[Registered at the General Post Office, Perth, for transmission hy post as a Periodical.]

JOURNAL

OF

THE ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

WESTERN AUSTRALIA, INC.

Founded 1913 :: :: Incorporated 1937

Vol. XXX

1943-1944

The Authors of Papers are alone responsible for the statements

and

the opinions expressed therein.

^VNAArW^A/VN^iA/VWVVWVWWVS/VWVWWS

Published 11th March, 1946.

vvv\^/vvvvvvwvwvyvvs/NA/vws/wvvvvvw'/

Printed for the Society by
R0BEHT H. MixjMBB, Government Printer, Perth.

:946.

L 14133/4.5

CONTENTS.

Volume XXX.

Annual Report
Treasurer ? s Report
Proceedings — Abstract of
Index to Authors

Page.

iii.

iv., v.
vi. ; vii.

General Index

1. The Deterioration of Jute Materials in contact with Superphosphate
and Mixtures containing Superphosphate. By L. J. H. Teakle and

2. A Revision of the Western Australian species of Triodia R. Br. By

3. New Crustacea from the Swan River. By J. M. Thomson . . . . 35

4. The Fauna of the Algal Zone of the Swan River Estuary. A pre-

liminary survey of Freshwater Bay with notes on the Chief
Species. Bv J. M. Thomson . . 55

5. Investigation of some Phosphatic Noclules from Dandaragan,

Western Australia. By Keith R. Miles . . . . . . . . 75

Presidential Address — The Chemistry and the Chemical Exploitation of

Western Australian Plants. By E. M. Watson 83

H. E. Hill . .

1

Nancy T. Burbidge

15

[Registered at the General Post Office, Perth, for transmission by post as a Periodical.]

JOURNAL

OF

THE. ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

WL5TLRN AUSTRALIA, INC

Founded 1913 :: :: Incorporated 1937

Vol. XXX

1943-1 944

The Authors of Papers are alone responsible for the statements

and

the opinions expressed therein.

Published 11th March, 194G.

Printed for the Society by
Robert H. Mili.er, Government Printer. Perth

2946.

L 14133/45

The Royal Society of Western Australia (Inc.).

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COUNCIL EOR THE YEAR ENDING

30th JUNE, 1944.

Ladies aiul Gentlemen,

Your Council begs to submit the following report for the year ending
30tli June, 1944.

Council . — Following established custom the Council appointed an Exe-
cutive Committee to deal with the routine business of the Society, and to
submit quarterly reports to the Council.

Four meeting's of Council, and six meetings of the Executive were held
during the year.

Finance . — There is a credit balance of £174 16s. Ud. in the General
Fund; the Endowment Fund amounts to £306 15s. 7d., and the Medal fund
to £9 9s. There are certain heavy commitments outstanding to the Govern-
ment Printer on account of the publication of Volume XXVIII of the
Journal, and further liabilities ha/e been incurred with the printing of
Volume XXIX, which is not yet complete.

The cost of publication has greatly increased during the past year,
owing to a sharp rise in the price of materials.

Membership . — There has been a slight increase in the total membership
of the Society, which now numbers 465, made up as follows:—

Honorary Members . . • • • • • • 7

Corresponding Members . . . . • • 9

Life Members • • . . • • • • 2

Ordinary Members .. .. • . •• 111

Associate Members . . • • • • • • 30

Student Members . . . . • • • • 6

The names of seven Ordinary Members were
during the year; one Associate transferred to full
Ordinary Member resigned.

added to the
Membership :

Register
and one

Journal. -Progress has been made in bringing the publication of the
Journal up-to-date. During the year two volumes (XXVII and XXVIII)
were distributed, and the publication of Volume XXIX is proceeding.

It is proposed in future to publish the Journal in a number of parts,
which may vary according to the quantity of matter presented for publi-
cation.

This will expedite publication, which is most desirable, particularly for
taxonomic papers in the Biological Sciences.

Library— The number of Institutions with which we have an exchange
agreement remains the same as during the two preceding years. One Institu-
tion has been forced by the present shortage of paper to restrict its circulation
and has, therefore, had to cancel its agreement with this Society. To balance
this we have agreed to reserve copies of our Journal for the Netherlands
East Indies Library, with a view to an exchange agreement after the war.

E. M. WATSON, President.
A. G. NIC HOLES, K. R. MILES,
Joint Hon. Secretaries,

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA, INCORPORATED.
Statement of Receipts and Expenditure for the Year ended 30 th June , 1944.

IV.

Jour. Roy. Soc. Western Australia, Vol. XXX.

V

Jour. Roy. Sou. Western Australia, Vol. XXX

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VI

Jour. Roy. £oc. Western Australia, Vol. XXX.

ABSTRACT OF PKOCEKDINGS, 1943-1944.

13til July, 1943- -

Annual General Meeting in Gledden
Coalfield, its Problems and its
Wilson.

Hall. Presidential Address: ‘‘The Collie
Economic Importance,” by Mr. R. C.

10th August, 1043 —

Paper- “The Deterioration of Jute Materials in contact with Superphosphate

and Mixtures containing Superphosphate,” by Dr. L. J. H. Teakle and
Mr. H. E. Hill.

Address — -‘‘Some Drug-yielding Plants of Western Australia, ’ by Mr. C. A.
Gardner.

Election of Members — Messrs. T. H. Wilson, L. P. Burgess, and K. C. B.
Green (transfer from Associate Member) as Ordinary Members.

Exhibits— Mr. Steedman: Various botanical specimens.

1.4th September, 1943 —

paper — “Fossil Mammals of Western Australia,” by Mr. L. Glauert.
Address — “Manufacture of Precision Lenses and their Assemblage in
Binoculars, ” by Mr. C. A. Ramm.

Exhibits — Mr. Steedman: Various botanical specimens.

12t.ii October, 1943 —

Addresses— (1) “The History of the Barometer and its Use as a Weather-
Glass,” ly Professor A. D. Ross.

(2) “Modern Developments in Meteorology and Weather-Forecasting*” by
F/Lt. J. Hogan.

Exhibits — Mr. Glauert: A moth and several caterpillars belonging to the
family CyclotornidfV and found in association ants.

Mr. Steedman: Various botanical specimens.

9t i i Xovember, 1 943— -

Addresses- — (1) “Some Aspects of Food Rationing in Australia and other
Countries,” by Dr. E. J. Underwood.

(2) “Recent Investigation in the Greenbushes Tinfield, ” by Dr. K. R. Miles
and Mr. R. S. Matheson.

Election of Member— Mr. G. B. Everard as an Ordinary Member.

Exhibits — Mr. Steedman: Various botanical specimens.

14tii December, 1943 —

Exhibits — (1) Dr. D. L. Serventv: “Some Fisheries Products.” These
included examples of Western 'Australian Canned Fish and specimens of
the sea- weed Eucheumu speciosvm from which local agar agar is being
prepared.

(2) Dr. E. M. Watson: “Some Light Alloys.” The properties of the prin-
cipal light metals were described and some castings prepared from various
alloys were shown.

(3) Dr. Dorothy Caroll: “Some Minerals of the Light Alloys.” Specimens
of various Western Australian ores used in the preparation of light alloys
were shown, these included bauxite, beryl, magnesite and petlite.

(4) Mr. C. F. H. Jenkins: “The Orange Piercing Moth” ( Othreis materna).
The habits of this pest were outlined and specimens and lantern slides
were exhibited, illustrating various stages of the insect’s life history.

(o) Mr. L. Glauert: “'Some Ants’ Guests.” The peculiar habits of certain
inquilines in ant nests were outlined and various specimens exhibited.

(6) Mr. R. C. Wilson: Some fossil plants remains from the Griffin Colliery,
Collie.

(7) Dr. C. Teichert: Some fossil bones, attributable to two groups of rep-
tiles — the Plesiosaurs and the Ichthyosaurs , collected by Mr. R. S. Mather-
son in phosphate rock at Dandaragan.

(8) Mr. Steedman: Various botanical specimens.

Jour. Roy. Soc. Wkstkrn Australia, You. XXX

YU

14ti-i March, 1044 —

layers — (I) “A Revision of Western Australian Species of Triodia, R. Br., ”
by Miss Nancy T. Burbidge.

(2) “New Crustacea from the Swan River Estuary,” by Mr. J. M. Thomson.

(3) “The Fauna of the Algal Zone of the Swan River Estuary,” by Mr. J.
M. Thomson.

Address — “Sharks of Western Australia,” by Mr. G. P. Whitley.

11th April, 1944 —

Addresses — (1) “Quartz,” by Dr. Dorothy Carroll.

(2) “Plant Breeding for Quality with special reference to Wheat,” by Mr.
A. J. Milligan and Dr. L. W. Samuel.

9th May, 1944—

Paper — “Investigation of Some Phosphatic Nodules from Dandaragan, Wes-
tern Australia,” by Dr. K. R. Miles.

Addresses — (1) “Mica,” by Messrs. R. S. Matheson and J. S. Foxall.

(2) “Principles of Measuring and Controlling Furnace Temperatures,” by
Mr. J. Shearer.

Election of Member — Sq/Ldr. J. J. Hogan as an Ordinary Member.

Exhibits — Mr. Steedman : Various botanical exhibits.

13tjt Junk, 1944—

Addresses— (1) “Tin,” by Mr. R. A. Hobson.

(2) “Crystals,” by Dr. R. T. Prider.

(3) “Graphite, and its Recovery in Western Australia,” by Dr. E. M.
W atson.

Exhibits — (1) Mr. Glauert: A specimen! of the Kangaroo Mouse from the
Murchison District, and a Black Shouldered Kite which commonly preys
on this animal.

(2) Mr. Steedman: Various botanical specimens.

JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY
OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

Volume XXX.

1.— THE DETERIORATION OF JUTE MATERIALS
IN CONTACT WITH SUPERPHOSPHATE AND
MIXTURES CONTAINING SUPERPHOSPHATE.

By

L. J. H. Teakle* and H. E. HiliJ.

Read 10th August, 1943.

INTRODUCTION.

Superphosphate is now one of the most important of the world’s arti-
ficial fertilisers and the annual pre-war consumption amounted to nearly
15,000,000 tons. It is commonly marketed in jute containers. These suffer
some damage in contact with the superphosphate and considerable economic
loss and inconvenience are sometimes incurred.

The protection of jute bags used for the transport of superphosphate
has received a great deal of attention in the past, particularly by manufac-
turers, and the value of many treatments has been tested under field con-
ditions. Unfortunately, the great majority of the tests have led to incon-
clusive results and there appears to be little standardisation— at least in
Australia — of practices designed to lengthen the serviceable life of bags used
for superphosphate. Pre-treatment of bags with suitable chemicals is re-
ported to be routine practice in many factories in some countries, but in
Western Australia the use of high grade Nauru and Ocean Island rocks in
the past has rendered any action unnecessary as a general rule. Every
season some complaints of severe damage have been received, but these are
not numerous and are confined to parcels railed in the very hottest weather.

During the summer period of 1941/42 when a proportion of rock
phosphate from the Egyptian ports of Kosseir and Sofaga was used in
the manufacture of superphosphate, many complaints were received regard-
ing the damage to superphosphate bags and railway tarpaulins. The com-
plaints were so general that it was apparent that some new factor had
arisen and would need to be controlled for adequate protection of bags and
tarpaulins used in the despatch of superphosphate made from Egyptian
rock.

Attempts had been made, before the introduction of Egyptian phos-
phate, to devise protective treatments. In 1919 the Agricultural Depart-
ment recommended that empty bags on farms should be dipped in milk of

* Plant Nutrition Officer, Department of Agriculture,
f Supervising Chemist, Government Chemical Laboratory.

9

L. J. IT. Teakle and H. E. Hill.

lime and then dried before storing for future use. Manufacturers, also, had
tried out a variety of treatments, including —

(a) Dipping*

Bags were dipped in sodium acetate solution in Calcutta prior to
shipment. Locally they were soaked in water and in solutions such as
blackboy gum, sugar, bluestone-soda ash mixtures, copper naphthalate and
sodium silicate and dipped in solutions of sodium acetate, soda ash, milk of

lime, gypsum, superphosphate, plaster of Paris and “Rot Proof. In
practice, however, the labour involved in dipping and drying makes the
process unsuitable.

(b) Dusting and Spraying.

The dusts included powdered limestone, lime, soda ash, rock phosphate,
dicalcium phosphate, plaster of Paris, gypsum; the sprays were solutions
of soda ash. Sprays and dusts may be used with little expense and, if effec-
tive, could be adopted as routine practice.

In 1938, in response to a request for an investigation from the Wheat
and Wool Growers' Union of Western Australia, the Council for Scientific
and Industrial Research stated that a thorough investigation into the causes
of deterioration had been undertaken at the Perth works of the Common-
wealth Fertilisers and Chemicals Limited and summarised the findings as
follows : —

The damage to the bags is apparently caused by slight traces of
gases of the halogen group, which are always present in superphos-
phate. Fluorine is believed to be the principal destructive agent. In
a series of tests carried out on bags stacked in piles, it was found that
the maximum damage was done in the upper layers, and the upper
side of the bags invariably suffered more than the lower side. A pro-
tective treatment has been developed which has given satisfactory results
in practical tests. This treatment involves immersing the bags in a
solution of sodium acetate, and costs approximately 9d. per dozen bags
to apply. It has been found that the damage can be minimised by
arranging stacks in such a way that free evaporation of moisture and
corrosive gases can occur on the upper surfaces of the stack. The
damage usually occurs in the trucks when moist vapour collects under
the tarpaulin and recondenses during the night-*

SCOPE OF THE PRESENT INVESTIGATIONS.

The present investigation considered (1) the nature of the superphos-
phates; (2) factors likely to be responsible for the damaging effect on
bags and tarpaulins; (3) measures likely to assist in the protection of the
bags.

(1) Nature of the Superphosphates.

The superphosphates investigated fall into two groups.

(i) Those manufactured from phosphate rock from Nauru. Ocean and
Christmas Islands, which are very low in hydrochloric acid but contain
hydrofluoric acid.

* Letter of September 23, 1938, Department of Agriculture file No. 837/38.

The Deterioration of Jute Materials.

3

(ii) Those manufactured from Egyptian f rock phosphates containing
appreciable quantities of hydrochloric but little, if any, hydrofluoric acid.

Expressed as HC1, the chloride content of the first group is from
0 01 to 0-02% and, in the second group, 0 09% for Sofaga and 0-16%
for Kosseir.

The use of Christmas Island and Egyptian rock phosphates in place of
those from Nauru and Ocean Island brought about a change in manufacturing
processes. For the production of the required percentage of water soluble
phosphate, Christmas Island rock required from 5 to 10% more acid than
the Nauru and Ocean Island Rock. The Egyptian ma ; erial was readily
attacked by the acid. As the Egyptian phosphate was of lower grade than
the Christmas Island, the commercial superphosphates were made by mixing
the two types in appropriate proportions to obtain a mixture containing 22%
total phosphoric oxide, with 20* *25% being water soluble. The new super-
phosphate gave a free acidity (as H.,S0 4 ), generally of from 1-4 to 1-6%
as compared with 0*8 per cent, to 1*0 per cent, for Nauru and Ocean Island
superphosphates.

Certain manufacturers arranged to neutralise part of this excess acidity
by the incorporation of small amounts of finely ground limestone and it was
found that the practice was sufficiently satisfactory for it to be adopted as
a routine measure. The spraying with soda ash solution of the upper sides
of the topmost bags in the trucks, where contact with the railway tarpaulins
would be made, was found to afford further protection.

(2) Factors Likely to Cause Deterioration of Jute Materials.

The deterioration of jute materials under varying conditions was in-
vestigated. Materials were studied, firstly in stacks designed to simulate
actual railing conditions and, secondly, under laboratory conditions.

The materials were tested under standard conditions with apparatus
kindly lent by Messrs. Cuming Smith and Mt. Lyell Farmers’ Fertilisers
Limited.* Measurements were made of the tensile strength of the jute

material. At first, tests were made with strips of jute sacking exactly

one inch in width and cut across the bag so that the strength of the shot
fibres was determined. As this method proved cumbersome and slow, later
tests were made with five-ply jute twine of the type commonly used for
sewing bags.t

Tests were first of all carried out with new jute materials and there
was found to be a very substantial variability in the tensile strength of
untreated fabric and twine. With strips of material the tensile strength
varied from 125 to 197 lbs. for strips one inch in width. The majority of
the tests were in the neighbourhood of 140 lbs. and this figure is adopted
as the normal tensile strength of a jute strip one inch in width. With five-
ply jute twine the range was from 25 to 52 lbs. and the normal tensile
strength is taken as 36 lbs.

t The Egyptian rock phosphates were shipped from two Red Sea ports, Kosseir and
Sofaga. Shipments were kept separate in the investigation but nothing is known regard-
ing the source of the material represented by each shipment.

* The laboratory tests on jute materials and tensile strength determinations were made
in the Department of Agriculture laboratories. The chemical determinations were made
in the Government Chemical Laboratory.

+ Collateral tests on railway tarpaulins and similar fabrics were made by Dr. C. R.
Kent at the Railway Laboratory, Midland Junction.

4

L. J. H. Teakle and H. E. Hill.

From the tests on new material it became obvious that the humidity of
the air above the superphosphate affected the tensile strength. Whereas
the normal tensile strength of twine may be taken as 35 lbs., six strings
under examination in bottles averaged more than 40 lbs., the difference
being due to the fact that the humidity above the superphosphate was
greater than that of the atmosphere. The string absorbs moisture and
increases in tensile strength; drying decreases the tensile strength. Owing
to this variability, conclusions can only be based on major differences.

On the other hand, experimental conditions were severe and it is thought
that differences of practical importance are so magnified that the observed
effects on the twine are highly significant.

In tests on damaged material, the extent of the damage affects the
accuracy of measurement. Jute materials damaged by superphosphate are
discoloured brownish or reddish; the fibres become brittle and, in cases of
severe damage, are furry in appearance and powder in the fingers. Under
these conditions they cannot be bent or tied and tests were therefore made
by means of a straight-out pull. In consequence, the resultant figures may
be somewhat higher than could be expected from bags being handled in
transport. Where the tensile strength for twine is less than 5 lbs. the
destruction may be regarded as practically complete; a tensile strength of
20 lbs. indicates severe damage.

Tests on damaged jute materials followed three main lines of investiga-
tion — (i) tests on superphosphate bags returned from the country; (ii)
laboratory tests to determine the action of superphosphates from rocks of
different sources on jute materials; (iii) determination of relationship be-
tween temperature and severity of damage.

(i) Tests on Superphosphate Bags Returned from the Country.

In order to obtain information regarding the damage to superphosphate
bags during the 1942 despatch, arrangements were made in February for
the collection of representative bags by district officers of the Department
of Agriculture. These were obtained subsequent to the hottest part of the
weather and also subsequent to the initiation of control measures by the
manufacturers.

It is well established that, in railway trucks, damage is always most
severe on the upper sides of bags in contact with the tarpaulins. Maximum
temperatures develop at these points and there will be a tendency for volatile
substances to be liberated and concentrate where temperatures are highest.
Whether condensation during the cooler night periods is a factor is not
known; in the later laboratory tests (p. 9) no condensation occurred and
the action was very severe.

Standard strips were selected to represent varying positions of the bags
in the trucks and, where information was available, the upper and lower
sides of the bag. Examination of the bags showed that deterioration was
not uniform— some parts were relatively strong and other parts almost
rotten.

Tests of tensile strength showed that three specimens of the eleven bags
containing superphosphate were seriously damaged. These were despatched

The Deterioration of Jute Materials.

5

early in the season and apparently suffered hot weather in the trucks. The
remaining eight bags were normally sound for superphosphate bags.*

(ii) Laboratory Tests to Determine the Action of Superphosphates from

Rocks of Different Sources on Jute Materials.

In this section of the investigation two series of tests were made.

In the first series, standard strips of sacking were placed in stoppered
bottles containing superphosphate. Some strips were in contact with the
superphosphate; others were suspended in the vapour phase above it. The
bottles were exposed to the weather on a roof for a number of days before
the determination of the tensile strength. These tests were carried out
during two periods, January 22nd to 28th and February 3rd to 13th, 1942.
The first period was the hotter, the maximum solar radiation temperature
being 70 °C. and the average 63 °C., compared with 64° C. and 60° C. for
the second period.

The results of the first test are given in Table 1, and from them the
following principles emerge:

(a) There appears to be no relationship between the amount of the

excess acidity and the damage to the fabric.

(b) Superphosphate containing chloridef but little or no hydro-

fluoric acid, as shown by freedom from etching in the glass
containers, caused most severe damage.

TABLE ].

Superphosphate.

Excess
Acidity.
(% H 2 S0 4 )

Water
Soluble
Chloride
as % HC1

Tensile

Strength.

lbs.

A. — Superphosphates causing moderate to severe etching.

Nauru I.

0-6

nil

Christmas

1*6

nil

Nauru I. plus 0-5% HF

nil

Nauru I. plus 0*7% H 2 SOj

...

nil

Kosseir I.

B. — Superphosphate causing little or no etching hut containing chloride.

0-9

•16

39

«

In the second series of tests, five-ply jute twine was substituted for the
strips. Eight-inch lengths of twine were used in 2-ounce bottles containing
20 grams of superphosphate. At least six pieces of twine were used for
each test and all treatments were carried out in an electric oven at the
required temperatures for a period of three days and four nights.

* Tests carried out at the same time on bags containing Potato Manure E (of which
potassium chloride is a constituent) despatched in hot weather, showed very serious
damage.

t Egyptian phosphate rock is mined at a depth of about 1,000ft. and occurs as a
layer below ground water level. The rock contains a small amount of water soluble
chloride. One sample analysed by Mr. Walker, of Cresco Fertilisers LtcC., contained 0 36%
water soluble chloride, equivalent to 0.59% sodium chloride. Another, representing
another shipment, contained water soluble chloride equivalent to 0.64% sodium chloride
The ground water is probably somewhat saline and the deposit of salt is left on the rock
when dried prior to, shipment.

6

L. J. H. Teakle and H. E. Hill.

Tests were made with superphosphate and also with ground rock phos-
phate from Nauru Island, Christmas Island, Kosseir and Sofaga. In con-
tact with superphosphate, damage always occurred but the extent varied
with the nature of the superphosphate and the temperature. Untreated
rock proved to be entirely inert both when in contact and when the jute
was in the vapour phase. There is no doubt that the active agent is
liberated as a result of the treatment with sulphuric acid.

{iii) Relationship Between Temperature' and Severity of Damage.

This section of the investigation dealt with the effect of temperature
on the different types of superphosphates and on superphosphates manu-
factured from rock phosphate to which chlorides had been added.

Enquiries and preliminary investigations had indicated that tempera-
ture was an important factor in the deterioration of jute materials and that,
in the vapour phase, damage only occurred above a certain temperature.
Investigations on jute twine were carried out in the laboratory under con-
ditions ranging from room temperature (21° C.) to an oven temperature of
75°C. and the results are set out in Table 2.

TABLE 2.

Temperature.

°C.

Superphosphate.

Nauru, t

Christmas. f

Kosseir A.{

Sofaga A.J

Contact.

Vapour.

Contact.

Vapour.

Contact.

Vapour.

Contact.

Vapour.

Room Temperature
45

50

60

70

75

lbs.

32

26

18

7

4

3

lbs.

41

35

40

33

14

8

lbs.

39

32

29

15

5

2

lbs.

40

36

38

35

33

21*

lbs.

39

15

12

1

1

lbs.

46

37

43

18

9

lbs.

46

21

7

2

lbs.

50

32

"46

20

Free Acidity % H 2 S0 4 ....

0-6

1*6

0-9

1-

59

Water Soluble Chloride %
HC1

nil

nil

0-16

Oil

* Very variable duplicates. f Room temperature range 19°C. to 27°C.

X Room temperature range 18°C. to 22°C.

Iii this test the two groups of superphosphates were found to behave
somewhat differently. In the fluoride group, deterioration in contact in-
creased more or less regularly with increase in temperature, the Nauru
becoming damaging at about 50°C. and the Christmas Island at about 60°C.
In the vapour phase no activity was apparent until about 70°C., which
temperature may be regarded as threshold for excessive damage in this
gioup. Etching of the glassware in contact with the superphosphate sug-
gests that hydrofluoric acid is the causative agent. In the chloride group,
deterioration in contact occurred at a lower temperature both Kosseir and
Sofaga becoming damaging at about 45°C. The Kossier proved more severe
and in the vapour phase was damaging at 60° C. Hydrochloric acid, formed
by the action of sulphuric acid on the original chloride, appears to be the
causative agent.

The Deterioration of Jute Materials.

7

The effect of chlorides in superphosphates on the tensile strength of
jute twine was further tested on an experimental scale by adding various
chlorides to Nauru rock phosphate prior to acid treatment in the manufacture
of superphosphate. Sodium chloride, calcium chloride and magnesium
chloride were used but, as the results were similar, only figures for sodium
chloride are given. These are shown in Table 3, where they are compared
with superphosphate from Kosseir rock.

TABLE 3.

Chloride Content (as % HC1).

Temperature.

Nauru

phosphate.

Nauru phosphate plus
sodium chloride.

Kosseir

phosphate.

None.

0 102.

0-94.

' 016.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

50°C. contact ...

31

10

1

12

vapour ...

42

43

16

43

60°C. contact ...

18

2

zero

1

vapour ...

40

29

6

18

70°C. contact ...

12

2

zero

1

vapour ...

39

40

9

9

The results show conclusively the extremely damaging effect of super-
phosphate made from rock containing chlorides. Excessive damage occurred
both in contact and in the vapour phase and the degree of damage increased
as the concentration of the chloride was increased. This confirmed that
hydrochloric acid liberated by the action of the sulphuric acid on the
chloride in the course of manufacture is the causative agent in the case of
superphosphate made from Egyptian rock.

Tests on jute materials were also made with aqueous solutions of
hydrochloric, hydrofluoric and nitric acids and sodium fluosilicate and with
a solution of sodium fluosilicate in 5 per cent, sulphuric acid. The tensile
strength of the jute twine suspended in the vapour phase above these
substances for three days and four nights at 70° C. and of dry and moist
twine were as follows : —

3 per cent hydrochloric acid

3 per cent hydrofluoric acid

6*5 per cent, nitric acid

Sodium fluosilicate aqueous solution

Sodium fluosilicate in 5 per cent, sulphuric acid

Dry twine

Twine suspended above distilled water

lbs.

zero

27 *

7

37

14

31

45

*The bottle containing the hydrofluoric acid was waxed to protect the glass. How-
ever, the wax melted and floated on the solution so that 27 lbs. may not be an accurate
figure for the damaging effect of hydrofluoric acid on the jute fabric.

8

L. J. H. Teakle and H. E. Hill.

These tests further confirmed that hydrochloric acid was the most
damaging substance although it is possible that all of these agents may take
part in the damage which occurs in the vapour phase. No explanation of the
effect of the sodium fluosilicate in 5 per cent, sulphuric acid is offered.

(3) Measures Likely to Assist in the Protection of the Bags.

This section of the investigation concerned treatment of the bags and
treatment of the superphosphate, and materials were studied firstly in
stacking tests (in which bags containing different superphosphates were
stacked in the open under tarpaulins to simulate railway conditions) and
secondly in the laboratory.

(i) Stacking Tests.

Stacking tests were designed by manufacturers and carried out at two
metropolitan factories. Both bags and superphosphates were subjected to
treatment and, after being stacked for about a month, the bags were tested
in the laboratory. The results of two separate tests are given in Tables 4
and 5 respectively.

TABLE 4.

Super

Super

Bag Treatment.

Tensile Strength of
Sacking 1 inch wide.

Mixture.

Treatment.

Upper

side.

Lower

side.

Xmas-Egypt

2% CaC0 3

None

lbs.

94

lbs.

118

None

Lime dust ...

86

122

Soda-ash solution, J hour

72

100

Soda-ash dust

70

125

}f

55 * • •

Soda-ash spray, 30 gm/bag

56

90

Limestone dust

25

72

55

5% phos.

None

24

76

rock

None

Dicalcium phosphate dust

23

86

55

55 • • •

Phosphate rock dust

18

76

None

18

75

55 • • •

Rot proof solution, £ hour

18

82

55

55 * ■ ■

Gypsum solution, 48 hours

14

105

None

12

62

Lime solution, 48 hours*

12

46

Immersed in water, 48 hours ...

10

96

55

55 • • •

Gypsum dust

10

40

55

55 • • •

Super solution, ^ hour ...

8

64

* Bag appeared completely rotted in patches.

In Table 4 the treatments are arranged in order of increasing deteri-
oration of the fabric on the upper sides of the bags as they lay in the stack.
From the results given, it is obvious that mildly alkaline substances, either
mixed with the superphosphate or impregnated in the bags, are protective,
the best effect being obtained by mixing 2% ground limestone with the

The Deterioration of Jute Materials.

9

superphosphate. Soda ash used either as a dip, dust or spray, proved
almost as effective. Other treatments were of little or no use. Soaking
in superphosphate solution hastened deterioration and immersion of the bags
for half an hour in lime solution proved highly damaging.

TABLE 5.

Sample

Superphosphate

or

Super. Mixture.

Free

Acidity

(%H 2 so 4 ).

Super,
treatment —
Per cent, of
ground
limestone*
added.

Bag

treatment —
Upper sides
sprayed with
soda ash
solution.

Tensile Strength of Sacking
1 inch wide (lbs.).

Upper Side.

Lower Side.

13

Nauru Island ....

1-03

none

none

22

58

7

Christmas Is

1-19

none

none

32

66

10

Egyptian

2-30

none

none

30

52

2

Christmas-Egypt

1-75

none

none

8

34

15

mixture

do.

1-75

none

0% soln.

54

52

18

do.

1*75

none

20% soln.

72

44

3

do.

2

none

21

44

16

do.

2

10% soln.

78

42

19

do.

2

20% soln.

89

60

4

do.

4

none

48

84

17

do.

4

10% soln.

84

78

20

do.

4

20% soln.

120

79

* Contains about 60% CaC0 3 .

Table 5 generally confirmed the results of Table 4 and emphasised that
damage is most severe on the upper sides of the bags in contact with the
tarpaulin. In this test 2% ground limestone was insufficient to affoid moie
than very slight protection but 4% gave considerable protection. The
variation in the results of the two tests is due to differences in weather
conditions. The amount of limestone added must, therefore, be adjusted to
meet the needs of each type of superphosphate* and must be sufficient to
allow for temperature variations likely to occur during transit.

(ii) Laboratory Tests.

The laboratory tests followed two lines of investigation: the protection
afforded by incorporation of calcium carbonate in the superphosphate and
the reduction of the proportion of acid used in preparing the superphos-
phate.

(a) Incorporation of Calcium Carbonate . — Throughout these tests
finely divided precipitated calcium carbonate (Merck) was used and the
required quantities were thoroughly mixed with the superphosphate.

The first series of tests were run in conjunction with the assessment of
damage to strips of jute sacking by superphosphate exposed on the roof
in February, 1942 (p. 5), the superphosphate in this case containing from
2% to 6% of added calcium carbonate. The tensile strength of the sacking
is given in Table 6.

* Experience in a factory in 1943 indicates that more than 5% ground limestone
may cause setting of the superphosphate. If less than 3% is used, adequate protection
of the bags may not be accomplished.

10

L. J. H. Teakle and H. E. Hill.

TABLE 6.

Superphosphate or
Superphosphate Mixture.

Tensile Strength of sacking 1 inch wide (lbs.).

Amount of precipitated calcium carbonate added.

None.

2%-

4%.

6%-

Nauru ...

110

150

Christmas

129

129

144

136

Egyptian

102

132

136

146

Kosseir ...

35

128

172

...

f Christmas 84% . . .

Mixture ■< Egyptian 14% ...

128

150

152

...

(^Limestone 2% ...

In this table only contact figures are given as, with the exception of
Nauru superphosphate which for some unaccountable reason showed de-
terioration, no damage was observed in the vapour phase. The table shows
the severe damage caused by Kosseir superphosphate in contact with
jute and, further, confirms the results of stacking tests on the efficacy of
added calcium carbonate. The weather during this period was not excessively
hot.

Standard laboratory tests using jute twine were then carried out on the
effect of addition of 2% precipitated calcium carbonate to Nauru and
Christmas Island superphosphates over a range of temperatures from 19° C.
to 75° C. The results are given in Table 7.

TABLE 7.

Tensile strength of jute twine (lbs.) in contact with —

Temperature.

°C.

Nauru Superphosphate.

Christmas I. Superphosphate.

Without

CaC0 3 .

With 2 per
cent CaCOg.

Without

CaCOg.

With 2 per
cent. CaCOg.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

19-27

32

38

39

40

45

26

37

32

42

50

18

36

29

33

60

7

30

15

27

70

4

36

5

22

75

3

34

2

20

These results show practically complete protection for Nauru super-
phosphate up to 75° C. but only 60° C. for Christmas Island.

Standard tests were next carried out on Kosseir and Sofaga super-
phosphates with varying added amounts of calcium carbonate at 70° C., the
results being given in Table 8.

The Deterioration of Jute Materials.

11

TABLE 8.

(Tests made at 70°C.)

Superphosphate.

Per Cent, of
Calcium Carbonate
added.

Tensile Strength of jute twine.

Contact.

Vapour.

lbs.

lbs.

Nauru

none

4

14

. 2

36

33

Christmas

none

5

33

2

22

35

Kosseir

none

1

9

2

9

34

10

4

36

12

11

38

.Sofaga

none

2

20

2

12

37

10

12

38

12

32

34

These results are discouraging in that large amounts of calcium car-
bonate were necessary to afford protection to jute bags when in contact
with Kosseir and Sofaga superphosphates at high temperatures. Protection
in the vapour phase was satisfactory with 2% added calcium carbonate.

(b) Reduction in the Amount of Sulphuric Acid used in Manufacturing
the Superphosphate. — As it was first thought that the increased acidity of
the new season’s superphosphate (p. 3) was an important factor in pro-
moting the damage observed in the 1941/42 season, the effect of using less
than the customary amount of acid was investigated. Standard tests were
made on jute twine, using first the usual amount of acid in the manufacture
of the superphosphate and then 95, 90 and 85% of this amount. The results
are given in Table 9.

In each ease the superphosphate was allowed to mature for at least one
month before testing.

In no instance does this table indicate any significant difference in the
damaging effect resulting from variations in the amount of acid used. Fur-
thermore, the free acidity of the superphosphate was always substantial,
irrespective of the amount of sulphuric acid used in its preparation. It
seems that the responsible agent is released in damaging amounts in the
initial stages of the reaction between the acid and the rock; the reaction
between the acid and the rock phosphate does not go to completion and
there is always a residue of free sulphuric or phosphoric acid in the
superphosphate which decreases slowly with time during storage. The
residue of unattacked rock in the superphosphate, which is not acted on
by the remaining acid, does not protect the bags from damaging agents.
This conclusion is supported by the finding (in Table 4) that rock flour
was ineffective as a protective agent.

12

L. J. H. Teakle and H. E. Hill.

TABLE 9.

Tensile strength of jute

Rock.

Proportion
of acid

Free

Aciditv

Water

Soluble

twine in contact with
superphosphates (lbs.)

used in

% '

Chloride

manufacture.

h,so 4 .

(%HC1).

