NEWMAN S GRAMMAR |

OF

ENTOMOLOGY.

London.
Printed by Richard Clay,
Bread-street Hill.

ae rT

THE

‘GRAMMAR

BNTOMOLOGY.

BY

EDWARD NEWMAN

LONDON :
FREDERICK WESTLEY AND A. H. DAVIS,
STATIONERS’-HALL-CoURT

1855.

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My wish and judgment about the affair has always been this; that
I should much prefer that some one of those, more skilful than
myself, had undertaken it; but still that it is better even I should
undertake it, than it be left undone.

PREFACE.

TEACHERS in science are nearly equally
divided into two classes; those who know too
much, and those who know too little. Those

of the first class, overloaded with science,
cannot admit the possibility of meeting with
readers who have none; and, therefore, their
essays and introductions are so worded that
it requires a tolerable proficiency to under-
stand them. The teachers of the second
class fall into the opposite error ; they curtail,
garble, and popularize the writings of others
without understanding them, forgetful that it
requires a consummate knowledge of any

science to abridge a work which treats of it

viii PREFACE.

ably and at large. The Author submits, with
much humility, that both classes are in error:
he submits also that introductory works
should be written for those who know nothing
of the subject on which they read, and by
those who possess, in themselves, some prac-
tical knowledge of the subject on which they

write.

In accordance with these views, the Author
has written the following pages; he supposes
his reader utterly ignorant of Entomology,
and endeavours to show him that it is the
History of Insects, and the Physiology of
Insects, and the Classification of Insects, and
the Art of Preserving Insects: he does not
address himself to the professed entomologist;

to such this work will be of little value.

The First Book, entitled History of Insects,

is a complete compilation; a series of histories

PREFACE. ix

copied, in many instances verbatim, from the
accounts of those authors who relate what
themselves have witnessed. Objections will
probably be raised to this plan, but the
Author thinks without reason. What good
purpose would have been answered, had he
so curtailed, transposed, and altered these
histories, that their very authors should not
have known them? On the contrary, is there
not a good purpose answered in collecting
together the most interesting observations of
Huber, Smeathman, Rusticus, Kirby, Spence,
Clark, Fries, Bevan, Delta, and Haliday? No
concealment is attempted: the authority for
each history is given, except when dependent

on the Author’s own observation.

The Second Book, entitled Physiology of
Insects, is the record of the Author’s own
observations: he has given the names em-

ployed by other writers, when he could under-

x PREFACE,

stand to what parts they referred, but in
names alone has he availed himself of their
labours ; the facts, the descriptions, are en-
tirely his own. For one chapter, that on
the Organs of Circulation, he is indebted to
Mr. Bowerbank: by means of that gentle-
man’s splendid microscope he made the obser-
vations therein recorded. Mr. Bowerbank’s
account of the same observations has been
given in the Entomological Magazine, (vol. i.
p- 239): his account and the Author's some-
what differ, but not sufficiently to cause the
slightest doubt of the correctness of either,
in the mind of a candid reader. The differ-

ences are those of opinion only.

The Third Book, entitled Classification of
Insects, may be charged with being too ori-
ginal: it may be said that the Author should
have given the views and arrangements of

others in preference to his own. He would ask,

PREFACE. xi

whose system was he to select? That his
own is the most simple and the most readily
understood, no one will deny: that it is
more perfect, or more accurate, or more
philosophical, than any other, he does not
presume to contend. As for a disquisition
on system, it would have been dangerous
ground; pleasurable to the writer, but un-
profitable to the reader: it would have
doubled the size of the volume without add-

ing a fraction to its value.

The Fourth Book, entitled the Preserva-
tion of Insects, contains nothing worthy of
comment ; it will be useful to those who wish
to make it so, and that has been the Author's

only object in writing it.

The want of an easy introductory work on
Insects has been obyious to many. or the

last two years, during which time it has been

xii PREFACE.

generally known that he has contemplated
the task, the Author has received numerous
and pressing solicitations to proceed with it:
he has at last made the attempt. He has done
his best; whether successfully or not, others

must decide.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

BOOK I.—HISTORY OF INSECTS.
Chap.
I. History of Insects in general

II, -—— The Silkworm . aes
III. —_—_-———— Apple Moth . .
IV. ———————. Musquito. . .
Vv. ———_————- Bot .

VI. ——_———_——_. Bee .
VII. —— Tchneumon
VIII. ————--—— Burying Beetle .

Ix. —-——. Apple Weevil . .
x. ———— Earwig
xI. —— Mocistes at F
XII. ———— Coccus of the Vine
XIII. HROp-H5) 75) ete
XIV. —————— Ant Lion
XV. White Ant

XVI. Concluding Observations

BOOK IJ.—PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS.

I. Physiology of Insects in general .
II. Of the Organs of Support in general
III. ——— in the head .
IV. Of the Wings and Legs of Insects
V. Of the Characters of Surface ‘
VI. Of Muscles, the Organs of Motion ,
VII. Of Nerves, the Organs of Sensation

xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Chap. Page
VIII. Of the Alimentary Canal, or Organs of Digestion 143
IX. Of the Organs of Circulation . . . . . + 147
X. Of the Organs of\/Respiration . . - - . ~ 162
XI. Concluding Observations . . . . + + « 186

BOOK III.—CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.

I. Classification of Insectsin general . . . 163

II. Lepidoptera. . . . . . 178
Li. ——— Diptera . « «© »-- » = 181
1V. ————_——— Hymenoptera . . . . - 198
Wigs I Coleoptera . . . ~~ ~ 218
VI. ——— Orthoptera . . . - . ~ 289
VIL, ———— Hemiptera . . . - « « 242
Vill. ——— Neuroptera. . . . . . 246

Of Ticklers, Bee-Parasites,
Fleas, Thysanura, Anop-
Jura; and concluding Obser-
PALIONG: Se). ect eneO

LI

BOOK IV.—PRESERVATION OF INSECTS.

I. Apology for the Collector of Insects. . . 209
II. Of the Dress and Instruments for the collection
OMMLTISEGIA” Botte. cch ves ser asap) matte MoM eo

Ill. Of capturing Insects. . . . - + + + + 268
IV. Of killing and setting Insects. . . . + + 274
V. Of Entomological Cabinets . . «. + + + 282
VI. Of Entomological Books . . . » + = + 287
VII. Of investigating Insects . . . . + + + 294
VIII. Of Entomological Societies . . . - + + 298

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

PLATE
I. To face the Title of Book I. represents the Ant-lion at the
bottom of his pit. (See Book I. Chapter XIV.)
Il. To face the Title of Book IT.
Fig. 1, Copper Butterfly (Lycena dispar), caterpillar (/arva), 4.
2. Copper Butterfly, chrysalis (pxpa), 4.
8. Copper Butterfly, perfect insect (imago), 4.
4, Head of Copper Butterfly.
@ Eye (Oculus), 385.
o 4 Blade of feeler jaw (Zacinia), 411, 412.
u Lower lip (labiwm), 394.
@ Labial feelers (/abipalpi), 398.
5. Morse Bot (@strus Equi), grub (larva), 69.
6. Ditto (Ditto), chrysalis (pupa), 72.
7. Ditto {Ditto), perfect insect, (imago), 73.
8. Mouth of the Gad-fly (Tabanus bovinus).
a Upper lip (Jabrum), 391.
e Tongue (/ingua), 406.
#i Mandibles (mandibule@). 423. 425.
o 4 Blade of feeler jaw (/acinia), 411. 418.
66 Maxillary feeler (maxipalpus), 422.
u 4 Tip of lower lip (ligula), 399. 401.
9. Ichneumon of the Tiger-moth (Pimpla Instigator),
maggot (/arva), 131.
10. Ichneumon of the Tiger-moth, chrysalis ( pupa), 134,
11. Ichneumon of the Tiger-moth, perfect insect (imago),
124.
12, Mouth of the Ichneumon.
a Upper lip (/abrum,) 391.
i Mandible (mandibula), 423, 428.
02 Disk of feeler jaw (mawilla), 409.
o 3 Feeler bearer (palpifer), 410.

xvi EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

PLATE
If. Fig. 12. 0 4 Blade (lacinia), 411.
6 Helmet (galea), 418. 420.
6 Maxillary feeler (mawipalpus), 422.
u 2 Lower lip proper (/abium), 394.
uw 4 Tip of lower lip (Zigula), 399. 401.
@ Labial feeler (Jabipalpus), 398.
III. To face the Title of Book III.
Fig. 1. (Orchesia micans), grub (larva).
2. (Ditto), chrysalis (pupa).
3. (Ditto), perfect insect (imago).
4. Common Cricket (Acheta domestica), (larva).
5. Lower lip of Common Cricket (/abium), 394.
u 1 Insertion (Insertio), 395.
u 2 Lip proper (/abium proprium), 396.
u 3 Feeler bearer (palpiger), 397.
u4 Tip of the lower lip (Jigula), 899. 405.
a Labial feeler (/abipalpus), 898.
6. Painted Plant-bug (Acanthosoma picia), perfect insect
(imago).
7. Pearl-fly (Perla bicaudata), (larva),
8. Feeler jaw of the Pearl-fly.
02 Disk (mawilla), 409.
o 4 Blade (lacinia), 411.
6 Helmet (galea), 418.
6 Maxillary feeler (mawipalpus), 422.
9, Fore wing (proa/a) of the Pearl-fly, 441.
10. Hind leg (metapes) of Ditto, 451.
b The hip (coma), divided by a line, 454.
d The thigh (femur), its first and second joint being
minute, and adjointing the coxa, 455.
f The shank (tibia), 456.
g The foot (tarsus), 460.
h The claws (unguiculi), 462.
k The little cushion (pulvinulus), 465.
IV. To face the Title of Book IV.
Fig. 1. Water net, 849.
2. Clap net, 851.
3. Forceps, 848.
Bent pin, 899,
Minute insect mounted, 893.
Beetle pinned, 887.
Vial for minute Hymenoptera, 854.
. Larva cage, 874,

SS OCs

THE
GRAMMAR

OF

BNTOMOLOEY.
BOOK 1.
HISTORY OF INSECTS.

Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, aud
be wise.

vy

“i

oC ee

BOOK I.

HISTORY OF INSECTS.

CHAPTER I.

HISTORY OF INSECTS IN GENERAL.

1. Tur history of an insect, like the history of
a man, is an account of life from first to last,
from birth to death. Insects are so constituted,
that the history of an individual is the history of
its race : climate, season, or circumstance, exercises
little power of creating differences among them ;
a bee is as essentially a bee, and a butterfly a but-
terfly, at the equator as at the poles; and in either
situations performs the same acts.

2. Insects of all kinds and in all situations re-
semble each other in these points :—they proceed
from the parent as eggs, the eggs are hatched and
become grubs, in which state they eat, increase
rapidly in size, and are invariably without wings ;

B2

4 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

the grubs, when full grown, become for a time
motionless; their skin opens, and from it comes
forth the perfect insect, which has four wings,
and which does not increase in size.

3. In a very great number of insects, the grub
changes its skin, and completely alters its form on
becoming motionless; indeed, almost as great a
change in appearance takes place, as in the change
from the grub to the perfect state; when this is
the case, the motionless state is called the chry-
salis.

4, Thus we have four stages in the life of an
insect, four states which it is necessary thoroughly
to understand; the egg (ovum) which is motion-
less, and apparently lifeless; the grub (larva),
which is active, but without wings, voracious, and
grows rapidly ; the chrysalis (pupa), which is quite
motionless, and which does not occur in all in-
sects; the perfect insect (émago), which is active,
has wings, does not grow, and which, by laying
eggs, perpetuates its kind.

5. The names egg, larva, pupa and imago, are
the terms generally employed in descriptions ; the
three last answer equally well for Latin or Eng-
lish, but it must be borne in mind that the words
grub, maggot, and caterpillar, are synonymous
with the term larva ; and perfect insect, fly, &c. are
synonymous with the term imago ; and the English
and Latin words are used in English descriptions
almost indifferently.

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 5

6. These transformations are in reality nothing
more than a continual casting of the outer skin ;
the larva often casts its skin four or five times
without any very remarkable change of form;
every casting of the skin is a step towards arriv-
ing at ultimate perfection. In every insect the
skin must be cast a certain number of times, and
the last casting brings it to maturity.

7. On account of their small size, it is difficult
to find common examples of the eggs of insects ;
those laid on meat by the blue-bottle fly must be
known to many; the silk-worm’s eggs again are
not unknown; but the generality of insects’ eggs
are so concealed and so little conspicuous, that
they are found with difficulty.

8. Examples of larve are numerous; the
maggots found in wasps’ nests, and used in fish-
ing; the maggots in apples and in nuts ; the mag-
gots in cheese, and in decaying substances; and the
caterpillars, which deyour our cabbages, which spin
webs on our apple, pear, and plum trees, in the
spring, are familiar to us all: these are insects in
the larva state.

9. The pupa state is more difficult to find, be-
cause insects generally crawl away into crevices
or underground, and hide themselves before chang-
ing to this state; an angular pupa of a green
colour, with small black spots, which produces a
common white butterfly, may, however, be con-
tinually seen on palings and walls of gardens, and

6 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

the smooth brown pupe of moths are continually
dug up in gardens.

10. The imago, or \perfect state, is exemplified
in butterflies, moths, gnats, flies, wasps, bees, ants,
beetles, grasshoppers, earwigs, cockroaches, bugs,
fleas, may-flies, and dragon-flies. All descriptions
of insects in scientific works, relate to the imago
state, unless the contrary is distinctly expressed.

11. All perfect insects have two feelers (antenne)
rising from their heads, like horns; four wings,
the first pair called fore wings (proale), the
second pair hind wings (metal) ; six legs in pairs,
the first pair called fore legs (propedes), the se-
cond pair, middle legs (mesopedes), and the third
pair, hind legs (metapedes).

12. These parts are believed always to exist,
yet are sometimes very indistinct ; when they are
conspicuous, they are said to be developed (pate-
facti), when small, and scarcely performing their
usual functions, rudimental (incipientes), when un-
discovered, and therefore not possibly applicable
to their usual functions, obsolete (obsoleti).

13. The mode in which the life of an insect is
passed, differs very widely in the states of its
existence: it often happens that the larva inhabits
the water, and the imago the air; sometimes the
larva inhabits the water, the pupa inhabits the
earth, and the imago returns to the water. The fol-
lowing chapters will in some degree exemplify this.

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 7

CHAPTER II.

WISTORY OF THE SILKWORM.

Class......... Lepidoptera, Genus ...... Bombyx.
Order sso Bombycites. Species...... Mori.

14. Sixx has been avaluable article of commerce,
anda favourite one for dress from time immemorial ;
the archives of China are said to speak of its
existence five thousand years ago, but the period
at which it was first appropriated to the uses of
man cannot be traced.

15. The manufacture of silk, in this country
alone, is supposed to find constant employment
and means of support for about five hundred
thousand human beings; in France, Germany,
Italy, Turkey, and the continent of Asia, it is
also an article of great commercial importance.

16. Silk is a native production of China and
India; it was introduced into Europe a.p. 550,
by two monks, who brought the eggs of the
silk-worm, in hollow canes, to Constantinople,

8 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY,

and there succeeded in rearing the worms and
obtaining their produce.

17. Silk is now produced abundantly in
Europe, principally in Murcia, in Spain, the
south of France, and in Italy; in Hungary it is
cultivated, but with less success; and in England,
probably from the want of sufficient warmth, all
attempts hitherto made have proved unsuccessful.

18. Silk is spun by a caterpillar, which feeds
on the leaves of the mulberry-tree; it is called
the silk-worm; it comes from eggs laid by a moth
in the autumn of the preceding year.

19. In May the eggs are hatched, and produce
small black caterpillars, less than the tenth of an
inch in length; these increase daily in size, and
gradually alter their colour till they become nearly
white.

20. In this country, the caterpillar takes fifty-
six days to arrive at perfection, during which
time it invariably sheds its skin as many as four,
and occasionally five times; the cause of this
occasional additional change is not known. After
every change the caterpillar is lighter in colour,
and has a larger head than previous to the change;
it spins during five or six days, making about
sixty-two days.

21. In warmer climates the caterpillar arrives
at its full growth in forty-seven days, and has
finished spinning in five more, making together
fifty-two days; these may be counted thus :—

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 9

hatching to first change, seven days; changing,
two days; before the second change, seven days;
changing, two days; before the third change,
seven days; changing, three days; before the
fourth change, seven days; changing, four days ;
before beginning to spin, eight days; spinning,
five days.

22, When the caterpillar is about to change
its skin, it ceases to eat, holds its head up stiff,
and appears ill and sulky; the new head is plainly
to be discovered through the transparent skin,
behind the old one, and rather of a triangular
shape—the apex of the triangle being uppermost;
after remaining in this state two or three days, as
above stated, the skin opens behind the head,
which cracks longitudinally, and is cast with the
skin; the caterpillar then twists itself from side
to side, and writhes about, while the skin gra-
dually slips from its body, and comes off at the
tail.

23. Whilst the silk-worms are feeding, they
should be kept very clean, and abundantly sup-
plied with fresh leaves; open trays, made of
pasteboard, are very convenient for holding them;
and from these, if supplied with food, they never
wander.

24, Care should be taken to preserve silk-
worms from birds and mice, both of which are
excessively fond of them; the influence of the
sun is highly injurious to them, as are also cold

10 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY,

north and east winds; but plenty of air in warm
weather is beneficial. The leaves should be given
to them perfectly dry; if brought from a distance,
they preserve their freshness for many days in a
tin box, or on the cold bricks or stones of a cellar.

25. After the fourth change, the silk-worms
require constant watching; twice a day they
should be carefully looked over, and those ready
to spin picked out, and placed in little cells, made
of writing-paper, about as large as one’s thumb,
open at one end, and closely screwed up at the
other; their paper cells may be pinned to lines
crossing a room, and placed touching each other
on the line.

26. The period of a silk-worm being ready to
spin is plainly indicated by its ceasing to eat, and
becoming suddenly more transparent and ofayellow
colour ; it will also begin to spin a few threads of
silk among the leaves, or in a corner of the tray.

27. The silk-worm, when placed in the cell,
spins a few loose connecting threads, attached to
every side of the cell: it then forms a regular
oval ball of silk, which is suspended in the centre
of the cell, andin the interior of which it continues
to work for five days.

28. If the cells containing the spinning silk-
worms, are placed regularly on the line in the
order in which they begin spinning, then there
will occur no difficulty in taking them off, in the
succession in which they stand, as the first in

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 11

order on the line will be the first requiring to be
wound off.

29. After a silk-worm has been ten days in its
cell, its cocoon of yellow silk will be compact and
complete; this must be taken out of the cell, the
exterior or waste silk stripped off, until a single
thread runs by itself; an operation which will be
much assisted by occasionally dipping the cocoon
in warm water.

30. When the single threads of half a dozen of
these cocoons are found, they may be guided with
one hand on a small reel, which is constructed for
the purpose, and may be turned with the other
hand, the cocoons at the same time floating on a
basin of warm water; by a little management in
separating the thread, a great number may thus be
wound off at the same time.

31. When so much of the silk has been wound
off, that the remainder appears of a thinner, paler,
and inferior quality, the thread should be broken,
the remaining portion of the cocoon is weak, gum-
my, and of little value; it should be taken out of
the water, and laid aside to prevent its getting
entangled with the others.

32. Within the cocoonis the chrysalis,from which
the future moth is produced; these may be thrown
on a tray containing bran, which absorbs the
water which would otherwise remain on them
after their long soaking. When silk-worms are
reared for profit, there are a far greater number

12 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY,

of chrysalides than are wanted; these may be
given to fowls, which are exceedingly fond of
them, and to which they afford a wholesome and
nutritious diet.

33. In a fortnight or three weeks after the
winding of the silk, some of the chrysalides will
be found cracking and opening, and the perfect
moth will then appear: these are small sluggish
creatures, of a pale buff colour, seldom leaving
the tray, mat, or paper, on which they are placed,
and on which the females lay their eggs.

34. As regards the hatching of the eggs, it is
important to know that this may be retarded as
long as the owner pleases, by subjection to a low
temperature; and it will be well for those who
purpose keeping silk-worms for the sake of profit
to defer the hatching of the eggs until the mul-
berry-trees are sufficiently forward to ensure a
constant supply of food.

35. The usual time for the hatching of silk-
worms’ eggs in this country is about the 12th of
May, but a fortnight later is much better; for at
that time the mulberry-trees have not generally
put forth their leaves, and a great difficulty con-
stantly occurs in procuring food,

36. No other food than mulberry leaves, as
far as we have yet learned, affords to silk-worms
wholesome nutriment; lettuce, dog-wood, and
black-currant leaves, have been repeatedly tried,
but without success.

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 13

CHAPTER III.

HISTORY OF THE APPLE MOTH.*

Class......... Lepidoptera. Genus ...... Cydia.
Order ...... Tortricites. Species...... Pomonana.

37. Tur apple-moth is a beautiful little crea-
ture; its wings are studded with silvery shining
specks, as though they were inlaid with precious
gems: it is the most beautiful of the beautiful
tribe to which it belongs, yet, from it shabits not
being known, it is seldom seen in the moth state,
and the apple-grower knows no more than the
man in the moon to what cause he is indebted for
his basketsful of worm-eaten windfalls in the
stillest weather.

38. To find the moth in the day-time, the
trunks of the apple-trees should be carefully
looked over; or if your orchard be surrounded by
a wooden fence, it may frequently be found sitting
against it, with its pretty wings neatly folded
round it.

* Rusrrevs, in the Entomological Magazine.

14 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

89. Towards evening, in fact, just at sunset,
it begins to move, and may then be seen hovering
about the little apples, which, by the time the
moth leaves the chrysalis, the middle of June,
are well knit, and consequently fit for the reception
of its eggs, which it lays in the eyes, one only
in each, by introducing its long ovipositor between
the leaves of the calyx, which form a tent above
it that effectually shields it from the inclemency
of the weather, or any other casualty.

40. As soon as the egg hatches, the little grub
gnaws a hole in the crown of the apple, and soon
buries itself in its substance; and it is worthy of
remark that the rind of the apple, as if to afford
every facility to the destroyer, is thinner here than
in any other part, and consequently more easily
pierced: the apple most commonly attacked is
the codling, a large early sort, which ripens in
July and August.

41. The grub, controlled by an unvarying
instinct, eats into the apple obliquely downwards,
and by thus avoiding the core and pips in no way
hinders its growth: at first it makes but slow
progress, being little bigger than a thread, but
after a fortnight its size and its operations have
much increased; it has now eaten half way down
the apple, and the position of the hole at the top,
if the apple continue upright, or nearly so, is
inconvenient for a purpose it has up to this time
been used for, that is, as a pass to get rid of its

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 15

little pellets of excrement, which are something
like fine sawdust or coarse sand.

42. Another communication with the outer air
is for this purpose required, and it must be so
constructed as to allow the power of grayity to
assist in keeping it clear; it is accordingly made
directly downwards towards that part of the apple
which is lowest, and thus the trouble of thrusting
the pellets upwards through the eye of the apple
is saved, and a constant admission given to a
supply of air without any labour.

43. The hole now made is not, however, suffi-
ciently open for an observer to gain by its means
any knowledge of what is going on within; this
is only to be obtained by cutting open a number
of the apples as they gradually advance towards
ripeness; the hole is, however, very easily seen,
from its always having adhering to it on the out-
side an accumulation of the little grains which
have been thrust through.

44, Having completed this work, the grub
returns towards the centre of the apple, where
he feeds at his ease. When within a few days
of being full fed, he for the first time enters
the core through a round hole gnawed in the
hard, horny substance which always separates the
pips from the pulp of the fruit, and the destroyer
now finds himself in that spacious chamber which
codlings in particular always have in their centre.

45. From this time he eats only the pips,

16 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

never again tasting the more common pulp which
hitherto had satisfied his unsophisticated palate:
now nothing less than the highly-flavoured, aro-
matic kernels will suit his tooth, and on these
for a few days he feasts in luxury.

46. Somehow or other, the pips of an apple
are connected with its growth, as the heart of
an animal with its life;—injure the heart, an
animal dies: injure the pips, an apple falls:
whether the fall of his house gives the tenant
warning to quit, is not known, but quit he does,
and that almost immediately ; he leaves the core,
crawls along his breathing and clearing-out gal-
lery, the mouth of which, before nearly closed,
he now gnaws into a smooth, round hole, which
will permit him free passage without hurting his
fat, soft, round body; then out he comes, and
for the first time in his life finds himself in the
open air.

47. He now wanders about on the ground till
he finds the stem of a tree: up this he climbs,
and hides himself in some nice little crack in the
bark : we should remark, that the fall of the apple,
the exit of the grub, and his wandering to this
place of security, usually take place in the night-
time. In this situation he remains without stirring
for a day or two, as if to rest himself after the
uncommon fatigue of a two yards’ march ; he
then gnaws away the bark a little in order to get
further in out of the way of observation ; and

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 17

having made a smooth chamber big enough for
his wants, he spins a beautiful little milk-white
silken case, in which, after a few weeks, he
becomes a chrysalis.

48. In this state he remains throughout the
winter and until the following June, unless some
unlucky, blackheaded tit, running up the trunk,
peeping into every cranny, and whistling out his
merry see-saw, happen to spy him, in which case he
is plucked without ceremony from his retreat, and
his last moments are spent in the bird’s crop ;
but supposing no such ill-fortune betide him, by
the middle of June he is again on the wing, and
hovering round the young apples on a midsummer
evening as before.

49, By burning weeds in your gardens at this
time of year you will effectually drive away this
little moth. If you have trees, the crops of which
you value, make a smoking (mind, not a blazing)
fire under each; it will put you to some incon-
venience if your garden be near your house, but
the apples will repay you for that.

18 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

CHAPTER IV.
HISTORY OF THE MOSQUITO.”

ClasS.seseeuee Diptera. Order... cere Simuliites.
Genus... Simulia.

50. Tur eggs of the mosquito (Simulia), and
the mode in which they are laid, appear to be at pre-
sent unknown ; there is, however, little doubt but
that, like those of other gnats, they are deposited on
the surface of the water, and in that situation are
hatched by the warmth of the sun combined with
the moisture of the water.

51. The larva is found on the stems of water-
plants (Phellandrium, &c.); on those portions
which are always covered by the water: it is long,
cylindrical, considerably thickened posteriorly, and
nearly transparent: its head is distinctly separated
from the body, and is of an oblong form; it has
four jaws moving horizontally, each bifid at the
tip, and two little horns in the usual place of

* M. Fries in Entomologisches Archives.

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 19

antennae, inserted in.the front of the head, rather
towards each side: each of these is composed of
two joints, the first, or basal joint, stout, the
second, or apical one, divided into many rays,
which fold back on the first joint: it has two very
small eyes on each side of the head.

52. The body of the larva is divided into twelve
segments besides the head; of these, the second
is incrassated, and furnished below with a retrac-
tile conical foot; the last segment is very minute,
and furnished with two small prehensile feet : the
air tubes, so very plainly seen in other aquatic
larve, are totally wanting; neither is there the
least appearance of spiracles or breathing holes in
the sides.

58. The motion of the larva in the water is
tolerably brisk; but on any object coming in
contact with it, it instantly becomes motionless,
attaches itself by the anterior prehensile foot, and
remains a long time perfectly still and immoy-
able. When it moves from one place to another,
its progression is undulating, somewhat like that
of a leech, being performed in this manner :—the
anterior foot is firmly attached to some object,
then the posterior pair of feet are brought up to it,
the back arching up during the operation; the
anterior foot then releases its hold; the body is
again elongated, the foot attached further on, and
the posterior feet again brought up to it.

54, The food of the larva is unknown: when

c2

20 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

full grown, it spins a little silken sheath, in shape
like a watchpocket, which is attached to the plant
which the larva frequents, and in which the larva
changes to a pupa in an upright position: the
case being always open at top, the head and
shoulders of the pupa are seen projecting above it.

55. The pupa much resembles that of a moth:
it is perfectly motionless, of a brown colour, and
exhibits very distinctly the parts of the perfect
insect through its skin: from the back of its head
arise on each side four hair-like appendages ;
these are tubular, and appear to be designed for
breathing.

56. About the sixth of July the little creature
bursts from its sheath ; the case of the chrysalis
opens in a right line down the back, and the
perfect insect emerges through the opening, sur-
rounded by a bubble of air, and slowly begins to
unfold its wings under the water; finally, its skin
being cast, and its maturity attained, it disengages
itself from its former habitation, and mounts within
its bubble to the surface of the water, when the
bubble bursts, and the creature has acquired new
organs and a new element.

57. The imago is a small black fly, with two
large transparent wings, which, when at rest,
repose horizontally on its back; moderately long
legs, and short stout antenne ; it flies with ease,
and somewhat sportively, rising and falling. In
this country it is found in the damp parts of

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 21

woods, and other similar situations; but, happily,
in very limited numbers.

58. There is scarcely any animal more annoying
to men and animals than this little fly: its attacks
are made in innumerable multitudes, and it is trou-
blesome not only from the pain and inflammation
caused by its bite, but also from the intolerable
itching occasioned by its crawling over the skin,

59. In the woody and marshy parts of Lapland,
the mosquitoes swarm in the months of July and
August; nay, even the summits of the highest
mountains, though capped with perpetual snow,
impose no obstacle to their progress. Among the
numerous gnats and flies which feed on blood,
these are the most to be feared; impelled by an
insatiate thirst, they make their attack, and will
have blood: nothing can repel or deter them.

60. Whenever the garment of a traveller has by
accident slipped aside, and discovered a portion of
his skin, however small, that exposed portion is
instantly streaming with blood: in the southern
parts of Lapland they are less troublesome than
in the northern, although clouds of them occa-
sionally appear performing their evolutions in
the air.

61. The mosquito seems to have adopted the
world for its country ; no known land appears to
be without it; all temperatures suit it—the polar
snows, and the blaze of tropical sands: Yet all the
flies of which travellers complain as so dreadfully

22 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

annoying, are not mosquitoes ; many of our com-
monest gnats have a similar taste for blood.

62. Although, from what is related, there can
be no doubt that the blood of man is an acceptable
food to the mosquito, yet it is remarkable that
the greatest multitudes of these creatures inhabit
those bleak, inhospitable, and almost inaccessible
regions where the foot of man seldom treads, and
where other warm-blooded animals are scarcely
known to exist.

68. It is clearly ascertained that the female
mosquitoes alone suck the blood of man; the
males spend their lives among the leaves of trees,
or settle on flowers, from which they appear to
derive nutriment; it is therefore far from impos-
sible that, in the failure of animal, the females also
may have recourse to vegetable nutriment.

UISTORY OF INSECTS. 23

CHAPTER VY.

HISTORY OF THE Bor.”

Class......... Diptera. Genus ...... Gistrus.
Order... CEstrites. Species...... Equi.

64. Tue opinions respecting this singular
insect, as to the benefit or injury which horses
derive from it, are very various; but observation
leads us to suppose that, like many other insect
parasites in various parts of the bodies of animals,
its existence is scarcely perceptible to the animal
which supports it.

65. The female bot flies round the horse,
carrying her body nearly upright in the air, and
projecting a long tube (ovépositor) from the ex-
tremity of her body, this tube being bent inwards
and upwards: in this way she approaches the
part where she designs to deposit the egg; and
suspending herself for a few seconds, darts for-
ward, and leaves the egg adhering to the hair.

® Bracy Clark's History of the Bots of Horses.

24 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

66. The egg appears to be held out at the
extremity of the ovipositor, so that the insect has
no oceasion to settle, but simply touches the hair,
and the egg at once firmly adheres by means of a
glutinous matter with which it is covered; she
then withdraws to a short distance, prepares an-
other egg, again poises herself before the chosen
part, and deposits it in the same way as before :
the operation is sometimes repeated until four or
five hundred eggs are laid on one horse.

67. The female bot does not lay her eggs at
random on any part of the body, but constantly
on those parts which are most liable to be licked
by the tongue; and never on the head, or parts
which cannot be reached by the tongue; the inside
of the knee, and the side and back part of the
shoulder, are the parts usually selected.

68. When the eggs have remained on the hairs
four or five days, the slightest application of
warmth and moisture is sufficient to hatch them ;
at this time, if the tongue of the horse touches
the egg, it immediately opens, and a small active
worm is produced, which adheres readily to the
moist surface of the tongue, and is thence conveyed
with the food into the stomach.

69. The maggots are at first long in proportion
to their thickness, but as their age advances, they
become proportionally thicker and broader; they
adhere to the white insensible tissue, or coat of
the stomach, usually hanging in dense clusters,

HISTORY OF INSECTS, 25

and maintaining their hold by means of their
hooked jaws.

70. The maggots make small round holes in
the white tissue, sometimes so deep as to go com-
pletely through it, but not through the other coats
of the stomach; the colour of the maggot is a
whitish red, and the segments of its body are
surrounded with a double row of horny bristles,
a longer and a shorter series; the last two seg-
ments are destitute of these bristles: the bristles
are of a reddish colour, with black points, which
are directed towards the posterior extremity of the
maggot.

71. The food of the maggot appears to consist
entirely of the coat of the horse’s stomach, or of
some fluid secreted from it, and not in any degree
of the vegetable matter taken into the horse’s
stomach as food: the maggots pass the autumn,
winter, and spring in the stomach of the horse,
thus taking nearly a year to arrive at their
growth.

72. When full grown, these maggots quit their
hold of the coat of the stomach, are carried
through the intestines with the food, and fall to
the ground, where their skin hardens, and they
_ become pupee, in which state they turn to a darker
colour, but preserve, in a great degree, the shape
and character which they possessed as larvee,

78. In about twenty days after falling to the
ground, the shell of the pupa opens at the smaller

26 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

end, a portion of the shell falling completely off;
and the perfect insect then emerging through the
aperture, escapes from his confinement, and soon
attains hardness and maturity, and flies away.

74, A second species of bot lays its egg on the
lips of the horse, occasioning an annoying itching,
at which the animal is much distressed, rubbing
his nose violently against the ground, the stem of
a tree, or his own legs, or galloping away with all
his might: both the larva and perfect insect of
this species are smaller than those of the fore-
going.

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 27

CHAPTER VI.
HISTORY OF THE BEE.*

CISSSiiiisecrs gee eee | Genus ...... Apis.
Order ...... Apites. Species...... Mellifica.

75. To the bee we are indebted for two valuable
articles of commerce,—honey and wax: since the
introduction of sugar, honey has become less an
article of general use, and more one of luxury:
but wax is still extensively consumed throughout
the civilized world.

76. Honey is collected from flowers, is swal-
lowed by the bees, and afterwards regurgitated :
the bee, laden with honey, returns to the hive,
enters a cell, pierces a hole in the crust on the
surface of the honey already therein, disgorges
the honey in large drops from its mouth, new
models the crust, and closes up the hole; this
mode of proceeding is regularly adopted by every
bee that contributes to the general store.

* Dr, Bevan’s Honey Bee; original authority, Huber's History of
the Hive Bee.

28 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

77. Wax is secreted, as occasion may require,
from small sacks, situated between the segments
of the body of the bee, on the under side; it is
used for constructing the combs in which the
family provision of honey and the young brood
are deposited ; the wax of commerce is produced
by melting down these combs.

78. A bee-hive contains three kinds of indi-
viduals,—a queen, drones, and workers; the
queen is a female,-and not only the ruler, but, in
great part, the mother of the community; the
drones are males, and the workers are abortive
females.

79. The sole office of the queen appears to be
the laying of eggs, and this occupies her almost
incessantly, as a single one only is deposited in
each cell, thus causing her to be in continual
motion: she is slow and majestic in her move-
ments, and differs from the workers in being
larger, having a longer body, shorter wings, and a
eurved sting.

80. The queen is accompanied by a guard of
twelve workers, an office which is taken in turn,
but never intermitted : in whatever direction she
wishes to travel, these guards clear the way before
her, always with the utmost courtesy turning
their faces towards her, and when she rests from
her labours, approaching her with humility, licking
her face, mouth, and eyes, and fondling her with
their antenne.

HISTORY OF INSECTS, 29

81. The drones are all males; they are less
than the queen, but larger than the workers; they
live on the honey of flowers, but bring none home,
and are wholly useless, except as being the fathers
of the future progeny ; when this office is accom-
plished, they are destroyed by the workers.

82. A buzzing commences in the hive; the
drones and the workers sally forth together,
grapple each other in the air, hug and scuffle for
a minute, during which operation the stings of the
workers are plunged into the side of the drones,
who, overpowered by the poison, almost instantly
die.

83. The workers are the smallest bees in the
hive, and by far the most numerous; they have a
longer lip for sucking honey than either of the
others; their thighs are furnished with a brush
for the reception of the honey of flowers, and
their sting is straight.

84. The workers do the entire work of the
community; they build the cells, guard the
hive and the queen, collect and store the honey,
elaborate the wax, feed the young, kill the
drones, &c. The average number of these three
kinds of bees in a hive is one queen, 2,000 drones,
and 20,000 workers.

85. The eggs are long, slightly curved, and of
a bluish colour; when laid, they are covered with
a glutinous matter, which instantly dries, attaching
them to the bottom of the cell.

30 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

86. For eleven months the queen lays only
workers’ eggs; after that, those which produce
drones: as soon as this change has taken place,
the workers begin to construct royal cells, in
which, without discontinuing laying the drones’
eggs, the queen deposits here and there, about
once in three days, an egg which is destined to
produce a queen.

87. The workers’ eggs hatch in a few days,
and become little white maggots, which imme-
diately open their mouth to be fed; these the
workers attend to with unerring assiduity : in six
days each maggot fills up its cell; it is then
roofed in by the workers, spins a silk cocoon, and
becomes a chrysalis ; and on the twenty-first day
it comes forth a perfect bee. The drones emerge
on the twenty-fifth day, and the queens on the
sixteenth.

88. It has been already stated, that the queen,
for nearly a year, lays no eggs that are destined
to produce queens; it therefore follows, that if
any evil befall her, the hive is left without a
queen: it sometimes happens that she dies, or is
taken away by the owner of the hive, to observe
the result. ‘

89. For twelve hours little notice is taken of
the loss; it appears not to be known, and the
workers labour as usual: after that period, a
hubbub commences; work is abandoned; the
whole hive is in an uproar; every bee traverses

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 31

the hive at random, and with the most evident
want of purpose.

90. This state of anarchy sometimes continues
for two days; then the bees gather in clusters of
a dozen or so, as though engaged in consultation;
shortly after, a resolution appears to have been
made; a few of the workers go to work at the
cells in which are deposited the eggs of workers ;
three of these cells are quickly broken into one,
the edges polished, and the sides smoothed and
rounded, a single egg being allowed to remain at
the bottom.

91. When this egg hatches, the maggot is fed
with a peculiarly nutritive food, called royal
bee-bread, which is never given to any maggots
but such as are to produce queens; work is now
resumed over the whole hive, and goes on as
briskly as before: on the sixteenth day the
workers’ egg produces a queen, whose appearance
is hailed with every demonstration of delight,
and who at once assumes sovereignty over the
hive.

92. When, under ordinary circumstances, a
young queen emerges from the chrysalis, the old
one frequently leaves the hive, heading the first
swarm for the season, and flying to some neigh-
bouring resting-place, is observed by the owner,
captured, placed under a new hive, and a new
colony is immediately commenced.

93. Before a swarm leaves the hive, sure

382 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

indications are given of the intended movement ;
the workers leave their various occupations, and
collect in groups, especially near the door of the
hive, as though in consultation on the important
event about to take place.

94. As the summer advances, many queens are
hatched; but the workers do not allow them
instant liberty, as severe battles would take
place between them and the reigning queen,
in which one would be killed: the workers, there-
fore, make a small hole in the ceiling of the
royal cell, through which the captive queen thrusts
her tongue, and receives food from the workers.
In this state of confinement the young queen
utters a low querulous note, which has been com-
pared to singing.

95. When the reigning, or a newly created
queen, finds one of these captives, she uses every
effort to tear open the cell, and destroy her rival :
to prevent this, the workers often interpose,
pulling her away by the legs and wings; to this
she submits for a short time, when, uttering a
peculiar cry, called her voice of sovereignty, she
commands instant attention and obedience, and is
at once freed from her assailants.

96. The cocoon spun by the maggots of the
workers and drones completely envelopes the
chrysalis ; but that spun by the maggot of
the queen appears imperfect, covering only the
upper end of the chrysalis: it has been supposed

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 33

that they are thus designedly exposed to the
attacks of other queens, and their destruction,
before emerging, facilitated.

97. When the chrysalis of the queen is about
to change to a perfect insect, the bees make the
cover of the cell thinner by gnawing away part
of the wax; and with so much nicety do they
perform this operation, that the cover at last.
becomes pellucid, owing to its extreme thinness.

