RECORDS
OF. THE
SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM
Vol. XI, No. 1
Published by The Museum Board, and edited by the
Museum Director
AvevaibE, May 8, 1953
PRINTED AT THE.HASSELL PRESS, 104 CURRIE STREET
NATIVE ARTS AND INDUSTRIES ON THE ARCHER, KENDALL AND
HOLROYD RIVERS, CAPE YORK PENINSULA, NORTH QUEENSLAND
BY URSULA H. MCCONNEL, EAGLE HEIGHTS, QUEENSLAND
Summary
This paper describes in technical detail, material collected during field research in 1927, 1928 and
1934 in the Gulf of Carpentaria region of Cape York Peninsula, North Queensland, and particularly
on the Kendall, Holroyd and Archer Rivers, which is housed in the South Australian Museum. This
material is complementary to that obtained by Hale and Tindale (1933) on the east coast of the
Peninsula and demonstrates Papuan and Torres Straits Island influences upon mainland culture.
The specimens, which are fully listed and illustrated in plates and drawings, are described in
relation to the cultural background to which they belong.
NATIVE ARTS anp INDUSTRIES on THe ARCHER,
KENDALL ann HOLROYD RIVERS, CAPE YORK
PENINSULA, NORTH QUEENSLAND
By URSULA H. McCONNEL, Eacie Heicuts, QUEENSLAND,
Plates i-xvii and text figs. 1-4.
SUMMARY.
THis paper deseribes in technical detail material collected during field
research in 1927, 1928 and 1934 in the Gulf of Carpentaria region of Cape York
Peninsula, North Queensland, and particularly on the Kendall, Holroyd and
Archer Rivers, which is housed in the South Australian Museum. This material
is complementary to that obtained by Hale and Tindale (1933) on the east coast
of the Peninsula and demonstrates Papuan and Torres Straits Island influences
upon mainland culture.
The specimens, which are fully listed and illustrated in plates and draw-
ings, are described in relation to the cultural background to which they belong.
INTRODUCTION.
The material described in this paper was obtained by means of grants from
the Australian National Research Council in 1927-28 and 1934, since when I have
been awaiting an opportunity to prepare it for publication, an opportunity
recently afforded by courtesy of the Director of the South Australian Museum,
in which institution it is now housed and where I have had the assistance of
members of the staff in sorting, repairing, describing and photographing the
specimens shown in these plates. I am particularly indebted to Mr. Norman B.
Tindale for his help in classifying and describing specimens; the technical
descriptions of which are largely his. The compilation of the material has
been further assisted by a grant made towards typing costs by the Science and
Endowment Fund of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Organisa-
tion, which I gratefully acknowledge here. I would also like to acknowledge the
assistance of the late Government Botanist, Mr. Cyril White, in identifying
plants referred to, and to Mr. B. C. Cotton for identifying shells. I am also
indebted to my brother, Mr. K. H. MeConnel, F.R.I.A., for the drawings of text
2 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
figures, and to Miss M. Boyce for the preparation of the ethnographical photo-
graphs.
My task as a social anthropologist is to place these artefacts in their social
setting and to describe their function in the way of life to which they belong.
This way of life may have existed for thousands of years and would still be
existing indefinitely if it had not been disturbed.
The specimens are all from Cape York Peninsula, North Queensland, and,
unless otherwise stated, from the Archer, Kendall and Holroyd Rivers, which
flow into the Gulf of Carpentaria on the Queensland side. The area in question
forms part of a Native Reserve extending along the Gulf coast from the Batavia
to the Mitchell River. A list of specimens is appended, fully illustrated by
plates and drawings, together with their registration numbers in the South
Australian Museum. Native names of specimens, unless otherwise stated, are
given in the Wikmunkan language. The phoneties of the Wikmunkan language
are as outlined in my previous paper (McConnel 1945). S in Sivri is a northern
sound, not used in the Wikmunkan language; [ is sometimes a cerebral 1 not
previously recorded, but usually a palatal; 7 is sometimes a retroflex palatal r
and ¢ is sometimes an interdental f.
I am indebted to Prof. A. P. Elkin and the Australian National Research
Council for arranging the use of a special symbol used in setting up one of the
native words given herein.
Archer, Kendall and Holroyd Rivers area is sheltered from northern con-
tacts by the mangrove-clad and crocodile-infested Archer River (five miles wide
at the mouth), and from the eastern coast by the Great Dividing Range. It is
low-lying country, perfectly flat for thirty to forty miles inland, and inaccessible
to stock on account of its innumerable water channels, its net-work of lagoons,
swamps and water holes, with bogs in all directions. As it teems with wild life,
it is a veritable paradise for its native inhabitants.
I chose this field for research because nowhere else in Queensland was I
likely to find a native culture less disturbed. In 1927 I accompanied the
Aurukun (Archer River) Mission’s first journey overland into these parts, which
had at that time been but partially surveyed. Apart from a few sandal wood-
getters, and a visit by the Mission lugger, little other white contact had been
made, though some of the men had visited the Mission the previous year, and
some had signed-on for work on pearling luggers. Here the natives pursued
their customary life oblivious of an outside world. John Burke’s steamer, on
its monthly voyage down the Gulf to Normanton, was regarded as a corpse
in the course of cremation—inspiring, appropriately enough, a funeral dirge.
McCoNNEL—NATIVE ARTS AND INDUSTRIES 3
INFLUENCE OF PAPUA AND ISLANDS OFF CAPE YORK
ON THE MAINLAND CULTURE
In studying the culture of the Peninsula in general, one has to take into
consideration the proximity of the mainland to Papua and the Torres Straits
Islands, Contact undoubtedly has been made, over a long period, apparently by
means of the double ovt-rigger canoe, whieh is made and used by Papuans,
Islanders and tainlanders ulike, as Tarsouth as Princess Charlotte Bay (Stewart
River) on the east coast, and the Batavia and Archer Rivers on the Gulf Coast,
Haddon and Hornell (1987) have wade a detailed study of the canoes in this
area, Haddon (1912) speaks of these vanoes as voyaging to the mainland from
the Islands in 1888 and demonstrates the sinrilarity of Island customs and arte-
facts to those of the Papuan mainland, Lt is not surprising, therefore, to tind
cultural similarities existing also between the Islands and the Cape York main-
land, particularly where direct contact by canoe has been made. Owing to the
early establishment of a Government Resident at Somerset, near Cape York,
however, there is little evidence left of such contact in the area nearest the
Islands, where it must have been most obvious at one time. Eyidenee of this
eutural contact diminishes inland and southwards as direct links by canoe
recedes, borrowed enstoms bemg adapted and simplified to meet inainland
requirements and the conditions of a hunting rather than a village Jife, This
external influence extends farther south on the eastern coast than on the western
Gulf coast, because the eastern coast is more accessible by canoe. This eastern
coastline of the Peninsula, and particularly the Princess Charlotte Bay region,
has been studied and recorded in detail by Hale and Tindale (1935). They
also discuss the use of double and single out-rigger canoes.
In this area of direct contact on the east coast, Thomson (1933, 1934)
deseribes the use by the Koko Yaz'o (Pascoe River, Princess Charlotte Bay)
of drums, bark-strip skirts, masks and dance enclosures in the cult of the craro-
dile. These were reported also by Roth (1909) in the Margaret Bay area and
oceur also in the dances of the sea-eavle, sea-oull and Torres Straits pigeon cults
of the Tys'yandys and Yu:pyati tribes, south of the Batavia River on the Gulf
Coast, as do also the dvum and the bow and arrow, recorded by Thomson (1934 )
and by MeConnel (1936), but which are not foynd elsewhere on the mainland
and are typically Torres Straits Islands and Papuan. Sivri, the seagull, is said
to have made his drum of two kinds of wood, the hollow stem of the pandanus
tree for soft sounds, and messmate wood for loud sounds, and ta have covered
both ends with goanna skin. The specimen shown here in Plate vii, fig. a, has
only one end closed, a type which is also found in Papua. The palm of the
hand is used for low sounds and the fingers for high sounds, Sturt is also said
4 RECORDS OF THE S,A, MUSEUM
to have made his bow from the wood of « native shrub and its string from the
fibre of the bean tree root.
It is in the totemie pattern of the mainland that these sea-going heroes
should be said to have voyaged, in the direction of the migratory birds they
respectively represent, to Maubiag Island and the Papuan mainland, and, on
returning thence, to haye introduced these arts to the mainland. The song and
dance of the seagull and Torres Straits pigeon resemble those used in the
Islands and Papua, and the Maubiag cult is regarded as a brother-cult to that
of Stems on the mainland,
“these objects are not in daily use, however, and oceur only in the ceremonial
danees. In addition to such objects found only in these dances and common also
to Papua and the Islands, are the plaited pandanus palmleaf armlets, pearl
shell pendants, cowrie and pearl-shell necklets and head bands, nautilus shell
nosepees, large wooden ear-eylinders (worn suspended in (he ear-lobe which
has been piereed (Plate i, fig. a) and gradually stretched for the purpose), anc
ornamental clubs, all of which are either traded-in or copied, and ure in use to
sore extent all over the northern part of the Peninsula.
Customs shared with the Isliuds and Papua whieh have permeated the
conmon life of the mainlanders are (a2) the use of the sleeping platlorm, whieh
is sometimes two-storied like those shown in use on the Islands by Wilkin and
Haddon (1912) and Roth (1910); (b) the round bark-house which is also
shown by Wilkin and Haddon (1912) in use on the Islands; (¢) the Papuan
communal pipe, made of bamboo or hollow wood (Gulf area), sealed at both
ends with wax, with holes on the top at either end used respeetively for holding
the cigarette and for inhalation, This isa pipe which ean be passed around, with
a finger over the smoke-hole, and shared when tobacco is searee; (d) the weaving
of baskets from NXerotes multiflora as described by Haddon (1912), and most.
striking of all, perhaps, (e) the practice of mummification, described by Roth
(1907), with its attendant inourning restrictions and observances, its mourning
dance or wake, and its coneluding feast and wrestling mateh—thouel these rites
are far less elaborate and spectacular on the mainland than those described for
Papua and the ‘Torres Straits Islands by Haddon (1912) and Harris (1912)
and end in cremation.
Tyist, the fishhawk, a hero of the Ndras'anit tribe (north of the Archer
River), is said to have introduced these funcral rites in honour of his brother
Mbu:, the ghost, who was killed fighting (Plate vi, fig. c, e and f). According
to the legend, reeorded by MeConnel (1935), this hero, after remoying the
intestines and liver, ete., through an openine made in the side, tied the body
McCONNEL—NATIVE ARTS AND INDUSTRIES 5
of Mbuz to a Jong pole and suspended il on iwo forked sticks to dvy near w fire.
Then the body was rolled in ti-tree bark (Plate vi, fig. e-f), tied round with bush
string aid carried to his parents, and a big dance was held, The corpse is kept
thus on forked sticks for the required period, ie. for anything up Lo two or three
years according to the wishes of the relatives, aud is guarded always by them
in a seeluded spot, the wake being periodically performed by the women, if and
when the corpse is in vamp. ‘These rites have already been described by
MeConnel (1936). Relatives of the opposite moiety are subjected to food obliga-
tiuns and speech taboos, especially the widow, who has to sil und weep, and
eats only when given certain foods by the deceased's relatives, 1o whom she muy
not speak. She must remain apart from the camp, her head covered with ashes
and tutts ol hair fastened with beeswax over her head, Mourning ends with
the eretmation ol the hody at dawn after an all-night vigil kept by women iu
relays aecompanied by & continiows wailing and performance of the mourning
dance. The ereniation ts followed by a feast, when the recognized food debts are
paid, and a wrestling mateh takes place (between members of the same moiety
ouly), after which the widow's head is shaved, her remarriage arranged, and
all food and speech taboos are lifted. 1 witnessed a cremation on the Areher
River in 1927, which was probably the last to be performed near the Mission
there. ‘hese practices then extended as far south as the Mdward River, and
probably even further along the Gull Coast. Along the east coast the type of
nunimifieation varies. Harris (1912) and Roth (1907) have deserihbed the
various forms found as far south as southert) Queensland. A legend of the
Kamdyu (near Coen) reported by MeConnel (1937) shows that burial also was
practised on the Peninsula. Roth (1907, p. 399) reports the eating of the
deeeased’s flesh by the widow, a eustom also recorded for the orres Straits
Islands, I myself have nothing to report of this nature in the Gulf area; but
in the Mossman-Daintree area on the cast coast an informant had eaten a park
of the thigh of his sister, and expected thereby to become better at finding yams,
in which art she had excelled. The eating of certain parts of a dead relative's
flesh was an accepted duty that one should honour if not enjoy, Roth
(1907) records the carrying of the deeceased’s bones by certain relatives, Tis
custom was still practised south of the Archer River in 1927-28; the carrying
ol the leg bones was said tu be a means of preventing the deceased’s ghost from
walking about the camp alter death, Haile and Tindale (1928, p, 94) deseribe
simular burial eustonis at Princess Charlotte Bay on the east coast,
In contrast to these Island and Papuan affinities, it is interesting to note
the absence on the Peninsula of the boomerang and shield, so typical of the
6 RECORDS OF THE $.A, MUSEUM
south. The use of the former is, however, recorded in a Wik-kulkun tribe legend
as haying been used to clear scrub. The boomerang can be made, but it is not
now used. The shield is used on the Mitchell River to the south, Tt assumes
untisual proportions on the east coast in the Cairns-Port, Douglas revion in asso-
ciation with the large wooden fighting sword, peculiar to these parts (sce
MeConnel 1935, 1). Absent also from this part of the Peninsula are the rite of
cireumcision and the four-section system; aceording to Tindale (1940) the
former does not occur east of Burketown and the latter occurs only to the south
of Princess Charlotte Bay.
FOOD SUPPLIES AND ECONOMIC PURSUITS.
The Gulf Coast is rich in food supplies—in animal, bird, fish and plant lite.
The sea yields dugong, sea-turtle and large salt-water fish for those who own an
outrigger canoe. The tidal rivers bring in a plentiful supply of fish with every
incoming tide, which men spear from the prow of the iudivenous bark canoe.
Kish are eooked in the coals. Stingray, a delicacy reserved for older men,
is favoured by rolling the cooked flesh around the previously removed heart
and liver, wrapping all in ti-tree bark and cooking in an antbed oven. The
sandbeaeh supplies crabs, sea-turtles' eggs and shellfish of many kinds, which
the Women gather at low tide and cook in the coals (the heat opening the shell).
Oysters cluster thickly on the roots of the mangrove frees edging the months
of certain salt-water ereeks (Plate i, fie, ¢), Th the salt-water creeks women
collect mud-mussels ((elawia coaema), erawling along the creek bed on all fours
as they feel for the shells with their fingers in the mud, dropping them into
dillvbags suspended from the neck or held in the teeth. River beds and fresh-
water channels inland are interspersed with deep water-holes (left after flood-
ing). These harbour fish and the fresh-water crocodile, the eggs of whieli are
dug out of the sand and eaten as a delicacy, especially when nearly hatehed.
The freshwater turtle is eooked upside down in the ashes; then, after knocking
out the under-shell and removing the head and limbs, the shell is used as a
soup toureen; juices from the body make a soup which is imbibed by dipping
a. frayed end of a stick into the juices and sucking it. The eges are sometimes
fried in the juices of the up-turned shell. The salt-water turtle’s ege@s, which
are solt-shelled and do not set when cooked, ave usually sucked raw.
Swamps, lagoons and waterholes are the haunts of wild fowl—duck, geese,
ibis, native companion, jabirn, ete. Kmn are to be found in certain localities
inland, and flying-fox camps are numerous in mangrove and other serubs,
Kangaroo (inland) and wallaby abound. Men spear all these by stealing up
McConNEL—NATIVE ARTS AND INDUSTRIES 7
close, merging with their surroundings und disguising themselves with branches
in open ¢ountry.
In the dry winter months, the grass is burned off and kangaroo and wallaby
ave speared as they flee belore the flames. Women follow in the wake of the
flames, digging out from the holes, in which they have taken refuge, bushrat
and bandieoot, iguana, snakes and lizards, ete.. with the aid of thei yamsticks
and the domesticated dingo, All these foods are vooked in antbed, as are emu
and all large birds aud animals, the skin and viseera being discarded only after
cooking,
The anthed oven is inade by digeing a hole in the ground, lighting a fire
in it and heating ¢hunks of antbed in the fire. When hot, the fire is removed
and the food then placed between the pieces of hot antbed and covered over
with elean strips of ti-tree bark, over whieh the sand or earth is piled to preserve
the heat, This method of cooking is that of a slow oven and preserves all the
jnices in the meat,
Swamps near the coast are filled with rushes (Scirpus littoralis), the eorms
of which are dug out by the women, sitting up to the chest in mud around the
edges. The corms are earvied home and washed and roasted in the coals, the
old ones being first beaten with a wooden hammer into a flat cake. Corms of
the up-river swamp rush, called ‘*bush-nuts,’’ which are washed wp with the fioad
rubbish in the wet season, are also cooked and eaten. The seeds of the inanyrove
pod are cooked and eround into flour.
Swamps and lagoons are eovered with white and blue water lilies of several!
varieties, the flowers and stalks of which are eaten raw, the roots cooked in
antbhed and the seed-pods roasted in the coals, The women wade in the lagoons
and swamps for these, and dive for the roots in deep water. Yams of several
varieties, arrowroot and many other roots are dug up by the women with their
yamsticks, Sometimes the top of the yam is left adhering to the stem of the
vine and replanted, only the lower part of the root being taken for food, whieh
is interesting where agriculture is unknown, A similar practice is reported by
Hale and Tindale (1938, p, 113) on the east coast. Edible fruits of many kinds
are gathered in the summer months, As they travel through the bush, especially
in spring and summer, the eves of all are on the look-out for the tell-tale bee,
coming io and out of its hole in tree or log. The shading of the eyes with the
hand, looking upwards this way and that as they travel, is so characteristic an
attitude, that it is used im corroboree to signify a journey through the bush,
When a bee is sighted, the tree is felled, or climbed, and a stick with a frayed
end is inserted into the hole to test the supply of honey. When found to be
8 RECORDS OF THE S.A. Museum
present, it is chopped out and eaten—bees, wax and all—till the spoilers are
replete. The surplus is carried home tied wp in bark or in a tubular ‘‘ grass’?
basket (woven closely for the purpose) and is usually mixed with water to make
a swect drink, There are a variety of honeys, taken by bees from different, trees
and shrubs, each with its peculiar flavour and its special name. As it is the
worian's place to supply roots and small eame obtained hy digging, the yamstick
is regarded as the symbol of womanhood; and since it is the man’s part to
provide meat, the spear is the symbol of manhood. Tn eeremonies the part of
a woman played by a man is always signified by the use of x yamstick.
MATERIALS AND TECHNICAL EQUIPMENT.
The equipment required for these economie pursuits is limited by the
materials available. As previously stated, stone and flint are lacking in this
area. Axes and knives are traded in and are a rare and valuable possession.
Spear barbs are made from the bones of stingray, emu, kangaroo and Wallaby —
the jawbone of the latter being used as a craper and, with the incisor attached,
as an engraver. Wallaby bone is used also as a stiletto for piercing holes in
bark, ete. Such material takes the place of flint in other places. Shells (par-
ticularly the mussel-shell) are used as serapers and as spoons, Sharp fragments
of shell-grit, hardened by the action of the sea, are used for grinding and shaping
the edges of pearlshell, and the spiral shell (Z'urritella cerea) is used for boring
holes in the sheli dises thus shaped. The bailer shell (Melo amphorus) is used
to bail water out of canoes and wells, as a drinking vessel, and for heating gum,
elc., on the fire.
The plentiful supply of hardwood and softwood timbers (and bamboo),
with their stems, bark, gums and fibres, supplies the greater part of the material
used in the manufacture of artefacts. Yellow stains are obtainable from certain
roots, and red and white clays and chareoal are used as colouring matter, Bees-
wax is used in addition to 2ums for sealing purposes. Grass bugles, scarlet
seeds and yellow orehid bark, feathers and cowrie shells (threaded on string)
are used for decorative ptiposes.
During the dry winter months people sleep by the open canmpfire, wherever
food supplies take them, by lagoon or swamp, riverbed or seashore, and on reeog-
nized camping grounds used from season to season. Break-winds of bark and
branches are placed against stakes in the ground as open shelters, the branches
also affording a shade during the heat of the day. Camps consist usually of
small family groups, but where the food supply is temporarily abundant, as
hy water lily lasoons or swamps (Plate ii, fig, d, and Plate iit, fie. a-b), at certain
McCoNNEL—NATIVE ARTS AND INDUSTRIES 9
times of the year, larger groups assemble and an opportunity ts afforded for
holding initiation ceremonies and inter-tribal discussions, etc. During the wet
vorth-west Inonsoon season in the summer months, however, when rain is imees-
sant and flooding takes place, it is necessary to builcl more permanent shelters,
A common shelter used is the sleeping platform, built mostly near inland water
holes and water-courses, which attract. birds, and where wallaby may be speared
aod fish trapped. The sleeping-plattorm is made by placing saplings on four
forked sticks wid laying others aeross them, whieh may then be eovered with
sheets of messmate bark, Under this platform fires may be lit for cooking,
which also provide a smokesereen 10 ward off mosquitoes. Sometimes a second
story is built to form a ceiling above the first. When the weather is squally,
eapecially near the coast, a completely covered-in bark house is used. The round
beehive-shaped bark house is made of branches placed cireularly in the ground
and tied at the top, aver which strips of ti-tree bark (Melaleuca leucadendron)
are laid so as to completely cover over the branches, one piece being removed
when going in or out. Tuside these sealed bark houses, with a fire smouldering,
a tamily with its dogs may live snug and dry and free from mosquitoes till the
worst weather ig over. These houses and platforms, being used only during the
wet season, usily tall to pieces from negleet during the winter months. In a
hunting community, where there is no incentive to build pernianent houses as in
the case of the village settlements of the Torres Straits Islands and Papua, there
is no adequate storage for goods made trom perishable materials. Perhaps for
this reason mainland artefacts are less elaborate and spectacular than those of
Papna and the Islands, though the technical skill and artistic finish of the former
are none the less excellent, and adequate for the requirements of their owners.
The double out-rigger eanoe is fashioned from the trunk of a milkwood
tree, The out-rigger booms pass over the gunwale and are fastened, inside and
outside the lull, by strips of green bark (usually MWibisews) to a stick which
passes through both sides of the gunwale. I the specimen T saw made on the
Archer River, the two booms were not made in a single piece, but in two pieces,
and were fastened to the floats on either side by lashing. The dug-out canoe
ean dravel alone the coast and out to sea in calm weather and is used for fishing
expeditions. The art of tiaking out-igger eanoes on the Archer River was
possibly copied from the Batavia and Embley River Missions in the north and
may have deteriorated, Certain it is, however, that the out-rigger canoe is not an
indigenous product and must have been introduced at some time or another m
(he past to the mainland. The mainland eanoe is made from bark of the mess-
mate tree (vide Haddon and TMornell, 1937). After ringbarking a strip of bars
10 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
of the required size, the bark is smoked dry over the fire. It is then folded in
two (inside ont) and placed between two sticks to secure it (Plate i, fiz. b),
whilst each end is shaped by cutting off a triangular piece downward to the fold.
The ends of the canoe are secured by sowing-up these shaped ends with a piece of
eane, the point of which has been sharpened and hardened in the fire and the cane
soltened by biting. The cane is passed through holes pierced in the bark (Plate i,
fig. b) by means of a bone stiletto (with or without a wax knob to protect the
hand). When both ends are thus scevred, the canoe sides are drawn together to
the required distanee by tying strips of green hibiscus bark across the canoe
towards prow and stern, and the canoe is kept open by two forked sticks placed
crosswise under each tie. The inside of the eanoe is sealed with heeswax to
render it watertizht, A young mangrove stem splayed at the end is used as a
paddle, To manipulate the canoe, the rower kneels, or sits on the floor with his
legs out in front of him, and swings the paddle first to one side and then the
other, which also serves to steer the canoe. The sides of the eanoe are some-
tinies only a few inches above water level, The eanoe is so light that it responds
to the slightest movement of the paddle (Plate i, fig. d), and the paddler must
maintain a perfect balance if he is to eseape the erocodiles lurking below. When
hunting, the fisherman stands in the prow of the canoe, spear poised on spear
thrower, alert for action, When hunting the bony bream at night time he holds
a bark toreh in the one hand, which attracts and bewilders (he fish. As the fish
flashes past, the spear flies through the air, and the fish, plunging madly,
earries the spear with it, till, the paddler deftly steering the canoe in chase, the
fish is captured and the spear retrieved,
Messmate bark is also used to make vessels for carrying and washing food
and as a baby’s cradle (Plate iv, fig. d). The bark is treated as for canoes,
but instead of cutting and sewing up the ends, the bark is thinned out al the ends
und @athered together with pleats held by a wooden skewer, which is bound
over and over with coarse bark strips to secure the pleats,
Spears naturally vary in make and type according to the use for which
they are required (Plate viii), Short spears are used for fighting (or hunting
wallaby) at a distance. The heavy spears are used for large game sneh as
kangaroo, wallaby and emu, ete., and the lighter spears for fish and birds.
Heayy spear shafts are made from the straight young stems of ironwood or
acacia, carefully scraped and shaped to the required balance, the light part being
used near the throwing-end and the heavy part near the head and barbs to throw
the weight forwards. Light spear handles are similarly made from lighter woods
spel as rosella, hibiscus, cottonwood, grass-tree Hower spike, and baniboo, ete,
McCONNEL—NATIVE ARTS AND INDUSTRIES ll
A spear may be made all in oné piece, or with a separate butt or head, or with
both. Sometimes an imitation butt or head is simulated by painting the part
with clay, A spear thay have one, three or four points, which are usnally made
of acacia wood, The barb is fastened to the point. with wallaby or kangaroo tail
sinew and is covered over with grass-tree (or other) gum heated over the fire in
a bailer shell and smoothed on a wooden palette, which is sometimes fitted with
a wallaby ineisor for engraving (Plate ii, fig, b).
Stingray-bone barbs are used for fighting and punitive spears, and are very
poisonous. These barbs may be arranged serially along the head, pointing
backwards or in a cluster of three, or in a flower-like cluster (painted red) on
a stem-like head (painted white). Ceremonial spears are decorated with white
and red clay in large or small ecireles. Sometimes blood is smeared along the
shatt of a spear ina wavy pattern (made by turning the spear in a hlood-stained
hand), used possibly as a charm to acquire power in hunting another vietim.
The spearthrower of the Peninsula is distinctive with its shell ornament at.
one end. The shaft, which varies in width, has a smooth, plain surface contract-
ing towards the head-end, and is plastered at this end with gum, which serves
to fasten to this end twits bailer shell dises, against whieli the spear is balaneed.
Mn use, a wooden peg at the other end engages the end of the spear. The shaft
is sometinies ornamented at the end with bands of yellow orchid bark and
scarlet clbrus seeds are sometimes let into the gum of the shell ornament.
Children tse toy spears 50’-53” long, with wooden points let into light eane
shafts lashed with bark fibre (Plate ii, fio. ¢). On some of these a strip of
bark is lett ina position similar to that used by poisonous etm on adult spears
so as tO make believe it is a fighting spear, and sometimes string round the
handle is used to simulate a join between head and shaft, also in imitation of
an adult's spear (Plate ix, fig. ak).
Shields are lacking, hut wooden elubs with painied knobs or plain fat
stieks are used to deflect spears (Plate x, fig. b-e), Women use long hard-
wood fiehting sticks usually made of acacia wood and painted red with white
points, and are supported by “‘seconds’’ ina fight, who use short, sticks, similarly
painted, to hit back the opponents’ spears (Plate ix, fig. c-f), Axes, which are
traded in, and the beater, the yam-stiek and the fighting-stiek used by the women
ave made or hafted in hardwood.
Gull firesticks are made of matchbox-bean wood and are as long as spears.
For earrying, the two sticks are fitted into a double-barrel sheath, made ot
two hollow bamboo tubes tied round with strips of yellow orehid-bark and
fastened into a knob of beeswax studded with searlet Abrus seeds. These
12 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM
sheaths with their colours ol fire add a gay note to the camp scene, "To kindle
fire, one stick is laid on the ground and steadied with the foot, whilst the other
is twisted between the hands with a swilt downward movement, and creates
the required friction as it rubs aguinst the stielc on the ground, As suol) as 4
spark is kindled, it is deftly dropped into tinder, and is blown between cupped
hands into a flame for starting the fire. When no firestiek is to hand, a smoulder-
ing stick is carried and rekindled at intervals by stopping to make a small fire,
a piece of bark is often carried for kindling purposes. The wings of such large
birds as jabiru, ibis and native companion are fastened together (stretched out
and stiffened) to form a feather fan which is used as a bellows and ts carried
about on a string-loop passed over the wrist.
The soft bark of the Melaleuca is used for innumerable purposes. Apart
from its use for walls of houses, breakwinds and shelters, it is used to wrap up
objects of all kinds and sizes, from corpses to spearbarbs and clays, and for
covering food when cooking in antbed ovens, ete. Twisted into a flat pad, it is
worn by women to distribute the weight of loads carried on the head, such as
a bark vessel loaded with roots or a pile of firewood picked up on the homeward
journey, As a small wedge it is used to break the strain of string handles on
“prass'’ baskets. Women use a strip of ti-tree bark for utility purposes (Plate
xi, fiz. q), which is passed between the legs and fastened baek and front to a
waist-string by turning in the ends. Rolled into a long bundle, this paper bark
serves aS a torch or flare at night-time (Plate xi, fig. 1),
Strips of green bark (usually Hibiscus) are used in the rough for binding
purposes, e.g., in making canoes, houses and bark vessels, ete. Mibres are used
in making rope and twine for weaving fishing nets, dillybags, aprons and
decorative strings, ete. The coarse red fibre of Acacia flavescens or A, latifolia
makes a strone harsh string (fet po:la) for fishing nets, ete, whilst the
yaffia-like strands of the mder epidermis of the Limslona australis palm-leaf
makes a firm white string (koi testa) for more delicate use. The fibre most
commonly used for making twine for dillybags, aprons, cte,, is Lieus cuwning-
hama (kot yastan) (Plate xi, fig. b), The fibre is soltened by soaking it in
water or chewing it in the mouth, When dry it is stripped into strands and
tucked away in a bundle ready for use (Plate xi, fig. a). ‘Twine is made by
twistme together strands (usually two) of the required size with a deft move-
nent of the palin of the hand against the thigh, which is used as a kind of table,
Le., with the lower leg and foot tucked under and the other lee crooked up
out of the way. Roth (1901, Plate ii) illustrates this method of making twine,
and in other plates in this same Bulletin fully illustrates the various types ol
McCONNEL—-NATIVE ARTS AND INDUSTRIES 13
Weaving and netting used also in this urea and shown in the accompanying
drawings. “‘Crass*’ baskets (kampian) are made (Plate lil, fig. c-cd) from the
blades of Verotes multiflora. They are nsually made wide at the mouth (Text
fig. le), but also woven closely in tubular forin for holding honey (Text fle. 1h)
and, in sinaller sizes, as tobueeo pouches for the men, Sometinies the basket is
elose-woven at the base only, to hold food when washing it, allowing the water
lo eseape through the more open weaving of the sides. These ‘‘grass’’ baskets
are woven in an onti-cloekwise chain-twist pattern (vide Roth 1910, Plate xvi),
and are woven over basal strands trom: the botton) upwards, the ends being
turned in ut the lop and sometimes over-wound to make a neat edye (Text
fia. 1e),
Sgr
/ elles
ab pape
] y UREN
| , tl IU wv x
| P The rc fel 4 9 Pi f p
seems ie Faint ~ 4
Ae / SS eee
t | : SS pea
% 78 7
- ef
ro ¢
oN
&
d b c
Mig. 1, Bags and baskets. «a, Dilly-bag in the hour-glass pattern, b, Closely woven
basket for holding honey, e. Wide-mouthed basket made with anti-clockwise chain twist,
Dillybags (wa:nka) are sometimes made in this chain-twist or ‘‘grass’'-
stitch pattern (Text fie. 2e-d) from the Livistona twine (wa:nk iyampan) and
sometimes in the fishing-net pattern (wank omyana) (Text fig. 2a-b). Most
dillybags, however, are made (Plate iv, fig. ¢) in the hourglass (usually double-
loop) pattern, from brown fibres of the Ficus (wamka nastan), ved Moacia
(wankea povla) and white Livistona Cwa:nka mesa), and often two or inore of
these twines are combined to give a striped effect. The hourglass stiteh is worked
with one continuous lony strand (joined al intervals) for the whole length
of the dillybag, from a basal strand stretehed between two sticks (Plate iv,
fie, ©), or from one bie toe to the other (Roth 1901, Plate vil-x).
Fishing nets are usually made in the fish-net pattern (Roth 1901, Plate xi),
but the specimen shown (Plate xii, fig, a) is made in the hour-glass pattern, the
14 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
strands being looped arovnd 4 basal eane withy (bent to form ” hoop) and lashed
over with strands of strong /Tibiscus bark (Roth 1901, Plate x, fig, 4-5), The
technique then proceeds as with dillybag making, The looping eommences at
the top (over the boop) and gradually narrows towards ihe bottom, which is
abruptly finished off with a flat intermeshing (knotted at the final end), thus
piving a wide, flat hase to the net,
Sis)
Pelt Dy
4
it
—~
7
es
§
SY
zs
SH
Fig. 2, 4, Netted string bag. 6, Ditte detail, o, Coiled string bag. d. Ditto detail.
® Woman's apron, tf, Ditta retail,
The type of handle used with ‘‘erass’’ baskets and dillybags varies. These
may be of one or more strands used separately or overwound to give strength
(Roth 1901, Plate vii, fig. 7), The method of fastening also varies; e.g., the
basal strands may be eaught together with other weaving strands to make a
central core which is overwound, or separate strands may he passed directly
through the basal strings on either side, overwound, and fastened in the centre
by knotting or intertwining, Sometimes the handles are fastened more to one
side of the mouth, so that the mouth falls open when in use (Text fig. la),
allowing the hand to pass in and out easily and the dillybagw to lie flat on the
hack. The handle is sometimes interwoven with jabiru-down to make it soft
against the forehead, Handles of ‘‘erass’’ baskets are usually fastened ta the
sides with a proteetive wedge of hark to break the strain of the handle on the
basket, or a small stick may be used, which is more easily removed and renders
the handle detachable.
Women’s aprons (wa:ta), may be made from Micus, Acacta or Livistona
twine, but usually from Meus whieh is softer, and may be coloured with red
clay or stained yellow with the root or leaves of Alphistuna crotenoides or
McCoNNEL—NATIVE ARTS AND INDUSTRIES i5
Morinda, citrifolia, whieh is used also for cleaning aprons and dillyhbags, when
the colour is usually rubbed off afterwards. Aprons are made on a basal waist-
string (Text fig. 2e-f) fron whieh lone loops of equal length are suspended in
front and fastened by a single loop tu (he waist-string (Roth, 1901, Plate vil,
fig. 4), The basal waisi-string is looped at oue end and the ends lett [ree at
the other end for tying into the loop. When not in use, this apron ts rolled round
a stick and fastened round with the loose ends of the waist-string, leaving the
loop at the top for earrying,
RITUAL AND DECORATIVE ART.
Clothes in the Huropean sense ave non-existent. Men and womeu go iaked.
Aprons are worn by women only on certain oceasions with a special sivnificance,
A young girl (koman manya) first wears an apron when she returns to camp
after separation at the onset of puberty, and after each ensuing separation for
a similar reason, either as a mature girl (koman) or as a married woman (wantya
piz’an). When a mother returns to her husband's eamp at the end of hier isola-
tion during childbirth, she wears a brand new apron, bringing with her an
offering of! yalis and fish, one dillybagful each for hersel’ and her husband
and one trom the child to its father. Aprons are also worn by women on
cerchiomal occasions, as when they take part in dances, and especially for the
iourning danee.
As healing, power-giving and protective charms, plain stvines are tied
round the affeeted part, for headaches, pains in leg and stomach and siekness.
Men wear stvings round arm or lez when hunting, and pregnant women wear
them around the abdomen when diving for water lilies. Decorative strings are
wort on ceremonial occasions. Both men and women wear shell nosepess (made
from Megalotractus aruana), pearlshell pendants suspended from a string round
the neek. Sueh neeklets and headbands of threaded discs are made of pearl:
shell and Nautilus pompilius. Men wear pandanus-palm armiets, plain and
plaited (Roth 1901, Plate iv), a large hollow wooden ear-cylinder (painted red
and white and worn in the lobe of one ear, whieh is stretehed to hold it), or, leas
usual, a collar of hght wood covered with beeswax and studded with scarlet
élbrus seeds. Women wear cowrie shell girdles and cross-overs, These ornaments
are mostly borrowed from the north and are not, properly spealsing, indigenous.
Indigenous art is seen in plain and over-wonund striigs, strings iiterwoven willl
posstun-fur and jabiru-feather down, threaded golden grass-bugles (Text fle, 3e),
plaited yellow orehid-bark, local pearlshell necklets and headbands, and
nowadays (when needle and cotton are available) strings of scarlet Abrus seeds.
16 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM
Women’s strings may be made completely circular for passing oyer the head,
either of the required size or long enough to be doubled and redoubled a number
of times; or they may be made of one or more strings fastened together at the
ends by various devices, e.2., loose string at one end and a loop at the other, or
with basal strings left free to tie back into the main string (doubled), or with
the basal strings at either end overwound partway but left loose at the ends
for tying (Text fig. 8e). The workmanship of these decorative strings is skilled
Fig, 8, Shell drill and orhaments. a, Turritelia cerea drill for piercing shells. b, Nautilus
shell nacklace. c. Necklace of grass bugles. d. Flat band ornament of Dendrobium orchid
epidermis and string. e. Oyerwound strings worn as ornament. f. Pinetada margaritifera, a
fragile peatly shell used in ornamental necklace making.
and artistic. A small, fragile pearlshell (Pinclada marguritifera, Text fig. 3f)
found on the Gulf shore is used instead of the coarser Nautilus pompilius to make
a fine pearl necklet or headband, worn by men and women. Toles are drilled
in the pearlshell by means of a spiral shell (Turrtfella cerea) which is fastened
to the end of a stick (fixed so that the point is in a central position) and twisted
between the hands like a firestick (Text fiz. 4a). The small pieces of shell, each
with its eentre-hole, ave ground and sharpened by means of solidified shell-
grit and then strung on twine which is twisted so that the rectangular pieces
lie Hat (Text fig. 3b). The epidermis of the Dendrabium johannis orehid
(wilted to yellow in the fire) is plaited in and ont of a strine-base to form a
flat band (Text fig. 8d), which may be worn round the head or arm or leg by
McCONNEL—NATIVE ARTS AND INDUSTRIES 17
men, and long and doubled as a girdle or crossover breastlol by women, Sone-
times twine is interwoven with soft white jabiru-down and, folded and twisted
into a number of strands, worn as a crossover breastlet or girdle by the women,
showing dazzlingly white against their brown skins. Golden vrass-bueles, fine
and coarse, are gathered together into a number of strands and tied round the
neck, or, folded over a number of times, passed over the head as crossovers and
girdles, or sometimes in single strand worn hanging from the head down the
back for mourning.
ee cal at
irene om 7 r YOUTH Tee
rarer Tm TN
Fig. d. a. Betrothal ring of string, overwound. b. Loyer’s string, dyed red. ¢. Umbilical
cord in wax pendant, decorated with yellow orchid bark stripes. d. Widow’s string nock
ornament with wax balls decorated with red Abrus seeds fastened with beeswax.
In addition to these decorative strings, worn for ceremonial purposes in
general, strings are used also for specific purposes. The most common of these
is the cireular overwound plain string worn as a crossover (single or doubled)
for mourning; the crossover goes over neck and underarm, i.e., across the breast.
It is worn by widows but is not compulsory. The compulsory widow’s string is
made of overwound twine, with blobs of beeswax at the ends. It is worn round
the neck, fastened in front, with the ends crossed again at the back and hanging
down behind. Sometimes the beeswax blobs are studded with scarlet seeds
and have the basal strands left loose for tying so as to make the necklet more
secure (Text fig. 4d). The wearing of the widow's string is compulsory until
mourning ends. If it should wear out, it must be replaced, but the old one
must be kept also. If a widow should lose her mourning necklet and be seen
walking about without it, she would be killed by her husband’s relatives.
18 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
A small plain ring (Text fig. 4a), made in the same overwound technique,
is used in the betrothal ceremony as a symbol of the promise made by a woman
to give her daughter in marriage to a man. In this ceremony her head is
covered with a sheet of bark (on account of the strict taboo existing between
son-in-law and mother-in-law), as, accompanied by another woman (acting as
proxy for the promised daughter) she encircles the man seated on the ground
and places the ring over a tuft of his hair and hangs a dillybag over his head.
The betrothal ring is kept by the man as a surety for his promised bride. When
the marriage takes place the ring is placed under honey in a bark vessel, as the
last payment due to future mother- and father-in-law.
A lover’s string (manenka), made of several fine strands of twine, plain
or knotted and coloured with red clay (Text fig. 4b), is sent by a woman to her
lover by the hand of this man’s half-sister, in whom she can confide. On receipt
of it, the lover sends her back a message arranging a rendezvous, saying: ‘* You
’? and they meet at the time and
pretend to go for yams, and I will go hunting,
place arranged.
A baby’s umbilical cord (which it is considered essential to preserve),
finished with a wax pendant striped with yellow orchid bark (Text fig. 4c)
is hung around a baby’s neck when it is presented to its father, on the occasion
of the mother’s return to her husband’s camp after childbirth. The father
accepts the child as his own and as a member of his clan, anoints its face with
his sweat so that the clan spirits will recognise it as ‘‘belonging.’’ Later the
child is given a name identifying it with a clan totem through a ‘‘namesake,”’
who acts as its guardian should anything happen to its father.
THE USE OF CLAYS IN RITUAL.
In ritual and ceremonial art the use of coloured clays is unlimited. Painted
on the body, clays are used with an endless variety of meanings according to
the ritual and the ceremony concerned. In everyday life clays are used in
sickness to cool the body. When a baby is presented to its father, a white
streak is painted down its nose (the significance of which I am uneertain) and
the child is also rubbed with charcoal to cover any remaining lightness of skin.
At the betrothal ceremony, a white streak is placed on the abdomen of the girl’s
mother’s brother, denoting his relationship to her through the mothei, and his
responsibility for his sister’s promise; the girl’s father touches the man’s head
with his spearthrower as a gesture of subjection and the girl’s brother rubs
chests with him as a sign of his acceptance of the pledge. In initiation cere-
monies, women paint their bodies (Plate vi, fig. d) in a manner signifying their
McCONNEL—NATIVE ARTS AND INDUSTRIES 19
relationship to the initiates, e.@., ‘‘mothers’’ paint their breasts with red and
white clay and hold the breast as if to feed, symbolising a maternal relationship:
a ‘father’s sister’? paints a circle on her shoulder and holds her hand there in
the attitude of steadying a child by the knee when carrying it on her shoulder,
whilst a ‘sister’? paints her lees with white stripes and holds her hand behind
ler head in the manner of supporting a baby’s back, when carrying it on the
shoulder. Sometimes two or all of these syvnbols and attiludes are combined
to signify a variety of relationships on the part of one woman. bi moureing
dances, women of the deceased's clan and moiety paint their faces and bodies
with red and white clay, and wear the inournime strings, apron, and other
ornaments alluded to above,
Tn all saered ritnal and ceremonial, red and white clays are used by the
men to denote the peculiar significance of (he ceremony. Totemic emblems are
painted on the bodies of the men who take part in the ritual of their own
totemic clans. For example, men of the bony-bream clan have a male and female
fish paintd on their ehests, men of the euss-euss opossum elan are covered in
white spots, and men of the tortoise elan have a tortoise painted in white elay
on the baek, ete, A white mark down the abdoisen denotes the female of the
species, In the bony-bream ceremory, the male and female bony-bream appear
covered respectively in red or white clay, according as each “‘steps ont’’ of a
hloodwood or a milkwood tree. In addition to clays, feathers are used, e.2.,
as headdresses, held together with gum or wax, Wax is used for modellinz—as
in the ease of the figurine of a baby (Plate v, fie. f, and Plate xvii, fig. 1). Wood
also is used, e.e., for making ceremonial objects such as the bull-roarer (Plate v,
fig. a), wooden phallus (Plate v, fig. d), ete, Bark is used for representing
various objects, such as a fish carried in the beak of a bird (Plate vy, fig, e, and
Plate vi, fig. b), pulwatya, ete. There is no end to the uses made of such
available materials, of which the examples quoted are but an inadequate
indication.
RELIGION AND DRAMA.
The creative talent of these people is revealed not only in their (echnical
skill and jyeenuity in the manufaeture and the artistic finish of objects of
everydas use, and their decorative and ritualistie art, but is seen to perfection
in the dramatic portrayal of religious beliefs associated with the eults of their
elan totems or pulivaiya, Kor behind all these eeonomie activities, and the ritual
attending the crises of life, behind the sanctions which govern mental attitudes
and behaviour patterns, even behind all natural phenomena, beneficial or other-
wise, lies the belief in a spirit world, conceived in terms of these pu/maiya,
20 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM
Whose abode is known, who permeate all reality and are the souree of all that
exists, who control and maintain all forms of life and inherent capacities, and
whose creative and inventive activities ‘'in the beginnine’' (ke:nka) established
the world as it is today and who sanctioned the present social order, These
traditional beliefs absorbed implicitly by one generation after another, are made
exphieit in the social consciousness by means of ritual and the recital and dramatic
portrayal of the prowess and creative powers of the pulwaiya. It is only in the
light of sueh beliefs that present activities and skills ean be properly evaluated.
