RECORDS

OF THE

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM

Vol. XIII, No. I

Published by The Museum Board, and edited by the Museum Director

Aprtamer, Arrm 30, 1957
PRINTED BY PUBLISHERS LTD., FRANKLIN STREET, ADELAIDE

Registered in Australia for transmission by post as a periodical.

CULTURE SUCCESSION IN SOUTH EASTERN AUSTRALIA FROM LATE
PLEISTOCENE TO THE PRESENT

BY NORMAN B. TINDALE, SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM

Summary

This paper summarises work in Adelaide since 1928 to establish the archaeological culture
succession. It gives newly available time data for the Kartan culture of Late Pleistocene, traces
changes through Tartangan, Pirrian and Mudukian industries to the latest or Murundian Culture
phase.

CULTURE SUCCESSION in SOUTH EASTERN AUSTRALIA
From LATE PLEISTOCENE 1o rue PRESENT.

By NORMAN B. TINDALE, Sours Auvsrratian Museum.
Text Fig. 1-9

CONTENTS.
Page
BUMMNETY Gun Eee ed nid cme dnts® me gts 1
Introduction sn. me ectce «= gd ues 3
The Kartan Culture 9 2 oust tem tees nem ts 5
The Tartangan Culture 2.000 oe tutes oe 9
The-Pirrian:Culture- ceo ae Gm» @= <= Ge He 17
The Mudukian Culture 20000 2, cesses tte ee 23
The Murundian or Present Day ‘Culture a wiht = waite Gletlts 29
Geological Evidence for Antiquity 2000 ete tt 32
Carbon 14 dates 000 aes “es at dum. Bh oF 34
Climatic Changes 220s sess settee mt Hattet 38
The Succession of Industries ..... 2. 0 gy CES we = «OD
Rock Carvings and Culture Succession . wipe Samuels ta Line 39
Physical Types 0.00 we saan Po tio swith tht 40
General Discussion i,t tests nett nent tate 44
Acknowledgements __...... tale we ltew Guinn le telus Sanal: wat 46
References Cited 0.000 nk aeee en em 47

A healthy science is one tn which there is continuous re-evaluation
of problems in the light of present evidence... As humans we think
in terms of labels we put on things. But if the labelling system does
not keep up with thought il is demonstrably a short time before thought
ceases... . Putting the label on ts only half the game; taking it off again
is the other half.

Hauuam L. Movrus, Juntor.

SUMMARY.

This paper summarises work in Adelaide since 1928 to establish the
archaeological culture succession, It gives newly available time data
for the Kartan culture of Late Pleistocene, traces changes through
Tartangan, Pirrian and Mudukian industries to the latest or Murundian
Culture phase.

RECORDS OF THE 8.4. MUSHUM

Geological evidence and Carbon 14 data are compared and co-
ordinated with the succession, the whole sequence being summarised in
a table (fig. 1).

The survival of pirri implements as stone spear tips on the karu
spear in Western Australia is reported, as is also the use of a Tartangan

11000

# and earlier

Fig, 1,
Glaciation to the present time.

CULTURE SEQUENCE AND DATES
IN SOUTH EASTERN AUSTRALIA

—Western Europeans

MURUNDIAN curture

MUDUKIAN cuLturz

PIRRIAN curturz

tm, Pirrian Culture (mid-point) in Devon Downs Cave (4250 £189 BP.

MID-RECENT HIGH (10 ft. terrace )

s
‘

? ‘

-—Tartangan at type site (6020+ 150 B.P.)

TASMANIAN

KARTAN Tartangan at Lake Meniudee (6570+ 100 B.P. )

CULTURE
CULTURE

ISOLATED
ISOLATED TARTARGAN cuLture Xe
ON

TASMANIA
KANGAROO
Tartangan site at Cape Martin

ISLAND

- {8700 f 120 B,P.) ———;
/

/

=END OF PLEISTOCENE GLACIATION — rise of sea wi

KARTAN cuLTURE

Kartan of Fuiham, Uallett Cove, Kangaroo Island and Tasmania.

POR TIAET HONG T TG

Diagram summarising the succession of cultures in South Eastern Australia from the Last

TINDALE—CULTURE SUCCESSION IN AUSTRALIA 3

type of knife called jimari among living people in the North of Western
Australia, and of a hafted chipped-back knife called juan, from Queens-
land.

There is a brief discussion on the types of human beings who may
have devised, developed, transported and used these implements in
Australia and Tasmania.

The earliest date based on geological data ig indicated to be Late
Glacial, prior to 10000 B,P. (Before the Present), for the Kartan Culture
of Hallett Cove and Fulhara, South Australia. This culture is indicated as a
widespread one, cxtending out from Indonesia and South Hastern Asia to
Australia. The succeeding Tartangan culture, at a minimum, embraced the
period between 8700 B.P., based on a C' date at Cape Martin and 6020
B.P. at the type site at Tartanga. A C™ date of 4250 BLP. is available
for a specific horizon (Layer IX) at the type site of the Pirrian Culture,
in Devon Downs Rock Shelter, South Australia,

There is some discussion on climates and the conclusion is reached
that there is no foundation for the existence of a major arid cycle in
the Mid-Holocene Period but that the Mediterranean climate of Southern
Australia in modern times represents the virtual maxinium of an arid
cycle which has been developing over the past two thousand years or more,

CULTURE SUCCESSION IN SOUTH EASTERN AUSTRALIA.
INTRODUCTION,

The idea of a succession behind the array of archaeological imple-
ments discovered in Australia is probably old but little tangible evidence
Was available until a relatively short time azo,

Definite cultural stratification in Australia perhaps was first demon-
strated in 1929, with the spade, by Hale and Tindale (1930) at Tartanga,
and at Devon Downs Rock Shelter, on the River Murray, in South
Australia. This work began as the result of a chance find by a local
collector of fossils, W, P. Roy, who showed a mineralised human pert
cranium to Edgar R. Waite, Director of the South Australian Museum,
in January 1928, a few days before his death at the Australian Association
for the Advancement of Science Congress of that month in Hobart.

Three culture horizons were found to be pregent in the 6 metre (21 ft.)
depth of deposit in the rock shelter at Devon Downs and a still earlier
culture horizon was in a river bank site on Tartanga Island a few
miles away. The strata, in descending arder, were named as Murundian
(the present day culture), Mudukian, Pirrian and Tartangan.

Shortly afterwards Tindale and Maegraith (1931) identified ancther,
and separate industry, on Kangaroo Island. This island was uninhabited
when visited by European explorers in 1802. Some archseological

4 RECORDS OF THE §8.A, MUSEUM

implements had been reported previous to 1931 by W. Howchin but no
details had been given. This Kangaroo Island culture (later to be
named the Kartan) was recognised by Tindale (1937) also to be present
on the mainland cf Australia and in Tasmania, where it was an earlier
stratum in a Tasmanian culture sequence. It was then demonstrated,
on stratigraphic evidence, that implements at Fulham near Adelaide were
older than the Pirrian and, by inferenee were older than the Tartangan;
they occurred on an ancient land surface, now below sea level, which
subsequently had been covered by marine deposits, and then by lacustrine
beds above which were the Pirrian camps.

Tindale (1941) called this very old suite of implements the Kartan
Culture, typically from Kangaroo Island, but present also on the mainland
of Australia and in Tasmania. The industries specifically at Fulham
and at Hallett Cove, South Australia, were thought at the time to be
sufficiently different from the true Kartan Culture to be called the Fulham
Industry simply because they supposedly lacked one specific implement
type, the sumatralith. However it is now clear, at least at Hallett Cove,
that this was due to insufficient collecting, for typical sumatraliths are
known from the site, and the supposed differences can be considered less
important.

The only other culture phase terms proposed for implement suites
in South Eastern Australia are ones by McCarthy (1939) who has referred
to the “Gambierian" in the South East of South Australia and the
“Bondaian” and “Eloueran” on the coast of New South Wales, The
status of the “Bondaian” was discussed by Tindale (1955) and all three
are referred to in a later section of the paper.

The significance of the detailed sections and cultural sequences
revealed by excavation at Devon Downs and Tartanga did not immediately
attract attention in Australia. Thus Shelilshear (1937) spoke of the “lack
of accurate and detailed excavation work in Australia”, A useful summary
of work and opinions on man in Australia up to 1942 was given by
Mahony (1943).

The next phase of study was geological exploration. Keble (1947,
published 1948) had a paper which appeared just after one by Tindale
(1947). These papers independently covered much the same ground in
exploring the geological background of man’s sojourn in Australia. The
approach to the problem of dating Pleistocene and Recent time in Australia
by establishing links with the world-wide phenomena of eustatic shore
lines, foreshadowed by Tindale (1933) was amplified in 1947. The 1933
paper was not noticed by Keble, so that some of his conclusions had been
long anticipated.

TINDALE—CULTURE SUCCESSION IN AUSTRALIA 4

KARTAN CULTURE.

The Kartan Culture is characterised on Kangaroo Island by the
presence of sumatraliths, hammer stones, horse-hoof implements, same
discoidal implements of a type which have come to be known as kurta,
and some poorly worked flakes. Most of the implements are relatively
large and coarsely made, Tindale and Maegraith (1981), Tindale (1937)
and Cooper (1943) have described and figured many examples, and Tindale
(1950, 1951) has reported the discovery of hurta-like implements surviving
in use as the cutting blades of the palaeolithic kadj axe of the people of
South Western Australia.

At the archaeological site of Hallett. Cove (Section 562, Hundred of
Noarlunga) further field work has been done by Mr. H. M. Cooper, This
site was originally found by him ard recorded by Tindale (1937).
Ploughing of the land for agricultural purposes has lately brought to the
surface many more implements, including some very typical sumatraliths.

Cooper has observed that the Karian implements of Hallett Cove
are all made from pebbies derived from the fluvio-glacial deposits and
associated chocolate shales of the Marinoan Series, which occur in
nearby gullies, whence they have been carried up on to the plateau
campsite, There are no implements made from stones derived from
the present pebble beach, which lies at the base of the cliffs some
two hundred feet below the site, although these pebbles were, at Moana
and al other adjoining sites, very much used in a different fashion as raw
material for implements by men of the Pirrian and later cultures..

From this fact an inference is made by the present author that at
the time of occupation of the Kartan site on the crest of the hills, sea level
was lower than at present and hence did not lap the cliffs. The present
pebble beach at Hallett Cove would then have been buried under a talus
slope, and a foreshore plain, such as occurs further to the north as the
Adelaide Plains would have extended out: beyond the hills at Hallett Cove,
It is evident that during the low sea levels of the Last Glaciation the
shoreline was many miles away.

This is consistent with the presence of similar implements on the
land surface below present sea level, at Fulham, a few miles further
north (Tindale 1937, fig. 11).

The occurrence of a relatively large number of sumatraliths, at
Hallett Cove on the mainland, narrows: down the supposed differences
between the Fulham Industry of the South Australian mainland and ike
Kartan Industry from Kangaroo Island. The ratios of sumatraliths ta
horsehoof implements approached 90 per cent on Kangaroo Island whereas
at Hallett Cove sumatraliths are present only to the extent of about 40

6 RECORDS OF THE 8.A. MUSEUM

per cent. On Kangaroo Island sites no fewer than 1,221 sumatralith
implements havé been recovered; the Hallett Cove site has to date yiclded
some £0) examples. ‘Two. possible explanations are offered to account for
the different proportions of sumatraliths met with on mainland sites,

If Kartan men were present in Australia at the end of the Pleistocene
Period they witnessed the rise of sea level from the low eustatic terrace
condition which it held during the rigours of the last phase of the Last
Ice Age, At first Kangaroc Island would have been connected with the
mainiand, hence from the point of view of any people then living in
Australia this “island” was merely one of a number of cold, south-facing
coastal areas, With the coming of early Recent Time. about 10000 BP.
Kangaroo Land began to be cut off from the mainland, as it is totay.
Any people living there would have become isolated, and protected from
mainland contacts, It might be safe then to assume that, in their sheltered
territory it would be possible to have a far lesser call to make combat
weapons, hence horsehoof implements, perhaps chiefly used as unhafted
adzes or choppers. in working wood for weapon making, might become
fewer in proportion to the sumuatra implements used evidently in food
gathering. It will be recalled that among’ some living aborigines of coastal
South Queensland, sumatralithtike implements were used in digging out
bracken fern rhizomes for food.

Another possible explanation of the differences should be considered.
Aborigines of all periods were prone to retrieve the materials left on old
campsites by earlier men, converting them to new uses according to their
own ideals of implement making. On the mainland sumatfrus being large
and of selected stone were doubtless good sources of quartzite for micro-
liths and flakes throughout Recent Time. On the island where the Kartan
Culture persisted unchanged tili it became extinct, little such scavenging
of surface sites would occur, hence the proportions of discarded imple-
ments present might not have been altered in this manner on the island.
Mr. H. M. Cooper is at present studying a few implements of later cultures
which hint at sporadic later casual visits to the island.

New sites for the Kartan Culture are constantly being discovered,
At Moana, South Australia, H. Burrows and the writer found a typical
sumatra on the surtace of eroded kunkar limestone at the southern end
of the sand plain, It was coated with lime (specimen A,48749). Mr. J, EB,
Johnson found several excellent sumatraliths at Terrapinna Rockhole on
Mooclawatanna Station in the Flinders Ranges, Seuth Australia (specimens
A.48785).

In August, 1955, on the official excursion to Keilor, Victoria, during
the Science Congress, Mr. EK, R. Hammet picked up and kindly presented

TINDALE—CULTURE SUCCESSION IN AUSTRALIA 7

to the author a large, coarse, flaked implement which he found on the
surface of a ridge in the valley above the left bank of the “Dry Creek”,
at Keilor, within 100 yards of the fossil skull site. This implement seems
undoubtedly to belong with ones of the Kartan Culture, Whatever the
age of Keilor man himself, Kartan implement users were probably once
in this area, The specimen is now A.48061 in the South Australian
Museum.

Dr, A, Gallus more recently has submitted for identification other
large implement flakes found at several places in the Maribyrnong Valley,
Victoria. Four of them prove also to he artefacts of types characteristic
of the Kartan Culture phase. A typical quartzite flaked hand chopper was
af a weight (22 oz.) and general form which might be expected to occur
where tubular pieces of stone replace waterworn oval pebbles as raw
material in the making of sumatraliths. Others of his specimens were
found to be directly comparable with some implements described by Tindale
(1937, p. 50) from the older or Kartan-like Culture phase at St. Helens,
Tasmania. Tindale (1941) reported similar examples from Flinders and
Cape Barren Islands in Rass Strait, where the Newer Tasmanian Industry
is unknown.

Kartan types of implements are now known from many places on the
Australian mainland, notably at Calligillup, six miles east of Mt. Barker
in South Western Australia, at Roebourne in the north of Western Aus-
tralia; and at Yarrie Station on the De Grey River, North Western
Australia, where they were found by J. B, Birdsell and the present author,
the first named locality in 1939, and the others in 1953.

Messrs. B, Main and G. W. A, Bartholomew found a single large flake
which may belong to this culture on a sandhill between Roebourne and
Cossack, in Western Australia. Dr, J. B. Birdsell and the writer found a
horsehoof implement, similar to those of this culture, made from heavy
ironstone, at a place 16 miles East of Flora Valley, in North Western
Australia (Specimen A.45415 in S.A. Museum).

Mr, Lindsay Black has in his collection a typical sumatralith (his
no, 1729) from Bocstra, about 100 miles north of Yancannia near the
border between New South Wales and Queensland; it is made on 4
rather rough-textured pebble of red-stained quartzite.

Mr, Brian Daily, now Palaeontologist in this Museum, several years
ago found a rolled sumatralith (specimen A.46986 in the S.A. Museum)
with the working edge extending alone one side and the end of a rather
elongate ovate pebble; it is not quite typical of Kangaroo Island sumatra-
liths. It was on a ledge of mottled red, white and yellow argillaceous sand
of uncertain age between Late Tertiary and Sub-Recent time, about two

8 RECORDS OF THE 8A, MUSHUM

miles west of Lubra Point on the south coast of Bathurst Island in the
Northern Territory. This ledge protruded fram a sand dune about 70 feet
above high tide mark, He noted that no other implement of this type,
and no further sample of the rock of which it is manufactured was to
be found either on this island or on the adjoining Melville Island, where
he also worked. The specimen is figured by Tindale (1956 (2) p. 119).
Daily found similar types of pebbles in Cretaceous: Beds further east
on Bathurst Island.

The occurrence is useful in indicating the possible extension of the
Kartan Culture to what was part of the mainland of Australia in Pleisto-
cene time,

It ts of interest in another way. The present day inhabitants of
Melville and Bathurst Island are of negritic type only slightly modified
by some possible hybridisation with Australoid stock, This may help to
confirm indications from other quarters that some former link may have
existed between the negritos of Australia and Kartan Culture.

Implements of the same forms as those of the Kartan Culture are
characteristic of many sites in Sonth East Asia and Indonesia. They
are reported as far to the north as in the Bac-son Mountains of Tongking,
being found there and in Malaya, often in the lowest stratified occupational
layers present in caves and rock shelters. Heine-Geldern (1932 pl. 1,
fig. 4-5) figures examples from Bac-son.

Examples from caves called Gua Kerbaui in Perak, and Gua Badsk
in Lénggong, collected by the late P, D. R, Williams-Hunt are in the
South Australian Museum {specimens A.43256-43286).

Saurin (1953) suggests that Hoabinhien Culture sites in Indo-China
are mostly, if not wholly Post-Pleistocene in date. One of the charac-
teristic implements is the sumatralith.

The late date suggested for the Hoabinhien of Indo-China contrasts
with the increasing evidence that in the Australian corridor and in Aus-
tralia the Kartan Culture, which has similar implements, was at latest of
ale Pleistocene times in its main period of dominance. By about 9000
B.P, it had already been supplanted by the Tartangan in South Eastern
Australia, there being local survivals until more recent times only in
peripheral areas, and on islands such as Kangaroo Island. However, if
the Kartan Culture was, in the main, that brought to Australia by people
of negritic stock, then it is probable that it persisted for a long time in
the rain-forested areas along the eastern coast of Australia where negritos
survived. In areas near Brisbane, for example sumatralith-like implements
remained locally in use until modern times as digging stones in. the
gathering of bracken fern roots, for food (Jackson, 1939), McCarthy
(1947) has reported sumatra-like implements from sites he identifics as

TINDALE—CULTURE SUCCESSION IN AUSTRALIA a

modern on the North Cosst of New South Wales; the one figured is not
very typical of the Kartan Culture ones of Kangaroo Island.

The late date suggested for this type of culiure in a part of Asia
may also reflect the similar fact that negritic populations proved able to
maintain themselves until modern times in many areas of jungle. At
some places their primitive implements probably remained in use for «
long time, until they established sufficientiy cordial contacts with more
advanced peoples to enter into barter with them. It is noteworthy that
in Malaya sumatraliths and archaeological pottery have been reparted
together, and that the Semang negritog today trade forest products with
Malays for their requirements of metal tools, ete.

TARTANGAN CULTURE

This culture was criginally reported from Tartanga Island in tte
Murray River, where there is a series of beds identified as of Pre-10 foot
Terrace Age, with Unto profovitiatus as the principal food shell, and a
suite of piscine, reptilian and mammalian fossils, only oné of which, a
Macropus, may have been of an extinct species. Layer C, an upper horizon
in the Tartangan series, is now dated by Carbon 14 to 6020 = 150 BP,
Areas of Tartangan campsite are known also to be on the plateau near
Swan Reach, a few miles away. At Lake Menindee, Tindale (1955)
reported a Tartangan Culture as contemporary with beds containing a
large assemblage of fossil mammals (Tedford 1955). A hearth in this
Tartangan horizon has now been dated to 6570 + 100 B.P.

At Cape Martin in the South East of South Australia Tindale (1956
(4) and paper in press) reports a still earlier Tartangan horizon, dated to
8700 + 120 B.P. This isa lerra rossa soil on a land surface demonstrably
of Early Recent date. Tartangan sites found at Cape Northumberland,
Kongorong, Symon, and inland from Blackfellow Cave in the South Hast
of South Australia, as also at Cape Bridgewater, in Western Victoria
are also being discussed in the same paper.

The known distribution of the Tartangan, Culture is constantly being
extended, Latest reports of possible sites is by two correspondents,
Messrs. J. E. Johnson and 8, B, Warne who, writing from the Western
Desert near the Western border of South Australia state:—"At Giles Tank
in Western Australia we have found what seems to be a Tartangan Culture
and an undoubted culture of the Tartangan or pre-Tartangan has: turned
up on a Small site 6 miles South of Mt. Harriet, South Australia, where
large, coarsely but sharply percussicn-trimmed, deeply patinated toals of
micro-diorite are found. They are made on blockg and large insolation
flakes and prepared cores, and comprise horsehoofs, block choppers and
large flakes.”

io RECORDE OF THE &3.A. MUSEUM

The area of distribution of the Tartangan as an archaeological culture
thus possibly extends at least from the eastern borders of Western
Australia to Cape Bridgewater in Victoria and from Lake Menindee in
the Western part of New South Wales to the South Coast of Australia.

The Tartangan as revealed at these places resembles so closely the
implement culture of the Tasmanian aborigines of modern times that there
is eyery reason to suspect a link.

The Tasmanian implement types figured and described by Tylor
(1895) for example can all be matched among the general rm of imple-
ments of Tartangan facies to be taken in the coastal regions of the South
East of South Australia. The work of the Tartangan peoples plus the
nature of the flint there has yielded flakes identical in style, though
naturally widely differmg in manner of patination, ete,

Campbell and Noone (1943, p. 384), during their studies of the
implements of the Woakwine Range in the South Kast of South Australia,
sensed the resemblances between their Tartangan finds and those from
Tasmania, even though they were puzzled by the absence cf any imple-
ments of the types now known to belong to the Kartan Culture, It
would seem they had not appreciated that two culture pericds were
involved. They did not use the culture names proposed by Hale and
Tindale (1930),

The newly gained knowledge, that Tartangan folk were at Cape Martin
no more than about one thousand years after the probable time of the
severing of Tasmania from the Australian mainland at the end of the
Last Glaciation, clearly supports the conclusion that there was a direct
relationship and the fact that the Tartangan and Kartan people were not
everywhere contemporaneous expluins the sceming Inconsistency of the
absence of the Kartan types. One would expect that many of the Kartan
campsites along the coast were obliterated by the rise of sea level which
was one of the primary markers of the end of the Pleistocene.

‘The Kartan Culture, being earlier than the Tartangan had already
spread ta beth the Tasmanian and Kangaroo Island areas before the
Tartangans arrived,

We are led ta see that most probably the Tartangan Culture also was
moving inta and had already taken over the occupation of paris of the
Murray Valley and vicinily and of much of the area of Victoria near
the entrance to Tasmania, by the end of the Pleistocene. Both cultures
were shut off in Tasmania by the rise of sea level and we can postulate
perhaps a period of culture clash in Tasmania about the end of
Pieistocene time, leaving the Tasmanian Culture in command until modern
times.

TINDALE—CULTURE SUCCESSION IN AUSTRALIA 11

Although the Tartangan Culture seemingly thus occupied a good part
of South-Hastern Australia by the end of the Pleistocene it probably had
not yet had time to penetrate as far westward as the Mt. Lofty Ranges.
Hence when the Kangaroo Island area was severed from the mainland
by the same rise of sea level as cut off Tasmania, the older Kartan Culture
was the only one represented in the area. It was cut off and persisted
unchanged on this large island until it became extinct, perhaps by the time
of the Mid-Recent High sea level. Despite active search no Kartan imple-
ments have been found on any Post-Mid-Recent coastal area on the island,
In Tasmania, on the contrary, the newer Tartangan implement culture
flourished, either replacing the older Kartan one or absorbing it (we cannot
yet tell which) to become the Newer Tasmanian Culture of yester year.
Certain it is that the Kartan on Kangaroo Island did not show any signs
of change before it became extinct, whereas over much of the mainjand
of South Eastern Australia, in the archaeological succession, Kartan was
superseded by Tartangan, and then by the Pirrian and the still later
cultures which followed.

Sufficient indications now exist to enable us to visualise probable
Early, Middle, and Late phases of the Tarfangan Culture, the whole
ranging in time from about, the last cold phase of the Pleistocene down ta
about 5000 B,P.

Early Tartangan was a large blade culture which possibly spread
to Australia from Asia, but it is not clearly recognised there; isolated
blades have been found in New Guinea which show resemblances, but
not much is known about them; they will be described when more infor-
mation is to hand.

The Tartangan of Cape Martin, at 8700 B,P., can be regarded tenta-
tively as the beginning of Middle Tartangan times. There is a wealth of
cultural material, in flint, from Hoods Drift, Symon and elsewhere on the
Woakwine Range which in part belongs here although much of it may,
when C™ tests are made, prove to belong ta the earlier phase and sa
be better placed with Harly Tartangan.

Late Tartangan times, on the mainland, may have commenced before
6500 B.P. on the Darling River. It typically is the Tartangan of the type
site at Tartangs, on the River Murray. The last namied series comprise
a late suite of implements, in an aia short of good stone for their
manufacture.

The solitary large crescentie implement of dull grey chert, figured
by Hale and Tindale (19830 fig, 229) from Layer TX in Devon Downs Rock
Shelter is like a Tartangsn implemen, and is either 2. very late curvival
Ge is an archaeological specimen picked up and carried there by a Pirtian
man,

12 RECORDS OF THE &5.A. MUSEUM

In its time of development the Tartangan of South Eastern Australia
may have covered that critical period which saw the decline and ultimate
disappearance of most of the population of large mammals.and giant birds
of the Australian Pleistocene.

Gill (1955) has discussed various theories to account for the crash
of the giant mammal assemblages of the Australian Pleistecene but does
not produce any clear cut evidence indicating man as a primary factor
in their extinction,

Although climatic changes are generally blamed for their extinction,
men doubtless had much to do with the final disappearance of these
creatures,

Mr, H. M. Cooper in April 1955 found a hearth on the crest of red
sand dunes at Pert Augusta West, at the head of Spencer Gulf, South
Australia, with burnt bones and teeth of Diprotoden and large flake
tools. These perhaps belonged to an early phase of the Tartangan Culture
or Jate Kartan period. He proposes to publish an account of this site.

From the data in the Lake Menindee area (Tindale 1955), the above
mentioned observation made by Cooper, and also a hint given by the
carvings of tracks of a giant bird (perhaps Genyornis} deseribed by
Hall, McGowan, and Guleksen (1951), at Pimba, South Australia it seems
likely that man hunted and ate the principal Pleistocene species, and that
in the Murray Basin, during the period between about 6500 B.P, and
6060 B.P., he succeeded in virtually eliminating all but a large kangaroo,
Macropus, like the modern species, Procoptodon, and the Devil (Sarca-
philus), which managed to survive in some humbers until Pirrian times,
(Hale and Tindale, 1930, pp. 211 and 215).

It is not yet certain when Tartangan folk disappeared from the
Murray Valley scene. They were definitely absent by 4250 B.P. when
Pirrian folk already were living there. No Tartangan implements have
been fotind on top of the blanket of ash spread by the eruption of Mt.
Gambier, which has been dated to 4710 + 70 B.P., although ones attri-
butable to the Pirrian and Mudukian cultures are present.

We are indebted to Mr. T. A. Rafter for this C™ date, furnished
in a letter addressed to Dr, C. Stephens of the C.S.LR.0., Adelaide, on
29 June 1955,

There are some links between the Tartangan Culture and some people
of the present time. During a visit of the Board for Anthropological
Research Expedition to Yuendumu, Central Australia, in August
1951 (made possible by a grant from the Wenner-Gren Fund) there was
an opportunity for this author to see and film a number of Ngalia men
making stone knives at a factory site near the Government Station. The

TINDALE—CULTURE SUCCESSION IN AUSTRALIA 13

members of this tribe have continued to use the mine because of a demand
for knives to sell to Huropean visitors to the Station. The Ngalia men
whose techniques were studied on this. occasion, were the same as those
met by the author on a previous expedition to Cockatoo Creek in August
1932, when they were still nomadic savages, just being brought under
control, after the murder near Coniston Station of a white man, during
the initial phases of contact.

N.B.T

Fig. 2, a-c. Guim-hafied general purpose knife, af type used by Mangala tribe in desert east of
Tua Grange Bay, Western Australia, aative name [jimari|; specimen was No. 1964 in culleetion of Lindsay
Black, width 5,5m., specimen now A.49903 in S.A, Museum; df knife of jimuri type made by Pintubi

tribeaman at a factory site near Yuendumu while demonstrating stoné knapping methods (specimen
A.42899 in Svuth Australian Museum),

14 RECORDS OF THE §.A4. MUSEUM

The Ngalia type of knife has not changed in the intervening years.
Details of their technique of making Imives, of rather typical Central
Australian type, are reserved for a separate paper.

A man of the Pintubi tribe was present. He was a lately arrived
visitor from. the still nomadic Pintubi folk of the country along the
Western Australian border, south cast of Lake Macdonald, His knives
were entirely different from those of the other workers. Pintubi enes
were made from large flakes struck off from a core, sometimes as a long
oval blade, and at others to make a wide squat one. All his trimming
was done with the aif of a moderate-sized stone, used a3 2 hammer, and
the finished result showed primary, secondary and tertiary trimming,
Whichever flake was obtained initially the secondary work fashioned it inte
an aval knife, trimmed on one long margin of the stone. In cross section
the finished knife had the same rounded silhouette as is familiar in the
large knife blade of the Tartangan Culture of Southern Australia. Fig. 2,
d-f give two views and a diagrammatic section of one made by this Pintubi
man. It was on a rather brittle flake of sugary-textured quartzite con-
taining numerous flaws, The man indicated that the stone was poor, and
claimed that in his own country much better material wag available for
use. Despite the apparent disability imposed by the poor stone his finished
knife flakes were symmetrically and neatly fashioned. In use they were
hafted in Triodia gum but at times could be used without, No attempt
was made to trim that part of the butt which in normal use would be
concealed beneath the gum of the handle.

Just afterwards a similar knife from North Western Australia was scen
in the collection of Mr, Lindsay Black of Leeton, New South Wales, and
a period of six months of field work in North Western Australia in 1953
enabled the data it provided to be followed up among the people from
whom it had come,

Fig. 2, a-c shows two views and a diagrammatic section of this general
purpose Imife, made from a grey opaline silica, on a flake showing white
cortex on the outer face. It is hafted with gum from one of the porcupine
grasses (Triodia). In this specimen the nature of the striking platform
is concealed by the gum haft but other known Mangala tribe examples
show the remains of a striking platform set at about 110° angle from the
inner face of the flake, The example came from east of La Grange Bay,
in the dry sandy desert area behind the Eighty Mile Beach, in North
Western Australia, The coastal region here is occupied by the Karadierl,
inland is the tribal territory of the Mangala people among whom this form
of knife is used and known as [jimari]. The figured specimen is the one
collected by Mr, Lindsay Black and it is listed in his collection under the

TINDALE—CULTURE SUCCESSION IN AUSTRALIA 16

number 1964; through his courtesy it has now come tao the Museum
collection (A.49903). Similar knives, now restricted to special uses, are
known and treasured at least as far south as the Fortescue River, among
the Njangamarda, Njamal, Bailgu, Wanman, and Indjibandi folk. The
people of these tribes have for some year's been in contact with civilisation
and have dropped the general use of stone implements; however they still
need a form of this knife for their initiatory rite of circumcision. Hence
every man who has the prospect, at sonie time or another, of being able
to circumcise a future son-in-law, has in his possession one or more
specimens, of several sizes, cached away in some safe place against that
day. During the 1953 visit to North Western Australia it was possible to

NBT

iel &. Vive views of arabneologiont jgawart knife deom the Tartangaa horizon at Hoods Drift
Section 545, Hundred of Kongerone (enecimen A,d0S60 in BA, Museum).

see numbers of them which were produced for inspection, sometimes from
hiding places in cliff faces; to have a demonstration of the mode of
manufacture, and to receive several as gifts. One of the noted mining
places for the stone is at Pilbara Hill and specimens A.45156 and A.45157
in the S,A. Museum are ones from this factory area. Their specialised
use as instruments during initiation has preserved knowledge of them for
at. least two generations more than otherwise might have been expected.
For the same reason they are not now seen openly in camps where
women folk might discover them. They were often depicted however when

16 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

native drawings were being made by men, They seem, only a short time
ago, to have been the normal form of everyday knife in the Pilbara area
of Australia, as they still are among the less sophisticated Mangala. ‘The
last named people, like the Wanman, who live east of Lake Waukarly-
karly, are a folk so specialised for life in the dry sandy deserts south
of the Fitzroy River that they seldom carry any other implement or
weapons than a knife and a throwing club, and for much of the year
live on lizards, on the heaps of grass grains gathered by ants about their
nests, on small rat kangarocs, and occasionally on other small animals
such as the blind marsupial mole,

The particular significance of this type of general purpose knife, for
the present paper, is the close similarity, amounting to Identity, of its
form, mode and degree of trimming, and perhaps also the nature of its
handle, with the archaeological Tartangan ones in South Hastern Aus-
tralia, Fig. 3 gives several views of an example from the Tartangan
layer at Hoods Drift for comparison with the modern examples.

The contrast between the untrimmed snd unmarred back of the
Mangala knife, which in use is concealed beneath the gum of the handle,
and the superlatively well worked knife edge, with its rounded profile and
curved cutting edge, is very characteristic.

Tartangan implements very generally show this same contrast, sug-
gesting that they probably also were hafted in a similar manner, perhaps
using one or other of the generally available gums and resins known to
later aborigines. These include native pine (Callitris) gum, resin of the
grass tree (Xanfhorrhoca), gum from phyllodes of Acacia aneura, the
exudate from the roots of Leschenaultia divaricata, sandalwood (Santa-
lum) gum, and porcupine grass gum (Triodia), as well as beeswax from
stineless native bees.

The Mangala name [jimari] for this knife is proposed as a general
term for the type, It may be convenient in future to refer to Tartangan
examples as archaeological jimart, defining the typical form as based on
the Mangala version in current use, just in case it is later on proved
that the resemblances between them are somewhat less real than seems
apparent at present. The term tronata in Tasmania, while usually used in
a more general sense, embraces specimens which are similar,

Tindale and Noone (1941) have described flakes from a hoard of 74
newly prepared blades near Eucla on the borders of South and Western
Australia in present day sand dunes. This hoard includes some pieces
closely similar in size and form to jimari and may hint that Tartangan-
like culture survivals extended also to the Eucla district.

TINDALE—CULTURE SUCCESSION IN AUSTRALIA 17

PIRRIAN CULTURE

A specific horizon in the Pirrian Culture, Layer IX in the type section
at Devon Downs Rock Shelter, has been dated to 4250 = 180 BP. by a
C's test of Unio shells picked from a mass sample of the debris of the
layer,

The same horizon possibly represents. the high point in this culture,
At least it chanced to produce a pirri implement (Hale and Tindale, 1930,
fig. 177, and 179) technically so outstanding that it has scarcely been
matched by any from hundreds of other sites and probably is the equal
of any among thousands of pirri implements that have been collected.
This culture was widespread and its users were prolific in the production
of implements, from a great variety of stones. A collector in the Woomera
area of South Australia possesses over two thousand examples picked up
on surface sites in one area alone.

The Pirrian culture probably appeared in the Murray Valley about
or just after the period of the Mid-Recent High Terrace. The earliest
implements discarded on the top of the blanket of ash from the Mt.
Gambier eruption of 4710 = 80 BP. are identified as most probably
Pirrian and no earlier Tartangan ones have been found there.

The Pirrian Culture has now been reported from almost all parts
of Australia excepting only Cape York Peninsula, coastal Queensland
and parts of Eastern New South Wales: in these three places insufficient
collecting has been done to regard their entire absence as established
beyond doubt.

The most characteristic implement, the pirri implement itself, as
indicated in a later paragraph in this paper, was a spear point. It survived
until modern times in a part of Western Australia. There is evidence, to
be elaborated in a later paper, which shows that the pressure-faked biface
blade culture of North Western Australia is likely to have been a direct
development from the Pirrian. Study of the techniques of pressure-
flaking has shown that in one tribe at least 2 rather large-sized, pirri-like,
uniface hammer-dressed blade is made during a preliminary stage of
preparation of the stone for pressure flaked blades.

Indications of the modern survival of the pirrt are of particular
interest. In the South Australian Museum is a spear (A.21356) from the
collection of the late A. Zietz labelled ‘? Interior of Western Australia”.
It was probably collected during the last century. It has a well formed
pirri trimmed on both lateral margins and set. in gum, ag the spear tip,
The shaft is of the so-called composite type, the foreshaft being of hard-
wood, 118 cm. in length, with the junction of gum and hardwood shaft
bound with kangaroo sinew, The length of the pirri and gum support is

A
Ei
=

¢
H
|
=
rt
=
=
=|
=
4
=
=
=
=

Ny)

ADD DDD

mL

HEE?

rr

ill

a

Pig. 4. Stonce-headad composite spear from Western Australia and archaeological pirri projectile points
from yaricus places. a. Spear of type known as karw by Wanman people, example A.21856 in South
Anstrulimn Museum from collection of A, Ziets, labelled *? Interior of W.A."; totul length 252 cm., of
hardwood shaft 118 em., of reed butt 127 cm. b-e Four views of head; d, is somewhat enlarged. f, 2 views
of pirri. trom Coorong (Section 2, Hundred of Santo, South Australia, 4.49556); 2, Eucla, Western Aus-
tralia, A.41879; b-i Claypan site south of Mt. Davenport, South Australia, A,21490; j-k Buolka Lake, New
South Wales, A.21378 (scale, in centimetres, apples to all figures except a and c),

TINDALE—CULTURE SUCCESSION IN AUSTRALIA 19

7 em. The lower end of the hardwood shaft is inserted into a reed shaft
127 cm. long, and of a diameter of 1.5 em. the union between them being
lashed with sinews; the butt end of the spear shaft has received no
particular preparation but is severed immediately below a knot in the
cane, hence it appears as if prepared for use with a spearthrower. The
spear shows the polish of much use, It is an important piece of evidence
demonstrating one of the primary functions of the pirri. Fig. 4 (a-e)
illustrates the specimen from several aspects. A secondary function for
archaeological pirri was noticed by Hale and Tindale (1930 p. 205).

In the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu, is a similar example
of hafted spear (their B702) from Western Australia (fig. 5). It origi-
nated with the Helms Collection. The specimen was examined at Honolulu
by the writer in 1936. Richard Helms was the anthropologist of the Elder

N.B.T

Fig. 5, Two views of head «a! composite shafled spear of modifled karw type, Western Anatralia,
R, Helms (specimen B702 in B, P_ Bishop Museum, Honolulu),

Exploring Expedition in 1891-1892, but in his published account, although
he described several spears, he made no mention of this specimen as
having been obtained on the journey. He could of course have got it from
elsewhere than in the area traversed by this Expedition. The stone shows

20 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

evidence of possible pressure flaking on both faces, thus resembling the
pseudo-biface pirri implements which haye heen found archaeologically on
the lower parts of the Eyre Petiinsula in South Australia with traces of
flaking on both faces. The general style of spear making ts that of the
Pilbara natives.

During my 1953 visit to the Pilbara area it was noticed that the
aborigines of the Wanman Tribe, who live in the Desert éast of Lake
Waukarlykarly, when depicting spears, made drawings of a stone-headed
type which they called karu, Njangamarda drawings showed a similar
spear, called karo. Both of these were differentiated from the ¢j/nal or
tjinali a pressure-flaked spearhead of the Kimberleys, which occasionally
comes as far south as the Mangala territory in trade in this area and
by a more eastern route reaches to the Warburton Ranges as a rare
traded abject, there to be used as a circumcision knife. It is unfortunate
for anthropologists that the making of spears has heen suppressed in the
Pilbara area and no actual specimens of Karu could be obtained.

The existence of drawings of Karu spears, the descriptions of the
apears given by informants, plus the knowledge that spears with pirri
points have been collected somewhere in this general area all tend to
confirm the conclusion that in parts of the Pilbara and Upper Ashburton
areas pirri tipped spears survived until modern times. It is proposed
that the spear type be known by the Wanman tribe name Aaru; the Zietz
specimen may be regarded as typical.

It is an interesting point to consider whether the survival of the
pirri-pointed-spear among the people of this part of Western Australia
is an indication that some of the peoples of this area are actual modern
descendants of the peoples of the Pirrian Culture or whether we have
here merely the local survival of one element of a Pirrian tradition which
elsewhere has been swamped under a flood of later cultural elements.

Noone (1943) records a few examples of microliths of probable
Mudukian facies from Millstream Station on the Fortescue River in
territory now occupied by the blond-haired Indjibandi.

The real test may come when it is possible to ascertain whether or
not a Mudukian industry dominated all this portion of Western Australia.
No microlith implements were found by us in several months of search
during the spare time between our anthropometric study sessions in the
Marble Bar and Pilgangoora areas. In this connection it is of interest
to note that, implement-wise, a culture reasonably similar to the Mudukian
seems to have existed until modicrn times among the people of South
Western Australia and extended at least as far north as the Lower
Murchison,

TINDALE—OCULTURE SUCCESSION IN AUSTRALIA 21

Dr, H, Petri (in a letter) recently mentionéd his finding of an
archaeological campsite with pirri implements near Perth, From his
discovery, which confirms a find made near Newman Rocks, we can
perhaps infer that in South Western Australia a Pirrian culture phase
once existed and may have been superseded by the present day Mudukian-
like Culture.

The present day aborigines at Moolabulla, in North Western Australia,
of the Djaru and Kitja tribes, say pirri points are kanbire or the “claws”
of the “Hagle people’, who existed before they themselves came into
the country from the east. Pirri are commonly found in the sand around
the originally palm-tree-girt spring at the Head Station, a few miles west
of Hall Creek. Their own spear points are pressure-flaked biface blades
with serrated edges which pass through a stage during manufacture when
they are almost indistinguishable from large pirri.

