Historic, Archive Document Do not assume content reflects current scientific knowledge, policies, or practices. A report for land managers on recent developments in forestry research at the four western Experiment Stations of the Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. F® rest trv In This Issue page Predators and prey — a case of imbalance 1 PLANS: a software package for planning timber harvests 6 Yellowstone: fire prediction's greatest test 10 Special forests for a special owl 15 New from research 18 Cover Scientists at the Rocky Mountain Station are studying the little-known flammulated owl— a bird they believe may be a good indicator species for old-growth ponderosa pine/ Douglas-fir forests in the West. Details begin on page 15 To Order Publications Single copies of publications referred to in this magazine are available without charge from the issuing station unless another source is indicated. See pag< 23 for ordering cards. Each station compiles periodic lists of new publications. To get on the mailing list, write to the director at each station. To change address, notify the magazine as early as possible. Send mailing label from this magazine and new address. Don’t forget to include your Zip Code. Permission to reprint articles is not required, but credit should be given to the Forest Service, U.S.D.A. Mention of commercial products is for information only. No endorse¬ ment by the U.S.D.A. is implied. Western Forest Experiment Stations Pacific Northwest Research Station (PNW) P.O. Box 3890 Portland, Oregon 97208 Pacific Southwest Research Station (PSW) P.O. Box 245 Berkeley, California 94701 Intermountain Research Station (I NT) 324 25th Street Ogden, Utah 84401 Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station (RM) 240 West Prospect Street Fort Collins, Colorado 80526-2098 o Predators and prey— a case of imbalance by Anne Harrison Pacific Southwest Station Fawn survival a problem The size and stealth of the mountain lion makes it a very efficient predator. Predators are usually considered to be beneficial to ungulate populations by keeping animal numbers in balance with the habitat and removing the weak and old individuals. It is also often said that: 1) predators cannot con¬ trol a healthy deer population, and 2) predator numbers are controlled by the prey population size. According to Don Neal, a research scientist with the Pacific South¬ west Station’s (PSW) lab in Fresno, California, a recent cooperative study by PSW and the California Department of Fish and Game has shed light on a situation where these theories appear to break down. In the study area on the west slope of the Sierra Nevada, apparently mountain lion numbers have increased while deer numbers declined to about one- eighth their peak numbers in the 1950s. Neal, along with George Steger (also with PSW), studied the California mule deer in the Sierra Nevada from 1970 to 1985 as part of an interagency effort to reverse the decline. This effort showed that the decline was pri¬ marily due to loss of fawns during the first 6-8 months of life. The focus of the study was the North Kings deer herd, a popula¬ tion of California mule deer. This herd declined from an estimated 17,000 animals in 1950 to about 2,000 animals in 1988. While the initiation of the decline was prob¬ ably a result of overpopulation in the 1940s and 1950s, the lack of recovery seems to be related to heavy predation. The research team captured 96 newborn fawns and equipped them with radio collars over a 7-year period from 1979 to 1985. These radio transmitters not only allowed the researchers to determine the locations of the fawns, but they also sent out a special signal when the fawns died. This allowed researchers to locate the fawns soon after they died and determine the cause of death. They were able to monitor and determine the fate of 90 of these fawns through their first year of life. All the fawns were healthy at time of capture, and their size and weight were comparable to those of fawns from other mule deer herds. During the 7 years of the study, fawn survival ranged from 13 percent to 42 percent and averaged 38 percent. Two percent were killed in accidents, 9 percent died from disease or birth defects, and predators were responsible for the deaths of 51 percent of the fawns. Of those taken by preda¬ tors 3 percent were killed by bob¬ cats, 22 percent by bears, 27 percent by coyotes, and 49 per¬ cent by mountain lions. 1 Map indicates the home ranges of the 14 mountain lions used to estimate density within the study area. Neal and his team were at first surprised by these results, because the general perception was that mountain lions were in very low numbers in California — the State Legislature had placed them under protection in 1971. It was obvious that it would require a healthy mountain lion population to be responsible for the death of an average of 25 percent of all the fawns born each year, as was the case in the North Kings deer herd. A look at the mountain lions The next step was to look at the mountain lion population and gain some understanding of movements and density. They knew this would not be an easy task. So Neal and Steger asked for the cooperation of Ron Bertram of the California Department of Fish and Game. This team uncovered some sur¬ prising results that run contrary to accepted understanding of moun¬ tain lion biology and behavior. First, they selected a 215-square- mile area within the 800-square- mile range of the North Kings deer herd and set out to capture as many lions as time and funding allowed. Over a period of 3 years, they captured, radio equipped, and tracked 22 mountain lions. During the study they discovered 15 adult mountain lions that were using the area but were not radio-equipped, yet were known to be different individuals. The lion locations determined by radio triangulation were computer plotted onto large-scale maps and aerial photos. This gave a good picture of daily and seasonal movements of mountain lions in the study area. Home-range size By plotting the locations of each cat on a map, the scientists were able to determine the size of the animal’s home range and the rela¬ tionships between individual lions. Home ranges of 14 adult lions tracked over 12 months averaged 285 square miles. Those of females averaged 244 and those of males averaged 340 square miles. 