Every eult, whether it be associated with food supplies, forees of nature
or with human attributes, has its **story,’’ its drama and ritual and its auwa,
Where natural and human factors are merged by the incarnation of the human
pulwaiya in some material form, Bach auwa is marked by a tree, water-hole
or antbed, in which the pulwarya resides aid Whence its ereative power emanates.
On the upper Kendall River, where the fresh-water bream breed, is a small
circle of antbeds with a line of them Jeading from these spirit-camps down
to the water-hole. On the upper Areher River a small cirele of antbeds marks
the auwwe of the euss-cuss opossuin, All such shrines are kept in order and swept
with branches and revered as the abode of the pulwaiya is felt to he there, At
the mouth of the Tokali River—at the auwa of viya nospan, the rock python,
the trees on which the spirit-snakes sun themselves are sacred and must not be
touched for fear of creating a bush-fire. Sweat must be smeared on strangers
who approach so that they may be recognised by oiya no:pan as ‘‘frienda,"’
On the Great Dividing Range in which these rivers rise, where stones and rocks
are plentiful, these auwa often are marked by stones, e.e., the rock-cod family
marked by three stones (father, mother and child), and the kangaroo puliwaiya
by a line of stones crossing a ridge with a larger ‘‘old man’’ in the lead
(MeConnel 1931), Though separately conceived, all these cults are implicitly
comprehensive and complementary and together cover the whole field of man’s
orientation to reality in all its forms,
Only those eults associated with ceremonial objects shown im this collection
are deseribed here, for the better understanding of the nature and funetion of
these objects. Incidentally, these erlts deal with two most important. aspects of
social life: (i) the source of food supplies; (ii) the erises of life, associated
with the sex relationships and childbirth.
A. The cult of Wolkolan, the bony-bream pulwaiya,
Members of the bony-bream clan are the custodians of this cult. lWvery
year, when the bony-bream come up the river to breed, word is sent to neigh-
bouring clans to come for the fishing season and share in the proeeeds of the
McCoONNEL—NATIVE ARTS AND [NDUSTRIKS 21
hunt. Wolhkolan has his abode (auwa) in a small ereek off the lower Archer
River, where a spring breaks through the bank into a waterhole, in which the
bony-breain breed. Here a ritual for the inerease of the bony-bream periodieally
takes place. With stamping of feet and hitting of the surrounding trees in
whieh the spirits of the bomy-bream reside, men eall upon Wolkslan to send out
a plentiful supply of bony-bream into the river for men to spear for food,
'The measure of the response of Wofkolan to this ‘‘awakening’’ ritual dramatic:
ally was revealed to an imitiate of this ¢lan during the uutiation ceremony, a
ritual which I was permitted to attend. Tn response to the rhythmie chanting
and elapping of hands eame an answering call as the female spirit of the bony-
bream emerged from a group of trees, She was covered from head to foot in
white clay (having ‘‘stepped out"’ from a milkwood tree), She was crowned
with a semi-circle of feathers of the peewit (an associated clan pulwatya), her
body was riddled with the spears of her slayers. She staggered forward to the
rhythmie chanting (legs and arms outstretched and head falling forward).
She paused now and then, only to be called into action again by the chanters,
Beside her stood Wolkalan, covered with red clay (having ‘‘stepped out’’ of a
bloodwood tree), Kneeling at the feet of Wollolan, a suppliant, with a feather
fan, raised (by sleight of hand) the wooden phallus into creative activity in
response to his people's call for a plentifyl supply of bony-hream (Plate v,
fiz. d). Innate in this dramatic portrayal of the pulwaiya answering the call
of this people, staggering tinder Spear wounds inflicted through a willing inear-
nation as bony-bream, slain that people may eat and live, lies the belief in a
beneficent and creative deity and a spirit of voluntary self-sacrifice, For a full
description of this cult see MeConnel (1935),
B. The cult of the ''Bull-roarers.''
This eult. ig not confined to one clan or tribe but is a series of eults, asso-
ciated hy their own inner logic with one another, each with its own auwa and
pwhwaiya, and each concerned with one aspect of the phases through which
a woman passes in her development from (a) a girl entering puberty (koman
manye) to (b) amature girl (koman), (ec) a married woman (wantya piz’an),
(4) aw married woman who has given birth to a child (kafa), The bull-roarers
vary (in order of the above) from (a) a small, plain leaf-like piece of wood
(moiya) to (b) one similar but larger (pakapaka), (c) a larger one coloured
red with white splotehes (moipaka) which is one of a pair (husband and wife),
the male being phallie-shaped and painted red with long white stripes and dots,
and (d) a female motpaka similar m shape but painted red with white stripes
22 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MusEUM
across, Which is used (Plate vy, fig. 4) in association with the ritual of 4 woman
with a child (ka:tu) (Plate v, fiw. f), the latter being represented by a wax
figurine of a newborn male baby, complete with eyes (searlet seeds), teeth,
pubie hair, ete., lying on the abdomen of the “first woman’? (Plate v, fig, {).
The ‘*bull-roarers’’ moiya aud pakapaka ave swung respectively by youny
initiates at the end of the first part and at the close of the Ustyanam ceremony;
the first motpuke is swung by men for married women, and the last motpahu in
association with the ritual of childbirth. Hach has its own story of origin, its
rittal and drama, and its place in relation to social life.
The dramatic presentation of these symbolic ideas concerning the ‘* bull-
roarers’’ and their auc was vivid and arresting, coming as it did without any
expectation on my part. These dramatic seenes are deseribed here just as they
were witnessed by me.
(a) A koman manya vehemently swung the moiya whilst other /omean
‘manya lay stretched on the ground—they represented those who had gone down
into their auwea; after hiding the motya in a erack in a bloodwood tree ‘‘for
men to use,"’ she too went down into her auwa.
(b) The pakapaka was swung by a oman (white elay on breasts to
indicate her sex), whilst the wetyana (initiates) stood hand in hand apparently
listening. The marks on the wstyane were those used for initiates in the U styanam
ceremony (MeConnel 1935). It is from these ‘‘eirl’? awa (girls having first
possessed the motya and the pakapaha) that the power of awakening adolescence
and maturity are believed to come in response to the swinging of the ‘*bull-
roarers’’ by the welyane, who now assert their claims over the swineine of (he
‘“bull-roarers’’ relinquished by the girls,
(e) A line of fieures he prone on the ground with arms outstretched and
hands interlocking, on the abdomen of one of which (wantya piz’an) lies the
female moipaha. She represents a married woman, as yet without child. The
motpake (man and wife), having found each other, have entered a state of
married life. The female moipake is swune by a man for ‘‘married woman,”
invoking the virility from this auwe.
(d) A line of figures similarly lying, on the abdomen of one of which is
ka:ta, the wax figurine of a new-born male baby. This represents the first birth.
The figures on one side of the woman with a child are the first men who inhabited
the earth and who were growing old with no one to replace them: those on the
other side of ‘the woman with a child’ are those who, coming after this event,
are born of woman in the ordinary way, A mau at the end of the line swings
& motpaka, The idea symbolically presented here is ''the continuity of life
McCONNEL—NATIVE ARTS AND INDUSTRIES 23
”)
through birth, and its first coming. The interlocking of hands denotes conti-
nuity, and the swinging of the moipaka preservation of that continuity.
(e) The female moipaka pulwaiya sits with her child on her knee (the first
child ever created) with her husband beside her, the three together representing
the institution of family life. Sitting thus in their camp, the moipaka pulwayu
father, mother and child go down into their awwa, whence more babies now come.
From these ‘‘bull-roarer’’ awwa are believed to emanate those mystie forces
intimately concerned with the maintenance of sex relationships, which the
“‘bull-roarers’’ symbolise, and the sanctions which govern their social strati-
fication (MeConnel 1935).
The primitive symbolism of these cults should not mislead us into under-
estimating their psychological and sociological value. They are the means by
which individual experience is socialised and made explicit in the social con-
sciousness. They are a basic support of social structure and the conerete
expression of abstract ideas such as we are accustomed to express in more
sophisticated language, with the accumulated knowledge of thousands of years
enabling us to do so.
The ethnological specimens upon which the foregoing analysis is based
are in the South Australian Museum under the registered numbers listed here.
Duplicates of many of these specimens have been passed to the Australian
Museum, the University of Sydney (Department of Anthropology), and the
University of Queensland.
SPECIMENS SHOWING OUTSIDE INFLUENCE.
A.42055. Drum (Plate vii, fig, a). This is a hollow wooden cylinder,
slightly tapered; over larger end-hole is stretched skin of a lizard; beaten by
hand—palm of hand for deep notes and fingers for lighter sounds—used with
one or both ends closed, as in Papua. It is used in ceremonial dance of totemic
hero Sivrt, the seagull, among the T'yonandyi tribe (Batavia River), who is
said to have introduced it trom the Torres Straits; not found south of Archer
River.
A.42066-67. Bows (Plate vii, fig. Im). Specimens used in dances asso-
ciated with cults of totemic hero Sivri. (Tyonandyi tribe, Batavia River). Not
found south of Archer River. :
A.42068-69. Arrows (Plate vii, fig. n-o). The points of these arrows are
missing. They are used with the above bows.
A.42056-57, SueLtL Nose-Pec (Plate vii, fig. b-c). Wikmuykan name
ha:wovyama. Nose ornament pierced through hole in nose; made from Megala-
24 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MuSEUM
tractus aruanus or Turritella cocea? This specimen is from Kendall, Holroyd
and Archer Rivers area.
A.42058-59, SuEtt Penvants (Plate vii, fig. d-e), Semi-lunate or oblong
pearlshell ornament, worn mostly by men suspended from neck; pearlshell
usually traded in from east coast and the Torres Straits, These specimens
are from Kendall, Holroyd and Archer Rivers area,
A.42063. Dancing Sximr (Plate vii, fig. i). The skirt is made from strips
of hibiseus bark and worn by men in dances. Found north of Archer River;
associated with the Batavia River hero cults of Sturt the seagull and Nywngu the
Torres Straits pigeon, said to have been introduced by them.
A.42060. SuEut Neckuet (Plate vii, fig. f). Wikmunkan name wastakuspa,
The necklet is made of rectangular pieces of nautilus shell strung together; the
shell is traded from Hast Coast and Torres Straits. Specimen collected from
Kendall, Holroyd and Archer Rivers area,
A, No specimen, Ear Ornament. 52; II, 2938 x 52, 310 & 52; III, 207 x 34,
207 * 34; TV, missing, 207 x 34.
Rostrum. 1, 155 > 69; II, 258 * 69; ITI, 207 > 69.
Pronotum. Anterior width, 396; posterior width, 809; median length, 258;
lateral length, 465, 413.
Scutellum. Anterior width, 534; median length, 413; lateral length, 430,
430.
Gross—A REVISION OF THE FLOWER Bucs 135
Fig. 1. A-B, Anthrocoris austropiceus sp. nov. Female. A, head and pronotum; B,
apex of abdomen from above. C-D, Orius armatus sp. nov. Male. C, fore tibia; D, apex
of abdomen from above. E-F, Oplobates femoralis Reut. Female. E, left front femur and
tibia; F, apex of abdomen from above. G-I, Falda queenslandica sp. nov. Female. G, head
and pronotum; H, left front leg; I, left middle leg. J, Lyctocoris campestris (Fab.). Male.
J, apex of abdomen from above. K, Lasiochilus derricki sp. nov. Male. K, head and
pronotum. (C-D, enlarged 80 diameters; A-B, E-K, enlarged 40 diameters. )
136 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
Legs coxa femur tibia tarsi I IL Til cl.
T 288 396 896 34 34 86 17
275 430 396 not visible
II not clear 396 879 34 34 103 wi
not clear 396 396 34 52 86
TIT 285 568 585 42 34 86 34
not clear 637 585 52 a4 ? ?
Total length, 2,400; width, 880; length abdomen, 1,295; ovipositor, 637.
Loc. New South Wales: Bogan River (J. Armstrong, Holotype ¢ in
Australian Museum).
Very closely allied to A. pacificus Kirkaldy in having the eyes remote
from the anterior margin of the pronotum, but ean be easily distinguished from
that species by the concolorous hemielytra and the absence of spines on the fore
femora,
jenus Ors Wolff, 1811.
Orius Wolff, 1811, Icon, Cim., 5, 4; Zimmerman, 1948, Insects of Hawaii 3, 176.
Triphleps Fieber, 1860, Wien Ent. Monat., 4, 266; references largely summarized
by Van Duzee, 1917, Cat. Hem. Nth. Mexico, 293.
Body ovate or oblong ovate. Pronotal collar absent or very obsolete. Ros-
trum not surpassing fore coxaec. Second segment. of antennae as long or shorter
than interocular. Ovipositor present. Genotype: O. nigra (Wolff).
There are two species in Australia, and they may be distinguished by the
front tibiae being armed with small denticles in the case of Orius armatus sp.
noy. and unarmed in Orius australis (China).
Orius AUSTRALIS (China), 1926.
Triphleps australis China, 1926, Bull. Ent, Res.. 17 (1), 361.
Elongate oval, almost glabrous. Black, hemielytra pale yellowish brown,
with the clavus, embolium and cuneus more or less ferrugineous brown. Legs
yellow.
The standard measurements in microns of the female specimen in the South
Australian Museum are as follows (China’s measurements, where given, follow
in brackets) :
Head. Total length, 360; length in front of eyes, 130; length behind eyes,
65; length of eyes, 160; width of eyes, 90-100; interocular, 170; width of collum,
400.
Gross—A REVISION OF THE FLOWER Bucs 137
Antennae. 1, 90-100 & 30 (93); II, 210 & 50 (203); IT], 150-160 x 17
(156); IV, 160-180 *% 40 (179).
Rostrum. 1, 90; TI, 250; TIT, 160.
Pronotum. Anterior width, 420; posterior width, 790 (690); median length,
273; lateral length, 400.
Scutellum. Anterior width, 530; median length, 390; lateral length, 420-440,
Legs coxa, femur tibia tarsi [ IT 11r cl.
I 270 390 350 40 70 70-80 40-50
i 220-230 390 340-350 30-40 70 80 40
III 260 460-480 530 50 90 80-90 40
Total length, 2,000; total length width hemielytra, 2,100 (1,750); total
width, 790 (690); length abdomen, 1,020; length ovipositor, 570,
Loc. Queensland (no other data); 1 ¢ in 8. Aust. Museum.
ORIUS ARMATUS sp. nov.
Fig. 1 C, D.
Fairly elongate. Head brownish black, pronotum and seutellum darker.
Hemielytra vellowish. Legs ocelli and first two segments of antennae yellow,
remaining two segments of antennae darker. Eves reddish black.
Head with but a very short collum. Lateral margins of pronotium straight,
Inarginate, anterior margin almost straight, hind margin almost concave. A pune-
tate crescent in the hind fifth of the pronotum not reaching the edges, anterior
portion of dise slightly raised. Seutellum almost planate, slightly raised
anteriorly.
Fore tibiae with about 21-23 short denticles (approximately 6 long). Male
genitalia asymmetrical (fig. 1 D).
The standard measurements in microns of the type and paratype are:
Head, Total length, 310-350; length in front of eyes,. 120-130; length
behind eyes, 50-80; length of eyes (oblique), 140-170; width across eyes, 360;
width of eyes, 80-90; interocular, 130-140; width of collum, 300-320.
Antennae. 1, 90-100 * 30-40; IT, 200-210 x 50; ITI, 170 « 40; IV, 200-210
x 40.
Rostrum. I, 70 & 30; I], 180 x 50; II1, 170 & 30.
Pronotum, Anterior width, 330-350; posterior width, 640-720; median
length, 270; lateral length, 360-390.
138 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
Scutellum, Anterior width, 520-530; median length, 340-400; lateral length,
360-460.
Legs coxa, femur tibia tarsi 1 II Til CL.
qT 120 330380 310-360 40 AQ 70 30
Il 170-180 = 330-360 = 820-360 40 50 70 30
Til 200 420-440 480-510 40 50-70 90) 30
Total length, 1,970-2,030; total width, 770-780.
Loc. Queensland: Stanthorpe (E. Sutton, August 7, 1928, Holotype ¢ ),
Mt. Cootha (A. A, Givault, June, 1929, Paratype of unknown sex, apex of
abdomen missing, both in Queensland Museum).
Subfamily Lycrocortnag.
Terminal pair of antennal seginents long and thin, usually with long hairs.
Cell in the hind wines with hamus (inwardly directed spur vein) always arising
from the ‘‘vena connectens.”’ (Also called *‘vena decurrens,’’ the transverse
vein making up the hind margin of the cell.)
Five geneva are represented in these regions, one of them new, and they
imay be distineuished by the following key.
Key To AUSTRALIAN AND ADJACENT Paciric LYCTOCORINAE.
1. Pronotum with a very marked transverse constriction about 2/3 of
the way back Pr eee Falda gen. nov.
Pronotuta not ag abover jc cy | GOR SER Satie pte 2
2.. Orifice of the scent gland on the metapleura bent backwards apically.
Margins of pronotum and hemielytra ciliate __..... Lasiochilus Reut.
Apex of orifice bent forwards 6 ee seus ee ne ae 3
3. Sides of pronotum and hemielytra ciliate, anterior femora armed
Sides of pronotum and hemielytra not unduly ciliate _..... ‘i 4
4, Our species large, black, suboval 0 . estas Lyctocoris Hahn.
Our species smaller, more elongate, bicoloured, anterior femora in-
erassafell © on som Ths asst eee Xylocoris Dufour.
Genus OrLoBATEes Reuter, 1895.
Oplobates Reuter, 1895, Ent. Mo. Mag. 31, 170.
Body oblong, shining with a long pubescence. Head with a short collar
behind the eyes. Rostrum hardly surpassing the base of the head. Pronotum
Gross—A REVISION OF THE FLOWER BuGS 139
with a very tenuous anterior collar, sides not marginate or sinuate. Membrane
with four distinct veins. Anterior femora armed, underneath with thin spines
their whole length. Female with a well developed ovipositor. Genotype: O.
femoralis Reut.
OPLOBATES FEMORALIS Reuter, 1895.
Fig. I HE, F.
O. femoralis Reuter, 1895, loc. cit., 171.
Fuscous above with a long yellowish pubescence, head ferrugineous, antennae
and legs testaceous, the first and third antennal segments and the apical part
of the second fusecous. Anterior femora infuscated on the upper surface. Hemie-
lytra with a pallid mark within the interior angle of the embolium. Head in
front of the collar as long as broad. Pronotum longer than the head, sides
straight but curved apically, dise obscurely transversely impressed near the
middle. Posterior tibiae shortly spinose.
Length, 33 mm.
Loc. Victoria (fide Reuter). Northern Territory, Melville Island (W. D.
Dodd, one female in S. Aust. Museum).
Genus F'aLpa gen. nov.
Elongate, linear. Head fairly short, broad, little produced and strongly
declivous in front of the eves with a distinet but not very long glabrous collum.
Antennae about as long as head and pronotum together, terminal pair of seg-
ments filiform long, last segment curved. Rostrum very short, surpassing base
of head but not attaining fore coxae. Pronotum with a tenuous anterior collar,
strongly transversely impressed about 2/3 way back, this impression continuing
right to the lateral margins and giving the pronotum the aspect of such Lygaeids
as Pamera. Anterior angles of pronotum placed behind the collar, lateral
margins diverge gradually, going from the anterior angles to the constriction
then thereafter diverge considerably more to the posterior angles. This latter
section of the lateral margins gradually curved. Hind margin of the pronotum
very shallowly excavate, almost straight, anterior margin slightly concave.
Seutellum with a deep puncture about 2/3 way back on either side and a
third centrally near the tip. Hemielytra with on the clavus 3 longitudinal rows
of punctures, the two outer straight and extending the whole length, the inner
curved and restricted to the apical half, and on the corium near the inner
edge one row running from the base to as far as the apex of clavus. Inner
margin of clavus markedly sinuate. Cell of hindwing apparently with a hamus.
140 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
Orifice of the scent gland T shaped, the upper transverse portion crossing the
whole pleurite at a level lower than halfway up, the vertical section running
forwards as well as downwards from this right to the base of the pleurite and
forming a 45° angle with the head of the T,
Fore and middle femora inerassated, subtriangular, armed with short teeth
from the middle to the apex on their inner margin, tore tibiae markedly expanded
to at least twice the width of the rest in their basal third. Middle tibiae and hind
femora and tibiae normal, Female with a short ovipositor, apex of abdomen
with a few long hairs, Genotype Falda queenslandica sp. nov,
This is at once an extremely distinctive genus and one which is hard to
place systematically, The unusual shaped pronotum for an Anthoeorid is
approached only remotely by Septicius Dist. and Arnulphus Dist,, and more
particularly Euwlasiocolpus Champ. Arnulphus, however, belongs to an entirely
different subtamily. The inerassation of the first and second pairs of femora
as well as that of the fore tarsi is extremely distinetive, Scoloposcelis heing the
only other genus in this region with two pairs of femora expanded, but in its
case it is the fore and posterior femora, and Scoloposcelis Jacks a hamus.
FALDA QUEENSLANDICA sp, nov,
Fig. 1 G, H, 1.
Head, pronotum and seutellun dark brown, head and pronotum shining,
collam darker, Dead in front of eyes, rostrum, antennae, legs (except the
spines which are black) and a median and lateral stripe on abdomen beneath
yellowish brown, Remainder ol underside yery dark brown including a broad
stripe on either side of the abdomen, reaching back to the seventh visible segment
and between the pale areas described. Hemielytra darkish brown, but with
some yellowish lightenings. Membrane brown, Head, pronotwin and seutellom
sparsely pilose, hemielytra a little nore densely so. Collum glabrous, Last two
filiform segments of antennae with very short hairs.
The standard ineasurements in microns from two specimens are:
Head, Total length, 570-590; length in front of eyes, 120; length behind
eyes, 190-260; length of eyes, 240; width of head across eyes, 460; width of eyes,
160; interocular, 120; width of eollum, 380.
Antennae. I, 210-220 *« 70; II, 400-480 x« 50; III, 450-520 « 30; IV,
500-570 x 30.
Rostrum. 1, 280-310; IT, 260; TII, 120-140.
Pronotum, Anterior width, 380-430; posterior width, 1,030-1,090; median
Jength, 570-790; lateral length, 790-880.
Gross—A REVISION OF THE FLOWER Bucs 141
Scutellum, Anterior width, 690-760; median length, 520-600; lateral length,
550-640,
Legs coxa femur tibia tarsi I It III cl.
I 550 770-860 640-690 70-90 90 160 90
II 530 670-860 670-800 50-70 90-140 150-190 90
Ii! 290-330 1050-1170 1100-1190 50-70 120-210 170-240 70-103
Total length, 3,900; length abdomen, 2,700; length ovipositor, 760.
Loc, Queensland; Cairns District (A. M. Lea, Holotype ?, Reg. No.
J 20082); Mt, Tambourine (A. M. Lea, ‘‘rotting leaves,’’ one Paratype, sex un-
known—apex o! abdomen missing, Reg. No. I 20083; both in S. Aust. Museum).
Genus Lyctocoris Hahn, 1835.
Lyctocoris Hahn, 1835, Wanz, I., No. 3, 19, In addition to the references
quoted by Van Duzee (1917, Cat. Hem, Nth. Mexico 288, Berkeley, Cali-
fornia), there is Zimmerman, 1948, Insects of Hawaii, 3, 174 (Honolulu).
Nesidiocheilus Kirkaldy, 1902, in David Sharp’s Fauna Hawaiiensis, 127.
Body oblong or oblong ovate, with a very slight low pubeseence, pronotum
and scutellum shining, hemielytra densely punctate. Anterior collar of prono-
tum tennous or very indistinct, anterior coxae almost contiguous. Female with
an ovipositor. Genotype (Logotype) : L. domesticus Hahn = campestris (Fab.).
There is only one species so far known from these regions, the very widely
spread L. campestris (Fab.).
Lycrocoris CAMPESTRIS. (Fab,), 1794.
Fig, 1 J.
eleanthia campestris Fabricius 1794, Ent. Syst., 4, 14; Dyclocoris campestris,
Lethierry et. Severin, 1896, Cat. Gen. Hem., 3, 327, and Van Duzee, 1917,
Cat. Hem. Nth. Mexico, 288 (syn.).
Dark ferrugineous, second segment of the antennae (except the apex), legs
and hemielvtra testaceous. Rostrum reaching middle coxae. The standard
measurements in microns of two British specimens, kindly loaned for this pur-
pose by the British Museum, and three Australian specimens (male and 2
females), are as follows:
Head. Total leneth, 640-750; length in front of eyes, 240-340; length
behind eyes, 170-190; length of eyes, 220-260; width across eyes, 540-620; width
of eves, 120-190; interoeular, 250-290; width of collum, 430-540.
142 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
Antennae. I, 140-190 x 50-70; II, 520-590 s 50-70; TIT, 340-380 x 17-34;
TV, 330-380 >< 17-34.
Rostrum. I, 280-370; IT, 580-680; IIT, 380-390,
Pronotum, Anterior width, 570-650 (2-740); posterior width, 1190-1400;
median length, 520-590; lateral length, 410-720.
Scutellum. Anterior width, 720-1000; median length, 490-690; lateral
length, 590-780.
Lega COXA, femur tibia tarsi I Il TIL Cl.
I 430-530 690-740 700-790 50-70 90—L00 140-190 90
TT 380-400 Ss00-8$90 740-830 50-70 90-120 170-200 90
TW 470-520) «©1000-1120 1200-1310 70-90 120-190 190-240 100-120
Total length, 8,800-4,600; width across abdomen, 1,620-1,800; leneth abdo-
men, 1,820-2,540; leneth ovipositor, 850-900; leneth male genital capsule, 480-530,
Loc. South Australias Urrbrae (H. M. Cane, June, 1946, 7 specimens in
C.S.LR.0. Division of Entomology, Canberra). Tasmania; Hobart. (A, M, Lea,
3 specimens, 2 reared from wood, in 8, Aust. Museum), 20; IV,
240-260 * 30.
Rostrum. 1, 140; IT, 470; III, 260-290.
Pronotum, Anterior width taken as same as collum, fore angles shallowly
curved; posterior width, 760; median length, 280-290; lateral length, 430-470.
Scutellum. Anterior width, 550-600; median length, 350-380; lateral length,
400-430.
Legs coxa femur tibia tibia I II III Ci,
IT 260 430-470 410-430 50 not clear in either spec.
II not clear 430-470 380 30 50-70 100 30-50
iil 210-290 550-600 550-590 50 90 100 78
Total length, 2,550-2,800; width, 910; length abdomen, 1,290; length ovi-
positor, 570.
Loc, Queensland; Clermont (Dr. K. K. Spence, October, 1929, Holotype ?
and one Paratype ¢, Reg. No. 62496 in the Australian Museum).
Seems to be fairly closely allied to the following species from which it ean
be distinguished by the long hairs at the apex of the abdomen, the more incrassate
fore and hind femora, the much shorter hairs on the last two antennal segments,
and the different colouration,
148 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM
LASIOCHILUS VITIENSIS Sp, nov.
Fig, 2 G, H.
Elongate oval, semi-depressed. Brown, a yellow fleck on the outer basal
angles of the hemielytra, first two sezments of antennae and femora brown,
terminal pair of antennal segments, tibiae and tarsi yellow.
Tlead with a short hair behind each eye (there may be a short one also
before each eye, but this point is not clear. Terminal pair of antennal segments
with long hairs. Pronotum with the usual long hair at each of the four corners,
sides with long ciliations, likewise the lateral margins of the hemielytra. Disc
of pronotum fairly depressed with a low anterior callus behind whieh is a semi-
circular depression. Apex of abdomen and remainder of body with mainly short
hairs, fore femora fairly strongly incrassated.
The standard measurements (in microns) of two females are:
Head. Total length, 400-410; length in front of eyes, 160-170; length behind
eyes, 90-100; leneth of eyes (oblique), 140-160; width across eyes, 400; width
of eyes, 100-120; interocular, 160; width collum, 330-360.
Antennae. I, 120-140 %* 50; IT, 310-350 % 50; ITT, 280 + 20; TV, 200-280
x 20-30,
Rostrum. I, 90; II, 480; III, 220.
Pronotum. Anterior width taken as same as collum for the anterior angles
are gradually rounded; posterior width, 790-510; median length, 330-360; lateral
length, 450-480,
Scutellum. Anterior width, 620; median length, 410; lateral length, 470.
Legs coxa femur tibia tarsi I It Tir Cl,
I 260-310 470-480 360-410 50 70 100-120 40-50
IL 240-260 430-470 450-480 50 70 120 50
Tl 280-310 590-600 690-710 50 100-120 120-140 70
Total length, 2,670-2,690; width, 980-1,000; leneth abdomen, 1,330-1,520;
length ovipositor, 500-530.
hoc. Fiji Island Group: Viti Levu (A. M. Lea, Holotype ?, Reg. No.
T 20075, and one Paratype 2, Reg. No. 120076, in 8S. Aust. Museum).
Genus XyxLocoris Dufour, 1831,
Xylocoris Dufour, 1831, Ann. Soe. Ent. France, 2, 106; Zimmerman, 1948,
Insects of Hawaii, 2, 175; Van Duzee, 1917, Cat. Hem. Nth. Mexico, 290
(syn.).
GrRoss—A REVISION OF THE FLOWER BuGS 149
Oblong ovate, shining. Eyes remote from the anterior margin of the pro-
notum, rostrum reaching middle coxae. Pronotal collar obsolete or tenuous.
Apex of the abdomen (except in flavipes and queenslandicus) with a long pilosity.
Anterior and posterior coxae contiguous, anterior and sometimes posterior femora
somewhat incrassated. Anterior tibiae of the male apically strongly dilated.
Our two species with prominent hairs on each of four angles of the pronotum;
these are, however, very fragile (unlike Lasiochilus) and are easily broken off.
Male genitalia very asymmetrical (fig. 3, A, C). Ovipositor present in the
female. Genotype: X. rufipennis Dufour = cursitans (Fall.).
There are two species here, the widespread X. flavipes (Reuter) in its
apparently typical habitat of stored grain, and a new species belonging to the
flavipes group. This species (X queenslandicus) is larger than X. flavipes
(2430-2780p to X. flavipes 1500-22602), much darker as microscopic mounts,
the female ovipositor is much longer in relation to the body than in Y. flavipes.
( 520 260).
1,258% °° 1,070-1,090p
different (figs. 3 A, C).
) and the male external genitalia are somewhat
XXYLOCORIS FLAVIPES (Reuter).
Fig. 3 A, B.
Piezostethus flavipes Reuter, 1875, Bihang till S. V. A. K. Handl., 3 (1), 65;
1885, Acta. Soe. Sci., Fenn., 14; Puton, 1886, Cat. Hem. Pal., 43.
Elongate oval, piceous with a pale pubescence. Rostrum, antennae, legs
and hemielytra yellow. Cuneus infuscated membrane fuliginous hyaline. Head
pronotum and seutellum shining, almost glabrous. Dorsal surface of abdomen
castaneous, ventral surface dark brownish to piceous. Eyes brown, ocelli red.
Pronotum.somewhat convex, sides immarginate, anterior angles very slightly
rounded. Scutellum. anteriorly raised. Hind legs with some mediumly promi-
nent spines. The standard measurements (in microns) of two females and one
male are:
Head. Total length, 350-400; length in front of eyes, 140; length behind
eyes, 90-100; length of eyes (oblique), 100-140; width across eyes, 350-360;
width: of eyes, 90-100; interocular, 170-190; width of collum, 380-360.
Antennae. I, 90-120 & 30-50; II, 220-260 x 40; TII, 190-220 x 20; IV,
220-260 20.
Rostrum. I, 140?; II, 400? III, 410?.
150 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
Pronotum. Anterior width (fore angles too gradually curved to allow
measurement); posterior width, 570-720; median length, 290-400; lateral length,
350-410.
Scutellum. Anterior width, 400-500; median length, 290-330; lateral length,
390-430.
Fig. 3. A-B, Xylocoris flavipes (Reut.). A, apex of abdomen of male; B, apex of
abdomen of female from above. C-D, Xyloceris queenslandicus sp. nov. C, apex of abdomen
of male; D, apex of abdomen of female from above. HE, Plochiocorella elongata Popp. Male.
E, apex of abdomen from above. F, Physopleurella mundula (White). Male. FF, apex of
abdomen from above. G-I, Physopleurella pacifica sp. nov. Male. G, head and pronotum;
H, apex of abdomen from above. Female. I, apex of abdomen from above. J-L, Physo-
pleurella armata Popp. J, head and pronotum; K, apex of abdomen of male from above;
L, apex of abdomen of female from above, (All enlarged 40 diameters.)
Gross—A REVISION OF THE FLOWER Bucs 15]
Legs coxa femur tibia. tarsi I Ir TIL Cl,
I 240-280 400-480 360-410 30 70 90-120 30
IT 220-270 400-410 380-430 30-50 70 100 80-59
Tit 240-280 500-570 570-670 30-50 100-120 100-170 50
Total length, 1,500-2,260; width, 840-900; length abdomen, 1,070-1,170;
length male genitalia (oblique), 380; length ovipositor, 260.
Loc, Piji: Suva (R. A. Lever, 1st July, 1944, ‘‘Ex bagged rice,’’ in Fiji
Dept. Agriculture). Western Australia: Pintharuka (F. Wilson, August, 1941,
‘Prom insect-infested wheat,’? in C.S.1.R.0,, Division of Entomology, Can-
herra). Has been reeorded from similar locations overseas,
XYLOCORIS QUEENSLANDICUS sp. Noy.
Fie, 3.0, D,
Elongate oval. Dark brown, eyes black, ocelli red. Hemielytra yellowish,
membrane milly, euneus infuseated. Rostrum, tibiae and tarsi yellow, antennae
and other parts of lees yellowish brown.
Head and pronotum sparsely pilose, but hairs on head lone, Hemielytra
with a thicker golden pubescence, also the underside of the abdomen,
Pronotum flattened, immarginate, behind the middle with a suggestion of
transverse striae, lateral margins straight and with but gradually rounded
angles, anterior collar very tenuous. Seutellum slightly raised anteriorly, Fore
eoxae elongate, middle and hind tarsi with rather more prominent spines than
X, flavipes.
Male genitalia directed to the left, ovipositor of the female longer in relation
to the length of the abdomen than in X. flavipes. Apex of abdomen without
long hairs, but a few rather short ones present.
The standard measurements (in microns) of four males and one female
are:
Head. Total length, 400-430; length in front of eyes, 120-170; length
behind eyes, 90-140; length of eyes (oblique), 160-170; width across eyes, 410-470,
width of eyes, 90-120; interoeular, 210-260; width of collum, 350-400.
Antennae. I, 100-140 * 50; IT, 290-360 x 50; TTI, 260-280 x 20; IV,
260-310 % 25.
Rostrum. I, 170-240; IL, 350-400; TIT, 200-260.
Pronotum. Anterior width, anterior angles too gradually curved to permit
a measurement; posterior width, 830-950; median length, 360-430; lateral length,
510-590.
152 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
Scutellum. Anterior width, 590-740; median length, 450-500; lateral length,
500-600,
Legs coxa femur tibia tarsi 1 It TIT Cl.
I 380-450 500-570 450-570 30-50 70-90 120--160 70
I 290-360 480-600 430-570 30-70 90-100 120-160 70-8)
Tl 290-380 560-720 670-880 30-70 100-140 170-190 70-80
Total length, 2,430-2,800; width, 910-1,140; length abdomen, 960-1,260;
length male genitalia (oblique), 400-480; length female ovipositor, 590,
The individual measurements of the female tend to be 5-15 p,c, larger than
those of the male, though not invariably, and this has contributed to the large
observed range in some cases,
The differences in colouration and structure already mentioned distinguish
this species from flavipes. From Y. discalis (Van Duzee), the only other species
in this region, of which I have only Abernathy’s figure in Zimmerman’s Insects
of Hawaii (and which may not be a member of flavipes group as Aberuathy's
figure is no certain guide to whether the apex of the abdomen is with or without
long hairs) queenslandicus seems to be distinguished by the lighter coloured
antennae and fore tibiae.
Loc. Queensland: Cairns District (A. M. Lea, Holotype @, Reg. No.
120077, Allotype 2, Reg. No, 1 20078, and three Paratypes, Reg. Nos. [ 20079-81,
in 8, Aust. Museum),
Subfamily DurourteLinar.
Cell of hindwings without a hamus, second and third segments of antennae
filiform, usually with a long pilosity.
This is our best represented subfamily, the two most characteristic genera
being Curdiastethus and Physopleurella, both showing a marked reduction (or
complete absence) of the ovipositor in the female.
The genera can be distinguished by the following key :
Key to AUSTRALIAN AND ApgacentT Pactiric DUFOURIELLINABR,
1. Fore acetabula markedly intumescent, fore fernora usually armed,
Ys 2
2. Fore femora interiorly armed _.... Me Nn sy 3
Fore femora unarmed sn. ores 4
Gross—A REVISION OF THE FLOWER Bucs 153
4, Pore femora interiorly armed with bristle-like teeth, fore tibiae bent,
body fairly thick set rounded, sparsely haired _..... Orthosoleniopsis Popp,
Fore femora interiorly with more or less numerous stouter denticles,
fore tibiae straight, hind femora also inerassated. Body slender,
parallel sided, glabrous ee ae Scoloposcelis Fieb.
+. Basal margin of pronotuin shallowly and broadly sinuate ... Lasidielly Reut.
Basal margin of pronotum deeply sinuate
Mike to gat ae 5
». Orifice of seent gland on metapleura always bent feiWeied. dud co-
alescing with the longitudinal keel in an are reaching to, or nearly to,
the anterior edge of the mesopleurae n,n tt 6
Orifice straight with apex more or less bent posteriad, the latter not
eoaleseing with the longitudinal keel (where this is present)
Poronotellus Kirk.
6. Antennae not very long, second segment not as lone as head, our
species fairly oval. Ovipositor absent 9. un Cardiastethus Fieb.
Antennae yery long, second segment longer than the length of head.
A well-developed ovipositor present in the female _..... Plochiocorella Popp.
Genus LAsieLuipea Retiter, 1895,
Lusiellidea Reuter, 1895. Ent. Mo. Mag., 31, 172.
Body elongate, parallel, flat, shining and smooth. Head about as long as
wide with a short collam, Rostrum reaching middle coxae, first segment reaching
the eyes, second the fore coxae. Pronotum depressed with a median longitudinal
impression, Femora unarmed, embolium narrow. Genotype: L. glaberrima
Reut.
LASIELLIDEA GLABERRIMA Reuter, 1895.
L. glaberrima Reuter, 1894, loc. eil., 172
Piceous, shining all over, rostrum apex of the femora base of the tibiae and
tarsi, pale testaceous, Membrane fulizinous, interior basal angle paler. Scutel-
lum depressed. Second segment of antennae 2} times as long as the first and
as long as the head up to the hind margin of the eyes. Length, 23 mm.
Loe, Vietoria (fide Reuter).
Genus PLOCHIOCORELLA Popp., 1909.
Plochiocorella Poppius, 1909, Ae. Soe. Sei. Fenn., 37 (9), 22.
Large, elongate, above conspicuously shining. Head and pronotum sparsely
pilose, hemielytra more densely pilose. Rostrum surpassing fore coxae, antennao
yery long, noticeably longer than the head and pronotum together. Pronotum
15+ RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
and head about the same length. Lateral margins of seutellum serrate. Orifice
of the scent gland anteriorly directed. Legs long, femora slightly inerassated
and with longish hairs. Genotype: P. elongata Poppius.
There is, so far, only the one species in this genus.
PLOCHIOCORELLA ELONGA'TA Poppius, 1909.
Fig. 3 E.
Plochiocorella elongata Poppius loc. cit., 23.
Dark brown, hemielytra largely yellow, a fairly broad transverse band
across corium at about the level of the apex of clayus, the cumeus and a band
along the inner margin of clavus brown, antennae brownish or yellow, legs and
rostrum largely vellow, the body beneath is brownish black.
The standard measurements from three specimens (in microns) are:
Head, Total leneth, 600-640 (690 if first true rostral segment is included) ;
length in front of eyes, 220-260 (330 if first true rostral segment is included);
length behind eyes, 120-160; length of eyes, 210-220; width across eyes, 430-470;
width of eyes, 120-160; interocular, 160-240; width of collum, 350-360.
Antennae. J, 160 x% 70; II, 530-600 x 40-50; TIT, 510-520 « 20; IV,
370-470 > 20.
Rostrum. 1, 160-210; I1, 690-790; ITI, 290-330,
Pronotum. Anterior width, 330-400; posterior width, 930-950; median
length, 400-430; lateral length, 600-670.
Seutellum. Anterior width, 500-640; inedian length, 500-570; lateral leneth,
500-570,
Legs COXR femur tibia tarsi I II Ut Cl.
I 240-310 640-800 740-790 Aan 70-120 120-140 50
II 220-290 740-790 740-810 50-70 100-120 140-160 50-70
Uti 200-260 880-950 1100-1170 50-90 160 140-170 50-70
Total length, 2,550-3,550; width, 1,030-1,090; length abdomen, 1,650-1,820;
length male genitalia, 380-400; length female oyipositor, 770.
Loc. Queensland: Mt. Tambourine (A. M. Lea); Cairns District (A. M.
Lea, both in S. Aust. Museum); Stanthorpe (E. Sutton, April, 1929, 3 males
and 1 female, in Queensland Museum). New South Wales: Gosford (in 8. Aust.
Museum); Vaucluse (Dr, K, K. Spence); Deep Creek (Dr. K. K. Spence, Feb-
ruary, 1932); Sydney (Dr. K. K. Spence, April, 1931, Reg. No. K64188, all in
Australian Museum).
GrRoss—A REVISION OF THE FLOWER BUGS 155
Genus ScoLoroscenis Fiehber,
Scoloposcelis Fieber, 1864, Wien. Ent, Monat., 7, 61; Van Duzee, 1917, Hem.
Nth. of Mexieo, 297 (Berkeley, California) (syn.); also Distant, 1906, Faun.
Brit. India, 3, 6-7; 1910, loc. cit,, 5, 30; and Poppius, 1909, Ac. Soe. Sei.
Fenn., 37 (9), 25.
Body elongate depressed, glabrous. Head in front of eyes hroad. Rostrum
surpassing the anterior coxae. Orifice of the scent gland curved forward, meso-
sternum flat, medially suleate, acutely produced between the coxae at the base,
apically truncate. Anterior and posterior femora flattened and incrassated,
usually with spines or denticles along their length. Genotype: S. crassipes Flor.
= pulchellus Zett.
There is only one recorded species from these regions and that is of remark-
ably widespread occurrence in the Indo-Australian region,
SCOLOPOSCELIS PARALLELUS (Motseh,), 1863.
Anthocorts parallelus Motschulsky, 1865, Bull. Soe. Mose., 36 (3), 89.
Scoloposcelis parallelus Reuter, 1885, Act. Soe. Sci. Fenn., 14, 717; Distant, 1906,
Faun, Brit. India, 3, 7; 1910, loc. c2t., 5, 304; Poppius, 1910, Wien. Ent, Zeit.,
29, 140,
Scoloposcelis picitcornis Poppius, 1909, Ac. Soe. Sci. Fenn., 387 (9), 26,
(rlossy, piceous or dark brown, tibiae, tarsi and often the coritum basally
and near the claval suture yellowish brown. Head with some long hairs dorsally
and Jaterally, fore and hind angles of the pronotum each with a long hair.
Basal margin of pronotum very slightly excavate, about twice as wide as the
median length and 14 times as wide as the anterior margin. Fore femora with
about four strong teeth, hind femora with more, Length, 2°5 mm.
Distributed from Ceylon to Queensland. One specimen apparently of this
species (for it lacks the hind tibiae on which certain identification can be made)
in 5. Aust. Museum.
Genus OrTHOSOLENIOPSIS. Popp., 1909.
Orthosoleniopsis Poppius, 1909, Ac. Soe. Sei. Fenn., 37 (9), 21.
Klongate, shinine with a lone erect dorsal pilosity. Head clearly longer
than interocular, rostrum not attaining fore coxae, second segment not surpass-
ing the base of the head. Base of margin pronotum deeply excavated. Fore
acetabula simple, fore femora incrassated with short erect setae along the whole
156 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
of the anterior margin, fore tibiae weakly arched. Genotype, O. australis Popp.
Poppits compared this genus with Cardiastethus, but it is likely to be mich
more easily confused with Physoplewrella, indeed it may be only a subgenus of
this genus. It seems to be distinguished by not having the expanded fore
acctabula of Physoplewrella, in having a longer rostrum and a very broad inter-
ocular, The genotype is still the only species included.
ORTHOSOLENIOPSIS AUSTRALIS Popp., 1909.
Orthosoleniopsis australis Poppins, 1909, loc. cit., 22.
Yellowish red. The legs yellow, the eyes, the apex of the second antennal
segment, and the third antennal segment brown, the cuneus brownish red, pilosity
yellow.