Pirrian implements were found at several other sites in the valley
of the Fitzroy River during the visit to North Western Australia; par-
ticular mention may be made of a site 19 miles west-south west of Louisa
Downs, and ancther 9 miles south west of that Homestead,

At Wave Hill Police Station on the Upper Victoria River in the west
of the Northern Territory, pirri implements occur on an eroded site near
the Station itself whereas on the present camp of the aborigines attached
ta the Station, a few bundred yards further away, the dominant blade
implements are all bifaced pressure-flaked ones as they are among the
living Wandjira people of Inverway Station, who still make them. In
Central Australia, at Tieyon Station Homestead and at Macdonald Downs
Homestead near Lilatara, pirri are found. Other localities worthy of
mention are Lincoln Gap, west of Port Augusta, and Pimba, Louth Bay
and Sleaford Mere on the West Coast of South Australia; some from the
two last-named areas show incipient biface trimming. At Tower Hill, near
South Gap, Nuriootpa, Fulham, Ooldea, and Miller Creek, all in South
Australia, many are found. There is an extensive site 25 miles north of the
Cooper Creek Crossing on the track between Marree and Birdsville.
Specimens referable to the Pirrian Culture were found on sites examined
by the present writer in 1955 around the southern shores of Lake Eyre,
others are known from the Durham Downs, Queensland.

Worms (1950) reported pirrf implements found archaeologically in
the territory of the still active Bard tribe at Cape Leveque, North Western
Australia, associated with worn adze stones. :

Two rather aberrant examples of pirrilike implements have come
from Victoria, one from Lake Lonsdale and the other from Altona, A
rather short squat example which may really be an atypical engraver,

22 RECORDS OF THE §.A, MUSEUM

only resembling a pirri by chance, has come from Port Kembla, New
South Wales.

It should perhaps be mentioned here in passing that the present
author interprets the term pirri in its originally proposed sense as includ-
ing both the developed pirri with secondary trimming and the so-called
butted blades, which however they may be separated by the implement
classifier still represent together with the pirri the whole range of form
of a single type of spear head. Graphed they would yield a curve of
the type characteristic of a continuous random series. They range from
forms with margins entirely free of secondary working, to the most
perfectly bilaterally trimmed examples. This is not to say that as mors
detailed time sequence studies can be made there will not be found higher
and lower degrees of striving for perfect symmetry, by trimming, in the
work of different periods and among the Pirrian peoples of different areas,

There have been many discussions on the status of the Keilor fossil
skull in the Maribyrnong Valley, Victoria and much work has been done
on the physiographic data of the area in attempting a solution of the
problem of its position in time. Little attention has been paid to the
quartzite implement flake found near the skull. This specimen, labelled
as No, 45769 in the National Museum, Melbourne. was shown to the
present author in February, 1949. This flake was labelled “Keilor” and
“Dry Creek skull layer, few inches from skull, found by Dr. E. S. Hills”.
With the Director’s permission freehand sketches were made of it. These
are shown here as retraced in india ink (fig. 6, a-d).

The specimen is a thin blade some 3.9 cm, in length, 2.0 cm. wide
and 0.7 em, in general thickness. There is a small triangular striking
platform with a diffused bulb showing an angle below 100° with respect
to the main axis of the flake, Four flakes had been removed from the
core in preparation for the striking off of this blade,

ZS

<>
a S b abn el

Fig. 6. Retracings of freahond sketvhes of the small blude found hy Dr. mr, S. Hills in the Dey
Greek skull layer, 2 few inches from the Keilor skull a. showing foor flake scars on outer face; ). view
of inner face: «. view in plane normal io striking vlatferm; d, créss section at marked position (specined
45769 jn Notional Mugeum, Melbourne, navarol oleae),

=
SSS

2

AAC

A

TINDALE—CULTURE SUCCESSION IN AUSTRALIA 23

By itself this specimen is insufficient to mark positively the culture
period to which it may have belonged but there are strong indications
that the flake was made during one or the other of the two culture periods
with small blade industries, Pirrian or the Mudukian, rather than in a
Tartangan culture phase, in which it would seem very much out of place.
The small, prepared, relatively acute angled striking platform, checked
fiake scars at butt, and long thin blade, appear first in the Pirrian Culture.
By Mudukian times there is a high degree of skill displayed in preparing
the final implement, on the core, before detaching it by a blow struck on
this small face,

It can only be said that a man, probably at earliest of the Pirrian
Culture, lived on the soil of the Dry Creek at Keifor on a horizon “a few
inches from” the place where Keilor skull came to rest and he was
possibly attempting to make a pirri when he struck off this flake.

MUDUKIAN CULTURE

The studies of Campbell and Noone (1943) and of Mitchell (1949)
have made the principal microlith industry of Southern Australia well
known since it was first observed in the séction in Devon Downs Rock
Shelter between the limits of 10 feet and 15 feet down, and named the
Mudukian Culture (Hale and Tindale 1930).

This Mudukian horizon yielded examples of most of the microliths
now known to be typical, but at the time the shelter was being studied
relatively little was known about microlith industries in Australia, and
it probably was only by chance that these tiny implements were picked
out in sufficient numbers to make it clear that this was the period of
dominance of microliths. More emphasis was laid by the writers on the
presence of muduk bones in defining the culture. It is now known that
these bones were fishing toggles similar to those still used in Western
Europe when “sniggling” for eels, In the later Murundian Culture of the
Murray River they have been replaced by a similar toggle, cut in wood
and known to living informants, a type abandoned as soon as the superior
guslities of European metal hooks were known.

Relics of the Mudukian microlith culture are to be found over vast
areas of Australia, in many places forming an upper stratum on Jong
occupied sites, and at other places occurring as ‘pure’ series without
association with relics of any other period of occupation.

On 5 January 1934 a microlith crescent and five other small flints
were found on the Mudukian site at Wimpinmerit, 100 yards west of the
homestead (Specimens A-2115T in 5.A. Museum), A month later Dr.
H. K, Fry and the writer escorted Milerum, last old man of the Tangane-

24 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

kald, over the country from Lake Alexandrina to Kingston and were
shown the sites and given the native names of many of the present day

Murundian camps, and found other microlith sites in places which Milerum
considered useless as camps.

Some further work was done in the area during February 1939, with
J. B. Birdsell, and signs of stratification were observed in several places.
After an intermission during the War the area was visited in 1947,
and again in 1948, the superimposition of the Mudukian and Murundian
Cultures being observed, as well as Mudukian above Tartangan, in company
with E. C. Black, T. D, Campbell, D. Casey, J. B, Cleland, P. S. Hossfeld,
8. Mitchell and G. Walsh. For the present paper it is convenient to draw
particular attention only to the site at Section 541 Hundred of Kongorong,
known to Mitchell (1949, p. 173) as Hoods Drift.

Study of a section (fig, 7) at this place shows that there is a thin
sterile surface layer of wind-blown sand, a fixed dune surface until after
Post-Huropean times, containing roots of sedges, Beneath it there is
a layer of pale red sand, without laterite nodules. Usually it forms a sheet
less than a metre (2-3 ft.) in thickness containing some charcoal, very
sparse signs of hearths, no preserved bone, but has a rich Mudukian
microlith culture of fresh-looking flints including bondi points, woakwine

Post-Mudukian
sterile red sand
with roots of sedges

MUDUKIAN
pale red sand
without laterite
nodules

TARTANGAN

red sandy soil with , *
laterite nodules

Ye ie A? “LZ BD pe ®
Mey Ye N } LE une sand \ Lis of
ikl ty Yy Yai S
Wh Yi Yh \ \ Z

Fig. 7. Section of Hoods Drift, Section 541, Hundred of Kangorong, South Australia.

TINDALE—CULTURE SUCCESSION IN AUSTRALIA 25

points, microlith discoidal adze stones, ségments, triangular microliths
and other characteristic Mudukian implements, Where erosion has not
proceeded down below this layer only a Mudukian suite appears,

The red sand without nodules lies disconformably above a red sandy
soil containing laterite nodules.

The A layer of this lower red soil contains abundantly a Tartangan
industry in red-stained flint with large and characteristic blade implements.
The B horizon of this soil, at a general depth of 0.3 metre has numerous
lime pillars and further down is a variable thickness of sheet limestone
forming a duricrust. The C layer below is of the rather compact dune
of lime-sand of the Woakwine Range. Where erosion has proceeded to
the level of the duricrust sheet both Tartangan and Mudukian implements
are found, dropped together in profusion on to the surface; in places
where the red sandy soil is still intact Tartangan Imives and other flakes
are in silu from the top of the red soil down to levels well below the
summits of the limestone pillars. Mitchell (1949 p. 179) to whom this
section was demonstrated commented on the differences in patination
between the two suites then pointed out, accepted the proposition that
two separate industries existed and were of different ages, but did not
link them with the two industries named by Hale and Tindale (1930), He
correctly deduced that the microlith suite was “Post-Mid-Recent Optimum”
(i.e. after the Mid-Recent High or 10 ft, Terrace of this author), and
that the earlier ones came before the Mid-Recent, as had been already
deduced for Tarianga, and as is in this paper clearly confirmed by C4
dates at several places.

During a visit to the Coorong, Sonth Australia, with Messrs, Anthony
Sturt and H. A. Lindsay in March 1951 a site near Policeman Point, on
Section 2, Hundred of Santo, was found to have microliths of the Mudukian
type, with numerous crescents, small blades and microlith cores. The
flints were fresh and were being eroded from a layer of light red soil
overlaid by a aterile layer of about a foot of newer sand. The site
itself was on and in the A horizon of a red earthy dune with a calcareous
B horizon. The underlying shell lime dune ‘sands form the seaward face
of the same dune range as is called the Woakwine Range in the South
East of South Australia,

The site has been visited since on several occasions and has yielded
a rich microlith suite of implements including a fine stone drill-point,
and the smallest perfectly formed crescent impiement yet found; it
measured only 6 mm. along the cutting edge, The food shells of this site
are Plebidonax deltoides and one specimen of the shell was found which
had been used as a spoke-shave scraper by having a circular hole punched
through the centre of the valve, as used in recent years by Milerum,

26 RECORDS OF THE 8.4. MUSEUM

the last survivor of the Tanganekald tribe. The site seems to have been
concentrated on a point overlooking a little former embayment of the
Coorong waters, Today this is silted up and dry land, situated over one
hundred yards from the Coorong waters. It seems likely that when it
was occupied the waters of the Coorong may have stood a few feet
(perhaps no more than 3-4) higher than they do at present.

The particular significance of this site is that an occupational hearth
may have a purely microlithic Mudukian Culture, including hut circles
and workshops, without signs of any other implement suites, and if small
changes in local physiography cause later inhabitants to prefer some
other dwelling area the place will remain undisturbed. The implications
are important for the historical study of implements since it reiterates what
has been indicated before that the people of at least one interval in
late Recent time used only the microlithic suite of implements we call
Mudukian,

The following table compiled after a visit to the site on 17 November
1955 is useful as indicating the stone materials used at the site.

Material Flint | Quartz | Red jasper) Other

On surface
in situ

The flint is that from the South East of South Australia, the quartz
was of the clear type with glassy fracture from the direction of the Mt.
Lofty Range, while the jasper is of the same type as occurs in the
Mudukian of Deyon Downs Rock Shelter. It probably came down river
from the general direction of Broken Hill. It is clear that the trade
connections of the Mudukian people of Policeman Point were with the
Mt. Gambier district and that they had considerably less to do with
people from the north than did those who were living at Devon Downs
Rock Shelter at the same general time.

The red sandy soil is without enlarged laterite nodules, has a cal-
careous B horizon, and shows evidence of the presence of limey pillars,
all overlying calcareous dune sands. The Policeman Point site seems to
suggest, by its profile, that it was a soil being derived from the dune
sands by leaching and was still forming during the period of occupation
of the site by thesé Mudukian people, no more than say 3000 years ago.

Tindale (1955 p. 292) reported bondi points of the Mudukian Culture
as occurring on sites in the interior of Western Australia, and used the

TINDALE—CULTURE SUCCESSION IN AUSTRALIA a7

évidence to throw doubt on an idea put forward by McCarthy (1938)
that these implements were confined to coastal areas and that they
were in some manner connected with marine food-getting. The presence
of such along the coast line of New South Wales had been thought by
him to warrant the separation of the undoubtedly well developed Mudukian
Industry of that area, under a different name, as the Bondaian Culture.
Bondaian would appear to be synonymous with the Mudukian Culture.

Messrs, J. E. Johnson and S. B, Warne now report similar Mudukian
implements from two further places in the Interior. They write under
dateline of 24 May 1956 “We have found Muduk|ian) culture sites, with
bondi points at Mount Crombie [in the North West interior of South
Australia] . . . and in the Cavanagh Range, Western Australia.
Woakwine points are found on both sites, oblique trimmed blades,
crescents, trapezes and triangles’, Receipt of these specimens, as this
paper goes to press, confirms their observations, Several implements
were made from meteorite glass, extending the areas in which this
material was used for implements,

This new report should help to remove all doubts that the Mudukian
Culture horizon is very generally distributed over Australia. McCarthy
(1952) perhaps did not appreciate the effects of the local absence of
suitable mines of implement stone, on the somewhat impoverished
Mudukian at the Devon Downs type site. From the study af the many
dozens of other known Mudukian sites around it, including the several
discussed in this paper, it is clear that this was a local and casual
deficiency no more significant than differences of wealth, in our modern
culture, as between one community and another.

The suggestion was made by Tindale (1955) that bondi points
could have been triangular needle points used in piercing skins, when
sewing them together with sinews to make rugs snd skin cloaks. Since
then it has been noticed that Basedow (1925 p, 365) refers to stone points
as being used for this very purpose, using’ the following words;—“In
former days the River Murray and south-eastern tribes used painted
splinters of stone for making holes through the skins of animals they
made up into rugs.”

This apt description of the bond/ point may give added weight to a
conclusion reached before, that modern Mudukian Culture survivals were
still present at the time of European occupation, particularly in peripheral
places in South Australia where the people had not been driven out by
the late-coming Murundian adze culture folk of the Centre, who, in recent
venturies seem to haye been pressing southward and eastward out of the
Desert areas into South Eastern Australia.

2B RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

From Esperance on the south coast of South Western Australia at
least to Geraldton along the west coast, including the country of all the
people of the -up areas, (those characterised by place names such sg
Wonnerup, Tambelup, Nampup etc.) and some of the territory of the -ing
peuple further inland (whose place names have the form Tambeling,
Nyabing etc.) aborigines were still using stone implements of Mudukian
facies when first encountered by men of the Western world.

Not all the implements of the Mudukian Culture are small. Larger
implements similar to the type described as elouera, which first appear
in the Pirrian Culture lately have been found on more than one Mudukian
site. Also in Queensland a knife, made on the same principle as the elouera
but with a knife point is still in use, This type of knife, hafted with

i At
(

Pai

Fig. 8. Present day skin hafted knives of juan type, from coastal Queensland. a, Example from
Bowen, Quecnsland, colleetud by Godefroy, specimen Av26la in Grasti Museum, Leijiz, hatted with
matuinal skin and human hsir string ob, Similar knife trom Queensland, specimen M14 in Museum f
Volkerkunde, Homburg, (Scales. indiouted eentimetres.)

anima] skin bound on while green with the fur side outward, survives
along the eastern coast of Australia, and was known further inland in
Queensland with a gum haft. It possibly also occurred in parts of New

TINDALE—CULTURE SUCCESSION IN AUSTRALIA 29

South Wales, Fig. 8 gives views of two typical examples. It is proposed
to report full details of available specimens in a separate paper, Contrary
to the belief cf Towle (1930) the “chipped” back is not the cutting edge.
Most of the known examples are to be met with in overseas Museums:
they were collected before the days when anthropological collections
were being preserved in Australia, and when it was still possible to
acquire examples of the material culture of the living aborigines of South
Eastern Australia, Among the Ngaun and kindred tribes west of Charters
Towers this knife is known as | juan] and [joan]. It is proposed to call
the type by name of juan,used by the Ngaun tribe.

Microlith sites are found in Victoria and many have been described.
If we are right in assuming that the assemblage of implements at Koroit,
Victoria, for example, represents a developed Mudukian Culture, then the
C™ date of 538 + 200 B.P. reported by Gill (1955) may help to confirm
a conelusion reached, before this date was available, that the living culture
of the coastal Victorian natives at the time of first contact with Europeans
may have been still transitional from the late Mudukian one, a Mudtikian
culture modified principally by the incoming of the edge-ground-stone-axe-
making trait but not materially affected by the spearthrower-with-adze-
stone-using Murundian people who had 30 much earlier appeared at Devon
Downs and whose campsites became widely spread in parts of New South
Wales, in the Murray Basin and over much of Northern South Australia,
Central Australia and eastern parts of the Western Desert in Western.
Australia,

Tt is unfortunate that so far no assessment of the culture phase
represented by the Goose Lagoon Midden date of 1177 + 175 B.P, has
been possible,

MURUNDIAN CULTURE

The change from the Mudukian to the Murundian Culture in the
deposits of the type section in Devon Downs Rock Shelter is abrupt,
Microliths and special bone implements disappear, and only adzestones,
of several modes of manufacture, and usually very worn, persisted, From
the very tentative time scale suggested elsewhere in this paper the change
over might have taken place there as early as 2000 or 2500 years ago,
but the only ayailable time scale is based on an uncertain premise, namely
that the rate of accumulation of ash, ete., in Devon Downs Rock Shelter
was regular (fig. 9), No allowance could be made for possible compac-
tion of the deposits by water seepage, and the compression of lower layers
by weight of overlying beds so that a much later date might be indicated,
Further it is unlikely that this date was the same everywhere in South
Eastern Australia, for as pointed out earlier there is some evidence to

a0 RECORDS OF THE 35.4, MUSEUM

support the idea that Mudukian microlith people in some areas continued
to live relatively unchanged until modern times.

The change over to the Murundian Culture may have been an expres-
sion of an increasing tempo of nomadic life, forced progressively on people
of less favoured parts of Southern Australia by gradually increasing
aridity such as is seemingly suggested by the diagram given elsewhere
in this paper (fig. 9).

Assuming this late phase of desiccation was a Southern Australia-
wide phenomenon, leading to the Mediterranean type of climate enjoyed
here today, the Mudukian aborigines perhaps were under increasing pres-
ure to give up a rather sedentary life of only seasonal migration fram
summer to winter camps in favour of moving more continuously about
their territories, as do today the people af the sixty or more tribes of the
Western Desert and its environs.

Only in a few more favoured areas such as along the Coorong
and around Lake Alexandrina in South Australia, and in parts of coastal
ictoria and New South Wales, etc., could the semi-sedentary way of life
persist in a modified form, until modern times. There must have been
population pressure also from people forced out of the Desert, leading
to displacements even in favoured spots far from the Desert.

Study of the life of the Desert tribes shows that with enforced
nomadism would come problems of transport. One of the solutions was
the abandonment of unessential non-portable properties. From the
mythology of the Ngalea, of the southern part of the Western Desert,
who live today in a belt of maximum aridity we learn for example that
their ancestors used skin rugs, as did the people of more favoured climes
in South and South Western Australia until modern times. The Ngales
could no longer use them in everyday life, although they have preserved
memory of them in their traditions.

In the archaeological record the change from Mudukian to Murundian
was reflected inter alia by the trend towards the disappearance of skin-
piercing stone points, a possible decline in fishing toggles (or in some
areas, if data from living Murray River natives is confirmed, the replace-
ment of bone ones by wooden ones) and by the increasing use of the
readily portable adze-stone, set in gum on the end of the spearthrower.
as a well nigh universal tool, a combination meat cutter, scraper, adze,
chisel, gouge, borer and spear burnisher,

Superimposed on this was the progressive development, in the eastern
half of Australia of edge-ground stone axes. These were most advanced in
type in the north (hammer-dressed-edge-ground ones) and Jess advanced
in the South (flake-trimmed and edge-ground types). The State of South

TINDALE—CULTURE SUCCESSION IN AUSTRALIA 21

Australia being on the western periphery of the areas of axe distribution,
the few edge-ground axes found, as far west as Yorke Peninsula, and in
the vicinity of Adelaide, are ones traded, some from axe factory sites
on Berrimah Station near Chatsworth on the Hopkins River (these are
nsually of a mottled gray igneous rock) and from Mt, William in Central
Victoria (a dark, almost black, fine textured diabase), Other axes which
have penetrated as far south west as the Southern Flinders Kanges
by trade are all from the axe factory site near Cloncurry, Queensland,
An earlier phase of this trade carried flaked, edge-round axes, now
only found archaeologically in the south, while late traded examples,
including the hafted ones of the present day, are of the hammer-dressed
type. Mr, J. H. Johnson has just found the battered remnant of a chipped
and edge-ground fine-grained green diabase axe head at Mt. Moore, in
the castern part of Western Australia.

McCarthy (1947) described an important excavation at a rock shelter
on Lapstone Creek, in Eastern New South Wales. which shows the junction
between an éarlier Mudukian Industry (for which he uses the term
Bondaian) and the later Murundian Culture, with an industry directly
comparable with that in the type shelter at Devon Downs, as amplified
by later studies in Southern Australia.

It is unfortunate that he has seen fit to propose a term “Eloueran”
for this upper industry, which seems merely to add another synonym to
the terminology of the subject and to mask identity with the Murundian
of other places.

The Murundian of northern South Australia is characterised by well
trimmed adze blades made at factory sites and traded over large areas.
In the South East of South Australia it is characterised also by occupation
mounds of the type called myrniong [marniong], which show high con-
centrations of shell food remains, ash, and stones of cooking hearths,
with freshly worked flints. Similar sites are met with in parts of Victoria.
A mound of this type at Cape Northumberland is being described in a
separate paper, Tindale (in press). Concentration of camp debris in sucii
mounds seems to imply the local persistence of the semi-sedentary mode
of living,

In November 1955 several Murundian rock shelters at Section 562
Hundred of Caroline were studied. The sites are on the northern
rim of a circular sink hole or collapsed cave, in Tertiary limestone, 75 ft.
deep and 185 ft. in diameter. The sheltered areas, of which there are
several, are small and possess only 0.5-0.9 m. of ash and camp debris
yielding only bones of animals of living species of the district, and fresh
Murundian flints. A track passing through the main rock shelter leads

32 RECORDS OF THE 8.A. MUSEUM

down to a pool of water covering the southern half of the floor of the
collapsed cavern, Implements reeovered confirm the general picture of
the Murundian developed in Deven Downs Rock Shelter and elsewhere
in Southern Australia.

GEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR THE ANTIQUITY OF THE
AUSTRALIAN CULTURE SEQUENCE.

The geological evidence used in the following summary is that
presented before the Melbourne meeting of the A.N.Z,.A.A.S. in August
1955, before the C# dates were available. The two types of evidence thus
were independently derived. The reasonably close degree of correlation
between them may serve as an encouragement to those using either system
of dating.

The earliest geological evidence available implied a late Pleistocene
date, prior to the reinvasion by the sea of the coastal lands of Australia
which was caused by the eustatic rising of sea level at the termination
of the Last cold phase of the Last Glaciation (Tindale, 1933, and 1947). It
has been estimated by several authors that at the cold maximum, a
minimum of 250 feet, and at most 300 feet of water had been abstracted
from the sea as ice and perched on land masses around the North and
South Poles,

The origina] access to Kangaroo Island by the Kartan people probably
was prior to this rise of sea level. The Fulham occurrence of Kartan
implements on a land surface below present sea level also had suggested
a late Glacial time and the indications and deductions at Hallett Cove
described earlier in this paper had supported a similar date.

The latest relics of the Kartan Culture occurred on Kangaroo Island
in silts at Rainy Creek, These were laid down when the 10 ft. Terrace
was the shoreline (Tindale 1937, p. 42). No Kartan implements had been
found seaward from this terrace on areas vacated by the seas of 10 ft.
Terrace times, nor were they present on sand dunes which had been
built up after the 10 ft. Terrace was vacated, A few isolated finds had
hinted at sporadic later visits to the island but no continuing occupation
after 10 ft. Terrace times.

Tartangan deposits along the Murray River were deposited on a
series of silts forming successively higher layers on a bend of the river at
Tartanga. The deposits afterwards were “drowned”, consolidated, and
the bones in them mineralised under water, then re-exposed, The river
is at present bage-levelled, hence the ten or more feet of rise necessary
completely to drown the deposits could only have taken place during the
10 ft. Terrace times of the Mid-Recent, Their deposition thus was a pre-

TINDALE—CULTURE SUCCESSION IN AUSTRALIA 33

Mid-Recent event and the successively higher layering of the successive
Tartangan Beds, A-E, probably indicated a period immediately prior to
that episode, when sea level was rising, Im terms of the C* dates
availabie overseas for the Mid-Recent High this was prior to about 5000
B.P, Tartangan implements had not been found at any sites on the coast
betweén the 10 ft. Terrace level and the present shore. They occurred
on places which were close to the sea but always above the 10 ft, mark
in relation to present sea level, An inference was that any ones nearer
sea Jevel had been either “rolled” in the sea or destroyed by the erosional
effects of 10 ft. Terrace seas. Some evidence at Cape Martin in the South
East of South Australia had indicated however that Tartangan implements
might occur at places now below the 10 ft. level but only where the
beds were inland and at the relevant time had been sufficiently buried
under later sands as to be protected from erosion during the Mid-Recent
High.

At Cape Martin the food shell fauna of a ferra rossa soil horizon
identified as Tartangan (Tindale, in press) indicated that both sandy beach
—and lacustrine—shell faunas were being used as food, whereas a much
later occupational horizon, with a distinct stratigraphic disconformity,
identified as Murundian, showed rock shells, such as Turbo, indicating
that when the second site was in occupation, consolidated sand dune cliffs,
like those being eroded away at present faced the nearby sea. Here again
the evidence indicated a pre-10 ft, Terrace period, before the present rocky
shoreline was being attacked by the sea, for the Tartangan, and a Post-
Mid-Recent date for the Murundian.

Pirrian occupational deposits at the Devon Downs type site had
been laid down without violent disturbance by flood waters, at a nodal
point of the Murray River where it was turning from a sweep against
the left bank to one against the right bank, The rock shelter evidently
had been formed or scoured clear of any earlier debris during 10 ft.
Terrace Time. No signs of scouring were present after the bottom layer
was put down 1.5 metres above present normal water level, although in
the partial mineralisation of the boneg in the lowest levels there was
evidence of intermittent drowning, probably by percolation through the
water table at times of high flood in the river itself. Indications were
that the first Pirrian occupation had come after the retreat of river level
{and sea level) from the 10 ft. Terrace. This on overseas data, signified
a date after about 5000 B.P. At Fulhara the Pirrian camp studied was on
a small bank of sand within the area of swamp land which lay behind
the present dunes, in a situation indicating a Gate after 10 ft, Terrace
times. It was only a few feet above present sea level, but probably was
formed before the large bulk of the present coastal dune system, of white

34 RECORDS OF THE §S.A. MUSEUM

sand, was fully built up along the foreshore of today, Pirrian sites in
general did not occur anywhere in these coastal dunes of the present
shoreline, indicating that they were not being occupied during the latest
period of shoreline development. They occurred at Moana near the sea
but on an older suite of foreshore dunes behind the present ones. Evidence
did not exist to prove the earliest appearance of the Pirrian people and
it was not then possible to say from purely geological evidence whether
they were present or not at any time prior to Mid-Recent times.

The Mudukian Culture phase, when the microlith industries flourished,
had followed directly on the Pirrian Period without more than a minor
break indicated by a hard line of separation in Devon Downs shelter. The
implement. suites were highly characteristic. At some places where
Mudukian implements had been identified they had included ones made
from australite glass. No meteorite glass implements were known from
Pirrian or other horizon earlier, but it was, and still is not clear, whether
this was because the australite shower had not yet fallen or whether the
small sizes of these widely spread glassy meteorites did not suit the
implement making habits of earlier men.

Some climatic data was available for the interval between the
begirining of the Pirrian Period and the present. The indications were
furnished by smal! Molluscan forms present in the shelter deposits at
Devon Downs, They suggested that the climate had undergone a rather
steady deterioration from a wetter climate towards a Mediterranean one.
The signs were a diminution in the numbers of a fresh water species of
Bulinus and a correspondingly slow and lately accelerated increase in a
brackish-water shell (Melania). This had been inferred to indicate local
climatic deterioration over the whole interval represented by the three
Successive pericds, Pirrian, Mudukian and Murundian (Hale and Tindale
1930, fig. 249).

Sites of Murundian Culture had heen found with freshly made imple-
ments and fresh bone in the present day dunes, as at Somerton, South
Australla and in such places as on the tops of cliff paths leading up from
present day beaches, as at Cape Northumberland; (Tindale in press)
which had suggested their late development,

CARBON 14 EVIDENCE

To substantiate this general picture of culture succession some useful
C4 dates are now available for the time since the end of the Pleistocene.
In round figures 10000 B.P. may bé taken as the time of the ending of
the Last phase of the Last Glaciation.

Rise of sea level and flooding of the Pleistocene glacial shorelines may
be presumed to have happened, according to C* data, after 9861 + 500

TINDALE—CULTURE SUCCESSION IN AUSTRALIA 35

B.P. (Late Glacial of Cornwall} and before $483 = 350 B.P., the date
indicated for a Post-Glacial site at Lake Pickermg, Yorkshire (Libby
1954: Clark 1954).

Applying this information to South Australia in the light of the
geological evidence set out earlier it can be inferred that the Fulham
site on the land surface below marine deposits is to be referred to a time
before 10000 B.P. The Hallett Cove Kartan site, which yields the sugges-
tion that it was occupied when sea level was not at the present cliff line
would also belong to a time prior to the year 10000 B,P. when part,
and possibly the whole of the Gulf of St. Vincent was an alluvial plain
with a river system threading its way across it towards the Southern
Ocean.

The C™ tests for the Tartangan of Tartanga were made by Dr. W.
Broecker of the Lamont Geological Observatory at Columbia University,
using shells of the subfossil freshwater shell Unio protaviftatus, which
is a very thick-shelled form of the thin-shelled Unio evansi. Like U. evansi
of the present day it once lived in the shallow waters of Tartanga Lagoon.
Among the shells included in the sample were also a few broken pieces of
Unio ambiguus, a species found principally in the deeper and faster
flowing waters of the main river. U. ambiguus shells of Tartangan times
do not show much difference in shell thickness or form when compared
with modern shells of the same species.

The Tartangan subfossil shell sample was broken out by Dr, J. B.
Birdseli and the writer from the eroding top surface layer of the con-
siderable pavement of consolidated shell in Layer C of the Tartangan beds
at the type site on Tartanga Island (Hale and Tindale 1930, fig, 10),
Specifically it may be considered to date that surface. It was from this
horizon that the body of the youthful individual known as Tartanga iii
Was buried.

When the sample was being gathered the Murray River was in
partial flood so that lower beds, A and B, which have occupational debris
to a depth of at least 1.75 metres below the top layer B, were inaccessible,
The occupation of the site must have commenced some considerable time
hefore the date 6020 + 150 B.P. marking the virtual top of Layer C.

As control several pounds weight of Unio evansi shells were colleeted.
These shells died on the margins of a lagoon, about two miles upstream
from Tartanga, as the flood waters of 1953 subsided. One-half of this
control sample was sent to Columbia University and one-half of the
balance went later on to the Dominion Laboratory in New Zealand for
parallel tests, Concerning this modern control sample (their no, 271F)
Dr. Broecker reported that it was “found to be 1% greater than our

36 RECORDS OF THE S.4. MUSEUM

modern wood standard”. Dr. G. J. Fergusson’s comment on his portion
of the test sample was:—‘“Enrichment of C™ w.r.t. our modern wood
standard = + 1.70 + 0.4%”.

It would appear a fortunate circumstance for archaeological work
in Australia that freshwater Unio shells are likely to provide data so
closely comparable with that derived from wood samples.

The test sample from Layer IX of Pirrian times in Devon Downs
Rock Shelter was made up of shell fragments from a mass of the layer
taken when the rock shelter was being excavated in 1930. When further
opportunities for C“ tests occur, similar samples from the original exca-
vation can be made available for each of the twelve layers in this shelter.
No record is available to indicate at what horizon within the 30 cm,
thickness of Layer IX this sample was collected. It has to be assumed
that the date of 4250 + 180 B.P. is indicative of an indefinite point within
this bed in the Pirrian Culture.

The data sent to Dr, H. L. Movius for the Lamont Laboratory gave
the following prior assessment of possible dates, For the Tartangan
Layer C horizon “the evidence we have at present suggests that the
Tartangan occupational horizons were probably laid down prior to the
10 foot Terrace and hence could be as early as Mid-Recent; a suggestion
to that effect has been published.",

For the Pirrian horizon TX the assessment given in this letter was
“this material should date the mid-point of the Pirrian Culture. ... We
have no mess of dating this layer but have concluded that it was laid
down zfter 10 foot Terrace times. It is tha oldest of the three culture
horizons which we recognised in the shelter and seems to have been laid
down at a time when the climate was moister than at present: at a guess
it might be two to three thousand years old”.

The expected dates were very satisfactorily confirmed.

The three tested Lake Menindee samples were the shells of a fresh-
water Unio kindly collected for us by Mr. L. F. Marcus, of the University
of California. They were identified for us by Mr. B. C. Cotton, Curator
of Shelis at the South Australian Museum, as Alaihyria prefuga Gould
1851.

Two of the samples (L.F.M. no. 186 and 189) were from surface
hearths lying on and above the Mudukian horizon. Both proved to be
modern. The third (L.F.M. 188), which was a food hearth in the top part
of Horizon B gave the C™ date of 6570 = 100 B.P. This date indicates
a horizon very close to the end of the period of deposition of the bed
from on and within which both, fossil mammals and implements of the
Tartangan Culture were recovered.

TINDALE—CULTURE SUCCESSION IN AUSTRALIA 37

The data sent to the Dominion Laboratory with the Lake Menindee
specimens was as follows:-—

LFM No. 188. Blowout I horizon B. Unio shells from Layer B in
area J at Lake Menindee. The field notes of L. F. Marcus state, “There
Were one or two sheils in place in the B horizon and collected matrix
labelled LFM 188—IB with this; and 14 Ib. (approx.) of shells separately
in pieces—all that we could get, They were along about 10 yards in
an E-W direction. There was not sutticient concentration to warrant
digging, though we did a little without luck,” Our statement about thia
was:— ‘The faunal association with Layer B comprises a long list of
extinct genera of late Pleistocene or Early Recent mammals, Aboriginal
implements of this horizon appear to be of the Tartangan Culture which
has been dated as Early Recent (prior to the Mid-Recent Therma!
Maximum), At Tartanga a middle horizon of the culture bears a Carbon
14 date of 6020 + 150 B.P. A few implements found on the site suggest
the Kartan Culture which is probably late Pleistocene, at least at its
beginning.”

LFM No. 186. Blowout 0 horizon B. Unio shells from Layer B in
area Il at Lake Menindee. L. Marcus’ field notes state ‘Again on the
surface at [the marked spot in Blowout TI] in an srea E-W 15 yds.
and 5 yds. N.S. One or two in place as collected. These later broke up
and were separated from the matrix. Four rat kangaroo mandibles and
a maxillary fragment were found on the surface amongst the Unto
fragments of Sample ILB”,

LIM No. 189. Blowout IV horizon O. Unio shells from Layer O in
area IV. L, F. Marcus’ field notes read “Collected a 2 lb, (approx.) sample
of these shells and the matrix below”.

Our statement about the lastnamed sample was:—

“The fauna of Layer O at Lake Menindee comprised only living
species of mammals. The aboriginal implements were all from the Mnudu-
kian Culture. This microlith culture has been shown to be Post-Thermal
Maximum and later than the Pirrian Culture. For Layer IX at Devon
Downs which represents a mid point in the Pirrian Culture we have a
Carbon 14 date of 4250 + 180 B.P. The date of this sample might well
fall between 3000 and 1500 B,P".

Dr. Fergusson’s reply was:—‘Sample No. LFM 189, Unio shells Lake
Menindee, Blowout TV, Horizon O, Age—Modern—w.r.t. modern Unio
shells,

Sample No. LFM 186, Una shells, Lake Menindee, Blowout IT, Horizon
B, Age—modern—w.r.t. modern Unto shells.

Sample No. LFM 188, Unio shells, Lake Menindee, Blowout I, Horizon
B, age w.r.t. modern unio shells = 6,570 = 100 years."

348 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

The dates were very acceptable, although the late date for the surface
sites was unexpected. From the notes by L. F. Marcus it seems clear
that the two samples which gave a modern date came from the loose
sand layer forming the modern surface of the dune; rat kangaroo
mandibles are quite common on these late surfaces.

CLIMATIC CHANGES

Fig. 9 is a redrawing of a diagram, first given by Hale and Tindale
(1930). As now set out it uses a tentative time scale based on the supposed
rate of deposition of ash, etc., in Deyon Downs Rock Shelter. Tt emphasises
again an interesting point, first drawn attention to in that paper, that
since the time of the first appearance of the aborigines in this rock
shelter the relative abundance of some microscopic shells of the fauna
of Deyon Downs has been changing. Expressed as a percentage Bulinus,

PIRRI

AN
LEPC

eT
hal 148, oh

Fie. 9. Rating of three small shells in Deron Rock Shelter, indicating thunge from Bulinus
u Froghwater species) to dominanse uf Melanin, ao breckish-water form; Corbiowla, a tolerant species.

a fresh water form has been gradually yielding place to Melania, a
brackish-water-loving form, while Corbicula a more tolerant species, has
remained relatively constant.

On the basis of the occurrence of this change Hale and Tindale had
indicated a probable slow trend of change towards the Mediterranean
semi-srid climate enjoyed in the Murray Valley at present. The diagram
seemed to suggest that conditions at no time were appreciably drier
than those being experienced at the present day.

TINDALE—CULTURE SUCCESSION IN AUSTRALIA 38

The diagram in its original form, without positive indications of
time scale, was ignored by Crocker and Wood (1947) when they postulated
their “Great Arid” Hypothesis and linked it with the supposed climatic
condition of Mid-Recent Time. With the C!* date of 4250 = 180 B.P. to
control the general scale it can now be read, in combination with data
furnished by the 8700 B.P. terminal date for the terra rossa soils of Cape
Martin in the South Hast of South Australia, as removing two of the
main arguments for a supposedly great arid period in Mid-Recent times
us postulated by these authors.

SUCCESSION OF INDUSTRIES

Drawing all the facts of the previous sections of the paper together
and taking into consideration the time data available from Tartanga,
Devon Downs, Lake Menindee and Cape Martin we are in a position to
suggest the outline of culture sequence in South Eastern Ausiralia, since
Late Pleistocene times, as shown in fig. 1, which speaks for itself.

On this diagram we are not yet in a position to define in detail
the times of transition from Pirrian to Mudukian and from Mudukian
to Murundian in the area under consideration. Since probably we are
dealing with culture shifts in terms of tribal displacement as well as
in part changing implement fashions and cultural acquisitions it will
perhaps be correct to assume that the times will prove to vary from
place to place. As mentioned above we can secure some general indications
of the times from data at Devon Downs Kock Shelter, if we use the
convenient, but possibly specious assumption outlined in an earlier para~-
graph, that the rate of accumulation of ashy deposit and debris in the
shelter was relatively constant. For the purposes of the diagram, using
these indications, the Pirrian to Mudukian transition had been drawn as
if it had occurred shortly after 3800 B.P. and the Mudukian to Murundian
culture shift is shown as at about 2700 B.P. in Devon Downs Rock
Shelter; both could be much later and the Mudukian to Murundian shift,
in particular, may have been long delayed in some areas,

ROCK CARVINGS AND CULTURE SEQUENCE

The C4 dates described in the present paper enable some preliminary
indications to be given of the possible cultural associations of the styles
of rock carvings met with in Southern Australia.

The late Murundian style is found on the walls at Devon Downs
and examples were figured by Sheard (1927) and by Hale and Tindale
(1930 fig. 212). Thin linear marks predominate. The same style of
drawing occurs on present day weapons from the Murray River, and

40 RECORDS OF THE 3.4. MUSEUM

others like them were traced on the ground with a stick by an old
aboriginal of the Maraura Tribe, when telling a story to Tindale (1939
fig. 256).

The Mudukian style, which may have extended up into the Early
Murundian, shows designs with much heavier lines, wide curves, and
forms representing animals and objects (Hale and Tindale 1930, fig. 246).
The heavily scored rock carvings of Sydney district possibly belong to
this same Mudukian culture phase.

Tugby (1953) indicates some Victorian rock shelter painting sites
have associated occupational debris indicating a microlith culture. This
perhaps is Mudukian.

Hither the Mudukian or the Pirrian people made many “‘tally” marks
as if keeping count, or “utilitarian” marks, comprising groups of “shar-
pening” marks as if bone points were being fashioned by rubbing on rocks.
Such marks are reported from more than one place in Southern Australia
and may be indicative of this period as in Devon Downs Shelter (Tindale
and Mountford 1926; Hale and Tindale 1930).

A style of rock carvings, with probable tracks of giant birds,
described by Hall and his colleagues (1951) are possibly ones from the
Tartangan period. Egg sheils of these birds have been found, believed
to be food remains, in the horizon identified at Lake Menindee as of
Tartangan times. It must be remembered however that there is some
suggestion of the survival of knowledge of these birds in present-day
traditions of the aborigines so the rock carvings may be later in time
than Tartangan.

However, if these indications are valid the rock carvings found in
South Eastern Australia range at least ever the greater part of the
past 6,500 years, and several changes of style are manifest.

PHYSICAL TYPES

The brief discussion of Australian physical types of man in this
material culture paper is not to be considered an admission that there
is any necessary link between the physical forms of men and the cultures
they enjoy.

