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INTRODUCTION

TO

ENTOMOLOGY:

OR

ELEMENTS

OF THE

NATURAL HISTORY OF Seer :

WITH PLATES.

By ELAM KIRBY, M.A. F.R. ax» L.S.

RECTOR OF BARHAM, |
AND

WILLIAM SPENGE. Esg. F.L.S.

VOL. IV.

LONDON:
PRINTED FOR
LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN, AND GREEN,
PATERNOSTER ROW,

1826.

RA SANE utt ana e

t

PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR,
SHOE LANE, LONDON.

CONTENTS OF VOL. IV.

Letter.

XXXVII.

XXXVIII.

XXXIX,

XL.

XLI.

XLII

XLIII.

XLIV.
XLV.
XLVI.
XLVII.
XLVIII.
XLIX.

Page.
Internal Anatomy and Physiology of
Insects. Sensation

Internal Anatomy and Physiology of

Insects continued. Respiration .. 34—79

Internal Anatomy and Physiology of
Insects continued. Circulation,... 80—95
Internal Anatomy and Physiology of

Insects continued Digestion .. 96—120

Internal Anatomy and Physiology of
Insects continued. Secretion .... 191—145

Internal Anatomy and Physiology of

Insects continued. Reproduction.. 146—166

Internal Anatomy and Physiology of

Insects concluded. Motion 167—196
197—932
233—956
Orismology, or Explanation of Terms 257—354
System of Insects. . . ; EAEE E 355—418

419—473

Diseases of Insects

Senses of Insects

History of Entomology

Geographical Distribution of Insects;
their Stations and Haunts ; Seasons ;

` Times of Action and Repose

CONTENTS.

Letter. | . Page.
L. On Entomological Instruments ; and
the best Methods of collecting,
breeding, and preserving Insects.. 515—546

LI. Investigation of Insects 547—560
Appendix ,... 561—572
Authors quoted 573—589
Explanation of the Plates 590—602
Indexes 603—634

ERRATA.

Page. Line. Tzxr.
58 12 for Semblis read Sialis.
78 antepenult. for Casei read putris.
97 21, put a comma after longitudinally, and dele that after
transversely,
107 2, ` after crop insert and.
289 23, after Menelaus insert Puatz XIV. Fig. 1. a.
590 E Jer d. The Bronchie connected with the Trachea, read
d. The Nerves &c.

Page. Note. Nores.

dele 1.

for c read b.
for A’ read A”.

dele n”.

after Fic. add 3.
after 109 add Prate XXX. Fio. 12. a.
dele Prare XXX. Fia. 12, a.

Jor a read a.

10°
20
37
44
97

~ v ~ * * ae

oe} oom 8

LT"

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

ENTOMOLOGY.

MEA ar a SN diss

LETTER XXXVII.

INTERNAL ANA TOMY AND PHYSI OLOGY
OF INSECTS.

SENSATION.

HaviNG given you this full account. of the external
parts of insects, and their most remarkable variations ;
I must next direct your attention to such discoveries as
have been made with regard to their Internal Anatomy
and Physiology: a subject still more fertile, if possible,
than the former in wonderful manifestations of the
POWER, WISDOM and GOODNESS of the CREATOR.

The vital System of these little creatures, in all its
great features, is perfectly analogous to that of the ver-
tebrate animals. Sensation and perception are by the
means of nerves and a common sensorzum ; the respiration

Of air is evident, being received and expelled by a par-
VOL. Iv, B

2 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

ticular apparatus; nutrition is effected through a stomach
and intestines; the analogue of the blood prepared by
these organs pervades every part of the body, and from
it are secreted various peculiar substances; generation
takes place, and an intercourse between the sexes, by
means of appropriate organs ; and lastly, motion is the
result of the action of muscles. Some of these functions
are, however, exercised in a mode apparently so dissimi-
lar from what obtains in the higher animals, that upon a
first view we are inclined to pronounce them the effect of
processes altogether peculiar. Thus, though insects re-
spire air, they do not receive it by the mouth, but through
little orifices in the sides of the body; and instead of
lungs, they are furnished with a system of air vessels,
tamified ad infinitum, and penetrating to every part and .
organ of their frame; and though they are nourished by a
fluid prepared from the food received into the stomach,
this fluid, unlike the blood of vertebrate animals, is wite,
and the mode in which it is distributed to the different
parts of the system, except in the case of the true Arach-
nida, in which a circulation in the ordinary way has been
detected, is altogether obscure.

In order that you may more clearly understand the
variations that occur in insects, and in what respects
they differ amongst themselves, and from the higher ani-
mals, in the vital functions and their organs, I shall con-
sider them as to their organs of sensation, respiration, cir-
culation, nutrition, generation, secretion, and muscular
motion.

Organs of Sensation.—The nervous system of animals
is one of the most wonderfal and mysterious works of

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 3

the Creator. Its pulpy substance is the visible medium
by which the governing principle? transmits its. com-
mands to the various organs of the body, and they move
instantaneously—yet this appears to be but the conduct-

or of some higher principle, which can be more imme-
diately acted upon by th

principle, however,

The system of
refore be deemed the
» the centre from which

emanate all its powers anq functions.
arative anatomists have considered the nervous

System of animals as fo

Which may be called th the ganglionic, and
cerebro-spinalt, The Jrst is where invisible nervous
molecules are dispersed in a gelatinous body, the exist-
ence of which has only been ascertained by the nervous
irritability of such bodies, their fine sense of touch, their
perceiving the movements of the waters in which they
reside, and from their perfect sense of the degrees of
light and heat?, Of this description are the infusory
animals, the Polypi, the star-fish and sea-urchins. The
nervous molecules in these are conjectured to constitute
so many ganglions, or centers of sensation and vitality e,
he second, the ganglionic, is where the nervous system

* To Hyegoyixoy,
b See Hooper's Medical Dictionary, under Nervous Fluid, and
Mr. Sandwith’s useful Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology, 83.
° N. Dict. d Hist, Nat. xvi. 305—.
* Cuv, Anat, Comp. ii. 369. Compare MacLeay Hor. Entomolog,
215—, " N. Dict. d' Hist. Nat. ubi Supr. `
B 2

A INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

consists of a series of ganglions connected by nervous
threads or a medullary chord, placed, except the first

ganglion, below the intestines, from which proceed nerves
to the various parts of the body*. This prevails in the
Classes Insecta, Crustacea, Arachnida, Moliusca, Annelida,
&c. In the third, the cerebro-spinal, the nervous tree
may be said to be double, or to consist of ¢wo systems—

the first taking its origin in a brain formed of two hemi-
spheres contained in the cavity of the head, from which
posteriorly proceeds a spinal marrow, included in a dor-
sal vertebral column. These send forth numerous nerves
to the organs of the senses and the muscles of the limbs.
Thesecond consists of two principal ventral chords, which
by their ganglions, but without any direct communica-
tion, anastomose with the spinal nerves and some of
those of the brain, and run one on each side from the
base of the skull to the extremity of the sacrum. ‘This
system consists of an assemblage of nervous filaments
bearing numerous ganglions, from which nervous threads
are distributed to the organs of nutrition and reproduc-
tion’. Its chords are called the great sympathetic, the
intercostal, or trisplanchnic nerves*. While the first of
these two systems is the messenger of the will, by means
` of the organs of the senses connects us with the external
world, and is subject to have its agency interrupted by
sleep or disease’; the latter is altogether independent of

a N. Dict. d Hist. Nat. xvi. 306.

b Ibid. 307. The great sympathetic nerves in fiskes are said to
have no ganglions. Cuv. ubi supr. 297.

c "They are called trisplanchnic because they render to the three
cavities of the viscera .—viz. the thoracic, the abdominal and the

pelvic. N. Dict. d Hist. Nat. xxii, 524. 597.
i In Hemiplegia, &c.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 5

the will and of the intellect, is confined to the internal orga-
nic life, its agency continues uninterrupted during sleep,
and is subject to no paralysis. While the former is the
seat of the intellectual powers, the latter has no relation
to them, but is the focus from whence instincts exclu-

sively emanate: from it proceed spontaneous impulses
and sympathies, and those passions and affections that
excite the agent to acts in which the will and the judge-
ment have no concern?.

It is probable, though the above appear to exhibit
the primary types of nervous systems, that others ex-
ist of an intermediate nature, with which future investi-
gators may render us better acquainted^: but as our bu-
siness is solely with that upon which znsects in this re-
spect have been modelled, without expatiating further in
this interesting field, I shall therefore now confine myself
to them.

We have before seen* that the nervous system of in-
sects belongs to the ganglionic type: but it requires a
more full description, and this is the place for it.. It ori-
ginates in a small brain placed in the head, and consist-
ing almost universally of two lobes, sometimes extremely
distinct. It is placed over or upon the esophagus or gul-
let, and from its posterior part proceeds a double ner-
vous chord, which embracing that organ as a collar dips
below the intestines, and proceeds towards the anus, form-

ing knots or ganglions at intervals, in many cases cor-

* N. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. xvi. 307.

> Thus in the Mollusce there must be a great difference in this
respect, since in some of these the brain or cerebral ganglion has
been cut off with the head, and another reproduced. Ibid. xvi. 306.
Comp. v. 391. * Vor. IIT. p. 29.

6 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF. INSECTS.

responding in number with the segments of the body,
and sending forth nerves in pairs, the ramifications of
which are distributed to every part of the frame. This
may be considered more particularly with respect to its
substance and colour ; its tunics ; and parts.

I. Substance and Colour.—The nervous apparatus of
insects is stated by those who have examined it most nar-

rowly, though consisting ofa cortical and medullary part,

the latter more delicate and transparent than the former,
to be less tender and less easy to separate than the hu-
man brain?. It has a degree of tenacity, and does not
break without considerable tension; in general, it ds
clammy and flabby, and under a microscope a number
of minute grains are discover able in it, and when left to
dry upon glass, it appears to contain a good deal of oil,

which. does not dry with the rest?. That of the gan-
glions differs from the substance of the rest of the spinal
elici in being filled with very fine aérial vessels, which
are not discoverable in the latter. With regard to co-
lour, Lyonnet states that the chords of the spinal mar-
row in the larva of the great goat-moth are of a blueish
gray, and have some transparence" ; Malpighi and Swam-
merdam observed that the cortical part of the ganglions of
that of the silk-worm and the hive-bee had a reddish hue,

* Lyonnet Anatom. 100. b Ibid. 101. ;

c Ibid. 100. In man and the vertebrate animals, the medullary pulp
is every where homogeneous ; under the microscope it appears to con-
sist of a number of minute conglomerated globules. M. Vauquelin has
analysed it, and found it to contain, of water 80 parts, of albumen
in a state of demicoagulation 7:0 ; of phosphorus 1°50; of osmazone
1:12; of a white and transparent oily matter 4:53; of a similar red
do. 0:75; of a little sulphur and some salts 515. W. Dict. d Hist.
Nat. xxii, 531—. d Anat. 99.

INTERNAL ANATOMY. OF INSECTS. 7

while the medullary part was white? ; Cuvier relates that
the brain and the third ganglion in Hypogymna dispar,
with us a scarce moth, differed in colour from all the
rest, being quite white, while the others were more or
less tinted, and examined under a lens appeared varie-
gated by reddish sinuous markings, resembling blood-
vessels as they are seen in injected glands.

II. Tunics.—The coats that inclose the various branches
of the nervous system in insects seem analogous to those
of vertebrate animals. The first thing that strikes the
eye, when these parts in a recent subject are submitted
to a microscope, is a tissue of very delicate vessels, which
ramify beyond the reach of the assisted sight; these are
merely air-vessels or bronchie derived originally from the
trachee of the animal: but besides these is an exterior
and an interior tunic; the first corresponding with the
dura mater of anatomists; and the other, which is the

most delicate and incloses the cortical and poene xd
parts, with the pia maters.

II. Parts.—' he nervous system of insects consists
of the brain ; the spinal marrow and its ganglions ; and
the nerves. vet

i. Braind, Linné denied the existence of a brain in
insects, and most modern physiologists seem to be of the
same opinion. A part however, analogous to this impor-
tant organ—at least in its situation, and in its emission of
nerves to the principal organs of the senses, in which re-
Spect it certainly differs very materially from the upper

^ Malpigh. de Bombyc. 20. Swamm. Bibl. Nat. i. 224. a.
> Anat. Comp. ii. 348.

© Lyonnet Anat. 100. t. iv. f. 6. Sandwith Introd. 59—.
* Pare XXI. Fie. 1. 7. 8. a.

8 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

cervical ganglion, which Dr. Virey regards as its ana-
logue*—is certainly to be found in them; and as Messrs.
Cuvier and Lamarck distinguish this part by the name
of brain, we may continue to call it by that name with-
out impropriety. The brain of insects, then, is distin-
guished from the succeeding ganglions of the spinal chord
by its situation in the head, the middle of the internal
cavity of which it occupies, and by being the only gan-
glion above the cesophagus. It is usually small, though
in some cases larger than they are>. It consists of two
lobes, more or less distinct and generally of a spherical
form. In Oryctes nasicornis and Pieris Brassice the
lobes are separated both before and behind * ; while in the
larvaof Dytiscus marginalis, but not in the imago, in which
there are two large hemispheres separated by a furrow,
the brain is undivided4. Cuvier mentions the larva of
a Tenthredo L. in which this part is formed of four nearly
equal spherical bulbs*: in the Scorpion (to judge by the
figure of "T'reviranusf) the two lobes represent an equi-
lateral triangle, the exterior angle of which terminates
in several lesser spherical bulbs; in Acrida viridissima,
Nepa cinerea, Clubiona atrox, and the common Louse, the
lobes are pear-shaped*.

ii, The spinal marrow and its ganglions". From the
posterior part of the brain of insects, but in Carabus and
Dytiscus L. from its sides below i, issue two chords which

a V. Dict. d Hist, Nat, xxii. 527. b Ibid. v. 591.

€ Cuv. Anat. Comp. ii, 318. Swamm. Bibl. Nat. t. xxix. f. 7. He-
rold Schmetterl. t. ii. f. 1—10. a. 4 Cuv. Ibid. 322. 337.

e Ibid. 394. f Arachnid. t.i. f. 13. m.m.

g Cuv. ubi supr. 343.346. Treviranus Arachnid. t. v. f. 45. a.
Prate XXI. Fic. 8. &,— ^ Ibid. Fre. 1. b.b: ? Cuv. ubi supr. 337.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 9

diverging embrace the esophagus, and. dipping below it
and the intestines,—a situation they maintain to the end
of their course,—and in their further progress uniting at
intervals and dilating into several knots or ganglions, -
compose their spinal marrow. This part is so named,
from a supposed analogy to the spinal marrow of verte-
brate animals, which however admits of some degree of
doubt; yet, since it mixes the functions of that organ
with those of the great sympathetic nerves, the denomi-
nation is not wholly improper, and may be retained.
Though this chord is usually double when it first pro-
ceeds from the brain, and surrounds the esophagus like
a collar, yet in some insects it may be called a single
chord. This is the case with that of the common louse,
in which Swammerdam could perceive no opening for
the transmission of the part just named?; if he was not
mistaken in this, the brain, as well as the rest of the spi-
nal marrow in that animal, would be below the intestines ;
from the figures of Treviranus it should seem that the
spiders, at least Clubiona atrox, are similarly circum-
stanced? ; in the cheese-maggot, which turns to a two-
winged fly ("Tyrophaga putris K.), the chord is also sins
gle, but it has a small orifice through which the gullet
passes. At the union of the chords in other cases be-
low that organ, a knot or ganglion is usually formed, and
an alternate succession of internodes and ganglions com-
monly follows to the end. The internodes also may ge-
herally be stated to consist of a double chord, though
in many cases the two chords unite and become one, or

* Prar& XXI. Fic. 8. Swamm. Bibl. Nat. i. 36. b.
> Arachnid. t. v. f. 45. * Swamm. ubi supr. t. xliii. f. 7.

10 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

are distinguished only by a longitudinal furrow, and even
where they are really distinct and separable, in the body
of the insect they lie close together*. In Oryctes nasi-
cornis and Acrida viridissima &c. all the internodes con-
sist of a double chord ^; but in many other insects nume-
rous variations in this respect occur.— Thus in the stag-
beetle the Zasż internode is single*; in the caterpillar of
the cabbage butterfly (Pieris Brassice) the five first are
double, and the six last single? ; in that of the great goat-
moth (Cossus ligniperda) the three first only are double,
but the others terminate in a fork* ; in the cock-roaches
(Blatta) the four first, in Hydrophilus piceus the three
first, and in Elophilus tenax the two first only are double,
the rest being all singlef. A singular variation. takes
place in Hypogymna dispar ; all the internodes are single,
except the second, the chords of which at first are sepa-
rate, and afterwards united’; and, to name no more, in
Clubiona atrox there is only one internode, which is sin-
gle, with a longitudinal furrow”. In some, as in the louse,

the grub of Oryctes nasicornis, and the cheese-maggot,
there are no internodes, the spinal marrow being formed
of knots separated only by slight or deep constrictions'.

I must next say something of the ganglions*. Lyon-
net has observed that, in the caterpillar of the great goat-

a Swamm. ubi supr. 119. a.

b Cuv. Anat. Comp. ii, 837. 343--.

c Ibid. 336. 4 Herold Schmetterl. t. ii. f. l.

© Lyonnet Anat. 98.

f Cuv. ubi supr. 342. Gaede N. Act. Acad. Ces. XL. ii. 323. Cuv.
Ibid. 351. € Ibid. 348.

^ Treviranus Arachnid. t. v. f. 45.

i Prats XXL Fic. 7. 8. Swamm. Bibl, Nat. t. xliii, f. 7.

x PrATE XXL. Fic. 1. 7. 8. c.

INTERNAL ANATOMY -OF..INSECTS. 11

moth, these in one respect differ remarkably from the
chords that connect them; in the latter the air-vessels or
bronchise only cover the outside of the tunic, while in the
former they enter the substance of the ganglion, which
is quite filled with their delicateand numberless branches?,
Every ganglion may be regarded in some degree as a cen-
tre of vitality or little brain, and in many cases, as well
as the brain, they are formed of two lobes*. I shall now
consider them more particularly as to their station, num-
ber, and shape.

1. With regard to the first head, their station, they
are most commonly divided between the trunk and ab-
domen ; but in some cases, as in Hydrophilus piceus and
Acrida viridissima, the rst ganglion is in the head*; in
others, as in the louse, the water-scorpion, and the grub
of the rhinoceros-beetle (Oryctes nasicornis), they are
confined to the ¢runk, their functions in the abdomen be-
ing supplied by numerous radiating nerves?; in others
again, as in the scorpion, they are all abdominal. : The
ganglions vary also in their situation with respect to each
other. Thus in some, as in the larva of the Chameeleon-
fly (Stratyomis Chameleon), they are so near as to appear
like a string of beads‘ ; in that of the ant-lion (Myrme-
leon) the two ganglions of the trunk are separated by an
interval from those of the abdomen, which are so conti-

* Lyonnet Anat. 100. b N, Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. xxii. 522—.

* Lyonnet ubi supr. t. ix. f. 1—4.

4 Cuv, Anat. Comp. ii, 339. 343. © Prate XXI. Fic. I.

f Swamm. ubi supr. t, xl. f.9. Cuvier (ii, 332.) accuses Swam-
.merdam of representing the spinal marrow in this grub as producing
Nerves only on one side; whereas he expressly states (ii, 50. b.)thata -
considerable number spring on each side from the eleven ganglions,
but that to avoid confusion he had omitted some.

12 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.,

guous as to resemble the rattle of the rattle-snake*. In
others the internodes are longer, and the ganglions occur
at nearly equal intervals, as in the larva of the Ephe- .
mere; but in the majority they are unequal in length :
thus in the scorpion the three first ganglions are the most
distant*; in the hive-bee the third and fourth?; and in
the spider the last *. |

2. The ganglions also in different species, and often
in the same insect in its different states, vary in their
number. Thus in the grub of the rhinoceros-beetle the
whole spinal marrow appears like a single ganglion di-
vided only by transverse furrows‘; in the water scorpion
there are £08 ; in the louse there are Zhree^ ; in the rhi-
noceros-beetle there are four; five in the stag-beetle* ;
seven in the hive-bee and some Lepidoptera! ; eight in the
grub of the stag-beetle™; nine in the great Hydrophilus” ;
ten in Dytiscus? ; eleven in the grub of the great Hydro-
philus? ; twelve in the grub of Dytiscus and the caterpil-
lars of Lepidoptera*; thirteen in the larva of Aishna* ;
and twenty-four in Scolopendra. morsitans*. You must
observe that, generally speaking, the number of ganglions

a Cuv. ubi supr. 325.. ' b Swamm. Bibl. Nat. t. xv. f. 6.

c 'Treviran. Arachnid. t. 1. f. 13. 1—4.

4 Swamm. ubi supr. t. xxii. f. 7.

e "l'reviran. ubi supr. t. v. f. 45. £ PrATE XXI. Fie. 7.

g Cuv. Anat. Comp. ii. 346. à PrATE XXI. Fic. 8.

Cuv. ubi supr. 337. k Ibid. 335—. 1 Ibid. 348.

m Ibid. 320—. " Ibid. 340—. o Ibid. 338 —.

p Gaede ubi supr.

a Cuv. ubi supr. 823—. 327—. Mr. Bauer (Phil. Trans. 1824. t. ii.
f. 1.) has figured only seven, excluding the brain, in that of the silk-
worm, and Malpighi (De Bombyc. t. vi. f. 2.) ten, —Swammerdam
(Bibl. Nat. t. xxviii. f. 3.) however has twelve.

r Ibid. 326. s Ibid. 352.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 13

is less in the imapo than in the larva. With regard to
the distribution of these knots to the different primary
parts of the body, the following table will exhibit it, as
far as I am acquainted with it, at one view. I omit those

in which the ganglions are only in one of these parts.

Head. Trunk. Abdomen.
Acrida viridissima ...... Y... 3 eee 67
Hydrophilus piceus seses 3 ee G eere
Clubiona atroz FRIRE.
Gryllotalpa vulgaris ....
Myrmeleon Larva |... O eee Z eerte

1
0
0
0
Elophilus tenax |... 0 eee DÀ eee
0
0
0

LEERE EEE EE] 2 (EEEIEE SE]

sea eesene 2 eeoveessee

Apis domestica ...... ... ...
Ephemera Larva *€69290099
Æshna Larva eeeoveevsecoes

**e06900999 8 @eeeee soe
seeeoseoe 3 **99990659

999999999 6 (TEETE EE] T

3. I am next to say a few words upon the shape of the
ganglions. Most commonly it approaches to a spherical
figure, but in many instances, as I said before, they, as
well as the brain, consist of żwo lobes : they are, however,
seldom all precisely of the same shape. In the Dytisci,
and Carabi, the last is marked with a transverse furrow,
which seems to indicate the reunion of two*; in the stag-
beetle, the first ganglion is oval or elliptical, the second
hexagonal; the third and fourth shaped like a crescent,
and the last like an olive’; in the caterpillar of the great
goat-moth the first is oblong and constricted in the mid-
dle, and the seven last are rhomboidal’; in the great
Hydrophilus the second, and in the silk-worm all the gan-

* Cuv. ubi supr. 343—. b Ibid, 345. © Ibid. 825—.

a Tbid. 351, * Ibid. 389. ^ f Thid. 885—.
* Lyonnet Anat. 190.

14 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

glions are quadrangular*; in Hypogymna dispar the
third is heart-shaped^; the great ganglion which forms
the spinal marrow of the cheese-maggot is pear-shaped * ;
that of the grub of the rhinoceros-beetle is fusiform ¢ ;
and in the scorpion all the ganglions are lenticular *.
But the most remarkable in this respect are those of a
spider (Clubiona atrox): in this insect the brain sits upon
a bilobed ganglion of the ordinary form, which is imme-
diately followed without any internode by another bi-
lobed one, terminating on each side in four pear-shaped
processes or fingers, which give it a very singular ap-
pearancef.

iii. The nerves® of insects, as of other animals, are white
filaments running from the brain and spinal marrow to
every part of the body which they are destined to ani-
mate; and their numerous ramifications, when delineated,
form no unpleasing picture". In the caterpillar of Cos-
sus ligniperda the accurate Lyonnet counted forty-five
pairs of them, and żwo single ones, making in all ninety-
two nerves; whereas in the human body anatomists
count only seventy-eight!. From the brain issue several
pairs, which go to the eyes, antenne, palpi, and other
parts of the mouth: sometimes those that render to the
mandibles issue from the first ganglion, as in the larva
of Dytiscus marginalis, the stag-beetle, &c.*; those both

? Cuv. Anat. Comp. ii. 340. Malpigh. de Bombyc. t. vi. f. 2.

b Cuv. Ibid. 948. c Swamm. Bibl. Nat. t. xlviii. f. 7.
4 Cuv. Ibid. 319. © N. Dict. d Hist. Nat. xxx. 420.
f Treviran. Arachnid. t. v. f. 45. m.

8 Prats XXI. Fic. 1. 7. 8. d.

2 Lyonnet ubi supr. t. x. f. 5. 6. i Ibid: 192.

k Cuv. ubi supr. 323. 335.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 15

of mandibles and palpi in the great Hydrophilus*; and
in Blatta some which act also upon the antenne>.

The optic are usually the most conspicuous and. re-
markable of the nerves. In some insects with large eyes,
as many Neuroptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera, their
size is considerable; in the hive-bee they present the ap-
pearance of a pair of kidney-shaped lobes, larger than
the brain*; in the dragon-flies, whose brain consists of
two very minute lobes, these nerves dilate into two large
plates of a similar shape, which line all the inner surface
of the eyes‘; in the stag-beetle they are pear-shaped, and
terminate in a bulb, from which issue an infinity of mi-
nute nerves*; it is probable that this takes place in all
cases, and that a separate nerve renders to every separate
lens in a compound eye’; the optic nerve in Dytiscus and
Carabus is pyramidal, with the base of the pyramid at the
eye and the summit at the brain?; in Elophilus tenax
it is very large, cylindrical, and of a diameter equal to
the length of the last-mentioned part, upon the side of
which it is supported; it terminates in a very large bulb
corresponding to the eye"; in Scolopendra morsitans the
optic nerves divide into four branches long before they
arrive at the eyes, and in this insect the nerves which
render to the antennze are so thick as to appear portions
of the brain, which they equal in diameter!. Swammer-
dam discovered in the grub of the rhinoceros-beetle and
in the caterpillar of the silk-worm, a pair of nerves which

* Cuv. Anat. Comp. ii. 339. b Ibid. 342.

* Swamm. Bibl. Nat. t. xxii. f. 6. m.m,

4 Cuv, ubi supr. 350. e Ibid. 335.

* Vor. III. p. 497. Lyonnet Anat. 581. ew

€ Cuv. ubi supr. 337. ^ Foid. 351. > i Thid, 352.

~16 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

he regarded as analogous to the recurrent. nerves in the
human subject, and therefore he distinguishes them by
the same name?: they issue from the lower surface of the
brain, or that which rests on the wsophagus, and at first
go towards the mouth, but afterwards turn back, and
uniting form a small ganglion; this produces a single
nerve, which passing below the brain follows the cesopha-
gus to the stomach, where it swells into another gan-
glion, from which issue some small nerves that render to
the stomach, and one more considerable which accom-
panies the intestinal canal, producing at intervals lateral
filaments which lose themselves in the tunics of that tube.
Lyonnet afterwards discovered these nerves in the cater-
pillar of the goat-moth*, and Cuvier in other insects?

The other nerves which issue from the brain exhibit
no remarkable features. "Those which originate in the
spinal marrow are mostly derived from the ganglions, and
are sometimes interwoven with the muscles, as the woof
with the warp in a piece of cloth *; those from the
three or four first commonly rendering to the muscles of
the legs, wings, and other parts of the trunk, and those
from the remainder to the abdomen. After their origin
they often divide and subdivide, and terminate in nume-
rous ramifications that connect every part of the body
with the sensorium commune. A pair of nerves is the
most usual number that proceeds from each side of a
ganglionf; but this is by no means constant, since in

2 Cuvier (ubi supr. 319.) seems not to have been aware that Swam-
merdam was the first discoverer of these nerves, since he attributes
their name to Lyonnet.

b Bibl. Nat. i. 138. b. t. xxviii. f. 2. a, b, c. f. 3. g.

v Ubi supr. 578. 4 Ubi supr. 320. 339, &c.
* Cuv. ubi supr. 349. £ Lyonnet Anat. t. ix. x.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 17

the louse, the hive-bee, and several other insects, only a
singlenerve thus proceeds? ; and in the larva of Ephemera;
while two pairs issue from the six first ganglions, only a
single one is emitted by the five last». In the spinal mars
row of the rhinoceros-beetle, both larva and imago, the
nerves consist. of simple filaments which diverge like rays
in all directions*: the same circumstance distinguishes the
cheese-maggot, only some of the nerves appear to branch
at the end? : in the louse, the last ganglion sends forth pos-
teriorly three pairs of nerves which render to the abdo-
men*. Sometimes, though rarely, nerves originate in
the internodes of the spinal marrow. -Cuvier indeed has
asserted that in invertebrate animals al} the nerves spring
from the ganglions; and never immediately from the spis —
nal marrow; but Swammerdam, in. describing those of
the silk-worm, mentions and figures four pairs as pro-
ceeding from the four anterior internodes, excluding the
first‘; and at the same time he gives it as his opinion,
that all the nerves in insects really originate from the
marrow itself, and not from the ganglions, which he as-
serts are of a different substance, and are inclosed in the

* Prare XXI. Fio. 8. Swamm. Bibl, Nat, t. xxii. f. 6.

AULA xv 6 B, $ "hrs St Fic. 7.
- 4 Swamm. ubi supr. 7. xliii. f "pma
..* Prate XXI. Fie. 8.

* In Mr. Bauer's figure (Philos. "Trans. 1824. t. ii, fA iur jos than
eighteen pairs of nerves are represented as issuing from the inter-
nodes; but it should seem as if in the specimen from which his figure
was taken, several of the ganglions, perhaps from some injury received
in the CAES had become obliterated, while their nerves remain-
` ed; yet still, even making allowance for these, many pairs will appear
to take their origin from the spinal chord.

VOL. IV. C

18- INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

marrow for the sake of giving it greater firmness’. In
this opinion, however, he seems singular. Those re-
markable nerves described by Lyonnet under the name
of spinal bridle (bride épiniére) also take their origin, not
from the ganglions, but from a bifurcation of the spinal
marrow. Of these, in the caterpillar of the goat-moth
there are Zen, the first issuing from the bifurcation of
the internode between the fourth and fifth ganglions, and
the remainder from the succeeding ones. After approach-
ing the succeeding ganglion, these nerves form a pair of
branches that diverge nearly at right angles from the
bridle, and producing several lesser branches, lose them-
selves in the sides of the animal*. Besides the nerves
above-mentioned, two generally issue from the poste-
rior part of the last ganglion, diverging in opposite and
oblique directions: some of these render to the parts of
generation ; and in the silk-worm, and probably other
species, the innermost pair is perforated for the passage
of the vasa deferentia?.

After duly considering this general outline of the ner-
vous system of insects, the question will continually oc-
cur to you,—is then what you have called the brain the
sensorium commune of these animals, in the same manner
as it is in those with warm blood? To this query a ne-
gative must be returned. . In the latter, the brain is the

common centre to which, by means of the nerves and

* Comp. Cuv. Anat. Comp. ii. 102—123. ; with Swamm. Expl. of
Plates xxxii, £. xxviii. f. 3. k.

* Malpighi seems, however, to agree with him. De Bombyc. t. vi.
fil. ¢ Lyonnet ubi supr. 201. t. ix. f. 1, 2. n. 1, 2. &c.
4 Swamm. ubi zupr. 1, 139. a. t. xxviii. f. 3 5, $.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. “19

spinal marrow, all the sensations of the animal are con-
veyed, and in which all its perceptions terminate. The
nerves and spinal marrow are merely the roads by whick.
the sensations travel; and if their communication with
the brain, by any means be cut off at the neck, the whole
trunk of the animal becomes paralytic, evidently proving
that the organ by which it feels is the brain. This, how-
ever, is so far from being the case in insects, that in them,
if the head be cut off, the remainder of the body will con-
tinue to give proofs of life and sensation longer than the
head: both portions will live after the separation, some-
times for a considerable period; but the largest will sur-
vive the longest, and will move, walk, and occasionally
` even fly, at first almost as actively without the head, as
when united to it. Lyonnet informs us, that he has seen
motion in the body of a wasp three days after it had been
separated from the head; and that a caterpillar even
walked some days after that operation; and when touched,
the headless animal made the same movements as when
intire?. Dr. Shaw has observed—an observation con-
firmed in Unzer’s Kleine Schreiften,—that if Scolopendra
electrica (Geophilus Leach) be cut in two, the halves will
live and appear vigorous even for a fortnight afterwards;
and what is more remarkable, that the tail part always sur-
vives the head two or three days*. The sensorium com-
mune of insects, therefore, doesnot, as in the warm-blooded
animals, reside in the brain alone, but in the spinal mar-
tow also. It was on this account probably that Linné

* In Lesser Insecto-theol. ii. 84. note *.

> Linn. Trans. ii. 8. Aristotle had observed this vitality of insects,
and that that of the myriapods is greatest. Hist. Animal. l. iv. c. 7.
De Respiratione, c. 3. Reptiles have also this faculty. N. Dict.
d’ Hist. Nat. xxix. 161,

c2

20 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF ÍNSECTS.

denied the existence of a brain in insects, regarding it
merely as the first ganglion of the spine.

Cuvier and other modern physiologists, from the gan-
glionic structure of this organ, ate of opinion that it is
not the analogue of the cerebro-spinal system of verte-
brate animals, but rather of their great sympathetic nerves.
Indeed, considering solely the external structure of the
nervous system of insects, a great resemblance strikes us
between it and these nerves; for besides its general gan-
glionic structure, there is also in them an upper ganglion
in thé neck, seemingly corresponding with what we have
named the brain of insects, froni which thenervous chord
dips to the lowér part of the neck, where it forms a se

cond ganglion, which appears to correspond with what
we have considered as their second ganglion*. We may
observe, however, that at least in one respect there is
even an external resemblance between the brain of in-
sects and that of vertebrate animals :—it most commonly
consists, as has been stated, like them, of two lobes, often
very distinct; a circumstance which not unfrequently di-
stinguishes the other ganglions*, and is not borrowed
from the ganglions of the great sympathetics. With re-
spect to the internal structure of the ganglions and spinal
marrow of insects, wè know little to build any theory
upon, except that the internal substance of the former is
filled with air-vessels; at least so Lyonnet, as has been
already observed, found in the Cossus, while only the
tunics of the latter are coveréd by them,—a circumstance
which I shall again have occasion to advert to. ‘Taking

a Cuv. Anat. Comp. ii. 983—. These are named “ the upper and
lower cervical ganglions.”

^ Lyonnet Anat. t. ix, x. PLATE XXI. Fic. 1, a. c.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 2]

the above resemblance to the brain of vertebrates into
consideration, there appears ground for thinking that
the nervous system of insects, like some of their arti-
culations?, is of a mixed kind, combining in it both the ce-
rebro-spinal and the ganglionic systems; and. this will
appear- further if we consider its functions.

That learned and acute physiologist Dr. Virey, assum-
ing as an hypothesis, that the structure of the system in
question is simply ganglionic, and merely analogous to
the sympathetic system of vertebrate animals, has built
a theory upon the assumption, which appears evidently
contradicted by facts. ^ Because, as he conceives after
Cuvier, insects are not gifted with a real brain and spinal
marrow, he would make it a necessary. consequence that
they have no degree of intellect, no memory, judgement

"or free will; but are guided in every respect by instinct
and spontaneous impulses,—that they are incapable of

instruction, and can superadd no acquired habits to those
which are instinctive and. inbred^. This consequence
would» certainly necessarily follow, was their nervous
system perfectly analogous to the sympathetic of warm-

blooded animals. But when we come to take into conside-
ration the functions that in insects this system confessedly
discharges, we are led to doubt very strongly the correct-
ness of the assumption. :- Now in these animals the system
in question not only renders to the nutritive and repro-
ductive organs, which is the principal function of the great
sympathetic nerves in the vertebrates; but by the com-
mon. organs maintains a connexion with the external

a Vor, III. p. 664. 671.
^ N. Dict. d' Hisl. Nat. ii. 47 —. v. 592. xvi. 308—.

22 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

world, and acquires ideas of things without, which in
them is a function of the cerebral system: from the same
centre also issue those powers which at the bidding of
the will put the limbs in action, which also belongs to

the cerebral system. That insects have memory, and

consequently a real brain, has been before largely proved,
as also that they have that degree of intellect and judge-
ment which enables them to profit by the notices fur-
nished by their senses*. What can be the use of eyes,—
of the senses of hearing, smelling, feeling &c. if they are
not instructed by them what to choose and what to avoid?
And if they are thus instructed—they must have sufficient
intellect to apprehend it, and a portion of free will to en-
able them to act according to it. With regard to the
assertion that they are incapable of instruction, or of ac-
quiring new habits; few or no experiments have been tried
with the express purpose of ascertaining this point: but
some well authenticated facts are related, from which it
seems to result that insects may be taught some things,
and acquire habits not instinctive. They could scarcely
be brought from their wild state, and domesticated, as
bees have been so universally, and both ants and wasps
occasionally®, without some departure from the habits of
their wild state; and the fact of the corsair-bees, that ac-
quire predatory habits before described *, shows this more
evidently: but one of the most remarkable stories to our
purpose upon record, is that of M. Pelisson, who, when
he was confined in the Bastile, tamed a spider, and taught
it to come for food at the sound of an instrument. A
* Vor, II, p. 525—. 513—.

e Huber Fourmis, 260—. Reaum. vi. 172—,
© Vor. IL. p. 207.
*

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS, 23

manufacturer also in Paris, fed 800 spiders in an apart-
ment, which became so tame that whenever he entered
it, which he usually did bringing a dish filled with flies
but not always, they immediately came down to him to
receive their food?.

All these circumstances having their due consideration
and weight, it seems, I think, most probable, that as
insects have their communication with the external world
by means of certain organs in connexion with their ner-
vous system, and appear to have some degree of intellect,

memory, and free will, all of which in the higher animals
` are functions of a cerebral system, and at the same time
in other respects manifest those which are peculiar to

the sympathetic system,—it is most probable, I say, as was
above hinted, that in their system both are united.

I must bespeak your attention to a circumstance con-
nected with the subject of this letter, which merits parti-

cular consideration: I mean the gradual change that
takes place in the nervous system when insects undergo
their metamorphoses; so that, except in the Ofthopiera,
Hemiptera, and Neuroptera Orders, in which no change
is undergone, the number of ganglions of the spinal chord
is less in the imago than in the larva. There seems an
exception indeed to this rule in the case of the rhinoceros-
- beetle (Oryctes nasicornis), in the larva of which there is
only one ganglion, while in the imago there are four”.
But as this one ganglion occupies the whole spinal mar-
row, it is really of greater extent than the four of the
imago; so that even in this case there is a concentration

a N, Dict, d' Hist. Nat. ii. 279—.
^ Cuv. Anat. Comp. ii. 319. 337.

24 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

of the cerebral pulp. In some cases, as in Dytiscus mar-
ginalis, and. Hydrophilus piceus*, the imago has only one
ganglion less than the larva, but more generally it loses
Jour or fives- Dr. Herold has traced the gradual changes
that take place in the spinal marrow of the common cab-
bage-butterfly (Pieris Brassice), from the time that it has
attained its full size to its assumption of the imago. Of
these I shall now give you some account.

In the full-grown caterpillar, besides the brain there
are eleven ganglions, the chords of the four first inter-
nodes being double, and the rest single: from each gan-
glion proceed two pairs of nerves, one from each side.
In this the lobes ‘of the brain form an angle with each
other. In two days the double chords mutually recede,
so as to diminish the interval between the ganglions, and
the single ones have become curved: thus the length of
the spinal marrow is shortened about a fourth, and the
fourth and fifth ganglions have made an approach to each
other’. On the eighth day, when the insect has assumed

. the pupa but remains still in the skin of the caterpillar,
the flexure of the internodes is much increased ; the first
ganglion is now united.to the brain, and the fourth and
fifth have joined each other, though they are still distinct ;
the. spinal marrow has now lost considerably more than
a third of its length?. On the fourteenth day, the in-
ternodes, except the double ones, have become nearly
straight again; the fourth and fifth ganglions have coa-
lescéd. so. as to form one, and the sixth and seventh have
each lost their pairs of nerves *. . Shortly after this, these

* Cuv. Anat. Comp. ii, 322, 393— ; 338, 339 —.

» Prats XXX, Fro. 1. * Ibid. Fic. 2,
4 Ibid, Fre. 3. =A +» * Herold Schmett. t. ii. f. 6.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 25

last ganglions have nearly disappeared, and the chords
of the three first internodes have again approached each
other?, The next change exhibited is the absorption of
the first ganglion by the brain, the union of the chords
of the first internode, which is now straight, the approxi-
mation of the second and third ganglions, and the en-
largement of the one formed by the union of the fourth
and fifth, at the expense perhaps of the sixth and seventh,
which have now entirely disappeared, and in their place
is a very long internode. These united ganglions retain
the pairs of nerves they had when separate". Just be-
fore the assumption of the imago, the direction of the
lobes of the brain becomes horizontal, the second and
_third ganglions unite, and the internode between the
third and fourth is shortened‘. Lastly, when the animal
is become a butterfly, the second and third ganglions
have coalesced, and are joined to that formed by the union
of the fourth and fifth; a short isthmus or rather constric-
tion, with an orifice, being their only separation: each
of these united ganglions send forth laterally four pairs
of nerves’. In his figure, Dr. Herold has not repre-
sented the orifice for the passage of the gullet, but doubt-
less one exists, which for an animal that imbibes only
fluid food is probably very minute. In Hypogymna dis-
par, we learn from Cuvier, this orifice is of that descrip-
tion, and of a triangular shape*,
It can admit of no reasonable doubt that one of the
Principal intentions of these changes is to accommo-
date the nervous system to the altered functions of the

^ Herold Schmett. t. i. LF. b PrATE XXX. Fic. 4.
© Ibid. Fic. 5. 4 Tbid. Fic. 6.
* Anat. Comp, ii. 348,

VOL. IV.

26 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

animal in its new stage of existence, in which the an-
tenne, eyes, and other organs of the senses, as well as
the limbs and muscles moving them, and the sexual or-
gans, being very different from those of the larva, and if
not wholly new, yet expanded from minute germs to their
full size, may well demand corresponding changes in the
structure of the nervous system by which they are acted
upon.

But are these changes also concerned, as Dr. Virey
conjectures, in producing that remarkable alteration
which usually takes place between the instincts of the
larva and imago? In order to answer this question, it
will be requisite first to quote the ingenious illustration
with which this able physiologist elucidates his ideas-on
this point. <“ The more readily,” he observes, **to com-
prehend the action of instinct, let us compare the insect
to one of those hand-organs in which a revolving cylin-

der presents different tunes noted at its surface, and
pressing the keys of the pipes of the organ, gives birth to
all the tones of a song: if the tune is to be changed, the
cylinder must be pulled out or pushed in one or more
notches, to present other notes to the keys. In the same
manner let us suppose that nature has impressed or en-

graved certain determinations or notes of action, fixed in
a determinate series in the nervous system and the gan-
glions of the caterpillar, by which alone she lives, she
will act according to a certain sequence of operations ;
and, so to speak, she will sing the air engraven within her.
When she undergoes her metamorphosis into a butterfly,
her nervous system being, if I may so express myself,
pulled out a notch, like the cylinder, will present the
notes of another tune, another series of instinctive ope-

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 2?

rations; and the animal will even find itself as perfectly
instructed and as capable of employing its new organs, as
it was to use the old ones: The relations will be the
Same; it will always be the play of the instrument?."

This illustration is doubtless at the first glance very
striking and plausible: but a closer examination will, I
think, show, that, as in so many other instances in meta-
physical reasoning, when fanciful analogies are substi-
tuted for a rigid adherence to stubborn facts, it is satis-
factory only on a superficial view, and will not stand the
test of investigation; and as this is a question intimately
conhected with what I have advanced on the subject of
instinct in a former letter, I must be permitted to go
somewhat into detail in considering it.

To prove his position, Dr. Virey ought at least to be
able to show that, whenever a change takes place in the
instincts of insects in their different states of larva and
imago, a corresponding change takes place in the exter-
nal structure of the nervous chord. But what are the
facts? In three whole orders, viz. Orthoptera, Hemi-
ptera, and Neuroptera, as mentioned above^, the struc-
ture of the nervous chord is not changed; and yet we
know that many tribes of these orders acquire instincts
in their imago state altogether different from those which
directed them in their state of larvæ. A perfect Locust,
for instance, acquires the new instincts of using its wings ;
of undertaking those distant migrations of which so many
remarkable instances were laid before you in a former
letter*; and, if a female, of depositing its eggs in an

* N. Dict. d Hist. Nat. xvi. 313. Comp. i. 420.
» See above, p. 23. * Vor. I. 4th Ed. 220—.

28 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF. INSECTS.

appropriate situation. But if such striking changes in
the instinct of these ‘tribes can be effected without any
perceptible alteration in the structure of the nervous
chord, it is contrary to the received rules of philosophi-
cal induction to refer to this alteration the changes in the
instincts of other tribes where it is found. Is it not far
more probable that this alteration has in fact no con-
nexion with the changes of instinct, but is solely con-
cerned with those remarkable changes in the organs of
sense and motion, which occur in the larva and imago
states of the orders in which it is observed? In a com-
mon caterpillar, the form of the body, the legs, the eyes,
and other organs of the senses, all strikingly differ from
those of the imago; whereas, with the exception of the
acquisition of new wings, a perfect locust. differs little
from its larva: so that we may reasonably expect a
corresponding change, such as we find it, in the structure
of the nervous chord of the lepidopterous insect, not
called for in that of the neuropterous species, in which
accordingly it does not take place.

This reasoning, in opposition to Dr. Virey’s theory,
that the changes of instinct depend on the altered struc-
ture of the nervous system, becomes greatly strengthened
when we advert to the higher classes of animals, which
surely in any investigation of the nature of instinct ought
to be closely kept in view; for the faculty, though often
less perfect in them than in insects, is still of the same
kind, and may consequently be expected to follow the

same general laws. In a young swallow, for example,
all its instincts are not developed at once any more than
in an insect. The instinct which leads it to migrate
does not appear for some months after its birth, and that

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 29

of building a nest still later. But we have not the
slightest ground for believing that these new instincts are
preceded by any change in the structure of the great
sympathetic nerve, or of any other portion of the nervous.
system: and the same may be said as to the sexual in-
stincts developed in quadrupeds some years subsequent
to theirbirth. If, then, these remarkable changes in the
instinct of the higher classes of animals can take place
independently of any visible change in the nerves, what
substantial reason can be assigned Due thay may not
also in the class of insects?

On the whole, I think you will agree Xi me, that
there is nothing in Dr. Virey's hypothesis which should
lead me to alter the opinion I have already so strongly
expressed in a former letter?, as to the insufficiency of
the mechanical theories of instinct hitherto promulgated,
adequately to explain all the phenomena; and unless
they do this they are evidently of small value. Such
theories as I have there adverted to may often seem to
be supported by a few insulated facts, but with others, far
more numerous, they are utterly at variance; and, to
omit many other instances, I am strongly inclined to
doubt the possibility of satisfactorily explaining the va-
riety of instincts exercised by a bee®, or the extraordi-
nary development of new ones in particular circum-
stances only*, on any merely mechanical grounds.

And after all, even suppose it could be demonstratively
shown that every instinct is as clearly dependent on se-
condary causes, as I have formerly admitted that some
doubtless seem to be, yet what would this teach us as
to the essential nature of instinct? We have advanced

* Vor. II. 4th Ed. p. 467. ^ Ibid. p. 499. * Ibid. p. 509.

30 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

indeed a step; but still, as I have before observed in re-
ferring to the theories of Brown and Tucker, we have
only placed the world upon the tortoise, and instinct, as
to its essence, which is what we want to detect, is as my-
sterious as ever: just as, though we can clearly prove that
the mind is acted upon by the senses, yet this throws no
light upon the essential nature of the mind, which we are
forced to admit is inscrutable, as if to teach us humility,
and prevent our vainly fancying, that though allowed to
discover some of the arcana of nature, we shall ever be
able to penetrate into her inmost sanctuaries.

That Dr. Virey should regard instinct in insects as
purely mechanical. was the natural consequence of his
denying them any portion of intellect; but his opinion
cannot I think be consistently assented to, if it be the
fact, as I have just shown?, that they are not wholly de-
void of the intellectual principle. | Whatever is merely
mechanical, must, under similar circumstances, always act
precisely in the same way.. An automaton once con-
structed, whilst its machinery remaius in order, will in-
variably perform the same actions ; and Des Cartes, when
he had constructed his celebrated female automaton,
imagined that he had irrefragably proved his principle,
that brutes are mere machines. But if, instead of losing
himself in the wilds of metaphysical speculation, he had
soberly attended to facts, he would have seen that the
instinct of animals can be modified and counteracted by

their intellect, and consequently cannot be regarded as

simply mechanical. Though the instinctive impulse of an :
empty stomach powerfully impel a dog to gratify his ap-
petite, yet, if he be well tutored, the fear of correction

* See above, p. 21.-

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 31

will make him abstain from the most tempting dainties :
and in like manner a bee will quit the nectary of a flower,
however amply replenished with sweets, if alarmed by
any interruption. The ants on which Buonaparte amused \
himself with experiments at St. Helena, though they
stormed his sugar-bason when defended by a fosse of
water, controlled their instinct and desisted when it was
surrounded with vinegar?: and in the remarkable in- \

stance communicated to Dr. Leach by Sir Joseph Banks, | =-

the instinct of a crippled spider so completely changed, [
that from a sedentary web-weaver it became a hunter*. ©
There is evidently, therefore, no analogy between ac-
tions strictly mechanical and instincts, which, though
they may often seem to be excited by mechanical causes,
are liable to be restrained or modified by the connexion
of the instinctive and intellectual faculties®; and while
we are ignorant how this connexion takes place, it is ob-
viously impossible to reason logically on the subject.

In thus denying that any existing mechanical theory of
instinct is satisfactory, I by no means intend to assert that
instinct is purely zntellectual. I have already given you
my opinion‘, that it is not the effect of any immediate
agency of the Deity; nor am I prepared to assent to the
doctrine of a writer, who has in some respects written
ably on the subject in question, who says, that ** the
Divine Energy does in reality act not zmmediately, but
mediately, or through the medium of moral and intellec-
tual influences upon the nature or consciousness of the
creature, in the production of the various, and in many
instances truly wonderful, actions which they perform *."

* Antommarchi's Last Days of Napoleon.
® Linn. Trans. xi. 393. ° Vor. IT. 4th Ed. p. 515.
^ Thid, p. 469, * Zoological Journal, n°. 1. 5.

32 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

The same objection applies to this as to so many other
metaphysical theories, that it is not adequately supported
by facts; and all theories not so supported are injurious
to science in proportion as their plausibility is greater, by
leading the student to relax in that observation of nature
and attentive study of the instincts of animals, on which
alone sound hypothesis on this subject can be ulti-
mately founded.

I shall conclude these remarks on the nature of in-
stinct with a few observations as to the circumstances in
which insects may be supposed to be guided by this fa-
culty, and those in which intellect seems to direct them.
The bee, when it takes its flight to a field where flowers
abound, is governed by intellect in the use of its senses ;
for these are given to it as guides: and when it arrives
there, they direct it to the flowers, and enable it to as-
certain which contains the treasures it is in search of;

but having made this discovery, its instinct teaches it to
imbibe the nectar and load its hind legs with pollen.—

Again: its senses, aided by memory, enable it to retrace
its way to the hive, where instinct once more impels
it in its various operations. So that when we ascribe
a certain degree of intellect to these animals, we do
not place them upon a par with man; since all the
most wonderful. parts of their economy, and those ma-
nipulations that exceed all our powers, we admit not
to be the contrivance of the animals themselves, but
the necessary results of faculties implanted in their
constitution at the first creation by their Maxzrm. I
may further repeat, that the mere fact of being en-
dowed with the external organs of sense, proves a cer-
tain degree of intellect in insects. For if in all their
actions they were directed merely by their instinct,

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 33

they might do as well without sight, hearing, smell, touch,
&c. but having these senses and their organs, it seems to
me à necessary consequence, that they must have a suf-
ficient degree of intellect, memory, and judgement, to en-
able them advantageously to employ them.

There is this difference between intellect in man, and
the rest of the animal creation. Their intellect teaches
them to follow the lead of their senses, and make such
Use of the external world as their appetites or instincts
incline them to, —and this is their wisdom ; while the in-
tellect of man, being associated with an immortal princi-
ple, and being in connexion with a world above that
Which his senses reveal to him, can, by aid derived from
heaven, control those senses, and bring under his instinc-
tive appetites, so as to render them obedient to the vo jrye-

Movixoy, or governing power of his nature: AND THIS Is
HIS WISDOM.

I am, &c.

LETTER XXXVIII.

INTERNAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
OF INSECTS CONTINUED.

RESPIRATION.

* LIFE and flame have this in common,” says Cuvier,
« that neither the one nor the other can subsist without
air; all living beings, from man to the most minute ve-
getable, perish when they are utterly deprived of that
fluid?.” The ancients, however, not perceiving insects
to be furnished with any thing resembling lungs, took it
for granted that they did not breathe ; though Pliny
seems to hesitate on the subject". But the microscopic
and anatomical observations of Malpighi, Swammerdam
and Lyonnet, and the experiments of more modern phy

siologists, have incontestably proved that insects are pro-
vided with respiratory organs, and that the respiration
of air is as necessary to them as to other animals. They
can exist indeed for a time in irrespirable air; and im-
mersion in hydrogen or carbonic acid gases is not, as I
have often ascertained, so instantly fatal to them as it
would be to vertebrate animals; but like them, they

2 Anat. Compar. iv. 296.
b Plin. Hist. Nat. l. xi. c. 3. Even Aristotle seems to have given

into the common opinion. De Respirat. c. 3, 9. &c.

En Q* 7" OG- gh. (c Q m

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 35

speedily perish in air altogether deprived of its oxygen,
or placed in situations to which all access to this essential
element is excluded. Their respiration too of atmo-
spheric air produces the same change in it with that of
the vertebrate animals, the oxygen disappearing, and
carbonic acid gas being produced im its place. Bayle
had long since ascertained, that when bees, flies, and
other insects were placed under an exhausted receiver,
they often perished?: and the same effect was even ob-
Served by the ancients to ensue, when their bodies were
by any means covered with oil or grease, which necessa-
tily closed the orifices of their respiratory organs».

But for the first series of experiments ascertaining the
Necessity of a supply of air to insects, and their conver-
Sion of it into carbonic acid, we are indebted to the illus-
trious Scheele ; and his experiments have been repeated
and confirmed by Spallanzani, Vauquelin, and other
chemists. The former found, that when caterpillars and
Maggots were confined in vessels containing only about
eleven cubic inches of atmospheric air, though furnished
with sufficient food, they soon died, and sooner when the
Space was more confined. He ascertained too, that a
larva weighing only a few grains consumed, in a given
time, as much oxygen as an amphibious animal a thou-
set times as voluminous*, A male grasshopper (Acrida
Diridissimg K.) in six cubic inches of oxygen lived but
eighteen hours, and the female placed in eight cubic
Inches of atmospheric air, only thirty-six hours. The

, Philos. Trans. v, 2011. Works, 4to. i. 79, 112.

^ Aristot. Hist. Animal. 1. viii. c. 97.

° On Air and Fire, 148, 155. 4 Tracts, 208.
em. on Respirat. 75.

D2

36 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

usual tests in both instances detected the conversion of
| the oxygen present into carbonic acid*. Precisely the
same result was obtained by Sorg and Ellis, who, having
placed a number of flies in nine cubic inches of atmo-
spheric air, found them all dead by the third day, the
oxygen entirely vanished, and a quantity of carbonic acid
nearly equal in bulk produced.

It is ascertained too, that insects like other animals
require in the process of respiration not merely oxygen,
but such a mixture of it with nitrogen or azote as com-
poses atmospheric air: for Vauquelin found that a grass-
hopper placed in six cubic inches of oxygen lived only
half as long (eighteen hours) as another placed in eight
inches of atmospheric air; its breathing was much more
laborious, and it died when not more than one-twentieth
of the oxygen had been converted into carbonic acid *.
That a large quantity of oxygen penetrates all parts of
insects, is evident also from the acid prevalent in the
fluids of most of them, as likewise from the wonderful
power of their muscles. That azote is also received,
seems probable from the ammonia which has been ex-
tracted from the fluids of many, and from the rapid pu-
trescence of these animals‘.

The mode, however, in which the respiration of insects
is carried on, differs greatly from that which obtains in
the higher animals. They have no lungs, no organs
confined to a particular part of the body, by means of
which the whole of the blood is regularly exposed to the

a Ann. de Chimie, xii. 273. > :

^ F. L. A. Sorg, Respirat. Insect. et Verm. Ellis, Inquiry into
Chang. prod. on Atmosph. Air by Respirat. &c. 69.

© Ann. de Chimie, xii. 273. d Sprengel, Commentar. &c. 27—

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. OF

action of the inspired air. They do not breathe through
the mouth, but through numerous orifices called spiracles,
and the respiratory vessels connected with these are con-
ducted to every part of the body. In some indeed, that
we have included under the denomination of insects, as
the Arachnida, an approach is made to the branchial
respiration of fishes. !

The respiratory apparatus of insects may be consi-
dered under zwo principal heads :—viz. the orifices or
Spiracles, and other external organs by which the air is
alternately received and expelled ; and the internal ones,
by which it is distributed. Each of these is well worth
of your attention. i

I. The external respiratory organs of insects may be
divided into three kinds. Spiracles ; Respiratory plates ;
and branchiform and other pneumatic appendages.

i. Spiracles? (Spzracula), or breathing pores, are small

orifices in the trunk or abdomen of insects, opening into
the trachee, by which the air enters the body, or is ex-

pelled from it^. They may be considered principally as

to their composition and substance ; shape ; colour; mag-
nitude; situation; and number.

1. Composition and substance. Perhaps you may not
be aware that the structure of these minute apertures is
not so simple as at the first view it may seem; but when
you recollect that by them the insect breathes, you will
Suspect that provision may be made for their opening
and shutting. A spiracle therefore, speaking analogi-
2 ue XXIII. Fic. 2. and Paves VIII. IX. XVI. XXIX. e, Z^,

a A.

^ Moldenhawers (Anat. de Pflanz. 314—.) affirms that the spira-

ctes of most insects are quite closed : but Sprengel ( Commentar. § 8.)
35 satisfactorily refuted that opinion,

38 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

cally, may be regarded in numerous cases as a mouth
closed by lips. In caterpillars and many other insects,
_ the substance of the crust where it surrounds the spiracle,
is elevated so as to form a ring round it. The lips, pro-
perly speaking, are formed of a single cartilaginous piece
or platform, with a central longitudinal cleft or opening,
when closed often extending the whole length of the
piece?; but in some appearing always open and circu-
lar: of the former description are those covered by the
elytra in the common cockchafer; and of the latter, those
that are not so covered: in some, as in the antepectoral
pair of the mole-cricket, there appear to be no lips, the

orifice being merely closed with hairs». ‘Though the

aperture is usually in the middle of the platform, in the
female of Dytiscus marginalis, it is nearer the posterior
side, the anterior or upper lip being the longest. In the
majority, the mouth or cleft is nearly as long as the spi-
racle; yet in the puss-moth (Cerura Vinula) it is shorter *.
Some spiracles, however, are unilabiate, or have only one
lip. This is the case with Gonyleptes K. and perhaps
othersd. The lips are usually horizontal, but sometimes
they dip so as to make the spiracle appear open.

With regard to the substance of these organs, it is more
or less cartilaginous, and probably elastic; the surface
frequently appears to be corrugate or plaited; this is very
distinctly seen in the stag-beetle and the cockchafer: in
the last insect, under a powerful magnifier, we are told
that the lips appear to consist of parallel cartilaginous
processes, separated by a cellular web*. In some species

a PraTE XXIII. Fie. 2. b Sprengel, Commentar. § 7.
c Ibid. t. ii. f. 30. 4 PLATE XXIX. Fie. 23.
* Ibid. 8.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 39

of Copris the corrugations form a perplexed labyrinth ;
in the caterpillar of the puss-moth the plaits are so nar-
TOW as to look like rays?; and in some Dynastide the
lips approach to a lamellated structure. Again, in Hy-
drophilus caraboides the upper lip, and in Dytiscus cir-
cumflexus, both lips seem formed of elegant plumes’: a
similar ornament distinguishes the inner edge of the lips
“in the caterpillar of the great goat-moth (Cossus lig-
^iperda) and others‘. In the grub of the rhinoceros-
beetle (Oryctes nasicornis) the margin of the lower or in-
ner lip is decorated by pinnated rays, which enter the
Cellular membrane that covers the upper lip4: in this
larva, and that likewise of the cockchafer, the two lips
are formed of different substances; in the last the upper
or outer one consists of a perforated cellular membrane,
through which the air can pass, while the lower or inner
one is a cartilaginous valve that closes the orifice*: in
the former this valve is surmounted by a boss‘. In the
pupa of Smerinthus Populi, ahawk-moth not uncommon,
and of some dragon-flies (Libellula depressa), the margin
of the two lips is crenated, probably with notches which
alternate, that the mouth of the spiracle may shut more
accurately8. The substance is unusually thick in the
Spinose caterpillars of butterflies; and in the pupa of one,
Hesperia Proteus, it is villose.
Under the present head I may observe, that in some
Cases, as in the puss-moth, and the larva of the common

a Sprengel, 7. t. iii. f. 30. b Ibid, t. i. f. 22. t iii. f. 29
* Prats XXIX. Fie. 29.

* Ibid. Fic. 16. Sprengel, Ibid. 9. t. 1. f. 4—6.

° Ibid. 9. t.i. f. 9. £ Prave XXIX. Fr. 16. a.
* Sprengel, Ibid. t. iii, f. 97.

40 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

water-beetle ( Dytiscus marginalis), the spiracles are closed
by a semifluid substance, which however, according to
Sprengel, is permeable to the air*. The animal, where
these organs are furnished with lips, has doubtless, by
means of a muscular apparatus, the power of opening and
shutting them: this is done, we are told, by elevating and
depressing, or rather by contracting and relaxing them.
Sorg counted in one case (Oryctes nasicornis) twenty, and
in another (Acrida viridissima) fifty, of these motions to
take place in little more than two minutes’: but the
quickness and force of this motion is not always uniform ;
for the same physiologist observed, that in Carabus au-
ratus, when feeding or moving its body rapidly, the con-
traction of the spiracles took place at very short intervals;
but when it was fasting, and its motions were slow, the
intervals were longer: it is probable also, that the tem-
perature may accelerate or retard the motion. In the
summer I examined a specimen of Melolontha hirticola,
that had indeed been somewhat injured, with this view :
the pulses of the abdomen, which alternately rose and fell,
were at about the rate of the pulse of a man in health,
sixty in a minute, and the spiracles appeared to me to
keep pace with this motion: later in the year, when the
temperature was lower, as I was walking, I took a spe-
cimen of some grasshopper (Locusta Leach). Upon

* Sprengel, Commentar. 7 —.

^ Sprengel, from whom I have borrowed this quotation, expresses
the time by “ scripulo hore.” This word is of uncertain meaning,
being scarcely ever applied to time ; but as it means the twenty-fourth
part of.an ounce, Faber conjectures it may mean the same portion
of an hour.

* Borg, Disquisit. circa respirat. insect. 27, 46, 66. - Sprengel udi
supr, 11—.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 4l.

viewing it under a lens, I observed one of the convex pec-
toral spiracles open and shut, and the interval between
two breathings appeared nearly half a minute.

2. With regard to their shape, spiracles vary consi-
derably. In general we may observe that the abdomi-
nal ones are usually flat, while those of the trunk are
often convex*. Sometimes they are very narrow and
nearly linear, as in many pupe of Lepidoptera, and those
Àn the metathorax of the sandwasps (Ammophila K.) and
affinities; at others they are wider and nearly elliptical,
as in Lucanus and many Lamellicorn beetles: again, in
Copris they are circular; in Calandra Palmarum ovate;
in Dytiscus oblong’; in Staphylinus olens lunulate; in
Gonyleptes nearly of the shape of a horse-shoe*; and
probably many other forms might be traced, if a thorough
investigation with this view were undertaken.

3. The colour of spiracles will not detain us long. In
the caterpillars of Lepidoptera this is often so contrasted
with that of the rest of the body, as to produce a strik- —
ing and pleasing effect. Thus when the body is of a
dark colour, they are usually of a pale onet; or if the
body is pale, they are dark*, or surrounded with a dark
ring’, This contrast is often rendered more striking by
their position with regard to the partial colours that
often ornament caterpillars: in those whose sides are
decorated by a longitudinal stripe, the spiracles are
often planted in itë ; or just above it^; or between two:

a Chabrier surle Vol des Ins. c. 1. 454.

? PravE XXIX. Fic. 98. 4". c Ibid. Fie. 23.

a Sepp. I. iv. £. li. f. 8. © [bid. t. xiv. f. 3.
f Ibid. t.v. f. 6,7. -— * Ibid. t. i. f. 7, 8.
^ Ibid. i. x. f. 6, 7. s i Ibid. v. t. i. f. 3.

42 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

in some hawkmoths the intermediate ones are set in
white or pale spots, which gives great life to the animal.
In general, in perfect insects the most prevalent colour
is buff, or reddish-yellow. In the larva of the great wa-
ter-beetle (Dytiscus marginalis) these organs resemble
the iris of the eye, being circular with concentric rings,
alternately pale and dark?.

4. The size of spiracles varies considerably. Those
in the larva last mentioned are so minute as to be scarcely
visible except under a lens, while those behind the fore-

legs in Gryllotalpa are a full line in length, and those in

the pleura of Macropus accentifer, a Brazilian Capricorn
beetle, are more than twice as long. In the same species
they are often found of different sizes ;—thus the anal
pairs in the Dytiscus lately alluded to, I mean in the per-
fect insect, are much larger than the rest^, probably that
the animal may imbibe a larger quantity of air when it
rises to the surface of the water, where it suspends itself
by the zail. In those Lamellicorn beetles in which the
terminal part of the abdomen is not protected by the
elytra, the covered spiracles are the largest.

5. Under the next head, the situation of spiracles, I
shall not only consider the part of the body in which
they are situated, but likewise their position in the crust ;
to which last, as it will not detain us long, I shall first
call your attention. Their position in this respect is
most commonly oblique ; but in the abdomen of the above
Dytiscus they are transverse, and in a larva I possess, pro-
bably of an Elater, they are longitudinal. In spinose

* Sphine Labrusce Merian Surinam. 34.
^ Prare XXIX. Fic. 28. A’.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 43

caterpillars these organs are generally planted between
two spines, one being above and the other below. "The
lateral line of the body most commonly marks their si-
tuation; but in many cases they become ven£ral, and in
others dorsal. The most important circumstance, how-
ever, connected with the present head is their appropria-
tion to particular segments or parts of the body, for, like
the ganglions of the spinal marrow, they are distributed
to almost every segment. Let us take a summary view
of their arrangement in this respect.

No insect has any spiracle in the head ; but in cater-
pillars and many other /arve there is a pair in the frst
segment of the trunk. This is also to be found in the other
states, but is not easily detected in the pupe of Lepidop-
tera: in the Coleoptera order, in the grub of the Lamel-
licorn beetles, it is extremely conspicuous, and planted in
the side of the first segment?; in other Coleopterous grubs
it is not so readily found, but probably its station is some-
where behind the base of the arms, where it is very visi-
ble in that of Staphylinus. In the imago of insects o.
this order, this antepectoral spiracle has been overlooked,
and indeed is not soon discovered : to see it clearly, the
manitrunk should be separated from the alitrunk ; and
then if you examine the lower side of the cavity, you will
see a pair of, usually, large spiracles planted just above
the arms, in the ligament that unites these two parts of the
trunk to each other: in thecommon rove-beetle, however,
(Staphylinus olens) you may easily see it without dissec-
tion*. In the Orthoptera it is situated behind the arms,

* Swammerd, Bibl. Nat. t. xxvii. f. 5. Compare Sturm Deutsch.
Fn. i. t. v. f. v.

* Prate XXIX. Fic. 12. c'.

44 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

as in Gryllotalpa : or between them and the prothoraz,
as in Blatta: in the Hemiptera and Neuroptera proba-
bly the situation is not very different. In the Lepidop-
tera this pair of spiracles is planted just before the base
of the upper or primary wings?: a similar situation, I
suspect, is appropriated to it in the Trichoptera, but co-
vered by a tubercle or scale. Something similar has
been noticed by M. Chabrier, in the same situation and
circumstances, in the collar of Hymenoptera". In nu-
merous Diptera this breathing pore is planted on each
side between the collar and the dorsolum above the
arms ^, and in Hzppobosca in the collar itself 4.

In Lepidopterous, Coleopterous, and some other larvze,
the two segments of the body corresponding with the
alitrunk in the perfect insect, are without spiracles, nei-
ther have they in this state, though pneumatic organs
have been discovered €, any real ones in that part: but
not so the remaining orders, all of which have these or-

gans in that section of the trunk. To begin with the

Orthoptera : —in Blatta there seems to be a long narrow
one behind the intermediate leg; in the Gryllotalpa there
is one in the posterior part of the pleura ; and in Lo-
custa Leach, above both the intermediate and hind legs f.
It is probable, that in general those that have zo spira-
cles in the manitrunk have four in the alitrunk, which
seems the natural number belonging to the trunk. In
many of the Heteropterous Hemiptera in the parapleura

* De Geer, i. 81. 4. v. f. 10. f. > Sur le Vol des Ins. c.i. 459.

c Reaum. iv. 246. 7. xix. f. 8. s.

4 [n this tribe, which I forgot to remark before (see Vor. III.
p. 951—.) there seems both prothorax and collar.

* Vor. III. p. 552, 562. &c.
* Prate VIII. Fie. 14. h”, n".

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS, 45

there is an open spiracle without lips*, to which, as in
that beautiful bug Scutellera Stockeri, a channel some-
times leads. The space in which this spiracle is planted
in other genera of bugs (Pentatoma &c.) is covered with
a kind of membranous skin, often much corrugated>. In
the aquatic insects of this section, and many terrestrial
ones, as Reduvius, &c. this spiracle is obsolete. ‘There
is another circumstance, possibly connected with their
respiration, relating to many of the bugs, which may be
mentioned here. If you examine Pentatoma rufipes, a
very common one, you will find between the scapula and
parapleura a long orifice or chink; this upon a closer
‘Inspection, under a good magnifier, you will see com-
pletely filled with minute stiff hairs or bristles, which
fringe the posterior margin of the scapula*. In a Bra-
zilian species of Lygeus L. (sexmaculatus K. M.S.) with
incrassated posterior thighs, these hairs are replaced by
lamellze which have the aspect of gills. A red; vertical,
convex spiracle, with its orifice towards the head, and

terminating posteriorly in a kind of conical sac, is situated.
towards the hinder part of the pleura in the giant water-
scorpion (Belostoma grandis‘); this seems analogous to
one lately mentioned in the mole cricket. In the other
section of this Order it is not easy to decypher the parts
of the under side of the alitrunk. In Fulgora, Tettigonia,
and many others of its genera, there appears to be more
than one opening into the chest; but whether they are of
a pneumatic nature or not, can only be ascertained by an
inspection of the living animal. There is a very visible

* Prate XXIX. Fic. 14, 15. m". ^ Ibid. Fro. 15. a.
* Ibid. Fic. 14, 15. b. | d Ibid. Fre. 25. 4".

46 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

spiracle over each of the four last legs of the Libellulina*,
but in the remainder of the Neuroptera Order they have
eluded my search. In the Hymenoptera and Diptera
they are nearly in the same situation, being placed be-
hind the wings on each side of the metathorax ; in the
latter Order with the poiser near them on the inner side” :
in this also, the spiracles of the ¢runk are without lips,
except in the larve, but are often merely an orifice,
sometimes fringed with hairs; this is particularly con-
spicuous in Syrphus, in which these orifices are very
large, and in some species closed by an elegant double
fringe of white hairs. This is doubtless to prevent the
entrance of any particles of dust or the like.

We are next to consider the situation of the spiracles
of the abdomen: these which are supposed to be appro-
priated exclusively to inspiration, are usually more nu-
merous than those of the trunk, by which it is probable
that expiration is performed, and have principally at-
tracted the notice of Entomologists: they are either dor-
sal, lateral, or ventral. In Dytiscus, Copris, &c. amongst
the beetles, all the spiracles are dorsal; in the larvae of
Coleoptera and Lepidoptera they are lateral ; and in the
Heteropterous Hemiptera they are usually ventral: in
Dynastes M*L. they are commonly found of all three de-
scriptions ;—the three first being dorsal, the two next la-
teral, and the last pair ventral*. In some instances, as
in Perga Kirbii Leach, and probably other Hymenoptera,
these organs are planted in that portion of the dorsal

segments which turns under, as was observed in a former

2 Chabrier sur le Vol des Ins. c. iii. t. vi. f. 4. Sa, Sp.
^ Prate IX. Fie. 21. m”.
e Prate VIII. Fie. 9.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 47

lettera, and becomes ventral. Generally there is a pair
of spiracles to each segment, and in those insects that

have a hypochondriack joint? there is often a spiracle in

it. The last segment of the abdomen is always without
_these orifices, as is the basal one in Velia, Ranatra, and
some other bugs. A singular anomaly distinguishes the
Libellulina: they appear to have no abdominal spiracles *,
yet I have seen the abdomen of Libellula depressa when
reposing, contract and dilate alternately, from whence it
follows that this part is concerned in respiration. Spren-
gel says that the larvee in this tribe have seven or nine
on each side‘, and Reaumur speaks of them as disco-
verable in the pupa*. I have carefully examined the
pupa-skin of most of the genera of Lzbellulina, under a
powerful magnifier, but have not succeeded in discover-
ing any thing like these organs in the abdomen. The
Ephemera and probably the other Neuroptera: have ab-
dominal spiracles*. M. Latreille observed one on each
side of the base of the scale on the footstalk of the abdo-
men in ants. Generally the abdominal spiracles may
be described as planted in the crust of the insect; but in
many cases their station is in the membranous folds,
which Ihave therefore named the pulmonarium, that some-
times separate the dorsal from the ventral segments: these
folds allow of a considerable distention of the abdomen,
Which is probably necessary when all the air-vessels are
full. Ina gravid Ichneumon I once saw it enlarged to
more than twice its natural size by means of this mem-
brane, through which the eggs were distinctly visible.—
- * Vor; TII. p. 706—. > Ibid. p. 709.

° Sprengel, Comment. 3. da Thid. .
* vi. 398, f De Geer, ii. 635. € Fourmis, 22.

48 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

Before I bid adieu to this subject, I must say a few words
upon the situation of the organs in question in the my-
riapods. In lulus, in each segment is a pair of orifices
which haveusually been regarded as spiracles, but M. Savi
found that these orifices opened into vesicles containing
a fetid fluid, and upon a very close examination he dis-
covered the real spiracles above the base of the legs, in
connexion with trachee*. In some of the larger species
of Scolopendre large open spiracles in the same situation
are extremely visible’. Scudigera Lam. (Cermatia Illig.)
presents a singular anomaly :—a single series of spiracles
of the usual form, each planted in a cleft of the posterior
margin of the dorsal scuta, runs along the back of the
animal*: unless we may suppose that, like the seeming
spiracles of Julus just mentioned, these are merely ori-
fices by which it covers itself with some secretion.

6. A few words upon the number of spiracles.—If you
examine the common dog-tick (Ixodes Ricinus), you will
find only one of these organs on each side of the abdo-
men‘; the Libellulina, as we have seen, have only four,
all in the trunk; in the Dynastide, Melolontha, and the
larva of Dytiscus, there are fourteen ; sixteen in the Co-
pride ; eighteen in Dytiscus, and probably the majority
of Coleoptera, both larva and imago, and Lepidoptera ;
and a pair to each segment except the last, in the My-
riapods.

ii. Respiratory plates (Respiratoria). The nearest ap-

2 Osservaz. &c. sullo Tulus fatid. 14—.

> They areparticularly visiblein an undescribed East Indian species,
(I. alternata K. M.S.) with scuta alternately black and yellow.

° Prate XXIX. Fie, 20. A". * De Geer, vii. é. vi. f. 3.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 49

Proach to spiracles is made by those remarkable plates
that are found in such larvæ of Diptera, as in that state
inhabit substances that might impede or altogether stop
the entrance or exit of the air by the ordinary spiracles,
Such as dead or living flesh, dung, or the like. The
Creator therefore, as he has seen it good for wise rea-
Sons? to commission certain insects to feed on unclean
food, has fitted them for the offices that devolve upon
them, and has placed their orifices for breathing in plates
at each extremity of the body. There are usually two
of these plates at the head, and two at the tail. In the
Stub of the common flesh-fly (Musca carnaria), at the
Junction of the first segment of the body with the second, -
two of these plates are planted, which are concave and
Circular, with a denticulated margin; in the cavity near
the lower side is a round spiracle. These plates the
animal can withdraw within the body, so as to prevent

this spiracle from being stopped up by any greasy sub-

Stance’. The posterior extremity of this grub is trun-

cated, and has a large and deep cavity surrounded by
Several fleshy prominences: at the bottom of this are
two oval brown plates, in each of which are three oval
spiracles, placed obliquely: by the contraction of the
fleshy prominences, this cavity also can be closed at the
will of the animale, In some cases, several stiff rays or
Spines replace the prominences4. In Echinomyia grossa
‘nd others the anal plates appear not to be perforated,
eing surmounted only by a central boss*; but this,

,

* Vor. I, p. 251—, » De Geer vi. 67. £. iii. f. 10, ss, 14.
. Ibid. 66. t iii. v. 13, “ Prare XIX. Fre. 11. a.
Reaum. iv. 375—. t. xxvi. f. 7, 8.

VOL, I V. E

50 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

most probably, as in the case of (Estrus Ovis?, is a valve
that closes the respiratory orifices. In the gad-fly of
the ox (Œ. Bovis) there are no plates at the anterior ex-
tremity of the body; but those planted in the other end
are very remarkable, and demand particular attention.
- Each is separated by a curved line into two unequal por-
tions; the smallest of which is contiguous to the convex
belly, and the largest to the concave back of the animal.
This last is distinguished by two hard, brown, kidney-
shaped pieces, a little elevated with the concave sides
turned towards each other: in this sinus is a single, small,
white spot, which appears to be a spiracle: in the smallest
| portion are eight minute circular orifices, arranged in a
line», As the only communication which this grub has
with the atmosphere is at its anal extremity, it has no
occasion for respiratory organs at the other. The gad-
fly of the horse (Œ. Equi, &c.) which has no communi-
cation at all with external air, breathing that which is
received into the stomach, has these plates at both ends

of the body.

ii. Respiratory Appendages*. ‘These may be divided
into two kinds; those by which the animal has zmmedzate —
communication with the a£mosphere, and those by which
it extracts air from water.

1. To begin with the first. These are often found in in-
sects which, during their two first states, live in the water.
No better example, nor one more easy to be examined,

? Reaum. iv. 555. £. xxxv. f. 10. ss.

b Ibid. 519—. t. xxxvii. f. 3, 4. ;

e Pravzs XVI. Fic. 9.a b. XIX. Fie. 9, 10, 12, 13. a. XXIX.
Fic. 3-7.

INFERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 5l

of this Structure, can be-selected, than the gnat (Culex L.).
You must have occasionally observed in tubs of rain-
Water, numerous little wriggling worm-like animals, which
frequently ascend to the surface; there-remain a while,
and then bending their head under the body rapidly
Sink to the bottom again. These are the larvae of some
Species of the genus just named; andif you take one out
of the water and examine it, you will perceive that it is
furnished near the end of its body with a singular organ,
Which varies in length according to the species, and forms
‘40 angle with the last segment but one?. The mouth of
this organ is tunnel-shaped, and terminates in five points
like a Star; and by this it is usually suspended at the sur-
ace of the water, and preserves its communication with
the atmosphere: in its interior is a tube which is con-
nected with the trachec, and terminates in several open-
ings, visible under a microscope, at the mouth of the or-
San.’ The points or rays of the mouth when the animal
1s disposed to sink in the water, are used to close it, and
Cut off its communication with the atmosphere. When
the animal is immersed, a globule of air remains at-
tached to the end of the tube, so that it is in fact of less
Specific gravity than that element, and it is not without
Some effort that it descends to the bottom; but when it
Wishes to rise again, it has only to unclose the tube,
and it rises without an effort to the surface, and remains
suspended for any length of time. Its anal extremity is
clothed with bunches of hairs, which are furnished with
Some repellent material which prevents their becoming
Wet? : it is this repellent quality that probably causes a

* Pare XIX. Fic, 9, a. * Ibid. ó. —
E

52 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

dimple or depression of the surface, which if you look
narrowly you will discover round the mouth of the tube?.

When the gnat undergoes its first change and assumes
the pupa, instead of a single respiratory appendage it is
furnished with a pair, each in shape resembling a cor-
nucopia, and, what is remarkable, placed near the oppo-
site extremity of the body, for they proceed from the up-
per side of the trunk*. By these tubular horns, which
Reaumur compares to asses’ ears °, they respire, and are
suspended at the surface.

Other respiratory tubes or horns are more complex.
The rat-tailed grub of a fly (Elophilus pendulus) like the
gnat breathes by a tube: but as if the Creator willed
to show those whose delight it is t investigate his works,
by how many varying processes he can accomplish the
same end, this respiratory organ is of a construction to-
tally different from that we have been considering. It
is not fixed to the side of the tail, but is a continuation
of the tail itself, and is composed of two tubes, the inner
one, like the tube of a telescope, being retractile within
the other’. The extremity, which is very slender, and

through which the air finds admission by a pair of spi-
tacked terminates in five diverging hairs or rays, which
probably maintain it in equilibrio at its station at the
surface. As these larvæ seek their food amongst the
mud at the bottom of shallow pools, in which they are
constantly employed, they require an apparatus capable
of being lengthened or shortened, to suit the depth of

* Compare Swamm. Bibl. Nat. i. 154. t. xxxi. f. 5. Reaum. iv».
601—. £. xliii. De Geer vi. 317—. t. xvii. f. 2—8.

b Swamm. Ibid. t. xxxi. f. 7, 8. c Reaum. iv. 607.

d Prater XIX. Fic. 12. a. * Reaum. iv. 7. xxxii. f. 2. €

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 53

the water, that they may maintain their necessary com-

munication with the atmosphere; and for this purpose a
single tube would not have been sufficient: therefore
PRovIDENCE has furnished them with £:wo, and both are
€xtremely elastic, consisting of annular fibres, so as to
admit their being stretched to an extraordinary length. |
Reaumur found that these animals could extend their
tails to near zwelve times their own length. The me-
chanism by which the terminal piece is pushed forth or
retracted, is very curious, though extremely simple. Two
large parallel trachec, the direction of which is from the
head of the grub to its tail, occupy a considerable por-
tion of its interior: near the origin of the tail, where
they are very ample, they suddenly grow very small, so
as to form a pair of very slender tubes, but so long that,
in order to find room in a very contracted space, they
form numerous zigzag folds attached to the terminal
tube; when this issues from the outer tube they conse-
quently begin to unfold, and when it is entirely disen-
gaged, they are become quite straight and parallel to each
other. Reaumur has figured them as being united at
the base of the inner tube? ; most probably, however,
they do not here stop short, but, as in other instances,
Proceed to the end, and terminate in the two spiracles
Mentioned above : he conjectures that when the animal
has occasion to push forth its respiratory apparatus, it
injects into these vessels part of the air contained in the
body of the trachee, which of course would cause them
to unfold and push forth the tube». When this insect
assumes the pupa, instead of its anal respiratory or-

* Reaum. iv. £, xxx. f. 10. > Joid. 447—.

54 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

gan it has four respiratory horns in the trunk near the
head*.

The larva of the chameeleon-fly (Stratyomis Chameleon)
is furnished with a respiratory organ of a still different
and more elegant structure, exhibiting some resemblance
to the tentacula of what are called sea anemonies. In
this larva the last joint of the body is extremely long,
and terminates in an orifice to receive the air, which is
surrounded by a circle of about thirty diverging rays,
consisting of beautifully feathered hairs or plumes®. This
apparatus serves the same purpose with that above de-
scribed of the larva of the gnat. The feathery hairs are
so prepared as to repel the water, and thus to suspend
the animal by its tail at the surface, and preserve a con-
stant access of air. When it has occasion to sink, it
turns these hairs in and shuts the orifice, carrying down
with it an air-bubble that shines like quicksilver, and
which Swammerdam conjectures enables it again to be-
come buoyant when it wants to breathe *.

In the red aquatic larva of a small gnat (Chironomus
plumosus) there are two. anal respiratory subcylindrical
horns, with the orifice fringed with hairs’; and in an-
other gnat( Tipula annulata L.)Reaumur discovered four €.
The larva of Tanypus maculatus, whose remarkable legs
I formerly noticed‘, exhibits in the interior of its trunk
two long, oval, opaque bodies, which De Geer conjec-

tures may be air-reservoirs ; these, when the animal as-
sumes the pupa, according to every appearance become
external, and are placed on the back, precisely where the

2 Reaum. iv. 456. t. xxxi. f. jj. b Prate XIX. Fie. 13. 4
c Bibl. Nat. à. 44. a Prare XIX. Fie. 10. a-
e Reaum. iv. t. iv. f. 6. s, u. f Vor. II. p. 278—.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 55

respiratory horns of aquatic pupæ are usually situated,—
they appear to terminate in a transparent point*. ‘The
pupa of a Tipula observed by Reaumur, instead of two
has only one of these respiratory organs, in the form of a
very fine hair proceeding from the anterior end of the
trunk, and considerably longer than the animal itself ^.
It is observable that aquatic insects that come to the
Surface of the water for air, receive it at the anus, often
Carrying it down with them as a brilliant bubble of quick-
Silver, This is generally done by means of spiracles in
Perfect insects, but in the water-scorpion tribe in that
State respiration is by means of a long hollow tube, con-
sisting of two concavo-convex pieces which apply exactly .
to each other. This is found in both sexes, and there-
fore cannot be an ovipositor, as some have thought *.
These respiratory organs, however, are not invariably
confined to aquatic larvæ and pupse, for those of some.
aphidivorous flies have anal ones, and the pupa of Doli-
chopus nobilitatus, or a fly nearly related to it, which is
terrestrial, has likewise a pair of long sigmoidal ones on
the back of the trunk*. The pupa also of the rat-tailed
larvee just noticed as having four horns, resides under
the earth, the insect being only aquatic in its grub state.
2. lam next to consider those respiratory appendages
by which aquatic insects, since they do not come to the
Surface for that purpose, appear to extract air for respi-
ation from the water ; so that they may be looked upon
m some degree as analogous to the gills of fishes: there
Is, however, this difference between them-—in fishes, the
- De Geer vi. 395—. £ xxiv. fi 16,18.d. © * v. tvi f.l, 2.

: De Geer iii, 367. 1. xviii. f. 1, 2, 9.
Tid. vi. 36.194—. £. ii. f 2 3. s.

56 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

blood is conveyed in minute ramifications of the arteries
to the surface of the branchial laminze, through the mem-
branes of which they abstract the air combined with the
water; but as insects have no circulation, the process in
them must be different, and their branchiform appen-
dages may be regarded as presenting some analogy
rather than any affinity to those of fishes. ‘The first ap-
proach to this structure is exhibited by the pupa of a
gnat lately mentioned (Chironomus plumosus); for on each
side of the trunk this animal has a pencil consisting of
five hairs elegantly feathered, which, when they diverge,
form a beautiful star; its anus also is furnished with a
fan-shaped pencil of diverging hairs*.

On most of the abdominal segments of the larvae and
pups of the Trichoptera (Phryganea L.) are a number
of white membranous floating threads, arranged in bun-
dles, four on each segment, two above and two below,
and traversed longitudinally by several air-vessels or
bronchi, which run in a serpentine direction, growing
more slender as they approach the extremity, and in some
places sending forth very fine ramifications,—these are
their respiratory organs®. "The caterpillar also of a little
aquatic moth (Botys stratiotalis) at first sight appears to
be covered on each side with hairs, but which examined
under a microscope are found to be branching flattish
filaments, each furnished with tubes from the £rachec.'
These caterpillars have also the semblance of spiracles,
but apparently found in the usual situation*. The larva
of a little beetle often mentioned in my letters (Gyrinus

a Prate XVI. Fro. 9. a. b.

^ De Geer ii. 539—. t. xi. f. 12, 16, &c.
° Ibid. i. 526—. 1, xxxvii. f. 2—6,

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 57

Natator), is furnished on each side of every abdominal
Segment with a long, hairy, slender, acute, conical pro-
Cess, of the substance of the segment, through each of
Which an air-tube meanders; the last segment but one
has Jour of these processes, longer than the rest?.
Laminose or foliaceous respiratory appendages distin-
Suish the sides of the abdomen of the larvae and pupe of
the Ephemere, whose history you found so interesting.
In them these organs wear much the appearance of gills.
In the different species they vary both in their number
ànd structure. With regard to their number, some have
only six pair of them, while others have seven. In their
structure the variations are more numerous, and some-
times present to the admiring physiologist very beautiful
forms c, They usually consist of two branches, but occa-
sionally are single, with one part folding over the other,
as in one figured by Reaumur, which precisely resembles
the leaf of some plant, the air-vessels or bronchic in con-
nexion with the zracheæ branching and traversing it in
all directions, like the veins of leaves. The double ones
differ in form. In the larva and pupa of Ephemera wul-
Sata there are six of these double false gills on each side
of the abdomen, the three last segments being without
them; each branch consists of a long fusiform piece, ra-
ther tumid and terminating in a point, which is fringed
9n each side with a number of flattish filaments, blunt
at the end. An air-vessel from the trachea enters the
gill at its base; is first divided into two larger branches,

* De Geer iv. 362—. z. xiii. f. 16—19.

TNIE p. 279—. U. 369—.

° See Reaum. vi. ¢. xlii,—xlvi. and Prare XXIX. Fic. 3—5.
^ Reaum. Ibid. ¢, xlv. f 2.

58 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

each of which enters a branch of the false gill. These
branches send forth on each side numerous lesser rami-
fications, one of which enters each of the filaments?. In
another species (E. vespertina) each false gill presents
the appearance of a pair of ovate leaves with a long
acumen, and the air-vessels represent the midrib of the
leaf, with veins branching from it on each side? ; and, to
name no more, in Æ. fusco-grisea, one branch represents
the leaf of a Begonia, the sides not being symmetrical,
with its veins, while the other consists only of numerous
branching filaments*. In other aquatic Jarvee, as in that
of the common May-fly (Semblis lutaria Latr.), these ap-
pendages consist of several joints?.

By the above apparatus these aquatic animals are en-
abled to separate the air from the water, as the fish by
their gills; but how this separation is made has not been
precisely explained. ‘The false gills in many species are
kept in continual and intense agitation. When they
move briskly to one side, Reaumur conjectures they may
receive the air, and when they return back they may
emitit*. This brisk motion probably disengages it from
the water. In many species, when in repose, they are
laid upon the back of the animalf, but in others they are
not $..

The. larvee of the Agrionide appear to respire like
those of the Ephemerc, &c. by means of long foliaceous

a Prate XXIX. Fic. 5. De Geer ii. 624—.

^ Prate XXIX. Fic. 4. De Geer Ibid. 647—.

* Pirate XXIX. Fic. 3. De Geer Ibid. 653—.

* Prate XXIX. Fic. 6. De Geer Ibid. 727—.

* Reaum. vi. 465. f Ibid. t. xlii. f. 4, 5. De Geer ii. 623.
* Ibid, 648, t. xvii. f. 11, 12.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 59

lamine: or false gills filled with air-vessels ; but instead
of being ventral, they proceed from the anus. They are
three in number, one dorsal and two lateral, perpendi-
cular to the horizon, of a lanceolate shape, beautifully
veined, with a longitudinal middle nervure, from which
others diverge towards the margin, which are probably
bronchi. They are used by the animal, which swims
like a fish, as fins, but it does not appear to imbibe the
water like the other Libelluline, nor to propel itself by
ejecting it,—a circumstance which furnishes an additional
argument for the more received opinion, that this action
in them is for the purpose of respiration as much as
for motion?.
The larvze and pupæ of the Libelluline, receive the
water and air that they respire by a large anal aperture,
which is closed at the will of the animal by five hard,
moveable, triangular, concavo-convex pieces, all very
acute and fringed with hairs. These pieces are placed
so that there is one above, which is the largest of all;
one on each side, which are the smallest, and two below;
when these are closed, they form together a conical point”.
Sometimes only three of these pieces are conspicuous* :

three other cartilaginous pieces, resembling the valve
of a bivalve shell, close the passage within the pointed
pieces?, At this orifice the water is received ; and when,
by an internal process to be described afterwards, it has
parted with its oxygen, is again expelled.

Under this head I shall mention a fact which may be
connected with respiration of the insects concerned. In

* Vor. IIL. p. 154. De Geer ii. 697—. t. xxi. f. 4, 5, 12.
> De Geer Ibid. 666—. t. xix. f. 6.

* Reaum. vi. 393. /. xxxvi. f. 8, 9. t. t.

* Ibid, 395. 1. xxxvi. f. 8—9. c. c.

60 i INTERNAL. ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

dissecting a species of Noctua related to N. Pronuba,
but I do not recollect the particular species, —at the base
of the abdomen of the male I discovered two bunches
of long fawn-coloured parallel hairs, planted each in an
oval plate, plane above, but below convex and fleshy ;
while the plates remained attached to the insect, they
appeared to have a distinct pulsation. The hairs, which
are about half an inch long, diverge a little, and form a
tuft not very unlike a shaving-brush*. I have not
since met with this species, but I have preserved the
brush and scale. Somewhere in Bonnet’s works, but I
do not recollect where, I have since found mention of a
similar fact in another moth.

II. Having considered the external respiratory organs
of insects, by which the air is received, we are next to
consider the internal ones, by which it is distributed.
These are gills; trachee -and bronchie ; and sacs or
pouches”.

i. Gills (Branchie*.) Having lately described what
may be denominated false gills, or branchiform ap-
pendages, I shall now call your attention to what may
be denominated ¢rue ones, which are peculiar to the
Arachnida Class: but what is remarkable, the animals
that breathe by them are very rarely inhabitants of the
water, so that their functions cannot be perfectly analo-
gous to those of fishes.

In the Scorpion, on each side of the four first ventral
segments a spiracle may be discovered, which has no

a PrATE XXIX. Fie. 21, ^ Marcel de Serres (Mem.
du Mus. 1819. 137, &c.) calls the tubular trachee that receive the
air, arterial trachea, and the vesicular ones, which act as reservoirs,
pulmonary trachea. ‘© PrATE XXIX, Fie. 1. 2.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 61

lip as in other insects, but is merely a circular orifice:
These orifices do not lead to ¢rachee or vesicles, but to
true gills, which are situated below a muscular web which
clothes the internal surface of the crust. Each gill con-
sists of many semicircular very thin plates, of a dead
milky white, which are connected together at the dorsal
end like the leaves of a book. There appear to be more
than twenty of these leaves, which when strongly mag-
nified look transparent and destitute of any vessels.
Each gill is fastened at the back to the spiracle?. In the
Spiders also, gills are discoverable, but differently cir-
Cumstanced. On the under side of the abdomen, near
the base, is a transverse depression, on each side of which
is a longitudinal opening leading to a cavity, which is
Covered from above by a cartilaginous plate. In this
cavity is situated a true gill, which is white, triangular,
and covered with a fine skin; the leaves of this gill are
far more numerous and much finer and softer than those
of the gills of the scorpion. On account of their softness
they have often the appearance of a slimy skin; but their
laminated structure shows itself very clearly in old spe-

cimens, and in such as have been immersed in boiling
water >, 1

li, Trachee and Bronchic*. Parallel with each side
of the body of most insects and extending its whole length,
Yun two cylindrical tubes, which communicate with the
spiraclesd, and from which issue, at points opposite to
those organs, other tubes which ramify ad infinitum, and

* Treviranus Arachnid. 7—. t. 1. f. l. r. f.10. Comp. N. Dict.
@ Hist. Nat. xxx. 419. Latreille calls these gills Pneumobranches.

* Treviranus Zoid. 24. Prare XXIX. Fre. 1.

° Prate XXI. Fic. 3, a 6. 3 Ibid. a.

62 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

are distributed to every part of the body*. The first of
these tubes are called the ¢rachee and the latter the
bronchie. This structure appears, however, not to be
universal: it is to be found in caterpillars and many
Dipterous larvee; but in that of the rhinoceros-beetle
(Oryctes nasicornis) and other Lamellicorns, the bronchie
branch directly from the spiracle, the bottom or interior
mouth of which is lined by a membrane from which they
proceed^: something similar has been observed to take
place in.many insects in other states, as the common
cockchafer*; the pupa of Smerinthus Populi’; in the
Cicade*; in the Locust tribe‘; and many others. In
the Cossus, or larva of the great goat-moth, the trachea
commences with the first spiracle, and finishes a little
beyond the last, after which it diminishes considerably
in diameter, and terminates in several branches or bron-
chic, which proceed to the anal extremity of the body 5.
The bronchie which originate from the trachee in the
vicinity of each spiracle, may be considered as consisting

in general of three packets ;—dorsal ones, which are dis-
tributed to the back and sides of the animal; visceral
ones, which enter the cavity of the body, and are lost
amongst the viscera and the caul; and gastric ones,
which dipping from the ¢rachee overrun the lower part
of the sides and belly ".

"The £rachec and bronchie consist of three tunics!: the

a Prate XXI, Fic. 3. b. b Sprengel Commentar. t. i. f. 1.

c Ibid. f. 10. 4 Jbid. t. ii. f. 15.

e Malpigh. De Bombyc. t. iii. f. 3. f Ibid. t. iv. f. 1.

€ Lyonnet Anat. 101. ^ Ibid.

i Sprengel (ubi supr. 16.) says that he never found more than two;
but as Lyonnet affirms that he has very often peparen them (102),
his accuracy cannot be questioned.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 63

Jirst or external one is a thickish membrane, strength-
ened by a vast number of fibres or vessels, which form
round it a number of irregular circles; the second is a
membrane more thin and transparent, without a vascu-
lar covering?; the third is formed of a cartilaginous
thread running in a spiral direction, which may be easily
unwound>. This structure gives a great elasticity to
these organs, so that they are capable of considerable
tension, after which they return to their usual length *.
The Bronchic are cylindrical or slightly conical, insen-
sibly diminishing in size as they leave the trunk, in which

they originate. In larvee, after losing their spiral fibre,
they appear to terminate in membrane, but in perfect
insects they pass into vesicles‘. In the Cossus the trachea
is flattened, and in every segment, except the first and
two last, is bound by a fleshy cord four or five times as
thick as its threads. Where this occurs, there is a slight

Constriction,—probably here is a sphincter, by the con-
traction of which Lyonnet supposes the trachea may be
shut when it is necessary to stop the passage. of the air,
and direct it to any particular point*. The structure
here described is admirably adapted for the purpose it is
intended to serve; for had these vessels been composed
of membrane, they could not possibly have been prevented
from collapsing; but by the intervention of a spiral cartila-
ginous thread this accident is effectually guarded against,
and the necessary tension of the tubes provided for.
However violent the contortions of the insect, however

* Lyonnet Anat. 103.

> ‘Ibid. Cuv. Anat. Comp. iv. 438. This author says that the in-
termediate tunic is the spiral thread (437). * Lyonnet 102.

* Ibid. 104, Sprengel Commentar. 17. * Lyonnet Jbid.

64 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

small the diameter of these vessels, they are sure to re-
main constantly open, and pervious to the air. And by
this circumstance they may be always distinguished from
the other organs of the animal, and likewise by their
pearly or silvery hue, for from being constantly filled
with air, these tubes, when viewed under a powerful mi-
croscope in a recently dissected insect, present a most
beautiful and brilliant appearance, resembling a branch-
ing tree of highly polished silver or pearl :—though
sometimes they are blue, or of a lead colour, and some- |
times assume a tint of gold. In the dead insect the larger
tubes soon turn brown, but the finer ones preserve their
lustre several weeks*. The ramifications of the tracheal
tree may be seen without dissection through the trans-
parent skin of the common louse? and most of the thin-
skinned larvae.

You will not expect to view in this way the minuter
ramifications of the bronchie, when I have mentioned
their number and incredible smallness. Nothing but the
scalpel of a Lyonnet and the most powerful lenses are
adequate to trace the extremities of these vessels; and
even with every help, they at last become so inconceiva-
bly slender as to elude the most piercing sight. That
illustrious anatomist found that the two trachee of the
larva of the Cossus gave birth to 236 bronchial tubes, and
that these ramify into no less than 1336 smaller tubes,
to which, if 232, the number of the detached bronchiz,
be added, the whole will amount to 1804 branches*.
Surprising as this number may appear, it is not greater

^ Lyonnet 102. Malpigh. De Bombyc; 19, Reaum. i. 130.
b Swamm. Bibl. Nat. t. ii, f. 7. * Lyonnet 411.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 65

than we may readily conceive to be necessary for com-
Municating with so many different parts. For, like the
arterial and venous trees, which convey and return the
blood to and from every part of the body in vertebrate
animals, the bronchia are not only carried along the in-
testines and spinal marrow, each ganglion of which they
Penetrate and fill, but they are distributed also to the
Skin and every organ of the body, entering and travers-
ing the legs and wings, the eyes, antennze, and palpi, and
accompanying the most minute nerves through their
Whole course. How essential to the existence of the
animal must the element be that is thus anxiously con-
veyed by a thousand channels, so exquisitely formed, to
very minute part and portion of it! Upon considering
this wonderful apparatus we may well exclaim, This hath
Gop wrought, and this is the work of his hands.
Though in general there is only a pair of trachee, yet
Some larvee a larger number have been discovered.
Th those of the Libelluline there are six. According to
- Cuvier, Reaumur, who mentions only four, overlooked
the two lateral ones that are connected with the spira-
celesa, The reason of this and other parts of their in-
ternal structure I shall explain under the next head.
In the grub of the gad-flies of the horse (CEstri gastri-
cole Clark), Mr. B, Clark discovered eight longitudinal
‘rache@,— six arranged in a circle and two minute ones,
which appeared to him to terminate in a pair of exter-
nal nipples (spiracles) in the neck of the animal’. This

in

* N, Dict, q? Hist. Nat. xvii. 541. Reaum. vi. 397. Prate XXIX,

F
< 8. shows three of them at a.

Essay on the Bots, $c, 23, t, i. f. 7, 32, &c.
VOL, ry, "

66 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

is a singular anomaly, as the other (stride have only

a pair of trachee*. |
iii. Respiratory Sacs or Pouches. Besides their £rachec
and bronchie, many insects are furnished with a kind of
reservoir for the air, under the form of sacs, pouches, or
vesicles. ‘These are commonly formed by the bronchial
tubes being dilated at intervals, especially in the abdo-
men, into oblong inflated vesicles ; from which other
bronchial tubes diverge, and again at intervals expand
into smaller vesicles, so as to exhibit no unapt resem-
blance—as Swammerdam has observed with respect to
those of the rhinoceros-beetle—to a specimen of Fucus
vesiculosus. Cuvier compares them in the Lamellicorn
beetles in general to a tree very thickly laden with leaves”;
"and Chabrier observes that they particularly occur in the
intestinal canal®. This structure of the pulmonary or-
gans may be seen also in the common hive-bee, and other
Hymenoptera ; but the vesicles are less numerous, and
those at the base of the abdomen much larger than the .
rest’, These vesicles, by a very rough dissection, may
be distinctly seen in the abdomen of the cockchafer, which
appears to be almost filled with them. Not being com-
posed of cartilaginous rings like the air-tubes, but of
mere membrane, if a pin pierces one, the air that inflates
it escapes, and it collapses. In the larva of a little gnat
(Corethra culiciformis) the trachee appear to proceed from

a Essay on the Bots, $c. 49. . Valisnieri i. 101. 4. vi. f. 4. &c.

b Bibl. Nat. i. 149. a. t. xxix. f. a. Cuv. Anat. Comp. iv. 439.
Malpigh. De Bombyc. t. iii. f. 2.

* Sur le Vol des Ins. c. ii. 336. note 1.

4 Gwamm. Bibl. Nat, t. xvii. f. 9. Cuvier Ibid. 440.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 67

& pair of oblong vesicles of considerable size* in the trunk,
and towards the anus they form two other smaller ones?,
-. Upon piercing the former, De Geer observed a consi-
derable quantity of air to make its escape*. Another spe-
Cles, probably of the same genus, described by Reaumur,
exhibits something similar‘.
But one of the most remarkable structures, in this re-
“pect, is to be seen in the larva and pupa of the dragon-
ies (Libellulina). I have before noticed the number of
their trachee, but I shall here describe their whole in-
ternal respiratory apparatus. I must observe that Reau-
Mur, Cuvier, and most modern writers on the physiolo-
gical department of Entomology, have affirmed that they
*espire the water, and that they receive it for that pur-
Pose at their anal extremity: but M. Sprengel, from
having observed in the larvae abdominal spiracles, is un-
unwilling to admit this as-a fact*; and De Geer also
Seems to hesitate upon it, especially as he discovered that
the animal seemed to absorb the water to aid it in its
motions’. But when we consider that it is by the action
of a pneumatic apparatus that the absorption and ex-
Pulsion of the water takes place, and that the animal
When it has been taken out of that element, upon being
restored. to it, immediately has eager recourse to this ac-
tions, we shall feel inclined rather to adopt the opinion
of those great physiologists Reaumur, Lyonnet, and
Cuvier, and admit that it absorbs water for the purpose
of respiration, I shall now explain how this takes place.

* Prats XXIX. Fic, 10. a. b Ibid. b. -

3 De Geer vi. 374. 4 Reaum. v. 40. t. vi. f. 4, 7.
Sprengel Comment. 4. : * De Geer ii. 667, 675.
€ Reaum. vi. 394—, “os

68 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

The pieces both internal and external that close the anal

orifice have been before described; the others employed
in the admission and expulsion of the water are evidently
respiratory organs. When this orifice is opened, the
parts that are above it are drawn back in an opposite di-
rection, so that the five last segments of the abdomen be-
come entirely empty, and form a chamber to receive the
water that enters by it. When the water is to be ex-
pelled, the whole mass of air-vessels which had receded
towards the trunk, is pushed forwards, and forms a pis-
ton that again expels the water in a jet. It consists of
an infinite number of bronchiæ, entangled with each other,
which proceed from the middle and posterior end of the
trachee. M. Cuvier in the interior of the rectum of
the larva discovered twelve longitudinal rows of little
black spots, in pairs, which exhibited the resemblance of
six pinnated leaves. These are minute conical tubes, of
the spiral structure of £rachec, which decompose the wa-
ter, and absorb the air contained in it. He also disco-
vered that each of these tubes gave birth to another out-
side the rectum, which connected itself with one of the six,
great longitudinal trachee ; two of which are of enor-
mous size, and appear to serve as reservoirs, since they
furnish air by transverse branches to two other tubes;
they have each a recurrent branch, which follows the
course of the intestinal canal, and furnishes it with an
infinity of bronchic?. These trachea are found in the
perfect insect. The principal ones in some send forth
many branches, terminating in vesicles, which in shape

a Reaum. vi. 394—. Cuv. Anat. Comp. iv. 440—. N. Dick
d' Hisl. Nat. xvii. 540—.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 69

resemble the seed-vessels of some species of Thlaspi,
while. others appear to form a file of oblong ones?.
Near each of their spiracles also is a vesicle which ap-
Pears to be a reservoir.
Bát this kind of structure is not confined to insects
Strictly aquatic. Even such species of terrestrial ones as
live upon aquatic plants, and are, consequently, necessa-
tily or accidentally often a considerable time under wa-
ter, are furnished. with some apparatus by means of
Which they can exist in this element for a considerable
Period. For example, most of the Weevils (Curculio L.)
die in a short time if immersed in water; yet the species
.. Of the genera Tanysphyrus Germ. Bagous Germ., and
that to which C. pericarpius L. belongs, and which feed
On aquatic plants, can exist for days under water, as I
ave ascertained by experiment. C. leucogaster Marsh,
and another of the same tribe, swims like a Hydrophilus,
and will live a long time in a bottle filled with water and
corked tight. Other insects also, that are not at all aquatic,
have pneumatic pouches. A striated or channeled ve-
sicle I have found under the lateral angles of the collar
in the humble-bee, where Chabrier supposes the vocal
Spiracles are situate ; and also at the mouth of the spira-
cles of the metathorax in Vespa, &c.* In Sphinx Li-
8ustri the bronchie terminate in oblong vesiculoso-cel-
lular bodies, almost like lungs? ; in Smerinthus Tilie
these are preceded by a simple vesicle bound with spiral

fibres e. M. Chabrier thinks that these air-bladders of

: Prater XXIX. Fic. 9. a, b. Reaum. vi. 418—. 450.
; Cuv. Anat. Comp. iv. 441. * Vor. IIL. p. 585.
- Sprengel Comment. 17. t. iii. f. 24. To. Te eee eke :

\

70 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

insects, amongst other functions, give more fixity and
force to the muscles for flight.

Many physiologists have seen an analogy between the
spirai vessels of plants and the trachee of insects; and
some of great name, as Comparetti, Decandolle, and
Kieser, have thought that in some instances they termi-
nated in the oscula or cortical pores: but Sprengel con-
tends that they are not accurate in this opinion®, In
fact, the principal analogy seems to be in the spiral
structure of both these vessels.

Having considered the different organs of respiration
both external and internal, I shall make a few further
observations upon this function. We know little more
respecting the mode in which insects respire, except that
they breathe out the air by the same kind of organs by -
which they receive it,—namely, the spiracles, or their re-
presentatives. This has been satisfactorily proved by
Bonnet, who showed that the experiments by which
Reaumur thought it established that insects inspire by
their spiracles, but exspire through the mouth, anus, or
pores of the skin, are founded on an erroneous assump-
tion. This physiologist, having observed on the surface
of submerged insects numerous bubbles of air, concluded
that they had passed through the above orifices‘: but
Bonnet found by various experiments carefully conduct-
ed, that this appearance was caused by air which ad-
hered to the skin and its hairs, and that when the access

* Sur le Vol des Ins. c. ii, 336. note 1.

> Sprengel Comment. 13—. These oscula or pores in the straw
of Triticum hybernum, as figured by Mr. Bauer’s admirable pencil,
(Sir J. Banks On the Blight, $c. t. ii. f. 3.) exactly resemble the spi-
racles of insects. e Reaum. i. 136.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 71

of this was precluded by carefully moistening the skin
with water previously to immersion, this accumulation
of air-bubbles on its surface did not take place*. And
ina variety of instances he observed large ones issue
from all the spiracles, especially the anterior ones. ‘These
bubbles sometimes were alternately emitted and absorbed
Without quitting the spiracle®, and at others were darted
With force to the surface of the water, where they ap-
peared to burst with noise*. This author is of opinion
that the first and Zast pair of these organs are of most im-
Portance to respiration’. Reaumur subsequently owned
that Bonnet’s arguments had shaken his opinion*; and
Some observations of his own, with respect to the respi-
ration of the bot of the oz, go to prove that expiration
and Inspiration are not by thesame spiracles; for he found
that the air in this animal was expired by the eight little
lower orifices before mentioned f, from which he clearly
saw the air-bubbles issue—the upper one he conjectures
receives the airs. As the only communication that this
grub has with the atmosphere is by its posterior extre-
mity, it follows, reasoning from analogy, that the ante-
-rior respiratory plates of Dipterous larvæ, which may be
regarded as representing the spiracles of the trunk in in-
Sects in general, are destined for the escape of the air,
after it has parted with its oxygen, received by the anal
9nes*, So that there seems very good ground for

* Bonnet Œuvr. iii. 39—. ^ Ibid.43. c Ibid. 50.

* Ibid. 69. : © De Geer ii. 117.

* See above, p. 50. g Reaum. iv. 520.

^ Mr. B. Clark thinks that he has discovered spiracles in this
larva in the usual situation, (Essay on the Bots, $c. 48. 1. ii. f. 3.)
but they are probably analogous to the spiraculiform tubercles of

CE. Ovis, Reaum, iv. 566. £. xxxv. 17—19. t. Vallisnieri (Esperienze
$c. 136) notices them.

12 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

M. Chabrier's opinion that inspiration is ordinarily by

the abdominal spiracles, and expiration by those of the
trunk of insects?. He seems to have been led to the adop-
tion of this opinion, not so much by experiments similar
to that of Reaumur just stated, but by observing that in
many instances these two sets of spiracles differ from each
other, the latter having a convex and the former a con-
cave mouth or bed’. | In some cases, however,—for in-
stance during flight,--hesupposesthespiracles of the trunk
may receive as well as emit the air‘: he likewise is of opi-
nion, and it seems not improbable, that by means of these
openings in the trunk, from the rush of the superfluous
air through them, insects produce those sounds for which
they are remarkable,—as the humming of hees and flies.
In the former he thinks the sound is produced by the
pneumatic apparatus covered by the ends of the collar;
while in the latter he attributes it to the spiracles in the
metathorax. behind the wings attended by a poiser?. I
incline, however, to M. Dufour's opinion *,—that the vocal
spiracles in the Hymenoptera, as well as in the Diptera,
are those behind the wings. Perhaps both theories may
be right; for if you take any common humble-bee, you
will find that, in the hand, it produces one kind of sound
when its wings are motionless, and another more com-
plex and intense when they vibrate. In numerous in-
stances, however, there is no very striking external dif-
ference between the spiracles of the trunk and those of
the abdomen : this observation applies more particularly
to the caterpillars of Lepidoptera; but whether these re-
ceive the air by those of the abdomen, and return it by

4 Sur le Vol des Ins. c. i. 493.
b- Ibid. 454. and c. iv. 66. note 1. © Ibid. ¢. i. 453.
? Jbid. 459, 456. * Ibid, 459.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 73

those of the trunk, has not yet been ascertained; and
Indeed, too little is at present known upon the subject,
and too few facts have been collected, to admit of dog-
matizing,
The external signs of respiration in insects are not uni-
versally to be discovered. The alternate contraction and
*Xpansion of the abdomen is, however, very visible in
Some beetles, bees, the larger dragon-flies, and grass-
Oppers. In one of the latter, Acrida viridissima K.,
auquelin observed that the inspirations were from fifty to
fifty-five times in a minute in atmospheric air, and from
sixty to sixty-five when in oxygen gas?. But M. Chabrier
35 given the most satisfactory account of these signs :

The abdomen, says he, is th

e principal organ of inspi-
ration ;

it can dilate and contract, lengthen and shorten,
elevate and depress itself. In flight, in elevating its ex-
tremity at the same time with the wings, it contracts it-
self, pushes the air into the trunk, and diminishes the
Weight of the body by the centrifugal ascending force?.
In the majority of insects perhaps the dilatation of the
abdomen takes place by the recession of the segments
from each other by means of the elastic ligaments that
Connect them; in others, as the Dynastide, Solpuga, &c.
by the longitudinal folded membrane that unites the dor-
Sal and ventral segments—in the Libelluline by similar
ventral folds; and in Cimbex by membranous pieces in
the first dorsal segment, which De Geer observed was
elevated and depressed at the will of the animal.

Air is as essential to insects in their pupa as in their

* Annal. de Chim. xii.

> Sur le Vol des Ins. c. i. 423, 454. c. iii. 344. c. iv. 66.
* De Geer ii. 946—.

44 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

larva or perfect states. Lyonnet, however, Musschen-
broek, Martinet, and some other physiologists, have
doubted whether quiescent pupe breathed? ; but Reau-
mur and De Geer seem to have proved that they do^:
and if thrown into water, the same proof of respiration,
by the emission and retraction of a bubble of air takes
place, as in the larvee; and De Geer found that if one
be transferred under water from one spiracle to another,
it will be absorbed by it^. Indeed, unless these pupze
had breathed, where would have been the necessity for
the spiracles with which all are furnished? It is remark-
able, however, that all these spiracles do not seem of
equal importance in this respect. Reaumur found that
if the posterior spiracles only were closed with oil, the
insect suffered no injury; but that if the anterior ones
were similarly treated, it infallibly died*. The respira-
tion however of pupze seems more perfect in those that
have recently assumed that state, than in those that are
more advanced towards the imago; in which at first, from
Reaumur's experiments*, it appears that the posterior
spiracles were stopped; and in others still older, from
Musschenbroek's f, even the anterior ones. Those quies-
cent pupz that during that state remain submerged, re-
spire air. De Geer has given an interesting record of
this, in the case of Botys stratiolaris. This insect spins
a double cocoon, the outer one thin, and the inner one
of a close texture. In the pupa there are three pair of -
conspicuous spiracles on the second, third, and fourth
segments of the abdomen, which are placed on cylindri-

* Lesser, L. i. 124. note *, Lyonnet Anatom. pref. xii. De Geer ii.

132. > Reaum. i. 399—. De Geer i. 37—.
* Ibid, 40. * Reaum. i. 400. * Ibid. f De Geer ii. 129.

-

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 75

cal tubes, and they appear to have no other air-vessels.
The respir atory gills of the larva having vanished, like
Some others of the same genus, they know how to sur-
round themselves with an atmosphere of air in the midst
of the water, so that the interior of their inner cocoon is
Impervious to the latter element—how they renew the
air has not been ascertained. Though they respire air,
Water is equally necessary, for the animal died when kept
Out of water?. i

The great majority of inseċts respire in much the same
Manner in all their states, particularly as to their external
Organs; for when the larva breathes by the lateral spira-
cles, the pupa and i imago usually do the same. The con-
Verse of this, however, by no means holds; for it not un-
frequently happens that the two latter breathe by means
of lateral spiracles, though they received the air in their
larva state by an apparatus altogether different. "Thus
the larvae of many Diptera breathe by an anal tube, while
the pupa and imago follow the generalsystem. Some-
times a tribe of insects breathe by an apparatus quite
different in all their states, as we have seen to be the case
With the common gnat^, which has an anal respiratory
tube in its first state, thoracic respiratory horns in its se-
cond, and the ordinary lateral spiracles in its third.

Changes also take place in their internal organs. In
the larva the respiratory apparatus, especially the tra-
chea] tubes, is often much larger and more ramified than
in the imago; and as the former is the principal feedzng
State, there seems good ground for Mr. B. Clark's opi-

" De Geeri. 531—. t xxxvii, f. 19. s. Compare Reaum. ii. 396—.
" See above, p: 51-—,

76 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

nion—that the respiration is intimately connected with
the conversion of the food?. In the zmago, there ap-
pears to be more provision for storing up the air in vesi-
cular reservoirs, than in the larva. | Wonderful is the

mode in which some of the changes in the internal struc-
ture, which these variations indicate, must necessarily
take place. They are, however, probably not more sin-
gular than those which less obviously occur in the air-
vessels of all insects in their great change out of the larva
into the pupa state. But having before enlarged on this
subject, I need not repeat my observations?.

The access of air is as necessary to insects even in
their egg state‘, and in many cases its presence seems .-
provided for with equal care, by means as beautiful as
those Messrs. Home and Davy have shown to occur in
the oxygenation of the eggs and foetuses of vertebrate
animals’. It is only necessary to view the admirable
net-work of air-vessels which Swammerdam discovered
spread over the surface of the eggs of the hive-bee while
in the ovaries*,—a provision which, from analogy, we
may conclude obtains generally; from the importance
which nature has attached to the oxygenation of the germ
while in the matrix. And judging from analogy, we may
infer that the access of this element is as carefully secured
after the egg is laid, as before. The eggs of most insects
being of a porous texture, often attached to the leaves of

* In Linn. Trans. iii. 302. > Vor. HI. p. 196—. .

* Spallanzani found that the eggs of insects placed under the ex-
hausted receiver of an air-pump, or in any small closed vessels, did
not hatch, though every other condition for their developement was
present. Opusc. de Phys. i. 141. 4. Philos. Trans, 1820. 213.

€ Bibl. Nat. i. 204. b. t. xix. f. 5.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. TT

Plants, and some of them embedded in the very substance
of a leaf or twig’, are in a situation for the abundant
absorption of oxygen: and the pouch of silk in which
the eges of spiders and Hydrophili are deposited, may
Probably, from Count Rumford’s experiments, be of uti-
lity in the same point of view. In the case of the Tri-
choptera and other insects? whose eggs are dropped into
the water enveloped in a mass of jelly, this substance per-
haps serves for aérating the included embryo, in the same
Way with the jelly surrounding the eggs of the frog, dog-
fish, &c. It would be desirable to ascertain whether the
former jelly be of the same nature as the experiments of
` Mr. Brande have shown the latter to bec. Tt is not im-
Probable that the singular rays that terminate the eggs
of Nepas may in some way be connected with the aéra-
tion of the egg.

9 what I have before remarked with regard to the
vital heat of insects*, I may under this head very pro-
perly add a few further observations. Ithere stated, that
the temperature of these animals is usuallythat of the me-
dium they inhabit, but that bees, and perhaps other gre-
garious ones, furnish an exception to this rulef. A con-
firmation of this remark is afforded by Inch, a German
Writer, who, upon putting a thermometer into a bee-hive
m winter, found it stand 27° higher than in the open air;
in an anthill, he found it 6° or 7° higher; in a vessel
Containing many blister-beetles, (Cantharis vesicatoria

atr.) 4° or 5° higher. A thermometer, standing in the
ar at 14? R., put into a glass vessel with Acrida viridis-

* Vor. I. p. 449—. IIT. p. 76. * Ibid. 68—.

* Philos. Trans. 1890. 218. * Vor. III. p. 94,
SOROR. HS p. 229—. f Ibid. p. 214.

78 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS,

sima, in nine minutes rose to 17°, and a similar result
was observed with respect to other insects?. Dr. Mar-
tine says that caterpillars have but two degrees of heat
above that of the air they livein®. ' Coleopterous insects
are said to move slowly and with difficulty when the
thermometer sinks to 36°, to become torpid at 34°, and
to lose muscular irritability at a lower degree*. I have
before observed that some insects will bear to be frozen
into an icicle, and yet survive?: they share this power
with reptiles, fishes, and amphibia. But, however small
the excess of it in some insects above that of the medium
they inhabit, it proves that they possess the power of gene-
rating heat. Whether, like the warm-blooded animals,
they generally possess that of resisting heat by perspira-
tion, &c. is not so clear. Yet the heat to which some
can bear to be exposed, basking at noon, as Dr. Clarke
informs us*, on rocky and sandy places, exposed to the
full action of the sun, appears sufficient, if not resisted
by some principle of counteraction, to roast them to a
cinder. That bees perspire is well known, but probably
not singly.

When the respiration of insects is suspended by im-
mersion in any fluid, it is often resumed, even when it -
has been long-and they are apparently dead, if they be
brought into contact with the atmosphere. . Reaumur
found this to be the case with bees‘; and Swammerdam
tells us that the maggot of the cheese-fly ( Tyrophaga Casei
K.) lived six or seven days in rain-watert: he found it

* Inch, c. iv. Ideen zu Einer Zoochemie, 68—.

^ On Thermom. 14]. © Carlisle in Philos. Trans. 1805. 25.
4 Vor. IT. p. 231. © Travels ii, 482.

f Reaum. v. 540. * Swamm. Bibl, Nat. ii. 65, a.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 79

so difficult to kill the larva of Stratyomis Chameleon,
Which he first immersed twenty-four hours in spirits of
Wine, and then put them several days in water, without
killing them,—that he lost his patience, and dissected
them alive. He tried to drown them also in vinegar, in
Which they held out more than two days?.

That the suspended animation and subsequent death
Of most terrestrial insects when thrown into water is
caused by the want of air, is evident from this, —that the
same effect ensues if the spiracles be covered with any
Oily or fatty matter. In this case too, their vital powers
Soon become suspended: they revive, if the suffocat-
ing matter be soon removed; and if this be not done, in-
fallibly perish.. This fact was known. to the ancients,
for Pliny observes that bees die if dipped in oil or ho- -
ney?. One exception to this law has been before men-
tioned’; a similar contrivance secures the cheese maggot
from having its respiration interrupted by its moist and
greasy food ; the grub also of Muscacarnaria, and of other
Muscide probably, has its posterior spiracles placed in a
plate at the bottom of a kind of fleshy pouch, which has
the shape of a hollow, truncated, and reversed: cone.
This pouch the grub can close whenever it pleases, so
48 to cover its spiracles?, And numerous other larye,
both of Diptera and Coleoptera that devour unclean and
oily food, have doubtless some protection of this kind for
their spiracles and respiratory plates.

* Swamm. Bibl, Nat.ii.48.a. —" Hist. Nat. l. xi. c. 19.
* Swamm. Bibl. Nat. ii. 64. a. i
* Reaum. iv. 428. ¢. xxix. fu. Cy Si

LETTER XXXIX.

INTERNAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
OF INSECTS, CONTINUED.

CIRCULATION.

WE learn from the highest authority, that the blood is
the life of the animal*: every object of creation, there-
fore, that is gifted with animal life, we may conclude, in
some sense, has blood, which in this large sense may be
defined— The fluid that visits and nourishes every part of
a living body". But the GREAT AUTHOR of nature has

varied the machinery by which this nutritive fluid is
formed and distributed, gradually proceeding from the
most simple to the most complex structure; in which he
seems to have seen it fit to invert the process observable in
the systems of sensation and respiration, where the ascent
is from the most complex, to the most simple structure.
In the lowest members of the animal creation, the blood
seems the portion they imbibe of the fluid medium in which
they reside, which when chylified, distributes new mole-
cules to all parts of their frame‘. In others, as in insects,
it is formed by the chyle that transpires through the intes-

* Genes. ix. 4. > N. Dict. d Hist. Nat. xxx. 130,
* Cuv. Anat. Comp. iv. 167.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. SI

tinal canal into the general cavity of the body, where it
receives oxygen from the air-vessels, and: is fitted. for
Nutrition, In these animals it is accompanied by a long
dorsal vessel, the first step towards a heart, which alter-
nately contracts and dilates with an irregular systole and
diastole, but appears to have no vascular system con-

nected with it. Again: in others, as the Tubicoles, An-
` Relida, &c., a real circulation has been discovered; that
ls to Say, a system of veins and arteries, but unaccom-
panied by a muscular heart’. In the Arachnida and
Br anchiopod Crustacea the long dorsal vessel is also
found; but in these it is connected with an arterial and
venous system, which receives, distributes, and returns
the bloods, It has therefore now become a true heart,
and there is a regular circulation ; and in the Decapod
Crustacea the dorsal vessel is contracted into an oval
form, and placed nearly in the centre of the trunk?. . In
the Sreat majority of invertebrate animals the blood is
White, but in the Annelida, to which Class the common
dew-worm belongs, a curious anomaly takes place—for
tis rede. Thus a gradual ascent is made to the circu-
lating system of the vertebrate and red-blooded animals.
In all; however, the blood is the principal instrument of
nutrition and accretion ; and is on that account properly

30 denominated, though not connected with a circulating
System.

Having given you this general outline of the means by
which the blood is distributed in the different Classes of

animals, I shall now confine myself to the case of insects
, Herold Schmetterl. 95. note *. Vor. III. p. 53.
N. Dict. d? Hist. Nat. vii. 313. Cuv. Anat. Comp. iv. 411.

"Pd. 419, 407, -.— 4 rid, * Ibid. 410.
VOL, ty, *

82 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

and Arachnida, beginning with the former. As their nu-
tritive fluid and their dorsal vessel have not been disco-
vered to be connected, I shall consider them separately :
but I must first observe, —that the term Circulation, with
which this letter is headed, though not strictly applicable
to insects, is perfectly proper when used with respect to
Arachnida ; you will not therefore stumble at the thresh-
old, and object to my employing it.

I. If you examine attentively the back of any smooth
caterpillar with a transparent skin, you will perceive in
that part an evident pulsation, as though a fluid were
pushed at regular intervals towards the head, along a
narrow tube which seems to run the whole length of the
body. Accurate dissections have proved that this ap-
pearance is real, that there is actually present in the
back of most insects, placed immediately under the skin
and furnished with numerous air-vessels, a longitudinal
vessel? originating in the head near the mouth, running
parallel with the alimentary canal nearly to the anus,
containing a fluid which is propelled in regular pulsa-
tions of from 20 to 100 per minute, more or less as the
weather is colder or warmer*, causing a sensible alter-
nate systole and diastole from the anal extremity to-
wards the head. In the Cossus these pulses were ob-
served by Lyonnet to begin in the eleventh segment, from
which they passed from segment to segment, till they
arrived at the fourth, where they terminated’, This ves-
sel is what Malpighi, who first discovered it, termed a
heart, or rather series of hearts*; but which Reaumur,

* Prate XXII, Fic. 15. ^ Lyonnet Anat. 105. © Ibid. 425.
4 Thid. 105—. * De Bombyc. 15—.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 83

who injected it, regarded as a simple artery without strik-
mg contractions: but to steer clear of any hypothesis,
I shall merely call it the dorsal vessel (Pseudocardia).
hen carefully taken out of the body it is found to be
à membranous tube closed at each end®, in many larvæ
of equal diameter every where, but in perfect insects
Usually widest at the anal extremity ^, and attenuated into
.* Very slender filament towards the head. In some in-
‘ects, however, as in the larva of the chamzeleon-fly
(Stratyomis Chameleon), it is attenuated at both ends, and
the Ephemera is alternately constricted and dilated as
“alpighi describes that of the silk-worm4, a dilated por-
tion belonging to each segment*. In the Cossus, and
Probably others, after the third segment, it is furnished
With nine pair, the three posterior pair being the largest,
of triangular transverse bundles of muscular fibres, which
Lyonnet denominates its wings f, the action of which pro-
duces its Systole and diastole, and their propagation from
the tail towards the heads. Under the last pair of these
Wings it is strengthened by a large number of circular
Muscular fibres*, I have stated it, with most writers,
to'be closed at each extremity; but from Lyonnet’s words
t should seem that, in the Cossus, he considered it as
Open and expanded at its anterior endi; He seems also
” Suspect, that, by means of what he calls the frontal
&anglions, a fluid is derived from the dorsal vessel to the -

x Reaum, i 160—.

