Historic, Archive Document

Do not assume content reflects current
scientific knowledge, policies, or practices.

c

a note to you

In the Fall of 1973, we published our First issue of Forestry Research:
What’s New in the West. Our intent with that first issue, as it is now, is to let
you know about the work being done at the USDA Forest Service’s Inter¬
mountain, Pacific Northwest, Pacific Southwest, and Rocky Mountain Ex¬
periment Stations. Whether you are a natural resource manager in a public
agency or in private industry, or are in a profession other than forestry but
want to keep up with this field, our goal is to inform you of (1) current
major research programs; and (2) new findings from our work.

Your comments and suggestions for making Forestry Research effective
in serving you are requested. Please pass the publication on to others who
may be interested.

on the cover

This stream gage at Woods Canyon in Arizona’s Coconino National
Forest will be used to monitor streamflow changes resulting from resource
management experiments. See “More Water for Arizona?” on the facing
page.

our addresses

Single copies of most of the publications mentioned in this issue are
available free of charge. When writing to research Stations, please include
your complete mailing address (with ZIP) and request publications by
author, title, and number (if one is given).

For INT publications write:

For PSW publications write:

Intermountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station
507 25th Street
Ogden, Utah 84401

For PNW publications write:

Pacific Southwest Forest and Range
Experiment Station
Post Office Box 245
Berkeley, California 94701

For RM publications write:

Pacific Northwest Forest and Range
Experiment Station
Post Office Box 3141
Portland, Oregon 97208

Rocky Mountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station
240 West Prospect Street
Fort Collins, Colorado 80521

If you are planning to move, please notify us as much in advance as
possible. Send your old address, your new address, and the address label
from the back cover to Forestry Research: What’s New in the West, 240
West Prospect Street, Fort Collins, Colorado 80521

When reprinting articles, please credit USDA Forest Service. Mention of
commercial products in this issue is for information only— no endorsement
by the U.S. Department of Agriculture is implied.

More water for Arizona?

Arizonans use 7 million acre-feet of water
/-\ each year for agriculture, industries, and
municipalities. Of the total, 2 million acre-feet
come from streamflow; the rest are pumped from
ground water supplies — exceeding their recharge
by 2 to 3 million acre-feet each year.

So, water tables are dropping. Drops of 6 to
10 feet per year are not uncommon, particularly in
the intense agricultural and metropolitan areas of
Phoenix and Tucson. Arizona’s population, cur¬
rently about 2,200,000, is projected to be nearly
3,000,000 by 1985. Demands for water will
increase!

Arizonans see two ways to partially alleviate
their water problems: (1) import Colorado River
water through a massive diversion system known as
the Central Arizona Project; and (2) increase sur¬
face streamflow by reducing the amount of water
used by natural vegetation.

In the late 1950’s, concerned citizens asked
the Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station and the Southwestern Region of the Forest
Service to find out how much water might realis¬
tically be gained by altering vegetation along
streams and on mountain watersheds. The U.S.
Geological Survey undertook similar studies on
more arid lands.

Planning the mountain watershed studies re¬
quired close coordination among researchers and
Forest Service land managers. Both groups realized
water yield improvement could not be the sole ob¬
jective of the research: Though Arizonans ex¬
pressed concern for water, they also wanted other
resources — timber, recreation experiences, scenic
beauty, habitat for wildlife , and forage for live¬
stock.

For this reason, research programs were de¬
signed to find ways to improve water yield as well

▼ Watershed research in Arizona has included vegetation types from streamside to mountaintop.

as to evaluate the impacts of watershed manage¬
ment practices on other resources. Economic costs
and benefits were to be analyzed.

It was also decided studies, except for state¬
wide investigations on streamside vegetation,
would focus on the 8.4 million acres within the
Salt and Verde River drainages of central Arizona.
These drainages supply Phoenix and the Salt River
Valley the heaviest water-using sector of the
State.

What have we learned from nearly 20 years of
this research? Scientists at Rocky Mountain Sta¬
tion laboratories in Arizona recently published
summaries of the results of their studies so far. In
general, they concluded: (1) water yield from cer¬
tain vegetation types can be increased, but trade¬
offs with other resource values must be thoroughly
understood before water-yield-improvement pro¬
grams are undertaken; and (2) significant environ¬
mental and economic consequences likely to result
from alternative watershed management programs
can be predicted before action is taken. These facts
make sound decisions for vegetation treatment pos¬
sible.

Research results suggest the following poten¬
tial increases in water yield from the vegetation
types studied:

Mixed conifer, ponderosa pine

Though mixed conifer forests occupy only
0.4 percent of Arizona, they supply 6 percent of
the streamflow. By applying a system of patchcut¬
ting wherever harvesting is permitted, it appears
about 20,000 acre-feet of additional water from
the Salt-Verde Basin can be delivered to users an¬
nually. By cutting small openings over one-sixth of
the forest every 20 years, wildlife habitat and graz¬
ing resources can be improved along with water
yield.

Water yield research in ponderosa pine has
been conducted mostly on volcanic soils. These
soils underlie 57 percent of the ponderosa pine for¬
ests in the Salt-Verde Basin. From them, an average
net increase of 23,000 acre-feet of surface runoff
appears feasible. Smaller increases may also be pos¬
sible from forests growing on more porous sedi¬
mentary soils. More research is needed here.

These studies also demonstrate that manage¬
ment programs can be designed to produce sig-

▲ Prescribed fire may help increase streamflow.

nificant improvement in timber, livestock forage,
big game habitat, and esthetic benefits as well as
water increases. Further, such improvements can
be achieved with reasonably small increases in man¬
agement and treatment costs, if sufficient attention
is paid to quality control.

Pinyon-juniper, chaparral

In the pinyon-juniper type, little water-yield
increase was realized, even with extensive tree re¬
moval. One exception was where trees were killed
by chemicals and left standing. Current environ¬
mental constraints, however, probably rule out this
type of treatment.

The most notable benefit from pinyon-juniper
removal was increased forage for livestock. Even
so, in only the most successful conversion experi¬
ments did economic benefits equal the cost of do¬
ing the job.