Both physical form and culture seem to have had similar broad
histeries of translation from Asia out. towards the Australian continent,
with modifications on the one hand due to possible local genetic changes
and hybridisation, and on the other hand due to possible local inventions
tacked on to what was a considerable legacy from older and widespread
cultural influences from the mother of continents.

So far no evidence has come to light directly linking the Kartan
Culture with any physical relics of man: Potential candidates would

TINDALE—CULTURE SUCCESSION IN AUSTRALIA 41

probably have had to resist decay since late Pleistocene times, ‘The
Aitape frontal bone (Fenner 1941; Hossfeld 1949) might qualify in
point of time but no implements were found with the fossil.

indirect evidence has linked the Kartan Culture with the Barrinean
negrito on the grounds that both are probably the oldest respective
types in Australia. However Fenner (1941) has considered the Aitape
skull fragment might be equated with his “Southern” Australoid type,
the same as that named by Birdsell (1949) from siudy of the living, as
the Murrayian type. The widespread practice reported among present
day negritic peoples of cremations rather than burials, if it is an old
custom, may have removed the greater part of any evidence for the
existence of the negrito. Certain it is that on such places as Kangaroo
Island where over 200 sites of occupation are now known and many
thousands of stone implements have been recovered, no osseous relics
of man ever have turned up. The best series of crania of Australian
negritic aborigines is in the Australian Museum, Sydney. They are
from the bodies of Barrinean natives killed by Native Police in the
Cairns area, Queensland, in the 1890's.

Our specific knowledge of the physical form of Tartangan people
is at present confined to the cranial pieces avid part skeleton, including
one Lolerably complete, though once fragmented cranium from Tartanga,
described by Hale and Tindale (1930). Tindale (1941) considered that
the cranium of the best preserved youthful individual possessed some
Tasmanoid characteristics, notably in the shape of the cranial vault
and in the presence of small third molars, unusual in Southern Australoids,
and usual in Tasmanoids. It is possible that the Tartangan youth shows
closest relationship with the rather large Tasmanian crania found in
Western Tasmania, which Wunderly (1938) has considered to be separate
from the more truly negritic Tasmanians of the rest of Tasmania. Further
work should be done before too much reliance is placed on these
preliminary views. Since the Tartangan youth was buried from a horizon
in bed C, the layer which provided the C™ date of 6020 B.P. this may
be considered to give a reasonable indication of the date when he lived.

Mahony (1943) in writing of the Keilor find dismissed thy Tartangan
remains in one line. “There is no evidence of the age of the Tartanga
bones", an explanation for his omission to compare them with his own find.
The C4 date now available cannot be so readily ignored since it applies
to a site from which several burials and many implement specimens have
been recovered.

Gill (1955) has suggested a C' date of 8500 B.P. for the Keilor
cranium. Unfortunately the date is not based on material specifically

42 RECORDS OF THE 8A. MUSEUM

associated with the fossil and the implement associated with it gives
only an inconclusive lead. He has attempted to show by a wide
physiographic survey that the Keilor skull horizon may be linked with
a diastem in terrace deposits dated to 8500 + 250 B.P. This may well
be so since man was probably an inhabitant of Victoria at all times from
the Late Pleistocene on, but the presence of an implement has to be
accounted for, Could this date refer to the horizon into which the skull
was put by those who buried it, rather than the date of the living man?
Aboriginals today in places as far apart as Arnhem Land and the coastal
areas of North Queensland use skulls separately from the rest of the body
in ceremonies connected with mourning for the dead. The skull as found
showed no signs of “rolling” and it is not weathered as if having laid
on or near the surface after natural burial during some freshet. If it
were not buried by such a flow of water, the odds are high that this
or any other given skull would be one that had been given burial, and
the chance that one with so perfectly preserved a molar dentition could
have been “rolled” into position is possibly rather improbable. Absence
of the front teeth could be accounted for by a period of use as a ritual
object. The painted skulls of Eastern Arnhem Land, for example, in
use, shed the same loose teeth as are missing in the Keilor skull.

If the general indications of a possible Pirrian date afforded by the
implement flake are valid then Keilor man might have belonged to a
period just after Mid-Recent High Terrace time. If the implement flake
must be ignored, the place of Keilor man in the culture succession will
have to be ascertained by indirect means, which can only come after
further collecting is done in the area. However Gill (1953) has shown by
fluorine tests that the Keilor skull belongs to the campsite from which
the implement came so that it seems that a Post-Mid-Recent High date
must be accepted. His first C™ date of 3000 B.P. is possibly nearer the
mark than the revised one of 8500 B.P. (Gill, 1955 p. 52).

Keble (1946) has substantiated that the skull was related to the
campsite, evidence for which was found in the terrace in the form of
a layer of burnt bone, ash and red ochre.

Gill (1955) has reported other C™ dates for aboriginal hearths
but as no human remains or identifiable implement cultures have been
described in association, his reports lack significance for the purpose of
the present paper, indicating as they do only that man lived in Victoria
at the specific dates named.

Best preserved of adult crania which seem to be referable to the
Pirrian period is probably the very robust “Southern” or Murrayian sky!
and jaw numbered as A.15555 in the South Australian Museum which

TINDALE—CULTURE SUCCESSION IN AUSTRALIA 43

was excavated at Fulham in January 1931 from a grave 3 feet deep
in red sand covered by three feet of gray sand.

This skull awaits detailed study, The body was lying in a flexed
position in a pit dug from the surface of the red sand. It Jay on its
right side with the head to the west. With it were Pirrian implements
including two pirri.

A probable Pirrian child bundle burial in the flexed position is the
one found by H, L. Sheard and others (1927) in a rock fissure at Fromm
Landing (specimen A.20616 in S.A, Museum). The preservation is such
that some details of the skin and hands haye been recovered also much
of the fish network and wallaby skin wrappings in which the child was
parceiled up. Its Pirrian date is presumed on the evidence of the presence
in the wrappings of a single pirri spear point (A.20517), which unfor-
tunately was only found after the first publication of the find, when the
Specimen was being prepared for display in the Museum galleries. This
child seems to be of the present day Murrayian type and much like the
infants from the Murundian Layers II and ID in Devon Downs Rock
Shelter.

There is thus some evidence to support the view that by Pirrian times
the people were probably not other than of the Murrayian type of the
present day,

There were two flexed burials at Lake Menindee from horizons
within the Mudukian microlith culture layer. At present these are being
studied at the University of California. They seem to furnish the
suggestion that Mudukian folk were predominently also of the same
Murrayian type as the Pirrians who had preceded them by about a
thousand years. Most of the flexed burials so common in Southern
Australia are of this general type.

The Murrayian is represented by some 500 crania and part skeletons
in the South Australian Museum collection. These are found wherever
Murindian and Mudukian campsites have become exposed by erosion and
all appear to represent people of the same general type. It was from
measurements of living people of the South that Tindale and Birdsell
(1941) recognised and Birdsell (1949) came to define as the Murrayian
type the people of Sotith Eastern Australia, while Fenner (1941) working
entirely independently, on crania, recognised the existence of the same
‘Southern’ type of aboriginal from his cranial remains.

The present day Carpentarian aborigines of North Australia may haye
been the original possessors of the Murundian Culture. In any case they
scem to be responsible for the diffusion of the latest elements which it
contains. The spread of the material culture elements evidently has been

44 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

far more rapid and widespread than has been the southward flow of
Carpentarian genes.

Apropos of this difference hetween gene flow and culture drift,
McCarthy (1939) expressed the opinion that “the hammer dressing
technique which was employed on artefacts throughout north-central and
eastern Australia is an early Neolithic trait in Malaya, and is therefore
a comparatively late introduction to Australia".

GENERAL DISCUSSION

In addition to the points made in previous sections of this paper brief
reference should be made to several other matters.

For many years various biface trimmed implements and cores have
been turning up in various places in Australia.

McCarthy (1938) grouped them together under the term Gambierian,
based on the many examples found in the South East of Sotith Australia,
and presumed them to represent a discrete culture. Tindale (1949)
reported the occurrence of a coup-de-poing like example near Scaddan,
Western Australia and described the use of crude examples like it on
Mornington Island, in the living culture isolated there, as oyster picks.

The evidence for these being all relics of a specific culture phase
has always been unsatisfactory and it still seems desirable to suspend
judgment. It is likely that those found in the Mt. Gambier area belong
to several different culture strata. Some are true flaked axes without
edge grinding, similar in form to ones still made in entirely different
materiai on Melville Island at the opposite end of the continent and
elsewhere between, others are merely tabular pieces from which explora-
tory flakes have been removed to test the flint inside, The aborigines
of the Kitja and Djaru tribes today explore white cherty rock in this
manner and carry away from their mines, for later working into biface
spear blades, blocks indistinguishable in general form from some Gam-
bierian bifaces. Stapleton (1945) gives a good account with figures of
some of these biface implements from the South East of South Australia,

The present writer has no pretensions to knowledge of soils, but
some queries may be raised for soil men to answer. Is the formation of
reddish sandy soil on dunes of predominantly limeshell sand, evidence for
arid conditions, as has been stated, or is it an effect of relatively pluvial
times, possibly with an alternation between winter wet and summer dry
season? If the former idea is correct it must have been arid before and
during the period around 8,700 years ago, at Cape Martin, and again
during and after Mudukian times probably less than 3,000 years ago,
for at both sites limestone pillars have grown up into the A horizon of

TINDALE—CULTURE SUCCESSION IN AUSTRALIA 45

red earths, to levels higher than the occupation levels in which implementa
have come io rest.

Would it not be better to assume that immediately new shell-limesand
is brought ashore from the sea, whether by wind or by exposures of new
areas by retreat of the sea, leaching by percolation of rain water com-
mences, the lime is carried downward, where it helps to consolidate
deeper layers? What is left, the non-calcareous elements in the sand seem
to become the red soil; it is composed for the most part of quartz sand
grains and red earth. If there is a suromer dry period this process seems
to be interrupted, moisture moves upwards for this part of the year, to
the extent that limestone pillars are formed. Presence of such pillars,
projecting upwards into the reddish residual soils might be, not a mark
of arid periods, but on the contrary a happening wherever rainfall is
intermittent and heavy. The longer the process has continued the thicker
will be the mantle of residual reddish soil with included cuartz sand
and the larger will be any lateritic ironstone pebble-like inclusions in this
soil, The Mukudian horizon at Policeman Point is not old and the red
residual scil contains no conspicuous laterite pebbles; the Tartangan
horizon at Hoods Drift is older and it has many lateritie concretions in it,

The implements of the Tasmanian culture were never observed in
use. So far as is known most of those in collections are ones found on
abandoned campsites. Some of the types found, for example the high-
backed scrapers, could well have, once, been hafted, as are the present
day Australian adzes. The tronata (tronafia) blades of the Tasmanian
(Noetling 1909) some of which seem to he the parallel of the jimari
of the Mangala folk in Australia, might well have had a gum haft, since
the back cf these, like jimari knives, seldom are worked, and often show
no signs of being battered. A chance discovery may some day solve this
problem,

It is worthy of comment, in passing, that the Mousterians and
Aurignacians of Europe may well also have used such hafts of gum or
beeswax. It is known that much later in time some of the Epi-palaeolithic
sites of the Swiss lakes show gum, used, with wood, as part of the handles
of hafted knives, For example there is in the Peabody Museum at
Harvard, 2 flint knife, about four inches long, from Bienne Lake Village
in Switzerland, with its blade set into a grooved wooden handle and
still held in place with traces of a resinous subsiance.

In Australia there are marked and fundamental differences in mode
of treatment of the butts of knives depending on whether gum hafting
or raw hide hafting is employed, A study of these might be of considerable
interest to the European archaeologist in the interpretation of functions of
old European implement types.

46 RECORDS OF THE 8.4. MUSHUM

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many of the observations on which this paper is based were made
on journeys over a period of years made possible by special grants from
the South Australian Government, the Carnegie Corporation of New
York, the Wenner-Gren Fund for Anthropological Research, the University
of Adelaide and the Board of the South Australian Museum,

To Dr. Wallace Broecker of the Lamont Geological Observatory of
Columbia University we are indebted for the C“ determinations for the
Devon Downs and Tartanga sites. These tests were arranged through
Dr, Hallam L. Movius of Harvard University:

Dr. G. T, Fergusson of the Dominion Laboratories, Lower Hutt, New
Zealand, kindly provided C*! dates for the Lake Menindee site as also
for an early Tartangan site at Cape Martin which is being described in
a separate paper (Tindale, in press).

From a wide circle of colleagues and field workers have come many
thousands of specimens from more than 2,000 Australian campsites. The
implement collections at the Museum which have thus been developed
provide the foundations for the observations here recorded. These
specimens have been for many years, under the care of my associate
Mr. H. M. Cooper. His careful observations in the field and his collating
in the cabinets have been of inestimable help, here gratefully acknow-
ledged. It would be impossible to name all contributors to the collections
but particular thanks are due to Henry Balfour, G. W. A. Bartholomew,
H, K. Bartlett, J. B. Birdsell, E. Couper Black, Lindsay Black, T. D.
Campbell, J. B. Cleland, H. K. Fry, F. J. Hall, P. Hossfeld, J. E. Johnson,
W. C. Johnstone, E. L. Lundelius, W. B, MacDougall, P. Stapleton, C, G,
Stephens, R. A. Stirton, R. Tedford, G. Walsh and S. B. Warne for the
making of systematic field records. Thanks are due also to all members
of the Museum staff who have been on field work, and have added material
to the collections.

Some 150 sites in all States were examined, and specimens also
obtained by the present author from living aborigines on several expedi-
tions in company with J. B. Birdsell, as well as during the numerous visits
to Central and Western Australia, and the Northern Territory on expedi-
tions conducted by the Board for Anthropological Research at the
University of Adelaide.

Mr, L. F. Marcus of the University of California made a special trip
to Lake Menindee to fetch samples for C™ analysis, and the recovery of the
early date of 8700 B.P. for a hearth there is due to his work.

TINDALE—CULTURE SUCCESSION IN AUSTRALIA AT

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AUSTRALIAN FOSSIL PENGUINS,
with REMARKS on PENGUIN EVOLUTION ano DISTRIBUTION

Bx GEORGE GAYLORD SIMPSON,

Amwertcan Moszum or Natura History
Fig. 1-6

INTRODUCTION

A fossil penguin bone from Australia was first described by Finlayson
in 1938, Since then three other specimens have been found. Glaessner
(1955) has discussed the stratigraphy and biostratonomy of all four
occurrences and has figured two of the more recently discovered bones.
The four specimens. were then referred to me for morphological and
systematic study, which is the subject of the present paper. The specimens
are the property of the South Australian Museum, and I am much
indebted to the authorities of that Museum and to Dr. M, F. Glaessner
of the University of Adelaide for the opportunity to study them.

The four Australian specimens come from two horizons, late Eocene
and Oligocene. None is surely identifiable to species, but they represent
at least three species. One Eocene specimen is identifiable to genus,
Palaeeudyptes. The other Eocene specimen may be of the same genus
and species. The two Oligocene specimens are certainly of different
species and probably genera, one a palaeeudyptine and the other not
placeable as to subfamily.

Since I reviewed the whole subject in 1946, additional discoveries
of fossil penguing have been made not. only in Australia but also in
New Zealand and Antarctica. Several further studies on penguin
paleontology and evolution have been published, notably the outstanding
work of B. J, Marples (1952, 1953), Another full review is not now called
for, but this occasion is taken to append an up-to-date summary of fossil
penguin distribution and two brief notes on a morphological point and
on a criticism of a theory of penguin origins.

In tables of measurements (Tables 1-3), I have numbered the
dimensions as in Marples (1952, 1953) to facilitate comparisons, Al
measurements are in millimeters.

The accompanying drawings are by Chester Tarka.

52 RECORDS OF THE 5.4. MUSEUM

DESCRIPTIONS OF SPECIMENS
Palaeendyptes cf. antarcticus
Tu» Eocene Humerus
(Fig. 1.)

Specimen. S, A. M. No. P7158, left humerus, nearly complete but
with salient parts of both ends eroded. Collected by W. Burdett.

Locality. Witton Bluff, at the southern end of Christie's Beach,
about 16 miles south of Adelaide.

Horizon and Age. ‘'Transitional Marl" member, which forms the
base of the Blanche Point Maris, late Eocene (Giaessner, 1955).

Previows Publication. This is the specimen summarily described
and figured in external and postaxial aspects by Finlayson (1938). Marples
(1952) compared a cast with New Zealand specimens, but made only a
generalized statement of similarity, without description or figure. Simpson
(1946) discussed the specimen briefly on the basis of Finlayson’'s figures,
and Glaessner (1955) has discussed its occurrence and age.

Description. This is a large, but not maximal, fossil penguin humerus,
Size and proportions are near those of the seven New Zealand humeri
referred to Palaeeudyples antarcticus by Marples (1952), but most dimen-
Sions are at or slightly below the smallest measurements on Marples’ speci-
mens. The proximal part of the shaft is, however, relatively thick (dorse-
ventrally). The shaft tapers from proximal to distal, yery slightly but
still somewhat more than is usual in the New Zealand specimens. See
Table 1. There is no preaxial angle or tubercle.

The distal end is somewhat eroded and crushed or cracked, but seems
to have been about as in Palaeeudyptes antarcticus (Marples, 1952, Fig, 2,
No. 3), The angle between the midline of the shaft and a tangent to
the ulnar and radial condyles was probably between 25° and 30°. This
is a difficult measurement to make consistently, even on perfect bones,
and is consequently open to considerable error here, but the angle is
certainly unusually low. 40° is the smallest angle noted for Palaeeudy ples
by Marples, but on some of his illustrations I obtain values as low as
30° or slightly less, which suggests that our technique differs, In any
ease both this bone and New Zealand Palaecudyptes have low angles and
there is insufficient evidence of significant difference between them.

The head is characteristically palaeeudyptine, without apparently
distinctive characters within that group. The same is true of the
tricipital fossa, which is completely undivided and is small relative to
the bulk of the whole bone (a point ¢eparately discussed later in this
paper). There is no angle or prominence on the preaxial border, a feature

SIMPSON—AUSTRALIAN FOSSIL PENGUINS ag

Fig. 1. Palaeeudyptes cf. antareticus, SAM. Noa, P1358, Ieft humerus, a, ventral aspeet.
b, dorsal aspect. Insertions of peectaralis secrnidyve and lettivintus dorsi ure anarked by heavy Proken lines,
Qrarks in shaft have been omitted and small missing Fregmetita restored, but eroded parts of proximal
and distn! ends have not been restored (xg).

Fiz, 2. Palaetdypter cf. anturctious? S.AM, No. 10862, shaft of tight tibio-tarsus, Proximal
view, shuwitig erdss geelion ut break, and postertine view. Cracks Have heen omiiied and emall
fragments missing from shaft have been restored (x),

constant in recent penguins, absent or slight in New Zealand Palae-
eudyptes, but present in some other palaeeudyptines.

The insertion of the pectoralis secundus is not well defined, but it
is evidently nearly parallel with the shaft and it is well separated from

54 RECORDS OF THE 8,4. MUSEUM

the small Jafissimus dorsi insertion—characters typical of the early
penguins and specifically of Palaeeudyptes antarcticus although some-
what variable in the latter. There is a marked depression or small fossa
between the proximal end of the pectoralis secundus insertion and the lip
of the tricipital fossa (near and proximal to the insertion of the pectoralis
tertius).

The capsular groove is not perfectly preserved or completely freed
from matrix, It may, doubtfully, be a little less sharply defined or
continucus than in New Zealand Palaeeudypies and to that extent more
like recent penguins.

Classification. Finlayson (1938) pointed out the close resemblance
of this bone to Palaeeudyptes antarcticus of New Zealand but did not
make a definite identification. Marples (1952) compared a cast with the
New Zealand specimens and confirmed the resemblance except for the
slightly smaller (‘more slender’) size of the Australian humerus. He
referred to it as Palaeeudyples sp., as I (Simpson, 1946) had previously
done from Finlayson's published data, alone. The bone obviously belongs
to the Palaeeudyptinae (Simpson, 1946, usefully redefined by Marples,
1952 and 1953). It cannot be distinguished generically from Palaecudyptes,
It has slight and somewhat dubious apparent differences from New
Zealand specimens of P. antlarcficus, as noted above, These are no
greater than variations that commonly occur within a single species,
and they do not warrant designation of a new species, Nevertheless the
possible slight morphological diffierences and the markedly different
provenience prevent a fully positive assignment to P. anlarcticus. The
most reasonable identification at present is Palaeeudyptes cf, antarcticus.

Table 1.
Comparative Measurements or Humeri
P7158 P10863 P. antarcficus
(Marples)
1. Extreme length .... .... 154 — 159-172 (2)7**

2. Head to angle at base

of dorsal sesamoid

groove deze ett ae 152 — 153-166 (4)
3. Distal end of insertio

of pectoralis secun-

dus to angle of 2 ..... ca. 100 — 104-1147(6)

4. Head, greatest diameter ca. 45 ca. 53* 46-49 (5)

SIMPSON—AUSTRALIAN FOSSIL PENGUINS 55

5. Pre-postaxial diameter
of shaft 14 distance

from head axe 2814 29 28-35 (7)
6. Same, % distance from
Hea’ oo ee se ore 251% ca. 29 28-35 (6)

7. Dorsoventral diameter
of shaft 14 distance

from head ae 13 14 11¥-13 (6)
8. Same, % distance from
head ok se sew ane 11% ca. 14 12-14 (6)

condyle to longest

distal process .0..0 wu ca, 40 — 45-50 (4)
11. Transverse diameter of

distal end across

ulnar condyle ..... _..... ca, 18 — 18-21 (5)
*47.3 asx preserved, about 514 mm. believed to be eroded.
**Figures in parentheses are numbers of specimens measured by

Marples,

Palaeeudyptes cf. antarcticus ?
Tum Eocens Trisiorarsus
(Fig. 2)

Specimen. 8S. A. M. No, P10862, right tibiotarsus, lacking both ends
and with shaft somewhat broken. Collected by M. F. Glaessner,.

Locality. North of Port Noarlunga jetty, at the base of the cliff
extending southward from Witton Bluff, at high water level.

Horizon and Age. Just below the top of the Banded Marl member
of the Blanche Point marls, about 20-25 feet above the transitional marl
(in which P7158 was found), late Eocene (Glaessner, 1955).

Previous Publication. Listed but not described or figured by Glaess-
ner (1955).

Description. This tibiotarsus is slightly smaller than that referred to
Palaeeudyptes antarcticus by Marples (1952), and hence is from an
animal of the same size as the humerus described above. Few distinctive
characters are preserved, The shaft is flattened dorsoventrally and is
rounded, with a sharp crest only at and below the region of contact
with the fibula. To the extent that they differ from recent penguins,
these characters are common in the older fossil penguins and especially
in the Palaeeudyptinae.

56 RECORDS OF THE 83.A. MUSEUM

Classification. Positive identification is hardly possible, but as far
as it goes the bone is entirely consistent with reference to Palaeeudyptes,
Difference in age from the humerus of Palaeeudyptes cf. antarcticus is
not likely to be significant, and the fact that the two animals were of
almost exactly the same size establishes a certain presumption that they
were of the same species.

Table 2.
Comparative MeasuREMENTS or Trsrorarst
P10862 Palaeeudyptes

antarcticus
(Marples)
2: Pre - postaxial diameter
Y% length from proxi-
mal end oo cee ca, 24 28
3. Same, % length .,. .. . ca, 19 23
4. Dorsoventral diameter
1% length from proxi-
mal end oe seeee ca. 16 16
5. Same, #4 length .. .. ca. 14% 16

Gen. et sp. indet., A

Tue Oxtcocens Humerus
(Fig, 3)

Specimen, §. A.M. P10863, right humerus without distal end and
with proximal end heavily eroded. Collected by M. Pritchard,

Locality. Pritchard Brothers’ building-stone quarry about 714 miles
west-northwest of the town of Mt. Gambier.

Horizon and Age. Gambier limestone, Oligocene (Glaessner, 1955).

Previous Publication. Figured and tooth marks discussed by
Glaessner (1955).

Descriplion, The humerus when complete was at least as large as
Palaeeudyptes antarcticus, but of somewhat different proportions. The
badly eroded head nevertheless indicates that this part was larger than in
P,. antarcticus both absolutely and in proportion to the transverse
diameters of the shaft. The pectoralis secundus insertion is only very
slightly oblique, well separated from the latissimus dorsi attachment, and
the fossa between it and the lip of the tricipital fossa is shallow. There
is. a distinct preaxial tubercle or angle, and the contour of the shaft
proximal to this is concave, making this slightly the narrowest part of
the shaft, which nevertheless has nearly parallel sides and does not seem

SIMPSON—AUSTRALIAN FOSSIL PENGUINS ST

to have been notably sigmoid. The tricipital fossa is narrow and undivided.
Measurements are included in Table 1.

Classification, This specimen is quite surely palaeeudyptine, but it
cannot be referred with assurance to any named genus in which the
humerus is known. The size of the species is probably in the range of

rr

mesa,

———

i

Fig. 3, Gen. et ap. indet:, A. B.A-M. No, PORE, part Gf right humerus. 4g, ventral aspect.
h, dorsal aspect. Insertions of pectaralix geciindwa and flattwsimus dorsi are marked by heavy broken
lines. Cracks in shaft have been omitted and smull missing fragments restored, but imperfections of
proximal and distal ends are ag shown, Apparent teoth marks on disto-ventral part ara shown (xf),

Fig. 4. Gen. et sp. indet, B. S.A.M. No, Pi0870, imperfect Jef femur, Posterior (or ventral)
aspect, Nu restoration (x).
Palaeeudyptes antarcticus, but it differs from Palaeeudyptes especially
in the relatively larger head and the prominent preaxial tubercle, Pachy-
dyptes has a much stouter, stockier humerus and a smaller tubercle with
the contour convex above it. Plafydyptes and Archaeospheniseus have
the pectoralis secundus insertion more oblique, and the latter genus also
has a smaller tubercle and less concave contour above it. The Seymour
Island Anthropornis is generally rather similar but has a relatively

4a RECORDS OF THE 5,4. MUSEUM

smaller head and stouter shaft and a smaller preaxial tubercle. Eosphae-
niscus, also from Seymour Island, has a heavily accented fossa between
the pectoralis secundus and the tricipital fossa, quite different from the
presevt specimen.

Few and slight as these differences are, they are just such as to
distinguish the humeri of defined genera of palaeetidyptines. It is there-
fore improbable that. this specimen belongs to the same genus as any
previously described humerus. Nevertheless it seems inadvisable to base
a hew generic or specific name on this inadequate type, which might make
difficult or impossible the exact identification of future finds, especially
because the length of the shaft and the important characters of the
distal end are unknown. There are, furthermore, several named palae-
eudyptine genera in which the humerus is unknown and to which, there-
fore, this bone might conceivably belong. It is designated only as gen. et
sp. indet., with the comment that it is not the same as the late Eocene
form described above, and that it is also of a different species, and
doubtless genus, from the contemporaneous femur next described.

Gen. et sp. indet., B
Tae Oxicocens Femur
(Fig. 4)

Specimen. 8. A. M. No. P10870, left femur, lacking the trochanter
and the distal end and with the head badly eroded. Found by D. J.
Leonard,

Locality. Found in a block of building stone, from the vicinity of
Mt. Gambier.

Horizon and Age. Gambier limestone, Oligocene, (Glaessner, 1955),

Previous Publicalion. Figured, without description, by Glaessner,
1955,

Description, The fernur in penguins is not a very distinctive bone,
and this specimen has lost. just those parts that might have been most
characteristic. The shaft is rather stout, although probably no more so
than would be expected in average penguins of this size. Although the
trochanter 1s lacking, the contour of the shaft below it suggests that it
was less. compressed laterally, or displaced medially, than in recent
penguins—a feature common in the Miocene and older penguins.
The shaft is nearly smooth except for a prominent rugosity just
below the head and the usual, not especially prominent, ventral ridges
above the condyles. The animal was slightly below the mean size of the
living Aptenodytes patagonicus. (See Table 3.) Glaessner suggested
that the trochanter had been bitten off, but there are no clear tooth marks.

SIMPSON—AUSTRALIAN FOSSIL PENGUINS 59

Classification. This bone is unidentifiable, even as to stibfamily,
both because it lacks characteristic parts and because most genera and
species of fossil penguins are known from and defined by the tarsome-
tatarsus and the humerus and not the femur. This femur is much too small
to be conspecific with any of the three specimens described above, and
indeed the discrepancy suggests that it is not congeneric with any of them.
All one can say now is that at least two quite distinct penguins, one a
palaeceudyptine and the other of unknown subfamily, are present in the
Gambier limestone.

Table 3.
Measurements or Fumur
P10870
1, Notch between head and
trocanter to notch be- ca. 90-95 (very rough
tween condyles ..... ...... approximation).
2. Greatest proximal width ca, 22
5. Pre-postaxial diameter at

middle of shaft 2... 11¥,
6. Dorsoventral diameter at
middle of shaft... ..... 114%

Nore on Revattve Sizes or tHe Trictritar Fossa

Wiman (1905), Finlayson (1938), and Lowe (1939) stated, or the
basis of New Zealand, Australian, and Seymour Island fossils, that their
tricipital fossae are smaller, relative to the size of the whole humerus,
than in living penguins. I (Simpson, 1946) agreed that this is probably
true of some, at least, of the larger fossil species, but pointed out that
if is not true of smaller Patagonian fossils, notably in the genus
Palavospheniscus.

Marples (1952) made measurements. for five New Zealand fossils,
referred to four genera and species, and for one specimen each of seven
recent species in five genera, The volumes were compared by filling
the fossa with fine sand, the weight (W) of which was taken as directly
proportional to the volume. The size of the humerus was measured as
diameter of the head (D) and length of the whole bone (LL). The indices
100 (W/D) and 100 (W/L) were then calculated and compared. These
figures suggest, and Marples concluded, that the larger hurneri have not
only absolutely but also relatively larger fossae, contrary to the previous
conclusions cited above, The evident further implication is that the
differences depend on size and have no independent taxonomic value,
or no bearing on evolutionary change other than size. It may be noted

60 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

that Marples’ own figures show that the only recent species included in
the comparison that are comparable in size with any of the fossils do,
indeed, have larger fossae than the latter (see last column of Table 4).
He concluded, however, that the species in question, A pfenodytes forsteri
and A. patagonicus, ‘“‘are clearly not typical penguins in this respect”,

A valid index of relative size requires that ‘size’ have the same
number of dimensions in both terms of the comparison. Although less
precisely quantitative, the comparisons involved in the statements about
the tricipital fossa by Wiman, Finlayson, Lowe, and me were valid in that
linear (one-dimensional) measurements of fossa and humerus were com-
pared. The indices 100 (W/D) and 100 (W/L) are invalid because
W is (indirectly) three-dimensional but D and L are one-dimensional. An
index three-dimensional in both terms can be obtained by using the ratios
W/D3 or W/L.

7

+ Fossil
© Recent

2 3 4 5 &
L3/106

Fig. 5, Correlation of length of humerus and the index 10° (W/Z) in some recent and foasil
penguins, Wor fuller explanation see text. Kaw data from Marples (1952),

SIMPSON—AUSTRALIAN FOSSIL PENGUINS 61

Use of W to represent volume of the fossa depends on the relationship,
Ww=SY
where W is the weight of sand, V is the volume (three dimensional, of
course) of the fossa, and S is the specific gravity of the sand-air
aggregate, S depends in a complex way on the mineral composition and
the size and shape distributions of the sand used. Its value is unknown
in this case, but since it was kept constant in Marples’ study his compari-
sons are valid in this respect. Use of L? (or of D*) to represent volume
of the bone depends on the relationship
L3=av
in which @ depends in a complex way on the shape of the bone. The value
ef a must vary somewhat from species to species and even from one
individual to another, but in all penguins the shape of the humerus is
sufficiently stereotyped to keep the variation of a within rather narrow
limits. In other words, it is a reasonable premise that L? and V have
a high, positive, rectilinear correlation, The correlation of L and V
cannot be rectilinear.

In order to bring the index into a convenient order of magnitude the
ratio W/1? may be multiplied, not by 10? as in Marples’ index, but by 10°
(ie, 107 cubed). The results from Marples’ raw data are given in the
third column of Table 4, and compared with Marples’ index in the fourth
column. The indicated conclusions differ from those of Marples, Except
for Eudypfula minor, the index for these recent penguins shows no
evident trend with size and rather little variation, Since only single
measurements are involved, the variation shown could be merely sampling
variance around the same mean for the six species, although it is likely
that some differences among species occur. It is Eudyptula, not Apteno-
dyles, that.zppears “clearly not typical... in this respect’. The meaning
of the apparent aberrancy of Eudyptula is not clear. Marples notes
{without further data) that the volume of the fossa is highly variable in
Budyptula and the only specimen available to me seéms to have a fossa
relatively about as large as in other recent penguins.

In the four fossil penguins compared, the relative size pf the fossa
is decidedly smaller than in “normal” recent penguins (all the eompared
species except E. minor), confirming the earlier conclusion rejected by
Marples. The discrepancy is most marked for the three largest fossil
species, all of which have approximately the same index, 0.90-1.06 as
against 2.83-3.59 for recent species other than E. minor. The fossil
Archaeospheniscus lowei is of almost exactly the same size as the living
Aptenodytes forsteri, but the indices are 1.06 and 3.50, respectively, The

62 RECORDS OF THE 8.A MUSEUM

amallest fossil species compared, Platydyptes novaezealandiae, happens
to have a larger index (2.23) than the other fossils. This isolated
observation is insufficient te establish a tendency for smaller fossil species
to have relatively larger fossae, but it is noteworthy that still smaller
species of Palaeospleniscus clearly have relatively large fossae (1). Note
also, however, that if only three or four recent species had been included
they might have suggested a trend that is evidently absent when the
seven species are included. For instance, E. pachyrhynchus, M. anlipodes,
and A, patagonicus would have shown a regular decrease of the index
with increasing size, and E. minor, P. papua, A, patagonicus and A.
forsteri would have shown just the opposite, a regular increase of the
index, (See Fig. 5.)

The data of Table 4 and the graph of Fig. 5 still do not strictly
represent a valid regression or reveal a possible growth pattern, because
the variate L appears (with different dimensions) in both terms of the
comparison: L and 10° (W/L). The valid regression of W on L2/10* (*) is
shown in Fig. 6. The regressions for both the recent and the fossil
penguins measured by Marples clearly tend to follow linear patterns, but
the two regressions are decidedly different. The regression for the recent
specimens does not suggest significant deviation from a straight bine, and
it is somewhere in the neighbourhood of x = 3¥sy—W4. (That line is
merely sketched in freehand and the approximate equation derived from
it; the scanty data do not warrant more elaborate curve fitting.) It is
noteworthy that Hudypfula minor also falls near this line, within the
probable limits of sampling error, and that with this treatment no recent
species seems to be “exceptional”.

The fossil species do suggest that their regression is not straight,
but there are only four individual sets of measurements, and departures
from a straight line could be random. (Neither the fossil nor the recent
regression is straighter on a log graph, and use of the allometric equation
is not indicated.) The regression is somewhere in the general neighbour-
hood of the straight line x =°4 y + 1 (roughly sketched by eye, as for the
recent data). Even with so few data, there can be no serious doubt that
the regressions are very different for the recent and the fossil species
being compared. It is also again clear thet among the larger species
the fossils have decided smaller tricipital fossae than the living forms.

@) Becauss the sperilia gravity (8 of preceding discussion) of Sund-air aggregates mush vary
greatly and is unknown for the sand ased by Marples, it is impossible for anuther worker to produce further
data comparable with bis. Direct, repradumble. and premee comparisons conld be made from mensore-
rents of the vnlume of o liquid that ean he fehl in the fosss ond of the «<tisplacement of liquid by
immersion of the whele bone, but such measurements have oot heen made.

Cy Ag in the index 16°(W/L*), the term 10% is intrnduced only to keep the variates eampared in
the came order of magnitude. The form of the regression would of course be the same if 10" were
omitted.

SIMPSON—AUSTRALIAN FOSSIL PENGUINS 63

E. pachyrhynchus
3.50 ° © A. forsteri
© M.antipodes
OE. crestatus
3.00 OA. patagonicus
© Ppopua
wm 62.50 © Living
~!
> + Fossil
a + Pnovoereaiondiae
»
2 2.00
1.50
P. ponderosus
1.00 i
Rantarcticus
150 175

LENGTH OF HUMERUS

Fig. 6. Regression of W on L*/10* for some recent and fossil penguins (species as in Fig. 5).
For fuller explantion see text, Raw data from Marples (1952).

However, if an extrapolation of this regression should apply to other late
Eocene to early Miocene penguins—an extrapolation not really warranted
without further information—then the smallest of them would have tri-
cipital fossae about equal to or even larger than those of recent penguins of
the same size. It is suggestive, but no more than suggestive in the absence
of precisely comparable measurements, that L?/10® for the Patagonian
fossil genus Palaeospheniscus (about 0.35-0.50 in various species) is in the
region where the two regressions would intersect. As compared roughly
by linear dimensions, that genus does indeed have tricipital fossae about
as in recent penguins of comparable size.

64 RECORDS OF THE 8.A. MUSEUM

Table 4.
Rewarive Size or Tricrprran Fossa in Various Prncuins
(For explanation see text.)

Species: Weightof Lengthof Index Index
sand humerus 106(W/L?) 10°¢W/L)
(Marples) (Marples) (Marples)
Ww L
Fossils:
Pachydyptes ponderosus 4.91 174 0.93 2.8
Palaeeudyptes antarcticus 3.81 162 0.90 2.3
Archaeospheniscus lowei 1.97 123 1.06 1.6
Platydyptes novaezealandiae 1.68 91 2.23 1.8
Living:
A plenodyles forsteri 6.68 124 3.50 5.3
Aptenodytes patagonicus 3.84 109 2.97 3.5
Pygoscelis papua 1.45 80 2.83 1.8
Megadyptes antipodes 1.39 75 3.29 1.8
Eudyptes pachyrhynchus 1.00 65,3 3.59 1.5
Eudyptes creslatus 0.53 55.0 3.19 0.9
Eudyplula minor 0.16 43.5 1.94 0.4

DISTRIBUTION OF FOSSIL PENGUINS

Fossil penguins are known from southern Argentina (Patagonia),
Seymour Island (3), New Zealand, and South Australia. It was formerly
believed that all occurrences were approximately contempcraneous, more
or less early Miocene, Now Marples (1952) and Finlay (1952) have
convincingly demonstrated that this is not true of the New Zealand
specimens, and Glaessner (1955) has done the same for the Australian
specimens. Although I have nothing new to contribute on this score, it
will be convenient to review these newer data on penguin distribution,
along with revised determinations which have not been gathered in any
one publication.

New Zealand. Finlay (1952) identified and discussed microfossils
associated with fossil penguins described by Marples (1952), The pertinent
part of the provincial stage sequence and the ages assigned by Finlay are
as follows:

(!) This weourrence is eonmeanly Gallo FAntnretie’, but Sumter Tsland is net port of Antsecticn
aud it is well north of the Anturetic Cirele, at about O4° 16" south latitude.

SIMPSON—AUSTRALIAN FOSSIL PENGUINS 65
Middle Oligocene Waitakian— P

Duntroonian— P
Early Oligecene
Whaingaroan—?P

Runangan— P
Late Eocene

Kaiatan— P
Middle Eocene Bortonian
Early Hocene Heretaunzan—?P

Penguins are most abundant in the Duntroonian, but occur also in
the other stages marked with P. The scraps thought to be frem the
Heretaungan, unfortunately unidentifiable, are probably the oldest known
fossil penguins. Good identifiable specimens occur from Kaiatan to
Waitakian, late Eocene to middle Oligocene by Finlay’s dating, Although
known occurrences of most of the described species are confined to one
stage or another, there seems to be no evident evolutionary progression
and the single, most abundant species Pulaeeudyples antarcticus is
identified by Marples, on the basis of good specimens, for the whole range
Kaijatan-Waitakian. (See Table 5.) This is a remarkably long span for
a single species. I know of no other species and rather few genera of
vertebrates present in both late Eocene and middle Oligocene. It is
possible that more abundant collections would permit specific separation,
but Marples’ specimens suffice to show that there is, at most, little
difference between earliest and latest occurrences referred to this species.
One must conclude that the rate of evolution for Palaeeudyples had
become effectively nil by late Eocene, that the Kaiatan-Waitakian span was
shorter than Finlay indicates, or that some of the specimens are incor-
rectly dated.

Australia. The two older penguin bones described above are from
the Blanche Point marls, formerly but incorrectly considered Miocene
(Finlayson, 1938), in horizons now placed in or near the late Eocene, The
younger bones are from the Gambier limestone, now placed in the Oligo-
cene without, as yet, closer correlation. The age determinations by
Glaessner (1955) are based mainly on still unpublished studies of
foraminiferal faunas. In themselves the fossil penguins as yet are of no
help in correlation, but the penguins known from the two ages are quite
different, as shown above.

66 RECORDS OF THE 8A. MUSEUM

Patagonia, The stratigraphic position of the Patagonian fossil pen-
guins is exactly known. With three dubious and probably erroneous
claimed exceptions, all are from the base of the Patagonian formation
(*Juliense” member). They are associated with “the richest and best
known of all South American Tertiary faunas” (Feruglio, 1949), with extra-
ordinarily abundant invertebrates as well as numerous sharks and whales.
Despite all this knowledge, the age has been and still is disputed. It has
been placed everywhere from early Eocene through Miocene. Nevertheless
there is now a clear consensus that the age is late Oligocene or early
Miocene, ie., deposition occurred at or around the Oligocene-Miocene
transition. The subject has been fully reviewed by Feruglio (1949).