2 Seasonal movements Each time a mountain lion was located by radio triangulation and plotted on a map or aerial photo¬ graph, the elevation was also recorded. This combination of location and elevation showed that most of the mountain lions migrated to high elevations in the summer and to lower elevations in the winter, following the patterns of the deer — their traditional prey. However, detailed examination of the data revealed that several of the lions remained at low eleva¬ tions in the foothills and valley edges throughout the year. They were found on ranches and among the rural communities. These lions occupied territories below most of the migrating deer in the winter, and these areas had no deer in the summer. This leaves only small mammals, livestock, and pets for a diet — a good way for a mountain lion to get into trouble. Density With the data on the radio- equipped cats, plus information on the known individuals without radios, the team had the data they needed to estimate mountain lion density. Of the 22 lions captured and radio equipped within the 215-square- mile study area, not all were alive with operating radios during the entire study period. Therefore, one date was selected, January 1, 1987, and only the 14 lions alive and being monitored on that date were used to estimate density. This of course, underestimates the lion density because it does not in¬ clude lions without radios using the area, or those with radios that have quit transmitting. The team recognized that the number of lions using an area, and lion density are not the same thing. Every radio-equipped lion used some area outside of the 215-square-mile study area. They calculated the proportion of each animal’s home range that was within the study area and used that to estimate density. In other words, if a lion’s home range was 50 percent within the study area, it was counted as 0.5 cat. Therefore, the 14 adult cats using the area on January 1, 1987, adjusted to a total of 6.3 lions, or 2.9 per 100 square miles. When the scientists added in the known cats that were not radio-equipped, making a similar adjustment to allow for only partial use of the study area, they calculated the density of adult mountain lions in the study area at 6.1 per 100 square miles. The mountain lions were examined closely before radio transmitters were attached. 3 Home-range overlap Mountain lions are generally thought to be solitary animals that defend their home ranges for their exclusive use. But, when you look at the density of mountain lions and the size of the home ranges, it’s easy to see that if all the female lions maintained exclusive home ranges, there would be 7.2 times as many acres of home ranges as there are available within the study area. This can only mean overlap and home-range sharing. Extensive home-range overlap was found between females, between males, and between females and males. One female shared parts of her home range with five other radio-equipped females and an unknown number of males and unradioed lions. Reproduction Other workers have stated that when the density of mountain lions reaches the point that home ranges overlap, breeding stops. However, in this study reproduc¬ tion continued at what appeared to be a normal rate; and litter size averaged about 2.5 kittens. When the known kittens are added, the density of all mountain lions using the area becomes 10.6 per 100 square miles. and his coworkers with the Califor¬ nia Department of Fish and Game radio equipped 25 adult does. Their work revealed that a sizable number of does were being killed by mountain lions in the central Sierra Nevada. Of 25 does radio equipped over a period of 3 years, 12 have died. One was killed by a coyote and 11 by mountain lions. 4 The bottom line The bottom line is that in the study area, mountain lions appear to be controlling an already depressed deer herd, and they are apparently not benefiting the population by taking only the weak and old. The density of the lion population is not limited by the need for exclusive territories, and reproduction is continuing within this high-density population. The magnitude of the problem can be understood when we consider that the ratio of deer to mountain lions has apparently declined from an estimated 750:1 in 1950 to about 30:1 in 1988. Deer popula¬ tions cannot meet the needs of the mountain lions and maintain their numbers with the heavy predation that these ratios bring. This is especially true when you consider the additional predation from coyotes, bears, and bobcats. Livestock losses to mountain lions have become a serious concern of this team. The number of permits to take mountain lions that are kill¬ ing livestock reached an all-time high in 1988, with 145 issued and 62 lions taken. Neal, Steger, and Bertram expect livestock predation to continue at a high level or even increase, and deer to continue to decline in all but the most favor¬ able years. To learn more about this subject, contact the Pacific Southwest Sta¬ tion and request Research Note PSW-392, titled Mountain Lions: Preliminary Findings on Home- Range Use and Density in the Central Sierra Nevada. Several other manuscripts are in process. Mean monthly elevations of the migratory and nonmigratory mountain lions in the North Kings deer herd range. Reproduction has continued despite high mountain lion density in the study area. 5 by Cynthia Miner Pacific Northwest Station PLANS: software for timber harvests Imagine tor a moment you have been asked to design a harvesting system — with roads, cutting units, harvesting methods, and harvest¬ ing schedules — in a 3,000-acre watershed characterized by sec¬ ond growth and steep terrain with scattered unstable slopes. Your goal? A design that accounts for safety, efficiency, environmental factors, and visual impacts (a nearby trail brings hikers to an overlook directly across from a portion of the watershed). You have other considerations as well: The value of each tree is low com¬ pared with the old growth you usually harvest, and keeping harvest costs to a minimum will be particularly challenging. Skyline logging is needed in this area for all slopes greater than 15 percent, and anchors (stumps that are ade¬ quate for holding the tensioned skyline spans in place) are few and far between — coordination between harvests over time and space will, therefore, be critical for maintaining anchors. A computer system for the job How do you proceed? One option is the software system PLANS (preliminary logging analysis system). This new software system (available for the IBM-PC and the Hewlett-Packard 9000) helps take the guess work out of designing comprehensive area plans by pro¬ viding a firm starting point for comparing alternatives and, in turn, directing field investigations and final harvest decisions. The software system was devel¬ oped at the Pacific Northwest (PNW) Research Station for resource managers (with the skills of a Forest Service GS-9 timber sale planner) to broadly plan timber harvesting in large areas of steep terrain — from positioning cutting units, landings, and roads to selecting yarding systems for timber harvest. The system allows planners to have a high level of confidence in the quality of their work. Timber-sale planners have been limited by sheer volume of work in investigating alternatives in area planning, but with PLANS they can now quickly compare several promising options in choosing alternatives that provide specific direction for field work, improve safety and efficiency, and limit soil disturbance, residual stand damage, erosion, and water quality problems. The software system PLANS is a tool for planning timber harvests in large areas of steep terrain. 