Historic, Archive Document

Do not assume content reflects current
scientific knowledge, policies, or practices.

i

Library network

Bruce Yerke (1.) and Al Groncki (r.) helped to start the California Forest Research Information Network.

The people who put together CALFORNET
a library service especially designed for
California foresters — wanted it to be three
things at once.

They wanted it to provide a once-a-month
listing of good books and technical papers that
people working in the wildland sciences could ask
for, and could get with no hassle.

They wanted it to be an information switching
center, where someone could phone or write in
about a forestry problem and get a good answer.

Finally, they wanted it to be a place where
the forester who hears about a book or paper not
already included in CALFORNFT’s monthly listing
could apply for the item.

Now in its second year, CALFORNET — the
California Forest Research Information Net¬
work — has been all of these things. And, while it
does have its Haws, the system has generally been
working very well.

CALFORNET was created by a small group
of people who felt that too many useful research
Findings were spending too much time on library
bookshelves. The group — made up of people
from the Forest Service’s Regional Office in San
Francisco and from the Pacific Southwest Forest
and Range Experiment Station in Berkeley -
credits members Al Groncki and Bruce Yerke with
much of the work that went into starting up
CALFORNET.

aids California foresters

Yerke, who is in charge of the Station’s
Science Literature Services, started the library of
the California Maritime Academy and was a librar¬
ian at Southern Methodist University, the Asia
Foundation, and the California College of Arts and
Crafts before joining the Forest Service 14 years
ago. Forester A1 Groncki has been with the Forest
Service for 21 years. A former District Ranger,
Groncki is currently general forestry assistance of¬
ficer for the California Region’s Division of State
and Private Forestry.

Perhaps most challenging to the CALFOR-
NET staff at the Pacific Southwest Station are
reference questions. Here are some examples:

• A recreation and lands officer, interested
in campground reservation systems, wanted to
know what had been written about them. These
systems, which enable the would-be camper to
reserve his spot in the woods before he even steps
out his front door, were new at the time the
request came into Berkeley. The staff did a thor¬
ough literature search but was unable to discover
any helpful books or papers. They did, however,
put the recreation and lands officer in touch with a
systems designer who had worked on the com¬
puterized reservation system used by the California
Department of Parks and Recreation.

• A National Forest biologist told CALFOR-
NET she needed literature and photographs of the
Shasta salamander, a rare species endemic to north¬
ern California. The library sent her three mono¬
graphs, and told her that the author of one was
very interested in talking with her about her sala¬
mander studies. The library also arranged for
photographs to be taken of Shasta salamanders
preserved in the nearby Museum of Vertebrate
Zoology at the University of California.

• A National Forest hydrologist wanted to
know more about the environmental effects of
road oils. The CALFORNET group found one
entry in Pollution Abstracts, but was unable to
find anything else on the subject in other standard

references such as Biological Abstracts , and Gov¬
ernment Reports Announcements . So, they asked
at the library of the Institute of Transportation
and Traffic Engineering on the UC Berkeley
campus. From its collection, the Institute library
was able to loan reports to the hydrologist.

• A member of a National Forest planning
team wanted to look at impact statements for
winter sports developments. CALFORNET con¬
tacted the Environmental Protection Agency office
where impact statements are filed. This office ran a
computer check, and came up with seven titles
on the topic.

“When people ask us for a bibliography on
clearcutting, or on some other topic that has been
written up a lot, we can usually get the bibliog¬
raphy together fairly quickly,” says Vincent Aitro,
reference librarian at the PSW Station. “We have
standard indexes such as Forestry Abstracts and
the Bibliography of Agriculture right here in the
PSW library. We’re only a few blocks away from
the UC campus, and we have access to the subject
bibliographies there.”

“But, we usually need more time to answer a
request for information on new or specialized
topics. If we find that very little or nothing has
been written on a subject, we usually try to put the
person asking the question in touch with people
who are currently doing research on the topic.”

CALFORNET is based upon interlibrary
cooperation. Collections open to CALFORNET
use include those of the UC School of Forestry and
Conservation and of the University’s Forest Prod¬
ucts Laboratory. The 125 or so items on each
Monthly Alert are not only the acquisitions of the
PSW Station library, but are also new materials
available from these two campus libraries.

Also important to the success of CALFOR¬
NET are some 35 county and small town libraries
in northern California. As members of either the
Mountain Valley, North Bay, or North State Co¬
operative Library System, (cont’d on page 12)

3

The year 1973 might well be called “The Year
of the Tussock Moth.” By the end of the
summer, the fuzzy little caterpillars (larvae)
had chewed through some 690,000 acres of forest
in eastern Oregon and Washington and another
122,000 acres in Idaho and Montana. It is the
worst outbreak ever recorded in the Northwest.

But for Dr. Hank Thompson, concern about
the tussock moth began back in 1964, 4 years after
he joined the Forestry Sciences Laboratory in
Corvallis, Oregon, as a research entomologist with
the Forest Service. That was about the time people
were becoming concerned about the effects of
pesticides and other chemicals on the environment.
DDT was going out of favor, and foresters were
anxious to find some new control methods -
techniques that would be safer for use around Fish
and other wildlife. Natural biological controls
looked promising because most insects have dis¬
eases and are subject to attack by parasites and
predators. Thompson’s assignment was to set up a
new research project to explore the use of natural
biological controls to halt the spread of forest
insect outbreaks.

A

One of Thompson’s first concerns was to nar¬
row the problem. “Everyone tries to do too
much,” he says. “That just dilutes the effort and
you can’t solve any one problem.” Since the mid-
1960’s, almost all of his work has been on the
tussock moth and the viruses and other disease
agents which attack it. Most of the research has
been on study of a nucleopolyhedrosis virus which
helps control the tussock moth outbreaks in nature.

One of the difficulties with entomological
research is the cyclic nature of insect outbreaks.
“They’ll be up for a few years, then down,”
Thompson says. “When they’re down, you can’t
even Find a tussock moth in the woods.”

In 1964, outbreaks appeared in several parts
of the West, giving scientists an opportunity to

work on the tussock moth. In the succeeding years,
Thompson’s research team of four scientists and
four technicians has made considerable progress in
developing a sound biological control for the tus¬
sock moth. They have:

• Developed techniques to raise tussock
moths in the laboratory for experimental purposes.
Thousands of moths have been reared on artificial
diets and used in the research.