Seymour Island. The Seymour Island penguins are presumably
associated with a rather poor marine invertebrate fauna. Association tt
stfu was rarely or not observed, but no marked age difference between
the penguins and the invertebrates seems to be indicated. The inverte-
brate fauna has at least one species in common with the Patagonian
formation, and is otherwise composed of distinct but closely allied species
{review and references in Feruglio, 1949). On this basis it is highly
improbable that these penguins are older than late Oligocene or younger
than early Miocene, Marples (1952) pointed out that the Seymour Island
penguins resemble the late Eocene-middle Oligocene forms of New Zealand,
while (most of) the Patagonian penguins seem to he less primitive. He
concluded that the Seymour Island forms may be clder, belonging some-
where in the Oligocene (assuming the Patagonian to be Miocene). It is,
however, to be remembered that: (a) no genera, a fortiori species, are
known to be common to Seymour Island and New Zealand; (b) the
apparent evolutionary rate of zero for at least one penguin of this general
type from late Eocene to middle Oligocene (if the New Zealand dating is
correct) suggests that still later survival of related and not identical forms
would be more likely than not; and (c) the Patagonian penguin Arihro-
dytes grandis seems to be closely related to Seymour Island apecies. It
seems probable that the marked difference between the Seymour Island
and most of the Patagonian penguins is more a matter of facies than
of age. (The localities are separated by some 20° of latitude and must
both on this and on other accounts have had markedly different enviro-
mental conditions even in the Oligocene or Miocene.) On present evidence
the Seymour Island penguins are not likely to have been appreciably older
than the Patagonian, and might have been as fate or even slightly later.

More recently Marples (1953) has revised the Seymour Island pen-
guins, but without further discussion of their age.

Faunal lists. The known fossil penguins, according to the most recent
revisions, are listed in Table 5,

SIMPSON—AUSTRALIAN FOSSIL PENGUINS 6T

Table 5.
KNOWN FOSSIL PENGUINS

A. New Zealand (data from Marples, 1952).
Early Late Early Middle
Eocene Eocene Oligocene Oligocene
Heretaungan Kaiatan Runangan Whaingaroan Duntroonian Waitakian
Indet. x
Palaeeudyptes
antarcticus x — ? x x
Pachydyptes
ponderosus x
Archaeospheniscus
lowei x
A. lopdelli x
Duntroonornis
parvus x
Platydy ptes
novaezealandiae x ?
P. amiesi z
Korora oliveri x

B. Australia (this paper).
Age
Late Eocene Oligocene
Blanche Point marls Gambier limestone
Palaeeudy ptes ef. antarcticus x
Gen. et sp, indet. A. x
Gen. et sp. indet. B. x

C. Seymour Island (Wiman, 1905, and Marples, 1953).
(All of same age as far as known, probably late Oligocene or
early Miocene.)
Anthropornis nordenskjoldi
Eosphaeniscus gunnari
Notodyptes wimani
Delphinornis larsenii
Ichthyopteryx gracilis (validity doubtful)

D. Patagonia (Simpson, 1946; some highly dubious records and
probable synonyms omitted).

(All of same age, basal Patagonian, “Juliense’ member, latest
Oligocene or early Miocene).

68 RECORDS OF THE 8.A. MUSEUM

Palaeospheniscus gracilis
P. rothi

P. patagonicus
Paraspheniscus bergi

P. nereius

Perispheniscus wimani
Isolremornis nordenskjoldi
Paraptenodytes antarclicus
P. curtus

Arthrodytes grandis
Anthrodytes? andrewsi

NOTE ON THE ORIGIN OF PENGUINS

I have elsewhere (Simpson, 1946) supported the theory that penguins
arose, not from flightless land birds or in a delimited land area, but from
diving sea birds (ecologically similar to diving petrels) widely distributed
around the South Temperate Zone, Recently de Meillon (1952) has
opposed all aspects of that theory on the evidence of penguin fleas.

The only fleas known to occur on penguins are Listronius robert-
sianus, Parapsyllus longicornis, and P, magellanicus. Both genera belong
to the subfamily Parapsyllinae, with six other genera. Except for those
on penguins (and other sea birds) all members of the subfamily are
confined to South America where most of them are rodent fleas. De
Meillon therefore argues that the penguins must have acquired the fleas in
South America and must themselyes have originated there. This seems to
be a non sequitur. There is no evident reason why the penguins may not
have acquired these fleas after penguins had evolved as such and had
spread to South America from any place or zone of origin, As to why
they happen to have only South American fleas (as far as known), that
is no harder to explain on either theory, hence no better evidence fur or
against either, than the fact that they have long been in Australia and New
Zealand (since the Hocene) and probably also in Africa (fossils unknown)
without, apparently, acquiring parasites there. It is also pertinent that
the earliest known penguins antedate the appearance of rodents in South
America.

Moreover all three species of penguin fleas are known to occur also on
wide-ranging groups of flying birds: L. robertsianus on petrels, P. longt-
cornis on shearwaters and an Antarctic thrush, and P. magellanicus on
whale-birds, jaegers, sooty albatrosses, albatrosses, and Cape pigeons.
There is, no evident reason why the primary dispersal of the fleas may not
have been partly or wholly by flying birds.

SIMPSON—AUSTRALIAN FOSSIL PENGUINS 68

De Meillon also implies that the abundance of fossil penguins in the
South American ‘“Subantarctic’ (most of them are from far up in the
Temperate Zone) supports his view. But, as noted above, known fossil
penguins occur earlier in Australia and New Zealand. In fact the fossil
record is so spotty that it does not really suggest anything about the place
of origin except to conform with the idea that penguins have always been
Southern and to show that they were ‘very widespread in the southern
Temperate Zone by the end of the Oligocene.

De Meillon further argues that penguins probably arose as non-flying
land birds because land birds are most likely to come in contact with
rodents and flying birds would avoid the rodents by taking to the trees or
to islands. But penguins do regularly come ashore on rodent-infested
coasts, and probably have long done so. (The Patagonian fossil occur-
rences, at least, are near or at what was then a continental shore.) So
do fiying sea birds that could have transmitted fleas to penguins, Moreover,
ground-nesting flying birds are very common in South America and else-
where where rodents, and their fleas, are abundant.

De Meillon further cites in the same connection the tick Ornifhodorus
falaje, which occurs on South American rodents and, as a distinct sub-
species, in South African penguin nests. But the same species is also
known on terns, and the other known penguin ticks have almost certainly
been acquired from flying sea birds (Zumpt, 1952). Moreover, however it
occurred, the transfer of O. talaje from rodents to penguins probably took
place relatively recently, millions of years after penguins first arose. Other-
wise it is incredible that the ticks have moved to a new host and 2 new
continent with only subspecific differentiation.

The evidence from parasites seems to me to have no special bearing
one Way or another on the origin of the penguins, and the theory earlier
supported, although speculative, still seems most likely on other grounds.

REFERENCES
Feruglio, B. (1949) : Descripcion geologica de la Patagonia. Vol. 2. Yaci-

mientos Petroliferos Fiscales, Republica Argentina, 349 pp., pl, 61-80,
Finlay, H. F. (1952): Microfsaunal notes on matrices associated with fossil
penguin bones. /7 Marples, B. J., Early Tertiary penguins of New
Zealand, N, 2, Geol, Sury., Paleont. Bull. 20, pp. 58-64.
Finlayson, H. H. (1938): On the occurrence of a fossil penguin in Miocene
bedg in South Australia. Trans. Roy. Soc., 8. Aust., vol. 62, pt. 1,
pp. 14-17, 1 pi

70 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Glaessner, M. F. (1955): Pelagic fossils (Afuria, penguins, whales) from
the Tertiary of South Australia, Rec. S. Aust. Mus., vol. 11, no. 4,
pp. 353-372, pl. 34-36.

Lowe, P. R. (1939): Some additional notes on Miocene penguins in relation
to their origin and systematics. Ibis, vol. 5, pp. 281-296.

Marples, B. J. (1952): Early Tertiary penguins in New Zealand. N. Z.
Geol. Surv., Paleont. Bull. 20, pp. 1-66, pl. 1-8,

Marples, B. J. (1953): Fossil penguins from the mid-Tertiary of Seymour
island. Falkland Is, Dependencies Surv., Sei. Repts. no. 5, pp. 1-15,
pl. 1-2.

Meillon, B. de. (1952): The fleas of sea birds in the Southern Ocean. Aust.
Natl. Antarctic Res. Exped. Repts., ser. B, vol. 1, Zool., pp. 1-11.

Simpson, G. G. (1946): Fossil penguins. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol.
87, pp. 7-99.

Wiman, C. (1905): Ueber die alttertiaren Vertebraten der Seymourinsel.
Wiss, Ergebn. schwed. Sudpolarexped. 1901-1903. Stockholm, vol. 1,
pp. 1-37, pl. 1-8.

Zumpt, F. (1952): The ticks of sea birds. Aust. Natl. Antarctic Res,
Exped. Repts., ser. B, vol. 1, Zool., pp. 12-20.

A NEW KOALA FRoM THE PLIOCENE PALANKARINNA
FAUNA or SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By BR. A. STIRTON, Museum or Panusontouocy. University ar
Canirornia

Fig, 1-2
SUMMARY

A new genus and species of koala, Perikoala palankarinnica
Stirton, is described on part of a left mandible from the Palankarinna
fauna east of Lake Eyre in South Australia, The age of the fauna is
thought to be early or, possibly, middle Pliocene. Detail features in the
teeth have been emphasized. Other than in the koala, Phascolarctos,
there are suggestions of affinities in the fossil with the bushtail possum,
Trichosurus, with the giant gliders, Schoinobates, and with the ringtailed
possums, Pseudocheirus. Comparative figures of P;, M., and M, in these
genera, including the fossil, have been made, Much more fossil evidence
is needed to determine the phyletic relationships of the genera studied,
and to understand the familial relationships of the koalas to the rather
broad family Phalangeridae.

INTRODUCTION

Part of a mandible of a koalalike marsupial was discovered by Mr.
Paul F. Lawson in the summer of 1954, when the South Australian
members of the 1954 South Australian Museum-University of California
expedition were returning from Birdsville to Adelaide. The specimen was
found in place about 500 yards south of the Woodard locality where the
bulk of the material was located in the escarpment along the west side
of Lake Palankarinna. Fragmentary remains of other small vertebrates
were found scattered through the matrix at this new site. This is the
oldest known record of the Phascolarctinae and is the only one that has
been recovered from the Tertiary. The paratype was picked up on the
surface by Mr. Richard H. Tedford near this locality in 1953 (Stirton,
1955).

I am grateful to Mr. Herbert M. Hale, Director of the South Austra-
lian Museum, for the privilege of describing this interesting new venus.
The illustrations were made by Mr. Owen J. Poe, staff artist, in the
Museum of Paleontology at the University of California.

72 RECORDS OF THE 5,A, MUSHUM

Genus Perikoala nov.

The characters of this genus are those of the type species until other
species are described.

Perikoala palankarinnica sp. noy.

Holoty pe.—Part of left mandible with talonid of P,, M, and M, nearly
complete. South Australian Mus, No. P 10893.

Paratype.—Fragment of right maxillary with posterior border of
alveolus of P?, the roots, of M!, M? in place but with much of the enamel
surface and the inner edge broken away, part of the alveolus of M® and
the base of the jugal arch, Univ. Calif. Mus. Paleo. No. 45343.

Type Locality —Greenish-blue, fine grained, sandy gypsiferous clays;
flood plain deposit on same level as channel sands of Woodard lecality,
but about 500 yards farther south; 35 feet above the basal conglomerate.
U. C. locality V5375.

“The exposures (are along the west side of Lake Palankarinna, east
of Lake Byre; 18 miles S. 75° W. of Etadunna Station homestead.
Military grid reference 656431, ordinance sheet Marree, South Australia,
H54/1.2.5.6, zones 5 and 6, first edition 1942, scale 1:506880.” (Stirton,
1955).

Age.—Early or, possibly, middle Pliocene,

Diagnosis.—Lateral opening of dental canal not discernible on hori-
zontal ramus below Ms.

P,; with lophid between hypoconid (1) and protoconid interrupted by
tiny groove on slope of protoconid; protoconid and small entoconid
connected by short high lophid, this continues downward and lahbiad in
wide curve to posterior base of hypoconid enclosing posterior talonid basin
which opens posterolabially at that point; outline of talonid rounded,
not triangular, without crest continuing from entoconid ta posterolabiai
corner,

M, sharply angulate ‘anteromedially; with prominent central basin;
paraconid present, separated from much larger metaconid by rather deep
lingual valley; metaconid without posterior spur into area of central
basin; low irregular transverse crest. extends lingually from hypoconid to
midline of crown opposite similar crest descending from entoconid.

M. divided into anterior trigonid, central, and posterior trigonid
basins: vestigial transverse crest between protoconid and metaconid more

() Thhe premolos dental tarminglogy is tased on appurent ansloguus pokifiens with those in the molar

STIRTON—A NEW PLIOCENE KOALA 74

Pronounced than one between hypoconid and entoconid; labial part of
middle valley not deep transversely nor shelflike.

Anteorbital fossa of maxillary shallow; width of base of jugal arch
opposite M? = 6.7; M? as wide as long (in paratype).

Description.—Horizontal ramus below M, deeper than in Trichosurus
but shallower than in Phascolarctos, 16.5; thickness below M; = 7.4; small
mental foramen 3.5 in front of anterior root P:, and below diastemal
crest, 1.3 in diameter; surface of bone broken over anterior part of dental
canel; lateral opening of dental canal not discernible on horizontal ramus
telow M,,

Molars with crenulated enamel surface in occlusal basins; no alveolus
for P,,

Anteroposterior axis of P, in line with that of molars; anterior two-
thirds of P,; broken away; evidently bilobed; area back of protoconid
preserved; protoconid not occupying anterocentral position; larger than
hypoconid; lophid between hypoconid and protoconid interrupted by tiny
groove on slope of protoconid; protoconid and small entoconid connected
by short high lophid, this continues downward and labiad in wide curve
to posterior base of hypoconid enclosing posterior talonid basin that opens
posterolabially at that point; outline of talonid rounded; not triangular,
without crest continuing from entoconid to posterolingual corner; roots of
P; larger than on molars, widely divergent.

M, partly destroyed on labial side; elongate, sharply angulate antera-
medially; paraconid slightly linguad of median position, evidently separs-
ted from much larger metaconid by rather deep valley; metaconid with
convex lingual surface; lophid extends posterolingually from mnetaconid ta
a much lower metastylid (=) on lower median lingual edge of tooth; meta-
conid without posterior spur into area of central basin; slight crest leads
down posteriorly (evidently from protoconid) to median valley where it
terminates at transverse commissure adjacent to anterior wing of hypoco-
nid, these wings or crests form labial margin of central basin; entoconid
opposite hypoconid; low irregular (due to crenulated anterior and posterior
slopes) crest extends lingually from hypoconid to midline of crown oppo-
site similar crest descending from entoconid, this apparent vestigial
transverse lophid separates posterior talonid basin from larger central
basin; low crest runs from hypoconid posterolingually around to base of

(4) ‘The medinn lingual stylid present in the molars of Prriaata, Mhoscolarctos, Psoudocheirug and
Schoinvdatey ig somewhat analogous in powilion to the metanylid in the Kynitae (Oshorn and Wortman
1892, Pig. 3), Metastylid in the Myuidae is u misnomer since it did mot arise from the cingulum nor j= if
a peripheral cusp. Th seems to have qrisen from the posterior half ef the metaconid but te innervated
from. the posterior nerve plexus. On the other Hand the median lingual stwid in [erikacla seems to We
pariphecs) and indeed may have arisen from a cingulum in an ancestral farm. To am svre po ennifiaion
tan avise in referring to this cusp in the koala und relnted cenern as the metastedid,

74 RECORDS OF THE 3.A. MUSEUM

entoconid (8); no hypoconluid; low posterior enfostylid posterolinguad of
entoconid on lingual surface; length of M, — 6.4; width across talonid
= approximately 3.8 (part of labial surface of hypoconid broken away);
roots parallel, more delicate than on P,, length = 9.5, M, nearly rec-
tangular; transverse crests extend from protoconid and metaconid
and separate anterior trigonid basin from anterior part of central
basin; similar but much less apparent elevations extend from
hypoconid and entoconid and divide talonid imto shallow posterior
talonid basin and posterior part of central basin} no paraconid;
enamel surface broken sway opposite beth protoconid and meta-
conid; mefastylid broken away; protoconid opposite metaconid; ento-
conid slightly anterior to hypoconid, sub-equal, crescentic cusps oriented
anteroposteriorly, depth controlled by extensions and positions of antera-
lingual spur of hypoconid and posterolingual spur of protoconid (this
character is intermediate between the features seen in Trichasurus and
Phascolarctos); no anterolabial crest from hypoconid extending down to
block mouth of median valley; labial part of median valley not deep
transversely nor shelflike; large crenulated central basin; no hypoconulid;
entoslylid as on M, well developed on lingual surface below and postero-
linguad of entoconid; length of M. = 11.5; width across trigonid = 4.3;
width across talonid = 4.6; width between hypoconid and entoconid = 2.6;
roots as on M,, length = 8.5.

COMPARATIVE CHARACTERS ON RELATED GENERA
Phascolarctos

1. Mental foramen 2,0 in front of anterior root of P,, and 2.9 below
diastemal crest, 1.7 mm, in diameter.

2. Prominent lateral opening of dental canal below M,,

3. Smali masseteric foramen.

4. Chéekteeth with crenulated enamel surface in occlusal basins.

5, P, and P, absent.

&. P. with slight emargination on lingual and labial sides dividing tooth
into anterior and posterior moieties; entoconid equal in size and
opposite bypoconid, both connected to larger protoconid by lophids;
median crest extends anteriorly from protoconid; connected to smaller

(ly Oshern and Worthan (1892 m. 8 Fig. 3) fret desevihed ertaytyiid a= a ttle tainforcing cusp
(hob phew itp heohind the enioronid. This wae dabolled on a MWenv/enijipere tooth, A memih dxter in anether
iper OL hiseory wel honolies of the human mebir cosps,? Lretenieles Anopiger, Jahre, VIT.,
Kyo, lena, T4747.) Osten reforred to {lie game enspin as ‘4 —--the distal wr intermediate enap’’
s——"hepeconuld’ avd debelled it ch a lower mintar nf Mfawoy fustherwore he inferred its presenca
in Mieety aid Aneptonerplie At. first, evidently, Osborn tid net reeoknize the homelogy of this
conulld in the Primates and in the Wquiene ler in We he Iabellad tho posrmdr conulid on all equid
lower moehera and tremolars oa Dopeeimlid Gonseprently, bere, To wm rafarring te the term evdostylil
fo thee Hite FHT YT Pf Hiatt = E'S “OUP TL tthe ertuenniy

whe

STIRTON—A NEW PLIOCENE KOALA mh

protoconid by anteroposterior crest; lophid continues from entoconid to
posterolingual corner; low concave posterior lophid forming posterior
edge of talonid basin; slight posterolingual shelf; no paraconid; roots
not widely divergent; position aligned with anteroposterior axis of
molar series,

M, nearly rectangular, not sharply angulate anteromedially; paraconid
vestigial and not separated from metaconid by deep lingua! valley;
paralophid (#) curves around anterior border of tooth to vestigial
paraconid; paraconid connected posteriorly to metaconid; pratoconid
smaller than metaconid; metaconid with nearly flat lingual surface;
lophid extends. posterolingually from metaconid to vestigial metastylid
on median lingual edge of tooth; metaconid with posteromedian spur;
protoconid with posterior spur terminating in median valley (home-
logous with part of labial border of central basin in Perikoala); low
trenchant ridge connects protoconid with entoconid labially; trigonid
and talonid basins instead of central basin; very low but distinct
metalophid crosses middle of crenulated basin diagonally where it joins
laphid that connects metaconid and metastylid; entoconid opposite
hypoconid; no crest extends lingually from hypoconid into talonid
valley towards entoconid; talonid valley anteroposterior in direction;
low erest runs from hypoconid posterolingually around to entoconid:
but no posterior talonid basin is formed; entostylid present; iength
of M; = 8.0; width across talonid = 5,0.

M.-M, rectangular; trigonid and talonid basins widely open antero-
posteriorly; no paraconids; protoconids opposite metaconids; hypo-
conids opposite entoconids, subequal, crescentic cusps oriented antero-
posteriorly; labial shelflike median valleys deep, terminated lingually
by anterolingual spurs of hypoconids (metalcphids) and posterolingual
wings of protoconids (protolophids), points of termination close to
midlines of teeth; no indications of transverse crests directly connect-
ing protoconids with metaconids or hypoconids with entoconids; small
anterolabial crests of hypoconids that extend down to block mouths
of median valleys become progressively stronger from M.-M,. Meta-
stylids and entostylids though somewhat inconspicuous beconie pro-
gressively weaker from Ms-M,.

Pseudocheirus

No mental foramen anterior to P;,

One small lateral opening of dental canal below M,,

Tiny masseterlc foramen posterior to opening of opening of posterior
dental canal,

tT) Fow lovhid terrainology see Seivtan, Mtl, yp. tug, Fiz. =

RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Cheekteeth with smooth enamel surface.

P, and P. present; P,; smaller than P,.

P, without lingual and labial emarginations, narrowly triangular;
protoconid anterior to and higher than oblique hypoconid crest; hypo-
conid crest separated from entoconid by commissure; entoconid slightly
linguad of hypoconid, in proximity of, but not connected to protoconid
by crest; valley between protoconid and entoconid open across tooth;
valley between paraconid and protoconid distinct; roots not widely
divergent; position aligned with anteroposterior axis of molar series.
M, sharply angulate and narrower anteromedially; faint indication of
paraconid; lingual surface between metaconid and anterior tip
depressed as vestigial valley; paralophid descends from protoconid to
anterolabial base of tooth; narrow trigonid valley opens anteriorly
slightly labiad of midline; proteconid much smaller than metaconid,
rather flat shaped cusp; metaconid with flat lingual surface; lophid
extends posteriorly from metaconid to vestigial metastylid on median
lingual edge of tooth; protoconid with short posterior crest that
extends down to edge of labial mouth of long narrow diagonal median
valley; prominent metalophid runs diagonally across center of tooth
and vonnects to vestigial metastylid; no central basin: anteroposterior
trigonid trench instead of basin; talonid basin; entoconid anterior to
hypoconid, not connected; no crest extends lingually from hypoconid
into talonid basin toward entoconid; talonid Jophids diagonal in direc-
tion; sharp diagonal hypolophid extends across to posterolingual
corner of tocth to low but distinct hypoconulid; no entostylid; length
of M, = 4,1; width across talonid = 2.2.

M, — M, narrow, elongate, angulate anteriorly; trigonid and talonid
basins narrow, bounded posteriorly by protolophids and hypolophids
with lingual openings between metaconids and metastylids and
between entoconids and hypoconulids; on M, and M,, on M, and M,
posterior openings of talonid basins between entoconids and hypo-
conulids because entostylids are missing; no paraconids; metaconids
anterior to protoconids; entoconids anterior to hypoconids, metaconids
and entoconids larger than protoconids and hypoconids, protoconids
and hypoconids crescentic, metaconids and entoconids trenchant, all
four cusps oriented obliquely; both labial and lingual median valleys
short, directed anteriorly; no indications of transverse crests connect-
ing protoconids and metaconids, or hypeconids and entoconids; no
small crests leading directly anterior from hypoconids,

Schoinobates

. No mental foramen anterior to P,,

bd

oh on oe go

STIRTON—A NEW PLIOCENE KOALA 7

Two and sometimes three lateral openings of dental canal may occur
below P,, M, or anterior end of M,.

Small masseteric foramien present.

Cheekteeth with smooth enamel surface.

. P, seldom present, greatly reduced; P, absent.

P; larger and with more complicated patterns than in Pseudocheirus,
faint lingual and labial emarginations, narrow, nearly rectangular;
protoconid anterior to and higher than obliquely curved hypeconid
crest; hypoconid faintly discernible on crest; hypoconid crest connected
to indistinct entoconid; entoconid connected to larger protoconid by
curved crest; but posterolingual crest present; posterolingual sloping
talonid basin with low ridge at its posterior margin; valley betveen
protoconid and entoconid closed by high sharp crest lingually; distinet
valley between paraconid and protoconid closed by crest lingually,
position aligned with anteroposterior axis of molar tooth row.

. M, not as sharply angulate and narrow anteromedially as in Pseudo-

chetrus; paraconid small but distinct, connected posteriorly to meta-
conid by sharp lophid; lingual surface between paraconid and metaconid
marked by distinct valley; paralophid descends from protoconid to
anterolabial base of tooth; trigonid basin wider than in Pseudocheirus
opens anteriorly slightly labiad of midline; protoconid much smaller
than metaconid, slightly less flattened than in Pseudociicirus: lophid
extends posterolingually from metaconid to median lingual edge of
tooth; faint metastylid; metaconid with posterolabial spur; protoconid
without posterior crest extending down to edge of labial mouth of
diagonal median valley; slight shelflike process at mouth of median
valley; prominent metalophid runs diagonally across tooth and connects
te spur back of metaconid to a small metastylid; no central basin;
entoconid anterior to hypoconid not connected by lophid; ne crest
extends lingually from hypoconid into talonid valley toward entoconid;
talonid basin diagonal in direction; hypolophid interrupted where
talonid basin opens posteriorly; no hypoconulid; tiny entastylid
posterolingually from entoconid; small conulid posterolabially and at
base of entoconid in talonid basin, also present on M, but not on M,
and M,; length of M; = 4.2; width across talomu — 2.5.

M.-, narrow, elongate, broadly angulate anteriorly; trigonid and talanid
basins relatively narrow but wider than in Pseudocheirus; protolophids
not continuous through to metastylids, and hypolophids, not continuous
to posterior lingual corners of teeth; no paraconids; metaconids
anterior to protoconids, enteconids anterior to hypoconids, metaconids
and entoconids larger than protoconids and hypoconids, protoconids
and hypoconids crescentic, metaconids and entoconids trenchant, all

78

oo OT ye

n.

RECORDS OF THE S5,A, MUSEUM

four cusps oriented obliquely; both lingual and labia} median valleys
short, directed anteriorly; no indications of transverse crests connect-
ing protoconids and metaconids, or hypoconids and entoconids; no
small crests leading directly anterior from hypoconids; stylids vestigial
or absent and no hypoconulids on M,, M; and M,.

Trichosurus
Mental foramen 1.5 in front of anterior root of P; and 2.1 below
diustemal crest.
Tiny lateral opening of dental canal present or absent below posterior
end of M,.
No masseteric foramen.
Cheekteeth with smooth enamel surface.
P, present, P, absent.
P, without lingual and Jabial emargination, broadly triangular talonid
with single median crest; no paraconid; roots not widely divergent;
position oblique to anteroposterior axis of molars.
M, sharply angulate anteriorly; no paraconid; paralophid extends
from. protoconid straight forward to anterior tip; protoconid in antero-
median position, larger than metaconid; metaconid with convex linqual
surface; no posteromedian spur from metaconid and no metastylid;
protoconid with prominent lophid running posteriorly into center of
tooth where it joins another coming forward from hypoconid blocking
transverse central valley; area of central basin open as wide as lingual
valley; entoconid opposite hypoconid, connected by transverse lophid;
low crest runs from hypoconid posterolingually around to entoconid,
forming shallow posterior talonid basin toward lingual side of talonid,
no suggestion of hypoconulid on crest below and behind entoconid:
length of M, = 6.8; width across talonid = 4.5.
M, with talonid slightly wider than trigonid, M,; — M, with trigonids
wider than talonids; trigonids and talonids traversed by high lophids
between protoconids and metaconids, and hypoconids and entoconids;
no trigonid, talonid nor central basins; no paraconids; protoconids and
hypoconids opposite, crescentric cusps; metaconids and entoconids
opposite, semi-crescentic, oriented anteroposteriorly, subequal; labial
median valleys not shelflike, terminated lingually at a point labiad to
midline of tooth; no ridge leading directly forward from hypoconids
down into median valleys; no lingual stylids.

CONGLUSION

Even with the limited evidence available Perikoala palankarinnica
gen. and n. sp. is phascolarctine though the characters show it is

STIRTON—A NEW PLIOCENE KOALA 79

generically distinct from the living koala. If it is directly ancestral to
Phascolarctos or even in a proximity to that position, considerable evolu-
tion has occurred in the group since late Miocene and early Pliocene time,

The patterns in the molars may indicate a distant relationship to a
bilophodont marsupial. The koala patterns could have been derived from
primitive bilophodont teeth somewhat like that possessed by the ancestors
of Trichosurus, It is indeed unfortunate that no teeth were found with
Wynyardia which otherwise shows trichosurine affinities.

Without some fossil evidence it is difficult to even guess where
Pseudocheirus and Schoinobates fit into this phyletic picture, They are
as specialized as Phascolarctos in their cheekteeth and in a somewhat
different direction, Much more evidence is needed from fossils to deter-
mine the phyletic relationships of these genera, and to understand the
familial relationships of the koalas to the rather broad family
Phalangeridae.

LITERATURE CITED

Osborn, H. F, (1892): The history and homologies of the human molar
cusps. Anatomisches Anzeiger, Jahrg., vol. 7,8 vo, Jena, pp. 740-747,
figs. 1-12.

Osborn, H. F., and Wortman, J. L. (1892) : Fossil mammals of the Wasatch
and Wind River beds, Cellection of 1891. I. Homologies and
nomenclature of the mammalian molar cusps, pp. 84-90, figs. 1-3, (by
H. F. Osborn). Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 4, pp. 81-147, pl. 4,
figs, 1-18.

Stirton, R. A. (1941): Development of characters in horse teeth and the
dental nomenclature. Jour. Mammalogy, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 484-446,
figs, 1-10.

(1955). Late Tertiary marsupials from South Australia. Rec.
South Aust, Mus., vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 247-268, figs. 1-11.

&U

ms#, metastylid; mv, anedian

LABIAL

pad
PERIKOALA
PZ

mm

GS | o} iii

E tb
metd PHASCOLARCTOS

Fig. 1. Comparative ovclusal views of left Py, M, and M, in Psendocheirus lamipinoaus, Schoinobates
nev. and Phascolarctos cinereus (6)

Perikvals pulankarinwica, gen. ot sp,

volano, Trichosuruy vylpeevlu,
The anterior fare of the trigowid ig well worn in Schotiabates. até, anterior trigonid basis; en? , enitoconid;
metaconid; mel4 , metalophid;

hypolophid; Ay?, hypocronid; mea? ,

pals, paralophid; prt, protoconid; pri? ,

kyl? ,
pad, paraconiil;

entostylid; Ae4, hypoconulid;
tri, trigouid basin.

valley ;
posterior {alonid basin; fb, talon basin;

SCHOINOBATES

cae

oe ak ee

: |
TRICHOSURUS

PERIKOALA

Mo M, P3

PHASCOLARCTOS

Fig, 2. Comparative lingual views of left Py, M,, and M, in Paeudocheirus, Schoinobates, I'richosurua,
Pertkoala n. gen., and Phascolarctos (X5).

KNEE MOULDED POTS reom tuz NEW HEBRIDES
Bry DOUGLAS MAWSON, Unrersrry or ADELAIDE

Plate i and text fig. 1

When engaged on geological investigations in the New Hebrides
Islands in the year 1903, among other places I visited was Wuss on the
west coast of Espiritu Santo, the largest island of the Group, The west
coast is high and mountainous: in fact within a few miles of Wuss are
located the highest peaks of the Island, It is a young coastline, determined
by faulting and downthrow to the west of folded and faulted Tertiary
and possibly late Mesozoic sediments, greatly intruded by andesite and
basic igneous rocks.

Only at Wuss along the coast is there a comparatively large flat
alluviated area. This is a few square miles in diameter, the result of
copious outwash by streams from the mountamous, hinterland. The sea
front is a low beach line. A large native community exists there. The
alluviated area which supports a considerable population at Wuss is set
in a length of steep coast lacking protected harbours. Consequently the
coast both to the north and to the south is unfavourable for the establish-
ment of other native villages. The Wuss folk are therefore more isolated
than is usual with other communities of the New Hebrides. This no doubt
accounts in some measure for obvious differences which we noted in their
way of life when compared with that of natives elsewhere in the New
Hebrides. For instance we were struck with the extent of irrigation chan-
nels associated with the growing of taro, yams, sugar cane, etc, Also the
people of Wuss were found to be remarkable for having developed on a
notable scale an earthenware pottery industry. This latter may, however,
be in large measure due to the fact that in that region there are available
suitable clays derived from the older sediments and decomposed igneous
rocks exposed in that locality, Elsewhere in the New Hebrides, in the
coastal regions at least, coral, coral sands and volcanic sands aré
dominant while clay formations are scarce or absent.

The novelty of the pottery industry at Wuss was of so much interest

that observations on the process of manufacture were recorded as outlined
below. All operations were performed by women.

The raw material employed is a yellow clay. It was broken dawn to
very small pieces, aid on a sheet of bark and sprinkled with water,

84 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Fiz. 1. Pottery making in Wuse Village; a, dished pisée of knended clay; b, stack of dished pitens;
ce, Yaw pot as moulded on figxed knee; dg, bambgo scraper beng apptied to tip of pot; 6, section of pot
alter trimming of edge, fmt before scraping ta prover thickness; {, section of lip after development of
dinsl form: g, pot after appligation of decorative rotls uf clay, h, coconut shell seraper employed within the
pot tu reduce the wall to any dasirad thickness; i) fivishtd ot.

Then followed a thorough kneading to a uniform doughlike consistency.
When sufficiently mixed it was worked up into a ball-shaped mass.

Two other women then took a hand. Taking pieces of clay from
the ball they worked on them with wet fingers, kneading them together
to make smaller clay balls, each of which was then pressed out into
shallow sauccr-shaped forms (Fig. 1a). After making about six such
dished pieces they were stacked on top of each other (Fig. 1b) and
finally the pack was thoroughly kneaded and rolled up again to form a
large ball.

MAWSON—NEW HEERIDEAN POTS 85

From this stage on, the operation was performed by one person
only, Knéeling on ané knee and with the other sharply hent and wetted,
the woman pressed the ball of plastic clay down onto the rounded end
of the bent knee, while at the same time continuously rotating and patting
it, In this way, in about three minutes the clay was moulded to a deeply
concave form (Fig. 1c).

Then with a wetted piece of bamboo wood, its cutting end shaped
as shown in Fig. 1d, she scraped and worked over the upper rim portion
of the crude bowl, making it smooth, while at the same time thinning out
the clay wall and tapering it off. In this operation one hand was held
on the inside while the other manipulated the wooden tool, The uneven
tap edge was then pinched off and made smooth by running the wetted
fingers over the surface (Fig. 1e).

The wooden tool wag again employed to increase the curvature
inside the mouth of the bowl. In this way a double curved Hp was
developed. Again with wetted fingers) working around the lip it was
smoothed and given its final form (Fig, 1f). The bamboo wood tool was
also employed to even up the curvature of the exterior of the bowl, and
use of this tool was again followed by the smoothing operation with
wetted fingers,

Exterior ornamentation was then applied, effected as follows. Some
of the well-worked clay was rolled between the hands to make elongated
pencil-like sticks. These were worked in rib fashion on to the exterior
of the bowl as shown (Fig. 1g) and the final impressed markings weré
done with a stick.

We did not personally observe the manufacturing process beyond
this stage but were informed that the next step followed after a period
of about five days. In that time the shaped clay bow! had partly dried
and stiffened. Then operating on the interior of the vessel the overthick
wall was reduced to the desired thickness, eraploying as 4 tool a segment
of a cocoanut shell, usually smaller than that figured (Fig, 1h) and with
sharpened edge.

Should eracks have developed in the clay walls of the pot during
drying, repair is effected by cutting out the crack with a sharp-edged piece
of bamboo wood followed by filling up the resulting groove with freshly
prepared plastic pieces of damp worked clay.

A colour wash was then applied. This was a thin suspension of
red ochreous clay in which the pot was dipped. After air drying for a
few days inside one of the village houses the pots were ready to be fired.
In this operation a number of the air-dried pots were assembled together
and fire heaped around them, Fig. li gives an indication of the final form
and the plate shows two examples collected in Wuss village.

86 RECORDS OF THE 8.A. MUSEUM

The above account is of first hand observation made in 1903. The
literature on the native pottery of the New Hebrides is mainly of this
century and is scattered. Reference may be made to descriptions by
MacLachlan (1939) who also quotes earlier sources.

REFERENCES
Maclachlan, R. R. C. (1939): Native pottery of the New Hebrides in Journ.
Polynesian Soc., Wellington 48, 32-55 (with references).

Mawson, D. (1905): The Geology of the New Hebrides, Proc. Linn, Soc.,
N.S.Wales, 30, 400-482, pl. xiv-xxix.

ABORIGINAL BARK PAINTINGS rrou FIELD ISLAND,
NORTHERN TERRITORY

By CHARLES P, MOUNTFORD, Honorary Assocrare m
Etunotocy, Sours Ausrrauian Museum

Plate ii and text fig. 1

An examination of the early records suggests that, wherever the
aborigines used sheets of bark to construct their wet-weather shelters,
they decorated them with designs in coloured ochres.

Peron, (1807-16, pl. 18), in a sketch of a burial place on Maria
Island, Tasmania, shows sheets of bark with painted designs; Bunce,
(1857, pp. 49-50), refers to paintings on bark huts in central Tasmania;
Smyth, (1878, p. 292), mentions their use on the Wonnangatta River,
Gippsland, and Curr, (1886, p, 273), on the Parroo River of central New
South Wales.

Worsnop, (1897, p. 37, pl. 18), illustrates two tracings made from a
series of five bark paintings collected by Captain F. Carrington on Field
Island, Northern Territory, in 1884, (Carrington, 1890, p. 73), (fig. 1).

Arafura Sea

Van Diemen Gulf

Field Island ®

Oenpelli
&

NORTHERN TERRITORY
0
AUSTRALIA

Captain Carrington presented these paintings to the Royal Geographical
Society of South Australia in 1887. They found their way later into the
ethnological collection of the South Australian Museum, where they are
still housed-

388 RECORDS OF THE 3,4, MUSHUM

The Field Island series of bark paintings is of particular interest as
they form a comparison with the art of Oenpelli, Western Arnhem Land,
where Spencer, (1928, pls. 519-534), and Mountford, (1956, pp. 109-264,
pl, 34-84, figs. 12-56), have recorded many bark and cave paintings. The
paintings are also the only records of the art of the extinct Field Islanders.

Although the designs on the Field Island paintings have deteriorated
during the past seventy years, it is still possible to clearly distinguish all
but one of the original figures. To ensure a permanent record cf this
interesting group, I photographed them, Using the faint designs on
the bark sheets as a guide, Miss Patricia Catcheside then retouched the
prints illustrated on pl. ii.

On the upper edge of pl. iia is a conventionalised painting of a pied
goose In flight. Below the goose are two beche-de-mer, and below them
again a cat-fish. (+). On the lower left is an excellent representation
of a skip-jack.

Plate iir illustrates a decorative painting of an unidentified water-
bird in flight. As far as I know this, and the pied goose on Plate iia, are
the only examples of aboriginal art depicting flying birds in so realistic
a manner.

On pl. jic is @ further group of interesting figures. On the extreme
left. is an X-ray painting of a sweep; on the right is a pied goose which
bears some resemblance to a bark painting recorded by Spencer, (1928,
fig. 534), except that the Field Island example shows no trace of X-ray
art, On the extreme right is an opcssum, showing the prehensile tail,
the whiskers and the two eyes on one side of the head (*).

In the middle of pl. iic is a woman with upturned legs, distorted arms
and spines projecting from her face and vulva. This figure bears a clobe
resemblance to cave psintings at Oenpelli of dangerous spirit-women
called the Nadubi. Mountford, (1956, pl. 58B, page 203), records a myth
and figures a cave painting of a Nadubi woman at Unbalanja Hill, Cenpelli.
She, like the woman in the Field Island painting, has upturned legs, and
spines projecting from her elbows, vulva and other parts of her body.

The aborigines believe that when a Nadubi spirit-woman sees an
aboriginal travelling alone, she sneaks up behind him and shoots one
of her spines into his body. Sometimes the medicine man is able to
save the aboriginal’s life by magically removing the spine, but more often
the patient sickens and dies.

“G) Moyniferd, (1946, pl 80%), figures on Xray painting of 8 ral-Gsh, Tr: on 1. BE 50B;, ove
of mw skip-jagk,

() This is not undsual ion the art of the bark paintings. Speneer, (1998. fig. 595), fgores
goose from Oenpelli, and Monattord, (1949, pl, NIV. fig. B), so cchidna from Gauitnm Island, ia both
nf whivh (pe owe epee are slewn on ote aide of (Te Themed,

MOUNTFORD—FIELD ISLAND PAINTINGS 89

There is an X-ray painting of a female sea-going turtle, (pl. iip ),
indicating lines of eggs and the alimentary canal, and on pl. iis are
two sharks, the details of the one on the right having almost disappeared.
In the upper left of the same sheet is an unidentified design, and on
the upper right, an aboriginal holding an object in his hand.

REFERENCES

Bunce, D. 1857: Australasiatic Reminiscences.

Carrington, F, 1890: The Rivers of the Northern Territory. Proc. Roy,
Geog. Soc. Aust. (S.Aust. Branch), Vol. 2.

Curr, E. M. 1886: The Australian Race, 4 vols.

Mountford, C. P. 1939: Aboriginal Decorative Art from Arnhem Land.
Trans. Roy. Soc. S.Aust. 63.

Mountford, C. P. 1956: The Art, Myth and Symbolism of Arnhem Land.

Peron, F, A. and Freycinet, L. 1807-16: Voyage de Decouvertes aux
Terres Australes.

Smyth, R. B. 1878: The Aborigines of Victoria, 2 vols.

Spencer, W. B, 1928: Wanderings in Wild Australia, 2 vols.

Worsnop, T, 1897: The Prehistoric Arts, Manufactures, Works, Weapons,
etc. of the Aborigines of Australia.