6 PLANS developer, Roger Twito, research engineer, demonstrates hand-tracing a con¬ tour map with a digitizing cursor — a step for creating digital terrain models when the models are unavailable from other sources. Roger Twito, research engineer, began and has overseen the development of PLANS to provide resource managers a tool that makes large-area planning of harvests feasible. Twito sees great potential for using PLANS in con¬ junction with geographical infor¬ mation systems (GIS). The GIS provides the stored terrain infor¬ mation required by PLANS as well as provides space where the harvest plans produced with PLANS can be electronically stored as another data layer in the GIS. Twito has worked with a variety of users during the devel¬ opment of PLANS. Some of the users of the new system One of the first users of PLANS, as a timber sales administrator on the Willamette National Forest, Dick Connelly used the system 2 years ago to plan two timber sales of 2,000 acres each. “PLANS gets you on the road,’’ Connelly said. “Although there is nothing like get¬ ting on the ground, PLANS can tell you if problems exist that you need to take a look at. You can easily change attributes of machinery to determine where you will use different logging methods, and PLANS helps you to see what units look like on the slope.” As second growth is quickly replacing the forests of large old trees in the West, careful area planning is becoming more impor¬ tant. “With old growth, you could afford more mistakes in harvest¬ ing,” Peter Schiess, professor, University of Washington, ex¬ plained. “With second growth, individual trees are less valuable so mistakes are more costly for what you are harvesting.” For in¬ stance, smaller machines are used for second growth that have less margin for error. Machines cannot be used to overpower mistakes, as in the past, without increased risk of breakdown. PLANS can help planners examine payloads and other factors to determine what logging equipment to use where. Shiess has made PLANS an in¬ tegral part of an off-campus senior project in which students are ac¬ tually consultants for private and public organizations. The students have been using the system as it has developed over the last 3 years. Using the completed system for the first time in spring 1988, they worked with the Wash¬ ington Department of Natural Resources (DNR) in developing a 3,000-acre case study. The Washington DNR has also used PLANS in another case study of 3,000 acres and is now develop¬ ing a comprehensive planning system of which PLANS or a modified PLANS will be a compo¬ nent. “PLANS keeps you honest by making you work within allow¬ able machine parameters,” said Jack Cullen, harvest systems engineer, Washington DNR. “The system allows you to be more ac¬ curate in your work, and planning better resembles what will be seen on the ground.” 7 The components of PLANS and what they do PLANS now has eight programs. (Several other programs are in various stages of development and will be added to PLANS later.) The programs, with the exception of MAP, can be used in any order. Most output is in the form of maps. The output for the programs or for several sessions can be tied together into a single map overlay with the IBM-PC version. The Hewlett-Packard version produces maps that can be overlain by hand. With a GIS, PLANS output from the IBM-PC version can be stored and transferred to other software or hardware systems for tasks such as developing environ¬ mental impact statements. The MAP program provides the digital terrain model (DTM) that is the foundation for planning with the seven other programs. (DTM’s are data files containing ground elevations.) The DTM’s can also be borrowed from a GIS, making the MAP program unnecessary. If the MAP program is used, the DTM’s are produced by hand¬ tracing contour lines from a topographic map with a digitizing cursor — a task that goes quickly. The programs VISUAL and SLOPE offer two alternative visual displays of the DTM’s. VISUAL produces a three-dimensional perspective that helps the planner visualize the impact of proposed activities on the landscape. SLOPE produces map-scale overlays showing areas of equal slope, aspect, or elevation. The SLOPE program helps the planner select where various logging systems may be needed, select areas suitable for winter or year-round logging, and assess planting sites. A display produced by the program VISUAL showing road, cutting-unit, and logging designs from other programs in the PLANS package. 8 With the program ROUTES, the planner can rapidly develop and evaluate alternatives for prelim¬ inary locations of logging roads in mountainous terrain. The remaining four programs help analyze logging methods: SIMYARD provides estimates of the production and yarding cost of cable logging by simulating timber stand and yarder characteristics: HIGHLEAD locates and designs highlead harvest units; SKYTOWER determines skyline payloads and spans for towers from large cen¬ tral landings; and SKYMOBILE ex¬ amines mobile yarders operating in parallel settings and permits several adjoining skylines to be designed on the same profile. These programs on the IBM-PC versions take ground profiles not only from DTM's produced by MAP but also from analytical stereoplot¬ ters, field-run profiles, and other sources. Conclusion PLANS provides a practical tool for area planning as it expedites efficient fitting of logging systems to the terrain and provides reliable unit designs that can be coor¬ dinated and scheduled to max¬ imize benefits. Moreover, PLANS provides a flexible method whereby planners can approach a harvest design in a way that meets their immediate needs and allows easy repetition so that design decisions can be validated long after the design decisions are made and the harvest completed. Although PLANS cannot be used readily by individuals without train¬ ing or skills in timber-harvest plan¬ ning, the system can be used as a training tool to help such individ¬ uals learn how different terrain characteristics affect yarding and other aspects of timber harvesting. The hardware Whether used on the IBM-PC or the Hewlett-Packard 9000, PLANS requires a plotter, digitizer, graphics screen, and printer. The user also needs topographic maps of the area — preferably at a scale of 1:4800 with 20-foot contours. How to get the software system Descriptions of the PLANS pro¬ grams and user instructions can be obtained from the PNW Research Station, Publications, Portland (see inside front cover for address). The programs can be ob¬ tained by sending diskettes to Roger Twito. Please contact him, however, for specific information before sending him diskettes: Roger Twito, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 4043 Roosevelt Way, NE, Seattle, WA 98105. 