98. The combs of a bee-hive comprise a con-
geries of hexagonal cells, built by the bees as a
receptacle for honey, and for the nurseries of their
young : each comb in a hive is composed of two
ranges of cells, backed against each other: the
base or partition between this double row of cells
is so disposed as to form a pyramidical cavity at
the bottom of each.

99. There is a continued series of these double
combs in every well-filled hive; the spaces be-
tween them being just sufficient to allow two bees,
one on the surface of each comb, to pass without
touching.

100. Each cell is hexagonal, the six sides being
perfectly equal. This figure ensures the greatest
possible economy of material and space; the
outer edges of the cells are slightly thickened, in
order to gain strength; the same part is also
covered with a beautiful varnish, which is sup-
posed to give additional strength.

101. The construction of several combs is

D

34 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

generally going on at the same time: no sooner
is the foundation of one laid, with a few rows of
cells attached to it, than a second and a third are
founded on each side, parallel to the first, and
so on till the hive is filled, the combs which were
commenced first, being always in the most advanced
state, and therefore the first completed.

102. The design of every comb is sketched
out, and the first rudiments laid, by a single bee:
this foundress-bee forms a block out of a rough
mass of wax, drawn partly from its own resources,
but principally from those of other bees, which
furnish wax from the small sacks before described,
taking out the plates of wax with their hind feet,
and carrying it with their fore feet to their mouths,
where it is moistened, masticated, and rendered
soft and ductile.

103. The foundress-bee determines the relative
position of the combs, and their distance from
each other; the foundations which she marks
serving as guides to the ulterior labours of the
wax-working bees, and of those which build the
cells, giving them the advantage of the margins
and angles already formed.

104. The mass of wax prepared by the assist-
ants, is applied by the foundress-bee to the roof or
bottom of the hive, and thus a slightly double-
convex mass is formed: when of sufficient size,
a cell is sculptured on one side of it by the bees,
who relieve one another in the labour.

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 35

105. At the back, and on each side of this first
cell, two others are sketched out and excavated :
by this proceeding the foundations of two cells
are laid, the line betwixt them corresponding with
the centre of the opposite cells: as the comb
extends, the first excavations are rendered deeper
and broader; and when a pyramidical base is’
finished, the bees build up walls from its edges,
so as to complete what may be called the prismatic
part of the cell.

106. The cells intended for the drones are
considerably larger and more substantial than
those for the workers; and being formed subse-
quently, they usually appear nearer the bottom of
the combs: last of all, are built the royal cells for
the queens; of these there are usually three or
four, sometimes ten or twelve, in a hive, attached
commonly to the central part, but not unfrequently
to the edge of the comb.

107. The form of the royal cells is an oblong
spheroid, tapering gradually downwards, and
having the exterior full of holes: the mouth
of the cell, which is always at the bottom,
remains open until the maggot is ready for
transformation, and it is then closed like the
rest. ‘

108. When a queen has emerged, the cell in
which she was reared is destroyed, and its place
supplied by a range of common cells: the site of
this range may always. be traced by that part of

D3

36 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

the comb being thicker than the rest, and forming
a kind of knot.

109. The common breeding cells of drones
and workers are occasionally made the depositories
of honey; but the cells are never made sufficiently
clean to preserve the honey undeteriorated. The
finest honey is stored in new cells, constructed for
the purpose of receiving it, their form resembling
precisely that of the common breeding cells: these
honey cells vary in size, being larger or smaller
according to the productiveness of the sources
from which the bees are collecting, and also ac-
cording to the season.

110. The cells formed in July and August
being intended only for honey, are larger and
deeper than those formed earlier : the texture of
their walls is thinner, and thus they have more dip
or inclination: this dip diminishes the risk of the
honey’s running out, which, from the heat of the
weather at this season, and its consequent thinness,
it is liable to do,

111. When the cells intended for holding the
winter’s provision are filled, they are always closed
with waxen lids, and are never re-opened till the
whole of the honey in the unfilled cells is expended :
the waxen lids are thus formed :—the bees first
construct a ring of wax within the verge of the
cells, to which other rings are successively added,
till the aperture of the cell is finally closed by a
lid composed of concentric circles.

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 37

112. The flower-sleeping bee* is a wild species, +
nearly black, and of small size; the male may be
found throughout the summer, apparently fast
asleep, in the blossoms of buttereups, and other
flowers, or flying over them: the female is the
very model of maternal industry, her whole life
being spent in providing for her family.

113. This bee may be observed anxiously
examining posts, rails, trellis-work, &c., especially
on the sunny side: having found a part quite dry,
and a little going to decay, she commences by
piercing a hole nearly horizontally, about an inch
deep; then changing the direction, she proceeds
as nearly in a perpendicular line as circumstances
will allow: her strong jaws are the sole instru-
ments with which nature has furnished her for
this difficult task; but with these she contrives to
gnaw the wood to a sort of sawdust, which she
kicks out behind her, passing it from one pair of
feet to the next.

114. Occasionally she comes to the mouth of
the hole,—it may be to rest herself, or to look
round, and see that no enemies are near. The
excavation, which, when finished, is cylindrical,
and about ten or twelve inches long, is to be
divided into nearly twenty cells, which are to be
filled with food for her little ones, one of which
will oceupy each cell.

® Chelostoma florisomne.
+ Dexa, in Entomological Magazine.

38 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

115, The egg which is first deposited will of
course be the first to hatch, and become the first
maggot; the first maggot will first become a
ehrysalis, and will also undergo the final change
sooner than the younger part of the brood above.

116. To guard against the confusion which
must necessarily arise from this, she continues
the hole, changing its direction, until it assumes a
horizontal course, and at length arrives again at
the outside,—thus leaving an easy escape for the
first of the brood, without disturbing those above,
which will not appear till four or five days later.

117. She now closes the hole just above the
lower bend with a partition consisting of fine
sand, firmly glued together by means of a viscid
saliva, with which she is copiously furnished :
having stored a sufficient quantity of food, which
consists of pollen, from the anthers, and honey from
the nectaries of flowers, for the support of one
larva, she deposits an egg, and then closes the
cell in the same manner as she formed its bottom.

118. She then stores up more food, deposits
another egg, and closes up another cell, pro-
ceeding thus until she has quite filled the
perpendicular part of the hole. Her task now
draws to a conclusion; she has only to close the
two apertures: the lower one, intended for the
outlet, is merely closed in the same way as
the cells, with very fine sand; but as the upper
one is much more exposed to danger from rain,

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 39

which might penetrate it, and, getting into the
nest, destroy the young maggots, she uses first
the fine sand, as before, and then adds a layer of
larger grains.

119. Alighting on a gravel path, she selects a
grain suited to her purpose, carries it to her nest,
holding it in her mandibles, moves it about to
find where it will fit best, and, covering it with
saliva, presses it into its place, and flies off for
another and another, till the aperture is securely
closed, and her labour done: she has provided for
the continuance of her race; and, with her care,
ends also her life.

40 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY,

CHAPTER VII.

HISTORY OF THE ICHNEUMON.

Class ...... Hymenoptera, Genus ...... Pimpla,
Order ...44 Ichneumonites. Species...... Instigator,

120. Tuere are many butterflies and moths
which increase so rapidly, that, without a check,
their caterpillars would, in two or three years at
the utmost, devour every green leaf on the face
of the earth, and render it incapable of supporting
its present inhabitants.

121, The ichneumons are evidently created to
act as a check to this devastation : they are gene-
rally small insects, with slender bodies, and have
four transparent wings: they are very active,
running about the stems and leaves of plants in
search of caterpillars, and fly very readily.

122, The ichneumons are of many kinds:
more than a thousand varieties have been described
by naturalists; and it is supposed that every
butterfly, and every moth, indeed, almost every
insect, has one peculiar to itself: the history
of them all is nearly similar,

HISTORY OF INSECTS. © 41

128. The caterpillar of the tiger-moth is one
of the most destructive in our gardens ; it devours,
indiscriminately, lettuces, radishes, beans, peas,
and every other early produce of our gardens,
and is most abundant in the spring, when
these plants are being reared: it is a very rough
hairy caterpillar, black above, with a red fringe
on each side: it is preyed on by several ich-
neumons-

124, The largest ichneumon ( Pimpla Insti-
gator) of the tiger-moth (Areclia caia) is often
about an inch long, but is of very various size ;
it has a black body and red legs, and has a re-
markably strong smell, something like burning
pitch.

125. In the spring, this ichneumon may be
seen coursing over the leaves of lettuces, in cur-
rant bushes, on strawberry beds, nettles, &c.
hunting for the object of its attack.

126. When it has found a caterpillar, it seizes
it behind the head with its jaws, at which opera~
tion the caterpillar looses its hold of the plant on
which it was feeding, rolls itself suddenly in a
ring, erects its bristles as stiffly as possible, and
falls on the ground; if the fall is far, and among
twigs, the ichneumon is sometimes dislodged, but
this rarely happens.

127. The female ichneumon has three bristles
at its tail, of which the middle one appears to be
a tube for conveying its eggs into the body of the

42 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY,

caterpillar, and is called an ovipositor; the outer
ones seem to serve as protectors to this ovi-
positor, and not to be used for piercing the
caterpillar.

128. When the caterpillar can fall no further,
it frequently unfolds itself, and writhes about to
dislodge its enemy; but its struggles are useless :
the ichneumon elevates its body in a kind of
arch, bending the ovipositor forward beneath it
nearly to its mouth; it then steadies the ovi-
positor by its hind legs, and, with a slight jerk,
drives it into the skin of the caterpillar behind
its head; the egg is instantly deposited, the ovi-
positor withdrawn, and the ichneumon flies away.

129. The caterpillar, immediately on the con-
clusion of this operation, remounts the plant on
which it had previously been, and begins feeding
eagerly as before ; no difference whatever is to be
discovered in its manner, in the quantity of food
it consumes, or in the rapidity of its growth.

130. When the caterpillar has attained its full
size, it spins a web among leaves, on the ground,
in a bush, or against palings, intermixing a con-
siderable quantity of its own hairs; and in this
web it becomes a chrysalis.

131. The egg of the ichneumon is very soon
hatched, and becomes a white maggot, without feet
and with very little appearance of head; it begins
eating that part of the flesh of the caterpillar which
is immediately in its neighbourhood, and continues

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 43

its course towards the tail, devouring all the fat and
muscular parts not absolutely essential to motion
and life; and, by the time the caterpillar of the
moth is full grown, and changes to a chrysalis,
the maggot of the ichneumon is full grown also,
and occupies more than half of its interior.

182. It is worthy of remark, that this maggot
thus inhabiting for weeks the body of a living
caterpillar, and devouring its living flesh, always
instinctively avoids those parts which are essen-
tial to life, as though aware that the cessation of
life in the caterpillar would ensure its own death,
as it could not subsist on the putrifying carcase.

133. After laying quiescent for many days,
and often weeks, and sometimes through the
whole winter, the skin of the maggot is thrown
off, and it becomes a chrysalis, exhibiting very
exactly the shape and appearance of the future
fly; the antennz and legs being placed before it,
the wings small, and folded by its side, and the
ovipositor being turned up a little over its back.

134, The chrysalis is without motion, and
much resembles that of the bee : in both instances
the limbs are quite distinct from the body, and
not united with it in a hard crustaceous case, as
is the case in the chrysalis of the silk-worm:
this kind of chrysalis is said to be necromor-
phous (pupa necromorpha), from its resemblance
to the perfect insect, with its limbs neatly arranged,
and motionless, as in death.

44 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

135. The chrysalis state lasts but a few
days, and the perfect insect emerges from it;
after this first escape, it has to penetrate the
shell of the chrysalis of the tiger-moth, in which
it is still imprisoned, and which is made much
harder by the drying of the portions of animal
matter which the maggot of the ichneumon had
left unconsumed.

136. The ichneumon overcomes this difficulty
by gnawing a hole with its sharp and strong
jaws, generally in that thin portion of the shell
which covers the wing of the future insect :
almost immediately on emerging, the ichneumon
vibrates its wings and flies away.

137. The caterpillar of the tiger-moth is
preyed on in a similar manner by the maggot
of a two-winged fly ; and this maggot, while thus
devouring the interior of the caterpillar, is itself
a prey to a minute kind of ichneumon, twenty
of which sometimes feed in the maggot of a
single fly.

188. The manner in which the egg of this
little ichneumon is introduced into the maggot
of the fly, is at present unknown ; but as the fly
fastens its egg exteriorly on the skin of the cater-
pillar, and does not perforate the skin, and deposit
it inside, as in the case of the great ichneumon
before described, it is supposed the small ichneu-
mon’s egg is laid in the egg of the fly while the
latter is adhering to the skin of the caterpillar.

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 45

139. The egg of the fly, which is placed on
the neck of the caterpillar, the only part from
which the caterpillar could not remove it, is very
conspicuous to an observer: in this situation, we
cannot wonder, then, the little ichneumon should
discover it; nor does it appear an improbable
supposition, that the little creature seizes this
opportunity of piercing its shell with her oviduct,
and depositing her egg amidst its contents.

140. The maggot of the fly, as soon as
hatched, pierces the skin of the caterpillar, and
commences devouring, carrying within it a horde
of insidious parasites, which, though they inter-
fere not with the due performance of its appointed
work of destruction, yet, in the end, so weaken
it, that it never arrives at perfection.

141. Ichneumons of different kinds attack the
eggs, larvae, chrysalides, or imagines, of nearly all
insects; and very ingenious experiments and cal-
culations have proved, that four out of every five
eggs that are laid, are prevented from arriving at
maturity by parasites attacking them in one or
other of these stages.

46 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

CHAPTER VIII.

HISTORY OF THE BURYING-BEETLE.”

Class......... Coleoptera, Genus......... Necrophorus.
Order .,.... Silphiites. Species .,....Vespilly.

142. Tux burying-beetle is about an inch in
length; it is black, with two bands across its
back of a bright orange colour; these bands are
formed by two large blotches on each of the upper
wings: though in such a gay dress, it is a dis-
gusting insect, being so foetid that the hands
smell for hours after handling it; and if it crawls
on woollen clothes, which are not washed, the
smell continues for days.

143, The burying-beetle lays its eggs in the
bodies of putrefying dead animals, which, when
practicable, it buries in the ground. In Russia,
where the poor people are buried but a few inches
below the surface of the ground, the burying-
beetles avail themselves of the bodies for this

* From Rusticus’ MS.; with permission.

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 47

purpose, and the graves are pierced with their
holes in every direction ; at evening, hundreds of
these beetles may be seen in the church-yards,
either buzzing over recent graves, or emerging
from them.

144. The burying-beetle in this country seldom
finds so convenient a provision for him, and he is
under the necessity of taking much more trouble ;
he sometimes avails himself of dead dogs and
horses, but these are too great rarities to be his
constant resort: the usual objects of his search
are dead mice, rats, birds, frogs, and moles; of
these, a bird is most commonly obtained.

145. In the neighbourhood of towns, every
kind of garbage that is thrown out attracts these
beetles as soon as it begins to smell; and it is
not unusual to see them settling in our streets,
enticed by the grateful odour of such substances.

146. The burying-beetles hunt in couples,
male and female ; and when six or eight are found
in a large animal, they are almost sure to be males
and females, in equal numbers: they hunt by
scent only, the chase being mostly performed
when no other sense would be very available, viz.
in the night.

147. When they have found a bird, great
comfort is expressed by the male, who wheels
round and round above it, like an eagle,—the
female settles on it at once, without this testi-
monial of satisfaction; the male at last settles

48 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

also, and the bird undergoes the scrutiny of four,
at least, of the senses,—touch, smell, sight, and
taste,—for their heads are continually diving
among the feathers of the bird, and a savoury and
ample meal is made before the great work is

begun. ;

148. After the beetles have appeased the calls
of hunger, the bird is abandoned for a while;
they both leave it to explore the earth in the
neighbourhood, and ascertain whether there is a
place suitable for interment: if on a ploughed
field, there is no difficulty ; but if on grass, or
among stones, much labour is required to draw
it to a more suitable place.

149. The operation of burying is performed
almost entirely by the male beetle, the female
mostly hiding herself in the body of the bird
about to be buried, or sitting quietly upon it,
and allowing herself to be buried with it: the male
begins by digging a furrow all round the bird, at
the distance of about half an inch, turning the
earth outside ; his head is the only tool used in
this operation; it is held sloping outwards, and is
exceedingly powerful.

150. After the first furrow is completed, another
is made within it, and the earth is thrown into
the, first furrow: then a third furrow is made,
which, being under the bird, the beetle is out of
sight: now the operation can only be traced by
the heaving of the earth, which soon forms a

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 49

little rampart round the bird; as the earth is
moved from beneath, and the surrounding ram-
part increases in height, the bird sinks. After
incessant labour for about three hours, the beetle
emerges, crawls upon the bird, and takes a survey
of his work,

151. If the female is on the bird, she is driven
away by the male, who does not choose to be
intruded on during the important business. The
male beetle then remains for about an hour per-
fectly still, does not stir hand or foot; he then
dismounts, diving again into the grave, and pulls
the bird down by the feathers, for half an hour:
its own weight appears to sink it but very little.

152. The earth then begins heaving and rising
all round, as though under the influence of a little
earthquake: the feathers of the bird are again
pulled, and again the bird descends. At last, after
two or three hours’ more labour, the beetle comes
up, again gets on the bird, and again takes a
survey, and then drops down, as though dead,
or fallen suddenly fast asleep.

158. When sufficiently rested, he rouses himself,
treads the bird firmly into its grave, pulls it by
the feathers this way and that way, and, having
settled it to his mind, begins to shovel in the
earth: this is done in a very short time, by means
of his broad head. He goes behind the rampart of
earth, and pushes it into the grave with amazing
strength and dexterity; the head being bent

E

50 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

directly downward at first, and then the nose
elevated with a kind of jerk, which sends the
earth forwards.

154. After the grave is thus filled up, the
earth is trodden in, and undergoes another keen
scrutiny all round, the bird being completely
hidden; the beetle then makes a hole in the still
loose earth, and having buried the bird and his
own bride, next buries himself.

155. The female lays her eggs in the carcase
of the bird, in number proportioned to its size ;
and after this operation is over, and the pair have
eaten as much of the savoury viand as they please,
they make their way out, and fly away in quest
of further adventures.

156. The eggs are hatched in two days, and
produce flat scaly grubs, which run about with
great activity ; these grubs grow excessively fast,
and very soon consume all that their parents had
left. As soon as they are full grown, they cease
eating, and burrowing further in the earth, become
pup. The length of time they remain in this
state appears uncertain; but when arrived at the
perfect state, they make round holes in the ground,
from which they come forth.

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 51

CHAPTER IX.

_ HISTORY OF THE APPLE WEEVIL.*

Class......... Coleoptera, Genus......... Anthonomus.
Order ...... Curculionites. | Species ...... Pomorum.

157. Tux apple weevil is frequently in Here-
fordshire the cause of the total failure of the crop
of apples, and of a consequent heavy loss to the
grower; it is a small beetle, about half the size
of a grain of wheat, of a reddish brown colour,
with the appearance of a letter V obscurely
chalked on its back,

158. With the first sunshiny day in March,
these weevils leave their winter quarters,—the
crevices in the bark,—crawl up the trunk along
the twigs, perch themselves so as to receive the
full benefit of the sun’s rays, and plume them-
selves all over in the same manner that a cat
washes her face with her hands, stretch their
limbs one at a time, unfold their wings, and fly
away in search of their consorts.

* From Rusricus, in Entomological Magazine.

B2

52 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

159. By the time the female weevil is ready
for the important task of depositing her eggs, the
spring has considerably advanced; the apple buds
have burst; and the little bunches of blossom
are readily to be distinguished.. The weevil soon
finds out these, and selecting a blossom every
way to her mind, commences her operations.

160. The beak, or trunk of the weevil, is a
curious instrument; it is very long, and, from
each side of it, springs a feeler, which bends for~
wards at a right angle, so that it appears to be
three-pronged, like a trident; it is furnished at
the extremity with short teeth, or mandibles.

161. With these teeth the female weevil gnaws
a very minute hole into the calyx of the future
blossom, and continues gnawing until the trunk is
plunged in up to her eyes; the trunk is then
withdrawn, and the hole carefully examined by
the introduction of one of the feelers: if it
requires alteration, the trunk goes to work again,
and again the feelers.

162. Being at last fully satisfied that the work
is well accomplished, she turns about, and, standing
with the extremity of her abdomen over the hole,
thrusts into it her long ovipositor, an instrument
composed of a set of tubes, retractile one within
the other, and deposits a single egg (never more)
in the very centre of the future flower: another
examination with her feeler now takes place, to
ascertain that all is right, and away she flies to

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 538

perform the same task again and again, never
tiring while there is an egg to lay.

163. The bud continues to grow like the other
buds: the little perforation becomes invisible.
By and by the egg bursts, and out comes a little
white maggot, without legs, which, directly it is
hatched, begins to devour the young and tender
stamens; next to these the style is attacked, and
eaten down to the fruit, the upper part of which
is quickly consumed. The maggot is then full fed ;
it casts its skin, becomes a chrysalis, and lays
perfectly still.

164. Up to this time the blossom has continued
perfectly healthy, no trace of the enemy being
discovered without; but when the neighbouring
blossoms are expanding their petals to the genial
breath of spring, those of the mutilated bud remain
closed, and retain the arched balloon-like appear-
ance of a bud about to burst. For a few days
they preserve their lovely pink colour, and then,
by degrees, fade to a dingy brown.

165. On opening these brown, or rather rust-
coloured blossoms, about the 10th to the 15th of
June, the chrysalis will be found to have changed
to a perfect beetle, similar to its parent, which,
had it been left to itself, would, in a few days,
have eaten its way through the weather-beaten case
of dried petals, and left its prison-house, flying
about to take its pleasure till the chilly winds of
autumn should drive it to its winter habitation.

54 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

CHAPTER X.

HISTORY OF THE EARWIG,

Class..,....... Orthoptera, Genus......... Forficula.
Order ...,... Forficulites, Species ...... Auricularia.

166. THE earwig is one of our most common
insects; it is well known to every one, and is
very generally an object of unconquerable dislike ;
the forceps at its tail, and the threatening manner
in which these are turned over its back to pinch
any thing of which it is afraid, render it pecu-
liarly disgusting.

167. The fore wings of the earwig are square,
short, leathery pieces, which cover but a very
small portion of the body: the insect is in-
capable of bending or folding them in any
direction, or of using them as organs of flight.

168. The hind wings of the earwig are very
different from the fore wings. They are folded
into a very small compass, and covered by the
fore wings, except a small portion which protrudes

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 55

from beneath them; and, when examined in
this position, appear totally useless as organs of
flight.

169. When ‘unfolded, the hind wings are re-
markably beautiful; they are of ample size,
perfectly transparent, displaying prismatic colours
when moved in the light, and are intersected
by veins, which radiate from near the centre to
the margin.

170. The shape of these wings, when fully
opened, is precisely that of the human ear; and
from'this circumstance, it seems highly probable
that the original name of this insect was earwing,
and not earwig, which appears to be entirely
without a meaning.

171. Earwigs subsist principally on the leaves
and flowers of plants, and on fruit, and they are
entirely nocturnal insects, retiring by day into
dark crevices and corners, where they are screened
from observation. The rapidity with which they
devour the petals of a flower is remarkable: they
clasp the edge of a petal in their fore legs, and
then, stretching out their head as far as possible,
bite out a mouthful; then another mouthful nearer,
and so on till the head is brought to the fore legs.

172. This mode of eating is exactly that which
is used by the caterpillars of butterflies and
moths; the part of the leaf or petal is eaten out
ina semicircular form, and the head is thrust out
to the extreme part after every series of mouthfuls.

56 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

Pinks, carnations, and dahlias, very frequently
lose all their beauty from the voracity of these
insects.

173. When the time of bréeding has arrived,
which is generally in the autumn, the female
retires for protection to the cracks in the bark of
old trees, or the interstices of weather-boarding,
or under heavy stones on the ground: here she
makes a smooth place, and commences laying her
egos.

174, The eggs are usually from twenty to fifty
in number: when she has finished laying them,
she does not forsake them, as is the habit of other
insects, but sits on them in the manner of a hen
until they are hatched.

175. When the little ones leave the shell, they
are instantly very perceptibly larger than the
eggs which contained them. They precisely re-
semble the parent in structure and habit, except
that they are without wings; and they differ also
in colour, being perfectly white.

176. The care of the mother does not cease
with the hatching of the eggs: the young ones
run after her wherever she moves, and she con-
tinues to sit on them and brood over them with
the greatest affection for many days.

177. If the young ones are disturbed or scat-
tered, or if the parent is taken away from them,
she will, on the first opportunity, collect them
again, and brood over them as carefully as before,

HISTORY OF INSECTS. Pin

allowing them to push her about, and cautiously
moving one foot after another for fear of hurting
them.

178. How the young ones are fed unti! the
mother’s care for them has ceased, does not seem
to have been ascertained; for it is not until they
are nearly half grown that they are seen feeding
on vegetables with the rest.

—_—— =

58 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY,

CHAPTER XI.
HISTORY OF THE LocusT.*

Class ......... Orthoptera. Genus .rseeeee Locusta.
Order......... Locustites. Species ...... Migratoria.

179. Tue locust, from the remotest ages, has
had a greater power to injure man, than any other
living creature. Its course is almost invariably
accompanied with famine and pestilence : man
is armed with no power to resist it.

180. The locust was sent as a plague to the
Egyptians, especially to punish them for the
detention and oppression of the Israelites: the
whole face of the country was covered by their
multitudes.

181. Afterwards, about the date z.c. 200, we
have it on record, that locusts again swarmed in
the same part of Africa.

182, St. Augustin mentions another enormous
swarm in the same region, which devoured every

* From Kirby and Spence’s Introduction to Entomology.

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 59

green leaf, and eventually reaching the sea, perished
by drowning ; and the mass of their corrupted
bodies created so great a stench, that a pestilence
ensued, which carried off nearly a million human
beings.

183. We are told by Mouffet, that in the year
591 a swarm of locusts visited Italy; they pur-
sued their destructive course, devouring every
thing, until they reached the sea, in which they
perished. The pestilence arising from the stench
carried off men and beasts to the number of more
than a million.

184. In 1478, the Venetian territory was
visited by a swarm of locusts, which so com-
pletely destroyed the crops as to cause a famine,
in which more than thirty thousand persons died
of starvation.

185. In 1650, a swarm of locusts entered
Russia. As they passed, the air was darkened
by their numbers; they covered the face of the
earth; the trees bent with their weight; and in
places the mass of their dead bodies was four
feet in depth.

186. In 1748, a swarm of locusts visited the
Austrian dominions; at Vienna the breadth of
the swarm exceeded three miles, and so darkened
the air, that one person could not see another at
the distance of twenty paces.

187. Major Moor witnessed in the Mahrattas
the ravages of a swarm of locusts, that was five

60 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

hundred miles in length, and so compact as com-
pletely to hide the sun, and occasion darkness.

188. Mr. Barrow relates that, in Southern
Africa, in the years 1784 and 1797, a swarm of
locusts covered an area of nearly two thousand
square miles. When driven by a north-west wind
into the sea, they formed upon the shore, for fifty
miles, a bank three or four feet high: the stench
from their putrefying bodies was perceptible at
the distance of one hundred and fifty miles.

189. In 1778 and 1780, a swarm of locusts
visited Morocco ; every green thing was eaten,
and a dreadful famine ensuing, such vast numbers
of people died of hunger in the streets of the
towns, that their bodies lay unburied.

190, The egg of the locust is deposited in the
ground; when it is hatched, it has all the appear-
ance of a locust in miniature, except that it is
without wings. Its work of destruction imme-
diately commences; it devours every blade of
grass, every green leaf that it can obtain.

191. In the autumn it assumes the winged
state, and then myriads assemble, and having
stripped the earth of its mantle of green, rise in
the air, and are driven by the wind, carrying with
them destruction, famine, and pestilence.

192. The shape and appearance of the locust
is that of our commonest grasshopper, but it
greatly exceeds that insect in size; it leaps with

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 61

ease and agility, but, excepting in its migrations,
does not readily fly.

193. The jaws of the locust are excessively
hard and strong, capable of devouring not only
the leaves, but, when these fail, the bark and
even the solid wood of trees. The sound of
their feeding, when in swarms, is as the rushing
of flames driven by the wind.

194. Happily in this country the locust is
very rare; it has occasionally been driven here by
winds, but has never been known to breed here.
In the year 1748, a considerable number were
observed, but not enough to do any serious
injury.

62 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

CHAPTER XII.
HISTORY OF THE coccUS OF THE VINE.”

Class ..
Order..

... Hemiptera, Genus......... Coccus.
w» Coccites, | Species ...... Vitis.

195. Our vines are often disfigured, and some-
times rendered unfruitful, by an insect which is
called the vine-gall, or vine-coccus. The injury it
causes to the vines is occasioned by perforating the
tender rind, and thus causing the sap to flow,
or, as the gardeners usually term it, making the
vines bleed.

196. Our climate is not usually hot enough for
this insect to increase to any alarming extent on
our out-door vines; but in hot-houses it breeds
in incredible numbers, often doing great mischief :
sometimes it is so abundant that the young shoots
appear to be covered with white cotton, which is
in reality a resinous gum, exuded from the cocci
in a filamentous form.

* From Rusricus’ M&S, with permission.

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 62

197. The coccus pierces the bark by means ot
a sharp and long under lip, which penetrates the
shoot to the very centre, causing the sap to flow
in great abundance: this piercing apparatus,
though, like the mouth of other insects, in the
head, is bent so far under the breast that it
appears to proceed from that part, and is generally
so described.

198. The cocci, in the young or larva state,
are all alike; they appear like little tortoises
fixed t the rind, and sometimes leaves of the
vine. When the period for this state is over, the
males burst their skins along the back, and fly
away: the females undergo no change in form on
arriving at perfection, nor do they become loco-
motive.

199. The male and female coceus are remark-
ably different, not only in size but structure: the
male is a small, active, two-winged fly; the female
is a large, inactive, and apparently lifeless lump,
twice the size of the male, without wings, and
so closely attached to the rind of the young shoots
on which it feeds, that it cannot be removed
without causing its death,

200. When the female has attained this immense
size, and her whole body is full of eggs, she
begins laying them, her body being glued down
all round at the edges to the rind of the twig ;
but between her body and the rind, except just
round the edges, is a quantity of the cottony gum

64 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

spread over the whole area which she covers. The
laying of eggs is on a different system to that
of any other insect.

201. The first egg is laid in the cottony sub-
stance, without causing any disturbance to the
points of attachment to the rind. It does not
stick, as most other insects’ eggs do, but lies quite
loose in the cotton; then another is laid, which
pushes the first a little further forwards; and then
another and another, none of them being visible
from without; so that all the eggs the female lays
she may be said to sit on like a hen, for that is
really the case.

202. The female, as we often find to be the
case in insects, is, when arrived at perfection, a
complete bag of eggs. Now it will be observed,
that as she lays them, and then pushes them
under her body, they must raise up the under
skin of her body into a manifest concavity; thus
the body itself becomes daily thinner and thinner,
and the pile of eggs concealed by it thicker and
thicker.

203. The rapidity with which the eggs are laid
is surprising. If the female has been forcibly sepa-
rated from the twig to which she was attached, and
suspended on a pin, while at the height of her
laying, a string of eggs, all attached, like a delicate
necklace, an inch and three quarters in length, has
been found in a single night, although the coccus
exhibited no other symptoms of life.

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 65

204, At last, when the eggs are exhausted, the
under skin of the body meets the upper skin, and
adheres to it; the mother dies; and her body, like
the roof of a house, protects the inhabitants below
from the inclemency of the weather.

205. After a few days from the death of the
mother, the eggs hatch, and become lively little
animals, of a bright red colour; these devour the
cottony gum among which they are born: after a
few days, they manage to lift up the edge of their
covering, and away they run, helter-skelter. This
active life lasts but a short time; they soon get
hungry, pierce the rind of the twigs, anchor
themselves by the beak, and, settling down to
serious eating, become fixtures for life.

66 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

CHAPTER XIII.

HISTORY OF THE HOP-F LY.”

Class... sce Hemiptera, Genus... Aphis.
Order ...... Aphites. | Species ...... Tumuli.

206. Tur crop of hops is entirely dependent
on a little, and apparently insignificant fly, well
known to hop growers under the name of the
hop-fly.

207. The duty on hopsis a considerable source
of revenue to the British Government: when the
hop-fly has been unusually numerous, the whole
duty on hops throughout the kingdom has amounted
only to 15,000/.; when, on the contrary, the fly
has not appeared, the duty has been 468,000/. :
this little insect thus appears capable of abstracting
from the British treasury 453,000/. per annum.

208. The duty, 18s. 8d. per cwt., is but
about a sixth part of the value of hops; so that
the real sum over which this‘little creature exer-
cises its influence is at least 2,700,0002. per

* Rusrievs, in the Entomological Magazine.

HISTORY OF INSECTS, 67

annum; and this amount, owing to unceasing
speculation, changes hands many times in the year.

209. The principal hop counties in England
are Kent, Sussex, Surrey, Worcester, and Here-
ford. The hops grown at Farnham, in Surrey,
fetch the highest price.

210. The hop-fly makes its first appearance in
May, generally about the 12th, and always be-
tween the 10th and 80th; it is remarkable that
it mostly appears on the same day in all the hop
districts, however distant.

211. The hop-fly makes its first appearance in
the winged state, a solitary fly being found settled
here and there on the under side of the young
leaves; if the weather is warm, with mild rains
during the last twenty days of May, these flies
produce young ones, which are very small, and
are called deposit, or knits : these grow very fast,
and, in a few days, become green lice, which is
merely a larger form of the same animal.

212. As soon as these creatures are born, they
insert their tube-like mouth into the leaf of the
hop, and begin sucking its sap: in this position
they remain fixed and stationary, daily increasing
in size for about ten days; and then each indi-
vidual, without either love, courtship, or matri-
mony, begins bringing forth young ones, and
continues to do so at the rate of about eighteen
per day all the remainder of its life.

213. The parent still continues growing; and
F 2

68 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

the young ones being so much smaller, and fasten-
ing themselves close by their respective parents,
remind one of a flock of sheep, with oxen here
and there scattered among them ; if the weather
continues warm and moist, they increase so fast
as completely to cover the plant, deprive it of
life, and frequently perish with it.

214. It is seldom until September that many
of the hop-flies attain the winged state: they
then wing their way over the country, floating in
the sunbeams, till, tired of the sport, they seek
a safe winter habitation beneath the bark of
trees, shrivelled leaves, the cracks of hop-poles,
and a thousand other secure hiding-places.

215. Frequently, when the weather in May
has been dry, and cold, and windy, the hop-fly
has been known to leave the plant, and entirely
disappear, even after remaining several days ; yet,
whilst it tarried, showing very evident signs of
being uneasy, continually crawling about on the
upper, as well as the under side of the leaves,
and leaving no deposit whatever.

216. The hop-fly is eagerly sought as food by
various other insects; which, though they con-
sume immense numbers, seem to cause no sensible
diminution in their countless myriads.

217. The principal enemy of the hop-fly is a
queer looking creature, like a fat lizard ; it feeds
on them most voraciously, a single individual
devouring forty or fifty in the course of a day:

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 69

it turns to the common Jady-bird, or lady-cow, a
pretty little beetle, which always preys in the
same way.

218. Another enemy of the hop-fly, is a green
ungainly looking grub, without legs, which lays
flat on the surface of the leaf, and stretches out
its neck, just like a leech, till it touches one of
them; directly he feels one, he seizes it in his
teeth, and holds it up wriggling in the air till he has
sucked all its juices, and left it a mere empty skin.

219. This curious creature turns to a fly,
which has a body banded with different colours ;
and which, in summer, may be often observed
under trees and about flowers, standing quite
still in the air, as though asleep; yet, if you try
to catch it, darting off like an arrow: the fly is
called Syrphus balteatus.

220. A third enemy of the hop-fly has six
legs, and very large, strong, curved jaws, and is
a most ferocious looking animal, frequently parad-
ing about a leaf, covered with the skins of the
hop-flies which he has destroyed: this fierce
creature comes to a very beautiful fly, with four
reticulated wings and two brilliant golden eyes ;
it smells very unpleasantly.

221. A fourth enemy to the hop-fly, is a
minute ichneumon, similar to that which is para-
sitical of the blight of the rose : the males of these
ichneumons are active, flying about, and coursing
over the leaves; but the female is of less roving

70 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

habits, and will generally be found busy in pro-
viding for the establishment of her numerous pro-
geny: placed, at her birth, among myriads of
hop-flies, she has no dwelling to construct with
artful industry, nor stores of food to collect by
distant rovings.

222. With extended antenne, and wings shiver-
ing with desire, she paces leisurely amongst the
defenceless herd; and as soon as she has selected
one by a light touch of her antenne, she stops
short at about her own length from it, and rising
on stiffened legs, bends her body under her breast
till the end of it projects beyond her mouth ;
then erecting her back by depressing the hinder
part, she simultaneously makes a lunge forward
with the body, which is then extraordinarily
lengthened, and, by a momentary touch, deposits
an egg on the under-side of the hop-fly, near its tail.

223. The hop-fly will sometimes kick and
sprawl, so as to disecompose the ichneumon; but
being anchored by its sucker plunged in the bark,
can make no effectual attempt to elude the deadly
weapon : should it, however, be wandering at
large, and free to struggle, she shews great
activity, by traversing round it in the attitude of
attack, till she can take it in flank.

224. The delicate sense of the antennee seems
to warn her where a germ has been already de-
posited, as she will pass by those which have
been stung some days before; and there is never

HISTORY OF INSECTS. Ta

found more than a single grub in each individual :
when all the interior of the hop-fly is consumed
by the grub of the ichneumon, it will be found
separate from its fellows, and motionless, usually
on the upper side of the leaf, to which it is glued
by some viscid exudation.

225. The hop-fly now appears distended, and
of an opaque hazel or lighter tint; if opened,
the full fed grub of the ichneumon will be dis-
covered doubled up and filling the cavity, its
head being next the tail of the hop-fly: in a
short time the parts of the perfect insect are
developed in a quiescent state, and in the same
position, the integuments of the grub being
doubled up below it in black grains: it spins no
cocoon, being adequately protected by the indu-
rated skin of its victim.

226. A few days are sufficient to give con-
sistence to its parts ; and while the new-risen sun
is yet glistening in the early dews, the winged
insect, by a push of its head, detaches the latter
rings of its case, which separate in the form of a
circular lid, often springing back to close the
orifice after the inhabitant has gone forth, born in
the maturity of her energies and instincts to
renew the circle of existence.*

* The account of this parasite is copied from Mr. Haliday's Essay
on Parasitic Hymenoptera, in the Entomological Magazine: the
author has witnessed precisely the same facts, in regard to the hop-
fly, which Mr. Haliday relates of the aphis of the rose.

72 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

CHAPTER XIV.

HISTORY OF THE ANT-LION.*

Class......... Neuroptera. | Genus ...... Myrmeleon.
Order ...... Myrmeleonites. Species...... Formicaleo.

227. Tux ant-lion is a native of Portugal,
Spain, France, Italy, and Turkey, and, probably,
of most of the tropical countries: it is a large fly
with four long wings, beautifully reticulated, like
those of a common dragon-fly.

228. The egg is laid by this fly on the surface
of the ground, or just below it, in sandy and loose
soils; the heat of the sun soon causes it to hatch
and produce a larva.

229. The larva, in shape, has a slight resem-
blanee to a wood-louse; but the outline of its
' body is more triangular, the anterior part being
considerably wider than the posterior: it has six
legs, and the mouth is furnished with a pair of
forceps, consisting of two incurved jaws, which
give it a formidable appearance.

* From Kiry and Srrence’s Introduction to Entomology.

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 73

230. Its sole food is the juices of other insects,
particularly ants ; at first view it seems scarcely
possible that it should ever procure a single meal:
not only is its pace slow, but it can walk in no
other direction than backwards ; its grim aspect,
combined with this awkwardness in progression,
appear to offer insuperable obstacles to the cap-
ture of its prey.

231. Its first step is to trace in the sand a
circle, the destined boundary of its future abode:
this being done, it proceeds to excavate the cavity
by throwing out the sand by a process not less
singular than effective.

232. Placing itself in the inside of the circle
which it has traced, it thrusts the hind part of its
body into the sand, and with one of its fore legs,
serving as a shovel, it charges its flat and square
head with a load, which it immediately throws
over the outside of the circle, with a jerk suffi-
ciently strong to carry it many inches.

233. Walking backwards, and constantly re-
peating the process, it soon arrives at the part of
the circle from which it set out: it then traces a
new circle within the first, and excavates a second
furrow ; then a third within this, and so on until,
by a repetition of these operations, it arrives at
the centre.

234, It never loads its head with the sand
lying on the outside of the circle, though it
would be as easy to do this with the outward leg,

74 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

as to remove the sand within the circle with the
inner leg ; but it knows that it is the sand within
the circle that is to be excavated, and it therefore
constantly uses the leg next the centre.