45°C and
55°C.

70°C.

55°C

Nauru ...

100

117

less than

24

8

95

1-27

001

30

2

90

1-02

31

3

85

0-70

27

4

45°C.

Christmas

100

204

less than

29

16

95

1-47

001

35

14

90

1*34

34

14

85

1 07

38

11

Kosseir ...

100

1 *24

016

13

1

95

1-22

16

1

90

1 14

17

1

85

1-22

10

1

Sofaga ...

100

1-59

Oil

21

2

95

1-44

17

3

90

1-29

25

1

85

110

14

2

Damage in the vapour phase occurred only with the Kosseir and Sofaga super-
phosphates at 70°C.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS.

(1) Damaging Agents.

The tests reported above give conclusive evidence of the damage to jute
materials by superphosphate under a range of conditions. The damage
results in brownish-reddish discoloration of the fabric, loss of tensile strength
and, in cases of severe damage, extreme brittleness.

The deterioration is due to a number of agents of an acidic character,
of which hydrochloric, hydrofluoric and excess sulphuric or phosphoric acid
are the most important.

Of these, hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids are the most active —
hydrochloric being the more severe — and they are responsible for the
excessive damage which occurs over a short period of time. They are
occluded in the granules of superphosphate and act very severely on the
fabric with which they come in contact. They act also in the vapour phase
as the temperature rises sufficiently to cause a substantial volatilisation,,
hydrochloric becoming damaging at lower temperatures than hydrofluoric.,
1 he other two acids, sulphuric and phosphoric, probably exert a mild action
on the fabric in contact and will become severely damaging when this contact
is prolonged over a long period.

Temperature is another factor of prime importance. In superphos-
phates containing hydrochloric acid fabrics in contact are subject to excessive

The Deterioration of Jute Materials.

13

damage as the temperature rises above 45 °C. and, in the vapour phase,
above 60°C.; with hydrofluoric acid types excessive damage occurs in con-
tact above 50°C., and, in the vapour phase, above 70°C.

The presence of chloride in Egyptian phosphate rock (p. 5, footnote)
presents a problem in the manufacture of superphosphate and there is need
for an investigation into the nature of the chloride. If it occurs solely as
the water soluble form, it may be possible to remove it by leaching before
manufacture.

(2) Control Measures.

(i) Facilitation of Escape of Volatile Acid Vapours.

Factory practice may be modified to facilitate the escape of volatile acid
vapours, both in the mixer and in stacks.

(ii) Neutralisation of Acids.

Running tests should be made to determine the amount of alkaline sub-
stances to be incorporated with the superphosphate to give maximum pro-
tection, having regard to the nature of the superphosphate and temperature
conditions. Such a treatment would result in some dilution of the super-
phosphate and a reduction in the water soluble phosphoric oxide content.
Experiments indicate, however, that the addition of ground limestone does
not reduce the value of the phosphate in wheat growing.

(iii) Spraying.

Protection is afforded by the spraying of alkaline solutions on the upper
surfaces of the topmost bags in the trucks immediately under the tarpaulins
where optimum conditions for deterioration occur.

(iv) Transport.

Despatch of superphosphate manufactured from rock containing chlo-
ride should be reduced to a minimum during the hottest months of the year.
Delays in transport should be avoided.

(v) Bulk Storage on Farms.

Farmers should arrange to store the superphosphate in bulk as far as
possible and a cement floor will be found convenient. After emptying, the
bags should be well washed with water. A small amount of lime may be
added to the washing water but strong suspensions of lime should be
avoided. (P. 8, Table 4.)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The authors acknowledge the help and advice of the superphosphate
manufacturers during this work and the assistance of colleagues in making
many of the tests.

By Authority : Robert H. Miller, Government Printer, Perth.

\

?

r 1 1

A Kkvision of tii K \Yi«>tkkn Ai strauan

SlM'H II S OF TltfODl A R.Bit. 1

2.— A REVISION OF THE W ESTERN AUST 11 A LI AN
SPECIES OF TRIODIA R. BR.

By Nancy T. Burbidce, B.Sc. (Hons.).

Road, 14tli March, 1044.

Voinmunioated by A. (Jakdner.

The revision of the species of this genus in Western Australia was under-
taken as a result of investigations concerning the management, and currying
capacity of certain natural pastures in the north-west of the State. The
investigations were being made by officers of the Institute of Agrieu/turo of
the University of Western Australia. The species are all xerophytic grasses
with a characteristic tussock habit and pungent pointed loaves. Although
the genus is found throughout tropical and arid Aust ralia., it. is only in Western
Australia that there is a definite pastoral zone dependent on these grasses.
The zone, speaking very broadly, is a triangle with its base lino along the
Ashburton River and its apex at Broome. To t he sout h of this area, the
country grades into the mulga zone with Avne la spp. as the' dominant, forms.
To the east is desert country whore more Triad ia occurs but, by reason of
poor water supplies and general inaccessibility, no leases have been taken up.
{South of this pastoral /one some species of Triodin do occur hut they are of no
value to t he pastoral ist.

The name c ‘ spinifox ” is commonly, but erroneously, attached to t hese
grasses. The word is so widely and so consistently used by pastoralists t hat
it is accepted in some places in this paper to avoid further confusion. Actually
the name fipinifex belongs to another genus of grasses which, in this part of
Australia is commonly found on sand dunes near the coast. Some of the
species of Triodin have been called “porcupine grass” though not in this
State and this name will not bo used in this paper.

Economic) Value tn Western Australia.

By far the most important species is Triodin pungem since it is the only
one which is readily eaten by sheep. It. is also widely distributed throughout
the more arid sections of the State which have a predominantly summer
rainfall. It is a variable species and edibility is related to t he growth form,
as well as to the age of the plant. 'This will he further discussed under the
spec bos description. T. pungent is tolerant, of different soil conditions and it.
ranges through the whole of the pastoral zone, described above, and extends
right across to Queensland. As will ho shown it. has been collected, by the
author, over a considerable area of the pastoral zone and field notes concern-
ing variability am available. So far as edibility is concerned trials carried
out at Warralong Station, < ’oongan River, by officers of the Institute of Agri-
culture, showed that the digestibility of this species is approximately HO per
cent.

With reference to tho ecological association of which T. pungent* is t he
dominant species it should be realised that herbage resulting from t he growth
of annual fodder plants is scanty in most seasons, in comparison with the
flush of growth which appears in mulga country. Tho perennial grasses
form a closed community and, except whore they are burnt hack, there is
little ephemeral growth. The practice of burning back the tussocks when

h 8000/45

16

Nancy T. Btjriuihh:

they become old, coarse and unpalatable is used throughout the area. This
means that there are odd patches in all paddocks, where a certain amount of
herbage is available to the grazing animal. As a general rule this is entirely
eaten out by the sheep before they will touch the rough fare offered by the
tussock grasses. Top feed is not important in the spinifex areas.

The majority of the rest of the species come under the heading of Buck
Spinifex, i.e., very rigiddeaved forms in comparison with T. pungens which
is commonly called “ Soft Spinifex.” The value of Buck spinifexes to the
pastoralist is very small. In most cases the seedheads are eaten by stock.

Some species regenerate less readily than others. As a whole the spinifex
association is an extremely stable one, ecologically. This is a fact of prime
importance when the risks of soil erosion as a result of denudation by grazing
animals is considered. So far the spinifex plains do not seem to be showing
any marked deterioration but along the rivers which serve as stock routes
there has been serious depletion as a result of overgrazing or of floods follow-
ing heavy stocking. However in such habitats the Triodia association gives
way to a savannah type with Eucalypts and annual grasses.

T. pungens is the only resinous species among these discussed in this
paper. The gum is used by natives for many purposes, e.g., for fastening
axe or spear heads to their shafts. So highly is it valued by the uncivilised
tribes that it is an important item in bartering and even serves as a form of
currency. It is believed that the seeds of a number of species are eaten.

History and Limitation of the Genus,

Triodia was described by Robert Brown in Prodromus Florae Novae
Hollandiae p. 182 : 1810. The name refers to the triclentate character of the
lemmas. Bentham (Benth. et Hook. F. Gen. PI. iii. 1175, 1883) and Hackel
(Engl. u. Prantl., Nat. Pflanzenf. IIAbt. 2. 68) took a wide view of the genus
and included certain North American species. However, Stapf in his arrange-
ment of the material in the Kew Herbarium (Hubbard in Hook. leones PI.
Vol. iv. t. 3336, 1937) restricted the name of the Australian species and placed
most of the American material in Tridens. This is a much more satisfactory
arrangement. The lemmas in the American material are definitely three
nerved and the outer nerves are more or less marginal. In the Australian
species the nerves are in three groups of three or more, each group ending in the
lobes and where the group is reduced to a single nerve it is not uncommon to
find vestiges of nerves at the base. There is also a tremendous difference in
the general habit of the two sets of species. While the American species are
small tufted grasses the Australian ones are large tussocks with rigid, pungent
pointed leaves. The odd geographic range must also be considered. There
is a general resemblance between the habitats the two genera occupy.

Brown described four species of which T. pungens is the type for the genus.
None of the type material was collected in Western Australia. Bentham (FL
Austral, vii. p. 605 : 1878) however, had the use of a larger amount of material
and he listed T. pungens and T. microstarhya for this State as well as his own
species T. Cunninghatnii. Concerning the first of these Hubbard (Hook.
Ie. II. \ ol. iv. , t. 3336, 1937 ) has declared that the western material represents
a distinct species. Nevertheless the author, as a result of field work, is con-
vinced that the variations existing bridge the gap of the eastern material and
definition, even as a variety, is not possible. Lhis decision is supported bv
the agreement in foliar anatomy. T. microstarhya is reported for the North-
West Coast owing to a speciman collected by Cunningham. This specimen
was seen, by the author, while at the Kew Herbarium in 1 940 and it represents

A Revision of the Western Australian Species of Triodia R.Br. 17

a distinct species. It is described herein as T. angusta. T. Cun ninghamii
Benth. is not a satisfactory species. It was based on a specimen collected by
Cunningham in the Cambridge Gulf, on the extreme northern coast of Western
Australia. The specimen was seen at Kew and consisted of a few bare culms
and a rather battered panicle most of whose glumes were empty. Neither
the description nor the key characters are sufficient to distinguish it from
T. pungens. Specimens collected on the 80-mile Beach by the author agree
closely with the description but, with others, they grade into T. pungens.
Bentham’s name is accordingly regarded as a synonym in this paper.

Brown’s species T. procera and T. microstachya were collected on the
Upper Victoria River by Mueller. Gardner (Enum. P1. Aust. Occ. 1930) ac-
cepted these as Western Australian. However the locality belongs to the
Northern Territory so pending their collection in this State they cannot be
included in this paper. Brown’s remaining species T. irritans was also recorded
for the State by Gardner (l.c.) who has collected it from several localities.

T. Mitchell) Benth. was recorded by Gardner (l.c.). However Queensland
material, which had been compared with the type material, was made avail-
able through the courtesy of Mr. S. T. Blake, of the University of Queensland.
This showed that our specimen was not T. Mitchelli but a variation of T.
pungens.

Other species which have been described since the publication of the
Flora Australiensis include T . Basedowii Pritzel (Fedde, Repert. xv. 356 :
1918). T. lanigera Domin ( Journ . Linn. Soc.- Bond. xli. p. 278: 1912) and
T. longiceps J. M. Black {Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aus. liv. 59: 1930). The most
recent publication is T. Wiseana C. A, Gardner {Journ. Roy. Soc. W . Aust.
xxvii. 166 : 1942).

T. intermedia Cheel ( Svensk Vet- A had. Handb. U.S. lii. No. 10. 4. 1919)
does not belong in this genus.

Four new species are described herein.

Generic Description.

Spikelets arranged on capillary or short peduncles or more or less sessile
and secund on lateral branches of the panicle. Spikelets ovate to linear,
3-20 florets of which the upper two or three are empty and sterile. Glumes
equal or almost so, scarious or indurate ; 1-13 nerved ; obtuse, acute, acum-

inate or aristulate ; nerves often obscure ; glabrous or scabrid. Lemmas
tridentate with nerves in throe groups each consisting of three to seven nerves
or reduced to three nerves with or without vestiges at their bases. The
entire portion scarious, hardened or becoming yellow horny-indurate, glabrous
or pubescent. The lobes either mere indentations of the apex, in which case
the midlobe may be formed of the prolongation of the central nerve, or there
may be three scarious or rigid lobes as long as or longer than the entire portion.
In the former group the nerves are distinct in the entire portion of the lemma,
in the latter they are very obscure in the entire part and conspicuous in the
lobes owing to associated strands of chlorenchymatous tissue. Palea shorter
than the lemma, usually about as long as the entire portion ; the nerves may
be scabrid and prominent or with a thin membranous wing. Lodicules two.
cuneate or obovate. Stamens three. Anthers oblong or lancelate, in some
species dehiscing through subapical slits.

Perennial, xerophytic tussock-forming grasses. The tussocks may be up
to two metres in height and the same in diameter. The growth form may be
discoid, pyramidal or annular duo to the dying away of the central portion.

18

Nancy T. Burridge.

The leaves appear terete owing to the folding together of the two upper or
adaxial surfaces. In the field the leaf blade is not closed so that it appears
v-shaped in cross section. In herbarium specimens the blades are closed so that
they appear u-shaped in cross section. The blade may be glabrous, glaucous,
or pubescent. It is pungent pointed in all western species. The ligule
iis a row of short hairs across the whole of the top of the sheath. Since the
blade is narrower than the sheath there is a ridge, left on either side of the
base of the lamina, which may become auriculate and which usually bears hairs
longer than those of the ligule. Sheaths are glabrous, resinous or pubescent.
Panicles are erect with branches spreading at anthesis.

Bentham refers to the glumes as keeled but most of the western material
have glumes either rounded or very slightly keeled. One mistake commonly
made in connection with this genus is that the leaf is described as convolute.
As will be seen by the above description this is not the case. References
to open and narrow panicles are of little use since at anthesis all western
species, at least, spread their branches out at right angles to the main rhachis.
The spreading is due to a small swelling which appears at the base of each
branch. In practically all herbarium material the branches have returned
to the erect position.

The closest affinity is with Plectrachne Henr. This genus is distinguished
from Triodia because of its awn like lobes to the lemmas. In view of the varia-
tion already present within Triodia this seems an inadequate feature on which
to base a generic distinction.

Other affinities are with Astrebla and Danthonia.

Key to the Western Australian Species.

Lobes of lemmas with conspicuous nerves and as long or longer than
the entire portion where the nerves are obscure.

Lobes of the lemmas scarious. Leaf sheaths not
resinous, more or less woolly pubescent

Lateral lobes of the lemmas obtuse .... Basedoivii

Lateral lobes of the lemmas acuminate .... lanigera

Lobes of the lemmas rigid, erect or spreading.

Leaf sheaths resinous .... .... .... .... pungens

Lobes of lemma short (except in T. Wiseana ). The nerves visible, under
a lens, in both the base and the lobes.

Lower glume with three to seven nerves. Lowest lemma 5-8 mm.
long.

Lateral lobes of the lemmas acute. Nerves
of the palea winged.

Lobes of lemma nearly as long as entire
portion. Sheath orifice with stiff
glistening hairs 4-5 mm. long.

Leaves not glaucous .... .... .... Wiseana

Lobes of lemmas short. Sheath orifice
with short woolly hairs. Leaves
glaucous .... .... .... .... brizioides

Lateral lobes of the lemmas obtuse. Nerves
of palea not winged

irritans

A Revision of the Western Australian Species of Tr:od a R.Br. 19 1

Lower glume one nerved. Lowest lemma
2-4 mm. long

Spikelets pedunculate. Nerves of the palea
winged.

Lemmas thin, scarious. Glumes obtuse Fitzgeraldii

Lemmas indurate. Glumes acute or

acuminate .... .... .... .... longiceps

Spikelets sessile. Nerves of palea not
winged. Glumes acuminate or aristulate.

Lemmas glabrous or with few hairs.

Sheath orifice without auricular ap-
pendage. Leaves glaucous .... .... angusta

Lemmas pubescent on back and along
margin. Sheath orifice with fringed
appendage. Leaves not glaucous .... secunda

Species.

Triodia Basedowii Pritzel in Fedde, Report xv. 356 (1918).

This species differs from T. lanigera Domin in the obtuse lateral lobes of
the lemmas, the membranous palea and more obtuse glumes. It may be
distinguished from T. pungens R. Br. by the woolly not resinous leaf sheaths.

It forms a dense tussock which, owing to the death of the older central
parts, may become annular or crescentic. Culms erect or more or less ascend-
ing ; internodes short, branches at the upper nodes. Leaves rigid, sheaths
woolly-tomentose, especially towards the junction with the lamina, sometimes
becoming almost glabrous ; ligule a row of woolly hairs shorter than the to-
mentum of the auricular ridges, the latter hairs continued onto the base of the
base of the “ petiole ” ; the lamina is conduplicate, pungent pointed, minutely
striate owing to ridges of tissue developed above the nerves, glabrous, 5-25 cm.
long, 1 • 5 mm. wide, the petiole-like base 2-4 mm. long. Panicle narrower
and shorter than in T. lanigera , with fewer spikelets ; 8-12 cm. long. Spike-
lets spreading and truncate, pedunculate on the short panicle branches. Glumes
enclosing the lemmas and almost as long as the spikelet, lanceolate or oblong,
obtuse or shortly acute, membranous and becoming scarious, 9-13 nerved,
the central nerve reaching the apex, equal in size, 6-10 mm. long, 3-4 mm.
wide, minutely scabrid and slightly ciliolate towards the apex or quite glabrous
and entire. Lemmas 5-8 per spikelet, the lower 3-5 fertile and hermaphrodite,
lateral lobes obtuse, central lobe more or less acuminate, lateral lobes 4 mm.
long, central lobe 5 mm. in the lowest floret, whole lemma softly pubescent
and the margins of the lobes ciliolate. Palea obovate or oblong, the apex
incurved over the floral organs, minutely pubescent, nerves scabrid, texture
membranous. (PI. I., fig. 1.)

So far as is known this is a useless species like T. lanigera. It is wide
spread in the southern north-west and arid interior to the South Australian
border.

Distribution.- — Lake Way Station, Wiluna, Melville ( Burbidge No. 451) ;
north-east of Wiluna, Stewart ( Burbidge 446) ; 60 miles east of Meekatliarra.
Gardner , 2367 ; Sandstone, Gardner ; locality unknown, Hann, 1903.

20

Nancy T. Bukuiduk.

Triodia lanigera Domin in Journ. Linn. Soc. Bond. xli. 278: 1912.

Differs from T. pungens in the scarious (not rigid) lobes of the lemmas,
the scarious, many nerved glumes, and the glaucous foliage with woolly, not
resinous, sheaths.

Coarse perennial tussock-forming grass. Culms ascending, many noded,
branching at the upper nodes, internodes short, more or less woolly, especially
immediately below the nodes. Leaves glaucous, the sheaths much longer
than the internodes, tomentose or becoming glabrescent in the older parts ;
ligule a row of short hairs, the tomentum of the sheath continued on to the
petiole-like base of the lamina. The lamina rigid, pungent pointed, con-
duplicate, glabrous on the abaxial and scabrid on the adaxial surface, striate
under a lens, 10-20 cm. long, 2 mm. wide, the petiole-like base 3-5 mm. long
and narrower than the lamina which is much narrower than the sheath.
Panicle erect, loose, spreading at anthesis, branches with woolly hairs at their
bases. Spikelets cuneate with spreading florets, shortly pedunculate. Glumes
lanceolate or oblong, rounded on the back, scarious, 9—13 nerved, apex acute,
acuminate or shortly aristulate, the margin minutely ciliolate, 8-12 mm. long,
4 mm. wide. Lemmas commonly 6—8 of which the lower 4- 6 are hermaphrodite,
the rest with anthers or empty ; sharply divided into an indurate horny base
2-3 mm. long, in which there is little or no indication of the nerves, and the
three scarious lobes each of which is traversed by a group of 3-5 nerves, the
central nerve of each group reaching to the apex of the lobe, the nerves bounded
by a narrow strip of ehlorenchymatous tissue ; lobes acuminate and minutely
ciliolate, the lateral ones 4— 6 mm. long and the central one 7— 10 mm. in the
lowest lemma ; the whole lemma softly pubescent. Palea obovate or oblong,
curved in over the floral organs, the base commonly indurate and the apex
membranous, 3 mm. long in the lowest floret, the nerves ciliate and scabrid.
(PI. I., fig 2.)

The spikelets are reminiscent

of those of Danthonia

hi partita.

This species is completely worthless to the pastoralist except for the
possibility that the seedheads are occasionally sought by hungry stock. The
rigid, pungent pointed, dry leaves are cjuite unpalatable. It is found in the
arid summer rainfall areas of the State.

Distribution. Between Ashburton and \ule Divers, Clement (type
seen at Kew Herbarium) ; Warralong Station, Anderson ( B-urbidge Xo. 447
and 453), also Melville {Burbidge 454) and Burbidge 1222 (the last near Shaw
Diver) ; Abydos Station south-west of Marble Bar, Stewart ; South of Ash-
burton Diver, Gardner 6233 ; between Gascoyne and Fortescue Divers, H. S.
King ; Mia Mia Station, Minilya Diver, Gardner 3203 ; Minilva Diver, Gardner
3209, 4109, 6219 ; Lyndon near Carnarvon. Mead leg M77.

Triodia pungens R.Br. in Prodr. FI. Novae Holl. p. 182: 1810 ; C. E.
Hubbard in Hook. leones PI. Yol. iv. pt. ii. t. 3336 ; T. viscida Doem et
Schult. Sys. Yeg. ii. 599: 1817 ; Festuca viscida F. Muell. Yeg. Chath. Isl.
59: 1864 ; Triodia Cimninghamii Benth. in FI. Austral, vii. 606: 1878.

Perennial tussock grass. The growth form is very variable and is further
discussed below . Culms glabrous, erect or ascendent or forming long stolons
with tufts of short erect culms at the apex. Leaves conduplicate, the blade
more or less open when growing ; sheaths coated with a resinous secretion,
former descriptions refer to the leaves being resinous. In all specimens
examined, both in the herbarium and in the field, it was found that the resin
is onhy present on other portions of the plant where they are in contact with

A Revision of the Western Australian Species of Triodia R.Br. 21

the sheaths. At the orifice of the sheath there are long hairs on the auricular
ridge and these are usually matted together with the resin. The ligule is
a row of short hairs extending right across the inner face of the top of the
sheath. The lamina is narrower than the sheath. The petiole-like base is
shorter than in most species. The margin of the lamina is scabrid and the
apex pungent but the point is not rigid as in fcl Buck Spinifex.” Panicle
pyramidal at anthesis but in most herbarium material the branches erect
and the spikelets clustered together, variable in size and from 10-40 cm.
long. Spikelets linear to ovate (in spikelets with fewer lemmas), with more
or less imbricate lemmas, shortly pedunculate or almost sessile along the
panicle branches, 4-11 florets. Glumes lanceolate, ovate or oblong, concave,
becoming indurate ; nerves 5-7 usually obscure ; glabrous or minutely
scabrid ; the apex acute, shortly aristulate or ragged. Lemmas divided into
an entire, indurate basal portion which covers the floral organs and three
rigid, erect or spreading acuminate lobes which vary from as long as to longer
than the basal part ; the latter apparently without nerves, pubescent at the
base and up the middle of the abaxial surface ; the lobes with 3-5 nerves
each bounded by a green strip of chlorenchymatous tissue, and a thin scarious
margin which is minutely ciliolate. Palea elliptical, slightly longer than the
entire portion of the lemma and usually curved over the floral organs, apex
ciliate, nerves narrowly winged. Anthers oblanceolate, dehiscing from sub-
apical slits. Caryopsis oblong. (PI. I., fig 3.)

Despite the wide variation in the growth form and in the dimensions of
the parts of the spikelets, the author, after due consideration of both herb-
arium material and field information has come to the conclusion that varieties
in the taxonomic sense cannot be distinguished. It has been found that
spikelet variations cannot be correlated with differences in habit. Thus
growth forms with quite different values as feed cannot be recognised simply
from a herbarium specimen. The differences between the majority of the
material are differences of degree only, e.g., relative length of spikelets, relative
length of glumes to lemmas, etc. Again, Hubbard’s view (leones PI. iv. ii.
t. 3336 : 1937) that the western material represents a distinct species, has
been disagreed with for the same reason. The western specimens have a
more heavily indurate base to the lemma, which is usually yellow and horny
but intermediates occur. The spikelets in our material have more florets
but this has been found to depend partly on the vigour of the plant, which
is related to the habitat or to the time of year in which the panicle develops,
which again is a matter of habitat. Apart from field notes more than a hun-
dred separate collectings were available on which to base the conclusions
expressed herein.

Nevertheless the growth forms that are evident in the field are described
below so that some idea of the variation of the species is made available.
All these forms and less distinct ones, not described, have their significance
for the pastoralist. The grazing animals (sheep) show definite preferences
for some forms. This is a result not only of different food values but also
because of more direct reasons for palatability, e.g., the leaves are less resinous,
or less pungent, or less scabrid and fibrous. The habitat effects the form to
a certain extent though broadly speaking there are few major soil alterations
throughout the area over which this species is distributed (except 80 Mile
Beach country).

The forms are divided into two groups : — (a) forms with a dense cushion-
Jike tussock which does not develop long runners, {b) forms with a tussock
formed chiefly by loosely tangled stolons or runners which develop semi-
independent tussocks at their ends. The former group is the larger.

Nancy T. Bubbidge.

99

Group (a) includes the following : —

(i) A large domed tussock up to a metre or more in height and about
the same in diameter. The general habit is dense. The sheaths are very
resinous and on older culms the resin is dried to a white incrustation. The
leaves are dark green, the blades about 20-25 cm. long and scabrid along
the margins which are spread apart. The panicle is large and 50—70 cm.
higher than the tussock. The panicle branches are long, the lower ones
bearing 6-10 spikelets, each of the latter bearing more than six florets.

This is a coarse form which is eaten in the young stages. Later the
sheep turn to it only in case of necessity. It is common on the plains along the
De Grey River and southwards to Marble Bar.

(ii) Dark green tussock smaller than the preceding to which it approaches
closely. The leaves are usually very scabrid but there are plants with smooth
margined leaves. It differs in lacking the white incrustation on the older
portions, in its smaller size and its smaller panicle whose branches bear 4-5
spikelets. It is a very resinous form.

It is, perhaps, the most common form of soft spinifex. It was found by
the author on all inland stations visited. It is, in some places, subject to
variation due to habitat. For example, at Mount Edgar Station, south-east
from Marble Bar, it grew as a small compact tussock on the higher rocky
ground anti as a more vigorous larger tussock in the hollows. It is eaten
in the young stages and also later except where there is a high proportion
of dead leaves.

(i ii) Low flat tussock about 30 cm. high and up to 2-3 metres in diameter.
The central or older portion commonly dies off. In this case the dried culms
disintegrate and blow away. The panicle is short, 10— 20 cm. long and com-
pact, i.e., the branches arise close together.

This form was well developed in the country adjacent to the Coongan
River, a tributary of the De Grey. It appeared to be fairly palatable to
sheep.

(iv) Small dense tussock 30-40 cm. high with very yellowish green leaves.
This was an easily recognisable form in the field. The leaf blades are softer
than in other forms and the blades are closed so that the leaf appears terete.
The panicle is again short and only about 20-30 cm. higher than the tussock.
The spikelets are very squat and ovate.

Common along the De Grey plains. It occurs in small areas amongst
(i) and (ii) from which it can be easily separated.

fv) Hill Spinifex. The tussocks on the rocky slopes are very short
culmed. The leaf blades are variable and* in the gullies may grow to more
than 30 cm., though usually they are 15-20 cm. long. The panicle has fewer
spikelets, which are narrower and with the lemmas more imbricate. The
glumes are rather scarious, not indurate, and the lobes of the lemmas are
shorter than in the plains forms. The plants are less resinous.

Found on all hilly country in the Pilbara area. It is apparently an
ecotype, being restricted to its habitat. The hills on which it grows are
stony, arid, and barren.

(vi) Coastal Spinifex. The plants are characterised by their long leaves,
30-50 cm. long, thin and wiry as in (iv). The general habit is a dense central
butt with a loose mass of surrounding culms. The panicle has spikelets
which are consistently smaller than those of the inland forms. The smaller

A Revision of the Western Australian Species of Triodia R.Br.

\

ones agree so closely with those described for T. Cunninghamii Benth., that
this name is regarded as a synonym of T. pungens. There are, however,
intermediate sizes so that it is not possible to make a variety.

This form is only found on the grey sand and loam soils of the coastal
plain along the 80 Mile Beach.

Group ( b ) has two forms : —

(vii) Runner Spinifex. Practically the whole of the plant is made up of
long stolons. In one place a tussock was seen which was more than three
metres in diameter but the possible range varies down to a metre. The panicle
has no very special characteristics except that the glumes are usually longer
than the three lowest lemmas instead of as long as the lowest lemma but
this may not be constant. The leaf blades are scabrid and open when growing.

This form was found in rather small patches all through the plains coun-
try along the De Grey River. It grows on country adjacent to the rivers
but not actually along the banks. It appears to set very little seed and does
not regenerate easily like the first four forms.

(viii) Pindan Spinifex. The growth form is very like that of (vii) but
there is a cushion tussock with radiating stolons. It is fairly resinous and
there are no special panicle features.

This type is mentioned as it occurs in a different ecological community.
Spinifex pindan is an Acacia — tussock grass association. Either Triodia
or Plectrcichne is found in the lower stratum. Spinifex pindan occurs in the
“ desert ” country inland from the coastal plain of the 80 Mile Beach and to
the north of the De Grey River. Form (viii) appears to be less palatable
to sheep than is (vii).

Distribution. — Anna Plains, Burbidge ; Nalgi, Burbidge ; Wallal Downs,
Burbidge ; Pardoo, Burbidge ; De Grey Station, Burbidge also Anderson :
Poondanah Siding, Burbidge ; Port Hedland, Fitzgerald 64, 1558 ; Shaw
River, Anderson (Burbidge No. 465) ; Mulyee Station, Anderson (Burbidge
463) ; Coongan Station, Anderson also Melville also Burbidge ; Warralong
Station, Anderson , also Melville also Burbidge ; Gorge Range, Burbidge ;
Soda Creek, on Coongan Station, Burbidge ; Muccan Station, De Grey River,
Burbidge ; Kitty’s Gap, Burbidge ; Eginbah Station, Burbidge ; Marble
Bar, Burbidge ; Mount Edgar Station, Burbidge ; Stony Hills to south of
Mount Edgar, Burbidge ; Meentheena Station, Blair ; Dampier Archipelago,
Walcot ; Nichol Bay, Sewell ; Roebourne, Polak ; Warambie Station, Roe-
bourne, H. G. Mecires ; Ashburton River, Morrison ; Cane River, Gardner
3074, 6238 ; Beadon, Gardner 3069, Port Sampson, Gardner 1638.

Triodia Wiseana C. A. Gardn. in Journ. Boy. Soc. W. Aust. xxvii 166:
1942.

This species can be identified by the peculiar hairs developed on the auri-
cular ridge, at the top of the leaf sheath, and along the margin of the lower
portion of the lamina. The lemmas have three acute lobes and the nerves
are visible in the basal portion as well as in the lobes. The paleas have a
well developed wing on each nerve.

Culms ascending in dense tussocks ; internodes short, glabrous and
smooth ; branching from the upper nodes. Leaves rigid, divaricate, with
glistening hairs 4-6 mm. long developed on the auricular ridge at the top
of the sheath and along the lower part of the lamina. The hairs arise in

■24

Nancy T. Burbidge.

groups from small swellings. The ligule is a row of short hairs. The lamina
is conduplicate, minutely striate, pungent pointed, 10-20 cm. long, 2 mm.
wide. Panicle* 6-12 cm. long, loose, and open with spikelets on scabrid capil-
lary branches. Spikelets 8-10 mm. long. Glumes lanceolate or oblong, apex
acute or almost aristulate, commonly trinerved but sometimes having axillary
lateral nerves, subequal, glabrous, indurate, 4-5 mm. long. Lemmas imbri-
cate, 3-9, indurate, lanceolate with three rigid acute or acuminate lobes from
half to nearly as long as the entire portion ; three groups of three nerves
continued almost to the base ; with a row of hairs up the centre of the abaxial
surface and others along the margins ; lowest lemma 4-6 mm. long. Palea
oblong 3-4 mm. long, membranous or scarious, nerves winged. The margins
of the wings usually protrude slightly in the spikelet.

Gardner’s specimen was, unfortunately, rather immature. The peculiar
hairs on the leaves, however, showed it to be a distinct form.

Distribution.— Mount Margaret Pass, Hamersley Range, Gardner 3129
(type) ; near Mount Rica, Gardner 6422.

Triodia Wiseanna var. brevifolia N. T. Burbidge var. nov.

Laminae brevae, 5-9 cm. longae, 1-1 -5 mm. latae. Lemmata indurata,
lobi acuminati, rigidi, divaricati, 3-nervis.

Differs from. Gardner’s typical form in its shorter, narrower leaves with
the marginal and auricular hairs less prolifically developed. These hairs
are not conspicuous in the field. Apparently when growing they lie parallel
to the margin. It is only in dried material that they stand out. The lemmas
are more deeply lobed so that the appearance approaches that of T. pungens.
However, the nerves are clearly visible in the base of the lemma. (PI. II.,
fig. 4.)

The variety, like the typical form, is found on stony ground which, in
the Pilbara area, means the arid slopes of the hills.

Distribution. — Anna Plains Station, 80 Mile Beach, Burbidge 1438 ;
Muccan Station, De Grey River, Burbidge 994 ; between Kitty’s Gap and
Eginbah Station, Burbidge 995 ; Dingo Point, Eginbah Station, Burbidge
1044 ; between Eginbah and Marble Bar, Burbidge 1062 ; Mount Edgar
Station, south-east from Marble Bar, Burbidge 1126 ; Nullagine Road south
from Mount Edgar, Burbidge 1150, 1 152 (type), 1172, 1 176 ; Red Hill north
of Ashburton River, Gardner 637 ! .

Triodia brizioides N. T. Burbidge sp. nov. : affinis T. irritanti , a qua lem-
matibus acute lobatis, glumis aristulatis, laminis glaucis differt.

Gramen perenne, dense caespitosum. Culmi ascendentes, nodis superiori-
bus ramosi, multis nodis, glabri, laeves. Foliorum vaginae induratae, laeves,
glabrae vel sparse tomentosae, pallidae vei stramineae, ligulae ad seriem
ciliorum redactae ; orificia tomentosa ; laminae angustiores vaginarum,
bre viter petiolatae, rigidae, glaucae, divaricatae conduplicatae, 5-12 cm.
longae, 1-5 mm. latae explanatae ; apices piuigentes. Paniculae diffusae,
5-10 cm. longae ; rhachis scabra, spiculae pedunculatae, bases pedunculorum
villosae, peduneuli 6-15 mm. longi, scabri. Spiculae lateraliter compressae,
lineares vel oblongae, pallidae, 10-20 mm. longae, 6-8 mm. latae. Anthoecia
7—10. Glumae oblongae, concavae, aristulatae, aequales, glabrae, scariosae,
6 mm. longae, 3 mm. latae, 3-nervis, apices ciliolatae. Lemmata lanceolata
vel ovata, 9-nervis, basi pubescentis, margine barbata ; infima 5-7 mm. longa ;

A Revision of the Western Australian Species of Tmod t a R.Br. 2o

trilobata

lineares

; lobi acuti, ciliolati, subaequales vol medii longiores, nervosi.
5—6 mm. longae, basi pubescentes, bicarinatae ; alatac*.