9 Yellowstone: fire prediction’s greatest test by Frances Reynolds Intermountain Station It was a summer unlike any in memory. ..unlike, in fact, any other summer in Yellowstone National Park's 117-year history. Nine ma¬ jor fires, some caused by people, most started by lightning, swept across almost a million acres dur¬ ing the summer of 1988. Park officials’ evaluation of fire danger indicators did not cause much concern in early summer. Snowpack was 80 percent of nor¬ mal, and rain had fallen in April and May. Consequently, when lightning-caused fires began to oc¬ cur, they were monitored but per¬ mitted to burn if they did not threaten life or property. This con¬ formed to the policy established for the park in 1972 (human- caused fires receive immediate suppression action). By mid-July, however, the situation was causing concern. Almost no rain had fallen since May; relative humidity was as low as 7 percent; dense stands of lodgepole pine were becoming tinder dry. Fire swept through thousands of acres, fueled by conditions that the park's policy had been designed to correct: It fed on the huge buildup of deadfall that had accumulated over decades since the last major fire. Spurred by dry winds, it spread quickly through continuous stands of overmature lodgepole, where many trees had been killed by mountain pine beetle infestation. On July 21, with about 16,600 acres already burned, the Park Service suspended the monitoring policy; from that point all fires would be fought. To advise the Greater Yellowstone Unified Area Command in planning fire strategy, fire behavior analysts depended on fire behavior prediction methods developed at the Intermountain Research Station’s Fire Sciences Laboratory (IFSL) in Missoula; the personal expertise of the labora¬ tory's researchers was sought as well. The extreme conditions oc¬ curring during the Yellowstone fires put fire prediction methods to a severe test, and demonstrated needs for further research. National Fire Danger Rating System From early March, park officials had tracked the level of fire poten¬ tial using the National Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS). The sys¬ tem is primarily a prefire planning tool, designed to enable broad- scale assessment of weather on forest fuel conditions. Indexes and components provide information about fuel moisture of various size classes, as well as live and dead components of the forest; effect of wind and slope; and types of fuels. The information is processed, using a computer model, to pro¬ duce indexes such as Probability Crown fire making a run uphill on the Mink Fire (Bridger-Teton NF, south of the Park), about July 20, 1988. 10 of Ignition, Energy Release Compo¬ nent, and Burning Index. The Energy Release Component is designed to indicate drought con¬ ditions, and how severe fires can be expected to be as a result of lack of fuel moisture. The NFDRS relies on data col¬ lected from fire weather stations on a daily basis. The data from each station are input and proc¬ essed, using the AFFIRMS com¬ puter program, to indicate conditions at that site. While work¬ ing at the Intermountain Station, Bob Burgan recently broadened the NFDRS to combine information from various sites and assess fire behavior over large geographical areas. Areas as large as half a State (or two or three smaller States) are combined to produce maps that show relative fire danger severity across the entire Country. These maps are used for large-scale fire planning by the Boise Interagency Fire Center, the National office of the Forest Serv¬ ice, and other units. During the fire season of 1988, they appeared frequently in USA Today. The fire command at Yellowstone also made use of the system’s archival capacity. Data from previous years were compared with existing fire conditions at locations such as Mammoth Hot Springs to plan fire strategy. As fire behavior researcher Dick Rothermel (IFSL) points out, “The problem, of course, is that the Na¬ tional Fire Danger Rating System does not have a capability for forecasting fire conditions. It can assess how present conditions compare with the past, or work with a one-day weather forecast, but long-range fire predictions are not part of the system.’’ During the summer of 1988, weather con¬ ditions were much hotter, drier, and windier than historical data would have suggested. Fire Behavior Prediction System While the NFDRS is designed for broad assessments of fire condi¬ tions, the Fire Behavior Prediction System (FBPS) is used for site- specific assessments, such as for a drainage or a section of a fire. Field data including fuels, wind, slope, and moisture are entered into the system to derive an estimate of how the fire is likely to burn. Expected fire growth in sur¬ face fuels can be displayed on a map to aid in the development of suppression strategies, and to brief fire crews on probable fire behavior. The system provides methods for calculating fire behavior in several forms: nomograms that can be carried in the field and solved with pencil and ruler; a user-friendly computer program called BEPIAVE; and preprogrammed computer chips for handheld calculators. Fire behavior analysts (FBA's) learn to use the system in rigorous classroom training supplemented by an apprenticeship in the field. Rothermel, one of the scientists who developed the system, worked closely with FBA’s at Yellowstone, and provided expert advice on unusual situations firefighters were encountering. (During the summer more than 20 FBA's rotated through fire assignments in the greater Yellowstone area.) On July 19, he worked with the incident command team at the Mink Fire. It was burning close to an area of timber blowdown that covered hundreds of acres. (The blowdown had occurred during a high- elevation cyclone the previous year.) The team conducted a 900-acre burnout in the blowdown to prevent the fire from spreading farther and endangering homes and ranches. Using the fire model developed at the IFSL, Rothermel calculated the fire’s expected in¬ tensity. “We figured it generated enough energy to heat 4,000 homes in Missoula for a year,” he said. 11 FIRE BEHAVIOR re Chjr3ctc-ristics Chart Fire characteristics chart indicating fire potential in older lodgepole pine stands in Yellowstone Park. Advice from the experts In late July, the command at West Yellowstone called together six fire behavior experts; they were given two and a half days to prepare estimates of how the fires in and near the park would grow by the end of the burning season. Four of the experts were from the National Park Service; Rothermel and Burgan represented