors 
in  1971.  The  contractors  prepared  a  basin  plan  for 
each  of  the  16  planning  areas,  working  in  coordination 
with  the  State  and  Regional  Boards  and  other  inter- 
ested parties   through  public  workshops.   The   corn- 


Figure  4.     Water  Quality  Control  Planning  Basins 


19 


prehensive  basinwide  plans  give  consideration  to  inter- 
relationships of  quantity  and  quality  of  water.  Under 
provisions  of  the  Porter-Cologne  Act,  water  quality 
control  plans  adopted  by  a  regional  water  quality  con- 
trol board  and  approved  by  the  SWRCB  become  a 
part  of  California  Water  Plan,  effective  when  such 
plans  are  reported  to  the  Legislature. 

The  Department  of  Water  Resources  participated 
in  this  planning  effort  by  furnishing  water  resources 
data  and  information  for  each  of  the  16  planning 
basins  and  acting  as  the  basin  contractor  in  developing 
the  comprehensive  A\ater  quality  control  plans  for  each 
of  4  planning  basins  which  are  shown  on  Figure  4. 
Each  plan  consists  of  identified  beneficial  water  uses, 
water  quality  objectives,  plan  implementation  program 
for  meeting  these  objectives,  an  environmental  assess- 
ment of  the  recommended  plan,  and  a  surveillance  pro- 
gram to  monitor  the  effectiveness  of  the  plan.  Each 
plan  is  intended  to  provide  a  definite  program  of 
actions  \\ithin  the  planning  area  designed  to  preserve 
and  enhance  quality  and  protect  beneficial  uses  in  a 
manner  which  will  result  in  maximum  benefit  to  the 
people  of  the  State  for  the  next  25  to  30  years. 

Although  the  intent  of  this  comprehensive  planning 
effort  is  to  provide  positive  and  firm  direction  for 
water  quality'  control  for  many  years,  it  is  also  rec- 
ognized that  adequate  provisions  must  be  made  for 
changing  conditions  and  technology.  Thus,  a  major 
premise  in  the  development  of  the  basin  plans  is  that 
they  will  be  updated  periodically  to  maintain  pace 
with  technology,  policies  and  physical  changes  in  the 
basin.  This  planning  effort  is  discussed  in  some  detail 
in  Chapter  V. 


State-Federal  and  Interstate  Activities 

The  satisfaction  of  future  water  needs  in  consonance 
with  environmental  goals  depends  to  an  important 
degree  upon  relations  with  Federal  agencies.  In  a  num- 
ber of  respects,  coordination  of  objectives  and  actions 
with  neighboring  states  and  with  other  states  in  the 
West  is  also  an  important  factor.  Activities  in  the 
areas  of  state-federal  relations  and  interstate  matters, 
particularly  in  regard  to  events  that  have  occurred 
since  the  publication  of  Bulletin  No.  160-70,  are  dis- 
cussed in  the  following  paragraphs. 


Cooperaf/'on  With  U.S.  Water  Resources  Council 

The  Water  Resources  Council  was  established  by 
the  Water  Resources  Planning  Act  of  1965.  It  consists 
of  the  cabinet  secretaries  of  federal  departments  and 
other  top  federal  officials  who  have  some  responsibili- 
ties for  water  and  related  land  resources. 

The  most  significant  aspect  of  the  Council's  activities 
to  California  was  its  sponsorship  of  the  comprehensive 


framework  studies,  including  one  for  the  California 
Region,  which  encompassed  California  and  a  small  part 
of  Southern  Oregon.  These  were  ver\-  broad  studies 
covering  estimates  of  needs  for  water  and  related  land 
resources,  ways  of  meeting  such  needs  and,  in  some 
cases,  the  consequences  of  doing  so  or  not  doing  so. 
The  study  for  the  California  Region  commenced  in 
1967  under  the  direction  of  the  California  State-Federal 
Interagency  Group,  representing  the  States  of  Nevada 
and  Oregon,  9  California  agencies  and  22  federal  agen- 
cies. Field  drafts  of  a  Main  Report  and  18  appendixes 
were  completed  in  mid-1971  and  forwarded  to  the 
Water  Resources  Council  for  their  use  in  preparing  a 
final  report.  State  and  federal  comments  on  these 
field  drafts  were  received  and  published  in  January 
1972,  and  a  revised  Alain  Report  was  forwarded  to  the 
Council  in  May  1972.  To  date,  the  Council's  final  re- 
port has  not  been  completed  for  transmittal  to  the 
President  and  Congress. 

Concurrent  with  this  study  of  the  California  Region, 
similar  investigations  were  progressing  in  three  other 
portions  of  the  Southwest,  including  the  Upper  and 
Lower  Colorado  Regions  and  the  Great  Basin  Region. 
Finally,  the  report  "Pacific  Southwest  Analytical  Sum- 
mary Report  on  Water  and  Land  Resources",  based  on 
the  framework  studies  of  the  four  regions,  was  pub- 
lished in  November  1971. 

The  major  limitation  of  the  framework  studies,  as 
far  as  California  is  concerned,  is  its  emphasis  on  the 
needs  for  water  and  related  land  resources  with  Series 
C  projections  of  population  and  resulting  food  and 
fiber  requirements,  which  the  California  investigators 
considered  too  high  in  view  of  the  lower  growth  rates 
measured  in  1970. 

The  Water  Resources  Planning  Act  of  1965  also 
provides  that  the  Water  Resources  Council  shall  estab- 
lish "principles,  standards,  and  procedures  for  Federal 
participants  in  the  preparation  of  comprehensive  re- 
gional or  river  basin  plans  and  for  the  formulation  and 
evaluation  of  Federal  water  and  related  land  resources 
projects".  After  producing  several  drafts,  the  Council 
published  in  the  Federal  Register  on  December  21, 
1971,  "Proposed  Principles  and  Standards  for  Planning 
Water  and  Related  Land  Resources".  When  approved, 
these  were  to  supersede  the  "Policies,  Standards,  and 
Procedures  in  the  Formulation,  Evaluation,  and  Re- 
view of  Plans  for  L'se  and  Development  of  Water  and 
Related  Land  Resources"  approved  b>-  President 
Kennedy  on  May  15,  1962,  and  printed  as  Senate 
Document  97.  They  would  apply  not  only  to  federal 
projects  but  also  to  many  regulatory  activities  and  all 
federal  water  resources  grants  to  the  states  except 
those  by  the  Environmental  Protection  Agency. 

The  proposed  criteria  provided  for  addition  of  the 
planning  objectives  "environmental  quality"  and  "re- 
gional development"  to  the  former  single  objective  of 
"national  economic  development"  in  Senate  Document 
97.  They  provided  further  for  the  display  of  beneficial 


20 


and  adverse  effects  of  projects  or  measures  being  con- 
sidered according  to  four  accounts,  including  three 
corresponding  to  the  planning  objectives  just  men- 
tioned and  one  designated  "social  well-being".  One  of 
the  more  controversial  aspects  was  a  discount  rate  for 
evaluation  of  federal  projects  to  be  set  at  7  percent 
for  5  years.  Thereafter  the  rate  would  be  the  "op- 
portunity cost",  estimated  to  be  approximately  10  per- 
cent. 

Hearings  on  the  proposed  Principles  and  Standards 
were  held  early  in  1972.  The  Department  of  Water 
Resources  and  many  others  presented  testimony.  Fol- 
lowing the  evaluation  of  these  comments  and  consider- 
ation of  other  factors,  the  Principles  and  Standards 
were  again  revised  and  were  approved  by  the  Presi- 
dent on  September  5,  1973.  As  adopted,  the  criteria 
retained  only  the  planning  objectives  of  "national  eco- 
nomic development"  and  "environmental  quality"  but 
included  all  four  of  the  evaluation  accounts  noted 
above.  The  planning  discount  rate  was  changed  to  the 
average  interest  cost  to  the  United  States  of  both 
short-term  and  long-term  securities.  It  was  established 
initially  at  6%  percent. 

The  latest  development  relating  to  the  Principles 
and  Standards  is  contained  in  the  Omnibus  Appropria- 
tion Act  for  fiscal  year  1974  entitled  "Water  Re- 
sources Development  Act  of  1974".  In  Section  80  of 
this  Act  the  Congress  amended  the  planning  interest 
rate  to  the  rate  on  federal  long-term  securities  only, 
a  criterion  which  had  been  adopted  by  the  Water 
Resources  Council  in  1968  and  which  was  in  effect 
prior  to  the  latest  presidential  approval.  This  section 
of  the  Act  also  requested  the  President  to  study  fur- 
ther the  matters  of  the  discount  rate  and  the  objectives 
and  evaluation  criteria  to  be  used  in  planning  water 
resources  projects. 

Under  the  Water  Resources  Planning  Act,  the 
Water  Resources  Council  is  required  periodically  to 
assess  the  adequacy  of  the  nation's  water  resources. 
The  first  National  Assessment  was  prepared  in  1968, 
and  preparations  are  being  made  for  the  second.  The 
originally  announced  plan  for  this  new  effort  was  to 
conduct  both  regional  assessments  and  a  national  as- 
sessment using  similar  approaches.  The  regional  as- 
sessments would  have  been  compiled  independently 
by  regional  teams  to  present  different  viewpoints  from 
the  National  Assessment  which  would  have  been  based 
on  a  nationally  consistent  analysis.  Because  of  a  re- 
duction in  alloted  funds,  only  the  national  assessment 
is  now  scheduled  for  preparation. 

Western  U.S.  Water  Plan  Study 

The  Colorado  River  Basin  Project  Act  (P.L.  90- 
537)  which  authorized  the  Central  Arizona  Project 
and  several  projects  in  the  Upper  Basin,  also  author- 
ized investigations  which  became  known  as  the  West- 
ern U.S.  Water  Plan  Study.  Title  1  of  the  Act  con- 


templated a  regional  water  plan  "to  serve  as  the 
framework  under  which  projects  in  the  Colorado 
River  Basin  may  be  coordinated  and  constructed  with 
proper  timing  to  the  end  that  an  adequate  supply  of 
water  may  be  made  available  for  such  projects  .  .  .  ." 
Title  II  provided  that  "the  Secretary  of  the  Interior 
shall  conduct  full  and  complete  reconnaissance  investi- 
gations for  the  purpose  of  developing  a  general  plan 
to  meet  the  future  water  needs  of  the  Western  United 
States.  Such  investigations  shall  include  the  long-range 
water  supply  available  and  the  long-range  water  re- 
quirements in  each  water  resource  region  of  the 
Western  United  States."  A  final  report  was  to  be 
completed  not  later  than  June  30,  1977.  A  proviso 
stated  that  for  a  period  of  ten  years  or  until  Septem- 
ber 30,  1978,  "the  Secretary  shall  not  undertake  re- 
connaissance studies  of  any  plan  for  the  importation 
of  water  into  the  Colorado  River  Basin  from  any 
other  natural  river  drainage  basin  lying  outside  the 
states  of  Arizona,  California,  Colorado,  New  Mexico, 
and  those  portions  of  Nevada,  Utah,  and  Wyoming, 
which  are  in  the  natural  drainage  basin  of  the  Colorado 
River".  This  moratorium  was  intended  to  exclude  the 
study  of  importations  from  the  Pacific  Northwest. 

The  Bureau  of  Reclamation  on  behalf  of  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Interior  started  these  studies  in  1970.  Early 
in  1973  the  Office  of  Management  and  Budget  directed 
the  Department  of  the  Interior  to  reduce  the  scope  of 
the  investigation  from  that  originally  laid  out  in  the 
plan  of  study  and  to  shorten  the  study  period  so  as 
to  complete  the  final  report  by  June  30,  1974.  The 
Bureau  of  Reclamation  prepared  an  abbreviated  plan 
of  study,  which  consisted  mainly  of  identifying  major 
problems  in  the  West  relating  to  water  resources  and 
recommending  further  investigations  to  find  solutions 
therefor.  Since  the  scope  of  studies  was  largely  limited 
to  review  and  summarization  of  other  work,  there 
will  not  be  any  major  new  findings  regarding  water 
supplies  for  California. 

Salinity  of  Colorado  Rive^r 

The  Colorado  River  is  now  and  will  continue  to  be 
an  important  source  of  water  for  the  coastal  and 
desert  areas  of  Southern  California.  The  primary  agri- 
cultural service  areas  are  in  the  BIythe  and  Yuma 
areas  along  the  River  and  in  Imperial  and  Coachella 
Valleys.  The  principal  municipal  and  industrial  service 
in  the  coastal  drainage  area  from  Ventura  County  to 
San  Diego  County  is  by  the  Metropolitan  Water  Dis- 
trict of  Southern  California.  By  the  time  the  full 
capacity  of  the  State  Water  Project  is  being  used  to 
import  water  to  Southern  California,  the  Colorado 
River  supply  will  still  amount  to  more  than  half  of 
the  total  for  that  area.  Thus,  it  is  to  California's  eco- 
nomic interest  that  the  quality  of  the  Colorado  River 
be  maintained  as  high  as  possible. 

The  Colorado  River  has  always  had  a  substantial 
load  of  dissolved  salts  as  well  as  its  burden  of  sedi- 


21 


merit.  The  natural  salinity  comes  from  salt  springs 
and  from  the  widely  diffuse  leaching  of  salt  from 
marine  sediments  by  precipitation,  surface  runoff  and 
ground  water  flow.  Additional  quantities  of  salt  have 
been  introduced  by  agricultural,  domestic,  industrial 
and  other  uses  of  water.  Further,  the  export  of  good 
quality  water  originating  in  the  high  mountains  of 
Colorado  and  New  Mexico  for  use  outside  the  Colo- 
rado River  Basin  and  the  evaporation  or  transpira- 
tion of  water  from  reservoirs  and  irrigated  areas  has 
caused  the  concentration  of  salt  to  increase. 

The  combination  of  the  above  factors  has,  for  ex- 
ample, caused  salinity  to  increase  substantially  in  the 
vicinity  of  Imperial  Dam,  the  diversion  point  for  the 
Ail-American  Canal  near  the  Mexican  Border.  Since 
the  beginning  of  salinity  records  in  1941,  salinity  has 
increased  from  an  average  of  about  700  milligrams  of 
salt  per  liter  of  water  to  870  milligrams  per  liter 
(mg/1)  in  1972.  Recent  projections  by  the  Colorado 
River  Board  of  California  forecast  about  1,300  mg/1 
at  Imperial  Dam  in  the  year  2000  if  control  measures 
as  planned  are  not  undertaken.  For  the  same  year  at 
Lake  Havasu,  the  point  of  Metropolitan  Water  Dis- 
trict's diversions,  the  Board  has  predicted  about  1,100 
mg/i  compared  with  about  750  mg/1  at  the  present 
time. 

Several  steps  have  been  taken  in  the  last  decade 
toward  the  planning  and  implementation  of  measures 
to  control  the  increase  of  salinity  in  the  Lower  Colo- 
rado River  and  to  improve  the  quality  of  water  reach- 
ing Mexico.  The  first  \\as  publication  of  the  report 
entitled,  "Need  for  Controlling  Salinity  of  the  Colo- 
rado River"  by  the  Colorado  River  Board  of  California 
in  August  1970.  This  report  combined  information 
on  the  probable  rate  of  development  and  use  of  water 
in  the  basin  and  its  effect  on  the  salinity  of  the  lower 
river  if  mitigation  measures  are  not  taken. 

In  1971,  the  U.  S.  Environmental  Protection  Agency 
published  the  result  of  studies  begun  in  1963  in  a  re- 
port titled,  "The  Mineral  Quality  Problem  in  the 
Colorado  River  Basin — Summary  Report".  This  report 
projected  future  salinity  levels  without  control 
projects,  suggested  specific  projects  to  control  salinity, 
and  compared  the  costs  of  these  projects  with  the 
detriments  that  \\ould  be  caused  by  using  the  water  of 
higher  salinity  without  control  measures.  The  Sum- 
mary Report  recommended  a  policy  of  maintaining 
salinity  concentrations  at  or  below  levels  then  found 
in  the  lower  main  stem  of  the  River;  the  adoption  of 
water  quality  standards  at  key  points;  and  the  imple- 
mentation of  a  basinwidc  salinity  control  program  as 
future  water  development  in  the  Basin  occurs. 

The  Environmental  Protection  Agency  report  was 
used  as  a  basis  for  meetings  among  the  seven  states 
and  the  Environmental  Protection  Agency  in  Febru- 
ary and  April  1972.  These  meetings  together  com- 
prised the  "Seventh  Session  of  Conference  in  the  Mat- 
ter   of    Pollution    of    the    Interstate    Waters    of    the 


Colorado  River  and  Its  Tributaries — Colorado,  New 
Mexico,  Arizona,  California,  Nevada,  Wyoming, 
Utah".  The  conferees  agreed  to  defer  the  establishment 
of  numerical  criteria  but  to  adopt  and  accelerate  the 
salinity  control  program  outlined  in  the  1971  Environ- 
mental Protection  Agency  report  as  modified  by 
further  studies  of  the  Bureau  of  Reclamation.  In  this 
connection,  the  Bureau  prepared  a  report  in  February 
1972  entitled,  "Colorado  River  Water  Quality  Im- 
provement Program". 

Also  during  the  1960s  and  early  1970s,  the  De- 
partment of  State  was  negotiating  with  Mexico 
toward  solution  of  the  problem  of  salinity  in  the  water 
delivered  to  that  country  under  the  1944  water  treaty. 
On  August  30,  1973,  after  agreement  had  been  reached 
by  U.  S.  Ambassador  Herbert  Brownell  and  Mexico's 
Foreign  Secretary  Rebassa,  the  Presidents  of  the  two 
countries  signed  the  agreement,  which  was  recorded  as 
Minute  242  of  the  International  Boundary  and  Water 
Commission.  The  minute  specified  that  annual  average 
salinity  concentrations  at  Morelos  Dam,  the  .Mexican 
diversion  point,  would  be  no  more  than  115  mg/1 
(plus  or  minus  30  mg/1)  greater  than  at  Imperial 
Dam,  the  lowest  diversion  point  in  the  LTnited  States. 
This  provision  was  conditioned  on  the  authorization 
by  Congress  of  certain  facilities  and  measures  re- 
quired to  effectuate  the  agreement.  While  not  speci- 
fied in  the  agreement,  these  would  include  a  desalter 
on  the  Wellton-Mohawk  Drain  in  the  vicinity  of 
Yuma,  Arizona;  lining  or  reconstruction  of  the  Coa- 
chella  Canal  to  control  seepage  losses  and  thereby 
provide  an  interim  water  supply  for  dilution;  and 
other  related  facilities. 

The  congressional  delegation  of  the  Colorado  River 
Basin  states  introduced  legislation  into  both  houses  of 
the  Congress  in  February  1974,  to  combine  authoriza- 
tion of  facilities  of  the  upstream  salinity  control  pro- 
gram under  study  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Reclamation 
and  of  the  downstream  works  to  effectuate  Minute 
242.  This  legislation  was  passed  and  signed  by  the 
President  on  June  24,  1974. 

In  a  parallel  action  of  September  10,  1973,  the  En- 
vironmental Protection  Agcnc\'  notified  the  states  of 
the  Lower  Colorado  River  Basin  that,  pursuant  to  the 
Water  Pollution  Control  Act  Amendments  of  1972 
(PL  92-500),  the  states  would  be  required  to  establish 
numerical  criteria  for  salinit\-  control  and  a  plan  of 
implementation  to  achieve  the  criteria.  Representatives 
of  the  seven  states  established  the  Colorado  River 
Basin  Salinity  Control  Forum  through  which  they 
plan  to  compl>-  with  the  proposed  Environmental 
Protection  .'\gency  regulation. 

A  probable  major  component  of  tiie  Forum's  plan 
will  be  implcmcntatiiin  of  fcasil)le  components  of  the 
Bureau  of  Reclamation's  salinit\-  control  program.  In 
addition,  the  plan  will  undout)tedl\'  include  actions 
to  be  taken  by  the  states,  local  goscrnmental  agencies. 


22 


and  private  industry.  The  latter,  in  particular,  will 
likely  include  measures  to  limit  the  increase  of  salinity 
from  mining  and  processing  of  oil  shale  and  coal  for 
petroleum  or  synthetic  gas  or  for  combustion  in  ther- 
mal power  plants  in  the  Basin.  The  plan  will  also 
cover  estimates  of  the  degree  to  which  salinity  can  be 
controlled  in  the  lower  main  stem  of  the  Colorado 
by  measures  such  as  those  that  have  been  identified, 
and  economic  evaluations  relating  costs  and  benefits 
of  the  measures.  The  plan  may  allow  for  salinity  to 
increase  temporarily  while  the  Upper  Basin  continues 
to  develop  and  before  full  control  measures  are  in- 
stituted. However,  the  objective  will  be  to  reduce  the 
salinity  to  1972  levels  within  a  specific  period  of  time. 

Wesfern  Stafes  Water  Council 

In  1965,  the  Western  Governors'  Conference,  com- 
posed of  1 1  states  lying  wholly  or  partially  west  of 
the  continental  divide,  created  the  Western  States 
Water  Council.   The   purpose   of  the   Council  is  to 


provide  effective  cooperation  among  the  western  states 
in  planning  for  programs  leading  to  the  integrated 
development  of  water  resources  by  state,  federal,  and 
other  agencies.  Its  "Principles,  Standards,  and  Guide- 
lines" contemplate  a  high  degree  of  cooperation  in 
planning  to  meet  water  needs. 

While  the  Council  itself  has  not  entered  into  a 
planning  program  as  such,  it  has  fostered  communica- 
tion and  mutual  understanding  among  water  leaders 
throughout  the  West.  There  have  been  a  number  of 
positions  taken  by  the  Council  on  legislative  and  policy 
matters  that  have  affected  the  western  states.  Even 
though  unanimous  consent  was  not  obtained  on  all 
issues  considered,  as  is  required  by  its  Rules  of  Organi- 
zation for  adoption  of  any  external  position,  the  thor- 
ough exploration  of  issues  has  been  beneficial  in  clari- 
fying the  interests  and  desires  of  the  states. 

California  Sfate-Federal  Interagency  Group 

In  an  effort  to  coordinate  water  planning,  develop- 
ment and  management  activities  in  California  by  the 


Pine  Flat  Reservoir,  constructed  by  the  U.S.  Army  Corps  of  Engineers.  U.S.  Army  Corps  of  Engineers  pholo 


23 


major  water  development  and  management  agencies, 
the  California  State-Federal  Interagency  Group  was 
established  in  1958  as  a  forum  for  information  ex- 
change and  resolution  of  mutual  interest  issues.  It 
consists  of  the  director  of  the  State  Department  of 
Water  Resources  and  the  equivalent  officers  in  Cali- 
fornia for  the  U.  S.  Army  Corps  of  Engineers,  the 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Reclamation,  and  the  U.  S.  Soil  Con- 
servation Service. 

The  Group  includes  a  Task  Force  for  Planning 
Coordination,  which  is  composed  of  the  planning 
chiefs  of  the  parent  organizations  and  also  of  the  U.  S. 
Fish  and  Wildlife  Service,  the  California  Department 
of  Fish  and  Game,  and  the  State  Water  Resources 
Control  Board.  This  is  the  major  coordinating  group 
at  the  subpolicy  level.  In  addition,  staff  representing 
these  organizations  and  others  as  circumstances  war- 
rant make  up  work  groups  and  supporting  subgroups 
that  report  to  the  Task  Force.  Representatives  of  the 
State  of  California  are  the  Chairmen  of  both  the  Inter- 
agency Group  and  the  Task  Force  for  Planning  Co- 
ordination. 

The  Interagency  Group  meets  quarterly  and  has 
been  a  useful  organization  to  consider  and  find  solu- 
tions to  problems  of  coordination,  needs  for  new 
studies  and  similar  matters.  The  emphasis  has  been  on 
water  resource  planning. 

Intersfafe  Wafer  Compacfs 

Under  terms  of  the  Klamath  River  Basin  Compact, 
California  cooperates  with  Oregon  in  the  administra- 
tion and  use  of  water  common  to  the  two  states  \\ithin 
the  Upper  Klamath  River  Basin.  The  compact  allo- 
cates sufficient  water  to  each  of  the  two  states  to 
provide  for  all  foreseeable  uses  within  the  area.  At 
present,  both  states  are  operating  well  within  their 
water  allocations  and  are  expected  to  continue  to  do 
so  for  some  time  into  the  future  because  of  the  rela- 
tively slow  rate  of  growth  of  agriculture  and  other 
developments  within  the  compact  area. 

A  California-Nevada  Interstate  Compact  relates  to 
the  distribution  and  use  of  interstate  water  resources. 
The  compact  allocates  the  water  supplies  of  the  Lake 
Tahoe  Basin  and  the  Truckee,  Carson,  and  A\'alker 
River  Basins.  This  agreement  has  been  approved  by 
both  California  and  Nevada,  but  has  not  \et  receiA"ed 
the  necessary  consent  of  the  United  States.  Pending 
this  consent,  each  state  is  administering  the  use  of 
w-ater  covered  by  the  compact  as  if  it  were  in  effect. 

The  compact  makes  an  equitable  apportionment  be- 
tween the  states  of  the  available  water  of  the  respec- 
tive stream  systems,  but  the  limited  supplies  does  not 
provide  sufficient  water  to  either  state  to  provide  for 
the  full  development  of  the  available  land. 

The  need  for  a  compact  to  distribute  the  water  is 
emphasized  by  two  law.suits  which  the  United  States 
has  instituted.  In  one  case,  the  United  States  is  attempt- 


ing to  define  water  rights  for  the  Newlands  Reclama- 
tion Project  in  Nevada  by  bringing  suit  against  all 
water  users  on  the  Carson  River  upstream  from  the 
project,  both  in  California  and  Nevada.  In  the  other 
case,  the  United  States  is  seeking  to  define  its  rights 
and  those  of  the  P\ramid  Lake  Tribe  of  Paiute  In- 
dians to  water  from  the  Truckee  River  by  suing  all 
diverters  of  water  from  the  Truckee  River  in  Nevada 
upstream  from  P\ramid  Lake. 

In  May  1974  the  Nevada  State  Supreme  Court  is- 
sued a  writ  of  mandamus  requiring  the  Nevada  State 
Engineer  and  the  Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Environ- 
mental Health  to  approve  a  subdivision  map  for  a 
development  along  the  crest  of  the  Lake  Tahoe  Basin. 
The  two  state  officials  had  refused  approval  on  the 
ground  that  the  water  supply  for  the  subdivision  came 
from  the  Lake  Tahoe  Basin  and  some  of  the  lands 
in  the  subdivision  were  outside  the  Basin.  Thev  cited 
the  California-Nevada  Interstate  Compact,  which  pro- 
hibits additional  out-of-basin  diversion  of  water  from 
the  Lake  Tahoe  Basin,  as  expressing  the  intent  of  the 
State  of  Nevada  in  this  matter  even  though  the  Com- 
pact has  not  yet  been  approved  by  the  Congress. 

Significant  recent  events  on  the  Colorado  River 
from  which  water  supplies  are  allocated  under  a  com- 
pact written  in  1922,  are  described  in  an  earlier  section 
on   Salinity   of  the  Colorado   River. 

Land  Use  Planning  and  Controls 

In  recent  years  increasing  emphasis  has  been  given 
at  both  state  and  federal  levels  to  fashioning  legisla- 
tion aimed  at  controlling  land  use.  Although  many 
different  concerns  are  reflected  in  this  movement,  the 
catalyst  that  is  bring  numerous  interests  together  has 
been  concern  for  the  environment.  .Many  people  be- 
lieve there  is  a  need  for  a  rational,  carefully  thought- 
out  plan  for  land  use  to  provide  organization  to  the 
current  situation  which  sometimes  seems  near  chaotic 
due  to  the  multiplicit\-  of  agencies  independently  ap- 
plying environment-related  controls. 

Land  use  policies,  planning,  and  controls  would 
have  direct  impact  on  all  resource  management,  in- 
cluding water  resources.  They  could  provide  better 
insight  as  to  the  location  and  nature  of  future  water 
management  problems.  Similar!)',  they  miglit  assist  in 
identification  of  possible  solutions  to  these  problems. 

The  Department  of  \\'ater  Resources'  interest  goes 
beyond  questions  of  possible  impact,  however.  In  the 
arid  \\est,  land  use  and  water  use  management  are 
intimately  tied  together. 

In  this  section,  some  of  the  proposed  land  use  leg- 
islation will  be  reviewed  as  well  as  some  of  the  history 
of  land  use  control. 

Land  Use  Policy  and  Confrol  Legislaiion 

Congress  gave  extensive  consideration  to  r\vo  land 
use  bills  in  1974.  Botli  bills  ^\•ere  defeated,  but  pos- 


24 


Change  in  Contra  Costa  County 
land  use--1946,  1954  and  1974 


sibly  will  be  introduced  again  in  the  next  Congress. 
Various  provisions  of  the  bills  would  have  had  state 
government  responsible  for  (1)  establishing  a  state- 
wide land  use  planning  process  within  3  years  of 
passage,  (2)  developing  an  adequate  state  land  use 
program  within  5  years  of  passage,  and  (3)  estab- 
lishing an  intergovernmental  advisory  council  com- 
posed of  officials  of  local  governments.  The  state 
process  would  have  been  required  to  have  the  power 
to  regulate  development  around  key  major  facilities 
(airports,  major  freeway  interchanges,  etc.)  and  to 
regulate  real  estate  development  of  50  lots  or  more 
10  miles  beyond  the  boundaries  of  a  Standard  Metro- 
politan Statistical  Area  (as  defined  by  the  U.S.  Bureau 
of  Census).  The  legislation  included  the  concept  of 
"areas  of  critical  concern"  which  has  been  adopted  in 
California  as  a  basis  for  policy  statements  by  the  State 
Administration  and  for  pending  state  legislation.  Gen- 
erally, these  are  lands  of  more  than  local  importance 
in  regard  to  agricultural  use,  unique  flora  or  fauna, 
natural  or  historic  character,  etc.,  and  those  lands  hav- 
ing a  hazardous  nature  for  certain  kinds  of  develop- 
ment. 

The  American  Law  Institute  has  said  that  90 
percent  of  decisions  regarding  land  use  are  of  only 
local  significance.  If  this  is  correct,  then  the  "areas 
of  critical  state  concern"  should  be  expected  to  be 
impacted  by  only  10  percent  of  the  cases  of  proposed 
actions.  However,  precisely  defining  "areas  of  state 
critical  concern"  will  require  considerable  delibera- 
tion to  limit  the  scope  so  that  a  much  larger  portion  of 
decision  making  does  not  become  unduly  relegated  to 
other  than  the  local  level.  At  the  same  time  these 
definitions  must  be  broad  enough  to  meet  the  social, 
economic,  and  environmental  land-related  objectives 
being  sought. 

At  the  state  government  level,  the  major  legislative 
considerations,  to  the  time  of  this  writing,  have  been 
directed  toward  establishing  a  responsible  agency  in 
state  government  to  designate  areas  of  critical  state 
concern  and  establish  rules  and  regulations  for  land 
development  within  these  areas. 

The  proposed  federal  and  state  legislation  briefly 
described  above  is  addressed  directly  to  areavvide  land 
use  planning  and  control.  Many  administrative  and 
legislative  actions  in  the  past  have  dealt  with  the 
subject  in  a  more  indirect  or  more  limited  manner. 
Their  total  effect  has  been  increasingly  apparent,  and 
they  have  contributed  to  the  steadily  broadening  and 
deepening  of  public  control  of  land  use. 

The  "Quiet  Revolution" 

Land  use  control  is  by  no  means  a  new  concept  in 
California.  Federal,  state,  and  local  government  as  well 
as  public  initiative  action  have  all  contributed  a  variety 
of  control  mechanisms.  In  recent  years,  principally  in 
response  to  environmental  concerns,  there  has  been  a 


rapid  increase  in  land  use  controls,  many  indirect,  but 
some  quite  specifically  directed  toward  limiting  or 
shaping  the  nature  of  land  utilization.  The  National 
Environmental  Policy  Act  of  1969  (NEPA),  among 
other  things,  established  the  Council  of  Environmental 
Quality.  Its  report  on  land  use  and  associated  en- 
vironmental issues  spoke  of  this  proliferation  of  con- 
trols as  the  "quiet  revolution". 

The  following  presents  some  of  these  legislative,  ad- 
ministrative, and  public  land  use  control  actions  that 
have  taken  place  through  the  years. 

Federal.  The  Federal  Water  Pollution  Control  Act 
Amendments  of  1972  include  the  goal  that  the  dis- 
charge of  pollutants  into  navigable  waters  be  elimi- 
nated by  1985.  The  Clean  Air  Act  of  1970  grants 
land  use  controls  to  agencies  regulating  air  pollution 
under  the  1965  Housing  Act.  The  Housing  and 
Urban  Development  Agency  requires  that  there  is  a 
"certified"  regional  planning  activity  in  every  metro- 
politan area  in  order  to  qualify  communities  for  re- 
ceipt of  grants  for  a  variety  of  urban-related 
purposes.  The  1966  Demonstration  Cities  and  Metro- 
politan Development  Act  empowered  the  regional 
planning  agencies  to  review  application  for  federal 
grants  from  both  public  and  private  bodies.  The 
Federal  Flood  Insurance  Program  requires  local  gov- 
ernment to  zone  and  otherwise  control  land  use  in 
flood  prone  areas. 

Probably  most  significant  at  the  federal  level  was 
the  establishment  of  the  Environmental  Protection 
Agency  (EPA)  in  1970.  This  consolidated  some  of 
the  above  programs  and  others  dealing  with  air  pollu- 
tion, water  pollution,  solid  waste  disposal,  pesticide 
regulation  and  atomic  radiation  in  the  environment. 
EPA  has  some  authority  to  use  land  use  controls  to 
accomplish  the  objectives  of  these  programs.  The 
limited  use  it  has  made  of  this  power  reflects  the  some- 
what disaggregated  character  of  its  statutory  au- 
thority. 

In  addition  to  the  above.  Federal  Government  in- 
fluences on  land  use  are  often  quite  significant  as  a 
result  of  congressional  and  federal  administrative  de- 
cisions regarding  location  of  key  federal  facilities,  the 
awarding  of  contracts,  and  other  major  federal  fi- 
nancial investments. 

State.  The  1949  water  quality  control  legislation 
and  the  Porter-Cologne  Water  Quality  Act  as  well  as 
the  establishment  of  tlic  Solid  Waste  Management 
Board  and  the  Air  Resources  Board  created  state  gov- 
ernment agencies  designed  to  formulate  and  enforce 
provisions  for  control  of  pollution. 

The  Porter-Cologne  Water  Quality  Act  enables 
regional  water  quality  control  boards  to  place  a  freeze 
on  new  sewer  connections  until  waste  treatment  prob- 


26 


lenis  are  solved.  The  Air  Resources  Board  has  the 
power  of  land  use  control  through  provisions  of  the 
federal  Clean  Air  Act  of  1970. 

The  Cobey-Alquist  Flood  Plain  Management  Act 
prescribes  the  manner  of  cooperation  between  the  De- 
partment of  Water  Resources  or  the  State  Reclama- 
tion Board  and  local  government  in  developing  regu- 
lations to  control  land  use  within  flood-prone  areas. 

The  Agricultural  Land  Conservation  Act  (William- 
son Act)  passed  in  1965  was  a  major  step  toward 
preserving  agricultural  lands  from  urbanization.  Al- 
though there  is  current  debate  over  how  successfully 
it  accomplishes  this  purpose,  without  question,  it  has 
had  some  positive  effects  on  the  agricultural  industry. 
The  act  allows  agreements  to  be  entered  into  by 
private  land  owners  and  county  government  whereby 
the  land  is  retained  for  agricultural  uses  in  exchange 
for  tax  assessment  based  on  value  of  agricultural  pro- 
duction, rather  than  on  the  traditional  "comparative" 
sales  basis.  The  act  was  amended  in  1967  to  allow 
these  agreements  to  be  draw  n  in  land  use  cases  other 
than  agricultural,  i.e.,  scenic  highway  corridors,  wild- 
life habitat,  wet  lands,  submerged  lands,  salt  ponds, 
recreation  lands,  and  open  space. 

The  Legislature  created  the  San  Francisco  Bay  Con- 
servation and  Development  Commission  in  1965,  and 
in  1967,  the  Tahoe  Regional  Planning  Agency  was 
formed.  In  1972,  through  initiative  action  and  by 
direct  public  election,  the  California  Coastal  Zone 
Commission  was  established.  All  three  entities  are 
looked  upon  as  representing  the  most  direct  and 
significant  involvement  by  state  government  in  areas 
of  land  use  control  formerly  under  the  exclusive  juris- 
diction of  local  government.  The  nature  of  tiic  prob- 
lems and  the  degree  of  success  experienced  by  these 
agencies  undoubtedly  \\ ill  ha\c  impact  on  future  state- 
wide land  use  planning  and  control  legislation. 

Pending  state  land  use  polic\'  and  control  legislation 
might  be  considered  to  be  potentially  the  most  signifi- 
cant state  action  impacting  land  use  decision-making 
to  date.  From  the  sense  of  direct  consideration  and 
control  of  land  use  this  may  be  true.  However,  legis- 
lation already  enacted  probably  has  had  equally  as 
broad  an  influence,  albeit  more  indirect,  on  land  use 
decision-making.  The  California  Environmental  Qual- 
ity Act,  passed  in  1970,  required  government  agencies 
to  prepare  environmental  impact  documents  covering 
activities  thc\'  intend  to  carry  out.  The  Friends  of 
Mammoth  decision  by  the  California  Supreme  court 
expanded  this  responsibility  to  include  environmental 
impact  analysis  l)\-  public  agencies  having  discretion- 
ary or  financial  responsibilities  over  proposed  private 
activities. 

The  Environmental  Impact  Reports  constitute  an 
important  tool  for  the  decision  makers  (and  their 
constituents).  The  requirement  to  include  all  pertinent 
basic  data  and  the  descriptions  of  possible  direct  and 
peripheral  impacts  makes  much  more  of  the  available 


knowledge  readily  accessible  to  the  decision  makers 
than  has  traditionally  been  the  case. 

In  1970  the  Legislature  declared  that  future  growth 
of  the  State  should  be  guided  by  an  effective  planning 
process,  which  includes  a  framework  of  "officially 
approved  statew  ide  goals  and  policies  directed  to  land 
use,  population  grow  th  and  distribution,  urban  expan- 
sion and  other  relevant  ph\'sical,  social,  and  economic 
development  factors".*  To  carry  out  this  process,  the 
Legislature  created  the  Office  of  Planning  and  Re- 
search and  placed  it  within  the  Governor's  Office. 

The  Office  of  Planning  and  Research  produced  a 
state  Environmental  Goals  and  Policy  Report  t  which 
was  approved  by  the  Governor  in  June  1973.  It  con- 
tains general  goals  and  policies  on  such  subjects  as 
water,  noise,  air  quality,  transportation,  population, 
pesticides,  land  use,  environmental  resources  and 
hazardous  areas.  The  report  lists  potential  areas  of 
statewide  critical  concern,  plus  eleven  basic  principles 
which  provide  a  framework  for  assessing  the  intent 
of  the  goals  and  policies  and  the  government's  role. 

The  report  looks  to  the  State  to  exert  leadership  in 
areas  classified  as  of  statewide  critical  concern  and, 
through  its  departments  and  political  subdivisions,  to 
undertake  measures  to  minimize  those  activities  which 
will  have  a  detrimental  effect  on  such  resources.  The 
report  also  states  that  programs  are  encouraged  which 
will  enhance  the  quality  of  the  areas  of  concern  or 
at  least  optimize  their  use  without  destroying  their 
inherent  value.  Activities,  such  as  providing  water 
and  other  governmental  services,  which  support  de- 
velopment of  areas  identified  as  of  hazardous  concern 
(fault  zones,  fire  hazard,  flood-prone  areas,  etc.) 
should  be  avoided. 

Local.  Traditionallx',  control  of  land  use  has  resided 
in  the  hands  of  local  government.  Zoning  ordinances 
have  been  based  on  many  considerations,  such  as 
separation  of  industry  from  residential  development, 
ability  of  soils  to  adequately  handle  septic  tank 
Icachate,  stability  of  hillsides  relative  to  erosion  and 
sedimentation  potential  if  disturbed,  building  height 
limitation,  and  others.  This  traditional  approach  to 
land  use  control  has  received  much  criticism  for  its 
apparent  lack  of  strength  in  the  face  of  development 
pressures.  More  importance  is  being  placed  on  the 
preparation  of  sound  County  General  Plans  to  provide 
the  framework  for  decision  making. 

The  State  Planning  Act  in  1929  required  counties 
to  adopt  master  plans.  In  1947,  this  Act  was  replaced 
by  the  Planning  and  Conservation  Act  that  require 
cities  also  to  prepare  such  plans.  During  the  period 
1967  through  1971,  state  legislation  was  enacted  that 
added  separate  and  specific  elements  to  the  require- 

»  Chapter  1534,  Statutes  of  1970. 

t  "Environmental  Goals  and  Policy",  State  of  California,  June  1973. 


27 


High  altitude  photograph  taken  over  the  lower  Sacramento  Valley  from  a  U-2  plane  during  the  summer  of  1974.  Water-using  areas  (green 
fields)  stand  out  as  red  in  the  picture.  The  Sacramento  River  winds  through  the  right  side  of  the  picture.  The  cities  of  Woodland  (upper  left), 
Davis  (lower  left),  and  part  of  Sacramento  (mid-to-lower  right)  con  be  seen.  Note  the  light  colored  areas  which  ore  plots  of  unirrigated  land  in  an 
intensely  developed  agricultural  area.  NASA  photo 


28 


ments  for  the  general  plan  (i.e.,  master  plan).  These 
were  the  housing  element,  the  conservation  element, 
the  open  space  plan,  and  the  seismic  safety,  noise, 
scenic  highway,  fire  protection,  and  geological  hazards 
elements.  Although  much  work  remains  to  be  done  in 
most  counties  even  to  assemble  the  necessary  data  for 
satisfactory  analysis  of  these  subjects,  the  requirements 
have  forced  consideration  of  many  aspects  of  land 
development  not  covered  to  any  obvious  degree  in 
earlier  cases. 

Recent  dramatic  land  use  controls  at  the  local  level 
precipitated  by  citizen  action  have  occurred  in  the 
communities  of  Palo  Alto,  San  Diego,  and  San  Jose, 
and  in  Marin  County.  These  have  ranged  from  initia- 
tive action  to  freeze  or  slow  growth  pending  specific 
studies  or  other  action,  to  the  disapproval  of  bond 
proposal  for  financing  utility  development.  The  extent 
of  future  impact  of  this  type  of  action  is  uncertain, 
as  some  have  been  overturned  in  the  courts. 

Questions  of  personal  property  rights,  of  alternatives 
to  property  taxes  as  the  principal  local  funding  instru- 
ment, of  how  to  achieve  a  balance  between  social, 
economic,  and  environmental  objectives,  and  other 
difficult  questions  remain  to  be  adequately  answered. 


Land  Use  Planning 
and  the  Department  of  Water  Resources 

The  Department  of  Water  Resources  does  not  en- 
gage in  land  use  planning,  but  it  does  make  land  use 
studies.  In  planning  of  water  projects  and  coordinating 
the  plans  of  other  agencies,  the  Department's  pro- 
cedures are  reactive  rather  than  proactive.  It  projects 
what  it  believes  will  be  the  most  likely  land  use  under 
existing  public  policies.  Since  the  major  consumptive 
use  of  water  in  California  is  by  irrigated  agriculture, 
it  goes  into  considerable  detail,  projecting  areas  and 
types  of  cropping.  It  works  with  population  projec- 
tion and  distribution.  The  planning  takes  into  account 
current  trends  and  considers  probable  future  trends. 

The  Department  has  made  major  contributions  to 
recent  deliberations  in  the  State  administration  on 
land  use  planning.  Its  data  files  on  present  and  past 
land  use  are  extensive  and  widely  used.  Plans  for  water 
management  will  be  an  essential  and  integral  part  of 
comprehensive  land  use  plans.  The  Department  will 
be  able  to  contribute  in  numerous  additional  ways  to 
any  land  use  management  program  that  may  be 
adopted  by  the  State. 


29 


CHAPTER   II 


KEY  WATER  POLICY  ISSUES 


A  significant  aspect  of  the  greatly  expanded  public 
concern  for  natural  environmental  conditions  is  the 
need  for  greater  consideration  of  interrelationships  of 
actions,  "trade-offs",  and  secondary  effects.  The  need 
to  evaluate  the  interrelationships,  and  frequently  even 
their  existence,  is  not  always  recognized.  The  complex 
interrelationships  need  to  be  understood  to  avoid  sim- 
plistic or  partial  solutions  to  water  problems. 

The  following  discussions  outline  some  of  the  cur- 
rent water  policy  issues  that  need  thorough  considera- 
tion. In  some  cases  adequate  data  are  not  available 
to  make  complete  assessments  of  the  interrelationships 
currently  considered  important.  Awareness  of  these 
and  the  likely  direction  of  the  effects  is,  however,  very 
important  to  sound  decisions.  Every  effort  should  be 
made  to  avoid  actions  that  produce  unexpected  and 
adverse  results.  All  of  the  issues  relate  to  changing 
public  attitudes  that  affect  or  are  affected  by  water 
development  and  management.  The  principal  cause 
for  the  changes  relates  to  revised  vie\\'s  on  protection 
and  enhancement  of  the  natural  environment. 

Over  the  past  quarter  century,  the  technology  of 
economic  analysis  as  applied  in  the  planning,  formula- 
tion, and  design  of  government-sponsored  water  re- 
sources development  has  reached  a  high  level  of 
sophistication,  particularly  as  compared  with  the  anal- 
ysis of  other  government-sponsored  programs.  This 
technology,  based  largely  on  economic  criteria,  has  its 
critics  and  its  difficulties.  When  properly  and  consci- 
entiously applied  it  provided  a  tangible  basis  for  deci- 
sion making  in  connection  with  implementation  of 
major  water  resources  development  and  the  allocation 
of  the  costs  among  beneficiaries. 

Within  recent  years,  however,  this  approach  to  the 
decision  making  process  has  been  seriously  challenged 
by  those  who  contend  that  preservation  and  enhance- 
ment of  the  natural  environment,  and  social  considera- 
tions, are  of  primar\'  concern  in  connection  with  any 
development-oriented  undertaking.  These  considera- 
tions are  highly  qualitative,  judgment  oriented,  and 
not  readily  adaptable  to  quantitative  expression  or 
economic  dimensioning.  When  included  in  water 
project  development  they  result  in  benefits  and  costs 
whicii  may  significantly  affect  the  cost  of  other  prod- 
ucts and  services. 

In  an  expanding  economy  under  conditions  of  in- 
creasing population,  maintenance  of  the  status  quo, 
or  the  "no  project  alternative",  usually  represents  a 
cost  in  itself,  since  the  products  and  services  which 
society  demands  must  be  supplied  from  a  more  costly 
alternative.  Indeed,  the  "environmental  movement" 
and  the  increasing  awareness  and  concern  on  the  part 
of  the  general  public  for  the  natural  environment  and 
esthetics  appear  to   be  side   effects  or   results   of  in- 


creasing economic  affluence  in  a  large  sector  of  so- 
ciety. 

Although  environmental  and  esthetic  goals  involve 
economic  aspects,  it  is  not  necessary  that  these  con- 
siderations be  forced  into  a  rigorous  economic  frame- 
work. Care  must  be  taken,  however,  to  adopt  a  reason- 
able balance  between  economic  factors  and  subjective 
factors  to  provide  opportunity  for  the  economically 
handicapped  portion  of  society  to  increase  its  level 
of  economic  affluence  to  a  point  where  it  can  partici- 
pate in  the  natural  environmental  and  esthetic  ameni- 
ties of  California.  Sucii  an  approach  would  recognize 
the  impact  of  water  management  actions  on  the  en- 
vironment as  well  as  recognize  the  economic  and  so- 
cial impact  of  development.  There  is  need  for  a 
straightforward,  workable  basis  for  formulating  and 
evaluating  water  resources  development,  and  for  allo- 
cating the  costs  of  such  development  among  all  bene- 
ficiaries, including  those  for  whom  the  natural  en- 
vironmental and  esthetic  considerations  are  enhanced. 

The  issues  presented  in  this  chapter  have  significant 
potential  impact  on  the  public  and  most  have  received 
public  attention.  Most  have  been  extensivel\-  reviewed 
and  discussed  in  various  forums  including  the  work- 
shops held  by  the  Department  of  Water  Resources  in 
the  preparation  of  this  bulletin.  While  the  subjects 
have  received  wide  attention,  the  ramifications  of  the 
courses  of  action  have  not  always  received  the  atten- 
tion necessary  to  develop  public  policy  and  decisions. 

Cooling  Water  for  Electric  Energy  Production 

The  cooling  water  policy  issue  arises  because  limi- 
tations on  locating  power  plants  on  the  coast  are 
creating  a  substantial  previously  unplanned-for  de- 
mand on  inland  water  resources.  Significant  resource 
trade-offs  and  costs  result  from  the  coastal  limitations. 

In  recent  decades  most  of  the  increased  demand  for 
electric  energy  in  California  has  been  met  by  con- 
structing thermal  electric  plants.  Although  the  re- 
maining hydroelectric  potential  is  significant,  pollu- 
tion-free, and  nonconsumptive  of  fuels  (as  pointed  out 
in  Department  of  Water  Resources'  Bulletin  No.  194, 
"Hydroelectric  Energy  Potential  in  California")  the 
majority  of  future  energy  requirements  must  still  be 
met  by  thermal  generating  plants.  Thenual  plants  re- 
quire some  high  quality  water  for  steam  generation, 
which  is  frequently  obtained  by  distillation,  and  much 
larger  quantities  of  cooling  water  to  recondense  the 
steam  and  to  remove  approximately  50  to  60  percent 
of  the  heat  which  cannot  be  converted  to  electricity 
due  to  natural  heat  exchange  limitations.  This  cooling 
water  is  either  passed  through  the  plant  and  discharged 
back  into  its  source  or  recycled  through  cooling 
towers  where  heat  is  removed  by  evaporation. 


31 


Thermal  electric  plants  located  along  the  Pacific 
Ocean  or  its  bays  and  estuaries  take  advantage  of  the 
large  volume  of  cold  water  available  and  use  once- 
through  cooling  systems.  Concerns  about  the  marine 
environment,  the  esthetics  of  coastal  plants,  and  the 
safety  of  structures  against  earthquakes,  however, 
have  greatly  restricted  further  construction  of  new 
plants  along  the  coast  during  the  past  few  years.  The 
present  trend  is  toward  location  of  new  thermal  plants 
at  inland  sites.  Plants  in  these  areas  will  require  re- 
circulation of  the  cooling  water,  most  of  which  must 
come  from  fresh  water  resources.  The  number  of  new 
plants  which  will  be  constructed  at  inland  sites  will 
depend  on  many  factors  but  it  is  possible  that  the 
cooling  water  demands  may  range  between  300,000 
and  400,000  acre-feet  annually  by  the  year  1990.  Even 
more  water  might  be  required  in  later  years,  although 
technological  advances  may  improve  cooling  methods 
and  energy  conservation  programs  may  slow  the  rate 
of  growth  in  demand.  The  U.S.  Environmental  Pro- 
tection Agency  is  currently  proposing  that  all  existing 
plants  stop  using  ocean  water  for  cooling  and  switch 
to  other  sources.  To  do  so  would  require  by  1977 
about  200,000  acre-feet  of  fresh  water  annually.  The 
Department  of  Water  Resources,  State  Water  Re- 
sources Control  Board,  and  the  electric  utilities  have 
expressed  concern  to  the  Environmental  Protection 
Agency  that  such  a  requirement  is  impractical  and  un- 
necessary. 

Many  of  the  natural  environmental  concerns  about 
coastal  sites  apply  equally  well  to  inland  sites.  While 
there  are  impacts  on  marine  resources  from  use  of 


ocean  water  for  cooling,  the  development  of  addi- 
tional surface  water  supplies  for  inland  plants  will 
also  have  environmental  impacts  on  fresh  water  fish 
and  wildlife  resources.  Similarly,  concern  with  the 
esthetics  and  scenery  on  the  coast  will  be  translated  to 
analogous  concerns  at  inland  locations.  Plants  at 
coastal  locations  using  once-through  cooling  are  not  as 
large  and  imposing  as  ones  located  inland  with  their 
large  cooling  towers,  which  typically  are  several  hun- 
dred feet  tall  if  natural  draft  is  used.  An  alternative  to 
cooling  towers  would  be  construction  of  large  ponds, 
which  could  be  esthetically  pleasing  but  require  large 
areas  of  land.  Consideration  is  currently  being  given 
to  using  air  cooling,  in  which  the  cooling  water  is 
recirculated  through  a  radiator  system  similar  to  that 
used  in  an  automobile.  These  costly  systems,  how- 
ever, would  require  very  large  installations  covering 
large  areas  in  order  to  provide  enough  cooling  sur- 
face, and  they  also  require  energy  for  pumping. 

Water  for  cooling  at  inland  locations,  however,  can 
in  part  be  obtained  from  waste  water  discharges  which 
may  be  too  brackish  to  use  for  other  purposes.  Waste 
water  that  would  otherwise  be  discharged  to  the  ocean 
that  could  be  used  for  power  plant  cooling  could  re- 
sult in  an  overall  economic  benefit.  The  cost  of  electric 
generation  may  be  somewhat  greater  than  if  fresh 
water  is  used  due  to  the  cost  of  pretreatment  of  the 
water.  The  cost  of  disposing  of  the  waste  water, 
however,  could  be  much  lower  because  the  volume 
may  be  only  about  one-tenth  the  initial  volume  due  to 
the  concentrating  effect  of  the  evaporative  process. 


Ocean  water  cooling  at  Diablo  Canyon  nuclear  power  plant 


32 


In  the  Central  Valley  there  will  be  signficant  quanti- 
ties of  waste  water  which  must  otherwise  be  dis- 
charged to  the  ocean.  This  water  must  be  collected, 
treated,  and  stored  for  cooling.  Some  discharges  into 
the  Salton  Sea  may  also  offer  potential  for  power 
plant  cooHng.  The  level  of  the  Salton  Sea  would,  how- 
ever, be  lowered  and  the  salinity  increased.  This 
would  have  an  impact  on  the  fishery  resources  and 
the  recreation  use  of  the  Salton  Sea. 

A  major  untapped  source  of  waste  water  would  be 
the  urban  discharges  to  the  ocean  and  its  estuaries. 
Due  to  safety  and  environmental  considerations,  it  has 
been  difficult  to  locate  power  plants  near  the  metro- 
politan areas,  and  the  use  of  urban  waste  water  for 
cooling  would  involve  extensive  collection  and  trans- 
mission facilities. 

An  additional  factor  involved  in  the  source  of  cool- 
ing water  is  the  physical  advantage  of  the  cold  Pa- 
cific Ocean  over  inland  water  supplies.  The  ocean 
water  in  Northern  California  is  generally  20-25  de- 
grees colder  than  inland  supplies  and  therefore  is  a 
more  efficient  coolant.  The  difference  in  Southern  Cal- 
ifornia ma\'  be  around  10-15  degrees.  The  increased 
efficiency  of  power  plants  using  colder  sea  water  when 
compared  to  plants  operated  inland  with  warmer  wa- 
ters and  evaporative  coolers  would  be  equivalent  to 
between  15  and  20  million  barrels  of  oil  annually  for 
the  additional  plants  needed  b\'  1990. 

Boards  and  agencies  responsible  for  developing 
coastal  zone  and  control  plans,  the  Legislature,  and 
the  public  should  be  aware  of  the  trade-offs  which 
are  involved.  The  esthetic  impact  on  the  coastline 
should  be  compared  to  the  trade-off  of  a  highly  vis- 
ible inland  site  with  its  massive  cooling  towers.  Waste 
water  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  used  for  cooling  at 
inland  sites  might  be  some  of  the  water  now  used 
for  Delta  salinit)'  control  and  \\ould  have  to  be  off- 
set by  fresh  water  outflow.  Until  waste  water  can  be 
collected  and  adequateh'  treated,  it  may  be  necessary 
in  some  areas  of  the  state  to  use  fresh  water  for  cool- 
ing thus  imposing  additional  stress  on  the  state's  water 
supplies.  The  coastal  site  limitations  on  power  plants 
will  create  very  similar  inland  problems. 

Water  Deficiencies 

The  size  and  scheduling  of  future  water  conserva- 
tion facihties,  particularly  for  the  State  Water  Proj- 
ect and  the  Central  Valley  Project,  depend  to  some 
degree  on  the  certainty  of  meeting  contractual  deliv- 
ery schedules.  If  it  is  not  necessary  to  fully  meet  the 
contractual  commitments  during  dry  years,  the  water 
supply  available  during  "normal"  or  wet  years  can  be 
spread  out  to  more  users,  or  the  date  by  which  addi- 
tional conservation  facilities  are  needed  for  a  given 
service  area  can  be  deferred.  This  latter  concept  is  the 
basis  for  suggestions  for  increasing  the  \ield  of  the 
State  Water  Project  and  the  Central  Valley  Project  by 


simply  e.xpanding  the  degree  of  risk  in  meeting  water 
delivery  commitments.  The  policy  issue  is  whether  an 
increased  degree  of  risk  should  be  borne  by  water 
users  in  order  to  defer  or  avoid  additional  water  de- 
velopment. Equitable  consideration  of  any  increased 
risk  would  involve  all  water  uses,  including  municipal 
and  industrial  users,  agriculture,  fish  and  wildlife,  rec- 
reation, and  hydroelectric  generation. 

The  dependable  or  firm  yield  of  each  water  project 
traditionally  has  been  based  on  the  capabilities  of  that 
project  to  furnish  water  service  on  some  prescribed 
pattern  or  schedule  during  the  most  severe  drought 
of  record.  Built  into  this  approach  are  tempering  al- 
lowances for  reduction  of  water  deliveries  in  critically 
dry  years.  For  example.  State  Water  Project  contracts 
with  agricultural  customers  provide  for  ma.ximum  de- 
ficiency of  up  to  50  percent  of  contractual  amounts 
in  any  one  year  and  up  to  100  percent  cumulative  de- 
ficiency over  a  seven-year  period  after  which  munic- 
ipal and  agricultural  users  jointly  share  any  further 
shortages.  The  practical  effect  of  these  deficiency  al- 
lowances in  project  planning  and  design  is  to  build  in 
some  degree  of  risk,  but  the  amount  of  risk  is  usually 
not  statistically  determined. 

For  \\  ater  projects  using  Northern  California  water 
supplies  such  as  the  Central  Valley  Project  and  the 
State  Water  Project,  the  historic  drought  which  oc- 
curred during  the  six  water  seasons  1929  through  1934 
is  the  critical  period  for  project  water  yield  studies. 
This  period  was  the  worst  sustained  drought  in  the 
Sacramento  River  Basin  in  the  120  years  of  record  in 
terms  of  length  and  severity.  The  driest  single  runoff 
year  in  the  past  100  years  was  1924  (1864  was  prob- 
ably slightly  drier,  based  on  very  limited  rainfall  rec- 
ords). 

The  recurrence  interval  of  a  six-year  drought  com- 
parable in  severity  to  the  1929-1934  critical  dry  pe- 
riod is  not  known.  Estimates  range  from  between  100 
and  400  years,  and  the  best  estimate  at  this  time  is  that 
a  similar  drought  could  be  expected  about  once  every 
200  years  on  the  average.  It  could  occur  twice  in  suc- 
cessive decades,  however. 

Critics  of  the  traditional  "historic  critical  period" 
method  have  suggested  that  probability  methods  be 
used  for  determining  the  design  size  and  water  yield 
accomplishment  of  water  resource  projects.  With  the 
advent  of  the  electronic  computer,  this  approach  is 
possible,  but  the  matter  of  risk  remains.  Three  aspects 
need  to  be  evaluated  somewhere  in  this  process:  (I) 
assessment  of  the  level  of  risk  built  into  the  traditional 
approach,  an  extremely  important  point  to  those 
holding  existing  contracts  for  firm  yield;  (2)  the  eco- 
nomic effect  of  water  shortages  on  various  types  of 
use;  and  (3)  the  degree  of  risk  of  water  and  hydro- 
electric power  shortage  which  the  public  is  able  or 
willing  to  accept  and  the  equitable  distribution  of  such 
risks. 


33 


The  same  water  development  system  might  be  able 
to  provide  more  water  on  the  average  than  the  calcu- 
lated dry  period  safe  yield,  if  sufficient  conveyance 
capacity  existed.  Operating  in  this  manner  would  tend 
to  use  all  or  much  of  the  reservoir  carryover  reserves 
during  the  current  year  rather  than  a  longer  and  more 
conservative  carryover  as  assumed  in  conventional 
studies;  therefore,  the  shortages  which  occur  would 
generally  be  greater.  The  average  water  supply  would 
be  increased,  but  the  lack  of  dependability  would  also 
be  increased,  causing  dry  >ear  hardships  for  some 
water  users  whose  investments  may  require  a  firm  or 
dependable  supply.  Hydroelectric  power  production 
would  also  be  reduced  in  dry  years  due  to  lower  water 
levels  in  reservoirs.  This  would  require  additional  in- 
stalled capacity  in  new  thermal  electric  plants. 

The  sharing  of  water  deficiencies  between  agencies 
under  drought  conditions  would  be  constrained  by 
institutional  and  legal  considerations.  Water  rights  arc 
property  rights  and  there  is  no  legal  basis  for  sharing 
between  users  of  different  basins. 

Cost  Sharing  of  Environmental  Enhancement 

As  a  general  principle  of  equit\-,  the  cost  of  mitiga- 
tion, due  to  the  loss  of  a  public  resource,  such  as  fish, 
have  been  borne  by  water  project  beneficiaries.  Con- 
siderable efforts  have  been  made  to  compensate  for 
certain  unavoidable  losses.  For  example  fish  hatcheries 
have  been  constructed  to  replace  the  loss  of  fish 
spawning  areas  due  to  dam  construction.  These  have 
been  accepted  as  project  costs.  There  has  not,  how- 
ever, been  a  corresponding  degree  of  concern  with 


cost  sharing  for  the  benefits  received  when  enhance- 
ment occurs. 

In  large  federal  water  projects,  such  as  those  on  the 
American  River,  there  are  generally  many  years  be- 
tween the  time  of  authorization  of  a  plan  of  accom- 
plishments with  its  corresponding  cost-sharing  formula 
and  the  time  the  project  is  completed  and  in  opera- 
tion. Public  pressures  for  changes  in  plan  or  operation 
to  enhance  the  natural  environment  are  common  but 
generally  do  not  include  any  proposals  for  changing 
the  cost-sharing  formulas.  In  some  cases  large  seg- 
ments of  the  public  can  be  benefited  b>'  project 
changes,  while  in  other  cases  only  limited  numbers  of 
people  enjoy  the  benefits.  Frequently,  significant  bene- 
fits incidental  to  the  main  purpose  of  project  opera- 
tion, such  as  a  live  summer  stream  with  enough  flow 
to  produce  "white  \\ater"  rapids  favored  for  recrea- 
tion or  an  esthetically  pleasing  stream  flow,  are  taken 
for  granted.  Intensive  public  pressures  are  applied  to 
retain  the  windfall  benefits  but  little  or  no  indication 
is  made  as  to  what  project  costs  should  be  assigned  to 
those  benefits  or  how  they  should  be  paid  for.  The 
result  is  often  long  delays  in  carrying  out  the  water 
program. 

In  the  Water  Rights  Decision  1379  of  the  State 
Water  Resources  Control  Board  provision  was  made 
for  fishery  enhancement.  This  decision,  which  calls 
for  mitigation  as  well  as  enhancement,  establishes  cer- 
tain water  quality  conditions  in  the  Sacramento-San 
Joaquin  Delta  which  would  in  part  be  dependent  on 
release  of  stored  water.  It  would  require  about  500,000 
acre-feet  annually  of  stored  water  from  the  State 
Water  Project  and  the  federal  Central  Valley  Project 
to  achieve  the  prescribed  conditions  for  enhancement. 


AcA^^-^M^ 


R.l,.an'  of   slored  water  to  the  lower  American   River  enhonces  re.reolion 


34 


To  make  up  the  loss  of  w  ater  resulting  from  the  deci- 
sion would  require  the  construction  of  a  new  water 
storage  project  in  the  Upper  Sacramento  Valley  or 
the  North  Coast. 

Among  public  works  projects,  water  development 
undertakings  are  in  the  forefront  on  economic  justifi- 
cation, that  is,  benefits  versus  costs,  and  on  cost  al- 
locations. Over  the  years  legislative  acts  have  identi- 
fied certain  types  of  project  accomplishments  which 
are  sufficiently  widespread  to  warrant  repayment  from 
general  taxes.  This  was  the  purpose  of  the  Davis- 
Dolwig  Act  which  applies  only  to  the  State  Water 
Project.  For  federal  water  projects  provision  for  en- 
hancement may  be  included  at  time  of  authorization, 
but  great  difficulty  has  arisen  when  these  benefits  have 
been  added  ex  post  facto.  As  the  type  and  scope  of 
environmental  amenities  expand,  public  policy  on  cost 
sharing  has  not  kept  pace,  and  financing  and  repay- 
ment obligations  have  been  assigned  by  default.  There 
is  a  pressing  need  for  further  conscious  consideration 
of  the  degree  of  general  public  benefit  which  could 
be  paid  by  general  taxes,  and  the  extent  of  direct  user 
repayment  by  the  specific  beneficiaries.  The  process 
of  evaluating  public  interest  in  paying  for  various 
environmental  benefits  would  identify  the  relation  be- 
tween benefits  and  costs  and  may  indicate  the  need  to 
revise  some  goals. 

Water  Quality  Improvement 

Concern  for  the  quality  of  the  rivers  and  lakes  of 
the  nation  has  become  a  major  public  issue  in  the  last 
decade.  The  state  and  national  programs  for  water 
quality  improvement  involve  large  sums  of  money  and 
material  and  human  resources,  as  well  as  releases  of 
stored  fresh  water  in  some  cases.  The  United  States 
is  now  planning  to  spend  billions  of  dollars  over  the 
next  few  years  for  clean  water.  Grants  of  up  to  75 
percent  of  the  cost  of  waste  treatment  facilities  are 
available  to  local  communities.  In  California  an  addi- 
tional 12.5  percent  can  be  obtained  from  the  State. 
These  programs  are  designed  to  treat  wastes  from 
municipalities.  They  call  for  secondary  treatment  of 
all  wastes  by  1977,  the  best  practicable  treatment  by 
1983,  and  elimination  of  all  pollutant  discharges  to 
navigable  waterways  by  1985.  There  are  also  require- 
ments for  major  improvements  in  industrial  waste  dis- 
charges. Increasing  attention  is  being  directed  to  agri- 
cultural return  flows.  Concern  is  also  being  expressed 
with  the  loads  of  pollution  which  run  off  from  streets 
and  urban  areas  during  storm  periods,  and  means  of 
controlling  these  wastes  are  being  considered. 

Benefits  from  the  quality  improvements  have  gen- 
erally not  been  assessed  in  quantitative  terms  and  com- 
pared to  the  costs,  particularly  the  incremental  bene- 
fits and  costs  resulting  from  varying  levels  of 
treatment.  The  issue  of  cost  effectiveness  was  raised  by 
the  National  Water  Commission  in  its  report  of  1973. 


The  Federal  Water  Pollution  Control  Act  calls  for 
a  high  degree  of  uniformity  in  requirements  through- 
out the  country.  The  water  supplies,  seasonal  precipi- 
tation patterns,  present  quality  of  rivers  and  lakes, 
and  historic  pollution  control  vary  widely,  however, 
and  many  of  the  requirements  for  humid  and  indus- 
trialized eastern  states  do  not  fit  the  California  case. 
Strong  water  quality  control  has  been  in  effect  in  Cali- 
fornia since  the  late  1940s,  and  in  1969  this  control  was 
further  strengthened  with  enactment  of  the  Porter- 
Cologne  Water  Quality  Control  Act.  This  Act  estab- 
lishes as  state  policy  that  the  quality  of  the  water  re- 
sources of  the  State  shall  be  protected  for  the  use  and 
enjoyment  of  people  and  that  activities  which  affect 
quality  shall  be  regulated  to  attain  the  highest  water 
quality  which  is  reasonable  considering  all  uses  of  the 
water  and  all  values  involved.  These  qualified  policies 
call  for  a  balance  between  various  water  uses.  The 
general  public  in  its  support  for  better  water  quality 
or  waste  treatment  may  not  take  into  account  the 
tradeoffs  that  such  a  program  imposes.  This  could  be 
in  the  form  of  higher  taxes  or  prices  for  goods  and 
services. 

Practically  all  of  the  attention  has  been  directed 
toward  the  reduction  of  discharged  pollutants.  Less 
attention  has  been  directel  toward  desirable  degrees 
of  water  quality  in  the  rivers,  lakes,  and  ground  water 
bodies  for  beneficial  uses.  Since  these  are  the  sources 
of  water  supply  for  other  users,  there  is  a  relationship 
between  the  quality  of  the  supply  and  the  benefits 
derived  by  the  subsequent  user.  In  most  cases  there  is 
a  wide  range  of  qualities  which  are  fully  satisfactory 
to  meet  consumptive  urban,  industrial,  and  agricultural 
needs  as  well  as  fish,  wildlife,  and  recreation  needs. 
The  incremental  savings  which  may  result  from  pro- 
viding better  quality  water  within  that  range  may  be 
far  less  than  the  costs  of  providing  the  incremental 
improvement.  As  the  quality  of  the  water  supply 
deteriorates,  the  incremental  costs  to  the  user  become 
increasingly  greater,  and  in  this  range  there  may  be 
justification  for  larger  expenditures  on  water  treat- 
ment. 

In  addition  to  the  overall  question  on  the  appropri- 
ate level  of  water  quality  achievement,  there  is  the 
consideration  of  the  payment  of  costs.  Where  there  is 
widespread  public  benefit,  it  is  generally  satisfactory 
to  use  public  taxes.  Where  identifiable  commercial 
interests  are  involved,  the  costs  are  generally  assigned 
to  those  interests  but  these  increased  costs  of  produc- 
tion are,  in  turn,  passed  on  to  the  product  consum- 
ers. 

Some  proposals  and  requirements  for  water  quality 
improvement  involve  releases  of  stored  water  from 
existing  or  future  water  projects.  Dedication  of  the 
yield  of  projects  to  this  end  may  mean  construction 
of  additional  and  more  costly  facilities  if  other  water 
requirements  arc  to  be  met.  The  additional  costs  would 
be  passed  on  to  a  different  group  of  beneficiaries  un- 


35 


less  special  provisions  are  made  for  repayment.  There 
may  also  be  environmental  costs  with  additional  water 
development  which  would  be  an  offset  to  the  environ- 
mental enhancement  achieved  by  use  of  stored  water. 
It  is  reasonable  that  additional  consideration  be 
given  to  all  types  of  benefits  of  water  quality  im- 
provement to  be  certain  that  benefits  equal  or  exceed 
costs  or  offsets.  Congress  has  recognized  the  need  for 
methods  of  evaluation  and  the  federal  program  is  be- 
ing evaluated  by  the  National  Commission  on  Water 
Quality.  The  Commission  report  is  due  in  October 
1976  and  guidelines  from  this  effort  are  anticipated. 

Water  Supplies  as  a  Growth  Regulator 

There  has  been  increasing  activity  in  recent  years 
to  limit  population  growth  by  rcstriciting  water  sup- 
plies. Most  of  these  efforts  have  been  at  the  local 
community  level,  but  there  are  those  who  suggest  that 
the  denial  of  additional  water  \\  ould  stop  population 
growth  in  Southern  California  and  thereby  alleviate 
air  qualit_\-  problems,  further  congestion,  and  so  on. 
Water  is  necessary  to  support  growth  as  well  as  the 
status  quo,  but  it  is  equalK-  true  that  the  factors  in- 
fluencing growth  are  many. 

In  California,  a  State  of  over  20  million  people, 
much  of  the  pressures  of  growth  are  related  directly 
to  natural  population  increase.  Decisions  regarding 
numbers  of  children  are  matters  of  individual  family 
planning  and  are  based  on  considerations  other  than 
the  availability  of  water.  There  is  no  evidence  that 
decisions  to  migrate  to  or  from  California  or  to  other 
areas  within  the  State  are  made  on  the  basis  of  an 
assured  water  suppl\'.  Such  movement  has  been  in- 
duced principally  b>-  climatic,  social,  or  economic 
reasons.  Environmental  quality  is  also  becoming  a 
motivating  factor  and  is  affecting  some  growth  pat- 
terns. 

When  considering  the  growth  issue  recognition 
should  be  given  that  curtailing  ser\-ices  such  as  water 
supplies  may  not,  in  fact,  limit  growth  but  induce 
health  hazards,  environmental  degradation,  and  other 
complications.  Further,  in  most  California  urban  areas 
growth  would  still  be  possible  where  water  is  in  short 
supply  b)-  taking  water  conservation,  reclamation,  and 
reuse  measures.  Finally,  localized  moves  to  control 
population  expansion,  if  successful,  might  simply  trans- 
fer the  growth  and  associated  problems  to  another 
area. 

Government  at  all  levels  has  mechanisms  at  its  dis- 
posal to  influence  population  growth  patterns.  A  broad 
policy  to  do  so,  however,  does  not  exist.  When  and 
if  such  should  occur,  the  State's  water  resources  can 
be  adjusted  to  accommodate  growth  patterns.  The 
more  significant  hurdles  may  be  legal  and  institutional. 
Aside  from  recent  court  decisions  confirming  the 
right  to  move,  significant  changes  in  water  law  would 
be  necessary.  Government  can  largely  control  further 
development  of  surface  water  simply  by  withholding 


funds  for  building  projects.  The  surface  water  supplies 
remaining  to  be  developed  require  large  projects  to 
be  economically  feasible  and  are  generally  beyond  the 
means  of  private  individuals  or  the  smaller  public 
agencies.  Ground  water  in  California  is  another  matter, 
ho\\ever.  In  all  but  the  adjudicated  ground  water 
basins  of  the  State,  any  local  public  agency  or  an 
individual  can  construct  a  well  and  obtain  water  for 
a  variety  of  purposes.  Under  existing  law,  the  state  or 
federal  government  has  little  influence  on  use  of 
ground  water  except  in  those  few  areas  where  the  basin 
has  been  so  severely  overdrawn  that  the  courts 
through  the  adjudicatory  process  have  placed  limits 
on  the  further  withdrawal  of  ground  water.  A  whole 
new  body  of  ground  water  law  would  be  required 
for  the  State  to  be  able  to  designate  areas  that  could 
not  use  available  ground  water  to  support  further 
development. 

Another  factor  to  be  considered  in  limiting  growth 
would  be  the  payment  of  costs  incurred  and  obligated 
in  existing  water  projects  that  have  been  sized  and 
constructed  to  support  future  growth. 

Role  of  Water  Exchanges  in  Water  Management 
As  California's  water  supplies  become  more  fully 
used  or  reserved  for  natural  environmental  uses,  such 
as  \\ild  and  scenic  rivers,  it  becomes  increasingly 
important  to  review  water  rights  and  management 
policies.  Many  changes  would  involve  revised  laws, 
but  frequently  much  can  be  done  within  existing  laws 
or  with  minor  modifications.  Significant  policies,  such 
as  water  rights,  water  pricing,  water  quality,  and 
flexibility  of  operations,  are  almost  always  involved. 

There  are  opportunities  for  water  exchanges  which 
could  be  considered  to  reduce  the  expenditure  of  re- 
sources to  meet  future  needs  and  to  make  more  effec- 
tive use  of  available  resources.  Each  case  will  have  its 
own  particular  problems.  It  will  almost  always  be 
necessary  to  make  some  financial  arrangements,  and 
in  many  cases  there  would  be  water  quality  considera- 
tions. Two  key  ingredients  to  agreements  appear  to 
be  earnest  desire  by  \\ater  users  to  improve  the  sen-- 
ice  of  their  agencies,  and  mutual  economic  advantage 
for  each  agency.  Public  interest  in  the  concept  would 
stimulate  dormant  opportunities.  Some  past  exchanges 
and  potential  opportunities  that  have  had  some  atten- 
tion are  described  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

Each  additional  increment  of  \\ater  supply  is  gen- 
erally more  expensive  than  previous  increments,  and 
frequently  long  distances  between  source  and  area  of 
use  are  involved.  Water  supplies  are  sometimes  con- 
veyed through  areas  which  already  have  adequate  sup- 
plies or  which  only  received  a  small  additional  supply 
from  the  system  passing  through  the  area.  In  other 
cases,  areas  which  have  been  slow  to  develop  are  faced 
with  high  costs  because  supplies  originating  in  or  near- 
by the  developing  areas  have  already  been  appropri- 
ated by  a  downstream  or  distant  area.  In  some  places. 


36 


Growth  in  Southern  California— 1954  to  1974.  fSpence  Photo— UCtA  and  DWR) 


37 


water  of  excellent  quality  is  used  once  and  discharged 
to  a  marine  water  body  and  lost.  If  an  alternative  and 
available  supply  of  adequate  but  lower  quality  water 
\\  ould  suffice,  the  water  of  excellent  quality  might  be 
made  available  for  more  than  one  use. 

Possibilities  for  water  exchanges  are  enhanced  \\  lien 
they  can  be  combined  with  major  regional  transfer 
works  such  as  the  California  Aqueduct  of  the  State 
Water  Project  and  the  Central  \"aliey  Project.  For  ex- 
ample, the  Desert  Water  Agency  and  the  Coachella 
Valley  County  Water  District  have  arranged  with 
The  Metropolitan  Water  District  of  Southern  Cali- 
fornia to  take  Colorado  River  water  for  a  few  years 
from  the  Colorado  Aqueduct  which  goes  through  their 
area  and,  in  turn,  assign  to  the  Metropolitan  Water 
District  their  w  ater  supply  from  the  State  Water  Proj- 
ect. This  exchange  permits  the  two  desert  districts  to 
defer  a  major  outlay  of  funds  for  a  conveyance  s\s- 
teni  to  connect  with  the  California  Aqueduct  until 
later  when  demands  are  greater  and  the  financial  base 
of  the  districts  is  larger. 

In  terms  of  the  quantit\'  of  water,  tlie  largest  ex- 
change in  the  State  involves  the  Central  \^illc\'  Proj- 
ect. Water  from  the  Sacramento  \'alie\'  is  conveyed 
through  the  Deita-Mendota  Canal  to  Alendota  Pool  on 
the  San  Joaquin  River  to  replace  supplies  in  the  river 
which  are  diverted  at  Friant  Dam  and  conveyed  south- 
ward through  the  Friant-Kern  Canal  as  far  as  the  Bak- 
ersfield  area. 

Study  is  being  given  by  the  state  and  federal  agen- 
cies and  the  Pacific  Cas  and  Electric  Compan\-  to  in- 
creasing dry  season  in-stream  flows  in  the  Eel  River 
below  Van  Arsdale  Dam  by  using  some  of  the  water 
stored  in  Lake  Pillsbury  and  diverted  by  Pacific  Cas 
and  Electric  to  a  power  plant  on  the  East  Fork  Rus- 
sian River.  This  trade  would  result  in  a  reduction  in 
power  output  and  some  reduction  in  water  suppl\'  to 
the  Russian  River  Basin.  Primary  benefits  would  be 
enhancement  of  Eel  River  fisheries  and  recreation  in 
northern  Mendocino  and  southern  Humboldt  Coun- 
ties, plus  a  possible  supplemental  irrigation  suppl\-  in 
the  Eel  River  Delta. 

Where  a  ground  water  basin  has  been  adjudicated, 
as,  for  example  the  West  Coast  Basin  in  Los  Angeles 
County,  exchange  of  water  may  occur  when  surface 
water  is  also  available.  Operation  of  the  basin  to  re- 
duce sea  water  intrusion  is  possible  by  the  reduction 
in  pumping  of  some  overlying  owners  in  exchange  for 
surface  water  importation.  Such  exchange  also  factors 
in  any  cost  and  (]ualit\'  differences  between  the  two 
sources. 

Proposals  have  also  l)een  made  to  use  Eos  Angeles' 
Owens  Valley  Aqueduct  Water  in  communities  adja- 
cent to  the  aqueduct,  such  as  China  Lake-In\ okern,  in 
exchange  for  Northern  California  water  delivered  to 
the  City  of  Eos  Angeles  via  the  State  Water  Project 
and  Metropolitan  Water  District's  facilities. 


Although  the  opportunities  for  exchanges  exist,  such 
factors  as  cost,  qualit\-  differences,  and  legal  and  in- 
stitutional constraints  will  often  present  formidable 
problems.  In  the  final  analysis  such  exchanges  may 
save  conveyance  costs  but  do  not  obviate  the  need  to 
develop  dependable  water  supplies. 