235. After the first series of circles is com-
pleted, a second, of less diameter, and deeper, is
commenced within it; and so on with others,
until the hole assumes the shape of the impression
of an inverted cone, when the work is finished,

236. As the constant use of one leg during
the whole of this operation would necessarily
exhaust the animal so much that it would he
compelled to waste much time in recovering its
strength, it adopts a plan which prevents this:
the first circle is excavated with one foot; it
then turns completely round, so that the second
is excavated with the opposite foot; and this
alternation proceeds regularly through the whole
work.

237. Small stones are jerked out by its head
in the same manner as the sand, but larger ones
occasion more trouble: when it meets with one
too heavy to jerk out, the ant-lion poises it on
its back, keeps it in a steady position by the
motion of the segments of its body, and care-
fully walking up the ascent with its burden,
deposits it on the outside of the margin.

238. Sometimes the stone, from its roundness,
will slip from the back of the labourer, and roll
down the side of the hole a dozen times; as often

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 75

does the patient creature renew the task, and
never fails tu accomplish it at last: but if a large
or immovable stone obstructs its way, the work
is abandoned, and a more suitable spot selected,
and another hole is forthwith commenced.

239. The hole is rather more than two inches
deep; the length of the ant-lion is about half an
inch. When the hole is ready, the ant-lion buries
itself in the sand at the bottom, its jaws alone
being visible, and in this position waits quietly
the arrival of its prey.

240. It is not long before an ant, or some
other insect, steps on the margin of the pit, either
accidentally, or to examine its contents; the pul-
verized sand slides from under its feet, its strug-
gles but hasten its descent, and it is precipitated
headlong into the jaws of the concealed devourer.

241. Sometimes, especially after rain, when
the particles of sand adhere to each other, the
intruding insect is able to arrest its downward
progress, and begins to scramble up again; no
sooner does the ant-lion perceive this, than he
shovels loads of sand on his head, and throws
them with such skill on the poor ant, or whatever
insect it may be, that it is soon overcome and
carried to the bottom.

242. The insect, when caught, is pierced by
the strong jaws of the ant-lion, and its juices
sucked until nothing but an empty shell is left;
this it jerks out of the pit to a considerable

76 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

distance, as if to avoid giving any cause of alarm
to any new comers.

243. After a period of nearly two years, its
full growth being attained, it retires further below
the sand, spins a silken cocoon, and changes into
a chrysalis, in which state it remains about three
weeks, after which time it emerges a perfect insect.

HISTORY OF INSECTS.

—~I

ba I

CHAPTER XV.

HISTORY OF THE WHITE ANT.*

Class...... Neuroptera. | Order......... Termites
Genus......... Termes.

244. Tur white ants may be reckoned, next to
the locusts, the most destructive insects known to
man; not merely articles of food, but clothing,
fences, trees, and even houses, are doomed to fall
before them.

245. The white ants live in immense com-
munities, consisting of a king and queen, soldiers
and labourers ; the king and queen are the perfect
insect, male and female; the soldiers are said to
be the pupa state, and the labourers, the larva
state of the same insect.

246. It is the only office of the king and queen
to increase their kind, the queen laying eggs to
the amount of eighty thousand every day.

247. It is the office of the soldiers to attack
every object or living thing that in any way

* From Krray and Srence’s Introduction to Entomology,
abridged by those authors from Smeathman.

78 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

injures or endangers the safety of the nest; this
duty they perform with the most reckless bravery,
the labourers retiring within the nest during the
time of danger.

248. The offices of the labourers are manifold :
they take the eggs from the queen as fast as she
lays them, convey them to the nurseries, tend
them till hatched ; they feed the young, they store
provisions, build the nest, repair damages, and
perform every kind of labour requisite for the
good of the community.

249. The nests of the white ants are formed
entirely of clay; they are about twelve feet high,
and broad in proportion. The first step in the
erection of these structures is the elevation of two
or three turrets, about a foot high, and in shape
like a sugarloaf.

250. These turrets rapidly increase in number
and height, until at length being widened at the
base, joined at the top into one dome, and con-
solidated all round into a thick wall of clay, they
assume the shape of a haycock, which soon be-
comes clothed with grass.

251. When the building has assumed this its
final form, the inner turrets, all but the tops, which
project like pinnacles from different parts of it, are
removed, and the clay is used for other purposes.

252. The upper portion, or dome, which is very
strong and solid, serving as a defence from the
weather and the attacks of enemies, is left empty :

HISTORY OF INSECTs, 79

it is the lower part only of the building that is
inhabited.

253. The inhabited portion is occupied by the
royal chamber, or habitation of the king and queen,
the nurseries for the young, the storehouses for the
food, and innumerable galleries, passages, and
empty rooms.

254. In the centre of the building, just under
the apex of the dome, and nearly on a level
with the surface of the ground, is the royal chamber,
an arched vault of a semi-oval shape, at first not
more than an inch in length, but enlarged as the
queen increases in bulk, to the length of eight
inches or more.

255. In this apartment the king and queen
constantly reside; and by the smallness of the
entrances, which will only admit their much more
diminutive subjects, they are prevented from ever
emerging.

256. Immediately adjoining the royal chamber,
and completely surrounding it, to the extent of
more than a foot, are the royal apartments, a
number of arched rooms of various shapes and
sizes, either opening into each other, or commu-
nicating by passages; these are occupied by a
guard of soldiers and the attendant domestics,
thousands of whom are ever waiting on the royal
pair.

257. Beyond the royal apartments are the nur-
series and magazines ; the nurseries are occupied

80 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

by the eggs and young, and the domestics in
waiting on these: in substance they differ from
the other apartments, being composed of triturated
wood cemented by gum.

258. A collection of these compact, irregular,
and wooden chambers, not one of which is half
an inch in length, is enclosed in a common cham-
ber of clay, sometimes as large as a child’s head.

259. Intermixed with the nurseries are the
magazines, which are chambers of clay, always
well stored with provisions, consisting of particles
of wood, gums, and the inspissated juices of plants.

260. These nurseries and magazines are sepa-
rated by small empty chambers and galleries,
which run round them, or communicate from one
to the other, and are continued on all sides to the
outer wall of the building, reaching up within it
to two-thirds or three-fourths of its height.

261. The magazines and nurseries are confined
to the sides of the hill, leaving an open area in the
middle under the dome, the roof of which is sup-
ported by Gothic arches, of which those nearest
the middle are from two to three feet in height, but
those towards the sides are much lower.

262. A flattish roof, impervious to wet, covers
the top of the assemblage of nurseries and maga-
zines, protecting them in case the dome suffers
any injury; and the area above the royal cham-
ber has a flattish roof, also waterproof, and_ so
contrived as to allow any wet that by chance

HISTORY OF INSECTS, 81

gains admittance, to pass off into subterraneous
passages.

263. These passages, some of which are a foot
in diameter, and perfectly cylindrical, are lined
with clay. They originally served as quarries,
whence the materials of the building were derived,
and afterwards as the galleries by which the
inmates travel under ground, to carry on their
depredations at a distance from their home.

264, These galleries run slantingly downwards
to the depth of two or three feet, then branching
out in every direction, rise nearly to the surface,
and are carried under ground to an almost incre-
dible distance.

265. There are numerous minor galleries inter-
secting every part of the nest, and winding round
it in different directions to the very top, conti-
nually cross each other; many of these open into
the dome in various places. All these minor
galleries eventually merge in the large ones be-
neath the nest.

266. The white ants cannot ascend a perpendi-
cular surface; yet these galleries in parts are
quite perpendicular. The difficulty is overcome
by the formation of a spiral pathway of easy
ascent, and half an inch in width, which is econ-
structed of clay, against the wall of the gallery, in
the way of a geometrical staircase.

267. In order to convey the eggs from the
royal chamber to the upper nurseries, several

G

82 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

elliptic bridges are formed, which save much
labour and distance: these bridges are very
slight and elegant, and are furnished on each side
with a kind of parapet wall to prevent the la-
bourers from falling over with their burdens.
The width of these beautiful*bridges is frequently
less than half an inch.

268. The royal chamber contains, besides the
king and queen, numerous labourers and soldiers :
the labourers are incessantly engaged in feeding
the royal pair, or carrying away the eggs laid by
the queen; the soldiers apparently act merely as
a guard of honour, as there is never any demon-
stration of rebellion or ill-will on the part of the
subjects.

269. If any accident happens to the building
by the tread of some large animal, or the wilful
ageression of the inquiring traveller, the soldiers
instantly appear in the breach, at first two or three,
then more, and if the attack continues they issue
forth by hundreds, and even thousands; being
provided with immense jaws, they bite with ex-
ceeding sharpness, and never relinquish their
hold.

270. When the aggressor has retreated, the
soldiers retire within the building, and the la-
bourers, who had during the attack kept closely
within, hasten to repair the breach, each carrying
in his mouth a mass of clay ready prepared for
use, which on being placed instantly adheres, and

HISTORY OF INSECTs. 83

thus, by the united labour of millions, damages of
great extent are repaired in a few hours.

271. If, during'the operation of rebuilding, the
aggressor again appears, and molests ‘them, the
labourers ‘instantly retire, and ‘the soldiers again
sally forth, biting every thing’they can reach with
the utmost fury; when all is quiet they again
withdraw, and the labourers again appear: these
scenes may be renewed constantly without the
least diminution of the zeal and ferocity of the
soldiers, or of the industry of the labourers,

272. Whilst the labourers are thus engaged, a
few soldiers remain among them as sentinels, and
also as’ overseers, to encourage and direct them.
When the labourers appear to weary in the per-
formance of their duty, these soldiers strike their
jaws against the wall of ‘the nest, producing a
loud ticking noise, at which'the labourers utter a
loud hiss, and redouble their exertions.

273. Excepting ‘in these repairs, when they are
necessarily exposed, the whole ‘of the operations
of the white ants are carried on under cover. If
a peculiar part of a tree is to be attacked, a
covered way is made along the bark until it is
attained.

274. ‘The favourite food of the white ants ap-
pears to be wood, no kinds except teak and iron
wood escaping them: they much’ prefer it when
converted as timber to the living state. “The pro-
visions stored in the nests appear like: particles

G2

84 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

of wood gnawed off with their jaws, but when
examined under a lens are found to consist prin-
cipally of gum, or the inspissated juices of plants.

275, Their mode of proceeding is to consume
the interior of whatever they attack, leaving the
exterior quite perfect; thus fences, wainscots,
bed-posts, &c. are often totally consumed, except-
ing an exterior surface not thicker than a wafer,
which yields to the slightest pressure : houses and
whole villages are thus frequently rendered unin-
habitable.

276. When an upright post leading to rafters
or a roof which is an object of attack, bears too
great a weight to allow of this excavating, the
parts consumed are supplied by the mortar of
which the nest is fabricated, a small gallery for
ascent only being left: this mortar becomes hard
as stone, so that a wooden is often converted into
a stone pillar.

277, The rapidity of their operations is so
great that in two or three days a table may be
completely consumed, if allowed to stand in the
same place: they enter through the floor, exca-
vate a leg, then the top, and descend by another
ley ; leaving the whole as perfect in appearance
as before touched, though in reality a mere shell.

278. Portmanteaus, trunks, &c. are served in
the same manner, the linen, papers, and every
substance they contained, excepting metal and
glass, being consumed; the frames of pictures and

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 85

looking-glasses, books, collections of insects, and
other specimens of natural history, boots, shoes,
coats, and hats, are equally acceptable.

279. Like the locust, the white ant is not to be
resisted by man; wherever instinct directs its
path, that path is implicitly followed; the hovel
and the palace, rags and the purple robes of
royalty, are alike liable to be its food: myriads
may be destroyed, but myriads instantly supply
the void.

86 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

CHAPTER XVI.
CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS,

280. Cantharides, a drug of great value, and
which, as the principal ingredient of blisters, is yet
unequalled, is the name given to beetles collected
in great abundance from ash and other trees in the
south of Europe; they are merely dried and
pounded, and are at once fit for use.

281. Silk, an article of dress, and one which
gives employment, and consequent means of sub-
sistence, to millions of human beings, is, as we
have already related, the produce of the silk-
worm.

282. Ink, an article of immense importance in
our communications with each other, and in the
preservation of knowledge, is principally made
from galls produced on trees by a minute insect
called the gall fly.

283. Cochineal, the most valuable and beautiful
of dyes, is an insect which feeds on a species of
cactus in Mexico, and other parts of the continent
of Ameriea,

HISTORY OF INSECTS. 87

284. Kermes, the most brilliant scarlet dye
known previously to the discovery of America, is
an insect found abundantly on the quercus coccifera,
in the south of Europe: this was the celebrated
Pheenician dye.

285. Shell-lac, a glutinous substance, now of
very great importance in the manufacture of hats,
and of value as an ingredient of printers’ ink, is
secreted by an insect which swarms on the trunks
of several kinds of trees in India.

286. Was, that enlightens our drawing-rooms,
and in combination is applied to a great variety
of purposes, is manufactured by the bee, whose
history has already been related.

287. Honey is another production of the same
industrious insect, and though much of its value
has departed since the introduction of sugar, it is
still an article of luxury.

288. Mead, a wholesome and delicious beve-
rage, for which this country has long been famous,
and the manufacture of which is still carried on
with great skill and success in some of our counties,
is made from honey.

289. Locusts, as an article of food, are spoken
of in Scripture. The inhabitants of Fez, Morocco,
and adjacent countries, eat them at this day; and
the Hottentots hail the coming of the locusts with
delight, and are said to fatten on them.

290. 'The fructification of many plants is en-
tirely accomplished by the different species of

88 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

bees, which convey the farina from plant to plant,
and also from the stamens to the pointal of the
same plant.

291. As food to birds and fishes, insects may
be considered by far the principal article; there
is scarcely a bird or a fish but devours them with
avidity. '

292. The turnip fly has the power of destroy-
ing almost the whole crop of that excellent and
useful vegetable, and as yet no certain cure is
known for its ravages. Rusticus, an author be-
fore quoted, has ascertained that salting the seed
acts in a good degree, as a preventive.

293. The hop fly has the power of destroying
the produce of the hop in the most remarkable
manner: the crop appears exclusively dependent
on the scarcity or abundance of this insect.

294. The locust, by pestilence or famine, has
had, in all ages, the power of sweeping millions of
human beings from the face of the earth.

295. The mosquito, by its unceasing attacks,
is capable of rendering life an almost insupportable
burden: gnats, and other flies, in hot countries,
have an influence over us scarcely less fearful.

296. Economy of space and materials in archi-
tecture is taught us by the bee; the construction
of the honeycomb in hexagonal cells, with trian-
gular bottoms, accomplishes these objects in per-
fection: geometricians can discover no possible
improvement on the plan which bees adopt.

HISTORY OF INSECTS, 89

297. The strength of an arch is taught us by
the white ant, whose plastered domes are so strong
that men may safely stand on them, and it has
been said that wild bulls fight on them.

298. Mortar is made by several kinds of bees,
and of the best possible composition ; that which
hardens almost instantly on exposure, and is not
liable to be moistened again by wet.

299. Nocturnal lights are recommended to us
by the use made of them by the various fire-flies
which illuminate the trees in tropical countries all
night long with their sparkling lamps.

300. These facts, combined with the foregoing
histories, tend to show that insects perform no
very inconsiderable part in creation; and that,
whether as instruments of convenience and utility,
sources of injury and annoyance, or examples of
industry and economy, they cannot reasonably be
despised.

END OF THE HISTORY OF INSECTS.

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THE
GRAMMAIR

oF

BNTOMOLOEY.

BOOK Il.
PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS.

To trace in Nature’s most minute design

The signature and stamp of power divine ;
Contrivance intricate expressed with ease,
Where unassisted sight no beauty sees;

The shapely limb, the lubricated joint,
Within the small dimensions of a point,
Muscle and nerve miraculously spun,—

His mighty work, who speaks, and it is done.

BOOK II.

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS.

CHAPTER I.

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS IN GENERAL.

301. Tue Physiology of Insects is the account
of how they are made: there are in every animal
four essential elements,—matter, motion, sensation,
and mind.

302. Matter is inert—it does not move by its
own powers; it is tangible—the touch ascertains
that it resists: matter in animals has various
degrees of consistency ; convenience, however,
has suggested its division into solid and fluid.

308. Matter, chiefly in its solid form, is the
element of which the systems of organs are com-
posed; and organs are the instruments by which
functions are performed: in all animals there are
seven systems of organs to perform seven series
of functions.

(94 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

304. The seven systems of organs and their
respective functions are these :—bones, for sup-
port; muscles, for motion; air-tubes, for respi-
ration ; blood-vessels, for circulation ; alimentary
canal, for digestion; nerves, for sensation; and
the organs of the seaes, for reproduction.

305. The fluids in insects are blood and
various secretions: the blood is supplied by
nutriment transmitted from the alimentary canal :
the solid parts are renewed by sectetions from
the blood.

306. Motion, in the animal frame, is of two
kinds ; dominant motion, which acknowledges
not the authority of the mind; for instance,
circulation of the blood; and subservient motion,
which operates only in accordance with the behests
of mind.

307. Sensation is the ultimate power of matter
so perfected as to take cognizance of facts beyond
the limits of the body: sensation is of two kinds;
that derived from external objects, which appears
the aim of animal life, and conduces to its main-
tenance, and that which conveys information
from matter to mind, and behest from mind
to matter.

308. Mind is the commanding element; the
other elements in acting obey it, but in existence
and characters are independent of it: no powers
of mind can prevent the existence, or change the
characters of matter, motion, or sensation : mind

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. 95

argues, then commands; it takes cognizance of
causes, and provides for consequent effects, before
the other elements can obey its behests.

809. The great powers of mind are specu-
lation and retention: speculation is the power
which supposes an event that has not yet oc-
curred; and retention is the power of preserving
an image left on the mind by an event that has
occurred.

310, Of the connexion of mind with the organs
which it commands we know nothing; mind
itself is only known by its effects : its commands
are carried by the nerves ; a fact ascertained by
separating a nerve; after which separation, the
mind no longer controls the parts to which that
nerve extended its branches.

311. The physiology of insects is, however,
properly confined to the description of their
systems of organs, and to the functions which
these organs perform: therefore, excepting as
connected with the organs, no farther notice will
be taken of any other element than matter.

312. It must be observed that parts perform-
ing obvious offices, are commonly called the
organs of those offices ; thus legs are termed
organs of locomotion, and jaws, organs of mandu-
cation: these terms are not in themselves im-
proper, but lead, in some degree, to a vagueness
of phraseology.

313. In the following chapters of this book,

96 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

the term organs will therefore be strictly con-
fined to the grand systems of organs; and

the wings, legs, mouth, &c. treated of simply
as such,

. PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. 97

CHAPTER II.

OF THE ORGANS OF SUPPORT IN GENERAL.

314, Insxcrs, instead of having internally a
frame-work of bones supporting the softer parts,
in which are included all the other systems of
organs, have their external skin or covering
indurated, incrassated, ossified, and invested with
the same power as the frame-work of bones in
ourselves possesses, of supporting the softer
parts, and affording points of attachment for the
muscles.

315. This indurated and incrassated skin com-
pletely envelopes the animal in the manner of a
suit of armour, inclosing the softer parts, and pro-
tecting them from injury: in its composition it
possesses most of the elements found in the
bones of vertebrated animals, but not in the
same proportions.

316. To admit of perfect freedom of motion
in the performance of those numerous acts in

H

98 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

which an insect’s life is passed, and many of
which we have recorded in the preceding Book,
it is essential that this bony covering should be
in some way jointed, otherwise constant difficulty
must occur.

317. 'The body, therefore, which is very long
in proportion toits breadth, is divided into thir-
teen rings or segments (segmenta), the interstices
between these being filled by a softer and more
flexible portion of the same skin, which, in its
indurated state, forms the segments.

318. This alternation of flexible and inflexible
portions of skin, allows not merely a free motion
to the right or left, upwards or downwards, but
of great increase or decrease of length at the
pleasure of the insect.

319. Contraction is readily performed by the
rings being drawn one within another ; and clon-
gation, by extending and separating the rings:
their action is in some degree represented by
the sliding of the tubes of a telescope. The body
of the common wasp will illustrate this contracting
and elongating power.

320. With the exception of the first, which is
the head in all insects, the segments have no
English names; the Latin ones are, therefore,
universally used ; and this is preferable to burthen-
ing the mind with two names for the same part.

321. The first segment is the head (caput) ; it
consists of a skull, in which are situated two

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. 99

antennze or feelers, two eyes, and a mouth: the
head is very distinct from the following segments,
and is generally so articulated to the second seg-
ment, as to possess freedom of motion in every
direction.

322. The second segment (prothorax) is the
one which is so very large and convex in the
common chafer, and which appears to receive the
head into an excavation or cup: in a locust, or a
cricket, it is equally large ; but in a butterfly, fly,
or bee, it is exceeding narrow, and scarcely per-
ceptible.

323. The prothorax bears a pair of legs, which
are called fore legs (propedes); these legs are
so articulated to the prothorax, as to allow perfect
freedom to their movements.

324. The third segment (mesothoraw) is the
large convex part so prominent in butterflies,
bees, and flies ; it is a narrow segment in beetles,
crickets, &c: it is so articulated with the pro-
thorax, as to allow that segment less freedom
of motion than is possessed by the head.

325. The mesothorax bears two wings, one of
which is attached to each side of it; these are
called fore wings (proal@) : and two legs attached
to its inferior surface ; these are called middle legs
(mesopedes); they possess equal freedom with
those of the prothorax.

326. The fourth segment (metathorax) is small
in butterflies, flies, and bees, but large in beetles,

H 2

100 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

crickets, &c.: it is seldom, in any instance, ‘so
conspicuous, prominent, and convex, as the pro-
thorax and mesothorax are in many insects.

327. The metathorax bears two wings, one of
which is attached to each side; these are called
the hind wings (metale) ; and two legs attached
to its inferior surface; these are called the hind
legs (metapedes).

328. The order of these four segments, and the
names and positions of the limbs which they bear ;
the two antenne, two eyes, a mouth, four wings,
and six legs; ought to be well impressed on the
memory: the possession of these limbs or appen-
dages at once identifies a living animal as being an
insect.

329. The possession of a greater or less number
of antenn, eyes, mouths, wings, or legs, leads
us to refer an animal to some other division. It
may not be amiss here to remark, that Insects
form a portion of a larger group of animals ;
and that the external skeleton is a character
common to them all,

330. The fifth segment (propodeon) is generally
of less size than the three preceding segments ;
it is usually so closely united to the metathorax,
as to be distinguished from it only by a sutural
line. The propodeon and following segments
never bear limbs of any kind, whether wings or
legs.

331. The peduncle, or sixth segment (podeon),

. PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. 101

is almost invariably smaller than either of the
preceding: in many tribes it is so exceedingly
slender and thread-like, that the insect is divided
into two large incrassated masses.

332. From this appearance, the terms entomos,
insectum, insecte, insect, &c. have arisen: the
ichneumon, the common wasp, the honey-bee, the
butterfly, the house-fly, are all familiar illus-
trations of this, and may be termed pedunculated
insects ; in these instances, the podeon is so arti-
culated as to possess great freedom of motion ; but
in beetles, locusts, &c., in which it is not materially
less than the propodeon it possesses but little
power of motion,

333. The seventh segment (metapodeon) in the
pedunculated insects, is very small at its union
‘with the podeon, but very large at its union with
the eighth segment: in other insects it is of
uniform size.

334. The eighth segment (octoon) in the pedun-
culated insects, is the largest segment, with the
exception of the mesothorax; in some of the
wasps and the smaller ichneumons, it is larger
than the whole of the five following segments,
which are not unfrequently concealed within it.

335. The ninth segment (ennaton), tenth seg-
ment (decaton), and eleventh segment (protelum),
are still smaller; uniformly decreasing in size, and
often retractile each within the one preceding it.

336. The twelfth segment (paratelum) is still

102 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY,

smaller ; in the females of all bees, wasps, and
insects of the same form, it is the last segment,
the telum not being present in its usual form.

337. The thirteenth, or last segment (telum),
is usually the smallest of them all; it is often
conical, terminating in a point: in the females
of bees and wasps it is wanting ; its place is,
however, supplied by a sting, into which it is
converted. No male insects have a sting.

338. Each of these thirteen segments have a
superior surface, or back (seutum) ; an inferior sur-
face, or breast (sternum) ; and two lateral surfaces
or sides (pleura): the scutum and sternum are
generally much more prominent parts than the
pleura.

339. The scutum of each segment is occa-
sionally transyersely divided by sutural lines
or indentations, into four smaller portions, called its
first, second, third, and fourth sections (prescutum,
scutum, scutellum, post-scutellum); of these, the
preescutum is the section nearest the head;
the others follow in succession, These sections
are readily to be distinguished in the prothorax
of a locust, and some other instances; but fre-
quently all trace of division is lost, as in the pro-
thorax of a beetle, or the octoon of a wasp.

340. The sternum is occasionally divided by
sutural lines or indentations, into four smaller
portions, called its first, second, third, and fourth
sections (presternum, sternum, sternellum, post~

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. 103

sternellum) ; these divisions are but rarely dis-
tinguishable.

341. The pleura are also divided by sutural
lines or indentations into four smaller portions,
called their first, second, third, and fourth sections
(prepleura, pleura, pleurella, post-pleurella) ;
these divisions are rarely distinguishable on more
than one segment of an insect,

342. The wings and legs being invariably
inserted in the pleura or sternum of the seg-
ments, generally force out of their places the
portions in the neighbourhood of their origin, so
that care is required in deciding on and applying
the names to each.

843. The upper, or scutal portion of each
segment, has no such interruption to simple
development ; this portion, therefore, is employed
in description in preference to the others.

344. When the scutum of either segment is
apparently undivided, it is called simply scutum ;
when, as in the mesothorax of the hornet, one
obvious line crosses it, the anterior portion is
the scutum, the posterior, the scutellum; when,
as in the bluebottle-fly, two obvious lines cross
the mesothorax, the first section is the pre-
scutum, the second, the scutum, and the third, the
seutellum.

845. The propodeon in the hornet, and a vast
number of other insects which resemble it in
structure, has a longitudinal line or indentation

104 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY,

down its centre, but is not, in any instance,
divided transversely.

346. An infinite number of descriptions refer
to the parts now under consideration ; and it is,
therefore, essential that we thoroughly understand
them: let us take a hornet in hand, and examine
them.

347. A hornet is nearly nipped in two in the
middle by the smallness of the podeon; the part
below is now generally termed the body, formerly,
the abdomen; both names are used in deserip-
tions: the part above the podeon, between that
segment and the head, is often called the thoraa ;
its parts are these :—

348. Adjoining the head is the scutum of
the prothorax (prothoracis scutum); this is, cen-
trally, a very narrow piece, but extends and
widens on each side nearly to the base of the
fore wings.

349. Adjoining this is a large triangular piece,
the apex of the triangle almost touching the head
of the insect, and its base being below the inser-
tion of the fore wings, and extending across the
insect from side to side: this is the scutum of
the mesothorax (mesothoracis scutum),

350. At the base of each fore wing, between it
and each lateral angle of the scutum of the meso-
thorax, is a small raised lump: these are called
little scales (squamule).

351, Immediately following the scutum of the

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS, 105

mesothorax, is a narrow section, extending across
the insect from side to side between the hind
wings: this is the scutellum of the mesothorax
(mesothoracis scutellum).

352. The next section is of similar shape, but
still narrower; this also extends from side to
side across the insect, and is the scutum of the
metathorax (metathoracis scutum).

353. Now follows a large square section, into
the lower part of which is inserted the podeon,
or peduncle ; this is the scutum of the propo-
deon (propodeonis scutum).

354. The sections developed are five in
number, being only one more than the number
of segments: it may be also observed, that the
three anterior sections are in a horizontal posi-
tion, the two posterior are in a vertical position.

355. In beetles, butterflies, and many other
insects, these parts are not employed or men-
tioned in descriptions; but in all insects with
transparent wings, they afford excellent characters
for distinguishing divisions.

356. The telum, or last segment, frequently
bears appendages, the use of which appears
doubtful ; in some insects these are like bristles ;
in others, like forceps; in others, like leaves, &c.

106 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY,

CHAPTER III.

OF THE ORGANS OF SUPPORT IN THE HEAD,

357. Tue head of insects, like the following
segments, is composed of four smaller portions ; in
this instance, however, not merely distinguished by
sutural lines, but perfectly separated, and freely
articulated : these are the skull (cranium), the
upper and lower lips (labrum, labium), the feeler-
jaws (mawille), and the jaws or mandibles (mandi-
bule): the lips, feeler-jaws, and jaws, constitute
the mouth of an insect.

358. Each section of the head has a tendency
to produce two feelers: on the last, the man-
dibles, they are obsolete; on the skull, lips, and
feeler-jaws, they are very distinct: in the lobster,
and other animals resembling it, which are closely
related to insects, the mandibles are furnished
with distinct feelers.

359. The skull consists of four portions; the
superior surface or crown (epicranium), the inferior

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. 107

surface or throat (gula), and the lateral-surface or
eyes (oculi).

360. The epicranium is frequently divided by
a sutural line, passing across the forehead from
eye to eye. When this is the case, the portion
so separated, and which immediately covers the
mouth, is called the shield (clypeus): the gula
is often separated by a similar sutural line; in
this case, the anterior portion adjoining the mouth
is called the chin (mentum).

861. There are one, two, or three minute, trans-
parent, highly convex lenses, situated on the
crown of the head, into which they are closely
soldered; these are called simple eyes (ocelli):
all insects, except beetles, seem to possess them
more or less perfectly.

862. The cranial feelers (antenne) arise from
the skull in front of the ocelli, between the eyes,
and above the clypeus; they are freely articu-
lated with the skull, and moveable in every
direction; they are composed of numerous
joints.

368. In length, stoutness, shape, and clothing,
the antenne of insects are very various; their
variations are the subject of nomenclature ; and,
moreover, afford excellent characters for descrip-
tions.

364. Setaceous antennze (antenne attenuantes)
are those which are long, throughout slender,
and yet taper gradually to the apex; the union

108 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

of the joints takes place without vin eteeee
indentation or protuberance.

365. Filiform antennz entenivce jfiliformes)
are usually stouter and shorter, and preserve
throughout a uniform substance.

366. Incrassated antenne (antenne accres-
centes) resemble the last, excepting that they
gradually increase in substance towards the apex.

367. Fusiform antenne (antenne, fusiformes)
are stoutest at the middle, and taper very gradu-
ally to each end.

368. Moniliform antennee (antenne monili-
formes) differ from the filiform in one character
nly: each separate joint is oval or globose, and
the portion connecting it with the next is very
slender; the joints thus resembling beads on a
string.

869. Serrated antennee (antenne serrate) have
each joint produced on one side at the apex, so
that together they resemble the teeth of a saw.

370. Pectinate antennae (antenne pectini-
formes) are those in which the joints are still
more produced, or rather, are furnished on one
side with slender processes, resembling, in some
degree, the teeth of a comb.

871. Flabellate antennee (antenne flabelli-
formes) have the processes of the joints still
longer, very thin, and, when at rest, lying flat on
each other, like the folds of a fan: the antennee

. PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. 109

of some insects are flabellate throughout, others
have only the apical portion flabellate.

372. Ciliate antenne (antenne fimbriate) are
those which, in primitive structure, are setaceous ;
but each joint is furnished on each side with a
single hair.

373. Elbowed, kneed, or broken antennz (an-
tenne fracte), are those which have one joint,
usually the,second from the base, very long, and
the remaining joints attached to it at a right
angle.

374. Pilose antennz (antenne pilose) are not
of any peculiar structure, but are covered entirely
with a soft down.

375. Setose antennee (antenne setos@) are not
of any peculiar structure, but are furnished
throughout with irregular harsh bristly hair.

376. Plumose antenne (antenne plumose) are,
in primitive form, setaceous, but are furnished
with long downy hairs, which give them the ap-
pearance of a feather.

377. Ramose antenne (antenne ramose) are
generally of setaceous or moniliform structure,
but differ in having several joints near the base,
produced into long branches, sometimes. nearly
equalling the antenna itself in length.

378. Bifurcate antenne (antenne bifurce) are
generally composed of three joints, of which the
apical one is very long, bent double, and attached
at its centre to the second joint.

110 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

379. Clavate antenne (antenne clavigere,)
are terminated in a gradual club, the shaft being
generally long, slender, and filiform.

380. Capitate antenne (antenne capitate) are
those in which the knob is more abrupt, and
strongly marked: the knob is sometimes solid,
consisting of a single joint, sometimes composed
of many joints.

381. Perfoliate antenne (antenne perforate)
are those in which a portion of each joint is
dilated and flattened; and the remaining portion
being cylindrical and slender, appears like a
thread, on which the dilated portions are strung.

382. Setigerous antenne (antenne setigere),
are those in which the basal joints are stout and
short, the third being much the largest, of various
shapes, and having the remaining joints, which are
formed into a kind of bristle, attached on one side
of it, often at a right angle,

383. Antenne are of various kinds, besides
those here described ; but all the common forms
may be found in the foregoing list: when other
forms occur, their peculiarities are described; no
general name is applied to them.

384, The length as well as the structure of
antennz is very various ; sometimes they are so
short as to be concealed from the sight in the little
cavities in which they stand ; sometimes they are
five times the length of the body.

385. The eyes of an insect commonly form the

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. 111

lateral portions of its head; they are two in
number, and are composed of numerous highly
convex lenses; these lenses are hexagonal; and
yet not fitting closely to each other, but each
situated in a square. ‘The number of lenses
varies from fifty to twenty thousand in a single
eye.

386. Every one of these lenses receives the
image of an object, and appears very nearly to
correspond in properties with the crystalline lens
of the human eye; so that a butterfly may, with-
out exaggeration, be said to possess forty thousand
eyes,

387. Many insects have each of the eyes di-
vided horizontally by an elevated line; thus
giving them the appearance of being double: in
such instances the insect appears to haye four
eyes.

388. Petiolated eyes are those which are placed
at the end of distant stalks, which are situated one
on each side of the head: this is a very rare and
remarkable character in the eyes of insects: it
occurs in a peculiar kind of flies.

889. The form of eyes is very various; the
variations are expressed by the usual descriptive
terms of shape, as round, heart-shaped, oblong,
kidney-shaped, &c.

890. The mouth of an insect is situated below
the head, and generally projects slightly forwards ;
this being by far the most convenient position for

112 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY,

taking food, It consists of an upper and lower
lip, two mandibles, two feeler-jaws, and a tongue.

391. The upper lip (4abrum) corresponds closely
with the same organ in vertebrate animals : it isa
solid, horny plate, which arises from beneath the
clypeus, and projects beyond it: it is articulated
at its junction, with the head moving freely in a
vertical direction, and closing the mouth above :
its appearance is more uniform than that of any
other organ of the mouth.

392. The uvula (hypopharyna) is a valve
attached to the interior surface of the upper lip;
its office is to close the throat. The hypopharynx
is not to be discovered in the generality of insects ;
it is, however, particularly prominent in some
kinds of wild bees.

393. The throat (pharyna) is the opening im-
mediately below the hypopharynx ; it is the only
passage for the food into the stomach.

394. The lower lip (labium) closes the mouth
below, as the upper lip does above: it is a much
more complicated organ than the upper lip, and
its variations afford excellent characters for de-
scriptions: it consists of four distinct parts, which
are obviously separated by sutural lines.

395. The insertion of the lower lip (insertio) is
usually concealed by the mentum below it, but
occasionally projects considerably beyond it, and
becomes a part of some importance.

396, The true lip (labium proprium) is a solid,

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. 113

horny plate, corresponding in character with the
upper lip: its variations in form are of great
assistance to entomologists, in determining to
which kind any insect belongs.

397. The third portion of the lip (palpiger)
appears mostly to rise from behind the second
part, but not unfrequently is continuous with it,
and separated only bya sutural line; it is usually
smaller, and of softer substance than the second
part, and it invariably is to be distinguished by
bearing the feelers,

398. The labial feelers (/abipalpi) originate one
on each side of the palpiger, from which they con-
tinue divaricating : these are composed of several
distinct joints, of which the terminal one varies
much in form.

399. The terminal portion of the lip (ligula) is
always more soft and fleshy than either of the
preceding parts: it is remarkable for the infinite
variety of forms which it assumes, and is the most
certain guide in ascertaining insects from de-
scription.

400. An entire ligula (ligula integra) is when
its termination is simple and undivided; an entire
ligula is either obtuse or acute, truncate or rotun-
date, elongate or abbreviated.

401. A bifid ligula (ligula bifida) is when there
is a deep notch down its centre, thus making the
termination double : a bifid ligula is usually very
obtuse.

I

114 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

402. A trifid ligula (ligula trifida) is when it
has three distinct terminations ; this ligula is more
variable in form than the foregoing: the three ter-
minations are sometimes obtuse lobes, sometimes
long setiform processes.

403. A quadrifid ligula (ligula quadrifida) is
when it has four distinct terminations; this ligula
has usually the appearance of having really but
three lobes, with the central lobe deeply cleft.

404, A setiform ligula (ligula setiformis) is
when the central lobe of a trifid ligula is very long,
slender, and pliable; the lateral lobes being very
small, or merely rudimental: these small lateral
lobes have been called paragloss@.

405. A palpiform ligula (ligula palpiformis) is
bilobed or quadrilobed ; and the two.or four lobes,
as the case may be, are jointed in the same manner
as the feelers,

406. The tongue (lingua) is usually attached to
the inner surface of the lower lip, very near its
base. In the locust the tongue is very prominent
and remarkable, assuming nearly the form of the
human tongue: in some bees it is distinguishable,
but not prominent: in most insects it is difficult
to be found: the tongue has also been called epi-
pharynx.

407. The feeler-jaws (maaille) are situated
immediately above the lower lip. They have
great variety of form and motion; they are at
once to be distinguished from the mandibles by

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. 115

the possession of feelers; they are divided by
sutural lines into four parts,—the insertion, the
disk or stalk, the feeler-bearer, and the blade.
They also bear the helmet and maxillary feelers.

408. The insertion (énsertio) is mostly hidden
by the neighbouring portions of the skull when
the maxilla is at rest; but, on the least motion, a
portion of it becomes visible on each side of the
lower lip; it is of softer and more cartilaginous
substance than the part which succeeds it.

409. The disk or stalk of the feeler-jaw (max-
illa), is divided from the insertion by a sutural
line ; it is hard, glabrous, and of various forma-
tions.

410. The feeler-bearer (palpifer) is usually
placed above the stalk of the feeler-jaw, but is
often parallel with it, thus constituting its exterior
portion; in either case it is a solid corneous part,
and distinctly divided from the stalk by a sutural
line. It may be useful to observe, that a know-
ledge of these parts is not essential to accurate
generic description, their variation being less
available than those of the succeeding portions
of the feeler-jaw.

411. The blade of the fecler-jaw (lacinia) is
its apical portion, and its variations are of great
importance, for on them the great divisions of
insects are principally founded.

412. A convolute blade of the feeler-jaw
(lacinia convoluta) is when it is rolled up below

12

116 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

the head in the manner of the main-spring of
a watch, or the Ionic volute in architecture.
When bearing this form it is exceedingly long,
slender, and pliable; and the blades of each feeler-
jaw being internally grooved, unite and form a
honey-sucking tube : it has this form in butterflies.

418. A lanceolate blade (lacinia lanceolata)
is when it is straight, flat, decreasing gradually
to a sharp point, incapable of any horizontal
motion, and employed by being thrust vertically
into the object on which its possessor feeds: it
has this form in blood-sucking gnats and flies.

414. A leathery blade (lacinia coriaria) is
when it is composed of a tough, strong, and
flexible substance ; when this is the case, it
usually is very long, without horizontal motion,
parallel with the ligula, and unites with that part
of the mouth in forming a sucking-tube: it has
this form in bees.

415. An obtuse blade (Jacinia obtusa) is when
it is not produced into a conspicuous or active
form, but terminates the feeler-jaw in a rounded
and apparently undeveloped form.

416. A faleate blade (Jacinta falcata), is when
its point is acute, and bent over towards: the
opposite blade: this kind of blade has its in-
terior edge, hirsute, dentate, or simple ; its point,
bifid or simple.

417. An articulated blade (Jacinia articulata)
is when it unites with the disk of the feeler-jaw

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. 117

by means of a distinct and free joint instead of
a sutural fixed line: it has this form in the tiger-
beetles.

418. The helmet (galea) is situated on the
back of the feeler-jaw, behind the blade, and
before the feeler; its variations are very nu-
merous, and, consequently, very useful in assign-
ing characters to insects.

419. A palpiform helmet (galea palpiformis)
is when it is perfectly distinct from the blade,
and composed of one, two, three, or four cylin-
drical joints, like those of the feelers or
antenna: it has this form in carnivorous
beetles.