THE GENUS MYRMICOTROMBIUM WOMERSLEY 1934 (ACARINA,
ERYTHRAEIDAE), wira REMARKS on tox SYSTEMATICS or rue
ERYTHRAEOIDEA axp TROMBIDIOIDEA

By R. V. SOUTHCOTT, Sours Ausrratisan Musson.

Text fig. 1-2

SUMMARY

The genus Myrmicotrombium Womersley 1934, with genotype (mono-
typic) M. brevicristatum Wom. 1934. is restudied, the holotype male being
redescribed, as well as some details of the adult female and nymph. The
mite, although having some features suggestive of the Smarididae, belongs
to the Erythraeidae, and not to the Trombididae, in which it was placed
by its author. The species is now recorded from Australian Capital
Territory, as well as South Australia. On two occasions it has been
captured in association with ants, but its relation to ants (if any) is at
present conjectural.

A specimen from Burma is also referred to this genus.

The systematics of the Erythraeidae (Hrythraevidea) and of some
of the Trombidioidea are referred to, Feider’s (1955) subfamily
Myrmicotrombiinae, erected within the Trombidioidea, cannot stand. The
genus however merits a subfamily within the Erythraeidae, and hence
the subfamily Myrmicotrombiinae n. sf. is erected within that family,
and compared with the other subfamilies of the Erythraeidae, namely the
Erythraeinae n. sf,, Leptinae n. sf., Callidosominae n. sf. and Balaustiinae
n. sf. (Balaustiidae Grandjean 1947), which are keyed.

INTRODUCTION

In 1934 Womersley described and figured as a new genus and species
of mite Myrmicotrombium brevicristalum, placing it within the family
Trombidiidae. This was described from ‘‘a single specimen collected with
ants at Glen Osmond, South Australia, September 11, 1933”, collected
by himself, In 19387 Womersley, in revising the systematics of the
Australian Trombidiidae, referred again to that genus and species, placing
it within the subfamily Johnstonianinae Thor 1935. In 1947 Thor and
Willman issued a monograph on the family Trombidiidae, and followed
Womersley in the systematic placing of this mite, as have Baker and
Wharton (1952), In a systematic account of the Trombidioidea (this term
corresponding to the Trombidiidae of the previous authors mentioned)

92 RECORDS OF THE 58.A. MUSEUM

Weider (1955) has erected a subfamily Myrmicotrombiinae to accommodate
it, placing that subfamily in the family Stigmotrombidiidae (1) Feider 1955,
Seria Sagittotrombidiinae Feider 1955, along with the subfamilies
Tanaupodinae Thor 1935, Calothrombiinae Oudemans 1947 (in Ther and
Willmann), Johnstonianinae Thor 1935 and Notothrombiinae Oudemans
1947 (in Thor and Willmann),.

In extensive collecting of Acarina at Glen Osmond, South Ausiralia,
and surroundings, directed particularly towards the families Erythraeidae,
Trombidiidae and Smarididae, from 1933 onward (see Southcott 1946b)
the writer captured a species of mite corresponding to Womersley’s des-
cription, on rare occasions, However this mite was found to belong to
the Erythraeidae and not to the Trombidiidae. In life light. pink plumoee
setation gives it a Trombidiid facies. Examination of the type specimen of
Myrmicotrambium brevicristatum Wor. 1934 in the South Australian
Mugeum collection, in 1945 showed that these specimens were of the same
species. Mr, Womersley has agreed with the writer that the species
should be placed in the Erythraeidae.

Redescription of Myrmicotrombium breyicristatum Wom. 1934
Fig. 1-2
Adult (Fig. 1 A-D; 2). Colour in life light pink.

The holotype (male) (mounted) with body ovoid, 950. long to tip
of rostrum of chelicerae (mouth cone), 5404 wide. Eyes present, one
on each side, almost circular, 22-24, across, placed anteriorly on the
propodosoma. In the midline, anteriorly on the dorsum, is a short crista,
with two sensillary areas, The anterior senvillary area is placed shortly
behind the eyes. It has a blunt indistinct “nasus”, and is 30u long by 21.
wide, and is provided with two very finely ciliated tapering sensillary
setae, 30-32, long. Anterior sensillae bases lip apart. In addition the
anterior sensillary area carries 4 typical dorsal setae, 20-23. long.
Posterior sensillary area pear-shaped, 24 long by 22, across, with two
sensillary setae similar to the anterior, 424 long; sensillae bases lip
apart. Crista distinct, entirely behind the eyes (sce Figs. 1A, 2). Distance
between anterior and posterior sensillae bases (centres) 65, (intersensil-
lary distance).

The dorsum of the body is provided with a bushy covering of heavily
ciliated setae, of two distinct types and sizes. The larger setae are
spathulate and heavily ciliated, 28-42, long and 11-15 wide where

Gy This family name pripesed hy Mader bys na stulue na there is mq sraiug with oul

Pienbt rene on which it shonld be haced. ‘The sane applies to the fumily Periiremutrombidiidee
vider 1995

SOUTHCOTT—GENUS MYRMICOTROMBIUM 93

430 fe

Sourtcatt

Fig, 1. Myrmicotrombium brevivristatum Womersley 1934; A-D adult male, holotype: A entite
specimen, setae omilted (exeept supra-onychial papillae and setae}. Legs 11 and il] on the right hand
side detached, Internal and ventral structures shown in stipple; B external genitalia aud adjacent
chitinous purt of internal genitalia, male, showing lavia majova and labia minora; dorsal] seta
(spathulate type), from above; D same, below; FE dorsal seta, shorter type; F nymph, dorsal seta,

spathulate type (all sé¢tae to scale on right).

expanded. The ciliations are stiff, oblique and sharp-pointed, and change
direction along the course of the seta, being more outstanding toward
each end of the seta (Fig. 1 C). These seta show a slight inferior
keel. The setae originate from a minute seta base, as is usual in the
Erythraeidae; the seta base is 2.5.4 wide, The smaller are more

34 RECORDS OF THE 8.4. MUSEUM

numerous, and the larger spathulate setae are interspersed among them,
The smaller setae are practically uniform in structure throughout their
length, non-expanding, more slender, somewhat more flaccid, densely
(and somewhat flaccidly) ciliated, setae 18-254 long (Fig. 1 E).

Venter with setae similar to the smaller dorsal setae, but these slightly
larger and with more outstanding ciliations. The male genitalia are of
typical Erythraeid type, with outer and inner lips as figured (Fig, 1 B)
(labia majora and labia minora) respectively. There are no genital
suckers,

Legs as figured. Leg I fairly stout, others somewhat more slender.
however all the legs have a lumpy angular appearance, with the genua
bellied (Fig. 1 A). Each tarsus carries above the claws, at its distal
end, a projecting supra-onychial papilla and bristle, clearly tactile in
function (two being present on each tarsus I). The tactile bristles
curyed and spiniform; on leg I 28, long, on II 30”, on DI 28n, on IV
304. Tarsus I 127 long by 64) high, Il 70u x 36p, I T4p x 36y
IV Qi. x 36% Metatarsus (tibia) I 120. long, I 74pn, M1 Tip, IV
107, In their proximal parts the legs are provided with plumose setae
similar to the body setae (Fig. 2); among these are short spiniform
sensory setae usual for the Erythraeidae (some are shown in Fig. 2 on
the (telo-) femur I and genu I. These sensory setae are more common
on Lhe more distal parts of the legs, and constitute terminally about 50%
of the setae,

Chelicerae styliform, as figured, with the usual Erythraeid feature
of the cheliceral stylets at the tip of the mouth cone. Posteriorly the
gnathogomal endoskeleton ends within the body in the typical posterior
cornua or “forceps” of the Hrythraeidae (shown in Figs. 1 A, 2). There
is ho sign of any extrusile tube to the gnathosoma, as. occurs in the
Smarididae- The palpi are slender, with chaetotaxy as figured (Fig, 2).
By the slender appearance the palpus suggests the Smarididae rather
than the Erythraeidae. There are no specific features suggestive of the
Trombidiidae.

The adult female is similar to the male, but the dorsal setae are
longer, to 554 long with the larger type (spathulate) setae (allotype
female from Morialta, South Australia, 9th October 1944, collected by
H, Womersley, in the collection of the Sonth Australian Museum); not
figured.

Nymph (Fig. 1F) (specimen from Black Mountain, Canberra, Austra-
lian Capital Territory, 19th October 1944, under stonés, collected H,
Womersley, in the collection of the South Australian Museum. Although

NUS MYRMICOTROMBIUM

SOUTHCOTT—GE

SauvTtucortt

adult molé. holotype, showing nnherior

as wall as the enathosoma ond palpi, and part of tho

ht ai the crista is shown the right posterigr horn of the gnathosoma, (subeuticular).

ubinm brevieristetum Womersley 1924;

ineluding crista anil ayss,

Murnicotre
To the riz

3,

part of dorsum of body,

Fig.
potorinr lege.

96 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

rather damaged the following particulars may be given from the mounted
specimen: )

Of the same general structure and setation as the adult, but the
longer (spathulate) dorsal setae more slender, to 554 long. The tarsi
of the feet are proportionately higher than in the adult. Tarsus I 1204
long * 70m high, Il 662 x 384, I 742 x 36u, IV 85yn x 34u
Metatarsus I 135. long, If 83y, TIT 84n, TV 108,.

Localilies, South Australia: Glen Osmond, 11 September 1933, with
ants, male (holotype) (H, Womersley); Glen Osmond, in dead pine
needles, March 1935, one specimen, male (R. V, S.); Glen Osmend, T
May 1939, in soil at base of Eucalyptus cladocalyx, one specimen
(R. V, S.); Brown Hill Creek, 19th June 1938, with ants, one specimen
(J, 8. Womersley); Morialta, 9th October 1944, one specimen, female,
allotype (H. Womersley).

Australian Capital Territory: Black Mountain, Canberra, under stones,
19th October 1944, three specimens, including one nymph (H. Womersley).

Myrmicotrombium sp.

In the South Australian Museum collection is a slide of a specimen
that can be referred to this genus, labelled “Nganyawa, 9 December 1946,
in soil” (Burma: name of collector not given). No other information is
recorded about. it.

Unfortunately the specimen is in a very damaged condition, and is
unsuitable for description. The spathulate dorsal setae are up to 38
long, and the ciliations of these are possibly somewhat longer and stronger
than in the M. brevicristatum specimens seen. Whether this is of any
significance cannot be stated at present.

Biology of Myrmicotrombium brevicristatum.

On two occasions this species has been recorded in the company of
ants (species of latter not stated). The original of these, as indicated
above, is reflected in the generic name. Its life history is unknown. It
has been observed only in superficial layers of soil or vegetable litter or
under stones. Whether there is any association with ants, other than
accidental, is not known.

The Affinities of the Genus Myrmicotrombium.

As is indicated in the description, from its styliform exsertile
chelicerae, the genus belongs to the Erythraeidae and not to the Trombi-
diidae. Womersleéy was misled by its Trombidiid facies, and later writers
had perforce to follow him, as none of them saw any specimens.

SOUTHCOTT—GENUS MYRMICOTROMBIUM aT

The genus is unique among the Erythraeidae in having the eyes
placed entirely in front of the crista. In this character the génus
resembles the genera Smaris Latreille 1796 (= Sclerosmaris Grandjean
1947) and Fessonia von Heyden 1826 (= C&cosmaris Grandjean 1947)
of the Smarididae, but no previously described Erythraeidae. Another
feature suggesting affinities with the Smarididae is the presence of the
tactile bristle arising from a distinet papilla above the tarsal claws
(supra-onychial papilla and seta). This is a highly developed feature
in some of the Smarididae, e.g. the genera Smaris Latreilie 1796 and in
HWirstiosoma Womersley 1934 (= Smaris Grandjean 1947 non Latrcille
1796) and to a lesser extent in Fessonia von Heyden 1826, where they are
ciliated, Such setae are also present in some of the Erythraeidae.

Despite its affinities with the Smarididae, there is no trace of an
extrusile collar by which the gnathosoma can be projected in front of
the bady, hence the genus belongs to the Erythraeidae.

Feider (1955) has erected a subfamily Myrmicotrombiinae in the
family Trombidiidae (s1.) monotypic for Myrmicolrombium Womersley
1934, which he grouped with the subfamilies Johnstonianinae and
Notothrombidiinae, in his “Infraseria” Duplicitrombidiinae Feider 1955
(of his “Seria” Sapittotrombidiinae Feider 1955, family Stigmotrombidiidae
Yeider 1955), While it is not the purpose of the present article to deal
with the systematics of the Trombidioidea, it is clear that the subfamily
Myrmicotrombiinae Feider 1955, by definition cannot stand, It is however
apparent that the characters of the genus Myrmicofrombium merit sub-
family status within the Erythraeidae, The most important character
is the placing of the eyes entirely in front of the crista, and on this
character the writer proposes the subfamily Myrmicotrombiinae n. sf.
{non Feider 1955). This subfamily porsibly forms a connecting link
between the Smarididae and the Erythraeidae (#). It is not proposed to deal
with the systematics of the Erythraeidae at any length in the present
article (these will be considered in a separate paper), but it is thought
desirable to indicate here the relations of the Myrmicotrombiinae to the
other subfamilies of the Erythraeidae, These may be separated as in
the following key to the adult forms:
is TWO GYES ON CACH SIME oer ecseccceccssnnnncenencnnievitine ie ei n. sf-

One eve on each side .

2. (1) Metatarsi (tibiae) of adults and d nymphs * with & pair ‘of tienes
at the distal end dorsally .. agttavieuga tind ~

_Callidosominae 1 n, 8k

~

Metatarsi (tibiae) ‘without: tubercles pee eoessnassc at yar pgtepayuntecss atti tereo net
() Thése fwo faiilies vonstilate the emparfaimily kd Vkreee tg a Test. Tntradieed by Grunthjuin
(19478) w replace the "Sublenhors'’ Apmholostiemata Giiemins 146

98 RECORDS OF THE S,A. MUSHUM

3. (2) Hyes entirely in front of the crista or cristal areas o.com
sca eras eeeranim rears: WOO Myrmicotrombiinae n. sf. non Feider 1955
Eyes between levels of anterior and posterior sensillary areas of

GTS T ettincnseescdiptessenpyepeyeprendgqrevntenengettorvneginvensletangebedpithnenprdqdnseeymeenegcafedanypemaneebsbines sitter 4,
4. (3) Eyes anterior to middle of Crista... cc cceenedeptinae n. sf.
Eyes behind middle of crista. occnccccsuuoneenndalaustiinae n. sf.

The subfamilies Erythraeinae, Callidosominae, Myrmicotrombiinae,
Leptinae and Balaustiinae proposed above are based on the genera
Erythraeus Latreille 1806, Callidosoma Womersley 1936, Myrmico-
trombium Womersley 1934, Leptus Latreille 1796 and Balaustium von
Heyden 1826 respectively. The genus Balausfium is used in the sense
of Grandjean (1947b). The subfamily Balaustiinae nov. is proposed in
place of Balaustiidae Grandjean 1947 (Grandjean 1947a).

REFERENCES.

Baker, E, W., and Wharton, G. W. 1952, “An Introduction to Acarology”.
The Macmillan Company, New York.

Feider, 4. 1955, Acarina Trombidoidea (sic) in Fauna Republicii Populare

A A
Romine, Arachnida 5 (1): 1-187, Hdit. Acad. Pop. Romina.
Grandjean, F. 1947a, Etude sur Jes Smarisidae et quelques autres

Erythroides (Acariens), Arch. Zool. exp. gen. 85 (1): 1-126.

Grandjean, F. 1947b, Au sujet des Erythroides, Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat., Paris
(2) 19 (4): 327-334.

Southcott, R. V. 1946a, On the Family Smarididae (Acarina), Proc. Linn.
Soc. N.S.Wales 70 (8-4) : 173-178.

Southcott, R. V. 1946b, Studies on Australian Erythraeidae (Acarina),
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.Wales 71 (1-2): 6-48.

Thor, S., and Willmann, ©, 1947: Trombidiidae. Lieferung 71b in Das
Tierreich, Berlin, pp. 187-541 +- xxix-xxxvi.

Womersley, H. 1934, A Revision of the Trombid and Erythraeid Mites of
Australia with Descriptions of New Genera and Species, Rec. 5. Aust,
Mus. 5 (2): 179-254,

Womersley, H. 1937, A Revision of the Australian Trombidiidae (Acarina),
Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6 (1): 75-100.

THE USE or PLASTIC PANELS ror ILLUSTRATING HEAVENLY
BODIES

By H. J. BOWSHALL, Arrisr, Sovra Ausrratian Museum
Plates iii-iv

Some months ago, it was decided that illuminated panels showing
some of the heavenly bodies would be weleome and interesting additions
to the children’s display gallery in the South Australian Museum, This
exhibition, now ready for installation, depicts the Moon (pl. tii), Halley's
Comet, the nebula in Andromeda (pl, iv), the chromosphere of the sun
and the solar system itself.

When working on a glass shect, internally illuminated by a light
situated near the edge of the sheet, it was noticed that puint on the
surface and small flaws in the glass, such as bubbles and scratches on
the surface, become illuminated and glowed quite brightly. Our first
models were constructed by painting the design on sheets of plate glass
which were illuminated by passing light through one edge of the sheet.
Results were not satisfactory, however, for light illuminated figures
painted on the glass for a distance of only about two feet from the edge.
Furthermore, most. plate glass manufactured in Australia has a slight
greenish tint, which alters colours painted on the glass, black becoming
brown, for example,

Further experiments were carried out, using colourless sheets of
plastic (‘‘Perspex” acrylic) instead of glass, and the resulis were most
encouraging. This plastic will transmit light from the edge to a distance
of over five feet through the sheet, while colours applied to the surface
of the sheet are not altered by the light.

Instead of painting the details on the plastic, it was decided to enter
the field of light by engraving them into the surface of the sheets, and
this proved to give far better results than the use of paint. The
engravings stand out in high relief from the dark background, giving a
realistic third dimensional effect. It was found that the deeper the
engraving on the plastic, the more brilliantly illuminated that part
became, and vice versa. If required, colours were applied to the engraved
surfaces, a technique used for the solar system and chromosphere of the
sun,

100 RECORDS OF THE 8.A. MUSEUM

Several points concerning the use of plastic should be mentioned
here. Most plastic sheets have a rather rough edge and this must be
removed by polishing in order that the maximum amount of light may
be transmitted through the sheet, As the upper edge of the shect ts
the only source of light, it is important that this edge in particular be
perfectly smooth. Moreover, as plastic is somewhat affected by heat,
a light such as that provided by a cold fluorescent tube is preferable to
ordinary filament lighting. The tube is arranged at the top ci the shect
in such a manner that only light escaping from it passes down through
the sheet itself. As the light enters the sheet, it is transmitted to the
lower edge, and portion is reflected back through the sheet again,

When using this technique of “edge lighting” the plastic sheet, as in
the case of glass used in preliminary experimentation, must be completely
free of surface scratches. Unfortunately, plastie is very easily scratched,
and even handling cannot prevent smal! scratches appearing on the
surface. These must be removed by polishing with a fine cuttmg com-
pound: the writer found tooth powders most effective. The sheet is
then washed with a sponge cloth and water, and finally wiped dry with
a soft cloth. However, harsh rubbing in the final drying of the sheet
produces a considerable charge of static electricity on the surface, which
readily attracts dust particles.

Experiments were conducted with several thicknesses of plastic.
Sheets one-eighth of an inch thick were first employed, but light did not
penetrate the required distance into the plastic; eventually it was. found
that sheets of a thickness of three-cighths of an inch gaye optimum
results,

The images were transferred to the plastic sheets as follows.
Photographs of drawings of the reauired size were prepared from suitable
illustrations and these were applied to the front, or viewing, surface
of the sheet, with the backs of the photographs facing the front of the
sheet. A powerful light was used to illuminate the viewing side of the
plastic sheet; the figures, then clearly visible through the back of the
sheet, were engraved on this surface. In the case of the moon it was
nécessary to prepare a composite picture, fitted together from sectional
photographs. To complete the exhibit, and in order to ensure a dari
background, a black velvet curtain wes hung behind the plastic sheets-

Tt is hoped that, in the future, there will be further opportunity
for the use of this technique of “edge lighting" for exhibition panels in
the South Australian Museum.

ABORIGINAL CAVE PAINTINGS iy SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By CHARLES P, MOUNTFORD, Hoxornary Assocrats in Franonoey,
Sourm Ausrnanian Myseum

Plate v and text fig, 1-18

This paper records six localities of aboriginal cave paintings in
South Australia, three of which are in the Mount Lofty Ranges, i.e.
(i), Native Valley, Kanmantoo; (ii), Harrison Creek, Tungkillo; (iii),
Cook Hill, about five and a half miles east of Mt. Pleasant, The other
three groups are: Yappala Hills, south south-vest of Hawker; Gilmore
Well on lyre’s Peninsula about midway between Port Augusta and
Whyalla, and a small group in a low cave near Wertaloona, on the
eastern side of the Northern Flinders Ranges, (not shown on map, fig 1).

(i) NATIVE VALLEY, KANMANTOO

The Native Valley case paintings are in a shallow cave on the eastern
side of a creek on Section 393, Hundred of Monarto, a few miles in an
easterly direction from the township of Kanmarttoo.

These paintings have been known to the local residents for many
years, but were first brought to my notice by Mr. H. M. Hale, Director
of the South Australian Museum. Later, in company with other members
of the Anthropological Society of South Australia, we visited the locality
to record these fast disappearing examples of aboriginal art. ‘

Most of the paintings, which were on the southern end of the cave),
and on the roof were badly weathered, a few of them so badly that it
was difficult to follow their ontline. To ensure the greatest possible
accuracy, the paintings were traced on transparent cellophane, from
which fig 2 and 3 were prepared.

On fig 2, a and e, are simple human beings in positions suggestive
of dancing; b, a pair of interlocked figures, one without a kead, and c,
a hollow-bodied man or woman that bears some resentblance to cave
paintings recorded by Mountford (1937, fig. 12) from Napier Broome Bay,
north-western Australia. At d, is a squatting individual with a tail
and a boomerang-shaped object in front; f, and possibly the badly-eroded
design h, are human representations, and the group at. m, a curious
meandering “rake” design, a human being, and a circle. On the bottom

102 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

@ Hawker
MY oppalla

Pt Auguste

Gilmore Wellé

@ Mallett

@ Snowtown @ Bore

Pt Wakefield

@ Gawler

Cook Hill
Pr Lincoln Tungkitts
ungki
oe
A

Kangaroo Island

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

Cave Painting Sites

Fig, 1. ‘Localities of Cave Paintings in South Australia.

at n, are three designs which are almost certainly human, the figure on
the right having been elaborated by a series of transverse lines. The
design at k, could be a badly-drawn bird track but there is no reasonable

103

MOUNTFORD—ABORIGINAL CAVE PAINTINGS

\
.

N HMI

Native Valley,

Fiz, 2, Cave Paintings,

RECORDS OF THE 8.A. MUSEUM

04

Paintings, Native Valley.

Fig. 3. Cave

MOUNTFORD—ABORIGINAL CAVE PAINTINGS ida

explanation of the “rake” design, g, or the ellipse with the radiating
lines at o. There is a lizard design at j; 1, is not decipherable.

The right-hand design of group a, fig. 3 suggests a human being,
with arms. akimbo, wearing a ceremonial head-dress. The figure to the left
and the right are indecipherable. The design at b may represent a
crescent moon (1); e¢ and j are exaggerated bird tracks. At n is an
incomplete design of a bird similar to that recorded by Tindale and
Sheard (1926, fig. 15), in the Yatalunga cave on the South Para River.

The figures e, k, 1, and m are indecipherable; the remainder, d_ f,
h, and g, represent men and women.

(ii) HARRISON CREEK, TUNGKILLO

This group of cave paintings are situated on the roof walls of a low
rock shelter (pl. V,A), on the southern edge of Harrison Creek, Section
481, Hundred of Tungkillo and about two miles south of a town by the
same name. Members of the Anthropological Society assisted in the
recording of this group,

On fig. 4, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, j, k, m and p, resemble lizards although
it is possible that some of them may represent aboriginal men, On the
left of c, is a barred circle, a common design in the rock engravings at
Mt, Chambers Gorge, (Mountford, 1929, fig. 174-7).

The fern-leaf design at n resembles a cave painting in a rock shelter
at Bimba, (Mawson and Hossfeld, 1926, fig. 2). This design is common
in the art of the Central Australian deserts, (Mountford, 1937, fig. 5),
and is present in the rock engravings of Panaramittce (Mountford, 1929,
fig, 6). The figure to the left of n, as well as at o, and h, are
indecipherable.

(iii) COOK HILL
Five and a half miles east of Mt. Pleasant and a quarter of a mile
north of the Cook Hill Road is a large granite boulder about twenty feet
long and six feet high, A deep overhang on the eastern side forms a
low rock shelter, which was most probably a favourite camping place
for the aborigines.

On the walls and ceilings of this shelter were a number of faded
aboriginal paintings. Mr. N. B. Tindale, who first located these paintings
and who kindly gave me the sketch from which fig. 5 was prepared,
copied all the designs that were not too faint for definite recognition.

1 ‘There iv a similar dngiem in the Yoppala Hills, fig, 9¢

RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

106

Ny

C4

\ ;

WW
S Sy &

CSS

MI 2.

Cave Paintings, Tungkillo.

Vig. 4.

MOUNTFORD—ABORIGINAL CAVE PAINTINGS 10T

Fig. 5, Cave Paintings, Cook Hill.

The designs, a, b, c, d, e, f, k, and m represent either men or
lizards. Similar designs are present in all the painted caves of the
Adelaide Hills.

At f is a combination figure, the lower being either human or reptile,
the upper, unidentifiable. There is a group of linked circles at n, and
a single example at q.

(
\
\

Fig, 6, Gave Painings, Cogk Hill,

108 RECORDS OF THH §8.A. MUSEUM

A triple-headed snake at s, is similar to a cave painting on the River
Marne recorded by Hossfeld (1926, p. 290, fig. 2). There is no explanation
for h, o, or the interesting figure at p, the right-hand side of which might
represent the long-necked freshwater tortoise of the near-by River Murray.

(iv) THE YAPPALA HILLS

Three shelters in which there are a number of unusual cave paintings
are situated ai the southern end of the Yappala Hills, about six miles
south south-west of Hawker, in the Hundred of Wonoka.

The larger shelter is half-way up the face of a steep cliff, on the
western side of a ravine whose watercourse pours into Palmer Creek.
Two smaller caves are situated on a conical hill to the east. For the
sake of clarity, these shelters are designated, the western shelter (fig. 7);
the upper eastern shelter, (fig. 8) and the lower eastern shelter (fig. 9).

During 1937, Mr. H. M. Cooper showed me photographs and sketches
of some of the designs in the western shelter and Mr. Maurice Leask
sent a description and photograph of the upper and lower eastern shelters.

It was not until 1955, in company with Mr. Ainslie Roberts, that
I had an opportunity of personally investigating these caves. On thet
oceasion we made a complete photo-mosaic of the western and upper
eastern shelters, but did not locate the lower eastern group. I am
indebted to Mr. H. M. Cooper for permission to use his sketches from
which fig. 9 was prepared.

(a) The Western Shelter

This shelter is about thirty-five feet long and six feet cr more in
height, Fig. 7, traced with a photo-mosaic prepared, reveals a number
of interesting designs which are not present in any other recorded group
in South Australia. Another unusual feature is that all the designs, with
the exception of the barred circles at j, have been painted in black.

At c, is the most striking and unusual dasign in the cave; a circle
of radiating lines enclosing groups of curving crescents and U within U
designs. At e, and f, are similar groups except that the radiating lines
enclose a circular disc.

There are groups of parallel lines at a, b, f, g, 1, and n, most of
them associated with exaggerated paired kangaroo tracks, as at f, There
are examples of the “rake” design, also present at Native Valley, (fig. 2).
No reasonable explanation can be offered for tlie paintings at h, k and m.

The barred cirele design at j resembles rock engravings in Mount
Chambers Gorge of the Northern Flinders Ranges, (Mountford, 1929, figs.
174-7), These designs, which are seldom found in the cave painting or
rock carving art of South Australia are particularly common in rock

MOUNTFORD—ABORIGINAL CAVE PAINTINGS 109

- “y
My
nd MN

Lie

%
Mn Wy. 5
. » DD) ny. y: ni v

Fig. 7, Cave Paintings, Yappala ills, Western Shelter,

engravings of the upper Yule River of North Western Australia, (Worms,
1954, pi. 1b, 2d, 3a), where they represent a human vulva.

(b) The Upper Eastern Shelter
The paintings are in a low cave which had been eroded at the base
of a large boulder. There were a few straight line markings on the low
ceiling. The bulk of the designs, (fig. 8), extended along the back wall
for about twenty feet.

The predominant painting was an incomplete oval, a, of short black
lines. Although seldom present in cave paintings elsewhere in South
Australia, these groups of short lines are particularly numerous in the
cave paintings at Gilmore Well, (Pl. V, C). At b, are bird tracks,
probably emus; c, paired boomerangs and what. could represent a simple
throwing slick; d, a group of parallel lines, a hand stencil with a finger

110 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Re MAI LENG y MO 1 doa
ai : 7 HUMNIp ry

Why
\ ‘hy Waiting

Fig. 8. Cave Paintings, Yappala Hills, Upper Eastern Shelter.

missing, and a number of bird tracks; e, grouped boomerangs and a
multiple barred design; f and g, hand stencils, and h an unidentifiable

design.

MOUNTFORD—ABORIGINAL CAVE PAINTINGS

K
Lddte gage
d

as AN
(UN 4,

112 RECORDS OF THE S,A. MUSEUM

At m is possibly a badly-drawn boomerang and n, an emu track.
Design k, is interesting; it may consist of no more than a bird track
atlached either to a U-shaped symbol or an incomplete circle. I do not
know of a parallel design in Australian primitive art.

(c) The Lower Eastern Shelter

As mentioned earlier, fig. 9, was prepared from sketches made by
Mr. H. M. Cooper. The barred circle designs, a and c. resemble those
at Mt, Chambers Gorge (Mountford, 1929, fig. 180-2); b, and h, are
similar, but may have had a different meaning. There are U within U
designs at k, g, and e, which are common in the art of central Australia
(Spencer and Gillen, 1899, fig. d, p. 148; fig. f, p. 149; Mountford, 1937,
fig. 3, 7, 9,11). They are also present in the rock engravings at Mallett,
(Basedow, 1914, pl. xvi, fig. B) and Yunta (Mountford, 1937, pl. x, fig. 5).
Groups of parallel lines such as at d, were common at Yappala in both
the upper and lower shelters. It is tempting to think of them as tally
marks, but we have no evidence that this is so, nor that the aborigines
ever kept tallies of events,

There is no reasonable explanation for the interesting figure at j,
which is particularly common in the cave at Gilmore Well, fig. 17. Design
b might be a combination of a barred circle and a U within U design; h
is a barred circle and a bird track; e¢, combined U within U designs, and
k, an incomplete circle.

(v) GILMORE WELL

Late in 1953, Mr, Hans Mincham of Whyalla wrote and told me of
aboriginal paintings in two eaves in the rough hills about three miles
east of Gilmore Well, which, in turn, is about six and a half miles south-
west of Blanche Harbour, Hundred of Jenkins {fig. 1).

During 1955, Mr. Ainslie Roberts and I visited these caves (PI. V, BO,
inspected the paintings and photographed a number of the paintings from
which we prepared the illustrations. The lower cave was approximately
sixty feet long and up to ten feet high, the upper cave being about a
third the length of the lower,

Although there are hundreds of individual paintings in the two caves,
the range of designs is particularly limited. On the right-hand side of
the lower cave (Pl. V, C.) are a short number of parallel lines, in
red and white, painted along the edge of more or less horizontal bands
of rock, Between and above these bands are a number of bird tracks
and paired footmarks of kangaroos.

On the walls and ceiling of both the smaller upper cave and the left-
hand side of the lower cave (in addition to the painting of a man, lines

MOUNTFORD—ABORIGINAL CAVE PAINTINGS 113

D bit
unt Vé

anne

Fig. 10-14. Cave Paintiogs, Gilmora Well,

ri cin

a TTYL tinal

Weaetd ca,

Vig, 15-18. Cave Paintings, Gilmore Well.

114 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

of short marks and multiple-barred designs), are a large number of
human, animal and bird footmarks painted heterogeneously over the whole
surface,

We did not make a complete photo-mosaic as at the Yappala Hills
caves, but photographed a series of typical groups i!lustrated on fig. 6
and 10-18,

Along the lower edge of fig. 10 are a number of incomplete human
footprints; on the right is a large multi-barred oval; in the centre a group
of four long parallel lines intersected with transverse bars; and on the
left, amid a number of heterogeneous figures, a single barred design.

The paintings illustrated on fig 11 are mostly tracks and groups of
short parallel lines. At the bottom of the panel, some aboriginal artist
has created an interesting pattern by joining a series of bird tracks
together.

Fig. 12, (with the exception of the four multiple-barred designs on the
lower left), is covered with the tracks of men, dogs, kangaroos and birds.
One interesting series of tracks depicting a dingo chasing a kangaroo
starts at a, in the centre of fig. 12, continuing up the wall, leaving it at
b, then continuing across the ceiling as shown on fig. 14.

On fig. 13 are a number of kangaroo tracks, a human footprint on the
left, and a fragment of a wheel-like design on the right. A similar design
has been found among the rock engravings of Yunta Springs (Mountford,
1929, fig. 89), and in an elaborated form at Mount Chambers Gorge
(Mountford, 1929), fig. 175).

On the left of fig. 6 is a crudely painted man in white, with a line
{perhaps a spear), projecting from his head. There is no explanation for
the patch of white below. On the right is a multiple-barred design.

On the left of fig. 15 are four grouped boomerangs; in the middle a
multiple-barred figure, and on the right, a design of unknown meaning.
Multiple-barred designs, with the exception of five groups of short marks
and two of long parallel lines, occupy the most of fig. 16.

There are, on fig. 17, three well-drawn human footprints, two dog
and five kangaroo tracks as Well as eight multiple-barred designs.

On fig. 18, a “wheel” design, similar to than on fig. 13, is predominant.
There is also a human footprint, group of short parallel lines, two emu
tracks, and a number of indecipherable designs,

(vi) WERTALOONA

Mr. H. M. Cooper found a small group of cave paintings in a low cave
on the eastern slopes of the Flinders Ranges, about five miles south of
Wertaloona. These are shown at fig. 9, m.

MOUNTFORD—ABORIGINAL CAVE PAINTINGS 115

DISCUSSION

A review of the paintings described in this paper suggest that, in
the cave art of South Australia, certain types of designs tend to be used
only in specific localities. Paintings of human figures are far more
numerous than any other in the Adelaide Hills; the circular designs of
short lines, fig. 7, c, e, and f, are only found in the Yappala Hills cave,
and the multitude of short lines at Gilmore Well.

The same predominance of certain designs is also present in the art
of the rock engravings; such as U within U designs at Mallett; (Basedow,
1914, pl. XVI, fig. B) and the barred circle designs at Mt. Chamibers Gorge,
(Mountford, 1929, pp. 351, 353).

This grouping suggests that some of the localities where paintings
and rock engravings are now found were totemic places, alihough not
necessarily forbidden to the women.

REFERENCES

Basedow, H. 1914: Aboriginal rock engravings of great antiquity. Journ.
Roy. Anth. Inst., 44.

Hossfeld, P, 1926: The aborigines of Australia: Native occupation of the
Eden and Angaston Districts. Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Austr., Adelaide, 50,

Mawson, D., and Hossfeld, P. 1926: Relics of aboriginal population in the
Olary District. Trans. Roy, Soc. 8, Austr., Adelaide, 50,

Mountford, C. P. 1929: Aboriginal rock carvings of South Australia. Aust.
Ass: Adv. Sci., 19.

Mountford, C. P. 1937: Aboriginal crayon drawings from the Warburton
Ranges in Western Australia. Rec. 5. Austr. Mus., Adelaide, 6.

Mountford, C. P. 1937a: Aboriginal crayon drawings, Northern Aranda
Tribe of Central Australia. Trans. Roy. Soc. §. Austr., Adelaide, 61.

Mountford, C. P. 1937b: Examples of aboriginal art from Napier Broome

Bay, North-Western Australia, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr,, Adelaide,
61.

Spencer, W. B., and Gillen, F. J. 1899: Native tribes of Central Australia,

Tindale, N. B., and Sheard, H. L. 1927: Aboriginal rock paintings, South
Para River, South Australia, Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Austr., Adelaide, 51.

Worms, A. E. 1954: Prehistoric petroglyphs of the Upper Yule River,
North-Western Australia. Anthropos, 19.

RECORDS or UNCOMMON SOUTHERN AUSTRALIAN MOLLUSCS
By BERNARD C. COTTON,

Curator or Mouuuscs, Sours Avsrratian Museum

Plates vi-vii

The following notes deal with records, localities and new information,
gathered over the last few years, concerning some lesser known Southern
Australian Molluscs. Two new genera are introduced.

Nautilus repertus Iredale
Plate vi (top)
Nautilus repertus Iredale, 1944; Australian Zoologist, 10, (3), 295-296,
text fig.

A. R. Riddle 1920 published a paper entitled “An Adventitious
Occurrence of Nautilus pompilius Linn, with a Short Bibliography on
Ocean Currents affecting the Australian Coast.” The Nautilus referred
to was taken by James Scott of Yorketown at Foul Bay, Southern Yorke
Peninsula, opposite what is locally known as the Old Mill. The animal
was nearly intact, only small portions having been removed by sea-birds
and it was not in an obvious state of decomposition.

This is the only record of Nautilus occurring in South Australia, not
even a fragment of shell has been seen on our coast, previous to or since
this record. Incidentally, no living Nautilus has been recorded from
anywhere on the Australian Coast, though many shell fragments of
Nautilus alumnus have been taken on the North Queensland Coast, and
that species is presumed to be living in quantity nearby.

Nautilus pompilius Linne, type locality Amboina, is plentiful in certain
places on the Indo-Pacific, such as the Philippines, the animals being used
as bait and the shells as drinking vessels and as a source of Mother-of-
Pearl ornaments by some Pacific Island natives. Quiggin mentions the
use of this species by the natives of New Britain who make “lillie”, a
creamy-white string of Nautilus pompilius discs used as shell money.

Riddle, in his summing up, dismissed any possibility of the Nautilus
having migrated from the West and concluded that “A migration, how-
ever, along the warm Notonectian current, which sweeps past the home

18 RECORDS OF THE 5.A, MUSEUM

of the species and then down the Eastern Coast of Australia, seems
more probable. ... By this medium the migrating Nautilus could well
arrive at a position East of Bass Strait and Tasmania, How it could
then travel westward against the easterly current from the Great Austra-
lian Bight must he considered.”

Iredale, p. 295 under his original description of Natlilus alumnus
from Queensland, writes, “There is a record of a living specimen from
Yorke's Peninsula, South Australia, A. R. Riddle 1920, which is not
acceptable." The incorrect identification of the South Australian shell
has thus, again, confused the issue concerning the authenticity of this
specimen.

There are strong reasons why the conclusions of Iredale and Riddle
are not correct. The shell concerned, which was accidentally broken
and repaired years ago, was presented recently to the South Australian
Museum by Mr. P. Scott. It is not the Indo-Pacific Naulilus pompilius
Linne nor is it the still smaller, differently patterned Queensland and
New South Wales species Nautilus alumnus.

The South Australian example is the large Navlilus reperlfus Iredale,
described from South Western Ausiralia. The specimen, D. 14518, is
a big one measuring 22.7 cm. x 17.6 major and minimum diameters 4s
recorded by Riddle, approximating to the measurement of the Holotype
from Rottnest, South Western Australia, examined by me in the Western
Australian Museum im 1949. A shell of a similar size was mentioned
in the Adelaide “Advertiser” on December 21st, following the present
author's note about Riddle’s specimen. This belongs to Mr. Willism
Heslop of Glenelg, S.A. who received it from Cottesloe, Western Australia,
One fram Bunbury and one from Albany in the South Australian Museum,
Verco collection, are typical. Verco 1935, p. 144 records a “Nautilus
pompilins (N. reperfus) in Captain Douglas’ collection, taken on the
beach at Esperance, in the Western Bight” approaching to within 900
miles of the South Australian locality and within the westerly drift.
Whitley took a specimen at Pelsart Island, Abrolhos with muscle scar
flesh attached. The South Australian record is the only Nautilus of
any species with the complete animal, known to have been taken off
the Australian coast.

From this known range of NV. repertus it may now be safely
presumed that a breeding ground exists off the Western Coast as
suggested by Iredale 1944, p. 294, but it is situated probably off the
South Western tip of the Continent.

This large species is characterized by the pale and reduced banding
which becomes obsolete on the pasterior half of the shell, There is no

COTTON—UNCOMMON AUSTRALIAN MOLLUSCS 119

perforation but 2 round brown colour patch covers the umbilical region.
All adventitious occurrences of strange species in Southern Australian

waters have been definitely identified as of Western Australian origin.

In other words the drift is from the West, and there is no drift from

the east through Bass Strait.

The following evidence confirms this contention. Weeding 1942, p. 2,
remarks, “It has been pointed out that a warm surface current from
the Indian Ocean flows along the track of the Southern Ocean cold
current and is about 400 miles wide and 250 fathoms deep. This is
said to be on the surface at Cape Leeuwin but 150 fathoms below at
Cape Northumberland", and the same author, speaking of varietal names
applied to Western Australian Chitons, Weeding 1942, p. 1, states “This
applies very definitely to those subspecific names introduced for Western
Australian variants, for the variations found in these species are found,
not only in Western Australia, but often in the bays of the Great
Australian Bight and again, to a still greater degree, in Spencer Gulf,
South Australia. The marine fauna of the Kastern Gulf Coast of that
Gulf shows a definite Western influence.”