Public  Interest  in  Agricultural  Drainage 

Agricultural  drainage  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  is 
a  problem  which  could  have  a  major  impact  on  the 
State's  agricultural  economy  and  consequently,  upon 
the  economic  well-being  of  a  significant  portion  of  the 
State's  population.  Some  150,000  acres  of  presently 
productive  land  will  become  seriously  degraded  with- 
in the  next  decade  unless  some  corrective  measure  to 
remove  salt  and  reduce  w  ater  tables  is  developed.  An 
additional  800,000  acres  are  in  jeopard)'  of  a  similar 
fate  unless  corrected  within  the  next  two  to  five  dec- 
ades. With  increasing  demands  for  food,  losses  of  ag- 
ricultural production  in  this  magnitude  would  have 
significant  impacts  on  the  economy  of  the  State. 

The  fundamental  problem  involves  "salt  balance" 
in  the  San  Joaquin  \'a]le\'  w  here  onl\'  a  part  of  the  salt 
residue  resulting  from  the  consumptive  use  of  local 
and  imported  water  supplies  is  discharged  from  the 
X'alley.  The  greater  portion  is  simply  accumulating 
in  the  ground,  water  and  soil.  If  the  productivity  of 
the  San  Joaquin  \'alley  is  to  be  maintained,  this  salina- 
tion  process  must  be  stopped  and  reversed. 

The  general  approach  to  maintenance  of  salt  balance 
is  to  remove  the  salts  from  the  area  in  the  form  of 
concentrated  saline  waste  water  collected  as  natural 
drainage  or  from  subsurface  drainage  systems  installed 
by  the  irrigators.  The  San  Joaquin  River  now  serves 
as  a  conduit  for  the  removal  of  such  waste  water  in 
the  northern  or  San  Joaquin  Basin  portion  of  the 
V^alley.  The  river  also  is  a  source  of  irrigation  water 
and,  at  times,  the  quality  is  only  marginally  adequate 
and  further  degradation  cannot  be  tolerated.  The 
larger  Tulare  Lake  Basin  portion  of  the  San  Joaquin 
X'allcy  is  essentiall\'  a  closed  basin  with  no  outlet,  and 
the  problem  of  salt  balance  in  this  area  is  particularly 
threatening  since  none  of  the  salts  are  leaving  the 
basin. 

A  master  drain  s\stcm  for  the  San  Joaquin  \'alley 
is  an  authorized  part  of  the  State  Water  Project,  and 
the  Department  of  Water  Resources  has  made  exten- 
sive saidies  of  the  drainage  problem  in  the  \'alle\-  and 
has  developed  a  plan  for  a  master  drain  system.  Diffi- 
culties in  obtaining  repayment  contracts  with  benefi- 
ciaries have  so  far  prevented  implementation  of  the 
plan.  The  major  problem  has  been  that,  though  a 
large  portion  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valle\-  contributes  to 
the  problem,  only  those  areas  which  actually  suffer 
damage  have  thus  far  been  called  upon  to  repay  the 
costs  of  implementing  the  drainage  plan.  Some  means 


38 


is  needed  to  finance  and  assign  responsibility  for  re- 
payment of  the  costs  of  such  a  system  on  an  expanded 
repayment  base.  Benefits  to  the  State  in  maintaining 
its  number  one  industry — agriculture,  are  threatened 
unless  some  repayment  means  are  found.  The  costs 
would  be  partially  borne  by  electric  power  users  if 
thermal  electric  plants  located  in  the  San  Joaquin  Val- 
ley use  agricultural  drainage  w  ater  for  cooling. 

A  closely  related  and  significant  environmental 
problem  is  the  manner  of  disposing  of  the  saline 
drainage  water.  Drainage  conveyed  to  the  Sacramento- 
San  Joaquin  Delta  may  require  removal  of  the  nutri- 
ents to  avoid  undesirable  algae  conditions  in  the  Delta 
channels.  The  water  would,  however,  provide  a  por- 
tion of  the  outflow  needed  to  control  intrusion  of 
salinit\'  from  the  bay  system  which  would  otherwise 
have  to  be  provided  from  fresh  water  sources.  If  the 
drainage  water  is  ponded  in  the  valley  and  removed  by 
evaporation,  large  land  areas  would  be  required.  Con- 
centrated brine  blowdow  n  from  power  plant  cooling 
would  require  much  less  land  area.  Any  inland  storage 
areas  would  need  to  be  sealed  to  prevent  percolation 
to  ground  water  and  an\'  such  plan  may  only  defer  an 
ultimate  solution  of  salt  removal.  If  the  water  or  the 
salt  cannot  finally  be  disposed  of  at  inland  facilities 
or  to  the  ocean  through  the  Delta,  it  will  have  to  be 
conveyed  by  conduit  and  discharged  directly  into  the 
ocean  at  an  offshore  location.  Environmental  concerns 
will  be  involved  in  any  disposal  alternative,  and  some 
impact  is  unavoidable  for  continuation  of  the  agricul- 
tural economy  of  the  State. 

Flood  Damage  Prevention 

There  are  basicall\-  t\\  o  means  to  prevent  flood  dam- 
ages. They  are  (1)  sta>-  out  of  the  way  of  floods,  or 
(2)  keep  the  flood  flows  in  defined  channels  either 
with  or  without  upstream  regulatory  storage.  Both 
methods  have  been  used  throughout  the  history  of 
California  with  the  greatest  emphasis  being  placed  on 
controlling  floods.  Although  a  great  deal  of  money 
has  been  spent  on  structural  control  measures,  such 
as  reservoirs  and  leveed  channels,  annual  flood  dam- 
ages continue  in  many  unprotected  areas.  More  atten- 
tion to  staying  out  of  the  way  of  floods — flood  plain 
management  is  being  urged. 

Significant  amounts  of  public  funds  and  natural 
resources,  as  \\  ell  as  control  of  land  use  decisions,  are 
involved,  and  it  is  increasingh-  important  to  give 
thoughtful  consideration  to  the  various  aspects  of 
flood  damage  prevention  alternatives. 

The  nature  of  California's  topography  is  a  major 
factor  in  considering  this  issue.  Most  of  the  mountains 
are  geologically  \oung  and  quite  steep.  The  valleys 
and  plains  are  composed  of  the  sediments  washed 
down  from  the  mountains.  Most  of  the  easily  habita- 
ble land  is  a  flood  plain.  Stream  channels  are  naturally 
inclined  to  extensive  changes  in  course  as  sediments 


build  up.  Levees  and  channel  works  are  necessary  to 
keep  the  floods  within  reasonable  limits,  if  the  flood 
plain  is  inhabited. 

Sta\ing  full\-  out  of  the  w a\-  of  floods  in  California 
is  probably  not  practical  as  a  complete  solution.  In 
some  of  the  mountainous  northern  California  coun- 
ties, practically  all  of  the  "flat"  land  is  in  a  flood  plain 
and  further  economic  development  would  be  severely 
limited  if  it  could  not  take  place  in  the  flood  plain, 
but  structural  control  measures  would  be  required. 
The  desire  to  maintain  streams  in  their  natural  state 
for  wildlife  or  scenic  values,  particularly  in  urban 
areas,  will  necessitate  strong  land  use  controls. 

Major  flood  control  reservoirs  can  adequately  re- 
duce most  flood  peaks,  but  in  all  cases  they  are  de- 
signed to  operate  with  high  release  rates  to  accommo- 
date large  inflows  from  a  major  storm  when  the 
reservoir  is  nearly  full.  These  high  release  rates,  even 
though  far  smaller  than  the  natural  flood  flows,  gener- 
ally are  so  infrequent  that  the  public  does  not  recog- 
nize that  they  may  occur.  Consequently,  the  flood 
channel  becomes  encroached  upon  by  downstream  de- 
velopment in  the  absence  of  adequate  zoning  protec- 
tion. The  Sacramento  River  below  Shasta  Dam,  par- 
ticularly in  the  Redding  area,  and  the  Santa  Ana  River 
in  Orange  County  below  Prado  Dam  are  two  ex- 
amples. 

Land  use  control — and  flood  plain  management  is  a 
major  form  of  land  use  control — is,  under  existing 
state  law,  the  responsibility  of  local  agencies.  Failure 
to  adequateh"  zone,  and  regulate  in  accordance  there- 
with, at  the  local  level  tends  to  create  laws  and  pro- 
grams administered  b\-  state  and  federal  governments. 
To  prevent  development  in  floodways  in  which  the 
State  financially  assists  local  agencies  to  provide  rights 
of  way  for  federal  flood  control  agencies  to  construct 
flood  control  projects,  the  State  has  since  196.'>  under 
the  Cobey-Alquist  Act  required  that  the  local  agency 
zone  and  regulate  the  channel  area.  For  areas  identi- 
fied by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Housing  and  Urban 
Development  as  having  special  flood  hazards,  flood 
insurance  is  a  requirement  to  obtain  a  new  or  addi- 
tional loan  from  a  federally  insured  financial  institu- 
tion, if  such  insurance  is  available.  After  July  1,  1975, 
loans  cannot  be  made  unless  the  community  is  partici- 
pating in  the  national  flood  insurance  program  and 
insurance  is  purchased. 

In  addition  to  changing  public  attitudes  regarding 
flood  control  structures  in  favor  of  greater  emphasis 
on  flood  plain  management,  the  record  of  unusual 
flood  events  continues  to  lengthen.  It  indicates  that 
extreme  events  like  the  1964  flood  on  the  Eel  River, 
the  new  1974  peak  inflow  to  Shasta  Reservoir,  or  even 
the  l-in-500-year  flood  as  occurred  in  Rapid  City, 
South  Dakota,  in  1972,  are  possible  and  it  is  necessary 
to  plan  for  increasingly  intense  storms. 

As  the  State's  growth  continues,  the  potential  for 
loss  of  life  and  economic  investment  also  grows.  The 


39 


trade-offs  between  large  investment  of  public  funds, 
flood  risk,  and  the  environmental  desires  to  maintain 
natural  channels  and  wild  rivers  should  be  considered 
in  future  public  policy  decisions. 

Water  Pricing  Policy  and  Its  Effect  on  Demand 

To  reduce  the  future  quantity  of  water  used  by 
urban  areas  and  irrigated  agriculture,  suggestions  have 
been  made  that  water  prices  be  raised.  Urban  users 
generally  pay  for  water  at  a  flat  rate  or  a  decreasing 
block  rate  under  which  the  unit  costs  of  successive 
blocks  of  water  are  priced  at  lower  rates,  similar  to 
most  electric  power  rates.  Irrigation  water  in  federal 
reclamation  projects  is  priced  at  less  than  full  costs. 
Price  increases  may  reduce  demand  for  future  irriga- 
tion water.  Some  industries  may  also  be  encouraged  to 
use  less  water  or  to  reuse  waste  water.  There  would 
be  related  effects  which  must  also  be  considered  in 
any  discussion  of  the  price/demand  relationship. 

In  the  development  of  the  State  Water  Project,  an 
initial  determination  was  made  of  the  overall  market 
for  urban  and  agricultural  water,  and  direct  negotia- 
tions were  undertaken  with  water  agencies  acting  on 
behalf  of  individual  customers.  Contracts  were  signed 
that  obligated  the  water  agencies  to  pay  full  cost  of 
providing  the  water,  including  interest.  The  aqueduct 
system  was  sized  and  built  to  convey  the  contracted 
for  quantities  of  water.  Repayment  for  the  system  is 
the  obligation  of  the  agencies.  The  additional  costs 
of  conserving  and  pumping  the  water  is  fixed  by 
contract  to  the  actual  costs  to  the  State. 

To  effect  a  significant  change  in  agricultural  water 
demands  \\  ould  require  a  governmental  pricing  policy 
for  all  irrigated  area  which  would  result  in  sufficiently 
high  costs  as  to  eliminate  some  farming  enterprises. 
Such  a  governmental  policy  could  not  be  extended 
across  the  agricultural  sector  under  existing  laws. 
Water  is  diverted  or  pumped  by  individuals  and  many 
public  districts  and,  therefore,  pricing  is  not  subject 


The  California  Aqueduct  conveys  contracted  for  quantities  of  water 

40 


to  state  or  federal  intervention.  Since  existing  federal 
reclamation  contracts  have  fixed  the  price  of  water, 
any  increase  could  be  effected  only  when  those  con- 
tracts come  up  for  renewal  or  for  future  projects. 

In  the  case  of  urban  water  demands,  the  evidence 
is  mixed  but  there  are  examples  where  a  switch  from 
flat  rates  to  metered  rates  has  resulted  in  decisive  and 
permanent  reductions  in  water  use.  This  follows  the 
usual  expectation  that  an  increase  in  price  results  in 
a  decrease  in  demand,  and  the  greater  the  price  in- 
crease the  greater  change  in  demand.  Behavioral  pat- 
terns are  oftentimes  affected,  which  results  in  con- 
servation practices  including  reductions  in  wastage 
from  over-irrigation,  lawn  watering,  and  leaky  plumb- 
ing fixtures.  The  duration  of  these  practices  will  de- 
pend, in  part,  upon  the  costs  of  water  relative  to 
personal  income  and  other  expenditures.  This  applies 
to  industry  as  well,  but  as  long  as  the  price  of  water 
is  sufficiently  high  to  be  a  concern,  a  reduction  in 
water  demand  could  be  expected. 

A  significant  question  involved  in  increasing  munic- 
ipal water  rates  is  who  is  affected  and  what  may 
be  the  results.  Most  probably  the  low  income  group 
would  be  most  seriously  affected,  as  the  more  afflu- 
ent families  would  be  able  to  more  easily  absorb  a 
cost  increase.  Environmental  amenities  such  as  lawns, 
trees,  fountains,  and  parks  would  likely  be  reduced. 
The  U.  S.  Forest  Service  has  found  that  well-watered 
trees  can  reduce  air  temperatures  on  a  hot,  dry  day 
as  much  as  five  degrees.  They  also  found  that  a  single 
city  tree  provides  a  cooling  effect  equivalent  to  five 
average-sized  room  air  conditioners  running  about  20 
hours  per  day. 

In  summary  there  is  a  relationship  between  water 
price  and  demand.  From  a  practical  standpoint  the 
ability  of  federal  and  state  pricing  policies  \\ouId  have 
limited  effect.  The  tradeoffs  of  local  environmental 
amenities,  economic  and  social  well-being  vis-a-vis 
the  environmental  benefits  of  leaving  more  natural 
stream  flow  or  some  streams  undeveloped  require 
thoughtful  consideration. 

Water  Use  EflRciency  and  Its  EfFect  on  Demand 

A  great  deal  of  attention  is  currently  being  directed 
to\\ard  improvements  in  the  efficiency  of  use  of  re- 
sources as  a  means  of  decreasing  expanding  demands 
and  stretching  available  supplies.  Possibilities  for  more 
efficient  use  of  \\  ater.  range  from  flush  toilets  that  use 
less  water  to  desert  t\pe  landscaping  or  applying  irri- 
gation by  controlled  dripping  at  each  tree.  These  and 
various  other  methods  can  reduce  the  amount  of  ^\■ater 
used  in  homes  and  industry,  and  to  irrigate  crops.  The 
degree  to  which  the\'  would  reduce  the  overall  re- 
quirement for  water  supplies,  however,  depends  on 
several  factors. 

In  evaluating  the  effects  of  improving  the  methods 
of  using  water,  consideration  must  also  be  given  to 


Small  sprinklers  provide  for  efficient  use  of  water 


the  disposal  of  waste  water.  Where  the  waste  water  is 
discharged  to  saline  water,  any  reduction  in  the 
amount  of  water  originally  applied  will  provide  an 
equivalent  reduction  in  demand  for  developed  water 
supplies.  It  will  also  reduce  the  size  of  the  waste  treat- 
ment facilities.  This  case  generally  applies  to  coastal 
urban  areas  but  only  to  a  very  limited  degree  to  agri- 
culture. The  principal  areas  where  agricultural  returns 
mix  with  brackish  water  are  in  the  Coachella  and 
Imperial  Valleys  which  drain  to  the  Salton  Sea. 

Throughout  practically  all  other  irrigated  areas  and 
at  inland  urban  locations,  almost  all  excess  irrigation 
water  or  urban  waste  water  becomes  part  of  the  sup- 
ply for  downstream  users.  Any  reduction  in  the 
amount  of  applied  water  will  result  in  approximately 
the  same  reduction  in  return  flow  and  therefore  re- 
quire a  comparable  amount  of  Mater  from  an  alterna- 
tive sources  for  downstream  users.  With  the  exception 
of  some  savings  in  unavoidable  losses,  there  will  not 
be  any  overall  savings  in  total  water  demand  by  im- 
proving the  efficiency  of  application  or  use  of  water 
in  such  cases.  There  will,  however,  be  other  advan- 
tages and  some  disadvantages. 


If  less  water  is  used,  the  costs  of  handling  it,  in 
particular  energy  for  pumping,  will  be  less.  With  less 
applied  water  there  will  generally  be  less  leaching  from 
irrigation,  and  the  quantity  of  dissolved  salts  which 
need  to  be  removed  from  the  area  will  be  less.  The 
concentration  of  salts  in  the  return  flows,  however, 
will  be  greater  due  to  the  reduced  volume  of  water. 
Reduction  in  the  waste  water  from  urban  areas  will 
involve  higher  concentrations  of  salts  unless  there  are 
also  changes  in  the  home  and  industrial  practices 
which  reduce  the  quantity  of  waste  minerals. 

Reduction  in  the  amount  of  irrigation  runoff  from 
fields  will  be  adverse  to  trees,  brush,  and  native  grasses, 
and  the  wildlife  which  depends  on  this  vegetation.  In 
most  cases,  and  particularly  the  flat  Central  Valley, 
there  would  be  scenic  detriments  from  the  loss  of  veg- 
etation. 

While  the  overall  water  savings  from  more  effi- 
cient use  probably  will  be  relatively  small  in  compari- 
son to  total  usage,  the  advantages  warrant  thorough 
study.  As  water  supplies  become  increasingly  scarce 
improved  use  methods  become  more  important. 


41 


Economic   Efficiency  as  a   Basis 
for  Water  Management 

As  California's  supplies  of  undeveloped  water  have 
decreased,  suggestions  have  been  made  that  certain 
presently  developed  supplies  could  be  diverted  from 
uses  having  \o\v  economic  returns  to  uses  with  higher 
economic  returns.  Generally  this  would  involve  a  shift 
from  agricultural  production  to  industrial  use,  as  well 
as  a  change  in  geographic  location.  It  also  suggests 
the  shifting  of  water  from  one  crop  to  another  that 
might  use  less  water  and  produce  more  economic  re- 
turn. Advocates  of  this  view  point  out  that  there 
would  be  greater  employment  and  wealth  for  a  given 
quantity  of  water  and  there  would  not  be  need  for 
as  much,  if  any,  additional  water  development.  This 
concept  also  includes  the  purchase  or  shifting  of  water 
during  periods  of  drought  from  one  use  such  as  irri- 
gation of  an  annual  crop  to  a  use  of  greater  signifi- 
cance to  the  State's  economy.  Such  a  concept  has 
great  ramifications  and  raises  major  policy  issues.  State 
law  does  not  provide  for  administrative  reassignment 
of  water  supplies  being  beneficiall\'  used. 

A  change  in  use  would  involve  water  rights  as  well 
as  financial  considerations.  A  major  factor  in  buying 
out  the  water  supply  of  an  agricultural  area  is  the  re- 
location and  social  impact  and  change  of  life  style  on 
the  people  of  the  area.  Pa\ment  for  water  and  land 
values  will  not  necessarily  provide  for  relocation  and/ 
or  gainful  employment  elsewhere,  although  some  agri- 
cultural workers  ma\'  retrain  for  industrial  work  if  it 
is  in  the  same  general  area.  There  may  be  increased 
costs  in  social  welfare  programs.  It  would  be  necessary 
to  reimburse  owners  more  than  market  values  to  ob- 
tain comparable  relocated  conditions  and  to  assist  in 
relocation. 

Three  generations  have  passed  since  the  City  of 
Los  Angeles  purchased  the  lands  and  acquired  the 
water  rights  in  the  Owens  Valley.  The  transfer  of 
water  from  irrigation  use  to  urban  use  was  made  and 
one  of  the  world's  major  cities  developed.  This  ex- 
perience has  shown,  however,  that  long  lasting  social 
problems  remain  even  though  there  was  an  increase 
in  economic  effciency. 

Supplemental  Water 
Through   Waste  Water   Reclamation 

Waste  water  reclamation  is  generally  acclaimed  as 
the  primary  alternative  to  further  surface  water  de- 
velopment for  meeting  California's  future  water 
needs.  This  alternative,  while  probably  the  major  po- 
tential supplement  to  surface  water  development,  must 
also  be  viewed  from  the  perspective  of  some  limita- 
tions. The  following  discussion  outlines  some  ke\' 
considerations,  such  as  dissolved  mineral  levels,  health 
concerns,    costs,    and    institutional    conflicts,    whicii 


strongly  affect  policy  decisions  by  local  agencies  in 
pursuing  waste  water  reclamation. 

Waste  water  reclamation,  as  considered  in  this  bul- 
letin, is  the  planned  renovation  of  waste  water  with 
the  intent  of  producing  usable  water  for  a  specific 
beneficial  purpose.  Biological  treatment  and/or  de- 
mineralization  may  be  involved. 

It  is  important  to  distinguish  between  reclamation 
\\  hich  results  in  improvement  of  the  existing  supply 
and  reclamation  which  actualh'  results  in  creation  of 
a  "new"  supply.  Both  facets  are  important,  but  the 
creation  of  a  "new"  supply  as  supplemental  water  is 
the  thrust  of  this  policy  issue. 

Only  when  waste  water  would  otherwise  be  dis- 
charged to  saline  water — or  when  water  has  been  so 
degraded  that  it  cannot  be  discharged  to  fresh  water — 
does  reclamation  create  a  water  suppl\-  which  can  be 
considered  "new".  Much  of  the  water  used  in  Cali- 
fornia is  returned  to  the  freshwater  c\cle,  either  di- 
rectly after  its  use  or  following  treatment.  This  in- 
cludes 90  percent  of  the  irrigation  return  water  from 
nearly  9  million  acres  of  irrigated  land  and  the  treated 
wastes  from  inland  cities,  particular!)-  in  the  Central 
V^alley.  Although  reclamation  of  this  water  would 
tend  to  enhance  water  quality,  it  would  not  create  a 
new  supply. 

There  are  two  main  sources  of  water  which  can 
be  reclaimed  for  new  supplies.  These  are  (1)  the 
brackish  agricultural  drainage  water  which  must  be 
removed  from  the  Central  \'alley  and  in  particular 
the  San  Joaquin  \'alle\-,  and  (2)  the  urban  wastes 
from  coastal  areas  which  are  discharged  to  the  ocean 
and  its  estuaries.  It  is  anticipated  that  much  of  the 
agricultural  drainage  could  be  reclaimed  for  power 
plant  cooling.  The  role  for  reclaimed  coastal  urban 
wastes  is  not,  how'ever,  as  apparent. 

To  undertake  waste  water  reclamation  there  needs 
to  be  a  supply  of  fresh  water  of  good  qualit)'  to  begin 
with.  Not  all  of  this  fresh  water  supply  can  be  re- 
claimed, however.  Up  to  50  percent  of  an  urban  sup- 
ply is  used  consumptively  or  incidentally  lost.  Another 
20-30  percent  of  the  initial  supply  is  needed  to  carry 
off  concentrated  wastes  and  prevent  accumulation  of 
salts  in  gardens,  parks,  etc.  Accordingly,  only  20-30 
percent  of  the  original  supply  may  be  available  for 
possible  reclamation. 

The  mineral  quality  of  the  initial  suppl\-  is  impor- 
tant in  evaluating  reclamation.  A  single  cycle  of  water 
use  in  an  urban  area  normally  adds  about  300  milli- 
grams of  salts  per  liter  of  water.  The  recommended 
limit  for  salts  in  municipal  supplies  is  500  milligrams 
per  liter  (mg/1)  but  up  to  1,000  mg/I  is  acceptable. 
A  large  share  of  the  urban  water  suppl\-  in  the  coastal 
area  of  Southern  California  is  from  the  Colorado 
River  and  has  a  salt  content  of  around  750  mg  1.  A 
single  use  would  cause  the  salt  to  exceed  the  accept- 
able limit,  and  reclaimed  water  would  require  blend- 
ing   with    less    saline    water.    With    an    increasingly 


42 


greater  share  of  water  from  the  State  Water  Project 
used  in  Southern  California,  the  widespread  mineral 
limitation  on  waste  water  reclamation  would  be  re- 
duced. At  the  other  end  of  the  scale,  the  Sierra 
Nevada  water  supplies  delivered  to  the  San  Francisco 
Bay  area  through  the  Hetch  Hetchy  and  Alokelumnc 
Aqueducts  are  of  excellent  mineral  quality  with  gen- 
erally less  than  100  mg/1.  Water  delivered  by  the 
State  Water  Project  would  average  less  than  220 
mg/1. 

At  this  time  there  are  significant  liealth  concerns 
which  greatly  limit  urban  use  of  reclaimed  ^\•ater.  De- 
velopment and  use  of  a  wide  range  of  organic  com- 
pounds for  industrial,  agricultural,  and  household 
uses,  which  find  their  way  into  public  water  supplies, 
are  causing  concern  regarding  effects  on  public 
health.  Many  of  the  complex  compounds  are  stable, 
that  is,  they  do  not  break  down  into  simpler  forms, 
and  persist  for  a  long  time.  The  long-term  effect  of 
ingesting  even  minute  amounts  of  some  stable  organic 
compounds  is  unknown  and,  therefore,  efforts  are 
made  to  avoid  use  of  water  containing  the  com- 
pounds. Similar  concerns  exist  regarding  viruses 
which  may  not  be  fully  eliminated  in  waste  water 
treatment  and  reclamation  processes. 

Concern  about  viruses  has  caused  health  officials  to 
reject  direct  distribution  and  use  of  reclaimed  water 
for  human  consumption.  Concern  regarding  effects  of 
stable  organic  compounds  has  caused  health  officials 
to  greatly  restrict  the  use  of  reclaimed  A\ater  for 
ground  water  recharge  where  the  ground  water  basin 
is  a  source  of  water  for  human  consumption.  Since 
ground  water  moves  ver)'  slowly  and  does  not  mix 
very  well,  reclaimed  water  would  generalh'  move  as  a 
unit  away  from  the  point  of  recharge  and  could  re- 
main in  the  basin  for  many  years. 

Until  the  uncertainties  regarding  health  are  resolved, 
plans  for  using  reclaimed  water  are  being  directed 


toward  nonpotable  uses  such  as  irrigation  and  indus- 
trial, especially  power  plant  cooling.  Efforts  are  being 
launched  by  local  and  state  agencies  to  develop  re- 
search programs  on  these  health  concerns.  The  De- 
partment of  Water  Resources,  in  cooperation  with 
the  State  Water  Resources  Control  Board  with  help 
from  the  University  of  California,  is  initiating  work- 
leading  to  specific  and  coordinated  studies  of  the 
stable  organic  and  virus  problems. 

General  industrial  use  of  reclaimed  water  would 
require  separate  distribution  systems  and  in-plant 
modifications.  The  costs  are  generally  not  competitive 
with  fresh  water,  although  as  the  requirements  for 
treatment  of  waste  water  increase,  industry  will  find 
it  more  advantageous  to  recirculate  its  water.  Ther- 
mal electric  power  plant  cooling  could  be  a  major  use 
of  reclaimed  water,  but  the  plants  cannot  usually  be 
located  near  urban  centers  for  environmental  and 
safety  reasons.  Consequently,  the  reclaimed  water 
from  urban  areas  would  need  to  be  conveyed  long 
distances  with  considerable  expense  and  use  of  energy. 

In  addition  to  the  costs  directly  associated  wjth 
reclamation,  consideration  must  be  given  to  costs  al- 
ready invested  in  facility  capacity  for  future  needs. 
These  sunk  costs  are  frequently  quite  great  since 
many  water  projects  and  distribution  systems  are  con- 
structed with  capacity  for  the  future  to  take  advan- 
tage of  economies  of  scale.  Economic  evaluation  of 
waste  water  reclamation  must  take  into  account  the 
sunk  costs  in  existing  facilities. 

Generally  separate  local  agencies  have  been  or- 
ganized to  handle  water  supply  and  waste.  Full  con- 
sideration of  the  reclamation  of  waste  water  may  be 
inhibited  due  to  institutional  constraints.  The  appro- 
priate agencies  to  pursue  this  potential  is  one  of  the 
polic\'  issues  needing  attention. 


43 


CHAPTER   III 

ALTERNATIVE  FUTURES  FOR  CALIFORNIA 


This  chapter  presents  the  first  phase  of  a  two  part 
approach  to  determining  water  requirements.  It  does 
so  by  focusing  attention  on  the  needs  of  people — 
needs  that  have  an  impact  on  the  State's  water  re- 
sources— needs  for  goods  and  services,  security,  social 
well-being  and  the  quality  of  life.  Historical  trends 
and  forces  that  influence  change  are  given  special  at- 
tention since  an  understanding  of  trends  and  in- 
fluences is  prerequisite  to  forecasting  possible  future 
growth.  In  addition  emphasis  is  given  to  the  possible 
variabilit>'  of  projected  needs  and  their  relationship 
with  the  factors  that  cause  variation.  The  second  part 
is  accomplished  in  Chapter  IV  where  the  needs  dis- 
cussed in  this  chapter  are  converted  to  water  require- 
ments. 

In  previous  reports  the  Department  has  made  a 
single  projection  of  growth  which  was  representative 
of  a  "most  probable"  future  based  upon  an  e.xtension 
of  past  trends  and  the  public  attitudes  of  the  time. 
This  report  contains  projections  of  "alternative  fu- 
tures" any  one  of  which  might  occur  under  various 
assumptions  regarding  factors  that  influence  change. 
While  trend  analysis  remains  a  valid  description  of 
one  possible  occurrence  and  serves  to  indicate  what 
may  happen  if  no  significant  change  occurs,  it  should 
not  be  presumed  that  the  resulting  projection  is  neces- 
sarily the  most  probable  description  of  the  future.  An 
important  justification  for  presenting  alternative  fu- 
tures is  recognition  of  the  fact  that  there  are  a  variety 
of  possible  events  and  outcomes  which  can  bring 
about  changes  that  do  not  mirror  the  past. 

The  importance  of  studying  and  evaluating  a  range 
of  water  management  and  demand  alternatives  and 
maintaining  as  much  flexibility  as  possible  becomes 
more  evident  when  considering  the  uncertainties  in- 
volved in  projections  of  the  nature,  location,  and 
timing  of  future  events.  Sonic  of  the  factors  which 
are  particularly  difficult  to  assess  are  the  recent  down- 
ward trend  in  the  birth  rate,  the  opening  of  China  and 
Russia  agricultural  market,  air  and  water  quality 
standards,  and  future  land  use  policies.  Recognition 
also  must  be  given  to  the  need  to  identify  environ- 
mental preservation  or  enhancement  goals,  assess  their 
impact  on  demands  for  water,  and  establish  their  rela- 
tionship with  economic  and  social  objectives. 

Because  of  the  rapid  changes  occurring  in  society, 
including  its  outlook  and  values,  planning  on  the  basis 
of  alternative  futures  is  extremely  relevant.  If  prop- 
erly presented,  alternative  futures  do  not  presume 
what  the  choices  should  be  but  rather  define  the  is- 
sues, the  assumptions,  possibilities,  and  consequences 
of  certain  actions  and  events  taking  place.  The  process 
recognizes  that  several  futures  are  possible  and  that 


technological  developments,  unforeseeable  events, 
changing  public  attitudes,  and  future  policy  decisions 
can  afi^ect  the  outcome. 

Projected  Needs 

Alternative  future  levels  for  three  of  the  major 
water  using  fuctions  were  developed  for  the  outlook 
presented  in  this  bulletin — urban,  agriculture,  and 
electric  power  plant  cooling.  Insufficient  information 
regarding  alternative  outlooks  for  fish,  wildlife  and 
recreation,  made  it  impracticable  to  present  more  than 
a  single  projection  for  these  needs. 

Future  population  will  have  a  direct  effect  on  urban 
water  use  in  California.  The  U.  S.  population  will 
have  a  direct  impact  on  California  agriculture  since 
much  of  the  State's  production  of  food  and  fiber  is 
used  by  the  rest  of  the  nation. 

Production  of  food  and  fiber  in  California  is  by  far 
the  most  significant  single  enterprise  affecting  use  of 
the  State's  land  and  \\ater  resources.  Future  amounts 
of  irrigated  agriculture  in  the  State  will  have  a  major 
impact  on  water  resources  management  and  planning. 

Fresh  water  use  for  cooling  thermal  electric  power 
plants  has  historically  not  been  significant.  Most  of  the 
major  thermal  electrical  generation  plants  in  California 
are  located  near  the  ocean  or  saline  estuaries  and  use 
salt  water  for  cooling.  Current  trends  and  environ- 
mental policies  indicate  that  much  of  the  future  power 
generation  facilities  may  be  located  in  inland  areas 
where  fresh  water  resources  would  be  the  major  cool- 
ing water  source  available. 

Since  water  plays  such  an  important  part  in  human 
life  and  activity,  a  large  number  of  factors  influence 
the  future  uses  and  needs  for  this  resource.  Water 
management  plans  must  necessarily  therefore  include 
functions  such  as  flood  control,  environmental  en- 
hancement, and  water  quality  maintenance.  These 
needs  are  also  discussed  in  this  chapter  but  in  qualita- 
tive rather  than  quantitative  terms. 

Population 

California's  population  has  increased  each  year  for 
the  past  150  years.  During  that  span  the  growth  rate 
has  varied,  but  has  exceeded  comparable  rates  for  the 
U.  S.  as  a  whole.  Table  1  summarizes  growth  in  Cali- 
fornia and  the  United  States  by  decades  since  1920. 

Trends  and  Influences 

In  California,  population  growth  is  a  product  of 
natural  increase  and  net  migration.  Until  a  few  years 
ago,  the  latter  was  the  principal  contributor  to  the 
State's  growth,  but  now  with  a  population  of  nearly 
21  million,  natural  increase  is  the  predominant  factor. 


45 


Table   1.     California  and  U.  S.  Population  and  Percent 
Increase  by  Decades,  1920-1974 


Decade 

California  Population- 

United  State 

Population*" 

Year 

(Millions) 

(Percent 
increase) 

(.Millions) 

(Percent 

1920 

1920-1930 

3.4 

68 

107 

16 

1930 

1930-1940 

5.7 

21 

123 

8 

1940 

1940-1950 

6.9 

54 

132 

15 

1950 

1950-1960 

10.6 

50 

152 

19 

1960 

1960-1970 

15.9 

26 

180 

14 

1970 

1972.. 

1974 

20.0 
20.5 
20.9 

205 
209 
212 

•^  Includes  armed  forces  stationed  in  area. 

1>  Total  resident  population.  Prior  to  1940  excludes  Alaska  and  Hawaii. 
Source:  U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census.  "Current  Population  Reports",  Series  P-25, 
Xos.  139.  250,  469,  481  and  502. 

Both  influences  have  shown  significant  decreases  since 
the  mid  1960s,  reducing  the  annual  growth  rate  from 
about  four  percent  in  the  19.'»0s  to  the  present  one 
percent.  Haci  the  earUer  rate  continued  to  the  present 
and  into  the  future,  California  could  e.xpect  a  popula- 
tion of  about  .56,000,000  in  50  years,  or  20  million 
more  than  expected  if  present  trends  continue.  This 
difference  becomes  especially  meaningful  when  one 
considers  that  meeting  the  needs  of  20  million  people 
amounts  to  planning  and  providing  for  another  Cali- 
fornia of  the  present  size. 

Attempting  to  anticipate  future  levels  of  migration 
and  birth  rates  is  fraught  with  uncertainties.  Although 
voices  have  been  raised  for  population  policies  of 
some  sort,  direct  intervention  by  government  to  con- 
trol population  is  not  expected.  Having  or  not  having 
children  will  continue  to  be  an  individual  decision, 
but  the  increasing  availability,  effectiveness,  and  ac- 
ceptance of  birth  control  measures  make  the  realiza- 
tion of  these  decisions  more  a  certainty.  Since  there 
is  a  larger  number  of  women  of  childbearing  age  than 
ever  before,  the  implication  of  this  "personal"  con- 
trol could  be  drastic  as  suggested  by  the  diff'erence  in 
population  projections  mentioned  above.  Similarly, 
governmental  action  to  prohibit  migration  is  not  an- 
ticipated but  the  factors  that  stimulated  an  average 
annual  200,000  to  300,000  immigration  for  nearly  20 
years  after  World  War  II  are  not  expected  to  recur 
during  the  present  planning  period.  Population  esti- 
mates appearing  in  this  bulletin  are  based  upon  immi- 
gration ranging  from  0  to  150,000  annually. 

Alternative  Population  Projections 

Four  alternative  future  population  projections  arc 
presented  in  this  report  as  shown  in  Table  2.  It  will 


be  noted  from  the  table  that  each  of  the  four  projec- 
tions is  characterized  by  a  diff'erent  combination  of 
fertility  rates  and  assumed  net  migration  levels.  The 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  the  Census  uses  the  letters  A  through 
G  to  identify  population  series  ranging  from  high  to 
low.  This  bulletin  considers  only  the  series  designated 
C,  D,  and  E,  which  are  derived  from  fertilirv'  rates 
of  2.8,  2.5,  and  2,1,  The  2,1  rate  or  Series  E  is  com- 
monly termed  zero  population  growth.  Fertility  rates 
indicate  the  average  number  of  children  a  \\  oman  will 
have  during  her  childbearing  years. 

Table  2.     Population  Factors 


Alternative  projections 

Popu 

lation  scries 

Fertility  rates 

Net  migration 

I         

c 

D 
D 

E 

2.8 
2.5 
2.5 
2.1 

150,000 

li                                  

150.000 

Ill         

100,000 

IV 

0 

Each  projection  results  in  a  different  population 
total  for  the  State  (Table  })  and  a  different  distribu- 
tion among  hydrologic  areas  (Table  4).  The  latter  is 
essentially  an  aggregation  of  county  projections  ap- 
pearing in  a  Department  of  Finance  report,*  which 
is  the  basis  for  the  alternative  projections  presented 
here.  The  report  contains  a  discussion  of  those  con- 
siderations involved  in  making  the  estimates.  The  al- 
ternatives are  plausible  possibilities.  They  reflect  trends 
in  births,  deaths,  and  migration  that,  for  the  most  part, 
have  occurred  in  California  at  one  time  or  another. 
As  noted  in  the  Department  of  Finance  report,  the 
projections  "are  designed  to  provide  the  planner  and 
decision-maker  with  the  dimensions  of  his  problem  as 
the\-  arc  affected  by  population". 

Table   3.      California  and  United  States  Populations 
(in  millions) 


.Alternative 

Year 

Future 
Projections 

1972 

1980 

1990 

2000 

2010 

2020 

I  (C-150) 

20.5 
20.5 
20.5 
20.5 

23.0 
22.8 
22.7 
21.9 

27.4 
26.7 
26.1 
23.6 

31.9 
30.5 
29.3 
24.7 

37.2 
34.6 
32.8 
25. 7 

43.3 

II  (D-150) 

39.1 

III  (D-lOO)    .- 

36.6 

IV  (E-O) 

26.5 

U.S. 

Population 

Series* 

c 

D 

E 

209 
209 
209 

231 
229 
224 

266 
259 
247 

300 
286 
264 

344 
318 

282 

392 
351 
298 

'  U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census.  1972. 

Figure  5  shows  the  historic  growtii  of  California's 
population  from  1920  to  197.^  and  the  four  alternative 
projections.  Figure  6  shows  the  United  States  popula- 
tion from  1920  to  1973  and  three  of  the  alternative 
grow  th  projections  used  nationall>'. 


"Population  Projecti 
P  2,  June  1974. 


for  California  Counties  1975-2020,"  Report  74, 


46 


Table  4.     Population  in  California — 1972,  1990  ond  2020 
(In  Thousands) 


1972 

Alternative  future  projection 

(Series 

I 

C-150) 

II 
(Series  D-150) 

III 

(Series  D-lOO) 

IV 

(Series  E.0) 

Hydrologic  study  area 

1990 

2020 

1990 

2020 

1990 

2020 

1990 

2020 

180 

4,630 

840 

11,240 

1,210 

470 

440 

980 

40 

240 

230 

250 

5,940 

1,370 

14,620 

1,700 

760 

650 

1,280 

70 

410 

350 

390 
8,670 
2,430 
22,510 
2,600 
1,730 
1,140 
2.030 

110 
1,040 

650 

240 

5,800 

1,340 

14,260 

1,670 

730 

640 

1,250 

70 

370 

330 

350 

7,920 

2,200 

20,300 

2,400 

1,550 

1,010 

1,820 

100 

870 

580 

230 

5,680 

1,290 

13,930 

1,630 

710 

620 

1,240 

70 

370 

330 

310 
7,350 
2,030 
19,140 
2,230 
1,420 

940 

1,730 

90 

820 

540 

210 

5.270 

1,130 

12,510 

1,470 

640 

560 

1.160 

60 

290 

300 

230 

5,700 

1,370 

13,790 

1,620 

930 

660 

1,360 

60 

380 

400 

San  Francisco  Bay 

Delta  Central  Sierra.. 

Tulare  Basin 

Colorado  Desert 

Totals 

20,500 

27,400 

43,300 

26,700 

39.100 

26,100 

36.600 

23,600 

26,500 

/ 

1 

^ 

^ 

€i 

1 1  lll  ^1         " 

1                  ^ 

/ 

X 

1 

^^^ 

1920  1930 


1990  2000 


m&- 


Figure  5.      California  Historical  and  Projected  Population  Growth 


47 


■ST^r 


Population  change  in  California 


-    b 

\:        0. 


1920     1930     1940      1950      1960      1970      1980      1990      2000      2010     2020 

YEARS 


Figure  6.      United  States  Historical  and  Projected  Population  Growth 


48 


Agricultural  Production 

California  is  blessed  with  the  climate,  land,  and 
water  resources  which  give  it  the  capability  of  pro- 
ducing large  amounts  of  a  great  number  of  crops,  cur- 
rently over  200  on  a  commercial  scale.  The  State  is 
the  nation's  leading  producer  of  about  50  crops  and 
is  among  the  top  five  in  the  production  of  another  20. 
In  addition,  it  ranks  second  in  milk  and  cream  produc- 
tion and  fifth  in  cattle  production.  California  contin- 
ues to  be  the  nation's  number  one  farm  state  in  terms 
of  cash  receipts  from  farming.  According  to  the  Cali- 
fornia Crop  and  Livestock  Reporting  Service,  the  total 
receipts  from  farm  marketing  in  1972  was  |5.5  billion. 
The  sharp  increase  in  prices  contributed  to  a  rise  to 
$7.5  billion  in  1973. 

Trends  and  Influences 

The  industry  in  this  State  is  vexed  by  many  of  the 
same  problems  facing  agriculture  throughout  the 
country,  but  does  not  have  anywhere  near  the  problem 
that  many  of  the  other  major  producing  areas  have 
with  annual  fluctuations  in  weather.  Certainly  there 
are  occasions  when  late  frost  or  unseasonable  rain 
cause  a  drop  in  yields  for  some  crops.  But  the  impact 
on  the  total  agricultural  production  in  the  State  is 
rarely  significant  compared  to  the  impact  weather 
often  has  on  crop  production  in  many  other  states. 
The  relatively  predictable  weather  in  California,  the 
State's  reliance  on  irrigation  rather  than  growing  sea- 
son precipitation,  and  the  wide  variety  of  crops  are  the 
principal  reasons  for  the  industry's  freedom  from 
weather-borne  catastrophes. 

The  importance  of  California  in  regard  to  satisfying 
the  food  and  fiber  needs  of  the  nation  is  highly  signifi- 
cant. The  importance  of  agriculture  to  the  California 
economy  is  apparent  upon  considering  that  California 
farms  and  other  agriculture-related  industries  and  ac- 
tivities such  as  food  processing,  financing  of  farm  pro- 
duction, and  sales  of  equipment  and  supplies  to  farms, 
generate  income  estimated  to  be  at  least  20  billion  dol- 
lars annually. 


'jite 


Exporting  California's  agricultural  production 
Port  of  Sacramento  photo 


Irrigated  corn  field  in  California 

Because  it  enjoys  so  many  climatic  and  soil  advan- 
tages, California  has  a  major  role  to  play  in  producing 
food  and  fiber  for  both  national  and  foreign  markets. 
The  future  size  of  these  markets  is  the  key  question. 
Population  growth  and  consumptive  patterns  are  im- 
portant variables,  but  the  market  is  also  influenced  by 
policy  decisions  involving  acreage  allotments  and  for- 
eign trade.  The  latter  is  especially  difficult  to  antici- 
pate in  view  of  balance  of  payment  considerations, 
world  food  production,  and  changes  in  international 
relationships  which  may  open  new  markets  (China) 
or  shut  others  ofi^.  Because  of  this  uncertainty,  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  agriculture  retains  a  capa- 
bility that  is  flexible  and  responsive.  This  means  that 
decisions  and  polic\'  relative  to  land  and  water  use 
must  be  concerned  with  the  availability  of  productive 
agricultural  land  and  necessary  water  supplies  to  irri- 
gate those  lands. 

Although  many  factors  w  ill  influence  the  future  de- 
mands for  California  produced  food  and  fiber,  most  are 
directly  or  indirectly  accounted  for  when  attention  is 
focused  on  national  population  growth,  possible 
changes  in  per  capita  consumption,  changes  in  crop 
yields,  foreign  trade,  and  California's  probable  share 
of  national  production  considering  the  relative  ability 
of  other  areas  to  meet  the  needs.  In  order  to  provide 
a  basis  for  examining  the  capability  of  available  water 
supplies  to  meet  the  needs  of  a  wide  range  of  possible 
levels  of  agricultural  activities  and  to  give  examples  of 
the  impact  on  calculated  water  demand  of  different 
assumptions  regarding  each  of  these  five  factors,  the 
Department  conducted  the  study  of  future  crop  pro- 
duction described  in  this  section. 

\'arious  specialists  from  the  University  of  California 
were  sought  out  as  data  sources  and  for  comments  on 
what  appears  likely  for  agriculture's  future.  The  Cali- 
fornia   Department    of    Food    and    .Agriculture    was 


49 


LIVESTOCK 
&  POULTRY 


DAIRY  PRODUCTS 


FIELD  CROPS 


VEGETABLES 


FRUITS  &  NUTS 


FATS  &  OILS 


0        200      400      600      800     1000 


TOTAL  ALL  FARM  PRODUCTS 


2020 


0        400       800      1200    1600    2000 
POUNDS  PER  PERSON  PER  YEAR 


Figure   7.      Per  Capita   Consumption   of   Form    Products    in    the 
United  States 


1930 

1 

brought  into  the  studies  at  an  carl\  stage,  and,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  valuable  data  provided  b\-  that  agenc>-, 
its  review  and  comments  on  the  various  phases  of  the 
work  as  it  progressed  w  ere  very  helpful. 

Each  subject — national  population,  per  capita  con- 
sumption, foreign  trade,  state  share  of  national  produc- 
tion, and  crop  yields — \\as  studied  to  determine  if 
there  were  more  than  one  projected  level  (i.e.,  value) 
for  the  years  1990  and  2020  appropriate  to  consider  at 
this  time,  considering  current  trends  and  events.  Alter- 
native assumptions  were  identified  and  four  projec- 
tions of  future  crop  acreage  w  ere  calculated  based  on 
selected  combinations  of  some  of  these  assumptions. 

The  results  of  this  stud\-  are  presented  in  the  follow- 
ing pages. 

National  Population.  In  the  last  50  years,  United 
States  population  has  doubled.  The  1920  and  1970 
Census  of  Population  showed  107  million  and  205 
million  people,  respectively.  According  to  the  U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Census,  basing  calculations  on  the  E  fertility 
series  results  in  a  2020  population  projection  of  298 
million;  the  D  Series  gives  351  million.  As  discussed 
later,  Series  C  was  not  used  in  estimating  future  crop 
production.  Series  D  and  E  were  used. 

Per  Capita  Consumption.  The  principal  basis  for 
per  capita  consumption  estimates  is  contained  in  the 
1972  OBERS  Projections.*  This  work  was  primarily 
based  on  data  available  through  1970. 

Figure  7  shows  the  past,  present,  and  projected 
average  per  capita  consumption  of  major  groups  of 
farm  products  in  the  United  States  as  determined  by 
the  OBERS  studies.  The  national  average  for  total 
quantit}'  of  food  and  fiber  used  per  person  has  de- 
clined over  the  years,  principally  as  a  result  of  less 
consumption  of  cereals,  potatoes,  and  dairy  products. 
The  types  of  food  eaten  have  changed  over  time 
and  changes  are  expected  in  the  future.  The  OBERS 
stud\-  projected  a  decline  in  per  capita  consumption 
of  dairy  products  and  field  crops.  Dry  beans,  wheat, 
rice,  and  other  food  grains  are  included  in  the  field 
crop  category.  They  expect  the  consumption  of  vege- 
tables to  remain  about  level.  Projections  of  livestock 
and  poultry  consumption  indicate  the  quantity  of 
animal  feed  and  forage  required.  OBERS  projection 
of  a  substantial  increase  in  livestock  and  poultry  con- 
sumption includes  a  large  (40%)  increase  in  per  capita 
consumption  of  beef.  Although  the  total  for  fruits 
and  nuts  is  projected  to  increase  slightly,  per  capita 
consumption  of  nuts  and  noncitrus  fruit  is  projected 
to  decrease  15°o  while  consumption  of  citrus  fruits 
will  increase  100°o.  These  estimates  prepared  by 
OBERS  were  used  in  calculating  future  crop  acreages 
for  this  bulletin. 

The  projections  of  future  crop  acreages  contained 
in  Bulletin  Nos.  160-66  and  160-70  were  based  on  as- 


•1972  OBtRS  Projections,  ReRioi 
OBERS.  1972.  OBERS  stands 
.Analysis  (formerly  Office  of  Bi 
Research  Ser\-ice. 


al    Economic   .Activity    in   the   U.S.", 
or    the    Federal    Bureau   of    Eco 
siness  Economics)  and  the  Econ 


50 


sumptions  of  a  lesser  increase  in  beef  consumption 
and  increased  consumption  of  nuts,  noncitrus  fruits, 
and  vegetables.  These  were  the  conclusions  of  earlier 
studies  conducted  by  the  Department  of  Water  Re- 
sources and,  separately,  by  the  Economic  Research 
Service  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

The  impact  on  California's  agricultural  production 
of  a  change  toward  greater  use  of  nuts,  fruits,  and 
vegetables  would  likely  be  quite  significant  considering 
the  State's  large  share  of  current  national  production 
of  these  crops. 

Foreign  Trade.  In  looking  at  recent  developments 
in  international  agricultural  trade,  a  number  of  pro- 
found changes  can  be  seen.  These  include  an  apparent 
revolution  in  \\orld  dietary  patterns,  and  major 
changes  in  agricultural  trade  flows  and  trade  policies. 

Per  capita  incomes  around  the  world  are  growing 
and  promise  to  continue  to  grow  at  a  pace  never  ex- 
perienced before  in  human  history.  As  incomes  rise, 
more  people  will  be  able  to  afford  an  improved  quality 
of  life.  Among  the  first  areas  where  improvement  is 
usually  seen  is  in  upgraded  diets.  This  coupled  with 
increasing  population,  not  only  increases  total  food 
consumption,  but  also  creates  a  demand  for  a  wider 
variety  of  foods. 

As  the  nations  of  the  world  increase  their  use  of 
more  agricultural  commodities,  they  are  buying  more 
in  the  world  market,  and  more  of  what  they  buy  is 
coming  from  the  United  States.  American  agriculture 


has  conducted  an  extensive  sales  and  advertising  cam- 
paign over  the  past  decade  which  has  enabled  the 
United  States  to  secure  a  greater  share  of  the  inter- 
national market.  To  the  extent  that  this  country's  long 
term  production  can  be  managed  to  reduce  the  impact 
of  periodic  droughts  in  the  nonirrigated,  rain-fed 
regions  of  central  and  southern  United  States,  the 
growth  in  foreign  exports  should  continue  in  the 
future. 

A  review  of  U.  S.  agricultural  exports  to  foreign 
countries  since  1960  gives  some  idea  of  the  magnitude 
of  food  demand  increase  over  time.  In  1960  all  agri- 
cultural commodities  exported  were  slightly  in  excess 
of  14.5  billion;  by  1970  exports  had  increased  to  $6.7 
billion,  and  in  1973,  the  level  of  U.  S.  exports  was 
112.9  billion.  California's  share  of  U.  S.  agriculture 
exports  includes  54%  of  the  U.  S.  foreign  sale  of 
fruit,  27%  of  the  vegetables,  22%  of  the  rice,  11  %o 
of  the  cotton,  and  94%  of  the  nuts. 

Two  levels  of  foreign  trade  \\ere  given  considera- 
tion in  the  Department  of  Water  Resources'  studies 
of  future  crop  production  in  California.  The  1972 
OBERS  projections  of  foreign  trade  were  used  as  one 
level.  These  were  prepared  prior  to  the  substantial 
increases  in  foreign  trade  that  occurred  in  1972,  1973, 
and  1974.  Certainly  there  \\ere  aspects  of  these  recent 
increases,  such  as  the  availability  of  dollars  for  pay- 
ment that  raise  questions  as  to  whether  foreign  export 
will    continue    to    increase    at   this    rate,    or    for   that 


'iixv?' 


---K^-'t' 


"'Igl'Mdc^''^  _'\'-   ". 


ia^^rj^^i^"---::^^ 


Ripping    hardpan   soils   to  a   depth   of   5  to   7   feet 
Collin   Company   photo 


51 


matter,  remain  this  large.  However,  studies  conducted 
by  the  Department  of  Water  Resources  in  1974,  based 
on  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  publica- 
tions, indicated  that  the  future  export  demand  for 
California  farm  products  could  be  greater  than  the 
projections  contained  in  the  1972  OBERS  report, 
\\hich  were  based  on  data  available  through  1970,  if 
some  of  the  more  substantial  world  market  opportu- 
nities unfolding  in  recent  years  continue  to  materialize. 
Based  on  assumptions  resulting  from  the  Department's 
study,  an  alternative  set  of  values  for  foreign  trade  of 
specific  commodities  was  developed. 

California's  Share  of  U.  S.  Production.  The  1972 
OBERS  report  figures  were  used  for  the  crops  that 
had  been  studied  on  an  individual  basis.  In  those  cases 
where  values  were  prepared  for  groups  of  crops,  the 
State  share  of  production  for  each  individual  crop  was 
projected  from  historical  trends  with  modifications 
which  reflect  recent  national  and  international  market 
opportunities  and  changes.  In  general,  OBERS  pro- 
jections showed  a  small  overall  increase  in  California's 


share  of  the  market  for  all  crops.  The  agricultural  in- 
dustr\-  in  California  has  demonstrated  considerable  suc- 
cess in  competing  for  greater  shares  of  U.  S.  produc- 
tion 

Crop  Yields.  Two  sets  of  crop  >ields  were  de- 
rived. One  set  was  the  values  used  in  preparing  Bul- 
letin 160-70  estimates  of  crop  acreages.  These  were 
based  principally  on  the  advice  of  agricultural  special- 
ists of  the  University  of  California,  and  were  devel- 
oped in  1968,  prior  to  the  energy  crisis  and  prior  to 
development  of  some  of  the  possible  limitations  on 
agricultural  chemical  use  as  a  result  of  concern  for 
environmental  protection. 

For  this  study,  a  modified  set  of  crop  yields  has  been 
developed  which  reflect  a  more  conservative  outlook 
regarding  increased  yields.  The  advice  of  various  agri- 
cultural experts  was  considered  in  developing  these 
estimates,  including  crop  specialists  from  the  Univer- 
sity of  California  and  County  Farm  Advisor  Offices. 
Figure  8  illustrates  the  magnitude  of  revisions  which 
were  made  to  the  previous  crop  yield  estimates  for 


Dry  farmed  wheat  with  irrigated  almonds  in  the  background 


52 


1968      YIELD  PROJECTIONS 
MODIFIED  YIELD   PROJECTIONS 


I  I 

1950  1970  1990  2020 

YEARS 


Figure  8.     Average  Yields  of  Selected  Farm  Crops  in  California 


53 


eight  of  the  forty-five  crops  studied.  These  eight  crops 
were  selected  as  being  fairly  representative  of  the 
trend  of  all  crops.  They  account  for  30  percent  of  the 
total  state  irrigated  acreage  and  25  percent  of  the  dol- 
lar value  of  total  state  crop  production. 

Alternative  Projections  of  Irrigated  Crop 
and  Land  Acreage 

The  study  of  the  five  principal  factors  which  gov- 
ern agricultural  growth  resulted  in  the  identification 
and  quantification  of  three  possible  levels  of  national 


population,  two  levels  of  foreign  trade  and  two  sets 
of  future  crop  yields.  Only  one  set  of  values  for  per 
capita  consumption  and  the  State's  share  of  U.  S.  pro- 
duction was  prepared. 

The  crop  acreage  for  any  combination  of  assump- 
tions for  the  five  growth  regulating  factors  is  calcu- 
lated as  follows: 


Crop  acreage 


/National        Per  capita        Net 
I  popula-    X  consump-   +  foreigi 
\tion  tion  trade 


\         State  share 
n  )  X  of  U.S. 
/        production 


Crop  yield 


YEARS 

Figure  9.      Historical  and  Projected  Irrigated  Land  Area 


54 


There  are  numerous  possible  combinations  of  the 
alternative  values  derived  for  the  five  factors.  In  order 
to  provide  a  basis  for  examining  water  use  for  a  wide 
range  of  possible  levels  of  agricultural  activities  and  to 
give  examples  of  the  result  of  different  combinations 
of  assumptions,  four  alternative  crop  acreage  projec- 
tions were  prepared  based  on  essentially  an  arbitrary 
selection  of  groups  of  assumptions.  For  simplification, 
only  two  alternative  population  levels,  two  foreign 
trade  levels,  and  tx\o  sets  of  crops  yields  were  used  in 
combination  with  the  single  projection  of  state  share 
of  U.  S.  production  and  the  projection  of  per  capita 
consumption. 

The  combinations  of  assumptions  for  national  pop- 
ulation, net  foreign  trade  and  crop  yields  used  in  cal- 
culating alternative  crop  acreages  were  as  follows: 


U.S.  Population 

Net  Foreign  Trade 

Crops 

Yields 

Higher 

Lower 

1968 

.Modified 

Alternative 

Series  D 

Ser 

es  E 

estimate 

estimate 

estimate 

estimate 

I.. - 

X 

,. 

X 

11 

X 

X 

X 

III 

X 

X 

X 

IV 

X 

^ 

'^ 

These  combinations  of  assumptions  resulted  in  the 
projected  irrigated  land  acreages  shown  in  Figure  9. 
All  other  combinations  but  two  would  fall  within  the 
extremes  shown.  Combining  Series  C  national  popula- 
tion with  the  higher  foreign  trade  estimate  and  the 
modified  crop  yields  \\  ould  give  a  higher  acreage  pro- 
jection, \v  hile  combining  the  Series  E  population  with 
the  lower  foreign  trade  estimate  and  the  1968  estimate 


of  yields  would  give  a  lower  projection.  In  the  judg- 
ment of  the  Department,  both  of  these  combinations 
resulted  in  projections  of  crop  acreages  which  ap- 
peared to  be  unreasonable  in  light  of  current  knowl- 
edge and  trends. 

The  projections  of  total  irrigated  land  shown  in 
Figure  9  were  obtained  by  adjusting  the  calculated 
harvested  crop  acreage  value  for  each  set  of  assump- 
tions to  account  for  land  planted  but  not  harvested, 
the  acreage  of  dry-farmed  crops  and  double  cropping 
(i.e.,  more  than  one  crop  during  the  year  on  the  same 
parcel  of  land). 

The  State  total  irrigated  land  acreage  and  total  crop 
acreage  were  distributed  to  hydrologic  study  areas. 
Table  5,  considering  the  availability  of  suitable  land 
and  historic  agricultural  land  use  in  each  area. 

The  location  of  irrigated,  irrigable,  and  urban  lands 
throughout  the  State  is  show  n  in  Plate  II.  The  small 
scale  of  this  map  does  not  allow  completely  accurate 
depiction  of  land  use.  The  three  enlarged  township 
areas  are  typical  examples  of  the  actual  pattern  of 
land  use  which  exist  within  areas  shown  to  be  solidly 
developed  on  the  map. 

A  discussion  of  available  land  and  recent  trends  in 
irrigated  agriculture  is  presented  in  the  following  sec- 
tions. 

Land  Avnilability.  The  Department  has  mapped 
the  location,  nature  and  extent  of  lands  physically 
suited  to  production  of  irrigated  crops  throughout  the 
State.  The  classifications  provide  a  basis  for  determin- 
ing both  the  physical  suitability  of  the  land  for  specific 
crop  production  under  various  farm  management  pro- 
grams and  the  influence  of  soil  factors  on  the  rate  of 
water  use  by  each  crop. 


Toble  5.      1972 


nd  Projected  Irrigated  Land  Area  and  Ir 
(1,000  acres) 


igated  Double  Crop  Acreage 


North 
Coastal 

San 

Francisco 

Bay 

Central 
Coastal 

South 
Coastal 

Sacra- 
Basin 

Delta 
Central 
Sierra 

San 
Joaquin 
Basin 

Tulare 
Basin 

North 
Lahontan 

South 
Lahontan 

Colorado 
Desert 

Totals 

1972  Irrigated  land 

Double  crop - 

Alur,>M,t,  I 

1990  Irrigated  land 

Double  crop 

2020  Irrigated  land 

Double  crop 

Alurnativ,  II 

1990  Irrigated  land 

Double  crop. 

2020  Irrigated  land 

Double  crop 

Mlurniukc  III 
1990  Irrigated  land 

240 

0 

240 
0 

260 
0 

240 
0 

260 
0 

240 
0 

250 
0 

24U 
0 

250 
0 

110 

130 
0 

150 
0 

120 
0 

140 
0 

120 
0 

140 
0 

120 
0 

120 
0 

420 

50 

500 
50 

530 
80 

480 
50 

520 
70 

480 
SO 

520 
60 

480 
50 

510 
60 

390 
40 

290 
SO 

220 
60 

290 
40 

220 
50 

290 
40 

220 
SO 

300 
40 

220 
SO 

1.520 
10 

1,950 
10 

2,250 
20 

1,850 
10 

2,060 
10 

1,740 
10 

1.890 
10 

1,680 
10 

1,760 
10 

800 
20 

990 

20 

1,130 

30 

930 

20 

1,060 

20 

880 
20 

980 
20 

850 
20 

920 
20 

1,350 
10 

1,690 

20 

1,920 

50 

1,610 
20 

1,690 
40 

1,530 
10 

1,580 
30 

1,480 
10 

1,490 
20 

3,100 
70 

3,560 
200 

4,040 
420 

3.370 
180 

3,730 
340 

3.250 
120 

3,430 
220 

3,190 
110 

3,260 
190 

140 
0 

140 

0 

140 

0 

140 
0 

140 
0 

140 

0 

140 

0 

130 
0 

130 
0 

80 
0 

80 
0 

70 
0 

80 
0 

70 
0 

80 
0 

70 
0 

80 
0 

70 
0 

630 
90 

630 
90 
650 
110 

630 
90 
630 
100 

630 
90 

630 
90 

630 
90 

630 
90 

8,780 
290 

10,200 
440 

11,360 
770 

9,740 

410 

10.520 

630 

9,380 

340 

2020  Irrigated  land 

9,850 

480 

AlUrnativi  IT 
1990  Irrigated  land 

9,180 

330 

2020  Irrigated  land 

9,360 
440 

55 


The  total  statewide  acreage  determined  to  be  suited 
to  some  kind  of  irrigated  crop  production  is  22,000,- 
000  acres,  including  8,780,000  acres  of  currently  irri- 
gated lands.  With  the  advice  of  local  agricultural 
experts,  including  County  Farm  Advisors,  and  con- 
sidering present  day  practices,  it  has  been  determined 
that  one  million  acres  occur  where  climate  is  suitable 
for  the  production  of  citrus  and  other  subtropicals. 
Three  million  acres  have  deep,  well-drained  soils,  are 
relatively  flat  and  where  the  climate  is  right,  are 
suited  to  deciduous  orchards.  Grapes  and  many  truck 
crops  are  suited  to  much  of  the  above  land  as  well  as 
to  an  additional  six  million  acres.  Field  crops  and 
pasture  are  adaptable  to  practically  all  irrigable  land 
and  slightly  over  12  million  acres  are  best  suited  to 
their  production  under  current  practices. 

Recent  Trends  in  Irrigated  Land  Use.  Agriculture 
in  California  is  characteristically  an  ever-changing 
enterprise.  New  lands  continue  to  be  put  into  produc- 
tion and  changes  in  the  proportion  of  each  crop  occur 
constantly  throughout  the  State. 


The  nonirrigated  crops  account  for  less  than  15 
percent  of  the  State's  total  crop  acreage.  Most  of  this 
is  comprised  of  small  grains  and  grain  hay.  A  large 
portion  is  raised  as  a  rotation  crop  on  land  which 
otherwise  is  irrigated.  The  total  acreage  of  cropped 
land  without  developed  irrigation  systems  is  constantly 
decreasing  as  a  result  of  urbanization  and  new  irriga- 
tion development. 

Figure  10  illustrates  the  changes  in  irrigated  and 
urban  land  in  the  State  from  1920  to  1950  and  to  1972. 
In  the  latter  part  of  this  period,  the  acreage  of  irrigated- 
land  increased  from  the  1960  level  of  8,085,000  to 
8,480,000  in  1967  and  to  8,780,000  in  1972.  The  actual 
amount  of  new  land  developed  to  irrigation  during 
this  period  is  greater  than  the  differences  in  these  totals 
due  to  replacement  of  land  lost  to  urban  encroach- 
ment. The  rate  of  urbanization  of  irrigated  land  in 
recent  times  has  been  between  20,000  and  25,000  acres 
per  year. 

Some  of  the  recent  changes  in  irrigated  land  and 
cropping  practices  around  the  State  are  shown  on 
Figure  11. 


Figure    10.      Irrigated  and  Urban  Areas 


56 


SACRAMENTO 
VALLEY   FLOOR 

•  TOTAL    IRRIGATED   ACREAGE   UP 

5% 

•  RICE       ACREAGE       FLUCTUATED 

BETWEEN     300.000     AND     400,000 
ACRES 

•  IRRIGATED   PASTURE  ACREAGE 

DOWN  IN  SOME  AREAS 

•  DECIDUOUS      ORCHARD     (PRINCI- 

PALLY ALMOND  AND  WALNUTS), 
TRUCK  CROPS.  SUGAR  BEETS, 
AND  OTHER  FIELD  CROP  ACRE- 
AGE UP. 
>  A  FEW  EXPLORATORY  PLANTINGS 
OF  GRAPES  IN  NEW  AREAS 


SAN  FRANCISCO  BAY  AREA 

•  SOUTH  BAY  URBAN  CONTINUED 

INCREASE  AT  EXPENSE  OF  IRRI 
GATED  LAND;  3S,000  ACRES 
CURRENTLY  IRRIGATED  ABOUT 
ONE-HALF  IN  ORCHARD  AND 
MOST  OF  REMAINDER  IN  TRUCK 
CROPS. 

•  NORTH  BAY  IRRIGATED  ACREAGE 

ABOUT  THE  SAME  IN  SPITE  OF 
URBAN  GROWTH  AS  FORMERLY 
DRY  FARM  LANDS  (ORCHARD 
AND  VINEYARD)  PUT  UNDEt 
IRRIGATION 


MONTEREY  BAY  AREA 

r.  WINE  GRAPE  ACREAGE  IN- 
CREASED FROM  LESS  THAN 
2.000  TO  OVER  30.000  ACRES. 
NEARLY  ONE-HALF  ON  LAND 
NOT      PREVIOUSLY      IRRIGATED 

•  EXAMPLES    OF    SHIFTS    DUE    TO 

URBANIZATION  OF  FORMER 
PRODUCING  AREAS  ARE  THE  IN- 
CREASE IN  CHILE  PEPPERS 
(RELOCATION  FROM  SOUTHERN 
CALIFORNIA)  AND  INCREASES  IN 
GREENHOUSE  PRODUCTION  OF 
CUT  FLOWERS  AND  POTTED 
PLANTS  (RELOCATION  FROM  SAN 
FRANCISCO  BAY  AREA) 

•  IN  SOME  AREAS.OLDER  ORCHARDS 

REPLACED     BY    TRUCK    CROPS 


ACREAGE 


SACRAMENTO-SAN  JOAQUIN 
DELTA 

•  IRRIGATED  ACREAGE  ABOUT  THE 

SAME 

•  LONG-TERM  DECLINE  IN  ASPARA- 

GUS AND  POTATOES  ACREAGE 
CONTINUED  (ABOUT  90%  DROP 
OVER  LAST  20  YEARS) 

•  FIELD       CROP.       PARTICULARLY 

FIELD  CORN  AND  SAFFLOWER. 
INCREASED 


SOUTH  CENTRAL  COAST 

I  NEW  LANDS  PLANTED  TO  LEMONS. 
AVOCADOS  AND  WINE  GRAPES- 
THE  LATTER,  NOW  OVER  10,000 
ACRES.  NOT  COMMERCIALLY 
SIGNIFICANT  BEFORE 


SOUTH  COAST 

<  IRRIGATED  LANDS  CONTINUED 
DECREASE  DUE  TO  URBANIZA- 
TION, ALTHOUGH  SIGNIFICANT 
EFFORTS  MADE  IN  SOME  AREAS 
TO  LIMIT  ENCROACHMENT 

1  CONTINUED  NEW  PLANTINGS  OF 
CITRUS  AND  AVOCADOS  IN  A  FEW 
AREAS.  CHOPPING  INTENSIFICA- 
TION OF  TRUCK  CROPLANDS 
AND  INCREASE  IN  NURSERY- 
TYPE  FARMS 


SAN  JOAQUIN   VALLEY 

I  TOTAL    IRRIGATED    ACREAGE    IN- 
CREASED   OVER    300.000    ACRES 

>  ORCHARD    AND    VINEYARD    ACHE- 

AGE  INCREASED  OVER  30% 

>  PISTACHIO     NUTS.     A    NEW     CROP, 

NOW  TOTAL  ABOUT  15.000  ACRES 
I  COTTON  ACREAGE  INCREASED  50% 

>  INCREASED       DAIRY       ACTIVITIES 

DUE  IN  LARGE  PART  TO  SHIFTS 
INTO  THE  AREA  FROWSOUTHERN 
CALIFORNIA  STIMULATED  IN- 
CREASED PRODUCTION  OF  CORN 
SILAGE 

>  BARLEY.  SUGAR  BEETS  AND  SAF- 

FLOWER  ACREAGE  DECREASED 
IN  SOME  AREAS  AS  COTTON  AND 
OTHER  COMPETING  CROPS  RE- 
PLACED THEM 
■  LANDS  FORMERLY  IN  DRY  FARM 
GRAIN  IN  VARIOUS  AREAS  ALONG 
THE  EAST  SIDE  OF  THE  VALLEY 
PUT  UNDER  IRRIGATION  (MAINLY 
TREES  AND  VINES)  THROUGH 
NEW  GROUND  WATER  DEVELOP- 
MENT 

•  LANDS   IN   THE   CENTER,   OR 

TROUGH,  OF  THE  VALLEY  CON- 
TINUED TO  BE  BROUGHT  INTO 
PRODUCTION  THROUGH  ALKALI- 
LAND  RECLAMATION  AND 
GROUND  WATER  DEVELOPMENT 

•  NEW  WATER  SUPPLIES  BROUGHT 

INTO  THE  FEDERAL  WATER 
SERVICE  AREA  OF  WESTERN 
MERCED,  FRESNO,  AND  KINGS 
COUNTIES  SUPPLEMENTED  THE 
LIMITED  GROUND  WATER  SUP- 
PLY,ALLOWING  INTENSIFICATION 
OF  THE  CROPPING  PATTERN 
WHICH  FORMERLY  WAS  DEVOTED 
IN  LARGE  PART  TO  LOW-WATEH- 
USING  BARLEY 

•  ABOUT     100,000     ACRES    OF     NEW 

LAND  PUT  INTO  PRODUCTION 
AS  A  DIRECT  RESULT  OF  THE 
STATE  WATER  PROJECT  WHICH 
ALSO  PROVIDED  SUPPLEMENTAL 
WATER  TO  PREVIOUSLY  DEVEL- 
OPED IRRIGATED  LANDS 


DESERT  AREAS 

>  ANTELOPE     VALLEY     AND     COA- 

CHELLA  VALLEY  AGRICULTURE 
EXPERIENCING  PRESSURE  FROM 
URBANIZATION 

>  CITRUS    ACREAGE    INCREASED    IN 

PALO  VERDE  VALLEY 
I  BETWEEN  1969  AND  1972  HAR- 
VESTED COTTON  ACREAGE 
DROPPED  30%,  PRINCIPALLY 
THE  RESULT  OF  PINK  BOLL- 
WORM  INFESTATION  -  FARMERS 
SHIFTED  TO  OTHER  CROPS  AND 
TOTAL  IRRIGATED  ACREAGE 
REMAINED  ABOUT  LEVEL 


Figure   11.      Highlights  of  Changes  in  Irrigated  Land  Use,  1967-1972 


57 


Electrical  Energy 

"Energy"  has  had  an  emotional  impact  on  the 
United  States  second  only  to  "war"  or  "riot".  The 
effect  of  a  shortage  of  energy  on  water  projects 
would  be  as  severe  as  the  impacts  on  travel,  heating, 
or  industry.  Many  water  projects  and  related  services 
depend  on  large  blocks  of  electrical  energy  for  pump- 
ing, and  the  cost  of  the  energy  is  a  major,  and  some- 
times the  largest,  operating  cost  for  water  supply 
projects. 

The  direct  concern  for  this  report  is  the  water  re- 
quirement for  cooling  thermal  generating  plants.  At 
present,  most  of  the  plants  in  California  are  cooled 
with  ocean  or  brackish  water.  Several  factors  are  now 
leading  to  use  of  fresh  water  at  inland  thermal  power 
plant  sites.  This  is  a  large  potential  new  fresh  water 
requirement. 

Trends  and  Influences 

There  is  more  known  about  the  trend  of  increased 
use  of  electrical  energy  than  the  reasons  for  the  trend. 
Studies  by  the  Rand  Corporation  *  of  increases  in 
energy  consumptions  have  been  prepared  for  resi- 
dential, commercial,  and  manufacturing  sectors  in 
California.  Residential  use  of  energy  has  increased  in 
recent  years  and  is  projected  to  continue  to  increase 
primarily  for  environmental  control  and  personal  com- 
fort. Air  conditioning  and  heating  continue  to  use  in- 
creasing amounts  of  electrical  energy  on  a  per  capita 
basis.  In  addition,  numerous  small  personal  electrical 
consuming  items  arc  being  added  to  homes.  While  the 
electric  stove  has  maintained  the  same  level  of  elec- 
trical consumption  in  the  home  for  many  years,  the 
average  size  of  refrigerators  has  increased  and  most  of 
the  newer  models  are  frost-free  and  include  freezers. 

Commercial  use  of  electrical  encrg>'  is  the  fastest 
growing  of  the  three  sectors.  Most  of  the  increases 
relate  to  air  conditioning  and  iieating,  but  in  addition 
there  has  been  a  trend  for  more  floor  space  per  em- 
ployee. It  is  more  difficult  to  identif\-  a  general  pat- 
tern for  manufacturing  and  industrial  increases  except 
that  man\-  industries  are  decreasing  the  amount  of 
labor  per  unit  of  product  and,  for  the  most  part,  sub- 
stituting electrical  devices  and  increased  electrical 
energy  for  the  labor. 

Electrical  energy  usage  increased  at  a  high  rate  for 
about  20  >cars  after  World  War  II.  The  average  an- 
nual compound  rate  of  increase  was  9.2°o  from  1950 
to  1966  and  6.7%  from  1966  to  1972.  During  this 
period  the  price  of  electricity  did  not  increase  in  the 
same  magnitude  as  other  prices.  New  power  plants 
have  been  more  efficient,  and  the  unit  cost  of  adding 
generating  capacity  decreased.  The  annual  rate  of  in- 
crease in  electrical  energy  use  tlius  had  begun  to  taper 

♦"California's    Electricity    Quandary:     1.     Lstinialing     I'uturc     Demaml," 
Rand  Corporation,  September  1972. 


off  in  the  late  1960s  before  such  limiting  factors  as 
power  plant  siting  and  price  increases  added  their 
effect.  Now  that  energy  prices  have  begun  to  increase 
and  are  e.xpected  to  increase  even  more,  demand 
should  respond  in  an  clastic  manner.  It  should  also  be 
pointed  out  that  concurrent  with  the  reduction  in 
growth  rate  of  energy  sales  there  was  a  similar  reduc- 
tion in  the  rate  of  increase  in  population. 

Until  recently,  energy  has  been  taken  for  granted 
in  California.  In  the  evaluation  of  water  projects, 
energy  considerations  have  been  limited  to  pumping 
costs  and  the  value  of  hydroelectric  generation.  The 
cost  of  energy  for  pumping  has  been  and  will  be  of 
primary  concern  to  the  Department  of  Water  Re- 
sources because  payment  for  power  required  by 
pumping  plants  is  the  major  cost  in  the  operation  of 
the  State  Water  Project.  It  is  also  an  important  factor 
in  other  water  projects  and  in  ground  water  manage- 
ment. 

In  the  last  two  \ears  the  energ\-  situation  and  public 
awareness  have  brought  a  period  of  change  and  uncer- 
tainty Assumptions  about  future  power  requirements 
need  to  be  reexamined.  Some  of  the  factors  w  hich  af- 
fect future  demand  of  electricity  in  a  qualitative  way 
are  listed  in  the  following  two  groups. 

Factors  which  cause  continued  increase  in  electricity 
consumption: 

Population  growth 

Extension  of  existing  uses  of  electricity 

Resistance  heating 

Refrigeration  cooling 

Transportation — trains,  mass  transit 
New  uses  for  electricity 

Transportation — autos 

Conversion  of  alternative  forms  of  energy 

Desalting 
Factors  \\  hich  contribute  to  a  low  er  rate  of  increase 
in  e!ectricit\'  consumption: 

Decline  in   birthrate  and  net  in-migration 

Rising  energy  costs 

■More  efficient  use  of  energ\" 

Conservation  measures  to  reduce  waste 

Better  appliances 

Beneficial  uses  of  w  aste  heat 
Substitution  of  alternative  forms  of  energy 

Some  of  the  factors  in  the  first  group  have  exerted 
a  dominant  influence  during  most  of  the  period  since 
1945.  In  the  future,  factors  in  the  second  group  are 
expected  to  become  dominant.  Population  growth  is 
slowing  down.  Although  per  capita  cnergv  use  grew 
very  rapidlx'  for  about  20  years,  its  growth  is  now- 
slow  ing  down.  Energ\'  costs  have  increased  signifi- 
cantly and  arc  expected  to  continue  to  increase.  Pro- 
jection of  some  of  the  other  factors,  how  ever,  is  more 
uncertain.  How  soon  technology  ma\'  advance  new 
and  alternative  forms  of  energy  is  ver\-  speculative. 


58 


2010  2020 


Figure   12.      Historic  and  Projected  Electric  Energy  Requirements 


Alternaiive  Future  Projections 

Consideration  of  projections  of  future  electrical  en- 
ergy requirements  was  the  subject  of  the  September 
1972  report  by  the  Rand  Corporation,  and  it  included 
a  detailed  study  of  five  different  projections  or  cases. 
The  base  case  projection,  Case  1,  is  a  generally  ac- 
cepted view  of  the  future  which  tends  to  be  a  sta- 
tistical extension  of  the  past.  The  other  cases  were 
combinations  of  high  or  low  growth  of  population 
and  the  economy  with  or  without  relative  increases 
of  price  of  energy.  Case  3,  the  low  growth  case,  gave 
a  rate  of  growth  of  3.4%  per  year  for  the  period 
1970-2000. 

The  Energy  Dilemma  Report  *  contains  a  compari- 
son of  the  1972  California  Public  Utilities  Commission 
(CPUC)  projection  of  annual  peak  demand  in  the  year 

*  "Energy     Dilemma"     California's     20-Year    Power    Plant     Siting     Plan, 
State  of  California,  The  Resources  Agency,  June  1973. 


1991  with  the  Rand  Case  1  electrical  energy  projec- 
tions, converted  by  the  CPUC  staff  to  peak  demand, 
and  found  the  difference  to  be  less  than  one  year's 
growth. 

A  current  assessment  of  the  foregoing  factors  re- 
sulted in  the  selection  of  a  high  and  a  low  projection, 
neither  of  which  is  considered  an  extreme  or  limiting 
condition.  The  high  alternative  was  obtained  by  using 
the  projection  from  the  Energy  Dilemma  Report  to 
1991,  the  Rand  base  case  projection  up  to  the  year 
2000  and  assuming  a  4.4  percent  annual  growth  rate 
from  2001  to  2020.  The  low  alternative  was  obtained 
by  using  the  Rand  low  grow  th  case  projection  up  to 
the  year  2000  and  assuming  a  3.0  percent  annual 
growth  rate  from  2001  to  2020. 