420. An obtuse helmet (galea obtusa) is when
it appears simply as a shapeless mass; it assumes
this form frequently when the lacinia is also
obtuse, and much resembles it in appearance.

421. An obsolete helmet (galea obsoleta) is
when it is closely united to the blade: sometimes
a mere sutural line, and occasionally not even
that, denotes any separation between them.

422, The maxillary feeler (mawipalpus) rises
from the feeler-bearer immediately behind the
helmet ; its principal variations are in the num-
-ber, form, and proportion of its joints: the
description of these are very simple, and easily
understood, without the employment of any set
iterms. é

423. The mandibles (mandibule) are situated

118 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

immediately below the upper lip, and immediately
above the feeler-jaws, one on each side of the
mouth, meeting, and sometimes crossing in front :
when possessed of motion, they move hori-
zontally.

424. Rudimental mandibles (mandibule inci-
pientes) are those which are perfectly without
motion, and, apparently, without use; they are
small scale-like processes adhering to the skull,
and are utterly incapable of gnawing solid sub-
stances: they have this form in butterflies.

425. Linear mandibles (mandibule lineares)

are those which are of uniform size and sub+
stance; which are perfectly straight, parallel, and
approximate; they are always without the hori-
zontal motion, and utterly incapable of gnawing
solid substances: they have this form in many
flies.
426. Tubulate mandibles (mandibule tubu-
late) are those which are hollow, and perforated
at the extremity to admit the passage of the
blood of other insects, on which the insects pos-
sessing such mandibles always feed: the man-
dibles possess this form in the larve of some
carnivorous beetles, and in that of the ant-lion.

427. Falciform mandibles (mandibule falci-
formes) are when they are long and much curved,
in the shape of a sickle ; they move horizontally
with great ease, are hard and acute, and, when
closed, cross each other: insects possessing these

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. 119

mandibles bite severely, and prey on other
insects. :

428, Bifid mandibles (mandibule bifide) are
when the extremity is terminated by two distinct
points of equal length and similar appearance,
otherwise one of them would be called a tooth.

429, Toothed mandibles (mandibule dentate)
are when the internal mandibles are beset with
teeth; when this is the case, they are hard and
bony, have a rapid and powerful horizontal
motion, and are capable of gnawing very hard
substances,

430. Setiform mandibles (mandibule setiformes)
are when they are very slender, flexible, thread-
like, without horizontal motion, and often com-
pletely enclosed in a sheath; which sheath is the
lower lip.

431. To understand the structure of the head
of an insect, it is essential to examine it,—to
handle it,—to dissect it, then the foregoing
description will probably prove useful; but no
description, without ocular demonstration, can be
made perfectly clear.

432. The structure of an insect’s mouth will
be pretty well understood by a comparison with
our own, if we suppose it possible for our upper
and lower jaw each to be divided down the
middle, and the two halves of each to move
from side to side, meeting in front, the lips and
tongue remaining as they are.

120 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

433. Our upper lip corresponds, then, pre-
cisely to the labrum of insects; our lower lip,
to the labium; our upper jaw, divided, to the
mandibles ; our lower jaw, divided, to the max-
ill; our tongue, to the tongue ; and, when both
mouths are closely shut, the parts in each occupy
similar places. A locust’s mouth aptly illustrates
this.

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. 121

CHAPTER IV.

OF THE WINGS AND LEGS OF INSECTS.

434, Tux wings and legs of insects are situated
in equal numbers on each side of aright line drawn
down the back; they constitute five pairs, four
wings and six legs.

435. The fore wings (proale) arise from the
sides of the mesothorax ; they vary in compo-
sition, covering, and form, and their variations
afford excellent distinguishing characters.

436. Scaly fore wings (proale squamose) are
membranaceous; and covered with a coat of
minute scales placed in rows; the edges of the
scales in one row, covering the insertions of those
in the next, like the scales of a fish, or the tiles of
a house: these wings are used principally in
flight. The wings have this character in the
butterfly.

437. Membranaceous fore wings (proale mem-
branacee) are composed of a delicate transparent

122 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

membrane, which is upheld and moved by various
strong nervures, traversing it in various directions :
in the fly, these fore wings alone perform the office
of flight; in the bee, they have the assistance of
a second similar pair: a portion at the base of
membranaceous wings is called the winglet
(alula).

438. Crustaceous fore wings (proale crustacee)
are composed of a hard, brittle substance, in-
capable of being bent or folded without injury ;
incapable also of being used in flight, and serving
only as a protecting cover to the more delicate
hind wings: the fore wings possess this character
in all beetles; and in descriptions are usually
called wing-cases (elytra).

439. Leathery fore wings (proale coriacee)
are composed of a tough, leathery substance,
which will bend readily without breaking, but
which never folds naturally ; such wings are
seldom of much service in flight, yet are occa-
sionally used for that purpose: they have this
character in the locust.

440. Half-leathery fore wings (proale semi-
coriacee) are when they have the basal portion
of the leathery substance, described in the last
paragraph, and the apical portion, membranaceous
and transparent: plant-bugs have this kind of
fore wings.

441. Reticulated fore wings (proale ‘eticu-
latw) are covered by an infinity of nervures

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. 123

crossing each other in every direction; these
nervures give the wings the appearance of beau-
tiful net-work: dragon-flies have wings of this
character.

442. The hind wings (metale) possess the
characters of being scaly, membranaceous, or
reticulated, the same as the fore wings; but they
are never crustaceous, leathery, or half-leathery.

443, The hind wings rise from the sides of the
metathorax, one behind each of the fore-wings ;
they occasionally possess characters which the
fore wings have not.

444, Petiolated hind wings (metale petiolate)
are when they have ceased to bear the appearance
of wings, and have become mere knobs, placed at
the extremity of a short foot-stalk: in this form
they are usually termed poisers (halteres), and are
possessed by all flies and gnats.

445. Setaceous hind wings (metale sanspointed)
are when they have ceased to bear the appearance
of wings, and have become simple bristles, totally
useless in flight.

446. The nervures in membraneous wings divide
the membranes into small compartments, called
cells (cellule); these cells are very constant in
their form and proportion in the same kinds of
insects ; consequently their variations distinguish
one kind from another,

447, The strong nervure which runs along the
upper edge of each wing, either on the extreme

124 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

edge or just below it, is called the costal nervure
(nervura costalis); and the portion of membrane,
if any, above this nervure, is the costal cell, or if
divided by minor nervures, the costal cells (cellule
costales).

448. The incrassated portion of this nervure,
which is frequently observable at about two-thirds
of the distance from the body, towards the apex
of the wing, is called the stigma (stigma), .

449, The cells immediately beyond the stigma,
towards the extreme point of the wing, are called
the marginal cells (cellule marginales) ; these are
generally two or three in number; and the cells
immediately below these, the submarginal cells
(cellule submarginales).

450. The wings of all insects present a some-
what triangular figure. The upper portion of this
triangle is called the costal region (regio costalis) ;
the outer portion, the exterior region (regio ewte-
rior); the lower portion, the inferior region (regio
inferior); and the central portion, the central
region or disk (discus). Attention to this will
Tender most descriptions of the numerous cells and
nervures intelligible.

451. The legs of insects do not undergo the
same degree of variation as the wings; they are
of a more uniform structure, not only as regards
different kinds of insects, but as regards the legs of
the same insects: they are six in number, or three
pairs, the fore legs (propedes), which are the

a

. PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. ° 125

pair nearest to the head ; middle legs ba lesb ;
and hind legs (metapedes).

452. The natural position of the legs in most
insects, when perfectly at rest, is for the fore and
middle legs to point forwards, the hind legs back-
wards : some beetles form an exception to this, the
fore legs alone pointing forwards.

453. The legs are so nearly of uniform struc-
ture, that the description of one serves for the six :
trifling variations, where they occur, being easily
pointed out in descriptions. The legs of an insect
consist of four parts, called the hip, thigh, shank,
and foot.

454. The hip (coma) is a short and- nearly
globular joint : it either moves with perfect free+
dom in a socket, purposely excavated in the
sternum of the insect, or is anchylosed in the
socket, and a greater power of motion possessed
by the next joint: in the first instance the coxa
is called free (coma libera), in: the second, fixed
(coma fiwa).

455. The thigh (femur) is a long and stout
joint, moving with great freedom; it is composed
of three pieces, the separation of which is marked
by strong sutural lines: these are called the first,
second, and third joint of the femur (femoris
caput ; femoris trochanter ; femoris scapus): when
two parts only are discernible, they are the second
and third parts ; when only one, it is the third part,
and is alone called the thigh (femur),

126 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

456. The shank (tibia) is a single piece, gene-
rally of about equal length with the femur, but
occasionally differing greatly in this respect : it is
usually three sided.

457. The tibia is called winged (tibia alata)
when it is furnished with an attenuated dilated
process, much resembling the extended membrane
which constitutes the wing of a bat, but not so
flexible,

458. The tibia is called corbiculate (tibia cor-
biculata) when it is furnished with a brush of stout
hairs, for the purpose of brushing the fallen off
flowers, and conveying it to its nest, as in bees.

459. The tibia, in almost all insects, is furnished
with stiff spines or bristles, which are:called spurs
(tibie calcaria).

460. The foot (tarsus) consists of five joints,
called the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth
joints of the tarsus (planta,: metaplanta, allux,
arthrium, wngula) ; the first (planta) being nearest
to the tibia, the others in regular succession.

461. In pedunculated insects the five joints of
the tarsus are almost invariably present ; in other
insects one, two, or three of them are frequently
missing: when an insect has four joints to the
tarsus, the arthrium is wanting; when only three,
the arthrium and pollux have disappeared.

462. The ungula is armed at its extremity with
one, two, or four sharp curved claws (unguiculi) :
in the stag-beetle a sixth joint of the tarsus

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. 127

(plantula) arises from between the claws, and this
joint is furnished with two other claws.

463. The under surface of the joints of the
tarsus are very frequently covered with “soft
cushions (pulvilli); these are composed of an
almost infinite number of minute hairs, which,
at their ends, are slightly dilated; and constantly
exude an adhesive gummy matter.

464, By means of these gummy pulvilli, insects
possessing them are enabled to walk freely on
smooth surfaces, even with their backs downwards,
against the power of gravity : other insects whose
pulvilli exude a somewhat oily matter, run with
ease and safety on the surface of water.

465. At the end of the ungula, between the
claws, there is in the locust, and some other
insects, a small soft ball called the little cushion
(pulvinulus): this is a part of some importance
for distinguishing characters.

466. There are attached to the telum, or last
segment of the abdomen, many very singular ap-
pendages; the uses of some of these are known,
of others unknown.

467. The appendages of which the uses are
ascertained are these, the sting (aculeus), as in
bees; the external ovipositor (ovipositor ewertus),
as in the ichneumon; the tubular retractile ovi-
positor (tubulus), as in the bot-fly; the saw
(terebella), with which female insects bore a hole
to deposit their eggs.

128 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

468. The appendages of which the uses are un-
known or doubtful, are the leaflets ( foliole) ; pin-
cers (forceps), as in the earwig ; tails (caud@ and
caudule), as in the cockroach and cricket.

469. It may be proper to observe, that insects
have many external parts here undescribed, and
many yet unnamed; but sufficient are now
noticed to enable a reader to describe any insect
he may meet with, or to understand any descrip-
tion he may read.

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. 129

CHAPTER V.

OF THE CHARACTERS OF SURFACE.

470, Tux exterior or bony shell of insects, is
very various in the character of its surface ; and
as these variations are constant, or pretty much
so, in the same kind of insect, a correct know-
ledge of the terms employed in distinguishing
them is very essential.

471. The variations of surface are of two kinds:
form of surface, called also sculpture ; and colour
of surface. The terms employed to describe these
are mostly from the Latin; a language which
affords great facility in defining slight distinctions.

472. The variations of form are many; most
of them are described by terms universally under-
stood ; as convex, concave, flat, rough, smooth,
shining, &c.; others require elucidation,

473. Levigate (levigatus), is when the surface
is perfectly free from elevations, or depressions of
any kind.

474. Glabrate (glaber), is when it is brilliantly
glossy.

K

1380 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

475. Punctate (punctatus), is when the surface
has the appearance of having been punctured
thickly by the point of a pin; the pin not passing
through, but simply making impressions.

476. Reticulate (reticulatus), is when thé sur-
face appears to be levigate, and yet to bear on it
a covering of network.

477. Carinate (carinatus), is when there are
strongly-marked longitudinal elevations, resem~
bling the keel of a ship.

478. Canaliculate (canaliculatus), is when there
are strongly-marked longitudinal impressions : the
impression of a carinate surface would produce a
canaliculate surface.

479. Suleate (sulcatus), is when these longitu-
dinal indentions are somewhat less deep than those
to which the term canaliculate is applied.

480. Striate (striatus) varies from the fore-
going, in the lines being still fainter.

481. Tuberculate (tuberculatus), and verrucate
(verrucatus), are synonymous ; they express the
existence of small tubercles or warts.

482. Granulate (granulatus), is when the sur-
face is completely covered with very much smaller
tubercles, like shagreen.

483. Catenulate (catenulatus), is a striate sur-
face, in which some of the elevated spaces between
the strie are interrupted, and broken into a series
of short elevations.

484. We now proceed to the names of colours

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTs, 131

employed by entomologists. All colours seem of
two principal kinds, fictitious colours and real
colours; the fictitious colours being black, brown,
white, and their compounds; and the real colours,
those displayed by the prism.

485. Blacks: piceous (piceus), the colour of
pitch ; atrous (ater), the colour of liquid ink ;
nigrous (niger), the colour of lamp-black ; fuli-
ginous ( fuliginosus), the colour of soot.

486. Browns: olivaceous (olivaceus), the colour
of olives ; ferruginous ( ferrugineus), the colour of
rust ; fuscous ( fuscus), the colour of tanned leather ;
brunneous (brunneus), the colour of a chestnut ;
cinnamoneous (cinnamomeus), the colour of cinna-
mon ; livid (dividus), the colour of liver.

487. Whites: griseous (griseus), the colour of
grey hair; cinereous (cinereus), the colour of ashes;
albous (albus), the colour of chalk ; niveous (niveus),
the colour of snow.

488. Reds: miniatous (miniatus), the colour of
red lead; testaceous (testaceus), the colour of
brick-dust ; rufous (rufus), the colour of bright
copper ; coccineous (coccineus), the colour of the
blossom of the horse-shoe geranium : sanguineous
(sanguineus), the colour of blood; roseous (roseus),
the colour of the rose.

489. Oranges: aurantious (aurantius), the
colour of an orange; croceous (croceus), the
colour of the crocus: fulvous (fulvus), the colour
of the lion.

K 2

132 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

490, Yellows: sulphureous (sulphureus) the
colour of brimstone; stramineous (stramineus), the
colour of straw ; luteous (Juteus), the colour of the
yolk of an egg; flavous ( flavus), the colour of the
sunflower.

491, Greens: glaucous (glaucus), the colour of
the sea; prasinous (prasinus), the colour of the
leaves of leeks; eruginous (@ruginosus), the
colour of yerdigris ; viridous (viridis), the colour
of the leaf of the laurel.

492. Blues: ceruleous (ceruleus), the colour of
the sky; cyaneous (cyaneus), the colour of the
blue-bottle ; azureous (azwreus), the colour of the
Adonis butterfly.

498. Violets: violaceous (violaceus), the colour
of the violet ; lilaceous (Jilaceus), the colour of the
lilac.

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. 133

CHAPTER VI,
OF MUSCLES, THE ORGANS OF MOTION.

494. Next to the external solid parts, which
ostensibly perform the active offices of insect life,
must be considered those internal softer parts
called muscles (musculi); the contraction and
expansion of which cause the solid parts to per-
form those offices,

495, Muscle is a substance which yields to
the touch: it consists of two parts; the body of
the muscle, which is fleshy; and the extremities
and coating of the muscle, which are tough, strong,
and elastic, and are designated as tendon.

496. The surface of muscle is a beautiful mi-
eroscopic object: it presents a series of exceed-
ingly fine transverse lines, which, in contraction,
assume an undulated form. The fibre of muscle
is much the same ‘in every animal, from man to
the most minute animalcule.

497. The attachment of muscle is solely to
the osseous plates or bones, which constitute the
external covering of an insect; in these they

134 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

originate precisely in the same manner as the
muscles in the human frame, are attached to, and
originate in, the bones.

498. The bulk and form of muscles in insects
are beautifully apportioned to the offices they are
required to perform; and unusual bulk in any
part of an insect generally implies the presence of
unusually developed muscle, and the object for
which it is developed may be readily ascertained.

499. We have before seen, that the fore wings
arise from the mesothorax, and the hind. wings
from the metathorax : these segments vary greatly
in size, and this variation depends so precisely on
the powers of flight possessed by each pair of wings,
that an insect anatomist, on regarding these two
segments alone, would at once decide on the rela-
tive power of the wing which they had borne.

500. In flies, the fore wings are alone used in
flight ; the hind wings are rudimental ; the whole
bulk of muscle, therefore, required for flight, is
placed in the mesothorax: in beetles the hind
wings are alone used in flight, and the bulk of
muscle is consequently transferred to the meta-
thorax:

501. It happens in some moths, that one sex
flies and the other does not; and in these the
structure of the wing-bearing segments at onde
proves the provision of muscle in these is for the
purpose of flight.

502. In the common ant the little worker never

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. 135

leaves the ground; wings, therefore, would be an
incumbrance to it. We find that its pro- meso- and
metathorax are very small and insignificant seg-
ments, while the mesothorax of the productive
female is the largest segment in her body ; but it
is one of her duties to perform a long flight, and
to use the wings which that segment bears.

503. The muscles in those wing-bearing seg-
ments which do not employ their wings for flight,
are probably not absent, but repose in a rudi-
mental state; while the muscles, whose active uses
are required in the neighbouring segments, are in-
creased at their expense.

504. The form of muscles in insects is as various
as their size, and depends on the motion required
of them: every muscle is precisely of the shape,
as well as size, best adapted for the office it has
to perform.

505. The muscles which serve to raise a leg
and lift it forwards, and all similar simple move-
ments, are linear or cylindrical when at rest, but in
contraction become fusiform, the extremities at-
tenuating, the centre incrassating, and the whole
being abbreviated.

506. The muscles which serve to perform the
wriggling undulating motion, so common in larvee,

especially those which are without legs, are tri-
"angular, and in motion contract alternately each
side of the triangle, so that each angle becomes
acute and obtuse in turn.

136 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

507. Muscles in insects more frequently cross
and intersect each other than in vertebrated
animals: in some instances, where connected with
the organs of respiration and circulation, they are
excessively minute, and appear actually inter-
woven, crossing in every direction, like multitudes
of slender threads.

508. It is in such situation that dominant
motion exists ; motion altogether independent of,
and uninfluenced by, the will.

509. The principal muscles in insects are gene-
rally in pairs; that is, each principal muscle has
an antagonist muscle, which, after any given
movement, has the power to restore the original
position.

510. The muscles destined for the government
of the limbs, are all of the linear or cylindrical
form, and all in pairs, a flexor and extensor
muscle being found in each joint of the legs, &c.

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. 137

CHAPTER VII.
OF NERVES, THE ORGANS OF SENSATION;

511, In vertebrated animals the brain is situated
in the head. Brain is supposed to be the seat of
mind: all the nerves originate in the brain: the
nerves are the organs of sensation.

512. We find that in insects there is no part
positively ascertained to be the brain: we discover
nerves throughout the body, and we trace these to
large masses or knots, situated at intervals the
whole length of the insect.

513, Experience has shown us that, on the
brain of vertebrated animals being separated from
the body, or even greatly injured, both sensation
and active vitality at once cease; but in insects
the separating of the head or of the parts con-
taining either of these masses of nerves, produces
no immediate or ascertainable effect on sensation
or vitality,

514, This shows us, first, that mind or volition
is, in vertebrated animals, situate in the brain ;
secondly, that in insects it is not confined to an

138 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

exclusive part. These conclusions lead to the
probability of a third, that brain and nerve are
but different states of the same system of organs.

515. The vitality, therefore, concentrated in a
brain, may be diffused through the nerves when
there is no brain, and each mass of nerves may be
the seat of that small power of mind which insects
possess,

516. The nervous cord extending, as described,
from one end of the insect to the other, is com-
pared to, and has been called the, spinal marrow ;
its first knot, or incrassated portion, the brain;
the following knots, ganglions: this nomenclature
appears arbitrary, as we have seen that no parti-
cular portion exercises exclusively the functions
of a brain.

517. It appears better to consider each of the
little knots a separate and independent centre
of volition, as it undoubtedly possesses the cha-
racters of such, giving out its various nerves in
the same manner as the human brain.

518. All anatomical operations succeed best
with the larve of insects, because the constant and
obvious division of the body of larva: into thirteen
segments, afford us more ready means of describing
the result of observation ; whereas, in perfect in-
sects, several segments are liable to become united,
and the exact boundaries of each are thus rendered
subjects of doubt.

519, It must also be observed, that the internal

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS, 139

systems of organs following and adapting them-
selves to the wonderful changes on the surface,
require the utmost caution in the anatomist who
attempts to characterise them.

520. Let us then examine the caterpillar of a
common butterfly, and trace its system of brains
and nerves: in this we have the advantage of
being able to examine it in all stages, and to com-
pare and ascertain, with tolerable certainty, both
the mode and extent of change.

521. In the larva of a butterfly the spinal cord
has thirteen knots, one in each of its segments ;
these knots, from their similarity in office to brain,
may be called cerebroids (cerebroide); and each
one may be distinguished by the name of the
segment in which it is situated.

522, The first cerebroid (capitis cerebroida), is
composed of two hemispheres ; from these arise,
in perfect. insects, several pairs of nerves; there
are two optic nerves (nervi oculorum); two anten-
nary nerves (nervi antennarum); two mandibulary
nerves (nervi mandibularum) ; two maxillary nerves
(nervi maxillarum); and two labial nerves (nervi
labii).

523. To rettirn, however, to the caterpillar, the
first cerebroid is situated above the cavity of the
mouth ; from each hemisphere of the cerebroid a
cord proceeds; these unite on leaving the head,
just above the opening of the tliroat, forming the
second cerebroid (prothoracis cerebroida); they

140 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

then again divide, and, passing one on each side of
the gullet, reunite below it, and enclose itin a ring.

524. At the union they form the third cerebroid
(mesothoracis cerebroida) ; and from this arise four
principal nerves, two of which (mesopedum nervi) de-
scend to the feet, and two others (prothoracis nervi
dorsales) ascend to the back; the cord then again
separates, to re-unite in the mesothorax, where
it again gives rise to four nerves.

525. After forming the fourth, fifth, and sixth
cerebroids, separating in the same way between
each, the cord proceeds single, and united to the
propodeon, and through the other segments to the
telum, leaving a distinct mass or cerebroid in each
segment, which invariably gives out four nerves,
two of which ascend to the back, and the other
two descend, some entering the prehensile legs,
with which most caterpillars are furnished.

526. In the telum is situated the thirteenth and
last cerebroid (teli cerebroida), and this gives off
no less than eight nerves, most of them permeating
the organs of generation: thus the number of
main nerves arising from the whole of the cerebroids
in this caterpillar, is sixty-two.

527. The twelfth and thirteenth cerebroids are
attached and sessile without any intervening
cord; the spaces between the others vary very
rapidly as the insect approaches perfection.

528. In the first place, the second cerebroid
enters the head, and becomes united with the first;

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. 141

then the fifth and sixth approach and unite ; then
the third and fourth; lastly, in the pupa, the
seventh and eighth wholly disappear, and eight only
are to be found in the perfect butterfly.

529. The nerves, after leaving the cerebroids,
divide, and ramify almost infinitely, being more
particularly abundant in the head and tarsi of
the legs; they do not appear to penetrate the
ossified skin, although they are found close be-
neath it,

530. The nerves are the means by which the
circumstances of matter are conveyed to the mind;
and also the means by which the commands of
mind are conveyed to matter: in the former
capacity they are the organs of the senses.

531. The senses of insects are, properly speak-
ing, seven: love, touch, taste, smell, hearing,
sight, and the commanding and governing sense,
called volition, mind, thought, or instinct.

532. Love is that sense which ensures obedience
to the great command, Increase and multiply ; its
gratification seems the main object of an insect’s
life, after having arrived at maturity : its seat is in
the organs of generation.

533. Touch is a most invaluable sense to in-
sects; they have two antenne and four feelers
attached to the mouth, which appear provided
purposely for the exercise of this sense: the
tarsi are also employed to ascertain qualities by
touch; but the other parts of the body appear

142 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

insensible to feeling, either as regards the ascer-
taining of qualities or the sensation of pain.

534, Taste is undoubtedly possessed by insects
in an eminent degree; and they seem to have the
same preferences for animal or vegetable food
which are evinced by vertebrated animals.

585. Smell appears to be the sense by which
insects are led to discover strongly-scented sub-
stances at a great distance, where it is quite
impossible that sight should aid them; its seat,
however, is wholly unknown.

536. Hearing seems also to be possessed by
insects, or to what purpose would the merry
cricket sing his evening song, if there were none
of his kind to listen to, and admire it? The seat of
this sense is also wholly unknown.

537. Sightis a sense of which we have abundant
evidence ; it is seated in two large compound eyes,
often occupying nearly the whole head, and also
occasionally in three minute simple eyes, situated
in a triangle on the crown of the head.

588. The mind of insects is more wonderful
than our own: it has no speculation, no retention,
no judgment, no power; it is, in fact, an existence
which comes perfect from the Creator: the new-
born bee is perfectly mistress of architecture ; she
is heaven-instructed: the mind is not only the
ruling sense, but is a distinct immaterial element.

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. 143

CHAPTER VIII.

OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL, OR ORGANS OF
DIGESTION.

539. Tux alimentary canal in insects, as in
higher animals, consists of three principal parts,
the gullet, the stomach, and the intestines,

540. The gullet (esophagus) is the part which
most nearly approaches the head, and the external
opening of which is the throat (pharyna) already
described ; it is of various length; and in this par-
ticular it appears more influenced by the variation
of external form than by the quantity or quality of
food consumed.

541. The gullet is simple (esophagus simplex)
when it is merely a tube of uniform size extend-
ing from the pharynx to the entrance of the
stomach; this is the usual structure,

542. The gullet is ventricose (@sophagus ven-
tricosus) when it dilates into a large bag or crop
before its union with the stomach, and detains the
food in its passage to that organ.

548. The gullet is compound (esophagus

'

144 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

compositus) when it has a long pear-shaped cell
opening from it, and extending beneath the stomach
and intestines, yet having no communication with
either; this is the case in all the flies and gnats
which feed on blood, and many of the same
tribes which subsist on other fluids: the blood
sucked is at once received into it; and, as enough
is frequently swallowed at a single meal to last for
days, it returns slowly to the gullet as required,
and then passes to the stomach for digestion.

544, The stomach (ventriculus) receives the
food immediately from the gullet, digests it, and
passes it on to the intestines.

545. The food immediately on entering the
stomach, combines with, or is pervaded by, some
fluid secreted by the stomach ; this fluid probably
serves to assist in digesting the food, for it imme-
diately undergoes a change in consistence as well
as colour.

546, The stomach varies greatly in the form
and nature both of its main cavity and of the
numerous appendages with which it is occasionally
furnished.

547. The stomach is simple(ventriculus simplew)
when it is a mere continuation of the gullet in an
enlarged form, being slightly restricted at the
union with the gullet, and more so at its junction
with the intestines, where an elastic ring is
placed, which, when contracted, nearly closes the
aperture,

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. 145

548. The stomach is double (ventriculus du-
plex) when it is divided into two distinct portions,
one preceding the other: in this instance the
anterior portion appears the principal organ of
digestion, and in form, as well as office, frequently
appears to resemble the gizzard of birds; the
posterior portion corresponds with the stomach in
its usual simple form.

549, The stomach is triple (ventriculus triple«)
when it possesses three separate divisions follow-
ing each longitudinally : it sometimes, but rarely,
has four or more of these divisions.

550, The stomach is compound (ventriculus
compositus) when it throws off two or more minor
stomachs (ceca), resembling little purses, at or
near its union with the gullet; these are parti-
cularly observable in the voracious herbivorous’
insects, which have the anterior portion of the
stomach in the form of a gizzard.

551. The stomach varies also in the character
of its interior surface ; it is sometimes perfectly
smooth, and sometimes covered with a pilosity
more or less shaggy; this pilosity has been said
to consist of minute tubular processes, which
secrete the fluid for digestion,

552, The stomach, at its posterior extremity,
unites with the intestines; these consist of two
portions, the small intestines (intestina parva),
and the terminal intestine (rectum),

553. The whole of the alimentary canal, from

L

146 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

its anterior to its posterior opening, is frequently
little more than a direct tube or cylinder; the
intestines are never subject to the convolutions so
general in vertebrated animals; the passage of the
food is excessively rapid, and the change it under-
goes very slight.

554. There are, originating from the stomach,
at or near its union with the intestines, several long
tortuous filiform appendages, which are said to be
bile vessels, and to correspond with the liver of
vertebrated animals.

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS, 147

CHAPTER IX.
ON THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION.

555. In vertebrated animals the heart is situ-
ated in the anterior part of the trunk; through
the heart the whole of the blood contained in the
body is supposed to pass: all the arteries and
veins originate or terminate in the heart: the
arteries and veins are the organs of circulation.

556. We find, that in insects, there is no part
positively ascertained to be the heart; but we
discover blood-vessels throughout the body, and
we trace them to a series of large reservoirs, which
form a connected line or channel the whole length
of the insect.

557. The blood of insects is a thin, transparent,
colourless fluid; it contains a quantity of oval
particles which appear perfectly consistent, yet
are as transparent as the fluid portion: a small
portion of the blood dried on a glass presents a
crystallized appearance.

558. The best objects in which to observe the

L 2

148 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

circulation of this blood, are transparent aquatic
larvae ; and these being distinctly divided into the
usual thirteen segments, afford us also the means
of establishing a nomenclature.

559. The number of reservoirs composing the
great channel is twelve, one to each of the seg-
ments, except the head ; these, not having been
hitherto named, may be called little hearts (cor-
cula), and each one may be designated by the
name of the segment in which it is situated, as the
eorculum of the telum (eli corculum).

560. Each corculum is somewhat pear-shaped,
the smaller or pointed extremity being directed
towards the head of the insect, and fitting to a
cavity in. the coreulum above it, which cavity
exactly corresponds, except in its being somewhat
deeper and more pointed, to what is called the
eye of a pear: twelve pears thus placed in a line,
each closely touching the one above it, would give
a general idea of the twelve corcula.

561. Each corculum has a most distinct, tough,
and elastic coat, like that of an artery ; the interior
appears to be wholly filled with blood; the aper-
tures of each corculum are two, one of them at
each extremity.

562. The posterior aperture is occasioned by
the pressure of blood from below, causing the
point of the corculum to open; the aperture itself
is surrounded by an elastic ring, which expands
and closes with each pulsation.

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTs. 149

568. To be distinctly understood,
it will be necessary to select two par-
ticular coreula, and describe their
motions; for this purpose we will
take the two most readily observed,
the twelfth and thirteenth (parateli
corculum, and teli corculum). Fig. 1
represents these in a state of con-
traction (systole).

564. At the junction of each cor-
culum with the next, are two great
veins; these empty their contents into the cor-
culum above them, and may be called the right
and left veins of that corculum; those represented,
Fig. 1, c and d, being the veins of the twelfth cor-
culum (parateli corculi venw): these have no such
distinct coats as those of the corcula.

565. The posterior extremity of Fig. 2.
the twelfth corculum (Jig. 2, a), the
anterior extremity of the thirteenth ‘
(Fig. 2, b), and the two veins (Fig.
q@
txd

2, c and d), open simultaneously, and
the blood rushes upwards, both from
the veins and the thirteenth corculum,
into the twelfth, which instantly dilates.
Fig. 2 represents the twelfth, or upper
corculum, in a state of dilatation
(diastole).

566. The systole and diastole of each corculum
take place alternately; so that when the whole

e

150 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

series of corcula is under the view, it assumes the
appearance of an undulating line, the dilated
portion passing upwards by the most regular pul-
sation: the rate being in the larvae we have most
examined, (that of an ephemera,) about sixty
pulsations per minute.

3, 567. When the twelfth corculum
has attained its state of greatest
dilatation, the anterior portion is
forced upwards by the commencing
dilatation of the thirteenth, and by
this movement the mouths of the

ot al lateral veins are completely closed,
the blood continuing to flow upwards
from the thirteenth corculum only.
Fig. 3 represents the twelfth and
thirteenth corcula in this state.

568. The whole of the blood thus received from
the veins into the corcula, and by one corculum
from another, passes upwards towards the head of
the insect, and, therefore, the only arteries issue
from the first or anterior corculum.

569. From this corculum, arteries proceed to
all parts of the body; minor ones supply the head
and antennze, while major ones turn downwards
through every part of the insect, terminating in
the lateral regions of each segment, and here,
through the medium of the organs of respiration,
communicating with the air.

570. The course of arteries on each side of the

Fig.

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS, 151

insect, through every one of the segments, may be
most distinctly traced, and the course of veins
also intermingling with them. Both kinds of
vessels are proportionately much larger than in
vertebrated animals: in the interior their limits
are vague and difficult to define, but in the lateral
portions their exact course is readily ascertained.

571, The grand veins are twenty-four in number,
two opening into each corculum; those which open
into the eleven upper corcula seem to have almost
an infinity of supplementary branches, extending
little beyond a single segment; while those of the
two last corcula flow from the head itself, through-
out the whole length of the insect.

572. In the setiform appendages of the telum,
the circulation is strikingly exhibited: here the
ascending artery and descending vein accompany
each other; and at the same instant the blood
ascends an artery with the usual pulsatory motion,
it is flowing in like manner down the vein.

573. In the nervures of the wings of insects,
the course of the arteries and their attendant veins
are readily traced: the femora and tibiz also have
a most distinct flowing and returning current ; in
fact, there is no part of an insect in either the
larva or imago state, provided the microscope can
reach it, but exhibits most distinctly the circulation
and pulsation of the blood.

152 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

CHAPTER X.
OF THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION.

574. In vertebrated animals, the lungs are
situated in the anterior part of the trunk: the
whole of the air that is appropriated to the uses
of the body must be inspired by the trachea,
which ascends from the lungs to the mouth and
nostrils: the trachea and lungs are the organs of
respiration, ,

575. We find that in insects there is no part
appropriated solely to the organs of respiration,
but that they permeate every part of the body,
mixing with the blood-vessels, and, as we might
say, seeking the blood, in order to aérate it, in-
stead of the blood seeking the organs of respira-
tion by rushing into the lungs, as it does in
vertebrated animals.

576. The organs of respiration in insects con-
sist of simple tubes, which communicate exter-
nally with the air, and internally with the blood:
the utility to all animals of imbibing air appears

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS, 153

to be owing to its action on, or incorporation
with, the blood.

577. The air tubes of insects (trachee) com-
municate with the air by means of apertures
which occur at intervals along the sides of insects ;
these apertures, which are called spiracles, are
very various in their form, size, and number.

578. The spiracles (spiracula) are sometimes
furnished with moveable lips, which the insects
can close at pleasure, and thus exclude all injurious
substances: sometimes they are furnished with a
fringe of delicate hair, which answers the same
purpose ; and sometimes they are constantly open,
and without any kind of protection.

579. The spiracles in those instances in which
they are furnished with moveable lips, open and
close with great regularity, the body at the same
time expanding and contracting; a certain evi-
dence that the motion of the spiracles is con-
nected with respiration.

580. The spiracles are commonly oblong in
their shape, but there are instances of circular,
linear, quadrate, ear-shaped, and crescent-shaped
spiracles.

581. The number of spiracles is generally
eighteen, nine on each side; this number is pos-
sessed by almost all butterflies, moths, beetles,
&c.; in flies there are not so many; in these,
moreover, the number is not uniform.

582. The names of the spiracles depend wholly

154 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

on the segment in which they happen to be
situated, as the right spiracle of the prothorax
(prothoracis spiraculum dewtrum): the fact of a
segment possessing or not possessing spiracles is
of importance in classification.

583. From each spiracle a single trachea enters
the body; this single trachea is invariable; but
the system of trachee within, are on various
plans; the principal are the detached trachee,
and connected trachez.

584. The trachez are called detached when,
after entering the body as a single cylindrical
tube, they separate, diverge, and ramify, through-
out the region in their immediate vicinity, with-
out any obvious connexion with the trachez of
the adjoining spiracles.

585. The trachee are called connected when
there is a grand longitudinal trachea traversing
each side of the body throughout its length, into
which each spiracle sends its particular tracher,
sometimes as a single tube, sometimes after a
slight ramification.

586, Whether the tracheze possess the detached
or connected form, their minute branches may be
traced wandering over to the opposite side of the
insect, and uniting with similar minute branches
emanating from that side, so that the system of
respiration is always connected, and acts by uni-
formity of impulse.

587. The ramifications of the trachee to our

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. 155

perception, appear infinite; they pervade the
skin, muscles, nerves, stomach, intestines, legs,
wings, and all the organs of sensation ; the
organs of respiration are therefore more generally
diffused in insects than in other animals.

588. The blood of animals, in order to main-
tain its vital powers, requires supplies of oxygen,
which is a principal ingredient of atmospheric
air: an animal, therefore, in breathing the air,
divides the oxygen from the other constituent
parts, appropriates the former, and rejects the
latter.

156 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

CHAPTER XI.
CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS.

589. Tux transformation (metamorphosis) of
insects requires a few words: every insect has at
least three distinctly marked stages of life; the
egg, or foetal; the larva, or adolescent; and the
imago, or adult.

590. There is a fourth state which occurs in
many, the pupa, chrysalis, or quiescent state of
the larva; these changes are accompanied by a
casting of the skin.

591. In the changes which insects undergo,
not only is the external appearance altered, but
the organs of support, motion, sensation, digestion,
and generation are also altered, and frequently
those of respiration.

592. The organs of support in insects are
mostly external ; they are not bones, but perform
the functions of bones; no experiments have yet
proved that they possess the least sensitiveness to

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS, 157

touch, except in a few parts in which the nerves
obviously ramify to the surface.

598. The organs of motion in insects are enclosed
within, and attached to, the organs of support;
they are evident muscles, partly fleshy, partly ten-
dinous, and differ in no material character from
the muscles of vertebrated animals.

594. The organs of sensation in insects are
distinctly and decidedly nerves, and in most
respects resemble the nerves of vertebrated ani-
mals; they do not, however, originate in a com-
mon or concentrated brain, but in numerous
incrassated bundles of nerves, which are now
termed cerebroids.

595. The usual animal senses are possessed
by insects; most of them obviously. Of hearing,
we find slender proof, and its seat is altogether
unknown; we also rather presume than know
that insects possess smell; its seat is also un-
known.

596. The organs of digestion in insects are
peculiarly simple: the alimentary canal is very
short, and the intestines generally without convo-
lutions; the food passes very rapidly, and under-
goes but little alteration.

597. The organs of circulation are these: a
longitudinal series of little hearts, now termed
corcula, of arteries, and of veins; the blood is:
transparent and colourless, it contains numerous
consistent oat-shaped particles ; it flows very.

158 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

regularly, with a distinct pulse, in every part of
the body.

598. The organs of respiration are tubes _per-
meating the whole body, and communicating
with the air by means of lateral spiracles or
openings in the side of the insect.

599. The organs of generation in insects are
situated in the last segment almost invariably.
Insects are of two distinct sexes, male and
female ; those called neuters are abortive females.

600. Insects are long in proportion to their
breadth: they are transversely divided into thir-
teen segments; each segment seems to possess
in itself a distinct vitality.

601. Insects are excessively tenacious of life,
even to so great a degree, that heads separated
from the body have eaten voraciously for hours,
the food passing completely through them; and
bodies without heads have occasionally fled, and
have repeatedly walked about for days.

602. Insects appear to possess no mental
power; to be incapable of memory; to assume
the winged state in the plenitude of perfection ;
to perform the acts their parents performed with-
out the possibility of tuition or observation.

603. The author is aware that several repe-
titions occur in the course of this book, but they
appeared to him essential to make the subject per-
fectly clear ; he hopes that those who do not see the
necessity of these repetitions will yet pardon them.

PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS. 159

604. More would have been said on the seventh
system of organs, but the popular character of an
introductory work of this kind seemed to render
it unnecessary, and therefore unadvisable.

END OF THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS.

Plate Tl. | +

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ENTOMOLOGY.
BOOK Il.
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.

et
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Order is Heaven's great law.

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BOOK III.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.

CHAPTER I.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS IN GENERAL.

605. Every one must have observed that there
is -a greater resemblance between some two of
the various insects with which he is acquainted,
than between some other two: thus a butterfly
more nearly resembles a moth, than a moth
resembles a beetle, or than a butterfly resembles
a beetle. Again, two different kinds of butterfly
‘more nearly resemble each other, than either of
them resembles a moth; the same with two
moths; and the same with two beetles.