Chaparral studies suggest small irregular
patches be converted to grass wherever steep
slopes, wilderness, special scenic values, or other
constraints do not prohibit this treatment. For
areas where conversion is environmentally safe, and
benefits exceed costs, there is a potential to aug¬
ment net water yield by 30,000 acre-feet per year
in the Salt-Verde Basin. Erosion may increase dur¬
ing early years following conversion. Long-term
erosion is reduced, however, because grass provides
better soil protection than chaparral. Successful
conversions increase livestock forage and food for
wildlife, and add visual variety to the landscape.

2

Studies on streamside shrubs and trees suggest
about 33 percent of the land supporting this vege¬
tation in Arizona can be treated to convert plants
that are heavy users of water to other types. In¬
cluded in this figure are lands both within and out¬
side of the Salt-Verde Basin. By applying appro¬
priate treatments, about 130,000 acre-feet of water
could be salvaged State-wide annually. Most of the
treatable areas are along the Colorado and lower
Gila Rivers.

Where conversion is being planned, re¬
searchers recommend that variety in plants be re¬
tained, so that multiple-use values and visual diver¬
sity can be achieved.

In total, research findings suggest approxi¬
mately 73,000 acre- feet of water might be added
to the average annual streamflow within the Salt-
Verde Basin through careful management of moun¬
tain watersheds. Additional increases in Arizona’s
water supply may be realized from other river
basins, particularly in chaparral, ponderosa pine,
and mixed conifer country. However, more data is
needed from these areas before reliable estimates
can be made.

Also, 130,000 acre-feet might be salvaged
each year by modification of streamside vegetation
throughout the state.

Mix of uses

Researchers believe these increases are pos¬
sible without detrimental impacts on other re¬
sources. In fact, environmental diversity and pro¬
ductivity may be enhanced by proper watershed
treatment.

These findings, however, do not mean public
lands will be managed primarily to obtain increased
water yield. Management of some areas may well
favor other resources of higher value, with any
water yield improvements coming as a byproduct.

Land managers and concerned publics are
working together to determine the most beneficial
mix of uses for Arizona’s public lands. Research is
providing data on water yield potential, the effects
of watershed management on other resources, and
the costs and benefits of water yield improvement
programs.

Where is Arizona watershed research headed?
The Rocky Mountain Station has turned most of
its studies on streamside vegetation over to other

agencies. Ponderosa pine and piny on-juniper work
at the Station’s Flagstaff Laboratory, and mixed
conifer and chaparral investigations at its Tempe
location, are being re-directed to evaluate the con¬
sequences of all types of natural resource manage¬
ment on all affected resources. Working together,
scientists, economists, and resource managers are
formulating mathematical models to simulate fu¬
ture results of alternative land management pro¬
grams. (For more information on this new research
direction, read “Tools for Land-use Planning” in
the February, 1975, issue of Forestry Research:
What’s New in the West.)

Reports available

For detailed results of Arizona watershed re¬
search, write to the Rocky Mountain Station, Fort
Collins, Colorado, for any of the following papers:

Horton, Jerome S., and C. J. Campbell, 1974.
Management of Phreatophyte and Riparian Vegeta¬
tion for Maximum Multiple Use Values. USDA
Forest Serv. Res. Pap. RM-1 17-FR5. 23 p.

Hibbert, Alden R., Edwin A. Davis, and David
G. Scholl. 1974. Chaparral Conversion Potential in
Arizona. Part I: Water Yield Response and Effects
on Other Resources. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap.
RM-126-FR5. 36 p.

Brown, Thomas C., Paul F. O’Connell, and
Alden R. Hibbert. 1974. Chaparral Conversion Po¬
tential in Arizona. Part II: An Economic Analysis.
USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. RM-127-FR5. 28 p.

Clary, Warren P., Malchus B. Baker, Jr., Paul
F. O’Connell, Thomas N. Johnsen, Jr., and Ralph
E. Campbell. 1974. Effects of Piny on-juniper Re¬
moval on Natural Resource Products and Uses in
Arizona. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. RM-128-
FR5. 28 p.

Brown, Harry E., Malchus B. Baker, James L.
Rogers, Warren P. Clary, J. L. Kovner, Frederic R.
Larson, Charles C. Avery, and Ralph E. Campbell.
1974. Opportunities for Increasing Water Yields
and Other Multiple Use Values on Ponderosa Pine
Forest Lands. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap.
RM-129-FR5. 36 p.

Rich, Lowell R., and J. R. Thompson. 1974.
Watershed Management in Arizona’s Mixed Conifer
Forests: The Status of Our Knowledge. USDA For¬
est Serv. Res. Pap. RM-130-FR5. 15 p.

— By Phil Johnson, Rocky Mountain Station

3

Managing true fir in California

Red fir and white fir of high-elevation Cali¬
fornia forests are among the most impor¬
tant timber types in the State — for production of
wood, protection of snow-zone watersheds, and en¬
hancement of recreation areas. But management of
true fir forests presents many problems. One of the
most pressing is how to get good natural or artifi¬
cial regeneration after old-growth stands have been
logged.

▼ Logging of overstory released these young trees.

Researchers of the Pacific Southwest Forest
and Range Experiment Station are working on this
and other aspects of true fir management in Cali¬
fornia. Some studies have been under way for a
long time: Station research on red and white fir at
the Swain Mountain Experimental Forest in north¬
eastern California and Stanislaus Experimental
Forest in the central Sierra Nevada, for example,
started in the 1950’s. Other experiments are much
newer, initiated in response to the current need for
answers to such questions as how to raise sturdier
seedlings in the nursery, or how to stock young-
growth stands for maximum timber yield.

For the past 15 years, research forester
Donald T. Gordon of the Station’s Redding, Cali¬
fornia, unit, has specialized in research on true fir.
Gordon is currently experimenting with shelter-
wood cuttings and small clearcuttings at Swain
Mountain. From the shelterwood study, he wants
to determine how many trees should be left to get
adequate natural regeneration, and how to log the
shelterwood stand without damaging seedlings. The
shelterwood study plots have 10, 20, and 30 leave-
trees per acre.