Other examples of tropical types of Molluscs populating Western
South Australia from South Western Australia, among many, not reaching
Victoria, are the large Gastropods such as the Baler shell Melo miltanis
Gray, Dinassovica jourdant Kiener and Cellana laticostata, all confined
to the Flindersian Region, Cotton 1930, p. 219.

Argenauta nodosa Selander is common in South Australia but Argo-
naula argo Linne, the delicate, narrow Paper Nautilus of the Indian
Ocean and South Western Australia is extremely rare here. Of 500
Argonauts taken by George Pattison at Troubridge Shoal, S.A., 490 were
A. nodosa and only 10 were A. argo apparently drifted from South
Western Australia.

In 1909, Verco, after exploring St. Francis Island, wrote in his
manuscripts:—

“The following notes give evidence of Western drift in the Great
Australian Bight. The circumstances were related to me by Lloyd and
Arnold of St. Francis Island.

a. On the west side of Dog Island, lying near St. Francis Island to the
North of Petrel Bay, can be seen a large iron buoy which drifted
from its moorings in Albany, W.A. Captain Weir of the ‘Governor
Musgrave” tried to tow it off but it was too firmly embedded and
heavy.

b, A cargo boat belonging to the “Eclipse” in Esperance Bay, W.A., gat
adrift and was found by Lloyd beached in Smoky Bay.

120 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

c, A teak log with the British Government brand on it, and supposed
to have come from Burma was found by Lloyd stranded on the
south side of Goat Island.”

Verco concludes: “'The current is said to flow eastward from the
Leewwin some distance south of St. Francis Island and to cause an eddy
which comes up from the South East away to the East of St. Francis
Island in the summer time. In winter the stray north westerly winds
cause a current setting from the West in the Bight."

As Riddle 1920, p. 260 correctly remarks, in connection with the
unique Nautilus “Its position on the Western side of the Bay, however,
suggests a westerly drift.”

Charonia powelli sp. nov.
Plate vi (lower)

Shell large, fusiform, varices strongly formed and nodular, situated
at about every one and a quarter turns and undulating the suture and
giving a distorted appearance to the sculpture of spaced spiral heavily
nodular ribs, about five between the centre of the body whorl and the
angular shoulder formed by the most developed ridge. ‘The heavy ridges
have smooth, weak spiral riblets in the interstices. Colour bright yellowish
to nut brown, maculated with dark brown and white on the nodules. Spire
rather short and narrow. Aperture ovate, distinctly channelled above
and below, the anterior canal somewhat recurved. Outer lip a little
expanded, with teeth in groups of three, two, or single, light brown
coloured. Columella concave, inflexed towards the canal, three plaits
at the top, wrinkled anteriorly. Holotype, Height 167 mm., width 85 mm.
S.W.A., Ellenbrook, D. 14517.

Remarks. This rather rare shell living in the Flindersian region of
Southern Australia, has been recognised by collectors for many years
as a species, distinct from Charonia rubicunda Perry 1811 (Sepfa) of
New South Wales, though it has remained unnamed. Charonia powel!li
differs from the deeper water species Ciiaronia euclia Hedley 1914 in
being much more robust and having strong nodular sculpture, wider body
whorl and shorter spire.

It can, however, attain to quite a large size, one cited by Cotton,
1945, p. 258 being 210 mm. in height. The present species is quite distinct
from Charonia rubicunda Perry 1811, which inhabits the Hastern coast
of Australia and Charonia insfructa Tredale 1929 from deeper waters of
the same area.

The genus Charonia Gistel 1848, type species Murex tritonis Linne
1758 has as synonyms Trilonidea Lamarck 1807 not Muller 1776, Trifan

COTTON—UNCOMMON AUSTRALIAN MOLLUSCS 121

Montfort 1810 not Linne 1758 and Eutriton Cossmann 1904. Charonia
powelli is named after the well known New Zealand Conchologist, A. W. B.
Powell, Assistant Director of the Auckland Museum.

Notovoluta kreuslerae Angas

Voluta kreuslerae Angas, 1865; Proc. Zool. Soc., Lond., 55.

This rare Volute has been taken from craypots in Encounter Bay
and records from Investigator Strait, Middleton, Yankalilla, St. Francis
Island, Port Elliott, Capé Borda, 55 fathoms. Tunk Head 16 fathoms,
Backstairs Passage 22 fathoms, Newland Head 20 fathoms and Porpoise
Head 12 fathoms were mentioned by Cotton 1946, p. 16, where a few
details of the animal were given. Two from Newland Head in the collection
of Peter Wearne each measure 102 mm. in length and a third one collected
by him at Victor Harbour measures 83 mm, in length.

Cottonia dannevigi Verco

Scaphella dannevigi Verco, 1912; Trans. Roy. Soc., 8. Austr., 36, 225,
pl. 13, fig. 1-3.

The first specimen of this species taken in South Australia and the
only one in the Museum collection is a dilapidated broken shell D. 816
lacking the whole of the last whor!, dredged by Verco, 1896, off Newland
Head, 20 fathoms,

A large and good specimen is in the collection of Peter Wearne taken
by Cain Rumbelow, 1953 Encounter Bay, in craypot, 12 fathoms. This
second South Australian specimen is light yellowish-brown with the typical
white band around the upper middle of the body whorl, and measures
160 mm. in length.

A young example, 89 mm. in height, taken in a craypot at Corny Point
is in the J. Turnbull collection.

A further juvenile specimen measuring 89 mm. (3) inches in length)
with a portion of the protoconch present closely resembling that of
Mamillana mamilla was taken by Robert Hall in March 1954 off Seal
Rock, one mile South-East of Victor Harbour at 14 fathoms, from a cray-
pot. The typical white band is again present, An exceptionally good
example of Voluta eraptanda was taken in another craypot at the same
time, place and depth.

The holotype of this species was dredged by the “Endeavour" in
77-105 fathoms, 90 miles west Eucla, Western Australia, together with
eight further examples recorded by Verco (8) p, 226, Neither holotype of
Cypraca umbilicata armeniaca Verco, nor Scaphella dannevigt Verco are
in the South Australian Museum Collection. They were, according to Verco,

122 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSHUM

sent to the Australian Museum from his collection. On the back of a
tablet bearing cuttings from the plate of Nassaria torri in this publication,
Verco wrote, “The original of this shell is in the Federal Museum (in
charge of the Australian Museum, Sydney) sent there by Dr. Verco after
being described and figured in the Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr, 1912.”

Mamilla mamilla Gray
Voluta mamilla Gray, 1844; Sowerby’s Thes. Conch. 7, p. 207, pl. 50,
fig. 57-58.
A juvenile dead shell in bad condition, taken at the Murray Mouth
is the first record of this species from an exact locality in South Australia.

Umbilia hesitata armeniaca Verco

Cypraea umbilicata armeniaca Verco, 1912; Trans. Roy. Soc. 8.
Austr,, 36, p. 211, pl. 10, fig. 1-3.

Mr. C. F. Kurtze of Portland has handled 2,000 shells of this once
“rare” species, all trawled at 60-80 fathoms, Bass Strait near Cape
Everard, Victoria during the last two years.

These specimens are a little darker than New South Wales. examples.
Some 6% approximated to the Flindersian variant Umbilia hesitata
armeniaca in having the “apricot-yellow” base. About 5% are the
miniature Umbilia hesitata beddomei—previousiy only recorded from
New South Wales, but there are intermediate forms grading in size and
shape into typical Umbilia hesttata.

Altivasum flindersi Verco

Latirus aurartiacum Verco, 1895; Trans. Roy. Soc., S. Austr., 19,
89-90, pl. 2, fig. 1, 1a, not Montfort 1810,

Altivasum flindersi Verco, 1914; Trans. Roy. Soc.. S. Austr., 38, 484,

The holotype D. 12515, dredged in 183} fathoms Backstairs Passage,
ts an immature living individual.

Later, two further specimens were dredged by Verco off Newland
Head in 22 fathoms. The smaller living one measured 57 mm, in height
and the larger dead one 86 mm, in height. Cotton 1945, p. 13, recorded
a large specimen taken by W. Bowden at Cape Borda, 15 fathoms,
September 2, 1946, and now finds that the specimen, housed in Mrs. E. R.
Sims collection, measures 97 mm. in height. A still larger specimen taken
by Bowden at Cape Borda and in the same collection measures 127 mm.
in height. A shell in the collection of Mrs. L. A. Elliott, taken by her on
Middleton beach, measures 50 mm, in height. The best and biggest
specimen of all measuring 145 mm. in height, taken in a craypot at Corny
Point, is in the J. Turnbull collection. In the same collection I identified

COTTON—UNCOMMON AUSTRALIAN MOLLUSCS 123

a perfect example of a rare volute Iredalina auranlia Powell dredged in
New Zealand waters. There is only one living specimen recorded and all
others are dilapidated examples.

Xenophora flindersi Cotton & Godfrey

Onustus flindersi Cotton & Godfrey, 1938; Rec. 5S. Austr. Mus,,
6 (2) 205.

The holotype specimen D. 13615 came from St. Francis Island, 15-20
fathoms and measures 18 mm. in diameter.

Three smaller specimens taken with the holotype are also in the
Museum collection. Verceo, 1909, p. 270, first recorded these specimens
under the name of Xenophora tatei Harris 1897, a Miocene fossil from
Muddy Creek, measuring 44 mm. in major diameter and X. fatei like
many Tertiary fossils from Southern Australia, so closely resemble the
recent forms as to suggest that many now living are Miocene persistent
species.

Fortunately a series of six living specimens was dredged in January
1956 by David Howlett and Peter Wearne in the type locality. The largest
individual measures 47 mm. across. The recent shell is more delicate
and less strongly sculptured than the fossil which has, as Verco says, a
wider umbilicus.

Bothriembryon barretti Iredale

Bathriembryon barrefti Iredale, 1930; Vict. Naturalist, 47, p. 119,
fig. in text.

In the Malacological Society of Australia, Newsletter, Jan. 1957 gives
a most interesting record of this species found between Madura and
Balladonia on September 18th, 1956. The ground was strewn with white
eriphragms and some still adhered to the foot of the animal.

Strangesta gawleri Brazier

Helix (Zonites) gawleri Brazier, 1872; Proc, Zool. Soc., 618.

This native snail originally described from the Mount Lofty Ranges
was thought to be confined to the higher parts of that area, Mr. H. M.
Cooper took many specimens alive at Stony Creek, Wilmington, 1,200
feet above sea level on August 21, 1955 following a very wet winter when
water was accumulated in patches on the surface. He again took the
species on August’ 28th, 1955 at Mount Remarkable. Specimens of this
carnivorous snail placed in his garden at Glenelg are still alive a year later
when a very wet winter was again experienced.

Bothriembryon mastersi Cox
Bulimus mastersi Cox, 1867; Proc. Zool. Soc,, 39,

124 RECORDS OF THE 8.4, MUSEUM

The South Western Australian genus Bofhriembryon extends across
the Nullarbor plains represented by the species B. barrett? Iredale,

At Port Lincoln B. angasianus Pfeiffer is found, a peculiar colour
banded species and also B. mastersi. H, M. Cooper took B. mastersi m
quantity alive at Streaky Bay and I took it alive at Moonta Bay, on the
west coast of Yorke Peninsula and dead shells further south at Corny
Point. B. decresensis Cotton was described from Cape Cassini, Kangaroo
Island and represents the South Hastern limit of the genus. It has not
been recorded from the East coast of Yorke Peninsula.

Family Melanellidae

Melanella Bowdich 1882. Type species Melanella dufresnii Bowdich
= Melaniella P. Fischer 1887 = Eulima Risso 1826.

The distinguishing feature separating the Melanellidae from the
Styliferidae is the possession of an operculum by the former and the
lack of it by the latter: Following Laseron’s work a revised list of
Flindersian species is given here with certain genera tentatively allotted
to the family Styliferidae.

Euliamaustra Laseron 1955. Eulima prorima Sowerby.

augur Angas 1865. Eulima. 5.W.A., §.A. (type), Tas., Vict.

orthopleura Tate 1898. Eulima, 8.W.A., 8.A., Holdfast Bay (type,

D. 13463) Tas.

murrayae Cotton & Godfrey 1932. Eulima. S.W.A., 5.A., Gulf St.

Vincent, 10 fathoms (type, D. 10630),

planicincta Cotton & Godfrey 1932. Eulima. S.W.A., S.A., Gulf

St. Vincent, 10 fathoms (type, D. 10635),

edwardsi Cotton & Godfrey 1932. Eulima, S,W.A., S.A., Cape

Borda, 55 fathoms (type, D. 10634).

mayt Tate 1900. Eulima. S.W.A., 5.A., Tas., Swansea (type, D-.

13462), Vict.

tryont Tate & May 1900. Eulima. 5S.W.A., 5.A., Tas. (type), Vict.

inflata Tate & May 1900. Eulima, §.A., Tas. (type), Vict.

fenisoni Tryon 1886. Eulima. §.W.A., S.A., Tas. (type), Vict.
gradata Cotton & Godfrey 1932. Eulima. §.W.A., Ellenbrook (type,

D. 10634), S.A.

imamaculata Pritchard & Gatliff 1900. Stylifer. S.A., Vict. (type).

articulata Sowerby 1834. Eulima. §.A., Vict., N.S.W. (type).

reegerae Cotton & Godfrey 1932. Eulima. S.A., Cape Borda, 55

fathoms (type, D. 10629).

cunaeformis May 1915, FEuiima. S.A., Tas. (type).

australiensis Thiele 1930. Strombiformis, N.W.A., 5.W.A.

montebelleensis Iredale 1914. Eulima. N.W.A.

montageuana Iredale 1914. Eulima. N.W.A.

COTTON—UNCOMMON AUSTRALIAN MOLLUSCS 125

imodesta Thiele 1930. Melanella. N.W.A., S.W.A.
helena Thiele 1930. Melanella. N.W.A., S.W.A.
élsa Thiele 1930. Melanella, N.W.A., 8.W.A.

Chryseulima Laseron 1955 Slylifer brazieri Angas.
braziert Angas 1877. Stylifer. S.W.A., S.A,, Tas., Vict., N.S.W.
(type).
expansilabra May 1911. §.W.A., S.A., Tas. (type), Vict.
Laseron 1955, p. 87, in a valuable revision of these mostly parasitic
species, mentions that the shell figured by May, 1923, pl. 45, fig. 11
from Tasmania is not Eulima munita Hedley 1903 (Eulimoda). He
regarded it as possibly an undescribed species. It has been named,
however, by May himself as Eulima expunsilabra from Cape Pillar
100 fathoms. Cotypes of both species are in the South Australian
Museum collection and the difference between them had been pointed
out in 1932 by the present author when specimens were recorded
from Cape Jaffa, Beachport, Neptune Islands, at 104 to 300 fathoms.
Specimens have since been recognised from Hopetoun, King George
Sound and Port Phillip, Victoria, There seems to be no authentic
record of Kulimoda munitla from the Flindersian region though it
has been included in check lists.

Curveulima Laseron 1955. Curveulima cornuta Laseron.
commensalis Tate 1898, Eulima. S.W.A., 8.A., Holdfast Bay ( type,
D. 13461), Vict., N\S.W.
indiscreta Tate 1898. Eulima. §.W.A., 5.A., Holdfast Bay (type,
D. 14196).
triggi Cotton & Godfrey 1932. Melanella. S.W.A., 5,A., Cape
Jaffa, 90 fathoms (type, D, 10633).
petterdi Beddome 1882. Eulima, §8.W.A., S.A.; Tas. (type), Vict.
NS.W., Q.
edwardsi Cotton & Godfrey 1932. Melanella. S.W.A., S.A., Cape
Borda 55 fathoms (type, D. 10634).

Cuspeulima Laseron 1955, Leiostraca acutissima. Reeve.
acutissima Reeve 1886. Leiostraca. S,W.A., 5.A., Vict., N.S.W. (type) =
Leiostraca lesbia Angas 1871.
lodderae Hedley 1903. Leiostraca. §.A., Vict., Tas., N.S.W. (type) Q.=
Eulima vilrea Adams.
williamsi Cotton & Godfrey 1932. Strombiformis. $S.W.A,, S.A,
Cape Borda 55 fathoms (type, D. 1063).
broadbentae Cotton & Godfrey 1932. Slrombiformis. S.W.A., S.A,
Cape Borda 55 fathoms (type, D. 10636).
joshuana Gatliff & Gabriel 1910, Leiostraca. S.W.A., S.A., Tas.
Vict. (type).

126 RECORDS OF THE S.A- MUSEUM

biviitata H. & A. Adams 1853. Letostraca. 5S.W.A., §.A., Philippines,
Soo Loo Sea (type)=Eulima bilineata Adams & Reeve.

Fusceulima Laseron 1955. Fusceulima jacksonensis Laseron 1955.
briunnea Tate 1887. Stylifer. S.W.A., §.A., Vict. (type). Parasitic
on the periproct. of Stronglylocentrosus, a sea urchin.

Hebeulima Laseron 1955. Leiostraca inusta Hedley 1906.
perexiquus Tate & May 1900, Rissoa. S.A., Tas. (type), Vict.
fricata Hedley 1907. Eulima. S.A., Vict., N.S.W. (type).

Family Styliferidae
Stylimella Laseron 1955. Stylifer lodderae Petterd 1884.
lodderae Petterd 1884, Stylifer. S.A., Tas. (type), Viet., N.8.W-
petterdi Tate & May 1900. Stylifer. S.W.A., Cottesloe, 5.A., Tas.
(type), Vict., N.S.W.

Syntharella Laseron 1955. Eulima topaziaca Hedley 1908,
fopaziaca Hedley 1908. Eulima. 8.A., Tas., Vict., N.S.W. (type).

Stylapex: Iredale 1925. Stylapeax lactarius Iredale 1925.
laseroni sp. nov. Laseron 1955, p. 100, pointed out that the Tas-
roanian species figured in May, Illustr. Index Tasmanian Shells, pL 45,
fig, 24, No. 999 as Stylifer brazieri Angas 1877 is not that species
but an undescribed one. It is here named Stylapex laseroni sp, nov.
and May’s figure cited as Holotype.

Ilypermastus Pilsbry 1899. Hypermastus coat Pilsbry 1899.
mucronatis Reeve 1866. Eulima. S.W.A,, S.A., Tas., Vict,, N.S.W.
(type).
georgiiregis Cotton & Godfrey 1932. Eulima. 8.W.A., King George
Sound (type, D, 10631), 5.A.

Genus Granata nov.

Shell ear-shaped, spire small, aperture oblong, oblique, nacreous;
outer lip thin. Seulpture of close, equal, spiral, granular cords. Operculum
horny, multispiral. Animal resembling that of Tvovhus but without
lateral filaments, The general anatomy and radula is closely related to
that of Euchelus, but the animal is large and not capable of being
contained within the shell.

Type species: Stomatella imbricata Lamarck,

Remarks: It has been usual for authorities to take Gray’s designation
of Slomatella imbricala Lamarck as the type species of Sfomatella
Lamarck (Rafinesque) 1815, but Anton 1839 designated Stomatella
auricula Lamarck 1818, from Southern Australia as type species of
Stomatella. S. auricula is closely allied to Stomatella planulata Lamarck
1818, the type species of Gena Gray 1842, from the Indo-Pacific.

COTTON—UNCOMMON AUSTRALIAN MOLLUSCS. 127

It therefore becomes necessary to introduce the new genus Granata
for Siomatella imbricata. This genus is contained in the family
Trochidae, subfamily Margaritinae though it seems that the Granata,
Herpetopoma, Euchelus, Darilia, graup is somewhat different from the
typical Margarifes group.

The genera Stomatella, Gena, Stomatia, Pseudostamatella, Bro-
deripia, Roya, are quite distinct and belong to the Family Stomatiidae
sometimes placed as a subfamily Stomatiinae of the Trochidae.

Genus Notomella nov.

Enfomella Cotton, 1945; S. Austr. Naturalist, 23 (2), 14.

Type spectes: Emargittula candida Adams 1851.

The name Entomella is preoccupied by Cossmann 1888. This was
pointed out to me by Myra Keen of Stanford University who asked that
a substitute be supplied. The above name is to be incorporated in a
revision of the Fissurellidae by Grace Johnson in the Treatise on Inverte-
brate Paleontology, edited by Raymond C. Moore, printed by the Geologi-
cal Society of America, University of Kansas Press.

Equichiamys bifrons Lamarck

Chlamys bifrons Lamarck, 1819; An. 5. Vert., 6, 164.

Reference was made, Cotton 1954, p. 168 to the presence of this
edible ‘Queen Scallop” washed up on the beach, South of Outer Harbour.
An acre of this species lives off the South Bank of the Outer Harbour,
whence came examples recently donated to the Museum by Robert Hall.
The shells are encrusted with sponges and usually have clusters of the
Southern Sipper Limpet Zeacrypia immersa and an occasional Capilus
dustralis attached to the valves. They are fixed to the sea bed debris
at a depth of 10 to 20 feet below low tide and are immobile except in
the young stage. Similar beds occur off Stansbury, Normanville, Yanka-
lilla Bay, Backstairs Passage, Kangaroo Island at American River off
Point Marsden and in Coffin Bay. Dredging off Point Marsden, Verco 1935,
p. 64, wrote ‘Our dredge was thrown over in eightcen fathoms and
brought up living and dead scallops, and in this country we worked until
4.30 p.m., passing over many miles of water. This revealed how immense
must be the tracts thickly inhabited by these bivalves.”

The three species Nolovola alba, Equichlamys bifrons and Mimach-
lamys asperrimus were taken in quantity and Verco continues “As for
dead shells of these Scallops, they would have to be measured by the ton.”
Little investigation has so far been made as to the commercial possibilities
of these Scallops though the Scallop industry of 'Tasmania is next in size
to the Oyster industry.

124 RHCORDS OF THE S.A MUSEUM

Anadara trapezia Deshayes
Plate vii

Arca trapezia Deshayes, 1840; Mag. Zool., 21.

This dominant bivalve fossil of our Mid-Recent stranded beaches is
found in numbers around Murat Bay, Port Wakefield, Outer Harbcur,
Yorke Peninsula near Ardrossan, inside the stranded beach dunes to the
southwest of South Australia and at Port Augusta in quantity on the
surface and from bores sunk to test foundations for the new power house,

Although many specimens are found joined, having died in situ, a
quantity of valves also occur on the surface. A strange circumstance in
connection with the odd valves is that at several places where they have
been counted in a marked area, the percentage of left valves is about 60%
and the right 40% of the total taken.

Mr. H. M, Cooper, who has collected many hundreds of these shells,
meticulously counted those on an area at Port Augusta Power Station.
Of 282 specimens picked up only 112 were right valves. A similar
proportion of odd valves existed at Port Augusta West, Port Wakefield
and Streaky Bay.

Valves have been picked up on native camp sites such as at Moana,
Ardrossan, Port Wakefield and Port Augusta West, but their presence
on these sites suggest that they have been transported by the aborigines
for use as implements. One yalve has been found near Lake Torrens.

The extreme western point at which specimens have been taken alive
in Victoria is Port Phillip, according to paired shells with periostracum
attached sent to the South Australian Museum by Gatliff some forty years
ago. Another living series sent by Gabriel some time ago are from
Western Port.

Mr. Richard Plant of Cowes, Phillip Island, recently reported four
iarge colonies of Anadara trapezia living in shallow water in Western
Port Bay, near Churchill Island, Reid’s Bight (two) and Rhyll. While
kindly forwarding specimens he mentioned that they were found living
in mud in the vicinity of Kalelysia scalarina the cockle which is so
plentiful at the Outer Harbour, South Australia.

In the Malacological Club of Victoria, Newsletter, Vol. 4, No. 14,
June 30th, 1956, it is mentioned that a member, Robert Burns, had taken
eleven live specimens at Port Arlington, near Geelong. These localities
are considerably further south than the Mid-Recent beds of South
Australia and suggests that if the species were introduced to our State
and placed in suitable localities it may repopulate our waters.

Incidentally, there is a single valve with ligament intact in the
Museum collection taken many years ago by Walton and Matthews at
Levens, Yorke Peninsula. This is undoubtedly a fortuitous occurrence.

COTTON—UNCOMMON AUSTRALIAN MOLLUSCS 129

Ostres, sinuata Lamarck

Ostrea sinuata Lamarck, 1819; An. S. Vert., 6, 208.

Lamarck gave the locality “les mers de la Nouvelle Hollande”. This
is undoubtedly the South Ausiralian Port Lincoln cr so-called Mud Oyster
and Port Lincoln has since been designated as type locality.

The species is identical with Ostrea angasii Sowerby 1871 from New
South Wales where it is now extinct. During the last ten years there
has been a noticeable increase in the size of natural beds and in the
number of Port Lincoln oysters washed up on the local beaches. Off
the artificially cut outlet from the Torrens River Swamps ito the sea at
Henley Beach South a considerable number of oysters may be picked up
on the beach after heavy squalls which appear to have become more
frequent during the last ten years. Heavy beach scouring, first recorded
in 1949 off Broadway, Glenelg has again taken place this year during
June, July and August. During August of this year quantities of oysters
were taken attached to Pinna dolabraia and many such smooth attach-
ment areas. A smooth worn motor tyre was covered with half-grown
oysters and other smooth surfaced debris washed down through the
outlet was similarly covered. The Sea Gull; (Silver Gull) are keen
competitors with the human collectors.

Verco, in manuscripts, recorded many localities for this Oyster. S.A.,
Kangaroo Island, Eastern Cove, American River, Streaky Bay, Dredged
Beachport 110 fathoms, Eastern Cove 11 fathoms, St. Francis Island 20
fathoms, Black Point, Yorke Penmsula 5 fathoms, Gulf St. Vincent 7
fathoms, Backstairs Passage 20 fathoms, Investigator Strait 20 fathoms,
Ardrossan 8 fathoms, Cape Jaffa 180 iathoms, W.A. Albany, Hopetoun,
King George Sound, dredged Great Austrelian Bight 30 miles west of
Eucla 84-96 fathoms,

A large and old specimen measuring 170 mm. in diameter and 90
mm, in thickness across the {wo vaives has a label attached, reading:
“Mammoth Ovster, dredged in Duticn EBay, August 1912, Its age is
estimated at 15 years. Presented by Mr. W. G. Randall, Chief Inspector
of Oyster Fisheries." <A still larger but younger example is 175 mm.
(nearly 7 inches) in diameter and is labelled: “This oyster shell with
the living fish was detached irom a pile of the Port Victor Jetty. Mr.
W. G. Randall who presented it estimated the age at about 10 years.”

There are a number of further specimens in the collection closely
approaching these in size.
Saxostrea australis Lamarck
Ostrea austraiis Lamarck, 1819; An S, Vert., 6, 209.

130 RECORDS OF THE §.A4, MUSEUM

This species, originally described from King George Sound, Western
Australia was recorded by me living, from Coffins Bay and St. Francis
Island. Further evidence of this Rock Oyster living in South Australia
is now to hand. On August 11th, 1934 a well-known collector, Charles
A. Anderson of Kingscote wrote ‘We have two kinds of oysters here,
one is the Mud oyster and the other is a thin paper shelled one, in shape
like the Sydney Rock.’

Tate 1887 writes “The Sydney Rock Oyster (O. glomerata Gould)
so largely imported as food is not indigenous in our waters (S,A.) but it
has lately been introduced, so I have been informed, to the Port Lincoln
district’.

Verco, in his manuscripts, refers to odd occurrences of O, glomerata,
O. imbricata, O. mordax in various places in South Australia.

It is possible that these accounts refer to Saxostrea australis in
South Australia. The only authentic record of the introduction of the
Sydney Rock Oyster Ostrea commercialis seems to be that relating to
those brought in and cultivated for a few years at Osborne on the Port
Adelaide River by the Adelaide Oyster Company Limited, in 1934. The
project was abandoned,

REFERENCES
Cotton, B. C. 1930: Rec. S. Austr. Mus., 4 (2), 219-241.
Cotton, B. C. 1945: Trans: Roy. Soc., S. Austr., 69 (2) 249-262,
Cotton, B. C. 1946: South Australian Naturalist, 24 (1) 15-16, pl. 1,
fig. 1-4.
Cotton, B. C. 1954: Rec. S. Austr. Mus., 11 (2) 165-176, pl. 23, fig. 1-2.
Iredale, T. 1944: Australian Zoologist, 10 (2), 294-298.
Riddle, A. R. 1920; Trans. Roy. Soc., S. Austr., 44, 257-261.
Verco, J. C. 1909: Trans. Roy. Soc., S. Austr., 33, 270-276.
Verco, J. C. 1912: Trans. Roy, Soc., S. Austr., 36, 206-232.
Verco., J. C. 1935: Combing the Southern Seus, 1-174.
Weeding, B. J. 1942; South Australian Naturalist, 21 (4) 1-2.

A REVISION or tux FLOWER BUGS (HETEROPTERA ANTHO-
CORIDAE) or razr AUSTRALIAN ann ADJACENT PACIFIC REGIONS
—PART Il

By GORDON F. GROSS, M-Sz.,
Assistant Curator or Insecrs, Sout Avsrratian Museum

Fig. 1
Genus Poronotellus Kirkaldy, 1904
Poronotellus Kirkaldy, 1904: Entomologist, 37 (498), 280, Zimmermann,

1948; Insects of Hawaii 8, 179.

Poronotus Reuter, 1871: Ofv. Vet. Akad. Forh., 562. Champion, 1900.

Biol. Centr. Amer. Rhynch., 2, 33.

Buchananiella Reuter, 1885: Act. Soc. Sci. Fenn., 14, 114 & 126. (668

& 680).

Cardiastethus (in part) White, 1879: Ent. Mon. Mag., 16, 142.

Body oblong, pubescent, head longer than the width between the eyes.
Rostrum just reaching base of anterior coxae. Posterior margin of
pronotum deeply sinuate, lateral margins almost straight. The channel
of the scent gland reaching middle of pleurac, straight or directed
posteriad apically. Cana be easily distinguished from Cardiasfethus on
the shape of the scent canal and by the shorter rostrum.

This genus could not be included in Part II because at that stage it
was not clear how many species were involved in these regions. The position
is still not as clear as the author would like but it seems preferable to
consider that there are only two very variable species concerned, P. whitei
in Australia and New Zealand and P. sodalis in the Pacific Islands.

Poronotellus sodalis (White) 1878
Fig 1A
Cardiastethus sodalis White, 1878: A.M.N.H., (5) 1, 372.
Buchananiella sodalis Reuter, 1885: Act. Soc. Sci, Fenn., 14, 127 (681).
Poronotellus sodalis Zimmerman, 1948: Insects of Hawaii, 3, 179.

‘A reddish brown Cardiaslethus, clothed with pale hairs; eyes and
posterior lobe of the pronotum piceous; antennae, legs and elytra yellowish
brown; the apex of the clavus and especially the cuneus apically, brownish
fuscous; the apex of the second, the third and fourth segments of the
antennae, the head between the eyes and the membrane fuscous,
Length about 22 mm.

132 RECORDS OF THE 8.A, MUSHUL

(Translated from White's Latin description.)

‘Oblong, piceous ferruginous, with a low pallid pubescence; rostrum,
antennae, legs and the hemelytra yellowish testaceous, on the latter the
clayus towards the apex and the cunctis fuscous membrane infuscated,
veins fairly weak; rostrum only attaining the base of the anterior coxae;
the sides of the pronotum strongly narrowed towards the apex, straight
but very lightly curved just before the apex, the posterior part a little
impressed in the middle, the rims orificiorum of the metastethium shortly
curved backwards at the apex, the longitudinal lateral keel is almost
straight and fairly remote from the apex of the rima. Length 2%4 mm.

‘It is distinguishable from the following two species’ (i.e. corlinua
and wiiftei) ‘in that the sides of the pronotum are less distinctly curved
before the apex, the disc is cbsoletely impressed in the middle posteriorly,
the rostrum is somewhat shorter and the different structure ot the orifice
of the metaplenra. The body is oblong piceous ferrugineous, with a
very low pale pubescence. The head is piceous ferrugineous, as long as
wide (with the eves), as long in front of the eyes as an cye, trons (male)
a little wider than an eye. Rostrum pale yellowish testaceous reaching
cnly to base of the anterior coxac, second segment hardly surpassing the
tead. Antennae yellowish testaceous, second segment apically a little
rmore darkened, a little shorter than the width of the head with the eyes.
Pronotiim piceous ferrugineous, sbout twice as wide basally as the median
length, the apical annulus tentious but distinct, sides straight but lightly
curved a little in front of the apex, the lobe outside of the callus: fairly
narrow, the callus posteriorly and laterally demarcated by distinct
impressions, the posterior dise in the middle a little or hardly impressed,
flattish. Scutellim piceous ferrugineous, medially impressed. Hemelytra
‘estaceous, lightly shining, clavus towards the apex and the cuneus
tuscous. The embolium apically about half the width of the apex of
the corium, the inner suture becoming evanescent towards the apex but
there is a strongly impressed lonsitudinal line going right to the apex,
lateral margin straight; on the membrane the veins are very low. The
mexopleurae are densely and lightly transversely striate. Legs yellowish
tea:aceous, almost smooth.’ (Translated rom Reuter’s Latin descriptions
in hia “Monographia”.)

A series of specimens in the South Australian Museum collections
from Fiji are referable to this species which seems to be fairly widely
distributed in the Pacific. From them the following standard measure-
ments have been obtained:—

Head. Length, 260-390; length in front of eyes, 90-140; length behind

eyes, 50-100; length of eyes, 140-210; width across eyes, 310-400;

GROSS—REVISION OF FLOWER. BUGS 133

width of eyes, 90-210; interocular, T0-150; width of collum, 280-350.
Antennae. 1, 70-110; IT, 200-320; TIT, 140-200; IV, 160-260.
Rostrum. I, 70-110; I, 170-270; TI, 160-220.
Pronotum. Anterior width, 310-390; posterior width, 670-830; median
length, 220-330; lateral length, 350-480.
Seutellum. Anterior width, 410-540; median length, 290-430; lateral
length, 330-410.
Legs coxa femur tibia tarsi I wt Ot cl.
I 170-260 400-400 300-400 30-40 40-50 50-90 30
Ir 150-220 310-410 320-430 30-40 30-50 70-90 30
It 170-220 400-500 520-620 30-50 50-90 70-120 30-40
Total length, 1770-2190; total width, 670-870; length abdomen,
870-1,070; length male genitalia, 190-340; length female genitalia, 120-140,
Loc. Distributed widely over the Pacific Islands, the species was first
described from Hawaii. The specimens in the South Australian
Museum are all from Fiji; Viti Levu (A. M. Lea).

Poronotellus whitei (Reuter), 1885.
Fig. 1B
Buchananiella whitei Reuter, 1885: Act. Soc. Sci. Fenn 14, 127 & 129

(681 & 683),

‘Oblong, obscurely yeHowish testaceous, with low yellowish pubes-
cence, shining, hemelytra darker, cuneus infuscated, membrane smoky,
the basal angle interiorly and the base of the veins sordid yellow, the
latter all distinct, well elevated, antennae and legs pale yellowish, the
second segment of the antennae fairly broadly infuscated; rostrum
reaching the anterior coxae, the disc of the pronotum distinctly impressed
in the middle. Length (male) 2 mm.

Habitat. Tasmania, D. Schayr. (Berlin Museum).

Very similar and closely allied to B. confinua but differing somewhat
in. the slightly smaller size, and the more dilute colour. Body more darkly
yellowish testaceous or almost ferruginous, shining. Head as long as
the pronotum, length in front of eyes not much more than length of
an eye. Rostrum just attaining the anterior coxae, pale yellowish, first
segment blackish. Antennae pale yellow, first segment testaceous, the
second as long as the head between the eyes and the apex, the apical
2/5 blackish (last missing in the example), Pronotum apically 2/3
narrower than at the base, apical annulus very distinct, callus fairly
elevated, posterior dise more obsoletely punctate, basally deeply sinuate,
lateral margins completely straight; all more obscurely yellowish testa-
ceous or almost ferruginous. Scutellum almost ferruginous. Hemelytra

134 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Pig. 1. A. Poronotellusa sodalia (White); mole genitalis. B. Porontelits whitet (Reuter); male genitalia
C. QOplobates woodwardi sp. nov,: female, fore femur and tibia. D. Lasielliden glaberrime
Reuter; male genitalia. F. Scolojoscelis poralleluae (Motsch): male genitalia.

darkish yellow, testaceous, almost flat with a fairly dense low pubescence,
the exterior margin and the exterior puncture more deeply coloured to
the apex of the corium; membrane smoky, veins basally and the inner
angle paler, all the veins very distinct but more obsolete apically, the
common areola of the two inner veins a little shorter than the basal
space of the membranal suture between the base of the third vein and
the internal angle of the membrane. Sternum and abdomen ferruginous,
mesosternum laterally punctulate, ventrally and apical margin of the
segments more or less blackish. Legs completely pale yellow, fairly
smooth.’

(Translated from Reuter’s Latin description in his ‘“Monographia,’’)

All the Australian specimens of this genus and the two New Zealand
ones available to me for study seem to belong to this species. From them
the following standard measurements have been obtained.

GROSS—REVISION OF FLOWER BUGS 135

Head. Length 380-500; length in front of eyes, 120-170; length behind
eyes, 50-120; length of eyes, 170-220; width across eyes, 350-430;
width of eyes, 120-170; interocular, 90-150; width of collum, 280-380.

Antennae. I, 80-120; I, 270-400; TIT, 160-210; IV, 190-260.

Rostrum, I, 70-140; I, 180-290; I, 160-210.

Pronotum. Anterior width, 290-400; posterior width, 710-930; median
length, 260-350; lateral length, 410-530.

Scutellum. Anterior width, 380-620; median length, 360-500; lateral
length, 360-510.

Legs coxa femur tibia tarsil i i el,
I 190-300 380-500 350-480 30-70 30-70 90-120 30-50

sal 170-240 360-480 400-500 34 50-70 90-120 30
buat 170-260 48C-570 580-590 30-70 70-100 100-170 30-50

Total length, 2,040-2,760; total width, 760-1,050; length abdomen,
900-1,550; length male genitalia, 190-290; length female genitalia, 90-210.
Loc. New South Wales: Bondi near Sydney (K. K. Spence, 1 specimen),

Mittagong (A. M. Lea, 2 specimens). Hornsby (C. Gibbons, 2 speci-

mens), Gosford (2 specimens); Queensland: Cairns district (A. M.

Lea, 12 specimens, one of which was attracted to light), Somerset

{C. T. McNamara, 1 specimen), Mt. Tambourine (A. M. Lea, 1

specimen), 15 mi. W. of Bowen (on Casuarina crisiata = lepidaph-

loea) 24th September, 1950, (EH. F. Riek, 1 spccimen); Victoria:

Wahringa (June 1936, 1 specimen), Grantville (6 specimens); Tas-

mania: Launceston (A. M. Lea, 1 specimen); Lord Howe Island

(A, M, Lea, 12 specimens); New Zealand: Liitle Barrier Island,

Hauraki Gulf (11 December, 1952, T. E. Woodward, 1 specimen) ;

Otaki River south of Levin, Wellington Frovince (30 November 1951,

T, KE. Woodward).

The species is extremely variable both in the standard measurements
where some very large ranges are recorded and in the colours noted,
On the measurements no consistent graup could be detailed, a specimen
having a very high or low reading on one measurement would lie very
near the average in most others, or a series of specimens all.from the
same restrictive locality (e.g. Lord Howe Islund) eften give the same
extreme range as I have quoted for the wiuc'e species.

Because of this and the great varie’ of colour variants one is
tempted to suggest that the species is in process of breaking up into
a series of subspecies and that as yet definite groups have not appeared.

Another noteworthy feature about the species is that out of about
40 examples studied, only four were males.

136 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Material belonging to genera and species dealt with in parts I and II
of the present series but examined subsequently.

Subfamily ANTHOCORINAE
Orius australis (China), 1926

Orius australis (China), synon. Gross, 1954: Rec, S. Austr. Mus., 11 (2),
136-7.

A new series of females have been measured since this species was
mentioned in Part I and the consequent extensions to the range of the
standard data are:—

Head. Total length, 320-380; length in front of eyes, 80-140; length
behind eyes, 50-70; length of eyes, 160-180; width of head across
eyes, 380-410; width of eyes, 90-120; interocular, 140-190; width of
collum, 310-400.

Antennae. I, 70-100; I, 200-220; III, 150-190; IV, 160-220.

Rostrum, J, 70-90; Il, 240-270; It, 155-160.

Pronotum, Anterior width, 330-420; posterior width, 690-810; median
length, 270-350; lateral length, 400-450.

Scutellum. Anterior width, 530-560; median length, 350-410; lateral
length, 400-460.

Legs coxa femur tibia tarsi I 0 UI el.

I 270 350-390 350-360 40 70 =©7%0-S0 40-50
oy 220-230 350-390 340-360 30-40 50-70 80-90 40
Ti 220-260 430-480 520-600 50 80-90 80-90 40

Total length, 1,980-2,250; total width, 690-880; length abdomen,
960-1,290; length ovipositor, 380-570,

Habitat. Queensland: the measured specimens are from a. large series of
Specimens from Carnarvon Gorge, 29 May, 1954; St. Lucia, 30 May,
1951; Tibrogargan Creek, 4 September, 1953; Toorbul Point, 11
August, 1952; and Gratton (by sweeping), 4 March, 1954, all collected
by T. HE. Woodward, University of Queensland.

Orius armatus Gross, 1954
Orius armatus Gross, 1954: Rec. 8. Austr. Mus., 11 (2), 137-8,

One more specimen, unfortunately lacking the abdomen, has been
measured and the alterations to the previously quoted ranges of the
standard data are:—

Head. Length behind eyes, 50-90; length of eyes, 140-190: width of head

across eyes, 360-400; interocular, 180-160; width of collum, 300-360.
Antennae. I, 200-230; If, 170-190.