606. As an illustration, therefore, of system,
we will arrange these six thus: butterfly, butter-
fly, moth, moth, beetle, bectle; no one with the
slightest idea of similarities, would place the

M 2

164 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

beetles between the moths and the butterflies ;
neither would any one place one of the moths,
or butterflies, between the two beetles: thus the
most untaught mind acknowledges the existence
of a system.

607. Resemblances, in natural history, are not
dependent on the outward and obvious distinc-
tions of size and colour, but are to be traced in
other characters ; in economy, habit, and struc-
ture. Economy comprises the acts of a living
being, as described in the First Book of this
volume ; structure is described in the Second
Book; and habit is the external form and appear-
ance; in fact, the result of structure.

608. In arranging, it is necessary to consult
all these characters, but principally structure,
because, under all circumstances, we gain some
knowledge of this; whereas, habit may be occa-
sionally altogether deformed, and economy fre-
quently altogether unknown : in structure, primary
variations occur in the systems of organs; secon-
dary variations in the details, which comprise a
system of organs.

609. In all animals, the bones, or organs of
support, and the covering of the surface of the
body, as skin, hair, feathers, or scales, afford the
most ready characters by which to distinguish
different kinds of animals from each other: now,
in insects, we have seen that the organs of support
are on the surface of the body, and, therefore,

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 165

present greater facility to the describer than any
other animals.

610. When the known animals shall be so
arranged that each one is placed nearest to the
one which it most resembles, and a series thus
formed from which none shall be excluded, then
the arrangement will be perfect, and the natural
system will be discovered: this has been the
ultimate object of naturalists in all ages.

611. In any abstract science, there is an
evident advantage in being able to determine
the names of every object, or group of objects;
and so to allude to either, in speaking or writing,
as that all persons possessing a moderate know-
ledge of the science may at once form a definite
idea of what is meant.

612. The power of intelligibly designating an
object, or a group of objects, is only to be attained
by a close attention to nomenclature ; science is
of no country : nomenclature should, therefore,
be entirely in a language common to all countries ;
and, by common consent, Latin has been adopted
as the language of science.

613. In nomenclature, it is a sound plan to
revert to some standard authority; and, sup-
posing objects at any time subsequent to that
authority be described and named as new, to
strike out such new names as soon as the fact
shall be pointed out, and substitute the old
names in their right of priority: in all instances

166 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

subsequent to such authority, the best rule is,
that the name first published be received.

614, Naturalists are agreed in considering
Linnzus the original founder of a distinct and
applicable nomenclature, and, with very few
exceptions, they refer to him as the standard
authority: the author has adhered, as nearly as
possible, to the Linneean nomenclature, altering,
however, the termination of the names, in order
to appropriate the original names to minor
divisions.

615. For convenience, we make catalogues of
all known animals: it is the object of every com-
piler of such catalogues to make as near an
approach to nature as he is able. These cata-
logues, or arrangements, are not limited to a
simple list of single names or kinds of animals
(species), but many species are grouped together
under a second name, called a genus (genus); a
number of genera are united, and called a family
( familia); a number of families are united and
called an order (ordo).

616. From orders we mount upwards to
stirpes (stirpes); from stirpes to classes (classes) ;
from classes to tribes (tribus); from departments
to provinces ( provinci@); from provinces to king-
doms (regna); and, from kingdoms, to universal
nature.

617. It may be remarked, that all divisions
have a tendency to subdivide into the numbers

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 167

four and seven; in other words, to contain four
groups, three of which shall be double groups,
and one single group: this circumstance has led
to much argument as to the superiority of the
particular numbers, two, four, and seven. Some
writers have also contended for the numbers three
and five. *

618. The relative position in which the objects
of nature stand, has been also the subject of great
discussion ; some authors contending that the
system of nature is represented by a straight
line; others, by the branches of a tree; others,
by the circumference of a circle. No decision on
either number or position has yet been made by
naturalists ; indeed, it is the general opinion,
that no particular number or position is constant
in nature.

619. The author ventured to suggest, in a
little essay, published some time since, that seven
was the predominant number; and that, in every
group of seven, whether the group be large or
small, one of the seven is central, and the other
six surround it, and are each connected with it :
this is called the septenary system.

620. The septenary system has not been
generally received ; on the contrary, it has been
written against with what the author thinks

* The principal advocates of particular numbers are these: Flem-
ing, two; Swainson, three; Cuvier, four; Mac Leay, five; the
author, seven.

168 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

unnecessary severity ; unnecessary, because tem-
perate argument, and persevering inquiry, do
more to elicit truth, and fair, moderate state-
ments, more to establish it, than angry words and
flat contradictions.

621. The author may, perhaps, be allowed to
add, that though almost alone in the belief, he
still believes that the septenary system is the
system of nature; but he is not inclined to argue
the subject further, and if he were, this is not the
place: he leaves the subject to those who feel
disposed to prosecute the inquiry; the truth must,
eventually, make its way.

622. Universal nature is divisible into material
and immaterial : the material is divided into orga-
nie and inorganic; the organic is divided into
animal and vegetable: these are called kingdoms
(regna) ; and the whole of the animals thus con-
stitute the animal kingdom: the inorganic
division, like the organic, is double: of the
immaterial we all are ignorant.

623. The animal kingdom is distributed under
four great divisions, distinguished from each other
by organization. One of these is a single group,
the other three are each double groups; that is,
they each contain two groups, both of which
possess the essential characters of the division,
but which, nevertheless, widely differ in some
subordinate character, These divisions, whether
considered as four or seven, may be termed pro-
vinces : they are these :—

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 169

624. Vertebrated animals (vertebrata). In this
division, which is that of man, and of the animals
most resembling him, the brain and principal
trunk of the nervous system are enclosed in a
bony envelope formed by the cranium and ver-
tebrae; to the sides of this intermedial column
are attached the ribs and bones of the limbs, which
form the frame-work of the body; the muscles
generally cover the bones, whose motion they
oceasion: this is a single group.

625. Molluscous animals (molluscata). In this
division there is no skeleton; the muscles are
merely attached to the skin, which constitutes a
soft contractile envelope, in which, in many species,
are formed stony plates, called shells. The ner-
vous system is contained within this general
envelope, and is composed of several scattered
masses connected by nervous filaments: this is a
double group.

626. Annulated animals (annulata). In this
division the nervous system consists of long cords,
running longitudinally throughout the body, and
dilated at intervals into knots or ganglions. The
covering or envelope of the body is divided by
transverse folds into a certain number of rings,
whose teguments are sometimes hard, sometimes
soft; the muscles are situated intervally : this is a
double group.

627. Radiated animals (radiata). ‘The organs
of sensation and motion, in the preceding divisions,

170 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

are symmetrically arranged on the two sides of an
axis ; in this division, these organs are disposed
like rays round a centre; their respiratory organs
are seated on the surface of the body: many
animals of this division are a mere homogeneous
pulp: this is a double group.*

628. It will be evident to every one who has
read the preceding Book, that insects must belong
to the third of these divisions—the annulated
animals. This division comprises two very distinct
groups: jirst, worms (apoda), which have soft
bodies without legs; secondly, condylopodes (con-
dylopoda), which have their bodies in a hard case,
and have articulated legs.

629. The province of condylopoda is divided
into tribes by the number of legs, thus: insects
(hewapoda) have six legs; spiders (octopoda)
have eight legs; shell-fish, as crabs (anisopoda),
have from ten to eighteen legs; and centipedes
(myriopoda), which have twenty to two hundred
legs: the last is a single group; each of the others,
double.

630. Insects are divided into two tribes, by the
circumstance of possessing wings or wanting them ;
those which have wings are termed winged insects
(tetraptera); those which are without wings are
termed wingless insects (aptera).

631. The winged insects are again divided into

* The characters of the four provinces of animals are from
Cuvier’s ‘* Regne Animal.”

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 171

four classes, founded on the mode of metamor-
phosis ; that is, on the degree of similarity which
the larva and pupa states bear to the perfect state :
as in the preceding higher division, three of these
are double classes, and one isa single class. Insects
are termed amorphous (amorpha), in which there
is no resemblance between the pupa and imago ;
necromorphous (necromorpha), in which there is
a similarity, though imperfect ; isomorphous (iso-
morpha), in which the similarity is complete; and
anisomorphous (anisomorpha), in which there is
great variation of metamorphosis, although a
general similarity of structure in the perfect state.

632. The winged insects are also divided into
seven classes: the amorphous insects comprise
two of these minor classes, called lepidoptera and
diptera ; the necromorphous insects comprise two
classes, hymenoptera and coleoptera ; the isomor-
phous insects comprise two classes, orthoptera and
hemiptera ; and the anisomorphous insects have
only a single class, neuroptera.

633. It is of great importance to adhere to some
fixed nomenclature of divisions, and to understand
the various steps as we mount from species to
kingdoms. To recapitulate, they are these :—
1. Species; 2. Genus; 3. Family ; 4. Order;
5. Stirpes; 6, Class; 7. Tribe; 8. Province ;
9. Kingdom: and be it recollected, the number of
the minor groups constituting a major group, need
make no variation in the name of either group,

172 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

634. Summary,

Provinces of the Animal Kingdom—Four or Seven.

5 Proy. I. Cephala?
Province J, Molluscata, or { ite nceandlit

III. Actinita.
II. Radiata, or { Iv Site
V. Apoda.
III. Annulata, or { VI. Condylopoda.
IV. Vertebrata, or VII. Vertebrata.

Tribes of the Condylopoda—Four or Seven. }

Trib I. Tetraptera.
Tribe I. Hexapoda, or { Sie eee

II. Aptera.
III. Arachnoida.
ATO stupor, oe { IV. Acaroida,
4 V. Entomostraca.
aM noianpoday cr { VI. Malacostraca.
IV. Myriapoda, or VII. Myriapoda.

Classes of the Tetraptera—Four or Seven.
Class I. Amorpha, or { nee a et a
IIT. Hymenoptera.
TY. Coleoptera.
V. Orthoptera.
III. Isomorpha, or { VI. Hemiptera.

IV. Anisomorpha, or VII. Neuroptera.

If. Necromorpha, or {

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 173

CHAPTER II.

OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF LEPIDOPTERA.

635. Cuwaracter amorphous: i. e. larva and
pupa bearing no resemblance in external appear-
ance to the imago: pupa perfectly quiescent,
having the limbs and parts of the mouth enclosed
with the body, in a hard brittle skin or case.

636. Larva with strong corneous mandibles,
moving horizontally, and six articulated feet,
situated in pairs on the second, third, and fourth
segment: the fifth and sixth, eleventh and twelfth
segments invariably with feet: the other segments
each subject to the possession of a pair of
fleshy prehensile feet: feeds on the leaves, bark,
wood, or roots of vegetables, and rarely on other
larvee.

637. Imago with short, undeveloped, immovable
labrum and mandibles; elongate palpigerous
maxillee, slender, flexible, and tubular; when at
rest, convoluted between the labial feelers ; labium
triangular, bearing two erect conspicuous feelers :
all the wings fully and nearly equally developed,

174 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY,

and, together with the body, clothed with scales :
feeds on the honey of flowers, and on fruit.

638. The class Lepidoptera contains seven
stirps, but as the characters will be given minutely
in detail, as characters of orders, it would be of
little use giving them as those of stirps. By the
summary at the end of this Book, it will be seen
to what stirps each order belongs. The orders of
Lepidoptera, are these :—

639. Hawk-moths (Sphingites). Larva
naked, of uniform substances, with ten prehen-
sile legs, and a stout corneous recurved horn
on the paratelum. Pupa smooth, rounded,
generally quite naked ; changes in or on the
ground. Imago with the antennz incrassated in
the middle; the tips furnished with a recurved
hook composed of fine bristles; wings narrow ;
hind wings small; body stout; flight rapid and
well sustained; diurnal or nocturnal. British
Genera, Sesia, Macroglossa, Smerinthus, Sphina,
Acherontia Deilephila.

640. Skippers (Hesperites). Larva generally
naked, stout in the middle, and attenuated at the
extremities with ten prehensile legs. Pupa stout,
smooth, unangulated; changes in a loose web
among the leaves on which the larva feeds,
attached by the tail and a thread round the
middle. Imago with the antenna partially ele-
vated; sometimes nearly filiform, hooked at the
extremity ; the hind wings of the insect, when at

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 175

rest, reposing in a nearly horizontal position ; the
fore wings nearly erect: flight diurnal, brisk, and
bustling. Hesperia, Thymele.

641. Butterflies (Papilionites). Larva some-
times naked, but generally covered with down,
hair, or spines: with ten prehensile legs. Pupa
naked; mostly angulated, always attached by the
tail; changes in the air. Imago with clavated
antennze not hooked; all the wings erect, and
meeting above the back when at rest. Polyom-
matus, Lyceena, Thecla, Amaryssus, Colias, Pon-
tia, Apatura, Limenitis, Hipparchia, Vanessa,
Argynnis.

642. Loopers, or slender bodies (Geometrites).
Larva naked, slender, and very elongate, with
four prehensile feet ; in consequence of the length
of body without feet, its back is arched in
walking. Pupa smooth, rounded; situation of
change, various. Imago with antenne tapering to
a point; in the males often highly pectinated ;
wings ample, expanded ; body very slender ; flight
in the evening, silent, feathery. Geometra.

643. Half-loopers (Phytometrites). Larva
naked, elongate, less slender than the preceding,
with six prehensile feet; in walking its back is
arched, but not so decidedly as in the preceding.
Pupa smooth, rather pointed at the tail; changes
in a slight web. Imago with filiform antenne ;
wings deflexed ; moderately stout body ; beauti-
fully coloured: often with brilliant metallic

176 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

markings; flight at all hours; in the hottest sun-
shine, and at midnight. Plusia, Ophiusa, Heliothis,
Acontia, Erastria, Phytometra.

644. Full-bodied moths (Noctuites). Larva
generally naked, cylindrical, robust, with ten pre-
hensile feet: rollsin aring when touched. Pupa
smooth: mostly changes in the ground. Imago
with filiform antennz ; occasionally pectinated in
the males; wings small, deflexed; body stout
and heavy; colour dusky; flight very rapid;
nocturnal. Brepha, Catocola.

645. Millers (Aretiites). Larva very hairy ;
sometimes with bunches, brushes, or fascicles of
hairs; with ten prehensile legs; rolls in a ring
when touched. Pupa more or less hairy; changes
in a cocoon composed of silk, in which the hairs
of the larva are always intermixed. Imago, the
males with somewhat slender bodies; more or
less pectinated antenne, and active; often fly-
ing by day; the females very heavy, sluggish,
and often apterous. Acronycta, Spilosoma,
Arctia Hypercampa, Lithosia, Hypogymna, Laria,
Orgyia.

646. Eggars (Bombycites). Larva elongate,
cylindrical, of equal substance, hairy, with ten
prehensile feet, rolls in a ring when touched.
Pupa in a silken cocoon, more close than the pre-
ceding. Imago with pectinated antenne in both
sexes ; males with slender bodies, very active, and
fly by day; females heavy, sluggish, and seldom

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS, 177

fly; predominating colour, fulvous. Eriogaster,
Odonestis, Gastropacha, Lasiocampa.

647. Emperor-moths (Phalenites). Larva
obese, with fascicles of bristles disposed in rings
on each segment. Pupa short, obtuse, flat, with
bristles at the tail; changes in a tough pear-
shaped cocoon, of which the smaller end remains
open. Imago with highly pectinated antenne
in both sexes; wings amazingly expanded ;
the fore wings more or less falcate ; beautifully
coloured, and ocellated; body short and small ;
flight of the males diurnal, of the females rare,
and mostly in the evening. Saturnia.

648. Prominents (Notodontites). Larva gene-
rally naked; sometimes slightly downy; atte-
nuated towards the tail, with eight prehensile
feet ; the two posterior ones being mostly wanting,
and the segment usually bearing them elevated in
the air. Pupa smooth, obese, compact ; mostly
changes in a cocoon or web, but occasionally on
orin the ground. Imago with the antenne of the
males more or less pectinated ; wings deflexed ;
flight, with few exceptions, in the evening. Ln-
dromis, Cerura, Stauropus, Platypteryx, Cilia,
Notodonta, Pygera, Clostera.

649. Wood-eaters (Xyleutites). Larva depressed,
rather attenuated towards either extremity ; naked,
except a few scattered hairs; prothorax flat and
corneous ; ten prehensile feet; feeds on the bark,
solid wood, pith, or roots of vegetables,

N

Pupa

178 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

furnished with a double row of short spines on
each segment; it changes in a tough cocoon
amongst its food, after remaining through the win-
ter in the larva state. Imago with the antenne
of the males more or less pectinated; flight noc-
turnal. Hepialus, Xyleutas, Zeuzera.

650. Clear-wings (Algeriites). Larva and
pupa, in habit and economy, precisely as in the
preceding. Imago with antenne incrassated
externally, and the tip furnished with a slightly
recurved hook, consisting of a few bristles ; in the
males ciliated ; wings narrow, mostly transparent ;
body elongate, slender, and tufted; flight diurnal,
in the hottest sunshine, and eminently graceful.
Aigeria.

651. Burnet-moths(Glaucopites). Larva obese,
hairy, with ten prehensile legs. Pupa smooth,
very glossy; changes in a close gummy cocoon,
pointed at both ends, and attached generally
to a blade of grass. Imago with clavate an-
tennee ; slightly pectinated in the males. Zygena,
Ino.

652. Pearl-moths (Pyralites). Larva rather
more slender than the foregoing, slightly hairy,
with ten prehensile feet. Pupa elongate, very
lively ; changes ina silken cocoon. Imago with
filiform antenne; wings somewhat. triangular,
deflexed: legs very long, and furnished with long
spurs. Ennychia, Pyrausta, Hydrocampa, Botys,
Scopula, Pyralis, Polypogon, Hypena.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 179

653. Veneer-moths (Crambites). Larva elon-
gate, naked, with ten prehensile feet. Pupa elon-
gate; changes in a slight cocoon. Imago with
very prominent labial feelers, filiform antenne,
sometimes pubescent; wings ample, folded round
the body; flight in the evening. Crambus, and
allied genera.

654, Ermine-moths (Yponomeutites). Larva
elongate, slightly hairy, with ten prehensile feet ;
gregarious, spinning a web; if touched, runs
backwards, falls and suspends itself by a thread.
Pupa elongate, smooth; changes in a cocoon
amongst its food. Imago with filiform antenne;
wings folded round the body, often beautifully
dotted and marked with black. Yponomeuta,
and neighbouring genera.

655. Bell-moths (Tortricites). Larva more
obese than the foregoing, slightly hairy, with ten
prehensile feet ; gregarious, spinning a web ;
if touched, runs backwards with a rapid twisting
motion, and falls, hanging by a thread. Pupa
elongate, attached by the tail; changes in a
silken cocoon, generally amidst the web of the
larva. Imago with filiform antenne; the fore
wings with a prominent shoulder, which gives.
the insect, when at rest, precisely the shape
of a bell. Yortria, and allied genera.

656. Clothes-moths (Tineites). Larva elon-
gate, with ten prehensile legs; concealed in a
sack constructed by itself, which it enlarges from

N 2

180 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

time to time as it increases in bulk; feeds on
woollen cloths, hair, and decayed animal and
vegetable substances. Pupa elongate; changes
within the sack. Imago with filiform antenne,
and narrow wings; flight gregarious, rising and
falling. Tinea, and allied genera.

657. Plume-moths (Alucitites). Larva slen-
der, with ten prehensile feet; the anterior part
capable of great attenuation and extension, in
the manner of a leech. Pupa elongate; changes
ina silken cocoon. Imago with filiform antennz ;
wings extended at right angles with the body ;
very narrow, and divided to the base, each divi-
sion having the appearance of a perfect and dis-
tinct feather. Pterophorus, Alucita.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 181

CHAPTER III.

OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF DIPTERA.

658. Iw the second class, Diptera, the metamor-
phosis, as in Lepidoptera, is amorphous. Larva
with minute corneous mandibles, moving hori-
zontally ; without articulate or prehensile feet ;
feeds on recent or decaying animal and vegetable
substances.

659. Imago of Diptera with the parts of the
mouth variously developed ; the mandibles never
possessing the horizontal motion, or masticatory
power ; the fore wings fully developed; the hind
wings undeveloped ; assuming the appearance of
small pedunculated knobs, and denominated hal-
teres or poisers; tarsi five~jointed.

660. Wheat-flies (Cecidomyites). Larva elon-
gate, feeds.on the blossoms of wheat and other
grain, the leaves of plants, &c. causing excres”’
cences, Pupa changes in the same situation, in
a tough case. Imago usually with moniliform

182 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

antenne, as long as the body, composed of about
twelve or thirteen joints in the female, and twice
as many in the male; maxillary feelers four-
jointed; ligula short, obtuse, and tomentose ;
wings wide, as long as the body, which they
cover horizontally ; female furnished with a
long oviduct. Cecidomyia, Campylomyza. —

661. Crane-flies (Tipulites). Larva stout, very
soft, attenuated anteriorly, abruptly terminated
posteriorly ; feeds on the roots of corn, grass,
and other vegetables, or oceasionally decayed
wood. Pupa changes in the same situations ; it
has often two remarkable recurved horns, porrected
from its head, through which it is said to breathe ;
and the segments of the body are mostly armed
with spines. Imago with antennz thirteen to
seventeen-jointed; frequently pectinated in the
males; ligula fleshy, bilobed, dilated; maxillary
feelers five-jointed, curved, the points turning
outwards ; ocelli none. Ctenophora, Pedicia,
Tipula, Erioptera, Limnobia.

662. Fungus-flies (Mycetophilites). Larva
elongate, glabrous; feeds on decaying fungi.
Pupa changes in the same situations. Imago
with antennz sixteen-jointed, sometimes very
long, moniliform, and simple in both sexes ;
ligula and other organs of the mouth obscurely
developed or obsolete ; ocelli three; wings rather
wide, cover the body horizontally; body very
slender, the same length as the wings; legs

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 183

long. Bolitophila, Macrocera, Synapha, Myce-
tobia, Platyura, Sciophila, Leia, Mycetophila,
Molobrus, Lestrema, Zygoneura.

663. Rhyphites (Rhyphites). Larva very elon-
gate, smooth, cylindrical, encompassed by eleven
corneous shining rings; head furnished with two
hooks ; tail with four short cylindrical tubes:
inhabits the earth and cow-dung. Pupa changes
in the earth. Imago with filiform, sixteen-
jointed, antennz, rather longer than the head;
ocelli three; maxillary feelers four - jointed ;
ligula distinctly bilobed, other parts of the
mouth not fully developed; wings broad, lying
horizontally on the body, which they much exceed
in length. Rhyphus.

664, Bibionites (Bibionites). Larva elongate,
attenuated at each extremity; divisions of the
segments deeply marked, and fringed with hairs ;
head furnished with two obtuse hooks: inhabits
earth, on which it appears to feed. Pupa changes
in the earth. Imago with short, nine-jointed,
antennze ; maxillary feelers four or five-jointed ;.
ligula pubescent and bilobed, the other parts of
the mouth obsolete; head and eyes large in the
male, small in the female; ocelli three, In the
spring and autumn every lane and meadow
swarms with these insects, either sailing in the
air like balloons, or settled on vegetables. Bibio,
Dilophus.

665. Scatopsites (Scatopsites). Larva and

184 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

pupa unknown. Imago with antennez cylindric-
conic, acute, twelve-jointed; ligula small, pubes-
cent, and bilobed; maxillary feelers very short,
exarticulate. Inhabits flowers; is sluggish in its
movements, Scatops.

666. Musquitoes (Simuliites). Larva aquatic ;
supposed to feed on vegetable substances; elongate,
cylindrical, incrassated posteriorly, semi-trans-
parent. Pupa also aquatic, but quiescent ; ovate,
gibbous, brown-coloured, clearly exhibiting all
the parts of the future imago. Imago with an-
tenne eleven-jointed, very short; maxillary
feelers, elongate, incurved, composed of four dis-
tinct joints, the fourth very long and pointed ;
the labrum, mandibles, and maxillz sharp and
wedge-shaped ; the ligula fleshy and bilobed ;
ocelli none; wings very wide, with stout costal
nervures, and scarcely any elsewhere ; meso-
thorax globose, very prominent; body short and
small, colour black. Inhabits woods, feeding on
the blood of man and animals. Simulia.

667. Gnats (Culicites). Larva elongate, car-
nivorous, active, aquatic. Pupa equally active, but
rather shorter, and the head and prothorax much
incrassated. Imago with fourteen-jointed antennee,
plumose in the males, hairy in the females ;
ligula slender and elongate, forming, together
with the mandibles, maxilla, tongue, and labrum,
a porrected blood-sucking apparatus; the max-
illary feelers are long, divaricating, and clavate ;

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS, 185

all the organs of the mouth exeeed the antenne
in length; ocelli none; wings linear, covering
the body; body narrow, linear, elongate; legs
very long. Inhabits woods, &c. entering houses ;
feeds on the blood of man and quadrupeds.
Culex, Anopheles, Chironomus, Tanypus.

668. Moth gnats (Psychodites). Larva in-
habits and feeds on putrescent fungi, &c. Pupa
changes in the same situation. Imago with
antenn filiform, and perfectly simple, alike in
both sexes; ligula short, entire, somewhat
pointed; wings deflexed, very hairy, enveloping
the body laterally, and their inner margins uniting
above it. Psychoda. ;

669. Bald-headed flies (Cyrtites). Larva and
pupa unknown. Imago with antenne seven-
jointed, entirely concealed, so that the head ap-
pears perfectly globular; the basal joint is short
and small, the second stout, and the remaining
five united into one, which is very acute at the
apex, and somewhat incrassated at the base:
ligula, a slender tube; ocelli three ; wings longer
than the body, but too narrow to cover it; alulee
large ; prothorax and body very globose. Inhabit
white thorn, furze, rushes; very seldom fly, and
appear exceedingly sluggish. The body is so soft
as to indent on the slightest pressure. Henops,
Acrocera.

670. Unicorn flies (Bombiliites), Larva and
pupa inhabit the earth. Imago with antenne

186 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

composed of seven joints; the basal and second
joint short; the apical portion long, linear, and
consisting of five united joints, of which the ter-
minal one is acute; ligula, very long, rigid, and
porrected like a horn; ocelli three; wings widely
divaricating, narrow, variegated; alulz small ;
legs long, slender; body short, globose, very
hairy. Inhabits lanes and woods, hovering over
flowers, &c. Bombylius.

671. Gad-flies (Tabanites.) Larva inhabits the
earth; is elongate, cylindrical; head corneous,
linear, elongate, and furnished with two hooks.
Pupa changes in the earth; has two tubercles
anteriorly, and six sharp points near the posterior
extremity. Imago with antennze composed of
seven joints, the basal joint long and rather stout,
the second minute, the remaining five of various
dimensions and sizes, differing in the different
genera; ligula large, bilobed, porrected; and the
other organs of the mouth very perfect] y developed;
ocelli none ; wing divaricating, as long as the body;
alule large ; body flat; colour griseous : male feeds
on the farina of flowers; females suck the blood
of man and quadrupeds. Tubanus, Hematopota,
Chrysops.

672. Painted winged flies (Anthracites). Larva
and pupa unknown. Imago with the antennze
composed of seven joints; the basal joint long
and stout, the second globular, and the remaining
five frequently united into one; ligula large,

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS, 187

fleshy, bilobed, and rather porrected ; ocelli three ;
wings somewhat divaricating, long, extending be-
yond the body, beautifully variegated with black
or brown; alule small; body flattened, truncate
at the extremity. Inhabits the borders of woods
and heaths, settling on flowers. Anthraw, Stygia.

673. Piercing flies (Stomowites). Larva and
pupa unknown. Imago with the antenne six-
jointed, the basal and second joints short, the
third produced inferiorly, pendulous, and received
into a cavity in front of the head; the remaining
joints forming a seta which is often plimose ;
ligula very elongate, and porrected in front of the
head ; wings slightly divaricate ; alule very large ;
body stout; colour griseous or mottled. Inhabits
woods, meadows, houses, &c., feeding on the
pollen of flowers, and the blood of man and quad-
rupeds. Stomoays, Bucentes.

674. Wasp flies (Conopites). Larva elongate;
feeds in the bodies of humble bees. Pupa changes
in the same situations. Imago with antenne
placed on a distinct pedicle, six-jointed; basal
joint long, second and third long and incrassated,
the remaining ones short and decreasing to a point;
ligula long, porrected ; wing narrow, divaricating ;
alulz obsolete; body elongate, narrow, recurved.
Inhabits woods, feeding on composite flowers, and
occasionally, it is said, sucking the blood of cattle.
Conops.

675. Botts (Cistrites), Larva cylindrical,

188 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

oblong; feeds in the stomachs, frontal cavities, or
backs of quadrupeds ; when full fed it falls to the
ground. Pupa changes in the earth, or, if the
larva inhabit the stomach, in the dung of the
animal it has preyed on. Imago with six-jointed
antennz ; basal and second joints short, scarcely
distinct ; third large, globose ; the remaining three
forming a seta, which is incrassated at the base;
organs of the mouth obsolete ; wings divaricating ;
alulee moderately large ; body pilose, short, stout.
Inhabits meadows and commons, flying about
cattle in order to deposit its eges. Mstrus.

676. Ant-lion flies (Leptites). Larva elongate,
rather attenuated at the anterior end; inhabits
funnel-shaped holes, which it constructs in loose
sand, to serve as a pitfall to small insects, on
which it feeds. Pupa changes in the same situa-
tion, Imago with antenne five-jointed ; the basal,
second, and third joints short, and somewhat
globose, but varying much in the genera; the
fourth and fifth closely united, and forming a long,
slender seta; ligula large, membraneous, bilobed ;
the maxillary feelers long, two-jointed, and por-
rected ; ocelli three; wings long, divaricating,
often spotted; alule obsolete. Inhabits moist
hedges; preys on small insects. Leptis, Atheria,
Rhagio.

677. Downy flies (Therevites). Larva very
elongate, with two air-tubes at the posterior extre-
mity, and the divisions of its segments very distinct;

_", 4 om” ww he bee chs ee bt eel ee i a ee ee

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 189

inhabits moist sand, mud, and moss. Pupa changes
in the same situations. Imago with the antennz
composed of seven joints; the basal joint longer
than the second, the remaining five united into
one, which is acute at the apex; the ligula is
short, linear, and bilobed; the wings cover the
body; alulze obsolete ; body very hairy. Inhabits
the sand of the sea shore, roads, &c. making short
flights: preys on small insects. Thereva.

678. Tiger flies (Asilites). Larva inhabits the
earth ; itis elongate, cylindrical, slightly depressed,
very smooth, and has a corneous head, which is
armed with two hooks: feeds on the minute in-
sects which abound near the surface of the ground,
especially at the roots of grass. Pupa smooth,
anteriorly cylindrical, posteriorly conical; the
body laterally, and at the extremity, is furnished
with small spines. Imago with the antennz five-
jointed ; the basal and second joints moderately
long, the three forming the apical portion always
distinct ; the terminal joint acute, but not setiform ;
ligula large, cylindrical, and corneous; ocelli
three ; wings as long as the body, which they
cover horizontally ; alulee obsolete ; body elongate,
hairy. Inhabit heaths, &c., settling on the ground,
and preying on other insects Dasypoaon, Asilus,
Gonipes.

679. Midas flies (Midasites). Larva and pupa
unknown. Imago with the antenna five-jointed ;
the basal joint long, the second short and nearly

190 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

globular, the three forming the apical portion united
into an elongate, stout club, on which the union
of the joints is marked transversely ; ligula longer
and more acute than in the Asilites ; maxillee and
mandible acute ; ocelli nearly obsolete; wings as
in the Asilites ; legs and body hirsute. Inhabits
woods, forests, settling on leaves, &c., preying
voraciously on insects, particularly Hymenoptera.
Dioctria. Laphria.

680. Bird’s-beaked flies (Empites). Larva and
pupaunknown. Imago with antenne five-jointed ;
the basal joint oblong, the second nearly globular,
the three forming the apical portion often united,
of different proportions in different genera ; ligula
very long, slender, recurved, contains elongate and
acute maxille, &c. resembling very much the
beak of a bird; ocelli-three; wings large, parti-
cularly wide in the female; alulae small or obsolete ;
body rather hairy, linear, slender. Inhabits woods,
lanes, and gardens, preying on other insects.
Hilara, Gloma, Empis, Rhamphomyia, Hybos.

681. Tachydromiites (Tachydromiites). Larva
and pupa unknown. Imago with antennee five-
jointed; the basal and second joints oblong, the
third elongate and robust, the fourth and fifth
forming a seta, which is bent nearly at a right
angle with the third; ligula short, bilobed ; ocelli
three ; wings very large and wide, lying horizon-
tally on the back ; body rather pilose, short, stout:
pointed. Inhabits woods, preying on minute

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS, | 191

insects; black, brown, or fulvous. Hemerodromia,
Tachydromia, Platypalpus, Drapetis, Lonchoptera.

682, Silvery flies (Dolichopites). Larva atte-
nuate at the extremities, elongate ; inhabits moist
earth and mud. Pupa changes in the same situ-
ations. Imago with the antenne five-jointed ;
the basal, second, and third joints robust, the
fourth and fifth forming a seta; ligula very stout,
short, and bilobed ; ocelli three ; wings very large,
lying horizontally over the body ; alula obsolete ;
legs very long; body short and small; green,
with a silvery pilosity. Frequents damp places,
preying upon small insects. Porphyrops, Chry-
sotus, Dolichopus, Medeterus.

683. Wood-eating flies (Xylophagites). Larva
elongate, inhabits decaying wood. Pupa changes
in the same situations: in a cocoon. Imago with
the antenne ten-jointed; the basal and second
joint are short, moderately robust, and hairy; the
portion corresponding to the apical seta of the
Muscina is robust, and composed of eight distinct
joints; ligula large, fleshy, and pilose; ocelli
three; wings horizontally covering the body ;
alulee none ; hind tarsi often dilated in the males ;
body linear, very depressed. Xylophagus, Actina,
Beris.

684. Chameleon flies (Stratiomites). Larva
very elongate, attenuated at the anterior end,
composed of twelve very distinct segments, be-
sides the head; posterior extremity radiated ;

192 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

inhabits the water. Pupa changes on the surface
of the water, and continues floating: no material
alteration in the form takes place. Imago with
the antennz eight-jointed; the basal and second
joint are uniformly robust and hairy ; the ligula
is large, fleshy, and bilobed ; ocelli three ; wings
narrow, reposing one on the other, and seldom
wholly covering the body, which appears on each
side; alulze obsolete; body very flat, short, and
wide. Flies in the sunshine, settling on leaves
and flowers. Stratiomys, Odontomyia, Owycera,
Nemotelus, Sargus.

685. Golden-banded flies (Chrysotoxites.) Larva
and pupa unknown ; the former supposed to feed
on the roots of corn, &e. Imago with the antenne
six-jointed ; basal and second joint long and
slender, third very long and more robust, the
remaining three forming a slender and perfectly
uniform seta, which arises from near the base of
the third; ligula large, much dilated, bilobed ;
wings divaricating, covering the body ; alulee small
or obsolete ; body very stout, convex above. In-
habits woods, &c.; flies briskly in the sunshine.
Microdon, Chrysotoxum.

686. Aphidivorous flies (Syrphites). Larva
flat, capable of great elongation anteriorly ; inhabits
the leaves of plants, feeding on aphites. Pupa
changes adhering to the leaf. Imago with antennee
six-jointed ; the first and second joints minute,
the third stout and somewhat globose: the re-

‘
d

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 193

mainder forming a seta attached to the third,
near its base; ligula stout, dilated, bilobed : wings
as in the Chrysotowites ; body glabrous, brown,
banded with brighter colours. Flies in the sun-
shine, settling on flowers. Ascia, Sphegina,
Baccha, Eumerus, Psilota, Pipiza, Chelosia,
Sceva, Syrphus. °

687. Sun-loving flies (Helophilites). Larva
obese, generally furnished with a long tube at the
posterior extremity, through which it breathes ;
inhabits mud, and all kinds of semi-liquid filth.
Pupa changes in the air, attached to walls, &c.
Imago with antenne and mouth nearly as in the
preceding order; ocelli three; body more linear ;
hind femora often incrassated and curved ; colours
brilliant. Flies in the sunshine, settling on flowers.
Helophilus, Xylota, Eristalis.

688. Bee-flies (Volucellites). Larva less elon-
gate, spined at the posterior extremity ; inhabits
the nests of humble bees, feeding on the wax.
Pupa changes in the same situation. Imago with
antenne six-jointed; the portion forming the seta
plumose; parts of the mouth nearly as in the two
preceding orders : ocelli three; body obese, often
very hirsute. Flies in the sunshine, settling on
flowers. Criorhina, Sericomyia, Volucella.

689. Long-tongued flies (Rhingiites). Larva
and pupa unknown. Imago with antenne six-
jointed, the third joint somewhat cordate; the

portion forming the seta perfectly naked: ligula »

1)

a.

194 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

slender, bifid, and capable of great elongation ;
ocelli three; body obese, naked, resembling in
appearance the Muscites. Flies in the sunshine,
settling on flowers. Lhingia, Brachyopa.

690. Flies(Muscites). Larva obese ; feeds on
dung, putrid flesh and vegetables, bark and roots of
trees, fungi, &e. Pupa changes in similar situations,
oblong, perfectly uniform and rounded as though
turned in a lathe. Imago with the apical seta of
the antenne triarticulate; ligula elongate, dilated
at the extremity, retractile; alule of the wings
distinct and conspicuous; body hairy; form
obese ; colour black, brown, or grey, with metallic
green and blue. Phasia, Gymnosoma, Phania,
Miltogramma, Gonia, Trixa, Tachina, Echiono-
myia, Melanophora, Leucostoma, Metopia, Exorista,
Evriothrix, Ocypteryx, Dexia, Mesembrina, Sar-
cophaga, Museo, Anthomyia, Ceenosia, Lispe.

691. Dung-flies (Scatophagites). Larva in-
habits dung, fungi, putrid substances, and the pith
of plants. Pupa asin the Museites. Imago with
the apical seta of the antennze obscurely triarticu-
late; ligula elongate, slightly recurved, scarcely
dilated, retractile ; alulze of the wings very minute ;
body very hairy; form oblong; colour yellow.
Scatophaga, Dryomyza, Sapromyza.

692. Tetanocerites (Tetanocerites), Larva
inhabits moist plants, fruits, putrid substances, also
mud at the banks of ponds, rivers, and all wet
places. Pupa as in the Muscites. Imago with

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 195

the apical seta of the antenne exarticulate;
ligula short and broad; alule of the wings
wanting; wings narrow; form elongate, often
very slender: glabrous or slightly hairy ; colour
black, black with yellow spots, brown or yel-
lowish. Ortalis, Sepsis, Lonchea, Lauaania,
Ulidia, Piophila, Psila, Calobata, Micropeza,
Tetanocera, Lowocera, Heteromyza, Platycephala,
Sciomyza, Lucina, Chryliza, Lissa, Platystoma,
Sepedon, Dorycera.

693. Variegated flies (Tephritites). Larva in-
habits galls or excrescences on the bark and leaves
of plants, Pupa as in the Muscites. Imago with
the apical seta of the antennz exarticulate ; ligula
large, fleshy, bilobed, and pilose; alule of the
wings wanting; wings rather wider than in the
preceding order, beautifully variegated, striped and
spotted with different shades of black and brown ;
body glabrous, or with a slight pilosity, of moderate
length and stoutness, and, in the females, furnished
with a large exserted and conspicuous ovipositor.
Tephritis.

694. Phytomyzites (Phytomyzites). Larva
inhabits the interior of plants and fruits, and
sometimes putrid substances. Pupa as in the
Muscites. Imago with the apical seta of the
antennee exarticulate; ligula large, fleshy,
clavate; alule of the wings wanting; wings as
wide as in the preceding order; the body very
delicate, often yery slender, glabrous; colour black,

o 2

oe

_—"—" —_ > ee a ee ee oe hai fe he

196 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

or black variegated with yellow. Phytomyza, Chlo-
rops, Meromyza, Agromyza, Discomyza, Gymnopa,
Asteia, Drosephila, Ochthiphila, Opomyza.

695. Phorites (Phorites). Larva inhabits the
flowers and seeds of vegetables, and the laryee of
other insects. Pupa as in the Muscites. In the
imago the apical seta of the antennz is composed
of four joints, the three basal ones being very short,
the apical one very long; ligula very short; alule
of the wings wanting ; wings very wide, extending
beyond the body, which is very small, acute at
the extremity, and in colour inclining to black or
yellow. Phora.

