y RAPTOR RESEARCH NEWS A Quarterly Publication Of The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc. Volume 2 January 1968 Number 1 Editors: Byron S. Harrell, Zoology Dept., University of South Dakota, Vermillion, S. Dak. Donald V. Hunter, Jr., Centerville, 3. Dak. PRESIDENT 1 S MESSAGE We appreciate the renewals which have been coming in. They are a good start in what should be a year of growing activity for the Raptor Research Foundation. The next stage of development of the Foundation is the expan- sion of its activities and the participation of more of its members in these activities. In order to organize these efforts, we are in the process of setting up committees with responsibilities in various areas. The following committees have been designated and will be activated as soon as willing members can be selected. 1. Editorial Committee. 2. Captivity Breeding Committee. 3. Raptor Population Committee. 4. Raptor Banding Committee. 5. Bio-Telemetry Committee. 6. Raptor Pathology Committee. 7. Pesticide Committee. 8. Raptor Ecology and Ethology Committee. 9. Raptor Physiology and Anatomy Committee. 10. Raptor Taxonomy Committee. 11. Education and Conservation Committee. 12. Bibliography Committee. 13. Membership Committee. 14. International Coordination Committee. 15. Finance and Investment Committee. We hope if you are contacted, that you will feel willing to serve. We now have over 250 members in 42 states, 8 provinces, and in 9 other countries, and it is impossible to know everyone's interests and talents. We know that some of you would like to help in some way. One way is to read the enclosed questionnaire, fill it out, and return it to our Secretary (George Jonkel, 1845 Dakota Avenue South, Huron, S. Dak. 57350). From the returns, we can supply lists to committee chairmen, who can call on you to work in an area you would like. The questionnaire is by no means exhaustive; feel free to make your own suggestions how you might aid the program of the Raptor Research Foundation. 1 Another enclosure is a copy of the new "brochure. We hope you will find it attractive and informative. You can also aid the Foundation by passing it on to anyone you feel should be associated with the Foundation. Perhaps we can all serve as unofficial members of the Membership Committee to reach all who have an interest in raptor research. If you can use more brochures in promoting the Foundation, please contact our Secretary. BREEDING- PROJECT INFORMATION EXCHANGE Since the last issue of the Raptor Research News , two numbers of the B.P.I.E. have been prepared. Number 3 had reports from Snderson, White, and Hamerstrom. James Enderson described the breeding quarters which he has built in Colorado Springs. He plans to use Peregrines and Prairie Falcons. He also described an experience with foot trouble in the Peregrine, for which he was able to discern the cause, and effect a remedy. Jimmie White of Cypress, California, describes his expe- rience with Harris's Hawk. A pair of unstated age was placed in a building 12x12x14 ft.; a half side and half of the roof were open, covered only with wire mesh. In 1965 no breeding activities were observed. In 1966 two old Red-tailed Hawk nests were torn apart by the birds in an apparent attempt to build a nest. In 1967 two more old nests were placed in the building from which the birds built a sturdy nest upon which the female sat for a month, at which time plastic eggs were placed under her which she accepted. Thirty-six days later the eggs were replaced with two young Red-tails, two and three days old. These were accepted by both birds and successfully raised. White also has a project with American Kestrels. His pair in 1967 laid clutches of five and four eggs, one month apart. One egg was artificially incubated and successfully hatched but not successfully raised, Fran Hamerstrom reported on the activities of her female Golden Eagle which laid two eggs in 1967. The bird adopted a day old Red-tail Hawk which had been placed in an empty goose egg after the eagle had been incubating for 20 days. After the young bird died of a Salmonella infection April 24, the eagle continued incubation until it was given a week old Red-tail on May 1. These two were raised by the eagle. Also of interest is her report on raising young raptor chicks by use of the technique of warming and moistening the food in her own mouth; the eagle appeared to do this also. B.P.I.E. No. 4 has reports from Richard Fyfe and Henry Kendall. Fyfe reports on a breeding project with a pair of arctic Peregrines. He describes his quarters and procedures. A 12-hour period of light was increased one hour a week from March 12 to 24 hours on May 21, In April their activity and 3 loss of weight was interpreted as corresponding to migration. The birds went into molt without breeding. Henry Kendall’s account deals with breeding of a four year old female and a three year old male Prairie Falcon. The breed- ing room was 14x21x8 1/2 ft. Four 150 watt bulbs were used in conjunction with an automatic timer to produce artificial light. An extra hour of light was given starting February 1, 1967. Eggs were laid March 22, 24, 26, 27, and April 2. On April 5 the female began a molt and one of the eggs was broken. On April 7 the eggs were candled and found to be infertile. Follow- ing the procedure of Beebe's RRF Peregrine project, the eggs were removed in hopes that the bird would recycle. As with Beebe's project, the birds did lay a second clutch of four eggs starting April 22. Two of the eggs were infertile, the other two hatched. One young was partially eaten by the female; the other was re- moved, but died in the fifth day apparently from a staphylococcus infection. ADVERTISEMENT Please send me color transparencies of: Harriers of both sexes over three months old of known age. Rough-legs (Buteo