On the clearcut sites, Gordon wants to see
how the size of a clearcut opening, and the orienta¬
tion of the cutting edge (toward or away from the
wind) affect natural regeneration in the openings
and wind damage to the stands surrounding these
clearings. His approach has been to enlarge the size
of 2- and 3-chain wide strips (a chain is 66 feet),
increasing the width of strips by cutting 2 chains
windward and 1 chain leeward.

Gordon also is looking into seed production;
noting stand damage from insects, diseases, and
other causes; measuring the effects of solar radia-

tion on fir growth; and determining the composi¬
tion of low-growing vegetation in true fir stands.

Two of Gordon’s colleagues at Redding, re¬
search foresters William W. Oliver and Robert F.
Powers, also are studying true fir. Oliver is trying
to determine what the best stocking level is for
wood production in young sawtimber stands of
mixed red and white fir. Powers is doing research
on the nutrient needs of white fir.

Entomologist George T. Ferrell of Berkeley is
working with Robert F. Scharpf, a Station plant
pathologist, on a risk-rating system. When com¬
pleted, silviculturists and others can use the system
to decide what the probability is that a given red or
white fir will eventually succumb to attack by in¬
sects or diseases. The system will be based upon
easily identified external characteristics, such as
percentage of live crown, quality and quantity of
cone crop, or condition of bark. The system should
be ready for use in both young-growth and old-
growth stands throughout the State by 1978.

The parasite dwarfmistletoe is a persistent and
pervasive problem in California’s true fir forests.
Plant pathologist Scharpf is working on ways to
reduce the amount of damage the parasite does in
managed stands of second-growth fir.

With plant pathologists from the National
Forests of California, Scharpf is doing an investiga¬
tion of the impact populations of dwarfmistletoe
have on red fir. And, with J. R. Parmeter, a UC
Berkeley plant pathologist, Scharpf is studying the
buildup and rate-of-spread of dwarfmistletoe in re¬
leased red and white fir. As part of this project,
Scharpf and Parmeter are doing research on the
canker-forming fungus, Cytospora abietis, which
often (but not always) grows on dwarfmistletoe
swellings.

Berkeley geneticists M. Thompson Conkle,
PSW Station; and William J. Libby, University of
California, are trying to learn how family and
geographic origin influence the growth of white fir.
Their intent is to find out whether it is best to use
seed from local sources, or seed from other forests,
when planting California sites. The trees in their
study were grown from seed collected in different
parts of the white fir range — California, Oregon,
and the Rocky Mountain States. These trees are
now 12 years old and are located in five California
plantations of different site quality, climate, and
elevation.

*

s ?

S£:-

A Twinned trees are susceptible to wind damage.

James L. Jenkinson, a plant physiologist with
the Station in Berkeley, is evaluating the effect
seed source has on growth of California red fir and
white fir that are planted on high-elevation true fir
sites. Jenkinson plans to compare the two species
and hopes to determine how important geographic
source and seed parent are. Seed collections for
this study are from the Sierra Nevada populations
of white fir, and from the Sierra Nevada and Cas¬
cade Range (California portion) populations of red
fir. The first crop of test seedlings will be out-
planted next spring in the Cascade-Sierra Nevada
chain on six or more sites that are typical of Cali¬
fornia’s commercial true fir lands.

In another new study, Jenkinson and Robert
V. Bega, plant pathologist at PSW (Berkeley), are
trying to find out when to fumigate nursery soil
for protection of red and white fir planting stock,
and how much fumigant to use. The nursery por¬
tion of their study is being done at the Forest Ser¬
vice’s Placerville Nursery, located in the foothills of
the west-side Sierra Nevada. According to Jenkin¬
son, climatic conditions there are almost ideal for
raising fir. However, the warm soil temperatures
are conducive to root rots, which in turn are a
threat to the young red and white fir. The problem
of the fir’s susceptibility to root diseases is com¬
pounded by the fact that both the firs need to

5

remain in most nurseries for two growing seasons
before they are sturdy enough to outplant. This
means that root-rot fungus established in fir during
their first year can (and usually do) increase during
the second nursery season.

At regular intervals, Bega and Jenkinson will
check the fir seedlings in the nursery and later at
the planting sites for any sign of root disease. Their
work may help to increase the field survival of
planting stock grown in the Placerville area, and
should also aid nurserymen working in other re¬
gions where soil conditions are similar.

For this review of PSW research on the true
firs, the PACFORNET service center in California
(formerly CALFORNET — see Forestry Research,
August, 1974) conducted a manual and a com¬
puter-based literature search of several data bases.
These searches produced 3 informal bibliographies,
totalling some 150 reports and publications that
various agencies have prepared. The bibliographies
are available from the Pacific Southwest Station.
Ask for the PACFORNET FR5 package of bibliog¬
raphies on red fir and white fir.

Among these entries are about 20 PSW Sta¬
tion reports. Some are recent; some are earlier pub¬
lications that are still in demand.

Seed maturity

One of the more recent reports is “Seed Ma¬
turity in White Fir and Red Fir,” a paper in wliich
William W. Oliver gives some tips on how to tell
when fir seeds are ripe and ready to be collected.
Seeds are probably mature, Oliver says, if the wings
are an even brown, with a deep magenta trim along
the outside edge; if the seeds themselves are free
of — or are only loosely attached to — the cone
scale; and if embryos are completely green and fill
the entire embryo cavity. Details of this study are
in Research Paper PSW-99-FR5.

In a paper issued earlier this year, entomolo¬
gists George Ferrell and Ralph Hall say that if there
is a slowdown in the growth rate of white fir, and a
below-normal amount of precipitation, there may
be an increase in the number of white fir killed by
fir engraver or by roundheaded fir borer. More in¬
formation on this study is in “Weather and Tree
Growth Associated with White Fir Mortality
Caused by Fir Engraver and Roundheaded Fir
Borer,” Research Paper PSW-109-FR5.