696. Borborites (Borborites). Larva inhabits
putrid animal and vegetable substances. Pupa
as in the Muscites. Imago with the apical
portion of the antennz perfectly simple and ex-
articulate, sometimes orbicular; ligula large,
membranous, and bilobed ; alule of the wings
wanting ; wings very large and wide; body very
small, and of a black colour. Borborus, Ochthera,
Dicheta, Ephydra, Notiphila, Homalura, Orygma,
Celopa.

697. Bird-flies (Carnites). Larva and pupa
unknown. Imago, with antenne, consisting of a
minute tubercle, situate in a fovea before the eyes ;
mandibles unknown ; maxille short, their feelers
apparently exarticulate, short, erect; ocelli none ;
fore wings short, not formed for flying; hind
wings assuming the form of halteres, small, but

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS, 197

distinct. Inhabits the common starling. No
British genus.

698. Horse-flies (Hippoboscites). Larva, apod
and nearly spherical, is nourished and attains per-
fection in the ovary of its parent. Pupa changes
in the same situation, and is produced in the state
in which it undergoes the final change ; its struc-
ture is nearly as in the Muscites, excepting an
evident indentation at the end, which becomes the
lower extremity of the future imago. Imago
with triarticulate antennee, the second joint most
developed, and the third originating in a hollow
or socket near the base of the second; mouth
apparently adapted for suction, its component
parts appear to be two mandibles, two maxille,
and a sheath-like labium; tarsi five-jointed ;
occasionally with the fore wings developed, and
the hind wings appearing as poisers. Infests
quadrupeds and birds. Hippobosca, and the
genera separated from it.

699. Bat-flies (Nycteribiites). Larva and pupa
as in the preceding order. Imago with the an-
tenn obsolete; the mouth situated on the back
of the prothorax, in which the head seems sunk ;
parts of the mouth obsolete or unascertained ;
wings entirely obsolete ; legs, with the femora and
tibize, each two-jointed, the tarsi five-jointed. In-
fests bats. Nycteribia.

—

198 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

CHAPTER IV.
ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF HYMENOPTERA.

700. Tur metamorphosis in the third class,
Hymenoptera, is necromorphous. The larva bears
no resemblance to the imago ; it has small corneous
mandibles, moving horizontally ; in seven orders,
with six articulate, and twelve to sixteen pre-
hensile, feet; in the remaining orders, without
feet. Pupa perfectly quiescent, having the organs
of locomotion and manducation confined by a
shell-like skin; yet displaying all the limbs and
organs, placed in order by the sides of the body,
and detached from it, except at the usual points of
connexion.

701. Imago with the mandibles strong, moving
horizontally, and masticatory ; the other organs of
the mouth fully developed; three ocelli; wings
all developed, the fore exceeding the hind wings
in size, membranaceous, and used in flying ; the
mesothorax largely developed at the expense of the
pro- and metathorax; the podeon mostly re-
stricted ; the tarsi five-jointed. Food very various,

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS, 199

702. Social ants (Formicites). Larva an inactive,
obese, voracious maggot, residing entirely in the
earth, and dependant for food on the care of the
perfect insects. Pupa changes ina tough leathery
cocoon; these cocoons are commonly known as
‘ants’ eggs.” Imago with the antenne com-
posed of about thirteen joints, often elbowed,
slightly incrassated exteriorly ; mandibles some-
what triangular, toothed ; maxilla obtuse ; labium
short, obtuse, its ligula not produced ; maxillary
and labial feelers fully developed and distinctly
articulate ; fore wings ample; hind wings small ;
lives underground in immense societies, consisting
of three kinds of individuals, males, females, and
abortive females. Formica, Myrmica.

703. Solitary ants (Mutillites), Larva and
pupa unknown. Imago with antenne composed
of about thirteen joints, not elbowed, rather at-
tenuated exteriorly ; mandibles long, dentate at
the apex; maxillee obtuse ; labium short, obtuse,
its ligula not produced; maxillary and labial
feelers fully developed and distinctly articulate ;
ocelli indistinct or wanting; wings possessed by
the males only ; females usually with the pro-,
meso-, and metathorax equally developed ; abor-
tive females none. Inhabits sandy situations, is
solitary. Mutilla, Myrmosa, Methoca.

704. Scholiites (Scholiites). Larva an elongate
inactive maggot; inhabits a burrow or hole made
in the sand by its parent, and feeds on the larve

ES ae

200 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

or imagines of other insects which she has pro-
vided for its sustenance. Pupa changes in a
silken cocoon spun by the larva at the bottom of
its domicile. Imago with antenne composed of
about thirteen joints, very short, recurved, almost
forming a ring; mandibles short, strong, dentate ;
maxillz long, their feelers also long; labium longer
than in the Mormicina ; its ligula trilobed; ocelli
three, distinct; wings alike in both sexes; legs
short, stout, spiny ; female with a pungent sting.
Solitary; inhabits sandy districts, settling occa-
sionally on umbellate flowers ; feeds on insects.
Tiphia.

705. Sapygites (Sapygites). Larva and pupa
supposed to be as in the preceding order. Imago
with antenne composed of about thirteen joints,
exteriorly incrassated, particularly in the males,
longer and more robust than in the preceding
order; mandibles, labium, &c. nearly as in the
Scholiites ; ocelli, three, distinct ; wings alike in
both sexes ; legs short but slender, and without
spines; female with a sting. Solitary; female
inhabits walls, palings, and posts; male settles
on umbellate flowers. Sapyga.

706. Sand-wasps (Pompilites), Larva and
pupa as in Scholiites, the food of the former
consisting frequently of spiders provided by its
parent. Imago with antenne composed of about
thirteen joints, more long and slender than in the
two preceding orders, attenuated exteriorly, and

> el

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS, 201

mostly recurved ; mandibles long, and dentate at
the apex ; labium short, with its ligula short and
trilobed; ocelli three, distinct; wings alike in
both sexes; legs long, spiny; female armed with
a sting: inhabits all sunny banks in sandy situ-
ations, running with great activity, and continually
vibrating its antenne: and wings ; feeds on insects.
Ceropales, Pompilus, Aporus.

707. Sphexes (Sphecites). Larva and pupa
as in. Scholiites, the food differing only in the
kind of insect provided. Imago with the an-
tenne composed of thirteen joints, short and
recurved in both sexes; mandibles very long,
acute; maxille very long, obtuse at the apex of
their lacinia; labium, with its ligula, elongate,
bifid, and flexible; ocelli three; podeon elon-
gate and very slender, whereas in the three
preceding orders it is very short; legs long.
Inhabits sandy situations, flying heavily, but
running with agility, and feeding on insects.
Ammophila.

708. Larrites (Zarrites), Larva and pupa as
in the Scholiites, the former frequently feeding on
Cimicites, provided for it by ts parent. Imago
with antennw composed of thirteen joints, shorter
in the females than the males, and often incras-
sated exteriorly ; mandibles less elongate than in
the Sphecites, and bifid at the apex; maxille
very obtuse ; labium short, its ligula short, ob-
tuse, and bilobed; ocelli three; podeon gene-

202 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

rally short and indistinct; legs moderately long.
Tnhabits sandy situations, occasionally umbellate
flowers; is fond of settling on stones, leaves,
&e.; feeds on insects. Gorytes, Psen, Larra,
Lyrops, Dinetus, Tripoxylon, Oxybelus.

709. Bembecites (Bembecites). Larva and pupa
as in the Scholiites, the food provided for the larva
consisting of Syrphina and Muscina. Imago with
antennz thirteen-jointed, elbowed at the second,
short, and of nearly uniform substance. No
British genus.

710. False wasps (Crabronites). Larva and
pupa as in the Scholiites, excepting that in this
order many are frequently found in the same
burrow. Imago with antenne thirteen-jointed,
short, and slightly incrassated externally ; man-
dibles long, acute, and terminating in a single
point ; maxilla obtuse ; labium elongate, its
ligula short, dilated, obtuse, and terminating in
four lobes; ocelli three ; head very large, square ;
legs short and stout, fore legs often patellated ;
body, with its greatest diameter, about the ninth
segment, very glabrous, black, or black and
yellow. Inhabits sandy banks, settling on leaves,
stones, and umbellate flowers. Cerceris, Philan-
thus, Crabro, Rhopalum, Stigmus.

711. Wasps (Vespites). Larva an obese
inactive maggot, inhabiting a cell provided by
its parent, who supplies it with food, consisting
of honey, pollen, &c, Pupa changes in a silken

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 203

cocoon, which the larva spins in its cell. Imago
with antenne composed of twelve joints in the
female, thirteen in the male, slightly elbowed at
the second joint; eyes somewhat reniform, the
indented portions facing each other ; ocelli three ;
upper wings folded longitudinally ; podeon slen-
der, but short ; eighth segment largest, both as to
length and breadth. Live commonly in societies
composed of three kinds of individuals, males,
females, and abortive females ; inhabit all climates
and all situations. Vespa, Eumenes, Odynerus,
Epipone.

712. Masarites (Masarites). Larva and pupa
as in the Vespites. Imago with the antenne
composed of thirteen joints, of which the five
terminal ones are closely united and form a club ;
wings as in the Vespites. No British genus.

713. Carpenter-bees (Osmiites). Larva an
obese inactive maggot, deposited as an egg in
the midst of a semi-fluid substance, composed of
honey and pollen, collected by its parent, and
stored in cells which are constructed for the
purpose, mostly in timber which is going to
decay. Imago with antenne twelve-jointed in
the female, thirteen-jointed in the male; they
are slightly elbowed at the second joint, which
is much longer than the others; the blade of
the maxillz is elongate and somewhat falcate ;
the maxillary feelers are minute, and generally
composed of six indistinct joints; the labium

eee

204 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

has its ligula variously developed; it is always
trilobed, but the central lobe, though always elon-
gate, varies in the proportion it bears to the labial
feelers; the lateral lobes are very minute, short,
and acute; the labial feelers have the basal joint
long, the second longer, the third and fourth
short, somewhat conical, and forming an angle
with the second; the hind tibie are not formed
for collecting pollen, but the body of the female is
clothed beneath with a thick covering of hair,
which serves for this use. Anthidium, Megachile,
Osmia, Heriades, Chelostoma, Ceratina.

714. Flower-bees (Panurgites). Larva and pupa,
as far as the British genera-are concerned, un-
known. Imago with antenne twelve-jointed in
the females, thirteen-jointed, and somewhat moni-
liform, in the males; maxille with the blade lan-
ceolate and of moderate length; the maxillary
feelers of equal length, and six-jointed; labium
with the ligula trilobed, the central lobe about
equal to the true lip in length, the lateral lobes
very short and acute; the labial feelers with four
joints, varying but slightly in length from each
other; the feelers exceed the ligula in length ;
wings large, flight slow; insect inactive; body
rather stout; black, hairy. Inhabits in immense
abundance the flowers of Leontodon, &c. in
autumn, Panurgus.

715. Burrowing-bees (Andrenites), Larva in-
habits a long tortuous burrow, formed by its parent

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 205

in the ground; a small heap of earth, produced
in excavating which, may almost invariably be
observed at the mouth of the burrow; feeds on
a globular pellet of pollen, collected, moistened,
and kneaded into a consistent mass, by the parent.
Pupa changes in the earth. Imago with antenne
twelve-jointed in the female, thirteen-jointed, and
of much greater length, in the male, elbowed,
particularly in the females, at the second joint ;
maxilla with the blade somewhat obtuse, and no
longer than the maxillary feeler, which is dis-
tinctly six-jointed; labium, with the ligula very
short, and quadrilobed, the lateral lobes usually
equalling the internal ones in length; hind tibize
formed for collecting pollen. Inhabits sunny
banks. Two kinds of individuals only. Colletes,
Dasypoda, Andrena, Halictus, Sphecodes. :

716. Mason-bees (Melliturgites). Larva in-
habits nests constructed by its parent, either in
the ground or against a bank or wall, and con-
sumes pollen provided by its parent, and stored
up at the time the egg is deposited. Pupa changes
in a silken cocoon in the same situation. Imago
with antennee twelve-jointed in the female, thir-
teen-jointed in the male, elbowed at the second
joint; maxillz with the blade lanceolate, elon-
gate; the maxillary feelers six-jointed and seta-
ceous; labium, with its ligula, trilobed, central
lobe very long, obtuse, pubescent, lateral lobes
not more than a fourth of its length, very acute ;

206 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.:

ligula, labial feelers, and blade of maxille, nearly
corresponding in length; hind tibiz formed for
collecting pollen; body short, robust ; wings
small. Two kinds of individuals only. Saro-
poda, Anthophora.

717. Social-bees (Apites). Larva inhabits
a cell usually hexagonal, and made of wax by
the imago; it is fed with honey or a preparation
of pollen by the imago. Pupa changes in a silken
cocoon within the cell. Imago with the antenne
twelve-jointed in the female, thirteen-jointed in
the male, elbowed at the second joint; labium
with its ligula trilobed, the central lobe elongate,
hirsute, extending beyond the labial feelers, the
lateral lobes very short and obtuse; the labial
feelers with the basal joint twice the length of
the second, the third and fourth minute, short,
and seated on the back of the second, rather
before its extremity ; blade of the maxille lan-
ceolate, nearly as long as the labial feelers ;
maxillary feelers minute, apparently exarticulate ;
hind tibie with brushes for collecting farina. Live
in large societies, composed of three kinds of
individuals, males, females, and abortive females ;
the latter perform the laborious offices of the com-
monwealth. Apis, the honey-bee ; Bombus, the
humble-bee.

718. Cuckoo-bees (Apathites), Larva hatched
from an egg, deposited by its parent in the nests
of all the preceding bees at the time when their

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 207

own eggs are laid ; when it hatches, being stronger
and larger than the rightful possessor of the cell,
it consumes the food provided for its companion,
and starves it to death; and in those instances in
which fresh supplies of food are daily provided, it
continues to receive and appropriate them as its
own. Pupa changes in the same situation, in a
silken cocoon, spun by the larva. Imago has no
apparatus either on the body or legs for collecting
honey ; in other respects it resembles in structure
each of the orders of Apina before described ; it
enters their nest with perfect familiarity, and
seems to be quite unsuspected of intrusion; it
collects no pollen or honey, never builds a nest of
any kind, or takes any care of its young, but spends
its time among flowers, or hovering about sand-
banks in which other bees have fixed their habi-
tations. Apathus, Ccelionys, Melecta, Stelis,
Epeolus, Nomada.

719. Golden-wasps (Chrysidites). Larva and
pupa, as in the Apathites, preys on the food
destined for other insects, particularly of the two
preceding stirpes. Imago with the antenne
thirteen-jointed in both sexes the second joint
elongated, and forming a slight elbow; maxille
obtuse, dilated, their palpi five-jointed ; labium,
with the ligula, obtuse, entire; labial palpi three-
jointed; ocelli three; body convex above, flattened
or sometimes concave beneath, furnished, in the
females, with a tubular retractile oviduct, but

208 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY. °

without a sting; colours excessively brilliant, red,
green, and blue, with a metallic gloss; abundant
in fine sunshiny weather, settling on walls, sand-
banks, posts, railings, &c. running with activity,
and a vibrating motion of the antenne. Hedy-
chrum, Elampus, Chrysis, Cleptes.

720. Proctrotrupites (Proctrotrupites). Larva
inhabits and feeds on the larve of other insects.
Pupa changes in the same situations. Imago with
antennz composed of ten to fifteen joints, elongate
in the males, shorter and often clavated in the
females; mandibles somewhat elongate, their ex-
tremity generally bifid; maxille with the blade
dilated, rounded, feelers generally three-jointed ;
labium, with its ligula seldom produced, entire,
feelers minute, often exarticulate ; ocelli three ;
fore wings with a single principal nervure; hind
wings without nervures; oviduct of the female
tubular and retractile, being simply an elongation
of the body. Inhabits grass under trees, &c.
during the greater part of the year. Cinetus,
Psilus, Proctrotrupes, Platygaster, Teleas, Cera-
phron, Sparasion, Diryinus.

721. Egg parasites (Mymarites). Larva in-
habits and feeds on the eggs of Lepidopterous
insects. Pupa changes within the shell of the
egy. . Imago with the antenne nine- to thirteen-
jointed, sometimes twice the length of the body in
the male, in the female elbowed and clavated ;
mandibles at the apex tridentate ; the other organs

a vend

i a “te,

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 209

of the mouth are obsolete or undiscovered ; fore
wings pedunculated, with one short basal nervure,
strongly ciliated; hind wings the same, often a
mere seta; legs long: podeon elongate, slender;
ovipositor very slender, concealed beneath the
body in a groove. Inhabits grass under trees.
Ooctonus, Litus, Anagrus, Polynema, Mymar,
Eustochus.

722. Burnished parasites (Chalcites). Larva
inhabits and devours other insects in all stages,
particularly the larvz of Lepidoptera and Diptera.
Pupa usually changes within the skin of its
victim. Imago with the antennze generally com-
posed of thirteen joints, the second long, forming
an elbow, the remaining joints generally incras-
sated towards the apex; mandibles obtuse ;
maxilla, with the blade rather produced, but
obtuse ; maxillary palpi four-jointed ; labium, with
its ligula always produced, but short and entire ;
labial palpi three jointed; ocelli three; head very
large, square; fore wings with a single nervure,
often ciliated; hind with none; body often short
and depressed in the males, more elongate and
pointed in the females; oviduct of the female
slender, mostly concealed ; colour mostly brilliant.
Perilampus, Leucospis, Smiera, Chalcis, Calli-
mome, Pteromalus, Encyrtus, Eulophus, Spalangia,
Eucharis.

723. Oak-gall flies (Cynipites). Larva in-
habits and causes the excrescences we observe on

P

210 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

the trunks, twigs, leaves, &c. of trees, particularly
the oak, and commonly known as “ galls,” feed-
ing on the sap or substance. Pupa changes in
the cavity made by the larva. Imago with the
antenne composed of thirteen to fifteen joints,
increasing in size exteriorly, but never clavated ;
mandibles obtuse ; maxille dilated, obtuse, feelers
often five-jointed; labium short, with its ligula
produced, generally as long as the feelers, entire ;
feelers mostly three-jointed; wings with many
nervures ; head rather small, somewhat retiring ;
mesothorax large and convex ; podeon short, very
slender; body compressed ; decaton in the female
very large; ovipositor curved, or spirally con-
voluted beneath the body. Beaten out of trees,
and off grass, in the summer. Cynips, Figites,
Ibalia, Anacharis.

794, Evaniites (Evaniites). Larva inhabits the
larve of Sphecina, and occasionally of Blattina.
Pupa changes within the cocoon spun by the larva
of the former of these stirpes. Imago with an-
tenn thirteen-jointed, of uniform thickness, and
very straight ; mandibles short, stout, acute, and
bifid; maxille dilated and obtuse, feelers six-
jointed ; labium, with the ligula very short, quad-
rilobed, the lateral lobes very minute, feelers long,
often robust, four-jointed 5 wings with many
nervures; podeon slender. Found in summer,
flying over flowers and about sand-banks, in
which the Sphecina have formed their burrows

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 211

and provided for their young. Lvania, Brachy-
gaster, Fenus.

725. Ichneumons of the second line (Braco-
nites). Larva more obese, without distinct mark-
ings and divisions ; feeds, often in company, on
the larvae of Lepidoptera, and other insects. Pupa
changes within the skin of the Lepidopterous
larva, or in small silken cocoons, attached to the
hair or body of its prey, &c. Imago with the
antennee ten- to twenty-jointed ; mandibles short,
generally bifid; maxille obtuse, feelers six-
jointed, elongate; labium short; ligula obtuse
and entire; feelers four-jointed; ocelli three ;
fore wings with fewer nervures than the following
order ; hind wings with still less; podeon slender
and short; oviduct with two protecting appen-
dages. Inhabits grass, &c, Bassus, Rogas, Alysia,
Bracon, Microgaster, Microdus, Sigalphus, Aphi-
dius.

726, Ichneumons (Ichnewmonites). Larva elon-
gate, with the divisions of the segments clearly
defined ; solitary; inhabits and devours the fleshy
parts of other insects, Pupa changes sometimes
within the shell of the pupa of the Lepidopterous
insects; sometimes in the ground, in a tough,
close, leathery cocoon, spun by the larva, Imago
with long filiform antenne composed of about
forty joints; mandibles short, stout, acute, and
bifid; maxille dilated and obtuse, their feelers
six-jointed, and often very long; labium short, its

r2

To

OS ee ee a Pld | ae

212 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

ligula short and bilobed, its feelers generally four-
jointed; ocelli three; fore and hind wings with
numerous nervures; podeon always slender,
seldom or never elongate; oviduct generally
defended by a setaceous appendage on each side,
thus appearing to be triple: varies greatly in
length. Inhabits vegetables of all kinds through-:
out the summer. Ichnewmon, Anomalon, Ophion,
Banchus, Peltastes, Alomya, Cryptus, Pimpla,
Xylonomus.

727. Sirecites (Sirecites). Larva cylindrical,
with six rudimental articulate legs; head corne-
ous; paratelum incrassated; inhabits timber.
Pupa changes in the same situation. Imago
with antenne filiform, attenuated exteriorly, com-
posed of fifteen to thirty joints, the number vary-
ing in different individuals of the same sex and
species ; mandibles strong, trifid ; maxille rather
elongate, soft, flexible, obtuse, their feelers very
minute, exarticulate ; labium somewhat triangular ;
ligula short, entire, dilated ; feelers three-jointed,
the terminal joint long and incrassated ; ocelli
three; wings ample with many strong nervures,
prothorax fully developed, broader than the head,
its anterior and posterior margins concave ; the
following segments fully and equally developed ;
ovipositor exserted, composed of three sete.
Inhabits fir plantations. Sirea.

728. Xyphidriites (Xyphidriites). Larva per-
fectly without feet. Inhabits and lives on the

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 213

dead or dying wood of various trees. Pupa
changes in the same situations. Imago with an-
tenne composed of seventeen or eighteen joints,
gradually attenuated towards the apex ; mandibles
small, with four distinct teeth; maxille short,
obtuse, their feelers biarticulate; labium short;
ligula minute, entire; feelers four-jointed ; ocelli
three ; head orbicular, large ; prothorax very long,
slender, and neck-like ; the remaining segments of
uniform size; the oviduct of the female exserted,
covered above by a sheath-like appendage. In-
habits posts, decayed willows, &c. flying in the
sunshine. Xyphidria.

729. Xyelites (Xyelites). Larva perfectly
without feet. Feeds in the wood of fir-trees,
making channels, as in the two preceding orders.
Pupa changes in the same’ situations. Imago
with antenne twelve-jointed, the basal and second
joint short, the third very long, and the nine
following very short, together scarcely equalling
the third in length, elbowed twice, at each end of
the long joint; mandibles moderately long, acute,
and dentate internally; maxille with the blade
small, obtuse, the galea biarticulate, the feelers
very long, and four-jointed ; labium short, ligula
hitherto undiscovered, feelers four-jointed ; ocelli
three ; wings very ample; legs short; prothorax
not developed superiorly, the mesothorax and
head meeting above it; podeon as wide as the
other segments; oviduct ensiform, exserted,

214 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

enclosed between two appendages. Inhabits fir-
trees, occasionally settling on umbelliferous plants.
Xyela.

730. Oryssites (Oryssites). Larva and pupa
unknown. Imago with antennz eleven-jointed
in the male, ten-jointed in the female, short, rather
incrassated exteriorly, the joints of various propor-
tions and forms; mandibles dilated, rounded,
pubescent; maxille, with the blade, obtuse,
rounded ; the galea rather elongate, narrow, and
truncate at the apex ; feelers long, pubescent, and
five-jointed; labium short, with the ligula small,
rounded, and entire, and the feelers rather short
and three-jointed; ocelli three; fore and hind
wings moderately large, with numerous nervures;
legs short; prothorax with very little develop-
ment superiorly; podeon as wide as the other
segments; ovipositor spirally convoluted beneath
the body. Inhabits fir and horn-beam trees.
Oryssus.

731. Common saw-flies (Allantites). Larva
cylindrical, of uniform substance, with six articu-
lated and twelve or fourteen membranaceous feet.
Inhabits vegetables, feeding upon their leaves in
the manner of Lepidopterous larve. Pupa some-
times changes in a cocoon, fixed in a curled leaf
of the plant the larva feeds on, but most commonly
on or in the ground. Imago with antenne nine-
jointed, of uniform substance, or attenuated towards
the apex; mandibles short, strong, very acute at the

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 215

apex, and having one internal tooth; maxille,
with the blade acute, the galea obtuse and exarti-
culate, the feelers long and six-jointed; labium
short, with the ligula distinctly trilobed ; wings
ample; podeon equally developed with the other
segments; oviduct with teeth like a saw. Abundant
in the spring and summer in woods, &c. on
leaves and flowers. Nematus, Cladius, Croesus,
Emphytus, Dolerus, Dosytheus, Allantus, Fenusa,
Selandria, Athalia.

732. Hylotomites (Hylotomites). Larva cylin-
drical, rather attenuated towards the extremities,
with six articulated and fourteen membranaceous
legs. Inhabits and feeds on the leaves of vegetables.
Pupa changes mostly on the surface of the ground.
Imago with the antenne three-jointed; the basal
and second joints very short, the third very long,
ciliated, and often double, or having two shafts in
the manner of a fork ; mandibles corneous, acute,
with a small internal tooth; maxilla with the
blade acute, the galea robust and obtuse, the
feeler long and six-jointed ; labium short, with
the ligula small, but distinctly trilobed; feelers
four-jointed; ocelli three; body, with the segments
and oviduct, as in the Allantites. Settles and
feeds on umbellate flowers. Schizocerus, Hylotoma.

733. Club-horned saw-flies- (T'enthredinites).
Larva mostly chagreened, cylindrical, with six
articulate and twelve prehensile legs. Feeds on
the leaves of trees. Pupa changes in a case

216 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

composed of a glutinous matter, which becomes
very hard when exposed to the air; the case is
attached to a slender twig of the plant on which
the larva feeds; in this case the larva remains
unchanged during the months of autumn, winter,
and spring. Imago with antenne seven-jointed,
of which the third joint is always elongate, and
the apical ones always form a club; the mandibles
are longer than in the preceding order, acute at
the apex, and internally bidentate; maxille, with
the lacinia, obtuse and hirsute, the galea rather
obtuse and distinctly articulate, and the feelers
long and six-jointed; labium short, with the
ligula distinctly trilobed, the feelers four-jointed ;
ocelli three; segments of the body fully developed;
oviduct as in the Allantites. Inhabits flowers
and leaves; flies in the sunshine. Abia, Zarea,
Cimbex, Trichiosoma, Clavellaria.

734, Lydites (Zydites). Larva smooth, cylin-
drical, with six short, articulate, and no prehensile
legs. Feeds on the leaves of trees, inhabiting a
web of its own making. Pupa changes in a silken
cocoon on the stem of the trees it inhabits, or on
the ground. Imago with the antennze composed
of seventeen to thirty joints, filiform, and atte-
nuated exteriorly ; mandibles long, acute at the
apex, and having one tooth internally ; max-
illz, with the blade and galea, obtuse, the feeler
long and six-jointed; labium short, ligula more
produced, trilobed; ocelli three; head large,

CLASSIFICATION OF- INSECTS. 217

orbicular ; wings ample, with numerous nervures ;
legs short; podeon fully developed; body short
and robust. Inhabits woods, flying in the sun,
settling on leaves, and occasionally, but rarely, on
flowers. Yarpa, Lyda, Lophyrus ? which prin-
cipally differs in its pectinated antennze.

735. Cephites (Cephites). Larva elongate,
with its feet obsolete or rudimental. Inhabits
and feeds on the stalks of corn and the buds of
fruit-trees. Pupa changes within the stalk.
Imago with antenne twenty-jointed, long, fili-
form, slightly incrassated externally ; mandibles
short, broad, trifid; maxilla with the blade dis-
tinct and acute, the galea elongate, and separated
from the maxilla by a distinct line, the feeler long
and six-jointed ; labium with its four parts per-
fectly developed, the feeler-bearer elongate, and
notched at the apex, the ligula produced and
trilobed, and the feeler four-jointed ; ocelli three ;
head rather square, broader than the following
segments ; prothorax fully developed, cylindrical,
quite detached from the mesothorax; podeon
fully developed, divided on the back longi-
tudinally ; body elongate; legs elongate; flight
easy and graceful in the sunshine. Settles in
abundance on composite flowers by the road-
side, and in meadows on Ranunculi. Cephus.

218 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

CHAPTER V.

CLASSIFICATION OF COLEOPTERA.

736. Tur metamorphosis of coleoptera, is
necromorphous. Juarva, with corneous mandibles
moving horizontally; a pair of articulate feet,
generally on the second, third, and fourth seg-
ments; no other feet, unless a prehensile caudal
appendage occasionally present can be so denomi-
nated. Food very various. Pupa of nearly uni-
form appearance.

787. Imago with the parts of the mouth fully
developed; the mandibles moving horizontally,
and being employed in mastication. Wings
fully developed; fore wings hard, crustaceous,
not used in flying, when closed meeting with
parallel edges, and completely covering the hind
wings, ‘to protect which appears their only office ;
hind wings generally much longer than the body,
folded longitudinally and transversely beneath the
fore wings. Prothorax very large; mesothorax
small; metathorax large. Food various.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS, 219

738. Slow-legged beetles (Blapsites). Larva
elongate, cylindrical, with six articulate and
one caudal leg. Lives in the dark, feeding on
decayed animal and vegetable substances. Pupa
changes in the same situations. Imago with
moniliform antenne, the third joint being the
longest ; mandibles small but strong, bifid at the
apex; maxilla with a single tooth internally ;
wings, particularly the hind pair, frequently
wanting. Inhabits cellars, out-houses, decayed
trees, shunning the light, and moving by night
with a slow, awkward, and disgusting gait; of
uniform dark brown or black colour. . Blapss
Tenebrio.

739. Helopites (Helopites). Larva very elon-
gate, cylindrical, frequently with two hooks on
the telum. Inhabits and feeds on decayed wood.
Pupa changes in the same situations. Imago
with filiform antenne; mandibles sometimes
bifid, sometimes terminating in a single point;
maxille without the internal tooth; fore wings
generally soft and flexible, hind wings generally
perfect, adapted for flight. Inhabits decayed
woods, flowers, &e. Helops, Cistela, Melandrya,
Conopalpus, Hypulus, Nothus.

740. Mordellites.(Mordellites). Larva less
elongate, soft, and more fleshy ; legs less distinct.
Inhabit and feed on decaying wood, flowers, and
sometimes parasitical in the nests of wasps. Pupa
changes, in the same situations. Imago with

220 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY+

pectinated antennz, particularly the males; head
somewhat heart-shaped, and united vertically to
the prothorax ; fore wings flexible, wide at the
base, narrow at the apex; hind wings mostly
without the longitudinal fold. Inhabits flowers ;
diurnal, flies and runs with rapidity and ease.
Orchesia, Anaspis, Mordella, Ripiphorus.

741. Soldier-beetles (Pyrochroites). Larva
more depressed; head as wide as the prothorax ;
paratelum the largest segment; telum corneous,
and produced into two spines. Inhabits and
feeds on decaying wood. Pupa changes in the
same situations, or in the ground. Imago, with
long pectinated antenne; head exserted, trian-
gular, and porrected horizontally, narrower than
the prothorax ; fore wings soft, flexible, brilliant
red; diurnal, flying readily in the sunshine.
Pyrochroa.

742. Blister-beetles, &c. (Cantharites). Larva
and pupa unknown, supposed in some instances
to be parasitical. Imago with moniliform an-
tenn incrassated about the middle; head larger
than the prothorax, to which it is attached ver-
tically ; fore wings short, their margins crossing
each other, flexible; hind wings often wanting ;
tarsi with the terminal claws double. Meloé,
Cantharis.

748. Flower-beetles (Anthicites). Larva and
pupa in decayed wood. Imago with filiform
antenn® sometimes slightly serrated; elongate

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 221

linear body ; soft fore wings. Inhabits flowers,
flying readily and in the day-time. Notowus,
Anthicus, Xylophilus.

744. Wood-boring beetles (Ptinites). Larva,
with the articulate feet distinct, incrassated in the
middle, narrower towards the tail, often covered
with bristles. Commonly inhabits dry wood,
through which it bores in all directions, reducing
it to a powder. Pupa changes in the galleries
made by the larva. Imago with long antenne
generally filiform, but in some of the males highly
pectinated; the mandibles strong and toothed ;
the head retractile within the prothorax; the
prothorax more or less spherical ; the fore wings
completely covering the body, and having often
an inflated appearance. Inhabits the habitations
of the larva, and occasionally flowers. Petilinus,
Ptinus, Anobium, Mezium, Gibbium.

745. Ant-beetles (Clerites). Larva in struc-
ture like the preceding order, but more elongate,
and less commonly hairy. Feeds on the larve
of the preceding order, and occasionally of some
Hymenoptera. Imago with the antenne in-
crassated externally; the mandibles bifid; the
maxilla obtuse; the prothorax is long, slender,
cylindrical, of less circumference than the head
or body. Necrobia, Clerus, Opilus, Thanasimus,
Tillus.

746. Melyrites (Melyrites). Larva elongate,
soft, pubescent, gradually incrassated posteriorly ;

222 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY,

telum corneous, produced into two spines. In-
habits and feeds on decaying wood. Pupa
changes in the same situations. Imago, with
the antenne filiform, tapering to the extremity;
mandibles elongate, toothed, bifid at the apex ;
head nearly corresponding in width with the pro-
thorax, but rather less; prothorax with the mar-
gins often dilated; when touched, a red fleshy
substance is protruded from several parts of the
body and again withdrawn. Inhabits flowers ;
flies readily and in the sunshine. Dasytes,
Malachius.

747. Glow-worms (Lampyrites). Larva com-
posed of thirteen very distinct segments, the
divisions between which are deeply marked,
giving the back a serrated appearance ; legs very
perfect, the caudal leg also present. Inhabits
old hedges among decayed sticks, found also under
stones; feeds on minute snails, &c. Pupa
changes under ground. Imago with the an-
tenn filiform, moniliform, or pectinated ; the
mandibles small, soft, and somewhat imperfect ;
the prothorax flattened, dilated at the margins ;
the fore wings flexible, leathery ; females some-
times without wings ; frequently emitting from
the two last segments a bright phosphoric light.
Lampyris, Drilus, Telephorus, Lycus.

748. Soft winged beetles (Cebrionites). Larva
and pupa unknown. Imago with the antenna
very simple, filiform ; mandibles imperfect, ter-

ES =

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 223

minating in a single point; prothorax semicir-
cular, the convex, being the anterior margin,
completely concealing the head; fore wings
and whole body soft and flexible, as though
immature ; more round and compact in shape
than the preceding orders. Inhabits the leaves
and flowers of plants in summer. Dascillus,
Elodes, Scirtes.

749. Click-beetles (Elaterites). Larva elon-
gate, cylindrical, with six articulate and one
caudal leg; slothful. Feeds on the roots of
wheat, potatoes, &c., also occasionally in decaying
timber; is very destructive. to crops, and known
to farmers as the Wr1re-worm. Pupa mostly
changes in the ground. Imago with moniliform
antenne, not unfrequently serrated or pectinated
in the males; mandibles bifid at the extremity ;
head received into the prothorax ; prothorax with
a projecting spine beneath; metathorax with a
cavity for the reception of the spine. Inhabits
flowers, &c. later, Campylus.

750. Burn-cows (Buprestites). Larva very
elongate, cylindrical, with six articulate and one
caudal prehensile leg. Feeds on timber. Pupa
changes in the same situation. Imago with
serrated or pectinated antenne ; mandibles short,
strong, and bifid; head more than two-thirds
received into the prothorax; prothorax beneath
produced posteriorly into a spine; but there being
no corresponding cavity in the mesothorax, the

ee ee ee

224 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY,

insect has not, when placed on its back, the power
of leaping possessed by the Elaterites. These in-
sects are diurnal; they possess the most gorgeous
metallic colours; they run and fly with ease and
rapidity. Buprestis.

751. Day chafers (Cetoniites). Larva, with six
elongate, weak, articulate legs, and the posterior
extremity of the body incrassated, soft, and re-
curved under the fore part. Inhabits and feeds on
decaying wood. Pupa changes in the same situa-
tions, or in the ground. Imago, with antennz
composed of ten joints, of which the three or four
terminal ones are produced laterally, and form a
club; labrum membranaceous, mostly concealed
by the clypeus ; mandibles and maxillee pubescent
and membranaceous; colours various and brilliant;
form generally flattened above ; diurnal, flies with
ease and rapidity. Feeds on the farina or honey
of flowers. Cetonia, T'richius.

752. Cock-chafers (Melolonthites). Larva re-
sembles that of the preceding order. Inhabits
the earth, feeding on the roots of vegetables. Pupa
changes in the ground. Imago with antenne
composed of nine or ten joints, the six or seven
terminal ones produced laterally, and forming a
flabellated club; labrum more corneous than in
the preceding order, and not entirely concealed by
the clypeus; mandibles corneous and masticatory ;
colour less brilliant; form generally convex above ;
flight easy, not rapid; mostly nocturnal. Feeds

. a eae

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 225

on the leaves of vegetables. Hoplia, Anomala,
Melolontha, Amphimalla, Omaloplia, Phyllopertha,
Serica.

753. Sand-chafers (T'rogites). Larva resembles
that of the two preceding orders. Feeds on
decaying animal and vegetable matter found in
sand, which it inhabits. Pupa changes in the
sand. Imago with antennze composed of nine
or ten joints, the three or four terminal ones
forming a small round club; labrum and man-
dibles concealed and membranaceous ; colour
black ; form oval and very convex above. In-
habits sand, particularly by the sea-shore ; seldom
flies. Trox, Aigialia, Psammodius.

754. Dung ~chafers (Scarabeites). Larva
resembles the preceding. Inhabits and feeds on
the excrement of animals. Pupa changes in the
ground. Imago with antennae composed of nine
cr ten joints, the terminal one forming a com-
pressed club; labrum generally concealed by
the clypeus; mandibles sometimes corneous,
sometimes membranaceous ; colour brown, black,
or metallic- tinted black ; form oval, convex
above. Inhabits and fetar as in the larva state ;
flight easy, rapid, mostly nocturnal. Aphiaaite:
Geotrupes, Bolboceras, Onthophagus, Copris.

755. Stag-beetles (Lucanites). Larva resembles
the preceding ; feeding on decayed wood. Pupa
changes in the same situations, Imago with ten-
jointed antennee, the basal joint very long, and

Q

226 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

the others bending forward from it at a right angle,
forming an elbow, the three apical joints forming
a club; labrum concealed or obsolete ; mandibles
very long, strong, and toothed ; maxillzee weak
and pilose. Flight nocturnal. Feeds on the sap
of plants. Sinodendron, Lucanus, Platycerus.

756. Mimick-beetles (Histerites). Larva rather
more elongate than that of the Lucanites, in other
respects nearly similar in formation. Inhabits
and feeds on putrid substances. Pupa mostly
changes in the ground. Imago with clavate
antennz ; strong, corneous, and projecting man-
dibles ; head retractile within the prothorax ;
fore wings square and very short; legs re-
tractile ; form a long square; covering exces-
sively hard, highly polished. Inhabits putrid
substances ; mimicks death when disturbed ; flies
occasionally in the sunshine. Hister, Dendro-
philus, Onthophilus, Abreus.

757. Pill-beetles (Byrrhites). Larva as in
the Histerites, but somewhat pilose. Feeds on
the roots of vegetables and decaying wood. Pupa
mostly changes in the earth. Imago with monili-
form antenn incrassated towards the extremity,
but not clubbed ; mandibles corneous but not
projecting; form nearly globular; covering downy,
not polished; head and legs retractile. Inhabits
vegetables, mimicking death if touched; crawls
in the day; flies but seldom. Nosodendron,
Byrrhus, Aspidiphorus, Simplocaria.

es 2) ee ee i eo okt ac,

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS, 227

758. Dermestites (Dermestites). Larva some-
what shuttle-shaped, very pilose. Inhabits and
feeds on decayed and dried animal substances.
Pupa changes in the same substances. Imago
with short clavated antenna; mandibles short,
strong, and toothed ; form oval; head and legs
retractile, but less perfectly so than in the two
preceding orders. Inhabits dead animals ; when
shaken out or disturbed, mimicking death : flight
principally nocturnal. Attagenus, Dermestes,
Megatoma.

759. Ipsites (Ipsites). Larva more elongate,
slightly pubescent. Inhabits and feeds on the
bark of trees or fungi. Pupa changes in the
bark. Imago with clavated antenne, the club
not abrupt, but generally formed by a gradual
incrassation of the antenne externally ; prothorax
nearly square, generally longer than wide; form
elongate: flight only occasional, mostly diurnal.
Lyctus, Sylvanus, Rhizophagus, Nemosoma, Ips,
Tetratoma, Triplax, Mycetophagus, Anthero-
phagus.