A ? Cuv. Anat. Comp. iv. 418.
S Marcel de Serres Mem. du Mus. 1819. 69.
wamm. Bibl. Not. t. x]. f. 4, t. xv. JF. 4.

De Bombye. t. iii, f. 4. f Ubi supr. 414. E Ibid. 425—.

* Bid. 419. i Ibid. 412.

G 2

S4 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

spinal marrow. He likewise describes a large nerve as

passing through it and becoming recurrent ?.

The fluid which this vessel contains is very abundant;
in the animal it appears colourless and transparent like
water, but when collected in drops it becomes more or
less yellow, and even orange’. Examined under the
| microscope it appears filled with a prodigious number of
transparent globules, of incredible minuteness*. When
mixed with water, which it does readily, its globules lose .
all their transparency, and coagulate into small clammy
masses. After evaporation it becomes hard, and cracks
like gum, as blood does also. This gummy substance is
so abundant, that the fluid contained in the dorsal vessel
of the caterpillar of the Cossus yields a mass of it of the
size of a grey pea‘.

From the situation of this dorsal vessel, which is pre-
cisely the same with that of the heart in Arachnida and
the Branchiopod Crustacea, and from the systole and
diastole which keep its fluid contents in constant motion,
who can wonder that the physiologists who first disco-
vered it, maintained that it was a true Zear?? And even
now, our knowledge of this organ is so very circumscribed
that, till insects have been more widely examined with
this view, and its real functions are ascertained, it seems
to savour of temerity to assert, that in no respect it can
answer the purpose of a heart. Before I advert to those
arguments that at present may be regarded as proving
that it is not a heart, I will notice those upon which the
upholders of the original opinion have founded their

* Lyonnet Anat. 413. b Ibid. 496. Cuv. Anat. Comp, iv. 419.

° Lyonnet says (426), * au-delà de trois millions de fois plus petits
qu'un grain de sable”! ! 5 Ibid.

, Mi nz
INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 55

Judgement. No one will deny that the argument from.
analogy is strongly in favour of the old theory : I shall.
not therefore dwell upon it, but proceed to others. Swam-
Merdam, to whose exactness in observing, and seipi
accuracy, every reader of his immortal work will ment
testimony, expressly asserts that he has seen vessels
Suing from the dorsal vessel in the ponent ve and even
Succeeded in injecting them with a coloured faias: Now
it seems extremely improbable that so practised and ex-
Pert an anatomist should have been deceived, especially
"Pon a point which would naturally excite his UNE earn-
sst and undivided attention. Without this recorded ex-
Periment, perhaps, it might be thought, sae et this was
very unlikely, that he had mistaken bronchiæ for veins
and arteries: but how could they have been ¿injected from
the Supposed heart? Another great physiologist, Reau-
mur, in the caterpillar of the saw-fly of the rose (Hylo-
toma Rose, Lat.) observed, besides the dorsal vessel, a
ventral one of similar form, in which also was a pulsa-
tion, but slower than that of the other. This he sup-
Poses may be the principal trunk of the veins®. Bonnet

: Ought he discovered a similar vessel in a large cater-
Pillar, but with all his attention could perceive no mo-

Hon in ite, Reaumur also, thought he perceived in the

*- His wor
Vessels Sprin
led With a

teries Į cana
(4

al

ds are— “Tn silk-worms I have clearly seen various small
g from and approaching to the heart, which I have even
coloured liquid. But whether they were veins or ar.
ot yet affirm.” i. 112. a. 176. a. According to Cuvier
nat. Comp, iv, 418), but I cannot find the passage, HRERASSARHI
50 mentions having seen a red fluid issue from small vessels in grass-
"Dpers, ; * Reaum. v. 103.

~ Bonnet ii, 309, Perhaps in both cases the alimentary canal was
the organ seen.

86 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

grub of Musca vomitaria, in which he in vain looked for
the dorsal vessel, a fleshy part which exhibited alternate
pulsations; and when with a pair of scissors he made a
lateral incision in the insect, amongst other parts that
came out, there was one that had movements of contrac-
tion and dilatation for several minutes,—this experiment
was repeated with the same result upon several grubs’.
De Geer, whose love of truth and accuracy no one will
call in question, saw the appearance of blood-vessels in
the leg of the larva of a Phryganea L. (as Lyonnet did in
those of a flea); and in the transparent thigh of Orni-
thomia avicularia he discovered a pulse like that of an
artery. Baker, whose only object was to record what
he saw, speaks of the current of the blood being remark-
ably visible in the legs of some small bugs’: what he
meant by that term is uncertain, but they could not be
spiders, which he had just distinguished. This author
has likewise seen a green fluid passing through the ves-
sels of the wings of grass-hoppers*; and M. Chabrier is
of opinion that insects possess the power of propelling a
fluid into the nervures of their wings and withdrawing it
at pleasure, as they are elevated or depressed: butthese
two last facts must be accounted for on other principles;
as there is clearly no circulation.

But though these arguments, which I have stated in
their full force, appear strong, and at first sight conclu-
sive, those which may be urged for the more modern opi-
nion—that no circulation exists in insects, properly so
called,—appear to me to have by far the greatest weight.

2 Reaum. iv. 171—. ^ Lesser L. ii. 84. note.

* De Geer ii. 505 —. vi. 287. d On the Microscope. i. 130.
e Ibid. f Sur le Vol des Ins. 325 —.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 87

Lyonnet, whose piercing eye and skilful hand traced the
Course of so many hundred nerves and bronchie long
after they became invisible to the unassisted eye, and
Which were a thousand times smaller than the princi-
pal blood-vessels, opening into so large an organ as
the supposed heart of insects, might be expected to be,
could never discover any thing like them. . His most
Painful researches, and repeated attempts to inject them
With coloured liquors, were unable to detect the most
Minute opening in the dorsal vessel, or the slightest
trace of any artery or vein proceeding from or commu-
Nicating with it*. And Cuvier, whose unrivalled skill
in Comparative Anatomy peculiarly qualified -him for
the investigation, repeated these inquiries, and tried all
the known modes of injection, with equal want of success ;
and is thus led to the conclusion, that insects have no
circulation, that their dorsal vessel is no heart, and there-
fore ought not to be called by that name: that it is ra-
ther a secretory vessel, like many others of that kind in
those animals. As to the nature of the fluid that it se-
Cretes, and its use, he thinks it impossible, from our present

information on the subject, to form any satisfactory con-

Clusion», Marcel de Serres informs us—which further
Proves that it can be no real heart—that this vessel may

e totally removed without causing the immediate death
of the insect. This opinion receives further confirma-
tion from the mode in which respiration is performed in
sects, In those animals that have a circulation, this

takes place bymeans of Jungs or gills ;—thus we find, even

* Lyonnet Anat. 427—. b Cuv. Anat. Comp. iv. 418—.
© Mem. du Mus, 1819. 71.

88 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

in the Crustacea and Arachnida so nearly related to in-

sects, that the organs of this function are true gills ;
whereas in insects, though in some of their states their
respiratory tubes are branchiform, yet they are not gills,
and the respiration is by tubes and spiracles. And these
tubes, as you have seen, are so numerous and so infinitely
ramified and dispersed, as to occupy the place of arteries
and veins, and to imitate their distribution, —and thus to
oxygenate what may be deemed the real analogue of the
. blood, which bathes every internal part of the body of an
insect. ‘Those animals likewise that have a circulation
are furnished with a liver, as is the case with the Arach-
nida and even many aggregate animals that have a heart;
but in insects there are only hepatic ducts. M. Cuvier
has also proved that the conglomerate glands, which ex-
ist in all animals that have a heart and blood-vessels, do
not exist in insects, in which they are replaced by long
slender secretory tubes, which without being united float
in the interior of the body: from this circumstance, he
is led to conclude that their nutrition is by imbibition or
immediate absorption, as in the Polypi and other zoo-
phytes, the chyle transpiring through the alimentary ca-.
nal, and running uniformly to all parts of the body?.
But although it be granted that no circulation of the
blood takes place in insects, yet, reasoning from analogy,
the dorsal vessel should in some degree and in some re-
spects represent the heart, and its pulsations be in some
measure for a similar purpose ; but what that purpose is,
has not yet been ascertained: and on the whole, in the
present state of our knowledge, it seems the most prudent

* N. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. xvi. 208.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 89

course to leave this matter for the investigation of future

Physiologists a ?

* Since writing the above, I have been favoured with a sight of
arcel de Serres’ Observations on the Dorsal Vessel of Insects', in
Which his object is to prove that the principal use of that vessel is
* more perfect animalization of the chyle that, transuding through
the pores of the intestinal canal, is imbibed hy it. In insects, he ob-
serves, that undergo metamorphoses, in which the growth or develop-
Ment of parts is often very rapid, it is requisite that a considerable
Portion of the chyle should be in reserve for this purpose. On this
account it is that the Epiploon or adipose tissue is so abundant in
arvæ to what it is in the perfect insect. That the importance also of
tis Part to insects is proved by the circumstance, that all their in-
erior parts communicate by fibrils with this tissue, and that proba-
Y their various organs derive the nutriment from it by their means.
© then asks by which of the viscera is the fat elaborated, or by what
Means dogs the chyle which transudes from the intestinal canal pass
? the state of fat? Facts seem to indicate, says he, that the func-
10 of the dorsal vessel is to pump up the chyle, and to cause it
i to transude through the meshes of the adipose tissue, where it
ishes by elaborating that mass of fat so abundant in larvze and
Certain perfect insects, which are thus enabled to sustain the effects
a long fast. So that this vessel is only a secretory organ, analo-
Sous to so many others that exist in insects; but the secretion which
1t has to produce is the most important of all, since the support of
the Vital powers depends upon it: it is, in effect, that vessel which
completes the function of animalization, and which itself prepares the
‘Nutritive fluid?, He observes, amongst other reasons he brings to
Support his theory, that the colour of the fluid which it contains is
Ways analogous to that of the adipose tissue that surrounds it, and
at the colour of that tissue never changes without that of the fluid
= ergoing a corresponding alteration,—that when, as in many per-
fect insects, the quantity of fat diminishes, the dorsal vessel also di-
Mnishes in size, and that the same reagents which coagulate the fat,
Coagulate equally the fluid in the dorsal vessel, which seems to indi-
fate an identity between them3.
e only circumstance that strikes me as militating against this
pothesis, is the analysis which Lyonnet has given of the fluid con-
"ined in the dorsal vessel of the Cossus*, which seems to prove that

| Mem. du Mus. 1819. 2 Ióid. 68—.

° Ibid. 69~, * See above, p. 84.

90 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

Whatever be the functions of the dorsal vessel, this
seems the most proper place to state to you what further
is known respecting it. Its construction is nearly alike
in insects in all their states, except that in the imago it
is shorter and narrower. Reaumur has affirmed, and
before him Malpighi made a similar observation, that in
chrysalises newly disclosed from the larva, and yet trans-
parent, the motion of the included fluid is the reverse of
what it has been in that state, it being propelled from
the head to the tail, which he found to be the case also
in the imago*. If this be true, and there is no reason to
doubt his accuracy, when they are more advanced, it re-
sumes its old course, as Lyonnet observed, from the tail
to the head”. But probably it is not always uniformly
in the same direction, since Malpighi states that a very
slight cause will change its course, and that the pulsa-
tions differ in quickness in different portions of the heart *.

If its course were really always the same, and in one di-

it is more analogous to gum or varnish. He saw indeed a few
globules, which appeared ten times as big as the others, which swam
upon the water, but which he did not regard as component parts of
the fluid, but as little drops of grease extravasated by dissection. The
fluid of the vessel itself easily mixed with water, and appeared to sink
in it to the bottom!, These circumstances seem to indicate that it
is not of a fatty or oleaginous nature. Further experiments however
seem necessary to ascertain the nature of the fluid and its object:
but I think it is a fair and reasonable conjecture, that as the vessel
in question is in many respects analogous to the real heart in Arach-
nida and some Crustacea, it so far performs the functions of a heart
as to produce an important effect in the nutrition of the animal. A
more satisfactory elucidation of the uses of this vessel may be ex-
pected from the able pen of Mr. W. S. MacLeay.

! Lyonnet Anat. 426—.

* Reaum. i. 409, 643—. Malpigh. De Bombyc. 38.
^ Lesser L. ii, 87 note *, * Ubi supra.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. | 91

Tection, without any reflux, it would seem to follow that
the fluid must be absorbed at one end, and, if there was
no outlet, transpire at the other, which would be a kind
of circulation. In Syrphus Pyrastri and other aphidi-
Vorous flies, this dorsal vessel, instead of the usual form
Which it had in the larva, assumes a very peculiar ap-
Pearance. If, taking one of these flies by the head and
Wings and holding it up to the light, you survey under a
€ns the base of the lower part of its abdomen, you will
See through its transparent skin, which exactly forms
Such a window as physicians have sometimes wished for
M order to view the interior of their patients, a flask-
Shaped vessel having its long end directed towards the
trunk, in which there is a manifest pulsation and trans-
Mission of some fluid. This vessel extends in length
from the junction of the trunk with the abdomen to
about the termination of the second segment. The in-

Cluded fluid does not run in the dorsal vessel in a regu-
ar Course, but is propelled at intervals by drops, as if
from a syringe, first from the wide end towards the trunk,
and then in the contrary direction, forming a very in-

teresting and agreeable spectacle, One circumstance led

aumur to conjecture that the neck of this vessel, which

© at first regarded as simple, is in fact composed of two
Or more approximated tubes, and that the blood is con-
veyed forward by the outward ones, and backward by the
Mtermediate one?: he even thinks that he saw a kind
of Secondary heart, at the extremity next the trunk, for
the Purpose of causing the reflux. This illustrious au-
thor observed the above remarkable structure not only

* Reaumur iv. 264.

99 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

in the SyrpAi, but in many of their affinities, and thinks
that it is also widely diffused amongst the Muscide?. `

I must now say something upon what I conceive to be
the real blood of insects; for I think no one will object
to that name being given to their nutritive fluid, though
it does not circulate by means of a vascular system. The
chyle that is produced in the intestines of animals from
the food, is that fluid substance from which their blood
is formed: in insects it is not absorbed by the lacteals,
but transpires through the pores of the intestinal canal
into the general cavity of the body, where, being exposed
to the influence of the oxygen in the air-vessels, it becomes,
though retaining its colour, a different fluid from what
itwas before, and analogous to blood in its use and office”;
only that in these animals, as Cuvier has observed, the
blood, for want of a circulating system, not being able
to seek the air, the air goes to seek the blood’. The
dispersion of this fluid appears to be universal, so that
all the parts and organs contain it in a greater or less
degree^. In many insects, if you break only an antenna
_or a leg, a drop of fluid flows out at the wound. In larvae,
the fluid which bathes all the internal parts and organs

is not only sufficient for their nutriment, but a large

a Reaumur iv. 260—. — b Herold Schmetterd. 24.

© Anat. Comp. iv. 165. * Marcel de Serres (p. 67).
speaks of this fluid as being, after it has transuded through the in-
testinal canal, a fluid in repose, which seems to indicate that it is per-
fectly stagnant; but when we consider that it is not only incessantly
entering the body and making its way to every part, but is also, by
means of the various secretory organs, constantly converted into new
products, and so going out again in many cases, it will appear evi-
dent that it cannot be considered as a stagnant fluid, since there must
be a constant though probably slow motion towards the points of
absorption or imbibition.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 98

quantity of seemingly superfluous blood remains that is
not wanted for this purpose. . This is expended in the
Production of the caul or epiploon (Corps. graisseux
Reaum.), which laps over and defends all the viscera of
the animal, and goes principally to the formation of the
imago *. Ihave said that Cuvier conceives nutrition in
insects to take place by imbibition or immediate absorp-
tion ; that is, I suppose, the different parts and organs
thus constantly bathed in the blood, imbibe from it the
Particles necessary for their constant accretion. : M. Cha-
brier seems to think that it is the compression and dila-
tation of the trunk that duly distributes the nutritive
fluid» , Lyonnet compares the nutrition of insects by
their fibres from this fluid, when formed into the corps
STaisseux, to that of plants that draw their support by
their roots from the earth®. Much obscurity, however,
at present rests upon this subject—much for future inves-

tigation to explore; but in all the works of the Mosr

‘GH there is always something inscrutable, something

“yond the reach of our senses and faculties, which
teaches us humbly to adore his infinite perfections. -

Il. The circulation of the Arachnida is next to be
"OUsidered: and the term applied to these becomes
Strictly proper. Two great tribes, in our view of the
Subject, constitute this Class,—the spiders (Araneide)
and Scorpions (Scorpionide): 1 shall give you some ac-
Count of the circulating vessels of each.—In spiders, the

fart in general is a long dorsal vessel as in insects, but
*'pposed to be confined to the abdomen, growing slen-

: Cuy. Anat

- Comp. iv. 158. Herold Schmetterl, 98.
Sur le Vol des Ins. c, iv. 88. note l. © Anat, 428.

94 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

derer towards each extremity, particularly the anal. In

some also, as in Aranea domestica, like that of insects, it
has lateral muscular appendages; but in others, as in
Clubiona atrox, it is without them*. It exhibits a pair of
vessels that appear to connect with the gills, by which
the oxygenation of the blood takes place, and a number
of others that ramify minutely and are lost in the ana-
logue of the epiploon, supposed to be their liver>, Whe-
ther these last are to be regarded merely as veins, has
not been ascertained; they seem rather to convey the
blood outwards, than to return it back to the heart: but
this question must be left for future investigation. I may
observe, however, that though the heart of the spider
has been traced only in the abdomen, it may probably ex-
tend into the trunk.

The heart of the scorpion has been examined both by
Treviranus and Marcel de Serres; but as the descrip-
tion of the latter is most clear and intelligible, I shall
principally confine myself to that. The heart, then, of
these animals is elongated, almost cylindrical, but atte-
nuated at each end; it is extended from the head to the
extremity of the tail, and appears to have four pairs of
lateral muscles. On each side are four pairs of principal
vessels, which go to the pulmonary pouches, and there
ramify. These may be assimilated to veins. Besides
these, there are four other vessels that cross them, form-
ing with them an acute angle, and which, with four
branches of smaller size, receive the blood from the pul-
monary pouches, and distribute it to the different parts

* Treviranus Arachnid. 28. t. iii. f. 28, 29.
> Ibid 29. t. iii. f. 30, 31.

95
ECTS.

TERNAL ANATOMY OF INS

INTE

: ters
'e the arteries. istis
—these are t lar branc
a rae heart throws out id x the blood
t : a9 FUMUS Sd gills, but distri ie x "dicas d:
n :

O di eren p tions bunches of reticula ncertain? ;
i men à š ms u

reviranus d origin of which he see boisiyath
cerning the use an h the gills, they are pro

but as they approac 5

siders
Serres con
ranching extremities of what M. de

anc mg

as the veins.

iran. Arachnid. 10—.
ist. Nat. xxx. 420. Comp. Treviran
` N. Dict. d? Hist. Nat.
* Ibid, 9—,

LETTER XL.

INTERNAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
OF INSECTS, CONTINUED.

DIGESTION.

“ THE immense Class of insects,” says the immortal
Cuvier, “in the structure of its alimentary canal exhibits
as many variations as those of all the vertebrate animals
together: there are not only the differences that strike
us in going from family to family and from species to
species; but one and the same individual has often a ca-
nal quite different, according as we examine it in its
larva or imago state; and all these variations have rela-
tions very exact, often easily estimable, with the tempo-
rary or constant mode of life of the animals in which it
is observable. Thus the voracious larvæ of the Scara-
bæi and butterflies have intestines ten times as large as
the winged and sober insects—if I may use such an ex-
pression—to which they give birth *."

In the natural families of these creatures, the same
analogy takes place with respect to this part that is ob-
servable in the rest of the Animal Kingdom; the length
and complication of the intestines are here, as in the
other Classes, often an index of a less substantial kind

2 Anat. Comp. iv. 129.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 97

of nutriment; while their shortness and slenderness in-
dicate that the insect lives by prey ?.

In considering therefore the parts connected with the
digestive functions of the insect world, it will not be amiss
bs have reference to their food, and their mode of taking
ts but first it will be proper to state and define the parts
of this important organ.

In general the alimentary canal^ is composed of the
‘ame essential tunicks as that of the vertebrate animals,
Consisting of an interior epidermis, a papillary and cellu-

m tunick, and an exterior muscular one’. The first is
"usually tender, smooth, and transparent ; but not always

IScoverable, probably on account of its tender sub-
“Hinge d. Ramdohr does not notice the papillary and
cellula; tunicks; they are probably synonymous with what
denominates—the Jocky layer (Die flockige lage), and
" Ich he describes, when highly magnified, as appear-

8 to consist of very minute globules or dark points, and

i eing of a cellular structure®. The exterior tunick is

‘ker ang stronger than the znterior, and composed of

Usculay fibres, running either longitudinally or trans-
ni so as to form rings round the canal. This tu-
E xr begins at the mouth, and goes to the anus,
A ie conformation in different parts of the
at the Sega Sometimes however it originates only

~ “ginning of the stomach’. With respect to its
Senera] disposition, that canal—in its relative length, in
= ie of its different parts, in the number and form of
atations, and particularly of its stomachs and its

ge |

ean Anat. Comp. iv.129. > Prate XXL Fre. c, d,e, is the -
d da canal of the larva of the Cossus, * Cuv. Ibid. 112.

e. Mdohr4jgtgde. Th. 6. e hid, 25, + Ibid. 6.

VOL, ry. ý i

98 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

coecums, and in the folds of its interior—exhibits variae
tions altogether analogous to those of vertebrate animals,
and which produce similar effects?. As to its parts, it
may be considered as consisting of żwo larger portions,
between which the biliary or hepatic vessels form the
point of separation. In the first, the most universal parts
are the gullet and the stomach ; and in the second, the
small intestine and the large intestine.

1. The gullet (Gisophagus‘) is that portion of the in- ^
testinal canal which, receiving the food from the pharynx,
or immediately from the mouth, conveys it to the sto-
mach. Though it often ends just behind the head4, it
is usually continued through the trunk, and sometimes
even extends into the middle of the abdomen: ; it there-
fore seldom much exceeds in length half the body. It
is constantly long when the head is connected with
.the trunk by a narrow canal—as in the Hymenoptera,
Neuroptera, Lepidoptera, &c.; but is frequently short
when these parts are more intimately united’. It often
ends in a kind of sac analogous to the crop of birds:
Under this head I must mention a part discovered by
Ramdohr, which he calls the food-bag (Speisesack), per
culiar to, as he thinks, Diptera’. -From the mouth in
these proceeds a narrow tube into the abdomen, where

it expands into a blind sac having no connexion with
the stomach; so that the fluid food, as blood, &c. stored
in it, must be regurgitated into the mouth before it ca?

* Cuv. ubi supr. 113. b Comp. Ramdohr Anat. 7.

* Prate XXI. Fie: 3. c. 4 Tenebrio Ramdohr, ubi supr. »
i£. iy, d. * Agrion. Ibid. t. xv. f. 4. a, 5. f Ibid.

€ Many other insects that live by suction have something simila®
as the honey-bag of butterflies, Parr XXX. Fic. 10, 11. a. Rav"
dohr £. xviii. f. 2. with f£. xix. f. 1—3. and xxi. 1. 3, &c.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 99

Pass into that organ?. Thus these animals, besides their
Slomach, have & reservoir in which to store up their food ;
the Product therefore of a single meal will require seve-
"al days to digest it.

?. The stomach (Ventriculus?) is that part of the in-
testinal canal immediately above the bile-vessels, which
receives the food from the gullet for digestion, and trans-
Mits it when digested to the lower intestines*. By its
admixture with the gastric juice, the food acquires in the
Stomach a quite different colour from what it had in the
Sullet, In herbivorous insects it contains no acid, but,
like the gastric juice of herbivorous quadrupeds, is of an
alkaline nature’. The chyle is forced through this or-
San, Probably in part by the pressure of the muscular
ii during the peristaltic motion ; and being pressed
i Ugh the inner skin, is first collected in the interme-
“late Cellular part, and ultimately forced through the
"Ne Skine, At its posterior end it terminates in the
PNE a fleshy ring or sphincter formed of annular mus-
E fibres f. The stomach often consists of two or more

*5slve divisions, which are separated from each other;

s s often of an entirely different conformation and
biis as the Orthoptera, Predaceous Coleoptera, and
al other insects, an organ of this kind precedes the
mines stomach, which from its structure Cuvier deno-
*$ a second stomach or gizzard"; Posselt impro-
idis calls it Cardia!; and by Ramdohr it is named the

à pandohr And. Vin, b PrATE XXI. Fic. 3. d.

Mdohr Ibid. 28—, 4 Herold (Schmetterl 24)
t Ramdohr is mistaken here, and denies the existence of this
“ts; but as Ramdohr’s researches were so widely extended,

to be right. © Ramdohr Jbid. 29,
Anat C 2 h = Ibid. 98. : :
CEMI TIG * Ramdohr, ubi supr. 15.

HX

100 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

plaited-stomach (Falten-magen*). It is a short fleshy
part, consisting of two skins, placed above the opening
_of the stomach, and perhaps rather belongs to the gullet.
The inner skin is formed into longitudinal folds, and
sometimes armed with horns, teeth, or bristles. -Its ca-
vity is very small and compressed, so as to admit only
small masses of food, and yet present them to a wide sur-
face for the action of the teeth or bristles ;—in this sto-
mach therefore, as in the gizzard of birds, to which if
seems clearly analogous?, the food is more effectually
comminuted and rendered fit for digestion. ‘The mus
cles, by which its action upon the food is supported, in
some species amount to many thousands *. Rudiments’
of a gizzard are sometimes found concealed in the gullet
of many insects. The idea of Swammerdam, Cuvier, &
that grasshoppers and other insects that have this kind
of stomach, chew the cud*, Ramdohr affirms is entirelf
erroneous’. Besides its divisions, the stomach has othe
appendages that require notice. In most Orthoptera, *
pair or more of blind intestines or ceca may be found al
the point of union of the gizzard with the stomach &, whic!
have been regarded as forming a third stomach: the
also begin the stomach in the louse ^: they form a coro

net round the apex of that organ, in the grub of the cock
chaferi; and in that of the rose-beetle, there is one at th?
apex, one in the middle, and a third at the base*. pe
sides these appendages, which are formed of the skin

a Ramdohr Anat. 15. » bid. 18 © Ibid. s; D
Swamm. Bibl. Nat. i. 94. b. Cuv. Anat. Comp. iv. 134.
Ubi supr. 18. © Ibid. t.i. f. 1. e. 0. c. 948
Ibid. t. xxv. f. 4. bb. i Ibid, t. viii. f. 3. cc.
Ibid. t, vii. f. 2.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 101

the stomach, there are others that are not so. In the Pre-
àceous and some other beetles, the whole external sur-.
face of this organ is covered with small blind appendages
ane into the space between its two skins, which cause
resemble a shaggy cloth; these Ramdohr calls shags
*otte?), and Cuvier, hairs® (villi) These appendages
i "fra author seems to regard as organs that secrete
" eiie Juice and render it to the stomach*; but the
er thinks their use uncertain 4.
| 3 The small intestines (Intestina parva) are the por-
On of intestines next the stomach, and consist often of
ree distinct canals ;—the first is supposed to be analo-
pres the duodenum ; itis found only in the Coleopterous
i, Silpha L. and Lampyris L., and is distinguished
te succeeding intestine by being perfectly smooth *.
wa the thin intestine (Dunndarm Ram.), which
above insects is wrinkled ; it most commonly imme-
ely follows the stomach. Sometimes it is wholly want-
asin Agrion, the Hemipteraf, &c. Ramdohr conjec-

diat
ing,
ture

án; S that it is not solely destined for conveying the ex-
f nent, but that probably some juices are separated in it.

Om t "T |
vesse] he food especially for the nutrition of the gall-

S . "T
> as their principal convolutions are mostly near

Is in . : à
testines ; which perhaps may in some cases be re-

Bardeq
as anal

Mals,

ogous to the jejunum in vertebrate ani-
es The third pair of the small intestines, which per-
te — the ileum, Ramdohr distinguishes by the

club-shaped (Keulférmigen Darm"). It may ge-

Ibi
Ew 90. - > Anat. Comp. iv. 132.
` and 136, à Ubi supr. 30.

bi i
| x Bl. tiv. f. 2, e. t. v. f. 1. d. f. 4. D. f Ibid. 32.
td. 34, ^ Ibid. 35. |

102 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

nerally be regarded as only a continuation of the former
thickened at the end so as to resemble a club reversed-
It is however sometimes separated from the thin intes
tine, as in Callichroma moschatum*.

4. The large intestines (Intestina magna) consist some
times of two portions. The thick intestine (Dicken-darm);
which may be regarded as a kind of caecum, is found only
in the larvee of the Lamellicorn beetles, but never in the
perfect insect. In shape it is oval and folded; whence
it is thicker than the rest of the intestinal canal, and is
constantly filled with excrement?. The second portio?
of these intestines is the rectum (Mastdarm), which tet
minates in the anal passage. This part is scarcely eve!’
wanting, except when the insect evacuates no excremenb
which is the case with the grubs of bees, wasps, and the
antlion (Myrmeleon). In the imago of Telephorus, 9
least in T. fuscus, it is also obsolete? : in most cases, how
ever, it is very distinct from the preceding intestine
Sometimes it consists of only one tunick composed ?
muscular fibres¢. When the gullet is wide, the rectum

is usually so likewise; but when it follows a club-shape!

or thick intestine, it is narrow*. It generally may be
termed short’. "When wide, it often contains a gres
quantity of excrement, as the gullet does of undigesté

food; but when narrow, the excrement seldom remah
long in it. This intestine also in a few cases has a late”

enlargement or caecum ( Blind-darm), being a continuatio"
of the same skin; but perhaps this enlargement is real

a Ramdohr Anat. t. xxiv. f. 1. F.

Ibid. 36. t. vii. f. 2. kk. t. viii. f. 3. g, hh.

Ibid. t. xii. f. 1. t. xvii. f. 1. t. vii. f. 5. 4 Ibid. 37.
* bid. 38, f Ibid,

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 103

analogous to what Ramdohr calls the thick intestine,
though in these cases he regards it as an appendage of
the rectum 2,

I must now call your attention to the dzle-vessels of in-
Sects. These, by Malpighi” and the earlier physiologists,
who regarded them as a kind of lacteals, were denomi-
"ated varicose vessels: but Cuvier—and his opinion after
Some hesitation has been adopted by Ramdohr—consi-

ers them as vessels for the secretion of bile, and as ana-
?89Us to the liver of animals that have a circulation‘.
As the want of biood-vessels prevents insects from hav-
ing any gland, the bile is produced with them, as all

eir other secretions, by slender vessels that float in

eir nutritive fluid, and from thence secrete the elements
Proper to form that important product, which usually
"ges them with its own yellow hue; though in the La-
Nellicorns and Capricorns they are of an opaque white,
and in the Dytisci of a deep brown colour?. Their bitter
taste further proves that they contain the bile®. They are
ong, slender, filiform, tortuous or convoluted, and mostly
‘imple vessels ; sometimes gradually smaller toward the
asef, at others, towards the apex’. In some, screw-
à aped»: in one larva, with hemispherical elevations:
id the cockchafer, part of them are fringed on each side
with an infinity of short, blind, minute, setiform tubes,
“hile the rest are naked*; they are composed of a single,

in, transparent membrane, according to Ramdohr'!; but

à Tid. 40, — De Bombyc. 18—. ° Anat. Comp. iv. 153.
Töid, * Ibid.
: Ramdohr 43. Cicindela campestris, t. iii. gu kk
lb hryganea grandis, Ibid. t. xvi. f. 2. ^ Notonecta glauca,
a é xxiii. f. 5, ! Of Musca vomitoria, Ibid. t. xix. f. 5.

Abid. t, viii; £1. H. and G. y: 2. * Thid. 50.

104 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS,

Cuvier thinks their texture is spongy*. They appear
to contain a number of small, irregular, dark granules,
which float in a peculiar fluid, with which, however, they
are not always filled throughout, nor are they constantly
permeable from one end to the other. Thus, in the meal-
worm beetle (Tenebrio Molitor), the common trunk by
which they are attached to the intestinal canal is com-
posed of gelatinous granules”. The place of their in-
sertion is generally a little below the pylorus, but in the
common cockroach they are inserted into the stomach
just above that part*. Usually each vessel opens singly
into the intestinal canal, which the whole number sur-
round at an equal distance from each other*. Some-
times, however, they are connected with it by a common
tube in which they all unite, as in the asparagus-beetle
(Lema Asparagi*); in the house-fly (Musca domestica), and
other Muscidae, each pair unites so as to form a single
branch on each side of the canal previously to their in-
sertion ; in the field-cricket (Gryllus campestris) they are
all inserted in one spot: and when numerous, they are ge-
nerally attached singly though irregularly". ‘These ves-
sels at their base do not open into the cavity of the in-
testinal canal, but merely into the space between its outer
and inner tunicks, the last being constantly imperforate’.

With regard to their apex, the bile-vessels are some-
times fixed singly or connectedly to the in testine merely by
a few muscular fibres; for they do not enter it, their ends
having no orifice. This structure is mostly to be met

Ubi supr. ^ Ramdohr, whi supr. * Ibid. 44. t. i. f. 9.
Ibid. © Tbid. t. vi. f. 5. H. |

Ibid. t. xix. f. |. N,N, O, f. 2. P, P, O. € Ibid. t. 1. f. 1. kkk
Ibid. t. xiii. f. 1—3. i Ibid, 44.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 105 ©

with in the Coleoptera*. In caterpillars, the tops of these
Vessels perforate the outer skin of the rectum, and pro-
ceeding in dense convolutions to the anus, become at last
So fine that their terminations cannot be discovered?.
In other cases, the extremities of a pair of these vessels
"e so as to form a double one: this may be seen in
those of Staphylinus politus*, and probably other rove-
beetles: and lastly, in others the bile-vessels are free,
hanging down by the intestinal canal, without being at-
tached to it or to each other. This structure is con-
Stantly found in the Orthoptera and Hymenoptera Or-
ders, &c.4.

With regard to their number, the bile-vessels vary from
two to upwards of one hundred and fifty, yet so that
their whole amount is constantly the product of the num-

er two,— at least as far as they have been counted: and
“ven when those on one side are not alike, a similar va-
“lation takes place in the other, as may be seen in Gal-
fruca Vitelline, where on each side are two long ones
ad One shorter*; the most usual numbers are, four—
“?—or many, that is, more than ¢wenty—

Two bile-vessels are found in the larva of Cetonia aurata f.
OUT seeccecesecsessceeseseesees MOS Coleoptera, Diptera,
and Hemiptera’.
MILLE m Lepidoptera, some Coleo-
ptera^, &c.

Sis

` Ibid. 45. b Ibid, 45. Prare XXI. Fre. 3. f.f.
, Ramdohr, Ibid. 1. iii. f. 6. E.

Tid. t.i. 7.1.59. t xiv. f. 1—3. ' © Ibid. 46. t. vi. f. 3.
* Ibid. t, vä. f. 2.

z oe
"XXL f. 1— 5, &e, ^ Ibid. t. xviii, f. 1, 5. t. iv. f. 1. See
also £ vi. p 1, 3,

106 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

Eight bile-vessels are found in Myrmeleon, Hemerobius?.

Fourteen. «..eeeeeee esses Formica rufa,
Twenty oe eee eeeeeeeeeesesesss larva of "Tenthredo: Ame-
rine~.

MANY . ...... eee eee eren eee ees Libellulina, Orthoptera,

and Hymenoptera.

The bile-vessels vary considerably in length: in many
cases where they are free they are short *; they are often
very long, and perhaps those that are fixed may be gene-
rally stated as the longest. In the Lamellicorn beetles
they are remarkable for their great length f.

Having given you this general account of the intesti-
nal canal and its parts and appendages, I shall now state
some of the peculiarities that in this respect distinguish
particular tribes and families.

The Coleoptera alone, exhibit as many variations in
the structure of the alimentary tube as all the other Or-
ders of insects together :—to particularize these would
occupy too large a portion of this letter, I shall therefore
only notice a few of the most remarkable. In general
they may be stated as having universally a stomach, a
small intestine and rectum, and not more than three pairs
of fixed or united bile-vessels. In the Predaceous beetles,
the gullet mostly widens at the base into a considerable
crop, followed by a gizzard, a shagey stomach, and two
pairs of united bile-vessels. The whole alimentary canal
in these, is never less than double, and sometimes treble
the length of the body. In the carnivorous beetles, at

* Ramdohr Anat. t. xvii. J£ 1,26 v Od. dc xiv. 9.

* Ibid. t. xiii, f. 4, 7. Ibid. t. xv. f. 3, 4. t. 1. f. 1. 5. 9. t. xii.

Ff. 4, 5, 6, &c. ° Ibid. t. xi. f. 4. t. xii. f. 4—6. t. xiii. f. 2-—4, &c.
f Ibid, t. vii. f. 1. t. viii. f. 1, &c.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 107

least the Staphylinide and Silphide, there is little or no
Crop the gizzard is hidden: in the former, the whole
length of the intestinal canal is not twice, while in the
latter it is more than Jour times that of the body*. In
these also the intermediate portion of the large intestine
is singularly annulated^. In the Lamellicorns the sto-
mach is usually longer than all the rest of the intestines
together, and often convoluted: in the cockchafer the
Whole intestinal canal is nearly five times the length of the
body, Jour parts of which is occupied by the stomach v.

n the grub the canal scarcely exceeds the length of the
aüimald, In Lampyris the stomach exhibits a remark-
able appearance, having on each side a series of spheri-
tal folds or vesicles. Have these any thing to do with
the secretion of its phosphoric matter? Tenebrio has a
Sizzard armed internally with calluses, and a shaggy sto-
Mach, and Blaps does not differ materially; their entire
Canal is more than twice the length of the body. In the
Vésicatory beetles (Cantharis, Meloe, &c.) there is no giz-
zard, and the canal is less than twice the length of the
body e. Little is known with regard tothe alimentary canal
of the beetles distinguished by a rostrum (Curculio L.).
In the only two that appear to have been examined, A/ze-
labus Betuleti and Cryptorhynchus Lapathi, that canal is
Moderately long, the stomach partially shaggy, and the
small intestine inversely claviform ; but in other respects
they differ materially". In the former there is no crop
9r gizzard, the stomach is fringed on each side, except
at its upper extremity, with a series of small ceca or
shags, and there are three pairs of bile-vessels!; while

* Ibid, t. ii. f. 6. t. iv. f. 2. t v. f. l. b Ibid. f. 1. e. f. 3.

* Ibid. 122. d [big 193. — * Ibid. t. v. f. 4. B. -£ Ibid. 94.
© Ibid. 96—. ^ Tbid..t. x. f. 1. 8. i hid. f. 8. b c.

108 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

in the latter the gullet is dilated into a crop which in-
cludes a gizzard in which the skill of a Divine artist
is singularly conspicuous :—though so minute as scarcely
to exceed a large pin’s head in size, it is stated to be
armed internally with more than 400 pairs of teeth,
moved by an infinitely greater number of muscles*. A
transverse section of this gizzard represents two concen-
tric stars, with nine rays each: the object of this struc-
ture is, the comminution of the timber which this beetle
has to perforate and probably devour*. The stomach
is very slender, but dilates in the middle into a spherical
vesicle’, and there are only ¢wo pairs of bile-vessels *.
In the Capricorn beetles, the part we are considering
varies much: in general we may observe that it is more
than double the length of the body, that the stomach is
long and slender, and usually naked, that the gullet ter-
minates in a crop without a distinct gizzard, and that
there are ¢hree pairs of bile-vesselsf. In the Herbivo-
rous beetles (Chrysomela L. Cassida L.) the canal.is more
than double the length of the body, and in some much
longer £, the stomach is long, and commonly naked; but
in Chrysomela violacea it is covered with hemispherical
prominences", and in Chrysomela Populi it is shaggy’;
in the insect last named and Galleruca Vitelline the rec-
tum consists of ¢wo pieces*. In this tribe the intestines
of the larva resemble those of the perfect insect'.

In the Orthoptera the alimentary canal, which conti-

^ Ramdohr 98. ż. x. f. 2—4. From Ramdohr’s figure, compared
with the size of the insect, it appears that the gizzard could scarcely
have been of greater diameter. > Ibid. f. 2.

* See Curtis in Linn. Trans. i. 88. è Ramdohr t. x. f. 1. d.

e Ibid. tl. f Ibid. t. ix. f. 1, 2, t. xi. f. 3. t. xxiv. f. 1, 2.

e Ibid. 103. ^ Töid. 104. £. vi. f.4.D. ' Ibid. f. 9. B.

* Ibid. t. vi. f. 9. E. ! Ibid. 101.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 109

nues the same in every state, is short, or-only moderately
long ; the gullet has one or two lateral pouches or crops’,
and terminates in a gizzard of curious construction, with
Singular folds and teeth^; then follows a short stomach,
usually with a pair or more of cæca at its upper extre-
mity*: the lower intestines are not distinct, and the bile-
vessels numerous, short and free‘.

In the Neuroptera, many of the genera are distin-
guished by the remarkable length of the gullet, and by
the lower intestines forming one short piece*. In the L;-
bellulina the bile-vessels are numerous, short, and free,
asin the Orthoptera’. In Hemerobius and Myrmeleon
there is a gizzard®, and just above it a cocum, in the for-
mer very remarkable, is connected with the gullet’.

The Hymenoptera appear all to be distinguished by a
long slender gullet, terminating in a dilated crop form-
mg the honey-bag ; their stomach is variable, their small
intestine slender, and the rectum dilated ;—their bile-ves-
Sels, like those of the two preceding Orders, are nume-
Yous, short, and freei. Inthe ants and ichneumons there
is an approach to a gizzard *. In the wasp and humble-
bee the stomach is very long, with muscular rings sur-
Tounding it!, In this Order the larve at first have no

lower intestines and void no excrement”, but as they ap-'

Preach to the pupa state one begins to appear”.

* Ramdohr £. i, f. 1. 5. 9. b Ibid. f. 2, 3, 4. 7, 8. 19.
* Ibid. f. 1. e, f. 5. c. f. 9. gh. 4 Thid. f. 1. 9c k.

* Ibid. t, xv. f. 3, 4. t. xvii. f. 2:6. -£ Ibid. t. xv. f. 3, A. f.

* Ibid. t. xvii. f. 9. c. f. 6. d. ^ Ibid. f. 9. b. f. 6. c.

- Ibid. t. xii. f. 6. H. t. xiii. f. 1. fi * Ibid. t. xiv. f. 2, 3, C.

! Pid. t. xii, f. 6: D. t. xiii. f. 1-b. " Ibid, 133, t. xii. f. 1—3.
^ Ibid. f. 4.

110 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

The next insects whose alimentary canal we are to
consider, are those which, taking their food by suction,
have no occasion for masticating organs: this may in
part be predicated of the preceding Order, in which
most of the tribes in their perfect state zmbibe fluid food,
and use the ordinary organs of mastication principally in
operations connected with their economy; and their crop,
in which the honey in many is stored up for regurgita-
tion, may be regarded. in some degree as analogous to the
- food-bag of the Diptera and other suctorious insects.

The two sections of the Hemiptera Order differ widely
in the canal we are considering, and I shall therefore
give a separate account of each. In the Heteropterous
section, appended to the gullet by a long convoluted ca-

pillary tube, besides the usual saliva-reservoirs there is

1 è .
often a double vessel, which Ramdohr regards as dis-

charging the same function, but which in many respects
seems rather analogous to the food -reservoir of the Di-
ptera?. As I have had no opportunity of examining this
vessel, I shall content myself with stating this idea, and
describe the vessel more fully hereafter.. The gullet, in
these, usually terminates in an ample crop consisting of
many folds”, followed by a long, slender, cylindrical
tube, dilated at its base into a spherical tumour; these
two may be said to form the first stomach: to this suc-
ceeds a second*, which Ramdohr denominates the bug-
stomach (Wanzen-magen), which varies in its figure, and
in Pentatoma consists of four demi-tubes, so as to form a

* Comp. Ramdohr 7. xxii. f. 3. M. Fie. 4. 3. with t. xxi. f. 1. T.
> Ibid. t. xxii. f. 1.0.5 3, 4. B—. * Ibid. f. 1. D E. f. 3. C D.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 11]

quadrangular canal*. . In the Homopterous section of
this: Order -Ramdohr seems to have examined but few i
Chermes however and Aphis exhibit one remarkable fea-
ture; they have no bile-vessels, at least he could discover
no trace of these organs®. ‘Their intestinal canalis very
Simple, their stomach very long, widest above, and some-
What convoluted, with a very slender gullet*. In Ce-
"opis spumaria the structure is more complex, and ex-
tremely singular. It has ¢wo or rather three stomachs;
the two first of a horny substance, and the last a slen-
der Somewhat convoluted membranous tube, which be-
Coming reversed, is attached by what should be deemed
its lower extremity to the first stomach, from the other
Side of which emerge the lower intestines, terminating in
a thick pear-shaped rectum. At the same point of the
"St stomach the four bile-vessels are attached, they
Stow gradually thicker for about a third of their length,
When they become twisted like a cord, and taper towards
the rectum, to which also they are attached’. From
this structure it should seem that the food has to pass
twice through the first stomach, before the process of
igestion is complete, and it is rejected at the anus.
The next suctorious Order is the Lepidoptera: in
these the gullet is long and slender, surrounded at the
*ginning with a loose transparent skin, and at the base
Urnished with a pair of lateral sacs, forming the honey-
Stomach, and probably analogous to the food-reservoirs |
of the Diptera, which when blown up are of an oval
orm; the stomach, as in the bugs, consists of /:o por-

: Ramdohr z. xxii, f. 1. D, E. f. 3. C, D. f. 4. C, " Ibid. 198.
Ibid. t. xxvi, £8. 4. 4 Ibid. t. xxxiii. f. 3.

112 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

tions, the first being the longest?. There are three free
bile-vessels on each side, proceeding from a single
branch?. It will not be uninteresting here to abstract
from Herold the progressive changes which take place
in the intestinal canal in this Order, during the transition
of the animal from the larva to the imago state. In the
larva, the gullet, the small intestine, and the rectum, are
short and thick‘, there are a pair of silk reservoirs (se-
ricteria), as well as vessels for the secretion of saliva
(sialisteria): if you examine it two days after its first
change, you will find the gullet and the small intestine
much lengthened and become very slender; the stomach
contracted both in length and size; the rectum also
changed, and the silk vessels contracted’. ‘These in a —
pupa eight days old have wholly disappeared ; the gullet
is become still longer, its base is dilated into a crop or
food-reservoir; the stomach is still more contracted, and
instead of a cylinder represents a spindle; the small in-
testine also is lengthened*: at a still more advanced pe-
riod, when it is near appearing under its last form, the
gullet and small intestine are still more drawn out; and
the honey-bag, though very minute, has become a lateral
appendage of the gullet*; and lastly, in the butterfly it
appears as a large vesicle? ; the small intestine is grown
very long’; and the rectum has changed its form and ac-
quired a ceecum!. When we consider the adaptation of
all these changes of form, the loss of old organs and the
acquisition of new ones, to the new functions and mode
* Ramdohr ¢, xviii. f. 1. F, G. ^ Tbid. L, K.
* Prate XXX. Fie. 7. 3 Ibid. Fie. 8. * Ibid. Fic. 9.

f Ibid. Fic. 10. € Ibid. Fre. 11. a. ^ Thid. e.
i Tbid. d.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 113

9f life of the animal, we see evidently the all-powerful
hand of that ALMicury Brine who created the universe,
"pholding by his providence, and the law that he has
Slven to every creature, the system that he at first brought
into existence.
We now come to the Diptera. These have a very slen-
“r gullet, to which is attached on one side a long fili-
orm tube, terminating in the food-reservoir, which in
“ome instances is simple?, but most generally consists of
| $ Wo or more vessels”, collapsing when empty, but vary-
Ag in Shape and size when inflated with food: the mouth
the stomach in many cases is dilated into a kind of
Ves; sometimes there is on each side a blind appendage
Caecum opening into it, in Bombylius covered with
85, which though not connected with the mouth bya
ie, Ramdohr regards as saliva-reservoirs? ; in Musca
vomitoriq the beginning of this organ below the mouth
5 Covered with hemispherical prominences, and in Ti-
@ it is dilated and marked with transverse folds. There
Usually zwo pairs of bile-vessels; in the Muscide
e Douate and free*; in Tipula, Bombylius, and "ungue, :
. «And united’; and in Tabanus sessile and fixed,

Sha

are

ls : d
‘remarkable that in some of this Order—the reverse
/

What Usually happens—the alimentary canal appears to
* Much longer

use . $ i ; t a
7? vomitoria, its Jength in the former is two inches

in the larva than it is in the imago; in

and hi. 2r j
- * quarter, while in the latter it is only one inch and

, Ramdohr, Zid. 1 xx. f. 1, E. f. 6. C.
d. L xix, fi 2. C43. CCD. t xx. f. 2. E,
ad. t xix, f° 2. D
d Iq, ; XE .
* pig; 4^ 2. FF. f. 6. DD. 184, 180.—
ty : -É xix. £ TON, J. 2. OP. f. 3. F. t. xxviii. f. 1, 2 Pq.
"hxx f. 1.6. £9 3, L, E Ibid. t. xxi. f. A D,
à

114 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

one third?. A singular organ distinguishes the imago
of this species, the use of which appears not to be disco-
vered. It succeeds the rectum, and has on each side
twoshort club-shaped appendages, open at the end, which
receive £rachec, and terminate in a short piece that opens
‘into the anus*.

In Hippobosca and its affinities the canal in question
differs from that of other Diptera, in having no food-re-
servoir; in other respects it resembles it*.

From the above statement it appears that the princi-
pal character which distinguishes those that take their
food by suction, from those that masticate it, is the faculty
with which they are furnished by means of an ample
crop, honey-stomach, or food-reservoir, of regurgitating
the food they may have stored up. Another distinction
still more striking, which will appear more evidently here
after, is to be seen in the saZ/va-secretors with which the
suctorious tribes are furnished, to be found in very few
masticators, by which they are enabled to render the
juices more fluid and fit for suction.

The only insect amongst the Aptera whose alimentary
canal I shall notice, is the common harvest-man (Pha
langium Opilio): in this, though the stomach and lowe!
intestine are remarkably simple, yet their coecal appe?"

dages are numerous and singular; the former, which
has no distinct gullet, is pear-shaped‘; and the latte?

tapering downwards, and truncated. at the end*; com

^ Ramdohr, Jdid. 172. ^ Pid, t. xix. f. 2.
organ seems analogous to that with four retractile fleshy horns,
served by Reaumur and De Geer in other species of Muscidf
Reaum. iv. £. xxviii, f. 13. a, s. De Geer vi. 7. iii. f. 18. c, d.

c. Ramdohr, t. xxi. f. 6. « Ibid. t. xxix. f. V*. A.

* Joid, and f. 3. B, D,

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 115

nected with it above are no less than twenty-three caca

ps bling appendages, of various forms and dimensions ;
the last pair but one of which is very remarkable, being
nt like a bow, and furnished externally with four short
Clavate Processes?, It is probable that some of these or=
Bins are analogous to the bile-vessels of other insects,

When the Crearon in his wisdom fixed the limits of
le various tribes of animals, he united them all into one
armonious system by means of certain intermediate
orms, exhibiting characters taken some from those that
ere to precede, and others from those that were to fol-

b them, and this not only in their ezternal structure,
Ut likey,

Not to w
gang t
Nearly t
Sun to e

ise in their internal organization ; so that we are
onder if in the same individual we meet with
hat belong to two distinct tribes, or if, remaining
he same in their prima facie appearance, they be-
me Xercise new functions. An instance of this we
j S ats in the dorsal vessel f insects, which in the
» ida, though not materially different in situation

Senera]
w ui veins becomes the centre and fountain of a

hep
e ee’ ^
te alluded to, physiologists have been led to entertain

“erent sentiments with regard to the structure of

: mentary organs of the Class we are now to enter
on, the Arach
“tS look upon

ominat ahs
dereq

form, by the addition of a small apparatus of

ystem of circulation >. From the circumstances

the ali

nida: what some regard as a real diver,
as an epiploon or caul; and what the last
le-vessels are by some of the former consi-
À oF 3ppropriated to the secretion of chyle‘, Yet

Ibi
e A 3: p &c. ^ See above, p. 98—.
Cuvier, n anus and Ramdohr are of the former opinion ; and Meckel,

Marc
arce] de Serres, and Leon du Four, of the latter,
12 :

116 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

both these opinions have some foundation in nature:
When, in the Arachnida, we discover a lobular substance
consisting of granules filling the whole cavity of the body
and wrapped round the intestines, every one will see 1?
it no small analogy to the epiploon which in insects pe
forms the same function: but when, upon a further ex?
mination, we detect certain vessels communicating with
this substance and the intestinal canal*, the idea tha!
these may be hepatic ducts, and this substance analogov’
to the liver, immediately strikes us as not improbable
Again: when we discover pairs of other capillary ant
tortuous vessels connecting with the intestinal canal eith#
at the pylorus» or below it‘; which in appearance strik
ingly resemble the bile-vessels which we so constant

. . . * f
find in insects, we seem warranted in concluding that the)
$ tab,

are of the same nature and use: but when a nearer ™

spection enables us to detect the hepatic ducts just me»
tioned in the scorpion, and we find that these capilla!
vessels in the spider are in a very different situation fro?
those in insects which we suppose them to represent, i
occurs to us as not unlikely, that their, functionmay be d
ferent.

Let us now consider how the intestinal canal is dr
cumstanced in the two sections into which the Cie
Arachnida is divided; the Scorpionide, and Araneil®
In the Scorpions, this organ proceeds from the moti!
to the anus without any flexure or convolution, so qe
its length is scarcely equal to that of the body?; it?
slender, and its diameter, with the exception of an m
gular dilatation here and there, is nearly the same
its whole extent; the gullet is short ;. the stomach m

a Treviran. Arachnid, t. 1. f. 6. v. ^ > Ibid, n.
© Ibid. t. Vi. f. 24. B. ù Thid. f. 6. B P

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 117

and nearly cylindrical; the duodenum shorter and

thicker than the stomach, from which, as well as from
the rectum

lindrica]
the vesi

» it is separated by a valve; the latter is cy-
; and opens at the anus above the insertion of
cle that secretes the poison*. With regard to
the biliary system and its organs: The diver is of a
Pulpy granular consistence and of a brownish colour,
^s the whole cavity of the trunk and abdomen, and
“erves as a bed for the other intestines. It is divided
°ngitudinally into two portions, by the channel in which
the heart reposes—its anterior part is formed into many
"regular lobes, by the sinuosities of the trunk; at the
er extremity it terminates in two acute ends, which
“ater the first joint of the tail; its surface presents a reti-
“iat appearance, the result of the approximation of poly-
Sonous lobuli ; its interior is a tissue of infinitely minute
glands; in Scorpio occitanus there are about forty pyra=
mida] lobuli detached from each other, the summits of
Ich, by their union, form bunches that have their ex-
“tetory canals, varying in number in different species,
ich Convey the bile to the alimentary tube; in the
®ve insect there are six pairs three in the trunk and
"ee in the abdomen, and in S. Europeus a smaller num-
“rs these vessels run transversely from the liver, or ag-
ANNER of conglomerate glands, to the intestinal canal ¢ ;
i "Unches consist of an infinite number of spherical
Sig generally filled with a brown thick fluid’: be-
€ transverse vessels, from the base of the stomach

a
.
.

a

i ve tct. d' Hist.

: E Dict, @ Hist. Nat. xxx, 491—.
: Dict, d Hist, Nat, Ibid.

L Nat. xxx. 423—. Comp. Treviranus, Arachnid.
> Treviranus, bid. v.

Comp. Treviran. Zid.

118 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

there issue two pairs of very slender tortuous ones, seem-
ingly analogous to the common bile-vessels; one pair of
which runs upwards, one on each side that organ to-
wards the mouth, forming here and there some ramifi-
cations which enter the liver; and the other runs nearly
transversely to it?. As the fluid contained in these ves-
sels is different from that contained in the glands of the
liver, M. Marcel de Serres supposes they may be chyli-
ferous’.

In the Araneide also the alimentary canal is nearly
straight, and scarcely exceeds the length of the body:
the gullet is rather thick and cylindrical*: the stomach
is distinguished anteriorly by two pairs of sacs, the .
upper pair being much the largest and nearly triangu-
lar, the lower linear’; from these sacs a narrow tube
runs towards the rectum, but which is so entangled with
the liver, muscles, &c., as not to be easily made out*; the
rectum is rather tumid, and has a lateral caecum’. The
disposition of the liver or conglomerate glands is stated
to be similar to that of the scorpion?; it is usually white,
but in some species it is yellowish or reddish, and its
lower surface has sometimes regular excavations"; mo
transverse hepatic ducts connecting it with the alimentary
canal, as in the scorpion, appear to have been at present
discovered: two pairs of capillary free vessels are at-
tached to the base of the rectum on one side, which, ex-
cept in their situation, seem analogous to the bile-vessels
of insects !.

* Treviran. Ibid. t. i. f. 6. ii, c c. b N. Dict. d' Hist. Nat. Ibid.
* Treviran. Ibid. t. ii. f. 24. a. a Ibid. v, b.

e Jbid.c, d, f. f Ibid. g, n. € N. Dict. d' Hist. Nat. Ibid.
^ Treviran, Ibid. 28, ` Ibid, t. ii. f. 24. pB.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS; ` 119

: From the above detailed account of the alimentary
“anal of the animals whose internal anatomy we are con-
sidering, it appears that M. Cuvier’s observation—that
the length and complication of the intestines indicate a
“8s substantial kind of nutriment—does not hold univer-
sally: thus, in Necrophorus and Silpha, carnivorous insects;

the j . 4 X
he Intestinal canal in its length and convolutions exceeds

* those of most herbivorous ones, and in Casszda viridis and
‘ome others of the datter tribe are not longer than those
of the predaceous beetles. In herbivorous larve also, in
8eneral, the length of the alimentary canal does not ex-
“eed that of the body, but in those of some flesh-flies
i Ae vomitoria) it very greatly exceeds itè. So true

€ observation —that there is no general rule without
“Xceptions,
Mg this letter it may not be out of place to say a few
S upon the excrements of insects; which, strange as
a ration may seem, but it is no less true vais
Ne A are sometimes pleasing to the eye, from their
etry, and to the taste, from their sweetness. In
Ose that masticate their food they are solid, and in
CN m take it by suction, fluid or semi-fluid. In the
in. of Lepidoptera they are of the former de-
| li a and every grain wears some resemblance to an
sis bbc. as the passage in many of these consists of
represent fe separated by channels, so the excrement
S six little prisms separated by six channels,
rw secrete a fluid excrement as Sweet as
no $y which the ants are so fond*, which is ejected
y at the anal passage, but, in many, by two little

, Ramdohr, z. xix.f,1. —— * Reaum. i. 143 tv. f. 9.
Vois 3f p. 88—.

120 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

siphonets also above it*. A semi-fluid excrement is pro-
duced by some species of Chermes, as that which inhabits
the Box, which often comes from the animal in long con-

voluted strings resembling vermicelli. Reawmur says ifs

taste is agreeable, much more so than that of manna”.
Under this head should be included the abundant spume
with which the larva of Cercopis spumaria envelopes it-
self.

* De Geer iii. 26. > Reaum. iii, 357. f. xxix. f. 6—10. `
c Vor. II. p. 228,

LETTER XLI.

INTERNAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
OF INSECTS, CONTINUED.

SECRETION.

Havin G given you so full an account of the system of
digestion in insects, I am now to say something concern-
‘ng their secretions, and the organs by which they are
elaborated. Though no individual amongst them per-

aPs secretes so many different substances as the warm-

looded animals; yet in general the Class abounds in
Secretions perhaps as numerous and extraordinary as in
the last-mentioned tribes, to some of which a few of them
are analogous, while others are altogether peculiar. We

now little or nothing of the mode in which the process
f secretion in insects is accomplished ; in most cases we
Cannot even discover, except in general, whence the se-
“reted substance originates; and in others, though we are
able to trace the vessels that contain it, we are often in
the dark as to their structure.— Cuvier, as has been be-
fore hinted, from not being able to detect any thing in
them like Blands, and from their being constantly bathed
3 the blood or nutritive fluid, conceives that they sepa-
ate the peculiar substances they contain, by imbibition

122 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

or infiltration, through the pores of the skin*; a cir-
cumstance which seems to indicate a certain conforma-
tion of the pores both as to size and figure, so as to en-
able them to admit only one peculiar product.

In treating on this subject, I shall first consider the
organs of secretion, and next their products. .

I. Organs of Secretion. In general, these are mem-
branous vessels that float in the blood or nutritive fluid,
and secrete from it a peculiar substance. ‘They may be
denominated according to their products-—Si/k-secretors,
Saliva-secretors, Varnish-secretor, Jelly or Gluten-secre-
tor, Poison-secretor, and Scent-secretors.

i. Silk-secretors (Sericteria). ‘These organs are most
remarkable in the caterpillars of the nocturnal Lepido-
ptera or moths, especially in that tribe called Bombyces,
to which the silk-worm belongs: but this faculty is not
confined to these insects, but is shared by many other
larve in different Orders ; and in one instance at least, by
the mago. In general, the outlet of the silk-secretors is
at the mouth; sometimes, however, as in the larva of
Myrmeleon and the imago of Hydrophilus, its exit is at
the anus. The first is the organ which in the silk-worm
provides for us that beautiful substance from which the
animal takes its name. ‘There are always two of these
vessels, which are long floating tubes, growing slender
towards the head of the insect, where they unite to form
the spinneret ( fusulus) before described^, which renders
the silk. Their lower extremity also is commonly more
slender than the middle, and is closed at the end. ‘These
organs are usually very much convoluted and twisted *.

a Cuv. Anat. Comp. iv. 163—. ^ Vor. III. p. 124—.
© Malpigh. De Bombyc. t. v. f. 2. Swamm. t. xxxiv. f. 5. Lyon-
net, & v. f. 1.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 123 ,

According to Ramdohr*, they consist of two trans-
Parent membranes, between which is found a yellow or
transparent jelly. The greater the quantity of silk em-
Ployed by the caterpillar in the construction of its co-
coon, &c., the longer are the silk-secretors. Those of
the Sllk-worm are a Jot long”, while those of the larva
of the goat-moth are little more than three inches*.
Other insects spin silk with the posterior extremity
of their body. In the great water-beetle (Hydrophilus

Ptceus) the anus is furnished with two spinnerets, with

Which it spins its egg-pouch?; these are in connexion,

Probably, with the five long and large vessels containing
à green fluid, described by Cuvier*, which surround the
ase of each branch of the ovaries. The larva of Myr-
meleon, which also spins a cocoon with its anus, differs
remarkably in this respect from other insects; since its
eservoir for the matter of silk is the rectum ; this is con-
ected with a horny tube, which the animal can pro-
trude, and thus agglutinate the silk and grains of sand

at compose its cocoon’. |
‘he web of spiders is also a kind of silk remarkable
“Tits lightness and extreme tenuity. It is spun from
Sur anal spinnerets, which never vary in number: two
Oger organs peculiar to some species have been mis-
en for additional ones, but Treviranus affirms that
aa ^re merely a kind of anal feeler. ; Their structure,
is = known, has been before described?. The "m
Baias E in vessels varying inform. In some (Clubiona
ey consist of two larger and two smaller ones,

< Anat. der Ins, 59. v Tbid. 60. Malpigh. 20.
. Yonnet Anat. 11]. 7 N. Dict. d? Hist. Nat. xv. 483.

`; Anat, Comp. v. 198. * Ramdohr, 60. ¢. xvii, f. 1. f, g, ^, r.
9t. T. p. 404. Treviran. Arachnid. 42,

124: INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

at the base of which lie many still more minute?. ‘The
four larger vessels are wide in the middle, branching at
top, and below terminating in a narrow canal leading to
the spinnerets®. Treviranus thinks the fluid contained
in the lower minute vessels different from that furnished
by the larger ones—but for what purpose it is employed
has not been ascertained.

ii. Saliva-secretors (Sialisteria). ‘These are organs,
rendering a fluid to the mouth or stomach, that are found
in many insects, especially those that take their food by
suction, as the Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera,
though they are not confined to the perfect insect, being
also in some cases visible in the larva. Swammerdam
was one of the first that discovered them, and he suspects
that they may be salzval vessels; though he, as well as
Ramdohr, thinks they are the same with the sil% vessels
of the caterpillar^; an opinion which Herold has suffi-

ciently disproved, by showing that at one period of the
insect's life they co-exist‘, and Lyonnet discovered a very
conspicuous pair in the caterpillar of the Cossus, co-ex-
istent with the silk-secretors*. But the physiologist who
has given the fullest account of these organs is Ramdohr :

—TI shall therefore extract chiefly from him what I have
further to communicate with respect to them.

They are variously constructed blind vessels, that are
present in almost all insects that take their food by suc
tion, but are mostly wanting in those that masticate it.
They have been found, however, in Cryptorhynchus La-
pathi, Hemerobius Perla, and Tulus terrestris. The most

* Treviran. Arachnid. 43. t. iv. f. 42. o. p. 9. > Ibid. à, y:
* Swamm. ii. 2]. a. £. xxxvi. f. 1. abcd. Ramdohr, 58.
4 Schmet. t. Wi. f. 1. * Lyonnet—. 112, 7, v. f. 1. P,Q, R, 5.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 125

Usual number of the saliva-secretors is Zo? ; but some-
times, as in the first of the last-named insects, there is
Only one’; in others (Pentatoma Baccarum) there are
three, the exterior one consisting of a pair of reservoirs
Connecting with the gullet by a single capillary tube; in
Pentatoma prasina there appear to be fourt; in Nepa
cinerea, even siz—the exterior double pair in this insect,
under a powerful lens, is found to consist of spherical
Vesicles, resembling somewhat a bunch of currants‘; and
M Syrphus arcuatus they are covered with four rows of
Similar ones. In the flea they consist of two pair of
Spherical reservoirs, each of which is connected with a
short tube, which uniting with that of the other forms a
Common capillary one connecting with the mouth or
Sullet?: these organs sometimes terminate below in
Slender vessels ; thus, in Nepa, the inner pair terminates
ina single vessel of this description", and in Tabanus and
emerobius apparently in many}. It admits of a doubt
however, as was lately observed, whether in the Hemi-
Pera, which haveusually more than a pa?r of these organs,
Some are not rather food-reservoirs as in the Diptera..

The saliva-secretors open either into the instruments
of suction themselves ( Tabanus, Musca); or into the en-
trance of the gullet (Pentatoma, &c.); or, lastly, into that
of the stomach (Syrphus, Bombylius). Those which lie at
the entrance of the stomach consist only of a blind uni-

form tube ; but there is commonly to be distinguished in

* Ramdohr Anat. t, xviii. f. 1. M. f. 5. F. » Ibid. t. x. f. 1. m.
: Ibid. t. xxii. f. 3. M L. Ramdohr regards the double one as a
Pair ; but as they terminate in a single tube, they ought to be reckoned
as one, è Tid. f. 4. © Thid. f. 2. K, L, M, N. t. xxiii f. 6.
* Ibid. 177. t. xxi. f. 3. F, F. * Ibid. f, 2, G 4f.
^ Thid. é xxii. f: 9, L. i Ibid. t. xxi, f, 1, O. £. xvii. f. 6. n.
* Ibid, te xx. f. 6. D,

126 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

those that open into the mouth, a reservoir, varying in
shape in different species, and terminating in a capillary
tube, or tubes, at one or both extremities?. In Bugs,
two pair of these vessels are often present, one of which
opens into the stomach ( Reduvius), or gullet ( Pentatoma),
but the other into the instruments of suction^. In the
Diptera they open into the stomach when the insect feeds
only upon the nectar of flowers (Syrphus), and into the
proboscis when it feeds upon both animal and vegetable
juices ( Tabanus, Musca), The function of the fluid se-
creted by these organs is to moisten or dilute the food
before it is received by the instruments of suction and

passed to the stomach*. When a common house-fly ap-

plies its proboscis to a piece of sugar, it is easy to see
that it moistens and dissolves it by some fluid.

ii. Varnish-secretor (Colleterium). In butterflies,
moths, and several other insects, one or more vessels
called blind vessels open into the oviduct, concerning
the use of which, physiologists are not agreed. In the
cabbage butterfly there is a pair of ovate ones, or rather
a bilobed one, each lobe of which externally terminates
in long perplexed convolutions, not easily traced, filled
with a yellow fluid, which Reaumur and Herold think
is used for varnishing or gumming the eggs, so that they
may adhere to the leaves on which they are deposited :
it may probably serve likewise for other uses. Another
vessel is also to be found in the above butterfly, which
enters the oviduct above this, filled with a thick white
fluid, the function of which is, probably, to lubricate the .

* Ramdohr Anat. t. xxii. f. 1. K, L. f. 9. J, K, L.

^ Jbid. f. 3, 4, 5. * bid. 57—. € Reaum. ii. 81. He-
rold Expl, of Plates. x, Malpigh. De Bombye. 37, Prate XXX:
Fre, 12, ¢,

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 127

poen A similar organ is found in Phryganea gran-
isd,

lv. Jelly-secretor (Corysterium). This is a remarkable
rgan, related to the preceding, which secretes the jelly
of Trichoptera, some Diptera, &c.; this organ in the for-
Mer, at least in Phryganea grandis, is of an irregular
Shape, with four-horns or processes *.

Poison-secretor (Joterium). This organ, which is most
conspicuous in the Hymenoptera Order, has not received
Much notice, except in the case of the Hive-bee and the

9a: in the former, it is an elliptical membranous
Vesicle or reservoir, furnished at its lower extremity with
š tube which renders to the sting, and at the other by a

lind, long, filiform, secretory, vessel, which according to

Wammerdam divides into ¢wo terminal blind branches4,
À ough Reaumur could detect but one®; in this vessel the
Polson is secreted and stored up. In Scolza there are
two Secretory vessels, which enter the reservoir in the
middle on each sidef. In the Scorpion, we learn from

arcel de Serres that the poison-secretor is clothed ex-
ternally with a horny thickish membrane, containing

Vo yellowish glands, composed of an infinity of spheri-
s pute) terminating in s canal, enlarged towards
p. SO as to-form a reservoir, and leading to the vn
NA y of the ating 5; Connected bya secdec tat with
à vete in spiders is a vessel with spiral folds,

seems properly to belong to this head—though

Herold Ibid. x. t. iv. f. l. p, u, y. Marcel de Serres Mem. du

VP ani 14), ^ Gaede Anat. t. i. f. 3. d.
month ICA d Ra è Bibl. Nat. 1. xix. f. 3. B.
38g. eaum., v. 377. +. XXIX. f. 7, $ f. N. Dict. d' Hist. Nat, xxx.

* Ibid. A97—,

128 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

'lreviranus calls it a saliva-vessel*—since in the Mygale

avicularia and other spiders, the effect of the bite is said

to be so venomous as to occasion considerable inflamma-
tion, and sometimes death”.

v. Scent-secretors (Osmateria). Amongst other means
with which insects are gifted for the annoyance of their
foes and pursuers, are the powerful scents which many of
them emit when alarmed and in danger. Concerning
the internal organs by which these effluvia are secreted
we possess but little information, but more notice has
been taken of the external ones by which they are emit-
ted. We may conclude in general, that the secretory
organs are membranous sacs or vesicles, perhaps termi-
nating in longer or shorter blind filiform vessels, some-
times secreting a fetid fluid, and at others a fetid gaseous
effluvium. TheZulidæ, at least ulus and Porcellio*, cover
themselves, when alarmed, with a fluid of this kind, or emit
one, for this faculty is not peculiar to the species noticed by
Savi. I observed early in the year, when I handled Zulus
terrestris, that it was covered with a slimy secretion, of à
powerful scent, which stained my fingers of an orangé
colour. The spiraculiform pores that mark the sides of
the animal are the outlets by which this fluid is emitted,
and not spiracles as has been supposed: each of these
orifices, as we learn from Savi, terminates internally in
a black vesicle, which is the reservoir of the fluid?. ‘The
most remarkable insect for its powers of annoyance in

this way, is one on that account called the bombardier

^ Arachnid. 31. t. ii. f. 21. p. 9. b N. Dict. d Hisl. Nat. xxii
114. 117. comp. Vor. I. p. 127. * N, Dict. d? Hist, xxviii, 6.
* Osservazioni, &ç. 13—,

INTERNAL ANATOM Y OF INSECTS. 129

(Brachinus cr.
of

tio

epitans), which can fire numerous volleys

Stinking vapour at its assailants before its ammuni-

: 1S exhausted, M. Dufour has given a very parti-

Cu , "
ar account of the organ that secretes this vapour ;—it

consists of a double apparatus, one on each side, in the
Keg of the abdomen, both formed of two distinct ves
* The frst, which is the innermost, presents itself
sy two different aspects, according as it is contracted
E - in the former case it is a whitish, irregularly
| ced, soft body, apparently glandular, placed under
i last abdominal segments; communicating at one end

Wit ! ue
bd the reservoir, and terminating constantly at the
ler

à na very long and slender filament: in the second
ase
P.

: or when it is dilated, it resembles an oblong, mem-
an ^ d a . . e
us, diaphanous sac, filled with air, then occupying

e i
: Whole length ef the abdomen, and appearing free
“cept wher
Second Vesse

Tedd

e it communicates with the reservoir. The
; l or reservoir is a small, spherical, brown or
ish body, constant in its form, internally hollow,
SB under the last dorsal segment, precisely above the
p., 2 ad opening by a small pore into the anus’: so

at the tai] of this little beetle may be regarded as a
i Mie with two pieces of cannon; which our
till aj *y ardier fires alternately without intermission
general poe is expended. The Carabi L. in
dichos s a pair of these anal scent-secretors, which
atile o z an ecd and caustic fluid, and sometimes a n
tha * The external organ of the scent-secretors in
Yrinus cons

tube ists of two minute hairy cylindrical retractile
"8, of

2 red colour’, Numerous insects of other tribes

` Vor, JI,
; Tbig, V.

VOL. IY

P: 246. N, Diet. a’ Hist. Nat. iv. 308. * Ibid. iv. 309.
«og. " De Geer iv. 358, t. xiii f. 9. m.
K

130 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

and genera emit scents from their anus, and from various
other parts of the body, of which having before given you
a very full account?, I shall proceed to the consideration
of the secretions themselves: but first I must observe
that in many cases, as in some of the cottony and pow
dery Aphides, Chermes, &c., the substance secreted ap“
pears to be a transpiration through the pores of the body:
a kind of excretion from the superabundance of its fluid
contents?. In many, however, this secretion transpire
through appropriate orifices: thus in Aphis Abietiss
which produces those curious galls resembling the cone
of a fir*, the flocoons of seeming cotton that cover it pro”
ceed from little oval concavities on its back, four of which
are arranged in a transverse line on each dorsal segment
of the abdomen: these concavities have minute tubercles
probably terminating in a pore’. In Aphis Fagi the
cottony Socoons are almost an inch long*.

The secretions of insects may be considered under the
following heads— Silk; Saliva; Varnish or Gum; Jelly;
Oils; Milk; Honey; Wax; Poisons and Acids ; Odoro

fluids and Vapours; and Luminous matter.

i, Silk. This valuable product of insects, while in the
silk-secretor, assumes in the Lepidoptera the appearanc
of a viscid gum, but the moment it is exposed to the a
it hardens into a silken thread. It is remarkable for the
following qualities :—it dries the instant it comes in con
tact with the air; it is then insoluble not only in wat?
but in the most active solvents, and even heat has no © 1

a Vor. If. p. 241—. III. p. 148—. ^ De Geer iii. 4}
* Vor. I. p. 454, where by mistake it is represented as the wor
of 4. Pini. ? De Geer ii, 111. — * Reaum. iii, £. xxvi. f 47 —

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 131

fect upon it to-melt or soften it: indeed, without these
Malities it would be of no use to us ^. As soon as it.
ior E Spinneret it becomes the thread we call silk,
ca being drawn through £wo orifices is necessarily
ouble throùgh its whole length. This thread varies consi-
Srably in colour and texture, as has been before stated,
Sometimes resembles cotton or wool rather than silk.
Spiders it is of a much softer and more tender texture
k that of other spinning insects; and Mr, Murray
3 to have proved that it is imbued, in the case of
k 8Ssamer, with negative electricity: in the sericterium
is A that produces it is sometimes white or grey,
tipniosy, yellow °. A remarkable gnat (Ceroplatus
Doge s), living on an agaric, carpets its station of
Varnic and € paths with something between silk and
tibanga Which it spins, not in a thread, but in a broad
ng qoin, Many insects have the power of discharg-
analog, their mouth a fluid which seems in some degree
aig i US to the saliva of larger animals. Thus many,
the}, x ‘doptera, Hemiptera, Diptera, &c., can dilute
See %d, and render it fitter for deglutition. I have

a . . .
globi common fly when not employed in eating, emit a
i * Of fluid as big as a grain of mustard-seed from

[0] . N i t
°SCis, and retract it again. On a former occa-
[e] 1

...*'Yed to you that many predaceous, carnivorous,

N. yn;
: € T Hist. Nat, vi, 305. > Vor. IIT. p. 221—.
Makes ey Arachnid. 44. In Paraguay a spider is found which
DaS cocoons of yellow silk, which are spun because of
ae eoi the colony. This operation occasions a flow of
also Mu s eyes and nose of the spinners. Azara Voyag. 212.
ray in Werner. Trans. 1823, 8—. è Reaum, v. 24.

K 2

194 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS

há

and some herbivorous beetles, when alarmed emit a drop
of coloured acrid fluid from the mouth*. That this is nof

secreted in any of the ordinary salival vessels is evident

from Ramdohr's dissections of those beetles?, who, h?
there been such an organ, would doubtless have disc”
vered it: but as the stomach of all of them is distinguishé
by those minute caeca or blind-vessels, which he denom"

nates shags (zotfen)*, perhaps these may be the secret”
of this fluid, probably analogous to the gastric juice w

which case its primary office would be the digestion y
the food. We are not however warranted in conside"
ing every fluid effused from the mouth as saliva. The
glutinous material with which wasps cement the wo

fibres for their paper edifices^; that with which som?

sand-wasps moisten the sand which they scrape away
of which they form the singular tubes that lead to che"

nests‘; and that with which the aphidivorous larv®

themselves previously to their becoming pupee® »—may
a secretion distinet from saliva ; possibly intermediate be
: e y
tween it and. gum or the matter of silk, and secreted ”

peculiar organs. In the wasp, however, Ramdohr

covered nothing of the kind”; and in Syrphus, as pef?
; ; aat if
observed, the saliva-secretors are very peculiar in t

structure, as if appropriated to the secretion of a pect”
eye 4 s im v
fluid’. Something similar has been observed by Re

a Vor. IL. p. 247—. ^ Ramdohr Anat. t. ü.—v ae
© Tbhid. 20. See above, p. 101. As some of the Sialisteria M"

to the stomach (see above, p. 125), there seems no small affir!

tween these shags and those organs.
4 Cuv. Anat. Comp. iv. 132, 136.
* Reaum. vi. Pref. xxviii. 177 —. f Ibid. Q93— j!
«£ Thid, iit. 375 ^ Anat. L. xii. f. 6. | Did. xxi. f^"

€
INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 133

mur with regard to the larva of Crioceris merdigeray
Which forms its cocoon with a kind of froth produced
from the mouth?.

li. Varnish or Gum. The eggs of various insects, when
they leave the oviduct, are covered with a kind of var-
nish or gum by which they adhere to, the substances
that the young lerves are to feed upon, or are placed in a
Proper position for their hatching in an appropriate sta-

tion, Several instances of this have been already men-

tioned? . I shall therefore not enlarge further upon the
Subject, With regard to the secretion itself, little has
“en recorded except its colour, which has been before
Noticed, Some Lepidoptera also, as we learn from

“aumur and Bonnet, use a varnish in the construction
9f their cocoons.

iv. Jelly or Gluten. "This secretion is particularly com
SPieuous in the Trichoptera and some Diptera, serving
38 a bed or nidus for those eggs that are committed to
be: Water, —upon which I have nothing to add to what

"S been before said’. Under this head also may be
Doticeq the fluid, secreted in peculiar vesicles, that lubri-
“ates the oviduct and the passages of the sexual or-
Sans e.

v. Oils,
Insect.

Oily substances are sometimes produced by .
The common oil-beetle (Meloe Proscarabeus)

When touched sends forth a drop of this kind of fluid, of

an Orange

; colour, from each joint of its legs f: something
Similar I

have observed in Coccinella bipunctata: Ray

~ Reaum. iii, 230. * Vor. III. p. 78—.
, Reaum, Hi 215. Bonnet ix. 182. * Vor. III. p. 68—

: Marcel de Serres Mem. du Mus. 1819. 133, 141.
© Geer, v, 6.

134 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS,

mentions a locust taken in Spain which emits a yellow
oleaginous fluid from between the claws of its fore legs*s
but the precise nature of these substances has not bee?
ascertained, nor whether they are secreted by peculia
organs.

vi. Milk. A milky fluid is produced by the larva of
Chrysomela Populi. Willughby observed a similar efu
sion from pores in the upper surface of the body of Aci
lius cinereus; and other insects emit it from other part
of their body.

vii. Honey. It is certain that honey is not an animal
secretion; yet the saccharine matter collected from the
nectaries of flowers, from which it is derived, seems 1?
undergo some alteration in the stomach; for the consist
ence of honey is greater than that of any vegetable ne
tar, and its taste does not vary greatly, while that of the
nectar in different plants is probably not the sam@
Reaumur also has observed, that each honey-cell in 9
bee-hive is always covered by a cream-like layer of ?
thicker consistence than the rest, which apparently serv
to prevent the more liquid honey, which from time Ld
time is introduced under it, from running out*. Nov
if honey were the unaltered nectar of plants, it is difficul
to conceive how this cream could be collected in prope

proportions. The last-mentioned naturalist likewise af
certained, that if bees, in a season in which the fields r
ford a scarcity of food, be supplied with sugar, they V

from this substance fill their cells with honey which df

fers in no respect from the common sort, except that iP
flavour is a little heightened? :—a similar argument maj

* Rai. Hist. Ins, 62. € Vor, IL p. 245, 951. -Rai ff^
Ins. 94, 382. * Reaum. v. 448. 4 Thid. v. 72%

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. ‘185

be deduced from the circumstance of the bees imbibing

€ juices of fruits of various kinds as they are well known
to do a

lecteq by

It seems therefore evident that the honey col-
bees undergoes some modification in their ho-
eY-stomach before it is regurgitated into the cells, and

erefore may be regarded in some degree as a peculiai
Secretion.

Huber says that he has ascertained by a great num-
er of observations that electricity is singularly favour-
able to the secretion of the substance of which honey is
"med by flowers; the bees never collect it in greater
Abundance, nor is the formation of wax ever more active,
an when the wind is in the south, the air humid and
Yarm, and a storm gathering’.

vi. Way generally transpires through the pores of
the skin of those insects that produce it, either partially
3 Senerally, and it is secreted from honey or other sac-

“tine substances taken into the stomach, In the hive-

96 as has been before stated, it is produced parzially*,
i in many other insects it is a general transudation of

body, This is particularly the case with a large
Number of the Homopterous Hemiptera; and those flo-
coe that look like cotton, and cover the body of seve-
ui na and Aphides, if closely examined will be
ticeg of the nature of wax: this I have particulanly no-
like "a respect to Chermes Fagi, in which the cotton-
9coons are often so long as to cause the insect to

us dg a feather, and a leaf covered by them exhibits a
dii "ngular appearance, as if clothed with the fine down

CNW, Probably the white powder or threads that
Naas p- 194. II. p. 179. " Encyclop. Britan, viii, 205.

4^ dou

de Phys, * Vor. II. p. 178.
*aum,. iii. 318—. t. xxvi. f. 1—6.

136 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

appear to transpire through the skin of many other in-

sects is of a waxy nature. In the larva of a beetle de-
scribed by Reaumur, the flocoons are so arranged as to
give the animal some resemblance to a hedgehog, and
when rubbed off they are reproduced in twelve hours*.
Gyllenhal, speaking of Peltis limbata, observes, that when
alive it is covered with a white powder resembling mould,
which if rubbed off returns again as long as the animal
lives.

It will not be improper to include under this head
what further account I have to give of Lac, which though
regarded as a resin, since Cocci sometimes certainly pro-
duce wax‘, probably has some analogy with the latter
substance. When the females of this Coccus (C. Lacea)
have fixed themselves to a part of the branch of the
trees on which they feed (Ficus religiosa and indica,
Butea frondosa, and Rhamnus Jujuba?), a pellucid and
glutinous substance begins to exude from the margins
of the body, and in the end covers the whole insect with
a cell of this substance, which when hardened by expo-
sure to the air becomes lac. So numerous are these in-
sects, and so closely crowded together, that they often
entirely cover a branch; and the groups take different
shapes, as squares, hexagons, &c., according to the
space left round the insect which first began to form its
cell. Under these cells the females deposit their eggs:
which after a certain period are hatched, and the young
ones eat their way out. ‘Though indisputably an animal
secretion, many of the properties of lac are not very
different from those of the juices of the trees on which

* Reaum. iii, 396—, 4. xxxi. f. 20—29. ^ Insect, Suec. i, 254+
* Vor. I. p. 326. ^ N. Dict. d' Hist. Nat, xvii. 189.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 137

the animal feeds, and which therefore would seem to un-
dergo but little alteration.

Wax seems also to form a constituent part of some
sects: which are not found to secrete it. The yellow
Substance deposited in vessels containing spiders in al-
Cohol is said to be a true wax, and may be obtained from
these animals by gently heating them?.

IX. Poisons and Acids. The bite as well as the sting
of many insects is followed by inflamed tumours, so that
the sialisteria of some bugs, Diptera, Aptera, and spiders,
May be regarded as producing a poisonous fluid; but we
know nothing of the real nature of it, nor of that of other
venomous insects, except the anz— whose celebrated acid
May be considered under the present head,—the dee, the
Wasp, and the scorpion.

Contrary to the once received doctrine that no acid
ae to be found in any animal, except as the effect of
disease in the alimentary canal, many insects secrete pe-
culiar and powerful ones. I have on a former occasion
related an instance in which an acid of this description,
Secreted in its sjalisteria, is employed by a moth to soften
tS Cocoon; and Lister mentions a species of Tulus which
Produced one resembling that of ants*; but this last 1s
the most powerful of all. The fact that blue flowers
when thrown into an ant-hill become tinged with red has
been long known; but Mr. Fisher of Sheffield, about
1670, seems to have been the first who ascertained that
this effect is caused by an acid with which ants abound,
" Which may be obtained from them by distillation or
Infusion in water’. Margraff and other chemists con-
` Nicholson's Journ. i, 298—. * Vor, HL. 283.

- Philos, Trans. 1670. * Ibid. Ray's Lett. 74.

138 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

firmed this discovery *; and concluding that this acid was
of a peculiar kind, they gave it the name of the Formic
acid. This name, however, is now exploded ; the subse-
quent experiments of Deyeux, Fourcroy and Vauquelin
having ascertained that the acid of ants is not of a di-
stinct kind, but a mixture of the Acetic and Malic”.
These acids are in such considerable quantities, and so
concentrated in these animals, that, when a number of
Formica rufa are bruised in a mortar, the vapour is so
- sharp that it is scarcely possible to endure it at a short di-
stance. It also transpires from them, for they leave traces
of it on the bodies which they traverse: and hence, ac-
cording to the experiments of Mr. Coleridge, the vulgar
notion that ants cannot pass over a line of chalk is cor-
rect; the effervescence produced by the contact of the
acid and alkaline being so considerable, as in some de-
gree to burn their legs*. The circumstance of much of
the food of ants being of a saccharine nature may ac-

count for this copious secretion of acid, the use of which
is probably to defend themselves and their habitations
from the attack and intrusion of their enemies: if a frog
be put into anest of Formica rufathat has been deranged,
it will be suffocated in five minutes. That which they
ejaculate from their anus when attacked, as formerly

stated €, must be secreted in an zoferium; but their very
blood seems of an acid nature. It is very probable, as
Dr. Thomson has observed‘, that acids may be ob-
tained from many other insects, and that they are various
‘modifications of the acetic.

a Amoreux Ins, Venim. 236—. — " N. Dict. d? Hist. Nat. xii. 94.

© Southey's Brazil, i. 645. 7 N. Dict. d Hist. Nat. ubi supr.
* Vor. H. p. 69. ^— € Syst. of Chemist. 933.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 139

From the circumstance that water is absorbed by
Sreasy moths, that crystals of a salt are occasionally
found adhering to them, that they change blue litmus
Paper red, — it has been inferred that their supposed oz/7-
ness is in fact an acid or acid salt, having the property of
attracting moisture from the air, the infected moths be-
Mg in fact not greasy, but wet; hence the application of
chalk and clay, usually recommended in this case, can
have only a temporary and superficial effect. The only
effectual remedy, is steeping the body in spirits of wine
till all the acid is extracted?. This acid is probably the
Same as Chaussier obtained from silk-worms, since called
Bonbic Acid». :

The poison of bees and wasps, as to its chemical qua-
lities, is a transparent fluid, at first sweet to the taste,
but immediately afterwards hot and acrid like the milky
Juice of the spurge*; soluble in water, but not in alcohol;
and separable from the former in the state of white pow-
der, when the latter is added giving a slight red tinge to
Paper stained. with vegetable blue, and when dry and
chewed appearing tenacious, gummy and elastic. This
ast property, as well as solubility in water and not in
alcohol, is common also to the poison of the viper, which

Owever differs in being tasteless, and not affecting ve-
Setable blues. From hence Fontana concludes that this

fluid is united with an acid, but in a very small propor-
tion, and not with an alkali‘. The venom of bees is
extremely active; a grain in weight, it is conjectured,
would kill a pigeon in a few seconds*. It is remarkable,

* Germar Mag. der Ent. 445—. » Mem. Dijon 1783. ii, 70.
: Reaum: v;354. . 4 Om Poisons, 1. 265—.
Ibid. 269.

140 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

however, that while in some constitutions the sting of a
single bee or wasp is sufficient sometimes to induce
alarming symptoms, in others numerous punctures will
produce little or no pain or inflammation. That this
fluid, and not the puncture of the sting, is the sole cause
of the inflammation that usually follows the wound in-
flicted by one of these animals, is proved by the facts,

that if it be introduced into one made by a needle, the
same effect ensues, and that when the whole contents of
the poison-bag have been exhausted by the insect’s sting-
ing three or four times in succession, its weapon then

becomes harmiess*.

The venom of scorpions, though much more potent,
probably resembles that of bees, &c., in many of its che-
mical qualities: it issues from two pores in the sting be-
fore described, where, when the animal is irritated, it
accumulates under the form of two little drops of a
whitish colour; spread upon paper this fluid produces a
spot like what would be caused by oil or grease, and this
part of the paper becomes by desiccation firmer and
transparent *.

x. Odorous fluids and Vapours*. The powerful scents
which different insects emit are extremely numerous,
much more so indeed than the generality of Entomolo-
gists have been aware, for there is scarcely a scent odious
or agreeable that may not be met with in the insect
world. This you will be convinced of, by following a
practice which I would recommend to you — that of smell-

* Reaum. ubi supr. è Vor. I. p. 124. III. p. 717—.

* N. Dict. d Hist. Nat. xxx. 427.

* J use the term odorous, not in the same sense as odoriferous, but
to include both sweet and fetid scents,

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 141

ing the insects you take. Some of these scents are pe-
culiar to particular parts or organs, and some are ex-
haled generally by the whole body; some are emitted
by a fluid secretion; and others are gaseous effluvia. On

a former occasion I gave you a rather full account of
these scents and their organs? ; I shall relate here only
WhatIthere omitted. To begin with sweet odours. Many
beetles emit an agreeable scent. The rose-scented Ca-
pricorn or musk- beetle ( Callichroma moschatum) has long
been noted for the delicious scent of roses which it ex-
hales; this is so powerful as to fill a whole apartment,
and the insect retains it long after its death. Captain
Hancock also informed me that another species of the
same genus, Callichroma sericeum, has in a high degree
à scent resembling that of the cedar? on which they feed.
Though most of the micropterous tribes (Staphylinus L.)
have a fetid smell, yet there are some exceptions to this
amongst them. One species (S. suaveolens K. M.S.) te~
lated to S. micans Grav., which I once took, smelt pre-
cisely like a fine high-scented ripe pear; another, Ozy-
telus morsitans, like the water-lily; a third, O. rugosus,
like water-cresses; and lastly, a fourth (5., fuscipes), like
saffron: Trichius Eremita, one of the Lamellicorns, is
Stated to have the scent of Russia leather ; Geotrupes ver-
"alis, in spite of its stercorarious food, of lavender-wa-
ter^, Mr. Sheppard has observed that Dytiscus margi-
nalis when recently taken smells not unlike liquorice :
Bonnet mentions a caterpillar that had the scent of new

Vor. H. p. 241—. IIT. p. 148—.

" A Brazilian wood so called, but differing from the common cedar,
Dotharding Insect. Coleopt. Danic.

! Sturm Deutsch. Fn. i. 27.

142 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS, ~

hay. A little gall-fly (Cynzps Quercus Ramuli L.) has
the remarkable odour of Fraxinella: the larva of another
species of this genus (C. Rose) has an odour which
seemed to Reaumur as attractive to cats as that of Ne-
peta cataria or Teucrium Marum*: some Phalangia smell
like walnut leaves? ; and the various spécies of the ge-
nus Prosopis (Melitta * b. k.) have a very agreeable scent
of Dracocephalum moldavicum".

We next come to fetid odours. These in numerous
cases are known to be secreted and emitted by appro-
priate vessels and organs; they are often exhaled from a .
fluid secretion, of which, in the letter lately referred to,
I gave you almost all the known instances. Savi, in his
history of Tulus fütidissimus, informs us that it emits a
yellow fetid fluid from its supposed spiracles, which if ap-
plied in sufficient quantity imparts a red colour to the
skin, to be removed neither by friction nor washing, but

only disappearing by time; when removed from the black
vesicles in which it is stored, it shoots into very trans-
parent octoedral crystals *. 7

I have before mentioned the coloured fluid which some
insects emit when they are disclosed from the pupa,
and that it probably exhales some powerful odour which

attracts the males?4.

The great Hydrophilus, in its larva state, when first
taken into the hand remains without motion; in a mi-
nute afterwards it renders itself so flaccid as to appear
like a cast skin. Taken by the tail it contracts itself
considerably, it then agitates itself briskly, and ejaculates
with a slight noise a fetid and blackish fluid *.

^ Reaum. iii. 494. ^ Mon. Ap. Angl. i. 136.

© Osservaz. sullo Tulus, &c. 14. * Vor. III. p. 299.
e Ns Dict. d' Hist. Nat. xv. AST.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 143

Tn other cases these odours are produced by gaseous
vapours. That of the Bombardiers (Brachinus) is the
Most celebrated and remarkable. It is whitish, of a
Powerful and stimulating odour, very like that exhaled

Y nitrous acid. It is caustic, producing upon the skin
the sensation of burning, and forming instantly upon it
red Spots which soon turn brown, and which, in spite of

“quent lotions, remain several days. It turns blue pa-
Per reda, That amiable, intelligent, and unfortunate
traveller Mr. Ritchie,—whose premature death when at-
tempting to penetrate to the interior of Africa all lovers
of Natural History so deeply lamented, and whose ardour
in the pursuit of that science I had an opportunity of
Witnessing, when, in company with him, Messrs. Savigny,
Du Fresne, and W. S. MacLéay in 1817, 1 visited the
. rest of Fontainebleau,—in a letter to the last-mentioned
Sentleman?, relates that his companion M. Dupont, near

tripoli took a nest consisting of more than a thousand
f a species of this genus. “JI am making a few experi-
Nents,” says he, “on the substance which they emit
When they crepitate, but do not know whether I can col-

“ct enough to arrive at any conclusion. It made Du-
ponts fingers entirely black when he took them. It is
Neither alkaline nor acid, and it is soluble in water and
in alcohol.” From this we may conjecture that it formed
Crystals.

Xi. Phosphorus. On this remarkable secretion I have
So fully enlarged on a former occasion *, that here I shall
merely add a few observations which Mr. Murray oblig-

* Ibid. iv. 308.

^ Dated Tripoli in the West, January 21, 1819.
* Vor. IL p. 423+,

144: INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

ingly communicated to me. He remarks that in a box
in which glow-worms were kept—five luminous specks
were found secreted by the animal, which seemed to glow
and were of a different tinge of light. One put into olive
oil at eleven P. M. continued to yield a steady and unin-
terrupted light until five o’clock the following morning,
and then seemed, like the stars, to be only absorbed by
superior effulgence. ‘The luminous spherical matter of
the glow-worm is evidently enveloped in a sac or capsule
perfectly diaphanous, which when ruptured discloses it
in a liquid form, of the consistency of cream. M. Ma-
caire, he observes, in the Bibliotheque Universelle, draws
the following conclusions from experiments made on the
luminous matter of this animal ;—that a certain degree
of heat is necessary to their voluntary phosphorescence
—that it is excited by a degree of heat superior to the
first, and inevitably destroyed by a higher—that bodies
which coagulate albumen take away the power—that
phosphorescence cannot take place but in a gas contain-

ing no oxygen—that it is not excited by common elec-
tricity, but is so by the Voltaic pile—and lastly, that
the matter is chiefly composed of albumen.

xii. Fat. There is one product found in the body ofin- |

sects most copiously in their larva state, but more or less
also in the imago, which may be called their fat. In the
former it is a many-lobed mass, occupying the whole of
the interior, except the space that is required for the
muscles and the internal organs, which it wraps round
and protects. It is contained in floating membranes,
very numerous, which fill all the interstices, and assume
the appearance sometimes of small globules, and some-
times of a thickish mucilage, which easily melts and in-

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 145
$

in colour it is most commonly white, but some-
llow or green. It is imagined to be a kind of
epiploon or caul, and is accumulated in the larva as a
store of nutriment for the growth and development of the
organs of the perfect insect while in the pupa state?.
The bleod in which the different organs fioat that is
Rot required for their nutriment, is supposed to be ex-
Pended in the formation of this substance. Marcel de
Erres is of opinion that it is secreted from the chyle by
Passing through the pores of the dorsal vessel, formerly
Called the heart of insects.
Inder this head Imay mention what little is known with
egar d to the perspiration of these animals‘. That a con-

times ye

Siderable quantity of fluid passes off from them when in
* pupa state, is sufficiently proved by the loss of weight
Rich they undergo, and by the experiments of Reaumur,
Who Collected the fluid in closed glass tubes; and that in
Sir Perfect state they are constantly passing off per-
‘Plrable matter by the pores of their skin or crust, is not
n rendered probable by the succulent nature of their
90d and the absence of any urinary discharge, but is.
ia loved by what takes place in a swarm of bees. These
“ects, when crowded together in hot weather in a large
Mass, become heated to such a degree, and perspire so
“Piously, that those near the bottom are quite drenched
the moisture it produces, which so relaxes their

Wi A
Mgs that they are unable to fly?.

&
wi Reaum, i.145. Lyonnet Anat. 106—. N. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat.

*

Pate XXI. Fic. 5. a. > See above, p. 89. note *,
* Huber i. 273.

LETTER XLII.

INTERNAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOG Y
OF INSECTS, CONTINUED.

REPRODUCTION.

'T HE reproductive organs of insects in their general de
nominations and functions correspond with those of the
higher classes of animals; but as to number, proportions
and other particular details of their structure, they diffe"
from them very considerably. I shall not now, howeve”
enter at large upon this subject, but confine myself prin
cipally to the consideration of those organs in the female
which are appropriated to the formation, fecundatiol»
maturation, exclusion and deposition of their eggs, an
other circumstances relating to that subject. The or”
gans connected with this function are the Sperm-reservoit i
the Oviduct; the Ovaries; and the Ovzpositor.

I. The Sperm-reservoir (Spermatheca) is an organ co?"
necting the vagina with the oviduct, which, according ta
Herold, receives the male sperm as into a reservoir*, 2?
fecundates the eggs in their transit through that passag”
This vessel, which consists of a double tunic, in the cab
bage-butterfly terminates the vagina, and is connecíe

* Herold Schmetterl. tab. expl. vii.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 147

with the oviduct by a lateral undulating tube: in shape
it is a rather irregular oblong, and is surmounted by a
‘mall orbicular vesicle, connected by a short tubular foot-
‘talk with the main reservoir ^. A similar organ was dis-
Covered by Malpighi in the imago of the silk-worm, who
“nominates it the uterus ; to which indeed it seems ana-
gous, and which he also regards as a reservoir for the
‘Perm for the gradual fecundation of the eges>, But in
: at fly the organ is of a rather different shape, and the
“terior vessel terminates in several spherical vesicles*.
tis not improbable that in those insects whose eggs are
Stadually laid, this provision for their gradual fecunda-
tion, if carefully sought for, might be detected’. Rif-
"iSchweils is of opinion, that in these cases the eggs
ae fertilized in their transit through the oviduct by
‘perm adhering to the folds of the: cloacæt: but this
“Pinion seems less analogous to what takes place in other
cases, with regard to the due preparation of the eggs for
* Safe and effectual transit f.

: Herold Schmetterl, t. iv. f. 1. x. &e. Prare XXX. Fie. 12. d.

a De Bonbyc, 36. ° Ibid. t. xii. f. 1. I. and f. 2. O. M:
oye, merdam, in dissecting the female of Oryctes nasicornis, dis-
i a blind-vessel opening into the vagina, and at the other or

dine extremity not terminated by any secretory tube, containing
in gy wish matter, that seems analogous to the organ mentioned
the
ian! "Vessels, which he supposes to be connected with the Colle-
Matte, (see above, p. 126.), and which he states to contain a slimy
Perna DL Nat. i. 151. b. £ xxx. f. 10. g. 904. b. £ xxix. f. 3. t.
Whi ps likewise the organ discovered by M. L. Dufour in Scolia,—
deseri © Imagines to belong to the poison-secretor, and whiċh he
calar es as à sac consisting of a double tunic, the exterior one mus-
Slatin the interior membranous, and filled with a blueish-green
mathon S Matter ( N. Dict. d? Hist. Nat. xxx. 388.)—may be a sper-
ry = * De Insector. Genital. 17.
allude to those organs above described (p. 126.) for the secre-

i2

text; and in the hive-bee he found a similar organ covered
r

14$ INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

TL The Oviduct (Oviductus) is the canal, always sé
parate from the vagina, which receives the eggs from the
ovary, transmitting them, often by a peculiar and com-
plex instrument in which it terminates, to their prope?
‘station. This canal sometimes opens into the anal pass-
age or cloaca, and at others, as in the cabbage-butterfly 25
is distinct, and lies between the sexual organ and the
the anus. In the Arachnida there are two oviducts?.

Ill. The Ovaries (Ovaria) in insects are the viscer
in which the eggs are generated and grow till they at-
rive at maturity, when they pass through the oviduct
arid are extruded or deposited in their appropriate sta-
tion. They vary considerably in their structure, In all
however, except the Julidæ, in which there is. only ?
single ovary, the oviduct at its upper or inner extremity
terminates in wo branches, usually further subdivided
into a number of smaller conical ones, which several r8*
mifications constitute the Ovaries, OY egg-tubes as they
are sometimes called: these tubes generally consist of à

single membrane, and are joined to the oviduct by mei”

branous rugose cloace*: in the Phalangia, howeveh
there are fwotunics; the outer one of a cellular substance
and the inner one consisting of spiral fibres like trachet
a kind of structure which renders them capable of grent

tion of matter for varnishing the eggs or lubricating the oviduct. it
seems most probable, if the fecundation of the eggs takes place ge
dually, that upon their passing into the oviduct, a special reserv
should be appropriated to the reception ofthe male sperm, adapted
` maintaining in due activity the vivifying principle, or aura seminalis.

2 Herold Schmett. t. iv. f. 2. m n. ;

b Treviran: Arachnid. 36. t. iv. f. 32. aa. Marcel de Serres
Mem. du Mus. 1819. 89.

© Marcel de Serres, Mem. du Mus. 1819. 115.

4 Rifferschw. De Genital. Ins. 11.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 149

extension, Rifferschweils considers the ovaries as formed
Upon two primary types.— First, flagelliform ovaries, con-
Sisting of conical tubes equal in length, and inserted at
the same place at the end of the primary branches as in
the Lepidoptera, the Bee, &c. Secondly, racemose ovaries,
“onsisting of short conical tubes, so proceeding from the
Primary branches as to render the ovary racemose or.
Pinnated, as in certain Neuroptera, Coleoptera, and Di-
Ptera>: but perhaps their structure will be better un-

derstood if they are divided into agglomerate ovaries
and branching ovaries: in the first the egg-tubes form
^to bundles, in which the branches are not discernible,
às in the Ephemera, the chameeleon-fly, and spiders* ;
‘nd in the second the branches are distinct, as in the
Lepidoptera and the majority of insects.

The number of branches varies in different genera and >
Species, In Echinomyia grossa, alargefly, there are only the
two primary branches‘; in the common dung-beetle ( Geo-
trupes stercorarius)these appear divided at their apex into

lgers*: in Scolia, a Hymenopterous genus, and the

Utterfly of the nettle, there are three secondary branches
n each sidef: in many other Lepidoptera and the hum-

*-bee there are fours; in the common louse there are

Jtveh 3

; in the rhinoceros-beetle and the cockchafer, sia! ;
i T MEE 3
a the wasp seven*; eight in the cockroach!; twelve in

: Marcel de Serres in Mem. du Mus. 1819. 109. M
B Rifferschw. ubi supr.23—. Pirate XXX. Fie.12.a. Swamm.
Ol. Nat. t. xlii, f. 8. a, fg © Ibid. i. 104. t xv. f. 3. ii. 62.
‘SL Ff. 8. Treviran. Arachnid. t. iv. f.32. -è Reaum. iv. 391.
Posselt Anat, der Ins. t.i. f. 28, 29. * N. Dict. d Hist.
Swamm. ubi supr. ii. 23. 1. xxxv. f. 3.
| ^ Prate XXII. Fic. 2.
Swamm. ubi supr. i. 151. Gaede Anat. der Ins. t. ii. f. 3.
Swamm, i. 203. 1 Gaede 20. t i. f. 9.

150 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

the Carabi and the mealworm-beetle*; thirty in the
large green grasshopper (Acrida viridissima”); thirty-
two in the cheese-maggot-fly°; and in the hive-bee
more than a hundred and fifty’.

The number of eggs also- contained in the ovaries
varies. In Echinomyia grossa there is only one egg in

. each, and only £wo at once in the matrix*: in another

fly produced by the cheese-maggot there are four';
in the louse there are ive; in the cockchafer six; in
the hive-bee sixteen or seventeen are visible at the same
time"; and in the silk-work moth sixty or seventy. Be-
sides the eggs, the tubes contain a pellucid mucus, and at
their upper extremity the eggs are lost in a granular
mucous mass, in which, however, they may still be dis-
covered with a microscope’. With regard to the ter-
mination of the ovaries or egg-tubes internally,—in those

that have agglomerated ones it is not to be traced, the

whole appearing like an oblong obtuse or acute body’:
but in the branching ones it is more easily traced ; at first
they converge in most cases to a point; this is seen to
advantage in the caterpillar of some butterflies, when
near assuming the pupa, in which they are readily dis-
covered, and represent with great truth and elegance the
bud of some. blossom"; but in time they diverge, and
sometimes become convoluted"; they generally termi-
nate in a slender simple filament, but in the louse in 4
fork^; they are sometimes extremely long, as in the

a Gaede Anat. der Ins. 25, 28. t. ii. f. 10. ^ Ibid. 32.

^ Swamm. ii. 74. 4 Ibid. 203. t. xix. f. 3.

© Reaum. iv. 391—. f Swamm. ż. xliii. f. 19. © Gaede 22.

^ Swamm. Bibl. Nat. i. 203. ` Ibid. k Rifferschw. 11— .

! Swamm. £. xlii. f. 8. Gaede. £. i. f. 3. cc.

m Herold. Schmett. t. v. f. 10, 12. " Phare XXX. Fic. 12-
o Prate XXII. f. 2. 6.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. — 151

Wasp and Lepidoptera? ;. in the hive-bee they appear to
be shorter, !

IV. We are next to consider the Ovipositor, or instru-
ment by which numerous insects are enabled to intro-
duce their eggs into their appropriate situations, and
where the new-born larva may immediately meet with
"s'destined food. As this instrument is one of the most
Striking peculiarities with which the wisdom of the CRE-
ATOR has gifted these little animals, and in many cases is
extremely curious and wonderful, both in its structure

and modes of operation—though on a former occasion |
gave you a brief account of several kinds of them’, I
Shall now enter more at large into the subject, and de-
Scribe these often complex machines, as they are exhi-
ited in most of the different Orders of insects.
With regard to the Coleoptera Order, there are doubt-
less numerous variations in the structure of this organ ;

Ut very few have been noticed, and those chiefly belong
to insects whose grubs feed on timber. In these it is
Usually retractile one part within another, like the pieces
of a telescope: in Buprestis it consists of three long
Pd sharp lamina, the two lateral ones forming a sheath to
the intermediate one, which probably conveys the eggs?:
m Elater it is a cylindrical organ, terminating in a pair
9f conical joints, which seem to form a forceps, and in-
cluding a tube probably conveying the egg to the for-
“eps, which perhaps introduces it*. The Ovipositor of

rionus coriarius differs from that of Callidium viola-
ceum, and many Capricorns before described f: it consists
Merely of a long bivalve piece ending in a kind of for-

a wamm./ xix. f. 4.5. — * Ibid. f.3. © Von. L p. 353—.

. De Geer iv. 197. z, iv. f. 17. © Ibid. 143. t. V. f. 15.
Vor. Y. p. 355.

152 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

ceps, and hollowed above into a channel for the passage
of the eggs?.

In the Orthoptera the instrument of oviposition is more
simple; in Locusta Leach, consisting merely of four ro-
bust three-sided pieces, two above and two below, the
former pair at the end curving upwards and the latter
downwards?, these pieces seem calculated when they
have’ entered the earth to enlarge the burrow, and the
animal appears able to separate them very widely from
each other’. The ovipositor of Acrida viridissima, which
like that of many Hymenopterous insects forms a kind .
of appendage or tail to the body, has been described
both by De Geer and Latreille as consisting of two valves
only? ; but in reality it consists of siz, two upper and four
lower, as you may ascertain by means of a pin or the
point of a penknife, which will readily separate them.
This is confirmed by a figure of Stoll’s of a species which
seems to connect Conocephalus Thunb. with Gryllus
Latr. In this the ovipositor is considerably longer than
the body of the animal, and is composed of siz distinct
pieces; viz. wo external ones stouter than the rest, and
within these four others finer than a hair and convolute
at the apex*. There is a considerable variety in the
shape of the ovipositors of the dcride and the cognate
genera :—thus in A. viridissima this organ is straight, in
A. verrucivora bent like a sabre, and in Pterophylla citri-

Jolia K. and some others, the whole machine is short
and boat-shaped ; in Scaphura Vigorsii K. it is also rough
with sharp little tubercles*. I had an opportunity of

a De Geer v. 62, t. nii. f 12. ^ Prare XV. Fic. 18.
-* Stoll Sauterel. t. xxii. b. f. 87, &c. — * De Geer iii. 418. £. xxi-
f. 10, 11. Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins. iii. 98. `

* Stoll ubi supr. t, xiii, a. f. 51. f This insect, which con-

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 158

observing, with respect to the first of these insects, that in
boring, as is the case with the Tettigonie and saw-flies,
the motion of the valves was alternately backwards and
forwards. It appeared also to me that the two outer
Pieces of each of the apparent valves were fixed in a
groove in the margin of the intermediate one. I saw this
clearly with respect to the upper pieces, and it is most
Probable that the lower are similarly circumstanced. In
the cricket tribe (Gryllus Latr.) the ovipositor is as long
as the abdomen, very slender, terminating in a knob?.
It is apparently bivalve like that of Acrida, but I believe
is resolvable into the same number of pieces.

In the Homopterous Hemiptera there seems to be more
than one type on which the ovipositor is constructed. In
an insect very common with us, the froth froghopper (Cer-
Copis spumaria), some approach is made to the ovipositors
last described, at least the number of pieces is the same—
for it has a pair of external valves forming a sheath, which
includes three sharp lamine resembling the blades of a
lancet, the middle one of which can be separated into
two; this instrument De Geer had reason to think was
Scored transversely like a file’. In the insects of this Or-
der so noted for their song* ( Tettigonia F.), there are only

Jive pieces; namely, two valves forming the sheath, two
augers or borers, and an intermediate piece upon which
they slide, each being furnished with an internal groove
for that purpose, and the middle piece with a ridge to

t; a contrivance of Divine Wisdom, to prevent their

nects Conocephalus, Acrida, &c. with Locusta Leach, is also distin-
guished by antenne at first filiform and then setaceous.
* De Geer iii. £. xxiv. f. 1, 12. b Ibid. 176. t. xi. f. 19.
* Vox. H. P. 994.

154 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

dislocation when employed in boring ;. the augers ter-
minate in a knob which is externally toothed*. This
structure approaches that of the Hymenoptera, especially
the saw-flies. With regard to the Heteropterous section
of this Order—as they usually do not introduce their eggs
into any substance, they have no call for any remarkable
ovipositor, and therefore are not so furnished. A re-
mark which will also apply to the Lepidoptera Order.

In the Libellulina amongst the Neuroptera, an organ
of this kind is sometimes discoverable. In Agrion, Reau-
mur noticed a part which he conjectured to be an ovi-
positor ; it consists of four [amine or lancets, the interior
pair slender, the exterior wider, and all externally ser-
rated >.

The insects of the Hymenoptera Order have long been
celebrated for the organs we are describing, whether
used as saws, augers, or darts. I formerly gave you a
very general account of the saws,——I shall now give you
a very interesting one in detail copied from an admi-
rable little essay of Professor Peck. This instru-
ment," says he, ‘is a very curious object; and in order
to describe it it will be proper to compare it with the
tenon-saw used by cabinet-makers, which being made
of a very thin plate of steel, is fitted with a back to pre-

vent its bending. The back is a piece of iron, in which
a narrow and deep groove is cut to receive the plate,
which is fixed: the saw of the Tenthredo is also furnished
with a back, but the groove is in the plate, and receives
a prominent ridge of the back, which is not fixed, but
permits the saw to slide forward and backward as it is

* Reaum. v TIL > Ibid. vi. 435. 1. xl. f. 6, 7.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 155

thrown out or retracted. The saw of artificers is single,
but that of the Tenthredo is double, and consists of two
distinct saws with their backs: the insect in using them,
first throws out one, and while it is returning pushes for-
ward the other; and this alternate motion is continued
till the incision is effected, when the two saws receding
from each other, conduct the egg between them into
its place. In the artificial saw the teeth are alternately
bent toward the sides, or out of the right line, in or-
der that the fissure or kerf may be made sufficiently
Wide for the blade to move easily. To answer this pur-
Pose in some measure, in that of the Tenthredo the teeth
are a little twisted, so as to stand obliquely with respect
to the right line, and their point of course projects a little
beyond the plane of the blade, without being laterally
bent; and all those in each blade thus project a little
9utwards: but the kerf is more effectually made, and a
free range procured for the saws, by small teeth placed
9n the outer side of each; so that while their vertical
effect is that of a saw, their lateral effect is that of a rasp.
In the artificial saw the teeth all point outward (towards
the end) and are simple; but in the saw of the Tenthredo
they point inward, or toward the handle, and their outer
*dge is beset with smaller teeth which point outwards (to-
Wards the end)*.” Valisnieri, Reaumur, and De Geer de-
Scribe the groove as being in the back; but in Mr. Peck’s
insect, if there is no error in his account, it is, as in the
Cicada, in the saw itself’, In the genus Cimbex, be-
9nging to the same tribe, the saw differs in shape, being
, Natural History of the Slug-worm, 12—. f. 12, 13.

Valisn. Esperienz. &c. Musca dé Rosai. Reaum. v. 100—.

© Geer ii. 916—. The last writer thought he saw in the back of

€ saw itself a longitudinal cavity (918), which applied to the groove
Would form an open canal.

156 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

somewhat sigmoidal or resembling the letter S, while in
that of other saw-flies it is cultriform with a concave edge:
other minor differences distinguish them, which need not
be particularized.

A similar structure, with regard to the organ in ques-
tion, obtains in the rest of the Hymenoptera, even those
that use it as a weapon of offence; but the backs of the
saws in them, composed of a single piece, become a sheath
for the darts. "The valves, however, vary. In most
of those with an exerted sting, as Pimpla F., they are
linear, exerted, and as long as the aculeus itself*. In
Proctotrupes Latr. they appear to be united so as to form
a tube for the ovipositor, and are produced by a pro-

longation of the last abdominal segment. The darts

usually run in two grooves of the sheath, and at their
apex are retroserrulate?. In some cases the sheath it-
self is serrated*. The shanks of the darts are connected
with the valves; so that when these open they are pushed
out: sometimes on their outer side they have a triangu-
lar plate towards the base, which prevents their being
pushed out too far.

In Sirex and many ichneumons, in which the ovipo-
sitor is too long to be withdrawn within the abdomen, it
remains always exerted; but in general it is retracted
within that part when unemployed. In the gall-fly (Cy-
nips) this instrument is really as long as in Pimpla, &e. ;
but as it is infinitely more slender, when in repose it is
rolled up spirally and concealed within the abdomen.
It is the puncture of this minute organ that produces the
curious galls formerly described to you’. But the most
anomalous ovipositor in this Order appears to be that -

2 Prare XVI. Fic. 1. ^ Ibid.
s Reaum. v. 347. t. xlix. f. 10. d, f. 4 See above, Vor. I. 450—.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 157

of Chrysis (C. ignita, &c.), which is covered by several
demi-tubes or scales enveloping and sliding over each
other: when these scales are removed, the true ovipositor
appears, which is of a structure similar to that of the rest
„Of the Order, but the valves are long and slender with
their summit generally visible without the anus?.

Though the ovipositor of the majority of Dipterous in-
Sects is a tube with retractile joints?, in the crane-flies
this organ is different, and, like that of Acrida above de-
scribed, consists of what at first sight appear two valves,
but each of which is formed of two pieces, the upper
Ones sharp and longer, and the lower pair blunt. The
Upper pair forms the auger that bores a hole in the
ground, and the lower conducts the eggs into it after it
is bored ©. .

In the Aptera and Arachnida in general there seems
No remarkable instrument of this kind; but Treviranus |
has described one in spiders for extruding the eggs of a
singular construction. It is an oval plate lying between
the external genitals and spinning organs, and is com-
posed of a number of small screw-shaped cartilages, con-
hected together in the most wonderful manner. There
are few organs, he observes, in the animal kingdom
which for their artificial mechanism can be compared
With this. Each cartilage inosculates very closely in the.

adjoining one, and all are besides bound together by a
strong skin‘.

* De Geer ii. 835. 7. xxviii. f. 20, 21. PLATE XV. Fic. 22. This
figure was drawn by a friend—the organ seems more exerted than in
De Geer’s. I cannot make out the little appendage at the end.

1 Pirate XVI. Fie. 2, 3. * Reaum. v. 19—. £ ii, f. 3 - 6.

Arachnid. 40.

158 ` INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

The manner in which the eggs of insects are fecundated
by the male sperm is one of those mysteries of Nature
that are not yet fully elucidated and understood. We
can readily conceive that all the eggs may be fertilized
by a single intercourse in the case of insects which, like
the Ephemerc and Trichoptera, exclude the whole mass at
once; orlike many moths and butterflies, in a very short
time afterwards; but the subject becomes much more dif-
ficultto explain when we advert to the female of the hive-
bee, the whole number of whose eggs, deposited in zwo
years, are, as Huber has demonstrated, in like manner
fertilized by a single act*:—if you bear in mind, however,
what I have lately observed with regard to Malpighi's
discovery of a sperm-reservoir in insects, you will more
readily comprehend how in this case a gradual fecunda-
tion may take place. The principal objection to this so-
lution of the difficulty in the case before us, is derived
from the very small size of the organ supposed to be des-
tined for this purpose —it being scarcely bigger than the
head of a pin?: it seems therefore incredible that it should
retain any portion of an extraneous fluid at the end of
twelve or eighteen months, and still more unlikely that
the fluid should in the interval have sufficed for the
slightest moistening of not fewer than 30,000 or 40,000
eggs. The only hypothesis that seems at all to square
with this fact, is that of Dr. Haighton,— that impregna-
tion is the result not of any actual contact of the sperm
with the eggs, but of some unknown sympathetic in-
fluence*, or rather perhaps of some penetrating effluvia

* Huber Nouvel. Observ. i. 106. — ^ Swamm. Bibl. Nat. t. xix. AT
* Philos. Trans. 1797. 80.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 159

Or aura seminalis, which, though small in quantity, it may
retain the power of emitting for a long period. |

Certain female moths, of the species of that family
Which, from the remarkable cases or sacs the larve in-
habit, the Germans call sack—£rüger, before noticed ?,
have been supposed to have the faculty of producing fer-
tile eggs without any sexual intercourse; and various
Observers, after taking great pains, appeared to have sa-
tisfactorily proved the fact; so that some doubted whether
these insects produced any males at all^. The enigma
Was at length explained by the accurate Von Scheven.
At first his experiments were attended with the same re-
Sult as those of his predecessors; but upon making them
More carefully, and separating what he conceived to be
the female from the male pupae, he ascertained not only
the existence of a female in the species he examined
(Psyche vestita), but that wlien thus secluded she laid
barren eggs; evidently proving that in the contrary in-
Stances above alluded to, an unperceived sexual inter-
Course must have taken place*. Though he thus ascer-
tained that these insects do not in this respect deviate
from the general rule, he remarked or confirmed several
facts in their economy sufficiently anomalous ‘and strik-
ing ;—as that the female is not only without wings, but
With scarcely any feature of a moth, much more closely
resembling a caterpillar; and that in ordinary circum-
stances che never attempts to leave the pupa-case in
Which she has been disclosed, but that being there im-
Pregnated by the male, she there also, apparently after the
aVat iz p. 464. ^ Compare Reaum. iii. 153.

as Act. Nat. Cur. 1767. iii, 430, Wien. Verzeich. 292.
* Naturfor St*, xx. 59—.

=

160 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS,

manner of the female Cocci, deposits her eggs, which
hatching produce young larvae that make their way out
of the case, and thus seem to originate without maternal

interference?.

But the most remarkable fact bearing upon this head,
though as relating to a viviparous insect it does not
strictly belong to it, is the impregnation of the female
Aphides, or plant-lice, before alluded to^. If you take a
young female Aphis at the moment of its birth, and ri-

gorously seclude it from all intercourse with its kind,
only providing it with proper food, it will produce a
brood of young ones: and not only this; but if one of
these be treated in the same way, a similar result will
ensue, and so on, at least to the fifth generation!! to

which period Bonnet, who first made an accurate series
of observations on this almost miraculous fact, success-
fully carried his experiments, till the approach of winter
and the want of proper food forced him to desist®; and
Lyonnet extended it still further’. It is now generally
admitted as an incontestible fact, that female Aphides
have the faculty of giving birth to young ones without
having had any intercourse with the other sex. How
are we to explain this most extraordinary fact? ^ Are

* [t does not appear to be clearly decided whether the eggs are ex-
truded from the female, or whether dying immediately after fecunda-
tion they are hatched within her body. As the young larve cer-
tainly are hatched in the pupa (not merely within the exterior case
of bits of grass, &c., which includes it) which the body of the insect
must fill, it does not seem easy to conceive how she can find room
for oviposition ; and yet Von Scheven expressly says that one female
of Ps. vestita—which being kept from all access to the male actually
left the pupa-case and wandered about the glass which contained
them —laid unfruitful eggs. b Vou. I. p. 32, 174.

e Bonnet i. 19—. * Reaum. vi, 551.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 161

We to suppose with Bonnet that these insects are truly
androgynous, as strictly uniting both sexes in one? This
Supposition, however, is completely overturned by the
circumstance, that there are actually male as well as
“male Aphides, and that these, as was first observed
Y Lyonnet, are united towards the close of the sum-
"ler in the usual. manner*. The most likely supposi-

tion therefore is, that one conjunction of the sexes suf-

ces for the impregnation of all the females that in a
Succession of generations spring from that union. It is
true that at the first view this supposition appears incre-

ible, contradicting the general laws and course of na-
ture in the production of animals. But the case of the

ive-bee, stated above, in which a single intercourse with
€ male fertilizes all the eggs that are laid for the space
" two years, and in the case of a common spider men-
"toned by Audebert>, for many years, shows that the
"Perm preserves its vivifying powers unimpaired for a
vag period, indeed a longer period than is requisite for

S impregnation of all the broods that a female Aphis
“an Produce; and if immediate contact with the fluid be
not Necessary, who can say that this is impossible? It
S however, one of those mysteries of the CREATOR that
. man intellect cannot fully penetrate. But this anomaly
Nature is not wholly confined to the Aphides; since Ju-
"ne has ascertained that the same thing takes place with

Whnia pennata Mull (Monoculus Pulez L.) one. of

"anchiopod Crustacea®. It is worth observing whether

* Ibid. 559. ^ N. Dict. d' Hist. Nat. ii. 284.

“Ibid, ix. 125. Bonnet and Jurine both found that the female

Sie ides and Branchiopods that were fertile without the usual inter-
lr f

3€ of the sexes were less fruitful than their mother, and those

v OL, 1 Ns M

162 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

the female Aphides in their natural state, I mean those
of the summer or viviparous broods, have intercourse
with the male. I think I have noticed males amongst
them; but they seem to become most numerous in the
autumn, preparatory to the impregnation of the ovipa
‘tous females. The object of this law of the CREATOR is
probably the more ready multiplication of the species*.

As to the period of gestation, most insects begin to lay
their eggs soon after fecundation has taken place: but in
some Arachnida, as the Scorpion, which seems to be both
oviparous and ovo-viviparous, nearly a year intervenes
and the eggs increase to, four times the size which they had
attained at that period, before they are extruded b, ‘The
time that is required to lay the whole they are to pro"
duce, varies also in insects. In this respect they may be
divided into two great classes : —those namely which de
posit the whole at once, as Ephemerina, Trichoptera, kes
and those which deposit them in succession, occupying in
this operation a longer or shorter period. Many in the
‘frst class, as the Trichoptera (Phryganea L.) or case
"worm-flies, envelope their-eggs in a gelatinous substance ^
"which renders their extrusion in a mass more easy.
the second class, which includes by far the greater propo
‘tion of insects, some exclude the whole number in a very
‘short period, others require two or three days or a weeks
as the cockroach‘; and others, as the queen-bee; no!

of the last generation less so than the first. Latr. Hist. Nat. dë
Crust. et Ins. xi. 292.

^ See more on the subject of fecundation. Vor. IT. p. 158—.

b N. Dict. d' Hist. Nat. xxx. 426. © Vor. III. p. 68-

å De Geer iii. 533,

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS, 163

less than two years. ‘The eggs in the ovaries of the last
Ny infinitely in size; those that have entered the oviduct
ave arrived at maturity, while the rest grow gradually
‘taller as they approach the capillary extremity of the
tubes, where they become at length invisible to the highest
Magnifier? In many insects the eggs seem nearly to have
*eached their full growth previously to the exclusión of the
emale from the pupa; and this exclusion and the im-
Pregnation and laying of the eggs rapidly succeed. each
Other, One moth (Hypogymna dispar), which is remark-
able for the number of eggs she contains, sometimes de-
Posits them, even before they are fecundated, in the pupa-
Raed, But in other cases the sexual union is not so im-
Mediate, and some time, longer or shorter, is requisite
E the due expansion of the eggs; and the ovaries of the
nimal swell so much, as often to enlarge the abdomen
9 an extraordinary bulk: this is seen in a very common
“etle (Chrysomela Polygoni) that feeds upon the knot-
S'i55: but in no insect is it so striking as in the female of
© White ants, whose wonderful increase of size after im-
"'eenation I have related to you on a former occasion *.