the Forest Service. Rothermel recalls, “This was an extremely difficult task since there were nine major fires burning in the park at one time. Because of the remoteness of some of the fires, it was not possi¬ ble to reach them or even see the fuels from aircraft because of the smoke covering the park... .It was impossible to do the close-in assessment of conditions normally done by fire behavior analysts.” Instead, to make their projections the group used Yellowstone’s fuel classification system. The system maps the entire park by vegetation types related to their burning characteristics. Lodgepole pine is identified in five stages of develop¬ ment and decay; spruce/fir, Douglas-fir, and subalpine types are also displayed, historical burn¬ ing data from several previous years had been used to establish burning characteristics. The group’s “most probable growth" estimates for the fires were developed using a matrix between fuel types and seven classifications of possible weather, ranging from fire-stopping precip¬ itation through a hot, dry condition with severe wind. Weather information was obtained from a climatological review of the NFDRS Fire Weather Library, and from a long-range forecast pro¬ vided by the National Weather Service. For each combination of fuel and weather, they estimated probable spread rate due to sur¬ face burning, to spotting, and to crowning. The most significant spread (up to 4 miles a day) was projected to occur in older, more decadent lodgepole pine types, on hot, dry days with strong winds. But, as Rothermel recalls, August and early September taught the ex¬ perts “what ‘worst case' condi¬ tions are really like.” With winds of 40 to 60 mph, and relative humidity at 7 percent, the North Fork and Clover-Mist fires sur¬ prised the experts, spreading much farther than projections had indicated. “It was soon clear that the problem with the projections was that younger stages of development of lodgepole pine car¬ ried crown fires very readily,” Rothermel said. 12 Hand drawn map showing known fire perimeter as of September 1 (left-leaning hash marks) and spread that had occurred by September 10 (right-leaning hash marks). As the summer progressed and conditions worsened, the group assumed that spotting and crown¬ ing would occur in all lodgepole stands, regardless of age. Crown fires became so common that they could be expected every day — an unprecedented condition in modern times. By the end of August, general fire suppression along hundreds of miles of fireline was beyond hope until the weather changed. Crown fires jumped roads and rivers and were impossible to stop. Firefight¬ ing strategy was largely limited to protecting life and developed areas, such as the Old Faithful complex and Canyon Village. Field testing So many strong-wind events had occurred, and fires had become so large, that a rare situation was occurring routinely: Fires were burning at night with high intensity. A research field crew from the IFSL was brought in to monitor fuel moisture. Two days and nights of testing revealed that the moisture content of fine fuels was dropping to 4 or 5 percent in the afternoon, and holding to these low values until 10 or 12 o'clock at night. Humidity recovery at night was not enough to bring these fuels above 10 or 11 per¬ cent, never reaching the “moisture of extinction’’ level of 15 to 20 percent, which normally slows fires at night. “Under these parched conditions," said Rothermel, “fires were able to burn around the clock." Charts were prepared to brief visiting dignitaries on effects that low fuel moisture and strong winds were having on fire behavior. 13 On the 6th and 7th of September, all National Fire Danger Rating in¬ dexes went into the critical range. Fires were burning throughout the West. Winds pushing the Canyon Creek Fire in western Montana reached 60 mph. On the 9th, the North Fork Fire surged north, reaching the Mammoth area dur¬ ing the night. The 10th was ex¬ pected to produce the worst fire weather of the summer, with sus¬ tained winds of more than 40 mph and gusts up to 70 mph. Warnings went out to get crews off the firelines and into safe areas. But on the 10th, a dramatic change in the weather finally turned the tide of the Yellowstone fires. The strong winds came as predicted, but they were accom¬ panied by moisture. It rained in the Old Faithful area; it snowed along the north edge of the park. Gen¬ eral humidity rose. For firefighters, the worst was over. For Rothermel, Burgan, and other fire scientists, work has just begun. The experiences of the summer, says Rothermel, have “shown a strong need for methods of assessing extreme fire behavior. Burnout operation in heavy down fuels on the Mink Fire (Bridger-Jeton NF, south of the park), July 19, 1988. Work in this area will be acceler¬ ated, using experience from the Yellowstone and other large fires.’’ Fie identified three areas of concentration: - Investigation of extreme fire behavior, and development of methods for predicting occur¬ rence, intensity, and spread rates. - Development of a fire growth model to predict fire behavior of large fires. - Development of methods for training fire behavior analysts in prediction of extreme fire behavior. The Yellowstone conflagration proved to be a crucible for fire prediction methods. Many predic¬ tions proved accurate, and were essential tools in planning firefighting strategy. Some failed. But the experience gained in the extraordinary summer of 1988 will lead to fuller understanding of fire behavior under the most extreme conditions. 14 Special forests for a special owl by Rick Fletcher Rocky Mountain Station Mosses, lichens, unique wildlife and plant species, deteriorating logs, snags, clean, cold water — you’re in the midst of an old- growth forest. Here, trees from a few hundred to over one thousand years old tower above all else. Old- growth forests offer special recre¬ ational opportunities and aesthetic and spiritual values. They sym¬ bolize our links to the past, and provide an important look into the natural successional processes of the forest environment. These forests also attract the at¬ tention of the logging industry. Their timber is strong, durable, easily worked, and has high com¬ mercial value. As a result, some old-growth forests are diminishing in size. Research by the USDA Forest Service into the value of old- growth forests has, for the most part, centered on the Douglas-fir region of the Pacific Northwest. Yet much forested area in the western U.S. is dominated by old- growth ponderosa pine. These forests play no less a major role in their regions than do the patriar¬ chal Douglas-firs of Washington, Oregon, and northern California. Despite their importance, not enough is known about these forests, especially the relationships between old-growth ecosystems and the wildlife species that are so dependent on