760. Nitidulites (Nitidulites). Larva pubescent,
more active than the preceding. Generally inhabits
and feeds on decayed animal substances. Pupa
changes in the same situations or in the earth.
Imago with clavated antenne, the club abrupt
and well defined, usually composed of three
joints: active ; flies readily. Inhabits, in great
quantities, decayed animal substances, particularly

Qa 2

228 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

bones, and also strongly-scented flowers. Cathe-
retes, Meligethes, Strongylus, Nitidula, Thy-
malus.

761. Carrion-beetles (Silphites). Larva gla-
brous, depressed, attenuated posteriorly ; very
active. Inhabits putrefying animal substances.
Pupa changes mostly in the earth. Imago with
antenne clavated or moniliform, externally incras-
sated ; mandibles strong, pointed, and prominent ;
head capable of being bent vertically, and con-
cealed by the prothorax, but not withdrawn into
it; prothorax as wide as the body. Inhabits
putrid animal substances, as dead birds, mice,
rats, &c. which it buries in the earth as receptacles
for its eggs; flight diurnal and nocturnal; scent
very offensive. Silpha, Necrophorus, Choleva,
Catops, Ptomaphagus, Scaphidium, Scaphiosoma.

762. Globe-beetles (Spheridiites). Larva in-
habits and feeds on the dung of horses and cows.
Pupa changes in the same situations. Iinago
with antennez clavated ; club distinct and abrupt ;
form nearly spherical or oval. Inhabits and feeds
as in the larva state ; runs and flies with rapidity
in the sunshine. Spheridium, Cercyon.

763. Herbivorous water-beetles ({ydrophilites).
Larva elongate, attenuated posteriorly, active, car-
nivorous, aquatic; head large, with long curved
mandibles. Pupa changes in the earth or under
dung. Imago with clavated antenne ; mandibles
strong and obtusely toothed; maxillary feelers

le se! Oi i ile ae -, ye Ce

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 229

very strong, and used in the water as antennz;
the form oval, the sides and back very convex,
the surface glabrous. Inhabits water, swimming
with ease, the feet being moved alternately ;
female covers her eggs with Silk, forming a kind
of cocoon, which she carries about with her in the
manner of some spiders. eeds on the decaying
leaves of water-plants. Spercheus, Hydrophilus,
Hydrotis, Hydrobius, Berosus.

764. Diving-bell beetles (Helophorites). Larva
less elongate ; sluggish ; margins of the segments
fringed with hair. Inhabits duckweed, and other
plants on the surface and banks of ponds, also the
surface of stones, mud, &c. Pupa changes some-
times in the same situations, but mostly in the
earth. Imago with antennz more or less:
clavated, short, and generally concealed; the
maxillary feelers being employed as antenne ;
form elongate. Inhabits the banks of ponds and
rivers, among aquatic plants, on which it feeds;
enclosed in a bubble of air, it crawls on water-
plants and on the surface of water, with the back
downwards, but does not swim. Hydrena,
Helophorus, Hydrochus, Georyssus, Elmis, Parnus,
Heterocerus.

765.. Water-fleas (Gyrinites), Larva with
strong arcuate mandibles ; a long fleshy process,
fringed with hair, rising from both sides of each
segment ; carnivorous, aquatic, natatory. Pupa
changes at the edge of ponds. Imago with

7

230 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

short clavated antenne; mandibles short and
obtuse, but strong; maxilla somewhat obtuse ;
galea palpiform, exarticulate; fore legs long,
middle and hind legs short and incrassated ; car-
nivorous. Inhabits water, performing in the sun-
shine its beautiful and social gyrations on the
surface. Gyrinus.

766. Carnivorous water-beetles (Dytiscites).
Larva with strong arcuate mandibles, perforated
at the extremity for suction; carnivorous, aquatic,
natatory. Pupa changes in the earth, at the
margins of ponds, among roots of trees and
grass. Imago with filiform antenna; man-
dibles short and strong; maxilla arcuate and
very acute; galea palpiform and articulate; the
fore tarsi patellated in the males; the middle and
hind legs flattened and ciliated; formoval. Inhabits
water, feeding on aquatic animals; swims with
great ease and swiftness, moving the corresponding
legs simultaneously. Acilius, Dytiscus,’ Colym-
betes, Noterus, Hydroporus.

767. Ground-beetles (Carabites). Larva with
strong arcuate mandibles; active and carnivorous.
Inhabits roots of grass, rubbish-heaps, decaying
vegetables, moss, under stones, &c. in which
situations it pursues and seizes its prey. Pupa
changes in the earth. Imago with moniliform
antenne; mandibles moderately short, very strong;
maxillze terminate in a blade, sometimes acute, but
never articulated; galea articulate and palpiform.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 231

Carnivorous; chiefly nocturnal, and during the
day found principally under stones and timber, at
the roots of grass, in the sand of gravel-pits, &c. ;
sometimes flies, but not to avoid pursuit. Ela-
phrus, Bembidium, Harpalus, Carabus, Dyschirius,
Brachinus, Dromius, Odocantha, Drypta.

768. Tiger-beetles (Cicindelites). Larva with
strong arcuate mandibles, and frequently with two
remarkable recurved hooks on its back ; it is car-
nivorous, and lies in wait for its prey in holes or
dens, which it constructs in loose earth or sand, in
sunny places. Pupa changes in the holes of the
larva. Imago with strong, long, arcuate, and
deeply-toothed mandibles, which cross each other
at about half their length; blade of the maxillz
acute and articulated; galea palpiform and articu-
lated ; legs very long and slender; diurnal, car-
nivorous, of light and elegant form, and brilliant
colours. Runs with amazing activity; flies to
avoid pursuit. Cicindela.

769. Devil’s coach-horses (Staphilinites). Larva
with strong mandibles ; active, mostly carnivorous.
Found under stones, at the roots of grass, in
rubbish-heaps, &c. Pupa changes in the same
situations, and is remarkable for the compactness
with which the limbs are attached, giving it the
appearance of the amorphous classe. Imago with
moniliform antenne; strong and acute man-
dibles ; obtuse maxilla; rounded and never pal-
piform galea. These beetles are distinguished at

232 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

once from all others by their square, short fore
wings, naked body, elongate form, and disgusting
manner of turning up the tail like a scorpion.
Inhabits and devours all putrefying substances,
also living insects. Staphylinus.

770. Short-winged moss-beetles (Pselaphites).
Larva and pupa unknown. Imago with acute
dentate mandibles; obtuse maxille ; rounded,
exarticulate, though somewhat palpiform galea ;
maxillary feelers clavated, immensely developed,
often equalling the antenne in size; antenne
with ten or eleven joints, the last joint incrassated,
forming a club; fore wings quadrate and abbre-
viated ; hind wings usually wanting ; tarsi two-
jointed. Very minute; slow in its movements.
Inhabits moss and the roots of grass, feeding on the
Acari which occur in those situations. Pselaphus.

771, Long-winged moss-beetles (Scydmeenites).
Larva and pupa unknown. Imago with antenne
eleven-jointed, moniliform, incrassated exteriorly ;
the basal joint rather long, the apical one ovate,
which, with the two preceding, is incrassated ;
maxillary feelers very large, the third joint stout
and conical, the fourth and terminal one small,
acute ; fore wings completely cover the body ; the
tarsi five-jointed. Inhabits moss, and under planks
near cucumber frames; feed on Acari. Sceyd-
menus, Hutheia.

772. Fungus-beetles (Zndomycites). Larva
with six distinct articulate legs; head small;

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 233

middle of the body stout, gradually attenuated to
the tail. Principally inhabits and feeds on the
interior of fungi. Pupa changes in the same
situations. Imago with moniliform antenne,
incrassated externally ; acute mandibles; tarsi
three-jointed; form very convex, oval, glabrous.
Inhabits fungi. Lycoperdina, Endomychus.

773. Wady-birds (Coccinellites). Larva in
structure like that of the preceding order, but
rather more elongate and active. Inhabits the
leaves of vegetables, feeding on the Aphites which
suck their sap. Pupa attaches itself by the tail
to a leaf, and changes in that position. Imago
with short and rather clavate antenne; acute
mandibles; tarsi three-jointed; form very convex
above, nearly hemispherical. Inhabits vegetables,
feeding on the Aphites which infest them, Cacicula,
Chilochorus, Coccinella.

774. Tortoise-beetles (Cassidites). Larva more
obese and obtuse, spiny or radiated round the
margin; the tail furnished with a remarkable
forked appendage, on which the excrement accu-
mulates, forming a kind of umbrella, which pro-=
tects it in some degree from observation. Inhabits
and feeds on vegetables. Pupa changes in the
same situations. Imago with moniliform antenne ;
mandibles and maxilla obtuse and minute; galea
palpiform, exarticulate; head completely hidden
by the prothorax, which, together with the fore
wings, form a complete covering, like the carapax

—.”6h=—l we a

234 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

of a tortoise; tarsi four-jointed; form nearly
hemispherical. Inhabits vegetables, on which it
feeds. Cassida.

775. Bloody-nose beetles (Chrysomelites). Larva
still more obese, inactive; legs short. Feeds on
the leaves of vegetables. Pupa sometimes attaches
itself, and changes in the same situations, and
sometimes in the earth. Imago with moniliform
antennze, inserted far from each other; mandibles
rather obtuse; maxilla obtuse; galea palpiform,
exarticulate; head nearly concealed by the pro-
thorax; tarsi four-jointed; legs not formed for
leaping; form very globose, inactive; flies seldom.
Inhabits vegetables, on the leaves of which it
feeds. When touched frequently emits a red fluid
from the mouth. Cryptocephalus, Clythra, Chry-
somela.

776. Flea-beetles (Alticites). Larva and pupa
nearly as in the preceding order; the former
rather less obese. Imago with much longer and
more filiform antennz, and inserted nearer together ;
more acute mandibles; maxillae obtuse; galea
palpiform and articulate; hind legs incrassated,
formed for leaping; form less globose. Inhabits
and feeds on vegetables ; its size is little larger
than that of a flea, an insect which it emulates in
the activity of its leaps; it is excessively injurious
to crops, sometimes causing a total failure of
turnips, rape, &c. Altica.

777. Galerucites (G@alerucites). Larva and

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 235

pupa nearly as in the Chrysomelites. Imago with
long filiform antenna, inserted much nearer to
each other than in either of the two preceding
orders; mandibles acute; maxilla obtuse, with a
distinctly articulate palpiform galea; legs of similar
structure, not formed for leaping; form more
elongate. Inhabits and feeds on vegetables;
flies more readily than the two preceding orders,
but does not leap. Galeruca, Adimonia, Auchenia,
Luperus.

778. Criocerites (Criocerites). Larva more
linear and elongate. Feeds on the leaves or
within the stems of vegetables. Pupa generally
changes in a silken cocoon, attached to the stems
or roots of the vegetables on which it feeds.
Imago with moniliform antennz, slightly incras-
sated externally, about as long as in the Gale-
rucites; mandibles arcuate, bifid at the apex ;
maxille obtuse ; galea incrassated, but not palpi-
form; prothorax proportionately much smaller
than in any other order of the stirps : somewhat
cylindrical; tarsi four-jointed ; colours brilliant ;
flight only occasional, diurnal. Inhabits vegetables.
Crioceris, Donacia.

779. Necked capricorn-beetles (epturites).
Larva almost entirely without feet, fleshy,
linear; inhabits decaying timber. Pupa changes
in the same situations. Imago with filiform an-
tenne usually about the length of the body,
inserted between the eyes, but not interfering

ee ee a
* ,

236 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

with their form; the head is elongated at its
junction with the prothorax, somewhat in the
manner of a neck ; mandibles terminated generally
in an acute point; maxilla obtuse ; galea obtuse,
not palpiform; form elongate, attenuated pos-
teriorly; tarsi four-jointed, diurnal. Inhabits
flowers, apparently feeding on their farina. Lep-
tura, Pachyta.

780. Neckless capricorn-beetles (Cerambycites).

Larva and pupa as in the preceding order. Imago

with filiform antenne, often much longer than the
body, inserted close to the eyes, and partly sur-
rounded by them ; the eyes, consequently, become
somewhat kidney-shaped, the head isnot elongated
at its junction, but is partly received into the pro-
thorax ; mandibles with an acute point; maxille
and their galea obtuse; tarsi four-jointed; form
elongate, nearly linear, slightly attenuated poste-
riorly ; flight both diurnal and nocturnal. Inhabits
the stems of trees, decayed wood, and sometimes
flowers. Molorchus, Clytus, Callidium, Cylindera,
Obrium, Saperda, Lamia, Cerambyx, Prionus.
781. Flat-bodied-beetles (Cucujites). Larva
with six very short articulate legs; found in
decayed timber. Pupa changes in the same
situations. Imago with filiform antenne generally
not longer than the prothorax; mandibles acute,
porrected, and elongate, especially in the males;
the maxille obtuse; galea pilose; head some-
what triangular, elongated posteriorly into a kind

a ee eee ee ee a Ul ee

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 237

of neck ; prothorax nearly square, very flat; body
very flat ; tarsi four-jointed. Inhabits timber.
Cucujus.

782. Timber-beetles (Bostricites). Larva a
white maggot, completely without legs; inhabits
and feeds on the bark or wood of trees, causing
their death with unerring certainty. Pupa changes
in the same situations. Imago with clavated
antennz; mandibles generally bidentate; max-
illee with their galea obtuse; the prothorax very
convex, and usually as large as the remainder of
the body; tarsi four-jointed; form cylindrical.
Inhabits circular holes, which it bores in the bark
and wood of trees, either to escape, after changing,
from the pupa, or to deposit its eggs. Cis,
Bostrichus, Tomicus, Platypus, Hylesinus, Sco-
lytus, Hylurgus.

783. Long-nosed weevils (Curculionites). Larva
without legs, and having occasionally in their place
small mamillary processes ; inhabits and feeds on
the flowers, fruits, seeds, leaves, stalks, bark, wood,
pith, and roots of vegetables. Pupa changes in
the same situations, sometimes naked, sometimes
in a hard compact case, sometimes in a silken
cocoon. Imago with antennz generally twelve-
jointed, incrassated externally, the basal joint
generally very long, the others bending forwards
at a right angle, forming an elbow; these antennze
are placed on a long rostrum, which proceeds from
between the eyes, and has the mouth at its

238 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

extremity; mandibles generally obtuse; blade
and galea of the maxille united and indistinct ;
tarsi four-jointed. Mostly diurnal ; feeds on vege-
tables. Curculio.

784. Short-nosed weevils (Anthribites). Larva
in form like the preceding; feeds on wood. Pupa
changes in the channels made by the larva. Imago
with antenne generally twelve-jointed, the basal
joint not particularly elongate, therefore not
elbowed, moniliform, incrassated externally, not
situated on a distinct rostrum, much elongated in
the males; mandibles and maxille nearly as in
the preceding order; tarsi-four-jointed. Inhabits
the bark and wood of trees. Brachytarsus, Pla-
tyrhinus, Anthribus.

785. False-weevils (Salpingites). Larva and
pupa as in the preceding orders; the former feeds
on the wood and bark of trees. Imago with
antenne shorter, moniliform, somewhat incrassated
externally, and situated on a rostrum; mandibles
and maxille obtuse; fore and middle tarsi five-
jointed; hind tarsi four-jointed. Found in the
same situations as the larva, and also among the
leaves of trees. Salpingus, Spheriestes.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTs. 239

CHAPTER VI.
OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF ORTHOPTERA.

786. Tur metamorphosis of Orthoptera is iso-
morphous. Larvaresembling theimago instructure,
appearance, mode of feeding, &c. wings only being
wanted. Pupa, or quiescent state, none. Imago
with the parts of the mouth fully developed ;
labrum large and quadrate; mandibles strong,
bony, masticatory, and moving horizontally ;
maxillz with feelers, and a distinct, exarticulate,
palpiform galea; fore wings coriaceous, little used
in flight ; hind wings longitudinally folded; flight
weak and badly sustained.

787. Earwigs (Forficulites). The antenna are
many-jointed, moniliform, and decrease in size to
the extremity ; the fore wings square, coriaceous,
meeting with parallel edges, very short, and not
used in flight ; the hind wings ear-shaped, folded,
and projecting beyond the fore wings; hind legs
not formed for leaping; tarsi three-jointed ; telum

240 GRAMMAR O¥ ENTOMOLOGY,

furnished with two appendages which meet like
forceps ; nocturnal insects, feeding on vegetables.
Forficula, Labia, Labidura.

788. Crickets (Achetites). Antenne very long,
slender, and composed of many joints ; fore wings
short, coriaceous, one partially covering the other,
not used in flight; hind wings folded longitu-
dinally, and projecting beyond the fore wings ;
hind legs incrassated, formed for leaping; tarsi
three-jointed: nocturnal, subterranean insects,
feeding on vegetables. Gryllotalpa, Achela.

789. Grasshoppers (Gryllites), Antenne very
long, slender, and composed of many joints; fore
wings coriaceous, as long as the hind wings, which
are folded longitudinally beneath them ; hind legs
incrassated, formed for leaping; tarsi four-jointed ;
female furnished with an exserted oviduct: diurnal;
feed on vegetables. Gryllus.

790. Locusts (Locustites). Antenne short,
incrassated towards the middle or extremity,
consisting of about ten joints; fore wings coria-
ceous, generally as long as the hind wings, which
are folded longitudinally beneath them ; hind legs
incrassated, formed for leaping ; tarsi five-jointed ;
diurnal: feed on vegetables. Locusta, Gompho-
cerus, Acrydium.

791. Spectres (Spectrites). Antennze short,
stout, composed of few joints; fore wings coria-
ceous, small, short, often wanting, never covering
the hind wings, not used in flying; hind wings

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 241

folded longitudinally, often very large and beau-
tifully coloured, sometimes wanting ; legs alike in
structure, not formed for leaping; tarsi five-
jointed ; prothorax short : diurnal; feed on leaves.
No British genus.

792. Walking-leaves (Mantites). Antenne
long, filiform, very slender, and composed of
many joints; fore wings coriaceous, horizontal,
generally covering the hind wings, which are
folded beneath them; fore legs incrassated, and
armed with teeth, longer than the middle and
hind legs; tarsi five-jointed ; prothorax long:
diurnal ; feed on other insects. No British genus.

793. Cockroaches (Blattites). Antenne very
long, filiform, tapering, and many-jointed; head
bending beneath the prothorax ; fore wings some-
what coriaceous, horizontal, one folding over the
other, covering the hind wings, which are folded
beneath them ; legs alike in structure ; tarsi five-
jointed; nocturnal ; voracious ; omnivorous ; run
rapidly ; fly badly ; do not leap. Blatta.

Ls “ See s if eel Sl re ee ae le

242 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

CHAPTER VII.
OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF HEMIPTERA.

794. Tur metamorphosis of the Hemiptera is
isomorphous, resembling that of the Orthoptera.
Imago with the parts of the mouth only partially
developed; the mandibles are without any hori-
zontal motion, but elongate and slender, and,
together with the maxillee and tongue, are inclosed
in a sucker, which is composed of the labium
principally, but protected above by the labrum ;
this sucker is bent beneath the head and breast,
excepting when in use, when it is usually thrust
perpendicularly into the rind of vegetables, or skin
of animals, to extract the sap or blood, which, in
this class, constitute the food; the feelers are
obsolete.

795. Bugs (Cimicites). Antenne elongate, con-
spicuous, four- or five-jointed ; fore wings with the
basal portion coriaceous, the apical portions which
cross each other membranaceous; the legs are of

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 243

uniform structure, not formed for leaping ; the tarsi
are three-jointed : terrestrial ; run fast ; fly rapidly,
but not far at a time; feed generally on the sap of
vegetables, sometimes on other insects, and occa-
sionally, but apparently unnaturally, on the blood
of vertebrate animals. Cimex, &c.

796. Water-bugs (Hydrometrites). Antenne
elongate, conspicuous, four- or five-jointed ; fore-
wings coriaceous, of uniform substance ; hind-
wings membranaceous ; all the wings linear ; legs
of uniform structure, very long, not formed for
leaping ; tarsi three-jointed ; body elongate, linear:
aquatic, running with ease and rapidity on the
surface of water. Hydrometra, Gerris, Velia.

797. Water-scorpions (Nepites). Antenne
very short, concealed below the head ; fore-wings
coriaceous, crossed at the apex ; hind-wings mem-
branaceous, completely concealed beneath them :
fore-legs hooked, predatory ; tarsi with a single
joint ; middle- and hind-legs not formed for swim-
ming ; tarsi two-jointed ; tail armed with two long
Setaceous appendages: aquatic; carnivorous :
crawl on aquatic plants, but do not swim. Ra-
natra, Nepa.

798, Water-boatmen (Notonectites). Anten-
nz very short, concealed below the head; fore-
and hind-wings as in the preceding ; fore-legs
unarmed, middle- and hind-legs formed for
swimming ; all the tarsi two-jointed; tail without
appendages: aquatic; carnivorous; swim with

a)

<

244 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

ease, swiftness, and elegance; cannot crawl on
aquatic plants like the preceding. Naucoris,
Notonecta, Corixa, Sigara.

799. Frog-hoppers (Cicadites). Antenne very
short, scarcely projecting beyond the head ; fore-
wings coriaceous, meeting with a straight suture ;
hind-wings membranaceous ; hind-legs incras-
sated, formed for leaping; tarsi three-jointed :
most of the genera leap readily, but fly badly.
Inhabit vegetables, on the sap of which they
feed. Cicada, Cercopis, Membracis, Psylla,
&e.

800. Gall-insects (Coccites). Antenne hirsute,
long, moniliform, many-jointed ; fore-wings semi-
coriaceous, of uniform substance; hind-wings
wanting, or replaced by appendages similar to
the halteres of Diptera ; legs of uniform structure,
not formed for leaping ; tarsi two- or three-jointed
in the male, with a single joint in the female ; tail
furnished with two long sete. The females are
apterous, and attach themselves to the bark and
leaves of trees, on which they deposit their eggs,
covering them with their bodies. Coccus.

801. Plant-lice (Aphites). Antenne con-
spicuous, elongate, seven-jointed; fore-wings
deflexed, meeting over the back with a straight
suture; hind-wings much smaller and shorter ;
all the wings membranaceous; legs of uniform
structure, not formed for leaping; tarsi two-
ointed. Infest all vegetables, sucking the sap :

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 245

reproduction without union of sexes for many
generations. Aphis.

802. Moth-blights (Aleyrodites). Larva oval,
flat, and scale-like. Pupa changes within the
skin of larva; is quiescent. Imago with the
antennee filiform, conspicuous and six-jointed ;
wings equally developed, both as to length and
breadth, covered with a white, mealy substance
like the scales of Lepidoptera ; legs of uniform
structure, not formed for leaping. Sits on the
under-side of the leaves of the plants on which
the larva feeds. Aleyrodes.

“.°) '!= Ae 3 ." OO © 1) eee, « A =

246 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

CHAPTER VIII.

OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF NEUROPTERA.

803. Tue metamorphosis of the seventh class,
Neuroptera, differs in its different orders. Larva,
with strong corneous mandibles moving horizon-
tally, and six articulate feet, situated in pairs on
the second, third, and fourth segments ; prehensile
feet none. Pupa various. Imago usually with
the organs of the mouth perfect; the wings, fully
developed, and resembling net-work.

804. White ants (Termites). Larva with
long, filiform, multi-articulate antenne ; strong,
corneous, well-developed, and masticatory
mandibles, and six elongate articulate legs :
active, omnivorous, and apparently perfect; in one
genus living in immense societies. Pupa iso-
morphous. Imago with long, filiform, multi-
articulate antenne ; strong, corneous, masticatory
mandibles; wings fully developed, recumbent,
reticulated ; tarsi three-jointed. Psocus.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 247

805. Pearl-flies (Perlites). Larva with long,
filiform, multi-articulate antennee; strong, cor-
neous, masticatory mandibles; telum furnished
with two long, setiform appendages; active,
carnivorous, aquatic. Pupaisomorphous. Imago
with long, filiform, multi-articulate antenne ;
strong, corneous, masticatory mandibles; wings
fully and equally developed, reticulated, recum-
bent ; the hind wings folded; tarsi three-jointed.
Inhabits the banks of running waters, and is a
very favourite food of fish; flight nocturnal.
Perla, Isogenus, Nemoura.

806. Snake-flies (Raphidiites). Larva with
filiform antennee, and corneous, masticatory man-
dibles; active. Inhabits and feeds on decayed
wood. Pupaisomorphous. Imago with monili-
form antenne ; corneous, masticatory mandibles ;
large porrected head ; elongate prothorax ; wings
uniformly and fully developed, recumbent, de-
flexed, not folded, beautifully reticulated; tarsi
four-jointed ; telum with a seta: flight diurnal, in
the sunshine. Raphidia.

807. Lace-winged-flies (Hemerobiites). Larva,
with filiform antenne ; prominent, corneous man-
dibles and maxille; sacciferous, carnivorous.
Inhabits the leaves of vegetables. Pupa necro-
morphous ; changes within the sack formed by the
larva. Imago with long, moniliform antenne ;
corneous, masticatory mandibles, wings fully
and equally developed, not folded, beautifully

248 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

reticulated, deflexed; tarsi five-jointed ; smells
fetid; flies mostly in the evening. Hemerobius,
Chrysopa, Osmylus.

808. Stone-flies (Phryganites). Larva with
short antennz ; corneous, masticatory man-
dibles; sacciferous, aquatic. Pupa necromorphous,
changes in the sack formed by the larva. Imago,
with very long, multi-articulate, filiform antennz;
mandibles and maxillz obsolete ; fore wings
deflexed, very hairy; hind wings ample, much
folded longitudinally, not so hairy; tarsi five-
jointed. Inhabits the neighbourhood of water ;
flies in the evening and during the night, and is a
favourite food of fish. Phryganea.

809. Caddew-flies (Zphemerites). Larva with
long, filiform antennz; corneous, masticatory
mandibles ; six articulate legs; aquatic, carni-
vorous. Pupa isomorphous. Imago with short
concealed antennze; mandibles and maxille ob-
solete ; fore wings fully developed; hind wings
small or obsolete; all the wings beautifully reti-
culated, erect, and meeting above the back ; tarsi
four-jointed ; telum furnished with long setiform
appendages : flight in the evening, in company,
rising and falling, and is the favourite food of fish.
Ephemera, Baéttis, Cloéon.

810. Dragon-flies (Libellulites). Larva with
short antennz ; corneous, masticatory mandibles ;
very elongate, jointed, and remarkable labium,
furnished with predatory, acute, mandibuliform

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 249

palpi; aquatic, carnivorous. Pupa isomorphous.
Imago with minute antenne nearly concealed ;
strong, cormeous, masticatory mandibles; labium
of moderate proportions ; wings of uniform de-
velopment, beautifully reticulated, porrected la-
terally or meeting vertically above the back ; tarsi
three-jointed ; flight rapid, well sustained; active,
carnivorous. Agrion, Libellula, Aschna.

811. Scorpion-flies (Panorpites). Larva and
pupa unknown. Imago with long, filiform, multi-
articulate antennz; mandibles and maxille cor-
neous, produced into a beak; wings of equal
development, horizontally recumbent on the back;
tarsi five-jointed ; telum armed with an appendage
resembling a lobster’s claw: flight weak, of short
duration, diurnal. Inhabits abundantly the woods
and hedges of England throughout the summer.
Panorpa.

250 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

CHAPTER IX.

OF TICKLERS, BEE~PARASITES, FLEAS, THYSANURA,
ANOPLURA; AND CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS,

812. Many of the orders characterised in the
preceding chapters still require further division
before we arrive at families; this is particularly
the case with the Papilionites, Cimicites, and
Cicadites: other orders limited to a single genus,
as Panurgites, may, perhaps, eventually, when
better known, merge in some neighbouring order.

813. Besides the orders already described under
their respective classes, there are others which do
not appear to range under either class; nor do
they appear intermediate between either of the
classes connecting them together: these are
Thripsites, Stylopites, and Pulicites.

814. Ticklers (Thripsites). Larva and pupa
unknown. Imago with antenne eight-jointed ;
mandibles long, corneous, and possessed of hori-
zontal motion ; fore and hind wings membranace-
ous, linear, ciliated, of nearly equal length; tarsi
two-jointed. Inhabits flowers, feeding on the

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 251

farina: when running on the skin, causes an
intolerable itching. Thrips.

815. Bee-parasites (Stylopites). Larva apod,
with a corneous head: inhabits the bodies of bees
in the imago state, the head of the larva projecting
between the segments. Pupa changes in the
same situations; the mode of change not having
been yet satisfactorily ascertained.

816. The parts of the mouth of this curious
insect, as far as we know them, are these: man-
dibles elongate, linear, without horizontal motion ;
maxillary feeler fully developed, but the maxille
very minute; labium distinct and triangular, but
the labial feelers obsolete.

817. The prothorax is a very slender segment,
almost lost in the mesothorax ; the mesothorax is
large and conspicuous, having its scutellum remark-
ably elongate and developed ; the anterior part of
this segment bears two very remarkable appen-
dages, which the insect keeps in constant motion ;
behind these appendages are the fore wings, which
are membranaceous, ample, and fold horizontally.

818. The metathorax is a minor, yet very
apparent segment: it protrudes on each side of
the scutellum of the mesothorax, and bears a pair
of crumpled opaque wings, which are somewhat
pedunculated, and much resemble the halteres of
some flies, Stylops.

819. Fleas (Pulicites) constitute another very
curious order, Larva elongate, slender, parasitic

252 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

on young animals, inhabiting the hair or down,
particularly of pigeons in a domesticated state.
Pupa perfectly quiescent, with little appearance of
the perfect insect ; changes in the same situations.

820. Imago withantenne many-jointed ; usually
concealed in cavities in the skull, but eapable of
being erected at pleasure; mouth as in the blood-
sucking Diptera; eyes simple; wings none; seg-
ments of the body thirteen, equally developed ;
hind legs formed for leaping. The flea is an
inhabitant of all countries, feeding on the blood of
animals. Pulea.

821. It must also be observed, that several
genera are not referred to any of the foregoing
orders: this arises from a doubt occurring as to
their correct situation; a point not always to be
decided without a knowledge of the insect in all
its stages.

822. The other tribe of animals with six
jointed legs (Aptera), contains comparatively but
a very small number of species; they are dis-
tinguished from the Tetraptera by undergoing no
change in external appearance after leaving the
egg, and are invariably without the slightest ap-
pearance of wings. The Aptera are divided into
two classes.

823. In the first class (Thysanura) the mouth
has the usual parts fully developed; a labrum, a
labium, two mandibles and two maxilla; the
mandibles have a perfect masticatory power, and

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 253

move horizontally ; the telum is armed with sete,
and the body covered with hairs or scales. This
class contains two orders.

824. Lepismites (Lepismites). Antenne very
long, composed of a great number of joints, often
more than forty; the telum is furnished with
three long sete, composed, like the antenne, of
many joints ; it is not capable of being bent under
the insect. Forbicina, Petrobius, Lepisma.

825. Spring-tails (Podurites). Antenne shorter,
never apparently composed of more than four
joints, although the last has numerous rings, which
may, perhaps, be considered joints by some: the
telum is furnished with two sete, and is bent
under the body, giving an amazing saltatory
power to the insect. Podura, Smynthurus.

826. In the second class (Anoplura) the mouth
appears yery imperfect; in one order there are
mandibles with an horizontal motion, in the other,
they are elongate, rigid, and united ; the telum is
not furnished with appendages. The insects com-
posing the class are entirely parasitical on other
animals. This class contains two orders.

827. Lice (Pediculites) Mouth with the
mandibles and other parts united, and forming a
short blood-sucking tube: the animals composing
this order are found on the bodies of mankind,
dogs, pigs, cattle, &c. Phthirus, Pediculus,
Hematopinus.

828. Bird-lice(Nirmites). Mouth with distinct

254 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

mandibles, which havea decided horizontal motion;
the other parts are rudimental ; the opening of the
pharynx is very large. The animals composing
this order are found on birds. J 'richodectes,
Docophorus, Nirmus, Lipeurus, Goniodes, Colpo-
cephalum, Trinoton, Lemobothrion, Eureum, Phy-
sostomum.

829, Summary of the Classes, Stirpes, and
Orders of the Amorphous Tetraptera.

I. LEPIDOPTERA Pulicites* Empites
Sphingina — Tachydromiites
Sphingites Il. Diprera. Dolichopites

Papilionina Tipulina Syrphina
Hesperites Cecidomiites Xylophagites
Papilionites Tipulites Stratiomites

Geometrina Mycetophilites Chrysotoxites
Geometrites Rhyphites Syrphites

Noctuina Bibionites Helophilites
Phytometrites Scatopsites Volucellites
Noctuites Culicina * Rhingiites

Phalenina Simuliites Muscina
Arctiites Culicites Muscites
Bombycites Psychodites Scatophagites
Phalenites Tabanina Tetanocerites
Notodontites Cyrtites Tephritites
Xyleutites Bombiliites Phytomyzites
Zigeriites Tabanites Phorites

Pyralina Anthracites Borborites
Glaucopites Stomoxites Hippoboscina
Pyralites Conopites Carnites
Crambites CEstrites Hippoboscites

Tineina Asilina Nycteribiites
Yponomeutites Leptites —-
Tortricites Therevites Stylopites
Tineites Asilites
Alucitites Midasites

830, Summary of the Classes, Stirpes, and
Orders of the Necromorphous Tetraptera,

Ill. Hymenorrera Sphecina Sphecites
Formicina Scholiites Larrites
Formicites Sapygites Bembicites
Mutillites Pompiliites Crabronites

* It is uncertain to what stirps the orders thus separated properly
belong.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.

Vespina
Vespites
Masarites

Apina
Lithurgites
Panurgites
Andrenites
Melliturgites
Apites
Apathites
Chrysites

Ichneumonina
Proctrotrupites
Mymarites
Chalcites
Cynipites
Evaniites
Ichneumonites
Braconites

Sirecina
Sirecites
Xyphidriites
Xyelites
Oryssites

Tenthredinina
Allantites
Hylotomites
Tenthredinites
Lydites

Cephites
IV. Conzoprera

Blapsina
Blapsites
Helopites
Mordellites
Pyrochroites
Cantharites
Anthicites

Buprestina
Ptinites
Clerites
Melyriites
Lamppyrites
Cebrionites
Elaterites
Buprestites

Scarabeina
Cetoniites
Melolonthites
Trogites
Scarabeites
Lucanites
Histerites
Byrrhites

* Silphina

Dermestites
Tpsites

255

Nitidulites
Silphites
Spheridiites
Hydrophilites
Helophorites
Carabina
Gyrinites
Dytiscites
Carabites
Cicindelites
Staphylinites
Pselaphites
Scydmoenites
Chrysomelina
Endomycites
Coccinellites
Cassidites
Chrysomelites
Alticites
Galerucites
Criocerites
Cerambycina
Lepturites
Cerambycites
Cucujites
Bostricites
Curculionites
Anthribites
Salpingites

831. Summary of the Classes, Stirpes, and
Orders of the Isomorphous and Anisomorphous

Tetraptera.

V. ORTHOPTERA
Forficulina
Forficulites
Achetina
Achetites
Gryllina
Gryllites
Locustina
Locustites
Spectrina
Spectrites
Mantina
Mantites
Blattina
Blattites

Thripsites

VI. Hemiptera

Cimicina
Cimicites
Hydrometrina
Hydrometrites
Nepina
Nepites
Notonectina
Notonectites
Cicadina
Cicadites
Coccina
Coccites
Aphina
Aphites

Aleyrodites

VII. Neuroprera
Termitina
Termites
Perlina
Perlites
Raphidiina
Raphidiites
Hemerobiina
Hemerobiites
Phryganina
Phryganites
Ephemerina
Ephemerites
Libellulina
Libellulites

Panorpites

832. Summary of the Classes, Stirpes, and |
Orders of the Aptera. ic. i

)

I. THysanura. II. ANopLura.
_ Lepismina. Pediculina.
epismites. Pediculites.
Podurina. Nirmina.
Podurites. f Nirmites.*

* In the summary of Tetraptera, the termination péera, signifies a
class ; ina, a stirps; and ites, an order. In the summary of Aptera,
the termination ura, denotes a class; ina, a stirps; and ifes, an
order, '

END OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.

it
ae

(
|

THE
GRAMMAR i

ENTOMOLOGY.
BOOK IV.
PRESERVATION OF INSECTS.

The value ofa thing lies much more in its usefulness than its
splendour. =

a.) Cee el es ee eee ee

CHAPTER I.
APOLOGY FOR THE COLLECTOR OF INSECTS.

833. Peter Pinpar, in his tale of Sir Joseph
Banks and the Emperor of Morocco, not only gives
the opinion of the unlettered rustic on the subject
of insect hunting, but his own opinion, and the
opinion of ninety-nine persons out of a hundred,
even at the present day ; namely, that a person who
could take an interest in pursuing a butterfly is a
madman.

834. The collector of insects must, therefore,
make up his mind to sink in the opinion of his
friends ; to be the object of the undisguised pity
and ridicule of the mass of mankind, from the
moment in which he commences so insignificant a
pursuit : and precisely in proportion as he enters
on the subject scientifically will this pity and
ridicule increase.

835. Argument with others, in these cases, is
wholly useless: but each individual may say to

s 2

260 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

himself thus : — Insects are wonderfully and beau-
tifully made; they appear equal, often superior,
in structure and in powers to any other work of
the great Creator ; he, moreover, in their unac-
countable instincts, appears directly to guide the
actions of each without the medium of reason or
memory. How.can these beings, thus so imme-
diately under the care of the Creator, be too
insignificant for me to notice?

836. It is further objected against the ento-
mologist, by those who would allow there is
something worth consideration in this query, that
he unnecessarily takes away animal life; that he
causes unnecessary pain; and that the pursuit is
altogether hardening to the heart.

837. As to taking life: we meet with few
individuals in common life but would consider it
a pleasant and praiseworthy action to tread on a
worm in his garden, or to crush a waspor a spider
in his window, and this for the avowed sake of
his personal convenience ; an entomologist might
take the lives of the same beings for his personal
gratification in a scientific view ; surely, se/f being
the object in both instances, the charge of cruelty
is equally applicable to each.

$38. But let us go farther: the common de-
stroyer has heard of some wonderful mischief done
by the worm, the wasp, and spider; he therefore
kills as many as possible. The entomologist
knows their history; he knows they do much

PRESERVATION OF INSECTS. 261

more good than harm; he therefore kills as few
as possible. The animosity against these tribes
originates in a want of knowledge of entomology.

839. As to causing pain. To support this charge
it is insisted, that were we treated as we treat
insects, we should suffer intense agony. This is
very true, but very poor argument; because, be-
fore we can reason from ourselves, we must prove
a similarity of circumstances. If a man could
walk about for days without his head, and if his
head continued eating and drinking for days with-
out a body, then it would be fair to judge of the
sensations of an insect by the sensations of a man,
for the heads and bodies of insects freely perform
these feats.

840. As to hardening the heart: entomo-
logists, with constantly regarding the beautiful
structure of insects, acquire such a kind feeling for
them that they seldom or never unnecessarily kill
them, and almost invariably take much more care
than indifferent persons to avoid doing them any
injury ; and the various schemes which have been
invented for killing insects in the most expeditious
manner prove, at least, that the entomologist is
not willing to occasion them suffering.

62 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

CHAPTER II.

OF THE DRESS AND INSTRUMENTS FOR THE
COLLECTOR OF INSECTS.

841. Inszcrs may be taken in nearly all places,
at nearly all times, and under nearly all cireum-
stances; but still it is necessary to describe those
places, times, and circumstances, which insure the
greatest success. However, before starting the
entomologist on his hunting excursion, we must
fit him out for his employ.

842. Dress is an article of great importance,
both as to material and make. The best material
with which the author is acquainted is called
lasting. It has these advantages: it is light;
it keeps out much wet; it does not catch the thorns
of brambles and other bushes ; it does not feel cold
when wet. These are matters not to be despised
by him who often wanders for hours without a
chance of shelter.

PRESERVATION OF INSECTS. 263

843. The best colour is green; as to shape of
coat, the common shooting jacket is by far the
most convenient. There should be ample cross
pockets outside, on the hip; also several breast
pockets, particularly two (at least) very small
ones for glass vials containing spirits, to stand
upright in: these should be inside the left breast
of the coat, so that the right hand can conveniently’
reach them.

844. Close to these vial pockets, and sewed
into the stuff of the coat, should be a large pin-
cushion, containing two or three different sizes of
pins, so arranged, in three columns, that the hand
might at once take of either kind without the
assistance of the eye to direct it. Two sizes of pins
are all that are generally required; but a third
kind, very slender indeed, is used for very minute
moths.