Paleae
(PI. II.,

%. 5.)

This grass forms a very dense hemispherical, greyish tussock 40-50 cm.
in diameter. It prefers rocky slopes and is found on arid hills in the Pilbara
district. It is easily distinguished from T. irritans by the glaucous leaves,
the loose panicle in which the comparatively few spikelets are apt to hang
down resembling those of Briza maxima, the acute lobes of the lemmas and
the winged nerves of the paleas. These wings commonly protrude beyond the
margin of the lemma in the spikelets.

The species is of no pastoral importance.

Distribution. -Gorge Range (between Shaw and Coongan Rivers), Burbidge
792 (type !) ; Kitty’s Gap (between Coongan River and Bamboo Creek), Bur-
bidge 979 and 984.

Triodia irritans R.Br. in Prodr. FI. Novae Holl. 182 : 1810 ; Festuca
irritans F. Muell. Veg. Chath. Isl. 59. Fragm. viii. 129 : 1874.

A perennial grass forming dense tussocks. Culms ascending, quite glabrous,
internodes short, branching from the upper nodes. Leaves glabrous ; ligule
a row of short hairs, the auricular ridges of the sheaths very short and bearing
hairs longer than those of the ligule ; blades co ndu p 1 ic ate , 8-16 cm. long,
very pungent pointed. Panicle 10-20 cm. long with spikelets on capillary
peduncles along the branches : the spikelets 10-18 mm. long, 3-8 mm. wide.
Glumes 6-9 mm. long, subequal, scarious or becoming indurate, 1-5 nerved
(usually the lower glume three-nerved and the upper five-nerved), the mid
nerve prominent, lanceolate, acuminate or acute, minutely scabridulous.
Lemmas 5-10, the lower 3-4 fertile, lanceolate with a ragged obtuse apex com-
posed of three very short lobes of which the lateral ones are membranous
and the medial one a prolongation of the mid-nerve. The medial lobe may be
longer or shorter than the lateral lobes. There are nine nerves in groups of
three, each being associated with a lobe, the nerves visible almost to the
base of the lemma, which is clothed on the lower abaxial and marginal sur-
face with silky hirs. The lowest lemma 5-8 mm. long. Palea linear or slight-
ly oblanceolate, obtuse, shorter than the lemma or almost as long, glabrous
or pubescent in the lower half, the nerves scabrid. (PI. 2, fig. 6.)

A Buck Spinifex” which is associated with the arid portions of the
southern interior. The Kalgoorlie specimen has a narrower panicle and smaller
spikelets than the other specimens but seems hardly distinct enough to separ-
ate as a variety. Further collections may serve to elucidate the point.

Distribution. — Aleekatharra, C. A.. Gardner ; ( oorow , Gaidnei , 20

miles east of Mount Holland, Gardner ; Kalgoorlie, Gardner ; near Fraser
Range, Gardner 2851a.

Triodia Fitzgeraldii N. T. Burbidge sp. nov. ; Triodia Fitzgeraldii C. A.
Gardner ms. ; affinis T. longicepti J. M. Black sed spiculis minoribus, lemma-
tibus scariosis, lobis acutis, vaginarum marginibus hirsutis differens.

Gramen perenne, eaespitosum. Culmi erecti, rigidissimi, nodis superior-
ibus ramosi, glabri, laeves, multis nodis ; internodia brevia. Folia rigida ;
vaginae imbricatae, pubescentes vel glabrescentes, marginibus et orifice
hirsutis ; ligulae ad seriem ciliorum redactae ; laminae angustiores vaginarum,
rigidae, conduplicatae, glabrae, minute striatae, breviter petiolatae, 9-20 cm.

26

Nancy T. Burbidge.

longae, apicibus pungentes. Paniculae contractae, angustae. Spiculae brevi-
ter pedunculatae, lateraliter compressae, lineares, 4-6 mm. longae, 3 mm.
latae, pallidae. Anthoecia 4-6. Glumae oblongae, obtusae, laeves, suba-
equales, marginibus minute ciliolatis, 1-nervo, 2 *5-3 mm. longae. Lemmata
lanceolata, scariosa, 3-nervis, 3 mm. longa, basi villosa, apicibus trilobata ;
lobi acuti, nervosi, minute ciliolati, subaequales. Palea e oblongae vel lanceo-
atae, 2 mm. longae, nervis anguste alatis. (PI. 3, fig. 7.)

This species lies between T. longiceps J. M. Black and T. microstachya!
R.Br. It differs from the former in its smaller spikelets, scarious lemmas with
acute lobes and the ciliate, pubescent leaf sheaths and from the latter in its;
one-nerved glumes, basally pubescent lemmas and narrowly winged nerves
of the paleas. Its distinctive character was pointed out to the author by
Mr. C. A. Gardner who suggested naming it after its discoverer. It is known
from the type specimen only.

Distribution.— Dillon’s Springs, East Kimberley, IF. V. Fitzgerald 1643
(type !).

Triodia longiceps J. M. Black in Trans. Roy. Soc., S. Aust., liv. 59 : 1930.

A perennial grass forming large rather loose tussocks (up to four or five
metres in diameter and 2-4 metres in height) and having long stolons extending
beyond. Culms smooth and glabrous, branching from the upper nodes.
Leaves very rigid, glaucous, the sheaths and blades glabrous or minutely
puberulous and with very short cilia on the orifice of the sheath ; ligule a row
of short cilia ; apex very pungent pointed. Panicle 20-50 cm. long, with the
spikelets shortly pedunculate on the lateral branches which spread at anthesis.
Sjnkelets linear, with 6-21 florets, 8-20 cm. long, 2-5-3 mm. wide, with the lem-
mas imbricate or spreading. Glumes lanceolate or almost ovate, glabrous,
subequal 3 -5-4 mm. long, with one slightly prominent nerve extending to the
acute or acuminate apex. Lemmas lanceolate or ovate, 4 mm. long, indurate,,
glabrous or w ith a basal tuft of short hairs, the nerves reduced (from three-
groups of three each) so that only one nerve extends to each lobe but at the*
base of the lemmas the vestiges of the lateral nerves of each group are more
or less developed ; the apex with three very short, subequal, acute lobes in
the Western Australian material though, in his description, Black says the
lateral lobes are obtuse with a short mucro between. Palea 3 mm. long,
oblong or lanceolate with prominently winged nerves, glabrous, the upper
half usually free from the lemma and conspicuous. (PI. 3, fig. 8.)

In the field the general habit approaches that of T. angusta but it is a
coarser plant and the panicle is quite distinctive. Both species show a prefer-
ence for the banks of water courses and flats liable to flooding. The chief
affinity seems to be with T. microstachya from which it differs in the one
nerved glumes and the winged, glabrous palea.

Distribution. — Pardoo Station, Burbidge 1519 ; De Grey Station, Ander-
son, also Burbidge 1544 ; Warralong Station, Melville 28 and Burbidge 791 ;
Muccan Station, Burbidge 911 and 965 ; Marble Bar, Stewart ; Mount Edgar
Station, south-east from Marble Bar, Burbidge 1066, 1067, 1129, 1192, 1138
Nullagine, Melville.

Triodia angusta N. T. Burbidge sp. nov., affinis T. microstachyae R.Br..
sed glumis inferioribus 1 -nervis, acuminatis, spicis angustioribus, linearibus,
lemmatibus sparsim pubescentibus differens.

Gramen perenne, caespites late extensos densissimos formans et stolones
•elongatos emittens. Culmi divaricati, rigidissimi, glabri, laeves, simplices vel

A Revision of the Western Australian Species of Triodia R.Br. 27

basi ramosi, 6-12 nodis. Foliorum vaginae induratae, laeves, glaucae ; ligulae
ad seriem ciliorum redactae ; laminae angustiores vaginarum, breviter petio-
latae, rigidae, conduplicatae, apicibus pungentibus, marginibus ciliolatis,
12-20 cm. longae. 2 mm. latae explanatae. Paniculae contractae, anguste
lineares, 15-20 cm. longae, 7 mm. latae ; rhachis scabra, angula ris ; spicae
simplices, breviter pedunculatae, anguste lineares. Spiculae sessiles, secundae,
lateraliter compressae, oblongae vel lineares, angustae, biserratae, pallidae,

2 mm. latae, 4-5 mm. longae. Anthoecia 3-4. Glumae lineares vel lanceolatae,
acuminatae vel aristulatae, scariosae, scabridulosae vel glabrae, nervis sca-
bridis ; inferior 1-nervo, 2-3 mm. longa ; superior 3-nervis, 3-4 mm. longa.
Lemmata lanceolata vel anguste ovata, membranacea, 3-nervis, 2 -5-3 mm.
longa ; margines glabrae vel raro pubescentes ; apices trilobatae ; lobi nervati,
•erecti, acuti, lobi laterales paullum breviores quam medii. Paleae ellipticae,
membranaceae, 3 mm. longae, nervis ciliolatis. Lodiculae 1 mm. longae.
Antherae 2-2 -5 mm. longae. Caryopsis O. (PI. 3, fig. 9, a-f, fig. 11, a-b.)

In the field this species is readily distinguished from T. secundci by the
glaucous foliage. It has a denser tussock being formed of a central tuft with
radiating stolons. The stolons have terminal tufts of erect culms. The
leaves have a very small auricular ridge which bears hairs about as long as
those of the ligule proper. However, some material collected, by the author,
at Shaw River had woolly sheaths while a specimen from Taiga Gap, near
Coongan railway siding, had very long hairs on the ridge. Since there is no
special panicle difference which can be correlated with these leaf variations
they are all included under the species. Apart from these exceptions the
leaves and sheaths are glabrous in all specimens though the margins of the
blades are commonly scabrid with minute teeth. The one nerved glumes
serve to divide the species from T. microstachya R.Br., also the smaller narrower
spikelets.

Cunningham’s specimen from the 4i North-West Coast,” which is listed
under T. microstachya by Bent ham in the Flora Austral iensis, belongs to this
species. It was identified by the author while at the Kew Herbarium in 1940.

The species is commonly referred to as Blue Buck. It is of no pastoral
importance. It is a very common species and in the field, when panicles are
missing, it may be confused with T. longiceps. It is usually found along the
banks of rivers and creeks.

Distribution. — Coongan Station, Anderson ( Burbidge 452 type ! and 445) ;
Warralong Station, Burbidge 828 ; Shaw River, Burbidge 1216 ; Taiga Gap
near Coongan Siding, Burbidge 1051 ; Hills south of Mount Edgar, Burbidge
1151 ; Waramble Station, Roebourne, H. G. Meares ; Sandstone rocks,
Gregory’s Gorge, Fortescue River, Gardner 6296 ; Karatha, west of Roebourne
Gardner 626.

Triodia secunda N. T. Burbidge sp. nov., affinis T. angustae N. T. Bur-
bidge sed spicis latis linearibus, lemmatibus divaricatis, lemmatum marginibus
•clifterens.

Gramen perenne caespitosum et stolones elongatos emittens. Cut mi erecti
vel prostrati, rigidissimi, nodis superioribus ramosi, glabri, laeves. Foliorum
vaginae induratae, tenuiter, striatae vel laeves, glabrae, pallidae vel stramineae;
ligulae ad seriem ciliorum redactae ; auriculae erectae, fimbriatae ; fimbrae
ciliolatae ; laminae angustiores vaginarum, breviter petiolatae, rigidae, virides,
divaricatae, conduplicatae, 6-12 cm. longae, 2-3 mm. latae explanatae ; apices
pungentes, margines ciliolatae. Panicidae contractae, anguste lineares ; spicae
simplices, distantes, latae lineares, rhachi adpressae, 1-3 cm. longae. Spiculae

28

Nancy T. Burdidge.

sessiles, secundae, biserratae, divaricatae, pallidae, lateraliter compressae,
oblongae, 5 mm. longae, 4-5 mm. latae. Anthoecia 3-5. Glumae lineares vel
lanceolatae, scabridulae, uni-nervatae, nervis scabris ; inferior acuta vel
aristulata, 3 mm. longa ; superior trilobata, 4-5 mm. longa, lobus medius
aristulatus, lobi laterales membranacei, acuti, breves. Lemmata lanceolata
vel anguste ovata, membrancea, divaricata, tri-nervata, 3-4 mm. longa, basi
pubescentia, marginibus barbata, apices trilobatae, lobi aequales, nervati.
Paleae lineares, 3-3 -5 mm. longae, basi pubescentes, nervi scabridi. Lodlculae
] mm. longae. Antherae 2 *5-3 mm. longae. Caryopsis O. (PI. 3, fig. 10, a-f,
fig. 11, c-d.j

The erect culms branch at the upper nodes, producing long prostrate
stolons or short erect culms, so that when growing the plants often appear to
be resting on stilts. The central mass of culms is surrounded by the radiating
stolons which develop terminal groups of erect culms like those of the central
portion, in this manner a single plant may cover several square meters in a
diffuse growth about 30 cm. deep.

The leaves are a drab green when fresh. They are very pungent pointed.
The sheaths turn a pale straw colour on the older stems. T he auricular growths
are quite characteristic of this species. Nothing like them is known. They
are also remarkable because three marginal nerves on either side of the sheath
extend into the auricles. The secund panicle branches with their broad
spikelets and fringed lemmas serve to distinguish this species.

The common name is “ Running Buck” or " Bunch Buck.” The species
is of no pastoral value though there are reports that it has carried sheep through
dry summers when there was nothing else available. It is usually found on
flats or near drainage channels too diffuse to call creeks.

Distribution. — Coongan Station, Anderson (Burbulge 450 type !) ; Warra-
long Station, G. F. Melville also F. Melville.

It was observed by the author in other localities : De Grey Station,

Pardoo Station, along the Marble Bar-Port Hedland Railway between Carlindi
and Poondanah Sidings and on low flats behind Port Hedland township.
None of the plants carried panicles and no material was collected. The
presence of the fringed appendage on the leaf sheath is. however, sufficiently
characteristic to make the identification reliable.

Acknowledg m e n ts .

The author wishes to express her thanks to Professor G. A. Currie and
Mr. Andrew Stewart for the use of laboratory facilities at the Institute of
Agriculture, University of Western Australia ; to Mr. C. A. Gardner, Gov-
ernment Botanist for helpful criticism and the use of the material in the State
Herbarium, to which all the specimens from the Institute have been donated.
Also it is only fitting to acknowledge the assistance given, in the field, by
the late Mr. -I . L. Stewart and Mr. Gordon Stewart of De Grey Station, Mr.
Frank Hardie of Warralong, Mr. Ooppin of Eginbah, Mr. Holthouse of Muccan,
Mr. Taylor of Mount Edgar, Mr. Lacey of Wallal Downs. Mr. Spry of Nalgi,
and many others.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

PLATE I.

Fig. 1. Triodia Based owii , (a) spikelet, (b) lower glume, (c) upper glume,

(d) lemma, (e) palea from side, (f) palea from front, (all x5.)

Fig. 2. T. lanigera (x5). Lettering as above.

Fig. 3. T. pungens (x5). Lettering as above.

A Revision of the Western Australian Species of Triodia R.Br. 29

PLATE I.

N.TB .l

30

Nancy T. Burbidge.

PLATE II.

Fig.

4.

T.

Fig.

5.

T.

Fig.

6 .

T.

Wiseana var. brevifolia (x5). Lettering as in Plate I.
brizioides (x5). Lettering as in Plate I.
irritans (x5). Lettering as in Plate I.

A Revision of the Western Australian Species of Triodia R.Br. 31

PLATE II.

Nancy T. Burbidge.

32

PLATE III.

Fig. 7. T. Fitzgeraldii (x5). Lettering as in Plate I.

Fig. 8. T. longiceps (x5). Lettering as in Plate I.

Fig. 9. T . angusta (x5). Lettering as in Plate 1.

Fig. 10. T . secunda (x5). Lettering as in Plate I.

Fig. 11. T.angus’a,( a) orifice of leaf sheath from side (b) same from within showing
ligule, T. secunda, (c) orifice with fringed apjxmdage, (d) same from within to show ligule.
(x5.)

A Revision of the Western Australian Species of Triodia R.Br. 33

PLATE III.

New Crustacea from the Swan River Estuary.

35

3 — NEW CRUSTACEA FROM THE SWAN
RIVER ESTUARY.

By J. M. Thomson,, B.Sc.

Hackett Research Scholar, University of Western Australia.

Read 14th March, 1944.

INTRODUCTION.

The species with which this paper deals were collected during the period
March to December, 1943, during an investigation of the fauna occurring
amongst the algae of the estuary. The collections were taken almost entirely
from the western side of Freshwater Bay, where the rocky nature of the
bottom provides ample hold for the algae.

As a faunistic environment the Swan estuary presents some peculiar
features. The estuary is a drowned river valley but owing to the negligible
tidal influence on the coast outside its mouth, there is no tidal influence in
the river. Nevertheless there is a marked variation in the salinity during
the year. The salinity is practically that of the open ocean in summer;
whereas in winter, at least in the shallow water near the banks where the
investigation was carried out, the water became practically fresh after heavy
downfalls of rain. Thus in summer the fauna tends to be made up of marine
and estuarine forms, in winter of estuarine and freshwater forms.

This serves to explain the variation in Geologic type of Crustacea pre-
sented here, ranging from the marine Mesochra , through the estuarine Coro-
phium to the practically freshwater Gladioferens.

The species here described include two Copepods, an Am phi pod, and two
Isopods.

DESCRIPTION OF NEW SPECIES.
Class: COPEPODA.

Order: CALANOIDA.

Family: CENTROPAGIDAE.
GLADIOFERENS, Henry (1919).
Gladiferens imparipes sp. nov.

Occurrence.

Amongst algae, July to December. Large numbers.

Female.

Ovigerous, 1-35-1-4 mm, non-ovigerous up to 1-5 mm. Body rather
robust, cephalothorax oval, its greatest width a little behind the middle.
Head narrowly rounded in front and projecting below in a rostral promin-
ence. Last thoracic segment fairly short, expanded laterally into slight lobes
each bearing a slender seta.

3 G

J. M. Thomson.

Urosome half as long as cephalothorax. Genital segment has rounded
projections at about the middle of its length and widens again posteriorly.
The projections bear a group of spinules, the posterior one of which is
somewhat stouter than the rest. There is also a short spine on the posterior
swelling. Ventrally on the genital segment, lateral to the genital aperture
and immediately behind it, is a pair of short spines. At about the same
distance apart and in front of the aperture occur another pair. On each
side a row of minute spinules run inward and forward from the posterior
pair. Second segment of urosome half as long as first; the third is longer
and rectangular; the fourth is as long as the second. Caudal rami long and
slender. They are divergent and ciliated along the whole length of the
inner side, and in a cluster behind the lateral seta on the outer. The lateral
seta is inserted two-thirds of the distance along the margin. The other
four of equal length are inserted close together on the truncated end.

Appendages : Antennule has twenty-five segments, some of the proxi-
mal being very short. Second antenna biramous, rami subequal; exopod six-
segmented with three terminal setae on the distal segment. Mandibles strong
and expanded, with eight somewhat rounded denticles, the outermost the
largest and separated from the rest by a sinus; a slender seta stands at the
inner end. Maxillae and maxillules normal ; maxillipeds long and slender,
the distal segments with dense setae; four borne on the second segment.

The natatory appendages are slender, with 3-segmented rami, the en-
dopods somewhat shorter than the exopods. The second segment of the first
exopod is without an external spine. The external spines are weakly denti-
culate. Distally each exopod bears a stouter denticulate spine and a seta.
The fourth pair of appendages are asymmetrical in that the left bears a long-
curved coxal spine extending* to the end of the middle segment of the cndo-
pod. The right coxa has a short curved sparsely ciliate spine. Coxae of
all other natatory limbs have a slender straight seta. The fifth pair have
the second and third segments of the exopods equal in length; a long curved
spine arises from the inner side of the middle segment and reaches to the
end of the third segment.

Ovisac rounded, and ventral in position.

Male.

Length 1-26 mm. Metasomc narrow compared with that of female.
Urosome slender, five-segmented. Caudal rami of the same relative length
as in the female but without external cilia below the outer seta, and with
a fifth terminal seta, more slender and much shorter than the others, between
and dorsal to the two innermost setae.

Appendages: Left antennule as in female; the right modified, divided
into three sections, the first of nine segments, some of which are very short,
the last three with sensory setae; the second section contains five swollen
segments and a long slender sixth, followed by the third section, which
consists of two long curved segments which show signs of at least- four
incipient segments which are not divided off. The other head apppendages
including the maxillipeds are similar to those of the female.

New Crustacea from the Swax River Estuary.

37

Text fig. 1. Gladif evens imparipcs sp. nov.

J. M. Thomson.

38

The natatory legs, except for the second and fifth, are armed as in
the female and the seta on the fourth right coxa is normal, not expanded
as a spine. Second pair of legs are asymmetrical, being similar to the female
except that the left endopod has the proximal inner seta of the terminal
segment modified into a stout spur. Fifth legs are distinctly asymmetrical ;
the right exopod is three-segmented, the first segment bearing a stout, in-
wardly directed, pointed projection ; the middle and proximal segments each
bear a denticulated outer spine. The middle segment is prolonged beyond
its spine, and its inner surface is concave with a small spine about mid-way
along the margin and a cluster of spinules proximally, but no marked basal
process. The smaller distal segment bears three spines, the middle being
the largest and terminally denticulate and curved. The other two are
smaller, the outer somewhat the larger and denticulate, the inner smooth
and more slender. The right endopod is three-segmented. At outer distal
corner of its middle segment is a short spine which curves inwards. Distal
segment bears four ciliate setae. The left fifth leg is shorter than the right ;
both exopod and endopod are peculiar in that they appear three-segmented
if viewed from in front, but only two segments can be made out from behind.
In the exopod it is the terminal segment which is incompletely divided. The
basal segment bears a ciliate 'spine distally. The terminal segment has four,
one of which is proximal to the incomplete dividing line. The terminal spine
is the largest and is peculiarly bent. The inner distal corner is extended
laterally into a rounded bulge with a postero-lateral groove or sinus. In
the endopod it is the basal segment which is incompletely divided. There is
a curved inner spine on the middle segment and three short spines, and an
elongate outer spine that could almost be termed a seta on the distal
segment.

Discussion.

Five species have been definitely assigned to this genus, and Nicholls
(1944) suggests that Centropages pectinatus Brady described in 1899 from
a damaged specimen is really referable to this genus, possibly referable
to brevicornis , Henry, or subsalaria , Percival. In his paper Nicholls deals
briefly with the probability that subsalaria is synonymous with brevicornis.
The figures given by Percival are certainly very similar to those for brevi-
cornis , particularly as shown by Dakin and Colefax (1940). The females of
this genus are very similar and significant specific features are hard to find
in the somewhat incomplete descriptions of the species. However, Kiefer
for gracilis shows the coxal segment of the right fourth leg of the female
with a straight short “feathered” seta. For subsalaria Percival records “a
short feathered seta as in G. gracilis ” Dakin and Colefax figure it for
brevicornis as a straight seta. Nicholls for inermis shows it curved distally
and rather thickly ciliated. In ini pari pes it is distinctly curved and but
sparsely ciliated.

In spinosus the fifth endopod in the female is shorter than the exopod
and does not reach beyond the centre of the middle exopod segment ; whereas
in gracilis it reaches just to the end; in brevicornis it is figured as reaching
half-way along the terminal exopod segment, and in subsalaria it is stated
to reach one-sixth of the distance along. However, this may not be signifi-
cant, only careful examination of material could tell.

New Crustacea from tiie Swan River Estuary.

:i9

The third urosome segment of imparipes is relatively short compared
with that of inermis , resembling gracilis in this respect. It differs from
gracilis and agrees with inermis , however, in being without most of the
armature on the urosome and last thoracic segment figured for gracilis.

Males : The structure of the fifth legs of the male differs from all other
species by the hooked projection or spine coming from the middle segment,
of the right endopod. The two subsidiary spines on the terminal segment
of the right exopod are stronger than in other species. As figured for
inermis and spin os us this segment bears only one subsidiary spine in the
case of the former (externally), and none in the latter. However, as Dakin
and Colefax point out for hrevicornis, Henry’s drawings and descriptions
are sometimes incomplete, so they may be in the case of spinosus. The
distal inner bulge of the terminal segment of the left exopod is not shown
elsewhere except for a trace in sub solaria.

The spur on the end segment on the left second endopod points towards
the base in imparipes and inermis, but the adjacent setae have not become
spinose in imparipes as in inermis, though they are shorter and less densely
ciliated than in gracilis.

KEY TO THE MALES.

(Adapted from Nicholls).

1. Both rami of left fifth leg 3-segmented
Both rami of left fifth leg 2 -segmented
Exopod 2-segmented, endopod 1-segmented

2. Middle segment right fifth endopod with spine
Middle segment fifth endopod without spine

3. End segment of left second endopod armed with spur

at right angles to axis and 7 setae
End segment of left second endopod armed with spur
directed to base, 2 spines, 5 setae

4. Right fifth endopod 3-segmented
Right fifth endopod 2-segmented

spinosus Henry
o

impaixpes sp nov

3

gracilis Kiefer

inermis Nicholls

sub solaria

Percival.

hrevicornis

Henry.

Distribution of the Genus: Henry described hrevicornis and spinosus
from fresh water in New r South Wales. Dakin and Colefax record brevi-
cor^is as common in the New South Wales coastal lakes and record a single
specimen from Port Jackson; gracilis and subsalaria occur in fresh to
brackish water in New Zealand; inermis at the head of Spencer Gulf. The
present species imparipes was taken in the Swan Estuary, W.A.

LITERATURE CONSULTED FOR GLADIOFEREN S.

Dakin. W. J. and Colefax, A. N., 1940: Plankton of Australian Coastal Waters
off New South Wales. Pub. TJniv. Sydney Dep. Zool. Mon. 1.

Henry, M., 1910: Some Australian Freshwater Copepoda and Ostracoda. Jour.
Roy, Soc. N.S.W., LIII, pp. 29-48.

Henry M., 1922': Fre«hwat°r Entomostraca of New South Wales, ii, Copepoda.
Vr^o, Linn. S^c. N.S.W . , Vol. 47, pp. 551-570.

Ki r f r. F Y.j "* 931 : Neuseelandische Susswassercopcpoden. Zool. Anz. 96, pp.
278-282.

a io 4 d. TlUornl Copepoda from South Australia, (II). Ucc. South
VoL 8. No. 1, pp. 1-62.

10

J. M. Thomson.

Percival, E., 1937: New species of Copepoda from New Zealand Lakes. Bee .
Cantab. Mas. Y T ol. 4, No. 3, pp. 169-176.

Wilson, C. B., 1932: Copepods of the Woods Hole Region. U.S. A at . Hus Bull.,
158, pp. i-xix, 1-635.

Order: IIARPACTICOIDA.

Family: CANTHOCAMPTIDAE.

MESOCHRA Boeck 1864.

Mesochra parva sp. nov.

Occurrence.

A few specimens were collected throughout the year, hut they were
extremely abundant in October and November, among shallow-water algae.

F EM ALE.

Length 0.45 mm. Body with genital segment divided. Abdominal
somites without spines on the dorsal surface, but each has a lateral row
of spines which is continued on to the ventral surface for a short distance.
On the anal segment these are particularly small and they are not markedly
separated from the spines lining the margin of the anal incision. The anal
operculum is spineless. Caudal rami broader than long; outer terminal seta
less than half the length of the inner seta, which is less than half as long
as the body.

Appendages: First antenna. 7-segmented; third segment the largest,
bearing a tufted spine. The aesthetasc is on the third segment and extends
for a short distance beyond the end of the appendage. Second antenna has
basal segment elongate and narrow, undivided; exopod 1-segmented with two
apical and one lateral setae, of which the outermost is the shortest and
stoutest ; endopod large and expanded somewhat distally, with four terminal
setae, one smaller than the others, and on the outer margin a row of four
to six spinules. Mandible with palp two jointed and with three distal setae.
The remaining mouth parts are characteristic of the genus. Maxillipeds,
subcheliform, with a seta on the basal segment near the distal end.

Natatory limbs. Legs 1-4 with 3-segmented exopods and 2-segmented
endopods. The first legs have the basal segment of the endopod consider-
ably longer than the exopod. It bears an inner marginal seta slightly
proximal to the middle of the segment. The distal segment of the endopod
bears two stout setae. The basal segment of the exopod has an inner seta.
The arrangements of spines and setae are shown in the figures.

Setae formula.

Endopod

p2 1 221

p3 1 221

p4 1 221

Exopod
0 1 122
0 1 222
0 1 222

Fifth leg with basal segment extending beyond the distal and bearing five
setae. The distal segment is distinctive, almost quadrangular w ; th two stout
setae at the distal corners, the inner twice as long as the outer. Next to
the inner spine is a very slender seta. Between the setae are minute spinules.

New Crustacea from the Swan River Estuary.

41

Male.

• Length 0-39 mm. The expansion of the basal segment of the fifth
leg has only two setae and does not extend much beyond the distal segment.
The distal segment is much more normal than in the female, having four
stout spine-like setae and one slender seta around the margin.

Appendages: First antenna has the proximal segments somewhat
swollen and the distal segments relatively shortened. The aesthetasc is more
massive than in the female and extends beyond the end of the appendage
for some distance.

Colour. — White with a yellowish-green tinge.

Discussion.

Some fifteen species of Mesochra are known. The female of M. parva
is clearly distinguished by the unusual shape and structure of the fifth leg.
The lack of a spine on the anal operculum and the seta formula serve to
distinguish it from at least some of the species. Many of the species are
know n from the female onl\ , so it is impossible to note specific characters
for the male.

42

J. M. Thomson.

LITERATURE CONSULTED FOR MESOCHBA.

Borutzky, E. :

1927: Materialen zur Copepoden-fauna des Aralsee und ihres Bassins, Zool.
Anz ., 72, pp. 310-317.

1927: Systematic position of some genera of Copepoda-IIarpacticoida endemic
in south Russia. Ann. Mag. Nat. Mist., (9) 20, pp. 54-63.

Brady, G. S., 1910: Die Marinen Copepoden I. Deutsdhe Siidpolar-Exp. XI, Zool.

3, pp. 497-593.

Gurney, R. :

1921: Two New British Entomostraca. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (9) 7, pp.
236-243.

1927: Cambridge Expedition to the Suez Canal. Crustacea-Copepoda. Trans.
Zool. Soc. Lond., XXII, Pt. 4, pp. 451-477.

Jakubisiak, S., 1933: Sur les Harpacticoides saumatres de Cuba. Ann. Mus. Zool.

Polon. 10, pp. 93-96.

Klie, W. :

1913: Die Copepoda Harpacticoida des Gebeites der Unter und Aussenweser
und der Jade. Schr. Ver. NaturTc. Unterweser. Ill, pp. 1-49.

1929 : Die Copepoda Harpacticoida der siidlichen und westlichen Ostsee mit
besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Sandfauna der Kieler Bucht. Zool.
Jahrb., Syst., 57, pp. 329-386.

1937: Ostracoden und Harpacticoiden aus brackigen Gewassern an der bul-
garischen Kiiste des Scliwarzen Meeres. Mitt. Konig. Natur. Inst.
Sofia, X, pp. 1-42.

Kunz, II., 1938 : Die sandbewohnenden Copepoden von Helgoland I. Kieler
Meeresf , II, pp. 223-254.

Lang, K. :

1936: Copepoda Harpacticoida. Swed. Antarct. Exp., Yol. Ill, 3, pp. 1-68.
1936: Untersuchungen aus dem Oeresund, XX. Rung I Fysiog. Sallsk. Hand 1.
N.F., 46, No. 8, pp. 1-52.

Monard, A.:

1935:Etude sur la faune Harpacticoides marins de Roscoff. Trav. Stat. BioL
Bo scoff 1 13, pp. 3-89.

1935: Les Harpacticoides marins de la Region de Salammbo. Stat. Oeeanog.
Salammbo, 34, pp. 1-87.

Nicholls, A. G., 1939: Marine Ilarpacticoids and Cyelopoids from the Shores of
the St. Lawrence. Le Naturaliste Canadian, LXYI, pp. 241-316.

Sars, G. O., 1911: An Account of the Crustacea of Norway, Yol. Y. Copepoda
Harpacticoida.

Scott, T., 1895: Additions to the Fauna of the Firth of Forth, Pt. VII. 13tli
Ann. Beport Fish. Board Scotland, pp. 165-173.

Wilson, C. B., 1932: Copepods from the Woods Hole Region. Bull. TJ.S. Nat.
Mus., 158, pp. i-xix, 1-635.

Class: MALACOSTRACA.
Subclass: PERACARIDA.
Order: AMPHIPODA.
Suborder: GAMMARIDEA.
Family: COROPHIIDAE.
COROPHIUM, Latreille 1806
Corophium minor sp. now

Occurrence.

March to early July; tubieolous on algae.

New Crustacea from the Swan River Estuary.

43

Female.

Ovigerous, length 2-55 mm. Body small, the urosome segments
coalesced, rostrum small and pointed. Eye-lobes rounded and elongate. Eyes
black and well developed.

Appendages: First antenna, about one third of the body length; first
segment longer than second and third together (in figure appears slightly
shorter, owing to bending of appendage). Lower edge of segment one with
four straight spines of which the proximal is the smallest, and a little
off the ventral line. There is a slight lateral bulge proximally on the first
segment which bears three spines. A few long tufts of setae also occur on
the segment. Segment 2 bears several tufts of setae and is cylindrical in
section. Flagellum is seven segmented. Second antenna somewhat larger
than antenna 1. There is a pair of spines ventrally on segment 3. Seg-
ment 4 has five well developed spines on the lower edge, a proximal pair a
quarter of the distance from the proximal end, a median pair at half the
distance and the fifth about an eighth of the distance from the distal end. A
number of long setae also occur on this segment. Segment 5 has one median
ventral spine and many long setae. Flagellum is 3-segmented. (The figure
shows an abnormal appendage with a paired distal spine on the 4th seg-
ment.) Mandible with basal segment not extending beyond the base of
the end segment; palp small, of two segments, each with a strong ciliated
seta. Maxillae, typical. Maxi'lipeds sub-lamellar with basal lobes narrowly
produced. The masticatory lobes are long, the inner edge fringed with
slender spines; palp elongate, the last segment short but broad.

Gnathopod 1 with palm almost square with a row of four short stout
spines, supplemented by short setae on the edge of the propod; dactyl with
a slight accessory tooth. Gnathopod 2 larger than Gnathopod 1; not differ-
entiated from other members of the genus. The fourth segment is closely
attached to the bind margin of the fifth, and fringed with two rows of
plumose setae. Propod sub linear, without a palm; dactyl with 4 accessory
teeth. Pereiopods normal, the anterior two with basal segment large and
broad and the merus greatly expanded, the carpus short and the! dactyl
considerably larger than the propod. Pereiopods 3 and 4 are comparatively
stout and have two rows of spines on the outer side of the carpus. Pereiopod
5 is slender and elongate, the basal joint lamellarly expanded and fringed
on both edges with long ciliate setae which however are not so dense as
in other members of the group.