• Identified the natural microbial enemies
(viruses and bacteria) which attack the tussock
moth at various stages of development.

• Established procedures required for mass
production and purification of a naturally occur¬
ring virus of the tussock moth and demonstrated
its safety to nontarget organisms.

• Conducted experiments to test aerial
sprays of the virus and a bacterium for control of
tussock moths.

• Studied the natural effects of the virus on
tussock moth populations in the woods.

As in any pioneering research effort, there
have been a few failures — like the year in north¬
ern California when an aerial application of virus

that kills

didn’t work at all. But they’ve also made a lot of
progress. This past summer, aerial spray tests with
the virus and bacterium were conducted on small
plots in the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest near
Enterprise, Oregon. Both treatments were highly
effective. Population reduction with one formula¬
tion of the virus averaged 99.9 percent. A bacterial
treatment achieved 98 percent reduction.

Thompson is most enthusiastic about the
virus because it works against the tussock moth in
nature. The bacterium (Bacillus thuringiensis, or
BT) will kill tussock moths and is commercially
available, but it is not a part of their natural
ecosystem. Both micro-organisms, however, have
demonstrated considerable promise as safe, sound
tools for pest management, (cont’d on page 12)

virus

4

tussock moths

One step in the process of purifying the virus is to check
the bacteria count of virus cultures (cover). PNW
entomologist Ken Hughes (above) uses this electron
microscope in his work. Procedures for purifying the virus
were developed by Dr. Mauro Martignoni (right), a PNW
microbiologist.

Using trees,
land-forms,
to reduce
sound levels

How long has it been since you were free of
the distraction of man-made mechanical
sounds? Noise is increasing. The annual rise
in sound level of an average community in the U.S.
has been one decibel annually for the past 20
years. Because a 10 decibel increase approximates a
doubling of sound level, the noise volume that now
exists in American communities is four times what
it was two decades ago. Medical science is now
relating many health and hearing problems to ex¬
cessive noise. The most obvious is hearing damage.
More insidious is the way excessive noise can ag¬
gravate certain nervous disorders.

At the University of Nebraska at Lincoln,
David 1. Cook, Professor of Mechanical Engineer¬

ing, has been testing environmental means of re¬
ducing mechanical sound levels. Cooperating with
Professor Cook is David F. Van Haverbeke, re¬
search forester with the Rocky Mountain Forest
and Range Experiment Station at Lincoln.

Cook and Van Haverbeke set as their original
research goal an evaluation of trees and shrubs as
noise screening agents along highways. “Trees and
other forms of vegetation are known to have some
effect on the transmission of sound,” they said at
the outset of their first study, “but precise infor¬
mation on the use of greenery as noise screens is
meager. We want to derive accurate, useful infor¬
mation about the extent to which trees and shrubs
absorb noise.”

Here’s how they went about their experiment.
First, they chose three types of noise — highway
truck noise, passenger car noise, and bus stop noise
— for the study. Second, they tape-recorded and
analyzed these sounds, establishing an average
noise spectrum for each. Third, they selected, as
test areas, seven of the shelterbelts planted in Ne¬
braska during the Prairie States Forestry Project of
the late thirties and early forties.

Fourth, using a high-output sound system and
a magnetic tape data recorder with sound level
meter, they played back the sounds through the
tree and shrub barriers of the shelterbelts. They
measured the sound level at various distances from
the belts and, for purposes of comparison, replayed
their tapes of traffic noise in areas that did not
have shelterbelts.

They found that wide belts of tall, dense trees
can reduce sound levels by 5 to 8 decibels, and that
a reduction of 10 decibels was “not unusual.”
When soft surfaces such as grass or plowed ground
existed adjacent to the trees, noise levels went
down 8 to 12 decibels.

They also collected data on how variations in
planting density, shelterbelt width, and tree height
affect the amount of noise reduction. Detailed
results of the research are in “Trees and Shrubs for
Noise Abatement,” University of Nebraska Re¬
search Bulletin 246, July 1971, by Cook and Van
Haverbeke. (Copies, at 50 cents each, are available
from University Information Services, Lincoln,
Nebraska 68501 ).

After finishing this initial study, Cook and
Van Haverbeke went on to evaluate how effective
land-forms such as highway cuts, fills, and small
hills, are as noise shields.

6

David F. Van Haverbeke (1.) and David I. Cook (r.) recorded highway noise levels for their study of natural sound barriers.

As test sites, they selected four areas along
highways outside of Lincoln. There, they con¬
ducted noise screen trials, comparing the value of
tree-covered land-forms with that of land-forms
that did not have any trees or shrubs. The forms
tested were of different heights, and the two re¬
searchers accounted for this variable in their work.

In “Trees, Shrubs, and Land-Forms for Noise
Control,” an article from the November-December
1972 issue of the Journal of Soil and. Water Con¬
servation (27(6) : 259-26 1 ), Cook and Van Haver¬
beke say their initial results indicate that land-form
barriers should be “high enough to screen the noise
source from view at the location to be protected.”
Trees, shrubs, and grass planted on and around the
land-form will extend the range of protection and
will further reduce the noise level, they say.

Along main roads, 6- to 8-foot-high land-
forms or other solid barriers, with dense shrubs in
front and taller trees behind, will serve as effective
noise screens. Cook and Van Haverbeke plan
to publish additional findings this summer.

The two Nebraska researchers are discovering
principles that planners and developers can use to
appreciably reduce traffic noise. Their present find¬
ings are particularly applicable to highway and to
urban conditions. They’d like to do more research
on urban residential situations.

In recent years, noise control has received
increasing emphasis in the construction of trans¬
portation vehicles. This new attention to reducing
vehicular noise, when coupled with the application
of tree and land-form noise control principles, may
lead to a more quiet and peaceful environment. □

7

This Morbark Chiparvestor was used in the lodgepole pine stands of Wyoming’s Teton National Forest as part of an experiment
conducted by the Forest Service and Champion International.

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Finding uses for
logging leftovers

8

When it comes to separating the big prob¬
lems in forestry from the little ones, a lot
of people put “getting rid of forest resi¬
dues” on their “big problems” list.

It is a persistent problem — one that can last
for at least as long as it takes the slash strewn on
the forest floor to decompose.

And, it is a pervasive one — a trouble not
only to the person trying to manage a ponderosa
pine forest in the Southwest, for example, but also
to his counterpart working in the Douglas-fir tim-
berlands of the Pacific Northwest.