lagopus ) of known age. Red-tails ( Buteo jamaicensisT of known age. Harris Hawks ( Par abut eo unicinctus ) of known age. Red -shouldered Hawks ( Buteo lineatusT “of known age. Please let me know how you aged the bird, and give date and locality. Frances Hamer strom Plainfield, Wisconsin BALD EAGLE PRESERVATION John Mathisen has sent us an eight-page brochure on the Bald Eagle just published by the Chippewa National Forest (Cass Lake, Minnesota) which is being made available to the public. In addi- tion to a general account of the life of this species, it tells of the work of the Forest Service in protecting this species in this National Forest where over 100 of the 600 known pairs in the United States (except Alaska) breed. It is also heartening to note the cooperation of some indus- tries concerned with habitats in which Bald Eagles live. Nest protection plans have been developed by Northern States Power Company (see also Raptor Research News l(3):41-42, July 1967), the Boise Cascade Paper Company, and the Red Lake Band of Chip- pewa Indians (see News 1(3); 42; to apply to more than 1,000,000 acres of northern Minnesota. The program on the Indian lands is as follows. 4 "1. All Eagle nests will be protected. The Superinten- dent shall direct his Branch of Forestry to maintain any necessary records of nesting and roosting sites. M 2. Development activities, within two chains of any nest tree, will be limited to management measures not detri- mental to maintaining the nesting site. The Agency Forester will review all proposed activities within the zone. Manage- ment or development activities within the restricted zones will be subject to the Superintendent * s approval. Special management consideration should be extended to those areas known or suspected to be active. These considerations will be continued until the actual status is determined. "3* A special buffer zone will be established around each nest site. Gutting, spraying, road construction, and other activities will be restricted within a minimum of ten chains from a known nest tree during the period from March 1 to August 1. Timber sale contracts within the buffer zone will contain provisions restricting cutting in accordance with these provisions. "4. Three to five tali trees (generally red or white pine) should be reserved as roosting and potential nest trees within the ten-chain area surrounding the nest. "5. Any foot trails or similar improvements which will facilitate accessibility to the nest sites will be constructed only when essential to reasonable resource management and pro- tection within these guidelines. ”6. It is further requested that the Division of Wild- life Services, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, provide technical assistance and recommendations in the maintenance of this Reservation as an eagle sanctuary.” (Quoted from Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, 1967 Wildlife Services Annual Report, Region 3.) In Oregon and Washington the Weyerhauser Company is also concerned with the Bald Eagles that nest on their tree farms. Their news release is quoted in The Auk 84(4) :635 (October, 1967). 5 RAPTOR CONSERVATION NOTED IN " KING-FISHER " "Kingf isher" is a small magazine published by Richard Fitter in England which assembles news on conservation in all parts of the world and is available for one pound for one year (9 issues) from KINGFISHER, 6 Gombards, St. Albans, Herts., England. Some items from a recent issue are reprinted here (from Vol. 3(6) 8 Feb. -Mar. 1968). Film Prizes . The Grand Prix at the Second ' L' Homme et I'Oiseau* Film festival, held in Paris in November, was awarded jointly to Swallows from the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, and Au Pays du Faucon Sac re by Mm. J-F. and Mi. Terrasse. La Faucon Paler in won the special prize of the Asso- ciation Sportive de la Chasse Photographique . Eagle-Owls for Sweden . Two more pairs of eagle-owls bred at the Norfolk Wildlife Park were sent back to Sweden in Novem- ber to help re-establish the species in Swedish forests where it has become extinct. Eight owls have already been sent back to Sweden in the two previous years. Birds of Prey Protected . By grand ducal decree dated June 29 , 1967, all birds of prey are now protected in Luxemburg. ( L * Homme et L* Oiseau . November). . . . and Unprotected . In four months at the end of 1966 one taxidermist in the Bordeaux region received from hunters the following birds of prey to be stuffed: four kestrels, three mer- lins, three goshawks, two hobbies, two sparrowhawks , two common buzzards, one hen harrier and one red kite. The kite had been ringed in East Germany. ( L 1 Homme et L y Oiseau . November). 6 ORKNEY HARRIER REPORT William C. Scharf Department of Biological Sciences Northwestern Michigan College, Traverse City Preface. Over 25 years ago, Edward Balfour chose the Hen Harrier as a species to concentrate on as a long term breeding population study- In his nearly treeless homeland of Orkney, a group of more than 70 islands off the north coast of Scotland, there is a surprising degree of choice of raptorial birds to study. All of the most common species are ground-nesters as is the Hen Harrier (same species as the North American Marsh Hawk). They include Short-Eared Owls, Merlins, and the European Kes- trel. Mr. Balfour reported on the advent of ground -nesting kestrels just after World War II. We also observed nesting Peregrines and Buzzards this year. I went to Orkney at the suggestion of Dr. Frances Hamer- strom, whose efforts on behalf of the Orkney Harrier project are gratefully acknowledged and from whom I learned the capture and marking techniques that I employed in Orkney. Acknowledgment is also made to the granting agencies, the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and the Chapman Fund of the