Head not longer than wide across the eyes. The second antennal segment
clearly longer than these former, Posterior width of the pronotum about twice
the median length. Posterior portion of the disc finely punctate. Hemielytra
shining indistinctly punetured. Length, 3 mm.
Loc, New South Wales (fide Poppius).
fenus PHysorpLeuRELLA Reuter, 1885.
Physopleurella Reuter, 1885, Ac, Soc. Sei. Fenn., 14, 114 and 124,
Oblong, lateral margins of pronotum and embolium often with long baek-
wardly directed cilia. Ocelli very large and prominent,
Rostrum short, thick, hardly (or not) surpassing the base of the head,
Anterior collar of the pronotum distinct but tenuous. Fore acetabula markedly
intumescent, anterior femora very incrassated, in our species armed with long
spines along the inner argin, sometimes in several rows. Fore tibiae arched.
Seutellum with lateral margins serrate. Genotype: P. mundula (White),
This genus is well represented in this region by at least five species. I
have found the genus extremely difficult to treat for there is a great deal of
uncertainty over the identity of the three species deseribed here. Physopleurella
mundula B. White has a conspicuous dark stripe down portion of the centre of
the seutellum according to Zimmerman’s figure, a Fijian specimen showing this
character has, therefore, been relegated to that species. A series of specnmens
from N.S,W, and Queensland agree in many points with Poppius’ Ph, armata
and in other points with his PA. obscura, showing aiougst themselves quite a
range of colour variation, I have, therefore, followed Usinger and regarded
these two speeies as synonymous, arid, as the firstnanied is first in Poppius’ paper,
Gross—A REVISION OF THE FLOWER Bucs 157
the species stands as Ph, armata. The remaining specimens fall into three new
species,
These five species may be separated by the following key:
J. Apex of ahdomen with long hairs a. aa. ike «mnt wij 2
Apex of abdomen with but very short hairs 0.0 4
2. Seutellum with a broad brown stripe running from the base to two-
thirds way to apex, male genitalia in the form of an expanded, back-
wardly facing, cup with two very lone sinistrally directed processes
mundula B. White.
Scutelltiim concolorous — .... ee . gene Op 3
3. Male genitalia composed of a large flat plate with a short process
(fig. 3.1) hardly exceeding the limits of the plate. Sides of pronotum
nearly straight, broadly rounded anteriorly
armata Popp. = Ph. obscura Popp.
Male genitalia composed of an expanded posteriorly directed cup
from which emerge 2 long processes directed sinistrally
pactfica nov. (fig. 3 H).
4, Lateral margins of pronotim almost stralght, almost without hairs,
broadly rounded anteriorly vist mk =. bribiensis nov.
Lateral margins of pronotum sinuate, with Sng hairs j in the anterior
portion, anterior angles almost straight walle pani ait australis nov.
PHYSOPLEURELLA MUNDULA (White),
Fig, 3 F,
Cardiastethus mundula White 1877, A.M.N.IT. (4), 20, 111.
Physopleurella mundula Reuter, 1885, Ac. Soc, Sei. Fenn., 14, 125; Usinger, 1946,
Bernice P. Bishop Mus. Bull., 189, 55; Zimmerman, 1948, Insects of Hawaii,
3, 177, fig.
Pale rufous brown, with fairly dense long ochraceous pilosity, vertex of
the head, first segment. of antennae, the dise of the pronotum, a broad longitudinal
stripe in the basal two-thirds of the scutellum, the cuneus, most of the under-
side of the body and femora darker. Collum very short, anterior margin of pro-
notum straight, posterior margin excavate, lateral margins sinuate and strongly
ciliate, anterior angles very flat.
Orifice of scent gland directed anteriorly at apex, mesopleurae striate.
Male genitalia in the form of an expanded backwardly-directed cup with 2 long
thin sinistrally-directed processes, curving anteriorly at the tip. Apex of
abdomen with long hairs.
158 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
The standard measurements (in microns) from one specimen are:
Head, Total leneth, 450; length in front of eyes, 140; length behind eyes,
90; length of an eye, 210-220; width across eyes, 410; width of an eye, 160;
interoeular, 100; width of collum, 280,
Antennae. I, 100 x 50; IT, 360-380 % 50; IIT, 190-210 % 20; IV, 210 «
30.
Rostrum. 393.
Pronotum. Anterior width, 330; posterior width, 790; median length, 400;
lateral length, 550.
Scutellum. Anterior width, 620; median length, 530; lateral length, 500-530.
Legs coxa femur tibia tarai I iI TIL Cl.
I 200-220 520-530 430-450 30 30 50 30
II 200-220 500-520 450 30 70 80-100 30
TTI 210-220 590-620 670 30-40 90 100-120 30
Total length, 2,500; width, 1,120; length abdomen, 860; length male genitalia,
240, White quotes the length as 2? mm.
Loc. Fiji: Moturiki (A. M. Lea, June, 1 male in 8. Aus. Museum). Is
apparently widespread over the Pacific, being recorded from Hawaii and Guam.
PHYSOPLEURELLA PACIFICA Sp. moy.
Fig. 3 G-I.
Dark brown. Second, third and fourth segments of antennae, ocelli, apical
portion of seutellum, rostrum, underside of embolium and tibiae and tarsi yellow.
Eyes red to black, underside of abdomen (except centrally) infuscated. Pilosity
golden, first segment of antennae, a transverse patch on hind margin of pro-
notum yellowish brown. Cuneus with a reddish tinge.
Collum distinct, glabrous. Anterior margin of pronotum straight, posterior
margin deeply excavated, lateral margins sinuate, prominently ciliate, anterior
angles nearly straight. Pronotum with a centrally raised portion which has a
longitudinal channel. Seutellum raised anteriorly, transversely impressed about
halfway back, then plane in posterior half. Mesopleurae striate, orifice of scent
gland directed posteriorly at the apex.
Lateral margins of hemielytra slightly sinuate, ciliate.
Male genitalia in the form of an expanded backwardly directed cup with
two processes sinistrally directed, these processes shorter and stouter than P.
mundula.
Gross—A REVISION OF THE FLOWER Bucs 159
The standard measurements of 6 specimens treated statistically (in microns)
are:
Standard Theoretical Observed Coeff, of
Mean deviation range ringe variation
Head.
Length of head 500-0+9-6 23-5+6-8 429-5-570-5 465-534 4s7
Length of head
in front of eyes 183-3-+8-6 §-8+2-5 156+9-209.7 172-189 4-8
Length of head
behind eyes 52-108
Length of eyes 222-8+4-7 16-8+3-3 173-9-27 1-7 207-241 7°3
Width of head
across eyes 418-745-7 13-9+4-0 377+ 0-460-4 396-420 +3
Width of eye 136-5+6-8 23-62-4-8 55-7-207-3 103-172 17-0
Interoeular 167-6+5-5 13-6+4-0 126-8-208-4 121-172 8-1
Width of collum 295 - 62-10-23 25-147-2 220-3-370-9 275-310 8-5
Antennae,
I 103-155
TI 426-44+9-8 32-S+6-9 328-0-524-8 418-500 737
TIL 278-6+3-6 8142-5 254-5-349~.1 275-293 2.9
IV 241-0+5-1 11-6+3-6 206-2-275-8 224-258 4-8
Rostrum.
1 and It 262-0+6-0 13-6+4-3 211-2-302-8 207-276 a-2
Tit 174-8+2-8 6-9+1-9 154-1-195-5 172-189 ag
Pronotum.
Anterior width 367 -3+22-0 54-0411-7 205-3-529-3 293-430 14-7
Posterior width 889-5+16-3 40-0+11-5 769-5-1009-5 844-946 4:5
Median length 430-3+6-4 15-744:-5 353+2-477-4 413-448 3-6
Lateral length 620-9+9-3 32-5+6-6 525-4-716-4 §85-671 5-2
Scutellum.
Anterior width §54-0+25-5 62-5+18-0 426-5-681-5 500-654 11-3
Median length 441-8+9-3 23-0+6-6 372-8-510-8 413-551 5-2
Lateral length 490-8+9-3 32-4+6-6 393-6-588-0 465-551 6-6
Legs.
Coxa I 195-6+6-7 22-3+4-7 129. 7-262 -5 172-241 11-4
Coxa IT 205-1+-6-+8 22-544-7 137-6-272-6 172-241 11-0
Coxa III 205-0+6-1 21-144-3 141-7-268-3 189-275 10-3
Femur I 571-4+20-2 64-1+14°-3 379-1-763-7 602-688 11-2
Femur IT 561-44+13-8 43-7+9-7 430-3-692-5 517-637 7-8
Femur III 631-0+17-4 60-4+12-3 509-8-752-2 671-774 9-6
Tibia I 560-4+-5-9 17-7+4-1 508-3-612-5 534-602 3-2
Tibia IT 560-3+-12-5 39-54+8-8 450-8-669-8 517-637 7-0
Tibia TIT 812-1+-23-3 77-42416-5 579-9-104-4 602-947 9-5
Tarsus I I 34-52
Tarsus I If 34-69
Tarsus I TIT 86
Tarsus IT I 52-69
Tarsus IT II 52-121
Tarsus If IIT 86-121
Tarsus III I 52-69
Tarsus IIT IT 103-121
Tarsus III III 103-138
Claw I 34-52
Claw IL 34-52
Claw ITI 34-52
160 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
Standard Theoretical Observed Coeff. of
Mean deviation range range variation
Total length 2748+66-2 162-0+46-8 2362-0--3234-0 2580-4000 5-9
Total width 927-2+23-1 56-8+16-4 756-8-1097-6 880-1000 6-1
Length of abdomen 1222-0+53-3 130-5437-7 830-0-1614-0 1050-1448 16-9
length of male
genitalia 327-362
Length of female
genitalia 155
Hemielytra exceed the length of the abdomen and therefore the quoted
total leneth by about 140,.
Loc. Fiji: Viti Levu (A. M. Lea, Holotype ¢, Reg. No. I 20068, Allotype
2, Reg. No. I 20069, and 3 Paratypes, Reg. Nos. I 20070 and I 20067). Queens-
land: Cairns District (A. M. Lea, Paratype 8, Reg. No. I 20066, all in S. Aust.
Museum).
PHYSOPLEURELLA ARMATA Popp., 1909.
Fig. 3 J-L.
Physopleurella armata Poppius, 1909, Ac. Soc. Sci. Fenn., 37 (9), 12.
Physopleurella obscura Popp., loc. ctt., 13.
Yellowish brown, fairly shining above. Hemielytra dull with semi-erect
sparse hairs. Beneath, first segment of antennae and tip of second, seutellum
and legs darker.
Head with a prominent collum. The anterior margin of pronotum almost
straight, posterior margin deeply excavate, lateral margins straight, ciliate,
margined, anterior angles lying behind the collar, broadly rounded.
Seutellum depressed, hemielytra longer than the abdomen, clavus, corium
and cuneus indistinctly punctate. Male genitalia composed of a large plate
with short process on the left side placed on the edge and sinistrally and an-
teriorly directed (fig. 3K).
The standard measurements (in microns) treated statistically from nine
specimens are:
Standard Theoretical Observed Coeff. of
Mean deviation range range variation
Head.
Length of head 558-2+-12-4 37-1+8-3 446-9-669-5 482-602 6-6
Length of head
in front of eyes 199-0+5-2 15-5+3:-6 152-5-245-5 172-224 7-8
Length of head
behind eyes 52-155
Length of an eye 250-6+3-1 12-4+2-] 213-4-287-8 224-258 4-9
Width of head
across eyes 476-3+4-0 12-0+2:-8 440-3-512-3 448-482 2-5
Width of an eye 138-189
Interocular 134-2-+-5-5 16-54+3-8 84-7-233-7 121-172 12-3
Width of collum 356-3+-5-7 17-0+4-0 301-3-407-3 345-396 4-8
Gross—A REVISION OF THE FLOWER BuGS
Mean
Antennae.
I
II 447-6+5-3
TIL 259-6+-4-8
Iv 264-5+5-5
Rostrum.
T and IL 303-5+10-3
III 232-6+4-0
Pronotum.
Anterior width 558-7+10-7
Posterior width 1071-0+12-1
Median length 430-6+8-7
Lateral length 674-845-1
Scoutellum,
Anterior width 719-0+16-2
Median length 608-0+11-5
Lateral length 633-0+7-9
Legs.
Coxa I 277-4+6-3
Coxa IL 262+-2+7-1
Coxa IIT 242-14+19-9
Femur I 631-8+12-8
Femur IT §84-2+43-0
Femur IIt 722-7+16-4
Tibia I 580-1+6-3
Tibia IT 504-7+11-0
Tibia LIT 873-7+13-3
Tarsus I T
Tarsus T IT
Tarsus I 11I
Tarsus IT I
Tarsus IIT IT
Tarsus IT IIL
Tarsus [IL fT
Tarsus IIT IT
Tarsus III III
Claw I
Claw IT
Claw IIT
Total length B387-O+24-1
Total width 1147 -0+22-8
Length of abdomen 1753-0+21-6
Length of male
genitalia
Length of female
genitalia
Standard
deviation
oo
—
S
$+
Pees
ae eo
260+
we oe
cae e
on
to
Ro BO He &
eSxsuas
RadgtHe:
A ie bo
oe op oS bo
Lowad
It tt EE + Ht
Cc
iit
an
one bo
7T2+3+17>0
H8-8+16-1
64-4+15-1
Theoretical
range
381-3-515-9
211+6-307-
a
217-1-311-
o
221-9-385-1
199-1-266-1
462-1-653-3
911-0-1231-0
352-6-308-6
610-0-739-6
583-5-854-5
504-8-711-2
531+ 6-633 - 6
199 -4-355-4
173-7-350-7
473-4-790-
546-4-625-
531-3-914-
501-2-659-
373-0-636-
708-4-1039-0
Boro
5170+0-3604+0)
942-0-1352-0
1530-0-1946-0
Observed
range
86-138
x 50
413-482
x 50-60
224-275
« 20
241-293
20
258-345
224-258
534-620
1017-1138
396-465
637-724
654-792
68-671
585-688
258-345
207-827
241-327
620-723
482-637
620-826
584-620
482-602
7238-929
30-70
52-86
50-100
30-70
50-90
70-120
50-70
90-100
90-140
30
50
30-70
3170-8876
1030-1280
1550-2150
275-860
189-207
161
Coeff. of
variation
eo to O1
"ee @
Nuonm
occ
. the
wo-I-7
ee
G22 01 TS He Go Os
oe ek Stoo
aon Ls
a ae ng
ace
Hemielytra exceed the length of the abdomen and therefore the quoted length
by about 180p,.
Loc, Japan and New Guinea (fide Poppius). Queensland: Cairns District
(A. M. Lea, in S. Aust. Museum).
Museum).
New South Wales: Gostord (in 8S. Aust.
162 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
PHYSOPLEURELLA BRIBIENSIS Sp. nov.
Fig. 4 A, B.
Elongate oval. Above and below castaneous, cuneus and eyes darker. Legs
possibly lighter.
Pronotum similar microscopically to P. pacifica, but the lateral margins are
margined, straight with the anterior angles broadly rounded like P. armata, but.
not ciliate as in the latter. Scutellum anteriorly raised, transversely suleate well
behind the middle.
Mesopleurae striate, metapleural orifice curved strongly forward almost to
fore margin of pleurite. Apex of abdomen without prominent long hairs.
The standard measurements (in microns) from one female are:
Head. Total length, 530; leneth in front of eyes, 170; length behind eyes,
160; length of an eye, 250; width of eyes, 470; width of eye, 130; interocular,
140; width of collum, 350.
Antennae. 1, 120; (1, 400; TIT, 250-260; IV, 220-230.
Rostrum. Missing.
Pronotum. Anterior width (across collar), 380; posterior width, 1,030;
median length, 410; lateral length, 570-620.
Scutellum. Anterior width, 620; median length, 520; lateral length, 570-590.
Legs coxa femur tibia tarsi T Ir TIr Cl.
I 260-280 620-650 530 30 50-70 90 missing
It 220-260 500-570 480-530 50 70 100 missing
III 240-310 620-690 770 missing missing missing missing
Total length, 2,970; width, 1,140; length abdomen, 1,640; length female
genitalia, 210.
Closely allied to the following species in the very short hairs at the apex
of the abdomen and almost elabrous sides of the pronotwn, but in the shape
of the pronotum it resembles Ph. armata.
Loc, Queensland, Bribie Island, Moreton Bay (Lea and Hacker, Holotype
2, Reg. No, 120063, in S. Aust, Museum).
PHYSOPLEURELLA AUSTRALIS Sp. nov.
Fig. 4 C, D.
Elongate oval. Dark brown; middle of venter, tibiae and tarsi, rostrum,
humeral angles of pronotum and hemielytra yellow. Pilosity golden. Eyes
black, ocelli red. Head with a distinct collum, pronotum with a distinct though
Gross—A REVISION OF THE FLOWER Bucs 163
Fig. 4. A-B, Physopleurcila bribiensis sp. nov. Female. A, head and pronotum; B,
apex of abdomen from above. C-D, Physopleurella australis sp. nov. Female. C, head and
Pronotum; D, apex of abdomen. E-I, series of dorsal outline sketches showing methods of
taking some of the standard measurements. E, head and pronotum, and T, apex of abdomen
of female of Physopleurella bribiensis sp. noy.; F, fore right leg of Oplobates femoralis Reut.;
G, apex of abdomen of male of Physopleurella armata; H, apex of abdomen of female
Xylocoris queenslandicus sp. nov. (All enlarged 40 diameters.)
ac, anterior width of scutellum; aw, anterior width of pronotum; i, interocular; 11, length
tarsus 1; 72, length tarsus 11; /3, length tarsus IIL; Ja, length of head in front of eyes; Ir,
length of claw; le, length of eve; /f, length of femur; lg, length male genitalia; [h, length
of head; JU, lateral length of scutellum; /o, length female genitalia (or ovipositor when
present) ; 7p length of head behind eyes; Js, lateral length of seutellum; 7t, length of tibia:
lz, length coxa; me, median length of seutellum; mi, median length of pronotum; pw, posterior
width of pronotum; wac, width of head across eyes; we, width of-an eye; wh, width of collum,
16+ RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
tenuous collar, anterior margin almost straight, posterior margin deeply excavate,
lateral margins sinuate, not conspicuously ciliate, and hardly marginate.
Scutellum slightly raised anteriorly, slightly impressed two-thirds of the
way back. Sides of hemielytra not sinuate. Apex of abdomen without long
hairs. Mesopleurae striate.
The standard measurements for one female specimen (in microns) are:
Head, Total length, 590; length in front of eyes, 210; length behind eyes,
120; length of eyes, 260; width across eves, 470; width of an eye, 160-170; inter-
ocular, 140; width of collum, 310.
Antennae. I, 140 * 50; If, 460-480; JIT, 210 «* 20; IV, 210-240 x 20.
Rostrwm. I and I, 241; ITI, 172.
Pronotum. Anterior width, 360; posterior width, 1,020; median length, 500;
lateral length, 650-700.
Scutellum. Anterior width, 670; median length, 590; lateral Jength, 550-640.
Legs coxa femur tibia tarsi I IL III Cl.
I 290-310 680-670 550-570 30 50 90 30
Il 260-280 600-620 490-640 ? ? q ?
IIT 280-290 660-670 910-930 50-70 100 120-140 30-50
Total length, 3,570; total width, 1,170; length of abdomen, 1,810; length of
female genitalia, 189.
Loc. Queensland ; Cowell Creek (McNamara, Holotype ?, Reg. No. 1 20064,
in §, Aust. Museum).
This species is allied to Ph. bribiensis in not having long hairs at the apex
of the abdomen. The side of pronotum is sinuate and strongly ciliate, resembling
in the latter respect Ph. mundula, Ph. armata and Ph. pacifica, and in the former
Ph. mundula and Ph. pactfica.
MOLLUSCA OF THE OUTER HARBOUR, SOUTH AUSTRALIA
BY BERNARD C.. COTTON, CONCHOLOGIST, SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM
Summary
There is a rapidly-growing interest in shell collecting among students and school teachers in South
Australia; this paper has been prepared, therefore, to explain how a typical beach may be explored.
One of the best places for shell collecting near Adelaide is in the vicinity of the Outer Harbour,
situated about fourteen miles from the city. In a radius of one mile, at the tip of LeFevre Peninsula,
is an area of river, mangrove swamps, estuarine mud-flats, weeds, rocks and stones. Practically all
the variety of marine fauna a collector is likely to obtain in the upper protected waters of Gulf St.
Vincent is represented here.
MOLLUSCA or ru#zs OUTER HARBOUR, SOUTH AUSTRALIA
By BERNARD C, COTTON, Concnonocist, Sout Austrari4an Museum.
Plate xxiii and text fig. 1.
INTRODUCTION.
THERE is a rapidly-growing interest in shell collecting among students and sehool
teachers in South Australia; this paper has been prepared, therefore, to explain
how a typical beach may he explored.
One of the best places for shell collecting near Adelaide is in the vicinity
of the Outer Harbour, situated about fourteen miles from the city. In a radius
of one mile, at the tip of LeFevre Peninsula, is an area of river, mangrove
swamps, estuarine mud-flats, weeds, rocks and stones. Practically all the variety
of marine fauna a colleetor is likely to obtain in the upper protected waters of
Gulf St, Vincent is represented here,
This account records where certain well-known molluses live, as distinet
from the many kinds one may find cast up haphazardly on the beaches after
storms. Years of patient and experienced collecting are required to obtain the
300-odd species which live here.
Most of the shells mentioned are figured and briefly described in ‘‘South
Australian Shells,” published by the South Australian Museum, and sets of
35 mm. colour slides are being prepared under the auspices of the Museum
and Visual Aid Section of the Education Department for exhibition in schools.
The slides can be obtained by schools on loan through the Visual Aid Section
and the explanatory text is contained in the publication mentioned,
Comparatively rapid changes have taken place on our beaches during the
last few years through natural and artificial causes. The cumulative effect of
recent violent storms coincident with high spring tides, protruding sea walls,
and, to a lesser extent, minor sea level rise, have measurably modified the pat-
tern of scouring deposition along this coast. At Glenelg and Henley Beach fine
sand has been temporarily removed in places, exposing the remains of a man-
erove swamp which flourished several thousand years ago in this area, during
the Mid-Reeent Period, when the sea-level was some 10-14 feet higher, At
Brighton an old gum tree im situ was uncovered, and also an ancient whale
skeleton.
166 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
Sand drawn from sand dunes at storm level and from the sea floor further
south may re-cover these areas. Sand movement is essentially northwards; sand
depositions are oceurring at Outer Harbour, and finer materials are silting
mangrove areas further north towards Port Wakefield.
NORTH BANK
PORT ADELAIDE RIVER
YACHT SYDADRON
OUTER
HARBOUR
BREAKWATER fy
4
ff
2
TORRENS
ISLAND
BREAKWATER
SAND FLAT.
UNCOVERED AT LOW TIDE
LEFEVRE PENINSULA
SAMPHIRE SWAMP.
COVERED AT WiGit TIDE
ONE FIT MILE
Fig. 1, Sketch map of the northern part of LeFevre Peninsula.
Within the next few years portion of the Outer Harhour surveyed here
is to be entirely altered to form a ‘‘Greater Port Adelaide."’ It is, therefore,
suggested that biological surveys of local beaches should prove instructive and
valuable to future generations, following the rapid changes and obliteration of
certain areas. Here a remarkable opportunity is presented to observe the con-
tinuous environmental adjustments which accompany changes in sea-floor con-
figuration and the altered pattern of sand deposition.
COTTON—MOLLUSCA OF THE OUTER HARBOUR, SOUTH AUSTRALIA 167
OUTER IARBOUR.
At the southern end of the Harbour is a long stone breakwater about one
mile long protecting the wharf and entrance channel to the Port River; facing
and parallel to it is another similar breakwater on the opposite side of the
channel. Fyrom the two breakwaters northwards extend sand-nud flats which
are exposed at low tide. At the tip of LeMevre Peninsula there is a mangrove
swap, numerous small estuarine creeks, and a samphire swamp, inundated at
hieh tide, Down the east coast of the Peninsula facing Torrens Island there
are odd stretches of the Port River mudhbanks, where industries have not ab-
seured them. Such a river bank is at Snowden Beach in the south of the
Peninsula,
Jn pl, xxiii, fig. |, ean be seen the two hundred aeres of beach sored by
silting south of the southern breakwater, and also, exposed at low tide, the
sand and mud beach around the northern breakwater, In pl. xxiii, fiz, 2, the
sand and mud flat is on the right of the Royal Yacht Squadron Harbour, the
raised bank of dead shell-sand is on the right of the raised cirele, and the sand-
mud flat of the northern bank is situated on the far side of the channel, Fi, J
presents a sketch map of the northern part of LeFevre Peninsula.
Sourr or THE BREAKWATER,
Thirty years ago the bay in the south, adjoining the harbour projection,
was filled with deep sea-water, but it is now silted up, forming a sandy beach.
This southern breakwater has acted as a groyne, catching the drifting sand,
and thus building np 200 acres of fine-saud beach. Foreshore walls further south
alone Gulf St. Vineent have aided seouring and the shallow layers of fine sand
resting above old mangrove swamps are being carried northwards, exposing the
mangrove Inud on formerly attractive beaches.
At very low tide two shallow-water sandbanks beyond aud parallel to the
shore can be explored, On the outer bank lives the rare and attractive Frilled
Cockle Callanaiis disjecta, the Heart Cockle Cardium vacketti, the Feather
Cockle Tawera gallinula, and the closely allied Grouse Cockle Tawera lagopus
(the latter favouring deeper water), the Globular Ark Veletuceta radians, the
Date Shell Solemya australis and the rarer Southern Finger Solen vaginoides,
which protrudes from the sand at night time until early morning, rapidly bur-
rowing immediately the early sun rays appear, In a muddy sponge lives the
Doughboy or Prickly Seallop Mimachlamys asperrimus, and evawling on the
sand is the Smooth Mitre Vicimitra glabra, the Triangle Murex Pterynotus tri-
Jormis, the Sea-hubble Quibbula tenwisimma and the False Helmet Hypocassis
168 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
bicarinata. On the first or mside bank live colonies of the large White Cockle
clustramactra pura, the Southern Cockle clustvomactra australis and the Pink
Sunset Shell Tellina albinella wedged in fire sand, Rarely, the King Seallop
Notovola alba and, move frequently, the Queen Seallop Hyuichlamys bifrons,
tu which is sonietimes attached the Southern Slipper Zeacrypla immersa, vest ou
the saud surface,
Near low water mark the Sand Cockle MKatelysia scalarina digs itself im
with almost. invariably a tult of “Tangle Weed” Entero morphe intestinalis on
the protruding posterior end. High up on the sand flat near high tide mark
is the Adelaide Triangle Cockle Anapella adelaidae. In certain areas this small
white cockle is plentiful; it is good food, sweet and delicate in taste, but rather
too small for anyone but a confirmed cockle connoisseur, Lower down the beach
in pools left by the tide, just beneath the sand, lives the Small Wedge Amphi-
desma dngusta and the Blunt Wedee Amphidesma cunecta, in quantity. Silver
gulls ean be seen “paddling” the wet sand ai low tide making numerous depres-
sions about nine inches in diameter. Fron the disturbed sand and water the
gulls pick up food—Small Wedge coekles, minute Amphipoda, wud other smal]
erustaceans which live there, On clear areas nearby are sharp carved knife-like
washes in the sand, These are (hie tracks of the Small Wedge, and a specimen
may be found hal! dug-in at the newer end of the eut. Preving on these small
cockles is the red-banded Flame Borer Niotha pyrrhus. A cockle can be upened
and used as bait to attract the Flame Borer and viher carnivorous gastropods.
Washed up in spouges on this beach after storms is the White Lima slis-
froline gemini, and soimetinies also the Oriental Lima Promantellum orientale
from deeper water, where it lives it colonies attached to broken Heart Cockles
atid Razor Shells, and also the Port Lincoln Oyster Ostrea sinuata, which grows
partienlarly well when attached to aceumulations of Razor Shell farther out.
The light and delicate Wing Shell Llectroma georgiana attached to weed is cast
high np on the beach.
Dead shells of Sseallops, oysters, Heart ('ockles, Dov Coclkles, and even
Bednall’s Trigonia Neotrigania bednalli, washed up from ten or fifteen fathoms,
may have attached to the inner surface the tear-drop shaped container of the
Flask Cockle Gastrachaena tasmanica. The container is composed of marine
debris, shell fragments, [Lydrozva, Lace Coral, Beyozoa, aud so on.
THe BREAKWATER,
When the tide is well out an examination of the lower rocks of the hreak-
water can be made. Most of the reef-living shells ave found here alive in shallow
water, the Round Back Sea Kar Fxohaliotis cyclobates, Torr’s Periwinkle Aus-
trocochlea terri, Black Key Hole Limpet Sophismalapas migrita, Common War-
COTTON—MOLLUSCA OF THE OUTER HARBOUR, SOUTH AUSTRALIA 169
rener Huninella undulata, Black Periwinkle Nerita melanotraga, Common Lim-
pet Cellana tramoserica, Conniwink Bembicitum melanostoma (which deposits
groups of bean-shaped, jelly-like ege masses about one-eighth of an inch long
on the surface of the sand, each capsule containing about 50 eggs), the Dog Whelk
Dicathais textiliosa (with its numerous close-packed, small horny, tumbler-
shaped yellow egg capsules attached to rocks or broken shell), the Rough Cockle
Chama ruderalis, and the Rock Shell Cleidothaerus albidus, and sometimes the
Thorny Oyster Spondylus tenellus. Below low-tide the Jingle Shell Monia tone
is found attached to stones by means of the shelly plug which protrudes through
a hole in the lower valve.
Some of the commoner chitons, for instance, the Lined Chiton Ischnochiton
lineolatus, and Decayed Chiton Heterozona cariosa, cling to the rocks. In
deeper water, on rocks further out, live the Peppered Cowry Notocypraea
piperita, the rare Gruner Warrener Huninella gruneri, and the Lyre Shell Lyria
mitraeformis, the last active at night and readily collected in number if a suit-
able light is available. Towards the end of the breakwater, attached to the
rocks, the large Port Melbourne Mussel Mytilus planulatus has been taken, and
also the Rostrate Mussel, Brachyodontes rostratus. In shallow water, attached
to rocks, broken shell and debris, is a bed of Beak Mussels Brachyodontes erosus,
solitary among the limy tubes of Serpulidae such as Galeolaria caespitosa, while
imbedded in sponges is the Bearded Horse Mussel Modiolus areolatus, and less
commonly the Ridge Mussel Modiolus albicostus. Other Serpulae tubes attached
to rocks are the solitary Galeolaria hystrix, the little flat, spiral, Spirorbis, and
the world-wide Serpula vermicularis.
Away from the breakwater to the south below low tide are meadows of the
plants Posidonia and Cymodocea, giving a dark blue appearance to the water.
In the latter lives the beautiful Pheasant Shell Phasianella australis, and these,
when taken alive, have the delicate aperture of the shell undamaged and the
shelly operculum in place, making them far more attractive to the student and
collector. Many other weed-loving shells inhabit these meadows, such as the
Spindle Shell Colus australis, the Waved Spindle Propefusus undulatus and
Tulip Shell Plewroploca australasia, with its small bell-like horny transparent
ego capsules attached in groups to dead shells.
INSIDE THE BREAKWATER.
When the tide is particularly low an examination of the inside of the break-
water is well worth while. In the masses of weed growing just below low tide
mark are the Stenochitons, which live only in Southern Australia. If you pull
out a handful of the common strap-like weed Posidonia, beneath the sheath and
near the root you will find the larger Weed Chiton Stenochiton longicymba which
170) RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
should be carefully removed with the finger and thumb and placed in the eol-
lecting jar of seawater. so that if ean he carefully tied down to # flat lath and
dried in the laboratory, Tf removed and allowed to dry without this attention,
it curls up tightly and cannot be straightened without fractare. All Chitons
eurl when removed rom the water, the outer shell surface thus forming a
protective covering, Stenachiton longicymba is in quantity at this locality. Ou
the leaves of Posidonia may be tound the small and inconspicuous Weed Limpet
Navowla parva, and the Pilsbry Weed Chiton Stenochiton pilsbryanus, once
called Stenochiton posidonialis trom its habitat. Among the roots of the weed
live the Milkstone Cockle Venerupis galactites. You may next observe a patel:
of wiry weed with a green leat almost hike that of an olive tree; this is Cymodocea.
Pull out a bunch of the weed for on it live, beside the Pheasant Shell, a number
of smaller weed shells belonging to the gens Phasianotrochus; the Small Neck-
lace Phasianotrochus irisudontes, Red Lip Necklace Phasianotrochus bellulus,
Sharp Necklace Phasiantrochus apicinus, the Hoop Shell Thaloli conica, the rare
shining green Green Mouth Odontotrochus chlorostomus and the common Banded
Kelp Shell Bankiviu fasciate all oceur on Cymodocea, Tf you examine the weed
carefully you may find a very amall and rare Slit Shell Seissurona vincentiame,
or one of its relatives, The Dove Shell Zemitrella lincolnensis and its relations
may also be present; in addition may occur the little Emerald Mussel Museulus
pauliueciae, also smaller Starfish, and the delicate spined Sea Urehin slmblyp-
neustes pallidus, on which lives the glassy, curved commensal Mulima commen-
sais, On the stems of Cymodocea lives a suvall narrow Cymodoeea Chiton N/enn-
chitan eymadocealis.
NortH BREAKWATER,
If a boat is available, an examination of the breakwater on the far side
of the ehannel will produce worth-while results. Here will be found the reet-
living shells, Limpets, Peviwinkles and Warreners, like those on the south side
of the breakwater previously examined, and in deeper water, crawling on sand
patches at the south end of the sand pit and inside the breakwater, the Southern
Olive Oliva australis, In addition one may see here on rocks helow low tide
the Flamed Limpet Chiazasmed flammea, the Seven Flame limpet Notacnien
septiformés, and Sealy Limpet Patellanax squamifera, the Marbled Limpet ¢o!-
lisellinn laristrigata, the Worm Shell Vermicularia sipho (whieh incubates (he
eves within the shell), the Split Worm. Stiquarta australis with its bottle-cort
like opereuliin and the Wammer Oyster Wellews meridianus. Hamner Oysters
should he placed in water for 3 or 4 days, then scrubbed after reniovine the
animal, Tie the shells together with string and dry and preserve the hair-like
COTTON—MOLLUSCA OF THE OUTER HARBOUR, SOUTH AUSTRALIA 171
byssus. Numerous blue Australwinks Melarhaphe wnifasciata, Conniwinks Bem-
bicitum melanostoma and closely related species, and the Speckled Periwinkle
Fractarmilla concamerata are found on the rocks, also the large Stronger Spined
Sea Urehin Meliocidaris erythrogramma, sometimes carrying the commensal
Brown Stylifer Stylifer brunneus.
THE Sanp anp Mup F1.ats.
At low tide an expanse of sand and mud flats are exposed on the north
and west side of the Royal Yacht Squadron Harbour. At low to half tide mark,
on the banks of the channel leading to the Port River, live the three common
cockles, the Sand Cockle Katelysia scalarina, the Mud Cockle Katelysia peroni
and the rarer Corrugated Cockle Katelysia corrugata, favouring mud to sand
respectively, all closely alike in appearance. Numbers of people are sometimes
seen working with rakes, spades, or bare hands collecting these cockles at low
tide for food and bait. They are collected and sold commercially bottled,
soused in vinegar. The cockles live just a few inches below the surface when
the tide is down. As an experiment, open a cockle shell and place it on
the surface of the sand. In a few minutes the small Borer Whelk Parcanassa
pauperata will appear nearby, or some feet away, and will approach the open
cockle. Take out a pocket lens and watch the Borer Whelk insert its trunk-like
proboscis into the flesh of the cockle. The radula or ribbon tongue with its
minute teeth tear the cockle fiesh to threads and pass it down the proboscis.
The procedure ean be easily watched under the lens. The Flame Borer, Lined
Whelk Cominella lineolata, Small Ivory Whelk Cominella eburnea, Burchard’s
Borer Parcanassa burchardi, and even the Sand Snail Uber conicum may join
in the feast. In pools left by the tide is Goldstein’s Litozamia Litozamia gold-
steint.
Just below the surface of the sand in a few inches of water when the tide
is at its lowest lives the large cream coloured slug-like Har Snail Hctosinum
zonale, with a small ear-like shell on its back. Having a somewhat similar
appearance, and living in a similar position, is the Angas Philine Philine angast,
with its delicate internal bubble-like shell and three strong internal gizzard
plates for crushing the small shells which it eats. From November to February
the peculiar gelatinous, balloon-shaped egg-capsule is found near the Philine,
which burrows just below the sand. The ege capsule is two to three inches
long and is attached to its sandy base by a thin filament. Beds of Razor Shell
Pinna dolabrata oceur in places such as at the northern entrance to the Royal
Yacht Squadron Harbour and are exposed at extremely low tide. The shells
172 Recorps or THE S,A, MuSEUM
are anchored by the hairy byssus at the lower pointed end while the sharp and
dangerous upper edges of the shell project above the surface. Wher colleeting
a few of these for the cabinet, preserve the hair-like byssus, soak it in tepid
water until soft, place on a white blotting paper and stroke out with a camel-
haw brush. Finally replace the byssus in the cleaned shell and eum into position,
The animal is large and is moderately esteemed as ood, particularly the large,
ereamy-white adductor musele. On the Razor Shell erawl yarious eommon
chitons, particularly the Oval Chiton Ischnochiton contractus, Attached to
dead Razor Shells are found the Jingle Shell Mona ione, the Southern Slipper
Zeucrypta tmmersa, the Port Lincoln Oyster Ostrea siunata, and, anchored by
the byssus, are numerous Hammer Oysters Mulleus meridianus. Atmone the
Razor Shells is found the Southern Cone Floraconus anemone (a relative of the
larger tropieal poisonous cones), the Triangle Murex Prerynotus trifornus, the
Queen Seallop and good specimens of the Round Back Sea Ear. with occasionally
the Cap Limpet Capiulus australes attached. Protected by and within the dead
Razor Shells may be found the smal! Ringed Octopus Mapaluchlaena moacnlose
and the Lined Squid Sepiolvidea lineoluta. Numerous eges of the former are
sometimes attached to the inner surface of the dead Razor Shell.
Below low water, atnongst fon! stones and weed, are the burrows of a shrimp
Agius plectorhynchus; living in the burrows with the shrimp is the small and
peculiar flat. bivalve, the Moon Cockle Ephippodonta macdougalli. Adult speei-
mens ean sometimes be seen ereeping about the stones daring Mareh and April.
The shrimp burrow is marked by a light orange eolowred sponge and the Pagoda
Cockle Mylhita deshayesi is also found in the burrow. The barrow seems par-
ticularly attractive to eertain small ineubatory commensal, nestling bivalves,
for in it ave found Mylhita tasmanien, W. genmata, Kellia angasiana, R. austra-
his, Marikellia vincentensis, MW, yorkensis, Lepton trigonale, L. ovatum and L.
australe,
Buried deep in sandy nnd is the large Hard Clam Lutraria rhynchaena, the
shell gaping at the upper end, through whieh protrudes the trunk-like sheath
containing the siphons, Nestling in the mud between tide marks ia the eregari-
ous, small, shining chestnut brown Variable Mussel Modiolus inconstans and
occupying erypts in.a friable consolidated shell-ooze in deep water is the burrow-
ing Southern Date Mussel Lithaphaga cunerformis.
As the fide turns and rises examine the sand quickly trom the water's edee
to ten feet or so op the beach. Many species at this period eraw] out to the
surface or move towards the water. Among those ploughing in the sand are
the Sunset Shell Telling albinella, Roush Tellen Pseudiarcopayia victoriac, Glo-
bular Ark Veletuceta radims, Date Shell Solemya australis, White Coekle Aus-
tromactra pura, the Southern Coekle Austromactra australis and Flinders Mae-
COTTON—MOLLUSCA OF THE OUTER HARBOUR, SOUTH AUSTRALIA 173
tra Electromactra flindersi. The Feather Cockle Tawera gallinula and the
Grouse Cockle Tawera lagopus throw themselves out of the sand at the turn of
the tide following low water.
The Double Ray Sunset Soletellina biradiata can be located by the semi-
circular mark in the sand, as though a knife has been pulled along the surface.
The molluse is situated at the newer end of this cut and sometimes throws itself
out when the tide approaches. On the surface is the Smooth Mitre Vicimitra
glabra, False Helmet Hypocassis bicarinata and the Lyre Shell Lyria mitrae-
formis. Ploughing into the sand and leaving a coarse wavy track of disturbed
sand is the Sand Snail Uber conicum. At the newer or more recently disturbed
end of the track is a hump of sand and just beneath this occurs the Sand Snail.
From November to February the Sand Snail’s collar-like egg girdle of cemented
sand, three or four inches in diameter, is plentiful on the beach. The numerous
small eggs can be seen by transmitted light. The girdle is flexible when fresh,
stiff and very brittle when dry.
PILES.
If while the tide is low old piles and wood structures are examined, near
their base will be found attached massed colonies of the small Black Mussel
Modiolus pulex, the Hairy Mussel Brachyodontes hirsutus, the Ark Shell Area
pistachia, Among the encrusting masses of Serpulae tubes, such as Hydroides
multispinosa with its thin, white, brittle, limy tubes nestles, anchored by the
byssus, numerous specimens of the rose-tinged Australian Kellia Kellia australes
which retains and develops the young within the parent shell. Attached to and
sometimes embedded in the piles are the limpet-like Southern Siphon Siphonaria
diemenensis. Old piles and pieces from them are usually bored by the Long
Southern Shipworm Notoferedo edax and the septate tubes can be seen lining
the holes. The valves of the shells and pallets may be shaken out from dead
specimens or removed from living ones.
Quantities of old wharf fenders and piles pulled up from the water front
are to be found in the vicinity of the wharves. An examination of these will
provide specimens of sedentary, boring and nestling types of Molluses, Cirripedia
and other marine growths,
STONEs,
At certain places on the sand-mud flats heaps of waterworn stones more
or less encrusted with weed, such as the Sea Lettuce Ulva lactuca, and sometimes
referred to by collectors as ‘‘foul stones,’’ are uncovered at low tide. On these
live the Lined Whelk Cominella lineolata and the Small Ivory Whelk Cominella
eburnea, the Adelaide Whelk Cominella adelaidensis with its small acuminate
L 74+ RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
pouch-shaped eve-capsules, three-eighths of an ineh long, blunt at the point and
slightly expanded at the base, attached individually in irregular groups or lines
following the depressions or eracks in the undersurface of the stones,
There is an apron of larger stones at the northern end of the main wharf on
the southern bank of the Royal Yaeht Squadron Harbour. These are “foul”
or weed-covered stones where a good series of Bembiciwn, the Ray Limpet Notoae-
ned septiformis, together with some of its relatives, may be found alive near the
water’s edge between tide marks.
MANoRovE Swamps.
Northwards is the entrance to the Port River at Pelican Point, where there
are dense Mangroves -lvicenna officinalis, with the mangrove fauna which is so
consistent round the whole coastline of Australia. The only difference between
the northern tropical areas and the southern is thut the larger dropieal Club Shell
and a few other large warm water species are absent in the south. Crawling ov
the sandy-mud about the mangroves, and south of them in littoral pools, is the
Smooth Creeper Hubitium lawleyanwmn, Hstuarine Creeper Batillariella estu-
rina, and the Granular Horn Zearwnantus diemenensis, all in great quantity,
On foul stones below low tide is the Granular Creeper Cacozeliana granarvum,
Among the mangroves erawl the Solid Air Breather Salinator solida and the
common and more numerous Fragile Air Breather Salinafor fragilis, distin-
suished by its thinner shell and different opereuluim; the last-ramed Air Breather
will live in marine mangrove areas as Well as in braekish to almost fresh water,
Minute eges of the Air Breather are cemented with grains of sand to form a
small band or girdla, about one ineh i diameter, deposited on the surface of
the sand; the ova hateh in fourteen to sixteen days, Associated with these girdles
are groups of about ten red eggs of an unidentified marine animal.
Attached to the limbs and on the finger-like pneumatophores is the Man-
grove Conniwink Bembicium imbricalum and the Zebra Periwinkle Austrocochlea
zebru, These species ave also to be found in some of the small ereeks in the
north of the Peninsula, together with the Smoke Cockle Zumarcia fumigata.
Wren CHANNELS,
North of the Royal Yaeht Squadron Harbour and running across the mud
flats to the Port River Channel is a weed channel along which the sea water
flows in and out with the rise and fall of the tide.
Most of the weed-living shells abound here, as also does the Smoke Cockle
Tunucrcta fumigala in muddy situations, and the small mud-dwelling Stout
Triangle Cockle Anapella pinguis, and, less numerously, the Triangle Cockle
COTTON—MOLLUSCA OF THE OUTER HARBOUR, SOUTH AUSTRALIA 175
Notaspisula trigonella, On the Sea Grass Zostera nina evawls the Dinkers Clan-
culus Isoclanculus dunkeri, Yates Saneulius Fsoclanculus yatesi, Adelaide Peri-
winkle Chlorediloma adeluidae and the Yellow Dot Periwinkle Chlorodiloma
odontis, Sinilar channels and creeks to the north of LeFevre Peninsula have
a similar fauna.