Three Forest Service Experiment Stations in
the West have asked their researchers to tackle this
problem. In addition, the agency’s Forest Products

Laboratory in Madison, Wisconsin, has 12 men
working on complementary studies. And, the en¬
gineers at the Forest Service’s San Dimas Equip¬
ment Development Center in southern California
are doing their share by trying to perfect the kinds
of harvesting equipment most likely to be needed
in residues utilization.

Although they are working in different forest
types, the goal of all these people is the same —
to find ways to recover virtually every bit of wood
on a timber sale.

In moderate amounts, logging residues such as
tops, branches, and cull (unmerchantable) logs,
may be beneficial — they may add nutrients to
the soil, reduce erosion, protect seedlings, and
provide cover for wildlife. In excessive quantities,
however, logging residues are a fire hazard and an
eyesore. By taking up the space that might other¬
wise be occupied by seedlings, the residues inhibit
reforestation of the logged area. Perhaps worst of
all, residues may represent a waste of a valuable
resource — wood fiber.

The problem is especially severe in the cold,
dry climate of the northern Rocky Mountains,
where wood does not decay as rapidly as it does in
warmer, more humid regions. Many stands of old
timber in the Rockies have a high proportion of
dead and damaged trees that, when added to
logging slash, create large volumes of residues. In
parts of Montana and northern Idaho, for example,
logging residues may exceed |X)0 tons per acre. In
the Forest Service’s five-stag; Northern Region,
logging, thinning, and road bjtjilefihg create an esti-

mated 25 million tons of w&sd residues annually; cd

-

In Missoula, Montana,/ Ron Barger, research-1?
forester with the Forest Seryiee’s Forestry Sciences .
Laboratory there, is in charge of a utilization and
marketing research unit. Qn^r^urrent -study Ts on
how to utilize the residues |n;tb;e overmature lodge-
pole pine stands of Wyoming’s Teton National
Forest. Barger and his rherq who work for the
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Sta¬
tion, are collaborating on the Teton study with
two other Forest Service groups — the National
Forests of the Intermountain Region and the For¬
est Products Laboratory — and with Champion
International Corporation.

The group recently completed one part of the
Teton work — comparing what they term “con¬
ventional harvesting” with a newer approach to log¬
ging, “near-complete harvesting.” (cont’d on p. 10)

9

Logging residues

continued from page 9

Barger explains that in conventional harvest¬
ing all merchantable trees are utilized to a mini¬
mum top diameter of 6 inches. All residues were
either dozer-piled and burned or broadcast burned.

Near-complete harvesting, in contrast, in¬
volved not only the production of logs, but also
the chipping of materials that would have been
burned in a conventional harvesting operation.

The near-complete harvesting was done with
equipment that Barger says is relatively new to
western logging. They used:

• a Drott feller-buncher, capable of shear¬
ing off and bunching trees up to 24 inches d.b.h.;

• a Timberjack grapple-skidder that can
skid whole trees as well as logs; and

• a Morbark high-capacity mobile chipper
that can chip whole trees up to 20 inches d.b.h.
Trees were sheared and bunched, then skidded
whole to the landing with the grapple-skidder. Logs
were bucked out and piled for hauling to Cham¬
pion International’s mill at Dubois, Wyoming.

Tops, branches, cull sections, and other resi¬
dues were chipped and piled.

Results of the Teton test showed that near-
complete harvesting produced 35 percent more
fiber, by weight, than conventional harvesting,
Barger says. Chip recovery averaged about 50 dry
tons per acre.

The Forest Products Laboratory helped with
the work involved in evaluating whether the chips
can be used in making paper, particleboard, mulch,
or other products.

Two reports on the study are available from
the Intermountain Station; more are planned. One
paper is “Utilization of Lodgepole Pine Residues in
Wyoming Increases Fiber Yield” (Research Note
1NT-1 60-FR2), a report in which Intermountain
Station scientists R. B. Gardner and David W. Hann
compare yields from conventional harvesting with
those from near-complete harvesting. The other is
“Volume of Wood, Bark, and Needles After Clear-
cutting a Lodgepole Pine Stand.” Authors Al Foul-
ger and John Harris of the Forest Products Labora¬
tory describe the wood-bark ratio of residues
remaining after conventional harvesting. Their
report appeared in the February 197 3 Journal of

Forestry (7 1(2): 93-95) ; the Forest Products Labo¬
ratory (Box 5130, Madison, Wisconsin 53705) has
reprints.

In the Pacific Northwest, the biggest residues
problem is in the old-growth Douglas-fir and pon-
derosa pine forests of the Cascades. In these two
forest types, it’s not unusual to find anywhere
from 1 00 to 200 tons of logging slash per acre -
a staggering amount by anyone’s standards.

The Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Ex¬
periment Station has 10 people working in Port¬
land and in Seattle on this problem. They are
members of the Station’s Forest Residues Reduc¬
tion Program, and they are putting a priority on
what the program’s manager, Hugh McLean, says
will be interim guidelines for forest residues man¬
agement in the Pacific Northwest.

The Station group is collaborating with
people from the National Forests of Washington
and Oregon on these guidelines. “What we want to
end up with are specific recommendations that
people can use in deciding how to handle the resi¬
dues problem on a given piece of land,” McLean
says. “Back-up for each recommendation will be
PNW research or other documentation.”

Target date for the interim guidelines publica¬
tion to come off the press is November 1974. In
the meantime, currently available papers written
by the residues reduction team include John M.
Pierovich and Richard C. Smith’s “Choosing Forest
Residues Management Alternatives” (General Tech¬
nical Report PNW-7-FR2); James O. Howard’s
“Logging Residue in Washington, Oregon, and
California - Volume and Characteristics” (Re¬
source Bulletin PNW-44-FR2) and John D. Dell
and Franklin R. Ward’s “Logging Residues on
Douglas-fir Region Clearcuts — Weights and Vol¬
umes” (Research Paper PNW-1 15-FR2).

In Southwestern forests, residues may com¬
prise up to one-fifth of the total cubic foot volume
harvested by conventional methods. “A big enough
amount,” say researchers George Sampson and Hal
Worth of the Rocky Mountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station, “to warrant an attempt at
utilization.” Sampson, a research forester, and
Worth, leader of the Station’s forest products re¬
search unit, helped put together the residues utili¬
zation experiment that was conducted last summer
on the San Juan National Forest in Colorado and
the Apache National Forest in Arizona.