Rostrum, I, 180-220; TIT, 150-170.

GROSS—REVISION OF FLOWER BUGS 137

Pronotum. Anterior width, 330-400; median length, 270-290; lateral length,
360-400.
Scutellum, Anterior width, 480-530.
Legs coxa femur tibia tarsi l I im cl.
I 120-210 330-380 310-360 40 70 70 30
sat 170-180 330-360 320-360 40-50 60-90 70 30
m 200-210 420-470 480-520 40 50-90 90 30
The specimen is from Queensland: Carnarvon Gorge, 29 May, 1954.
T, E. Woodward. Woodward Collection.
Anthacoris arctatus (Walker, 1872: Cat. Hem. Het., 5, 153) is
actuaily an Oxycorenus (Lygaeidae) according to distant 1904
(A.M.N.H,, (7) 14, 22).

Subfamily LYCTOCORINAE
Genus Falda Gross, 1954

Falda (Gross), 1954; Rec. S. Austr. Mus., 11 (2), 139) definitely is
not an Anthocorid but belongs rather to the very closely allied Prostem-
minae, usually considered as a subfamily of the Nabidae. Carayon 1950
(Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat., (2) 22 (1), 95-101) has emphasised afresh the
very close relationships of the Nabidae, particularly the Prostemminae,
to the Cimicoid group of families. In appearance some of the smaller
species are exceptionally like Anthocorids and it was this very close
resemblance that led the author to first place this species as an Anthocorid,
His attention was drawn to its true position by Dr. Carayon.

It is probab!y synonomous with Alloeorhynchus Fieber and F.
queenslandica may in fact be A. flavolimbatus Kirkaldy, 1907 (Proc,
Linn, Soc. N.S.W., 32, 781) although Kirkaldy’s description is not suffi-
ciently good to determine this.

Oplobates woodwardi sp. nov.
Fig. 1C

Elongate, shining, piceous. Rostrum would surpass somewhat the
base of the head (if complete). Eyes fairly prominent with a long hair
in front on each side, Collum well defined. Pronotum fairly rectangular
but anterior angles not well marked, collar distinct but tenuous. Sides
of pronotum with very fine ciliations and with a long hair at each
posterior angle and one behind each apical angle. Fore and hind margins
concave,

Hemelytra surpassing somewhat the apex of the abdomen which is
equipped with some long hairs. A well developed ovipositor present.. Fore
femora slightly enlarged with six large teeth (30 u) fairly centrally
placed on the inner margin, Fore tibiae slightly curved.

138 RECORDS OF THE 8.4. MUSEUM

The standard measurements from the one female are:—

Head. Total length, 570; length in front of eyes, 210; length behind eyes,
90; length of eyes, 240-260; width across eyes, 480; width of eyes,
140; interocular, 220; width of collum, 360.

Anfennae. I, 140; TI, 500; rest missing.

Rostrum. I, 140; Il, 400; last. segment missing.

Pronotum. Anterior width, 380; posterior width, 770; median length, 330;
lateral length, 500.

Scutellum, Anterior width, 600; median length, 470; lateral length, 380.

Legs coxa femur tibia tarsi I I sael el.
I 410 550 550 —_ — — —
II — 520 520 30 70 120 os
raee — 620 810 — — — —

Tota] length, 2,930; width across abdomen, 950; length abdomen, 1,030;
length ovipositor, 550.

This species is easily distinguished from O. femoralis Reuther by its
smaller size, more slender build, and longer more centrally situated teeth
on the femora.

Loc. Queensland: Brisbane (T. E. Woodward, 1954, Holotype, Female,

Reg. No. I 20,085) in the Department of Entomology, University of

Queensland.

Lasiochilus derricki Gross, 1954
Lasiochilus derricki Gross, 1954: Rec. S. Austr. Mus., 11 (2), 143-5.
Two more specimens of these species have become available to the
author for measurement since the original description. These measure-
ments extend somewhat the ranges quoted for the standard data as
derived from the holotype and the allotype. These new ranges are:—
Head. Total length, 430-500; length behind eyes, 70-20; interocular,
210-260.
Antennae. I, 120-170; If, 330-400; T1, 350-580; IV, 406-450,
Rostrum. 1, 220-260; 01, 600-690; UT, 350-400.
Pronotum. Anterior width. 430-460; median lensth, 560-400; lateral length,
480-520.
Seutellum. Anterior width, 500-520; median length, 380-450; lateral
length, 420-470.
Legs coxa femur tibia tarsi I I int el.
I 310-830 520-580 550-640 30-50 90-100 140-150 50
aa 220-280 520-620 550-590 50 90-100 §=140 60-70
I 240-260 690-760 790-830 50-70 90-120 140-170 70
Total length, 2,760-3,480; width, 1,090-1,330; length female genitalia,
720-800.

GROSS—REVISION OF FLOWER BUGS 139

The two measured specimens are from “leaf mould in rain forest,
Blackbut, South East Queensland, 10 September, 1954, T. E, Woodward.”
In the Department of Entomology, University of Queensland.

Lasiochilus vitiensis Gross, 1954
Lasiochilus vitiensis Gross, 1954: Rec. §. Austr. Mus., 11 (2), 148.
Another female of this species is now available for measurement
and the following extensions to the previously quoted ranges are now
noted.
Head, Length in front of eyes, 140-170; width collum. 330-330.
Antennae. II, 260-280.
Rostrum, I, 90-100; I, 220-260.
Pronotum. Posterior width, 740-810; lateral length, 430-480.
Scutellam. Anterior width, 570-620; median length, 330-400; lateral
length, 430-480,

Legs coxa femur tibia tarsi I It i cl.
I 260-330 450-480 360-450 Same
at 240-260 480-470 430-520 Same
1 260-310 570-600 670-710 Same

Total length, 2,410-2,690; width, 950-1,000; length ovipositor, 450-530.
Loc. The additional specimen is also from Fiji; Taveuni (May, A. M. Lea).

Subfamily DUFOURIELLINAE
Lasiellidea glaberrima Reuter, 1895
Fig 1D
Lasiellidea glaberrima Reuter, 1895: Ent. Mon, Maz., 31, 172. Gross,

1954: Rec. S. Austr. Mus., 11 (2), 153.

A male specimen referu.kl: to this species is now available for study.
From it the following standard measurements have been obtained.
Head. Total length, 590; leazth in front of eyes, 190; length behind eyes,

100; length of eyes, 240; width across eyes, 430; width of eyes,

120-140; interocular, 190; width of coilum, 350,

Antennae. Missing,
Rostrum. I, 170; Il, 350; I, 260.
Pronotum. Anterior width, 350; posterior width, 740; median length, 360;

lateral length, 470.

Scutellum. Anterior width, 550; median length, 400; lateral length,

430-450.

Legs coxa femur tibia tarsi I i i cl.

I and II Missing

Ti 220-280 640-650 760-770 30 90 140 —

140 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Total length, 2,950; total width, 770; length abdomen, 1,280; length
male genitalia, 290.
Loc. Queensland; St. Lucia, Brisbane (30 June 1951, T. E. Woodward).

Scoloposcelis parallelus (Motsch.), 1863
Fig. IE
Anthecoris parallelus Motschulsky, 1863: Bull. Soc. Mose., 36 (3), 89.
Scoloposcelis parallelus auctt.: syn: Gross, 1954: Rec. S. Austr. Mus., 11

(2) 155.

Two more complete specimens are now in the South Australian
Museum, both are from Rossel Island, Papua, H. K. Bartlett. One of these
is a male and the genitalia are now figured for comparison with those of
other genera.

Cardiastethus aridimpressus Gross, 1955
Cardiastethus aridimpresius Gross, 1955: Rec. S, Austr. Mus., 11 (4),
412-413.
There is a misprint on page 412 in the standard data given for this
species. The measurements for antennal segment I are of course 90-100,
not as quoted 900-1,000.

Cardiastethus lincolnensis Gross, 1955
Cardiastethus lincolnensis Gross, 1955: Rec. S. Austr. Mus., 11 (4), 413.
Another specimen collected by Lea from the holctype locality has
since become available to the author and the measurements derived from
this specimen extend somewhat several of the ranges quoted in the
standard data for the species as derived from only four specimens. The
new ranges are:—
Rostrum. I, 90-170.
Pronotum. Anterior width, 400-520.
Scutellum. Anterior width, 520-490.
Legs. Femur I, 480-520; femur III, 630-690; tibia IIl; 670-740; tarsus
TH, I, 30-50; tarsus TT, 0, 80-90; tarsus TI, OT, 100-120.
Total length, 2,070-3,190.
Measured specimen from Pt. Lincoln, South Australia. A. M. Lea
(Reg. No. I. 20,084) in the South Australian Museum.

REFERENCES

Carayon, J., 1950: Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat.. 2 (22), 1, 95-101.
Champion, G. C., 1900: Biol. Centr. Amer, Rhynch,, 2, 306-335.
China, W. E. and Myers, J. G., 1929: A. M. N. H., 10 (3), 97-125,
China, W. E., 1926: Bull, Ent. Res,, E7 (1), 361-362.

China, W. E., 1933: A.M.N.H., 10 (11), 514-518.

GROSS—REVISION OF FLOWER BUGS 141

Condon, H. T., 1954: S. Aust. Ornith., 21, 17-27 and 41-44.

Cookson, I., 1953a: Aust. J. Bot., 1 (1), 64.

Cookson, I., 1953b: Aust. J. Bot., 1 (3), 462-472.

Cookson, I., 1954: Aust. J. Bot., 2 (1), 52-58.

Cookson, I. and Pike, K. M., 1953a: Aust. J, Bot. 1 (1), 71-82.

Cookson, I. and Pike, K. M., 1953b: Aust. J. Bot. 1 (3), 474-482,

Cookson, I. and Pike, K. M., 1954: Aust. J. Bot., 2 (1), 66-68.

Crocker, R. L, and Wood, J. G., 1947: Trans, Roy. Soc. 8. Aust., 71, 91-136.

Distant, W. L., 1904: A.M.N.H., 7 (14), 220-222.

Distant, W. L., 1906: Fauna British India (Rhynchota}, 3, 4-8 (London.)

Distant, W. L., 1910: Fauna. British India (Rhynchota), 5, 295-309
(London).

Dufour, L., 1831: Ann, Soc. Ent. Franea, 2, 104-107,

Fabricus, J., 1794: Ent. Syst., 4, 75.

Fallen, C. F., 1814: Spec. Nova. Hemipt. Disp. Meth., 9.

Fieber, F. X., 1860: Wien. ent. Monats., 4, 270.

Fieber, F. X., 1864; Wien. ent. Monats., 7, 61,

Hahn, C. W., 1835: Wanz. Ins., No. 3, 19-20.

Gross, G. F., 1954: Rec, S. Aust, Mus., 11 (2), 129-164.

Gross, G. F., 1955: Rec. S. Aust, Mus., 11 (4), 409-422.

Kirkaldy, G. W., 1902: In David Sharp’s Fauna Hawaliensis, 127 (Cam-
bridge).

Kirkaldy, G. W., 1904: Entomologist, 37 (498), 280.

Kirkaldy, G. W., 1907: Proc. Linn. Soc, N.S.W., 32, 781.

Kirkaldy, G. W., 1908: Proc, Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 33, 374-375.

Lethierry, L., and Severin, G., 1896: Cat. Gen. Hem., 3, 237-252 (Brussels).

Motschulsky, 1863; Bull Soc. Most, 36 (3), 89.

Poppius, B., 1909: Act. Soc. Sci. Fenn., 37 (9), 1-43.

Poppius, B., 1910: Wien. ent, Zeit., 29, 140,

Puton, A., 1886: Cat. Hem. Faune Pal., 43 (3rd Hdition:.

Reuter, E., 1871: Oefv. Vei. Akad. Forh.; 562.

Reuter, E., 1875: Bihang till 8.V.A.K. Handh., 3 (1), 65.

Reuter, B., 1885: Act. Soc. Sci. Fenn., 14, 555-756 (1-201).

Reuter, E., 1895: Ent. Mon. Mag., 31, 170-172.

Spencer, B., 1896: Rept. Horn Scient. Exped. to Central Australia, 1,
196-199.

Tate, R., 1889: Aust, Ass. Adv. Sci., 1, 312-325.

Tate, R., 1890: Handbook of the Flora of Extratropical South Australia.
(Adelaide).

Tindale, N. B.; 1947a: Rec. S. Aust. Mus., 8 (4), 616-617.

Tindale, N. B., 1947b: Loc. cit,, 619-652.

Tindale, N. B., 1949: Loe. cit., 9 (2), 143-154.

142 RECORDS OF THE 8.A. MUSEUM

Tindale, N. B., 1952: Trans. Roy Soc. S. Aust., 75, 25-29.

Usinger, R. L., 1946: Bernice P. Bishop Mus. Bull, 189, 55.

Van Duzee, E. P., 1917: Cat. Hem. Nth. Mexico, 287-297 (Berkely, Cali-
fornia). Issued as Univ. of Cal. Pubs. Bulls., Coll. Agr., Agric., Expt.
Stn., Entomology, 2.

Walker, F., 1872: Cat. Het., 5, 148-161.

White, F. B., 1877: A.M.N.H., 4 (20), 111.

White, F. B., 1878: A.M.N.H., 5 (1), 372.

White, F. B., 1878: Ent. Mon. Mag., 15, 159.

White, F. B., 1879: Ent. Mon. Mag., 16, 142-148.

Wolff, J. P., 1811: Icon. Cim., 5.

Zimmerman, E., 1948: Insects of Hawaii, 3, 169-179 (Honolulu).

PALAEOCRANGON, A PERMIAN ISOPOD CRUSTACEAN
By M. F. GLAESSNER,

Universrry or Apznaipn, Sovrn AvsTRALIA

Fig. 1

Recent work on the Isopod suborder Phreatoicoidea (Nicholls 1943-44)
which dates back to the lacustrine Triassic of Australia (Chilton 1918)
has made it possible to review the position of a hitherto doubtful Permian
fossil from England and Germany, Palaeocrangon prablematicus
(Schlotheim) (Fig. 1a). Bate considered it first as an Isopod (in Kirkby
1857, where the genus was re-named Prosoponiscus, without justification),
and later as an Amphipod (Bate 1859), an interpretation in which von
Ammon (1882) and others concurred. Geinitz (1863) questioned Bate’s

a ¢ sy b

a

10 mm. 20 mm.

RR

Fig. 1. tre f igeecrangens preblematicus (Scblotheim), Recoustruction from figures given by Rate, 1849,
pl. fe

h—Protamnphixoyus wwiunanattensis (Chilton). Reconstruction, from Nicholls, 1943, fig, 264,
wh rie ot the appendages omitted and hboundarivs hetween abdeninal segments 1-b shown by
olled lines,

reconstruction and later van Straelen (1931) listed the fossil as “incertae
sedis”. Pulaeocrangon has a head with a peculiarly curved trontal profile,
projecting lateral lobes (eyes?), and strongly developed but incompletely
preserved mandibles. There are seven thoracic segments, followed by an
abdomen consisting of two very large segments. The terminal segment
ends in a slightly upturned point. Uropods are visible on its sides. The
body is laterally compressed, with a median ridge on the head and
abdomen.

In Bate’s reconstruction four abdominal somites and a telson are

added which make the fossil appear like an Amphipod but Geinitz and.
in fact Bate himself figured what are obviously the basal portions of the

144 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

uropods on the sides of the second abdominal somite. This observation, in
conjunction with the fact that only the two abdominal segments have
been found, in identical relative position in all known specimens, makes it
clear that the first segment represents the fused abdominal segments 1-5.
A drawing of the only known fossil Phreatoicoid (fig. 1b) in which the
sutures between these somites are omitted, demonstrates the striking
resemblance between Palaeocranyon and the Phreatoicoids. Fusion of
abdominal somites does net occur in recent Phreatoicoids but it is known
in the suborders Flabellifera and Valvifera, It is not a primitive character
and for this reason Palaeocrarigon must be excluded from the Phreatoi-
coidea and placed between therm and the higher suborders of the Isopods,
According to Nicholls (1943-4) ‘the closest relationship (of the Phreatoi-
coidea) within the Isopcds would appear to be with the Circlanidae rather
than with the Asellota. To non-Isopcedan groups, the Amphisopidae seem
nearest akin to the Apseudidae (Tanaidacea), and since these laiter are
presumably representative of a more primitive stock cf the Peracarida,
with possible relationships to the Amphipoda, the resemblance of the
Phreatoicids to the Amphipodan type may be indicative of parallelism
in evolution in forms derived from a commion Stock rather than, as Chilton
has maintained, merely a superficial resemblance due to convergent
evolution”.

The occurrence of the primitive Palceocrangen with pronounced
Phreatocoid affinities in the Permian is in good agveement with these
views.

In a supplementary note to his paper, Nicholls (1944, p. 155-6)
expresses the opinion that Acarholelson forms a link between the
Syncarida and the Phreatogicoidea and that the family Acanthoielsonidae
might even be included in this suborder. This is particularly interesting
in connection with Calman’s stutement (1933) on possible relations of
the Syncarida, through the Acanthoiclsonidas, with Anfhinecocaris which
has characters that could be expected to occur in the ancestors of the
Tanaidacea.

Tt is likely that the Orders Tanaidacea, Isopoda (through Palaeo-
erangor and the early Phreatoicoidea) and possibly also Amphipoda (of
which no definite pre-Tertiary fossi! representatives are known) are
related to early Anaspidacea by way of the Acanthotelsonidae,

REFERENCES

Ammon, L. vy. 1882: Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis der fossilen Asseln,
Stimingsber Bayer. Akad. Wiss., 12, 507-551, pl. 1-4,

Bate, C. Spence 1859: On the fossil Crustacean found in the Magnesian

GLAESSNER—A PERMIAN PALAEOCRANGON 145

Limestone of Durham by Mr. J. Kirkby and on a new species of
Amphipod, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 15, 137-140, pl. 6, fig. 1-7.

Calman, W. T. 1933: On Anthracocaris scotica Peach, a fossil Crustacean
from the lower Carboniferous. Ann. Mag. Hist., ser. 10, 11, 562-565,
fig.

Chilton, C. 1918: A fossil isopod belonging to the fresh water genus
Phreatoicus. J. Proc, Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 51, 365-388.

Geinitz, H. B. 1863: Beitrage zur Kenntnis der organischen Ueherreste in
der Dyas (oder permischen Formation zum Theil und uber den Namen
Dyas. N. Jahrb. f. Min., Geol., Pal., 385-388, pl. 3, fig. 1-5.

Kirkby, J. 1857: On some Permian fossils from Durham. Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soe., 18, 214-216, pl. 7, fig. 1-7.

Nichols, G. E. 1943-44: The Phreatoicoidea. Papers and Proc. Roy. Soe.
Tasmania, (for 1942), 1-145, (for 1943) 1-157, figs.

van Straelen, V. 1931: Crustacea Eumalacostraca (Crustaceis decapodis
exclusis). Foss. Catalogus, I, pt, 48.

‘: ee
RECORDS
OF THE
SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM
Vol. XIII, No. 2
Published by The Museum Board, and edited by the Museum Director

Adelaide, 15th August, 1958 tf
Printed in Australia by W. L. HAWES, Government Printer, Adelaide
Registered in Australia for transmission by post as a periodical Fs
3

ABORIGINAL CAVE PAINTINGS AT SLEISBECK, NORTHERN
AUSTRALIA

BY CHARLES P. MOUNTFORD,
HONORARY ASSOCIATE IN ETHNOLOGY, SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM

Summary

This paper records aboriginal cave paintings adjacent to the Sleisbeck uranium mining field. This
field is situated on the western edge of the Arnhem Land plateau near the headwaters of the
Katherine River (text fig. 1).

ABORIGINAL CAVE PAINTINGS AT SLEISBECK,
NORTHERN AUSTRALIA

By GHARLES P. MOUNTFORD, Honorary Associate IN
Branovocy, Sours Avstraniay Mustum

Plates viii to xv and text fig. 1

INTRODUCTION

This paper records aboriginal cave paintings adjacent to the
Sleisbeck uranium mining field. This field is situated on the western
edge of the Arnhem Land plateau near the headwaters of the Katherine
River (text fig. 1),

The eave paintings of western Arnhem Land, particularly those at
Oenpelli, early attracted the attention of investigators. Spencer, who
saw (hose paintings in 1912, mentioned them briefly in his book (1914,
p. 482). In his next book (Spencer, 1928), he illustrated several groups
of the eave paintings at the same locality (fig. 038-40, pp. 823-4).
Except for two photographs by W. R. Pennifold, published by Tindale
(1928 pl. i, pp. 35-6), no other illustrated records were made of these

paintings until the publication of a survey of the cave paintings at
Unbalanja Hill, Oenpelli and those of the adjacent localities of Cannon
Hill, Inagurdurwil and Obiri (Mountford, 1956, pl. 34-48, fig, 11-55,
pp. 109-181).

he Oenpelli art area is one of the most interesting in Arnhem
Land, if not in Australia. Although there are a number of specialized
forms in the area (Mountford, 1956, pp. 256-264), two forms p redomin-
ate:—(a) a polychrome ‘‘X-ray art’? in which the aboriginal not only
paints what he sees of the external form of the creature, but also what
he knows to be there, but cannot see, i.e., the heart, lungs, intestines,
and skeleton (Mountford, 1956, pl. 39F is typical) ; (b) a monochromatic
art, which shows man in action—running, fighting or throwing spears.
These latter paintings, always in red, and usually in single line, are
supposed, by the aborigines, to be the work of a fairy-like people, called
the Mimi, who still live in the rocky plateau (Mountford, 1956, fig.
144A, C, p. 112).

The writer has seen many thousands of paintings in and around
Oenpelli, and knows of, but has not been able to investigate, other

A

148 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

groups north of Oenpelli, i.¢., at Coopers Creek, Tor Rock and Nim-
bawah (text fig. 1). It seemed reasonable to suppose, therefore, that
there would be groups of cave paintings along the face of the Arnhem
Land plateau to the south of Oenpelli.

Whilst the writer was in charge of the 1954 National Geographic
expedition, at Melville Island, Dr. George Sleis, a geologist attached
to the Northern Australian Uranium Company, sent a message inform-
ing me that he had found eave paintings near the Sleisbeeck uranium
field. Through the kindness of Mr. T. Becker, the field manager for

@Nimbawah
@Ocnpelli

atherine Gorge

10 20 30 40 50 60 70
[a a ee ee ee |

Fig. 1. Map showing location of Sleisbeck.

Sleisbeck, I was able, on my return to Darwin, to visit the locality and
examine the paintings found by Dr. Sleis.

MOUNTFORD—ABORIGINAL CAVE PAINTINGS 149

There were two groups; site 1, about five miles in an easterly

‘ . 1 * = . * ’ . ’ . * *

direction and site 2, within a mile of the mining settlement, The
paintings at the latter site are few and badly eroded.

At site 1 (pl. viii, A) in one of the residuals of the plateau, a deep
horizontal cleft, a, provided an excellent camping place for the abori-
gines during the monsoon season. In their leisure time the aborigines
had painted a large number of designs on both the ceiling and walls of
that shelter. On some parts of the ceiling, as illustrated on pl. viii, B,
uch overpainting has made it diffenlt to differentiate some of the
designs from others. In other places, where the paintings were more
widely spaced, they tended to appear in groups.

The Inajority of the designs are painted in white, sometimes
outlined in red, although there are a few in solid red; no designs m
yellow or black were seen. This unequal distribution is due probably
to a seareity of the yellow and black pigments.

Unfortunately there were no aborigines in the locality at the time
ol the visit to the paintings. There is little doubt, however, that had
some of the older aborigines been present they would not only have
been able to explain the meanings of some of the paintings, but possibly
to have related some of the associated myths.

Techniques of recording—As at Oenpelli (Mountford, 1956, p.
178), the writer used the camera exclusively for recording, photo-
graphing in both monochrome and colour, On his return to the
southern States, he first enlarged the photographs, then made tracings
from them, From these tracings, Miss Patricia Catcheside prepared
the accompanying illnstrations,

Description or THE PaintTIncs
Plate ix

A is a dancing figure which appears to be wearing a feather
head-dress,

At Cis a woman with a claw-like hand. The right side of her body
18 over-painted by an emu, outlined in white. There appears a goanna
on the right and another emu on the lower left of the main figure.

D is a sea-going crocodile (white, outlined in red), painted in a
simple form of ‘X-ray art.’? The tail is turned sideways to show the
serrated crest,

150 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

A eat-fish at E is the best example of ‘‘ X-ray art’’ in the Sleisbeck
eroup, Underneath the main figure is a simple representation of
another fish.

F, G, H and K are curious human figures in positions suggestive
of dancing.

At J are two human figures. The one on the left, a male, has
distended elbow joints which are similar to figures of men and women
depicted on some of the cave and bark paintings at Oenpelli (Mount-
ford, 1956, pl. 51, C and F). These curious ‘‘joint marks’’ have a
wide distribution throughout Oceania (Schuster, 1951). On the right
of the group is a painting of a woman whose limbs are dissociated
from her body. In Australian primitive art, this characteristic 1s not
nnusual, Mountford (1937a, fig. 2), illustrates an aboriginal erayon
drawing from eastern Western Australia in which parts of the body
are dissociated, Boaz (1955, Part 3), also refers to many similar
examples in the art of the Indians of the Pacific Coast of North America,
The legs and arms at J are in the same position as the ‘‘hoeker’?
figures in the Oenpelli area (Mountford, 1956, figs. 29 and 43),

H is an ‘‘X-ray’’ painting of a kangaroo in which the heart and
lings only are indicated. On the right and lower left are small human
figures; on the lower right is a male ‘hocker’’ figure,

Plate x

A, an unidentified snake, partly covers a badly eroded human
fieure, The lower part of the snake is painted in simple ‘X-ray art.’’

B and C are paintings of the long-necked {reshwater tortoise.

D is a goanna, a large reptile which the aborigines value as food.

K almost certainly represents a eat-fish, although the fleshy fenta-
eles at the mouth are not indicated,

Group F consists of an unidentified fish and a headless kangaroo,

G@ is some kangaroo-like creature, while J is a bird; H and N are
unidentified.

At K, the group consists of a squatting man, a fish and possibly a
kangaroo.

L, a thick-tailed lizard, is probably one of the larger skinks, and at
M is a line of nine fish, painted along a narrow ledge of rock.

MOUNTFORD—ABORIGINAL CAVE PAINTINGS 15]

Plate xi

On this plate are several groups of distorted figures whose positions
are suggestive of dancing,

At A is depieted an attractive group of three human beings in
white, outlined in red; two of them are women.

B, a dancing woman with an elongated body, has a bar across her
face (perhaps some form of head-dress), and her breasts, pubes ancl
knees decorated with lines and dots of red paint. C is a woman with
long arms, short body and a curiously shaped head, D is another long-
bodied woman of a type common at both Sleisbeck and at Oenpelli.
Those previously recorded by Mountford (1956, fig. 18J and 32C), are
typieal of the Oenpelli area.

I is a curiously distorted human being with twisted arms and legs.

The hollow-hodied woman at F is similar to those recorded by
Monntford (1938, fig. 36), from Napier-Broome Bay, Western Aus-
tralia, and from the Oenpelli area (1956, fig. 21 and 28A).

G, K, Land N show male figures with much enlarged sex organs,
The limbs of L are in the form of a ‘‘hoeker’’ while those of M have
swollen elbow joints, similar to the ‘‘joint marks’? mentioned earlier.

The dancing woman at H, although somewhat eroded, indicates
considerable movement.

J,amale figure, about ten fect in length, is wearing a head-dress.
The figure has been painted on the lower edge of a projecting horizontal
ledve of rock.

The painting at M is the only example observed at Sleisheck that
bears a slight resemblance to the running figures, either in the Oenpelli
area (Mountford, 1956, fig. 12, 13, 31, 44, and 47), or those in the area
of Napier-Broome Bay, in Western Anstralia (Mountford, 1987, fig. 2).

Plate xii

This plate illustrates an unusual group of human figures, most of
which are painted in white and outlined in red. The man, whose head
has disappeared through erosion, was several feet long. To the upper
right of the man is a long-bodied woman and, at his feet, are two
other well-executed long-bodied women and an unidentified bird. To the
left, opposite the lower group of women is a design in white which
probably represents a man wearing some form of head-dress; on the
extreme left is an imperfect representation of some animal, perhaps
an echidna.

152 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Plate xiii

This plate illustrates some of the animals, birds and reptiles
at site 1.

A is one of the larger wading birds. The artist has drawn the
head inward so that the painting fits into the available space.

B, painted in red, and outlined with white, depicts one of the
wallaby-like creatures. Above the wallaby are two drawings, in red, of
human footprints.

A good example of a fish, painted in ‘‘X-ray art,’’ is shown at C.
This fish is, most probably, the freshwater skip-jack (see Oenpelli
painting, Mountford, 1956, pl. 79A, for comparison). The fish covers
the feet of a rare black wallaby (Osphranter bernardus), identified by
the brush on its tail (Mountford, 1956, pl. 73B, p. 244).

D is a simple ‘‘X-ray’’ painting of a snake, and E, painted on an
exposed vertical face of rock, illustrates an attractive, but somewhat
eroded group of three kangaroo-like creatures. The smallest creature,
on the right, has spines on its tail similar to the painting illustrated
at F. This creature, with spines projecting from its mouth, legs, body
and tail possibly illustrates one of the mythical beings, such as the
Nadubi in the Oenpelli area. When one of the Nadubi observes an
aboriginal travelling by himself, it kills the man by projecting into his
body one of its many spines (see Mountford, 1956, pl. 58B, p. 203).

G, painted in red lines, and L and J, painted in white, are unidenti-
fied kangaroo-like creatures.

The group shown at K were the only paintings at site 2 that could
be photographed successfully. They represent three long-necked fregh-
water tortoises.

Plate xiv

All the figures illustrated on this plate (except H, which is in red),
were painted with white pigments.

At A is a distorted figure, a series of dots, and a small wallaby.
The figures at B, a female and possibly a male, have their legs turned
backwards towards the shoulders in the same manner as the much-
feared Mamandi spirit people of the Oenpelli area (Mountford, pl.
d8B, fig. 29, 45D, p. 197). The woman is holding a spear in her hand.

C is also a distorted man or woman similar to that shown on pl.
xi, C. On the right is an eroded painting of a human figure.

MOUNTFORD-—ABORIGINAL CAVE PAINTINGS 153

A curious painting of a human figure without a body is shown at
D. The legs and one arm originate at the shoulders; the other arm,
with two hands, starts at the head of the figure. The elbow joints are
enlarged in a similar manner to those of the painting depicted on pl.
xi, N. The designs on either side cannot be identified.

At Bare two men, or women, with hands upraised as if taking part
in a dance. The figure on the right is wearing a head-dress.

The group at F can be seen on the lower left of plate xv. On the
upper left of this group are two ‘‘hocker”’ figures; on the upper right,
is a man with a much enlarged penis and, on the lower left, are
two long-bodied figures with hands interlocked. There are also two
unidentified birds on the lower left. Gand J show two human figures in
a squatting position, the lower left figure having an enlarged penis.
The woman at K, with her limbs in the form of a ‘‘hocker,’’ is wearing
a head-dress.

Plate xv

This complex group, situated on the ceiling of the shelter, is
somewhat separated from the majority of the paintings. Although at
first sight the group appeared to illustrate some mythical story, a
closer examination revealed that considerable overpainting had been
carried out at different periods.

There are arm ornaments hanging from the elbows and upper
right arm of the central figure, A, and decorations at its knees”
and around its head.

At B, C and M are paintings of fish, C being most likely the skip-
jack (see also pl. xiii, C).

D may be either a lizard or a badly drawn man, while on the
right, at HE, is a group of long-bodied men and women.

A man, F, partly obscured by the main figure, is holding in his
hand an object, L, which resembles the goose-wing fan, called norkun,
which the Oenpelli people often depict in their paintings (Mountford,
1956, fig. 47B, 52B, and 53).

At J is a long-bodied man in a sitting position; G and H, the
figures on the lower left, have already been described in association
with plate xiv.

(1) The aborigines of South Australia perform certain ceremonies with bundles of leaves
tied to their knees (Angas, 1847, pl. 5, No. 4).

154 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

DISCUSSION

An examination of the cave paintings indicates that the art of
Arnhem Land changes rapidly from north to south.

In the Oenpelli area, the ‘‘X-ray’’ paintings of creatures and men
are particularly numerous, both in the caves and on the bark paintings.
Although this ‘X-ray art’? is common in the bark paintings of Goul-
burn Island, about sixty miles to the north of Oenpelli (Mountford,
1937), the designs are much simpler and not by any means as numerous
at Sleisbeck, less than a hundred miles south of Oenpelli (text fig. 1).
Further south, the representational art of Arnhem Land is soon
absorbed by the abstract, conventionalized art of Central Australia.
At Sleisheek, with the possible exception of pl. xi, M, there is an
absence of the single-line Minit rumning figures, so characteristie of
some phases of the cave art of Oenpelli,

On the other hand, the long-bodied and distorted figures, dominat-
ing the cave paintings of Sleisbeck, form but a small proportion of
the designs in the eaves at Oenpell. The writer has examined photo-
graphs of similar long-bodied human forms painted on the walls of the
Katherine gorge, about sixty miles south of Sleisbeck (text fig. 1).

Two other interesting figures with a wide distribution in Oceania,
z.e., the ‘hoeker’’ figures and those with ‘‘joimt marks’’ (distended
joints), appear to he present in equal proportions at both Sleisbeek
and Oenpelli.

SUMMARY

This paper records cave paintings on the headwaters of the
Katherine River, and adjacent to the Sleisheek uraninm field in the
Northern Territory of Australia, The paintings are illustrated and
their resemblances to those at Oenpelli and other Australian localities
are discussed.

REFERENCES
Angas, G. F. 1847: South Australia Illustrated.
Boaz, Franz. 1955: Primitive Art.

Mountford, C. P. 1937: Examples of Aboriginal Art from Napier-
Broome Bay and Parry Harbour, Trans. Roy, Soc, 5, Aust., 61.

Mountford, C. P. 1987a: Aboriginal Crayon Drawings from the War-
burton Ranges of Western Australia. Ree. S, Aust. Mus., 6.

MOUNTFORD—ABORIGINAL CAVE PAINTINGS 155

Mountford, C. P. 1939: Aboriginal Decorative Art from Arnhem
Land. Trans. Roy. Soc. 8S. Aust., 63.

Mountford, C. P. 1956: The Art, Myth and Symbolism or Arnhem
Land. Records of the Australian-American Expedition to Arnhem
Land, 1.

Schuster, C. 1951: Joint Marks, a Possible Index of Cultural Contact
between America, Oceania, and the Far East. Royal Tropical
Institute. Amsterdam Communication, No. 44. Department of
Cultural and Physical Anthropology, No. 39.

Spencer, W. B. 1914: Native Tribes of the Northern Territory.

Spencer, W. B. 1928: Wanderings in Wild Australia, 2 vols,

Tindale, N. B. 1928: Native rock shelters at Oenpelli, Van Diemen
Gulf, North Australia. South Austr. Naturalist 9 (2).

Rie, SJA. bese Vou, NOTE Pauare VIII

rh.

Chive Pritings gt Sleisheek A, Site: Ts, painted ceilings of bey,

Ha fee patie Lats

NUEEE, Pian IN

Vor.

Hie, SOAS Massey

Iti, SOA. Abbie Vi NUEL Pwr NS

se sebsite.

wee nts ae Mine 2, Sleishect,

Iie S.A. Misia Vow NEIL, Viave NU

Hein SAL Ma stra Vow NEEL, Piste NU

iN QPF Se i
aT oped Ml
LL) PP a)

SST Sy)

Cove Pooaetie ae Sites lod ot) Rleieherd

Rie. SoA, Meshon Vou NUE Puark NIV

Rec. ScA. Meseem Vou NETL, Phare XV

Cave Patitings at Site 1, Sleisheel

REVISION OF THE GHOST MOTHS
(LEPIDOPTERA HOMONEURA, FAMILY HEPIALIDAE)
PART VII

BY NORMAN B. TINDALE, B.SC., SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM

Summary

Part VI of this revision was published in these Records, vol. XI, no. 4, 1955, pp. 307-344. The
various genera of the family Hepialidae are being revised as opportunities offer; it is intended when
the series is complete to discuss their mutual relationships.

REVISION OF THE GHOST MOTHS (LEPIDOPTERA
HOMONEURA, FAMILY HEPIALIDAE)

PART VII

By NORMAN B. TINDALE, B.Sc., Sourm Ausrratian Museum
Plates xvi-xxili and text fig, 1-35

INTRODUCTION

Part VI of this revision was published in these Records, vol. XI,
no. 4, 1955, pp. 307-344, The various genera of the family Hepialidae
are being revised as opportunities offer; it is intended when the series
is complete to discuss their mutual relationships,

Genus Endoclita

In Part IV of this Revision (Tindale 1941, v. VII, pp. 18-39) the
Indian members of this genus were discussed. To these are now added
those species whose ranges extend to Indonesia, South-East Asia and
the islands off the coast of Hast Asia as far north as Japan. Twenty-
nine species are discussed, of which fifteen are described and figured as
new.

It may be of interest to note that few members of the genus
Endoclita seem to live east of Wallace’s Line, where the genus Oenetus
tends to replace it. FE. sibelae Roepke 1935, the only reported species,
which may be an exception, is from Batjan. It has not been examined.
In general the species are relict ones and those of adjoining areas,
though clearly related, have, from long isolation, become genetically so
far sundered as to represent distinct species. Even forms seemingly
very close in general appearance may be separated readily on examina-
tion of genital structures and wing venation, ete.

Little is known about their life histories. Of most of the species
only a relatively few examples ever have been taken, and most of
these have been captured only as a result of casual encounter, rather
than after systematic search for them, Even the bringing together,
on loan, of much of the available new material has yielded only meagre
series upon which to base the study.

158 RECORDS OF THE $,A. MUSEUM

The status of the genus Endoclita has been discussed earher aud
there is little to add, Iv some of the Hast Asian species the curious
local expansion of the costa of fore-wing in the region of Se, is at a
maximum; élsewhere it has been suggested that this character cannot
be used with any satisfaction to give separation of those possessing it,
with full generic rank. The valid name Hypophassus is available for
nse by anyone who may see fit to employ it as a subgeneric tag.

Study of Fast Asian species suggests that some small variations
occur in the positions of the eross veins. Thus in the fore-wings of
F. hosei im vein appears just beyond the fork of M, and My, instead of
before it as in the genotype, while similar variations occur also in the
hindwinws of this and other species. There is also variation in the
number of vannal veins in the hindwing, especially in females. In
this sex there is a tendency for the development of two strong veins
after Cu, with occasional traces of a short third one near base of wing.
These veins are probably respectively PCu, 1V and 2V. In other
species only one such vein extends to the margin of the wing. In such
species it seems generally to be that PCu is lost or developed only near
the base of the wing and 1¥V is the strong vein extending to the margin
while 2V may be redueed to a short stub near the hase.

There is alsa some variation in the dimensions of the posterior
legs, which in general tend to be reduced in size and to possess a
specialized plume of hairs on the tibiae, In some species these hairs
are found to be concealed in a fold of the integument of the thorax, in
others the plume is large and in all available specimens is found fully
displayed. Because of the poor condition of most of the specimens
which are taken it is not always clear whether the difference hetween
concealed and displayed male plumes is a real phenomenon or whether
it is due merely to accidents of preservation, However the varying
degree of rednetion in the size of the posterior leg is of significance,

The genus is notable, in some species, for the enlarged eyes of the
male and oceasionally of the female. In this character they resemble
members of the Australian and New Guinea genus Qenetus in which
there also occurs every degree of enlargement of the male eyes. In
that genus however it seems to reach a Maximum.

The tendency to have enlarged eyes is not the only link between
these two genera and it may be correct to say that Oenetus and.
Endoclita may be rather closely related with a tendeney to replace each
other east and west of Weber's or of Wallace’s Line. Both genera

TINDALE—REVISION OF GHOST MOTHS 159

belong to that section of the family in which the larvae have a timber-
boring habit and live principally in relatively wet, forested country,
with a high, and year round rainfall. In general they are very vulner-
able to periods of aridity. Some species extend to the temperate zone,
as in Northern Japan and Tibet, but their true home seems to be in the
wet tropies where their habitats appear to range from sea level near
mountain ranges to altitudes of at least 6,500ft,

In the females of some species the anterior gonapophyses of the
genitalia appear to be in some measure different on the two sides of
the body, The condition is not unique in the family, for in some South
American species the genitalia are so completely asymmetrical that it
is hard to reconcile the two sides.

In this genus earlier authors were often confused by the similari-
ties of wing marking in the species. They tended to pick out examples
possessing the same general wing patterns, as species and later workers
have tended to accept these wing pattern assemblages as apecies,
Only through the study of characters of the genitalia has it beeu found
that the several forms often found standing together in collections
under one name label can be sorted out as discrete species. There
sometimes has been uncertainty surrounding the identification of the
one which should be linked with the original name and description,
lence in the preparations for the present Revision most of the type
specimens of the earlier described species have had to be sought out
and re-examined, Only in the ease of H. avnae perhaps does some
doubt remain as to the species intended to be described.

The Indian species of the genus were keyed in the earlier part of
this revision. The following key, based almost entirely on the genitalia,
gives only the Hast Asian forms dealt with in this paper. It is of
necessity incomplete because the opposite sexes of some species are
still nnkown.