A little north of the Royal Yacht Squadron Harbour is a slightly raised
area of sand which is covered only at high tide. Ilere can be found at almost
any time numerous species of dead shells in fairly good condition; about two
hundred different kinds have heen taken over some years by diligent collectors.
One old gentleman spent years of his later life collecting and sieving samples
of yand and sorting out the small shells. Te found a goodly number of previ-
ously unknown species which would take a long time to examine, draw, and
deseribe; so one may make a valuable collection here without getting the feet
wet!
Nort Bank.
The North Bank is uncovered at low tide and will vield a typical
sand flat fauna, Razor Fish beds, partienlarly on the north side, are more
extensive here than on the mud flats, and the Ark Shell Arca pistachia is common
on rocks, just below low tide, opposite Pelican Point in foul ground, mud and
weed. (nder foul stones lives the Pitted Keyhole Cosmetalepas concatenatus
(usually in company with a grey Ascidian) and also the Shield Shell, Rlephant
Slug or Duck Bill Sextus anatinus (a large black creature with a white shell
on its hack hidden under the mantle), Wide Mouth Stomatella imbricata, False
Eur Shell Gena auricula, Golden Star Micrastraca aureum, the Seale Star Bella-
straeca squamifera, the Beaded Top IMerpetopoma aspersa, the Small Warty
Triton Cymatiella verrucosa, the Waterhouse Triton Cymatilesta waterhousei,
the Triangle Murex Plerynotus trifarmis, the Paivae Boring Whelk Bedewa
patvae, and the Southern Cone Floruconus anenione, whieh ean be found in the
hollows heneath the stones, Some collectors maintain that our Southern Cone
is capable of transmitting a mild sting. However, there has heen no suggestion
that it is a dangerous one, like that of the much bigger tropieal cones. The Sea
Bubble Quibbula tenwissima is common in felty weeds and muddy sand,
Port River.
In the mud banks of the Port River, at places such as Suowden Beach,
Peterhead, North Arm and Torrens Island, live the Estuary Tellen Macon
deltoides, Paper Clam Lulernala recta, Smoke Cockle Eumarcia fumigata and
the Fragile Air Breather Salinator fragilis, while the Solid Air Breather Salina-
tor solida is more common here than on the mud flats, Sandstone just below
176 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
low tide mark, and that dredged from the Port River, is sometimes bored by
the Southern Piddock Pholas australasiae, and specimens may be removed alive
by carefully breaking away the stone.
CONCLUSION.
It is helpful to obtain a tide table from the Harbours Board and to select
particularly low tides when the rarer living material is desired. The falling tide
should be followed out so that the species present under these conditions may be
obtained and the maximum time allowed for low-tide collecting. As the tide
turns and rises, and the collector moves shorewards, many species can be seen
emerging from the sandbanks just above low tide. Incidentally, all species are
edible if taken alive.
Many will remain alive for days in a jar of sea water, where they can
be easily photographed or sketched; little is known about the living colours
of many animals, and good work could be done in this direction. Methylated
spirits will serve to preserve the flesh but not the colours. Formalin decalcifies
the shell and should not be used for anything but shell-less Nudibranchs and
most Cephalopoda. Chitons are taped to a flat stick to prevent them curling
when drying, as this spoils them as cabinet specimens.
Ree. S,A. Museum VoL. NI, PLATE XNIII
Pig. 1. Outer Tarbour Jooking south, showing silting south of the breakwater,
Onter Harbour looking west. Rovil Yaeht Squsileon and raised
sand arena near the eirele in the centre of the prefure,
A CATALOGUE OF INTRODUCED SNAILS AND SLUGS IN AUSTRALIA
BY BERNARD C.. COTTON, CONCHOLOGIST, SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM
Summary
This paper is a record of land and freshwater molluscs introduced into Australia. Its main object is
to stimulate interest in the collecting and identifying of introduced species.
A CATALOGUE or INTRODUCED SNAILS anp SLUGS
in AUSTRALIA
By BERNARD C. COTTON, Concno.ocisr, SourH AustRALIAN Museum,
Plate xxiv.
THIS paper is a record of land and freshwater molluses introduced into Australia.
Its main object is to stimulate interest in the collecting and identifying of intro-
duced species.
Following a request from Dr. H. E. Quick, President of the Malacological
Society of London, for land snails, the author collected many living specimens
in South Australia and western Victoria. Series of these were sent to Dr.
Quick for comparison with authentic material from type localities in overseas
museums and for dissection, and he gives a brief review of the introduced land
molluses in the references cited. Identification is difficult, and a thorough ana-
tomical study of the animal as well as a microscopic examination of the shell is
required before any satistactory conclusions can be reached. An exchange of
authentic material has aided this work in South Australia. Introduced snails
frequently show variation from the typical species.
The Common Garden Snail Helix aspersa is abundant in South Australia
and variations in shell form and animal colouring occur. In later years there
appears to be a greater percentage of pale pigmented specimens, some approach-
ing the albino exalbida, odd specimens of which have been taken. Shells from
the foothills are thinner and smaller of the tenuior variety, while some in the
Torrens Valley area approach dark nigrescens. The largest specimens taken are
from Kangaroo Island. Two sinistral specimens, one cornucopia and one acu-
minata, are in the Museum collection, taken locally. Soil, rainfall, temperature,
period of colonization, original variety and other factors have been mentioned
in connection with some of these variants, but no scientific investigation has
been made locally.
Further species of land molluses and, in addition, the freshwater species are
recorded here as a preliminary basis for Australian workers. Numerous requests
for identification of introduced species are made by government bodies to the
agricultural departments, museums and universities, and it is presumed that
similar questions are submitted to institutions in other States.
173 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
SLUGS.
Minax GAGATES (Draparnaud) 1801.
Distribution. South Western Europe, Greece, Izium, North Africa, Atlantic
Isles, British Isles.
Introduced. South Africa, Bermuda, Juan Fernandez, North and South
America, New Zealand.
Australia. S.A., Vict., N.S.W.
Remarks. Jet Slug. Small Black Slug. Redescribed as Limax maurus
Quoy and Gaimard 1824 from Port Jackson, Wilaz tasmanicus Tate 1880 from
Tasmania, Limax pectinatus Selenka 1865, Sydney.
Time. Pleistocene to Recent. England.
Loiax Maximus Linne 1758,
Distribution. Europe to North Bergen, Transcaucasia, Baviois, Algiers,
Atlantic Isles, British Isles.
Iniroduced. North America, South Africa, North and South America, New
Zealand,
Australia. S.A., N.S.W., Vict., Tas.
Time. Pleistocene to Recent. England.
Remarks. Great Grey Slug.
Limax rLavus Linne 1758.
Distribution. Europe, Norway, Syria, Tripoli, Atlantie Isles, British Isles.
Introduced. North and South America, Japan, South Africa, New Zealand.
Australia, S.A., N.S.W., Vict., Tas., Q.
Time. Pleistocene, Cromerian to Reeent. England.
Remarks. Yellow slug. Redeseribed as Limax megalodontes Quoy and
Gaimard 1824 from Port Jackson, Limazx olivaceus Gould 1852 from Parramatta,
and possibly Limax bicolor Selenka 1865 from Sydney.
Limax MARGINATUS Miller 1774.
Distribution. Frurope, Greece to Finland and Eastern Russia, Iceland,
British Isles.
Introduced. North America, New Zealand.
Australia. S.A.
Time, Pleistocene, Cromerian to Recent. England.
Remarks. Tree Slug. Sometimes referred to as Liman (Lehmannia) ar-
borum Bouchard-Chantereaux 1837.
COTTON—SNAILS AND SLUGS INTRODUCED INTO AUSTRALIA 179
AGRIOLIMAX AGRESTIS (Linne) 1758.
Distribution. Northern Europe, Asia, Turkestan, China, Japan, North
Africa, Syria, Atlantic Isles, Greenland, British Isles,
Introduced, Zanzibar, North and South America, South Africa, West In-
dies, Mauritius, New Zealand.
Australia, S.A., N.S.W., Vict., Tas.
Time. Pleistocene to Recent. England.
Remarks. Field slug. Redescribed as Limax legrandi Tate, Tasmania and
Timax molestia Hutton, New Zealand.
AGRIOLIMAX LAEVIS (Miiller) 1774.
Distribution. Europe, Northern Asia, North and Central America, British
Isles.
Introduced. South America, West Indies, South Africa, Madagascar.
Australia, S.A., Q.
Time. Pleistocene to Recent. England.
Remarks. Marsh Slug. Smooth Slug. Recorded from the foothills of the
Mount Lofty Ranges, near Adelaide. A synonym is Limax queenslandicus Hed-
ley 1888,
AGRIOLIMAX RETICULATUS (Miiller) 1774.
Distribution. Southern Europe, Asia, North Africa, Atlantic Isles, British
Isles,
Introduced. North and South America, South Africa, New Zealand.
Australia. Viet., N.S.W., Tas.
Time. Pleistocene to Recent. England.
Remarks. Netted Field Slue.
ARION HORTENSIS Férussac 1819.
Distribution. Central Europe, northwards to Tromiso, North Spain, France,
Italy, Netherlands, Russia, British Isles,
Introduced. North Ameriea, South Africa, New Zealand.
Australia. S.A.
Remarks. Garden Slug. The South Australian record is not definitely
confirmed.
ARION a'rerR (Linne) 1758.
Distribution. Europe, Portugal, Italy, Balkans, British Isles.
Introduced. North America, New Zealand.
Australia. S.A., N.S.W., Vict.
Remarks. Large Black Slug.
180 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM
TESTACELLA HALIOTIDEA Draparnaud 1801.
Distribution. North Afriea, Western Europe, Belgium, Germany, Balearic
Tsles, Canary Isles, Madeira, British Isles.
Introduced. North America,
Australia, S.A., Tas., N.S.W.
Time. Holocene to Recent. England.
Remarks. Shelled Slug. Carnivorous Slug. Recorded from the Botanical
Gardens, Adelaide. Testacella mauget Férussae 1819, Is a synonym.
SNAILS.
EUPARYPHA PISANA (Miller) 1774.
Distribution. Europe, Mediterranean, North Africa, Atlantic Isles, British
Isles.
Introduced. North America, South Africa.
Time. Pleistocene to Recent. England.
Australia. Cottesloe, W.A., Vict., Geelong, N.S.W.
Remarks. White Snail. Now placed in the genus Theba. Specimens closely
resembling this species and similar to those taken at Cottesloe, Western Aus-
tralia, were found alive by H. M. Cooper on April 22nd, 1954, at Port Arthur,
near Port Wakefield, S.A., on Boxthorn, about 200 yards above the high tide
level,
HeEnice.ia 1TaALA (Linne) 1758.
Distribution. Wurope to Petrograd, Transcaucasia, Algeria and Syria,
British Isles,
Introduced. New Zealand.
Australia. S.A.
Time. Lower Pleistocene to Recent. England.
Remarks. Heath Snail. South-east of South Australia. Mentioned as
introduced to South Australia by A. E. Ellis, *‘British Snails,’’ 1926, p. 195.
Originally recorded as J/elicella ericelorwm (Miller) 1821, Dr. Quick now
identifies specimens trom Yorke Peninsula as eltcella (Xerocinctu) neglecta,
mentioned below.
HELICELLA (XEROGINCTA) NEGLECTA (Draparnaud) 1805.
Distribution. Southern France, Italy, Germany, Greece, Syria, Algeria.
Introduced. British Isles.
slustralia. S.A., Yorke Peninsula.
Time. Recent. England.
Remarks. White Heath Snail.
COTTON-—SNAILS AND SLUGS INTRODUCED INTO AUSTRALIA 181
HeEviceLa (CERNUELLA) virGATA (Da Costa) 1779,
Distribution, Western Europe, Mediterranean east to Crimea, British Isles.
Introduced, Australia.
Australia. S.A. ‘‘N.W.A. Foul Point’’ (Richardson, quoted by Musson),
N.S.W., Viet.
Time, Pleistocene to Recent. England.
Remarks. Striped Snail. Recorded from vineyards at Northfield near
Adelaide, South Australia. Dr, Quick identifies the S.A. records of Theba pisana
as belonging to HW. virgata, a svnonym of which is H. variabilis Draparnaud,
mentioning that ‘It is true the shell of the Northfield examples is more globose
and the upper surface of the whorls flatter than in the British variety of this
variable shell that I have seen, and the umbilicus is smaller than the typical.’’
Shells sent from Kangaroo Island are identified by him as H. virgata
depressa Requien 1868, or H. v. subaperta Jeffreys. H. virgata depressu Requien
1848 was taken in 1953 at American River, Kangaroo Island,
HELICELLA (CANDIDULA) CAPERATA (Montagu) 1803.
Distribution. Europe to Crimea, Bagdad, British Isles.
Introduction. Australia.
Australia, S.A., Robe, Vict., Tas.
Time. Pleistocene to Recent. England.
Remarks. Wrinkled Snail,
HELIOELLA (MICROSCRROMAGNA) STOLISMENA (Bourguignat) 1880,
Distribution. Spain, France,
Introduced. Australia.
sLustralia. S.A., South-east.
Remarks. A species named and described as Helicella mayeri Gude 1914
was taken on **Tea Tree’’ Melaleuca, at Millicent, South Australia. Dr. Quick
thinks that the species may be H. stolismena. Living specimens are required
to verify the identification. Although numerous shells are in the Museum eol-
lection from Millicent. and Robe, no living specimens have been obtained in
recent years. A synonym of IJ. stolismena is Helix vestita Rambur 1868 pre-
occupied by Ferrasae 1819.
HELICELLA HERIPENSIS (Mabille) 1877.
Distribution, Germany, France, British Isles,
Introduced. Australia.
182 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
Time. Pleistocene to Recent. England.
Australia. S,A., Adelaide foothills and S.E. S.A.
Remarks. Hedge Snail. Originally introduced into the South-east but
now taken in the foothills of the Mount Lofty Ranges, near Adelaide, in gardens.
Also ealled Candidula gigarit (Charpenticr) 1850. These may be H. caperate,
the identification needs confirming.
CocHLIcELLA acuta (Miller) 1774.
Distribution, South-western Enrope, Mediterranean, British Isles.
Introduced. Australia.
Time. Pleistocene to Recent. England.
Australia. S.A., Yorke Peninsula, W.A,, Cottesloe, Vict.
Remarks. Pointed Snail. Common at Stansbury and Minlaton, Yorke
Peninsula, 9.A., and Cottesloe, W.A. Bulimus acuéus Miller 1774 is an older
name for this species. Listed by Cox and Hedley, 10, p. 10, as Helicella arbara
Linne 1889 from Victoria.
CocHLICELLA VENTROSA (Férussac) 1819.
Distribution. Mediterranean, Canaries, Azores, Bermuda.
Introduced. South Africa.
clustralia. S.A., Yorke Peninsula, Mount Gambier, Adelaide; Viet., N.S.W,,
W.A.
Time. Recent.
Remarks. Swollen Snail. Recorded from Corny Point and the South-east
of South Australia. Sometimes referred to as C. ventricosa (Draparnaud) 1831,
pre-occupied, There are two variants in Adelaide gardens, C. bizona Moquin-
Tandon and C, inflata Moquin-Tandon.
Hewix aspersa Miller 1774.
Distribution. Netherlands, France. Spain, Mediterranean, British Isles.
Introduced. North and South America, South Africa, New Zealand.
Australia, S.A., Viet., N.S.W., W.A.
Time. Pleistocene to Recent. England.
Remarks, Garden Snail. Common in gardens, general. Brightly coloured
specimens with thick shells measuring 36 mm. in diameter are numerous at
Muston, Kangaroo Island, according to a series taken by H. M. Cooper in
February, 1954,
COTTON—SNAILS AND SLUGS INTRODUCED INTO AUSTRALIA 183
OXYCHILUS CELLARIA (Miiller) 1774.
Distribution. Europe, Algeria, Rhodes, Armenia, Palestine, Persia, British
Isles.
Introduced. North and South America, South Africa, New Zealand.
Australia. N.S.W., Vict., Tas.
Time. Pleistocene to Recent. England.
Remarks. Cellar Snail. Redeseribed as Helix sydneyensis Cox, from
N.S.W. Sometimes called Helicella and Vitrea cellaria. Actively carnivorous
in Sydney gardens. Wats slaters and Helix aspersa.
OXYCHILUS ALLIARIUS (Miller) 1822.
Distribution. Europe, Algeria.
Introduced. America, South Africa, New Zealand.
Australia. N.S.W.
Time. Pleistocene to Recent. England.
Remarks. Mentioned by Ellis 1926, ‘‘British Snails,’’? p. 244, as having
been introduced into Australia and first recorded from Australia by J. S. Miller,
1822.
tEOSTILBIA APERTA (Swainson) 1835.
Distribution. Southern Europe.
Introduced. Australia.
Australia. Tas.
Remarks. Recorded from Australia by Petterd and Hedley, 1909.
VITREA CRYSTALLINA (Miiller) 1774.
Distribution. Europe, north to Hamar Stift and east to the Caucasus,
Algeria, Atlantic Isles, British Isles.
Introduced, Australia.
Australia. Tas.
Time. Pleistocene to Recent. England.
Remarks. Crystal Snail. Vitrina may prefer a carnivorous diet.
ZONITOIDES NITIDA (Miiller) 1774.
Distribution. Kurope, Algeria, Asia, Kashmir, Tibet, Japan, North America,
British Isles.
Introduced. South America, New Zealand.
Australia. N.S.W., Tas., Vict.
Time. Pleistocene, Cromerian to Recent. England.
Remarks. Shiny Snail.
184
RECORDS OF THE $.A. MUSEUM
VALLONIA cosTATA (Miller) 1774.
Distribution. British Isles. Europe, North America.
Introduced. Madeira. Azoves, South Africa, Palestine,
Australia. N.S.W., Tas., Norfolk Island.
Time. Pleistocene to Recent. England.
Remarks. Ribbed Snail. Known also as Helix pulchella Miiller 1805, and
vedeseribed as Melia alexandrae Cox 1868, from places about Sydney.
VALLONIA PULCHELLA (Miiller) 1774.
Distribution, British Isles.
Introduced. South Africa.
Australia, N.S.W., Tas., Norfolk Island.
Time. Pliocene to Recent. Wngland.
Remarks. Beautiful Snail.
SusBuLINA ocTANA (Bruguiére) 1789.
Distribution. Ameriea.
Introduced. England.
Australia, NASW.
Ferussacia FOLLICULUS (Cronoyvius) 1781,
Distribution, Mediterranean, South of France from the Pyrenees to the
Riviera and in the Balearic Isles.
Australia, S.A., Linden Park, suburb of Adelaide.
Remarks. Inflated Ferussacia. This small snail was seen in great numbers
on August 1, 1953, at Verdale Avenue, Linden Park, a suburb of Adelaide, by
Colin F. Hutehinson. Groups of individuals were found in very damp places
on a building block, under bricks, old cement bags or any other type of cover.
The builder, Mr. Page, noticed them only during June and July of this year
(1953) and thinks they were not present when the undergrowth was burnt off in
January. There are no unusual weeds among the thick grass, and the few small
olive trees are seedlings of the olive tree so common in this district since the
early days of white occupation. All building materials used on the block are
locally produced. There is no elue as to how the snails came here. Householders
and children around the district have not scen the snails even in adjacent areas.
There are no records of the species or anything like it from South Australia
or anywhere else in Australia. It seems that the snail has been discovered and
recognized soon after importation or dispersal, and immediate steps have been
taken by the Agricultural Department to eradicate it.
COTTON—SNAILS AND SLUGS INTRODUCED INTO AUSTRALIA 185
The shell is about a quarter of an inch long, pupaeform, brown, highly
polished. The animal has a long slender foot, slender tentacles, the upper pair
bearing well-developed eyes. The foot is light yellow grading to light green,
anteriorly and posteriorly, and the long slender tentacles and head are a dark
grey shade. The snail moved rapidly from light into shade, and one would
say, from its general appearances and habits, that it would not survive the
heat and dryness of the Adelaide Plains. It would probably thrive in hot houses
whence these specimens may have originated. It is prolific and ovoviparous,
the young being formed in an ege and the egg hatched inside the parent. It
is normally herbivorous, but is said to turn carnivorous when vegetable food
is unobtainable.
On first sight the species was thought to be possibly Cochlicopa lubrica,
which is abundant all over the British Isles, Europe, North America, Asia and
North Africa. Dr. Quick kindly examined specimens sent by us to the British
Museum and mentioned in correspondence that it was a Perussacia. The species
belongs to the family Ferussacidae, which is contained in the superfamily
Achatinacea, including the family Achatinidae, and consequently has distant
affinities with the Giant African Snail Achatina fulica Férussac, unfortunately so
widely dispersed and uncontrollable. The family Ferussacidae contains some ten
genera and numerous species.
HELIX SIMILARIS Ferussac 1819.
Distribution. Cuba, America, South Africa, China, Brazil, Singapore,
Bengal, Mauritius, Java, Sandwich Islands.
Introduced. Frankland Isles.
Australia. N.E. Aust., N.S.W. (Sydney).
Remarks. This species appears to have been widely dispersed over the
earth’s surface. The Australian records are doubtful. Musson, 1890, writes,
‘Originally recorded for Australia from the Frankland Islands, collected by
MacGillivray. Mr. Brazier, who had some of the original specimens, remarks
that they are H. aridorum, Cox, 1867, or Neveritis aridorum, to give its latest
name, and that it is a native snail, originally described from Clarence River,
99
under logs in ironbark ranges, burrowing in dry weather.’
OTALA VERMICULATA (Miiller) 1774.
Distribution. Southern Europe and North Africa.
Introduced. Australia.
Australia. Tas.
Remarks. Recorded by Petterd and Hedley, 1909, as Helix vermiculata
Miiller 1774.
186 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
FRESHWATER SNAILS.
LYMNAEA PEREGER (Miller) 1774.
Distribution. KEurope, North Afriea, Asia, Kashmir, Afehanistan, Cape
Verde Islands, British Isles.
Introduced. Tasmania.
Time. Pliocene to Recent. Hneland.
Remarks, Wandering Snail. Redeseribed as Limnaca tusmanica Tenison-
Woods 1876, Limnaea lutosa Petterd 1889, and Limnaea hobartensis Tenison-
Woods, 1876, from Tasmania,
LYMNAEA STAGNALIS Linne 1758.
Distribution. Furope, Asia, Afghanistan, Kashmir, North Afriea, British
Tsles.
Introduced. Tasmania, South Australia.
Australia. Frequently seen in aquaria, but so far not established in any
freshwater area.
Time. Pleistocene, Cromerian to Recent. England.
Remarks. Great Pond Snail. This snail grows very well in South Aus-
tralian garden ponds and aquaria, but is not in our creeks and ponds.
PLANORBIS SPrRORBIS (Linne) 1801.
Distribution. Western Europe, Asia, North Africa, British Isles.
Introduced. Australia?.
Time. Pleistocene to Recent. England.
Remarks—Button Ram’s Horn, Sometimes named Planorbis (Gyraulus)
laevis. Specimens of P. spirorbis Miller 1774, or more correctly P. (Spiralina)
spirorbis Linne 1758, are labelled as Australian in the British Museum (Musson,
p. 884).
PLANORBIS CAMPANULATUS Say 1821.
Distribution. North Ameriea.
Introduced. South Australia.
Remarks. Bell Planorbis. Specimens of this species were recorded by the
author in the ‘‘South Australian Naturalist’’ 15, No. 1, p. §, 1933, from Blanche-
town, Riyer Murray, where it was established. Mr. Oliver, Senior Resident En-
gineer, reported ‘‘that the shells referred to were found at approximately half
a mile upstream (from Blanchetown), where the American machinery purchased
COTTON—SNAILS AND SLUGS INTRODUCED INTO AUSTRALIA 187
for lock construction was unloaded. This place is, however, a landing place for
farm machinery and windmills of American manufacture.’’
This was the first record of a freshwater snail being introduced into the
River Murray. I have seen no specimens at Blanchetown or elsewhere since
1933.
Petterd 4, p. 97, records that Planorbis lacustris is plentiful in “the fresh-
water streams near Melbourne.” ‘This species is probably a Segmentina, more
recently named Segnitila victoriae, Smith, 1882, indigenous to the region.
REFERENCES CITED.
1. Quoy and Gaimard (1824): Zool. Voy. Uranie, pp. 426-427.
2. Selenka, E. (1865): Malak. Blatt, 12, p. 105, pl. 2, fig. 1-9.
3. Legrand (1879): Journ. of Conch., pp. 95-96.
4. Petterd, W. F. (1879): Journ. of Conch., pp. 96-98.
5. Tate, R. (1880): Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., pp. 15-18.
6. Godwin-Austen (1883): “Land and Freshwater Molluses of India,” pt. 4,
p. 146, pl. xh, fig. 1-8.
7. Hedley, C. (1888): Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld.
8. Musson, C. T. (1890): Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 5, pp. 883-896.
9. Petterd, W. F. and Hedley, C. (1909): Rec. Aust. Mus., 8, No. 4, pp. 283-304.
10. Cox, J. C. and Hedley, C. (1912): Men. Nat. Mus. Vict., No. 4.
11. Vereo, J. C. (1922): Rec. S. Aust. Mus., 2, No. 2, p. 221.
12. Vereo, J. C. (1924): Rec. S. Aust. Mus., 2, No. 4, pp. 489-490.
13. Fischer, P. H. (1939): Journ. Conchyl., 83 (3), pp. 245-253.
14. MeLaughton, ©. F. (1949): Proc. Zool. Soc. N.S.W., pp. 21-24.
15. Quick, H. E. (1952): Proc. Mus. Soc. Lond., 29, pt. 3, p. 75.
16. Quick, H. E. (1952): Proc. Mus. Soc. Lond., 29, pt. 5, p. 189.
17. Cotton, B. C. (1953): National Park and Reserves of South Australia, pp.
136-146 (S.A. Museum).
Rec, S.A. MuskuMm Vor. XI, PLATE XXIV
Top. Six views of Ferussacia folliculus emerging trom the shell (6), Linden Park,
Below. Three views of the shell of Forussaeia follieulus (x 1),
TAXONOMIC NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN HAWKS
BY H. T. CONDON AND DEAN AMADON
Summary
The primary purpose of the present paper is to contribute to the series of revisions of Australian
birds which must precede any semi-stable Australian check-list. Peters’ work (1931) often follows
Matthews’ treatment of races, and these taxonomic notes are to some extent a re-examination of the
proposals of that author whose types, now contained in the American Museum of Natural History,
were available for study.
TAXONOMIC NOTES on AUSTRALIAN HAWKS
By H. T. CONDON* ann DEAN AMADON}.
INTRODUCTION,
THE primary purpose of the present paper is to contribute to the series of revi-
sions of Australian birds which must precede any semi-stable Australian cheels-
list. Peters’ work (1931) often follows Mathews’ treatment of races, and these
taxonomic notes are to some extent a re-examination of the proposals of that
author whose types, now contained in the American Museum of Natural History,
were available for study.
arly students of the group, such as Gould (1865), Sharpe (1874), Ramsay
(1876), and North (1912) were compelled to work with few specimens, and
although unaware of the many confising aspects of variability, the quality of
their work was remarkably good considering the nature of their limitations.
We have handled many hundreds of specimens which were not available to
previous workers, but have found that much still remains to be learned and that
further collecting in all parts of the continent is very necessary, Especially
have we lacked material from Western Australia, southern Queensland and
Tasmania, and these regions should prove profitable areas for investigation in
the future. Subadult specimens greatly outnumber adults in museums, many
skins are incorrectly sexed or poorly labelled, and certain well-marked forms are
often represented by only one or two examples.
As pointed out by Mathews (1946), the single record of Butastur teesa from
New South Wales is unconvincing and perhaps better placed on the suspended
list,
Because of its long isolation, the Australian continent has served as an
important area for differentiation in this order, as in others. One may mention
such distinct and fine species as Maleo subniger and F, hypoleucos, Aquila
(UVroaétus) audax is the largest and most striking member of the Aquila chry-
saétos group (or, lor that matter, of the genus Aguila). The Milvinae are very
well represented, not only by widespread forms, but also by two remarkable
endemies, Hamirostra melanosternon and Lophoictinia isura, Tt present distri-
bution means anything, Australia was the ancestral home or, at least, the focal
point of the evolution and distribution of this group of kites.
* Ornithologist, South Australian Museum,
+ Department of Birds, American Museum of Natural History, New York.
190 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
Some fossil forms were named by DeVis (1890 to 1911) from the Pleistocene
of southern Queensland and northern South Australia, but the status of most of
these is doubtful. The genus Taphactus may be referable to Aquila or Halicé-
tus, while Lydekker (1892) expressed grave doubts as to the validity of
Necrastur. The identity of Paleolestes, named from a single toe-bone, is extremely
problematical.
Our remarks are based on an examination of collections in the American
Museum of National History (including the Mathews collection), the South
Australian Museum, the National Museum, Melbourne (including the H. L.
White collection), and the Australian Museum, Sydney, as well as certain
material in the United States National Museum and the British Museum.
To the Directors of the various institutions for permission to study their
collections are best thanks are due, and we are especially indebted to Messrs.
H. G. Deignan, Washington, W. B. Hitchcock, Melbourne, and J. R. Kinghorn
and J. A. Keast, Sydney, for assistance rendered.
The only Australian Acciptres not discussed in the following notes are
Falco (Teracidea) berigora, Circus approximans and Pandon haliaetus. The
first-named species was recently revised by Condon (1951), and we have little
to add to Amadon’s earlier revision (1941) of the other two mentioned.
Abbreviations used: AM—Australian Museum, Svdney; AMNH—American
Museum of Natural History, New York; HLW—H. L. White collection, National
Museum, Melbourne; NMM—National Museum, Melbourne; SAM—South Aus-
tralian Museum, Adelaide.
GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION.
Variability due to geography is still incompletely understood in Australian
birds, but correlation between environment and taxonomic characters and geo-
graphical variation is often marked, as in other parts of the world, and being
parallel in many species, seems to confirm certain ecological rules that were
put forward many years ago.
In the birds of prey the Bergmann effect may be conveniently demonstrated
by the use of wing leneths; individuals of such species as Acctpifer fasciatus,
Circus assimilis, Falco berigora, Haliastur sphenurus, and Pandion are larger
in the cooler regions of southern Australia and Tasmania than in other parts.
There is also a tendency towards richer and darker pigmentation in popu-
lations inhabiting regions of greater humidity (Gloger’s Rule). Sometimes it
is a case of the colour becoming paler in the more arid regions, when orthodox
(internal) clines occur; Accipiter cirrhocephalus, A. fasciatus, Falco longipennis,
CONDON AND AMADON—TAXONOMIC NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN Hawks 191
and F. berigora ave examples in Australia, The heavily piginented races of
Mieraaétus morphnoides and Accipiter navachollandiae in New Guinea may be
considered further examples of this law,
For reasons not yet understood, when species rather than races are eom-
pared, the ecological rules may receive little confirmation. Species more or
less characteristic of the drier areas, such as Elanus scriptus, Faloo subniger, and
Hamirostra melanosternon are no paler than allied species of more humid
regions, and in some cases ave darker, It is possible, of course, that this may
point tu a very recent deterioration of climate, and that these dark forms arose
during more pluyial or humid periods which are known to have oceurred during
the Tertiary,
Clines or ‘‘eharacter gradients’’ are found in areas where continuous or
wibroken chains of populations oven, more especially on continents and islands.
The clines most easily demonstrated ave those of size and eolonr,
The white-headed Pandion, or Osprey common to the East Indies and Aus-
tralia, shows a clinal increase in size in southern Australia which led Amadon
(1941) to recognize southern birds as a race, cristetis, Such procedure has, of
course, been generally followed by taxonomists, a8 with, for example, the Ameri-
ean sea-cagle (/faliw@étus lencocephalus), but whether such elines warrant
nomenclatural recounition is more and more debated, In the case of Pandion
of Australia, however, ‘urther material may show that there is rather an abrupt
increase in size in the southern part of its range, If such a stepped cline can
be demonstrated there should be less misgiving about admitting two races in the
Australian region.
Stepped ur external (inter-group) elines are not always readily apparent.
In the Goshawk, Accipiter fasciatus, the difference in size in northern birds is
abrupt, and the birds resemble more closely in colour some of the insular
tropical forms rather than members of populations inhabiting the major portion
of the continent. This suggests that the small northern race, didimus, could be
a derivative of some island form and a rather late entrant to the Australian
mainland,
However, one cannot always assume that small northern races outside Aus-
tralia, as in Acetpiter fasciatus and Hieraaitus morphnoides, are an extension
of the size trend discernible in Australia, for such species may have large races
on soine of the other (i,e., other than New Guinea) tropical islands. The papu-
lation of Acetpiter fasciatus on Rennel Island, an outher of the Solomons, is
fully as large as and apparently indistinguishable from the goshawk of southern
Australia, and the vaces of this hawk on New Caledonia and the Louisiade
Archipelago are comprised of birds almost as large. Possibly factors other than
192 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
temperature response may play the dominant role in directing changes in the
bird populations of small islands.
While almost nothing is known of migratory movements, certain Australian
hawks may wander far from their normal habitat. For example, it would appear
that the Brown Goshawk of southern Australia may visit the Kimberley division
in the north, and the faleons Falco longipennis and F. c. cenchroides occur as
non-breeding stragglers to various islands north of Australia, and the latter
also visits New Zealand at times.
The distribution of the diphasie goshawk, Accipiter novaehollandiae, in
Australia and New Guinea is a special problem, for whose analysis one may
consult Southern and Serventy (1947). The white phase has become exclusive
in Tasmania, but elsewhere, though geographical variation occurs, there is little
of regular clinal nature in the distribution of this phase. The fact that the
grey phase has never been recorded in Tasmania indicates that in this species
isolation is reasonably complete on that island. Also, the hawks of this genus,
in parts of the world where they are non-migratory, show more geographical
variation than do most other genera and are presumably more sedentary than
most others. As might be expected, Tasmanian subspecies are particularly well-
marked in small song birds, but in the hawks not enough collecting has been
done in most species to enable satisfactory studies to be made of material from
this region, although in certain instances there appear to be no differences be-
tween specimens from the island and the adjacent mainland.
DEVELOPMENT.
Study of plumage changes due to age is important in taxonomic work. In the
Aecipitres the downy chick is usually whitish, but in Elanus it is pale brownish
or grey. Sexual dimorphism is generally great, females being larger, except
perhaps in Zlanus where no striking differences have been detected. Juvenals
of both sexes may be markedly different from the adult, and the moult into
adult plumage may be direct, as in Elanus, Aviceda, Accipiter cirrhocephalus,
Falco hypoleucos, and F’. longipennis, or take several years as in Aquila, Haliwe-
tus, Accipiter fasciatus, F'. berigora, F. peregrinus, and F. cenchroides. Owing
to the protracted moult in the species quoted, confusion may be caused through
superficial examination or insufficient material, and a proper understanding of
the factors responsible for individual variation by ornithologists whose chief
interests lie in other directions is desirable in order to make their observations
of value. For instance, in the Brown Hawk young birds are usually dark,
even when in breeding condition, vet they have often been confused with dark
CONDON AND AMADON--TAXONOMIC NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN HAWKS 193
phase adults. In the Kestrel, also, both sexes may have reddish tails when
young, and the young of the sea-eagles (Haliastur and Haliwétus) might be
mistaken for other species. Immaturity in goshawks and falcons is indicated
by the markings of the rectrices, and since these are usually the last feathers
to be replaced at the moult, a good idea of the age of cabinet specimens may
be obtained.
Genus ELANus Savigny 1809.
Typé. Elanus caesius = E. caerulus. Old and New Worlds. (Four species. )
Of all the major regions, Australia alone has two species of Hlanus. How-
ever, this does not necessarily mean that the genus originated in Australia, but
merely that we are dealing with an example of double invasion or double
colonization at long intervals.
Were it not for the occurrence of two species in Australia, species that
are, moreover, very similar to each other, some might prefer to unite all
members in a single species. Furthermore, nofatus is more like leucurus
of America than it is like caeruleus of the East Indies, Eurasia and Africa.
Twice in the past and at two widely separated intervals this genus invaded
Australia, presumably from the north, thus giving rise to the two species endemic
there. Present day distribution of the two species, and the resemblance of
notatus to leucurus of the New World, suggests that the first-named was the
earlier arrival in Australia. Unusual, also, is the recent discovery of a local
endemic race of E. caerwleus in New Guinea (Mayr and Gilliard, in press, Bull.
Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.). Presumably this species is a newcomer to New Guinea.
ELANUS NOTATUS Gould.
Elanus notatus Gould, 1838, Syn. Bds. Aust. part 4, app. p. 1: New South
Wales.
Elanus axillaris parryi Mathews, 1912, Nov. Zool., 18, p. 251: Parry’s Creek,
northwestern Australia. Type: AMNH No. 531543; adult male; January
27th, 1909; J. P. Rogers. Wing, ? (moult); tail, 142 (worn). Coloured
plate of type: Mathews, 5, plate 249, opp. p. 199.
Range. Australia; not Tasmania.
The Black-shouldered Kite has a wide distribution in Australia and appears
to be a true nomad, although in many districts one or more birds will remain
for weeks, or even months, before moving on. In Western Australia it is regarded
as a typical inland species, whereas in eastern Australia it is perhaps just as
numerous in coastal areas.
1o+ RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
In northern Australia it has been reported at Katherine River, Northern
Territory, and Barnard at one time found it breeding in the McArthur River
district. In the lower Northern Territory, it was allegedly seen by members
of the Horn Expedition in 1894, and in 1911 it was reported by the Barclay
Expedition at Tdracowra; in 1914 5, A. White believed he saw the species near
Chambers’ Pillar.
As might be expected, no evidence of eeographical variation has been found
over the entire range.
The opinion has been expressed that the black ‘‘shoulder’’ (lesser wing
coverts) is larger in this species than in seripfus, but actually the reverse may
be the case in fully adult birds. Tn notatus, also, the true outer primary (small
and concealed) is white on the outer web and grey on the inner, whereas in
scriptus this feather is uniformly grey.
In his account of the American species, /eucurus, Friedmann (1950, p, 7],
footnote) wrote; ‘‘It is rather remarkable that there should be no sexual differ-
enee in size... . sinee Mathews... , finds females to be larger than males in
Elanus notatus and F. seriptus.’" Actually, however, the number of specimens
of scriptus in Mathews’ collection (five) is too few to determine this point,
while in noftatus the females, if \eally larger, are only yery slightly so, as shown
by the following measurements of adults.
Wing, 11 4, 289-302 (298); 15 9°, 293-310 (300-5) (AMNH).
12 4, 280-298 (290); 3 @, 280-298 (289) (SAM).
Tail, 7 4, 142-182 (147); 9 ©, 142-154 (149) (AMNH).
12 4, 143-153 (149); 3 9, 148-154 (152) (SAM).
Weights of a pair of adults taken on June 28th by K, Buller were: 3 270
grammes; ° 250 grammes. This would suggest that the sexes are about equal
in size,
From the earliest stages, when the tail is very short, nestlings of notatus
may be distinguished from those of scripfius by the much greater extent of black
on the under-wing coverts in the latter.
At the time of hatching, young notatus are covered in pale brownish-coloured
down, which changes within a fortnight to a smokey-grey colour. At this stage
the position of the black shoulder is indicated by a bare pateh of skin of dark
bluish colour, perhaps caused by the unerupted dark feathers beneath. It is
not known if a similar marking occurs in scriptus. In the week-old nestling,
the iris has been observed to he hazel, the cere bluish, and the legs flesh-
coloured. In a bird a fortnight old the iris was dark brown, the cere bluish-
green, ind the legs pale yellow.
CONDON AND AMADON-—TAXONOMIC NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN Hawks 195
Juvenals of notatus differ markedly from the adult. The top and sides
of the head are rich brown and the back is brownish-grey with white tips to
the feathers. The shoulder is dark grey with many of the feathers tipped
with white and the black patch under the wing is less extensive than in scriptus.
The upper breast is washed deep buff (formed by coloured tips to the white
feathers), with dark brown central shafts; it becomes paler with wear. The
iris at this stage is light brown, cere yellow, legs and feet bright yellow.
In several adults of both sexes the iris has been recorded as red, cere
yellow, legs and feet yellow.
ELANUS scriptus Gould.
Elanus scriptus Gould, 1842, pt. 9, 1, pl. (24); South Australia. (Mathews,
1927, p. 259, gives the further restriction of Cooper Creek.)
Elanus scriptus victorianus Mathews, 1917, Austral Av., Rec., 3, p. 70; Victoria.
Type (no field label): AMNH No. 531575; adult male; December, 1902.
No collector is given, but it may have been A. Coles, who is mentioned as
the collector of some specimens entered near the present specimen in
Mathews’ manuscript catalogue. Wing, 293; tail, 150. Coloured plate of
type: Mathews, 5, plate 250, opp. p. 208.
Range. Normally confined to the dry interior of the Australian mainland.
In abnormal seasons some birds reach the coastal districts of New South Wales,
Victoria, South and Western Australia; not recorded from Tasmania.
The Letter-winged Kite, unlike its congener, is a gregarious species which
nests in colonies (Jackson, 1919). In South Australia it is found in the north-
east, from Minnie Downs, Lake Eyre, Manuwalkaninna, and Lake Callabonna to
Moolawatana (near Lake Frome), an abnormal occurrence in 1952 being from
Butler, Eyre Peninsula. Previously unknown from Western Australia, during
the ‘‘southern invasion’’ of northern and central birds in the years 1951-53, this
kite was reported from such widely separated localities as Adele Island (near
Yampi) and Esperance, as well as the Pilbara district, and north and east of
Perth (Serventy, 1952, 1953).
Although specimens have been taken near Dubbo and at Melbourne (Moonee
Ponds), generally speaking, alleged occurrences in southern Australia prior to
1951 should be treated with caution.
In describing victortanus Mathews gave no characters, merely referring to
his plate and description of the specimen from Victoria in his ‘‘Birds of Aus-
tralia.’’ There he had made no attempt to differentiate Victorian birds from
those of other regions, but was merely describing the specimen as a representative
of the species. It is unlikely that any geographical variation exists.
196 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
Probably scriptus is a slightly larger bird than volalus, because all the wing
lengths of females measured are near or above the maximum found in a con-
siderable series of #otatus, The wing of the type of victorianus is not in very
good condition for measurement,
Wing. 2 (type of victoriqnus) 292 (AMNH).
4 (breeding) 296; (juv.) 287 (MHLW).
@ 808, 311, 313 (AMNH),
be]
(subadult) 310 (AM); (breeding) 802, 305; (juy.) 302 (HLW).
Tail. 2 (“vietorianus’) 150; 146 (AMNH),
2 162 (AM); 156 (HLW).
When fully adult, scriptus is a rather whitish-looking bird, Perched, the
only means of distinguishing it from nolatus would be by the larger black
shoulder and somewhat paler erey back, both rather difficult characters to observe:
in the field, The bill averages slightly deeper and heavier in scriptus than in
notatus. Dy. Ernst Mayr has pointed out to us that whereas in the latter the
miter visible primary is two centimetres or more longer than the fourth, im
scriptus the difference is much less, and these two primaries are usually sub-
equal; this difference was constant in all material examined.
Mr. Warren Hitchcock has drawn our attention to a series of skins in the
H. l. White collection, showing fourteen stages in the development from newly-
hatched young to breeding adult. On hatching, the chick is greyish with dark
(blackish) eves, and after about seven days the head and breast become white.
Later, the seapulars appear as brownish feathers, and the back is also brown.
In the short-tailed nestling of about one month, the head assumes the same brown
volouration as the back, and the black shoulder and under-wing eoverts are well-
developed. At this stage the eyes are pale brown, cere pale horn, and legs and
feet pale yellow. The tail, grey at first, becomes progressively more whitish as
it lengthens, and as the bird approaches adult size the rufous upper breast
becomes paler. The black shoulder and under-wing markings, which are strongly
developed at an early age, increase in extent, while the head and baek become
more whitish ax the bird develops, With the completion in growth of the tail,
the rufous breast disappears, the back remains brownish, but the head is white,
and the priniaries are broadly tipped with white. The irides at this stage
have changed to a reddish-brown. Tn a comparable stage in notatus the head is
streaked with hrown and the edges of the secondaries, as well as the primaries,
are broadly tipped with white.
The colours of the soft parts of adults are similar to those of Hlanus notatus.
CONDON AND AMADON—TAXONOMIC NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN HAWKS 197
Genus Avicepa Swainson 1836.
Type. Awiceda cuculoides, Synonyms inelude Baza Hodgson 1837, Lepidogenys
Gould 1838, Lophastur Blyth 1842, and Nesobaza Mathews 1916,
210 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
and young, but generally speaking western birds seem to be practically indis-
tinguishable,
Although nothing is known of regular movements of the Brown Goshawk
in Australia, specimens examined suggested that, in Western Australia at least,
southern birds may warider to the extreme north of that State, thereby invading
the territory of didimus, An adult lemale in the National Museum, Melbourne,
collected on June 5, 1910, at. Napier Broume Bay is fully as laree as and almost
indistinguishable from dark-headed birds from Vasse (near Busselton), Western
Australia, Plenty River (neai’ Melbourne), Victoria, and Cobborah, New South
Wales, Furthermore, during a recent Australian Museum expedition, Mr. Allen
Keast. collected a large female (wine 290), in juvenal plumage, at Forrest River
Mission, about 50 miles south of Napier Broome Bay, on June 2, 1952, Two
other juvenals in the Australian Museum (no dates recorded), and one in the
South Australian Museum (female, April 8, 1913) were taken near Derby,
north-western Australia, and all are large birds. Although more brownish above
and below than examples of corresponding age seen from the south, they are
matched by at least one from Homebush, New South Wales, ard several from
Swan River and King George’s Sound, Western Australia. ‘lhe breast and fore-
neels ave heavily-barred brown, the whitish throat is heavily streaked with brawn,
and the thimhs are dull rufous-brown and buffy white.