10

Logging residues

continued from page 10

It was a group venture: participants included
the Station, the Four Corners Regional Commis¬
sion, Southwest Forest Industries, and the Forest
Service’s Southwestern and Rocky Mountain
Regions and Forest Products Laboratory.

The equipment used in the study included a
Nicholson Utilizer. This machine both debarks and
chips pulpwood, sawlog tops, and waste logs at the
logging site.

In the summer study, more than 300 tons of
pulp chips were produced from wood that other¬
wise would have been left as debris in the forest.
Chips were blown directly into the waiting vans
and delivered to Southwest Forest Industries’ pulp
and paper mill in Snowflake, Arizona.

Chip samples from all types of cull materials
that were run through the debarker-chipper are
now being analyzed by Southwest Forest Indus¬
tries for possible use in paper production, and by
the Forest Products Laboratory for possible use in
the manufacture of structural particleboard.

This year at the San Dimas Equipment Devel¬
opment Center in California, residues reduction
work is one-third of the Center’s total research
program, according to the director there, Charles
W. Howard.

This much work is necessary, Howard ex¬
plains, because most of the logging equipment now
on the market isn’t geared to utilization of what
have traditionally been regarded as waste materials.

During the past 3Vi years, the Center engi¬
neers have been scouting around for machinery
that could — with some modification — be used
in recovering residues. “If we put in one parking
lot all the machinery we have considered for resi¬
dues work, we’d need a lot the size of a football
field,” Howard says.

They’ve evaluated machines used for stump
removal, and for splitting large stumps. They’ve
looked at equipment that can be used for sizing
and cleaning bark and charred or rotten material.
They’ve examined ring, rosser-head, and drum
debarkers. And, they’re studying two processes for
removing bark from small, forked limbs — both
procedures involve using 2-inch, hardened steel
balls and a chain flail.

All that is just for openers. The San Dimas
men are working with people from Developmental
Sciences, Inc., on high-pressure water jets that both
groups hope can be used for cutting up and clean¬
ing large, dirty slash.

Center engineers are working on two other
approaches to the slash problem. One is slash
treatment which, in the past, has involved breaking
up the residues. The intent of slash treatment pro¬
grams is to reduce fire hazards and to speed up the
return of nutrients to the soil. So, San Dimas re¬
searchers have tested an assortment of crushers,
choppers, cutters, and chippers, as well as flails and
hammer mills.

A smashing idea, except for the fact that the
machines tested so far have proven less than ideal.
“Not surprising,” Howard explains, “they were the
best we could find, but they weren’t originally in¬
tended for slash treatment. So, we’ve started a
slash lab, and we’re trying to come up with the
ultimate mechanical cutter.”

A second method is controlled burning of the
residues. Both San Dimas and the Pacific North¬
west Station are doing a lot of work on this approach.

San Dimas and the Experiment Stations are
working with people at the Forest Products Labo¬
ratory in Madison, Wisconsin, the largest research
unit in the Forest Service. Scientists there have the
work — and the fun — of seeing what products
can be made from the residues that have been par¬
tially processed at logging sites.

The Laboratory is studying residues from
both western softwoods and northern hardwoods.
(Another Forest Service unit, the Southern Forest
Experiment Station, is in charge of utilization of
southern hardwoods.)

Laboratory researchers are putting a lot of
time on the possibilities of using residues to make
structural particleboard. Stronger than conven¬
tional particleboard, this proposed building mate¬
rial would help supplement the plywood supply.

The men working in the Laboratory’s pulp
and paper research program are trying to see how
much use can be made of rough chips — those
with bark still attached.

Dr. H. O. Fleischer, the Laboratory director,
claims there’s “no question” that residues can be
utilized. “By being thrifty with what we formerly
regarded as unwanted materials,” Fleischer states,
“we can increase the yield of wood fiber, and can
help to make harvested areas easier to manage.” □

CALFORNET

continued from page 3

they help fill the Alert requests sent to them by
State or industrial foresters in their areas. If
these libraries don’t have an Alert item, they
turn to another CALFORNET cooperator
the State of California library in Sacramento.

The staff of the Forest Service’s Berkeley
library has a lengthy list of other libraries to which
they sometimes go for help. Their list includes
branch libraries at the University of California
campus, corporation libraries, and the National
Agricultural Library in Beltsville, Maryland.

The big program had small beginnings. It
started out with the PSW Station giving Klamath
National Forest people approximately the same
services which the Experiment Station provided its
own scientists. “Operation Klamath Desk” went
over well, and more National Forests were added
to the experiment. Today, CALFORNET includes
all of the National Forests in the Forest Service’s
California Region.

A lot of people have written to the PSW
Station, asking if they are eligible to receive CAL¬
FORNET services. To employees of the California
Region of the Forest Service, or of the Pacific
Southwest Station, the answer is “yes.” Their
access to CALFORNET is the PSW library. Also
eligible are graduate students and members of the
faculty of UC’s School of Forestry and Conserva¬
tion. Their link with CALFORNET is the forestry
library on the campus. Finally, the network may
be used by employees of the California Division of
Forestry, and by Californians who are consulting,
industrial, or extension foresters, faculty members
at schools of forestry, or instructors of college-level
courses about land-use management. They can get
in on CALFORNET through their local city or
county library.

During CALFORNET’s first year there have
been a lot of compliments for the new system. But,
there also have been some complaints. Some forest¬
ers working in industry say that the service is too
slow. Some National Forest people think the three-
day limit imposed on much CALFORNET material
is too restrictive. Perhaps the biggest problem is the
demand that is sometimes created for a certain
book or paper that appears on the Monthly Alert.

When the library has only a few copies of a populai
item, a lot of people have to do a lot of waiting.
But, on the whole, this first year has been a very
good one for CALFORNET. □

Tussock moth virus

continued from page 4

The virus is particularly potent, Thompson
says. The tussock moth larvae eat the virus while
feeding on tree foliage. As the virus multiplies and
spreads through the larva, it causes a degenerative
disease which kills the insect. A larva which has
been killed by virus dissolves into a messy residue
that’s highly infectious to other insects.