U shall conclude this subject with a few observations
- v0-viviparous insects ; supposed neuters, and hybrids,

W
ich, though they do not fall in regularly under any

Sag foregoing heads, may very well have a place in this
r.
l. ;
e It has already been observed that there are a few
Ova barous insects?, the young of which exist in the
"les at first as eggs, but are hatched within the body
© Mother, and come forth in the living form of a
> Swamm. i. 203. b. ¢. xix. Jk ^ Reaum. ii. 66.
9r. TT. p. 36, * Vor. IIT. p. 64—.
M2

164 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

larva and sometimes even of a pupa. Of the first descrip"
tion are certain Diptera, the Aphides, and the Scorpion. -

Reaumur has described two modes in which the Jar-
væ of the first are arranged in the matrix of the mother”
In some they are heaped together without much ap?
pearance of order, being placed merely parallel to each
other*; but in others they are arranged in a kind of ri
band—the length of the little animals, which are als?
parallel, forming its thickness—rolled up like the main-
spring of a watch^. These larvæ in general are not di-
vided into zwo masses corresponding with the pair °
ovaries in other insects, but form only a single one“
You must not suppose that these little fetuses lie naked
in the womb of the mother; each has its own envelop?
formed of the finest membrane, which, however, is not
entirely divided from that of those adjoining to it, buf
appears to be one tube, which becomes extremely slen"
der between each individual, so as when drawn out to
look like a chain’. Reaumur seems to have though!
that in these flies the larvee were never confined in any
other case or egg; but De Geer sometimes found egt?
in the body of Musca carnaria, though most generali

larvze, from which he conjectures that it is really ovo- Ui
viparous, the eggs being hatched in the body of the m
ther’. As these flies are all carnivorous, and their ° j

fice is to remove putrescent flesh, you may see at on?
glance the object of ProvipEnce in this law of nature”
that no time may be lost, and the animal exercise iv
function as soon as it is disclosed from the matrix.
The Aphides, so fruitful in singular anomalies, are ov
2 Pirate XXII. Fia. 4. * [bid. Fic. 3. l

* Reaum. iv. 414. 8 Tid. t. xxviii, f.14, 19
* Ib. 404, f De Geer vi. 60—.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 165

"Viparous, as I have before hinted *, at one period of the
Year, that is during the summer, but strictly oviparous
at the close of the year. From the experiments of De
“er, however, upon Aphis Rose, it would appear that
's faculty is not conferred upon the same individuals,
ut only upon those of different generations of the same
*Pecies ; all the generations being ovo-viviparous except
© last, which is oviparous®: nor does it appear, as has

“en sometimes imagined, that it is common to the whole
Senus,

Makes

tiş . . e
» Which appeared never to be ovo-viviparous-.

De Geer observed a species in the fir, which
curious galls resembling a fir cone (Aphis Abie-

ith regard to scorpions, it does not seem clear that
iis, are always ovo-viviparous : M. Dufour twice found
whi © midst of the eggs nearly mature, a young scorpion
ch appeared to him at large in the cavity of the ab-
"Men ; it was so large that it was difficult to compre-
“nd how it could possibly be excluded from the animal,
ac” d extraordinary operation. The pupiparous
befor p orien &c.) have been sufficiently noticed

" ?- have already in several of my former letters stated
You what the modern doctrine of physiologists is with

S E yeas ; y ;
à Dect to certain individuals, usually forming the most
WMerous

? their

part of the community with insects living in
that were formerly supposed to be neuters, or as
Sex neither male nor female—that they are in
very instance a kind of abortive females, fed with
nt and less stimulating food than that appropri-
to. those whose ovaries are to be developed, and in

: Most €

iffere
ated

a

" P l. p. 174. b De Geer iii. 70—.

"Vere è N. Dict. d' Hist. Nat. xxx. 426—.
9L. TIT. p, 64—,

166 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

consequence in most instances incapable of conception”
Upon these stcrile females, you also heard, devolve m

general the principal labours of

their respective colonies
showing the beneficent design of ProvipENcE in exempt
ing them from sexual cares and desires, and meriting for
them the more appropriate name, now generally used, ©
workers. The differences in the structure of the female
bee and the workers were also then accounted for; a?

similar reasoning may be had recourse to with regard t°
those of ants, in which the worker and the female differ
still more materially. My reason for introducing this
subject here, is to observe to you that I have som?
grounds for thinking that this system extends furthe
than is usually supposed, and that to each species n
some Coleopterous and other genera there are certai”
individuals intermediate between the male and female:
this I seem to have observed more especially in Copi”
and Onthophagus: For in almost every British specie?
in my cabinet of these genera I possess such an indiv
dual, distinguished particularly by having a horn on the
head longer than that of the female, but much short?
than that of the male. I once observed a pair of Per
tatoma oleracea, a very pretty bug, 2n coitu, both sexe
being ornamented with white spots, and by them sto?
a third distinguished from them by red ones. I do n%
however, build on this circumstance, though singula:
but mention it merely that you may keep it in your eye

It would be curious should it turn up, that, to answWe

some particular end of PROVIDENCE, in some tribes

: : ; : otf
insects there are two kinds of males, as in the gregario”

ones two descriptions of females.

* Vor. Il. p. 50, 111—, 118—, 127—, 134. The reuters
Termites, however, (p. 33.) seem to be a distinct sex, if I may
speak—and to merit that name.

of 8f

LETTER XLIII.

INTERNAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
OF INSECTS, CONCLUDED.

MOTION.

Wr have seen upon a former occasion the great variety
of movements that insects can perform, and of the ez-
ternal organs with which they perform them*: but we
are now to consider the internal apparatus, by the im-
Mediate action of which they take place—their system of
Muscles, When we reflect upon the wonderful velocity,
their size considered, with which many insects move, and
the unparalleled degree of muscular force that many ex-.

lbit?^ we feel no small degree of curiosity to know
‘omething of that part of their internal structure that
Produces these almost incredible effects. I shall in the
Present letter endeavour in some degree to gratify that
Curiosity, and give you an account of the muscles of these

little animals,—first considering them in general; and

then, as far as my information goes, adverting to those in

Particular that move the different parts and organs of an
Nsect’s body. |

: Vor. II. Levrer XXII. Vor. HI. Lurrirs XXXIV.—XXXVI.
Vor. IL p. 283, 299, 310, 314—. &c.

168 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

I. The muscles of insects may be considered in gene-
ral as to their Origin; Substance and Parts; Shape; Co-
lour; Kinds; Attachment; and Motions.

i. Origin. The origin of the muscular fibre in the
higher animals is from the blood, the globules of which;
by their coagulation in a serzes, appear to form it?; and
in insects it is derived from the same universal source of
nutrition and accretion, but not till it has been concreted

into the adipose tissue or epiploon before noticed’, In
the pupa of the cabbage-butterfly, Herold observed that
this substance first assumed a fine flocky appearance and

-a blue-green colour, and that from it so changed were
produced tender bundles of muscular fibres, extending
in various directions, the epiploon itself decreasing 19
proportion as they were formed *.

ii. Substance and Parts. The muscular fibre in ver-
tebrate animals appears to consist of globules arranged
in a series, and of no larger diameter than those of the
blood,—the mean diameter of which in the human sub-
ject, when measured under the microscope by a micro-
meter, is found to be about =, part of an inch¢, When
Cuvier published his immortal work in 1805, the powers
of any magnifier then constructed were not sufficient tO
enable this great physiologist to arrive at the simple
fibre* ; but Mr. Bauer, by the use of improved glasses
amongst other discoveries that will immortalize his name
was the first to detect, under the directions of Sir E.
Home, the ultimate thread of which the muscular bun-
dies are composed‘. Chemists distinguish the substance

* Philos. Trans. 1818. 174. t. viii. f. 4—6.

^ See above, p. 144—. © Schmetterl. 105.

$ Philos. Trans. 1819. 172, 174, 187. © Anat. Comp. i. 90-
£ Philos. Trans. 1819, 175.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 169

of which we are speaking, by the name of fbrine. By the
abundance of azote or nitrogen that enters into its com-
Position, it possesses a character of animalization more
Marked than any other animal substance; and its ele-
Ments are so approximated in the blood, that the slightest
Stagnation causes them to coagulate: and the muscles
“re without doubt, in the living subject, the only organs
that can separate this matter from the mass of blood
and appropriate it to themselves? ‘The primary bun-
“les of muscles are formed of- the simple fibres, and
the secondary are the result of an aggregation of the
Primary, The smaller bundles are: not always exactly
Parallel to each other, but must in many cases diverge
More or less, to produce those variations in shape ob-

Servable in the muscles themselves:

there are intervals
the;

efore between the bundles, which in some animals
are filled by a cellular substance^. Probably much of
this statement will apply in most instances to the mus-
“'es of insects, but we may conclude that the globules
that form them are infinitely smaller. Lyonnet has
given some interesting observations with regard to those
of the caterpillar of the Cossus: he describes them as of
* Soft transparent substance, capable of great extension,
Covered and filled by silver tubes of the bronchic, pene-
trated by the nerves, and containing oily particles. Each
Muscle was enveloped in membrane, and was composed
of Many parallel bands, consisting of bundles of fibres
“veloped likewise in separate membranes. The fibres
- emselves, (but it is doubtful whether he arrived at the
Ultimate term of muscular fibre,) in a favourable light

* Cuv. ubi supr. 90—. ^ Cuv. Zoid. i, 80—.
° See above, p. 84.

170 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

and under a good magnifier, appeared to be twisted
spirally?. In spiders the muscles seemed to him to
consist of żwo substances, the one soft and the other
hard, the last forming a kind of stiff twisted filament”.
A muscle thus composed of different bundles of fibres
may be stated as to its parts, in insects, to consist of
base, middle, and apex: the dase is that part by which
they are fixed to any given point of the internal sur-
face of the crust, or of one of its processes, which
serves as their fulcrum; the apew is that part by which
they are fixed, either mediately or immediately, to the
organ to be moved ; and the middle is the remainder of
the muscle. We usually discover in them no inflation of
the middle corresponding with the belly of the muscles
in vertebrate animals; they occasionally, however, ter-
minate in a fendon, as those of the thighs and legs ; but
these tendons are of a different nature from the fibrous
ones of warm-blooded animals; for they are hard, elastics
and without apparent fibres : the fleshy ones of the mus-
cle envelope them, and are inserted in their surface *. -
iii. Shape. The muscles of insects are usually linear,
‘with parallel sides; some are cylindrical, as those of the —
wings of the Libellulina4; and others, as those that
move the legs in the caterpillar of the Cossus, are trian-
gular*. In the suctorious mandibles of the grub of 4

common water-beetlef they are penniform, or shaped
like a feather ; and some in the Cossus are forked®. Un-

a Lyonnet Anat. t. iv. f. 3. ^ Ibid. 93—.

« Cuv. Anat. Comp, i. 134."

d Chabrier Sur le Vol des Ins. c. i. 445.

e Prare XXI. Fic. 6. a. * De Geer iv. t xv. f. 11, mn, op
€ Lyonnet Anat. 93.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 171

der this head I may also observe, that the muscles are
sometimes extremely slender threads, crossing each other,
and often curiously interwoven in various directions, so
as to resemble lace or fine gauze, as may be seen in the
alimentary canal of some caterpillars? ; sometimes also
they surround part of this organ, like a series of minute
Mngs>, .
- iv. Colour. The most usual colour of the muscles of
insects is white: those for flight however, according to
Chabrier, differ from the rest, by being of a deeper and
reddish colour’; and I have observed likewise that those
in the head of the stag-beetle, when dried at least, are
"ed, and look something like the flesh of warm-blooded
animals. |

v. Kinds and Denomination. In general, muscles may
be regarded as divided into primary and secondary —the
Primary being the muscles by which the principal move-
ments of any organs are effected, and the secondary their
auxiliaries which are the cause of subordinate move-
mentsd, Every muscle almost has its antagonist, the
action of which is in an opposite direction; so that when
it is equal, the organ to which they are attached re-
mains without motion; but when that of one prepon-

derates, a movement in proportion takes place*. "The

Principal antagonist muscles that may be found in insects
are the following. 1. Levator muscles that raise am or-
San, and Depressors that depress it. 2. Flexors that
bend an organ, and Extensors that unbend or extend it.

* Lyonnet Anat. f. xiii. f. 1, 2.

^ Ramdohr Anat. t. v. f. 1. e. f. 3.

* Chabr. ubi supr. 440—. 4 Thid. 442, &c.
* N. Dict. d? Hist. Nat. xxii. 80. X

E72 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

3. Abductors that draw an organ back, and Adductors
that draw it forwards. 4. Constrictors that contract an
opening, and Lazators that relax it. 5. Supinators that
turn the underside of an organ upwards, and Pronators
that return it to its natural situation. Some of these
muscles in insects, like some of their articulations and
their spinal chord*, seem to exercise a double function, —
thus the levators and depressors of the wings are con-
strictors and laxators of the trunk>. At first it may
seem that insects, not having the power of turning up
- the hand, cannot have the Supinator and Pronator mus-
cles; but some muscle of this kind must be in the Gryl-
lotalpa, and in those that have a versatile head *.

v. Attachment and Insertion. 'The attachment and in-
sertion of the muscles in insects in general is to the in-
terior of the crust, or to some of its internal processes
as a fulcrum, and to the organ to be moved. In some
cases, however, the muscles act upon the organ by the
intervention of other bodies. ‘Thus, those that move the
wings are often attached to little bones, as Chabrier calls
them‘, which are connected with the base of the wings
by ligaments. In the Dynastide and other Lamelli-
corns, and the Libellulina, &c., a remarkable provision
is made for giving a vast increment of force to the mus-
cles of the wings, by means of caps or cupules sur-
mounted by a tendon, which receive their extremity ; the
tendon terminating in a fine point attached to the wing,
and thus. more muscles are brought to bear upon it*.

* Vor. III. p. 664, 671. See above, p. 21.

b Chabrier Sur le Vol des Ins. c. i, 446. * Vor. IIT. p. 412.

4 Ubi supr. 437, 439. * Pirate. XXII. Fic. 11, 12. c.
Chabrier ubi supr. c. iii. t. xi, viii. f. 9, S. D. i, k c. i. 440—.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 173

Chabrier seems to think that, in some cases, the back
that intervenes between each pair of wings is the medium
by which the muscles act upon it?.

vi. Motions.. Irritability is the universal distinction of
the muscular fibre,—when put in action by the will or
involuntarily, it causes it to contract or become shorter ;
and the intermediate agents of the will and other causes
are the nerves, which, as galvanic experiments seem in
Some degree to prove, are the conductors of an invisible
fluid or power which immediately causes that action. If
à nerve is divided, the muscles to which it renders obey
it no longer, evidently proving that the nerves cause mus-
cular irritability®. How this contraction is immediately
effected, — whether the fibre, as some suppose, undergoes
any crispation, or becomes zigzag?; or whether there is
any sudden change in their chemical composition that ra-
Pidly and strongly augments their cohesion, as Cuvier
hints 4 cannot be clearly ascertained, unless a Bauer
Could submit the Z/ving fibre to his glasses. All that we
know certainly on the subject is, that muscles alternately
Contract and relax at the bidding of the will or involun-

tarily, and so occasion all the movements of animal bo-
dies | i

IL. Having considered the muscles of insects in gene-
ral, I must next make a few observations, as far as my
Means of information will enable me, upon those that
Move their different parts and organs—at least the princi-
Pal ones; since to descend to minutiae would be an end-
less and unprofitable labour. As larve, except those

: Ilii. b Cuv. Anat. Comp. i. 94—.
N. Dict. d Hist, Nat. xxii. 80. 4 Ubi supr. 101—.

174 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

whose metamorphosis is semicomplete*, differ widely in
their system of muscles from perfect insects, I shall be-
. gin my observations with them.

We owe by far the most accurate and detailed ac-
count of the muscles of larvee to the illustrious Lyonnet,
who, with incredible labour and patience without ex-
ample, dissected the caterpillar of the Cossus, and has
described every air-vessel, every nerve, and every mus-
cle that could be detected by the microscope. Cuvier
also has given a description of the muscles not only of
caterpillars, but of the larvee of the Lamellicorn beetles,
the Hydrophili, and the Capricorn beetles^. From these
sources are derived what I have now to lay before you.
If you look at one of Lyonnet’s plates‘, the layers of
longitudinal muscles look like so many parallel ribands,
"others run in an oblique, and others again in a £rans-
verse direction’. He divides them into dorsal, wen-
tral, and lateral muscles*, terms which sufficiently ex-
plain themselves. Of the longitudinal muscles there
are four principal rowsf, the others are more numerous.
The principal object of these muscles, which are flexors
and extensors, is to shorten or lengthen the body, or to
act on any particular segment as the circumstances of
the animal may require. I shall not here notice the
muscles of the head and legs, as they are not remarkably
different from those of perfect insects. "The prolegs are
moved by ¢wo muscles—the anterior one covering in
part the posterior—of a remarkable structure: one of
their points of attachment is by many branches or tails

* Vor. I. p. 67. > Anat. Comp. i. 432—.

c Anat. t. vii. f. 2. left hand. >- 4 Ibid. right hand.
e Ibid. 115—. £ Cuv. ubi supr.

INTERNAL ANATOMY. OF INSECTS. 175

to the sole of the foot, and by several heads to the skin
of the animal; so that they can draw the proleg within
the body or push it out, and perform other necessary
Movements *.

I shall now call your attention to the muscles of the
Perfect insect, as they move the head and its organs ; the
Trunk ; the Abdomen; and the Viscera.

i The Head. This part in insects moves upwards,
downwards, inwards, to right and left, is pushed forth
or drawn in, is often capable in part of a rotatory move-
Ment, and is sometimes versatile, turning as it were upon
à pivot. All these movements are of course produced
by an appropriate apparatus of muscles, which have their
attachment in the anterior part of the trunk, mostly in
the manitrunk, while their insertion is in the posterior
Part of the head, in the margin of the occipital cavity.
To enumerate and describe them all would be tedious
and uninteresting—I shall only mention some of the
Principal ones. The Jevators of the head are usually a
Pair of muscles situated in the manitrunk, to the upper
Side of which they are attached, and perhaps in Coleo-

Piera and some others to the phragma, which probably

Cuvier means by the anterior part of the scutellum^ ;
they are inserted in the posterior margin of the upper
Part of the head, in Coleoptera in a pair of notches ( My-
°slyphides*), or a single onet. In Calandra Palmarum
these muscles as they approach the head, to judge from
the dead animal, divide into ¢wo branches or a fork:
thus, as the muscle-notches are wide in this insect, the
* Vor. III. p. 135—. ^ Anat. Comp. i. 447.

* Vor. III. p. 367. Prare XXVII. Fic. 1, 4. n.
* Ibid, Fic, 3, n.

176 INTERNAL) ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

muscle acts upon each extremity of the sinus—these
branches appear to be tendinous*. The depressors of
the head are the antagonist muscles to the above, and
have their attachment to the anéepectus and its antefurca"-
A circumstance distinguishes these muscles in many Co-
leoptera, that seems hitherto to have been overlooked.
If you take the common dung-beetle (Geotrupes sterco-
rarius), and carefully extract the head with its muscles
from the trunk, you will see on each side of the depres-
sors a subovate corneous scale, of a pitch colour‘, which

is attached only to the muscle, and designed to strengthen

it: if you then examine the anterior cavity of the mani-
trunk, you will perceive on each side, just within the
lower margin, a minute triangular scale, of a similar sub-
stance; these ligaments, like the pax-wax, or ligamenta
nuche, in mammalia, though in a lower. situation, are
doubtless intended to sustain the action of the muscles.
With regard to the moveable organs of the head—the
antenne, mazille, palpi, tongue, mandibule, &c., have
each their appropriate apparatus of muscles: but I shall
only notice those of the last, mandibule. These are
principally abductors and adductors to open and. shut
them: from the work that the jaws of some insects have
to do, you may conjecture that they must be furnished
with powerful muscles. In caterpillars and other larvae;
in which state the action of the mandibles is most in re-
quisition, the muscles are what Cuvier calls pennzform?,
and are attached on each side to a tendinous lamina or
cartilage. In the grub of Dytiscusthe power and mag-

* Prare XXVII Fie. l.a. > Vor. IH. p. 368—, 543,
586. Prare-XXII. Fic. 7. Cuv. ubi supr. 448.
* Prare XXVII. Fic. 5. a. Anat, Comp. i. 136.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 177

nitude of the adductor muscle is wonderful*. In the
Orthoptera this structure of the mandibular muscles takes
place also in the Zmago*; but in the Coleoptera, at least
3n the stag-béetle and some others that I have examined,
: ese muscles in this state have no cartilage or tendon.
heir attachinent is always to the parietes of the head,
of the cavity of which the adductors, in some cases, oc-
“upy a considerable portion’. As to their 3nsertion—
*se last, in some Orthoptera, enter more or less the in-
terior of the mandible? ; but commonly they are inserted
Mt Or near the interior angle of the mandibular basal ca-
"ity, and the abductors at the exterior.
ll. "The Trunk. We have little information with re-
Sard to the muscles of the parts of the trunk itself, by
lich, in some insects, the manitrunk is enabled to
Move independently of the alitrunk: it is more probable
"lat the levators have in part at least their attachment
to the anterior surface of the prophragm*, than that the
“Yators of the head should be there fixed, as Cuvier
Seems to think; since both the phragma and the ligament
at appears in many cases to close the cavity of the
Manitrunk round the visceraf, would prevent all com-
NUnication between those muscles and any part con-
"écted with the scutellum : probably the depressors have
cir attachment partly on the anterior face of the medi-

Urcog. These points, however, must be left to future in-

Yestivators,

With regard to the organs of the trunk, we have more

* De Geer iv. £. xv. f. 1k o, p. > Marcel de Serres, Com-
Pardon go 3. * Thid. 4. « Ibid. 5.
Prae XXII Fre. 11. X. * Vor. IIT. p. 582.

TATE XXII Fro, 6, Vor. IIl. p. 587—.
Vor, ry, x

178 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

certain and satisfactory information ;—the muscles of the
legs having been described by Lyonnet and Cuvier, and
those of the wings most particularly by Chabrier. In
caterpillars, the muscles are situated in the interior of
the articulations that form the legs: they consist of sev
ral bundles appropriated to each, which have their at-
tachment in the parietes of the preceding joint, near the -
- margin, and are inserted in the margin of that they
move*. Lyonnet counted twenty-one muscles in the leg
of the caterpillar of the Cossus; but eight of these were
appropriated to the claw, or rather formed a pair of st
mipenniform muscles, having their insertion at the inne?
angle of its base®. In perfect insects, according to Cu“
vier, each joint of the legs is furnished with a pair of
antagonist muscles—a flexor and extensor, the forme!
being the lower, and the latter the upper muscle; and this
pair has its insertion in the joint it moves, and its attach-
ment usually in the preceding one: but those of the
coxee—which are rotators, causing it to turn backwards
or forwards—and the extensor of the thigh, have their a”
tachment in the parietes of the trunk, and to the endo-
sternum, one of the rotators of the anterior coxa, and the
extensor of the anterior thigh to the antefurca; of the
intermediate pairs to the medifurca, and of the posteri?
to the postfurca®. Every joint of the tarsus has also it
flexor and extensor. In Dytiscus L., Carabus L., &
whose posterior coxe are immoveable, the thigh includes
two pair of antagonist muscles?. In extracting the po”
terior leg of Necrophorus Vespillo I observed more tha?

a Cuv. Anat. Comp. i. 436. Prare XXI. Fic. 6.
^ Ibid. a, 6. Lyonnet Anat. 37. c Cuv. ubi supr. 4587
Vor. II. p. 369, 379, 388. * Cuy, Ibid. 459.

^-

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

à single pair of muscles that had their attachment in the
Coxa:

3 and probably many other variations in this respect
exist,
Little was known with respect to the most interesting
Part of the muscular apparatus of insects, that by which
Such Vonderfully rapid and varied motions are imparted
| their organs of flight, till Chabrier undertook to elu-
"date it; which he has done in a manner that will con-
Ta lasting honour upon his name, as one of the most
* Successors to Swammerdam and Lyonnet in their
“culiar department. He has given a most admirable
“unt of the internal anatomy of the trunk of insects
Seneral, as far as it relates to their flight; particularly
that of the cockchafer (Melolontha vulgaris), of one
De Libellulina (Aishna grandis), and of a humble-bee
Bombus), and I believe he has thus illustrated insects of
© of the other Orders, but his memoirs on these I
"not had an opportunity of consulting. What I
2i to say on this subject, therefore, will be principally
à "Wed from what he has communicated with respect to
above insects,
of “onsiderable difference in the volume of the ipis
* Wings takes place in insects according to the force
ty = flight. Where it is rapid and powerful, the ali-
ij, _ S nearly filled by them, and the alimentary canal
üch attenuated; but in those whose flight is feeble,
Occupy less space, and the alimentary canal is
ttionally enlarged*. In the Lepidoptera, Hy-
-"ptera, and Diptera, the principal muscles of both
No have their attachment in the anterior portion of
alitrunk b.

Chap, Su 3 m

top O

in the Coleoptera, in the posterior: ; and
Vol des Ins. c. i. 441. b Thid. 415. © Ibid.

N2

180 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

in the Libellulina, those of the anterior wings are cone
fined to the anterior portion, and those of the poster ior
pair to the posterior*. The muscles for flight in gene
ral differ from others by their mass, length, and colour :
the bundles of fibres are very distinct, strong, and pa
allel; their direction is uniform, according to the m"
tion they are to produce; their fibres are either attache

to the solid parts to be moved, or to cupules, but they
never terminate in a tendon; the muscles are perfect)
independent of each other, and the wings can be move

by them separately’. As to their denomination 9?

kind—the principal ones are the /evators and depresso” |

which with respect to the trunk, as was before observe |

are constrictors and laxators. The levator muscles for |
several distinct bundles in Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, &ei
in the Diptera there are three‘; in the Libellulina the}
seem to be single, are all environed with a blackish p®
licle, with numerous aérial vesicles, symmetrically a
ranged, filling the interstices 4 The most common nu
ber is a levator to each wing; there are often, howev™
as in the cockchafer and the dragon-fly, vo depresso? |
but in the Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, and Tenthredo L., the
secondary wings have distinct levators, but not depre”
otsf; the other Hymenoptera have only a pair of each”
The other wing muscles are of asecondary description: af
auxiliary to the above. Their office is to extend and do?
the wings: so that though the denomination of exten”
will suit the former, that of flexor is not so prope? i

@ Chabr. Sur le Vol des Ins. c. iii. 344. t. viii. f. 8, 9. 9
^ Thid. c. i. 440. * Ibid, 444. 4 Ibid. 445. c. iii. 35^
e Ibid. c. ii. 332. c. iii, 359. * Ibid. c. i. 445.

E€ Ibid. c. iv. 78.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 181

their antagonists; their office being not so much to
bend, as to bring back the wing to its station of repose.
he folding of certain wings, as those of Coleoptera,
""maptera, the Vespide, &c., seems more the function

o i 3
f the abdomen than of the wing-muscles: this you may

easi ;
asily see, as I have often done, if you attend to any Sta-
y rg

Phylinus, when after alighting from flight it proceeds to
ay Up its wings under the elytra. Perhaps the term
“ctor might not be inapplicable to the muscles in
Tüestion, Both these and the extensors are usually
“mall slender muscles, but sometimes numerous?. They
be larger in Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, and Tenthredo L.".
ue muscles that open and shut the elytra of UMANE
Sh Probably of Heteropterous Hemiptera, and which
aid their movements during flight, are very slender *.
ith regard to the attachment and insertion of the wing-

i “Seles, it is according to two very distinct types, one
is iui sit gps to e in gentral, and the other
eid to the Libellulina. In insects in general, the
"Ipal muscles for flight have not their insertion in

t Wings, but act upon their bases by the intervention
. Small long pieces. The depressors occupy the middle
Ee oae of the alitrunk, and are inserted ante-
t $ and poem € concave surfaces or two
tici Verse horny semi-partitions, adapted by their elas-
J to dilate the trunk—and thus acting the part of

ia diaphragm and ribs? : but in the Zzbellulina, as in
S

r

> these muscles are placed on each side of the point

a .

e Jd € i. 415, 442, c iv. 80. — ^ Ibid. c. i. 449.
lattge e 439—. * Chabrier Analyse, 98. The
in, Patt of this passage is copied from a M.S. note of the author’s

n ^
Y copy, — W. K.

182 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

of support of the humerus*; the depressors being at
tached immediately to the wings without it, and the leva-
- tors within it, with this sole difference, that they are c0!"
nected to the internal extremity of the base of the wing
by the intervention of a cupule terminating in a tendods
all are disposed perpendicularly to the arms of the level®
on which they act, and all incline more or less ouk-
wards, the one to dilate, and the other to contract the
trunk^. It may be observed in general, that in insect
formed upon the first type, the great action of these 1mU*"
cles is the dilatation and contraction of the alitrunk, the
main tendency of which is to depress and raise the wings L

I shall add here a few words upon the attachment of the
wing-muscles in the different Orders: but first I must%
quest you to read what I have said on the partitions 8!"
chambers of the alitrunk in a former letter. In most

insects of the fers? type, the depressors are longitudin®
dorsal muscles that have their posterior point of attach
ment in the metaphragm (costale Chabr.); but the anter
varies :—in those that have elytra, tegmina, or hemelyt?™
the muscles for them seem to be contained in the cha?"
ber, varying in size, that lies between the prophragm %®
mesophragm ; and the anterior point of attachment of the"
depressor muscles is the mesophragm : they are also al
tached in some to the metathorax or back of the poste
rior portion of the alitrunk*. The levator muscles iv
Coleoptera, at least in the cockchafer, by a long tendo?
have their posterior attachment in the lower part of the

a Chabrier Analyse,28, Surle Vol des Ins. c.i. 445. Vor. Ul. p. 619
^ Analyse ubi supr. * Sur le Vol des Ins. c. i. 448. c. ii, 336:
a Vor. HI. p. 582—. € Chabr. Zbid. c. i, 443. ii. 316, 33”

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 183

Posterior coxee, their anterior attachment to the solid
Parts to be moved. In the Cockchafer and the Dynas-
“ide, but not in Geotrupes, on each side of the cavity of
the metathorax under the base of the wing is a large and
Small cupule, which from their Jateral situation one would
think must receive the levator muscles—apparently un-
noticed by M. Chabrier; but as there is a pair of these.
“Upules on each side, there must have been also a pair
i. muscles attached to them, which does not agree with
'S statement®. In the Hymenoptera and Diptera the
terior attachment of the depressors is to the back of the
litrunk and to the prophragm, and the levators to the
breast, and the sides of the back of the trunk’. In the
tbellulina the depressors and levators that terminate,
Ya tendon surmounting a cupule, in the base of the
Wings, have their posterior attachment in the breast,
hese cylindrical muscles with their cupule and tendon
°0k like so many syringes‘.

Having thus described to you the powerful muscular
“Pparatus by which, either mediately or immediately, the
Wings of insects are moved, it will not be out of place if

add a few words upon their flight itself. The great
“ject in this is to generate a centrifugal force which
may counteract the weight of the body. Its wings are

€ external organs by which the insect as it were takes
Old of the air when they fall, and is impelled by it when
they rise; its head makes way for it; its abdomen, as a
“udder, steers it; and by alternately increasing and dimi-

` Ibid. 333. > bid. 332. Prats XXII. Fie. 11, 12. c. A

I A process is also observable at the side of the metaphragm.
C Fie, 10. a. © Chabr. Ibid. c. iv. f. xi.— 4. f. 14.
Ibid. c, i, 445, xi,.— 87-8, 9.

cu

184 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

nishing in volume, and rising and falling, enables it t9
win an easy way through the fluctuations of the atmo-
spheric sea. The trunk by its elasticity admits the in-
ternal action of antagonist muscles, which by turns com-
press and dilate it; an action promoting the elevation
and depression of the wings, and keeping up the elasti-
city of the internal air, which is thus now rarified and
now condensed: in the former state flowing like a tide;
accompanied by the blood, into the nervures of the
wings?, and thus increasing their tension and centrifugal
force ;—in the latter ebbing and receding to the trunk;
thus relaxing the one and diminishing the other. The
spiracles by which the air enters or is expelled, open
and shut at the animal’s pleasure’; and besides, many
insects are furnished, as we have seen*, with numerous
vesicles or reservoirs, which can give out a supply of in-
ternal air when wanted: and thus they can vary their
aérial motions, diminish or increase the counteracting
centrifugal force; rise and fall, and move onwards and
in different directions, as their occasions demand?.

iii. The Abdomen is perhaps capable of the greatest
variety of motions of the three primary sections of the
body. Even when the insect is reposing, a constant dila-
tation and constriction usually takes place in it* ; and
from its annular structure, its parts capable of separate
motion are numerous:—it expands and contracts; it rises
and falls; it bends in various directions ; and its segments
can often be lengthened or retracted. Besides all this, it
spiracles open and shut, and its reproductive and othet

^* Chabr. Sur le Vol des Ins. c. ii. 336. note 1. Vor. HI. p. 293—-
^ Chabr. Ibid. c. i. 447. * See above, p. 66—.
3 Vor. IIT. p. 390. * See above, p. 73—.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 185

‘nal organs have their appropriate motions. In nume-
Tous Coleoptera, however, and some Hemiptera, the up-
Per-side of the abdomen is: almost the only part that is
Moveable, especially near the trunk ; the under-side, hav-
Ine its first segments soldered together, is only capable
9f motion near the tail*. The muscles that produce the
Various motions of this part must be entitled to all the
denominations stated above?. I have on a former oc-
Casion explained to you how, in insects that have a pe-
tiolate abdomen, that part is elevated and depressed *.
Tn those with a sessile one the base is attached to the
Metaphragm by strong ligaments?, and the muscles that
Move the first piece act from one segment to another.
The partial movements of the segments of this part,
Where they have place, are produced by muscular fibres
Which extend from the whole anterior margin of one to
the whole posterior.one of that which precedes it. If
those, for example, of the back contract, the abdomen be-
Coming shorter above, bends upwards; and if those of
the sides or belly, it bends sideways or downwards * : this
l5 a beautiful as well as simple contrivance. |

The alternate rush of air from the abdomen into the
alitrunk, and from the atmosphere into the abdomen, is
attended by the constriction or expansion of that part as
: rises or falls in flight‘, which seems to require the ac-
tion of constrictor and laxator muscles.

lv. The Viscera. Having before had occasion suffi-

* Chabrier Sur le Vol des Ins. c. i. . Addend. 298.
" See above, p. 171—. © Vor, III. p. 701—.
è Chabr. ubi supr. c. i. 422. © Cuv. Anat. Comp. i. 451.

* Chabr. Analyse 25. Sur le Vol des Ins. c. 1. 423, 452. Ad-
dend, 301,

186 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

ciently to notice the muscles by which the systole and
diastole of the dorsal vessel of insects is maintained, I
shall now only mention those that are woven round their
alimentary canal, by which the peristaltic motion of that
organ, causing its contractions and the propulsion of
its contents, takes place. One would at first think that
a view of the intestines of any animal could under no
circumstances afford any very pleasing spectacle to the
eye of any but a scientific spectator; but any lady whois
fond of going to Disons to be tempted with an exhibi-
tion of fine lace, would experience an unexpected grati-
fication could she be brought to examine those of a car
terpillar under a microscope: with wonder and delight
she would survey the innumerable muscular threads that
in various directions envelope the gullet, stomach, and
lower intestines of one of these little animals; some run-
ning longitudinally, others transversely, others crossing
each other obliquely, so as to form a pattern of rhomr
boids or squares ; others again, surrounding the intestine
like so many rings, and almost all exhibiting the appear-
. ance of being woven, and resembling fine lace,—one pat-
tern ornamenting one organ; another, a second; and
another, a third. This will suffice to give some idea of
this part of the muscular structure of these little ani-
mals?. .
Lyonnet counted the muscles contained in the body
of the caterpillar of the Cossus.. In the head he found
228; in the body, 1647; and enveloping the intestines,
no less than 2186; which, after deducting 20 that are
common to the gullet and the head, gives a total of 4061 °-

* See above, p. 83. . ^ Lyonnet Anat. t. xiii. f. 1, 2.
* Ibid. 188—, 584. ^.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 187

In the human subject only 529 have been counted?: so
that this minute animal has 3532 muscles more than the
Lord of the creation !

The muscles of the Arachnida seem less numerous
than those of insects. In the Scorpionide they appear
to be robust, formed of simple straight fibres, of a whitish
gray colour: a muscular web, rather strong, clothes the
Parietes, but rarely adheres to them, of the abdomen,
and envelopes the viscera, with the exception of the lungs,
and probably of the heart. The dorsal part of this web
gives birth to seven pairs of filiform muscles, which tra-
verse the liver, and are attached to a muscular riband
Which, passing above the lungs, runs the whole length of
the ventral parietes. 'These muscles when exposed to
View resemble extended cords. The abdominal segment
preceding the tail is filled with a powerful muscular mass
"Which moves that organ^. Treviranus discovered two
longitudinal muscles in Scorpio europeus, running from
the breast to the tail, which above and below each gill
Were connected by another running transversely across
the heart, thus forming a quadrangular area in which
the gills are situate". The heart appears to be moved
by muscles not very dissimilar to those of the Cossus?;
às is likewise that of the Araneide; in Clubiona atrox
the wider part of this organ is muscular, and incloses a
Considerable cavity*. In this tribe the muscles of the
abdomen, the skin of which is soft and unfit to act as a
lever to them, are attached to a cartilage, and thus their
action is better sustained f.

* Ibid. 189. ® N. Dict. d Hist, Nat. xxx. 421.

° Arachnid. 9. t. i, f. 7. r. 3 Thid. o. * Ibid. 10.
* Ibid. 45. t. ii. f. 31. m,n, q, n, t.

188 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

Having thus laid before you all of importance that I
can collect with regard to the apparatus of muscles dis-
coverable in insects, I shall next say something upon a
few other points connected with that subject. When I
enlarged upon their motions, I related a few instances
of the extraordinary power of that apparatus? in leaping
ones; but this power is not confined to that circum-
stance. The flea, not more remarkable for its com-
pressed form, enabling it to glide between the hairs of
animals, and its elastic coat of mail, by which it can re-
sist the ordinary pressure of the fingers, than for its mus-
cular strength, has attracted notice on this account from
ancient times. Mouffet relates that an ingenious En-
glish mechanic, named Mark, made a golden chain of
the length of a finger, with a lock and key, which was
dragged by a flea;—he had heard of another that was
harnessed to a golden chariot, which it drew with the
greatest ease’. Another English workman made an
ivory coach with six horses, a coachman on the seat with
a dog between his legs, a postillion, four persons in the
coach, and four lacqueys behind—which also was dragged
by a single flea. At such a spectacle one would hardly
know which most to admire, the strength and agility of
the insect, or the patience of the workman. Latreille
mentions a flea of a moderate size dragging a silver can-

non on wheels, that was twenty-four times its own weight,
which being charged with powder, was fired without the
flea appearing alarmed‘. Many caterpillars are accus-
tomed to extend their bodies from a twig, supported
merely by the four hind feet, in one fixed attitude, either

^. Vor, IL p. 314—, ^ Mouffet Theatr. 275.
© AN. Dict. d Hist. Nat. xxviii, 249,

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 189

in an oblique, horizontal, or vertical direction, either up-
wards or downwards, and that for hours together. We
May conceive what prodigious muscular force must be
exerted upon this occasion, by reflecting that the most
expert rope-dancer, though endued with the power of
grasping with his feet like a bird with its claws, could
not maintain himself in a horizontal position even for an
instant. Bradley asserts that he has seen a stag-beetle
carry a wand half a yard long and half an inch thick,
and fly with it several yards?. Some insects have the
faculty of resisting pressure in a wonderful degree. If
you take a common dung-chafer (Geotrupes) in your
hand and press it with all your strength, you will find
with what wonderful force it resists you; and that you
can scarcely overcome the counteraction, and retain the
` insect in your hand: was it not for this quality, the grub
of the gad-fly must be crushed probably in passing
through the anal sphincter of the horse®. But that
of Elophilus tenax affords a more surprising instance
of this power of counteraction :—an inhabitant of muddy
Pools, it has occasionally been taken up with the water
used in paper-making, and strange to say, according to
Linné, has resisted without injury the immense pres-
Sure given to the surrounding pulp*; like leather-coat
Jack mentioned by Mr. Bell?, who, from a similar force

of muscle, could suffer carriages to drive over him without

receiving any injury. Almost as remarkable is the state of

extreme relaxation into which the muscles of some larvae

fall, when their animation is suspended; and the revived
a Phil. Acc. of Works of Nat. 144.

" Clark in Linn. Trans. iii. 309. * Fn. Suec, 1799.
? Anatomy of Expression in Painting. 170.

190 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS,

tension to which a subsequent resumption of the vital pow-
ers restores them. Bonnet having suspended the anima-
tion of the caterpillar of Sphinx Ligustri by keeping it
submerged, squeezed it between his fingers, until it had
wholly lost its cylindrical form and was as flat and sup-
ple as the empty finger of a glove; yet in less than an
hour the very same caterpillar became as firm, as com-
pact, as cylindrical, and in short, as well, as though it
had never been submitted to treatment so rough ?.

It is fortunate that animals of a large size, as has been

well remarked, especially noxious ones, have not been

endowed with a muscular power proportionable to that
of insects. A cockchafer, respect being had to their size,
would be six times stronger than a horse; and if the ele-
phant, as Linné has observed, was strong in proportion
to the stag-beetle, it would be able to pull up rocks by
the root, and to level mountains?. Were the Zon and
the Ziger as strong and as swift for their magnitude as the
Cicindela and the Carabus, nothing could have escaped
them by precaution, or withstood them by strength.
Could the viper and the rattlesnake move with a rapidity
and force equivalent to that of the Tulus and Scolopendra,
who could have avoided their venemous bite? But the
CREATOR in these little creatures has manifested his Al-
mighty POWER, in showing what he could have done
had he so willed; and his coopness in not creating the
higher animals endued with powers and velocity upon
the same scale with that of insects, which would proba-
bly have caused the early desolation of the world that
he has made. From this instance we may conjecture,

* Bonnet Œuvr, ii. 124. ON. Dict. d' Hist. Nat. xxii. 81.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 191

that after the resurrection, our bodies by a change in
the structure and composition of their muscular fibre
—for we know that their locomotive powers and organs,
as far as the muscle is concerned, will then be of a very
different nature*—-may become fitted for motions and a
Potent agency of which we have now no conception.
This wonderful strength of insects is doubtless the re-
Sult of something peculiar in the structure and arrange-
Ment of their muscles, and principally their extraordi-
tary power of contraction, excited by the extent of their
léspiration : for animals that respire but little, as the

lotus in the womb and the pullet in the egg, have very
little contractile muscular power’. To get some idea

ftom facts of this extraordinary contractile power in in-
Sects, —extract the sting of a bee or a wasp, with its mus-
cles, which appear to be attached to powerful cartilagi-
Rous plates‘, and you will find it continue for a long
time to dart forth its spicula, almost as powerfully as
When moved by the will of the animal. A still more ex-
'raordinary instance of irritability is exhibited by the
ilia, or instrument of suction of the butterfly. If this
rgan, which the insect can roll up spirally like a watch-
Spring or extend in a straight direction, be cut off as
Soon as the animal is disclosed from the chrysalis, it will
Continue to roll up and unroll itself as if still attached
to its head: and if after having apparently ceased to
Nove for three or four hours it be merely touched, it
will again begin to move and resume the same action.
is surprising irritability and contractility of muscle
* 1 Cor. xy. 50—. * N. Dict. @ Hist. Nat. ubi supr.

Swamm. Bibl. Nat. t. xviii. f.2.lm,n,o. Reaum. v. t. xxix.
"T 4s 1, 1, 0, D, qs

192 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

doubtless depends upon the peculiar structure of the
antlia, which is composed of an infinite number of horny
rings, acted upon by muscles, more numerous probably
than those which move the trunk of the elephant. The
motion only ceases when the muscles become dry and
rigid,

I have already, under another head, considered the an-
nual sleep, or winter state of torpidity of insects, during
which an intermission for the most part of muscular mo-
tion and action takes place. I shall now make a few obser-
vations with respect to their diurnal sleep, which may
very properly have its place in the present letter. That
insects, usually so incessantly busy and moving in every
direction, require their intervals of repose, seems to call
for no proof. We see some that appear only in the day,
and others only in the night, others again only at cer-
tain hours; which leads to the conclusion, that when
"they withdraw from action and observation, it is to de-
vote themselves to rest and sleep. The cockchafer flies
only in the evening; but if you chance to meet with it
roosting in a tree in the earlier part of the day, you will
find it perfectly still and motionless, with its antennz
folded and applied to the breast: —we cannot indeed say
that its eyes are shut; for as insects have no eyelids, that
sign of sleep can never be found in them. Again, if #
Lepidopterist goes into the wood to capture moths in
the day-time, he finds them often perched on the lichens
that cover the north side of the trunk of a tree, with
their wings and antennz folded, and themselves without

* Vor, II. Lerrer XXVI.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 193

motion, and insensible of his approach and their own
anger, _ Thus it was that I captured that rare insect the
obster-moth (Stauropus Fagi) in the New Forest. Some,
wever, have asserted that the caterpillar of the silka
Worm, except when they moult, never intermits feeding
dày or night, and consequently does not sleep: but the
*CCuracy of this statement, both from analogy and obser-
“ation, admits of great doubt.. Malpighi informs us that
ese caterpillars for an hour and more, twice a day, re-
ain immoveable with their heads bent down as though
lo “ep, and even if disturbed, resume again the same

"active posture*; and other larvee in great numbers

Cert, : £ EEA .
Mainly seem to have regular intermissions from eating

Considerable duration: those called Geometers, for
Ours together remain motionless projected from a twig,
: Which they adhere by their posterior prolegs alone;

the processionary caterpillars make only nightly
"lies from their nests, passing the day in inaction and
Me ®se>, Bees have been often seen by Huber, when
t Patently wearied with exer tlow even in the middle of
cel} day to insert the half of pee bodies into an empty
o and remain there, as if taking a nap, without mo-
ha half an hour or longer*; and at night they regu-

ar : $ :
6 ly Muster in a state of sleep-like silence. Instances of
ther bees

eda

8

that appear to sleep have before been mention-
Mr. Brightwell once observed an individualliving

eci : : ; ;
en of Haltica concinna, which appeared to remain
Honlasc !

VS,

€ss on the same spot of a wall for three successive

* De Bombyc. 5. b Reaum. ii. 185—.

Vo * Vor. IT. p. 189. 4 [bid. p. 282.
L. ty,

194 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

Before concluding these remarks on the Internal Ana-
tomy and Physiology of Insects, I shall explain to you
as you will probably feel inclined occasionally to pursue
the subject, the best mode of dissecting them.—By far
the most useful dissecting instruments for this purpose
are very fine-pointed and sharp scissors, as these will en-
able you to divide the integument and separate other
parts with much less risk of injuring their delicate struc
ture than any knife. These scissors are what Swan"
. merdam chiefly used; and he had some so extremely
small and fine, that he was necessitated to employ a lef?
when he sharpened them. If to these be added a shat?
and fine-pointed knife or two, some needles fixed in hat
dles, also fine-pointed—(you will find them more conve
nient than any other instrument for detaching minut
parts and fibres,) a pair of fine and accurately adjust
pliers, and an assortment of camel’s-hair brushes, — y”
will be nearly set up as an Entomological dissector. You
‘will still, however, require a small dissecting table, wi
a projecting and moveable arm for lenses of various 4
scriptions, so as to admit both the hands to be employ

upon the subject under examination; and for this pur |
| pose probably no contrivance can be better adapted tha |
that of Lyonnet, of which the figure in Adams O7 tht
Microscope will convey a better idea than any descri"
tion?. /
Previously to dissecting any insect, it must be pille?
by plunging it into boiling water, which is recommend?

by Lyonnet, or spirits of wine or of turpentine; and it?
often useful to let Jarve remain a few days in the Jatte”

RNE JM

à INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 195

by Which means the vessels become firmer and stronger.
€ parts of pupe become much more distinct if they are
boiled for a few minutes: and the same mode may be
adopted in the examination of spiders.
he most convenient mode of proceeding, which was
also of Lyonnet, is to dissect the insect in water, or,
Void putridity, in diluted spirits,—if small, upon a
“ave glass, to which it should’ be fastened ‘by means
little melted wax; if larger, in the’bottom of a coms
= Chip box, surrounded with a border of wax to re-

fain the fluid. The integuments of the insect, being care-

b Y divided longitudinally with scissors, should if flexi-
S he turned back, and fixed by small pins stuck in by
d "€ pair of pliers, while the skin at the same time is

cheq by another. After making such observations
2 Present themselves without further dissection, the vis-
"nz Must be cautiously extracted, washing tapis fat
i , ^^ Surrounds them with spirits of turpentine, in which
b a Soluble, applied by camel’s-hair pencils. ‘After se-
à. ation they may conveniently be examined by putting
Sm into water, and gently shaking them so as to cause
g. Parts to unfold. If endowed with the patience of -
e

that

9 a
Con
of

"tmerdam, you may even arrive at injecting these

Nut

Wa;
mi

* parts with wax or coloured fluids, conveyed by

Copi glass tubes having one. end as fine as a hair,
ch he also employed to fill the viscera with air; and
ards drying them in the shade, and anointing them

Aes
Vith
Soy.

ll of spike in which a little. resin had been dis-
> he succeeded in preserving them. . If it is not
it “venient to finish the dissection of an insect at once,
fou ould be covered with spirits of M. Swammerdam.
3 mixture of spirits and distilled vinegar very use-

o2

196 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

ful for keeping caterpillars previously to dissecting them
as it consolidated the parts*. E.

And now having brought to a close my long wandef"
ings in this ampleand intricate field, and having threaded»
as well as my slender powers and limited knowledge €”
abled me, the infinite turnings and convolutions of this
Deedalean labyrinth—the Anatomy and Physiology of i
sects,—will you not own that the volume of wonders
have laid before you proves irrefragably that, though thes
minims of nature apparently rank so low in the scale ?
being, yet in their structure, instead of being, as mig
be expected, more simple, they are infinitely more cow”
plex and highly wrought than those animals that at?
placed the nearest to ourselves? the Creator in the jar |
ter doing every thing by a beautiful simplicity; while d
tlie former, the more to magnify his power and skill,

cause they afford no apparent space for it, by a «
he

derfully curious and intricate multiplicity : and whet
we study the one or the other, we shall in both t
the footsteps of that adorable Love which has show
attention to the comfort and well-being of the lowest" |
sect, as well as of the highest of his creatures.

i z . k | r
* These directions for dissecting are chiefly taken from Swarm
dam, Life xiv.—and Lyonnet Anat. 7—.

LETTER XLIV.

DISEASES OF INSECTS.

Having laid before you what observations I thought
Right sufficiently explain all the principal features of the
irony of insects both external and internal, you will
“Xt éxpect to be informed whether, like the higher ani-
ee » they are subject to have the admirable order ob-
- able in their frame interrupted by Disease; and you
ili Perhaps imagine, from the multiplicity of their organs
" Vessels, that they must be peculiarly exposed to de-
| Ee of the vital and other functions. That they
€ their diseases is certain; but, except in the case of

«a appropriate parasitic assailants, which is a part of

th - :
> economy, it does not appear that their maladies

“Sah numerous and frequent than hots of ‘other
B The same ALMicHtTyY Power which endowed
CNN with so oompiez a teuoime: generally upholds
à z health during their destined career, until they
ulfilled the purpose of their creation, when they die
return again to their dust*.
"t perhaps I may seem to you as making too great
rade about these little insignificant creatures if I as-
à Separate letter to the consideration of their diseases :

a pa
Sign

* Ps. civ. 29.

198 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

but when you recollect that Aristotle has a chapter on
this subject*, and that the learned Willdenow has de
voted a distinct portion of his excellent introductory
work on Botany to the diseases of Plants5,—you wi
perhaps be of a different mind: indeed, some facts I shal
have to communicate are so remarkable and interesti?®
that I am sure, when you have read this letter, you wil
not think the subject one that deserves to be slighted.

Insect diseases may, I think, be divided into two gren
classes; those resulting, namely, from some accident?
external injury or internal derangement, and those p!?"
duced. by parasitic assailants.

I.. Under the first head. we may begin with wounds
fractures, mutilations, and, other extraneous causes of dis
ease. To these—insects. are. peculiarly subject ; a
though they are not, like the Crustacea and Arachnida
and some other.invertebrate animals, endowed with: the
power of ‘reproducing a mutilated limb, yet their wound
appear to heal very rapidly, and at the time they are ise
flicted to produce little pain’. But if those imports?
members, their antenne, are mutilated, insects seem y I
suffer a kind of derangement; the great organ of de
communication with each other, and in various respe”
with the external world, being removed, all their instin®
at once fail them. I formerly related how the ampul¥

-

2 Hist. Animal. l. viii. c. 27. jh

b The Principles of Botany and of Vegetable Physiology, § 310—9 "

e Dr, Leach, from a communication of Sir Joseph Banks; E
given a very interesting history ofa spider which, having lost five i
its legs, from a web-weaver had become a hunter; these legs it ag
wards reproduced, though shorter than the others. Linn, Trans
393. Comp. N. Dict. d Hist. Nat. ii, 282. 4 Vor, I. p. 557

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 199

tion of. these affects the queen-bee?. A similar result,
as Huber tells us, follows, when the same experiment is
Tepeated on the workers or drones: they immediately
become unable to take any further part in the labours of
the hive ; they can no longer guide themselves except in
the light; if they petition one of their fellow citizens for
9ney, they are unable to direct their tongue to its mouth
to receive it; they remain near the entrance of the hive,
nd when the light is intercepted they rush out of it to
*eturn no more.
^» Insects occasionally are subject to tumours or a preter-
datura]. enlargement of their parts and organs. ‘The an-
tennæ of bees sometimes swell at their extremity so as
to resemble the bud of a flower ready to open, becoming
at the same time very yellow, as does the fore part of
the heads, I once saw a specimen of a Hydrophilus—
"Sreeing with H. fuscipes in every other respect even
O the most minute punctum—which had a large tumour
m each side of the prothoraa, evidently accidental, occa-
Sioned probably by the stoppage of the pores by which
the Superfluous moisture and air escape when it under-
Soes. its last change. The converse of this I have ob-
Served to take place sometimes in the same part of Geo-
trupes foveatus, the ordinary lateral, fovee becoming very
“°nsiderably enlarged ;—thi, was the case with the spe-
“Men from which Mr. Marsham made his description

that insect. The species.is, however, very distinct in

ther respects, and may always be known by its small
Size. Tt happens now and then also, that these tumours
"present Blisters. I saw one once on one elytrum of a

: Vor. II. p.169—. — ^ Huber Abeilles ii. 409.
N. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. i. 42,

200 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

beetle and not on the other. Those of Serropalpus (83
Mr. MacLeay, on the authority of M. Clairville, informs
me) are particularly subject to this disease. But, of all
the organs, the wings are most exposed to derangements
of this kind. De Geer, in a specimen of Pieris Craiægi
just excluded from the chrysalis, observed that one of .
these was distended by a considerable quantity of extra-
vasated green fluid—two or three large drops following
an incision. This disease appeared to arise from thé
lower membrane not adhering to the upper; so that the
nervures—which are rather longitudinal channels, being
open below, than tubes—were not closed to confine the
fluid to its proper course. The malady, which might
be called a dropsy of the wing, carried off the insect
the day after its exclusion*. Reaumur observed that
the wings of some flies were affected by an azr-dropsy:
as he calls it, which appeared to arise from the air escap-
ing from its natural channels, and thus separating the
two membranes that form the wing, and filling the ca-
vity produced by their separation.

Sometimes also monstrosities are to be met with mm
these animals, or variations from a symmetrical structure
in organs that are pairs. I have a beetle in which the
terminal joint of one of the maxillary palpi is short, ovate,
and acute; and that of the other, long, semiovate, and
rather obtuse. A specimen of Blaps Mortisaga in my
cabinet, taken by Mr. Denny, besides the terminal mucro
of the elytra, has a long diverging lateral one. Goeze
had the larva of a Semblis brought to him in which one
of the two fore-legs, though perfect in all its parts, was

* De Geer i. 72—, ^ Reaum, iv. 342,

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 201

only half the length of the other*; which he regarded as a
reproduction, but it seems rather a malformation. Mul-
ler mentions a most extraordinary fact of a Noctua, which
When disclosed from the pupa retained the head of the
larva®, One of the most remarkable instances of this kind
that have fallen under my own observation, may be seen
Ma specimen of Chrysomela hemoptera in the cabinet of
ur friend Curtis; in which one of the thighs produces
à double tibia, but only one of these is furnished with a
tarsus,

The diseases of insects which arise from some internal
Cause are not very numerous. ‘The first that I shall
Mention is a kind of vertigo. * Ants have also their
Maladies,” says M. P. Huber: ** I have noticed one ex-
tremely singular; the individuals attacked by it lose their
Power of guiding themselves in a straight line, they can
Walk only by turning round in a circle of small diameter
and always in the same direction. A virgin female shut
"p in one of my glasses was seized on a sudden with this
distemper ; she described a circle of an inch in diameter,
and made about a thousand turns in an hour, or not
Quite seventeen in a minute. She continued constantly
turning round for seven days, and when I visited her in
the night I found her still in motion. I gave her honey
—and I think that she ate some of it." He observed
that some workers were attacked by a similar disease:
°ne of these, however, had the power of walking from
time to time in a straight line; when placed upon its head

t continued its gyrations *. Similar motions of a little

: Naturf. xii. 224, t. v. f. 8. b Ibid. xvi. t. iv. f. 1—3.
Huber Fourmis, 174. note 1.

202 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

moth, mentioned on a former occasion *, may perhaps have
been produced by the same cause. Bees are also sub-
ject to vertigo, which has been attributed to their eating
. poisonous honey — but may not this disease in all these
cases arise from some derangement of the nervous sy-
stem? One of the ants which was so affected had lost
one of its antennse ; but as this was not the case with the
others, no great stress is to be laid upon the circumstance.
Huber does not inform us whether those attacked by
this disease recovered or not.

I have observed more than once, that the flesh-fly and
some others of the same tribe are subject in particular
seasons to a kind of convulsions. When thus attacked,
they kick and struggle, and seem unable to fly. Some-
times they lie upon their backs without motion, but if a
finger be placed near them their convulsive motions are
renewed. When thrown into the air, instead of flying,
they fall to the ground. Had this distemper occurred ear-
lier or later in the year I should have attributed it to the
benumbing effects of cold; but as my observations were
made one year (1816) in May, and in another (1811) in
the latter end of June, this could scarcely be the case.
In the year last mentioned I observed that many flies
died under its influence. In wet seasons this tribe is
subject to another disease, which proves fatal to many of
them, and indeed to other Diptera. A white crust ap-
pears to be formed upon the abdomen both above and
below, of a granular appearance, much resembling fine
moist sugar. On the back of that part this crust does

* Vor, II. p. 369. > N, Dict. d' Hist. Nat. i. 42.

DISEASES OF INSECTS, 208

not cover the. margins of the segments, which gives it
the appearance of white bands; so that deceived by it, I
have often at first flattered: myself that I had met with
some new species. The under-side of the abdomen is
Wholly covered by it, divided.in the middle into two lon-
gitudinal masses, the anal segment being bare... De Geer
has noticed this or a similar disease, which, when flies are
attacked by it, causes. the abdomen. to swell so as even
to burst, and the segments become dislocated. Upon
Opening the abdomen it is found filled witha vidt unc-
tuous substance, which. often accumulates (as above de-
scribed) on' its external surface*. Dr. Host says that
in this disease when the animal is dead, the wings, which
Were before incumbent, become extended, and its almost
invisible pubescence grows into long hairs». De Geer
Seems to think that these flies are thus affected in conse-
quence of having eaten some poisonous food*; but I ra-
ther suspect, as I have observed it become prevalent
chiefly in wet seasons, that it arises from a superabun-
dance of the nutritive fluid, or of the fat, so that it seems
to be a kind of plethora.

Mr. Sheppard once brought me a panicle af grass, the
glumes of which were rough with hairs, or small bristles,
to which several specimens of a fly related to. Eumerus
Pipiens Meig. adhered by their proboscis. At first I
thought that having been entrapped by the bristles, andun-
able to extricate themselves, they had perished from want
of food; but since when touched they readily dropped

fròm the glumes, some other cause, perhaps disease, pro-

bably occasioned this singular suspension of themselves.

* De Geer vi. 75. Latr. Hist. Nat. xiv. 371.
> Jacquin Collectan. iii. t. xxiii. f. 7. © De Geer ubi supr.

904 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

The maladies to which dees and silk-worms are subject
are more interesting to us than those of Julies, on account
of their utility as cultivated insects. One of the worst
distempers which attacks the first of these animals is a
kind of looseness or dysentery: this happens early in the
year, when they are fed with too much honey without
any portion of bee-bread, and sometimes destroys whole
hives. Their excrements, instead of a yellowish red,
then become black, and the odour they emit is insupport-
able; the bees no longer observe their usual neatness,
inducing them to leave the hive when they void their ex-
crements, but they defile it, their cells, and each other.
Several remedies have been prescribed for this disease.
To prevent it, a syrup made by an equal mixture of
good wine and honey is recommended ; and as a cure, to
place in the hive combs containing cells filled with bee-
bread. But one of the worst maladies to which these
useful animals are subject, is that called by Schirach
Faux Couvain. It originates with the larvee; and is caused
either by their being fed with unwholesome food, or when
the queen, as sometimes happens, lays her eggs so that
the head of the grub is not in a proper position for
emerging from the cell when the period for its disclosure
is arrived :—the consequence is, that in both cases it dies
and becomes putrid, which sometimes produces a real
_ pestilence in a hive. The remedy for this evil is to cut
away the infected combs, and to make the bees undergo
a fast of two days’. The hive should be cleaned and
fumigated, by burning under it aromatic plants. >

* Schirach Hist. &c. 54. Reaum. v. 713. N. Dict. d? Hist, Nat.i. 42.
b Ibid. and Schirach 56.

DISEASES OF INSECTS: 205

The cultivators of the si/k-worm in France have given
names to several diseases to which that animal is subject.
One is called La Rouge, and is supposed to be occasioned
either by too great heat, or by too sudden a transition from
cold to heat. It takes place when the caterpillar is first
hatched; which lives perhaps, but in a very sickly state,
till it should spin its cocoon and assume the pupa, when it
expires. Another degree of the same disease is called Les
- Harpions or Passis. A second distemper of this animal
is Des Vaches, Le Gras or La Saune: this is a mortal dis-
ease, supposed to be of a putrid nature, and produced
by mephitic air; it shows itself after the second moult,
but rarely after the subsequent ones. When a caterpil-
lar is first attacked, changing the air may prove a remedy ;
but when the disease has made progress, it is best to
burn or bury them, since if the poultry pick them up
they might be poisoned by them. A third disease of
silk-worms is called Les Morts Blancs, or Tripes, which
is also occasioned by impure air, when the leaves the
animal feeds upon are heaped so as to produce fermen-
tation. The caterpillars attacked by it die suddenly,
and preserve after their death the semblance of life and
health. Too great heat, whether artificial -or . natural,
Occasions La Touffe, another disease, which, when the
heat continues long, destroys all those that are arrived
at their last stage of existence in their larva state. Black
points scattered over different parts of the body, or livid
and blackish spots in the vicinity of the spiracles, fol-
lowed by a yellowish or reddish tint, are symptoms of a
fourth malady, called La Muscardine. After this the ani-

mal soon dies, and becomes mouldy, but does not stink.

206 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

This disease is not contagious, and is thought to be
caused by a moist heat, attended by pernicious exhala-
tions. La Luzette, Luisette, or Clairéne, is another ma-
lady, which shows itself most commonly after the fourth
moult. It seems to arise from some original defect in
the egg. The caterpillars attacked by it may be known
by their clear red and afterwards dirty white colour ;
their body becomes transparent, and the matter of silk
exudes in drops from their spinnerets; consequently,
though as voracious as the rest, they are never able to
construct a cocoon, and should be destroyed. Les Dra-
gées is the name given to cocoons which include a larva
that never becomes a pupa. The cause of this disorder
has not been ascertained, and whole broods are some-
times subject to it, which, as in the last, seems to imply
some defect in the eggs. But as the caterpillar spins its
cocoon, and the silk is as good as usual, it is a malady
of no great importance. Lastly, sometimes the mulberry
leaves have a gummy rather acrid secretion, which
purges the silk-worms; their excrement is no longer
solid ; they become weak and languid; and if the secre-
tion is abundant, their transpiration is impeded, and at
the time of moulting they are become so feeble as to be
unable to cast their skin?.

In the case of many caterpillars of Lepidoptera that
died, Bonnet found by dissection that the disease was
remotely occasioned by a diarrhea, which taking place
immediately before they became pupze, prevented ‘the

inner membrane of their intestines from being rejected,

* Latr. Hist. Nat. xiv. 163—. N. Dict. d Hist. Nat. iv. 134—.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 207

as it would have been if no extraordinary cause had
Prevented it, attached to'the hard excrement. He found
this membrane converted into a jelly occupying great
Part of the stomach, which he conjectured was the proxi-
Mate cause of their death?.
To conclude this head—spiders are reputed to be sub-
Ject to the stone: I do not say Calculus in Vesica ; but
We are informed by Lesser that Dr. John Franck hav-
ing shut up fourteen spiders in a glass with some vale-
Tian root, one of them voided an ash-coloured calculus
With small black dots». A

II. I now come to that class of diseases which: appears
to prevail almost universally amongst insects—I mean
those resulting from the attack of parasitic enemies.
Thus millions and ‘millions annually perish before they
have arrived at their perfect state. Diseases of this kind
Proceed either from vegetable or animal parasites. I shall

33 with the first, which will not occupy us long.

- As insects pass often no small portion of their life
in a state of torpidity, i in which they remain chiefly with-
Out motion, it will not seem wonderful, should any par-
tial moisture accidentally accumulate upon them, that

It affords a seed plot for certain minute fungi to come up
and grow in. Persoon observes with regard to his ge-
"us Isaria, that one species grows upon the Jarve of in-
Sects (T. truncata), and another upon pupe (I. crassa *):—
as he does not say upon dead larvæ and pupæ, as upon
a former occasion’, perhaps in these cases these plants
May constitute an insect disease; but I lay no stress
"pon it, and only mention the circumstance here as con-

* Œuvr, ii. 48—. | > Lesser L. ii. 121.
* Synops. Meth. Fung. 687.g.63.7.1,2. — * Ibid. 4. g. 1. n. 4.

208 DISEASES OF INSECTS,

nected with the history of these animals. Mr. Dickson has
described a Spheria under the name of entomorhiza that

grows upon dead larvee; it has a slender long stipes and

spherical granulated head: on the pupa of a species
of Tettigonia in my cabinet, another kind of Spherias
with a twisted thickish stipes and oblong head, springs
up in the space between the eyes. I observed something
similar but longer, in the grub of some large beetle in
M. Du Fresne's museum at Paris; and I have a memo-
randum of having noticed something of the kind on the
rostrum of a Calandra. Bees and humble-bees have
been sometimes thought to have some species of mucor or
other Fungilli occasionally growing upon them; but
Mr. Brown is of opinion that stamina which they have
filched from flowers have been mistaken for these
Fungilli, since he has detected those of Orchidee in
some of this tribe, and upon a beetle shown to him by
Mr. MacLeay, one which he knew to be the stamen of
an Aristolochia. 1 once observed a bunch of what I mis-
took for a singular mucor that adorned the vertex of a
humble-bee, between the antennze, which doubtless were
of the same description; aad I even saw one upon its
wing. Upon a former occasion I mentioned a parallel
circumstance with respect to a species of Xylocopa*.

ii. The anzmal parasites that infest insects are either
themselves znsects; or worms.

1. Their insect infesters, as far as we know at present,
are confined fo the Orders Strepsiptera, Hymenoptera;
Diptera, and Aptera: they attack them sometimes in their
egg state, most frequently when they are larvee, occasion-
ally when pupæ, and very rarely in their perfect state.

a Vor.Illp.336—. ——

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 209 `

Upon many of these I have formerly enlarged?, and I
Shall noy, add such farther circumstances as I then
mitted. The Strepsiptera Order, as at present known,
Consists only of two genera, Stylops and Xenos; the first
“Ing appropriated to the imago of Andrena F., a kind
Of bee, aud the latter to that of the wasps. Their eggs
*Ppear to be deposited in the abdomen of these insects in
Which they feed, till having attained their full growth
€Y perforate the membrane that connects its segments ;
"nd at the proper time their pupa-case bursts, they emerge,
and take their flight. Sometimes four or five infest a
‘ingle bee. Whether the latter dies upon their quitting
is l have not been able to ascertain, but from their fly-
"8, when the little parasite is very near leaving them,
With their usual activity, it should seem that this disease
5 not mortal ; but it probably prevents their breeding :
do not recollect observing the exuvize of one in a male
fed.
The great body of insect parasites, however, belong
? the Hymenoptera Order, and chiefly to the Linnean
Semis Ichneumon. The insects of this Order have been -
“Nominated Principes, because of the wonderful instincts
"nts, wasps, bees, and other gregarious tribes that be-
“hg to it; and they merit a name of honour not less for

€ benefits that they confer upon mankind, by keeping

thin their proper limits the various insect-destroyers

Y the produce of the globe. It deserves notice that
in these latter increase to a degree to occasion alarm, `

. ^I parasites are observed to increase in a much greater,

? 8$ to prevent the great majority of them from breed-

* Vor. I. p. 264—. ]

* Mon. Ap. Angl. i. 111. Linn. Trans. xi, 90—.

VoL, I V. P

210 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

ing*. ‘Though these benefactors of the human race con-
stitute numerous genera, at present not well ascertained,
I shall speak of most of them under the common name
of Ichneumon. :

The appearance of these little four-winged flies puzzled
much the earlier naturalists :—that a caterpillar usually
turning to a moth or butterfly should give birth to my"
riads of flies, was one of those deep mysteries of nature
which they knew not how to fathom®: even the pene
trating genius of our great Ray, though he ultimately
ascertained the real fact‘, was at one time here quite at
fault; for he seems at first to have thought, when from
any defect or weakness nature could not bring a cate?
pillar to a butterfly, in order that her aim might not be
entirely defeated, that she stopped short, and formed
them into more imperfect animals‘.

Before I detail more particularly the proceedings of
Ichneumons, I shall make a few general remarks up?”
them. ‘The structure of the instrument by which they
are enabled to deposit their eggs in their appropriaf
station has been before sufficiently described °; it is long
or short according to the situation and circumstances 9
the larva which receives them : if it lives in the open ails
and the access to it is easy, it is usually skort and 1€
tracted within the body; but if it lies concealed in de®?
holes or cavities, or shuns all approach, it is often very
long. Thus in Pimpla Manifestator, which commits its l
eggs to the grub of a wild bee inhabiting the bottom ;

deep holes bored in posts and rails, the ovipositor d

® Reaum. ii. 439. » Ibid. 415. Mouffet 57-
e Hist. Ins. Præf. xv. d Cat, Cant. 137.
e See above, p. 154—. -

DISEASES OF INSECTS, 211

nearly an inch and half in length, and in some extra-
"'Opean species three inches. How the egg is pro-
Pelled so as to pass in safety from the oviduct, along this
*Xtended ang very slender instrument to the grub for
Which it is destined, has not been certainly ascertained ;
ut from an observation of Reaumur’s? it should seem
hat it is aided in its passage by some fluid ejected at the
‘ame time with it, or is so lubricated as to slide easily with-
“ut being displaced. The flies we are speaking of by
‘Ome authors are called Musce vibrantes, because when
“arching for the destined nidus of their eggs their an-
tennæ vibrate incessantly, and it is by the use of these
wonderful organs that they discover it wherever it lurks.
“tgman observed that Fænus Jaculator searches for the
tent grub of certain bees and other Hymenoptera with
5 àhtenngeb; aud from. Mr. Marsham we learn that
EU Mani estator, before it inserts its ovipositor in the
With of the grub of Chelostoma manulosa, explores it first
the one anions and then ith the other, plunging

3 all the while intensely quivering up to the veryroot*. -
: Ith respect to their size, Ichneumons vary greatly;
: ° being so extremely minute as to be invisible to the
t le unless moving upon glass; while others, as to
a ength, emulate the giants amongst insects. The
ill 2 unless appropriated ta the eggs themselves, usu-
ue eiie many eggs to a single larva, while the latter
ected by their instinct to introduce into them only
Some of the former description are endowed with

id faculty of leaping‘. The food o£ Ichneumons, and

e deam, vi. 306. b Fn. Suec. 1626,
Made wt Trans, iii, 26. ^ De Geer i. 608. Linné has
Calling Mistake with regard to the Ichneumon here alluded to, in

© Geer’s saltatorious Ichneumon T, Muscarum, and referring

P2 à

912 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

indeed of other internal parasites, is chiefly the epiploon
or fat of the larva, but they never touch any vital organ >
so that it continues to feed, and probably more voraci-
ously, grow, cast its skin, and often it changes to à chry-
salis, although at the same time inhabited by an army °
these little devourers.

Ichneumons, as far as has been at present ascertained,
are parasitic upon other insects chiefly in their zhree first
states, a solitary instance only having been observed ol
their inhabiting an imago; but from their first exclusio?
as eggs from the ovary till their assumption of that state
they give them no rest. I shall therefore first treat 9
those that infest the eggs; next those appropriated to
laroæ; and lastly those that devour pupe.

Vallisnieri appears to have been the first naturalist wh?
discovered that Ichneumons were appropriated to the
eggs of other insects. He observed one proceed from those
oftheemperor-moth (Saturnia pavonia): findingtwoh oles
in each egg, one larger than the other, he conjecture
that one was made when it entered, and the other whe!
it emerged. In this case the egg of the Ichneumon mus!
be fixed on the outside of the egg it was to feed up’
though some appear to pierce it with their oviposito”
and consequently introduce their egg within: for he saff
rta
ant

afterwards; * I have seen with my own eyes a ce
kind of wild flies deposit their eggs upon other eggs *
bore.and pierce others with an aculeus—by which the)
have introduced the egg*.” Count Zinanni, à corre

: e
spondent of Reaumur's, saw an Ichneumon pierce th

4 PA n
for it to t. xxxii, f. 19, 20 of that author; whereas. the Ichneum^
that preys upon the aphidivorous flies does not jump, and is figu P
by De Geer 605. t. xxxiv. f. 26—29. The jumping one feeds oP

- Jarva of a Coccinella. a Vallisnieri Lettere, &e- 8v.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 213

“88s with her Ovipositor repeatedly; which in about fi
teen days were filled with the pupa, and in six more pro-
uced the imago?.. I. Ovulorum is the only known species
: *B8-devourers; but most likely there are many, vary-
Ing in Size, according to the size of the egg they inhabit.
A obably M. Atomus L., and I. Punctum Shaw, are of this
“scription ^. It is wonderful what a number these little
les destroy :—0ut of a mass of more than sixty eggs
Which was brought to De Geer, not one had escaped the
chneumon *. But the most extraordinary thing is, that
“Yen these little creatures -we are told are destroyed by
Mother still more minute‘,
A hough the animals we are speaking of usually de-
Y only a single €gg> yet some appear not so to con-
$ themselves, Geoffrey informs us that the larva of

"e of the Ichneumons whose females are without wings

i Pus F.) devours the eggs of the nests of spiders, and
tts size—it is nearly a quarter of an inch long—it
ust require several of them to bring it to maturity €. One

h Ose also which destroys the gnat infesting the wheat
k : seters K.) appears to devour them in their egg state,

| “Ould not be brought to perfection by the food that

“Ingle one would furnish f.

: ` Ichneumons that are parasitic upon larve are
by St numerous of all. Some of them are deposited
in a parent MY. on the outside of their prey, and others

"Ced into its interior. . Ophion luteus F. is one of
“rmer tribe; it plants its eggs in the skin of the ca-

t .
“Pillar of the puss-moth (Cerura Vinula). Each egg is

a

N qum, vi. 996——. Linné evidently has described
t Species under 7. Ovulorum, in Fn. Suec, 1644,

« «€ Geer i, 593... ^ N. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. vi. 10,
eoffr, Hist, Ins. Par. ii. 361. € Linn. Trans. v. 102—.

214 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

furnished with a footstalk terminating in a bulb’, which
is so deeply and firmly fixed that it is impossible to ex
tract it without detaching a portion of the animal with
it, and even when the caterpillar changes its skin it is not
displaced. After it is hatched, the grub, while feeding
keeps its posterior extremity in the egg-shell, to which
it adheres so pertinaciously, that it is scarcely possible
to disengage it without crushing it. It fixes itself by its
mandibles to the skin of the caterpillar, and keeps co?
stantly sucking the contents of its body till it dies: some”
times nine or ten of these larvee inhabit a single caterpil-
lar?. Reaumur has given an account of other external Ich-
neumons. Upon one caterpillar that he examined, they
were so numerous as to render the poor animal quite ®
spectacle, and they underwent their metamorphosis at-
tached to it®. One species of this description avenges the
cause of insects upon their most pitiless foes, the all-de
vouring spider—for in the midst of her toils and lines ?
circumvallation it makes her its prey. De Geer, meeting
one day with a young spider of a common kind, observe
with surprise, engaged in sucking it, a small white grub
which was firmly attached to the abdomen near the trunk
` Putting it by in a glass, after some days he examined if
again; when he observed that it had spun the outline ?
a vertical web, had stretched threads from the top to the
bottom of the glass and from one side to the other, 2?
had also spun the radii that meet in the centre, and thi
was all ;—but what was remarkable, the larva that hat
fed upon it was suspended in the centre of this wel
where it was engaged in spinning its own cocoon, while

* Prate XX. Fie. 22, a. ^ De Geer ii. 350—-
c Reaum. ii, 444—

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 215

the Spider, exhausted by this last effort, had fallen dead
" the bottom of the glass. It cannotbe asserted posi-
üvely that this suspension of the larva of the Ichneumon
n the centre of the web always takes place; but if it does,
4S seems most probable, it shows that this little parasite
5 endowed with an instinct which causes it so to act upon
the spider as may induce it to spin a web so nicely timed
3$ to be sufficiently complete at the period of its death
and of the change of the Ichneumon, for the latter to cast
‘tdown and assume its station ?.
But the great bulk of the parasitic Hymenopterous de-
Yourers of larvee have their assigned station within the bo-
J. ` As Entomologists in breeding insects have paid their
Principal attention to Lepidoptera, it necessarily follows
àt their Ichneumon infestors must be most generally
nown; but doubtless the larvæ of the other Orders are

not Wholly liberated from this scourge: they also require -
€ kept within due limits, and have their appropriate

Parasites, Some, however, in most of them have been

“tected ; of which I shall now proceed to state to you
© most interesting examples, beginning with the Co-
°Opterg,
: ; Er Manducator Latr.^, remarkable for having man-
Sg æ that do not close, and toothed at the end, usually
nds masses of dung, both of man and cattle, probably
°t the purpose of depositing its eggs in some of the Co-
""Plerous larvee that inhabit it. Mr. Stephens, one of the
"8t accurate observers as well as one of the best Ento-
ds Ogists of the present day, informs me that he once
Ptured three specimens of Timarcha tenebricosa, from

a
De Geer ii. 863—, ^ Panzer Fn. Germ. Init. lxxii. 4.

216 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

each of which forty or fifty minute Ichneumons emerged:
An insect also of this Order, that is a great benefactor t°
mankind, as a destroyer of the plant-lice,—I mean the la-
dy-bird (Coccinella), in its larva state is itself subject to the
attack, as we learn from De Geer, of one of these small
parasites*. He detected them also in that of two species
of weevils (Curculio L.): and in the pupa of some larg?
grub of a beetle inhabiting the wood of the elm, perhaps
that of the stag-beetle, he found the pupa of one of those
Ichneumons that have an exserted ovipositor?. Doubt-
less, did we know their history, we should find that num-
berless species have their internal assailants belonging to
this tribe. .

Orthopterous larvee seem not to have been yet a0”
nounced as affording a pabulum to these animals: but
the late Dr. Arnold, whose tact for observation with re-
gard to the manners and economy of insects has rendered
his loss irreparable, discovered that the remarkable p?"
rasitic genus Evania F. was appropriated to the all-
devouring Blatta. Whether it attacked it in its egg oF
larva state I have not been informed. This little bene
factor is here extremely rare, at least in the country; per
haps in towns, where the cock-roach abounds, it may be
more common.

The observations of naturalists have chiefly been co®™
fined to the Hemipterous genus Aphis; but these early
attracted their notice. Leeuwenhoek has given a pa”
ticular and entertaining account of the proceedings ?
I. Aphidum L. As soon as the little flies approache
their prey, they bent their abdomen, which is rather
long, between their legs, so that the anus projected be

a De Geer. i. 583—. ii. 822— . 907. > Reaum, vi. 312

DISEASES OF INSECTS. ; 217

yond the head; then with their ovipositor they pierced
the body of the Aphis, at the same time carefully avoid-
ing all contact with it in every other part: whenever they
succeeded in their attempt, a tremulous motion of the
abdomen succeeded. Only a single egg is committed to
one Aphis: when hatched, the latter becomes very smooth
and appears swelled; it is, however, full of life, and moves
when touched. Those that are thus pricked separate
themselves from their sound companions, and take their
station on the underside of a leaf. After some days the
inclosed grub pierces the belly of the Aphis, and at-
taches the margin of the orifice to the leaf by silken
threads; upon this it dies, becomes white, and resembles
a brilliant bead or pearl?. De Geer observed also an
Ichneumon on the Coccus of the elm, J. Coccorum L?. .

Amongst the Neuropterous tribes likewise, probably
the Ichneumonide commit their usual ravages; but their
exploits, as far as I recollect, have met with no historian.
I have a small species related to Chelonus Jur., which a
memorandum made when I took it tells me was obtained
from ZEshna viatica; yet I do not remember ever tracing
that species to its final change, so that I must have taken
this Ichneumon from the perfect insect. It suffices, how-
ever, to prove that this tribe is also exposed to the attack
of these parasites. Where larvee and pupee are aquatic,
it seems probable, if any attack is made upon them, that
it must take place after they have quitted the water.

In the Hymenoptera Order itself, almost every genus

has been ascertained to have its Ichneumon parasites.
Not even the fortified habitations of the gall-flies (Cy-

@ Leeuwenh. Epist. Oct. 6, 1700. De Geer ii. 869.
b Ibid, i. 604.

218 DISEASES OF INSECTS,

nips S.) can escape them, almost every species becoming
their prey; a circumstance which puzzled not a little
some of the older naturalists, when they at one time saw
a fly not remarkable for its colours or brilliancy emerge
from the curious moss-like Bedeguar of the wild rose,
and at another were struck by the appearance of one of
those splendid minims of nature which almost dazzle the
sight of the beholder?. Immunity, however, from this
pest seems to have been granted to the gregarious Hy-
menoptera; at least none has yet been discovered to at-
tack the ant, the wasp, the humble-bee, or the hive-bee ;
in which last, had there been one appropriated to it, it
could never have escaped the notice of the Reaumurs and
the Hubers. The solitary bees, however, as we have seen
above”, do not escape; and Epipone spinzpes, a solitary
wasp which feeds its own young with a number of green
caterpillars *, is itself, when a larva, though concealed in
a deep burrow, the prey of the grub of an Ichneumon,
which by means of a long ovipositor introduces its egg
into its body4, Even these parasites, whose universal of-
fice it is in their first state to prey upon insects, are them-
selves subject to the same malady. Ichneumonidan de-
vourers are kept in check by other Ichneumonidan devour-
ers. "These in some cases are so numerous as to destroy
the tithe of the kinds they attack*. Thus an ever-watch-
ful PRovipENcE prevents these parasites from becoming
so numerous as to annihilate in any place the species ne-
cessary for the maintenance of the general economy and
proportion of animal and vegetable productions. Amongst

* Rai. Hist. Ins. 959—, — " See above, p. 209 ; and Voz. I. p. 354.
c Ibid. 346. a Reaum. vi. 303—.
© Ibid. ii. 454—.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 219

the assailants of the Hymenoptera, none seem to have a
more laborious task assigned them than those that pierce
the various galls in which the larvee of the Cynips tribe
are inclosed. To look at an oak-apple, we should think
it a work of difficulty, requiring much sagacity and ad-
dress, for one of our little flies to discover the several
Chambers lurking in its womb, and to direct their ovi-
Positor to each of them. Its Creator, however, has
enabled it instinctively to discover this, and furnished it
With an appropriate elongated instrument, which will
Open a way to the deep and hidden cells in which the
grubs reside, penetrate their bodies, and to each commit
anegg. When it prepares to perforate the gall, the Ich-
neumon begins by depressing this organ, that it may ex-
tricate it from its sheath ; it next elevates its body as high
as possible, and bending the instrument till it becomes
Perpendicular to the body and to the gall, so as to touch
the latter with its point, it then gradually plunges it in,
till it is quite buried*. A very remarkable Hymenopte-
rous parasite (Leucospis), which when unemployed turns
its ovipositor over the back of its abdomen, so that its
end points to its head, is said to deposit its eggs in the
nest of the mason-bee, most probably in the larva : but
the curious observations that are stated to have been
made by M. Amédée Lepelletier upon its history have
Not yet been given to the public”.

Dipterous insects, likewise, do not escape from these
pests of their Class: but few observations, however, have
been recorded as to the species assailed by them. We
learn from De Geer, that a gnat (Cecidomyia Juniperi),

* De Geer. ii. 879—. o N. Dict. d Hist. Nat. xvii. 513.

290 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

which forms galls upon the Juniper is devoured by an ex-
ternal Ichneumon?; that which injures the wheat in the
ear, whose ravages I formerly mentioned to yout, af-
fords food to three of these parasites, —one I lately men-
tioned as probably devouring its eggs; another pierces
the glumes of the floret, where its destined prey is con-
cealed; and the third enters it. I once placed a number
of the larvæ of the gnat upon a sheet of paper, at no
great distance from each other, and then set down one
of these last Ichneumons in the midst of them. She be-
gan immediately to pace about, vibrating her antenne
very briskly; a larva was soon discovered, upon which
_she fixed herself, the motion of her antennae increasing
intensely; then bending her abdomen obliquely under
her breast, she inserted her ovipositor, and while the
egg was depositing these organs became perfectly mo-
tionless. The larva when pricked gave a violent wriggle.
This operation was repeated with all that had not al-
ready received an ego, for only one is committed to each
larva. I have often seen it mount one that was already
pricked, but it soon discovered its mistake, and quitted
it untouched*, The only other Dipterous insects that I
have seen mentioned as affording pabulum to an Ich-
neumon, are—one of the aphidivorous flies mentioned by
De Geer, who does not note the species, to the larva of

which the Ichneumon commits only a single egg, pro-
ducing a grub that entirely devours its interior? ;—and
two described by Scopoli, one, the larva of a Jy frequent-

* De Geer vi, 411—, coat Wilkes As lc

* Linn. Trans, iv, 236. * De Geer i. 605, This, as be-
fore observed, is not the Z. Muscarum of Linné; but it ought to have
that name, and the other instead to be named J. Coccinelle.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 221

ing hemp; and the other, which feeds on a Boletus, that
of a enat?,
The Lepidoptera, however, is the Order over the larvee
of which the Ichneumons reign with undisputed sway ;
attacking all indiscriminately, from the minute one that
forms its labyrinth within the thickness of a leaf, to the
giant caterpillar of the hawk-moth. The most useful of
all, however, the silk-worm, appears, at least with us, ex-
empted from this scourge. De Geer, out of fifteen larvee
that were mining between the two cuticles ofa rose-leaf,
belonging to the first tribe here alluded to, found that
Sourteen were destroyed by one of these parasites, only
one coming forth to display itself in all its brilliancy and
Miniature magnificence”. One of the most useful to us
is that which destroys the clothes-moth, which the same
Writer also traced*. Another, equally serviceable, takes
Up its abode in the caterpillar that ravages our cabbages
and brocoli (Pieris Brassice), which perish by hundreds
from its attacks. As this falls frequently under our no-
tice, it will not be uninteresting to give a fuller account
ofi. Reaumur has traced and related its whole history.
. One of these little flies that he observed, was so intent
upon the business in which she was engaged, that she
Suffered him to watch her motions under a lens, without
being discomposed. She pursued nearly the same plan
of pr oceeding with that of the Ichneumon of the wheat-
gnat just described ; except that she repeated her opera-
tions frequently on the same caterpillar in different parts,
alternatel ly plunging in and extracting her ovipositor.
She seemed to prefer the spot where the segments of the

body are united, particularly where the wer meets the

* Ent, Carn. 760, 761. ^ De Geer i. 587.
© Ibid. ii, 876—.

222 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

ninth, and the ninth the tenth. When the fly had com-
pleted its work and quitted the caterpillar, Reaumur
gave it food, and it did not seem less lively and vigorous
than others of its kind: in less than a fortnight it as-
sumed the pupa; and in four days, the whole of its inte-
rior being devoured, it died: but its parasites, perhaps
not finding a sufficient supply of nutriment in it, never
came to perfection*. Sometimes, however, these little
grubs arrive at maturity before the caterpillar has be-
come a chrysalis, when they pierce the skin and begin to
emerge. First appears a little white tubercle, which gra-
dually elevates itself in a direction perpendicular to the
body: while this is doing, a second appears in another
place; and so on, till fifteen or sixteen are seen on each
side, giving the caterpillar a very grotesque appearance.
By the alternate contraction and relaxation of their bo-
dies the grubs effect their complete liberation, which takes
place, with respect to the whole, in less than half an hour.
When entirely disengaged, they place themselves close
to the sides of the caterpillar: even before this they be-
gin spinning, and draw unequal threads in different di-
rections, of which they form a cottony bed, which serves
as the base of the separate cocoon of each individual;
which they next construct of a beautiful silk thread of a
lovely yellow, which, if it could be unwound and in suffi-
cient quantity, would yield a silk unrivalled in lustre and
fineness”.

De Geer has recorded a very singular fact which de-
serves your notice. An Ichneumon, appropriated to one
of the Tortrices, had deposited its eggs in two of their
caterpillars; each produced a considerable number; but

* Reaum. ii. 417— b Fh. 419—,

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 293

those that emerged from one were all females, and those
from the other, males*. He observed a similar fact take
Place with Misocampus Puparum*. One might conjecture
from this circumstance, that as in the queen-bee*, so in

these Ichneumons, the eggs producing the two sexes were
arranged separately in the ovaries. Reaumur has re-
lated, that in one instance three or four males were pro-
duced to one female; and in another four or five females

to one male‘, l

But though the great majority of insects are subject to
this Scolechiasis® in their larva state, yet sometimes they
are not attacked by the Ichneumon till they have become
Dupe. Of this kind is one just mentioned (M. Puparum),
Which commits its eggs to the chrysalis of the butterfly of
the nettle, Vanessa Urtice: the moment this caterpillar
quits its skin to assume that state, while it is yet soft they
Pierce it and confide to it their eggs*. De Geer and
9thers have supposed that this same Ichneumon attacks
the Cocci and Coccinelle t ; but this probably is an erro-
neous supposition. Cryptus Compunctor F. also attacks
the pupæ of butterflies ^.

If we consider the great purpose of PROVIDENCE in
giving being to this tribe of destroyers—the keeping of
Insects within their proper limits,—we may readily con-
ceive that this purpose is more effectually answered by
destroying them in their preparatory than in their ulti-
Mate state, since at that time the laying of their eggs and
a future progeny could not so effectually be prevented ;—

* De Geer i. 583—. . ^ Jbid.ii. 884.
S z Tet 158. 5 ipl —
or. i. p. 99. £ De Geer ubi supr.
8 Ibid. 883. n Linn. Fn. Suec. 1609.

294 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

this will account for there being few or no Ichneumons

appropriated to them in their latter state.

The next tribe of insect parasites are to be found in
the Diptera Order. The species that has been particu-
larly noticed as such is the Musca Larvarum L.; its larva
is polyphagous, laying its eggs upon the bodies of cater-
pillars of different kinds. Sometimes a pair is placed on
the first segment, sometimes on the head itself, and some-
times near the anus. These eggs are very hard, convex;
of an oval figure, polished and shining like a mirror.
They are fixed so firmly that if you attempt to remove
them with a penknife the skin comes off with them.
When hatched, they enter the body and feed on the in-
terior, and, undergoing their metamorphosis within it, do
not emerge till they enter their perfect state. The cater-
pillar thus attacked lives long enough to spin its cocoon,
when it dies?. Sometimes, however, these animals quit
their prey sooner. Reaumur saw a grub of one of the
Muscide come out of a caterpillar, and then become a
pupa, which was so large that he wondered how it could
have been contained in the animal it had quitted>.

We have. now done with those parasites that produce
in insects the disease I have called Scolechiasis*: the
rest, which belong to the Aptera Order, will afford us
examples both of Phthiriasis and Acariasist.

I begin with the frst. Mr. Sheppard once brought
me a specimen of a bird-louse ( NZrmus) which he took —
upon a butterfly (Vanessa Io): and should such a capture
be more than once repeated, it would afford a certain
instance of the frst of these diseases amongst insects; —but

^ Reaum, ii. 443. De Geer i. 196—, 550—. vi. 94. '-
b Reaum. ii. 440—, © © Vor, I. p. 99. 4 Thid. 84,97.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 225

most probably the specimen in question had dropped
from some bird upon the butterfly. The only remaining
animal belonging to the apterous hexapods that is para-
Sitic on insects, is by many supposed to be the larva of a
Blant beetle (Meloe Proscarabeus). I have before alluded
to this animal?, and shall now resume the subject. Gæ-
dart, Frisch, and De Geer, observed that it deposited. in
the earth one or two considerable masses, containing an
"nite number of very minute orange-coloured eggs
adhering to each other, which in about a month were
atched, and produced a number of small hexapods dis-
tinguished by two pairs of anal setee and a proleg, by
Means of which they could move readily upon glass, as I
‘ve myself seen: these little animals precisely corre-
‘Ponded with one found by the latter author upon Syrphus
Miricaria ; and when that fly was placed amongst them,
they immediately attached themselves to it, so as to leave
39 doubt of their identity®. A congenerous species had
“en detected upon wild bees, and described by Linné
Mider the name of Pediculus Apis. De Geer is so
roughly to be depended upon for his veracity and ac-
“Uracy of observation, that we cannot suppose there is
“YY incorrectness in his statement. If the mass of eggs
9» as he represents it, of the size of a hazel-nut, it must
ave been the product of a very large insect: in confir-
Mation of this opinion it may be further observed, that
E larva of the kindred genus Cantharis Latr. agrees
with it in having anal sete, though it appears to differ
a having only two conspicuous segments in the trunk v.
Ose which infest wild bees make their first appearance

* Vor. I. p. 162. note *. Vor. III. p. 163. note ^.

^ De Geer v, 8—. ° Naturf. xxiii. t. i. f. 8.

NE
IV. Q

296 | DISEASES OF INSECTS.

upon acrid plants, which the Meloe likewise feeds upon;
_ from whence with wonderful agility they leap upon the
Andrene, &c. that visit these flowers. Strong, howevel
as all these facts appear, still we cannot help exclaiming
with the illustrious Swede last named, Who could eve
have imagined that the larva of this great beetle would
be found upon the body of ffes,——and we may add, of
bees ? Who could ever imagine that it would feed like
a bird-louse and resemble it so closely? that in the in-
sertion of its palpi it should exhibit a character excl
sively belonging to that tribe?? Another circumstance
seems to indicate that these hexapods at the time that
they take their station in bees or flies are perfect insects
—they do not vary in size, at least not materially. Where
we may also ask, if they are to become large beetles
where do they take their principal growth ? . It cannot
be as parasites on the little bees or flies that they are
usually found upon; they must soon desert them, a!
like their kindred blister-beetles, as is most probable
have recourse to vegetable food. What an anomaly in
rerum natura! Yt is much to be wished that some skil-
fal insect-anatomist would carefully dissect the Meloe; d
| perhaps by digging round the roots of the ranunculuse
and other acrid plants the larva of that beetle might be
discovered in a later stage of growth, and so this myste!?
be cleared up. I should observe here, that Scopoli has
described three parasites ‘as Pediculi; viz. P. rostratus
coccineus, and Cerambycinus ; the first of which Fabricii?
has adopted under the name of P. Gryllotalpe, but whid
are all evidently hexapod Acarina”.

a N. Dict. d Hist. Nat. xx. 110—. b Ent. Carn. 1052—5-

DISEASES OF INSECTS. PO
Acar
Nsects

tasis seems a disease almost as universal amongst
as Scolechiasis ; with this difference however, that
carimost commonly take their station upon them in their
Perfect State. You have doubtless often observed the com-
Mon dung-beetles ( Geotrupes Latr.) covered on the under-
Si of their body with small mites (Gamasus Coleoptrato-
Latr.) which look as if they were engaged in suction

€Y are often so numerous that no part is uncovered ;

SY also attack other beetles*, and are sometimes found
Umble-bees. They are easily disturbed, run with
Seat Swiftness, and may often be seen in hot-beds and
“Menting dung prowling in search of the stercora-
OUS beetles, But the most remarkable insect of this
is the Uropoda vegetans: it derives its nutriment
the insects it assails not by its mouth, but by means
8 long anal pedicle by which it is attached to them.

ftom

ĉer found these in such numbers upon a species of
hae that its whole body was almost covered with
Dy they hung from the legs and antennæ in bunches,
Save the animal a most hideous and disgusting ap-
| vates Under this load of vermin 3 could scarcely
i hi move, and all its efforts to get rid of them were
CNN many were attached to its body and to each
off ü y their anal pedicles, but others had cast them
with were walking about. When put into a glass
th “arth, they began to abandon their prey, so that
fo..." days it was quite freed from its plagues. He

nd that these parasites lived long in alcohol®.

i" inguire— How are these mites originally fixed by

pedicles? it seems most probable, that as the He-

a . $ 4 z
Hister particularly, ^ De Geer vii. 126—.
QZ

228 DISEASES OF INSECTS,

merobii, when they lay their eggs, know how to place
them upon a kind of footstalk, so the parent Uropoda
has the same power; and this pedicle appears to act the
part of an umbilical chord, conveying nutriment to the
foetus not from a placenta, but from the body of the in"
sect to which it is attached; till having thus attained ?
certain maturity of growth and structure, it disengag”
itself and becomes locomotive. Many eggs of the aqu^
tic Acarina (Hydrachna, &c.) are also furnished with ?
short pedicle by which they are fixed to Dytisci and
other water insects. De Geer found some of this de
scription on the underside of the water-scorpion, 50
thickly set as to leave no void space: they were oval, 9
a very bright red, and of different sizes on different indi
viduals; whence it was evident that they grow when thus
fixed: when hatched or released—for perhaps they may
be regarded as foetuses in their amnios rather than eg”
—they cease to be parasitical. Let us admire on th
occasion, (piously observes this great Entomologist,) tbe
different and infinitely varied means by which the Av
THOR of Nature has endowed animals, particularly m
sects, for their propagation and preservation: for it is?
most extraordinary sight to see eggs grow, and pumP s
it were their nutriment from the body of another living
animal?. As these mites are fixed to the crus as well j
its inosculations, they must have some means of forcé
their nutriment through its pores.

Another insect, remarkable for its resemblance in son
respects to the scorpion—called in this country the bo? i

: : : : : 1
crab (Chelifer cancroides), from its being sometimes fou!

a De Geer vii, 144—.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 3 229

ji books—occastonally is parasitic upon flies, especially
the common blue-bottle-fly (Musca vomitoria). They
adhere to it very pertinaciously under the wings; and if
you attempt ta disturb them, they run backwards, for-
Wards, or sideways, with equal facility.
?. We now come to a perfectly distinct tribe of in-
ve Parasites, which belong to that section or order of
testinal worms which Rudolph has denominated En-
"tea nematordea, and Lamarck Vers rigidules*. To
be belong the Gordius of Linné and the Filaria
modern zoologists, which from the experiments and
*Servations of De Geer, Dr. Matthey, &c. appear to have
ie too hastily separated, being really congenerous, and
Ing indifferently in water and in the intestines of in-
"ets and other animals?. To this genus belong the

ü : : : ee
: j "Worm (Gordius medinensis L.*), the Furia infer-
alis y.

*erteby
“Vere

Se
in

this tri

» and several others that are found in various
ate animals. These little worms have been dis-
ie d in insects of almost every Order; and their at-
the Senerally produces the death of the animal, though

Y appear not to devour those parts that are essential

to
lifa, I once took a specimen of Harpalus azureus;

an 1 > gig WA ;
d Upon immersing it in boiling water I was surprised
g g iu

o
bu. © what at first I mistook for an intestine, thrust itself
15

Prise I

but upon a nearer inspection, to my great sur-
à found it was one of these worms, thicker than a
r 3
“chair and of a brown colour. Mr. W. S. MacLeay

a
b Lamarck Anim. sans Vert. ii. 196.
c © Geer ii. 554—. Pictet Bibliotheg. Univers. num. ult.
by yy © existence of this animal has been satisfactorily ascertained
body." e Blainville, who had a specimen, extracted from a human
a aent him by M, Girard, a surgeon of Guadaloupe.
© Geer ii, 555,

230 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

also once found one in Abax striola. It still remains in
my specimen, making it appear as if it had a long tail
De Geer long ago found these worms in grasshoppers"?
but Dr. Matthey has given the fullest account of one
which infested Acrida viridissima. A friend of his n0"
ticing one of theseinsects which had not strength enough
to leap and could scarcely even walk, being struck with
the circumstance, caught the animal, upon which its hin

legs were immediately detached from it. His surpris?
was greatly increased when he saw issue from its body?
cylindrical worm about two feet and a half in length. Up%

being called, Dr. M. soon recognised it for a Gordius ©

Filaria; and on his putting it into water, it moved iB it
with great velocity, twisting its long and slender body ip
all. directions. _Upon, opening the body of the gras
hopper, nothing appeared within it but the intestil*
shrunk up to a thread. A few days after, another W%
brought, which appeared in full vigour, but its abdom®”
was enormously distended, and from it another worm wie
extracted, which remained without motion rolled. in ^
spiral direction: intending to preserve this in spirits p
wine—as it had become flat he first immersed it in wat
that it might recover if possible its cylindrical for?"
Upon immersion a movement took place in the anim^*
and it gradually recovered its plumpness; but it still!“
mained without motion, as if dead, for nearly five day?
when another living specimen being brought and plac

with it, as soon as water was poured on them, the see
ingly dead one began to show by a slight oscillatio? x
its extremities that life was not extinct in it. Fresh we

* De Geer it. 555.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 231

ter being poured upon it, at the end of the day it had
Teeovered all its strength and agility. He afterwards
often repeated the same experiment with a similar re-
Sult*. From this account it appears that the Gordius or
f "aria has a property resembling that of the Vibrio Tri-
"ci, so well described and so beautifully figured by
- Bauer, of apparently dying and being resuscitated
Y immersion in water. How long it can retain this
Property remains to be ascertained.

De Geer states that he had seen them of the length of
two feet c; but they vary considerably in this respect. In
“ats, in which Gould detected them, he states their
“ngth to be not more than half an inch*. In caterpil-
“ts, which they sometimes infest, they are longer; in
that of Bombyx Ziczac, De Geer found one three inches
‘nd a half long °; and Résel three, of six inches, in that of
Sphine Euphorbia £; and in Phalangium cornutum; accord-
Ng to Latreille, they extend to more than seven inches£.
In the larva of a Phryganea L. the author first named
“und one which was more than a foot long, correspond-
ng exactly with the Gordius aquaticus of Linné; being
Orked at one extremity, brown above, gray below, and

ack at each end ^. These animals appear to die as soon as

they leave the body! they have preyed upon; except this
a

Ppens in water, when their activity has no repose. In

this clement they give their bodies every possible in-

exion, often tying themselves in knots in various places,

i Matthey ubi supr. ^ Philos. Trans. 1823. 8. t.i. il.
De Geer ii. 556. 4 Gould Ants, 63.
_ we Geer i. 551. f Rosel I. 111..20.
” Latr. Fourmis, 373. ^ De Geer ii. ubi supr. t xiv. f. 19— 14.
` lbid. i. 553.

232 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

interlacing and twisting themselves in a hundred different
ways; so that when confined in the body of an insect,
from their extreme suppleness and power of contortion
they find sufficient space wherein to pack their often
enormous length?. Linné makes one of their habitats
clay; and Mr. W. S. MacLeay finds them very commo”
at Putney in clay at the bottom of pools.

Dr. Matthey asks—How does the Gordius get int?
Locusta viridissima®? And De Geer—Why do they die
after having quitted a caterpillar? and where do they
perpetuate their species^? These questions, without
further observations, cannot easily be answered. How-
ever, it may be supposed that carnivorous insects, such a5

Harpali, &c. may swallow them when found apparently

dead in clay, where the water has been evaporated,
when they have been ejected by other insects; and they
may revive in their bodies, as Dr. Matthey found the?
to do in water. It is not difficult to conjecture that the
larvze of Phryganee may meet with them when young i”
the water, and sometimes unluckily swallow them with
their food. Why they become as dead when they emerge
from their prey we cannot at present conjecture; but 2°
doubt to answer some wise purpose;—in rainy seasons -
they probably revive and get into little hollows full of
rain-water. Upon De Geer's last question— How they
perpetuate their species—at present I can offer no con*
Jecture.

* De Geer ii. 556. 1. xiv. f. 12, 13. > Ubi supra.
* De Geer i, 553.

LETTER XLV.

SENSES OF INSECTS.

AT first one would think that the senses of insects
Might be described in very few words, and scarcely af-
ford matter for a separate letter; but when we find that
Physiologists are scarcely yet agreed upon this subject,
and that the use of some of their organs, which appear
to be organs of sensation, has not yet been satisfactorily
“scertained—we shall not wonder that the subject requires
More discussion than at the first blush we were aware of.
In treating on this subject I shall first say something on
the senses in general, and then confine myself to those M
insects,

Touch, taste, smell, hearing, and sight, I need not tell
You, is the usual enumeration of the senses: but as the
term includes every means of communication with the
*Xternal world, the list perhaps might be increased;
and there is ground for thinking that the number seven,
So denalized. as a sacred number?, may also here have
Place, Dr. Virey, an eminent physiologist, whose sen-
timents on various subjects I have before noticed with
“pprobation, appears to be of opinion that there are

* Vor, HI, p. 15. note *. > Ibid. 98—. See above, p. 26.

234. SENSES OF INSECTS.

really seven senses; which he divides into those that are
altogether physical, and those that are more connected
with the zntellect. The first of these divisions contains
Jour senses, —touch, love, taste, and smell ;—the second
three, —hearing, sight, and the internal sense of thought,
or the brain*. That he is right in adding Zove? to the
list seems to me evident, because it is as distinct from
touch, as smelling and taste are. With regard to the
other, though it may be expected that there should be
a transitive sense connecting the intellect (if I may so
speak) with the external organ of sense, and as a medium
by which the former can receive the notices of the external
world furnished by the.latter; yet it seems improper to
make the entire brain itself a sense. We know that the
agent between the common sensory and the sense is the -
consciousness or perception of the impression. ** Seeing
we may see and not perceive, and hearing we may hear and
not understand." The picture may be painted upon the
retina of the eye, the sound may strike upon the tympa-
num of the ear; but neither the one nor the other be re-
ceived by the intellect, unless the internal power or fa-
culty of perception be in action and mediate between
them. This is what I mean by the internal sense, which;
to use a term of Mr. W. S. MacLeay's*, is osculant be-
tween intellect and sense, or forms the transit from one

group of powers to the other.
Of the ordinary senses, sight holds the first rank: it
can dart to the region of the stars, and convey by the

? N. Dict. d Hist. Nat. xxx. 584.
^ By love here is meant the physical act.
* Hor. Entomolog. 37.

SENSES OF INSECTS, 235

Perceiving sense, to the sensory, ideas of innumerable ob-
jects. Next in rank is hearing, which can receive sounds
from a great distance; but the ideas it remits are confined
only to one object, the variations of tones. Inthe other
organs the sensitive power is much more confined. There
is another difference between the intellectual and physi-
cal senses:—the former are the only ones that receive
and convey sensations of the beautiful and sublime; of
harmony and discord,—the latter, though they minister
More to our sensual enjoyments, add nothing to our
intellectual; and therefore too devoted an indulgence
in them debases our nature, and levels us with the brutes,
Which use their eyes and ears only for information, not
for pleasure?.

In man the ordinary five senses are usually in their
greatest perfection, although in some animals particular
Senses have a greater range. The Vertebrates in general
are also gifted with the same number, though there are
Some exceptions. But in the Invertebrates they are sel-
dom to be met with all together in the same object. The
Cephalopods have no smell. Several Gasteropods can
neither hear nor see. The animals of bivalve shells have
neither eyes, nor ears, nor smell; and the zoophytes and
the races below them have, it is affirmed, only the single
Sense of touch, which in them is so extremely delicate as
to be acted upon even by light”.

Not so our insects. "These, there is good reason to be-

lieve, possess all the ordinary senses. ‘That they can
See, touch, taste, and smell, no one denies. Linné and

* N. Dict. d Hisl. Nat. xxx. 584—.

^ Cuv. Anat. Comp. ii. 362.

236 SENSES OF INSECTS.

Bonnet, however, thought them deprived of hearing? 5
but numerous observations prove the contrary. That
they hear in their larva state, is evident from facts stated
by the latter physiologist. He found that the sound of
his voice evidently affected some caterpillars; which he
attributes, but surely without reason, to the delicacy of
their sense of touch: at another time, when some cater-
pillarsof a different species were moving swiftly, he rang a
small bell; upon which they instantly stopped and moved
the anterior part of their body very briskly®. That
they possess this faculty in their imago state is confirmed
still more strongly by facts. I once was observing the
motions of an Apion under a pocket microscope: on see-
ing me it receded. Upon my making a slight but di-
stinct noise, its antenne started: I repeated the noise
several times, and invariably with the same effect. A
Harpalus, which I was holding in my hand, answered
the sound in the same manner repeatedly. Flies, I have
observed, at brisk and distinct sounds move all their
legs; and spiders will quit their prey and retire to their
hiding places. Insects that live in society give notice
of intended movements, or assemble their citizens for
emigration by a certain hum‘. But the most satisfactory
. proof of the hearing of these animals is to be had from
those Orthoptera and Hemiptera whose males are vocal.
Brunelli kept and fed several males of Acrida viridissima
(a grasshopper with us not uncommon) in a closet, which
were very merry, and continued singing all the day; but
a rap at the door would stop them instantly. By prac-
tice he learned to imitate their chirping: when he did

* Syst. Nat. i. 535. Bonnet Œuvr. ii. 36. b Ibid.
* Vor. II. p. 163.

SENSES OF INSECTS. 237

this at the door, at first a few would answer him in a
low note, and then the whole party would take up the
tune and sing with all their might. He once shut up
a male in his garden, and gave the female her liberty ;
but as soon as she heard the male chirp, she flew to him
immediately a,

But although physiologists are for the most part agreed
that insects have the ordinary five senses of vertebrate
animals, yet a great variety of opinions has obtained as
to their external organs; so that it has been matter of
doubt, for instance, whether the antenne are for smell,
touch, or hearing; and the palpi for smell, taste, or touch.
Nor has the question, as it appears to me, been satisfac-
torily decided: for though it is now the most general
opinion that the primary use of antennz is to explore as
tactors, yet by the most strenuous advocates of this opi-
nion they are owned not to be universally so employed ;
So that granting this to be one of their principal functions,
Jet it seems to follow that there may be another common
to them all, which of course would be their przmary func-
tion. "We are warned, however, not to lay any stress
Upon the argument to be drawn from analogy; and told
that we might as well dispute about the identity of the
Nose of a man, the proboscis of the elephant, the horn of
the rhinoceros, the crest of the cock, or the beak of the
toucan^, But this is merely casting dustin our eyes: for

though three of these are nasal organs, bearing nostrils ;

the two others have no relation to the question, the horn
of the rhinoceros and the crest of the cock being merely
“ppendages, and have no more analogy to the nose and

* Lehmann De Sens. Extern. Animal. Ewsang. 22—.
* Ibid. De Antenn. Insect. ii. 79.

938 SENSES OF INSECTS.

nostrils, which co-exist with them, than they have to the
eyes or ears. [have on a former occasion observed, that
a gradual change sometimes takes place in the functions
of particular organs; but still, generally speaking, this
observation regards secondary functions—the primary
usually remaining untouched. We may say, for instance,
with regard to the primary use of the legs of animals,
that itis locomotion ; while the secondary is either walk-
ing, running, jumping, flying, or swimming, according
to the circumstances and nature of the animal. Thus
the fore-legs of the Mammalia, in birds become wings,
and both pair in fish are changed to jms. Again, the
primary use of the heart of animals is the elaboration of
the nutritive fluid; its secondary, to be the organ of a
system of circulation, by which that fluid may alternately
receive and part with oxygen: but in the dorsal vessel
of insects which is analogous to the heart, the circulation
ceases, the oxygenation of the blood being effected by
other means; but still its primary function, the prepara-
tion of the nutritive fluid, as there is reason to think, is
discharged by it^. So that it seems a law to which Na-
ture in most cases adheres. Observe, I do not say always
and invariably, but in most cases,—that analogous parts
‘have analogous uses, at least as far as primary uses are
concerned. When, therefore, we cannot have demon-
strative evidence concerning the function of an organ
discoverable in any animal, we may often derive satis-
factory probable arguments from the analogies observa-
ble in their structure compared with that of other animals,
concerning the nature of whose organs we have no doubt.

* See above, p. 88, 90, note *; comp. p. 115.

SENSES OF INSECTS.

In fact, the chief evidence we have with regard to the of-
fice of the organs of sense in the animals immediately be-
low ourselves, is that of analogy ;—because we see with
ur eyes, hear with our ears, &c., we conclude, with rea-
‘on, that they do the same.

In inquiring therefore into what may be the most ge-
Neral use of the antenna of insects, I shall endeavour to
discover whether there is any part in the higher animals
to which they may be deemed to exhibit any analogy.
And here I must refer you to what I have said on a for-
Mer occasion upon the present subject ; where I made it
*vident, I hope, that the great bulk of the parts and or-
Sans of insects, in this particular differing from the ma-
jority of Invertebrates, are, some in one respect, some in
“nother, and some in many, really analogous to those of
the higher animals? ; and that a great many of them,
though varying in their structure, have the same func-
tions. Thus the analogues of the eyes of Vertebrates
are for seeing; of the jaws for masticatino ; of the Zips
for closing the mouth; of the legs for walking, &c. We
have seen also very recently, that a similar analogy, more
r less strongly marked, holds also in their internal or-
Sans? ; so that it may be safely affirmed, that if all the
invertebrate insects, though gifted with numerous pe-
Culiarities, present the most striking picture of those ani- -
mals that have an internal skeleton, and more particular-
Y of the Mammalia,—we may assume it as a probability,
the above circumstances being allowed their due weight,
that where facts do not prove the contrary, the function

of analogous organs is more or less synonymous, though

* Ver. IIT. p. 43; ^ See above, p. 1—.

240 SENSES OF INSECTS.

perhaps the structure and modus operandi may be dif-
ferent.

In the letter lately referred to, I observed that the an-
tennze of insects are analogous to ears in Vertebrates*.
Their number corresponds; they also stand out from the
head; and what has weighed most with me, unless they j
are allowed as such, no other organ can have any preten-
sion to be considered as representing the ear. If we re-
flect, that in every other part and organ, the head of in-
sects has an analogy to that of Mammalia, we must re-
gard it as improbable that these prominent organs should
not also have their representative. Admitting then that
they are the analogues of ears, it will follow, not as de-
monstratively certain, but as probable, that their primary
function may be something related to hearing. I do not
say direct hearing, or that the vibrations of sound are
communicated to the sensorium by a complex structure
analogous to that of the internal ear in Mammalia—but
something related to hearing. I conceive that antennae
by a peculiar structure, may collect notices from the at-
mosphere, receive pulses or vibrations, and communicate
them to the sensorium, which, though not precisely to be
called hearing, may answer the same purpose. From
the compound eyes that most of them have, the sense of
seeing in insects must be very different from what it is in
vertebrate animals; and yet we do not hesitate to call it
sight: but since antenns, as we shall see, apparently
convey a mixed sensation, I shall have no objection, ad-
mitting it as their primary function, to call it after Leh-

mann Aéroscepsy”. I lately related some instances of

' Yox. II. p. 46. ^ De Antenn. Insect. ii. 65—.

SENSES OF INSECTS. 24]

Sound producing an effect on the antenne of insects: I-
Vill now mention another that I observed, still more re-
‘Rarkable. A little moth was reposing upon my window ;
made a quiet, not loud, but distinct noise: the antenna
Nearest to me immediately moved towards me. I re-
Peated the noise at least a dozen times, and it was fol-
owed every time by the same motion of that organ; till
= length the insect being alarmed became more agitated
“nd violent in its motions. In this instance it could not
“touch ; since the antenna was not applied to a surface,
ut directed towards the quarter from which the sound
"Hle, as if to listen. Bonsdorf made similar observa-
Hons, to which Lehmann seems not disposed to allow
teir Proper weight*. It has been used as an argument
? prove that antennz are primarily Zactors, or instru-
Tents of touch, that Feenus Jaculator, before it inserts its
*Vipositor, plunges its antenne into the hole forming
° nidus of the bee, to the grub of which it commits its
"Bg. But had those who used this argument measured
* antennæ and the ovipositor of this ichneumon, they
?uld have discovered that the latter is thrice the length
the former: and as these insects generally insert it so
that “ven part of the abdomen enters the hole, it is clear
the antenna cannot touch the larva; its object there-
the “annot be to explore by that sense. Others suppose
y these organs it scents out the destined nidus for
` eggs; but Lehmann has satisfactorily proved that
š “Y are not olfactory organs. We can therefore only
£ Va either that by means of its antenne it hears à
Sat noise produced by the latent grub, perhaps by

W

Tad 42. b Ibid, 96.

VOL, ty,

242 SENSES OF INSECTS.

the action of its mandibles; or else that by its motions it
generates a motion in the atmosphere of its habitation»
which striking upon the antenna of the Fænus, are by
them communicated to its sensory. A similar dispropor"
.tion is observable between the antennze and ovipositor 9
Pimpla Manifestator, before signalized*. Bees, when col-
lecting honey and pollen, first insert the organs in ques-
tion into the flowers which they visit; but, as I have more
than once observed, they merely insert the £p of them. If
anthers are bursting, or the nectar is exuding, these pro"
cesses probably are attended by a slight noise, or motion
of the air within the blossom, which, as in the last case
affects, without immediate contact, the exploring organs:
If the structure of antennse be taken into considera
tion, it will furnish us with additional reasons in favour of
the above hypothesis, with regard to their primary func
tion. -We shall find that these organs, in most of thos?
insects which take their food by suction, are usually le
gifted with powers of motion, than they are in the mal
dibulate tribes; so that in the majority of the Homo
pterous Hemiptera and. Diptera, as is generally acknow”
ledged, they cannot be used for touch. Under this view’
they may be divided into active antennae and passive a”
tenn: of the former, the most active and versatile are
those of the Hymenoptera. By means of them, as was
before observed”, their gregarious tribes hold converse
and make inquiry—frequently without contact—in the
pursuit and discharge, if I may so speak, of the varioU*
duties devolved upon them by PROVIDENCE. Among?
active antenna, some are much more complex in the"

? See above, p. 211. *- Vor; IL. p. 62, 201—.

SENSES OF INSECTS.

Structure than others—a circumstance which is often cha-
"acteristic of the male insect? : but if we examine such
antennæ, we shall find that their most sensitive parts can-
“ot come in contact with the earth or other bodies for
exploring their way; but having thus a greater surface
"Xposed to the action of the atmosphere, they have more
Points to receive vibrations, or any pulses or other no-
tices Communicated to it. It is thus, probably, that in
their flights, when they approach within a certain di-
Stance, they discover the station of the other sex. Even
lé plumose antenne of male gnats may in some re-
“ects thus be-acted upon. In the Lamellicorn beetles,
8 knob of these organs in both sexes consists of laminse,

* external ones on their outside, of a corneous sub-
“tance; while their internal surface, and the inner laminae
Which are included between them, as an oyster between
© Valves of its shell—are covered with nervous pa-
lee, Te you examine the proceedings of one of these
tle animals, you will find before it moves from a state
epose that its antennze emerge, and the laminze di-
“tge from each other; but that it does not apply them
o Surfaces to explore its way, but merely keeps them
"Pen to receive notices from the atmosphere. Even sim-

= *htenng are often employed in this way, as well as

0 $ j
LION. 23 dice noticed a species of Phryganea L.,
One, .
e of those with these organs very long, ) that was perch-
"pon a blade of grass; its antennæ vibrated, and it

e . : xpi ; :
E moving them from side to side in the air, as if thus
„Y arose

^ epsy it was inquiring what was passing around

T. Wollaston has an observation bearing SO pre~

Vor, HI. p. 320—;
Hoo

244. SENSES OF INSECTS.

cisely upon this question, and in general so extremely simi-
lar to what is here advanced, that I must copy it for you
consideration. *€ Since there is nothing in the constitution

of the atmosphere," says he, * to prevent vibrations much

more frequent than any of which we are conscious, we may
imagine that animals like the Gry/lz, whose powers ap*
pear to commence nearly where ours terminate, may have
the faculty of hearing still sharper sounds, which at pre
sent we do not know to exist; and that there may be
other insects, hearing nothing in common with us, but
endued with a power of exciting, and a sense that pel
ceives, vibrations indeed of the same nature as those
which constitute our ordinary sounds, but so remote, that
the animals who perceive them may be said £o possess
another sense, agreeing with our own solely in the medium
by which it is excited, and possibly wholly unaffected by
these slower vibrations of which we are sensible?.” That
insects, however, hear nothing in common with us, ??
contrary to fact; at least with respect to numbers of them
They hear our sounds, and we theirs; but their hearing
or analogous sense is much nicer than ours, collecting
the slightest vibratiuncle imparted by other insects, &e
totheair. Ininquiring how this is done, it may be aske

—How know we that every joint of some antenne is 1%
an acoustic organ, in a certain sense distinct from th?
rest? We see that the eyes of insects are usually com
pound, and consist of numerous distinct lenses —why
may not their external ears or their analogues be also
multiplied, so as to enable them with more certainty to
collect those fine vibrations that we know reach thei

* Philos. T'rans. 1820. 314.

SENSES OF INSECTS. 245

sensory, though they produce no effect upon our grosser
organs? I propose this merely as conjecture, that you
May think it over, and reject or adopt it, in proportion as
it appears to you reasonable or the contrary; and in the
Ope that some anatomist of insects, who, to the sagacity
‘nd depth of a Cuvier and a Savigny adds the hand and
‘Ye of a Lyonnet, may give to the world the results
of a more minute dissection and fuller investigation of
the antenna» of these animals, than has yet been under-
taken, à
But besides receiving notices from the atmosphere, of
Sounds, and of the approach or proximity of other in-
“ects, &e., the antenne are probably the organs by which
Msects can discover alterations in its state, and foretel
Y certain prognostics when a change of weather is ap-
Proaching, Bees possess this faculty to an admirable de-
Sree. When engaged in their daily labours, if a shower
approaching, though we can discern no signs of it,
ey foresee it, and return suddenly to their hives. If
: SY wander far from home, and do not return till late
à the evening, it is a prognostic to be depended upon,
Pat the following day will be fine: but if they remain

"ear their habitations, and are seen frequently going and
“eturning, although no other indication of wet should be

‘Scoverable, clouds will soon arise and rain come on.
uts also are observed to be excellently gifted in this re-
‘pect : though they daily bring out their larve to sun
them, they are never overtaken by sudden showers.
"évious]y to rain, as you well know, numberless insects

$ : ;
eek the house; then the Conops calcitrans, leaving more

* Lehmann De Usu Antenn: ii. 66—.

246 SENSES OF INSECTS.

ignoble prey, attacks us in our apartments, and intef*
rupts our studies and meditations?. The insects of prey
also foresee the approach of this weather, and the acces?
. of flies, &c. to places of shelter. Then the spiders issue
from their lurking-places, and the Harpalide in the even"
ing run about our houses. Passive antennae, which arè
usually furnished with a terminal or lateral bristle, and
plumose and pectinated ones, seem calculated for the ac
tion of the electric and other fluids dispersed in the atmo-
sphere, which in certain states and proportions may cef
tainly indicate the approach of a tempest, or of showers»
or a rainy season, and may so affect these organs as to ena
ble the insect to make a sure prognostic of any approach-
ing change: and we know of no other organ that is 5°
likely to have this power. I say electric fluid, because whe?
the atmosphere is in a highly electrified state, and a teu
pest is approaching, is the time when insects are usually
most abundant in the air, especially towards the evening?
and many species may then be taken, which are not 3'
other times to be met with: but before the storm come?
on, all disappear, and you will scarcely see a single indi-
vidual upon the wing. This seems to indicate that in
sects are particularly excited by electricity®,—But up -
this head I wish to make no positive assertion, I onlf
suggest the probability of the opinion *.

From all that has been said, 1 think you will be di
posed to admit that the primary and most universal func

tion of the antennze is to be the organs of a sense, if not

the same, at least analogous to hearzng, and answering

* Vor. I. p. 48, 110.
b Compare what is said above (p. 135) with respect to bees-
* See, for further arguments, Lehmann ubi supr. c. ix.

SENSES -OF INSECTS. 247

the same end; something perhaps between it and touch.
n some, however, as has been found in the Crustacea,
an organ of hearing, in the ordinary sense, may exist at

the base of the antennse, which may act the part in some

Measure of the external ear, and collect and transmit
the sound to such organ °. j
That numerous antennee, as a secondary function, ex-
Plore by £ouch, is admitted on all hands, and therefore I
Need not enlarge further upon this point; but shall pro-
“eed to inquire whether insects do not possess some other
Peculiar organs that are particularly appropriated to this
Sense, First, however, I must make some general ob-
‘ervations upon it. Of all our senses, Zouch is the only
?he that is not confined to particular organs, but dispersed
9Yer the whole body: insects, however, from the indu-
"ated crust with which they are often covered, feel sen-
Sibly, it is probable, only in those parts where the nerves
are exposed, by being covered with a thinner epidermis,
to external action. Not that they cannot feel at all in
& eir covered parts; for as we feel sufficiently for walk-
ing, though our feet are covered by the thick sole of a
Sot or shoe, so insects feel sufficiently through the crust
of their legs for all purposes of motion. Besides, the
Points that are covered by a thinner cuticle are often nu-
merous; so that touch, at least in a passive sense, may be
Pretty generally dispersed over their bodies; but active
iis €xploring touch is confined to a few organs, as the

antenne, the palpi, and the arms. The two last I shall
Now discuss,

a
-* Marcel de Serres thinks he has discovered an organ of hearing
igs Insects, but he does not state its situation. Mem. du Mus.
. 99,

248 SENSES OF INSECTS.

Various opinions have been started concerning the use
of the.pa/pi. Bonsdorf thought that they were organs of
smell ; Knoch, that this sense was confined tothe maxillary
ones, and that the/abial ones were appropriated to ¢aste*?
but the most early idea, and that from which they derive
their present name of palpi (feelers), is, that they are of*
gans of active ouch; and this seems to me the most cor-
rect and likely opinion. Cuvier, himself a host, has em-
braced this side of the question^, and Lehmann also ad-
mitsit*. The following observations tend to confirm
this opinion. The palpi of numerous insects when they
walk, are frequently, or rather without intermission, ap"
plied to the surface on which they are moving—this you .
may easily see by placing one upon your hand; which
seems to indicate that they are feelers. Inthe Araneid£
they are used as legs; and by the males at least, as exci-
ting if they be not really genital organs. In the Scor-
ptonide they answer the purpose of hands: besides being -
usually much shorter than antenne, they are better cal-
culated to assist an insect in threading the dark and tor-
tuous labyrinths through which it has often to grope

its way, and where antennz cannot be employed. I
have noticed that Hydrophili—in which genus the palpi
are longer than the antennee—when they swim, have thei!
antennze folded; while the palpi are stretched out in front;
as exploring before them. As the palpi are attached t9
the under-jaws and under-lip, we may suppose they are

a Lehmann De Sens. Extern. Anim. Exsang. De Olfactu.

b Cuv. Anat. Comp. ii. 675. © Ubi supr.

è Marcel de Serres says they are connected with testes seated pj
the trunk, (Mem. du Mus. 1819. 95); but Treviranus denies thi
.. (Arachnid. 36—. t. iv. f. 33).

SENSES OF INSECTS. 249

Particularly useful to insects in taking their food; and
"pon this occasion I have often observed that they are
remarkably active. I have seen Byturus tomentosus, a

eetle which feeds upon pollen, employ them in opening
anthers; and the maxillary pair appear to me to assist
the maxillae in holding the food, while the mandibles are
at work upon it.

The arms or fore-legs of some insects are also organs
of active touch, being used, as we have seen, for cleaning
the head, digging, repairing their dwellings, and the
likea, By the Ephemeræ, which have very short an-
tenn, the fore-legs, when they fly, are extended before
the head, parallel with each other and quite united—pro-

ably to assist in cutting the air. The Z richoptera use
their antenne for the same purpose.

Another sense of which the organ seems uncertain is
that of smelling, and various and conflicting opinions
ave been circulated concerning it. Christian thought
that insects smell distant objects with their antenne, and
near ones with their palpi. Comparetti has a most sin-
Sular opinion. He supposes in different tribes of insects
that different parts are organs of smell: in the Lamelli-
corns he conjectures the seat of this sense to reside in the
ob of the antenne; in the Lepidoptera in the antlia ;
and in some Diptera and Orthoptera in certain frontal
Cs . At first sight, one of the most reasonable opi-
nions seems to be that of Baster, adopted by Lehmann,
and which has received the sanction of Cuvier 4,—that
* Vor. IT. p. 365—. IIT. p. 546.—. * Lehmann De Sens.

Extern: $e. De Olfiecta. * Lehmann wi supr. &c. 27.
* Ibid. and De Usu Antenn, ii. 24—. Cuv. Anat, Comp. ii. 675.

250 SENSES OF INSECTS.

the spiracles are organs of smell as well as of respiration:
Lehmann has adduced several arguments in support of
this opinion. Because we both respire and smell with
our nostrils, he concludes that neither the antennse nor
any other part of the head of insects can serve for smell,
since they are not the seat also of respiration; and that
there can be no smell where the air is not inspired?