Also published this year is a Forest Pest Leaf¬
let (146) on “ Cytospora Canker of True Firs.”
Robert Scharpf of PSW co-authored this booklet
with H. H. Bynum (formerly of the Rogue River
National Forest, now deceased). They reported
that the fungus, Cytospora abietis, exerts some de¬
gree of biological control over dwarfmistletoe, in
that the fungus can establish itself on dwarfmistle-
toe-parasitized limbs and, within 6 months to 2
years, can girdle and kill the swollen branches. It’s
still not known whether this way of ridding a tree
of dwarfmistletoe-invaded areas ends up increasing
or decreasing the vigor of the tree. But, the authors
suspect that Cytospora does more harm than good,
and include in the Leaflet some tips on how to
reduce damage from this disease. For copies, write
the PSW Station.

Experimental logging

An earlier paper worth a second look is Don
Gordon’s write-up of his experiments with release
cuttings at the Swain Mountain Experimental
Forest. In this report (Research Paper PSW-95-
FR5) Gordon shows how effective release cuttings
can be. Before the experimental logging at Swain
Mountain, 39- to 45-year-old understory trees, 2.2
to 5 feet in height, were putting on only 0. 1 to 0.2
foot in height per year. Five years after the release
cuttings, however, most trees “were growing faster
than before,” Gordon states. Trees that were given
the greatest amount of growing space made the
most progress, increasing their growth rate an aver¬
age of four times. What about the often-heard
statement that both red and white fir grow very
slowly for the first 30 or 40 years? It is probably
true, Gordon says, for uncut stands where under¬
stories are suppressed and therefore unable to
make the growth increases he documented at
Swain Mountain*

The scientists doing true fir research are avail¬
able to answer questions about their studies. Write
to the Berkeley scientists at the PSW Station, P.O.
Box 245, Berkeley, CA 94701, or phone (415)
486-3382 (after Dec. 1, FTS users phone
449-3382). For the Redding staff, write PSW Sta¬
tion, 1615 Continental Street, Redding, CA 96001,
or phone (916) 246-5455 (FTS after Dec. 1 is
461-8455).

— By Marcia Wood, Pacific Southwest Station

6

A recipe for cleaner campgrounds

Children in National Forest campgrounds
throughout the Pacific Northwest have be¬
come litter fighters. These young anti-litterbugs are
helping to reverse an expensive and high¬
ly objectionable trend. Instead of
tossing a candy wrapper or emp¬
ty can on the ground, the new
generation picks up dis¬
carded trash, places it in
a bag provided by the
campground atten¬
dant, and turns the
bag in for a well-
earned reward.

Most observers
agree that tradi¬
tional approaches
to controlling lit¬
ter have not
worked. The litter
continues to build
up, and camp¬
ground workers
spend long hours
and public dollars
cleaning up the de¬
bris.

In 1971, researchers
in a Seattle unit of the
Pacific Northwest Forest
and Range Experiment Station
began investigations into the con¬
trol of litter. The PNW scientists,

Roger Clark and John Hendee, to¬
gether with Robert Burgess, a University of Wash¬
ington sociologist, not only learned a lot about
why people litter, but also developed and tested an
incentive system aimed at solving the litter prob¬
lem.

The initial research took place in two movie

theaters in the Seattle area. Clark points out that
movie theaters were an ideal starting point, because
most moviegoers feel that it is okay to throw emp¬
ty popcorn bags and boxes on the floor.
Saturday matinees, with their
large audience of children, were
selected for the theater phase
of research. Over a 14-week
period, researchers hand¬
ed out litter bags, in¬
creased the number of
trash cans and made
them more con¬
spicuous, and show¬
ed a short film
with a strong anti¬
litter message. Lit¬
tering behavior
was measured, in
order to deter¬
mine the response
of the viewing
audience to these
traditional anti¬
litter measures. The
results of this early
work indicated that
these conventional ap¬
proaches did not work —
almost half the litter re¬
mained on the floor.

In the next step, investigators
implemented a system to reinforce
anti-litter behavior. Children were of¬
fered several types of incentives for picking up
trash and seeing that it was properly disposed of.
With one group, the reward was a free ticket to a
specially-scheduled matinee; with another test
group, the award was one thin dime. The results of
the incentive system were im- (continued on p. 8)

7

a The incentive system cuts litter about 75 percent.

pressive. Children in both test groups picked up
more than 90 percent of the litter.

The Lake Kachess campground on the
Wenatchee National Forest in Washington state was
the scene for phase two of the research. Baseline
data was again gathered in order to determine the
amount and type of litter commonly found in the
campground. The researchers then approached 26
children from seven camping families and asked if
they would like to help in a litter pickup program.

The children were told that in exchange for
picking up litter they would be able to choose
from rewards such as a Smokey Bear comic book
or shoulder patch, a Junior Forest Ranger badge, a
small box of gum, a wooden ruler, or a “Keep
Washington Green” pin. With litterbags clutched
tightly in their small hands, the children worked
through the campground. According to Clark, the
results of this experiment and the many which fol¬
lowed suggested that litter can be reduced by
about 75 percent when using this incentive system.

Campgrounds are obviously only a part of the
total litter problem. Dispersed camping areas and
hiking trails also accumulate litter. It was to one of
these areas that the researchers next turned. Both

the design of the study and the results were similar
to the previous outdoor experiments. In the dis¬
persed camping area, there was a 75 percent reduc¬
tion from previous litter levels when the re¬
searchers offered incentives to the children of
camping families.

Results such as those found by the PNW
recreation research unit are of particular interest to
land managers who face constantly rising costs and
lower operating budgets. The practical applications
of this simple incentive system have obvious es¬
thetic and monetary advantages. Clark points out
that an evaluation of one of the controlled experi¬
ments indicated that the incentive system was far
more effective and much less costly than routine
litter pickup by campground personnel. In one
area, each bag of litter collected by Forest Service
maintenance personnel cost about $8.30 in wages.
Each bag of litter collected and turned in by one of
the young volunteers cost about $0.50 in prizes.
The time involved in contacting the families, lining
up the children, and handing out the rewards is
minimal. Both the money and manpower saved can
be used for other important duties.