them. One method being researched, and even incorporated into some forest plans, is the use of wildlife indicator species to help deter¬ mine the overall “health” of old- growth forests — the rule being that as long as the species is thriving, the forest itself is in good health. Any change in population is a reflection on the forest’s condition. Many indicator species have been identified for the Pacific Northwest — perhaps the most well-known being the northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis). It is currently being monitored at several locations in that region. This female is feeding insects to her young. A new indicator? Scientists at the Rocky Mountain Station are studying what they believe may be the “northern spot¬ ted owl” of western old-growth ponderosa pine forests — the flam- mulated owl (Otus flammeolus). It is a little-known cavity-nesting, in¬ sectivorous species that is widely distributed in montane forests from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, and from southern British Columbia southward through the highlands of Mexico and Guate¬ mala. The owl is one of the smallest in the West — standing only 6 inches high — is migratory, and strictly nocturnal. 15 Flammulated owls prefer to forage and nest almost exclusively in old-growth ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir forests. Brian Linkhart (left) , a cooperator and Colorado State University Graduate Student, and Richard Reynolds attach a backpack transmitter to a captured owl. Research Wildlife Biologist Richard Reynolds, who spearheaded this study — the only long-term, inten¬ sive one ever done on flam¬ mulated owls — explains, “Although our research is continuing, results so far indicate that the owl prefers to forage and nest almost exclu¬ sively in old-growth ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir forests (Douglas-fir is usually mixed with old-growth ponderosa pine forests in much of the West). The owl can occasionally be found around other forest types such as aspen, blue spruce, Jeffrey pine, black oak, and western larch, but these species are usually mixed with or adjacent to ponderosa pine/ Douglas-fir stands.” Many of Reynolds’ studies took place on the Manitou Experimental Forest in central Colorado. Owls were captured after egg-laying, banded, and equipped with radio transmitters. Foraging and nesting, home ranges, individual tree use, and other behaviors were studied. “We found that flammulated owls returning in the spring settled in stands of old-growth (greater than 200 years) ponderosa pine/ Douglas-fir,” said Reynolds. “Fur¬ thermore, after settling, the owls significantly preferred to forage in old-growth pine/fir trees, and avoided younger, dense stands of other tree species.” 16 Why old-growth? Reynolds believes the reasons for this association involve both food and habitat structural components. “First,” he said, “the owl is an obligate cavity-nester, and older forests typically have an abun¬ dance of snags and live trees with suitable cavities. Second, old pines form open stands that allow the growth of grass and shrub under¬ stories which, in turn, provide habitat for insect prey. Dropping from lower tree crowns to catch insects below is an important foraging tactic used by fledged young and adults during their late summer molt. Third, many of the abundant and cold-adapted noctuid and geometrid moths, the main food of the owls during cold spring and early summer nights, are host- plant specific, and are limited to these old-growth pine/fir forests. Fourth, the owls' three main forag¬ ing tactics, hawk-gleaning, hover- gleaning, and hawking insects, re¬ quire large, open crowns and space between tree crowns. Because old-growth tree crowns are quite open, the owls can use these tactics to capture moths that are either flying or resting within the trees. The openness of the old-growth stands also pro¬ vides room between trees so the owls can hover-glean insects from needle bunches on the exterior of tree crowns, and for the occa¬ sional hawking of flying moths.” Tracking foraging owls. So is there enough evidence to tag the flammulated owl as an in¬ dicator species for old-growth ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir forests in the West? Reynolds believes there is. “Old-growth forests are special places,” he says. “They possess unique qualities and characteristics that distinguish them from younger, less mature forests. Some plants and animals attain their highest population den¬ sity and productivity in old-growth forests. Species such as the flammulatpd owl may disappear without sufficient acreages of old- growth ponderosa pine. If this owl can become as significant a tool for the management of western ponderosa pine forests as the northern spotted owl has become for old-growth forests in the Pacific Northwest,” says Reynolds, “then I believe we’ll see a much improved understanding of the ecology of western old-growth This female's nesting cavity has been destroyed by a bear (note the claw marks). The bear probably ate her young. forests, and their value as an ele¬ ment of habitat diversity and as critical habitat for certain wildlife species.” If you would like more information, contact Richard Reynolds at the Rocky Mountain Station’s Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 222 South 22nd Street, Laramie, Wyoming 82070, (307) 742-6621, FTS - 328-0300. The following reprints are also available from the Station: The Nesting Biology of Flammulated Owls in Colorado; Nesting Home Ranges and Habitat Use by Flam¬ mulated Owls in Colorado; Fidelity to Territory and Mate in Flam¬ mulated Owls; and Brood Division and Postnesting Behavior of Flam¬ mulated Owls. 17 New from research ^4 4= Supplement to forest vegetation report published Partial cutting can reduce losses to mountain pine beetle The mountain pine beetle (MPB) continues to kill millions of lodgepole pine annually in the western United States. Harvesting susceptible trees or modifying stand conditions that are con¬ ducive to MPB infestation are the only long-term solutions to the MPB problem. Although clearcutting may be the preferred silvicultural option for the majority of high-risk lodgepole pine stands, concern for other resource values (wildlife cover, watersheds, view areas, etc.) limits the amount of clearcutting and frequently permits only partial treatment of susceptible stands. Managers seek options that might reduce stand susceptibility to the beetle, yet are compatible with management of other resource values. A new publication from the Inter¬ mountain Research Station reports the results of a study to test the effectiveness of partial cutting in reducing losses to MPB. Stands were thinned in the Shoshone Na¬ tional Forest, using different forms of partial cutting. Average losses of trees 5 inches diameter-at- breast height and