American Museum of Natural History. It is noteworthy that our total of 39 nests does not re- flect the total number of nests suitable for trapping. That number was considerably smaller due to the normal nest failure rate. Only a small percentage of the nests suitable for trap- ping had males in attendance. We failed to catch males (nor- mally more difficult to trap) at only two nests. All harriers caught were in Mr. Balfour's long-term study area which contains the highest concentrations of this species in Orkney. However, a fair number of nests did exist outside the study area and on other islands where we were unable to trap. Procedure. I arrived in Kirkwall, Orkney, on 12 June, 1967, with a live Great Horned Owl and necessary capture and color marking equipment. Due to a late hatch date, we attempted no captures until 24 June. However, we spent the interim preparing capture equipment and adding at least 15 nests to our list for study. The total number of nests found was 39* During the cap- ture period we followed a fairly rigorous schedule, arising between 4:00 and 6:00 hrs. with work continuing through the day. Our latest capture was recorded at 21:45 hrs. which emphasizes the long hours of daylight available for work in this latitude during early summer. The greatest number of captures in one day was three, but there were some unsuccessful days. Mr. Bal- four's van served as transport to the nest site vicinity because the distance between some nests was as far as 10-15 miles. After 7 our arrival in the nest vicinity, we walked, carrying the equip- ment, The most remote nest was more than an hour away on foot. In addition to the capture studies, Mr. Balfour and I collected data on nestling development by weighing the young birds and measuring the longest primary feather. This study was carried on during every nest visit if feasible, and some nest visits were made expressly for this purpose. I left Ork- ney on 19 August . Results . We took great care to determine whether the in- creased activity at nest sites due to recapture techniques or nestling development study techniques increased mortality of young or adult birds, or nest desertion. Comparison of the 1967 mortality with Mr. Balf our * s long term records revealed that our activities had no adverse effect on the nesting Hen Harrier population. We captured 26 adult Hen Harriers during the study (one was captured twice). Five of these birds had been ringed as nestlings. One bore celluloid color rings which had been attached while it was a nestling, but had no ring. This sug- gests that the ring had been lost, and we surmised that this may have happened fairly frequently among birds ringed with the old-style aluminum rings. This is unlikely to occur with the new monel rings which are of a harder metal. We performed routine processing on each adult which included weighing, wing measurement, color marking, and ringing. We also took notes concerning plumage and iris colour. We recorded 281 weights and longest primary measurements from nestlings of known age and at all stages of growth. These data probably comprise the most comprehensive study of nestling development in this species. Mr. Balfour and 1 feel that these data will show a complete growth curve for aging nestlings of unknown age , the development of the pronounced sexual dimorphism and faster development of the Hen Harrier male (preliminary graph fig. l), and the influence of asynchronous hatching on siblings. Also, our nestling development study contributes to the standard- ization of techniques for obtaining growth data from young rap- tors. We are preparing these data for publication. Let me also stress that Orkney is uniquely suited for this type of nestling development study, because there are no ground predators to follow the investigator's path to the nest when frequent visits are necessary. Need for Continuation of this Study . It is of great impor- tance to continue this study. Not only will it add to our knowledge of the Hen Harrier, but will also provide a comprehen- sive view of this intensively studied, healthy raptor population, a rare and perhaps unique circumstance. The adults which were ringed and color marked this season can yield a multiplicity of 8 Figure 1 (preliminary graph). Growth of Orkney Harriers as indicated by length of longest primary. 9 information on the following subjects if the study is continued: 1. sex and age ratio in the population. 2. individual reproduction success when correlated with previous data. 5. mate constancy and polygamy and their implications to reproductive success. 4. correlations of reproductive success and age. 5. territory delineation and yearly nest site selection. Continuation of the study next year with skilled manpower in addition to Mr. Balfour is the only means of utilizing the effort invested this year. Our accomplishments this summer could not have been carried on effectively by one man. The additive effect of the capturing to Mr. Balfour's original Hen Harrier nesting studies frequently taxed our energies, available time, and vehicular transportation heavily. I am confident that even more personnel could be profitably employed during the peak periods. Hone of the work would have been possible this season without the cooperative financial assistance of the two organiza- tions this report is directed to. 10 THE EXPERIMENTAL PRODUCTION OF FOOT INFECTIONS IN BIRDS; OBSERVATIONS ON CAUSES AND CURE L. G. Swartz Biological Sciences Department University of Alaska , College, Alaska Introduction The published information on the affliction commonly called " bumble foot” embodies a curiously varied set of opinions on cause, cure, and prevention, often quite firmly and oppositely expressed* This is certainly due to the fact that the body of knowledge about it has been acquired gradually in a more