A  graph  of  the  historical  electrical  energy  sales  from 
1950  to  1972  and  the  high  and  low  estimates  of  future 
cncrgv  use  is  shown  on  Figure  12.  Quantities  of  pro- 


59 


jected  electrical  energy  sales  and  generation  are  given 
in  Table  6.  Estimates  of  the  generation  of  energy  by 
plants  that  require  cooling  are  given  in  Table  7. 

Table  6.      Projected  Requirements  for  Electrical  Energy 
(billion  kilowatt  hours  per  year) 


Electrical  energy  sales 

Electric  energy  generation*^ 

Year 

High  estimate 

Low  estimate 

High  estimate 

Low  estimate 

1972 

140 
420 
1600* 

140 
247 
600'' 

155 
466 
1780 

155 

1990     

274 

2020 

670 

»  Estimated  by  projecling  4.4  percent  rate  of  growth  from  2000. 
^  Estimated  by  projecting  3.0  percent  rate  of  growth  from  2000. 
•  Electric  energy  generation  differs  from  sales  by  10  percent  losses. 

Table   7.      Projected  Additional  Generation  Requiring  Cooling  Water 


(in  billion  kilowatt  hours) 

1972 

1990 

2020 

Type 

High 

Low 

High 

Low 

Nuclear 

3 
90 

220 
26 

83 
13 

1,184 
26 

387 

13 

Total  thermal 

93 

246 

96 

1.210 

400 

Thermal  Power  Plar)t  Sif'mg 

Most  of  the  electrical  energy  generated  in  Califor- 
nia to  satisfy  energ\-  needs  will  probably  be  produced 
using  oil  and  nuclear  fuel.  While  there  may  be  a  slight 
increase  in  electric  energy  production  using  oil,  most 
of  the  increase  is  expected  to  be  developed  from  nu- 
clear energy.  However,  projections  for  2020  are 
fraught  with  uncertainties  especially  where  fairly  rap- 
idly changing  technolog\-,  such  as  in  the  production 
of  electricit\%  is  involved.  It  is  not  known  if  fusion 
will  be  the  leading  form  of  energy  generation  by  2020, 
but  it  is  considered  likely.  With  the  application  of 
magnetohydrodynamics  (iMHD)  one  can  envision 
efficiencies  of  60  percent  or  better.  Gas  turbines  dis- 
charging w  aste  heat  directl\-  to  the  atmosphere  cou- 
pled with  nuclear  reactors  are  expected  for  commer- 
cial application  in  the  1990s.  Higher  efficiencies  and 
direct  discharge  of  waste  heat  to  the  atmosphere  will 
reduce  the  need  for  cooling  \\ater  for  power  plants 
by  2020. 

Solar  energy  or  other  novel  energy  sources  by  to- 
day's standards  could  be  utilized  in  central  stations  for 
generation  of  electrical  energy.  On  the  other  hand, 
individual  use  of  solar  energy  couJd  substantially  re- 
duce central  station  demand.  Individual  units  would 
no  doubt  discharge  waste  heat  directly  to  air,  thereby 
not  requiring  water  for  cooling. 

Nevertheless,  a  very  substantial  portion  of  our  ther- 
mal generating  plants  will  require  cooling  water  for 
operation.  Therefore,  projections  of  thermal  power 


plants  needing  w  ater  for  cooling  and  the  siting  of  the 
plants  is  a  major  concern  in  considering  California's 
future  water  needs.  The  location  of  future  thermal 
power  plants  (taking  into  consideration  load  center, 
safety,  aesthetics,  technological  changes,  and  econom- 
ics and  the  amount  of  energy  generated)  are  the  major 
ingredients  of  alternative  futures  for  electrical  energy. 

Location  of  power  plants  along  California's  1,072- 
mile  coastline  w  ith  its  access  to  an  unlimited  supply  of 
sea  water,  usable  for  once-through  cooling,  has  pro- 
vided an  economic  solution  to  the  current  cooling 
water  requirements  related  with  thermal  energy  pro- 
duction. About  90  percent  of  the  thermal  power  plants 
in  California  are  presently  located  along  the  coast  to 
take  advantage  of  cooling  with  saline  or  brackish 
water. 

Since  the  coastal  zone  is  in  such  great  demand  for  so 
nian\'  uses,  i.e.,  commercial,  industrial,  residential,  rec- 
reation, aquatic  and  wildlife  habitat,  and  preservation 
as  natural  areas,  it  is  not  surprising  that  there  is  a 
conflict  for  above  ground  power  plant  siting. 

Active  and  potentially  active  seismic  areas  in  the 
coastal  area  are  a  serious  restraint  for  siting  nuclear 
plants. 

Several  estimates  have  been  made  of  the  length  of 
coastline  that  might  be  suitable  for  pow  er  plant  siting 
based  largely  on  population  centers  and  seismic  haz- 
ards. In  the  Holmes  and  Narver  report,  "California 
Power  Plant  Siting  Study",  17  siting  variations  were 
studied.  The  amount  of  suitable  coastline  varied  from 
2  to  855  miles  depending  upon  the  type  of  installation 
considered.  The  criteria  in  that  report  were  generally 


Most  California  thermal  power  plants  ore  along  the  i 


60 


more  lenient  than  those  used  in  the  report  by  the  Cali- 
fornia Institute  of  Technology  in  1973,  entitled 
"Siting  Nuclear  Pow  er  Plants  in  California,  the  Near- 
Term  Alternatives",  ^\■hich  found  only  52  miles  of 
the  1,072-mile  coastline  suitable  for  power  plant  siting 
consideration. 

The  difficulty  in  finding  suitable  coastal  sites  for 
power  plants  has  caused  power  companies  to  look 
inland  for  sites.  Studies  of  power  plant  siting  criteria 
reveal  that  the  most  favorable  inland  locations  are  the 
Central  Valley  and  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Colo- 
rado Desert  area.  These  locations  are  discussed  in  the 
Resources  Agency's  report,  "Energy  Dilemma,  Cali- 
fornia 20- Year  Power  Plant  Siting  Plan".  The  studies 
of  inland  siting  which  have  been  made  thus  far  have 
not  been  detailed  enough  to  determine  whether  other 
parts  of  the  State  might  yet  be  found  suitable  for 
power  plant  siting. 

In  view  of  the  uncertainties  about  power  plant  sit- 
ing, two  alternatives  for  thermal  power  plant  location 
were  considered.  The  assumption  was  made  for  plan- 
ning purposes  in  this  report  that  either  one-third  or 
two-thirds  of  the  future  additional  thermal  power 
plants  would  use  closed  cycle  evaporative  cooling 
which  would  have  to  be  supplied  from  inland  sources 
of  fresh  water.  The  remaining  plants  would  be  lo- 
cated on  the  coast  for  cooling  with  ocean  water.  This 
assumption  on  plant  location  could  not  be  followed 
completely  for  the  low  alternatives  because  more  than 
Yi  of  the  plants  needed  are  already  under  construction 
or  planned  to  be  located  at  inland  sites. 

Compounding  these  two  assumptions  of  future  ther- 
mal power  plant  location  with  the  aforementioned 
two  levels  of  electric  energy  requirements  results  in 
four  alternative  futures  for  thermal  power  plants  in 
California.  The  energy  to  be  generated  by  plants  re- 
quiring inland  sources  of  cooling  water  is  given  in 
Table  8. 

Table  8.     Additional  Inland  Thermal  Power  Generation 
(in  billion  kilowatt  hours) 


Energy 
demand 

Fresh  water 
cooling" 

Generation  requiring  cooling 

Alternative 
future 

1990 

2020 

I 

High 
High 
Low 
Low 

H 
'A 

158 
88 
52 
44 

790 

II 

in.... -. 

IV 

420 
250 
150 

■  Fraction  shown  indicates  that  portion  of  additional  thermal  generation  using 
fresh  water  for  cooling  purposes.  The  remaining  portion  of  cooling  need  would 
be  met  by  ocean  water. 


Trends  and   Influences  on 
Other  Water-related   Needs 

There  are  several  other  water-related  needs  that 
must  be  included  in  the  formulation  of  water  resource 
management  plans.  The  earlier  portion  of  this  chapter 


covered  population,  agriculture  and  energy  which  in 
Chapter  IV^  will  be  translated  into  alternative  levels  of 
water  needs  for  municipal  and  industrial  purposes,  irri- 
gation of  crops,  and  power  plant  cooling.  While  these 
include  the  primary  consumptive  needs  for  which 
water  supplies  are  developed  they  do  not  provide  in- 
formation on  the  other  purposes  of  water  resource 
management  plans. 

Items  such  as  recreation,  fish,  and  wildlife,  flood 
control,  water  quality,  and  environmental  quality  are 
important  values.  Past  trends  and  present  attitudes  of 
society  indicate  that  there  are  presently  unmet  needs 
and  that  additional  needs  can  be  projected  into  the 
future.  However,  since  most  of  such  needs  do  not 
directly  affect  the  water  supply-use  balance  of  a  spe- 
cific area  it  has  not  been  necessary  in  water  manage- 
ment planning  to  directly  quantify  projected  future 
levels  of  need.  The  usual  procedure  has  been  to  rec- 
ognize the  importance  of  damage  prevention  and  qual- 
ity enhancement,  incorporate  protection  of  existing 
values  to  the  maximum  extent  possible,  and  enhance 
those  benefits  where  there  is  an  opportunity  in  the 
formulation  of  water  resources  management  plans. 

The  following  discussions  of  recreation,  fish  and 
wildlife,  flood  control,  water  quality,  and  environ- 
mental qualit\"  cover  the  trends  and  influences  that 
affect  these  water-related  benefits. 

Recreaf/on,  F/s/i  and  Wildlife 

The  long-range  trend  of  public  participation  in  out- 
door recreation  activities  is  upward.  Throughout  the 
Nation,  and  especially'  in  the  West,  recreation  area  use 
data  reveal  a  greater  per  capita  participation  for  most 
types  of  recreation  as  compared  with  past  years.  As 
an  indication  of  this.  Figure  13  shows  the  growth  in 
California  State  Park  System  attendance  since  1950 
which  is  increasing  much  more  rapidly  than  popula- 
tion. Other  outdoor  recreation  activities  reveal  a  simi- 
lar trend. 

Most  observers  of  recreation  use  patterns  and  trends 
attribute  a  large  part  of  the  increase  to  more  leisure 
time,  more  income,  and  greater  mobility.  Another 
factor — less  often  mentioned — that  has  doubtless  had 
a  major  influence  on  recreation  activity-  has  been  an 
innovative  recreation  industry.  Improved  services,  fa- 
cilities, and  equipment  have  proved  attractive  to  a 
larger  segment  of  the  population. 

In  addition  to  these  factors,  it  has  been  true  in 
California  and  elsewhere  in  the  A\'est  that  resources 
have  general!)-  been  available  for  expanding  recreation 
activities.  Land,  water,  fisheries,  etc.  have  generally 
been  adequate  to  support  the  increased  activity.  Un- 
fortunately, these  resources  frequently  are  not  near  the 
large  concentration  of  people  in  the  urban  centers. 

As  a  result  of  the  growth  factors,  a  large  recreation 
industry  has  developed  in  California  and  has  grown 
without  significant  interruption  in  the  almost  30  years 
since  World  War  II. 


61 


VISITOR  ATTFN DANCE 

(IN   RECREATION-DAYSl 


CALIFORNIA  POPULATION 


1950  1952 


1954  1956  1958  1960  1962  1964  1966  1968  1970  1972 


Source  of  Data      CALIFORNIA  DEPARTMENT  OF  PARKS  8.   RECREATION 


Figure    13.     California  Population  and  State  Park  System  Attendance 


Like  most  other  human  activities,  outdoor  recreation 
participation  is  dynamic  and  changing.  When  looking 
to  the  future  and  attempting'  to  develop  a  basis  for 
forecasting  future  recreation  activity,  the  usual  proce- 
dure is  to  look  at  past  trends  and  present  influences. 
On  this  basis  it  would  be  logical  to  project  a  continua- 
tion of  the  upward  trends.  The  energy  crisis,  how- 
ever, demonstrated  the  vulnerability  of  recreation  ac- 
tivities to  external  influences  including  public 
confidence  in  the  economy  and  their  own  economic 
securitv'. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  gasoline  shortages  and  price 
increases  starting  in  the  last  half  of  1973  reduced 
recreation  travel.  There  is  also  no  doubt  that  there 
was  a  decrease  in  the  purchase  of  recreation  vehicles, 
trailers,  motor  homes,  boats,  and  other  energy  using 
items  at  the  same  time.  However,  it  is  impossible  to 
find  uniformity  in  forecasts  of  the  duration  and 
severity  of  the  energy  shortage,  and  therefore  difficult 
to  predict  \\  ith  any  certainty  the  effect  of  that  short- 
age on  outdoor  recreation. 

Two  major  types  of  outdoor  recreation  that  are 
dependent  upon  fish  and  wildlife  resources  are  fresh 
water  fishing  and  water  fowl  hunting.  The  present 
level  and  the  projected  levels  of  these  two  recreation 
activities  (as  shown  in  Table  9)  demonstrate  their 
popularit\-  and  also  indicate  the  importance  of  fish 
and  wildlife  resources. 

Fish  and  wildlife  resources  must  be  protected  and 
enhanced  where  possible  to  preserve  and  expand  rec- 
reational opportunity.  These  resources  include  a  num- 
ber of  limited  and  endangered  species  of  fish  and  w  ild- 


life.    Water    resource    management   plans    must   also 
include  measures  for  their  protection  and  sur\-ival. 


Table  9.      Existing  and  Projected  Fishing  and  Hunting  Uses  of 

California's  Fresh  Water  Fish  and  Water  Fowl  Resources 

(in  1,000  of  user  days) 


Fresh  Water  Fishing 

Water  Fowl  Hunting 

Hydrologic  Study  Area 

1970 

2000 

1970 

2000 

983 
8)2 
988 
2.195 
4.617 
3.100 
1,819 
1.7M 
1.180 
1,759 
1,286 

1.435 
1,262 
1,403 

2,837 
6,940 
4,916 
3,038 
2,486 
2,392 
3.421 
2,351 

213 
60 
8 
34 
625 
110 
234 
168 
41 
46 
126 

277 

San  Francisco  Bay 

84 
11 

63 

Sacramento  Basin 

Delta-Central  Sierra 

San  Joaquin  Basin 

Tulare  Basin 

928 
193 
403 
218 

53 

160 

260 

Totals 

20.443 

32,481 

1,665 

2,650 

:  "Present  and  Future  Human  Demands  for  Fish  and  Wildlife",  Californi: 
Department  of  Fish  and  Game,  August  1972. 


Some  species  of  \vildlife  need  habitat  protection  to 
sur\ive  while  others  need  additional  protected  habitat 
to  maintain  populations  that  will  be  beneficial  to 
society.  Riparian  habitat  adjacent  to  rivers,  lakes  and 
other  water\\ays  is  particularly  itnportant  to  many 
species.  Mountain  valle>'  habitats  are  limited  for  many 
deer  and  the  few  remaining  elk  herds  and  competitive 
uses  of  these  valleys  for  cattle  grazing,  intensive  rec- 
reation use,  and  reservoir  sites  places  additional  strain 
on  the  animal  populations. 


62 


The  Pacific  Flyway  for  water  fowl  passes  through 
the  entire  length  of  California  from  the  Mexican  to 
the  Oregon  borders.  Marsh  areas  which  provide  rest- 
ing, nesting,  and  feeding  areas  are  essential  to  maintain 
the  present  populations  of  these  birds.  To  maintain 
these  important  habitats  requires  water  and  protection 
from  encroachment  of  competing  uses.  Several  state 
and  federal  water  fowl  management  areas  are  now 
in  op)eration  and  additional  areas  are  needed.  Opportu- 
nities for  providing  such  areas  should  be  evaluated  in 
the  preparation  of  water  resource  management  plans. 

The  fresh  water  and  anadromous  fisheries  are 
important  to  the  recreational  and  economic  welfare 
of  the  State.  Good  spawning  areas  for  anadromous  fish 
are  limited  and  in  many  natural  streams  dry  season 
flow  are  not  sufficient  to  maintain  optimum  fish 
populations.  Water  resource  planning  must  include 
evaluation  of  the  fishery  resources  and  explore  op- 
portunities to  enhance  the  fisheries  through  riverflow 
augmentation  and  protection  or  replacement  of  spawn- 
ing areas. 


1 

m 

.     P. 

^5 

^y^l 

^M 

Ik 

..-•■'«        ^pr '^^^S 

5Wp 

r 

California  Wildlife  fiabitat 


^  v» 


A 

.>-^ 


1 


•^     3- 


^V 


,v 


Wetland  habitat  for  waterfowl 
Deportment  of  Fish  ond  Gome  photo 


63 


Flood  Confrol 

Every  few  years  some  of  California's  winter  storms 
occur  in  such  rapid  succession  that  there  are  severe 
floodflows  over  extensive  areas.  Prior  to  settlement  by 
migration  from  the  eastern  states,  these  floodflows 
covered  the  terraces  along  streams  and  the  Sacramento 
and  San  Joaquin  Valleys  became  lakes  over  much  of 
their  areas.  Alluvial  cones  in  Southern  California  were 
covered  by  water  and  debris. 

Flood  control  works  in  California  now  prevent  in- 
undation of  many  of  these  areas  and  have  made  a 
significant  contribution  to  the  State's  productive  ca- 
pacity and  social  well-being.  Without  these  facilities, 
California  would  be  unable  to  sustain  its  high  level  of 
agricultural  production  and  industrial  output;  its 
municipal  and  industrial  communities  would  be  so 
scattered  as  to  render  them  ineffective. 

In  the  early  days  of  California  there  was  little  choice 
but  to  settle  in  areas  prone  to  flood  damage.  Provision 
of  flood  control  structures  has  been  a  gradual  process. 


but  with  numerous  projects  completed  since  World 
War  II,  major  portions  of  the  State  are  now  relatively 
secure  from  flood  damage.  As  flood  protection  works 
have  been  expanded,  often  initially  to  protect  large 
areas  of  agricultural  land,  the  pressures  of  urban  ex- 
pansion caused  further  invasion  of  the  floodplain  and 
greater  levels  of  flood  protection  became  necessary. 
The  clearest  discernable  trend  has  been  a  decline  in 
new  starts  for  structural  works  in  the  past  few  years. 
Factors  contributing  to  this  trend  include  a  decrease 
in  federal  spending,  a  4-year  period  to  work  out  a 
new  basis  for  sharing  of  nonfederal  costs  of  federal 
projects  between  the  State  and  local  agencies  and  con- 
cern for  possible  detrimental  environmental  effects  of 
projects. 

Both  social  concerns  and  legislative  actions  are  con- 
tributing to  increased  use  of  floodplain  zoning.  En- 
vironmental concerns  of  people  in  some  flood  control 
districts  has  resulted  in  strong  objections  to  concrete 
or  rock-lined  flood  control  channels  and  searches  for 
alternative  solutions. 


Flood  damoge  in  the  Delta 


64 


The  Federal  Flood  Insurance  Program  was  not  well 
received  for  its  first  four  years,  but  additional  legisla- 
tion following  severe  floods  at  several  locations  in  the 
United  States  has  stimulated  widespread  interest  in 
extension  of  the  program  in  flood-prone  areas.  A  re- 
quirement of  the  program  is  local  agency  implementa- 
tion of  suitable  zoning  of  floodplains. 

Until  recently,  the  State  reimbursed  local  flood 
control  agencies  for  nearly  all  the  local  share  of  the 
capital  costs  of  federal  flood  control  projects.  State 
legislation  adopted  in  1973  reduced  reimbursement  by 
the  State  thus  requiring  local  agencies  to  assume  a 
significant  part  of  the  nonfederal  share  of  first  costs 
of  projects.  This  is  in  addition  to  the  operation  and 
maintenance  costs  local  agencies  have  borne  in  the 
past  and  will  continue  to  pay.  This  too  can  be  ex- 
pected to  shift  flood  management  toward  greater  use 
of  floodplain  zoning. 

The  State  in  1974  adopted  legislation  providing  that 
it  will  pay  part  of  the  maintenance  cost  of  eligible 
levees.  In  the  Sacramento-San  Joaquin  Delta,  for  non- 
federal project  levees,  the  State  will  pay  annually  up 
to  50  percent  of  the  maintenance  costs  after  the  local 
agencies  have  assumed  the  first  $500  per  mile  of  levee. 
For  all  project  levees  in  the  State,  authorized  under 
the  State  Water  Resources  law  of  1945,  the  State  will 
also  pay  50  percent  of  additional  costs  attributed  to 
planting  or  retention  of  controlled  vegetative  cover 
for  wildlife,  recreational,  scenic  and  aesthetic  purposes. 

Land  use  planning  and  zoning  can  be  used  to  keep 
incompatible  urban  development  out  of  flood-prone 
areas  and  at  the  same  time  allow  for  suitable  uses  of 
the  land  resources. 

To  insure  that  man's  needs  for  protection  and  se- 
curity are  satisfied,  protection  from  floods  is  essential. 
Furthermore,  to  maintain  adequate  production  of  agri- 
cultural produce,  goods,  and  other  services,  adequate 
land  resources  must  be  made  available.  Flood  damage 
prevention  is  an  economic  cost  which  must  be  con- 
sidered in  the  development  of  California's  land  and 
water  resources  to  satisfy  the  needs  of  people. 

Environmental  Quality 

Water,  either  running  or  standing,  is  often  the 
central  environmental  attraction  of  an  area  regardless 
of  whether  the  area  is  used  for  recreation,  residential 
or  other  purposes.  Whatever  the  recreational  activity, 
the  setting  with  a  stream  or  lake  seems  to  be  preferred 
to  a  setting  without  water.  It  also  is  apparent  that  land 
with  a  lakeview  or  a  stream  nearby  is  higher  in  value 
for  residential  use  than  other  land.  The  development 
of  stream  parkways  such  as  along  Los  Gatos  Creek  in 
Santa  Clara  County  and  the  American  River  in  Sacra- 
mento is  further  evidence  of  the  high  regard  placed 
on  streams. 

Other  examples  of  concern  for  environmental  qual- 
it\  are  the  California  Wild  and  Scenic  Rivers  Act, 
M-hich  followed  by  a  few  years  federal  legislation  in 


this  field,  and  the  current  Resources  Agency  program 
for  the  development  of  waterway  management  plans. 
Californians  for  years  have  developed  lakes  and  reser- 
voirs for  recreation  and  their  scenic  attributes.  Streams 
now  seem  to  ofi'er  the  kinds  of  environmental  quality 
and  recreation  potentials  that  excite  communities  to 
action. 

Up  through  the  1950s  concern  about  comprehensive 
long-range  environmental  goals  for  an  area  such  as 
California  was  minimal.  During  the  1960s  there  was 
increasing  concern  about  what  was  happening  and 
\\hat  might  happen  to  the  environment  in  California 
and  elsewhere.  By  the  end  of  the  1960s  there  appeared 
to  be  an  informal  concensus  on  the  part  of  the  people 
of  California  and  the  United  States  that  we  should 
achieve  and  maintain  a  high  quality  of  liveability  for 
ourselves,  our  children,  and  grandchildren. 

This  informal  consensus  was  translated  into  law  by 
the  Congress  of  the  United  States  in  1969  and  the  Cali- 
fornia State  Legislature  in  1970.  Those  laws  established 
a  formal  statutory  base  which  will  "create  and  main- 
tain conditions  under  which  man  and  nature  can  exist 
in  productive  harmony".* 

There  is  little  understanding  of  the  long-term  effects 
that  different  rates  and  kinds  of  growth  would  have 
on  the  quality  of  life.  There  does  not  appear  to  be 
agreement  on  what  the  mix  of  material  goods  for 
social  well-being  should  be  with  the  intangibles  needed 
for  the  highest  attainable  quality  of  life.  Each  person, 
each  corporation,  each  governmental  unit,  each  citizen 
organization  historically  has  pursued  his  or  its  own 
ends.  The  result,  through  the  1960s,  generally  has 
been  unplanned,  uncoordinated,  and  uncontrolled 
growth.  This  kind  of  growth,  historically,  has  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States  and  in  California  a  high 
material  standard  of  living.  It  also  increasingly  is 
yielding  some  undesirable  natural  environmental  re- 
sults and  conflict. 

These  problems  are  considered  in  the  report  entitled 
"Summary  Report:  Environmental  Goals  and  Policy", 
issued  by  the  Governor  in  1973.  The  report  is  dis- 
cussed in  Chapter  I  of  this  bulletin. 

During  the  next  few  years,  it  is  anticipated  that  a 
more  specific  body  of  information  will  be  developed 
to  better  define  some  of  the  relationships  between 
man  and  nature.  At  the  present  time,  the  interrelation- 
ships of  water  management  and  environmental  con- 
cerns require  institutional,  economic  and  operational 
studies  to  develop  alternative  courses  of  action  that 
may  result  in  solution.  In  the  interim,  water  manage- 
ment programs  must  be  aware  of  and  respond  to  issues 
that  relate  environmental  quality  and  water  resources. 

Water  Quality 

The  quality  of  water  provides  a  measure  of  the 
utility  of  water  for  its  many  beneficial  uses.  In  gen- 

al    Policy    Act    of     1969     (NEPA),    Public    Law 


65 


eral,  the  better  the  quality  of  the  water  the  wider  the 
variety  of  uses  that  can  be  met.  In  recognition  of 
this  the  public  at  large  and  the  legislature's  attitudes 
are  to  protect  the  quality  of  the  State's  water  re- 
sources and  to  enhance  water  quality  in  those  instances 
where  a  better  quality  would  facilitate  more  beneficial 
uses  or  esthetic  enjoyment. 

California  since  1950  has  had  an  aggressive  program 
to  prevent  water  pollution  resulting  from  municipal 
and  industrial  waste  discharges.  This  program  was  ex- 
panded in  1970  by  the  Porter-Cologne  Water  Quality 
Control  Act  which  added  many  provisions  to  provide 
stricter  water  quality  control  management,  particularly 
through  new  enforcement  provisions.  Additional  em- 
phasis was  placed  on  control  of  water  quality  by  the 
passage  of  the  1972  amendments  to  the  Federal  Water 
Pollution  Control  Act  (PL  92-500).  PL  92-500  pro- 
vided funds  to  assist  the  local  agencies  of  every  state 
in  construction  of  treatment  facilities  to  improve  the 
quality  of  waste  water  discharges.  The  goal  of  PL 
92-500  is  to  have  by  1983  a  national  water  resource 


of  sufficient  quality  to  provide  for  the  protection  and 
propagation  of  fish,  shellfish,  and  wildlife  and  for 
recreation  in  and  on  the  water.  The  State  Water  Re- 
sources Control  Board  has  further  emphasized  pro- 
tection of  water  quality  by  the  adoption  of  a  policy 
to  prevent  degradation  of  the  existing  quality  of  all 
water  of  the  State  by  any  of  man's  activities  to  the 
maximum  feasible  extent. 

The  State  Water  Quality  Control  Board  is  currently 
completing  a  massive  water  quality  management 
planning  program  which  is  mentioned  in  Chapter  1 
and  is  discussed  in  detail  in  Chapter  V  of  this  bulletin. 

The  basic  water  quality  assumption  for  water  re- 
sources management  planning  is  that  overall  improve- 
ments in  water  quality  can  be  expected  in  spite  of  in- 
creased population  levels  and  economic  activities. 
Achieving  the  established  water  quality  standards  may 
affect  the  need  for  future  water  supply  development, 
reclamation  of  waste  water,  and  agricultural  waste 
water  drainage  systems. 


Iffter 


■^^z^.. 


Environmental  quality  is  Improved  by  summer  releases  from  storage  to  the  American  River 


66 


CHAPTER   IV 

DEMANDS  FOR  WATER 


This  chapter  discusses  demands  for  water — water 
supplies  to  meet  out-of-stream  consumptive  uses, 
water  for  instream  flow  maintenance  and  enhance- 
ment, water  quality  for  protection  of  beneficial  pur- 
poses, and  control  of  water  to  reduce  damage  from 
floods.  "Water  demands"  as  used  in  this  report  means 
"quantity  of  water  use". 

The  quantity  of  water  for  irrigated  agriculture, 
urban  uses,  and  for  power  plant  cooling  has  been  cal- 
culated for  several  alternative  levels  of  future  develop- 
ment. Only  one  estimate  of  future  water  demand  for 
recreation,  fish  and  wildlife  was  made.  Water  man- 
agement requirements  for  other  purposes  such  as  flood 
control,  energy  generation,  quality  protection,  en- 
vironmental enhancement,  and  navigation  are  discussed 
only  qualitatively — in  terms  of  their  relation  to  the 
future. 

Urban  Water  Use 

California  currently  requires  more  than  five  million 
acre-feet  of  \\ater  each  year  for  municipal  and  indus- 
trial purposes.  The  uses  are  many  and  varied  but  fall 
broadi\'  into  four  general  groups:  domestic  (residen- 
tial), industrial,  commercial,  and  governmental. 
Domestic  uses  require  about  68  percent  of  the  total, 
industrial  about  18  percent,  commercial  10  percent, 
and  governmental  and  institutional  uses  the  remaining 
4  percent. 

These  four  components  are  treated  in  this  bulletin 
as  a  single  combined  entity,  "urban  water  use".  The 
projected  quantities  presented  in  this  chapter  are  de- 
rived as  the  product  of  per  capita  water  use  and  the 
population  projections  presented  in  Chapter  III.  By 
w  ny  of  review,  the  four  levels  of  future  population  are 
show  n  in  the  following  tabulation: 


The  variability  in  per  capita  water  use  between  com- 
munities is  demonstrated  by  the  examples  in  Table  10. 

Table   10.      Per  Capita  Water  Use  in  Selected  Communities 


Alter 

native  Fu 

ure  Popu 

at 

on 

(millions) 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

1972... 

20.5 

20.5 

20.5 

20.5 

1990 

27.4 

26.7 

26.1 

23.6 

2020 

43.3 

39.1 

36.6 

26.5 

Urban  rates  of  water  use  were  determined  on  a  per 
capita  basis.  The  total  quantity  of  water  used  by  a 
community  each  day  was  divided  by  its  population. 
The  quantity  of  water  used  is  the  net  result  of  a  num- 
ber of  variables,  some  of  which  tend  to  increase  unit 
use  while  others  cause  decreases.  Each  area  has  a  unique 
combination  of  these  variables  which  result  in  a  per 
capita  value  specific  to  that  area. 


Agency 

Service  area 
population 

Per  capita 

water  use 

(gallons  per 

capita 

per  day) 

San  Francisco  Bay  Area 

59,300 
160.000 
712,000 

91.460 

34.200 

116.749 
72,427 

1.877,736 
657.036 

255 

164 

San  Francisco  Water  Department -. 

144 
134 

North  County  Water  District  (Pacifica) 

South  Coastal  Jrra 

98 
223 

171 

Los  Angeles  Department  of  Water  &  Power  (City 
and  hator  area)                                  

163 

154 

Industrial  use  of  fresh  water  constitutes  about  one- 
fifth  of  the  total  urban  water  demand.  The  State's 
1972  industrial  use  amounted  to  about  920,000  acre- 
feet.  Considerable  effort  has  been  devoted  to  canvass- 
ing industry  to  obtain  data  on  water  use  and  related 
production  information.  The  results  are  summarized  in 
Department  of  Water  Resources  Bulletin  No.  124, 
"Water  Use  by  Manufacturing  Industries  in  Califor- 
nia". For  purposes  of  this  Bulletin  160-74,  the  detailed 
information  was  adapted  to  permit  industrial  water  use 
and  all  other  urban  uses  to  be  expressed  as  a  direct 
function  of  population,  that  is,  as  per  capita  water  use. 

Temperature  has  significant  influence  on  residential 
use,  especially  where  lawns  and  gardens  are  extensive. 
In  these  areas,  summer  use  often  will  vary  from  winter 
use  by  several   hundred   percent.   Precipitation   most 


67 


markedl\-  reduces  water  requirements  when  it  occurs 
during  late  spring  and  early  fail  while  vegetation  is 
actively  growing. 

Other  factors  which  influence  per  capita  water  use 
include  personal  income,  cost  of  water,  degree  of  in- 
dustrialization, family  size,  type  of  community,  meter- 
ing water  delivered  to  individual  users,  and  system 
losses.  In  addition,  many  cities  are  undergoing  a  change 
in  unit  water  use  trends  as  their  residential  develop- 
ment patterns  change.  An  example  is  the  replacement 
of  older  single  family  dwellings  with  high-rise  apart- 
ment complexes;  this  usually  results  in  lower  per 
capita  water  use. 

Historic  rates  of  urban  water  use  are  determined 
by  sampling  as  many  individual  water  service  agen- 
cies as  can  be  found  with  reliable  water  production 
data.  The  per  capita  value  derived  for  each  agency  is 
weighted  according  to  population  served  to  determine 
the  proper  value  for  each  geographic  area  under  in- 
vestigation. 

Trends  in  per  capita  water  use  rates  provide  a  use- 
ful guide  in  predicting  future  unit  water  values, 
although  the  reliability  of  this  technique  diminishes 
the  further  ahead  one  looks.  The  1990  unit  values  de- 
rived for  calculating  the  total  urban  water  demand 
presented  in  this  report  are  principally  the  result  of 
e.xtrapolation  of  historic  trends.  Consideration  is  given 
to  possible  future  industrial  activity  and  the  charac- 
ter or  type  of  future  residential  development  to  mod- 
ify the  extrapolated  trends  for  estimating  year  2020 
unit  values. 

The  populous  San  Francisco  Bay  and  South  Coastal 
areas  have  established  rates  of  use  which  are  not  apt 
to  change  greatly  in  the  foreseeable  future  due  to  the 
relatively  small  impact  changes  in  new  residential  de- 
velopment and  new  industry  will  have  on  total  use. 
Unit  use  in  the  San  Francisco  Bay  area  is  still  increas- 
ing somewhat  but  data  from  the  South  Coastal  area 
reveal  a  leveling  off. 

Sacramento  Basin,  Delta-Central  Sierra,  San  Joaquin 
Basin,  and  Tulare  Basin  have  a  high  per  capita  water 


use  due  to  high  summertime  residential  requirements, 
high  water-using  industries,  and  mostly  flat-rate  resi- 
dential services.  Considering  the  current  high  use  and 
the  likelihood  of  more  extensive  recycling  of  indus- 
trial waste  water,  the  average  unit  use  should  remain 
relatively  constant.  Average  unit  use  in  Delta-Central 
Sierra  will  probably  show  a  decline  beyond  the  pres- 
ent because  increase  of  large  water  consuming  indus- 
tries is  not  keeping  pace  with  population  growth. 

Average  North  Coastal  per  capital  use  will  probably 
decline  as  the  high  water  use  in  pulp  and  paper  manu- 
facturing remains  level  and  population  continues  to 
grow. 

A  substantial  increase  in  average  unit  use  is  predicted 
for  North  Lahontan  area  as  a  reflection  of  recreational 
growth.  Per  capita  water  use  is  calculated  based  on 
resident  population  but  includes  the  water  used  by 
tourists.  Tourism  is  treated  similarly  to  industry  in 
computing  unit  use. 

As  would  be  expected,  the  desert  areas  have  a  high 
unit  rate  of  use  because  of  hot  and  dry  climatic  condi- 
tions throughout  the  year. 

A  detailed  discussion  and  analysis  of  historic  unit 
municipal  and  industrial  water  use  is  presented  in  the 
Department  of  Water  Resources  Bulletin  No.  166 
series.  Bulletin  No.  166-1,  "Municipal  and  Industrial 
Water  Use",  was  published  in  1968,  but  an  updated 
edition  is  being  prepared  and  will  be  published  soon. 
That  bulletin  should  be  referred  to  for  data  on  water 
deliveries  by  specific  agencies,  unit  rates  of  use  for 
specific  communities  and  other  geographic  areas,  and 
other  urban-related  water  use  information. 

Urban  applied  \\ater  demands  projected  for  1990 
and  2020  under  the  four  levels  of  alternative  popula- 
tion are  presented  by  major  hydrologic  areas  in  Table 
11,  along  with  1972  demands.  The  term  "applied 
water"  refers  to  the  total  quantity  produced  by  a 
water  service  agenc}-  and  delivered  to  its  customers, 
plus  all  losses  inherent  in  the  system  such  as  convey- 
ance leakage,  back-flushing  of  the  filter  system,  fire 
protection,  etc. 


1972  and  Projected  Urban  Applied  Water  Demand 
(1,000  acre-feet) 


North 
Coastal 

San 

Francisco 

Bay 

Central 
Coastal 

South 
Coastal 

Sacra- 
Basin 

Delta- 
Central 
Sierra 

San 

Joaquin 

Basin 

Tulare 
Basin 

North 
Lahontan 

South 
Lahontan 

Colorado 
Desert 

Total 

1972 

93 

104 
126 

102 

120 

101 
IH 

97 
100 

990 

1.480 
2.240 

1.460 
2.070 

1.430 
1.940 

1.340 
1,570 

181 

308 
569 

300 
516 

289 
473 

252 
318 

2.370 

3.130 
4.830 

3,050 
4.360 

2,980 
4.120 

2,670 
2,980 

470 

700 
1.040 

687 
968 

674 
908 

621 

702 

173 

251 

537 

247 
490 

239 
451 

219 

323 

192 

295 
548 

287 
485 

279 
451 

249 
307 

363 

493 

798 

479 
718 

471 
679 

441 

530 

23 

40 
68 

40 
59 

39 
54 

32 
35 

89 

154 
387 

139 
326 

136 

306 

108 
143 

99 

148 

275 

142 

24<i 

139 
230 

126 
173 

5,040 

'7,100 
11,400 

6,930 
10.400 

6  770 

Alurnalive  I 
1990... 

2020 

Alurnative  II 
1990 

2020 

AtUrnativt  III 

1990 

2020  ... 

9,7.111 

6.160 
7,170 

Munatm  If 

1990 

2020... 

68 


Lake  Merced  Golf  Course  In  San  Francisco 


Agricultural  Water  Demands 

At  the  present  time,  nearly  9  million  of  the  10.5 
million  acres  of  cultivated  lands  in  California  are  irri- 
gated. The  remaining  1.5  million  acres  are  dry-farmed, 
planted  primarily  to  small  grains  and  hay  which  derive 
their  water  solely  from  rainfall.  The  1972  total  applied 
\\  ater  for  irrigation  is  some  31.7  million  acre-feet.  The 
estimates  of  future  agricultural  applied  water  demands 
presented  in  this  bulletin  are  the  product  of  the  pro- 
jected acreage  of  each  irrigated  crop  and  the  appro- 
priate unit  values  of  applied  water. 

By  way  of  review,  the  four  alternative  levels  of 
future  agriculture  development  presented  in  Chapter 
III  were  premised  on  two  different  rates  of  national 
population  growth,  two  projections  of  foreign  trade, 
two  sets  of  projected  crop  yields,  a  single  projection 
of  per  capita  consumption  of  food  and  fiber,  and  a 
single  projection  of  the  state's  share  of  national  pro- 
duction. 


Alternotl 

ve  Future  Irr 
(1,000 

igated  Crop 

Acreages 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

1972 - 

9,070 
10,640 
12,130 

9,070 
10.150 
11.150 

9,070 
9,720 
10,330 

9,070 

1990__ .- 

9,510 

2020 

9,800 

While  the  actual  use  of  water  (evapotranspiration) 
is  primarily  a  physiological  function  of  the  crop,  the 
rate  of  water  application  (irrigation)  is  a  function  of 


many  variables,  some  unrelated  to  the  specific  crop 
in  question.  In  order  to  determine  the  amount  of 
applied  water  required  per  acre  of  each  crop  within 
an  investigation  area,  it  is  necessary  to  know  not  only 
the  methods  of  irrigation  but  also  those  factors  which 
affect  irrigation  practices.  This  is  important  because 
crop  culture,  soils,  climate,  water  availability,  and 
other  factors  vary  substantially  from  place  to  place 
within  California,  often  over  short  distances.  Some 
examples  of  the  wide  range  of  water  application  rates 
are  given  below: 


Crop 

Weighted  Average  .Annual  Unit  Applied  Water 
(AF/A) 

Tehama  County 

Kern  County 

Alfalfa 

3.6 
3.1 

2.7 

5.4 

4.2 

Deciduous  o 

3.7 

Within  each  of  these  areas  the  rates  vary  considera- 
bly. 

Results  of  in-depth  studies  of  water  use  rates  and 
much  of  the  collected  data  are  presented  in  the  De- 
partment's Bulletin  No.  1 1 3  series,  the  most  recent 
edition  being  Bulletin  No.  113-3,  "Vegetative  Water 
Use  in  California,  1974".  The  crop  unit  water  use 
values  used  in  calculating  agricultural  water  demands 
were  based  on  data  presented  in  Bulletin  No.  113-3. 
That  report  should  be  referred  to  for  more  detailed 
information  on  the  quantity  of  water  transpired  by 


69 


Several  irrigation  methods  used  in  California 


70 


plants  or  evaporated  from  soil  and  plant  surfaces  as 
a  result  of  irrigation  and  current  rates  of  water  applica- 
tion for  specific  crops  in  the  various  geographic  areas 
of  the  State. 

In  California,  irrigation  systems  range  from  wild 
flooding  to  the  most  advanced  found  any\\herc  in 
the  world.  The  wild-flooding  technique,  i.e.,  letting 
water  flow  randomly  downslope  from  a  network  of 
distribution  ditches,  is  still  used  today  in  some  of  the 
mountainous  areas  where  pasture  and  the  associated 
livestock  production  remain  the  principal  agricultural 
enterprise.  The  other  extreme  can  be  found  in  such 
places  as  San  Diego  County,  where  high  income  pro- 
ducing truck,  nursery,  and  semitropical  fruit  crops 
are  irrigated  with  expensive  water  by  highly  sophisti- 
cated and  expensive  systems,  including  drip  irrigation. 
At  the  present  time,  about  2  percent  of  the  State's 
total  irrigated  lands  are  irrigated  by  wild  flooding, 
about  17  percent  by  sprinklers,  and  most  of  the  re- 
mainder by  border,  basin,  or  furrow  systems. 

Howev^er,  as  is  true  for  nearly  all  phases  of  farm 
management  in  California,  there  are  significant  changes 
taking  place  in  irrigation  practices  throughout  the 
State,  even  in  some  of  the  long-established  agricultural 
areas  such  as  the  pasture-livestock  producing  moun- 
tainous areas  mentioned  in  the  previous  paragraph.  The 
need  to  increase  production  to  offset  ever-increasing 
costs  has  encouraged  eff'orts  to  spread  limited  water 
supplies  to  the  maximum  extent  possible.  Even  where 
water  availability  and  price  are  not  constraints,  irri- 
gation techniques  are  changing,  principally  as  a  result 
of  increased  labor  costs.  The  change  is  mainly  to 
sprinkler  systems  and  this  trend  seems  likely  to  con- 
tinue. 

The  water  application  efficiency  of  sprinkler  systems 
is  generally  greater  than  with  other  systems.  Sprinklers 
are  also  used  for  frost  control,  principally  on  grapes 
and  deciduous  orchard,  but  also  on  certain  truck 
crops.  The  heat  provided  by  the  relatively  warm 
water  and  the  heat  energy  released  as  it  changes  from 
the  liquid  state  to  ice  often  can  provide  just  enough 
protection.  The  same  system  can  provide  a  few  degrees 
of  cooling  during  periods  of  extreme  heat  which  can 
be  important  in  preserving  the  quality  of  some  varie- 
ties of  wine  grapes. 

A  new  "drip"  method  of  irrigation  has  recently 
been  initiated  w  ith  encouraging  results.  Drip  irrigation 
has  potential  for  significant  reduction  in  total  \\ater 
application  requirements  for  some  crops.  It  has  been 
defined  as  the  application  of  water  to  the  soil  at  a 
rate  sufficiently  slow  so  that  all  water  immediately 
enters  the  soil,  with  the  result  that  the  root  zone  is 
filled  but  onl\'  a  minimum  area  of  the  soil  surface  is 
wetted.  In  practice,  small  amounts  of  water  are  applied 
every  day  or  so,  depending  on  the  weather  and  stage 
of  plant  development,  through  one  to  six  emitters 
around  each  tree  or  vine,  or  along  the  full  length  of 
a  porous  hose  in  the  case  of  truck  crops. 


It  has  been  estimated  that  about  40,000  acres  are 
presently  irrigated  with  drippers  in  California.  Much 
of  this  is  in  San  Diego  County;  however,  the  system 
is  being  tried  in  other  locations  throughout  the  State. 
The  initial  system  cost  is  high;  although,  as  with  many 
sprinkler  systems,  operational  labor  costs  can  be  kept 
fairly  low.  How  widespread  the  future  use  of  this 
system  will  be  cannot  be  forecast  with  any  degree  of 
confidence  at  this  time.  Increased  use  should  reduce 
applied  water  requirements,  at  least  for  young  trees 
and  vines  and  many  truck  crops.  The  effects  of  salt 
buildup  in  the  soil  as  water  is  used  and  the  leaching 
requirements  need  careful  evaluation  to  reach  conclu- 
sions regarding  the  overall  water  requirements. 

In  selecting  the  unit  applied  water  values  for  this 
study,  consideration  was  given  to  those  crops  that 
could  be  expected  to  be  grown  on  new  irrigated  land, 
the  changes  in  cropping  pattern  that  would  likely 
take  place  on  existing  irrigated  land,  and  the  changes  in 


Drip  irrigotion  of  young  pistachio  nut  tree 


71 


farm  management  which  might  take  place  in  the  fu- 
ture. While  drip  irrigation  may  become  more  widely 
accepted,  it  is  concluded  that  the  major  change  in  the 
foreseeable  future  will  be  toward  a  greater  use  of 
sprinklers,  with  much  of  the  new  land  and  more  of 
the  presently  irrigated  land  under  sprinkler  irrigation 
by  year  2020. 


Agricultural  applied  water  demands  projected  for 
1990  and  2020  under  the  four  levels  of  alternative  fu- 
ture development  are  presented  by  major  hydrologic 
areas  in  Table  12,  along  with  1972  demands.  The  term 
"applied  water"  refers  to  the  quantities  of  water  that 
must  be  delivered  to  the  place  of  use,  such  as  a  farm 
headgate,  to  satisfy  the  irrigated  crop  requirements. 


Toble   12.      1972  and  Projected  Agricultural  Applied  Water  Demand 
(1,000  acre-feet) 


North 
Coastal 

San 

Francisco 

Bay 

Central 
Coastal 

South 
Coastal 

Sacra- 
Basin 

Delta- 
Central 
Sierra 

San 
Joaquin 
Basin 

Tulare 
Basin 

North 
Lahontan 

South 
Lahontan 

Colorado 
Desert 

Totals 

1972 

710 

720 
740 

720 
740 

710 
730 

710 
730 

250 

290 

330 

280 
320 

290 
310 

280 
280 

1.030 

1,240 
1.310 

1,200 
1,270 

1,190 
1,240 

1,200 
1,220 

920 

730 
530 

720 
510 

720 
520 

750 
520 

6,020 

7,940 
9,080 

7,540 
8,350 

7,050 
7,540 

6,960 
7,410 

2,470 

3,220 
3,700 

3,010 
3,540 

2,810 
3,250 

2.710 
3,020 

5,450 

6,620 
7,320 

6,390 
6.600 

6.040 
6.180 

5.750 
5.750 

10.890 

13.070 
14.870 

12.510 
13,720 

11,750 
12,360 

11,580 
11,750 

420 

430 
430 

430 
430 

430 
430 

400 
400 

310 

300 
250 

300 
250 

300 

250 

300 
250 

3,220 

3.320 
3,320 

3.320 
3,320 

3,320 
3,320 

3.320 
3.320 

31.700 

Alurnatite  I 
1990 

37,900 

2020 

Alurnatite  II 

1990 

2020.. 

Alurnatite  III 
1990 

41.900 

36,400 
39,000 

34,600 

2020 

36.100 

Alurnatite  IV 

1990 

34.000 

2020 

34.600 

Water  for  Power 

Water  resources  are  developed  and  managed  in 
many  ways  to  produce  energy  and  power.  Hydroelec- 
tric plants  use  the  force  of  falling  water  to  spin  tur- 
bines and  generators  to  produce  electricit>\  Thermal 
plants,  both  fossil  fuel  and  nuclear,  use  water  for  cool- 
ing. Geothermal  plants  may  either  produce  water  from 
deep  extractions  or  may  use  water  for  injection  into 
deep  heated  strata.  The  consumptive  use  of  water  for 
power  plant  cooling  is  discussed  in  this  section,  while 
nonconsumptive  uses  of  water  for  power  are  discussed 
later  in  this  chapter. 

About  90  percent  of  thermal  pow  er  plants  in  Cali- 
fornia presently  use  once-through  cooling  with  saline 
or  brackish  water.  In  1972,  there  were  about  a  dozen 
plants  using  an  estimated  25,000  acre-feet  of  fresh 
water  for  cooling  in  recirculating  systems.  In  addition, 
an  estimated  1.^,000  acre-feet  of  evaporation  is  caused 
b>'  two  plants  that  take  fresh  water  from  Sacramento- 
San  Joaquin  Delta  channels  for  once-through  cooling. 

A  number  of  assumptions  are  necessary  in  calculat- 
ing the  quantity'  of  cooling  water  needed  in  the  future 
b\-  thermal  power  plants.  A  simplified  heat  flow  is  il- 
lustrated in  Figure  14,  "Heat  Balance  Diagram".  This 
diagram  show  s  a  modern  fossil  fuel  power  plant  with 
an  efficiency  of  over  37  percent.  As  illustrated  by  this 
diagram,  when  the  plant  is  in  operation,  it  requires 
about  20  cubic  feet  per  second  (cfs)  to  provide  suffi- 
cient water  for  cooling  and  drift  loss.  Five  cubic  feet 


per  second  is  an  average  value  for  blowdown  which 
can  vary  considerably  depending  upon  the  quality  of 
the  makeup  \\ater.  These  plants,  however,  do  not  op- 
erate continuously  or  always  at  full  rated  output.  In 
1972  in  California,  the  average  capacity  factor  for 
thermal  plants  was  about  S6  percent. 

Cooling  water  requirements  must  include  an  allow- 
ance for  blowdown.  Blowdown  is  the  continuous  or 
intermittent  wasting  of  a  small  amount  of  the  circulat- 
ing cooling  water  to  limit  the  increase  in  the  concen- 
tration of  solids  in  the  water  due  to  evaporation.  A 
blowdown  of  \5  percent  was  assumed  for  the  calcu- 
lations of  cooling  water  requirements.  The  following 
factors  and  additional  assumptions  were  used: 


Nuclear  plants 

AF/Million  K\VH 

1990 

2.4 

2020      

1.4 

Gas  and  Oil  Plants 

1.42 

1990. 

1.27 

2020 

1.27 

As  presented  in  Chapter  III,  an  assumption  was  made 
that  either  one-third  or  tw  o-thirds  of  the  cooling  water 
demand  will  be  supplied  from  inland  water  sources. 
Combining  these  two  alternative  inland  siting  assump- 
tions with  high  and  low  projections  of  electricity  used, 


72 


AIR  FLOW  EVAPORATION 
AND  DRIFT  -  20  CFS 


SOURCE:    GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  CIRCULAR  703 


Figure   14.      Heat  Balance  Diagram 


Rancho  Seco  nuclear  power  plant  uses  fresh  water  for  cooling 


73 


Figure   15.      Projected  Demands  for  Fresh  Cooling  Water 


Figure  12,  gives  four  levels  of  cooling  water  demand. 
These  demands  are  presented  in  Figure  15. 

The  projected  cooling  water  requirements  for  the 
State  were  calculated  for  the  four  alternatives  using 
the  above  factors  and  the  generation  given  in  Table  8. 
The  results  distributed  to  hydrologic  study  areas  are 
shown  in  Table  13. 

Power  plant  cooling  water  demands  will  not  neces- 
sarily all  be  met  with  new  supplies  of  inland  fresh  wa- 
ter. Reclaimed  waste  water  is  a  prime  potential  source 
of  fresh  water  for  power  plant  cooling.  Also,  as  dis- 
cussed in  Chapter  III,  advancement  in  technology  may 
have  a  significant  impact  on  the  actual  water  demand. 
Some  factors  such  as  geothermal  and  possibly  solar 
energy  may  increase  the  demand.  On  the  other  hand, 
air  cooling,  use  of  gas-cooled  nuclear  plants  with  gas 
turbines  and  higher  efficiency,  are  more  likely  to  re- 
duce the  overall  demand.  While  little  effect  is  likely 
by  1990,  one  can  envisage  perhaps  one-third  of  the 
heat  being  discharged  directly  to  the  atmosphere  by 
2020,  with  an  attendant  reduction  of  one-third  in  the 
amount  of  cooling  water  required  from  that  shown  in 
Table  13. 

Another  aspect  to  consider  in  estimating  cooling 
water  demand  is  that  there  are  beneficial  uses  of  warm 
cooling  \\  ater  \\  hich  are  quite  likely  to  become  more 
common  as  the  cost  of  energy  increases.  The  tremen- 
dous amounts  of  waste  heat  produced  by  power  plants 
may  become  too  valuable  to  be  wasted.  Warm  cooling 
water  is  being  used  beneficially  in  other  areas  of  the 
world.  Future  uses  of  warm  cooling  water  which 
might  become  economical  in  this  country ,  include 
agricultural  uses  such  as  greenhouse  or  soil  heating, 
aquaculture,  and  mariculture. 


Table  13.     Power  Plant  Fresh  Water  Cooling  Req 
(1,000  acre-feet) 

uirements 

1972 

Alternali 

vc  futu 

es 

1990 

2020 

Hydrologic  study  area 

I 

11 

III 

IV 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

18 

0 
20 

0 

0 

0 

0* 

38 

30 
SO 

100 
0 
70 
10 

130 

30 
0 
75 
0 
35 
10 
70 

220 

30 
0 
50 
0 
20 
10 
40 

150 

30 
0 

40 
0 

20 
0 

40 

130 

80 
140 
150 
140 
240 
100 
250 

40 

60 
100 

70 
130 

50 
130 

580 

0 
50 
110 
0 
60 
0 
130 

350 

0 

Delta-Central  Sierra 

San  Joaquin  Basin 

Tulare  Lake  Basin 

South  Lahontan 

Colorado  Desert 

0 
70 

0 
60 

0 
80 

■^"'i-""' 

390 

1,100 

210 

•-feet  (included  with  indus' 


74 


Recreation,  Fish  and  Wildlife 

The  policy  of  the  State  recognizes  concern  for 
recreation,  fish,  and  wildlife  as  primary  purposes  in 
the  formulation  and  review  of  water  projects.  The 
California  Water  Code  sets  forth  clear  directives  that 
facilities  be  provided  for  public  recreational  purposes 
and  that  fisheries  and  wildlife  be  preserved  and  en- 
hanced to  the  maximum  justifiable  extent.  Federal  pol- 
ic\',  likewise,  places  emphasis  on  recreation,  fish  and 
wildlife.  The  polic\'  has  been  demonstrated  in  the 
passage  of  both  state  and  federal  legislation  on  wild 
and  scenic  rivers  and  environmental  qualit}',  and  in 
recent  decisions  b>-  the  State  Water  Resources  Con- 
trol Board. 

In  some  parts  of  the  State,  especially  the  North 
Coastal  area,  the  greatest  local  need  for  water  will  be 
for  the  purposes  of  recreation,  and  enhancement  of 
fisheries  and  wildlife.  Consequently,  much  of  the  fu- 
ture planning  efforts,  especially  for  Northern  Cali- 
fornia rivers,  would  be  directed  toward  developing 
water  supplies  to  meet  these  needs.  Recreation  and 
commercial  fishing  presently  comprise  the  second  and 
fourth  largest  income  producing  industries  in  the 
North  Coastal  area.  The  anadromous  fishery  resources 
are  extremely  significant  to  both  of  these  industries. 

In  other  areas  of  the  State,  such  as  the  northeastern 
counties  and  the  Sacramento-San  Joaquin  Valleys, 
water  is  nedeed  to  replace  depleted  wetlands  for  water- 
fowl. 

Sfreamflow  Maintenance 

The  ability  of  a  stream  to  support  fish  populations 
or  to  attract  and  support  recreation  activities  is  a 
function  of  its  flow  more  than  any  other  variable. 
Other  factors,  however,  are  important;  the  water  must 
be  of  satisfactory  quality  and  temperature,  and  the 
surrounding  terrain  and  vegetation  must  be  sufficiently 
attractive  to  provide  a  pleasing  environment. 

Dams  and  reservoirs,  properly  operated,  can  provide 
for  recreation  and  support  fisheries  by  storing  water 
during  periods  of  high  runoff  and  releasing  it  during 
the  summer  and  fall  seasons  of  low  flow.  This  pro- 
vides benefits  downstream  in  addition  to  the  benefits 
of  the  man-made  lake  itself. 

In  the  1930s,  an  ambitious  program  was  conducted 
in  the  high  Sierra  by  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service  and 
sportsmens  organizations  to  build  a  number  of  dams 
at  the  outlet  of  mountain  lakes  to  maintain  flows  in 
the  streams  below  them  to  support  trout  fisheries.  The 
Department  of  Fish  and  Game  and  the  Wildlife  Con- 
servation Board  continued  this  program  into  more 
recent  years.  This  State  program,  by  the  1960s,  had 
provided  about  50  dams  in  the  central  and  southern 


Sierra  Nevadas  storing  snowmelt  and  sending  more 
than  10,000  acre-feet  of  water  annually  into  more  than 
400  miles  of  trout  streams  during  late  summer  and 
fall  \\  hen  they  would  otherwise  be  dry  or  nearly  so. 

There  are  numerous  agreements  between  water  de- 
velopers and  other  parties  (often  the  State  Department 
of  Fish  and  Game)  that  specify  conditions  requiring 
maintenance  of  downstream  flows.  Often  such  require- 
ments are  made  a  part  of  water  rights  and  other 
agreements.  Table  14  lists  current  streamflow  amounts 
by  hydrologic  area  to  indicate  the  extent  of  this  im- 
portant phase  of  water  project  operations.  The  flows 
covered  by  agreements  and  by  the  terms  of  permits 
and  licenses  are  as  varied  as  the  watersheds  they  cover. 
Often,  it  is  intended  that  they  preserve,  or  mitigate 
damage  to,  existing  resources.  In  other  cases,  the  flows 
released  provide  enhanced  fisheries  and  recreational 
opportunities  downstream. 

Table    14.      Summary  of  Flow  Maintenance  Agreements 
(normal  year  flows) 


Hydrologic  study  ; 


North  Coastal 

Klamath  River  below  Iron  Gate  Dam 

Mad  River  below  Ruth  Dam 

Trinity  River  below  Lewiston  Dam 

San  Francisco  Bay 

Russian  River  below  Coyote  Dam 

Nicasio  Creek,  Marin  Co 

Scotty  Creek,  Sonoma  Co 

Central  Coastal 

San  Lorenzo  River.  Santa  Cruz  Co 

Uvas  Creek,  Santa  Clara  Co 

Chorro  Creek,  San  Luis  Obispo  Co 

Sacramento  Basin 

Pit-McCloud  Rivers  above  Shasta  Lake 

Clear  Creek  below  Whiskeytown  Dam 

Sacramento  River  below  Box  Canyon  Dam 

Sacramento  River  below  Keswick  Dam 

Feather  River  tributaries  above  Lake  Oroville 

Feather  River  below  Thermalito  Afterbay 

Yuba  and  Bear  Rivers  System 

Upper  American  River  and  tributaries 

American  River  below  Nimbus  Dam 

Delta-Central  Sierra 

Mokelumne  River  below  Camanche  Dam 

San  Joanuin  Basin 

San  Joaquin  River. . 

San  Joaquin  River  tributaries 

.Merced  River  below  Exchequer  Dam -.. 

Stanislaus  River  above  Meloncs  Reservoir 

Tuolumne  River  below  New  Don  Pedro  Dam 

Tulare  Basin 

Kern  River  below  Fairview  Diversion 

Kern  River  Hatchery  Supply 

Salmon  and  Corral  Creek  Diversions  in  Tulare  County 
Kings  River  below  Pine  Flat  Dam 

North  Lakontan 
Truckee  River 

South  Lahontan 


978 
236 
158 


75 


Some  of  the  kinds  of  uses  of  water  in  stream  and 
out  of  stream  are  illustrated  in  Figure  16. 

Wildlife  Habitat  Protection 

Water  projects  affect  wildlife  populations  by  inun- 
dating habitat  in  the  reservoir  area  and  by  changing 
downstream  river  habitat  as  a  result  of  the  changed 
flow  regime.  The  downstream  effect  can  be  either 
positive  or  negative  depending  on  whether  the  regu- 
lated flows  tend  to  increase  or  decrease  the  amount 
and  types  of  vegetation,  but  the  effect  of  reservoir 
inundation  is  almost  always  detrimental  to  deer  and 
other  terrestrial  animals. 

Wildlife  habitat  losses  can  sometimes  be  mitigated 
through  special  habitat  management  of  lands  near  the 
project  area.  However,  often  there  is  no  way  to  ade- 
quately compensate  for  lost  habitat  "on  site".  There- 
fore, it  is  necessary  either  to  experience  a  loss  or  ac- 
cept some  type  of  a  trade  off,  such  as  development  of 
equivalent  habitat  at  some  site  remote  from  the  project 
(off -site  mitigation). 

Riparian  areas  are  an  important  wildlife  habitat,  and 
a  significant  consideration  in  water  project  planning. 
Riparian  habitat  consists  of  native  vegetation  that  oc- 
curs along  permanent  and  intermittent  watercourses, 
sloughs,  floodplains,  overflow  channels,  drainage 
ditches,  and  lakes.  These  areas  are  dependent  upon 
periodic  flooding  for  their  existence.  According  to  the 


California  Fish  and  Wildlife  Plan*,  published  in  1966,  ' 
there  were  an  estimated  350,000  acres  of  riparian 
habitat  in  California.  This  is  less  than  one-half  of  one 
percent  of  the  total  land  area  in  the  State,  but  the  im- 
portance of  this  habitat  to  wildlife  far  exceeds  this 
proportion. 

Refuges  and  marsh  lands  arc  also  extremely  impor- 
tant to  the  maintenance  of  many  decreasing  wildlife 
species  in  California.  There  are  presently  20  waterfowl 
management  refuges  in  California  operated  b\'  state  or 
federal  agencies,  and  numerous  wetland  hunting  areas 
managed  by  private  organizations.  Some  of  these 
refuges  and  marshlands  are  located  in  water  deficient 
areas.  For  example,  the  Kern  and  Pixley  National 
Wildlife  Refuges  are  under-developed  because  of  the 
low  availability  and  high  cost  of  water. 

In  California,  which  is  the  main  wintering  ground 
for  waterfowl  in  the  Pacific  Fly^vay,  marsh  habitat  has 
dwindled  from  an  estimated  original  3.5  million  acres 
to  about  400,000  acres  presently.  The  demand  for 
waterfowl  hunting,  and  nonhunting  activities  such  as 
birdwatching,  photography,  and  sightseeing,  continues 
to  increase.  It  is  quite  evident  that  the  continual  loss 
of  living  space  for  wildlife  and  the  loss  of  ready  access 
to  public  lands  for  hunting  and  other  uses  are  major 
problems  facing  wildlife  management  agencies. 


Department  of   Fish   and   Game, 


76 


Water  and  people  just  naturally  go  togethe 


IN  STREAM 
(non-consumptive) 


OUT  OF  STREAM 

(consumptive) 


recreation 


wildlife 


Figure   16.     Water  Use  for  Recreation,  Fish  and  Wildlife 


Some  areas  of  the  State  have  marshland  for  which 
the  available  water  is  inadequate  for  effective  manage- 
ment for  wildlife.  Future  water  resources  planning  in 
these  areas  should  consider  the  possibility  of  providing 
additional  water  supplies  for  wildlife  habitat  enhance- 
ment on  these  marshlands.  Unlike  fish  spawning  hab- 
itat and  deer  habitat,  marshland  habitat  can  be  created 
on  almost  any  flat  land  within  the  Pacific  Flyway  if  an 
adequate  water  supply  is  available.  The  water  can  even 
be  of  relatively  poor  quality.  Therefore,  the  possible 
creation  of  additional  marshland  habitat  should  also  be 
given  consideration  in  future  water  resource  manage- 
ment. 

Fishery  Miiigation  and  Enhancement 

Maintenance  and  enhancement  of  fisheries  in  the 
streams  below  water  projects  is  of  primary  importance 
as  is  mitigation  for  lost  fishery  habitat  above  the 
project.  Several  fishery  mitigation  and  enhancement 
techniques  have  been  developed.  Some  have  proved  ef- 
fective while  others  have  not.  Following  is  a  brief 


description  of  some  of  the  more  noteworthy  tech- 
niques that  have  been  tried. 

Fish  hatcheries  are  the  oldest  and  perhaps  most 
successful  means  of  increasing  the  numbers  of  fish  in  a 
stream.  Experience  has  shown  that  most  hatcheries 
must  undergo  an  extended  shakedown  period  of  opera- 
tion before  they  become  highly  productive.  Among 
the  more  successful  hatcheries  are  the  State  Water 
Project  Hatchery  at  Oroville  on  the  Feather  River, 
the  Nimbus  Hatchery  on  the  American  River,  and  the 
Coleman  Hatchery  on  Butte  Creek,  a  tributary  of  the 
Sacramento  River.  It  appears  that  the  be.st  way  of 
maintaining  adequate  salmon  and  steelhead  runs  is  to 
construct  modern  fish  hatcheries  either  at  project  sites 
or  at  other  suitable  locations  having  water  of  proper 
quantity,  temperature,  and  quality. 

Rearing  ponds  offer  a  significant  potential  for  in- 
creasing production  of  silver  salmon  and  steelhead  at 
reasonable  costs,  provided  volunteers  can  be  found  to 
operate  and  maintain  them.  Otherwise,  their  costs  ap- 
proach that  of  a  hatchery.  Rearing  ponds  are  basically 
areas  into  which  hatchery  reared  fingerling  salmonids 


77 


Steeihead  fishing  on  the  lower  American  River 


are  introduced,  fed,  and  protected  until  they  are  ready 
to  migrate  to  the  ocean.  The  Humboldt  Bay  Fish 
Action  Council  is  operating  a  rearing  pond  on  Cochran 
Creek,  a  tributary  to  Humboldt  Bay.  A  run  of  silver 
salmon  has  been  reestablished  in  Freshwater  Creek  by 
planting  fish  reared  in  these  ponds. 

Artificial  spawning  channels,  another  method  of 
fishery  enhancement,  are  man-made  water  courses, 
usually  paralleling  a  natural  stream,  designed  specifi- 
cally to  provide  spawning  habitat  for  fish.  Although 
they  do  not  provide  a  habitat  suitable  for  juvenile 
steeihead  or  silver  salmon  whicli  remain  in  fresh  water 
for  at  least  one  year,  their  potential  for  enhancing  king 
salmon  runs  is  considered  quite  good. 

There  are  four  spawning  channels  in  California  that 
raise  king  salmon.  They  are  located  on  the  Merced, 
Mokelumne,  Sacramento,  and  Feather  Rivers.  The 
largest  of  these  facilities  is  the  |20  million  spawning 
channel  of  the  Bureau  of  Reclamation  on  the  Sacra- 
mento River  at  Red  Bluff,  which  was  completed  in 
1971  as  part  of  the  Tehama-Colusa  Canal  of  the  Cen- 
tral Valley  Project.  About  5,000  adult  king  salmon 
were  used  to  produce  the  initial  brood  stock.  The 
spawning  channel   is  expected   to   reach   its   ultimate 


capacity  of  40,000  adults  annually  by  1982. 

Applied  Water  Demands 

The  1972  and  projected  1990  and  2020  applied 
water  demands  for  recreation,  fish,  and  \\ildlife  are 
shown  in  Table  15.  The  values  represent  water  used 
in  fish  and  wildlife  management  areas  and  refuges,  and 

Table   15.     Applied  Water  Demands  for  Fish,  Wildlife  and 

Nonurban  Area  Recreation 

(1,000  acre-feet) 


1972 

Estin 

lated 

Hydroiogic  area 

1990 

2020 

323 
24 

2 

6 
125 

6 
91 
43 
11 

4 
20 

359 
37 
3 
19 

170 
7 
94 
68 
11 
16 
22 

362 

San  Francisco  Bay 

46 

23 

174 

Delta-Central  Sierra     

9 

95 

Tulare  Basin.              

70 

13 

22 

26 

Total 

555 

806 

846 

78 


the  out-of-stream  use  by  recreationists  in  park  areas 
removed  from  population  centers.  In  total,  the  con- 
sumptive uses  of  water  for  these  purposes  amounts  to 
only  about  two  percent  of  the  State's  projected  2020 
total  water  demands.  However,  in  the  specific  man- 


agement areas  this  water  is  essential  to  maintenance  of 
the  present  fish  and  wildlife  populations.  Not  included 
in  the  projections  is  the  water  required  for  fish  or 
wildlife  enhancement,  and  instream  requirements  for 
fish,  wildlife,  and  recreation. 


Farm  ditches  can  be  good  habitat  for  wildlife 


79 


Other  Water  Demand  Considerations 

This  section  discusses  those  aspects  of  water  man- 
agement for  which  demands  cannot  be  evaluated 
quantitatively.  This  is  not  to  say  that  these  considera- 
tions (environmental  enhancement,  water  quality  con- 
trol, flood  control,  and  navigation)  are  not  impor- 
tant— for,  indeed,  they  are  important.  However,  their 
water  use  cannot  be  identified  separately,  does  not 
involve  consumption  of  water,  and  can  be  satisfied 
generally  by  water  controlled,  conserved,  and  put  to 
use  for  the  other  beneficial  purposes  described  earlier 
in  this  chapter. 

Environmental  Enhancement 

Environment  and  environmental  concern  are  at  the 
forefront  in  the  public  conscience.  While  the  word 
"environment"  is  all-embracing,  being  the  total  com- 
plex of  social  and  cultural  conditions  affecting  an  in- 
dividual or  community,  its  consideration  in  this  chap- 
ter is  limited  to  its  relation  to  water  and  water 
management. 

In  a  large  sense,  water  is  environment.  People  have 
an  inherent  aflinity  for  nearness  to  water  in  pursuing 
their  various  outdoor  recreational  and  aesthetic  en- 
deavors. More  than  half  of  the  total  outdoors  recrea- 
tion in  California  is  water  associated,  and  the  majority 
of  this  recreation  is  enjoyed  on  or  near  manmade 
lakes  (reservoirs)  and  streams  whose  flows  are  aug- 
mented by  releases  from  upstream  reservoirs. 

Experience  has  demonstrated  that  water  projects, 
including  both  reservoirs  and  streams  with  augmented 
flows  from  reservoir  releases,  have  provided  and  con- 
tinue to  provide  substantial  environmental  quality, 
even  though  the  facilities  were  not  necessarily  planned 
with  that  purpose  in  mind.  The  reason  is  that  environ- 
mental enjoyment  is  compatible  with  many  other 
project  purposes. 

Environmental  quality  at  existing  projects  can  be 
enhanced  by  changes  in  policy  of  use.  For  example, 
measures  are  being  taken  to  open  up  terminal  storage 
reservoirs  for  public  use,  a  move  made  possible  by 
increasing  the  degree  of  treatment  of  the  water  sup- 
plies before  delivery  to  users.  The  East  Bay  Municipal 
Utility  District  has  recently  opened  some  of  its  water 
storage  areas  to  at  least  limited  public  use  and  plans 
to  open  other  areas  in  the  future.  Similar  measures  are 
underway  by  the  Metropolitan  Water  District  of 
Southern  California.  With  sufficient  public  interest  and 
support,  other  existing  water  resource  reservoirs  in 
the  vicinity  of  major  metropolitan  areas  could  prob- 
ably also  be  opened  up  to  full  or  limited  public  use. 

The  reservoirs  of  the  State  Water  Project  in  South- 
ern California  have  been  planned  to  maximize  public 
use.  This  provides  fishing  and  recreational  lakes  near 
large  population  concentrations  in  areas  that  previ- 
ously were  deficient  in  fresh  water  recreation  oppor- 
tunity.   Oroville   and    San   Luis   Reservoirs,    primary 


storage  facilities  of  the  State  Water  Project  in  north- 
ern and  central  California,  were  planned  and  con- 
structed with  recreation  as  a  primary  purpose.  A 
number  of  fishing  access  areas  have  been  provided 
along  the  California  Aqueduct.  The  Peripheral  Canal 
is  being  planned  with  environmental  quality  as  an 
important  purpose. 

Current  trends  in  the  public  demand  for  stream 
parkways  are  demonstrated  by  the  local  development 
and  preservation  of  the  scenic  attributes  of  Los  Gatos 
Creek  in  Santa  Clara  County,  Big  Chico  Creek  in  the 
city  of  Chico  and  the  American  River  in  Sacramento 
County.  Such  demands  have  also  resulted  in  studies 
currently  in  progress  to  find  ways  to  preserve  the 
flood  control  integrity  of  the  levee  systems  of  the 
Sacramento-San  Joaquin  Delta  and  the  Sacramento 
and  American  Rivers  while  preserving  as  much  vege- 
tation as  possible. 

Stream  channels  used  for  water  supply  conveyance, 
such  as  Sacramento  River  and  the  lower  Feather  and 
American  Rivers,  can  be  a  scenic  attraction,  as  wxll 
as  providing  benefits  for  fisheries  and  recreation. 

It  has  been  necessary  to  revise  the  concept  of  pro- 
posed stream  channelization  flood  control  projects  as 
the  public  appears  to  be  willing  to  accept  the  conse- 
quence of  occasional  flooding  to  the  alternative  of 
altering  the  character  of  the  natural  waterway  and 
removing  the  native  vegetation.  An  example  of  this 
occurred  in  Ross  Valley,  Marin  County,  where  op- 
position of  the  local  residents  to  construction  of  a 
stream  channelization  project  has  delayed  its  com- 
pletion. 

The  current  controversy  regarding  New  Melones 
Dam  on  the  Stanislaus  River  is  another  interesting  e.x- 
ample.  Part  of  the  river  is  recognized  as  an  outstand- 
ing white  water  stream  and  New  Melones  Dam  has 
been  strongly  oppposed  because  the  reservoir  would 
inundate  the  white  water  reach.  Two  major  reser- 
voirs, Donnels,  and  Beardsley,  and  several  smaller  stor- 
age facilities  provide  summer  flows  in  the  white  water 
reach,  and  are  almost  solely  responsible  for  the  ex- 
istence of  those  flows. 

The  Eel  River  as  a  wild  and  scenic  river  contrasts 
sharply  with  the  Stanislaus,  in  that  there  is  essentially 
no  storage  on  the  Eel,  other  than  Lake  Pillsbury  water 
which  is  diverted  out  of  the  Eel  River  water- 
shed. Accordingly,  the  Eel  has  extremely  high  flows 
in  the  winter  and  very  low  flows  during  the  summer. 
A  most  vivid  example  of  such  streamflow  extremes 
occurred  on  the  Eel  River  in  the  late  summer  and 
early  winter  of  1964.  The  mean  daily  flow  of  the  Eel 
River  at  Alderpoint  was  at  an  historical  low  of  10 
cubic  feet  per  second  in  September  of  that  year,  but 
just  three  months  later  during  the  December  1964 
flood,  the  flow  of  the  river  at  this  location  reached 
the  record  instantaneous  peak  of  over  560,000  cfs  with 
the  mean  daily  flow  at  434,000  cfs.  While  this  is  indeed 
an   "extreme"    among   streamflow    extremes,    it    does 


80 


serve  to  illustrate  the  wide  fluctuations  in  seasonal 
flows  in  this  essentially  unregulated  river. 

At  just  about  the  time  the  summer  water-oriented 
recreational  season  commences,  i.e.,  from  the  first  week 
in  June  and  through  mid-September,  a  rapid  recession 
in  streamflow  occurs  for  most  of  California's  rivers. 
Potentially  enjoyable  in-stream  recreational  uses  dur- 
ing the  peak  summer  recreational  season  are  out  of 
phase  with  natural  streamflow  conditions  for  many 
leisure  time  pursuits  as  well  as  for  the  sustenance  of 
fish. 

Prudent  water  resources  management  may  prove  it 
desirable  in  the  future  to  enhance  the  human  and 
natural  environment  associated  with  many  rivers.  This 
may  require  new  or  additional  measures  for  attenua- 
tion of  damaging  high  flows  and  for  augmentation  of 
inhibiting  low  flows  or  both.  On  the  other  hand,  some 
streams  may  be  best  left  alone,  consistent  with  the 
well-being  of  the  people  residing  in  their  localities. 

Wild  and  scenic  rivers  are  considered  of  high  nat- 
ural environmental  value  by  many  people.  The  value 
of  wild  and  scenic  rivers  is  clearly  evident,  as  nearly 
everyone  derives  enjoyment  from  such  streams, 
whether  it  be  camping,  boating,  rafting,  hiking,  pic- 


nicking, or  merely  contemplating  their  beauty. 

The  recent  and  current  move  toward  wild  and 
scenic  rivers  is  manifested  in  enactment  of  the  Cali- 
fornia Wild  and  Scenic  Rivers  Act,  a  number  of  law- 
suits, and  an  initiative  to  include  the  Stanislaus  River 
within  the  wild  and  scenic  rivers  system.  All  of  these 
actions  have  been  undertaken  on  the  basic  premise  that 
dams  are  destructive  of  the  natural  environment.  Yet, 
the  fact  is  that  the  "premium"  wild  and  scenic  rivers 
which  are  most  popular  are  generally  those  with 
■reservoirs  upstream,  from  which  water  releases  create 
the  premium  conditions. 

The  Tuolumne  River  is  a  good  example  of  a  prem- 
ium white  water  stream  where  upstream  storage  con- 
tributes substantially  to  the  unique  white  water  con- 
dition. In  an  appendix  to  the  Resources  Agency 
report,  "California's  Protected  Waterways  Plan", 
February  1971,  the  Sierra  Club  describes  the  18-mile 
reach  of  the  Tuolumne  from  Lumsden  Campground 
to  Wards  Ferry  Bridge  as 

".   .   .  having  received  the  distinction  of  being 

considered  the  finest  and  longest  stretch  of  white 

water  in  the  State,  and  probably  in  the  world." 

(pg-  F-53) 


Percolation  ponds  olong  Los  Gotos  Creek 


81 


Cherry  Valley  and  O'Shaunessy  Reservoirs  and  Lake 
Eleanor  are  located  upstream  of  that  reach  and  release 
summer  flows  to  be  re-regulated  in  downstream  New- 
Don  Pedro  Reservoir.  Without  those  facilities  there 
would  be  few  days  of  white  water  rafting  on  the 
Tuolumne  River. 

Wafer  Qualify  Confrol 

Water  quality  and  water  quantity  are  inseparable, 
and  together,  determine  the  suitability  of  water  for 
beneficial  uses,  the  objective  toward  which  water 
quality  control  or  protection  is  directed. 

The  intensified  and  competing  uses  of  the  Nation's 
water  resources,  both  as  a  source  of  supply  and  as  a 
conveyance  system  for  disposal  of  wastes,  has  prop- 
erty caused  the  Federal  Government  and  a  number  of 
state  governments  to  identify  existing  and  potential 
problems  and  to  take  action  toward  their  correction 
or  prevention.  Water  quality  occupies  center  stage  at 
the  present  time.  The  need  for  protection  of  the 
quality  of  water  to  enable  full  and  proper  use  of  the 
water  resources  is  receiving  more  and  more  public 
attention. 


Goals,  Policies,  and  Progrojiis.  At  the  federal  level 
PL  92-500,  administered  by  the  Environmental  Pro- 
tection Agency,  establishes  national  goals  and  policy, 
sets  forth  comprehensive  programs  for  water  pollution 
control,  provides  grants  for  construction  of  treatment 
works,  sets  standards  and  provides  for  enforcement. 

At  the  state  level,  polic\'  and  programs  are  promul- 
gated by  the  State  Water  Resources  Control  Board 
and  implemented  with  the  assistance  of  the  regional 
water  quality  control  boards.  The  basic  water  quality 
authority  for  the  State  Board  is  set  forth  in  the  Porter- 
Cologne  Water  Quality  Control  Act.  The  policy 
clearly  indicates  the  need  to  relate  water  quality  to 
water  uses  and  to  reflect  all  values  in  regulations  de- 
signed to  attain  the  highest  reasonable  quality. 

Federal  and  state  goals  and  policies  are  discussed 
in  more  detail  in  Chapter  V. 