Again, because nerves from the ganglions of the spinal

chord terminate in bronchiz near the spiracles, they
must be for receiving scents from those openings. Though
it was necessary, in the higher animals, that the organ of |
scent should be near the mouth, because they are large?
than their food; yet the reverse of this being the case
with insects, which often even reside in what they eat, it
is to them of no importance where their sense of smelling
resides”. By exposing antennz, by means of an orifice
in a glass vessel, to the action of stimulant odours, they
appeared quite insensible to it: but he does not name
the result of any experiment in which he exposed the
mouth to this action; nor at all distinctly how the insect
was affected when the spiracles were exposed to it*.
But though some of these arguments appear weighty,
there are others, I think, that will more than counterba-
lance them, making it probable that the seat of this sense
is in the head, either in its ordinary station at the extre-
mity of what I call the nose, between it and the upper-lip,
or under those parts. . That the nose corresponds with
. the so-named part in Mammalia, both from its situation
and often from its form, must be evident to every one
who looks at an insect^; and when we further consider

* Lehmann De Usu TERA ii. 28. voe bide Sd;
° Ibid. 35—. * Vor. IJI. p. 475—.

SENSES OF INSECTS. 251

the connexion that obtains between the senses of smell and
taste, how necessary it is that the seat of the one should
be near that of the other, and that it really is so in all
animals in which we certainly know its organ? ; we shall

feel convinced that the argument from analogy is wholly

In favour of the nose, and may thence consider it as pro-
bable that the sense in qüestion does reside there. Leh-
mann seems to be of opinion, because an insect is usually
Smaller than what it feeds upon, that it makes no differ-
“nce whether it smells with its head or with its tail: but
ne would think that a fying insect would be more rea-
dily directed to its object by smelling with the anterior
Part of the body than with the posterior ; and that a feed-
§ one would also find it more convenient in selecting its
food. Asto the argument, —that smell must be the neces-
“ary concomitant of the respiratory openings, and that
there can be no smell where the ar is not inspired, —
this seems asserting more than our knowledge of these
animals will warrant: for the organs of the other senses,
though the senses themselves seem analogous, are so
different in their structure, and often in the mode in
Which they receive the impressions from external objects,
that analogy would lead us to expect a difference of this
and also in the sense of smell. Besides, smell does not
‘variably accompany respiratory organs even in the

igher animals,—for we breathe with our mouths, but do
not smell with them. Cuvier says that the internal mem-

"ane of the trachez being soft and moist, appears cal-
culated to receive scents?. But here his memory failed

m; for it is the external membrane alone that answers

* N. Dict. d Hist. Nat. xxiii, 210. b Ubi supr.

259 SENSES OF INSECTS.

this description ; the internal consisting of a spiral elastic
thread, and seeming not at all fitted to receive impressions
but merely to convey the air*. That nerves penetrate

to the bronchize, does not necessarily imply that they are
connected with the sense in question, since this may be
to act upon the muscles which are every where distri-
buted. : '

I shall now state some facts that seem to prove that
scents are received by some organ in the vicinity of the
mouth, and probably connected with the nose. M. P. Hu-
ber, desirous of ascertaining the seat of smell in bees
tried the following experiments with that view. These
animals, of all ill scents, abominate most that of the oil
of turpentine. He presented successively to all the
points of a bee's body, a hair-pencil saturated with it: but
whether he presented it to the abdomen, the trunk, or
the head, the animal equally disregarded it. Next
using a very fine hair-pencil, while the bee had extended
its proboscis, he presented the pencil to it, to the eyes
and antennae, without producing any effect; but when he

pointed it near the cavity of the mouth, above the insertion
of the proboscis, the creature started back in an instant
quitted its food, clapped its wings, and walked about in
great agitation, and would have taken flight if the pencil
had not been removed. On this, it began to eat again;
but on the experiment being repeated, showed similar
signs of discomposure: oil of marjoram produced the
same effect, but more promptly and certainly. Bees not
engaged in feeding appeared more sensible of the impres-
sion of this odour, and at a greater distance; but those

ag i ^ q
Sec above, p. 62. Sprengel Commentar. 14—.

SENSES OF INSECTS. 253

engaged in absorbing honey might be touched in every
other part without being disturbed. He seized several
of them, forced them to unfold their proboscis, and then
Stopped their mouth with paste. When this was become
sufficiently dry to prevent their getting rid of it, he re-
Stored to them their liberty : they appeared not incom-
Moded by being thus gagged, but moved and. respired
àS readily as their companions. He then tempted them
With honey, and presented to them near the mouth, oil
of turpentine, and other odours that they usually have
an aversion to; but all produced no sensible effect upon -
them, and they even walked upon the pencils saturated
with them, |
These experiments incontestibly prove that the organ of
‘cent in bees—and there is no reason to think that other
Rsects do not follow the same law—is in or near the
Mouth, and above the proboscis. It remains, therefore,
that we endeavour to discover its precise situation: and
àS insects cannot tell us, nor can we perceive by their
3ctions, in what precise part the sense in question resides,
the only modes to which we can have recourse to: form
“ny probable conjecture, are analogy and dissection. At
tst, the opinion noticed above, that the palpi are its or-
Sans, seems not altogether unreasonable; but as the ar-
Sument from analogy, except as to their situation near

t 2 "
he mouth, is not in favour of them, and there seems no
call

» Were smell their function, for the numerous variations
observable in their structure, I think we must consider

“m, as I have endeavoured to prove, rather as instru-
ments of touch. Let us now inquire, whether there be

* Huber Abeilles ii. 375 —.

254 SENSES OF INSECTS.

not discoverable upon dissection, in the interior of the
head of any insects, some organ that may be deemed,
from its situation, under what we have called the nose
and nostrils, the seat of the sense we are treating of.
The common burying-beetle (Necrophorus Vespillo) i$
an insect remarkable for its acuteness of smell, which
enables it to scent out and bury, as was formerly related
to you, the carcases of small animals. Take one of
these insects, and kill it as formerly directed, —examine
first its nose: in the middle of the anterior part you will
see a subtrapezoidal space, as it were cut out and filled
with a paler piece of a softer and more membranous tex-
ture. Next divide the head horizontally; and under the
nose, and partly under this space, which I call the ri-
narium or nostril-piece>, you will find a pair of circular
pulpy cushions, covered by a membrane transversely
striated with beautifully fine striae. These are what I
take to be the organs of smell, and they still remain dis-
tinctly visible in a specimen I have had by me more
than fifteen years. A similar organ may be discovered
in the common water-beetle (Dytiscus marginalis), but
with this peculiarity, that it is furnished with a pair of
nipples. I have before described an analogous part co-
vered with papille, in shna viatica, and you will find
it in other insects^. Perhaps at first this part may seem
merely a continuation of the palate; but if you consider
the peculiarities in its structure just noticed, it is evi-
dently a sensiferous organ; and as the sense of smell ap*
pears to reside in the head, this is its most probable seat-
But by what channel scents act upon it,—whether they

* Von Lo. 890—. : ^ Vor. IIT. p. 481—.
© Ibid. p. 455—.

SENSES OF INSECTS. 255

are transmitted through the pores of the part represent-
‘ng the nostrils, or received by the mouth,—I will not
Venture to assert positively: but from the circumstance
of their being membranous in some insects remarkable
for acute scent, as in Necrophorus, Staphylinus, &c., there
Seems some ground for the former opinion. As the sense
of smell in these little beings is extremely acute, as well
35 their hearing, the perception of odours may reach their
Sensory through these pores; and even those in the hard
thinarium of an Anoplognathus may receive and trans-
mit them; and besides the upper-lip and nose are often

United by membranes which may facilitate such trans-
Mission,

That insects taste, no one hesitates to believe, though
Some have supposed the palpi to be the organ of that
sense ; but as they have a tongue, as we have shown, we
May with Cuvier conclude, that one of its primary func-
tions is to ¢aste their food?. I shall not therefore launch
Out further upon this head. 2

I have now placed before you a picture, or rather
ketch, of the insect world. And whether we regard their
Senera] history and economy, their singular metamor-
Phoses, the infinite varieties and multiplicity of their
Structure both external and internal, and their diversi- -

ed organs both of sense and motion—I think you will
€ disposed to own, that in no part of his works is the
and of an ALMIGHTY and ALL-wise CREATOR more vi-
Sibly displayed, than in these minutiæ of creation ; that
Sy are equally worthy of the attention and study of the

* Cuy, Anat, Comp. ii, 682—.

256 SENSES OF INSECTS.

Christian Philosopher with any of the higher depart-
ments of the animal kingdom ; and that all praise is due
to Him, for placing before our eyes, for our entertain-
ment and instruction, such a beautiful moving picture of
little symbols and agents, perpetually reflecting his glory
and working his will.

LETTER XLVI.

ORISMOLOGY, OR EXPLANATION OF
TERMS.

I Was by the language of zerms that he invented and
“Mployed, as well as by his system and methods of ar-
“agement, that Linné smoothed the way to the study of
‘tural History ;—having therefore led you through a
"Yge portion of the flowery fields of the Science of Ento-
“gy, I must now conduct you into that arid but not
arren or unprofitable region. To enable you to under-
"lan descriptions of insects, or to describe them your-
‘elf you must have a knowledge of the technical lan-
ren by which their parts and characters are expressed.
uch of this you already know from the definitions of
"Xterna] parts, furnished in a former letter?: I shall
id Sive you a more full and general explanation of
terms, adding many new ones for unnoticed characters,
that may be conveniently employed.
he Science of terms, which I shall call Orismology^,
May be divided into zwo branches— General Orismology,
h artial Orismology ; the first containing general de-
ns, and the last those relating to particular parts
rgans.

hitig
ad o

CX MIDI sa * Ibid. p. 529,
VOL. ry,

ORISMOLOGY,

A. GENERAL ORISMOLOGY.
| I, SUBSTANCE.

1. Mempranovs (Membranaced). A fine, thin, tran*
parent substance. A Membrane. Ex. Wings °
Hymenoptera and. Diptera. |

2. PERGAMENEOUS (Pergamenea). A thin, tough, and
less transparent substance, somewhat resembling
parchment. Ex. The Tegmina of the Orthoptera”

3. ConracEous (Coriacea). A thicker, flexible sub"
stance, resembling leather. Ex. Elytra of Tue
phorus and the Malacodermi Latr.

4. Corneous (Cornea). A hard inflexible substan?
resembling horn. Ex. Elytra of Lucanus Cera?
and many other Coleoptera.

5. CnUsTAcEOUS (Crustacea). A rigid calcareous sub
stance. Ex. The Skell of a Lobster or Crab.

6. Carrous (Callosa) A substance without pore?
harder than the surrounding matter, and usually
elevated above it. Ex. Elevated parts of the Colla”
in Nomada V. (Mon. Ap. Angl. Apis * b.)^ Spots e
the elytra of Stenocorus bimaculatus and affinities-

4. CARTILAGINEOUS (Cartilaginea). A gristly substant,
between bone and ligament. Ex. The Tongu? P
many Hymenoptera.

8. SUBEREOUS (Suberea). A soft elastic substan?
somewhat resembling cork» The galls of som?

r E = HE. ae th

* The elytra of this Order in general differ so materially p

from membrane and corium, that it was requisite to invent &

to distinguish them. ^ Mon. Ap. Angl. i. t. V. f. 8. D, € oo
: A à i -o diffe
c We use this term because suberosa is employed in a quite ^ —

ent sense. :

ORISMOLOGY. 259

Species. of Cynips when mature approach to this
Substance,
SPONGIOSE (Spongiosa). A soft elastic substance re-
Sembling sponge. Ex. The Puloilli of Thanasi-
mis, Buprestis, Sc. l
IGNEOUS (Ligñosa): A hard unelastic substance
like wood. Ex. Galls of some species of Cynips.
* Carnose (Carnosa). . A soft, Jieshy substance.
Ex, Caterpillars and Grubs,
UBULOSE (Tubulosa). When the interior is hol- 1
low or empty.
* SOLID (Solida). When the interior is full.

i cam IL RESISTANCE; ;

Ute (Hiciday Hard, shi doc do! bend or yield
to pressure, Ex. Curculio. L. A

| SLEXILE (Flezilis). Which easily bends, or yields to

Pressure without breaking. Ex. Elytra of T elephorus.

-NOFT (Mollis). Flexile and retaining the marks of
Pressure, Ex. Elytra of Meloe.

HI. DENSITY.
aons (Foliacea). Very thin and depressed,
Scarcely thicker than a leaf: Ex. Aradus cortiéális
md Coteus paradoxus.

d EPRESsEp (Depressa). When the vertical section
= Shorter than the transverse. Ex. Trogosita mau-
titanica.

OMPREssEp (Compressa). When the transverse
Section is shorter than the vertical.’ Ex. Céntrotus
“Ornutius . Abdomen in Cynips.

260. ORISMOLOGY.

4, Prump (Pinguis). Naturally and proportionably
plump. Ex. The Brachyrini ovati Latr. (Curo
lio L.). Most of the Tettigonia.

. OBEsE (Obesa). Unnaturally enlarged and distended,
as if from disease or too much food. Ex. Chrys?
mela Polygoni 9, Galeruca Tanaceti 9 , BrachfF
cerus. :

. VENTRICOSE (Ventricosa). Bellying out as if filled
with air. Ex. Pneumora.

IV. PROPORTION.

. Turck (Crassa). Disproportionably thick through”
out. Ex. Copris E.

. Incrassate (Incrassata). | Disproportionably thick
in part. Ex. Base of the Abdomen of ZEshna and
many Libellulina. Puare IX. Fic. 9

. Stewper ( Tenuis). Disproportionably slend
throughout. Ex. Lixus paraplecticus.

ATTENUATE (Aftenuata\. Disproportionably slew
der in part. Ex. Tail of Scorpio, Raphidia d!
&c..

. Broan (Lata) Disproportionably broad through”
out.

. Dinatate (Dilatata). Diprion broad 1
part. Ex. Elytra of Lycus fasciatus, &c. PLATE xIP.
Fic. 20.

. Narrow ( Angusta). Disproportionably narro”
throughout. Ex. Abdomen of Agrion F.

. ANGUSTATE (Angustata). . Disproportionably
row in part. Ex. Elytra of Sitaris humer
Prate XIII. Fie. 19.

ORISMOLOGY. 261

9. Lone (Longa). Disproportionably long throughout.
Ex. Scolopendra. à

10. Exoncare (Elongata). . Disproportionably long in

part. Ex. Abdomen of Libellulina.

u, SHORT (Brevis). Disproportionably short through-

out. Ex. Copris.

l2, ÅBBREVIATE (Abbreviata). Disproportionably short.
in part. Ex. Elytra of Staphylinide, Atracto-
cerus, &c.

V. FIGURE».

1. Cirncunar (Circularis). Having the diameter every
way equal. PrarE XXIX. Fic. 16, 17.

2. RoruxpATE (Rotundata). Rounded at the angles
or sides. PrarE XXIX. Fro. 19.

* Ovar (Ovalis Having the longitudinal diameter
twice the length of the transverse, and the ends

. Cireumscribed by equal segments of a circle.
Prare XX. Fie. 6.

* Exureric QElliptica). Oval, but having the longi-
tudinal diameter more than twice the length of the
transverse. PLATE XX. Fic. 19.

5 Ontong (Oblonga). Having the longitudinal dia-
Meter more than twice the length of the transverse,
and the ends varying, or rounded. Prats XX.
Fig, 3, 9. |

$. Ovare (Ovata). Oval, but having the ends circum-

Scribed by unequal segments of circles. PLATE XX. |

Frc. 12, 13,
* ConpaTE (Cordata). Heart-shaped. Ovate or sub-

a . L
We restrict the term Figure, to the shape of a superficies.

ORISMOLO GX.

ovate and hollowed out at the base, without pôs-
terior angles. Pirate IX. Fie. 22.

8. SAerrTATE (Sagittata). Arvow-shaped, ‘Triang™
lar, hollowed out at the base with posterior angle*
Prae XXVII, Fic. 41. w”.

9. Hastare (Hastata). Halberd-shaped. Triang
lar, hollowed out at the base and sides with the
posterior angles spreading. Ex. Horn of the pr”
thorax of Dynastes hastatus. Postfurca in many
Coleoptera. Prate XXII. Fie. 5. b 4.

10. TRIANGULAR ; QUADRANGULAR ; QuriNQUANGU.
LAR; SEXANGULAR (Triangula; Quadrangult:
Quinquangula; Sexangula). Having three, fow
Jive, or six angles.

11. Tursinate (Turbinata). Top-shaped, triangula!
with curved sides. PrATE XXV. Fie. 18.

12. Ensate (Ensata). Gradually tapering till it ends
in a point. Ex. Ovipositor of Acrida viridissima É
Prate XV. Fie. 19. —

13. LaNcEoLATE (Lanceolata).. Oblong and gradually
tapering towards each extremity. Ex. The Ce
in Blatta. PrAvE XV. Fic. 23. Q". 3

14, SicMorpAL (Sigmoidea). S-shaped. ^ Lanceolat
and concave on one side at the base, and on the
other at the apex. Ex. Ovipositor of Cimbe™
PraArE XV. Fie. 21. FH. :

15. CUNEATE (Cuneata). Wedge-shaped. Having the
longitudinal diameter exceeding the transver's®
and narrowing gradually downwards. PLATE x.
Fie. 11. :

16. AcrNACICATE (Acinacicata). Falchion-shaped. Cut™

ed with the apex truncate, and growing gradually

ORISMOLOGY. 263

Wider towards the end. Ex. Abdomen of Ophion,.
Feenus, and other Ichneumonide?.

Lox ULATE (Lunulata). Crescent-shaped. Curved
with both ends acute, like the moon in her first
quarter, Ex. Last joint of the labial palpi of
Ozyporus. Puare XIIL Fre. 4. a. |
ALCATE (Falcata) Sickle-shaped. Curved’ with
the apex acute. Ex, Ovipositor of Acrida varia K.
Antenne of Atractocerus. Puare XI. Fig. 8.

Linzar (Linearis). Narrow and of the same width
throughout. Ex. Wings of Pterophorus monodac-
tylus. |

' Ancuare (Arcuata). Linear and bent like a bow.
Ex. Rostrum of Balaninus Nucum. Puare XIII.
Fic. 12.

CuvrRATE (Cultrata). Coulter-shaped. Straight on
one side and curved on the other. Ex. Ovipositor -
of some Tenthredos. Under-wing of many Ich-
neumonide.

SPATULATE (Spatulata). Spatula-shaped. Broader
and rounded at the apex, linear and narrow at
the base: Ex. Abdomen of Ichneumon amictorius
Panz,

* CravamE (Clavata) Club-shaped. Linear at the
base, but towards the apex growing gradually
broader. PravE XI. Fro. 4.

Quaprare (Quadrata). Square. Quadrilateral
with the sides equal and the angles right angles. :

20

a `
$ The term falcate has usually been applied to signify this figure,

a

ade as that to which we have restricted it; but as the truncate

M sharp extremity forms a striking difference, we thought it best.
Avent a new term. | | l

264 ORISMOLOGY.

hud

25. RuomsBorp (Rhomboidea). Quadrilateral with the
sides equal, but with two opposite angles acute, and
two obtuse. Prare XXVII. Fie. 62. 2’. :

. Trapezate (Trapezata). Quadrilateral with the

four sides unequal, and none of them. perfectly pa-
rallel. Prare XIV. Fie. 4.

. 'TRAPEZOID (Trapezoidea). Quadrilateral, with £0
sides unequal and parallel?. Prater XXVÍ
Fic. 34. bl.

. PanALLELOGRAMICAL (Parallelogramica) Qua
drilateral, with ail the angles right angles, and all
the sides parallel, but two longer than the others

VI. FORM®.

. SPHERICAL (Spherica). The shape of a globe. A body
whose diameter every way is equal. Prare XX
Fic. 5.

. ORBICULATE (Orbiculata) A depressed globe
whose horizontal section is circular, and vertical
oval PrarE XX. Fie. 10, 11. —

. LENTICULAR (Lenticularis). Lens-shaped. Whose
horizontal section is circular, and vertical lance"
late, Ex. Abdomen of Cynips aptera.

OvatirorM (Ovaliformis). Whose longitudinal sec
tion is oval, and transverse circular. PrArE XS
Fic. 6.

5. ErniPsorp (Lillipsoidea). . Whose longitudinal set-

* We have departed from the more usual definition of trapezoids
“ An irregular figure whose four sides are not parallel," because tP?
above is best suited to forms in insects.
` * We use this term to denote the shape of solid bodies.

ORISMOLOGY. 265

tion is elliptical, and ransversecircular. PLATE X X.
Fie. 19.

9. Ovirorm (Oviformis). Whose longitudinal section
is ovate, and transverse circular. Prate XX.
Fic. 12, 13.

CUcuwrronM (Cucumiformis). Cucumber-shaped.
Whose longitudinal section is oblong, and trans-
verse circular. Prare XX. Fic. 18, excluding
the neck.

Conprromw (Cordiformis).. Oviform and hol-
lowed out at the base without posterior angles.
Eras IX. Fie. 22.

Coxrcar (Conica). Whose vertical section is trian-
gular, and horizontal circular. Ex. Abdomen of
Ceelioxys conica Latr. (Apis ** b. K.). PLATE XX.
Fie. 7. |

TURBINIFORM (Turbiniformis)} Whose vertical
section is turbinate, and horizontal circular. Ex.
Antenne of Aleochara socialis Grav., and many
others of that genus.

PYRAMIDAL (Pyramidalis) Whose vertical section
is triangular, and horizontal quadrangular.

CuxzrroRM (Cuneiformis). Whose vertical section
is cuneate, and horizontal parallelogramical.

Trigverrous (Triquetra). Whose horizontal sec-

tions are equilateral triangles. PrarE XI. Fic. 6.

l4. Ensirorm (Ensiformis). Whose horizontal sections

are acute-angled triangles gradually diminishing

12,

18.

in diameter from the base to the apex, and propa-
gated in a straight line. PraTE XI. Fic. 7.

15, ÁCINACIFORM CAcinaciformis) Whose horizontal
sections are acute-angled triangles gradually in-

266 ORISMOLOGY.

' creasing in diameter from the base to the apex, and
propagated in a curved line.

16. CurrRIFORM (Cultriformis). Whose horizontal set-
tions are equal acute-angled triangles, or a three-
sided body with two equal sides large and the
third small.

17. Dzvrorp (Deltoidea). Short with the horizontal
section triangular and decreasing in diameter to-

- wards the base. Ex. Apex of the posterior tibia

in Copris lunaris.

18. Tnr1G0NAL; TETRAGONAL; PENTAGONAL; HEXA-
GONAL; PoLvGoNAL (Trigona; Tetragona; Pen-
tagona: Hexagona; Polygona). Whose horizon-
tal section is triangular; quadrangular; quin-
quangular ; sexangular; multiangular.

19. TrrepRAL; TETRAEDRAL; PEeNTAEDRAL; HEXA-
EDRAL; PorvEDRaL (Zriedra; Tetraedra; Pen-
taedra; Hexaedra; Polyedra). | 'Yhathath three
sides ; four sides; fve sides; six sides; many sides:

20. PrismoipaL (Prismoidalis). Having more than
four sides and whose horizontal section is a poly-
gon*, PLATE ML Iu kee, 54.

21. TnAPEZiFORM (Trapeziformis). Whose horizontal
section is a Zrapezium.

22. 'TRAPEZOIDIFORM ( Trapezoidiformis). W hose horti
zontal section is trapezoid.

93. Ruomsrrorm (Rhombiformis). Whose horizontal
„section is rhomboidal. Pr4vr VIII. Fic. 11.

* The word employed in Botany to denote a Polygon is prismati-
cal ; but since, properly defined, this term is synonymous with £rique-
trous, we thought it ‘best to use an adjective derived from prismoids
which implies a body that approaches to prismatical.

25,

26,

27,

ORISMOLOGY; . 867

Two-EpaED (Anceps). Whose horizontal section is
lanceolate. .

CYLINDRICAL (Cylindrica). Whose horizontal sec-
tions are all equal cireles. Prare XXL Fre. 4.

Fusrromw (Fusiformis), Spindle-shaped. Whose
vertical section is lanceolate or lineari-lanceolate,
and horizontal circular. Puare XXIII, Fie. 12.

CoruwNAR (Teres). Whose vertical section is cu-
neate, and horizontal circular. PLATE XVI. Fic.
25.3.

- CLAvIFORM (Claviformis). Whose vertical section

is clavate, and horizontal circular. ^ PravE XI.
XII. Fic. 4,

* Cunrcar (Cubica). CONES with sides quadrate.
- PARALLELOPIPEDOUS (Parallelopipeda). .Siz-sided,

31

39.

33.

Š 34.

35.

with four parallelogramical. and two quadrate
sides. rv Hn

Pyrisorm (Pyriformis). ^ Pear-shaped. ^ Whose
vertical section is spatulate, and horizontal circu-
lar. Ex. Apion, Brachyrinus, Se.

Inrunprsutirorm (Infundibuliformis). Funnel-
shaped. Whose horizontal sections are circular,
at first equal and then progressively larger and
larger. Prare XXII. Fic. 12. c.

FomwircATE (Fornicata). Concave above and con-
vex beneath. PraTE XIII. Fie. 18. a.

Coarcrare (Coarctata). When the diameter of Se

the middle is less than that of the ends. Ex. Pos-
terior thigh of Locusta. Prare XIV. Fre. 5.
CarckorrronM (Calceoliformis). Oblong, and some-
what coarctate in the middle. Ex. Abdomen of
Chelonus F.

268 ORISMOLOGY.

36. LacENiroRM (Lageniformis). ^ Bellying. out and
then ending in a narrow neck, something like 8
bottle. Ex. Sperm-reservoir attached to the oviduct
in Pierts. PrATE XXX. Fie. 12. d.

. Constricr (Constricta). Suddenly and dispro-
portionably smaller at one end. Prare XXII.
Fic. 15.

. Luntrorm (Luniformis). Whose longitudinal sec-
tion is lunate. PrarE XIII. Fre. 4.

. Noposr (Nodosa). Having one or more knobs oF
swellings. Prate XII. Fie. 5.

. GENICULATE (Geniculata) Bent so as to form 4
knee or angle. Prate XII. Fic. 7.

VII. SUPERFICIES.

i. PARTS.

. Disk (Discus). The middle of a surface.

. Lime (Limbus). - The circumference.

. ManaiN (Margo). The extreme sides.

. APEX (Apex). The summit.

. BASE (Basis). The bottom.

. Supine Surrace (Pagina superior). The upper
surface.

. Prone SurFack (Pagina inferior). The under sut-
face.

ii ELEVATION ax» DEPRESSION.

. NavicuLAR (Navicularis). When two sides meet
and form an angle like the outer bottom of a boat.
Ex. Notonecta glauca.

ORISMOLOGY. 269

Convex (Convera). An elevation the arc of which
is the segment of a circle. Ex. Upper Surface of

the body of most Coleoptera.
Giszous (Gibba). An elevation the arc of which
is not the segment of a circle*. Ex. Shoulders of
the elytra of Prionus coriarius, and of many other

Coleoptera.

Praxe (Plana). Flat. When the disk is not higher
than the limb, nor the limb than the disk.

Concave (Concava). A depression the arc of which
is the segment of a circle.

ExcavatE (Excavata) A depression the arc of
which is ot the segment of a circle. Ex. Protho-

rax of Sinodendrum cylindricum.

b

ii. SCULPTURE.
EovarE? (ZEquata). Without larger partial eleva-

tions or depressions.

Smooru (Levis). Without smaller partial elevations
or depressions.

LrvicATE (Levigata). Without any partial eleva-
tions or depressions.

Pore (Porus). A minute impression that perforates
the substance. -

* This term in Anatomy denotes any unnatural protuberance or
Convexity of the body, as a person hunched- or hump-backed. In
Astronomy it is used in reference to the enlightened parts of the
Moon, whilst she is moving from the first quarter to the full, and
from the full to the last quarter; for all that time the dark part ap-
Pears horned or falcated, and the light one hunched out, convex or
gibbous.

_ * We employ the term æquatus instead of equalis commonly used
m this sense, because equalis is also applied to magnitude, to which
We would restrict it.

270 ORISMOLOGY;

5. Porost (Porosa). Beset with many pores. Ex.

: Elytra of most Apions.

6. A PorwT (Punctum). A minute impression upon
the surface, but not perforating it.

Punctate (Punciata) Beset with many points.
Ex. Impression on the Head and Prothorax of Me-
lolontha Horticola, &c.

VARIOLE (Variola). A shallow impression like a
mark of the small-pox.

VARIOLOUS (Variolosa). -Beset with many varioles.
Ex. Scarabeus variolosus MEL. .

UwsiLicATE (Umbilicata). When a variole; tuber-
cle, granule, &c. has a depression in its centre.
Ex. Thorax of Pachygaster scabrosus.

FovEgorET (Foveola). A roundish and rather deep
depression, larger than a variole. _

FovEoLATE (Foveolata). Having one or more fo-

. veolets. Ex. Prothorax of Geotrupes stercora-

rius Latr.

FossvuLET (Fossula). A somewhat long and narrow
depression. —— |

FossuLate (Fossulata) Having one or more fos-
sulets. Ex. Oxytelus rugosus F., &c.

Uxrgvar (dnequalis). Having very slight and in-
determinate excavations. Ex. Prothorax of Silpha
thoracica, Callichroma moschatum, &c.

Lacunose (Lacunosa). Having a few scattered, ir-
regular, broadish but shallow excavations. Ex.
Elytra of Donacia vittata, Sagittariæ, &c.

Rımose (Rimosa). Chinky, resembling the bark of
a tree. Having numerous minute, narrow and
nearly parallel excavations, which run into each

ORISMOLOGY; 271:

other. Ex. Eljtía of Dytiscus collaris?, and
Reeselii.

* Unpose (Undosa). Having undulating nearly pa-
rallel broader depressions which run into each
other, and resemble the sand of the sea-shore
when left by the tide. Ex. Cyphus*? undosus K.
MGS.

- VERMICULATE (Vermiculata), Having tortuous ex-
cavations as if eaten by worms. Ex. Prothorag#
of Dytiscus parapleurus E. B., D. transveralis Pk.

RzrrCcULOSE (Reticulosa). Having a number of mi-
nute impressed lines which intersect each other in
various directions like the meshes of a net. Ex.
Prothorax of Dytiscus Reselii.

AcupUcTED (Acuducta). Scratched across very
finely as if with the point of a needle or pin. Ex,
Dytiscus acuductus E. B. i

STRIATE (Striata). Having rather slightly impressed `
longitudinal parallel lines. Ex. Carabus eneus, Ke.

SULCATE (Sulcata). Having deeper impressed lon-
gitudinal parallel lines. Ex, Dytiscus märgi-
nalis 9 .

CrATHROSE (Clathrosa) When strias or furrows
cross each other at right angles. Ex. Abdomen of
Micropeplus porcatus.

- Rivose (Rivosa). When furrows do not run in a
parallel direction and are rather sinuate. Ex.
Prothorax of Elophorus stagnalis, &c.

IvrEnsTICE (Interstitium). The space between ele-
vations and depressions running in lines.

* Lam not certain that the insect here mentioned is a Cyphus
qerm. >

but it comes near that genus, and is common in Brazil.

272 ORISMOLOGY.

27. INTERVAL (Intervallum). The space between irre-
gular and scattered elevations and depressions.
28. CoMPLANATE (Complanata). A convex or irregular
surface having a plane slight depression. Ex
Sides of the Prothorax of Prionus cervicornis.
CANALICULATE (Canaliculata). Having a longitu-
dinal impressed line or channel. Ex. Prothoraz
of Geotrupes Latr. Broscus cephalotes, &c.
CaniNATE (Carinata). Having a longitudinal ele-
vated line. Ex. Rostrum of Curculio nebulosus
E. B. Bicarinate, Tricarinate, &c., having two oF
three such lines. Ex. Elytra of Silpha recta.
CnuisTATE (Cristata). Having one or two very ele-

vated lines usually crenate. Ex. Prothorax of
Locusta laurifolia Y. i
PoncarE (Porcata). Having several parallel ele-

vated longitudinal ridges. Ex. Onthophilus stri-
atus Leach (Hister L.).

33. CosrATE (Costata). . Having several broad elevated
lines. Ex. Brachinus bimaculatus, &c.

34. CLATHRATE (Clathrata). Having several elevated
lines which cross each other at right angles. Ex-

— Abdomen of Micropeplus porcatus.

35. ReTicurATE (RHeticulata). Having many small
elevated lines which intersect each other in various
directions like the meshes of a net. Ex. Lycus —
reticulatus F. Wings of the Libellulide. :

36. RucosE (Rugosa). Wrinkled. Intricate with ap-
proximating elevations and depressions whose di-
rection is indeterminate. . Ex. Elytra of Prionus
coriarius.

37. CICATRICOSE (Cicatricosa). Having elevated spots

ORISMOLOGY. 278

of a different colour from the rest of the surface,
résembling scars. Ex. Elytra of Silpha lachrymosa.
- "Linn. Tim. j

- Emsossep (Celata). Having several plane tracts
of a different shape higher than the rest of the sur-
face. Ex. Prothorax of Prionus damicornis, mazil-
losus, &c. .

Gigzosz (Gibbosa). Having one or more large
elevations. Ex. Sides of the Prothorax of Bra-
chycerus barbarus.

TuszRcLE (Tuberculum). A pimple-like knob.

Tusercuate (Tüberculata). Having several tu-
bercles.: Ex. Attelabus gemmatus F. Base of Pro-
thorax of Callichroma moschatum.

Verruca. A small flattish wart-like prominence.

VERRUCOSE (Verrucosa). Having several verruce.
Ex. Pimelia muricata.

Mourrcate (Muricata) Armed with sharp thick, x
but not close, elevated points like a Murex. Ex. —
Bronchus Tribulus, quadridens Germ., &c.

Kcurnate (Echinata). Armed with sharp spines
like a hedgehog or Echinus. Ex. Hispa atra.

Rucczp (Salebrosa). When a surface is rough
with mucros, spines and tubercles intermixed.
Ex. Numerous species of Bronchus Germ.*

GRANULE (Granulum). A very minute elevation.

GnawULATE (Granulata). Beset with many gra-
nules like shagreen. Ex. Pachygaster sulcatus Germ.
Prothorax of Copris Molossus.

ScaBRous (Scabr a). Rough to the touch from gra-

38

^!

* Insect. Spec. Nov. 332—. To this genus Curculio Tribulus and
WMadridens F. appear to belong.
VOL, Ivy.

274

ORISMOLOGY.

nules scarcely visible. Ex. Elytra of Pachygaste"
Lágustici. |

. ParILLULE (Papillula). A tubercle or variole with

an elevation in its centre.

. PapmrvLATE (Papillulata) Beset with many P%

pillules. Ex. Elytra of Dynastes Hercules ¢ .

. CaTENULATE (Catenulata) Having a series of ele-

vated oblong tubercles resembling a chain. Ex.
Carabus catenulatus E.B.
SPHERULATE (Sphærulata). Having one or mot?
“crows of minute tubercles. Ex. Trox lutosts

é

Elmis tuberculatus.

. CONSUTE (Consuta). Having very minute elevation? .

in a series at some distance from each other, of ?
different colour from the rest of the surface, a”

somewhat resembling stitching. Ex. Elytra °
Oryctes? Sylvanus.

. Intricate (Intricata).. When depressions or ele

vations so run into each other as to be difficult f?

trace. Ex. Elytra of Carabus intricatus E. B.
Corrucate (Corrugata). When a surface rises and

falls in parallel angles more or less acute. Ex»
- Front of Nothiophilus aquaticus.

. OsrrrERATE (Obliterata). Applied to impressiO?®

E

o

and elevations when almost effaced.

iv. CLOTHING.
8. GENERAL.
SCUTATE (Scutata). Covered with large flat scales
Ex. Lepisma polypoda.

SQUAMOSE (Squamosa). Covered with minute scales
Ex. Lepidoptera.

ORISMOLOGY. 275

- PurvERULENT (Pulverulenta). Covered with very

minute powder-like scales. Ex. Cryptorhynchus
Sisymbrii. i

* PoLLINosE (Pollinosa).. Covered with a loose mealy

and often yellow powder resembling the pollen of
flowers. Ex. Lixus paraplecticus.

- Farrvose (Farinosa).. Covered, with a: fixed mealy

powder resembling four. . Ex: Spots on the Elytra
of Cetonia. aurata, variegata, &c.

* Lurosr (Lutosa) Covered with a powdery sub-

stance resembling mud or dirt, which easily rubs
off. © Ex: Trox lutosus.

- Rorutent (Horulenta). Covered like a plum with

a bloom. which may be rubbed off Ex. Peltis
limbata. Illig. |

- SruPEOUS (Stupea). Covered, with long loose scales

resembling tow. Ex. The Palpi of Lepidoptera.
Antenne of some Diptera. PravE XI. Frc. 23.

* Prose (Pilosa). Covered with long distinct flexi-

ble hairs. Ex. Thorax of Vespa Crabro L.

10. Virrosr (Villosa). Covered with soft flexible hairs

l1,

thickly. set. Ex. Prothorax of Melolontha solsti-
- tialis F.
Laxarz (Lanata). Covered. with fine, very long,
flexible and rather curling hairs like wool. Ex,
Melolontha lanigera F.

* Lanvernose (Lanuginosa). Covered with longish

very soft fine down. Ex. Prothorax of- Trichius
Jasciatus F. Thorax and base of the Abdomen of
Apis circumcincta K. |

* Hirsure (Hirsuta). Covered with long stiffish

hairs very thickly set. Ex. Apes Bombinatrices L.
"m 9

276

ORISMOLOGY.

14. PLUMULOSE (Plumulosa). When the hairs branch

out laterally like feathers. Ex. Hair on the bas?
of the Maxilla of Eucera (Apis ** d. 1. K.).

. Harry (Hirta). Covered with short stiffish sub-

distinct hairs. Ex. Genus Lagria F.

. TOMENTOSE (Tomentosa). Covered with short i

terwoven inconspicuous hairs. Ex. Lamia ZEdilis

. Pupescent (Jubescens) Covered with very fine

decumbent short hairs. Ex. Harpalus ruficor-
nis, &c.

. SrupuLosE (Stupulosa). Covered with coarse de

cumbent hairs. Ex. Elytra of Melolontha vul-
garis.

. VELUTINOUS (Velutina). Covered with very thick-

set upright short hairs or pile, resembling velvet
Ex. Trombidium holosericeum. Scutellum of Sta-
phylinus hybridus E. B.

HorosExicEous (Holosericea). Covered with thick-
set shining short decumbent hairs, resembling
satin?. Ex. Under side of the body of Elophor™
stagnalis, Aranea aquatica, &c.

. Serose (Setosa). Bristly. Sprinkled with stiff scat

tered hairs like bristles. Ex. Musca grossa L.

. SETULOSE (Setulosa). Setose with the bristles tru”

cated. Ex. Curculio setosus E. B.

. Hisprp (Hispida) Rough from minute spines, %

very stiff rigid bristles. Ex. Hispa atra. Phoberts
horridus M*L., &c.

^ This kind of pubescence has usually been denominated sericeo"
(sericea); but it certainly does not resemble silk, and is very different
from the proper sericeous splendour, exhibited by Cryptocephals
sericeus E. B.

24.

25.

ORISMOLOGY. Q77

Roven (Aspera). Rough from pubescence in ge-
neral.

Barb (Calva). A part of a surface with little or no
hair, when the rest of itis very hairy. Ex. Ver-
tex of Melitta and Apis Kirby.

- Grasrous (Glabra) Without any hair or pubes-

cence.

- Lusricovs (Lubrica). Slippery as if lubricated.

Ex. Dynastes Centaurus.

b. PARTIAL.

* Cirrus (Cirrus). A lock of curling hair.
- Crnrose (Cirrosa). Having one or moré cirri.

Ex. Antenne of Lamia araneiformis.

- FascicuLE (Fasciculus). A bundle of thick-set hairs

often converging at the apex. Pra4rE XIX.
Fig. 6. c.

FascrcuLATE (Fasciculata). Having one or more
fascicules. Ex. Catenulated lines in the Elytra of
Trox arenosus. Buprestis fascicularis. *

: Penicrt (Penicillus). A small bundle of diverging

hairs. PrarE XIX. Fic. 6. a.
Penrcrtiate (Penicillata). Having one or more
penicils, Ex. Larva of Bombyx antiqua F.

- VERRICULE (Verriculum). A thick-set tuft of pa-

rallel hairs. Prare XIX. Fie. 6. b.

VERRICULATE (Verriculata). Having one or more
verricules. Ex. Larva of Bombyx pudibunda F.
Under side of Abdomen of Megachile 9 . Latr.
(Apis ** c. 2. a. K.).

: BarBaTE (Barbata). When any part is clothed

with longer hairs, r esembling a beard, Ex. Anus of

ORISMOLOGY,

Macroglossa stellatarum. Antenne of Ceramby?
Ammiralis. Puare XII. Fre. 26. :

. CILIATE (Ciliata). When the margin is fringed
with a row of parallel hairs. Ex. The base and
apex of the Prothorax of Lucanus Cervus L.

. FIMBRIATE (Fimbriata). When a part is terminated
by hairs or bristles that are not parallel, Ex. 4m"
of many Andrene Latr. (Melitta **. c. K.).

. Comate (Comata). When very long flexible hat!
. thickly cover a space in the upper surface.

. Crinite (Crinita). When very long hairs thinly
cover any space.

. JuBATE (Jubata) Having long pendent hairs in
a continued series. Ex. Intermediate Legs of P?
dalirius pilipes (Apis **. d. 2. a. KJ.

. Furrep (Pellita) When shorter decumbent hait -
thickly cover any space, as in the Bombyces dors?
cristato L. | ;

v. COLOUR.

NivEous (Niveus). The pure unblended white of

snow. Ex. Arctia chrysorhea. > |
. WHITE (Albus). White less intense than niveoU*
The colour of chalk. EX. Arctia mendica 9.
. Lactous (Lacteus). White with a slight tint o
blue. The colour of milk. Ex. Geometra la
tearia.
. CREAM-cOLOURED (Lactifloreus). White with ?
proportion of yellow. Ex. Pale part of the P ri-
mary wings of Callimorpha Caja: — |

* Mon. Ap. Angl. 1. t: iv. ** c. f. 1. a.

ORISMOLOGY. 279

. FLESH-COLOURED (Carneus) White tinted with
red. The colour of young and healthy flesh.
Ex. Secondary wings of Sphinx Ligustri.
- Hoary (Incanus). White with a small proportion
of black. The colour of a gray head. N.B. This
term is usually confined to pubescence. Ex. Cur-
culio sulcirostris.
- CixEnEOUs (Cinereus). White. with a shade of
- brown. Ex. Brachyrhinus difinis, Laria pudi-
bunda. ee
. Griszous (Griseus). White mottled with black
or brown. Ex. Curculio nebulosus. ;
~ YELLow (Flavus). Pure yellow. Ex. Bands on the
Abdomen of Nomada (Apis *. b. K.) Crabro.
. SrRAW-COLOURED (Stramineus). . Pale yellow with
a very faint tint of blue. Ex. Phalena crategata.
- SurPHUREOUS (Sulphureus). Yellow with a tint of
‘green; ‘The colour of brimstone. Ex. Pieris
Rhamni d. :
: LurEovs (Luteus) Deep yellow with a tint of red.
The-colour of the yolk of an egg. Ex. Primary
wings of Colias Edusa. | :
- Onaxaz (Aurantius)... Equal parts of red and yel-
low. Ex. Apex of Wings of Pieris Cardamines.
- SAFERON-COLOURED (Croceus). The colour of saf-
Jron. Ex. Yellow in the Elytra of Trichius fasci-

Qus.

- Miniatous (Miniatus). The colour of red lead.

Ex. Secondary wings of Callimorpha. Caja.

* Furco (Fulgidus). . A bright fiery red... Ex. Ly-
cena Virgauree and dispar: A EMT

ORISMOLOGY.

. Rurous (Rufus). A pale red. Ex. Apion frumen- —

tarium.

. TEsTACEOUS (Testaceus). The colour of a tile, 9

dull red. Ex. Chrysomela Populi.

. SCARLET (Coccineus). A bright pale red. Ex. Ely-

tra of Pyrochroa coccinea.

. Rep (Ruber) Pure red. Ex. Under Wings of

Noctua Dominula.

. SANGuINEOUs (Sanguineus). Red with a tint of

black. The colour of blood. Ex. Spots in Chi-

locorus Cacti Leach, and Prothorax of Locust@

morbillosa.

. RosE-coLouRED (Roseus). Colour of the rose. EX

Parts of the Wings and Body of Sphinx Elpenor.

. Crimson (Puniceus). A bright red with a tint of

blue. Ex. Base of the Under Wings of Noctua

Sponsa.

. PunPrE (Purpureus). Equal parts of blue and red.
Ex. Sagra purpurea. Vitta on the Elytra of De

` nacia fasciata.

. Vrorer (Violaceus). Blue with some red. The colou"

of Viola odorata. Ex. Chrysomela Goettingensis

Abdomen of Geotrupes vernalis.

. Lizac (Lilacinus). Colour of the flowers of thé

liac. Ex. Part of the Iris of the Ocellus, in the

Wings of Vanessa Io.

. Bruer (Cyaneus). Pure blue. Colour of Cenzaurct

Cyanus. Ex. Disk of the Wings of Papilio uo

Callidium violaceum.

- Azure (Azureus). A paler and more brilliant blue

Ex. Wings of Morpho Menelaus, Telemachus, &C

ORISMOLOGY. 281

. Skv-BLvE (Ceruleus). A paler blue. The colour of
the sky. Ex. Lycena Adonis.

> Cagsrous (Cesius) Very pale blue with a little
black. The colour of blue eyes. Ex. Under side
of the Wings of Lycena Argiolus.

- Green (Viridis).. Equal parts of blue and yellow.
Ex. Cicindela campestris.

. JEnverwous (ZEruginosus) Green with a blue
tint. The colour of the rust of copper, verdigris. _
Ex. Brachyrhinus Cnides.

. Prastnous (Prasinus). Green with a mixture of
yellow. The colour of the leaves of leeks or
onions. Ex: Pentatoma prasina. Under side of
Wings of Theca Rubi. |

. Gravcous( Glaucus). Pale blueish green. Sea green.
Ex. Elytra of Dynastes Hercules, Alcides, Tityus,
&c.

. MovusE-corounED (Murinus). Black with a small
proportion of yellow. The colour of the common
mouse. Ex. Base of the abdominal segments of
Cossus Ligniperda.

. Lurip (Luridus). Yellow with some mixture of
brown. Dirty yellow. Ex. Elytra of Aphodius
luridus and nigrosulcatus.

. Livip (Lividus). A pale purplish brown. The co-
lour of a bruise. Ex. Hydrophilus luridus.

. Tawny (Fulvus) A pale dirty orange. Ex. The
pale parts of the Wings of Hipparchia Pamphilus.
. Fawx-coLouRED (Cervinus) A reddish brown.
Ex. Lasiocampa Rubi. —

» Orıve (Olivaceus). A brownish green. The co-

lour of olives. Ex. Dytiscus marginalis.

282 ORISMOLOGY.

41. Fuscous (Fuscus). A dull brown. Ex. Hipparchia
Semele. Prionus scabricornis.

42, FeRRUGINOUS (Ferrugineus). A yellowish brown
with some red. The colour of the rust of irom
Ex. Base of Under Wings of Smerinthus Populi.
Gastrophaca quercifolia.

43. CINNAMON-COLOURED (Cinnamomeus). A yellowish
brown. The colour of cinnamon. Ex. Prionus
cinnamomeus.

44. Brown (Brunneus). Pure brown. Ex. Dark parts
in the Primary Wings of Callimorpha Caja.

45. Bav (Badius) Bright red brown of the chestnut.
Ex. Elytra of Melolontha vulgaris when the hairs
are rubbed off.

46. CHESTNUT (Castaneus). Colour of the dark part of

‘the chestnut. Ex. Elytra of Lucanus Cervus.

47. Prckous (Piceus). Shining reddish black... The co-
lour of pitch. Ex. Prionus coriarius:

48. Funrerovus (Fuliginosus): The opaque black of
soot. Ex. Wings of Lithosia rubricollis,

49. Bracx (Niger). A dull black with some brown.
Ex. Brachyrinus niger. — .:

50. Arrous (Ater). > Pure black-of the deepest tint.
Ex. Liparus anglicanus. .

vi SPLENDOUR.

a. GEMMEOUS.
1. MancaRrTACEOUS (Margaritaceus) Glossy white
with changeable tints of purple, green, and blue.

The.splendour of pearls, Ex. The drums in Tet-
ligonia capensis.

ORISMOLOGY. 283

Ovatine (Opalinus); A blueish white reflecting
the prismatic colours. The splendour of the opal.
Ex. Wings of Notonecta glauca and some Nepe.

. CRYSTALLINE (Crystallinus). ‘The white splendour
of crystal or glass. Ex. Stemmata of many Hy-
menoptera, &c.

-"TorazixE (Topazinus). The yellow splendour of
the topaz. Ex. Many Stemmata of a d,
and Eyes of Spiders.

. Ruzineous (.Rubineus). inm red splendour of the
ruby. E

. SuanAGDINE (Smaragdinus). The green spletidaur
of the emerald.

. AuETHYSTINE (Amethystinus). The purple splen-
dour of the amethyst. a

b. METALLIC.

. ARGENT (Argenteus). The splendour of silver. Ex.
The spots on the under side of the Wings in Argyn-
nis Lathonia, &c.

GOLDEN (Aureus). The splendour of gold. Ex. En-
timus imperialis Germ. ` Spot in-the: Wings of Noc-
tua Festucc.

. OrrcuaLctoUs (Orichalceus). A splendour inter-

mediate between that of gold and brass, Ex. Up-

per Wings of Noctua Chrysitis.

. Minzous (ZEneus).: ‘The splendour of brass. Ex.

Elytra of Carabus clathratus.

. Cupnzovus (Cupreus). The ee dare of

copper. Ex. Carabus nitens: à

. Cuanysrous (Chalybeus). The blue mision of

steel case-hardened, or. of the mainspring of a

ORISMOLOGY,

watch. Ex. Helops chalybeus. Legs of Lithosía
Quadra.

. PrumBeEous (Plumbeus). The colour of lead. Ex:
Prothorax of Clytra dentata ?

-IwavRATE (Jnauratus) When strise-or other im-
pressed parts have a metallic splendour. Ex. Mar-
gin of Prothorax and Elytra of Carabus violaceus:
Stric of Elytra &c. of Phaneus Mimas M'L.

. Deavrate (Deauratus). A metallic hue which
looks as if the gilding was worn off Ex. Do-

nacia enea, Xc.

C. BOMBYCINE.

. SERICEOUS (Sericeus) The splendour of silk. Ex-
Cryptocephalus sericeus.

. Tramosericeous (Tramosericeus). The splendour
of satin. Ex. Chlamys Bacca, monstrosa, &c.

d. REFLECTED.

. RESPLENDENT (Splendens). Reflecting the light in-
tensely. Ex. The Head and T; ipae of Staphylinus
splendens, «neus, politus, &c.

. SHINING (Nitidus). Reflecting the light but less
intensely. Ex. Dytiscus marginalis.

. Prurnose (Pruinosus). When the splendour of the
surface is somewhat obscured by the appearance
of a bloom upon it like that of a plum, but which
cannot be detached. Ex. Elytra of Serica ruricola
and brunnea M*L. (Melolontha F.)

. OBscurE (Obscurus). A surface which reflects the
light but little. Ex. Pelobius Hermanni.

5. OPAQUE (Opacus). A surface which does not re-

ORISMOLOGY. 285

flect the light at all. Ex. Trox sabulosus, arena-
rius. Silpha opaca.

vi. TRANSPARENCE.

l. HYALINE (Hyalina). The clear transparency of

glass. Ex. The Wings of many Neuroptera, Hy-
menoptera, and Diptera.

2. DiarHaNous (Diaphana). Transparent, but less
purely than hyaline. - Semitransparent. Ex. The
Wings of many Coleoptera.

3. ADIAPHANOUS (Adiaphana). Which does not trans-
mit the light at all. Ex. Elytra of Coleoptera.

vii. PAINTING.

l. Arom (Atomus). A very minute dot.

2. ĪRRORATE (Irrorata). Sprinkled with atoms, as the
earth with dew. Ex. Onthophagus Vacca. Pa-
pilio Parts.

9. Gurra (Gutta*). A roundish dot, intermediate in
size between an atom and a macula.

4. Gurrare (Guttata). Sprinkled with gutte. Ex,
Coccinella L.

5. Macura (Macula). A larger indeterminately shaped
spot. $

6. Macurare (Maculata) Painted with such spots.
Ex. Phalena grossulariata.

7. Lrrura (Litura). An indeterminate spot growing
paler at one end, as if daubed or blotted.

8. Lirurare (Liturata). A surface painted with one
or more such spots. Ex. Aphodius conflagratus.

` Linné in Coccinella has employed the term Gutta for a white or

Yellow spot in a darker ground, and Pustula for a red spot in a black

e . à .
Sound. We thought one term sufficient to express spots bigger
“Aan atoms,

ORISMOLOGY.

.. Praca (Plaga). A long and large spot. Ex. Apho-

dius plagiatus.

. Ister (Insula). A spot of a different colour, included
in a plaga or macula. ^ Ex. The Ocelli in the Pri-
mary Wings of Hipparchia Semele. A spot in the

middle fascia of the under side of the Primary Wing
in Papilio Podalirius.

. CnEPERA (Crepera). A gleam of paler colour upon

a dark ground. Ex. Elytra of Dytiscus marginalis.

. SHADOW (Umbra). ` A slight shade, not easily per-

ceptible upon a paler ground. ` Ex. Elytra of La-

mia ZEdilis. Wings of Tinea asperella.

. SIGNATURES (Signature). Markings upon a sut-

face resembling in some degree letters and cha-

racters.

> SiGNATE (Signatus). Marked with signatures

Ex. Elytra of Macropus longimanus.

. Inscripep (Jnscriptus). When the surface is marked

with the resemblance of a letter of any language

Ex. Noctua Gamma. Vanessa C. album.

. Hierociypuic (Hieroglyphicus). Painted with cha-

racters somewhat resembling hieroglyphics, Ex: —

Macropus longimanus. Cetonia Australasia.

. ANNULET (Annulus). A ring-shaped spot. Ex

Phalena omicronaria, &c. Puare XIV. Fic. 1.O

. LuxurET (Lunula). A small crescent-shaped spot.

Ex. Marginal spots above and below the Secondary
Wings in Argynnis Artemis, &c.

. RENICULUS (Reniculus). A small kidney-shaped

spot. Ex. Upper Wings of Noctua Persicaria.

. OcErrvs (Ocellus). An eye-like spot in the Wings

of many Lepidoptera, consisting of annuli of dif-

ferent colours, inclosing a central spot or pupil.

ORISMOLOGY. 287

- Puri (Pupilla). The central ‘spot of the ocellus.
PrarE XIV. Fie. 1. ¢ An ocellus is called bipu-
pillate, tripupillate, &c., when there are two,
three, &c. of these spots. Ex. Primary Wing of
Hipparchia Piloselle, &c.: Prare XIV. Fie. 1. p.
- HasraTE Purit (Pupilla hastata). When the pu-
pil is a halbert-shaped spot. Ex. Pupil of Ocellus
of Attacus Tau. Prate XIV. Fic. 1. k.

. SurrurrED Purir (Pupilla suffulta).: When the
pupil shades into another colour. Ex. Primary
Wing of Vanessa Io. ise

. Iris (ris). The circle which incloses the pupil.
Puate XIV. Fic. 1. v. |

. ATMOSPHERE (Atmosphera). The exterior circle
ofthe ocellus. Prate XIV. Fie. 1. v.

- Brindo Oczrzus (Ocellus ceecus). An ocellus with-
out the pupil. Ex. Hipparchia Davus.

. Spurious OcELLUS (Ocellus spurius) A circular
spot without any defined iris or pupil.» Ex. Spot
in the Disk of the Primary Wings of Pieris Helice.
. SiMPLE Ocetius (Ocellus simpler) ` When the
ocellus consists only of iris and pupil." Ex. Ocell;
on the under side of Primary Wings of Hipparchia
Semele. Puare XIV. Fro. 1. Z, n, v.

- Cowprouxp OckrLus (Ocellus: complexus). When
the ocellus consists of three or more circles. Ex.
Saturnia Pavonia. PrarE XIV. Fie. 1. 7.

: NierrraxT Ocerrous (Ocellus nictitans) When the
ocellus includes a lunular spot of a different co-
lour. Ex. Under side of Wings of Morpho Perseus.
Prats XIV. Fie. 1. m.

- FExESTRATE OceLLus (Ocellus fenestratus). When

ORISMOLOGY,

an ocellus has a transparent spot. Ex. Attacus
Paphia and Cytherea.

. DroPTRATE Oczrrvs (Ocellus dioptratus). A fenes-
trate ocellus divided by a transverse line. Ex.

Attacus Polyphemus.

. Douste OckErrus (Ocellus geminatus) When tw?
ocelli are included in the same circle or spot. Ex:
Under side of Secondary Wing of Morpho Perseus
Puate XIV. Fia. 1. 7, v.

. Twin OcgrLus (Ocellus didymus) When such
ocelli join each other. Ex. Under side of Secondary
Wing of Hipparchia Hyperanthus.

. SESQUIALTEROUS Ockrrus (Ocellus sesquialterus).
An ocellus with a smaller near it, called also Ses-
quiocellus. Ex. Under side of Secondary Wing of
Pieris Edusa. Puare XIV. Fic. 1. q.

. Supercitium (Supercilium). An arched line re-
sembling an eyebrow, which sometimes surmounts
an eyelet. Ex. Under side of Secondary Wing of
Morpho Achilles. PravE XIV. Fio. 1. i.

. NEBULosE (Nebulosus) Painted with colour irre
gularly darker and lighter, so as to exhibit some
resemblance of clouds. Ex. Curculio sulcirostrí$
nebulosus ; Noctua nupta.

. Testuprnarious ( Testudinarius). Painted with red»
black, and yellow, like tortoise-shell. Ex. Elytr@
of Aphodius testudinarius.

. CoNsPERSE (Conspersus). Thickly sprinkled with
minute irregular dots often confluent. Ex. Gee
metra Betularia, ;

. ACHATINE (Achatinus). Painted with various co?”
centric, curved, or parallel lines, resembling the

ORISMOLOGY. 289.

"veining of an agate. Ex. Cossus labyrinthicus
Donov. Cerura vinula.

* USTULATE (Ustulata). So marked with brown as
to hàve the appeararice of being scorched. ^ Ex.
Wings of Phalena dolabraria. |

* ManwonATE (Marmorata). So painted with streaks,
veins, and clouds, as to resemble marble, Ex. Un-

. der side of the Wings of Vanessa To. Cetonia mar-
morata.

: Trssexiare ( Tessellata). Painted in checquer-work.

. Ex. Abdomen of Musca carnaria and maculata.

* Fascra (Fascia). A broad transverse band.

' PynaMIDATE Fascra (Fascia pyramidata): A band
which juts out into an angle on one side. Ex. Wing
of Apatura Iris: Argynnis Paphia. Prare XIV.
Fig. 1. 4. :

* Macuran Fascia (Fascia macularis). A band con-
sisting of distinct spots. Ex. Wings of Geometra
grossulariata. Prate XIV. Fi. 1. b.

^ AmmricuLATE Fascia (Fascia articulata) A band `
consisting of contiguous spots. Ex. Under side of -
Wings of Argynnis Dictynna. Upper side of Pri-
mary Wing of Papilio Menelaus.

^ DrwrpiarE Fascta (Fascia dimidiata). A band
traversing only alf the wing. Ex. Primary Wing.
of Papilio Turnus. . Pare XIV. Fic. 1...

^ ABBREVIATE Fascta (Fascia abbreviata). A band
traversing less than half the wing, Ex. Primary
Wing of Papilio Podalirius, Ajax;;&e. PLATE
XIV. Fie. 1. g-

i SEsour ALTEROUS Fascia ( Fascia sesquialtera 1

When both wings are traversed by a continued

Yo
L, Iv, U

290

ORISMOLOGY.

band, and either the primary or secondary by 2 .
other. Ex. Endromis versicolor. PLATE XIV.
Joe. Tuk 6

. SEsQUITERTIOUS Fascia (Fascia sesquitertia). When

- both wings are traversed by a continued band, and
more than half of either the primary or secondary
by another; or, when a wing or elytrum contains
a band and the third of a band. Ex. Pyralis Avel-
lana. Prate XIV. Fic. 1. d, e.

. Srriea (Striga). A narrow transverse streak.
. SrmiGosE (Strigosa). Painted with several such

streaks. Ex. Phalena prunaria.

. Live (Linea). A narrow longitudinal stripe.
. Lineate (Lineata). Painted with several such

stripes. N.B. If with two, we say bilineata, with
three, ¢rilineata, &c. Ex. Elater lineatus.

. Vrrra (Vitta). A broad longitudinal stripe.
. VrPrATE (Vittata). Painted with several sue

stripes. Ex. Chrysomela fastuosa, cerealis, &c-

| UxpvLaTE ( Undulata). When fascise, strigee, line?

RS à = he
&c. curve into alternate sinuses resembling th
rise and fall of waves. ;

. SixuATo-UxpULATE (Sinuato-Undulata). W he?

the sinuses are obtuse. Ex. Phalena repandarit*

. ANGULOSO-UNDULATE ( Anguloso- Undulata). whe

they go in a zigzag direction, or with alternat?
-acute sinuses. Ex. Phalena undularia.

. RADIATE (Radiata). When a dot, spot, &c. appe?"

to send forth rays. Ex. The large blue area co™
mon to all the Wings of Papilio Ulysses.

P*XVENGRE (VERE) Ped with ies diat BOO |

like veins. Ex. Under side of Wings of Pieris Nap”

ORISMOLOGY. 291

- ÜANcELLATE (Cancellata). Painted with transverse -
lines crossing longitudinal ones at right angles.
Ex. Phalena clathrata. :

- ÅREOLATE (Areolata). Painted with lines which
intersect each other in various directions, so as to
exhibit the appearance of net-work. Ex. Wings
of Phasia marginata and Cossus ligniperda.

` Limpare (Limbata). When the disk is surrounded
by a margin of a different colour. Ex. Dytiscus
marginalis.

- ARMILLATE (Armillata). When a leg, antenna, &c.
is surrounded by a broad ring of a different colour.
Ex. Posterior Tibia of Prosopis annulata (Melitta *
b. K.).

* ANNULATE (Annulata). When a leg, antenna, &c.
is surrounded by a narrow ring of a different co-
lour. Ex. Antenne of many Ichneumons.

* Cineuare (Cingulata). When the abdomen or
the trunk is wholly surrounded by one or more

belts of a different colour. Ex. Abdomen of many
Nomade (Apis *. b. K.). - |
` Decororare (Decolor). When the colour appears
to be discharged from any part. Ex. Margin of

the Abdominal segments in Stelis punctulatissima
Latr. (Apis ** c. 1. 8 K.). :
UnicoronaTE (Unicolor). When a surface is of
. one colour.
* CowcoronATE (Concolor). Of the same colour with
another part. If speaking of Lepidoptera, when
the upper and under sides of the wings are of the
Same colour. Ex. Hesperia Linea, Paniscus.
* DisconoraTe (Discolor). Of a different colour from
U2

292 ORISMOLOGY.

another part. When the upper and under sides
of the wings of Lepidoptera are of a different c0"
lour. Ex. Lycena Corydon, Argiolus, &c.

61. VERSICOLORATE (Versicolor) When a surface
changes its colour as the light varies. Ex. 4p
tura Irisd.

62. InipEescen't (Jricolor) When a surface reflects the
colours of the rainbow. Ex. Mesothorax of Xylo-
copa iricolor. Wings of Hymenoptera, &c.

63. IxruscarE (Infuscata). When a colour is darkened
by the superinduction of a brownish shade or
cloud. Ex. Apex of the Upper Wings of Cossus
ligniperda.

ix. DISTINCTION.

1. Distinct (Distincta). When spots, puncta, gr?
nules, &c. do not touch or run into each other, but
are completely separate. Ex. Under side of Wings
of Lycena dispar.

2. ORDINATE (Ordinata). "When spots, puncta, &C
are placed in rows. ‘Thus we say ordinato-punc
tate, ordinato-maculate, &c. Ex. Spots on the
Abdomen of Arctia lubricipeda, erminea, &c.

3. CowTIGvovs (Contigua). When spots, &c. are 50
near that they almost or altogether touch each
other. Ex. Spots in the margin of the Wings of
Argynnis Aglaia.

4. CONFLUENT (Confluens). When spots, &c. run-in!
each other. Ex. Apex of the Primary Wings and
Under side of the Secondary in Pieris Daplidice.

5. OnrirERATE (Obliterata) When the borders of
spots fade into the general ground-colour ; and

ORISMOLOGY. 293

when elevations and depressions, &c. are so little
raised or sunk from the general surface, as to be
almost erased. Ex. Streak in the Wings of Geo-
metra papilionaria, &c. — Strie in the Elytra of
Sphodrus leucopthalmus.

- OssorzrE (Obsoleta) When a spot, tubercle,
punctum, &c. is scarcely discoverable. Ex. Ly-
cena dispar d and 9 .—N.B. This term is often em-
ployed where one sex, kindred species, or genera,
want, or nearly so, a character which is conspicuous
in the other sex, or in the species or genus to which
they are most closely allied. —

: Gemrinous (Gemina) When there is a pair of
spots, tubercles, puncta, &c. Ex. Head of one
sex of Lucanus parallelopipedus. Upper Wings of
Odenesis potatoria.

- Dipymous (Didyma). When this pair of spots, &c.
touch or are confluent. Ex. Spots in Elytra of
Stenocorus quadrimaculatus.

- Connivent (Connivens). The meeting of two lines
so as to form an angle. Ex. Streaks on the Under
side of Secondary Wings of Thecla Pruni.

- Common (Communis) Common to two. When a

spot for instance is partly on one elytrum and partly
on the other. Ex. Coccinella septempunctata.

x. MARGIN.

- Crisp (Crispa). When the Limb is disproportion-
ably larger than the Disk, so as to render the mar-
gin uneven with irregular rises and falls.

: Unpvurare (Undulata). When the surface rises and
falls obtusely, not in angles. Ex. Margin of Wings
of Hipparchia Semele.

294 ORISMOLOGY.

3. ConRuGATE(Corrugata). When the surface rises and
falls acutely in angles. Ex. Phalena luteata, &C-

4. Purcate (Plicata). Longitudinally or transversely

* folded; or so impressed with strize as to have that

appearance. Ex. Abdomen: of Staphylinus.

DinATATE (Dilatata). Dilated disproportionably

with respect to the Disk. Ex. Prothorax of Ne
crophorus.

. Frare (Filata). When the edge is separated by ?
channel, often producing a very slender threadlike
margin. Ex. Elytra of Choleva.

. Lycrassare (Incrassata). When the margin is dis-
proportionably thick. Ex. Mr. Marsham’s Family
of Chrysomela ** thorace utrinque incrassato.”

. Entire (Integra). When the margin has neithe"
teeth, serratures, nor other incisions.

. CHANNEL (Canalis). An impressed line more ©"
less wide, which attends the edges, and is usually
produced by its reflexion.

. Ever (cies). The extreme termination of thé

margin.

xi. TERMINATION.

. Summit (Fastigium). The tip or extreme termina
tion of the upper part.

. APEX (Apex). The top or upper termination of any
part.

. Borrom (Fundus) The extreme termination of the
lower part. 3

. Base (Basis). The lower termination of any part

. Acute (Acuia). Terminating in an acute angle
Prare XV. Fie. 17.

OBTUSE (Obtusa). Terminating bluntly, but within

the segment of a circle. Prare XIV. Fic. 1- f

ORISMOLOGY. 295

- Rorunpare (Fotundata). Terminating in the seg-
ment of a circle. Prare VI. Fio. 1. e.

* Truncate (Truncata).. Terminating in a trans- / —

verse line. Prate XIII. Fr. 5. a".

- PREMORsE (Premorsa). Terminating in an irre-
gular truncate apex, as if bitten off. Ex. Elytra
of Lebia, Dromia, Lomechusa, &c.

- Reruse (Retusa). Terminating in an obtuse sinus. :
Ex. Back part of the Head in Cimbex.

- Emarernate (Emarginata) When the end has
an obtuse notch taken out. Ex. Nose of Pedinus
arenosus. |

- Exscinpep (Ezxcisa). When the end has an angu-
lar notch taken out. Ex. Nose of Opatrum sa-
bulosum.

- Propucren (Producta). Disproportionably long.
- Mucronate (Mucronata). Terminating suddenly /

in a strong point. Ex. Elytra of Lixus paraplec- ^

ticus. Abdomen of Sirex Gigas 9 .

: ACUMINATE (Acuminata). Terminating gradually in
a sharp point. Ex. Abdomen of Sirex Juvencus 9 .
* APrcULATE (Apiculata), Terminating suddenly in
a small filiform truncate apex. Ex. Abdomen of
Thelyphonus.

: Cusprpate (Cuspidata). Terminating in a long se-
tiform point. Ex. Tail of Scorpio. :

xi. INCISION.

- Incisep (Incisa). Cut into equal marginal seg-
ments.

* Cuert (Fissa). Cut into equal and deep segments,
but not reaching the base. Prare XIV. Fie. 3. a.

ORISMOLOGY.

. Birip (Bifida). Cut into two segments.

. Trip (Trifida). Cut into three.

. QuavRIFID (Quadrifida). Cut into four.

. Murrirr (Multifida), Cut into more than four.

. Lactyiare (Laciniata) Cut into unequal, irregU*

lar, and deep segments.

. SQUARROSE (Squarrosa) Cut into lacini; that are

elevated above the plane of the surface.

. Partite (Partita). Divided to the base. | PLATE

XIV. Fie. 3. b.

. Breartire (Bipartita). Divided thus into 7?

parts. |

. TRIPARTITE (Tripartita). Divided into three parts

QUADRIPARTITE (Quadripartita). Divided into four
parts.

. Mouxtreartite { Multipartita). Divided into mor?

than four parts. |

. Losarte (Lobata). Divided to the middle into parts

with convex margins, which recede from each.

other. Ex. Acanthia paradoxa. — Bilobate, with

two lobes. Trilobate, with three lobes, &c.

. Cruciate (Cruciata). Divided to the middle int?
four opposite arms, the angles being either fou"
right ones, or two obtuse and two acute. Ex. Pro-
thorax of many Locuste Leach.

SiwuATE (Sinuata). Having large curved break?
in the margin resembling bays. PLATE XIV.
Fic. 1.

. Erose (Erosa). Sinuate, with the sinuses cut ov!

into smaller irregular notches as if gnawed. Ex

Wings of Vanessa C. album.

. CRENATE (Crenata). Cut into segments of "m

circles.

ORISMOLOGY. 297

SERRATE (Serrata). Cut into teeth like a saw, with
teeth whose sides are unequal. Ex. External mar-
gin near the Apex of the Elytra of many apos of
Buprestis.

- DENTATE (Dentata). Cut into teeth, with teeth
whose sides are equal or nearly so. Ex. The
Wings of many Butterflies.

Repanp (Repanda). Cut into very slight sinua-
tions, so as to run inaserpentine direction. PLATE

XMAS Presi T's.

xiii. RAMIFICATION.

- Dicnotromous (Dichotoma). Dividing regularly in
pairs.

- Furcare (Fia ‘atte Dividing into two. PLATE
XVIII. Fie. 11.

- Ramose (famosa). Furnished with lateral branches.
Pirate XI. Fio. 18.

DecussatE (Decussata). Sending forth lateral

branches which alternately cross each other.

- DivangrcATE (Divaricata). Standing out very wide.

xiv. DIVISION.

- SEGMENT (Segmentum). The great inosculating
joints of the body.

- Jornt (Articulus). The joints of a limb or member.

- INcisunE (Incisura). A deep incision between the
segments, when they recede from each other.

4. SurunE (Sutura). The line of separation of any
two parts of a crust which are connected only by
membrane or ligament, but do not inosculate.

a Spurious SuTURE (Sutura spuria). An impressed

ORISMOLOGY.

line in any part of a body, which resembles a su*

ture, but does not really divide the crust.

xv. DIRECTION.

. Lonerrupinat (Longitudinalis). Running length-
wise.
. TRANSVERSE (Transversa). Running across: when
the longitudinal line is cut through at right angles-
. OBLIQUE (Obliqua). Running sideways. When
the longitudinal line is cut through at acute angles
. HonizowTAL (Horizontalis). Parallel with the ho-
rizon.
. Erect (Erecta) Nearly perpendicular.
. VERTICAL (Verticalis). Perpendicular.
Stopine (Declivis). A gentle descent.
. DzscENDING (Descendens). A steeper descent.
. AccLivous (Acclivis). A gentle ascent.
. ASCENDING (Ascendens). A steeper ascent.
Reciinep (feclinata). Leaning towards any thing
as if to repose upon it.
RECUMBENT (Recumbens). Leaning or reposing
upon any thing.
. REFLEXED (Reflexa). Bent back or upwards.
InFLEXED (Infleca). Bent inwards.
. Recurven (Recurva). Curving outwards.
. INcuRvED (Zncurva). Curving inwards.
. REvoLUTE (Revoluta). Rolled outwards.
. INVOLUTE (Involuta). Rolled inwards.
Forwarps (Anérorsum).
Backwanns (Retrorsum).
. Upwarns (Sursum).
_Downwarps (Deorsum).

ORISMOLOGY.

- Ourwarps (Eztrorsum).

- Inwanps (Jntrorsum).

- Srrareut (Recta). |

- Porrecr (Porrecta). Reaching forth horizontally

as if to meet something advancing.

- Broken (fracta). Bent with an elbow, as if M ics.

Convercine (Convergens). Tending to one point
from different parts.

- Divercine (Divergens). Tending to different parts

from one point.

xvi, SITUATION.

. Osverse (Obversa) When an object is viewed
with its head towards you.

. Reverse (Reversa). When an object is viewed .
with its anus towards you.
. Resupine (Resupina). When an object lies upon
its back.

. Prone (Prona). When an object lies upon its belly.

xvii. CONNEXION.

. CorticatE (Colligata). Adhering, or so fixed to

any part as to have no separate motion of its own.

. Free (Libera). Having a motion independent of

that of the part to which it is affixed.

- CoxwarE (Connata). When parts that are usually

separated, are, as it were, soldered together, —
though distinguished by a suture. Ex. Elytra of
Gibbium.

- Coatrre (Coalita). When parts usually separate

are distinguished neither by incisure, segment, nor

suture. Ex. Trunk in Mutilla.

300 ORISMOLOGY,

5. Drstincr (Distincta). When parts are separated
from each other by a suture. Ex. Parts of the
Trunk in Coleoptera, &c.

. Distant (Distans). When they are separated by
an incisure. Ex. Head, Trunk, and Abdomen, in
Hymenoptera. |

. INoscuraTINe (Inosculans). When one part is in-
serted into the cavity of another. Ex. Head in
Buprestis.

SUSPENDED (Suspensa). When one part is joined
to another by a ligature, without being inserted in
it. Ex. Legs of Orthoptera.

xvii, ARMS.

. Tooru (Dens). A short flattish process, somewhat
resembling a zooth.

. Horn (Cornu). <A longer process, resembling ?
horn.

. Laminate Horn (Cornu laminatum). A horn di-
lated at its base into a flat plate. Ex. Onthopha-
gus nutans. .

. Noppine Horn (Cornu nutans). When a hor?
bends forwards. Ex. Onthophagus nutans.

. SPINE (Spina). A fine, long, rigid, pointed process:
Ex. Those on Elytra of many Hispa, and the
Posterior Tibie of Locusta Leach. :

Mvcro (Mucro). A short, stout, sharp-pointed
process. Ex. Elytra of Lixus paraplecticus.

. Spur (Calcar). A spine that is nota process of the
crust, but.is implanted in it. Ex. Those on the
lower side of the Tibie of Acrida K.

ORISMOLOGY.

xix. APPENDAGES.

- AURICLE (Auricula). An appendage resembling
an ear. Ex. Thorax of Ledra aurita.

* Caruncie (Caruncula). Having fleshy excrescences

somewhat resembling the caruncles of birds. Ex.
Prothorax of Malachius F.

xx. MOTION.

- VERTICAL (Verticalis). When it is up and down.

- HonizowmAL (Horizontalis). When it is from side
to side.

- Compounp (Composita) When a part is capable
of both vertical and horizontal motion.

- VERSATILE (Versatilis). When it moves partly
round as if upon a pivot. Ex. Head of Hymeno-
ptera and Diptera. .
- VIBRATILE (Vibratilis). When there is a constant
oscillation of any part. Ex. Antennæ of Ichneu-
mones minuti L. Legs of Tipula when reposing.
- Rorarony (Rotatoria). When a body or a part of
it turns wholly round, or describes a circle. Ex,
Ants and Moths in a certain dzsease?.

xxi, SCENT. .
: Acip (Zcidus). A pungent acid scent. Ex. Many
Formice. 52

2. MoscnarE (Moschatus). A scent of mush. |

- Autraczous (Alliaceus). A scent of garlic. Ex.
Some Andrene Latr.

* Cimicine (Cimicinus). . A scent like that of the
‘Bed-bug. Ex. Cimez L.

4 See above, p. 209—.

302 ORISMOLOGY.

5. Rosaceous (Rosaceus). A scent of roses. Ex. Calli-

chroma moschatum.

. AROMATIC (Aromaticus). A pungent scent of spices:
Ex. Ozytelus rugosus.

. BaALM-scENTED ( Melisscus). Ex. Species of Prosopis
Latr. (Apis *. b. K.) :

. SWEET-SCENTED (Odoratus) An undefined sweet
scent. Ex. Staphylinus odoratus K.

. Ferip (Feetidus). A disagreeable scent. Ex. Sta-

phylinus olens. Hemerobius Perla. .

GENERAL RULES.

In the above tables no notice is taken of diminutives,
compounds, and similar terms, because it seemed best,
with respect to these, to lay down only some general
rules which may include the whole.

Rute I.

Terms in English ending in cle, ule, or let, and which

; in Latin add lus, la, or lum, to a word, diminish its sense

As, Denticle, a little tooth ; Setule, a little bristle; Ey/ets
a small eye: Denticulus, a little dens; Guttu/a, a little
gutta; Punctu/um, a little punctum. N.B. Where length
or breadth are concerned, the diminutive implies a di-
minution in the length of the predicate. As, Lineo/4;
Lineole?, a short line; Striola, Striolez, a short stria;
Fasciola, Fasciolet, a short fascia.

Rute Il.
The preposition sub prefixed to any word reduces the
sense of it. As, Subpunctate, not fully punctate; Subhir-
sute, not fully hirsute, &c.

ORISMOLOGY.

Rute IIl.

The termination culus in Latin words added to a com-
parative implies the state of the object comparatively.
As, Convexiusculus, rather convex than not; Majuscu-
lus, rather large than not. ‘This is usually denoted in
English by the termination ish, or the adverb rather ;
as, largish, rather large, &c.

Rure IV.

The participle present used instead of the adjective
implies a tendency to the quality expressed by it. “As,
Cinerascens, cinerascent, tending to cinereous, &c.

Rutz V.
The preposition ob prefixed to a term reverses it.

As, Obconical, Obcordate, a conical or heart-shaped
body, of which the narrowest part is the base.
Rute VI.

In compound terms the /as? member indicates the
Preponderating character. For instance, when it is said
of a body that it is nigro-æneous, it means that the zeneous
tint prevails : but if, vice versd, it is termed eneo-nigrous,
the black tint is predominant. N.B. In Sculpture the
terms punctato-striate, or punctato-sulcate, signify that
Strize or furrows are drawn with puncta in them.

Exception 1. ;
Some compound terms only indicate the union of two

char; 'acters in one subject. As, when we say of wings that
they are cruciato-incumbent, we mean both that they
Cross each other and are incumbent upon the body.

Exception 2.
Compound terms are sometimes employed very con-

304 ORISMOLOGY.

veniently to restrict the application of a character to pat-
ticular circumstances. As, when we say hirsuto-ci-
nereous, we mean that the hirsuties only of a body is
cinereous.

Rute VII.

When the term ordinary (ordinarius) is added either
to terms expressing impressed puncta, lines, spots, &c^
it signifies that such puncta, lines, or spots are common
to a particular section in any genus or tribe. As, the
impressed lateral puncta on the thorax of Scarabeide
M:L.; the lateral furrows and dorsal channel in Harpa-
lus, &c.; and the spots in the primary wings of Noctua
Polyodon and affinities?.

SYMB o LS.
Male d. Female ?. Neuter ?. Egg 0. Larva®. Pupa )-
Imago ©. Head A. Trunk OQ. Abdomen y».

B. PARTIAL ORISMOLOGY.

I. BODY (Corpus).

1. Dissuner (Désjunctum). When head, trunk, and
abdomen are separated by a deep incisure. Ex.
Hymenoptera, Diptera. Puare IV. Fie. 2, 3, 5.

2. Compact (Compactum). When head, trunk, and
abdomen are not separated by a deep incisure, but
inosculate in each other. Ex. Buprestis, Elater,

2 As this work is intended for general readers as well as for the

learned, the above rules, &c., it is hoped will not be deemed with-
out use.

^ ‘These symbols are inserted here, because they may be very con-
veniently adopted in a correspondence on the subject of Entomology:

ORISMOLOGY. 305

and many other Coleoptera, Orthoptera, and He-
miptera..

3. Bisecr (Bisectum). When the head and trunk are
not separated by a suture, so that the insect con-
sists only of two pieces. Ex. Aranea L. Puare V.
Fic. 4.

4. CoarrrE (Coalitum). When neither head, trunk,
nor abdomen are separated by any incisure or su-
ture. Ex. Many Acari L., Phalangium, &c.

5. MürrIsECT (Multisectum). When an insect appears
to have no distinct trunk and abdomen, but is di-
vided into numerous segments. Ex. Scolopendra ;
Tulus, &c. Prater V. Fic. 6.

8. Cymsrrorm (Cymbiforme). When the margin of
the thorax and elytra are recurved so as to give a
body the resemblance of the inside of a boat. Ex.
Helaus, Cossyphus.

IL. HEAD (Carv7).
i DIRECTION.

l. PROMINENT (Prominens) When the head is in the.
horizontal line, and forms no angle with the trunk.
Ex. Carabus L. Prater I. Fro. 1.

2. Porrecrep (Porrectum). When the head is pro-
minent and elongate. Ex. Cychrus.

3. Nuranr (Nutans). When the head forms down-
wards an obtuse angle with the horizontal line, or
trunk. Ex. Harpalus.

*. Cernvous (Cernuum). | When the head forms.
downwards a right angle with the trunk, Ex.

Most Grylli L.
VOL, rv, X

306 ORISMOLOGY.

5. INruexED (duflexum). When the head forms in-
wards an acute angle with the trunk. Ex. Blatta
Puate II. Fic. 3.

. TunnETED (Turritum) When the head is pro
ducted into a kind of columnar recurved turret oF
rostrum, in the sides of which, towards the end,
the eyes are fixed. Ex. Truxalis. i

ii. INSERTION.

. RETRACTED (Retractum). When the head is wholly
withdrawn within the trunk. Ex. Parnus.

. INTRUDED (Jntrusum). When the head is nearly
withdrawn. within the trunk. Ex. Melasis.

. Insertep (Insertwm). When the head is partly
withdrawn within the trunk. Ex. Buprestis.

. ExsEmTED (Exsertum). When the head is quite
disengaged from the trunk. Ex. Tenebrio, Blap*

. AMPLECTED (Amplexum). When the head is re
ceived into a sinus of the thorax. Ex. Hister.

. Reconprre (Reconditum). When the head is wholly
covered and sheltered by the shield of the thora*
Ex. Cassida, Lampyris.

. SEMIRECONDITE (Semireconditum). When the head
is half covered by the shield of the thorax, E*
Silpha, Cyphon.

. ReTRACTILE (Retractile). When an insect can 3
pleasure exsert its head, or withdraw it within the
trunk. Ex. Hister, Larva of Lampyris.

- VERSATILE (Versatile). When the head can tur?
nearly round. Ex. Hymenoptera, Diptera.

. PEDUNCULATE (Pedunculatum). When the head !

ORISMOELOGY, 307

constricted behind into a distinct neck. Ex. Apo-
derus Coryli, &c.

Il. Sessie (Sessile). When the head does not move
in the socket of the trunk, but is attached to it by
a kind of ligament. Ex. Hymenoptera, Diptera.

it. TERMINATION.

l. CLYPEATE (Clypeatum). When the Nasus, Gene,
&c. are dilated so as to shelter and overshadow
the mouth. Ex. Scarabeus M*L. Copris, &c.
Prare XIII. Fic. 14.

2. CaprsTRATE (Capistratum). When the anterior
part of the head is attenuated and subelongated
into a kind of flat rostrum or muzzle. Ex. Niti-

~ dula. Prate XIII. Fie. 13.

8. RosrnaTE (Rostratum). ‘When the anterior part
of the head is elongated and attenuated into a cy-
lindrical or many-sided rostrum or beak. Ex. Cur-
culio L, PrarE XIII. Fic. 12.

^ Buccare (Buccatum). When the Nasus and ante-
rior part of the head are inflated. Ex. Conops and

Other Diptera. Puare XIII. Fic. 16.

iv. APPENDAGES.

* UMBRACULATE (Umbraculatum). Wher there is
upon the head an umbrella-shaped process. Ex.
` Acheta umbraculata.
à Lvcuxipramr (Lychnidiatum). When the Vertex,
Frons, and Postnasus are porrected so as toform a
Kind of rostrum which gives light in the night.
Ex. Fulsora. Prare XIII. Fre. 15.

X3

ORISMOLOGY.

v. MOUTH (0s).

. TERMINAL (Terminale). When the mouth term
. mates the head. Ex. Coleoptera, &c. -
. Prone (Pronum). When the mouth is wholly e
der the head. Ex. Truxalis, Proscopia.
. Perrecr (Perfectum). When the mouth is furnished
with all the Zrophi. Viz. Labrum; Lab:
Mandibule; Mazille ; Maxillary and Labid
Palpi; and Tongue. Ex. The Masticating Order?
. FEEDERS nETRACTED (Trophi retracti). When, d
a perfect mouth, the Trophi are not capable of be
ing much pushed out or drawn in. Ex. Most Cr
leoptera, Orthoptera, &c. :
. FEEDERS RETRACTILE (Trophi retractiles), “Wh
in a perfect mouth, the Trophi can be considera
pushed forth or drawn in. Ex. Stenus, Apis, &c
. ImprnrEcr (Imperfectum). When the mouth want?
any of the Trophi, or they exist in it only as rud"
ments. Ex. The Suctorious Orders.
. ExaBRATE (Elabratum). When an imperfect mouth
has Mandibule, Mazille, Labium, and Maxilla}
Palpi, or what perform their office, but no Labri"
Ex. Araneide.
. EMANDIBULATE (Emandibulatum). When an im
perfect mouth has all the Trophi but the Mand
bule. Ex. Trichoptera Kirby. .
. BrPArPATE (Bipalpatum). When an imperf
mouth has only either Labial or Mazillary P alp"
Ex. Tabanus, &c. ;
. ExraLpaTE (Expalpatum). When an imperf
mouth has no Palpi. Ex. Hemiptera.

ORISMOLOGY. - 309

* STOMAPODOUS (Stomapodum). When the Legs and
Sternum act the part of Maxille, Labium, and
Palpi. Ex. Araneide, Scolopendra, &c.

a. UPPER LIP (Labrum).

* WHISKERED (Mystacinum). When the upper lip
is furnished with whiskers (Mystaz), or bearded.
Ex. Creophilus hirtus K. PLATE XXVI. Fic. 30.

b. UPPER saws (Mandibule).

' Curare (Chelate). When the upper jaws are fur-
nished at the end with a chela or thumb. Ex. Scor-
pio, Phalangium.

Uneuicurate (Unguiculatz). When they are
armed with a moveable claw. Ex. Araneide.
Prare VII. Fie. 10. c.

` Burien (Sepulte). When they are covered and

quite concealed by the upper lip. Ex. Collyuris.

' Open (Aperta). When they are not quite concealed
by the upper lip. Ex. Most Coleoptera.
OoTHLESS (Edentule). When they are not armed
With teeth. Ex. Apogonia gemellata K. Puare
XXVI. Fie. 22.

Tooruzp (Dentate). When they are armed with
teeth. Ex. Cicindela. Puare XXVI. Fie. 19.

' Sucronious (Suctorie). When they have an ori-

fice by which they imbibe their food. Ex. Larva

of Dytiscus, Myrmeleon, &c. Puate XIII. Fie. 6.

€. UNDER JAWS (Mazille).

` SiMPLE (Szmplices). When the under jaws have but
One lobe: Ex. Hymenoptera.. Prater VII. Fic. 2,
3. d'. :

310 ORISMOLOGY.

2. Compound (Composite). When they have more
than one lobe, Ex. Staphylinus and many s
Coleoptera. Puare XXVI. Fie. 9, 10. d". e"

3. ADNATE (Adnate). When they adhere to the owe
lip through their whole length. Ex. 7 richopter™
Piare VII. Fis. 1. d.

4. ApHERENT (Ad/cerentes). When they adhere t? i
only at their base. Ex. Coleoptera, Hymenopt™ i
&c. Prare VI, VII. Fie. 3. d.

5. SPrNosE (Spinose). When they are armed at p
apex with spines. Ex. Libellulina. PLATE 3
Fic. 12. f".

. Dentare (Dentate). When they are armed with
teeth. Ex. Melolonthide. Pume XXVL P
15. g”.

. PEcruNcuLATE (Pectunculate). | When the stip”
helow the feeler has a ròw of minute spines dà
like the teeth of a comb. kx. Apis?.

. DisENGAGED (Libere). When they do not adhe!
to it at all, or are only connected by membrane |
ligaments, Ex. Apis, &c. Prate VII. Fic. 3.

. MaxnpiBuLIFORnM (Mandibuliformes). When ibe
are hard and horny and shaped like the up? j
jaws. Ex. Melolonthide, Anopolognathidas * a
Pirate XXVI. Fro. 13, 15.

. UxcuicULATE (Unguiculate).. When they tom
nate in a moveable claw. Ex. Cicindela.

d. FEELERS (Palpi).
.l. Maxırorm (Maniformes). When they are chela

+. Mon. Ap. Angl: i, £. xii, **. e. F. Ww f. 9. c. and & x. er à
fig. 1. c.

ORISMOLOGY. 311

or furnished with a finger and thumb. Ex. Scor-
pio, Chelifer. PLATE XV. Fic. 7.

- Peprrorm (Pediformes). When they resemble the
legs either in structure or use. Ex. Araneida,
Acaride. Prare VII. Fie. 10. h”.

* ÁNTENNIFORM (Antenniformes). When they are
very long resembling antenne. Ex. Hydrophilus,
Bryaxis, Culex d.

- Uncvurcurare ( Unguiculati) When they are armed
with a claw atthe end. Ex. Gonyleptes K. PLATE
XIII. Fic. 1.

- SECURIFORM (Securiformes). When the last joint of
the feeler is triangular, and the preceding joint is
connected with the vertex of the triangle. Ex.
Cleride. Puare XIII. Fie. 2. a.

: LuxuLATE (Lunulati). When the last joint is
shaped like a half moon or crescent. Ex. Ogy-

porus. Prare XIII. Fia. 4. a.

* FascicurATE (Fasciculati). When the feeler ter-
minates in a bunch of very slender laminz. Ex.
Lymexylon flavipes. Puate X XVI. Fre. 3.

- Lametiate (Lamellati) When the last joint is
divided into transverse lamelle. Ex. Atractocerus.

Pirate XXVI. Fie. 1.

* Ivrrarep (Inflati). When the last joint of the
feeler is very large and tumid. Ex. draneide d.
Pirate XIII. Fro. 3.
* APPENDICULATE (Appendiculati). When from one
of the joints there issues an accessory joint or ap-
pendage. Ex. Atractocerus, Trombidium. PLATE
XXVI. Fre. 1. a. Prats XXIII. Fie. 13. a.

: Mammirrare (Mammillati). When the last joint

ORISMOLOGY.

is very short, smaller than the preceding one, and
retractile within it. Ex. Pederus?.

. SuBULATE (Subulati) When the last joint is shorts
and vastly smaller than the preceding one, Ex-
Bembidium, Aleochara. Puare XXVI. Fie. 7.

. Fusirorm ( Fusiformes). When the two last joints are
conical, and the base of the cones forms the point
of union. Ex. Trechus. Prare XXVI. Fio. 8

. Hereromorruous (Heteromorphi). When the two

. intermediate joints are vastly larger than the first
and the last. Ex. Cerocoma d. Prare XXVL
Fic. 2.

€. TONGUE (Lingua).

1. Lineuirorm (Linguiformis) When the tongue is
quite distinct from the labium, usually retracted
within the mouth, short and shaped something
like a vertebrate tongue. Ex. Gryllus L. Libelli-

lina. Puare VI. Fic. 6, 12. e.

. Licutirorm (Liguliformis). When it emerge?
from the labium, is short, flat, and not concealed
within the mouth. Ex. Vespa and many Hymen?"
ptera. Prare VII. Fro. 2. e.

. 'TuBurosr (Tubulosa). When it emerges from the.
labium, is long and tubular, and capable of infla-
tion. Ex. Apis. Prarr VII. Fic. 3. e.

. SeTIFORM (Sefiformis). A short'minute sharp tongue
discoverable between the scalpella of a promusci*
Ex. Cimex L. Puare VII. Fie. 14. e.

. ParaTrFORM (Palatiformis). When the tong"?
forms the inner surface of the Labium, but is not
separate from it. Ex. Most Coleoptera.

* Oliv, Ins. N°. 44. Pæderus. t. i. f. 1. e.

ORISMOLOGY.

vi. NOSE (asus).

. InctupEp (Inclusus). When the nose is included
between the two sides of the Postnasus which run

towards the upper lip. Ex. Czmex L.
- VaurTED (Fornicatus). When the nose is elevated,
convex and hollow underneath. Ex. Vespa.

vii. CANTHUS.

ExrERING (Intrans) When the Canthus takes a
little angle or sinus out of the eye. Ex. Ceram-
byr L. Mylabris F. Puare VI. Fie. 1. h'.

. Crzavixe (Findens). When the Canthus cleaves the

eye half through or more. Ex. The Lamellicorns.

. Divipine (Dividens). When the Canthus passes

right through the eye and divides it into two.

Ex. Gyrinus. Tetraopes Dalm.* Prats XXVI.

Fic. 36.

. SeprirorM (Septiformis). When the Canthusformsan

elevated ridge or septum. Ex. Many Lamellicorns.

vii. EYES (OCULI).

. Simpe (Simplices) Eyes which do not consist of
an aggregate of hexagonal lenses. Ex. draneide.
Scorpio, Phalangium. Puate VII. Fre. 9. h.

- ScarrerED (Sparsi). When simple eyes are sepa-
rate from each other and not arranged in a certain
order. Ex. Eyes of Caterpillars and some Scolo-
pendra.

- Orprnate (Ordinati). When simple eyes are ar-
ranged ina certain order. Ex. 4raneide. PLATE
XXVI. Fic. 37.

* Germ, Insect, Spec. 486—.

314 ORISMOLOGY.

c. CONGLOMERATE (Conglomerati). When a number
of simple eyes are collected together so as to exhi-
bit the appearance of a compound one. Ex. Julus.
PrarE XIII. Fro. 11.

. Donsar (Dorsales). When they are placed on the
back. Ex. Phalangium. Puare XXVI. Fro. 43. be

. Compounp (Compositi). Eyes which consist of an
aggregate of hexagonal lenses. Ex. All the Winged
Orders. Prate XIII. Fro. 10. and XXVI. Fic-
38—42 h.

. SESSILE (Sessiles). Eyes that do not sit upon a
footstalk. Ex. Most insects. Prare XXVI
Fie. 40, 41. ‘

. SUPERIOR (Superiores).. When they are placed in
the upper part of the head. Ex. Libellulina.

. LATERAL (Laterales). When they are placed in
the sde of the head. Ex. Apis L.

. INFERIOR (Inferiores). When they are placed in
the lower side of the head. Ex. The dower pair in
Gyrinus.

. PosTERIOR (Posteriores). When placed in the pos-
terior part of the head. Ex. Losusta Leach.

. ANTERIOR (Anteriores). When placed in the ante-
rior part of the head. Ex. Crabro F, Staphylinus
olens, &c.

. Mzniar (Medii. When placed in the middle part
of the head. Ex. Harpalus, &c.

. Bertine (Cingentes). When the eyes nearly meet
both above and below the head, so as to form a
kind of belt round it. Ex. Culex pipiens, Calan-

dra Palmarum.

. Immersep (Immersi. When they are quite im-
bedded in the head. Ex. Tenebrio L.

ORISMOLOGY. 315

i. Prominent (Prominuli). When they stand out
from the head. Ex. Cicindela.

b. Corumnar (Columnares). When they sit upon à
short footstalk or pillar. Ex. Strepsiptera K.
Ephemera. PLATE XXVI. Fie. 38, 39. h.

Pepuncuxate (Pedunculati) When they sit upon

a long footstalk which also bears the antennz.
Ex. Diopsis. Puare XIII. Fic. 9.
O»zncuLATE (Operculati) When the eyes are co-
vered by an operculum. Ex, Noctua conspicil-
laris*. SCA
. CILIATE (Ciliati). When the margin of the socket
of the eye is fringed with hairs, so as to resemble
an eyelash. Ex, Apion ver nále and Malvarum.

ix. STEMMATA.

. VerticaL (Verticalia). When they are placed in
the Vertex. Ex. Reduvius personatus. PLATE
XXVI. Fic. 40. i. | |

2.. FRONTAL (Frontalia). When placed in the Frons.
Ex. Hymenoptera. PrarE VIL. Fie. 2. i

3. INTRAOCULAR (Intraocularia). When placed in the
space between the eyes. Ex, Cer copis, Ledra, &c.
Prare XXVI. Fie. 42. i.

4. SugocuLAR (Subocularia). When placed in the

space below the eyes. Ex. Fulgora Laternaria.
Puare XXVI. Fic. 41.1.
5. Spurious (Spuria). A flat subdiaphanous space

above the base of the antennse, which seems to re-
present them. Ex. Blatta, Acheta F.

* Fn. Suec. 1183. Fabricius has not admitted this moth among
his Noctua, Y know not why. —

ORISMOLOGY,

x. ANTENN.E.
à. NUMBER.

. Dicerous(Dicera). Insects that have /:vo antennz-
Ex. Insects in general.
. AcERous (Acera). Insects that have no antenne.

Ex. Acarus, &c.
b. SITUATION.

PreocuLar (Preoculares). When antennz are
inserted before the eyes. Ex. Chrysis.

. INTEROCULAR (Jnteroculares). When inserted any
where between the eyes. Ex. Leptura, Haliplus.

. INocuran (Znoculares). When inserted in the Can-

. thus of the eyes. Ex. Cerambyx L.

. SUBOCULAR (Suboculares). When inserted under
the eyes. Ex. Fulgora, Nepa. Prare XXVI.
Fic. 41. k.

. ExTrRAocULAR (Zzxtraoculares). When inserted
without the eyes. Ex. Notonecta, Delphaz.

. Rostra (Rostrales). When seated on a rostrum.
Ex. Curculio L.

SUPERIOR (Superiores). When inserted in the upper
surface of the head. Ex. Most insects.

INFERIOR (Inferiores). When inserted under the
head. Ex. Copris, &c.

C. APPROXIMATION, i

1. Distant (Distantes). When remote at their base.
Ex. Buprestis rustica.

2. APPROXIMATE (Approximate). When they ap-
proach each other at their base. Ex. Donacia,
Galeruca.

ORISMOLOGY. 317

- Contiguous (Contigue). | When they nearly or
altogether touch each other at their base. Ex.
Imatidium MacLeayanum.

. Connate (Connate). When united at their base.
Ex. Ceria. Prare XII. Fie. 13.

d. PROPORTION.

. Very Snort (Brevissime) When shorter than
the head. Ex. Musca L. :

. SuonT (Breves). When as long as the head. Ex.
Hister.

. SHORTER (Breviores). When longer than the head
and shorter than the body. Ex. Dytiscus. —

. Meprocratu (Mediocres). When of the length of the
body. Ex. Callidium violaceum.

- Loneer (Longiores). When longer than the body.
Ex. Lamia Sutor.

. Very Lowe (Longissime) When much longer
than the body. Ex. Lamia edilis.

e. DIRECTION. _

. Entire (Integre). When they have no elbow or
angle. Ex. Antenne of most Coleoptera.

. Broxen (Fracte). When the C/avola forms an
angle with the Scapus. Ex. Curculio, Apis, &c.
Prare XXV. Fro. 15. z

. GENICULATE (Geniculate) When they form an
elbow in the middle but not with the Scapus. Ex.
Meloe. Puate XII. Fie. 7.

- Srrarcut (Recte). When they are without any
angle, convolution, or curvature. PrarE XI.
Fie. 5. |

- Ponnzcr (Porrecte). When they are placed paral-

ORISMOLOGY.

lel with each other, and in the same line with the
body. Ex. Trichoptera in flight. |

. ExcunvED(Éacuroe). When they curve outwards.
. Incurvep (Incurve). When they curve inwards.

. DEcunvED (Decurve). When they curve down-
wards.

. Recurvep (Recurve). When they curve upwards.
. Rervexep (Reflexe). When they are bent back
over the body.

. DerLexep (Deffeze). When they are bent down-
wards.

. CoxvorurE (Convolutz). When they roll inwards.
PraArE XII. Fio. 6. . |

. RevoLuTE (Hevolute). When they roll outwards.
. SPIRAL (Spirales. When they are convoluted spi-
rally. Prare XXV. Fic. 31.

. Rieip (Rigide). When they are very stiff and in-
flexible. Ex. Libellulina, Fulgora: Puatre XII.
Fic. 12, 15.

f. REPOSITION.

. HippeN (Recepte). | Antennse which when the ani-
mal repose are hidden under the head or trunk.
Ex. The Lamellicorns. Elater. Belostoma.

. Exposep (Aperte). Antennz which when the ani-
mal reposes are not concealed. Ex. Cerambyz L.

g- FIGURE and SIZE. -

- SETACEOUS (Setacee). Long flexile antennæ which

taper somewhat from the base to the apex. PLATE
XI. Fie. 1.

. SETIFORM (Setiformes). Short rigid antennze which

ORISMOLOGY. 319

taper from the base to the apex like a bristle.
Prare XII Fic. 14—16.

3. Capitiary (Capillares). Antenne nearly as slender
as a hair. PLATE XI. Fie. 2

4. Fintrorm (Filiformes). Antennze every where of an
equal thickness. Prare XI. Fic. 3.

5. ‘Tuck (Crasse). Antenne: disproportionably thick.
Puare XH. Fic. 29.

- INcnassaATE (Incrassate). Antenne disproportion-.
ably thick in any part: at the base, middle, or apex. —
PLATE XXV. Fie. 34, 19, 7.

© GRADUALLY IncnassATE(Sensim Incrassate). When
they grow gradually thicker from the base to the
apex. Pirate XXV. Fic. 10.

- SUDDENLY IucnassaTE (Subito Incrassate). When
they grow suddenly thicker in any part. PLATE
XXV. Fie. 18, 19, 24.

- Broan (Late) Antenne disproportionably wide.
PrarE XXV. Fic. 24.

: DizarED (Dilatatæ). When they are dispropor-
tionably wide in any part; base, middle, or apex.
Prare XXV. Fie. 12. . Puare XII. Fre. 1, 20.

- SLENDER (Tenues) When they aredisproportion-
ably slender. Pr4rE XI. Fic. 2.

* ATTENUATE (Attenuate). Antenne disproportion-
ably slender in any part; base, middle, or apex.
PrarE XXV. Fie. 8, 21, 34.

* GRADUALLY ATTENUATE (Sensim Attenuate). When
they grow gradually more slender from the base
to the apex. Prarr XI. Fie. 7.

- SUDDENLY ÀÁTTENUATE (Subito Attenuate). When

ORISMOL OGY.

they grow suddenly slender in any part. PLAT?

XII. Fic. 1. PraATE XXV. Fro. 18, 34.

. FusrroRM (Fusiformes). Antenne thickest in the
middle and tapering more or less towards each
extremity. Prate XI. Fic. 5. PrarE XXV-
Fic. 8.

Prismatic (Prismaticales). Antenne with three
nearly equal sides. Prare XI. Fie. 6.

. Enstrorm (Ensiformes). Antennee compressed and

three-sided, with one side much narrower than

either of the others. Prate XI. Fic. 7.

. Faucrrorm (Falciformes). When the Clavola of the
Antenne grows gradually narrower towards the
apex, and is arcuate or incurved so as to resem-
ble a sickle. PraATE XI. Fic. 8.

Noposx (Nodose). When antenne have one, two» ^
or more joints larger than those which precede oF
follow them. Puare XII. Fie. 5.

MoniiirorM (Moniliformes). Antennæ consisting

_ of oval or globular joints so as to resemble a neck-
lace of beads. Prare XI. Fic. 9.

. Dentare (Dentate). Toothed with teeth whose

sides are equal. Puate XI. Fic. 10.

. SERRATE (Serrate). Toothed with teeth whose sides
are unequal like those of a saw. PrAvE XI. Fic-

oll. Prare XXV. Frc. 8.

BISERRATE (Biserrate). So toothed on each side
Prare XXV. Fie. 18. |

ĪMBRICATE (Imbricate). When the summit of each

joint is incumbent. upon the base of that which

precedes it. PrArE XI. Fie. 12. .

ORISMOLOGY. 89]

21. DisricHovs (Distiche). When the joints in ge-
neral terminate in a fork. Puare XL Fic. 13.

?2. CIRRATE (Cirrate). When the joints terminate in
&pair of curling hairy branches resembling zen-
dril. Prare XXV. Fre. 4.

23, FLABELLATE (Flabellata). When the antenne on
one side send forth from the joints, except those
at the base, long flat flexile branches, which open
and shut like the sticks of a fan. Puare XI.
Fig. 17.

24. BIFLABELLATE (Biflabellate). When they are fla-

| bellate on both sides. Prate XXV. Fic. 11.

°8. PECTINATE (Pectinate). Antennee furnished on one
side with a number of parallel stiff branches, re-
sembling somewhat the teeth of a comb. PLATE
XXV. Fic. 25. Prare XI. Fic. 14.

°6, BIPECTINATE (Bipectinate). Pectinate on both
sides. Prate XXV. Fic. 22.

7. DUPLICATO-PECTINATE (Duplicato-pectinate). Bi-

pectinate with the branches on each side alternately

long and short. Prare XI. Fic. 15. |

8. Ramose (ftamose). Antenne furnished on one

side with two or three irregular longish branches.
Puare XI. Fic. 18.

* Furcare (Furcate). Antenne divided at the end
into two prongs or branches. Pave XI. Fie. 19.
PrarE V. Fic. 8. |

BreanTrTE (Bipartite). When they are divided to
the base into two nearly equal branches. PLATE
XXV. Fic. 20.

` Paumare (Palmate). Very short antennze which

Send forth externally a few long finger-shaped
VOL, Ty, Y

822 ORISMOLOGY.

branches, giving them some resemblance of a hand.
Prare Xl. Fic. 24

32. IrREGULAR (Irregulares). When the joints of the
antennæ vary so much in size and shape that they
cannot well be defined. Prarr XI. Fic. 22.

h. TERMINATION.

&. VERSATILE ANTENNA.

1. SuBULATE (Subulatz) When they terminate in?
minute joint, much slenderer than the preceding
one. Prare XII. Fic. 16.

2. SeviaErows (Setigere). When they terminate in ?
bristle. Prats XII. Fre. 14, 15. PLATE xxv.
Fic. 29. |

3. CAPILLACEOUS (Capillacee). When they terminate
in a fine capillary joint. PrarE XII. Fie. 1.

4. Mucronate (Mucronate). When they terminal?
in a short pointor mucro. Prare XII. Fie. 2.

5. UwerwaTE (Uncinate). When their apex is in-
curved so as to form a kind of hook. PLATE xL
Fie. 3. ;

6. Uncuicurare (Unguiculate). When they term"
nate in a hard horny incurved sharp claw rese?
bling those of the tarsi of insects. PLATE xx
Fic. 16. a.

7. Cravate (Clavate). When their apex grows a
dually thicker. Prate XII. Fic. 4. PLATE xxv
Fie. 7, 14.

8. CAPITATE (Capitate). When they terminate sud-

denly in a larger knob of one or more joi p
Prare XII. Fre. 8—10, and XXV. 1—3, 5 6
a. Fisse Kunos (Capitulum fissile): When it is i

ORISMOLOGY. 328

vided into several Jamin which the insect can
open and shut. Prare XXV. Fre. 1—3, 5.

b. Tunicare Kxon (Capitulum tunicatum). When
the laminæ, at least on one side, appear to inoscu-
late or to be imbedded in each other. Pate XII.
Frc. 8. Prate XXV. Fic. 5, 6.

^ PrnroLraTE Know (Capitulum perfoliatum), When

: the joints of the knob are connected by a pedicle,

which has the appearance of passing through them.
Prats XII. Fie. 10. ;

d. Soup Knox (Capitulum solidum). When the knob
consists of a single joint, or if of more, exhibits
very faint traces of their separation. Prare XII.
Fic. 9. PrATE XXV. Fic. 33. |

^ Inriatep Kwon (Capitulum inflatum). When the
knob is disproportionably large, and looks as if
blown out. Prare XH. Fre. 28. PrATEXXV.
Fic. 9. f

Ê. INVERSATILE ANTENNA;

1. Semiagnovs (Setzgere). Antennæ fürnished' with
a terminal bristle. PrAvE XII. Fre. 14—16, 21,
22. Prare XXV. Fic. 29.

^ GronrsERovs (Globifere) When the setigerous
Joint is larger than the preceding one; and globose.
Prate XII. Fie. 12.

* ÁNGUSTATE (Angustate). When the setigerous
Joint is not conspicuously larger than the preced-
ing one. Prare XII. Fic. 14, 15.

2. ARISTATE (Aristate). Antennse terminated by a va-
riously shaped flat joint longer and usually larger
than tlie preceding one, laterally setigerous.
Puare XII. F13,-21, 29.

x2

ORISMOLOGY.

. Serarrous (Sefarie) When the awn or bristle is
naked. Prare XII. Fic. 21. a.

. PrumatE (Plumate) When the awn is feathered.
Prate XII. Fie. 22. a.

. FrnaTE (Filate). When inversatile antennae have
neither a terminal nor a lateral bristle. PLATE
XII. Fic. 17—20.

. SruPLE (Simplices). When the last joint is exarti-
culate. PrAvE XII. Fic. 17, 18, 20.

. Compounn (Composite). When the last joint is it
self obsoletely jointed. Prats XII. Fie. 19. a.

1. PUBESCENCE.

. VERTICILLATE (Verticillate). Antennee beset with
hair in whorls. Prare XII. Fro. 27.

. Prumose (Plumose). Antennæ feathered on all
sides with fine long hair. Puare XII. Fic. 24
. Crue (Ciliate). Antenne fringed with parallel
hairs on each side. Puatre XI. Fio. 16.

. Fimpriate (Fimbriate). Antenne fringed with
parallel hairs on one side.

. Barsate (Barbate). Antenne hairy on one side
Puate XII. Fie. 26.

. FascicULATE (Pasciculate). Antenne having sev@
ral bundles of hair. Prate XXV. Fic. 32.

. ScoPIFEROUS (Scopifere). When they are furnished
with one or more dense brushes of hair. PxaT®
XII. Fic. 25. a. Prate XXV. Fie. 17.

k. ARTICULATION.

. ExaxTICULATE (Ewarticulate). Without visible 8!
ticulations.

ORISMOLOGY. 325

2. BIARTICULATE (Biarticulate). Consisting of two
joints.
3. TRIARTICULATE (Triarticulate). Consisting of

three joints.
- QuapDRIARTICULATE (Quadriarticulate). Consist-
ing of four joints.
5. Mutriarticutate (Multiarticulate). Consisting
of many joints.

l JOINTS.

- CauPANULATE (Campanulate). Bell-shaped. When

the joints are obconical, with the vertex of the cone
. rounded.

- Parerirorm (Pateriformes). When the joints
are somewhat dilated and very short, shaped some-
thing like a shallow bowl.

- ParELLATE (Patellate). When the whole joint is
dilated and shaped something like a patella or
platter. Ex. Prosopis dilatata. (Melitta *. b. K.)
Prare XXV. Fie. 12. a.

- Lopate (Lobate) When they are expanded at
the tip into a lobe. Ex. Belostoma. Cerocoma,
PraArEÉ XI. Fic. 21, 22. :

- TonurosE (Torulose). When they are a little tu-
mid. l

m. APPENDAGES. *

- AURICULATE (Auriculate). When they have an

ear-like process at their base. Ex. Gyrinus. Par-

nus. Puare XII. Fic. 29. a. Prats XXV.
Fic. 28. a.

- ÁPPENDICULATE (Appendiculate). When they have

ORISMOLOGY.

one or two antenniform processes at their base

Ex. Otiocerus K. Prats XXV. Fie. 29. b.

III. TRUNK (Truncus).

1. MoNowznovs (Monomerus). When the trunk has
no suture or segment. Ex. Aranea L.

2. DIMEROUS (Dimerus). When the trunk consists of
two greater segments. Ex. Coleoptera, &c.

3. Trimerous (Trimerus) When the trunk consist
of three greater segments. Ex. Neuroptera, &c.

4. ISTHMIATE (Isthmiatus). When an isthmus is formed
between the Prothorax and Elytra, either in con-
sequence of the former being constricted behind

so as to form a neck, or the scutellum not being
interposed between the elytra at their base, or the
chief part of the mesothorax not being covered by
the prothorax. Ex. Clerus, Passalus, and Spon-
dylis.

i MANITRUNK (JMANITRUNCUS).
a. PROTHORAX.

1. CiyperrorM (Clypeiformis). When the prothora*
by its magnitude and distinct separation forms one
of the most conspicuous pieces of the upper side of
the trunk, so as nearly to represent the wholé
thorax; the mesothorax and metathorax being
mostly hidden by the elytra and other organs fo"
flight. Ex. Coleoptera, Orthoptera, &c. PLATE
VIII. Fie. 1, 10.

2. CorLrronu (Colliformis). When the prothorax is

short and narrow, and not so conspicuous as the

ORISMOLOGY. 327

other pieces of the trunk. Ex. Libdellulina.
Pirate IX. Fic. 6. |

3. CervicuLare (Cerviculatus). When the prothorax
is elongate, attenuate, and distinguished from the
Antepectus by no suture; so as to form a distinct
and usually long neck. Prate III. Fre: 6.

- EvaxzscENT (Evanescens), When no distinct pro-
thorax is discoverable or it is only represented by
membrane. Ex. Most Hymenoptera, Diptera, &c.

Marernate (Marginatus) When an impressed
line or channel separates the edge of the protho-
rax from the rest of its surface, and so forms a
margin. Ex. Harpalus Latr. &c.

- Immarcinave (Immarginatus) When it has no
such margin. Ex. Curculio L.

Expianate (Ezplanatus). When its sides are so
depressed and dilated as to form a broad margin.
Ex. Necrophorus. Silpha.

EMARGINATE (Emarginatus) When a segment of
a circle is taken out of its anterior part for the re-
ception of the head. *

Ampient (Ambiens). When this sinus is so large
as to receive the whole head. Ex. Chilocorus
Leach. !

CincuwAMBIENT (Circumambiens). When its sides
are elongated anteriorly and curve inwards, their
ends lapping over each other and the head, so as
to form a circle round the posterior part of the
latter, and leave a space open for the eyes to see
objects above them. Ex. Heleus.

Ciyprare (Clypeatus). When it quite covers and
overshadows the head. Ex. Lampyris. Cassida.
Cossyphus.

. —— ORISMOLOGY.

12. CucuLLATE (Cucullatus) When it is elevated into
a kind of ventricose cowl or hood which receives
the head. Ex. Tingis cucullatus: Prave XIU.
Fic. 18. a.

- ALATE (latus). When its sides are expanded into

a kind of wing. | Ex. Tingis cucullatus.

. AURICULATE (Auriculatus). When it expands 0?
each side into two processes resembling ears. EX
Ledra aurita.

. ANGULATE (Angulatus). When its sides or base
jut out into one or more angles. Ex. Copris.

Cructate (Cruciatus). When it has two elevated
longitudinal obtusangular lines, the angles of which
approach each other in its middle, so as nearly to
form a St. Andrew's cross. Ex. Locusta Leach
Prare XIII. Fic. 17. —

. OBvoLvine (Obvolvens). When there are neithe!
ora nor suture to separate it from the antepectus:
Ex. Stenus, Curculio L.

. PurviNATE (Pulvinatus). When in consequence
of being depressed in one place, it seems to puff
out in another. Ex. Aleochara canaliculatts
picta, &c.

. PnopucrED (Productus) When behind it termi-
nates in a long scutelliform process which covets
the Mesothorax, Metathorax, and great part of the
Abdomen. Ex. Acrydium F. | Centrotus.

b. ANTEPECTUS.

. TRACHELATE ( Trachelatum). When of itself it forms

a neck, the prothorax being represented only bY
membrane. Ex. Xiphydria.

ORISMOLOGY. 329

2. Unarmep (Jmerme). When it has no prosternum.

Ex. Curculio L.

3. Armen (Armatum). When it has a prosternum.
N.B. These two last terms may be extended also to
the Medipectus and Postpectus. And also to the
whole together. Thus, if there was no Sternum at
all, it should be called Pectus inerme; and if one
existed in all these divisions of the breast, it would
be Pectus armatum.

c. ARM (Brachium).

a CUBIT (Cubitus).

l. CLYPEATE (Clypeatus). When a concavo-convex
plate is affixed to the outside of the cubit. Ex. Cra-
bro clypeatus, scutatus, &c. d. Pirate XV. Fic.
3. a.

2. PALMATE (Palmatus). | When towards the apex the -
cubit is armed laterally with several divaricate

Spiniform teeth. Ex. Scarites, Clivina. PLATE
XV. Fic. 5.

3. DrarrATE (Digitatus). When the apex of the cu-
bit is divided into several long teeth or fingers.
Ex. Gryllotalpa. Prare XV. Fic. 6.

*. DoransnaTE (Dolabratus). When the apex of the
cubit is dilated and shaped something like the
head of a hatchet. PrarE XV. Fie. 4.

f. HAND (Manus).

l. Pareiiate (Patellata) When several joints of the.
hand are dilated so as to form an orbicular patella
furnished underneath either with suckers, or a
dense brush of hairs. Ex. Dytiscus$. — Staphyli-
nus. PrATE XV. Fic. 9.

330 ORISMOLOGY.

2. ScuravE (Scutata) When a single joint of the
hand is dilated into a broad scutiform plate. Ex-
Hydrophilus piceus$. Prare XV. Fie. 8.

3. STRIGILATE (Strigilata). When on the inner side
of the first joint of the hand or palm the segment
of a circle is taken out at the base opposite to the
spur, the sinus being often pectinated with spines:
Ex. Apis*. Prare XXVII. Fie. 36. a.

4. AURICULATE (Auriculata).. When any of the joints
are externally dilated into an auriform process.
Ex. Gryllotalpa. Prare XV. Fic. 6. 7".

ii ALITRUNK (AZLITARUNCUS).

1. Burien (Sepultus). When its upper surface is wholly
or nearly covered and hidden by the thorax, elytra
or other organs of flight». Ex. Coleoptera, Ortho-
ptera.

2. REVEALED (Revelatus). When it is not so covered,
but is equally conspicuous with the Prothorax, ot
even more so. Ex. Neuroptera, Hymenoptera,
Diptera. Atractocerus in Coleoptera.

3. CoanrrE (Coalitus). When it is not separable into
two segments, the Medzpectus and the Postpectus
forming one piece. Ex. Czmez L.

4. Bisrcrep (Bzsectus), When it is separable into

two segments. Ex. Lamellicorn beetles.

8. MESOTHORAX.

&. COLLAR (Collare).

D

1, UxcovERED (pertum). When it is not concealed

^ Monogr. Ap, Angl. i. 97. t. xii. Apis. **. e. 1. Neut. f. 21. d.

> This term may be applied to the Mesothorax in heteropterous
Hemiptera, in which that part lies buried under the Prothora**
Puare VIII. Fic. 20. i, k.

ORISMOLOGY. 331

by the shield of the prothorax. Ex. Hymeno-
ptera.

2. Coveren (Tectum). When it is quite concealed by
the prothorax.

9. AnEaTE (Areatum). When it is larger than the
prothorax, and terminates towards the wings in
two oblique areas, inclosed by a ridge often crown-
ed anteriorly with little teeth. Ex. Libellulina.
Pirate IX. Fie. 7. g, a. N.B. The space between
these areas is fitted with a membrane capable of ten-
sion and relaxation, which in flight causes them to
approach to and recede from each other.

AwPLECTENT (Amplectens). When posteriorly it is
so curved as to form a large sinus which embraces
the Dorsolum. Ex. Vespa L. Prare IX. Fic.
Igi

Puonetic (Phoneticum). When its posterior an-
gles, approaching the wings, cover the vocal spira-
cles*. Ex. Hymenoptera.

f. DORSOLUM.

TuonacrronM (Thoraciforme). | When it forms the
principal part of the upper surface of the trunk.
Ex. Bombus, Apis, Vespa L., &c. Prate IX.
Fic. 11. 7.

y. SCUTELLUM.

1. Disrixcr (Distinctum). When it is separated from
the dorsolum by a suture. Ex. Hymenoptera,
Diptera. Prate IX. Fic. 11, 19, &e. X.

2. Coatrre (Coalitum). When it is not separated

* Chabrier Sur le Vol des Insectes. Mem. du Mus. t. viii. 55.

ORISMOLOGY.

from the Dorsolum by a suture. Ex. Coleoptera,
&c. Prare VIII. Fie. 3. X.

. ScUTELLATE (Znsectum scutellatum). An insect hav-
ing a visible Scutellum. Ex. Melolontha.

REJECTED (Rejectum). When, though visible, it
does not intervene between the elytra at their base
Ex. Passalus.

REcErvED (Receptum). When it intervenes between
the elytra at their base. Ex. Most scutellate Co-
leoptera.

. ExscuTELLATE (Insectum exscutellatum). When an
insect has no visible scutellum, it being wholly co-
vered by the Prothorax. Ex. Copris.

. AscENDING (Ascendens) When it curves upwards
from the dorsolum. Ex. Sagra.

. TABULAR (Tabulare). When it is elevated on 2
footstalk above the dorsolum, and forms a tabular
or flat surface. Ex. Elater.

. OpumBRANT (Obumbrans). When it overhangs the
metathorax. Ex. Musca. Puare IX. Fie. 19. A"

9. BASE-COVERS (Tegule).

. Coxcmironw (Conchiformes). When they are a s€-
micircular concavo-convex scale som ething resem-
bling the valve of a bivalve shell. Ex. Hymeno-
piera. Puate IX. Fic. 11, 12. g".

. Lacintrorm (Laciniformes). When they are long
of an irregular shape, and appear like lappets o"
each side of the trunk. Ex. Lithosia, &c. PLATE
IX. Fic. 5.*

* In many moths, particularly Arctia ocularia, and affinities, the

insect looks as if its neck was ornamented with a beautiful tippet
formed by the Patagia, and its shoulders by these /appets.

ORISMOLOGY.

£. ELYTRA.

Bass (Basis). The part next the Prothoraz.
- Apex (Apex). The part next the Anus.

Humerar ANGLE (Angulus Humeralis). The exte-
rior basal angle. .

- SCUTELLAR ANGLE (Angulus Scutellaris). The in-
terior basal angle.

CorroPrnaA (Coleoptra). The two elytra spoken of
together.

Sprnicrrous (Spinigera) When the Coleoptra
have a spine common to them both. Ex. Cassida
bidens.

T. AunicULATE (Auriculata). When the Elytra have
an elongate process at the shoulders. Ex. Cassida
bicornis, Taurus, &c.

8. Entire (Integra’. When they have neither abbre-
viations nor incisions.

9. FasrrG1ATE (Fastigiata) When of equal or greater
length than the abdomen, and transverse at the end.

10. Truncate (Truncata) When they are shorter
than the abdomen and transverse at the end.

l1. ABBREVIATE (Abbreviata). When they are shorter
than the abdomen, but cover more than half its
length. Puare I. Fic. 4.

12. DiuipiaTE (Dimidiata). When they are about
half the length of the abdomen. Prare I. Fie. 5.

13. Very Snort (Brevissima). When they are not
half the length of the abdomen. Puare I. Fie.
2, 3, 7.

14. MUTILATE (Mutilata) When they appear unna-
turally short or curtailed as if mutilated. Ex.
Acrydium F.

334 i ORISMOLOGY.

15. SuBULATE (Subulata) When they are attenuated
towards the end. Ex. Sitaris humeralis Latr.

16. ErowcATE (Elongata) When they extend beyond
the anus. Ex. Trox.

17. OBvoLVING (Obvolventia). When their Epipleur@é
cover a considerable portion. of the sides of the
alitrunk. Puare XXVIII. Fie. 7.

18. CowrricANT (Complicantia). When they lie a little
over each other. Ex. Meloe. PrarE I. Fic. 6.

/19. DzniscENT (Dehiscentia). When they diverge 8
little at the apex. Ex. Pyrochroa.

20. AMPLIATE (Ampliata). When they are dispropor-
tionably wide at the end. Ex. Lycus fasciatus.
Prare XIII. Fie. 20.

. PricaTE (Plicata). When they have two or three
contiguous abbreviated furrows which exhibit the
appearance of folds. Ex. Pselaphide.

» Perrorate (Perforata) When a little hole ap-
pears drilled through them. Ex. Cassida perfo-
rata.

N.B. Many of the above terms will apply to Tegmina,
Hemelytra, Wings, &c.

A * Side-covers (Epipleure).

1. MARGINAL (Marginales) When they are only an
inflexed continuation of the margin. Ex. Bü-
prestis. a 3

2. Discorpar (Discoidales). When they are a pro-
cess from the disk of the under surface of the ely-
tra. Ex. Lampyris, Cossyphus, Cassida, Notoclea?-

* Neither Chrysomela nor Imatidium have a discoidal Epipleura +
which furnishes a further proof that Notoclea is distinct from Chry-
somela, and Imatidium from Cassida.

ORISMOLOGY.

Č. TEGMINA.

FENEsTRELLA (Fenestrella). A transparent eye-like
spot in the Anal Area of the Tegmina of Acrida
K. d *.

Coxvonvaxr (Convolventia). When the Anal Area
is horizontal, incumbent on the back of the insect,

and forms a right angle with the rest of the tegmen,
which is vertical and covers the sides. Ex. Lo-
custa Leach. N.B. In this case the Anal Area of
one 'Tegmen covers that of the other.

ArironM (Aliformia). When their substance ap-
proaches to membrane, and they nearly resemble
Wings. Ex. Most Homopterous Hemiptera.

ne HEMELYTRA.

OsrrcrED (Obtecta). When the Hemelytra are
covered by a scutelliform mesothorax. Ex. Scu-
tellera.

Derectep (Detecta) When they are not so co-

_vered. Ex. Most Heteropterous Hemiptera.

8. wines (Ale). |
` A. Denomination.

- ANTERIOR (Antica). The fore or upper wings.

a. Superior (Superiores). The anterior wings are so
denominated if when at rest they are placed upon
the posterior wings. Ex. Hymenoptera.

Primary (Primores). The anterior wings are so

* For the reason of this change of the name of Locusta F., see
Zool, Journ, N° iv.
An Acrida with this spot is. figured by Professer Lichtenstein.
inn. Trans. iv. t. v. A.

;:ORISMOLOGY.

denominated if when at rest they are nof placed
upon the posterior. Ex. Lepidoptera diurna
Libellulina.

2. PosrER10R (Postice). The hind or lower wings.

a. INFERIOR (Inferiores). The posterior wings-are SO
denominated if the anterior wings, when at rest,
are placed upon them.

b. SECONDARY (Secundarie). ‘The posterior wings are
so denominated if the superior wings, when at rest;
are not placed upon them.

B. Magnitude.

3. Eovarn (ZEquales) When the four wings are of
equal length. Ex. Libellulina.

4. UNEQUAL (Inequales). When they are not of equal
length. Ex. Hymenoptera.

C. Complication.

. Prane (Plane). Flat wings, that are neither plica-
tile nor tumid. Ex. Apis.

. Tumrp (Tumide). When the membrane between
the nervures that form an areolet is bigger than
the areolet, which gives it convexity. Ex. Ten-
thredo L. N.B. The object of this structure is to |
expose a larger surface to the action of the air.

. PrrcaTILE (Plicatiles). When the wings at rest are
folded in one or more longitudinal plaits. Ex.
Vespa L.

3. DUPLICATILE (Duplicate). When they are folded
transversely. Ex. Coleoptera.

. CosvorvrE (Convolute). When the wings so en-
velope the body as to give it a cylindrical form.
Ex. Crambus.

Ld

ORISMOLOGY. 337

10. INCUMBENT (Incumbentes). Wings which when at

rest cover the back of the insect. Ex. Noctua.
- Geometra. :

CRUCIATO-COMPLICATE ( Cructato-complicate ).
Wings crossed and folded. Ex. Pentatoma, &c.
CnUcIATO-INCUMBENT ( Cruciato-incumbentes ).
Wings crossed but not folded, and covering the

back. Ex. Apis.

EXTENDED (Extense). Wings that when at rest do
not lie upon the body. Ex. Libelula, ZEshna, &c.

Expanpep (Patentes). Wings that when at rest are

horizontally extended and do not cover each other.
Ex. Libellula, &c.

HORIZONTAL, (Horizontales) Very narrow wings
which when at rest are extended horizontally form-
ing a right angle with the body, and covering the
posterior wings. Ex. Prerodactylus*.