or less accidental way as individual falconers have come to unhappy con- clusions about probable causes and have tried the best they knew how to cure individual cases. A systematic research program has obviously been needed and while the present work does not pre- tend to be extensive or intensive enough to provide final answers, it may be a start. My own interest in the subject began, naturally, when I became the horrified owner of a case of bumblefoot. This ex- perience with both feet of a tiercel peregrine lasted for 21 months and resulted in about 130 closely written pages of notes on treatment. The notes and efforts to cure the bird ended only when I lost the bird while flying. A second case appeared later in a peregrine falcon and was caught at a very early stage. Observations on these cases will be given later but each stimu- lated the reasoning which led to experimental attempts to produce the affliction, the first step in developing a rationale about both disease and cure. Experimental Production of Foot Infections It is clear that any foot problem which logically could be called bumblefoot is really better described as a foot infection. This was aptly pointed out by Mavrogordato (A Hawk for the Bush, I960). I think that the point is important because the term "bumblefoot" tends to conjure up a narrower form of thinking. Since any microbial infection depends upon a breach in the body defenses, the skin in this case, for entry of the causative or- ganisms, artificially producing the breach and introducing microorganisms to be found in the environment of the bird should result in typical foot infections. Operating on this assumption, I set up an experiment using ten near-adult leghorn chickens. The chickens were segregated into three groups and treated as indicated below. The right foot was used in each chicken as the experimental foot and the left as the untreated control. 11 Gr oup A. Three chickens were each injected with a suspension of peregrine feces in 0.9$ saline solution in the ""ball" of the foot. The chickens were placed and maintained in a cage with a wire floor. Group B. The ball of the foot of three chickens was incised with a scalpel and the birds were placed in a cage with a solid floor having abundant chicken feces so that contamination with “chicken microorganisms” would occur. Group G, The ball of the foot of four chickens was incised with a scalpel and a suspension of peregrine feces was rubbed into the wound with a cotton swab. The chickens were placed in a cage with a wire floor. In six days signs of infection were present in the treated foot of ail chickens although Group B showed less swelling than the others. The chickens in Group C, which had received peregrine feces rubbed into the wound were the most swollen. The same general picture prevailed until the experiment was terminated on the 45th day except that the swelling, which reached a maximum at about the thirtieth day, began to diminish (see Figs. 1, 2, 3 9 4) in all groups. By the end of the experiment the black scab which has often been described as typical of ’’bumble foot” had developed in all of the incised feet but much more markedly in those which had received peregrine feces rubbed in (see Figs. 3 and 4). It is possible that this difference was due to greater virulence of "peregrine microorganisms" to the chickens but also may have been due to variations in the depth to which the feet were incised. The birds which had been injected with a suspension of peregrine feces did not show the black scab, probably because the infection had been contained within the substance of the foot; the injection hole, having been made with a thin sterile needle, healed very quickly. Whether or not a surface lesion would have formed in time is a moot point. The chickens in Group A were showing indications of self-cure by the forty-fifth day which probably would have prevented what I feel is a normal course of the infection in falcons, i.e. formation of a persistent lesion reaching the surface. Hypothetically, it seems likely that gal- linaceous birds with greater masses of connective tissue in the feet, an adaptation to walking on the ground, are better able to cope with a hazard which must appear normally in their lives more often than in falcons. The birds in all groups were showing some indications of self-cure in that the swelling was diminishing which may further imply some differences in the usual course of infections in the two kinds of birds. Several conclusions seem warranted. Although the number of experimental animals is small, the uniformity of the results (almost identical within experimental groups) suggests that the results are valid. Further, although the results do not prove 12 that foot infections must always he contracted by gross breaches of the skin the condition obviously can be initiated by entry of mi crc; organisms into the foot, probably irrespective of the mode of entry. It also seems likely that the presence of a black spot on the plantar surface of the foot may represent either an infec- tion established on the surface working its way in or an internal infection manifesting itself on the surface. If a genuine corn forms in the same manner as a human corn, i.e. as a result of contact with an inappropriate surface (hypothesized by Beebe in Beebe and Webster, North American Falconry and Hunting Hawks, 1964), it is logical to expect infection of the foot to occur as it works itself deeper into the foot. I have not observed such a process, however, and cannot comment on the frequency of such a development. The formation of the "onion-like" nodule within the foot as described by K. W. Kost (in Woodford, A Manual of Falconry, I960) and others, was in process in these chickens although it had not become as discrete and easily removed as in falcons (see Fig. 4 ). It might