In nature, the virus contributes to the collapse
of tussock moth outbreaks — usually on a 3-year
cycle. “We believe the virus plays an important role
in the termination of most outbreaks,” Thompson
says. “We don’t always find virus in the early stages
of an outbreak. If we do, it’s at a very low level.
The virus is probably there, but at such low levels
that it is hard to locate.”

Last year, the third year of the cycle in the
original Blue Mountain outbreak, the virus was
much more prevalent. It came in too late to pre¬
vent severe defoliation, but the principle still holds.

“Everything we know about the tussock moth
points to a pattern of outbreak and decline —
usually on a 3- to 4-year basis. And the virus usual¬
ly plays an important role.”

The virus is not the only natural control
factor, but is “one we can readily manipulate,”
Thompson says. Other factors which contribute to
the collapse of tussock moth outbreaks are climatic
conditions, parasites and predators, and food
supply for the insects.

Even though results of last summer’s field
tests were excellent, Thompson says larger field
tests are essential. Techniques also need to be de¬
veloped for mixing large quantities of the virus into
aerial sprays before the group can recommend use
of the virus or the bacterium on mass infestations.

One of the first questions that comes up
about viruses is safety. Could they be harmful to
wildlife or to man when sprayed in the forest?
Extensive safety tests are required by the Environ¬
mental Protection Agency before a material can be

Tussock moth virus

continued from page 12

registered for use. Most of this work has already
been done. Dr. Mauro Martignoni, a microbiologist
on Thompson’s staff, has directed preliminary tests
on rabbits, rats, mice, deer, quail, fish, and
bees — and none were harmed by the virus. The
work with rabbits and fish has been done in the
Corvallis laboratory. Other work has been con¬
tracted or conducted by the U.S. Department of
the Interior’s Fish and Wildlife Service.

Martignoni says that studies with fish are
especially important. “If there is a hazard to any
form of life other than the tussock moth, we’ll
probably find it with fish,” he says. The tussock
moth, like all insects, is eurythermic — its tem¬
perature fluctuates with that of the environment.
Fish are the same way — their cells grow at tem¬
peratures of about 68° to 76° F. The tussock moth
virus will multiply at this temperature range, but
will become inactivated when exposed to the con¬
stant higher temperatures of homoiotherinal or
warm-blooded animals. So far, all tests gave nega¬
tive results, indicating that the nucleopolyhedrosis
virus is not pathogenic to fish.

According to Thompson, viruses are “among
the more specific pathogens. A good many have
only one host.” The virus Thompson’s team is
working with is a nucleopolyhedrosis virus, of
which there are several hundred varieties. Most of
these viruses cause diseases of the larvae of the
tussock moth and other Lepidoptera such as the
cabbage looper, cotton bollworm, forest tent cater¬
pillar, and hemlock looper. The specific virus under
study is infectious to only a few closely related
species of tussock moths.

Working from electron microscope pictures,
researchers have identified at least three distinct
viruses that kill the tussock moth. One, a bundle
virus, was selected for intensive studies, primarily
because it seems to cause greater breakdown of the
larvae, says Kenneth Hughes, a research entomolo¬
gist on Thompson’s staff.

Hughes, who has studied hundreds of electron
microscope pictures of the virus, talks about its
structure: the virus comes in bundles with any¬
where from 1 to 20 individual virus rods per
bundle. The bundles, surrounded by lipo-protein

membranes, are grouped into a polyhedron. Be¬
cause it acts as a protective device, the polyhedron
enables the virus to survive in the environment.
Without the polyhedron, the virus breaks down
quickly and is destroyed in sunlight. Enclosed in
the polyhedron, the virus can last for years, per¬
haps indefinitely, if conditions are ideal.

Ask Hughes if the virus is alive, and he gets a
quizzical look. “The polyhedron is a protein
crystal,” he says. “It grows as a crystal grows. If
virus particles are there, they are incorporated in it.
They reproduce, but so do other complicated
chemicals not generally thought of as living.”

“Perhaps we’re at the shady margin where
it isn’t even appropriate to make a distinc¬
tion,” he says.

The structure of the virus also affects the way
it acts inside the tussock moth. In feeding, the
tussock moth eats not only the virus, but also the
polyhedra which enclose them. When the poly-
hedra reach the midgut of the insect, they come in
contact with an alkaline solution, which dissolves
the protein base of the polyhedron and allows the
virus to spread through the insect’s bloodstream.

Researchers don’t really know what happens
after that. Hughes would like to know, and perhaps
one day the pictures will yield a clue. But right
now, the important thing is that the virus does the
job. Somehow, the virus is transmitted to various
parts of the insect, where it multiplies, breaks
down cell tissue, and eventually kills the insect.

What’s ahead now for Thompson’s research
staff? “A year or two more of field testing this
particular virus against the tussock moth,” he re¬
ports. Thompson’s group needs to conduct larger
field tests of about 10,000 acres each to improve
systems for producing large quantities of virus, and
to improve spray formulations. Some of this work
will be done by other research units of the Forest
Service, or will be contracted. In Corvallis, a PNW
Station team is working, under the direction of Dr.
George Markin, on the problems of spray applica¬
tion and equipment.

Thompson looks forward to tackling a new
problem, perhaps working with a disease of
another forest insect. “I may be optimistic,” he
says, “but I believe this is one of the most promis¬
ing areas for research. When we leam how to work
with, and manipulate, the ecological system in our
forests, then 1 think we’ll have less insect damage
and more effective long-term insect control.” □

13

Publications

Streamflow increases
after chaparral conversion

Residents of central and southern Arizona are
concerned about the availability of water supplies
needed for both municipal and agricultural pur¬
poses. Since 1953, scientists at the Rocky Moun¬
tain Station laboratory in Tempe, Arizona, have
investigated methods of increasing water yields.
Research Hydrologist Paul A. Ingebo reports on
one such study in the Proceedings of the 1972
Meetings of the Arizona Section, American Water
Resources Association, and the Hydrology Section,
Arizona Academy of Science 11 is discussion is en¬
titled “Converting Chaparral to Grass to Increase
Streamflow”; copies are available from the Rocky
Mountain Station.

Two comparable watersheds, both located
southwest of Prescott, Arizona, and both support¬
ing medium-density chaparral stands, were selected
for experimentation in 1958. On the two areas,
which were temporarily labelled watersheds “A”
and ”13”. precipitation as well as streamflow timing
and volume were carefully measured through 1966.
Streamflow from the test watersheds was synchro¬
nized prior to treatment of watershed 13 in 1967.
On the average, live water flowed from watershed B
only 8 days longer per year than from watershed A.