The litter incentive program has some other,
not so obvious, benefits. Children who take part in
the program leave their camping experience with at
least the beginnings of a new environmental aware¬
ness. The small, inexpensive rewards, which are
readily available at most Ranger Stations, are a re¬
minder of why they were earned. Some of this
awareness also rubs off on both Mom and Pop,
who are also part of the litter program.

S /id e- tape program

The use of the litter incentive program has led
to the development of some simple guidelines. Ac¬
cording to Clark, the first contact should be with
parents. Once the anti-litter campaign is explained,
there is no problem in getting children to volun¬
teer. The program seems to work best when the
children are shown their incentives before begin¬
ning the litter pickup. Young children have been
successfully teamed with older ones. These and
other points are discussed and demonstrated in
“The Incentive System for Litter Control,” a
25-minute slide-tape program available from the
Seattle research group (see address at end of ar¬
ticle).

8

Since the initial research in 1971, Clark and
his colleagues have been working with land mana¬
gers from a variety of agencies to implement the
program. The feedback from both the managers
and the public has been very favorable and it ap¬
pears that the incentive system is well on its way to
becoming an established program.

The recipe for success in controlling camp¬
ground litter is simple. Take the energy and in¬
terest of youth, mix it evenly with paper and cans,
add a dash of incentive, and top the resulting mix¬
ture with a very small portion of your own time
and budget.

Some publications on the subject include:

Burgess, Robert L., Roger N. Clark, and John
C. Hendee. 1971. An Experimental Analysis of
Anti-litter Procedures. J. Appl. Behav. Anal.
4(2) : 7 1-75.

Clark, Roger N., Robert L. Burgess, and John
C. Hendee. 1972. The Development of Anti-litter
Behavior in a Forest Campground. J. Appl. Behav.
Anal. 5(1): 1-5.

Clark, Roger N., John C. Hendee, and Robert
L. Burgess. 1972. The Experimental Control of
Littering./. Environ. Educ. 4(2):22-28.

Clark, Roger N., John C. Hendee, and Randel
F. Washburne. 1972. Litterbags: An Evaluation of
Their Use. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Note
PNW-184-FR5. 5 p.

For copies of these papers, or of the slide-tape
program, write: Recreation Research Project, PNW
Forest and Range Experiment Station, 4507 Uni¬
versity Way, NE, Seattle, Washington 98105, or
phone (206) 442-7817.

— By Thomas M. Baugh, Pacific Northwest Station

New program on timber use

PLUM

CREEK

LUMBER CO

On the Flathead National Forest in Montana,
forest managers, scientists, and a timber company
are cooperating in studies to find ways to harvest
and utilize timber more efficiently without creat¬
ing unacceptable impacts on the forest environ¬
ment.

The studies, part of a special 5-year research
and development program, are defining quantities
and characteristics of wood residues, and evaluat¬
ing harvesting and transportation systems to re¬
cover and use more of the residues.

R. L. Barger, manager of the program, says
the research group is devoting a major part of their
effort to monitoring the environmental impact of
logging and associated activities.

Copies of “Skyline Logging, Close Timber
Utilization, The Forest Environment,” a brochure
describing the studies, may be obtained by writing
to the Intermountain Forest and Range Experi¬
ment Station, Ogden. □

•« Large and small stems were removed in this sale.

9

Surface mining poses questions

Coal provides energy people need. But
people also need the forests, rangelands,
and clean water above vast surface-minable coal
deposits in the Western States.

From that dilemma spring complex questions
for land managers. “How good are the chances for
replacing surface vegetation after mining?” “What
is the best rehabilitation method at this site?”

Forest Service researchers at the Inter¬
mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station
are seeking answers to these questions — both on a

broad scale and in specific studies. Much of the
work is being done as part of the Forest Service’s
“SEAM” (Surface Environment and Mining) Pro¬
gram. The purpose of SEAM is to research, devel¬
op, and apply technology to maintain a quality
environment while helping meet the nation’s min¬
eral and energy requirements.

Paul E. Packer, watershed project leader for
the Intermountain Station at Logan, Utah, recently
completed a study in the four-state area of the
Northern Great Plains that contains most of the

▼

The Decker Coal Mine in southeastern Montana is the site of continuing research on revegetating surface-mined lands.

Nation’s Federally-owned coal. He combined pre¬
cipitation, soil, and plant characteristics in a
system to predict how successful rehabilitation
might be on lands that contain surface-minable
coal and bentonite clay (an industrial filler mate¬
rial). He used the system to classify 4,062 square
miles in Wyoming, Montana, North Dakota, and
South Dakota into “rehabilitation-response units.”
The study encompassed 146 areas in 36 counties of
the four-state region. At the time of his research,
22 surface coal mines and one bentonite mine were
operating in the region.

Packer found that the rehabilitation potential
of lands likely to be surface mined in this area
ranges from fair to excellent if proper constraints
are applied. He says factors that must be con¬
sidered in predicting rehabilitation success include:
(1) steepness of slopes; (2) effective disposition of
toxic mine spoils; and (3) need for mulches, fer¬
tilizers, soil amendments, and irrigation water in
restoring plant cover.

Sites with the highest rehabilitation potential
generally are in west-central North Dakota where
the best soils, the highest precipitation, and the
largest variety of native plants suitable for revegeta¬
tion occur. Intermediate sites are principally in
southeastern Montana and extreme western North
Dakota. Sites with the poorest rehabilitation po¬
tentials are in northeastern Wyoming and north¬
eastern Montana, where soils are poor, precipita¬
tion is low, and native plants grow slowly and are
difficult to obtain for large-scale plantings.

Packer learned that those parts of the North¬
ern Great Plains with the most difficult rehabilita¬
tion problems are also the smallest areas that
would have to be disturbed to extract a given
amount of coal. He cautions that every site must
be considered individually — all ecological and eco¬
nomic factors must be thoroughly examined to
determine the feasibility and desirability of surface
mining. A complete description of Packer’s find¬
ings is in the publication, “Rehabilitation Poten¬
tials and Limitations of Surface-Mined Land in the
Northern Great Plains,” General Technical Report
INT-14-FR5.