have become so in time although it is possible that the differing reactions of such widely dis- parate species as falcons and chickens may well dictate a differ- ent course of the disease. Obviously it is possible that the greatest benefit from this experiment may lie in the demonstra- tion of an easy way to cause bumble foot so that attempts at de- veloping a good treatment may be conducted in the laboratory. Observations on Foot Infections in Falcons I have had personal experience with two cases, one in a peregrine tiercel and the other in a peregrine falcon. The former lasted for almost two years. At the end of my experi- ences with this bird, I still had some hope of recovery and in fact one of the two affected feet seemed to be near ultimate closure of the lesion. Over the long cyclic period of improve- ment followed by relapse, function of toes gradually became im- paired as tendons were destroyed by the infection so that at last only the hind and inner toe on each foot were fully func- tional, I emerged from this experience with several convictions. One was that each conviction acquired during a new phase of the experience was only a little better than the previous. I am accordingly unsure of almost every generalization I make. But as regards diet and physical condition, neither is going to result in a "cure" of severe foot infections singly or together and the major effort must be medical. Certainly it is necessary, as always, to keep the bird in good condition but it seems quite clear that feeding certain items such as egg yolk, "cull" chicks, or vitamins is no cure. Eliminating such factors from the dis- cussion as possibly significant but very difficult, at best, of analysis, I will present portions of these case histories and generalizations based on them. 13 Figure 1. The experimental and control foot of Group A; injected with a suspension of peregrine feces in the ball of the foot. Figure 2 . The experimental foot of a member of Group B; incised with a scalpel and placed on a substrate with abundant chicken feces. 14 Figure 3. The experimental and control foot of a member of Group C; incised with a scalpel, peregrine feces rubbed into the wound. Note the conspicuous development of the black “scab” typical of bad cases of plantar foot infections. Figure 4. A dissection of the experimental foot shown in figure 3 showing the “nodule” capped with a firmly adherent “scab”. The “scab” in this case, actually represents a dried portion of the nodule reaching the surface. 15 Case #1 — Peregrine tiercel Methods . The case in the tiercel was discovered when both feet had reached the stage in which a well developed plantar "scab’ 1 had formed and both were swollen. Surgery was attempted immediately. A caseous nodule was removed from both feet and aqueous procaine penicillin G was used abundantly in the cavity. Both were sutured, bandaged, and the bird put away in a light- tight closet with a padded floor. After ten days it was clear that the effort had failed; the lesions failed to heal and swell- ing was still present. Henceforth treatment included efforts to identify microorganisms and determine their drug sensitivities with six major surgical efforts on one foot and five on the other. Numerous occasions of minor surgery with no anaesthesia were per- formed to debride the lesions. For approximately a year and a half, efforts centered around attempts to secure sterility of the wounds and in the hope that once sterility was obtained the lesions would granulate up from the bottom. Sterility was ob- tained several times and maintained for varying periods but always with no evidence of healing and always terminated with new contamination. Microbiological assay was made by innoculat- ing trypticase soy broth, thioglycollate broth, nutrient broth, nutrient agar and blood agar. Not all were used on each occasion but always more than one. Gram stains were made and examined under the microscope. Differential growth media were used as appropriate to the particular situation and normal procedures using sensitivity discs were used to determine drug sensitivi- ties. The full gamut of techniques was not always used since a violent flare-up sometimes demanded very fast action and it was at least possible, if not best, to determine drug sensitivities of whole microbial populations without going to the trouble and time of isolating each element of a mixed population. Much of this I did myself but I very gratefully received aid from Dr, David Marrack and his colleagues at the M. D. Anderson Tumor Institute, Houston, Texas during a year I spent at Nice Univer- sity on leave from the University of Alaska. Microorganisms . The microorganisms in the lesion were almost always of mixed species and in my own experience seldom included those with a reputation for high virulence. This con- trasts with those published accounts which mention specific microorganisms. Staphylococcus were recovered twice but on both occasions were S. epidermatis . a relatively innocuous form more or less constantly found on human skin. Streptococcus faecalis was recovered twice but again, this is not a particularly malev- olent bacterium. The most trouble som bacteria were members of the genus Escherichia . a coliform deriving from the feces of the bird. Whenever trouble dictated a new bacterial sample from the feet, these conforms were almost certain to be present and usually were the dominant species. Two fungi were recovered, Aspergillus and Poecilomyces and in both cases it was not pos- sible to determine whether or not they played an active role in 16 the infection. It is not improbable that either might on occasion produce a stubborn complication. Yeasts were a con- stant threat in the background and, in fact, produced some of the most alarming and damaging episodes in the course of the treatment. Whenever