Tasmanian birds are generally somewhat larger, a little darker above and
below, with more whitish throats than most from the adjacent inainland, How-
ever, at this stage, we prefer not to introduce a name to indicate the differences
in this population, whieh appews to merge with southern mainland birds,
Tt is remarkable that on Rennell Island and its outlier, Bellona Island,
there is a population of this species very similar to the New Caledonian (vigilar)
and Australian races, Rennell, though usually ineluded with the Solomons, is
considerably south of that eroup and has a somewhat different fauna, and J1ce7-
piter fasciatus does not occur in the Solomons proper,
The Whitney Expedition secured a pair of adults of fasciatus, the male m
badly worn plumage, on Rennell and Bellona. This was before the American
Museu had any specimens of vigiltax, and Mayr, in his report on the Rennell
Expedition (1931), based his assizument of these birds to vigilar on a eom-
parison made for him in the British Museum by the late A. Goodson, who noted
their similarity to fasciatus of Australia,
With the present fine sevies of wiytlax, it heeame evident that the pair of
adults from Rennell is larger in every dimension than vigilax. The difference
is not very preat, however, and imerely serves to bring the Rennell birds into
the size class of /. fasczatus, from which they appear inseparable. In particular,
CONDON AND AMADON—TAXONOMIC NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN HAWKS 271
the adult male from Bellona, which is in fine plumage, agrees in every detail of
colour and size with specimens from southern Australia.
In the meanwhile, a third specimen was collected on Rennell by G. A. V,
Stanley, and became the type of Winghorn’s Urespiza fasciata rennelliana, dit-
ferentiated as follows: ‘‘In size and colour this bird is very similar to the
narrow-banded form of U. fasciata. The tail feathers, though much worn at the
tips, are a little broader than those of WU, fasciata (Australian), the tarsus is
longer, and the legs and feet more powerfully built... , Wing, 280.’’ These
differences are not apparent in the two birds in the American Museum. Examina-
tion of the type of rennelliana in the Australian Museum confirms Kinghorn's
remarks to some extent, but the differences are well within the range of variation
met with in Australian birds, and the specimen is in poor condition. It appears
to be rather faded, with a ‘‘washed-out’’ appearance, and in this respect is
similar to a specimen of didimus from Darwin, The head is dark grey, the
face pale brownish-grey, and there is a trace of a red collar on the sides of the
neck; the upper surfaces are greyish-brown. Ventrally, the feathers are barred
pale rufous and dull white (slightly wider and darker on the breast), and the
thighs ave of the same colour.
Unless by chanee the Rennell birds reached there rather recently {rom
Australia, one would not expect them to be the same as the Australian race. We
conclude, nevertheless, that *ennellianus must be considered a synonym of fascia-
tus until proved otherwise,
A few very large examples (mainly females) were examined from New
South Wales and Tasmania, but the size is not indicated by wing or other
conventional measurements. Nevertheless, even allowing for different methods
of preparation resulting in some distortion, it is believed that outsize birds (and
also “‘runts’’) may be met with occasionally.
lixeept where otherwise indicated, measurements given below are taken from
skins im museums in Australia.
Wing, 2, adult.
South-eastern Australia (6), 260-275 (265) (AMNI).
New South Wales (9), 255-278 (265).
Victoria (1), 270.
Tasmania (4), 268-272 (270°5).
Sonth Avstralia (7), 256-270 (262).
Southern Queensland (1), 268 (AMNH),
South- and mid-west Australia (3), 250 -+, 261, 262 (AMNH),
Rennell Island (1), 265 (AMNTI),
212 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
é, immature (8), 257-267 (262) (AMNH).
¢, second year :
New South Wales (7), 247-270 (260-1).
Tasmania (1), 270.
South Australia (4), 255-270 (261-5).
Southern Queensland (1), 270.
South-west Australia (1), 266.
juvenal
New South Wales (7), 245-275 (264-4).
Tasmania (1), 264.
South Australia (16), 227-270 (261-7).
South-west Australia (4), 238-265 (253-7).
@, adult
South-eastern Australia (3), 302, 307, 311 (AMNBH),
New South Wales (3), 302, 305, 310.
South Australia (3), 306, 302, 308.
Southern Queensland (1), 312 (AMNH).
South-west Australia (1), 305.
South-west and mid-west Australia (3), 300, 305, 313 (AMNH).
North-western Australia (1), 290.
Northern Territory (2), 287, 305.
Rennell Island (2), 280 (AM), 292 (AMNH).
9, immature (15), 295-312 (304) (AMNH).
9, second year
New South Wales (8), 292-311 (298-8).
South Australia (8), 265-305 (290°2).
North Queensland (1), 305,
juvenal
New South Wales (6), 296-312 (304).
South Australia (10), 262-311 (300-6).
Tasmania (7), 291-305 (300-7).
South-west Australia (4), 253-290 (268-2).
North-western Australia (4), 270-290 (279-5),
Weight, 1 large @ imm. 593 grammes.
tes
+0
Altogether, we have examined and measured more than 170 specimens of
this, the large, more heavily-pigmented nominate race, The general trend towards
maturity is for the broad stripes and barrings of the ventral surface in the
juvenal to be replaced by narrower transverse barrings, probably over a period
CONDON AND AMADON—TAXONOMIC NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN Hawks 213
of several years. Immature birds far outnumber adults in collections, and this
has enabled us to distinguish three plumage stages—juvenal, ‘‘second year,”’
and adult. Individuals in fresh plumage are always darker than those in worn
plumage, especially on the upper surfaces. The moult from one plumage stage
to another is gradual and protracted, and is responsible for the remarkable
variety of patterns met with. However, most of the variations in colour are
due to wear and fading, and very few skins were seen in which it was due solely
to moulting. This is remarkable considering the large number of individuals
handled.
After hatching, in the late spring or early summer, the white downy chick
rapidly acquires the juvenal plumage—first on the wings, then on the scapulars,
back and tail. As soon as fully fledged, and when about a month old, the
young Goshawk leaves the nest.
Juvenals of both sexes, which differ markedly from adults, may be distin-
guished by the heavy brown streaks on the breast and throat and the broad
blotehes or barrings on the abdomen. Above, the dark brown feathers are edged
with cinnamon-rufous, this later fading to pale buff or being lost by wear.
The nape is streaked with white, the central rectrices are prominently barred
above, and the tibiae are indistinctly or broadly barred dull rufous and buffy
white. The few Tasmanian specimens examined have the streaks on the throat
reduced, and the tibiae are heavily barred fawn and buff. Juvenals of didimus
are duller with less rufous above (perhaps due to fading), have less white at
the nape, numerous streaks on the chin and throat, and dull rufous-brown tibiae
with only slight indications of barring.
It is believed that the juvenal plumage is retained for nearly one year,
when the ‘‘second year’’ plumage is gradually acquired. The first new feathers
are those of the crown, cheeks, mantle, throat and abdomen, and these are fully
developed before the second summer; the tail may not be replaced completely
until the beginning of the following autumn.
The ‘‘second year’’ plumage is much like the adult, but may be distin-
guished as follows. The upper surfaces are dark greyish-brown without any
rufous and the crown is blackish-brown or dark grey with fewer white streaks
at the nape. The only trace of a chestnut nuchal collar is on the sides of the
neck, while the central rectrices are paler and more distinctly barred than in
the adult and are the last feathers to be acquired. Below are numerous trans-
verse bars on the breast, abdomen and under tail coverts of dull rufous brown
with darker edges adjacent to the alternating white bars; the throat is dappled
grey and dull white and the tibiae have acquired narrow bars of dull rufous
and white. The markings on the lining of the wings resemble the barrings of
214 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
the underparts, being rufous instead of dark brown (as in the juvenal), Tndivi-
duals are commonly found breeding in this plumage.
Nothing appears to be known of the duration of the ‘‘second year"’ type of
plumage, bt if may he retained for more than one year. In most descriptions
reference is made simply to “immature’’ and ‘‘adult”’ plumages, the ‘‘seeond
year'’ stage being ineluded in the last-named, There is reason to believe, how-
ever, that the fully adult bird is characterised by much finer rufous and white
ventral barrings on the breast, abdomen, tnder tail eoyerts, and thighs, A
prominent ¢hestnut collar and usually the eonrplete absence of white streaks on
the nape also distinguish this stage, when the central pair of! reetrices are darle
in colour with the merest trace of darker harrings. Altogether, the tully adult
Goshawk, examples of which are rare in collections, is a brilliantly-eoloured bird
when in fresh plumage. It may be recognized also by the complete fusion of
the tarsal scutes, which forms the ‘‘hooted’’ condition,
From specimens examined it would appear that the moult into adult plumage
eommences in the spring and continues for several months, although the body
feathers are rapidly aequired,
In several adult females the iris has been variously recorded as ‘‘yellow,"
“bright yellow,’’ and ‘‘dark golden’’; feet ‘‘yellow’’; cere ‘‘olive’’ or ‘‘green’'s
bill ‘‘blackish’' or ‘‘blackish-blne.** In a female juvenal the irides and feet
were found to be ‘‘straw yellow.”’
Aecipiter fasciatus didimus (Mathews),
Astur fasetatus didimus Mathews, 1912. Austral, Avy. Ree., 1, p. 33; Melville
Tsland, Northern Territory.
Range, Coastal regions from about Cooktown, Cape York, westwards to
the Northern Territory and Derby, north-western Australia.
In his original diagnosis the author stated '‘differs from A. f. fasciatus in its
smaller size: wing 236 mm.’’ Tn addition, didimus is a paler bird than the
other Australian race, and intergradation between the two forms seems to be
of the ‘‘stepped cline’’ variety.
A pair of birds from as far north as Mackay, Queensland, one of them
the type of Mathews’ muckayt, are fully as large as specimens of more southern
ovigin. Another bird, in the H. L. White collection, from Vine Creek (altitude
3,000 ft.), Ravenshoe, which is just south of Cairns, belongs to the nominate
form, while a large series of birds from Cooktown are nearer didimus in size,
but a few of them are fully as large as average examples of f, fasciatus. Some
of the Cooktown specimens are quite as small as topotypical didimus from Mel-
CONDON AND AMADON—TAXONOMIC NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN HAWKS 215
yille Island, and do not differ in colour. The situation in north-vestern Australia
may indicate a rather sharp area of intergradation, but the fact that a few
specimens are as large and dark as fasciatus while others are as small as didimus
suggests that the former may have been visitors from the south, and this has
already been discussed above.
Wing. ¢, adult
Melville Island (5), 229-239 (234) (AMNH), 238 (SAM).
Northern Territory (3), 240 (AMNH), 249 (AM), 245 (HLW).
Cape York (4), 285, 240, 246 (AMNH), 247 (NMM).
North-western Australia (2), 230, 255? (AMNH).
immature (22), 229-262 (247) (AMNITI), 225-253 (243-3) (SAM).
2, adult
Melville Island (2), 263?, 275 (AMNH).
Northern Territory (2), 270?, 277 (AMNH), (4), 270-287 (276)
(AM).
N. Cape York (2), 270, 284 (AMNH).
Cooktown, C. York (7), 272-297 (287) (AMNH).
Derby, N.W.A,, 265 (AM).
immature
Melville Island (1), 261.
Northern Territory (5), 267, 268, 314? (AMNHE), 254, 272 (SAM).
Normanton, Queensland (8), 272, 276, 290 (AMNH),.
Cape York (29), 258-291 (277) (AMNH), (1), 285 (NMM).
New Guinea (A. f/, polycryptus and A. f. dogwa)
g, adult (4), 223, 224, 227, 233; 9, adult (3), 254, 256, 257.
Os
+0
Most. of the races of fasciatus of New Guinea and the smaller islands north
of Australia are more or less similar to didimus, but, for the most part, even
smaller, paler, more rufous, and in some cases actually whitish on the flanks
and belly (¢.g¢., hellmayri Stvesemann, dogwa Rand).
Accipiter fasciatus buruensis Stresemann.
Accipiter torquates buruensts Stresemann, 1914, Noy. Zool., 21, p. 381; Fakal,
Buru.
Range. Island of Buru.
The status of this race is puzzling’. Stresemann said it does not differ
from fasciatus in colour, but is smaller, He gave wing lengths as 259 and 270.
*Ste also Van Bemmel, Treubia, 19, 1948, part 2, p. 392.
216 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM
‘The sinaller of these, the type, which is the only one we have available for com-
parison, actually has the wing in moult. Stresemann did not mention the small
north Australian race didimus, a valid form which Mathews had deseribed two
years before, Direct comparison of the type of buruensis with topotypical
females of didinvws reveals no appreciable difference. The bill of burwensis seems
a bit heavier (and perhaps the feet also); it is slightly grever on the chest than
most didinus, thus resembling f, fasciatus rather than didimus. Were Buri
adjacent to north Australia we should not hesitate to list Huwrwensis as a synonym
of didimus,
Buru is some distance removed, however, and distinct races inhabit the
islands around it, ineluding a small rufous race wallacit found on some of the
smaller islands more or less intermediate in geographical position between Buru
and Australia, It is not expected, therefore, that the birds of Buru will belong
to the northern Australian race, and until proved otherwise by adequate material,
it nrust he assumed that burwensis is valid on the basis of slight differences
noticed and perhaps additional ones that will become evident in series.
Accipiter fasciatus vigilax (Wetmore),
Astur fasciatus vigilax Wetmore, 1926. Condor, 28, p. 6 (new name for
tnswlaris Sarasin, pre-oecupied): New Caledonia.
Like tjendange of the island of Sumba, this race is similay in eolow' to
nominate fasciatus, but smaller. Mr. L. Macmillan collected a fine series of
this bird lor the American Museum on New Caledonia (the type locality) and
on the three principal islands, Lifu, Mare, and Uvea, in the Loyalty (vroup.
They all belong to vigilax, in which the bars on the underparts are rather greyish,
as in fasciatus, exeept the flanks, which tend to be more rufous as in didimus,
Wing, ¢, adult (9), 236-255 (244); 9, adult (5), 263-282 (275),
AGCIPITER CIRRHOCEPHALUS (Vicillot).
Aecipiter cirrhocephalus cirrhocephalus (Vieillot).
Sparvius cirrhocephalus Vieillot, 1817, Nowy. Dict. d'’Hist. Nat., 10, p, 329;
New South Wales.
Accipiter cirrhocephalus broomei Mathews, 1912, Nov. Zool., 15, p. 247; Broome
Hill, southern Western Australia. Type: AMNH No, 533982; adult inale;
'8/6/6"" (2 June 8, 1906); “T.C."? (2 Tom Carter). Wing, 205; tail, 150,
Range. Tasmania; Australian mainland, except the northernmost parts,
CONDON AND AMADON—TAXONOMIC NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN HAWKS 217
Four races*® of the Collared Sparrowhawk may be reeognised; papudnus
(New Guinea) and quaesitandus (northern Australia) are smaller and more
rufous ventrally than cirrhocephalus, while rosselianis (Rossel Is,, New Guinea)*
is believed to be large and similar to the nominate orm but darker above, though
less heavily marked below.
Of ‘brane,’ Mathews stated, .. .. darker above and the nuchal collar
darker red,’’ but we have seen examples in the Australian Museum from south-
western Australia which are inseparable from eastern Australian birds, including
Tasmanian ones, Nevertheloss, the darker colorations which characterize the
nominate face ave on the whole slightly more evident in the west, though most
specimens from the two areas eannot be differentiated.
Colour variation in Accipiter cirrhocephalus in Australia parallels that in
Alccipiter fasciatus; northern birds are paler, more rufous, and in both species
these trends are continued further in New Guinea, In the ease of fasciatus,
most of the other races of the northern islands are also paler and more rufous
than the Australian forms, but there are also definite exeeptions; cirrhocephalus
is absent from these smaller islands,
As regards size variation within Australia, fasciatus is much smaller in
northernmost Australia than im southern Australia, while cirrhocephalus is only
slightly so, The two species can be confused in the north, if the two sexes are
not kept separate, but hardly in the south.
Wing, 10 3, 200-219 (208); 8 9, 232-242 (238) (AMNH),.
15 ad, 4, 195-210 (205); 14 ad. ¢, 232-251 (236-5) (AM, NMM,
SAM),
Although ctrrhovephalus is very similar to A. fasciatus in plumage, the
change from juvenal to adult is direct and takes place at the beginning of the
second year; this is indicated in examples with the fine breast barrings of the
adult intermixed with the heavy blotches or stripes of the juvenal, Juvenals
of the two Australian races are inseparable.
Accipiter cirrhocephalus quaesitandus Mathews.
Accipiter cirrhocephalus quaesitandus Mathews, 1915. Birds of Australia, 5,
p. 81; Utingu, Cape York, Queensland, Type: AMNH No, 533939; adult
male; July 4, 1912; Robin Kemp. Wing, 203; tail, 154.
Accipiter cirrhocephalus haesttata Mathews, 1917. Austral Av, Ree,, 8, p. 128;
Cape York.
‘Van Bemmel, 1948, Treubia, 19, p. 391, also regards Accipiter ery thravichen of the
Moluccas as conspecific with etrrhocephalus,
‘Mayr, 1940, Amer. Mus. Novit., 1056, p. 12.
218 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM
Type. No skin indicated as the type of this race is present in the American
Museum of Natural History; probably no type was designated. Although
entered as a new race, with description and type locality, one wonders about the
connection of haesitata Mathews, 1917 to qudesttandus Mathews 1915 with the
same type locality, Probably in 1917 Mathews forgot that he had named the
Cape York population in 1915, and yet involuntarily picked a similar sounding
name. Perhaps he realized the blunder later and for this reason did not desig-
nate a type for haesitata,
Range. Cape York and the entire north coast area of Australia,
Diagnosis. Differs from ¢. cirrhocephalus by being less greyish, more rufous
ventrally and perhaps slightly smaller. The race papuanys, of New Guinea, is
still more rufous ventrally, and less barred; it also smaller (wing, @, 184).
A male from Normanton and one for north-western Ansiralia are slightly
paler than the other four adult niales, all from Cape York, in the American
Museum. It is probable, however, that the differences observed are due to
individual variation and, in part, to plumage lading in the arid resions, because
seyeral other skins do not show this difference, Specimens of this race have
been examined from Mt, Alexander (south of Derby), Fitzroy River, Brooking
Creek (West Kimberley); Borroloola, Brock’s Creek, Alexandra, Alligator River,
troote, Melville and Bathurst Islands (all Northern Territory).
Tt is probable that birds from the arid portions of the interior and Western
Australia begin to show the paler, rufous coloration of qudaesitandus at more
southern localities than do those from the humid eastern coast. Yet, an adult
female, taken in 1947 by Ken Buller on the De Grey River, well north in mid-
western Australia, is typieal of the nominate race, This bird weighed 235
eTammes.
Wing, 6 &, 196-209 (201); 4 9%, 229-237 (232) (AMNH).
Q2ad, 4, 194 (HUW), 200 (SAM); 6 9, ad. 228-242 (235°5)
(HLW, SAM).
ACCIFITER NOVAEHOLLANDIAE (Gmelin),
Aecipiter novaehollandiae novaehollandiae (Gmelin).
Falco novae-Hollandiae Gmelin, 1788, Syst, Nat., vol. 1, pt. 1, p. 264; New South
Wales ex Latham = Tasmania fide Mathews.
Astur clarus cooktowni Mathews, 1912, Noy. Zool., 18, p. 245; Cooktown, northern
Queensland, Type: AMNH No, 532939; “?" = adult male, grey phase;
May 13, 1902 (E. Olive). Wing, 261; tail, 197. As Hartert already pointed
out, this bird is obviously a male and Mathews’ indication of its smaller
size as compared with a female from New South Wales is not significant.
CONDON AND AMADON—TAXONOMIC NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN HAWKS 219
Astur novaehollandiae alboides Mathews, 1912, Nov. Zool., 18, p. 246; Parry’s
Creek, East Kimberley, north-western Australia. Type: AMNH No, 532958;
adult male, white phase; October 8, 1908: J. P. Rogers. Wing, 258; tail,
194.
ALstur clarus robustus Zietz, 1914, South Aust. Ornith., 1, p. 13; Melville Island,
Northern Territory. Type: SAM No. B1334; feniale, juy., grey phase;
Aueust 2, 1913; W. D. Dodd, collector. Wing, 285: tarsus, 79; tail, 220.
‘Tris yellow, feet yellow.”
Range, Tasmania (white phase only); Australia (chiefly eastern and
northern); Kangaroo Island,
The Grey and White Goshawks of Australia are now known to be phases
of one and the same species (see also Mack, 1953). Somewhat more diffienlt for
immediate acceptance was Stresemann's demonstration that the brown (‘‘etor-
ques’*) and white (leucosomus) birds of New Gilinea are also phases, ‘‘ Wild-
type’ birds of Australia are white below, barred with vrey on the breast
and pale grey above; in New Guinea races they are dark grey above and rufous
or deep chestnut below. The female of the race /eucdsomus is somewhat barred,
so that by a total loss of the phaeomelanins and a loss in intensity of the
eumelanins, a coloration like that of wild-type Australian birds could result.
Sueh changes, in one direction or another, have been of not infrequent oceur-
rence during the evolution of the numerous species and races of raptorial birds
of the Australo-Papuan region, many of which are grey and white, others grey
and rufous.
Mayr has pointed owt that immatures of wild-type leucosomus vary greatly
in the amount of phaeomelanins present. Some of them are as light (though
more heavily marked) as immature wild-type novaehollandiae. He designated
two phases of these lewcosomus wild-type immatures; a ‘‘rufous’’ and a ‘*white™’
one. The latter might better be termed ‘‘pale,’’ sinee it apparently, as Mayr
coneluded, has nothing to do with the trie white phase of /eucosomus. We are
inclined to believe that this variation in immature wild-type leucosomus may,
to a greater degree than realized by Mayr, be due to bleaching, fading, and
possibly to age changes (appearance of first indieations of adult rufous eolora-
tion), but there is undoubtedly some genuine genetic variation in the amount
of phaeomelanins present, This helps to explain how, in wild-type novaehol-
landiae, the phaeomelanins are entirely lacking in all stages of plumage, and
is further argument for regarding leucosomus as a race of the Australian bird.
It. is impossible to say whether the paling of the wild-type plumage in the
nominate race (adults are nearly white below and pale grey above) has any
220 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
selective relation to the occurrence or origin of the white phase. Certainly the
latter is a discrete genetic entity; even immatures of the white phase birds are
said to be pure white at all ages. At the same time, it is possible that the physio-
logical advantages presumably correlated with the white, which in Tasmania
have led to its complete establishment, are also present and responsible for the
paling of the wild-type Australian birds. The by no means low incidence of the
white phase in New Guinea in a race which the wild-type adults are dark-
coloured might be considered to refute this suggestion. As already noted, how-
ever, there is a reduction of phaeomelanins (and perhaps in the intensity of
eumelanins) in a considerable percentage of immatures of lewcosomus, wild-type,
so it is possible that the same trends discernible in wild-type novaehollandiae
are incipient in leucosomus.
Although white plumage may have a direct selective advantage in gyrfalecons
and snowy owls, one cannot suppose this to be the case in white phase novae-
hollandiae. More likely, the white colour is genetically linked with unknown
favourable characters, and since it has not proved to be a great disadvantage it
has become widespread. Hawks have few predators themselves, and apparently
the white plumage does not seriously inconvenience them in securing their own
prey. One observer even believed that small birds showed less fear of white
goshawks than of the generality of hawks, perhaps mistaking the former for
white cockatoos!
In the case of novaehollandiae, the increase in size and the change in colour
is so abrupt when one passes from the northern islands to Australia, that some
may still prefer to recognize two species. The occurrence of a white phase in
leucosomus does, however, serve to link the island races with that of Australia
and Tasmania. One is inclined to follow the current practice and make them all
races of novaehollandiae, if for no other reason than to emphasize the amount
of variation that can oeeur within the limits of a ‘‘rassenkreis.’’
It is worth pointing out that the race misulae Mayr, found on two of the
small islands east of New Guinea, is almost as large as nominate novaehollandiae;
its feet and bill are fully as robust as in the latter race. Wild-type, that is
‘““orey phase,’’ birds of Accipiter novaehollandiae novaehollandiae differ from
those of all other races by lacking rufous in the adult. White phase birds are
inseparable from white phase leucosomus of New Guinea, but are, sex for sex,
much larger.
White phase birds in Australia are usually pure white at all ages and in
all areas. We have discovered no geographical variation in colour in the grey
phase. Fleay (1950) refers to one case of intermediacy, a specimen in the
H. L. White collection. This bird is white, but with grey on the shoulders, back
CONDON AND AMADON—TAXONOMIC: NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN Hawks 221
and outer webs of the secondaries. It is a female taken at Dorrigo, N.S.W. In
immature birds of the grey phase the bars on the breast are much broader than
in the adults and they are slightly tinged with brown. Dorsally a faint brownish
collar is sometimes evident, and this seems to represent the last stage in the
disappearance of a rufous nuchal collar previously present, and characteristic
of many species of Accipitres in their adult plumage.
As long since known, only the white phase of this hawk occurs in Tasmania.
In Australia, as Southern and Serventy (1947) have shown in a detailed, if
somewhat laboured, analysis, there is little regular or clinal variation. In par-
ticular, there is no regular decrease from south to north in the incidence of
white birds, which, as a matter of fact, predominate in the Northern Territory,
and apparently, in the adjacent Kimberley Division of north-western Australia
(whence the only specimen we have seen is the type of Mathews’ alboides).
Although these colour phases are, of course, genetic, the percentage of white
birds in Australia is far too high to warrant separating them racially from the
all-white population of Tasmania.
Turning now to size variation, Mathews described a race cooktownt, from
Cape York, and another race alboides, from the far north-west. Both supposedly
differed from nominate novaehollandiae (terra typica, Tasmania) by smaller
size. Mathews later admitted there is very little reason to think northern
birds are smaller. Zietz, meanwhile, named a race from Melville Island which
he believed to possess characters embodied in the name robustus. The type
specimen is medium greyish-brown above, including the head, and has fairly
heavy brownish barrings beneath, as well as an unbooted tarsus, both signs of
immaturity. It is quite an average specimen in every way, and we conclude
that Zietz must have lacked adequate comparative material at the time when
he introduced the name robustus. Hartert (1931, pp. 40-41), in discussing
Mathews’ two types, admitted that they (and many other northern specimens)
are as large as southern ones. He also detected a slight size decrease northerly
which he thought might warrant recognition of cooktowni and most later writers
have followed this course, including Peters (1931).
Although Fleay (1950) believes Tasmanian birds to be larger and heavier
than others, we have been unable to discover any great variation in size in this
hawk, in available material, and believe it to be non-existent or negligible. One
has only to place side by side adults from Tasmania, Cape York and the North-
ern Territory to see that they are, in general terms, of the same size. It is
true that, in series measurements, the northern birds average a bit smaller, but
even this may be because the northern specimens available are in general in
poor plumage. The interesting point is that the birds of such climatically
222 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
diverse and rather remote areas as Tasmania, Cape York and Melville Island
and the Kimberley Division are substantially alike in size. The correct means
of emphasizing this is, it seems to us, to unite all the Tasmanian and Australian
birds in one race, novaehollandiae.
Wine. Tasmania: 3 @, 250, 254, 257 (all worn) (AMNH).
8 9, 295-309 (305) (AMNH).
South Australia: 1 2, 315 (AMNH).
1 ¢, 313 (SAM),
New South Wales: 5 2, 258-270 (AMNH).
2 9, 306, 312 (AMNH).
Queensland (except Cape York): 4 2, 290-319 (307) (AMNH).
Cape York: 7 ¢, 257-270 (261) (AMNH).
7 9, 293-300 (296) (AMNH).
Melville Island: 1 9, 303 (AMNH).
1 9, 285 (SAM) (type of robustus),
Northern Territory (except Melville Island): 1 ¢@, 253 (AMNH).
2 2, 300, 304
(AMNH)
North-western Australia: 1 ¢, 258 (AMNH).
Genus EryrHROTRIORCHIS Sharpe, 1875.
Type. Falco radiatus. Australian mainland (one species).
The single member of this genus is usually considered to be a modified
goshawk. The wings are longer and the tail shorter than in Accipiter, but the
feet suggest that genus, while the coloration, as Mr. M. Jollie has pointed out
to us, is very like that of Accipiter burgersi of New Guinea.
Although Megatriorchis doriae of New Guinea has sometimes been included
in this genus, as for example in Peter’s Checklist (1981), such action is debatable
to say the least. Doriae has departed from Accipiter in just the opposite way
from radiatus; the wings are very short, the tail very long. Thus doriae re-
sembles Urotriorchis macrourus of equatorial Africa, but the latter is not so
far trom typical Accipiter.
Brythrotriorchis radiatus is said to soar at times and is undoubtedly less
closely restricted to forest cover than is M. doriae. Both species have very long,
curved claws and hoth are bird-eaters. Presumably they branched off independ-
ently from Accipiter stock, but even if they are more closely related than this
would indicate, they are now too unlike to fit properly in the same genus.
CONDON AND AMADON—-TAXONOMIC NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN HAWKS 223
Eryrurorriorcuis rapiatus (Latham).
Falea radiatus Latham, 1801, Index Ornith., Suppl.. p. xii; New South Wales.
Erythrotriorchis rufotibia Campbell, 1911, Emu, 10, p, 249; Napier Broome
Bay, Kimberley Division, Western Australia, Type: National Museum, Mel-
bourne, No, FULW 5369; adult female; June 21, 1910; . I, Till for H. L.
White. Wing, 896; tail, 245; tarsus, 7-5. Paratype: WLW 5370; adult
female; February 18, 1909; G. FY. Hill, Wine, 395; tail, 295; tarsus, 8.
Erythrotriorchis radiatus katherine (sie) Mathews, 1916, Austr. Av. Ree., 3.
p. 57; Katherine River, Northern Territory. Type: AMNH No, 534012;
male moulting from very worn and faded plumage into adult plumage; July
25, 1895: (Knut) Dahl. Wing, 358; tail, 220. Coloured plate of type:
Mathews, vol. 5, pl. 240, opp. p. 87.
Hiythrotriorchis radiatus queenslandicus Mathews, 1917, Austr, Av, Ree, 3,
p. 128; “Cedar Bay’? (label says ‘‘ Cardwell’'), Queensland, Type; AMNTI
No. 534018; adult male (said to be from a collection made in northern
Queensland in -ime and July, 1898, by collectors of A. S. Meek), Wing,
362; tail, 218.
Range. Australian inainland.
The Red Goshawk, whieh seems to ocenr mainly in northern and eastern
Australia, is undoubtedly one of the rarest and least-known hawks, and the
number of specimens in museums is limited.
Hartert (1931, p, 42) has already pointed out that Mathews’ names queens-
landicus and katherine are synonyms of radiatus, and there is no reason to
believe geographical variation oceurs, The type and paratype of rufotilia
Campbell have been examined; both are females which seem to fall within the
variational limits of the species. Campbell’s speeirnens, whieh came from north-
west Australia, differ from all others contained in the H, U. White collection in
being whitish on the centre of the breast and abdomen, with the undertail coverts
more whitish, but with some rufous. As the name implies, the thighs are more
rufous than the underparts, but this feature is matehed in an adult female from
Borroloola, Northern Territory, and this specimen also has a rather whitish
abdomen, The rump is variable, being grey in the type of rufotibia, grey with
some rufous in the paratype and rufous in all others seen, While the colour
of the upper surface generally is rather uniform, there is much variation in
the coloration of the lower surfaces. The chin and throat varies from whitish
to buff, with blackish stripes, and in a male from Cairns, taken in November,
1909, the entire underparts and tibiae are deep rufous.
224 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
All but one (the type of katherine) of the seven specimens in the American
Museum are from Queensland. Three skins in the H. L. White collection are
from Borroloola, one from Cairns, and one from King River, Northern Territory.
This last-named specimen, as well as another male from Borroloola have the
tail incompletely barred, a sign of immaturity. In the South Australian Museum
there is a male from Bathurst Island and a subadult female from Byromine,
Cloneurry River, Queensland has the tail incompletely barred.
Three adults with completely barred tails and taken at Cooktown, Junction
Camp, and Dawson River, Queensland, are in the Australian Museum, Sydney.
Measurements :
Wing. @, 335, 345, 350, 352, 353 +, 355, 356, 358, 360, 362, 372.
9, 385, 390, 395, 396, 410, 420, 420 +, 420.
Tail. 8, 198, 200, 210, 215, 218, 220, 222, 222.
2, 235, 235, 240, 245, 260, 265, 266, 268.
For comparison of proportions, a female Megatriorchis doriae measured ;:
wing, 352, tail 330; an immature female of Accipiter gentilis atricapillus: wing
383, tail 305, Tail/wing ratios: radiatus, 1, 9, -64; atricapillus, 1, @, imm.,
+80; doriae, 1, 9, -94.
Colours of soft parts: @ (? subadult); iris, pale yellowish-brown; feet,
vellow: bill, blue-grey; tip black. 4 (? juvenal); iris, yvellowish-olive; fect,
sulphur vellow; bill, black upper, lower bluish; cere, pale dull blue. 9° ; iris,
pale yellowish-hrown; feet, yellow; bill, light grey, tip black.
Genus Himraartus Kaup, 1844.
Type. Falco pennata. Ethiopian, Palaearctic, Oriental and Australian
regions (5 species).
Hieraartus morPuHNoweEs (Gould).
Hieraaétus morphnoides morphnoides (Gould).
Aquila marphnoides Gould, 1840 (1841), Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p, 61; Yar
rundi, Upper Hunter River, New South Wales.
Aquila morphnoides coongani Mathews, 1912, Nov, Zool., 18, p. 248; Coongan
River, north-west Australia. Type: AMNH No. 535063; adult male (mis-
sexed by collector as female); July 7, 1908; F.L.W. (Whitlock). Wing,
334 (worn).
Range. Australian mainland.
CONDON AND AMADON—TAXONOMIC NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN HAWKS 225
While the nominate race of the Little Eagle is confined to Australia; a
smaller, more heavily pigmented form, weiskez, occurs in the mountain forests
of central and eastern New Guinea. In his ‘‘Birds of Australia’’ Mathews
pointed out the resemblances between these forms and pennatus of the Palae-
arctic region, and regarded them all as conspecific. Most authorities are now
agreed that the Australian bird is distinct, and later Mathews reverted to this
treatment in 1946.
We have examined 36 skins all told and can find no evidence in support of
the race coongani, which was supposed to be a small bird. Our material is in-
sufficient to rule out absolutely the possibility of geographical variation in
colour, but since individual and age variation is great in this direction, there is
no reason to suppose that such exists.
Although it is generally believed that light and dark phases occur, Fleay
(1951) has drawn attention to the possibility that dark plumage may develop
with increasing age. North (1898, p. 29) stated that besides being smaller, adult
males are ‘‘usually darker in colour, and the abdomen, flanks, and thighs of a
more uniform tint of rufous, the shaft lines always darker.’’ An adult male
from Broken Hill is actually lighter in coloration beneath than two females
from the same district, and although Fleay (loc. cit.) has stated also that males
are darker, it is felt that this distinction cannot always be relied upon. Examples
of dark males have been seen from Kyabram, Victoria and Castlereagh River,
New South Wales, and there is a dark female which was shot at the nest from
Dawson River, Queensland.
Wing. Queensland: ¢, 343 (AMNH); ¢, 390, 393, 399 (AMNH), 370, 380,
385 (AM).
New South Wales: ¢, 384 (SAM), 345 (AMNH), 300 (juv.}
(AM); 2, 378, 380, 388 (juv.), 405 (juv.) (AM), 380, 381,
402 (SAM).
Victoria: ?, 382 (SAM).
South and ‘‘Central’’ Australia: 8, 335 (AMNH); ¢, 380 (juv.)
(SAM), 374 (AMNH),.
Western Australia: ¢, 334; 2, 400 (juv.) (AM).
New Guinea (weiskei): &, 808; 9, 327, 387, 342 (AMNH).
>
Young birds (juvenals) are dark—the ‘‘ginger’’ stage of Fleay (loc. cit.).
They differ from dark adults in being very rufous on the head and hind-neck,
darker brown on the back (although this probably fades rapidly in adults),
with upper tail coverts and ventral surface a deep, dull rufous. Specimens of
both sexes in this plumage have been collected in New South Wales, Victoria,
226 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
South Australia and south-west Australia, and it is possible that in life they
would be mistaken for dark phase adults.
The newly hatched chick is covered in creamy-white down; iris ‘pale
brown,’’ cere ‘‘yellow,’’ bill ‘‘light horn,’’ feet ‘‘flesh colour.’’
The juvenal plumage is rapidly acquired, and after two months the tail
is about half grown with the central rectrices dark and somewhat less strongly
barred than in the adult. In the adult, colours of the soft parts are as follows:
iris, ‘‘reddish brown,’’ cere ‘‘leaden blue,’’ bill ‘‘bluish with black tip,’’ feet
‘*vellowish-white.”’
Three birds from New Guinea (weisket) in the American Museum are more
heavily streaked ventrally than any from Australia. The female in this race is
about the size of the male of H. m. morphnoides, and sexual dimorphism is
equally great in both forms.
Genus Agquina Brisson, 1760.
Type. Falco chrysaétos. Synonym Uroadtus Kaup, Old and New Worlds
(9 species).
The single Australian member of this genus (a@udax) is often placed in
Uroaétus Kaup, the only character of which is that the tail is cuneate, whereas
in the various species of Aquila it is rounded. This, in our opinion, is not of
sufficient importance to warrant placing the Wedge-tailed Hagle in a monv-
typic genus; more particularly inasmuch as it appears to be closely related 10
the Golden Eagle (A, chrysaétos), the type of the genus. Indeed, it is possible
that audax is more closely related to chrysaétos than is any other species of the
genus.
AQUILA AUDAX (Latham).
Aquila andax andax (Latham),
Vultur audax Latham, 1801, Ind. Ornith, Suppl, p. ii; New South Wales,
Aquila audax carteri Mathews, 1912, Novitates Zool., 18, p. 247; Gracefield,
Western Australia. Type: AMNH No, 535398; adult ‘‘male’’ (?); there
is no original label on this specimen, but someone has written on the red
type label of the Rothschild Museum ‘'4-5-08 (Tunney).'’ Wing, 620.
Coloured plate of type: Mathews, Bds. Austr. 5, plate 241, opp. p. 99.
Range. Australian mainland and southern New Guinea.
The number of skins of the Wedge-tailed Hagle preserved in Australian col-
lections is inadequate for serious racial studies. This is partly due to the
CONDON AND AMADON—TAXONOMIG NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN HAWKS 237
preponderance of immature individuals and the frequency of moulting specimens,
and partly because, owing to the large size of the species (which raises problems
of preparation and storage), no attempts have been made by institutions to
gather comprehensive series, A fully representative collection of properly-
sexed individuals of all ages may reveal geographical variation on the Australian
mainland, but at present we can find no evidence of this. Mayr (1987) found
that a bird from Dogwa, southern New Guinea, compared “fairly well with adults
from New South Wales,”
Mathews described the race carteri in the belief that the birds of western
Australia are blacker, or, at least, attain the black plumage (in which only the
under tail coverts and nape remain rufous) at a younger age than do birds of
eastern Australia, This would be difficult. to prove except with captive birds,
There is no doubt that fully adult birds are always black. HH, L. White (in
Mathews, 1915, p. 104) stated that. a captive bird he had reared was no less than
ten years old before it assumed black plumage, while Fleay (1952) has expressed
the opinion that bath sexes may don this plumage after six years, Old zoo birds
examined by us have all been black,
There appears to be much variation in size in all parts of the range, and,
as pointed out hy Fleay (loc. ctt.), unusually small individuals of either sex
may be encountered. There are numerous published records of the wine span
of this eagle, and some rather astonishing claims have been made by bushmen
and other observers. Many records are of little value because of the
neglect to distinguish age, sex, and plumage condition. Disearding a lot
of reports as unreliable, Morgan (1982) found, from a series of 126
measurements ot birds mainly from eastern Australia, that the average
wing span was 7 feet 4 inches; there were no records less than 6 feet,
The greatest wing span regarded as reliable was 10 feet, being that of a bird
shot: in Werribee Gorge, southern Victoria. Roche (1914) recorded 11 feet
for an adult from the same locality, but this was not aecepted by Morgan, who
also tound that the averave weight of 54 birds (sexes not distinguished) was
7 pounds 15 ounces. In this ease the greatest reliable record was 103 pounds
for a South Australian individual.
Considering (he large proportion of young birds whieh fall to the gun or
trap and the protracted moult of the species, the true average figures miwht he
slightly higher than those given by Morgan, although this would be offset to
some extent by the numerous reports of exceptionally large individuals, other
birds heing neglected by observers.
Fleay (oc, ett.) believes that Tasmanian birds are larger than those of
the mainland, but we have found no conelusive evidence in favour of this,
228 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
neither can we refute it. He quotes one record of 9 feet 4 inches wing spread.
but this has certainly been exceeded in reports from New South Wales, Victoria,
and South Australia (Morgan, loc. cit.). Also, wing measurements of three
birds in good feather from Tasmania (all females) have been found to be no
greater than those of mainland birds, as shown below.
Wing. Victoria: 3, 622; ¢, 653;7 @ (imm.), 584-667 (628);2 ¢@ (imm.),
609, 667 (NMM).
South Australia: ¢, 620; 2°, 670; 3 ¢ (imm.), 590, 590, 610; 9?
(imm.), 600 (SAM).
Tail. Victoria: @, 444; ¢, 444;7 @ (imm.), 432-457 (447);2 ¢ (imm.),
432, 438.
South Australia: ¢, 460; ¢, 500; 2 4 (imm.), 420, 420; 9
(imm.), 430.
The following description was taken from an immature male in fresh
plumage collected at Peake, South Australia, in January, 1953.
Top of head, hind neck, ear coverts and back, deep buff; a very dark brown
stripe along angle of jaw; rump, brown with buff edges to the feathers; tail and
primaries, black; secondaries, blackish-brown; wing coverts, buffy to buffy-
brown near the body; greater wing coverts, greyish-brown; chin and throat
with black feathers, throat buff; foreneck, buffy-brown; breast and abdomen,
dull dark brown with pale buff edges to tips of feathers. Under tail coverts, buffy-
white; under wing coverts, buff; axillaries, buffy-brown. Tarsus, dull dark brown
with buffy edges to feathers. Tail from below, lighter on the terminal half with
dark brown bars; dark brown on basal half. Primaries 1-4 and secondaries
greyish-brown with dark barrings near tip. Lores and eyelids, flesh white with
black hair like feathers on lores. Iris, light hazel; bill, greenish horn with darker
tips to both mandibles; feet, white; claws, black; cere, light horn; gape and
inside mouth, flesh white. Wing, 590 mm.; culmen, 75 (incl. cere); wing span,
6 feet 34 inches; weight, 7 Ibs. (3175-2 grammes).
Adult male (fresh ‘‘black’’ plumage), Montacute, South Australia: Wing
span, 6 feet; weight, 5% Ibs. (September 28, 1947).
Adult female (fresh “black” plumage), Reedy Creek, South Australia: Iris,
dark brown; feet, ereamy-white; bill, horn colour with black tip; cere, gape and
inside mouth, flesh-white; wing span, 7 feet 4 inches; weight, 8 lbs. 10 ozs.
(May 2, 1949).
The iris has been given on various occasions also as ‘‘greyish-brown,’’ and
‘“‘vellow’’ for adults (? male), and ‘‘buffy-brown’’ in younger birds.
CONDON AND AMADON—TAXONOMIC NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN HAWKS = 229
AQUILA AUDAX PLEAYI, subsp. nov.
Type. No. R6115, National Museum, Melbourne; adult female; Great
Lakes, Tasmania; April 28, 1915; “J, E, Chubb”; wing, 653; tail, 477.
Diagnosis. Similar to birds from south-eastern mainland, but lacks the
buff, golden-brown, or rufous coloration of the upper surface; the nape is buffy-
white or pale buff.
Range. Tasmania.
Fleay (1952), in his excellent account of the Wedge-tailed Eagle, has drawn
attention to the differences in Tasmanian birds given above. He also mentions
a ‘‘slaty tinge in the wing ecoverts,’’ but since only three females have been exa-
mined, we are not certain of this feature, which is entirely lacking in a large
juvenal, The question of larger size in this race has already been diseussed
above, and while at present we feel that further evidence is required, the toes
and claws in ow specimens, perhaps by chance, are slightly heavier than in
females from the mainland.
Wing. ?, 667 (near adult, taken ou same day as type) (NMM); 650 (juv. |
(SAM),
Tail, 451+; 490 (juv.).
Genus Hantaretus Savigny, 1809.
Type. JTaha@étus nisus = Faleo albicilla. Synonyms, Ciunewmna Hodgson,
1837, Blagrus Blyth, 1846. Old and New Worlds (8 species),
HALIAEETUS LEUCOGASTER (Gmelin).