First-year results of a specific study to find
the most efficient way to provide acceptable plant
cover on surface-minded lands are available in a
report by Eugene E. Farmer, Ray W. Brown, Bland
Z. Richardson, and Paul E. Packer. The results are
guiding continuing research on revegetating

tests™
stuov m '

▲ Research plots are located on graded mine spoils.

surface-mined lands at the Decker Coal Mine in
southeastern Montana. The Decker Mine is ex¬
pected to develop into one of the largest surface
coal mines in the United States. The research plots
provided the knowledge necessary to establish re¬
habilitation demonstration areas. The demonstra¬
tion areas are open to industry and the public.

In the Decker research, plots are located on
graded mine spoils created in reaching coal deposits
60 feet below the surface. Grass seed mixtures, and
seed mixtures with fertilizer, mulch, or both, were
applied to irrigated and unirrigated plots, and to
plots with and without added topsoil. The first-
year results show that grass on the plots with top¬
soil, regardless of mulch or fertilizer, grew best.
Several other combinations produced acceptable
grass stands.

If you’d like to know more about the Decker
research, request “Revegetation on the Decker
Coal Mine in Southeastern Montana,” Research
Paper INT-162-FR5, from the Intermountain
Station.

— By Dick Klade, Intermountain Station

11

Publications

Montana forests analyzed

Competing demands for forest land are
forcing a clearer definition of the alternatives
for reaching both commodity and environ¬
mental objectives. “A Descriptive Analysis of
Montana’s Forest Resources,” recently pub¬
lished by the Intermountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station, helps define those alter¬
natives. Authors are Dennis L. Schweitzer,
forest economist, and Robert E. Benson,
research forester, both of the Intermountain
Station; and Richard J. McConnen, head of

the Department of Economics and Agricul¬
tural Economics at Montana State University,
Bozeman.

One-fourth of the State is forest land —
about 23 million acres in all. About 75 per¬
cent of the forest land is federally owned and
most of the rest is in private ownership. Cur¬
rently there is a widespread interest in how
these lands are used and managed. They play
a significant role in Montana’s economy, and
their use greatly influences the environmental
quality of much of the State.

The analysis updates a 1959 report on
the use and development of timber resources
in Montana. The authors have expanded the
scope and content by including data on em¬
ployment, income, and economics. In addi¬
tion, they describe amenity values of critical
importance in forest land use management.

The extent to which Montana’s forest
lands will provide timber in the future hinges
both on the extent of the land base that will
be devoted to timber production and the
quantities of wood harvested from that base.
Although the total area of forest land has re¬
mained almost constant during the last 20
years, the principal timber-producing acreage
has decreased as a result of environmental,
recreation, and other concerns.

There are hundreds of millions of board
feet of timber in unloaded areas of Montana.
Reserving a large portion of those areas from
harvesting would have substantial impacts on
the State’s economy.

Two principal conclusions stand out.
First, Montana no longer has a large surplus of
timber awaiting a market. Second, there is
sharp competition for currently available
wood supplies. The economic values of the
timber resource are important to Montana
and are critical to many individual com¬
munities, especially in western Montana. But
the vitality of the industry is dependent upon
national economic conditions and national
markets that are beyond the State’s control.

The analysis illustrates the challenge
posed to forest resource managers by ex-

12

panded interest in environmental protection,
conflicts among forest users, and intense com¬
petition for wood supplies. The authors hope
their report will be a step toward resolving the
conflicts between users of forest land.

Copies of the report, Resource Bulletin
INT-11-FR5, are available from the Inter¬
mountain Station.

Nitrogen for Douglas-fir

Research continues to show the value of
nitrogen fertilizer for speeding the growth of
the Douglas-fir forest. The most recent evi¬
dence is a study of the Wind River Experi¬
mental Forest in southwestern Washington,
where ammonium nitrate has improved
growth of trees in a 37-year-old Douglas-fir
plantation. The trees were growing on a poor
site that was deficient in nitrogen. Fertilizer
was applied at rates of 140, 280, and 420
pounds per acre.

Four years after fertilization, substantial
increases were reported in height, diameter,
and basal area (see “Growth Response of
35-year-old, Site V Douglas-fir to Nitrogen
Fertilizer,” Research Note PNW-86-FR5, by
Donald F. Reukema). Seven years after treat¬
ment, the benefits from fertilizing were still
apparent. For example, trees averaged 2.3
inches more in diameter on the most heavily
fertilized plots. And, height growth in these
plots averaged 7.1 feet, or 89 percent more
than growth on the unfertilized plots.

Maximum gain in growth, however, oc¬
curred on the sites treated with 280 pounds
of fertilizer. One reason for this was the high
incidence of snow breakage to smaller trees
on the most heavily fertilized plots. Ap¬
parently, better nutrition resulted in longer
needles, which in turn increased wind resis¬
tance and the accumulation of snow on
branches. The mortality of trees treated with
280 and 420 pounds of nitrogen was twice as
great as that which occurred on the un¬
fertilized or the lightly fertilized (140 pounds

per acre) plots. This doesn’t mean you
shouldn’t use the higher dosage: It means you
should be careful where and how it is applied.
For example, in areas prone to winter break¬
age, foresters may need to adjust nitrogen
dosage.

An additional benefit can be obtained by
combining fertilization with thinning, espe¬
cially in young, natural stands on low-quality
sites. In this way, increased growth can be
concentrated on fewer trees.

See “Seven-year Response of 35-year-old
Douglas-fir to Nitrogen Fertilizer,” Research
Paper PNW-165-FR5, by R. E. Miller and
F. V. Pienaar.

Scotch pine report

Rocky Mountain Station scientists in the
Great Plains are searching for trees that will
grow well in that harsh environment. Scotch
pine holds promise of being such a tree.

Richard A. Cunningham and Ralph A.
Read have published reports on growth rate,
form, and winter foliage color of Scotch pine
grown from seed collected across Europe and
northern Asia. Cunningham, now with Forest
Service Region 2, Denver, was formerly asso¬
ciate plant geneticist at Bottineau, North
Dakota; Read is principal silviculturist at
Lincoln, Nebraska.