larger during the 5 years following thinning ranged from less than 1 percent in spaced thinnings to 7.4 percent in the 12-inch diameter limit cut, com¬ pared to 26.5 percent in check stands. Lodgepole Pine Vigor, Regeneration, and Infestation by Mountain Pine Beetle Following Partial Cutting on the Shoshone National Forest, Wyoming , To learn more, request Lodgepole Pine Vigpr, Regeneration, and In¬ festation by Mountain Pine Beetle Following Partial Cutting on the Shoshone National Forest, Wyo¬ ming, Research Paper I NT-396, available from the Intermountain Research Station. In 1985 the Rocky Mountain Sta¬ tion published General Technical Report RM-123, a documentation of habitat types, community types, and plant communities in the Rocky Mountain and Intermountain regions. A supplement to that publication has now been issued that includes new data and data on phases omitted in the first report. Forest Vegetation on National Forests in the Rocky Mountain and Inter¬ mountain Regions: Habitat Types and Community Types, General Technical Report RM-162, covers name(s), general location, eleva¬ tion, relative site, successional status, principal tree and under¬ growth associates, and the author¬ ity. In addition, the habitat and community types in the series in which the naming species occurs, listed in the 1985 publication, are repeated for the readers conve¬ nience. Copies are available from the Rocky Mountain Station. 18 The RAPID Technique: A New Method for Evaluating Downstream Effects of Forest Practices on Riparian Zones Gordon Grant w PNW GTR 220 AujuH 1008 A new method for evaluating downstream effects Resource managers often assess and mitigate potential cumulative effects downstream of forest prac¬ tices. Off-site changes in the volume or pattern of water and sediment movement through a basin from, for instance, harvest¬ ing upstream can cause channels and riparian communities to be modified. The downstream effects include a complex and interrelated set of hydrologic, geomorphic, and biologic processes that need measurement. The RAPID (riparian aerial photographic inventory of disturbance) technique has been developed for analyzing geomor¬ phic processes in the densely forested west side of the Cascade Range (use in other areas should be considered experimental). This publication describes how to apply the RAPID technique and analyze results. The technique offers a quick, inex¬ pensive, yet quantitative approach for inventorying channel conditions by measuring patterns of canopy disturbance from aerial photos. Besides providing information about how upstream activities af¬ fect downstream channels, the RAPID technique is useful for iden¬ tifying channel segments with histories of instability, evaluating basinwide effects of major storms, monitoring recovery of riparian areas following channel disturb¬ ances, and comparing the effec¬ tiveness of different management treatments in mitigating down¬ stream effects. Request The RAPID Technique: A New Method for Evaluating Downstream Effects of Forest Practices on Riparian Zones, General Technical Report PNW-220. 19 Aspen classifica¬ tion will aid resource managers For those involved in the manage¬ ment of aspen-dominated wood¬ lands, Aspen Community Types of the Intermountain Region provides a valuable tool. The vegetation classification in this publication is based on existing community structure and plant species com¬ position. A community type ap¬ proach is used because of the ill-defined successional status of communities within the overall aspen ecosystem. Community types are aggregations of similar plant communities based upon ex¬ isting floristics regardless of suc¬ cessional status. As with habitat types, they are based on the premise that vegetation is an en¬ vironmental integrator and thus reflects major environmental dif¬ ferences. Community types can be used as a basis for mapping, structuring information, and resource management planning. The classification includes 56 com¬ munity types that occur within eight tree-cover types. A diagnos¬ tic key using indicator species facilitates field identification of community types. The key is followed by narrative descriptions of the distribution, vegetal com¬ position, successional status, and the forage and wood fiber produc¬ tivity of each type. Appendix tables provide detailed comparisons of types. The classification and descriptions are based on field data from more than 2,100 aspen stands scattered over southeastern Idaho, western Wyoming, Utah, and Nevada. Request Aspen Community Types of the Intermountain Region, General Technical Report INT-250, available from the Intermountain Research Station. Silvics of the whitebark pine The picturesque whitebark pine, valued for wildlife habitat and watershed protection as well as esthetics, inhabits the high moun¬ tains of southwestern Canada and the western United States. In some areas, w.hitebark pine cone crops are diminishing because of suc¬ cessional replacement and insect and disease epidemics. Published information on the species is sparse. Silvics of the Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis ), General Technical Report INT-253, reviews the literature available in 1981 and is updated to include some recent ecological findings. The publication describes the whitebark pine’s habitat, life history, growth and yield, mortality factors, special uses, and genetics. It may be obtained from the Inter¬ mountain Research Station. Help for installing precipitation gages Obtaining reliable precipitation data in windswept regions remains a vexing problem. It is essential that wind velocity near the gage orifice be stilled sufficiently to allow par¬ ticles to fall into the gage reservoir. Rocky Mountain Station scientists have developed new procedures to ease the difficulties in installing precipitation gages and modified Alter windshields, and improve their operating performance, particularly those in areas where blowing snow and cold temper¬ atures are common. Details of these procedures are available in Improved Procedures for Installing and Operating Precipitation Gages and Alter Shields on Windswept Lands, Research Note RM-489. The Rocky Mountain Station has copies. 