Treatment on 38 acres, or 15 percent of
watershed B, consisted of eliminating deep-rooted
chaparral plants that were using water from the
moist environment along stream channels within
the area.

Since treatment, streamflow has been con¬
tinuous in watershed B. In the control area, water¬
shed A, stream How is intermittent. Watershed B
today produces an annual average of 167 more
days of stream How than watershed A. This is a
yearly increase of 0.61 inches of water from the
entire watershed, or 3.9 inches of water from the
treated portion of the watershed.

'Local seed source’ theory
tested in California study

Geneticist M. Thompson Conkle may have
found some exceptions to the long-standing rule
that planting with local seed source is the best way
to go. Subjects of Conkle’s interest are pines grow¬
ing at low-, mid-, and high-elevation plantations
located along a west-east transect of the Sierra
Nevada at about 39° north latitude. These planta¬
tions are the proving grounds for the progeny of
both local and non-local parents.

In “Growth Data for 29 Years from the Cali¬
fornia Elevational Transect Study of Ponderosa
Pine” (FR2), Conkle says that the progeny from
mid-elevation parents rank tallest in all three plan¬
tations. But this rating may only be temporary, at
least in the high-elevation site. There, according to
Conkle, dominance of the mid-elevation progeny is
being challenged by the progeny of the higher
elevation seed parents.

On the basis of progeny performance during
the first 29 years of the experiment, Conkle has
decided that the optimum seed collection zone lies
between 2,000 and 4,000 feet elevation on the
west slope of the Sierra Nevada.

For restocking sites that are above 5,000 feet
elevation, Conkle opts for the high-elevation
sources, for two reasons. First, the present growth
advantage of the mid-elevation progeny in high-
elevation sites isn’t all that significant. Second, the
experimental pines are only at mid-rotation age.
They may, in later years, show some major growth
differences.

If, however, the growth relationships Conkle
describes do stay the same through the rotation age
of the pines, this would be an indication that
mid-elevation seed collection areas really are the
best seed source for any plantings to be done along
the west slope of the Sierra Nevada.

Conkle’s paper, the third in a series about the
California transect, was originally published in the
March 1 973 issue of Forest Science ( I 9( 1 ):3 1-39).

14

Water quality not damaged
by fertilizer, study shows

When severe forest fires burned large portions
of the Wenatchee and Okanogan National Forests
in Washington in July 1970, scientists from the
Forest Hydrology Laboratory in Wenatchee, Wash¬
ington, were called in to help National Forest
administrators determine the effect ot the tire and
subsequent rehabilitation efforts on stream quality.
Specifically, they were asked to find out il fertili¬
zation with urea would introduce excessive
amounts of nitrate and ammonia into streams
which are the source of municipal water supplies.
Their hunch was that it wouldn’t, but the fire and
subsequent reforestation efforts offered a good
opportunity to gain more precise information on
this question.

Urea is an organic nitrogen fertilizer that
hydrolyzes to ammonium carbonate and may be
converted eventually to nitrate-N in the soil. Add¬
ing large quantities of urea creates a potential
source of both ammonia-N and nitrate-N in stream-
flow. The application of urea following fire is ot
particular concern because soil-plant nutrient
cycles are severed. Without vegetation present to
utilize the added nitrogen, the potential tor move¬
ment of nitrogen ions from the soil into stream-
flow is increased.

After 2 years of study, National Forest ad¬
ministrators got their answer — no damage to
water quality. Even though urea was applied at the
rate of 69 pounds per acre, water quality was not
reduced. Fertilization did increase nitrate-N levels
in the stream, but the amount was some 30 times
less than the permissible level tor the watershed
under municipal use.

For details, see Research Note PNW-203-FR2,
“Stream Chemistry Following a Forest Fire and
Urea Fertilization in North-Central Washington,”
by Arthur R. Tiedemann.

Balloon logging tested
in the Idaho Batholith

Off they went, into the wild blue yonder -
logs, that is — carried high above the treetops
under a huge, onion-shaped balloon. This sight
startled many visitors to the Boise National forest
in Idaho, where engineers and foresters from the
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Sta¬
tion and from the Boise Cascade Corporation eval¬
uated the use of balloon logging from 1971
through 1973.

The site of the balloon logging experiment.
Garden Valley Ranger District, lies on the Idaho
Batholith. This geological formation is a mass ot
solid rock covered by a thin layer of soil. It covers
19,000 square miles in central Idaho — about 20
percent of the State’s land area. Much ot the
Batholith is steep and rugged; when disturbed by
man or nature, the soil mantle tends to slide down¬
hill over the bedrock, like snow slips ott a tin root.

The forests of the Idaho Batholith hold large
volumes of valuable ponderosa pine and Douglas-
fir. At times in the past, tractor logging and road¬
building in the Batholith triggered erosion.

A team of Intermountain Station researchers,
after investigating other harvesting methods, de¬
cided that a balloon logging system, successful in
Oregon, might work on the Boise Forest, as well as
in other areas in the West that have fragile soils.

R. B. Gardner and W. S. Hartsog of the Inter¬
mountain Station’s Forestry Sciences Laboratory
in Bozeman, Montana, and G. L. Jacobsen, who
was at that time a forester on the Boise National
Forest, describe the first season’s operations in
“Balloon Logging,” an article published in the
February 1973 issue of Agricultural Engineering
(54(2); 14-17).

The balloon logging system used was ex¬
pensive. Equipment, for example, cost more than
$400,000. Production ranged from 30 to 250 logs

15

in a 10-hour day, depending on operating condi¬
tions. The yarding cost ranged from $33 to $67 per
thousand board feet. The authors point out. how¬
ever, that although initial production costs were
high, the costs decreased as the season progressed.

The system is excellent for selective logging,
because the logs are lifted vertically above the
understory, and there is minimal soil disturbance.

Gardner, Hartsog, and Jacobsen say that in
order tor a balloon logging operation to be eco¬
nomical, volumes per acre in the area to be logged
should probably be greater than 12,000 board feet.
The terrain should be relatively Hat and unbroken,
and drainage bottoms should be wide enough to
accommodate landing sites.

Reprints (R-276-FR2) of “Balloon Logging”
may be ordered from the Intermountain Forest
and Range Experiment Station in Ogden.