845. There are three shops in London, and
perhaps more, at which pins are sold expressly
for the use of entomologists: these are, Bew’s, in
Newgate Street, Durnford’s, in Gracechurch Street,
and Hale’s, in the Dovor Road; but the art of
making pins is not yet arrived at sufficient per-
fection to satisfy the entomologist. The universal
fault is, that the heads come off, and then the
insect on the pin cannot be moved without great
risk.

846, The principal implements of the collector
are boxes and nets, The boxes should be of

264 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

mahogany, opening readily, on brass hinges ;
length seven inches, breadth four inches, depth two
inches; the top and bottom should be lined with
fine soft cork, and covered with white paper. The
pockets of a shooting jacket will readily carry
three or four such boxes as these.

847. Besides these boxes, there should be two
long cylindrical tin boxes for the caterpillars of
Lepidoptera: the tin not only keeps the cater-
pillars cool, but it causes the leaves on which they
feed to retain their freshness many days. Tin
boxes are also useful to bring home Diptera alive :
in this case a cylinder of tin passes through the
lid of the box, and is corked at the top.

848. The nets used by entomologists are of
many kinds; the following are the best: first, the
forceps with a handle like that of scissors, with
holes for the finger and thumb, and two circular or
octagonal frames of iron, on which muslin or cheese
cloth is stretched. This instrument is particularly
useful for taking the Diptera and Hymenoptera,
which settle on umbellate flowers. The forceps
should be kept in the right hip pocket of the
coat.

849. The second net is the water net. It is
composed of a strong hoop of iron, jointed so as
to fold up in a convenient form; on this hoop is
fastened a strong bag net, made of cheese cloth;
the hoop has a male serew which fits a female screw
at the end of a stout stick, about four feet in length.

PRESERVATION OF INSECTS. 265

With this instrument all water insects are taken ;
the water straining off through the net, and the
insects remaining at the bottom.

850. The same net, or another lighter one of
similar form, screwed on a similar or the same
stick, is called the sweeping net, and is used for
sweeping grass, on which myriads of minute in-
sects are always to be found: the weeds on the
banks of rivers and canals are also excessively
productive in insects, which can only be taken in
this manner.

851. The clap net is the grand weapon of the
entomologist: it is a large piece of muslin, four
feet long, and nearly three wide. It is supported
on two light rods, which pass along a border made
of brown holland, or other strong substance, bent
towards each other at an obtuse angle, and
meet at the top of the net: one of these rods is
held in each hand.

852. This net is the best for pursuing butter-
flies and moths on the wing; the hunter tries to
get the net under the object, and strikes upwards,
closing the rods at the same time. A loose bag is
formed, by a fold of the muslin, across the bottom
of the net: this prevents any thing from getting
out. The same net is held in one hand under
the boughs of trees, &c., while these are beat by
the stick of the water net held in the other hand;
and thus, besides perfect insects, a great number
of caterpillars may be obtained.

_—7

266 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

853. The rods of the clap net are each com-
posed of five pieces, united by ferules; when
taken to pieces and placed in the net, the latter
may be folded in a very moderate compass, slipped
into a brown holland case, and put in the coat
pocket. For this kind of net both green and white
muslins are used ; but white is much the best, as
the small insects are much more readily distin-
guished on it.

854. The entomologist should be provided with
two vials; one empty and perfectly dry, having a
quill passing through the cork, and going a con-
siderable way below it: this quill may be stopped
at top by a second small cork. The other vial
should be three parts filled with spirit: common
whisky is the best spirit ; pure alcohol injures the
colours of beetles, and gin makes them sticky.

855. A digger is another useful instrument : it
is simply a piece of round iron, about fifteen inches
long, bent round at the one end, and furnished
with a wooden handle at the other. This serves
to rip the bark off dead trees, and to dig at the
roots of trees for chrysalides.

856. The best place to get entomological in-
struments, with which the author is acquainted,
is Bew’s, in Newgate Street; Mr. Benj. Standish,
of George Street, Peckham, is also a manufacturer
of nets and boxes, and the Messrs. Christy, of
Standgate Glass-works, Lambeth, have taken
great pains to make entomologists’ vials, and have

—

ae

‘PRESERVATION OF INSECTS,

succeeded in producing a most unexceptionable
article.

857. Finally, pill boxes, obtainable of any
druggist, complete the outfit of the entomologist.
There is now an excellent kind manufactured, of
which the tops and bottoms never come out,
owing to a little management in avoiding the
usual pressure : it is important to get these. It is
important also to avoid sitting on pill boxes, as it
must interfere with their structure: to avoid this,
the author carries them in a breast pocket.

268 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

CHAPTER III.

ON CAPTURING INSECTS.

858. Havine equipped the collector, we must
accompany him to the chase. As soon as the sun
has warmed the earth by those brilliant and cloud-
less days which we always have in March, earth,
air, and water, teem with insects : in May the num-
bers seem doubled ; from that month they decrease
to November, when they have again almost en-
tirely disappeared.

859. As to the respective numbers, size, and
beauty, of the different classes, we must say a few
words. Of known species, the Hymenoptera far
exceed each of the others in number, and pro-
bably all of them put together; almost every
species of the other classes has one Hymenop-
terous parasite.

860. Next to the Hymenoptera in number, the
Coleoptera and Diptera appear to excel; then
the Lepidoptera: the Hemiptera are about a

PRESERVATION OF INSECTS. 269

quarter as many as the Lepidoptera, the Neu-

roptera still less, and the Orthoptera least of all.

861. In size and beauty the Lepidoptera and
Neuroptera greatly excel ; but both these classes
contain also a great number of minute and ap-
parently insignificant species : the Coleoptera rank
next in these respects, and the Diptera and Hy-
menoptera contain the smallest. In the order
Mymarites are insects so small that they may now
be traversing this page, unnoticed by the reader.

862. The haunts of Lepidoptera are very va-
rious. Butterflies are to be taken chiefly in the
sunshine; they delight in the honey of flowers,
and fields of clover; lucerne and tares greatly
attract them. Sphingites fly at every hour: they
delight more in tubular flowers ; the honeysuckle
and jasmine are especial favourites.

863. The Geometrites fly in the dusk of even-:
ing, but may be easily disturbed and caught in the
day ; their flight is slow, soft, and feathery. The
Noctuites, and all the heavy moths, fly in the
night; they are excessively rapid on the wing;
they settle on yew berries to suck their sweets,
also on sugar, when put out to attract them. An
empty sugar hogshead is an excellent decoy.

864. All night-flying moths are attracted by
the light of a lamp or candle; and some ento-
mologists, availing themselves of this propensity,
sally forth to the woods at night, having a bull’s-
eye lanthorn strapped to them, and with the clap

le Ti = SS ve a, a. (+ /~

270 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

net almost ensure success. Others, less venture-
some, illuminate their rooms, and hold a levee of
moths the whole night long; this plan allows of
reading or writing at the same time: the window
may be shut, and the moths flying against the
window, will knock for admittance.

865. The Aigeriites and Glaucopites flutter
sylph-like over flowers, in the hottest sunshine ;
and the little Tortricites, &c. with which the class
terminates, fly at sunset. All moths may be
occasionally beaten out of shrubs and bushes
while at rest during the day, and may also be
found sitting against palings, trunks of trees, &c.

866. The second class, Diptera, is composed of
gnats and flies: these occur in all situations. The
latter may be swept off grass in abundance, or
taken with the forceps settling on umbellate
flowers.

867. The Hymenoptera have a very various
economy. Ants may be found every where running
on the ground; Sphecites and the neighbouring
orders frequent sunny sand banks; wasps are
found where there are sweets of any kind; bees
frequent flowers and sunny sand banks in the
spring: all the parasites may be beaten off shrubs,
swept off grass, &c.; and the Tenthredoes fre-
quent leaves and flowers in the early summer.

868. The Coleoptera are to be found every where
on the flowers, leaves, and stems of living shrubs,
in the bark, under the bark, and in the wood of

PRESERVATION OF INSECTS. 271

dead or dying trees, in the carcases of dead
animals, in all kinds of dung and rubbish, under
stones, in flour, in cellars, in sand and gravel pits,
at the roots of grass, in moss, in water, or flying
in the air,

869. Of Orthoptera we have but few: earwigs
abound in the crevices of bark and palings, or any
shelter by day, and run every where by night;
cockroaches and crickets frequent houses; grass-
hoppers, the fields, particularly in the autumn.

870. Of the Hemiptera, the Cimicites, Cicadites,
and Aphites, inhabit plants; the Hydrometrites
run on the water; and the Nepites and Notonec-
tites swim beneath its surface.

871. In the Neuroptera all but the dragon-flies
settle on shrubs during the day, particularly in
the neighbourhood of water, and may be very
readily beaten into the clap-net: the noble dragon-
flies may be seen over ponds, hawking about for
their insect prey.

872. The entomologist who has in his neigh-
bourhood different descriptions of soil and different
degrees of altitude, different kinds of cultivation,
or the absence of cultivation, as morasses, heaths,
commons, forests, should try each and all; he will
find that all these differences make corresponding
differences in the produce.

878. Besides the perfect insects, in every
excursion the collector will be sure to meet with
numbers of laryee, particularly those of Lepidoptera

“fF

272 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

and Tenthredoes: unless he know these to
be so very common that they are not worth the
trouble of rearing, he should invariably bring
them home in the tin boxes.

874. To rear larvee it is necessary to be pro-
vided with numerous little square cages, lined
about half way down with gauze; the lower
portion should be made of stout wood, and should
have an internal coat of tin or lead; this part
should be filled with common earth: sprigs of the
plant on which the larva was feeding should be
placed in a vial in this breeding cage, and the
larva placed on it. The boxes must be kept in a
cool and moist place.

875. Larve will do as well thus artificially
reared as in a state of nature; they will spin
among the leaves, or on the sides of the cage, or
they will bury themselves in the earth; in either
case the moths emerge at the proper time, and
will be more perfect and finer specimens than can
be obtained in any other way.

876. In the boxes in which larve are kept,
Ichneumons will be constantly making their ap-
pearance; these ought to be preserved with great
care, and a memorandum kept of the species of
moth, if known, from which they emerged.

877. As to the particular seasons for insects,
little can be said: butterflies are particularly
abundant in May, August, and September; moths
in May, June, and October; larva in May, June,

bi and September. All the tribes that frequent flowers

have some particular flower that they more approve,

and the entomologist must make his own obser-
vations.

c—s

ae ea

274 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

CHAPTER IV.

OF KILLING AND SETTING INSECTS.

878. Atrnoucn the author is fully satisfied
that insects have not the acute sense of pain pos-
sessed by ourselves and warm-blooded animals,
yet he wishes to impress on the collectors of
insects, that it is unjustifiable to subject any
animals to even the possibility of suffering for our
own gratification.

879. Therefore let us resolve to adhere to two
rules ; first, to destroy no more specimens than
are really requisite ; secondly, to kill them in the
most certain and expeditious manner: under any
circumstances, the reflection that we have done
this will be agreeable. .

880. Butterflies and moths require to be pinned
immediately on being taken; the pin is passed
through the scutum of the mesothorax, in the very
centre, the finger and thumb of the left hand, at
the same time, pinching the insect under the

all i Pores ewe ae ~ 1 ae eye oe

PRESERVATION OF INSECTS. 275

wings. A slight pinch kills a butterfly, but it is
far otherwise with a thick-bodied moth; these
seem to possess an excess of vitality.

881. There are several modes by which moths
may be killed, but some of these are not at all
times convenient; however, it will be best to give
them all, and then the reader may avail himself of
one or other of them according to circumstances,

882. First, Take the moth by the wings, held
together over its back, and then dip its body
suddenly in boiling water; immediately on with-
drawing it, it will be found that life and motion
are completely extinct ; but the downiness of the
body will have received an injury which it never
effectually recovers.

883. Secondly, Fix a piece of thin cork firmly
at the bottom of a gallipot; then, having pinned
the moth, as before described, through the meso-
thorax, stick the pin in the cork, and invert the
gallipot in a basin of boiling water: the steam
produces death almost instantly, and does not
injure the plumage of the moth.

884. Thirdly, Having pinned the moth, take its
body between the finger and thumb of the left
hand, then withdraw the pin, and having previously
prepared a sharp-pointed piece of quill or wood,
dip it in Prussic acid, or a strong solution of oxalic
acid, and introduce it into the aperture made by
the pin: death follows almost instantly.

885. If two or three laurel leaves are completely

Tt 2

T

276 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

crushed between stones, or otherwise, and the
fragments placed in the corner of a collecting box,
the fumes will, in a few minutes, be fatal to any
insects placed there: the leaves should be with-
drawn and replaced by fresh ones every half hour,
if possible, and then insects may be pinned and
placed in the box without further care during a
whole day.

886. Diptera and Hymenoptera are generally
best carried home alive in pill boxes; the same
also with very minute moths: Coleoptera of almost
every kind may be safely immersed in the vial of
spirits: Orthoptera and Hemiptera, if large, may
be pinned ; if small, put in pill boxes : dragon-flies
require to be pinned.

887. Diptera and Hymenoptera should, when
sufficiently large, be pinned, like the Lepidoptera,
through the centre of the mesothorax ; Coleoptera,
through the right wing case ; Orthoptera, through
the prothorax ; and Hemiptera, through the meso-
thorax, generally in this class a triangular plate:
dragon-flies should be pinned in the centre
between the four wings.

888. All insects taken home alive in pill boxes,
may be killed thus:—Open the lids of the boxes
a very small way, just so as to admit the passage of
air, but not the exit of the insect; then make a pile
of the boxes, thus partially opened, on a piece of soft
leather placed onatable; invert a pint basin over the
boxes; burn one or two matches under the basin.

PRESERVATION OF INSECTS. QT7

889. If the basin and boxes are placed close to
the edge of the table, the facility of burning a
match under the basin is increased. The basin
should be pressed down, and the leather precludes
the ingress of fresh air, and the egress of the
sulphur smoke; if the boxes are examined in a
few minutes, the insects will be found perfectly
dead.

890. All kinds of insects are killed instanta-
neously by immersion in boiling water ; and with
the exception of Diptera and Lepidoptera, none
are materially injured by the process. The beetles
brought home in spirits should be subjected to this
process, first, as a cleansing and purifying opera-
tion, secondly, because the spirit appears only
to stupify and deprive them of motion, so that
without this second killing they generally revive.

891. All insects killed in water should be very
carefully spread on blotting paper; those large
enough for pinning should be then selected, and
left until thoroughly dried; those which are so
small as to be injured by a pin should be removed
to a sheet of pasteboard; each should then be
floated in a drop of water; then the water should
be withdrawn by a camel’s hair brush.

892. The legs and wings usually spread out
neatly without assistance, but if they do not, a
little assistance from the brush will accomplish it ;
the board should then be put carefully away, and
the insects will dry in the position in which they

= OO EE ee SCs

he
-

278 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

were left, but are so slightly attached to the board
that a touch of the pencil will remove them.

893. A number of very small pieces of card
should then be prepared; they should be trian-
gular, with one angle very acute; a pin should be
passed through each near the base ; then with a
fine brush touch the acute point of the card with
clean transparent gum-water, and again moistening
the brush take up one of the insects and place it
on the gum, to which it will instantly adhere.

894. All minute Hymenoptera may be mounted
in this way. The wings of minute Diptera are more
difficult to deal with, being of a softer texture.
As few of these should be mounted as possible, and
great care should be exercised in the operation ;
the rest of the Diptera should be pinned.

895. The minute insects brought home alive in
the vial may be instantly killed by immersing the
vial in hot water, after which they may be mounted
at any future opportunity when more time can be
spared for the operation; each vial should be la-~
belled with the date and place, when and where,
and thus a winter’s amusement may be provided.

896. In setting, 7. e. arranging the legs and
wings of insects, we now speak of those suffi-
ciently large to require pinning, there are two
modes—the first is to place the wings horizontally,
the second is to bend them so as to touch the
drawer; the first is the continental, the second the
English, plan.

PRESERVATION OF INSECTS. 279

897. In setting insects with expanded wings, a
piece of stiff card, pinned through with a stout pin,
supports the wings from below; another similar
piece is placed on the wings above; the two pieces
holding the wing immovably fixed: the legs are
held in their places by a bent pin. In Lepi-
doptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera, some Orthoptera,
and in Neuroptera, the wings are thus spread, but
not in Coleoptera.

898. In Coleoptera the habit would generally
be totally destroyed by opening and spreading
out the wings: insects of this class, and also
generally those of the class Hemiptera, are set
with the wings, and wing-cases quietly folded in
the usual position on their backs ; the legs and
antennee, however, are carefully placed, and ar-
ranged by means of the bent pins.

899. The bent pins are reduced to this more
convenient shape by means of an instrument
somewhat resembling a pair of pliers ; it was in-
vented by Mr. George Waring, of Bristol, and is
now very commonly employed by all entomolo-
gists: the old plan was, to fasten a foot in its place
by a small card brace.

900. The value of a collection of insects is of
course very much enhanced by exhibiting them in
all their stages; this, however, is but little attended
to. A few of our larger Lepidopterous larve
have been preserved in spirits, but this plan ob-
viously precludes the simultaneous exhibition of

a” ft

280 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

the larva and imago. Various other plans of pre-
serving caterpillars have been tried ; the following
appears the best.*

901. If the caterpillar be hairy or spiny, enlarge
the orifice of the anus, and from thence endeavour,
by gentle pressure, performed with a smooth in-
strument, to squeeze out.as much of the contents
of the inside as possible: and while thus ope-
rating, let the subject be laid on a sheet of blot-
ting paper, that the moisture exuded being
imbibed, may be prevented from wetting and
spoiling the hairs and spines.

902. This done, insert frequently fresh pieces
of dry blotting paper rolled round the end of a
smooth piece of stick, and continue to do so until
the dryness of the paper, when retracted, indicates
that no moisture remains within.

903. Let the skin be now distended into its
proper shape, by means of a stuffing of down, or
other soft materials, taking the precaution of
guarding against the attacks of destructive insects,
by enclosing within a small quantity of camphor,
cayenne pepper, and red oxide of lead.

904, In preserving hairless caterpillars, care
must be taken that their colours be not removed
by a too rough application of the absorbing instru-
ment. The chrysalis of Lepidopterous insects is
very readily preserved: it requires to be left until
thoroughly hardened ; then vitality destroyed by

* Mr. Fennet, in the Entomological Magazine,

immersion in boiling water; and, nue dried, it is
‘fit for the cabinet.

905. For all the operations of preserving insects
nicely corked, setting boards about a foot square
should be prepared, and on these all the insects
should remain until perfectly dry and stiff; after
which if kept in a warm room, there is little dan-
ger of their receiving any injury.

bo
ro)
in]

GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

CHAPTER V.

OF ENTOMOLOGICAL CABINETS.

906. A wertt-made cabinet is of the greatest
importance to the entomologist; he must attend

personally to the building of it, unless he meets —

with a cabinet maker, who has had previous prac-
tice in the art.

907. A cabinet should consist of about thirty
drawers in two tiers of fifteen each; it should be
made of the best mahogany ; the wood should be
particularly well seasoned ; the drawers should be
enclosed in front by two folding doors, meeting in
the middle.

908. Hach drawer should be about fifteen
inches square, and two inches deep, for English
insects; about eighteen inches square, and two and
a half inches deep, for foreign insects, on account
of their superior size; it should be covered at the
bottom with soft cork, and then neatly papered.

PRESERVATION OF INSECTS. 283

909. Round each drawer should be a cell for
camphor, which preserves the specimens from
mites, and the top of the drawer should be covered
by a pane of flatted glass neatly fitted in a frame.
Care must be taken to make this frame fit as
nicely as possible in order to keep out dust.

910. Cabinets of this kind surmounted by a
book-case are no dissight in a room ; three or four
such cabinets surmounted may occupy the side of
a room. In placing these cabinets side by side,
care must be taken that the doors are so made as
to open freely without any aperture between them.

911. Before the insects are placed in the cabi-
net, the papered bottoms of the drawers must be
ruled in columns with a black lead pencil, the
columns varying in width according to the size of
the insect : the insects should then be placed in
with great care and neatness, beginning with the
Lepidoptera.

912. Mr. Samouelle, Mr. Stephens, and Mr.
Curtis, have each published a list of British Insects,
printed on one side only, purposely for labelling
cabinets. The entomologist should select which of
these he most approves, and cutting out the names,
carefully fasten them in the drawer by means of
pin-points ; in doing this he must use a pair of
common pliers.

913. The generic names are printed in capitals;
these should be placed above the insect, and the
specific names, printed in small characters, below.

284 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

Attached to each name is the initial or part of
the name of the author who gave it, thus—
Spuinx Lin.; signifying that Linnaeus gave the
name.

914. Lepidoptera should be placed with ex-
tended wings following each other in a line of
three, four, or more, if a variable species; the
upper specimens should be males, the lower
females. Diptera, Hymenoptera, and Neuroptera,
should be arranged in the same way.

915. Coleoptera should be placed in rows,
three abreast; the upper three males, the lower
three females. All these should have closed wings,
as the under wings are not essential for any sci-
entific purpose, neither do they in any way add to
the beauty or neatness of a collection.

916. Orthoptera should be placed three males
and three females abreast, as the Coleoptera, and
then a single open winged specimen below them:
the same plan should be adopted with the He-
miptera.

917. Preserved insects should be kept perfectly
dry. They are subject to three very annoying
casualties, which it should be the constant study of
the entomologist to counteract; these are destruc-
tion by mites, &c., mouldiness, and greasiness.

918. Destruction by mites, the larve of Der-
mestites, Ptinites, and Tineites, is very much
avoided by attending to three rules: put every
specimen into the drawers perfectly dry; never

PRESERVATION OF INSECTS. | 285

leave the glass off, and keep a good supply of cam-
phor always in the drawer.

919. Hither of these depredators makes itself
instantly known, by an appearance of dust below
the specimens attacked. The best way on discover-
ing this, is to take out the insect, and if a beetle,
to dip it instantly in boiling water; then, after
thoroughly drying it, return it to its place. If any
other insect, baking in a moderately hot oven will
be found an effectual cure.

920. Mouldiness is completely remedied in
beetles by immersion in boiling water, and after
brushing them with a camel’s hair pencil, drying
them thoroughly, and returning them to their
places ; in other insects, spirits of wine carefully
applied with a camel’s hair pencil effects a cure.

921. Greasiness is a constant cause of trouble
with insects, particularly moths. Commencing in
the body, it gradually spreads until the whole
moth looks as though it had been dipped in oil ;
from the insects the oil runs down on the drawer
below it, soiling the paper, and spoiling the ap-
pearance of the collection, No preventive to this
is known, but a greasy moth may-be restored
thus :—

922. Take out the moth, and place it on a
setting board, then drop spirits of turpentine on it
till it is completely saturated; afterwards scrape
on it some very white pipe-clay, taking care to
cover every part; in a few days the turpentine

will have dried, and the pipe-clay, having absorbed

the grease, will readily come off on being moved
by the point of a pen-knife. The moth will be
quite restored, unless a very stout bodied one, in 2
which case, the operation should be repeated,

uf

PRESERVATION OF INSECTS. 287

CHAPTER VI.
ENTOMOLOGICAL BOOKS.

923. As the author intends this for an intro-
ductory work on Entomology, and has done his
best to make it as complete as he was able, it
would be but a poor compliment to his readers,
after giving them so much trouble, were he to tell
them of the necessity of buying other introductions.

924. Works descriptive of species, will, how-
ever, be found highly essential, and the author will
give a list of all the British ones with which he is
acquainted, and such foreign ones as he considers
to be peculiarly useful; he will arrange the books in
the same order in which insects are classified in
the preceding Book.

925. Lepidoptera.—1. British Lepidoptera
(Lepidoptera Britannica), by Adrian Hardey
Haworth, 1803, et seg., being published in four
parts. One volume, pp. 586, with plates. This
work is written in Latin; it contains concise and
accurate descriptions of the British Lepidoptera,

288 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

known at the time the author wrote, and very few
have been discovered since.

926. 2. Illustrations of British Entomology.
Part, Haustellata, by James Francis Stephens.
Four volumes, with numerous plates. This work
is written in English. It contains descriptions of
all the known British Lepidoptera.

927. 8. Conspectus of Butterflies and Moths.
by James Rennie. One volume, no plates. This
work is written in English, and contains descrip-
tions of nearly all the British Lepidoptera.

928. Diptera— Systematic description of the
European two winged insects, by J. W. Meigen.
In six volumes, with numerous plates. A short
Latin description of each insect is given. The
remainder of the work is entirely in German.
Nearly all the British Species are described.

929. Hymenoptera—Stirps, Formicina. Natural
History of Ants, and a collection of Memoirs and
Observations on Bees, by P. A. Latreille, in one
volume. The work is written in French. It con-
tains descriptions of all the Ants (or nearly so)
inhabiting this country.

930. Hymenoptera—Stirps, Sphecina. An
Essay on the Indigenous Fossorial Hymenoptera,
comprising a description of all the British Spe-
cies of Sand-wasps, by W. E. Shuckard. This
work has long been advertised; its author is
completely competent to the task.

931. Hymenoptera—Stirps, Vespina. Systema

PRESERVATION OF INSECTS. 289

Piezatorum, by J. C. Fabricius. One volume,
written in Latin. Since this work was published,
much knowledge has been gained concerning
the insects which it describes.

932. Hymenoptera—Stirps, Apina, Monograph of
the Bees of England, (Monographia Apum Anglia),
by William Kirby, in two volumes, with plates.
This work is written in Latin, and is the most
perfect entomological work that any country has
yet produced. Modern discoveries have, however,
added some facts concerning identity of species.

933. Hymenoptera—Order, Mymarites. Essay
on Parasitic Hymenoptera, by A. H. Haliday,
published in the Entomological Magazine, Vol. I.
p- 341. In this Essay the whole of the British
species are described. ‘

934. Hymenoptera—Order, Chalcites. _Mono-
graph of Chaleites (Monographia Chalciditum), by
Francis Walker, published in the Entomological
Magazine, Vol. I. pp. 12, 115, 367, 455. Vol. IT.
148, 286, 340, and to be continued; this most
laborious monograph will contain descriptions of
every British species.

935. Hymenoptera — Order, Evaniites. Ar-
ticle Insecta, by William Elford Leach, published
in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, Vol. IX. p. 142.
Three British genera and species described.

936. Hymenoptera— Order, Braconites. Essay
on the Classification of British Hymenoptera, by
A. H. Haliday, published in the Entomological

U

290 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

Magazine, Vol. I. pp. 259, 333, 480. Vol. II.
p. 225, and to be continued. This laborious and
scientific Essay (written in Latin) will include all
the British species.

937. Hymenoptera — Order, Ichnewmonites.
European Ichneumonology (Ichneumologia Eu-
ropea), by J. L. C. Gravenhorst, three volumes,
written in Latin. An excellent and most laborious
work.

938. Hymenoptera —Stirpes, Sirecina and Ten-
thredinina. Monograph of the Tenthredoes (Mo-
nographia Tenthredintareum), by Le Pelletier de
Saint-Fargeau, one small volume, written in
Latin. Most of the British species are very
clearly described in this work. It may here be
observed, that we have no general work on Hy-
menoptera.

939. Coleoptera. 1. British Entomology (Zn-
tomologia Britannica), Vol. I., Coleoptera, by
Thomas Marsham (written in Latin), one volume,
without plates; a most invaluable book, on ac-
count of the neatness and scientific accuracy of
the specific description.

940. 2. Illustrations of British Entomology,
Part, Mandibulata, written in English, with a short
Latin specific description of each species. Five
vols., with numerous plates. This work contains
descriptions of all the known British Coleoptera.

941. Orthoptera. The Entomologist’s ‘useful
Compendium, by George Samouelle. This work

PRESERVATION OF INSECTS, 291

is written in English ; one volume, with numerous
plates. It contains, at page 217, generic descrip-
tions of the British Orthoptera. The author is
not aware of any work which describes the species.

942. Hemiptera. The Entomologist’s useful
Compendium, by George Samouelle. This work
contains, at p. 220, descriptions of all the British
genera of Hemiptera. The author is not aware of
any work which describes the species.

943. Neuroptera—Stirps, Termetina. Supple-
ment to the Systematical Entomology (Zntomo-
logia Systematica Supplementum), by J.C. Fabri-
cius. In this work many British species of Psocus
are described.

944, Neuroptera—Stirps, Perlina. Memoir on
the Larva of Nemoura, by F. J. Pictet, published
in the Annals of the Natural Sciences, Vol. XX VI.
p. 869; and of Perla, Vol. XXVIII. p. 44.
Both these memoirs are written in French.

945. Neuroptera—Stirps, Phryganina. 1. De-
scription of some Nondeseript Species of May-flies
of Anglers, by John Curtis, published in the
London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine,
Vol. IV.

946. 2. Researches into the History and Ana-
tomy of the Phryganites (Recherches pour servir
a l'Histoire et 4 l’Anatomie des Phryganides), by
Frangois Jules Pictet; one volume, 20 plates; a
work of very great research and extraordinary merit.

947. Neuroptera— Stirps, Ephemirina. De-

u 2

292 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

scription of some Nondescript Species of May-
flies of Anglers, by John Curtis; published in the
London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine,
Vol. IV.

948. Neuroptera —Stirps, Libellulina. Mo-
nograph of the European Dragon-flies (JZono-
graphia Libellularum Europearum), by P. L.
Vander Linden, 42 pages, without plates. This
little work is written in Latin, and is very com-
plete and excellent of its kind.

949, 2. Entomological Hours (Hore Ento-
mologie), by Toussaint de Charpentier, one vol.
4to, with plates. In this work the species of
the genus Libellula are accurately described in
Latin.

950. It seems necessary to say a few words on
British periodical works on entomology. Of these
we have no less than five; some of them, already
alluded to, as containing monographs of genera,
&c. We will take them in the order of seniority.

951. British Entomology, by John Cuttis,
F.L.S., published in two-monthly numbers; on
the Ist of February, April, June, August, Oc-
tober, and December; containing eight highly
finished coloured plates, illustrating the genera of
British insects, dissection of the mouth, and other
parts affording generic characters. Each number
contains sixteen pages of letter-press.

952. Illustrations of British Entomology, by
James Francis Stephens, F.L.S., published in

PRESERVATION OF INSECTS. 293

monthly numbers, on the last day of every month,
containing, occasionally, coloured plates, and vary-
ing in its quantity of letter-press.

953. Entomological Cabinet, by George Sa-
mouelle, A. L. S., published in monthly numbers
on the Ist of every month, containing six coloured
plates, and twelve pages of letter-press.

954. Entomological Magazine, by various au-
thors. This work is published in quarterly
numbers, on the 1st of J anuary, April, July, and
October ; containing one plate (generally un-
coloured), and 104 pages of letter-press. It is
open to all contributors,

955. Transactions of the Entomological So-
ciety of London, by various contributors ; a single
number only at present published. This work is
to contain no uniform number of plates or letter-
press, and the periods of publication not fixed.
The 1st number has seven plates, some of them
coloured ; and 66 pages, besides an Appendix.

294 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

CHAPTER VII.
OF INVESTIGATING INSECTS.

956. Havine pointed out the best mode by
which a collection may be made, and the books
which will be most useful in naming it, it remains
that we add a few words on the application of
objects to descriptions, and descriptions to objects.

957. We have repeatedly spoken of characters ;
we have explained the terms, systems of organs,
and what those systems of organs are. Now let it
be understood that character is the variation in
the mode or measure of development of any
integral portion of either system of organs.

958. Those characters are the best which are
founded on such portions of a system of organs as
are most readily observed; the organs of support
afford these. It would be a work of insuperable
difficulty had we to examine the interior of an
insect to decide its species.

959. All animals have a tendency to vary in

PRESERVATION OF INSECTs. 295

those parts of the body which are the most remote
from the centre: the extremities in quadrupeds,
or in birds, afford us the best characters on this
ground. ‘Take a lobster, a prawn, a shrimp, and
a crayfish; spread them on a setting board, you
will find the extreme points, the tail, toes, and
antennze, display the differences: so, in insects,
take the extremities.

960. The extremities of an insect are the wings,
the tarsi, the head; and these afford abundant
characters. First, take the most obvious parts,
the parts most easily observed ; then consult the
more concealed parts, as the mouth; but even in
the mouth try the palpi before the jaw or the lip
from which they rise.

961. In investigating insects, a good glass is a
matter of great importance ; and here I cannot re-
sist the pleasure it will give me most heartily to
recommend Messrs. Bentley and Chant, of King’s
Head-court, St. Martin’s-le-Grand. Being them-
selves good entomologists, they know exactly
what entomologists require, and take every pains
to supply it.

962. The knowledge of the principal order of
insects is very soon acquired ; many we have known
from our childhood upwards, as butterflies, Papi-
lionites, or crickets, Achetites. It is the safest plan
to begin with large well-known groups first; the
knowledge of a few of these leads us to desire an
acquaintance with the rest.

296 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

963. After the orders are pretty well known,
the study of species must be begun; for it is a
remarkable fact, which the author cannot explain,
that classes, orders, and species, are much more
readily ascertained, and much more obvious to
the casual observer, than the intermediate divisions
of stirpes, families, and genera.

964. It may also be observed, that in general,
even with scientific investigators, there is less
doubt as to the limits of classes, orders, and species,
than those of the other divisions. Genera are the
most difficult groups to make out; they depend
almost entirely on artificial characters, and their
limits have never been agreed on by any two of
the numerous writers on entomology.

965. Most descriptions are written in Latin, or
a language intended for Latin ; many words used
are peculiar to entomology ; and these the author
has endeavoured to explain in the foregoing pages ;
other words are purely English, with what is sup-
posed to be a Latin termination added.

966. Examples of this: setaceous is Latinized
setaceus ; gross is grossus ; expansion is expansio;
rudimental is rudimentalis ; petiolate is petiolatus.
Many Latin words are altered to make opposites ;
marginatus signifies having a margin; and to de-
scribe an object that has no margin, the word im-
marginatus is made; words, or names, are often
Latinized by the simple addition of us or wm.

967. All these are to be considered errors;

PRESERVATION OF INSECTS. 297

but we must bow in some degree to usage by
adopting errors. Still we should be careful to
avoid enlarging the list, and in describing, avoid
all obvious incongruities, and we should not de-
scribe in Latin without some knowledge of that
language in its unadulterated state.

968. Reading Latin is a very different matter
from writing it, and the author has endeavoured
so to explain the technical terms, that the reader
may understand almost any Latin description he
may meet with, by occasionally consulting a
Latin dictionary.

‘

298 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

CHAPTER VIII.

OF ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETIES,

969. OF ascience so generally despised as ento-
mology has been, it is very natural that the few
votaries should find pleasure and satisfaction in
each other’s company ; and, conscious of having a
worthier pursuit than men give them credit for,
should hold sweet council together, and look
down on the very world that was looking down
on them.

970. Many attempts have therefore been made
in this country to establish entomological socie-
ties, the history of which it is the duty of the
author to record, as far as he is able, from the
remaining documents.

971. First. Dhe Aurelian Society, which was
held at the Swan Tavern in ’Change-alley ; the date
of its formation is unknown; but from Moses Harris
we learn that it existed in the year 1745. The
laws and regulations of this society have not
descended to us.

PRESERVATION OF INSECTS. 299

972. On the 25th of March, 1748, the great fire
which happened in Cornhill burnt down the
Swan Tavern, together with the society’s valuable
collection of insects, books, &c., and all their
regalia.

973. The society was sitting at the time; yet so
sudden and rapid was the impetuous course of
the fire, that the flames beat against the windows
before they could well get out of the room, many
of them leaving their hats and canes.

974. Their loss so much disheartened the mem-
bers, that although they several times met for
that purpose, they never could collect a sufficient
number to form a society, so that for fourteen
years there was no meeting of that sort.

975. Second. The Aurelian Society was esta-
blished in the year 1762; it arose, phcenix-like,
out of the ashes of the old; four years afterwards
this society was in existence, as appears from the
fact, that in 1766, Moses Harris dedicated to it his
work entitled the “ Aurelian.” We have no farther
account of it. :

976. Third. The Society of Entomologists of
London was established in the year 1780; its
minute book is carried down to the first week in
August, 1782, at which time it appears to have
discontinued its sittings. We hear from Mr.
Haworth, that the cabinet of two of its members,
Mr. Tinley and Mr. Bentley, were rich in Lepi-
doptera and Coleoptera.

300 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

977. Fourth. The Aurelian Society was established
in the year 1801; it was proposed and managed by
the late Mr. Haworth, the author of ‘‘ Lepidoptera
Britannica.” The collection was Mr. Haworth’s
own property, and was to be given up to the
society as soon as it should consist of twenty
members, which number it never reached.

978. The objects of this society were to form a
complete and standard cabinet of the entomo-
logical productions of Great Britain; to ascertain
their names, uses, and distinctions; the places and
times of their appearance, food, economy, and pe-
culiarities ; and to point out to the public the
readiest and most desirable methods of destroying
such as possess properties which are inimical to
the welfare of mankind.

979. Any person desirous of becoming a member
of this society, was to be approved by every
member of the society at the time being; was to
give up one specimen of every species in his own
collection, which the cabinet of the society did not
possess; the elected member was to receive in
return duplicate specimens from the society’s col-
lection, or money if he preferred it.

980. By these means(say therules), the Aurelian
cabinet must ultimately arrive at the standard of
perfection ; and the separate collection of every
member of the society will gradually increase both
in number and value. But, alas, the society, nor
the collection, ever attained perfection ; the society

PRESERVATION OF INSECTS. 801

was dissolved in April, 1806, and the collection
returned to Mr. Haworth.

981. Fifth, The Entomological Society of London
arose the same year, 1806, as it were, out of the
ashes of the first, and consisted of nearly the same
members which were in this society. No member
was compelled to give up unique specimens to a
general collection, but a small collection was formed
principally by the generosity of Mr, Haworth.

982. This society made more progress than
either of the preceding ; it met regularly, and pub-
lished three numbers of Transactions, the last of
which appeared in 1812; but after this, the death
of some members and other defalcations brought
the society into considerable trouble, and regular
meetings were abandoned in the following year,
1813.

983. Sixth, The Entomological Society of Great
Britain. A third society was formed in 1822, like
the preceding, out of the ruins of the old one;
this was a non-subscribing society ; it lasted only
two years, and then merged into the Zoological
Club of the Linnzan Society of London.

984. Seventh, The Entomological Club was
formed in 1825; this was also a non-subscribing
society ; it consisted of cight members, with no
power to increase the number; since its establish-
ment two vacancies only have occurred, each of
which has been instantly filled by the election of
another member, and the club has continued to

302 GRAMMAR OF ENTOMOLOGY.

meet every month since the day of its establish-
ment. :

985. In the winter of 1831-2, it was agreed, at
a meeting of the club, to publish a quarterly ma-
gazine, the management of which was under-
taken by members then present; the magazine
was to be open impartially to all contributors: no
preference to be given to the members of the
club. The first number of the magazine, called
the Entomological Magazine, was published on
the Ist of September, 1832, since which period
it has appeared every three months with the
utmost regularity.

986. The Entomological Magazine is published
by Messrs. Westley and Davis, and has attained
a very extensive circulation, not confined to this
country, but on the continents of Europe and
America ; it treats not only of scientific entomo-
logy, but devotes a large portion of its pages to
the history of insects, as connected with agri-
culture and horticulture.

987. Eighth, The Entomological Society of London
was formed in 1838 ; its first scientific meeting
was held on the 2d of December of that year ;
and succeeding meetings have been held on the
1st Monday of every month, from that time to the
present.

988. This society has been much more ex-
tensive than either of the preceding, having
reached, in November, 1834, to the number of

PRESERVATION OF INSECTS. 303

one hundred and twenty-seven members; a re-
markable number, considering the unpopular
nature of the subject, and the short time of the
society’s existence. It included among its mem-
bers most of the publishing entomologists of the
present day.

989. Unhappily, however, dissension has arisen
on the propriety of expending the funds of the
society in publishing Transactions. The advocates
for publication being in power, the measure was
carried against those of a contrary opinion, greatly
to the dissatisfaction of some of the members.

990. On the 1st of November, 1834, a first part
of the Transactions was accordingly published.
And now another trouble arose : those entrusted
with the publication had introduced into the
Transactions an uncourteous review of the Ento-
mological Magazine,—a work which, from the first,
had zealously supported the society. This has
alienated the friends of the Entomological Ma-
gazine, and not them only, but many others, who
insist that it is an unworthy act of a society to
descend to such a course.

END OF THE PRESERVATION OF INSECTS.

304 GRAMMAR oF ENT

Reader! our companionship ends here. Should
-the author have persuaded thee, by this unvar-
nished tale, to follow in his footsteps ; to tread the
paths which he has trodden; to gaze with an in-
quiring and delighted eye on those things which —
he has gazed on, it is enough. He bids thee,

affectionately, farewell! :

THE END.

R. CLAY, PRINTER, BREAD-STREET-HILL,