the bacterial populations were eliminated or sufficiently depressed, the yeasts came into their own, usually manifesting themselves within three to five days in swelling and obvious pain. Drug therapy . The following table of drugs used is in- cluded to illustrate the range of the drug effort, and in some cases to indicate usefulness or apparent toxic effects. Anti- biotics were almost always used in powder form. Drugs and Other Substances Used in Treatment Drug Topical Oral Remarks Penicillin Gr X Procaine Penicillin Gr X Procaine Penicillin - streptomycin X Dihydro streptomycin X Penicillin V and sulfonimides Sulfasuxidine Ampicillin X Neosporin X Chloramphenicol (aqueous, powdered) X Sulfathiazole X Mad rib on X Tetrex-F X Keraspray X Albamycin X Delta Albaplex X Triburon X X toxic toxic toxic X possibly toxic X possibly toxic X bactericidal in contrast to most antibiotics which are bacteriostatic (see text) X potentially toxic X potentially toxic X contains Nystatin as an antifungal agent as well as tetracycline. When applied topically in full strength this drug is evi- dently painful (see text) X X (see text) has been effective against yeasts 17 Drug Topical Oral My cos tat in ) X Fungizone (Ampho- ) teracin B) ) X Furacin soluble dressing Aureomycin salve Chloramphenicol salve Betadine paint Betadine soap 2 % aqueous Iodine Gentian violet Phisohex Zephiran chloride Castellan!' s paint Hydrogen peroxide 6$) Upjohn product 17900 Varidase ) Slase ) X X X X X X X X X X X X X Miscellaneous skin creams X Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) X Upiohn super D (vitamin A and D Miscellaneous vitamin preparations X X Remarks (effective against yeasts (and fungi, applied as (powder (Used as topical bacteri- cides and for sanitation (of feet, legs, and perch ( ( (proteolytic enzymes (see (text ) used in attempts to accel- erate healing Drug therapy should be preceded by knowledge of what organ- isms are involved and of their drug sensitivities, but, in prac- tice, the falconer is not apt to have ready access to either facilities or technical knowledge nor is he likely always to have time to search out the facilities or knowledge when he has a serious infection blowing up. While the course of the whole dis- ease is relatively indolent in that it takes a long time to com- pletely cripple the bird, an individual microbial flare-up can set one back a long time in just a day or two. Accordingly, one will often, in fact probably always, need a "shotgun" compound of drugs designed to kill or inhibit the growth of many species of microorganisms at once. I have contrived approximately thirty compounds of the various permutations and combinations of drugs in the table to fit particular situations. I believe firmly that no compound of drugs applied topically should omit an anti-yeast, anti-fungus component. The most generally effective compound I 18 have used has been composed of about equal parts of Tetrex-F, Neosporin, and Chloramphenicol. These are all used as powders. The continued use of Chloramphenicol may be inadvisable (though I have used it topically over extended periods) because of the possibility that it might produce pernicious anemias in birds as it is known to do in humans, and because of the effects it might have in inhibiting the synthesis of proteins responsible in large measure for healing. The latter point is doubtful since I have not been able to determine the effects it might have on bird tissues but it does achieve its anti -bacterial effects by preventing the bacterium from synthesizing proteins. Case #2 — Peregrine falcon When incipient infections are caught early enough (not likely unless the falconer has once been burned and has devel- oped very quick responses to subtle behavioral manifestations and inspects the feet in strong light at frequent and regular intervals) radical surgery may not be necessary. The second case with which I have had personal experience almost certainly was caused by talon puncture. The eyass bird had recently been entered to pigeons and when I took her up from the kill she was both keen and excited. I called her off from her kill with a partly eaten pigeon and a somewhat clumsy grappling on my fist ensued. When she settled down I noticed a small spot of blood on the plantar surface of the foot but believed that it was probably pigeon blood. This spot, on later examination, turned out to be located exactly at the point at which accidental punc- ture with the hind talon would have occurred. The same was the case with the larger initial lesions in the tiercel already de- scribed, The scab persisted for about three days and disappeared. About three weeks later I noticed a small dark spot at the same point accompanied by a barely detectable swelling of the pad of the foot. At this point I began the treatment which I believe offers considerable hope in early cases. I removed the spot which turned out to measure about 3/32 inch in diameter and about 1/16 inch deep. I would certainly have described this as a corn-like body had I not been aware of its history and would probably have thought its origin was due to the same series of events that cause corns in humans. The hole left from this operation narrowed to the bottom, and pink, relatively healthy looking tissue was visible with one small spot of rather sus- picious white material. I washed the hole with betadine and packed it with the compound mentioned before of approximately equal parts of Tetrex-F, Neosporin, and chloramphenacol. It was then bandaged. A systemic attack on the infection seems essential although dramatic improvements always seem most directly associated with topical treatment. In this case, I administered half a pill of Delta Albaplex (Upjohn) (as recommended by Beebe and Webster, North American Falconry and Hunting Hawks, 1964) every twelve 