Falco leucogaster Gmelin, 1788, Syst. Nat., 1, part 1, p. 257; New South Wales,
designated by Mathews.
Halievétus leucogaster pallidus Mathews, 1912, Nov. Zool., 18, p. 248; Point
Torment, King Sound, north-western Australia (from label; the type locality
was published as ‘‘Derby’’). Type: AMNH No. 535486; adult male;
April 1, 1911; J. P. Rogers. Wing, 555; tail, 265.
Range. From India and Ceylon across southern Asia to the Philippines,
New Guinea, Solomons, Australia and Tasmania.
Very few Australian specimens from south-eastern Australia, the type
locality of the White-bellied Sea-eagle, have been examined by the writers. In
the American Museum there is a skin of an immature female from New South
Wales, wing 630, and another, also an immature female, from Tasmania, wing
600. In the South Australian Museum are three specimens from South Australia
and one from Hitape, New Guinea. Details are: South Australia, adult male,
230) RECORDS OF THE S.A. MusSEUM
wing 520; immature female 620; New Guinea, adult male, wing 535. Material
is lacking from India and Ceylon, so that comparisons between the extremes of
the range are impossible. So far as could be determined with birds from the
area reaching from Sumatra to New Guinea and Australia, there is no signi-
ficant. geographical variation, Australian examples may, as Hlartert once sug
gested, be a little larger. Whistler gave the wing of an adult male from Ceylon
as 544, which is about the size of the Australian birds,
The species leucoguster is thus to be treated as a binomial unless one wishes
to consider sanfordi Mayr, of the Solomon Islands, a race ot it. The loss of
the grey and white adult plumage in sanfordi, as well as its apparently more
predatory, upland habits, indicates that Mayr was correct in giving it specifie
status. The White-bellied Sea-eagle has now been recorded by Ripley (1947,
p. 95) from Nissan Island, an outlier of the Solomons in the direction of the
Bismarek Archipelago (where the species is common). Dr. Mayr, who spent
about 10 days on Nissan while with the Whitney Expedition, tells us that this
party saw no sea-eagles and could hardly have overlooked them. But the species
is a great wanderer among islands, and the specimen taken by Bennett and
reported by Ripley might have been # straggler, or perhaps a pair or two
colonized the islands subsequent to the visit of the Whitney Expedition,
Genus Circus Lacépéde, 1799.
Type. Falco aeruginosus, Synonym Npilocircus Kaup, 1847. Old and
New Worlds (12 species),
Circus asstmmis Jardine and Selby.
Circus assimilis Jardine and Selby, 1828, Ill, Ornith., 1, sig. H, plate 51 and
text; Sydney, New South Wales,
(Circus assimilis rogerst Mathews, 1912, Novy. Zool., 18, p. 244; ‘'50 miles up Fitz-
roy River’? (from label), north-western Australia. Type: AMNH No.
536039; adult male; August, 1898. The field label is unsigned but does not
appear to be that of J. P. Rogers (as might be expected from the name
given the bird), but rather like the labels of J, T. Tunney, who was actively
collecting for the Western Australian Museum at the close of last eentury,
According to Mathews’ catalogue, he got the specimen from that museum.
Wing, 397. Coloured plate of type: Mathews, 5, plate 234, opp. p. 18.
Circus approvimans inexpectatus Mathews, 1912, Nov. Zool., 18, p. 245; Parry’s
Creek, north-western Australia, As Hartert pomted out, this specimen is
Cireus assimilis in immature plumage and not (, approximans. Type:
AMNHE No, 536283; immature male; January 22, 1909; J. P. Rogers, Wing,
387,
CONDON AND AMADON—TAXONOMIC NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN HAWKS 231
Circus dssimilis quirundus Mathews, 1915, Bds, Austr., 5, p. 23; Celebes and
the northern islands (presumably Lesser Sundas), Type not in the Ameri-
can Museum of Natural History.
Circus assimilis celebensis Stresemann, 1924, Ornith. Monatsber, 32, p. 48:
Minahasa, Celebes.
Range. Celebes, Lesser Sundas, and Australian mainland.
Tn an earlier revision of the Spotted Harrier, Amadon (1941, pp. 372-375)
recognized three races based on size only; assimilis, of southern Australia
(large); rogersi, of northern Australia and the Lesser Sunda Islands (medium-
sized) ; and quirundus, of Celebes (small). This division was not proposed with
confidence, for, while specimens from Celebes are numerons, all those examined
by Amadon seemed to have the wing in moult, a possible explanation of their
small size. The possibility that some Celehes birds are as large as southern
Australian ones was substantiated when Amadon, in the summer of 1950, mea-
sured material in the British Museum. Tn that collection there are two females
from Celebes with wings of 443 and 451, respectively, and a female from Cape
York, Australia, with wing 460. These are as large as ones from southern
Australia. At the other extreme, we have examined an adult male from Victoria
with wing 393, a figure matched by some Celebes males. Unless southern Aus-
tralian birds migrate to Celebes and mix with a smaller local race, which we
doubt, it would seem that there is too much individual size variation in Circus
assimilis to justify the recognition of races based on size. This is not meant to
deny that tropical harriers of this species average a little smaller, but even of
this we are not convinced. Tartert (1931, p, 40) tentatively recognized the
Celebes race, but felt ‘‘uneasy’’ about its validity. Rensch suggested that
Lesser Sundas birds are richer colonred than Australian ones, but this im-
pression seems based on nothing more substantial than the fact that they are
less often faded than those from the dricy regions of Australia.
Gents Paco Linné, 1758.
Type. Faleo subbutcv. Synonyms inelude Tinnwnculus Vieillot 1807,
Hverofalca Cuvier 1816, Cerchneis Boie 1826, Rhynchodon Nitach 1829, Teracider
Gould 1838, Gennata Kaup 1850, Nesieruz Oberholser 1899, Notofalco Mathews
1913, and Palifalco Mathews 1946. World-wide (abont 37 species),
These names have been einployed by various authors as subgenera, and in
somne eases genera. Friedmann (1950) lists no fewer than 54 names (subgenera
and synonyms) under Falco,
The characters of the members of! this genus are so diverse that it enald
232 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
be a simple matter to derive a different subgeneriec name for each Australian
species, without, however, gaining a true understanding of relationships, Peters’
arrangement of the group (1931) is obviously imperfect, especially with regard
to the Australian forms, but without having surveyed the genus as a whole we
do not venture an opinion as to whether the resemblances of some species to
extralimital forms is more than parallelism. Peters associates the Grey Falcon
(F. hypoleucos) with the hobbies (‘‘subgenus Falco’’), Could, on the other
hand, compared it with the Gyrfaleon (F. rusticolus) whieh Peters and Fried-
mann (1950) separate under subgenus ‘‘Mierofaleo.'' Gurney (1882) thought
F, hypoleucos and F, subniger should be placed together with the Lanner (F.
biamarcus), another desert form, under ‘‘Gennaia,’? which was disearded by
Peters but resurrected by Friedmann, while Mathews has proposed the names
“ Palifaleo"’ and ‘‘Notofalco” tor the two Australian species. The subgenus
Palifalco was differentiated tvom Falco s.str. ‘‘in proportions as follow: The
bill is larger, the wing longer, the tail shorter, and the legs notably Jonger, while
the coloration is distinctive’; and for Notofaleo: ‘differs from Rhynchodan
Nitzsch in its much longer wings, longer tail, and weaker feet.’ These differ-
ences are best regarded as well-marked specific characters.
Sealation of the tarsus is extremely variable in the different, species, In
some cases the differences are slight, while in others they are striking, In F.
peregrinus the jarsus is covered with rather sinall seales which are fairly unitorm
in size, while in J’. subniger and F’. hypoleucos they are also uniform but a little
larger, la F. longipennis there is an inner row of enlarged scales and six or
seven seutella on the lower portion of the acrotarsium, and a somewhat similar
condition is found in F. cenchroides, The Brown Hawk (7. berigora), which
has the tarsus inusually lone and ‘‘coarse’’ and the tarsal scales greatly en-
larged, is often placed in a separate genus (Jeracidea) on this account, but. in
every other respect it is a true faleon, Tn the New Zealand Bush Hawk
(** Nesierax’’ novaeseelandiae) the tarsus is somewhat like that of F. longipennis,
but it is velatively longer, and we are inclined to associate these two species,
tovether with the Brown Hawk, as being closer to one another than all others
in the Australian region.
Friedmann (1950, p. 575) refers to the New Zealand Bush Hawk as
‘leracidea''’ (whieh is not a new procedure), and suggests if is intermediate
between the “true faleons’? and the South American ‘Carrion Faleons’’ of the
genus Milvago, but we cannot subseribe to this.
Mathews (1915) hinted that there were important osteologieal differences
whieh would support a division of Falco, but none have been found apart from
those of bodily proportions. There is quite a lot of variation im the amount of
CONDON AND AMADON—TAXONOMIC NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN HAWKS 233
emargination of the primaries in the different species, but the taxonomic value
of this feature is doubtful.
The Peregrine Faleon (F'. peregrinus) is sometimes placed in a separate
genus Rhynchodon, and the kestrels in Cerchneis or Tinnunculus, but there are
not sufficient characters to warrant generic or subgeneric division.
FaLco HYPOLEUCOS Gould.
Falco hypoleucos Gould, 1840 (1841), Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 162; York,
Western Australia.
Falco hypoleucus ashbyi Mathews, 1913, Austr. Av. Rec., 2, p. 73; South Aus-
tralia. Type: AMNH No. 537628; adult male; 1902; ‘‘North.’’ Wing, 298;
tail, 146? The type is a very poor specimen with most of the feathers
missing from the head.
Falco hypoleucus ashleyi Mathews, 1916, Bds. Austr., 5, p. 234 (Lapsus for
‘fashbyt’’),
Range. Interior of Australia.
The Grey Falcon is one of the least known of Australian Accipitres. It
clings to semi-arid districts, and avoids the forested areas of coastal regions.
Owing to limited amount of material at our disposal there is little opportunity
to make geographical comparisons, but variation is scarcely to be expected in
this wide-ranging species of the interior of the continent. Specimens have been
examined from Parry’s Creek, north-western Australia; Borroloola, Northern
Territory; north Queensland; Barcoo (Victoria) River, south-western Queens-
land; Garah, Mungindi (both near Moree), Broken Hill, Nevertire, Wagga,
Temora, Cobborah, Byrock, near Moulamein, New South Wales; and from Calla-
bonna Creek, Laura, Yunta, and Fulham (near Adelaide—S. A. White Collec-
tion), South Australia. No important differences were detected. Wear and
dirt transforms the beautiful blue-grey coloration of the fresh plumage to a
dull grey.
Wing. 3 (adult), 287, 2887, 298 (AMNH), 290, 290, 302 (AM), 268, 275,
285, 295 (HLW), 280 (SAM); (immature) 281, 286, 294
(AMNH), 265 (AM), 294 (HLW).
@ (adult), 335 (AMNH), 325, 330, 338 (AM), 315, 320 (SAM);
(immature) 297, 315 (AM), 320 (NMM).
Tail. 8 (adult), 146? (AMNH), 155, 177, 170 (AM), 138 +, 150, 147+,
163 (HLW), 150 (SAM); (immature) 143 (AM), 144 (HLW).
2 (adult), 170? (AMNH), 156, 170, 174 (AM), 185, 175 (SAM);
(immature) 163, 175 (AM), 180 (NMM).
234 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM
In juvenals the whitish breast, foreneck and abdomen is heavily streaked
and blotched with brown or blackish brown, and the hack, seapulars and rump
are areyish brown with pale buff edges to the feathers. The primaries are
very dark grey or blackish, strongly barred with pale buffy-white, while the
rectrices are grey and feebly barred dark grey, the subterminal portion being
blackish, with a white tip. In adults the tail is stronely barred while the entire
upper surface is blue-grey with darker shafts, and below, pale grey with dark
shafts,
A female, collected at Orroroo, South Australia, in October, 1933, had iris
‘‘dark brown,”’ feet ‘yellow.’’ pharynx ‘‘grey.’’ Wing span was 98 cm,
Stomach contents; ‘*Flesh and hair of a mouse-like creature—no bones present
and flesh almost digested’’ (J.T. Gray),
ALCO SUBNIGER (ray,
Faleo subniger Gray, 1843, Ann, Mag. Nat. Hist., 11, p. 371; Australia (Victoria
fixed by Mathews).
Notafalco subniger minnie Mathews, 1915, Austr, Av, Rec, 2, p. 127; Minnie
Downs, Queensland. Type: AMNII No. 5387096 (adult male); January 6,
1882. According to Mathews’ manuseript catalogue this was one of the
specimens he acquired from the Norwegian naturalist, Robert Collett. Some
or perhaps all of Collett’s material from northern Australia, including,
perhaps, the present type, was collected by Knut Dahl, Wing, 374; tail, 22.
Coloured plate of type: Mathews Bds. Austr., 5, plate 255, opp. p. 253.
Range. Interior of Australia,
The Black Falcon, endemic to the More open country of the mainland, is
a rather elusive species which oceasionally visits coastal districts. Individual
variation is great, but there is no geographical variation,
Mathews merely fixed the type locality in the southern part of the species’
range and named a race from the northern part to have one of his names avail-
able if needed. The Mathews collection contamed only four specimens of suh-
niger, three from Queensland and one from Horsham, Victoria. Three care-
fully labelled specimens were secured in Queensland in 1940 by Messrs. L.
Maemillan and J. R, Henry for the American Museum.
About thirty skins have been examined from the imterior of eastern
Australia, and it is thought that immatures have more white about the head
than adults. A breeding (7? adult) female from the Diamantina River, south-
western Queensland, which was collected in July, 1918, has a very white throat,
and there are some white spots on the breast, and the under tail coverts are
CONDON AND AMADON—TAXONOMIC NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN HAWKS = 235
prominently barred with white. Most individuals have some white at the chin,
although in at least two males and one female this feature is entirely absent.
The Black Falcon is at once distinguished from the extreme dark phase of
Falco berigora by its much shorter and more powerful tarsi; the light markings
on wing and tail are more sparing or absent on the tail and are whitish, not
rufous.
Wing. Queensland, ¢ (ad.), 371, 371, 374; (imm.) 366 (AMNH); @ (ad.),
391, 392 (AMNH); 403 (British Museum).
Victoria, ¢ (imm.), 3868 (AMNH).
Loe.? 9, 405 (British Museum).
South Australia, ¢ , 363, 363, 366 (SAM); ¢, 405, 405, 415 (SAM).
New South Wales, 2, 398 (SAM).
South-western Queensland, ¢, 405 (SAM).
Tail. Queensland, g (ad.), 219, 221, 222; (imm.) 215; 9 (ad.), 223, 226
(AMNH).
Victoria, ¢ (imm.), 206 (AMNH),.
South Australia, ¢, 219, 220, 220; 9, 247, 235, 235.
South-western Queensland, ¢?, 240 (SAM).
Weight. Queensland, 6 (full breeding condition), 597; (imm.), 607; ° (full
breeding condition), 670 grammes.
Soft part colours of a pair of breeding adults (June 14): “Iris brown,
bill bluish-horn with black tip, cere bluish, legs and feet livid pale blue flesh.”’
The skin around the eye has sometimes been recorded as ‘‘whitish’’ or ‘‘bluish-
grey.’’
A chick taken from the nest towards the end of July was covered in white
down with the primaries (brown) just showing. The irides were ‘‘dark brown,”’
bill ‘‘pale bluish-horn,’’ cere ‘‘pale bluish-horn,’’ feet ‘‘ pale bluish.’’
In the juvenal the cheeks are often buffy-white, the throat is whitish with
dark brown streaks, and a moustachial stripe is visible. In some juvenals also
the rectrices and primaries are indistinctly barred with pale buff, but we have
been unable to trace the sequence of plumage, changes to the adult condition
from the limited material at our disposal.
FALCO PEREGRINIS Tunstall.
Faleo peregrinus macropus Swainson.
Falco macropus Swainson, 1837, Anim. in Menag., p. 341; Tasmania.
Range. Australia (except south-western Australia), Tasmania.
The Peregrine Falcon, of which about 18 races may be listed from most
236 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
parts of the world, is widespread but not very plentiful in Australia. Altogether
we have examined 58 skins of juvenals and adults in the museuis in Adelaide,
Melbourne and Sydney, and there are eight specimens in the Mathews collection
in New York.
Available material is rather disappointing as it is largely composed of
immature individuals. The head, cheeks and malar region are dull black in
adults and brownish or brownish-black in juvenals, and while individual varia-
tion is prevalent, females are distinguished by a stronger buffy wash on the
ventral surfaces, but this colour may also be an indication of age and geographic
variation. From Tasmania, the type locality of macropus, we have two adult
birds, unsexed but obvious males, in which the characteristic ventral buffy wash
is almost lacking and replaced by grey on the abdomen, flanks and thighs.
Further material may show that the island birds are a distinct population, but
this is doubtful.
From the drier areas of the maimland, specimens are somewhat paler than
those from eastern Australia, and there is often a reduction of the ventral
barring, characters which in part may be due to fading and abrasion, especially
as the moult is irregular and prolonged.
No geographic variation in size has been detected in Australian birds, which
have average dimensions only slightly below those of the American and British
races.
Wing. Tasmania, ¢ (ad), 280, 290 (SAM).
Victoria, ¢ (ad,), 280; 4 (juv.), 280, 285, 290; 9 (juv.), 332-344
(3385) (NMM), 337 (HLW),
New South Wales, ¢ (ad.), 285-300 (293) (AM), 290 (HLW);
6 (juv.), 289-800 (294): @ (ad.), 305-840 (327) (AM), 325
(SAM); ¢ (juv.), 320-348 (330-7) (AM), 320-3830 (332+3)
(LW), 330 (SAM).
South Australia, ¢6 (ad.), 270, 282, 295; 2 (ad.), 325, 325, 328;
2 (juv.), 325, 335 (SAM), 328 (HLW),
Tail. Tasmania, ¢, 144, 164.
Victoria, 4 (ad.), 163; g (juv.), 195, 162,165; @ (jnv.), 174-185
(179-7), 175.
New South Wales, ¢ (ad.), 140-145 (142), 160; 8 (juv.), 148-155
(150-7): @ (ad.), 170-185 (175), 170; ¢ (juv.), 173-195 (182);
(182); 170.
South Australia, g (ad.), 135, 144, 158; 9 (ad.), 170, 170, 170;
2 (juv.), 162, 172, 174.
CONDON AND AMADON—TAXONOMIC NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN HAWKS = 237
In fresh juvenal plumage the feathers of the crown are tipped with cinna-
mon buff and the nape region may be of the same colour; there is often a pale
rufous auricular patch, but the cheeks and malar region are dull black. The
upper surfaces are dark brown with cinnamon buff or pale buff tips to most
of the feathers, and the tail coverts are barred with the same colour as also
are the rectrices (incompletely). Ventrally the ground colour is a buffy-white,
becoming deeper on the abdomen, and the breast and abdomen have well-defined
brownish stripes which become sagittate on the flanks and thighs. The duration
of the juvenal plumage is unknown, but fading is common and wear (or partial
moult?) may cause a reduction in the intensity of the ventral stripes. It is
possible that this plumage is retained for more than one year.
A juvenal breeding female in wore plumage has some new grey (barred)
feathers on the lower scapular region, and the upper tail coverts are completely
replaced with grey feathers with darker barrings, as in the adult condition,
This bird was shot at the nest in October near Burra, South Australia. A male
taken on the Upper Murray River, in May, has acquired full adult plumage,
including the strongly barred grey tail, but the head is like the juvenal, and
there is a trace of rufous at the nape.
Signs of moulting have been observed in skins taken at all seasons of the
year, but this process probably begins in spring and is completed by the follow-
ing winter.
A juvenal female collected at Two Wells, South Australia, in February,
1933, weighed 2 Ib. 2 oz.
Faleo peregrinus submelanogenys Mathews.
Falco peregrinus submelanogenys Mathews, 1912, Austral Av. Rec., 1, p. 33;
“‘Bokerup, Plantagenet Arch,’’ south-western Australia. Type: AMNH No.
537365 (?) near adult female; April 14, 1900; J.T.T. (Tunney), Wing, 320;
tail, 175. Figured, Mathews, Bds. Austr., 5, plate 254, opp. p. 241.
Range: South-western Australia.
Diagnosis. About the size of F'. p. macropus, from which it differs in being
pale rufous on the foreneeck and upper breast, and deep rufous on the lower
breast and abdomen, with blackish shaft lines and regular cross barrings.
It would appear that this race is confined to South-west Australia. A single
adult female in the American Museum from north-western Australia is much
paler above and below than Mathews’ type (ef. Mayr, 1941, p. 1), and South
Australian birds are also rather light-coloured.
Certain features of the type of submelanogenys, such as buff tips to the
feathers of the dorsal surface, suggest that it may not be quite adult. The
238 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
only other specimen we have examined from south-western Aust ralia is con-
tained in the H. L. White collection. It is a juvenal male with a few adult
feathers on the back and seapulars (from Pallinup River), and is much darker
below than eastern birds in similar plumage. The breast and abdomen are a
deep, dirty buff with heavy blackish markings, and the foreneck is buffy-white,
with some erey adult feathers appearing. on the back and rump. Wing, 290;
tail, 153.
Reference to ‘‘The Birds of Western Australia,’ by Serventy and Whittell
(1951, p. 210), reveals that these authors regard the normal coloration of the
breast of the adult as ‘‘chestnut-brown,’’ with the abdomen, flanks, thighs and
under wing coverts ‘‘chestnut’’ with blackish spots and barrings, but we have
seen nothing from eastern Australia which will answer to this description.
It is true that the amount of buff colouring on the ventral surface is sub-
ject to individual variation, as mentioned by several authors, ineluding Mayr
(1941), and we have before us an adult male from Cobborah, New South Wales
(February taken), which is quite dark below, as well as four juvenal females
from the same area. Nevertheless, we anticipate that further material will con-
firm beyond all doubt that south-western birds are distinct.
Mathews claimed in his original diagnosis that submelanogenys was large, but
later, in his ‘‘Birds of Australia,’’ stated that eastern Australian individuals
were larger than those from the west. Actually there are no appreciable differ-
ences.
FALCO LONGIPENNIS (Swainson).
The Little Falcon oceurs in all parts of Australia and Tasmania, and in
winter it is believed that some birds visit southern New Guinea and other islands
to the north of the continent. A well-marked race, hanieli is resident on the
Lesser Sunda Islands; it is small, and pale ventrally. In Australia, two geo-
graphical races are recognizable, a southern longipennis and an interior and
northern murchisonianus. Altogether, we have examined 90 specimens in the
museums of Adelaide, Melbourne and Sydney, and there are 67 skins from Aus-
tralia in the American Museum.
Adequate material for comparison from Western Australia is lacking, but
the few skins we have examined from that area have raised certain problems
concerning plumage coloration, which will be discussed below.
Faleo longipennis longipennis Swainson.
Falco longipennis Swainson, 1837, Anim. in Menag., p. 341; Tasmania.
Falco melanotus White and Mellor, 1913, Emu, 12, p. 164; Flinders Island, Bass
Strait. Not Shaw, 1809, Gen. Zool., 7, 1., p. 86.
CONDON AND AMADON—TAXONOMIC NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN HAWKS = 239
Falco longipennis samuelt Mathews, 1916, Bds. Austr., 5, p. 232; new name
for melanotus White and Mellor.
Range. ‘Tasmania, islands of Bass Strait, and the more humid areas of
southern, eastern and south-western Australia; (?) mid- and north-western
Australia.
Diagnosis. Head, hind neck, cheeks, auriculars and malar region sooty
black; upper surfaces very dark grey; upper breast deep buff with heavy blackish
streaks, becoming rufous brown on the lower breast and abdomen, with heavy
blotches and barrings of blackish coloration, these markings extending to and
becoming darker on the sides and flanks, with some scattered pale buff blotches.
Individuals of the nominate race are at once recognized by the black head
and extensive blackish markings on the under surfaces. In eastern Australia
this race occurs in the humid coastal regions bounded approximately by the
Dividing Range from southern Victoria to southern Queensland. The occurrence
of similar dark birds in South-west Australia and other localities in that State
might suggest that dark birds are merely a colour phase, but we have seen no
dark birds from the interior, and no light specimens have been collected in
Tasmania nor the coastal regions of the south-east. In the American Museum
there is a very dark adult female from Parry’s Creek, north-west Australia
(February taken), as well as two dark immature females from mid-west Aus-
tralia (De Grey River, June 28, and Pt. Cloates, March 14). Possibly these
birds were migrants or wanderers from further south, where dark individuals
very similar to those found in south-eastern Australia occur. The southern form
of the Collared Sparrowhawk has also been taken at De Grey River. The affinities
of South-west Australian birds with those of south-eastern Australia is well known
in many groups, and at present it is preferable to unite the two populations
under longipennis, although a specimen of an adult female from King George’s
Sound, taken in February and now housed in the Australian Museum (No.
023881), has prominent blackish streaks on the breast only and is more rusty
rufous below than most others. Dark individuals from South-west Australia
have been examined from the following localities—Armadale, Gordon River,
King George’s Sound, Lake Muir and Wilson’s Inlet. As expected, a skin from
Zanthus belongs to murchisonianus.
Females in both races appear to be slightly more heavily pigmented than
males, but the present form is a striking one and readily separable, even though
intergradation occurs with murchisonianus in certain areas. Characters are
variable in birds from north of the main Divide in Victoria, south-eastern South
Australia, and in the vicinity of Wagga, Parramatta, Lithgow, and Yandembah,
240 REcORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM
New South Wales, and Queensland coastal regions north to Cairns. In these
areas some birds are dark above and light below, while others show the reverse
condition, and usually the head is not so intensely blaek; perhaps they are better
classed under murchisonianus,
Wing. Tasmania, 4 (ad.), 280+ (worn) (RAOU collection),
Victoria, @ (ad.), 264 (SAM),
New South Wales, g (imm.), 242; 9 (imm.), 265, 272 (AM),
Queensland, ¢ (ad.), 245 (AM).
South-west Australia, 4 (ad.), 245 (NMM); @ (juv.), 238
(HLW); 2 (juv.), 242, 245 (AM).
Juvenals are generally darker than those of the pale form, The head is
brownish black with a rufous tinge, the upper surfaces dark brown with dull
niufous edges to the feathers, while ventrally the throat is pale buff, breast
and abdomen rufous brown with brownish black stripes and markings; thighs
and eentre of abdomen and under tail coverts deep buff.
Faleo longipennis murehisonianus Mathews.
Falco lunulatus murchisonianus Mathews 1912, Noy. Zool, 18, p, 252 (January
31); Bast Murchison, Western Australia. Type: AMNH No, 537513; adult
male; September 22, 1909. “F.L.W.” (Whitlock). Wing, 247.
Palco lwnulatus apsleyi Mathews, 1912, Austral. Ay, Ree., 1, p, 83 (April 2);
Melville Island, Northern Territory. Type: AMNH No, 537523; immature
female, moulting into adult plumage; October 22, 1911; J. P. Rogers. Wing,
262 (imm. primaries).
Range. The drier parts of Australia, extending to the Kimberleys, Western
Australia, and coastal Northern Territory,
Diagnosis. Differs from the other Autsralian race in its much paler
coloration above and below. The head is brownish black with a rufous wash;
cheeks and malar region brownish black; upper surfaces pale grey with black
shaft lines; primaries greyish brown instead of brownish black. Ventral surface
pale rufous brown, with the heavy blackish markings of the nominate race
reduced to narrow brownish stripes on the upper breast and indistinet greyish
barrings on the sides and flanks.
Examples of this race have been collected from sueh widely separated
localities as Derby and Zauthus, Western Australia, the Gulf of Carpentaria,
Queensland, and Cootamundra, New South Wales. Of ‘‘apsleyi,’’ Mathews
stated that it was similar in colour to murchisonianus but larger; judging from
CONDON AND AMADON—TAXONOMIC NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN HAWKS = 241
the few northern skins al. our disposal, this seems unlikely. There is a perfect
gradation between F. 1. longipennis and |. murchisonianus, but the differences
between typical examples of each form are marked and it. is surprising that this
faet has not been emphasized previously.
Measurements, except where otherwise indicated, are from skins in the
South Australian Museum,
Wing. North-west Australia, ¢ (imm.), 245 (AM); @ (imm.), 265, 273.
Northern Territory, 4 (ad,), 244; 248 (AM); ¢ (ad), 267, 276,
278.
Queensland, 4 (ad.), 248; 8 (imm.), 237; 240 (NMM); ¢ (ad.),
268; 270 (NMM): ¢ (imm.), 267,
South Australia, é (ad.), 242, 243, 240, 240-++; 4 (imm,), 238; ¢
(ad.), 245 +, 250, 255 +, 955, 271, 272; 9 cata 272,
New South Wales and Victoria, g (ad.), 285 +, 287, 244 (SAM),
242 (NMM); 4 (imm.), 235 (NMM); 9 (ad,), 266; @ (imm.),
267, 274 (SAM), 265 (AM).
South-western Australia, @ (ad.), 268 (NMM),
Jiivenals are markedly different in coloration from adults. The top of
the head is bright rufous with very narrow blackish shaft lines, the upper
surfaces are dull brown with rufous edges to the feathers, and the two central
reetrices are similarly coloured with incomplete rufous harrings and a broad
rufous tip. Cheeks and malar region are brownish black, throat and upper
breast. pale buff becoming a bright rufous brown on the breast and abdomen
and darker rufous on the sides. Dark markings are limited to the upper breast
and thighs and are brown and very little wider than the eentral dark shatts.
Moult colmmences on the head and seapular region, the reetrices being
replaced last, From numerous juvenal specimens it would seem that the juvenal
plumage is retained for less than one year when the assumption of adult, plum-
age is commenced in spring, the whole process taking at least six months. A
few examples have indicated that moulting may also commence at the end of
autumn, but these may be individuals which were hatehed early in the previons
season, The normal breeding period for this race is between August and
January.
Sodrrberg (1919, plate 1) shows, in natura! colours, a juvenal in fresh
plumage (fig. 3) and what he believes to be an adult with bleached plimage
(August-taken) in fig. 2, Actually this last-named illustration is of a juvenal
in worn and faded plumage, which is frequently met with just prior to the
commencement of the moult,
242 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
Colours of soft parts. Adult (sexes similar): iris, dark brown or (?)
reddish (one record); bare space around eye bluish white, pale blue or bluish
grey; cere, greenish yellow; bill, bluish horn with dark tip to upper mandible
and darker mottlings on the lower; legs and feet, yellow; claws, black. The iris
may be paler in juvenals.
Weight of four adult females, collected between June and August: 247,
248, 325, 420 grammes. Wing span of two adult females, 30} inches, 33 inches.
Fauco cencuroiwes Vigors and Horsfield.
Falco cenchroides cenchroides Vigors and Horsfield.
Falco cenchroides Vigors and Horsfield, 1827, Trans. Linn. Soc., London, 15,
p. 183; New South Wales.
Cerchneis unicolor Milligan, 1904, Emu, 6, p. 2; Yalgoo, Western Australia.
Type said to be in Western Australian Museum, Perth.
Cerchneis cenchroides milligani Mathews, 1912, Nov. Zool., 18, p. 253; the type
locality was published as Parry’s Creek, north-western Australia, but the
field label says ‘‘Point Torment, King Sound.’’ Since there is a specimen
taken by the same collector at Parry’s Creek, it is possible that the type
label was tied on the wrong specimen, but this cannot be proved. Type:
AMNH No. 538594; adult male; January 7, 1911; J. P. Rogers. Wing,
232 (2) (worn); tail, 149 (?) (worn).
Range. Australia and Tasmania, straggling to Aru, Ceram, the Moluceas,
and Babber, South-west Islands. A number of stragglers have been recorded
from widely separated localities in the north and south islands of New Zealand.
The Nankeen Kestrel is very plentiful in southern Australia and probably
a permanent resident in many districts. However, it is possible that seasonal
or other movements may oceur, because four specimens which were taken in
Ceram, Moluceas (April 29) and Babber, South-west Islands (August 24, 29,
September 1) are inseparable from Australian birds and presumably migratory
stragglers.
Careful comparison of material from all parts of Australia reveals no geo-
graphical variation, although a larger series might show interior birds to be
a little smaller. We have seen no specimens from Tasmania. Mathews, at least
at one time, believed there were no subspecies in Australia, and Hartert (1931,
p. 46) was of the same opinion.
The plumages of the Nankeen Kestrel present some problems which, perhaps,
ean only be answered by study of birds of known age, i.e., ones kept in captivity
for a period of several years. Individuals with heavy black barrings and
CONDON AND AMADON—TAXONOMIC NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN Hawks 243
hastate markings on the back and wings and prominent stripes on the head are
rare in collections but appear to be first year birds. Ventrally, the breast is
deep rufous with dark brown streaks, and females are much darker generally
in this plumage than males. Study of skins has established that in males first
the rump, then the tail, and finally the head becomes grey, and this involves
several months. A few specimens with rufous rectrices were found to be males
although labelled as females, and this was confirmed by the presence of a erey
rump, which never seems to be present in the last-named, even in old birds with
greyish tails. The rufous immature rectrices are barred with black in both
sexes, but more strongly in females. In the adult the central pair is usually
almost immaculate (except for the subterminal black band), and the barring
is much reduced on the others. From one or two males with the tail in moult
it is evident that, even in the adult, the new rectrices are quite rufous at one
stage; the whitish or even grey colour is in part acquired later as a result of
fading; hut the feathers do have a glaucous sheen. In most adult males with
grey tails the edges of the rectrices are rufous in fresh plumage. The grey of
the head in the male seems to be partly a matter of wear as well as age; in
females the head is rufous with dark shaft lines, never erey.
In the tail of the adult female the barring often becomes reduced through-
out with maturity and is absent in the central pair of rectrices. The tail is
usually rufous in females at all ages, but in one specimen it is quite greyish,
but the rump is rufous.
Fading of the plumage appears to be rapid and prevalent in birds even
in southern districts. A female, taken in South Australia in December, shows
the new rectrices (nearly half-grown) of a much deeper shade than the remainder
of the rufous feathers of the dorsal surface. Juvenals in fresh plumage have a
decided rufous or buffy wash ventrally, especially on the upper breast, and the
dark shaft lines, which extend from this area to the sides of the body, are wider
and heavier than in adults. Males are paler rufous below and with less dark
striping than members of the opposite sex.
In the adult, the dark markings of the dorsal surface are much reduced
and confined to the head, seapulars and secondaries, and in some old males are
almost absent.
Sexual dimorphism in this species, as in kestrels in general, is much less
than in some members of the genus Falco. Nevertheless, unusually small indivi-
duals are fairly common, especially amonest males.
Adult males of cenchroides in good feather seldom have a wing length as
great as 255 mm., while in females the wing is almost always more than 255,
generally 260 or more and reaching 275.
244 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
Colours of the soft parts (sexes alike): iris dark brown; bill dark blue at
tip, lighter at base; cere, legs and feet yellow; eyelids yellow with a greenish
tinge. Weight (female, juvenal, March), 128 grammes; female adult (Decem-
ber), 272-2 grammes, Span of wings: Female juv., 294 inches; female adull,
303 inches,
Faleo cenehroides baru Rand,
Falco cenchroides baru Rand, 1940, Amer. Mus, Novit., 1072, p. 1; 11 km, N.E.
of Mt. Wilhelmina.
Range. Oranje Range, New Guinea.
Examination of our specimens of this well-marked race (and other species
of kestrels) suggests that the Australian form of cenchroides is in a somewhat
transitional stage as regards sexual and age colour dimorphism. In adult males
or baru the grey of the head is much deeper than ever it is in the nominate race,
and it extends around to the sides of the throat; the tail is also greyer with
further suppression of the black barring (exeept the subterminal band). This
increase of the grey elements in the plumage is reflected in the immature stages,
at least as regards the tail, for a two-thirds grown nestling has the tail feathers
grey except for rufous tips. These feathers have more black bars than those
of the adult, although much fewer than are found in immatures of cenchroides.
The crown of this nestling of baru is rufous. In the adult female the head and
tail are grey, though the former is not such a clear grey as in the male.
When describing baru, Rand hinted that cenchroides and tinnunculus
might be regarded as conspecifie hy some workers, but the occurrence of two
sympatric species, tinnunculus and naumanni, in southern Europe argues
against too much species lumping in the group.
On Ceram, at least, there is resident Falco moluccensis which might be
regarded as a geographical representative of cenchroides. This form, perhaps
because of its tropical habitat, has less sexual dimorphism than cenchroides or
tinnunculus, and most workers regard it as a distinet species,
NEW FORMS DESCRIBED.
Aviceda suberistata njikena (Fitzroy River, Western Australia).
Haliastur indus flavirostris (Bougainville Is., Solomons).
Aquila audax fleayi (Great Lakes, Tasmania).
CONDON AND AMADON—-TAXONOMIC NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN HAWKS 245
REFERENCES.
Amadon, D. (1941): ‘‘Notes on some Australian birds of prey’'; Emu, 40, pp.
365-384,
Condon, H. T. (1951): ‘Variation in the Brown Hawk’’; Emu, 50, pp. 152-174.
DeVis, C, (1890): Proe. Roy. Soe., Qld., 6, p. 162.
DeVis, C. (1892): Proe. Linn. Soe., N.S.W., (2), 6, p. 439.
DeVis, C. (1905); Ann. Qld. Mus., 6, pp. 4-7.
Devis, C. (1911): Ann, Qld. Mus., 10, p. 17.
Pleay, D. (1950) : ‘Notes on the White Goshawk’’; Emu, 50, pp. 1-4,
Fleay, D, (1951): “Little Eagle in the Healesville Distriet, Vic.”; Emu., 51,
p. 57,
Fleay, D. (1952) : ‘‘ With a Wedge-tailed Eagle at the Nest’’: Emu, 52, pp. 1-16.
Friedmann, H. (1950): U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 50,
Gould, J. (1865) : Handbook to the Bds. of Australia, volume 1.
Gurney, J. H. (1881) : Tbis., 4th ser., 5, p, 262.
Gurney, J. H. (1882): Ibis., 4th ser., 6, pp. 451-452.
Hartert, E. (1931) : Novit. Zool., 37, pp. 39-46.
Jackson, W. 8. (1919): “Haunts of the Letter-winged Kite (Elanus scriptus)”;
Hmu, 18, p. 160.
Lyddeker, R. (1892) : Ibis., 6th ser., 4, pp. 530-533.
Mack, G. (1953): Mem. Qld. Mus., 13, 1, p. 8.
Mathews, G. M. (1915-1916): Bds. of Australia, vol, 5. London. Witherby
and Co.
Mathews, G. M. (1946): A Working List of Australian Bds. Sydney. The
Shepherd Press.
Mayr, E. (1931): Amer. Mus. Novit., No. 486, p. 8.
Mayr, E, and Rand, A. L. (1937): Bull. Amer, Mus, Nat. Hist., 73, p. 19.
Mayr, E. (1940): Amer. Mus. Novit., No. 1056, pp. 7-8.
Mayr, E. (1941): Amer. Mus. Novit., No. 1183, pp. 1-2.
McGilp, J. N. (1934) : ‘‘Hawks of South Australia,’’ S.A. Orn., 12, p. 268.
Morgan, A. M. (1932): “Spread and Weight of the Wedge-tailed Eagle (roaé-
tus audaz),?’ S.A. Orn., 11, pp. 156-157.
North, A. J. (1912); Austr. Mus. Spee. Cat., No. 1, vol. 2. Sydney.
Peters, J. L. (1931): Cheeklist Bds. WId., volume 1. Cambridge, Harvard Univ.
Press,
Ramsay, E. P. (1879): Proc. Linn. Soe., N.S.W., 3, pp. 173-174.
Ramsay, Hi. P. and North, A. J. (1898): Cat. Bds, in the Austr. Mus., part 1,
Sydney.
246 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM
Rand, A. L. (1941); Amer. Mus. Novit., No. 1102, p. 1.
Ripley, S. D. (1947): J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 37, p. 95.
Roche, W. G. ((1914) : “Eagles”; Emu, 13, p, 214.
Serventy, D. L. (1952): W.A. Nat., 3, pp. 4-5,
Serventy, D. L. (1953): W.A. Nat., 3, pp. 191-193.
Serventy, D. L. and Whittell, H. M. (1951): Bds. W. Austr. Perth. Paterson
Press.
Sharpe, R. B. (1874): Cat. Bds. Brit. Mus., volume 1.
Sodrrberg, R. (1918): ‘‘Studies in the Bds. N.W. Austr.’’; Kungl, Svensk.
Handl., 52, No. 17.
Southern, H. N. and Serventy, D. L. (1947): ‘‘The two phases of Astur novae-
hollandiae (Gm.) in Australia’; mu, 46, p. 331.
Stresemann, EB. (1913): Novit. Zool., 20, p. 305.
Stresemann, E. (1951): “Type Localities of Australian Birds Collected by the
‘Hxpedition Baudin’ (1801-1803)”; Emu, 51, p. 69.
White, H. L. (1915) : ‘Notes upon Astur cruentus (Urospiza fasciata cruenta) "he
Emu, 14, pp. 154-156.
Whitlock, F. L. (1925); ‘‘Ten months on the Fitzroy River, North-western
Australia’’; Emu, 25, p. 80.
RECORDS
OF THE
SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM
Vol. XI, No. 3
Published by The Museum Board, and edited by the Museum Director
ADELAIDE, Fepruarny 28, 1955
PRINTED AT THE ADVERTISER PRINTING OFFICE, MARLBOROUGH PLACE,
ADELAIDE
Registered in Australia for transmission by post as a periodical.
LATE TERTIARY MARSUPIALS FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA
BY R. A. STIRTON, MUSEUM OF PALEONTOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
Summary
In 1953 Richard H. Tedford and R. A. Stirton received Fulbright awards to search for Tertiary
marsupials and monotremes in South Australia. Tertiary mammalian remains have turned up from
time to time on the mainland of Australia but the stratigraphy and in many instances the exact
localities of these important discoveries have not been adequately recorded.
LATE TERTIARY MARSUPIALS rrom SOUTH AUSTRALIA
By R, A, STIRTON (Museum oF Parzonrotocy, Universrry or CaLirornta)
Fig. 1-11
INTRODUCTION.
Ty 1953 Richard H. Tedford and R. A. Stirton received Fulbright awards to
search for Tertiary marsupials and monotremes in South Australia, Tertiary
mammalian remains have turned up from time to time on the mainland of Aus-
tralia but the stratigraphy and in many instances the exact localities of these
important discoveries have not been adequately recorded.
Some fossils now thought to be Pleistocene are surely Pliocene and others
may be older. This is particularly true of some of the specimens said to have
come from the Darling Downs area in Queensland. Also during the past few
years Edmund D. Gill, of the National Museum, Melbourne, has been stressing
an earlier age for some of the fossils from Victoria. Four of his marsupial speei-
mens from marine formations should be helpful in establishing a correlation
between continental and marine formations,
Our 1953 expedition was a co-operative project between the South Aus-
tralian Museum, the Department of Geology of the University of Adelaide, and
the Museum of Paleontology of the University of California. Those who actively
participated in different phases of the field work were Norman B. Tindale, Paul
F, Lawson, Geoffrey D. Woodard, Harold C. Reynolds, Tedford and Stirton.
Though we worked in human cultural levels at Lake Menindee and in the Dipro-
todon locality at Lake Callabonna, our prime objective was to locate econcentra-
tions of Tertiary mammals to initiate work on the continental stratigraphy of
Australia.
Toward the end of onr last trip in the interior Woodard discovered a con-
centration of late Tertiary mammalian materials in a sandy channel deposit
along the edge of Lake Palankarinna east of Lake Eyre. In the limited time
available we collected from that site a series of macropodid jaws, teeth and limb
bones, parts of two kinds of diprotodonts, a fragmentary bandicoot mandible as
well as numerous ecroeodilian and chelonian fragments, teleost bones, lung fish
teeth and crayfish gastroliths (Stirton and Woodard, 1954).
This report gives preliminary deseriptions of the mammals and is not a
comprehensive fatmal report. We hope to secure a more varied faunal represen-
tation and better preserved materials after we open a quarry at the Woodard
locality in July, 1954,
245 Recorps or THE §.A, Museum
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.
We are grateful to Sir Douglas Mawson, Professor A. R. Alderman, Mr.
Herbert M. Hale, Mr. C. Warren Bonython and our many other Australian
friends without whose help and encouragement this project would have been
impossible. We also wish to express our appreciation for the Fulbright awards,
to the Associates in Tropical Biogeography at the University of California and
others who helped to make this work possible, Dr, A. T. Hopwood, of the British
Museum of Natural History, kindly placed at the author’s disposal Owen's types
and generously took much of his time in discussing his ideas on some of these
specimens. Mr. and Mrs, D. J. Oldfield, of Etadunna Station, were most hospit-
able and helped us in many ways, Mr, Jack Stewart, of the Electricity Trust
Company at Leigh Creek, gave us invaluable assistance and suggestions with our
transportation problems. The illustrations were prepared hy Mr. Owen J. Poe,
staff artist in our Museum. All measurements are in millimeters.
TYPE, LOCALITY AND AGE OF THE PALANKARINNA FAUNA.