Branchial lamellae well-developed; none on gnathopod 2. Incubatory
lamellae elongate and oval, edged with strong setae.

Pleopods with basal portion greatly expanded; rami narrow and densely
setose.

Urosome, segments fused, sides hollowed out to receive insertions of
uropods 1 and 2. Rami short, with stout spines on the margin externally
on the first, but those of fhe second spineless except apieally. Uropod 3
with peduncle short, ramus single and lameTar with a few long apical setae.

44

J. M. Thomson.

Telson, trapezoidal, with a terminal emargination. Number of eggs in

Male.

Length, 2 1 mm. Similar to the female except in the following points:
— Antenna l:The first segment has three spines on the lower keel and
appears to be shorter than the second and third together. Length of the
appendage about 45% that of the body. Antenna 2 : Segment 4 twice as
Jong as broad, with a large subterminal tooth, and a smaller tooth above it.
The ventral spines found in the female are absent. Segment 5 has six
tufts of setae. Gnathopod 1 : Palm with a row of three spines and one large
seta.

Ecology.

Builds tubes of muddy sand on algae and the rocky substratum in shal-
low water. They survive some degree of lowering of salinity but disappear
with the onset of heavy rainfall.

New Crustacea from the Swan River Estuary.

45

Discussion.

The genus Corophiurn was named by Latreille in 1806, with C. longi-
corne as the type species. Stubbing in Das Tierreich (1906) gives excellent
^descriptions and bibliography of the species known to him. Since his ac-
count the number of species described has been doubled and the best modern
account of the group is that of Crawford (1937). He divides the genus
into three sections on the character of the urosome and the insertion of the
uropods. He includes useful keys to the species of each group. The pre-
sent species falls into his section B, characterised by small size, fusion of
the urosome segments and the lateral insertion of uropods 1 and 2, in
notches on the urosome. Crawford assigned eight species to this section.

The female of C. minor is very like that of C. insidiosum (Crawford).
It is however much smaller, 2-5 as compared with 4-5 mm. The relative
lengths of the three basal segments of antenna 1 differ. Also both right and
left dactyls of gnathopod 2 have four accessory teeth in minor whereas this
is the case with the right only in insidiosum , the left having three.

The male of minor differs from that of insidiosum in the structure of
.antenna 1, and lesser features such as relative abundance of setae on various
segments. Nor has the male of minor the very long rostrum of insidiosum.
Like the female it is also much smaller than the other species.

The armature of the antennae is sufficient to distinguish C. minor from
all other species.

Apart from the changes in armature associated with growth, normally
occurring in this genus, two variations Avere noted. Some twenty-four females
Avere examined. In two of these the proximal spine on the first segment of
antenna 1, instead of being small, Avas quite large, and the second proximal
was the smallest spine. In another specimen which did not differ from
normal otherAvise the distal spine on segment 4 of the second antenna was
paired (as shoA\ T n in figure) replacing in its position the more usual seta.
Such variations in a small percentage of individuals Avas noted by CraAvford.
It is impossible to say Avithout experimental breeding whether this is due to
.abnormal grow T th, or to a mutation.

LITERATURE CONSULTED FOR COROPHIUM.

ZBarnard, K. H. :

1915: Contributions to the Crustacean Fauna of South Africa. 5. The
Amphipoda. Ann. S. Afr. Mus Yol. XV, Ft. Ill, pp. 105-302.

1935: Report on some Amphipoda, Isopoda and Tanaidacea in the Indian

Museum. Bee. Ind . Mus., Yol. XXXVII, pp. 279-319.

1940: Contributions to the Crustacean Fauna of Sth. Africa XII. Ann

S. Afr. Mus., Yol. XXXII., Pt. 5, pp. 381-543.

Chilton, C.: 1921: Fauna of the Chilka Lake. Amphipoda. Mem. Ind . Miift.,
Vol. 5(, pp. 519-558.

Della Valle, A.: 1893: F. u. FL. Neapel. Yol. 20, Gammarini, pp. 1-948.

Crawford G I * 1937: A Review of the Amphipod Genus Coropliium. Journ.
Mar! Biol. Assoc., Yol. XXI., No. 2, pp. 589-630.

Hart, T. J.: 1930: Preliminary notes on the Bionomics of the Amphipod.
Corophiurn volutator Pallas. Journ. Mar. Biol. Assoc., 1 ol. X\I, pp.
761-789.

4(5

J. M. Thomson.

Latreille, P. A., 1806 : Genera Crustaceorum et Insectorum secundem ordinem,

naturalem in familias disposita, ieonibus exemplisque plurimis explicate, T.I..
Paris.

Sars, G. O., 1894: Crustacea of Norway I. Amphipoda.

Sehellenberg, A., 1928: Cambridge Exp. to Suez Canal. Ampliipoda. Trans. Zooh
Soc. Lond.j XXI F, pp. 633-692.

Stebbing, T. R. R., 1904: Gregarious Crustacea from Ceylon. Spolm Znjlan<ca,
Vol. 2, pp. 1-29.

1906: Amphipoda Gammaride. Das Tierreich. Lief. 21 (1).

1914: Crustacea from the Falkland Islands. Proc. Zool. Soc. Land., 1914,
pp. 341-378.

Walker. A. O., 1914: Species of Amphipoda taken bv “Suna, M July and August,,
1913.

Ann, Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) 13', pp. 558-561.

Order: ISOPODA.

Suborder : FLABELLIFERA.

Fami ly: ANTHURIDAE.

CRXJRANTHURA gen. nov.

Gmranthura simplicia sp. nov.

Occurrence.

June to September; twelve specimens being taken during this period..
Among algae.

Female.

Length 5-25 to 6 mm. (ovigerous) . Body elongate, narrow, back
bioadly arched, surface smooth. Ratio of lengths of thoracic segments
9:11:10:12:12:9:4. The seventh thoracic segment is wider than the ab-
dominal segments. Abdominal segments 2-5 fused dorsally, though the
suture may still be distinguished laterally.

Head: Eyes large, situated in the prominent antero-lateral lobes. An-
terior margin excavate for reception of antennae, with a conspicuous
median rostral point. Dorsally there are scattered patches of dark pig-
ment. The mouth parts are adapted for sucking.

Appendages . First antenna 4 segmented, basal segment long, widening'
distally. The fourth segment (flagellum) shows a distinct constriction at
about two-thirds of its length, possibly indicative of a fused segment. Tt
bears a thick bunch of setae on a slight prominence apically. Second
antenna of five joints, the last densely setiferous, the basal segment the
longest, penultimate the next longest.

Mouth Parts: Unfortunately only the maxilliped and second maxillae 1
dissected out well, but as far as could be ascertained the mandible had no
palp, or else a very reduced one. Second maxillae straight with short lateral
teeth distally. Maxillipeds, two-segmented, the proximal portion fused to-
the head. The free segment is narrow distally, but much broader proximally,.
the two portions distinguished by a marked constriction of the inner margin.

Pereiopod 1, subchelate, propod with proximal tooth defining the palm
which is only slightly oblique. There are two rows of setae on the inner
side of the propod parallel to the palm, and one row on the outer si do ""he

New Crustacea from the Swan River Estuary.

47

-carpus is cup-shaped and under-rides the propod. The ischium
and basis are slightly expanded, and the dactyl is smoothly curved.
Pereiopod 2, subchelate, palm linear, propod smaller than in pereio-
pod 1, and armed with a row of six spines. “Tooth” of the
dactyl marked off by a sudden narrowing on the palmer side. From
the shelf so produced a number of setae spring. Carpus and merus are very
much as in pereiopod 1. Pereiopod 3, similar to 2. Pereiopod 4, with
dactyl bent at an angle to the propod, but scarcely subchelif orm ; propod
.armed with two spines, one distal, the other at mid-length. The terminal
jiortion of the carpus bears two spines. The carpus is relatively larger than
in the three anterior limbs. Merus with only a slight distal expansion and
the carpus does not under-ride the propod. Pereiopods 5 and 6 similar to
pereiopod 4, except that the carpus is armed with three spines. Pereiopod
7 absent.

Pleopod 1 operculiform, covering the other pleopods. The outer ramus
is enlarged, distal and fringed with long setae except on the inner margin;
the inner ramus narrow, fringed distallv on both sides. Both rami loaded
with dark pigment. In Pleopod, 2-5 inner ramus not quite as long as the
outer, which is wider. Endopod simple without setae, distal portion bul-
bous. Exopod broad with fringing setae.

Uropod basis with a few terminal setae ; the lower edge produced down-
wards in a keel. Exopod three times as long as broad, inner edge fringed
with a few long setae, with still fewer inserted on the outer edge. Endopod
less than twice as long as broad, inner margin almost straight, outer margin
with long fine setae.

Telson : Broadly ovate-lanceolate, setiferous at the rounded apex, other-
wise bare. Convexly arched dorsally.

Tail fan: Ends of uropodal endopods coincide with the end of the telson.
Exopod arches dorsally over the telson.

Male.

Length: same range as female. Similar to the female except for absence
of oostegites and the possession on the second pleopod of a male stylet,
which is an elongated rod with a simple rounded apex.

Discussion.

Barnard (1925) lists twenty-four genera of the Anthuridac and gives
the specific distinctions of all species known to him. Since his paper eight
further species have been described, one of which is ascribed to a new
genus, Notanthura Monod (1927). The genus here described does not fit
in to any of the genera described by Barnard, nor to Notanthura. Bar-
nard pointed out that the important generic features were the arrangement
of the tail fan, the shape of the telson and the form of the maxillipeds.
Apart from the differences in these three features Crurantlmra differs from
all except Hyssura Norman and Stebbing 1886, Colanthura Richardson 1905
and Cruregens Chilton 1881 in the absence of the seventh pereiopod. How-
ever it is easily distinguished from the first of these genera. Hyssura has
multiarticulate flagella on both antennae and the exopocls of the uropods do
not arch over the telson, the maxilliped is five-segmented, the pleopod is

48

J. M. Thomson

not operculiform and the mouth parts are of the biting type. In all of
hich features it differs widely from Crura nthura. The general arrange-
ment and structure ot the antennae of Cruranthura are similar to those of
C olanthura. But the latter genus is distinguished by the following points:
the seventh thoracic segment is narrower than those in front and narrower
than the abdominal segments ; the abdominal segments show no sign of dorsal
fusion ; the telson is lingiffform and appears to be without setae; no tooth
defines the palm of the pereiopod in any described species of Colantliura.
I nlortunately Richardson's description gives no account of the mouth parts.
Of all the Anthurid genera Cruranthura undoubtedly comes nearest to
(ruregens Chilton. The maxilliped structure is identical, except that some
setae occur along its length in Cruranthura , not merely apically. It is pos-
sible however that such is the case with C ruregens though ' neither Chilton’s
nor Barnard s figures show this, and Chilton’s description reads “The ter-
minal portions are free, and the ends .... are tipped with setae . ” The
structure of pereiopods and antennae are also similar. Cruranthura differs
lrom C ruregens in the presence of eyes, the subterranean C ruregens being
without them. The exopods of the uropods in Cruregens do not arch over-
the telson and they are long narrow filaments, whereas in Cruranthura
they are shorter, broader and lamelliform. Also Cruregens shows no signs

New Crustacea from the Swan River Estuary.

49

of dorsal fusion in the abdomen. The telson, to judge from Chilton’s figure,
differs also in that it is as wide proximally as more distally, whereas in
Cruranthura it is a distinctly narrowed proximally.

Of the genera possessing a seventh pereiopod Cruranthura comes near-
est to Paranthura, Bate and Westwood 1863, but differs in the form of
the maxillipeds, the presence in the latter genus of the characteristic flat
flagellum on antenna 2, and differences in the structure of antenna 1.

Generic features: Cruranthura is distinguished then, by the fact that
it has eyes, the maxilliped is two-segmented, the uropodal exopod arches
over the telson, the abdominal segments are fused dorsallv, and the seventh
pereiopod is absent.

LITERATURE CONSULTED FOR ANTHURIDAE.

Barnard, K. H. :

1914: Contributions to the Crustacean Fauna of Sth. Africa 3. Ann. S. Afr.

Mus., X, pt. 2, pp. 359-442.

1920: Ibid, 6 Ibid., XVII, pt. 5, pp. 319-438.

1925: A revision of the family Anthuridae. J our n. Linn. Soc., Vo-1. XXXVI
pp. 109-160.

1935: Report on some Amphipoda, Isopoda and Tanaidacea in the Indian
Museum. Rec. Ind. Mus., XXXVII, pp. 279-319.

1940 : Contributions to the Crustacean Fauna of St. Africa. Aim. S. Afr.
Mus., XXXII, pp. 381-543.

Bates, C. S., and Westwood, J. O., 1868: A History of the British Sessile-eved
Crustacea, Vol. II.

Beddard, F. E., 1886: Rep. on Isopada, second part. Challenger Reports, XVII,
Chilton, C. :

1881: Additions to New Zealand Crustacea. Trans. N.Z. Inst,, XIV, pp
171-174.

1881a. On some Subterranean Crustacea. Ibid. pp. 174-180.

1.882: Further additions to the New Zealand Crustacea, Ibid., XV. pp. 69-86.
1894: Subterranean Crustacea of New Zealand. Trans. Linn. Soc , Loud.,
Zool, VI, pt. 2, pp. 163-284.

1906: Note on some Crustacea from Freshwater Lakes in New Zealand
Proc. Zool. Soc., 1906, pp. 702-705.

1924: Fauna of the Chilka Lake. Isopoda. Mom, Ind. Mus., 5, pp. 519-558.

Gerstacher, 1882: Isopoda in Bronn's Thierreieh, Vol. V. pt. 2.

Hansen, H. J., 1916: Crustacea Malacostraca, pt. 3. Danish Ingolf. Exp. Ill,
pt. 5, pp. 1-262.

II a swell, W. A.:

1881: On some New Australian Marine Isopoda, pt. 1. Proc. Linn. Soc.
N.S.W., V, pp. 470-480.

1884: On a new Crustacean inhabiting the tubes of Vermilia. Proc, Linn
Soc,, N.S.U IX, pt. 3, pp. 676-679.

1885: A Revision of the Australian Isopoda. Ibid., pt. 4, pp. 1001-1018.
Hodgson, T. V., 1910: Isopoda. Nat. Antarct, Exp. Vol. V. pp. 1-77
Kertsinghe, 1931: On Mcsanihura maculaia. Spot. Zcylan., 16, pp. 129-130.

Monod, T., 1927 : Sur un Anthuride Nouveau du Cameroun, N otanthura Bar-
nardi. Nov. Gen. Nov. Sp. Bull. Soc. Zool., Paris 52 pp. 200-211.

Norman, A. H., and Stebbing, T. R. R., 1886: Crustacea Isopoda from the
“Lightning,” “Porcupine” and “Valorous” Expeditions, pt. 1. Trans.
Zool. Soc., Lond., XII, pt. 4, pp. 77-141.

50

J. M. Thomson

.Richardson, H.:

1901: Key to the Isopods of the Atlantic Coast of North America. Proc.
U.S. Nat, Mus., XXIII, pp. 493-579.

1905: Monograph of the Isopods of North America. Bull. b.S. Nat'. Mus.,
No. 54, pp. 1-726.

Sars, G. O., 1897. Isopoda. Crustacea of Norway, Vol. II.

Sexton, E. W., 1914: On Anthura gracilis. Journ. Mar. Biol. Assoc., X, pt. 2,
pp. 236-243.

Stebbing, T. R. R. :

1900: Crustacea brought by Willey from the South Seas. Willey’s Zool.
lies., V. pp. 605-690.

1904: Marine Crustacea XII, Isopoda. Faun, and Geog. Maid, and Lac.
Arohip., II, 3, pp. 699-721.

1904: Gregarious Crustacea from Ceylon. Spol. Zeyl., II, pp. 1-29.

1910: Isopoda from Indian Ocean and Brit. East Africa, Percy Sladen Exp.,
Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., Ser. II, Zool. XIV, 5 pp. 83-118.

1910: General Catalogue Sth. Afr. Crustacea. Ann. S. Afr. Mus., VI, pp.
281-593.

Stephensen, K., 1915: Isopoda, etc. Pep. Dan, Oceanog. Exp. to Meditt., etc., II,
pp. 1-53.

Tattersall, W. M., 1920: Tanaidacea and Isopoda. Brit. Antarct. Exp. ( {( Terra
Nova”), Zool. Ill, 5., pp. 191-258.

Theinemann, A., 1903: Statocysten bei Anthura gracilis, Zool. Anz., XXVI, pp.
406-410.

Thomson, G. M., 1881: Additions to the Crustacea fauna of New Zealand. Trans.
N.Z. Inst., XIY, pp. 230-238.

Vanhoffen, E., 1914: Die Isopoden der Deutsclien Sudpolar-Exp. Vol. XV, Zool.
VII, pp. 447-598.

Wahrberg, 1930: Sveriges Marina oeh Lacustra Isopoden Goteborgs K. Vet. o A itt.
Samh. Handl., Ser. B, I, 9, pp. 1-76.

Walker, A. O., 1901: Contrib. to Malacostrocan Fauna of Meditt. Journ. Linn.

Soc. Loud., Zool. XXVIII, 182., pp. 290-307.

Whitelegge, T., 1901: Sci. Res. “Thetis” Exp. Crustacea, pt. 2, Isopoda pt, 1.
Mem. Austr. Mus., IV, pt, 3, pp. 203-246.

Suborder: VALVIFERA.

Family: MUNNIDAE.

MUNNA Boeck (1839).

Munna brevicornis sp. nov.

Occurrence.

July to December; sparingly on algae.

Female.

17 mm. in length. Body broad, rather battened and oval; length twice
the breadth. Head broad, its length: breadth ratio equals 1 : 1*5. The an-
terior margin of the head is straight, deeply notched on each side at inser-
tion of the antennae. The eyes are large, situated on lateral projections
of the head.

The first four pereion segments are subequal in length, the first slightly
shorter than the others. Thorax wider than the head, each segment to the
fourth being wider than the one in front. The last three thoracic segments
are shorter and curve backwards at the sides. The lateral margins are all
rounded. The pleon is much narrower, somewhat pear-shaped (ob-pyri-
form), extremity rounded, without denticles but with a few fringing setae.

New Crustacea from the Swan River Estuary.

51

Appendages: Antennules reach about to the end of the 4th segment of

the peduncle of the antennae. Basal segment the broadest, the second is
only half as broad at the base, but expands slightly distally, and is covered
with scattered setae. The next two segments are subequal and small. Fol-
lowing these are two long segments, the distal of which is the longer. At
the extremity is a small segment. There are apical setae and “olfactory
filaments.”

Antennae not as long as the body; the first three segments short and
.subequal, the succeeding ones long and slender, the more distal longer than
the other. Flagellum longer than the peduncle. Mandibles with cutting edge
divided from the molar expansion by a deep cleft; palp well-developed.
Maxilla 1 of the usual shape, outer lobe the longer and relatively stout,
bearing about ten denticulate spines. The inner lobe is almost as long but
is more slender; it is widest at a third of the distance from its base, and
is armed with three spines terminally. Maxilla 2 of the usual shape with
pectinate setae along the margin. Maxillipeds protecting the remainder of
the mouth part and being rather lamelliform. From the coxa spring an
epipodite and a large basis which is produced at its extremity, the inner
side of which is lined by short setae, three of which at the end are stout
and spinelike. The ischium of the palp is short. The merus is longer and
fringed with setae and expanded distally. Carpus broader than long, propod
narrow, expanding slightly at its extremity and curving inward, and is
setose. Dactyl two-thirds as long as propod and ends in two stout setae.

Pereiopod 1 with basis long, four times as long as broad; ischium about
as long but narrower, merus expands antero-distally where it bears a single
seta, a few others occurring on the anterior margin. The carpus is about
the same size, but produced on the postero-distal angle which bears five
spines, an apical cluster of four and one proximally on the margin. The
propod is about as wide, its palmar margin with a convex expansion, fringed
by small spinules. Two large spines occur at the base and several long setae
over the surface. The dactyl bears a few fine setae and ends in two distinct
spines, the outer of which is twice the length of the other. Pereiopod 2 about
half as long as the body. The coxa is short but separate from the body;
basis long and narrow, with setae on the hind margin and one anteriorly;
ischium is similar in shape, not cjuite as long as the merus and narrower
at the base though expanding somewhat at its middle length, with a few
distal setae; carpus the same length as the ischium with a few scattered stout
setae, mostly on the posterior border; propod shorter than the carpus and
narrower, with four spines on the posterior border, and fine setae on the
anterior; dactyl short and oblong, with two apical claws and two setae.
Pereiopods 3 and 4 similar to the first except that the carpus and propod
are elongated. Pereiopods 5-7 similar but considerably longer.

Pleopod 1 modified to form an anal operculum which widens abruptly
from its base and is rounded apically where a few setae are present. Pleo-
pod 2 with basal protopod bearing- an inner flat branchial plate as the endo-
pod; at its internal distal corner the branchial plate has a plumose seta.
Exopod fused at its base with protopod. Its end segment is not quite as
long as the basal, and both are fairly short and stout. The distal segment
bears two stout apical setae. The whole exopod is fringed with delicate
fine setae. Pleopod 3 very similar to pleopod 2 but has no apical seta on

52

J. M. Thomson.

the branchial plate, and the exopod is longer and narrower. Pleopod 4 with
an oblong branchial plate free from setae. Exopod longer and still more
slender than in pleopod 3, fringed with fine setae, and the second segment
tipped with two plumose setae. Pleopod 5.A branchial plate only.

Uropods small, conical with a few setae; inserted somewhat dorsally
jit the posterior margin of the pleon segments.

Male.

Length 1-4 mm. The body is distinctly narrower than in the female;
length two and a half times the breadth. The first four pereion segments
are subequal in length, the first slightly shorter than the others. The first
thoracic segment is wider than the head, the second narrower; the third and
fourth are wider than the first. The next three segments are shorter and
turn back at the sides as in the female.

Pereiopod 1 similar to that of the female, equally massive, but longer.

New Crustacea from the Swax River Estuary.

53

Pleopocl 1 modified as an accessory sex organ, consisting of two oblong
plates fitting close together along the median line, narrow in the middle and
wider again at the extremities, turning out and being rounded terminally.
The upper surface is produced in a thin plate. A fold on each side distally
produces a pair of ducts. On the distal rounded portion there are two setae
apically on each side, and one medianly. Pleopod 2 curved and elongate,
broader at the base with two apical setae; penial filament apparently two-
jointed, one joint directed backwards, the other lying in the opposite direc-
tion, curved and ending in a long styliform extremity grooved along one
side. A second short round projection lies distally from the penial filament.
Otherwise the male is like the female.

From other species brevicornis may be distinguished by the relative
shortness of the antennae, the shape and armament of the first thoracic
appendages, the absence of denticles on the pleon. The posterior three
thoracic segments are not so crowded relatively as in other species, the body
being relatively elongate. Details of setation and armature on the other
legs are also specific.

LITERATURE CONSULTED FOR MTJNN A.

Barnard, K. H., 1910. Contributions to the Crustacean Fauna of South Africa,
XII. Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. XXXII pp. 381-543.

Beddard, F. II., 1886: Isopoda collected during voyage of the Challenger, pt. 3.
Proc. Zool. Soc., 1886, pp. 97-122

Chilton, C., 1892: A new Species of Munna from New Zealand. Ann. Mag. Nat
Hist. (6) 9, pp. 1-12.

Hansen, H. J., 1916: Crustacea Malacostraca III. Danish Ingolf. Exp., Ill 5

pp. 1-262.

Monod, T. :

1931: Tanaidaeea et Isopodes subantarctiques de la Collection Kohl-Lamen
du Senckenberg Museum. Senckenbergiana, Band. 13, pp. 10-30.
1933: Mission Robert Ph. Dolfuss en Egypte Tanaidaeea et Isopoda. Mem.
Inst. Egypte, T. XXI, pp. 161-264.

Ricardson, H. :

1901: Key to the Isopods of the Atlantic Coasts of North America. Proc.
U.S. Nat. Mus., XXIII, pp. 493-579.

1905: Monograph of the Isopods of North America. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus.,
No. 54, pp. 1-797.

Sars, G. O., 1899. Account of the Crustacea of Norway. 2. Isopoda.

Stepliensen, K., 1929: Marine Crustacea, Isopoda and Tanaidaeea Zool. of the
Faroes, XXIV, pp. 1-23.

Vanhoffen, E., 1914: Die Isopoden der Deutschen Siidpolar-Exp., Vol. XV, Zool.
VII, pp. 447-598.

Wahrberg, 1930: Sveriges Marina ocli Lacustra Isopoder. Goteborg. K. Yet.
o. Yitt. Samh. Handl., Ser. B, I. 9., pp. 1-76.

V

The Fauna of the Algal Zone of the Swan River Estuary. 55

4— THE FAUNA OF THE ALGAL ZONE OF THE

SWAN RIVER ESTUARY.

A PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF FRESHWATER BAY
WITH NOTES ON THE CHIEF SPECIES.

By

J. M. Thomson, B.Sc.,

Hackett Research Scholar, University of Western Australia.

Read 14th March, 1944.

INTRODUCTION.

The primary aims of this investigation were, firstly to learn the nature
of the fauna inhabiting’ the algae, and secondly to follow the seasonal change
in this fauna. From the data gathered various other observations have been
made, such as the species density and population density of various algal
species.

Adequate ecological study requires a team of workers. A lone worker
can hope only to make a general survey of the situation. Especially is this
so when, besides collecting and the laborious and time-expending work of
separation it is necessaray to identify species which are quite unfamiliar.
As a result a number of species have only been identified as far as the genus,
and some remain assigned only to the family. However, all those which can
be described as dominant have been specifically identified except for an
immature Gammarid which occurred at times.

Acknowledgment is due to Professor G. E. Nicholls and to Dr. A. G.
Nicholls for advice on literature and aid in other ways; and to Miss A. M.
Baird and Mr. G. G. Smith, of the Botany Department for aid in identifica-
tion of the higher algae.

Collections were made somewhat irregularly, due either to the number
of species requiring identification, or to other unavoidable circumstances.

PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF FRESHWATER BAY.
Physiography.

Accounts of the Swan River estuary have been given by Somerville
(1919) and by Aurousseau and Budge (1921). It need only be added that
the main area of investigation was situated in Freshwater Bay at the part
marked “C” in the map given by Somerville (op. cit. p. 17). The rocky
bottom under the high cliffs at this point provides an admirable substratum
for the algae.

Physical Conditions.

The Swan estuary differs in type from those upon which a fairly
abundant literature exists (Alexander 1936; Bassindale 1938; Milne 1940,
etc.). Along the coast in this region there is practically no tide; as a result
there is no daily alteration of fresh and salt water in the estuary, nor are
there areas of mudflats daily exposed as is the case in tidal estuaries. There

L 7549/45

56

J. M. Thomson.

is, however, a marked seasonal variation in salinity (Serventy 1938). In
summer, conditions in the estuary are marine. In winter, the water is greatly
diluted and after heavy rains becomes quite fresh at least In shallow water
near the banks. This dilution is greatest during July and August.

During part of the year there is a regular daily rise and fall in the
waters of the estuary, generally of about four to six inches. This appears
to be due, not so much to tidal influence, but to the regular alternation of
land and sea breezes. An easterly (land) breeze drives the waters of the
adjacent ocean away from land, depressing the level of waters along the
coast and consequently in the drowned valley of the estuary. A westerly
(sea) breeze piles water against the coast and raises the water level. If the
westerly continues for several days, as may happen during a storm, the level
of water is raised several feet. Similarly when an easterly continues for
an abnormal period, the water level may drop a few feet and as a result
expose some of the algal beds which otherwise are not out of water.

The area under investigation is under direct illumination from the sun
from early morning till late afternoon, when the high cliffs shut off the direct
rays of the sun.

No measurements of temperature were taken, but, as was to be expected,
in depths of only a few inches the water was considerably warmer than in
deeper water, if there had been practically no water movement for some
time and the sun was particularly hot.

The currents in the estuary are practically confined to the deeper
channels. Shallow areas such as the one under consideration are more in-
fluenced by the surface drift produced by winds. Though normally incon-
siderable, waves of up to two feet may be raised during strong winds, thus
laying the shallows open to some battering.

There is always a considerable amount of organic matter and soil in
the water, but usually the bottom can be seen at several feet depth. How-
ever, after heavy rains greatly increased quantities of material occur sus-
pended in the water and it may be impossible to see the bottom even at a
depth of 1 ft. Gin. Photosynthesis in the algal zone must be considerably
impeded during such periods.

Algal Zone.

The rock bottom on which the algae occurs is a ledge of shallow depth
along the bank, extending outwards for a width of 7ft. to 16ft. Most of the
algae occurs from surface level to a depth of 5ft., though occasionally
patches were found at 7ft.

Methods.

The method of collection consisted simply of plucking the algae from
the substratum and transferring to a collecting jar. In the case of larger
algae, such as Cystophyllum muricatum it was sometimes necessary to cut-
off only part of the stem or only branches. At first the transference of
material was made under water with a control jar of water to ascertain
whether there was any free-swimming population to influence results. Later
trials, however, showed that no significant loss occurred if the algae were
lifted out of the water and then transferred. As this method was more
rapid and more easily accomplished it was adopted.

The Fauna of the Algal Zone of the Swan River Estuary. 57

Estimation of Population.

Although the importance of the algal fauna has long been recognised
and such phrases as “among sea-weed” frequently occur in records, few
studies of the fauna of aquatic vegetation have been made. Those that have
been made are concerned almost entirely with fresh water plants (Ward,
1896; Moore, 1913; Richardson, 1921; Percival & Whitehead, 1929; Krecker,
1939), usually with flowering plants. Descriptions of the algal zones of
the sea have rarely been accompanied by data as to the small members
oc the communities on and among the algae. The record is mostly of the
dominant animals, usually Molluscs, occurring on the same substratum as
the algae and sometimes passing on to the vegetation. (Flattely & Walton
1922; Colman, 1933; Kitehing, 1935; Bright, 1938; Stephenson & Bright,
1938; Bokenham, 1938; Eyre, 1939; Stephenson & Day, 1940). A method
for the quantitative analysis of the fauna of aquatic vegetation is wanting.
Moore (1913) used the general terms “abundant” and “scarce.” Bokenham
(1938) used “Dominant,” “Plentiful” and “Present.” Richardson (1921)
made a quantitative count of the upper nine inches of aquatic plants. The
count was based on the animals washed off the plants collected from a
definite area. Other workers (Needham, 1928, 1929; Pate, 1932) have failed
to differentiate between the animals of the plants and those of the underlying
substratum, except in the case of the two authors mentioned next.

Krecker (1939) working on fresh- water phanerogams took as a basis the
population per ten linear feet of plant. He conducted a plant to plant
examination. The only alga investigated in the Swan estuary which lends
itself to such treatment is Cystophyllum muncatun which attains lengths of
up to seven feet. But the majority of the algae are relatively short, occur-
ring as more or less branching filaments or intertwining strands densely
crowded together. The broad flat Ulva lactuca provides a third type.

Colman (1940) working on the fauna of the intertidal sea-weeds, used
the number of animals per unit weight of sea-weed. The method adopted in
the present research was to calculate the fauna per 100 c.c. of the alga
measured by displacement of water. As few, if any, of the animals present
used the algae as food, but rather as a substratum it was considered that
the space occupied by the alga was of more significance than the weight,
since the volume bears a constant relationship to the surface of the plant
(though admittedly the relationship varies to a degree from plant to plant
according to irregularities of shape) whereas the weight is not a function
of the surface, since it varies with the density. The displacement method
adopted is also advantageous in being rapid.

By this means a picture was gained not only of the algal fauna as a
whole, but enabled comparison between different algae.

58

J. M. Thomson..

Algae.

The dominant species of algae in the estuary are: —

Cystophyllnm muricatnm Enteromorpha compressa

Chaetomorplia aera Ectocarpus confervoides

Cladophora penicillata Viva lactuca

Besides these, others occur, usually as isolated clumps amongst the others
and may sometimes have been included amongst collections. (For example,
other species of Enteromorpha may have been included amongst E. com-
pressa.) These secondary species include: —

Asperococcus sp.
Calothamnium sp.
Enteromorpha prolifera.
Enteromorp h a i ntest i n al is
Enter o morph a claphrata
Enteromorpha plum osa

Chaeto m o rp ha n i t i d u 1 a
C a id erp a cy lin dr ace a
Gracilaria confervoides
M o n o sp o ra austra l is
Polysiphonia mollis
Zoobotrium pelucides

Some of these are abundant elsewhere in the estuary (G. confervoides) but
do not occur in quantity in the area investigated.

Diatoms.

Some colonial diatoms were present on the algae throughout the year.
Three periods of particular abundance were noted. These occurred in
March, May and October. From the nature of their surfaces Cystophyllnm
and Cladophora provided the best substratum for these, while Viva was
practically free from diatoms. From May to late July diatoms were fairly
abundant but were very scarce in August and September.

No identification was attempted beyond the genus. The following are
the genera present at the three peak periods. Except from May to July
the amount of diatoms rather rapidly fell away from the peak.

March.

May.

October.

Frustulia ( Navicula )

Coscinodiscus

Synedra

Fleur o sigma

Bhizosolenia

Bacillaria

G animat oph ora

Gam mat oph ora

Melosira

Lycmophora

Melosira

Melosira

N it z s chia

Striatella

Lycmophora

Aster ionella (?)

The genera are listed in order of relative abundance. It is notable that the
October increase was due almost entirely to Synedra. By November Bacil -
laria and Melosira had disappeared and Coscinodiscus was sparingly present.

The Fauna of the Algal. Zone of the Swan River Estuary. 59

Fauna.

Here is given a list of the fauna, as identified for the purpose of this
investigation. Thus Gannnarid spp. includes two or three species of which
one representative only was found and cannot be regarded as a true member
of the algal fauna.

Protozoa

No record kept. Maximum
abundance in April.

Hvdrozoa

Campaniilaria verticillata (?)

( Linn ) .

Turbellaria

Lepto plana spp.

Nemathelminthes
Nematoda spp.

Polychaeta

Nereis oxypoda Marenzeller
Nereis albanyensis Augener
C eratonereis erythraeensis

Fauvel.

Small Nereids

Odontosyllis fulgarans Claparede
Spionid. sp.

Oligochaeta

Microdrilids.

Polyzoa

Polyzoan sp.

Tanaidacea

Tanais cavolinii Milne-Ed wards.
Paratanais sp.

Harpacticoida

Ameira minor Thompson &
Scott.

Ampliiascoides inter mixt us

(Willey).

Amphiascopsis sexsetatus

(Monard).

Amphiascus sp.

Dactylopusia tisboides Claus
Ectinsosoma propinquum T. &
Scott.

Harpacticus gracilis Claus
Idyella exigua Sars
Mesamphiascus normani ( Sars)
Mesoclnra parva J. M. Thomson
Parathalestris sp.

Perissocope sp. (?)
Pseudothalestris pygmaea T.
Scott.

Tegastes sp.

Tisbe furcata Baird
Tisbe graciloides Sars
Tisbe tenera Sars
j Zaus sp. (?)