Demands  for  Water  Quality  Control.  The  demand 
for  water  quality  can  be  demonstrated  by  the  extent 
of  the  State  Water  Resources  Control  Board's  planning 
program  for  water  quality  control  which  is  discussed 
in  some  detail  in  Chapter  V.  This  discussion  also  cov- 
ers the  major  water  quality  problems  in  each  of  the  16 


Water  quality  protection  through  evaporation  of  toxic  waste  Dow  Chemical  Co.  pfiofo 


82 


basins.  Figure  4.  Another  indicadon  of  the  demand  is 
the  amount  of  funds  involved.  PL  92-500  includes 
authorization  for  18  billion  dollars  for  the  period 
July  1,  1972,  to  June  30,  1975  for  treatment  works  for 
municipal  and  industrial  waste  waters.  The  State  of 
California  through  two  separate  referendums  in  1970 
and  1974  has  made  available  |500  million  from  bonds 
under  the  Clean  Water  Grant  Program.  For  the 
1974-75  fiscal  year  the  State  Water  Resources  Control 
Board's  list  of  clean  water  grant  priorities  covers 
projects  that  total  over  $2 1/.  billion.  The  cost  sharing 
formula  for  these  grants  for  control  of  pollution  from 
municipal  wastes  is  75  percent  federal,  12/2  percent 
state  and  121/  percent  local. 

Water  supplies  for  improvement  and  maintenance 
of  water  quality  are  to  be  provided  from  the  New 
Mclones  Project  for  the  lower  Stanislaus  River  and 
San  Joaquin  River.  These  specific  releases  will  be 
available  for  downstream  use  in  the  Delta.  Decision 
1379  of  the  State  Water  Resources  Control  Board 
calls  for  certain  water  quality  conditions  in  the  Sacra- 
mento-San Joaquin  Delta  which  require  release  of 
stored  water  during  periods  of  natural  low  inflow  to 
the  Delta.  These  demands  are  reflected  in  computa- 
tions of  the  water  supplies  available  for  diversion  from 
the  Delta. 

Flood  Confrol 

One  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  to  translate  trends 
discussed  in  the  previous  chapter  into  projected  de- 
mands for  water  service.  Quantified  demands  for  fu- 
ture state  and  federal  flood  control  services  cannot 
easily  be  calculated.  The  basis  for  payment  for  these 
services  is  changing,  leading  to  uncertainty  as  to  avail- 
abilitv  of  funds  for  construction.  In  the  past,  the  direct 
user  of  flood  control  service  has  not  been  required  to 
pay  a  significant  part  of  the  construction  cost  since 
national  and  state  polic\-  provided  flood  control  in  the 
interest  of  tlie  econoni>-  and  health  and  \\  clfare  of  the 
people.  It  can  be  expected  that  damages  to  future  de- 
velopment will  increase  at  a  slower  rate  if  tlie  recent 
measures  to  keep  damage-prone  development  out  of 
floodplains  continue  and  ordinances  are  rigorously 
enforced. 

Residual  Dmiiages  and  Flood  Categories.  Residual 
flood  damages  are  the  damages  that  occur  despite  the 
extensive  flood  control  measures  that  have  been  taken 
by  federal,  state,  and  local  agencies.  In  the  last  20  years, 
they  have  occurred  in  the  State  at  an  average  yearly 
amount  in  excess  of  150  million. 

Residual  flood  damages  have  been  classified  into  six 
categories  for  this  report  as  to  the  physical  situation 
that  propagates  the  occurrences.  They  are:  (1)  nar- 
row floodplains  in  mountains  and  foothills — particu- 
larly Northern  California,  the  eastern  side  of  the  south- 
ern San  Joacjuin  Valley  and  the  south  coastal  area;  (2) 
areas  "protected"  by  substandard  levees — or  receiving 


less  than  an  acceptable  standard  of  protection  befitting 
the  situation;  (3)  water-course  encroachments  down- 
stream from  reservoirs  which  prohibit  design  opera- 
tion for  flood  control  without  damage  occurring — ex- 
amples are  Shasta  Reservoir  on  Sacramento  River,  Suc- 
cess Reservoir  on  Tule  River,  and  Prado  Dam  on 
Santa  Ana  River;  (4)  areas  subject  to  flash  floods  such 
as  the  southern  deserts;  (5)  small  urban  areas;  and  (6) 
foothill  and  mountain  canyon  alluvial  cones  below 
areas  subject  to  wild  fires  and  subsequent  heavy  rains 
— principally  in  the  south  coastal  area. 

Major  Problem  Areas.  It  is  beyond  the  intent  of 
this  report  to  discuss  all  the  many  flood  problems  fac- 
ing Californians.  However,  five  problems  have  been 
included  as  representing  such  a  potential  magnitude  of 
damages  and/or  threat  to  life  that  they  must  be  con- 
sidered significant. 

The  Santa  Ana  River  Basin  floodplain  in  Orange 
County  has  experienced  rapid  transformation  from  a 
predominant!)'  agricultural  area  to  a  highly  urbanized 
area.  The  flood  problem  to  this  area  stems  principally 
from  category  2  above  but  also  relates  to  a  lesser  de- 
gree to  category  3  as  indicated  above. 

Western  Riverside  and  San  Bernardino  counties,  up- 
stream from  Orange  County,  have  undergone  urban- 
ization at  an  unprecedented  rate.  This  has  caused  an 
increase  in  rapidit\'  and  quantities  of  runoflF  from  the 
upper  watershed  and  has  thus  decreased  the  degree  of 
protection  afforded  by  Prado  Reservoir — the  major 
component  of  the  Orange  County  flood  control  works. 
Consequently,  what  was  thought,  in  the  1930s,  would 
provide  protection  from  a  flood  reasonably  expected 
to  occur  under  anticipated  future  devleopment  of  the 
\\  atershed,  now  provides  protection  from  the  70-year 
return  frequency  flood.  With  a  flood  of  this  magnitude 
project  design  releases  will  cause  damages  estimated 
at  115  million  due  to  downstream  encroachments. 
Based  on  today's  hydrology  criteria,  the  standard  de- 
sign storm  against  which  protection  would  be  pro- 
vided for  this  area  would  cause  about  $3  billion  dam- 
ages and  100,000  acres  would  be  inundated. 

There  is  need  for  structural  measures  to  provide  a 
high  standard  of  protection.  Flood  insurance  can  help 
defray  personal  losses  in  an  interim  period,  but  it 
would  accomplish  notiiing  toward  preventing  physical 
damages. 

At  the  otiier  end  of  the  State  in  the  North  Coast 
lies  the  Eel  River  Basin.  This  is  a  rural  area  of  3,600 
square  miles.  The  economy  is  based  principally  on 
logging,  recreation  and  limited  agriculture.  Because 
of  the  steep  topography  and  the  nature  of  the  area's 
economy,  development  is  primarily  in  the  narrow 
floodplains,  which  characteristically  experience  rapid 
rising,  high  velocity  floods  of  major  consequences 
every  few  \  ears.  Such  floods  not  onl\'  exert  a  dispro- 
portionate impact  on  tiie  economy  but  create  a  very 
real  and  high  risk  to  human  life.  This  type  of  conse- 
(juence  relates  to  catcgor\-  1  areas. 


83 


Structures  such  as  levees  would  be  the  only  solution 
to  allow  maximum  use  of  the  floodplain.  But  levees 
alone  cannot  be  justified  under  present  economic  de- 
sign criteria  and  state  statutes  prohibit  flood  control 
storage  projects  that  could  be  coordinated  with  levee 
protection.  The  only  choices  available  are  seasonal  oc- 
cupancy in  some  reaches,  flood  proofing  where  hy- 
draulic conditions  permit  in  others,  and  continual  use 
of  the  existing  flood  warning  procedures  throughout 
the  river  system.  These  would  minimize  but  not  elimi- 
nate damages. 

The  Sacramento-San  Joaquin  Delta  has  a  flood  prob- 
lem of  categoiry  2.  The  problem  stems  from  the  area's 
genesis — an  area  of  some  50  islands  reclaiming  an  ag- 
gregated 700,000  acres  of  intensely  farmed,  rich,  or- 
ganic peat  soil.  Much  of  the  area  lying  at  or  belo^\■ 
sea  level  is  protected  by  levees,  many  constructed  with 
local  material  and  on  unstable  foundations.  A  large 
percentage  of  these  levees  arc  substandard.  The  islands 
are  compacting,  oxidizing,  and  eroding,  causing  in- 
creasing hydraulic  pressure  on  the  subsiding  land.  This 
coupled  with  wave  wash  when  certain  wind  conditions 
prevail,  especially  during  high  tides,  poses  a  constant 
flood  threat  to  the  Delta. 

Average  annual  flood  damages  total  14.5  million.  To 
protect   and   preserve  the   Delta   will   require   an  im- 


proved levee  system  and  the  initiation  of  certain  flood 
proofing  techniques  for  an\-  additional  urban  devel- 
opment. 

The  Sacramento  River  is  the  principal  stream  in 
California,  accounting  for  30  percent  of  the  runoff 
in  the  State.  It  is  an  alluvial  stream  with  meandering 
characteristics.  In  the  reaches  between  Shasta  Dam 
and  the  start  of  the  Sacramento  River  Project  levees 
near  Ord  Ferry,  significant  bank  undercutting  and 
erosion  are  occurring. 

Besides  destroying  valuable  land  and  causing  other 
costly  property  losses,  the  erosion  threatens  to  cut 
off  oxbows  in  the  river  which  disrupts  the  hydraulic 
energy  balance.  A  chain  reaction  then  occurs  both  up 
and  down  stream.  Although  not  occurring  in  any  one 
flood  or  any  one  year,  this  chain  reaction  will  even- 
tually cause  additional  problems  if  left  unattended. 

Local  interests  claim  that  the  regulated  flows  from 
upstream  reservoirs  are  responsible  for  more  serious 
erosion  problems  than  would  occur  under  natural 
conditions  and  that  the  cost  to  provide  suitable  bank 
protection  is  beyond  their  capability. 

Another  factor  in  recent  years  is  the  increased  boat 
use  by  recreationists.  The  boats'  wave  wash  adds  to 
the  bank  sloughing  problem. 


u   conlinuing   pfobi 


84 


The  erosion  and  sloughing  will  require  bank  sta- 
bilization measures.  These  measures  could  conflict  with 
the  characteristics  of  the  river  that  make  it  a  scenic 
attraction,  a  haven  for  wildlife  and  a  popular  boating 
and  recreation  stream. 

The  last  problem  to  be  discussed  lies  in  Santa 
Clara  County.  It  results  from  a  phenomenal  growth  in 
the  floodplain  and  a  local  self-help  flood  control  pro- 
gram that  lacked  the  financial  capabilities  to  provide 
the  high  degree  of  protection  urban  development  de- 
mands or  zoning  regulations  to  limit  growth  in 
threatened  areas. 

Santa  Clara  County  was  a  predominantly  agricul- 
tural area  in  1950.  Its  population  doubled  bet\veen 
1950  and  1960  and  has  nearly  doubled  again.  The 
Santa  Clara  Valley  floodplain  is  transversed  by  two 
principal  water  courses.  Guadalupe  River  and  Coyote 
Creek  flow  from  south  to  north  into  the  southern 
tip  of  San  Francisco  Bay.  Should  the  Valley  experience 
a  standard  project  flood,  an  estimated  SI 00  million  in 
damages  would  result  and  about  38,000  acres  would  be 
inundated.  The  principal  urban  area — City  of  San  Jose 
— would  be  particularly  vulnerable  to  this  flood. 

To  provide  protection  against  the  1 00-year  flood 
which  is  compatible  with  the  National  Flood  Insur- 
ance Act,  161  million  would  be  required.  It  is  esti- 
mated damages  for  this  frequency  flood  would  be 
about  150  million. 

The  local  people  in  attempting  to  alleviate  the  more 
frequent  flood  problems  with  project  works  have 
essentially  painted  themselves  into  a  corner.  By  pro- 
viding limited  protection  with  the  higher  and  more 
frequent  economic  benefits,  the  area  has  been  cut  off 
from  federal  funds.  Under  federal  criteria,  an  im- 
proxed  level  of  protection  could  not  be  justified  in  the 
studies  that  have  been  completed.  Yet  flood  protection 
is  needed  now.  At  the  present  tax  rate,  on  a  pay-as- 
you-go  basis,  it  w  ill  require  40  more  years  to  complete 
the  flood  control  works  to  provide  100  year  flood 
protection. 

In  Chapter  V^  present  ongoing  activities  and  future 
flood  control  activities  are  considered  in  regard  to 
satisfying  unmet  needs  such  as  the  problems  just  dis- 
cussed. 

Energy  Generation 

An  earlier  section  in  this  chapter,  titled  "Water  for 
Power",  discussed  the  demands  for  consumptive  use  of 
water  for  cooling  thermal  power  plants.  This  section 
on  energy  discusses  other  nonconsumptive  aspects  of 
water  use  and  energy  generation. 

Hydroelectric  Energy.  Conventional  hydroelectric 
energy  developments  use  the  force  of  falling  water 
to  spin  turbines  and  generators  to  produce  electric 
energy.  Pumped  storage  type  hydroelectric  develop- 
ments use  a  power  plant  situated  between  an  upper 


Figure   17.      Pumped  Storage  Sites  Under  Consideration 


85 


IMPEfVIAL 
•  VALLEY 


Figure   18.      Geothermal  Resource  Areas 


and  a  lower  reservoir.  A  pump-turbine  turns  a  gen- 
erator to  generate  electricit)'  during  daily  peak  periods 
of  demand  as  water  is  released  from  the  upper  reser\oir 
to  the  lower  reservoir.  The  pump  turbine  is  then  re- 
versed for  pumping  water  back  to  the  upper  reservoir, 
using  energy  from  thermal  power  plants  when  it  is 
not  needed  by  consumers.  The  addition  of  pumped 
storage  to  a  conventional  hydroelectric  development 
creates  the  ability  to  produce  more  power  on  peak 
when  it  is  most  valuable. 

In  March  1974.  the  Department  of  Water  Re- 
sources published  Bulletin  No.  194,  a  report  of  "Hy- 
droelectric Energy  Potential  in  California".  This  re- 
port presented  an  inventory  of  existing  and  potential 
hydroelectric  developments  in  California.  Its  purpose 
was  to  provide  an  overview  of  hydroelectric  energy 
potential  remaining  in  California  and  to  identify  those 
developments  where  additional  analysis  may  be  war- 
ranted. The  report  indicates  that  prompt  action  could 
increase  the  hydroelectric  energy  output  of  California 
about  30  percent  by  1990.  An  additional  significant 
amount  of  potential  exists  but  its  development  may 
never  be  realized  because  of  major  engineering  prob- 
lems, wild  and  scenic  river  systems,  and  adverse  effects 
on  fisheries.  Even  if  this  30  percent  expansion  is 
achieved  most  of  the  expected  future  growth  in  elec- 
trical energy  requirements  will  have  to  be  met  by 
other  sources,  such  as  nuclear  and  fossil  fueled  steam 
plants.  Bulletin  Xo.  194  did  not  consider  pumped 
storage    developments. 

Thermal  plants  supply  low-cost  base  load  energy, 
but  they  are  not  well  suited  to  meeting  peaking  re- 
quirements. With  the  future  emphasis  on  nuclear 
po\\  er  plants  and  their  associated  lower  fuel  costs,  the 
capability  of  meeting  the  daily  peak  power  demands 
from  hydroelectric  installations  will  tend  to  favor 
pumped  storage  developments.  A  pumped  storage  in- 
stallation will  increase  the  installed  capacity  of  an 
electrical  supply  system,  and  its  quick  response  and 
generally  superior  operating  flexibilit\-  make  it  ideal 
for  operation  during  peak  load  periods  and  for  system 
reserve  service.  Some  of  the  more  notable  sites  cur- 
rently under  consideration  for  pumped  storage  in- 
stallations are  shown  on  Figure  17. 

An  important  factor  for  single-purpose  pumped 
storage  projects  is  their  overall  energ\-  loss.  Losses  of 
energy  due  to  friction  inevitably  occur  during  both 
the  pumping  and  generating  operations.  The  result  is 
thiit  pumped  storage  projects  consume  more  energy 
during  off-peak  periods  than  they  generate  on-peak, 
and  therefore  do  not  add  energy  to  an  electrical  sys- 
tem. Their  primar\-  value  is  the  provision  of  addi- 
tional generating  capacity  and  energy  to  a  system  dur- 
ing periods  of  peak  demand.  If  the  current  delays  in 
developing  large  nuclear  power  plants  are  overcome 
and  these  nuclear  power  plants  begin  to  predominate 
the  overall  electric  power  .system,  there  will  probably 
follow  a  trend  towards  pumped  storage  developments 


86 


to  meet  peaking  requirements. 

While  the  generation  of  hydroelectric  energy  does 
not  consume  water  except  for  associated  reservoir 
evaporation,  use  of  available  water  resources  to  gen- 
erate smog-free  electrical  energy  will  continue  to  be 
an  important  function  of  water  projects.  The  demand 
for  energy  could  have  significant  inrtuence  on  which 
projects  are  built  and  when  they  are  built. 

Geothermal  Energy.  Geothermal  resources  are  de- 
fined as  the  natural  heat  of  the  earth  and  all  minerals 
and  solutions  obtained  from  naturally  heated  fluids, 
(brines,  associated  gases,  and  steam)  found  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  earth.  Oil,  hydrocarbon  gas,  and 
other  hydrocarbon  substances  are  excluded  from  this 
definition.  Geothermal  energy  occurs  in  three  prin- 
cipal forms:  (1)  superheated  steam,  (2)  superheated 
water,  and  (3)  rock  heat  at  depth. 

Geothermal  energy  has  been  used  to  generate  elec- 
tricity for  many  years.  In  California,  three  locations 
shown  on  Figure  18  have  been  identified  as  either 
proven  or  potential  geothermal  power  sites.  They  are 
The  Geysers,  near  Cloverdale  in  Sonoma  County;  the 
Mono  Lake  area  in  Mono  County;  and  the  southern 
Imperial  Valley. 


At  The  Geysers,  superheated  steam  has  been  pro- 
duced from  wells  to  generate  electricity  commercially 
since  1960.  From  the  first  unit,  with  a  capacity  of 
12,500  kilowatts  (KW),  energy  production  has  been 
progressively  increased  to  the  present  capacity  of 
396,000  KW.  Current  plans  are  to  install  additional 
equipment  to  increase  the  capacity  by  110,000  KW 
each  year  until  the  field  reaches  an  estimated  maximum 
capacity  of  over  one  million  KW.  This  would  be  the 
largest  geothermal  power  development  in  the  world. 

The  Mono  Lake  area  is  recognized  as  a  geothermal 
area  from  which  superheated  water  may  be  produced 
at  some  future  date.  The  wells  most  recently  drilled 
in  this  area  yielded  water  that  was  too  cool  for  effec- 
tive power  development  and  were  abandoned.  How- 
ever, the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  is  continuing  to 
conduct  field  studies  in  the  area. 

Attempts  to  develop  geothermal  resources  in  the 
Imperial  Valley  began  in  the  mid-1920s.  Recently, 
considerable  new  interest  has  been  aroused  by  pre- 
liminary assessments  of  the  overall  availability  of  geo- 
thermal resources  in  the  Valley.  Various  private  and 
public  entities  are  investigating  the  area.  The  Magma 
Power  Company,  the  Magma  Energy  Company,  the 


The  Geysers — el 


ty  from  geothe 


87 


San  Diego  Gas  and  Electric  Company,  Southern 
California  Edison,  Southern  Pacific  Land  Company, 
Phillips  Petroleum  Company,  and  the  Getty  Oil  Com- 
pany have  ongoing  programs  to  explore  the  area  and 
develop  techniques  for  making  use  of  its  geothermal 
resources. 

Public  entities  active  in  the  development  of  geo- 
thermal resources  including  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Recla- 
mation, the  federal  Office  of  Water  Research  and 
Technology  which  includes  the  former  Office  of 
Saline  Water,  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  the  Law- 
rence Laboratory  of  the  Atomic  Energy  Commission 
at  Livermore,  the  University'  of  California,  and  the 
California  Department  of  Water  Resources. 

The  intensive  ongoing  private  and  public  efforts  in 
California  will  eventually  provide  enough  knowledge 
to  enable  the  Department  of  Water  Resources  to  as- 
sess the  overall  potential  of  geothermal  resources  and 
to  predict  its  impact  on  future  water  development. 

Navigafion 

Navigation  can  exert  specific  demands  for  water 
in  order  to  maintain  suitable  depths  for  safe  passage. 
Due  to  the  shallow  draft  of  most  boats  used  for  recrea- 
tion on  the  State's  inland  waters,  water  depth  has 
rarely  been  identified  as  a  recreation  boating  problem. 
Therefore,  this  discussion  is  limited  to  fresh  water 
commercial  navigation. 

The  only  significant  commercial  navigation  on  fresh 
water  within  the  State  extends  from  San  Francisco 
Bay  and  the  Sacramento-San  Joaquin  Delta  upstream 
to  the  Port  of  Stockton  via  the  Stockton  Deep  Water 
Channel,  to  the  Port  of  Sacramento  via  the  Sacramento 
Deep  Water  Channel,  and  upstream  on  the  Sacramento 
River  to  Colusa. 

Most  of  the  fresh  water  channels  used  for  commer- 
cial navigation  are  within  the  zone  of  tidal  influence 
so  that  minimum  depths  do  not  depend  entirely  upon 
the  rates  of  flow.  The  exception  is  the  reach  of  the 
Sacramento  River  from  Sacramento  to  Colusa.  Under 
the  Sacramento  River  Shallow  Draft  Channel  Project 
Act,  a  145  mile  channel,  up  to  200  feet  wide,  was  ex- 
cavated from  Suisun  Bay  to  Colusa.  Downstream  from 
Sacramento,  the  minimum  depth  of  channel  is  10  feet; 
upstream  the  minimum  depth  is  6  feet. 

Ocean  going  vessels  now  reach  the  Port  of  Sacra- 
mento through  the  deep  w  ater  channel,  and  it  is  also 
used  by  barges  that  come  as  far  as  Sacramento.  The 
principal  commercial  barge  traffic  on  the  Sacramento 
River  involves  delivery  of  petroleum  products  and 
rock  for  bank  protection  and  export  of  rice  and  other 
grains.  Total  annual  grain  exports  by  barge  arc  on  the 
order  of  50,000  tons,  a  small  proportion  of  the  total 
quantity  of  farm  products  shipped  from  the  Sacra- 
mento Valley. 

Very  low  river  flows  can  result  in  below-minimum 
depths  within   the   Sacramento   River   Shallow    Draft 


Channel  Project.  The  authorizing  document  for  Shasta 
Dam  provided  for  minimum  releases  of  5,000  cubic 
feet  per  second  to  maintain  navigation  depth.  Re- 
leases for  other  Central  Valley  Project  purposes  gen- 
erally exceed  the  minimum  requirement,  but  releases 
specifically  for  navigation  are  occasionally  needed. 

There  is  concern  that  the  planned  deepening  of  the 
John  F.  Baldwin  and  Stockton  ship  channels  from  the 
Golden  Gate  into  Suisun  Bay  and  then  on  into  Stock- 
ton may  increase  the  amount  of  fresh  water  outflow 
from  the  Delta  needed  for  salinity  control.  Results  to 
date  from  available  model  tests  by  the  U.  S.  Army 
Corps  of  Engineers  on  this  eff^ect  of  deepening  are 
inconclusive. 

Summary  of  Water  Demands 

Table  16  summarizes  by  major  hydrologic  areas  of 
the  State,  1972  and  projected  1990  and  2020  applied 
water  demands  under  four  levels  of  alternative  future 
development  described  in  Chapter  IIL  As  a  review, 
the  following  tabulation  lists  the  variables  used  for 
each  alternative  future.  Other  factors  afl'ecting  pro- 
jections of  future  growth  are  not  shown  in  the  tabu- 
lation but  were  discussed  in  Chapter  IIL 


Alternative  Future 

Variable 

1 

H 

lU 

IV 

Population  Growth 

Fertility  series' 

c 

150,000 

D 

High 
Modified 

High 
H 

D 
150,000 

D 

Low 

Modified 

High 
M 

D 

100,000 

D 
Low 
1968 

Low 

H 

E 
0 

Jgricullural  Production 
National  population 

E 
Low 

Modified 

Pourr  Plant  Cooling 

Energy  demand* -- 

Inland  plants' 

Low 

Notes:  '  Average  number  of  children  born  per  woman  of  child-bearing  age. 

'  Low  estimate  based  on  pre-1970  data;  high  estimate  reflects  1972-74 

'  1968  estimates  used  in  Bulletin  No.  160-70. 

*  High  estimate  based  on  California  Public  Utilities  Commission  projection 

and  low  estimate  on  Rand  Corporation  Case  3. 
'  Portion  of  new  thermal  plants  requiring  fresh  cooling  water. 

Table  16  includes  only  those  demands  for  which 
quantitative  determinations  could  be  made,  including 
urban,  agricultural,  power  plant  cooling,  and  recrea- 
tion, fish,  and  wildlife.  It  will  be  noted  that  only  one 
future  projection  for  recreation,  fish  and  w  ildlife  w  ater 
demand  is  show  n  in  the  table.  The  reason,  as  explained 
at  the  outset  of  Chapter  III,  is  that  insufficient  knowl- 
edge is  available  now  to  discuss  variations  in  demand. 

As  defined  earlier  in  the  chapter,  applied  water  de- 
mands are  the  quantities  required  to  be  delivered  to 
the  point  of  use,  such  as  a  municipal  system,  factory, 
or  farm  headgate.  Net  water  demands  are  used  in  the 
next  chapter  of  this  bulletin  to  evaluate  the  water  de- 
mand-w  ater  suppl\-  relationship.  Net  demand  is  deter- 
mined for  each  stud\-  area,  after  accounting  for  the 


88 


Table   16.      1972  and  Projected  Applied  Water  Demands  by  Alternative  Futures 
(1,000  acre-feet) 


Urban 

Agricultural 

Power  pla 

nt  cooling 

Fish, 
wildlife 

r/cl- 

Totals 

Hydrologic  study  area 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

North  Coajial 

1972 

1990 

93 
104 
126 

990 
1.480 
2.240 

181 

308 
569 

2,370 
3.130 
4.830 

470 

700 

1.040 

173 
251 

537 

192 
295 

548 

363 
493 
798 

23 
40 
68 

89 
154 

387 

99 
148 

275 

5.040 
7.100 
11.400 

93 
102 
120 

990 
1.460 
2.070 

181 

300 
516 

2.370 
3,050 
4.360 

470 
687 
968 

173 
247 
490 

192 

287 
485 

363 
479 
718 

23 
40 
59 

89 
139 
326 

99 
142 
246 

5,040 
6,930 
10,400 

93 
101 
114 

990 
1,430 
1,940 

181 
289 
473 

2,370 
2,980 
4,120 

470 
674 
908 

173 
239 
451 

192 
279 
451 

363 
471 
679 

23 
39 
54 

89 
136 
306 

99 
139 

230 

5,040 
6,770 
9.730 

93 
97 
100 

990 
1.340 
1.570 

181 

252 
318 

2.370 
2,670 
2,980 

470 
621 

702 

173 
219 
323 

192 
249 

307 

363 
441 

530 

23 
32 
35 

89 
108 
143 

99 
126 
173 

5.040 
6.160 
7.170 

710 
720 
740 

250 
290 
330 

1.030 
1.240 
1.310 

920 
730 
530 

6.020 
7.940 
9.080 

2,470 
3,220 
3,700 

5,450 
6,620 
7,320 

10,890 
13.070 
14.870 

420 
430 
430 

310 
300 
250 

3.220 
3,320 
3,320 

31,700 
37,900 
41,900 

710 
720 
740 

250 
280 
320 

1.030 
1,200 
1.270 

920 
720 
510 

6.020 
7,540 
8,350 

2.470 
3.010 
3.540 

5.450 
6.390 
6,600 

10,890 
12,510 
13,720 

420 
430 
430 

310 
300 
250 

3.220 
3.320 
3.320 

31.700 
36.400 
39.000 

710 
710 
730 

250 
290 
310 

1.030 
1.190 
1.240 

920 
720 
520 

6.020 
7,050 
7,540 

2.470 
2.810 
3.250 

5,450 
6.040 
6,180 

10,890 
11.750 
12.360 

420 
430 
430 

310 
300 
250 

3,220 
3,320 
3.320 

31.700 
34.600 
36.100 

710 
710 
730 

250 
280 
280 

1.030 
1.200 
1.220 

920 
750 
520 

6.020 
6.960 
7.410 

2.470 
2.710 
3.020 

5,450 
5,750 
5,750 

10,890 
11.580 
11.750 

420 
400 
400 

310 
300 
250 

3,220 
3.320 
3.320 

31.700 
34,000 
34,600 

18 
30 
80 

0 
50 
140 

20 
100 
150 

0 

0 

140 

0 
70 
240 

0 
10 
100 

0 
130 
250 

38 

390 

1,100 

18 
30 
40 

0 
0 
60 

20 
75 
100 

0 
0 
70 

0 
35 
130 

0 
10 
50 

0 
70 
130 

38 
220 
580 

18 

30 
0 

0 
0 
50 

20 
50 
110 

0 
0 
0 

0 
20 
60 

0 
10 
0 

0 
40 
130 

38 
150 
350 

18 
30 
0 

0 
0 
0 

20 
40 
70 

0 
0 
0 

0 
20 
60 

0 
0 
0 

0 
40 
80 

38 
130 
210 

323 
359 
362 

24 
37 
46 

2 
3 
6 

6 
19 

23 

125 
170 
174 

6 
7 
9 

91 
94 
95 

43 

68 
70 

11 
11 
13 

4 

16 

22 

20 
22 
26 

655 
806 
846 

1.120 
1.180 
1,230 

1,260 
1.810 
2.620 

1.210 
1.550 
1.890 

3.320 
3.900 
5.470 

6.610 
8,860 
10,400 

2,670 
3,570 
4,400 

5,730 
7,010 
8,100 

11.300 
13.700 
16.000 

454 
479 
507 

399 
478 
762 

3.340 
3.620 
3.880 

37.400 
46.200 
55.300 

1.120 
1.180 
1.220 

1,260 
1,770 
2,440 

1,210 
1,500 
1,790 

3.320 
3.820 
4.940 

6.610 
8.400 
9,550 

2,670 
3.340 
4.140 

5,730 
6.770 
7.250 

11.300 
13.100 
14.600 

454 

479 
498 

399 
463 
651 

3.340 
3.560 
3.730 

37.400 
44,400 
50,800 

1,120 
1.170 
I.2I0 

1.260 
1.750 
2.300 

1.210 
1,480 
1,720 

3.320 
3.750 
4,660 

6.610 
7.900 
8.670 

2.670 
3.110 
3,820 

5.730 
6,410 
6.730 

11.300 
12.300 
13.200 

454 

478 
493 

399 
460 
581 

3.340 
3.530 
3.710 

37,400 
42.400 
47.000 

1.120 

2020 

San  Francisco  Bay 

1972 -- 

1.190 
1.260 

1990            --     -. 

1  660 

2020 

1,890 

Central  Coaila! 

1972 

1990 

1,210 
1.460 

2020 

South  Coastal 

1972         

1.540 
3.320 

1990 

3,470 

2020        

3,520 

Sacramento  Basin 
1972 -- 

6,610 

1990            

7,750 

2020 -. 

8,290 

Delta-Central  Sierra 
1972 

2.670 

1990  -- 

2.970 

2020 

3.420 

San  Joaquin  Basin 
1972         

5,730 

1990 

6,090 

6,150 

Tulare  Basin 

1972 

11,300 

1990              

12,100 

2020 

12,400 

North  Lahontan 

1972          

454 

1990 

441 

2020              

444 

South  Lahontan 
1972 -- 

399 

1990 

422 

2020                

418 

Colorado  Desert 
1972 --- 

3,340 

1990     

3,510 

2020 

3.600 

1972 

37.400 

1990 

41.100 

2020 

42.900 

internal  reuse  of  water  and  the  losses  associated  with 
conveying  water  from  the  source  to  the  user.  As  an 
example  of  reuse,  return  flows  or  drainage  from  a  farm 
field  may  be  used  directly  in  an  adjacent  field  or  may 
be  returned  to  the  water  supply  distribution  system 
for  reuse  in  a  more  distant  field.  Other  examples  in- 
due percolation  of  excess  applied  irrigation  water  to 
ground  water  storage  where  it  may  be  recovered  by 
pumping,  and  percolation  or  runoff  from  urban  yard 
watering  which  may  also  be  recoverable.  Reuse  of  mu- 


nicipal and  industrial  applied  water  occurs  where  sew- 
erage systems  discharge  to  surface  or  underground 
fresh  water  bodies  \\  hich  also  serve  as  supply  sources. 
Not  all  surplus  surface  and  percolating  water  supplies 
are  susceptible  to  recovery.  For  example,  water  dis- 
charging to  the  ocean  or  percolating  to  saline  water 
bodies  is  lost  to  the  freshwater  suppl>-.  Return  flows 
leaving  the  study  area  arc  also  lost  for  reuse  by  that 
area  but  may  serve  as  a  supply  to  another  downstream 
area. 


89 


Table   17.      1972  and  Projected  Net  Water  Demands  by  Alternative  Futures 
(1,000  acre-feet) 


Present 
1972 

Alternative 

1990  future 

Alternative 

2020  future 

Hydrologic  study  area 

I 

11 

III 

IV 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

940 
1,270 

950 
3,030 
5,780 
2,270 
4,650 
7,300 

430 

280 
4,070 

990 
1,820 
1,240 
3,770 
7,610 
3.110 
5,510 
9,200 
450 
330 
4,240 

990 
1,780 
1,200 
3,700 
7,200 
2,900 
5,350 
8,800 
450 
330 
4,180 

980 
1,760 
1.180 
3,640 
6,800 
2,700 
5,120 
8,290 
450 
320 
4,150 

980 
1,660 
1,150 
3,390 
6,630 
2.580 
4,960 
8,180 
420 
300 
4,140 

1,040 
2,630 
1,560 
5,200 
9,030 
3,860 
6,280 
11,000 
480 
510 
4,430 

1,030 
2,450 
1,480 
4,720 
8,240 
3,630 
5.710 
10,110 
470 
430 
4,300 

1,010 
2,310 
1,410 
4.480 
7,530 
3,360 
5,320 
9,160 
470 
370 
4.290 

1,000 

San  Francisco  Bay 

1,900 
1,250 

3.460 

7,080 

Delta-Central  Sierra    . 

3,010 

5.030 

Tulare  Basin 

8,700 

North  Lahontan 

420 

290 

4,210 

31,000 

38,300 

36,900 

35,400 

34,400 

46.000 

42,600 

39,700 

36,400 

Hydrologic  study  area  demands  met  by  imports 
from  distant  sources  were  increased  to  account  for 
the  losses  occurring  en  route  to  the  hydrologic  study 
area  and  therefore  represent  the  total  water  demand 
at  the  primary  source,  that  is,  at  the  initial  diversion 
point  in  the  case  of  a  surface  water  supply  project. 
This  is  in  contrast  with  Bulletin  No.   160-70  where 


import  suppl\'  requirements  were  specified  at  the  hy- 
drologic study  area  without  inclusion  of  conveyance' 
losses  occurring  outside  the  area. 

The  summary  of  net  water  demands  by  hydrologic 
study  area  are  shown  for  each  alternative  future  in 
Table  17. 


90 


CHAPTER   V 

SOURCES  OF  WATER  AND  WATER  MANAGEMENT 


California's  water  requirements  are  being  met  in  the 
traditional  manner,  primarily  by  regulation  of  surface 
water  and  by  drawing  on  w  ater  in  underground  stor- 
age. However,  most  of  the  best  damsites  have  been 
developed  or  are  under  contention  for  competing  uses 
or  environmental  considerations.  Similarly,  ground 
water  use  now  exceeds  the  natural  replenishment  capa- 
bility of  the  basins  in  many  areas. 

Recent  developments  in  technology  give  promise  of 
a  number  of  potential  water  sources  which  may  serve 
as  supplements  to  conventional  water  supplies.  Future 
water  management  activities  will  include  the  integra- 
tion of  these  water  sources  into  the  overall  water 
supply  system. 

This  chapter  discusses  the  sources  of  water  which 
at  this  time  appear  to  offer  the  greatest  potential  for 
meeting  the  State's  water  demands  in  the  future.  In 
addition  to  the  traditional  surface  conservation  and 
ground  water  pumping  methods,  these  include  waste 
water  reclamation,  desalination,  geothermal  develop- 
ment, weather  modification,  more  efficient  use  of 
water  and  water  management  practices. 

Surface  Water  Regulation 

About  60  percent  of  California's  present  water  sup- 
ply is  derived  from  regulation  and  diversions  of  the 
natural  runoff  from  surface  streams.  Natural  flows  in 
streams  vary  from  as  little  as  zero  in  late  summer  to 
many  thousands  of  cubic  feet  per  second  during  win- 
ter or  spring  floods.  A  wide  variation  in  the  total 
quantity  of  annual  runoff  among  wet,  normal,  and  dry 
years  can  also  be  expected.  Total  runoff  during  a  wet 
year  may  be  more  than  10  times  the  quantity  of  runoff 
in  a  dry  year.  However,  relatively  uniform  and  firm 
water  supplies  can  be  obtained  from  such  streams 
through  regulation  in  reservoirs. 

An  extensive  network  of  local,  state,  and  federal 
storage  reservoirs  provides  a  significant  degree  of  con- 
trol of  the  runoff  of  most  streams  in  the  more  highly 
developed  areas  of  the  State.  At  present  there  are  1,090 
reservoirs  in  California  operated  by  state  and  local 
agencies  and  by  individuals  which  are  under  state 
jurisdiction  as  to  safety  and  150  federal  reservoirs.  Of 
these  1,240  reservoirs,  141  have  storage  capacity  be- 
tween 10,000  and  100,000  acre-feet,  45  between  100,- 
000  and  1,000,000  acre-feet,  and  10  have  capacity 
greater  than  1,000,000,  acre-feet.  Most  of  the  larger 
projects  are  located  on  streams  in  the  Central  Valley. 
Major  surface  water  supply  and  conveyance  facilities 
are  shown  on  Figure  19.  Total  storage  capacity  in  Cali- 
fornia is  about  39,000,000  acre-feet. 


Recenf  Wafer  Projecfs 

Completion  of  construction  of  the  initial  phase  of 
the  California  State  Water  Project  stands  out  as  the 
State's  most  significant  event  in  water  resource  devel- 
opment during  the  past  four  years.  In  1973  one  mil- 
lion acre-feet  were  delivered  to  water  supply  con- 
tractors through  State  Water  Project  facilities  and  the 
contractors  have  ordered  deliveries  of  about  1.5  mil- 
lion acre-feet  in  1974.  Other  major  events  in  water 
resource  development  which  have  occurred  in  Cali- 
fornia since  publication  of  Bulletin  160-70  are  described 
below. 

Major  developments  by  local  water  agencies  include 
construction  of  additional  storage,  conveyance  and 
treatment  facilities  by  the  Metropolitan  Water  Dis- 
trict of  Southern  California.  Completed  works  include 
(1)  portions  of  the  tunnel  and  pipeline  system  which 
make  up  the  Foothill  Feeder,  (2)  Joseph  Jenson  Fil- 
tration Plant,  (3)  second  Lower  Feeder,  (4)  Sepul- 
veda  Feeder,  (5)  Lake  Skinner  (formerly  Auld  Val- 
ley) and  (6)  a  portion  of  San  Diego  Pipeline  No.  4. 
The  District  is  currently  administering  construction 
contracts  for  additional  distribution  and  treatment 
facilities  amounting  to  almost  $100  million. 

Kern  County  Water  Agency  has  initiated  construc- 
tion of  the  Cross  Valley  Canal  to  transfer  water  from 
the  California  Aqueduct  of  the  State  Water  Project 
to  the  vicinity  of  Bakersfield.  Other  water  agencies  in 
the  western  San  Joaquin  Valley  have  been  expanding 
distribution  works  in  State  Water  Project  and  Central 
Valley  Project  service  nrc;is. 


Rollins  Dam  on  Be 


91 


San  Diego 


Santa  Barbara 


Legend 

LOCAL  DEVELOPMENT 
STATE  WATER  PROJECT 
FEDERAL  DEVELOPMENT 


+ 


Ocean 


MAJOR  SURFACE  WATER  SUPPLY 

and 

CONVEYANCE  FACILITIES 

1974 


Figure   19.     Major  Surface  Wafer  Supply  and  Conveyance  Facilities,  1974 


93 


Table   18.     Projects  Completed  by  locol  Agencies  1971-1974 


Avenal  Community  Services  District* 

Coalinga,  City  of* 

Crestline-Lake  Arrowhead  Water  Agency 

Dudley  Ridge  Water  District 

Empire  Westside  Irrigation  District 

Hacienda  Water  District - 

Member  Units  of  Kern  County  Water  Agency, 
I^s  Angeles  Department  of  Water  and  Power.. 


Po«ay  .Ntunicipal  Water  District* 


Bernardino  Valley  Municipal  Water  District. 
Diego  County  Water  Authority 


San  Gabriel  Valley  Municipal  Water  Dis 
Tulare  Lake  Basin  Water  Storage  Distri. 


:  and/or  Project  Facilitie 


Distribution  System 
Distribution  System 
Pumping  Plants,  Pipeli 
Distribution  System 
Distribution  System 
Distribution  System 
Distribution  Systi 
Water  Wells  in  S: 


Fernando  Valley 
pelin. 


iviiinage  lanKs  &  Associated  I 
Bouquet  Canyon  Emergency  Stc 
South  Haiwee  Reservoir  Bypass 
Poway  Dam  and  Reservoir 


Distribution  Systen: 
Pipeline  Ht 
Pomerado  Pipeline 
Devil  Canyon-Azus, 
Distribution  Systen 


.\lun.  Wate 
Mun.  Wate 
Mun.  Wate 
Irr.  Water 
Irr.  Water 
Irr.  Water 


Mun.  Water 
Mun.  Water 
Mun.  Water 


enhancemt 
.Mun.  Water 
Mun.  Water 
Mun.  Water 
Mun.  Water 


Supply 
Supply 
Supply 
upply 
upply 
upply 
upply 
Supply 
Supply 
r  Supply 
r  Supply 
age.   Re- 
and  Fish 

r  Supply 
Supply 
Supply 
Supply 


rriga 


Hydrologic 
Study  Are: 


South  Laho 
Tulare  Basi 
Tulare  Basi 


South  Coastal 


South  Coastal 
South  Coastal 


South  Coastal 
Tulare  Basin 


*  These  Projects  received  partial  Davis-Grunsky  financing. 

t  Northern  portion  being  constructed  by  Metropolitan  Water  Dis 


Capital 
Cost 


1,100,000 

5,146,000 

4,300,000 

652,900 

48,100 

98,700 

76,196.400 

450,000 

5,000,000 

500.000 

2.300,000 

3,733.100 


11.000,000 
33,400.000 

1,800.000 
17.100,000 

2,221.000 


ct  of  Southern  California. 


Construction  is  underw  a\'  on  Indian  Valley  Dam  and 
Reservoir  on  North  Fork  Cache  Creek  by  the  Yolo 
County  Flood  Control  and  Water  Conservation  Dis- 
trict. The  project  is  scheduled  for  completion  late  in 

1974. 


Figure   20. 


Projects  Completed  Under  the   Davis-Grunsky  Act 
1971-1974 


Figure  20  shows  the  projects  completed  b\-  local 
agencies  since  the  publication  of  Bulletin  160-70 
which  were  financed  under  the  Davis-Grunsk\-  Act*. 
Of  the  29  projects  shown,  eight  were  partially  fi- 
nanced 1)\-  grants  for  the  recreation  and  fish  enhance- 
ment features  of  the  projects.  The  remaining  21  were 
financed  by  construction  loans. 

Table  18  lists  additional  major  projects  completed 
by  local  agencies  since  the  publication  of  Bulletin 
160-70.  Most  of  these  projects  were  constructed  to 
utilize  water  from  the  State  Water  Project. 

The  Biiii'im  of  Rcchviiation  has  four  projects  under- 
way. Tehama-Colusa  Canal  has  been  completed  from 
the  Red  BluflF  Diversion  Dam  to  Stony  Creek.  Folsom- 
South  Canal  has  been  completed  from  Lake  Nimbus 
to  Rancho  Seco  Nuclear  Power  Plant.  San  Luis  Drain 
has  been  completed  for  approximately  84  miles  of  the 
total  188-milc  conduit. 

Under  a  federal  court  ruling  the  Bureau  of  Recla- 
mation can  proceed  with  construction  of  .\uburn 
Dam  on  the  American  River  for  180  days  from  April 
I."?,  1974.  Construction  is  enjoined  thereafter,  how- 
ever, pending  approval  of  an  amended  environmental 
impact  statement.  Work  has  been  completed  on  the 
.•\uburn-Foresthill  Bridge.  No  construction  is  under- 
\\a>'  on  the  authorized  San  Felipe  Division  of  the 
Central  V'allev  Project. 

Projects  by  the  Corps  of  Engineers  w  hich  have  ad- 
vanced in  the  last  few  years  include  completion  of 
.Martis  Creek  Dam  in  the  Truckee  River  Basin  and 
iMojave  Dam  on  the  iMojave  River  near  Victorvillc. 
Both  projects  provide  flood  control,  recreation  and 
some  water  supply. 

*  Sections  12880  throviKlr   1289.1,  California  W.iHr  Ccxli-. 


94 


The  U.S.  Supreme  Court  has  refused  to  intervene 
in  the  controversy  over  construction  of  New  Melones 
Dam  on  the  Stanislaus  River.  It  has  thus  left  standing 
a  lower  court  ruling  tliat  tlie  project,  wliich  is  under 
construction,  meets  the  requirements  of  the  National 
Environmental  Policy  Act  of  1969. 

Highway  relocation  and  preconstruction  work  has 
progressed  at  the  Warm  Springs  Dam  and  Reservoir 
site  in  the  Russian  River  Basin.  A  contract  for  con- 
struction of  Warm  Springs  Dam,  however,  is  cur- 
rently held  up  as  the  result  of  litigation  in  the  federal 
court  system  between  the  Corps  of  Engineers  and 
plaintiffs  who  represent  organizations  opposed  to  the 
project. 

Construction  was  started  on  Buchanan  Dam  on 
Chowchilia  River  and  Hidden  Dam  on  Fresno  River 
in  1971;  both  projects  are  for  water  supply,  flood 
control,  recreation,  and  fish  and  wildlife  enhancement 
purposes.  The  main  dam  contracts  were  awarded  the 
following  year,  and  project  completions,  including 
future  downstream  channel  improvement  and  recre- 
ation facilities,  are  scheduled  for  1976. 

The  locations  of  these  major  projects,  both  existing 
and  under  construction,  are  shown  on  Plate  1  (inside 
back  cover). 

Central  Valley  Area  Wafer  Projects 

Some  of  the  remaining  potential  water  projects  in 
the  Central  Valley  are  described  in  the  following 
paragraphs.  iMan\'  of  the  projects  are  alternatives  to 
each  other  so  not  ail  of  them  would  be  constructed. 
It  should  be  recognized  that  estimates  of  amount  of 
v\ater  suppl\'  from  most  of  tlic  projects  arc  affected 
by  criteria  regarding  ( 1 )  releases  to  meet  Delta  out- 
flow requirements,  prior  downstream  water  rights,  and 
navigation  flow  requirements  (2)  streamflow  releases 
for  fish  preservation  or  enhancement,  (3)  reservoir 
space  to  be  reserved  for  flood  control,  (4)  maintenance 
of  reservoir  storage  le\els  for  recreation,  and  (5)  re- 
leases for  generation  of  h\droclectric  power. 

The  Cottonwood  Creek  Project  was  authorized  by 
the  Federal  Government  in  1970  for  construction  and 
operation  by  the  Corps  of  Engineers.  Thus  far,  funds 
have  not  been  provided  for  detailed  planning  and  de- 
sign. This  project  consists  of  Dutch  Gulch  Reservoir 
at  a  capacity  of  1,100,000  acre-feet  and  Tehama  Reser- 
voir at  a  capacity  of  900,000  acre-feet.  Dutch  Gulch 
damsite  is  located  on  the  mainstem  of  Cottonwood 
Creek  below  its  junction  with  the  middle  fork.  Tehama 
damsite  is  located  on  the  South  P'ork  of  Cottonwood 
Creek.  Total  runoff  at  the  two  damsitcs  averages  522,- 
000  acre-feet  per  year.  The  Interim  Sur\ey  Report  for 
Cottonw  ood  Creek  issued  by  the  Corps  of  Engineers 
indicates  that  the  project  would  have  multiple  pur- 
poses which  include  development  of  new  water  sup- 
plies totaling  275,000  acre-feet  per  year.  Other  project 
purposes  would  be  flood  control,  recreation,  and  fish 
enhancement. 


iMillville  Project  on  South  Cow  Creek  and  Wing 
Project  on  Inks  Creek  are  currently  under  study  by 
the  Corps  of  Engineers.  These  multiple  purpose  reser- 
voirs could  provide  a  combined  yield  of  about  40,000 
acre-feet  per  year  of  new  water  supplies  and  would 
aid  in  reducing  flood  peaks  on  the  Sacramento  River. 

Schoenfield  Reservoir  on  Red  Bank  Creek  and  Gal- 
latin Reservoir  on  Elder  Creek  are  under  study  by  the 
Department  of  Water  Resources.  The  two  multiple 
purpose  reservoirs  could  provide  a  total  of  about  70,- 
000  acre-feet  per  year  of  new  water  supplies. 

The  Glenn  Reservoir-Sacramento  River  Diversion 
Plan  is  presently  under  preliminary  study  by  the  De- 
partment of  Water  Resources.  This  project  would 
consist  of  Newville  and  Rancheria  Reservoirs  on  Stony 
Creek,  a  gravity  diversion  from  Thomes  Creek  into 
Newville  Reservoir  and  a  5,000  cfs  conduit-pumping 
SN'stem  to  transport  winter  flows  from  the  Sacramento 
River  to  the  reservoir  and  diversion  system  would 
provide  a  project  with  a  yield  capability  of  about 
900,000  acre-feet  per  year  if  operated  in  conjunction 
with  the  State  Water  Project.  This  multiple  purpose 
development  could  also  include  a  large  hydroelectric 
pumped-storage  development  betw  een  Newville  Reser- 
voir and  Black  Butte  Reservoir. 

Marysville  Project  on  the  Yuba  River  was  author- 
ized by  Congress  in  1966.  Funds  for  construction  have 
not  been  provided  although  Congress  has  appropriated 
some  monies  for  post  authorization  studies.  This  proj- 
ect would  consist  of  a  1,000,000  acre-foot  Marysville 
Reservoir  and  a  1 50-megawatt  pow  er  plant.  The  Yuba 
River,  a  major  tributary  of  the  Feather  River,  has  a 
runoff  approaching  two  million  acre-feet  per  year.  It 
is  partially  controlled  at  present  by  New  Bullards  Bar 
Reservoir  on  the  north  fork  plus  several  other  rela- 
tively small  reservoirs.  The  project  planned  at  the 
Marysville  site  would  provide  full  regulation  of  the 
river  near  its  mouth.  Its  purposes  include  flood  con- 
trol, hydroelectric  power,  recreation,  and  water  sup- 
pl>-.  New  water  yield  is  estimated  to  be  1 50,000  acre- 
feet  per  year  if  operated  as  part  of  the  Central  Valley 
Project. 

Los  Banos  Reservoir  would  provide  additional  off- 
stream  storage  capacity  in  the  western  San  Joaquin 
\\ille\'  to  supplement  that  of  the  existing  San  Luis 
Reservoir.  The  reservoir  site  on  Los  Banos  Creek  has 
potential  storage  capacity  in  excess  of  3  million  acre- 
feet.  It  would  be  filled  with  water  from  the  Sacra- 
mento River  Delta  during  winter  and  spring  seasons. 
Water  would  be  transported  to  O'Neill  Forebay 
through  the  California  Aqueduct  and  pumped  into 
Los  Banos  Reservoir.  If  sized  with  active  storage  capa- 
city of  2  million  acre-feet,  Los  Banos  Reservoir  would 
add  a  firm  new  yield  of  about  200,000  acre-feet  per 
year  to  the  State  Water  Project.  Since  Los  Banos 
Reservoir  would  be  near,  but  higher  in  elevation  than 
both  San  Luis  Reservoir  and  Los  Banos  Creek  De- 


95 


tention  Reservoir,  it  has  a  potential  for  pumped  stor- 
age power  generation  if  operated  in  combination  with 
either  of  the  other  two  reservoirs. 

The  Cosumnes  River  Division  of  the  Central  Val- 
ley Project  would  regulate  the  Cosumnes  River  to 
provide  a  new  water  supply.  A  development  under 
consideration  by  the  Bureau  of  Reclamation  includes 
Nashville  Reservoir,  with  a  capacity  of  900,000  acre- 
feet,  on  the  lower  main  stream  and  Pi  Pi  Reservoir, 
with  a  capacity  of  70,000  acre-feet,  on  the  middle 
fork,  and  Aukum  Reservoir,  with  a  capacity  of  120,- 
000  acre-feet,  on  the  south  fork.  The  federal  feasi- 
bility report  on  the  Cosumnes  River  Division  indicates 
that  it  would  have  multiple  accomplishments  which 
include  provision  of  flood  control,  recreation,  fish 
enhancement,  and  water  yield  of  145,000  acre-feet 
per  year.  The  project  has  not  been  authorized  for 
construction. 

The  East  Side  Division  of  the  Central  Valley  Proj- 
ect, as  planned  by  the  Bureau  of  Reclamation,  would 
be  primarily  an  aqueduct  system  extending  from  the 
Delta  to  the  Kern  River  along  the  east  side  of  the  San 
Joaquin  Valley.  Its  maximum  capacity  where  it  would 
have  joint  use  with  the  Folsom  South  service  area 
would  be  7,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  Water  supply 
for  the  East  Side  Division  would  be  provided  from 
Central  Valley  Project  supplies  allocated  for  that  pur- 
pose and  from  yield  of  offstream  storage  reservoirs  at 
the  Yokohl  and  Hungry  Hollow  sites  in  Tulare 
County.  Federal  plans  call  for  initial  delivery  capabil- 
ity' of  1,500,000  acre-feet  per  year  and  ultimate  de- 
livery capability  of  up  to  4,000,000  acre-feet  annually. 
The  aqueduct  would  serve  areas  in  the  eastern  San 
Joaquin  Valley  where  ground  water  is  being  over- 
drafted.  The  project  has  not  been  authorized  by  the 
Federal  Government. 

Study  is  also  being  given  jointly  by  the  Department 
of  Water  Resources  and  the  Bureau  of  Reclamation 
to  a  mid-valley  canal  that  could  provide  water  to  some 
of  the  ground  water  overdraft  areas  in  the  eastern 
San  Joaquin  Valley.  A  mid-valley  canal  could  also 
provide  a  connection  from  the  California  Aqueduct 
to  the  Friant-Kern  Canal,  facilitating  coordinated  op- 
eration of  the  two  aqueduct  systems. 

Additional  surface  water  projects  which  have  been 
studied  at  the  reconnaissance  level  as  possible  future 
developments  in  the  Central  Valley  include  (1)  en- 
largement of  Lake  Berryessa,  (2)  enlargement  of 
Shasta  Lake,  (3)  extension  of  the  Bureau  of  Reclama- 
tion Tehama-Colusa  Canal  to  provide  service  in  Yolo 
and  Solano  Counties,  and  (4)  construction  of  off- 
stream  storage  reservoirs  at  the  Los  Vaqueros  site  on 
Kellogg  Creek  in  Contra  Costa  County  and  at  the 
Sunflower  site,  located  on  the  Kings-Kern  County 
line  in  the  western  San  Joaquin  Valley.  These  proj- 
ect locations,  except  Los  Vaqueros,  are  also  shown  on 
Plate  1. 


North  Coasf  Area  Wafer  Projects 

The  Smith,  Klamath,  and  Trinity  and  Eel  Rivers 
are  excluded  from  consideration  for  further  develop- 
ment by  the  California  Wild  and  Scenic  Rivers  Act. 
These  rivers  produce  about  20,000,000  acre-feet  of 
mean  annual  natural  runofi^,  or  over  25  percent  of 
California's  total  runoff. 

In  the  case  of  the  Eel  River,  however,  the  Act  pro- 
vides for  legislative  consideration  of  possible  removal 
of  wild  river  status  for  the  Eel  in  1985.  Two  reser- 
voir and  conveyance  systems  previously  studied  on 
the  Eel  River,  the  Dos  Rios  and  English  Ridge  proj- 
ects, could  be  used  to  regulate  the  headwaters  of  the 
Eel  River  for  export  to  the  Sacramento  Valley  and  to 
provide  flood  peak  reductions  on  the  Eel  River.  The 
combined  water  yield  of  these  two  reservoirs  could 
vary  from  about  500,000  to  1,000,000  acre-feet  per 
year  for  various  size  reservoirs  and  plans  of  operation. 

Butler  Valley  Dam  and  Reservoir  Project  on  the 
Mad  River,  which  is  authorized  for  construction  by 
the  Corps  of  Engineers,  has  been  deferred  indefinitely. 
The  deferment  is  primarily  due  to  the  decision  by 
voters  of  Humboldt  County  not  to  participate  in  the 
project.  The  reservoir,  with  a  capacity  of  460,000 
acre-feet,  could  control  floods  on  the  Mad  River  and 
yield  about  120,000  acre-feet  annually  after  meeting 
downstream  flow  requirements. 

Ground  Water 

Ground  water  occurs  in  California  primarily  in  un- 
consolidated sedimentary  deposits  which  underlie 
much  of  the  agricultural  lands  and  large  portions  of 
the  State's  urban  areas.  Its  development  and  use  has 
been  second  only  to  that  of  the  surface  water  sources. 
Relative  freedom  from  contamination  has  made  it  es- 
pecially suitable  for  municipal  use  where  protection 
of  the  public  health  is  a  prime  consideration.  Occur- 
rence of  ground  water  in  areas  where  surface  water  is 
in  short  supply  and  its  availability  to  the  users  on  de- 
mand has  led  to  widespread  use  for  irrigation  on  over- 
l\ing  lands.  Ground  water  currently  furnishes  about 
40  percent  of  total  water  use  in  California. 

In  those  areas  requiring  supplemental  water  to  meet 
future  requirements  and  which  overlie  Usable  ground 
water  basins,  the  basin  characteristics,  hydrolog)',  and 
water  quality  must  be  examined  to  estimate  the 
amounts  and  qualities  of  ground  water  whicli  may  be 
utilized.  The  four  methods  of  basin  operation  gener- 
all\'  in  use  are:  (a)  safe  yield  operation  based  on 
natural  replenishment,  (b)  temporary  overdraft,  or 
mining,  of  ground  water  pending  development  of  a 
supplemental  surface  water  supply;  (c)  court  ordered 
regulation  of  ^vithdrawals;  and  (d)  sustained  yield 
using  natural  replenishment  and  planned  or  incidental 
recharge  with  imported  water. 

In  areas  where  the  ground  water  has  already  been 
put  to  extensive  use,   available   data   from   well   logs. 


96 


measurements  of  water  levels  in  wells,  chemical  ana- 
lyses of  water  in  wells,  and  other  knowledge  gained 
in  development  of  the  basin  provide  the  basis  for 
further  study  of  the  basin  characteristics  and  deter- 
mination of  more  efficient  operational  procedures.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  areas  where  the  basin  has  been 
little  developed,  there  is  often  little  data  on  the  basin 
characteristics  which  can  be  obtained  short  of  an 
extensive  and  costly  investigative  program.  Thus,  pro- 
jections of  future  yields  from  development  of  unused 
ground  water  basins  are  subject  to  considerably  more 
uncertainty  than  from  the  presently  developed  basins. 

Development  of  most  sustained  new  yields  from 
ground  water,  as  with  surface  reservoirs,  requires  sur- 
plus surface  water  to  provide  the  required  annual  re- 
charge of  the  basin.  Exceptions  include  cases  where 
pumping  lowers  ground  water  levels  and  reduces 
losses  such  as  consumptive  use  by  nonproductive 
vegetation,  or  subsurface  outflow  to  saline  water 
bodies  or  to  salt  sinks.  New  yields  on  an  interim  basis 
from  overdrafting  (mining)  the  ground  water  reser- 
voir may  be  a  feasible  alternative  supply.  However, 
consideration  must  be  given  to  the  effects  which  may 
result  from  the  resultant  decline  in  water  levels,  such 
as  pumping  costs,  land  subsidence,  and  change  in 
water  qualit\'.  The  limiting  effects  of  these  factors 
will  vary  with  the  local  conditions,  both  physical  and 
economic. 

Empty  storage  space  in  ground  water  basins  may 
be  used  by  importation  of  water  from  distant  water- 
sheds for  recharge  and  subsequent  withdrawal  — 
either  on  a  "one-time"  basis  where  surplus  water  or 
conveyance  capacity  arc  limited  in  time;  or  on  a 
cyclic  basis  where  recurring  surplus  water  and  con- 
veyance capacity  are  available. 

Some  idea  of  the  effects  of  the  variation  in  the 
ground  water  conditions  with  change  in  surface  water 
can  be  gained  from  Figures  21  and  22.  Figure  21 
shows  the  change  in  ground  water  levels  in  the  San 
Joaquin  Valley  during  a  5-year  dry  period,  1960-1965, 
when  average  annual  surface  water  supply  was  only 
about  75 /o  of  normal.  The  changes  shown  in  Figure 
22  are  for  a  wet  period,  1965-1970,  when  water  sup- 
pi}'  was  about  125%  of  normal.  In  general,  the  areas 
served  by  ground  water  tend  to  have  ground  water 
level  changes  which  follow  the  trend  of  runoff  of 
tributary  streams.  However,  areas  served  by  the 
Friant-Kern  and  Aladcra  Canals  on  the  east  side  of  the 
valley  and  by  the  Delta-Mendota  Canal  on  west  side 
show  rising  water  levels  even  during  the  dry  period 
as  a  result  of  continued  full  import  supplies  during 
the  local  drought  period.  During  the  above-normal 
period,  there  still  remain  many  areas  where  heavy 
pumping  draughts  which  are  in  excess  of  recharge 
capability  are  causing  water  tables  to  decline.  Increas- 
ing deliveries  from  the  California  Aqueduct  replaced 
considerable  ground  water  pumping  and  resulted  in 
a  substantial  decrease  in  the  overdraft  bv   1972.  This 


effect  was  just  beginning  to  show  in  the  data  pre- 
sented in  the  two  figures. 

Activifies  by  the  Depariment  of  Wafer  Reiources 

In  planning  to  meet  future  water  requirements  of 
the  State,  the  Department  has  given  ground  water 
equal  consideration  with  other  alternative  sources. 
The  previously  discussed  general  planning  concepts 
illustrate  some  of  the  considerations  which  are  a  part 
of  studies  of  future  ground  water  development  and 
management. 

A  specific  example  of  a  current  investigation  by 
the  Department  of  Water  Resources  is  that  of  the 
potential  recharge  of  Northern  California  surplus 
water  in  areas  south  of  the  Tehachapi  Mountains  for 
subsequent  withdrawal,  either  to  offset  water  supply 
deficiencies  during  periods  of  possible  aqueduct  shut- 
down or  to  defer  capital  expenditures  for  construc- 
tion of  additional  conservation  facilities  required  in 
the  event  of  critical  dry  period  water  supply  condi- 
tions as  the  State  Water  Project  approaches  full  deliv- 
ery operation.  Investigation  of  this  possibility  is 
being  conducted  jointly  by  the  Department  of  Water 
Resources  and  the  members  of  the  Southern  Califor- 
nia Water  Conference. 

In  another  study  currently'  underway,  a  cooperative 
effort  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Reclamation 
and  the  Department  of  Water  Resources,  considera- 
tion is  being  given  to  alignments  of  a  mid-valle\'  canal 
located  at  the  approximate  latitude  of  the  City  of 
Fresno  and  running  from  the  California  Aqueduct  on 
the  west  side  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  to  the  eastern 
areas  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley.  Its  purpose  would 
be  to  convex-  federal  water  through  state  and  federal 
facilities  to  areas  of  long-standing  overdraft  in  the 
eastern  portions  of  the  Tulare  Lake  Basin.  Included  in 
the  operational  aspects  of  this  investigation  will  be  the 
possibilities  of  ground  water  recharge  and  the  direct 
delivery  of  water  through  distribution  systems  to 
areas  presently  relying  totally  or  partially  upon 
ground  water  overdraft  for  irrigation  supplies. 

Additionally,  the  Department,  in  cooperation  with 
federal  agencies  such  as  the  United  States  Geological 
Surve\',  Water  Resources  Division,  and  local  water 
service  agencies,  has  and  is  continuing  to  conduct 
h\drologic,  geologic,  and  water  qualit\'  investigations 
to  determine  the  availability  of  ground  water  resources 
in  all  areas  of  the  State. 

Examples  of  these  types  of  investigations  are  those 
being  conducted  in  Northern  California,  in  the  South 
San  Francisco  Bay  area,  in  Sacramento  and  Sonoma 
Counties,  and  in  Livermore  Valley.  Also,  the  Depart- 
ment and  the  Kern  County  Water  Agency  are 
conducting  a  cooperative  investigation,  with  the  ob- 
jecti\e  of  assisting  the  Agency,  through  use  of  a 
mathematical  model  of  the  ground  water  basin,  to 
determine  means  of  managing  the  basin  to  make  the 
best  use  of  supplemental  water  obtained  through  the 


97 


FOOTHILL  LINE 


^ 


1 


100 

\ 

\ 

700 
•00 

'> 

•^ 

— 

^ 

l«B0  IMO  ItTO 


100 
ZOO 
SOO 
400 


rMo         IMO        i«rro 


100 

too 


■•eo        laeo        laro 


-LE6END- 

HYDR06RAPH0FWELL          CHANGE      INCREASE   DECREASE 

IN   FEET 

1            1       1            1 
0-20            1            1       1            1 

eo-40        1        1    1        1 

40-60             1           1       1            1 

60- OR  MORE  mH      ^^ 

G-TIME  SUBSIDENCE,   1  FOOT  OR  MORE 

\ 

t^ 

^ 

YEARS 
AREA  OFLON 

DATA  NOT  AVAILABLE 


Figure   21.      Ground  Water  Change  During  Dry  Period,  1960-1965 


98 


-LEGEND- 
HY0R06RAPH0FWELL  CHANGE      INCREASE   DECREASE 

IN   FEET 

0-20    dj  nu 

20-40  I  I      I  I 
40-60            I           I      I  I 
60- OR  MORE  I           I      I           I 
AREA  OF  LONG -TIME  SUBSIDENCE,   I  FOOT  OR  MORE 


YEARS 


Figure   22.      Ground  Water  Change  During  Wet  Period,  1965-1970 


99 


facilities  of  the  California  Aqueduct.  Similarly,  in 
Southern  California,  investigations  of  operational 
modes  and  economic  factors  have  been  conducted  for 
most  of  the  major  local  water  service  agencies  as  a 
part  of  their  programs  to  augment  and  better  manage 
the  water  resources  available  to  their  areas.  Areas 
presently  under  investigation  are  in  Ventura  County, 
San  Jacinto  Valley,  Antelope  Valley,  Upper  San  Di- 
ego Area,  and  Arroyo  Grande-Paso  Robles  Area. 

Another  field  of  study  by  the  Department  consists 
of  a  preliminary  evaluation  of  the  probability  of  ob- 
taining producing  wells  (primarily  domestic)  in  frac- 
tured rock  of  the  mountain  areas  of  California. 

The  maintenance  of  a  good  quality  ground  water 
resource  is  dependent  on  its  protection  from  degrada- 
tion from  various  possible  sources.  To  this  end,  the 
Department  of  Water  Resources  has  formulated  a 
Ground  Water  Basin  Protection  program.  Current 
studies  include  design  of  sea  water  intrusion  barriers 
and  sanitary  landfills  to  protect  related  ground  water 
bodies,  determination  of  the  effects  of  deep  injection 
of  oil  field  and  industrial  wastes  on  ground  water. 


evaluation  of  well  construction  practices  as  related  to 
h\drologic  and  geologic  conditions  in  order  to  formu- 
late recommendations  for  water  well  standards,  and 
surveillance  of  land  subsidence  as  it  relates  to  extrac- 
tion of  ground  water.  The  components  of  this  pro- 
gram are  varied  from  time  to  time  as  required  to 
counter  possible  threats  to  the  integrity  of  the  ground , 
water  resource. 

Among  some  of  the  major  issues  surrounding  use 
of  ground  water  are  those  of  sustained  or  long-term 
overdraft  and  land  subsidence  due  to  compaction  of 
deep  confining  clay  beds  such  as  have  occurred  ex- 
tensively in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley. 

The  problems  of  overdraft  on  a  long-term  basis  are 
those  of  diminishing  ground  water  resources  in  stor- 
age and  increasing  costs  of  pumping  and  of  deepening 
existing  wells  or  drilling  replacement  wells  due  to 
declining  ground  water  levels.  However,  in  areas 
where  alternative  water  supplies  are  relatively  expen- 
sive, continued  overdraft  operation  for  a  considerable 
period  of  time  may  still  be  the  most  economic  man- 
agement plan. 

The  problems  associated  with  deep  subsidence  are 
primarily  physical  in  that  surface  structures  are  dis- 
turbed by  the  lowering  of  land  surface  elevations 
caused  by  compaction  of  the  underlying  clay  and 
silt  la\ers  under  decreased  pressures  in  the  deeper- 
King  confined  aquifers.  Basins  with  extensive  under- 
ground cla\'  structures  will  evidence  correspondingly 
greater  subsidence  effects  than  basins  with  minimal 
compressible  material.  In  the  latter  case,  subsidence 
may  be  only  a  minor  problem. 

The  above-cited  issues  have  specific  problems;  how- 
ever, they  arc  not  without  some  offsetting  benefits  to 
the  areas  affected.  For  example  the  condition  of  long- 
term  sustained  overdraft  is  mostly  evident  in  the  east- 
ern portions  of  the  Tulare  Lake  Basin  where  an 
agricultural  economy  has  developed  in  ^\■hich  Fresno, 
Kings,  Tulare,  and  Kern  Counties  rank  among  the  top 
dollar-producing  agricultural  counties  in  the  United 
States.  Without  use  of  the  ground  water  in  storage 
by  overdraft  pumping,  and  imported  water,  such 
development  w  ould  not  have  occurred.  The  capability 
to  pay  for  imported  water  was  significantly-  increased 
by  the  economy  built  upon  ground  water. 

Deep  subsidence,  although  capable  of  being  arrested 
1)\'  reducing  the  extraction  rates  of  water  from  the 
undcr!\iTig  confined  aquifers,  cannot  be  reversed  by 
present!)-  known  technology.  However,  in  areas 
where  deep  subsidence  has  already  occurred,  there 
ma\-  be  future  as  well  as  past  benefits  related  to  opera- 
tion of  the  ground  water  basin.*  For  example,  future 
increased  recharge  to  the  forcbay  areas  casterl\-  from 
the  subsiding  San  Joaquin  \'alle\-  area,  even  though  it 
exceeds  extraction  from  the  westerly  confined  aqui- 
fers, will  not  result  in  vertical  upward  movement  or 
return  of  the  ground  surface  to  original  conditions, 
but    it   will    reduce   or   eliminate    further    downward 


100 


subsidence  of  land  surfaces  alread\-  affected.  Future 
operation  of  the  ground  water  reservoir  over  a  range 
of  pressure  variations  which  do  not  exceed  the  new 
equilibrium  conditions  will  cause  little  if  any  addi- 
tional subsidence.  Additionally,  the  water  released  by 
consolidation  of  compressible  sediments  in  undcrhing 
confined  aquifers  may  be  considered  as  a  one-timc- 
onlv  water  suppl>-  which  would  not  otherwise  have 
been  available.  Total  water  derived  from  this  source 
in  the  San  Joaquin  \'alle\  was  estimated  by  the  U.  S. 
Geological  Surve\'  to  be  15,600,000  acrc-fect  during 
the  period  1926-1970  *.  Over  one-half  this  amount 
was  withdraw  n  in  the  last  20  }ears.  The  area  of  sub- 
sidence in  excess  of  one  foot  resulting  from  this 
ground  water  extraction  is  shown  in  Figures  21  and 
22. 

Ground  Water  Condifions 

A  brief  sunmiary  of  the  present  knowledge  of 
ground  water  conditions  in  each  hydrologic  study 
area  (Figure  2)  is  presented  in  the  following  discus- 
sion which  is  based  in  part  on  a  report  by  the  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey.* 

The  computations  of  useable  storage  do  not  reflect 
potential  problems  such  as  deep  subsidence,  or  poor 
qualit\-  water  that  might  be  induced  b\-  pumping  if 
water  in  these  basins  is  lowered  to  the  depths  in- 
dicated. 

North  Coastal  Hydrologic  Area.  Within  the  pre- 
dominantly mountainous  North  Coast  Hydrologic 
Area  ground  water  occurs  in  13  alluvial-filled  valleys, 
comprising  a  total  area  of  about  1,300  square  miles. 
Some  of  these  alluvial  valleys  in  the  northeastern  part 
of  the  area  also  contain  extensive  water-bearing  vol- 
canic formations.  Water-bearing  deposits  in  these  val- 
leys range  in  thickness  from  about  50  to  2,000  feet. 

Total  storage  capacity  of  the  basins  for  which  de- 
terminations have  been  made  is  nearly  1,000,000  acre- 
feet.  The  usable  storage  capacity,  where  determined, 
totals  700,000  acre-feet;  the  limiting  factors  are  the 
possibility  of  sea-water  intrusion  and  aquifer  materials 
of  low  permeability  which  do  not  readily  yield  water. 
Generally,  the  quality  of  ground  water  is  excellent; 
however,  in  isolated  areas  there  are  poor  quality 
waters  with  total  dissolved  solids  of  more  than  4,800 
milligrams  per  liter  (mg/1). 

Properly  constructed  wells  in  many  areas  can  yield 
as  much  as  1,000  gallons  per  minute.  Wells  in  the 
Butte  Valley  basalt  formation  of  volcanic  origin 
yield  larger  quantities  of  flow,  ranging  from  2,000 
to  4,000  gallons  per  minute.  So  far,  ground  water 
levels  do  not  indicate  an  overdraft.  However,  pump- 
ing in  Butte  Valley  does  exceed  earlier  cursory  esti- 

»  J.   T.   Poland,   B.   E.   LotKicn,   R.   S.   Ireland,    and   R.   G.    Pugli,   "Land 

Subsidence    in    the    San    Joaquin    Valley,    California,    as    of    1972," 

U.S.  Geological  Survey  open-iile  report,  1973. 
*  U.S.    Geological   Survey,    Water    Resources   Division,   Open-File    Report, 

"Summary  of  Ground   Water  Data  as  of    1967,  California  Region," 

July  24,  1969. 


mates  of  the  safe  yield  of  that  basin.  Water  levels  have 
remained  fairly  constant  over  the  past  several  years. 

San  Francisco  Bay  Hydrologic  Area.  Most  usable 
ground  water  in  the  San  Francisco  Bay  Hydrologic 
Area  is  found  in  the  Santa  Clara  Valley  and  in  six 
smaller  alluvium-filled  vallc)-.s,  all  of  which  are  ad- 
jacent to  and  partially  underlie  the  San  Francisco  Bay. 
These  seven  areas,  together  with  eleven  other  scat- 
tered basins  which  have  been  identified  as  significant 
sources  of  ground  water,  have  a  total  area  of  about 
2,000  square  miles.  AVatcr-bearing  deposits  range  in 
in  thickness  from  100  to  2,000  feet. 

The  ground  water  basins  of  the  area  are  estimated 
to  have  a  capacity  of  at  least  10,000,000  acre-feet  and 
a  usable  capacity  of  at  least  5,000,000  acre-feet. 

Although  much  of  the  area  is  served  by  imported 
water,  ground  water  still  is  pumped  extensively  from 
Livermore    Valley,    Santa    Clara    Valley,    and    other 


101 


South  Ba\-  areas.  Most  of  this  ground  water  is  of  ex- 
cellent quality,  although  the  intrusion  of  saline  water 
from  the  San  Francisco  Bay  system  has  caused  signifi- 
cant problems  in  the  past.  .Also,  in  the  Santa  Clara 
Valley  area,  ground  \\ater  withdrawals  haye  caused 
subsidence  of  the  ground  surface.  One  effect  of  this 
subsidence  has  been  to  cause  levees  along  the  bay- 
shore  to  be  overtopped  during  periods  of  high  tides. 

After  completion  of  tlie  South  Bay  Aqueduct  of 
the  State  Water  Project  in  1962,  deliveries  of  im- 
ported water  from  this  source  were  begun  in  Alameda 
and  Santa  Clara  Counties.  This  water  has  been  used 
to  recharge  the  ground  water  basin,  and  subsequently 
subsidence  and  much  of  the  intrusion  of  saline  water 
has  ceased.  Water  levels  in  Santa  Clara  and  Livermore 
V^alleys  have  shown  marked  recoveries  to  historic 
levels. 

Water  levels  in  North  Bay  areas  have  show  n  little 
change  over  the  years,  an  indication  that  these  ground 
water  basins  may  be  able  to  yield  larger  quantities 
of  ground  water  than  at  present. 

Central  Coastal  Hydrologic  Area.  With  a  predomi- 
nant mountainous  terrain,  the  Central  Coastal  area's 
usable  ground  water  occurs  in  alluvium-filled  valleys 
and  coastal  plains  and  in  deeper  lying  aquifers.  Sig- 
nificant sources  of  ground  water  have  been  identified 
in  24  basins  with  a  total  area  of  about  3,500  square 
miles.  Water-bearing  deposits  range  from  200  to  4,000 
feet  in  thickness. 

The  gross  storage  capacit)'  in  the  Central  Coastal 
area  is  20,000,000  acre-feet,  of  which  7,600,000  acre- 
feet  are  usable.  The  limiting  factor  is  sea  water  in- 
trusion. The  dissolved  solids  content  of  the  water  is 
generalh'  less  than  800  mg/1,  but  locally  is  more  than 
11,000  mg/1. 

Ground  water  is  the  main  source  of  suppl\'  in  the 
Central  Coastal  area,  and  present  use  exceeds  the  aver- 
age supply  by  about  140,000  acre-feet  per  year.  In 
the  northern  region  of  the  Central  Coastal  area  the 
major  problem  is  in  the  lower  Salinas  \^alley  where 
ground  water  use  in  excess  of  recharge  capability  has 
lowered  water  levels  below  sea  level  and  has  caused 
sea  water  intrusion  in  the  bayshore  area.  Long  associ- 
ated with  the  upper  aquifer,  sea  w  ater  intrusion  now 
threatens  the  low  er  aquifer  as  well.  Monterey  County 
is  considering  a  plan  to  convey  Salinas  River  water 
to  the  area  for  surface  application  to  alleviate  tiic 
problem.  The  authorized  San  Felipe  Project  of  the 
Bureau  of  Reclamation  could  also  provide  surface 
supplies  to  this  area  as  \yell  as  to  smaller  overdraft 
areas  in  the  lower  Pajaro  Valley,  where  sea  water  in- 
trusion is  also  a  threat,  and  in  the  Hollister  area. 

In  the  southern  region,  there  is  a  current  overdraft 
of  about  50,000  acre-feet  per  year,  mainly  in  Santa 
Barbara  Count\-,  but  including  inland  areas  of  San 
Luis  Obispo  Counts'.  Completion  of  the  Coastal 
Aqueduct  of  the  California  State  Water  Project  could 
help  reduce  this  overdraft. 


South  Coastal  Hydrologic  Area.  The  south  coastal 
area  is  comprised  of  coastal  valleys  separated  by 
mountainous  areas.  Significant  ground  water  sources 
have  been  identified  in  44  basins  with  a  total  area  of 
about  3,000  square  miles.  Included  are  four  large 
basins,  the  Los  Angeles  coastal  plain,  the  San  Gabriel 
\'alley,  the  Orange  Count)-  coastal  plain  and  the  up- 
per Santa  Ana  River  Basin;  and  three  major  smaller 
basins,  the  Oxnard  Plain,  Fillmore,  and  San  Jacinto 
Basins.  Water-bearing  deposits  range  from  50  to  2,- 
500  feet  in  thickness. 

The  storage  capacity  of  the  basins  is  about  100,- 
000,000  acre-feet  of  which  7,000,000  is  estimated  to  be 
usable.  Limiting  factors  arc  possible  sea  water  intru- 
sion, thin  alluvial  material,  and  locally,  high  pumping 
lifts.  The  dissolved  solids  content  of  the  water  is  gen- 
crall\'  less  than  1,000  mg/1,  but  localK'  is  more  than 
36,000  mg/1. 

There  is  a  current  annual  overdraft  of  160,000  acre- 
feet,  mainly  in  Ventura  County,  the  Upper  Santa  Ana 
Ri\cr  Basin,  and  Coastal  Orange  Count)-.  Additional 
imported  water  from  the  State  Water  Project  should 
eliminate  this  overdraft  by  1990. 

Sacramento  Basin  Hydrologic  Area.  In  this  h\dro- 
logic  area,  2 1  valley  areas  have  been  identified  as  signi- 
ficant sources  of  ground  water,  and  the\-  have  a  total 
area  of  about  6,150  square  miles,  of  w  hich  5,000  square 
miles  are  in  the  Sacramento  \'alle\-.  The  water-bear- 
ing deposits  range  in  thickness  from  about  100  to  3,000 
feet. 