Erecr (Lirecte). Wings which when at rest are
extended vertically. Ex. Vanessa. Agrion.

ERECTO-PATENT (Erecto-patentes). When the pri-
mary wings at rest are erect and the secondary

horizontal. Ex. Hesperia. | ;
Connivenr (Conniventes). When erect wings are
So closely applied to each other that the corre-
sponding margins touch. Ex. Vanessa.
DivanicATE (Divaricate). When wings at rest are
somewhat erect but diverge from each other.
PATÜLOUS (Patule). When wings at rest partly
cover each other.
APPLICANT (Applicantes). When wings at rest are
parallel with the abdomen. Ex. Tipula.
* Reaum. i. 7. xx. f. 12—15,

Vo 5
L. Iv a VA

338 ORISMOLOGY.,

16. DiverGent (Divergentes), When wings at rest re
-cede from the abdomen. a0

17. DEFLEXED (Deflere). When wings at rest cover"

| ing each other are so bent downwards as to im.
tate a roof, of which their interior margin forms
the ridge. Ex. Homopterous Hemiptera.

18. Reversep (Reverse). When wings at rest. are de-
flexed, but so that the anterior margin of the infe-
rior projects beyond the anterior margin of the
superior. Ex. Gatrophaca quercifolia. PrATP
XIV. Fie. 2. b.

Broan (Late). When the interior margin is short?
than the posterior. Ex. Papzlio.

. Narrow (Angustæ). When the posterior marg

is shorter than the interior. Ex. Heliconius.

D. Shape.
. FarcaTE (Falcate). Wings having their posterior

margin concave, and the posterior angle acute anc -
curved. Ex. Attacus Atlas. Prare XIV. Fie ^

. DrerravE (Digitate). Wings cleft to the base ipte
several subdivisions. Ex. Pterodactylus. Prat”
XIV. Fie. 3.

. Rapius (Radius). A single subdivision of a digital
wing.

. CAUDATE (Caudate). When wings terminate in?
tail-like process. Ex. Papilio Machaon. Prat?
XIV. Fie. 1. s. ;

. BicaupaTE (Bicaudate). Having two such tails
Tricaudate, having three, &c.

E. Surface.
. SovAMATE (Squamate). Wings covered wit

p mi

ORISMOLOGY. 339

nute seales. Ex. Lepidoptera Piare XXII.
Fic. 16. a, b, c, d, &c. . |
2. Denupars (Denudate). When the wings of Le-
pidoptera appear more or less as if the scales had
been rubbed off, either partially or generally. Ex.
Heliconius, Sesia, aygena, Nudaria. |
' FENEsTRATE (Lenestrate). "When one or two de-
finite spaces in a Lepidopterous wing are denuded
of scales. Ex. Attacus Atlas, &c. a
Barz (Nude). When wings have neither percep-
tible hairs nor scales. Ex. Coleoptera.

; F; Margin.

ANTERIOR or Exrrrior (Anterior or Exterior).
The outer margin of the wing, or that from the
body. Prare XIV. Fic. 1) a.

INTERIOR (Interior). Theinner margin of the wing,
or that next the body. Pratre XIV. Fre. 1. b.
PosrERi0R (Posterior). -The terminal margin of

the wing; or apex. Piare XIV. Fie. l.c.

Precrrum (Plectrum): A marginal bristle stronger
than the rest, observable about the middle of the
costa and standing out from it. Ex. Many Mus-
cide.

G. Angles.
1. Humerar (Humeralis). Basal angle next the head.
PravE XIV. Fic. 1. d.
2. ScUTELLAR (Scutellaris). Basal angle next the scu-
tellum or its region. Piate XIV. Fic. T. e.
3. Posrrrtor (Posterior). Outer apical angle. PLATE
XIV. Fie. 1. £

340 ORISMOLOGY.

4. ANAL (Analis). Inner apical angle. PLATE XIV;
Fic. 1. g.

H. Nervures.

1. NERVULET (Nervulus). A little nervure diverging
obliquely from the costal into the disk of the wing
towards the apex.

SIMPLE (Simpler). When the nervulet does not
terminate in a round punctum. Ex. Eulopht
Geoffr.

ConoxATE (Coronatum). When it terminates in ê
round punctum. Ex. Ichneumon penetrans K.*
Neurost (Neurose). ` Wings that have nervurés

besides the marginal ones.

Anrurose (Aneurose). Wings that have no ne
vures besides the marginal ones. Ex. Pszlus.

CincuMsEPTED (Circumsepte). Wings whose mat
gin is every where strengthened by a nervure
Ex. Tabanus.

Varicose (Varicose). When the nervures are dis
proportionably swelled in any part. Ex. For
cula auricularia. Puare X. Fie. 5.

SERPENTINE (Serpentine). Nervures that run in?
serpentine direction. Ex. Dynastes Aloeus. Prat?
X. Fie. 4.

7. Insutate (Insulate). Discoidal nervures that are
entirely unconnected with any others, or with the
base of the wing. Ex. Dynastes Aloeus. prat?
X. Fie. 4, a,-b.

are

* Linn. Trans. v. t. iv. f. 10, 11. From my specimens, which
not in a very good state, [ cannot ascertain whether this belong? p
any of the modern genera into which the Zchneumones mimm
Linné are now divided.

ORISMOLOGY. 341

8. Uncinare (Uncinatz). Nervures, that after run-
ning from the base towards the apex, turn back,
and running a little towards the base, form a hook.
Ex. Dynastes Aloeus. Puare X. Fic. 4. i.

Recurrent (Recurrentes). When a nervure, or a
branch of it, after running towards the apex of the
wing, turns back and runs towards the base. Ex.
Dynastes Aloeus, &c. Prare X. Fic. 4. T.

10. CONNECTING (Connectentes). | Nervures that run-
ning transversely or obliquely connect the longi-
tudinal ones, and so form the areolets.

4. Areolets.

RanraTED (Hadiate). When the areolets are chiefly
formed by radiating longitudinal nervures. Ex.
Forficula: Psychoda Latr. PraATE X. Fic. 5, 13.

AnEATE (Areata). Radiated with a large basal
area, Ex. Papilio and many other Lepidoptera*.
Puate X. Fic. 6. |

ÅREOLATE (Areolate). When the surface of the
wing is divided into various areolets. Ex. Diptera,
Hymenoptera, and most Neuroptera. PLATE X.
Fic. 7—14.

RrTICULATE (Reticulate). When the areolets are
extremely small and infinitely numerous. Ex. Li-
bellulina. Puare Il. Fic. 5.

Orren (Aperte). Areolets that terminate in the
margin of the wing, or that are not surrounded on
all sides by nervures. |

Manerat (Marginales). Open areolets that ter-

* Jones. Linn. Trans. ii. t. viii. £ 1, 3—6, 8.

342 ORISMOLOGY.

minate in the margin. Ex. Tenthredo. Prate X-
Fie. 8. :

b. INCOMPLETE (Incomplete). Open areolets that ter-
minate short of the margin. Ex. Apis.

6. RaprawT (Zadians). When a small roundish areo-

‘let is a centre from which several long ones di-
verge. Ex. Straiyomis. PraTE X. Fie. 15.

7. PETIOLATE. (JPet2olate). When an areolet is con-
nected with another by a stem like a footstalk*
PrarE X. Fro. 8.

8. RAwvLosE (Ramulose). When an areolet sends
forth a little unconnected branch. Ex. Pompilus
Sphex, &c.^

9. ANGULAR (Angulate). When an areolet juts out,
on one side into an angle from which no nervure
proceeds, to form another areolet. “Ex. Elophilus
Latr. Cerceris Latr.^ Puare X. Fic. 14. :

10, Dipymous (Didyme). When areolets are nearly
divided into two by a nervure. Ex. Cyclo
stoma K. i

11. SESQUIALTEROUS. (Sesquialtere). When a minute
areolet is appended to a large one. Ex, Postcos
tal areolet of Hylotoma Latr.4

: : Areolets of the Costal Area.

1. Costa. (Costales) ^ Areolets, one or more, below
the stigma. PrAvE X. Fic. 14, 15. a, b.

2. PosrcosrTAL (Posteostales), ^ Areolets, one or more
above the stigma. PLATE X. Fre. 8, 9. a, b.

^ Jurine Hymenopt. t. i. f. 3. b. b Ibid.t.ii, Gen. 4, 9
* Ibid. t. x. Gen, 28, 24. * Jbid. t. vi, Gen. 2.

ORISMOLOGY. 343

** Areolets of the Intermediate Area.

Pnorowzsar (Protomes). First series of the mid-
dle areolets (Areole medic), often consisting of
three, and then divided into upper, middle, and
lower areolets. PLATE X. Fie. 8, 9.2.

DzvrrnowxsaL (Deuteromese). Second series of
the same, often consisting of two, and then divided-
into upper and lower. Ibid. b.

TriromeEsat (Tritomese). Third seriés of the same.
Ibid. c.

. K. Stigma.

Bunp (Caecum). When the stigma is wholly opaque,
and neither begins nor terminates in a minute
areolet. Ex. Most Hymenoptera.

Fenestrate (Jenestratum). When the stigma be-
gins or terminates in a minute areolet. Prats X.

Fic. 11. m"!

^E. Number.
APTEROUS (Aptera). Having no wings.
Diprerous (Diptera). Having two wings. |
Terraprerous (Tetraptera). Having four wings.

i LEGS (Pedes).

A. Number.
Terrapop (Tetrapus). An insect having only four
perfect legs. Ex. Vanessa.
Hexaprop (JJexapus) An insect having six legs.
Ex. Insects Proper in general,
Ocropop (Octopus). Having eight legs. . Ex. Ara-
neide.

ORISMOLOGY.

. Porypop (Polypus). Having more than eight legs
but under fifty. Ex. Glomeris. Scutigera.

. CENTIPEDE (Centipes). Having more than fifty legs
but under two hundred. | Ex. Scolopendra.

. Myriapop (Myriapus). Having two hundred legs
or more. Ex. Tulus.

B. Situation.

. ANTEPECTORAL (Antepectorales). The forelegs, OF
arms, affixed to the Antepectus. :

. MepipecroraL (Medipectorales). The mid-leg$
affixed to the Medipectus.

. PosrPECTORAL (Postpectorales). The hind-legs, af-
fixed to the Poszpectus.

Distant (Distantes). When the pairs of legs are
remote from each other at their base. Ex. Inter-
mediate legs of Copris Geoffr.

^ APPROXIMATE (Approximati). When they are near
each other at the base. Ex. Posterior legs of Co-
pris Geoffr.
. EouipnisrANT (ZEquidistantes).. When all the three
| pair are equally distant at the base. Ex. Cassida

C. Duration.

. Persistent (Persistentes). Legs which the insect
has in all its states. Ex. The legs attached to thé
trunk. N.B. These are called Legs (Pedes)
Prare XVIII. Fic. 11. a.

2. Dscipvous (Decidui). Legs which the insect has
not in all its states. Ex. Membranous legs of C
terpillars. Prate XVIII. Fic. 11.5. N.B. hes?
are called Prolegs (Propedes).

ORISMOLOGY. $45

- Acguirep (Acquisiti). Legs which the insect has
not in its first state, but which it acquires 'subse-
quently. Ex. Abdominal legs in Scolopendra, Iu-
lus, &c. :

D. Denomination.

- Fonr-rEGs (Antici). The first pair. Taken by

themselves called Arms (Brachia).

* ANTERIOR (Anteriores). The two first pair of legs.

- Mip-LEees (Intermedii). The middle pair of legs.

- Hiwp-rEcs (Postici). The last pair of legs.

- Posterior (Posteriores). ‘The two last pair of legs.

- AaBnEVIATE (Abbreviati). Legs with an imperfect

tarsus. Ex. Vanessa. |

- AuBULATORY (Ambalatorii). When the tarsi have
a spongy sole. Ex. Chrysomela L., Curculio L.

Cursoriovs (Cursoriz). When the fore tarsi of some
males excepted, they have not a spongy sole. Ex.
Carabus L., Cicindela L. Prare XIV. Fie. 7.

- SALTATORIOUS (Saltatorii) When the hind legs

have strong incrassated thighs formed for leaping.

Ex. Haltica, Orchestes, the Grylline. PLATE

XIV. Fic. 5.

* Naratorious (Natatorii). When the legs are com-
pressed or ciliated, and formed for swimming. Ex.
Dytiscus, Gyrinus, Notonecta. PLATE XIV. Fra. 6.

Moraroxiovs (Motatorii). Legs, which when the
insect is at rest, are in a perpetual vibrator y mo-
tion. Ex. Tipula Latr.

* Fossomrovs (Fossorit). Leg with either palmate or

digitate tibie. Ex. Scarites, Clivina, Gryllotalpa.

Prare XV. Fie. 5, 6.

* Rarronious (Raptorii). When the strong por-

ORISMOLOGY.

rected thighs, usually of the fore-leg, have a chan-
nel for the reception of the tibize, which are in-
flexed, and both others armed with a double series
ofspurs. Ex. Mantis, Nepa.

14, PrenENsonrius (Prehensorii). When the thighs of
the hind-legs converge and the tibiae diverge so 85
to form an angle which is armed with spines. Ek.

Gonyleptes K. Prats XIV. Fra. 83.

E. Hip (Cova).

1. Frxep (Five). When they are not moveable. Ex.
Dytiscus, Gonyleptes.

2. Fret (Libere) When they are moveable. Ex.
Hymenoptera, most Coleoptera.

3. Laminate (Laminate). When the posterior cox®
form a broad thin plate which covers the trochanter
and the base of the thighs. Ex. Haliplus. PLATE
XV. Fre. 1. p". |

4. FxoccvLATE (Flocculate). When the posterior
coxe are distinguished by a curling lock of hair
(Flocculus) Ex. Andrena Latr.”

F., Trochanter (Trochanter). i

1. FurcRANT (Fulcrans). When the trochanter merely
props the thigh below at the base, but does not
at all intervene between it and the coxa. Ex. Ca-
rabus L. | :

2. INrERCEPTING (Intercipiens). When the trochanter
intervenes between the thigh and the coxa, so 85
entirely to separate them. Ex. Scarabeus L., Cur-

_ culio L., Hymenoptera. ;

* See Kirby in Linn. Trans. xii. 450—. t. xxii. f. 16.
^ Mon, Ap. Angl. i. t, iv, Melitta **. c. f. 10. a.

ORISMOLOGY. 347

- Moyomerous (Monomerus). When it consists of
only one joint. Ex. Coleoptera, &c.

- Dimerovus (Dimerus). "When it consists of tiwo
joints. Ex. Ichneumon.

G. Thigh (Femur).

SIMPLE (Simplex). When it is no where particu-
larly thick. i

- IxcnassaTE (Incrassatum), When it is very thick,
either partially or generally, and formed for leap-
ing. £x. Haltica, &c.

- Loricate (Loricatum). When the disk of the thigh
appears covered with a double series of oblique
scales like a coat of mail. Ex. Locusta. PLATE

XIV. Fic. 5.

H. Shank (Tibia).

- ALATE (Alata). When the posterior tibia on each
side is furnished with a dilated process which pro-
bably assists it in flight. Ex. Lygeus phyllopus,
ioo Dias No equ us

- FonracEous (Foliacea). | When the tibia is late-
rally dilated into a thin plate for carrying pollen.
Ex. Euglossa cordata, &c.

- ConaicuLATE (Corbiculata) When it is fringed
with incurved hairs calculated for carrying knead-
ed pollen. Ex. Apis, Bombus?.

- Scopare (Scopata). When it is is quite covered
with a brush of hairs with which it brushes off the

* Mon, Ap. Angl. i. t, m 19. a, 6.

ORISMOLOGY.

gross pollen, and in which it carries it. Ex. Ane
drena Latr.?

5. CALCARATE (Calcarata). When it is armed with
one or more spurs (Calcaria). Ex. The majority
of insects.

6. ExcaLcaRATE (Ezcalcarata). When it has no such
spurs. Ex. Apion.

I. Foot (Tarsus).

1. ScoPUrLATE (Scopulatus). When the first joint on
the under side is covered with a dense brush of

rigid hairs. Ex. Apis, Andrena, &c.°

b. METATHORAX.

1, SIMULANT (Simulans) When the mesothorax is
covered by theprothorax, and the Metathoraz only
is visible, under the form of an elongated or en-
larged scutellum. Ex. Cimex L. Prare XXVII
Fic. 12.

&. POSTDORSOLUM.
^1. Lavewr (Latens) When it is covered by the me-
sothorax; it is then usually a mere membrane:
Ex. Most Coleoptera.

2. ExPosED (Apertus). When it is nof so coveréd-

Ex. Atractocerus, Hymenoptera, &c.

B. POSTSCUTELLUM,
1. Distinct (Distinctum). When the postscutellum is
distinct from the postdorsolum. Ex. Locusta Leach
Prate VIII. Fre. 12. a.

* Mon. Ap. Angl. t. iv. **. c. f. 14*. a. f. 12.
> Ibid. t. xii. f. 20.

ORISMOLOGY.

Coarite (Coalitum). When it is not distinct.
Blatta.

ScurELLIFORM (Scutelliforme). When it is a trian-
gular elevated prominence resembling a scutellum.
Ex. Locusta Leach.

CaxaLrFoRM (Canaliforme). “When it is a deepish
elongate channel running from the postdorsolum
to the abdomen. Ex. Coleoptera. Prate VIII.
Fig. 3. v. XXVIII. Fic. 10. v.

OBLITERATE (Obliteratum). When this channel is
nearly or altogether obliterated. Ex. Hlymeno-
ptera.

y. POSTFRENUM.

l. TABULATE (Tabulatum).. When it forms a broad
pannel or table on each side the postscutellum.
Ex. Most Coleoptera.

FuxicuLATE (Funiculatum). When it forms a nar-
row ridge. Ex. Pentatoma, Fulgora, Libellulina. -
Pirate XXVIII. Fie. 11, 12. v.

3. CnucramE (Cruciatum). When there are two funi-
cular ridges diverging on each side, which inclos-
ing a pannel form together a St. Andrew's cross,
and are connected with the base of the wings.
Ex. Libellulina?. Puate IX. Fic. 7. v. -

4. ADNATE (Adnatum). When a funicular Postfre-
num is closely adjacent to the sides of the meta-
thorax till it nearly reaches the wings. Ex. Pen-
tatoma. Puare XXVIII. Fia. 12. v.

5. Transcurrent (Transcurrens). When a postfræ-

* Chabrier Sur le Vol des Insectes. Ann. du Mus. xiv. t. viii. f. 1.
UM i

ORISMOLOGY,.

num is at first adnate to the sides of the postsct-
tellum, and then diverges across the pannel to the
base of the wings. Ex: Belostoma Gigas.

IV. ABDOMEN.

- Coatrre (Coalitum). When the abdomen is not
divided into segments. Ex. draneide, Chelonus.

- PricarE (Plicatum). When it consists of transverse
folds. Ex. Gonyleptes. The Cancriform Spiders.
Puare XV. Fre. 11.

- Tense (Tensum). When it is not folded. Ex.
Most Araneida.

- INsEcrED (Sectwm). When it is divided into seg-
ments. Ex. Most insects.

- SESSILE (Sessile). ‘When it has no footstalk, but is
closely united to the trunk. Ex. Coleoptera.

. PETIOLATE (Petiolatum). When the first segment,
or more, is longer and much narrower than the
subsequent ones, so as to form a footstalk. Ex-
The Sphecide. Ichneumon.

+ ADJOINED (Adjunctum). When it is connected with
the trunk by a very short petiole. Ex. P espa Le
Apis L.

. SUPERIMPOSITED (Superimpositum). When the foot-
stalk of the abdomen is inserted in the upper part
of the postscutellum, so as to leave a considerable
space between it and the postpectus. Ex. Evania.
Prare IV. Fro. 2.

. Rerracren (Retractum). When it is nearly with-
drawn within the trunk. Ex. Gonyleptes. PLATE
XV. Fra. 11. |

ORISMOLOGY. 351

8. OBUMBRATE (Obumbratum). When it is oversha-
dowed by the trunk'and concealed under it; Ex.
The Cancriform Spiders. Puare XV. Fie. 10.

9. SaprATORIOUS (Saltatorium). | When the ventral

segments or the anus are furnished with elastic

processes which enable the animal to leap, Ex.
Machilis; Podura. Puate XV. Fic; 14.

10. NarATORIOUS (Natatorium). When the abdomen is
terminated by flat foliaceous appendages, or the
tail is ciliated on each side with dense parallel
hairs, which assist the insect in swimming. Ex.
Larva of Agrion, and Dytiscus.

i, CAUDA.

- 1. Unernare (Uncinata). When the tail is inflected
so as to form a kind of hook. Ex. Dolichopus d.

2. Apuncous (Adunca). When it is crooked. Ex.
Chelostoma mazillosa d. (Apis **. c. 2. y. K.).

3. Distincr (Distincta). When it is distinct from the
abdomen. Ex. Scorpio. 7

4. CHELIFEROUS (Chelifera). When it is terminated
by a very thick forceps somewhat resembling a
lobster's claw. Ex. Panorpad. Pr4rE XV. Fic.
12.

5. PAPILLIFEROUS (Papillifera). When at the last
segment but one the tail exerts two soft fleshy or-
gans, which secrete a milky fluid and yield a power-
ful scent. Ex. Staphylinus.

ii. OVIPOSITOR.

1. Ensate (Ensatus). When it is long, compressed,
and shaped like a sword. Ex. Acrida K.

352 : ORISMOLOGY.

2. NavicuLar (Navicularis). When it is shaped like
a boat. Ex. Tettigonia F., Scaphura K.

3. 'TELEScoPIFoRM (Telescopiformis). When it con-
sists of several tubes retractile within each other
like the pieces of a telescope. Prare XVI. Fie.
2, 8. ;

4, AcuLerrorm (Aculeiformis). The ovipositors of
Hymenopterous insects, which consist of the same
parts, with the exception of the poison-bag (Jote-
rium), whether used as weapons or merely in ovi-
position. a

. Exertep (Ezertus). When the vagina unemployed
is partly out of the body. Ex. Cleptes.

. ExrRicATED (Eztricatus), When the valves and
vagina unemployed are wholly out of the body.
Ex. Pimpla. Prare XVI. Fie. 1.

. RenzxED (Hefferus). When the ovipositor is turned
up and lies upon the back of the abdomen. Ex.
Leucospis.

APPENDIX.

TrERMs particularly applicable to Larvæ and PupÆ-

LARVÆ.

1. SPINNERET (Fusulus) The organ which spins the
silk. Prare XXI. Fic. 9.

2. FoncrPATE Lip (Labium Forcipatum) Mask of
larvee and pupæ of Libellulina*. Puare XVI-
Fic, 5. a.

* Vor, TII. p. 125—.

ORISMOLOGY. 53

3. Uneurrorm MaxpinLEs (Mandibule unguiformes).
The parallel claw-shaped mandibles of many Di-
Pplera. PraATE XX. Fie. 1, 2. c.

* Prop (Ereisma). A bipartite retractile glutinous or-
gan exerted from between the legs of the genus
Sminthurus Latr., and employed by the animal
to support itself when its legs fail it,

` Fecrrorx (Fecifurca). The anal fork on which
the larva of Casside, &c. carry their feces. PLATE
XVIII. Fie. 2. a. in

» Masricia (Mastigia). Two anal organs in the

— larvæ of Cerura Vinula, exerting from their apex
a retractile flexible thread, with which they en-
deavour, by lashing their sides, to drive away the
Ichneumons. Puare XIX. Fic. 2. a.

» SYRINGES (Syringia). Organs situated in various
parts of larvee, from which they ejaculate a watery
fluid to annoy or drive away their enemies^.

* RuwurEs (fumule). Teat-like fleshy protube-

_Tances observable on the bodies of various larvæ °.
` ArrıpucTs (Aériductus). Respiratory organs often
foliaceous, with which the sides of the abdomen,

8

the tail, and sometimes the trunk of aquatic larvae
and pupse are often furnished. PraArE XXIX.
Fic, 5—7.

' PRorgas (Propedes). Fleshy exarticulate pediform
Often retractile organs, which assist various larvae
in walking and other motions, but which disap-
bear in the perfect insect. Prare XVIII. Fre.
11, 12. b.

È De Geer vii, 38—. t. iii. f. 10. rr. * Vor. II. p. 251—,

` e Geer ii. 507. ¢. xi. f. 16. m. n.
OL, Iy. -E es

354

ORISMOLOGY,

a. Coronate Pnorres (Propedes coronati). Prolegs

that have an entire coronet of crotchets. PLATE

XXIII. Fio. 1.

. SEMICORONATE Pnorras (Propedes semicoronatt)-

Prolegs that have a semicoronet of crotchets.

- Unarmep (Jnermes). Prolegs that havé no crotchets:
. Stitt Protees (Propedes grabati). Prolegs that

are unnaturally long, and elevate the animal.

Pirate XXIII. Fie. 7. a.

. Coarrrg Stitt Pnorzas (Propedes grabati coaliti)-

When stilt prolegs unite so as to form only one
leg bifid at its apex. Prare XXIII. Fic. 7. b

PUPA.

. ADMINICULA (Adminicula). Semicoronets of minut

teeth which arm the back of the abdomen of sub-
terraneous pups, by which they are enabled t0
emerge from under the earth. Prare XVI. Fre
13. e.

. Cremastre (Cremastre). The anal hooks by

which many pupze suspend themselves. PLAT?
XXIII. Fie. 8. a.

. Cocoon (Folliculus). The silken case in which the

pupze of many insects are inclosed. Prare XVIL
Fic. 5—8.

N.B. Other terms for pups are explained Vor. 1H.
p. 249. :

LETTER XLVII. -

SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

Having considered insects as to their History, Ana-
tomy and Physiology, we must next enter a new and
“nple field, in which, like most of our predecessors, we
“alll often be perplexed and -bewildered by the infinite
3lety of devious paths which traverse it, and by the
"7y labyrinths in which the more we wander the less
E ond we seem to gain.—You will easily perceive I am
p “aking of the System of Insects. System is a subject
„ch has engaged the attention of Naturalists from the
i E. of Aristotle to the present day ; and even now that
3 aS been so much and so ably discussed, they are far
N being agreed concerning it. In our own country
“hue has, however, of late been furnished, which upon

t : Thole seems better calculated to enable us to thread
Ong "Mricate labyrinth of nature, than any thing previ-

Y €Xcogitated.
ing d are two words relating to this subject concern-
> Ich Naturalists seem not to have very precise ideas
ethod and System. ‘They have often been confounded.
used indifferently to signify the same thing. Thus.
inh zt of a Natural Method and a Natural System. -
Seems to have regarded the former of these terms
242

356 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

as representing the actual disposition of objects in ee
ture?, while by System he understands their classifica”
tion and arrangement by Naturalists®. But if we COM
sider their real meaning,—a Method should signify an
Artificial, and a System a Natural arrangement of 9 i
jects?^. As many systematists, however, have aimed ?
giving a natural arrangement, though with various SUC"
cess, —some, as the French school, (to which we are
principally indebted for the progress already made,) 4P"

aide . nc
proximating nearer to the true idea than others,—?

D iof ]
none having a perfect conception of it, of which probab y

in our present state, our minds, from its intricacy, are HT
capable,—it might perhaps be as well to call every em
rangement whose object is confessedly artificial, @ Me
thod; and that which aims at the plan of nature, 4 Sy
stem. Under this view system-makers would be divide
into two classes,—the Methodists and Systematists.

The system of nature, which we are now to conside”
may be viewed under a double aspect; for with rega"
to all created objects there is a System of Distr ibutio”
and a System of Correlation, which appear to be quit?
independent of each other. The former will best fall ur”
der our notice when we are treating of the Geography P
insects: I shall therefore now confine myself to the Jate

When the ALmicuty Creator willed to bring in
existence this mundane system, he formed it according

` 3. Philos. Botan. 97. n. 153. ^ ^ Thid. 98. n. 155, &c- pdo
e Medodoc is rendered “ An artificial and compendious mode ? er"
1 1 ; ; » wA +. «To OV
ing any thing ; a mode of teaching orlearning 2’ Medodeva is niot
come by artifice.” Evsnya applied to music is * A ful and har MC ac
assemblage of tones." So that in fact, System should express 5 hol
‘ ae : E fe

tual disposition of objects, or a Natural arrangement ; and J
an Artificial one.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 357

to a preconcerted plan, with all its parts beautifully link-
ed together and mutually corresponding. All things
Nene ordered in measure, and number, and weight?.
There was nothing deficient, nothing superfluous; but
the whole in the strictest sense * was very good 5," and
Salculated in the highest degree to answer the purpose
fits Grear AUTHOR. I call ita system of Correlation, \

cause there is discernible in it, in the first place, a con-
“atenation of its parts, by which, as to their forms and
"ses, objects are linked together in groups by a chain of
affinities; so that we pass from one to the other by gen-/
tle gradations, without having to overleap any wide in-

“rval, We see also a gradual ascent from low to high,
ftom less to more excellent. And this leads us to ai-
ther kind of relationship between natural objects, by
Which, though placed in distinct groups or in a different
Series, they in some sort represent and symbolize each
Other, Examples of this relationship by analogy are to

* found in every kingdom of nature, and often form an
ascending series from the lowest to the highest; for, as
We shall see hereafter, these resemblances appear to
Maintain a certain correspondence with each other as to
their relative situations; so that, for instance, in the ani-
mal kingdom they ascend. step by step, without being
inked by affinity or having any real juxtaposition, from

the lowest groups, towards man, who stands alone at the
fad, or in the centre of all. I shall say something on
“ach of these kinds of relationship.
I. The relation of affinity may be considered as to its
Series and groups. A series, of course, consists of parts

è Wisdom. xi. g0. * Genes, i 31.

358 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

either concatenated like a chain, or placed separately at
small intervals from each other. It may run either in ?
right line, or deviate from it in various ways. It appeat*
to be the opinion of most modern Physiologists, that the
series of affinities in nature is a concatenated or Con-
tinuous series; and that though an Zatus is here and
| there observable, this has been’ caused either by the an-
| nihilation of some original group or species in conse
| quence of some great convulsion of nature, or that the
| objects required to fill it up are still in existence buf
| have not yet been discovered? : and this opinion is found-
i \ edon a dictum of Linné; Natura...saltus non facit”.
"this dictum. be liberally interpreted, according to the
evident meaning of the word saltus, few will be disposed
to object to it; since both observation and analogy cont
bine to prove that there must be a regular approxim4"
tion of things to each other in the works of God; and
that could we see the whole according to his origin?
plan, we should find no violent interval to break up that
approximation: but if it becontended, that in this pla”
there is no difference in the juxtaposition of the nearest
groups of individuals, and never any interval betwee?
them, I think we are going further than either observ”
tion or analogy. will warrant. Were this really and
strictly the case, it seems to follow that every group 9"
individual species must on one side borrow half its cha-
racters from the preceding group or species, and on the
other impart half to the sueceeding*. But one of the

^ W. S. MacLeay in Linn. Trans. xiv. 54. Í
» Linn, Syst. Nat. i. 11. : * Qu. Whether every 1€?
species or group has not some one or more peculiar characters whic t
it Mes derives from its predecessor nor imparts to its successor i
series :

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 359

Most evident laws of creation is variety; and if we survey
all the works of the Mosr Hicu, we shall no where dis-
“over that kind of order and symmetry that this strict
interpretation implies." The general march of nature
therefore seems to say, that there must be varying though
not violent intervals in the series of beings: or in other
Words, some conterminous species or groups have more
Characters in common than others.

It was the opinion of Bonnet (in this field himself a
host) and many other Naturalists, that the series of be-
ings was not only continuous, but undeviating, ascending
ina direct line from the lowest to the highest?. Others,
finding that this theory could not be made to accord
With the actual state of things in nature, thought that a
Scale of the kingdoms of nature must represent a map or
"et^: thus abandoning a continuous series: and Lamarck,
3$ was before observed *, for the solution of the difficulty,
"ranged Invertebrate animals in a double subramose ,
9ne, Mr. W. S. MacLeay and (without consultation |
nearly at the same time) Professor Agardh, Mr. Fries,

C. have given to the learned world an opinion which
approximates more nearly to what we see in nature: viz.

‘hat the arrangement of objects is indeed in a continu-
©Us series, but seny in its progress forms various con-
Volutions, each of which may be represented by a circles
r a series that returns into itself? According to this
Opinion, which seems the most consistent of any yet ad-
Vànced, and which reconciles facts which upon no other

Plan can be reconciled,—the series of beings is involved

* Œuvres vii. 51—. * N. Dict. P Hist. Nat. xx. 485.
x ° Vor, III. p. H—. . 4 W,S$. MacLeay. Hor. Ento-
tolog, Passim ; ; and in Linn. Trans. ubi supr. 53—.

360 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

in the highest degree, rolling wheel within wheel ad in-
Jinitum, and revolving, if I may so speak, round its cen-
tre and summit—man?: who, though not including 1”
himself all that distinguishes them, is still the great type
in which they terminate, and from which they degrade
on all sides.

It is by this convolving series that the various groups
into which the kingdoms of nature seem resolvable arè
formed. We are instructed by the highest authority
that every thing was created “ after its kind;” and the
common sense of mankind in all ages has imposed classic:
generic, and other names implying sections, as well 4
specific ones, upon natural objects: and though many
modern Physiologists have asserted that species form the
only absolute division in nature ; yet as all seem to allow
that there are groups, and many that these are repre
sented by a circle or group returning into itself^, the
most absolute division in nature, we will not contend
for a term*. "We now come to consider these group?

themselves, and may notice them under various denom" -

nations.
It is customary to consider all the substances of which
our globe consists as divided into three kingdoms,—th*

a N. Dict. d? Hist. Nat. xx. 485. b The idea of a conti-
nuous series militates somewhat against that of a circle returning
into itself. The progression of the series may be in a circle ; but at
the point of contact where the second circle meets the first, the line
must cut each other ; and at this point of intersection of the two ear
cles are of course the osculant groups constituting the first and t T
last of each circle, which in their intervention come in contact we
each other, or rather forming transition groups. If each circle 15 id
garded as absolute, the series is broken, though the osculant group*
connect the circular ones. * Mr. MacLeay almost 4°
mits that there are natural genera. Hor, Ent. 492.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 361

Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal; but strictly speaking
the primary division is into organized and inorganized
matter; the former resolving itself into the two king-
doms last mentioned. These, like England and Scot-

land of old, have their ** Land Debateable;" occupied
by those Productions moyennes, (to use a term of Bon-
net's?,) which are as it were partly animal and partly
"Vegetable. From this territory common to both, the two
kingdoms are extended in a nearly parallel direction till
they reach their extreme limits, without any incursion from
either side upon their mutual boundaries, but each show-

ing its kindred with the other by certain resemblances

Observable between opposite points; so that valley cor-
responds with valley, mountain with mountain, river
With river, sea with sea? ; not, however, so as to form an
€Xact counterpart, but only in some general features.

But to leave metaphor ;—as the vegetable kingdom is dis-

tinguished from the mineral by its organization and life,

by its circulation of sap, and by its powers of reproduc-

tion by seed or otherwise; so is the animal from the ve-

Setable by its powers of volition and locomotion °, by its

nervous system and organs of sensation, and the senses

to which they minister, by its muscular irritability, and

by its instinctive endowments.

- Having made these observations with regard to the pri-

Mary division of natural objects in general, —what I have

further to say will be confined to the animal kingdom,

and ultimately to the branch of which we are treating.

* Œuvr. vii. 52. b N. Dict. d Hist. Nat. ii. 94—.

* Even those animals that like the Spongie and Alcyonia are ag-
Sregate, and fixed by a common base, have a partial degree of vo-
Untary locomotion in their cells. :

362 SYSTEM OF INSECTS. E

i Lamarck divided the animal kingdom into two pro-
oinces, or subkingdoms as they are now called; the one con-
sisting of all those animals whose skeleton is internal and
built upon a vertebral column, which are denominated
Vertebrates ; and the second, of those whose skeleton or
its representative is for the most part external, including
the muscles,—these are called Invertebrates*. Though
this distinction is so marked as in general to form a most
striking characteristic, yet when these two provinces ap-
proach each other, it begins to disappear. Thus the ver-
tebral column, forming one piece with the shell^, becomes
external in the Chelonian reptiles, or tortoises and tur-
tles, and almost disappears in the cyclostomous fishes ;
and there is the beginning of an internal one in the Ce-
phalopoda, or cuttle-fish belonging to the Invertebrates:
Dr. Virey, assuming the nervous system as his basis,
long since divided the animal kingdom, without assign-
ing names to them, into three subkingdoms* ; M. Cuvier
has four—Vertebrata; Mollusca; Articulata; Radiata*:
and Mr. MacLeay, finding fve variations of that systems
divides animals into jive provinces or subkingdoms, of
which I formerly gave you some account © ;—viz. Verte-
brata; in which the nervous system has only one pritic-
pal centre; Annulosa, in which it is ganglionic, with the
ganglions arranged in a series, with a double spinal
chord; Mollusca, in which it is ganglionic, with the gan-
glions dispersed irregularly but connected by nervous
threads; Radiata, in which it is filamentous, with the
nervous threads radiating from the mouth; and Acritds

* Vor. HI. p. 10. i ^ Cuv. Anat. Comp. i. 173.
© N. Dict. d Hist. Nat, ii. 25. Ibid. 26—,
* Vor. IIT. p. 18—.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 363

in which this system is molecular.. And to this division
of the kingdom, as founded on a satisfactory basis, I
Should recommend you to adhere: but in popular lan-
Suage we may speak of vertebrate and invertebrate ani-
Mals, as forming the first subdivision of them, taken from
à character obvious to every one who sees them.

If you inquire into the rank of each of these subking-
doms, of course you will assign the principal station to
the Vertebrates, which are the most perfectly organized,
to which man belongs, and over which he immediately
presides. If we form the scale according to the nervous
System of each province, that in which the organ of
Sensation and intellect is most concentrated will stand
first; and in proportion as this organ is multiplied and
dispersed will be the station of the rest, which will place
them in the order in which I have mentioned them; and
the Annulosa, to which insects belong, will precede the
Mollusca, which Cuvier and Lamarck had placed before
them on account of their system of circulation. But
when we reflect that a heart and circulation occur insome
of the conglomerate Polypi^; animals that approach the
vegetable kingdom ; that some of the acephalous. Mollusca
have no visible organs of sense, except that of taste,
Whose substance is little better than a homogeneous gela-
tinous pulp, and who seem from their inert. nature to

> Hor. Entomolog. 200—. When my account of three primary
types of Nervous Systems (see above, p. 3—.) was written, Mr. Mac-
4eay's system did not occur to my recollection, or I should have no-
ticed it with due honour. To the other types there mentioned
Should be added a fourth, the filamentous, or that of the Radiata ;
© ganglionic being stated as resolvable into two. .
Savigny Mem, sur les Anim. sans Vertèbr. EE 1.3.

364 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

have very slight powers of voluntary motion’, we shall
be convinced that a heart and circulation alone, unaccom-
panied by a more concentrated nervous system and more
perfect structure, cannot place an animal above those
which in every other respect so obviously excel them.
With regard to insects particularly, we may further ask—
Who that considers how man employs his powers and
organs even in his most degraded state, or that contem-
plates the wonderful works that he is enabled to accom-
plish when his faculties receive their due cultivation and
direction, can avoid regarding him as superior to the rest
of the animal creation? And what unsophistieated
mind, not entangled in the trammels of system, when it
surveys the industry, the various proceedings, and almost
miraculous works that have been laid before you, the
waxen palaces of the bee,—the paper cottages of the
wasp and hornet,—the crowded metropolis of the white

ants,—the arts, the manufactures, and stratagems of
other insects,—the associations and labours for the com-
mon good of those that are gregarious ;—will not at once
conclude that they must be a superior race to the slugs
the snail, and others, which live only to eat and propa“
gate their kind?

Or who, that considers the wonderful structure of

the animals whose cause I advocate, —the analogy that
exists between their organs of manducation, of motion,
and of sensation, and between various other parts of it^;
with those of the higher animals, —the acuteness of their
senses, their wonderful strength of muscle‘, and powers

.* MacLeay Hor. Ent. 204.
» Vor. II. p. 46—. See above, p. 239.
* See above, p. 188—.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 365

of locomotion*,—but will think them superior tothe head-
_ less and almost inanimate oyster or muscle, or the con-

glomerate Alcyonia, though they have a heart and circu-
lation?

Who again, that observes that in proportion as pe-
date animals approach to the human type, their motions
are accomplished by fewer organs,—that man walks ore
sublimi upon two legs; the majority of quadrupeds upon

Jour; insects upon six; the Arachnida apparently upon
eight; most Crustacea upon ten; and the Myriapods and
others upon many,—but will thence conclude that insects
must precede the Arachnida and Crustacea?

Who, once more, that reflects that if any of the supe-
rior animals are deprived of a limb it can never be re-
Produced, and that in insects the same circumstance oc-
Curs; while spiders and Crustacea if they lose a leg have
the power of reproducing it, and the Mollusca if they are
decapitated can gain a new head,—will consent to their

being placed after any of these animals? ?

Lastly, who that recollects that the Mollusca are her-
maphrodites, like most plants, bearing both male and
female organs in the same body,—but will allow that in-
Sects, in which the sexes are separate as in the Verte-
brates, must be more perfect, and of a higher grade*?

ii. We now come to the Classes into which the Annulosa
are divided. "This term appears first to have been em-
Ployed by Tournefort, and was adopted by Linné?. As

the nervous system of animals furnishes the most promi-

* Vor. I. p. 310—. > In this respect insects excel many
reptiles, which can reproduce some of their parts.

° See MacLeay Hor. Entomolog. 203, 906—. 298—.

* Linn. Philos, Botan. n. 155, 160.

366 SYSTEM ‘OF INSECTS.

nent distinction of a subkingdom, so the circulation of
their fluids, and their respiration necessarily connected
with it, seems best to point out the classes into which it
may next be resolved. But having fully explained my
ideas on this subject in a former letter, I need not here
repeat what I then said, im

-ili As we have subkingdoms, so we may also have sub-
classes, or such large divisions of a class—not founded up-
on internal organization or any of the primary vital func-
tions, but upon different modes of taking their food, or
such other secondary characters—as include more than
one Order. To this description Clairville’s Mandibulata
and Haustellata appear to me to belong, which I think
are by no means entitled to the rank of Classes; for
whoever compares these two tribes together will at the
first glance be convinced, by the numerous characters
they possess in common, notwithstanding the different
mode in which they take their food, that they form one
connected primary group. This circumstance, therefore,
only furnishes a clue for their further subdivision into
two secondary groups, separated by distinctions certainly
of a lower value than those which separate the Crustacea
and Arachnida from Insecta. This is further confirmed
by the variations that take place in their mode of feed-
ing in their different states; some from masticators be-
coming suctorious (Lepidoptera), and others from being
suctorious becoming masticators (Myrmeleon, Dytiscus,
_&e.),—which shows that this character does not enter the
essential idea of the animal.

* Vor, III. LETTER XXVIII.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 367

iv. Next to Classes and Subclasses we are to consider
those groups of insects that are denominated Orders.
The characters of these at first were taken principally

from the instruments of flight or the absence of them ;
and the name appropriated to each Order by Linné, after
Aristotle, had reference to this circumstance. But this
alone does not afford characters sufficiently discrimina-
ting ; for though to an accurate observer a difference in
these organs appears to be characteristic of most of the
Orders, yet in some it is not easily detected or defined.
In the Neuroptera there are as many different types of
Wings as there are of tribes or suborders. So that it
Seems not possible so to construct the definition of every
Order, as to take its character from the organs of flight
alone. Linné was sensible of this, and was compelled
to have recourse to subsidiary characters in the majority
of his: his observation therefore with regard to Genera,
7that the character does not give the genus, but the
Senus the character?,—applies equally to Orders; and the
Characters included in the definition of an Order, should
be the result of a careful examination of its component:
SToups.

On a former occasion I named to you the Orders into. -
Which it appeared to me the Class Znsecta might be di-
vided? ; they were these. Coleoptera; Strepsiptera ;
Dermaptera ; Orthoptera; Hemiptera; Trichoptera;
Lepidoptera ; Neuroptera; Hymenoptera; Diptera ;
Aphaniptera ; Aptera. I then briefly explained them.

* Scias Characterem non constituere Genus, sed Genus Charac-
terem ; Characterem fluere e Genere, non Genus e Charactere ; Cha-
"acterem non esse ut Genus fiat, sed ut Genus noscatur. Philos.

otan, n. 169, ^ Vor. T, p. 66. note $.

368 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

merely for the sake of illustration, and that you might |

know what description of insects were intended when
these Orders were mentioned in my letters, without in-
tending to affirm that I had arranged them in a natural
series, or that all of them were perfectly natural. I shall
now consider them separately, and conclude with giving
my sentiments as to which should be placed first.

* ORDERS in which the ordinary Trophi all occur, or thé
Mouth is perfect.

1. CorrorrEnaA? (Eleutherata F.). Aristotle may bê
called the founder of this Order, since he both named
and defined it®. Both his name and definition were
adopted by Linné; and the former (with the exception
of Fabricius and his school) by all succeeding Entomo-
logists. To his definition Wings in a sheathà, other
characters have been added; as the folding of the wings
and the straight suture by which the elytra are united *
Aristotle's character, though to be found in the great
majority of the Order, is not universal, since there are
some beetles that have neither wings nor sheath, as the
female glow-worm ; and many that though they have the
- sheath have no wings, as Meloe, many Carabi, &c. To
the transverse folding of the wings there are also excep-
tions; asin Buprestis, Molorchus, &c. The straight su-
ture by which one elytrum exactly coincides with the
other without lapping over, fails in Meloe: so that no one
of these characters can be called universal in the Order;

* Vor. III. p. 418. > Derived from x»Asoc, a sheath, and
7r Tépov, Q wing. © Hist. Animal. l. iv. c. 7. |. v. c. 29
d "Osu To wrecoy exes cv xorew. e Latr. Gen, Crust. €

Ins. 1. 169. Oliv. Ins. i. Introd. v.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

but às an exception or two does not invalidate a rule,
and these are sufficiently universal for the purpose of
Pointing it out, they may be retained. Perhaps it will
be an improvement to add the kind of the metamorphosis,
Which, as far as known, prevails universally.

Der, Metamorphosis incomplete?.

Legs inosculating, posterior coxæ usually trans-
verse. |

Lilytra corneous or coriaceous, without veins,
united by a straight suture, so as mostly to
cover the wings completely ^.

Wings longitudinally and transversely folded € :
neuration simplet.

_ 2. SrnEPSIPTERA* K. (Rhiphiptera Latr.) The cha-
"acters of this Order were first given in the Linnean
“ansactions, and it has been adopted by Latreille; who
9Wever, without sufficient reason, has changed the name
Higinally imposed to Rhiphiptera®. Rossi, who was the
tst that discovered an insect of this Order, concluded
that because it was parasitic it must be Hymenopterous ;
“nd it is certainly more nearly related to that Order than

i : :
the Diptera, amongst which M. Lamarck has arranged

it E 3 : J
E and with which it has no character in common, ex-
“pt having two wings. This is one of those Orders,

Conc: * , .
Nsisting of few genera and species, which, from their

ü
Mnecting two circles, Mr. MacLeay has called oscu-

: Vor. L p. 65. " In some genera, as Molorchus,

b they do not completely cover the wings. Prate X. Fo. 1.

th, TET. Fre. 4) 5, * In Buprestis, Molorchus, &c.,

= are only longitudinally folded. 4 Prate X; Fre. 4.
From Seedis, a turning or twisting, and 7 Tepov.

Vor, rrr. p- 501. note *.

2 B

370 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

lant, who places it between the Hymenoptera and Coleo-
ptera*.
Der. Metamorphosis subincomplete? ?
Pseudelytra twisted, attached to the anterior
leg °.
Wings not covered by the elytra, longitudinally
folded, forming nearly the quadrant e a
circle: neuration simple.
Anus styliferous *.

3. DERMAPTERA (Ulonota F. Orthoptera Oliv.). This
is another osculant Order, evidently connecting the Co
leoptera with the Orthoptera. The elytra are of a cor
aceous substance, have a straight suture, and are not
veined, and the wings are folded longitudinally as well a5
transversely,—circumstances which connect it with the
former Order,—while the shape of its wings, its oral 0
gans, and its metamorphosis, show its affinity to the Jatte".
It was established at the same time and in the same
work with the preceding Order, in pursuance of a sug”
gestion of Dr. Leach, and consists solely of the Linne?”
genus Forficula.

Der. Metamorphosis semicomplete.

Elytra coriaceous, without veins, united by
straight suture, so as partly to cover the wing?
Wings longitudinally and transversely folded»

each forming nearly the quadrant of a circle’

neuration radiating £.

> Hor. Entomolog. 371—. b Linn. Trans. d
e Jott ix fF 1,d. S d Prats Il. Fie. 1

* Linn. Trans. Ybid. f. 15. b. f From spun, à skin.

€ Prate X. Fic. 5.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. Sq

4. OzxTHoPTERA? (Ulonota F.) This Order, which
Linné at first regarded as belonging to the Coleoptera’,

3nd afterwards improperly added to the suctorious He-
Miptera, was very judiciously separated from both by
De Geer, under the name of Dermaptera, a name not
improper, and which ought to have been retained. Its
Present name was, I believe, assigned to it by Olivier;
and as this is generally in use, I shall not attempt to dis-
Urb it. Dr. Leach divided the Order into two, sepa-
rating the Blattina M*L. from it, under the name of

tctyoptera®. He was led to this by the tegmina decus-
Satino or lapping obliquely over each other, "Whereas in
the rest the horizontal portion of one tegmen lies longi-
tudinally over that of the other; he also probably took
their depressed body into consideration ;—these circum-
Stances, however, rather indicate a tribe or suborder ;
and as such Mr. MacLeay regards it.

Der. Metamorphosis semicomplete.

Legs suspended,

Tegmina generally pergameneous?, reticulated
with nervures, more or less incumbent, cover-
ing the wings.

Wings longitudinally folded, ample: neuration
reticulated.

5. Nevroprera’ (Synistata, Odonota F.). Of all
the Linnean Orders this appears to consist of the most
discordant tribes; so that it seems next to impossible to
Construct a definition that will include them all, unless

* From odes, straight. > Fn. Suec.

* From dixzvov, a net. * See above, p. 258,
er
From veveor, a nerve.

dp

372 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

indeed we admit M. Latreille’s idea, adopted by Mr.
MacLeay?, that a varied metamorphosis is its essential
character; or, to speak more largely, variety itself seems
the characteristic of the insects composing it, in every
state; and there is scarcely a common distinctive charac-
ter in their perfect state, upon detecting which in any 1
dividual you may exclaim—Thisisa Neuropterous insect
The only one that I have been enabled to seize is, that
their scapule and parapleure are parallel and placed
obliquely^. Whether, with all this puzzling variation
and dissonance between the different tribes of which it
is now composed, this Order can be considered as a na-
tural group, in the present state of our knowledge if
would be rash to decide. I shall observe, however, that
the Libellulina,—whether we regard their metamorpho-
sis and the singular character before described that di-
stinguishes their larva and pupa‘, their oral instru-
ments‘, the remarkable position of their legs $, their
general form, the wonderful and peculiar machinery bY
which their wings are moved f, and other circumstances
of their internal anatomy,—if any are to be regarded a5
forming a separate Order, are the first entitled to that
distinction. At present, with our friend Mr. MacLeay:
I shall consider it as not further divisible, and as consist-
ing of five principal forms. I must not omit to observe
that in the Ephemerina the parts of the mouth, except
the labrum and palpi, appear to be mere rudiments.

* Hor. Entomolog. 433. . b Vor. III. p. 565.

* Ibid. p. 195 —. * Ibid. p. 424, 449—, 459, 455—-
e Ibid, p. 657. f See above, p. 181—.

* N. Dict. d Hist. Nat. x. 344.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 373
Der. Metamorphosis varying. Larva a hexapod.
Wings four in most, and reticulated with nu-
merous areolets.
Prothorax distinct.
Scapule and Parapleure parallel and oblique.
Tail of the female without a terebrant, or pun-
gent multivalve ovipositor?.

6. Hymenoprera? (Piezata F.). Mr. MacLeay con-
Siders Sirer L. as being osculant between the Order we
ate now entering upon and the Trichoptera, and Ten-
"edo L. as belonging to the latter. He appears to
Sround this opinion chiefly upon a consideration of their
larvee and a slight difference in their ovipositor. As the
Order, as settled by Linné, has always been deemed one
st the most natural ones, and all the great Entomolo-
8ists of the present æra have agreed with him in thinking
Ut so; it seems to me that to prove them mistaken in this
Opinion, the question should have been discussed at more
Ength, and that it requires arguments of more weight than
‘ny Mr. MacLeay has at present produced, to set it
aside. He appears in general to lay great stress upon |
*h agreement in larvee and the kind of metamorphosis ; :
4nd I am ready to acknowledge that it forms a strong
Presumption in favour of any hypothesis of affinity be-
tween certain tribes. But when it is had recourse to as
fundamental and infallible, I think it is pushed far be- .
Yond what it will bear, or is warrantable. I may be /
Wrong; but in my apprehension, a striking agreement
M their general structure in the perfect state, which is

ar
5 The ovipositor of Raphidia seems merely calculated to introduce
S & : = E 1
eggs under bark ; it seems incapable of boring.
Tom vgoxv, a membrane.

i

374. SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

the acme of their nature, affords a much more satisfac-
tory reason for keeping two tribes together, than any
difference observable in their larvee or metamorphosis:
for separating them. Let any one compare the structure
of these two tribes with the Trichoptera on one side, and
the Hymenoptera on the other, and it will require but
a glance to convince him of their greater affinity to the
latter; and the simple inspection only of Jurine’s plates
of the wings of Hymenoptera is calculated to produce
the same effect. With regard to their larve, the re
semblance between the case-worms and the pseudo-ca
terpillars of the saw-flies seems to me very distant, and
the numerous prolegs of the latter have scarcely a legi-
timate representative in the former. The larvæ of the
genus Lyda F. (Cephaleia Jur.) lose the prolegs intirely;
and in one species, which much resembles the vermiform
larvæ of Hymenoptera, the real legs are so extremely
short as to be scarcely discernible?; so that it requires
no great stretch of faith to believe that saw-flies or Si-
rices may exist in which the legs disappear, But it Í$
this very tribe, whose larvæ thus approach to those of
the other Hymenoptera, in which Mr. MacLeay finds
the greatest external resemblance to the Trichoptera“.
In fact the difference between the saw-flies and Siricid@s
and the remainder of the Hymenoptera, amounts to little
more than what takes place in the Diptera Order bê-

* De Geer ii. 1035. " Since this was writteP;
Mr. Stephens has showed me a remarkable Hymenopterous insect
taken by him in Hertfordshire, which appears to have the antenn®
of one of the Ichneumonide and the wings and abdomen of a Ten-
thredo L., so as to form alink connecting the two tribes or suborder:
This may probably have a.vermiform larva.

° Hor. Entomolog. 431,

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 375

tween the Tipulide, Asilide, Muscide, &c., in which
also the metamorphosis differs.

Another argument upon which Mr. MacLeay seems
to lay some stress, is taken from the number of parts
into which the ovipositor of the saw-flies is resolvable,
Which he finds to consist of four pieces; while in what he
Considers as the genuine Hymenoptera, it. is formed only
of three2: but in fact, in these last there are zwo spicule,
answering to the two saws of Tenthredo, so that the va-
gina in which these move may be considered as a double
Sheath : only, as these were to be pushed out at the same
time, and the others alternately, it was necessary that in
the latter each sheath should be separate, to admit of this
Motion; but as to its composition, the weapon in both is
essentially the same. At any rate this structure could
furnish a reason only for the formation of a separate
Sroup in the same Order, but none for the transfer of
Such group to another, which had no such instrument
at all; since, as we have seen, the Trichoptera extrude
their eggs at once ina mass?. Ido not mean, however,
that it should be inferred from what I have here said,
that there is no Zendency in the saw-flies towards a Tri-
Chopterous type, for in them nature seems pointing that
Way, but the distance is too great, and the number of
types of form necessary to fill up the interval too many,
to warrant in my opinion. their removal from the one
Order to the other.

Der. Metamorphosis incomplete‘.

a

Hor. Entomolog. 429. » Vor. IIL. p. 67. See above,
p. 155, © Whoever consults De Geer ii.
941 | xxiii. f. 14, 15. f. xxxvi. f. 97. and t. xxxix, f. 7, 8, will
be convinced that the metamorphosis of Tenthredo L. is incomplete
rather than obtected.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

Lrophi in most not used for mastication?.

Wings four: neuration generally areolate.

Prothorax obsolete, giving place to an ample
collar.

Tarsi pentamerous, |

Ovipositor 5—6-valved, the vagina darting
forth two retroserrulate spiculee.

** ORDERS in which all the ordinary Trophi do not occurs
or the Mouth îs imperfect".

7. HEMtPTERA? (Ryngota F.). Linné at first con-
fined this Order to those insects which have a qromusciss
which he denominated a rostrum*; but afterwards, con-
: vinced that the Orthoptera of the moderns could not be
associated properly with the Coleoptera ; instead of form-
ing them into a distinct Order, as nature would have
dictated— perhaps to avoid the multiplication of Orders
and without altering his definition—with equal infelicity
he added them to this. Subsequent Entomologists, who
saw the impropriety of masticating insects thus herding
with suctorious ones, restricted the Order to its old limits;
but Latreille very: judiciously altered its arrangement,
and divided it into two Sections, separating those whose
hemelytra terminate in membrane, from those in which
they are mostly tegmina, or of a substance intermediate
between that of the elytra of Coleoptera and that of the
wings of the Tetrapterous Orders. He denominated the
first of these sections, or rather suborders, Heteroptera,

* The Hymenoptera, though they have all the usual oral organs, can-
not be denominated masticators generally ; these organs, especially
the mandibles, being chiefly used in their economy:

° See above, p. 341. ° Vor. HII. p. 418.

* From zpusv, the half, * Vor. TIE. p. 464—. Linu.
Syst. Nat. Ord. II.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 377

and the last, Homoptera*. Dr. Leach, observing that
very considerable differences take place both in the eco-
homy and structure of Heteropterous and Homopterous
insects, followed De Geer in considering them as sepa-
Tate Orders, which he has called Hemiptera and Omo-
Ptera, and in which he has been followed by Mr. Mac-
Leay; who, however, with his usual accuracy and judg-
Ment, has restored the aspirate to the latter name>. Their
agreement in having a promuscis, or instrument of suc-
tion, with a jointed sheath, at present induces me to hesi-
tate as to the propriety of their separation, and to consi- .
der them as forming secondary rather than primary sec-
tions of the Class. That you may be enabled to judge
for yourself upon this subject, I will state the principal
features in which they differ. In the first place, the He-
teropterous section usually sucks the juices of animals,
and the Homopterous, those of plants; in the former, the
Femelytra, besides their different substance, as well as

the wings, cross each other; while in the latter, the organs
of flight are deflexed, and do not lap over each other at
all. The antennae also of the one are often long, and do .

Not terminate in a bristle; while in the other, with few
exceptions, they are very short and setigerous. In the
Heteroptera the body is depressed and flat, in the Homo-
Plera convex and thick. In the former, the scutellum is one
of the principal features of the trunk ; in the latter, not at
allremarkablee, Other differences in the structure, both

" If considered as suborder s, their denomination should not ter-
minate precisely as that of Orders. Perhaps Hemipterita and Hete-
"opterita might be, an improvement.
^ Hor. Entomolog. 374—. * Vor. IIT. p. 556.

378 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

: of head, trunk, and abdomen, might be pointed out ; but
these you will chiefly find noticed in my letters on the
External Anatomy of Insects, where I treated of those
parts. I shall here, therefore, only further mention the
ovipositor also as forming a most striking distinction*-
Der. Metamorphosis semicomplete in almost all.
Mouth promuscidate^.
Wings covered by Hemelytra or Tegmina *.
Tarsi mostly trimerous, rarely dimerous OF
monomerous?.

8. TRicHoPTERA* Kirby (Synzstata F. Neuroptera
Latr.). M.M. Latreille and MacLeay are of opinion
that Semblis F. and Phryganea L. ought to be associated
in the same group; and the latter gentleman has backed
his opinion by some apparently cogent arguments f : there
are others, however, that seem to me more cogent, for
considering them as belonging to different Orders. Who-
ever examines the several tribes into which Mr. Mac-
Leay has divided the Neuroptera, will observe in all of
them a distinct prothorax, a circumstance which they
possess in common with those Orders that use their man-
dibles for mastication; whereas in those that do not use

@ See above, p. 153—. » Vor. III. p. 464.

© Ibid. p. 613—. 606—. d Ibid. p. 685—.

° From So, toxos, hair. Mr. MacLeay, thinking it indispU-
table that the Perlide should be included in this Order, suggests the
propriety of changing its name, both as inapplicable, and as bein
preoccupied by a Dipterous genus. As I do not think the Perlide
belong to the Order, and as the great body of the Trichoptera are
distinguished by hairy upper wings, I cannot think the name impro"
per: but to apply a name to a Genus which terminates like the deno-

minations of Orders, I think leads to mistakes, and should not be t0"
lerated.— K. . f Hor. Entomolog. 430—.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 379

them for mastication, as the Hymenoptera, or that take
their food by suction, this part is replaced by a mostly
Narrow collar, forming a part of the alitrunk*. The ex- -
Istence then of the prothorax in the Perlide, and of the
collar in the Trichoptera, affords no slight presumptive
evidence that they belong to different Orders. Another
circumstance that weighs much with me is, that the type

Of the neuration of the wings in Perla is taken from the
Neuroptera, in the Trichoptera from the Lepidoptera;
the same observation extends to the legs of both, and
likewise to the abdomen. Even in their oral organs, as
far at least as relates to their mandibles, those of Perla,
though membranaceous--a circumstance occurring even in
Coleoptera—are of a Neuropterous type; while the angular
termination of the cheeks in the Phryganee approaches
to the Lepidopterous mandibular rudiments. The prin-
Cipal argument on which Mr. MacLeay’s opinion seems
to rest, is, that the larvee of both are aquatic, and clothe
themselves in cases formed of various materials: but
though this circumstance shows that they approximate
W the system, it does not prove that they belong to the
Same Order, since the general habit and appearance of
the two animals when arrived at perfection contravenes
it. The larvee of Myrmeleon and of Leptis Vermileo form
Pitfalls of sand for their prey, and when they become
Pups, cover themselves with it^; but this in them does
Not even prove an affinity, but only an analogy. The
larva of Perla is carnivorous‘, that of Phryganea F.

“Vor, Ti. p. 548—. ^ The location of the legs to-
gether, their long coxa, and their calcaria, are analogous also to
those of the Lepidoptera. : © Reaum. vi. Mem. x. é. xxxii.
13. i. xxxiv. f.1—6. De Geer vi. 169—. £. x. f. 7i 9.

!. N. Dict. d' Hist. Nat. xxv. 286.

880 SXSTEM OF INSECTS.

mostly herbivorous? : so that they are not precisely simi-
lar in their habits. Whether they resemble each other
altogether, in their form, does not clearly appear. The
above reasons will, I trust, justify me for considering

them a£ present as belonging to different Orders; but if

further discoveries should confirm the opinion Mr. Mac-
Leay espouses, I shall have no hesitation in yielding
to it.

Der. Metamorphosis incomplete».
Mouth emandibulate.
Prothorax replaced by a collar.
Wings four, upper pair mostly hairy, lower
ample, folded: neuration branching.
Anus without setze. Eggs extruded in a gela-
tinous mass*.

9. LEPIDOPTERA? (Glossata F.). Concerning this
Order, no difference of opinion exists amongst Ento-
mologists. Besides the scales that cover their wings»
they are distinguished by the peculiar instrument of suc-
tion formerly described : neither ofthese characters, how-
ever, is perfectly universal; some of the Order (Nudari@
Haw.) having no scales upon their wings, and others
being without any anzlia (Aglossa Latr.). Other peculiar
characters are to be found in them; for instance, the

* De Geer ii, 511—. He however observes, that they often at-
tack other insects: but the form of their mandibulz, like that of the
caterpillars of Lepidoptera, which also on some occasions become
carnivorous (Vor. I. p. 386), is fitted for a vegetable diet. De Geet
Ibid. 505. ^ This is evident from De Geer’s ac-
count. Jbid. 516. £. xii. f. 14. t. xv. f. 4.

* PrAvE XX. Fie. 25. d From Aszz, a scale.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 381

Patapia, or tippets, that adorn their evanescent thorax*,
and the tegul@, or base-covers, of a shape quite dissimilar
to those of Hymenoptera, which cover and defend the
base of their wings". As in the last Order, their legs
iam located all together with scarcely any space interve-
"Ihe between them; and they often agree also in their
Spurs, i
Der. Metamorphosis obtected *.
Mouth antliate?.
Prothorax very short, covered by a pair of tip-
pets.
Wings four, covered partially or generally with:
minute scales: neuration branching, often
with a central areolet.

10. DrerERA* (Antliata F.). This Order likewise ap-
Pears indebted for its name to the philosopher of Stagyra,
Who distinguishes the members of it from their counter-
Parts- (he Hymenoptera by their having an oral, while
these have an anal sting’: and we may add, that while
the last, on account of their wonderful economy and the

Shefits which by them PROVIDENCE confers upon man-
kind, have been justly regarded as the princes of the
Winged insect world, —the former, when we consider the
filthy and disgusting habits of their grubs, and the an-
Noy ance, both from their numbers and incessant assaults,
ER them, in their fly-state, may very properly be consi-

ered as its canaille. Almost all the tribes of Hymeno-
Pera, from the saw-flies to the ants, have their represen-

` Vor. II. p. 539. Puare IX. Etc. 4. » Ibid, Fre. 5.
Vor. I. p. 65—. 4 Vor. IIT. p. 469.

From dts, twice, or double. £ Hist, Animal. l. iv. c. 1, 27.

382. SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

tatives in this Order. Though the number of wings is
its prominent feature, yet there are two-winged insects
in other Orders, as some Ephemera; and the Eprobos
cidea of Latreille seem rather a kind of winged Apter
if we consider theif trophi, than real Diptera; or they
may form an osculant group, partly winged and partly
apterous, between the two. I have before remarked,
that though, apparently, the insects of this Order
have only ¢wo wings, yet the under or secondary wings
of the other Orders have in them their representative”
Their poisers also, I formerly observed to you, are pro
bably more connected with their respiration than with
their flight.
Der. Metamorphosis incomplete, or coarctate.
Mouth proboscidate*.
Prothorax replaced by a collar. Sutures of the
trunk mostly spurious?.
Wings two, with winglets attached to them:
neuration various*. Poisers.
Tarsi pentamerous.
Ovipositor various f.

11. APHANIPTERA 5 ( Aptera L. Lamarck. Rhyngota F-
Suctoria Latr.). This is an osculant Order, and is dis-
tinguished from the other Aptera L. in undergoing *
regular metamorphosis. The larva is vermiform, the

pupa incomplete, and inclosed in a cocoon. Probably

* Vor. IT. p. 358—. b Ibid. p. 359.

* Vor. III. p. 466—. 4 [bid. p. 554—.

* Ibid. p. 634. * See above, p. 157.

5 From parne, inconspicuous ; so named because something
elytra appear.

like

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 383

the common flea and the chigoe would form distinct
genera, The number of species of fleas‘ is greater
than has been supposed. I have been informed that
Dr, Leach is acquainted with fourteen British species
alone, Besides their metamorphosis, they are distin-
guished from the Aptera by the number of segments into
Which their body is divided, and by their pentamerous
tarsi, Something like elytra and a scutellum appear to
distinguish these insects.

Der. Metamorphosis incomplete.
Body apterous, compressed.
Mouth rostrulate*.
Tarsi pentamerous.

We are now come to those insects which, though they
change their skin in their progress to their state of per-
fection, and some of them, as we have seen”, gain addi-
tional segments and. pairs of legs, yet none of them ac-
quire wings or wing-cases: these I have considered as
forming one Order, under the denomination of

19. Aprera® (Synistata, Antliata, Unogata, Mito-
Sata F.). I do not give this as a natural Order. Our
knowledge, however, of the internal organization of its
Broups, is not at present sufficiently matured to warrant
the formation of them into new Classes‘: till that is more
fully ascertained, it seems to me therefore better to con-
Sider these groups as forming three Suborders : the frst
Consisting of the Hexapods; the second of the Octopods ;
and the third of the Polypods. It will be better, I think,

` Vor. HI. p. 471. > Ibid. p. 23.
From g, privative, and xrzgov. * Vor. III. p. 22—.

384 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

instead of giving a general character of the. Order, —
which principally consists in the insects composing it be-
ing Apterous, or never acquiring organs of flight, —to
define each of these groups.

Hexapods (Ametabolia Leach, Ametabola M*L.). Sis
legs may be regarded as the natural number in ail the
insect tribes? : but our business now is with those Aptera
whose body consists of zhree greater segments, and which
- in none of their states have ever more or less than s/4
legs, and consist of the three Linnean genera Pediculus,
Lepisma, and Podura (Thysanura Latr. and Anoplura
Leach). Some of the mites (Acarus L.) are hexapods
but their body has no distinction of head, trunk, and ab-
domen. The metamorphosis of most female Blattæ, and
of some other Orthoptera that are apterous, cannot be
regarded as materially different from that of the Hexa-
pods. Amongst the Anoplura,—the Pediculi, or lice, are
suctorious, and the Nzrmz, or bird-lice, masticators,—2
circumstance which in them does not appear to indicate
even a different Order, and proves that undue stress ought
not to be laid, independently of general characters, 0?
the mode in which insects take their food.

Der. Metamorphosis complete.

Body consisting of three principal segments.
Mouth perfect, or rostellate®.

Antenne distinct. -`

Legs six, in every state.

Octopods. This suborder consists of the Tracheat
Arachnida of Latreille, excluding the Pycnogonida ; of

~ Vor. ITË. ubi supr. b Ibid: p. 472.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 385

the Acaridea, Sironidea, Phalangidea, and part of the
Scorpionidea of Mr. MacLeay, and, with some exceptions,
> the Linnean genera Acarus and Phalangium. This last
Tibe (for with Linné, I include Chelifer and Obsidium in
the Phalangidea,) on one side approaches Scorpio by
Thelyphonus, and on the other the Aranidea by Gony-
Pies; or, according to Mr. MacLeay, the transit is to.
both by Galeodes*. But as there is reason for thinking
that this last belongs to the Pulmonary Arachnida», and
orms a peculiar type in that Class, I think the transit
"om the one to the other is as above stated. The folded
abdomen of Gonyleptes seems much to correspond with
that of the cancriform spiders (Epeira cancriformis, &c.).

‘Der, Metamorphosis complete,

Body consisting of one or two principal seg-

ments.
Mouth various*. :
Antenne obsolete, or represented by mandibles
Legs mostly eight, but in a few six only?.
Polypods. This suborder consists of Dr. Leach’s
lass Myriapoda, or the Chilognatha and Chilopoda of
treille, corresponding with the Linnean genera Tulus
“nd Scolopendra. Mr. MacLeay has arranged them in
“same Class with the Hexapods, and connects them
Mth the Anoplura by means of certain intestinal worms
fan indistinct annulose structure* (.Entozoa Nematoidea
"d.) in which the sexes are dicecious, and some of

: Hor, Entomolog. 381. > Vor. HI. p. 22. note *.
. lbid. p. 479. * bid. p. 654. |
See above, p. 229.

Vou, l P

386 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

which arefurnished with lateral spinulae, —thus, as hesup-
poses, connected with the Polypods; and with the £no-
plura by others (Epizoaria Lam.) in which appendage
appear somewhat analogous to the legs of Hexapods, ve
in Cecrops Leach, and which like them are parasitic anie
mals?*. But the right of these worms to be considere
as members of the same Class with the Hexapods 9?
Polypods at present appears rather problematical, 2P
requires further examination.

Der. Metamorphosis subcompleteP.
Body consisting of numerous segments.
Mouth perfect".
Eyes compound or aggregate.
Antenne distinct.
Legs six on the trunk, many on the abdome”:

Imust next say something on the Orders of the Arach-
nida. Every one, at first sight, sees that spiders 9?
scorpions are separated by characters so strongly market
that they look rather like animals belonging to differe”!
Classes than to the same: these form the two primary
Orders of the Arachnida, and they appear to be con"
nected by two secondary or osculant ones,—on the one
side by Galeodes, and on the other by Thelyphonus 9"
Phrynus?. This Class, although there is an appearance

* Hor. Entomolog. 286. ^ The number of segment?

t states

and legs acquired by these insects in their progress to their las dre
nd Fee

distinguishes their metamorphosis from that of other Aptera, ?
quires a distinct name. * Vor. III. p. 418. d
a When I said (Vor. II. p. 31.) that Phrynus. probably belong?
to the true Arachnida, it escaped my recollection that Latreille b?
placed that genus there.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 387

9f eight legs, is, strictly speaking, of a Hexapod type; for
~The anterior pair, ordinarily regarded as legs and per-
forming their function, are really the analogues of the
Maxillary palpi of perfect insects. This will be evident -
to You if you examine any species of Galeodes. These
animals, if we look at them cursorily, we should regard
" Decapods ; but when we trace the two anterior pairs of
Pparent legs to their insertion, we find that both pro-
“eed from the head, which in that genus is distinct from
“trunk ; while the three last pairs, which alone are fur-
‘shed with claws, are planted, as legs usually are, in
€ latter part. The first pair represent the ordinary palpi

5 Arachnida, are analogous to the labial ones of Hexa-
Pods, and, as likewise in Phrynus and Thelyphonus, are
"te robust than what are usually taken for the first
‘Ur of legs; but they differ in being considerably longer,
Instead of terminating in a chela are furnished with
“etractile sucker*. The second pair are more slender
Ad shorter than the first; they correspond precisely with
at are deemed the first pair of legs of Octopods and
"achnida, and are clearly analogous to the maxillary
Palpi of perfect insects. Whether the base of the first

ad of these palpi is in any respect analogous to the la-

i : :
um of insects, (as that of the second seems to be to their

axillæ,) Iam not prepared to assert : it will therefore be
E advisable to name these palpi anterior and poste-

* but as they evidently proceed from the head in
"des, and in that genus are clearly analogous to
98e of the Phrynidea, (which in their turn as clearly
“present those of the Aranidea,) it follows that in all

a
E Dufour Six Nouvel. Arachnid. &c. Ann. Gen. des’ Seienc.

"1 IV. iii, 17. z. Ixix. f. 7. b.

ae r

388 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

they are organs of the part representing the head, and
therefore not in a primary sense legs ; although in a se
condary, as M. Savigny has proved, they may be 9°
called?.

1. ARANIDEA M¢L. (Aranea L., Araneide Latr.) The
Aranidea, or spiders, seem resolvable into wo suborder*
—the Sedentaries and the Wanderers; thus forming, pet
haps, what Mr. MacLeay would denominate the normal
groups of a circle of Arachnida.

Dzr. Mandibles armed with a perforated claw.
Head and Trunk coalite.
Palpi pediform, anterior pair without claws.
Abdomen without segments or elongated tail.
Spiracles two”.

è i ue
Anus furnished with an apparatus for spinning *

2. SCORPIONIDEA M*L. (Scorpio L. Latr.)

- Der. Mandibles hemat
Head and Trunk coalite.
Anterior Palpi chelate‘.

Posterior Palpi pediform.
- Pectens two*.

Abdomen divided into segments and termin?"
ting in a jointed tail, armed at the end with ?
sting f.

Spiracles four pairs.

a Mém. sur les Anim. sans Vertébr. I. i. 57—.

^ PrATE XXIX. Fie. 1. * Prare XV. Fie. 10.
Pirate XXIII. Fie. 15, 17. 7”. 4 Pare XV. Fro. 7-

° Prats XXVII. Fic. 50. f Called the Centris. Vol
p. 389, 717.

T".
IH

SYSTEM OF INSECTS.
3. GALEopEA. |
Der. Head distinct.
Eyes two.
Mandibles chelate with dentated chele.
Palpi pediform, the anterior pair thickest with
a retractile sucker.
Trunk consisting of two principal segments,
with a minute supplementary posterior one.
Spiracles two, placed in the trunk €.
Pseudo-pectens two?.
Abdomen divided into segments.
Anus unarmed and without a spinning appara-

tus *.

4. PunyNIDEA.
Der. Mandibles unguiculate.
Anterior Palpi chelate or unguiculatef, very ro-
bust.
Posterior Palpi pediform, very long and slender.
Abdomen divided into segments.
Spiracles two pairs.
Anus terminating in a mucro, and sometimes in
a filiform jointed tail without a sting at the
end.

/

a
th M. Latreille thinks that in Galeodes the prothorax is coalité with

day cd CN. Dict. d Hist. Nat. xii. 370.) ; but that it is not so, is evi-
b , 9m the six real legs being affixed to the pieces behind it.
* Dufour ubi supr. IV. iii. 18. * Ibid. 19.
las oid, 2. xix. 4.1.4. * When the characters of the
s. Arachnida were drawn up (Vor. III. p. 30.) I had not seen a
n, 4$: they should be thus amended :
' alpi four ; anterior pair pediform, cheliform, or unguiculate ; pes-
terior pediform. .
“unk Legs six, &c. Pirate XIII. Fie. 1.

d

390 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

v. Having considered the Orders into which Insecit
and Arachnida may be divided, I am next to give ys?
some account of the groups into which each is further
resolvable. To draw out, however, a complete scheme
of these would be deviating from my province, and bod
tend this letter to an enormous length. | Indeed, to giv’
the natural primary and subordinate sections of every
Order, would require a knowledge of the subject to which
no Entomologist has yet attained. I shall therefore only
say something general upon them, and refer you tO a
example of each kind of group.

Previously to the groups themselves their nomenclati*
claims our attention. M. Latreille in his last arraug^
ment of Annulose animals has divided his Orders into
Sections; Families; Tribes; and Genera: his tribes he
has often further subdivided into lesser sections, rep!"
sented by capital and small letters*. Mr. MacLeay?

discarding the term section, has Tribes; Races (Stirp)?

= i ag
Families; Genera, and Subgenera?. But as in descend”8

from the Order to the lowest term, or the species, a series
of groups gradually diminishing in value, which regu"?
a greater number of denominations than have yet beef
employed by Entomologists, often occur, I think we moy
with benefit to the science add to the list. I wo"

therefore propose the following primary and subordinate
divisions of an Order: 1. Suborder; 2. Section; 9: Su f
section; 4. Tribe; 5. Subtribe; 6. Stirps; 7. Family:
8. Genus; 9. Subgenus. I would further propose that
each of these successive groups should have a name wy

ways terminating alike, so that the value of the group

* N. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. x. 276. — Coléoptéres d Europe, V. ay
^ Annulosa Javaniea, 5.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 391

When spoken of might always be known by the termina-
üon:- thus if a subclass end in ata, a suborder might
eund In zta; a'section in ana, a subsection in ena; a tribe

e na, a subtribe in ona; a stirps in una; and a family
Mide, the genera being left free.

With regard to their characters, we are not to place
ur groups upon Procrustes bed, and lop or torture
em to accommodate them to every standard we may
hàve fixed for them : assuming one set of characters for
Süborders, another for tribes, and so for every other
Stoup ; for the value of characters varies, —those that in
Some cases are common to an Order, in others indicate
only sections, or tribes, or genera and species, or some-
times even sexes. What is constant in one group is not
39 in another, and vice versá; so that it is a vain labour
t0 search for a universal character. If it is our wish
"éally to trace the labyrinth of nature, we can only ac-
"omplish it by a careful perusal and examination of her
Various groups. It is singular how much and how far
Various Entomologists, and those of the very highest
class, have been misled by a kind of favouritism to give
too üniversal a currency to certain characters for which
they have conceived a predilection. Some have been
the champions of the antenne; others of the trophi;
Others again of the wings; and others of the metamor-
p hosis, These are all characters which within certain
mits lead us right, and are an index to a natural group;
"Cif we follow them further, we leave the system of na-

ture, and are perplexed in the mazes of a method?.
et us now see whether we can pitch upon any sub-

+

* See above, p. 356.

5 92 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

order which will afford an example of every group that
we have lately named... Mr. MacLeay, from a const
deration of the larvee of that Order, has divided the Co-
leoptera into five primary groups that may be denomi-
nated Suborders. Whether these are all natural groups
has: not yet been made sufficiently evident. It answers
my present purpose, however, to assume it as proved. I
select therefore his Chilopodimorpha for my suborder,
altering the name as above proposed to Chilopodimor
phita: for my Section I take the Predaceous beetles, 9T
Adephaga of M. Clairville, distinguished by having the
upper lobe of their maxillee biarticulate and palpiform ;77
these I would denominate Adephagana, or devourers. They
consist of two groups forming two subsections, the 02°
terrestrial and the other aquatic; which I would name
following Mr. MacLeay, Geodephagena and Hydrode-
phagena. Thèse two subsections are each resolvable
into two Tribes constituted by Linné’s four genera Cicin-
dela and Carabus; Dytiscus and Gyrznus. The first tribe
remarkable for the swiftness of their flight, I would name
Eupterina, or fliers; the second, equally noted for 7 un-
ning, Eupodina, or runners; the third Eunechina, 9'
swimmers; and the fourth Gyronechina, or swimmers in
a circle. . The second of these groups, the Eupodina, 91€
resolvable into two other groups or Subtribes; one dis-
tinguished by having the cubit or anterior tibia notcheds
(which, from their being in general not very brilliant in
colour, I would call Amaurona, or obscure); the other
having the cubit without a notch, (which, from the bril-
liancy of many of them, I would name Lamprona; %
splendid). These subtribes are both further resolvable
into two or more faces (Stirpes). I select that to which

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 393

the crepitant Eupodina belong, containing those which
from their usually truncated elytra MM. Latreille and
Dejean have named Truncatipennes*: these, to shorten

the name, I call Trunczpennuna. This brings us down to

the lowest group formed out of ‘genera and subgenera ;
or the family, which from its principal genus is named
Brachinida, and which leads us to the genus Brachinus;
‘nd the subgenus Aptine. Thus we get the following
Scale, expressing every division of an Order, till we ar-
tive at its lowest term, or the species that compose it.
SUBORDER
Chilopodimorphita M*L.
SECTION
Adephagana Clairv.
SUBSECTION
Geodephagena M'L.
TRIBE
Eupodina
SUBTRIBE
Amaurona
STIRPS
Truncipennuna Latr.
FAM1iLY
Brachinide
GENUS
Brachinus
SUBGENUS
Aptine.

In the construction of this scale I have endeavoured

* Coléopt. @ Europe 1. 75.

394: SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

to steer clear of being led by any system, but, with the
exception of the Suborder, which I assume, to resolve t

into natural groups gradually decreasing in value, 9T
tending to the lowest term, which appear all of them t9
have been considered as such by preceding Entomolo-
gists. The four Tribes into which the two subsections
Geodephagena and Hydradephagena appear resolvable;
are not only distinguished by the characters of the pet
fect insect, but likewise by those of their larvee, which
are constructed on four distinct types; those of the GY-
ronechina being the most perfectly Chilopodimorphou$
of the whole, and those of the Zunechina the least so*
The former appear rather to form an osculant tribe, 0
. one without the circle, than one within it; and to be go
ing off towards another section, including Hydrophilus,
Spheridium, &c. I must observe, that between Dytiscus
and Hydrophilus there is a striking agreement both in
their form and habits in their larvee*, and even in seve
ral characters in the perfect insect; so as in many Tre
spects to generate a doubt whether they ought not fo
enter the same circle and to follow each other. Yet the
change of habits in the latter, which from a carnivorous
larva becomes a herbivorous beetle; the consequent
change of structure in their oral organs, their antenn&®»
and other striking differences; and the evident interve?-
tion of the Gyronechina and some other osculant tribes
between the two, forbid their union in one and the same
circle. ;

* Vor. II. p. 167—. I formerly hinted (Ibid. p. 164.) that the
larva of Cicindela L. may be regarded as Araneidiform : this is JUT*
ther confirmed by its having eight eyes, (and not six,) as I have since
discovered, and by the aspect of its large head and prothorax. The
other larvæ of the Adephagana have twelve eyes.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 395

vi. I need not say more on those larger groups of an |
Order which conduct us to what are denominated its
Senera; but upon these last it will not bea waste of your
time to enlarge a little. In the last edition of the Sy-
Stema Nature, and in its appendixes, Linné has described
2840 species of Jnsecta and Arachnida, which he divided
into 83 genera, allowing upon an average nearly 35
Species to each genus. From the paucity of the mate-
rials, therefore, of which his system was constructed,
there was no loud call upon him for numerous genera.
But now more than thirty times that number are said to
have found a place in the cabinets of collectors, and
there is good reason for thinking that perhaps half that
are in existence are as yet undiscovered ;—this makes
it à matter of absolute necessity to subdivide the Linnean
genera, which in fact, with regard to the majority of them,
Were the primary groups of his Orders, rather than an
approximation to theultimate. But this principle may
be carried too-far: for it is the nature of man to pass
from one extreme to the other: and this seems to me to
be the case when it is proposed to make genera the ez-
treme term of subdivision before you arrive at species.

Bui itis argued by a very acute Zoologist, that simplicity,

Perspicuity, and. room for necessary variations are best
Preserved by distinguishing these subdivisions each by
an appropriate name? :—Granted. But still it is only a
Choice of evils. It would require probably more than
10,000. names to designate them, were every extreme
Sroup distinguished by a name: but if Mr. MacLeay's

> Mr. MacLeay says that more than 100,000 Annulosa exist in

“ollections.— Hor. Eni. 469.
Vigors in Zoolog. Journ. I. ii. 188.

S96 : SYSTEM OF INSECTs.

admirable pattern exhibited in his genus Phanaeus* were
followed, it would not call for more than 2000—could
the trifling difficulty occasioned sometimes by the disco-
very of a new group, be set against the advantage of hav-
ing only 2000 names to commit to memory instead of
10,000? But if, after all, it is judged best to name sub- .
genera, M. Savigny's excellent plan of distinguishing
them. by a plural termination in @ would diminish the
weight of the above objection, and might be used with
advantage.

When the component parts of any minor group differ
from another,—for the most part in important characters;
indicating some tangible difference in their habits and
economy, and confirmed by peculiarities in their larvæ;
and these differences run through the whole, except that
as usual they grow weaker as it is passing off to another ;
especially where they are striking in the centre or type
of the group, —this is alwaysalegitimate genus: but where
the characters assumed are very slight, and nothing pe-
culiar in its habits, economy or larva, warrant such di-

stinction, it ought not to be conferred.

vii. I must next say a word concerning species and
varieties. A species is a natural object whose differences
from those most nearly related to it had their origin
when it came from the hands of its Creator; while
those that characterize a variety, have been produced
since that event. As we do not know the value and
weight of the momenta by which climate, food, and other
supposed fortuitous circumstances operate upon animal

* Hor. Entomolog. 125—.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 397

forms, we cannot point out any certain diagnostic by which
In all cases a species may be distinguished from a va-
riety ;—for those characters that in some are constant, in
Others vary, In general, where there is no difference im
Jor "h, appendages and organs, proportions, sculpture and
larvce,—colour alone, especially in insects inhabiting the
seme district, only indicates a casual variety. Thus Apho-
dius luridus F. has sometimes pale elytra with the strize
black (Scarabeus nigro-sulcatus E.B.): at others it has
black spots between the strise, as in the type: in a third
Variety the elytra are black at the base and pale at the
apex (Sc. varius E.B.); and lastly, in a fourth they are in-
tirely black (Sc. gagates E.B.) ;—yet all these in every
Other respect precisely correspond. But the converse
9f this will scarcely hold good ; for doubtless minor dif-

ferences of structure are sometimes produced by a dif-

ferent food and climate: which may probably account for
Some variations eget vable i in the individuals mens:

. considered the kind and value of the groups
into which Annulose animals, and more especially insects,
May be divided, I shall next call your attention to their
Composition. There are five numbers and their multi-
Ples which seem more particularly to prevail in nature :
Namely, Two— Three—Four— Five and Seven. But
though these numbers are prevalent, no oné of them can
be deemed universal. The binary number we see exem- .
plified when two branches, so to speak, diverge from a
Common stem,—as in the Vi egetableand Animal kingdoms E
the terrestrial and aquatic Predaceous beetles; in the

thalerophagous and saprophagous Lamellicorn ones; in

398 | SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

the Anoplura and Thysanura; the Chilopoda and Chi-
lognatha amongst Apterous insects; in the Scorpionidea
and: Aranidea amongst the Arachnida; and in the Ma-
crura and Brachyura amongst the Decapod. Crustacea
Again, in other cases three seems to be the most promi-
nent number: this takes place sometimes with regard to
the primary groups of an Order, or what I denominate
the Suborders. ‘Thus we have the Diurnal, Crepuscular:
and Nocturnal Lepidoptera; the Linnean genera Blatt,
Mantis, and Gryllus constitute the Orthoptera ; and other
instances of this number might be produced in some
minor groups. But that which appears to prevail most
widely in nature is what may be called the quazerno-qui-
nary; according to which, groups consist of four minor
ones; one of which is excessively capacious in comparison
of the other three, and is always divisible into two ; which
gives, five of the same degree, but of which, two have #
greater affinity to each other than they have to the other
three*.. Mr. W. S. MacLeay; in the progress of his in-
quiries to ascertain the station of Scarabeus sacer L., dis-
covered that the thalerophagous and saprophagous- Pe-
talocerous beetles resolved. themselves each into a circle
containing fve such groups. And having got this princi-
ple, and finding that this number and its multiples pre-
' vailed much in. nature, he next applied it to the Animal
Kingdom in general: and from the result of this investi-
gation, it appeared to him that it was nearly, if not alto .
gether, universal". . Nearly at the same time a discovery
almost parallel was made and recorded by three eminent

a Linn. Trans. xiv. 56—. It is to be observed, however, that
what Mr. MacLeay calls the aberrant groups are usually also resolv-

able into two. . > Hor. Entomolog. 318, et passim.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 399

Botanists, MM. Decandolle, Agardh, and. Fries, with
regard to some groups of the Vegetable Kingdom? ; and
More recently Mr. Vigors has discovered the same qui-
nary arrangement in various groups of birds. This isa
Most remarkable coincidence, and proves that the distri-
bution of objects into fives is very general in nature. I
Should observe, however, that according to Mr. Mac-
Leay’s system, as stated in his Hore Entomologice, if
the osculant or transition groups are included, the total
umber is seoez *:—these are groups small in number
both of genera and species, that intervene between and

Connect the larger ones. Each of these osculant groups
May be regarded as divided into £wo parts, the one be-
nging to the upper circle and. the other to the lower ;
*9 that each circle or larger group is resolvable into five
‘Nterior and two exterior ones, thus making up the num- ©
ber seven. Though Mr. MacLeay regards this quinary

rangement of natural objects as very general, it does
not appear that he looks upon it as absolutely universal,
since he states organized matter to begin in a dicho-
lomyt and he does not resolve its ultimate groups into

Ve species; nor am I certain that he regards the penul-

timate groups as invariably consisting of five ultimate

Ones, In Copris M*L. I seem in my own cabinet to

Possess ten or twelve distinct types*; and in Phanæus,
the fifth type, which Mr. MacLeay regards as contain-

* Linn. Trans. ubi supr. Mr. W. S. MacLeay informs me that
' Agardh has found that the distribution of Fuci is regulated by
© same law. b Zool. Journ. ii. 319—.

° Vor, III. p. 15. note ?. 4 Hor. Entomolog. 199.

inis l. Copris Hesperus; 2. C. reflexa; 3. C. Sabeus ; 4. C. lu-
"aris s B. or Carolina; 6. C. Gidipus; 7. C. Midas; 8. C. capu-
Bur 9 7 Bucephalus; 10. C. Molossus; 11? C. Eridanus; 12.

` Secdentata K.

/

400 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

ing insects resembling all the other types?, appears to me
rather divided into /:vo; one formed by P. carnifex, Vin-
dex, igneus, &c., and the other by P. splendidulus, flor j-
ger, Kirbii, &c.

The great point which demands our attention in con-
sidering a numerical arrangement of the Kingdoms °
Nature is the value of the component members of each
group. It is by no means difficult to divide a Kingdoms
a Class, or an Order into two, or three, or five, or seve?
or more groups, according to any system we may be in-
clined to favour; but it is not so easy to do this so that
the groups shall be of equal rank. Yet it seems Te
quisite that in grouping our objects, as we descend t0-
wards the lowest term we should resolve each only into
its primary elements, and of them form the next group;
and so on till we come to species. When I say of equal
rank, I do not mean an exact parity between the mem-
bers into which a group is primarily resolvable, —because
there will always be a degradation in descensu from the
perfection of the type; but merely that parity (to use ?
metaphor) that there is between children of the same
mother, differing in their relative ages and approach t?
the perfection of their nature. Perhaps it may be ob-

served with respect to the quinary system, that this coP
dition is not complied with, since two of the groups take?
per se appear really to form one group; or to be muc

nearer to each other than to the remaining groups. But
when it is taken into consideration that this great group»

always resolvable into two, is the typical group, and that

the two are really equal, or rather superior in value ad
the three others, the objection seems to vanish.

* Hor, Entomolog. 518.

E

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 401

With regard to all numerical systems we may observe,
at since Variation is certainly one of the most universal
“Ws of nature, we may conclude that different numbers
Prevail in different departments, and that all the num-
“ts above stated as prevalent are ‘often resolvable or re-
"Cible into each other. So that where Physiologists
pear to differ, or think they differ, they frequently
*eally agree,

th

u. The Aumicury Creator, when he clothed the
world that he had made with plants, and peopled it with
mals, besides the manifestation of his own glory,

a : :
Bears to have had £o most important purposes in
lew

ie i—the one, to provide a supply for the mutual wants

ET various living objects he had created, for the
Muance of the species, and for the maintenance
lys. due proportion, as to numbers, of each kind, so
all might subserve to the good of the whole; and
* other, that by them he might zzstruct his creature
an in. such civil, physical, moral and spiritual truths,

a : ; EES yd
: Vere calculated to fit him for his station in the visible
orld

A » and gradually prepare him to become an inhabi-
ant

of that invisible one for which he was destined.
T € first of these purposes was best promoted by crea-

ln : T TRE 3

á 8 things ** according to their kind,” with sexes monoe-
Ous o |

Or

ther

ar ; :
ge a common function. This we see to be the case
Sehepan
[i

dicecious ; that groups of beings related to each
> and agreeing in their general structure, might dis-

Y in nature; for where there is an affinity in the
Meture, there is usually an affinity in the function. The

*—0r the instruction of man in his primeval state of
“gtity and purity,—was best secured by placing before
VOL, ry, 2D |

402 . SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

him for his scrutiny a book of emblems or symbols in
which one thing, either by its form or qualities, or both,
might represent another. If he was informed by his Crea-
tor that the works of creation constituted such a book, by
the right interpretation of which he might arrive at spr
ritual verities as well as natural knowledge, curiosity
and the desire of-information concerning these high 8?
important subjects would stimulate him to the St" y
of the mystic volume placed before him; in the pes
gress of which he would doubtless be assisted by that
Divine guidance, which even now is with those W T
honestly seek the truth. Both divines and philosophe?
have embraced this opinion, which is built upon the
word of Gop itself è.

This last purpose of the Creator was the root of the
analogies, connecting different objects with each othe”
that have no real affinity, observable in the works ?
creation: so that from the bottom to the top of the $c? i
of being, there is many a series of analogous form? -
well as of concatenated ones; and the intire syste?? A
nature is representative, as well as operative: it is 8 kan
of Janus bifrons, which requires to be studied in two 99
pects looking different ways. To what degree of now"
ledge the primeval races of men attained after the fal
by the contemplation and study of this book of nati
we are no where informed; but we learn from the highe*

: - : xiii.
a The most natural and consistent interpretation of Lo. see
“ew

12, Baeropeey yee cots Ò? sgoz TOS ev aimypari, is, that - all
now as it were in à mirror the glory of God reflected enigma, c
by the things that he has made.” Comp. Rom. i. 20—. as the
viour (Luke x. 19.) calls serpents and scorpions the powe” ^ che

enemy; which can only mean that they are figures or symbols
enemy.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS; 403

thority that the revelation that Gop thus made of him-
Self was in time corrupted, by those that professing them-
‘elves to be wise became fools, to the grossest idolatry,
Which sunk men in the lowest depths of sensuality, vice,
"Nd wickedness?.

à no country was this effect more lamentably stri-
8 than in Egypt, whose gods were all selected ‘from
* animal and vegetable kingdoms.

Kin

" Who knows not to what monstrous gods, my friend,
The mad inhabitants of Egypt bend ?
The snake-devouring ibis these inshrine, te
Those think the crocodile alone divine;

Others where Thebes’ vast ruins strew the ground,
And shatter’d Memnon yields a magic sound,

Set up a glittering brute of uncouth shape, *
And bow before the image of an ape!

Thousands regard the hound with holy fear,

Not one Diana :—and "tis dangerous here

To violate an onion, or to stain

The sanctity of leeks with tooth profane.

O holy nations, in whose gardens grow

Such deities 1” Juv.

This species of idolatry doubtless originally resulted
tom their having been taught that things 77 nature were
‘Mbols of things above nature, and of the attributes and
Slory of the Godhead. In process of time, while the cor-
ae remained, the knowledge which had been thus

Sed was lost, or dimly seen. The Egyptian priest-
“aad perhaps retained some remains of it; but by them
< Vas made an esoteric doctrine, not to be communicated
3 the profane vulgar, who were suffered to regard the

“Nous objects of their superstitious veneration, not as

^ Rom. i. 20, to the end of the chapter.
ZD2

404: SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

symbols, but as possessed of an inherent divinity: and
probably the mysteries of Isis in Egypt, and of Ceres at
Eleusis, were instituted, that this esoteric doctrine, which
was to be kept secret and sacred from the common peo"
ple, might not be lost.

But this kind of analogy is of a higher order than that
of which I am here principally to speak,—that, namely
which the various objects of nature bear to each other
This, however, though of a lower rank, is essentially
connected with the other, and leads to it; for it es”
blishes the principle, that created things are represent?"
tive or symbolical: and we find, when we view them “i
this light, that as we ascend from the lowest beings s
the scale of creation, we are led from one to another til
we reach the summit or centre of the whole, and 97^
thus conducted to the boundaries of this visible and 99^
terial system ; from whence we may conclude that we
ought not here to stop, but go on to something invisible
and extra-mundane, as the ultimate object intended to be
reflected from this great speculum of creation—the CRF
ATOR himself, and all those spirits, virtues, and power?
that have emanated from him. ;

The analogies which the various objects of the anr
mal kingdom mutually exhibit, have for the most part
been either overlooked by modern Physiologists, of hav?
been mistaken for characters that indicate affinity; acr
cumstance that has often perplexed or disrupted the”
systems. Dr. Virey appears to have been one a
first who obtained a general idea of the parallelism T
animals in this respect? ; and M. Savigny has contraste

* N. Dict. d' Hist. Nat. xx. 484. comp. ii. 30—.

=
SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 405

the Mandibulata and Haustellata of the insect tribes as
Presenting analogies to each other?*. But a countryman
9f our own (often mentioned with honour in the course

of our correspondence), peculiarly gifted by nature, and
qualifieq by education and his line of study for such
"Peculations, and possessing moreover the invaluable op-
Portunity of consulting at his ease one of the first Ento-
Nological cabinets in Europe, in a work that will for
wee couple his name with the science that he cultivates®,
~has first taught the Naturalist the respective value and
Teal distinctions of the two kinds of relationship that I
an now discussing. He has opened to the philosopher,
"ie moralist and the divine, that hitherto closed door by
Which our first parents and their immediate descendants
“ntered the temple of nature, and studied the symbols of
nowledge that were there presented to them: and in
addition to his labours (in numerous respects successful),
= endeavouring to trace out the natural groups of beings
Connected by affinity, has pointed out how they illustrate
“ach other by analogy; thus affording, as was before ob-
"lVede, a most triumphant reply to the arguments of
those modern sophists, who, from the graduated scale of
nities observable in creation, were endeavouring to
Prove that animals, in the lapse of ages, were in fact their ,
Wh creators4, .
For the more satisfactory elucidation of the subject
"fore us, I shall consider, first, how we are to distinguisb
Unities from analogies ; and then mention some of the

* Mem. sur les Anim. sans Vertébr. Y. 1. 20—.

h H x . € Vor IH 173—
, ore Entomologice. ita
* Ibid. p- 349. note <.

406 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

various instances of the latter that occur between insect
and other animals, arid betweeen different tribes of i
sects themselves.

To. know what characters denote affinity and what
are merely analogical, it must be kept in mind that the
former being predicated of beings in a series (whether
that series has its gyrations that return into themselves
or proceeds in a right line, or assumes any other inte"
mediate direction, it matters not), it cannot be satisfac
torily ascertained but by considering attentively the gt”
dual. approximation or recession of the structure to i
from a certain type in any point of such series. If, there
fore, you wish to ascertain whether the characters ™
which any given object resembles other objects in certat
groups, indicate affinity or only analogy, you must first
make yourself acquainted with the common features which
distinguish the animals known to belong to that group»
—either those relating to their structure, or to ther
habits and economy. If the object under your eye pa

takes in these characters more or less, in proportion -
it approaches the type or recedes from it, the relation 1
exhibits is that of affinity; but if, though it resembles

some members of it in several points of its structure it

differs from the whole group in the general features -
characteristic marks that distinguish it, the relation it
bears to those members is merely that of analogy. Thus
| for instance, Ascalaphus italicus in its antenne, the y
louring of its wings, and its general aspect; exhibits ?
| striking resemblance to a budterfly; yet a closer examini"
i tion of its characters will satisfy any one that it is in quite
a different series, and has no affinity whatever to that

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 407

Sthus, A departure, however, in only one respect from
What may be called the normal characters of its group,
does not annul the claim of any tribe of insects to remain
Nit; since this very often only indicates a retrocession
rom the type, and not a disruption of its ties of affinity.

hus the saw-flies (Tenthredo L.) differ from the other
. J'enoptera, though not in their pupse, yet more or less
I their larvae; but this alone cannot countervail their
agreement with that Order in their organs of manduca-
tion and motion, in their ovipositor, and in the other de-
tails of their structure”.

I have on a former occasion pointed out many of the -
Nalogies which take place between insects and other
Parts of the animal kingdom, and even between insects
“nd the mineral and vegetable kingdoms?: I shall now
“estme the subject more at large, but without recurring
© those Jast mentioned. In considering the analogies
Which connect insects with other animals, or which they
exhibit with respect to each other, we may have recourse
10 wo methods. We may either consider them as placed
Somewhere between the two extremes of a convolving
“ties, from which station we may trace these analogies
wards and downwards towards each limit; or we may
conceive them and other animals in this respect arranged
Ma number of series that are parallel to each other, in

" ich the opposite points are analogous. The first mode
a Perhaps best explain the analogies that exist between
Msects and other animals, and the last those between dif-
“Tent groups of insects themselves. I shall give an ex-
“mple or two of each method, beginning with the first.

* Bee above, p. 3/3—. — - » Vor. I. p. 7—.

408 l SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

There are two tribes in the animal kingdom that seem
placed in contrast to each other, both by their habits and
by their structure. One of these is carnivorous, liviÉ
by rapine and bloodshed, and cannot be rendered sub
servient to our domestic purposes; while the other is
herbivorous or granivorous, is quiet in its habits, 2?
easily domesticated. Amongst insects we find the 1€
presentatives of both: those of the first tribe are disti
guished by their predaceous habits, by the open attacks
or by the various snares and artifices which they employ
to entrap and destroy other insects. They may usually be
known by their powerful jaws or instruments of suction;
by their prominent or ferocious eyes ; by the swiftne®
of their motions, either on the earth, in the air, or in the
water; by their fraud and artifice in lying in wait for
their prey. Amongst the Coleoptera, the Predaceo®
beetles, —including the Linnean genera Cicindela, Cart-

_ bus, Dytiscus, and Gyrinus, —are of this description; 8P
| they symbolize those higher animals that by open sie
| ence attack and devour their prey :—íor instance, the
sharks, pikes, &c., amongst the fishes; the eagles, hawk*
&c., amongst the birds; and the whole feline ge!”
amongst the beasts. Similar characters give a simila”
relation of analogy to the Mantide and Libellulin®
amongst the Orthoptera and Neuroptera. The whole
family of Arachne, the larvee of the Myrmeleonina; &e

portray those animals that to ferocity add cunning 9?
stratagem, or suck the blood of their victims. The my
| riapods symbolize in a striking manner the Ophidia”

«reptiles. Look at an Julus, and both in its motions 9?
form you will acknowledge that it represents a living ser"
pent; next turn your eyes to a centipede or Scolopendr’s

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 409

and you will find it nearly an exact model of the skele-
ton of a dead one, the flat segments of its body resem-
bling the vertebrae, its curving legs the ribs, and its ve-

Nomous maxille the poison-fangs. The great body of
the Orthoptera, the Homopterous Hemiptera, the Lepido-
Ptera, and Trichoptera, afford no example of Predaceous ~
insects, All the analogies I have here particularized,
ascending from the insect, terminate in races of a corre-
Sponding character and aspect amongst the Mammalia,
and thus lead us towards man himself, or rather to men in
Whose minds those bad and malignant qualities prevail,
Which, when accompanied by power, harass and lay waste -
mankind ; and thus ascending from symbol to symbol, we
arrive at an animal who in his own person unites both
matter and spirit, and is thus the member both of a vi-
sible and invisible world: and we are further instructed
by these symbols, —perpetually recurring under different
forms, —in the existence of evil and malignant spirits,
Whose object and delight is the corporeal and spiritual
ruin of the noble creature who is placed at the head of
the visible works of Gop. |

The other tribe of animals that I mentioned of a milder
Character, may be looked upon as represented by many
herbivorous, or not carnivorous, insects; amongst others,
the Lamellicorn beetles imitate them by their remarkable
horns, so that they wear the aspect of miniature bulls, or
deer, or antelopes?, or rams, or goats, whether these
horns are processes of the head or of the upper jaws. 'The

* A remarkable imitation of an antelope's horn, in the possession

of R. D. Alexander, Esq. F.L.8., is figured in the fifth Number of the

Zoological Journal.

410 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

gregarious Hymenoptera, some of which form part of our
domestic treasures, may be regarded in some degree as
belonging to this department. From insects the ascent
upwards, with regard to form, is by some of the branchi-
ostegous fishes, which symbolize the horns of cattle; with
regard to character, by the various species of Cyprinus and
other similar genera.— Whether any of the reptiles may
be looked upon as falling into this division, I am not
sufficiently conversant with them to assert; but if any, the
Chelonians, ot tortoise and turtle tribes, are entitled to
that distinction. Amongst the birds, the Galline and Ar-
seres,—frori which Orders we derive our domestic poul-
try, whether terrestrial or aquatic,—and our game, form
the step next below the ruminants, or cattle: and we are
thus again led towards man, and are symbolically instruct-
éd in those domestic and social qualities which endear us
to each other, best promote the general welfare, and rer-
der us most like good spirits and the Divinity himself:
of whom the perpetual recurrence of animals exhibiting
these amiable and useful qualities is calculated to im-
press upon us some notion. I might mention many more
instances of ascending analogies; as from some of the Di-
ptera by the parrots, to the Quadrumanes or monkey
tribes—or from some of the Julide that roll themselves
into a ball, to the Armadillo; but these are sufficient to

set your mind at work upon the subject, so that you may
trace them for yourself ^ Nor shall I occupy your time
by pointing out how analogies may be traced from in-
sects downwards towards the lowest term in the scale of
animal life, but proceed to consider the analogies ob-
servable between insects themselves; in which I shall fol-

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 411

low the second method lately mentioned, and consider
them as arranged in parallel series.

In studying the analogies that take place between in-
Sects themselves, we should always bear in mind that our
Mquiry is not concerning an affinity which demands a
Correspondence in various particulars that are not neces-
Sary to constitute an analogy ; ; as, for instance, that there
Should be a mutual imitation in all the states of any two
insects, Wherever we discover a marked resemblance
between two perfect insects, there is a true analogy,
though their metamorphosis may differ; and where there
ls not that resemblance, though the metamorphosis may
agree, there is no analogy. In fact, insects are some-
times analogous in their frst state and not in their last;
and at other times analogous in their /as/ and not in their

Jirst. but the analogy is most perfect when it holds in
all their states: itthen, indeed, almost approaches to an
affinity, They may also be analogous to each other in A
their Aabits and economy, when there is little or no re-
Semblance in their form; and, vice versa, be analogous in /
their form and not in their habits. So that different sets
of analogies may be assumed as foundations for different
Systems, Thus Mr. MacLeay assumes the metamor-
Phosis as the basis of analogy between the corresponding
Orders of Mandibulata and Haustellata*, while M. Sa-
Vigny compares the perfect insects”: the result therefore

differs in some instances. I shall now lay before you.

in a tabular view their plans and my own.

P Hor. Entomolog. 456. Comp. Linn. Trans. xiv, e os
^ Mem. sur les Anim. sans Vertebr. Y. 1. 20—.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

SAVIGNY.

MANDIBULATA. HaAUsTELLATA.
Neuroptera ! ay Lepidoptera
Ascalaphus Papilio
Hymenoptera l Diptera
Eucera 7 U Tabanus
Orthoptera ! Homoptera
Locusta L. ^. V Cicada

Aptera \ Aphaniptera
Nirmus U Pulez.

MacLeay.

Trichoptera ......... Lepidoptera
Hymenoptera ....... Diptera
Coleoptera ............ Aptera
Orthoptera .......... .. Hemiptera
Neuroptera .........- Homoptera.

K. AND S.

Coleoptera ............ Hemiptera Leach
Orthoptera ....... Homoptera Leach
Neuroptera........... Lepidoptera
Hymenoptera Diptera.

In these two last columns, you see, I differ little from
M. Savigny: I merely exclude the <Aphaniptera as
forming an osculant Order, and I have added the Co-
leoptera and Heteropterous Hemiptera for reasons I shall
soon assign. From Mr. MacLeay I differ more widely;
which has resulted from our different ideas as to the.
mode of tracing analogies; his theory leading him to the

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 413

metamorphosis, and mine leading me? to the perfect insect,
for the foundation of our several systems. It remains that
I show how each of the pairs in my: columns represent
each other: but I must observe, that the analogies exhi-

bited by insects in the corresponding Orders of these
Columns are not equally striking in all their respective

members; but only in certain individual species or ge-

nera, more or less numerous, by which the nearest ap-
proach is made to the contrasted forms.

To begin with the Coleoptera and Heteropterous He-
miptera.—Both are distinguished by having an ample

prothoraz, a conspicuous scutellum, the neuration of their
Wings, the substance of the hard part of their hemely-
tra, which, as in Coleoptera, sometimes imitates horn
and sometimes leather, and is occasionally, like elytra,
lined with a Aypoderma? ; the articulation of the head.
with the trunk is likewise the same in both* : and some \ |
Heteropterous species so strikingly resemble beetles (Ly- -
geus brevipennis Latr., &c.), having little or no mem: /
brane at the end of their hemelytra, that they might
easily be mistaken for them. ‘These circumstances.prove,

I think, that this suborder is more analogous to the
Coleoptera than to the Orthoptera, with which it agrees
in scarcely any respect but its metamorphosis. The
Counterparts of this last Order indeed, instead of the
Feteropterous, are to be sought for amongst the Homo-
Pterous Hemiptera, various species of which exhibit a
most marked and multifarious analogy with numerous
Orthoptera. Many of both Orders (Cicada Latr., Lo-
custa L.), as you have heard long since, are signalized

* See above, p 373—. *. Vor, IU. pp. 373, 600.
* Ibid. p. 413.

414 SYSTEM OF- INSECTS,

by possessing the same powers of song, and produced
by an analogous organ? : a large proportion also of both
are endued with wonderful saltatorious powers, and their
posterior tibise are similarly armed; their legs in general
also are longitudinally angular, and the head in both
articulates with the trunk in the same manner’. In both
Orders also, the upper organs of flight are most com
monly tegmina, bit sometimes in both they are nearly
membranous, like wings. In Centrotus F. and Acrydium
F., the one Homopterous and the other Orthopterous, the
front is bilobed, the eyes are small; there are only tw?
stemmata between the eyes; the prothorax is conspi-
cuous, and behind is producted into a long scutellifor™
process, under which all the parts also are analogous;
the abdomen articulates with the trunk in the same way»
is similar in shape in both, and consists of short inoscu*
lating segments. Some Fulgoride and Truwalides agre®
also in their producted front. Other analogous charac
ters might be named between these tribes, but these are
sufficient to confirm M. Savigny's opinion. That the
Neuroptera present analogies to the Lepidoptera, though
they differ so widely from them in their metamorphosis
and habits, is evident from the instance lately adduced
of Ascalaphus italicus, which was described as a butterfly
by Scopoli*; and many of the Libellulina, by their wings»
partly transparent and partly opaque, and by the shape
of those. organs and of their bodies, imitate the Helico-
nian butterflies: and this resemblance is much more
striking than any that occurs between the perfect insect*
in the Neuroptera and Homopterous Hemiptera. with

. ^ Vor. II. p. 399—. » Vor, III. p. 414.
€ Ent. Carn. 168. n. 446.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. ALS

regard to the Hymenoptera and Diptera the analogy is
undisputed, and must strike every beholder; and one
would almost say it was a real affinity, were it not that
the resemblance is not only general between Order and
Order, but that almost every Hymenopterous tribe has
its counterpart amongst the Diptera; the saw-flies?
for instance, the ichneumons, the various false-wasps?,
the false-bees*, the bees, the humble-bees, the ants,
&c., severally find there a representative that wears
its livery and general aspect: a circumstance which
evidently proves that it was part of the plan’ of the
CnzATORtO place them in contrast with each other, Were
I to pursue this subject further, it might not be difficult
to show that were the tribes of Mandibulata or of Haus-
tellaia also arranged in columns, analogies would be dis-
Coverable between their corresponding points: this
seems to be Mr. MacLeay's opinion?; and it is worth
your pursuing the subject further, which cannot but
prove very interesting.

But though the general analogy of these columns is

that of Order to Order, yet individual species in each ^

Order sometimes find their representatives in a different \
one from that with which they generally are contrasted ;
—thus some Diptera, as Culex, by the scales on the veins
and other parts of their wings, are analogous to Lepi-

doptera rather than Hymenoptera®; as is also the genus /
= sychoda Latr. by its form. :

We come now to the consideration of a question not

* Meigen has figured a Dipterous insect exactly resembling a Cim-
bex : but not having his work, I cannot refer to the plate.

^ Predones Latr., &c. * Andrena F., &c.

* Hor. Entomolog. 437. ° Vor. III. p. 645.

416 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

easy to be decided, —I mean, which Order of insects is
to have the precedency, and which is the connecting link

that unites them to Vertebrate animals.

Linné (and Mr. MacLeay seems in this to coincide
with him) considered the Coleoptera as at the head of the
Class of insects; De Geer thought the Lepidoptera e0-
titled to that honour; Latreille and Cuvier begin with
the Aptera: Marcel de Serres favours the Orthoptera*s
and others, on account of their admirable economy, have
made the Hymenoptera the princes of the insect world”.
If the claim to priority was to be decided by the exqui-
siteness of instincts and the benefits conferred upon the
human race, doubtless it would be in favour of the last-
mentioned insects. Ifthe power to do mischief carried
it, and to lay waste the earth, the Orthoptera would be
entitled as much as any to the bad pre-eminence. If
beauty, and grace, and gaiety, and splendour of colours
were the great requisite, and the law enjoined, Det”
pulchriori,—the Lepidoptera would doubtless win the
throne. But if perfection and solidity of structure, 8*
they ought, are to regulate this point; we must, I think,
with the illustrious Swede, assign the palm to the C0
leoptera. If we consider these in all their parts, the
organs for flight only excepted, they seem more perfectly
formed and finished than the insects of any other order.
But which of the Coleopterous tribes are entitled to the
precedency? Linné placed the Lamellicorn beetles at
the head of the order, beginning with the Dynastidee,
probably led by some characters which seem to connect
these with the Branchiostegous fishes. In this he was
followed by Fabricius. But Latreille and most modern

a Mem. du Mus. 1819, 136. b Rifferschw. de Ins. Genital. 9-

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 417

Entomologists have begun with Cicindela L. and the
"ther Predaceous beetles. I am not certain what are
ite, MacLeay’s sentiments on this subject; but from
What he says in his Annulosa Javanica 4, it does not ap-
Pear that he is a convert to the latter opinion. Bulk
and Strength seem the most striking characteristics of
the former tribe, which represent the cattle or ruminants
“Mongst Vertebrate animals.—Strength united with agi-
ty and a considerable portion of grace and symmetry

“vidently confers a degree of pre-eminence upon the lat-
oy symbolizing the feline race, which seems to throw
20 small weight into their scale.

There are two Classes of Vertebrate animals. with
Which insects may appear to claim kindred. The fishes,
“nd the reptiles. Fishes in their fins exhibit no small
"&emblance to insects; the pectoral and. ventral ones
“presenting their arms and legs, and the dorsal ones

cit wings: Pegasus Draco in this last respect is not
Unlike a butterfly>. In some genera- (Ostracion, Pega-
“Us; &c.), like insects the animal is covered with a hard
Shell or crust, formed by the union of its scales. The
Oral cirrhi of many fishes seem analogous to the palpi
of insects ; and in some a pair longer than the rest re-
Present their anienne@*. Another circumstance in which

"sects and fishes correspond, is the wonderful variety of
Orms, often in the greatest degree eccentric, that occurs
m both Classes. Some of the cyclostomous fishes, as

™moccetus Dum., Gastrobranchus Bloch, are supposed
? Connect the fishes with the Annulosa, by means of the

` Annos; Javan. i. 1.
* N. Dict. d' Hist. Nat. xxv. 115—. xxvii, t. M. & Ads
* Piso Hist. Nat. 63. Curui l. Jundia v.

Vor, IV. 2r

418 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

Annelida as an osculant Class’, which Mr. MacLeay 1
gards as the passage to the Chilopoda®: his Mandibulat?
he considers as passing into the Anoplura by means 9
some osculant Order as yet unknown*. But I must com
fess I can see no good ground for this last transition *77
the Anoplura appear much more nearly related to Pura
especially by the apterous species Psocus pulsatortts ?
than to any Coleopterous insect. But having stated these
opinions, I shall leave you to draw your own conclusions
as the question is still perplexed with many difficulties: ~
am ready to admit that some Vertebrates approach pen
to the Annelida; but that it is through them alone that
they are connected with insects, is not at present clear
With regard to reptiles, they seem to be connecte
with insects by several characters. In the Chelonians:
the skeleton merges in the external. carapace e
shell; the Ophidians change their skin like Jarr?
the Batrachians undergo metamorphoses ; some of ie
Saurians also have their changes; and the Draco volans

€
b 4 5 .
has wings somewhat analogous to those of insect

Were I to be asked what Order of insects could con"

` k . "ES p^

nect with reptiles, I should point to the Orthopter@ e
pecially Gryllus L., which by their noise and saltat?
rious powers not a little resemble frogs; and the Jarv®
of some strikingly imitate their form’: and of other
even that of a lizard’. But these resemblances, after ?'"
may only indicate analogies.

a N. Dict. d? Hist. Nat. xxvii. 235. Hor. Entomolog. 203.

b Ibid. 281—. ° Ibid. 354,390, 397. Nir-

4 This insect, except in its antennz, so nearly resembles 2 , si
mus, that it might be mistaken for one. See Coquebert Tn

Toon, i. t. ii. f. 14. * Vor. IH. p. 592.
à xk b. f. 79:
f Fuessl. Archiv, t: lii. f.5. — * Stoll Saut. de Pass. f. XX.” J

LETTER XLVIII.

HISTORY OF ENTOM OLOG Y.

ÁPTER the very general idea that I have attempted to
“mbody for you of the System of Insects ; of the groups
m Which nature has arranged them, and their mutual
"elations: it will not be out of place, if I next state to
You what has been effected by Entomologists towards
"educing them to order: or, in other words, if I give you
“ome account of the various Methods and Systems*, be-
Suning with the earliest, that have appeared and had
ĉir day, which will include a history of the progress of
Pur science from its commencement to its present era.

In writing the history of any science, two modes pre-
“nt themselves. We may either give a chronological re-
"lew of all the circumstances and publications connected
“ith it; or content ourselves with a rapid survey, dwell-
ng only on the principal epochs, and those lights of the
Science who by their immortal labours gave birth to

em. The latter is that on every account best suited

9 our present purpose, which I shall therefore here
adopt, |

There seem to me to be seven principal epochs into
Which the History of Entomology may be divided: viz.

* See above, p. 355 —.

ee Be

420 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

1. The Era of the Ancients. 2. The Era of the revival
of the science after the darkness of the middle age*
3. The Era of Swammerdam and Ray, or of the Meta-
morphotic System. 4. The Era of Linné, or of the Alary
System. 5. The Era of Fabricius, or of the Maxillary
System. 6. The Era of Latreille, or of the Eclectté
System: And 7. The Era of MacLeay, or of the Quinary
System. All of these appear to form important point
or resting-places, in the progress of the science toward?
its acme; and of each of these I shall now proceed p
give you a brief account.

1. The Era of the Ancients. To ascertain what atten"
tion was paid to insects in the earliest ages, we must
have recourse to the most ancient of records, the old
Testament. In this sacred volume we are informed that
after the Creation Gop brought the creatures to Adar
that he might name them*. Now the first man, in bis
unimpaired state of corporeal, mental, and spiritu?
soundness, under the divine guidance doubtless impose
upon them names significant of their qualities or struc
ture; which according to Plato was a work above huma”
wisdom, and on account of which the ancient Hebrew?
deduced that Adam was a philosopher of the highe*
endowments. Whether on this great and interesting
occasion he gave names to individual species, or only ?
natural groups, does not clearly appear. But probably
as they were created, sd were they brought before hif
“ According to their kinds *." 4

Subsequently Moses will be thought to have possess? |
no ordinary knowledge of insects, if we suppose, 3° (o

* Genes. ii, 19—. > Pol. Synops. on Genes. ii.
© Genes. 1. 25.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 421

Ingenious remarks of Professor Lichtenstein? render
Probable, that he distinguishes as clean insects the Fabri-
“lan genera Gryllus, Locusta, Truxalis,and Acheta, which
~ 8 person unobservant of these animals would have con-
founded together. This discrimination presupposes this
knowledge of their general characters, not only in the
Jewish lawgiver, but also in the people themselves to
whom the precept was addressed, to whom it would
otherwise have been de ignotis.

Allusion is made in Holy Writ to insects of almost
every one of the modern Orders”, ‘They are represented
as employed divinitüs sometimes to annoy the enemies
of the Israelites, and at others to punish that people
themselves when they apostatized from their God. The
Prophets frequently introduce them as symbols of ene-
Mies that lay waste or oppress the church: as the fly of
the Ethiopians or Egyptians; the dce of the Assyrians;
and the Jocust of the followers of Mahomet. and other
Similar destroyers*. "Phat Solomon, amongst other ob-
jects to the investigation of which his divinely inspired
Wisdom directed him, did not deem insects, those * Little
things upon the earth," unworthy of his attention, we

Now from Scripture*; butas his physical writings are -
lost, we are ignorant whether he treated of their natural
arrangement, their economy and history, or of the in-
Sruetion they afford analogically considered. Where

* Linn. Trans-iv. 51—. See Levit. xi. 20~.

k d The Neuroptera appears to be the only Order not so signalized.
8 worthy of notice that insects are usually noticed generically
And not specificalls y in Scripture, On the insects of Scripture see

chart Mierozoic. ii. 1. iv. ° Isai. vii, 18. Joclii. Rev, ix, 3.
à Prov, xxx. 24—. * 1 Kings iv. 33.

4.22: HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

he has referred to them incidentally, it is generally with
this latter view.

If we turn from the word and people of Gop to the
Lovers of wisdom (as they modestly styled themselves) of
the heathen world, and their writings; we shall discern
amongst them.a great light shining, the beams of which
illuminate even our own times. In the illustrious Stagy~
rite we recognize—** The-father of philosophy, at least
of our philosophy, who, rising superior to the darkness
in which he lived, darted his penetrating glance through
all nature, and established principles which a long course
of ages of inquiry have but confirmed. With Aristotle
begins the real History of science: and how much 50-
ever he may have erred upon particular points, the great-
ness of his conceptions and the justness of his ideas, 7
the whole entitle him to our high veneration. His la-
bours in the investigation of the Animal Kingdom bav? ,
laid the foundation of the knowledge we now possess a.”
This language of the learned President of the Linnea®
Society is particularly applicable to what this great and
original genius has effected in Entomology. We have
seen upon a former occasion?, that Linné himself bad
not those precise ideas of the limits of the Class Insect”
which Aristotle so many centuries before him had
adopted. In stating the obligations of Entomology f?
this true seavant, I shall begin by laying before you ^
tabular view of what may be called his system, as far 9
I have been able to collect it from his works, especially

his History of Animals.

^ Linn. Trans. i. 5. r Vou. HE. p. 6.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

{ Coleoptera‘. ;
| Pedetica = Orthoptera saltatoria Latr.*
| Astomata= Hemiptera Latr.f
Psyche = Lepidoptera®.
f Pterota vel é

: majora— Neuroptera L. Ortho-
| Ptilota? J P

Tetraptera ptera cursoria Latr.^? i
Opisthocentra= Hymenoptera LAN

Emprosthocentra = Culex, Sto-
moxys, Tabanus, &c.

|
L

Pterota simul § Myrmex — — Formica L,
et Aptera? t Pygolampis— Lampyris L.

L Aptera*. :

It may be further stated, that Aristotle perceived also
the distinction between the Mandibulata and Haustellata
9t modern authors: for he observes, that-some insects
having teeth are omnivorous; while others, that have
only a tongue, are supported by liquid food'. He ap-
Pears to have regarded the Hymenoptera, or some of
them, as forming a third subclass; since he clearly al-
ludes to them, when he says that many have teeth, not
for feeding, but to help them in fulfilling their instincts”.

From the above statement it will appear that this great
Philosopher had no contemptible notion, —though he has
Only distinguished three of them as larger groups by ap-
Propriate names,—of the majority of the Orders of Insects

minora- Musca, Tipula, &c.
Diptera* {

* Aristotle calls winged insects Pterota when he would distinguish
‘em from those that are apterous, and Péilota when he contrasts
th em with birds. (Comp. Hist. Anim. l. iv. c. 1. with L 1. c. 5.) Some-
“Mes he calls birds thus contrasted Schizoptera, and insects Holo-
Plera. De Anim. Incess. c. 10.
* Hist, Anim. liv.c. l. | * Ibid. — * Ibid. l, i. c. 5.
" Ibid. 1. iv. c. 7. f Ibid. € Ibid. l. v.c. 19.
* Ibid. 1. i. c. 5. . i Jbid.and |. iv. c. 7. UTER,
* Ibid. 1. viii, c. 11. m Gir. Ov Toons xocesy exe 000v Totg cern?
“Arne, Aazy means Strength of mind, Fortitude, Strenuousness, also
elp :—it here probably signifies their strenuous use of their oral
gans in fulfilling their instincts. De Partib, Anim. l. iv. c, 5.

494 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

at present admitted. His Coleoptera, Psyche, and Di-
ptera are evidently such. His idea of Hemiptera seems
taken solely from the Cicada or Tettix: but the mar-
ner in which he expresses himself concerning it, e
having no mouth, but furnished instead with a lingur
form organ resembling the proboscis of Dipzera*, prove?
that he regarded it as the type of a distinct group. Since
he considers the saltatorious Orthoptera as forming such
` a group, it is probable that he included the cursoriouU*
ones with the Neuroptera in his majora section of T "3
traptera ; and the resemblance of many of the Mantide
to the Neuroptera is so great, that this mistake would not
be wonderful. His division of the Diptera is quite 2
tificial.

How far Aristotle’s ideas with regard to genera and
species attained to any degree of precision, is not easily
ascertained: in other respects his knowledge of insects
was more evident. As to their anatomy, he observes
that their body is usually divided into three primary sc"
ments,—4Zead, trunk, and abdomen; that they have an
intestinal canal,—in some straight and simple, in othe!
contorted,—extending from the mouth to the anus; tha!
the Orthoptera have a ventricle or gizzard ^, He bad
noticed the drums of Cicada, and that the males only
are vocal. Other instances of the accurate observatio?
of this great man might be adduced, but enough has
been said to justify the above encomiums. His princ
pal error was that of equivocal generation.

Little is known with regard to the progress of othet
Greek Naturalists in entomological science. It aP

à Hist, Anim, l. iv. c. 7. 5 fhid.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 495

Pears probable, from an epithet by which Hesiod dis-
tinguishes the spider—air-flying *, that the fact of these
insects traversing the air was at that time no secret.
Apollodorus, as we learn from Pliny *, was the first mo-
"ographer of insects, since he wrote a treatise upon scor-
Plons, and described nine species. But like many other

Zoologists, by mistaking analogy for affinity, he has in-
eluded a winged insect, probably a Panorpa, amongst
his scorpions. From the time of Aristotle, however, to
Pliny, no writer is recorded, with the exception of those
before alluded to *, that appears to have attended much
to insects. They are indeed incidentally noticed by Theo-
Phrastus, Dioscorides, Virgil, Ovid, &c., but without
“ny material addition to the stock of entomological
knowledge bequeathed to us by the Stagyrite. Even
Pliny’s vast compendium, as it professed to be, of the
Natural history of the globe, was in many respects little
more than a compilation from that great philosopher.
Still, however, though he does not appear to have paid
much practical attention to insects,—which indeed, con-
Sidering the extent of his views, was scarcely to be ex-
Pected,—yet as a guide to the then state of entomologi- |
cal knowledge, and as an advocate for the study, which
inthe exordium of his eleventh book he has so elo-
quently and with so much animation defended from the
Misrepresentations of ignorance, Pliny has conferred a
lasting obligation .on the science. "The last zoological
Writer of note was /Elian, who amongst other animals
often mentions insects. He has, however, few original...
Observations. One was, that scorpions are viviparous 4,

: Gr. Aggormotnros e£ 00V Dies. lin. 13. "© Hist. Nat. l. xi. C 29:
Vor. 1, p. 485. Vor. IT. p. 121—. 4 De Natur, Animal. 1. vi. c. 20.