Estimating logging residues
is subject of INT report

Estimates of logging residues — the portions
of trees left unused after harvesting opera¬
tions — are vital to the land manager for planning
timber production (see story, this issue).

A report on this subject has been published
by the Intermountain Forest and Range Experi¬
ment Station. Theodore S. Setzer, in “Logging
Residues on Harvesting Operations, Western South
Dakota, Wyoming, Utah, and Colorado,” (Research
Paper INT-1 23-FR2), reports results of his studies
to estimate volumes of logging residues. In his
paper, Setzer includes factors that yield estimates
of the total volume removed from inventory.

Subtracting the product volume from initial
inventory of a timber stand does not necessarily
indicate the residual stand, Setzer says. To calcu¬
late inventory remaining after logging, one must
subtract logging residues as well as product volume
from the prelogging inventory, according to Setzer.

He’s concluded that residues from saw log
operations, though a relatively small percentage of
net product volume, represent a significant under¬
utilized portion of the total that is removed from
growing stock.

Multispectral scanner,
computer, used for survey

Phil Weber and Bob Aldrich of California and
Frank Sadowski and Fred Thomson of Michigan
know some of the Georgia countryside as well as
any native. The four, specialists in remote sensing,
have done a lot of work in that State, testing out
the M-7 multispectral scanner that was developed
by Sadowski and Thomson’s employer, the En¬
vironmental Research Institute of Michigan.

Still somewhat of a newcomer to the art of
remote sensing, multispectral scanning holds the
promise of a fast, accurate way to get much-needed
inventories of land use. It’s based on the fact that
each object in a natural landscape absorbs, trans¬
mits, reflects, and emits radiation.

Weber says the different spectral properties of
trees, plants — even roads and ponds — in a
landscape give each of these elements a distinctive,
multispectral signature. Notations of these signa¬
tures, collected by an airborne scanner, can be
tape-recorded, then translated by a hybrid analog/
digital computer system into categories, each tell¬
ing whether the land is being used for row crops,
for growing a stand of upland hardwoods, or for
some other purpose.

The problem is that what you see is not
always what you get — from the scanner, that is.
No combination of a multispectral scanner, or
MSS, with the analog/digital computer system that
the four men have tested, has yet reached the 95
percent accuracy level that is expected of any
competent human photo interpreter.

The Georgia experiment, then, is just one
among many tests designed to make a successful
combination out of multispectral scanning and
computerized mapping. The study is described in
“Land Use Classification in the Southeastern
Forest Region by Multispectral Scanning and
Computerized Mapping.” A reprint from the Pro¬
ceedings of the Eighth International Symposium
on Remote Sensing of Environment, this paper is
available from the Pacific Southwest Station in
Berkeley, the Forest Service unit with which Weber
and Aldrich work.

From overflights of their two test sites, the
experimenters wanted to prepare land use maps
showing approximately how many acres are im-

16

proved pasture, how many are bottomland hard¬
wood, and how many are in the assortment ot
other terrain classes. They also wanted to see if the
signatures taken from one flight line could be ex¬
tended - used in classifying other flight lines.

One of the two computer systems they tested
did well in recognizing young orchards, but mis-
classified other groves, mistakenly identifying very
young orchards as bare soil and incorrectly label¬
ling mature orchards as upland hardwoods. How¬
ever, the overall attempt at signature extension was
“reasonably successful,” they said.

Yield tables for some sites
questioned in PNW paper

If a land manager relies on data from standard
yield tables in determining productivity and stock¬
ing capacity for some forest sites, he could be
easily misled into investing in unneeded or unwise
silvicultural treatments.

This is what Colin MacLean and Charles Bol-
singer of the Pacific Northwest Station in Portland,
Oregon, suggest in “Estimating Productivity on
Sites with a Low Stocking Capacity” (Research
Paper PNW-1 52-FR2).

There is a discrepancy between the timber
volumes of normal yield tables and the actual pro¬
ductivity of some types of forest land in the West,
MacLean and Bolsinger say. They believe there is a
real danger of overestimating potential timber yield
from some currently low-stocked stands.

Yield tables, meant to be an aid in predicting
the amount of timber a given site can produce, are
not available for every type of land. In fact, the
tables are usually prepared for average or tor better
than average forests. The problem comes when
data from these normal tables are used to predict
productivity on stands that have a good site index
but are capable of supporting only a few trees.

MacLean and Bolsinger found that about halt
of the commercial forest land (255 out of 535
plots) in eastern Oregon and northern California is
unable to support the stocking levels indicated by
normal yield tables. These plots tended to be arid
and marginally stocked sites at the lower torest
fringe. Such stands often appear to be under¬

stocked when, in fact, the sites may be producing
to their capacity.

Ideally, yield tables should be stratified by
plant communities, the authors say. But, they
admit that to put such tables together would re¬
quire “a massive effort.” As an interim measure,
MacLean and Bolsinger outline procedures for
adjusting available yield tables to fit local needs.
Their methods apply to eastern Oregon and north¬
ern California. Their best method requires an
ecological study of the plant communities in the
area to be inventoried. Their second-best method is
based on a regression approach tor discounting
values of existing yield tables. The two men say
that the use of either of these techniques will
produce more ' accurate evaluations than will the
use of the yield tables now available.

Western gall rust
spreads in late spring

Western gall rust, Peridermium harknessii, is
one of several diseases that infect ponderosa pines
planted in the Great Plains. Its natural rate of
spread is slow. This rate, however, is increased
when infected nursery seedlings are outplanted in
diverse locations.

Glenn W. Peterson, research plant pathologist
at the Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Station
laboratory in Lincoln, Nebraska, has been studying
ways to stop this disease from spreading in nursery
stock transplants.

In “Dispersal of Aeciospores of Peridermium
harknessii in Central Nebraska,” a January 1973
Phytopathology article (63(1): 170-172), Peterson
describes the critical spore dispersal period. Using
spore traps in a ponderosa pine stand infested with
gall rust, he found aeciospores in the air during
May and June. Eighty percent of the dispersal was
accounted for in May.

Peterson concluded, “Because all aeciospores
were essentially dispersed during May and June,
fungicide applications could be limited to these
months. Also, because spore frequency is very low
the last 2 weeks of June, and because first-year
seedlings are very small at this time, there is little
risk in leaving the seedlings unsprayed for the
2-week period.”