The  storage  capacit\-,  as  determined  for  17  of  the 
basins,  is  nearl\-  55,000,000  acre-feet,  of  which  more 
than  33,000,000  acre-feet  are  in  the  Sacramento  \'al- 
lc\-.  This  estimate  is  based  on  a  deptli  of  20-200  feet 
for  tlie  Sacramento  \'alle\-,  and  docs  not  include  the 
deeper  aquifers.  The  usable  storage  capacitx-  in  the 
Sacramento  \'alie\-  is  estimated  at  22,000,000  acre-feet; 
the  limiting  factors  are  economic  considerations,  aqui- 
fer materials  of  low-  pcrmeabilit\-,  potential  land  sub- 
sidence, and  qualit\-  of  water.  The  dissolved-solids 
content  of  the  ground  water  is  generally  less  than 
500  mg/1,  but  locally  is  as  much  as  2,800  mg/1. 

Ground  water  is  used  extensivelx-  for  irrigation  pur- 
poses in  the  Sacramento  \'alle\ ,  and  some  ground 
water  is  pumped  for  irrigation  use  in  the  Upper  Pit 
River  region. 

In  1972,  1,500,000  acre-feet  of  ground  water  w-as 
pumped  to  meet  applied  water  demands  for  irrigation 
and  domestic  use  in  tJic  Sacramento  Basin  hxdrologic 
unit.  While  in  general  the  basin  has  an  adequate  sup- 
pi)-  of  ground  water  for  present  demands,  there  are 
several  local  areas  along  the  west  side  of  the  Sacra- 
mento \'allc)-  tiiat  have  incurred  o\crdraft  problems 
during  dr\-  periods  when  pumping  drafts  were  heavy. 
Annual  oxertlraft  in  these  areas  totals  about  90,000 
acre-feet. 

Delta  Central  Sierra  Hydrologic  .-Irea.  It  is  esti- 
mated   that    the    Sacramento    \'allc)     portion    of    the 


102 


Delta-Central  Sierra  Unit  contains  a  total  of  about 
64,000,000  acre-feet  of  ground  w  ater.  Certain  portions 
of  this  unit,  notably  the  central  Delta  area,  contain 
quantities  of  nonusable  saline  ground  water.  In  some 
of  the  surrounding  area,  ground  water  levels  in  recent 
\cars  were  at  markedly  lower  elevations  than  at  pres- 
ent. In  Solano  County,  this  was  the  case  prior  to  the 
completion  of  the  Bureau  of  Reclamation  Solano 
Project;  now,  with  surface  water  deliveries,  water 
levels  have  shown  a  significant  recovery  to  historic 
levels. 

Water  levels  arc  still  declining  in  San  Joaquin 
County,  where  overdraft  of  the  basin  is  estimated  to 
be  on  the  order  of  120,000  acre-feet  per  year.  \Vater 
levels  in  this  area  decline  at  an  average  rate  of  about 
5  feet  per  \ear,  caused  b\'  pumpage  which  exceeds 
recharge.  This  decline  has  caused  the  eastward  migra- 
tion of  saline  ground  water  from  the  central  Delta 
area. 

Sa7i  Joaqtiiu  Hydrologic  Area.  Ground  water 
provides  a  substantial  portion  of  the  water  supply 
necessary  to  meet  the  water  demands  of  the  San 
Joaquin  Basin.  For  the  entire  basin  about  35  percent 
of  the  agricultural  applied  water  demand  and,  with 
the  exception  of  the  foothill  and  mountain  areas, 
nearly  all  of  the  municipal  and  industrial  requirements 
are  met  b>'  ground  water.  During  the  period  1962 
through  1966,  an  average  of  almost  two  million  acre- 
feet  annually  was  extracted  for  agricultural  use  and 
119,000  acre-feet  annually  for  municipal  and  indus- 
trial use.* 

The  water-bearing  sediments  which  underlie  the 
valley  floor  portion  of  the  San  Joaquin  Basin  contain 
large  amounts  of  fresh  water  of  suitable  mineral  qual- 
ity for  agricultural  and  urban  use.  The  Department 
of  Water  Resources  has  estimated  the  storage  capacity 
and  the  amount  of  water  in  storage  by  analyzing 
thousands  of  well  drillers  logs.t  The  follo^\•ing  tabu- 
lation presents  an  example  of  the  magnitude  of  the 
ground  water  resource. 


Depth  Range 
CFe«) 

Storage  Capacity 
(Acre-feet) 

Water  in  Storage 

as  of  Spring  1961 

(Acre-feet) 

0-200 . 

0-500 

43,400,000 
95,800,000 

36,000,000 
85,400,000 

Ground  water  withdrawal  in  excess  of  replenish- 
ment since  the  spring  of  1961  has  reduced  the  amount 
of  ground  \\ater  in  storage  b\-  about  2,000,000  acre- 
feet. 

During  the  10-year  period  1958  through  1967,  there 
was  an  average  annual  overdraft  of  ground  water  in 

•  U.S.  Geological  Survey  open-file  reports  on  ground  water  pumping  in 
the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  California,  and  unpublished  reports  of 
ground  water  pumping  i)y  Turlock,  Modesto,  and  Oakdale  Irriga- 
tion Districts. 

t  Department  of  Water  Resources  unpublished  report  entitled  "San 
Joaquin  River  Basin  Storage  Capacity  Values",  August  1951. 


Storage  of  154,000  acre-feet,  of  which  140,000  acre- 
feet  was  \ielded  1)\-  dewatcring  aquifers  and  14,000 
acre-feet  was  \iclded  by  squeezing  water  from  satu- 
rated cla\s  due  to  declining  piezometric  levels.  This 
later  yield  is  sometimes  referred  to  as  "deep  subsidence 
_\ield  from  ground  w  ater  w  ithdrawal"  and  is  evidenced 
by  a  lowering  of  the  land  surface.  The  yield  from 
this  source  is  considered  to  be  equal  to  the  land  sub- 
sidence volume.  Figure  21  shows  the  areal  extent  of 
land  subsidence  in  the  San  Joaquin  \^alley  caused  by 
ground  water  withdrawal. 

The  1972  overdraft  of  ground  water  is  estimated  at 
250,000  acre-feet  annually.  The  principal  areas  of  over- 
draft arc  the  areas  cast  of  the  San  Joaquin  River  that 
lie  to  the  southwest  of  Merced  Irrigation  District  and 
to  the  west  of  Chowchilla  Water  District  and  Madera 
Irrigation  District.  Other  areas  being  overdrafted  are 
the  lands  developed  to  irrigated  agriculture  just  west 
of  the  Sierra  foothills  in  Stanislaus,  Merced,  and 
Madera  Counties.  In  general,  the  areas  of  overdraft 
arc  outside  the  boundaries  of  organized  agricultural 
water  agencies  and  have  inadequate  surface  water  sup- 
plies. 

Fxcept  for  the  scattered  overdraft  areas,  the  basin 
has  adequate  surface  supplies  and  shallow  depths  to 
ground  water.  Some  of  the  ground  water  pumping 
in  the  northeastern  portion  of  the  valley  floor  is  nec- 
essary to  prevent  excessivel\'  high  water  levels.  In  the 
overdrafted  areas  there  is  a  significant  amount  of  re- 
charge to  the  ground  w  ater  basin  from  natural  stream- 
flow  and  subsurface  inflows. 

Tulare  Basin  Hydrologic  Area.  Ground  water  is  a 
major  source  of  water  suppl\'  in  the  Tulare  Basin. 
About  65  percent  of  the  agricultural  applied  water 
demand  and  virtuall\-  all  of  the  municipal  and  indus- 
trial applied  water  demands  are  met  by  ground  water 
pumping.  During  the  period  1962  through  1966,  gross 
ground  water  withdrawals  averaged  6,800,000  acre-feet 
per  year  for  agricultural  use  and  300,000  acre-feet  per 
year  for  municipal  and  industrial  use.* 

The  w  ater-bearing  sediments  under  the  valle\-  floor 
portion  of  Tulare  Basin  contain  vast  amounts  of  water 
of  suitable  qualit\'  for  agricultural  and  urban  uses.  The 
Department  of  Water  Resources  has  estimated  the 
storage  capacity  and  the  amount  of  fresh  water  in 
storage  by  analyzing  thousands  of  well  drillers  logs.t 
The  following  tabulation  presents  an  example  of  the 
magnitude  of  the  ground  water  resource. 


Depth  Range 

(Feet) 

Storage  Capacity 
(Acre-feet) 

Water  in  Storage 

as  of  Spring  1957 

(Acre-feet) 

0  200                      

88,000,000 
187,000,000 

48,000,000 

0-500 

134,000,000 

*  U.S.  Geological   Survey   open-file  reports  on   ground   water  pumping  irt 

the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  California. 
t  Department    of    Water    Resources    unpublished    report    entitled    "C.round 

Water  Geology  of  the  Tulare  Basin",  May  1963. 


103 


Ground  water  withdrawal  in  excess  of  replenish- 
ment since  spring  of  1957  has  reduced  the  amount  of 
ground  water  in  storage  by  about  20,000,000  acre-feet. 

During  the  10-year  period  195S  through  1967,  there 
was  an  average  annual  overdraft  of  ground  water  in 
storage  of  1,470,000  acre-feet,  of  which  910,000  acre- 
feet  was  yielded  by  dew  atering  the  sands  and  gravels 
of  the  aquifer  s>stcm  and  560,000  acre-feet  w as  yielded 
by  squeezing  w  ater  from  the  saturated  clays  of  the 
aquitards  caused  by  declining  subsurface  water  pres- 
sures induced  b\'  ground  water  withdrawals. 

The  increase  in  water  demands  since  the  period 
1958  through  1967  has  more  than  been  offset  by  recent 
imports  from  the  State  Water  Project  and  the  San 
Luis  Division  of  the  Central  A^illey  Projects.  Never- 
theless, the  1972  overdraft  of  ground  w  ater  in  storage 
is  estimated  at  1,300,000  acre-feet  annually.  The  major 
portion  of  the  rccentl\'  expanded  imports  has  been 
to  the  worst  subsidence  areas  and  has  reduced  ground 
water  withdrawal  and  land  subsidence  rates. 

The  rate  of  overdraft  varies  w  idely  throughout  the 
basin.  In  fact,  some  areas  are  experiencing  stable  or 
even  rising  water  levels.  In  other  areas  the  rate  of 
overdraft  is  moderate,  and  ground  water  could  con- 
tinue to  be  mined  for  years  w  ithout  any  adverse  effect 
other  than  increased  pumping  costs  and  energy  usage. 
In  still  other  areas,  the  overdraft  is  severe  and  the 
ground  water  in  storage  is  being  rapidly  depleted. 

Recent  water  deliveries  from  the  Central  Valley 
Project  and  the  State  Water  Project  have  slightly 
increased  the  maximum  sustained  pumpage  because  of 
recharge  to  usable  ground  water  through  seepage 
losses  from  convexancc  facilities  and  application  of 
water  to  agricultural  lands  in  excess  of  evapotranspira- 
tion.  Part  of  the  w  ater  is  delivered  to  land  w  hich  does 
not  overlie  usable  ground  w  ater  and  is  therefore  not 
a  source  of  recharge. 

North  Lahontan  Hydroloiric  Area.  iVIost  of  the 
usable  ground  water  in  the  prcdominantl>'  mountain- 
ous North  Lahontan  H\  drologic  Area  occurs  in  the 
scattered  valle\s  that  are  filled  w  ith  alluvium  and  ma- 
terial of  volcanic  origin.  1  he  area  contains  eight  val- 
ley fill  areas  w  hich  have  been  identified  as  significant 
sources  of  ground  water.  The  total  area  of  the  eight 
valleys  is  about  1,300  square  miles.  The  water-bearing 
deposits  range  in  thickness  from  about  250  to  1,000 
feet.  The  total  storage  capacity  has  been  estimated  for 
seven  of  the  basins  and  is  nearly  23,000,000  acre-feet. 
However,  the  usable  storage  capacit\'  has  not  been 
determined;  the  limiting  factor  is  the  quality  of  water. 
The  dissolved  solids  contents  of  the  water  is  generally 
less  than  500  mg/i,  bur  iocalK'  is  as  much  as  2,000 
nig/1. 

Ground  water  is  used  for  irrigation  primarily  in 
Surprise  Valley  and  Hone\'  Lake  \^alley.  In  recent 
years  many  wells  have  been  drilled  in  the  Surprise 
Valley  area  to  augment  water  supplies.  In  1972  an  esti- 


mated 56,000  acre-feet  of  ground  water  was  pumped 
for  irrigation  in  the  hydrologic  area,  mostl_\'  in  the 
northern  part.  There  arc  no  indications  of  ground 
water  overdraft  in  the  area. 

South  Lahovtaii  Hydrologic  Arc.i.  Most  usable 
ground  water  in  this  predominant!)'  mountainous  area 
occurs  in  alluvium-filled  valle\s,  of  which  50  have 
been  identified  as  significant  sources  of  water  and 
whicli  iiavc  an  area  of  more  than  13,000  square  miles. 
The  water-bearing  deposits  range  in  thickness  from 
30  to  about  2,000  feet. 

The  total  storage  capacity-  of  the  area's  basins  is 
presently  estimated  at  about  194,000,000  acre-feet  of 
w  hich  about  700,000  acre-feet  are  known  to  be  usable 
in  Indian  Wells  \'alle\-,  the  onI\-  basin  where  a  deter- 
mination has  been  made.  Water  qualit\'  is  variable; 
most  valle\'s  have  some  ground  water  with  less  than 
800  mg/1,  dissolved  solids  but  many  also  ha\e  water 
with  several  thousand  mg/1. 

Most  of  the  ground  water  use  is  in  the  Antelope 
\'allc\-  and  the  Mojavc  River  Basins,  both  of  w  hich  are 
in  an  overdraft  condition  totaling  about  120,000  acre- 
feet  per  year.  State  Water  Project  imports  are  ex- 
pected to  eliminate  the  overdraft  by  1990. 

Colorado  Desert  Hydroloi^ic  Area.  This  desert  area 
lies  between  the  Colorado  River  and  mountain  ranges 
located  about  50  miles  inland  from  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
Significant  ground  water  resources  have  been  identified 
in  45  alluvium-filled  vallexs  covering  an  area  of  about 
12,800  square  miles.  Thickness  of  water-bearing  de- 
posits ranges  from  50  to  2,800  feet. 

Total  storage  capacity"  of  the  hydrologic  area  is 
about  158,000,000  acre-feet;  and  usable  capacit>',  deter- 
mined only  for  the  Coaciiella  \'alle\\  is  3,600,000  acre- 
feet.  Water  quality  varies  from  basin  to  basin;  most 
\alle\s  have  some  ground  water  with  less  than  600 
mg/I  dissohed  solids,  but  some  have  as  much  as  several 
thousand  mg/I.  The  qualit\'  of  the  large  volume  of 
ground  w  ater  in  the  Imperial  \'ailc\-  is  so  poor  that  its 
use  is  vcr\'  limited. 

Ground  water  is  used  niainlx-  for  agriculture  in  the 
Coachella  \'alle\'  where  a  current  overdraft  is  esti- 
mated to  be  about  33,000  acre-feet  annuallw  The  over- 
draft could  be  reduced  to  1 5,000  acre-feet  or  less  be- 
fore 1990  b\-  increased  imports  from  the  State  Water 
Project.  There  is  also  an  overdraft  of  about  5,000  acre- 
feet  per  year  in  Lucerne  Valle\'. 

Waste  Water  Reclamation 

In  the  pitUlie^niiin.l3puring  the  las'  decade,  waste 
water  treatment  has  probably  been  most  closely  asso- 
ciated with  the  movement  to  reduce  the  pollution  of 
streams  and  otiicr  water  bodies.  While  this  effort  has 
been  motivated  largely  b\  aesthetic  and  ecological  con- 
cerns, the  result  has  been  to  require  more  complete 
treatment  of  wastes  before  they  are  disposed  to  water 
bodies  and  .so  to  make  them  more  suitable  for  reclama- 


104 


tion  and  reuse.  Also,  rhe  added  treatment  and  cost 
induced  by  these  requirements  reduces  the  incremental 
cost  of  treatment  for  reclamation  purposes  and  im- 
proves w  aste  water  reclamation's  competitive  position 
when  compared  \vith  alternative  water  sources.  Gi" 
caui'serTne  increasing  demands  foy*ll  pwpo.WK  M'hieh 
Sare  being  placed  on  the  limited  w  ater  supplies  in  some 
areas  iiavc  also  been  a  prime  motivation  for  seeking 
the  available  in-area  .sources  of  ne^\■  \\ater  which  waste 
water  reclamation  can  provide. 

As  California's  urban  areas  have  grown,  larger  quan- 
tities of  \\ aste  \\ ater  have  been  collected  and  convened 
to  central  points  for  treatment  and  have  b^-ome  more 
readily  available  for  reclamation.  About  z?^  million 
acre-feet  of  iminicipal,  waste  water  «  presently  proc- 
essed Cftch-^'CTT  I  and^^rcprcsents  a  significant  potential 
for  reclamatiwrrto  meet  demands  for  various  purposes. 

Waste  \\ater  reclamation  is  sometimes  implemented 
as  a  means  of  waste  disposal,  i.e.,  the  primary  purpose 
of  the  reclamation  is  to  dispose  of  treated  effluent 
while  the  beneficial  use  derived  from  the  effluent  so 
discharged  is  incidental.  However,  the  Department 
considers  the  term  "waste  water  reclamation"  to  mean 
the  planned  renovation  of  waste  v.  ater  with  the  intent 
of  producing  usable  water  for  a  specific  beneficial 
purpose.  The  California  Water  Code  defines  reclaimed 
water  as  ".  .  .  water  which,  as  a  result  of  treatment 
of  w  aste,  is  suitable  for  a  direct  beneficial  use  or  a  con- 
trolled use  that  would  not  otherwise  occur.* 

Municipal  and  industrial  waste  water  discharged  to 
inland  fresh  water  bodies  is  subject  to  redivcrsion  and 
incidental  or  unplanned  reuse.  Reclamation  of  this  wa- 
ter will  improve  the  (]ualit\'  but  will  not  increase  the 
quantity  of  water — will  not  add  "new  water"  to  the 


13050(n)  Califuri 


system.  This  is  also  true  of  most  of  the  agricultural 
water  used  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  and  other  inland 
areas  where  return  flows  from  farm  applications  are 
returned  to  the  supply  system  and  arc  reu.sed  until  the 
progressive  accumulation  of  salts  renders  the  water 
detrimental  to  plant  growth.  Reclamation  of  the  re- 
sultant saline  drainage  flow  docs  constitute  "new  wa- 
ter", but  the  flows  are  onl\'  a  small  fraction  of  the 
total  applied  \\'ater.  The  same  is  true  of  municipal  and 
industrial  wastes  in  inland  areas  w  hich  are  disposed  of 
by  evaporation,  by  percolation  to  saline  ground  water 
bodies,  or  by  other  methods  where  the  effluents  are  not 
readily  reusable.  In  coastal  areas  where  municipal  and 
industrial  wastes  are  discharged  to  saline  waters  of  the 
ocean,  ba_\s,  or  estuaries  and  are  lost  to  the  freshwater 
c\cle,  the  reclamation  of  w astes  also  constitutes  a  "new 
supply".  Since  most  of  California's  population  is  con- 
centrated in  the  coastal  cities,  these  areas  offer  the 
greatest  opportunity  for  economic  reclamation  of 
w  aste  water.  About  50  percent  of  the  water  supplied 
for  municipal  purposes  will  be  discharged  as  waste 
water.  Of  this  amount  approximate!)'  40-  percent  can 
be  reclaimed  and  the  remainder  must  be  used  to  con- 
vey residual  salts  and  solids  to  disposal  sites. 
—  Table  19  shows  the  disposition  of  treated  municipal 
and  industrial  waste  water  discharged  in  1972.  As 
shown,  1.7  million  acre-feet  of  treated  waste  effluent 
produced  during  1972  was  discharged  into  the  ocean 
and  into  saline  bays  and  estuaries.  It  is  the  reclamation 
of  this  waste  water  that  ofi^ers  the  primary  potential  as 
a  "new"  source  of  Avater.  As  shown  in  Table  19,  the 
sum  of  the  intentional  and  incidental  reclamation  in 
the  inland  hydrologic  areas  is  a  very  large  percentage 
of  total  waste  w  ater  production,  being  well  over  90 
percent  in  the  Sacramento,  Delta-Central  Sierra,  and 
San  Joaquin  areas. 


Table   19. 

Sumtnary  of  Urban  Waste  Water  Production  Dispose 

,  and  Reclamation  Practices  in 

972 

Kslimated 

population 

served 

(1,000's) 

Waste 

produced 
(1,000  A¥) 

Waste  watt 

r  reclaimed 

Waste  war 

r  discharge 

Intentional 

Incidental 

Total 

Net" 

To  salin 

waters'" 

Hydrologic  study  area 

Quantity 
(1,000  AF) 

Percent' 

Quantity 
(1,000  AF) 

Percent' 

Quantity 
(1,000  AF) 

Percent' 

Quantity 
(1,000  AF) 

Percent' 

(1,000  AF) 

Percent' 

85 
4.578 
718 
11.021 
618 
902 
356 
719 

56 
176 
162 

73 
583 
114 
1,287 
106 
131 
60 
116 
11 
20 
22 

1 
8 
5 
57 
12 
8 
26 
45 
6 
7 
6 

1 
1 
4 
4 
11 
6 
43 
39 
55 
35 
27 

6 
32 
35 
152 
86 
121 
32 
45 
3 
8 
12 

8 
6 
31 
12 
81 
92 
53 
39 
27 
40 
55 

7 
40 
40 

209 
98 

129 
58 
90 
9 
15 
18 

10 
7 
35 
16 
92 
98 
97 
78 
82 
75 
82 

72 
575 
109 
1.230 
94 
123 
34 
71 
5 
13 
16 

99 
99 
96 
96 
89 
94 
57 
61 
45 
65 
73 

66 
540 

62 
1,066 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

90 

San  Francisco  Bay 

93 
54 

83 

Sacramento  Basin 

0 

Delta-Central  Sierra 

0 

San  Joaquin  Basin 

0 

Tulare  Basin 

0 

0 

South  Lahontan.. 

0 
5 

Total 

19,391 

2,523 

181 

7 

532 

21 

713 

28 

2,342 

93 

1,735 

69 

>  Ocean,  bays,  and  < 
■  Of  the  amount  of  waste  • 
'  Discharges  to  Salton  Sea 
Source:  DWR  Bulletin  No 


t  of  waste  water  produced  le 


i-72,  "Inventory  of  Waste  Water  Production  and  Wa 


.  Practices  in  California",  1972  (. 


105 


Use  of  Reclaimed  Waste  Water 

The  fe;isil)ilit\-  of  reclamation  and  reuse  of  waste 
water  will  vary  with  each  individual  situation.  How- 
ever, some  of  the  obvious  parameters  which  will  affect 
reclamation  are: 

1.  Quality  of  the  w  aste  w  ater. 

2.  Cost  of  treatment. 

3.  Cost  of  conve>ancc  and  distribution  in  tiic  area 
w  here  it  will  be  used. 

4.  Price  that  users  are  w  illing  and  able  to  pa>'. 

5.  Public  acceptance  of  the  use  proposed. 
\'arious  public  health,  physical,  aesthetic,  economic, 

and  other  restraints  will  determine  how  each  of  the 
above  factors  affects  the  feasibilit\  of  any  given  rec- 
lamation project.  For  example,  the  direct  use  of  re- 
claimed water  for  domestic  needs  is  not  practiced  in 
California  because  public  health  authorities  are  un- 
certain that  stable  organics  *  and  virus  and  other  dis- 
ease-producing agents  can  be  removed  from  waste 
water.  Also,  such  use  has  not  yet  gained  public  ac- 
ceptance. The  results  of  recent  public-opinion  surveys 
on  the  use  of  reclaimed  w  ater  indicate  that  the  major- 
ity of  those  questioned  opposed  the  use  of  reclaimed 
water  for  personal  use,  e.g.,  drinking,  cooking,  bath- 
ing, and  laundering.  In  one  particular  statewide  sur- 
vey,! only  0.8  percent  of  972  persons  questioned 
opposed  the  use  of  reclaimed  w  ater  in  road  construc- 
tion; however,  56.4  percent  of  the  same  group  opposed 
its  use  as  drinking  w  ater. 

At  present,  reclaimed  water  is  used  chiefly  for  agri- 
cultural, industrial,  municipal  irrigation,  recreational, 
and  ground  water  recharge  purposes. 

Agricultural  uses  include  irrigation  of  (1)  pasture, 
(2)  fodder,  fiber,  and  seed  crops,  (3)  crops  that  are 
grown  well  above  the  ground,  such  as  fruits,  nuts,  and 
grapes,  provided  they  are  not  harvested  after  they 

*  Stable  organics  are  those  organic  materials  which  are  not  removed  from 
waste  water  as  a  result  of  treatment  using  conventional  primary 
and  secondary  sewage  treatment  processes. 

t  William  H.  Bruvold  and  Henry  J.  Ongerth,  "Public  Use  and  Evalua- 
tion of  Reclaimed  Water,"  Journal  of  American  Water  Works  As- 
sociation, May  1974. 


have  fallen,  and  (4)  crops  that  are  processed  so  that 
pathogenic  organisms  arc  destroyed  prior  to  human 
consumption. 

Industrial  uses  of  reclaimed  water  include  cooling 
w  ater,  process  wash  water,  boiler  feed  water,  quench- 
ing spray  water,  fire  protection,  and  secondary- 
product  recoverw  These  are  carried  out  chiefl)'  at 
metallurgical  manufacturing  and  fabrication  plants, 
electric-power  generation  plants,  oil  refineries  and 
petro-chemical  plants,  and  in  mining  and  quarrying. 

The  direct  use  of  reclaimed  water  for  municipal  ir- 
rigation and  recreational  pursuits  includes  (1)  irriga- 
tion of  parks,  freeway  landscapes,  golf  courses,  and 
athletic  fields,  (2)  creation  of  scenic  and  ornamental 
lakes  and  ponds,  (3)  the  maintenance  of  recreational 
lakes — for  picnicking,  boating,  swimming,  etc.,  and 
(4)  irrigation  at  thermal  power  plants  and  industrial 
plants. 

The  use  made  of  water  resulting  from  intentional 
reclamation  of  municipal  and  industrial  wastes  in  1972 
as  reported  by  municipal,  federal,  and  private  agencies 
is  shown  in  Table  20.  The  locations  of  these  reclama- 
tion operations  are  shown  in  Figure  23.  Of  the  total 
181,000  acre-feet  of  intentional  reclamation  shown  in 
Table  20,  an  estimated  50,000  acre-feet,  or  28  percent, 
represents  a  "new"  water  supply;  that  is,  had  this 
amount  not  been  reclaimed,  it  would  have  been  dis- 
charged to  saline  waters  and  lost  to  the  usable  fresh- 
w  ater  supply.  The  remaining  131,000  acre-feet  would 
have  been  available  for  incidental  reuse  through  dis- 
posal to  land  or  to  streams. 

Potential  Future  of  Waste  Water  Reclamation 

Of  the  waste  waters  from  which  reclamation  could 
provide  a  "new"  suppl_\",  onh'  a  portion  will  normally 
be  reclaimed.  High  total  dissolved  solids  or  specific 
constituents  may  make  abi'ut  1^  percent  of  the  waters 
uneconomic  for  the  possible  uses  in  the  area.  Also,  a 
portion  of  the  water  will  be  required  to  convey  con- 
centrated wastes  to  points  of  disposal  or  to  prevent 


Table   20.      Inlenlior 


a\  Use  of  Reclaii 
(acre-feet) 


ed  Water  In  1972 


Industrial 

Irrigation 

Ground  water 
recharge 

Recreation 

Log  deck 
sprinkling 

Wildlife 
habitat 

Hydrologic  area 

Crops 

Landscape 

Golf  course 

Total 

North  Coastal 

San  Francisco  Bay 

Central  Coastal 

100 
2,800 

900 

SCO 
3.200 
5,400 
20,200 
5,000 
8,400 
25.300 
44.100 
3,600 
2,600 
3,600 

1,000 
9,600 

200 
200 

200 
2,700 

200 
200 

3.666 
1.600 

100 
21,200 

966 

466 
200 

3,800 
700 

4.900 
2.866 

1.700 

600 
8,200 
5.500 

57,200 

Sacramento  Basin 

Delta-Central  Sierra 

San  Joaquin  Basin 

Tulare  Basin 

11,600 
8.400 
25,700 
45,400 

North  Lahontan 

6,400 
6,600 

6,300 

Totals 

3,800 

121,900 

11.000 

8,500 

22,800 

4,500 

7,700 

1.700 

181,900 

106 


accumulation  of  salts  in  the  soil,  and  this  use  may  ac- 
count for  from  20  to  30  percent  of  the  waste  water 
whicli  is  available  for  reclamation.  Therefore,  an  aver- 
age of  about  60  percent  of  available  waste  water  could 
ultimately  be  reclaimed. 

Table  19  shows  that  in  1972,  intentional  reclamation 
amounted  to  7  percent  of  waste  water  produced;  how- 
ever, the  sum  of  the  intentional  and  the  incidental 
reclamation  amounted  to  nearly  30  percent  of  pro- 
duction, or  about  one-half  the  potential  reclaimable 
water. 

Five  Hydrologic  Study  Areas  that  appear  to  offer 
especially  favorable  conditions  for  reclamation  and 
reuse  of  waste  water  include: 

1.  San  Francisco  Bay 

2.  Central  Coastal 

3.  South  Coastal 

4.  San  Joaquin 

5.  Tulare  Basin 

These  areas  are  considered  particularly  suitable  for 
reclamation  and  reuse  of  waste  water  to  alleviate  prob- 
lems associated  with  (1)  present  and  projected  de- 
mands for  supplemental  water,  (2)  relatively  high 
salinity  of  much  of  the  basic  water  supplies,  (3)  sea 
water  intrusion  in  the  coastal  areas,  or  (4)  high  costs 
of  alternative  supplemental  supplies. 

In  the  three  large  coastal  metropolitan  areas,  i.e., 
San  Francisco  Bay,  Los  Angeles  Metropolitan,  and 
San  Diego  Metropolitan,  reclamation  of  waste  water 
offers  particular  potential  as  an  alternative  water  sup- 
ply. These  basins  depend  to  some  extent  now,  and  will 
depend  to  a  greater  extent  in  the  future,  on  good 
qualit\'  \\ater  imports,  and  much  of  the  waste  water 
produced  in  these  basins  is  of  reusable  quality.  How- 
ever, the  average  mineral  quality  of  the  waste  water 
potentially  available  in  the  South  Coastal  H\'droIogic 
Study  Area  is  about  1,000  parts  per  million,  and  its 
use  for  municipal  purposes  would  be  limited  unless 
desalting  or  blending  with  better  quality  water  were 
practiced. 

Table  21  provides  projections  from  a  recent  De- 
partment report  *,  by  urban  area,  of  (1)  total  munici- 
pal   and    industrial    waste    production,    and    (2)    the 

Table   21.      Municipal  and  Industrial  Waste  Water  Production  in 
Coastal  Metropolitan  Areas  (1,000  acre-feet) 


Total  waste 
produced 

Su 

liable  for 
clamation 

Are.! 

1970 

1990 

2000 

1970 

1990 

2000 

San  Francisco  Bay 

Monterey  Bay 

607 
50 
70 
1.070 
110 

1.140 
140 
230 

1.730 
260 

1,360 
180 
340 

2,160 
390 

560 
50 
60 

890 
80 

950 
140 
190 
1.450 
200 

1,140 
180 
290 

1.800 

300 

'  Department    of    Water    Resources    Bulletii 
Reclamation,  Stale  of  the  Art,"  March  1 


Figure  23.     Waste  Water  Reclamation  Facilities 


107 


amount  of  discharged  wastes  that,  considering  present 
and  planned  water  supplies,  would  be  chemically  suit- 
able for  reclamation.  Much  of  the  waste  water  from 
these  areas,  if  reclaimed,  would  represent  a  "new" 
water  supply  in  lieu  of  discharge  to  saline  waters.  The 
amount  of  water  that  nia\-  be  reclaimed  in  each  area 
will  depend  on  various  factors,  including  costs,  suit- 
ability of  the  water  for  various  uses,  and  marketing 
factors. 

Both  the  San  Joaquin  and  Tulare  Lake  Basins  offer 
potential  for  reclamation  of  agricultural  waste  water. 
Recent  estimates  indicate  that,  at  the  1970  level  of 
development,  some  87,000  acre-feet  of  agricultural 
waste  water  which  could  no  longer  be  recycled  were 
generated  each  year  in  these  two  basins.  The  amount 
is  expected  to  increase  to  400,000  acre-feet  by  1990. 

Some  means  of  disposal  or  reclamation  of  these 
waste  waters  is  fast  becoming  a  necessity.  In  the  San 
Joaquin  Valley,  the  Bureau  of  Reclamation  is  con- 
structing the  first  phase  of  the  San  Luis  Drain  to 
remove  agricultural  wastes  from  the  San  Luis  Project 
service  area.  As  an  interim  measure  the  agricultural 
waste  water  will  be  conveyed  to  Kesterson  Reservoir 
and  used  for  wildlife  management. 

At  the  present  time,  the  average  salt  concentration 
of  this  agricultural  waste  water  is  about  6,800  milli- 
grams per  liter  (mg/1).  For  most  purposes,  this  ex- 
ceeds the  maximum  practicable  limit  for  reuse  without 


desalting  treatment.  How  ever,  as  salts  arc  leached  from 
the  soil  and  removed  from  the  basin,  the  average  min- 
eral concentration  is  expected  to  decline  to  about  3,000 
mg/i  by  the  year  2000.  The  lower  concentrations  in 
later  years  will  increase  the  utilit\-  of  waste  water  use 
from  an  economic  standpoint. 

Two  possible  alternatives  exist  for  tlie  use  of  this 
highly  saline  waste  water: 

1.  It  could  be  desalted  to  provide  additional  local 
water   supplies. 

2.  It  could  be  softened  and  used   for  power  plaut 
cooling. 

Cost  of  Waste  Water  Reclamation 

Since  state  and  federal  regulatory  agencies  will  re- 
quire at  least  the  equivalent  of  secondary  treatment 
for  all  wastes  discharged  into  surface  water,  including 
the  ocean,  by  1977,  costs  for  additional  steps  for  waste 
water  reclamation  will  be  lower  in  the  future.  The 
costs  of  outfall  lines  and  any  associated  pumping  for 
disposal  of  treated  sewage  effluent  would  also  be  less. 
Costs  allocated  to  se\\age  treatment  and  to  waste  water 
reclamation  should  reflect  equitable  sharing  of  savings 
through  multipurpose  projects. 

The  costs  of  reclaimed  water  vary  widely,  depend- 
ing on  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  waste  water, 
disposal    rc(]uirenicnts,    treatment    rc(]uircmcnts,    in- 


Whittier  Narrows  waste  water  reclamation  pta 


108 


tended  uses,  and  the  transportation  requirement  to  the 

site  of  use.  Present  costs  range  from:  ' 

1.  Two  to  five  dollars  per  acre-foot  in  areas  where    j 

reclaimed  water  can  be  used  for  irrigation  near   i 

the  treatment  plants;  I 

!        2.  Twenty  to  forty  dollars  per  acre-foot  where  ex-    ' 

,  pensive    treatment,    storage,    transportation    and  i 

j  disposal  arc  required;  and  ; 

3.  More  than  |100  per  acre-foot  where  more  ex-  ' 

tensive  treatment,  such  as  desalting,  is  required. 

Activities  by  the  Department  of  Water  Resources      | 

The  Department  of  Water  Resources  has  for  many 
i  years  had  statutory  responsibilities  to  study  and  pro- 
mote waste  \\ater  reclamation.  These  responsibilities 
were  reiterated  and  brought  up  to  date  by  the  1973- 
74  Legislature  in  AB  3815  which  is  called  Waste 
Water  Reuse  Law  of  1974.  In  addition  to  re-express- 
ing state  policy  that  there  should  be  maximum  reuse 
of  waste  water  for  satisfying  beneficial  water  needs, 
the  Department  is  directed  to  consider  use  of  waste 
water  for  power  plant  cooling  as  well  as  for  other 
purposes,  and  is  authorized  to  study  the  technology 
of  the  reuse  of  waste  water  and  further  the  develop- 
ment of  the  technology  of  reclamation  of  waste  water. 
The  Department  of  Water  Resources'  current  reclama- 
tion activities  include: 

1.  An  annual  statewide  inventory  of  waste  water 
I    production  and  reclamation  practices  and  technology, 

published  in  the  Bulletin  No.  68  Series. 

2.  Studies  in  specific  areas  to  (a)  report  on  the  cur- 
rent status  of  waste  water  reclamation  practice  and 
update  the  state  of  the  art,  (b)  determine  the  possi- 
bility of  using  reclamed  water  to  both  meet  future 
water  demands  and  solve  water  quality  problems,  (c) 
define  specific  waste  water  reclamation  possibilities, 
and  (d)  determine  the  environmental  and  ecological 
effects  from  the  use  of  reclaimed  water.  The  results 
of  these  studies  are  published  in  the  Bulletin  No.  80 
Series. 

3.  Investigations  and  studies  leading  to  (a)  the  im- 
plementation of  waste  water  reclamation  projects,  or 
(b)  a  determination  of  the  potential  of  reclaiming 
water  from  a  specific  waste  or  for  a  specific  use. 

The  scope  of  present  and  future  planning  investiga- 
tions of  waste  water  reclamation  potential  is,  perhaps, 
typified  by  the  Department's  recent  participation  in 
and  preparation  of  a  report  for  the  San  Francisco  Bay 
Area  Interagency  Waste  Water  Reclamation  Study. 
Participants  included  16  federal,  state,  and  local  water 
agencies  and  several  local  sanitation  districts.  The  re- 
port presents  a  summary  of  information  on  waste 
water  discharges  in  the  Bay  area,  identifies  possible 
markets  for  reclaimed  water,  and  discusses  the  aggre- 
gation, conveyance,  treatment,  and  storage  systems 
necessary  to  connect  waste  water  sources  to  reclaimed 
water  markets.  The  study  focused  on  the  possibility 
of  using  the  reclaimed  waste  water  for  augmentation 


of  delta  outflow;  and,  in  addition  to  direct  use  for  that 
purpose,  indirect  means  \\-ere  investigated.  These  in- 
cluded substituting  reclaimed  \\ater  for  irrigation  and 
ground  water  recharge  demands  in  the  Bay  area  and 
for  irrigation  in  the  adjacent  HoUister  area  and  in 
the  Delta-Mendota  and  San  Luis  service  areas  in  the 
San  Joaquin  Valley.  Also,  the  possibility  of  using  re- 
claimed water  as  a  cooling  supply  for  power  plants 
\va.s  considered.  A  number  of  alternative  projects  were 
investigated,  and  costs  were  estimated  to  range  from 
190  to  $130  per  acre-foot  of  delivered  water.  The 
Department  is  engaged  in  further  study  of  reclama- 
tion of  this  waste  water. 

A  listing  of  reports  by  the  Department  of  Water 
Resources  for  the  years  1950  through  1972  and  brief 
descriptions  of  the  activities  of  the  Department  are 
given  in  Bulletin  No.  189.* 

Legal  Requirements  and  Public  Acceptance 

Regulations  and  requirements  for  the  quality  of 
water  from  all  sources  that  can  be  used  by  the  public 
are  set  by  federal,  state,  and  local  authorities  to  protect 
both  the  public  health  and  the  environment.  Regula- 
tions and  requirements  for  the  use  of  reclaimed  waste 
water  are  prescribed  in  accordance  with  the  Water 
Reclamation  Law  (Division  7,  Chapter  7  of  the  State 
Water  Code).  Statewide  waste  water  reclamation 
criteria  are  set  by  the  Department  of  Health  for  those 
uses  of  reclaimed  waste  water  which  affect  the  public 
health.  The  regional  water  quality  control  boards  then 
set  requirements  in  relationship  with  these  waste  water 
reclamation  criteria  upon  either  the  producer  of  the 
reclaimed  water  or  the  user,  or  both. 

Currently,  the  Department  of  Health  has  established 
waste  water  reclamation  criteria  for  irrigation  of 
fodder,  fiber,  seed,  and  some  food  crops.  Generally, 
the  food  crops  eaten  raw  which  will  not  come  in 
contact  \\ith  the  reclaimed  waste  water  or  those 
which  are  cooked  in  a  controlled  environment,  such 
as  in  a  cannery,  may  be  irrigated  with  reclaimed 
water.  Also,  criteria  to  protect  the  public  health  have 
been  established  for  recreation  impoundments  and 
landscape  irrigation.  While  the  Department  of  Health 
has  not  as  yet  established  waste  water  criteria  for 
ground  water  recharge,  it  has  issued  a  position  paper 
as  it  pertains  to  the  development  of  basin  plans  for 
the  State  Water  Resources  Control  Board.  The  De- 
partment of  Health  states  that  direct  injection  to 
ground  water  is  prohibited  and  that  surface  spreading 
will  be  considered  on  a  case-by-case  basis.  It  further 
states  that  it  would  be  its  position  to  recommend 
against  waste  water  reuse  in  small  ground  water  basins 
or  where  the  quantity  to  be  reused  would  be  a  large 
amount  with  respect  to  the  quantity  of  water  in  the 
basin.  The  Department  of  Health  would  also  require 
the  abandoment  of  any  projects  where  reclaimed  waste 
water  appeared  in  a  local  water  supply  well. 

•  Department  of  Water  Resources  Bulletin  No.   189,  "Waste  Water  Rec- 
lamation, State  of  the  Art,"  March  1973. 


109 


The  public  is  conscious  of  the  need  for  conserving 
water  resources,  and  many  feel  that  the  reuse  of  re- 
claimed waste  \\atcr,  except  for  domestic  purposes,  is 
acceptable  pro\ided  the  necessary  precautions  to  pro- 
tect the  public  health  arc  taken.  The  health  authorities 
feel  that  the  reuse  of  reclaimed  waste  water  for  do- 
mestic and  municipal  \\  atcr  supplies  should  be  banned 
until  such  time  as  the  effects  of  stable  organics  upon 
the  public  health  arc  full>"  understood,  until  reason- 
able methods  of  identification  and  measurement  of 
stable  organics  and  viruses  have  been  developed,  and 
until  fail-safe  treatment  processes  for  the  total  removal 
of  stable  organics  and  viruses  have  been  perfected. 

The  reuse  of  waste  water  in  the  past,  and  currently, 
has  been  controlled  b\'  the  requirements  set  by  the 
Department  of  Health.  Future  knowledge  and  tech- 
nolog\-  will  probably  permit  the  criteria  for  use  of  re- 
claimed \\aste  \\ ater  to  be  more  easily  met  and  allow 
a  higher  degree  of  recycling  and  more  direct  municipal 
and  industrial  reuse. 

Desalting 

Established  desalting  processes  are  in  operation  in  a 
number  of  arid  areas  in  the  v.  orld  which  are  in  prox- 
imity to  the  ocean  or  other  saline  water  bodies  and 
\\here  the  relatively-  high  cost  is  competitive  ^\ith 
available  alternatives.  The  distillation  process  is  highly 
developed  and,  for  small  and  medium  capacit\-  appli- 
cations, has  been  in  use  for  man\'  \ears,  during  which 
time  single-unit  capacit\'  has  risen  to  several  million 
gallons  per  da>'.  The  electrodial\sis  and  reverse  os- 
mosis processes  have  also  been  applied  to  commercial 
production  of  fresh  water. 

In  California  thus  far,  there  has  been  limited  incen- 
tive for  applying  existing  desalting  technology  for  \\a- 
ter  resources  development  due  to  the  high  costs  and 
to  the  highly  developed  surface  and  ground  A\ater 
systems  ^\■hich  have  made  large  quantities  of  water 
available  at  reasonable  cost.  However,  a  number  of 
industries  in  California  use  desalting  to  provide  proc- 
ess water  and  for  production  of  bottled  water.  Also, 
most  of  the  power  plants  sited  adjacent  to  the  ocean 
have  sea  water  distillation  facilities  for  producing 
boiler  feed  \\  ater  and,  in  some  cases,  for  other  in-plant 
uses.  Output  of  the  dcsalters  ranges  from  about  30,000 
to  400,000  gallons  per  daw  Total  state  production  is 
probably  not  more  than  2  to  3  thousand  acre-feet  per 
year. 

There  are  no  municipal  applications  of  desalting  in 
California  today;  however,  studies  b\-  the  Department 
of  Water  Resources  indicate  that  desalting  could  bene- 
fit a  number  of  small  and  medium-size  communities 
that  have  poor  quality  water.  For  the  most  part,  these 
communities  are  isolated  from  developed  water  s\s- 
tems  and  local  water  supplies  are  highly  mineralized. 
Desalting  has  been  u.scd  in  onl\'  a  few  California  com- 
munities, such  as  the  clectrodiahsis  plant  and  the  re- 


verse osmosis  test  unit  which  were  operated  for  a 
number  of  \ears  at  Coalinga,  and  the  standby  sea  wa- 
ter distillation  unit  on  Catalina  Island.  The  Coalinga 
plants  were  used  to  desalt  ground  water  until  good 
qualitN  surface  water  was  imported. 

Cosfs  of  Desalfing 

Inflation  and  the  energy  crisis  have  delivered  some 
heavy  blow  s  to  the  economics  of  saline  w  ater  conver- 
sion. Advances  in  technology  w  ere  unable  to  keep  up 
with  rising  inflation  from  about  1970.  Until  that  year, 
advances  in  technology  were  steadily  decreasing  the 
cost  of  desalted  water  in  small-capacitx'  plants  from 
about  S6  per  1,000  gallons  (S1950  per  acre-foot)  a  dec- 
ade before  to  about  Si  per  1,000  gallons  ($325  per 
acre-foot)  in  1970.  Capital  costs  were  about  Si  per 
gallon  per  day  of  plant  capacit\'. 

The  trend  in  capital  cost  reduction  was  reversed  in 
the  earlv  1970s  when  escalation  increased  costs  more 
rapidly  than  advances  in  technological  improvements 
reduced  them.  The  estimated  capital  cost  for  the  pro- 
posed 40,000,000  gallon  per  day  Diablo  Can\  on  distil- 
lation sea  water  desalter  was  about  S66,000,000  or  $1.65 
per  gallon  per  day  of  plant  capacit\'  at  1971  prices. 
These  costs  w  ere  substantialh'  greater  than  would  have 
been  estimated  for  a  large-capacity  plant  in  the  late 
1960s.  The  at-site  cost  of  desalted  water  was  estimated 
to  be  about  1240  per  acre-foot.  Delivery  into  the  San 
Luis  Obispo-Santa  Barbara  Counties  service  area 
brought  the  cost  up  to  about  S300  per  acre-foot. 

One  of  the  major  means  for  the  control  of  salinity 
of  Colorado  River  water  delivered  to  Mexico  under 
the  agreement  reached  by  the  United  States  and  Mex- 
ico is  to  blend  river  water  with  desalted  water  from 
a  proposed  ver\  large  capacity  desalting  complex. 
About  100,000  acre-feet  per  year  of  desalted  water 
will  be  produced  b\-  reverse-osmosis  or  possibly  elec- 
trodialwsis  equipment  capable  of  producing  100,000,000 
gallons  per  da\-,  making  this  facility  by  far  the  largest 
desalter  in  the  world.  The  saline  feed  to  the  desalter 
will  be  brackish  agricultural  return  water  from  the 
W'ellton-Mohawk  Drain  in  Arizona.  The  waste  water 
desalting  plant  and  facilities  are  estimated  to  cost  about 
$62,000,000  or  about  62  cents  per  gallon  per  day  of 
plant  capacity.  The  unit  cost  of  producing  the  desalted 
water  from  the  100,000  acre-feet  per  \ear  plant  is 
estimated  to  be  about  $136  per  acre-foot. 

For  several  of  the  California  communities  investi- 
gated by  the  Department  of  AV'ater  Resources  w  here 
desalting  could  be  used  to  improve  the  quality  of  the 
brackish  ground  water  supply,  the  estimated  capital 
cost  for  reverse  osmosis  plants  ranges  from  75  cents  to 
$5.00  per  gallon  per  day  of  plant  capacitw  The  plant 
capacities  varied  from  20,000  to  1,000,000  gallons  per 
day.  The  water  production  costs  ranged  from  about  70 
cents  to  $4.50  per  1,000  gallons  ($230  to  $1,460  per 
acre-foot). 


110 


Water  Factory  21,  Orange  County 


Energy  Required 

\^ari()us  forms  of  energy  are  used  for  desalting,  de- 
pending on  the  desalting  process  and  the  source  of 
energy  available.  Steam  is  used  to  heat  water  for  the 
distillation  processes.  Pumps  are  used  to  create  pres- 
sure in  the  feed  water  in  the  reverse  osmosis  process 
and  electricit\'  is  used  in  the  electrodialysis  process. 

EnergN'  is  expended  to  create  the  steam  and  drive 
the  pumps.  The  heat  generated  b\'  burning  natural  gas 
or  oil,  or  nuclear  fission  can  be  used  to  generate  the 
steam.  The  pumps  are  usually  driven  b\'  electric 
motors. 

The  amount  of  energ\'  used  for  desalting  can  var\' 
with  the  concentration  of  salt  in  the  water  to  be  de- 
salted, the  amount  of  salt  to  be  removed,  and  the 
amount  of  water  to  be  treated.  For  desalting  sea 
water,  a  small  vapor  compression  distillation  desalter 
uses  nearl\'  100  kilowatt-hours  of  electricit\'  for  ever\' 
1,000  gallons  (33,000  kilowatt-hours  per  acre-foot)  of 
fresh  water  produced.  A  large-capacity  multistage 
flash  distillation  plant  would  use  about  50  kilowatt- 
hours  per  1,000  gallons  of  water  produced.  For  the  de- 
salting of  brackish  ground  water  with  small-capacit\- 
membrane  desalters,  about  10  kilowatt-hours  would  be 
used  per  1,000  gallons.  For  comparison,  10  kilowatt- 
hours  would  also  be  required  to  pump  1,000  gallons  of 
water  a  vertical  distance  of  2,700  feet,  the  equivalent 
of  the  combined  lift  of  the  three  southernmost  San 
Joaquin  \'alley  pumping  plants  of  the  State  Water 
Project,  Wheeler  Ridge,  Wind  Gap,  and  A.  D.  Ed- 
monston  Pumping  Plants. 


Acfivifies  by  the  Department 

The  Saline  Water  Conversion  Program  was  initi- 
ated in  the  Department  of  Water  Resources  in  1957, 
and  since  that  time  several  cooperative  efforts  with  the 
federal  Office  of  Saline  Water  *  have  been  undertaken. 
After  participating  in  financing  and  the  operation  of 
the  Point  Loma  sea  water  conversion  plant  and  the 
San  Diego  Saline  Water  Test  Facility,  the  Department 
in  1969  intensified  its  cooperative  efforts  in  the  devel- 
opment of  potential  desalting  applications  and  sites, 
and  in  the  development  of  a  large-capacit\-  protot\pe 
desalter. 

A  stud\-  was  made  to  select  a  site  for  a  prototype 
desalting  plant  that  would  be  a  full-size,  first-of-a-kind 
plant.  A  reconnaissance-level  surve\'  identified  po- 
tential markets  for  desalted  water  in  water  service 
areas  along  the  California  coast  and  possible  sites  for 
obtaining  a  steam  suppl\"  from  a  power  plant.  The 
Diablo  Can\'on  nuclear  power  plant  on  the  coast  near 
San  Luis  Obispo  was  selected  for  the  protoypc  studw 
The  Diablo  Can\on  protoype  desalter  study  included 
a  40  million  gallon  per  da\'  sea  water  desalter  that 
would  use  some  of  the  steam  produced  by  the  nuclear 
generating  plant  now  under  construction  at  Diablo 
Can\on  b\'  the  Pacific  Gas  and  Electric  Companw 
The  desalter  consisted  of  two  units  of  20  mgd  capacity 
which  was  more  than  three  times  the  capacit\'  of  any 
individual  units  in  the  world  at  that  time.  Al.so  pro- 


'  Office  of  Saline  Water  (OSW)  a 
Research  have  been  combined  v 
search  and  Technology.  Referon 
past  activities  of  that  ofHce  and 


the    Office 

!    of    Water    Resources 

in  the  nev 

.■  Office  of  Water  Re- 

to  OSW   i 

n    this  report  concern 

pre\'ious  n 

ame   is  therefore  used. 

Ill 


posed  was  a  62-milc  pipeline  to  conve\'  desalted  water 
into  parts  of  San  Luis  Obispo  County  and  Santa  Bar- 
bara County. 

As  a  result  of  this  study  the  Department  of  Water 
Resources  issued  a  feasibility  report  *  which  recom- 
mended that  the  U.  S.  Congress  and  State  Legislature 
authorize  the  project  as  described  in  the  report  and 
provide  the  means  to  finance  the  construction  and 
operation  of  the  project.  However,  the  Office  of  Saline 
Water  reported  to  the  1972  Session  of  Congress  that 
a  large-scale  prototype  desalting  project  had  not  been 
satisfactorily  identified  that  \\  ould  meet  all  of  its  re- 
quirements. Since  the  prototype  project  would  not  be 
feasible  without  federal  participation  in  funding,  no 
further  action  has  been  taken  on  this  project. 

The  present  on-going  desalting  program  includes 
the  assessment  of  membrane  desalting  processes  for 
selected  types  of  brackisli  and  \\ astc  waters  and  an  as- 
sessment of  possible  desalting  applications  in  the  State. 

In  1971  an  experimental  reverse  osmosis  desalting 
unit  to  desalt  agricultural  waste  water  was  installed  at 
the  Firebaugh  Test  Station,  40  miles  west  of  Fresno, 
under  an  agreement  \\  itii  the  University  of  California 
which  has  provided  technical  guidance  in  the  testing 
program.  Also,  the  Office  of  Saline  Water  joined  the 
Department  of  Water  Resources  in  a  cooperative 
agreement  in  1972  for  testing  at  Firebaugh  b\-  furnish- 
ing two  reverse  osmosis  test  units  in  operation  at  Fire- 
baugh to  determine  the  technical  fcasibilit\'  of  desalt- 
ing agricultural  waste  water.  Desalting  of  the  waste 
water  could  provide  a  quantit\'  of  water  for  reuse  and 
at  the  same  time  serve  to  concentrate  the  waste  into 
a  mucii  smaller  volume. 

The  Department's  participation  in  this  effort  at  Fire- 
baugh has  led  to  a  discover)-  that  b\'  adding  an  ion  ex- 
change w  ater  softening  unit  in  series  with  the  reverse 
osmosis  desaiters  it  is  possible  to  attain  an  efficienc\- 
of  90  percent  recovery  of  the  treated  feed  water.  Pre- 
vious efforts  liad  attained  70  percent  efficienc\'. 

Under  another  cooperative  agreement  with  the  L^ni- 
vcrsity  of  California  in  1973,  the  University  produced 
a  reverse  osmosis  unit  which  the  Department  provided 
to  the  iMetropolitan  Water  District  of  Southern  Cali- 
fornia to  operate  at  the  F.  E.  Wc\mouth  .Memorial 
Softening  and  Filtration  Plant.  The  Department's  unit 
is  being  operated  b\  the  Metropolitan  AV'atcr  District, 
along  with  four  other  types  of  reverse  osmosis  units 
owned  by  the  District,  to  determine  the  fcasibilit\'  of 
desalting  Colorado  River  W^atcr  for  qualit\'  improve- 
ment. 

In  1973,  the  Department  joined  in  an  ongoing  pro- 
gram of  the  Cit\'  of  San  Diego  for  the  desalting  of  un- 
treated municipal  waste  water.  The  City  has  made 
some  successful  inroads  into  this  area  of  desalting,  and 
the  Department  will  provide  studies  on,  among  other 

•  State  of  Cjlifcirnia,  IXpartmc:it  of  Water  Resources  and  United  Slates 
Department  of  the  Interior.  Office  of  Saline  Water,  "Feasibility 
Report,  Diablo  Canyon  Desalting;  Project",  March  1972. 


things,  the  determination  of  the  concentration  of  virus 
in  the  product  water. 

To  assess  the  potential  for  small  desalting  installa- 
tions for  improvement  of  local  water  supplies  the  De- 
partment made  an  inventory  of  1 1 1  small  and  medium 
size  communities  in  California  where  water  quality 
problems  exist  in  the  municipal  water  supply.  The 
communities  included  in  the  inventory'  are  located  in 
various  parts  of  the  State,  although  the  majority  are 
in  Southern  California.  In  each  community  excessive 
concentration  of  salts  occurs  in  existing  municipal 
water  supplies,  potential  supplemental  municipal  water 
supplies,  or  municipal  waste  waters.  The  communities 
are  isolated  from  existing  and  proposed  water  project 
facilities  that  could  feasibly  provide  a  better  water 
supply.  All  facilities  required  for  a  desalting  applica- 
tion were  assessed  for  each  community  and  estimated 
capital  costs,  annual  costs,  and  unit  costs  were  deter- 
mined for  each  system. 

Desalting  may  play  a  role  in  the  operation  of  future 
electric  generating  plants  at  inland  sites  by  enabling 
operators  to  use  brackish  agricultural  waste  water  for 
cooling  and  also  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  En- 
vironmental Protection  Agenc\'  for  disposal  of  brines 
resulting  from  the  evaporative  cooling  process.  The 


ental  tubulor  reverse  osmosis  dcsLjIhruj 


112 


agricultural  waste  water  generally  contains  concen- 
trations of  scale-producing  constituents  that  must  be 
reduced  by  ion  exchange  softening  before  the  water 
can  be  economically  used  for  cooling.  It  is  desirable  to 
concentrate  the  blowdown  waste  from  the  evaporative 
cooling  process  to  facilitate  its  disposal.  The  distilla- 
tion desalting  process  may  be  used  for  this  purpose, 
and  the  concentrated  ■waste  from  the  distillation  proc- 
ess could  provide  an  economic  source  of  brine  to  re- 
generate the  ion  exchange  resins  used  in  the  soften- 
ing process.  There  is  a  need  to  develop  design  and  cost 
data  for  both  of  these  systems  before  the  potential  of 
either  can  be  fully  evaluated.  To  meet  this  need,  the 
Department  is  planning  a  development  and  testing  pro- 
gram with  technical  assistance  from  the  University  of 
California. 

Future  Poienfial  of  Desalination 

In  the  future,  desalting  can  play  a  role  in  specialized 
applications  to  improve  management  and  conservation 
of  California's  water  resources.  It  is  visualized  that 
metropolitan  areas  will  more  intensively  manage  their 
e.xisting  water  supplies.  There  will  be  a  need  to  pro- 
vide salt  balance  in  ground  water  basins,  to  improve 
water  quality,  to  reuse  water,  and  to  meet  regulatory 
requirements  for  waste  water  discharges.  In  some  cases, 
these  management  processes  will  require  desalting. 
Hence,  it  is  anticipated  that  desalting  in  California  will 
find  relatively  small,  but  wide-spread  use  in  the  next 
10  to  30  years.  The  membrane  desalting  processes 
(reverse  osmosis  and  electrodialysis)  are  likely  to  play 
a  major  role  in  desalting  brackish  waters.  For  coastal 
communities  that  need  additional  quantities  of  fresh 
water  there  may  be  limited  applications  for  sea  water 
desalting,  using  the  distillation  process. 

Geothermal  Water  Potential 

Since  the  late  1960s,  considerable  attention  has  been 
focused  on  the  possibility  of  utilizing  geothermal  heat 
to  produce  fresh  water  from  the  saline  ground  water 
that  sometimes  occurs  in  geothemial  regions. 

Necessary  conditions  for  geothermal  fresh  water 
production  include  a  geothermal  heat  source,  an  ade- 
quate supply  of  brine,  and  a  market  for  fresh  water. 
The  most  economic  development  of  geothermal  re- 
sources is  believed  to  result  from  a  facility  which  com- 
bines the  production  of  power  and  water  and  possibly 
mineral  by-products.  Disposal  of  waste  products  will 
also  require  a  method  which  is  economical  and  which 
protects  the  environment. 

Of  the  three  major  geothermal  areas  in  California 
(Figure  18)  which  have  been  investigated  for  com- 
mercial e.xploitation,  the  Geysers  in  Sonoma  County, 
the  Mono-Long  Valley-Casa  Diablo  area,  and  the 
Southern  Imperial   Valley,  onl\'  Imperial   Valley  ap- 


pears at  this  time  to  have  the  quantities  of  hot  subsur- 
face brine  sufficient  to  support  large  scale  production 
of  water.  At  least  nine  anomalies — areas  beneath  the 
surface  where  ground  temperatures  are  above  normal 
as  a  result  of  near-surface  penetration  of  heat  from  the 
hot  magma  of  the  earth's  core — have  been  identified 
between  the  Salton  Sea  and  the  Mexican  Border.  Figure 
24  shows  the  location  of  the  anomalies  where  temper- 
ature gradients  have  been  investigated.*  Other  areas 
have  been  identified  on  the  basis  of  favorable  geologic 
conditions  as  potential  areas  for  further  investigation. 
Estimates  of  the  amount  of  hot  brine  in  the  basin  range 
from  1  to  5  billion  acre-feet.  Assuming  the  lower  value 
for  brine  in  storage,  usable  quantities  at  temperatures 
of  300°  F  or  more  have  been  estimated  at  200  million 
acre-feet.  Perhaps  an  additional  100  million  acre-feet 
may  also  be  usable  at  lower  temperatures. 

It  is  probable  that  in  addition  to  reinjection  of  con- 
centrated brines  from  the  desalting  process,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  replace  the  water  withdrawn  from  the 
underlying  sediments  to  maintain  subsurface  pressures 
and  to  prevent  land  subsidence.  Limited  amounts  of 
this  recharge  water  might  be  obtained  from  the  Salton 
Sea  or  other  local  drainage  sources,  but  large-scale  de- 
velopment would  probably  require  importation  of  sea- 
water  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  or  from  the  Gulf  of 
California. 

The  Bureau  of  Reclamation  has  been  conducting  a 
freshwater-production  research  project  in  cooperation 
with  the  Office  of  Saline  Water  at  the  Mesa  Anomaly 
in  the  Imperial  Valley.  In  1972,  the  Bureau  of  Recla- 
mation drilled  and  completed  a  geothermal  well  to  a 
depth  of  8,000  feet  where  a  temperature  of  400°F 
was  measured.  Pressure  and  temperature  were  ade- 
quate to  produce  steam  and  a  brine  with  a  salinity  of 
about  17,000  milligrams  per  liter  (mg/1)  (sea  water 
has  34,000  mg/l).  In  1973,  two  experimental  desalina- 
tion units,  each  capable  of  20,000  to  50,000  gpd,  were 
erected  near  the  well  to  test  the  operation  of  both 
multistage  flash  distillation  and  vertical  tube  evapora- 
tion processes.  Production  of  fresh  water  has  been  in- 
termittent in  line  with  the  project's  purpose  of  iden- 
tifying and  solving  the  problems  unique  to  desalination 
of  brines  by  use  of  geothermal  heat.  In  1973,  a  second 
well  was  drilled  to  a  depth  of  6,000  feet,  where  the 
temperature  is  about  370°F  and  the  liquid  salinity  is 
about  2,400  mg/1.  Three  additional  wells  were  com- 
pleted to  a  depth  of  about  6,000  feet  in  1974.  These 
wells  arc  still  being  tested,  but  present  plans  call  for 
use  of  one  well  to  develop  injection  techniques  and 
the  four  remaining  wells  to  develop  water  production 
methods. 

The  Department  of  Water  Resources  is  monitoring 
the  programs  conducted  bv  private  and  public  entities 
with   the   objective   of  establishing   the   physical   and 

*  Data  from  report  by  the  Bureau  of  Reclamation,  "Geothermal  Resources 
Investigations,  Imperial  Valley,  California,  Developmental  Concepts", 
January  1972. 


113 


GREES 
EPTH 


Figure  24.     Thermal  Anomalies  in  the  Imperial  Valley  Area 


114 


economic  feasibility  of  geothermal  resources  develop- 
ment in  the  Imperial  Valley  as  soon  as  possible.  Also,  to 
further  define  conditions  at  the  Dunes  anomaly,  the 
Department  drilled  a  2,000  foot  test  hole  in  1972. 
Maximum  temperature  encountered  in  the  test  hole 
was  21  ST.  Cores,  fluid  samples  and  logs  for  this  well 
were  collected  and  analyzed  and  preliminary  results 
were  published  in  a  joint  report  by  the  Department 
and  the  University  of  California,  Riverside.* 

As  with  the  production  of  power  by  use  of  geo- 
thermal fluids,  economic  development  of  fresh  water 
will  depend  on  solutions  of  technical  problems,  many 
of  which  result  from  the  high  mineral  content  of  the 
subsurface  brines.  The  scaling  and  waste  disposal 
problems  niav  prove  to  be  the  most  difficult.  Land  sub- 
sidence and  potential  for  induced  seismic  activity  are 
very  important  environmental  questions  that  need 
stud\'.  Odor  and  noise  problems  can  be  solved  but  need 
special  treatment.  Information  currently  available  is 
not  adequate  to  permit  a  reliable  projection  as  to  the 
amount  of  water  that  can  be  produced  competitively 
with  alternative  sources  of  water. 

Geothermal  power  is  not  e.xpected  to  make  a  rela- 
tively large  contribution  to  power  production  in  the 
next  decade  or  two.  Without  the  economic  advantages 
of  the  combined  power-water  production  process,  and 
considering  the  relative  difficulty  of  desalting  geother- 
mal fluids  as  compared  with  other  available  saline 
sources,  geothermal  water  production  appears  to  have 
limited  potential  for  immediate  commercial  exploita- 
tion as  a  source  of  significant  quantities  of  additional 
water. 

Further  investigation  is  required  to  establish  the 
feasibility  of  any  large,  new,  geothermal  operation. 
More  geologic  and  engineering  knowledge  is  needed 
to  ( 1 )  refine  estimates  of  the  amount  of  brines  and  of 
the  utility  of  the  heat  contents,  (2)  solve  the  scaling, 
corrosion  and  environmental  problems,  (3)  develop 
acceptable  methods  of  disposing  of  geothermal  pollu- 
tants, (4)  determine  costs  of  fresh  water  production, 
and  (5)  establish  the  economic  feasibilit)-  and  justi- 
fication of  such  production. 

If  geothermal  fluids  in  the  Imperial  Valley  prove 
to  be  an  economical  source  of  water,  they  might  aug- 
ment the  Colorado  River  supplies  now  used  in  South- 
ern California  and  alleviate  the  increasing  water  quality 
problems  there.  Fresh  water  could  be  (1)  added  to  the 
Colorado  River,  (2)  used  as  a  direct  supply  to  meet 
municipal  and  industrial  demand  in  the  Imperial  Val- 
ley, or  (3)  blended  with  Colorado  River  water  in  the 
AU-Amcrican  Canal  system. 

Although  not  oriented  specifically  to  the  production 
of  fresh  water  from  geothermal  brines,  many  govern- 


'  California  Department  of  Water  Resources  and  University  of  California, 
Riverside.  The  Institute  of  Geophysics  and  Planetary  Physics,  a 
Joint  Study  by  Coplen,  Tyler  B.;  Combs,  Jim;  Rex,  Robert  W.; 
Burchalter,  George;  and  Laird,  Robert.  "Preliminary  Findings  of 
an  Investigation  of  the  Dunes  Thermal  Anomaly,  Imperial  Valley, 
California,  1973". 


mental  and  private  entities  are  engaged  in  investiga- 
tions and  research  programs  related  to  the  recovery 
of  minerals  and  the  production  of  power.  Knowledge 
obtained  from  these  programs  will  add  to  the  data 
needed  for  early  findings  as  to  the  practicality  of 
fresh  water  production  from  the  valley's  geothermal 
resources. 

Weather  Modification 

The  weather  is  both  man's  friend  and  foe,  and  its 
control  has  long  been  a  dream  which  is  just  now  be- 
ginning to  show  a  glimmer  of  promise  of  realization. 
However,  the  very  nature  of  weather — its  vagaries, 
its  unpredictable  swings  from  plenty  to  paucity,  the 
complex  nature  of  its  processes — makes  evaluation  of 
the  effects  of  weather  modification  operations  difficult. 
While  the  procedures  for  seeding  clouds  in  California 
to  increase  precipitation  has  been  developed  to  a  fair 
degree  in  recent  years,  the  processes  for  evaluating 
the  efl^ects  of  seeding  have  been  slower  in  develop- 
ment and  acceptance  as  assured  indicators  of  incre- 
mental water  production.  Changes  in  precipitation  fall 
within  the  range  of  natural  variation  and  are  difficult 
to  identify.  Therefore,  statistical  analyses  are  used  in 
attempts  to  evaluate  the  effects  of  cloud  seeding  oper- 
ations, a  process  which  can  be  improved  mainly  by 
accumulation  of  additional  operating  experience  and 
data  and  by  a  better  understanding  of  the  precipita- 
tion process. 

During  the  1971-72  year  there  were  12  weather 
modification  projects  conducted  in  California.  Three 
of  the  projects  were  research  and  development  ori- 
ented, three  were  primarily  to  increase  hydro-power 
production,  and  the  balance  were  to  increase  the 
availability  of  water  supply.  The  locations  of  the  proj- 
ect target  areas  are  shown  in  Figure  25. 

Research  activities  were  primarily  sponsored  by  the 
U.  S.  Department  of  the  Interior  as  part  of  its  nation- 
wide Project  Skywater.  The  California  Department 
of  Water  Resources  founded  several  activities  of  the 
California  State  University,  Fresno  Foundation,  in 
conjunction  with  the  Project  Skywater  effort.  Results 
from  state  participation  included: 

1.  Classification  of  Sierra  Nevada  winter  storms  by 
types. 

2.  Evaluation  of  a  quantitative  precipitation  model — 
assessment  of  winter  precipitation  factors. 

}.  Establishment  of  requirements  for  a  winter-time 
cloud-seeding  operation  in  the  Feather  River  and 
North  Yuba  River  basins. 
During  1972  the  Bureau  of  Reclamation  sponsored 
three   field   trials  in   California.   Activities  were   con- 
ducted by  the  Desert  Research   Institute,   University 
of  Nevada,  as  part  of  the  Pyramid  Lake  Pilot  Project 
to  increase  water  supply.  In  this  program,  efforts  arc 
oriented  toward  determining  whether  increased  pre- 


115 


/•- - 


cipitation  can  be  promoted  on  the  lee  side  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  crest.  Results  of  tiie  first  season's  opera- 
tion indicated  a  possible  14  percent  increase  in  pre- 
cipitation.* 

In  the  CENSARE  (C£A'tral  SkrrA  REscarch)  proj- 
ect the  Fresno  Foundation  accumulated  additional  evi- 
dence of  precipitation  increase.  A  supplemental  final 
report  t  \\as  published  August  31,  1973,  which  in- 
cludes tiie  follo\\ing  observations: 

1.  Precipitation  enhancement  of  5  to  10  percent  oc- 
curred as  a  result  of  cloud  seeding. 

2.  Some  potential  exists  for  summer-time  cumulus 
seeding  in  the  CENSARE  target  area. 

The  third  project,  conducted  b\-  Aerometric  Re- 
search, Inc.,  in  the  Santa  Barbara  region,  studied  the 
downwind  effect  and  precipitation  duration  of  various 
seeding  efforts.  Results  indicate  that  aerial  seeding  at 
very  heavv  rates  produces  decreased  precipitation  in 
primary  target  areas  and  large  increases  50  to  100 
miles  downwind. 

Another  aspect  of  precipitation  modification  activi- 
ties is  the  assessment  of  the  ecological-environmental 
effect  of  such  activities.  A  stud>-,  supported  by  the 
Bureau  of  Reclamation  and  the  Department  of  Water 
Resources,  was  made  by  the  Center  for  Regional  En- 
vironmental Studies,  California  State  Universit)-,  San 
Diego,  of  such  items  as:  effects  of  seeding  agents, 
physical  effects,  ecosystem  effects,  and  social  effects. 
Preliminary  results  indicate  the  follow  ing  general  con- 
clusions: 

1.  The  insolubility  of  silver  iodide,  the  principal 
seeding  agent,  and  the  small  quantity  used,  make 
any  immediate  danger  to  the  environment  un- 
likely— monitoring  should  continue  to  allow 
evaluation  of  any  long-term  effect. 

2.  Research  on  effect  of  seeding  agents  is  not  areally 
unique,  and  research  results  could  be  transferred 
to  other  areas — study  of  the  cumulative  effect  of 
long-time  seeding  is  desirable. 

3.  Effect  of  an  ecosystem  of  5-10%  increase  in  pre- 
cipitation is  not  likely  to  be  significant — some 
redistribution  of  plant  and  animal  species  may 
take  place,  but  \\  ith  little  detrimental  effect. 

4.  Some  aggravation  of  summer  fire  hazard  may 
occur  if  plant  vegetative  growth  is  significantly 
increased. 

5.  The  effect  on  transportation  facilities  ma>-  be  the 
greatest  social  effect,  with  a  negative  impact  if 
the  duration  of  storms  is  increased. 

6.  Effects  of  increased  precipitation  would  fall 
within  natural  >ear-to-year  variations — cumula- 
tive effect  for  a  given  year  could  be  a  problem 
if  natural  late  season  precipitation  is  large. 


Bur 


197; 


[mospheric     Wate 
Annual    Report,' 


Figure  25.      Weather  Modification  Target  Areas  in    1971-1972 
116 


of     Reclamation.     Divisi 
agement,    "Project   Sk>'Ava 
1973. 

t  California  State  University,  rresno  Foundation,  Atmospheric  Water 
Resources  Research,  "Supplemental  Final  Report — Volume  I»  Summary 
of  Accomplishments",  AuRtist  31,  1973,  prepared  under  Bureau  of 
Reclamation  Contract  No.   14-06-D-6592. 


7.  Public  response  to  a  survey  regarding  attitude 
toward  the  precipitation  modification  program 
is  essentiall\-  noncommittal  at  this  time. 

A  recent  analysis  has  been  completed  by  North 
American  Weather  Consultants,  for  the  Bureau  of 
Reclamation,  of  potential  increases  in  precipitation  and 
streamflow  resulting  from  modification  of  winter  orog- 
raphic storms.  Included  in  the  first  report*  on  the 
analysis  is  a  stud\-  of  the  Sacramento  Basin  which 
indicates  significant  increases  may  be  possible  from 
precipitation  modification  activities.  Actual  estimated 
increases  were  based  on  unregulated  runoff  without 
elimination  of  incremental  precipitation  which  might 
tend  to  increase  the  severity  of  winter  flood  runoff. 
Thus,  while  the  values  cited  in  the  report  give  a  some- 
what high  estimate  of  increase,  they  do  indicate  that 
the  Feather,  Yuba-Bear,  and  American  Rivers  sub- 
basins  have  a  good  potential  for  significantly  increased 
runoff.  Future  activities  in  the  field  of  precipitation 
management  will  be  concerned  with  continuation  of 
several  ongoing  pilot  projects,  completion  of  programs 
for  evaluating  the  ecological-environmental  effects, 
and  the  development  of  additional  pilot  projects  to 
determine  factors  for  consideration  in  assessing  the 
feasibility  of  developing  additional  water  supplies  from 
operational  precipitation  manageiuent  projects. 

The  Department  of  Water  Resources  is  currently 
planning  for  a  pilot  project  in  the  Feather  River  Basin. 
Subject  to  satisfactory  completion  of  an  Environmental 
Impact  Report,  seeding  of  a  portion  of  productive 
storms  is  expected  to  commence  in  the  fall  of  1975. 
Active  participation  b\-  other  agencies  is  desired  to 
provide  a  coordinated  effort  which  would  result  in 
areawide  conclusions  on  full  operation  feasibilit\'. 

Weather  modification  involves  uncertainties  regard- 
ing downwind  impacts  beyond  target  areas,  partic- 
ularly as  they  relate  to  claims  of  decreased  potential 
precipitation,  claims  for  increased  costs  due  to  floods 
and  snow  removal,  and  other  possible  litigation.  These 
matters  require  careful  study  and  w  ork  with  the  public 
and  organizations  who  would  be  affected. 

The  estimated  costs  of  producing  incremental 
amounts  of  runoff  arc  generally  very  low.  The  cost 
of  associated  acti\itics  for  environmental  protection 
and  insurance  or  facilities  to  protect  against  uncertain- 
ties and  claims  cannot  be  reasonably  estimated  on  the 
basis  of  current  knowledge. 

Management  Concepts  and  Practices 

Future  large-scale  surface  water  development,  con- 
trol, and  conveyance  projects  in  California  face  signif- 
icant obstacles,  both  economic  and  institutional.  The 
number  of  desirable  storage  dexclopment  sites  is 
rapidly  diminishing,  and  those  that  do  remain  arc  often 

»  Robert  D.  Elliott,  Jack  F.  Ilannaford,  Russell  W.  ShalTcr,  North 
American  Weather  Consultants,  "Twelve  Basin  Investigation,  Volume 
I,  Report  No.  15-18",  May  15,  1973. 


far  removed  from  the  areas  of  need.  Yet  demands  for 
water  in  California  continue  to  increase. 

A  significant  possibility  for  meeting  at  least  some 
part  of  these  grow  ing  water  requirements  lies  in  more 
effective  water  management  practices. 

Water  is  nianaged  in  California  by  individuals,  pri- 
vate companies,  local  agencies,  municipalities,  and  the 
state  and  federal  governments.  Management  tradition- 
ally has  been  performed  at  the  lowest  practical  level, 
by  individuals  and  local  agencies  when  pos.sible;  and 
local  entities  have  guarded  against  infringement  of  this 
management  right  by  large  government  agencies.  Joint 
exercise  of  powers  authority,  given  many  local  agencies 
by  state  law,  has  been  used  by  two  or  more  local 
agencies  to  manage  water  resources  where  one  agency 
alone  could  not  effectively  do  so.  When  there  has 
been  a  need  for  a  large  importation  project  whose 
cost  exceeded  the  financial  capability  of  the  local  agen- 
cies, the  project  has  usually  been  constructed,  operated 
and  managed  b\'  a  larger  agency,  with  the  local 
agencies  acting  as  contractors  who  then  manage  the 
local  distribution  and  use  of  the  water. 

This  section  discusses  water  management  practices 
as  they  relate  to  more  effective  use  of  water,  more  ef- 
fective use  of  facilities,  ground  water  modeling,  flood 
control,  and  waterways  management. 

More  Effective  Use  of  Water 

Making  more  effective  use  of  the  water  supplies  cur- 
rently available  is  popularl\'  considered  a  prime 
mctiiod  to  help  satisfy  a  portion  of  the  increased  de- 
mands for  water.  Since  many  of  the  methods  for  im- 
proving use  of  water  are  so  inexpensive,  and  some  may 
even  save  money  too,  it  is  important  that  all  reason- 
able steps  be  undertaken.  The  extent  of  overall  water 
saving  and  reduction  in  need  for  additional  water  sup- 
plies is,  however,  much  less  than  generall\'  believed 
because  there  is  alrcads'  a  high  degree  of  reuse  of  ex- 
cess water  from  incflicient  operations.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  waste  water  discharged  to  the  ocean  and  that 
which  is  so  brackish  it  must  be  discarded,  nearly  all 
of  the  excess  now  returns  to  the  water  supply  system 
for  reuse.  There  will,  however,  be  x\ater  quality  ad- 
vantages in  reducing  water  use,  as  well  as  some  water 
savings,  and  improved  methods  should  be  pursued. 

In  this  context,  more  effective  use  includes  luorc  ef- 
ficient use.  Efficiency  can  be  defined  as  "doing  things 
right"  whereas  effectiveness  is  defined  as  "doing  the 
right  things".  Some  general  approaches  toward  more 
effective  use  of  present  water  supplies  include: 
(1)  application  of  farming  and  irrigation  practices 
which  result  in  the  least  waste  of  water,  (2)  elimina- 
tion of  wasteful  practices  in  the  use  of  urban  \\ater 
supplies,  and  (3)  utilization  of  poor  qualit}-  water 
when  feasible. 


117 


Practices  which  might  extend  the  effective  use  of 
irrigation  water  are  listed  below: 

1.  Utilize  water  distribution  systems  which  provide 
uniform  application  of  irrigation  water  and  which 
allow  controlled  application  to  wet  only  the  root 
zone.  The  increasing  use  of  sprinkler  irrigation 
is  an  example  of  this.  New  drip  irrigation  tech- 
niques also  demonstrates  some  promise  on  selected 
crops  in  areas  where  water  is  very  expensive. 
Drip  irrigation  is  discussed  more  fully  in  Chapter 
I\'  under  "Agricultural  Water  Use". 