496 HISTORY. OF ENTOMOLOGY;

From him we learn incidentally that artificial flies were
sometimes used by Grecian anglers?.

2. The Era of the Revival of the Science. From the
time of Plinyand Ælian 1400 years rolled away, in which
scarcely any thing was done or attempted for Entomology

or Natural History in general. During that long night.

the glimmer of only one faint luminary appeared to make
a short and feeble-twilight. In the middie of the thir-
teenth century Albertus Magnus (so called from his fa-
mily name of Groot, and justly, if incredible labour
could entitle a man to the appellation) devoted one out
of twenty-one folio volumes to Natural History. In this
work he professes not so much to give his own opinions,
as those of the Peripatetic philosophers*. He occasion"
ally, however, relates the result of observations made bY
himself, which prove him to have been no inattentive
student of nature. He mentions a voyage that he made
for the purpose of collecting marine-animals, and that
he found of them ten different tribes or genera, and sé
veral species of each. Amongst these he particularize$
the Cephalopoda, the Crustacea, the testaceous Mollusct»
and some of the Radiata and Acrita, &c.* He gives

a very correct account of the pitfalls of Myrmeleon. IP-

sects he distinguishes, excluding the Crustacea, by the
denomination of Anulosa ( Annulosa), which he appears
to employ as a known term?. He also calls them
worms, describing butterflies as Jlying worms, flies as f-
worms, spiders as spider-worms; and what is still more
extraordinary, the toad and the frog, which he includes
amongst his Znulosa, he calls guadruped-worms®!! Though

* De Natur. Animal. l. xv. c. 1. > Opera vi. 683.

* Ibid. 193—. * Ibid. 154, 933, 965, &c. ° Ibid. 676, 679, 68°

"E

` f

ad Y
|
|
|

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 497

lt may appear so absurd to speak of these animals as'in-
Sects, yet he had perhaps a deeper and more philosophi-
bat reason for this than we may at first be disposed to
Slve him credit for. This would be the case if he se-
Parated these from the other reptiles and placed them
*Mongst insects on account of their metamorphoses, mis-

taking perhaps an analogical character for one of affi-
tya, Some of the Annelida, as Filaria and Lumbricus P,
he also regarded as insects. I cannot gather from his

desultory pages that he had any notion of a systematical
arrangement of his Anulosa.

After the taking of Constantinople by the Turks in
the middle of the fifteenth century, the light of learning,
kindled by those of its professors who escaped from that
tuin, appeared again in the West. The Greek language
then began to be studied universally; and in consequence
9f the coeval invention of the art of printing, various
editions of the great works of the ancients were publish-
ed : amongst the rest, those of the fathers of Natural

istory. From the perusal of those works, the love of
the sciences of which they treated revived in the West,
and the attention of scientific men began to direct itself
to the consideration and study of the works of their
Creavor. In the latter part of that century, a work
“ntitled the Book of Nature appeared in the German
anguage, in which animals and plants were treated of
and rudely figured; as they were likewise most misera-
bly in Cuba’s Ortus Sanitatis, published in 1485. In this
Work insects and Crustacea were described under the.
three different denominations of Animals, Birds, and
Fishes ; so that but little profit was at first derived from

a See above, p. 418. ? Opera vi, 682—.

428 -HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

the writings of Aristotle, Invertebrate animals not being
then even honoured with

** A local habitation and a name.”

This unpromising and apparently hopeless state of de
science proved, however, the dawn of its present meridian
brightness.

The first attempt at a separate and systematical a"
rangement of insects subsequent to the times of Aristotle:
was made in the ponderous volumes of Ulysses Aldro-
vandus, who, disregarding the Stagyrite, arranged pé
sects according to the medium they inhabit, as you will
see in the subjoined table:

Membra-

D Fa
Ga nacea ) NOU

yific4

Favific?

f Alata
1 Peata | Elytrota.

Farinosa.

Multipeda.

( Terrestria LÁptera f Paucipeda.
Apoda

|

Paucipeda.
} Multipeda.

|
LApoda.

This artificial and meager system, which mixed insect?
with Annelida, was adopted by Charlton and other 2”
thors; and even in the eighteenth century had a patro?
_of great eminence, who, endeavouring to improve upo”
it, has rendered it still more at variance with nature 2”

Aristotle: I mean the celebrated Vallisnieri, to whom
in other respects, though in this he fell behind his age
the science was under great obligations. He divides
insects into, 1. Those that inhabit vegetable substance?

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY: 429

living or dead. 2. Those that inhabit any kind of fluid
and in any state. 3. Those that inhabit any earthy or
mineral substances, dead bones, or shells. And 4. Those
that inhabit living animals *.
The work that is usually called Mouffet's Theatrum
Tnsectorum was produced in the present era, and was the
fruit of the successive labours of several men of talent.
Dr, Edward Wotton and the celebrated Conrade Ges-
her laid the foundation ; whose manuscripts falling into
the hands of Dr. Thomas Penny,—an eminent physician
and botanist of the Elizabethan age», much devoted to
the study of insects, —he upon this foundation meditated
raising a superstructure which should include a complete
history of these animals; and with this view he devoted
the leisure hours of fifteen years of his life to the study _
of every work then extant that treated of the science
either expressly or incidentally, and to the description
and figuring of such insects as he could procure: but be-
fore he had reduced his materials to order, in 1589 he
Was snatched away by an untimely death. His unfinished
Manuscripts were purchased at a considerable price by
Mouffet, a contemporary physician of singular learning*,
Who reduced them to order, improved the style, added
new matter, and not less than 150 additional figures; and
thus having prepared the work for the press, intended
to àddicatè it to Queen Elizabethi. Fate, however,
Seemed still to frown upon the undertaking, for before
he could commit his labours to the press he also died,
and the work remained buried in dust and obscurity till
2 Esperienz: ed Osserv. i. 42—.

b Pulteney’s Sketches of Botany i in England, i. 86.
© Theatr. Insect Epist. Ded. i. a Thid,

490 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY,

it fell into the hands of Sir Theodore Mayerne, baron
d'Aubone, one of the court physicians in the time of
Charles I., who at length published it, prefixing a Dedi-
cation to Sir William Paddy, baronet, M.D., in 16345
and it was so well received that an English translation ap“
peared twenty-four years afterwards. The work thus re-
peatedly rescued from destruction. was indisputably the
most complete entomological treatise that had then aps
peared. And though the arrangement (in which there 15
scarcely any attempt at system) is extremely defective; thé
figures very rude, often incorrect, and sometimes altoge-
ther false, —yet as an introduction to the study of insects
its value.at.that day must have been very considerable ;
and as a copious storehouse of ancient entomological lore
it has not even at present lost its utility.

One of the most remarkable works of the era we are
upon was published at Lignitz in the year 1603, bY
Caspar Schwenckfield, a physician of Hirschberg, under
the title of Theriotrophium Silesie. This was probably
the first attempt at a Fauna that ever was made. In if
animals are divided into quadrupeds, reptiles, birds;
fishes, and insects. The Crustacea, Mollusca, and R00-
phytes, are included under fishes. He says of the Spon-
gi@ that they are moved by animalcula which inhabit
them*. Did he borrow this observation from Aristotle:
or was-it made by himself^? It is singular that Linné
should never allude to this work. Goedart, who belongs
also to this era, is stated to have spent forty years of his

* Theriotroph. Siles. 455. > Aristotle (Hist. Anum
l. i. c. 1.) says, * The sponge seems to have some sensation: a$ ?
proof, it is not easily plucked up, unless, so they say, the attempt 2
concealed."

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. ^ "880

life in attending to the proceedings of insects*. But after
this long study, his principal use to the science was the
Improvement he effected in the drawing and engraving of
them,—for his figures, though sometimes incorrect and
Sometimes fabulous, were far superior to those of his
Predecessors.

3. The Era of Swammerdam and Ray, or of the Me-
tamorphotic System. The great men whose names are
here united, as they were cotemporary, so they agreed
m founding their respective systems of insects on the
Same basis. To the former, however, is due the merit
of being the first who assumed the metamorphoses of these
animals as the basis of a natural arrangement, of them ;
Upon which the latter, in conjunction with his lamented
friend Willughby, erected that superstructure which
Opened the door for the present improved state of the
Science. Swammerdam’s system may be thus expressed
in modern language:

f Class i. Metamorphosis complete ^— Aptera L.*

5 : laf j Orthoptera, Hemiptera.

li — semicomp'ete > Libellulina, Ephemerina®.

Coleoptera, Hymenoptera.
seat part of Neuroptera and

Insects
m un

Diptera".
obtected Lepidoptera f.

= reas : j Ichneumones minuti L.®
i : Muscidz, &c.^

It was a great point gained in the science to introduce

* Lister’s Goedart, Pref. ii.
" See Vor. I. p. 65—, where these terms are explained.
` Swamm. Bibl. Nat. i. 38—. 4 Ibid. 92—.
Ibid. 119—. f Ibid. ti. l—. * Ibid. 31—.
bid. 30.

432 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

the consideration of the metamorphosis, and to employ
it in the extrication of the natural system: for though
when taken by itself it will, as in the table just given
lead to an artificial arrangement, it furnishes a very use"
ful clue when the consideration of insects in their perfect
state is added to it. The tables contained in the Pro
legomena to Ray’s Historia Insectorum divide insects

into those which undergo no change of form, and those —

which change their form. The arrangement of the
former (Aperapoogara) was made by Willughby, who
subdivided them into Apoda and Pedata. As the only
insects included in the former section were the grubs of
CEstri, the remainder being Annelida, they need not be
included in our table. I have endeavoured to compress
these tables into as small a space as possible, by using
the Linnean terms for metamorphosis, and reducing
Ray’s tribes of Orthoptera, Hemiptera, and Neuropier@
to their modern denominations.

Ray details at considerable length the various tribes
belonging to the four classes of metamorphosis establish-
ed by Swammerdam?. Most of his tribes indicate n?"
tural groups of greater or less value: but some of bis
larger groups are artificial, as you will see by the mere
inspection of the table.

a Hist. Ins. Prolegom. ix.—

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434 : HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

This era produced several great and original geniuses
who enriched the science with a vast increment of real
knowledge. The illustrious Zoologists whose names it
bears,—the one by his dissections and anatomical Te
searches, and the other by his concise and well draw?
descriptions of numerous insects, by various interesting
observations on their manners and characters, and by .
the purity of his latinity,—contributed greatly to its P'”
gress towards perfection. Leeuwenhoek also, the com,
patriot of Swammerdam, and Hooke of Ray, among“
other objects submitted to their powerful microscope?
did not neglect insects.— To the former we are indebte
for the remarkable discovery that the flea belongs M
those that undergo. a metamorphosis. Ray had besides
two coadjutors whose names ought not to be forgotten:
Willughby and Dr. Martin Lister. The former is ch
racterized by his lamenting friend as one of the PI^
foundest of naturalists, as well as one of the most amis"
ble and virtuous of men. What advantage Entomology
would have reaped from his labours may be infert?
from the eminent services that he rendered that science
amongst other branches of Zoology, during his sho!
life. It appears from Ray's Letters?, that he drew up?
history of insects and exsanguia, which probably forme
the groundwork of the posthumous Historia Insectoru™
of that author; concerning which he says, ‘ The ya

which I have now entered upon is indeed too great i
task for me: I rely chiefly on Mr. Willughby’s dis- |
coveries and the contributions of friends®.” And U^

deed Willughby's name and initials occur so frequent!

in that work, that it may be esteemed their joint p
* Philos. Lett. &c. 141. b Jbid, 343.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 435

duction, Lister by his various writings elucidated many
p ints relating toinsects; and he may be regarded as the

"st modern who observed that spiders can sailin the
"I. But the most important of his works, and that on
Which his fame as an Entomologist is principally founded,
5 his admirable treatise De Araneis ; in which his sy-
Stematic arrangement of these animals leaves far behind
all former attempts, and rivals that of the best modern

“achnologists. His specific descriptions are drawn
With a precision till then unknown; and each is headed

J a short definition of the species, which he calls the

‘tulus, synonymous with the Nomen specificum of Linné,

95e canon of twelve words it rarely exceeds.

One of the most important events of this era was the
complete exposure and refutation of the absurd doctrine
"t equivocal generation, which had maintained its ground
? the schools of philosophy from the time of Aristotle.

r own immortal Harvey was thefirst who dared to con-

Overt this irrational theory: and his dictum— Omnia. ex
Was copiously discussed and completely established
|” two of the ablest physiologists that Italy has produced,

“di and Malpighi.

Teviously to the publication of the Historia Insecto-
7^; no other works of eminence, with the exception of
Madam Merian’s beautiful illustration of the metamor-
Phosis of the insects of Surinam, made their appearance:

t in the interval of twenty-five years, which elapsed
“tween the publication of that work and of Linné’s
"Stoutline of his Systema Nature, Entomologists became

ore numerous and active. In England the pious and
author of the Physico and Astro- Theology was
: brated for the assiduity with which he studied än-
2rF2

nd

436 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. .

sects; and in the former of these works has concentrated
a vast number of interesting observations connected with
their anatomy and history. No Englishman contribute
more to the progress of Natural History, both as a write?
and collector, than that disinterested physician and na
turalist Sir Hans Sloane, whose extensive and valuable
library and well-stored cabinets formed the original n4-
cleus of the present vast collection ofthe British Museu
Amongst other departments, that of insects was not pe
looked by him; and it is to be regretted that those which
he had accumulated have either perished from neglect
or are. not accessible. Other Entomologists were en
nent at this period in Britain. The principal of these
were Petiver, Dale (to whom Ray bequeathed his collec
tion of insects), Bobart, Bradley, and Dandridge; the
last of whom, as Bradley tells us, delineated and de
scribed 140 species of spiders.

I must not omit here to observe that our RovAl Bu"
CIETY, the origin of which took place in this era, n
municated a new and powerful impulse to the public y
in favour of Physical Science, and greatly accelerat?
the progress of Natural History. It acted not only *
a centre of excitement which stimulated to exertion» P
also as a focus to collect the scattered rays of light pefor?
they were dissipated. Insulated observations in evel
department of nature were thus preserved; and comm"
nications from the most eminent naturalists in vario
parts of Europe ornamented its Transactions. So
from the establishment of this illustrious Society: ^
triumphant march of Physical Science of every kind f?
wards its acme may be dated. E

4. Era of Linné, or of the Alary System. We a1* a

that
the

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 437

arrived at that period in the history of Natural Know-
ledge, especially of Entomology, in which it received that-
form, with respect to its general outline, which, amidst
Many lesser mutations, has been preserved ever since..
Swammerdam had altogether deserted the system of
Aristotle, and Ray mixed it with that of his predecessor.
But a brilliant star soon appeared in the North, which
Was destined to be the harbinger of a brighter day than
had ever before illuminated the path of the student of
the works of Gop. The illustrious philosopher whose
Name distinguishes this new era, imbibed a taste for
Entomology almost as early as for Botany>; and though
the latter became his favourite, and absorbed his prin-
“pal attention, he did not altogether neglect the former.
In the first edition of his Systema Nature, published in
1735, and contained in only fourteen folio pages*, he
began to arrange the three kingdoms of nature after his
Own conceptions. But this initiatory sketch, as might
be expected, was very imperfect; and with respect. to
— Insects, instead of an improvement upon his predecessors,
Was extremely inferior to what Ray had effected ;-for he
Puts into one Order (to which he gives the name of
Angioptera) the Lepidoptera, Neuroptera, Hymenoptera,
and Diptera. In this work, however, Generic Characters
Were first given. In successive editions he continued to
Improve upon this outline: in the fourth he finally set-
tled the number and denominations of his Orders; and in
the twelfth (uniting the Orthoptera, which he had at

3 Ray died in 1705, and Linné was born in 1707.

? When a boy he attempted to introduce wasps and bees into his
father’s garden, to the great annoyance of the old gentleman.—Ste-
Ver's Life of Linneus, 4. . * Ibid. 75.

438 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

first considered. as of a Coleopterous type, to the Hemi-
ptera) also their limits. His system, being founded upon
the absence or presence and characters of the organs
for flight, is in some degree a republication of the At”
stotelian, and may be called the Alary System.

Superior $ Crustaceous with a straight suture Coleoptera: +
4 ; p semicrustaceous, incumbent ... Hemiptera y

wy

imbricated with scales Lepidoptera *
All unarmed. 2 Neuroptera *
aculeate 4 Hymenopter?
2. Poisers in the place of the posterior pair .. . . Diptera -+**
| 0. Or without either wings or elytra

ae

membranous—Anus i

e
"

9

In considering this table, it must strike every one 8€
quainted with the subject, that although the assumption
of a single set of organs whereon to build a system ca"
scarcely be expected to lead to one perfectly natural
yet that the majority of the groups here given as Ordets
merit that character. The second indeed and the 1%
require further subdivision, and concerning the fourth i
no satisfactory conclusion has yet been drawn. with
regard to his series of the Orders, it is mostly artificial
Linné has the advantage of all his predecessors in givi?8
clearer definitions of his Orders, and in their nomencla*
ture; in which he has followed the path first trodde”
by Aristotle.

One of his most prominent excellencies, which led
the way more than any thing else to .a distinct know”
ledge of natural objects, was his giving definitions of be
genera, or the groups that he distinguished by that name
since all preceding writers had merely made them know?
by the imposition of a name. His generic characters
of insects were of fwo kinds: A shorter, containing the
supposed essential distinction of the genus, given at the

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 439

head of the Class; and another, generally longer, and in-
cluding non-essentials, given at the head of the Genus.
The first he denominated the essential, and the latter the
Jc actitious or artificial character. He did not do for insects
What he did for Botany,—draw up what he has called
iia: characte ola genus, which included both the
Others, and noticed every other generic distinction?.
The older Naturalists used to treasure in their memo-
"les a short description of each species, by which when
they wished to speak or write of it they made it known.
Thus, in speaking of the common lady-bird they would
Call it «the Coccinella with red coleoptra? having seven
black dots." This enunciation of any object was at
first called its Title (Titulus), and afterwards its Speci-
fic Name (Nomen specificum), and by Linné was restricted
to twelve words*. But as the number of species increased
to remember each definition was no easy task; that he
Might remedy this inconvenience, he invented what. is
Called the Trivial Name (Nomen. triviale), which. ex-
Pressed any species by a single term added. to its generic
appellation, as Coccinella septem-punctata; and thereby
Conferredalastingbenefiton Natural History. Thisconve-
hient invention hasrendered it less necessary torestrictthe
Nomen specificum to twelve words: itis desirable, however,
that the definition of a species should be as short as pos-
Sible, and contain only its distinctive characters. In his
definitions and descriptions Linné was often very happy ;
but sometimes, in studying to avoid prolixity, he forgets

Horace’s hint,

* Brevis esse laboro
Obscurus fio—”

@ Linn. Philos. Botan. n. 87, 188, 189.
* See above, p. 338, n. 5. c Ibid. n. 291.

440- HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

and makes his definitions of species, without adding ?
description, so extremely short as to suit equally well
perhaps a dozen different insects. The minor groups
into which he has divided some of his Orders and Ge-
nera are sometimes natural, sometimes artificial. "Those
of the Coleoptera, from characters drawn from their an-
tennee (as is evident from his arrangement of the gener?
in that Order) are of the former description ; while
those of his 4ptera are more natural. The genera that
he has most happily laboured in this respect are hi$
Hemipterous ones of Gryllus, Cicada, and Cimez, and all
his Lepidoptera. He had such a tact for discovering 127
tural groups in general, that in him it seems almost f?
- have been intuitive.

But in no respect were the labours of Linné more be
neficial to the science and to Zoology in general, tha?
when he undertook to describe the animals of his ow”
country. His Fauna Suecica is an admirable exempla?
which ought to stimulate the Zoologists of every country
to make it one of their first objects that its animal pt
ductions shall no longer remain unregistered and d
described. Botanists have almost every where been d-e
ligent in effecting this with respect to plants, but othe"
branches of Natural History have been more neglected.
In his Systema Nature Linné attempted this for all thé
productions of our globe. The idea was a vast one; a”

the execution, though necessarily falling far ‘short of it
did him infinite honour: and in it he has laid a founda-
tion for his successors to build upon till time shall be
no more.

Such were the services rendered to Entomology by
the labours of the immortal Swede; services so extensive
as well as eminent, that had they been the fruit of a whole

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 441

life devoted to this single object, they would have en-
titled him to a high rank amongst the heroes of the sci-
ence, But how much more astonishing are they when ©
Considered but as gleanings from his hours of relaxation,
Snatched from labours infinitely greater, the produce, as
he himself tells us, of moments consumed by others in
* venationibus, confabulationibus, tesseris, chartis, lusi-
bus, compotationibus ?." It is not so much in original
discovery that the merits of Linné lie—though consi-
dered in this view they are pre-eminent,—as in the un-
tivalled skill with which he sifted the observations of his
Predecessors, separating the ore from the dross, and con-
Centrating scattered rays of light into one focus.

This era produced other systematists who adopted
Various methods, but none that merit particular notice
eXcept Geoffroy and De Geer. The former in this view
is principally celebrated as the author of the method
generally adopted by modern Entomologists, of dividing
the Coleoptera into primary sections, according to the
number of the joints of their tarsi. This method,
though in many instances, as was formerly observed”, it

leads to artificial results, in others affords a clue to na- - l

tural groups; it can only therefore be applied subject to
frequent exceptions. Geoffroy’s work *, which was pub-
lished in 1764, was further serviceable by indicating
Many genera not defined by Linné.

We next come to one of the greatest names in Ento-
Mology, the celebrated De Geer, who united in himself
the highest merit of almost every department of that
Science. Both as a systematist, an anatomist, and phy-

& Fn. Suec. Preef. . > Vor. III. p. 682—,

* Histoire abrégée des Insectes.

GENERAL ORDERS, CLASSES.

CLASSES. (I. Wings covered with scales
Tongue spiral. LuripoP Te’
Il. Wings membranous, nase"
Mouthwithoutteeth or tong’
TRICHOPTERA. EpHEMERIN*,
III. Wings membranous, c.
PE ner Wings reticulated. Mouth withtee d
Rest of NEUROPTERA. `
IV. Wingsmembranousuneq"
nervures mostly longitut m í
Mouth with teeth. A sting 0
borer in the female. HYMEN?
PTERA. a
V. Wings membranous. Tons
bent under the breast. Ho¥
L PTERA Leach. nd
VI. Elytra half coriaceous ?
half membranous, cross€¢- E
pair of membranous wing 3
Tongue bent under the bre?
i : Hemirrera Leach. Fe
f I. Having II. Two Wings | VII. Elytra coriaceous of sre
4 covered by two 4 — crustaceous, aliform. Apa! ih
wing-cases membranous wings. Mo"
with teeth. ORTHOPTERA” n
VIII. Elytra hard and crus”.
| ceous. A pair of membran9
wings. Mouth with teeth.
Ù LEOPTERA. pe
( IX. Apairofmembranous a
A pair of poisers. Mouth V^
a tongue without teeth.
SS PTERA. YAS 455
L P heey a $ X. A pair of membranous pes
No poisers, tongue, or teeth ^
the male. No wings but ye
tongue in the breast of the f
male, Coccus L.
f IV. Undergoing a } XI. No wings. Six legs. Mouth
metamorphosis with a tongue. ApHANIP

without wing- 4 al,

cases

wings

| nd
| ( XII. No wings. Six legs. Sud
II. Without and Trunk distinct. HEXA
L wings 4 Aprrra, TERMES, P X
á | XIII. No wings. 8 or 10 4^
L

Head united to the trunk.

V. Undergoingno j RACHNIDA:

: TOPOD APTERA, A
metamorphosis

CRUSTACEA. ore:
XIV. Nowings. 14 Legs or™ d
Head separated from =},
trunk, . Ponyrop APTF?
" CRUSTACEA.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 443

Siologist, and as the observant historian of the manners
and economy of insects, his Memoires pour servir a l His-
loire des Insectes are above all praise. His system? is
Contained in a posthumous volume published in 1778*.
This system, though built upon the instruments of
flight ; in its ternary groups, equivalent to the Orders of
Linné, adds likewise the instruments of manducation,
and is thus intermediate between that of Linné and Fa-
bricius, who perhaps from the consideration of it might
erive the first idea of assuming the last-mentioned or-
Sans as the basis of a new method. But, though par-
taking of both, it is nearer to nature than either; and
had its illustrious author laid less stress upon the number
and substance of the organs of flight, it would probably
have been as near perfection in this respect as most that
have succeeded it. But following too strictly these cha-
'acters, he has been led to place in different Classes, or
rather Orders, insects that ought not to have been so se-
Parated,—as in the case of the two sections of the Hemi-
Ptera, and the Coccide.. ln other respects the whole of
De Geer’s Memoires are a storehouse of valuable observa-
tions, in which he has furnished many a clue for thread-
ing the labyrinth of nature, and given most complete
and interesting histories of the whole economy and ha-

bits of many tribes and genera, —as of the Trichoptera,
Aphides, Ephemerina, &c.

In this latter department of the science a light shone
during part of the era we are now considering, which
eclipsed every one that appeared before it, and has
Scarcely been equalled by any one that succeeded it.
The date of its first appearance, indeed, was a year be-

* See the opposite page.
> The first volume of his Memoires was published in 1752.

444 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

fore that of Linné's first outline of his Systema Natur£
before alluded to; but it may properly be regarded as be-
longing to his era, since it did not disappear till some
years after that had begun. A volume indeed would
scarcely suffice to do Justice to the preeminent merits of
Reaumur, as exhibited in his admirable Memoires po“
V Histoire des Insectes*: I must therefore content mysel
with observing, that in judgement and ingenuity in plar-
ning his experiments; in patient assiduity in watching
their progress; in the elegance of his language, and the
felicity of his illustrations, he has rarely, if ever, bee?
equalled. Every subject that he undertook was tho
roughly investigated, and in the true spirit of philoso"
phical inquiry. Every where you see him the same ul
prejudiced and profound observer, attached to no syste™
anxious only for truth and the advancement of science
If he has any fault, it is, perhaps, that of being some"
times too prolix; but we must recollect that from the 2%
ture of his subject much diffuseness was often necessaty
to render his meaning clear. A greater objection is his
total inattention to all system, except with regard to
Lepidoptera and their larvae, so that it is often difficult
to ascertain the insects whose history he gives. But with
these exceptions, no observer of nature, who wishes his
discoveries to be at once profound and interesting, ©”
copy a better model or one nearer to perfection.

Next to that of Reaumur, the name of his admiring
correspondent Bonnet may be mentioned. This great
physiologist, though still more deficient in systematic?
knowledge*, was also an admirable observer of the eco"
nomy and manners of insects. In this sense he became

* The first volume of this work was published iu 1734, and the
sixth and last in 1742. " Reaum. i. Mem. vi, vii. and Mem. 11. 68—
© Smith's Tour, ii. 150.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 445

an Entomologist before he was seventeen years of age,
in consequence of an impression made upon him by the
account of the Antlion in that attractive work the Spec-
tacle de la Nature. From verifying its wonderful his-
tory with his own eyes, he entered with enthusiasm upon
the study of other insects, his observations on which he
regularly communicated to Reaumur. . Amongst other
interesting inquiries, his experiments on that singular
anomaly in nature the generation of Aphides*? do him
the highest credit, and have set that question perfectly
at rest», |
In another department ofthe science this period was
distinguished by a work which may almost be deemed a
Prodigy. I am speaking of Lyonnet's admirable treatise
on the anatomy of the caterpillar of the Cossus,—a work
Which will uphold his reputation as long as Entomology
Shall be cultivated as a science, or the comparative Ana-
tomist be delighted to trace the footsteps of Divine Wis-
dom in the gradually varying structure of animals. The
plates to this publication, executed by the hand of its
excellent author, are as wonderful as the work itself;
and together, to use Bonnet's words, form a demonstration
of the existence of Gop. It is infinitely to be regretted
that the author of this incomparable monument of sci-
entific ardour and patient industry should have died be-

fore the full completion of his anatomical description of
the pupa and imago of the same insect; of which he had
prepared a considerable portion of the manuscript, and
' engraved upwards of twenty of the plates.

Numerous other writers in various departments of
the science appeared during this era; but it would be

* Vor, I, p. 174. Also see above, p. 160—. ^ Bonnet i. 19—.

AAG HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

useless to enter into a particular detail of their works and
merits. I cannot however omit noticing, on account of his
inimitably accurate and chastely coloured representa-
tions of Lepidoptera, Sepp’s beautiful Nederlandsche In-
secten, in which the whole history of these animals, from
the egg to the fly, is described and portrayed. Inour ow?
country this era. was distinguished by no entomological
work of any great eminence, Albin, Wilks, and Harris
produced the principal. Gould, however, without hav-
ing any thing of system, gave an admirable account of l
English ants, which I formerly noticed’.

One of our first poets, the celebrated Gray, was also
much devoted to Entomology. From his interleaved
copy of the Systema Nature, that venerable and able na-
turalist, Sir T. G. Cullum, Bart. copied the following
characters of the genera of insects of Linné, drawn up
in Latin Hexameters, which he kindly communicated to
me.

COLEOPTERA:

Alas lorica teclas Coleoptera jactant.
Serra pedum prodit TRDEN et fissile cornu.
Dermesti antennæ circum ambit lamina caulem
Qui caput incurvum timidus sub corpore celat.
In pectus retrahens caput abdit claviger Fister.
Occiput Attelabi in posticum vergit acumen.
Curculio ingenti protendit cornua rostro.

Silpha leves peltæ atque elytrorum exporrigit oras.

Truncus apex clavze, atque antennule Coccionelle.
**

Cassida sub clypei totam se margine condit.

Chrysomela inflexa loricze stringitur ora.

Gibba caput Meloë incurvat thorace rotundo.

Oblongus frontem et tenues clypei exerit oras

Tenebrio. Abdomen Mordelle lamina vestit.

Curta elytra ostentat Staphylis caudamque recurvam.

* Vor. II. p. 58, note *,

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

Li xl
Tubere cervicis valet, antennisque Cerambyz.
Pectore Leptura est tereti corpusque coarctat. -
Flexile Cantharidis tegmen, laterumque papilla.
Ast Elater resilit sterni mucrone supinus.
Maxilla exserta est oculoque Cicinde/a grandi.
Bupresti antennæ graciles, cervice retracta.
Nec Dytiscus iners setosà remige plantá.
Effigiem cordis Carabus dat pectore trunco.
Necydalis curto ex elytro nudam explicat alam.
Curtum, at Forficule tegit hanc, cum forcipe cauda.

HEMIPTERA.

Dimidiam rostrata gerunt Hemiptera crustam
Feemina serpit humi interdum, volat ethera conjux.

Depressum Blattæ corpus venterque bicornis.
Dente vorax Gryllus deflexis saltitat alis.

Rostro Nepa rapax pollet chelisque. Cicada
Fastigio alarum, et rostrato pectore saltat.

Tela Cimex inflexa gerit, cruce complicat alas.
Notonecta crucem quoque fert remosque pedales.
Cornua Aphis caude et rostrum, szepe erigit alas.
Deprimit has Chermes, dum saltat pectore gibbo.
Coccus iners caudz setas, volitante marito.
Thrips alas angusta gerit, caudamque recurvam,

LEPIDOPTERA.

Squamam ale, lingue spiram Lepidoptera jactant.
Papilio clavam, et squamosas subrigit alas.
Prismaticas Sphinx antennas, medioque tumentes :

At conicas gravis extendit sub nocte Phalena.

NEUROPTERA.

Rete ale nudum atque hamos Neuroptera caude.
Dente alisque potens secat zethera longa Libela.
Cauda setigera erectis stat Ephemera pennis.
Phryganea elinguis rugosas deprimit alas.
Hemerinusque bidens planas tamen explicat ille.

Et rostro longo et cauda Panorpa minatur. -
Raphidia extento collo setam trahit unam.

HyMENOPTERA.
At vitreas alas, jaculumque Hymenoptera caude.
Femineo data tela gregi, maribusque negata.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY,

Telum abdit spirale Cynips, morsuque minatur.
Maxillas T'enthredo movet, serramque bivalvem.
Ichneumon gracili triplex abdomine telum :

Et valde aurato resplendet corpore Chrysis.
Haurit Apis lingua incurva, quod vindicat ense.
Sphex alam expandit levem, gladiumque recondit.
Ale ruga notat Vespam, caudzeque venenum.
Squamula Formicam tergi, telumque pedestrem,
Dum minor alata volitat cum conjuge conjux.
Mutilla impennis, sed cauda spicula vibrat.

DIPTERA.
Diptera sub geminis alis se poncere librant.

Os Astro nullum, caudaque timetur inermi,

Longa caput Tipula est, labiisque et praedita palpis.
Palpis Musca caret, retrahitque proboscida labris.
Qua Tabanus gaudet pariter, palpis subacutis.

Os Culicis molli e pharetra sua spicula vibrat.
Rostrum Empis durum et longum sub pectore curvat.
Porrigit articuli de cardine noxia Conops.

Porrigit at rectum et conicum sitibundus Asilus.
Longum et Bombylius qui sugit mella volando.
Unguibus Hippobosca valet, vibrat breve telum.

APTERA.

Aptera se pedibus pennarum nescia jactant.

Exit tres setas cauda extendente Lepisma.
Saltatrix est cauda Podure inflexa bifurca.
Armantur Termis maxillis ora duabus

Fert telum quod ab ore Pediculus edat acutum.
Pulicis inflexum rostrum est, telumque recondit.
Octo Acarus pedibus duplicique instructus ocello est.
Lumina bis bina octipedata Phalangia gestant.
Octo oculis totidem pedibusque se Aranea jactat.
His etiam adjungit chelatos Scorpio palpos.

Dena pedum natura dedit fulcimina Cancro.
Unoculo bissena (duosque ambobus ocellos)
Quorum his chelatos gerit, ille gemellos.

Ovalis pedibus bis septem incedit Oniscus
Innumeris pedibus Scolopendra angusta movetur.
Secernit reliquis structura cylindrica ulum.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 449

During this era, and by the influence of Linné, in the
y “ar 1739 the Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm
vat established, which did for Natural History in Swe-
SA what our own Royal Society had done for it in Eng-
üd. Other societies, with a similar object, were form-
€d in different parts of Europe, and were attended by

“Milar good effects. At Paris, at Berlin, at St. Peters-
NS at Moscow, at Turin, at Lisbon, &c., the lovers
0

Nature, at that time and subsequently, have asso-

"lated for this purpose; and I may mention here, that I

May not revert to the subject, the great Natural History
“Sociation of our own country, the Linnean Society,
named after the illustrious Swede, which was first insti-
‘uteq in 1788, and incorporated by royal charter in
802. In the Transactions of this learned body, the Zoo-
“gist in general, and particularly the Entomologist, will

"ld much useful information and many interesting ob-
“vations connected with his science. This flourish-
ug Society consists at this time of above 600 members,
whom more than 500 are Fellows ;—a gratifying proof

°w widely Natural History is cultivated in the British

pire,

9. Era of Fabricius, or of the Maxillary System.—We |
te now arrived, if its consequences be considered, at
vite of the most important epochs of the science. Fa-

"Icius, a pupil of Linné, who highly estimated his en-
“Mological acquirements*, thinking that, the system of

'S master was not built upon a foundation sufficiently
fiveq and restricted’, conceived the idea of doing for
x Linné is recorded to have said, ‘Si DominusFabricius venit cum
dri Tnsecto, et Dominus Zoega cum aliquo Musco, tunc ego pileum
186. 9 et dico: Estote doctores mei.” . Steever’s Life of Linneus.

b Fab. Philos. Entomolog. Preef.
VOL, ry, 2G

450 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

Entomology what the latter had done for Botany- As
the learned and illustrious Swede had assumed the Fruc
tification for the basis of his system in that science, 5° ue
emulous and highly-gifted Dane, observing how happily
those organs were employed às characters in extricating
the genera of Vertebrate animals, assumed the instr-
ments of manducation, far more numerous and various
in insects, for the basis of a new system of Entomo
logy; which, from the mazille being principally €?^
ployed to. characterize the Classes or rather Orders, may
be called the Mazillary System. De Geer, indeed, ??
we have seen above, had, in the majority of his Classe "
the organs of flight added the parts of the mouth: but
Fabricius pursued the idea much further, and made the
`Trophi®, or Instrumenta Cibaria as he called them, #°
sole corner-stone of his whole superstructure. Thoug
nothing seems to have been further from his intentio
than to follow Nature, since he complains that Linné bY
following her too closely had lost the Ariadnean thread ©
system, yet it is singular that, by building upon this see"
ingly narrow foundation, he has furnished a clue, by
due use of which, instead of deserting her, his successo"
have been enabled with more certainty to extricate he
groups: since the parts in question being intimately con-
nected with the functions and economy of these anim? "
where they differ materially, indicate a corresponding
difference in their character and station. :
The first outline of his System, I believe, appeared y
his Systema Entomologia published in 1775; and the lash
in his Supplement to his Entomologia Systematica in 1 ur
In this the series and characters of his Classes (for 5%

^ Vor. III. p. 417.
? Philos. Entomolog. vi. $. 2. Syst. Ent. Prolegom.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 451

a
fter De Geer, he naain his primary groups) were

as follows :—
*

l. Exeurnerata?. (Coleoptera L.) Mawilla naked,
free, palpigerous.

2. UrowATAP. (Orthoptera Oliv.) Mavilia covered. by
ati obtuse galea or lobe.

9. SyNISTATA*. (Neuroptera Los excluding the Libel-
_ lulina, and taking in Termes L. and Thysanura
Latr.) Maxilla geniculate at the base and connate
with the labium.

- PrgzaTA A, (Hymenoptera L.) Maxilla corneous,
compressed, often elongate.

- Oponata®. (Libellulina M'L.) Maxilla someone
toothed, two palpi.

- Mrrosara’. (Myriapoda Leach. ) Maxilla SosneQge
vaulted, not palpigerous.

Ak
- Unocara’. (Pulmonary Arachnida Latr.) Maxilla

corneous, armed with a claw.

ID
PorvyeoNATA*. (Isopod and Branchiopod Crustacea
Latr.) Palpi mostly six; Maxille many within the
labium.
* KLEISTOGNATHA L ds Decapod Crustacea
Latr.) Many Mazille without the labium, closing
the mouth.

* From Easvdceos, Free. b Derivation uncertain. Perhaps

ae! A long and narrow space or tract.

` * Buvotnpei, To.stand together. 4 Ilco, To press.
Odes, A tooth. £ Miras, A thread.

è Unogatais probably a mistake for Onychata ; from Ossé, A claw.
Doubtless for Polygnatha ; from Honc, Many, and Tvedac, A jaw.
Kasierog, Closed, and Tvedéos.

2349

452 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

10. ExocuwATA?*. (Macrurous Decapod Crustacea Latr-)
Mazille many without the labium, covered by
palpi.

doo
11. GrossaTA?. (Lepidoptera L.) Mouth with a spiral
..— tongue between reflexed palpi.

129. Rysaora*. (Hemiptera Latr.) Mouth with a r057
trum, having a jointed sheath. |

13. ANTLIATA!. (Diptera L., Anoplura Leach., Trachea”
Arachnida Latr. &e.) Mouth with a haustellu™
without joints.

The Orders of Fabricius are equivalent usually to the
primary groups of the Linnean Orders, and are reg"
lated chiefly by the antenne.

In estimating the value of the above system, we must
bear in mind that, according to the statement of its au
thor, it was intended to be partly artificial and partly

natural: artificial as to its Classes and Orders ; natural
as to its genera, species, and varieties*. He admitted,
however, that natural Classes, &c. do exist; but he coy
tended that artificial ones should be substituted for the™
till farther discoveries had cleared the way for their "m

tisfactory developementf. As therefore his system» "

its primary and secondary groups, was confessedly arti-

ficial, and the only use ofan artificial system being tO far

cilitate the study of any department of Natural Histo"?

its value must be estimated by the facilities it affords t°

the entomological student. But here, it must be allowed
* Eo; Without; and Tveedog: oto) Danai, A tongue

* "Pyyxos, A rostrum. 4 Avrace, A pump:

e Dispositio insectorum sistit divisiones s. conjunctiones €?

: NE p ; ras
et est artificialis quae Classes et Ordines, et naturalis que ee

species, et varietates docet. Philos. Entomol. vi. $. 2. f Ibid. $. T-

rum»

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 543

that instead of enlarging the entrance to the temple of
his science, it has made it narrower, and has placed

Most discouraging impediments in his way. -

If you examine the definitions of his Classes, you will
find them in a variety of cases calculated rather to mis-
lead than to instruct a learner. ‘Thus that of the Eleu-
therata would equally well suit the Piezata and. several
others : that of the Piezata is scarcely to be found in it;
Since in this the maxilla, instead of being corneous, is usu-
ally coriaceous?, and its lobe sometimes nearly membra-
Nous, In the Unogaia he even mistakes the mandibles
for maxillae, Let any young Entomologist endeavour to
Make out the Fabrician class of a Cicindela for instance;
and finding its maxillae corneous and armed with a claw,
he would conclude that it belonged to the Unogata rather
. than to the Eleutherata. Besides all this, the necessity of
€Xamining minute parts not easily come at without dis-
Section, is very discouraging to a beginner. SE

From hence it is evident, that the system of Fabricius,
Considered as an artificial one or a method, was no im»
Provement upon the classification of. his master Linné,
but rather a retrograde movement in the science;

_ As to that part of his system in which he professes to

take nature for his guide, his genera,—though even with
respect to them he seems fearful of following. her too
Closely b —he certainly has rendered most essential ser-
Vices to Entomology, and laid the foundation of all that
has since been done for its improvement. But it must be

* Latreille Gen. Crust. et Ins. iti. 214.
t » ^

^ With respect to Natura! Genera he says—“ Cavendum tamen
NE nimis imitando naturam systematis amittamus filum Ariadneum."

bid. $. 6,

454 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

observed, that the series of his genera is often altogether
artificial; as where he separates and places far asunder the
Saprophagous and Thalerophagous Petalocerous beetles-

Entomology, however, in other respects was deeply
indebted to this great man. He first, as was lately ob-
served, directed the attention of her votaries to parts.
which enabled them better to follow the chain of affini-
ties, and to trace out natural groups. In his Philosophia
Entomologica, drawn up on the plan of Linné's PAiloso
phia Botanica, he bequeathed to the science a standard
work that ought to be studied by every Entomologist-
His incredible labours in defining new genera and de
scribing new species, with which view he travelled into
various parts of Europe, and seven times into Britail»
have been of infinite ‘service*, and placed the science
upon a footing much nearer to that of Botany than it
had ever before attained.

6. Era of Latreille, or of the Eclectic System. The
system of Fabricius, though generally adopted in Ger-
many and Switzerland, did not meet with a universal
reception. It seems to have gained no permanent foot-
ing in the North of Europe, Britain, or France. In the
latter country the Linnean phraseology and characters of
the Orders were retained by the celebrated Olivier ; while
at the same time his definitions of genera were construct-
ed, after the Fabrician model, upon the antenna: and the
oral organs. But a new and brilliant genius had now
appeared in France, whose indefatigable labours and
singular talents have thrown more light over entomolo-
gical science than those of all his predecessors. In 1796

* Fab. Entomolog. Syst. em. et auct. i. Proof. iv.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 455

About two years after Fabricius had completed his Ento-
E Systematica emendata et aucta, M. Latreille pub-
lished his Précis de Caractères Généri iques des Insectes;
in which i important work, walking in the steps of his

great compatriot Bernard de Jussieu, he disregarded all
Mrtificial systems of Entomology, and attempted to con-
Struct one upon a natural basis: and to this end, uniting

the consideration of the instruments of manducation
With that of the organs for flight and motion, and of
Other external characters,—or the system of Linné with
that of Fabricius,—he became the founder of the modern
or Eclectic system*; for he judiciously adopted that sen-
Sible dictum of Scopoli, “Classes et Genera naturalia,
hon sola instrumenta cibaria, non solae ale, nec sole
nenne constituunt, sed structura fotius, ac cujusque
Vel minimi discriminis diligentissima observatio." His
Object has been in the above and subsequent works, by
dividing his Classes into. natural Groups, from the Order
to the Genus, to trace out in all its windings, to its in-
Most recesses, the perplexing labyrinth of the true system
Of the Creator :—of what he has effected, the subjoined
tables will give you a sufficient idea*.

* Fabricius calls this a chaos, and threatens to prove it, but he
Never fulfilled his threat. See Fab. Supplem. Proof. i.

? Introd. ad Hist. Nat. 401.
° See N. Dict. d" Hist. Nat. x. article Entomologie.

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HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 457

In a table of Invertebrate articulate animals distri-
buted according to their external organs?, this learned
Entomologist has arranged his Æntoma differently, under
two Types divided into four Classes, —Thus :

Tyre I. Polygnatha. Tyre II. Pseudognatha.
D Class i. Crustacea. Class iti. Crustaceo- Arachnida.
-ecapoda. Branchiopoda. Branchiopoda.
tomapoda. Phyllopa. Pacilopa.
Iphipoda. Lophyropa. Pycnogonides.
&modipoda.
Sopoda,
yriapoda.

y Class ii. Insecta.
“asticators. Suckers. Classiv. Arachnida’
cap anura. Lepidoptera. Pulmonariz. |
Oleoptera, Suctoria. Holetrze.
l'thoptera. Hemiptera. Pediculariz.
€uroptera. Diptera.
ymenoptera. Pupipara.
hiphiptera.

Here he places the myriapods (Polypods) in the Crus-

tacea, and the Parasita, after Lamarck, which surely is
no improvement, as an Order, under the name of Pedi-
cularia, in the Arachnida. He, very properly, divides,
Insecta into Mandibulata and Haustellata, and has made
the Pupipara a separate Order.

Having given you these tables of the Orders, I shall
Proceed to give those of his subordinate groups arranged
Under each. This I have already done, to save space,
in the Arachnida and Insecta aptera. 3

a Anim. Invertébr. Articul. Ann. du Mus. 1821. ad calc.

458

ORDER:

Coleo-
ptera

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

SECTION. FAMILY.

( Entomophaga .

Staphylinii

(Pentamera 4 Serricornes ..

Clavicornes `..

Palpicornes ...

~ Lamellicornes

( Melasoma ..

'Taxicornes

4 Hetcromera< Stenelytra ..

A Trachelides

( Rhinchophora
Xylophagi ...

„Platysoma ....
Tetramera 4
Longicornes ..

Eupoda.......

(S. Turf sos

| Clavopalpata.. .

{ Aphidiphaga.
' d Fungicola.

'Trimera ..
Ne

o
eee
aso

TRIBE.

Cicindeletæ.
Carabici. i5
Hydrocanthari.
Gyrinus.,
Fissilabres.
Longipalpati.
Deplanati.
Microcephali.
Heterodactyli.

f Sternoxi

ove

Ll :
( Clerones.
Palpatores.
Histerides.
Peltoides.
Dermestini.
Byrrhii.
Macrodactyli.
Hydrophilii.
Spheridiota.
Scarabeeides.
f Lucanides.
Pimeliariz.
Blapsides.
Tenebrionites.
Cossyphores.
j Diaperiales.
Helopii.
i COEdemerites.
( Pyrochroides.
| Mordellones.

. 4 Anthicites.

| Horiales.

Cantharidiz.
Bruchels.

i Curculionites.

Scolitariz.

Bostrichini.

Paussiles.
Trogositariz.

. - Cucujipes.:

Prionii,
Cerambycini.
Lepturetes.
Sagrides.
Crioccrides.
Cassidariz.
Chrysomelini,
Galerucites.
Erotylene.
Globulites.

l

|
i

SupsEcrion-

Truncatipenne>
Bi partiti.
Thoracicl.
Abdominales-
Subulipalp!-

Buprestides-
1 Elaterides.
( Cebrionites.
| Lampyrides-

Melyrides-
Ptiniores. | .
Lymexylonides-

r Coprophagi-
Geotrupini.

| Xylophili. |
Phyllophag*

| Anthobii. |
Melitophili-

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

OnpEn,. SECTION. Famity. | TRIBE.

Forficularize.
Blattariz.
D SER Spectra.
Orthoptera... A PRAS antides.
Saltatoria .. I
Locustariz.
(Longilabres.
| Membr anee.
Geeocorise. 4 Nudicolles.
Oculatze.
Remigentes.
Hydr pu. ie Raptores. —
E Platydactyli.
emiptera .. Cantatoriz.
E T ( Cicadariz.. n ulgorellz.
: Cicadelle.
Psyllidze.

Cursoria ...

f Heteroptera ..

(Homoptera .. ]
Hymenelytra

Thr ipsidee.
à Gallinsecta.

Aphidii. .
( Subulicornes } 1 Ilulinze.
phemerinz.
Panorpate:.
Myrmeleonides.
| Hemerobini,
Psoquilli.
Termitini.
Raphidini.
| Megaloptera.
Perlariz.
-Gecurif ; Tenthredinetz.
Securifera. . 3 Urocerata.

[insons

N
cur T .
Wtopteéra. lise ce rrt Planipennes 1

_Plicipennes.

Ichneumonides.
í Gallicolz.
.-Pupivora .. 2 Chalcidites.
| Oxyura.
LChrysidides.
Formicariz.
p Heterogyna Mutillariæ.
Scoliatæ.
Sapygites.
Pompilii.
Sphegimæ.
Bembecides.
Larrate.
Nyssonii.
Crabronites.
E Vesparize.
Diploptera.. i Ma aides:
m Andrenete.
L Mellifera .. Apiariæ.

( Terebrantia y* |

Fossores ..4

Hy del a =|
|
L

Aculeata ...

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

SECTION. Famity. TRIBE-

L Papilionides.
(D TUE INR i ep erides.
Sphineides.
Zygenides.
f Bombycites.

Noctuo-bombycite5"
Phalznites.
Deltoides.
Noctuzelites.
"Tortrices.
Tineites.
Fissipennes.
Culicides.
Tipularize.
f Asilici.
| Empides.
Inflata.
Bombyliarii.
Anthracii.
Tabanii.
f Proboscida .. ] Sicariee.
Mydasii..
Rhagionides.
| Dolichopodes.
| Notacantha Decatome.

à Stratiomyde.
Diptera .... Conopsariz.
died Syrphize.
LAthericera seri m
Muscides.

Eproboscida.. I Paninar- Coriacez.
U probesciaa {1 upipara .. | Forano

l —9À

Lepidoptera...

Rhiphiptera. L Nocturna .

f. Nemocera. .

Tanystoma 4

N.B. This table is chiefly taken from the tenth volume of! the
Nouveau Dictionnaire d'Histoire Naturelle, 4 arti-

cle Entomologie: but the groups of the Carabici 4!*
rom the Coleoptéres d'Europe, 1° livrais, 75—

If you examine the Orders as here given, you wil

find that they mostly represent natural primary group?

of his Classes, though with regard to their distributio"

you may perhaps feel disposed to differ from him. Yo"

will also think that his secondary and minor groups?; with

3 ee E i e
? Several of the minor groups given in the table he has further T
solved before he arrives at his gencra.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY: 461

the exception of some of his sections, merit the same
Character, Indeed, he has left far behind all his prede-
“essors in the progress that he has made towards ex-
tricating the true system. Setting out from a common
Centre he holds on his unwearied course, endeavouring to
trace every set of objects that branches from it to its ex-
treme term, But though he studied insects analytically
; With unrivalled success, he was not always equally happy
R his synthetical arrangement of them. _ I do not here
30 much speak of the result which must necessarily fol-
low from any arrangement in a serzes, and which cannot
Well be avoided; but I allude particularly to his adop-
ton of the Geoffroyan system in the Coleoptera, which
has prevented him in many instances from seeing the
Natural distribution of his groups. |

In 1798, two years after the publication of Latreille’s
first enunciation of his system, M. Clairville, a very acute
and learned Swiss Entomologist, drew up the following

analytical table of insects.
SECTIONS.
1. Elytroptera
(Coleoptera). .
Deratoptera
(Orthoptera).
Dictyoptera
(Neuroptera).
Phleboptera
(Hymenoptera).

( Mandibulata

( Pterophora
(Winged) L

-a

(Diptera).
Lepidioptera
(Lepidoptera).
Hemimeroptera

. Becta: L Haustellata . <

Zi
3.
4,
5. Halteriptera `
6.
7.

| (Hemiptera).
Aptera Haustellata .. 8. Rophoteira.
* LL (Wingless) 1 Mandibulata .. 9. Pododunera.

Every one will think that the change of the received
Names of the Orders, here denominated Sections, is per-

462 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

fectly needless. The principal merit of this system is the
division of insects, tacitly pointed out by Fabricius, into
two groups or subclasses, from the mode in which they
take their food. : dew

Lamarck,— whose merits as a Zoologist, except in On?
point?, are of the highest order,—in his Système des Am-
maux sans Vertébres, which was published in 1801, adopts
the above division of insects; but, after Aristotle", he
makes the Hymenoptera an intermediate Order betwee”
the masticators and those that take their food by suction;
he places the Lepidoptera at the head of the latter, and
the Aphaniptera, which he denominates Aptera, at the
end*: the Hexapod, Octopod, and Polypod Aptera he
considers as Arachnida*. In his last great work (HF
stoire Naturelle des Animaux sans Vertébres) he i
cludes the Hymenoptera amongst the masticators, 2?
reverses the disposition of his Orders, beginning with
his Aptera and ending with the Coleoptera®.

M. Cuvier, in his Anatomie Comparée (1805) divided
Insecta into two subclasses, from the presence or ab-
sence of maxilla: thus—

With Mazille. Without Macille.
1. Gnathaptera. 1. Hemiptera.

2. Neuroptera. 2. Lepidoptera.
3. Hymenoptera. 3. Diptera.

4. Coleoptera. _ 4, Aptera.

5. Orthoptera.

His Gnathaptera include the Isopod:Crustaceds the

* Vou. III. p. 349, note *. » See above p. 429
©. Syst. des Anim. sans Vertibr. 185. 4 lbid. 171.
°. Anim, sans Vertebr. iii. 332—.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 463

Arachnida, the Polypod, and some of the Octopod and
Hexapod Aptera ; and his Aptera—Pulex, Pediculus, and
Acarus L., with the exclusion of Hydrachna F.* Itis
remarkable enough that his Class as it stands, with a
Slight alteration, returns into itself, thus forming a circle;
for his first Order (Gnathaptera) contains Hydrachna
and the Thysanura of Latreille, and his last (Aptera)
ends with Anoplura Leach, and Acarus L.

All the French Entomologists have followed Olivier
and Latreille in adopting, with some variation, Geof-
froy’s system with regard to the Coleoptera, which has
rendered them all more or less artificial. | Dumeril has
Constructed a table of the Order, arranged differently
from that above given? of Latreille; but not more na-
tura], for the very same reason.

Our learned countryman, Dr. Leach, by his zoolo-
gical labours has thrown much light on the natural dis-
tribution of the Animal Kingdom, and no department
. Of that kingdom is more indebted to him than the
Annulosa ; of which I have before stated to you his
Classes*. I shall now give a table of his Orders of Arach- .
nida and Insecta Latr. and also his families, &c. of his
Classes Myriapoda and Arachnides*. ;

Crass. ORDER. — Faux.
Glomerides.

i Chilognatha .... j ae =
Musas € Polydesmides.
Myriapoda. vals do ioo { NUI

Scolopendrides,
Geophilides.

Syngnatha

* Anat. Comp. i. t. viii.

* Expos. d'une Meth. Nat. 17.

* Vor. III. p. 19.

- Linn, Trans. xi. 376. N.B. T have transferred from the Arach-
“da his suborder Notostomata, as he subsequently placed it at the
end of Insecta, under the Omaloptera.

. HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

ORDER: of (FAMILY?
( Podosomata ipm s ]

Pyenogonides.
Nymphonides.
Sironides.
Polymerosomata . | Scorpionides.
Tarantulides.
Solpugides.
Dimerosomata .. ] Phalangides
Araneides.
Trombidides.
Gammasides.
| :
L Monomerosomata 1 Cherletidos.
| Eylaides.
Hydrachnides.

Arachnides

( Ametabolia $ Kira

( Coleoptera.
Dermaptera.
Insecta ... 3 Orthoptera.
Dictyoptera.
Hemiptera.
Omoptera.

. Aptera.
Metabolia; 3 Hipogteu
Trichoptera.
Neuroptera.
Hymenoptera.
Rhiphiptera.
Diptera.
Omaloptera.

I have before expressed my sentiments upon several
of these Orders?: I shall not here repeat them, but shall
merely observe, with respect to those I have not adopted»
that, though perhaps not entitled to rank as Orders
most of them form natural groups. His Orders, howeve?
of Arachnida must be excepted from this remark, since
they are evidently artificial. His analyses of his Orders
though in general they give natural groups, are usually
not carried so far as those of M. Latreille, so as seldom
to indicate what may properly be denominated. families.
He has made his nomenclature for his so-called families
more uniform and satisfactory than that of the French

* See above, pp. 369, 371, 377, 382.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. : 465

Entomologist : and-we may say, with respect to the ex-
tent and effect of his zoological labours,—Nihil non
tetigit, et omnia que tetigit ornavit.

T. Era of MacLeay, or of the Quinary System. I have
More than once stated to you in my former letters the -
bases upon which the system which I am in the last
place to explain to you is built. You know the Sub-king-
doms and Classes into which its learned and ingenious
*uthor, upon a novel and most remarkable plan, has di-
vided the Animal Kingdom?. I shall now copy for you
his diagram of the Annulosa.

Chilopoda |, Thysanura

9
te
Ey
M x

Chilognatha Anoplura 2 upo ox
<q A he

Lemo- Isopoda Vermes Coleoptera Orthoptera
dipoda m

"Y

ipee Branchiopoda \ Hymenoptera
ANNULOSA NO

Decapoda

Lo A raneidea
WoooxiP ^

Acaridea Diptera

Homoptera

Scorpionidea

ARACHNIDA
HAUSTELLATA..

A ptera

Sironidea

Phalangidea Hemiptera

* Vor. I. p. 14,
VOL; ry.

NYCTERIBIDA 9

466 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

I have before sufficiently noticed these Classes, or
Orders as Mx. MacLeay terms them, of the Sub-king-
dom Annulosa: I shall here therefore only throw out
a few remarks on their composition. With regard js
their circular distribution in the Crustacea, Mr. MacLe2Y
thinks the series runs from the Branchiopods or Mono-
culus L. to the Decapods or Cancer L. ; and so. on, til by
means perhaps of the genus Bopyrus, which Fabricius t&
gards as a Monoculus, it returns to the Branchiopods
again. This circle, through Porcellio. Latr., a kind o!
woodlouse, &c., which has only a pair of antennae and at
first but six legs, is connected with the Ametabola Class
which beginning with Glomeris goes by the other Chilo-
gnatha (Tulus L.), having also six legs at first, and certam
Vermes to the Anoplura, and terminates in the Chilopod^
(Scolopendra L.) their cognate tribe?. From the Ameta-
bola Mr. MacLeay proceeds to the Mandibulata, betwee?
which two groups he has discovered no osculant ones but
he takes the Anoplura of the former as the transit to the
Coleoptera in the latter; from whence passing to the Ó'*
thoptera, &c., he finally returns by the Hymenopter®
Between the Mandibulata likewise and Haustellaté be

finds no osculant class: but as the affinity betwee? the
Trichoptera and Lepidoptera is evident, proceeding by

the Homoptera he returns to the Lepidoptera by certain
Diptera, as Psychoda, &c. From the Aptera Lam.
Pulex L.hepasses by the osculant class Nycteribida to the
Arachnida; and beginning with the Acaridea, hegoe’ p
the Scorpionidea, and so to the Aranidea or spider?
which he connects with the Decapod Crustacea ;—thu

or

. * See Vor. HI. p. 25—. and above, p. 385—. `

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 467

forming his great circle of. five smaller ones, cach of
Which, as well as that which they form, returns into it-
self a

We next take his Circles of Mandibulata : thus—

X
Rapacia \

Pupivora

/ Anthophila

(Y | Tubulifera

HYMENOPTERA

Tenth:
thomorpha a qu ca E Pise

Anopluri- j

mera / Phrygánina sd

TRICHOPTERA

Thysane / MANDIBULATA

rimorpha Perlina
í pet"

ERAPTERA Gryllivia . E Gar,

>

Blattina \ Termitina 14

|

Phasmina Panorpiia

NEUROPTERA

Myrmeleonina

ORTHOPTERA

Locustina

Acridina Libeliulina

RAPHIOPTERA 1

* Hor, Entomolog. c, vi. `

22H42

468 HISTORY. OF ENTOMOLOGY.

In this arrangement of the tribes, as he calls them, of
Mandibulata, Mr. MacLeay sets out from the Coleoptert
which he distributes, according to the supposed typical
_ forms of their /arve, into five minor groups, sufficiently
noticed on a former occasion*. From this tribe or Orde”
he proposes to pass by Atractocerus to the osculant Order
Strepsiptera, and from thence by Myrmecodes Latr. and
the Ants to the Hymenoptera. From hence he next pt”
ceeds to his Trichoptera; in which, as we have seen;
he places not only Phryganea L., but also Tenthredo le :
and Perla Geoffr., making his transit by Sirex L. ; form-
ing an osculant Order which he denominates Bombopter™
From this his way to the Neuroptera is by the Perlides
with Sialis Latr. as an osculant Order under the name
of Megaloptera : he enters by Chauliodes, and leaves s
by Panorpa or Raphidia by means of Boreus, forming
also an osculant Order (Raphioptera) for the Orthopter®
which he enters by Phasma, Mantis, &c., and leaves by
Gryllus Latr., entering the Coleoptera again by the 087
culant Order Dermaptera formed of Forficula L.: 9?
thus returning to the point from which he set out’. He
has not, however, made this return of the series Info
itself so clear in each order, excepting in the Ortho-
ptera, as he has done in the whole Class or Sub-clas*

Thus in the Coleoptera there appears no particular 9”
finity between the Predaceous and Vesicant beetles, his
first and fifth forms*, or his Chilopodimorphous Coleo
ptera, and his Thysanurimorphous. ;
To enter fully into his doctrine of Analogies would
lead us into a very wide field, and occupy a larger space

* See above, p. 374. > Hor. Entomolog. 420—-
* Ibid. 422. i

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 469

than I can afford; I must therefore refer you to his
Work for more particular and. detailed information on
that subject. With regard to the analogies between op-
Posite points of contiguous circles, you may get a very
800d idea of it from his diagram of Saprophagous and
Thalerophagous Petalocerous beetles, which I here
subjoin.

uii. AAE ETE S i6 .
DE Geotrupide x E fate
Pu m. E
r E: A *

Westm ee s :
y. Scarabezidze \ Cetoniade

Dynastidz | Anoplognathide

\ . Glaphyride

Melolonthide

SAPROPHAGA
THALEROPHAGA

\
\ Aphodiade

It is a very singular circumstance that in these two
Circles we have two sets of insects,—one impure in its ha-
bits and feeding upon putrescent food, and the other
clean and nourished by food that has suffered no decay,—
Set in contrast with each other, and that in each of the op-
Posite groups, the one has its counterpart in some respect
In the other. In none is this more striking than the Sca-
Tabeide and Cetoniade, both remarkable for having soft
Membranous mandibles unfit for mastication, and both
living upon juices, the one in a putrescent and the other
in an undecayed state*.

* Other systems or methods have been promulgated by various
authors, as by Scheeffer, Scopoli, Geoffroy, &c. Walckenaer and
Blainville have proposed one founded on the number of the Jegs of

"hsects; but those in the text are the principal and best known.
SN. Dict, d Hist. Nat. xvi. 277.

*

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

Our learned author in subsequent works has stated

every circle to be resolvable into two superior groups
which he denominates normal or typical, and three infe-
rior ones, which he calls aberrant or annectent?.

Before I conclude this account of the various general
systems that have distinguished the different entomolo-
gical eras, I must say a few words on those partial ones
which have been founded on the neuration of the wings
of insects. Frisch, who died in 1743, attempted some
thingin this way’: Harris, in his Exposition of English
Insects published in 1782, had arranged his Hymen
ptera and Diptera according to. characters derived from
this same circumstance*: Mr. Jones in the Linnean
Transactions had made good use of it in dividing the
Diurnal Lepidoptera into groups*: and in the Monogr-
phia Apum Anglia, the characters exhibited by the va-
rious groups into which Linné's genus Apis was resolv-
able, as to the neuration of their wings, were described ^
But M. Jurine was the first Entomologist who made that
circumstance the keystone of a system; which indeed he
restricted to Hymenopterous and Dipterous insects, but
which might be extended much further. As this syste™
has been before sufficiently enlarged upon‘, I need here
only mention it.

To particularize the various entomological works !P
every department of the science, that have appeared since
the commencement of the era of Fabricius, would re"

* Linn. Trans. xiv. 59—. Annulos. Javan. 6. See above, p» 400.
^ batreille Gen. Crust, et Ins, iii. 226. note 1.

€ Pref, ii. d Linn, Trans. ii. 63—
e Mon, Ap. Angl. i: 211—, — E Vor, LL. p. 622 n- 9

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 471

qure a volume. Such was its progress and spread, that
'n every corner of Europe the pens arid pencils of able

and eminent men, whose works have almost all been
quoted in the course of our correspondence, have been
“mployed to illustrate it*. :

3 It may not be unprofitable here to mention those works which
the Entomologist may find it most useful to consult in various de-
Pattments of the science. For descriptions of the Genera and Spe-
cies of insects in general, he must have recourse to the Entomologia

Ystematica emendata et aucta of Fabricius; and its Supplement ;
to the volumes he subsequently published under the titles Systema
leutheratorum, Rhyngotorum, Glossatorum, Piezatorum, and Antlia-
torum ; tothe Genera Crustaceorum et Insectorum of Latreille ; to the
“ame department of the Règne Animal of Cuvier ; and to the Animaux
Sans Vertébres of Lamarck. He will find the genera of Linné and Fa.
Ticius illustrated by Jígures, in Reemer’s Genera ; and many of the
Species described by the latter in Co quebert’s IWustratio Iconographica.
A our countryman Drury’s beautiful JZustrations of Natural History,
a large number of new and rare insects are depicted ; and in Mr. Do-
Novan’s Insects of China, India, and New Holland, some of the most
brilliant and interesting that have been imported from those coun-
tries. Panzer’s Fauna Insectorum Germanice Initia has little short of
3000 foures of insects of every Order (a considerable nnmber of which
Wwe found to inhabit Britain), by the celebrated Sturm; and thé
atter in his Deutschlands Fauna, has illustrated many Coleopterous
Senera analytically (as has also M. Clairville the weevils and Preda-
“ous beetles of Switzerland in his Entomologie Helvétique) by his
Admirable pencil. Beetles ii general .are well figured and described
1 Olivier’s splendid Entomologie ; as are those of Europe in a beù-
tiful work now in course of publication, under the title of Cole-
“Ptéres d Europe, by MM. Latreille and Dejean. For the Ortho-
Piera and Hemiptera, the student must have recourse to Stoll’s Spet-
res, Mantes, Sauterelles, Grillons, Blattes, € "gales, and Punaises,
© a knowledge of the species of Lepidoptera, the admirable figures
z Cramer (Papillons Exotiques de trois Parties du Monde) Esper
( ‘chmetterlinge, T'agschmetterlinge), and Hübner (Schmetterlinge; &c),
Vig. afford a useful avenue ; to the Hymenoptera Christian, and to the
Ptery Meigen.
ith regard to works in British Entomology in general—Dono-
Van’ s Natural History of British Insects, and Samouelle’s Entomolo-

472 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

I may observe, however, that the Internal Anatomy of
Insects, a branch of Entomology which on account of
its difficulty, from the extreme nicety required in dissect-
ing them, had before been cultivated by scarcely more
than a single student in an age, had now attracted nu-
merous votaries. In Germany—Gaede, Herold, Posselt
Ramdohr, Rifferschweils, Sprengel, and others, distin
guished themselves in this arena: and in France, besides
| the illustrious Baron Cuvier (himself a host), Marcel de
Serres, Leon Dufour, and very recently, by his elabo-
rate essays On the Flight of Insects and its wonderful ap”
paratus, one of the most acute of anatomical physiol

gists, M. Chabrier,—have all contributed greatly to the

elucidation of this interesting part of the science. 1?

our own country very little has hitherto been effected
in this line; but I understand a learned Oxford Pro
fessor (Kidd) has presented to the Royal Society an 8€

gist s useful Compendium, will be found very excellent helps to the
student. For the British Genera, the most important work that as
yet appeared is Mr. John Curtis’s British Entomology, in which not
only are the insects admirably represented, but their trophi correctly
delineated, accompanied by able descriptions. For the Coleopte™®
of our country, Mr. Marsham’s Entomologia Britannica shoul
consulted: for the Lepidoptera, the Butterflies of Lewin, and Mr.
Haworth’s useful Lepidoptera Britannica; and for the English spe-
cies of Linné's genus Apis, the Monographia Apum Anglice. These
are the principal works that have at present appeared, to aid the
student in his endeavours to become acquainted with our indige™ :
insects. [t is to be hoped, however, that some able Entomolog5
will undertake that grand desideratum a British Fauna Insectoru™ :
Who so well qualified for this great work as the possessor of the
most complete collection of British insects, and whose thorous
knowledge of the subject equals his means for its elucidation ? A
it therefore in such good hands begin, make progress, prosper, aP“?
Deo favente, be happily concluded! — Verbum sapienti.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 473

Count of the anatomy of the Mole-cricket, which will
entitle him to an eminent station amongst the above
Worthies.

I may likewise further observe, that the pictorial de-
Partment of Entomology was, during the period I am
Speaking of, carried to its greatest perfection. Painters

of insects formerly were satisfied with giving a repre-

Sentation generally correct, without attempting a faithful
delineation of all the minor parts, particularly as to
number ;—for instance, the joints of the antennse and
tarsi, the areolets of the wings, &c.: but now no one
gives satisfaction as an entomological artist unless he is
accurate in these respects.

LETTER XLIX.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF IN-
SECTS; THEIR STATIONS AND HA UNTS ;
SEASONS; TIMES OF ACTION AND RE-
POSE. > |

THOUGH no. subject is more worthy of the attention
of the Entomologist than the Geographical Distribution
of insects, yet perhaps there is none connected with the
science, for the elucidation of which he is furnished with
fewer materials. The geographer of these animals sit-
ting by his fireside, even supposing his museum as amply
stored as that of Mr. MacLeay, and the habitats of its
contents as accurately indicated, still labours under di-
ficulties that are almost insuperable; so that it is next to
impossible, with our present knowledge of the subjects

to give satisfactory information upon every point which

it includes. Had he the talents and opportunities of ?
Humboldt, and could, like him, traversea large portion
of the globe, he would endeavour to note the elevation»
the soil and aspect, the latitude and longitude, the mean
temperature and meteorological phaenomena, the season
of the year, the kind of country, and other localities con
nected with the insects he captured, and so might build
his superstructure upon a sure basis. But these are

on one us
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 475

things seldom registered by travellers that take the
trouble to collect insects; who, if they specify generally
the. country in which any individual was found, think
they have done enough. But to say that an insect was
taken in India, China, New Holland, and North or
South America,— when we consider the vast extent of
those regions,—is saying little of what one wishes to

how even with respect to its habitat. You must re-
Sard therefore, after all, what I have been able to col-
BO and for which I am greatly indebted to the labours
of my few but able precursors in this walk,—as merely
*Pproximations to an outline, rather than as a correct
Map of insect Geography.

Amongst the numerous obligations that he conferred
"bon Natural History, Linné was the first Naturalist
Vho turned his attention to the Geographical Distribu-
tion of its objects, especially that of the Vegetable King-

9m?: and the accomplished traveller Baron Hum.

bold, by the observations he made on this subject in

Ühe course of his peregrinations in tropical America,
has furnished the Botanist with a clue which, duly fol-
loweg, will enable him to perfect that part of his science;
àn end to which the learned observations of Messrs.
- Brown and Decandolle have greatly contributed.
Vith regard to animals, Mr. White, so long ago as
t773, had observed that they, as well as plants, might
With propriety be arranged’ geographically * : and in 1778
abricius in his Philosophia Entomologica applied the
Principle to insects’. Nearly forty years elapsed. before
* Linn, Philos, Botan. $ 334.

? Linn. Trans. x. 20—. &c. Dict. des Scienc. Nat. xviii.
° Selborne 1. 173. ^ Philos. Entomolog. ix. § 20:

476 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

any improvement or enlargement of this last department
was attempted ; when in 1815 M. Latreille, stimulated
by what had been effected in Botany, in a learned and
admirable memoir? endeavoured to place Entomology
in this respect by the side of her more fortunate siste? *
and subsequently Mr. W. S. MacLeay, in the memora-
ble work so often quoted in our correspondence, has
viewed the subject in another light, and added some
important information to what had been before col-
lected ^.

The point now under consideration naturally divides

itself into two principal branches ;—the numerical disti"
bution of insects, and the topographical.

I. By the numerical distribution of insects I mea?
not only the number which Provipence has employ
to carry on its great plan on this terraqueous globe ¢
any given portion of it; or of the species of which each

group or genus may be supposed to consist; or of tP?
comparative number of individuals furnished by eae’
species,~-points of no easy solution: but more part
cularly their distribution according to their functio?
whether they prey upon animal or vegetable matter, 29€
in its living or decaying state.

We have no data enabling us to ascertain with aP)
degree of accuracy the actual number of species of in
sects and Arachnida distributed over the surface of t°
globe; but it is doubtless regulated in a great degree by
that of plants. We should first then endeavour to $2
some just though general notion on that head. Now
Decandolle conjectures that the number of the specie

a Mém, du Mus. 1815. ^ Hor. Entomolog. 42—. 919

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 477

of plants, 60,000 being already known, may be some-
Where between 110,000 and 120,000?. If we consider,
With reference to this calculation, that though the great
body of the mosses, lichens, and sea-weeds are exempt

Tom the attack of insects, yet as avast number of phanero-
Samous plants and fungi are inhabited by several species,
We may form some idea how immense must be the num-
ber of existing insects; and how beggarly does Ray's cov-
J€cture of 20,000 species”, which in his time was reckoned
? magnificent idea, appear in comparison ! Perhaps we
May obtain some approximation by comparing the num-
ber of the species of insects already discovered in Britain
With that of its phanerogamous plants. The latter, —and it
snot to be expected that any large number of species have
*scaped the researches of our numerous Botanists, —may
be stated in round numbers at 1500, while the British in-
Sects, (and thousands it is probable remain still undisco-
Vered,) amount to 10,000; which is more than six insects
to one plant. Now though this proportion, it is probable,
does not hold universally; yet if it be considered how
Much more prolific in species tropical regions are than
Our chilly climate, it may perhaps be regarded as not
Very wide of a fair medium. If then we reckon the pha-
Nerogamous vegetables of the globe in round numbers at
100,000 species, the number of insects would amount to
600,000. If we say 400,000, we shall perhaps not be
Very wide of the truth. When we reflect how much
Steater attention has been paid to the collection of
Plants than to that of insects, and that 100,000 species
of the latter may be supposed already to have a place

^ Essai Elément. de Geograph. Botan. 62.
^ Wisdom of God, &c. 2d edit. 9.

478 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

in our cabinets?, we may very reasonably infer that at
least three fourths of the existing species remain undis-
covered.

Certain groups and genera are found to contain many
more species than others: for instance, the Coleopíe!?
and Lepidoptera Orders than the Orthoptera and New
roptera ; the Rhincophora Latr. than the Xylophagi Latr.s
the Dytiscide than the Gyrinide ; Aphodius than Geo-
trupes ; Carabus than Calosoma. Again, some insect
are much more prolific than others. Thus the Dipter?
Order, though not half so numerous with respect to sp
cies as the Coleoptera, exceeds it greatly in the number
of individuals, filling the air in every place and almost
at every season with its dancing myriads. We rarely

*.. meet with a single individual of the most common spe

cies of Calosoma or Buprestis; whilst the formicary; the
termitary, the vespiary, and the bee-hive send forth
their thousands and: tens of thousands; and whole cou!
tries are covered and devastated by the Aphides and the
Locusts. Am all-wise Provipence has proportioned
the numbers of each group and species to the work as”
signed to them. And this is the view in which the nu
merical distribution of insects is most interesting and
important: and: we are indebted to Mr. W. S, MacLeay
for calling the attention of Entomologists more particU-
larly to this part of our present subject.

With regard to their functions, insects may be pri
marily divided into those that feed upon animal mattet
and those that feed: upon vegetable. At first you would
be: inclined to suppose that the latter must greatly ex-

* Hor. Entomolog. 469. This caleülation includes the Crustacet

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 479

ceed the former in number: but when you reflect that
hot only a very large proportion of Vertebrate animals,
and even some Mollusca*, have more than one. species
that preys upon them, but that probably the majority of .
Insects, particularly the almost innumerable species of
Lepidoptera, are infested by parasites of their own class,
Sometimes having a different one appropriated to them

each of their preparatory states?, and moreover that
i large number of beetles and other insects devour both
living and dead animals,—you will begin to suspect that

these two tribes may be more near a counterpoise than
at first seemed probable. In fact, out of a list of more
than 8000 British insects and Arachnida taken three
Years ago, and furnished chiefly by Mr. Stephens, [found
that 3894 might be called carnivorous, and 3724 phyti-
Phagous ^; so that, speaking roundly, they might be de-
Aominated equiponderant. -

Carnivorous and phytiphagous insects may be further
Subdivided according to the state im which they take
their food,—whether they attack it while living, or not
till after it is dead. Toadopt Mr. W. S. MacLeay’s
Phraseology, the former may be denominated Zhalero-
Phagous, and the latter saprophagous. The British sa~
Prophagous carnivorous insects, compared: with those
that are thalerophagous, are about as 1: 6; while the
Phytiphagous ones areas 1: 9. The thalerophaga in
both tribes may be further subdivided as they take their

* It has lately been discovered that the larva of Drilus flavescens,
E beetle, feeds upon the common snail. (Bulletin: des Scienc. Nat:

824. iii. 297; v. 110; vi. 221.) I have found.an.Acarus on the same
animal, > See above, p. 212—.

2 y . .
" We employ this term, because the more common one, Aerbivo-
7? x . "TX 5
®us, does not properly include devourers of timber, fungi, &c.
x

480 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF. INSECTS.

food by suction or mastication: in the carnivorous ones, the
suckers to the masticators in Britain are nearly as 1: 6;
but with respect to the phytiphagous tribe you must take
into consideration that some insects imbibing their food
by suction in their perfect state (as the great body of the
Lepidoptera), masticate it when they are larve : deducting
therefore from both sides the insects thus circumstanced»
the masticators will form about three fourths of the re
maining British thalerophagous insects. Another ci!
cumstance belonging to this head must not be passed
without notice :—there are certain insects feeding upo”
liquid food that do not suck, but lap it. This is the case
with the Hymenoptera, who, though they are mandibulate
generally lap their food (the nectar of flowers) with the!”
tongue, and may be called lambent insects: nor is this
practice confined to that Order, but all the mandibulate
insects that feed on that substance merit the same appel"
lation. The absorption of this nectar is so important 4
point in the economy of nature, that a very large propo
tion of the insect population of the globe in their perfect
state, are devoted to it. Considerably more than hal
the species indigenous to Britain fulfill this functio?»
and probably in tropical countries the proportion ™4Y
be still larger.

To push this analysis still further— Amongst our caf-
nivorous thalerophaga, aphidivorous insects are about 95
1: 14; and amongst the phytiphagous, the fungivorous
ones form about a twentieth ; and the granivorous about
a twenty-fifth part of the whole. Again: in the sapr’

phaga the lignivorous tribes form more than halj, and
the coprophagous ones more than a third.
If you wish to know further the relative proportion

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 481

of the different Orders to each other. The Coleoptera
May be stated as forming at least 1: 2 of our intire insect
Population; the Orthoptera and Dermaptera as about
1:160; the Hemiptera as 1:15; the Lepidoptera as more
than): 4 ; the Neuroptera with the Trichopteraas 1:29;
the Hymenoptera as about 1 : 4 ; the Diptera as not 1 : os
d the Aptera and Arachnida as perhaps amounting to
Tiga, |

To extend this inquiry to erotic and more particularly
to extra- European insects, in the present state of our

Nowledge, would lead to no very satisfactory results.

he lists wé have are so imperfect, that those which tell
Nost in this country,—1 mean the more minute insects
and the Brachelytra Latr.,—have hitherto formed a very
Small, if any part, of the collections made out of Eu-
‘Ope. Mr. W. S. MacLeay however, who, besides his
father’s (particularly rich in Petalocera), has had an op-

Portunity of examining the Parisian and other cabinets,
finds that the species of coprophagous insects within the
tropics, to those without, are nearly in the proportion of
4:3; and that the coprophagous Petalocera, to the re-
mainder of the saprophagous ones, may be represented by
3:95. It may be inferred, from the superabundance of
Plants and animals in equinoctial countries, that the num-
“tof species of insects in general is greater within than
Without the tropics : the additional momentum produced
Y the vast size of many of the tropical species must also
* taken into consideration.
ll. There are three principal points that call for at-

d If we consider the number of species of Acari, Nirmi, Podure,
^ Araneide, this proportion will appear moderate.
Hor. Entomolog: 48. -` Ne e
Vor, ry, FE

482 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

tention under the second branch of our present subject—
the topographical distribution of insects; namely, their
Climates, their Range, and their Representation.

i. Entomologists, taking heat for the principal regulator
of the station of insects, have divided the globe into-ento-
mological chimates. Fabricius considers it as divisible into
eight such climates, which he denominates the Indian»
Egyptian, Southern, Mediterranean, Northern, Orientals
Occidental, and Alpine. The first, containing the tO
pics; the second, the northern region immediately ad-
jacent ; the third, the southern ; the fourth, the countries
bordering on the Mediterranean sea, including also
. Armenia and Media; the fifth, the northern part °
Europe interjacent between Lapland and Paris; the
sixth, the northern parts of Asia where the cold in winte!
is intense; the seventh, North America, Japan, ®
China; and the eighth, all those mountains whose sum-
mits are covered with eternal snow*. M. Latreille 0b
jects to this division, as too vague and arbitrary and no’
sufficiently correct as to temperature; and observes, with
great truth, that as places where the temperature is the
same have different animals, it is impossible, in the actu?
state of our knowledge, to fix these distinctions of climate?
upon a solid basis. "The different elevations of the 50!
above the level of the sea, its mineralogical compositio?»

the varying quantity of its waters, the modifications whic

the mountains, by their extent, their height, and their d

e e P
rection, produce upon its temperature; the forests, large
: gm 0

or smaller, with which it may be covered; the effects

i 1 i s at
neighbouring climates upon it,—are all elements th

* Philos. Entomolog. ix. § 20.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 483

Tender calculations on this subject very complicated, and
throw a great degree of uncertainty over them. This
learned Entomologist would judiciously consider ento-
Nological climates under another view,— that which the .
Shera of Arachnida and insects exclusively appropriated
to determinate spots or regions would supply^. Linné’s
dictum with regard to genera will here also apply; ** Let
the insects point out the climate, and not the climate the
iNsects,” If you expect invariably to find the same insects
Within the same parallels of latitude, you will be sadly
lsappointed ; for, as our author further observes, “ The
totality or a very large number of Arachnida and insects,
© temperature and soil of whose country are the same,

Jt widely separated, is in general, even if the countries
are in the same parallel, composed of different species c."
“he natural limits of a country,—as mountainous ranges,
tivers, vast deserts, &c.,—often also say to its insect po-
Pulation, * No further shall ye come;” interposing a bar-
"er that it never passes*. Humboldt observes, with re-
Spect to the Simulia and Culices of South America, that
their geographical distribution does not appear to depend
Solely on the keat of the climate, the excess of humidity,
Y the thickness of forests ; but on local circumstances that
"fe difficult to characterize*: and Mr. W. S. MacLeay
Makes a similar observation upon that of Gymnopleurus
-". So that the real insect climates, or those in which
Certain groups or species appear, may be regarded as

: Céograph. Génér. des Ins. .5. bv Ibid.
- Wid. 7... a Ibid. 8, M.
Personal, Narrat, E. T. v. 88. He says also that each stream
Ost has its peculiar species (Ibid. 98), and that they sometimes
Migrate to stations they had not infested before. Ibid 106—.
- Hor, Entomolog. 519.

al

90

ET

X
Nemec

484 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

fixed by the will of the Creator, rather than as certainly
regulated by any isothermal lines. Still, however, under
certain limitations, it must be admitted that the tempera”
ture has much to do with the station of insects. The
increase of caloric is always attended with a proportion?
increase in the number and kind of the groups 9?

species of these beings. If we begin within the pola

regions of ice and snow, the list is very meager. E
descend towards the line, their numbers keep gradually

increasing, till they absolutely swarm within the trop
Something like this takes place in miniature upon mow
tains. '"Tournefort long since observed at the summit 9
Mount Ararat the plants of Lapland ; a little lower, thos?
of Sweden; next, as he descended, those of Germany?
France, and Italy; and at the foot of the mountain, SU
as were natural to the soil of Armenia. And the same
has been observed of insects. Those that inhabit the
plains of northern regions have been found on the mou"
tains of more southern ones; as the beautiful and commo
Swedish butterfly Parnassius Apollo, on the mountains °
France, and Prionus depsarius on those of Switzerland”
M. Latreille, having given a rapid survey of OF
peculiar insect productions of different countries, nest
attempts a division of the globe into climates, which ^*
thinks may be made to agree with the present state °
disco

our knowledge, and be even applicable to future
Arit

veries. He proposes dividing it primarily into

and Antarctic climates, according as they are situate

above or below the equinoctial line; and taking twelve

degrees of latitude for each climate, he subdivides the

a Latr. ubi supr. 3.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 485

Whole into twelve climates. Beginning at 84° N. Li he
has seven Arctic ones, which he names polar, subpolar,
Superior, intermediate, supratropical, tropical, and equa-
torial: but his antarctic climates, as no land has been
discovered below 60° S. L., amount only to five, be-
Sinning with the equatorial and terminating with the
Superior. He proposes further to divide his climates
Mto subclimates, by means of certain meridian lines; se-
Parating ‘thus the old world from the new, and sub-
dividing the former into two great portions, —an eastern,
beginning with India, and a western, terminating with
Persia, He proposes further that each climate should
be considered as having 24° of longitude, as well as 12°
of latitude*. In this chart of insect Geography he
States that he has endeavoured to make his climates agree
With the actual distribution of insects®; and it should
Seem that in many cases such an agreement actually does
take place: yet the division of the globe into climates by
equivalent parallels and meridians, wears the appearance
9f an artificial and arbitrary system, rather than of one
according with nature.

He has also pointed out another index to insect cli-
Mates, borrowed from the Flora of a country. Southern
lorms in Entomology, he observes, commence where the
vine begins to prosper by the sole influence of the mean
temperature ; that they are dominant where the o/zve is
Cultivated ; that species still more southern arè compa-
triots of the orange and palmeito ; and that some equa-
torial genera accompany the date, the sugar-cane, the
indigo, and banana‘. ‘The idea is very ingenious, and,

" Géographie, &c, 22—. » Ibid. 27. © Ibid. 20—

486 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

under certain limitations, supplies a useful and certain
criterion. For though none of these plants are univer"

sal in isothermal parallels of latitude; yet, as plants 8!*
fur-

more conspicuous than insects, the Entomologist, 1™
nished with an index of this kind, may by it be di-
rected in his researches for them; and in all countries
in which there is a material change of the climate, 8?
in France, there will be a proportional change in the
vegetable. accompanied by one in the insect produc

tions.

ii. In considering the range of insects I shall first ad-
vert to that of individual species. At the extreme limits
of phanerogamous vegetation we find a species of hum”
ble-bee (Bombus arcticus K.), which, though it is not
known to leave the Arctic circle, has a very extensive
range to the westward of the meridian of Greenwich
having been traced from Greenland ta Melville Island;
while to the eastward of that meridian it has not bec?
met with. In Lapland-its place appears to be occupied
by B. alpinus and lapponicus, with the former of which»
though quite distinct, it was confounded by O. Fabre
cius; but whether these range further eastward of that
meridian has not been ascertained. From its bes
found in the Lapland Alps?, it may be conjectured that
B. alpinus ranges as high on this side as B. arcticus 0? the
other, and may perhaps be found in Nova Zembla. Some
species that have been taken in Arctic regions are not
confined to them. Of this kind is Dytiscus marginals
which appears common in Greenland, abundant in Bri-
tain, and is dispersed over all Europe; while D. latis-

* See above, p. 484.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. . 487

Simus is more confined, neither ranging so far to the north
or south; and though found in Germany, not yet dis-
Covered in Britain. Other species have a still more exten-
sive range, and are common to the old world and the new.
Thus Dermestes murinus, Brachinus crepitans, Tetyra
Scarabæoides, Pentatoma Juniperina, Cercopis spumaria,
5 anessa Antiopa, Lycena Argiolus, Hesperia Comma,
Vespa vulgaris, Ophion luteum, Elophilus pendulus, Osci-
nis Germinationis, and many besides, though sometimes
varying slightly *, inhabit both Britain and Canada: and
t ough vast continents and oceans intervene between us,
` New Holland, and Japan; yet all have some insect pro-
ductions in common. With the former we possess the
Painted-lady butterfly (Vanessa Cardui), with scarcely a
Varying streak: and Thunberg, in his list of Japan in-
Sects, has mentioned more than forty species that are
found also in this country. Whether any species has a
universal range may be doubted, unless indeed the flea
and the louse may be excepted. On the other hand,
Some are confined within very narrow limits. Apion
Ulicis for instance, abundant upon Ulex européus in |
Britain, has not, I believe, been found upon that plant A

9n the continent.
The geographical distribution of groups is, however,

&r more interesting than that of individual species: for
considering this we see more evidently how certain
Junctions are devolved upon certain, forms, and can scan
the great plan of PROVIDENCE, in the creation of insects,

* M. Latreille (Géographie, &c. 8.) seems to regard these varieties
as distinct; in which case they would be the representatives of the.
Species named in the text: but the varieties are mostly so slight, as
Not to afford any satisfactory distinctive characters. P

e"

488 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

more satisfactorily than by confining our attention t?
the latter. Groups, according to their range, may be de-
nominated either predominant, dominant, sub-dominants
or quiescent.

1. M. Latreille has observed, that where the empire
of Flora ceases, there also terminates that of Zoology *
Phytiphagous animals can only exist where there ar
planis; and those that are carnivorous and feed upon the
Jormer, must of necessity stop where they stop. Even the
gnat, which extends its northern reign so high, must

cease at this limit; while, where vegetation is the richest
and most abundant, there the animal productions, esp
cially the insect, must be equally abundant. I call that
therefore, a predominant group, members of which are
found in all the countries between these points, or from
the limits of animal-depasturing vegetation in the polat
regions to the line.
Generally speaking, the carnivorous insects, whether
thalerophagous or saprophagous, are of this descriptio™
| Calosoma, which devours Lepidopterous larvæ, though
X , poor in species and individuals, is widely scattered. Cap-
` tain Frankland found C. calidum in his Arctic journey’
C. laterale and curvipes inhabit tropical America®; C
Chinense, as its name indicates, is Chinese’; Mr. Mac-
Leay has an undescribed species from New Holland; and
C. retusum was taken in Terra del Fuego. Another
, genus, equally universal and richer in numbers, is the
| lady-bird (Coccinella), which keeps within due limits the

..* Géogr. Génér. des Ins. 2. * When I described the
Melville Island insects-for Captain Sabine, I received from him 99
Culices ; but I afterwards saw in his possession a genuine one —
thence.—K, * Linn. Trans. xii. 380—. n. 6, 7. 4 Ibid. n. 9

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 489

Aphides of every climate from pole to pole. The L;-
bellulina pursue their prey both in Greenland and New
Holland. The saprophagous carnivora are also similarly
Predominant ;—the Silphide, the Dermestide, the Bra-
chelytra, the Muscide, prey on carcases wherever the
action of the solar beam causes them to become putrid.
Many of the above insects have probably their capital
Station, or that where the species are most numerous, in
or near the tropics; but the metropolis of the Brachely-
tra (Staphylinus L.), at least as far as we can judge from
ur present catalogues, is within the temperate zone, par-

ticularly in Britain*. The coprophagous Petalocera are
Most abundant in the hottest climates; but the Aphodiade
form a predominant group: Professor Hooker took one

Species in Iceland, and it probably ascends higher;
others are found in India and China: but the metropolis
of the group is within the temperate zone. Perhaps no^
genus is more completely universal than Bombus (Bre-
mus Jur.) which, although its centre or metropolis is
likewise in the northern temperate zone, extends from
Melville Island to the line. It is remarkable that some
of the tropical Bombi wear the external aspect of Xylo-
Cope, the kindred genus most prevalent in warm cli-
mates; and, vice versá, some Xylocope resemble Bombi.
I have a Brazilian undescribed species of the latter ge-
hus, whose black body and violet-coloured wings would
almost cause it to be mistaken for a variety of X. violacea ;
and B, antiguensis and caffrus F., (though their aspect
belies it,) which misled Fabricius, are true Xylocopa. I

^ De Jean in his catalogue gives only 434 species; while Mr. Ste-

Phens, four years ago, had 550, and has since increased the number to
above 600. ^ Journal of a Tour in Iceland, O72.

490 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

shall mention only one other predominant group, but
that one of no common celebrity, formed of the gnats, O!
genus Culez L. These piping pests, with their quiver—
* venenatis gravida sagittis"—annoy man almost from
the pole to the line. What remarkably distinguishes

them, (as was formerly observed ?,) and also the Simulium

or true mosquito,—they appear to prevail most in the
coldest and the hottest climates, and the Laplander and
the tropical American are equally their prey; while the
inhabitants of the temperate zone, with some exceptions
suffer but little from them: so that they may be stated t0
have both an arctic and a tropical metropolis.

2. There are other groups which, though their empire
extends to the tropics, fall short of the polar circles:
these I call dominant groups. Of this description are
some of the Scarabeide M*L. Onthophagus is found
both in the old world and in the new, and in the tempe
rate and torrid zones. Its principal seat appears to be

within the tropics, but it may almost be said to have als?

a northern metropolis. More than one species have

_ been taken in New Holland. In general, tropical insects

exceed those of colder climates in size; but in the genus

| we are speaking of, the European species are usually

larger than the Indian. Copris seems more abhorrent

' of cold than its near relation Onthophagus. | C. lunaris
which ranges northward as far as Sweden, is the only
recorded species found in Europe out of Spain. La
treille says, that all the large species of this genus are
equinoctial: but C. Tmolus, described and figured by
Fischer ®, found in Asia near Orenburg, north of 50° N.L.

? Vor, T. p- 115—. ^ Entomogr. Russ. Coleopt. t. xiii. f- t

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 491

is as big as C. Gigas or bucephalus. Another domi-
nant group of Petalocera, remarkable for the bulk and
arms of its tropical species, are the mighty Dynastide,
the giants and princes of the insect race. Though their
Metropolis is strictly tropical, yet the scouts of their host
have wandered even as far as the south of Sweden, where
One of them, Oryctes nasicornis, is extremely common.
O. Grypus? and some other species are found in South
Europe; but though in a torpid state they can endure
unhurt the severity of a Scandinavian winter, they cannot
when revived stand the cold that often pinches Britons
in the midst of summer, and therefore are unknown in
our islands’. The Spheridiade, whose metropolis is
Within the northern temperate zone, extend from thence
beyond the line, since Dr. Horsfield found two species
in Java‘. It is probable, indeed, that this group is pre-
dominant. Some dominant groups begin at a lower la-
titude. Of this description are the carpenter-bees ( Xylo-
copa), whose larvae are preyed upon by that of Horia?
under zwo forms, which extend from the tropics to about
50° N. L. Others are not common to both worlds.
Thus, while Cantharis is the gift of PROVIDENCE to Ame-
rica as well as the old world, Mylabris is confined to the
: latter, where its range is very extensive ;—in Europe,
from South Russia to Italy and Spain; in Asia, from
Siberia to India; and in Africa, from the shores of the
Mediterranean to the Cape of Good Hope; which last
Continent, to judge from our present lists, especially the

: - b x
* Ahren's Fn. Europ. 1. 1. Hor. Ent. 47—.
* Annulosa Javanica, 36.
* See the Rev. L. Guilding’s admirable History of Xylocopa Te-
"edo and Horia maculata, Linn. ‘Trans. xiv. 918—.

492 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

vicinity of the Cape, may be called the metropolis of the
group*. On the other hand, the Rutelide and Chlamys
which have a range from Canada to the tropics, (within
which is their metropolis,) are purely American groups
Many more might be named under this head, but these
will suffice for examples.

3. I call those subdominant groups, which either neve?
enter the tropics, or those tropical ones whose range |
does not exceed 50° of N. L. in the old world, 9!
43? in the new. I make this difference because, 29
M. Latreille observes, the southern insects which iP
Europe begin between 48? and 49° N. L., in America do
not reach 43°. But though the winters in Canada
within the same parallel as France, are longer and more
severe than those even of Great Britain or of Germany
yet the summers are intensely hot; so that though tropi-
cal species do not range so high, those of a tropical strut -
ture, as Mr. W.S. MacLeay has intimated *, may be found
at a higher latitude in the new world than in Europe.

The genus Melöe F. affords an instance of a subdomi-
nant group of the first description. It ranges from Swe
den to Spain and the shores of the Mediterranean, and
seems a tribe almost confined to Europe, where it is n0t
very unequally distributed. Of registered species Britai”
possesses the largest proportion; but Mr. W. S. MacLeay
is of opinion that Spain is its true metropolisd, I have
a species of this genus, taken in North America by Pro-

* Out of 51 species described by Bilberg, 28 are African, and 19
of these are from the Cape. ; -

» Géogr. Génér. des Ins. 18. ° Hor. Entomolog. 49.

4 Dr. Leach has described 8 British species (Linn. Trans. xi. 37+)
De Jean has 7 Spanish ones.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 493

fessor Peck. The splendid genus Carabus ranges still
further north than Melöe. A very fine species (C. cri-
bellatus Adams) inhabits the polar regions of Siberia’;
but the metropolis of the group appears to be the tem-
Perate zone: some, however, have been found in northern
Africa; and Sir Joseph Banks captured one in Terra del
Fuego. Of those whose range is between the tropics
and 50° N.L. we may begin with Cicada Latr. One
Species, indeed, was found by Mr. Bydder a little higher,
near the New Forest, Hampshire; but, though anxiously
Sought for, it has not since been discovered^. It seems,
therefore, to admit of some question whether this is ab-
original as British, and may not by some accident have
been imported*. We may take Scola for an example of
à subdominant group beginning more southward. Its
Species first appear about 43° N. L., and abound in warm
Climates. In general most of those insects which M. La-
treille denominates meridional, —such as Scarabeus M*L.,
Onitis, Brentus, Scarites, Mantis, Fulgora, Termes, Scor-
Pio, &c.—come under the present head, and in fact all
tropical forms that wander to any distance within the
above limits from their metropolis.

4. By quiescent groups I mean those that have none,
or no high range as to latitude, from their centre or metro-
polis, I say as to latitude, because these groups have often
an extensive one as to longitude. Thus, Mr. W. S. Mac-
Leay has remarked to me, that Golzathus Lam. appears

* Fischer Entomogr. Russ, 90—. t. viii. f. 13.

> Since the above was written, it has been stated to me that two
Were taken this year in the New Forest.

© The same observation applies to Forficula gigantea, found at

Christ-Church by Mr. Bingley, but which, though often sought for,
has never since been taken there.

494 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

. to belt the globe, but not under one form. The types of
| the genus are the vast African Goliaths (G. giganteus, &c-)
which, as well as G. Polyphemus, and another brought
from Java by Dr. Horsfield, have, like Cetonia?, the sca"
pulars interposed between the posterior angles of the
prothorax and the shoulders of the elytra: while the
South American species (G. micans, &c.) have not this
_ projection of the scapulars ; in this resembling Trichius-
Mr. MacLeay further observes, that the female of the
Javanese Goliathus is exactly a Cetonia, while that of the
Brazilian is a Trichius. But quiescent groups have not
generally this ample longitudinal range. Thus, Ew
glossa F., in both its types,—one represented by Eu. cor-
data, and the other by Eu. surinamensis, —is confined t
the tropical regions of America. Doryphora, likewise
American, seems equally confined. Asida, though ?
southern genus, is not found to enter the tropics; and
Manticora and Pneumora are in nearly the same predica-
ment.
Under the present head we may consider what may
perhaps be denominated without much impropriety e^-
demial groups; by which I mean those groups that are
regulated, as to their limits, not so much by the tempera-
ture, or the northing and southing of the latitude, as by
the general aspect and circumstances of the country:
Thus, the vast and nearly insular continent of Africa,
almost as wide as it is long, and situated in or near the
tropics, instead of inland seas or sea-like rivers, is intet-
sected by parched sandy deserts, extending far and wide:
circumstances which, though in the vicinity of its streams

it is humid, impart an unusual degree of aridity as well

~ Vor. IIT. p. 564.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 495

as heat to its general atmosphere; so that it well merits
the poet's epithet, Leonum arida nutrix; and is also pe-
Culiarly fitted for all such animals, especially insects, as
delight in a dry, sandy, hot country, particularly such as
are predaceoùs in their habits. America, on the other
and, exhibits quite an opposite character. It is long,
and comparatively narrow ; surrounded, and almost di-
vided into two continents, by immense circumfluent
Oceans; watered every where by rivers and lakes that
emulate seas: in some parts covered by interminable
lorests; in others, intersected by ridges of the loftiest
Mountains. These circumstances, except in its Llanos or
table-land, give a general character of humidity to its at-
Ihosphere, and fit it particularly for the production of a
Vast variety of. peculiar plants, and for the residence of
Numerous and peculiar phytiphagous insects and other
animalsa. Midway between these two continents lies a
third (for so the vast island of New Holland may be
denominated), which presents new features in its ge-
Neral aspect, and consequently new forms both in its
flora and Fauna, mixed with many old ones parallel to
those both of the new world and the old. Perhaps Eu-
ope and Asia, with several that are peculiar, agree more

their animal productions than the continents just de-
Scribed.

Let us next particularize a few of the peculiar types
that distinguish particular continents and countries. The
Sehera Manticora, Graphipterus, Glaphyrus, Eurychora,
R neumora, Masaris, and many others, are peculiar’ to
África, In Asia alone we find Mimela®, Euchlora MCL..°,

* Latr, Géograph, &c. 18—. > Linn, Trans. xiv. t. ii. f. 4.
° Hor. Entom. 147.

496 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

Colliuris, Catascopus K.5, Apogonia K.^, a peculiar type of
Horia, &c. In America, Agra, Galerita, Nilion, another
type of Horia, Tetraonyx, Rutela, Doryphora, Alurnss
Erotylus, Scotinus K.*, Cupes, Corydalis, Labidus, Heli-
conia, Castnia, &c. And in New Holland, Helluo, Ele-
phastomus M*L., Anoplognathus; Agrostiphila M*L- H
Cerapterus, Helaus, Adelium K., Paropsis, Achilus Ke
Thynnus, &c. |

The countries bordering upon the Mediterranean, the
Black, and the Caspian seas, agree in producing similar
insects. These countries, and the Cape of Good Hope
though so distant from them, appear to be the principal
seat of Heteromerous Coleoptera, of the genera Lixus a?
Brachycerus, and of the conical Buprestes*. But the it"
sects of Guiana, on one side the Cordilleras, differ fro™
those of New Granada and Peru on the other; and simi-
lar differences are observed in other neighbouring cow”
tries separated by natural boundaries.

iii. Another head connected with the topographical
distribution of insects relates to their representation ©
each other. Here we may observe, that some insects T^"
present each other only in their form; others also in their
function; and others in both. I shall give some instances
of each. In Brazil there is a group of petaloceroU?
beetles (Chasmodia M*L.), one of the Rutelide, which ™
New Holland has a representative, as to form, in one °
the Cetoniade (Schizorhina K.f), which, having soft

a Linn. Trans. ubi supr. f.l. Ibid. xii. t. xxi f.9. ° Ibid. f. 1^

a To this genus belong Melolontha aurulenta. Ibid. 400.; aP
M. sericea. Ibid. 463. * Latr. Géograph. 7.

£ Cetonia atropunctata and Brownii of Linn. Trans. (xi. 464
i, xxiii. f. 6.) belong te this genus.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 497

mandibles, must have a different function :—it is to be!
observed, however, that these insects appear to approach \
“ach other in the series of affinities. Again, the Cara- |
idee May in the same country be said to have a represen- ;
lative in the remarkable heteromerous genus Adelium?, |

Which is altogether an analogy. Others are representa-

Be Only in their function. The general function of in-
“ects is to remove nuisances and to check redundancies,—
the Saprophagous tribes do the one, and the thaleropha-
Sous the other. In going from the poles to the line,—in
Proportion as the heat increases, the quantum of work of
oth kinds increases; and new forms are either added to
* old ones, so as to increase their momentum ; or new
“Res, more powerfully talented, replace the old ones, and
“Ct in their stead: thus we see a gradual and interesting
‘ ange take place in proportion as we approach the
àXimum of heat and of insect population. At the Cape, -
the Universal Cicindele are aided by Manticora ; in North
. Merica, the Silphide by a new group, the type of which
SU, Americana; in South America, Copris by Phaneus
Ms, Again: Colliuris and Drypta of the old world, à

`

N the new give place to Lutrachelus and Agra. ‘The |
“Rey and wax of Europe, Asia, and Africa, is prepared
Y bees congenerous with our common hive-bee (Apis |,
“ttr.); while in America this genus is notfound asa na- |
i ve, but is replaced by Melipona and Trigona? ; and in
New Holland by a still different but undescribed type.
he Melolonthide and Rutelide of the old and new
Vorld appear to have their work done in that country by
the brilliant and numerous Anoplognathide. The Rhi-

* Linn. Trans. xii. t. xxii, f. 25 t. xxiii, f. 7.
» Latreille, Géograph. &c. 10.

498 LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

picera of Brazil is of a different type from that of New
Holland. The singular genus Cremastocheilus of North
America has its representative in Africa in Genuchus K.’
The Lucani of the rest of the world give place in New
Holland to Lamprima Latr. and Ryssonotus M*1«—

could produce a much greater number of examples» but

these are sufficient to explain my meaning.

Having thus given you some, though an imperfect 20
count, of the geographical distribution of insects, Lom
next to say something concerning their local distributi”
in any district, or their favourite haunts ; a knowledg"
of which, with respect to those of our own country, i5 ph
dispensable to the collector. ;

The surface of a country consists either of mountalll?
hills and valleys, or of plains. It is diversified by forest
wood, or copse; and watered by rivers, rivulets, Jakes
and pools. Those parts that are not clothed with woot
are either open or inclosed, forming grassy downs, heath’
pastures, meadows, morasses, and arable land. The so!
also is equally various :—-we find clay, loam, marl, chalks
vegetable mould, moor, sand, &c. The mountains
hills are either covered with a stratum of soil, or are
rocky and bare; the arable lands are divided by livin’
or dead fences, the latter formed of various materi? m
—or else they are open, and the property only marke
out by grassy balks, &c. All these places abound "
shrubs and plants; some local, and some generally dist
buted. But besides the Zand and its Sresh waters s
must look also to the sea, and its sandy, pebbly, or rocky

j-

* Linn. Trans, xiv. 569.

LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. . 499

shores, and the sea-wrack that is cast up upon them; the
MT that receive its tides; the brackish waters and
Saline marshes in its vicinity. All the above places, when
‘PPortunity serves, the Entomologist should explore, for
almost all he will find peculiar kinds of insects,
As mountains and hills have usually their own Flora,
© insects appropriated to alpine plants can only be met
with Where the pabulum is found. Here also those north-
St insects that are impatient of a warmer climate will
e their station, if they migrate to the southward.
* predaceous beetles likewise sometimes frequent a
“Untainous district. Carabus glabratus was first taken
y Professor Hooker on Ingleborough; and probably,
the Welsh and Scotch mountains were duly investi-
med by an Entomologist, many novelties would reward
5 toils, The valleys and plains, especially those of a
“thy exposition, abound in insects. When the heat of
. * atmosphere indisposes you for motion, you will find
ho unprofitable or unpleasant employment, lying on
* Brass, to search for minute beetles, which you will
4€ find coursing about amongst the tufts and roots of
ie herbage. Thus you may procure many of the Pse-
Vhide, which you would not otherwise meet with. Even
“n the grass is grown up, insects are fond of alighting
E its spikes, and thence drop or run to the ground.
uld circumstances ever carry you abroad to the
*Ppes or grassy plains of Tartary, or to Hungary, you
uld find there two or three species of the singular ge-
» Lethrus, which burrows in the soil. Every hole is
abited by a male and female ;—from it they issue to

* See above, p. 484.
D A

500 LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

attack the plants or vines; and having cut out the heart
of a plant, go backwards like a crab with the prize os
their burrow. At the time of pairing, sometimes violen
battles, encouraged by the female, take place between thé
male and a stranger of that sex desirous of admissi *
which cease only with the death or flight of the strange "'
The vicinity and borders of woods generally abound 1
insects of every Order; and if you proceed, as hereafte?
directed, will furnish you with numerous prizes, esp"
cially of Lepidoptera. Here alone you can meet with the

purple emperor butterfly (Apatura Iris); and if prope?!
equipped you may readily secure him.

The waters you will find nearly as prolific in insects j
the land. In them, amongst the beetles, you may exper
to meet with Dytiscus, Haliplus, Palobius, Hyphyt™
Hydroporus, Noterus, Colymbetes, and other Dytiscid@ :

the Gyrini, Hydrophili, Hydrene, Elophori, &c.: unde
stones, the Limnius Müll. (Elmis Latr.); and iP "
‘mud, the Parni and Heteroceri. Some Spheridiad@ i
also aquatic: I have taken more than once Cercyo* f
morrhoidale from the under side of a piece of wood ^
mersed in a canal^. Even a few of the weevil tribe a
to be met with in water. Lixus paraplecticus, T: anys? 7
rus Lemne, Bagous atrirostris, are of this descrip"
A species of Ceutorhynchus Schüp. of Germar's third y
mily (C. Natator K.) swims well. On aquatic plants J £
must look for Helodes and the splendid Donacic; wh
living on submerged shoots and roots of these pla”
in their larva state, continue to attend them when p

* Fischer, Entomogr. Russ. i. 135. pas?
^ From finding it in water, Fabricius considered this inset
Hydrophilus, but it is a true Cercyon.

LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 501

fect, Amongst the Hupodina*,—Elaphrus, Notiophilus,

ad Bembidium frequent humid places, as the banks of
"ers and ponds; and in such a station, under the roots
mp otentilla anserina, Polygonum, &c. if you should
€ fortunate enough to find Omophron limbatum, which
"Ohnects the Eupodina with the Hunechina, you will
Make a valuable addition to the list of British insects.
N the waters also you will meet with many Hetero-
Pterous Hemiptera ; as Gerris, Hydrometra, and Velia
Atr., and all the Hydrocorise or water-bugs. On aqua-
€ plants the larvee of some Lepidoptera feed, as Bo-
tys Stratiotata, potamogata, &c. Those also of the Tri-
“0ptera must be sought for in the water: and if you `
“ould feel inclined to see an interesting collection of their
Very curious cases, Mr. Sheppard of Wrabness can gra-
Uy your curiosity. Though few or no Hymenoptera fre-
Went this element, vast numbers of Diptera are there
‘lone to be met with in their preparatory state, particu-
larly the gnats. We learn from Humboldt a curious fact
With respect to those of South America, or the Zancudos ;
that, with some exceptions, these pests do not frequent
Se rivers called by the natives black waters, but only
°se which they name white waters®. Of the Aptera, the
Shera Hydrachna, Elais, and Limnochares are purely
atic, Several spiders will walk over the water; and
Mne Species (Argyroneta aquatica) inhabits it*. The stag-
mt Waters in your vicinity will produce different species
"om running ones. Thus Haliplus elevatus, &c. inba-
s Only the latter, while the majority of the Dytiscide

: See above, p. 392. ^ Personal Narrat. E, T. v. 91—.
See Vor. I. p. 473—.

502 LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

abound most in the former :. the more minute ones may
be sought for with success amongst the duckweed that
covers a pool. I do not recollect finding any insect 17
waters absolutely salé*; but brackish waters product
peculiar species: in these only, Hydrena marina occurs

and many of those large-eyed Cimicide (Salda F., Aca

thia Schrank), as S. saltatoria, littoralis, and goster?
: | ile
occur in places where salt water has been. Latte

ly

observes, that the genus Pimelia is to be met with o?
where the soil is impregnated with saline particles
where the species of the genus Salsola abound”.
Heaths, though they do not afford numerous insect?
have their ‘rarities. Cicindela sylvatica, Carabus niten
and arvensis, frequent them, and are not elsewhere © ”
seen. Curculio nebulosus is also to be found on thes’
places where the turf has been peeled ; and some se
Lepidoptera. In their vicinity, in sunny sandy be
some of the rarer Ammophile and Pompili may be taker?
and it is here only that I have ever met with Panurg*

Latr. Meadows and pastures are not to be negl
plo"

&

many minute beetles, and not a few Hymenopter@ ”
Diptera, frequent them. Morasses also have their pe^
liar insects. In these you will meet with some of t :
scarcer Lupodina; as Chlenia holosericea and ™

Early in the year, when they are yellow with the
soms of Ranunculus bulbosus, Leontodon Taraxacum

-

cornis, Blethisus multipunctatus, various Bembidia; #
In this kind of district in the Isle of Ely Aphodius P -

Mode?

* A speeies of Gyrinus (G. Viola aquatica), described by pit sal
api

(Linn. Syst. Nat. Ed. Gmel. i. 1612. n. 9.), is said to inh
water.

” Géograph., &c. 6. * Apis. *. a, Mon, Ap. Angl. ii. 1787

LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 503

Status has been taken, and that scarce and beautiful but-
terfly Lycena Virgauree. Where land is cultivated the
“tomologist as well as the farmer may expect a harvest.
‘sects in general are fond of perching on the summit of
a blade of grass or corn; and many minute ones may be
taken coursing about in the ears of the latter: some to de-
Your the fungilli that infest the grain, as Phalacrus corrus-
Sin Rerodaria Segetum ; others to attack the grain itself,
as Cecidomyia Tritict ; others to destroy these destroyers,
3$ three little parasites belonging to the Zchneumones mi-
uti L.a, But I have already mentioned most of those in-
Sects that are to be expected in such situations: I shall
therefore only further observe, that upon barley particularly
You will meet with the species of Latreille’s genus Cephus.
With respect to soz/s, those that are light appear to be
Most prolific in insects. Warm sandy banks are fre-
Tuented by Cicindela campestris, Opatrum sabulosum, He-
lops quisquilius, &c.: in them (when of a southern aspect)
4nmophile, Pompili, and numerous Hymenoptera nidifi-
“ate. Chalk also attracts various insects. Latreille ob-
Serves. that the Licini, Papilio Cleopatra, several species
SE Dasytes, and some Lamia, delight in this kind of soil °:
~in my own neighbourhood I have observed Lycena Co-
?ydon principally in chalk-pits. One of these pits, under
à wood in an adjoining parish, has produced me several
Valuable insects, Here I took Apion ebeninum, Orobitis
Slobosus, a new species of Zwesthetus Grav., several of the
tarer Pselaphide and Choleve, and Chetophora cretifera
fore noticed, Ido not mean, however, that all these

: Linn, Trans. iv. 30—. v. 96—. t. iv. ^ Vor, I. Lerter VI.
Géograph. &c. 6. t VoL. II. p. 258.

504 LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

are properly chalk insects; but they fall into these pits
where they are readily discerned, from the contrast °
their colours with the whiteness of the chalk. By watch-
ing attentively the bottom of one, vast numbers in a warm
day may be taken when they fall or are climbing up
wards. Ofall soils clay offers the fewest inducements i
the Entomologist, who will lose both his time and labou"
in a clay-pit; while in one of sand, chalk, or marl they
will usually not be mispent. Vegetable earth also affo"? ;
a harbour to various larvæ, and the pupæ of many nigh’
fliers amongst the Lepidoptera, by digging in it, espe
cially under trees, may be obtained. Even the bare rocks
have their insect frequenters that take shelter in theif fis
sures; and in the early part of your career especially J^"
should always turn over large stones, as beneath tbe
many of the Harpalide and other Eupodina frequent
lie hid: and in this situation, both in Suffolk and Susse”
. Lomechusa emarginata, one of our scarcest Brachely™
Latr., has been taken. Old trees also, and planks that
have laid long without being moved, often afford a shelte"
to many of the minute Coleoptera; as Pselaphidee, Ale
charide, Cryptophagide, Scymnide, &c. Live fence?
especially when the hawthorn is in blossom, and wher?
trees are also intermixed, are attended by innumerable
insects of almost every description; and even the blac*
thorn will present you with one of our most splen?

weevils (Rhynchites Bacchus). Dead fencés are almost

as fertile in insects as living ones. In gates, posts; rail
and other timber when felled, the timber-devourie
tribes take their station:— between the bark and the
wood are the Bostricide; in the wood itself, the Ane"
bide and the Capricorn beetles. Here also you may mee

LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 505

With many Hymenoptera, which either devour timber or
hidificate in it,—as the Siricide, Chelostoma, Trypoaylon,
Sapysa, and several Diptera. In the decaying hedge-
Stakes and sticks, where the Spheria decorticans has
turned off the bark, you may meet with Anthribus brevi-
rostris ; with A. latirostris, and other beetles, in S. fraxi-
nea: and A. albinus, which I have more than once cap-
tured as it was emerging from the fissure of a gate-post,
Probably feeds on some internal fungus. The grassy
balks that separate open fields usually abound in umbel-
liferous plants, which are attended by numerous Hymeno-
Ptera and Diptera, particularly by the various species of
the splendid tribe of CAryside: and the grassy banks of
fences, where the aspect is sunny, are generally bored by
à variety of insects of the former Order, to prepare a nest
fot their young. Andrenide and Nomadide particularly
Select this situation, the latter probably depositing their
eges in the burrows of the former*. By watching these
places in the spring, you may perhaps have the good for-
tune to meet with a Stylops. It is singular, that some
insects choose, for their own residence or that of their
young, the hardest and most trodden pathways. ‘Thus,
Some ants will build their subterranean apartments un-
der gravel walks; and so do many species of the genus
Halictus?, the habits and economy of which have been
So ably detailed by M. Walckenaér* : Cerceris also, and

other Hymenoptera, wil choose such places, however
public, for the site of their nests or burrows. The ground

a These, as well as Melecta, are probably a kind of Cuckow-bee.
Mon. Ap. Angl. i. 150.

^ Melitta. x *. b. Mon. Ap. Angl. i. 138—.

* Mémoires sur le genre Halicte.

506 LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. d

is so consolidated by the constant foot, that they proba-
bly find such situations spare them a world of labour, and
therefore in their choice balance one inconvenience by
another.

Though the sea itself, I believe, produces no true in-
sects, yet there are many that constantly or occasionally
haunt its shores. On the sand-hills of the Norfolk coast
I found Aigialia globosa and Cicindela hybrida. Ryn-
chenus horridus inhabits thistles that grow near the se?
Under the Zostera and Fuci, (cast up both on its beach and
the shores of estuaries,) many peculiar species of Cercyon
several Aphodii, and numerous Staphylinide, may often
befound. In this situation the rare and singular Oxyfe-
lus tricornis has been taken. At certain seasons of the
year the beach and environs of the sea are covered by
many species of Coccinella, which seem to bend theif
course thither from the inland country, as if they were
about to emigrate?. When the weather is fine and the
tide begins to retire, at the line of its highest rise I have
taken on the eastern coast a variety of insects, and
amongst the rest Anomala Frischii. The inundations of
rivers, except in the depth of winter, always bring ?
number of these little creatures, which float on the sur-
face on bits of stick, weeds, &c.; and where they deposit
these articles when the water begins to subside, you may
generally reap a plentiful harvest of various kinds.

You see, now, how varied is the scenery to which the
diversion of the Entomologist introduces him ; that he
is never out of his way: whether on hill or in valley; 07
upland or plain; on the heath or in the forest; on the

* Vor. II. p. 9.

LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 507

land or on the water; in the heart of a country or on |
its shores ;—still his game is within his reach. But in
order to enable him to pursue it with greater prospect of
Success, he must recollect that not only is every face of
the country to be explored, but both the plants and the
animals that it produces; and that he must not turn with
disgust from even the carcase or the excrement of the
latter. As numerous species of herbivorous insects feed
only on one kind of plant, the Entomologist, when he
discovers a scarce one, should examine it with the hope
of finding upon it a scarce insect. Sometimes it happens
that only a single opportunity occurs in a man’s life of
Seeing certain plants growing wild: such opportunities
Should never be neglected. Some insects also inhabit a
plant in one district or season, and not in another. Thus
the most beautiful of the Apions, 4. Limonii?, though the
plant it feeds upon usually abounds near the sea, I have
discovered only on the northern coast of Norfolk; and an-
other scarcely less beautiful, but more minute (4. As-
tracali*?), though I have sought for it year after year, ás- `
tragalus glyciphyllus being abundant near me, I never
found but once. The blossoms of plants as well as the
leaves must be inspected. In those of the rose, the Ce-
tonia aurata is often taken*; and in the bells of the dif-
ferent species of Campanula various bees may be cap-

tured enjoying a luxurious repose*. Upon living Verte-
brate animals you must look for Pulices, Pediculi, Nirmi,
Acari, and many Diptera, as CEstrus, Tabanus, Stomoxys,

2 Linn. Trans. ix. 78—. t.i. f. 20. ^ Ibid. 55. t. 1, f.12.

* This insect does not, I believe, eat the petals of the rose, but
laps the nectar it produces. I have seen it employed upon wounded
trees lapping the sap. ? Mon. Ap. Angl. ii. 172. 257.

508 SEASONS OF INSECTS.

and the Pupipara of Latreille: and on the garden-snails
for that curious genus Drilus, and some Acari*. The
caterpillars and pups of Lepidoptera, &c. will, as you
have heard, furnish you with numerous ichneumons P.
On dead animals you will find the various species of Sil-
phide, Nitidulide, Dermestide, Byrrhide, Chlolevæ, Sta-
philinide, Muscide, &c.; and in excrement, various Sca-
rabeide, Histeride, Aphodiade, Spheridiade, the Bra-
chelytra in general, and several Diptera. In putrescent
roots and fruits, as the turnip, the cucumber, &c., you
may also occasionally meet with rare Coleoptera.

I must next say something upon the seasons of insects
and their times of appearance. Those that collect honey
and pollen are generally among the first that proclaim
the approach of spring; and their appearance may be
dated from the blossoming of certain trees and plants of
common occurrence. Other plants, accompanied by pe-
culiar insects, blossom later; and so on till we arrive at
_the autumn. “The earliest insect-season commences with
the flowering of the sallow (Salix Caprea), usually ac-
companied in the garden by that of the crocus and the

gooseberry. ‘Then is your time to collect many species of
| wild bees and Diptera not afterwards to be met with:
and various other insects now begin to emerge from their
| winter quarters, or are produced from the pupa. A”
| other and later season is marked by the general blossom-

ing of the butter-cup (Ranunculus bulbosus), accompanied
by the marsh-marygold (Caltha palustris) and ladies-
smock (Cardamine pratensis); when you. may hunt the

* See above, p. 479, note ?.
> Ibid. p. 208; and Vor. I. p. 265—. © Ibid. p. 251—-

SEASONS OF INSECTS. 509

. pastures, meadows, and marshes with success, and take
Some insects that do not show themselves later. The co-
Prophagous insects are now abundant. Amongst others,
Aphodius testudinarius, a perfectly vernal species, is now
only to be taken, and usually flying. A third insect-sea-
Son indicated by Flora, and a very prolific one, com-
mences with the blossoming of the hawthorn, when you
must desert the meads for the inclosures. At this time
all nature begins to put on her gayest attire, and all her
insect tribes are now on the alert, and fill the air. They
are almost universally attracted by the sweet and lovely
blossoms of the plant just named: so that by examining
them you may entrap some of every Order, and many
that during the year will appear no more. Even many
of the saprophagous insects will sip nectar from these
flowers. The umbelliferous plants proclaim the fourth
Season of insects, particularly the wild carrot and parsnip.
You will scarcely ever fail to find, if the weather is ge-
nial, Hymenopterous and Dipterous insects of various ge-
Nera,—especially such as have a short tongue,—engaged
in collecting the honey from those plants. Here you
may take some of the rarer Chryside, Crabronide, Cer-
cerides, &c., and occasionally even Coleoptera. The last
insect-season may be dated from the general flowering of
the ¢histle tribe. When these are in blossom is the best
time of all to collect the humble-bees (Bombus*), the leaf-
cutter bees (Megachile®), and many other Apiarie Latr.,
which alone by their long tongues can imbibe the honey
and collect the pollen of these flowers. The male hum-

ble-bees frequent them to the last, and often seem as if

they were intoxicated with their sweets.

a Apis. x *. e. 2. K. ^ Apis. + *. c: 2. æ. K.

510. SEASONS OF INSECTS.

But perhaps you may prefer considering the whole
summer appearance of insects as divided into zhree prin-
cipal seasons. This may thus be done. Their vernal
season may commence Florente Caprea, and end Florenté
Oxyacantha ; their summer, Florente Oxyacantha and Flo-
rentibus Umbellatis; their autumn, Florentibus Umbellatis
and Florente Carduo. In the first, the number of insects
will be daily increasing; in the second (which is the har-
vest of the Entomologist, when his eyes and his hands
ought to be every where), they will reach their utmost
complement; and in the third, they will be gradually de-
creasing in number, till they generally die, or go into
winter-quarters. At this time many minute Diptera and
Ichneumons take shelter from the weather in the windows
of our apartments. These seasons will not always exactly
correspond with our usual reckoning, and take place at
the same time; since, being regulated by our varying tem-

perature, they will be sometimes sooner and sometimes
later, sometimes longer and sometimes shorter. Though
2

I have not named a brumal season, because insects are
in winter usually torpid,—yet some, as Tinea Novembris;
Geometra brumaria, and many Tipulide, even then make
their appearance.

If you ask, Whether it be not possible to regulate our
Entomological seasons by the appearance of insects them-
selves? I should answer, that probably this might be
done; but that further observations seem wanted to en-
able us to do it satisfactorily. Perhaps the appearance
of Formica rufa beginning the business of the year might
form the commencement of one season; the flight of the
orange-tip butterfly (Colias Cardamines*), of a second; 2

^ Butterfly Collector's Vade Mecum, 66. Note 4.

SEASONS OF INSECTS. 511

third might be indicated by the swarming of Melolontha
vulgaris; a fourth, by that of M. solstitialis; and the
last, by the appearance in numbers of Aphodius ciliaris,
Which in the autumn fills every horse-dropping.

Some insects are so ephemeral, that they are to be
found in numbers only for a few days, and then disap-
Pear for that season. Of this description are the Eiphe-
mere, much of whose history has been detailed to you.
Those of which De Geer has given an account (E. vul-
Sata) appeared about the end of May or the beginning of

une, and continued about a fortnight; while those
Which Swammerdam observed did not come forth till
the middle of June, and lasted only three days?. The
Same period distinguished those of which Reaumur has
Compiled so interesting a history, but they did not show
themselves before the middle of August*. My kind
friend Mr. Marsham not long before his death copied for
Mme some memoranda he had made with respect to the.
Sudden appearance of Cercopis bifasciata F. On one
Occasion the white dress of a lady sitting upon a hay-
Cock was covered by these insects; but on the following
day the same steps were taken at the same time to pro-
Cure some, when after the most diligent search not a
Single one could be found. The same circumstance was
Observed a few years afterwards by another friend of
his, He himself was of opinion that the insects in ques-
tion were then migrating 4,

I may here observe, that the London amateurs have
Particular seasons for collecting moths. _ For the imago
they go into the woods in April, May, June, and Octo-

* De Geer ii. 638—. 641—.
e Swamm. Bibl. Nat. i. Conf. 114 with 103.
* Reaum. vi. 480—. oe. GE p. Hi

512 SEASONS OF INSECTS.

ber. For the larve they take the beginning of Aprils
June, the beginning of July, and September. They dg
for pupe late in July, and in January and February:

I shall lastly make a few observations upon the times
of action and repose of insects, the knowledge of which;
as far as it can be obtained, is of essential use to the in-
dustrious collector. Entomologists have divided the Le-
pidoptera, with a view to this circumstance, into diurnals
crepuscular, and nocturnal ; or butterflies (Papilio L.)
hawkmoths (Sphinx L.), and moths (Phalena L.). These
terms may be applied to insects in general.

i. Diurnal insects are abundant. Butterflies in part
cular fly generally at no other time: they accompany the
sun in his course, and before he sets disappear. Some
other Lepidoptera, though not so named are day insects:
—such are the 2ygenide, &c. amongst the hawkmoths $
and amongst the moths, Noctua Gamma, the Phytometr@
solares of Haworth*, and some others. Numberless C”
leoptera belong to this section. The Donacie fly only
when the sun is out and the air is warm; they are the"
extremely agile and difficult to take. Some Hoplic swat™
in the day before noon, and then disappear” : most of the
tetramerous beetles also appear to be diurnal. The Li-
bellulina and many other Neuroptera may also be 5°
termed; and the Hymenoptera almost universally, with the
sole exception of the Formicide*. Amongst the Dipter®
if we leave out the Tipularie Latr., the rest will be found
for the most part to belong to the present section.

ii. Crepuscular insects, strictly speaking, are those that

* Lepidopt. Britann. 263—. > Linn. Trans. v. 256.
© Vor. II. p. 96—.