Seedlings from 49 seed sources were
planted in North Dakota in the early sixties.
Cunningham (“Scotch Pine for the Northern
Great Plains,” Research Paper RM-114-FR5)
reports that trees from central Russian and
Ural Mountain sources appear best suited for
Northern Great Plains shelterbelts. Though
winter foliage turns yellow-green, these trees
grow rapidly while retaining satisfactory
crown density and good survival rates, essen¬
tial features in shelterbelt development. Seed
from Turkey produces slower growing trees
with dense, uniform crowns and year-round
blue-green foliage, ideal Christmas tree charac¬
teristics.

13

In 1962 Read established a plantation in
Nebraska from 36 European and Asian seed
sources (“Scots Pine in Eastern Nebraska: A
Provenance Study,” Research Paper
RM-78-FR5). The best Christmas trees grew
from seed origins in southern latitudes, such
as Turkey, Spain, and southern France. Seed
from Belgium and the Vosges Mountains of
France and Germany yielded trees high in de¬
sired characteristics for Central Great Plains
shelterbelt planting. Read also noted that
northern European and northern Siberian
trees, which turn yellow in winter, may prove
useful for ornamental purposes where color
contrast is desired.

Elk and timothy grass

Using fertilizers to stimulate the growth
of grass in clearcut areas may provide un¬
expected benefits for wildlife. Scientists at
the PNW Station’s Range and Wildlife Habitat
Faboratory in Fa Grande, Oregon, reported
on this subject in Rangeman’s Journal. The
authors of “ ‘Yukky to Yummy’ — with Fer¬
tilizers” are J. Michael Geist, Paul Edgerton,
and Gerald Strickler.

The three scientists based a field study
of fertilization on laboratory findings which
indicated that nitrogen and sulfur aided the
growth of timothy grass on volcanic ash soils.
The 36-acre plot used in the study had been
clearcut and the slash had been burned. Ten-
by-fifteen-foot subplots were then treated
with different fertilizers in varying amounts
or were left unfertilized.

Although elk were known to use the
area, the scientists didn’t feel this would have
any significant effect on their study. Past ex¬
perience had shown that elk only grazed
timothy grass when other preferred forage
was not available.

But as soon as the timothy grass began
to grow, the elk started to graze the fertilized
plots. The type of fertilizer didn’t seem to
matter and the researchers were able to rule

out increased protein as a possible attractant.

The scientists are the first to admit that
their unexpected research results are “frag¬
mentary” and that additional study would be
necessary before they could recommend this
practice to increase forage for elk. But it cer¬
tainly is worth studying further, and may be
worth trying in some situations.

Reprints of the December, 1974, article
may be obtained from the Pacific Northwest
Forest and Range Experiment Station.

Quick test of sagebrush

Sagebrush is just sagebrush to most
people, but to mule deer and game managers
in the Intermountain area, it comes in 20 or
more flavors. Deer eat only about half of two
dozen types in the Intermountain area — with
a distinct preference for the Vasey big sage¬
brush ( Artemisia tridentata subsp. vaseyana).

A technique has been developed by
Richard Stevens, a game biologist of the Utah
Division of Wildlife Resources, and E. Durant
McArthur, research geneticist, Intermountain
Forest and Range Experiment Station, that
provides an on-the-spot field test that game
managers can use to quickly identify the
Vasey big sagebrush. An inexpensive mineral
light, similar to those used by rockhounds, is
the only piece of equipment required.

Mineral light identification is simple:
The user merely crushes some sagebrush
leaves in a small dish, or in the palm of his
hand, and adds a little water. Next, he finds a
dark place, and turns the light on the leaves.
If the color is an intense blue, he has found
one of the deer’s favorites, because all taxa
producing blue water extracts are preferred
by mule deer.

Reprints of “A Simple Field Technique
for Identification of Some Sagebrush Taxa”
{Journal of Range Management 27(4): 325-
326) are available from the Intermountain
Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden.

14

Shoot moth attractant

Another insect has recently joined the
growing list of forest pests that may be con¬
trolled with the help of pheromones or sex
attractants. This time it is the European pine
shoot moth, an imported pest of pine forests.

Forest Service entomologists, and chem¬
ists from the Oregon Graduate Center in Port¬
land, Oregon, have identified the chemical
nature of the moth’s attractant, duplicated it
in the laboratory, and tested it successfully
there and in the field. The chemical, (E)-9-
dodecenyl acetate, is now being used in sur¬
vey programs to locate infestation centers in
the Pacific Northwest.

The pine shoot moth is of special con¬
cern because it attacks young trees and could
be a major threat to pine plantations. The
shoot moth was introduced to the Eastern
United States in 1914 and was first reported
in the West in 1959. So far, its tour of the
West has been limited to ornamentals, com¬
mercial nurseries, and Christmas tree planta¬
tions. Although strict quarantine methods are
enforced, the moth could work its way into
the woods. But use of the new artificial at¬
tractant reduces the chance that the shoot
moth will ever get a firm foothold in western
pine forests.

Read all about it in “Sex Pheromone of
the European Pine Shoot Moth: Chemical
Identification and Field Tests,” by Ronald G.
Smith and others (Daterman, Daves,
McMurtrey, and Roelofs), a reprint from In¬
sect Physiology, 20(4):661-668.

Christmas tree study

When you take your family to a sales lot
to buy your Christmas tree this year, you will
probably go through the lot again and again,
searching for the “perfect tree.” Finally, after
your feet are blocks of ice, the family will
agree on one that will give your home the
“Christmas card” look.

If you live in the Intermountain States,
chances are the tree you selected was a
Douglas-fir, king of the Christmas tree in¬
dustry in the northern Rockies. In the last
three decades, practically all of the more than
80 million Christmas trees grown in Montana,
for example, were Douglas-fir.

Inherent in Douglas-fir are many de¬
sirable qualities — good retention of the soft,
short needles, a deep green color, and a pleas¬
ant aroma. But this is still not enough for the
average buyers. They want their trees to be
uniform in shape, and certainly the trees must
have nice, thick crowns.