Calanoidea

Gladiof evens imparipes J. M.
Thomson.

Ostracoda

Xestolebris aurantia Baird.

Cy the rid spp.

Isopoda

Cruranthura simplicia J. M
Thomson.

Manna brevicornis J. M. Thom-
son.

Amphipoda

CapreUa pen-antis Leach
Caprella scaura Temple' on
Coropliium minor J. M. Thomson
Corophium sp.

Erichthonias pugnax Dana
Gammarid spp.

Melita sp.

Pallasea sp. (?)

Talorchestia sp.

Caridea

Leander intermedins St ini} son
Brachyura

Cyclograpsus audouinii Milne-
Edwards.

Halicarcinus australis (Haswell)

Arachnida

Litarachna sp.

In sect a

Chironomid (?) larvae

Mollusea

Modiolus sp.

Rissoa sp.

Aseidacea

Ascidea malaca (Traust.)

Chaetognatha
So gift a sp.

GO

J. M. Thomson.

Analysis of Collections.

Appended at the end of this paper is a table (Table 1) setting out the
monthly mean results. The quantities are expressed, as explained under
“ Estimation of population/’ in terms of the number of animals per amount
of algae displacing 100 c.c. of water. The total number of animals in any
column then represents the population density per 100 c.c. for that type
of algae.

From the table it is evident that no species of alga was present- during
all 10 months, although Enteromorpha was completely absent only in
August. The following list shows the species of alga present from month
to month and their relative abundance.

(a) — abundant; (b) — well distributed; (c) — isolated stands.

March — Cystopliyllum (a), Enteromorpha (a), Ulva (b).

April — Cystopliyllum (a), Enteromorpha (a).

May — Cystopliyllum (a), Enteromorpha (a).

June — Cystopliyllum (b), Enteromorpha (a), Ulva (a).

July — CystophyUum (c), Enteromorpha (b), Ulva (a), Chaetomorplia
(c).

August — Ulva (a), Chaetomorplia (b).

September — Cystopliyllum (c), Enteromorpha (b), Cladophora (c).

October — Enteromorpha (c), Cladophora (c), Ectocarpus (a).

November — Enteromorpha (a), Cladophora (a), Ectocarpus (a).

December — Enteromorpha (c), Cladophora (a), Ectocarpus (c), Ulva
(e).

Animal Distribution.

From March to September CystophyUum muricatum provided the most
favoured habitat for the algal fauna. From October to December Ectocarpus
conf ervoides was favoured as long as it was thriving, but in December when
it was decaying Cladophora penicillata became the chief habitat. Ulva at all
times provided the least utilised substratum, being most densely inhabited
in March when the fronds were of great size and much convoluted. There
can be little doubt but that it is the character of the plant that causes the
differences rather than environmental conditions. It is noticeable that
Cystopliyllum muricatum, Cladophora penicillata and Ectocarpus c'onf ervoides
provided the best substrata for the colonial diatoms.

Seasonal Changes.

Almost assuredly associated with the change in salinity is the change
in the species making up the algal communities. No species was recorded
in all ten months. Tanais cavolinii, while absent only in October, was repre-

The Fauna of the Algal Zone of the Swan River Estuary. 61

sented by immature specimens only during August, September and November.
The following were the dominant species (numerically) from month to
month : —

March — Tmais cavolinii. Caprella penantis.

April — Caprella penantis; Tanais cavolinii.

May — H arpa cticus gra cilis.

June. — Erichthonius pugnax ; Melita sp. (Immature).

July — Caprella scaura ; Tanais cavolinii.

A ugu s t — Gladiof evens imp a rip es.

September — Gladiof evens imparipes .

October — Mesochra parva; Glacliof evens imparipes.

November — Mesochra parva ; Glacliof evens imparipes.

December. — Harpacticus gracilis ; Tisbe tenera.

The population density of the algal zone fell from March to August
and then rose again. (See text fig. 1.)

The number of species present also dropped from 3d in March to six
in September, rising again to 25 in December.

Species Density.

Following Hesse, Allee, Schmidt (1937), “Species Density” is taken to
mean the number of species present in unit area or unit volume. The
figures are given at the bottom of Tables 1 and 2. It will bo seen that
although Cystophyllum had the greatest population density, in March and
June its species density was not as great as that of Enteromorplia , and
in April and May there was no significant difference between the two. The
highest species density is 25, recorded for Cladophora in December. En-
ter omorpha follows with 22 in March. Like the population density, the
species density fell from March to August and September and then rose
again. The lowest species density recorded was 1 ( Viva- in August, and
Enteromorplia in September). Species density does not necessarily corres-
pond with the population density. Thus in March Cystophyllum had tho
greatest population density, but the lowest species density.

Again, although two species of alga may have similar species densities,
the species making up the community are not necessarily the same. Thus in
July Enteromorplia and Ulva had species densities of 13 and 12 respectively
but had only five species in common. The apparent preference for one alga
or another is doubtless extremely complex in its causation; all the factors
that influence environmental distribution probably play a part, food, com-
petition with other species, vulnerability to attack and so on.

Variations with Depth.

Apart from the collections summarised in Table 1, on three occasions
separate collections were made to gain an idea of distribution by depth. The
results are shown in Table 2. The four inches nearest the surface are least
densely inhabited, particularly where open to buffeting by the wind-driven
waves. In positions sheltered by large rocks the top few inches are more
thickly populated. Most species were taken between four inches and two

62

J. M. Thomson.

feet depth. But the population density varied in its maximum from deeper
than two feet to shallower, probably according to the physical conditions
at the particular time. A point to be noted is that in November, Gladiofe -
Tens imparipes was present in large numbers below a depth of two feet, but
absent entirely above; whereas Mesochra parva was present in large num-
bers in the surface layers, but few in numbers below two feet.

Biotic Influence from Outside the Community.

It has been mentioned earlier that certain of the species recorded in these
collections are more properly regarded as only occasional intruders into the
algal association. Such are Gammarid spp. Cyclograpsus audouinii, Modi-
olus sp., Sagitta sp . Besides these there are occasional intruders which are
not recorded in collections but whose presence was noted. This group includes
both aquatic and non-aquatic creatures.

Aquatic intruders,

Trockus sp. Abundant on rocks above and below water level, and
occasionally found amongst the algae. Also on the rocks occur Balanus
nigrescens and Balanus amphitrite which possibly influence the abundance
of the algae. Sphaeroma quoyana with its attendant commensal Iais pube-
scens (var. longistylis) burrows into the sandstone which forms the sub-
stratum for the algae. Whether it has any influence on the algal fauna
above is unknown. Similar remarks apply to various Gammarids, Poly-
chaets and Turbellarians found on the rock, together with various Isopods.

Hippocampus tuberculatiis Castelnau has been taken in this weed area.
Dunker (1910) reports Trachyrramplius brevicauclis Castelnau from the
Swan estuary also, and this species may also occur amongst the algae.

The blue Serrated Swimming crab Scylla serrata has also been observed
amongst the algae. Swarms of little fish periodically appear, and these
were particularly abundant during September-October. The common “jelly-
fish,” Aurelia aurita is sometimes driven in large numbers among the algae,,
with what effect, if any, upon the algal fauna is problematical.

Extra-aquatic intrude rs.

These generally appear when the water is particularly low, exposing
the algal beds to the air. Some of the birds also pick through the weeds in
shallow water. The following have been observed apparently feeding on
or among the algae or the Molluscs on the rocks beneath.

Phalacrocorax atm. Pisobia minuta

Phalacrocorax varius. Tringoides hypoleucus.

Phalacrocorax carbo. Laras novae -hollandiac.

M i croca rbo mclanoleu cu s .

When the algae are exposed, numbers of ants, flies, wasps, spiders, land
isopods and beetles (e.g., Ophodinus sp.) make their way thither, retreating
again as the water rises. Most of the algal fauna doubtless retreats as the
water level falls, but some at least remain in the damp weed.

The Fauna of the Algal Zone of the Swan River Estuary. 63

NOTES ON THE CHIEF SPECIES.

The notes presented below are mainly of an ecologic and systematic,
nature. No detailed account of any species is given.

Lep topi an a sp p .

A few specimens were definitely identified as Lept-o plana , but it is pos-
sible that other genera are included under this heading. These animals-
were much more common on the rocky substratum, and occurred on the algae
mostly when they were covered in diatoms and were in an old and semi-
decaying state.

Ceratonereis erythraeensis Fauvel 1919 and Nereis oxypoda Marenzeller
1879.

Monro (1938) has recorded these species from the Swan estuary, and
Augener (1913) named ? Nereis ( Ceratonereis ) aequisetis which Monro says
may be the former species. These were the largest and most common of'
the nereids found on the algae.

Nereis albanyensis Augener 1913.

A few specimens were obtained in August. The species has been re-
corded by Augener from Albany and Fremantle. Except for an occasional
small specimen, Nereids were absent from March to October.

Tanais cavolinii Milne-Edwards, 1828.

This is probably a cosmopolitan species. It has been recorded from
the Atlantic Coast of North America, Bermuda, Greenland, M est Coast of
Norway, British Isles, Western France, Azores, Mediterranean. It usually
occurs in shallow water (lft. to 6ft.) among algae. It has also been
recorded from oysters, on B alarms , on Pinna , and sponges.

T . cavolinii is tubicolous, though it leaves its tube quite regularly in
search of food and crawls slowly over the algae. The tube is of mucin, to
which little bits of algae and other detritus are joined. On several occasions
Nematodes were found in the same tube. The tubes are usually twice as
long as the animal, but may be smaller or larger.

Although as far as ascertained not previously recorded from the southern
hemisphere, there is little doubt that the species recorded is 1 . cavolinii ~
It agrees perfectly with Sars’ (1899) description of tomentosus (synonymy,,
see Dollfuss, 1897) and with Richardson's (1905) description.

The numbers of T. cavolinii were greatest in March, and the propor-
tion of ovigerous females was also greatest at this time (33%). Numbers-
fell oft* rapidly till June, presumably as a result of the lowering of salinity.
A temporary increase occurred in early June, ovigerous females being taken*
for the first time since the end of April. However, by the middle of July
the species was again very scarce and was not recorded at all in October.
No females were found from the middle of July to the beginning of
September. The few specimens found in November were all immature.

J. M. Thomson.

64

There seems little doubt that optimum conditions in the estuary for T.
cavolinii occur during the summer, probably before March. Males were
more numerous than females from March through the winter, but females
were present in greater numbers than the males in December.

Dactyl opusia tisboides Claus 1863.

This species was never very common, but was taken in every sample
from March to July. Distribution is very wide: recorded from Woods Hole,
Franz Josef Land, Greenland, Coast of Norway, Kiel Bay, British Isles,
France, Mediterranean, Red Sea, Kerguelen, Western Australia.

Ectinosoma propinquum T. and A. Scott, 1896.

Also not common but taken from March to June. Distribution: Scot-
land, Franz Josef Land, Coast of Norway, Ceylon.

Harpacticus gracilis Claus, 1863.

It is possible that some specimens attributed to this species are referable
to another as each individual was not checked. But several times during
the year a proportion of the specimens were examined and on each occasion
proved to be H. gracilis. The limbs correspond perfectly in structure with
the drawings of Monard (1928). Distribution includes the North Sea,
Mediterranean, Black Sea, Chilka Lake, Suez Canal, Atlantic Coast of North
America, Kerguelen.

The species was evidently decreasing in March, was poorly represented in
April but underwent a huge increase in May to decrease in collections
throughout June. It was absent from August to October. In November a
few specimens occurred, but by December a tremendous increase had again
taken place.

MesocJira parva J. M. Thomson.

This was recorded in sparing numbers throughout the year until October
when it swarmed in the shallower waters, while Gladiof evens imparipes was
predominant rather deeper. A check of the collection has shown that while
the October-November increase included only M. parva earlier in the year
(March- June) a few of the specimens recorded as M. parva are referable
to another species, and are tentatively assigned to M. pygmaea (Claus) with
which they agree most closely. This latter was represented by only a few
specimens among the total. No sign of M. parva was found in December,
its place being taken, apparently, by Harpacticus gracilis .

It is noteworthy that the proportion of males to females was 1 : 1.6 in
October but was only 1 : 6.8 in November. About 50% of the females were
ovigerous.

Perissocope sp. (?) This is a very uncertain identification, being
first made from Wilson’s key (1932), but imperfectly confirmed.

The Fauna of the Algal Zone of the Swan River Estuary. 65

Tisbe spp.

Three species of lisbe were identified, none being* particularly numer-
ous ^except T. ten-era in December. T. tenera Sars and T. fur oat a Baird
(1850) were found and a third species somewhat questioningly identified as
T. graciloides Sars. These latter corresponded fairly well with Sars’ figures
►especially in the detail of the first antennae.

The three species were present in greatest numbers in December. Their
numbers during the rest of the year were low, though in July they were
among the more conspicuous members of the fauna, since all species had
either disappeared or were present in small numbers. Ovigerous females and
immature specimens were common in December.

Distribution : T. tenera : coast of Norway, English Channel, Roscoff,

Suez Canal, Nicobar Is.

T. furcata : Alaska, New Zealand, Pacific Islands, Ceylon, Chilka Lake,
Red Sea, Mediterranean, North Atlantic, Baltic, Nicobar Is., Maidive Is.

T. graciloicles : West coast of Norway.

'Gladiof erens imparipes J. M. Thomson.

The genus is a southern hemisphere one closely related to Boekella. Its
recorded distribution is from Western Australia through South Australia
and New South Wales to New Zealand, generally in brackish waters.

G. imparipes first appeared in July when the river was becoming fresh,
and slowly increased in numbers to become a dominant form in August,
and reached its greatest numbers at the beginning of November, though at
this time it was no longer found in the shallowest water as formerly but
■only amongst the algae at depths greater than 2 feet. By December only
•a few specimens remained.

Males and females were present in approximately equal numbers till
the November increase, when females were more than twice as abundant as
males. The proportion of ovigerous females was rather steady at about *4
•of the total.

Xestolebris aurantia Baird 1850.

The peculiarities of this genus left little doubt as to the generic identity
■of this form. On the basis of its close agreement with Sars (1921) descrip-
tion of aurantia it has been assigned to that species. Distribution: The
British Isles, Holland, Baltic, Norway.

Crurantkura simplicia J. M. Thomson.

This was taken in few numbers in June, July and September, on
each occasion on Cysiophyllum only.

Munna brevicornis J. M. Thomson.

Taken in July, October, November and December. Numbers were small,
but several ovigerous females were taken, together with males and immature
specimens.

66

J. M. Thom sox.

Caprella penantis Leach 1814 and Caprella scaura Templeton 1836.

These two forms were common among the algae and have been recorded
together in the Tables as Caprella spp. Their variability with growth and
sexual maturity was so great that identification was difficult. From March
to May C. penantis formed the greater proportion of the catch. Those
caught in July were entirely C. scaura.

Mayer (1912) in Fauna S lichees t -A us t ra liens records Metaproto •
novae -hollandiae , Monoliopus agilis and Caprella aequilibra also from the
8 wan river. No adult specimens of these species were taken. It is possible
however that the young of C. aequilibra are included amongst the recorded
immature forms, since the young of C. scaura and C. penantis develop to a
considerable size before the frontal spine and other armature appears.

The Caprellids were among the dominant members of the fauna during
March and April. Their numbers were reduced by the end of May, and they
were present in but few numbers in June. They experienced a temporary
increase in July and then disappeared. Despite the onset of summer condi-
tions they had not reappeared in collections by 12th of December.

Distribution: — C. penantis (C. acutifrons) has been recorded from Cler-
aldton and the Swan River, W.A., South Australia, New South Wales,.
Mediterranean and North Sea.

C. scaura from the Swan and at Bunbury, W.A., South Australia,.
New South Wales, Mediterranean, Rio de Janeiro, Mauritius, Japan, Cali-
fornia.

Corophium minor J. M. Thomson.

It was taken from March to July, and then reappeared in November..
It was taken in greatest numbers in late March. In December another
larger species of Corophium was taken. It has not been identified and is
recorded here as Corophium sp.

Erichthonius pugnax Dana 1852.

Chilton (1922) and others have considered that this and other recorded
species of Erichthonius are to be referred to one species E. brasiliensis as
different growth stages. However all the specimens collected which ranged
from immature forms to ovigerous females and larger males were in close
agreement with descriptions of E. pugnax. One large male seemed more in
accord with E. macrodactylus.

The species is tubieolous, inhabiting tubes built on the algae. These
tubes are very similar to those of Tanais eavolinii but with a greater pro-
portion of sand utilised. The species was found only during June and
July, but during the former month Avas one of the dominant species, at
least as far as numbers are concerned. As far as I can ascertain this is
the first record of the genus from Australia.

Distribution: — New Zealand, Sooloo Sea.

Melita sp.

i radically all the specimens recorded under this heading are immature
specimens. Howe\'er unless a great change occurs in proportion of parts
such as the very short inner ramus of the third uropod and other character-

The Fauna of the Algal Zone of the Swan River Estuary. 67

istics there can be little doubt that it is a Melita,. The generic distinctions
.are in agreement with those given for Melita by Stebbing (1906) and by
Barnard (1941).

Leander intermedins Stimpson, 1860.

Serventy (1938) states that he found Palaemonetes australis } Dakin
(1915) only, in the Swan estuary. I am not aware whether any of his
specimens came from Freshwater Bay, but he does mention taking some in
Crawley Bay, some way upstream. The nature of Crawley Bay differs from
that of the area investigated in being predominantly sandy with scattered
pieces of rock and continuing out as a. shallow shelf much further than is
the case in Freshwater Bay. All the specimens taken amongst the algae
were Leander intermedins. Each specimen was dissected to make certain. In
each case the mandible bore a distinct large palp, the absence of which
distinguishes Palaemonetes from Leander. Besides those recorded in Table 1
extra specimens were taken from the algal area. (Kemp (1925) gives an
excellent key and descriptions.) All proved to be L. intermedins ; the specific
■characters were definitely those of intermedius, not of the marine serenus.

It was noted that a shrimp occurred on the shallow sandy portion of
the bay just down-stream from the rock-algae area. Specimens of these
were taken, and proved to lack a palp to the mandible and were identified
as Palaemonetes australis.

It seems then that both these shrimps occur in the estuary in different
habitats, L. intermedins among the algae, and P. australis in the sandy
shallows. Distribution : South Australia, Tasmania, Coekburn Sound.

SUMMARY.

The fauna occurring in six species of algae was investigated. The
species of algae varied in abundance and none was present in all ten months
of the survey. Some 52 species of animals were recorded as members of
the algal community. These occurred in varying abundance at different
times of the year. The maximum number of species occurring in any month
was 33, the minimum six. Population density and species density are shown
for each species of alga. Population density, species density, amount of
diatoms present, and abundance of algae were all lowest in August -
September. The dominant species in each month are listed. The nature of
the species present changed as the salinity dropped during heavy winter
rains. As summer returned the summer members of the fauna returned
with the increasing salinity, Caprella spp. being the only species common in
late summer collections which had not returned by December. It was found
that the top four inches or so of the algae were not favoured, but most
species were taken between four inches and two feet. A list of occasional
intruders into the algal community is given. Added are ecologie and systematic
notes on the chief species. A graph (text fig. 1) summarises the variation in
population density. Besides the figures for each species of alga an estimated
mean is given which is the average reading of the different algae present;
at the time, their relative abundance being ignored except at the point A.
The reading at this point represents the figure for Cladophora pencillata
only since this was in vast abundance, whereas the other species recorded
at this time were present in extremely small widely-scattered clumps. The
reading for Cladophora thus gives a much more accurate picture of the
algal fauna.

s a, m. pic

68

J. M. Thomson.

It will be noticed that two crops of TJlva lactuca occur during* the year.
Cystophyllum muricatum was not collected in August, and in September
01? lv a small specimen was found, after which none occurred. The dates of
appearance and disappearance of other algae can be seen from the graph. .
A tremendous increase in animal population is indicated in November. It
can be seen from the graph that the summer population is several times
greater than that in mid-winter.

IWQ

Text fig 1 : Variation in population density. March-December, 1943.

Tine Fauna of the Algae Zone of the Swan River Estuary. ( 51 )

TABLE 1.

MONTHLY VARIATION IN POPULATION & SPECIES DENSITY FOR EACH ALGA

Cystophyllum m uricat urn .

Enteromorpha compressa.

Viva lactuca.

Chaeto-

morplui

aera.

Cladophora

peniculata.

Ectocarpus

confervmdes.

SPECIES.

t-i

s

.

u

z

>2

JS

u

0

ht

Si

*

u

a

u

Ci

u

1

0/

March.

April.

May.

June.

July.

August

~

s

«r

X

March.

<

3

June.

July.

August

s

«r

X

Octobe

s

>

£

1

0

March.

June.

July.

r/l

P

tc

1

0

July.

'!

tf.

g

ii

<7

X

O

ii

O

S5

>

'A

g

0

a

<0

1

0

0

1

>

&

Cam pan utaria pen i cillaJa

1

wgptoplana spj>.

18

8

12

2

....

4

2

....

....

....

....

5

1

....

....

....

....

....

Nematoda spp.

10

2

10

22

12

i

9

2

....

....

Herat on rrei s erytJi rare ns i s

18

4

11

14

24

5

1

24

3

Nereis oxypoda

10

14

....

....

8

....

....

....

....

....

....

3

8

5

....

Nereis atbanyensis

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

2

....

Small Nereids

2

6

2

3

2

1

34

8

Hesionr sp.

1

Odotifost/llis fubjarans ..
Bmionid sp.

2

....

2

....

....

2

....

...

....

....

....

....

....

1

...

....

2

....

mutolytus sp

Bicrodrillds

....

1

o

....

....

....

3

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

.Polygon sp

4

30

:i

....

....

i

....

....

....

....

....

'Ameira minor

Amphiasroides i ntrrm i x-

2

4

6

3

....

....

2

1

1

3

....

....

....

9

2

....

....

....

....

0

....

....

| tus

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

A mph iascops is srxsrtat us
Amphiascvs sp.

....

....

....

20

1

....

....

....

....

....

8

....

....

....

....

....

1

....

....

Vadylopusia tisboides ....
Ed i ii osoma p rop i nqu u rn

4

10

5

....

....

18

4

i

9

....

....

3

....

....

....

....

....

8

4

5

....

l

8

3

....

....

....

4

14

....

Harp actio is gracilis

93

0

108

7

5

....

ui

4

29

35

....

....

8

40

51

....

3

4

140

....

2

120

Idyella cxigua

....

....

....

....

0

....

1

....

....

....

Mesampfiiascus norm an i
Mesochra parva

....

5

4

....

24

....

1

i

•ib

72

"i

"i

....

....

4

3

57

830

‘70

023

....

Parathalestris sp. •
Werissocope sp.

....

....

i'i

3

....

....

4

’ 2

3

....

....

....

....

....

Pseudothalestris pyj m Ora

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

4

3

....

....

....

....

....

" i

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

Teqastrs sp.

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

3

....

....

....

....

ib

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

...

Tisbe fvreata
\ Tisbe graciloides
T isbe truer a

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

2

3

1

27

8

....

....

....

....

20

....

. .

....

. .

....

....

....

....

0

....

1

7

....

2

17

18

....

....

....

....

....

2

3

....

....

....

7

18

....

....

....

. .

1

....

....

....

....

83

....

....

40

'Tube sp. (Immature)
Zaus sp. ?

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

' 9

....

....

....

....

....

....

"i

....

....

....

....

...

....

....

127

....

....

Harpa<ticoids( Immature)
Glaaiofercns imparipes
Copepod nauplii

....

....

....

2

74

;;;;

....

b

20

....

....

....

"i

....

....

....

ib

i)

i

1

2

32

298

....

....

....

....

....

....

.. .

....

....

....

3

....

....

10

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

"i

Xestolebris aurantia .

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

1

i

ii

Cytherid sp.

....

....

....

3

1

1

....

....

....

....

4

5

4

1

....

Cirriped nauplii
Tanais carol ini i

240

102

4

17

41

14

52

43

20

5

1

....

1

....

18

"4

’ ii

....

....

0

....

-)

"ii

...

....

22

Paratanais sp.
Cruranth ura simpl icia

....

4

"4

"i

....

1

....

....

::::

::::

....

....

....

....

■—

14

....

....

....

....

....

Manna brericomis

....

....

124

....

48

• >

....

2

....

....

....

....

....

1

....

•>

Caprella spp

0

242

2

9

50

....

93

1

....

....

....

....

....

74

....

....

....

10

....

....

....

....

....

....

Coroph ium in i nor

23

....

....

3

3

....

....

5

8

....

....

....

....

....

10

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

0

....

4

....

Corophium sp.

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

i

....

. .

....

4

....

....

Ericmhonius pujnax

....

, pil

55

9

....

....

• •

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

...

....

....

....

....

4

....

....

....

....

....

Gammarid spp.

2

1

1

....

1

....

"ii

bb

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

1

Melila sp.

14

2

4

17

....

....

0

....

9

....

....

....

8

5

8

....

....

....

.. .

7

28

9

....

VaUa&ea sp. ?

Tutor rhestia sp.

2

....

....

....

....

....

ib

....

"i

....

....

::::

....

::::

....

....

....

Leander intermedins

1

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

Cyeloyrapsus audouini i

3

....

■

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

.....

Jlalicarrinus australis

1

2

....

....

....

....

...

....

....

....

"ii

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

.. .

....

....

Litaruchna sp.

....

....

....

.. .

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

2

8

....

b

Cliironomid larvae

4

....

2

....

3

4

4

....

....

....

....

....

1

....

5

....

....

....

....

4

1

....

....

3

Modiolus sp

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

4

....

....

....

....

....

....

1

....

....

1

....

7

0

....

....

....

....

....

....

Lamellibranch sp

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

L

llissoa sp

Gastropod eggs

....

....

M

....

....

....

....

....

1

....

....

3

....

....

....

....

....

. . .

::::

::::

....

....

....

....

....

1

....

....

Ascidea malaca

....

....

5

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

llotryUus sp

....

....

M

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

Sagitta sp

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

•....

....

....

"1

....

....

....

....

....

...

....

....

1

....

....

Fish eggs

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

.. .

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

....

1

....

....

....

Total Population

450

379

185

100

109

....

109

377

159

142

100

09 1 ....

20

55

107

58

195

28

75

0

28

37

33

12

90

879

418

114

954

182

Species Density ....

10

12

13

17

17

....

5

22

11

14

19

13

....

1

8

0

3

21

11

12

1

3

5

0

2

11

8

25

0

10

3

M =» Masses.

The Fauna of the Algal Zone of the Swan River Estuary. 71

TABLE 2.

VARIATION IN POPULATION WITH DEPTH.

Species.

March.

July.

November.

Enteromorph

a compressa.

Cystophyllum

muricatum

Ectocarpus
confervoides .

Open.

Sheltered.

Above

1ft.

Below

1ft.

A bove
; 1 ft.

Below

1ft.

Above
4 in.

4 in. to
1 ft. 6in.

1 ft. 6 in.

to

2 ft. 6 in.

Above
4 in.

Leptoplana spp. ...

3

1

5

Nematoda spp. ..

32

8

10

12

Ceratonereis erythraeensis

19

4

5

•>

2

Nereis oxypoda ....

3

a

Small Nereids

3

1

3

Odontosyllis fidgarans

2

Spionids ....

7

2

Ameiro minor

16

8

Amphiascus sp. ..

10

9

Dactylopusia tisboides

9

2

4

Harpacticus gracilis

8

64

46

2

5

3

Mesochra parva ..

5

804

33

Parathalestris sp.

2

5

Tegastes sp.

1

Tisbe graciloides ...

5

Tisbe tenera

3

Zans sp. ?

3

1

Gladioferens imparipes ..

3

298

Xestolebris aurantia

2

2

Cytherid sp.

1

3

2

Tanais cavolinii ...

20

33

169

18

3

39

1

Cruranthura simplicia ....

1

4

Munna brevicornis

2,

Caprella spp.

43

23

4

84

15

47

Corophium minor

1

24

12

3

4

Erichthonius pugnax

9

Melita sp.

3

8

15

Chironomid larvae

2

1

2

1

Litarachna

6

Modiolus sp.

2

1

Halicarcinus australis

1

Ascidea malaca ....

6

Botryllus sp

M

Total Population ....

95

147

284

201

24

167

821

350

Species Density

.

3 I

16

8

16

6

18

7

10

M = Masses.

72

J. M. Thomson.

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Those not consulted marked *

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The Fauna of the Algal Zone of the Swan River Estuary. 73

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* , 1929. Ibid., A Biological Survey of the Eerie-Niagara System.

Ihid., 18 th, Ann Rep., pp. 220-232.

*Pate, V. S. L., 1932. Studies on Fish Food Supplies in Selected Areas. A
Biological Survey of Oswegatchie and Black River Systems. Ihid. 21 st Ann.
Rep, pp. 133-149.

Percival, E., and Whitehead, 1929. Fauna of Some Types of Stream Bed.
Journ. Ecol., XVII.

Richardson, II., 1905. Monograph of the Isopods of North America. Bull. U.S.
Nat. Mus., 54, pp. i-liii + 1-727.

^Richardson, R. E., 1921. The Small Bottom and Shore Fauna of the Middle
and Lower Illinois River and Its Connecting Lakes. Nat. Hist. Survey, 13,
pp. 363-522.

Sars, G. O., 1899. An Account of the Crustacea of Norway, Isopoda, Bergen.

, 1921. An Account of the Crustacea of Norway, 9, Ostracoda,

Bergen.

Scott, T., and Scott, A., 1896. A Revision of the British Copepoda Belonging
to the Genera Bradya Boeck and Ecthiosoma Bocck. Trans. Linn. Soc.
London, 2nd Ser. VI., pp. 419-446.

Serventy, D. L., 1938. Palaemonetes australis, Dakin, in South-Western Aus-
tralia. Journ. Roy. Soc. W.A., Vol. XXIV., pp. 51-57.

Somerville, J. L., 1919. Evidence of Uplift in the Neighbourhood of Perth.
Journ. Roy. Soc. TV. A., Vol. XXIV., pp. 5-20.

Stebbing, T. R. R., 1906. Amphipoda I. Gammaridea. Has. Tierreich, Berlin.

Stephenson, T. and A., and Bright, I\. M. E., 1938. The South African Intertidal
Zone and Its Relation to Ocean Currents, IV., The Port Elizabeth District.
Ann. Natal Mus., Vol. IX., pt. 1, pp. 1-19.

Stephenson, T. and A., and Day, J. II., 1940. Ihid. VIII. Lamberts Bay and the
West Coast. Ihid. pt. 3, pp. 345-380.

Stimpson, 1860. Proc. Acad. Set, Philadelphia, p. 41.

*Templeton, R., 1836. Descriptions of some Undescribed exotic Crustacea.
Trans. Entom. Soc. Lond -, Vol. 1, pt. 3, pp. 185-194.

Thomson J. M., 1945. New Crustacea from the Swan River Estuary. Journ.
Roy. Soc. W.A., Vol. XXX.

Ward, H. B., 1896. Biological Examination of Lake Michigan. Bull. Mich.
Fish. Comm., 186.

Wilson C. B., 1932. The Copepods of the Woods Hole Region. Bull. U.S. Nat.
Mus. No. 158, pp. i-xix + 1-635.

Investigation of Some Phosphatic Nodules from Dandaragan, 75

Western Australia.

No. 5— INVESTIGATION OF SOME PHOSPHATIC
NODULES FROM DANDARAGAN, WESTERN

AUSTRALIA.*

by Keith R. Miles, D.Sc., F.G.S.

Read, 9th May, 1944.

INTRODUCTION.

The work described in the following pages was carried out consequent
upon field investigations of the various phosphatic deposits of the Dandaragan
District, conducted by Mr. R. S. Matheson of the Geological Survey of Western
Australia during the period May, 1941, to December, 1943.

Specimens used in this investigation included a number of nodules recently
collected by Mr. Matheson from pit CG on Cook’s Deposit (Upper Phosphate
Bed)f located on Melbourne Loc. 704, and nodules (surface boulders) collected
from the vicinity of pit BD on Minyulo Deposit (Upper Phosphate Bed) on
Melbourne Loc. 284, Dandaragan. Several specimens of phosphatised wood
collected by Mr. W. G. Campbell in 1906 from the South-East corner of Mel-
bourne Loc. 957 about five miles north of the principal phosphate deposits
on what is now' known as “ Summer Hill” Deposit (Lower Phosphate Bed),
(site of the original find of phosphate rock in the Dandaragan District), were
also sectioned and examined.

THE NODULES.

Description.

Four nodules from the Cook’s Deposit were sectioned. They were
marked A, B, C, and D respectively. It w'as seen that when broken
they ranged from greyish yellow to brownish yellow in colour. The w T riter
was informed by Mr. Matheson that unfortunately most of these nodules
were darker in colour and were presumably slightly more ferruginous in
composition than the average fresh nodules from Cook’s.

The nodules from Minyulo Deposit, being surface boulders were rather
weathered, and in places cellular, and coloured a dark brown except where
whitened by adhering chalk. One fairly fresh dense and compact-looking
specimen was sectioned and marked E. Several other specimens contained
partly enclosed fragments of phosphatised wood.

Mega . — On megascopic examination all nodules were found to consist
essentially of detrital quartz grains cemented in a fine granular greyish to fawn
coloured groundmass. The quartz grains vary in size from fragments up to
5 mm. in diameter down to grains of microscopic size (<0*02 mm.). The
average grain size of the quartz varies considerably in different specimens
examined, e.g., nodule A contains a much higher proportion of comparatively
large grains ( > 1 mm. diam.) than all other specimens and has an average
grain size of about 0-37 mm. In nodules B, C, and D the quartz is more
even in grain and has an average diameter of approximately 0-18 mm.
Nodule E contains many large grains, though proportionally less than A,
and has an average of about 0-26 mm. diameter. The grains range from
sub-angular to rounded.

* Published by permission of the Government Geologist of Western Australia.

fSite of the recent find of Mesozoic reptile remains. See Teichert, C.. and Matheson, R. S. (6)

L 8608/45

76

Keith R. Miles.

In addition to the quartz, nodule A contains a number of clearly visible
sub-angular fragments of creamy white colour showing cleavage faces charac-
teristic of felspar. These reach up to 3 mm. in diameter.

Broken faces of nodtiles C, D. and E occasionally contain small cellular
surfaces stained yellow with iron oxide.

Micro. — Apart from the detrital quartz and occasional felspar visible in
hand specimens as already mentioned, other essential constituents which can
be recognised under the microscope are grains of glauconite and iron ore en-
closed in a matrix or cement of light yellow-brown coloured amorphous isotropic
material with refractive index distinctly > quartz (about 1*6), which is
identified as collophanite (or collophane). In addition, in many of the slices
there are small fragments of phosphatised wood in which the original cell
structure is often perfectly preserved but which are now composed entirely
of collophanite. The microscopic appearance of typical thin slices is shown
in Text fig. 1.

The quartz grains are usually clear and vary from sub-angular and occas-
ionally sharply angular for the smaller grains, to distinctly rounded for the
larger grains. A rapid microscopic survey suggests that in nodules con-
taining quartz grains of the same average grain size the degree of rounding
is about the same.