20 Rangeland revegetation methods compared Research Paper I NT-397, Reveg¬ etation by Land Imprinter and Rangeland Drill, compares the effectiveness of rangeland imprint¬ ing with that of a standard rangeland seeding technique, rangeland drilling. Revegetation by Land Imprinter and Rangeland Drill Rangeland imprinting is a tech¬ nique by which simple machines imprint land surfaces with geo¬ metric patterns. Developers of the technique suggested that its ad¬ vantages over conventional tillage implements include ability to in¬ crease depression water storage without inverting the soil surface, to increase effective surface mulch by concentrating all aboveground plant materials at the soil surface, and to impress the soil surface with geometric patterns for better control of infiltration, runoff, and erosion. The techniques were compared for revegetation of a wildfire burn in the Wyoming big sagebrush type. Total seeded plant densities and cover were significantly higher with the imprinting treatment. The paper also discusses results in terms of production and soil response. Contact the Intermountain Re¬ search Station to obtain a copy of this publication. Discussing economic valuation As demands on publicly admin¬ istered natural resources grow, the need to know more about the beneficial and detrimental conse¬ quences of alternative resource allocations also increases. Monetary valuation of the gains and losses is an important part of this needed information. These monetary values include marginal prices for products exchanged in reasonably competitive markets and for amenity goods and serv¬ ices. There is also a need for non¬ marginal valuation of market and nonmarket natural resource products. Last year over 40 scientists, ad¬ ministrators, educators, and others met in Estes Park, Colorado to discuss economic values and describe the beneficial conse¬ quences of amenity goods and services. Their presentations have been recorded in a publication designed to promote better ap¬ plication of the concepts and methods of economic valuation in the broad sense of human welfare, rather than the more narrow per¬ spective of monetary transactions. Topics covered include: the ameni¬ ty valuation problem, approaches to valuation, concerns about economic measures, methods of monetary valuation, and methodo¬ logical issues in economic valua¬ tion. The book, Amenity Resource Valuation: Integrating Economics with Other Disciplines, is available for $29.45, including postage, from Venture Publishing Inc., 1640 Oxford Circle, State College, Penn¬ sylvania 16803. 21 Program calculates fish population statistics A General Technical Report recently issued by the Intermoun¬ tain Research Station guides users of MicroFish 3.0, a minicomputer software system designed for calculating fisheries population statistics from electrofishing data. The system consists of programs written in the BASIC language and is functional on all IBM personal computers and compatibles using DOS 2.0 or higher. System output includes maximum- likelihood population estimates, total catches, capture probabilities, removal patterns, lengths, weights, condition factors, and biomass. Output options enable the user to create tables on database files, which can be used as input for statistical, spreadsheet, or graphics packages. Sample size programs display two- and three- dimensional color graphs for predicting the number of elec¬ trofishing passes needed to achieve a desired precision level in the population estimate. Request Microcomputer Software System for Generating Fish Population Statistics from Elec¬ trofishing Data — User’s Guide for MicroFish 3.0, General Technical Report INT-254. Modeling of elk-habitat effectiveness Resource managers in the inter¬ mountain West often consider elk habitat in forest planning and management. The process of habitat evaluation in conjunction with evaluating other resources is important to how well wildlife biologists can manage for elk and elk hunting. General Technical Report PNW-225 examines the need for' and the evaluation of elk- habitat evaluation models. The report also discusses the evolution of a state-of-the-art example of a proposed model. The model, devel¬ oped for the Blue Mountain Winter Ranges, is presented in detail in 55? Habitat-Effectiveness FtTZ. Index for Elk on Blue Mountain Winter Ranges K-c , flcnard J Pcdofton. and lai»y D Drvani SB General Technical Report PNW-218. The model incorporates distribution of elk-habitat use related to distance from cover/ forage edges, distance from roads, cover quality, and forage quantity and quality. Request Integrated Management of Timber-Elk-Cattle: Interior Forests of Western North America, General Technical Report PNW-225, and Habitat-Effectiveness Index for Elk on Blue Mountain Winter Flanges, General Technical Report PNW-218. 22 4. Aspen Community Types of the Intermountain Region General Technical Report INT-250. 5. Silvios of the Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis), General Technical Report INT-253. 6. Other _ > o Z3 CO g GO CT C o' =3 CD CD g CD "0 “0 O O “0 c = O S i: OD O CD O X r\3 -IX cn o 3 o' CO -fx --si o cn o c CD CO • ♦ CO CD 0) CD O O CO § o' Z5 > O "0 c CT o' o o' =5 CO g CO o =3 ti rp id O^o O- o O O g. cd ^ Z5 CO O o n 00 y."o O c o O o' o Q_ o 03 CD O CD cn DO CD CD O ~ o COo CO ro o co oo o Z3 Q. DO CD Z5 CQ CD m X TO CD > “0 c CT O' CO o' Z3 CO g CO CT c o' Z3 O 00 co £ Cl CD 13 c cd r\3 cn CO CD 00 CD 4x r- -fx O DO CD co CD O O CO s o' CO > “0 c CT O CD o' Z5 CO g CO CT c o' Z5 “0 o Z5 c±. CD =5 Q. S: O CD CQ O ZJ CO --4 r\3 O 00 3 CD 13 i < CO > ♦ CD o' =3 “0 ~D ^ 03 p . CO o' o 03 2. 03 Ey CO < °o CO DO CD CO CD CD O CO s o' Z3 CO > ~0 STAMP _ STAMP A story of fallen trees Large fallen trees in different stages of decay contribute much- needed diversity in the ecological processes of forests, rivers, streams, estuaries, coastal beaches, and oceans in the Pacific Northwest. Intensive utiliza¬ tion and management can deprive these areas of habitats created by large fallen trees. From the Forest to the Sea: A Story of Fallen Trees documents that large dead trees are not a wasted resource but function as. an important part of a terrestrial or water system. In this research synthesis, the fourteen authors provide information for managers to use as they make decisions impacting habitat diver¬ sity and ecological processes. A sample of the information in the publication is distribution of coarse woody debris by decay class in young, mature, and old-growth Douglas-fir stands; some uses of snags by selected wildlife species; role of woody debris in storing sediment and creating pools in streams; and history of wood in Northwest estuaries and coastal beaches. In the last chapter, inten¬ sive and diversified forest manage¬ ment are compared as opposing ends of a continuum of philoso¬ phies and techniques available to the forest manager. Most of the in¬ formation is specific to the Coast Range of Oregon but also applies generally to western Oregon, western Washington, western British Columbia, and southeastern Alaska. Unitod C'jioi Duportmuni ol Agile ulluro Forest Service Unitod States Department of tho Interior Bureau of Land Monogemenl Gonor.iJ Technical Ho poit PNW GTfV229 Soptombor 1000 From the Forest to the Sea: A Story of Fallen Trees Request From the Forest to the Sea: A Story of Fallen Trees, General Technical Report PNW-229. 25 O § 3 & q: Q c ^ C/3 5 3 3. CD 5 o 03 ~ o £ oo 5 O CD Ul '-* ro oo 5 « “ O CO 5 ® 03 > CQ o' c FORESTRY RESEARCH WEST