The Christmas tree grower in the nor¬
thern Rockies isn’t very happy about such dis¬
crimination among buyers. Most of the
grower’s crop comes from natural, wild
stands. All you have to do is walk through a
stand of trees in a forest to realize that the
“perfect tree” is a rarity. This grower is taking
a beating in the market. Montana’s share of
the Christmas tree market has dropped to less
than half of the level it was during the 1 940’s.
One of the biggest reasons for this decline is
that buyers are purchasing trees harvested
from cultured stands, where the most de¬
sirable qualities can be carefully nurtured.

Deciding that, “If you can’t lick ’em,
join ’em,” the tree producers of the northern

15

Rockies are now using various cultural
methods in the natural stands of Douglas-fir.
However, many growers are uncertain
whether they are benefiting from such
methods and are uncertain which methods
will yield the greatest number of marketable
trees.

The Intermountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station has published the results
of a 10-year study of three commonly-used
Christmas tree culture methods. Wyman C.
Schmidt, silviculturist, reported in “Christmas
Tree Culture in Natural Stands of Douglas-fir
in Montana,” that the quantity and quality of
trees can be increased with planned stocking,
basal pruning, and thinning. For more infor¬
mation, write to the Intermountain Station
for copies of Research Paper INT-84-FR5.

▼ Douglas-fir on Montana’s Helena National Forest.

Watersheds of the Rockies

Researchers at the Rocky Mountain Sta¬
tion have completed six “status-of-our-
knowledge” papers on watershed management
research in the Rocky Mountains of Wyo¬
ming, Colorado, and New Mexico, and the
Black Hills of South Dakota. This information
was previously scattered throughout numer¬
ous articles, publications, and notes. Much of
it had never been documented in the litera¬
ture. The new papers synthesize and organize
40 years of published and unpublished results
into one series.

Each of the first five papers cover a vege¬
tation type, or geographic area, important to
water yield and quality. The authors describe:
(l)what is known about the hydrology of
principal vegetation zones and (2) how this
knowledge can best be applied to meet multi¬
resource management objectives. They also in¬
clude a thorough reference list. A sixth paper
summarizes the series.

Alpine areas, subalpine zone

Research meteorologist Mario Martinelli,
Jr., of Fort Collins, Colorado, says in his re¬
port (Research Paper RM-138, “Water-Yield
Improvement from Alpine Areas”) little can
be done to increase the volume of annual
stream flow from mountains above timberline.
These watersheds naturally yield up to 90 per¬
cent of the moisture they receive as rain and
snow. What can be changed, however, is the
time of year snowmelt is released to stream-
flow.

Martinelli describes the potential for us¬
ing snow fences or other types of structures
to deepen natural snowdrifts. This practice re¬
tards snowmelt until later in the summer
when there is greater need for water down¬
stream. He also points out how fences can be
used to reduce hazards such as the build-up of
snow in avalanche starting zones or the drift
of snow across mountain highways.

16

Charles E. Leaf, formerly a research
hydrologist at Fort Collins, Colorado, is the
author of Research Paper RM-137, “Water¬
shed Management in the Rocky Mountain
Subalpine Zone.” Leaf says patchcutting to
create small openings over 40 percent of a
densely forested subalpine watershed may in¬
crease annual water yield by 25 percent. With
careful planning, a timber harvest can create a
pattern of openings that enhances esthetics,
wildlife habitat, and timber production.

Leaf and his associates have developed a
computer model land managers can use to
predict how alternative management pro¬
posals will affect water and timber resources.

Ponderosa pine zone

“Watershed Management Problems and
Opportunities for the Colorado Front Range
Ponderosa Pine Zone” (Research Paper
RM-139) is Howard L. Gary’s contribution to
the series. Gary, a research forester at Fort
Collins, Colorado, suggests some water yield
improvement can be obtained in the ponder¬
osa pine zone by following the patchcutting
procedures suggested for the subalpine forest.
Gary warns that minimum amounts of litter
and vegetation must be left on the ground to
protect the watershed, but adds that even the
best management practices can’t prevent geo¬
logic processes which are characteristic of the
Front Range. He also points out the threat to
water quality posed by rapid development of
second homes, new communities, and recrea¬
tion complexes in the Zone.

Mountain sagebrush lands

David L. Sturges, a research forester at
Laramie, Wyoming, wrote the summary on
mountain sagebrush lands (“Hydrologic Rela¬
tions on Undisturbed and Converted Big Sage¬
brush Lands,” Research Paper RM-140).
Sturges says a potential exists for increasing

water yield by as much as 13 percent from
sagebrush lands above 7,000 feet in elevation.
This requires removal of sagebrush and con¬
version of ground cover to grass which uses
less water. Forage for livestock can be im¬
proved by this practice. To avoid erosion,
techniques that cause minimal soil disturb¬
ance should be used.

Snow fences can be constructed in key
locations to trap drifting snow and augment
local water supplies.

The Black Hills, summary

According to Howard K. Orr, a research
forester at Rapid City, irregular patchcutting
may increase water yield upstream from sedi¬
mentary geologic formations that ring the
Hills. This is one of the observations he makes
in “Watershed Management in the Black
Hills,” Research Paper RM-141.

Orr points out that old roads, mining ac¬
tivities, and new developments are the great¬
est threats to water quality in the Hills. These
can easily be controlled, however, through
proper land rehabilitation and engineering
design.

For administrators and supervisors,
Charles Leaf has prepared a summary of the
five other papers. It is “Watershed Manage¬
ment in the Central and Southern Rocky
Mountains: A Summary of the Status of Our
Knowledge by Vegetation Types” (Research
Paper RM-142). Administrators will find this
resume provides key hydrologic and water¬
shed management facts helpful to them as
they make land management decisions.

All of these papers may be obtained by
writing to the Rocky Mountain Station. How¬
ever, bulk supplies of the summary paper
(Research Paper RM-142) must be ordered
from: Superintendent of Documents, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington,
D.C. 20402 (please give title, specify stock
number 001-001-00398, and enclose $0.80
per copy).

17

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