19 hours with the thought that the tetracycline ought to help in the infection and the cortisone might help to encourage healing. This regimen was continued for two weeks, allowed to lapse for a week and then resumed for two more weeks. Examination, reapplication of drugs, and re-bandaging was done about every two days early in the treatment and later allowed to go for a week but with very close attention to any suspicious symptoms of heat in the foot, favoring, or palpable swelling. The swelling went down very soon (within three days), the hole apparently closed (about three days) and to all exter- nal casual examination all seemed well. However when the site was carefully examined, the material which closed the wound turned out not to be tissue at all and when removed showed the usual discouraging picture of a hole of at least the original size, ringed with dried tissue. This is very typical of plantar lesions and underscores perhaps the most discouraging and diffi- cult aspect of the affliction, i.e., actual healing of the ex- ternal aperture seems almost impossible when it is of any size. The formation of a ring or shallow cylinder of dead tissue may block any capacity that the dermis and epidermis may have to close the wound and is at least associated with it. The use of antibiotic salves to keep the area soft seems to do little good and in any event seems a very good way to accumulate resistant bacteria right at the site of the wound because of the stickiness of a salve. After two months, the wound seemed to have gradually pro- gressed to final stages of healing and I had concluded that granulation from below had actually occurred. Again, removal of an ambiguous surface layer showed not only the same hole but evidence of early infection. The wound was gently debrided, washed with betadine and bandaged in the usual manner. A balled piece of paper towel was then placed in the foot and the toes curled around it. The whole assembly was then bandaged provid- ing for the hawk to support at least some of its weight on the curled-up toes. She tolerated the situation well and ultimately was able to balance on her balled foot even to the extent of raising the other into her breast feathers for long periods. Oral drug therapy with Delta Albaplex was continued as described earlier for the following three weeks during which time the foot- bandaging was maintained. The small amount of swelling went down within two days but the "balling" of the foot seemed to produce no dramatic improve- ments in healing. After three weeks "balling" of the foot was discontinued. Currently, about four and a half months after the initial surgical treatment, the foot has no swelling at all and is evidently free of infection. The surface of the skin, however, has not returned completely to normal and careful examination still discloses a lesion. Whether or not this case will ever really be cured is uncertain but the situation is hopeful. If 20 nothing else, close attention should permit it to be maintained as it is more or less indefinitely , i.e., fully functional and not malformed or disfigured. Treatment of Foot Infections The normal course of an untreated case leads to the devel- opment of an infection within the connective tissues of the foot. As I construct the usual course of events the opening to the surface of the skin, if plantar, becomes "plugged” with a dark corn-like structure, often adherent to and probably normally a part of a dense nodule which increases gradually in size within the substance of the foot. When a foot infection has reached this stage the chances of successful treatment have already diminished considerably. In such cases I would recommend immed- iate and drastic action similar to that outlined by Kost ( in Woodford, M. H. , I960, A Manual of Falconry). I should empha- size, however, that I am recommending a treatment that has not successfully been employed by myself except in its component parts . Anaesthetize the bird and remove all of the nodule and associated abnormal material within the hole. The pad of the foot (actually probably mostly in the dermis of the skin) con- tains an abundant circulatory supply which should be disturbed as little as possible both for the sake of the eventual recovery of the foot and because the surgical field will be flooded with blood which greatly hampers one's surgical technique and one's judgment of what is normal and what is abnormal material. A tourniquet and supply of sterile swabs will help in controlling blood leakage. If the surgery is performed by a professional, he will have additional materials and techniques with which to control blood flow. The hole, once it is as clean as it is possible to get it, should be washed with topical bactericides such as betadine and then packed full of a very broad spectrum compound of drugs such as mentioned earlier, not omitting a component to suppress yeasts and fungi. The foot should then be bandaged very carefully. The best method I have devised is as follows. Cut a disc of foam padding with a concavity at the point where the wound will be and place it on a strip of surgical tape about four inches long. The pad is then centered on the wound and the ends of the tape passed across the foot, around and over the foot overlapping the ends, leaving the front toes uninvolved to this point. Then take two pieces of tape about three inches long, notched to fit between the front toes comfortably. Place one end of each of these on the tape over the top of the foot and pass the end all the way around the foot from front to back and then up again to the top to be stuck on where the piece began. When properly positioned these should close all substantial apertures toward the wound. Band aids stretch too much with time and I do not recommend them. 21 The bandages should be removed daily and the