2.  Improve  timing  of  water  applications  to  reduce 
nonrecoverable  runoff  and  deep  percolation. 

3.  Eliminate  nonbeneficial  water-consuming  ground 
cover  in  orchards. 

4.  Improve  soil  structure  to  increase  its  water  intake 
rate. 

5.  Line  farm  ditches  to  reduce  seepage  loss. 


The  cost  of  water  is  a  principal  influencing  factor 
in  urban  water  use.  Cost  consciousness  on  the  part  of 
the  user  can  effectively  be  created  by  metering  water 
use.  However,  most  of  the  high  use,  unmetcred  cities 
are  in  the  Central  Valley  where  water  not  consump- 
tively used  returns  to  the  water  cycle.  Most  coastal 
cities  which  discharge  se^\■age  effluent  to  the  ocean 
are  now  metered. 

In  general  about  half  of  the  ^\•ater  suppl\'  to  urban 
homes  is  used  outside  of  the  home  and  the  other  half 
is  used  inside.  Use  of  landscaping  which  does  not  re- 
quire much  water  can  yield  significant  savings.  Most 
of  the  savings  in  homes  w  ould  be  dependent  on  being 
water  conscious  and  continually  making  efforts  to 
save  water  in  using  appliances. 

Water  resources  which  arc  not  usable  for  normal 
agricultural  or  domestic  use  because  of  quality  con- 
siderations can  be  used  in  some  circumstances  for 
specialized  purposes  within  a  service  area  and  thereby 


Avocados  drip  irrigated  on  a  steep  hillside  in  Son  Diego  County 


118 


extend   the   effective   use   of  the   area's  good   quahty 
water.  Examples  of  this  practice  are  listed  below. 

1.  Cooling  water  for  thermal  power  plants  and  other 
industrial  purposes. 

2.  Application  for  esthetic  purposes  in  municipal 
areas  or  for  irrigation  of  golf  courses  and  citv 
parks. 

>.  Blending  with  a  suitable  volume  of  high  quality 
water  to  obtain  an  increased  supply  of  water  of 
satisfactor\-  qualit\'. 

4.  Creation  of  wetlands  and  wildlife  refuges. 

More  Effeciive  Use  of  Faciliiies 

There  are  many  individual  water  projects  and  sys- 
tems in  California,  and  at  the  present  time,  most  are 
operated  on  an  independent  basis.  Opportunities  exist 
in  cctrain  areas  for  joint  operation  of  surface  water 
facilities  ^\■ith  ground  water  basins.  In  the  Central 
\^allev,  the  state  and  federal  water  projects  arc  oper- 
ated through  coordination  to  make  effective  use  of 
the  water  suppl\"  available  in  the  Sacramcnto-San 
Joaquin  Delta. 

The  Department  of  Water  Resources  and  other 
leading  water  agencies  in  California  arc  pursuing  stud- 
ies directed  toward  full  development  of  the  potential 
capability  of  existing  water  supply  facilities.  For  ex- 
ample, agreement  was  recently  reached  with  power 
companies  contracting  for  purchases  of  Oroville  power 
which  will  allow  operation  of  the  facilit\'  at  levels 
below  that  of  the  maximum  flood  control  reservation 
during  the  flood  season  in  an  effort  to  reduce  the 
amount  of  spill  which  bypasses  the  power  plant. 

The  transportation  facilities  of  the  State  Water 
Project  w  ill  continue  to  have  additional  capacity  dur- 
ing the  nonirrigation  seasons  of  each  year  for  convey- 
ing water  that  is  excess  to  the  contractors'  projected 
needs.  During  years  of  above-normal  inflow  to  the 
Sacramento-San  Joaquin  Delta,  additional  volumes  of 
water  w ill  be  available  for  delivery  to  offstream  stor- 
age sites — either  on  the  surface  or  in  ground  water 
basins.  This  stored  \vater  would  then  be  available  to 
lessen  the  impact  of  dry-year  deficiencies  and  reduce 
ground  w  ater  pumping  lifts.  The  Bureau  of  Reclama- 
tion has  carr\ovcr  storage — except  in  dry  years — 
which  is  utilized  as  a  nonfirm  supply  in  some  of  its 
service  areas. 

An  example  of  what  can  be  accomplished  in  the 
area  of  more  effective  use  of  facilities  is  embodied  in 
a  cross-valley  canal  under  construction  by  the  Kern 
County  Water  Agency.  This  facility  was  originally 
intended  to  transport  normal  year  deliveries  of  water 
from  the  State  Water  Project  to  an  area  near  Bakers- 
field.  Negotiations  have  been  successfully  concluded 
which  provide  for  an  increase  in  capacit)'  of  this  aque- 
duct to  facilitate  the  delivery  of  Bureau  of  Reclama- 
tion water,  available  in  the  Delta,  through  the  excess 
capacity   of  the   State   Water   Project,   including   the 


joint  state-federal  San  Luis  canal,  and  through  the 
Kern  County  Water  Agency  canal  to  water-deficient 
areas  on  the  east  side  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley. 

There  are  many  potential  opportunities  for  surface 
water  exchanges  among  water  agencies.  Use  of  surface 
water  instead  of  ground  water  in  coastal  areas  can 
reduce  the  threat  of  sea  water  intrusion  into  ground 
w  ater  basins.  In  some  cases  ground  water  basins  can 
effectively  be  used  for  water  distribution  in  lieu  of 
constructing  surface  distribution  systems.  The  rapidly 
increasing  cost  of  energy  nia\'  make  some  water  ex- 
changes feasible  if  pumping  can  be  decreased  thereby. 

Ground  Wafer  Modeling 

.\vailabilit\-  of  large  capacity  electronic  computers 
has  made  possible  a  new  approach  to  management 
of  ground  water  basins  to  increase  water  supplies,  re- 
duce costs  and  improve  operational  flexibility.  Man- 
agement of  a  ground  water  basin  involves  the  planned 
use  of  ground  water  storage  in  conjunction  w  ith  local 
and  imported  surface  water  storage  and  use  of  sub- 
surface aquifers  in  conjunction  with  pipelines  and 
canals  for  movement  of  water.  Such  management  may, 
depending  on  the  management  objective,  require  de- 
liberate augmentation  of  natural  recharge  to  place 
necessary  quantities  of  water  underground,  and 
planned  extraction  patterns  and  facilities  to  control 
both  removal  of  ground  water  and  its  movement 
through  the  basin's  aquifers.  It  may  also  involve  meas- 
ures to  prevent  degradation  of  the  ground  water. 

Ground  water  management  objectives  for  a  basin 
ma\-  include  one  or  any  number  of  the  following: 

1.  Utilize  all  sources  of  water  to  obtain  the  lowest 
cost  water  supply. 

2.  "Aline"  previously  stored  ground  water  supplies 
to  dela\'  construction  of  w  ater  importation  facili- 
ties or  distribution  systems. 

i.  Control  location  and  movement  of  degraded 
water  already  in  the  ground  water  system. 

4.  Control  sea  w  ater  intrusion  into  a  ground  w  ater 
system. 

5.  Prevent  adverse  salt  buildup  in  a  ground  water 
resource. 

6.  Predict  the  expected  life  and  yield  of  a  ground 
w  ater  resource  in  an  overdraft  situation  or  mining 
operation. 

7.  Utilize  the  ground  water  basin  reservoir  to  store 
excess  surface  water  for  later  use  and  thereby  in- 
crease the  total  available  supply. 

8.  Operate  the  ground  water  reservoir  at  levels  be- 
low those  causing  drainage  problems  and  above 
those  causing  subsidence  or  quality  problems  or 
necessitating  deepening  of  large  numbers  of  wells. 

In  developing  ways  in  which  ground  water  can 
be  used  to  help  meet  water  demands,  the  collection, 
analysis  and  verification  of  a  large  amount  of  geologic, 


119 


hydrologic,  and  water  quality  information  is  necessary. 

The  relations  bet\veen  the  physical  properties  of  a 
ground  water  basin  can  be  approximately  expressed 
by  equations;  therefore,  a  mathematical  model  can  be 
used  to  verif\-  the  analysis  and  to  test  alternative  ways 
of  utilizing  the  ground  water  basin  in  conjunction 
with  surface  supplies,  facilities,  and  storage.  The  model 
programmed  on  a  high-speed  electronic  computer  can 
then  be  verified.  The  prrcc^s  is  essentially  one  of  trial 
and  error  and  is  too  laborious  to  do  by  hand.  The 
verified  model  can  be  used  to  test  alternative  plans  so 
that  a  wide  variety  of  alternatives  can  be  tested  in  a 
short  time  and  at  a  reasonable  cost. 

The  results  of  both  basic  ground  water  resource 
studies  and  more  advanced  studies  evaluating  alterna- 
tive operational  plans  have  been  used  beneficially  by 
both  the  Department  of  Water  Resources  and  local 
agencies.  On  a  statewide  basis,  they  provide  additional 
knowledge  on  the  role  ground  water  can  play  in 
satisfying  demands  for  future-^trter  supply  and  stor- 
age. To  ensure  that  the  study  results  will  be  realistic, 
the  information  is  developed  for  local  areas  that  use 
or  have  in  storage  significant  amounts  of  ground  water 
and  in  cooperation  with  local  agencies  responsible  for 
operation  of  the  ground  ^\■ater  basin.  This  method  of 
conducting  ground  water  studies  provides  a  better 
understanding  of  local  institutional  and  economic  re- 
straints on  the  full  utilization  of  grouod  \\ater  supplies 
as  \\  ell  as  the  full  conserucnces  (Vroverdraft,  sea  \\ater 
intrusion,  and  water  quality  degradation. 

Local  agencies  ha-.e  benefitted  mainly  b\-  being  able 
to  make  decisions  on  ground  water  management  based 
on  fact  instead  of  speculation.  Decisions  on  how  much 
imported  \\ater  to  purchase,  when  to  purchase  it,  and 
where  to  appl_\'  it  have  been  influenced  by  model 
studies  in  many  areas  of  the  State.  Because  there  are 
a  number  of  other  factors  involved,  a  local  agency 
ma\'  not  alw  ays  select  the  least  expensive  alternative, 
but  will  review  the  range  of  alternatives  and  select 
the  one  best  suited  to  their  area.  Examples  of  uses  of 
model  studies  developed  cooperatively  with  the  De- 
partment of  Water  Resources  are:  (1)  Metropolitan 
Water  District  of  Southern  California  used  financial 
information  extensively  in  its  pricing-policy  studies; 
(2)  San  Bernardino  Valley  Municipal  Water  District 
used  the  stud\'  information  to  plan  and  operate  its 
water  distribution  system  and  to  keep  the  local  voters 
apprised  of  water  planning  in  the  area  with  the  result 
that  it  has  been  able  to  pass  necessary  water  bond  is- 
sues; (3)  City  of  Pasadena  has  used  the  mathematical 
model  of  Ra_\mond  Basin  to  evaluate  the  effects  of 
shifting  recharge  and  extraction  locations,  under  a 
"safe-yield"  operation  condition,  on  water  level  ele- 
vations, water  quality,  and  the  cost  of  water  resources 
management  in  the  basin;  and  (4)  Sacramento  County 
water  purveyors  are  using  model  studies  in  developing 
a  countywide  plan  to  integrate  ground  and  surface 
water  supplies. 


Other  agencies,  although  they  have  not  used  the 
results  of  the  investigations  directly,  have  increased 
substantiall\-  their  understanding  of  water  management 
options.  Their  interest  in  considering  the  use  of  ground 
water  basins  for  regulation  of  surplus  State  Water 
Project  water  is  considered  to  be  a  consequence  of 
their  participation  in  the  ground  \\ater  modeling  pro- 
gram. 

Ground  water  basins  for  which  models  were  de- 
veloped by  the  Department  of  Water  Resources  in 
cooperation  A\ith  other  agencies  are: 

North  Santa  Clara  Countv' 

Fremont  Stud\-  Area  (Niles  Cone) 

Livermore  \^alley 

Coyote  Basin  (Santa  Clara  County) 

Sacramento  County 

Kern  County 

Coastal  Plain  of  Los  Angeles  County 

San  Gabriel  Valley 

Chino-Riverside  Area 

Bunker  Hill-San  Timoteo  Area 

Ventura  County 

Raymond  Basin 

Waferway  Management  Plans 

Water\\a%-  management  planning  is  a  subdivision 
within  the  more  universal  field  of  water  management. 
Waterw  a\'  management  concerns  primaril\-  those  fac- 
tors related  directly  to  the  rivers  and  streams  and  to 
their  immediately  adjacent  land  areas,  whereas  water 
management  involves  matters  of  basin-wide  and  even 
trans-basin  scope. 

In  1971,  the  Legislature  directed  the  Resources 
Agenc>'  to  prepare  detailed  waterway  management 
plans  for  specified  streams  in  the  North  Coastal  and 
northern  San  Francisco  Bay  Hydrologic  Study  Areas.* 
In  the  following  year,  the  Administrator  of  the  Re- 
sources Agency  was  further  directed  to  prepare  and 
administer  river  management  plans  under  legislation 
establishing  the  State  W'M,  Scenic,  and  Recreational 
System.** 

The  objectives  of  the  Resources  Agency's  Water- 
Way  Management  Program  are: 

1.  To  protect  and  enhance  scenic,  recreational,  geo- 
logic, fish  and  wildlife,  historic,  archaelogical  and 
similar  values  associated  with  riverine  environ- 
ments, without  unreasonably  limiting  other  re- 
source uses,  where  the  extent  and  nature  of  such 
uses  do  not  conflict  with  the  public  use  and  en- 
joyment of  these  values. 

2.  To  assist  in  maintaining  or  enhancing  water  qual- 
ity. 

3.  To  provide  opportunities  for  river-oriented  rec- 
reation which  is  consistent  with  protection  of  the 
qualit\-  values  associated  with  the  rivers. 

•Senate    Bill    No.    1285,   Chapter    761,    Statutes   of    1971. 
••Senate   Bill   No.    107.   Chapter    1259,   Statutes   of    1972. 
Also,  see  Chapter  1  of  this  report. 


120 


4.  To  maintain  those  rivers  included  in  the  State 
Wild  and  Scenic  Rivers  System  in  natural  and 
free-flowing  conditions  for  the  benefit  and  en- 
joyment of  the  people  of  the  State. 

5.  To  identify  measures  for  flood  control  and 
streamflow  augmentation  which  may  be  neces- 
sary and  desirable  to  enhance  the  riverine  en- 
vironments ^^■here  such  measures  do  not  conflict 
with  natural,  free-flowing  and  other  requirements 
of  the  rivers  included  in  the  system. 

Waterway  management  plans  are  currently  under 
preparation  for  the  Smith  and  Klamath  Rivers.  Pro- 
gram activities  in  progress  include: 

1.  Identification  of  actions  presently  in  effect  or 
required  to  insure  safeguarding  of  scenic,  fishery, 
wildlife  and  recreational  values; 

2.  Preparation  of  information  on  flood  control,  in- 
basin  water  conservation  and  streamflow  aug- 
mentation needs  and  possible  measures  required 
exclusive  of  permanent  mainstream  dams  or  other 
facilities  \\hich  A\ould  advcrselv  affect  the  nat- 


ural and  free-flowing  character  of  the  rivers; 
3.  Preparation  of  estimates  of  recreational  develop- 
ments necessary,  river  access  and  controls  desired, 
possible  adjacent  land  use,   and  associated   costs 
to    achieve   greater   human    enjoyment   of   these 
rivers. 
The  above  work  is  carried  out  by  the  Resources 
Agency  in  cooperation  with  local  government  entities 
and   the   appropriate   federal   agencies   where    federal 
lands  are  involved,  and  it  is  coordinated  closely  with 
the  related  studies  of  the  State  Water  Resources  Con- 
trol Board  in  its  preparation  of  Comprehensive  Water 
Quality   Control    Plans   for   the   Smith   and   Klamath 
Rivers.   Similar   coordination   is  maintained   with   the 
State  Board  of  Forestry  in  its  development  and  imple- 
mentation of  new  Forest  Practice  Act  rules  and  regu- 
lations. 

Subsequent  to  public  hearings,  it  is  anticipated  that 
the  Smith  River  Waterway  Management  Plan  Report 
will  be  submitted  to  the  California  Legislature  for  its 
consideration  earl\'  during  the  1975  Session. 


Smith  River  at  the  junction  of  the  North  Fork  and  Middle  Fori< 


121 


Flood  Confrol 

Flood  control  management  is  discussed  in  this  chap- 
ter in  regard  to  processes  that  arc  available  or  being 
considered  for  preventing  flood  damage,  programs  and 
projects  that  are  under\\a>'  that  prevent  flood  damage 
and  studies  by  various  agencies  that  will  lead  to  future 
programs  or  projects  for  floodplain  management. 

Methods  of  Preventing  Flood  Daviage.  There  arc 
two  general  categories  of  flood  control  measures  to  be 
considered  in  planning  for  damage  control — structural 
and  nonstructural.  The  two  differ  in  function.  Struc- 
tural measures  are  designed  to  control  water.  Non- 
structural measures  arc  intended  to  control  people's 
actions.  In  the  structural  category  are  such  features  as 
reservoirs  and  detention  basins,  flood\\a\s  and  by- 
passes, levees,  and  channel  improvements.  Nonstruc- 
tural measures  include  floodplain  regulation,  flood 
forecasting  and  warning  procedures,  flood  proofing, 
•  watershed  land  treatment,  and  flood  insurance. 

Theoretically,  structural  measures  could  provide  the 
maximum  reduction  in  damages  to  existing  land  use 
development  while  allowing  the  most  intensive  use  of 
flood-prone  lands.  Realistically,  structural  measures 
are  not  an  absolute  protection  from  flood  damage. 
Project  design  capacity  which  governs  the  degree  of 
protection  from  the  return  frequenc)'  of  floods  is 
limited  by  economics.  Projects  are  usually  sized  ac- 
cording to  estimated  damages  prevented  over  an  as- 
signed life  of  the  project  that  at  least  equal  the  cost  of 
the  project  calculated  with  an  interest  rate.  A  greater 
degree  of  protection  is  usuall\"  provided  where  a  high 
threat  to  life  exists.  Protection  from  flooding  may  be 
further  diminished  by  change  in  land  use  in  the  up- 
stream basin  after  project  completion.  Projects  lure 
development  by  providing  a  sense  of  securitw  Con- 
sequentl\',  projects  designed  with  a  limited  capacity 
pose  the  greatest  threat  to  man's  encroachment  on 
floodplains  by  setting  the  stage  for  greater  disaster  than 
would  occur  without  an  existing  project.  Unless  eco- 
nomics will  allow  a  very  high  degree  of  protection  for 
urban  development,  no  "project  only"  alternative 
should  be  considered.  It  should  be  mandatory  to  in- 
corporate nonstructural  measures  such  as  regulatory 
land  use  controls  and  flood  proofing  and  flood  warning 
procedures. 

Notwithstanding  the  limitations,  there  are  some  flood 
problems  where  only  structural  measures  will  protect 
a  desired  land  use.  Structures  are  required  to  train  and 
contain  stream  channels  on  sediment  debris  cones  found 
below  mountain  canyons  and  to  protect  agricultural 
development  on  valley  floors. 

Nonstructural  measures  are  an  important  aspect  in 
any  overall  flood  control  plan.  Nonstructural  measures 
attempt  to  regulate  development  within  a  floodplain 
to  that  which  can  withstand  flooding  or  be  capable  of 
evacuation. 


The  success  of  nonstructural  measures  depends  on 
several  factors,  not  least  important,  human  attitudes. 
The  cooperation  and  coordination  of  various  levels  of 
governmental  service  agencies  are  required  to  establish 
reasonable  building  codes  and  zoning  regulations. 
These  regulations  must  be  hard  and  fast  w  ith  respect 
to  future  amendments  that  would  relax  them,  mindful 
of  individual's  property  rights,  enforceable,  and  be 
enforced  in  the  future.  Paramount  for  success  is  the 
attitude  of  the  private  citizens  who  must  initiate  actions 
requiring  personal  expenditures  and  time,  sometimes 
before  the  need  has  actually  been  demonstrated  to 
them. 

Zoning  and  building  codes  hold  the  greatest  prom- 
ise for  those  areas  not  >et  developed,  but  potentially 
vulnerable  to  future  development  pressure.  Floodplain 
zoning  can  be  used  as  an  interim  solution,  prior  to 
future  structural  measures  if  it  is  clear  that  there  is  a 
lack  of  safe  alternative  land  available  for  regulated 
grow  th.  For  those  areas  where  other  lands  are  available, 
floodplain  zoning  would  allow  uses  compatible  with 
flooding  or  provide  open  spaces  for  future  generations 
to  enjoy.  Nonstructural  floodplain  management  would 
also  reduce  the  trend  of  increasing  flood  damage  in 
developing  areas  where  existing  projects  afford  a  low 
degree  of  protection  from  floods. 

Flood  forecasting  is  a  tool  that  can  help  reduce 
flood  damages.  It  may  be  employed  by  itself  or  in 
conjunction  with  other  available  measures.  Flood  fore- 
casting is  essential  in  the  successful  operation  and 
maintenance  of  flood  control  projects.  It  is  prerequisite 
to  successful  floodplain  evacuation  and  to  implement- 
ing certain  t\pes  of  flood  proofing  procedures.  Flood 
forecasting  success  in  reducing  damages  is  dependent 
on  several  factors.  There  must  be  enough  time  for 
people  to  act  after  the  initial  warning.  There  must 
be  a  local  organization  geared  to  receive  w  arnings  and 
disseminate  pertinent  information  to  the  floodplain 
dwellers.  And,  the  forecasts  must  be  reliable  enough 
to  create  confidence  in  the  users  so  thc\"  will  take 
the  neccssar\'  actions  in  subsequent  events. 

Flood  proofing  embodies  permanent  and  temporary 
structural  changes  and  adjustments  to  propert\-  in  the 
flood  hazard  area.  Two  common  practices  are  grading 
ordinances  that  require  the  ground  level  for  streets 
and  buildings  to  be  above  flood  stages  and  construction 
of  buildings  so  the  first  floor  can  be  inundated  with- 
out much  damage.  Flood  proofing  is  particularl\'  suited 
for  areas  where  flood  stages  and  velocities  are  low 
and  adequate  advanced  warning  time  is  available.  The 
cost  to  provide  flood  proofing  measures  must  be  borne 
b>-  the  local  property  owners. 

Watershed  treatment  involves  treating  the  land  to 
retard  runoff  and  reduce  erosion.  Land  treatment  is 
most  applicable  to  small  upstream  portions  of  basins. 
In  general,  such  measures  are  ineffective  toward  reduc- 
ing flood  damages  in  areas  much  removed  from  the 
lands  where  the  treatment  has  been  applied.  In  steep 


122 


mountainous  areas  adjacent  to  urban  development 
where  \\ild  fires  occur,  seeding  of  ground  cover  after 
a  fire  is  done  as  soon  as  possible  prior  to  the  rainy 
season.  The  purpose  is  to  retard  rapid  erosion  and 
ensuing  mud  and  debris  flows  that  disrupt  dow  nstrcam 
project  operation  and  may  inflict  other  costiv  damages, 
too.  Success  depends  on  adequate  germination  and 
growing  time  before  heavy  rains  begin. 

Flood  insurance  is  available  to  eligible  communities 
as  a  result  of  the  National  Flood  Insurance  Act  of 
1968.  The  act  as  amended  in  1973,  will  provide  strong 
incentives  for  local  communities  to  regulate  land  use 
and  \\ill  require  the  floodplain  dweller  to  share  more 
fully  in  the  costs  to  mitigate  damages  in  the  future. 

Present  Flood  Control  Activities.  This  discussion 
primarily  reports  state  and  federal  flood  damage  reduc- 
tion programs.  .Man\-  smaller  projects  are  being  con- 
structed b\-  local  flood  control  agencies.  However, 
there  is  no  systematic  compilation  of  information  on 
the  work  in  flood  control  accomplished  hv  local  agen- 
cies. 

The  tabulation  below  lists  major  structural  projects 
currently  underway.  Those  projects,  where  construc- 
tion started  since  1970,  are  indicated  with  an  ".\". 


Davis' 

Hidden 

Buchanan 

New  Melones 

Auburn 

Warm  Springs 

Local  Proierls'  - 

Los  Ant-eles  River. 
Lyie  &  Warm  Cree 
Santa  Paula  Creek 
Sweetwater  River. 
Walnut  Creek 

IVatershed  Projecti'^  3 
Carpinteria  Valley, 
Central  Sonoma.. 
Main  Street  Canyc 

Mustang  Creek 

Napa  River 

Revolon  Slough 


Constr. 

Begun 
Since 
1970 


Contra  Costa  Co. 


.Merced  Co. 
Napa  Co. 


Hydrologic 
Study  Are: 


San  Joaquin 
San  Joaquin 
San  Joaquin 


South  Coastal 
South  Coastal 
South  Coastal 
South  Coastal 
San  Francisco 


Central  Coastal 
San  Francisco 
South  Coastal 
San  Joaquin 
San  Francisco 
South  Coastal 


'  U.S.  .\rmy  Corps  of  Engineers  is  constructing  agency — See  Plate  I  for  location 

of  dams  and  reservoirs. 
-  Projects  for  which  the  State  has  a  financial  obligation. 
'  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  Soil  Conservation  Service  is  the  funding  agency. 

The  State  has  not  been  as  active  in  construction  or 
planning  projects  to  alleviate  flood  problems  as  have 
the  federal  and  local  agencies.  Two  of  the  dams  the 
State  built  for  the  California  State  Water  Project  pro- 
vide flood  control.  The\'  are  Oroville  Dam  on  the 
Feather  River  and  Del  Valle  Dam  in  Livermore  \'alley. 
The  Department  of  Water  Resources  also  designed 
and  constructed  the  lower  San  Joaquin  River  Flood 
Control  Project.  The  State's  principal  involvement  has 
been  as  a  financial  partner  in  eligible  local  projects  and 
in  non.structural  implementation  programs  directed  to- 
ward reducing  flood  losses. 


The  United  States  Army  Corps  of  Engineers  has  a 
Flood  Plain  Information  Service  Program  undcrwav. 
A  floodplain  information  report  typically  includes 
maps,  flood  profiles,  and  other  display  and  narrative 
material  on  the  extent,  depth,  and  duration  of  past 
floods,  and  similar  data  on  floods  that  may  reasonably 
be  expected  in  the  future.  To  date  91  reports  have 
been  completed;  15  are  ongoing  and  35  others  planned 
for  completion  over  the  next  several  years.  This  in- 
formation is  essential  for  analysis  of  nonstructural 
measures.  Similar  studies  are  conducted  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Water  Resources  in  cooperation  with  local 
agencies. 

The  State  requires  local  agencies  to  zone  floodplains 
to  be  protected  by  authorized  federal  flood  control 
projects  to  prevent  incompatible  development.  The 
State  Reclamation  Board,  which  has  jurisdiction  over 
flood  control  projects  in  the  Central  X'alley  of  Cali- 
fornia, is  establishing  "designated  floodways"  to  pre- 
vent incompatible  de\clopment  in  flood  channels  under 
its  jurisdiction. 

The  National  Flood  Insurance  Program  is  just  get- 


Urbon  development  below  debris  control  structure 


123 


ting  undeiwaw  Ir  shows  great  promise  of  correcting 
many  floodpiain  cncroaclimcnt  problems  that  do  not 
justify  structural  remedies.  Additional  federal  staff  is 
needed  to  keep  pace  with  increasing  public  desire  to 
participate  in  the  program. 

The  Department  of  Water  Resources  expends  ap- 
proximately $725,000  annua!l\-  on  the  following  activi- 
ties: in  cooperation  w  ith  the  National  Weather  Serv- 
ice to  provide  timel\-  flood  w  arnings  and  forecasts  for 
river  basins  greater  than  200  square  miles  in  area;  to 
administer  the  Cobey-AIquist  Flood  Plain  Manage- 
ment Act  to  regulate  floodplains  prior  to  construction 
starts  of  authorized  projects;  b\'  establishing  priorities 
among  the  requesting  local  agencies  for  floodpiain  in- 
formation studies  b\'  the  Corps  of  Engineers;  to  assist 
local  communities  in  qualifying  for  federal  flood  in- 
surance; and  to  provide  engineering  scr\ices  to  the  Rec- 
lamation Board  on  its  Designated  Floodwa\'  Program 
— a  program  to  prevent  encroachments  in  Central  \"al- 
ley  w  ater  courses  to  preserve  adequate  floodw  a\  s.  Tiie 
Department  expends  an  additional  54,200,000  annuall\- 
on  other  flood  control  activities  including  maintenance 
of  Central  \"alley  flood  control  systems. 

The  Corps  of  Engineers  has  23  major  and  minor 
general  investigations  undcrw  a\-  at  a  cost  of  $1,900,000 
annually. 

The  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Soil  Conser- 
vation Service  is  currently  spending  about  5450,000 
per  \ear  on  5  w atershed  works  plans  and  3  ri\er  basin 
planning  studies  in  California. 

The  flood  problem  in  the  Delta,  discussed  in  Chap- 
ter I\',  was  studied  by  the  Department  of  Water  Re- 
sources and  several  alternative  solutions  presented  *  for 
public  discussion.  The  opinion  siiared  b\-  most  suggests 
structural  protection  from  a  flood-return  interval  com- 
mensurate w  itii  agricultural  lands  should  be  provided. 
The  cost  should  be  allocated  to  all  levels  of  govern- 
ment and  among  the  different  purposes  that  stand  to 
gain  from  such  protection. 

The  Corps  of  Engineers  has  been  requested  1)\-  the 
State  Legislature  to  stud_\-  the  existing  levees  and  ren- 
der a  report  by  the  fall  of  1976.  The  Corps  has  stated 
the  investigation  would  require  more  time  because  of 
the  man\-  diverse  problems  involved.  No  investigative 
work  is  underway  at  present  as  federal  funds  have  not 
been  made  available. 

Cognizant  of  the  need  for  more  state  participation 
in  flood  management,  the  Department  of  Water  Re- 
sources initiated  a  3-_\ear  study  in  Jul\-  1974  to  eval- 
uate flood  damage  pre\ention.  The  study,  at  a  cost  of 
about  $500,000,  in  consultation  w  ith  local  go\ernment 
and  flood  control  agencies  will  review  existing  and 
proposed  flood  control  works,  estimate  the  degree  of 
protection  from  flooding,  identif\-  residual  flood  prob- 
lems, and  examine  and  evaluate  flood  management  con- 
cepts as  they  might  resoh  e  existing  problems. 


Water  Quality  Control  Planning 

(This  section  of  ihe  report  was  prepared  by  the 
State  Water  Resources  Control  Board) 

Iniroducfion 

Ir  is  the  responsibility  of  the  State  Water  Resources 
Control  Board  to  regulate  the  activities  and  factors 
which  affect  or  may  affect  the  qualit\'  of  the  waters 
of  the  State  in  order  to  attain  the  highest  w  ater  quality 
which  is  reasonable  considering  all  demands  being 
made  and  to  be  made  on  those  waters  and  the  total 
values  involved.*  Qualit\-  and  quantity  are  so  inter- 
related that  they  must  be  considered  together,  a  fact 
recognized  by  the  Legislature  which  has  placed  the 
responsibility'  for  both  quantity-  allocation  (water 
rights  administration)  and  control  of  qualit\'  upon 
the  Board. 

The  State's  Porter-Cologne  Water  Quality  Control 
Act  of  1969  established  the  present  control  mecha- 
nism. The  Act  requires  the  formulation  and  adoption 
of  water  quality  control  plans  by  each  of  the  nine 
Regional  \Vater  Quality  Control  Boards  "for  all  areas 
w  irhin  the  region"'. I^  The  plans  become  effective  upon 
approval  by  the  State  Board.  The  Act  also  provides 
that  the  approved  \\ater  quality  control  plans  shall 
become  a  part  of  the  California  \\'atcr  Plan  when 
"reported  to  the  Legislature". i 

P'ederal  requirements  for  water  pollution  control 
plans  did  not  appear  until  the  issuing  of  the  federal 
regulation  18CFR  601.32-33  on  July  2,  1970,  which 
specified  that  no  grant  for  waste  treatment  works  can 
be  made  unless  the  project  is  included  in  an  effective, 
current  basinw  ide  plan  for  pollution  abatement  con- 
sistent with  approved  w  ater  quality  standards. 

The  Porter-Cologne  Act  requires  that  "each  Reg- 
ional Board  shall  establish  such  water  qualit\'  objectives 
in  water  quality  control  plans  as  in  its  judgment  will 
ensure  the  reasonable  protection  of  beneficial  uses  and 
the  prevention  of  nuisance;  ..."  §  Further,  the  plan 
shall  contain  a  program  of  implementation  for  achiev- 
ing water  quality  objectives  w  hich  includes  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  nature  of  actions  to  be  taken,  a  time 
sclicdule  and  a  description  of  surveillance  to  be  under- 
taken to  determine  compliance  with  objecti\es.  The 
federal  regulation  in  effect  at  the  start  of  the  compre- 
hensive planning  program  required  the  plan  to  take 
into  account  sources  of  pollution,  volume  of  discharge, 
character  of  effluent,  present  treatment,  the  effect  of 
the  discharge  on  the  water  quality  in  the  basin  and 
establish  a  detailed  program  of  abatement.  These  reg- 
ulations emphasized  facilities  for  -the  abatement  of 
municipal  and  industrial  pollution  problems. 


"Delta    Levees,    What    is    t 
sources,  September  1973. 


rulurer"    Dipaitmcnt    of    Watci     Re 


•  S  ISOOO.  tjliforni.1  Wali-r  Cmlc. 
+  S  13240,  California  Water  Code. 
t  S  13141,  California  Water  Code. 
5  S  13241,  California  Water  Code. 


124 


The  Federal  Water  Pollution  Control  Act  Amend- 
ments of  1972,  which  were  enacted  after  the  compre- 
hensive planning  program  was  well  underwa\',  im- 
posed a  number  of  additional  requirements.  Under  the 
1972  Amendments  the  plan  must  include  at  least 
effluent  limitations  and  schedules  of  compliance  with 
established  degrees  of  treatment,  compatability  with 
all  elements  of  applicable  areawide  wastewater  man- 
agement plans,  a  statement  of  total  maximum  daily 
pollutant  loads,  procedures  for  revision,  authority  for 
intergovernmental  cooperation,  an  adequate  program 
for  implementation,  controls  over  disposition  of  waste- 
\\  atcr  treatment  residuals  and  an  inventory  and  rank- 
ing of  needs  for  construction  of  waste  treatment 
works. 

The  comprehensive  plans  \\  ill  be  an  extension  of  the 
Interim  Water  Quality  Control  Plans  adopted  and 
approved  by  the  Regional  Boards  and  the  State  Board 
in  June  1971.  The  Interim  Plans  \\ill  serve  as  a  guide 
for  water  qualit\-  management  until  tiie  comprehensive 
plans  are  completed,  adopted  and  approved. 

The  comprehensive  plans  for  each  of  the  sixteen 
basins  comprising  the  State  have  been  under  prepara- 
tion since  Ma)-  1972,  and  will  be  completed  by  De- 
cember 1974.  The  plans  will  be  published  as  reports. 
Adoption  and  approval  are  anticipated  to  be  accomp- 
lished within  a  few  months  after  completion.  The 
plans  will  be  assessed  and  revised  as  necessary  to 
reflect  current  conditions  and  technology. 

Purposes  of  ihe  Plans 

The  purposes  of  the  comprehensive  Water  Quality 
Control  Plans  are  to:  ( 1 )  establish  beneficial  uses  to 
be  protected  and  the  water  quality  objectives  which 
will  ensure  the  reasonable  protection  of  established 
beneficial  uses;  (2)  describe  the  optimum  conceptual 
basinw  ide  strategy  to  achieve  the  water  quality  objec- 
tives and  management  goals;  (3)  delineate  and  evaluate 
the  viable  alternatives  for  treatment  and  control  of 
point  and  nonpoint  sources  to  meet  established  water 
quality  objectives;  (4)  select  from  the  alternatives  by 
a  process  which  considers  costs,  flexibility  to  adapt 
to  future  changes  in  conditions,  resources  commit- 
ment, environmental  impacts  and  socio-economic 
aspects  to  obtain  a  recommended  control  plan;  and 
(5)  provide  information  which  allows  the  State  to 
establish  priorities  for  construction  grants  and  issuance 
of  waste  discharge  permits. 

The  goals  of  the  State  in  water  quality  management 
are  implied  in  Section  13000  of  the  Water  Code 
(Porter-Cologne  Act)  by  the  w  ords  ".  .  .  The  quality 
of  all  waters  of  the  State  shall  be  protected  for  use 
and  enjoyment  by  the  people  of  the  State."  The  goals 
of  the  Federal  Act  are  more  specifically  stated  in 
Section  101  of  PL  92-500  as  follows: 

(1)  The  objective  of  the  Act  is  to  restore  and  main- 
tain the  chemical,  physical  and  biological  integ- 
rity of  the  Nation's  w  aters. 


(2)  It  is  the  national  goal  to  eliminate  discharge  of 
pollutants  to  navigable  waters  by  1985. 

(3)  It  is  the  national  goal  that  wherever  attainable, 
an  interim  goal  of  water  quality  which  provides 
for  the  protection  and  propagation  of  fish, 
shellfish  and  wildlife,  and  provides  for  recrea- 
tion in  and  on  the  water  he  achieved  by  July 
1,  1983. 

(4)  It  is  a  national  policy  that  the  discharge  of  toxic 
pollutants  in  toxic  amounts  be  prohibited. 

(5)  It  is  the  national  policy  that  Federal  financial 
assistance  be  provided  to  construct  publicly 
owned  waste  treatment  works. 

(6)  It  is  the  national  polic\^  that  areawide  waste 
treatment  management  planning  processes  be 
developed  and  implemented  to  assure  adequate 
control  of  the  sources  of  pollutants,  and 

(7)  It  is  the  national  polic\-  to  develop  technology 
necessary  to  eliminate  the  discharge  of  pollutants 
to  navigable  waters,  waters  of  the  contiguous 
zone  and  the  oceans. 

The  above  Federal  goals  w  ere  extended  and  provided 
a  time  element  in  Section  301,  PL  92-500,  wherein  the 
effluent  limitations  establish  minimum,  or  mandatory, 
degrees  of  treatment  to  be  afforded  by  publicly  ow  ncd 
and  other  than  publicly  owned  treatment  w  orks.  The 
effluent  limitations  are  set  forth  in  Table  22.  Definitions 
of  "secondary  treatment",  "best  practicable  control 
technology  currently  available",  "best  practicable 
waste  treatment  technology",  and  "best  available  tech- 
nology economically  achievable"  by  the  U.  S.  En- 
vironmental Protection  Agency  establish  limiting 
values  for  certain  pollutant  parameters. 

Table   22.      Mandotory  Waste  Treatment  Requirements 
Public  Law  92-500 


By  July  I,  1977. 
By  July  I.  1983. 


Publicly  Owned  Pla 


Best  Practicable  Control 
Technology  Currently 
Available 


iest    Practicable    Waste 
Treatment  Technology 


Best   Available  Techn 
ogy  Economically 


The  plans  have  been  developed  to  comply  with  the 
planning  requirements  of  the  Porter-Cologne  Act  and 
Sections  106,  201,  208,  and  303  of  the  Federal  Water 
Pollution  Control  Act  Amendments  of  1972  (PL  92- 
500). 

Plan  Preparation 

The  basin  planning  program  is  managed  by  the  Di- 
vision of  Planning  and  Research  of  the  State  Board  in 
conjunction  with  the  staff  of  the  Regional  Boards.  In 
order  to  fully  utilize  planning  data  contained  in  the 
files  of  various  state  and  regional  agencies,  the  State 
Board  contracted  with  these  agencies  to  prepare  re- 


125 


ports  of  planning  information  related  to  tiieir  areas  of 
interest. 

The  Department  of  Water  Resources  prepared  re- 
ports on  land  and  water  use,  economic,  employment 
and  land  use  projections,  population  distribution,  water 
quality  modeling,  present  and  historical  \\atcr  quality 
and,  in  addition,  prepared  maps  of  hydrologic  subunits. 

The  Department  of  Fish  and  Game  prepared  reports 
on  water  quality  and  quantity  data,  present  and  future 
water  use  and  waste  loads  for  DF&G  installations, 
present  and  future  demands  for  fish  and  wildlife,  water 
qualit\'  and  quantit\'  problems  related  to  fish  and  \\ild- 
life,  and  development  of  water  quality  objectives  for 
waters  having  beneficial  uses  related  to  fish  and  \\  ild- 
life.  DF&G  also  provided  input  for  preparation  of  en- 
vironmental impact  assessments  for  the  basin  plans. 

The  Department  of  Health  provided  information  on 
beneficial  uses  of  water  and  water  supply  quality  prob- 
lems, present  and  projected  domestic  water  use,  and 
identification  and  evaluation  of  existing  wastewater 
reclamation  projects. 

The  Department  of  Parks  and  Recreation  reported 
upon  existing  and  potential  public  and  private  recrea- 
tional areas,  estimates  of  present  and  projected  park 
attendance,  present  and  future  water  and  wastewater 
requirements  for  parks  and  recreational  areas,  and  pres- 
ent and  future  recreational  area  waste  management 
practices. 

The  Department  of  Conservation  provided  an  in- 
ventory of  mines  and  mine  pollution,  data  related  to 
soil  and  vegetation  conditions  and  their  affect  on  the 
production  of  sediment,  information  on  current  and 
projected  operations  of  the  timber  industry,  forest 
management  practices,  problems  of  and  procedures  for 
control  of  water  pollution  related  to  oil,  gas,  and  gco- 
thermal  operations,  and  opportunities  for  utilizing 
wastewaters  in  the  oil  and  gas  industry. 

These  state  agencies  were  retained  under  contract  to 
provide  assistance  to  the  planners  during  plan  prepara- 
tion on  an  as-needed  basis. 

The  State  Board  also  entered  into  contracts  with 
local  and  regional  planning  agencies  to  provide  plan- 
ning data  and  assistance.  These  agencies  include  the 
Association  of  Bay  Area  Governments,  Sacramento 
Regional  Area  Planning  Commission,  Southern  Cali- 
fornia Association  of  Governments,  Comprehensive 
Planning  Organization  (San  Diego),  Association  of 
Monterey  Bay  Area  Governments,  San  Luis  Re\- 
Santa  Margarita  Joint  Committee,  Ventura  Regional 
County  Sanitation  District  and  Lompoc  \^alle\-  Region. 

Development  of  the  basin  plans  was  performed 
under  contracts  between  the  State  Board  and  public 
agencies  and  private  consulting  organizations.  These 
organizations  and  the  respective  basins  are  identified  in 
Table  23. 

The  Board  contracted  w  ith  the  consulting  joint  ven- 
ture of  CD.M/Banks  Consultants  to  serve  as  the  Office 


126 


Table  23.     Basin  Planning  Organizations 


Department  of  Water  Resources 

Brown   &   Caldwell.  Water  Resources   Engineers,   Inc.,   Voder- 
Trotter-Orlob  &  Associates 

Daniel,  Mann,  Johnson  &  Mendenhall/Koebig  &  Koebig,  Inc 

Bay-Valiey  Consultants   (Bechtel   Corp.,   Consocr-Townsend   & 
Associates,  CHsM-Hill,  Hydroscience).. 

Kaiser  Engineers _ 

Santa  Ana  Watershed  Planning  Agency 

James  M.  Montgomery,  Consulting  Engineers,  Inc. 


IB,  2.  3 
4A.  4B,  5D 


of  Technical  Coordination  (OTC)  which  furnished 
administrative  and  technical  advice  and  assistance  to 
the  Board  in  matters  relating  to  the  preparation  of  the 
basin  plans. 

Planning  Criteria  and  Consfrainfs 

The  basin  plans  \\  ere  prepared  within  a  framework 
of  criteria,  policies,  base  conditions  and  environmental 
constraints.  The  first  objective  was  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  laws,  regulations  and  policies  which  pro- 
vide basic  legal  control.  Further  the  intent  was  to  de- 
velop a  set  of  basin  plans  which  address  the  water 
qualit\'  management  problems  of  each  of  the  basins 
indi\idually  while  considering  the  inter-basin  and  state- 
wide problems  so  that  the  basin  plans,  considered  to- 
gether, will  provide  a  consistent  and  continuous  over- 
all statewide  plan.  Interface  problems  among  the 
basins  are  formidable  in  California  where  major  inter- 
basin  transfers  of  ^\'ater  occur. 

Although  planning  was  already  well  under  wa\-, 
ciianges,  some  of  which  were  rather  drastic,  w  ere  made 
to  comply  with  PL  92-.^00  which  became  effective  on 
October  IS,  1972.  The  problem  was  further  compli- 
cated by  the  considerable  arra\'  of  specific  new  reg- 
ulations that  began  to  emerge  from  the  L\  S.  Environ- 
mental Protection  Agenc\-  shortl\'  after  passage  of  the 
.\ct  and  are  still  being  promulgated  as  this  planning 
effort  nears  completion.  Ever\-  attempt  has  been  made 
to  comply  w  ith  these  regulations. 

The  several  policies  and  plans  of  the  State  AX'atcr 
Resources  Control  Board  which  affect  basin  planning 
are  described  brieH\'  below.  These  policies  and  plans 
provide  the  added  details  needed  to  carr\-  out  the  in- 
tent and  general  pro\  isions  of  the  law  s.  One  objective 
of  the  comprehensive  stud\-  w  as  to  look  at  the  impact 
ot  these  plans  and  policies  on  the  water  resources,  and 
upon  the  people,  to  determine  if  changes  are  advisable. 

Four  State  Board  (lolicics  and  plans  provided  polic\' 
guidance  in  this  comprehensive  planning  program. 
Ihey  are  the  ( I )  State  Polic\-  for  XV'atcr  Quality  Con- 
trol (State  Polic>);  (2)  Statement  of  Polic\-  with  Re- 
spect to  .Maintaining  High  Qualit>  of  Waters  in  Cali- 
fornia  (N'ondegradation  Policy);   (3)  Water  Quality 


if 


il 


E 


k 


b 


is 


Control  Plan  for  Ocean  \V'aters  of  California  (Ocean 
Plan);  and  (4)  Water  Quality  Control  Plan  for  Con- 
trol of  Temperature  in  the  Coastal  and  Interstate  Wa- 
ters and  Enclosed  Ba\"s  and  Estuaries  of  California 
(Thermal  Plan).  Tiic  State  Polic\-  stresses  that  control 
decisions  must  assure  protection  of  water  resources  for 
m.ixinium  beneficial  use;  that  municipal,  agricultural 
and  industrial  w  astcw  atcrs  must  be  considered  an  in- 
tegral parr  of  the  total  fresh  water  resource;  that 
wastewater  management  is  dependent  upon  a  balanced 
program  of  source  control,  treatment  of  wastewaters, 
reuse  of  reclaimed  water,  and  proper  disposal  of  ef- 
fluents and  residuals;  and  that  wastewater  reclamation 
and  reuse  shall  be  encouraged. 

The  Xondegradation  Polic\'  esscntiall\'  provides  that 
\\  hcrever  existing  qualit\'  of  water  is  better  than  need 
he  to  adequate!)'  support  existing  or  potential  beneficial 
uses  or  to  comply  with  established  policy,  the  existing 
high  quality  w  ill  be  maintained.  Exception  is  allowed 
only  if  any  change  \'.  ill  be  consistent  with  the  maxi- 
mum benefit  to  the  people,  will  not  unrcasonabl\"  af- 
fect beneficial  uses  and  w  ill  not  result  in  qualit\-  lower 
than  that  prescribed  by  other  policies. 

1  he  Ocean  Plan  sets  forth  limits  or  levels  of  water 
qualit)'  for  ocean  waters  to  ensure  protection  of  bene- 
ficial uses  and  prevention  of  nuisance,  and  states  that 
the  discharge  of  wastes  shall  not  cause  violation  of 
these  quality  objectives.  The  plan  describes  acceptable 
bacteriological,  physical,  chemical,  biological,  toxicity 
and  radioactive  limits  in  both  numerical  and  descrip- 
ti\  c  terms.  The  plan  prohibits  the  discharge  of  haz- 
ardous substances  and  sludge,  bypassing  of  untreated 
wastes,  and  requires  that  waste  discharges  not  alter 
natural  water  quality  in  areas  designated  as  having 
special  biological  significance. 

Ihc  Thermal  Plan  imposes  limits  on  the  temperature 
of  waste  materials  discharged  to  waters  of  the  state 
classified  as  cold  interstate  waters,  warm  interstate  w  a- 
tcrs.  coastal  waters,  enclosed  ba\s,  and  estuaries.  In 
general,  existing  elevated  temperature  discharges  are 
re(]uired  to  be  at  such  a  temperature  as  to  assure  pro- 
tection of  beneficial  uses  and  areas  of  special  biologi- 
cal significance.  New  elevated  temperature  discharges 
are  assigned  specific  limits  on  the  temperature  of  the 
discharge  as  well  as  the  resulting  temperature  of  the 
mixed  receiving  and  wastewaters. 

1  he  basin  plans  have  been  prepared  to  encompass 
a  planning  period  from  the  present  through  the  year 
2000.  Projections  of  population,  employment,  water 
use,  land  use,  industrial  output,  and  agricultural  pro- 
duction v.ere  used  to  estimate  the  situations  that  are 
most  likely  to  occur  in  the  planning  period.  The  plans 
were  prepared  according  to  base  line  projections  and 
because  projections  arc  onl\-  informed  guesses,  sensi- 
tivity of  the  plans  to  projections  other  than  base  line 
were  assessed. 


Population  projections  prepared  b\'  the  California 
Departments  of  Finance  and  Water  Resources  were 
used:  the  Rase  Plan  or  D-150,  and  Alternate  E-O.  The 
letter  designates  the  fertility  rate,  or  births  per  female 
of  2A5  for  Series  D,  and  2. 11  for  Series  E.  The  num- 
ber designates  the  annual  net  in-migration  to  the  State 
in  thf)usands.  Common  to  all  three  projections  w  as  the 
"benchmark"  population  data  provided  by  the  Nine- 
teenth Decennial  Census  of  Population  of  the  Unitetl 
States,  -April  1,  1970. 

The  D-150  projection  was  used  as  base  line  except 
that  for  areas  designated  as  "air-critical"  because  of 
air  pollution  problem,  the  E-O  projection  must  be 
base  line.  State  grant  fund  regulations  place  limitations 
upon  grant  eligibility  for  excess  or  future  capacity  to 
be  built  into  collection  and  treatment  facilities  by 
limiting  eligible  project  costs.  Capacity  in  excess  of 
present  needs  to  handle  projected  municipal  and  com- 
mercial growth  for  10  years  is  grant  eligible  for  treat- 
ment plants,  and  for  20  years  for  sewers,  interceptors 
and  outfalls.  Capacity  in  excess  of  this  must  be  funded 
locally.  No  capacity  for  industrial  growth  is  grant 
eligible.  In  the  planning  program,  latitude  was  al- 
lowed in  selection  of  alternative  projections  for  sensi- 
tivit\'  studies  to  account  for  local  opinions. 

Certain  other  basic  considerations  in  planning  were 
established  as  "base  conditions"  to  assure  that  the 
various  basin  plans  were  basically  consistent  and  uni- 
form statewide.  Planning  was  carried  out  according  to 
these  stipulated  "base  conditions"  but  the  effects  on 
the  basic  plan  of  possible  changes  in  these  base  condi- 
tions were  investigated.  The  established  base  conditions 
for  the  planning  program  are  listed  in  Table  24. 

Planning  program  guidelines  were  developed  by 
the  State  Board  staff  and  Oflnce  of  Technical  Coordi- 
nation to  establish  consistent  planning  conditions  for 
use  by  the  various  basin  contractors.  Twenty-six  such 
planning  management  memoranda  were  issued  en- 
compassing a  wide  range  of  subjects.  In  addition, 
standardized  information  on  design  parameters,  fa- 
cilit\-  performance,  construction  costs,  interest  and 
escalation  rates,  and  energy  requirements  for  facilities, 
was  developed  and  distributed  for  use  in  the  program. 
Uniformity  and  consistency  in  planning  for  all  basins 
was  achieved  by  the  use  of  these  management  memo- 
randa and  standardized  information  items. 

Planning  Sfrategy 

A  planning  strategy  w  as  developed  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  basin  water  quality  control  plans.  The 
strategy  meets  the  requirements  of  the  Porter-Cologne 
Act  in  that  it  begins  with  the  establishment  of  benefi- 
cial uses,  establishes  water  quality  objectives  to  pro- 
tect those  beneficial  uses,  evaluates  alternative  means 
to  meet  these  objectives,  selects  a  recommended  plan, 
and  provides  a  plan  and  program  for  implementation 
all  within  a  framework  of  the  water  quality  control 


127 


policies  of  the  State  Board.  The  strategy  also  pro- 
vides for  the  classification  of  segments  into  \\'ater 
quality  or  effluent  limitation  classes,  the  allocation  of 
assimilative  capacity,  consideration  of  nonpoint  sources 
and  development  of  water  quality  management  plans 
as  required  by  the  Federal  Water  Pollution  Control 
Act  Amendments  of  1972. 

Figure  26  is  a  graphic  representation  of  this  planning 
strategy.  The  strategy  applies  to  both  surface  and 
groundwaters  even  though  the  federal  requirements, 
strictly  interpreted,  applies  only  to  navigable  waters. 
For  purposes  of  these  plans,  the  State  Board  considers 
that  navigable  waters  are  defined  as  all  surface  waters 
of  the  State. 

The  planning  strategy  is  carried  out  for  each  water 
body,  surface  or  groundwater,  classified  as  a  segment. 
A  segment  is  a  water  body  having  common  hydro- 
Table  24.     Base  Conditions  for  Planning 


Project 

Base  Condition  Status 

1. 

Western  Delta  Overland  Water  Suppiv 

Joint  construction  and  operation  by 

System 

SWP  and  CVP.  Operative  by  1985. 

2. 

Kellogg  Unit,  Federal  C\T 

Xot    constructed     within    planning 

period. 

3. 

Folsom-South  Canal 

Facility  to  be  completed  to  its  origi- 
nally planned  southern  terminous 
by  1985. 

4. 

Hood-Clay  Connection 

Facility  to  be  constructed  and  opera- 
tive when  demands  exceed  Folsom- 
South  Canal  supply  available  at 
\imbus  under  SWRCB  Decision 
D-1400. 

5. 

Eastside  Division,  Federa 

CVP 

Facility  will  not  be  built  within  plan- 
ning period.  DWR-Kern  Co.  Cross 
Valley  Canal  to  be  considered  an 
alternative. 

6. 

Export  from  .Vortli  Coast 

Streams 

Xo  additional  diversions  from  North 
Coast  Streams  within  planning 
period. 

7. 

San  Felipe  Division.  Fede 

ral  CVP 

Evaluate  as  one  alternative  for  meet- 
ing future  water  demands  in  serv- 

8. 

East  Bay  MUD  American 

River  Project 

Evaluate  as  one  alternative  for  meet- 
ing future  demands.  Value  of  qual- 
ity to  be  considered. 

9. 

Extension  o{  Coastal  Aq 

ueduct  to  San 

Coastal  .\queduct  will  be  completed 

Luis  Obispo  and  Santa  B. 

rbara 

at  such  time  water  demands  indi- 
cate need. 

10. 

New  Melones  Project 

Construction  as  planned  will  take 
place. 

11. 

Baldwin  Ship  Channel 

Evaluate  quantity  and  quality  ef- 
fects of  proposed  facility  on  the 
Delta. 

12. 

Colorado  River  Quality 

Present  TDS  at  Imperial  Dam  is  850 
mg/1  with  uniform  degradation  to 
1.250  mg/1  by  year  2000.  Cali- 
fornia diversions  limited  to  4.4  X 
lO'^  afa  except  in  surplus  years. 

U. 

Peripheral  Canal 

Two  cases  to  be  considered: 

(a)  Joint  federal  and  state  construc- 
tion and  operation. 

(b)  State  construction  and  operation 
with     federal     continuation     of 
cross-Delta  flow. 

14 

SWP  Diversions 

Will  meet  SWP  Schedule  .\  contract 

Abb _„.. 

SWP        —  State  Water  Project 
CVP        —  Central  Valley  Project 
SWRCB  —  State  Water  Resources  Control  B. 
DWR       —  Department  of  Water  Resources 
MUD       —  Municipal  Utility  District 
TDS         —  Total  disolved  solids 
mg/1        —  Milligrams  per  liter 
afa  —  Acre  feet  per  annum 


logic  characteristics  (or  flow  regulation  patterns)  and 
common  natural  physical,  chemical  and  biological 
processes,  including  reactions  to  external  stresses.  T\\  o 
classes  of  segments  are  defined.  An  effluent  limitation 
class  segment  is  one  in  which  water  qualit\'  objectives 
will  be  met  with  the  implementation  of  mandatory 
treatment  processes  called  for  in  PL  92-500  (Table 
22)  for  point  \\aste  sources.  A  water  qualit>'  class 
segment,  conversely,  is  one  in  \\hich  establislied  w ater 
quality  objectives  will  not  be  met  upon  implementa- 
tion of  mandatory  treatment  processes  for  point  \\aste 
sources.  The  designation  of  a  segment  as  w  ater  quality 
class  means  that  higher  degrees  of  treatment  \vM  be 
required  for  point  waste  sources  and/or  control  meas- 
ures must  be  imposed  to  decrease  nonpoint  waste 
loadings. 

The  planning  strategy  may  be  divided  into  four  dis- 
tinct steps  each  of  which  must  be  completed  before 
starting  the  next.  The  first  step  in  the  planning  proc- 
ess, selection  of  beneficial  uses  for  a  segment,  is  made 
by  the  Regional  Board  \\ith  input  from  the  other 
public  agencies,  tlie  public  and  the  basin  contractor. 

In  the  second  step,  the  most  strict  of  the  three  water 
quaiit\-  constraints;  i.e.,  state  polic\",  nondegradation 
polic\',  or  quality  to  protect  the  beneficial  use,  is  then 
selected  as  the  basis  for  the  water  qualit\'  objectives 
for  that  segment.  Water  quality  objectives  are  de- 
termined early  in  the  planning  process  and  remain 
fixed  throughout  the  process  except  for  two  situations 
in  \\  hich  a  change  may  be  considered.  The  first  is  a 
change  to  a  better  water  quality  through  enhancement 
which  \\  ill  be  described  later.  The  second  is  a  change 
to  lower  water  qualit\'  objectives  to  be  considered 
only  as  a  last  resort,  and  onl\'  in  a  situation  where  un- 
controllable waste  loads  make  it  impossible  to  meet 
the  recommended  water  quality  objectives.  The  latter 
situation  is  not  show  n  on  Figure  26. 

The  third  step,  the  classification  of  surface  water 
segments  into  either  the  effluent  limiration  class  or  the 
\\  ater  qualit\-  class,  involves  the  determination  of  the 
magnitude  and  location  of  wnste  loads  in  the  segment 
that  \\i\\  be  discharged  into  the  segment  w aters.  Non- 
point  waste  loads  heretofore  uncontrolled  and  uncon- 
trollable loads  are  included  as  well  as  all  point  source 
waste  loads.  All  loads  are  projected  to  future  condi- 
tions expected  to  occur  at  the  point  in  time  fur  w  hich 
the  plan  is  being  developed. 

For  point  source  waste  loads,  the  estimated  un- 
treated loads  arc  first  determined  and  then  reduced  by 
the  amount  of  treatment  afforded  by  mandatorx'  treat- 
ment le\els.  For  nonpoint  loads,  consideration  is  given 
to  sources,  magnitudes  and  reasonable  means  of  con- 
trol. The  estimated  future  nonpoint  loads  are  reduced 
by  whatever  degree  of  control  is  to  be  applied  under 
the  selected  management  strategy.  The  remaining 
loads  are  combined  with  the  point  source  loads  which 
remain  after  mandator)-  treatment.  To  obtain  the 
residual  segment  loading,  a  judgment  factor  is  added 


128 


1 1_^  1^ 


n 


Figure  26.      Statewide  Planning  Strategy  for  Water  Quality  Management 


129 


to  account  for  hydrologic  uncertainty  and  a  factor  of 
safety.  This  residual  segment  loading  is  applied  under 
selected  critical  flow  conditions  and  the  estimated 
future  water  quality  in  the  segment  determined.  Some 
of  the  available  assimilative  capacity  within  the  estab- 
lished water  quality  objectives  may  be  reserved  for 
possible  new  loadings  in  the  future.  Estimated  future 
quality  is  checked  against  the  established  water  quality 
objectives.  If  the  estimated  segment  water  quality  is 
better  than  or  equal  to  the  objectives,  the  segment  is 
an  effluent  limitation  class  and,  if  not,  the  segment  is 
a  water  quality  class. 

The  fourth  step  is  to  develop,  in  detail  and  with 
full  consideration  and  evaluation  of  all  reasonable  al- 
ternatives, the  recommended  management  plan,  in- 
cluding facilities.  For  effluent  limitation  class  segments, 
this  involves  the  development  of  alternative  plans  us- 
ing the  mandatory  treatment  levels  for  point  source 
pollutant  control  and  any  nonpoint  source  control 
measures  considered  in  the  computations  which  led 
to  the  classification. 

For  water  quality  class  segments,  the  net  available 
assimilative  capacity  of  the  segment  within  the  estab- 
lished water  quality  objectives  under  selected  critical 
flow  conditions  is  allocated  among  the  point  and  non- 
point  waste  load  sources.  Due  allowance  is  made  for 
natural  background  loading,  loadings  from  upstream, 
hydrologic  uncertainty,  any  reserve  to  be  made  for 
the  possibility  of  new  loadings  in  the  future  and  a 
factor  of  safety.  Progressively  higher  degrees  of  treat- 
ment are  applied  to  the  point  sources  and  more  strin- 
gent control  measures  to  the  nonpoint  sources  until  a 
balance  is  obtained  between  projected  residual  waste 
loadings  on  the  segment  and  the  estimated  assimilative 
capacity  available  for  those  loadings.  It  may  be  found 
necessary  to  prohibit  some  or  all  point  source  waste 
discharges  to  the  segment,  particularly  in  cases  where 
the  residual  uncontrollable  nonpoint  waste  discharges 
are  large,  in  order  to  meet  the  water  quality  objectives. 

There  may  be  water  quality  class  segments  for 
which  it  is  clearly  unreasonable  or  even  impossible 
to  meet  the  water  quality  objectives  established  in  the 
second  step  of  the  planning  process  because  of  ex- 
cessive costs  or  inability  to  control  nonpoint  waste 
sources  sufficiently.  In  such  cases,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  revise  the  water  quality  objectives  downward. 
However,  the  justification  for  accepting  lower  water 
quality  must  be  clearly  demonstrated. 

In  developing  alternative  plans,  consideration  is 
given  to  the  possibilities  of  regionalization  and  integra- 
tion of  facilities  for  municipal  and  industrial  wastes. 
These  alternative  plans  are  evaluated,  along  with  any 
alternatives  developed  through  consideration  of  en- 
hancement. Selection  of  the  recommended  plan  from 
among  the  alternatives  is  made  considering  cost-effec- 
tiveness, environmental  impacts  and  functional  effec- 
tiveness, reliability,  flexibility,  program  acceptability 
and  amenability  to  implementation.  The  institutional 


and  financial  arrangements  necessary  for  implementa- 
tion of  the  recommended  plan  are  set  forth  and  made  a 
part  of  the  plan. 

Enhancement  is  defined  as  an  improvement  of  the 
water  quality  of  a  segment  over  the  water  quality  ob- 
jectives as  determined  in  the  second  planning  step.  En- 
hancement is  a  viable  alternative  in  situations  where 
there  is  a  demonstrable  economic  or  environmental 
advantage  to  be  gained  by  having  higher  quality  water 
or  where  higher  water  quality  can  be  achieved  at  low 
incremental  cost. 

If  enhancement  appears  to  be  possible,  trial  higher 
quality  objectives  are  established,  the  net  assimilation 
capacity  (sec  Figure  26)  of  the  segment  is  determined, 
allocations  are  made  and  the  resulting  segment  quality 
is  estimated.  This  may  take  several  trials  to  arrive  at  an 
acceptable  and  cost-effective  set  of  objectives. 

Plan  Reports 

Each  of  the  basin  plans  will  be  published  in  a  report, 
entitled  Comprehensive  Water  Quality  Control  Plan. 
The  report  is  prepared  in  two  parts.  Part  I,  Water 
Quality  Control  Plan,  contains  a  statement  of  the  plan 
and  its  environmental  assessment  and  includes  those 
portions  to  be  adopted  and  approved  by  the  Boards. 
Part  II,  Supporting  Information,  contains  information 
which  supports  the  development  of  the  plan. 

Each  plan  contains  an  assessment  of  the  expected  ef- 
fects the  plan  will  have  on  the  environment  including 
the  socio-economic  effects  it  will  have  on  people.  In 
addition,  each  plan  includes  a  surveillance  and  monitor- 
ing program  designed  to  gather  and  store  information 
relating  to  background  quality,  discharger  compliance 
and  control  plan  effectiveness. 

The  Water  Quality  Control  Plans  will  be  reviewed 
from  time  to  time  and  revised  as  deemed  necessary. 

Public  Participaiion 

Participation  by  the  public,  organizations  and  in- 
dividuals, has  been  encouraged  throughout  the  plan- 
ning process.  The  Porter-Cologne  Act  requires  that 
"the  Regional  Boards  shall  not  adopt  any  water  quality 
control  plan  unless  a  public  hearing  is  first  held, 
.  .  .  ".*  In  this  planning  program,  more  public  par- 
ticipation was  sought,  not  only  to  obtain  input  of  in- 
formation from  the  public,  but  to  prepare  the  way  for 
smoother  adoption  proceedings.  Early  in  the  program, 
guidelines  for  public  participation  were  established 
which  called  for  at  least  four  public  meetings  sched- 
uled at  specific  points  in  the  planning  process.  The 
purpose  of  each  meeting  is  described  as  follows: 

Meeting  I.  Introduction  of  the  scope  and  purpose 
of  the  basin  planning  program;  presentation  of  the 
planning  schedule;  introduction  of  the  planning  per- 
sonnel; description  in  general  terms  of  the  basic  ele- 
ments of  the  plan;  details  on  population  and  land  use 

*  Section   13244,  California  Waicr  Code. 


130 


piiijcctions  discussed;  rhc  public  urged  to  express  its 
\  lews. 

Mcctiiia;  2.  I)ispla\'  of  beneficial  uses  and  \\ater 
(luality  objectives  for  public  scrutiny  and  comment; 
beneficial  uses  and  \\ater  quality  objectives  not  adopted 
at  tiiis  meeting  but  public  concurrence  w  ith  the  thrust 
of  the  plan  sougiit. 

Meeting  3.  Presentation  of  the  alternative  plans 
M  irh  a  discussion  of  the  legal,  policN'  and  institutional 
aspects;  public  expression  sought  as  to  acceptance  and 
indication  of  preferred  plan  among  the  alternatives. 

Meeting  4.  In  the  form  of  a  Regional  Board  hear- 
ing; the  final  recommended  plan  presented  with  justi- 
fication for  its  selection;  the  public  provided  the  op- 
portunity and  encouraged  to  comment  upon  the  rec- 
(imnicnded  plan. 

I'edcral  guidelines  for  public  participation,  developed 
as  required  by  PL  92-500,  are  much  the  same  as  the 
state  guidelines  set  forth  above. 

During  the  planning  period,  meetings  were  held  as 
rc(iuired  by  the  guidelines,  and  in  several  basins  ad- 
ditional meetings  were  held.  The  participation  b>'  the 
public  is  documented  in  the  ancillary  portions  of  the 
plan  report.  Public  participation,  for  the  most  part,  has 
been  beneficial  and  gratifying. 

Basin  Problems 

I'ollowing  is  a  brief  description  of  each  of  the  sixteen 
basins  and  a  general  discussion  of  the  major  water 
(iualit\-  and  quantity  problems  in  each  basin.  At  the 
time  of  this  writing,  none  of  the  water  quality  control 
plans  have  been  adopted  or  approved  by  the  Regional 
ami  State  Boards.  Accordingly,  it  would  be  premature 
aiul  perhaps  misleading  to  describe  the  action  portion 
(it  these  plans  at  this  time.  The  plans  are  expected  to  be 
adopted  and  approved  by  the  Regional  and  State 
Boards  by  December  1974.  Individual  plans  should  be 
consulted  after  adoption  to  obtain  details  on  the  recom- 
mended plan. 

The  water  quality  class  segments  are  particularly 
significant  in  view  of  the  focus  of  attention  that  must 
be  directed  to  them  to  conform  to  PL  92-500.  Each 
water  quality  class  segment  is  identified,  and  the  na- 
ture and  seriousness  of  the  problem,  as  well  as  planned 
alleviation  measures,  is  discussed.  Thirty-one  such  seg- 
ments have  been  designated  in  the  State. 

Basin  lA,  Klamath  River  Basin.  The  Klamath 
River,  a  relatively  large  Northern  California  river, 
rises  in  the  Oregon  plateau  swamps  and  flows  through 
the  Northern  California  lava  plateau  region  and 
mountainous  area  of  Northwestern  California  to  the 
sea.  The  Trinity  River  is  the  major  tributary.  Most 
of  the  12.5  million  acre-feet  per  year  runoff  from  the 
basin  originates  in  the  mountain  region.  In  Oregon, 
considerable  use  is  made  of  the  rather  limited  flow 
for  irrigation  causing  some  degradation  in  the  quality 


of  the  water  reaching  California.  Water  supplies  in 
the  California  lava  plateau  region  are  derived  largch' 
from  groundwater  in  rclativcl\'  small  amount  (104,000 
acre-feet  per  year  at  present)  for  agriculture,  munici- 
pal and  industrial  supplies.  Regulation  of  the  river  and 
its  tributaries  in  California  is  relatively  minor  with 
much  of  the  runoft'  flowing  unregulated  to  the  sea 
during  the  winter  months:  the  onl>-  significant  regula- 
tion is  that  provided  by  Clair  Engle  Lake  on  the 
Trinity  River  from  which  about  900,000  acre-feet  of 
w  atcr  per  year  are  exported  to  the  Sacramento  \'alley. 
A  much  smaller  river,  the  Smith,  drains  a  719  square 
mile  area  in  the  northwestern  corner  of  the  State.  All 
rivers  and  streams  in  the  basin  support  important 
fish  resources. 

Water  quality  problems  are  not  serious  at  the  pres- 
ent time.  Avian  botulism  is  a  problem  in  the  Pacific 
Flyway  haven  of  Tule  Lake  due  to  organic  loading, 
shallow  water  and  poor  circulation.  Algae  growths 
occur  in  the  impoundments  in  the  lower  flow  regions 
above  the  mouth  of  the  Trinity  River.  Population 
centers  are  few  and  small  and  have  relied  heaviK- 
upon  individual  waste  disposal  systems  which  arc 
generally  not  satisfactory.  A  major  problem  is  the 
sediment  developed  by  erosion  in  the  forest  areas,  due 
in  part  to  lumbering  and  construction.  Tremendous 
quantities  of  silt  are  transported  to  the  sea  during 
high  runoff  periods.  Another  problem,  sedimentation 
in  the  Trinit\'  River  channel  downstream  of  Lew  iston 
Dam  is  due  to  the  decreased  flows  resulting  from 
regulation  and  diversion  to  the  Sacramento  Valley  and 
natural  high  erosion  rates  present  within  the  watershed. 
There  are  no  water  qualit\-  class  segments  in  Basin 
lA. 

Basin  JB,  North  Coastal  Basin.  The  North  Coastal 
Basin  includes  those  drainages  which  originate  on  the 
western  slopes  of  the  Coastal  Range  and  flow  to  the 
sea.  The  basin  extends  from  the  Klamath  River  drain- 
age basin  on  the  north  to  the  Marin-Sonoma  area  on 
the  south.  The  basin  area  is  rugged  and  mountainous, 
and  sparsely  populated  except  for  the  r^vo  centers  of 
population  in  the  Eureka-Humboldt  Bay  and  Santa 
Rosa  areas.  Agriculture  in  the  basin  area  is  limited  to 
a  few  narrow  valle\s  and  is  relativel\'  unimportant. 
Lumbering  and  paper  industries  and  tourism  are  the 
economic  bases  in  the  Humboldt  Bay  area.  Santa  Rosa 
is  a  business  city  on  the  northern  fringe  of  the  urban 
San  Francisco  Bay  area. 

Precipitation  in  the  basin  area  is  relatively  heavy 
and  seasonal,  giving  rise  to  considerable  variation  of 
flows  in  the  rivers.  Regulation  of  the  flows  is  not 
extensive.  Except  for  erosion,  siltation  and  dairy  and 
cattle  confinement  areas,  the  problems  of  water  quality 
are  due  to  municipal  and  industrial  wastes  discharges 
threatening  shellfish  utilization  in  Humboldt  Bay. 
Water  quality  problems  in  other  areas  are  related  to 
poor  land  use  practices  including  improper  logging, 
road  building  and  farming. 


131 


Biisin  2,  Siiv  Francisco  Bay  Basin.  The  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay  Basin  includes  the  drainage  area  tributary 
to  San  Francisco  Bay  and  west  of  the  Sacramento-San 
Joaquin  Delta  as  well  as  the  watersheds  of  minor 
streams  draining  into  the  sea  between  the  Alarin- 
Sonoma  County  line  and  Pescadero  Point.  The  basin 
is  primarily  urban  although  intensive  agriculture  is 
practiced  in  the  Napa,  Petaluma,  Sonoma  and  lower 
Santa  Clara  V^alleys  and  eastern  Contra  Costa  County. 
Heavy  industry  is  concentrated  along  the  Bay  from 
Richmond  to  the  Pittsbury-Antioch  area. 

The  primary  h\droIogic  feature  of  the  basin  is  the 
San  Francisco  Ba\'  system.  The  inflow  of  large  quanti- 
ties of  fresh  water  from  the  Sacramento  and  San 
Joaquin  Rivers  into  the  northern  portion  of  the  Bay 
system  form  one  of  the  world's  major  estuaries.  In 
addition,  there  is  considerable  tidal  exchange  through 
the  Golden  Gate.  The  latter  provides  the  primary 
means  by  which  conservative  pollutants  are  moved 
out  of  the  Bay. 

The  inflow  of  inadequately  controlled  and  treated 
waste  materials  has  been  the  cause  of  the  principal 
water  quality  problems  in  the  basin  that  exist  at 
present.  These  problems  tend  to  be  most  severe  in  the 
shallow  extremities  of  the  Bay  system  where  disper- 
sion and  dilution  characteristics  arc  not  sufficient  to 
maintain  water  quality  objectives  with  current  waste 
loadings.  Such  areas  include  the  South  Bay,  the  Napa, 
Petaluma  and  Sonoma  Rivers,  and  man\'  of  the  shallow 
dead  end  sloughs  around  the  Bay;  all  of  these  experi- 
ence low  dissolved  oxygen  and  high  nutrient  levels. 

Six  of  the  State's  31  water  quality  class  segments 
are  located  in  Basin  2,  namely:  (1)  South  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay  south  of  Dumbarton  Bridge,  where  dis- 
solved oxygen  objectives  are  violated  for  substantial 
periods  due  to  incompletely  treated  municipal  waste- 
waters and  urban  runoff;  (2)  Richardson  Ba\',  where 
bacteriological  objectives  are  not  met  during  wet- 
weather  overflow  periods;  (3)  Livermore  Valley,  Ala- 
meda Creek',  Arroyo  Las  Positas  and  Arroyo  de  le 
Laguna,  where  total  dissolved  solids  in  treated  waste- 
waters exceed  objectives  for  downstream  groundwater 
recharge  and  reuse;  (4)  Napa  River,  Calistoga  to  San 
Pablo  Bay,  where  low  dissolved  oxygen  and  high 
nutrient  concentrations  are  often  experienced;  (5) 
Petaluma  River,  Pcnngrove  to  San  Pablo  Bay,  where 
dissolved  oxygen  and  nutrient  problems  occur;  and 
(6)  Tomales  Bay,  where  coliform  concentrations  ex- 
ceed water  quality  objectives  for  shellfish. 

Other  major  water  quality  problems  in  the  basin 
are  high  bacterial  levels  resulting  from  wet  weather 
sewer  bypassing  and  combined  .sewer  overflows  and 
saline  water  intrusion  due  to  overdrafting  in  the  Niles 
Cone  and  northern  Santa  Clara  Counr\-  groundwater 
basins. 

Potential  water  quality  problems  are  associated  with 
cither  increasing  waste  loads  to  those  portions  of  the 


basins  which  cannot  assimilate,  dilute,  disperse  or 
otherwise  neutralize  pollutants  to  acceptable  levels,  or 
with  the  diversion  of  Delta  waters  from  the  Delta  and 
its  tributaries  which  may  significantly  modify  the 
present  hydraulic  regime  and  physical-chemical  char- 
acteristics of  the  estuarine  portion  of  San  Francisco 
Bay  system. 

Basin  3,  Central  Coastal  Basin.  This  basin  extends 
along  the  coast  from  Pescadero  Point  to  the  V'entura 
County  line  south  of  Santa  Barbara  and  inland  to  the 
ridge  of  the  Coast  Range.  It  contains  a  wide  variety 
of  land  forms  including  Monterey  Ba\',  the  Big  Sur 
Coast,  fertile  Salinas  \'alley,  the  enclosed  desert  Car- 
rizo  Plain  and  alternate  mountains,  valleys  and  coastal 
plains  in  the  southern  portion.  In  general,  rainfall  is 
limited  and  seasonal.  Streams,  with  the  exception  of 
those  in  the  Salinas  Valley,  flow  rather  directly  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  Future  imports  of  water  are  planned 
for  the  areas  east  of  Monterey  Bay  and  along  the 
south  coast  from  San  Luis  Obispo  to  Santa  Barbara. 

Water  quality  problems  in  Basin  3  are  varied.  Short 
outfalls  into  shallow  and  poorly  circulating  ocean 
waters  are  causing  problems  along  the  north  and  south 
shores  of  Monterey  Ba\'  and  at  Santa  Barbara.  Agri- 
cultural drainage,  nutrients  and  pesticides  are  problem 
sources  in  the  Salinas  River;  septic  tank  system  prob- 
lems exist  in  the  San  Lorenzo  subbasin  and  at  smaller 
communities  along  the  coast  such  as  Cambria;  and  salt 
balance  and  groundwater  quality  problems  exist  in  the 
Lower  Salinas  \'alley,  Hollister-Tres  Pinos,  Soda  Lake 
and  Carmel  River  areas  due  to  extractions  and  return 
flows.  Groundwater  quality  is  not  suitable  in  portions 
of  the  Santa  Maria  and  Santa  Ynez  subbasins  due  in 
part  to  naturall>'  occurring  hard  and  high  TDS  waters 
and  in  part  due  to  municipal  wastewater  disposal  on 
land  areas  as  well  as  irrigation  return  flows.  TDS  and 
nitrate  concentrations  are  high  in  the  latter  case.  There 
is  one  water  qualit\-  class  segment  in  the  basin;  the 
low  er  portion  of  the  Salinas  River  from  the  Spreckles 
gage  to  .Montcrc)-  Bay.  TDS,  dissolved  ox\gen,  tur- 
bidity and  nutrient  water  quality  objectives  are  vio- 
lated. 

Basin  4A,  Santa  Clara  Kii-cr  Basin.  The  Santa  Clara 
River  Basin  includes  the  drainage  from  the  \'entura 
and  Santa  Clara  Rivers,  and  their  tributaries,  and  the 
Callegua.s-Conejo  s\'stem  of  creeks  and  arroyos.  It  akso 
includes  the  off-shore  islands  of  .Anacapa  and  San  Nic- 
olas. Much  of  tiie  basin  is  rugged,  mountainous  and 
undeveloped.  The  valleys  and  coastal  plain  around 
Oxnard  are  important  agricultural  areas  and  are  be- 
ginning to  urbanize  due  to  o\crfl()w  from  nearby  Los 
Angeles.  Tiie  basin  contains  about  40  miles  of  ocean 
shore  line  from  Rincon  Point  on  the  nortii  to  the  \'en- 
tura-Los  .Angeles  county  line  on  tiie  south.  \  major 
portion  of  the  basin  area  is  contained  in  the  Los  Padres 
and  .Angeles  National  Forests. 


132 


The  major  \\  ater  problems  in  the  Santa  Clara  River 
Basin  are  mineralization  of  groundwaters  and  dry 
weather  flows  and  the  overdraft  in  the  Oxnard  Plain. 
A4ineraIization  is  a  result  of  localized  recycling  (mostly 
from  irrigation  practices),  highly  mineralized  inflows 
and  addition  of  salts  as  fertilizers.  Boron  deposits  in 
the  basin  cause  boron  concentrations  which  often  ex- 
ceed limits  for  irrigation.  During  wet  weather  flows, 
erosion  and  siltation  arc  problems  in  the  streams.  Bio- 
logic overproduction  is  a  problem  in  Lake  Casitas. 
Also,  algae  blooms  in  Castaic  Lake  have  forced  suspen- 
sion of  its  operation  for  short  periods  in  1973  as  a 
part  of  the  State  Water  Project  but  presently  such  al- 
gae blooms  are  controlled  through  chemical  applica- 
tions. The  Oxnard  Plain  overdraft,  estimated  at  40,000 
acre-feet  per  year,  has  lowered  the  groundwater  level 
as  much  as  55  feet  below  sea  le\el  allowing  sea  water 
to  intrude.  Groundwater  degradation  due  to  waste- 
water discharges  is  relati\cl\-  minor  and  is  confined  lo- 
cally. Agricultural  return  flows  from  tile  drainage  and 
the  disposal  of  water  softener  regeneration  brines  from 
individual  home  systems  are  also  problems  in  the  basin. 
Water  quality  problems  in  ocean  waters  are  minor. 