SEASONS OT INSECTS. "| 613

ppear only during the twilight, whether in the morning
evening; but the term may be understood, with some
latitude, to signify all those insects that are seen only in
the morning and evening, though after sunrise and before
Sunset, Of these, some come forth only in the morning,
Others only in the evening, and others both morning and

| evening, My memory only furnishes me with a single in-
Stance of an-insect whose principal appearance and flight
àre in the morning. Hemigeometra nupta Haw. I have
Often seen flying at this time, about six or seven o'clock,

“nd never at any other: I am not however prepared to
assert that it does not appear in the evening or night,
ut I have then never met with it. In the evening more
Particularly you hear the hum of the dung-beetle (Geo-
trupes Latr.), which Linné thought the prognostic of a
lowing fine day; and of the swarms of Melolontha vul-
Saris and solstitialis. Then also many other Coleoptera
are in the air; especially befure a thunder-storm, a state
f the atmosphere that particularly excites insects? : Pti-
"5: imperialis and germanus I have never taken except
"der these circumstances. "Then the Eiphemere sport
" the air, and lead their mystic dance. The majority
of the hawkmoths are then too on the wing, with their
hg tongues imbibing the nectar of the flowers while
€y hover over them, both morning and evening.
lli. In the night the main body of the moths take their
ight, as well as a vast number of Coleoptera and insects
9 other orders. At this time the B/az£z and crickets leave
eir hiding-places and run about: but the other Grylli
W though they sing in the night, fly only in the day.

* See above, p. 246 —.
Vor, IV. D L

514 SEASONS OF INSECTS.

Then also the Carabi, like beasts of prey, leave their dark
retreats,—in this, differing from the Ciczndele, which are
diurnal,—and prowl about to entrap other unwary in-
sects. Then, likewise, the female glowworm hangs out
her lamp of love, and the male, led by it, wings his way
to her: and then the water beetles (Dytisci, Gyrints &c)
forsake the waves and become tenants of the air.
Could we with certainty discover the stations in which
insects after their excursions take their repose, we might
capture many that we now search for in vain. Sever?
of these stations were pointed out in a former part of hs
letter where I detailed their usual aunts. I may here
add, that numbers of them, when reposing, conceal them
selves from their enemies on the under side of the leave?
of trees and plants. Moths, especially the Noctuid@, may
often be met with in woods, as before observed*, on the
north side of the trunks of trees. Mr. Marsham relate

5 - $
to me, that once alittle before sunset, observing ove? bi

jn on?
pe

head a number of insects on the wing moving on
direction, he caught some of them, and they proved t0
Forficula:minor L. . Struck with the circumstance,
watched them several evenings; and on one, as he yn
looking about a melon-pit for insects, he saw these jittle
animals alight on the frame, hastily fold up their wing?
and entering under the glasses, run down its sides 9?

bury themselves in the loose earth. This he observe

repeatedly. The onward flight of these insects was ther?”
fore evidently their return from their diurnal cruise

. their nocturnal station.—This happened in September

a Vor. II. p. 220. See above, p. 192.

LETTER L.

ON ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTR UMENTS ; AND
THE BEST METHODS OF COLLECTING,
BREEDING, AND PRESERVING INSECTS.

H AVING in my last letter given you some account of
the haunts of insects, I now proceed to describe the va-
“lous instruments with which you ought to be provided,

to enable you to collect them; and the best mode of em-
Ploying each. The Entomologist when he makes an
*Xcursion should have three principal objects in view,
lor which he ought to be duly prepared. The first is to
insects, the next is to catch them, and the last when
faken to bring them safe home. In exploring their
"Its he must also recollect that some will be reposing ;
thers Jeeding ; others walking or running; others fly-
"8; others swimming; others lurking in various places
å Concealment, and in different states of existence; and
3t he must be prepared with means of coming at and
“Aturing them under all these circumstances.

l. First farnish yourself with a strong knife or other in-
Strument with which you can raise thẹ bark or penetrate
> Wood of any tree, when circumstances indicate that in-

Sts are busy below the one or within the other. There
2149

516 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C.

is no better tool for this and other purposes than Mr
Samouelle’s digger, which consists of an iron five inches
long, rather more than one-third of an inch in diamete?>
forming a curve towards the extremity, terminating in 8
lozenge-shaped point, and strongly fixed in a wooden
handle. With this you may not only explore the 1n
terior of timber-trees, but grub up the turf under them
and examine the earth for the pupz of Lepidopter®
When your object is merely this latter purpose, ? pre
tato-fork—which is better than a spade, as it will seldom
injure the pupee—will be your best implement.

9, Next have a stick, to resemble a common walking"
stick, sufficiently stout to beat the branches of the trees
and shrubs, fitted at one end with a male screw, and at

the other with a female, with a brass cap to screw over
each to keep the dirt from them. Besides this, you may
carry with you a spare piece or two about a foot lo"g
properly equipped to screw to it when you want t°
lengthen it.

3. Another implement must be a bag-net®. This con
sists of a hoop of stout brass wire about nine inches °
a foot in diameter, with a socket to receive the end ©
your stick, or, what is more secure, a screw to fix it tob
with a bag of gauze, muslin, or fine canvass, about tW elve
inches deep, sewed round it. The French collector?

use a net of this kind, in which the hoop is formed ?
to-

two semicircular pieces of iron or brass wire hooked á
the:

gether at one end, and at the other made to lap over

^ ; ; "ew at
corresponding piece, and pierced to receive the screw

a Entomologist’s useful Compendium. t. xi. f. 9.
> Prater XXIV. Fro. 1.

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &c. 517

"One end of your stick. When not employed, they double
the hoop and conceal it under the vest ; they fix to it a
muslin bag of two feet long. This net is made to serve
various purposes. With it they catch Lepidoptera and
other flying insects; and an adroit collector by giving it a
certain twist completely closes the mouth, so as to prevent
the escape of his captives. Fixed to a very long pole
(Mr. Haworth says it should be twenty or thirty feet
long +), it is the best net for the purple emperor butterfly
(Apatura Iris). It is also used with success to push be-
fore you through the grass of meadows, woods, &c., and
thus often displaces numerous insects, which fall into it:
—every now and then it is examined, and the valuable
Captures secured. ‘The common bag-net will perform
the same operations, but is not deep enough for flying
insects. If you lengthen your stick before you screw it
on, it enables you to brush with it the weeds at the sides
and bottom of ditches. This employment of brushing
‘the grass, &c. may be carried on if you are walking with
any friend not interested in Entomology, without much `
interruption of conversation. For this last operation—
Sweeping the grass, &c.—if you wish at any time to de-
Vote a morning wholly to it, you will find a net invented
by Mr. Paul, of Starston in Norfolk, and which he em-
Ploys to clear his turnips of Haltica Nemorum®, a very
Useful implement. The accompanying figure will give
you a better idea of it than any description‘; you may
Wake it large or small according to your convenience ;
the wider it is, the greater space it will brush at once,

^ Lepidopt. Britann. 20. ® Vor, I. p. 186.
^ Prare XXIV. Fic. 3.

518 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &c.

When your object is a more general investigation, the
bag-net just described is preferable.

4. Scarcely any implement seems a greater favourite
with British collectors than what may be called the //7-
net*. ‘This is universally employed by them for cap"
turing flying insects, especially Lepidoptera. It is simi-
lar to what is called a bat-fowling net, and should be
made of green or white gauze or coarse muslin. The
former colour, as being less visible, is most proper for
mothing in the night; but the latter is best for the day»
as this net is useful to hold under the branches of tre®
and shrubs to receive the insects that fall when they af?
beaten. The rods for the net we are considering, —which
should be about five feet long, half an inch in diametet
at the base, and gradually tapering to the end,—must be
made of some tough wood; each should consist of about
four joints for the convenience of carriage, and each
joint should be fitted with a socket at the lower €**
tremity, to receive the top of the joint below it: the te!
minal joint must either be bent into a curve, or fitted
with an angular socket or ferrule, so as to form an ob-
tuse angle with the rest of the rod ^. The gauze which i$
to form the net, being cut into the requisite shape, shoul
. be welted round, except at the bottom, where it should
have a deep fold or a bag for preventing the escape ?
the included insects—in order to form a slide for the
rods to slip in. At the apex where they meet, 4 few
stitches should be set, or a piece of leather sewed in, ©
prevent their going too far. At the bottom, on each
side, two strings must be sewed on the net, to receive

a Pirate XXIV. Fic. 4. * Samouelle’s Compendium. t. xi. f- 1,2.

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &c. 519

Which there must be a hole in each rod about six inches
from the bottom: these must be tied, which will keep the
Net from slipping upwards. When you go after moths
and other insects that fly in the night, a plan, as I am
told, of some of the London collectors may be adopted
With advantage. Cause a lanthorn to be made with a
Concave back, and furnished with a reflector: this must
be fastened, by means of a strap, upon the stomach. If
you hold your expanded fly-net before this (as nocturnal
insects fly to the light), you may thus entrap a considera-
blenumber. In sultry summer nights also, if you placea
candle on a table in a summer-house, or even in a com-
mon apartment, and open the windows, you will often
have excellent sport, and take insects you might other-
Wise never meet with.

When you use your fly-net, you must take the rods
One in each hand, so as to keep it extended; and when
you have brought it fairly beyond the insect you are pur-
Suing,—to accomplish which you must be upon the alert,
—you must bring the two sticks together, which, if you
are commonly dexterous, will capture your prey. "This
Ret is likewise useful in taking winged insects when at
"est upon the ground, by simply spreading it over them.
When you use it to beat into, as above recommended,
you must take both the sticks in one hand, and ex-
tend it by crossing them as much as you can. In the
absence of this, a common umbrella, or even a sheet of
Stiff paper which you may carry folded in your pocket,
are no bad substitutes. When your object is beating
the bushes, bring your fly-net, &c. rapidly under the
branches you mean to operate upon, or the insects will
fall from them to the ground before you are prepared.

520 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C.

Under this head I may mention a very ingenious net
for taking Lepidoptera, particularly butterflies, invented
by Dr. Maclean of Colchester, which I would call Mac-
lean’s elastic net. It is constructed of two, pieces 9
stout split cane, connected by a joint at each end a!"
with a rod which lies between them, in which a pulley P
fixed ; through this a cord fastened to the canes passes?
a long cane with a ferrule receives the lower end of the
rod and forms a handle; and to the canes is fastened 4
net of green gauze. Taking the handle in your right
hand, and the string in your left, when you pull the lat-
ter the canes bend till they form a hoop, and the net
appended to them is open; when your prey is in it, 1€"
lax the cord, and the canes become straight and close the
mouth of the net, keeping them close with your left hand,
you may soon disable your prey with your right. pr
-Maclean has scarcely ever found this net fail.

5. Another instrument which should be constantly”
the hands of the Entomologist is the forceps*. This is
particularly useful for catching Diptera and Hymen”
ptera chiefly while at rest on the leaves and flowers °
plants. Both these tribes are usually too agile to be
taken by the hand alone, which besides without this
contrivance would be exposed to the stings of many ©
the latter. The leaves of the forceps should be octagonal
five or six inches in diameter, and covered with gree?
‘gauze, or rather very fine catgut, which will enable the
head of a lace-pin to pass through it. You must direct
your artisan to make the joint of the handle nearer the
rings for the finger and thumb than to the leaves, of the
instrument will not open well. An old pair of curling-

Prate XXIV. Fic. 5.

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &c. 521

irons might be made into very good handles; but the hoop
- to which the catgut is fastened should be brass, or if iron
~ it ought to be painted to secure ‘it from rust. Some make
othe leaves of the forceps round; but when an insect is
perched ona wall or any vertical surface, it has less chance
of escape if you can apply a straight side to its station.
The Germans use a much longer and larger instrument
- of this kind, having leaves of ten or twelve inches in dia-
meter, which they use to catch Lepidoptera when settled
on plants. . When you aim at an insect with your for-
ceps, you must expand the leaves as much as possible,
and cautiously approach your prey; and when within
reach, close them upon it suddenly, including the leaf or
flower on which it rests. As these are sometimes bulky,
and prevent the instrument from shutting closely,—that
~ the included insect may not escape, it is often necessary
to use the other hand to bring them together, when the
pressure of the finger and thumb soon disables it.

6. As the waters, whether running or stagnant, as well
as the earth and the air, teem with insects, you must
likewise be provided with a net of a different description
from any of the preceding, that you may fish them out.
It may be made of fine canvass, just deep enough to pre-
vent the insect from jumping out, and fastened to a brass
hoop five or six inches in diameter, not perfectly circu-
lar, but having the segment of a circle cut off anteriorly,
so that it will apply well to a flat vertical surface; and
fitted posteriorly with a socket, to receive the end of
your stick; or, what is better, with a screw, which will
securely fasten it to itè In using this net, different

*Prare XXIV. Fic. 2. N.B. The net is represented too shallow
In this figure.

522 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &c.

modes may be adopted. You may either watch the mo-
tions of an individual insect, and secure it by darting
the net beyond it and drawing it towards you; or by
placing it quietly under it, and then elevating it suddenly;
or you may push your net at random along the margins
of the pools and rivers amongst the weeds, &c. ; amongst
the duck-weed (Lemna) on their surface, or the mud at
the bottom; and. when you examine its contents, you
will often find valuable captures. I have thus sometimes
got rich booty in the most unlikely places ;—such as Hy-
drena Kugellanni (longipalpis Marsh), and an allied
nondescript species, &c.; and by fishing amongst Zant-
chellia palustris, Macroplea Zostere. If at any time you
do not happen to have your water-net with you, with 4
common rake you may take the duck-weed from the sur-

face of a pool, and upon examination you will often detect

amongst it many minute water-beetles.

But. besides all these implements you will find yout
Jinger and thumb a very handy forceps when insects are
stationary or walking upon the ground; and even whe?
flying, minute ones that you would not otherwise meet
with may be taken by the palm of your hand, wetted
with saliva, if, when you see them swarming in the aif;
you pass it to and fro amongst them. When such are
stationary, or moving on the ground, on rails, the trunks
of trees, &c., the fore-finger, so wetted, will often best
secure them: but if they are perched on a summit or #
vertical surface, before you approach near enough tO
alarm them. bring forward quietly your bag-net, and
hold it so that they may fall into it, if they attempt by
falling to escape you. . Other methods of entrapping in-
sects may also be pursued with success. A table-cloth

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &c. 523

Spread on the grass in the open parts of a wood I have
known allure several scarce insects: a lady’s white dress
is equally attractive. Anold mattress, laid at night upon
à grass-plat, if suddenly reversed in the morning, will sup-
ply the Entomologist occasionally with good. Coleoptera.
No better trap for the Silphide, Dermestide, &c., than a.
Piece of carrion, a frog, &c. ‘The numerous insects that
Inhabit excrement of every kind, especially that of the
Cow and the horse, may be best taken by immersing
their pabulum in water: for this purpose, let a boy carry
à spade and pail to the scene of action, and filling the
pail nearly full of water begin the operation, and all the
insects. lurking in the submerged dung will come to the
surface, and may be easily taken.

Another object of the collector of insects, when he has
once entrapped them, is to bring them safe home. -The
Entomologists on the Continent, I believe, generally
transfix their prey, of whatever Order, with à pin, as
Soon as they are caught: but as hard ones, such as Co-
leoptera, Hemiptera, &c., may be destroyed without in-
jury by immersion either in spirits of wine or boiling
Water; and as large beetles, if transfixed (not to mention
the unnecessary cruelty of so serving them), are apt to
Whirl round upon the pin in spite of any precaution, and
injure themselves, and destroy other insects that are in
their way, it seems best to kill. them by other more effec-
tual methods. With regard to those that would be
injured by immersion in any fluid, as the Lepidoptera,
Hymenoptera, Diptera, &c., they must be secured as
Soon as taken; and after having disabled them as much
as you can without injuring them, by pressing the trunk

-below the wings with the finger and thumb, they should

524 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &c.

be transfixed and put into a pocket-box lined with cork.
Some use an oblong deep chip one, with paper pasted
over it, and lined at top and bottom, the top being co”
venient for setting small moths. But this you will find
not easy to open when you have an insect in one hand;
and it is too deep for the pocket. I generally use ®
mahogany one, about 7j inches by 41, and 14 deep in
the clear, corked only at the bottom, and opening by
pressing a spring, which can be done with one hand.
This will contain as many of the above insects as you
will usually take in a day's excursion... When travelling
you should provide yourself with larger store-boxes,
receive at night the fruit of the day’s hunt. These may
be 18 inches square and 21 deep, corked at top and bot
tom; which should be of equal depth, and fit very closely;
to keep out Acari, &c. Entomologists have recourse
to various ways of bringing home insects for immersion.
For the larger ones, you must be provided with a num-
ber of small boxes, the lids of. which are not liable t°
.eome off in the pocket. . If it can be done, it is best t°
have only a single insect in a box. If you have several
those.that are predaceous in their habits will probably
devour the rest: and besides, if you open a box to put
in other insects, generally one or two of those before im-
prisoned init will make their escape. . It is best to put
the boxes containing an insect in one pocket, and the
empty onesin another. If your boxes are.numbered, in
a small memorandum-book, which you should carry for

the purpose, you may make any remarks as to the food,

station, and habits of any insect you may take, inserting
against them the number of the box or phial that contains
it, and it will be ready for future use. . For the smaller

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, Kc. 525 `

beetles, &c. a number of phials, with their rims ground
down and the mouths well fitted with corks, must be pro-
vided ; but for those you do not wish to keep separate, a
Wide-mouthed phial filled with spirits of wine, which soon
kills them, is the best receptacle. Ihave found, when ata
loss, a piece of elder, with the pith taken out to a sufficient
depth at each end and each mouth stopped with a wooden
plug, a useful insect-box. As numerous insects inhabit
the various species of Boleti, if you go where these are
to be found, unless you are a very agile person and ex-
pert at climbing, a boy with a short light ladder will be
no useless accompaniment. |

Something may be said.in this place upon the dress
with which the Entomologist should provide himself. I
Shall not recommend to you, in imitation of the insect-
hunters in the vignette to Reaumur's second volume, to
put on a bag-wig and a velvet court-dress; but the plain
fustian jacket with side and other pockets used by En-
glish sportsmen will very well suit your purpose; only
let the pockets be sufficiently ample: have also an inside
One fixed on the left-hand side to receive your forceps.
You may also have a bag like a shooter’s, or an anpler's
basket, which may contain. your nets till you want to use
them, : With all your implements about you, you will
Perhaps at first be stared and grinned at by the vulgar;
but they will soon become reconciled to you, and regard
you no more than your brethren of the angle and of the
Sun. Things that are unusual are too often esteemed
ridiculous; and the philosopher whose object is to collect
and study the wonderful works of his CREATOR, is often
regarded by the ignorant plebeian as little short of a
Madman, |

526 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &c.

Such is the apparatus to be provided by the entome-
logical Nimrod: it is not often, however, that it will be
necessary, except in distant excursions, to encumber and
disfigure yourself with the whole. Even in this pursuit
more may be effected by a judicious division of labou",
than by grasping at every thing at once; and your ac
quisitions will in the end be more numerous, and you!
acquaintance with them more intimate, if at one ime
you devote yourself to the woods and hedges, anothe!
to the plains and meadows, a third to any heaths in your
vicinity, and a fourth to the collection of aquatic insects
whether from stagnant or running waters :—having thus
chosen the scene of action, you may equip yourself a€
cordingly. You will of course, though in pursuit of à
particular description of game, not neglect to seize any
other insects that fall in your way; but for this purpose
it is unnecessary to be always provided with a certain in"
strument. Dr. Franklin used to say that a man would
never make a Natural Philosopher, who, in performing
his experiments, could not saw with a gimblet or bore
with a saw; and so we may say, he will never make 3?
expert collector of insects, who on occasion cannot fish
with his hand or forceps, use his hat or an old letter t9
beat his game into, or, in the absence of boxes or bottles,
contrive to secure his captures in small pieces of pape
twisted up. Sparrman, when at the Cape, was wont,—
to the no small amazement of the wondering natives, who
took him for a conjurer,—to stick his impaled insect
round the outside of his hat*: and though I should not
recommend such an exhibition in a civilized region; it

* Voyage to the Cape, i. 63. Eng. Trans.

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &c. 527

has often struck me that the cavity of a modern hat, if
lined. with cork, might be made a very useful receptacle
for these animals in a long excursion. Indeed, an active
Entomologist is never at a loss for an apparatus, but often
makes his most valuable captures when unprovided with
Other instruments than his hands and eyes.. A careful
survey of the trunk and branches of trees and shrubs,
particularly of the underside of their leaves, seldom fails
to detect many a lurking moth or beetlé, which may be
transfixed or otherwise captured with little trouble by an
expert hand. In this way an ingenious collector, who
scarcely knew what a net of any kind was, told me he had
made his whole collection, which was rather extensive.
It is, in fact, only by thus detecting them when reposing,
and adroitly shutting them up along with the leaf on
which they sit, in a box, that the minute Tinee L: (whose
beauty and freshness the slightest handling destroys) can
ordinarily be taken without being injured. The boxes
containing them should afterwards be exposed to the
action of heat, a low degree of which will destroy them.

Enough has been said upon the best modes of catching
insects :—1I shall next attempt to give you some further
instructions as to the most effectual one of déstroying
them when caught, and to point out how you are to pro-
ceed with them after they are dead. . As I sufficiently
rebutted the charge of cruelty in a former letter ?, it will
hot be necessary to enter here into that subject,

I have before recommended to you the use of spirits
of wine, and shall here repeat my recommendation; for

*-Vor. I. Lerter Il.

528 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &c.

after several years trial, I am of Bóhm's opinion, who
had tried it nine years?, that it is superior to any other
method; particularly, because it not only effectually kills
the insects, and they may be put together into it while
you are collecting, if you have no reason for keeping
them separate, of all sorts and sizes, in a wide-mouthed
phial without danger of their devouring each other:
but when you come home wearied with a long day’
hunt, you may let your insects remain in it without in-
jury till the next morning. In collecting beetles abroad,
when there is a want of store-boxes the readiest way Í$
to put them into a wide-mouthed bottle or jar filled with
any spirit, and send them home in it: some few may lose
their colours, or become greasy ; but in general they will
receivelittleinjury. "This method saves room, and avoids
the risk of breakage.. The derangement which some
hairy species sustain from this method may be readily
repaired by brushing them with a dry camel's hair
pencil. ;
When you wish to take the insects you have immersed
in spirits out of the phial, you must strain its contents
through a piece of muslin, return the spirit into it for
future use, and spread the insects separately upon blot
ting-paper, to absorb the moisture remaining about them
With regard to such as you have in boxes or phials with-
out spirit, these must be immersed in a basin of boiling
water. First empty into it the contents of your boxe |
and next, those of your phials; giving each, before you
take out the cork, a smart rap, that the insects adhering
to the latter may drop to the bottom: or you may im-

* [llig. Mag. iii. 229.

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &c. 529

Merse the phial itself, with the cork in, which soon de-
Stroys them, and is the safest plan. "This done, with a
camel"s-hair pencil or feather take them out of the water,
lay them upon blotting-paper to dry, and put them by for
à few hours till you have leisure to impale and set them.
Those insects that are caught by the Jorceps would for
the most part escape you, were you to attempt to get
them out before you had transfixed them. You must
therefore do this while the leaves of the instrument are
Closed; and then opening them, and taking the pin by
the point, the head will readily pass through the catgut ;
ad thus you may safely take, and more effectually kill
Your specimen by pressing it, as before directed. With
tespect to Lepidoptera, it is necessary to disable them
"While yet in the fly-net, immediately after their capture.
To effect this, while one hand holds both the rods of the
Closed net, with the other stretch the gauze so as to con-

fine your insect within a narrow space; bring its wings

into an erect position, and prevent its fluttering : which
being done, with your finger and thumb give its breasta
Strong pinch below the wings; and then unfolding your
net, and taking it up by one of its antennse, place it
“tween the finger and thumb of your left hand, stick a
bin through it, and deposit it in your pocket-box.
But though nipping the breast will kill many small
Lepidoptera, the larger ones will live long after it; as will
lkewise many Neuroptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera:
"hd besides this, in some Bombycide the thorax pre-
Sents a very conspicuous and interesting character, which
Tenders it desirable, in order to avoid the damage or de-
“agement occasioned by pressure, to transfix them with-
“ut it. To dispatch these effectually, you will find the
VOL, Ly. 2M

580 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, XC.

following apparatus very convenient. Fix in a small tin
saucepan? filled with boiling water, a tin tube consisting
of two pieces? that fit into each other; cover the mouth

of the lower one* with a piece of gauze or canvass, and
d over

n

place your insects upon it; then fix the upper one
it, and cover also the mouth of this with gauze, &c.; @

the steam from the boiling water will effectually kill your
ther

insects without injuring their plumage. ‘There is ano
ch

more simple mode of doing this, the apparatus for whi
may be met with every where. Fix a piece or two Y
elder, willow, or any soft wood, with the bark on, act 085
the bottom of à mug, and on this stick your impaled ai
sects; invert the mug in:a deep basin, into which pout
boiling water till it is covered, holding it down with ®
knife, &c., that the expansion of the included air may
not overturn it. -In two minutes, or less, all the insect
will. be found quite dead; and not at all wetted. jf the
sticks do not exactly fit, they may be wedged in with 4
piece of cork, Professor Peck, who used to put minute
insects into the hollow of a quill’ stopped with a piece i
wood made to fit, killed them instantaneously by holding
it over the flame of a candle. ~

Having killed your insects, your next object should
be to prepare them for your cabinet. First, place by
you a pincushion well stored with lace-pins of various

magnitudes ànd lengths: for most insects those nearly
cke!

hort
£g?
n

an inch in length, for large ones, those that are thi
and longer, but for Lepidoptera; a stouter kind, as $
whites, are best. Next, take the Coleoptera and -
miptera that, as before directed, you have laid by ?

a Prats XXIV. Fic. 7. e. x b [bid. a, b.
* Ibid, à. e Ibid a.

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &c. 531

blotting-paper after immersion, and begin your ope-
"ations, selecting the largest first. The pin should be
‘tuck through the: middle of the right-hand elytrum?,
d about one third of its whole length should emerge
above the insect. Some Joreign collectors, probably
having in view its more convenient examination with a
Microscope under the glass of a drawer, bring it nearer
the head of the pin: while the English ones, onthe con-
trary, studying the most ornamental. position of their
‘pecimens, leave only enough of the point free to fix:
them safely in their drawers”. . Both these methods are
®Pen to objection. When the insect is too near the head
the pin, it is difficult to fix it in your cabinet. without
bending the wire; and there is danger, without great
“are, of injuring: the specimen when you put it in or take.
it ont, Again: "When the legs of your insect rest on the
Surface they collect the dust and dirt, ate very liable to

be broken, and the length of the pin above it is incon-
venient when you have occasion to examine any one
wder a-lens. Lepidoptera, however, which are never

thus examined, may always be transfixed in this way,
Which sets them off to the greatest advantage.

. Some insects, especially of the beetle tribe, are so ex-
tremely minute that it is next to an impossibility to get
à pin through them without injuring, and often destroy-
tg them. .By using fine needles, or very slender pins
Nanufactured on purpose, this difficulty might. per-
aps be surmounted ; but the needles will. be subject to
?üst and the pins, I know by experience, cannot-be

a ( 5

Prare XXIV. Fre. 8.
> In the figure just quoted the artist has represented the insect
^5 transfixed in this way.

2M2

532 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C.

fixed in cork without difficulty. For such minute insect?
therefore, by far the best mode is to gum them on small
pieces of card, which may be stuck upon a pin. Tale,
which admits the underside of an insect to be S€€"
through it, has been used for this purpose; and where
you have only a single specimen, a thin small lamina 9
it would answer well; but ordinarily I should recom"
mend the former mode. Your pieces of card, whic
must be small, may be either oblong and cut at the
corners for neatness, with a couple of specimens gum™®
upon each, one on its belly and the other on its backs
or you may cut little narrow card wedges, about four
lines long and terminating in a point, upon which y9"
may so gum your insects as to show the principal par
of the under side, as well as the upper side of its body
Common gum-water made rather thin; with a very
little glue mixed with it, will answer your purpose very
well: it should be thinly spread on the card with ?
camel’s-hair pencil, and then the insect placed upo” 7
With the same implement, if it has not been killed t0?
long, before the gum is dry you may expand its antenne
palpi, legs, and wings, &c. If you want to remove :
specimen gummed on a card for any purpose, it is easi y
effected by plunging it into hot water.

Other insects may be transfixed through the thora*
or upper side of the trunk; as also those Coleoptera» Ore
thoptera, and Hemiptera, whose wings you are desirou

of expanding; only you should be careful that your pn
passes through them behind the prothoraz.
Having impaled your insects, the next thing to

be

done is to set them. The best time for doing this is 2°

till they have begun to stiffen, but before they are become?

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &c. 583

quite stiff. If attempted soon after they are killed, the
Parts, unless you keep them in the intended position by
Means of pins or braces, will’ not retain it; and if after
they are become too stiff, they are liable to be broken.

ot only should the antenne and palpi be extended so
*$ to be readily seen; but the legs, and often the wings,
Ought to be placed in their natural position; all of which
tends much to the beauty of your specimens, and adapts
them for more ready examination. But as this operation
"equires time, and beauty and regularity may be pur-

Chased too dear if at the price of hours called for by

Science, you may be left to your own discretion in this
Usiness, only you should always with a pin expand the
"htennze and palpi if possible. You might, however,
both save your time and have your insects neatly set, if
You would take the trouble to instruct some acute and
handy youth in your neighbourhood in the modus ope-
randi, and devolve this department upon him: and as
lone are quicker and more expert in capturing insects
than boys, he might also assist you in your hunting ex-
Peditions. 3
I do not mean, however, to leave you at liberty with
"égard to the setting of Lepidopterous insects, which not
Aly have a much worse appearance than those of other
"ders if their wings be not regularly and uniformly
“Xpanded, but require it for the proper display of their
"haractors, The necessary apparatus consists of a piece
of Cork about nine inches long, four broad, and half an
Neh thick, which should be made perfectly smooth, with
Piece of white paper pasted over it; and of several
"arrow slips of card or braces, tapering gradually to a

534 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &c.

point, of different lengths, from half an inch to two inches
or more, with a pin fixed in each at the broadest end.
Thus provided, you may proceed to action. But you must
first decide whether, like the continental Entomologist
you will set your Lepidoptera horizontally; or, like the
British, with their wings declining obliquely from the
body. If you prefer the former method, the body must
be-let into a:groove, and the wings expanded as flatly 3
possible, the anterior margin of the primary pair being
brought forward so as to project beyond the head. — put
as this usually gives the insect an unnatural and form?
appearance; I apprehend. a man of your taste will pref
the mode adopted by your compatriots, the collector? r
Britain, who in setting make the wings form an angles
varying according to the size and characters of the insect
with the body, and do not bring the anterior wings 9?
forward. ~The wings of butterflies however, in order t°

appear at all natural, should be set more horizontally:
Which fashion soever you prefer, the mode of operating

is nearly the same; only that the English plan, except in
the case of some large-bodied moths or hawk-moths, €
quires no: groove in the setting-board. . After you have
stuck the: insect upon the cork so as to bring its boty
close to its surface, stretch the anterior wing with a ne¢ E
fixed in a. handle, or a-camel's-hair pencil, applied to the
joint. at: the base, sufficiently forward, and then confine
it by. means of one of your card braces :—next, do the
same by the opposite wing. Afterwards expand the po

terior wings, which must not be separated from the ft
X
and W

terior so as to leave any interval between them,
u
yo

them with braces. When you are become expert

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &cC. 585

will find, if the fly is not large, that a single brace will be

Sufficient for each pair of wings? : but sometimes, if the
. Card be not sufficiently stiff; you may confine it by a pin

Near the point... You must be careful in expanding the

Wings that each is brought. equally forward. Lastly,

give the antennze their proper position, and if necessary

confine them with. braces; and.leave your specimen. in
an airy situation. to dry and stiffen. In a few days the
braces may be removed, and the specimen transferred to
the cabinet: . When you put them away to become stiff,

You must be careful to place them and your other insects

at night where earwigs cannot come at them ; for in sul-
_try weather these animals will often then attack and spoil
them. i)

- It is obvious that this process can only be performed
While the joints and ligaments of the insect are. still
flexible; so that small :species, in warm weather, will
Often be immoveably rigid before you can have an op-
Portunity of setting them.: -On this account. collectors
Usually set minute moths as soon as taken, which can be
readily done on the lid of a cork-lined. box. . But for-
tunately both these and specimens. which have been
dried for years may be relaxed and. rendered pliable by
à very simple process. Fill a basin more than half full
of sand, and saturate. it with water; pour off the super-
fluous water, and cover the sand with blotting-paper :
into this stick the insects you wish to relax, and cover-
ing the basin closely, leave them there for two or three
days, according to their size; and the evaporation will
Tender them sufficiently flexible for expansion or any

* Prate XXIV. Fic. 9.

536 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C.

other purpose. Beetles may be relaxed by plunging
them for a short time in warm water or spirits of wine*-
Many moths of the tribe of Tinea L. are so extremely
minute, that it is almost impossible to set them without
defacing their characters: indeed, the trunk of some i$
so small as not to admit being pierced by a pin; 'T'hese
therefore, it is adviseable merely to gum upon card, ui
panding their wings (which the gum will easily retain ™
their proper situation) with a camel's-hair pencil. I
you have two specimens, you may fix one in the natural
position when at rest,—a method I should recommend
with respect to other Lepidoptera, and indeed insects in
general. Pezold advises that, by way of contrast, white
card should be used for dark-coloured species of these
little moths, and Black for such as are pale. As the
wings of different Coleopterous groups, as well as those
Hymenoptera, Diptera, &c., vary in their neuration”s

. you should, whenever you can, set open the elytra and
expand the wings of one specimen at least in each group?
which will be very important to you in making out the

characters of your genera.

When sufficiently dried, your insects should be trans-
ferred from the setting-boards, either to their place ™
your cabinet or to the store-box before described, till
you have leisure to investigate them.

However tedious some of the foregoing manipulations
may seem, they are in fact much less so than those T .
quired in several other branches of Natural History»
where, in addition to the labour of catching, the nice aP

* Mr. Samouelle (Useful Compendium, 321) recommends a some"

what different method.
> Vor, IIT. p. 625—,

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &c. 537

difficult task of clearing the skeleton of its muscular co-
Vering, and its internal cavity of its contents, and then of
Stuffing it and replacing its perished eyes by glass ones
of the proper colour, is a necessary process with every
individual: Happily the Entomologist, from the small-
ness of his game and the nature of their integument, is
usually spared this labour. There are some few insects,
however, in which a process in some degree analogous
is requisite, if the beauty of the specimens be a conside-
ration. Thus the abdomen of dragon-flies is very apt to
lose its colour, and that of the Melóes to shrink up, if
left in their natural state: these therefore should be
eviscerated; which may be done by slitting the abdomen
longitudinally on the under side, then carefully removing
its contents, and stuffing it with cotton. In the former,
a small straw or stalk of hay may be used, which will
prevent the fractures to which that part, when dry, is so
liable. Spiders, and a few apterous genera, as well as al-
most all Zarvæ;as they usually shrink up, in drying, into a
shapeless mass, destitute of every character dependent on
colour or form, require to be preserved in a different man-
ner. They may all be very well kept in rectified spirits of
wine mixed with water, in the proportion of three parts
of the former to one of the latter. Each, suspended by
a thread, should be put in a separate very small labelled
phial. Larger spiders, such as Mygale aviculare, &c.,
when suffered to dry, though the abdomen shrinks, do

not wholly lose their characters, and are often kept in

cabinets: but if preserved in spirits, they may be put
into larger wide-mouthed bottles, suspended at different
heights, with a label on the outside opposite to each
Species. Mr. Abbott of Georgia had ari excellent method

538 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &c.

of preserving caterpillars, so: that his specimens retain
their colours and. other attributes, and look as if they
were alive.. I am not acquainted with his process, but
the following will answer very::well.—The animal .must
first be:killed by. immersion in spirits of wine; next you
must eviscerate it, which is best effected by gradual pres-
sure of the finger and thumb. You must begin at the
head, and so proceed till all the fluid contents of the
body have passed out at the anus, which you may enlarge
with a fine pair of scissors, being careful not to injure
the anal prolegs.: When you have.cleared the skin as
much as possible, introduce a fine glass tube, or a piece
of hay:or slender straw into the anus, round which, as
near to. the extremity as may be, pass loosely a fine
thread: then blowing through the tube, when the skin is
fully inflated. withdraw it, at the same time pulling the
thread tight and. securing it by a:knot... The caterpillar
will now exhibit its proper shape and colours; to retain
which,:all that is necessary is to hold it near the flame of
a lamp until perfectly dry, which will be in:a few mi-
nutes, when it may be placed in the cabinet along with
the imago to which it belongs?.

_ Although.a very large proportion of the insect inha-
bitants of any country may be captured. in. their perfect
state by the active Entomologist, yet there is no small
number of them that probably he.may never meet: with
in that state, and to.secure which he must have recourse

to other methods. . He can procure pupe by digging for

* Some other methods are recommended by Mr. Samouelle, which
the reader will find in his useful. Compendium, 318.

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &c. 539

them in woods, under trees, &c., as above directed *,
keeping them in some of their native earth till they are
disclosed; or he must collect Jarve, and breed them; for
which I shall now give you some instructions.— The in-
Sects we are particularly concerned. with under this head
are the caterpillars of Lepidoptera and. of the saw-flies
( Tenthredo LA: H, however; in our entomological ram-
bles we discover the larvse.of insects of other Orders
upon their appropriate food, we may often attempt. to
breed them with success: but.as you will seldom thus
get: species: that you will not also. meet with in ‘their
imago state, and the general directions for breeding will
include almost all, I shall principally-consider, the best
mode of breeding caterpillars and- pseudo-caterpillars.
The first thing is to collect them. In beating the trees,
bushes, and plants, while hunting for Coleoptera, &c., the
Entomologist will often displace caterpillars, which, if
unknown, he should put intoa pill-box with a portion of
their food) but Lepidopterists often sally into the woods,
&c., for the express purpose of collecting these only.
When engaged in thiscemployment, the best plan is to
take-a sheet with you, and when you:mean to beat the
branches of any tree, place it as:near them as you can,
upon four or more sticks fastened in the ground, so as to
leave the upper surface concave, and it will receive the
falling caterpillars when. you ‘beat. If you aim at the
pseudo-caterpillars of the Cimbicide, you must turn your
attention principally to the different: species of. sallows
and willows (Salis L.) Your spoils you will put. into
boxes with their food, as above directed, to bring them
home. :

* See above, p. 516.

540 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &c.

There are several kinds of boxes recommended to re-
ceive them and breed them in. If your only object is to
get the perfect insect, a cubical box of moderate dimen-
sions, glazed in front or on one side to enable you to
watch their proceedings, with the other sides and top
fitted with fine canvass for the admission of air, will very
well answer this purpose; or your box may be canvassed
all round, with a door in front?. In this you may place
a small garden-pot filled with earth, with a phial of
water plunged in it to receive the insects’ food. This
might be moved, when you wish to change the water;
without disturbing the earth, which should be kept some-
what moist. The earth is for those caterpillars whose
pupae are subterranean. But as you will probably wish
to proceed scientifically, and ascertain precisely the moth
that comes from each caterpillar, I should strongly re-
commend to you a box invented by Mr. Stephens, which
he describes in a letter to me in nearly these words :—
s The length of the box is 20 inches, height 12, and
breadth 6; and it is divided into five compartments. Its
lower half is constructed intirely of wood, and the upper
of coarse gauze stretched upon wooden or wire frames:
each compartment has a separate door, and is moreover
furnished with a phial in the centre for the purpose of
containing water, in which the food is kept fresh ; and is
half-filled with a mixture of fine earth and the dust from
the inside of rotten trees; the latter article being added
for the purpose of rendering the former less binding upon
the pupze, as well as being highly important for the use
of such larvee as construct their cocoons of rotten wood.
The chief advantages of a breeding cage of the above

* Prate XXIV. Fic. 6.

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &c. 541

Construction are, the occupation of less room than five
Separate cages, and a diminution of expense; both im-
Portant considerations when any person is engaged ex-
tensively in rearing insects. Whatever be the construc-
tion of the box, it is highly necessary that the larvae be
constantly supplied with fresh food, and that the earth at
the bottom should be kept damp. To accomplish the
latter object, I keep a thick layer of moss upon the sur-
face, which I take out occasionally (perhaps once a week
during hot weather, and once a fortnight or three weeks
in winter), and saturate completely with water, and return
it to its place: this keeps up a sufficient supply of moisture,
without allowing the earth to become too wet, which is
equally injurious to the pupæ with too much aridity. By
numbering the cells, and keeping a register correspond-

ing with the numbers, the history of any particular larva

or brood may be traced.”

In attending to your insects in their cells, your expec-
tations will sometimes be disappointed, when, instead of a
butterfly or moth, you find only an Ichneumon. But this
you must not regard as all misfortune; for by this means
you will be better instructed in the history of each species,
and learn to the attack of what enemies it is exposed:
and thus you may get many species of these parasitic de-
vourers of insects that you would not elsewhere meet
with. If your caterpillars, however, appear to be of a
rare kind, you must watch, and often examine them; and
if you discover black specks upon any one, that appear
unnatural or like nits, they may be extracted, Mr. Ha-
worth assures us?, by a pair of small pliers; and if the
operation is adroitly performed, the caterpillar will reco-

^ Lepidopt. Britann. 87.

542 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, Kc.

ver and do well You will often meet Lepidopterous
larvee travelling over roads and pathways ::at such times
they have usually done feeding; and are seeking a spot
in which they may assume the pupa with safety. . These
you may place in one of your cells, and they will select
a station for themselves. You must be careful frequently
to examine the boxes in which you have pupæ; that you
may take the imago as soon as it appears, and before it
has had time to injure itself in attempting to escape. > I
mentioned to you on a former occasion’ Reaumur's expe-
riments to accelerate the appearance of the butterfly * ;—
there is another still more remarkable, to which he had
recourse for this:purpose: it was by hatching his pup®
under a Àen!/: Yow will wonder, perhaps, how this
could be effected, and be disposed: to maintain that the
pups must be crushed by the weight of the brooding
animal. How did the ingenious and illustrious expe~
rimentalist prevent this?' He prepared a hollow ball of
glass, open at one end, about the shape and size of à
turkey's egg. Having several chrysalises of the nettle-
butterfly (Vanessa Urtice) suspended to a piece of papers
he cut out some of these singly, with a square portion ot.
the paper attached to them, and covered with paste the
side opposite to that from which the chrysalis was sus-
pended: these he introduced into the ball. through the
aperture, placing them as near ‘to each other as possibley
taking care so to apply the pasted surface to the inside of
the ball, that when the side to which they were fixed was
uppermost they all hung: as from a vault. -This being

done, he stopped the aperture with a linen plug, but not

a Vou, IM. p. 263—.

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, XC. 548

So completely as to cut off all communication with the
atmosphere: he next placed the egg under a hen that
had been sitting some days, who’ always kept it at the
Side.of the nest, where it nevertheless ‘derived: benefit
from her incubation. After the first day its interior
Was covered with vapour transpired by the chrysalises.
Upon this Reaumur took the egg, and removing the
linen plug it soon became dry again: he replaced it
under the hen, and no vapour afterwards appeared. -In
about four days the first butterfly ever hatched under a
hen: made its appearance; it would probably have re-
quired fourteen under ordinary circumstances. He tried
the same experiment with some Dipterous pupse; but the
heat was too great for them, and they all perished.

Having properly prepared and set your specimens as
above directed, the next step, when they have remained
a sufficient time to be perfectly dry, is to place them in
your cabinet. If you collect foreign insects as well as
British, you may either preserve the latter in à separate
cabinet, or keep both in the same; distinguishing the in-
digenous species by a particular mark. ~ The letter B. in
red ink, if the pin which transfixes the insect be run
through it, or, in the case of Lepidoptera, placed before
the specimen, would be a very distinct and sufficient in-
dication of them. The drawers of your cabinets should
be about 18 inches square, and from the glass to the
corked bottom about an inch and a half in depth: but
the larger Dynastide, as Megasoma Actæon, &c.; will re-
quire ¢wo inches. "The frame of the glass should be rab-

2 Reaumur 1. 12 —;

544 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &c.

beted underneath; and parallel with the sides of the
drawer, but a little lower, there should be inner side”
pieces fixed, so as to form a cavity all round of a proper
width to closely receive the rabbet, and likewise to con-
tain the camphor for preserving your insects from the
attack of Acari, &c.; to emit the scent of which, many
holes should be bored in the side-pieces. Each cabinet
may contain forty of these drawers in a double series,
protected by folding doors; and you may place one ca^

binet upon another, if your space admits it. You will

find a tool used by bell-hangers for cutting their wire
very convenient to behead or otherwise curtail the pins:
as those with which foreign insects are transfixed até
often toolong. If you cut them off below the insect, cut
them obliquely, which will leave a point that will entet
the cork.

When your drawers are smoothly corked? and neatly
papered, first divide each transversely by a full black
line; parallel with this, on each side, draw a line with
red ink: then, for arranging your insects, draw pencil
lines, which are easily obliterated, at right angles with
the others, according to the general size of the insects
that are to occupy them. Insects look better thus at-
ranged in double columns, than if the pencil lines tra-
versed the whole width of the drawers. In arranging
them, you may either place them in a straight line be-
tween the pencil lines,—which I think is best,—or «po?
them. You will begin your columns from the red lines
in the middle, and not from the sides of the drawer: thus
the heads of those on one side of it will be in an opposite

* See Mr. Samouelle's Compendium, 311.

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &c. 545

ditection to those on the other. Where your pins are very
fine and weak, you must make a hole first with a com-
Mon lace-pin; otherwise, in forcing them into the cork,
they willbend. In labelling your specimens, you should
Stick the appellation of the genus or subgenus with a
Pin before the species that belong to it. . As to the Species
themselves, you may either number them 1, 2, 3, &c.,
Sticking the pin they are upon through the number, and

“noting them by a corresponding one in your catalogue;
9r you may at once write the trivial name, with the ini-
tial of the genus upon a label transfixed in the same
Manner, Lepidoptera cannot easily be arranged in co-

lumns, Perhaps if squares, corresponding with the size

“Nd number of the specimens of any given species you
Wish to preserve, were made with pencil, a label of the
trivial name of the species, or a number being placed at
its head, it would be as good a way as any other. But
“Very one must be left to his own taste in these matters.
herever you can, procure a specimen of each sex of
n insect, and where important characters require it, let
‘Ome of your Lepidopterous specimens exhibit the under
“de of the wings.
_ In arranging insects in your cabinet, if you wish to
“Ve it scientific, as much as the nature of the subject
vill admit, follow the series of affinities; but you may re-
"ve a few drawers to place in contrast analogous forms.
S your numbers of species increase you will have to alter
Your arrangement; but as pencil lines are easily rubbed
“ut, this will occasion you less trouble than if they were
tawn with ink. You should always be careful under
Sach genus to leave space for new species.
As certain Acari, T ineidæ, Ptinide, &c., prey upon
Vor, ry, 2N

546 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, XC.

dead insects, you will of eourse wish to know how they
may be kept out of your drawers, or banished when de-
tected there. ‘Camphor is the general remedy recom
mended. The cavity closed by the rabbet of the glas
frame affords a good receptacle for this necessary article:
put some roughly powdered into each side, and be cie
ful to renew it when evaporated. This will generally
preserve your insects, as will be seen from the result ©
the following experiment.—Some insects in a chip um
having become much infested by Acari and Psocus Ju
satorius, 1 placed under a wine-glass several of eat

along with roughly-powdered camphor: at the end ?
twenty-four hours the Acari were alive; but at the €?

of forty-eight they were all apparently dead, and did nor
revive upon the removal of the camphor. "The spew"
mens of Psocus all appeared dead in an hour, and nev
revived. Ifthe camphor be put only into one side ?

drawer, and in a lump, though perhaps it may keeP m

Acari, &c., it will not expel them.

LETTER LL

INVESTIGATION OF INSECTS.

An Entomologist who aspires to more than the cha-

acter of a mere amateur, will not be content with fill-
ug his cabinet with nameless objects for the sole amuse-
lent of the eye; but will also be anxious to acquire
‘ome knowledge of what he has collected, and to ascer-
M by what names, whether indicating their genus or
Pecies, they have been distinguished by scientific writers
9 have described insects either in general or those of
Particular districts. ‘Thus only can he himself derive
Profit from any discoveries he may make, or contribute

? the further progress of the science?.
ut in order to accomplish this object effectually, you
"st remember and practise the Onslow motto— Festina
“hte :—you must not be too eager to name your species,
at begin first with grouping your collection. The only
aY to acquire, in any degree, a correct knowledge of |
t'e Natural System, or of the general plan of the CREA-
OR, which is the primum and ultimum of true science,
by studying groups. The knowledge of species is in-
Sed indispensable for the registry of facts and other
tactica] purposes, but the knowledge of groups leads

* Compare what is said Vor. I. p. 47—.
2N2

548 INVESTIGATION OF INSECTS.

toa higher wisdom; and indeed it is through these that
we best descend to the study of species. _ i
I will suppose you have made yourself master of 3?
much of the technical language, particularly the name
and most important attributes of the principal orga! ;
insects, as will suffice for understanding descriptions: oF
knowing these parts when you see them. I will als?
further suppose that what was formerly said on thes?
subjects has been sufficiently studied, to enable you with"
out much difficulty or hesitation to say whether a
given object belongs to the Class Jnsecta or Arachnit
or to which of their respective Orders*. You are ther?
fore qualified to arrange your collection into its ^ ima
groups. But you have seen that many others interv” f
between the Order and the genus or species. AS E
genera of Linné are mostly primary groups of Order?
perhaps, setting aside such insects included in them by
him as your eye and their apparent characters convi
you have no claim to a place there, your next. be
step would be to make yourself thoroughly acquaint” d
with them. When you have accurately marshall i
‘and intimately studied these groups, you will proba j
have acquired an eye and a tact, experto crede, for gro"
ing without book, and may proceed by analysis v
solve your whole collection, as nearly as possible; uU
many as nature seems to indicate to you. In doing t i
you will doubtless at first fall into many errors; but the?”

: . . uit : na
practice and a closer examination will in time € oat

thos?

i ; n
you to rectify. Having thus got your groups 9?

to nature as you can, you may now have recourse to

* Vor. III. p. 28—. See above, p. 368—.

INVESTIGATION OF INSECTS. 549

Rüthors, particularly Fabricius and Latreille, who have
Sübdivided the genera of Linné; and you will see which
of your groups agree with theirs, detect your own errors,
ad often theirs, and be enabled to label each of your
Shera and higher groups, if already known, with its
Modern appellation. You are now qualified also to
“ater scientifically into the study of the characters that
"Istineuish groups, and may proceed, wherever oppor-
tunity is afforded, to examine the trophi, which may
Often be displayed sufficiently by the means recommended
m my last letter*. In this way you may learn also to
Now your groups as well by character as by habit, and
* qualified to trace the gradual progress of nature from
m to form; and may look upon yourself as duly pre-
Pared to put the last hand to your labours, and proceed
© the examination of spectes. i
It will have occurred to you, in making out your genera
lowest groups, that some consist of a vastly greater
lumber of species than others. It seems advisable
*refore, when you apply yourself seriously to ascertain
Nhat described ones your cabinet contains, to begin with |
Ose genera which appear to be poor in them; for here
Your labour will be comparatively light, from the small
Number you will have to examine; and you will become
Mactised in the employment before you are called upon
° attack those that overflow. Had Fabricius and
“ther describers of species taken the trouble to sub-
. Vide the larger genera, as might easily have been done,
to more sections or subgenera, the student would have
“en spared a most discouraging labour. To be obliged

* See above, p. 533.

550 INVESTIGATION OF INSECTS.

to compare a single individual with the descriptions ol
from 100 to 300 species?, to ascertain. its name, seem?
enough to make you start aside with horror from the
employment, and be content that your species shoul
remain unnamed, rather than expose yourself to such 4
waste of time and patience. But to lessen your alar”
and encourage you to proceed, I must observe to y™
though in a few instances it may be necessary to ? "
vert to the description of every single species in @ o
tion, yet that this is seldom requisite; and where it 1%
there are many helps to diminish the labour and abridg®
the process. A large number of insects are characte
rized by their colour ; and it is the practice of all good de
scribers to begin their definition of the species with that
which predominates, and then to enumerate the vari
tions from it. Thus, if an insect be all black except the
thorax, antenne, and legs, you will find it thus charac
terized, “Black: with thorax, antenne, and legs fermé
nous” ; and so on. Hence, having noticed the predon”
nant colour of your unknown species, in many genet?
you may compare it with the descriptions contained i? "
- whole page at a single glance, and only read the fuarth?"
descriptions when the colour agrees. A practised Eni?"
mologist will thus investigate his insects with a rapid!
which to an unlearned bystander would seem impossib ^
Though I have instanced colour as being the characte

| : cipium ws
most commonly employed in describing species

; š : , : er
sects, you will readily conceive that in some tribes othe
s AER 7 119 12
characters afford more prominent distinctions. Thus
as - 9;
* In Elater, Fabricius describes 137 species; in Melolontha, 14 :

in one section of Rynchenus, 161; of Curculio, 183; and in hi5
piliones Heliconii, 300.

INVESTIGATION OF INSECTS. 551

the Dynastide and many other Petalocerous beetles, the
Principal specific character is derived from the horns or
tubercles that arm the head and thorax: in Lucanus, L.
from the mandibule; and in Prionus F. from the mar-
Sinal teeth of the thorax. If the insect, then, you want
to name belongs to any of these genera, having observed
its peculiar characters in this respect, you may ascertain
in a very few minutes whether any already described
exhibit the same. This facility of investigation can be

tter acquired by practice than precept, and cannot be
Attained all at once. The above hints, however, may be
of some use; and cannot fail to be so, if you always en-
leavour to make yourself acquainted by a previous care-

ful examination with the characters of every new insect

Jou acquire,—whether those of form, colour, or sculp-
ture, before you attempt to discover its name in Fabri-
Gus or any other author.

When you have made such proficiency in. the study
35 to be familiar with a few species of each. section of an
“Xtensive genus, the labour of investigation will some-
times be greatly facilitated by attending to that con-
lormity between the proportions, general aspect, and
figure of a known and an unknown insect, which Natu- -
"alists express by the name of kabit, and which, though
‘asily perceived by a practised eye, is described with
Such difficulty. Scientific Entomologists in their de-
Xriptions have usually taken care to place near to each
Other, species agreeing in habit. When therefore you

Now the name of one species, and find another of the
‘tme general habit, you may commonly take it for
Stanted that if described at all by your author, it will be
Placed near that alr eady known to you. Thus, suppo-

552 INVESTIGATION OF INSECTS.

sing you are acquainted with that common weevil Rayn-
chenus Scrophularie F. (Cionus Latr.), and find its near
relation R. Blattarie F.; instead of comparing it one
by one with the 161 species which compose his Lon-
girostres femoribus dentatis of that genus in the Systema
Eleutheratorum, you would at once turn to the forme!
very near which you would without further trouble dis-
cover it. Fortunate would it be, could the Entomo^
logist always depend on thus finding descriptions ot
allied species in the neighbourhood of each other; bu!
unhappily the most distinguished authors have sometimes

violated this important rule, so that we cannot always be
certain that any given species is not elsewhere described

than in its right place. Fabricius in many instance?
often removes widely asunder insects not merely related»
but which are in reality scarcely more than varieties ol
the same species?. In fact, the attention of this cel€
brated author was so distracted by the immensity of the
materials he had to arrange, by the distance of the €*
binets, in many cases, from each other, the new sp€
cies of which he undertook to describe, and the rapidity
with which they necessarily passed under his eye, tha!
he seems never to have attained any nice perception
the affinities of insects.

You must not conclude, however, that the investig?"
tion of a new insect is even to an adept always a work °
ease and dispatch. Often, when seemingly ascertained
by the rapid process above indicated, a further inquity
will be requisite ; the more detailed description must be

, Thus be places Chienia holosericea and nigricornis, which might

te : His in @
pass for varieties, far asunder; and Dromia agilis is even put 1P
different section from D. quadrimaculata, truncatella, &c.

INVESTIGATION OF INSECTS. 553

read, and figures consulted, before its name can be in-
disputably determined. In addition to the difficulty
arising from the insufficient characters frequently given
by Fabricius and the older authors, obstacles arising
from their errors not seldom intervene. Thus they have
sometimes selected for a specific character,—as in the case
of Megachile centuncularis, Nomada ruficornis, and vari-
ous other insects, — what really only indicates a family.
At other times sexual characters common to many,—as
in Eucera longicornis, Locusta perspicillata F., &c.,—have
been had recourse to. In these cases, in order satisfac-
torily to ascertain your species, you must further con-
sult the synonyms and habitat given by the original de-
scriber, especially the figures he has referred to. When
all these fail, as they sometimes will, the dernier resort
is a reference to the cabinet containing the original spe-
cimen from which the description was drawn. ^ British
Entomologists possess an invaluable privilege, which
their continental brethren may well envy them, in having
the most liberal access, indulged to them by the learned
President of the Linnean Society, to Linné's collection
of insects, from which a large proportion of the species
he described may be ascertained. Several of the cabi- `
nets, especially the Banksian,—now the property of the
Linnean Society,—from which Fabricius described his
insects, may also stili be consulted; and thus many mis-
takes rectified, which would otherwise greatly mislead?.

Though sometimes the limits that separate good spe-

* It may not be amiss to mention a few :— Spheridium dytiscoides
isa Hydrophilus related to H. fuscipes. S. glabratum is heteromerous,
probably one of the Helopi Latr. Carabus retusus and Madere both
belong to Calosoma. Cistela angustata is a true Choleva, See Linn.
Trans. xi. 138.—8.

554 INVESTIGATION OF INSECTS.

cies appear at first very slight, and require a practised
eye to catch them, yet it occasionally happens that con-
siderable apparent differences may safely be disregarded.
The colour of insects, ——to which unhappily for want of
better characters we are so generally forced to have re-
course, —though usually constant, is in some species very
variable*, This is the case sometimes with whole colours.
Thus Carabus arvensis, Peecilus cupreus, &c., are some-
times of a copper colour; at others, resemble brass; at
others, they are green or blue, and even black. The
colour of spots also often varies, In some individuals
of Pentatoma oleracea they are pale, and in others red.
The number and shape of spots are also often incon-
stant. Many of the species of Coccinella so abound in
these variations, that nothing short of the most careful
examination can enable you to distinguish the species
from the variety. Insects vary also in size: but as this
is.never assumed. as a. specific character, it will not oc-
casion you much trouble. Where the difference in this
respect between two specimens is very great, the pre-
sumption is that they are specifically distinct. Diffe-
| rences in sculpture and. proportion do not always indicate
different species; this being sometimes, as we have seen
above, only a sexual character. Authors also in their
descriptions in this respect sometimes mislead the young
student, When Linné calls the thorax of Aphodius er-
raticus smooth (levis), he would not expect to find it co-
vered with impressed puncta, and with a longitudinal

posterior impressed line. Likewise in describing Chiania

vestita and nigricornis, Fabricius passes without notice

? See above, p. 397. e Vor. III. p. 305.

INVESTIGATION OF INSECTS. 555

their punctate surface, so different from that of other
Harpalide. Errors of this kind however, it is but fair
to observe, are chiefly to be attributed to the circum-
stance that both Linné and Fabricius rarely employed
a microscope in making descriptions; though no one now
attempts this, except where insects are large, without
such an aid. .

If you ask, How am I to acquire this delicacy of tact
which is to decide when the terms of a specific character
are to be rigidly adhered to, and when taken with a cer-
tain latitude? I answer, In the same way in which a
connoisseur attains the faculty of discerning the works
of different masters in painting ;—by such careful study
of your author: as will make you master of his style.
Thus you will soon perceive in what cases expressions
are to be taken literally and strictly, or with some al-
lowance and abatement.

There yet remains more distinctly to be adverted to,
the assistance that may be derived in the investigation of
insects from figures. Generally speaking, these should
never be referred to in the first instance, but be regarded
as a resource when the ordinary methods leave the sub-
ject of inquiry doubtful. ‘Those who begin their ento-
mological studies by turning over figures. usually end
them there, and never attain to that nameless tact in
making out insects that can only be the result of patient
study. . Indeed figures, though often very useful, and
sometimes indispensable, can scarcely ever exhibit those
nice characters, particularly as to. sculpture, that distin-
guish some insects. Our modern artists, indeed, are re-

medying this defect of the art, by giving in many cases

the thorax or elytrum apart, with all its sculptural pecu-

556 INVESTIGATION OF INSECTS.

liarities: but this is not, and cannot be, done so as to re-
present every one. But though in general figures should
be your last resort, I know not whether an exception to
the rule may not be advisable with respect to the Lepido-
ptera, which are more difficult to be intelligibly described
than any other order of insects; while a good figure exhi-
bits to the eye all those markings and shades, that scarcely
any description can place clearly before the mind.
When every attempt to investigate the name of your
unknown species fails, and you have consequently reason
to believe that it is undescribed, the best mode you can
pursue for retaining that knowledge of its characters,
which from your long investigation you must have ac-
quired, is to note them down in your entomological
Journal, inserting it under its proper genus with a tri-
vial name of your own. Such a journal you will find
almost a sine qua non for containing a catalogue of your
insects, and to register any observations concerning indi-
viduals you may have had an opportunity of making.
With regard to this journal, I should recommend to
you to get two blank books. One a duodecimo of 200 or
300 pages, to contain the mere catalogue of your insects,
their habitat and localities, or the source from which you
derived them. In this you should number the genera in
Roman capitals, and the species under each by a figure;
leaving considerable space at the end of each genus for
the insertion of new species. The other book should be
of an octavo size, containing 400 or 500 pages. Under
the number of each genus and species you might de-
scribe and figure it, if undescribed ; if described, note in
what it varies from the description, and what characters
are overlooked: and in general insert such observations.

INVESTIGATION OF INSECTS. 557

with regard to its economy and habits, as you may have
had an opportunity of making.—As to foreign insects,
wherever you can, upon good authority, be particular
in indicating the country and station of each specimen.

I need not say much to you concerning the micro-

scopes you should use for the examination of insects, a
common pocket one of three glasses of different powers
will answer every ordinary purpose?.

We have treated hitherto of insects as we find them
now inhabiting our globe: but I must not conclude our
correspondence without taking some notice of those that
are found in a fossil state. Fossil insects may be divided
into those that are found in amber, and those that are
found in other substances.

It has been observed with respect to insectiferous am-
ber, that the greater part of the insects found in it exist
no longer in the countries that produce that amber, and
that in every different locality the insects found in it are
different. Thus the amber of Sicily contains various
species of Coleoptera not to be met with in other‘ambers,
while that of the Baltic is rich in Diptera and NeuropteraP.
It is further observed, that the insects inclosed in the
amber of Prussia, and those figured by Sendelius in his
Historia Succinorum, all belong to genera at this time
found in Europe*. Insects of the following genera are
recorded as having been found in this singular substance :
Platypus, Elater, Atractocerus; Gryllus, Mantis; larvee

2 For dissections the one recommended above, p. 194, may be used
Sometimes a watchmaker’s eye-glass, which also sets the hands at
liberty, will be found useful.

b N. Dict. d Hist. Nat. xxxii. 264, ° Ibid. xvi. 981.

558 INVESTIGATION OF INSECTS.

of Lepidoptera ; Phryganea L.; Ephemera, Perla, Termes;
z * « “Je " Ms
Formica; Tipula, Dibio, Limpis Scolopendra ; and various

Arachnida*. Ina piece of amber in my collection I find
Evania, Formica, Chironomus, and some Arachnida.

Fossil insects have also been found in other substances.
Parkinson figures larvae of Libellulina found in lime-
stone; some Melolontha in slate; a Polistes in schistus ;
Carabi and Necrobia in vegetable debris: but some of
these rather belong to a comparatively modern forma-
tion *.

I observed in the outset of our correspondence, that
we were entering an august temple, exhibiting in its
inmost sanctuary the symbols of the Divine Presence4.
In proportion as we have penetrated, glory from that
Shechinah has more and more shone forth: and whether
we have considered the uses of insects, their ways and
instincts, their forms and structure, and their ar range-
ment in a wondrous and complex system, the Wispom,
Power and.Goopness of their and our Creator have
every where been marvellously conspicuous, and calcu-
lated to awaken in us every devotional feeling. If, indeed,
we admire and study these little creatures, or any other
department of nature, without reference to their CREA-
TOR, and collect and love them merely for themselves, we
shall be in some sense idolaters, and, like the ancient
world, put the works of Gop in his place. But if, while
we admire them and store them up and study them, we
see in them his glory reflected, and in the creature love

* N. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. xvi, 28).

> Organic Remains iii, t. xvii, f. 2.
© Ibid, 281—. t Vouk n 20.

INVESTIGATION OF INSECTS. 559

the Creator, the study of them, in conjunction with
that of the written Word, will be highly beneficial to us,
and at the same time that it ministers to our temporal
enjoyment will promote our eternal interests.

Taking this view, I cannot better close our correspon-

dence on the subject that has so long occupied us, than
in the pious words of one of our most admired poets :

* Happy if full of days—but happier far,
If, ere we yet discern life's evening star,
Sick of the service of a world that feeds
Its patient drudges with dry chaff and weeds,
We can escape from custom’s idiot sway,
To serve the Sovereign we were born t’ obey.
Then sweet to muse upon his skill display'd
(Infinite skill) in all that he has made!
To trace, in Nature's most minute design,
The signature and stamp of pow'r divine,
Contrivance intricate, express'd with ease,
Where unassisted sight no beauty sees,
The shapely limb and lubricated joint,
Within the small dimensions of a point,
Muscle and nerve miraculously spun,
His mighty work, who speaks and it is done,
Th’ Invisible in things scarce seen reveal'd,
To whom an atom is an ample field :
To wonder at a thousand insect forms,
These hatch'd, and those resuscitated worms,
New life ordain'd and brighter scenes to share,

Once prone on earth, now buoyant upon air,

Whose shape would make them, had they bulk and size,
More hideous foes than fancy can devise;

With helmet-heads and dragon-scales adorn'd,

The mighty myriads, now securely scorn'd,

Would mock the majesty of man's high birth,

Despise his bulwarks, and unpeople earth :

INVESTIGATION OF INSECTS,

Then with a glance of fancy to survey,

Far as the faculty can stretch away,

Ten thousand rivers pour’d at his command
From urns that never fail through every land;
These like a deluge with impetuous force,

Those winding modestly a silent course;

The cloud-surmounting alps, the fruitful vales;
Seas on which every nation spreads her sails;
The sun, a world whence other worlds drink light;
The crescent moon, the diadem of night;

Stars countless, each in his appointed place,

Fast anchor'd in the deep abyss of space:—

At such a sight to catch the poet’s flame,

And with a rapture like his own exclaim,

These are thy glorious works, thou source of good !
- How dimly seen, how faintly understood !

Thine, and upheld by thy paternal care,

This universal frame, thus wondrous fair ;

Thy power divine, and bounty beyond thought,
Adored and praised in all that thou hast wrought.
Absorb'd in that immensity I see,

I shrink abas’d, and yet aspire to thee;

Instruct me, guide me to that heavenly day,

Thy words, more clearly than thy works, display,
That, while thy truths my grosser thoughts refine,
I may resemble thee, and call thee mine.*”’

* Cowper’s Retirement.

AP PEN Dix:

I.

DE GENITALIBUS ET GENERATIONE INSEC-
TORUM.

INTER tot et tanta OPTIMI CREATORIS miracula, que

Regnum. Animale tantopere illustrant, vix ulla sunt. majori
admiratione digna, et Physiologi eruditi intr ospectione, quam
que ad generationem insectorum spectant. Quamvis enim
inter sexüs organa vertebratorum animalium et insectorum
analogia haud parva locum habet; numero tamen, figura et
proportione partium, miro modó s seepius differunt ; et organa
insuper plura in insectis reperiuntur quorum in vertebratis
exempla frustra quesiveris.

Hoc argumentum tractando duo sunt imprimis conside-
randa, genitalia nempe ipsa utriusque sexüs, et coztus.

I. De genitalibus in genere prima observatio erit, “ quo
minor horum, habita corporis ratione, moles, eo magis nervo-
rum systema, et cephalicum imprimis ganglium, predominans
fit; eo major igitur intellectüs facultas (instincto naturali con-
Sociata ) reperitur," ut in principibus, Apibus nempe, Formica,
&e.2 In Hymenopteris, terum, Dipteris, et Neuropteris, heec
Organa maxime retracta sunt; dum in Lepidopteris, Coleo-
Pleris, et Orthopteris (quorum insuper mascula et feminea

* Riffersehweils De Insect. Genital. 9,
20

562 APPENDIX.

insigniter inter se congruunt*), magis exserta jacent®, Geni-
talia plerumque in extremitate postica abdominis sub ano sita
sunt^, sed in Arachnidis et Libellulinis masculis in basi ventris;
in Phalangio sub ore, et in Chilognathis in anteriore corporis
parte subtus latitant*. Ubi organa duplicantur, ut testes, sem-
per symmetrica sunt. Non obliviscendum est quód in diversis
generibus habitu externo persimili consociatis, imó in diversis
unius generis speciebus genitalia diversa interdum reperiun-
tur*: sic in Lamellicornibus stercorariis (Scarabeeus, Copri*
&c.), testes tantummodo sunt duo; in arboreis ( Melolontha»
&c.) duodecim, et in floralibus ( Cetonia, &c.) viginti-quatuor-

Genitalia sunt vel mascula vel feminea.

i, Genitalia mascula, sunt penis; canalis excretorius ; vesicul&
seminales; wasa deferentia ; testes; prehensores; et semen.

1. Penis! quoad substantiam plerumque membranaceus, ât
interdum corneus est, et intus cavernosus?; in Coleopteris
apice vagina bivalvi vulvam aperiente instructus est^: figuri
variat admodum, sepius tamen cylindricus vel subcylindricus
est; in Blattis apicem versus sensim attenuatus!; in Chermé
Pyri capitatus*; in Vespa vulgari cochleariformis!; in Cra
brone bilobus" ; in Vespa alia quadam incurvus et apice bicor*
nis"; in Musca vivipara apice spinosus®; in Megachile mu-

* De Orthopteris hoc precipue notavit D. Marcel. de Serre
(Mém. du Mus. 1819. 113—.) in quibus vesicule seminales, colle
terio; testes, ovariis; vasa deferentia, oviductui; canalis seminalis
ovipositori, &c., mutuò adamussim respondent.

b Rifferschw. De Insect. Genital. 9.

* Reaum. ii. 79. Herold. Schmetterl. t. iv. f. 2, 3.

a Treviranus 4rachnid.11,86—. Reaum. vi. 436. N. Dict. d Hist.
Nat. xi. 82. Marcel. de Serr. ubi supr. 104. Latreille Fam. Nat. 324.

* Rifferschw. ubi supr. f Prare XXII. Fie. 1. a.

s Rifferschw. 10. W. Dict. d? Hist...Nat. xvi. 242.

h Ibid. & xxxv. 412. i Gaede Anat. der Ins. t. 1.
-k De Geer iii. 7. ix. f. 11. £. ! Reaum. vi. £. xvi. f-
m Jbid.t.xvii. f. 4, 5. g. ^ Thid. t. xxvii. f. 16.

? De Geer vi. £. iii. f. 17. d, e, f.

f. 9%

g.
* 15

E

APPENDIX. 563

raria difformis*; in T Yrophaga putri et quibusdam aliis Mus-
cidis, spiralis”; in Libellula ænea et Phalangio biarticulatus*.

tplurimum nudus est, sed in Lephrite fimbriatus. In insec-
tis proprie dictis simplex est hoc organon, in Scorpionibus au-
tem duplex evadit; quod fit etiam in quibusdam reptilibus,
Berpentibus nempe et Lacertis?.

2. Canalis excretorius e concursu vesicularum seminalium
formatur, et a pene excipitur in quo terminat et cui semen
leddit; interdum brevissimus est, ut in Blatta’, et interdum
iterum pralongus, ut in Blapte Mortisaga, T: grophaga putri, et
aliis f. Plerumque cylindricus est, musculosus, compactus, et
externe tracheis pertextus?,

3. Vesicule seminales conniventes formant, ut jam dictum

“st, canalem excretorium communem cujus prolongatio bifida
esse videntur; vasa deferentia hinc excipiunt. Interdum vasa
æc ac vesicule seminales eodem loco in canali excretorio
Communi terminant, unde canalis hic tumidiorfit^, Vesiculæ
SUpradictze maxime variant : modo canalem exhibent ventri-
Cosum, tortum, implexum, longissimum; modo reetum, bre.
Viorem, In plerisque duc sunt vesiculz seminales, etiam in
Lepidopteris monorchidis; in quibusdam ( Tenebrione Moli-
‘ore, Fydrophilo piceo) quatuor’; in aliis (Dytisco marginali )
Vekt et in Locustis et Blatta, plurime'. Breves admodum
“Unt in Orthopteris et quibusdam Coleopteris™ ; sed in aliis
Ongissimz; in Orycte nasicorni vicies, et in Cetonia aurata
* Reaum. vi, ¢. viii. JF. 9. d, e,m.
? Swamm. Bibl. Nat. t. xliii. f. 17. a, b, c.
` De Geer ii. £. xix. £11. N. Dict. d Hist. Nat. xi. 82.
` Ibid. xxx. 41; xxix. 177. ° Gaede Anat. t.i, f. 9.
, Abid. 18. Swamm. ubi supr. t xliii, f. 17. a aie
* Rifferschw. 10. ^ Ibid, 22,
, Gaede 4i. f. 9. d, e. N. Diet. d Hist. Nat, xvi. 241.
: wamm, ubi supr. i. 229. t. xxii. f. 5. h, i. Hoc insecto et Hy-
"Philo supradicto organa insunt quz pro Prostatis habentur.
. V. Dict. d' Hist, Nat. xvi. 242. Gaede ti f. 9. dd.
Ibid. etiam z. ii, f. 9. 14. dd.
202

564 APPENDIX.

ter decies corpus longitudine superant*. In hisce organis
semen e testibus per vasa deferentia acceptum ante emissio-
nem elaboratur.

4.. Vasa deferentia ita appellantur quia semen e testibus ac
ceptum ad vesiculas seminales deferunt. Ex utroque teste
unum vas deferens exit, et si utrinque plures sint testes, ut in
Melolontha”, Cetonia, &c., omnia ad unicum utrinque canale?
formandum confluunt, qui vesiculis supradictis semen reddit:
interdum, ut in Lepidopteris*, ab his nullo modo separantur ,
unum canalem aut tubum formantia ; sed in aliis penitus sunt
distincta’. Ex eodem filo quo contexuntur testes vasa defe-
rentia szepius deducuntur.

B. Testes organa sunt semen primum secernentia : variant
compositione, numero, et figura. In quibusdam (Lepidopteris et
Hymenopteris) sunt compacti vasculis visui se subducentibus?
in aliis ( Orthopteris, Newropteris, Dipteris, et quibusdam Cole?
pleris) e vasculis brevibus cecis variique voluminis conformal!
sunt, atque tunica densa tenaci vel rete tantum mucoso ob-
ducti*; vel iterum ex unico variisque modis tecto canali va"?
contorto et implexo, qui deduci potest et haud raro massa
ovalem trachearum ope contextam refert, conflantur, ut ”
Coleopteris Predaceis tam aquaticis quam terrestribus“.

Numero. etiam variant testes. Quadam Lepidopter%
Pieris Brassica; item Iulide®, unico gaudent; pleraque tame”

insecta animalia vertebrata hic æmulantur, et testibus instr
. untur duobus; in Nepa cinerea et reliquis Hemipteris que

> À 3 : : 4
tuor vel quinque", in Melolontha vulgari sex', et 1n Celo?

. : inj?
aurata duodecim*, utrinque deteguntur. Interdum eX aci?

? Cuv. Znat. Comp. v. 192. b Gaede 7. ii. f. 2. e-

c Herold. Schmett. t. xxxii. d Gaede £. ii, f. 9.

e Riffersehw. 19. £ Ibid. 20.

g Marcel. de Serres Mém. du Mus. 1819. 115.

^ Tbid. 128. Comp. Cuv. Anat. Comp. v. 195. cum Swamm-
Nat. i. 102.

i Quv. Ibid. 191. k Ibid,

gib

APPENDIX. 565

pluribus compacti videntur, et bacciformes appellari possunt.
In Lamia duodecim glandulz in utroque teste coalite inve:
niuntur?, et in Tenebrione Molitore plurimae,

Quoad figuram, interdum, ut in Pieride Papilionum ge-
nere, spherici evadunt*^; in Acheta pyriformes?; in Ape do-
mestica oblongi*; lineares et longissimi in Carabo coriaceo, in
quo decies longitudine corpus superant; in Nepa cinerea sub-
°vati, et singuli filamento longo varie convoluto et contorto
terminati

In [arvis etiam hæc organa detegere est. Sic in eruca Pi-
eridis quatuor testes sunt utrinque, vel potius unicus ex qua-
tuor serie ordinatis, conflatus^. Hi sensim coacervantur do-
Déc in sphzericum testem antea descriptum coalescant.

6. Prehensores! sunt organa figura varia quibuscum mas in
Coitu feminæ anum corripit et comprimit, Quoddam analo-
Sum in quibusdam Mammaliis, Avwibus, Piscibus, et Reptilibus*
invenitur, sed in insectis maxime conspicui. Eorum situs,
numerus, et forma, sunt notandi,

Quoad sitwm—circa foramen per quem prodit penis sub ano
Plerumque sunt inserti, sed in Conope cornu prehensorium in
Segmento ventrali antepenultimo deprehenditur!; et in Libel-
lulinis, preter prehensores anales, par est aliud anum spectans,
in secundo ventris segmento pone penis ipsius situm™, Pre-
hensorum numerus minime constans: plerumque duo sunt, sed
in 7; eitigontis F. unicus furcatus tantummodo videre est n> iin
Lepidopteris variis, Conope, Libellulidis, tres anum armant, dif.
formes tamen?; duo paria Culicem signant”, Megachilem mu-
-° Rifferschw. 22. P Gaede ż. ii. f. 9. bb,

° Herold. Schmett. t.iv. f. 8, 9. i Gaede fi ii. f. 14, bb.

* Swamm. ubi supr. t. xxi. f. 1. a. f Rifferschw. 21,

€ Swamm. £. iii. f. 6. f. " Herold. ubi supr. t. v. f. 1,9. &c.

" Prare XXII. Fic. 1.5. k Cuv. ubi supr. v. 115.

! De Geer vi. £. xv. f. 8. d. DOCE ZUR Soda Y ge

: eaum. v. £ xix, f. 9. s :

x Ibid. ii, t. xxvi. f. 10, 11.7. De Geer ii. Z xix, po

- Reaum. iv. 7. xl. TB. Ose,

566 APPENDIX.

rariam*, et Agrionidas" ; in Locustis veris intra abdomen re
tracta sunt heec organa; in pupa tamen L. morbillosce, in nos
tro muszo asservata, quinque apparent; sex in Formicis pe
Geerius detexit, sed in cognato genere Myrmica, duo tantum m
quatuor paribus postremo Tipula oleracea instructa est. Pre-
hensorum forma multifarie variat, imó haud raro in specie
eadem: interdum enim prehensioni soli hujusmodi instrument?
sunt adaptata, aliis diversæ figurze compressionem efficientibus i
interdum et utroque munere funguntur. In Pieride Bras
sicæ, in qua par unicum, concavo-convexi sunt, deltoidei, intus
setis rigidis fimbriati, et apice dente incurvo armati*; in
Acrida varia tenues, simplices, recurvi; in Arctia lubricipedts
que tribus gaudet, laterales sunt concavo-convexi, ovati, dum
intermedius brevior est, triangularis et unguiculo armatus:
in Libellula «nea, et affinibus, duo superiores sunt lineares et
undulati, et inferior unicus profunde bifidus‘; in Vanessa Ure
tice exteriores duo sunt conchiformes, par autem interius UP"
guiforme?; in Culice superiores longiores conici hirsuti, infe"
riores breviores et ut in precedente unguem referunt"; in
Tipula oleracea, in qua octuplic: prehensore anus armatus; val-
vule omnes figura diversee—par exterius nempe concavuP?
membranaceum reliquos includens, secundum unguiculatum»
tertium subclavatum, et ultimum fere lunatum!; in Megachile
muraria, inter alios diversos, unum par literze T formam ha-
bet*; in Bombo forceps analis bivalvis est intus ramosus; et
in Panorpa cheliformis ^. 5

7. Desemine ipso insectorum paucula sunt notanda. Fluidu

* Reaum. vi. £. viii. f. 4. c, b. * De Geer ii. 7. xxi. f. 20. b,c
© Ibid. t. xlii. f. 11. b,c, d; t xliii, f. 13. p.

a Herold. Schmett. 1. iv. f. 3. aa. * Reaum. ii. £. iji. f. 2. ^
f De Geer ii. Z. xix. f. 9.5,0; f.10.c. — * Reaum. ii. 7. iii f. 9.c^
^ Tbid. iv. t. xl. f. 8. c. e. i Ibid. v. t, iii. f. 7, 9

x Ibid. vi. t. viii, f. 4. b,c. ! Prave XXII. Fie. 1-7
™ Pirate XV. Fic. 12. L”.

APPENDIX. 567

est spissum, lacteum, granulis repletum ; sub lente punctula
numerosa, nigra, oblonga, incurva, in illo deteguntur. Quoad
analysin ejus, neque alkalinum neque acidum est, sed quod-
dam neutrum inter hos intermedium. Ex sanie vel sanguine
deoxydato, et durante coitu copiosissime, secernitur: in aqua
tepida solvitur, et conquassatum fundum petit : Spiritu vini
rectificato superfuso flocculi quidam formantur *.

ii. Genitalia feminea vulva excepta antea tractavi ^, haec est
tubus subcylindricus, foramine ovali vel lunato ab ano di-
Stincto, cum matrice connexus, et per quem semen in coitu
transmittitur. In Scorpionibus duplicem esse vulvam affirmatur
duobus ovariis connexum °,

IL. Coitus.— Coitum insectorum tractaturo paucula de leno-
Ciniis amatoriis, et aliis ejusmodi, quae antecedunt, sunt præ-
dicenda.. Olfactu mares Phalenarum interdum feminam la-
tentem, uti canis leporem, odorantur?; splendore phosphorico
Lampyrides et quorundam aliorum insectorum feminæ mari-
tum ad lectum gramineum prælucent; et huc referri forsan
debet plurium cæcus ardor lumina circumvolandi, vel etiam
in lumen irruendi; sonus excitat feminas Tettigoniarum et
Gryllidarum*, &c. ad amores, et cantu stridulo querelisque
amatoriis diem ducit mas cupidus, donec sponsa advolat, et
tori foliosi fit haud invita particeps. Sonitu etiam uterque
Sexus formidati Anobi: mutuo sese provocant ad venerem f,

In plurimis tamen insectis femina fit modestic et pudicitize
€xemplar, et non nisi difficillime et capite averso maris ardori -
Se tradit, In insectorum moribus et ceconomia virtutum plu.
timarum typum quendam et delineationem nobis proposuit
Devs O. M., quem imitari nos voluit, interdum jussit?. Sic

* Rifferschw. 12. v Vide supra, Lerter XLII,

* N. Dict. d" Hist. Nat. xxx. 16. 425. Marcel. de Serres Mém. du
Mus, 1819.89.

“Rai. Hist. Ins. 177. Jurine Hymenopt. 9. not.

* Vor. II. p. 394—. f N. Dict. d Hisl. Nat. xxxvi. 255.

* Prov, vi, 6; xxx, 25.

568 APPENDIX.

excitare nos ad laborem indefessum, ad prudentiam item et
amorem erga prolem Formice dedit^: Api ad devotam sui
consecrationem, et omnium facultatum et virium ad reipublice
emolumentum, ad obsequium quoque verum erga parentes et
regem: atque ita, ut jam dictum est, in re amatoria inset”
torum feminz ssepe speciem pre se ferunt pudoris et casti-
tatis, et virginibus verecundiam, virtutum omnium custodem,
et sexüs sui ornamentum maxime proprium, moribus suis
predicant. Hujus modestiz exemplar insigne prebent Li-
bellulinæe. | CEstro amoris concitus, mas feminæ collum pr?
hensore anali triphyllo arripit et avolat, illam quasi prædam
secum gerens; sponse sic electi, persuadere in animo est ut
caudam suam inflecteret, et ad coitum se daret, quod, illa in-
vita, fieri nequit; maris enim genitalia, ut antea dictum est, in
basi ventris sita, feminze vero in extremo ano; hinc, nolente
illa, vix fit coitus, et saepissime longo et vano labore, huc illuc
volando virginem protervam frustra solicitat; sed tandem 127
cessitus aquas petit, quas sponsæ cauda longa, me teste, 8"
pius flagellat, donec defatigata, et quasi ex frigido calorem

concipiens, demum et sensim caudam inflectit, et se reddit

amori. Arancam ferocem, szvam etiam in amoribus, ma’
caute appropinquat, et, si blanditiis ejus minus propitia
sese ostendat, cito resilit, ne osculorum loco morte donetur *
coitu etiam peracto, pede veloci ab uxore se subducit, qu
illum, imo post Veneris aurea dona, aliàs forsan voraret 4. M
genere mares feminas antennarum et abdominis motibus €t
frictione lenocinantur et ad coitam provocant,

Insecta sunt alia, ut Phalene, Muscide quaedam, et Apis
domestica, in quibus inversa est heec nature lex casta; harum
enim feminze marem petunt, vel blanditiis alliciunt ad amores.

Nunc de coilu ipso tractabimus, in quo hzc sunt praecipue
notanda—modus, statio relativa, locus, et duratio.

* Ver, I. p. 363—. ^ Vor. H. Lerrer XIX.
© Reaum. vi. 432—, * De Geer vii. 179—.

APPENDIX. 569

i, Plerisque insectis penis intrans est, sed in Muscidis
quibusdam inversa est lex, et feminæ tubus retractilis analis,
foramen sub ano maris penetrat et ita coéunt*. Araneidis
Singulari et mirabili prorsus modo fit coitus; organi enim
masculi functio partim palpis et partim membro ventrali dele-
gatur: prioribus includitur glans que pudendum femineum
penetrat, et sic in utroque sexu, palpis ambobus alternis vici-
bus huic officio inservientibus, orgasmus venereus produci-
tur, cui insequitur fcecundatio, ab organo ventrali masculo ;
femina tubercula duo supra genitalia sita in rimas totidem
inter branchias maris immittente, et in temporis momento
omnia peracta sunt^. Listerus, De Geerius, et alii in
zootomia periti, in palpis latere organum masculum credide.
runt, sed ex observationibus et dissectionibus Trevirani patet,
testes et vesiculas seminales in abdomine locum habere *; sed
exitus horum solummodo in orificio *; in palpis e contra est
organum exsertile penem referens, quod in coitu erigitur et
fere glandiforme est: hinc deduci potest, ut videtur, quod
utrumque organum pro genitale habendum, et feecundationem
feminze ab utroque pendere.

ii. Statio relativa, In plerisque insectis, durante coitu,
maris statio superior est, et femine inferior, in hujus dorsum
conscendente illo ; interdum tamen hec lex inversa est, et ma-
rem femina ascendit, quod ipse vidi in Vespa vulgari, et Sca-
tophaga ; in Pulice etiam femina superior, sed more humano

os ori*; quod fit etiam in aliis quibusdam masculo predomi-

nanti, nempe in Cryptophago quodam minuto, nostris sub ocu-
lis, in Zygena, Culice, et Phalangio'. In insectis Orthopteris
et pluribus Hemipteris sexus in coitu sibi invicem a latere pa-

* Reaum. iv. 385. — " De Geer vii. 249. Treviran. Arachnid. 41.

* Marcel. de Serres penem in palpis cum teste pyriformi in tho-
race connexum esse affirmat, Mém, du Mus. 1819. 95.

4 'Treviran. Ibid. 37. t. iv. f. 33. * De Geer vii. 10.

f Reaum. ii. 72. t. ii. f. 2. De Geer vi. 3145 vii. 165. Rai. Hist.
Ins. 40.

VOL, IV.

570 APPENDIX.

ralleli stant^; sed in aliis Hemipteris, saltem in Pentatomate,
more canum capitibus aversis, qued fit etiam in quibusdam
Tipulidis, res venereas peragunt”.

iii. Locus. Interdum in terram et inter gramina ; interdum
inter arborum et fruticum vamos, et sub foliis; interdum iterum
super aquas; et in ipso acre demum haud raro amoris gau-
diis ultimis fruuntur; hic Ephemere caduce in ipso venere
choreas ducunt, sursum et deorsum, memetipso teste, alter-
natim volitantes*: hic etiam Apum regina et mater in sub-
lime fertur maritut infelicem petens, qui voluptatem brevem
vita emat *: Phalenarum temins aptere huc illuc per aérem
inter arbores trahuntur a mare alato®; et quarundem Tipt-
larum mares a feminis tracti, per aérem item durante coitu
rapiuntur. Modeste satis co&unt insecta, utplurimum plan-
tarum sub umbra latitantes; et plura insuper, ut quzdam
Tipula, Tineida, et Bombycide, sub cortina alarum abdomen
omnino tegente, veneri se tradunt f.

iv. Duratio. Coitus horum animalium duratio varia, inter-
dum, ut in Z2raneidis, spatio perbrevi conficitur, in quibusdam
tamen plus uno die opus est. Plures feminas interdum aggredi-
tur idem mas, hoc in Bombyce, Chrysomela Polygoni, et Musca

domestica obtinet. Aphidem masculum cum quinque feminis
successive copulantem De Geerius videbat.

N.B. Inter pupas Orthopterorum et Hemipterorum coitus
interdum locum habet, quod maturiorem organizationem in his
analogis, quam in aliis insectis probat.

II.

When the account of the Spermatheca " of insects was writ-
ten, I had not met with Dr. Fleming’s Philosophy of Zoology.

^ De Geer ii. 24; iii. 132. > Ibid. iii. 242, t. xiii, f. 15.
* Ibid. ni. 642. 4 Huber Nouv. Observ. i. 97—.
* De Geer ii. 276. f Reaum. ii. 65—.

De Geer iii. 62. ^ See above, p. 146.

APPENDIX. 571

The following passage from that ‘earned work proves that or-
gan-to be really a sperm-reservoir.

* Impregnation in insects appears to take place while the
€ggs pass a reservoir containing the sperm, situated near the
termination of the oviduct in the vulva. * In dissecting,’ says
John Hunter, to whom we owe the discovery, * the female
parts in the silk-moth, I discovered a bag lying on what may
be called the vagina, or common oviduct, whose mouth or
opening was external, but it had a canal of communication
between it and the common oviduct. In dissecting these
parts before copulation, I found this bag empty; and when I
dissected them after, I found it full* By the most decisive
experiments, such.as covering the ova of the unimpregnated
moth, after exclusion, with the liquor taken from this bag in
those which had sexual intercourse, and rendering them fer-
tile, he demonstrated that this bag was a reservoir for the
spermatic fluid, to impregnate the eggs as they were ready for
exclusion, and that coition and impregnation were not simul-
taneous ^."

III.

Since I wrote the account of the disease in flies, which I
denominated a kind of plethora*, I observed one fixed to a
pane of glass in a window, round which was a semicircle of
what appeared to be merely vapour, whose radius was nearly
three-fourths of an inch. Taking it for an aqueous fluid that
had transpired from the dead animal, I paid no further atten-
tion to it at that time. But observing from day to day that
the moisture did not evaporate, after two or three months had
passed I had the curiosity to examine it more closely; and

* Phil. Trans. 1792. 186. ^ Philosophy of Zoology, i, 418.
* See above, p. 202—.

572 APPENDIX.

upon scraping some of it offwith a penknife, I found it was a
white substance of a fatty nature. In this case, then, the fat
must have been exploded on all sides with considerable vio-
lence through the pores of the body. Probably this was a
more intense degree of the plethoric disease. When I exa-
mined this appearance the fly had fallen off, and I could not
find it.

In looking over some letters long since received from
J. Hobart Briggs, Esq., (a most diligent and accurate observer
and delineator of natural objects,) after my account of the
diseases of insects was printed ; in one I found the details of
a singular instance of Acariasis which had escaped my recol-
lection, but which ought not to be lost.—In July 1817 he
found a small spider, not bigger than those called Spinners, in
his garden, which appears to belong to Walckenaér’s third
family of Theridion, to the thorax of which were attached
four oblong bright scarlet Acari, each of which was as large
as the thorax itself. He afterwards met with another spider
still smaller, attacked by two of these swoln parasites, one of
which appeared to him nearly to equal the whole spider in size.
The Acarus was probably either the Leptus Phalangii*, or
the Astoma parasiticum.

IV,

The observations on the chemical composition of insects*
were printed before the publication of the first number of the
Zoological Journal, in which is an able memoir, to which we

must refer our readers for further information on that sub-
*

ject.

* De Geer vii. 117. ż vii. f. 5. Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins. i. 161.
b De Geer Jbid. 118. t. vii. f.7, 8. Latr. Ibid. 162.
* Vor. IH. p. 395—.

AUTHORS QUOTED.

[N. B. Those works in the following list to which an Asterisk is prefixed ave

useful to the Entomologist. The abbreviations of the titles of the works

_used in the text and notes of the Introduction to Entomology, in the list
are put in Italics. |

Acerbi (Joseph) Travels through Sweden, Finland, and Lapland, to the
North Cape, in 1798 and 1799. London 1802. 4to.
Adams (Joseph, M. D.) Observations on morbid poisons. London 1807. 4to.
ZEliamus. De Natura Animalium.
Ahrens (Augustus) Fauna insectorum Zwuropse. Hale 1812—. 12mo.
Aldrovandus (Ulysses) De animalibus insectis. Bononiz 1602. fol.
Amoreux (P. J.?) Notice des insectes de la France reputés venimeux
A, Paris 1789. 12mo.
Anderson (James, LL.D.) Recreations in "Agriculture, natural history, the
arts, and miscellaneous literature. 6 vols. London 1799—. 8vo,
Andrews (James Pettit) Anecdotes ancient and modern, with observations,
and supplement. London 1789—. 8vo.
Angelinus (Fulvius), &c. De verme admirando per nares egresso.
Ravennz 1610.
Anonymous. * The Butterfly collector’s Vade Mecum, or a synoptical table
of English butterflies. Ipswich 1824. 12mo.
9 A description of the island of St. Helena, containing observa-
tions on its singular structure and formation, and an account of its cli-
mate, natural history, and inhabitants. London 1808. 8vo.
Aristoreies. Tom. iv. Lutet. Paris. 1629. fol.
Axara (Felix de) Voyage dans P Amerique Meridionale. Paris 1809. 8vo,
Bacon (Lord Verulam) Works of, by Mallet. 4 vols. London 1740. fol.
Baker (Henry) Of Microscopes and the discoveries made thereby. 2 vols.
London 1785. 8vo.
Bancroft (Edward, M.D.) Experimental researches concerning the phi-
losophy of permanent colours, &c. London 1794. 8vo.

574 AUTHORS QUOTED.

Banks (The Right Hon. Sir Joseph, K, B. P.R. S., &c.) A short account
of the cause of the disease in corn called by the farmers the blight,
the mildew, and the rust, London 1805. 4to.

Barclay (John, M.D.) An inquiry into the opinions, ancient and modern,
concerning life and organization. Edinburgh 1822. 8vo.

Barrow (John) Account of travels into the interior of Southern Africa in
the years 1797, 1798, &c. London 1801. 4to.

Bartram ( William) Travels through N. and S. Carolina, Georgia, E. and
W. Florida, &c. Philadelphia 1791. 8vo.

Beckmann (Johann.) Physikalisch-ókonomische bibliothek, &c.

Gottingen 1778—.

Bell (Charles, M. D.) Essays on the anatomy of expression in painting.

London 1806. 4to.

Belon (Pierre) Les observations de plusieurs singularités et choses me-
morables trouvées en Gréce, &c. Paris 1554. 19mo.

Berk (Van F. H.) Verhandeling ten bewijze, &c. Haarlem 1807. 8vo.

Berkhausen Naturgeschichte der Europaiischen schmetterlinge.

Frankfurt 1784. 8vo.

Berneaud (Thiebaut de) Voyage to the isle of Elba. E. Tr.

London 1814. 8vo.

Bewick (Thomas) The history of British Birds. London 1797. $vo.

Büberg (Gustavus Johannes) * Monographia Mylabridum.

Holmiz 1813. 8vo.

Billardiere. Relation du Voyage de la recherche de la Perouse pendant les

. années 1791—1794. 2 tom. A Paris, An. viii. 4to.

Bingley (William) Animal Biography, or anecdotes of the manners and
economy of the animal creation, arranged according to the system of
Linnæus. 3 vols. London 1808. 8vo.

Bochart (Samuel) Hieroxoicon, sive bipartitum opus de animalibus S. Scrip-
ture, Francofurt: ad Moen. 1675. fol.

Bonner (James) Plan for speedily increasing the number of beehives in
Scotland. London 1795. 8vo.

Bonner (Charles) * Œuvres d'histoire naturelle et de philosophie. 18 vols.

à Neuchatel 1773—. 8vo.

Bonomo (Giovan. Cosim.) Osservazioni intorno a pellicelli del corpo
umano. Firenze 1687. 8vo.

Bradley (Richard P. Bot. Cant.) A Philosophical account of the works of
nature, &c. London 1721. 4to.

Brahm (Nikol. Jos.) Insekten kalender für sammler und cekonomen.

Mainz 1790. 8vo.

Brez (Jacques) La Flore des insectophiles precédé d'un discours sur la
utilité des insectes et de l'étude d'insectologie. Autrecht 1791.

Broughton (Thomas Duer) Letters written in a Mahratta camp in 1809, de-
scriptive of the manners, &c, of the Mahrattas. London 1813. 4to-

Browne (Patrick) The civil and natural history of Jamaica.

London 1758. fol.

AUTHORS QUOTED. 575

Bruce (James) Travels to discover the source of the Nile in the years 1768—
1773. 5 vols. Edinburgh 1790. 4to.
Brunnich (Martin Thrane) Entomologia, sistens insectorum tabulas sy-
stematicas— Latine et Danice. Hafnize 1764. 8vo.
Butler (Charles) The feminine monarchie or the history of bees.
Oxford 1624. 4to.
Campbell (John) Travels in S. Africa, undertaken at the request of the
Missionary Society. 2nd ed. London 1815. 8vo.
Catesby (Mark) The natural history of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama
islands. 2 vols. London 1731—. fol.
Charleton (Gualterus) Onomasticon Zooicon. London 1668. 4to.
Christ (J. L.) Naturgeschichte, klassification und nomenclatur der insekten,
vom bienen, wespen, und ameisengeschelecht, &c. (Hymenopt.)
Francfurt am Main 1791. 4to.
Clairville. * Entomologie Helvctique, ou catalogue des insectes de la Suisse,
rangées d'apres une nouvelle methode. tom. 2. Zuric 1798—. 8vo.
Clark (Bracy) * An essay on the bots of horses and other animals,
London 1815. 4to.
Clarke (Edward Daniel, LL.D.) Travels in various countries of Europe,
Asia and Africa. 8 vols. London 1816—. 8vo.
Consett (Matthew) Tour through Sweden, Swedish Lapland, Finland, and
Denmark, &c. London 1789. 4to.
Cook (James, Capt.) Account of the voyages undertaken by order of his
present Majesty for making discoveries in the S. Hemisphere by
John Hawkesworth, LL.D. &c. 3 vols. London 1773. 4to
Coquebert (Anton. J ohann.) * Illustratio iconographica insectorum quæ in
musæis Parisinis observavit et in lucem edidit Joh. Christ. Fabricius,
&c. Decas. 1—3. Parisiis 1779—. 4to,
Cramer (Peter) * Papillons exotiques des trois parties du monde, L’ Asie,
L Afrique et L' Amerique. Utrecht 1779—. Ato.
Cuba? (M.D.) Ortus sanitatis. De herbis et plantis, de animalibus et
reptilibus, de avibus et volatilibus, de piscibus et natatilibus, de lapi-
dibus, &c. 1485. fol,
Curtis (John) * British Entomology, being illustrations and descriptions of
the genera of insects found in Great Britain and Ireland, &c.
London 1824. 8vo.
Curtis (William) A short history of the brown-tailed moth, &c.
London 1782. 4to,
Cuviza (G. L. C. F: D. Baron) * Leçons d’ Anatomie comparée. 5 vols.
Paris 1805. 8vo.
——— Le Règne Animal distribué d’après son organisation, &c. tom. 4,
Paris 1817. 8vo.

Darwin (Erasmus, M.D.)

~~ Zomomia, or the laws of organic life. London 1794. 4to,

“~—— Phytologia, or the philosophy of agriculture and gardening.
London 1800. 4to.

576 AUTHORS QUOTED.

Davy (Six Hurapbry, Bart., P. R. 5.) Elements of agricultural Chemistry, ™
a course of lectures for the Board of Agriculture. London 1818. 4to-
Dx Geer (Baron Charles) * Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire des insectes.
tom. 7. A Stockholm 1759—. 4t.
De Jean (M. le Baron) * Catalogue de la collection des Coléoptéres de
M. le B. de J. A Paris 1821. 8YC-
Derham (William, D. D.) Physico-theology, or a demonstration of the being
and attributes of Gop from his works of creation. 13th ed.
London 1768. 8V0-
Detharding (George Christoph.) Disputatio de insectis coleopteris Danicis-
Buetzovii 1763. 41
Donovan (Edward) * The natural history of British insects, explaining ther
in their several states, illustrated with coloured figures.
London 1792—. 8¥°
Epitome of the natural history of the insects of China.
London 1798. 4t%
of India. 1800. 4t0-
of .N. Holland. 1808. 4t9*
Douce (Francis) Illustrations of Shakespeare and of ancient manners. 2 vols.
London 1807. 8v?
Drury (Dru) * Illustrations of natural history, wherein are exhibite
figures of exotic insects. 3 vols. London 1770—. 410
Dufour ( Leon) Description de six Arachnides nouvelles et d’une nouvelle
espóce de Galeode. Extrait de la 4° tom. des Annal. Génér. des
Scienc. Phys. A Bruxelles 1820. 8v
Duftschmidt (Gaspard) Fauna Austriaca. 2 tom.
Lintz et Leipzig 1805—- exes
Dumeril (A. M. Constant) Traité élémentaire d'histoire naturelle. tom 2
92nde ed. A Paris 1807. 8¥°
Ellis (Daniel) An inquiry into the changes induced in atmospheric air bY
the germination of seeds, the vegetation of plants, and the respiration
of animals. Edinburgh 1807. 8V0”
Esper (Eugen. J. Christoph.) * Die schmetterlingen in abbildungen 2°
der natur mit beschreibungen. Erlangen 1777— 4t0-
Escholtz. Beiträge sur naturkund.
Fas&icrus (Johann. Christian.) * Philosophia entomologica, sistens s¢
fundamenta adjectis definitionibus, &c.
Hamburgi et Kilonii 1778. 8vo
* Systema Entomologia sistens, insectorum classes, ordines,
genera, species, adjectis synonymis, locis, descriptionibus, observa-
tionibus. Flensburgi et Lipsiæ 1775- Sov
* Entomologia systematica emendata et aucta, secundum classes:
&c. tom. 4. Hafnize 1794—. 8¥°
* Supplementum Entomologiz systematice. Hafniæ 1798. 8%

* Systema Eleutheratorum secundum ordines, &c. tom. 2.
Kiliz. 8v0

jenti®

.

AUTHORS QUOTED. 577

Fazricrus (Johann. Christian.) * Systema Rhyngotorum secundum or-
dines, &c. Brunsvigz 1808. 8vo.
~~ —— *Systema Piezatorum secundum ordines, &c.
Brunsvige 1804. 8vo.
COE * Systema Antliatotum secundum ordines, &c,
Brunsvigz 1805. 8vo,
—— — Resultate natur historischer vorlesungen, Kiel. 1804. 8vo.
Fabricius (Otho) Fauna Groenlandica, systematice sistens animalia Groen-
landiz occidentalis hactenus indagata, &c.
Hafniz et Lipsie 1780. 8vo.
Fischer (Gotthelf) * Entomographia Imperii Russici, &c. vol. 1.
Mosque 1820—, 4to,
Fischers. Beschreibung eins huhns mit menschenahnlichen profile.
St. Petersburg 1816, 8vo.
Fleming (John, D.D.) * The Philosophy of Zoology, or a general view of
the structure, functions, and classification of animals. 2 vols,

: Edinburgh 1822, 8vo.
Fontana (Felice) On Poisons. (E. Tr.) London 1787, 12mo.
Forbes (James) Oriental Memoirs, from a series of familiar Letters written

during 17 years residence in India. 4 vols. London 1813—. 4to.
Forster (John Reinhold) Novæ species insectorum centuria T,

London 1771. 8vo.

Forsyth (William) Observations on the diseases, defects, and injuries in all

kinds of fruit and forest trees, with an account of a particular method

of cure. London 1791. Svo.

Franklin (William) Military memoirs of General Thomas, who rose from

an obscure situation to the rank of a general in the service of the na-

tive princes in the N. W. of India, &c. Calcutta 1808, 4to.

Fuessli (Jean Gaspar) Archives de Phistoire des insectes traduites en Fran-

çois. Winterthour 1794. 4to.

Gaede (Heinrich Moritz) Beyträge zur anatomie der insekten, &c.

Altona 1815. 4to,

Geofroy * Histoire abregée des insectes dans laquelle ces animaux sont
rangées suivant un ordre methodique. tom. 2. (Ins. Par.)

A Paris 1764. Ato.

Germar (E. F.) * Znsectorum species novæ aut minds cognitz descriptioni-

bus illustrate. Vol. 1. Coleoptera. : Hale 1824. 8vo.

Gleditsch (Johan. Gottlieb.) Physicalisch-botanisch-eeconomische abhand.

tungen. Halle 1765—, .8vo,

Goedartius (Johannes) De insectis in methodum cum notularum additione,

Opera M. Lister, &c. cum Scarabzeorum Anglicanorum quibusdam

tabulis mutis. Londini 1685. 8yo,
Goeze (Johann. Aug. Ephr.) Natur menshenleben verschung.

ldsmith (Oliver, LL.D.) History of the earth and animated nature,

8 vols, London 1774. 8vo.

VOL. rv, 2p

578 : AUTHORS QUOTED

Good (John Mason, M.D.) Anniversary Oration, delivered March 8th;
1808, before the Medical Society of London.
Gould (William) An account of English ants. London 1747. 12m0:
Gravenhorst (J. L. C.) Coleoptera Microptera Brunsvicensia nec non exoti-
corum quotquot extant in collectionibus Brunsvicensium.
Brunsvige 1802. 8YO
Grew (Nehemiah) Museum Regalis Societatis, or a catalogue and descrip"
tion of the natural and artificial rarities belonging to the R. Society»
and preserved at Gresham College, &c. London 1681. fol.
Grosier (Abbé) A general description of China. (E. Tr.)
London 1788. 8Y9

Gyllenhal (Leonard) * Insecta Suecica descripta. Classis I. Coleoptera sive
Eleutherata. tom. 3. Scaris 1808. 8Y9

Haworth (Adrian Hardy) * Lepidoptera Britannica, sistens digestionem
novam insectorum Lepidopterorum quz in Magna Britannia reper
untur, &c. Londini 1803—. 8¥°

Hermann (J. F.) Memoire apterologique. Strasbourg 1804. fo.

Herold (Mauritius) * Entwickelungsgeschichte der schmetterlinge anato-
mische und physiologisch. Cassel und Marburg 1815. 4p

Hobhouse (John Cam) Some account of a journey into Albania, Romeli
and other provinces of Turkey in 1809 and 1810.

London 1812. 40.

Hooke (Robert, M.D,) Micrographia, or some physiological descriptions 9
minute bodies made by magnifying-glasses, &c. London 1665- fol-

Hooker (Professor) Journal of a tour in Iceland in the summer of 1809.
; i Yarmouth 1811. 8Y9
Horne (Thomas Hartwell) Introduction to the study of Bibliography 5 e

which is prefixed a memoir on the publick libraries of the ancients, &c.

2 vols. London 1814. 8Y9
Huber (Francis) New observations of the natural history of bees. and et
(E. Tr.) Edinburgh 1808. 12900"
——-- * Nouvelles observations sur les abeilles. tom. 2.
A. Paris et à Genève 1814. SY?
Huber (P.) * Recherches sur les moeurs des fourmis indigènes.
A Paris 1810. 8Y%
Hubner (Jacob) * Der gamlung Europaischen schmetterlinge.
Augsburg 1796. p
Hughes (Griffith) The natural history of Barbados. London 17 5o. fo"
Huish (Robert) A Treatise of the nature, economy, and practical manage"
ment of bees, London 1815. whe
Huatzorpr (Alexander, Baron de) and Bonpland ( Aimé) Personal trave
to the equinoctial regions of the new continent during the years 1
—1844. (E. Tr.) 5 vols. London 1818—- pi;
-— Essais sur la géographie des plantes. Paris 180:
—— —-— Political essay on New Spain. (E. Tr.) London 1811. 8v0

AUTHORS QUOTED. ^" 579

Humzorpt (Alexander, Baron de) Recueil d’observations de zoologie et
d'anatomie comparée. A Paris 1805. 4to.
Hunter (John, M.D.) Observations on certain parts of the animal economy.
; London 1786. 4to.
Jablonsky (Carl. Gustaf.) * Natursystem aller bekannten insekten. Ed.
Herbst. (Herbst Jablonsk. ) Berlin 1785—. 8vo.
Jackson (James Grey) An account of the empire of Morocco and the dis-
trict of Suez; compiled from miscellaneous observations made during
a long residence in those countries, &c. i London 1809. 4to.
Jacquin (Nicolaus Joseph) Collectanea ad botanicam, chemiam, et historiam
naturalem spectantia. Vindobonæ 1786.
Illiger (J. K. W.) * Versuch einer systematischen volständigen Termino-
logie das thierreich und pflanzenreich. Helmstadt 1800. 8vo,
Inch (C. W.) Ideen zu einer zoochemia. 1800.
Jungius (Joachimus) Historia vermium. Hamburgi 1691. 4to.
Jurine (L.) * Nouvelle methode de classer les Hyménoptéres et les Diptéres.
Tom. 1. Hyménoptéres. A Genéve 1807. Ato.
Kalm (Peter) Travels into N. America, (E. Tr.) 3 vols.
Warrington 1772. 8vo.
Kempfer (Engelbert) The history of Japan. (E. Tr.) 9 vol.
London 1728. fol,
Keys (John) A treatise on the breeding and management of bees.
London 1814. 12mo.
Kirby (William) * Monographia Apum Anglize, or an attempt to divide
into their natural genera and families such species of the Linnean ge-
. nus Apis as have been discovered in England, &c. 2 vols.
Ipswich 1802. 8vo.
Kleemann (Christ, Fried. Karl.) Beiträge zur natur-oder insecten ges-
chichte. Nurnberg 1761. 4to.
Knight (Thomas Andrew) A Treatise on the culture of the apple and pear,
and on the manufacture of cider and perry. London 1797. 8vo.
Koch (August. Wilhelm) Beiträge zur insecten geschichte.
Leipzig 1781—. 8vo.
Knox (Robert) An historical relation of the island of Ceylon.
London 1681. fol.
Lafontaine. Traité de la chirurgie. Leipzig. 1792.
La Lande de Lignac (Joseph Albert) Mémoire pour servir à commencer
l'histoire des araignées aquatiques. Paris 1749, 8vo.
Lamaxcx (Jean Baptiste) Système des animaux sans vertèbres, ou tableau
général des classes, des ordres et des genres de ces animaux, &c.
A Paris 1801.
* Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres présentant les
caractéres généraux et particuliers de ces animaux, leur distribution,
leur classes, &c. tom. 7. A Paris 1815—. 8vo.
Philosophie zoologique. ; A Paris 1809. 8vo.
Lambert (John) Travels through the United States of America, Canada,
and Georgia in the years 1806—8. 3 vols, London 1810, 8vo.

2P 2

580 AUTHORS QUOTED.

Latham (John) A general synopsis of birds. 9 vols. London 1781—. 4t0-
Larrritis (Pierre André) * Histoire naturelle générale et particuliére des
crustacés et des insectes. tom. 14. ` Paris 1802—. 8v0.
—— —— * Histoire naturelle des fourmis et recueil des mémoires et d'ob-
servations sur les abeilles, les araignées, les faucheurs, et autres in-
sectes, A Paris 1802. 8vo.
——-— * Genera Crustaceorum et Insectorum secundum ordinem Na-
turalem in familias disposita, iconibus exemplisque plurimis explicata.
tom. 4. Parisiis et Argentorati 1806—. 8v0*
— — Familles naturelles du règne animal, exposés succinctement et
dans un ordre analytique, avec l'indication de leurs genres.
A Paris 1825. 8v0-
— — — et De Jean (Baron) * Histoire naturelle et iconographie des in-
sectes Coleopt?res d' Europe. A Paris 1822—. 8V0.
Leach (William Elford, M.D.) * The Zoological Miscellany, being a de-
scription of new and interesting animals, illustrated with coloured
figures, &c. London 1817—. 8v0-
Leeuwenhoek (Antonio) Arcana nature detecta.
Delphis Batavor. 1695. 4t0
—————-— Arcana nature opes et beneficio exquisitissimorum microsco-
piorum detecta variisque experimentis demonstrata, &c.
; Lugd. Batav. 1696. 4to.
——— —— Epistole physiologicæ super compluribus nature arcanis, &c-
Delphis 1719. 4to
m * Select works of, containing his microscopical discoveries in
many of the works of nature, translated from the Dutch and Latin
editions published by the author, by Samuel Hoole. 2 vols.
London 1798. 4t%
Lehmann (Mart. Christ, Gottl.) De sensibus externis animalium exsanguiums
insectorum scilicet et vermium, commentatio. Gottingze 179%
De antennis insectorum dissertatio prior fabricam antennaru™
describens; Dissertatio posterior usum antennarum recensens.
Londini 1799—. 12m10-
Lempriere (William) Practical observations on the diseases of the army im
Jamaica during the years 1792—7. 2 vols. London 1799. 8V0-
Lesser (Friedr. Christ.) Théologie des insectes, ou demonstration des pef-
fections de Dieu dans tout ce que concerne les insectes, &c. Avec
des remarques de M. P. Lyonnet. (Lesser L.) tom. 2.
A la Haye 1742. 8V0:
Lewin (William) * The insects of Great Britain systematically arrange?
accurátely engraved, and painted from nature, &c.
London 1795. 4t?
— Prodromus Entomology, or natural history of Lepidopterous insects
.. of New South Wales. London 1805. 4t?
Lichtenstein (Ant, Aug. Hen.) Catalogus rerum naturalium rarissimaru™
auctionis lege distrahendarum. (Catal. Ham.) Hamburgi 1794.

AUTHORS QUOTED. 581

Ligon (Richard) A true and exact history of the island of Barbados.
London 1657. fol.
LINNE' (Carl. Von) * Systema Nature per regna tria nature: secundum
classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, syno-
nymis, locis, Ed. 18. tom. 3. Vindobonz 1767—. 8vo.
-~ * Fauna Suecica. Sistens animalia Suecis regni, Mammalia,
Aves, Amphibia, Pisces, Insecta, Vermes distributa per classes, &c.
Ed. altera. Stockholmiz 1761. 8vo.
Flora Lapponica, exhibens plantas per Lapponiam crescentes,
secundum systema sexuale, collectas in itinere &c. anno’ 1732 insti-
tuto, &c. Ed. J. E. Smith. Eq. Londini 1792. 8vo.
m Skanska resa, fiirrattad ar 1749. (It. Scan.)
Stockholm 1751. 8vo.
——— Lachesis Lapponica, or a tour in Lapland, now first published
from the original MS. Journal of the celebrated Linneus, by Sir
J. E. Smith. 2vols. (Lach. Lapp.) London 1811. 8vo.
————- dmenitates Academic, seu dissertationes varie physice, me-
dice, botanicz antehac seorsim edite, nunc collecte et auct, &c.
tom. 7. Lugd. Bat. 1749—. 8vo.
= * Philosophia Botanica in qua explicantur fundamenta botanica,
cum definitionibus partium, exemplis terminorum, observationibus
rariorum, &c. ed. 2da. . Vienne 1783. 8vo.
Lister (Martin, M.D.) * Historize animalium Angliz tractatus de Araneis,
Londini 1678. 4to.
Lyonnez (Pierre) * Traité anatomique de la chenille qui ronge le bois de
saule, &c. A la Haye 1762. 4to.
Mac Kinnen (Daniel) A Tour through the British W. Indies during the.
years 1802—9, giving a particular account of the Bahama islands.
2nd ed. London 1813. 8vo.
MacLzax (William Sharp) * Hore Entomologice, or essays on theannu
lose animals.
Vol. 1. Part I. containing general observations on the geography,
manners, and natural affinities of the insects which compose the genus
Scarabeus of Linnzus, &c. London 1819. 8vo.
Vol. 1. Part II. containing an attempt to ascertain the rank and
situation which the celebrated Egyptian insect, Scarabeuss acer, holds
amongst organized beings. London 1821. 8vo.
- * Annulosa Javanica. London 1824. 4to.
Magnus ( Albertus) Opera. tom. 21. JDe natura animalium. fol.
Malpighius (Marcellus) Opera omnia. tom. 2. (De Bombyc.)
Londini 1686. fol,
Marsham (Thomas) * Entomologia Britannica (E. B.) sistens insecta Brie
tanniæ indigena secundum methodum Linnzanam disposita. tom. 1,
Coleoptera. Londini 1802. 8vo.
Martin (George, M. D.) Essays and observations on the construction and
graduation of thermometers, and on the heating and cooling of bodies.
Edinburgh 1792.

582 AUTHORS QUOTED.

Martyr (Peter) The decades of the New World, or West Indies, (E. Tr.)
London 1555. 4to».
Matthiolus (Petr. Andr.) Commentarii in libros Dioscoridis de Medica
Materia. Venetiis 1554. fol.
Mead (Richard, M.D.) Medicina Sacra, seu de morbis insignibus qui in
Bibliis memorantur; or a commentary on the diseases mentioned in
Holy Scripture. London 1749. Svo:
Meigen. Nouvelle classification des mouches à deux ailes (Diptera L.)
d'aprés un plan tout nouveau. A Paris 1800. 8vo.
— * Systematische beschreibung der bekanuten Europ. zweiflügeli-
gen Insecten. Aachen 1818—. 4to-
Merian (Maria Sibylla) * Metamorphosis insectorum Surinamensium. In
qua eruca et vermes ad vivum delineantur et describuntur, &c.
Amstelod. 1705. fol
—— Erucarum ortus, alimentum et paradoxa metamorphosis.
Amsteled. 1718. 4to.
Mills (John) An essay on the management of bees, &c. London 1766. 8vo.
Moldenhawer (Joh. Jac. Paul) Beytráge zur anatomie der pflanzen.
Kiel 1812—. 4to-
Molina (1. Ignatius) The geographical, natural, and civil history of Chili.
2 vols, (E. Tr.) London 1809. 8vo.
Monro (Alexander, M.D.) The anatomy of the human bones and nerves,
&c. Ed. Kirby, M.D. Edinburgh 1820, 12m0.
Morier (James) A second journey through Persia to Constantinople be-
tween the years 1810—16. With a journal of the voyage by the Bra-
zils and Bombay to the Persian gulf. London 1818. 4to.
Mouffet (Thomas) * Insectorum sive minimorum animalium theatrum.
Londini 1634. fol.
Müller (Otto. Frideric.) Zoologia Danica, seu animalium Daniæ et Nor-
vegiz rariorum ac minüs notorum descriptiones et historia. vol. 2.
= Hafniæ et Lipsiæ 1779—. 8v0 —
Olivier (Guill. Antoin.) * Entomologie, ou histoire naturelle des insectes
avec leur caractères génériques et specifiques, leur description, leur
synonymie, et leur figure enluminée, Coleoptéres, tom. 8.
: A Paris 1789—. 4to-
Travels in the Ottoman empire, Egypt and Persia. (E. Tr.) 2 vols.
: London 1813. 8vo.
Osbeck (Peter) A voyage to China and the E. Indies. Toreen (Olof) A
voyage to Suratte, and an account of the Chinese husbandry by Capt.
C. G. Ekeberg. (E. Tr.) 2 vols. London 1771. 8v0»
Paley (William, D.D.) Natural Theology, or evidences of the existence
. and attributes of the Deity collected from the appearances of natures
llth ed. London 1807. 8vo.
Pallas (Peter Simon) Spicilegia zoologica, quibus nove: imprimis atque
obscure animalium species describuntur, et observationibus iconibus-
que illustrantur. Hage Com. 1766—. 4to.
——- Neue nordigche beytrige zur physikalischen und geographischen erd

AUTHORS QUOTED. 583

und volkerbeschreibung, naturgeschichte und oekonomie. (N. Nord.
Beyir.) St. Petersburg und Leipzig 1781—. 8vo.
Pallas (Peter Simon) Travels through the southern provinces of the Rus-
sian empire in the years 1793, 1794, (E. Tr.) 2 vols.
Leipsig 1801. 4to.
Panzer (Georg. Wolfgang Franz. M.D.) * Faunz insectorum Germanice
initia. Deutschland's insekten. Heft 1——109. (Fn. Germ.)
Nurnberg.
Park (Mungo) Travels in the interior districts of Africa, performed under
the direction and patronage of the African association, in the years
1795—7, &c. 2nd ed. London 1799. 4to.
—— The journal of a mission to the interior of Africa in the year 1805:
together with other documents, official and private, &c. 2nd ed.
London 1815. 4to.
Parkinson (James) Organic remains of a former world. 2 vols.
; London. 4to.
Peck (Professor) Natural history of the slug-worm.
Boston, N. E. 1799. 8vo.
Percival ( Robert, Capt.) An account of the island of Ceylon, containing its
history, geography, natural history, with the manners and customs of
its inhabitants. London 1808. 4to.
Persoon (Christian. Henric.) Synopsis methodica fungorum, &c.
Gottingze 1801—. 12mo.
Pexold (Ch. Ph.) Lepidopterologische anfangsgründe zum gebrauch au-
gehender schmetterlingssommler. : Coburg 1796. 12mio.
Piso (Gulielmus, M.D.) De Indie utriusque re naturali et medica, &c.
Amsteledami 1558. fol.
Plinius Historia mundi naturalis. Francofurti ad Mæn. 1582. fol.
Posselt (Carl Friederich) Beytræge zur anatomie der insekten.
; Tubingen 1804. 4to.
Preysler (Johann. Daniel) Verzeichniss Bühmischer insekten,
Prag. 1790. 4to.
Pulteney ( Richard, M.D.) Historical and Biographical Sketches of the
progress of botany in England, from its origin to the introduction of
the Linnean System. vol. 2. London 1790. 8vo.
Purchas (Samuel) His Pilgrimes. London 1625. fol.
Ramdhor (Karl. August.) * Abbildungen zur anatomie der insecten.
Halle 1809—. 4to.
Ray (John) Catalogus Plantarum circa Cantabrigia nascentium, &c.
Londini 1660. 12mo,
Historia Plantarum, species hactenus editas aliasque noviter inventas
et descriptas complectens. Londini 1686. fol.
The wisdom of God manifested in the works of creation.
London 1692. 8vo.
—— * Historia Insectorum, cui subjungitur appendix de Scarabzis Bri-
— . tannicis autore M. Lister. Londini 1710. 4to,

à

584 AUTHORS QUOTED.

Rav (John) Philosophical Letters between the late learned Mr. Ray and
several of his ingenious correspondents; to which are added those of
F. Willughby, Esq. published by W. Derham. London 1718. 8vo.
RzavuwuR (René Antoine Ferchault de) * Mémoires pour servir à l'his-
toire des insectes. tom. G. A Paris 1734—. 4to.
Redi (Franciscus) Opusculorum pars prior sive experimenta circa gene-
rationem insectorum, &c. Amsteled. 1686. 18mo.
Opusculorum tomus alter. Experimenta circa varias res naturales
speciatim illas que ex Indiis afferuntur. Amsteled. 1685. 18mo.
Reeve (Henry, M.D.) An essay on the torpidity of animals.
i London 1809. 8vo.
Rifferschweils (Johann. Jacob Hegetschweiler) * Dissertatio inauguralis
zootomica de insectorum genitalibus. Turici 1820. 8vo.
Roemer (Johann. Jacob) * Genera insectorum Linnzi et Fabricii iconibus
illustrata. Vitodur. Helvetor. 1789. 4to.
Hüsel von Rosenhoff (August. Johann.) * Der monatlich-herausgegeben
insecten belustigung. Nurnberg 1746—. 4to-
Rossi (Petrus) Fauna Etrusca sistens insecta que in provinciis Floren-
tina et Pisana presertim colligit. Liburni 1790. 4to.
Rudolphi (C. A.) Entoxoa, seu vermium intestinalium ‘historia naturalis.
vol. 2. Amsterd. 1808. 8vo.
Sabine (Edward, Capt.) An account of the animals seen by the late North-
ern Expedition whilst within the Arctic Circle, &c.
London 1821. 4to.
St. Pierre (James Hen. Bernardin) A voyage to the Mauritius or Isle of
France, the Isle of Bourbon, the Cape of Good. Hope, &c. (E. Tr.)
: London 1775. 8vo.
— Studies from Nature. (E. Tr.) 4 vols. London 1796. 8vo.
Samouelle (George) * The Entomologist's useful compendium, or an intro-
duction to the knowledge of British insects, &c. London 1819. 8vo.
Sandwith (Thomas) * An introduction to anatomy and physiology for the
use of medical students and men of letters, London 1824, 12mo.
Sawvages (Francois Boisier de) Observations sur l'origin de miel,
Nismes 1763.
Savi (Paolo) Osservazioni per servire alla storia di una specie de Iulus
communissima nella pianura Pisana. Bologna 1817»
Savieny (Jules César) * Mémoires sur les animaux sans vertèbres, Par-
ties I. TI. A Paris 1816. 8vo.
— Système des Annelides principalement de celles des cótes de P Egypte
et de la Syrie*. : fol.
Scheele (Charles William) Chemical observations and experiments on air
and fire. (E. Tr.) London 1780. 8vo.

* This memoir, which was sent me by its learned author, is stated as
part of the first volume of his Histoire Naturelle.—K.

AUTHORS QUOTED. 585

Schellenberg (J. R.) * Cimicum in Helvetiz aquis et terris degentium ge-
nus in familias redactum observationibus et iconibus ad naturam de-
lineatis illustratum. Turici 1800. 8vo.

~~- * Genres de mouches Diptéres representés en xL planches.

Zuric 1803. 8vo.

Schneider (David Heinrich). Systematische beschreibung der Europaischer
schmetterlinge. Halle 1787. 8yo.

Schönherr (C. J.) * Synonyma insectorum, oder versuch einer synonymie
aller bisher bekannten insecten nach Fabricii Systema Eleutheratorum
geordnet, tom. 3. Stockholm 1806, 8vo.

Schrank (Franciscus de Paula) Enumeratio insectorum Austrie indige-
Bonum. Auguste Vindelicorum 1781. 8vo.

"Schwenckfeeld (Caspar, M.D.) Theriotropheum Silesize, in quo animalium,-
h. e. quadrupedum, reptilium, avium, piscium, insectorum natura, vis,
et usus sex libris perstringuntur, Lignicii 1603, 4to.

Scopoli (Johann. Anton.) Entemologia Carniolica exhibens insecta Car-
nioliæ indigena et distributa in ordines, genera, species, varietates
methodo Linneana. (Ent. Carniol.) Vindobonz 1763. 8vo.

——- Anni historico-naturales, Lipsiz 1769—, 8vo.

Scriba (Ludwig Gottlieb.) Beitrage zu der insekten geschichte.

Frankfurt 1790—. Ato.

Sendelius (Nathanel) Historia succinorum corpora aliena involventium,
&c. Lipsiz 1742. fol.

Sepp (Christian) * Beschowing der wonderen “Gods inde minstgrachte
schepgelen of Nederlandsche-insecten, &c. tom. 2.

Amsterdam 1762, 4to.
Shaw (Thomas, D.D.) Travels and observations relating to several parts
of Barbary and the Levant. 2nd ed. London 1757. 4to.

Shaw (George) The naturalist’s miscellany, or coloured figures of natural
objects, drawn and described immediately from nature. :

London 1789—. 8vo,

Shirach (Adam. Gottl.) Histoire naturelle de la reine des abeilles, avec
l'art de former les essaims, &c. (F. Tr.) A la Haye 1771. 8vo.

Smeathman (Henry) Some account of the Termites which are found in
Africa and other hot climates. (From the Philosophical Transac-
tions). London 1781. 4to.

Smellie (William) The philosophy of natural history.

Edinburgh 1790. Ato,

Smith (Sir J. E.) Sketch of a tour on the continent ip the years 1786 and

1787. 3 vols. London 1793. 8yo,

-—— * The natural history of the rarer Lepidopterous insects of Georgia,
collected from the observations of John Abbott. 2 vols.

London 1797, 4to,

—— Tracts relating to natural history. London 1798.
~— Introduction to physiological and systematic botany.

London 1807. 8vo.