wound packed again (hawks develop an astonishing tolerance to this process when gently done and will stand and allow the foot to be lifted while the job is done) until the swelling has gone down and the wound is sterile. The wound should be cleaned of newly visible debris each time. Once the wound has checked out sterile, pre- ferably by innoculating culture media, anaesthetize the hawk again and do one last, fanatically thorough job of debriding the wound . Gut away unhealthy tissue ringing the edges of the wound so that completely raw edges are exposed and pack the wound with the antibiotic compound. Then suture the edges to- gether very carefully so that it is completely leak-tight. I have used a spray-on plastic "skin" to help keep bacteria away from the sutured wound but it is difficult to use and of dubious efficiency. The foot should then be bandaged again and not dis- turbed for about a week. If careful examination at this point shows no trouble, re-bandage for another week and then remove the sutures. There are several possible problems with this approach. Absorbable sutures, in my experience, have not held long enough for the edges to heal properly. Silk holds very well and is easily removed but itself leaves small holes in the foot which may as easily as not furnish entrance to bacteria which can start the whole thing again. Removal of sutures, therefore should be accompanied by careful precautions against re-infec- tion. An additional two weeks or possibly more should see the scab and/or dead cells loosening. Salves may help in this pro- cess. While I recommend this approach it should be made clear that the chances of a person succeeding without having had pre- vious experience to condition his mental approach and to teach him the technical pitfalls do not seem good. There is a ten- dency to hope that the physiological processes of the bird will be able to take care of one r s small failings in removing all infected materials or in really securing completely clean, raw tissue for suture. In my experience this will not happen and everything will be lost if even a single bacterium survives de- briding and chemotherapy. One ought to conduct the surgical approach with the feeling that this is the one and only chance. When unsuccessful the first time the chances of ultimate success seem poor indeed since one has, in fact, simply enlarged the lesion. The real problem with foot infections seems to lie in the failure of the tissue to heal. I never saw the slightest evi- dence in the tiercel that any granulation leading to filling of the wound was occurring and I cannot see any hope whatever of the open foot healing even though bandaged and carefully tended every day. Constant pressure on the wound has seemed to be a major factor likely to hamper healing, as it is in human bed- sores, and the attempt to take the weight of the bird off of the foot via some such approach as "balling” the foot is 22 attractive. Dr. J. H. Bnderson tried the same approach before I did but with the same ambiguous results. If a technique Is used which does give one access to the wound careful debriding is in order when accumulated dead cells and other material obstruct the healing process or deny access of drugs to the deeper regions. But it must be done gently. I have employed proteolytic enzymes such as Varidase and Blase in attempts to clean out the hole but with no success whatever in spite of very persistent applications. A gradual buildup of firm caseous material in a bad case of bumble foot such as that of the tiercel seems relentlessly to occur and is a great prob- lem. In his case I had simply to pick it out at intervals of about three weeks. It was invulnerable to proteolytic enzymes suggesting that this material and possibly the nodules which have been mentioned earlier as fairly typical of advanced cases of bumblefoot may well be accumulations of bacterial polysac- charide, not a tissue response of the hawk. This continuing re-accumulation of caseous material has not been emphasized by others and may have been more or less unique to my single ex- perience with a serious case. It is possible that the caseous material may be traceable to the activity of acid-fast organ- isms (related to those causing tuberculosis in man). They are very difficult to grow up on culture media (taking as much as six to eight weeks) and nearly invulnerable to drug therapy apart from those now being used against human tuberculosis. Such organisms are known from birds. Concommitent with topical treatment of either advanced or early cases, some systemic drug therapy should be used. As pointed out earlier, dramatic improvements seem to be most directly associated with topical treatments; in fact, I have never been sure that any oral drug was having any effect. It is also possible to kill the hawk by overdoing treatments which may eliminate the normal bacterial flora of the intestine, leav- ing the field to such organisms as yeasts. I very nearly lost the tiercel in this way and only my ready access to diagnostic techniques allowed me to save him with quick application of amphoteracin B. I think it is wise to make sure that while oral drugs are being administered a constant input of "normal” microorganisms is being maintained by feeding natural food, so organized that the hawk eats some of the intestine. In this manner, a proper balance of microorganisms may be easier to maintain. Some oral drugs may be outright toxic. Some of these are indicated in the list of drugs used but should not be regarded as definitive since at the slightest suspicion I discontinued use of the drug. It is well to remember, however, that the hawk's kidneys are vulnerable to sulfas in general. In any event, I never had the slightest hint that any of the sulfas I used did any good. Antibiotic sensitivities were low at .... , 7