Detrital felspar grains were found to be most abundant in nodule A,
(Text fig. 1A) but were present in all specimens examined. They consist
mainly of mi 'crocline showing typical cross hatched twinning, but a few grains
of untwinned orthoclase were recognised. In nodule A both microcline and
orthoclase occasionally showed incipient kaolinisation and alteration to pale
green chlorite. In nodules B, C, D, and E and to a lesser extent in A, many
of the felspar grains showed considerable alteration and replacement along
cleavages, to a yellow-green mineral displaying aggregate polarization, which
is indistinguishable from the glauconite.

Glauconite is present in varying amount in all specimens. It occurs in
irregular shaped rounded pellets or granules ranging in colour from yellow-
green to olive green and in size from about 0 03 mm. up to approximately
0*4 mm. diameter (see text fig. 1A and B). These have refractive indices
ranging from slightly less than to distinctly greater than that of the enclosing
collophanite. They show aggregate polarization, the interference colours being
almost entirely masked by the absorption colour of the mineral. No inter-
ference figure was obtainable. In several of the nodules, especially in D and
E. some of the glauconite showed partial alteration to limonite. Occasionally
glauconite granules were seen to enclose minute fragments of black opaque
iron ore. The glauconite granules usually occur in scattered groups surrounded
by collophanite.

The iron ore occurs in two forms — in sporadically scattered, usually
rounded (detrital) black opaque grains ranging from about 0*02 mm. to 0*20
mm. in diameter, and as red opaque filling material found in places
rimming grains of glauconite, quartz and black iron ore, and occurring in
occasional veinlets traversing the slices.

Examination of the black opaque grains obtained from crushed nodule
material showed that some of these were distinctly magnetic and many others
non-magnetic and on crushing yield a red powder — thus it is probably mostly
hematite with some magnetite — nearly all grains being altered in some degree
at least, to limonite.

Investigate nt of Some Phosphatic Nodules from Dandaragan, 77

Western Australia.

78

Keith R. Miles.

The red opaque material is limonite , obviously a product of weathering
and decomposition of other iron bearing minerals in the nodules, viz., glaucon-
ite and magnetite- hematite. Although usually concentrated in seams or
veinlets, in some of the more weathered specimens the limonite also occurs
as a very finely divided material staining the collophanite matrix in irregular
patches. In such cases estimation of the relative quantity of limonite present
becomes rather difficult.

The collophanite cement where fresh is pale fawn to light yellow-brown
coloured and completely isotropic. It is for the most part massive and struc-
tureless except where it has replaced fragments of woody tissue or where,
particularly surrounding quartz grains and vugs in nodule A, it displays dis-
tinct colloform structures. Under high powers apparently clear collophanite
is seen to be filled by microscopic inclusions in which limonite, glauconite
and gas bubbles can be recognised. Under high powers the colloform areas
in nodule A and to a lesser extent in B, D, and E, reveal crusts with banded
subradiating structure, of a pale grey coloured very weakly birefringent
mineral. This has straight extinction. Columns of crusts are sometimes
length slow and sometimes length fast so that though some of this may be
collophanite it is probably in part the secondary dahllite, or francolite, or a
related mineral.

In the more weathered portions of specimens examined the collophanite
matrix is usually altered to a red-grey cloudy opaque material often heavily
stained with limonite.

Accessory detrital minerals noted were zircon in rare broken grains in
nodules E, A, and B and one or two grains of rutile and pink garnet in A.
It may be noted here that no calcium carbonate minerals and no iron or
aluminium phosphates were seen in any of the slices examined.

Relative Composition . — To determine the approximate mineral compo-
sition of the phosphate nodules micrometric analyses were made of four speci-
mens — A, B, and C from Cook’s Deposit and nodule E from Minyulo. The
results of these analyses are set out in the following table : —

Table 1.

APPROXIMATE MINERAL CONTENT OF PHOSPHATE NODULES.

Mineral.

Cook’s

Deposit.

Minyulo

Deposit.

Nodule

A.

Nodule

B.

Nodule

C.

Average.

Nodule

E.

0 / *
/o

%

0 /

/o

%

0 /

/o

Quartz

24*

17

32*

42

Collophanite

31*

45*

61*

46

32

Glauconite

4*

20

13

12*

15

Iron Ore ...

O 1

7

6

5i

9

Felspar

5

3

2*

3*

2

100

100

100

100

100

* All percentages are by weight.

In carrying out the micrometric measurements, the author probably
tended to overestimate the iron ore, especially limonite — particularly in the
more weathered specimens B, C, and E — since he was inclined to class brown-
ish, iron-stained glauconite granules as wholly limonite at times, and it is
considered that the figures for iron ore shown above may be a little high.

Investigation of Some Phosphatic Nodules from Dandaragan, 79

Western Australia.

No attempt was made to differentiate between the magnetite-hematite
and the limonite which in most specimens are in the ratio of between 1 : 2
and 1:3. In calculating the relative weights the following specific gravities
were used; quartz 2-65, collophanite 2-7, glauconite 2*6, iron ores 4-5,
felspar 2*55. Phosphatised wood fragments were included with the matrix
when measuring the collophanite content. Felspar was estimated as micro-
cline. The accessory minerals were neglected.

From Table 1 it can be seen that the relative proportions of the three
main constituents quartz, collophanite and glauconite vary considerably
between wide limits, though quartz and collophanite appear to occur in inverse
ratio one with the other. The fact that the total glauconite, iron ore and
felspar content is appreciable in all specimens examined, indicates that notable
amounts of iron oxide and alumina are present in the nodules.

In Column 4 of Table 1 is given the average composition of nodules A,
B, and C from Cook’s Deposit. Then assuming the following approximate
compositions for the minerals ; glauconite Si0 2 52%, Fe 2 0 3 20%, Ai 2 0 3 10%,
MgO 3% (1) and K 2 0 3% (2) ; iron ore Fe 2 0 3 85% ; and felspar Si0 2 65%,
A1 2 0 3 18%, K 2 0 16% (3) ; the Cook’s Deposit nodules have the approximate
partial chemical composition shown in Column 1 of Table II.

No attempt has been made to estimate the CaO and P 2 0 5 content, etc.,
as the exact composition of collophanite (essentially hydrous calcium phos-
phate with variable amounts of calcium carbonate, fluoride and sulphate,
etc.), is not known.

The above figures bear interesting comparison with the results of a com-
plete chemical analysis of a composite sample of nodules from Cook s Deposit
made at the Government Chemical Laboratory shown in Column 2 of the
following table : —

1.

Table II.

ANALYSIS OF NODULES.

1.

2.

Si0 2

0 /

Jo

40-6

0 /

JO

46-02

A! 2 0 3 ....

1-8

2-36

Fe 2 0 3

7-1

3-38

MnO ....

0-02

MgO

0-36

0-42

CaO ....

23-62

K 2 0 ....

0-85

0-80

P 2 0 5 ....

16-66

co 2

1-70

IU) :

1-29

Ho() -

0-98

S0 3 (water soluble)

0-04

S0 3 (acid soluble)

0 • 15

ci .... ....

0-01

F

Present

Loss on Ignition

0-41

98-09

Micrometric analysis snuwnig paumi , T / „ Lr-r x

Cook’s Deposit. All percentages shown are by weight. (Anal. K. R. Miles).
Chemical Analysis of a composite sample of nodules from Cook’s Deposit. (Anal.
H. P. Rowledge).

so

Keith R. Miles.

Comparison of these figures tends to bear out the impression that the
specimens examined by the author contain appreciably more iron oxide
(probably in the form of iron ores) than the average nodules from Cook’s
Deposit but it is interesting to note that probably all iron oxide, alumina,
potash and magnesia shown in the chemical analysis of the composite sample
can be accounted for by the glauconite, iron ore and felspar in the nodides them-
selves.

THE PHOSPHATISED WOOD.

An examination was made of thin slices of three specimens of phos-
phatised wood. Some of this materia] was figured and described by Simpson
in 1912 (4). The “wood” itself is now completely replaced by phosphatic
material optically and microscopically indistinguishable from the collophanite
(which Simpson regarded as fluorapatite) matrix of the nodules described
above except that in most cases the minute structures of the original woody
tissue have been perfectly preserved. The wood has been identified as a
Mesozoic conifer classed as Cedroxylon (4).

Of interest in the present investigations is the fact that all the specimens
examined are abundantly riddled with tunnels and pipes filled with phosphatic
material which appears identical in composition with the phosphatic nodules
already described. These tunnels are considered to have been made by
boring organisms in the original wood. Specimens of wood examined ranged
from If inches to 3 inches in diameter and were up to 3i inches long. The
borer holes are up to about 0-35 inch in diameter and often run the full length
of the wood specimen.

Under the microscope the material filling these borer holes is seen to consist
essentially of detrital quartz and felspar, and abundant glauconite with rare
scattered fragments of black opaque iron ore (? magnetite) set in a matrix
of collophanite similar to that found in the phosphate nodules. Some second-
ary limonite was seen in the more weathered specimens but was completely
absent from the freshest specimen examined.

The quartz in this material is fine and even grained, seldom more than
0*5 mm. in diameter. The felspar includes fragments of microcline, ortho-
dase and twinned plagioclase, probably oligoclase. Detrital zircon is a rare
accessory. In addition to the above, the borders of several borer holes were
marked by clusters of tiny spherical brown bodies. These have already
been noted by Simpson (op. cit .) and considered to be the fossil excreta of
wood boring beetles.

No attempt was made to measure the relative proportions of the com-
ponents of the filling material in these borer holes, but from a visual inspection
the writer considers that although the iron ore content is probably less than
that of nodule A described above, the average glauconite content is at least
as high as in nodule E and is probably between 15 to 20 per cent. The pro-
portion of quartz to felspar is probably about 10 . 1.

It is interesting to note therefore that even in specimens of phosphatised
wood, which from Dandaragan is a source of high grade phosphate, there is
a certain amount of deleterious material (iron oxide and alumina) present
in the form of minerals occurring as filling material for the numerous borer
holes within the wood.

Investigation of Some Phosphatic Nodules from Dandaragan, 81

Western Australia.

ORIGIN OF THE NODULES.

In his original description of the Dandaragan phosphate deposits in
1907 W. D. Campbell (5) stated that the phosphate nodules were “ copro-
lites,” presumably accumulations of animal excreta, bones and teeth. Simp-
son’s subsequent investigations in 1912 (4) showed that the so-called bones and
teeth were in reality fossil wood, and it was not until December, 1943, that
undoubted bone fragments were recognised and identified from these deposits
(6). Simpson seems to have retained the term “coprolite” for the nodules,
however, and this name apparently remained unchallenged until the last few
years. As a result of field investigations in the Dandaragan District in 1941
Matheson in an as yet unpublished report (7) expressed the view that the
nodules are of inorganic origin and quoted the supporting opinion of Teichert
that the use of the term 6 coprolite” bed should be discontinued.

Evidence available from the present investigation is, in the writer’s
opinion, strongly in favour of the view that these nodules have been formed
by inorganic chemical action. The nodules are composed of grains of quartz,
glauconite, felspar and iron ore — all normal components of the enclosing
greensand — which are cemented together by phosphatic material to form
separate rounded, relatively compact bodies lying within beds of more or
less consolidated glauconite, quartz, felspar, etc., grains intermixed with
some chalk. This suggests that nodules have been formed by deposition of
calcium phosphate (collophanite) around grains of quartz, glauconite, etc.,
within the original greensand, and that gradual accumulation about these
primary centres of deposition has resulted in larger and larger concretions.
It is probable that in many cases original interstitial chalk has been replaced
by the cementing calcium phosphate, whilst the frequent presence of phos-
phatised wood fragments within the nodules themselves suggests that wood
fragments have often formed the nuclei for the growth of nodules.

No clue as to the source of the original phosphoric acid responsible for
the precipitation of the collophanite was afforded by this microscopical investi-
gation of the nodules, though it may be hazarded that this material was
probably dissolved out of original organic remains either from within
the enclosing beds or from an adjacent, possibly higher horizon.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.

A number of specimens of phosphatic nodules from Cook’s Deposit, and one
from Minyulo Deposit, Dandaragan, have been examined microscopically and
their mineral content figured and described. Unfortunately the material avail-
able for examination from both deposits is probably not truly representative
but is slightly more ferruginous than the average nodules.

Micrometric analyses were made to determine the relative proportions
of the essential minerals present, viz., quartz, collophanite, glauconite, iron
ore and felspar, in several specimens, and the results tabulated. All speci-
mens contained appreciable quantities of glauconite, iron ore and felspar.

Taking the average mineral composition of specimens from Cook’s
Deposit, the partial chemical composition was calculated. These figures
were compared with those of a complete chemical analysis of a composite
sample of nodules from Cook’s Deposit, and they showed tolerably good
agreement.

As a result of this investigation it can be said that most if not all of the
iron oxide and alumina obtained from chemical analyses of coarser fractions
from sizing tests of Dandaragan phosphate rock occur within the nodules

themselves, as the minerals glauconite, magnetite, hematite, or limonite,
and felspar, and not in any outside coating material. No calcium carbonate
in crystalline form was recognised during microscopic examination of the
nodules though it is possible that a little may be present as a decompo-
sition product of the collophanite. A certain amount of calcium carbonate
in the form of chalk is present as a coating on the nodules.

A number of specimens of phosphatised wood (high grade phosphate)
from Dandaragan were also examined microscopically. All specimens con-
tained borer holes filled with lower grade phosphatic material similar in
mineral composition to the phosphate nodules, i.e., containing inter alia a
certain amount of iron oxide and alumina as glauconite, iron ore and felspar.

The mineral composition and microstructure of the nodules point clearly
to their inorganic origin and they are believed to have formed by precipitation
of calcium phosphate about mineral grains in the original greensand. Phos-
phatised wood fragments have often provided nuclei for the accretion of
phosphatic material and the growth of nodules.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The writer wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to Mr. F. G. Forman,
Government Geologist of Western Australia for permission to publish this paper,
and to Dr. R. T. Prider for assistance in revision of the text. The nodules
A-E examined in the investigation have registered numbers 2 /2741A-D and
2/2742 respectively and the phosphatised wood numbers 6979a-c in the Geo-
logical Survey Rock Collection.

REFERENCES.

1. Lindgren, W. : “Mineral Deposits — The marine oolitic silicate ores,” p. 242, New

York, 1913.

2. Simpson, E. S. : “ Sources of Industrial Potash.” Geol. Surv. W.A. Bull. 77, 1919, p. 27.

3. Dana, E. S. : Text-book of Mineralogy, 1932.

4. Simpson, E. S. : “ Unusual types of petrifaction from Dandaragan.” Journ. Nat.

Hist. & Sci. Soc. f W.A., Vol. IV., 1912, pp. 33-37.

5. Campbell, W. D. : Geol. Surv. W.A Bull. 26, Misc. Rept. No. 3, 1907, pp. 14-20.

6. Teichert, C, and Matheson, R. S. : “ Upper Cretaceous Ichthyosaurian and Plesio-

saurian Remains from Western Australia.” Aust. Journ. Sci. Vol. VI, No. 6, 1944,
pp. 167-170.

7. Matheson, R. S. : “ The Phosphate Deposits in the Dandaragan District, S.W.”

Unpublished.

The Chemistry and the Chemical Exploitation of Western 83

Australian Plants.

THE CHEMISTRY AND THE CHEMICAL EXPLOIT-
ATION OF WESTERN AUSTRALIAN PLANTS

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 1944.

By E. M. Watson, Ph.I)., F.A.C.I.

Delivered 11th July, 1941.

CONTENTS.

I.

II.

III.

IV.
V.

VI.

VII.

VIII.

IX.

X.

Introduction
Essential Oils

Family Santalaceae
Family Myrtaceae
Family Rutaceae ...

Family Labia tae ...

Family Coniferae ...

Other Families
Resins and Gums
Tannins and Kinos
Poison Plants —

(a) Glycosides

(i) Cyanogenetic Glycosides

(ii) Saponins

(iii) Other Toxic Glycosides

(b) Alkaloids

(c) Plants containing Nitrates ...

(d) Photosensitising Plants

(e) Fish Poisons ...

(/) Miscellaneous Poisons
Dyes and Colouring Matters ...
Vitamins

Medicinal Substances ...

Wood Distillation

Conclusion

References

Page
... . 83

85
85
85
87

87

88
88

89

90

91

91

92

93
93

96

97

97

98

99
100
100
101
102

... 103

I. INTRODUCTION.

Investigations of plants which are concerned directly or indirectly with
their chemical composition are carried out by a variety of workers, including
the chemist, plant physiologist, pharmacologist and agricultural chemist.
In all such work, however specialised, collaboration with other scientific
workers is essential, more particularly with the botanist, for incorrect identi-
fication and naming of species invariably leads to much unnecessary labour.
The researches of these workers are never directed towards painting a
complete picture of the chemical composition of a plant, but are normally
aimed at the isolation of a pure product of some scientific or medicinal
value or the identification of some toxic substance. It is perhaps fortunate
that this is so because of the difficulties which arise in such investigations.

Such difficulties as are inherent in the variety, complexity and often
the instability of the substances being handled, as well as the inaccuracy
of many quantitative methods of analysis, are readily appreciated by the
chemist. The magnitude of the work, however, is increased considerably
by seasonal or even diurnal variation in the composition of plants, by
variation in different parts of an individual plant and by variation due to

L 13760/45

84

E. M. Watson.

changes in climate, soil and cultivation. To these must he added the problems
associated with the occurrence of physiological forms, or variants, of an
individual species.

The term physiological form is applied to morphologically indistin-
guishable plants which are known to exhibit constant differences in their
chemical composition, which differentiate sharply between them. Many such
examples are known in the Australian flora, particularly amongst the oil-
bearing plants examined by Baker and Smith, formerly economic botanist
and economist chemist respectively of the Sydney Technological Museum,
and by Penfold, the present curator and economic chemist of the same
institution. Physiological forms occur in Melaleuca uncinata R. Br. (p. 86) r
Eucalyptus campaspe S. Moore and possibly in Dnboisia Hopwoodii (F.
Muell.) F. Muell. (p. 94).

The importance of the occurrence of such variants lies in the facts that,
firstly, essential though it is in any phytochemical work, correct botanical
identification does not necessarily tell the full story of the chemical com-
position of a plant; secondly, the results of the chemical examination of a
plant cannot necessarily be applied to an apparently identical plant growing
in other districts, regions or countries; and thirdly, the existence of variants
may be of considerable importance if commercial exploitation of a plant is
to be undertaken.

Provided allowance is made for the possible existence of physiological
forms and for variations due to climate, soil and cultivation, a knowledge
of the flora of botanically related countries is of value in any phytochemical
problem. While, at the present time, it may not be possible to explain the
origin of the Australian flora, it is apparent that certain elements of it have
originated in pre-existing floras which have become widely distributed (1).
Firstly, there is an element of southern derivation, either antarctic or sub-
antarctic, which is shared with New Zealand, South America and South
Africa. Secondly, there is a paleotropic element which, originating in Asia,
has migrated not only to Australia through India, Malaya and the East
Indies, but has also travelled down the east coast of Africa. We may
therefore look to the floras of the countries surrounding the Indian Ocean,
of Melanesia and New Zealand and of South America for information and
suggestions concerning many of our own plants. To these two elements
must be added a third, an Australian element, which is most richly developed
in the stable environment of South Western Australia.

Much information concerning the chemistry of many indigenous and
some introduced plants in this State is contained in scientific publications
of South Africa and India and there is also a wealth of suggestion in the
folk-lore of the native races of these two countries and of the natives of
East Africa as well. In the Eastern States of Australia, the chemical
investigation of plants is being pursued in many institutions and the accu-
mulation of knowledge of the practices of the aborigines normally proceeds
with reasonable speed. It is regrettable that in Western Australia so little
chemical work has been done up to the present, not only oh the elements
of our flora which are common to other countries, but perhaps more especi-
ally on those plants which are almost restricted to this part of the world.
It is also unfortunate that there does not appear to have been any sustained
effort made to build up a knowledge of the foods, medicinal substances, etc.,
which are used by our own native tribes in the different parts of the State.

The Chemistry and the Chemical Exploitation of Western

A U STR A LI AN P LA N TS .

85

It is not possible, in a review such as this, to adopt a purely chemical
basis for discussion of the topics dealt with and the subject matter has there-
fore been divided into such sections as essential oils, resins and gums,
tannins and kinos, poison plants, dyes and colouring matters, vitamins and
medicinal substances.

IE ESSENTIAL OILS.

FA M I LY S ANTALACEA E.

Sandalwood, the heart wood of Santahini spicatum (R.Br.) DC., was
first exported from Western Australia in 1845 but it is difficult to fix a
date when the oil was first marketed. There was intermittent production
of the oil by a number of small distillers about sixty years ago, but it was
not until 1921 that systematic and scientifically controlled production of the
oil was commenced. Prior to this, the alcohol content of the highest grade
oil produced was about 75 per cent., but by 1926 this figure had been in-
creased to 93 to 95 per cent. (2), resulting in the inclusion of the oil in
the British Pharmacopoeia. The total santalol content of this oil (that is
oc — and — santalol) was only about 45 per cent., but since then, while

the high percentage of total alcohols has been maintained, the santalol con-
tent has been increased to 60 to 65 per cent. The nature of the remaining
alcohols in the oil of S', spicatum is not known and the elucidation of their
chemical structure is a problem which requires solution (3).

The oil of S. lanceolatum . R.Br. is also distilled to some extent, on ac-
count of its higher laevo-rotation, for blending with the oil of 8’. spicatum.
It has been shown (4) to contain the primary sesquiterpene alcohol lanceol.

Fa m i ly Myrtaceae .

The oils of many of the species of Eucalyptus occurring in the Eastern
States of Australia have been thoroughly investigated, but, of the 140 to
150 species known in Western Australia, less than 40 have been examined
and not all of these in any detail. The oils consist chiefly of terpene and
sesquiterpene compounds associated with more or less oxygenated deriva-
tives such as cineole, alcohols, esters, aldehydes, acids, ketones and phenols,
or possibly keto-onol compounds which give colours with ferric chloride. The
hydrocarbons present are chiefly pinene and phellandrene, generally accom-
panied by aromadendrene and occasionally by p-cymene and terpinene. The
alcohols include geraniol, terpineol and eudesmol, and in some cases they
make up an appreciable amount of the oil. These species are not as highly
evolved as some of those found in the Eastern States and they include such
primitive types as E. calophylla R.Br. and E. diversicolor F. Muell., the
oils of which consist largely of terpenes.

Baker and Smith (5) have examined the oils of E. accedens W. V.
Fitzg., E. calophylla , E. cornuta Labill., E. diversicolor, E. gomphoccphala
DC., E. Lehmanni (Preiss.) Schau., E. longicornis F. Muell., E. marginata
Sm., E. megacarpa F. Muell., E. occidentals Endl., E. platypus Hook., E.
rcdunca Schau., E. rudis Endl., E. salmonophloia F. Muell. and E. salubris
F. Muell. E. platypus (6) has also been examined by Earl, whilst Phillips
(7) has investigated the oils of E. campaspe and E. spathulata Hook. Fur-
ther species which have been examined include E. Flocktoniae Maiden (8),
E. Kesselli Maiden et Blakely and E. dundasi Maiden (9), E. salmonophloia

E. M. Watson.

SO

and E. tetragon a F. Muell. (10), E. oleo.sa F. Muell., E. eremo -
phiJa Maiden and E. leptopoda Benth. (11), E. astringents Maiden
and E. pyriformis Turcz. (12), E. ooneinmi Maiden et Blakely (13) and
E. erythronema Turcz. (14). Mr. 11. V. Marr (priv. comm.) has made
available the following information from investigations carried out by
Messrs. Piaimar Ltd.: — E. uncinata Turcz. (yield up to 1.4 per cent.,
cineole content up to 75 per cent.) ; E. leptophylla F. Muell. (yield about

1.2 per cent., 50 to 05 per cent, cineole) ; E. Sargenti Maiden (yield 1.4 per
cent., about 60 per cent, cineole) ; E. Eormanii C. A. Gardn. (yield about
1 per cent., about 45 per cent, cineole) ; E. eon glob ata (R. Br.) M'pidem,
E. caly co gona Turcz. and E. incrassata Labill. give low yields of oil which
contain only small amounts of cineole; E. gracilis F. Muell. (yield up to

1.3 per cent., 60 to 75 per cent, cineole) and E. spathulata which yields up
to 1.6 per cent, of oil of which 50 to 65 per cent, is cineole.

Some of these oils are of obvious potential value as sources of medicinal
eucalyptus oil. Others of similar value are E. erythronema , E. leptopocla
and E. cone Inna. The initial cost of collecting leaves and small branches is
a limiting factor in the successful exploitation of any oil bearing species
and it is therefore essential that reasonably extensive, closely packed areas
be available. It is this factor which has prevented the exploitation of some
of our better species of Eucalyptus. A possible solution of this difficulty
has been suggested by Mr. C. A. Gardner, who considers that species like
E. erythronema , which has largely been cut out from the wheat belt, could
be satisfactorily cultivated and could at the same time be made to serve the
extremely useful purpose of preventing soil erosion.

Other genera of the family Mvrtaceae yield oils which show some
general resemblances to those of Eucalyptus , notably Melaleuca and
Agonis. There are nearly 100 species of the genus Melaleuca in Western
Australia, of which only six have been investigated, two of them for their
cineole content alone. M. leucadendron L. is well known as the source of
commercial cajuput oil. M. uncinata has been examined in some detail by
Penfold (15) and K. E. Murray (16) and many samples have been exam-
ined by Piaimar Ltd. (H. Y. Marr, priv. comm.). The species exists in at
least three physiological forms, one of which grows preferentially around
the low margins of lakes from Ballidu to Lake Grace. This form, which is
generally arborescent, gives a low yield of oil which consists largely of
terpenes and contains little or no cineole. A second form favours higher
ground, particularly in granite country, and gives a much higher yield of
oil of which from 75 to 85 per cent, is cineole. The third form resembles
closely that described by Penfold from New South Wales.

Murray (loc. cit.) has also examined the oils of M. lateriflora Benth.
var. elliptic $ Benth. and M. rhaphiophylla Schau. The former contains a
high proportion of hydrocarbons and an unidentified phenol ; the latter also
contains a high proportion of hydrocarbons including a - and y -terpinene,
probably p-evmene, sesquiterpenes and an unidentified hydrocarbon,
together with the alcohol /\ ' -terpinenol-4 and sesquiterpene alcohols.

The oils of M. I a xi flora Turcz. and M. Websteri S. Moore have been
examined by Messrs. Piaimar Ltd. for their cineole content.

The oil of Calythrix tetragona Labill. (17) has been investigated by Pen-
fold, Ramage and Simonsen, and shown to consist largely of esters, notably
eitronellyl formate and the methyl esters of geranic and probably citronellie

The Chemistry and the Chemical Exploitation of Western

Ait st kalian Plants.

87

acids, together with pinene and eitronellol. From the oil of C. tetragona
var. A , Penfold and Simonson have isolated the ketone calythrone.

The only other genus of this family of which any species has been
investigated fully is Agon/s, A. flexuosa ( S prong. ) Schau. having been
examined by Parry and subsequently by Phillips (7). The oil contains up
to 60 per cent, ol: cineole and shows a close general resemblance to tin*
cineole-containing eucalyptus oils.

A preliminary examination of the oil of Charnaelaucium uncinatum
Schau. has shown it to consist mainly of torpenes, principally pinene, to-
gether with an aldehyde, probably citronollal, alcohols and esters, including
amyl acetate.

Further genera of this family are known to produce volatile oils and
the following should be worthy of investigation : — -.Leptospermum, Calliste-
mon, Baeclcea and Darwinia.

Family Rutaceak.

The family Rutaceae is also of importance as an oil producer. The
well known Boronia megastigma Noes is the only member of its genus to be
examined chemically, Penfold (18) having shown the presence of — ion-

one and an unidentified alcohol as the chief odoriferous constituents, with
triacontane, plant sterols and fat as the natural fixatives.

Penfold (19) has also examined the volatile oil of Geijera linearifolia
(DC.) J.M. Black, the only representative of this genus in this State.

Both the leaf and fruit oils of Phebalhim argenteum Sm. have been
examined by Finlayson (20) and shown to consist mainly of terpenes (prin-
cipally d-limonene) and sesquiterpenes, together with smaller amounts of
geraniol, /-eitronellol and two unidentified sesquiterpene alcohols, esters of
valeric and jw-caproic acids and methylheptyl and methvlnonyl ketones.
Murray (16) has examined the leaf oil of P. fili folium Turcz. and has shown
it to consist largely of hydrocarbons with small amounts of esters, alcohols
and possibly a phenol. About 32 per cent, of the oil consisted of an uniden-
tified hydrocarbon, b.p., 159-161°, from which no crystalline deriva-

tives could be obtained. Murray states that the oils of P. micro phylhim
Turcz. and P. Drummondii Benth. appear similar to that of' P. fili folium.
The genera Phebalinm and Eriostnnon » are closely related but, although some
Eastern Australian species of Eriostemon are known to yield oils of inter-
est, none of the Western Australian species has been examined.

Family Laihatae.

This family is equally well known on account of its volatile oils. The
chemistry of the oils of the introduced plants Mentha piperita L., M. pule-
gium L. and Rosmarinus officinalis L. has been thoroughly worked out, but
little work has been done on indigenous species. Hurst (21) records a
private communication from A. R. Penfold that the oil of Mentha australis
R.Br. consists largely of unidentified ketones, together with some alcohols
and esters equivalent to about 12 per cent, of menthol. M. satureioides R.Br.
(21) is, like M. australis, considered toxic to stock and Maiden (22) states
that the oil is similar in properties to the oil of M. pulegium. Jones and
Smith (23) have shown that it contains about 40 per cent, of pulegone as
well as 1-menthone, 1 -menthol and menthyl acetate.

88

E. M. Watson.

All the Eastern Australian species of Prost anther a are oil bearing but
none of the Western Australian species has been investigated. Maiden
(22) mentions that Ocimum sanctum L. occurs in two varieties, the Northern
Australian variety having an odour of anise and the Eastern variety that of
cloves.

Famua Coni ferae.

As in the rest of Australia, the chief Western Australian genus of this
family is Callitris , Of our seven species, only one (C. Boei (Ejndl.')f h\
Mu ell.) has not been examined at all. Baker and Smith (24) have exam-
ined the leaf oils and in some cases the fruit oils of ('. DrummOndii (Parlat.)
F. Mu-ell. , C. glauca (R.Br.) Mirb. C. intratropica (F. Muell.) R. T. Baker,
r. robusta (R.Br.) Mirb. and C. verrucosa (R.Br.) Mirb. Finlayson (25)
has also examined the fruit oil of C. verrucosa and Murray (16) has exam-
ined the leaf oil of C. Morrisoni R. T. Baker. The oils consist largely of the
terp-enes pinene, d- and Z-limonene and dipentene, together with small
amounts of alcohols such ?is geraniol and borneol and their enters with
acetic and occasionally butyric acid. The wood of these species is resistant
to termite 1 attack and the chemistry of the wood oils warrants further inves-
tigation. Baker and Smith showed the presence of the sesquiterpene
alcohol guaiol in the wood of most species, particularly C. intratropica and
Trikojus and White have discussed the chemistry of the constituents of the
wood oi's (26) and the chemistry of guaiol (27).

The only other coniferous genera in Western Australia are Podocarpus
and Actinostrobus. Baker and Smith (21) distilled the leaves of P.
Drougniana F. Muell. without obtaining any oil but from the leaves of A.
pyram ; dalis Miq. they obtained a small yield of oil which consisted mainly
of cZ- pinene with a small amount of esters. The remaining species of
Actinostrobus have not been examined, but it is of interest to note that the
oleo-vedn secreted at the base of the columella of A. glaums 0. A. Gardn.
MS is used on account of its healing properties.

Other Families.

Man* (28) has shown that Stirling ia- latifolia (R.Br A Steud. (Pro-
teaceae) produces an oil which consists almost entirely of acetophenone.
Oil of chenopodium is well known for its use as an anthelmintic and Shapter
(29) has shown that distillation of Chenopodium ambrosioides L. var. an-
th$lminticum (L.) A. Gray (Chenopodiaceae) growing in Victoria and New
South Wales gives an oil of satisfactory ascaridole content. Local distil-
lation of the plant, however, failed to give a satisfactory yield on one large
scale run. Alyxia buxifolia R.Br. (Apocynaceae) is well known to bush-
men as a cure for dysentery; the sending of a specimen of its oil to America
some years ago resulted in a request for several pounds of the mateiial,
but no information is available as to its chemical nature. A preliminary
empirical examination of the wood oil of Myoporum serratum R, Br.
(Myoporaceae) has been published by Hill (30). The volatile oil from
M. deserti A. Cunn. ex Benth. has been shown by Albert (31) to contain a
large percentage of an unidentified ketone. The introduced Foeniculum
vulgar e Mill. (Umbelliferae) grows abundantly in parts of the metropolitan
area but, although its oil has been thoroughly examined in other parts of
the world, no analysis has been made of the local fruit oil. Finally mention

The Chemistry and the Chemical Exploitation of Western

Australian Plants.

89

might be made of the pungent, acrid volatile oil, described by W att and
Breyer-Brandwijk (32), which is obtained from Anagatlis arvensis L.
(Primulaceae).

III.— RESINS AND GUMS.

The only resins which have received any detailed attention from a
chemical point of view are those of the different species of Xanthorrhoea.
Herbert (33) has summarised the work done on X. Preis'm Endl. up to
1920, while Rennie (34) reviewed the results from several species up to
Finlayson (35) has described the results of an investigation of the
from X. reflexa D. A. Herbert, by the method of steam distillation
alkaline solution, while Holloway (36) has compared the melting and
decomposition points of the resin from X. Preissii with those of the resins
of Eastern States species and has studied the effects of extraction of the
different resins with a variety of solvents.

1926.

resin

from

Strevens (37) has contributed a series of articles on the technology
of the Xanthorrhoeae and Steel (38) has described the destructive distilla-
tion of the resin on a commercial scale.

A preliminary investigation of the resinous exudate of the turpentine
bush of the Kimberley, Grevillea pyramidalis A. Cunn. ex R. Br. var. leuca -
dendron (R.Br.) C. A. Gardn., has been made by Hill (39, sub. G. leuca-
dendron ). This exudate is apparently similar to that from G. viscidula
C. A. Gardn. which is used by the natives, after mixing with
ashes, for rubbing into tribal scars for the production of prominent cica-
trices. The occasional abundant production of a hard reddish brown resin
by G. slViata R. Br. is recorded by Maiden (22), who also mentions the
formation in quantity of a clear yellowish gum-resin on the branchlets of
Bertya Cunningliamii Planch.

The production of resins by species of the family Convolvulaeeae, par-
ticularly those of the genera Ipomoea, Operculina and Convolvulus , is well
known. Ipomoea hederacea N. J. Jacq. and Operculina I 1 jit pet hum (L.)
S. Manso have been used as purgatives on account of their resin content
and doubtless other members will be found to contain appreciable amounts
of resin. Hurst (21) records that Ipomoea polymorpha R. et S. (sub. I.
heterophylla R. Br.) is suspected of being poisonous in New South Wales,
a reputation which might well depend on the presence of resin in the species.
The resins produced by our Gymnospermae have received little, if any
attention.