Bnsiii  4B,  Los  Angeles  River  Basin.  This  basin  com- 
prises that  portion  of  Los  Angeles  County  which  lies 
south  of  the  ridge  line  of  the  San  Gabriel  Mountains 
and  the  western  Santa  Monica  Alountains,  and  includes 
a  small  portion  of  the  south  corner  of  Ventura  County. 
The  planning  area  includes  the  off"shore  islands  of  San 
Clcmentc,  Santa  Barbara  and  Santa  Catalina.  Excluding 
the  islands,  the  basin  is  about  33  percent  urban  land, 
40  percent  unusable  land  and  27  percent  agricultural 
or  vacant  land.  The  unusable  land  is  mountainous,  too 
steep  to  build  upon  or  lies  in  the  flood  plain  of  a  stream. 
How  ever,  development  is  extensive  in  the  coastal  plain, 
San  Fernando  \'alle\",  San  Gabriel  \'alle\-  and  adjoin- 
ing foothills.  Considerable  industrial  development  is 
centered  around  the  harbor  area  and  the  Burbank- 
Glendale  area. 

This  basin  has  relied  upon  imports  of  water  for  more 
than  60  years  from  the  Owens  River,  since  1941  from 
the  Colorado  River  and  for  the  past  few  years  frofn 
the  State  Water  Project.  Although  imports  meet  much 
of  tiie  demands  for  water,  the  local  supplies  from  the 
ground  and  runoff  from  surface  streams  are  important 
to  the  basin  and  must  be  protected.  In  general,  facili- 
ties for  water  suppl\'  and  w  astew  ater  collection,  treat- 
ment and  disposal  have  been  adequate  or  have  been 
provided  as  needed  to  take  care  of  grow  th  areas.  Tw  o 
enormous  wastewater  systems,  the  City  of  Los  Angeles 
system  and  the  Los  Angeles  County  system  provide 
sewerage  services  for  most  of  the  basin.  These  systems 
include  treatment  plants  ofi'ering  less  than  secondary 
treatment  and  disposal  through  long,  deep-water  dif- 
fusers  to  the  ocean.  Sludge,  some  of  which  is  digested, 
is  also  disposed  of  now  through  long  outfalls  into 
ocean  waters.  A  portion  of  the  wastewaters  in  both 


s\  stems  is  removed  from  the  sewer  at  inland  waste- 
water treatment  plants  for  secondary-  treatment  and 
disposal  b\'  groundwater  recharge,  with  the  sludge 
being  returned  to  the  sew  er.  This  relieves  the  h\drau- 
lic  loading  on  the  downstream  sewers  and  provides 
water  for  replenishment  of  groundwaters.  Well  injec- 
tion is  practiced  along  the  coast  to  halt  sea  water  in- 
trusion into  overdrafted  coastal  plain  groundwater  ba- 
sins. Maintenance  of  low  groundwater  levels  in  the 
Los  Angeles  Coastal  basin  is  intentional  to  increase  the 
flow  of  water  recharged  in  the  .Montelieilow  Foreba\' 
for  increased  system  yield. 

A  major  problem  in  the  basin  is  pollution  in  Domin- 
guez  Channel  and  Los  Angeles-Long  Beach  harbor. 
The  completion  of  the  Terminal  Island  Treatment 
Plant  in  1975  to  provide  secondary  treatment  for  large 
volumes  of  municipal  and  industrial  wastewaters  here- 
tofore receiving  only  priniar\-  treatment  or  less,  is  ex- 
pected to  halt  the  degradation  of  harbor  waters  efi^ec- 
tivelw  Accumulations  of  organic  matter  from  decades 
of  discharge  of  municipal  and  industrial  wastes  add  to 
the  water  quality  problems  in  the  harbor. 

There  are  other  relatively  minor  water  quality  prob- 
lems in  the  basin.  These  are:  (1)  a  "wave"  of  poor 
quality  groundwater  traveling  northeasterly  across  the 
San  Fernando  \'alley  due  to  well-pumping  patterns  in 
the  valley;  (2)  high  concentrations  of  nitrates  in  the 
groundwater  in  the  La  Crescenta  area  due  to  septic 
tank-leach  field  systems;  and  (3)  an  unacceptable  sur- 
face pollution  from  septic  tank-leach  field  systems  in 
the  Malibu  Beach  area. 

Basin  5 A,  Sacramento  River  Basin.  The  Sacramento 
River  Basin  extends  from  the  Oregon  border  and 
Goose  Lake  on  the  north  and  includes  the  American 
River  and  Cache  Creek  drainages  on  the  south.  The 
east  and  west  boundaries  arc  tiie  ridge  lines  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  and  the  Coastal  Range  and 
Klamath  River  drainage,  respectively.  The  basin  is  one 
of  water  surplus,  derived  from  rain  and  snowfall  oc- 
curring mainly  during  the  months  between  October 
and  Ma\'.  The  principal  river  of  the  basin  is  the  Sacra- 
mento. The  rivers  and  creeks  of  the  basin  are  highly 
regulated  for  flood  control,  hydroelectric  power  and 
water  supply.  About  900,000  acre-feet  per  year  arc 
diverted  from  the  Trinit\'  River  in  Basin  lA  to  the 
Sacramento  River  Basin.  Extensive  groundwater  re- 
sources exist  in  the  alluvial  valley  floors.  The  Goose 
Lake  area  is  a  closed  basin. 

Generall\-,  the  quality  of  the  waters  in  the  basin  is 
excellent.  There  are  water  quality  problems,  how'ever, 
caused  mainl\-  by  local  concentrations  of  used  water. 
The  greatest  single  cause  of  degradation  of  the  surface 
waters  in  the  basin  is  the  return  of  waters  used  for  ir- 
rigated agriculture. 

There  are  three  water  quality  class  segments  identi- 
fied in  the  basin.  Of  these  segments,  two  arc  caused  by 
drainage  through  the  tailings  from  abandoned  mines. 


133 


The  first  is  Spring  Creek,  a  tributary  to  the  Sacra- 
mento River  w  ithin  the  Kesw  ick  Reservoir  upstream  of 
Redding,  which  is  polluted  by  acid  w aters  and  heavy 
metals  primarily  from  copper  mine  drainage.  The 
second  is  Little  Grizzly  Creek,  a  tributar\-  to  Indian 
Creek  at  Genessee  which  is  in  turn  tributary  to  the 
North  Fork,  Feather  River,  which  is  polluted  by  acid 
drainage  from  Walker  Mine.  The  third  water  quality 
segment  is  Clear  Lake  which  is  shallow  and  contains 
bottom  deposits  rich  in  nutrients.  The  problem  is  ex- 
cessive algae  grow  ths  that  cause  nuisance  conditions. 

Basin  5B,  Sacravicnto-San  ]oaqiiin  Delta.  The  Delta 
basin  is  the  hub  of  the  Central  \'alley  drainage  sys- 
tem. Rivers  entering  the  Delta  are  the  Sacramento  from 
the  north,  the  Cosunines,  Mokelumne  and  Calaveras 
from  the  east  and  the  San  Joaquin  from  the  south.  An 
intricate  set  of  channels  conveys  the  water  westward 
across  the  Delta  for  discliarge  into  San  Francisco  Bay. 
Interbasin  exports  by  the  Federal  Central  Valley  Proj- 
ect and  the  State  AVater  Project  originate  in  this  basin 
by  diversion  of  surplus  unregulated  inflows  and  by 
rediversion  of  portions  of  the  regulated  releases  from 
upstream  project  reservoirs,  as  does  the  .Mokelumne 
River  export  by  East  Bay  Municipal  Utility  District  to 
its  San  Francisco  Bay  service  area.  The  quality  of  the 
waters  entering  the  Delta  is  generally  good  except  for 
that  entering  from  the  San  Joaquin  River  during  low- 
flow  periods  which  contains  concentrations  of  dis- 
solved salts  and  nutrients  derived  from  agricultural  re- 
turn flows.  Divcr.son  from  the  Mokelumne  River  also 
results  in  poor  qualit\'  in  its  lower  reaches  during  dry 
weather  periods.  Flow  into  the  Delta  is  highl\-  regu- 
lated b\'  upstream  facilities  on  the  principal  tributaries, 
thus  afi'ecting  salt  water  intrusion  from  San  Francisco 
Ba>. 

The  major  w  atcr  quality  problems  in  the  Delta  are 
twofold,  namely:  (a)  maintenance  of  proper  quality 
conditions  within  the  Delta  for  municipal,  industrial 
and  agricultural  supplies,  for  the  very  important  fish 
and  wildlife  resources,  and  for  recreation,  and  (b) 
maintenance  of  proper  qualit\'  conditions  for  export  at 
the  Trac)-  Pumping  Plant  of  the  Federal  Central  Val- 
ley Project  and  the  Delta  Pumping  Plant  of  the  State 
Water  Project  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Delta.  Water 
must  be  conve\cd  across  or  around  the  Delta  to  the 
export  pumps.  A  certain  minimum  rate  of  fresh  water 
outflow  frf)m  the  Delta  is  needed  to  prevent  salt  water 
intrusion  from  the  Ba\'  s\steni  to  preserve  qualit\-  for 
Western  Delta  uses  and  the  environment  for  fish  and 
wildlife.  Delta  outflow  is  also  beneficial  in  flushing 
pollutants  from  the  Ba\'  s\stcm.  Nutrients  in  the  Delta 
water,  originating  mainly  from  agricultural  return 
flow's,  pose  a  potential  algae  problem  in  the  Western 
Delta  and  Suisun  Bay. 

Six  water  ijuality  class  segments  ha\  c  been  identified 
in  Basin  5B.  These  are:  ( 1 )  the  San  Joaquin  Ri\  cr 
from  the  Merced  Count\-  Line  to  Antiocii  w  here  total 


dissolved  solids  and  nutrient  concentrations  exceed 
objectives,  and  under  certain  local  physical  and  chem- 
ical conditions,  low  dissolved  oxygen  levels  occur;  (2) 
Lower  Sacramento  River  from  the  American  River 
to  Emmaton  w  here  nitrogn  concentrations  due  to  agri- 
cultural, municipal  and  industrial  wastewaters  are 
greater  than  established  objectives;  {l)  the  .Mokel- 
umne River  from  Penn  Mine  to  Highway  99  where 
mine  drainage  causes  pH  and  heavy  metals  pollution; 
(4)  Fourteen-Mile  Slough,  from  the  City  of  Stockton 
Northw  est  Treatment  Plant  to  the  San  Joaquin  River, 
w  here  low  dissolved  oxygen  levels  are  experienced  due 
to  incomplete  municipal  wastewater  treatment  and 
sluggish  flow;  (5)  Jackson  Creek  from  the  Jackson 
municipal  plant  outfall  to  Lake  Amador  where  little 
dilution  is  aff"orded  the  inadequatel\'  treated  municipal 
wastewater  resulting  in  dissolved  oxygen  problems; 
and  (6)  Old  River,  from  the  Tracy  plant  outfall  to 
the  Clifton  Court  Foreba\-,  where  nitrogen  and  coli- 
form  concentrations  exceed  Delta  objectives. 

Basin  SC,  San  ]oaqtiin  River  Basin.  This  third 
Central  \'alley  basin  lies  south  of  the  Delta  Basin  and 
encompasses  the  drainage  of  the  San  Joaijuin  River. 
Major  rivers  rising  in  the  Sierra  Ne\ada  and  tributary 
to  the  San  Joaquin  in  the  valley  floor  are  the  Stanis- 
laus, Tuolumne,  Merced,  Chowchilla,  and  Fresno 
Rivers.  The  San  Joaquin  Ri\er  also  rises  in  the  Sierra 
Xe\ada  and  flows  to  the  valley  before  turning  north 
dow  n  the  \alley  floor.  The  Friant-Kern  Canal  s\stem 
of  the  Federal  Central  \'alle\-  Project  exports  water 
from  .Millerton  Lake,  impounded  1)\  Friant  Dam, 
south  into  Basin  5D  to  suppl\'  water  along  the  Canal 
extending  almost  to  Bakersfield.  The  Hctch  Hetchy 
system  of  the  Cit)-  and  Count\-  of  San  Francisco  ex- 
ports water  from  the  Tuolumne  River  to  Basin  2. 
Water  is  imported  from  Basin  .'iB  bv  the  Federal 
Central  X'alley  Project.  Natural  runoff  from  the  w  est- 
crn  side  of  the  valle\'  is  almost  nonexistent.  1  he  basin 
is  primaril\-  agricultural  with  population  centers 
oriented  mainly  to  farm  suppl\-  and  product  handling. 
Recreational  and  second-home  developments  are  in- 
creasing in  number  and  extent  in  the  foothill  anil  low  er 
mountain  regions,  how  ever. 

Water  problems  in  the  basin  relate  mainl\  to  dis- 
solved salts  and  nutrients  from  agricultural  return 
flows  and  effluent  seepage  which  constitute  the  major 
portion  of  the  dry  weather  flow  in  the  San  Joaquin 
Ri\cr  and  to  the  o\erdrafted  condition  in  the  ground- 
w  atcr  basins.  Low  flows  resulting  from  upstream  di- 
versions and  regulation  have  virtuall\-  eliminated 
salmon  runs  in  the  basin  streams  ami  arc  endangering 
the  marsh  lands  necessary  for  maintaining  wildlife. 
Salt  balance  is  adverse  because  of  insufficient  ilrainage 
facilities  to  conve\-  salts  from  irrigated  land  in  the 
basin.  Three  water  quality  class  segments  arc  identi- 
fied in  this  basin.  These  arc:  (1)  Woods  Creek  from 
Columbia  to  Don  Pedro  Rescrxoir  due  to  inadequate 
ililution  for  the  insufficiently  treated  wastewaters  from 


134 


several  small  foothill  communities  causing  dissolved 
oxygen  and  nitrogen  problems;  (2)  Tuolumne  River 
from  Hughson  outfall  to  Santa  Fc  A\enuc,  .Modesto, 
where  nitrogen  concentrations  exceed  objectives  due 
to  incomplete  treatment  of  industrial  wastes  at  the 
Hughson  Treatment  Plant;  and  (3)  Stanislaus  River 
from  Tulloch  Reservoir  to  the  San  Joaquin  River 
where  coliform  concentrations  from  an  unidentified 
source  have  caused  counts  exceeding  objectives  to  the 
extent  that  Casw  cll  State  Park  has  been  closed. 

Basin  5D,  Tiilarc  Lake  Basin.  This  southernmost  of 
the  four  Central  Valley  Basins  is  essentially  a  closed 
basin  in  that,  except  in  the  very  wet  years,  there  is 
no  natural  drainage  from  the  basin.  The  basin  is  in 
the  shape  of  a  "U"  rimmed  by  the  Sierra  Nevada  on 
the  east,  Tehachapi  Mountains  on  the  south  and  the 
Coastal  Range  on  the  west.  The  north  boundary  is 
the  low  drainage  divide  between  the  watersheds  of  the 
San  Joaquin  River  on  the  north  and  the  Kings  Ri\er 
on  the  south. 

Major  surface  streams  are  the  Kings,  Tule,  Kaweah, 
and  Kern  Rivers.  Water  is  imported  via  the  California 
Aqueduct  of  the  State  Water  Project  and  the  Friant- 
Kem  Canal  and  San  Luis  Unit  of  the  Federal  Central 
Valley  Project.  Service  to  the  Federal  San  Luis  serv- 
ice area  in  w  estern  Fresno  and  Kings  Counties  is  from 
the  joint  federal-state  facilities  of  the  San  Luis  Division 
of  the  California  Aqueduct.  The  basin  economy  is 
agriculture-oriented  but  there  is  a  significant  oil  in- 
dustry and  other  manufacturing  in  the  basin.  Popula- 
tion centers  are  Fresno  and  Bakersficld  and  several 
cities  of  smaller  populations. 

The  major  water  problem  in  the  basin  is  a  demand 
for  more  water  than  can  be  supplied  b\-  existing 
sources.  This  has  caused  severe  groundwater  over- 
drafting  and  an  adverse  salt  balance  in  this  essentially 
closed  basin.  There  are  also  problems  of  local  degrada- 
tion of  groundwaters  due  to  land  disposal  of  municipal 
and  industrial  wastes,  naturall\"  poor  quality  in  the 
western  and  southern  areas  of  the  basin,  high  ground- 
water le\els  near  the  valley  trough  and  western  areas 
caused  by  use  of  imported  water  as  well  as  ground 
water  for  irrigation  w  ithout  providing  adequate  drain- 
age, septic  tank-leach  system  failures  in  the  foothills 
areas,  and  oil-field,  industrial,  dairy  and  feedlot  waste 
disposal  practices.  The  w  estern  area  high  water  table 
and  overdraft  situation  in  the  basin  is  causing  poor 
quality  western  water  to  flow  eastward  and  degrade 
the  waters  in  the  aquifers  there. 

A  problem  associated  with  overdraft  is  deep  sub- 
sidence. As  an  aquifer  is  overdrafted,  the  decrease  in 
water  pressure  allows  the  soil  comprising  the  aquifer 
to  settle  and  compact  resulting  in  a  general  settling  of 
overlying  soils.  Subsidence  on  the  order  of  25  feet 
has  been  experienced  in  portions  of  the  basin  since 
1935.  The  underground  storage  space  lost  because  of 
subsidence  is  not  usuall\-  fulh'  recovered  upon  re- 
plenishment w  ith  w  ater. 


1  he  major  concern  is  that  of  salt  balance.  During 
the  w  ater  qualit\'  control  planning  study  several  alter- 
native plans  for  maintaining  a  favorable  salt  balance 
were  considered. 

Basin  6 A,  North  Lahontan  Basin.  The  North  La- 
hontan  Basin  includes  that  portion  of  the  State  border- 
ing Nevada  lying  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and 
Warner  Mountain  Ranges  and  extending  from  the 
Oregon  State  Line  to  and  including  the  Walker  River 
Watershed  near  Bridgeport.  The  principal  geographic 
features  are  the  mountains  and  Lake  Tahoe.  The 
northern  third  of  the  basin  is  a  narrow  inter-mountain 
valley  having  no  drainage  outlet.  Runoff,  consisting 
mainly  of  snowmelt,  is  limited  and  seasonal,  with  the 
excess  evaporating  from  the  alkali  lakes  ^\•hich  are  dry 
much  of  the  time.  Economic  activity  is  agriculture 
oriented.  The  middle  third  of  the  basin  is  a  semi-arid, 
high-elevation  plateau  with  scattered  mountains, 
sparse  settlement  and  limited  areas  supporting  agri- 
culture. Logging  is  a  major  economic  activitv  although 
the  region  is  becoming  a  popular  second-home  area. 
The  lower  third  of  the  basin  is  a  narrow,  rugged  area 
with  drainage  generally-  eastward  into  Nevada.  The 
Truckee  River  system,  which  includes  Lake  Tahoe, 
is  the  major  hydrologic  feature.  The  Carson  and 
Walker  Rivers,  forming  the  southern  watersheds  in 
the  basin,  have  headwater  areas  in  California  and  are 
used  for  recreation,  and  fish  and  wildlife  habitat. 
Tourism  and  second-home  development  are  intensive 
in  the  Tahoe-Truckee  area  and  has  resulted  in  the 
major  population  center  in  the  basin. 

The  major  problems  in  the  basin  are  point  and  non- 
point  sources  of  wastewater  pollution  in  the  Lake 
Tahoe-Truckee  River  system.  Rigid  objectives  to  pro- 
tect the  Lake  and  downstream  beneficial  uses  require 
that  all  point  source  wastes  be  given  tertiary  treatment 
or  exported.  The  South  Lake  Tahoe  s\stem,  involving 
phosphorus  and  nitrogen  removals,  exports  the 
treated  wastewater  out  of  the  basin  to  protect  the  ex- 
ceptional clarity  of  Lake  Tahoe.  This  system  has  been 
in  operation  for  several  \ears.  A  similar  system  for  the 
communities  around  the  north  end  of  the  Lake  is 
under  design.  It  will  convey  all  municipal  wastewaters 
to  a  central  location  near  Martis  Creek  for  tertiary 
treatment  and  disposal  to  land.  The  Truckee  River 
has  been  designated  a  water  quality  class  segment  be- 
cause partially  treated  wastewaters  cause  the  rigid 
nitrogen,  chloride,  coliform  and  dissolved  solids  objec- 
tives to  be  exceeded.  Problems  of  insufficiently  con- 
trolled nonpoint  pollution  from  urban  and  nonurban 
runoff  remain.  Siltation  along  the  Lake  Tahoe  shores 
is  causing  concern.  Groundwater  problems  are  rela- 
tively minor  in  the  Tahoe-Truckee  portion  of  the 
basin. 

Water  qualit>  problems  in  Surprise  Valley  are 
minor.  The  lakes  are  highly  saline  but  sources  of  good 
quality  w  ater  are  obtained  upstream  and  from  ground- 
waters  in   the   edge   of  the   valley.   Septic  tank-leach 


135 


field  problems  that  jeopardize  groundwaters  have 
been  identified  in  the  communities  of  Cedarvillc  and 
Fort  Bidweli.  Similar  septic  tank-leach  field  problems 
were  noted  in  Janesville,  Do}'Ie,  Sage  Valley  Flat,  and 
the  fringe  areas  of  Susanville.  The  City  of  Susanvilie 
treatment  plant  has  inadequate  capacity  partially  due 
to  infiltration  in  a  poor  collection  system.  The  grow- 
ing enrichment  of  Honey  Lake  could  result  in  its 
eutrophication  and  could  contribute  to  avian  botulism. 
F.agle  Lake  is  naturally  high  alkaline. 

Water  quality  problems  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
basin  arc  minor  except  for  mine  drainage  pollution  in 
Leviathin  Creek  which  eliminates  fish  and  wildlife  in 
that  creek  and  degrades  the  East  Fork  Carson  River. 
Pollution  of  Monitor  Creek  by  an  active  mine  has 
been  stopped  efi"ectivel\-  by  construction  of  control 
facilities. 

Basin  6B,  South  Lahontan  Basin.  Tiiis  is  the  desert 
basin  encompassing  Inyo  Count\ ,  most  of  .Mono  and 
San  Bernardino  Counties  and  the  southeast  and  north- 
east corners  of  Kern  and  Los  .Angeles  Counties,  respec- 
tively. In  general,  rainfall  occurs  relatively  infre- 
quently and  limited  water  supplies  for  most  of  the  area 
are  obtained  from  groundw  ater  sources.  Runoff,  main- 
ly snow  melt  from  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada, provides  a  substantial  water  supply  in  the  0\\  ens 
\'allcv.  .Much  of  this  water  is  exported  to  the  City  of 
Los  Angeles  in  a  s\stem  that  has  been  in  operation 
more  than  60  years.  The  basin  is  characterized  by  an 
agriculture-oriented  development  in  the  Owens  \'allc>- 
and  several  population  centers  located  where  water 
supplies  are  found  such  as  Barstow,  Mojave,  Victor- 
viile,  Lancaster  and  Palmdale.  The  basin  economy  re- 
lies upon  a  substantial  mining  industr\',  military  and 
space-industry  installations  and  agriculture.  Retirement 
communities  are  also  becoming  more  numerous.  Recre- 
ation is  popular  in  tiie  eastern  Sierra  and  San  Bernar- 
dino Mountains. 

Water  quality  problems  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
basin  relate  to  improper  treatment  of  municipal  and 
domestic  wastewaters.  Alost  of  the  larger  communities 
are  partially  sew  ered  and  have  primary  treatment  fa- 
cilities and  evaporation/percolation  ponds  for  effluent 
disposal.  Generally  the  individual  s\stems  function 
properly  in  the  valley  areas  but  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  failures  have  been  experienced  in  the  foot- 
hill and  mountain  areas.  Poor  quality  groundwaters, 
caused  locally  by  percolation  of  wastewaters  from 
mining  operations  and  more  generally  by  down- 
gradient  subsurface  flow,  arc  prevalent  in  the  Amar- 
gosa  River  area.  Similar  groundwater  degradation  oc- 
curs near  Boron  due  to  percolation  of  mine  waters. 
Occurrences  of  overflow  of  the  Lancaster  oxidation 
ponds  offer  a  potential  public  health  hazard. 

At  Barstow  inadequatel>'  treated  municipal  and  in- 
dustrial wastewaters  have  created  a  "tail"  of  poor  (jual- 
ity  groundwater  downstream  of  the  discharge  point 


causing  significant  quality   deterioration   in   local  do- 
mestic well  supplies. 

Basin  lA,  West  Colorado  Riz-er  Basin.  This  basin 
consists  of  the  areas  w  hich  arc  tributar\-  to  the  Salton 
Sea.  The  area  northeast  of  the  Sea  is  the  southern  end 
of  the  great  California  desert  w  hich  is,  like  Basin  6B, 
sparseK'  settled  and  receives  little  rainfall.  The  Coa- 
chella  \'alley,  which  lies  northwest  of  the  Sea,  and  Im- 
perial \'alle\',  w  hich  lies  south  and  southeast  of  the 
Sea  are  semi-arid  agricultural  lands  supported  by  wa- 
ter for  irrigation  b\'  import  from  the  Colorado  Ri\er. 
The  Whitewater  River,  which  flows  intermittently, 
drains  the  Coachella  \'alley  while  the  New  and  .\lamo 
Rivers  flow  northward  from  Mexico  through  the  Im- 
perial X'alley.  The  Salton  Sea  is  a  "sink"  area  having 
a  surface  elevation  well  below  sea  level.  The  basin  is 
important  to  the  State  and  nation  because  of  the  value 
of  the  winter  truck  crops  grown  there.  Population 
centers  are  generall\  small  except  grow  th  is  notable  in 
the  Palm  Springs  area  w  here  people  seeking  the  desert 
climate  are  settling  or  visiting  in  significant  numbers. 
The  basin  relies  heavil\-  upon  imported  w  ater  from  the 
Colorado  River  to  suppl\-  its  demands.  Although  the 
occurrence  of  groundwater  in  the  basin  is  extensive 
much  of  it  is  unusable  qualit\ . 

The  major  water  quality  problem  in  the  basin  is  the 
iiigh  and  increasing  salinit\'  of  the  Salton  Sea.  The  Sea 
is  somew  hat  saltier  than  the  oceans  and  is  approaching 
the  salinit\-  in  w  hich  fish  can  no  longer  survive.  Uses 
of  the  Sea  include  recreation,  fishery,  wildlife  and  es- 
thetics. Water  quality  in  the  New  and  Alamo  Rivers 
has  been  degraded  b\'  inadequately  treated  municipal 
discharges  some  of  which  originate  in  Mexico.  Other 
problems  arc:  ( I )  the  limited  amount  and  increasing 
salinit)'  of  the  Colorado  River  suppl\-;  (2)  nutrient 
contamination  of  the  Salton  Sea  b\-  inflows  of  the 
New,  Alamo  and  Whitewater  Rivers  from  agricul- 
tural, municipal  and  industrial  wastewaters;  and  (3) 
overdraft  of  high  quality  groundwater  in  the  Coa- 
chella Valley.  Water  quality  class  segments  are:  (1) 
the  Salton  Sea  because  of  its  high  and  increasing  sa- 
linit_\';  (2)  New  River  because  of  high  oxygen  de- 
mands resulting  in  low  dissolved  ox>'gen  concentra- 
tion caused  by  untreated  sewage  discharged  by  the 
City  of  Mexicali;  and  (3)  Alamo  River  becau.se  of  low 
dissolved  oxygen  concentrations  and  high  bacterial 
counts  caused  by  improperly  treated  municipal  dis- 
charges. AVidespread  use  of  pesticides  in  the  basin 
poses  a  potential  water  quality  problem. 

Basin  IB,  East  Colorado  River  Basin.  The  East 
Colorado  River  Basin  encompasses  all  areas  in  the  State 
w  hich  lie  in  the  Colorado  Ri\er  watershed.  The  basin 
is  30  to  40  miles  wide  and  about  200  miles  long.  The 
river  is  the  predominant  feature  of  the  basin;  it  pro- 
vides x\atcr  suppl\'  for  municipalities  and  agriculture, 
recreation  for  basin  inhabitants  and  many  tourists, 
h\  droelectric  pow  er  and  water  for  export  both  within 


136 


California  and  Arizona.  The  land  area  in  the  basin  is 
niainl\'  desert  w  ith  mountains  and  valle\s.  Population 
centers  are  Blythe,  supported  by  agriculture  and  tour- 
ism, and  Needles,  supported  by  tourism  and  transpor- 
tation industries.  The  resident  population  in  the  basin 
was  22,200  in  1970  but  recreation  draws  an  estimated 
500,000  visitors -each  year.  The  river  provides  a  signifi- 
cant fishery  and  \\  ildlife  habitat.  Two  major  water  de- 
velopment projects  have  been  completed  within  the 
basin;  they  arc  Lake  Havasu,  formed  b\'  Parker  Dam, 
and  Imperial  Reservoir  formed  by  Imperial  Dam.  The 
former  is  the  diversion  point  for  the  Colorado  River 
Aqueduct  system  which  supplies  about  1.2  million 
acre-feet  per  year  to  Southern  California.  About  3.4 
million  acre-feet  of  water  for  much  of  Basin  7A  is 
diverted  at  Imperial  Dam  and  conveyed  by  the  All 
American  Canal.  Water  for  irrigation  is  also  diverted 
to  the  Palo  \^erde  \'alley  near  Blythe. 

The  major  water  quality  problem  in  the  basin  is  the 
high  and  increasing  salinity  of  the  Colorado  River 
which  has  been  described  previously.  Municipal  water 
supplies  for  Bhthe,  East  Blythe  Water  District, 
Needles  and  AV'interhaven,  from  local  groundwater 
basins,  are  of  poor  quality  not  meeting  drinking  water 
standards  because  of  high  TDS,  and  manganese.  Fluo- 
ride concentrations  are  high  in  several  locations.  Septic 
tank-leach  field  systems  are  failing  in  Winterhaven,  at 
a  resort  complex  in  the  Havasu  Landing  area  and  in 
areas  around  Blythe.  The  Needles  treatment  plant  is 
adequate  except  for  infrequent  peak  flows  but  poor 
dispersion  into  the  river  causes  a  localized  coliform 
problem.  High  salinity  blowdown  waters  are  dis- 
charged to  the  river  by  gas  compression  industries 
located  near  Topock  and  Bhthe.  Agricultural  return 
flows  from  Palo  Verde  and  Bard  Valleys  add  salinity, 
nutrients  and  pesticides  to  the  river. 

Basiji  8,  Santa  Ana  River  Basin.  This  basin's  wideh- 
varied  physiography  and  development  belies  its  size 
as  it  is  one  of  the  smallest  basins.  There  are  two  dis- 
tinct subbasins  drained  by  the  Santa  Ana  River  and  a 
third  drained  by  the  San  Jacinto  River.  The  Upper 
Santa  Ana  Subbasin  is  rimmed  by  the  San  Gabriel  and 
San  Bernardino  Mountains  and  a  series  of  low  granitic 
hills  and  eroded  uplands  know  n  as  the  San  Timoteo 
Redlands.  The  valley  is  effectively  blocked  by  the 
Santa  Ana  Mountains,  except  for  the  narrow  Santa 
Ana  Canyon  through  which  the  river  passes.  The 
Lower  Santa  Ana  Subbasin  is  best  characterized  as  a 
coastal  plain.  The  Santa  Ana  River  discharges  through 
this  subbasin  into  the  Pacific  Ocean  near  Newport 
Beach.  The  San  Jacinto  subbasin  is  adjacent  to  the 
upper  subbasin  and  to  the  southeast  of  it.  It  is  es- 
sentially a  closed  basin  drained  by  the  San  Jacinto 
River  which  discharges  into  Lake  Elsinore.  Drainage 
from  Lake  Elsinore  to  the  Santa  Ana  River  occurs 
only  rarely,  through  Temescal  Wash. 

The  Upper  Santa  Ana  Subbasin  is  a  significant  agri- 
cultural  area;   however,   population   centers  such   as 


Riverside,  San  Bernardino  and  Redlands  are  rapidly 
encroaching  onto  valley  farmlands.  The  Lower  Santa 
Ana  Subbasin  is  primarily  urban  with  open  areas  along 
the  ri\er  and  where  steeper  slopes  occur. 

The  Santa  Ana  River  is  ephemeral  in  the  upper 
subbasin,  with  surface  flows  only  in  wet  weather. 
There  is,  however,  extensive  alluvium  in  the  valley 
w  hich  carries  a  considerable  underground  flow.  This 
underground  flow  normally  emerges  upstream  of 
Prado  Dam  at  the  upper  end  of  the  Santa  Ana  Can- 
yon. Below  the  dam,  the  river  is  perennial.  The  San 
Jacinto  River  is  similarly  ephemeral  throughout  most 
of  its  length. 

Data  from  1970  indicated  an  applied  water  require- 
ment (demand  in  excess  of  direct  precipitation)  for 
the  total  basin  of  1,135,000  acre-feet  per  year,  of 
which  only  451,000  acre-feet  can  be  supplied  by  lo- 
cal initial-use  sources.  Of  the  remainder,  302,000  acre- 
feet  were  imported  from  the  Colorado  River  system 
and  the  balance  of  the  demand  was  met  b\-  reclaimed 
wastewater  generated  in  the  basin  and  obtained  from 
the  groundwater  basin.  The  annual  applied  water  re- 
quirement is  expected  to  increase  to  1,415,000  acre- 
feet  b\-  the  >ear  2000.  This  situation  will  continue  to 
aggravate  an  alread\'  adverse  salt  balance. 

Surface  water  quality  and  quantity  problems  in  the 
Upper  Santa  Ana  Subbasin  include:  increasing  con- 
centrations of  coliform  bacteria,  nutrients  and  toxic 
wastes  which  threaten  the  important  recreational 
beneficial  use  in  the  segment  from  Riverside  to  Prado 
Dam;  presently  high  and  increasing  concentrations  of 
TDS  and  nutrients  at  Prado  Dam  in  waters  which 
are  used  to  recharge  the  Lower  Santa  Ana  Subbasin, 
and;  inadequate  wastewater  treatment  and  disposal 
practices  in  the  Big  Bear  Lake  and  Baldwin  Lake  areas 
w  hich  cause  violations  of  water  quality  objectives  for 
mountain  streams  and  lakes.  The  middle  segment  of 
the  Santa  Ana  River  from  Riverside  to  Anaheim  is 
classified  as  a  water  qualit\'  class  segment  because  con- 
centrations of  salts,  coliforms  and  nutrients,  as  well  as 
turbidity,  exceed  adopted  objectives.  Major  nonpoint 
source  problems  in  the  basin  are  agricultural  return 
flow  s  and  high  nutrient  and  TDS  concentrations  due 
to  percolation  of  wastewaters  from  dairies  and  feed- 
lots. 

In  the  San  Jacinto  subbasin,  agriculture  is  the  largest 
user  of  water.  This  use  results  in  large  consumptive 
losses  and  high  concentrations  of  salt  and  nutrients 
which  are  carried  by  percolation  to  the  groundwater. 
There  are  also  local  areas  in  the  subbasin  where  the 
groundwater  quality  is  naturally  poor  due  to  miner- 
alized aquifers  and  to  isolation  by  faults.  Tw  ent\-  per- 
cent of  the  applied  water  requirement  of  137,700 
acre-feet  in  1970  was  met  from  local  sources,  29  per- 
cent from  Colorado  River  imports,  46  percent  from 
reclaimed  water  and  the  remaining  5  percent  from 
groundwater   overdrafts.   The    amount   of   overdraft 


137 


varies  with  precipitation.  Lake  Elsinore,  which  re- 
ceives wet  weather  surface  runoff,  varies  in  salinit\- 
(TDS)  from  1,000  to  36,000  mg/1  depending  upon 
the  amount  of  fresh  water  in  storage. 

Basin  9,  Sim  Diego  Basin.  The  San  Diego  Basin 
includes  the  southern  corner  of  Orange  County,  a 
considerable  portion  of  southwestern  Riverside 
County  and  all  of  San  Diego  County  west  of  the 
ridge  line  of  the  Peninsular  Range  about  50  miles 
from  the  ocean  shore.  The  climate  is  semi-arid  and 
typical  of  the  Pacific  coastal  plain,  i.e.,  warm,  wet 
winters  and  cool  summers.  The  average  rainfall  is  15 
inches  per  year.  The  basin  can  be  characterized  by 
three  regions,  a  coastal  plain  area,  a  central  mountain- 
valley  area  and  an  eastern  mountain-valley  area.  There 
are  eight  principal  stream  systems  or  subbasins,  the 
hydrology  of  which  was  treated  individually  in  the 
study.  Drainage  is  from  east  to  west  with  discharge 
into  the  Ocean.  The  Pacific  Ocean  shoreline  consists 
of  beaches  and  lagoons  with  San  Diego  Bay,  the  largest 
of  the  lagoons,  forming  a  substantial  deep  water 
harbor.  Economic  development  consists  of  agricul- 
ture, ship  building  and  maintenance,  metal  processing, 
electronics  and  sand  and  gravel  mining.  There  is  con- 
siderable military  activity  at  Camp  Pendleton  and 
several  naval  installations  centered  mainly  around  San 
Diego.  The  basin  is  also  a  popular  retirement  area.  The 
economic  development  is  projected  to  increase  with 
industry  concentrating  in  the  northern  and  southern 
portions  and  agriculture  holding  its  own  in  the  cen- 
tral portion  of  the  basin.  The  basin  population  is  e.\- 


pectcd   to   double   the    1970   population    by   the   year 
2000. 

The  fundamental  quantity/qualit\'  problem  in  the 
basin  is  an  inadequate  local  supply  of  water.  Expan- 
sion of  the  already  considerable  import  facilities  will 
be  needed.  All  local  surface  and  groundwater  supplies 
have  been  developed  and  limited  reuse  is  practiced. 
Local  supplies  satisfied  onl\'  28  percent  of  the  demand 
in  1973.  Water  quality  has  been  a  problem  due  to  the 
high  TDS  in  the  Colorado  River  water  imported 
since  1947  and  many  poor  quality  local  sources.  Over- 
drafting  in  the  coastal  areas  has  caused  some  sea  water 
intrusion.  Surface  streams  are  ephemeral  but  prob- 
lems of  nutrients  and  eutrophication  exist  in  the  la- 
goons and  in  ponds  formed  by  gravel  pits  in  the  al- 
luvium. The  diversion  of  municipal  and  industrial 
wastewaters  from  San  Diego  Ba\-  for  treatment  at  the 
Point  Loma  Plant  and  ocean  discliarge  has  abated  a 
pollution  problem  in  the  Bay  w  ithout  creating  a  meas- 
urable problem  in  the  ocean.  Although  the  Bay  has 
recovered  remarkably  well  in  the  few  years  since  di- 
version, it  is  classified  as  a  water  quality  segment  be- 
cause of  thermal  discharges  and  nutrient  concentra- 
tions, the  latter  being  derived  from  existing  bottom 
deposits  and  urban  runoff.  High  nutrient  and  TDS 
concentrations  are  experienced  in  the  Lower  San  Diego 
River  to  cause  that  stream  to  be  classed  also  as  a  water 
quality  segment.  Salt  balance  in  the  basin  is  presently 
adverse,  due  mainly  to  the  relatively  high  salinity  of 
the  imported  water.  There  are  local  areas  where 
groundwater  quality  is  poor. 


138 


CHAPTER   VI 

WATER  SUPPLY  AND  SUPPLEMENTAL  DEMANDS 


On  the  average,  the  total  natural  surface  water 
supply  of  7 1  million  acre-feet  in  California  is  adequate 
to  meet  foreseeable  demands.  But  natural  stream  run- 
off does  not  always  occur  at  the  time  when  it  is  needed 
nor  in  the  right  place.  Most  of  the  State's  runoff  is  in 
the  northern  portion  where  about  75  percent  occurs 
north  of  Sacramento  while  about  75  percent  of  the 
demand  for  irrigation  and  lurban  water  is  south  of 
Sacramento.  Also,  most  of  the  rainfall  and  runoff  oc- 
curs in  the  winter,  while  the  peak  demand  for  water 
supply  occurs  in  the  summer.  Figure  27  shows  the 


distribution  of  natural  runoff  among  the  1 1  hydrologic 
study  areas  of  California. 

California  experiences  a  considerable  amount  of  nat- 
ural regulation  by  which  water  from  the  wet  season 
is  held  until  the  dry  season.  Winter  snow  in  the  high 
mountains  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  ranges 
and  in  the  Klamath  mountains  gradually  melts  during 
the  late  spring  and  early  summer  to  sustain  dry  season 
flows  in  many  streams  and  rivers.  The  vast  alluvial 
ground  water  basins  also  store  percolating  wet  season 
rainfall  and  streamflow  in  underground  reservoirs 
where  it  is  available  for  pumping  as  required. 


NORTH  COASTAL 

SAN  FRANCISCO  BAY 

CENTRAL  COASTAL 

SOUTH  COASTAL 
COLORADO  DESERT 


SACRAMENTO  BASIN 
SAN  JOAQUIN  BASIN 
DELTA-CENTRAL  SIERRA 
TULARE  BASIN 


NORTH  LAHONTAN 
SOUTH  LAHONTAN 


Figure  27.     Distribution  of  Natural  Runoff  in  California  by  Hydrologic  Study  Area 


139 


80 


40 


JFLOW  FROM  OREGON  1.4 


1 

COLORADO  RIVER  IMPORT    4.4b/  ] 

OTHER    10.0 

^ 

CO 

REMAINING  CENTRAL 

< 

VALLEY     11.2 

z 

OC 

U- 

_J 

•a: 

SACRAMENTO 

o 

■21 

BASIN    22.4 

■JZ 

S 

U- 

Ll_ 

O 

ce 

_i 

<c 

NORTH 

=3 

h- 

COASTAL 

■ZL 

27.2 

TOTAL  WATER  SUPPLY  -  76.6 


REMAINING  WATER  SUPPLIES 
27.2  c/ 


I-  OUTFLOW  TO  NEVADA    1.2 
WILD  AND  SCENIC  RIVERS    17.8( 


f 


SALINITY  REPULSION    3.4e; 


1972  WATER  USE  (DEPLETIONS) 
27.0 


80 


PRESENT  WATER  USE 
AND  COMMITMENTS 


UJ 
UJ 


2/   WATER  RESOURCES  BOARD  BULLETIN  No.  1,  1951 

^   CALIFORNIA  SHARE  ACCORDING  TO  SUPREME  COURT  DECREE  IN  ARIZONA  v.s.  CALIFORNIA,  WHEN 

CENTRAL  ARIZONA  PROJECT  BECOMES  OPERATIONAL. 
^  A  SIGNIFICANT  PORTION  IS  UNAVAILABLE  FOR  OUT-OF-STREAM  USES. 
i/   ESTIMATED  NATURAL  FLOW  IN  DESIGNATED  REACHES  OF  THE  SMITH,  KLAMATH,  TRINITY  AND  EEL  RIVERS':' 
s/  4,500  efs,  EXCEPT  5  WEEKS  AT  6,700  cfs  IN  THE  SPRING. 


Figure   28.      Total    Surface   Water   Supply    and    Present    Uses    and    Commitments 


140 


Figure  28  shows  the  average  total  water  supply 
available  and  the  present  ^\  ater  commitments  for  the 
1972  level  of  use  including  commitment  of  water  for 
major  in-stream  uses.  The  long-term  import  supply  of 
4.4  million  acre-feet  from  the  Colorado  River  is  a  sig- 
nificant addition  to  the  natural  supply,  particularly 
since  the  southeastern  portion  of  the  State  has  prac- 
tically no  natural  surface  supplies. 

The  estimate  of  1972  level  water  use  (depletion) 
consists  of  the  evapotranspiration  (consumptive  use) 
of  applied  water  plus  related  consumptive  losses  and 
waste  water  discharges  to  the  ocean  or  other  saline 
water  bodies  such  as  the  Salton  Sea.  It  does  not  include 
potential!)'  usable  return  flow  or  waste  discharges  in 
noncoastal  areas  of  the  State. 

The  salinit)'  repulsion  estimate  of  3.4  million  arre- 
feet  is  based  on  4,500  cfs  of  net  Sacramento-San  Joa- 
quin Delta  outflow  except  5  \\  ecks  at  6,700  cfs  in  the 
spring  for  striped  bass  spaw  ning  which  is  a  require- 
ment of  State  Water  Resources  Control  Board  Deci- 
sion 1379.  The  4,500  cfs  outflow  is  the  current  esti- 
mate of  the  amount  necessary  to  meet  the  neomysis  ^ 
requirement  of  not  over  4,000  milligrams  per  liter 
chloride  in  the  water  at  Chipps  Island  Strait. 

The  wild  and  scenic  riverflow  commitment  repre- 
sents the  estimated  full  natural  flow  of  the  Eel  River 
below  Van  Arsdale  Dam,  Klamath  River  below  Iron 
Gate  Dam,  Trinity  River  below  Lewiston  Dam,  and 
Smith  River.  The  Eel  River  accounts  for  5.8  million 
acre-feet  of  the  17.8  million  acre-feet  total  commit- 
ment for  wild  and  scenic  riverflow.  There  is  an  addi- 
tional 2.2  million  acre-feet  of  annual  runoff  from  the 
reaches  of  these  streams  excluded  from  the  Wild  and 
Scenic  Rivers  system. 

The  1.2  million  acre-foot  outflow  to  Nevada  repre- 
sents the  flow  to  Nevada  of  the  Truckee,  Walker,  and 
Carson  Rivers  from  the  portions  of  their  drainage 
basins  which  are  in  California. 

Deducting  current  depletions,  salinity  repulsion, 
flow  to  Nevada,  and  the  commitment  of  in-stream 
flow  to  wild  and  scenic  rivers  from  the  total  supply 
of  76.6  million  acre-feet  leaves  a  remainder  of  27.2 
million  acre-feet.  Theoretically,  the  27.2  million  acre- 
feet  represents  the  surface  supply  available  for  regula- 
tion to  meet  increases  in  future  water  demands.  In  a 
practical  sense,  half  is  probably  unavailable  for  out-of- 
stream  use  because  the  runoff  occurs  in  remote  areas, 
small  coastal  watersheds  where  regulatory  reservoir 
storage  sites  are  lacking,  interior  desert  areas  where 
much  of  the  runoflr  comes  in  flash  floods,  or  because  it 
occurs  at  infrequent  intervals  of  short  duration  dur- 
ing large  flood  runoffs  which  are  not  physical!)'  pos- 
sible to  regulate  or  conserve. 


nportant    estuary    fish 


Available  Water  Supplies 

The  measure  of  regulated  water  supp!\'  used  iierein 
is  dependable  _\yater  supply.  This  is  the  amount  of 
water  which  can  be  provided  from  the  source  to  each 
water  service  area  on  a  schedule  matching  the  de- 
mands for  water.  The  dependable  suppl>'  contains  an 
allowance  for  conveyance  loss,  if  any,  in  transporting 
the  water  from  its  original  source  to  the  users. 

Water  supplies  presented  in  this  report  for  1972 
are  an  estimate  for  that  level  of  development  and  are 
not  necessarily  the  actual  deliveries  in  that  year.  The 
1972  water  \'ear  (October  1971  through  September 
1972)  was  abnormal,  being  quite  dry  in  all  but  the 
northern  portion  of  the  State. 

Local  Surface  Wafer  Projecfs 

Surface  water  development  in  California  has  evolved 
over  the  last  200  )ears  from  a  simple  diversion  of 
available  stream  flow  at  Mission  San  Diego  to  large 
and  complex  s\'stems.  Dams  have  been  built  to  con- 
serve and  regulate  the  winter  and  spring  runoff  for 
use  during  the  dry  summer  period.  The  stored  waters 
have  been  conveyed  by  natural  stream  channels,  ca- 
nals, tunnels,  and  pipelines,  often  over  long  distances, 
to  areas  of  use.  Hydroelectric  pow  er  plants  have  been 
installed  along  the  conveyance  conduits  as  they  drop 
from  the  mountains  to  the  valley.  Many  of  these  water 
supply  systems  have  been  financed  and  constructed  by 
local  agencies  to  serve  areas  located  within  a  single 
h\'drologic  study  area,  both  for  municipal  and  indus- 
trial use  and  for  agricultural  purposes.  It  is  these  de- 
velopments by  local  agencies  which  are  designated  in 
this  report  as  local  surface  water  supplies.  Water  sup- 
ply projects  of  a  local  nature,  but  constructed  by 
federal  agencies  are  separately  reported. 

In  Table  27  local  project  water  supplies  are  shown 
in  two  categories:  (1)  local  surface  water  develop- 
ments and  (2)  imports  b>'  local  water  agencies.  The 
first  category  denotes  use  of  stream  flow  (including 
stored  water)  within  the  hydrologic  study  area;  the 
second  comprises  water  imported  from  outside  the 
hydrologic  area. 

Local  surface  supplies,  together  with  imports  by 
local  agencies,  account  for  about  11.8  million  acre-feet 
of  present  water  supplies.  This  is  about  38  percent  of 
the  present  total  net  water  supply. 

Ground  Wafer  Safe  Yield 

Safe  ground  w ater  \ield  is  the  measure  of  depend- 
able ground  water  supply  used  in  this  bulletin.  It  com- 
prises primar\'  recharge  to  the  underground  storage 
aquifers  from  natural  sources  plus  recharge  from  local 
surface  reservoirs  operated  to  augment  natural  stream 
channel  percolation  or  to  supply  recharge  basins.  For 


141 


example,  about  100,000  acre-feet  of  water  in  the  Sa- 
linas Valley  of  the  Central  Coastal  Hydrologic  Study 
Area  is  supplied  by  ground  water  which  is  percolated 
from  releases  from  Nacimiento  and  San  Antonio  Res- 
ervoirs. The  Monterey  County  Flood  Control  and 
Water  Conservation  District  stores  winter  season  run- 
off in  the  two  reservoirs  for  later  release  to  the  Salinas 
River  when  the  stream  channel  has  unused  percolation 
capacity  for  recharging  the  ground  water  basin.  State- 
wide, ground  water  supplies  presently  provide  about 
5.2  million  acre-feet  of  safe  yield  or  about  17%  of 
the  present  dependable  \\  ater  supplies.  Some  increases 
are  projected,  mosth'  from  future  use  of  available  ca- 
pacity of  some  northern  California  ground  water 
basins. 

Pumping  in  excess  of  safe  yield  is  causing  an  esti- 
mated 2.2  million  acre-foot  average  annual  with- 
drawal of  ground  water  storage  (net  overdraft) 
throughout  the  State.  This  overdraft  and  the  safe 
yield,  together,  comprise  about  7.4  million  acre-feet 
or  about  24  percent  of  present  net  water  use.  An  addi- 
tional 7.6  million  acre-feet  of  annual  ground  water 
extraction  constitutes  reuse  of  water  percolated  from 
canals  and  distribution  systems  and  from  excess  surf- 
ace applications.  In  total,  ground  ^\•ater  pumping  pro- 
vides about  40°  o  (15  million  acre-feet  per  year)  of 
the  present  applied  water  needs  of  the  State. 

The  full  extent  of  the  State's  ground  water  resource 
is  not  completely  known.  While  the  areas  of  water- 
bearing underground  strata  have  been  generally  de- 
lineated on  a  statewide  basis,  detailed  knowledge  of 
storage  capacity  and  other  characteristics  has  been 
limited  primarily  to  the  basins  most  heavily  used 
where  the  need  is  the  most  immediate  and  where  a 
considerable  bod\'  of  factual  data,  such  as  well  logs,  is 
available  for  stud\-.  Further,  many  investigations  con- 
ducted before  the  1950s  were  limited  to  depths  be- 
low the  surface  considered  to  represent  a  limit  to  eco- 
nomic pumping,  even  though  usable  water  may  extend 
to  much  greater  depths.  In  some  cases,  actual  pump- 
ing depths  are  now  in  excess  of  original  projections. 
As  the  need  for  greater  use  of  the  ground  water  re- 
source develops,  so  will  the  need  for  more  definitive 
information  on  the  underground  reservoir  character- 
istics. In  most  current  investigations,  this  fact  is  rec- 
ognized, and  analysis  is  carried  to  the  base  of  fresh 
water.  As  basins  are  operated  over  greater  ranges  of 
capacity,  more  information  will  become  available  for 
evaluating  the  extent  and  usefulness  of  the  resource. 
At  present,  estimates  of  storage  capacity  are  generally 
on  the  conservative  side,  especially  in  the  less  devel- 
oped ground  water  areas. 

The  Central  Valley  Projecf 

The  Central  \'alley  Project  (CVT)  was  conceived 
as  a  plan  to  overcome  the  natural  maldistribution  of 
water  supply  and  demand  in  the  Great  Central  X'alley 


of  California.  As  early  as  the  1920s  it  was  apparent 
that  the  natural  water  supply  of  the  southern  San 
Joaquin  Valley  was  inadequate  to  meet  the  needs  of 
this  fertile  area. 

The  initial  units  of  the  Central  Valley  Project  con- 
sisted of  Friant  and  Shasta  Dams  and  the  Contr.i 
Costa,  Delta-Mendota,  Friant-Kern,  and  Madera  Ca- 
nals. The  first  water  deliveries  for  the  Central  \'alley 
Project  were  made  from  the  Contra  Costa  Canal  in 
1940.  Current  annual  water  deliveries,  including  that 
provided  under  water  exchange  contracts,  amount  to 
about  6  million  acre-feet.  (Actual  1972  deliveries  were 
less  because  the  dry  year  resulted  in  below  average 
supplies  at  Alillerton  Lake.) 

Major  features  of  the  Central  \'alley  Project  are 
shown  on  Figure  19.  Table  25  gives  a  listing  of  major 
reservoirs  and  canals  which  are  built  or  under  con- 
struction. In  addition,  there  are  two  authorized 
projects.  Marysville  Reservoir  on  the  Yuba  River 
would  increase  conservation  of  the  water  in  the  Sac- 
ramento Basin;  and  the  San  Felipe  Division  would 
serve  water  to  the  South  San  Francisco  Bay  and  to  the 
Pajaro  River  \\atershed  in  the  Central  Coastal  Hydro- 
logic  Study  Area. 

■  Total  reservoir  storage  capacity  in  the  Central  Val- 
ley Project  is  now  10.1  million  acre-feet,  including  the 
Central  X'alley  Project  share  of  San  Luis  Reservoir. 

Table  25.     Major  Features  of  the  Central  Valley  Project 


Capacity 
(1,000  acre-feet) 

First  year  of 
operation 

Storage  reservoirs 

4.552 

2,448 

15 

241 

6 

24 

4 

150 

41 

1,010 

9 
2 
2.039 
56 
35 

13 

520 

2,326 

2.400 

(CFS) 
500 
3,500 
350 
4,600 
13,100 

1,200 
4,200 
2,300 

1944 

Clair  Engle  Lake  (Trinity  Dam) 

Lewiston  Lake 

Whiskeytown  Lake 

1960 
1963 
1963 
1963 

Keswick 

1948 
1966 

Black  Butte'                                         

I%3 

1955 

Folsom  Lake                                                  

1955 

Lake  Natoma  (Nimbus)                            

1955 

I%3 

San  Lui<>                                                          --    - 

1967 

1966 

1966 

1966 

1944 

New  Melones                        

Vnder  constr. 

Canals 

1961 

1973< 

1940 

1951 

San  Luis' 

1967 

1944 

1949 

>  Operated  by  the  Corps  of  Engineers. 

'Operated  by  El  Dorado  Irrigation  District. 

'  Joint  use  with  Slate  Water  Project;  operated  by  State  of  Californii 

*  Only  first  26  miles  complete  out  of  a  total  of  about  68  miles. 

i  Operated  by  Contra  Costa  County  Water  District. 


142 


Completion  of  the  Auburn  and  New  Melones  projects 
would  increase  the  capacity  to  14.8  million  acre-feet. 
The  total  installed  hydroelectric  capacity  of  the  CVP 
is  about  1,250  megawatts,  excluding  the  San  Luis 
plant.  This  is  about  3  percent  of  the  State's  total 
electric  power  capacity.  Auburn  and  New  Melones,  as 
planned,  will  add  600  megawatts  of  new  capacity,  less 
the  existing  26  megawatt  Melones  power  plant  which 
^^•ill  be  inundated. 

The  estimated  dependable  water  supply  capabilit)' 
of  the  Central  Valley  Project  upon  the  completion 
of  Auburn  and  New  Melones  Reservoirs  and  with  the 
Peripheral  Canal  \\ill  be  about  9.2  million  acre-feet 
annually  under  full  operation  and  including  reuse  of 
some  return  flo\\s.  This  yield  assumes  that  Srate 
A\'ater  Resources  Control  Board  Decision  1379  re- 
iiuirements  \\ill   apply,   except  for  relaxation   in   dry 


years.  The  supply  includes  285,000  acre-feet  from 
New  Melones  Reservoir  (including  downstream  qual- 
ity and  new  fishery  releases)  and  318,000  acre-feet 
from  Auburn  Reservoir.  Marysville  Reservoir  is  not 
included  but  could  add  about  150,000  acre-feet  to  the 
Central  V^iUey  Project  yield  at  the  Delta. 

Included  in  the  Central  Valley  Project  water  supply 
arc  exchange  and  water  rights  supplies  provided  by 
the  Central  Valley  Project  under  various  agreements. 
Technically,  these  supplies  would  be  considered  as 
local  water  supplies;  however,  in  keeping  with  con- 
ventional practice  these  deliveries  were  placed  in  the 
Central  Valley  Project  category  herein.  The  1972 
Central  Valley  Project  annual  report  shows  that  about 
2.6  million  acre-feet  of  exchange  and  water  rights 
water  w as  provided  in  that  year. 


Friant  Dam — a  key  unit  of  the  Central  Valley  Project  U.S.  Bureau  ol  Reclamalion  photo 


143 


Other  Federal  Wafer  Deve/opmenfs 

This  catcgor\-  of  water  supply  consists  of  water 
projects  constructed  by  the  Army  Corps  of  Engineers 
or  bv  the  Bureau  of  Reclamation,  but  which  are  not 
part  of  the  Central  Valley  Project.  Table  26  contains 
a  list  of  the  facilities  included. 


Table  26.     Other  Federal  Water  Projects  in  Californi 

Storage  reservoir 

Capacity 
(1.000  .^F) 

Watershed 

Hydrologic 
study 

Comple- 
date 

Clear  Lake 

Upper  Klamath  Lake^.. 

Lake  Mendocino 

Warm  Springs 

527 
525= 

122 
281 

26 
240 
205 

252 

51 

50 

1.602 

m 

150 
90 

1,000 
150 
85 
570 

732' 
41 
30 

226 

28,537 

1,818 

648 

14 

Lost  River 
Klamath  River 

Russian  River 
Russian  River 

Salinas  River 
Santa  Maria  River 
Santa  Ynez  River 

Ventura  River 

Stony  Creek 
Stony  Creek 
Putah  Creek 

Calaveras  River 

Chowchilla  River 
Fresno  River 

Kings  River 
Kaweah  River 
Tule  River 
Kern  River 

Truckee  River 
Truckee  River 
Truckee  River 
Truckee  River 

Colorado  River 
Colorado  River 
Colorado  River 
Colorado  River 

XC 
NC 

SF 
SF 

CC 
CC 
CC 

SC 

SB 
SB 
SB 

DC 

SJ 
SJ 

IB 
TB 
TB 
TB 

XL 
XL 
XL 
XL 

CD 
CD 

1910 
1921 

I9S9 
U.C/l 

1942 

1958 

Cachuma 

1953 

Casitas 

1959 

East  Park... 

1910 
1928 

Lake  Berryessa 

New  I  logan 

1957 
1964 
U.C.J 

Hidden.. 

Pine  Flat 

u.c..< 

1954 
1962 

Success 

Isabella 

LakeTahoc 

Boca            .... 

1961 
1953 

1913 
1939 

Prosscr  Creek 

Stampede 

Lake  Mead''  .   . 

1962 
1970 

1936 

1950 

Lake  Havasu 

Senator  Wash 

1938 
1966 

*  In  Modoc  County. 
■•  Outside  California. 
"  -Active  Capacity. 
J  Unde 


Water  deliveries  from  the  Colorado  River  to  the 
Colorado  Desert  Hydrologic  Study  Area  have  been 
included  in  the  other  federal  category. 

Included  in  the  list  on  Table  26  are  four  federal 
reservoirs  in  the  North  Lahontan  Hydrologic  Study 
Area  which  regulate  water  supplies  of  the  Truckee 
River  watershed,  but  for  use  primarily  in  Nevada. 
Several  more  federal  water  supply  projects  have  been 
authorized  for  construction  in  Northern  California 
but  their  water  supplv  has  not  been  included.  These 
are: 


Reservoir 

Capacity 

(1,000 
acreleet) 

Watershed 

Hydrologic 
study  area 

Butler,Valley 

460 
233' 
1,100 
900 
55 

Mad  River 
Russian  River 
Cottonwood  Creek 
Cottonwood  Creek 
Cache  Creek 

Knights  Valley 

Sacramento  Basin 

Tehama 

Sacramento  Basin 

California  Sfaie  Waier  Project 

The  California  State  \\'atcr  Project  is  a  s\stem  of 
reservoirs  and  conveyance  works  w  hich  regulate  water 
supplies  from  runoff  in  Northern  California  for  use 
in  Northern  California,  San  Francisco  Bay  area,  San 
Joaquin  \'alley.  Central  Coast,  and  Southern  Califor- 
nia. It  also  provides  flood  control,  h\"droelectric  power 
generation,  water-oriented  recreation,  salinitx'  control 
in  the  Delta  in  coordination  with  the  federal  Central 
\'alle\-  Project,  and  enhancement  of  fisheries  and  wild- 
life  habitat. 

The  Project  extends  from  reser\-oirs  on  the  upper 
Feather  River  in  Plumas  Count\'  to  Lake  Perris  in 
Riverside  C()unt\-,  w  ith  branch  aqueducts  to  the  north 
and  south  San  Francisco  Bay  areas,  to  the  Central 
Coastal  area  and  the  northwest  portion  of  metropolitan 
Southern  California.  AVatcr  from  Lake  Perris  is  dis- 
tributed by  agencies  of  the  .Metropolitan  \\'ater  Dis- 
trict of  Southern  California  throughout  the  South 
Coastal  area  to  the  vicinit\'  of  the  .Mexican  border. 
.Major  physical  facilities  of  the  State  Water  Project, 
both  completed  and  authorized,  include  2.^  dams  and 
reservoirs,  6  hydroelectric  power  plants,  22  pumping 
plants  and  68.^  miles  of  conveyance  facilities. 

Features  of  the  State  Water  Project  are  shown  in 
Figure  19,  and  are  described  in  detail  in  Department 
of  Water  Resources  Bulletin  No.  1.^2-74,  "The  State 
Water  Project  in  1974". 

Facilities  which  comprise  the  State  \\ater  Project 
are: 

•  Frenchman,  Antelope,  and  Grizzly  \'alley  Dams 
and  tile  Grizzly  \'alley  Pipeline,  for  recreation 
and  water  ser\ice  to  the  Upper  Feather  River 
area. 

•  Oroville-Thermalito  Facilities,  the  ke\'  source  of 
project  water  supply,  also  for  power  generation, 
flood  control,  and  recreation. 

•  Phase  I  of  the  North  Bay  Aqueduct,  for  delivery 
of  w  atcr  to  the  north  San  Francisco  Ba\'  area. 

•  1  he  South  Ba\"  .Aqueduct,  for  recreation,  flood 
control,  and  w  ater  service  to  the  South  San  Fran- 
cisco Ba\'  area. 

•  The  California  .Aqueduct,  extending  444  miles 
from  the  Sacramento-San  Joaquin  Delta  to  Lake 
Perris,  for  recreation,  power  generation,  and  wa- 
ter service  to  the  w  estern  San  Joaquin  \'alle\'  and 
high  desert  and  southern  coastal  [ilain  of  South- 
ern California. 

•  The  West  Branch  of  the  California  Aqueduct,  in- 
cluding P\raniid  and  Castaic  Lakes  and  a  1250 
megawatt  pump  storage  pow  er  plant.  The  power 
plant  was  constructed  by  the  Los  .\ngeles  De- 
partment of  Water  and  Pow  er.  Lhis  system  pro- 
\ides  recreation,  power  generation,  and  water 
ser\ice  to  the  northern  coastal  plain  of  Southern 
California. 


144 


•  Pliasc  I  of  tlic  Coastal  Branch  of  the  California 
Aqueduct  for  project  water  service  initially  to  the 
Antelope  Plain  on  the  central-western  periphery 
of  the  San  Joaquin  \'alley  (and  eventually  to  San 
Luis  Obispo  and  Santa  Barbara  Counties). 

•  Storage  and  pumping-generating  facilities  at  San 
Luis  Reservoir  m  hich  are  utilized  jointly  with  the 
federal  Central  Valley  Project. 

The  Department  of  Water  Resources  lias  contracted 
to  deliver  state  project  water  to  3 1  A\ater  service  agen- 
cies located  in  8  of  the  State's  1 1  hydrologic  study 
areas.  Ma.xinium  annual  entitlements  by  the  contrac- 
tors for  the  water  supply  amount  to  4,230,000  acre- 
feet  per  year.  In  addition,  the  project  has  the  capabil- 
ity to  provide  45,500  acre-feet  per  year  for  recreation 
purposes  associated  with  the  project.  Finally,  convey- 
ances losses  estimated  at  about  187,000  acre-feet  per 
year  are  included  in  the  net  demand  on  the  State  Wa- 
ter Project.  A  tabulation  of  the  entitlements  to  state 
project  water  within  hydrologic  study  areas  is  shown 
below: 


Hydrologic  Study  An 


Basin: 

San  Francisco  Bay 

Central  Coastal 

San  Joaquin  Basin 

Tulare  Basin 

South  Coastal 

South  Lahontan 

Colorado  Desert 

Total  Entitlement  of  Contractors 

Recreation 

System  Conveyances  Losses  (estimated) 

Total  Project  Water  Requirements  (rounded) 


Amount  (a. 
feet  per  ye 


39.800 

255,000 

82,700 

5,700 

1,349,300 

2,204.400 

206,600 

86.500 


4,230,000 
45,500 
187,000 


The  firm  water  yield  of  the  conservation  facilities 
of  the  State  Water  Project,  when  completed,  will  be 
4.46  million  acre-feet  per  year.  This  estimate  envisions 
completion  of  the  North  Bay  Aqueduct  and  Coastal 
Branch,  and  installation  of  the  necessary  final  pump 
units  at  the  Delta  and  Edmonston  Pumping  Plants.  It 
also  envisions  the  construction  of  additional  conserva- 
tion facilities  as  necessary  to  satisfy  full  contractual 


Wind  Gap  Pumping  Plont — Californio  Slate  Water  Projecl 


145 


entitlements.  Curientl\-,  the  project  yield  with  the 
Peripheral  Canal  assumed  to  be  in  operation  is  esti- 
mated at  3.4  million  acre-feet  per  year,  based  on  the 
project  being  operated  in  accordance  \\ith  State 
Water  Resources  Control  Board  Decision  1379  for 
outflow  requirements  in  the  Sacramento-San  Joaquin 
Delta,  except  for  relaxation  in  dry  years. 

Waste  Wafer  Reclamation 

A  considerable  amount  of  municipal  and  industrial 
\\  aste  water  has  been  reclaimed  and  has  been  used  for 
\ears  at  inland  locations  for  irrigation,  mainl\-  of  fod- 
der. In  previous  bulletins  this  water  supply  has  usually 
been  considered  part  of  the  reuse  of  net  supplies  and 
has  not  been  identified  separately.  However,  in  this 
bulletin,  the  amounts  of  w  aste  water  reclaimed  delib- 
crateix'  for  a  specific  beneficial  use  have  been  included 
as  an  item  of  supply.  The  projected  amounts  in  coastal 
hydrologic  study  areas  include  present  amounts  plus 
those  new  waste  \\ater  reclamation  projects  \\  hicii 
seem  to  be  assured  either  by  a  start  of  construction  or 
b\-  a  specific  allocation  of  funds  for  construction.  Un- 
til concerns  regarding  public  health  safety  aspects  of 
using  reclaimed  \\ater  are  resolved  it  is  not  possible 
to  plan  for  significant  increases  in  waste  water  rec- 


lamation for  municipal  use.  In  the  inland  hydrologic 
stud\'  areas,  present  practices  were  assumed  to  con- 
tinue, and  future  w  aste  w  ater  reclamation  \\  as  assumed 
to  be  about  the  same  percentage  of  total  municipal 
and  industrial  applied  water  as  it  is  today.  Exceptions 
w  ere  made  in  the  case  of  military  and  some  industrial 
facilities  w  here  waste  water  reclamation  was  projected 
at  present  levels. 

Desalting 

Desalination  of  brackisii  drainage  w  ater  and  sea  wa- 
ter is  a  potential  source  of  w  ater  in  some  areas.  The 
only  source  of  desalted  water  regarded  firm  enough 
to  include  in  the  projected  net  water  supplies  is  16,000 
acre-feet  per  \ear  from  the  Water  Factory  21  installa- 
tion being  constructed  in  Orange  County.  The  San 
Diego  Saline  Test  Facilit\'  was  producing  about  500 
acre-feet  per  year  in  1972;  the  plant  ceased  operation 
in   1973  and  has  been  dismantled. 

Summary  of  Available  Water  Supplies 

Table  27  presents  the  summar\'  of  water  supplies 
available  in  each  of  the  eleven  h\drologic  study  areas. 
The  w  ater  suppl\-  is  presented  in  the  eight  suppl\'  cate- 
gories just  discussed. 


TABLE  27 

Summory  of  1972  and  Projected  Water  Supplies,  Net  Water  Demands  and  Supplemental 

Demands  by  Hydrologic  Study  Areas 

(1,000  acre-feet  per  year) 


North  Coastal 

San  Francisc 

)  Bay 

Cen 

ral  Coastal 

South  Coastal 

Sacramento  Basin 

Delta-Central  Sierra 

Items 

1972 

1990 

2020 

1972 

1990 

2020 

1972 

1990 

2020 

1972 

1990 

2020 

1972 

1990 

2020 

1972 

1990 

2020 

Dependable  water  supplies 

Local  surface  water  developments 

Imports  by  local  water  agencies 

390 

2 

140 

430 

960 

940 
2 
20 

940 

2 
20 

940 
2 
20 

940 
2 
20 

390 

2 

160 

430 

980 

990 
20 
10 

990 
20 
10 

980 
20 
20 

980 
20 
20 

400 

2 

180 

430 

1,010 

1,040 
30 
0 

1,030 
30 
10 

1,010 
20 
20 

1,000 
20 
30 

170 
700 
330 
80 
100 
130 
8 

1.520 

1,270 

9 

260 

1,270 

9 

260 

1,270 

9 

260 

1,270 

9 

260 

170 
700 
340 
140 
230 
230 
54 

1,860 

1,820 
80 
120 

1,780 
70 
150 

1,760 
70 
170 

1,660 
30 
230 

170 
700 
340 
270 
230 
260 
55 

2,030 

2,630 

600 

0 

2.450 
480 
60 

2,310 
370 
90 

1,900 
120 
250 

54 

720 

55 
0 
6 

830 

950 
140 
20 

950 
140 

20 

950 
140 
20 

950 
140 
20 

54 

750 

55 
87 
7 

950 

1,240 

290 

0 

1,200 

250 

0 

1,180 

230 

0 

1,150 

200 

0 

54 

750 

55 
87 
8 

950 

1,560 

610 

0 

1,480 

530 

0 

1,410 

460 

0 

1,250 

300 

0 

90 

1.720 

930 

20 
190 

57 

0 

3,010 

3,080 
160 
90 

3,080 
160 
90 

3,080 
160 
90 

3,080 
160 
90 

90 
940 
930 

io 

2,340 
81 
16 

4,420 

3,770 

0 

650 

3,700 

0 

720 

3,640 
0 

780 

3,390 

0 

1,030 

90 
940 
930 

20 

2,340 

81 

16 

4,420 

5,200 

780 

0 

4,720 

300 

0 

4,480 
60 
0 

3,460 

0 

960 

2.480 

9 

1.190 

2,700 

200 

1 

11 

6,590 

5,780 

240 

1,050 

5,780 

240 

1,050 

5,780 

240 

1,050 

5,780 

240 

1,050 

2.610 

9 

1.360 

3,170 

190 

38 

13 

7,390 

7,610 
500 
280 

7,200 
360 
550 

6,800 
290 
880 

6,630 
210 

970 

2,790 

9 

1,390 

3,380 

190 

40 

18 

7,820 

9,030 

1,210 

0 

8,240 
730 
310 

7,530 
530 
820 

7,080 

320 

1,060 

1,330 

630 
130 
110 

i 

2,2i6 

2,270 
120 
60 

2,270 
120 
60 

2,270 
120 
60 

2,270 
120 

60 

1,370 

610 
800 
120 

io 

2,9io 

3,110 
220 
20 

2,900 
120 

130 

2,700 
110 

320 

2.580 
80 
410 

1,420 
610 

Central  Valley  Project'... _ 

Other  federal  water  developments' 

760 
120 

18 

Desalting 

Total  dependable  water  supplies 

Aturnatke  Future  I 

2,930 
3,860 

930 

0 

Murnative  Future  11 

3,630 

710 

10 

Alternative  Future  111 

Total  net  water  demand 

3.360 
550 

120 

Alltrnatne  Future  11' 

Total  net  water  demand 

3,010 
280 

200 

*  Facilities  existing  or  under  construction;  amounts  include  water  rights  and  exchange  supplies  in  the  Central  Valley  furnished  from  CVP  facilities. 

*  Facilities  definitely  planned  for  construction  and  additional  conser\-3tion  facilities  authorized  to  meet  contractual  commitments. 

'  Potentially  available  to  certain  portions  of  the  hydrologic  study  area  to  meet  additional  water  demands;  usually  not  available  toother  areas  of  supplemental  demand  beca 
of  a  lack  of  physical  facilities  and/or  institutional  arrangements. 


146 


The  supply  for  the  State  Water  Project  assumes 
that  sucli  ^\■orks  as  necessary  to  meet  contractual  de- 
ii\cries  will  be  constructed.  It  should  be  noted  that  a 
significant  portion  of  the  present  regulated  water  sup- 
pl\'  is  in  a  reserve  status.  This  means  that:  (1)  the  de- 
mands for  water  in  certain  areas  are  not  large  enough 
to  utilize  all  of  the  available  regulated  water  suppl\-, 
( 2 )  the  areas  of  need  cannot  be  served  with  the  con- 
\cyancc  facilities  available,  or  (3)  no  contractual  ar- 
rangement exists  for  service  to  the  area.  The  reserve 
suppl\-  is  only  valid  at  face  value  in  its  designated  serv- 
ice area.  Even  if  the  necessary  physical  and  institu- 
tional transfer  means  existed,  some  quantity  adjustment 
would  be  needed  if  use  of  the  reserve  supph-  in  an- 
orlicr  service  area  is  contemplated.  The  adjustment 
would  include  the  effect  of  return  flows  and  differing 
monthK-  schedules  of  water  demand. 


A  summary  of  the  statewide  water  supply  and  de- 
mand picture  for  each  alternative  future  is  shown  in 
Figure  29.  iMajor  sources  of  water  are  indicated  and 
compared  to  total  net  demands  for  water.  The  differ- 
ence betw  een  usable  w  ater  suppl_\'  and  net  \\  ater  de- 
mand is  the  supplemental  demand.  About  90  percent 
of  the  estimated  1972  supplemental  demand  of  2,450,- 
000  acre-feet  is  met  from  ground  w  ater  overdraft.  The 
Colorado  River  suppl\-  will  decrease  from  about  5,- 
150,000  acre-feet  currently  to  4,400,000  acre-feet  by 
1990,  w  hich  is  California's  share  of  the  Colorado  River 
supply  according  to  the  Supreme  Court  allocation. 

The  bottom  category  on  the  figure  is  labeled  "Local 
Water  Projects".  It  includes  local  agency  and  federal 
surface  water  developments,  except  for  Colorado  River 
and  Central  Valley  Project  sources.  It  also  includes 
w  aste  water  reclamation  and  desalting  which  are  too 
small  to  show  on  the  figure. 


TABLE   27— Continued 

ry  of  1972  and  Projected  Water  Supplies,  Net  Water  Demands  and  Supplemental 
Demands  by  Hydrologic  Study  Areas — Continued 
(1,000  acre-feef  per  year) 


San  J 

oaquin 

Basin 

Tulare  Basin 

Xor 

h  Laho 

n.an 

South  Lahontan 

Colorado  Desert 

State  tota 

s 

Items 

1972 

1990 

2020 

1972 

1990 

2020 

1972 

1990 

2020 

1972 

1990 

2020 

1972 

1990 

2020 

1972 

1990 

2020 

Dependable  water  supplies 

Local  surface  water  developments- 
Imports  by  local  water'agencies-.. 
Ground  water  safe  yield 

2,230 

520 

1,720 

0 

9 

26 

4,510 

4,650 
250 
110 

4,650 
250 
110 

4,650 
250 
110 

4,650 
250 
110 

2,280 

520 

1,940 

48 

9 

38 

4,840 

5,510 

670 

0 

5,350 

510 

0 

5,120 

280 

0 

4,960 
130 
10 

2,280 

520 

1,940 

48 

9 

62 

4,860 

6,280 

1,420 

0 

5,710 

850 

0 

5,320 

460 

0 

5,030 

170 

0 

2,220 

sio 

2,660 
240 
790 
45 

6,470 

7,300 

1,310 

480 

7,300 

1,310 

480 

7,300 

1,310 

480 

7,300 

1,310 

480 

2,220 

sio 

2,890 

240 

1,410 

59 

7,330 

9,200 

1,920 

50 

8,800 

1,500 

30 

8,290 

1,030 

70 

8,180 
920 
70 

2,220 

510 
2,890 

240 

1,410 

85 

7,360 

11,000 

3,640 

0 

10,110 

2,750 

0 

9,160 

1,800 

0 

8,700 

1,340 

0 

330 
11 
55 

6 
400 

430 
40 
10 

430 
40 
10 

430 
40 
10 

430 
40 
10 

330 
11 
90 

'9 
440 

450 
20 
10 

450 
20 
10 

450 
20 
10 

420 
20 
40 

330 
11 
110 

12 
460 

480 
20 
0 

470 
10 
0 

470 
10 
0 

420 
0 
40 

30 
120 

34 
7 

190 

280 
120 
30 

280 
120 
30 

280 
120 
30 

280 
120 
30 

40 
130 

220 
8 

400 

330 
3 
70 

330 
3 
70 

320 
3 
80 

300 

3 

100 

50 

130 

]] 
220 
10 

410 

510 

100 

0 

430 
70 
50 

370 

30 
70 

290 
10 
130 

74 

3,950 
14 
7 

4,040 

4,070 
40 
10 

4.070 
40 
10 

4,070 
40 
10 

4,070 
40 
10 

85 

3,970 
85 
9 

4,150 

4,240 
90 
0 

4,180 
30 
0 

4,150 
20 
20 

4.140 
10 
20 

90 

3,970 
91 
12 

4,160 

4,430 

270 

0 

4,300 

140 

0 

4,290 

130 

0 

4,210 
60 
10 

9,310 
2,450 
5,220 
7,290 
5,110 
1,160 
180 

30,700 

31,000 
2.450 
2,140 

31,000 
2,450 
2,140 

31,000 
2,450 
2,140 

31,000 
2,450 
2,140 

9,560 
1,660 
5,470 
8,930 
5,310 
4.420 
290 
16 
35,700 

38,300 
3.810 
1,200 

36,900 
2,880 
1,670 

35,400 
2,070 
2,330 

34,400 
1,620 
2,900 

9,810 
1.660 
5,560 
9.230 

Other  federal  water  developments'. 

5,310 
4,460 

360 

Desalting 

Total  dependable  water  supplies^ 

Jlurnalivr  Future  I 

Total  net  water  demand 

16 

36,400 

46,000 
9,610 

0 

Alternative  Future  11 

42,600 

6,600 

430 

Alternative  Future  III 

39,700 

1,120 

Alternative  Future  IT 

Total  net  water  demand 

36,400 
2,620 

Reserve  suddIv' 

t  Facilities  existing  or  under  construct 
'  Facilities  definitely  planned  lor  cons 
'  Potentially  available  to  certain  portic 
of  a  lack  of  physical  facilities  and/or 


n;  amounts  include  water  rights  and  exchange  supplies  in  the  Central  Valley  furnished  from  CVP  facilities, 
jction  and  additional  conservation  facilities  authorized  to  meet  contractual  commitments, 
s  of  the  hydrologic  study  area  to  meet  additional  water  demands;  usually  not  available  to  other  areas  of  supple 
istitutional  arrangements. 