The Woodard locality where the fossil bones were found is a grayish sandy
channel deposit with some unconsolidated ferruginous concentrations ranging
from one-fourth of an inch to two inches in diameter, Gypsum oceura through-
out the beds but most if not all of it is secondary in origin. These channel
sands were laid down in a formation composed primarily of greenish-blue and
red gypsiferous clays with a basal conglomerate derived from the Duricrust
chert. The channel sands are 35 feet above the basal conglomerate. The maxi-
mum thickness of the formation where the channel sands occur is 72 feet, though
the total thickness may be greater.
The exposures are along the west side of Lake Palankarinna, east of Lake
Eyre; 18 miles 8. 75° W. of Etadunna Station homestead. Military grid refer-
ence 656431, ordinance sheet Marree, South Australia, H54/1.2.5.6, zones 5 and
6, first edition 1942, seale 1: 506880. U.C. locality V5867 (Fig. 1).
Age of the fauna is difficult if not impossible to determine accurately at
this time, Perhaps the best key to an age is the fragmentary notothere (Pig. 6)
that seems closely related but more advanced than a specimen in the National
Museum at Melbourne. The Victorian specimen came from the Sandringham
sands (‘‘Cheltenhamian stage’’ of Singleton, 1941) at Beaumaris. Singleton
(1941), Gill (1950). and Glaessner (1951) refer this ‘‘stage’’ to the late
Miocene, and Crespin (oral communication) calls it early Pliocene, The Palan-
karinnu fauna therefore has been referred to the early or, possibly, middle
Pliocene.
StmTON—LATE TERTIARY MARSUPIALS FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA 249
Mh,
9 Kopperomanng
\e/RRANNA SOAK. i iM bldg ol
i riccaTiLta wn, Mission Sta.
“Emu Camp \ ie Ruins
4 ~.
UNKUMILKA WH
“ae
/.Etadunna
aks Sta
a
5 searaveaninnd, }
C i, \
ow
1 Par
\ we
L.TIDNA COORDOONINNA
L. FLORENCE
Fig. 1. Map showing Woodard Loeality at Lake Palankarinna east of Lake Eyre, South
Australia.
PALANKARINNA FAUNA—WOODARD LOCALITY.
Famity PERAMELIDAE.
The first Tertiary fossil of a bandicoot was found by Mr. Tedford on July
39, 1953, when we were opening the Palankarinna quarry. Unfortunately it was
in the weathered zone near the surface and consequently was badly shattered.
Genus IscHNOoDON 2) nov.
Type of genotypic species. Ischnodon australis sp. nov.
The diagnostic characters of the genus are those of the genotypie species
until other species have been described.
(1) t6xves, thin; dsuv=ddors, tooth.
950 Recorps oF THE S,A, MusruM
IscCHNODON AUSTRALIS sp. nov.
Iolotyye. Most of anterior half of right mandible with posterior edge of
canine alveolus, Py-. and My-. in place. Ps, missing from alveolus, Mo with
erack across talonid resulting in loss of posterolingual corner (Fig. 2). U.C.
No. 44380.
Generic diagnosis. Horizontal ramus slender; premolar thin transversely
(Py=1-1; P»=1-6), with long gently declining crest from anteromedian cusp
to talonid. Paraconid and hypoeconulid reduced on molars; talonid as high as
trigonid; height from base of enamel below metaconid-M,;—2-0; M,—2-1;
stylar cusp at anterior base of hypoconid of My.
DESCRIPTION,
Mandible. Jlorizontal ramus evidently nearly straight, perhaps with slight
convevity of lower border below molars; depth of mandible below P,—5-4, below
ONE INCH
Fig. 2. Isehnodon australis, Stirton, n. gen. and n. sp., holotype, No. 44380; Woodard
Locality ¥5367, Palankarinna fauna; Etadunna formation. Most of anterior half of right
mandible with posterior edge of canine alveolus, P,-s, alvevlus for Py, and My-M,, Occlusal
and labial views, Four times natural size,
STIRTON—LATE TerTrARyY MARSsuUPIALS FROM SourH AUSTRALIA 951
anterior edge of M,-7-0, transverse thickness below My—4-9; mental foramen
below Py. Horizontal ramus slender, evidently indicative of loug narrow-faced
animal.
Teeth. Posterior edve of alveolus of canine preserved; diastem between
C and 14-2:0; Py with anteromedian cusp 1:9 high; no tiny cusp at anterior
end; long gently deelining talonid without cusp; straight; very narrow-1-1;
length-8-6, Diastem between Py and Ps-1-2, Ps with anteromedian cusp 23
high; no tiny cusp at anterior end; long gently declining talonid with posterior
stylar cusp, outline straight lingually and convex labially; wider than Py-1:6;
length-4-1. Pe missing. Distance between Po and M4-3-+5. Molarg basically
tuberculosectorial but with talonid as high as trigonid; My triangular in outline,
lingual edge straight, labial edge tapers from posterolabial corner to anterolin-
gual corner; paralophid and paraconid present; paraconid not in line with meta-
conid and entoconid, paraconid separated from metaconid by distinet meta-
flexid; no anterior cingulum; metaconid and entoconid equal in size; hypo-
eonulid vestigial; small stylar cusp at anterior base of protoeonid; length 4:1;
with across trigonid—-2°5, across talonid—3-0; height of metaconid 2:0. Ms
differs from M, in less pronounced triangular outline; paraconid reduced; para-
lophid closely appressed to protolophid; prominent anterior cingulum with
atylar ensp af anterior base of protoconid; larger size, length-4-2; width across
trigonid—3-2, across talonid—4-4; height of metavonid—2-1,
Comparisons, The exact relationships of the Palankarinna bandicoot can-
not be determined from the fragmentary specimen at hand, Nevertheless there
are features in the teeth that suggest affinities with living genera. The long
gently declining crest from the anteromedian cusp to the talonid on Py and Pa,
and the reduction of the paraconid and the hypoconulid on the molars are sug-
gestive of affinities with the bilbies, On the other hand, the pattern and height
of crown in the molars are much like the features seen in Thylacis Tlinger
(=Isoodon Desmarest), but the presence of the paraconid and the hypoconulid,
though reduced, may be evidence of a vemote relationship to both Thylacis and
Perameles. The characters displayed in this specimen seem to indicate that the
Palankarinna animals were nearer to bilbies than to the other genera of the
Peramelidae,
Choerepus evidently represents another specialized form related most closely
to Perumeles, The premolars in the Palankarinna specimen are relatively and
actually longer and are relatively shorter crowned than in Choeropus, FWurther-
more there are no diastems between the premolars of Chacropus, Other differ-
ences are reflected in the molars; though considerably larger they are relatively
252, Recorps OF THE S.A. MusEUM
much lower crowned than in the pig-footed bandicoot. -The paraconids and hypo-
conulids, also, are more reduced, Choeropus is a much smaller animal. The
fossil form may be ancestral (but probably is not) to bilbies. If it is in a direct
aneestral position the bilbies have experienced considerable evolution in their
dentition, especially in becoming ligher crowned and in the loss of the para-
conid, since the Palankarinna fauna existed in the area east of Lake Eyre.
Famiry MACROPODIDAE.
Macropodid remains were more numerous at the Palankarinna site than all
the other fossils combined. Even in the limited time available for collecting on
our first trip to the locality we found a representative of every tooth both
permanent and deciduous. Eventually we should have an excellent series for a
study of variation in the population.
This new genus and species is recognized as a member of the Macropodinae.
Detailed comparisons with other genera in the subfamily have not been eom-
pleted for this preliminary report.
Genus ProowoTemNus(”? nov.
Type of genotypic species. Prionotemnus palankarinnicus sp, nov.)
The diagnostic characters of the genus are those of the genotypic species
Lad 5 5
until other species have been described.
PRIONOTEMNUS PALANKARINNICUS sp. TOV.
Holotype. Right mandible with P,;—-My in place, most of angle, ascending
ramus, part of symphysis and incisor missing (Fig. 3), U.C. No. 44381.
Paratypes, Lett maxillary with P®-M4, ULC, No, 44382 (Fig. 4). Left
maxillary with P?, DP#, M1—M® in place, M* still imbedded in the maxillary,
U.C. No. 44384. Left mandible with Ps,—Ms, in place, My, empty; most of
angle, ascending ramus, part of symphysis and incisor missing, U.C. No, 44885.
Rieht mandible with P,—M, in place; most of angle, part of ascending and in-
cisor missing, U.C. No, 44386. Left mandible with Py—M, in place; angle, part
of ascending ramus, symphysis and incisor missing, U-C. No, 44387, Part of
right mandible with Ms-, in place; front half broken off, angle nearly complete,
most of ascending ramus missing, U.C. No. 44888. Part of left mandible with
Ps. DP, M,-» in place, Ms still embedded in the maxillary, U.C, No. 44839.
Right metatarsal IV and associated phalanges, U.C. No. 44383 (Fig. 5). Right
(2) apy, saw; Téaurvs, to cut (in reference to the premolars).
(3)Named for the type fauna ut Lake Palankarinna.
STrRTON—LATE TERTIARY MARSUPIALS FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA 253
P38, UC, No. 44390. Composite upper incisors, U.C. No, 44391, Left P?, ULC,
No. 44392. Symphysis of left mandible, U.C. No, 44393. Left lower incisor,
U.C. No. 44394. Right Po, U.C. No. 44395, left DP3, U.C. No. 44396.
forelink
masseteric foramen Ma
Fig. 3. Prionotemnus palankarinnicus, Stivton, n, gen, and n, sp., holotype, No, 44381;
Woodard Locality V5367, Palankarinna fauna; Wtadunna formation, Right mandible with
Ps-My; most of angle, ascending ramus, part of symphysis and incisor missing. Occlusal
(A) and labial (B) views. Natural size.
Generic Diagnosis. Partial forward rotation of molars. P* with no lmgual
basin; labial surface slightly convex and lingual surface slightly concave. Ps
with four labial and four lingual grooves. P* not longer than M+ nor shorter
than M*; P® with narrow lingual shelf and narrow lingual basin; prominent
posterointernal cusp; tiny posterointernal fossette. M+ and M* nearly quadrate.
[2(4) with enamel extending upward from yentral border nearly halfway on
lingual surface; relative proportions of IT? as in Wallabia but larger. P» with
long, deep and narrow anterior lingual groove and shorter wide posterior lingual
eroove divided into three parts by two short ridges in apical area of unworn
teeth. Ps usually equal in length to Ms sometimes as long as My; cusps of same
height on erest. DP, with short crescentic lophid on anterior moiety; crest
extends anteriorly from midpoint of anterior crescentic lophid thence labially
(4) Assuming the primitive incisor formula in marsupials was :
ryt 4-2 be P Pe 0-3-3+4-0
maining incisors in the Macropodidae are s-9-0-0"
1 “5
7 na and that the re-
254 Recorps OF THE S.A. MusEUM
downward and backward along basal part of anterior moiety forming shallow
basin on anterolabial corner of tooth. Lower molars lonver than wide but rela-
tively wider than in Wallabia and in Protemnodon,
Description.
Maxillary process opposite M*®, broad 11-5 mm. not rotated transversely,
anterior lower border sharp not overturned posteriorly ; infraorbital canal 24-0
mm. long, infraorbital foramen above M?,
Teeth. 1°(°) not as elongate anteroposteriorly as I?, crown of enamel much
longer, dimensions of crown almost uniform throughout, length of root variable
from 10:0 to 20-0 mm,, faint indication of groove slightly back of midpoint on
lateral surface; strongly decurved ; occlusion on posterior face.
midlink
TA x
protoloph
Fig. 4. Prionotemnus palankarinnicus, Stirton, n. gen, and n. sp., paratype, No. 44382;
Woodard Locality V5367, Palankarinna fauna; Etadunna formation, Left maxillary with
P8—M4, Ocelusal (A) and labial (B) views, Natural size,
18 smaller in all dimensions than I? or I+, labial surface convex and smooth,
occlusal surface triangular in outline with posterior inflection, crown probably
not more than 8-5 mm,, root relatively long—9+-4 mm.
1* crown elongate but narrow, prominent groove and ridge slightly anterior
of median labial position, oeclusal surface hook-shaped by anterior direction of
inflection from lateral groove, crown short-9-1, root approximately 12-0 mm.
(5) Thig is assuming that I) and 15 haye been lost.
SrtrrtOoN—LATE TERTIARY Marsupials FROM SourH AusiitALia 255
Spuce between alveolus of T+ and maxillary—premaxillary suture—12:0 mim,
P# two wide median labial grooves and two fainter median lingual grooves
separated by sharp crest; heavy basal enamel with irregular sturtace continuous
along labial surface, not sharply differentiated into cingulum; slight lingual
vingulium basal shell with irregular surface, no lingual basin; no posterolingual
cusp; anterior and posterior ends of crest only slightly elevated above middle
part; Jabial and lingual edges nearly parallel, labial surface slightly convex aud
lingual surface slightly concave, angulate anteriorly ; two roots.
P3 not longer than M® nor shorter than M2, four labial grooves and four
lingual grooves; labial basal cingulum not continuous around posterolabial
corner; irregular lingual eiugulum forming narrow basal shelf and narrow lin-
eval basin; anterior and posterior ends of erest slightly higher than three inter-
veining usps; prominent posterolingual cusp ; tiny posteromedian fossette; re-
places both P# and DP3 with crest pushing up between their roots.
DP® molariform but with protoloph narrower than metaloph. All apeci-
mens too heavily worn to show detailed pattern.
Upper Molars, Gradation in size from large to small in upper molars M*,
M‘, M2, M1; M% and M! nearly equal and somewhat clongate; M* and M* nearly
quadrate, M3 and M‘ more elongate; metaloph of M4 narrower than protoloph;
prominent trenchant auterobasal cimgulium nearly as wide as protoloph, not
sharply deflected palinally from midpoint ; no forelink; lophs orescentic in early
stages of wear become less so as they wear down; midlink usually formed by
spurs developed from protoloph and from metaloph, curved labially and poster-
jiorly from protocone to middle of metaloph, curvature less apparent in later
stages of wear, anterior and posterior spurs of midlink usually fused bit. some-
times not complete particularly in M%; faint basal lingual cingulum sometimes
present on any of the upper molars. Hindlink eregcentic on M1, M2 and usually
on M® joing at midpoint with similar but less distinct crest from metacone, ex-
tends to base of metacone on M# and sometimes on M*.
Mandible, Symphysial region only slightly upturned in lateroventral out-
line, not decumbent. Mental foramen usually elongate and ovate, directed an-
terodorsally, near diastemal crest, distance anterior to P, variable (8-4-13-5),
Hdge of masseteric foramen between opening of posterior dental canal and eoro-
noid fossa observable in adult specimens with mandible in horizontal position at
eye level ; mandibular ramus, tooth row, and symphysis nearly horizontal.
Te lanceolate; slightly curved from tip to end of root in labial outline;
labial enamel surface and length of root about equal; enamel extends npward
from veutral border nearly halfway on lingual surface; relative proportions as
in Wallabia; length of diastem between Ty and C in one adult—36-9,
256
th
\
REcoRDs OF THE S.A. MusEuM
Fig. 5. Prionotemnus palankarin-
nicus, Stirton, n. gen, and n. sp., para-
types No, 44883; Woodard Locality
V5367, Palankarinna fauna, Etadun-
na formation. Right metatarsal IV
and composite phalanges, A, exter-
nal; B, internal; and C, front views
of metatarsal; D, posterior; and E,
front views of phalanges. Three-
fourths natural size,
hohe
I, 7 ili,
SrtmToN—LATE TERTIARY MAnsuPIALs FROM SouTH AUSTRALIA 957
Ps long, deep and narrow anterior Lingual groove; shorter wide posterior
lingual grooye, divided into three parts by two short ridges in apical area of
nnworn teeth; a little over half as long as Ps; apparently two median labial
grooyes (not clear because of wear in specimens at hand) ; no indication of basal
cingulum; crest moderately serrate, of same height throughout; slightly convex
labially, slightly concave lingually ; two roots; no posterointernal eusp.
Ps four labial and four lingual short grooves; labial and lingual cingula
not continuous anteriorly or posteriorly; Ps usually equal in length to Ms some-
times as long as Ms; serrate crest, cusps of same heieht; posterior cusp thicker
than those in front, slightly deflected lingnally; replaces both Ps and DP, with
crest directly below these teeth; anterior end sometimes turned downward from
rotary pressure of molars behind.
DP, submolariform; triangular outline; anterior moiety with short cres-
centic lophid, posterior moiety bicuspid; crest extends anteriorly from midpoint
of anterior erescentic lophid thence labially, downward and backward along
basal part of anterior moiety forming shallow Jateral basin on anterolabial
corner of tooth; another short cingulum extends from anterior midpoint down
to anterolingual corner ; posterior cingulum; lophids connected by midlink,
Lower Molars, Gradation in size of lower molars My, M3, M2, My; longer
than wide; prominent anterior cingulum not equal to full width of tooth; lophids
erescentic in early stages of wear become less so as they wear down; forelink
curves slightly inward from protoconid then straight forward to auterior cingn-
lum; midlink curves shehtly inward from hypoconid then straight forward to
middle base of protolophid, no spur extending posterior from protolophid; faint
posterior cingulum; no labial or lingnal cingula; no hindlink.
Metatarsal [V—anterior surface not conspicnously convex; posterior prox-
imal half of shaft with rather sharp edge; outline of shaft above distal artieu-
lating surface ovate.
MEASUREMENTS OF MreraTARSAL AND PHALANGES.
Length M+ IV... ee tae oe na +. .. 123+2
Width proximal facet ¥- : na a ia Se 20-3
Width distal articulating surface at 19-2
Depth of shaft 90 inm. above distal end. a 20°23
Width of shaft 90 mm. above distal end 12+3
Remarks, P. palankarinnicus differs from each of the nine species from
Queensland described by De Vis (1895) winder the generie name Walamaturus.
The characters examined occur both in the molars and in the premolars, yet
characters based on the same structures in our series from the Woodard locality
258 Records or THE S.A. MusEuM
are constant. Unfortunately neither the geographic location, the stratigraphic
position, nor any indication of faunal assemblage information is available for
De Vis’ specimens. This of course makes a detailed comparison seem rather
futile, since characters that are stable in one species are not necessarily stable
in another. More than one of his types may come from one fauna. In some fea-
tures the Palankarinna animals resemble the wallabies and in other characters
they look like the species of Protemnoden from the Pleistocene. Our form may
approximate a common ancestral position to these two genera. The proportions
of the limb bones are suggestive of the Macropodinae.
Famity DIPROTODONTIDAE.
The relationships of the named genera of the Diprotodontidae are not yet
known. The smaller genera referred to the Nototherinae seem to belong to two
or more distinct groups, but we do not have enough information on the types and
other specimens in museum collections to determine the magnitude of these
differences. Lack of information on the stratigraphic position of the fossils and
on the associated mammalian faunas has also been a serious handicap in inter-
preting their affinities. Nevertheless, certain characters seem worthy of compari-
son and comment at this time. It is hoped that additional discoveries in the near
future will clear up the relationships of some of the named genera.
Genus Meniscovoprus!*) noy.
Type of genotypic species. Meniscolaphus mawsont'?) sp, nov.
The diagnostic characters of the genus are those of the genotypic species
until other species have been described,
MENISCOLOPHUS MAWSONT Sp, nov.
Holotype. Mandibles with complete little worn dentition, ascending ramus
and most of angle broken off. Left maxillary(*) fragment, with M? and M4 and
aright M$ (Fig. 7, 8,9). U.C. No, 44897.
Generic diagnosis. Tncisors not markedly procumbent nor conspicuously
grooved, not caniniform; dorsal outline of incisor slightly concave, Diastemal
erest. between Iz and Py, slightly convex. Posterior end of symphysis opposite
anterior moiety of My. Length of Py—17-1, right Py 4:4 greater than one-half
(8) payidwos, crescent; Aodos, crest.
(7)Named for Sir Douglas Mawson, Professor emeritus, Department of Geology, Univer-
sity of Adelaide.
(8)Evyideutly this belongs to the same individual as the mandible since the specimens
were found in proximity in the quarry and since both upper and lower teeth are in the same
stage of wear.
STmRTON—LATE TERTIARY MARSUPIALS FROM SouTIT AUSTRALIA 259
of length of My, left Ps 6-0 greater than one-half length of M, ; no indication of
cingulum on anterolabial corner of Pa. Length, width and height (of proto-
Jophid from base of enamel below metaconid) of My=87'126°38%20-9.
Lophids of molars slightly crescenti¢c and slightly oblique, midlink not entering
into crescentic outline of hypholophid; midlink extends straight forward down
into median valley from middle of labial half of hypolophid. No paralophid,
Posterior cingulum elevated sharply at midpoint, shallow somewhat widened
trench between cingulum and main body of tooth blocked by short low anterior
directed ridge at that point. Prominent diagastrie process aud postdiagastri¢
sulous on posterior lower border of mandible.
DESCRIPTION,
Mandible, Symphysial region normal, not spatulate nor abruptly upturned;
symphysial suleus markedly U-shaped laterally, slightly convex anteropos-
teriorly on Lingual surface along symphysial suture, narrow (1:5 wide) deep
yroove along symphysial line fades out 19-0 back of incisor alveolar border ;
ventral surface also with grooved sutural line, 39-5 this groove expands into
elongate (41-7) relatively narrow (10:0) slightly depressed rugose area; subal-
veolaris fossa distinct; spina mentalis broken off; no torsus transversus; «ia-
stemal crest. between incisor and P, pitted and grooved; mental foramen ovate
4-5 vertically and 5:8 anteroposteriorly, 27:5 below and +3 anterior to Ps,
Lower border of ramus slightly convex between symphysial notch and cdiagastrie
process; diagastrie process prominent, pointed; long (80-0) pronounced post-
diagastric sul¢us between diagastrie process and base of angle; angular fossa
deep (approx. 16-0) and continues forward as shallower depression 70-0 heyord
postdiagastric process. Posterior angular surface nearly flat, 74+ wide below
condyle (broken cannot be measured accurately) ; only base of ascending ramus
preserved, anterior border opposite anterior moiety of My; postalveolar shelf
back of My triangular, 25-0 long, with postalveolar ridge extending more or less
uninterrupted to postalyealar process at edge of postdental canal. Postdental
canal 9°0 in diameter, 51-0 back of and on level of upper half of My, canal runs
under labial border of tooth row; basal part of eoronoid fossa 77-0 wide and
15-0 deep,
Lower teeth, Diastem between incisors 6-0; incisors curved gently upward
and slightly ontward, extends 37-0 out of alveolus; anteroventral and labial sur-
face of incisor coated with enamel, enamel extends 12-0 into alveolus, lower
surface not grooved, npper lateral surface slightly grooved near contact with
exposed dentine surface, dorsal surface of dentine also slightly grooved near
lateral border; dentine exposed on inner and posterior surfaces, enamel occurred
260 Recorps oF THE S.A. MusEuM
on these surfaces; thick root, reduces in size at lower end, open, not compressed
laterally, terminates about 20-0 back of and below mental foramen and below
P;, ; dental canal passes down and over labial side of open root,
Cheekteeth decrease in size trom My to Ps, but Mg only slightly smaller
than My ; some cement in depressions of teeth.
Ps moderately worn, evidently with single cusp, exposed dentine roughly
triangular, expanded cingulum extending from posterolingual corner to point
between roots on labial side, shallow somewhat widened trench between cingulum
and main body of tooth, no indication of anterior cingulum; lingual edge
straight; no indication of vertical lateral grooves dividing tooth into anterior
and posterior moieties; labial enamel 2-0 thick, lingual enamel 0-5 thick; both
roots curved posteriorly.
Pattern of molars alike except shelf-like cingulum structure across opening
of median valley more prominent on lingual side of Mg and My and more pro-
nounced on labial side of My and Ms. Lophids shgehtly erescentie and slightly
oblique; protolophid not higher than hypolophid. Anterior and posterior mivie-
ties about equal in width except on M, where anterior moiety is a bit narrower;
posterior moieties on Ms, Mz and My as wide or slightly wider than anterior
indieties; posterior moieties longer anteroposteriorly than anterior moieties on
all of the molars. Median valleys sharply V-shaped. Posterior cingulum ele-
vated sharply but not discontinuous at midpoint, shallow somewhat widened
trench between posterior cingulum and main body of tooth bloeked by low crest
at that point. Midlink extends straight forward down into median valley from
labial side of hypholophid. Cingula discontinuous opposite labial and lingual
surfaces of protolophids and hypolophids, tend to ascend but fades out on these
surfaces.
Upper teeth. Lophs crescentic and slightly oblique; anterior moiety wider
than posterior moiety; median valleys sharply V-shaped ; only slight elevation m
area of midlink; wide anterior cingulum, without labial eusp: short cingula
across lingual and labial openings of median valleys; wide posterior basal cin-
gula. Posterior edge of jugal arch opposite anterior edge of M*,
MEASUREMENTS,
Length from tip of incisor to posterior angular surface ° 4 -.. 850°0
Length from tip of incisor to entry of dental canal A af -. 290-7
Depth of ramus below anterior alveolus of My .. :* e .. 70°0
Depth of ramus below anterior alveolus of Mg .. nd re _ 61-0
Thickness of ramus below M, ll ft i 3 a x. 33°5
Length of symphysis a .. 118-0
Depth of symphysis at midline opposite mental for atien a obi 47°8
Diastem between incisor and Pg .. - e% zt a4 62-9
Stimston—LATE TreRnTrARyY MaRrsuPlAts FROM Soutit AUSTRALIA 261
Length of feeth measured at middle and on left tooth row.
P,-My=150 3 ; Ps-M» =113- 4 3 Ps3-—Ma =T77 “6 ;
P3—M,=—46-4; M,-My=133-4; My-Mzg—96'7;
M,-M.—61-0; My-M,=103-9; Ms-M,—67°9;
My-My=72:8.
Median length X width of anterior moiety > width of posterior moiety, except.
Ps which is measured across the middle.
P3=17-213-0; My =29-0% 20-0; My —82-4¢ 22-8;
My,=36°4 26-0; My=87°1% 26:3,
Height of anterior lophid from base of enamel below metaconid of My 20-9
Length M?—M$& +. : . A an 69-1
Median length > width of anterior moiety > width of posterior moiety.
M?=31-6% 28-0 26-4 M8—37-0%31-1% 28-6
Comparison. The generic name Nototherium is second only to Diprotodon
in its frequency in the literature. Ironically though, in all probability the
specific characters in the type of the genotypic species N, mitchelli Owen (1845,
. 223, pls. 3-4) from the ‘‘alluvial or newer tertiary deposits in the bed of the
Condamine River, west of Moreton Bay,’’ can never be recognized, If this
proves to be true the name mitchelli must be set aside as a nomen dubium? or
nomen vanum\®), Tt seems unwise to treat the generic name in a like manner as
long as there is a possibility of recognizing generic affinities of the other species
with the type of the genotypic species.(1
Owen’s type of Nototheriwm is the posterior part of a left mandible with
Mz; and M, in place but nearly all of the enamel on the teeth has been shattered
and lost. The posterior lower border of the horizontal ramus is complete but the
ascending ramus is broken off. Unfortunately the teeth are so badly broken an
accurate determination of affinities from them will be extremely difficult. In
comparing the type with other specimens in the British Museum of Natural
History it was found to be more like specimen No, 43523 (Owen, 1877, pp. 289-
290, pl. XLV) than any other specimen with which it was compared. Some
enamel still preserved in the median valley of M. in the type is indicative of a
V-shaped valley as in the specimen mentioned above. This feature is also found
in the type of Huryzygoma dunense (De Vis), 1887. Buryzygoma. agrees with
the British Museum specimen No, 43523 in that the midlink on the molars is
(%) Kvyidently these terms are synonymous,
(10)Thus the opinion expressed by Savage (1951, p. 260, footnote 7) is followed in his
treatment. of the genus Camelops. It is appreciated though that the ease of Nototheriwm
differs from that of Camelops in that I am still not certain that the genus ean be recognized
in Owen’s type.
262 Recorps or THe S.A. Museum
continuous as a labial curvature of the hypolophid. Furthermore, Vuryeygoma
resembles Owen's type and the British Museum specimen No, 438523 in the ab-
sence of a pronounced diagastrie process and postdiagastric sulcus. NV. milohells
differs further from Meniscolophus in its postalyeolar process being 40'0 below
the opening of the postdental canal. In both Buryzygama and the referred
Nototherium, the lophids are more obliquely creseentio than in Meniscoloplus.
In addition Meniscolophus differs from both of these genera in the anteropos-
tevior direction of the midlink, and in the midpoint elevation of the posterior
aingnium, V-shaped median valleys are fownd in all of these genera, Muryey-
gona differs from Meniscolophus in its larger size, more procumbent and more
pronounced lateral grooved incisors. Other features of distinction in Muryey-
yoma are seen in the posterior end of the symphysis being opposite the anterior
end of Ms, in the length of Ps which ts one-half the length of M,, and in the
protolophid being 5:0 higher than on My, in Meniscolophus.
Both Huowenia robusta De Vis, 1891, and Euowenia grata (De Vis), 1887,
show marked resemblances to Meniscolophus in the construction of the molars,
in the presence of a diagastrie process and a diagastrie suleus. They differ in
the shape of the symphysis and in the outline and direction of the incisors.
here also are minor differences in the molar patterns. The symphysis in
robusta is long (197*2), narrow (51:8 hetween mental foramina), slightly \p-
turned, and with the symphysial notch below Ms. On the other hand the sym-
physis is much shorter m grata (116-8), wider (70°1 between mental foramina),
abruptly upturned and with the symphysial notch below M,.
I designate Euowenia robusta De Vis, 1891, as the genotypic species since
De Vis did not refer to either species as the type of his new genus. The type
specimens of these two species will be deseribed in detail at a later date by Jack
’, Woods of the Queensland Museum.
Though the generic affinities of ‘ Notothertum’’ vietoriae, Owen, 1873, are
not clear aud it differs from Meniscolophus in several features it scems nearer to
the Palankavinna genus than to the other genera and species. U1 differs from
Meniscolophus as follows: posterior end of symphysis opposite middle of Ma.
Length width and height (of protolophid from base of enamel below metaconics)
of My=45-3%¢33:524°6 approx. Lophids transverse. Midlink not as pro-
nounced but in same position. Diagastri¢ prominence as long as postdiagastrie
sulcus. Postdental canal about on same level in relation to tooth row as in
Meniscolophus, but separated from postalveolar shelf aud postalyeolar ridge by
deep groove. Median valley not as sharply V-shaped. Shelf-like cingula strne-
tures across openings of median valleys of molars not prominent, Trench be-
tween posterior cingulum and main body of tooth not blocked by crest. Length
M.—-M,=122:0.
Strrron—Late Tertiary MARSUPIALS FROM SouTH AUSTRALIA 263
**Nolotherium’’ tasmanicum, Scott, 1911, seems to be close to ‘'N."* wietoriae
except in the position of the foramen of the postdental canal, which is high on
the ascending ramus as in the type of ‘*N’’ mitchell.
protoloph = mejatoph position of paragone
Holotype
FOUR INCHES
“position of pasidentol candl
Fig. 6. Diprotodont, No. 44398; Woodard Loeality V5367; Palankarinna fauna; Bta-
dunna formation, Part of leff maxillary with M1l=Ms, Occlusal view. One-third natural
size,
Fig.7. Meniscolophus mawsoni, Stirton, n. gen. and n. sp., holotype No, 44397. Woaod-
ard Locality V5367; Palankarinna fauna; Ktadunna formation. Mandibles with little worn
incisors and Py-M4, ascending ramus and most of angle broken off, Ocelusal (A) and labial
(B) views, One-third natural size,
264 Recornps or Tue S.A. Museum
“Nototherium’’? watutense, Anderson, 1937, is represented by a very poor
type specimen since only a fragment of My remains in part of the mandible.
Nevertheless the presence of a diagastric process and a postdiagastric suleus give
evidence of a mandibular outline, at least in that area, much like that in Menis-
colophus. Though the tooth of a possible topotype from Surprise Creck, near
Wau, New Guinea (Australian Museum No. F41443), is much lower crowned
and smaller than Meniscolophus, has median valleys not so narrow, las a much
more complete anterior posterior and labial cingulum, but has slightly oblique
lophids and midlinks, though not as prominent, in the same position as in Meni-
scolaphus, “*N.7’ watutense is probably referable to the genus Meniscolophus,
It is not clear at this time to which of the smaller nototheres Diprotodon
is most closely related. Tt is much larger, has a longer eranium and mandible,
and the cheekteeth, though brachyodont, are both relatively and actually higher
erowned. It shows a marked similarity to Meniscolophus in the diagastric
process, in the postdiagastric suleus, the postalveolar ridge leading fram the
postalveolar shelf to the postdental canal, but in other features it is not close.
The large incisors have open roots; if root closure took place it must have been
in the oldest individuals. On the other hand the area covered with enamel on
the imcisors is somewhat like that nm Meniscolophus. The pattern of the molars
jn their transverse crescentic lophids, in the absence of midlinks, in the presence
of cement both in the median valleys and on other surfaces of the molars, is
quite different from Meniscolophus.
Some of the characters mentioned here may prove useful in an interpreta-
tion of phylogenetic relationships when we haye more information on the
Tertiary fossil reeard of the Diprotodontidae.
DIPROTODONT.
Four notothere specimens from Palankarimna are clearly not referable to
Memscolophus. These are the back part of a left mandible with a well-worn
My, in place, U.C. No, 44401, a fragment of a left mandible with a moderately-
worn My (Fig. 10) U.C. No. 44890, a left maxillary fragment with M1-M#
moderately worn (Fig. 7), and a left M1 of a smaller individual U.C., No. 44400
(Fig. 11). The following characters indicate affinities with part of a maxillary
from the marine Miocene near Beaumaris, Victoria, but it is thought that
materials from Palankarinna are not referable to the species from Victoria,
though it may belong to the same genus.
Upper molars with protoloph transverse and with metaloph shghtly
oblique; anterior moiety wider than posterior moiety except on M1; median
valley wide; slight elevation of mudlink-like structure in median valley back of
Stmron—LATE TERTIARY MARSUPIALS FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA 265
pretdiapeetric sulces
10 11
Fig. 8. Mentscolophus mawsont, Stirton, n, gen, and n, sp., holotype No. 44397, Woodard
Loeality V5367, Palankarinna fauna; Etadunna formation. Part of left maxillary with
M2 and M8. Occlusal (A) and labial (B) views, One-third natural size.
Fig. 9, Meniseolophus mawesont, Stirton, n. gern, and n. sp., holotype No. 44397. Wood-
ard Locality V5367; Palankarinna fauna; Etadunna formation. Mandible. Ventral view.
One-third natural size,
Fig. 10, Diprotodont, No. 44397. Woodard Loeality V5367; Palankarinna fauna; Eta-
dunna formation. Right My. Labial (A) and oeelusal (B) views, One-third natural size.
Fig. 11. Diprotodont, No. 44400. Woodard Locality V5367; Palankarinna fauna; Eta-
dunna formation, Left M1. Labial (A) and oeelusal (B) views. One-third natural size.
paracone; wide anterior cingulum with labial cusp; wide posterior cingulum
with labial cusp; short cingulum across lingual opening of median valley;
stylar cusp at posterior labial base of paracone, does not cross labial opening
of middle valley. Posterior edge of jugal arch opposite middle of M3.
My, with transverse crescentic lophids; anterior cingulum less prominent
than in upper molars; anterior moiety wider than posterior moiety; median
266 Recorps oF THE S.A. MusEuM
valley wide; slight elevation of enamel in area of midlink; no indication of
cingula across opening of median valley; posterior cingulum slightly elevated
at midpoint; shallow trench between posterior cingulum and main body of
tooth not blocked by low crest at midpoint.
Lower mandibular outline like that in V. milchelli.
MmasUREMENTS.
No. 44398.
Leneth M1-M* Phe +3 i. t ay wt se =:109°5
Length M1-M? ie ite ai, ae + i be 67-9
Length M*—-M3 _ te te as LF 5 i bn 80+2
No. 44398.
Median length & width of anterior moiety width posterior moiety
M1=—31+927-9X28:0 M*=37-8833-7X31:1 M3=—43-436-1%32-4
No. 44400.
M1=27-4 25-8 25-6
No. 44401.
Depth of ramus below anterior alveolus of My—79:-0
No. 44397.
Median length * width of anterior moiety * width of posterior moiety
My—43-4 32-6 29-0
Comparison, The Palankarinna form is larger than the largest specimen
from New Guinea (7-0 in the length of M4) and almost twice as large as the
Beaumaris specimen, from Victoria (15-6 difference in the length of M*).
Trrespective of the difference in size characters in the Palankarinna maxillary
seem to be foreshadowed in the Beaumaris form except in the following features,
Posterior moiety relatively narrower transversely ; anterior cingulum with
labial cusp less developed but distinct; no stylar eusp at posterior labial base of
paracone; posterior edge of jugal arch apparently opposite anterior edge of M%,
If, as the evidence seems to indicate, the specimen from Beaumaris is in or
near the line of ancestry to the Palankarinna diprotodont and the unit of the
Sandringham sands from which it came is late Miocene in age (Singleton, 1941;
Gill, 1950; Glaessner, 1951) our fauna probably belongs in the early Pliocene.
On the other hand, if the Beaumaris fossil is early Pliocene (Crespin, oral
communication) then our fauna could be middle Pliocene.
Unfortunately the specimens at hand offer meagre evidence for a generic
diagnosis, though some of the features observed may be of generic magnitude.
Nevertheless it seems expedient to await the results of another field season in
anticipation of a more revealing type specimen.
StimtToN—LATE TERTIARY MARSUPIALS FROM SouTH AUSTRALIA 267
TEDFORD LOCALITY !11)
Famity PHASCOLARCTIDAE.
Tedford discovered a fragment of a right maxillary of a koala-like animal
among fragments of other vertebrates approximately 25 feet below the Wood-
ard locality. The specimen contains the posterior border of the alyeolus of P*,
the roots of M!, M* with much of the enamel surface and the inner edge broken
away, part of the alveolus of M®, and the base of the jugal arch.
Though the specimen shows a marked resemblance to Phascolarctos it differs
in several features. Auteorbital fossa shallow; width of base of jugal arch
opposite M*—6-7; enamel surface of molar conspicuously crenellated; proto-
cone and hypocone more crescentic; M? as wide as long; length 6-3, width 6-3;
occlusal outline of M* evidently more rounded.
This fossil ig more closely related to the koala than to Pseudocheirus,
Schoinobates or Hemibelidens. It differs from ** Pseudochirus (2)?* notabilis(4?)
De Vis, 1889, from Freestone Creek, Queensland, in the crenellated enamel sur-
face of M*, in that tooth being as wide as long, and in its more rounded outline.
Perhaps additional discoveries at Lake Palankarinna will clear up the relation-
ships of this animal.
SUMMARY.
Late Tertiary vertebrate remains are reported from the west side of Lake
Palankarinna east of Lake Eyre, South Australia. The assemblage is named
Palankarinna fauna, In accompanying notes the stratigraphie unit in which
it occurs has been described as the Etadunua formation by G. D. Woodard.
Locally the mammalian fossils are abundant in a channel deposit valled the
Woodard locality. The age seems to be early or middle Pliocene,
Preliminary deseviptions of the mammals include: PERAMELIDAB—
Ischnodon australis n. gen, and n. sp.; PHASCOLARCTIDAE—phascolarctid,
specimen not adequate for diagnosis (found on the same level as the Woodard
locality and in the Etadunna formation); MACROPODIDAK—Prionotemnus
palankarinnicus n, gen, and n, sp.; DIPROTODONTIDAE—Weniscolophus
mawsont n. gen, and n. sp.; diprotodont specimens not adequate for diagnosis.
Teleost, dipnoian, chelonian, crocodilian fragments and crayfish gastroliths also
were found,
Ischnodon seems more closely related to the bilbies than to Perameles and
Thylacis but in some features it displays relationships with these genera. The
(11)8ee stratigraphic position under section on stratigraphy.
(2) This type is not referable to the genus Pseudocheirus, but is much closer to the koala.
268 Recorps or THE S.A. Museum
phascolarctid is clearly nearer to the koala than to Pseudochetrus, Schoinobates
tlenmibelideus or Petropseudes, It also ditfers from ‘*Pseudocheirus (2)? nota-
bilis, De Vis, 1889, in certain details. Prionotemnus has some characters in
common with the wallabies and others that resemble Protemnodon. It may
represent a proximity to a common ancestor of both genera. Meniscolophus anil
the unidentified notothere share characters with most of the proposed genera
and species of the Nototherinae.
LITERATURE CITED
Anderson, ©. (19387). Paleontological notes. Fossil marsupials from New
Guinea. Ree. Aust. Mus., vol. 20, No, 2, pp. 73-87, pl. 8.
De Vis, C. W. (1887). On a supposed new species of Nototherium; Proe, Linn,
Soc. N.S.W., vol. 2, pp. 1065-1070, pl. 38,
De Vis, C. W. (1889), On the Vhalangistidae of the post-Tertiary period in
Queensland. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, vol. 6, pp. 105-114, pls. 4-5.
De Vis, C. W. (1895). 20
mm., the smallest 21 13 mm.; all except one have some of the matrix attached.
The outer surface is smooth and unpitted, and some mineralization has occurred,
but there is no trace of weathering. Thickness 10mm. A27920 consists of
22 pieces, the largest 24 22 mm.; the other fragments are mostly smaller than
those of A28103. The outer surface is smooth with some evidence of pitting.
Some fragments have a dark stain, but all appear to be slightly less mineralized
than A28103. Thickness 1°3mm. A28043 is a single fragment 22 % 23 mm,
and about 1-5 mm, thick. Both surfaces are covered with a limey incrustation.
To attempting to discover whether abrasion and weathering of a fresh egg
of an Emu would result in a similar surface texture, an average-sized specimen,
188 > 91mm. and 1mm. in thickness, was rubbed with sandpaper until the
coarse granulations were removed. It was found that the thickness of the shell
was reduced to only 0:8-0-9 mm,, and that the general texture of the shell
showed little resemblance to the fragments under notice,
From comparisons made the fragments are shown to have no partieular
resemblance to any egg of a modern species. Curvature and thickness suggest
an egg larger than that of the Emu (Dromains novae-hollandiae) and it is
possible that some species of fossil ratite (Genyornis, Dromornis, ete.) is
involved.
ASSOCIATION BETWEEN EXTINCT FOSSIL MAMMALS AND
ABORIGINES
The sole extinct. mammal bone found im situ in Layer A which can be de-
duced as affording positive evidence of large extinct animals contemporary with
people of Pirrian times is a lower jaw of Procoptodon with the two rami still
joined together, found in a fragile state, in situ during the 1939 study. It is of
course possible, since some erosion of bed B evidently had oceurred before the
deposition of bed A, that this was a disturbed fossil, brought up by accident on
to Layer A, rather than an animal killed in Pirrian time. However, its presence
appears significant. During the present author’s second brief visit to the area
part of an articulated leg which probably was that of a large bird, of the style
TINDALE — ARCHAEOLOGICAL Sirk IN New SourH WALES 289
of Genyornis, was noted in situ in A; owing to an oversight this example was not
collected by Professor Stirton’s party.
The vast majority of the larger mammal bones are ones found on the surface,
a few on A, usually where eroded down towards its base, but the bulk were lying
on Bed B. Hence they might appear to have been contemporary principally
with the relics of the implement industry here tentatively identified as Tar-
tungan.
Burned bones were found in Bed B indicating man had snbjected animal
bones to fire. Plate Ih shows an excellent example. The figure is of part of the
right side of the rear part of a skull of the size of Pracoptodon in the region of
the orbit, This bone, its species not yet identified, was found by KR. H. Tedford
(his No. 62) as a loose specimen, or ‘‘float’’? on Layer B in Area IIT; it has
matrix of Layer B still remaining attached, hence its horizon should not be in
doubt, This matrix is posterior in time to the burning of the bone.
The presence of the bones and stone implements in apparent association in
the one area could be fortuitous, and there are undoubted difficulties in the inter-
pretation of all sites which have been exposed by wind erosion with consequent
slumping of remains from one horizon to another, for despite every care in
gathering the material, errors of interpretation undoubtedly ean arise, Hence
there is every reason to regard as tentative, the conclusion reached here, that
the presence of so many animal bones together with native implements reqtires
the particular explanation that at least some of the bones were brought together
on surfaces of Layer B as food by early aboriginal hunters, The Layer B hunters
secmingly left relatively few implements but many animal bones, The suc-
ceeding Pirrian people left abundant traces of occupation in the form of imple-
ments, but relatively fewer traces of the animals they hunted.
COLLECTIONS FROM OTHER SITES IN THE DISTRICT
During the 1939 visit, heavy rains interrupted the field work. During inter-
ludes in the rain several sites nearer to Menindee township, on the Darling
River, were examined. Beds which seemed to represent the three horizons, O; A
and B were identified and further material collected. The results of these brief
reconnaissanees were given separate field marks in which Bed W=0, X—A and
Y —B, these identifications being based on lithological similarities, which should
be confirmed by further study. The principal sites were;
(a) 2m. W. of Menindee township,
(b) 14m. S. of Menindee township,
(¢) 14m. N--W, of the Lake Menindee railroad cutting,
(d) 18m. N.-W. of the Lake Menindee railroad cutting,
290 Recorps or THE S.A. Museum
The ‘‘eutting’’ referred to is one where the railroad from Broken Hill, after
skirting the shore of Lake Menindee, turns slightly to the east and cuts obliquely
across the lake dunes towards Menindee township. The new (1953) highway,
which avoids the Lake, instead of traversing its floor, crosses the railroad to the
south side, just beyond the eastern end of this cutting.