No chemical work appears to have been done on any of the gums.
All species of Acacia produce gum probably of the arabic type, notably
A. microbotrya Benth. and A. Farnesiana Willd., which is the source of
Karachi gum from Sind. Maiden (22) mentions the copious production of
gum by Albizzia procera (Willd.) Benth. and also refers to a high grade
product obtainable from Pittosporum philliyreoides DC. The Christmas
tree, Nuytsia floribunda (Labill.) R. Br., sometimes produces a considerable
amount of gum in very large tears. A study of these gums, of the seasonal
variation in their formation and of the methods used to obtain nearly
colourless products, might well lead to the establishment of a profitable minor
industry.

The gum-like or gelatinous substances obtainable from seaweeds are
becoming increasingly important in many industries. The highly gelatinous
nature of Eucheuma speciosum J. A g., the “jelly plant” of Western Aus-

9J

E. M. Watson.

tralia, was commented on as early as 1887 by Maiden, and the alga lias been
used locally in canning as a substitute for agar. Unfortunately the produc-
tion of agar from this species does not appear possible since, on thawing
the frozen jel, the water does not escape but is almost completely re-
absorbed. The seaweed itself, however, could be utilised in industry in
washed and bleached form since it requires only about fifteen minutes boiling
to effect complete disintegration and solution as compared with the eight to
ten hours needed by the Gelidium and Gracilaria species commonly used to
make agar. Longer boiling of Euchenma speciosum leads to rapid loss of
gelatinising properties. The investigation of Eastern States seaweeds is
being carried out by the C.S.I.R. (40) and there is need of similar work on
Western Australian species, particularly those occurring from Carnarvon
or Gerald ton southwards.

IV.

TANNINS AND KINOS.

A reasonably complete account of the tannin resources of Australia
has been compiled through the efforts of numerous workers. The greater
part of our information on Western Australian tanning materials was ob-
tained as a result of a programme of work commenced in the Forest Pro-
ducts Laboratory of the Commonwealth Institute of Science and Industry
in Perth and completed in the laboratories of the Forest Products Division
of the C.S.I.R. in Melbourne. The main results of these and some few other
investigations were published by Coghill (41) and by the Forests Depart-
ment of Western Australia (42). Additional work was done by Maiden
(22), Smith (4.4), Mann (44) and Baker and Smith (24). The principal
genera covered in this work are Acacia } Eucalyptus , Ca Hit r Is and * Banksia,
but representatives of numerous other genera are also included.

The production of tannin extracts was investigated by the C.S.I.R.
in a pilot plant at the Engineering School of the University of Western
Australia. Many possible raw materials were examined and, in particular,
much work was done on karri bark which is available in quantity as a mill
waste product. This extract, however, is not a suitable tanning material.
The plant was taken over in 1932 by Industrial Extracts Ltd. and this com-
pany is now producing a very satisfactory extract from the wandoo,
Eucalyptus redunca Schau. var. data Benth. Some interesting comparisons
of this extract with other commercial extracts have been published by Pound

and Quinn (45).

Little work has been done on the chemistry of these tannins. Rennie
(34) has briefly summarised the work which has been done on the tannins
associated with the kinos of Eastern States species of Eucalyptus and
Phillips (46), in an account of the kino of E. calophylla , has reviewed the
chemistry of its tannin and has critically examined the work of McGookin
and ITeilbron (47). Blockley, Spiers and Beverley (48) have examined
the wandoo extract which they consider to be a mixture of pvrogallol and
catechol tannins, the former predominating.

V. POISON PLANTS.

Although Western Australia occupies an unenviable position in
possessing more than her fair share of Australia’s poison plants, little atten-
tion has been paid to the chemical nature of the toxic principles of these
plants and such studies offer an almost unlimited field of research for the
chemist.

The Chemistry and the Chemical Exploitation of Western

Australian Plants.

91

(a) Glycosides.

(i) Cyano genetic Glycosides.

The group of poison plants on which most work has been done is the
cyanogenetic group. Such plants are widely distributed geographically and
they occur in many families. In Australia Petrie and Finnemore have made
great contributions to our knowledge in this field and much work has been
done in South Africa and India on plants which are known in Australia-
Hydrolysing enzymes are absent in a few species while from others the
cyanogenetic glycosides have been isolated and their identity determined.

The following have been shown to be cyanogenetic : — Acacia Cunning-
hamii Hook, (no enzyme), A. Oswaldi F. Muell. ; Amaranthus viridis L. ;
Asp'&nium flab elli folium Cav. ; Bothriochloa Eivartiana (Domin.) C. E.
Hubbard, B. intermedia (R. Br.) A. Camus; C ardamine dictyosperma
Hook.; Clieno podium Blackiamim Aellen, C. carinatum R. Br., C. cristatum
(F. Muell.) F. Muell.; Chloris truncate R. Br. ; Clirysopogon fallax S. T.
Blake; Colocasia antiquorum Schott; Cynodon dactyl on (L.) Pers. ; Cyperus
distans L.f . ; B a ctylocten iu m radulans (R. Br.) Beauv. ; Digitaria sanguinalis
(L.) Scop.; Dodonaea viscose (L.) Jacq. ; Brosera peltate Sm., / ). gigantea
Lindl. ; Eremophila maculate F. Muell. (49) and Eucalyptus cladocahjx F!.
Muell. (50), from both of which Finnemore isolated prunasin ; Euphorbia
Brummondii Boiss. ; Flagellaria indica L. ; Goodie lotifolia Salisb. (51),
from which Finnemore isolated a glucoside of p-hydroxybenzaldehyde cyan-
hydrin; Heterodendron oleaefolium Desf., the leaves of which are always
cyanogenetic, although Dr. H. W. Bennetts (priv. comm.) does not consider
the plant toxic in Western Australia; Indigofera australis Willd.; Ipomoea
dissecta Willd.; Leptochloa digitate (R. Br.) Domin.; Lindsay a linearis
Swartz ’Linum marginale A. Cunn. ex Planch.; Lolium perenne L. ; Lotus
australis Andr., from which Finnemore (52) isolated lotaustralin, the
glucoside of methylethylketone cyanhydrin; Neptunia gracilis Benth. ;
Passiflora foetida L. ; Fornax umbellate. Soland. ; Poranthera ericoides
Klotzch, P. microphylla Brougn. ; Schizoloma ensifolium J. Sm. ; Sisymbrium
orientate L. ; Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.; S. sudanense (Piper) Stapf. ;
S. verticilliflorum (Steud.) Stapf.; Themeda australis (R. Br.) Stapf.;
Trema amboinensis (Willd.) Blume; Trianthema crystalline Vahl. ; Tri folium
repens L., shown by Finnemore (53) to contain lotaustralin; Vida sativa L.

The following are suspected of being cyanogenetic from post mortem
examination but have not so far shown to be so in the laboratory: —
Euphorbia boophthona C. A. Gardn., E. clutioides (Forst. f.) C. A. Gardn.
and Olax uliginose (Klotzsch) Klotzsch.

The additional genera are known to contain cyanogenetic species and
might repay investigation : — Adenia , Aristide, Danthonia , Halorrhagis,
J uncus and Sporobolus.

Finnemore has found no evidence of the production of hydrocyanic
acid in Acacia aneura F. Muell., A. brachystachya Benth., A. Brummondii
Lindl., A. Farnesiana, A. Graffiana F- Muell., A,, hakeoides A. Cunn.,
A. ixiophylla Benth., A. pentadenia Lindl., A. rosiellifera Benth., A. salicina
Lindl., A. saligna Wendl., A . undulifoUa Fraser, A. urophylla Benth.;
Eremophila longifolia F. Muell., E. bignoniiflora F. Muell.; Bryonopsi s
laciniosa (L.) Naud. ; Bidiscus glaucif olius F. Muell. and Trifolium dub him
Sibth.

Although no toxic principle has been isolated from the Western Aus-
tralian species of Macrozamia , the isolation by Cooper (54) of macrozamin
from the Eastern States species M. spiralis (R. Br.) Miq- may give a lead
in the solution of the wider problem. Macrozamin does not give hydrocyanic
acid by hydrolysis with acids, almonds or yeast, but it does so after, hydro-
lysis with alkali followed by acidification. Malloch (55) has examined the
outer coat and the endosperm of the seeds of M. Biedlei (Gaud.) C. A.
Gardn. and has shown that the toxic substance i.s present in the endosperm.
Malloch obtained no evidence of the presence of a saponin, glycoside or
alkaloid and suggested that the toxicity might be due to the presence of
n toxalbumen.

(ii) Saponins.

Saponins are probably as widely distributed as the cyanogenetic glyco-
sides and they are of considerable importance not only on account of their
toxic properties but also because of their value as emulsifying agents.

Ewart (56) has isolated a powerfully haemolytic saponin from Atalaya
Uemiglauca (F. Muell* ) F. Muell. ex Benth., the whitewoocf of our North
West, which is responsible for walkabout disease in stock. New South Wales
specimens of this species are much less toxic than material from the vicinity
of Fitzroy Crossing and Ewart has suggested that possibly two or more
saponins of varying toxicity may be present in varying proportions in
material from different localities. The saponin is stable and retains its
toxicity for months. Dr. H. W. Bennetts (priv. comm.) has commented on
the similarity between the toxic symptoms caused by A. hemiglauca and by
Senecio species. This is of interest since the poisonous principles of the
latter are alkaloids.

Acacia Cunninghamii (21), in addition to being cyanogenetic, is of
interest in that its unripe pods contain about 3 per cent, of a highly toxic
saponin which resembles the mydriatic alkaloids i:i its properties, producing
local anaesthesia, mydriasis and paralysis of accommodation. Hurst (21)
also records references to the presence of toxic saponins in Acacia delibrata
A. Cunn. ex Benth., A. pidchella R.Br. and Do dona ea physocarpa F. Muell.

The genus Isotropis contains some powerfully toxic species, notably
7. atropurpurea F. Muell. from which Finnemore has isolated a saponin.
I. cunei folia (Sm.) Domin. var. parviflora Benth. has been proved toxic to
sheep and 7. juncea Turcz. to guinea pigs; there is strong field evidence
against 7. cnneifolia (Sm.) Fomin., while 7. Drummondii Meissn., 7. canes-
cens F. Muell. and 7. Forrestii F. Muell. are considered toxic. There is no
indication of the nature of the poisonous principles of these species.

Albizzia distachya (Vent.) Maebride is recorded by Maiden (22) as con-
taining about 10 per cent, of saponin in its dried roots, while the blister
bush, Phebalium argent earn, is considered to be very rich in saponins.
Anagallis arvensis, the scarlet pimpernel, contains the highly toxic cyclamin
in its roots and saponins are also recorded to be present in Cardiospermum
Halicacdbum L. (32), Tetragonia expansa Murr. (21) and Trianthema
c rys t a lima V a hi . (21).

The caustic vine, Sarcostemma australe R.Br., is of interest because, al-
though it has been proved toxic to stock and to laboratory test animals
(57) in the Eastern States, it is generally regarded as a most useful fodder
plant in Western Australia. Finnemore has shown the absence of alkaloids

The Chemistry and the Chemical Exploitation of Western

Australian Plants.

9 :;

and prussic acid from eastern material while Earl and his co-workers (58)
have isolated a saponin which hydrolyses to give glucose and an aglucone
which in turn gives benzoic and cinnamic acids and the substance sarcostin
which is considered to be probably a steroid.

Other indigenous plants known to contain saponins are Trymcdium
xpathulatum (Labill.) Ostf. and Pittosporu-m. phillyreoides.

(iii) Other Toxic Glycosides.

The cape tulips Homeria codtna Vent, and H. miniata Sweet are both
toxic, the latter having a digitalis-like action on the heart, constricting blood
vessels, raising blood pressure and having a curare-like action on voluntary
muscle. Watt and Brey er- Brand wijk (32) record the isolation by Mackenzie
of a glycoside from H . miniata f but Clarke (59), in stating that the poison
occurs in all parts of the plant, considers it to be probably an alkaloid.
Raphanns raphanistrum L. is an irritant poison to stock when taken in
excess and is recorded by Steyn (60) as containing a sinalbin-like glycoside
together with the hydrolysing enzyme myrodn. Plantago major L. (32)
contains aucubin in most parts of the plant. The recorded isolation (61) of
earissin, which resembles stro pliant hin in its action, from the bark of Carissa
ovata R.Br. is of interest and suggests that C. Janceolata R.Br. might be
worth investigation.

(b) Alkaloids.

Alkaloids are not as widely distributed through the plant kingdom
as are members of the preceding groups, but when they do occur, they fre-
quently do so in groups of related substances distributed through plants
which are closely related botanically. Thus alkaloids of the berberine type
are distributed through many families of the adjacent orders Ranales and
Rhoeadales, while individual families like the family Solanaceae are par-
ticularly rich in alkaloids, in this case of more than one type.

In the family Solanaceae, the genus Duboisia is of outstanding im-
portance. In the Eastern States, T). myoporoides R. Br. and D. Leichliardtii
(F. Muell. ) F. Muell. have been fairly recently developed as major sources
of hyoscine and hyoscy amine. I), myoporoides appears to exist in two
physiological forms, in one of which (that which occurs in Queensland and
in New South Wales north of Gosford) hyoscine predominates, while in the
other, the southern form, hyoscyamine is the principal alkaloid. Hvoscya-
mine is, however, more readily recovered from D. Leichhardtii which con-
tains about 3 per cent, of the alkaloid in its leaves.

I). Hopwoodii , the only species of the genus occurring in Western Aus-
tralia, has been examined by numerous workers. This plant, the pituri or
chewing narcotic of the aborigines, was first examined chemically by Ban-
croft who showed that the alkaloid it contained was different from that
occurring in D. 'myoporoides. Von Mueller, in 1879, concluded that the
■alkaloid was similar to but not identical with nicotine. The name piturine
was given to the alkaloid but it was subsequently shown to give reactions
similar to those of nicotine. The identity of the alkaloid appeared to be
•satisfactorily settled when Rothera in 1910 isolated only nicotine from a
specimen of pituri identified by Ewart as consisting of D. Hopwoodii.
Doubt was cast on the accuracy of this work when it was subsequently learned
that, in parts of South Australia at any rate, pituri was not always ob-

E. M. Watson.

9 1

tained from Duboisiu alone and the suggestion was put forward that the
material examined by Rothcra contained an appreciable amount of dust
from the easily powdered leaves of Nicotiana excelsior J. M. Black (62).
A re-examination of material from South Australia led to the isolation of
d-nornicotine by Spilth (63) with no indication of the presence of nicotine.
This material, however, had been wet by heavy rain and had been kept
damp for some considerable time, leading to partial racemisation of the
nornieotine. It is quite possible that demethylation of any nicotine present
may have occurred at the same time.

As part of a programme drawn up by the Drug Panel of the Depart-
ment of Industrial Development, Dr. I). E. White has carried out some 1
preliminary work on D. Hopivoodii from the vicinity of Ajana. He has
shown that the principal alkaloid present is nicotine and that nornieotine,
if present at all, occurs only in very small amount. Subsequent work on
material collected on varying soil types from the vicinity of Ganna to a
little south of Perenjori has shown that nicotine is always the predominant
alkaloid but that occasionally the nornieotine content (calculated on the
yield of the picrates) approaches very close to the nicotine content. The
repeated statement that /). Ilopwoodii from the Eastern States contains no
nicotine can perhaps only be explained by the existence of physiological
forms of the plant. The investigation is being continued.

Further genera of importance in this family are Antliocerc&s, Antho-
troche , Batura and N i cot kina. Anthocercis viscosa R. Br. contains the oily

alkaloid anthocereine (21) and A. littorea Labill. has been held responsible
for the death of children. This and other species of the same genus, as well
as the species of the closely related genus Anthotroche, require examination.
The introduced Datura Metel L., B. Tatula L. and B. 'Stramonium L. have
been thoroughly investigated in other parts of the world and Finnemore
has examined Australian grown material. B. Metel has been shown to
contain chiefly hyoscine with a little atropine or hyosevamine and norhyo-
scyamine, B. Stramonium to contain hyosevamine in the leaves and seeds
and both hyosevamine and hyoscine in the roots, while B. Tatula contains
hyoscyamine and atropine. The maximum amounts of alkaloids recorded
do not differ materially from the maxima recorded for Britain and else-
where. I). Leichhardtii F. Muell. has not been examined in Western Aus-
tralia.

A icotiana glaucci Grah. has been investigated by many workers and has
until recently been considered to contain only nicotine to the extent of
something less than one per cent. Quite recently, Smith and Smith (64)
have shown that anabasine makes up about 97 per cent, of a total of little
more than 0.6 per cent, of alkaloids and that nicotine is present only in
very small amount. N. suaveolens Lehm. was recognised by Staiger in 1886
as containing a volatile alkaloid which resembled nicotine. This alkaloid was
considered to be the toxic principle of the plant until Smith and Smith
(loc. cit . ) showed it to contain both nicotine and nornieotine, the latter
making up about 65 per cent, of a total of less than 0.5 per cent, of
alkaloids. N. excelsior does not appear to have been examined chemically.
It is used by the aborigines, as is Duboisia HopwoodM , as an emu and kan-
garoo poison, and Hicks (62) records its use as a chewing narcotic.

The genus Solanum is the largest of the family Solanaceae in Western
Australia. Many of its members contains the high molecular weight
alkaloids of the glycosidic steroid type such as solasonine (solanine-s), and
are therefore more or less toxic. S. cJienopodinum F. Muell. (21), S. nig -

The Chemistry and the Chemical Exploitation of Western

Australian Plants.

1)5

rum L. (32) and S. sodomaeum L. (65) are all recorded as containing sola-
sonine or “solanine” and, in addition, S. nigrum is said to contain a tropine
alkaloid which possesses mydriatic properties. S. Sturtianum F. Muell. is
also recorded (21) as being markedly toxic to sheep and pro'bably contain-
ing “solanine”.

The order Leguminosae is very well represented in the Western Aus-
tralian flora and, in the world as a whole, it provides more substances of
medicinal importance than any other order. In the family Papilionaceae,
Crotalaria retusa L. has been >hown (66) to contain the alkaloid mono-
(Totaline. This is of considerable interest because it establishes a relation-
ship with the seneeio alkaloids, since on boiling with barium hydroxide
solution it gives retronecine as one of its decomposition products. C. dissi-
iifiora Benth. has been found by Finnemore to contain an alkaloid and C.
Mitch elU Benth., which is suspected of being poisonous, might well contain
alkaloids. Indigo]' eta boriperda A. Morrison has been proved toxic to cattle
in Northern Australia and is suspected of containing alkaloids (67) ; I. aus-
tralis has also been recorded as a stock poison.

The presence of alkaloids in the genera Gastrolobimn and Oxylobium ,
which include perhaps the most toxic of Western Australian plants, was
indicated by the work of Mann and luce (68) who described the isolation
of cygnine and lobine respectively from G. caiycinum Benth. and 0. parvi-
jforum Benth. This has not been confirmed by other workers, but it has
very recently received support to some extent by the demonstration by Dr.
D. E. White of the presence of alkaloids in 0. graniticum S. Moore. The
solution of the problem has been simplified by I)r. H. AY. Bennetts (69) who
has demonstrated that all the toxic members of the two genera produce
the same series of symptoms provided the dose is modified according to
the general toxicity of each individual plant. Further general information
on these species is contained in references (69) to (73) inclusive.

Introduced plants in the family Papilionaceae include Cytisns prolifer
L. and Ulex europaeus L., both of which contain cytisine, while among the
Lupini, Lupinus angustifolius L. contains d-lupanine and L. lutens L. con-
tains lupinine and sparteine as well as a glucoside. L. hirsufus E. is con-
sidered toxic in South Africa and is probably alkaloidal in nature.

The family Caesalpiniaceae is also known to contain alkaloids. Erythro-
phleum chlorostachys (F. Muell.) Hennings ex Taub., one of the so-called
camel poisons, is exceedingly poisonous to most stock. Petrie and Priestly
(74) have shown the absence of saponins and cyanogenetic glycosides in the
plant and have isolated an alkaloid from it which has identical chemical and
physiological properties to erythrophleine. Caesdlpinia Bonducella (L.)
Fleming is recorded (32) as containing an alkaloid in its seed and, in addi-
tion, it contains a bitter principle, bonducin, which is stated to be as effec-
tive as quinine in treatment of malaria.

The family Compositae is the largest in the plant kingdom and a num-
ber of its members contain alkaloids. Within recent years much work has
been done, particularly in South Africa and Canada, on the alkaloids of the
genus Seneeio. This work has been reviewed bv Waal (75), while more
recent work has been published by the same author (76) and by Richardson
and Warren (77). The introduced S. vulgaris L. contains senecionine and
senecine and is known to produce the typical symptoms of seneeio poison-
ing, including cirrhosis of the liver. S. lautus Soiand. is stated by Bennetts

E. M. Watson.

9fi

(78) to be toxic and to have selective action on the liver, although subse-
quently the feeding of half a pound of the plant daily to each of two sheep
for eight weeks failed to produce any evidence of liver cirrhosis (Bennetts,
priv. comm.). Species of the closely related genus Ereehthites are also known
to contain similar alkaloids. In the same family, Xanthium spin os urn L. is*
recorded (21) as containing an alkaloid with an intense action on the central
nervous system, while BraeJiycome graminea (Cass.) F. Muell. has given
doubtful positive reactions for alkaloids. The genus E dipt a is of interest
since the Indian species E. a-ba Hassk. ha- been shown (79) to contain
nicotine.

The seed- of Strychnos luckla R. Br. have been examined in New
South Wales (21) and material from Kunmunya Mission in the Kimberleys
has been shown (80) to contain both strychnine (about 0-8 per cent.) and
brucine (about 1.5 per cent.). Dodonaea vis cos a is recorded (32) as being-
used as a fish poison and to contain an alkaloid which has stimulant pro-
perties similar to those of coca. Tetragonia e.rpansa has been found by
Finnemore (21) to contain alkaloids in addition to the saponin already
mentioned. Crinum asiaticum L. contains lycorine which is fairly widely
distributed in the family Amaryllidaceae.

Among introduced plants, the chemistry of the alkaloids of the spotted
hemlock, Conium maculatum L., has been thoroughly worked out. Lolium
temulenturn L. often contains a poisonous fungus (Endoconidium temu-
lentum ) in its seeds from which the alkaloid temuline was isolated by
Hofmeister in 1892. The grass has been recorded by Carne and Gardner
(81) as producing intoxication, particularly in pigs. The same fungus is
believed to occur in rye grass, L. perenne. Lithuspermum arvense L. con-
tains the alkaloid cynoglossine which has a curare-like action, and possibly
consolidine with which it is often associated. The cape lilac, Melia azedarach
L-, has been stated (82) to contain azaridine in its fruits. The alkaloid
mesembrine has been isolated (83) from Crypto pliytum crystallinum (L.)
N. E. Brown and from more than twenty other species of this and related
genera of the Mesembryeae. It resembles cocaine in its action but its local
anaesthetic properties are much weaker. Vida sativa contains the purine
alkaloids vicine, convicine and vernine, the latter also being present in
Trifolium pratense L. Brassica nigra (L.) Koch, contains sinapine in its
seeds. In the family Papaveraceae, the introduced poppy, Papaver lmbridfam
I. contains alkaloids and the Mexican poppy, Ar gem one mexieana L., con-
tains berberine and protopine, but in neither of these, nor in P. aeuleatum
Thunb., is morphine present.

Among indigenous plants which suggest themselves for examination for
alkaloids is a big group in the order Contortae from the families Apocynaceae
and Asclepiadaceae. In particular, the genera Al stoma, Wrightia, Asclepias >
Cynanchnm , Tylophora and Marsdenia, of which numerous species are
known to contain alkaloids, should be investigated. Of equal importance is
the genus Lobelia and possibly Isotoma while other species worth considera-
tion are Erythrina vespertilio Benth., Sarcocephalus coadu'natus (Sm.)
Druce and possibly Dioscorea hasti folia Endl. and Salsola Kali L.

(c) Plants Containing Nitrates.

The presence of nitrites in plants can gi\ e rise to toxic symptoms in
animals through the conversion of haemoglobin into methaemoglobin, so
interfering with the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. Nitrates,

The Chemistry and the Chemical Exploitation of Western

A r str a li an Plan ts.

97

through enzymic reduction, are capable of producing the .same effects.
Tribuius terrestris L. has been shown in South Africa (81) to contain a
little nitrite and an appreciable amount of nitrate, and its poisoning symp-
toms are those of acute asphyxia. The spotted thistle, Silybum Marianum
(L.) Gaertn., has been known to contain up to 25 per cent, of potassium
nitrate, calculated on a dry basis, and its toxicity is almost certainly due to
the reduction of this nitrate to nitrite with the resultant conversion of haemo-
globin into methaemoglobin. It seems possible that the toxicity of Cynodon
Dactylon may be due in part to a similar cause, and the possibility may be
extended to Erythrina cespertilio since some species of this genus are known
to contain nitrites.

(d) Photosensitising Plants.

Photosensitisation of stock does not seem to be of the same importance
in this State as it does in South Africa or in the Eastern States and New
Zealand. Steyn and van der Walt (85) have shown that Lantana Camara
L. is toxic and produces photosei^sitisation, while Louw (86) has isolated
iantanin from the plant and established it as the photosensitising agent.
Steyn and van der Walt {Joe. ait.) also record the isolation of a trace of an
alkaloid from L. erocea Jacq. which produced the characteristic symptoms
of poisoning by this plant. Quin and Rimington have shown in South Africa
that the photosensitising action of Medicago denticulata Willd. is due to the
production of phylloerythrin from chlorophyll in the rumen of the animal
either by bacterial or protozoan activity. The effect produced by Tribuius
terrestris is attributed to the same cause and both Medicago minima (L.)
Grufb. and Clitoris truncatu are similarly suspected. It should be noted,
however, that the photosensitising action of St. John’s wort, Hypericum
perforatum L. var. an gusti folium. PC., is due to the presence of a mixture
of closely related pigments, called hypericin, which in very low concentra-
tion produces haemolysis on exposure to light of suitable wave length
(21; 87). Panicum effnsnm R.Br. (21; 60) is also photosensitising, but no
work appears to have been published on the chemical aspect of this action.
Trifolium hybridum L. and T. pratense are both recorded by Steyn (60) as
producing photosensitisation.

(e) Fish Poisons.

Fish poisons have been used for centuries by natives in different parts
of the world and many such materials from Central and South America,
tropical Africa, India, Malaya, the East Indies and the Pacific Islands have
been examined systematically by numerous workers to determine their insecti-
cidal value. Through the influence of the paleotropic flora on Australian
vegetation, an influence which extended down the eastern portion of Africa,
it is reasonable to expect that fish poisons similar to those found in Indo-
Melanesia and East Africa will lie found among our own northern and
north-western flora.

No species of the outstanding genera Derris and Loncliocarpus are
known in this State, but several genera which are known to contain the same
active principles as Derris do occur in the North-West and Kimberleys. Thus
some species of Tephrosia have considerable local use as insecticides in
other parts of the world although they are admittedly not as effective as
Derris. In Western Australia there are sixteen species of Tephrosia, of

98

E. M. Watson.

which two, T. purpurea Pers. and T. rosea F. Muell. ex Benth., are known
to be poisonous. These two species at least should be investigated for their
insecticidal value. In the same category is the genus Barringtonia and
possibly the genus Terminalia.

The bark of Careya australis F. Muell. is used as a tish poison in Queens-
land and Northern Australia and material from Arnhem Land has been
examined (88) for insecticidal properties but found to be without toxic effects
on Aphis nunicis. The bark of Acacia salicina is recorded by Hurst (21) as
being used as a fish poison.

(f) Miscellaneous Poisons.

Abrus precat or ius L. contains two toxic proteins, a paraglobulin and a
phytalbumose, the mixture being known as abrin. Abrin is not necessarily
poisonous when taken orally but it is highly toxic when injected. It has
been used therapeutically in treatment of opacity of the cornea and granu-
lation of the eyelids, but the inflammation it produces is dangerous and some-
times difficult to control. The introduced Cucumis myriocarpus Naud. has
frequently been reported toxic to stock and human beings. Finnemore has
shown the ab-enee of prussic acid and South African workers have separated
several toxic materials from the fruit. Quin isolated in 1928 a non-alkaloidal,
non-glycosidal substance which was highly toxic to animals, whether given
orally or by injeclion. In 1933 Rimington separated the amorphous very
toxic substance eueumin from this and other species of Cucumis. Subse-
quently Rimington and Steyn (89) isolated the apparently pure compound
C., s H,.,O s and showed that it was probably a dilactone. Pteridium aquilinum
(L.) Kuhn., the bracken, which is toxic to cattle and horses, is stated by
Steyn (60) to contain pteritannie acid (identical with fllicic acid from
Dryopter'.s Fi'ix-mas) as its main active principle.

Leonotus leonurus R. Br., which is smoked by natives in South Africa
like Indian hemp and which produces a similar stupefying effect, is recorded
by Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk (32) as containing a dark green resin
which is probably responsible for the narcotic action. The same authors
;il so refer to the separation of two phenolic substances from the reddish
leaf oil. The prolonged blood-clotting time associated with the eating of
Melilotus alba Desr. and probably M. indica All., is discussed by Hurst (21).
The presence of coumarin has been shown to have a bearing on the ability
of the clover to become toxic and a specific substance has been isolated
from spoiled clover which inhibits blood-clotting.

Oxalic acid and oxalates are widely distributed in the plant kingdom,
often in sufficient quantity to cause stock poisoning. Many species of Bumex
and Ox alis, for example, contain enough to produce poisoning if eaten to
excess and Salsola Kali is known to contain a considerable amount of the
acid.

There are many plants which have been proved toxic but no information
is available concerning their active principles. In some cases, a knowledge
of the poisonous constituents of other species belonging to the same or to
related genera may be of value as a guide, but in others there is little evi-
dence to suggest possible lines of attack. Amongst the more important of
these plants are Anagallis femina Mill., Bryonopsis laciniosa , Cryptandra
leucophractu Schlecht., Didiscus glaucif alius F. Muell. (which contains

The Chemistry and the Chemical Exploitation of Western 99

Australian Plants.

neither alkaloids nor prussic acid), Echinopogon spp., Malva parviflora L.,
Mimulus repens R. Br., Morgania glabra R. Br., Myoporum acuminatum
R. Br., M. deserti, Pimelia flava R. Br., P. trichostacJiya Lindl., Sinapis
arvenis L., Solatium ellipticum R. Br., Trema amboinensis, Velleia discophora
F. Muell. V. pandurif 'or mis A. Cunn., We delta mperrima (Dene) Benth.,
WiUstroemia indica (L.) C. A. May, Zantedeschia aethiopica Spreng. and
Zornia dipliylla Pers. Acrid, blistering and emetic latexes are produced by
many members of the family Euphorbiaeeae, including Excaecaria Agallocha
L., E. parviflora Muell. Arg. and Euphorbia Peplus L.

Among the more important plants which are suspected poisons, but-
concerning which little definite information is available, the following are
perhaps the most noteworthy: — Acacia armata R. Br., Beyeria viscosa
(Labill.) Miq., Carduus pycnocephalus L., Centaur ea melitensis L., Centipcda
minima (L.) A. Braun et Aschers, Didiscus pilosus Benth., Epaltes australis
Less., Eremophila glabra (R. Br.) Ostf., E. Latrobei F. Muell., E. Sturtii
R. Br., Goodenia glauca F. Muell., Gyrostemon Sheathii W. V. Fitzg., Inula
graveolens Desf. (32), Lactuca saligna L., L. scktriola L., Lavatera plebeia
Sims, Microseris scapigera (Forst. f.) Schultz et Bip- and Ranunculus
lappa ceus Sm.

VL — DYES AND COLOURING MATTERS.

The greater part of the work which has been done on Western Aus-
tralian plant colouring matters is unpublished work by Dr. D. E. White,
who has kindly made available the following information. Anigozanthos
flavicla Red. contains cyanidin pentose glycoside; A . Manglesii D. Don,
anthocyanin, possibly conjugated with tannin; Boronia m,egastigma, del-
phinidin pentose glycoside, partially methylated, together with some disac-
charide; Chamaelaucium uncinatum, malvidin dimonoside; Chorizema cor-
datum Lindl., malvidin monoside; Eucalyptus ficifolia F. Muell., pelar-
gonidin together with some cyanidin bioside; Oxylobium lanceolatum (Vent.)
Druce, malvidin monoside. Clianthus speciosus (G. Don) Aschers et Graebn.
from South Australia contains pelargonidin monoside in the red portion
of the flower and cyanidin monoside in the black, while the partial white
variant from western New South Wales contains peonidin monoside in the
keel and pelargonidin monoside in the standard.

Maiden (22) records the presence of a red colouring matter, which
is very sensitive to acids and alkalies, in the juice of the fruit of Eugenia
australis Wendl., and Herbert (90) records similar colour changes with the
flowers of several species of Enostem\on and Boronia • 1 his is particular! \

noticeable in the case of B. Venuis (Lindl.) Benth., in which carbon dioxide
in a moist atmosphere will change .the colour from blue to pink.

Little is known concerning the colouring matters or dyes which occur
in woods and barks. The yellow pigments of jam wood {Acacia acuminata
Benth.) are referred to in the next section on vitamins, and Maiden (22)
mentions the presence of a yellow dye in the bark of A. subcaerulea Lindl-
A strong yellow colouring matter is also present in the wood of Sarcoce-
phalus coadunatus. The wood of Caesalpinia Bonducella contains, as does
that of many other species of the genus, the substance brasilin and its red
oxidation product brasilien. Woods of this nature, like sappan and log-
wood, have long been used for dyeing.

100

E. M. Watson.

VII.— VITAMINS.

Very little work has been clone on the vitamin content of indigenous
or introduced plants in Western Australia. Maiden (22) records that
Trigonella suavissima Lindl. is an excellent antiscorbutic and that Portulaca
oleracea L- is used for the same purpose and is apparently highly nutritious.
Bum ex Aceto sella L. has been used in treatment of scurvy (32) but it may
produce oxalic acid poisoning if eaten to excess. Hill (91) has deter-
mined the ascorbic acid content of various cultivated fruits and has
obtained evidence of the presence of carotene in the petroleum ether extract
of Acacia acuminata wood (92). This was confirmed by Trikojus and
Drummond (93) who isolated pure ^-carotene from the extract and ob-
tained evidence of the presence of five other carotinoicl pigments. These
five fractions were examined spectroscopically but they were not pure enough
for differentiation and identification. Underwood and Conochie (94) have
determined the carotene content of a number of pasture species, some of
which are indigenous.

VIII.— MEDICINAL SUBSTANCES.

A number of products which are or could possibly be used in medicine
have already been referred to in their appropriate sections, notably eucalyp-
tus and sandalwood oils, the seeds of Strychnos lucida and the Alstoniae.
There are, however, a few which have been used medicinally, some of which
appear to warrant vigorous exploitation, and many winch require both
chemical and physiological examination. Euphorbia pilulifera L., a tropical
herb of wide distribution, is used in treatment of bronchitis and asthma.
Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv. is used as a demulcent diuretic, and wattle
bark and eucalyptus kino are employed as astringents.