147 


ALTERNATIVE    FUTURE   I 


20 


10 


CENTRAL  VALLEY  PROJECT 


COLORADO  RIVER 


GROUND  WATER 


LOCAL  WATER  PROJECTS 


1972 


1990 


2020 


50 


ALTERNATIVE   FUTURE   III 


_   USABLE  WATER  SUPPLY 


20 


10 


NET  WATER  DEMAND   -^ 
STATE  WATER  PROJECT  


CENTRAL  VALLEY  PROJECT 


COLORADO  RIVER 


GROUND  WATER 


LOCAL. WATER  PROJECTS 


1972 


1990 


2020 


YEAR 


Figure  29.      Statewide  Water  Demand  and  Usable  Water  Supply 


148 


ALTERNATIVE   FUTURE  I 


2020 


1972 


1990 


2020 


YEAR 


Figure  29.     (Continued) 


149 


EfFect  of  State  Water  Resources  Control 
Board  Decisions  on  Water  Supply 

During  the  past  four  years,  the  State  Water  Re- 
sources Control  Board  has  made  several  decisions  in 
regard  to  water  rights  which  will  significantlx'  affect 
the  water  supply  outlook. 

Decision  1379 

Chief  among  these  is  Decision  1379  relating  to 
water  quality  in  the  Sacramento-San  Joaquin  Delta, 
issued  in  July  1971.  The  water  qualit\'  standards  estab- 
lished for  fish  and  wildlife  require  substantially  higher 
fresh  water  outflows,  including  greater  releases  of 
stored  water,  than  the  amounts  used  in  planning  the 
State  Water  Project  and  the  federal  Central  Valley 
Project.  In  making  Decision  1379,  the  Board  stated 
that  its  hearings  would  be  reopened  not  later  than 
July  1978  to  receive  further  evidence  relating  to  salin- 
ity control  and  fish  and  wildlife  protection. 

Decision  1379  prescribes  water  quality  standards  at 
various  locations  in  the  Delta.  Some  are  for  protection 
of  municipal  and  industrial  supplies,  some  for  agricul- 
ture, and  some  for  fish  and  wildlife.  The  fishery  stand- 
ards would  normally  be  controlling.  The  amounts  of 
water  required  to  meet  the  standards  are  large.  De- 
cision 1379  standards,  without  dry  year  relaxation,  will 
result  in  a  reduction  in  the  combined  water  yields 
(critical  dry  period)  of  the  Central  Valley  Project 
and  State  Water  Project  of  about  1.8  million  acre-feet 
per  year.  About  1.1  million  acre-feet  of  this  would 
be  the  responsibility  of  the  Central  \'alle\'  Project 
and  0.7  million  acre-feet  that  of  the  State  Water  Proj- 
ect, assuming  that  the  responsibilit\'  for  increased  out- 
flow \\()uld  be  shared  b\'  the  60-40  ratio  used  in  nego- 
tiating the  \et  unsigned  Coordinated  Operation 
Agreement  for  the  Central  Valley  Project  and  State 
Water  Project.  E.xecution  of  this  agreement  has  been 
delayed  pending  completion  of  an  Environmental  Im- 
pact Statement  on  the  agreement. 

There  have  been  indications  that  the  Board  \\ould 
consider  relaxation  of  some  of  the  fishery  criteria  in 
dry  years.  For  example,  the  guidelines  given  to  the 
basin  contractors  working  on  the  AVater  Quality  Con- 
trol Planning  Program  included  consideration  of  a  dry 
year  rela.xation  in  fisheries  flow  in  the  Delta  in  formu- 
lating alternative  water  quality  control  plans.  Esti- 
mates of  water  suppl\-  presented  in  the  previous  sec- 
tion of  this  report  are  based  on  a  relaxation  of  the 
criteria  which  results  in  an  estimated  reduction  in 
combined  water  yield  (dry  period)  of  0.6  million 
acre-feet. 

Decision  1400 

In  Decision  1400  (April  1972)  the  State  Water  Re- 
sources Control  Board  decreed  minimum  lower 
American  River  flows  for  fishery  and  recreation  pur- 


poses. Releases  from  Folsom  Reservoir  would  provide 
1,250  cubic  feet  per  second  (cfs)  for  fisheries  pur- 
poses during  the  cool  season  of  the  year  and  1,500  cfs 
for  recreation  from  mid-Ma\'  to  mid-October  in  all 
but  dr\'  years.  These  levels  of  flow  were  judged  the 
minimum  to  provide  a  good  in-stream  fishery  and  rec- 
reation environment  in  the  lower  reaches  of  the 
American  River  where  it  flows  through  the  Metro- 
politan Sacramento  area. 

The  previous  fishery  release  requirement  was  based 
on  an  agreement  with  the  Department  of  Fish  and 
Game  negotiated  when  Folsom  Dam  was  built.  Fishery 
releases  amounted  to  about  234,000  acre-feet  per  year, 
250  cubic  feet  per  second  from  January  to  mid-Sep- 
tember and  500  cubic  feet  per  second  the  rest  of  the 
\ear.  The  increased  requirement  under  Decision  1400, 
about  750,000  acre-feet  per  year,  imposed  a  substantial 
reduction  in  the  amount  of  firm  water  suppl\-  avail- 
able for  diversion  at  the  head  of  Folsom  South  Canal. 

In  this  case,  a  physical  engineering  solution  would 
be  the  Hood-Clay  pump  connection.  Water  released  to 
flow  down  the  American  River  into  the  Sacramento 
Ri\er  would  be  diverted  at  a  point  just  south  of  Sac- 
ramento and  conveyed  back  to  the  Folsom-South 
Canal  through  a  pumping  plant  and  canal.  The  con- 
nection probably  would  not  be  needed  until  after  year 
1990,  when  American  River  and  Folsom  South  Canal 
service  area  demands  will  have  built  up  and  exceed 
the  amount  available  for  direct  diversion  from  the 
.\nierican  River. 

Decision  1422 

In  Decision  1422,  concerning  the  New  .Melones 
Project  on  the  Stanislaus  River,  the  State  Water  Re- 
sources Control  Board  restricted  conservation  storage 
in  the  federal  reservoir  to  such  water  as  neccssarv  to 
provide  (a)  for  prior  rights  at  existing  iMelones  Reser- 
voir, (b)  for  preservation  and  enhancement  of  down- 
stream fish  and  wildlife  up  to  98,000  acre-feet  per 
_\ear,  and  (c)  additional  water  to  maintain  dissolved 
ox\gen  in  the  Stanislaus  River  and  control  of  water 
quality  in  the  lower  San  Joaquin  River  at  X'ernalis. 
The  storage  restriction  will  be  reconsidered  by  the 
Board  when  there  is  a  demonstrated  need  for  more 
water  for  downstream  purposes  or  additional  diver- 
sions and  evidence  that  benefits  therefrom  would  out- 
wcigh  the  damage  above  New  Alelones  Dam  that 
would  result  from  such  storage.  The  storage  limita- 
tion will  preserve  a  popular  "white  water"  area  and 
protect  some  limestone  caves  and,  possibly,  some 
archaeological  and  historical  sites.  (Previousl>'  con- 
structed headwater  reservoirs  contribute  substantiall\ 
to  the  length  of  the  "white  water"  rafting  season.) 

The  practical  effect  of  the  decision  is  to  limit  water 
suppl\-  storage  to  about  30  percent  of  the  New 
Alcloncs  total  capacity  of  2,400,000  acre-feet.  The  firm 
water  supplv  would  then  be  around  210,000  AF  less 
than  without  the  storage  limit,   with  substantial   loss 


150 


of  electric  power  from  the  planned  300-megawatt 
power  plant  and  much  reduced  reservoir  "flat  water" 
recreation. 

Supplemental  Water  Demands 

Supplemental  water  demands  arc  the  difference  be- 
tween net  water  demand  and  useable  water  supply  in 
each  hydrologic  stud\-  area.  Useable  water  supply  is 
defined  as  that  portion  of  the  dependable  w  ater  supply 
that  is  useable  in  the  area  of  need.  .Man_\-  of  the  study 
areas  are  quite  large  and  \\  hile  the  total  water  supply 
appears  adequate  to  meet  projected  water  demands, 
local  shortages  may  occur  because  the  location  of  reg- 
ulated water  supplies  and  conveyance  systems  do  not 
permit  adequate  water  service  to  ail  places  requiring 
water. 

Quantities  of  dependable  w  ater  supplies  not  useable 
to  satisf\'  hydrologic  stud\-  area  demands,  as  explained 
in  the  foregoing  paragraphs,  were  classified  as  "reserve 
supplies".  While  there  is  a  possibilit\-  of  using  certain 
reserves  from  one  h\drologic  study  area  to  offset  the 
supplemental  demands  of  another  hydrologic  study 
area,  both  institutional  and  physical  modifications  would 
be  required. 

Present  and  projected  supplemental  water  demands 
are  given  in  Table  27.  Under  the  1972  level  of  devel- 
opment, the  supplemental  demand  was  2,450,000  acre- 
feet  per  year.  Assuming  completion  and  delivery  of 
water  from  facilities  under  construction  and  facilities 
required  to  conserve  water  to  meet  requirements  under 
existing  contracts,  supplemental  water  demand  in  1990 
could  range  from  1.6  to  3.fi  million  acre-feet  per  year. 
Under  similar  assumptions  regarding  additional  sup- 
plies b\-  2020,  tlie  supplemental  w  ater  demand  in  Cali- 


fornia is  estimated  to  range  from  2.6  to  9.6  million 
acre-feet  per  year  for  the  alternative  futures  described 
earlier. 

About  2.2  million  acre-feet  of  the  supplemental  de- 
mand shown  at  the  1972  level  represents  ground  water 
overdraft  (i.e.,  the  net  withdrawals  from  underground 
water  storage  in  excess  of  the  safe  yields).  This  has 
resulted  in  lowering  ground  water  tables  in  certain 
areas.  The  largest  amount  of  overdraft  is  in  Tulare 
Basin  where  an  estimated  1.3  million  acre-feet  of 
ground  w  ater  overdraft  is  shown  for  1972.  The  Tulare 
Basin  overdraft  is  less  than  the  1967  estimated  over- 
draft of  1.8  million  acre-feet  which  was  reported  in 
Bulletin  No.  160-70.  The  reduction  is  due  to  deliveries 
of  Central  V^alley  Project  and  State  Water  Project 
water  along  the  west  side  of  the  San  Joaquin  V^alley. 
Figures  21  and  22  show^  this  impact  on  ground  water 
levels  in  the  area. 

Table  28  is  intended  as  an  aid  in  comparing  current 
projections  of  the  need  for  new  water  supplies  with 
former  bulletins  in  the  160  series.  Adjustments  were 
made  to  the  figures  shown  in  previous  bulletins  to 
harmonize  the  major  items  of  supply  to  those  used  in 
this  report.  For  example.  Bulletin  No.  160-66  showed 
man\-  proposed  Central  \'alley  Project  works,  such  as 
tlic  San  Felipe  and  the  Eastside  Divisions,  as  part  of  the 
suppl\'  and  onl\'  a  relatively  small  "Remaining  Net  Wa- 
ter Requirement"  (see  Table  7  of  Bulletin  No.  160-66). 
Bulletin  No.  160-74  does  not  count  these  works  as  as- 
sured firm  supplies.  The  harmonizing  adjustments  were 
made  only  for  specific  project  sources  which  are  dif- 
ferent from  one  report  to  another.  No  adjustment  w  as 
made  when  the  changes  consisted  of  refinements  in 
the  estimates  of  water  supply  capability. 


Table  28.     Comparisons  of  Supple 


ntal  Demand  Between  Bulletin  No.  160-74  and  Previous  Bulletins 
(1,000  acre-feet) 


1990 

2020 

160-66 

160-70 

160-74 

160-66 

160-70 

160-74 

Hydrologic  study  area 

I 

11 

111 

IV 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

0 
30 
80 

0 

210 

100 

0 

1,400 

0 
0 
0 

80 

0 

2211 

0 

240 

90 

100 

1,060 

30 
60 
80 

20 

80 

290 

0 

500 

220 

670 

1,920 

20 
0 
90 

20 

70 

250 

0 

360 

120 

510 

1,500 

20 
0 
30 

20 

70 

230 

0 

29U 

110 

280 

1,030 

20 
0 
20 

20 
30 
200 

0 

210 
80 
130 
920 

20 
0 
lU 

0 

340 

600 

1,S40 

300 

140 

400 

2,670 

0 

0 

180 

100 
710 
480 
940 

350 

180 

400 

1.920 

120 
60 
150 

30 
600 
610 

780 

1,210 

930 

1,420 

3,640 

20 
100 
270 

30 
480 
530 
300 

730 

710 

850 

2.750 

10 
70 
140 

20 
370 
460 

60 

530 

550 

460 

1,800 

10 
30 
130 

20 

San  Francisco  Bay. 

120 
300 

0 

320 

Delta-Central  Sierra 

280 

170 

Tulare  Basin 

1,340 

0 

10 

60 

State  Totals 

1,820 

1,960 

3,810 

2,880 

2,070 

1,620 

6,170 

5,410 

9.610 

6,600 

4,420 

2,620 

nds  above  do  not  include  an 
it  is  expected  that  these  coi 


.vhicli  will  be  needed  t 


151 


Analysis  of  Central  Valley  Project  and 
State  Water  Project  Capability  and  Demands 

The  Central  \'alley  Project  and  the  California  State 
Water  Project  both  involve  major  transfers  of  water 
from  areas  of  water  surplus  to  areas  of  water  defi- 
ciency. Since  these  two  integrated  projects  account  for 
much  of  the  present  water  service  and  are  expected 
to  provide  a  greater  share  of  the  future  water  service, 
the  capabilities  of  the  two  systems  are  significant  in 
the  analysis  of  California's  water  supplies. 


Project  Wafer  Supplies 

As  indicated  in  the  previous  section  on  available  wa- 
ter supplies,  the  capability  of  the  Central  \'alley  Proj- 
ect to  provide  for  the  projected  net  demands  com- 
puted for  this  report  appears  to  be  about  9.2  million 
acre-feet  per  year.  This  assumes  completion  of  Auburn 
and  New  Melones  Reservoirs  and  the  Peripheral  Canal 
in  the  Delta. 

The  current  sustained  yield  capability  of  the  existing 
State  W'ater  Project  conservation  facilities,  together 
with  the  Peripheral  Canal,  \\  ould  be  about  3.4  million 
acre-feet.  About  1  million  acre-feet  of  additional  au- 
thorized conservation  capability  will  be  added  to  meet 
contractual  demands  plus  conveyance  losses  of  4.46 
million  acre-feet. 

The  Peripheral  Canal 

In  1959,  California  authorized,  in  the  Burns-Porter 
Act,  construction  of  physical  works  to  transfer  Sacra- 
mento River  water  through  the  Delta  and  concurrently 
to  solve  water  qualit\'  and  fishery  problems  within  the 
Delta.  In  1964,  the  Peripheral  Canal  \\  as  recommended 
as  the  best  plan  for  the  Delta.  It  would  accomplish 
five  objectives: 

(1)  Protect  and  enhance  the  Delta  fishery  by  re- 
storing downstream  flows  in  Delta  channels. 

(2)  Provide  ^\■ater  quality  control  for  the  interior 
Delta  uses  by  releasing  ^\  ater  from  many  out- 
lets. 

(3)  Correct  a  deteriorating  environmental  condition 
by  isolating  project  pumps  from  the  Delta  chan- 
nels. 

(4)  Improve  Delta  recreation  by  providing  new  fa- 
cilities along  the  Canal  and  by  improving  Delta 
access. 

(5)  Ensure  the  qualit\  of  tlic  water  suppl\'  needed 
by  agriculture,  industry,  and  millions  of  Caii- 
fornians  w  est  and  south  of  the  Delta  served  by 
the  State  and  federal  projects. 

It  is  worth  noting  that  two  of  the  standards  of  De- 
cision 1379  cannot  be  met  without  the  Peripiieral 
Canal  or  some  other  cross-Delta  transfer  facilitw  These 


are  the  requirement  for  positive  downstream  flow  in 
all  principal  Delta  channels  for  fishery  purposes,  and 
the  requirement  for  a  predominance  of  San  Joaquin 
River  water  in  the  southern  and  eastern  Delta  in  fall 
months. 

.'Klthough  the  Peripheral  Canal  was  planned  as  a 
joint  federal-state  undertaking,  federal  authorization  to 
participate  in  its  construction  has  not  yet  been  ob- 
tained. With  projected  export,  the  canal  is  needed  by 
1980  to  protect  the  water  quality  of  the  State  Water 
Project,  Central  \'alley  Project,  and  the  southwestern 
Delta  in  dry  and  critical  years.  In  the  event  that  there 
is  not  formal  federal  participation  by  congressional 
authorization  or  other  means  in  time  to  meet  a  1980 
operational  date,  the  Department  w  ould  have  to  pro- 
ceed alone  with  construction  of  a  water  conveyance 
facilit\'  if  it  is  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  SWP.  A  pro- 
gram of  staged  construction  b\'  the  State  that  would 
meet  the  needs  of  both  state  and  federal  projects  is  a 
feasible  course  of  action. 

Briefly,  the  first  stage  of  such  a  plan  w  ould  be  a  full- 
sized,  full-length  gravitN'  flow  canal  with  full-size  chan- 
nel release  facilities  which  would  satisf\'  the  interim 
needs  of  the  State  Water  Project  and  Central  \'alley 
Project  SNStems  and  of  the  Delta  until  about  1985. 
With  the  addition  of  a  pumping  plant  and  other  de- 
ferred features  in  1985,  the  capacity'  and  operating 
capability  of  the  first-stage  facility  would  be  ex- 
panded to  meet  the  increasing  needs  of  the  projects. 
Using  this  approach,  federal  financial  participation 
would  be  feasible  at  any  time. 

The  State  of  California  strongly  supports  federal 
authorization  of  the  Peripheral  Canal  and  financial  par- 
ticipation in  the  construction  of  the  canal.  However, 
regardless  of  w  hether  or  not  such  financial  participa- 
tion is  effective  during  the  construction  period  of  the 
canal,  the  Department  of  Water  Resources  will  pro- 
ceed with  construction  of  Stages  1  and  2.  Should  con- 
gressional authorization  be  delayed,  the  Department 
expects  that  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Reclamation  would 
pay  an  interim  "wheeling  charge"  or  other  form  of 
temporary  compensation,  for  the  convc\ance  of  fed- 
eral Central  \'alley  Project  water  through  the  canal. 


Water  Demar^ds  on  the  Central  Valley  Project 

The  estimated  1972-level  water  demands  and  pro- 
jected further  water  demands  in  the  Central  \'aile\ 
Project  service  areas  which  are  capable  of  being  served 
1)\'  the  project  works,  either  existing  or  under  con- 
struction and  within  commitments  to  the  scrxicc  areas, 
are  summarized  in  Table  29.  Inherent  in  the  tabic  is 
the  assumption  tliat  Folsom  Soutli  Canal  w  ill  be  com- 
pleted iiiti)  San  Joaquin  County  and  tiiat  New  Mcloncs 
Reservoir  w  ill  serve  areas  of  need  in  the  San  Joaijuin 
Ihdroloijic  Stud\'  .Area. 


152 


Table  29.     Net  Water  Demands  on  the  Central  Volley  Project ' 
(1,000  ocrefeet) 


1972 

1990 

2020 

Alternative  future 

Alternative  future 

Hydrologic  study  area 

I 

11 

III 

IV 

I 

11 

III 

IV 

San  Francisco  Bay 

Sacramento  Basin 

Delta-Central  Siena 

San  Joaquin  Basin 

Tulare  Basin 

60 
2,090 

90 
1,620 
2,180 
6,040 

100 
3,050 

840 
1,940 
2,840 
8,770 

90 
2,900 
730 
1,940 
2,850 
8,510 

90 
2,720 
570 
1.940 
2,820 
8,140 

80 
2,660 
520 
1.930 
2.810 
8,000 

270 
3,490 

900 
1.940 
3,040 
9,640 

210 
3,270 

910 
1,940 
3,040 
9,370 

180 
2,930 

910 
1,940 
3,040 
9,000 

110 
2,810 

800 
1,940 
3,020 

Total 

8,680 

'  Up  to  authorized  commitments  upon  facilities  existing  or  under  construction. 


Table  30  summarizes  the  additional  water  supply 
demands  in  the  Central  \'alley  Project  service  areas 
that  would  occur  under  each  alternative  future.  In  ef- 
fect these  additional  demands  represent  that  portion  of 
the  supplemental   water  demand   that  lies  within  or 


adjacent  to  the  Central  \'allcy  Project  service  areas 
but  exceeds  the  current  service  area  commitments.  Fig- 
ure 30  graphically  depicts  the  water  supply  and  de- 
mand picture  of  the  Central  \\illey  Project. 


Possible  Additional  Demands  on  the  Central  Volley  Project " 
(1,000  acre-feet) 


( 

Hydrologic  study  area 

1990 

2020 

Alternative  future 

Alternative  future 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

San  Francisco  Bay 

50 
80 
400 
150 
670 
1,550 
2.900 

50 
80 
310 
110 
500 
1,290 
2.340 

40 
80 
230 
100 
280 
980 
1,710 

20 

80 
190 

80     ' 
120 
910 
1,400 

190 
110 

770 

760 

1,360 

2,690 

5,880 

180 
110 
580 
540 
800 
2.110 
4,320 

160 
110 
430 
380 
450 
1,410 
2,940 

70 
110 

280 

220 

170 

1,130 

Total 

1,980 

nitments  upon  facilities  existing  or  under  construction. 


New  facilities  which  could  provide  additional  water 
supplies  to  the  Central  Valley  Project  service  areas  to 


meet  the  additional  requirements  shown  in  Table  30 
are: 


1.  San  Felipe  Division* 

2.  Marysvillc  Reservoir* 

3.  West  Sacramento  Canalf-. 

4.  Mid-Valley  Canalf 

5.  Kast  Side  Divisiont 

6.  Allen  Campt 

7.  Cosumncs  River  Divisionf 


SF  and  CC 

SF,  CC.  SB.  DC.  SJ  and  TI 

SB.  DC  and  SF 

SJ  and  TB 

SJ  and  TB 

SB 

DC 


153 


10 


PROJECTED  SUPPLIES 


PROJECTED  DEMANDS 
On  Facilities  Existing  or  Under 
Construction     for    Alternative 
Futures 


LU  5 


< 


CENTRAL  VALLEY  PROJECT 


1972 


1990 


2020 


YEAR 


Figure   30.      Projected    Net   Wofer    Demonds   and    Dependable   Water    Supply — Centrol    Valley  Project 


154 


Water  Demands  on  ihe  Siafe  Water  Project 

Despite  the  slow-down  in  population  grow  tii  and 
urban  water  use,  demands  for  State  Water  Project 
service  are  building  up  at  a  fairly  rapid  pace  now  that 
the  basic  aqueduct  system  is  complete.  Additional  im- 
petus to  this  build-up  results  from  the  fact  that  Colo- 
rado River  supplies  to  the  South  Coastal  area  will  be 
reduced  when  the  Central  Arizona  Project  begins  to 
use  some  of  Arizona's  entitlement  to  Colorado  River 
water.  Another  factor  tending  to  increase  State  Water 
Project  demands  in  Southern  California  is  the  better 
qualit\'  of  the  Northern  California  water  compared 
with  the  Colorado  River  w  ater  w  hich  has  a  relatively 
high  content  of  dissolved  salts. 

State  Water  Project  demands  in  this  report  are  based 
on  assumed  completion  of  the  North  Ba\'  Aqueduct 
and  Coastal  Branch,  as  w  ell  as  the  necessary  final  pump 
units  at  the  Delta  and  Edmonston  Pumping  Plants. 
Projected  demands,  including  recreation  water  and 
conveyance  losses,  are  as  shown  in  Table  31. 

There  is  potential  demand  for  additional  State 
Water  Project  service  either  to  areas  now  served  by 


the  project  or  to  areas  immediately  adjacent  to  pres- 
ent service  areas.  Satisfaction  of  these  demands  would 
require  additions  to  the  present  or  authorized  State 
Water  Project.  In  developing  the  estimates  of  possible 
future  demand  shown  in  Table  32,  a  limit  of  880,000 
acre-feet  in  additional  service  to  Southern  California 
was  set.  This  is  the  estimated  additional  capacity  in 
the  tunnels  through  the  Tehachapi  Mountains.  How- 
ever, enlargement  of  the  Edmonston  Pumping  Plant 
and  many  sections  of  the  California  Aqueduct  north 
of  the  Tehachapi  would  be  required  to  convey  that 
much  additional  water.  Supplemental  conservation  fa- 
cilities would  also  be  required  to  increase  the  water 
supplies  of  the  project. 

Comparison  of  Supply  and  Demand 

Figure  3 1  shows  a  comparison  of  the  State  Water 
Project  system  supply  and  net  demands  for  each  of 
the  four  alternative  projections.  The  demand  lines  for 
the  first  two  alternative  futures  terminate  when  they 
reach  the  amount  under  contract.  The  supply  line  is 
the  estimated  capabilit\-  of  existing  State  Water  Proj- 
ect conservation  facilities. 


31.      Net  Water  Demonds  on  the  State  Water  Project  Under  Present  Contracts 
(1,000  acre-feet) 


1972 

1990 

2020 

Alternat 

ve  future 

Alternative  future 

Maximum' 

Hydrologic  study  are.i 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

entitlement 

San  Francisco  Bay 

130 

0 

100 

0 

10 

790 

0 

0 

1.030 

200 

90 

1,690 

40 

10 

1,410 

160 

80 

3.680 

200 

90 

1.620 

40 

10 

1.410 

150 

80 

3,600 

200 

90 

1,560 

40 

10 

1,410 

150 

80 

3,540 

200 

90 

1,310 

40 

10 

1,410 

130 

80 

3,270 

260 

90 

2.340 

40 

10 

1,410 

220 

90 

4,460 

260 

90 

2,340 

40 

10 

1,410 

220 

90 

4,460 

260 

90 

2,340 

40 

10 

1,410 

200 

90 

4,440 

240 

90 

1,370 

40 

10 

1,410 

110 

90 

3,360 

260 
90 

2.340 

Sacramento  Basin 

40 

10 

1.410 

220 

90 

Total.. 

4,460 

Possible  Demand: 
Addition  to  Pi 

(1,000  acre-feet) 


I  the  State  Water  Project  i 
nt  Contracts 


1990 

2020 

Alternative  future 

Alternative  future 

Hydrologic  study  area 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

San  Francisco  Bay 

Central  Coastal 

South  Coastal 

10 
40 
0 
0 
370 
0 
70 
490 

10 
20 
0 
0 
210 
0 
10 
250 

10 

10 
0 
0 

60 
0 
0 

80 

0 
10 
0 
0 
10 
0 
0 
20 

120 
100 
610 
40 
800 
80 
190 
1,940 

80 
90 

300 
30 

500 

50 

70 

1,120 

60 
70 
60 
0 

240 
20 
70 

520 

20 
40 
0 

San  Joaquin  Basin 

Tulare  Basin 

0 
80 

South  Lahontan 

Colorado  Desert 

Total.. 

0 
20 
160 

155 


< 


SUPPLIES  FROM  EXISTING  FACILITIES 


PROJECTED  DEMANDS 
Under  Existing  Contracts  for 
Alternative  Futures 


0 
1972 


STATE  WATER  PROJECT 


1990 


YEAR 


2020 


Figure  31.      Projected    Net   Water   Demands    and    Dependable    Woter    Supply — State    Water    Project 


156 


Summary  of  Regional  Wafer  Supply  and  Demand 

Throughout  the  text  of  this  bulletin,  "The  Cali- 
fornia Water  Plan — Outlook  in  1974",  most  of  the 
presentation  has  been  given  from  the  statewide  view- 
point. Data  on  projected  future  growth,  water  de- 
mands, and  water  supply  has  been  summarized  in 
tabular  form  to  show  statewide  total  quantities  and 
their  distribution. 

The  statewide  picture  is  important  for  an  overall  as- 
sessment and  serves  to  set  the  stage  for  identifying 
possible  future  problem  areas  and  planning  future  ac- 
tions. However,  it  does  not  always  reflect  the  local 
situation  and  problems.  Most  of  the  input  data  de- 
veloped during  the  course  of  study  leading  to  this 
publication  was  first  assembled  by  "planning  subareas" 
or  subdivisions  of  the  hydrologic  study  areas.  These 
planning  subareas  are  delinated  and  named  on  the  fol- 


lowing figures.  While  the  scope  of  this  bulletin  does 
not  permit  publication  of  all  the  data  for  each  plan- 
ning subarea,  the  information  is  available  in  backup 
computations. 

For  convenience  in  assessing  the  water  supply  and 
demand  outlook  for  each  hydrologic  study  area,  data 
are  summarized  for  each  area  on  Figures  32  through 
53.  The  concurrent  projection  of  both  a  reserve  water 
supply  and  a  supplemental  demand  for  water  is  an 
indication  that  surplus  water  supply  is  available  to 
some  planning  subareas  of  a  hydrologic  study  area 
while  at  the  same  time  there  is  a  deficiency  of  supply 
in  others.  The  usable  water  supplies  shown  on  the 
figures  are  based  on  the  expectation  that  facilities 
under  construction  and  others  needed  to  meet  con- 
tractual commitments  will  be  completed  and  provide 
water. 


157 


12 

12 

IHHIJ^^^H 

■ 

■ 

I 

"^ 

1 

■ 

^ 

ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  1 

- 

- 

ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  II 

■ 

10 

- 

^ 

10 

- 

1 

1- 

Ui 

1 

lu     8 

- 

- 

£    8 

- 

- 

J 

UL 

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1972 

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1990 

2020 

U  "- 
1972 

19 

1990 

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12 

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- 

ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  III 

- 

- 

ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  IV 

- 

H 

10 

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^ 

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NET  WATER  DEMAND  —^ 

J 

1 

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USABLE  WATER  SUPPLY ^ 

1 

1972 

1990 

2020 

1972 

1990 

2020   1 

Figure  32.      Net  Woter  Demonds  ond  Water  Supply — North   Coastal    Hydrologic   Study   Area 


158 


PRESENT  WATER  SUPPLIES 

(1,000  AF/Yr.) 


LOCAL  SURFACE  WATER  DEVELOPMENT 
IMPORTS  BY  LOCAL  WATER  AGENCIES 
GROUND  WATER  SAFE  YIELD 
OTHER  FEDERAL  WATER  DEVELOPMENT 
RESERVE  SUPPLY 


140 
430 
-20 


USABLE  WATER  SUPPLY 
GROUND  WATER  OVERDRAFT 
TOTAL 


North  Fork  Ditch 
2,000  AFAR 


Trinity  River  Division  -  CVP 
900,000  AFAR 


Potter  Valley  Diversion 
170,000  AFAR 


ITEM 

(Quantities   in   1,000s) 


ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE 


nr 


12 


2020        1990 


POPULATION 
URBAN  AREA  (ACRES) 
M  &I  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 
J^IGATED  LAND  (ACRES) 
REMAINING  IRRIGABLE  LAND  (ACRES) 
IRRIGATION  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 
POWER  PLANT  COOLING  (AFAR) 
FISH,  WILDLIFE  &  RECREATION  (AFAR) 
loTAL  APPLIED  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 
TOTAL  NET  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 
DEPENDABLE  WATER  SUPPLY  (AFAR) 
SUPPLEMENTAL  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 


IDE 
[  SU 


180 
50 
93 

240 


580 

710 

0 

323 

1,120 

940 

960 

2 


250 
60 
104 
240 


570 

720 

0 

359 

1,180 

990 

980 

20 


390 
80 
126 

260 


540 

740 

0 

362 

1,230 

1,040 

1,010 

30 


240 
60 
102 
240 


350 

80 

120 

260 


230 
60 
101 
240 


1,180  1.220 

990  1,030 

980  1,010 

20  30 


310 
70 
114 
250 


570 

540 

570 

560 

720 

740 

710 

730 

0 

0 

0 

0 

359 

362 

359 

362 

1,170  1.210 

980  1,010 

980  1,010 

20  20 


210 
50 
97 

240 


580 

710 

0 

359 


230 
60 
100 
250 
560~ 
730 
0 
362 


1.170  1.190 

980  1,000 

980  1,010 

20  20 


Figure   33.      North  Coastal  Hydrologic  Study  Area 


159 


12 


10 


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-      ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  I       - 


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1972 


1990 


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1972 


1990 


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10   - 


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T 


ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE 


1972 


1990 


2020 


12 


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10   - 


Ul 

Ul    8 


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u.    6 

o 


SUPPLEMENTAL  DEMAND 
RESERVE  SUPPLY 


/VET  WATER  DEMAND 


USABLE  WATER  SUPPLY- 
I 


1972 


1990 


2020 


Figure   34.      Net  Water   Demands  and   Water  Supply — San    Francisco    Bay    Hydrologic   Study    Aree 


160 


Potter  Valley  Diversion 
170,000  AF/YR 


Putah  South  Canal 
52,000  AF/YR 


PRESENT  WATER  SUPPLIES 

(1,000  AF/Yr.) 

LOCAL  SURFACE  WATER  DEVELOPMENT 
IMPORTS  8Y  LOCAL  WATER  AGENCIES 
GROUND  WATER  SAFE  YIELD 
CENTRAL  VALLEY  PROJECT 
OTHER  FEDERAL  WATER  DEVELOPMENT 
STATE  WATER  PROJECT 
WASTE  WATER  RECLAMATION 
RESERVE  SUPPLY 

USABLE  WATER  SUPPLY 
GROUND  WATER  OVERDRAFT 


170 

700 

330 

80 

100 

130 

8 

-260 

t.260 


Cache  Slough  Conduit 
15,000  AF/YR 


Mokelumne  Aqueduct 
230,000  AFAR 

Contra  Costa  Canal 
64,000  AFAR 

South  Bay  Aqueduct 
120,000  AFAR 

Hetch  Hetchy  Aqueduct 
240,000  AFAR 


MILES 
30  60 


90 


ITEM 

(Quantities    in    1,000s) 


1972 


ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE 


m. 


W 


im- 


2020        1990 


2020 


1990 


2020 


1990 


2020 


POPULATION 

URBAN  AREA  (ACRES) 

M  &  I  WATER  DEMAND  (AF/YR) 

JRRIGATED  LAND  (ACRES) 
REMAINING  IRRIGABLE  LAND  (ACRES) 
IRRIGATION  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 
POWER  PLANT  COOLING  (AF/YR) 

..RSH.  WILDLIFE  &  RECREATION  (AFAR) 
TOTAL  APPLIED  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 
TOTAL  NET  WATER  DEMAND  (AF/YR) 
DEPENDABLE  WATER  SUPPLY  (AFAR) 
SUPPLEMENTAL  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 


4,630 

485 

990 

110 

590 

250 

5 

24 

1,250 

1,270 

1,520 

9 


5,940 

600 

1,480 

130 

490 

290 

10 

37 

1,810 

1,820 

1,860 

80 


8,670 

810 

2,240 

150 

330 

330 

0 

46 

2,620 

2,630 

2,030 

600 


5,800 

580 

1,460 

120 

510 

280 

10 

37 

1,770 

1,780 

1,860 

70 


7,920 

750 

2,070 

140 

380 

320 

0 

46 

2,440 

2,450 

2,030 

480 


5,680  7,350 

570  690 

1,430  1,940 

120  140 


520 

290 

10 

37 


420 

310 

0 

46 


1,750  2,300 

1,760  2,310 

1,860  2.030 

70  370 


5,270 

530 

1.340 

120 

550 

280 

10 

37 

1.660 

1,660 

1,860 

30 


5,700 
540 

1,570 

120, 

540 

280 

0 

1,890 

1,900 

2,030 

120 


Figure   35.      San  Francisco  Bay  Hydrologic  Study  Area 


161 


12 

I 

12 

1 

- 

ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  1 

- 

ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  II 

10 

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10 

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1 

1  o 

1990 

2020 

1972 

TO     . 

1990 

2020 

IZ 

I 

Lc 

1 

- 

ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  III 

- 

ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  IV 

10 

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1972 

1990 

2020 

1972 

1990 

2020  M 

Figure   36.      Net  Water  Demands  and   Water  Supply — Centrol   Coastal   Hydrologic   Study  Area 


162 


PRESENT  WATER  SUPPLIES 

{1,000  AF/Yr.) 


LOCAL  SURFACE  WATER  DEVELOPMENT 
GROUND  WATER  SAFE  YIELD 
OTHER  FEDERAL  WATER  DEVELOPMENT 
WASTE  WATER  RECLAMATION 
RESERVE  SUPPLY 

USABLE  WATER  SUPPLY 
GROUND  WATER  OVERDRAFT 


810 
t40 


ITEM 

(Quantities    in    1,000s) 


1972 


ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE 


nr 


rz 


1990 


2020 


1990 


2020 


1990 


2020        1990 


2020 


POPULATION 

URBAN  AREA  (ACRES) 

M  &  I  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

IRRIGATED  LAND  (ACRES) 

REMAINING  IRRIGABLE  LAND  (ACRES) 

IRRIGATION  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

POWER  PLANT  COOLING  (AFAR) 

FISH,  WILDLIFE  8>  RECREATION  (AFAR) 

TOTAL  APPLIED  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

TOTAL  NET  WATER  DEMAND(AFAR) 

DEPENDABLE  WATER  SUPPLY(AFAR) 

SUPPLEMENTAL  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 


840 

140 

181 

420 

1,070 

1,030 

0 

2 

1,210- 

950 

830 

140 


1,370 
200 
308 
500 
960 

1,240 
0 
3 

1,550 

1,240 
950 
290 


2,430 
300 
569 
530 
880 

1,310 

0 

6 

1,890 

1,560 
950 
610 


1,340 
200 
300 
480 


980 

1,200 

0 

3^ 

1,500 

1,200 

950 

250 


2,200 
290 
516 
520 


1,290  2,030 

200  270 

289  473 

480  520 


980 

1,190 

0 

3 


900 

1,240 

0 

6 


890 

1,270 

0 

6^_^ 

1,790      '  1,480  1,720 

1,480        1,180  1,410 

950  950  950 

530  230  460 


1,130 
170 
252 
480 


1,370 
190 
318 
510 


990  950 

1,200  1,220 

0  0 

3  6 


1,460  1,540 

1,150  1,250 

950  950 

200  300 


Figure   37.      Central  Coastal  Hydrologic  Study  Area 


163 


r 

i 

■ 

jjijHmm^ 

■ 

■ 

ph 

■ 

H 

ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  1 

■ 

f 

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1 

2 

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1 

2 

Q 

1 

1 

1972 
1  '5 

1990 

2020 

1972                  1990 

2020 

IZ 

1 

Ic 

I 

- 

ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  III 

-      ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  IV 

10 

- 

10 

,      SUPPLEMENTAL  DEMAND 

»- 

UJ 
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R^      RESERVE  SUPPLY 

i 

1 

2 

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2 

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0 

1 

0 
19 

1 

72 

1990 

20 

20 

72                 1990 

20 

20 

Figure   38.      Net   Water   Demands   and   Water   Supply — South   Coastal    Hydrologic    Study   Area 


164 


LOCAL  SURFACE  WATER  DEVELOPMENT 

IMPORTS  BY  LOCAL  WATER  AGENCIES 

GROUND  WATER  SAFE  YIELD 

OTHER  FEDERAL  WATER  DEVELOPMENT 

STATE  WATER  PROJECT 

WASTE  WATER  RECLAMATION 

RESERVE  SUPPLY 

USABLE  WATER  SUPPLY 
GROUND  WATER  OVERDRAFT 


PRESENT  WATER  SUPPLIES 

(1,000  AF/Yr.) 


1,720 

930 


2,9  20 
160 


California  Aqueduct  (East  Branch) 
21,000  AF/YR 


Colorado  River  Aqueduct 
1,205,000  AF/YR 


(Qu 


ITEM 

lies    in    1,000s) 


1972 


ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE 


m 


TZ 


Tw«r 


2020 


1990 


2020 


1990 


2020 


1990 


2020 


POPULATION 
URBAN  AREA  (ACRES) 
M&l  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 
jWIGATED  LAND  (ACRES) 
REMAINING  IRRIGABLE  LAND^(ACRES) 
IRRIGATION  WATER  DEMAND  (AF/YR) 
POWER  PLANT  COOLING  (AFAR) 
RSH,  WILDLIFE  &  RECREATION  (AFAR) 
TOTAL  APPLIED  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 
TOTAL  NET  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 
DEPENDABLE  WATER  SUPPLY  (AFAR) 
SUPPLEMENTAL  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 


11,240 

1,340 

2,370 

390 

1,000 

920 

18 

6 

3,320 

3,030 

3,010 

160 


1 4,620 

1.570 

3,130 

290 

870 

730 

30 

\9 

3,900 

3,770 

4,420 

0 


22,510 

1,870 

4,830 

220 

640 

530 

80 

23 

5,470 

5,200 

4,420 

780 


14,260 

1,550 

3,050 

290 

890 

720 

30 

19 

3,820 

3,700 

4,420 

i  0 


20,300 

1,820 

4,360 

220 

680 

510 

40 

23 

4,940 

4,720 

4,420 

300 


13,930 

1,530 

2,980 

290 

910 

720 

30 

19 

3,750 

3,640 

4,420 

0 


19,140 

1,780  I 

4,120 

220 

730 

520 

0 

23 

4,660 

4,480 

4,420 

60 


12,510 

1,480 

2,670 

300 

950 

750 

30 

19 

3,470 

3,390 

4,420 

0 


13,790 

1,520 

2,980 

220_ 

940 

520 

0 

23 

3,520 

3,460 

4,420 

0 


Figure   39.      South  Coastal  Hydroiogic  Study  Area 


165 


12 


1 

-       ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  I       - 


10  - 


lu     8 
u. 

lU 

u 
1     0 

O 
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1972  1990 


2020 


12 


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-       ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE 


10   - 


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U 

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O 

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2 


1972 


/VET  WATER  DEMAND- 


>X  USABLE  WATER  SUPPLY 


1990 


2020 


12 


10   - 


8   - 


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oe 
u 

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UL 

O 


6  - 


T 


ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  III     - 


1972 


1990 


2020 


12 


10   -    r.- 


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ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  IV 

SUPPLEMENTAL  DEMAND 
r\^RESERVE  SUPPLY 


:972 


^^ 


1990 


2020 


i 


Figure   40.      Net   Water   Demands    and    Water    Supply — Sacramento    Basin    Hydrologic    Study    Area 


166 


PRESENT  WATER  SUPPLIES 

(1,000     AF/Yr.) 


LOCAL  SURFACE  WATER  DEVELOPMENT 
IMPORTS  BY  LOCAL  WATER  AGENCIES 
GROUND  WATER  SAFE  YIELD 
CENTRAL  VALLEY   PROJECT 
OTHER   FEDERAL  WATER  DEVELOPMENT 
STATE  WATER  PROJECT 
WASTE  WATER  RECLAMATION 
RESERVE  SUPPLY 

USABLE  WATER  SUPPLY 
GROUND  WATER  OVERDRAFT 

TOTAL 


Moon  Lake  Diversion 
11,000    AF/YR. 


1.190 

2.700 

200 


Little  Truckee  River  Diversion 
7,000    AF/YR. 

Echo  Lake  Diversion 
2,000  AF/YR. 


Camino  Conduit 
20,000  AF/YR. 


Folsom  Lake  Diversion 
1,000  AFAR. 


ITEM 

1972 

ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE 

I 

n 

m 

K              1 

(Quantities    in    1,000s) 

1990 

2020 

1990 

2020 

1990 

2020 

1990 

2020 

POPULATION 

1.210 

1.700 

2.600 

1.670 

2.400 

1.630 

2.230 

1.470 

1.620 

URBAN  AREA  (ACRES) 

215 

260 

350 

250 

330 

250 

300 

230 

230 

M  &   1  WATER  DEMAND  (AF/YR) 

470 

700 

1.040 

687 

968 

674 

908 

621 

702 

IRRIGATED  LAND  (ACRES) 

1.520 

1,950 

2.250 

1.850 

2.060 

1.740 

1.890 

1.680 

1,760 

REMAINING  IRRIGABLE  LAND  (ACRES) 

2.730 

2,250 

1.870 

2.360 

2.080 

2.470 

2.280 

2.550 

2.470 

IRRIGATION  WATER  DEMAND  (AF/YR) 

6,020 

7.940 

9,080 

7,540 

8.350 

7.050 

7.540 

6.960 

7.410 

POWER  PLANT  COOLING  (AF/YR) 

0 

50 

140 

0 

60 

0 

50 

0 

0 

FISH,  WILDLIFE  &  RECREATION  (AF/YR) 

125 

170 

174 

170 

174 

170 

174 

170 

174 

TOTAL  APPLIED  WATER  DEMAND  (AF/YR) 

6.610 

8,860 

10,400 

8,400 

9,550 

7,900 

8.670 

7,750 

8.290 

TOTAL  NET  WATER  DEMAND  (AF/YR) 

5.780 

7.610 

9.030 

7.200 

8.240 

6.800 

7.630 

6.630 

7.080 

DEPENDABLE  WATER  SUPPLY  (AF/YR) 

6.590 

7.390 

7.820 

7.390 

7.820 

7.390 

7,820 

7.390 

7320 

SUPPLEMENTAL  WATER  DEMAND  (AF/YR) 

240 

500 

1.210 

360 

730 

290 

530 

210 

320 

Figure   41.      Sacramento  Basin  Hydrologic  Study  Area 


167 


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2020 

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2020 

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ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  IV 

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1972 

1990 

2020 

u 
1972 

1990 

2020 

Figure   42.      Net  Water   Demands   and   Water   Supply — Delta-Central    Sierra   H/drotogic   Study  Area 


168 


PRESENT  WATER  SUPPLIES 

(1,000  AF/Yr.) 


LOCAL  SURFACE    WATER  DEVELOPMENT 

GROUND  WATER  SAFE  YIELD 
CENTRAL  VALLEY   PROJECT 
OTHER  FEDERAL  WATER  DEVELOPMENT 
WASTE  WATER  RECLAMATION 

RESERVE  SUPPLY 

USABLE  WATER  SUPPLY 
GROUND  WATER  OVERDRAFT 


1,330 

630 

130 

110 

8 

-60 

2,150 

120 

Folsom  Lake  Diversion 
1,000  AF/YR 


109,000  AFAR 
Putah  South  Canal 
52,000  AFAR 


Mokelumne  Aqueduct 
230,000  AFAR 

Contra  Costa  Canal 
64,000  AFAR 


South  Bay  Aqueduct      California  Aqueduct 
120,000  AFAR  910,000  AFAR 


ITEM 

ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE 

(Quantities    in    1,000s) 

1972 

I 

II 

m 

IZ 

1990 

2020 

1990 

2020 

1990 

2020 

1990 

2020 

POPULATION 

470 

760 

1,730 

730 

1,550 

710 

1,420 

640 

930 

URBAN  AREA  (ACRES) 

75 

110 

230 

no 

210 

110 

190 

100 

120 

M  &I  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

173 

251 

537 

247 

490 

239 

451 

219 

323 

IRRIGATED  LAND  (ACRES) 

800 

990 

1,130 

930 

1,060 

880 

980 

850 

920 

REMAINING  IRRIGABLE  LAND  (ACRES) 

900 

670 

410 

1      730 

500 

780 

600 

820 

730 

IRRIGATION  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

2,470 

3,220 

3,700 

!  3,010 

3,540 

2,810 

3,250 

2,710 

3,020 

POWER  PLANT  COOLING  (AFAR) 

20 

100 

150 

75 

100 

50 

110 

40 

70 

,  FISH,  WILDLIFE  &  RECREATION  (AFAR) 

6 

7 

9 

7 

9 

7 

9 

7 

9 

TOTAL  APPLIED  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

2,670 

3,570 

4,400 

3,340 

4,140 

3,110 

3,820 

2,970 

3,420 

TOTAL  NET  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR)     -= 

2,270 

3,110 

3,860 

2,900 

3,630 

2,700 

3,360 

2,580 

3,010 

DEPENDABLE  WATER  SUPPLY  (AFAR) 

2,210 

2,910 

2,930 

2,910 

2,930 

2,910 

2,930 

2,910 

2,930 

SUPPLEMENTAL  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

120 

220 

930 

120 

710 

110 

550 

80 

280 

Figure  43.      Delta-Central  Sierra  Hydrologic  Study  Area 


169 


12 


10  - 


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ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE 


1972 


1990 


2020 


12 


10   - 


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U.      o 

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ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE 


/VET  WATER  DEMAND- 


USABLE  WATER  SUPPLY 


J     -' 


1972 


1990 


2020 


12 


10 


1 

-      ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  III     - 


z 
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J    4 


0 


1972 


1990 


2020 


12 


10 


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ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  IV 


SUPPLEMENTAL  DEMAND 


RESERVE  SUPPLY 


1972 


1990 


2020 


Figure  44.      Net  Water  Demands  and  Water  Supply — San  Joaquin  Hydrologic  Study  Area 


170 


^€^ 

1 

1 

PRESENT  WATER  SUPPLIES 

(1,000  AF/Yr.) 

LOCAL  SURFACE  WATER  DEVELOPMENT 
GROUND  WATER  SAFE  YIELD 
CENTRAL   VALLEY  PROJECT 
STATE  WATER  PROJECT 
WASTE  WATER  RECLAMATION 
RESERVE  SUPPLY 

2,230 

520 

1,720 

9 

26 

-no 

■11 

■ 

^1 

USABLE  WATER  SUPPLY 
GROUND  WATER  OVERDRAFT 

4,400 
250 

H           Delta  Mendota  Canal  i^^^ 
I^H     2,319,000  AFAR    ^^vX 

f 

Ir^ 

TOTAL 

4,650 

i 

L 

^ 

H            California  Aqueduct  p,,,,^         ^ 
B             910,000  AF/YR      "^-^^X      ^ 

r 

\                  °^ 

MILES 
30           60 

90 
1 

1                                                     ^ 

Hetch  Hetchy  Aqueduct  "-n^^ 

240,000  AF/YR                   ^^ 

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if 

^-^\     SIEHR< 

f         VALLEY  \ 
>\EAST    SIDE  V       / 

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^^   Friant  -  Kern  Canal 
1,193,000  AFAR 

\ 

5 

1 

California  Aqueduct  ^ 
^^^^^                       1,749,000  AFAR 

V 

*«^   Delta  Mendota  Canal 
Mendota   Pool 
142,000  AFAR 

J 

1 

1972 

ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE 

ITEM 

(Quantities    In    1,000s) 

I 

n                    m 

rc 

1«6 

20X 

1990            2020         1990 

2020 

1990 

2020 

POPULATION 

440 

650 

1,140 

640            1,010            620 

940 

560 

660 

URBAN  AREA  (ACRES) 

55 

80 

130 

80                120              80 

110 

70 

90 

M  &I  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

192 

295 

548 

287               485 

279 

451 

249 

307 

IRraCATED  LAND  (ACRES) 

1,350 

1,690 

1,920 

1,610           1,690 

1,530 

1,580 

1,480 

1,490 

REMAINING  IRRIGABLE  LAND  (ACRES) 

1,160 

790 

510 

870              750     :      950 

870 

1,010 

980 

IRRIGATION  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

5,450 

6,620 

7,320 

6,390           6,600         6,040 

6,180 

5,750 

5,750 

POWER  PLANT  COOLING  (AFAR) 

0 

0 

140 

0                 70     1           0 

0 

0 

0 

RSH,  WILDLIFE  &  RECREATION  (AFAR) 

91 

94 

95 

94                 95              94 

?:• 

94 

95 

TOTAL  APPLIED  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

5,730 

7,010 

8,100 

6,770            7,250         6,410 

6,730 

6,090 

6,150 

TOTAL  NET  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

4,650 

5,510 

6,280 

5,350            5,710         5,120 

5,320 

4,960 

5,030 

DEPENDABLE  WATER  SUPPLY  (AFAR) 
SUPPLEMENTAL  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR^ 

4,510 
250 

4,840 
670 

4,860 
1,420 

4,840           4,860         4,840 
510              850           280 

4,860 
460 

4,840 
130 

4,860 
170 

Figure   45.      San  Joaquin  Hydrologic  Study  Area 


171 


12 


ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  I 


-!     4   - 


2   - 


1972  1990 


12 


ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  II 


_       NET  WATER  DEMAND 


2   - 


2020 


1972  1990 


2020 


12 


ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  III 


10   - 


1972  1990 


2020 


12 


10   - 


2   - 


ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  IV 

SUPPLEMENTAL  DEMAND 
RESERVE  SUPPLY 


1972  1990 


2020 


Figure   46.      Net  Water  Demands  and  Water  Supply — Tulare  Basin  Hydrologic  Study  Area 


172 


POPULATION 

URBAN  AREA  (ACRES) 

M  &  I  WATER  DEMAND  (AF/YR) 

IRRIGATED  LAND  (ACRES) 

REMAINING  IRRIGABLE  LAND  (ACRES) 

IRRIGATION  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR 

POWER  PLANT  COOLING  (AFAR) 

FISH,  WILDLIFE  &  RECREATION  (AFAR) 

TOTAL  APPLIED  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

TOTAL  NET  WATER  DEMAND(AFAR) 

DEPENDABLE  WATER  SUPPLY(AFAR 

SUPPLEMENTAL  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 


Figure   47.      Tulare  Basin  Hydrologic  Study  Ar 


173 


12 


10 


1 

-       ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  I       - 


uj     8 


u 

o 


12 


10 


T 


-      ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  II 


S    8 


Of 

u 

< 

u-    6 
o 


o 

d    4 


1972 


1990 


2020 


1972 


1990 


2020 


12 


10 


T 


-      ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE 


o 

11     4 


12 


10 


lu    8 
u. 

u 

< 

u.    6 
o 

z 
o 


T 


-      ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  IV 


SUPPLEMENTAL  DEMAND 


1972 


1990 


2020 


1972 


-  NET  WATER  DEMAND 
USABLE  WATER  SUPPLY 


-T— 


IX. 


1990 


2020 


Figure   48.      Net    Water    Demands    and    Water    Supply — North    Lahonlan     Hydrologic    Study     Area 


174 


PRESENT  WATER  SUPPLIES 

(1,000  AF/Yr.) 


LOCAL  SURFACE  WATER  DEVELOPMENT 
IMPORTS  BY  LOCAL  WATER  AGENCIES 
GROUND  WATER  SAFE  YIELD 
WASTE  WATER  RECLAMATION 
RESERVE  SUPPLY 

USABLE  WATER  SUPPLY 
GROUND  WATER  OVERDRAFT 


(Qu 


ITEM 

Ttities   in   1,000s) 


1972 


ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE 


HL 


EC 


2020 


2020 


1990 


2020        1990 


POPULATION 

URBAN  AREA  (ACRES) 

M  &  I  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

IRRIGATED  LAND  (ACRES) 

REMAINING  IRRIGABLE  LAND  (ACRES) 

IRRIGATION  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

POWER  PLANT  COOLING  (AFAR) 

FISH,  WILDLIFE  &  RECREATION  (AFAR) 

TOTAL  APPLIED  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

TOTAL  NET  WATER  DEMAND(AFAR) 

DEPENDABLE  WATER  SUPPLY(AFAR) 

SUPPLEMENTAL  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 


40 
20 
23 
140 


70 
40 
40 
140 


70 
40 

40 
140 


470 

420 

0 

AL 

454 

430 

400 

40 


460 

430 

0 

479 

450 

440 

20 


460 

430 

0 

13 


507 

480 

460 

20 


460 

430 

0 

11 


100 

50 

59 

140 

460 

430 

0 

13 


479 
450 

440 
20 


498 

470 

460 

10 


70 
40 
39 
140 


90 
40 
54 
140 


60 
30 
32 
130 


460 

430 

0 

11 


460 

430 

0 

13 


470 

400 

0 

11 


478 

450 

440 

20 


493 

470 

460 

10 


441 

420 

440 

20 


60 
30 
35 
130 


470 
400 

0 

13 

444 

420 

460 

0 


Figure  49.      North  Lohontan  Hydrologic  Stud/  Area 


175 


■ 

■■■ 

I 

■ 

■1 

IZ 

1 

" 

5 

- 

ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  1 

— 

ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  II 

- 

1 

10 

- 

10 

— 

9 

K 

Ul 

gg^ 

ui     8 

IL. 

- 

UI      « 

II.    8 

- 

H 

lU 

lU 

9 

oe 

U 

"^H 

o 

< 

,^H 

;  6 

- 

u-    6 
o 

- 

'fl 

o 

</> 

-.JH 

tA 

^ 

z 

^ 

'-  ^^^1 

z 

o 

^^1 

o 

^-^^^1 

^     4 

_ 

5    4 

. 

mS 

J     ^ 

^^H 

^k1 

2 

<^S 

~ 

^ 

r^H 

1       2 

- 

2 

- 

- 

■ 

- 

— 1 ■"■■*' 

- 

^ 

1'^ 

1990 

2020 

1972 
1? 

1990 

2020    1 

12 

I 

Ic. 

1 

- 

ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  UI 

- 

ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  IV 

10 

- 

10 

- 

- 

H 

- 

i;--- 

h" 

UI 

>"      ft 
III     B 

u. 

^ 

lu    8 
II. 

IM 

■" 

SUPPLEMENTAL  DEMAND 

UJ 

^ 

ac 

BM 

oc 

U 

u 

< 

^     6 

_ 

u.    6 

^ 

II. 

o 

o 

' 

v» 

^ 

z 

— 

i^^^^H 

z 

o 

^^^^^1 

o 

^^^^H 

J    4 

- 

H 

iJ    4 

- 

_j 

S 

- 

s 

- 

/VET  WATER  DEMAND-^ 

1 

2 

- 

2 

7 

1 USABL  E  WA  TER  SUPPL  Y       \ 

i 

1 

A 

1                    ■ 

n 

;;*-» 

r 

fl 

1972 

1990 

2020 

u  — 
1972 

1990 

2020    1 

Figure   SO.      Net    Water    Demands    and    Water    Supply — South    Lahontan    Hydrologic    Study    Area 


176 


PRESENT  WATER  SUPPLIES 

(1,000  AF/Yr.) 

LOCAL  SURFACE  WATER  DEVELOPMENT 

30 

GROUND  WATER  SAFE  YIELD 

120 

State  water  project 

34 

WASTE  WATER  RECLAMATION 

7 

I       RESERVE  SUPPLY 

-30 

USABLE  WATER  SUPPLY 

160 

GROUND  WATER  OVERDRAFT 
TOTAL 

120 
280 

MILES 
30  60 


90 


California  Aqueduct 
(West  Branch) 
83,000  AF/YR 


Los  Angeles  Aqueduct 
510,000  AF/YR 


California  Aqueduct 

(Contractor  turnout) 

1,000  AF/YR 


Californio  Aqueduct  (East  Branch) 
21,000  AFAR 


ITEM 

(Quonrities    in    1,000s) 

ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE 

1972 

I 

a 

nr 

lY 

1990 

2020 

1990 

2020 

1990 

2020 

1990 

2020 

POPULATION 

240 

410 

1,040 

370 

870 

370 

820 

290 

380 

URBAN  AREA  (ACRES) 

65 

90 

170 

80 

150 

80 

150 

70 

80 

M  &I  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

89 

154 

387 

139 

326 

136 

306 

108 

143 

IRRIGATED  LAND  (ACRES) 

80 

80 

70 

80 

70 

80 

70 

80 

70 

REMAINING  IRRIGABLE  LAND  (ACRES) 

2,400 

2,380 

2,330 

2390 

2,340 

2,390 

2,340 

2,400 

2,400 

IRRIGATION  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

310 

300 

250 

300 

250 

300 

250 

300 

250 

POWER  PLANT  COOLING  (AFAR) 

0 

10 

100 

10 

50 

10 

0 

0 

0 

FISH,  WILDLIFE  &  RECREATION  (AFAR) 

4 

16 

22 

16 

22 

16 

22 

16 

22 

TOTAL  APPLIED  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

399 

478 

762 

463 

651 

460 

581 

422 

418 

TOTAL  NET  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

280 

330 

510 

330 

430 

320 

370 

300 

290 

DEPENDABLE  WATER  SUPPLY  (AFAR) 

190 

400 

410 

400 

410 

400 

410 

400 

410 

SUPPLEMENTAL  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

120 

3 

100 

3 

70 

3 

30 

3 

10 

Figure   51.      South  Lahontan  Hydrologic  Stud/  Area 


177 


12 


10 


lu     8 


u 
o 

«/> 

z 
o 

H    4 


T 


ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  I 


1972 


1990 


2020 


12 


10   - 


lU 

U 

< 

u-    6 
o 


ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  II 


_  /VET  WATER  DEMAND 


A 


USABLE  WATER  SUPPLY 


IZ 


1972  1990 


2020 


12 


-     ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE 


10  - 


X 

o 

J     4 


1972 


1990 


2020 


12 


T 


-      ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE  IV 


10  - 


I- 
ui 

ui    8 
u. 

lU 
Of 

U 

< 

u.    6 
o 


SUPPLEMENTAL  DEMAND 


1972 


1990 


2020 


Figure   52.      Nef    Water    Demands    and    Wafer    Supply — Colorado    Desert    Hydrologic    Study     Area 


178 


PRESENT  WATER  SUPPLIES 

(1,000  AF/Yr.) 

GROUND  WATER  SAFE  YIELD 

OTHER  FEDERAL  WATER  DEVELOPMENT 

STATE  WATER  PROJECT 

WASTE  WATER  RECLAMATION 

RESERVE  SUPPLY 

USABLE  WATER  SUPPLY 
GROUND  WATER  OVERDRAFT 

TOTAL 

74 

3.950 

14 

7 
-10 

4,030 
40 

4,070 

v 


^Hli^~"                 MILES 

■^      0             30            60           90 

mm 

ITEM 

(Quantities   in   1,000s) 

ALTERNATIVE  FUTURE                                      1 

1972 

I 

n 

m 

TSL 

1990 

2020 

1990 

2020 

1990 

2020 

1990 

2020 

POPULATION 

230 

350 

650 

330 

580 

330 

540 

300 

400 

URBAN  AREA  (ACRES) 

65 

80 

130 

80 

120 

80 

no 

70 

90 

M  &I  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

99 

148 

275 

142 

246 

139 

230 

126 

173 

IRRIGATED  LAND  (ACRES) 

630 

630 

650 

630 

630 

630 

630 

630 

630 

REMAINING  IRRIGABLE  LAND  (ACRES) 

800 

790 

640 

790 

660 

790 

770 

800 

780 

IRRIGATION  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

3,220 

3,320 

3,320 

3,320 

3,320 

3,320 

3,320 

3,320 

3,320 

POWER  PLANT  COOLING  (AFAR) 

0 

130 

250 

70 

130 

40 

130 

40 

80 

FISH,  WILDLIFE  &  RECREATION  (AFAR) 

20 

22 

26 

22 

26 

22 

26 

22 

26 

TOTAL  APPLIED  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

3,340 

3,620 

3,880 

3,560 

3,730 

3,530 

3,710 

3,510 

3,600 

TOTAL  NET  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

4,070 

4,240 

4,430 

4,180 

4,300 

4,150 

4,290 

4,140 

4,210 

DEPENDABLE  WATER  SUPPLY  (AFAR) 

4,040 

4,150 

4,160 

4,150 

4,160 

4.150 

4,160 

4,150 

4,160 

SUPPLEMENTAL  WATER  DEMAND  (AFAR) 

40 

90 

270 

30 

140 

20 

130 

10 

60 

Figure    53.      Colorado  Desert  Hydrologic  Study  Area 


179 


180 


APPENDIX 
WORKSHOPS  FOR  BULLETIN  NO.  160-74 


181 


APPENDIX 

WORKSHOPS   FOR   BULLETIN   NO.  160-74 


As  part  of  the  Department  of  Water  Resources'  co- 
ordinated statewide  planning  program,  a  series  of 
public  workshops  was  held  in  January  and  February 
of  1974.  The  purpose  was  to  give  various  interested 
groups  an  opportunity  to  express  themselves  on  Cali- 
fornia's future  and  the  related  water  issues  and  water 
management  concepts  that  might  be  highlighted  in  this 
bulletin. 

The  workshops  were  responsive  to  requests  of  sev- 
eral organizations  for  an  opportunity  to  participate  in 
planning  the  report.  They  were  held  on  Saturdays  in 
Sacramento,  Los  Angeles,  Oakland,  Fresno,  and  Red- 
ding. Seventy-six  persons  attended  the  five  sessions 
representing  more  than  50  different  organizations. 
Close  to  100  suggestions  were  received  for  considera- 
tion in  the  bulletin. 

The  workshops  were  conducted  in  an  informal 
manner  and  ever\one  attending  was  given  an  op- 
portunity to  speak.  Written  comments  were  also  re- 
ceived. All  comments  and  suggestions  were  reviewed 
by  those  writing  this  report,  and  to  the  extent  pos- 
sible, the  subject  matter  is  discussed  in  the  bulletin. 

Following  is  a  summary  of  the  suggestions  received 
at  the  workshop  sessions  and  from  written  communica- 
tions. The  suggestions  have  been  arranged  in  eleven 
categories.  Numbers  following  each  suggestion  are 
the  page(s)  in  the  report  on  which  there  is  some  dis- 
cussion that  relates  to  the  suggestion. 

Alternative  Futures  and  Water 
Development  Needs 

1.  Adopt  the  concept  of  "alternative  futures"  in 
making  projections.  (Page  45) 

2.  The  "most  likely"  population  projections  should 
not  be  the  only  criteria,  use  alternative  popula- 
tion projections  including  the  E-0  (no  growth) 
schedule.  (Page  46) 

3.  Carefully  review  and  analyze  carrying  capacity 
(at  county  level)  and  desires  for  population 
growth. 

4.  An  alternative  to  population  dispersal  should  be 
vertical  growth.  (Page  6?) 

5.  Agricultural  production  projections  should  be 
based  on  current  shortages  and  worldwide  factors 
of  supply  and  demand.  (Page  51) 

6.  Summarize  the  California  agricultural  profile 
study,  the  national  agricultural  market  study  and 
the  crop  market  outlook.  (Pages  49-55) 

7.  Take  a  close  look  at  the  agricultural  water  supply 
and  demand  situation  and  determine  what  effect 
alternative  actions  of  other  agencies  might  have. 
(Pages  146-49) 


8.  Direct  more  attention  to  irrigation  water  and  its 
use  and  our  need  to  place  more  land  under  irriga- 
tion. (Pages  69-72) 

9.  Consider  the  additional  water  supply  that  may  be 
needed  to  meet  demands  presented  by  SWRCB 
Decisions  1379,  1400,  1422,  and  1290.  (Page  150) 

10.  Take  a  careful  look  at  projected  water  needs  for 
the  State  Water  Project.  (Pages  155-156) 

11.  Emphasize  what  would  happen  if  no  water  supply 
imports  were  available  and  how  it  would  affect 
agricultural  productivity  and  the  Central  Valley 
economy.  (Page  42) 

12.  Water  shortages  should  be  emphasized  and  con- 
struction of  new  water  facilities  in  local  areas 
should  not  be  ignored,  particularly  in  some  of  the 
developing  counties  in  the  North.  (Page  151  and 
Table  27) 

13.  Discuss  the  growth  inducing  aspects  of  water  de- 
velopment. Do  water  projects  encourage  growth 
or  are  they  the  result  of  growth?  (Page  46) 

14.  Refer  back  to  previous  projections  and  determine 
the  impact  that  those  projections  had  on  current 
conditions. 

15.  Attention  should  be  given  to  offstream  storage  in 
the  southern  San  Joaquin  Valley.   (Pages  95-96) 

16.  The  Department  should  take  the  lead  in  floodplain 
management  planning.  (Pages  122-124) 


Alternative  Means  of  Water  Supply 
and  Water  Management 

17.  Include  a  discussion  of  the  problems,  or  lack  of 
problems,  associated  with  alternative  sources  of 
water  such  as  waste  water  reclamation,  increased 
efficiency,  and  desalination  so  that  decisions  as 
to  the  development  of  new  water  supplies  can  be 
made  intelligently.  (Pages  40-42,  104-110,  117) 

18.  Look  into  all  possibilities  for  reclaiming  and  re- 
using both  agricultural  waste  water  and  M&I  waste 
water.  The  Department  should  take  a  strong  po- 
sition on  waste  water  reclamation,  recognizing  also 
the  amounts  of  energy  required,  and  public  health's 
concern  with  heavy  metals  and  stable  organics 
Pages  42,  104-110) 

19.  Discuss  the  effect  of  various  water  conservation 
measures  such  as  canal  lining,  metering,  trickle  ir- 
rigation, and  use  of  native  plants  for  landscaping. 
(Pages  71,  118) 

20.  Discuss  the  possibilities  of  joint  operation  of  the 
CVP  and  SWP  and  how  the  efforts  of  federal 
agencies  and  the  State  are  being  coordinated. 
(Page  119) 


183 


21.  Examine  methods  of  increasing  overall  efficiency 
of  agricultural  \\  ater  use  including  \vorking  with 
farmers  for  ways  to  conserve  agricultural  water. 
(Pages  40,  71,  117-118) 

22.  Prepare  an  inventory  of  technological  changes  that 
are  expected  to  occur. 

23.  Consider  the  feasibility  of  desalting  units  taking 
into  account  their  requirement  for  energy.  (Pages 
110-113) 

24.  State  agencies  should  step  in  and  provide  assist- 
ance for  demineralization  to  help  solve  local  prob- 
lems. (Page  112) 

25.  Advance  techniques  of  water  management  for  ad- 
ditional water  suppl\'  development  should  be  en- 
couraged, improved,  and  developed.  (Pages  117- 
124) 

26.  The  report  should  take  a  positive  view  of  total 
comprehensive  \\  ater  management  and  include  an 
assessment  of  the  impact  of  total  water  manage- 
ment. (Page  117) 

27.  Consider  the  amount  of  water  to  be  saved  by  bet- 
ter watershed  management,  forest  practices,  im- 
proved ground  cover,  and  sno\\-zone  management. 

28.  Recognize  the  possibility  that  the  Central  Arizona 
Project  will  be  abandoned  and  that  the  water  used 
by  California  will  remain  available. 

29.  The  State  should  set  priorities  on  allocation  of  use 
of  water  and  there  should  be  payment  for  that 
allocation.  (Page  42) 

30.  Investigate  and  evaluate  claims  that  there  is  a  long- 
term  surplus  of  developed  water  in  California. 
(Pages  146-147) 

31.  Analyze  contracts  for  water  by  C\'P  to  determine 
if  the\'  need  to  be  fulfilled,  and  explain  differences 
between  contracts  and  projections.  (Pages  152- 
154) 

32.  The  bulletin  should  take  into  account  delayed  or 
blocked  water  projects  of  recent  years.  (Pages 
18,94) 

33.  Consider  alternative  management  plans  for  dams 
which  block  mainstem  streams  such  as  Trinity, 
Friant,  and  New  Don  Pedro.  (Page  38) 

34.  Consider  reducing  surface  \\ater  applications  in 
areas  having  drainage  problems. 

35.  Discuss  the  potential  water  management  plans  be- 
ing developed  for  north  coastal  water  resources. 
(Page  120) 

36.  No  proposal  should  be  made  to  divert  water  from 
the  Los  Angeles  Aqueduct  to  future  urban  areas 
in  the  South  Lahontan  area.  (Page  38) 

37.  In  studying  feasible  alternatives,  look  into  geother- 
mal  water  potential.  (Page  113) 

38.  Alternative  sources  of  water  should  be  considered 
that  reflect  need  to  conserve  energy. 

Ground  Water 

39.  More  attention  should  be  given  to  the  use  of  Sac- 


ramento  Valley  ground  water   resources.    (Page 

102) 

40.  There  should  be  some  attention  to  coordination  of 
ground  water  and  surface  water  bet^veen  the  Cen- 
tral \'alle\-  Project  and  the  State  Water  Project. 
(Page  119) 

41.  Information  is  needed  on  the  impact  of  using 
ground  \\  ater,  both  benefits  and  detriments,  and  on 
how  ground  water  use  integrates  with  surface  sup- 
ply. (Pages  119-120) 

42.  The  State  should  consider  management  of  ground 
water  pumping.  (Pages  36,  97) 

43.  Discuss  the  "borrow-replacement"  approach  to 
conjunctive  ground  water  use.  (Pages  96-97) 

44.  The  bulletin  should  provide  some  specific  data  on 
rising  ground  water  areas,  and  give  a  full  account- 
ing of  the  water  balance.  (Pages  97-99) 

45.  The  bulletin  should  highlight  the  overdraft  situa- 
tion in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley.  (Pages  2,  98) 

Power  Planis  and  Thermal  Energy 

46.  Projected  needs  for  electrical  energy  should  be 
reviewed.  (Page  59) 

47.  Plan  for  a  low  growth  increase  in  energy  needs. 
(Page  59) 

48.  The  use  of  energ\-  to  move  water  around  the 
.State  should  be  questioned.  (Page  58) 

49.  Quantify  new  demands  for  \\  ater  for  all  forms  of 
energy,  including  new  oil  refineries  and  oil  shale 
conversion. 

50.  Consider  the  power  plant  siting  problem  and  eval- 
uate the  impact  of  competition  for  water  if  power 
plants  are  located  inland.  (Pages  32,  60-61) 

51.  Recognize  that  additional  water  conservation  proj- 
ects w  ill  be  needed  to  meet  cooling  water  demands 
for  inland  power  plants.  (Pages  31,  60,  74) 

52.  Consider  the  feasibility  of  new  hydroelectric  proj- 
ects. (Page  86) 

53.  Pay  special  attention  to  potential  power  and  water 
available  from  geothermal  sources.  (Pages  87, 
113) 

54.  More  effort  should  be  spent  on  research  into  pos- 
sible use  of  heat  rejected  bv  thermal  power  plants. 
(Page  74) 

SWRCB  Activities  and  Water  Quality 

55.  Consider  water  quality  as  well  as  water  quantity. 
(Pages  35,  65,  82,  109,124-1 38) 

56.  Encourage  the  federal  agencies  to  recognize  re- 
quirements as  imposed  by  SWRCB  Decision  1379. 
(Pages  14,  150) 

57.  Discuss  who  will  pa\-  the  additional  cost  brought 
about  by  SWRCB  Decisions  1379  and  1400.  (Page 

58.  Explore  in  depth  the  possible  effect  on  water  sup- 
plies and  agricultural  production  brought  about 


184 


hv   tlic   proposed   guidelines   being   prepared    bv 
SWRCB. 

59.  Include  more  information  on  w  ater  quality,  show- 
ing coordination  of  acti\ities  between  DWR  stud- 
ies and  SWRCB  studies.  (Pages  20,  126) 

60.  Drainage  should  be  given  a  higher  priority  than  it 
has  in  the  past  since  the  State  is  the  only  agency 
that  can  take  the  leadership  in  providing  an  over- 
all solution  to  the  drainage  problems  in  the  San 
Joaquin  Valley.  (Pages  38, 108) 

Recreafion 

61.  Consider  recreation  as  an  integral  part  of  water 
development  including  consideration  of  single- 
purpose  reservoirs  for  recreation.  (Pages  61,  75) 

62.  Stress  the  recreational  use  and  benefits  of  San  Joa- 
quin east  side  reservoirs  and  the  downstream 
reaches  of  those  rivers.  (Pages  80-81) 

Pricing  Policies  and  Cosf  Sharing 

63.  Determine  the  demand  for  w  ater  if  agencies  priced 
water  to  reflect  the  actual  cost.  (Page  40) 

64.  Discuss  the  effect  of  eliminating  declining  block 
rate  water  pricing  structures  and  predict  water 
demand  on  this  basis.  (Page  40) 

65.  Take  a  more  realistic  approach  and  identify  all 
water  project  beneficiaries.   (Page  34) 

66.  Consider  pricing  policies  for  charging  for  all  water 
project  accomplishments.  (Page  34) 

Land  Use  Planning  and  Environmenfal  Impact 

67.  Land  use  planning  should  precede  water  use  plan- 
ning but  take  careful  cognizance  of  the  potential 
availability  or  nonavailability  of  water.  (Pages 
24-29) 

68.  The  bulletin  should  consider  the  interface  between 
water  resource  planning  and  land  use  planning 
since  the  two  types  of  planning  need  to  be  co- 
ordinated at  this  interface.  (Pages  24-29) 

69.  Indicate  the  trade-offs  required  under  various  pat- 
terns of  land  use. 

70.  Give  an  example  of  what  w  ould  happen  in  a  basin 
if  the  State  controlled  some  of  the  resources  and 
land  use. 

71.  Consider  planning  urban  areas  on  marginal  lands 
and  preserving  the  agricultural  land  from  urban 
encroachment.  (Page  27) 

72.  Show  the  effects  of  water  project  construction  on 
local  employment  and  economy. 

73.  Long-term  plans  should  include  not  only  water 
needs  but  the  impacts  upon  the  people  from  wh'^re 
the  water  is  taken  and  where  it  is  used.  (Page  42) 

74.  The  importance  of  water  to  a  community  should 
be  emphasized.  (Pages  40,  65,  80) 

75.  Incorporate  the  "Environmental  Goals  and  Poli- 
cies" in  the  report.  (Page  27) 


76.  Set  specific  goals  and  criteria  for  fish,  wildlife,  and 
recreation,  and  plan  toward  them.  (Pages  75-79) 

77.  Obtain  the  public  views  in  the  south  coastal  area 
toward  growtii,  bringing  in  more  water,  and  pol- 
lution. (Page  183) 

78.  Environmental  considerations  should  be  part  of 
long-range  plans  and  be  given  more  emphasis.  Wa- 
ter must  be  made  a\'ailable  for  recreation,  environ- 
mental use  and  to  improve  the  quality  of  life. 
(Pages  14-19,  80-81) 

79.  Water  resource  planning  should  provide  for  en- 
vironmental protection  and  economic-social  con- 
siderations, be  flexible  to  allow  for  de\elopment  of 
alternative  water  sources,  and  be  done  in  the  con- 
text of  overall  state  land  use  planning.  (Page  45) 

80.  Reappraise  the  wild  river  law  to  determine  if  it  is 
realistic  in  the  energy  shortage  era. 

81.  Take  into  account  the  wild  river  acts  and  do  not 
plan  w  ater  development  on  these  rivers  or  on  the 
Yuba,  Stanislaus,  and  Russian  Rivers.  (Pages  16, 
96,  121,  141) 

82.  The  Department  should  prepare  an  environmental 
impact  statement  as  part  of  this  bulletin. 

National  Wafer  Commission  Report 

83.  Summarize  the  ways  in  which  the  California 
Water  Plan  conform  with  the  National  Water 
Commission  recommendations.    (Pages  11-13) 

84.  Recognize  the  conclusions  of  the  NWC  report 
and  speak  to  their  recommendations  and  what 
would  happen  if  we  follow  them.  (Pages  11-13) 

85.  The  NWC  report  was  damaging  to  water  develop- 
ment and  we  should  look  at  our  water  problems 
from  the  western  viewpoint.  (Pages  11-13) 

Presentation  of  Data  and  Study  Results 

86.  Continue  factual  presentation  of  data  but  hold 
down  on  philosophy  and  rhetoric. 

87.  Emphasize  factual  matters  as  well  as  planning 
philosophy.  (Page  146) 

88.  Write  the  document  for  understanding  by  the  lay- 
man. The  report  should  have  broad  distribution 
and  be  advertised  to  let  its  availability  be  known. 
(See  Summary  Report) 

89.  Assumptions  used  in  the  report  should  be  discussed 
in  a  prominent  position.  (Pages  45-66,  88-90) 

90.  More  data  should  be  presented  by  counties  and 
by  watershed. 

91.  References  should  be  included  as  to  where  ad- 
ditional information  can  be  found.  (See  Foot- 
notes) 

92.  Do  not  discard  items  from  previous  bulletins  be- 
cause of  a  change  in  planning  emphasis. 

93.  The  State  should  provide  uniform  periodic  land 
use  maps,  particularly  in  developing  agricultural 
areas.  (Page  56  and  Plate  2) 


185 


94.  Explain  the  large  discrepancy  in  the  amount  of  ir-  Miscellaneous 

rigated  acreage  in  California  reported  by  D\VR  m/-        j  i      ui       •  ^  iLir 

and  that  of  the  Census  Bureau.  ^^-  Consideration  should  be  given  to  hnanc.al  help  for 

95.  The  "breathing  room"   has  increased  since  Bui-  ^^^  mountain  counties  in  solving  their  problem, 
letin   160-70  and  the  analysis  in   1960-74  should  98.  Discuss  the  effects  of  mixing  Northern  and  South- 
support  this.  (Page  155)                                                              crn  California  water  and  the  effect  of  northern 

96.  The  "breathing  spell"  philosophy  used  in  Bulletin  water  on  southern  ground  water  basins.    (Pages 
160-70  led  to  an  incorrect  conclusion  that  was  par-  ^'  9^) 

ticularly    damaging    in    the    San    Joaquin-Tulare  99.  Define  what  is  meant  bv  "water  demand".  (Pages 
Basin.  (Page  155)  67,  88) 


A86787— 950     9-74      3,500 

186 


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