The results of these reconnaissanees yielded no data inconsistent with that
from the main site. A few examples of the material therefore have been drawn
to attention in the body of this paper and one specimen has been figured.
At the site 12 miles north-west of Lake Menindee Cutting on the windblown
sand of the equivalent of the top surface of Layer O and extending slightly
over on to a patch of umeroded A surface there is a Post-Huropean campsite,
possibly associated with the time of construction of the railroad. Here also
were a few aboriginal hearths with some long blades, fresh wombat and rodent
bones, fresh-water shells, pieces of red ochre, erude flakes and some remains
of clay pipes such as were traded to and much used by aborigines in the period
1840-1880, There were neither microliths nor pirrd implements on this site.
GENERAL DISCUSSION
The presence of several suites of implements on the Lake Menindee site
which can be matched with ones from elsewhere encourages speculation as to
their historical significance. In this the indications furnished by the excavations
at Devon Downs and Tartanga some 300 miles downstream on the same river
system are considered pertinent,
The microliths derived from Layer O are the same as those found in the
Mudukian levels of Devon Downs Cave.
Present day
wiod blown surface sands
— ~~
. flexed bundle burial
iv Oo & & microliths
cooking*hearth
of 200 stones | ( (h pie polots
. 7 H
mppermost Se Procoptodon
se fossil
mammals
:
i
7
Fig. 11, Diagrammatic summary of relationships of principal finds at Lake Menindee.
TINDALE — ARCHAEOLOGICAL StTrE IN NEw SoutH WALES 291
The implements found in and on the eroded surfaces of A are comparable
with the Pirrian Industry of Devon Downs, The suite of implements of Layer
A dropped on to the uneroded surface of B may run as high as 25 per cent, in
actual prrri implements, which would be reearded as a reasonable proportion ou
quite typical Pirrian sites, The relatively lacee implements of Layer B whieh
uppear where the bed is well exposed, seem to have aftinities with those called
Tartangan on the Murray River, although there are a few examples of karta-
like implements which might be equated with the limited suites of implements
of the Kartan (and allied Fulham Industry).
A generalized summary of the findings at Lake Menindee is given as Fig. 11.
The time interval involved between Layer B times and the present cannot
at the moment be assessed with any great exactitude. It is hoped that some
Carbon 14 determinations may soon become available for the corresponding
sequences at Devon Downs and Tartanga. These may throw some light on the
age of the Lake Menindee finds.
The orly real elue so far available for Tartanga itself is based on the fact
that the remains in the Tartangan beds became mineralized by immersion in
water after they were deposited. This could have taken place during the Post-
Glacial high-sea-leyel period, since the Tartanga site would then have been
‘drowned’? and would have remained so through the period of high-sea levels,
From this it has been deduced that Tartangan relics probably were deposited in
the earlier half of the Recent Period with a terminal date indicated by Post-
Glavial High Terrace time. On this basis the Pirrian eulture which appears to
have succeeded the Tartangan might have followed immediately after this mid-
Reeent episode. If this is substantiated by further work it may he possible to
see the extinction of the older Australian mammal fauna as a gradual process
brought about ulmost as inuch by the increasing toll of aboriginal hunters as by
climatic vagaries in mid-Recent time. If the very tentative time interpretation
worked out for Tartangan is applied to the Lake Menindee Site the eontinued
presence of relics of aboriginal occupation in bed A certainly imphes that any
climatic changes involved during the formation of the bed were sufficiently
moderate to permit of periodic returns by man to Lake Menindee, each time the
lake became refilled with water, and the continued presence of man in the vicin-
ity implies water was never very far away.
Looking further afield the evidence from Lake Menindee is in general
harmony with data suggesting that the Mudukian and Pirrian Industries were
widespread in parts of Australia, both along the coast and inland and that where
both have occurred the Mudukian with its microliths was later in time than the
Pirrian,
292 Records OF THE S.A. MusEUM
The particular phase of the Mudukian Industry which oceurs in coastal
New South Wales has been separated by McCarthy (1939, etc.) as a separate
industry (the Bondaian) implying that it represented a separate coastal indus-
try. However, typical Mudukian implements are ‘‘coastal’’ on the Coorong and
at Penong in South Australia and the particular bondi points on which stress
has been laid in distinguishing the coastal Bondaian Industry occur well into
the interior of the continent, for examples at sites near Wiluna, at 62 miles
north-west of Leonora, and at Smithsonia Waters, in Western Australia where
they were found by Dr. J. B. Birdsell last year. These sites are unquestionably
normal Mudukian ones. It is possible that the curious bondi points are really
triangular needle points, used in piercing skins, when sewing them together for
rugs and skin cloaks.
It is likely that in parts of eastern New South Wales as also in parts of
South Western Australia and limited areas of Queensland the Mudukian (or
Bondaian) was still the implement culture of the living aborigines at the time
of white settlement; although it was undervoing replacement. by the Murundian
culture with axes, blades and erude adze flakes, it was still influenced by Mudu-
Fig. 12. Hafted mierolithie discoidal adze, as used by the Maranganji natives of Peechall
Creek, near Charleville, Queensland (example collected in 1886; A.31089 in 5, Aust. Museum).
TINDALE — ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE IN NEw SourH WALES 298
kian survivals, Apropos of this it seems of some little interest to note that micro-
lithic discoidal adzes or vhisels of the Mudukian culture phase survived, as
functional implements, in the present-day ewitore of Western Queensland, There
is an excellent example in our collection (Fig. 12) showing the mode of hafting
einployed, This adze and another were collected by Miss Dryer in J886 from
members of the Maranganji tribe at Beachall Creek (on the present Bierbank
Station, 75 miles west south-west of Charleville), The second example, from the
same place, lacks the stone but retains the impression of the butt of the microbth
in the gum of the haft. Tests have shown that the long, slender handle (19+5
centimetres) provided exceptional control and balance for the adze, which seem-
ingly could serve equally well as a chisel and graver in making the shallow
grooves on implements, dishes and shields characteristic of the area.
The Pirrian Industry has not yet been found to occur in the coastal areas
of HKastern Australia. ‘he south-east-most localities as at present established
are on the Coorong and near Mt, Gambier in South Anstralia and the most
easterly in New South Wales is near Goondiwindi on the upper reaches of the
Darlmg River. The westward and northern distribution of the Tndustry is now
well established, since they have been turned up in Arnhem Land by Macintosh
(1951) while Father Wurms recently has reported pirri-like implements from
Dampier Peninsula, north of Broome. | have examined some of his specimens,
True pirri have been found by J. B. Birdsell and myself in the past year
as occurring archaeologically over large areas in North Western Australia and
the implements survived as a functional type of spear point until modern times
in the Pilbara area of Western Australia, particularly among some people in
the vicinity of the Hamersley Ranges. There are several hafted examples in
this and other Museums which will be more fully deseribed and diseussed in a
separate paper. IJ, becomes possible to conceive that the surviving implement
culture in some parts of Western Australia to-day is Pirrian and that further
north the projectile point element of the industry evolved into the pressure-
flaked spear point of the Worora, Ungarinjin, Djatu, Kitja and Wandjira, tribe-
people of North Western Australia, We have an archaeological sequence at
Moola Bulla, North Western Australia, which substantiates this,
Notably missing from among the implements recovered at Lake Menindee
are forms of edge-ground stone axe. This lack may have been fortuitous, but a
relatively large area Was searehed and the absence is perhaps significant. It
seems to be in line with indications at Tartanga and Devon Downs, admittedly
on the very periphery of distribution of axes, that Mudukian mierolithie sites
lack edge-ground axes, which appear only in the subsequent Murundian horizon,
perhaps indieating a late arrival of the edge-ground axe in this part of Australia.
294 Recorps oF THE S.A. Museum
The supposed ‘‘throwing stones’’ found at Lake Menindee are similar to
ones found elsewhere in Southern Australia, both as to dimensions and weights.
Jn the living culture their function is a known one as indicated by the general
name, ‘‘throwing stone’’ applied to them. Their distribmtion, ete., is to be the
subject of a separate paper, A Wailpi tribe term for them is [*mara] which
elsewhere is a root-word for ‘‘hand’’. Fig. 6a shows a subspherical example of
such a mara in milky quartz, which weighs 137 grams. This weight is slightly
less than the mean of those in our collection.
The filling of Lake Menindee oceurred in 1950 after phenomenal rains in
Queensland and Northern New South Wales. Mr. B. Mason, of the Common-
wealth Meteorological Service has kindly supplied some notes on this unusual
happening :
“The year 1949 was wet in Queensland and New South Wales. Every river
in both States was in flood, By the end of the year all the catchment areas of
the Darling River showed rain records 20 to 30 per cent. above average. The
year 1950 was even wetter, and by the end of the year all districts had had from
two to two-and-one-half times their normal rainfall.
“Tn 1950 Darling River floods reached Menindee in April and by the end
of the month the mark was 9 inches above flood level. It continued so for 13
months. Peak of the flood level, at 9 feet 4 inches was at the end of October,
1950. The long continuous period of flooding was most unusual.
‘‘Records show that rainfall conditions similar to those which filled Lake
Menindee in 1950, forcing the deviation of the old road across its bed, occurred
in 1879 and 1890, There is evidently a lip over which the waters spill into the
lake only at the highest flood level. There were lesser floods in the Darling in
1908 and 1921. The only other indications of unusual rainfall which might
have a bearing, is the legendary account, from the coast of northern New South
Wales, of very heavy rains at the end of the 18th century.’’
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The field work of the Harvard and Adelaide Universities Anthropological
Expedition of 1938-389 was made possible by grants from the South Australian
Government, the Carnegie Corporation of New York, the University of Adelaide
and the Board of the South Australian Museum.
The field work described in this paper was done in company with Dr. J. B.
Birdsell. Although his name does not appear as co-author much of the spade
work was shared with him and full acknowledgment is made of his contribution
to the work. The implications of the finds were discussed with him and the
TINDALE — ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE IN NEw SouTtH WaALEs 295
appearance of this paper is in no small measure a tribute to his encouragement.
Nevertheless, any errors in it are to be attributed to the present author,
The second visit to Lake Menindee was made possible through Prof. R. A.
Stirton, who devoted part of a grant-in-aid from the Associates in Tropical Bio-
graphy, University of California, to the journey. He and Mr. R. H. Tedford
obtained additional material as well as many mammal bones for study. Mr. R. TH.
Tedford supplied identifications of mammals.
Mr. B. Mason, of the Commonwealth Meteorological Service, provided data
on the phenomenal rains which filled Lake Menindee in 1950. Mr. H. Condon
kindly examined some remains of eggs, and the identification of the fresh water
shells was made by Mr. B. C. Cotton. Miss M. Boyce and Mr. H. Burrows are
responsible for some of the drawings illustrating this paper; warm appreciation
is expressed for their contributions.
REFERENCES CITED.
Cooper, H. M. (1954) : Rec. 8. Aust. Mus., Adelaide, xi, pp. 91-97.
Hale, H. M. and Tindale, N. B. (1930): Ree. 8S. Aust. Mus., Adelaide, iv, pp. 145—
218.
MeCarthy, F. D. (1939) : Aust. Journ. Sct., Sydney, I, pp. 39-40.
McCarthy, F. D. (1951) : Oceania, Sydney, xxi, pp. 205-213.
McCarthy, F. D. (1951) : Journ. Polynesian Soc., Wellington, 63, pp. 243-261.
Macintosh, N. W. G. (1951) : Oceania, Sydney, xxi, pp. 178-204.
Movius, H. L. (1940): Britannica Book of the Year, 1940. Archaeology—
Eastern Hemisphere, pp. 56-57.
Stirton, R, A. (1954) : Pacifie Discovery, Berkeley, vii, (2), pp. 3-138.
296 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MusEUM
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XXV.
a. Possible bone compressor on eroded B in Area I; with adhering matrix of B.
b. Bone point found in B on Area I with some matrix still retained on it.
¢e-d. Tips of pointed bones, found on B in Area II (R.A.S. No. 4589); show adhering par-
ticles of Layer A.
e. Tip of implement on B in Area IV.
f. Two parts of bone implement, on B in Area II (R.A.S. No. 4592); shows matrix of
Layer A.
g. Complete bone implement on B in Area III.
h. Burnt bone with incrustation of Layer B found on B in Area IV (R.H.T. No. 62).
i. Typical jaw fragment showing probable traces of burning; on Layer B in Area III.
Ree. S.AL Must Vou. XL Phare XXWV
HONE RIADATNS PROM MIEN TN Tbe,
TINDALE — ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE Is NEw Sourn WALES 297
SUPPLEMENT A.
THE HUMAN REMAINS,
The principal human remains found in 1939 are listed below. No attempt
has been made to stndy them.
A.27712 was a partly mineralized human skeleton found at Area I in a cir-
cular pit dug through the lower part of A into Layer B, and situated immediately
to the east of the measured section. The hole contained the soil of Layer A, indi-
cating burial from a horizon in the upper part of A. The burial was in a flexed
position, having been buried in the upright squatting position, pelvis to the
north-east and knees to the south-west, Only the lower part of the trunk was
im silw; the bones of the upper half of the body had partly disintegrated and
were scattered over the adjacent eroded surface of B.
A.27759 comprised parts of an incomplete skeleton lying at the junction of
A and B beds in Area IT.
A.27763 consisted of bones of at least two persons lying on the surfaee of
searcely eroded B near to a hearth on the uneroded top surface of B. This
hearth was tm situ and tashioned from many transported stones. (A photograph
suggests over 200 stones were present. )
A.27770 was the burial of a child lying on an eroded surface of B at the
western end of Area IIL (approximately at the position shown with a cross in the
1953 survey of Area IIT). The remains were spread over an area of a diameter of
3 metres. It is estimated that 0-5 m. of bed B had been eroded from the area.
The child may have been buried from a horizon in A but there is no evidence to
contradict an even later interment from Layer O.
A.27725 consisted of fragmentary portions of the skeleton of a child found
in Area I in an eroded area 1-3 metres below the level of the upper surface of B
at a point 109 metres W. of the measured section. Some of the bones seem to have
adhesions of the matrix of Layer B.
A.27734 consisted of seattered human bone fragments found on the surface
of B in Area I, 155 metres W. of the measured section. The bones were mixed
with various mammal bones scattered over an area of 3 metres diameter. The
mammal bones showed more concretionary adhesions and appeared older than the
human remains.
A.27752 was a burial the bones of which were scattered widely in Area IT on
top surface of barely eroded bed B, being evidently derived from A or above,
A.27752 was a burial near the eastern end of Area IJ, the bones of which had
become scattered on the top surface of slightly eroded B. Seemingly it had been
298 Recorps or THE §,A, Museum
derived from A or above. A hearth in the uppermost B horizon at this point
suggested occupation at an earlier period when Layer B was being formed.
A.27755 comprised parts of an adult cranial vault lying on bed B which had
eroded to approximately 0:3 metres below the red A bed which was here 0-6
metre thick, Evidently the bones had weathered out from the level of top B, but
must have been buried from a horizon either in A or above.
A.27757 a ‘‘floating’’ fragment of a right parietal on B in the centre of the
blown out Area II was lying among some mammal bones (A.27758).
A.27774 was a burial in the central part of eastern end of Area IL. Remains
of it were spread on wneroded B.
Two burials still in situ. were obtained by Stirton, Tedford and the writer
during the 1953 visit. They were both in Area IV, The first was the bundle
burial of a flexed individual (field No. 41), which was buried from a high level in
Layer O into its base; a cireular hole had been dug, a small amount of burned
material or highly carbonized vegetable debris was in the bottom of the hole.
The parcelled body had had an arm broken and passed through the pelvic girdle,
before burial; there was the remains of a piece of wood over the region of the
head. On the wind eroded surface of Layer O, beside this skeleton, was a white
discoidal microlith. Others were found on the surface of Layer O in the vicinity ;
all being exposed by the blowing away of portions of Layer O. Where this Layer
had been much eroded, they increased in numbers. This burial is figured at the
top of page 5 in the account by Stirton (1954).
The second burial (field No, 42) was situated 8 metres S.W. of the first. The
skeleton lay on its left side, knees folded at right angles to body with head
pointing N.N.W. This burial was in a deposit of a coarser red sandy nature
than the first and had been buried from a surface in a red earthy layer. It was
demonstrated by Tedford, after the present writer bad returned to Adelaide, that
this red earth was Layer A, hence the strong probability exists that this burial is
to be assoviated with the period of an upper level of bed A,
The grave earth was slightly indurated; the original burial pit was cireular,
1:0 & 1:1 metres in diameter. The bones were much decayed but portions
including the calvarium and the right humerus were salvaged. This find is
figured on the lower part of page 5 of the account by Stirton (1954).
REPORT ON THE EXTINCT MAMMALIAN REMAINS AT LAKE
MENINDEE, NEW SOUTH WALES
BY RICHARD H. TEDFORD, MUSEUM OF PALEONTOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA,
BERKELEY, C'ALIFORNIA
Summary
In 1939, while engaged in the work of the Harvard-Adelaide Universities Anthropological
Expedition, Dr. J. B. Birdsell, then of the Peabody Museum of Harvard University, and Mr. N. B.
Tindale, representing University of Adelaide, discovered human remains and associated extinct
marsupials at Lake Menindee along the Darling River in Western New South Wales. The discovery
as made in connection with other studies in the area and only a few days were available for an
investigation of the site. At that time, however, these workers were able to map and make a small
collection of fossil remains and a larger one of artifacts from two of the exposures as well as
explore the extent of the fossiliferous deposits on the northern shore of the then dry Lake Menindee.
A notice of this discovery was made by H. L. Movius in 1940. World War II interrupted further
investigation planned at that time.
REPORT on tHe EXTINCT MAMMALIAN REMAINS av
LAKE MENINDEE, NEW SOUTH WALES
By RICHARD H. TEDFORD (Museum of Paleontology, University of California,
Kerkeley, California),
Ly 1939, while engaged in the work of the Harvard-Adelaide Universities Anthro-
pological Expedition, Dr. J. B, Birdsell, then of the Peabody Museum of Harvard
University, and Mr. N, B. Tindale, representing the University of Adelaide, dis-
covered human remains and associated extinct marsupials at Lake Menindee
along the Darling River in Western New South Wales. The discovery was made
in connection with other studies in the area and only a few days were available
for an investigation of the site. At that time, however, these workers were able
to map and make a small collection of fossil remains and a larger one of artifacts
from two of the exposures as well as explore the extent of the fossiliferons
deposits on the northern shore of the then dry Lake Menindee. St pa Goh i
Recorps or tHe S.A, Museum
EXPLANATION OF PLATES
PLATE XXVI
Oxycanus rileuwi Tindale, male, Dohunsehik, type,
Oxryeanus subochracea (Joieey and Talbot), male, Wandammen Mts,, November.
Oxycanus subochracea (Joicey aud Talbot), male, Wandammen Mts., November.
Oxycanus thoe Tindale, male, Wassior, July, type.
Oxycanus thasus Tindale, male, Fak Fuk, Deceniber, type.
Oxycanus serratus Tindale, male, Woudiwoi, July, type.
Oxycanus salmonacea (Rothschild and Jordan), male, Angabunga. River,
Ozycanue hebe Tindale, male, Mak Fak, type.
PLATE XXVIT
Oxycanus tamsi Tindale, male, Mt. Goliath, Mebruary, type.
Oxycanus tamsi Tindale, male, Mt. Goliath, January, paratype.
Oxycanus tamsi Tindale, male, Mt. Goliath, February, melanie form.
PLATE XXVIIT
Oxycanus dives Tindale, male, Mt. Kunupi, type.
Orycanus dives Tindale, male, ochreous brown form, Mt. Kunupi.
Oxycanus dives Tindale, male, white-streaked form, Mt. Kunupi.
Oxycanus dives Tindale, male, form with markings suppressed, Mt. ICunupi.
Oxycanus hecabe Tindale, male, Hunsteinspitze, February-March, type.
Oxycanus hecabe form lcthe Tindale, male, Hunsteinspitze, August, type.
PLATE XXTX
Ocyoanus xcois Tindale, male, Dohunsehik, June, type.
Orycanns xois Tindale, male, Angi Lake, June.
Oxycanus albostrigata (Rothschild), female, Bolauberg, inland from Huon (fulr, type
Oxycawus eos Tindale, male, Cyclops Mts., type.
Oxyconus postflavida (Rothschild), male, ‘Carstensz Peak, type.
Oxycanus fuliginosa (Rothschild), probably a male, Carstensz Peak, type.
Orycanus salmonacea (Rothschild and Jordan), male, Angabunga River, type.
PLATE XXX
Oxycanus meeki (Viette), male, Biagi.
Oxycanus meeki (Viette), male, Biagi.
Oxycanus thoe Tindale, male, Wassior, July, paratype.
Oaycanus discipennis, Tindale, inale, Mt. Siwi, May, type.
Oxycanus atrox Tindale, male, Buntibasa, August, type.
Oxycanus atrox Tindale, male, Buntibasa, August.
Ozycanus albostrigata (Rothschild), male, Rawlinson Mts., allotype,
Oxycanus albostrigata (Rothschild), female, Rawlinson Mts.
PLATE XXXI
Oxycanus mayrt Tindale, male, Mt. Siwi, May, type.
Oxyeanus mayri Tindale, male, white-streaked form, Mt. Siwi, May.
Oxycanus perplexus Tindale, male, Ninay Valley, form without white streag
Onycanus. perplerus Tindale, male, Ninay Valley, type.
PLATE XXAII
Ozycanus glaverti Tindale, male, Western Australia.
Oxycanus glaverti Tindale, male, Western Australia,
Oxycanus glaverti Tindale, femule, Western Australia.
Oxycanus glanerti Tindale, female, Western Australia.
Ozycanus kochi Tindale, male, Australia, type.
Oxyéanus kochi Tindale, female, Australia, allotype.
Oxycanus armatus Tindale, male, Western Australia, type.
Oxycanus sordidus (Herrich-Schaefter), male, silvery-white marked form,
Victoria.
Red Hill,
Rec. S.A. Musrunt Vor. XT. Puare XXVI
NEW GUINEA GHOST MOTHS
Rec. S.A, Museum Vou. XI, Prare XXVIII
NEW GUINEA GHOST MOTHS
Ree. S.A. Museum Von, XT, Puare XXVIII
NEW GUINEA GHOST MOTHS
Rec. S.A. Museuns Vou. XT. Prare XXITX
NEW GUINEA GHOST MOTHS
Rec. S.A. Museum Vou. XI, Phare XXX
GUINEA GHOST MOTHS
Rec. S.A. Mustum Vor. XI. Phare XXNXT
Rec. S.A. Museu Vou. XI, Purare XXXII
AUSTRALIAN GHOST MOTHS
AN UNRECORDED METHOD OF ABORIGINAL ROCK MARKING
BY CHARLES P. MOUNTFORD, HONORARY ASSOCIATE IN ETHNOLOGY,
SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM
Summary
Only two methods of aboriginal rock markings have been recorded in Australia, (a) the rock
engravings on the Triassic sandstone of the Hawkesbury River basin of New South Wales, which
consist of outline figures of human beings and creatures cut into the soft rock, some of them up to
sixty feet in length, (1) and (b), the pecked or intagliated rock engravings of western New South
Wales and South Australia in which the designs, usually of small size, are made up of a series of
small pits, close together, probably as the result of blows from a sharp-edged boulder held in the
hand (2). The latter type of rock engraving has a wider distribution than at present recorded, the
writer having photographed examples of Korporilya Springs and the Iromba rock-hole in the
Macdonnell Ranges of Central Australia and at Tomsons rock-hole in north-western Central
Australia.
AN UNRECORDED METHOD or ABORIGINAL,
ROCK MARKING
By CHARLES P. MOUNTFORD, Honorary Associate 1s ErHnovocy,
Soutn Austratian Museum
Plate xxxiii and text fig. 1-5
ONLY two methods of aboriginal rock markings have been recorded in Australia,
(a) the rock engrayings on the Triassie sandstone of the Hawkesbury River
basin of New South Wales, which consist of outline figures of human beings
and creatures cut into the soft rock, some of them up to sixty feet in length,
(1) and (b), the pecked or intagliated rock engravings of western New South
Wales and South Australia in which the designs, usually of small size, are
made up of a series of small pits, close together, probably as the result of blows
from a sharp-edged boulder held in the hand (2). The latter type of rock
engraving has a wider distribution than at present recorded, the writer having
photoeraphed examples of Korporilya Springs and the Iromba rock-hole in the
Macdonnell Ranges of Central Australia and at Tomsons rock-hole in north-
western Central Australia.
While a member of the 1937 University of Adelaide anthropological expedi-
tion to the Granites gold fields and the 1940 expedition to the western deserts
of Central Australia, the writer observed aborigines producing rock pictures
by a hitherto unrecorded technique,
The Method. In the arid parts of Australia, the exposed rock surfaces are
coated with a dark-red patina, which is destroyed when struck with a hard
object, exposing the lighter-coloured stone underneath. The aborigines have
used this characteristic to produce their simple designs.
In the Granites area, the aboriginal took a small pebble (Plate xxxiii, fig. A
and B), and in the Muserave Ranges, an upper grinding stone (Plate xxxiii,
fig, ©), and by pounding the surface of the rock produced the light-coloured
marks which made up the design.
These rock poundings have a different appearance from that of the intagli-
ated engravings. This difference was strikingly illustrated at the Iromhba rock-
hole in the Macdonnel] Ranges where there were a number of these rock
engravings, among them being a series of bird tracks. Immediately below one
of these bird tracks some aboriginal had made a copy of one of them by
346 Recorps oF THE S.A. MusEuM
rock-pounding technique, leaving the pounding tool, an oval boulder, near-by
(Plate xxxiii, fig. D).
The eight localities in which rock-pounding designs have been found (ex-
eluding the Tromba rock-hole) are indicated on fig. 1. They are the Granites
gold fields and Tomsons rock-hole in north-western Central Australia; Mt. Olga,
northern Musgrave Ranges, and Kanbi, Tjitibidi, Atalnva and Kuna in the
Mann Ranges, The last six localities are in the western deserts of Central
N. 3. WALES,
Fig. 1. Localities of rock-pounding designs. A, Granites gold fields. B, Tomsons rock-
hole. O, Mt. Olga. D, Northern Musgrave Range. WH, Tjitabidi, north-eastern Mann Range.
F, Atalnya, north-eastern Mann Range. G, Kuna, northern Mann Range. H, Kanbi, southern
Mann Range.
Australia. Further research will almost certainly show that this method of
rock marking has a much wider distribution.
The meaning of the designs. It has been possible to find out, from the
aborigines themselves, the meanings of a number of designs recorded in this
paper. From this it is reasonable to assume that the remainder, even though
they have not been deciphered, would haye a meaning. They could not, how-
ever, be interpreted without the aid of the artist who produced them.
Fig. 2. A, Musgrave Ranges. The circles represent breasts of young girls
and the barred double circle the pendant breast of an old woman (Plate xxxiii,
fig. ©). ©, Kanbi, Mann Range. The spiral with radiating lines on the upper
edge pictures a ceremonial head-dress. The lower figures were unidentified. D,
Mountrorp — A MeEtTHop or ABorRIGINAL Rock MARKINGS 847
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Fig. 2. Rock-pounding designs.
348 Recorps oF THE S.A. MusEuM
Fig. 3. Rock-pounding design
Mountrorp — A METHop oF ABoRIGINAL Rock MARKINCS 349
teeny
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Fig. 4. Rock-pounding designs.
Kanbi. The central group are erude alphabetical symbols made by aboriginat
children who had attended a recently-established mission school. E, Tjitabidi,
Mann Ranges. An aboriginal, having run an emu down on a hot day, returned
to camp at the Tjitibidi rock-hole and commemorated the remarkable feat by
pounding a series of emu and human footprints on a tall boulder. The emu
footprints indicate the bird he had just captured and the dots his own tracks.
The paired meandering lines picture two wanambi (rainbow serpents) who,
the aborigines believe, live in the near-by Piltadi rock-hole. F, Mt. Olga; B, G
and J, Atalnya; and H and K, Kuna, were not identified.
Fig, 3. B, Granites. The meandering lines are the tracks of a mythical
snake, wana, the paired tracks those of a kangaroo, and the bird tracks a
bustard. C, Granites. Motor ear. D, Granites, Motor lorry. EH, Granites.
Totemie map; a represents Burgidji, a totemie place adjacent to the Granites,
the home of the mythical opossum, tanumba, who travelled to Bia; b, a place
to the south. The lines c, d, e symbolize the tracks made by the mythical
opossum. , Granites. Mythical snake, wana. G, Granites. The figure on
Recorps oF THE S.A. MusEUM
350
Salads Maahaealetye
é
oben see
=
Rock-pounding designs,
Fig. 5.
Mountrorp — A MEtTHop oF ABORIGINAL Rock MARKINGS 851
the right is an old woman, Pundunda, and that on left an old man, Dina, H
and J, Granites. Two white men whose hats distinguish them from aborigines.
Kx, Granites. The rock-pounding design is shown on Plate xxxiii, fig. A and B.
The meandering lines on the right svmbolize two mythical snakes, wana, which
belong to the area. The loops at the top of the design are their fangs and the
double cirele at the bottom the hole from which they had emerged. The tracks
ure those of an unidentified water-bird, kaliwa, and the meandering line on
the right a small spinifex snake called wilgibura. A, Tomsons rock-hole, and
Lu, Granites, were not identified.
Fig. 4. K, L, M, N, Tomsons rock-hole. Snake designs. O, Granites.
Snake, wana, entering hole. R, Granites. The waninga or head-dress of the
mythical opossuin, fanumba. A, B, C, D, B, F, G, I, P, Q, Tomsons rock-hole.
Not identified.
Fig. 5. A, Tomsons roek-hole. Simple human figures, meandering lines,
abstract designs and kangaroo tracks. D and E, Tomsons rock-hole. Maze
designs probably representing the tracks of snakes. C, Tomsons rock-hole, and
B, F and G, Kuna, Mann Range, not identified.
REFERENCES CITED
(1) Campbell, W. D. (1899): Aboriginal Carvings of Port Jackson and Broken
Bay.
(2) Mountford, C. P. (1985): A survey of the Petroglyphs of South Australia.
Aust., N.Z. Ass. Ady. Science, pp. 208-215,
352
at
Dp.
Recorps OF THE S.A. MusEUM
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXXIII
TECHNIQUES OF ROCK-POUNDING
Pebble used to produce rock-poundings at the Granites gold field.
Aboriginal producing rock-pounding designs at Granites gold field.
Aboriginal producing rock-pounding designs at northern Musgrave Ranges.
Intagliated rock engravings (outlined) and rock-pounding design at Iromba rock-hole,
Macdonnell Ranges.
Ric. S.A. Museum Vou, XI, Puare XXXNIT
TECHNIQUE OF ROCK-POUNDING
PELAGIC FOSSILS (ATURIA, PENGUINS, WHALES) FROM THE
TERTIARY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
BY M. F. GLAESSNER, UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE
Summary
The study of the fossil remains of pelagic animals is one of the most promising approaches to the
problem of inter-regional stratigraphic correlation. The re-assessment of the relative ages of
Tertiary strata in southern Australia which is now in progress, makes it necessary to record all
available information on fossils representing pelagic animals, and therefore likely to be encountered
in other areas. The four groups discussed in the present contribution, the Cephalopod genus Aturia,
the penguins, squalodont whales and cetotheriid whales, are approached from different points of
view. Ample material of Aturia is now available which makes it possible to revise taxonomic
concepts and define the regional stratigraphic value of at least two species. The use of Aturia for
inter-regional correlation will depend on a general revision of its morphogeny and taxonomy, based
on direct comparison of specimens from different parts of the world which are traditionally placed
in different species of unknown genetic relations.
PELAGIC FOSSILS (ATURIA, PENGUINS, WHALES) From tHe
TERTIARY or SOUTH AUSTRALIA
By M. F. GLAESSNER, University or AngLaipe
Plates xxxiv-xxxvi and text fig, 1-7
INTRODUCTION
Tuk study of the fossil remains of pelagic animals is one of the most promising
approaches to the problem of inter-regional stratigraphic correlation. The re-
assessment of the relative ages of Tertiary strata in southern Australia which
is now in progress, makes it necessary to record all available information on
fossils representing pelagic animals, and therefore likely to be encountered in
other areas. The four groups disenssed in the present contribution, the Cepha-
loped genus Afuria, the penguins, squalodont whales and cetotheriid whales, are
approached from different points of view. Ample material of Aturia is now
available which makes it possible to revise taxonomie concepts and define the
regional stratigraphic value of at least two species. The use of Aturia for inter-
regional correlation will depend on a general revision of its morphogeny and
taxonomy, based on direct comparison of specimens from different parts of the
world which are traditionally placed in different species of unknown genetic
relations.
The discoveries of penguin bones are recorded only from a stratigraphic.
and biostratonomic viewpoint, and a correction is made in the age determination
of the only specimen which had been previously deseribed. A morphological
and systematic study of this material will be undertaken by Dr. G, G. Simpson,
who is a noted specialist in this field and has better facilities for comparison at
his disposal.
A single squalodont tooth is deseribed mainly because of its excellent pre-
servation and obvious differences from all known Australian cetacean teeth.
It. gives hopes of further discoveries in this field. Beeanse of the rapid and
comparatively well-documented evolution of this group, such discoveries will
eventually lead to important stratigraphic conclusions.
The re-discovery of a long-lost, exceptionally well-preserved skull of a whale
is announced. It is recognized as the first Australian representative of the
Cetotheriidae, the ancestors of the whalebone whales. Detailed study and
identification of this skull has to be postponed, but it is hoped that the recording
of the occurrence will lead to further discoveries in the field.
354 Recorps of THE S,A, MusEUM
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writer is indebted to Mr. H. M. Hale, Director, South Australian
Museum, for the loan of specimens and for other facilities; to Professors E, 5.
Hills (University of Melbourne) and R. T. Prider (University of Western
Australia) for the loan of material for conparison; to Ma. V. Raghavendra Rao,
of the Geological Survey ot India, who is at present engaged in research work
at the University of Adelaide and who was instrumental in obtaining specimems
here described from the Mt. Gambier Limestone; to Miss M. J. Wade (University
of Adelaide) for the stratigraphie column of Witton Bluff and photography
of specimens, and to Miss M. Boyee (South Australian Museum) for illustra-
tions. his research was assisted bv a generous donation from the W. Burdett
Fund and by contributions from the General Research Funds of the University
of Adelaide.
1. ATURIA IN THE TERTIARY OF SOUTH-EASTERN AUSTRALIA
AtvuRIA CLARKEL Teichert
Plate xxxiy, fig, 2, plate xxxy, fig. 3 and text fig. 1-3
1919 Aturia aturt (Basterot) Newton, Malac, Soe. London, Proc., vol. 14, p. 160,
pls. 5, 6.
1939 Aturia ef, A. etezae (Sowerby) Miller and Crespin, J. Paleont., vol, 13,
p. 80, pl. 14, fig. 1.
1944 Aturia clarket Teichert, J. Paleont., vol. 18, p. 79, pl. 14, fig. 1-4, pl. 16,
fig. 1-2, text fig. 2.
1947 Deltoidonautilus bakeri Teichert, Min, Geol. J. Melbourne, vol. 3, No, 2,
fig. 1-2.
1947 Aturia nov. sp., Teichert, Min. Geol, J. Melbourne., yol. 3, No. 2.
1949 Aluria clarket attenuata Teichert and Cotton, Ree. S,A. Mus,, vol. 9,
No, 2, p. 255, pl. 21.
Material. Types: Holotype of A. elarkei, U.W.A. No. 21406, paratype
U.W.A. No. 21407; holotype of A. clarke’ attenuata S.A.M, No. P9027, holotype
of D. bakert M.U.G.D. No. 1939.*
Other material. Christies Beach-Port Noarlunga section, S.A.M, P5219,
P7153, P5944, P5954, P5937 (probably from this locality), A.U.G.D. F15102-5,
Maslin Bay A.U.G,D. F15099-101, Campbelltown (north of Adelaide), from a
©The following abbreviations are used for collections in which specimens here referrer
to are kept: A,U.G.D.—Adelaide University Geology Department, M.U.G.D—Mvelbdurne Uni-
yersity Geology Department, S.A.M.—South Australian Museum, .W.A—University of
Western Australia Geology Department,
GLAESSNER — PeLacic Fossits FROM Sou'rH AUSTRALIA 855
depth of 60 feet in a well, 8.A.M. 7017. Northern Yorke Peninsula (between
Clinton and Ardrossan), A.ULG,D, F15106, This specimen was found without
a label in the old ecolleetions; its peculiar preservation in a silicified vlaneonitic
limestone with sponge spicules suggests that it came from this area,
Preservation. Most of the 15 new specimens are well-preserved internal
moulds of varying sizes, ranging from a diameter of only 85 mim. to a frag-
mentary large adult specimen with chambers 45 mim, Jony on the venter, The
body ehamber is partly preserved in only one specimen, The shell is present
only in specimen F15102 in which parts of the surface are porteetly preserved.
It is replaeed by siliea in F15106.
Remarks, A, clarkei was fully deseribed by Teichert (1944), The abun-
danf new material shows that it is impossible to distinguish the proposed South
Australian subspecies A, clarke’ attenuata from the Western Australian types
in the manner proposed hy Teichert and Cotton, The original deseription of
AL, clarkei atlenuata does not enumerate the differences between it and A, clarkei
clarker, but the stated resemblances with sl. australis, ic, “the general propor-
tions of the shell, particularly the narrowly rounded venter, and slight depression
along a ventro-lateral zone,” can he taken as indications of its diagnostic sub-
specific characters, particularly as attenuata was regarded as “intermediate
hetween the two species” (Teichert and Cotton, 1949, p. 256). The study of the
new material from the tspe locality and adjoining areas, including specimens
more than twice the size of ihe speeimen deseribed by Teiehert and Cotton,
shows that these characters are not present in adult shells and that at the size
of the holotype of A. clarket the venter in the South Australian specimen is less
“narrowly rounded” and the depression on the ventro-lateral flanks disappears.
The examination of the fragmentary holotype of Deltoidonautilus hakeri
showed that the curved “suture lines” fizured by Teichert (1947, fig. 3) are not
external sutures bit oblique seetions across the inner portions of the septa on
the deeply eroded right lateral surface of the specimen figured in Teichert’s
fig. 1. Preparation of the other flank revealed the true septa which prove that
the specimen belongs to the genus Afuria, The apparently angular venter is
the result of abrasion. The sulure as now revealed (text fig. 1) resembles that
of A. clarket in the characteristic shape of the lateral lobe and saddle, In this
small specimen they are elose-set, but in a large specimen from the same loeality,
recorded by Teichert as A. sp., they are more widely spaced, as in the typical
wl. clarket (text fig. 2), Another point of agreement between the holotype of
/!. clarket and this speeimen is seen in the relative position of the tip of the
lateral lobe and the ventrolateral shoulders of the ventral saddles of the preced-
356 Recorps oF THE S.A. MusEUM
\
|
} 2
“I
Fig. 1. Aturia clarkei Teichert. Suture lines of the fragment described as Deltotdonautilus
bakert Teichert, 1947. Diagrammatic. Further preparation has since revealed some
additional details.
Fig. 2. Aturia clarkei Teichert. Suture lines of the fragment described as Aturia nov. sp.,
Teichert, 1947.
Fig. 3. 366 vhigalia, Tiapezites - 62
nigricosta, Oxyeanus . . 325 pbigalicides, Prebeeites 62
nigripunecta, Oxycanus _ 310, 524, 328 Physignathus .. ._ 388
nitida, Zonitoides 183 Physopleurella , 153, 156
njikpait, LA viogtha 198 piceus, Blaptostethus 133
notabilis, Pseudochirus 267 Pinotada - ‘ 16, 32
notatus, Elanus 193 pisana, Euparypha 180
Nototherium . . . 261 Planorbis ‘ 186
noiimeensis, Cardiastethus 410, 416 Plochiocorella , .. 158
novaeguineae, Leiolopisma 76, 85 Bostions, Oxycanus 312, 34)
novaguineensis, Oxycauus 338 polyle; ‘cab Enhydris m4 _875
novaehollandiae, Accipiter . 218 pompilius, Nautilus . . 15, 16
novachollandiae, Dromaius - . 288 ponatagesd nacht 2 ane
elie hat r ry! 4d . d
nuptialis, Oxycanus . . 331 postflavi da, Oxyeanns 309, 312
- poweri, Cardiastethus 409, 413
occidentalis, Oxyeanus . 330 precatorius, Abrus 28, 54, 35
octana, Subulina . 184 Priondteninus a5
Odatria aon Procoptodon 269, 288, 289, 802, 303
ae 8 ar protuga, Alathyria 288
VTLS F. } 30;
olane, Ogyris 61 Prosdiaa don a :
Oliva .. ate Protemnodan 269, 303
eae era ies - 308 psammophis, Demansia -. 9378
Inychogalea .. - 138 Pseudalmenus 2
Oplobates : Pscudechis . 378
Oreisplanus : a Pseudocheirus 267
Oreixenica oe : hell: ‘<
orientalis, Ablepharus A 402 See taata Abcoviils as
orientalis, Glauertia .. 3 , 404 :
orientalis, Varanus : 390 quaesitandus, Accipiter to, QT
ornatus, Limnodynastes 408 queenslandica, Falda 140, 418
aa i 158, nc queenslandicus, Xylocoris .» 1
s
Otala -- 185 radiatus, Erythrotriorchis 223
Oxycuims ae reticulatus, Agriolimax 179
xychilus ; 32
Oxyuranus we | Ene oe 400
rhombifera, Oedura . . 350
pacificus, Anthocoris . . 134 thomboidalis, Leiolopisma 76, 84
pucifiea, Physopleurella 158 rhynchops, Cerberus -+- 876
Palaeeudyptes by 359 rileyi, Oxycanus 309, 311
palankarinnicus, Prionotemnus 252 robusta, Euowenia ». 262
parallelus, Scoloposcelis mA 155 rubella, Hyla . a . 404
puralursa My oe ane rufescens, Amphibolurus 887
araoxycanus te
Parasgualodon 364, 366 sulmonacea, Oxycanus 309, 232, 324, 326
parki, Mauicetus .. 869 Sarcophilus ts .. 269, 287, 303
parsonsi, Ogyris 62 Sarcoptes oY : ada EO
patella, “Aspasmogaster 111 Scoloposcelis . . 158, 155
pectoralis, Leiolopisma 76, 86, 399 scriptis, Elanus .. 195
scabei, Sarcoptes
scillae, Squalodon
Schoinobates . -
seiron, Trapezites
Scirpus ; oe
scutellatus, Oxyuranus
serpentata, Neolucia . .
serratus, Oxycanus
Signeta
similaris, Helix
simplexa, Candalides
sminthopsis, Austrochirus
sminthopsis, Laelaps . .
solomonensis, Lasiochilus
solandri, Heteronympha
sordidus, Oxycanus
Sphenomorphus
spaldingi, Lygosoma , .
sphenurus, Haliastur .
spilotes, Morelia :
spinigerus, Diplodactylus
spirorbis, Planorbis ..
Squalodon
stagnalis, Lymnaea
stansburiensis, Aturia
stellans, Oxycanus
Sthenurus . i
stolismena, Helicella ~.
strophurus, Diplodactylus
stylis, Rhodona +h
subcristata, Aviceda ..
submelanogenys, Falco
subniger, Falco
subochracea, Oxycanus
Subulina aT
Tachyglossus .
taeniolata, Lygosoma
taeniopleurus, Ablepharus
tamsi, Oxycanus
tasmanicum, Nototherium
Testacella 4 j
tetradactylum, Leiolopisma ¥
teutonia, Anaphaeis ob
thasus, Oxycanus
thoe, Oxycanus
thompsoni, Audyana ..
Threpterius — . oe
ylacinus . - <3
[npEx TO GENERA AND SPECIES
. 312, 329, 342
269, 303
-. I8l
., 880
-» 400
197
237
234
309, 817, 520, 321
184
802, 303
.» 894
-. 402
309, 313
263
ve 180)
76, 83
60
.. 309, 322, 828
310, 824, 326, 328
1c “8 Tes
bs -. 108
- 269, 287, 303
Thylacis
Thylacomys
Tiliqua 4) 2
timorensis, Varanus ..
Tisiphone
Trapezites
triacantha, Leiolopisma
Trombella ry
triassica, Eoses
Trygonorrhina
Turritella
Urolophus
Vallonia
Vanessa
Varanus
variegata, Gehyra
variegatum, Leiolopisma
variegata, Morelia
varius, Varanus 4,
ventrosa, Cochlicella . .
vermiculata, Otala_ .
vertebralis, Leiolopisma
victoriae, Nototherium
vigilax, Accipiter
virgata, Helicella
vitiensis, Lasiochilus . .
Vitrea
vivax, Leiolopisma
vornbatus, Acaroptes . .
Wallabia eo as
warregensis, Trombella
watutense, Nototherium
wilkinsoni, Parasqualodon
wilsoni, Heteronympha
wombati, Sarcoptes
Xylocoris
Xerocincta
Xerotes
xois, Oxycanus
Xylocoris
Zaglossus :
zephyrus, Pseudalmenus
Zeuglodon
Zizeeria
Zonitoides
427
Pace
251, 308
303
105
309, 315