586 AUTHORS QUOTED.

Sorg (F. L. A. W.) Disquisitiones physiologieze circa respirationem in-
sectorum et vermium. Rudolst. 1805. 12mo.
Southey (Robert, LL.D.) History of Brazil. London 1810—. 4t0.
Sowerby (James) * British miscellany, or coloured figures of new, rare, OF
little-known animal subjects, many not before ascertained to be na-
tives of the British Isles, &c. London 1806—. 8v0«
Spallanzani (Lazaro) Opuscoli di fisica animale e vegetabile.
Modena 1776. 8v0-
— Dissertations relative to the natural history of animals and
vegetables. (E. Tr.) London 1784. 8v0.
-— Memoirs on respiration. (E. Tr.) London 1804. 8vo.
Sparrman (Andrew) A Voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, towards the
Antarctic Circle and round the world, but chiefly into the country of
the Hottentots and Caffres. 2 vols. London 1785. 4to-
Spence (William) Observations on the disease in turnips termed in Hol-
dernesse fingers and toes. Hull 1812. 8v0-
Sprengel (Christian Conrad) Das entdeckte geheimmiss der natur in bau
und in der befrucktung der blumen. Berlin 1793. 4t0-
Sprengel (Curtius) * Commentarius de partibus quibus insecta spiritus
ducunt. Lipsiz 1805. 4to-
Staunton (Sir George) An authentic account of the embassy from the king
of Great Britain £o the emperor of China. 3 vols.
London 1797. 8v0-
Stedman (J. C. Capt.) Narrative of a five years expedition against the re-
volted negroes of Surinam in Guiana, on the wild coast of S. America;
from 1772 to 1777. 2 vols. London 1796. 4to.
Stickney (William) Observations respecting the grub. Hull 1800. 8v0.
Stillingfleet (Benjamin) Miscellaneous tracts relating to natural history,
husbandry, and physick, translated from the Latin. 2nd ed.
London 1762. 8v0-
Stoever (D. H.) The life of Sir Charles Linnzus; to which is added 3
copious list of his works, and a biographical sketch of the life of his
son, (E. Tr.) London 1794. 4to.
Stoll (Caspar) * Représentation exactement colorée d’aprés nature des
cigales qui se trouvent dans les quatre parties du monde, &c.
` Amsterdam 1788. 4t0-
* Représentation, &c. des punaises ditto. Amsterdam 1788. 4t-
—— *‘Représentation, &c. des spectres ou phasmes, et des mantes ou des
feuilles ambulantes, des sauterelles, des grillons, des criquets et des
blattes, &c. Amsterdam 1819. 4t0-
Strack. Neue schriften der naturforschenden. Halle 1810.
Sturm (Jacob) * Deutschlands Fauna in abbildungen nach der natur mit
beschreibungen. tom. 4. Nurnberg 1805—. 12m0-
Swammerpam (John, M.D.) * The Book of Nature, or the history of in-
sects reduced to distinct classes, confirmed by many particular instances
displayed in the anatomical analysis of many species, and illustrated

AUTHORS QUOTED. 587.

with copper-plates. (E. Tr.) [Swamm. Bibl. Nat. Hills. Swamm. }
London 1758. fol.
Thenard (L. J.) Traité de Chimie élémentaire théorique et pratique. tom. 2.
A Paris 1813. 8vo.
Thompson (Thomas, M.D) System of chemistry. London 1802—.
Thorley (John) Meduccndoyse, or the female monarchy, being an inquiry into
the nature, order, and government of bees, &c. London 1744. 8vo.
Thunberg ( Charles Peter) Travels in Europe, Africa, and Asia, performed
between the years 1770 and 1779. (E./Tr.) 4vols. London 1795. 8vo.
Treviranus (G. R. Von) * Ueber den innern bau der Arachniden.
Nurnberg 1812, 4to.
Trost (P.) Kleinen Beytrüge zur Entomologie, &c. Erlangen 1801. 8vo.
Tulpius (Nicolaus) Observationes medice. Amsteled. 1652. 8vo.
Tusser (Thomas) Five hundreth points of good husbandry, united to as
many of good houswifery, first devised, and now lately augmented
with diverse approved lessons concerning hopps and gardening.
London 1573. 4to.
Ulloa (George Juan de) A voyage to S. America, describing at large the
Spanish cities, towns, provinces, &c. on that extensive continent, &c.
2 vols. London 1760. 8vo.
Vaillant (Le) Travels into the interior parts of Africa by the way of the
Cape of Good Hope, in the years 1780—1785. (E. Tr.) 2 vols.
London 1790. 8vo.
Valentia (George, Lord) Voyages and Travels to India, Ceylon, the Red
Sea, Abyssinia, and Egypt, in the years 1802—1806. 3 vols.
London 1809. 4to,
Vallisnier: (Antonio) * Esperienze ed osservazioni intorno all origine, svi-
luppi, e costumi di vari insetti, con altre spettanti alla naturale e me-
dica storia. Ed. 2. In Padova 1726. 4to.
Voet (Johannes Eusebius) Icones insectorum Coleopterorum. Ed. Panzer.
i Erlangen 1793. 4to.
Walckenaer (C. A.) * Tableau des dranéides, ou caractères essentielles des
tribus, génres, familles, et races que renforme le gènre Aranea de
Linné, avec la designation des espéces comprises dans chacun de ces
divisions. Paris 1805. 8vo.
— * Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire naturelle des abeilles soli-
taires qui composent le genre Halicie. Paris 1817. 8vo.
Walton (1zaac) The universal angler, made so by three books of fishing :
the first written by Mr. Izaak Walton, the second. by Charles Cotton,
Esq., and the third by Col. Robert Venables. London 1676. 12mo.
Walton. Present state of the Spanish colonies, including a particular report
of Hispaniola, &c., with a general survey of the settlements on the S.
continent of America, &c. 2 vols. London 1810. 8vo.
Weld (Isaac) Travels through the states of N. America and the provinces
of Upper and Lower Canada in the years 1795 and 1797.
London 1799. 4to.

. 888 AUTHORS QUOTED.

White (Gilbert) * The natural history of Selborne, New ed. by Marck-
^^ wick. 2 vols. London 1813. 12m0.
Wiedemann (C. R. W.) Archiv. für zoologie & zootomie.
Berlin und Brunschweig. 1800—-
-— Diptera exotica: Pars I. Kiliz 1821. 12mo.
Wildman (Thomas) A treatise on the management of bees. 2nd ed.
London 1769. 4to.
` Willan (Robert, M.D.) Description and treatment of cutaneous diseases.
London 1801. 4to.
Willdenow (Carl. Ludwig.) Grundriss der kraturkunde. ;
Berlin 1792. 8vo.
— The principles of botany and of vegetable physiology. (E. Tr.)
Edinburgh 1811. 8vo.
Young (Arthur) Annals of agriculture and other useful arts. 40 vols.
: Bury St. Edmunds 1790—. 8vo.
——- Travels during the years 1787—1789, undertaken more particularly
with a view of ascertaining the cultivation, wealth, resources, an
natural prosperity of the kingdom of France. 2 vols.
Bury St. Edmunds 1792. 4to.

TRANSACTIONS OF PUBLIC BODIES.

Transactions (Philosophical) of the Royal Society of London, with the
Abridgements of Lowthorp and Dr. Shaw. 4to.

of the Linnean Society of London. 4to.

of the Horticultural Society. 4to.

of the Society for the encouragement of arts, manufactures and
commerce. 8vo.

(Asiatic Researches) of the Society instituted in Bengal for in-
quiring into the history and antiquities, the arts, sciences, and litera-
ture of Asia. 4to.

——— of the American Philosophical Society, held at Philadelphia, for
promoting useful knowledge. 4to.

Memoirs of the Wernerian Society. 8vo.

Mémoires de Y Academie royale des sciences. A Paris. 4to.

—— —- nouveaux de l Academie de Dijon pour la partie des sciences €t
arts. 8vo. :

de P Academie royale des sciences à Turin. 4to.

Annales du Muséum national d'histoire naturelle. 4to.

Mémoires du Muséum national d'histoire naturelle. 4to.

Acta physico-medica Academiz Cæsareæ nature curiosorum. (Nova
Acta, Ephemerides, &c.) to.

Kongl. Vetenskaps Academiens nya handlingar. Academia regia scien-
tiarum Suecana. (Act. Stock.) 8vo.

Communications to the Board of Agriculture. 4to.

AUTHORS QUOTED.

PERIODICAL WORKS.

Annals of botany (Konig and Sims). 4to

—— —— of Philosophy (Thompson).

Annales de chimie, ou recueil de mémoires concernant la chimie et les
arts qui en dependent. Paris. 8vo.

Annali di chimica.

Bulletin des sciences naturelles et de géologie (De Ferussac). Svo.

Jowrnal of natural philosophy, chemistry, and the arts (Nicholson's).

— —- Edinburgh medical and surgical.

` —— Zoological. 8vo.

——— Massachusetts Agricultural —8vo.

——— de physique (Abbé Rozier, &c.).4to. :

— ——— fiir die liehaber der entomologie (Scriba). 8vo.

Magazine, Tilloch’s Philosophical.

Magazin Berlinisches (Martini, Berlin natural history Societies).

——-— Neuestes für die liehabers der entomologie (Schneider. 8vo.

— —— Neu. entomolog. (Fuessli, Entomologische bemerkungen.) 8vo.

— —- für das neueste aus der physik und naturgeschichte, &c. (Lichten-
berg & Voigt). 8vo.

— ——- *für insektenkunde (Illiger). 8vo.

—— —— *der entomologie (Dr. Germar und Dr. Zicken Gennant Som-
mer). 8vo. ;

Encyclopédique, ou journal des sciences, des lettres et des arts, 8vo.
Naturforscher der (The naturalist).
Review. London medical.

Systematisches verzeichniss der schmetterlinge der Wienergegend, &c. 4to.

DICTIONARIES.

Dictionary of Chemistry (Messrs. Aikin).

— medical (Dr. Hooper's). 8vo.

Dictionnaire Physique.

—— * Nouveau d' Histoire Naturelle. tom. 36. 8vo.
— —— des sciences naturelles. —8vo.

Encyclopedia Britannica, 4to,

N. B. Fallen's Monographia Cimicum Suecie, Diptera Suecie, and Och-
Senheimer’s Die Schmetterlinge von Europa, though omitted in the note
P. 471, are particularly recommended to the Entomological student.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE XXI.*
FIG.

1, Part of the interior of Cossus ligniperda. (Lyonnet)
a, b. The spinal chord and its ganglions. d. The bron-
chiz connected with the trachea.

. One of the labial palpi of ditto. (Ibid.)

. Another view of the interior of ditto. (Ibid.) a. Trachea-
b. Bronchiz. c. (Esophagus. d. Ventricle or stomach.
c. The lower intestines. ff. The bile vessels. g. Se-
ricterium, or silk reservoir. h. Scalisterium, or saliva
vessel,

4. Part of one of the trachez of ditto, to show its coats and
spiral thread. (Ibid.) "Vor. IV. p. 62.

5. A portion of the interior of ditto, to show the epiploon,
or fat. (Ibid.) aa. Epiploon. Vor. IV. p. 144.

6. Leg of ditto laid open. (Ibid.) aaa. Semipenniform
muscles of ditto. 6. Their lower point of insertion in
the claw. c. Muscles of the coxa. Vor. IV. p. 178-

. Nervous system of the grub of Oryctes nasicornis-
(Swamm.) a, The first ganglion or brain. c. The re-
maining ganglions, forming a thick spinal chord-
d. The nerves issuing from them.

of the louse. (Ibid) a. The brain-
ccc. The ganglions. d. Nerves.

. The spinneret, or organ that renders the silk of the Cossus-
(Lyonnet.) Vor. III. p. 124.

* Vor. IV. Lerrers XXXVII. and XL.

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EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE XXII.*
FIG.
1. Male genital organ of a Bombus. a.'The male organ.
b. The prehensor. Vor. IV. p. 562, 565.
2. Female ditto of the louse. (Swamm.) a. The oviduct
with an egg passing through it. 6c. The ovaries.
d. The colleterium, or varnish secretor. e. The lower
extremity of the oviduct.
3, 4. Larve as arranged in the body of two species of vivi-
parous flies. (Reaum.) Vor. I. p. 254.; IV. p. 164.
5. Interior of postpectus. Dynastes. a. Parapleura.
b b b. Points of the postfurca. c. Its stalk.

. The medifurca of ditto. -a. Base. b. Apex.

. Antefurca of ditto. a. Base.

. Mesothorax. Calandra.

. Mesophragm and appendage. Dynastes. aa. Pieces
adjacent. b. Septula. c. The notch for the transmis-
sion of the intestines. i

. Part of metaphragm, ditto. a. A kind of cupule afford-
ing a point of attachment to muscles. d. A deep notch
for the intestines.

. Interior of the upper side of alitrunk of ditto. a. The
cavity of the chest between the prophragm and meso-
phragm. b. Ditto between the mesophragm and me-
taphragm. C. Cupules that afford a point of attach- -
ment to some of the wing-muscles. d. Notch of the
metaphragm.

12. Portion of the alitrunk of Melolontha vulgaris. c. Cupule
attached to the axis of the wings.

13. Part of the postpectus of Dytiscus marginalis, to show the
operculum. Vor. III. p. 580.

14. Part of the metathorax of Melolontha vulgaris, to show
the metapnystega. ‘Ibid. 574.

15. The pseudocardia, or dorsal vessel of Stratyomis Chame-
leon. (Swamm.)

* Vor. IV. Lerrer XLII. ; III. p. 581—.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

16. a.—w. Specimens of scales from the wings of various Le-
pidoptera. (Reaum., De Geer.) "Vor. III, p. 646—.

PLATE XXIII,

1. One of the prolegs of a caterpillar, Cossus. (Lyonnet.)
a. Its coronet of spines. Vor. UL p. 135.

2. One of the spiracles of ditto. (Ibid.) Vox. IV. p. 37—.

3. Three of the hexagonal lenses of a bee's eye, with their
prisms. (Swamm.) Voz. III. p. 497.

4. Trunk of a flea with the head removed, showing that all
the legs are attached to the former, Ibid. p. 658.

5. Alitrunk of Dytiscus marginalis, exhibiting the wings as
they are folded when unemployed.

6. Part of ditto, with the scutellum and apex of an elytrum,
to show the alula. Vor. II, p. 348.; III. 560.

7. Anterior and posterior prolegs of Tanypus maculatus.
(De Geer) a. Posterior proleg. 6. Anterior ditto,
Vor. Il. p. 278; IV. p. 354.

. Posterior extremity of a pupa, to show the cremastre, or
hooks by which it is suspended. a. Hooks. Vor, III.
p. 210, 256; IV. p. 354.
. Another specimen, in which the hooks are more nume-
rous. a. Hooks. ;
- Pulex penetrans, or the Chigoe. Vot. I. p. 49, 102.
. Mandible of the larva of Myrmeleon Formicaleo. (Reaum.)
Vor. HI. p. 121.
. Anal spinnerét of ditto. (Ibid.)
. Branching palpus, or feeler of Trombidium holosericeum.
. Part of the tarsus of a spider, to show the simple and
pectinated claws. (De Geer.) Voz. III. p. 691.
. A pair of spinners of a spider. (Leeuwenh. Vor, III,
p. 392.
16. A mammula or teat of ditto, (Ibid.)
l7. Anus of ditto.
18. Stilt-legs of a dipterous larva. (De Geer). Vor. III.
p. 136.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE XXIV.

. The bag-net. Vor. 1V. p. 516.

. The landing-net. Ibid. p. 521.

. Mr. Paul's net. Ibid. p. 517.

. The fly-net. Ibid. p. 518.

. The forceps. Ibid. p. 520.

. The breeding-cage. Ibid. p. 540.

Apparatus for effectually killing large moths, &c. a. The
upper piece of the tube. 6. The lower. c. The sauce-
pan. Ibid. p. 530.

. A beetle transfixed by a pin. Ibid, p. 531.

JA butterfly, ditto, with the wings set out by card braces.

Ibid. p. 534.

. A scale of two inches, with one subdivided into lines,

twelve to the inch.

PLATE XXV.*

. Antenna with a lamellate knob.
Ditto Ditto
. Antenna with a pectinate knob.
.— — cirrate.
— with a tunicate knob. Inside view.
Outside view.
- clavate, with clava solid,
serrate.
— with an inflated knob.
gradually incrassate.
— biflabellate.
- with a patellate scape. a. Scape.
— with a solid knob.
— clavate, with last joint elongated.
Cees AERE.
o a unguiculate. a. Claw.

a Vor, IV. p. 316—.
7 0.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

. Antenna scopiferous. a. Stellated brush.
€ - suddenly incrassate, and biserrate.
— capillaceous, and suddenly incrassate. ( Stoll.)
bipartite.
clavate, with clava subramose.
— bipectinate.
— broken.
— ——- suddenly incrassate.
— pectinate. d.
— serrate. 9.
- filiform, and submoniliform.
— auriculate. a. Auricle.
- appendiculate. a. Antenna. b. . Appendicles.
— capitate, with a multiarticulate knob.
— spiral.
— fasciculate.
— capitate, with a transverse solid knob.
— capillaceous, or suddenly attenuated. (Latr.)
— — ——- embracing the eye. Vor. III. p. 525.

PLATE XXVI.*

Feeler, maxillary, lamellate and appendiculate. a. Ap-
pendicle. 6, Last joint lamellated. c. Second joint.
Vor. III. p. 450, note ^. Atractocerus.

heteromorphous. Cerocoma.

2

9. fasciculate. . Lymoaylon.
4 incrassate.

5 clavate.
6
7

conical.

subulate.

8 fusiform.
9. Maxilla compound, with the lobes spinous.
10. unarmed.

a Vor. IV. p. 309—315. Vor. II. 416—456, 490. vii. 681.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 595

FIG.

11. Maxilla compound, with the upper lobe biarticulate.
Vou. ILI. p. 443.

12. with the lobes penicillate.

i, simple, mandibuliform, lobe unarmed. (Mac-
Leay.)

14. lobe penicillate. . (Ibid.)

15. toothed, (Ibid.) .

16. Mandibula. Curculio Hancocki K.

17. —————— — Rhipicera marginata K.

18. —— — — Eurhinus levior K.

19, . Manticora Gigas.

20, . Euchlora viridis.

21, Macraspis tetradactyla.

22. . Apogonia gemellata K.

23. Labium, &c. of Stenus.

24. Stomis. (Clairv.) a. Lateral lobes of
tongue. Ó. Intermediate lobe.

25. Geotrupes. External view.

26. Internal view.

27. Hister maximus. (MacLeay.)

Leistus. ( Clairv.)

Melolontha Stigma F,

. Labrum whiskered. Malictus. a. Appendicle.

; nee ae Megachile.

Pelecium K.

Chasmodia viridis MeL,

Genuchus K.

Cremastochilus Knoch. VoL. Ul.

p. 423.

. Lateral view of the head of Tetraopes Dalm., to show the
eye wholly divided by the canthus.

. Part of the trunk of a spider, to show the position of its
simple eyes.

. Eyes compound, columnar. Xenos.

Ephemera.

. Eyes compound and stemmata of Reduvius personatus.

- Fulgora laternaria, Stem- .

mata subocular.
202

596 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

FIG.
42, Eyes compound and stemmata of Cercopis. Stemmata
‘intraocular.

49. Eyes simple, dorsal. Phalangium.

44, 45. Claw-joint of tarsus of Lamia, to show the arthrium.

4G. Vespa Crabro.

4T. Tarsus of Entimus imperialis. a. The rotula or ball re-
ceived by the socket of the tibia. ~

48. The penultimate bilobed joint of ditto, with the arthrium
separated from the claw-joint.

49, Part of the claw-joint so separated. a, Muscles which
enter the arthrium.

PLATE XXVII.*

1. Head of Calandra Palmarum. || aa. Muscles fixed in the
myoglyphides or muscle-notches.
Apoderus Coryli.
Buprestis acuminata.
Copris. a. Muscles.

Elater. aa. Corneous scales analogous to pax-
wax, attached to the depressor muscles, like those of
Geotrupes. Vou. IV. p. 176.

tibia. Calandra Palmarum.

End of thigh, ditto, next the tibia.
8. Dynastes. Vou. III. p. 672. note *.
9. Head of tibia of ditto.
10. Copris bucephalus. Vou. III. p. 671.
11. End of thigh, ditto, next the tibia.
12, Middle coxa. Melolontha vulgaris. a. The open part
which receives the muscles.
13. Posterior ditto, ditto. a. The open part.
14. Head of posterior thigh of ditto.
15. End of ditto next the tibia. Gryllus.
16. Head of tibia of ditto. Vou. IHI. p. 670—.
17. Lateral view of ditto.

* Vor. III. 527, 663—-.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 597

FIG.

18.

19.

Lateral view of the head of the coxa of Lamia. a. The
point of attachment with the body, or the orifice through
which the muscles pass.

Back view of ditto.

20. Posterior trochanter of Ichneumon; biarticulate. Vor. III.

21.

22.

23.

24.
. Auriculate posterior tarsus. Dasytes ater.
. Armed anterior ditto. ditto.

p. 666.
Tibia of Arachnida, to show the epicnemis.
Multiarticulate spiral antenniform tarsus of Scutigera.
Armed thigh. Scaurus.
tibia. Hispa spinipes.

anterior coxa. Megachile Willughbiella.
trochanter. Necrophorus.
Calcar or spur, thumb-shaped. Anterior tibia of Sphinx
Atropos.

. Calcar of posterior tibia. | CEnos afer.

anterior ditto. Zabrus gibbus.
intermediate ditto. Acanthopus splendidus.
posterior ditto. Ammophila vulgaris.
Acanthopus splendidus.
intermediate tibia. Czmbex Vitelline.

. Calcar and velum of anterior ditto. Apis mellifica. a. The

notch in the first tarsal joint.

. Claws of Anomala Frischii.

Macraspis quadrivitiata,
— Serica brunnea.
Melolontha vulgaris. :
Posterior tarsus. Acheta monstrosa,

. Part of tarsus of Scolopendra,

Lebia, to show pectinated claws.

Phancus.

Part of tibia of Onitis Apelles d, to show its very mi-
nute tarsus. Vor. III. p. 337.

16. Double claws of Oxypterum.
4T.

Claws. Anoplognathus,

598 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

FIG.
48. Claws. Hoplia. Anterior tarsus.
——- Melolontha subspinosa.
Pecten of Scorpio europaeus.
Claw of Hoplia, posterior tarsus,
Meloe variegata.
Pulvilli and claws of the Aside.
Tabanus.
—— Hive-bee.
Pulvilli and pseudonychia. Lucanus Cervus.
Cetonia Lantus.
Segment of the body of Tulus. Showing that two pairs
of legs are attached to each segment *.
Tarsus of Priocera, with involute pulvilli,
Nirmus Anseris.
Xenos Pecki.
———— Melittophagus K. VoL. I. 162. IV. 225.
—— Acaruscteeims: (e Geer)

PLATE XXVIII.

Inside of elytrum of Dytiscus marginalis,
Dynastes Aloeus. Part of hypo-

derma peeled off.

Part of ditto of Buprestis vittata, to Ta the axis,

Passalus.

Dynastes.

Elater sulcatus, to show the epipleura.

Blaps lethifera, ditto.

Dynastes quadrispinosus, ditto.

. Alitrunk and part of tegmina and wings of Locusta.
a, Space marked by the transverse nervure in which all
the nervures of the anal area terminate. Vot. III.
p. 620.

* N.B. The transverse lines in the figure are merely impressed,
and do not represent a segment.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 599

FIG.

10, Alitrunk and part of elytra and wings of Melolontha hor-
ticola.

11. tegmina and wings of Fulgora later-
naria. Postfrenum funiculate, with an elastic part
marked a. Vor. HI. p. 560.

hemelytra and wings of Pentatoma.

wings of Panorpa.

Trichoptera,

Lepidoptera, Geometra.

Lepidoptera.

Diptera-

. Wing of Chermes Fraxint.
. Tegmen of Locusta.
— Issus.
Wing. Cercopis sanguinolenta.
——- Locusta.
23, Hemelytrum of Reduveus ?

PLATE XXIX.*

. Gills of a spider. (Treviran.)

á — Scorpio europeus. (Ibid.)

. Aeriducts of larva of Ephemera fusco grisea. (De Geer.)
Vor. IV. p. 58.

vespertina, (Ibid.) Ibid.
vulgata. (Ibid.) Ibid.
Siallis lutaria. ^ (Ibid. Ibid.

p. 57—.

. Thread-like ditto of the upper and under side of the larvae
of Trichoptera. (Ibid.) Ibid. p. 56. —

. Part of the body of the larva of a Libellula, laid open to
show the trachez. (Reaum.) a.a.a. Trachee. Vou. IV.
p. 65.

. Part of the imago of ditto. (Ibid.) a. Vesicles that

* Vor, IV. Lerrver XXXVIII.

600 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES:

FIG.
terminate the trachee. 6. Oblong ditto. Vor. IV.
p. 68. .

10. Pupa of Corethra culiciformis. (De Geer.) a. b. Vesicles
connected with the trachez. c. Tail. Vou. IV. p. 67.

11. Part of the head of Glomeris zonalis. a. Pseudo-spiracle.
Vor. III. p. 494.

12. Part of the trunk of Staphylinus olens, to show its ante-
pectoral spiracle. Vor. IV. p. 43.

13. Part of the abdomen of Preumora. a. The series of
ridges, by striking the hind leg over which they pro-
bably produce their noise. Vor. II. p. 395 ; II. p. 340.

14. Underside of part of the alitrunk of Lygæus sexmacu-
latus K. MS. b. Branchiform apparatus between the
scapula and parapleura. "Vor. IV. p. 45.

15. oo Pentatoma rufipes.
a. Corrugated membrane. b. Apparent fringe of hairs
or bristles. Ibid.

16. Spiracle of larva of Oryctes nasicornis. (Sprengel.)

l1 Dytiscus marginalis. (Ibid.)

18. Part of the trachea and bronchiæ of the pupa of Smerin-
thus Populi. (Ibid.) ;

19. Spiracle of the imago of Oryctes nasicornis. a. The boss.
(Ibid.) | |

20. Dorsal spiracle of Scutigera.

21.. Pencil of hairs attached to a supposed respiratory plate
in certain Noctue. Vou. IV. p. 60.

22. Part of the back of the abdomen of the pupa of a Penta-
toma, a. Pseudo-spiracle. 6. Connecting corrugations.

. Vor. III. p.714.

23. Unilabiate spiracle of Gonyleptes.

24. Portion of ventral segments of abdomen of Aradus lami-
natus K. a, Tobaccopipe-shaped organ near the ven-
tral spiracles. "Vor. III. p. 714.

25. Part of the back of the alitrunk of Belostoma grandis, to
show the metapnystega? or rather spiracle. Vor. IH.
p. 574; IV. p. 45.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 601

FIG.

26. Pseudo-spiracle of Epeira cancriformis. Vou. IIL. p. 715.
27. Part of the ventral segments of the abdomen of Lyg@us
compressipes. a. Pseudo-spiracles, i
28. Portion of dorsal segments of Dytiscus marginalis, to

show the large anal spiracles. ` Vor. IV. p. 42.
29. Plumiform gills in the mouth of the spiracles of the larva
of Cossus ligniperda. (Sprengel.)

PLATE XXX.

1. Brain, spinal chord and ganglions of a full-grown cater-
pillar of Pieris Brassice. a. The brain, 6. The dou-
ble spinal chord. c d, Ganglions with a portion of their
nerves.

2, Brain, spinal chord and ganglions, eo two days, when
the chord is shortened.

3. when the animal is
become a pupa.

4. when it has been a
pupa six days.

just before it assumes

the imago.

when it has become
a butterfly. Vor. IV. p. 24—.

. Intestinal canal of the caterpillar. a. Saliva vessel. 5. Silk
reservoir. c. Gullet or esophagus, d. Stomach. eee. Bile
vessels. f. Large intestine. g. Rectum. :

after it has assumed the

pupa two days.

after eight days. a. Crop
or honey-stomach, first showing by the dilatation of the
base of the cesophagus.

a. Honey-stomach be-
come a lateral appendage of the cesophagus b.

of the butterfly. a. Honey-stomach.
b. CEsophagus. c. Small intestine become very long.
d, Rectum. VoL, IV. p. 112.

602 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

FIG.

12. Anal portion of the interior of the female butterfly.
a. Ovaries. 6, Oviduct. c. Colleteriwm or varnish
secretor. d. Spermatheca or-sperm receptacle. e. Part
of the spinal chord. f. Rectum. p. A secretory organ
filled with a thick white fluid, which is supposed to
lubricate the passage. Vor. IV. p. 126.

ANATOMICAL INDEX.
Vor. III. 354—.

a

Abdomen, 387, 699; iv. 350.
- Acetabulum, 384, 429.
Aculeus, 391.

Adminicula, 255; iv. 354.
Aeriductus, iv. 50, 353.

Ale, 618; iv. 335.
Alitruneus, 371, 5473 iv. 330.
Allux, 386.

Alula, 373, 381, 625; ii. 358.

Amphiarthrosis, 491, biis
Antefurca, 369, 586.
Antenne, 366, 510; iv. 316.
Antepectus, 368, 543; iv. 328.
Antlia, 362, 469.

Anus, 390.

Apophysis, 429,

Appendices, 391.

Appendicula, 355.

Areze, 374, 597, 607, 614, 623.
Areolee, 375, 625, 632 ; iv. 341.
Arthrium, 386, 684.

Articulatio, 408, 596, 606,614,619,

655, 664, 670, 682, 699.
Axis, 372, 374, 607, 614, 619.
Basis, 361.

Brachia, 369, 546; iv. 329.
Branchize, iv. 60.
Bronchiz, iv. 61.

Bulbus, 366, 516.

Bulle, 626.

Calcaria, 370, 385, 676.
Calx, 386.

Canalis excretorius, iv. 563.
Canthus, 365; iv. 313.
Capitulum, 366 ; iv. 322.

^ N.B. Where the volume is not indicated, the third is to be understood.

Caput, 355, 405; iv. 305.

Cardo, 357, 440.
Cauda, 389; iv. 351.
Caudule, 392.
Centris, 389, 717.
Cephalophragma, 367.
Cephalotheca, 249,
Ceratheca, 250.
Cerci, 392.
Cerebrum, iv. 7.
Chela, 462, 463.
Choroides, 497.
Clavicula, 369, 663.
Clavola, 366, 517.
Coecum, iv. 102.
Collare, 371, 548.
Colleterium, iv. 126.
Collum, 367, 526.
Commissura, 381.
Corium, 373, 401.
Cornea, 496..
Coronula, 369, 385.
Corpus, 354; iv. 304.
Corysterium, iv. 127.
Coxa, 384, 663 ; iv. 346.

Cremastre, 256; iv. 354.

Cubitus, 369, 670.
Cultelli, 362.

Culus, 390.
Cytotheca, 350.
Dentes, 356, 438. .
Diarthrosis, 404, note.
Digitulus, 676.
Digitus, 386.

Dorsolum, 372, 553 ; iv. 331.

#

604

Duodenum, iv. 101.
Dura mater, iv. 7.
Elastes, 389, 715.
Elytra, 372, 595; ii. 847 ;
Enarthrosis, 404, 412, 682.
Endosternum, 393, 586.
Epicnemis, 385, 670.
Epidermis, 401.
Epigastrium, 388, 708.
Epipharynx, 359, 458.
Epipleura, 378, 598 ; iv. 334.
Epiploon, iv. 144.
Epistomis, 476.

Ereisma, iv. $53.
Esoderma, 403.

Exoderma, 402.

Facies, 364.

Feecifurca, 353.

Femur, $84, 667 ; iv. 347.
Fila, 392.

Fistula, 362.

Flosculus, 392.

Foliola, 392.

Foramen, 389.

Forceps, 391.

Forfex, 391.

Frenum, 378, 559.

Frons, 365, 484.
Funiculus, 389, 701.
Furca, 392, 715.

Fusi, 392.

Fusulus, iv. 352.

Ganglia, iv. 8.
Gastrotheca, 251.

Genz, 365, 488.
Ginglymus, 404, 431, 682.
Glossotheca, 250.
Gomphosis, 433.
Gonytheca, 384, 670.
Gula, 367.

Halteres, 381; ii. 358,
Hamuli, 381; ii. 357.
Hamus, 376; ii. 353.
Haustellum, 361.
Hemelytra, 373, 613; iv. 335.
Humerus, 369, 667.
Hypochondria, 388, 709.
Hypoderma, 373, 600.
Hypopharynx, 359, 458.
Hypopygium, 390, 707.

iv. 393,

ANATOMICAL INDEX.

Ileum, iv. 101.

Incisores, 356.

Intestina parva, iv. 101.

magna, iv. 102.

Ioterium, iv. 127.

Jejunum, iv. 101.

Jugulum, 367, 526.

Labella, 361.

Labium, 355, 420.

Labrum, 355, 418 ; iv. 309.

Laminze, 362.

Laniarii, 357.

Ligamenta Nuche, iv. 176.

Ligula, 563.

Lingua, 358, 451;

Lobi, 358, 442.

Lobuli, 377.

Lora, 367.

Mammule, 392.

Mandibule, 356, 428; iv. 309.

Manitruncus, 368, 594; iv. 326-

Manus, 370, 681.

Mastigia, 150; ii. 252; iv. 353.

Maxillz, 357, 439 ; iv. 309.

Medifurca, 379, 587.

Medipectus, 378, 562.

Meditruncus, 548.

Medulla spinalis, iv. 8.

Membrana, 374, 615.

Mentum, 355, 424.

Mesophragma, 379, 583.

Mesosternum, 379, 566.

Mesostethium, 382, 576.

Mesothorax, 371, 548 ; iv. 330-

Metaphragma, 382, 584.

Metapnystega, 381, 574.

Metasternum, 383, 579.

Metathorax, 379, 510;

Mola, 357, 437,

Molares, 357. .

Molula, 385.

Mucro, 388.

Musculi, iv. 168.

Myoglyphides, 367, 527.

Nasus, 364, 475; iv. 313.

Nervi, iv. 14.

Neura costalis, 375, 627.
postcostalis, 376, 628.
mediastina, 376, 627.
externo-media, 376, 628.

iv. 312.

iv. 348.

ANATOMICAL INDEX. 605

Neura subexterno-media, 376.

interno-media, 376, 628.

subinterno-media, 376.
analis, 377.
axillaris, 377.

Neurz, 375; iv. 340.
subcostales, 916.
spurie, 377.

Nodi, 389.

ucha, 367.

Occiput, 365, 487.

Oculi, 365, 490; iv. 313.

CEsophagus, iv. 98.

percula, 383, 580.

Ora, 368, 536.

Os, 355; iv. 308.

Osmaterium, iv. 128.

Ovaria, iv. 148.

Oviductus, iv. 148.

Ovipositor, 390 ; iv. 151, S51.

Palatum, 455.

Palma, 370.

Palmula, 370.

Palpi, iv. 310.
mawxillares, 358, 447.
labiales, 356, 425.

Papille, 402.

Paraglossze, 359.

Parapleura, 382, 577.

Parastigma, 377.

Patagia, 366, 539.

Patella, 664.

Pectines, 383, 696.

Pectus, 393.

Pedes, 653; iv. 343.
intermedi, 379.
postici, 383.

Pedicellus, 366, 517.

Peristethium, 378, 562.

Pessella, 384.

Petiolus, 389.

Pharynx, 359, 456.

Phialum, 375, 600, 625.

Phragma, 368, 582.

Pia mater, iv. 7.

Planta, 385.

Plantula, 386.

Pleurz, 380, 574.

Pnystega, 378, 562.

Podex, 390, 707.

Pollex, 370. |

Postdorsolum, 380, 570; iv. 348.
Postfreenum, 380, 572; iv. 349.
Postfurca, 383, 588.
Postnasus, 364, 483.
Postpectus, 382, 579.
Postscutellum, 380, 572; iv. 348.
Potruncus, 570.

Proboscis, 361, 466.
Promuscis, 360, 464.
Propedes, 134; ii. 288; iv. 353.
Prophragma, 371, 582.
Prosternum, 369, 544.
Prostheca, 356, 439.
Prothorax, 368, 535; iv. 326.
Pseudo-cardia, ii. 29; iv. 82.
Pseudo-nychia, 386.
Pseudo-pecten, iv. 389.
Pseudo-spiracula, 713.
Pteropega, 372.

Pterygium, 381.
Pulmonarium, 713.

Pulvilli, 386, 692.

Pylorus, iv. 99.

Rectum, iv. 102.
Respiratoria, iv. 48.

Rete mucosum, 401.

Retina, 497.

Retinaculum, 391.
Rhinarium, 364, 481.
Rostellum, 363, 472.
Rostrulum, 362, 471.

Rotula, 429, 664.

Rumuls, iv. 353.

Sacculi, iv. 63.

Scalpella, 361—363.

Scapula, 309, 664.
Scapularia, 378, 564.

Scapus, 366, 516. ;
Scutellum, 378, 555;-1V. 331.
Segmenta, 387, 706.
Sensorium commune, iv. 18.
Septula, 382, 585.
Sericterium, iv. 122.
Sialisterium, iv. 124.
Siphonuli, 393.

Siphunculus, 363.

Solea, 386, 692.

Solenaria, 362.

Spermatheca, iv. 146, 570.

606 ANATOMICAL INDEX. `

Spicula, 391.

Spiracula, 368, 379, 382, 387,

388 ; iv. 97.
Squama, 389.
Stemmata, 365, 504; iv. 815.
Sternum, 393, 344.
Stigma, 377; iv. 343.
Stipes, 357, 441.
Styli, 392.
Subfacies, 366, 526.
Syneurosis, 431, note.
Synovia, 429, 656. -
Syringia, 150; iv. 353; ii. 252.
Talus, 385.
Tarsus, 385, 681; iv. 346.
Tegmina, 373, 606 ; iv. 335.
Tegule, 377. ;
Tempora, 365, 489.
Tendo, 381; 1i. 353.
Terebellæ, 391.
Tergum, 387.
Testes, iv. 564.
Theca, 361.
Thorax, 393.
Tibia, 384, 670; iv. 347.
Torulus, 366, 515.

Trachez, iv. 61.

Trochanter, 384, 644 ; iv. 346.

Trochlea, 701.

Trophi, 355, 4173 iv. 308.

Truncus; 367, 529; iv. 326.

Tubulus, 363, 390.

Tympanum, 388 ; ii. 205.

Umbones, 368.

Unci, 390.

Ungues, 358, 445,

Unguiculi, 386, 690.

Ungula, 386, 684.

Uvea, 497.

Vagina, 361.

Vaginula, 390.

Valve, 391.

Valvule, 362.

Vasa deferentia, iv. 564.
hepatica, iv. 103.

Velum, 370.

Venter, 388.

Ventriculus, iv. 99,

Vertex, 365, 486.

Vesiculæ respiratoria, iv. 66.

seminales, iv. 563.

ORISMOLOGICAL INDEX.

—,—

Abbreviatus, 261. c'!, 333. f', 345.
Acclivis, 298.
Achatinus, 288.
Acidus, 301.

Acies, 294.
Acinacicatus; 262.
Acinaciformis, 265.
Acquisitus, f’, 345.
Acuductus, 271.
Aculeiformis, M; 352.
Acuminatus, 295.
Aentus, 294,
Adhzrens, d, 310.
Adiaphanus, 285.
Adjunctus, C. 350.
Adnatus, d, 310. v, 349.
Aduncus, D, 351.
JEneus, 283.

JEqualis, f" 336.
JEquatus, 269.
ZEquidistantes, 344.
‘Eruginosus, 281.
Alatus, a, 328. s', 347.
Albus, 278.

Aliformis, d", 335.
Alliaceus, 301.
Ambiens, a. 327.
Ambulatorius, f', 345.
Amethystinus, 283.
Amplectens, c. 331.
Amplexus, A..306.
Ampliatus, c". 334.
Anceps, 267.
Aneurosus, f. 340.
Angularis, 4." 342.
Angulatus, a, 328.

Anguloso-undulatus, 290,

Angulus, e." 338, `
humeralis. f," 339, 340.
scutellaris. f," 339, 340.
posterior. f," 389, 340.
analis. f,! 389, 340,

Angustatus, 260. k, 323. .

Angustus, 260. f" 338.

Annulatus, 291.

Annulus, 285.

Antenniformis, A". 311.

Antepectoralis, f; 344.

Anterior, h, 314. f" 385. f,! r', 345.

Apertus, c', 309. k, 318, c, 330.

4 341. t!, 848.

Apex, 268, 294. c." 333,

Apiculatus, 295.

Appendiculatus, h", 311. k, 325.

Applicans, f," 337.

Approximatus, k, 316. d+, 344.

Apterus, 343.

Arcuatus, 263.

Areatus, c. 331. A, 341.

Areolatus, 291. A'', 341.

Argenteus, 283.

Armatus, 5, 329.

Armillatus, 291.

Aromaticus, 302.

Articulus, 297. k, 325.

Ascendens, 298. A, 332.

Asper, 277.

Ater, 282.

Atmospheera, 287.

Atomus, 285.

Attenuatus, 260. k, 319.

Aurantius, 279.

è Where the volume referred to is not indicated, the fourth is to be under-
stood. The reader will also be pleased to observe that the references to Partial
Orismology are accompanied by the characteristic mark of each part, as given
in the table, Vol. III.

608

Aureus, 283.

Auricula, 301.

Auriculatus, k, 325. a, 328. a",
330. c", 333.

Azureus, 280,

Badius, 282.

Barbatus, 277. k, 324.

Basis, 268, 294. c", 333.

Biarticulatus, 325.

Bicaudatus, f". 338.

Bifidus, 296.

. Bipalpatus, 308.
Bipartitus, 296, k. 321.
Bipectinatus, k, 321.
Bisectus, 905. g. 580.
Biserratus, k, 320.
Brevis, k, 317.

Brevior, k, 317.
Brevissimus, k, 317.
Brunneus, 282.
Buccatus, A. 307.
Celatus, 273.
Caruleus, 281.
Caesius, 281.
Calcar, 300.
Calcaratus, s", 348.
Calceoliformis, 267.
Callosus, 258.
Calvus, 277.
Campanulatus, k, 325.
Canaliculatus, 272.
Canaliformis, u’, 349.
Canalis, 294.
Cancellatus, 291.
Capillaceus, k, 322.
Capillaris, k, 319.
Capistratus, A, 307.
Capitatus, k, 322.
Capitulum fissile, k, $22.
funicatum, 323.
solidum, 323.
inflatum, 323.
Carinatus, 272.
Carneus, 279.
Carnosus, 259.
Cartilagineus, 258.
Caruncula, 301. iii. 539.
‘Castaneus, 282.
Catenulatus, 274.
Caudatus, f", 338.

ORISMOLOGICAL INDEX.

Centipes, f', 344.
Cernuus, A. 305.

Cerviculatus, a, 327.

Cervinus, 281.

- Chalybetis, 283.

Chelatus, c', 309.
Cheliferus, D, 351.
Chrysalis, i. 67.
Cicatricosus, 272.
Ciliatus, 278, 315. k, 324.
Cimicinus, 301.
Cinereus, 279.
Cingens, h, 314,
Cingulatus, 291.
Cinnamomeus, 282.
Circularis, 261.

4Circumambiens, a. 327.

Circumseptus, f", 340.
Cirratus, k, 321.
Cirrosus, 277.
Cirrus, 277.
Clathratus, 272.
Clathrosus, 271.
Clavatus, 263. k. 322.
Claviformis, 267.
Clypeatus, A, 307. a, 327. s", 329-
Coalitus, 299, 305. é, 330. 4’, 531°
w, 349. C, 350.
Coccineus, 280.
Ceecus, m", 349.
Coleoptra, c", 333.
Colliformis, a, 326.
Colligatus, 299.
Columnaris, h, 315.
Comatus, 278.
Communis, 293.
Compactus, 304.
Complanatus, 272,
Completus, i. 67.
Complicans, c", 334.
Compositus, 301. d', 310. h, 514
k, 324.
Compressus, 259.
Concavus, 269.
Conchiformis, e", 332.
Concolor, 291.
Confluens, 292.
Conglomeratus, h. 314.
Conicus, 265.

| Connatus, 299. k, 317-

ORISMOLOGICAL INDEX.

Connectens, /!”, 341.
Connivens, 293. f, 337.
onspersus, 288.
Constrictus, 268.
Consutus, 274. ,
Contiguus, 292. k. 317.
Convergens, 299.
Convexus, 269.
Convolutus, k, 318. f", 336.
Convolvens, d', 335.
Corbiculatus, s", 347.
Cordatus, 261.
Cordiformis, 265.
Coriaceus, 258.
Corneus, 258.

Cornu, laminatus, 300.
nutans, 300.
Coronatus, /'", 340. f', 354.

Corrugatus, 274.
Costalis, 4", 342.
Costatus, 272,
Crassus, 260. k, 319.
Crenatus, 296.
Crepera, 285.
Crinitus, 278.

Crispus, 293. `
Cristatus, 272. k, 323.
Croceus, 279.
Cruciato-complicatus, f", 337.
Cruciato-incumbens, f", 337.
Cruciatus, 296. a, 328. v', 349.
Crustaceus, 258.
Crystallinus, 283.
Cubicus, 261.
Cucullatus, 328.
Cucumiformis, 265.
Cultratus, 26$.
Cultriformis, 266.
Cuneatus, 262.
Cuneiformis, 265.
Cupreus, 283.
Cuspidatus, 295.
Cyaneus, 280.
Cylindricus, 267.
Cymbiformis, 305.
Deauratus, 284.
Deciduus, f", 344.
Declivis, 298.
Decolor, 291.
Decussatus, 297.

VOL. IV.

| Deflexus, k, 318. f", 338.

Dehiscens, c", 324.

Deltoideus, 266.

Dens, 300.

Dentatus, 297. c', 309. d', 310. k,
820.

Denudatus, Jf", 339.

Depressus, 219.

Descendens, 298.

Detectus, e", 335.

Deuteromesus, Z'!, 343,

Diaphanus, 285.

Dicerus, k. 316.

Dichotomus, 297. f", 337.

Didymus, 293. #'", 342.

Digitatus, s", 329. f", 338.

Dilatatus, 260, 294. k, 319.

Dimerus, B, 326. q", 347.

Dimidiatus, c", 333.

Dipterus, 343.

Discoidalis, d'", 334.

Discolor, 291.

Discus, 268.

Disjunctus, 304.

Distans, 300. k, 316. 1, 844. -

Distichus, k, 321.

Distinctus, 292, 300. k’, 381. v,
348. D, 851.

Divaricatus, 297.

Divergens, 299. f", 338.

Dividens, ', 313.

Dolabratus, s'', 329. f", 338.

Duplicatilis. f", 336. -

Duplicato-pectinatus, k, 321.

Echinatus, 273.

Edentulus, c'. 309.

Elabratus, 308.

Ellipsoideus, 264.

Ellipticus, 261.

Elongatus, 261.

Emandibulatus, 308.

Emarginatus, 295. a, 327.

Ensatus, 262. M', 351.

Ensiformis, 265. k, 320.

Erecto-patens, f", 337.

Erectus, 298. f", 337.

Erosus, 296.

Evanescens, a. 327.

Exarticulatus, k. 324.

Excalcaratus, s", 348.

>
at

610

Excavatus, 269.
Excisus, 295.
Excurvus, k. 318.
Exertus, A, 306. .M', 352.
Expalpatus, 308.
Expansus, f", 337.
Explanatus, a, 327.
Exscutellatus, 332.
Extensus, f”. 337.
Extraocularis, k. 316.
Extricatus, MM’, 352.
Falcatus, 263. f", 338.
Falciformis, 320.
Farinosus, 275.

Fascia, 289.
pyramidata.
macularis.
articulata.
dimidiata.
abbreviata.
sesquialtera,
sesquitertia, 290.

Fasciatus, om.

Fasciculatus, 277. h", 311. k, 324.

Fasciculus, 277.

Fastigiatus, c", 333.

Fastigium, 294. .

Fenestratus, f", 339.

Fenestrella, à", 335,

Ferrugineus, 282.

Filatus, 294. k, 324.

Filiformis, k, 318.

Fimbriatus, 278. k. 324.

Findens, h, 313.

Fissus, 295.

Fixus, p", 346.

Flabellatus, k. 321.

Flavus, 279.

` Flexilis, 259.

Flocculatus, p", 346.

Foetidus, 302. -

Foliaceus, 259. s", 347.

Folliculus, 354.

Forcipatus, b’. 352.

- Fornicatus, 267. a. 313.

Fossorius, f, 345.

Fossula, 270.

Fossulatus, 270.

Foveola, 270.

Foveolatus, 270.

ORISMOLOGICAL INDEX.

Fractus, 299. k. 317.

Frontalis, i. 315.

Fulcrans, q", 346.

Fulgidus, 279.

Fuliginosus, 282.

Fulvus, 281.

Fundus, 294.

Funiculatus, v', 349.

Furcatus, 297. k. 321.

Fuscus, 282.

Fusiformis, 267. h". 312. k. 320.

Geminus, 298.

Geniculatus, 268. k. 917.

Gibbosus, 273.

Gibbus, 269.

Glaber, 277.

Glaucus, 279.

Globifer, k. 323.

Grabatus, f', 354.

Granula, 273.

Granulatus, 273.

Griseus, 279.

Gutta, 285.

Guttatus, 285.

Hastatus, 262.

Heteromorphus, h”, 312.

Hexaédrus, 266.

Hexagonus, 266.

Hexapus, 243.

Hieroglyphicus, 285.

Hirsutus, 266.

Hirtus, 276.

Hispidus, 276.

Holosericeus, 276.

Horizontalis, 298, 301. f", 397.

Hyalinus, 285.

Imago, i. 68.

Imbricatus, 274. k, 320.

Immarginatus, a, 327.

Immersus, h, 314.

Imperfectus, 308.

Inzqualis, 270. f". 336.

Inauratus, 284.

Incanus, 279.

Incisura, 297.

Incisus, 295.

Inclusus, a, 313.

Incrassatus, 260, 294. k. 319.
347.

Incompletus, &"', 342 ; i. 68.

ORISMOLOGICAL INDEX,

Incumbens, f", 337.
Incurvus, 298. k. 818.
Inermis, 4, 329. f", 354.
Inferior, h, 314.
Inflatus, h”. 311.
Inflexus, 298. A, 306. -
I nfundibuliformis, 267.
Infuscatus, 292.
Inocularis, k, 316.
Inosculans, 800.
Inscriptus, 285.
Insectus, C, 350.
Insertus, A, 306.
Insula, 285.

Insulatus, /'", 340.

Integer, 294. k, 317. c", 333,

Intercipiens, q", 346.
Interocularis, k. 316.
' Interstitium, 271.
Intervallum, 272.
Intrans, h, 313.
Intraocularis, i, 315.
Intrusus, A, 306.
Involutus, 298.
Iridescens, 292.
Iris, 287.
Irregularis, k. 322.
Irroratus, 285.
Leevigatus, 269.
Levis, 269.
Laciniatus, 296.
Laciniformis, g", 322.
Lacteus, 278.
Lactifloreus, 278.
Lacunosus, 270.
ageniformis, 268,
Lamellatus, h”, 311.
Laminatus, p", 346,
Lanatus, 275.
Lanceolatus, 262.
Lanuginosus, 275.
Larva, i. 63.
Latens, #', 348.
Lateralis, h, 314.
Latus, 260. f", 338. k, 319.
. Lenticularis, 264.
Liber, d', 310. p", 346.
Ligneus, 259.
Liguliformis, e!, 312.
Lilacinus, 280.

Limbatus, 291.
Limbus, 268.
Linea, 290.
Linearis, 263.
Lineatus, 290.
Linguiformis, e', 312
Litura, 285.
Lituratus, 285.
Lividus, 281.
Lobatus, 296. k, 325.
Longior, k, 317. 1
Longissimus, k, 317.
Longitudinalis, 298.
Longus, 261.
Loricatus, 7", 347.
Lubricus, 277.
Luniformis, 268.
Lunula, 285.
Lunulatus, 263. b, 311.
Luridus, 281.
Luteus, 279.
Lutosus, 275.
Lychnidiatus, A, 307.
Macula, 285.
Maculatus, 285.
Mammillatus, h”, 311.
Mandibuliformis, d', 310.
Maniformis, h", 311.
Margaritaceus, 282.
Marginalis, d'!, 334. 4, 341.
Marginatus, a, 327.
Marge, 268.
exterior, f 339.
interior, f", 339.
posterior, f", 339.
Marmoratus, 289,
Mediocris, k, 317.
Medipectoralis, 7^, 344.
Medius, h. 314.
Melisszeus, 302.
Membranaceus, 258.
Miniatus, 279.
Mollis, 260. ;
Moniliformis, k, 320.
Monomerus, B, 325. q", 347.
Moschatus, 301.
Motatorius, f’, 345.
Mucro, 300.
Mucronatus, 295. h, 322.
Multiarticulatus, k, 325,

E

612 ORISMOLOGICAL INDEX.

Multifidus, 296.
Multipartitus, 296.
Multisectus, 305.
Muricatus, 273.
Mutilatus, c", 333.
Myriapus, 344.
Mystacinus, a’, 309.
Natatorius, f’, 345. C, 352.
Navicularis, M', 351.
Nebulosus, 288.
Nervulus, /", 340.
Neurosus, f", 340.
Niger, 282.
Nitidus, 284.
Niveus, 278.
Nodosus, 268. k, 320.
Nudus, f", 338.
Nutans, A, 305.
Nympha, i. 67.
Obesus, 260.
Obliquus, 298.
Obliteratus, 274, 292. w’, 349.
Oblongus, 261.
Obscurus, 284.
Obsoletus, 293.
Obtectus, e, 335; 1. 68.
Obtusus, 290.
Obumbrans, #', 332.
Obumbratus, c, 351.
Obversus, 299.
Obvolvens, a, 328. c! 334.
Ocellus, 286.
ceécus, 287.
spurius, 287.
simplex, 287.
complexus, 287.
nictitans, 287.
fenestratus, 287.
dioptratus, 288.
geminatus, 288.
didymus, 288.
sesquialterus, 288.
Octopus, 348.
Odoratus, 302.
Olivaceus, 281.
Opacus, 284.
Opalinus, 283.
Operculatus, h, 315.
Orbiculatus, 264.
Ordinatus, 292. h, 313.

Orichalceus, 283.
Ovaliformis, 268.
Ovalis, 261.
Ovatus, 261.
Oviformis, 265.
Pagina, 268.

superior,

inferior.
Palatiformis, e', 312.
Palmatus, k, 321. s", 329.
Papillifer, D, 351.
Papillula, 274.
Papillulatus, 274.
Parallelogrammicus, 264.
Parallelopipedus, 267.
Parapleuriticus, 382.
Partitus, 296.
Patellatus, k, 325. a", 380.5
Pateriformis, k, 325.
Patulus, f", 337.
Pectinatus, k, 321.
Pectunculatus, d', 310.
Pediformis, bh", 311.
Pedunculatus, A, 306. h, $15.
Pellitus, 278.
Penicillatus, 277.
Penicillus, 277.
Pentaédrus, 266.
Pentagonus, 266.
Perfectus, 308.
Perforatus, c", 334.
Pergameneus, 258.
Persistens, f', 344.
Petiolatus, k'. 342. C, 350.
Phoneticus, c, 331.
Piceus, 282.
Pilosus, 275.
Pinguis, 260.
Plaga, 285.
Planus, 269. f", 336.
Plectrum, f", 339.
Plicatilis, f", 336. C, 350.
Plicatus, 294. c", 334.
Plumatus, k, 324.
Plumbeus, 284.
Plumosus, k, 2347
Plumulosus, 276.
Pollinosus, 275.
Polyédrus, 266.
Polygonus, 266.

ORISMOLOGICAL INDEX. 613

Polypus, $44.
Porcatus, 272.
Porosus, 270.
Porrectus, 299. A, 805. k, 317.
Porus, 269.
Postcostalis, 4', 342.
Posterior, h, 314. i", 326. `
Postpectoralis, d, 344.
Praemorsus, 295.
Preocularis, k. 316.
Prasinus, 281.
Prehensorius, dT, 346.
Primarius, f". 385.
Prismaticus, k. 320.
Prismoidalis, 266. . :
Productus, 295. a, 328.
Prominens, A, 305. h. 315.
Pronus, 299, 308.
Protomesus, #'", 343.
Pruinosus, 284.
Pubescens, 276.
Pulverulentus, 275.
Pulvinatus, a. 328.
Punctatus, 270.
Punctum, 270.
Puniceus, 280.
Pupa, 1. 64.
Pupilla, 287.

hastata.

suffulta.
Purpureus, 280.
Pyramidalis, 265.
Pyriformis, 267.
Quadrangulus, 262.
Quadratus, 263.
Quadriarticulatus, k, 325.
Quadrifidus, 296.
Quadripartitus, 296.
Quinquangulus, 262.
Radians, #'", 342.
Radiatus, 290. A, 341.
Radius, f", 338.
Ramosus, 297. k, 321.
Ramulosus, k”, 342.
Raptorius, f', 345.
Receptus, k, 318. 4’, 332.
Reclinatus, 298.
Reconditus, A, 306.
Recumbens, 298.
Recurrens, /"', 341.

Recurvus, 298. k, 318.
Reflexus, 298. k, 318. J’, 352.
Rejectus, 4', 332.
Renicula, 285.
Repandus, 297.
Resupinatus, 299.
Reticulatus, 272. k!"’, 341.
Reticulosus, 271.
Retractilis, A, 306, 308.
pba ages i 306, 308. C, 358.
etusus, 295.
Revelatus, é, 330.
Reversus, 299. f", 338.
Revolutus, 298. k, 318.
Rhombiformis, 266.
Rhomboideus, 264.
Rigidus, 259. k, 318.
Rimosus, 270.
Rivosus, 271.
Rorulentus, 275.
Rosaceus, 302.
Roseus, 280.
Rostralis, k, 316.
Rostratus, A, 307.
Rotatorius, 301.
Rotundatus, 261, 295.
Rubineus, 283.
Rufus, 280.
Rugosus, 272.
Sagittatus, 262.
Salebrosus, 273.
Saltatorius, f', 345. C, 351.
Sanguineus, 280.
Scaber, 273.
Scopatus, s", 847,
Scopifer, k, 324.
Scopulatus, 7”, 348.
Scutatus, 274. al’, 330.
Scutellatus, 332.
Scutelliformis, u’, 349.
Secundarius, 2", 336.
Securiformis, h", 311.
Segmentum, 297.
Semicompletus, i. 67.
Semicoronatus, 354.
Semireconditus, A, 306.
Septiformis, h’, 313.
Sepultus, c', 309. C, 380.
Sericeus, 284.
Serpentinus, /"!, 340,

614

Serratus, 297. k, 320.
Sesquialterus, 4", 342.
Sessilis, 307. h, 314. C, 350.
Setaceus, k, 318.
Setarius, k, 324.
Setiformis, e', 312. k, 318.
Setigerus, k, 322.
Setosus, 276.
Setulosus, 276.
Sexangulus, 262.
Sigmoideus, 262.
Signatura, 285.
Signatus, 285.
Simplex, d', $09. h, 313. k, 824.
1", 340. rl, 347.
Simulans, e, 348.
Sinuatc-undulatus, 290.
Sinuatus, 296.
Smaragdinus, 283.
Solidus, 259.
Sparsus, 313.
Spatulatus, 263.
Spheericus, 264.
Spherulatus, 274.
Spina, 300.
Spinigerus, c", 338.
Spinosus, d', 310.
Spiralis, k, 318.
Splendens, 284.
Spongiosus, 259.
Spurius, 297. i. 315.
Squamatus, f”, 388.
Squamosus, 274.
Squarrosus, 296.
Stomapus, 309.
Stramineus, 279.
Striatus, 271.
Striga, 290.
Strigilatus, a’. 330.
Strigosus, 290.
Stupeus, 275.
Stupulosus, 276.
Subereus, 258.
Subocularis, k, 316.
Subulatus, bh”, 312. k, 322. c",
334.
Suctorius, c', 309.
Sulcatus, 271. `
Sulphureus, 279.
Supercilium, 288.

ORISMOLOGICAL INDEX.

Superimpositus, C, 350.
Superior, h, 314. k, 316. f", 385.
Suspensus, 300.
Sutura, 297.

Tabularis, 4', 332.
Tabulatus, v’, 349.
Tectus, g', 381.
Telescopiformis, M', 352.
Tensus, C, 350.

Tenuis, 260. k, 319.
Teres, 267.

Terminalis, 308.
Tesselatus, 289.
Testaceus, 280.
Testudinarius, 288.
Tetraédrus, 266. .
Tetragonus, 266.
Tetrapterus, 343.
Tetrapus, 343.
'Thoraciformis, i, 331.
Tomentosus, 276.
Topazinus, 283.
Torulosus, k, 325.
Trachelatus, 8’, 328.
Tramosericeus, 284.
Transcurrens, v', 349.
Transversus, 298.
Trapezatus, 264.
Trapeziformis, 266.
Trapezoideus, 264.
Trapezoidiformis, 266.
Triangulus, 262.
Triarticulatus, k, 325.
Tricaudatus, f", 338.
Triédrus, 266.

Trifidus, 296.

Trigonus, 266.
Trimerus, B, 326.
Tripartitus, 296.
Triquetrus, 265.
Tritomesus, $”, 343.
Truncatus, 295. c", 338.
Tuberculatus, 273.
Tuberculum, 273.
Tubulosus, 259. e, 312.
Tumidus, f", 336.
'Turbinatus, 262.
Turbiniformis, 265.
Turritus, A, 306.
Umbilicatus, 270.

` ORISMOLOGICAL INDEX.

Umbra, 285.

Umbraculatus, A, 907.

Uncinatus, k, 322. 1", 341. D,
Dod.

Undosus, 271.

Undulatus, 291, 293.

Unguiculatus, ¢', 309. d', 310. k,
399;

Unguiformis, c', 353.

Unicolor, 291.

Ustulatus, 289.

Varicosus, 1". 340.

Variola; 270.

Variolosus, 270.

Velutinus, 276.

Venosus, 290.

Ventricosus, 260.
Vermiculatus, 271.
Verricula, 277.
Verriculatus, 277.
Verruca, 273.
Verrucosus, 273.
Versatilis, 301. A, 306.
Versicolor, 292.
Verticalis, 298, 301. i, 315.
Verticillatus, k, 324.
Vibratilis, 301.

, Villosus, 275.

Violaceus, 280.

; Viridis, 281.

Vitta, 290.
Vittatus, 290.

INDEX

TO THE GENERA OF INSECTS NOTICED IN THIS
WORK.

——dá——

[From the long period that the present work has been in hand, some
confusion has taken place with regard to the nomenclature of the ge-
nera mentioned in it; but the following Index it is hoped will enable
the reader in most instances to rectify it.]

—

CLASS I.

Onnpzz I. Coleoptera, iv. 968 —.

Abax, iv. 250.

Acilius (Dytiscus), il. 251 ; iii. 305.

Adelium, iv. 496.

Æsalus, iii. 504.

Agathidium, ii. 238.

^ Agra, iii. 527; iv. 496.

Agrostiphila, iii. 386 ; iv. 496.

Akis, iii. 601.

Aleochara, ii. 232.

Alurnus, iii. 34; iv. 496.

Amblyterus, iii. 426.

Amphicoma, iii. 386.

Anisonyx, iii. 690.

Anisotoma, iii. 41.

Anobium (Ptinus), i. 36, 234, 386;
ii. 235, 386.

Anoplognathus, iii. 337 ; iv. 496.

Anthia, iii. 33.

Anthophagus, iii. 506.

Anthrenus (Byrrhus), i. 2343 ii.
226 ; iii. 177.

Anthribus, iii. 318.

Aphodius, iv. 397, 478, 489, 554.

Apion, i. 176 ; iv. 487.

Apoderus, iii. 333, 412.

Apogonia, iv. 496.

Archon, iv. 446, note.

Areoda, iii. 692.

Asida, iv. 494.

Insecta.

Ateuchus, 1. 252.

Atractocerus, il. 348 ; iv. 557.

Attagenus (Dermestes), i. 231.

Attelabus, iv. 107.

Auchenia, ii. 391.

Bagous, iv. 69.

Balaninus (Curculio) i. 201; ii.
274 ; iii. 84.

Bembidium, iv. 312.

Blaps, ii. 242 ; iii, 344.

Blethisus, iv. 502.

Bolbocerus, iii. 329.

Bostrichus, i. 210.

Brachinus, ii. 246 ; iv. 129.

Brachycerus, iii. 33.

Brachyrhinus, ii. 219.

Brentus, iii. 33, 709.

Bronchus, iv. 278.

Broscus, iv. 272.

Bruchus, i. 175.

Bryaxis, iv. 311.

Buprestis, i. 233 ; ii. 33.

` Byrrhus, ii. 234.

Byturus, i. 194.

Calandra, i. 171, 298; iii. 33.

Callichroma (Cerambyx), ii. 249 ;
ii. 523.

Callidium, i. 232 ; ii. 290.

Calopus, i. 233.

Colosoma, i. 269, 275; iv. 488.

Cantharis (Lytta), i. 512 ; 11, 227 ;
iv. 77, 491.

INDEX TO THE GENERA OF INSECTS.

Carabus, i. 269; ii. 247; iii. 33 ;
iv. 499, 558.

Carpalimus, ii. 30, note.
Cassida, ii. 261; iii. 601.
Catascopus, iv. 496.
Catheretes, i. 295.
Cebrio, iii. 519.
Cerambyx, iii. 545.
Cerapterus, iii. 514 ; iv. 496.
Cercyon, iv. 500.
Cerocoma, iii. 317.
Cetonia, iii. 344. :
Chzetophora (Georyssus), i. 258.
Chasmodia, iii, 568 ; iv. 496.
Chilocorus, iv. 280.
Chiroscelis, ii. 421.
Chleenia, iii. 539; iv. 554.
Chlamys, iii. 525, 597.
Choleva, iv. 553, note.
Choragus, ii. 315.
Chrysomela, ii. 245, 821 ; iii, 34.
Cicindela, i. 268 ; 11. 349; iv. 488.
Cionus, ii. 274 ; iv. 552.

- Cistela, iii. 567.
Claviger, iii, 519.
Clerus, i. 271.
Clivina, ii. 365.
Clytra, i. 464; iii. 332.
Clytus, ii. 391.
Cnodalon, iii. 514.
Coccinella, i. 262 ; ii. 9, 230.
Colliuris, iii. 527 ; iv. 497.
Colymbetes, iii. 324.
Copris, i. 252 ; 1i. 240; iv. 299,490.
Corticaria, 1. 225.
Corynetes, i. 255.
Cossyphus, iii. 598.
Cremastocheilus, iii. 423.
Creophilus, iii. 433.
Crioceris, ii. 391.
Cryptocephalus, iii. 525.
Cryptophagus, i. 225 ; iii. 935,716.
Cryptorynchus, ji, 234; iii. 329.
Cupes, iii. 511 ; iv. 496.
Curculio, ii. 219.
Cychrus, ii. 391.
Cymindis, iii. 691.
Cyphon, i. 87.
Cyphus, iv. 271.
Dascillus, iii. 689.

Dasytes, iii. 690.

Dermestes, iii, 536.

Diaperis, iii. 310.

Ditoma, iii. 518.

Donacia, ii. 349; iii. 227.

Dorcadion, i. 232.

Dorcatoma, iii, 519.

Doryphora, iv. 494.

Drilus, iv. 479 note, 508.

Dromia, iv. 295.

Drypta, iii. 689 ; iv. 697.

Dynastes, ii. 240 ; iii. 33.

Dytiscus, ii. 255, 295 ; iii. 83, 481 ;
1v. 254,

Elaphrus, iv. 501.

Elater, i. 179; ii. 317; iil, 556;
iv. 557.

Elephastomus, iv. 496.

Elmis, ii. 258.

Elophorus, ii. 257, 364.

Enoplium, iii. 324.

Entimus, iii. 603.

Erotylus, iii. 568 ; iv. 496.

Euchlora, iii. 704.

Eumolpus, i. 202.

Eurhinus, iii. 325.

Eurychora, iii. 489 ; iv. 495.

Eurynotus, iii. 693.

Eutrachelus, iv. 497.

Eveesthetus, iv. 503.

Feronia, iii. 336.

Galerita, iv. 496.

Galeruca, iii. 690.

Geniates, iii. 423.

Genuchus, iii. 423.

Georyssus, ii. 258.

Geotrupes, i. 253 ; ii. 234, 475.

Gibbium, iii. 513.

Glaphyrus, iv. 495.

Gnathium, iii, 317.

Gnathocera (Cetonia), ill. 488, 569.

Gnoma, iii. 542.

„Goliathus, iii. 33 ; iv. 493.

Graphipterus, iv. 495.
Gymnopleurus, iii. 704 ; iv. 483.
Gyrinus, ii. 4, 241; iv. 56.
Haliplus, iii. 450.

Haltica, 1. 182, 186.

Harpalus, ii. 246.

Heleeus, iii. 502; iv. 496.

618

Helluo, iv. 496.
Helodes, iv. 500.
Helops, iii. 567.
Heterocerus, iii. 399.
Hexodon, iii. 446.

Hispa, iii. 166.

Hister, ii. 227..

Hololepta, iii. 668.

Hoplia, ii. 234,

Horia, iv. 491, 496.

Hydreena, ii. 864; iv. 522.
Hydrophilus, ii. 295; iii. $3, 71.
Hydroporus, iv. 500.
Hyleceetus, iii. 317.

Hylessinus, i. 232.

Hylurgus, i. 232.

Hypera, iii. 142, 215.
Hyphydrus, iv. 500.
Imatidium, ii. 261.

Labidus, iv. 496.

Lagria, iv. 276.

Lamia, iii. 34, 514.
Lamprima, iii. 681.

Lampyris, ii. 410; iv. 498.
Languria, iii. 444.

Lebia, ii. 443.

Lema, ii. 260.

Leptura, iii. 301.
Lethrus, i. 202; iv. 499.
Liparus, iii, 232.

Lixus (Curculio), i. 148 ; i, 280.
Lomechusa, ii. 441.

Lucanus, ii. 227 ; iii. 33, 314.
Lyctus, i. 172 ; li. 231.
Lycus, iii. 517.

Lymexylon, i. 234.
Macraspis, iii. 442.
Macrocephalus, iii. 319.

' Macroplea, iv. 522.
Macropus, iii. 332.
Malachius, iii. 323, 539.
Manticora, iii. 33.
Megasoma, iii. 33, 311, note.
Melasis, iv. 306.

Melóe, i. 162; ii. 250; ill. 163;
iv. 225, 499, |

Melolontha, i. 177, 205; iv. 558.

Micropeplus, iii. 506.

Mimela, iii. 545; iv. 495.

Molorchus, ii. 348.

INDEX TO THE GENERA OF INSECTS

Moluris, iii. 539.

Mordella, iii. 451. .
Mycetophagus, i. 256, note.
Mylabris, i. 155 ; iv. 491.
Nebria, iii. 513.

Necrobia, iii. 683, note; iv. 558.
Necrodes, iii. 540.
Necrophorus, i. 350.
Necydalis, ii. 348.
Nemognatha, iii, 317.
Nilion, iv. 496.

Nitidula, i. 209.

Noterus, iii. 324.
Nothiophilus, iv. 274.
Notoxus, iii. 448,

Ocypus, iii. 439.
Odacantha, iii. 542.
Oedemera, ii. 315.

Oenas, iii. 518, 676.
Omalium, ii. 242.
Omophron, iv. 501.

Onitis; iii. 333, 537.
Onthophagus, iii. 310, 338; iv. 490.
Onthophilus, iv. 272.
Opatrum, iv. 295.

Opilo, iii. 683, note.
Orchestes, ii. 314,

Oryctes, i. 300; iv. 491.
Oxyporus, iv. 263.
Oxytelus, ii. 439 ; iii. 327 ; iv; 141.
Pachygaster ( Curculio), i. 203.
Pachysoma, iii. 659.
Peelobius, iv. 500.

Parnus, ii, 364.

Paropsis, iv. 496.
Pasimachus, iii. 542.
Passalus, iii. 310.”

Pausus, i. 234; ii. 421.
Paxillus, iii. 446.

Pedinus, iv. 295.
Pelidnota, iii. 691.

Peltis, iv. 136.

Phalacrus, iv. 503.
Phaleria, i. 173.

Phaneeus, iii, 326, 337.
Phengodes, iii. 440.
Phileurus, iii, 390.
Phloiotribus, i. 232.
Phoberus, iii. 446.
Pholidotus, iii. 315.

NOTICED IN THIS WORK.

Pimelia, ii. 250 ; iv. 502.

. Platypus, iii, 518; iv. 58

Plectropus, i iii. 660,

Peecilus, iv. 554.

Pogonophorus, iii, 441.

Priocera, ii. 327.

Prionus, i. 233;
iv. 484.

Psammodius, i. 252,

Pselaphus, ii. 307, note.

Psephus (Melolontha), i iii. 678.

Pterostichus, iii. 668.

Ptilinus, i. 234.

Ptinus, 1. 238.

Pyrochroa, iv. 324.

Ramphus, ii. $14.

Rhagium, iii. 143.

Rhina, iii. 432.

Rhinosimus, i. 232, note,

Rhipicera, iii. 320, 321 ; iv. 498.

Rhipiphorus, iii. 444.

Rutela, iv. 496.

Rhyncheenus, i. 453.

Rhynchites, 1. 196, 202.

Ryssonotus (Lucanus), i iii, 667.

Sagra, iii. 483.

Saperda, i id. 332.

Sarrotrium, iii. 523.

Scaphidium, ii. 315,

Scarabzeus, 1. 349 ; iii. 337.

Scarites, ii. 365.

Scaurus, iii. 489.

Schizorhina (Cetonia), ii. 479 ;
496.

Scolytus, iii. 444.

Scotinus, iv. 496,

Serica, iii. 691.

Serropalpus, iv. 200.

Siagonium, iii. 315.

Silpha, ii. 242.

Sinodendrum, 1 i. 229.

Spheridiam, iii. 674 ; iv. 394.

Spheniscus, iii. 567.

Sphodrus, iii. 332.

Staphylinus, ii. 236, 244; iii. 33.

Stenocorus, i ii. 516.

Stenus, iii. 448.

Stomis, ili. 454. :

Tachinus, i. 252.

Tachyporus, i. 252.

it, 391; ii. 94;

Tanysphyrus, iv. 69.

Telephorus, ii. 312.

Tenebrio, i. 134; iii. 33.

Tetraonyx, iv. 496.

Tetratoma, iii. 518.

Tetraopes (T'etrops), iii. 498.
hanasimus, iii. 683, note.

Tillus, iii. 448.

Timarcha, iii. 99.

Tomicus (Bostrichus ¥.), i. 210.

Trechus, iv. 312.

Trichius, i iii 386.

Trichopteryx, iii. 40, note.

Trogosita, 1. 171.

Trox, i. 255; ii. 240, 391.

Onpzna IJ. Strepsiptera, iv. 969.
Stylops, i. 267 ; ii. 327.
Xenos, 1. 267 ; ii. 327.

Orver Ilf. Dermaptera, iv.-370.

Forficula, ii. 350; tii. 341.

Labia (Forficula) i iv. 514.

Labidura (Forficula), i. 237; iii.
34.

OrvEer IV. Orthoptera, iv. 371.

Acheta (Gryllus), iii. 679, 688.

Acrida, iij. 35; 1v. 152.

Acridium, ii. Pes

Blatta, i. 239 ; il. 328 ; 111. 94.

Conocephala ' (Conocephalus), lil.
609, 679.

Empusa, ili, 668.

Gryllotalpa, ii, 366, 398 ; iii. 34.

Gryllus (Acheta), i. 239 ; iii. 674
iv. 557.

Locusta, i. 213 ; ii. 15 ; Hi. 35, 70.

Mantis, i. 275; 11. 221, 328 ; iii. 70;
iv. 557.

Mantispa, ii. 351.

Myrmecophilus, 1 ii. 41.

Phasma, il. 220, 328; iil. 34,

Phyllium, iii. 668.

Pneumora, | ii. 3953 ii. 940.

Proscopia, iv. 308,

Pterophylla (Locusta F.), iii. 609.

Scaphura, 1v. 132.

Tridactylus, iii. 679.

Truxalis, li. 328.

620 INDEX TO THE

On»ra V. Neuroptera, iv. 371.
Æshna, ii. 295; 1.128.
Agrion, ii. 355 ; iii. 36, 128 ; 1v. 58.
Anax, i. 273 ; iii. 36.
Ascalaphus, iii. 499 ; iv. 414.
Boreus, iv. 468.

Calepteryx, iii. 304. |

Chauliodes, iv. 468.

Cordulia, iii. 198.

Corydalis, iii. 36; iv. 496.

Ephemera, i. 279; ii. 5; iv. 57,
558.

Hemerobius, i. 261; ii. 243, 259.

Libellula, ii. 295; iii. 127.

Myrmeleon, i. 427 ; iii. 36.

Osmylus, iii. 631.

Panorpa, i. 271; ii. 256.

Perla, iii. 508 ; iv. 558.

Psocus, ii. 383.

Raphidia, ii. 310.

Sialis (Semblis), ii. 294.

Termes, i. 241, 304, 511; ii. 31;
lv. 558.

Order VI. Hymenoptera, iv. 373.
Acanthopus, iii. 680.

Alysia, iv. 215.

Ammophila, i. 344.

Andrena, ii. 243.

Anthidium, i. 437.

Anthophora, iii. 304.

Apis, i. 375, 484 ; 1i. 125, note.

Atta (Formica), i. 207 ; ii. 101.

Aulacus, iii. 633.

Bembex, i. 259 ; ii. 234.

Bombus, i. 377, 502.

Bracon, iii. 633.

Cephus (Trachelus), tii. 518; iv.
503. 1

Centris, iii. 306.

Ceratina, 1. 440.

Cerceris, iii. 711.

Chalcis, ii. 315, 356.

Chelonus, iii. 320.

Chelostoma, iii. 318.

Chlorion, iii. 549.

Chrysis, 1. 448 ; 1i. 233.

Cimbex, ii. 327 ; iii. 676.

Codrus, iii. 692.

Coelioxys, iii. 538.

GENERA OF

INSECTS

Colletes, i. 436.

Crabro, ii. 243 ; iii. 394.

Crocisa, iii. 558.

Cryptocerus, iii. 525.

Cryptus, ili. 595.

Ctenoplectra, iii. 681.

Cyclostoma, iii. 36.

Cynips, i. 295, 315, 448; ii. 281.

Dasyga, iii. 484.

Dasypoda, iii, 306.

Diapria, iii. 721.

Dinetus, iii. 318.

Dorylus, iii. 508. `

Epicharis, iii. 306.

Epipone, i. 346.

Eucera, iii. 319.

Euglossa, iii. 181, 335.

Eulophus, iii. 321.

Evania, iii. 533, 580, note;
216, 558.

Foenus, iv. 211.

Formica, i. 182, 479; ii. 50; iv.
558.

Halictus, iii. 307.

Heriades, ii. 262.

Hyleeus (Prosopis F.), 1i. 483, 635.

Hylotoma, iii. 321.

Ichneumon, i. 266, note.

Larra, iii. 507.

Leucospis, ii. 315.

Lophyrus, iii. 74.

Lyda, iii. 140.

Lyrops, iii. 507.

Masaris, iv. 495.

Megachile, i. 441.

Melecta, iii. 306.

Melipona, iv. 497.

Mellinus, i. 259.
Misocampus, ii. 223.
Mutilla, 1i. 255, 392.
Myrmecodes, iii. 480.
Myrmica, ii. 69, 96.
Nomada, ii. 262.
Odynerus, i. 447.
Omalus, iii. 682.
Ophion, iii, 711; iv. 213.
Osmia, iii. 804.
Oxybelus, iii. 508.
Panurgus, iv. 502.
Parnopes, i. 259; ii. 233.

NOTICED IN THIS WORK.

Pelecinus, iii. 334.

Pelopzeus, iii. 662.

Pepsis, iii. 508.

Perga, iii. 521.

Philanthus, i. 163.

Pimpla, iii. 704 ; iv. 210.

Podalirius, ii. 660.

Polistes, iv. 558.

Pompilus, i. $44 ; iil, 36.

Ponera, iii. 485.

Proctotrupes, i. 266.

Psilus, ii. 356.

Pteronus (Pterygopterus), ii. 248 ;
iil. 140, 322.

Sapyga, iv. 505.

Saropoda, iil. 681.

Scolia, ii. 229; iii. 36.

Sirex, i. 209, 234.

Sphecodes, iii. 314.

Sphex, iii 662.

Stelis, iv. 291.

Stigmus, iii. 306.

Stilbum, iii. 563.

Synagris, iii. 315.

Systropha, iii. 318.

Tenthredo, i. 196; ii, 10, 245, 251.

Thynnus, iv. 496.

Tiphia, iii. 640.

Trigona, i. 328; iv. 497.

Trypoxylon, i iv. 505.

Vespa, 1. 371, 5053 il. 107.

Xiphydria, iii. 551.

Xylocopa, i. 438 ;
489.

Orper VII. Hemiptera, iv. 376.
Acanthia (Coreus), il. 615.
Achilus, iv. 496.

Aleyrodes, iii. 261.

Alydus, iii. 615.

iii. 36, 336; lv

Aphis, i. 174, 198, 323, 454; il.

88.
Aradus, ili. 320.
Belostoma, iii. 35, 525, 574.
Capsus, iii. 507.
Centrotus, ii. 225; iii. 537.
Cercopis (Cicada), ii. 228, 315.
Chermes, ii. 316.
Cicada (Tettigonia F. Ja
302, 402; iil. 35; iv. 493.

904,541.

Cimex, i. 106, 162.
Cixius, iti, 520.
Coccus, i. 193, 203, 316; ii. 77.
Coreus, ii. 378.
Cydnus, iii. 618.
Darnis, iii. 557.
Delphax, iv. 316.
Dorthesia, iii. 183, 347.
Edessa, iii. 480.

Flata (Cicada), cbr.
Fulgora, iii. 35.
Galgulus, iii, 520.
Gerris, i. 272.

. Hydrometra, i. 272.

Jassus, iii, 508.

Ledra, iii. 537.

Lygeeus, ii. 316; ili. 35, 673.

Membracis, ili. 537.

Miris, iii. 507.

Nabis, iii. 667.

Naucoris, i. 272; iii. 83.

Nepa, i. 272; lil. 94.

Notonecta, i. 108, 272.

Otiocerus (Cobaz), iii. 479, 510.

Pentatoma, iii. 88, 101.

Plea, iii. 616.

Psylla, iii. 465.

Ranatra, i. 272 ; ili. 94.

Reduvius, i. 108, 272; ii. 258, 297.

Rhinuchus (Lyge@us F.), iii. 615,
714.

Salda, iv. 502.

Scutellera (Tetyra F} i ii, 250;
506.

Sigara, iii. 170.

Tetyra, iv. 487.

Thrips, iii. 15s,

Tingis, i. 453 ; 224

Velia, i. 272.

Xiphostoma, i iii. 684.

Zelus, iii. 527.

`

Orver VIII. Trichoptera, iv. 378.

Phryganea,i. 467; li. 220, 264, 304;
lil. 68; iv. 558.

Onprn IX. Lepidoptera, iv. 780-
Agarista, iii. 679.
Aglossa, (Crambus), i. 237, iii, 156,

note ; iv. 380.

622

Alucita, iii. 235.

Apatura, iv, 500, 517.

Apoda, ii. 280 ; iii. 140.

Arctia ( Bombyx), i. 30, 476; ii. 296
2535; iii. 74.

Argynnis, iii, 179.

Attacus, (Bombyx), i. 332; ii, 239;
iii. 36, 321.

Bombyx, i. 476.

Botys, iv. 54.

Callimorpha, iii. 194.

Castnia, ili. 507, 647 ; iv. 496.

Cerura (Bombyx), ii. 251; iii. 150.

Clostera, iii. 261.

Colias, iii. 252.

Cossus, i. 209; ii. 301; iii. 223.

Danaus, iii. 147.

Endromis, iii. 100.

Erebus, iii. 36.

Eriogaster, iii. 175.

Erminea, iii. 123.

Erycina, iii. 164.

Galleria, iii. 638.

Gastrophaca (Bombyx), d. 222;
iii. 36, 99.

Geometra, ii. 236, 292.

Heliconia, iii, 630; iv. 496.

Hemigeometra (Noctua), ili. 139;
iv. 518.

Hepialus, i. 182; iii. 220.

Herminia, iii. 324.

Hesperia, ii. 254; iv. 39.

Hipparchia, iii. 84, 97. i

Hypogymna (Bombyx), ii. 298; iii.
Gan

2

Laria, iii. 176.

Lasiocampa (Bombyx), i. 130; ii.
22; ili, 80.

Limenitis, iii, 115.

Lithosia, iii, 157.

Lyceena, iii. 164.

Macroglossum, iii. 571. —

Meliteea, iii. 114, 182.

Morpho, iii. 35.

Noctua, i. 188, 190; ii. 220, 291.

Notodonta ( Bombyz), ii. 237 ; iii.
152.

Nudaria, iti. 647.

Nycterobius, 1. 304, 456.

Nymphalis, iii. 115, 182.

INDEX TO THE GENERA OF INSECTS

Odenesis, iii. 638.
Oecophora (Tinea), i. 455.
Papilio, ii. 244, 354; iii. 35,148.
Parnassius, iii. 149; iv. 484.
Phalena, i. 195, 327.
Pieris, iii. 189, 195; iv. 200.
Platypterix, iii. 260.
Pontia (Pieris), iii. 79, 98, &c.
Procris, i. 203.
Psyche (.FumeaHaw.),1.464;1v.159.
Pterodactylus, iv. 337.
Pterophorus, iii. 643.
Pyralis, i. 172; ii. 2913 iii. 231.
Saturnia, ii. 251.
Satyrus, iii. 104, 115.
Sesia, i. 195.
Smerinthus, iii. 186.
Sphinx, i. 163; iii. 36.
Stauropus (Bombyx), ii. 254.
Tinea, i. 230, 465.
Tortrix, i. 457, 198.
Vanessa, iii. 84, 179.
Urania, iii. 179.
Zygzna, ii. 290.
Onpzna X. Diptera, iv. 381.
Anthrax, iii. 645,
Asilus, i. 271; ii. 361.
Beris, iii. 67, 337.
Bibio (Hirtea), i. 192; ii. 961;
iv. 558.
Bombylius, ii. 383.
Cecidomyia, i. 170, 433; iv. 219.
Ceria, iv. 317.
Ceroplatus, iv. 131.
Chironomus, iii. 142, 288; iv. 558.
Conops, iii. 713.
Corethra, iii. 111; iv. 66,
Ctenophora (Ctenocera), i. 256 ; iii.
247, 449.
Culex, i. 112; iv. 483;
Dilophus, iii. 370.
Dioctria, i, 271.
Diopsis, iii. 501.
Dolichopus, iv. 55.
Echinomyisa, iii. 37.
Elophilus, iii..137 ; iv. 52.
Empis, iii. 337; iv. 568.
Eristalis, i. 192.
Eumerus, iv. 208.

J NOTICED IN THIS WORK.

Hematopoia, iii. 326,

Heptatoma, iii. 326.

Hippobosea, i. 147 ; ii. 310.

Leptis (Rhagio), 1. 493 ; iv. 379.

Limonia, iii. 680.

Mosillus, i. 168.

Musca, i. 147, 172, 254.

Myopa, iii. 480.

Nemotelus, iii. 479.

Nycteribia, ii. 311.

Cistrus, i, 136, 146, 149, 158.

Oinopota, i. 227.

Ornithomyia, i. 111; ii. 310.

Oscinis, i. 201; iv. 487.

Pangonia, i. 152.

Phasia, iv. 291.

Psychoda (Hirtea), iii. 634.

Rhagio, i. 151.

Rhingia, iii. 479.

Seaeva, ii. 280.

Scatophaga, i. 190, 271; iii. 96.

Sciara, iii. 478.

Seioptera, ii. 305.

Sepedon, iii. 259.

Sicus, iil. 667.

Simulium, i. 128; iv. 483.

Stomoxys,i 110,145. _

Stratyomis, ii. 230, 285; iv. 54.

Syrphus, i. 262; ii. 275.

Tabanus, i. 110, 145; iii. 37.

Tanypus, ii. 278. i

Tephritis, i. 196, 453; ii. 283.

Thereva, iii. 621.

Tipula, i. 180, 294 ; ii. 359.

Trichocera, ii. 443. ;

Tyrophaga ( Tephritis}, ii. 283 ; iv.
79

Volucella, i. 264; ii. 223.
, Xylophagus, iii. 645.

Ornver XI. Aphaniptera, iv. 382.
Pulex, i. 100.

Orver XII. Aptera, iv. 383.

Acarus, i. 96, 226.
Astoma, ili. 107, 654.
Atax, ii. 294; iii. 91.
Caris, iii. 107.
Chelifer, iv. 385.
Chionea, ii. 446.

Craspedosoma, iii. 494.

Eylais, iv. 501.

Gammasus (Acarus), i. 201; i.
306, 311; iv. 227.

Geophilus (Scolopendra), i. 256;
£D mS Tu

Glomeris, iii, 494.

Gonyleptes, iii. 670, 686.

Hydrachna, iii. 83; iv. 228.

Tulus, ii. 308; iii. 37; iv. 142.

Ixodes (Acarus), i. 105, 145, 161;
11, 308.

Lepisma, ii. 320; iii. 161.

Leptus (Acarus), i. 103.

Limnochares, iv. 501.

Lithobius (Scolopendra), iti. 494,

Machilis, ii. 320; iii. 23, 715.

Melittophagus, i. 162.

Melophagus, i. 156.

Nirmus (Ricinus), iii. 104, 321.

Nymphon, i. 165.

Obsidium, iv. 385.

Ocypete, iii. 107, 654.

Pediculus, i. 83.

Phalangium, ii. 332; iii. 686.

Podura, ii. 319; iii. 715.

Pollyxenus, iii. 107.

Polydesmus, i. 184.

Sarcoptes ( Acarus), i. 91.

Scolopendra, i. 125; iii. 97; iv.
558.

Scutigera, lil. 22, 581; iv. 48.

Sminthurus, ii. 319; iii. 715.

Trombidium, i. 323.

Uropoda, iii. 90; iv. 227,

CLASS. Arachnida, iv. 386.

Aranea, i. 127.

Argyroneta (Aranea), i, 473.

Clubiona, iii. 491.

Dolomeda, iii. 493, note.

Drassus, iii. 491.

Dysdera, iii. 490.

Epeira, iii. 71.

Eresus, iii. 493, note.

Galeodes (Solpuga F.), i. 125;
110-29.

Latrodectes, iii. 493, note.

Lycosa, i. 1263 iii. 71, 491.

Mygale( Aranea),i, 359,471 ; iii. 37.

624

Nyssus, iii. 493, note.
Pholcus, iii. 493, note.
Phrynus, iii. 684; iv. 387.
Salticus, ii. 316.
Scorpio, i. 134, 276 ; iii. 37, 718.
Scytodes, iii. 490.
Segestria, iil. 490.
Sparasus, iii. 493, note.
Sphasus, iii. 491.
Storena, iii. 493, note.
Tetragnatha, iii. 493, note.
Thelyphonus, iii. 684, 704, 718;

iv. 387.
Thomisus, iii. 71.

Foreign Provincial Names.

Alkermes, i. 317.
Bamburos, i. 328.
Bemarkelse-mask, i. 33.
Béte rouge, i. 105.
Béte de la Vierge, i. 263.
Blaazops, ii. 395.
Brulot, i. 110.
Brumm-V ogel, ii. 378.
Cadelle, i. 171; iii. 142.
Cafafi, i. 128, note.
Cancrelas, i. 260.
Cantaride de’ Gigli, i. 260.
Chenille, i. 184. ,
Cheveux de Florence, i. 284.
Chigoe, i. 49, 1C2.
Ciron des paupiéres, i. 88.
Coddia, i. 122.
Comegen, i. 238.
Coya, or Coyba, i. 132.
Cucuij, ii. 413.

INDEX TO THE GENERA OF INSECTS.

Cupia, i. 136.

Dibben Fashook, i. 312, note.

Fils de la Vierge, ii. 334.

Gards-drag, ii. 275.

Grillo, ii. 401.

Grugru, i. 296

Heerwurm, ii. 8.

Jiggers, 1. 102.

Kakerlac, i. 260.

Kermes, 1. 317.

Lierman, ii. 403.

Macauco, i. 300.

Mantas blancas, i. 128.

Mosquito, i. 112.

Moustique, i. 112, note.

Moutac, i. 300.

Nigua, i. 102.

Pe-la, i. 325.

Pique, i. 102.

Sacktrüger, i. 464 ; iii. 257.

Skarnbosse, i. 33.

Stamm-raupe, ii. 433.

Tama-joura, i. 306.

Teignes à fourreau à manteau, i.
462.

Tendaraman, i. 127.

Tola, or Thola, i. 316.

Torbist, i. 33.

Tsalt-salya, i. 152.

Tungua, i. 102.

Vaches à Dieu, 1. 263.

Vinaigrier, i. 67.

Voupristi, i. 155.

Wurm-tróckniss, i. 210.

Zancudo, i. 112, note.

Zimb, i. 152, note; ii. 380.

ENGLISH INDEX.

Abstinence of insects, i. 599.

Acariasis, disease so called, i. 86;
iy OU UL

Acid, acetic, iv. 138.

bombic, iv. 139.

—c— formic, iv. 138.
— malic, iv. 138.

ZElian, iv. 425.

Aeroscepsy, iv. 240, 245.

Affinity, iv. 357: object of, 401.

Air-reservoirs, iv. 54, 184.

Aldrovandus, iv. 428.

Analogies in nature, kinds of, iv.
411: object of, 408: scale of,
in insects, 412.

Analogy, argument from, iv. 237.

Analysis (chemical) of msect sub-
stance, lii. 395 ; iv. 572.

Anbury, 1. 458.

Animals, classifications of, iii. 2.

annulose, iii. 13; iv. 426.

Ant, black, i. 483; il. 48 : fire, 1.
122: green, 122: hill or horse,
281; ii. 48, 97: jet, 48, 98:
mason, 96: miner, 80: parasol,
i. 207, 479: red, ii. 48, 69: ru-
fescent, 76: sanguine, 81: sugar,
1 182: turf, ii. 93: visitation, i.
123, 270: yellow, ii. 48, 90.

Anteater, i. 280.

Antenne, whether analogous to

' ears, iv. 240.

Antlion, 1. 428.

Ants, love of their young, i. 362:
nests, 479: swarms, li. 51: lan-
guage, 62: wars, 69: slaves,
75: milch-cattle or Aphides, 88:
emigrations, 91: recruits, 93:
roads, 97: strength, 100: di-

VOL. IV.

versions, 103: diseases of, iv.

1390;

Ants (white) ravages of, i. 241:
nests, 511: history, ii. 31: colo-
nies, 34; number of eggs, 36:
soldiers, 40: sounds of, 42.

Aphides. See Plant-lice.

Apparatus for taking and destroy-

Ing Insects, 1v. 518.

Apple, attacked by insects, i. 197.

Apricots, attacked by insects, i.
200i ,

Aristotle, system of animals, iii, 2:
of insects, iv. 423.

Armour (defensive) of insects, ii.
225. .

Arms, fore legs why so called, iii.
546.

Articulations of legs, iii. 655, 664,
670, 682.

Artifices (defensive) of insects, ii,
257.

Aspect (defensive) of insécts, ii.
224. -

Attitudes (defensive) of insects, ii.
232.

Aurelia, i. 66.

Barley, destroyed by insects, i.
172.

Beans and Peas, destroyed by in-
sects, 1. 173.

Bee, carpenter, i. 438: leaf-cutter,
35, 192, 444: mason, 441:
poppy, 443. .

Bees, (hive) affection for their
young, 1. 375: combs, 484: fa-
bles respecting, ii. 122: females,
125: larve of workers, how
turned to females, 129: weight

2

626

and bulk, 129: jealousy and
battles of the female or queen,
142: her appearance how
retarded, 146: homage paid
her, 151: effects produced by
the loss of her, 152: sound
emitted by her, 387: fecun-
dation, 172; iv. 158: swarms,
ii. 161: males, number of, 171:
slaughter of, 179: workers,
tongue of, 177: wax-pockets,
7178: collection of honey and
pollen, 178: excursions, 187:
scouts, 189: ventilation of their
hive, 193: language, 201: an-
ger and battles, 202, 207: ene-
mies, i. 162; ii. 209: tempe-
rature, 212, 446; iv. 77: modi-
fications of their instinct, ii. 481.
degree of intellect, 495, 513: iv.
$2: diseases, 204: kinds of, 1.328.
Beetle, pertinacity of one, ii. 235:
asparagus, iv. 104: bacon, i.

295: bloody-nose, ii. 247, 321:

burying, i. 851; iv. 254. dark-
ling, ii. 242: death-watch, i. 36 ;
i. 385: lily, 260: meal-worm,
i, 224; iv. 104: oil, 1. 250:
poplar, 245: rhinoceros, iv. 11:
turnip, i. 195: vine, 202; iv.
499,

Beetles, blister, i. $12; ii. 227:
bombardier, 246 ; iv. 129, 143:
capricorn, i. 252, 298; ii. 391:
carnivorous, iv. 131: carrion, ii.
949: dung or pill, i. 949; ii.
234, 257; iii. 442, 456: elastic,
ii. 917: herbivorous, iv. 132:
Knot-grass, 163: lamellicorn, iii.
309, 436: petalocerous, 163,168,
446; iv. 898: predaceous, i.
268; 11. 321; iv. 392,408: rove,
i. 236, 244, 806: stag, 224,
2275 iv. 189: tiger, i. 152:
timber and labyrinth, i. 210,
232, 454; il. 235: water, 363;
lil, 123, 481; Iv. 254.

Bile of insects, iv. 103.

Blood, showers of, caused by moths,
i. 35: of insects, iv. 84, 92.

ENGLISH INDEX.

Boatman (water), i. 272.

Bonnet, iv. 444.

Book-crab, iv. 228.

Books, attacked by insects, 1. 236.

Boxes (store), described, iv. 254.

breeding, iv. 540.

Brain, Acarus found in, i. 140.

Bug, bed, i. 107: chintz, 170:
harvest, 103: red, 184: water,
li. 364: wheel, i. 108.

Bugs, their scent, ii. 242.

Buprestis of the ancients, what,
n IER

Butcher Bird, i. 284.

Butterflies, blues, iii. 651: cop-
pers, 652: fritillaries, 253:
skippers, ii. 305: Trojans and
Grecians, iii, 909: mode in
which their caterpillars suspend
themselves when about to as-
sume the pupa, 207.

Butterfly, admiral, iii. 84, 114:
Adonis,i. 41; 111.651: brimstone,
252: cabbage, i. 188; i. 11;
iv. 24, 281: Glanville fritillary,
iii, 114: hawthorn, 98: large
skipper, ii. 305: mountain, iii.
149: nettle, 253: orange-tip,
254: painted lady, 261: pea-
cock, i. 9; iii, 214: purple em-
peror or high-flier, iv. 415: sil-
ver-washed fritillary, iii. 253:
swallow-tail, ii. 224: tortoise-
shell, iii. 110.

Cabbage tribe, insect assailants of,
1. 188.

Cabinet, directions for making, iv.
S425

Case or Caddis worms, i. 468; ii.
264.

Camphor, how to be used, iv. 545.

Carrots and Parsnips, injured by
a centipede, i. 180.

Catching insects, directions fer, iv.
515.

Caterpillars, diseases. of, iv. 206:
how to preserve, 538: surveyor?
attitudes of, ii. 236.

Cattle, insects that attack, i. 148.

Caul of insects, iv. 93.

ENGLISH INDEX.

Centipedes, i. 123, 256, 308.

Chabrier, eulogium of, iv. 179.

Chafer, carrion, ii. 391: cock, i.
177, 205; ii. 377: dung, 234,
249, 357: fern, 5: rose, 321:
tree, 234,

Cheese maggot, i. 226; ii. 283:
mite, 229, 332.

Cherry, insects that attack, i. 195.

Chestnut, insects that attack, i.
201.

Chrysalis, i. 65.

Cicada, male, sound produced by,
and its apparatus, 1i. 402, 405.
Circulation, different modes of in
^ the animal kingdom, iv. 81:

whether any in insects, 85.

Clairville's system, iv. 461.

Classes of annulose animals, iii. 16 ;
iv. 365; osculant, iii, 14.

Climates, insect, iv. 482.

Clocks or Dors, ii. 310.

Clover-seed destroyed by a wee-
vil, i. 176.

Cochineal, 1. 318.

Cockroach, 1. 226, 239.

Cocoon, i. 68, 4623 iil. 214.

Collar of certain insects, whether
the analogue of the prothorax,
id. 548.

Collier, plant-louse of the bean,
1 175.

Colours (brilliant), use of in insects,
i, Du.

Commosis, what? ii. 485.

Concealment, modes of in insects,
ii. 257.

Correlation, iv. 357.

Cossus, Pliny’s, i. 299.

Cotton, insects that injure, i. 184.

Creation, works of, have a double
object, iv. 401. —

Crepuscular insects, 1v. 512.

Cricket, field, ii. 397; iv. 104:
house, i. 240; ii. 396: Indian,
i. 240: mole, ii. 366, 398.

Crop of insects, iv. 106, 109, 111.

Cuckow, bee, i. 287.

Cucumbers, fecundated by bees,
i. 295.

627

Cupules, iv. 172, 183.

Currant, insects that attack, i. 194.

Cuvier's system, iv. 462.

Dances of insects, ii. 5, 372.

Death-watch, i. 36 ; ii. $85.

Deer infested by insects, i. 158.

De Geer (Baron), system of, iv.
442.

Developments of plants and ani-
mals, iii, 57,

Digger (entomological) described,
1v. 516.

Dimerous insects, iii. 685.

Diptera, three descriptions of, ii.
360. oon

Diseases of insects :—wounds, iv.
198: internal diseases, 201, 571:
parasitic, 207, 572. :

-— caused by lice, i. 83: by
mites, 87: by larvae, 98, 134.
Dissection of insects, modes of, iv.

194.

Distribution. of insects :—numeri-
cal, iv. 476 : topographical, 482 :
local, 498.

Diurnal insects, iv. 512.

Dogs, insects infesting, i. 161.

Dors, ii, 219, 310; iii. 392,

Dragon, flying, wings represent
mid-legs of insects, iii. 593; iv.
418.

Dragonflies, devourers of insects,
i, 273: remarkable apparatus of
larva, &c., iii, 125.

Drone, or male bee, i. 171. — —

Drum of the cicada, ii. 405: of
prasshoppers, 399.

-Dyes afforded by insects, i. 315.

Earwigs, common, i. 358: giant,
ii. 237: lesser, Iv. 514.

Education, effects of on ants and
other insects, ii. 87; iv. 22.

Eggs of insects, how fecundated,
iv. 158: exclusion, iii, 66: situ-
ation, 70: substance, 86: num-
ber, 88: size, 89: growth, 91:
shape, 93: sculpture, 97: co-
lour, 99: period of hatching ac-
celerated by artificial means, iv.
542; gestation, iil. 162: have

282

MU LEAL

TIL EE

M

€—

mS

628 ENGLISH INDEX.

their parasites, iv. 212: various
modes of depositing, 353.

Electricity affects gossamer web, iv.
131: excites insects, 135, 246.

Entomologist, not cruel, 1.53; dress
proper for, iv. 525.

Entomology, instances of its utility,
i. 934: study of, value, 4: uses
of a system of, 47.

Entozoa namatoidea, a kind of in-
testinal worms, iv. 229. ,

Ephemere, history of, i. 279: sin-
gular gyrations of, ii. 369: have
an inner pupa case, iii. 296 : re-
spiratory organs, iv. 57 : used as
manure, 1. $14.

Eras, entomological : — of the an-
cients, iv. 420: of the revival of
the science, 426: of Swammer-
dam and Ray, 431: of Linné,
496: of Fabricius, 449: of La-
treille, 454: of MacLeay, 465.

Evil (seeming), uses of, i. 247.

Excrement of insects, iv. 119: lar-
væ of wasps, bees, &c. have none,

102,

Eyes of insects : —simple, iii. 490 :
conglomerate, 493: com pound,
494: structure of, 495: num-
ber, 498: situation, 500: figure,
501.

Fabricius, system of, iv. 451.

Fishes attacked by an insect, 1.165.

Flea, i. 100: leap of, ii 915:
strength of, iv. 188.

. Flies, singular disease of, iv. 202,

571.

Flowers, insects that devour,i. 192.

Fluid in pseudo-cardia of insects,
iv. 84, 89, note.

Fly, cauliflower, i. 108: chamze-
leon, iii. 99; iv. 54: cheese, ii.
283 : crane, ii. 367 ; iv. 157 : eye,
i. 130 : fire, i. $14; ii. 427: flesh
or carrion, ii. 276, 361: forest,
i. 147; ii, 910: gall, 1315,448;
iv. 156: Hessian, 1. 50, 169:
horse, i. 109, 145; il: 472, note:
house, i. 129; ii. 362: lace-
winged, iii. 94 : May,i. 279; iii,

239, 295, 305: onion, i, 190:
sand or burning, i. 110: scor-
pion, ii. 20, 56: snake, ii. 310,
527: swallow;i.111: wheat, 168.

Food, insects that attack, i. 224:
reservoir, iv. 98.

Forceps described, iv. 520.

Forest-trees, insects attack, 1. 205.

Frog-hopper (froth), leaps of, ii.
STé,

Fungi, parasitic on insects, iv. 207.

Gadfly, deer and reindeer, i. 158 :
horse, 146 : ox, 148 : man, 136:
rabbit, 165: sheep, 157.

—, has eight trachee, iv. 65.

Gall-nuts, i. 815, 448.

Garments, insects that attack, i.
229.

Gecko (lizard), ii. 825.

Geometers or surveyors, a kind of
caterpillar, ii. 292; iv. 188.

Gesner, iv. 499.

Gizzard of insects, iv. 99.

Glow-worm, common, ii. 410; iv.
143: Italian, ii. 425.

Gnat, agaric, li. 7: common, i.
112; ij. 985; ii. 81: gall, i.
208, 453: horse, 147: wheat,
i. 98, 170: winter, ii. 443.

Goliath beetles belt the globe, iv.

"493.

Gooseberry, insects that.attack, i.
195. 3

Gossamer webs, ii. 334.

Gould (Rev. W.), the historian of
English ants, ii. 48.

Grass, insects that attack, i. 177.

Grasshopper, à. 222, 398: large
green, 1. 150; iv. 230.

Gray (Mr.) characters of Linné’s
orders and genera of insects in

.. Latin verse, iv. 446.

Groups of animal kingdom, iv. 360:
of insects, 390: characters of,
391: scale of, 393: composition
of, 397: how to be investigated,
548: predominant, 488: domi-
nant, 490: sub-dominant, 492:
quiescent, 493: endemial, 494,

Gyrations of insects, ii. 369,

ENGLISH INDEX.

Habit, what, iv. 551.
Habitations of solitary insects, i,
435: of gregarious insects, 446.

curious ones of Tinei-

dæ, i. 457.

Harvest-man, iv. 114.

Hawkmoth, bee, i. 209: death’s-
head, 34, 163; ii. 240, 266: hor-
net, i. 209: humming-bird, i.
369, 383: privet, 111,266: spurge,
266.

Hawkmoths, ii. 237.

Hearing of insects, organ of, iv.
240. ¥
Heart of insects, what represented
by? iv. 84: of Arachnida, 93.
Heat (vital) of insects, ii. 229 : iv.

VES
Herbage benefited by insects, i.
249.
Herod (Agrippa) destroyed by lar-
vee, i. 99.
Heteromerous insects, iii. 683.
Honey, i. 327: iv. 134.
— comb, 1. 485.
—- dew, 1. 208.
Hops, insects that attack, 1. 182.
Hornet, i. 121, 270.
Horse, insects that annoy, i. 145.
Hovering of insects, ii. 368.
Humble-bees, affection for their
young, i. 379: mode of building
their nests, 502: females, ii. 114:
making cells, 117: males, 118:
workers, 118: hive-bees per-
suade them to yield to them
their honey, 119.
Humeral piece of wings, iii. 619.
Humming of insects, ii. 979: iii.
552, note.
in the air, ii. 377.
Hybernation of insects :—in the egg
state, ii. 432: pupa state, 435:
larva state, 436: perfect state,
437: places to which they resort
for, 440: cold not the only cause
of, 460. l
Hymenoptera (gregarious) not sub-
ject to the attack ofichneumons,
iv. 218.

629

Ichneumons, i. 2643 iv. 209, 222:
how to extract from caterpillars,
SAI;

Ignis fatuus, ii. 492.

Imago, i. 68: motions-—walking,
ii. 306: running, 310 : jumping,
318: climbing, 320 ; against gra-
vity, 323: flying, 346: swim-
ming, &c.,363 : burrowing, 365 :
development, iii. 291: sexual di-
stinctions, 299: age, 343.

Insects, apparatus for killing, iv.
530: annoyance of in what
respects beneficial, i. 250: be-
neficial in removing nuisances ;
as dung, 252: carrion, 253: in
keeping other insects, &c. within
due limits, 245, 259: as afford-
ing food to mammalia, 277 ; to
reptiles, 278; to fishes, 279; to
birds, 284; to man, 298: as ar-
ticles used in materia medica,
312: used for ornament, 314:
as affording materials for dyeing,
ink, &c., 315: as producing wax,
324; honey, 327; silk, 329:
cold and frost, effects upon, ii.
442, 451: definition of, iii, 28 :
breeding them, directions for, iv.
538: differ from Crustacea and
Arachnida, iii. 9: education, ef-
fects of upon, ii. 87: errors (vul-
gar) concerning,i.39 : fossil, iv,
557: food of— vegetable, i. 382;
animal, 384; both animal and
vegetable, 386: some univorous,
387; others omnivorous, 388:
times of feeding, 391: organs by
whiclf they feed, 393; in. 417:
stratagems employed in procu-
ring food— by spiders, 1.404; by
the ant-lion, 427: how best to
kill them when . captured, iv.
523, 527: imitations they exhi-
bit, i, 7; ii. 219: injuries they
occasion to man, i. 82; other
animals, 144 ; grain, 166; pulse,
178; herbage, 177 ; roots, 184;
kitchen-garden, 187; flower gar-
den, 192; fruit, 198; plantations,

630

205; to our food, 224; gar-
ments, 229 ; timber, 232 ; books
and cabinets, 256: instincts, ex-
quisiteness of, ii. 473; number
of, 498; development of, 509:
instruction afforded by insects,
i. 16: integuments of, iii. 394:
intellect of, ii. 513; iv. 21, 32:
inventious they have anticipat-
ed, i. 14: means by which they
defend themselves—passive, il.
2193 active, 232: luminous in-
sects, ii. 409: noxious, how to
be destroyed, i. 30: umber,
(supposed) of insects existing,
iv. 477: compared with that of
plants, 477: of carnivorous and
phytiphagous insects, 479 : ovi-
parous and ovo-viviparous in-
sects, lii, 65: representative in-
sects, iv. 496: rank of, 363:
strength of, iv. 188: setting and
preparing for cabinet, 530: table
of relative size of, iil. 53: trans-
formations of, 1. 69.

Instinct, change of in a spider, iv.
198, note.

Itch, cause of, i. 90.

Jaws of insects, i. 394.

Jelly, secreted by ditto, iv. 133.

Journal, entomological, how to
make, iv. 556.

Jurine, system of, iii. 629 ; iv. 470.

Kingdoms (animal and vegetable),
analogies between, iv. 361: nu-
merical arrangement of, 400.

Knowledge, two avenues to, i. 24.

Lac, an insect product, i. 321.

Lady-bird or Lady-cow, i. 262 ; ii.

9, 230.
Lamarck, system of animals, iii. 15:
of insects, iv. 462.
Lantern-fly, noise of, ii. 401: whe-
ther luminous, 418.
Larva of flies, i, 227:

stinging,
ii. 179: rat-tailed, i. 253: its
respiratory apparatus, iv. 53.

Larve, substance of,iii.110: head,
112: eyes, 116: antenna, 118:
mouth, 119: trunk and abdo-

ENGLISH INDEX.

men, 180: prolegs, 194: dor-

sal of gall-fly, ii. 281: appen-

dages, iv. 146: figure, 156:

kinds of, 160: primary forms

of, 162: clothing of, 174: co-
lour, 185 : food of, 189 : moult-

ing, 190 : growth of, 201: how

they prepare to assume the pu-

pa, 204: motions of apodous,
li. 273: of pedate, ii. 256.

Latreille, system of, iv. 456.

Law (original) of the Creator, re-
gulates the developments of in-
sects, ili. 56.

Leach, Dr., system of, iv. 463.

Legs of insects, parts of, ii. 286:
number of, 307; iil. 654: ac-
quisition of, by myriapods, iii.
107, 159: antenne supply the
place of, ii. 313: relative loca-
tion of, 658: motatory, ii. 306.

Lepidoptera, parasites of, iv. 221:
colours, iii, 649 : scales, 646.

Linné, system of animals, iii. 5: of
insects, iv. 438.

Lint collected by an ant, i. 312.

Lister, Dr. Martin, iv. 434.

Liver of Arachnida, iv. 103, 115.

Locusts, ravages of, i. 218 : follow-
ed by famine and pestilence,
214: benefits produced by, 249 :
used as food, 300: leap of, ii.
314; female killed by the male,
iil, 947.

Louse, bat, ii. 811: bird, i. 162;
iii. 97 : common, i. 83 : peacock,
i 162: sheep, i. 156 : sugar, ii.
320: wood, 233.

———, leaf. See Plant-louse.

Luminosity of insects, causes of, ii.

493; iv, 444.

Lyonnet, anatomy of the cossus, iv.
448.

MacLeay, W. S., system of ani-
‘mals, iii. 12: of Annulosa,iv. 465:
of Mandibulata, 467: of Petalo-
cera, 469: columns of analo-
gous Haustellata and Mandibu-
lata, 412.

Maggot of a fly, destructive to the

————— a

ENGLISH INDEX. '631

sick, i. 197: jumping of cheese-
fly, 1. 226 ; ii. 283.

Magnus, Albertus, iv. 426.

Maize, insects that attack, i. 170,
179;

Males, two kinds of ? iv. 166.

Man, centre of the animal crea-
tion, iv. 360.

Marrow, spinal, iv. 8.

Mayfly. See Fly.

Meal-worm, i. 224; iii. 142.

Medicine, insects useful in, i. $12.

Metamorphoses of insects, ana-
logy between and the resurrec-
tion, i. 72: use of, 77: analo-
gies of those of plants and ani-
mals; iii. 57.

Method, what? iv. 355.

Microscopes, iv. 194, 557.

Migrations of insects, ii. 7; iv. 511:
of locusts, ii. 15.

Milk produced by insects, ii. 245,
25T3 AV. AGS.

Mite, autumnal, or harvest bug, 1.
97, 103: bee, 162: beetle, iv.
227: cheese, i. 226, 307, 332;
iii, 107: dysentery, i. 89 : flour,
225: itch, 90: milk, 88: spi-
der, iv. 572: spinning or red spi-
der, i. 201: strawberry, 1. 311:
vegetating, i. 393 ; iv. 227.

Mites that infest collections of in-
sects, &c. how best destroyed,
iv. 545.

Mitys, what? ii. 285.

Mole-cricket, ravages of, i. 191:
wonderful apparatus for moving
its arms, iii, 586.

Monomerous insects, ili. 686.

Moses, knowledge of insects, i.
22; iv. 420.

Mosquito, a Simulium, i. 118. See
Gnat.

Moth, aquatic, iv. 56: barley, i.
172: brown-tail, 204: clothes’,
229, 465: emperor, 334; ii
251: figure-ofeight, i. 197:
fir: 19815;:35:22c-futj 1.2930:
ghost or hop, 182; iii. 66, 271,
306; gold or yellow-tail, i. 30;

ii. 21, 953: gooseberry and cur-
rant, i 195; li, 452: grass, i.
178 : great-goat, 1. 2095 il. 301 ;
iii. 119, 174, 201, 352: lackey,
iii. 80: lappet, ii, 222 ; iii. 99 :
lobster, ii. 254 : locust, iii. 284:
procession, i. 130, 478; il. 23:
prominent, iii. 152: puss, ii.
251, 253; iii. 283; iv. 213: silk-
worm, 1. 332; iii. 89, 276: tā-
pestry, i. 230: tiger, ii. 226,
252; iil, 164: wax, 1. 388: wolf,
i. 171: wool, i. 230.

, remarkable brush of, iv. 60:
one resembling acaterpillar, 159.

. Moths, certain that construct cu-

rious habitations, i. 457, 465;
ii. 477: minute, howto be taken,
iv. 527.

greasy, how to restore, iv.
199.

Mothing, seasons of, iv. 511.

Mouffet, iv. 429.

Moulting. See Insects.

Muscles of insects, origin of, iv. 168:
substance of, 168: shape, 170:
colour, 171: kinds, 171: point
of attachment, 172: motions,
173: muscles of larvze, 174: of
imago head and organs, 175: of
trunk, 177: of wings, 179.

——-—, of Arachnida, iv. 187.

Myrtle, attacked by a coccus, i.
198: ;

Nectar of flowers, numerous in«
sects devoted to its absorption,
iv. 480.

Nectarine, attacked by insects, i.
200.

Nerves of insects, number of, iv.
14: recurrent, 16.
Nervous system of insects, mixed,
iv. 21,23: changes of in their

metamorphosis, 23.

Net, bag, iv. 516: fly or bat-fowl-
ing, 518: French, 516: Mac-
lean’s, 520 : Paul's, 517: landing
or water, 521.

Neuters, Y. 305 iv. 165.

Nine-Killer, i. 285.

632

` Nocturnal insects, iv. 513.

Noises of insects, how produced,
ii. 380: of beetles, &c. 390.
See Humming.

Nut weevil of, 1. 201.

Nymph, i. 65: cased nymph, 67.

Oils produced by insects, iv. 133.

Olive, insects that attack, i. 201.

Orange, attacked by a coccus, i.193.

Orchard and Fruitery, insect ene-
mies of, i, 193.

Orders of insects, denominations
of, i. 66, note: definitions of, iv.

367: which should precede, 416: '

osculant, 369.

Orismology (term), ili, 257; iv.
529, note.

Ovo-viviparous insects, iv. 163.

Palpi, of what sense organs, iv. 248.

Parasites of insects :—vegetable, iv.
207: Insect ; hymenopterous,
i 2645 iv. 209: strepsipterous,
i. 267; iv. 208: dipterous, i.

. 267; iv. 224: apterous, ibid:
Worms, 229.

Pax-wax, iv. 176.

Peaches, insects that attack, i. 200.

Pears, insects that attack, i. 197.

Peck (Professor), his description of
the ovipositor of saw-flies,iv.154.

Penny (Dr. Thomas), iv. 429.

Pentamerous insects, ili. 368.

Perspiration of insects, iv. 145.

Phosphorus, iv. 107. d

Phthiriasis, or lousy disease, i. 84;
iv. 224.

Phthirophagi, 1. 107.

Pigeons, insects that infest, i. 162.

Pine-apple, insects that attack, i.
201.

Pissoceros, what? ii. 147.

Plant-lice, extraordinary fecundity
of, i. 174; iv. 164: numbers of,
ii. 8.

Plant-louse—of the apple, i. 32,
198: of the bean or Collier,
175: ofthe beech, 208: of the
fir, 208, 454: of the hop, 265:
of the larch, 208: of roots, ii.
90: of the rose, i. 192.

ENGLISH INDEX.

Plants, entrap flies, 1. 289: fecun-
dated by insects, 299 : some
yield poisonous honey, ii. 180.

Pliny, iv. 425.

Plums, insects that attack, i. 197.

Pockets (wax), ii. 177.

Poisons, insect, iv. 197.

Polymerous insects, ill. 686.

Potatoes, insects that attack, i.
185.

Poultry, insects that attack, 1. 162.

Praying-insecís or Mantes, fero-
city of, i. 275.

Propolis, what? ii. 186.

Proportion (relative), of insects ac-
cording to the kind of their
food, 1v. 480.

Pubescence of insects, uses of, iii.
399.

Pupe, kinds of, i. 65; iii, 228 : La-
marck’s and Latreille’s division
of, 243, note: integument of,
244: figure of, 246: parts of, 249:
colour of, 259: age of, 261: sex
of, 270: motions of, ii. 296 ; iii.
270 : respiration of, iv. 74: ex-
trication of, iii. 272.

Pupiparous insects, iii. 64; iv. 165.

Queen-bee, ii. 141.

Range (geographical) of insects, iv.
486.

Raspberry, insects that attack, i.
T1944

Ratel (honey), i. 278.

Ray (John), system of insects, iv.
4528.

Reaumur, eulogium of, iv. 443.

Respiration of insects, how carried
on, 1v.36 : external signs of, 73.

Rooks, serviceable by destroying
insects, 1. 30.

Rye attacked by insects, i. 172.

Salmon, louse of, i. 165.

Saprophagous insects, iv. 479.

Saw-lies, how they deposit their
eggs, i, 353: their ovipositor,

“853; iv. 154: vast flights of,
ii. 10: simulate death, ii. 235 :
eggs of, grow, iii. 91: why hy-
menopterous, iv. 373, 407: their

ENGLISH INDEX. 638

scent organs, 1i. 245, 251: slimy.

larve of, 228.

Sawfly, bar ley, i. 172: cherry,
195: gooseberry, 195: rose,
192, 353: turnip, 186; ii. 10.

Schwenckfeeld, Dr., first faunist,
iv. 400.

Scolechiasis i, 99; iv. 224,

Scorpion, terrific attitude of, 1,124:
ferocity of, 276: gills of, iv. 60:
liver of, 117.

——-—-, water, eggs of, lil. 94.

Scripture (Holy), account of in-
sects, 1v. 420,

Sculpture of insect integument, iii,
2974

Seasons of insects, 1v. 508.

Secretions of insects: — silk,iv. 130 :
saliva, 131: varnish, 193: jelly,
133: oils, 133: milk, 184: ho-
ney, 134: wax, 198: poisons
aud acids, 137: odorous fluids
and vapours, 140: phosphorus,
143 : fat, 144.

Semicomplete pupa, i. 67.

Senses of insects, whether seven,
iv. 283: they have the ordi-
nary, 237 : internal sense, 234 ;

sight, 234: hearing, 235: an-
tenng, whether organs of, 240 :
touch, 247: smell, 249: taste,
2/854

Sensorium, common,
sident, lv. 19.

Seven, a sacred number, iii. 15,
note; iv. 283: quinary groups
fasuivabio into, 399.

Sheep, insects that infest, i. 156.

Shell-fish, insects that infest, 1. 165.

Showers (bloody), produced by in-
sects, 1. 34.

Shrike. See Butcher "bird.

Silk, 1. 993

Silk-worms, kinds of, i. 332: dis-
eases of, iv. 205: not attacked
by ichneumons, 221:, how to
forward their exclusion, iii, 101.

Skin of insects, iii, 401.

Skunk, li. 241.

Sleep of insects, iv. 192.

where re-

Soap, manufactured from insects,
1.519.

Sedet, Royal, iv. 436.

, Linnean, iv. 449.

S pua. knew insects, i, 23; 1i. 46.

Sow-bug, i. 140.

Sparrows, number of caterpillars
they devour, i. 288.

Species, iv. 396: how to inves-
tigate, 549.

Spectre, large egg of, iii. 90.

Sphinv, why so named, ii. 237.

Spider, amphibious, i. 473: bird,
494; iil. 491: edible, i. 307.
gossamer, ii. 236 : large field or
diadem, i. 405: shepherd, ii
310: small garden, i, 416: trap-
door, 471.

Spiders, hunters, i, 494: swim-
mers, 425: vagrants, 404: wea-
vers or sedentaries, 404; iv. 31.

-—— — , affection for their eggs, i
859: webs, texture of and how
spun, 408, 421; iv. 123: won-
derful apparatus for spinning,
404: floating nest of, 425:
nest under water, 475: web
destroyed by fluid emitted by a
caterpillar, ii, 248: sailing in
the air, 334: effects of their
venom, i. 181: cruelty, 276:
gills of, iv. 61: liver of, 118:
disease of, 207.

Spiracles (false), i il. 714.

Spirits-of-wine, their use in de-
stroying insects, iv. 523, 527.

Stamina of flowers adhering to
bees mistaken for fungi, iv. 208.

Stick, entomological, iv. 516.

Stomach. of* “insects, iv. 99: pecu-
liar of bugs, 110.

Strawberry, “whether attacked by
insects, i. 193; Hi. 311.

Strength (muscular) of insects, iv.
188.

Strepsiptera (order), denomination
proper, iii. 591, note.

Subclasses, iv. 366.

Subclimates, iv. 485.

Suborders, iv. 392,

634

Sugar-cane, insect assailants of, i.
182.

Swammerdam, system of, iv. 431.

Swine, insects that infest, i. 158.

System, what? iv. 356.

— (nervous) of animals,
three primary types of, iv. 3:
what analogous to, 20.

— of the development of
insect forms by Dr. Herold,
refutation of, iii, 52, 192,

Systems of insects, alary, iv. 436:
eclectic, 454: maxillary, 449:
metamorphotic, 431: quinary,
465.

T'arantula spider, effects of bite,
i. 126. E

Taste, organs of in insects, iv. 255.

Tetramerous insects, iii. 684.

Thalerophagous insects, iv. 279.

Tick, American, i. 105, 145: dog,
161; 1. 229, 308.

Timber, insects that attack, 1. 232.

Times of appearance of insects, iv.
512.

Tobacco, insects that attack, iv.
184.

Tool for cutting pins, &c. iv. 544.

Torpidity of insects, iv. 78: causes
of, ii, 442: their reviviscence
from, 455.

Touch, organs of in insects, iv. 247.

Trachea or wind-pipe of insects, iv.
61: analogy between and the
spiral vessels of plants, iv. 70.

T'ree-creeper, i. 286.

Trees, injured by insects, 1. 205:
particularly by a small beetle,
210. »

Trimerous insects, iii. 685.

Trunk of insects, reasons assigned
for the nomenclature of, iii. 529.

T'urnip, greatly injured by insects,
1,185; li. 10.

Vacuum formed by the little cater-
pillar of a moth, i, 15, 461.

ENGLISH INDEX.

Varnish, produced by insects, iv.
1939.

Vessel (dorsal), of insects, iv. 83,
90: varicose or bile, 103.

Vine, attacked by insects, i. 202;
li. 235; iv. 500.

Virey, Dr., system of animals, iv.
362: theory of instinct, 26.

Wasp, bee, ii. 224, 367 : blue-sand,
384: caterpillar or sand, 367;
iv, 132: common,i. 15; ii. 107:
fly, 367: golden, 224, 233: ma-
son, i 346, 356, 447: spider,
9345; 1i. 358, 367.

Wasps, females, i. 372: love of
their progeny, 371: nests .of,
505: numbers of, ii. 109: sen-
tinels, 112: destruction of, 113:
kept in hives, how they proceed,
113: walk against gravity, 331:
how they act if their prey is
too heavy, 520: fluid effused by,
iv. 132: poison of, 159.

Wax (bees’), i. 324, 465; iv. 155.

(coccus), i. 324.

Weevil, clover, i. 177: common,
171: dock, d. 280: figwort,
274: millet, i. 172: nut, 201,
356: palm, 298; ii. 322: rice,
i. 171: water-hemlock, 280.

Weevils, 3i. 234, 322.

Wheat, numerous insects attack,
i. 166.

Wheel, animal, ii. 452.

Willughby, encomium of, iv. 434.

Wings of inseitg li. $46; iii. 618.

Wood-louse (timber), ravages of, i.
295.

Wood-pecker, i. 31, 286.

Works, Entomological, which use-
ful to the entomologist, iv. 471,
note, 590.

Worm, wire, ravages of, i. 179,

186: hand or
wheat, iv. 231.
Worms, intestinal, iv. 229, 231.

wheale, 92.

END OF THE FOURTH AND LAST VOLUME.

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EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
| Vor. I.

PLATE I.

COLEOPTERA.
Fig. 1. Calosoma Sycophanta.
2, Staphylinus cyaneus.
3. Siagonium quadricorne, Nov. Gen, K. magnified,
4. Malthinus.
5. Molorchus.

6. Meloe.
DERMAPTERA.

7. Forficula gigantea.

: PLATE II.
STREPSIPTERA.
1. Xenos Peckii. Linn. Trans.
ORTHOPTERA.
2. Acheta Gryllotalpa.
3. Blatta germanica.
HEMIPTERA.
4. Ledra aurita.
5. Cimex rufipes.
PLATE lll.
LEPIDOPTERA,
1. Papilio dispar mas? |
2, Sesia asiliformis. .
3. Bombyx pulchella,
TRICHOPTERA,
4, Phryganea varia?

> NEUROPTERA.

5. Libellula cancellata.
6. Raphidia notata, Fab, Mantiss.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
Vor. II.

PLATE IV.
HYMENOPTERA.

Fig. 1. Sirex Gigas.
2. Evania appendigaster magnified.
3. Nomada Marshamella,

DIPTERA,
4, Pedicia rivosa.
5. Sericomyia Lapponum.

PLATE V.

1. Oxypterum Kirbyanum. Leach. mag nified.

APHANIPTERA.

2. Pulex irritans magnified.

APTERA.

Ricinus Pavonis magnified.
Aranea marginata. Donovan.
Chelifer cancroides magnified.
Scolopendra forficata.

[This leaf has been reprinted for the accommodation of those who
may prefer binding the Plates, Indexes, and Synoptical Table, in a
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