Of some considerable importance are plants which are known to be
of value in treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery. Outstanding among these
is Grewia polygama Roxb., although it is not known whether it simply
checks diarrhoea or will cure bacillary or amoebic dysentery. Alyxia buxi-
folia has already been mentioned in this respect, and the following are also
used either in South Africa, India or Australia for the samfc purpose: —
Bidens bipinnata L., Er odium moschatum (L.) L’Her., Euphorbia alsinae-
flora Baill., E volvulus alsinoides L. and Melastoma malabathricum L.

Bitter substances find considerable use in tonics and much dandelion
root is normally imported, as well as many other drugs, for this purpose.
There are, however, many bitters available in the State and there should be
little necessity to import such substances. Strychnos ' lucida has already
been mentioned and there are many members of the family Gentianaeeae
which might be profitably exploited. Among these are Erythraea australis
R. Br., Sebaea ovata (Labill.) R. Br. and Villarsia spp. Additional bitters
which might be employed are the Alstoniae, Petalostigma sericea (R. Br.)
C. A. Gardn., Marrubium vulgar e L. and Codonocarpus cotonifolvus F.
Muell.

Many Cassia e contain emodins and resins and consequently act as
purgatives. The leaves of C. Sophera L. are used as a substitute for senna
in some parts of India and the related Western Australian Cassiae, par-
ticularly C. pleurocarpa F. Muell., should be examined for similar proper-
ties. Other plants which have been used as purgatives are Gratiola pedun-
culata R. Br. and G. peruviana L., while the intensely bitter Afghan melon,
Citrullus vulgaris Schrad., is almost certain to be a drastic purgative.

The Chemistry and the Chemical Exploitation of Western 101

Australian Plants.

Extracts of Erodinm cicutarium (L.) L’Her., which have a powerful
effect on the uterus, resulting in an increase of contractile activity, have
been used in Europe for arresting uterine haemorrhage. No compound
with these properties has yet been isolated from the plant. Somewhat simi-
lar properties are possessed by Adiantum aethiopicum L., extracts of which
are used by the Sutos for promoting parturition, and by Pteridium aquilinum
which is used, along with the bulb of V ernonia corymbosa, as an aborti-
facient.

Diuretic properties are possessed by Boerhaavia diffusa L., Indigofera
enneaphylla L. and Trichodesma zeylanicum (Burm. f.) R. Br., while the
roots of Hybantlms enneaspernms (L.) E. Muell. are used in India for
treatment of diseases of the urinary tract. Plumbago zeylanica L. and
Siegsbeckia orientalis L. are recorded as powerful sudorifics, and Erodium
mosckatum. also possesses diaphoretic and antipyretic properties.

Thespesia popxdnea (L.) Soland. ex Corr. is used for treatment of skin
parasites and scabies in India, and in South Africa Cassytha filiformis L.
is used to eliminate head vermin. Hibiscus trionum L. is employed as a
remedy for round worms and the use of Cheilanthes hirta for the treatment
of tape worm suggests that the local representatives of the genus should
be examined. Hydrocotyle asiatica L. is listed by Hurst (21) as having a
multiplicity of medicinal uses a few of which would appear to need some
justification. Cassia mimoscides L. appears to possess sedative properties
and it is used, in much the same way as hops, as a pillow, or under a
mattress, to induce sleep. Clematis micro phylla DC. contains irritant sub-
stances and may be used as a counter-irritant in the form of poultices.
Reference has already been made to the quick healing properties of the
oleo-resin in the fruit of Actinostrobus glaucus ; similar properties are
possessed by the leaves of C ymbonotus Laivsonianus Gaud., which, when
extracted with lard, give a useful salve for dressing wounds.

Some lines of investigation which might lead to the recognition of
useful medicinal plants have already been indicated. Others include the
examination of the genus Polygala from which senega is obtained, the genus
Goodenia , some species of which are used by gins for making children
sleep on long journeys, the genus Haemodorum , some species of which are
used by natives as purgatives, and likely members of the order Rhamnaceae,
which might possess barks resembling cascara, and of the order Rubiaceae,
many of which contain valuable alkaloids.

IX. WOOD DISTILLATION.

This review would not be complete without some reference to work
which has been done on wood distillation. Almond, Holmes and Plant (95)
have prepared and examined charcoals from dry and green saplings and mat-
ure trees of Eucalyptus margmata and from E. redwica var. elata, E. salmon -
ophloia and E. salubris . They have also described (loc. cit.), charcoals pre-
pared from E. rostrata Schlecht. from Victoria and New South Wales and
from E. alba from Queensland. It is possible that the latter is identical
with E. platyphylla F. Muell. The report of the Mines Department for 1940
contains proximate analyses of specimens of charcoal, obtained from local
charcoal burners, prepared from E. calo phylla, E. marginal a and E. redunca
var. elata. Gregson (96), in discussing some aspects of the use of charcoal
as a fuel in gas producers, has given the results of the analysis of a number

102

E. M. Watson.

of samples of charcoal from E. marginata as well as calorific values for
charcoal obtained from E. calophylla , E. redunea Var. elata , “mulga” and
“ti tree.”

N. A. Hanley and J. F. Pearse have investigated, for the Iron and
Steel Panel of the ■Department of Industrial Development, the distillation
of the wood of j Eucalyptus calophylla, E. diversicolor, E. marginata and
E. redunea var. elata, as part of the preliminary work in connection with
the establishment of a pilot plant for the production of charcoal iron at
Wundowie. An examination was made of the composition of the liquid
distillate and of the wood gas at varying temperatures and the relationship
of the volatile content of the charcoal to the retorting temperature was
studied in the case of E. marginata. It was found that E. calophylla gave
the highest yields of methyl alcohol and acetic acid and that, while the
yields of acetic acid were only slightly lower with E. diversicolor and E.
redunea var. elata, these two species gave considerably less methyl alcohol.
E. 'marginata gave much lower yields of both products. The results obtained
from E. calophylla compared reasonably well with those from such North
American hardwoods as beech and maple. From the point of view of char-
coal production, highest yields were obtained from E. marginata and E.
redunea var. elata.

X. CONCLUSION.

It should be clear from what has been said that there is an immense
field open for the study of the native plants of this State, a field com-
manding the attention not only of chemists, but of botanists, agriculturalists,
entomologists, pastoralists and manufacturers. There is no institution here
in which pharmacological work is being carried out and there appears to
be no one interested in ethnological aspects of our native tribes which might
have bearing on some of the problems which have been indicated. Such
facilities as do exist for chemical investigations are limited to a greater or
lesser extent by the nature of the other work which must be performed in
the institutions which enjoy these facilities. In consequence it is felt that
too strong a plea cannot be made for the establishment of either a separate
Government department or a branch of an existing department, a principal
function of which would be the investigation of these problems. A start
in a very small way has been made by the Department of Industrial De-
velopment in the establishment of a Drug Panel, but on its present footing
this panel can contribute very little towards the solution of some of the
major problems which have been indicated and which may take several
years to solve. An appreciation of the results of the fruitful association
of botanist and chemist as represented by the joint work of Baker and
Smith and of the continued flow of valuable work from the Sydney Techno-
logical Museum, carries with it the conviction that we ar e neglecting a field
of enquiry which must ultimately adequately repay any capital expenditure
on buildings and equipment as well as salaries paid to new officers.

Essential requirements for such a new department or branch would
include adequate housing of the State herbarium which should be extended
to feature all products of possible technical importance, and the provision,
preferably in the same building, of the necessary laboratory accommodation
and equipment for carrying out the chemical investigations. Ground or
floor space for small pilot plant investigations is also essential, as well
as adequate space for gardens for cultivation and breeding experiments.

The Chemistry and the Chemical Exploitation op Western 103

Australian Plants.

Lntil such provisions are made, our chemical knowledge of Western Aus-
tralian flora must wait on such progress as can be made from our existing
institutions, or on the activities of private firms which are naturally in-
terested only in those plants which offer some prospect of immediate profit-
able exploitation.

In conclusion I should like to express my great appreciation and
indebtedness to Mr. C. A. Gardner for the generous assistance he has given
in establishing the names of the species mentioned in this address.

REFERENCES.

1. Gardner, Journ. Boy. Soc. W.A., 1941-42, 28, xiii.

2. Marr. A ust. Journ. Pharm., 1926, 7, 805.

3. Penfold, Aust. Journ. Bharm., 1937, 18, 154; Journ. Boy. Soc. N.S.W ., 1928,

62, 60; 1932, 66, 240; Journ. Chem. Soc., 1935, 309.

4. Bradfield, Francis, Penfold and Simonsen, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1936, 1619.

5. Baker and Smith, A Research on the Eucalypts.

6. Earl, Proc. Boy. Soc. Vic., 1915, 28, 154.

7. Phillips, Journ. Boy Soc. W.A., 1922-23, 9, 107.

8. Watson, Journ. Boy. Soc. TV. A., 1934-35, 21, 101.

9. Marshall and Watson, ibid., 1934-35, 21, 107.

10. Watson, ibid., 1935-36, 22, 113.

11. Marshall and Watson, ibid., 1936-37, 23, 1.

12. Ibid., 1937-38, 24, 65.

13. Ibid., 1939-40, 26, 15.

14. Watson, ibid., 1941-42, 28, 247.

15. Penfold, Journ. Boy. Soc. N.S.W., 1925, 59, 124.

16. Murray, Thesis, Univ. of W.A., 1939.

17. Penfold, Ramage and Simonsen, Journ. Boy. Soc. N.S.W., 1934, 68, 80;

Penfold and Simonsen, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1940, 412.

18. Penfold, Journ. Boy. Soc. W.A., 1927-28, 14, 1.

19. Penfold, Jmirn. Boy. Soc. N.S.W., 1930, 64, 264; 1932, 66, 332.

20. Finlayson, Trans. Boy. Soc. S.A. 1928, 52, 235.

21. Hurst, Poisonous Plants of N.S.W. (1942).

22. Maiden, Useful Native Plants of Australia (1889).

23. Jones and Smith, Proc. Boy. Soc. Q’land, 1925, 37, 89.

24. Baker and Smith, The Pines of Australia.

25. Finlayson, Trans. Boy. Soc. S.A., 1920, 44, 94.

26. Trikojus and White, Journ. Boy. Soc. N.S.W., 1932, 66, 284.

27. Ibid., 1934, 68, 177.

28. Marr, Chem: Eng. and Mining Bev., 1922, 14, 421.

29. Shapter, Journ. C.S.I.B., 14, 201.

30. Hill, Journ. Boy. Soc. W.A., 1931-32, 18, 55.

31. Albert, Journ. Boy. Soc. N.S.W. , 1934, 68, 144.

32. Watt and Brever-Bi;andwijk, The Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of S.

Africa (1932).

33. Herbert, Journ. Boy. Soc. W.A., 1920-21, 7, 79.

34. Rennie, Aust. Assoc. Adv. Soi., 1926, 18, 18.

35. Finlayson, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1926, 2763.

36. Holloway, Journ. Proc. Sydney Tech. Coll. Chem. Soc., 1935-7, 7, 41; (Chem.

Abs., 1940, 34, 8310.9).

37. Strevens, Chem. Eng. amd Mining Bev., 1921, 13, 130; 157; 204; 233; 270.

38. Steel, ibid., 1932, 24, 362.

39. Hill, Beport of Mines Dept. W.A., 1939, 148.

40. Wood, Journ. C.S.I.B., 1941, 14, 221; 14, 315; 15, 295.

41. Coghill, C.S.I.B. Bull 32, 1927.

42. Forests Dept. Bull. 3, 1923.

43. Smith, Journ. Agric. W.A., 1905, 11, 218.

44. Mann, ibid., 1906, 13, 31.

45. Pound and Quinn, Journ. Internet. Soc. Leather Trades’ Chemists, 1941,

25, 90.

46. Phillips, Journ. Boy. Soc. W.A., 1931-32, 18, Pres, address.

104

E. M. Watson.

47. McGookin and Heilbron, Journ. Pharmacol., 1926, 26, 421; ( Chem . Abst.,

1926, 20, 774).

48. Blockley, Spiers and Beverley, Journ. Internat. Soc. Leather Trades’ Chem-

ists, 1939, 23, 245.

49. Finnemore, Cox and Reichard, Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1929, 63, 172.

50. Finnemore, Reichard and Large, ibid., 1935, 69, 209.

51. Finnemore and Large, ibid., 1936, 70, 440.

52. Finnemore and Cooper, Aust. Vet. Journ., 1938, 14, 153.

53. Finnemore, Cooper and Cobcroft, Journ. Soc. Chern. Ind., 1938, 57, 162.

54. Cooper, Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1940, 74, 450.

55. Malloch, Ann. Rep. Chem. Branch, Mines Dept. W.A. , 1939, Append. 4.

56. Ewart, C.S.I.R. Bull. 50, 1931.

57. Gilruth and Murnane, Journ. C.S.I.R., 1931, 4 (4), 225.

58. Earl et al., Journ. C.S.I.R., 1937, 10, 26; Journ. Chem. Soc., 1939, 737 ; 1940,

1443.

59. Clarke, Journ. Agric. Dept. S. Aust., 1935-36, 39, 527 ; 952.

60. Steyn, The Toxicology of Plants in S. Africa (Central News Agency, S.

Africa, 1934).

61. Rennie, Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1926, 18, 23.

62. Hicks, Aust. Journ. Sci., 1940, 2 (4), 110.

63. Spath, Hicks and Zajic, Ber., 1935,, 68, 1388.

64. Smith and Smith, Journ. Agric. Research { Washington), 1942, 65, 347.

65. Briggs, et al., Journ. Chem. Soc., 1942, 1; 3; 12.

66. Adams and Rogers, Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1939, 61, 2815; 2819; 2822.

67. Mann, Journ. Agric. IV. A., 1906, 13 (1), 28.

68. Mann and Ince, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1907, 79B, 485; Journ. Agrid, W.A. , 1906,

13, 486.

69. Bennetts, Journ. Roy. Soc. W.A. , 1934-35, 21, Pres, address.

70. Carne, Gardner and Bennetts, The Poison Plants of W.A. {Bull. 96), 1926.

71. Bennetts, Journ. Roy. Soc. W.A. , 1927-28, 14, 7.

72. Bennetts, Journ. Dept . Agric. W.A., 1935, 12 (2nd ser.), 431.

73. Poison Plants of S.W. Australia (W.A. Newspapers, Ltd.), 1937.

74. Petrie and Priestly, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1921, 46, 333.

75. Waal, Onderstepoort Journ. Vet. Sci. and An. Ind., 1941, 16, 149.

76. Ibid., 1941, 17, 181.

77. Richardson and Warren, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1943, 452.

78. Bennetts, Journ. Roy. Soc . W.A. , 1934-35, 21, xvi.

79. Pal and Narasimham, Journ. Ind. Chem. Soc., 1943, 20, 181; {Brit. Chem.

and Physiol. Abs., 1943, All, 398).

80. Watson, Journ. Roy. Soc. W.A., 1940-41, 27, 117.

81. Carne and Gardner, Journ. Agric. W.A. , 1927, 4, 378.

82. Carratala, Chem. Abst., 33, 6951.

83. Hartwich and Zwicky, Chem. Soc. Abst., 1915, (i), 710.

84. Rimington and Quin, Onderstepoort Journ. Vet. Sci. and An. Ind., 1933, 1,

469.

85. Steyn and van der Walt, ibid., 1941, 16, 141.

86. Louw, ibid.. 1943, 18, 197.

87. Betty and Trikojus, Aust. Journ. Sci., 1941, 3, (4), 100.

88. Tattersfield, Martin and Howes, Bull. 5, 1940, Roy. Bot. Gardens, Kew.

89. Rimington and Steyn, S . Afric. Journ. Sci., 1935, 32, 137; {Brit'-. Chem.

Abst., 1937, All, 160).

90. Herbert, Journ. Roy. Soc. W.A. , 1919-20, 6, 105.

91. Hill, Journ. Roy. Socl W.A. , 1937-38, 24, 103.

92. Ibid., 1931-32, 18, 55.

93. Trikojus and Drummond, Nature, 1937, 139, 1105.

94. Underwood and Conocliie, Aust. Vet. Journ., 1943, 19* 37.

95. Almond, Holmes and Plant, C.S.I.R. Pamph. 103, 1940.

96. Gregson, Journ. Aust. Chem. Inst., 1941, 8, 190.

General Index

ix.

INDEX OF AUTHORS.

Page

Burbidge, Nancy T

15

Hill, H. E.

1

Miles, Keith R.

75

Teakle, L. J. H.

1

Thomson, J. M.

. . 35, 55

Watson, E. M. . .

83

General Index.

xi.

GENERAL INDEX.

Generic and specific names in heavy type are new to science

Abrin ...

Abrus precatorius
Acacia ...

A. acuminata
A . aneura
A . armata
A. brachystachya
A . Cunninghamii
A . delibrata . . .

A. Drummond ii
A. Farnesiana
A. Graffiana ...

A . hakeoides . . .

A. ixiophylla ...

A. microbotrya
A . Oswaldi
A. pentadenia
A. pulchella ...

A. rostellifera
A . salicina
A . saligna
A. subcaerulea
A. unduli folia
A . urophylla . . .
Acetophenone
A ctinostrobus glauc us
A. pyramidalis
Adenia
A d iant um aethiopicun
Agonis flexuosa
Agropyron repens
A Ibizzi a distach ya
A. procera

Algae. Dominant spe
Alkaloids
Alstonia
A lyxi a buxifoli a
A maranihus viridis
Amaryllidaceae
Anabasine
Anagallis arvensis
A . femina

A nigozanthos flavida
A. Manglesii ...
Anthocercine ...
Anthocercis littorea
A . viscosa
Anthotroche
Aphis rumicis
Apocvnaceae ...

A rgemone mexicana
Aristida
Ascaridole
Asclepiadaceae
Asclepias
Ascorbic acid
A splen iu m flabellifoliu

es in

m

?reshw

ater

Bav

Page

98

98

... 89 , 90
99 , 100
91

99

91

... 91 , 92

92
91

... 89 , 91
91
91
91
89
91

91

92
91

... 91 , 98
91
99
91
91
88

88. 101
88

91
101

87
100

92
89

r>8

93

96 , 100
88 , 100
91
96

94

... 89 , 92

98

99
99
94
94
94
94
98

... 88 , 96
96

... 91

88
96
96

100
... 91

XII.

General Index.

Page

Atalaya hemiglauca ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• 9:?

Atropine ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• 94

Aucubin ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• 93

Azaridine ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• 96

Baeckca ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• 8"

Banksia ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• 90

Barringtonia ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• 98

Berberine ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• 96

Beriya Cunninghamii ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• 89

Beyeria viscosa ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ... 99

Bidens bipinnata ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ... 100

Boerhaaria diffusa ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• 100

Bonducin ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• 9.)

Boronia megastigma ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 87, 99

B. tenuis ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• 99

Bothriochloa Ewartiana ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ... ••• 91

B. intermedia- ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• 91

Brachycome graminea ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 96

Brasilia ' 99

Brassica nigra ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• 96

Briza maxima ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• 25

Brucine ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• 96

Bryonopsis laciniosa ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 91, 98

Burbidge, Nancy T. ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• 15

Caesalpinia Bonducella
Caesalpiniaceae

Calcium carbonate — protection of bags ...

Callistemon

Callitris

C. Drummondii

G. glauca

C. intratropica

C. Morrisoni ...

C. robusta
C. Roei

C. verrucosa ...

Galythrix tetragona ...

Calythrone
Gaprella penantis
G. scaura

Gard amine dictyosperma

Cardiospermum Halicacabum

Carduus pycnocephalus

Careya australis

Carissa lanceolata

G. ovata

Carissin

/^-Carotene

Cassia mimosoides

C. pleurocarpa

G. Sophera

Cassytha filiformis

Cedroxylon

Ceratonereis erythraeensis
Gentaurea melitensis ...

Centipeda minima
Centropages pectinatus
Chamaelaucium uncinatum ...

Cheilanthes hirta
Chenopodiaceae

Chenopodium ambrosioides var. anthelminticum
Gh. Blackianum
CJi. carinatum

... 95, 99
95

9, 11, 13

87

... 88, 90

88
88
88
88
88
88
88
86

87
66
66

91

92
99

98

93
93
93

100

... 101
100
100

... 101
80
63

99
99
38

... 87, 99
... 101
88.

88
91
91

General Index.

xm

Page

Ch. cristatum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 91

Chloris truncata ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 91, 97

Chorizema cordatum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 99

Chrysopogoii fallax ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 91

Citrullus vulgaris ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 100

Clematis microphylla ... ... ... .... ... ... ... ... ... 101

Clianthus speciosus ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 99

Codonocarpus coton if olius ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 100

Colanthura ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 47, 48

Colocasia antiquorum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 91

Colouring matters ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 99

Compositae ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 95

Coniferae ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 88

Conium maculatum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 90

Consolidine ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 90

Convicine ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 90

Convolvulaceae ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 89

Cooks Deposit ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 75

C'oprolites ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 81

Coropkium ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 35, 45

C. insidiosum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 45

C. longicorne ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 45

C. minor sp. nov 43, 60

Coumarin ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 98

Crinum asiaticutu ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 96

Crotalaria dissitijlora ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 95

C. Mitchelli ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 95

C. retusa ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 95

Cruranthura simplieia sp. nov 46, 65

Cruregens ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 47, 48

Crustacea from the Swan River Estuary, New. ... ... ... ... ... 35

Cryptandra leucophrada ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 98

Cryptophytum crystallinum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 96

Cucumin ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 98

Cucumis myriocarpus ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 98

Cyanogenetic glycosides ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 91

Cyclamin ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 92

Cygnine ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 95

Cymbonotus Lawsonianus ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 101

Cynanchum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 96

Cynodon Dactylon ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 91. 97

Cynoglossine ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 96

Cyperus distans ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 91

Cytisine ... ... ... ... ... ... • • • ... ... ... ... 95

Cytisus prolifer ... ... ... 95

Dactyloctenium radulans ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 91

Dadylopusia tisboides ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 64

Dandaragan ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 75

Danthonia ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 18, 91

D. bipartita ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20

Darwinia ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 87

Datura Leichhardtii ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 94

D. Metel ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ... 94

D. Stramonium ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 94

D. Tatula ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 94

Derris ... ... . .. ... ••• ... ... ... 97

Diatoms present in Freshwater Bay ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 58

Didiscus glaucifolius ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 91, 98

D. pilosus ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 99

Digitaria sanguinalis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 91

Dioscorea hastifolia ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 96

Dodonaea physocarpa ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 92

D. viscosa ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ... ... ... ... 91, 96

Drosera gigantea ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 91

D. peltata ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ... ... ... 91

Dryopteris Filix-mas ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 98

XIV.

General Index.

Duboisia Uopwoodii ...
I). Leichhardtii
I). myoporoides
Dyes

Page
84 , 93 , 94
93
93
99

Echinopogon ...

Eclipta

Ectinoso rna prop inyuum
E ndoconidium temulentum
Epaltes australis
Erechthites

Eremophi la b ignon ii flora
E. glabra
IE Latrobei
E. longi folia ...

E. maculata ...

E. Sturtii

Erichthonius pugnax
Eriostemon

Er odium cicutarium ...

E. moschatum
Erythraea australis . . .
Erythrina vespert Hi o
Erythrophleine
E rythrophleam chlorostachys
Essential Oils
Eucalyptus
E. accedens
E. alba

E. astringens ...

E. calophylla ...

E. calycogona
E. carnpaspe ...

E. cladocalyx ...

E. concinna ...

E. conglobata ...

E. cornuta

E. diversicolor. .. ...

E. dundasi
li. eremophila
E. erythronema
E. ficifolia
E. Flocktoniae
E. Formanii ...

E. gomphocephala
E. gracilis
E. incrassata ...

E. Kesselli
E. Lehmanni ...

E. leptophylla
E. leptopoda ...

E. longicornis
E. marginata ...

E. megacar pa.

E. occidentalis
E. oleosa
E. platyphylla
E. platypus
E. pyriformis
E. redunca
E. redunca var. data
E. rostrata
E. rudis

E. salmonophloia
E. salubris
E. Sargent i
E. spathulata ...

99

96

64

96

99

96

91

99

99

91

91

99

66

87 , 99

101

100 , 101

100

96 , 97

95

95

85

85 , 90

85

101

86

85 , 90 , 101 , 102

86

... ... 84 , 85

91

86

86

85

85 , 102

85

86

86

99

85

86

85

86

86

85

85

86

86

85

... 85 , 101 , 102

85

85

86

101

85

86

85

... 90 , 101 . 102

101

85

85 , 101
85 , 101

86

85 , 86

General Index.

E. tetragona ...

E. uncinata
E iccheu ma specios uni
Eugenia australis
Eup horb i a alsinaefl ora
E. boophthona
E. clutioides ...

E. Drummondi i
E. Peplus
E. pilulifera ...
Euphorbiaceae
Evolvulus alsinoides ...
Excaecaria Agallocha
E. parvi flora ...

Page

80

80

89

99

100

9L

91

91

99

100

99

100

99

99

Fesluca irritans
F. viscida

Fish Poisons ... ... ...

Flagellaria indica
Foeniculum vulgar e ...

Free acidity of superphosphate
Freshwater Bay — A preliminary survey of
— Fauna

—Notes on the Chief Species

25

20

97

91

88

59

03

Gastrolobium calycinum
Geiger a li near i folia ...

Gelidium
Gladio brevicornis
G. ferens
G. gracilis

G. imparipes sp. nov.

G. inermis
G. spinosus ...

G. subsalaria ...

Glycosides
Goodenia
G. glaitca
Goodia loti folia
Gracilaria

Gratiola pedunculala
G. peruviana ...

Grevillea leucadendron
G. pyramidalis var. leucadendron
G. striata
G. viscidula ...

Grewia polygama ... ’

Guaiol ...

Gums ...

Gyrostemon Sheath ii ...

95

87

90

... 38, 39
35

... 38, 39
35, 04, 65
... 38, 39
... 38, 39
... 38, 39

91

... 101
99
91
90
100

... 100

),V 89

89
89
89
100

88
89
99

Haemodorum ...

Halorrhagis

Harpacticus gracilis ...

Heterodendron oleaefolium ...

Hibiscus trionum

Hill, H. E. — Tcakle, L. J. H. and

H omeria collina

II. miniata... ... •••

Hybanthus enneaspermus

Hydrochloric acid — Deterioration of bags, etc.
Hydrocotyle asiatica ...

Hydrocyanic acid

Hydrofluoric acid — Deterioration of bags, etc. ...
Hyoscine

101

91

04

91

101

1

93

93

..; 101
... 3, 12
... 101
91

... 3, 12
... 93, 94

XVI.

(tKN F.RATj TndkK.

Hyoscyamine ...

Hypericin ... ... ... ...

Hypericum perforatum var. angusti folium
Hyssura

93.

94

97

97

47

Indigo fern australis ...

7. boviperda ...

7. enneapkylla
Inula graveolens
fi-Ionone
Ipomoea dissect a
I. hederacea ...

7. heterophylla
/. polymorpha
Isotoma

Isotrop is at ropu rp u rea
7. canescens ... ...'

7. cuneifolia ...

7. cuneifolia var. par ri flora
7. Drummondii
7. For rest ii
7. juncea

95

101

99

87

91
89
89

89

90

92
92
92
92
92
92
92

Jelly Plant

J uncus

.Jute Bags — Factors causing rotting

Measurement of deterioration
Pre-treatment of

3,

6 , 12 ,
3, 4
1 , 8 ,

89
91
13
, 5

13

Karachi gum ...
Kino ...

89

90, 100

Labiatae
Lactuca saligna
L. scariola
Lanceol

Lantana Camara
L. crocea
Lantanin
Lavatera plebeia
Leander intermedins ...
Leguminosae ...
Leonotus leonurus
Leptochloa digitata
Leptoplana
Leptospermum
Lindsaya linearis
Linum marqinale
Lithospe rmum an 'ense
Lobine

Lolium perenne
L. temulentum
Lonchoearpus ...
Lotaustralin ...

Lotus australis

Lupanine

Lupinine

Lupinus <m gustifolius
L. hirsutus
L. luteus
Lycorine

87

99

99

85

97

97

97
99
67
95

98
91
03
87
91
91
90
95

... 91, 90

90
97

91
91
95
95
95
95

95

96

Macrozamia Riedlei ...
M. spiralis
Macrozamin ...

Malva parvi flora

92

92

92

99

General Index,

NVll.

Marrubium vulgare ...

J larsdenia
Medicago denticulata
M. minima
Medicinal Substances
Melaleuca lateriflora var. elliptica
M. laxiflora ...

M. leucadendron
M. rhaphiophylla
M. uncinata ...

M. Webster i ...

Melastoma malabatliricum ...
Melia azedarach
Melita ...

Melilotus alba
M. indica
Mentha australis
M. piperita ...

M. pulegium ...

M. satureioides
Mesembrine ...

Mesembryeae ...

Mesockra

M. parva sp. nov.

M. pygmaea ...

Microseris scapigera ...

Miles, K. R. ...

Mimulus repens
Minyulo Deposit
Monocrotaline
Morgania glabra
Munna brevicornis sp. nov.
Myoporaceae ...

Myoporum acuminatum
M. deserti
M. serratum ...

Myrtaceae

100

96

97

97
100

86
86
86
86
84 , 86
86
100
96
66

98

98
87
87
87

87
96
96
35

40 , 64
64

99
75
99
75
95
99

59 , 65

88
OQ

88 , 99
88
85

Neptunia gracilis ...

Nereis albanyensis ...

N. oxypoda

Nitric acid — Deterioration of bags, etc.
Nicotiana excelsior ...

N. glauca
N. suaveolens
Nicotine
Nitrates
Nitrites

Norhyoscyamine

Nornicotine ...

NotantTmra

Nuytsia floribunda ...

91

63

63

6

94
94
94
93 , 94
96
96
94
94
47
89

Ocimun sanctum
Olax uliginosa
Operculina Turpetlium
Oxalic acid
Oxalis ...

Oxylobium graniticum
O. laticeolatum
O. parviflorum

88

91

89

98

98
95

99
95

Palaemonetes australis
Panicum effusum
Papaver aculeatum ...
P. hybridum ...
Papaveraceae

67

97

96

96

96

General Index.

xviii.

Papilionaceae
Paranthura
Passiflora foetida
Perissocope

Petalostigma serieea ...

Phebalium argenteum
Ph. Drummondii
Ph . filifolium

Ph. microphyllum ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• •••

Phosphatic Nodules from Dandaragan, Western Australia— Investigations of
Phosphatised Wood — The ...

Photosensitisation

Phylloery thrin

Pimelia flava ...

P. trichostachya
Pittosporum phillyreoides

Pituri

Plantago major
Plectrachne

Plumbago zeylanica ...

Podocarpus Drouyniana
Poison Plants
Poly gala

Pomax umbellata
Poranthera ericoides ...

P. microphylla
Portulaca oleracea
Primulaceae ...

Prostanthera ...

Proteaceae

Protopine

Prunasin

Pteridium aquilinum
Pteritannic acid

some

Page
95
49
91
64
100
87 , 92
87
87

87
75
80
97
97
99

99
89 , 93

93
93
18 , 23
101

88

90
101

91
91
91

100
89
88 -
88
96
91

101
OS-

98 ,

Ranunculus lappaceus
Raphanus raphanistrum
Resins ...

Retronecine ...
Rhamnaceae ...

Rock Phosphate
Rosmarinus officinalis
Rubiaceae
Rumex

R. Acetosella ...
Rutaceae

99
93
89
95

101

1

87

101

98 -

100
87

Salsola Kali ...

Santalaceae

Santalol

Santalum lanceolatum
S. spicatum ...

Saponins

Sarcocephalus coadunatus
Sarcostemma australe
Sarcostin

S chizolo ma ensi folium
Sebaea ovata ...

Senecine
Seriecio
S. lautus
S. vulgaris
Senecionine
Sieqsbeckia orientalis
Silybum Marianum ...
Sinapine

... 96 , 9 &
85
85
85
'85
92

... 96 , 99

92

93
91

... 10O

95

... 92 , *95
95
95

95

101

97

96

General Index.

XIX.

8 inapis arvensis
Sisymbrium orientate

Sodium chloride — Deterioration of bags, etc. .

Sodium fluosilicate — Deterioration of bags, etc.

Solanaceae ...

Solanum chenopodinum
8. ellipticum ...

8. nigrum
8. sodomaeum
8. Sturtianum
Solasonine

Sorghum halepense ...

S. sudanense ...

8. verticilliflorum
Sparteine
Sporobolus

Sprays — Protection of bags
Stirling ia latifolia
Strychnine
Strychnos lucida

Sulphuric Acid — Deterioration of bags
Superphosphate

Reduction in proportion
Damage to jute bags
Damage to railway tarpaulins
Made with reduced acid
Mixtures to reduce deterioration of bags
Swan River Estuary — New Crustacea from

The Fauna of the Algal Zone of the

in superphosphate

manufacture

Page

99

91

7

6

93 , 94 , 95
94
99

94

95
95

... 94 , 95
91
91
91

95
91
13
88

96

96 , 100

... 6 , 12

... 1 , 2

1 .

*. 5

11
3
1

11

9-11

35

55

Tanais cavolinii
T. tomentosus
Tannins

Teakle, L. J. H. — Hill, H. E. and
Temperature — Effect on deterioration ol
Temuline

Tephrosia purpurea ...

T. rosea
Terminalia ...

Tetragonia expansa ...

Themeda australis

Thespesia populnea . . .

Thomson, J. M.

Tisbe ...

T. furcata
T. graciloides
T. tenera

Trema amboinensis ...

Trianthema crystallina
Tribulus terrestris
Trichodesma zeylanicum
Trifolium dubium
T. hybridum ...

T. pratense
T. repens

Trigonella suavissima
Triodia — A revision of the

Generic description
T. angusta sp. nov. ...

T. Basedowii ...

T. brizioides sp. nov.

T. Cunninghamii
T. Fitzgeraldii sp. nov.

T. intermedia
T. irritans
T. lanigera
T. longiceps ...

Western Aus

uper

alian

losphate bag

pecies

... 17 ,

63
63

90

l

5 , 6 , 13

96
98
98

98

... 92 , 96

91

... 101

... 35 , 55
65
65
65
65

99

... 91 , 92

97

... 101
91
97

... 96 , 97
91

... 100
15
17

17 , 19 , 26
17 , 18 , 19
... 18 , 24
6 , 17 , 20 , 23
... 19 , 25
17

17 , 18 , 24 , 25
17 , 18 , 19 , 20
19 , 25 , 26 , 27

XX

General Index.

T. microstachya
T. Mitchelli ...

T. procera
T. pungens

T. secunda sp. nov

T. viscida
T . Wiseana ...

T. Wiseana var. brevifolia var. nov.
Trymalium spathulatum
Turpentine bush
Tylophora

Page
16 , 17 , 26 , 27

17

17

15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20

19,27

... 20

17 , 18 , 23

24

93

89

96

Ulex europaeus
Umbelliferae . . .

95

88

Velleia discophora
V. panduriformis
Vernine

Vernonia corymbosa

Vicia satira ...

Vicine

Villarsia

Vitamins

99
99
96
101
91 , 96
96
100
100

Wedelia asperr wm ...

Wikstroemia indica ...
Wood Distillation
W rightia

99

99

101

96

Xanthium spinosum ...
Xanthorrhoea Preissii
X. refiexa

Xestolebrls aurantia ...

96

89

89

65

Zantedeschia aethiopica
Zornia diphylla

99

99

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