17

Determining dollar values
of timber, water, forage

In the article “Valuation of Timber, Forage,
and Water from National Forest Lands,” economist
Paul F. O’Connell proposes a method for assigning
dollar values to three competing resource uses -
lumber, livestock grazing, and the production of
water needed to irrigate feed grains. Application of
O’Connell’s economic model yields resource values
ranging from the maximum amount a producer can
afford to pay for primary resource inputs over a
short period of time to the actual price paid.

O’Connell, who heads a watershed evaluation
project at the Tucson, Arizona, laboratory of the
Rocky Mountain Station, applied his model to the
timber, forage, and water resources of the National
Forest lands in the Salt-Verde Basin of Arizona. He
found that the maximum “arguable” value for each
of these resource products was significantly higher
than the price paid. Thus, current prices fail to
reflect the full value of these resources to society.

Coupling this information with expected
future demand-supply conditions, the forest man¬
ager is equipped with an economics tool that can
help him select the land treatment program best
suited to the public’s needs.

“There is considerable apprehension about
using economic criteria for making decisions,”
O’Connell explains. He says that this is understand¬
able because “some forest products — natural
beauty, wildlife, and outdoor recreation oppor¬
tunities — are not sold in the marketplace.”

“It is very difficult to fit these non-market
outputs into an economic model,” O’Connell
states, “because people do not judge the relative
worth of these outputs on an economic basis. This
is precisely why there should be multi-objective
alternatives identified for all major land manage¬
ment decisions.”

These objectives are: economic efficiency,
regional development, and environmental quality.
For timber, forage, and consumptive water, how¬
ever, the use of economic criteria is, in O’Connell’s
opinion, “the most logical way to judge the relative
worth of these forest products to society.”

The article was published in the December
1972 Annals of Regional Science. The Rocky
Mountain Station has reprints.

Bulletin on pocket gophers,
Colorado ranges, available

Got a gopher problem? Are you looking for
information to help you evaluate the impact of
gophers on mountain ranges? If so, you might want
to have the Rocky Mountain Station send you a
copy of “Pocket Gophers and Colorado Mountain
Rangeland.” A complete resume on the pocket
gopher, this publication, Bulletin 554S of the Colo¬
rado State University Experiment Station, was
written by R. M. Hansen, Colorado State Univer¬
sity; G. T. Turner and A. L. Ward, Rocky Moun¬
tain Forest and Range Experiment Station; and V.
H. Reid and H. P. Tietjen, Bureau of Sport Fish¬
eries and Wildlife.

Topics treated include: distribution and adap¬
tations of pocket gophers; population biology of
the northern pocket gopher; food habits and com¬
petition; effects of pocket gophers on range; 2,4-D,
vegetation, and pocket gophers; and control of
pocket gophers.

The bulletin summarizes findings from studies
made throughout the West, with emphasis on those
from Colorado.

Effects of road work,
logging, monitored

The North and South Fork watersheds of
Caspar Creek, a small coastal stream in northern
California’s redwood region, are the subject of an
ambitious watershed study that won’t be finished
until 1977.

Purpose of the watershed work is to find out
what effects logging and road construction have on
st ream flow, sedimentation, aquatic habitat, and
fish populations.

The watersheds of both the North and South
Forks support second-growth forests of redwood,
Douglas-fir, grand fir, hemlock, and bishop pine.
The North Fork is still the control area; the South
Fork, in line with the project’s master plan, was
logged recently — roads were put in and about 65
percent of the volume was removed.

18

Researchers J. S. Krammes of the Forest Serv¬
ice and David M. Bums of the California Division
of Forestry wrote “Road Construction on Caspar
Creek Watersheds . . . 10-year report on impact”
(Research Paper PSW-93-FR2) at a mid-point in
the project; the roads were in, but the logging was
still to come.

The building of the roads and the collapse of
an old splash-dam — a remnant of the logging
done in the South Fork in the late 1800’s — had
a lot to do with the great increase in suspended
sediment that occurred during the first year after
construction, Krammes and Burns say. Levels
measured during the following winters were above
preconstruction level, but were not excessive.

When the trees came down — so the roads
could be built — water temperatures went up, but

only slightly, and not enough, the authors suggest,
to injure the native populations of steelhead trout
and salmon that inhabit the creek.

In this preliminary study, the researchers say
dissolved oxygen concentrations were “not ad¬
versely affected by construction activities or by
removal of stream-side vegetative cover.” The
amount of living space for the anadromous fish was
not significantly affected by road construction.

The young-of-the-year fish populations de¬
creased immediately after the roads were built, but
Krammes and Burns estimate that the decline was
“within the range of natural fluctuation reported
for other California streams.”

There was a change in the composition of the
streambed particle size, but it was not detrimental
to the fish habitat.

Notes about Forestry Research: What's New in the West

FORESTRY RESEARCH: What’s New in the
West, is a report on the work of the USDA Forest
Service’s four Forest and Range Experiment Sta¬
tions in the West. These research centers, and the
states included in their areas of study, are: Rocky
Mountain (North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska,
Kansas, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and parts
of Wyoming, Oklahoma, and Texas); Inter¬
mountain (Montana, Idaho, Utah, Nevada, and part
of Wyoming); Pacific Northwest (Oregon, Washing¬
ton, and Alaska); and Pacific Southwest (California
and Hawaii).

If you are planning to move, please notify us
as much in advance as possible. Send your old ad¬
dress, your new address, and the address label from
the back cover to: FORESTRY RESEARCH:
What’s New in the West, 240 West Prospect Street,
Fort Collins, Colorado 80521 .

When reprinting articles, please credit Forest
Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Mention
of commercial products in this issue is for informa¬
tion only - no endorsement by the USDA is
implied.

Single copies of the publications mentioned in
this issue are available free of charge. When writing
to research Stations, please include your complete

mailing address (with ZIP), and request publication
by author, title, and number (if one is given).

For INT publications write:

Intermountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station
507 25th Street
Ogden, Utah 8440 1

For PNW publications write:

Pacific Northwest Forest and Range
Experiment Station
Post Office Box 3141
Portland, Oregon 97208

For PSW publications write:

Pacific Southwest Forest and Range
Experiment Station
Post Office Box 245
Berkeley, California 9470 1

For RM publications write:

Rocky Mountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station
240 West Prospect Street
Fort Collins, Colorado 8052 1

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