KEY TO THE BAST ASIAN AND INDONESIAN SPECIES
OF ENDOCLITA (based principally on the genitalia)

Mates
1. Tegumen of genitalia with a posterior, ventrally
directed sping .. .. -- 6+ e- ee ee ee ee ee ee marginenotatus
Teeumen of genitalia without a posterior, ven-
trally directed spine .. ©. 6. 6. ey ee ee ee ee 2

160 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

2. Tegumen in lateral view with ventral margin
unarmed . Serpe a
Tegumen in ‘lateral view with. ventral ‘margin
armed . , 6p Sg latat maha date ae
3. Margins of see not widely apart at pos-
terior extremity . :
Margins of tecumen widely apart ‘at ‘posterior
extremity 8404 Sion eka oe be he

4. Tegumen with more than ie longitudinal keels
Tegumen with only two longitudinal keels

Posterior margin of 8th sternite with distinctly
anvulate iiédias notch .. .

Posterior margin of 8th sternite without dis.
tinetly angulate median notch ..

4

6. Posterior aa of tegumen not touching pos-

teriorly .
Posterior margins of tegumen touching poster-
iorly .. -
7. Teguminal margin curved .. rue (he's
Teguminal margin straight .... 2... .. 2...

8. Teguminal margin forming an S curve .. .. ..
Teguminal margin not forming an §S curve

”

Sternite 8 strongly transverse ..
Sternite 8 nearly as long as wide ..

10. Ventral lips of tegumen slenderly chitinized . .

Ventral lips of tegumen stoutly chitinized .

11. Margins of tegumina parallel in posterior half
(anterior half concealed) .

Margins of tegumina diverging from anterior
to posterior extremity (anterior half not con-
@Galbd). sy. fr £3 5-8. $5. 2 nce ace aie whl eS oct ok

12. Spines on tegumen serially arranged ..

Spines on tegumen not serially arranged ..

13. Spines on tegumen in a double group ..
Spines on tegumen in a single group .. ..
14, Serial spines confined to anterior half of tegu-

PUTT 06 Fo Se Re he opie ee on do
Serial spines along most of margin ..

_

5
paraja.
javaensis

6
7

EXCVESECENS

sinensis

8
11

camphorae
9

10
aikasama
sericeus
aurifer

broma

salvazt
14.

13
aroura
raapt

tosa
15

15,

16.

17.

TINDALE—REVISION OF GHOST MOTHS

Posterior half of tegumen strongly dilated .
Posterior half of tegumen not dilated .

Highth sternite with hind margin not notched
Kighth sternite with hind margin notched . .

Tegumen in lateral view with anterior spine ..
Tegumen in lateral view without anterior spine

Males either unknown or not keyed :—

annae, sibelae, dirschi, niphonica, williamsi,

kosemponis, wereja, hosei, kara.

Femaues

1.

6.

Posterior margin of 7th sternite convex

Posterior mare of 7th sternite in some meas-
ULE CONCAVE .. we ee ee ee ee

Highth sternite ‘Sonmet than wide yal ue Notd ot. su lat

Kighth sternite as wide as or wider than ‘Jong

Anterior gonapophyses broad and not pointed
Anterior gonapophyses narrow and pointed ..
Seventh sternite more than one half as long as
wide .. f
Seventh sternite Jess than c one
wide . aes
Ventral. portion of Sth sternite sidt wide nt
anterior margin .. . .
Ventral porupe of 8th sternite wide at anterior
margin... ......-. : rai8
Highth sternite with posterior half dilated.
Highth sternite with posterior half not dilated

half as long as

se ee ee . . * 8 +

oe

. Anterior gonapophysial plate with spine at pos-

tero-median angle .. .
Anterior gonapophysial plate ‘without spine at
postero-median angle .. step Wpa
Anterior gonapophyses as large flat plates at
Anterior gonapophyses as small irregular plates

Posterior gonapophyses dilated at posterior
extremity ....

Posterior gonapophyses not dilated at posterior
extremity .. ....

aurata

16

17
crenilimbata

niger
davidt

2

4
aroura
3

sericwus
aurata

5)
9
6

7

topeza
davidi

kosemponis

8

camphorae
eXCTESCENS

10

13

161

warawita, tara,

162 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

10. Ventral eminence of 8th sternite much on

than wide ...... warawita
Ventral eminence of. 8th satnite: abouts as wide
as long .. .. ...... 11

11. Posterior senandphysés sthennated doaterioviy williamst
Posterior Sida aachis broadened poster-

far tur §.y) 8a Poole the te ase ats
12. Sides of th sternite paKatiates vtete ae ae te Era
Sides of 7th sternite conver arging towards
anterior margin .. .. .. 6... 2.0.2. -. 4. hoset
13. Anterior gonapophyses longer tian aia .... kara
Anterior gonapophyses wider than long ...... iereja

Females either unknown or not keyed :—

marginenotatus, paraja, javaensis, sinensis, aikasama, aurifer,
broma, salvazi, raapi, tosa, mger, crenilimbata, annae, sibelae,
dirschi, niphonica.

Endoclita marginenotatus (Leech)

This species was referred to and figured in the earlier part of my
revision (1941, p. 22 and fig. 15); there is nothing fresh to add; it is
keyed herein so that all the known Chinese species are mentioned.

Endoclita paraja sp. nov.
Plate xvi, fig. 1 and text fig. 1

Male: Antennae threadlike, short; head with eyes only moderately
large, head, thorax, abdomen, except base, fuscous brown, legs and base
of abdomen paler; posterior legs of moderate size, with large tibial
plume of orange-yellow hairs. Forewing straight to Se., then strongly
excavate before tip, apex faleate, termen and inner margin somewhat
sinuate; im vein touching M forks at both ends, wing colour chocolate-
brown with paler, somewhat iridescent transverse bands in anal and
terminal areas and a triangular patch at about one-half length of
cell; a cluster of three small black-rimmed silvery-white spots around
junction of rm vein with M, and another set of three at basal M fork,
two other tiny spots half way between rm vein and termen; a notable
dark patch at point of obsolescence of Cu., also traces of dark marks
along costa. Hindwings with costal margin slightly eoneave, apex
subfaleate, termen angled, im vein as in forewing; vannal region with
PCu obsolete except at base, 1V and 2V both present, the latter a short

TINDALE—REVISION OF GHOST MOTHS 163

1

Fig, 1-3. 1, Endoctita parujo Tindale, Borneo (7), male genitalia, veniral
aspect, 2. Hadoclita exercacens (Butler), Japan (Loomis), male genitalin,
ventral aspect. 3. Female, Mt. Takao, genitalia, ventral aspect.

vein: tip of wing coloured as in forewing, with a single black-rimmed
silvery spot just below R. near tip; rest of wing an iridescent purplish-
blue iu many angles of light, gray in others; the termen somewhat less
iridescent, vannal region and base clothed in grayish-brown hairs.
Wines beneath with traces of dark-brown spots along costa, otherwise
dull iridescent purple, or grayish-brown, depending upon angle of view.
Wing length 40 mm., expanse 85 inm.

Loc. Unknown (?Borneo) a male in Tring Collection at British
Museum.

The only known example was found among Tring Museum dupli-
eates with deficient locality data, but is believed to have come from
Bornev,

The male genitalia (fig. 1) have the 8th sternite transverse with a
median large noteh and two smaller side notehes on the posterior
margin. The tegumen is large, in lateral view it shows rather an
evenly cnrved silhouette with smooth margin; in ventral view the two
teguminal plates are carried close together in the midline and show side
ridgea, one of which terminates anteriorly in a strong process; the
harpes, so far as they may be seen, are simple, with a brush of forwardly
directed hairs.

B

164 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

In the form of the genitalia this species bears some distant relation-
ship to #. gavaensis but that species has a far more delicately formed
tegumen, without lateral keels and strong antero-lateral processes.

The species is characterized by the presence of the most brilliant
purplish-blue, almost violet flush yet seen on the hindwings of any
member of the genus. <A similar example in the British Museum,
which I have not been able to study in detail, may belong to the same
species, It is labelled as from Borneo, and this may well confirm the
place of origin of the specimen deseribed above. It is similar to
FE, tosa of Java in its wing patterns but the genitalia show a double
ridged tegumen instead of the simple one of that species; the hind
margin of the 8th sternite shows three notches instead of one,

Endoclita javaensis Viette

LEendoclita javaensis Viette 1950, Bull, Inst. roy, des Se. nat. de Belgiqne,
26 (41) p. 1; fig. 1 (genitalia),

Loe. Wast Java: Nongkodjadjar, Tengger, 1 Dec, 19383 4,000ft.
(type, a male, unique, expanse 77 mm., in coll. Institute royal des
Sciences naturelles de Belgique, I.G. 10.706).

This species has not been examined.

There is stated to be a costal swelling on the forewing; and the
male genitalia, as figured, have the tegumen furnished with two
anteriorly directed blunt processes and a ventral keel which presents a
simple outline. So far as may be judged by the description and figure
this species is nearest to 2, paraja, which differs in having large antero-
lateral processes on the tegumen and a very robust ventral keel.

Endoclita excrescens (Butler)
Plate xvi, fig. 2 and text fig, 2-3
Hepialus excrescens Butler 1877, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist, xx, p. 482
(female, not a male); Butler 1878, Tl. Lep. Het. B.M. ii, p. 20, pl. 27,
f. 7.
Phassus aemulus Butler 1877, Ann, Mag, Nat. Hist. xx, p. 482 (male);
Butler 1878, Ill. Lep, Het. B.M. ti, p, 20, pl. 27, f. 8.
Tepialus excrescens Leech, 1888, Proce. Zool, Soc. Lond., p. 645.
Hepialus excrescens Staudinger, 1892, Romanoff, Mem. Lep. (8), p. 289.
Phassus heret Pfitaner, 1912, Seitz Macrolep. ii, p. 488, pl. 54a (nec.
Fixsen).

TINDALE—REVISION OF GHOST MOTHS 165

Phassus excrescens Pfitzner and Gaede 1933, Seitz Macrolep. x, p. 842.

Male. Antemae thread-like, tapering, of abont 22 segments, pale-
brown; eyes normal; head rough-haired; head, thorax and abdomen
above pale brown, bases of antennae, sides of thorax, and lee's a richer
orange-brown; posterior legs not reduced; a large tibial tnft of bright
orange hairs present. Forewings with costal margin rather straight,
ascarcely noticeable elevation in region of Se, ; termen and inner margin
forming a single even curve; im vein touching forks at both ends;
wing colour warm brown with pale erayish-fawn marking and bands,
many outlined narrowly in black. Hindwings with costa sinuate and
narrowly bordered with colour and markings of forewing; rest of wing
dull gray with only slight traces of a bronzy lustre when viewed from
special angles; inner area with only Cu, and oue vannal vein present, as
in the genotype, Wing length 34 mm., expanse 74 mm-

Female, Similar to male in colour aud markings. Posterior legs
slightly reduced in size but without specialized plumes on tibiae, Fore-
wings with im vein shortly before fork of M, and M,. Hindwing with
Cu, Peu, 1V and 2V veing all well developed and extending to margin,
Wing length 42 mm., expanse 90 mim.

Loc. Japan: Yokohama (type, a female, collected by Jones,
expanse 69min, and a male, same details, expanse 76mm., described as
type of aemulus, in British Museum), Yokohama, 25 Sept., 5 Oct. and
9 Oct, 1910; and Oiwake (Berlin Miuseum); Sugita, 11 Oct. 1889 and
Kagoshima, Noy, 1898 (Tring Collection at British Museum), Useuitoge
near Mt, Asama, 3 Ang, 1916; Karnizawa, Jnly 1914 (W. J, Holland)
and Mitsukuri (United States National Museum) Tohetsu, Hokkaido,
Sept.Oet. 1908 (A. KE. Wileman); Kyushu (J. H, Leech Collection in
British Museum) Mt. Takao, 26 Sept. 1926 (Cornell University Collee-
tion) Ussnri; Chibaroosk, 2 Ang. 1911, a female (Tring Colleetion at
British Musenm),

The male example particularly described arid figured in this paper
is trom Japan, probably Yokohama, and is from the Dr, H. Loomis
Collection. Ut has been coupared and agrees very exactly In size,
colour and markings with type of vemulus, which is the opposite sex
ol the type of #. excrescens, which was wrongly considered also to be
a male, but is a rather impoverished female. In the Berlin Museum
there are two similar males, from Yokohama, presumably also taken
by Dr. Loomis, although they are variously ascribed to ‘‘Laomis’’ and
Laom**, The present author reealls with appreciation the encourage-
ment he reeeived from Dr, Loomis in his bovhood collecting efforts in
Japau in 1914-1915.

166 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

A female from Mt, Takao is described, it also has been compared
with the types, and differs from the type female only in its more normal
size.

The male genitalia, as drawn without disseetion (fig. 2) show the
8th sternite notched in subrectangular fashion along its posterior
margin, in lateral view the tegumen is well chitinized with an evenly
arcuate silhonette, not armed with spines, in ventral view the tegumina
are seen to widely diverge towards the posterior extremity.

Despite marked differences in wing pattern and shape the male
genitalia suggest a relationship with /, crenilimbata, his relationship
is probably real, and may tend to support a view that the degree of
expansion of the costa of forewing aft Se, is not a good character lor
generic separations in this geuus.

‘The female genitalia of fhe Mt. Takao specimen (fig. 3) have the
7th sternite more than half as long as wide and the posterior margin
somewhat coneave. The Sth sternite has a rather wide and rounded
ventral mediau prominence about as long as wide, its posterior margin
is smooth and polished; above it and extending more posteriorly
is a rather regose projection about half as wide. The anterior gonapo-
physes are rugose, that on right side much wrinkled and with a pit, that
on left side more rounded in outline. The posterior gonapophyses are
wide and are embraced within a roll of the integument of the sternite,
which forms a hood, open below, over the ovipore,

The resemblances of the female genitalia are with those of 2.
camphorae, but they are abundantly distinet in the dimensions of the
anterior gonapophyses which are small irregular plates in this species,
rather asymmetrical on the two sides, whereas in FE, camphorae they
are large smooth plate-like members,

Endoclita sinensis (Moore)
Plate xvi, fig. 3-4 and text fig, 4

Phassus sinensis Moore, 1877, Aun. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4) xx, p. 94.
Phassus herzt Fixsen, 1887, Romanoff, Mem, Lepid, iti, p. 335, pl. 15,
fiz. 3,

Male. Antennae short, filamentous, ochreous brown, Head, thorax
and abdomen gravish-fawn, legs darker; posterior legs somewhat
reduced, with a large tibial tuft of ochreous-yellow hairs, Forewing
with costa slightly sinnate, no costal dilation at Se,, apex rounded,
termen and inner margin rounded; wing colour grayish-fawn with a

TINDALE—REVISION OF GHOST MOTHS 167

smoky-brown patch near the base of the cell enclosing a white spot;
there is a second elongate white spot, rimmed with black, lying in cell
and at one end cut aerogs by the junction of rm vein and M,; three
obscurely paired sets of black spots on costa, these have pale fawn
borders; traces of one, occasionally two small, black-margined white
spots in a localized brown patch just below apex. Hindwings dull
vrayish-fawn; vannal region with Peu reduced to a vestige near base
of wing; 2V present as a short vein. Wing length 35 mm., expanse 76
mm.

Female similar to male; wings broader and more rounded, posterior
legs without specialized hairs, costal spots of forewing tending to be in
sets of three; subapical white spots present. Wing length 56 mm.,
expanse 79 mm.

Loc. China: Shanghai (type, a female, described as a male,
expanse 60 mm., Moore Collection, 94-106 in British Museum) ; Chekiang
(80-123 in British Mnseum, males, one described above, also a female
same details, expanse 97 mm., described by Moore); Kiukiang, June
1887, A. K. Pratt, Tring Collection, in British Museum).

Korea: Gensan June 1887, J. H. Leech (female described above,
in Leech Collection at British Museum, 1900-64), Pung Tang, 18 miles
N.E. of Seoul, 29 June (the type of herzi, a female, expense 80 mm.,
in. British Museum),

Fig, 4-6, 4, Eadoclita sinensis (Moore), Kiukiang, male genitalia, ventral
aspect. 5, Endoclita eamphorae (Sasake), Tesio, male genitalia, ventral
aspect. 6. Female, Yokohama, genitalia, ventral aspect.

168 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

The male of this species has not been previously described, since
the type from Shanghai, although described as a male, is a female. I
am indebted to Mr. W. H. T. Tams for sending for stndy, at very
short notice, ihe pair figured here, A rather dilapidated male example
from Kiukiang is in the Tring Collection; it has vein M, of forewing
ending abruptly at about one-third the distance between the fork of M,
and M, and margin. This is probably an individual variant.

Tt is diffienlt, on wing markings alone, to separate E. sinensis from
E, caumphorae of Japan; in both the sexes are similar and the colour
and markings generally indistinguishable, Only when the genitalia are
compared do yalid differences appear. In the male at least these are
quite of specific value, hence it is to be assumed that 2. sinensis on the
Asiatic mainland and 2. camphorae in Japan are either old races or
Members of a superspecies which have remained so long apart, gene-
tically, that they must be given the status of separate species, Hf,
kosempouts also is clearly related, but is more distinetly separated by
wing markings and colour differences as well as by characters of the
genitalia, All three may be considered to form a species group in the
sense of Zeuner (1943),

The male genitalia in this species (fig. 4) have the 8th sternite very
robustly formed, with a broad and deep hind marginal notch and rather
square cut outer angles, ‘he tegumen is strongly chitinized and black,
with the two side pieces rolled over towards the middle as if forming
a longitudinal eylinder with a medium ventral slit; the figure shows
(rather inadequately) the general appearance, When viewed from the
side that portion of the tezumen which most nearly meets the opposite
side in the mid-line is seen to he smoothanargined and to form a
rounded eminence. The female genitalia have not heen examined,

In addition to the material studied in detail at Adelaide and at the
British Museum, examples from the following localities have been secu
and most probably belong to the species -—

Korea: Gensan (June and July). China: TIehang (June,

Kuikiang (June) and Hongkong.

The type of Phassus her2t was briefly examined in the British
Museum. If seems unquestionably to be a direct synonym of /. sinensis,
The figure in Seitz Macrolepideptera, ii, 1912, plate 54a, supposedly of
this species, belongs to E. excrescens,

The expanse of the wings of the described ‘‘male’’ type example,
was given by Moore as 2} inches (¢.¢, 54 mm.) and of his female as
33 inches (89 mm,). It is dificult to reeoncile these dimensions with

TINDALE—REVISION OF GHOST MOTHS 169

ones made by myself on the British Museum specimens, which gave a
measure of 60 mm, and 78 mm. respectively (23 and 34 inches). It
should also be noticed that Moore speaks of the light coloured markings
on the forewings of his species as bright yellow, whereas those of the
examples seen seem to be silvery-white. It is not clear whether the
present day appearance is due to the post-mortem changes of the past
70 odd years since they were captured, variation in several examples,
differences in the quality of the light in which they were examined for
the purposes of the original description, or a combination of all these.

Endoclita camphorae (Sasake)
Plate xvii, fig, 1 and text fig, 5-6

Phassus camphorae Sasake, 1908, Tokyo Nippon Konchu Kw. To,, 2,
p. $1, ‘

Phassus camphorae Matsumura, 6000 Insects, p. 1024 fig. (female).

Phassus camphorae Pfitzner and Gaede, 1933 Seitz Macrolep. x, p, 843,
pl. 78e.

Male, Antennae thread-like, with about 22 segments, bright ochre-
ous yellow, Head with eyes moderate; head, thorax and abdomen
grayish-fawn, legs slightly darker; posterior legs moderate in size,
with a tibial tuft of dull ochreous-brown hairs. Forewings with costa
straight, slight traces of an elevation at Se,; apex rounded, termen
rather straight, inner angle and inner margin well rounded; venation as
in genotype, wing colour grayish-fawn with paler bands and markings;
three pairs of black spots along costa, each outlined in pale fawn; a
white spot above basal M fork, enelosed in black; another white-centred
black spot just above Cu, at one-half; also a group of three or more
in outer part of cell near rm vein, Hindwings with venation as in geno-
type, colour grayish-fawn with apex well rounded, sub-hyaline; a few
darker markings along costa; a faint purplish tinge on wing when
viewed from certain angles, Wing length 34 mun., expanse 73 mm.

Female. Similar to male but colour a pale shade of grayish-lawn,
long hairs at base of abdomen and on meso- and metathorax paler still;
hindwings hyaline; vannal region with PCn developed only at base,
2V well developed, extending to one-half inner margin. Wing length
35 mm., expanse 76 mm.

Loc. Japan: Tesio, Hokkaido (June and July); Hakodate, Hok-
kaido (June and July); Junsai Numa, Hakodate (28 July); Yoshino,
Yamato-ken (5 July); Yokohama; Shimonoseki (July); Ishizuchisan,
Shikoku (26 June); Satsuma (May); Kagoshima, Kyushu (August).

170 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

So far as can be ascertained with material available at Adelaide
&, camphorae is confined to Japan. It resembles closely in wing
patterns E, sinensis but has markedly different male genitalia,

The male has fhe genitalia (fig. 5) with the posterior margin of
the 8th sternite slightly and broadly excavated, with an arcuate area
ot rough surface forming a median lip. The tezumen when viewed
laterally has the ventral margin smooth, and forming « conical emin-
ence; in ventral view the tegumen is seen to be rolled inwards towards
the centre line anteriorly, giving an S-shaped contour to the ventral
margin,

The female genitalia (fig. 6) drawn from a rather small example
expanding only 64 mm., from Yokohama, show a large 7th sternite
with an anterior sinuate fold and slightly excavated posterior margin;
the 8th sternite has two parts, a laterally compressed and longitudin-
ally grooved yentral portion and a narrower, parallel-sided, ventrally
grooved dorsal trough-like portion which is of considerable length.
The anterior gonapophyses are angulate pieces with a rounded swelling
at the posterior extremity; the Integumeut of the sides of the ultimate
segment form a hood over the ovipore.

The examples described are a male from Tesio (July, 1901) in the
Tring Collection at the Brilish Museum, and a female from Yokohama
(Dr. Hl. Loomis). The type, from Southern Japan, has not heen
examined; the specimens under examination agree very well with the
figure by Matsumura,

Endoclita aikasama sp, nov.
Plate xvii, fig. 2 and text fig. 7

Male, Antennae (wanting in only available specimen). Byes
large and dilated but in lateral view not concealing whole of head.
Head, thorax, legs and abdomen venerally dark ehocolate-brown, some
lighter hair on the metathorax, posterior legs only slightly reduced, a
large plume of specialized ochreous-yellow hairs on tibia, Forewings
with costa sinuate, very slightly dilated at Se,, apex faleate, termen and
inner margin in one continuous eurve; im vein only shortly before
fork of M, and M, and extending ta fork of M, and M,; wing colour
ehocolate-brown with slightly eurved transverse darker lines between
the veins, some incorporating tiny flecks of cream, margined with
black; a group of three creamy-white spots at basal M fork and another
group around the junction of rm vein and M,; a somewhat more con-
spicnous brown patch where Cu, vein becomes obsolescent; in addition a

TINDALE—REVISION OF GHOST MOTHS 171

larger pattern of more shiny seales showing a purplish sheen in certain
lights, and forming transverse bands along inner margin and across
outer third of wing; also forming patches along costa. Hindwing with
costa sinnate, termen and inner margin angulate; tip of wing brown with
wing pattern of forewing; rest of wing dark gray with a strong purplish
flush when viewed from many directions; basal fourth of wing clothed
in dense fawn hairs, Wings beneath dull brown, with traces of wing
pattern evident only along costa, Wing length 68 mm., expanse 144 mm,

Loc, Java: Vulkan Gede, 1894 (collected by Prilwitz, from Staud-
inger Coll., No. 759, in Museum f. Naturk., Berlin), Examples similar
to this type specimen were in the Tring Museum, in 1936, as niger

+

RKeeke, which they are not, When compared direetly with the type of

Tig. 7-9. 7, Endoclita aikasama Tindale, Vulkan Gede, male genitalia,

ventral aspect. 8 Mndoctlita sericeus (Swinhoe), Java, male genitalia,

ventral aspect. 9. Type, a female, Mulang, freehand sketeh of genitalia,
ventral aspect.

pfitznert which is a form of F. niger, the type of FE. aikasama proved
to be much larger and with different marking. At the time | formed
the opinion that it might be only a giant form of Ff. niger, and con-
specific, but closer examination and comparison with the example of F,
niger described elsewhere in this paper has convinced me that they
represent two species, not even closely related.

172 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

This is by far the most robust of the Indonesian species of the
genus and the female, when taken, should be rather large. The rich
brown colour, the faleate wings and the striking masses of golden
yellow coloured plumes on the tibiae of the posterior legs are highly
characteristic,

The genitalia have the hind margin of the 8th sternite broadly
excavate and sinuate with a slight median notch (fig. 7). The tegumen,
in ventral view, shows a slightly serrated margin which is reflexed
outwards so that in lateral view the outline of the tegumen is smooth
and apparently unarmed. It thus contrasts with EF. niger in which the
margin is not reflexed and consequently in lateral view the margin
appears finely serrate.

Endoclita sericeus (Swinhoe)
Plate xvii, fig. 3 and text fig. 8-9
Phassus sericeus Swinhoe 1901 Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7) vii, p. 469.

Male. Antennae threadlike, short, of twenty-two segments, bright
ochreous brown. Head with eyes large, from the side concealing most
of head except the frons, metallic gold in colour; head, thorax and legs
dark brown; abdomen, and particularly the long hair at base at abdo-
men, much paler, posterior legs normal, a very large tibial plume,
bright ochreous yellow. Forewings with costa somewhat sinuate, only
a trace of an expansion at Se,, apex faleate, termen and inner margin
well rounded; wing colour dark chocolate-brown with obscurely defined
paler fawn streaks and bands, particularly an irregular one from near
costa at four-fifths to inner margin at two-thirds and traces of another
parallel to termen; a semicircular pale fawn patch in cell at basal M
fork, two black rimmed silvery-white spots with traces of a third, and
a cluster of tiny similar spots at junction of rm vein and M,. Hind-
wing's with costa slightly sinuate, termen well rounded, vannal area with
PCu reduced. 1V and 2V present; wing colour grayish-fawn. Wings
beneath with a series of brown spots along costa, elsewhere grayish-
brown, in certain lights with a pale but strong bronzy lustre. Wing
length 30 mm., expanse 66 mm.

Female. Similar to male; posterior legs not plumed. Wing length
30 mm., expanse 66 mm.

Loc. Java: Malang (Type, a female, 66 mm. in expanse, not
a male as described, No. 1901-178 in British Museum); Soekaboemi;
Nongkodjadjar (4,000ft., Dec. 1930, A. M. K. Wagner); Java 1891
Fruhstorfer Coll. (allotype male in United States National Museum, ex
Brooklyn Museum).

TINDALE—REVISION OF GHOST MOTHS 173

The male from the United States National Musenm Collection
described above may be regarded as the allotype, since the type is a
female.

The male genitalia (fig. 8) have the &th sternite wider than long,
with the posterior margin waved, The tegumen has the ventral margin
smooth; in ventral view it is sinuate, with the two halves diverging to
the rear.

Fig. 9 wives a freehand sketch of so much of the female genitalia
as may be seen on the type. The 8th sternite has a wide upper portion
broadly rounded posteriorly and a broad ventral portion, also well
rounded. The anterior gonapophyses are suboval in outline.

Although #. javaensis was taken at Nongkodjadjar in the same
month as this species, it seems to be quite distinct.

This species seers to fall closest to EZ, gmelina of Burma in the
forin of the genitalia, although the resemblances may be in part aeci-
dental; in wing form, notably the absence of a costal expasion on the
forewing, it is distinct from EH, gmelina and falls closer to BE. damor
from which it can be readily distingnished by the form of tlie Sth
sternite of the male, which is not deeply notched as in that species,

Endoclita aurifer sp. nov.
Plate xviii, fig. 1 and text fig. 10

Male. Antennae very short, threadlike, ochreous; eyes large,
brown, thorax brown, darker on the sides, abdomen pale brown,
posterior lews with a moderately large tibial plume of golden yellow
hairs. Morewings relatively broad, faleate at tip and with costa moder-
ately dilated about Se,; wing colour dull purplish-brown, markings in
the form of linked circular ochreous patches forming spots between the
veins, euch spot contains several tiny ochreons-white-centred brown
spots; the ochreous markings are most concentrated in a triangular
patch enclosed between the area bounded by costa, from near hase to
just beyond Se,, a line from there to near fork of M, and Cu,a, and a
line along vein Cn, to near base; another large ochreous patch at apex
and several series of spots running parallel to termen; silvery-white
spots much larger than the white ones on rest of wing occur just before
middle of wing and again at end of cell; there are traces of several
very dark orange spots along Cu;. Hindwings subfalcate, termen
angled, dull purplish-brown, ochreous at tip. Wing length 37 mm.,
expanse 78 mm.

174 RECORDS OF THE 5.A. MUSEUM

Loc, Java: type a male, unique, in British Museum (ez Tring).

This male is » very striking one. Its relationships are probably
with the next species, #. broma with whieh it shares an almost identical
basic wing pattern, although the wings are somewhat longer in propor-
tion and the colours are unlike.

The male genitalia so far as they may be seen from helow without
dissection (fig. 10) have a tegumen which has on its margin no arma-
ture of spines, the tegumen is drawn out anteriorly into a depressed
projection which passes inside the posterior margin of the 8th sternite;
the posterior part of the tegumen is laterally expanded,

In the form of its genitalia this species, like EB. sericeus, shows
relationship with FE, gmelima of Burma, but the 8th sternite is quite

Fig. 10-12. 10. Endoolita aurtfer Vindale, Java, male genitalia, ventral
aspect. 11-12. Endoclita broma Tindale. 11, Male, Djembher, genitalia,
ventral aspect. 12, Female, Mt, Andjasmara, genitalia, ventral aspect.

different, having merely a slightly concave posterior margin instead of
a highly complex outline as in that species.

This species may be close to FH. javaensis, an Kast Javanese species
taken at 4,000ft. at Nongkodjadjar in Tengger, but appears to he dis-
tinct by reason of the more widely separated posterior portions of the
tegumen., The sinuate line of the keel of the tegumen, when viewed
from the ventral] side, also contrasts with the relatively straight margin
figured by Viette for that species.

TINDALE—REVISION OF GHOST MOTHS 175
Endoclita broma sp. nov.
Plate xviii, fig. 2-3 and text fig, 11-12

Male, Antennae lacking in available specimen; eyes moderately
dilated, head and thorax dull brown, abdomen pale grayish-awn darker
at tip; posterior legs slightly reduced, with deep orange tibial plume.
Forewings relatively broad, faleate at tip, only slightly dilated on
costa at Se,, colour grayish-fawn with rich chocolate-brown markings,
generally in the form of linked cireular discs, in basal half of wing
uniting to form a triangular patch, also two broad bands running
parallel to termen in distal half of wing; the fawn areas and chocolate-
brown spots are marked with numerous fine dark lines running hefween
ihe veins. here are two small silvery-white spots, margined with
black, below middle of cell and a group of mneh smaller ones near
apex of cell. Tindwings grayish-fawn with costa near tip bearing
three brown patches. Forewing length 35 mm,, expanse 76 mm,

Female, Hyes moderately dilated, ochreous-brown, Head, thorax
and abdomen dull brown; wings as in male, background colour pale
fawn; eireylay markings as in male, but dark brown, with contained
spots represented only by linear black marks; silvery-white spots
present in cell, as in tale, but smaller and black-edged; traces of four
darker marks below Cu,. Windwing dull grayish-brown with traces of
a subterminal series of darker cireular marks appearing like ‘*water-
marks.’? Wing length 88 mm., expanse 80 mim.

Loc, Java: Djember, Besoeki Residency 1,300-2,500 feet, Méllin-
ger, 1892 (type, a male in British Mnseum, ex 'lring) ; Mt. Andjasmara,
Malang district, November and December 1828, G. Overdijkink (allo-
type female in Joieey Coll. 1930-75, at British Museum), The sexes are
associated with some confidence,

The wing pattern of this species, from Hastern Java, is similar to
FP. aurifer, with which it shows relationship. Ti is possible that it is
the dark extreme form of that species but in view of some seeming
differences in the genitalia, so far as they may he compared, I prefer
to regard it as a separate species.

In the only male available for study the genitalia are deeply
retracted, the tegumen so far as it appears is unarmed, the two sides
being placed widely apart; the 8th sternite is evenly coneave on its
posterior margin. When compared with 2. aurifer the terminal seg-
ment of the body is very differently formed in this species (fig. 11).

176 RECORDS OF THE S,A, MUSEUM

In the female genitalia the 7th sternite has the posterior margin
entire and transverse, the anterior gonapophyses are flat plates,
rounded at the tips, but coming to a blunt point near the middle of the
inner margin, The 8th sternite has its posterior margin triangular with
a rounded point (fig, 12).

The female genitalia show resemblanees with those of FE, qgmelina
but the anterior gonapophyses are much broader and the shape of the
7th sternite shows little resemblance to its form in that species.

Endoclita salyazi sp. nov.
Plate xviii, fig. 4 and text. fig. 13

Male. Antennae short, threadlike, with about 29 segments, with
incipient traces of peetination and a few fine hairs, eyes dilated; head,
thorax except sides, which are brownish-black, and abdomen and legs
browimish-fawn, posterior legs with a conspicuons plume of golden
yellow hairs. Forewings with costa straight and a very conspicuous
dilation at Sc,; wing tips faleate, termen rounded, slightly concaye at
inner angle, colour pale grayish-fawn with markings slightly more
browi; a series of generally paired small black spots along costa, a
larger one near inner margin and two series of black-bordered silvery-
white spots at middle and at end of cell, also a scattered group of small
ones in apical fourth of wing, the intensified brown colour of cell out-
lines a triangular patch of grayish-lawn near the middle of the wing.
Tindwing with costal margin sinuons and deeply coneave at about
three-filths its length, apex slightly faleate, termen dilated in anterior
half, slightly concave at hind angle; markings at wing tip as in forewing,
rest of wing grayish-fawn with faintest traces of a purplish sheen from
some angles of view. Wing length 48 mm.,, expanse 92 mm,

Loc, Laos: Thado, 6 June, 1915, R, Vitalis de Salvaza (type a
male, unique, in Cornell University Colleetion, lot $41),

This species appears to be related to #. paraja and EB. tosa, parti-
enlarly in the form of the wings, and in the placing of the conspicnous
black spot on the forewing, but the strong dilation of the costa and the
far larger eyes, which from the side conceal most of the head save the
palpi and the frons, are very evidently different, The male genitalia
(fig. 18) in ventral view show what appears to be the Sth sternite as
wider than long with a sinuously margined posterior lip. The tegumen
has a straight ventral keel and the keels of the two sides diverge
markedly toward the posterior extremity of the body.

TINDALE—REVISION OF GHOST MOTHS 177

Fig. 15-15. 13. Rudoelita salvazi Tindale, Thado, male gonitalia, ventral
aspect. 14-15. Endoclitu aroura Tindale. 14, Male, Lebong Sandai, goni-
talia, ventral aspeet. 15. Female, Lebong Sandai, genitalia, ventral aspect.

In the key the male genitalia of this species fall into a section
entirely different from /. tosa and F, paraja, The former is distinctive
because of the parallel arrangement of the teguminal margins and the
conspicnous spines along the margins. £. paraja differs in the much
larger tegumina mecting firmly in the midline instead of diverging, and
is distinetive in the form of the posterior margin of the Sth sternite,

Endoclita aroura sp. nov.
Plate xix, fig. 1-2 and text fiz. 14-15

Male. Antennae very short, threadlike, composed of about 22
subspherical segments; eyes moderate; head and thorax densely rough-
haired, dark brown, abdomen and legs greyish-fawn; a plume of yellow
hairs on posterior tibia, Forewing with costa straight, slightly con-
cave beyond Se,, apex round-pointed, termen well rounded, wing colour
fawn with a faint purplish iridescence, markings in the form of tiny
brown streaks, each tending to surround a patch composed of a few
yellow scales; a large patch of yellow seales at end of cell, Hindwings
with costa concave, apex blunt-pointed, wings broad, grayish-fawn with
a dull purplish iridescence, except near apex, whieh has the pattern
of the forewing. Wing length 25 mm., expanse 53 mm.

Female. Much larger than male, form of wings and markings
similar, hindwings with purplish iridescenee even less evident. Wing
length 50 mm., expanse 105 mm,

178 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Loc. Sumatra: Lebong Sandai, Benkoelen (male type and allotype
female, Joicey Collection in British Museum 1929-122) ; another female,
same details, ‘but expanding 92 mm.

Lebong Sandai is in the south-west of the island of Sumatra. The
circumstances of the taking of the specimens have not been recorded,

This species is reminiscent of Indian species such as FE. rustica
and its allies, The absence of costal dilation on the forewing, and the
wing form itself strengthens the resemblance, but the male genitalia
are of different form and it is clear that they are at best but distantly
related species.

The male genitaha (fig. 14) have an Sth sternite much wider than
long. The tegumen is armed with irregular teeth set in a double row
at the anterior end; viewed from the ventral aspect the keels of the
tegumina diverge widely towards the posterior extremity.

The female genitalia (fig. 15) so far as they may he seen without
dissection in the allotype example, show the 7th sternite with a eon-
vex posterior margin coming to a blunt point in the midline. The
anterior gonapopliyses are broad digit-like plates, largely covering the
heavily chitinized 8th sternite, whose posterior extremity appears as
a rounded eminence, deeply incised on its ventral side,

Two dried eges, presumably of the species, were found adhering
to the hairs of the tip of the abdomen of the female, They suggest that,
when newly laid, the eggs were smooth-shelled und almost spherical,
with a diameter of 0.7 mm,

Endoclita raapi sp. nov.
Plate xix, fig. 3 and text fig. 16

Male. Antennae simple, threadlike, eyes dilated; head, thorax and
abdomen dark grayish-brown, posterior legs with a moderate sized
ochreous tibial plume. Forewings with region of Se, not noticeably
dilated, but the margin excavated beyond; wing tips feebly faleate,
choecolate-brown with traces of dark purplish-brown arkings find
patches, particularly a semicireular patch lying behind R vein at about
middle of cell, helow which are two brown margined angular silvery-
white spots; at the end of the cell there is another group of three small
silvery-white spots; in the terminal half of wing there are numerons
obseure markings between the veins, a few of these take the form of

TINDALE—REVISION OF GHOST MOTHS 179

small light-centred brown spots; near the apex other of these markings
are tinged with ochreous brown. Hindwings grayish-brown, a few
traces of ochreous brown and darker brown mottlings at the wing tip.
Wing length 35 mm., expanse 74 mm.

Loc. Nias (Raap) type, a male, in British Museum (ex Tring)
and male paratype in South Australian Museum.

This species is rather inconspicuous. It shows no signs of irides-
cence even when the wings are moved in a bright light. The bright
chocolate colour of the forewings with the obscure traces of ochreous
rings each of which is dark margined and centred, are reminiscent of
E. aurifer from Java, but in that species the tegumen of the male is
not armed with spines along its antero-lateral margin.

16 17 18

Fig. 16-18. 16. Endoclita raapi Tindale, Nias, male genitalia, ventral
aspect. 17. Endoclita tosa Tindale, Tengger, male genitalia, ventral aspect.
18. Endoclita aurata (Hampson), Laos, female genitalia, ventral aspect.

The male genitalia of the figured specimen appear to have suffered
injury to part of the tegumen of the right side. For critical detail
chief reliance should be placed therefore on the tegumen of the left side
(shown on right side of fig. 16). This shows a series of spines on
the antero-lateral portion; what appear to be the harpes are small,
inconspicuous swellings barely projecting beyond the posterior mar-
ginal limits of the 8th sternite.

Cc

180 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Endoclita tosa sp. nov.
Plate xix, fig. 4 and text fig. 17

Male, Antennae simple, threadlike, very short, ochreous coloured
and composed of about 22 segments. Head wide with prominent eyes,
in lateral view almost concealing outline of head. Head, thorax above,
abdomen and legs grayish- fawn, becoming more gray on abdomen;
posterior legs reduced and with a yellow tibial plume. Forewing with
costa straight, a slight dilation at Se,, termen and inner margin well
rounded in a single curve; apex pointed, slightly faleate; termen well
rounded; wing colour pale grayish-fawn with dull brown markings and
suffasions, notable a broad V- shaped area in middle of wing and a
broad band composed of obscurely circular dises of brown each with a
few yellow scales at their centre; this area extends along termen from
apex to inner margin at three-fourths; two series of black-bordered
white spots, one near notch of V-shaped brown patch and the other at
r-m vein, a notable black spot inwards from two-fifths inner margin.
Hindwings with costa rather straight, apex blunt-pointed, termen
dilated and hind angle slightly excavated; traces of forewing pattern at
tip of wing, rest dull gray, smooth- scaled, and showing a dull purplish
iridescence in some angles of light. Wing length 37 mm., expanse
80 mm.

Loc. Java: Singolangoe, Tengger (5,000ft., April 1934, F. P. A.
Kalis. Type a male, unique in British Museum, ex Tring).

This species is close to E. paraja which is believed to be a Bornean
species, but it differs in the less intense purplish flush of the hindwings,
in the different shape of the 8th sternite, and in the tegumen, which
has, in ventral view, a series of lateral spines on its margin, instead of
being unarmed when viewed from this aspect.

The male genitalia (fig. 17) have the 8th sternite wider than long,
with the posterior margin somewhat excavated in the midline. The
tegumen is strongly chitinized and the ventral keel rolled slightly out-
ward and armed with a series of teeth. The harpes are long, and so
far as may be seen without dissection, are digitiform and clothed with
laterally directed hairs.

Endoclita aurata (Hampson)

Plate xx, fig. 1 and text fig. 18

Phassus auratus Hampson, 1892, Fauna Brit. Ind. Moths, i, p. 321
(male).

TINDALE—REVISION OF GHOST MOTHS 181

Endochta aurata Tindale, 1941, Ree. S. Austr. Mus., 7, p. 37, pl. 7,
f. 69 (male).

Female. Antennae filamentous, of about 20 segments, dark brown
with paler annular rings. Eyes large, in lateral view concealing most
of head, brilliantly reddish-gold in colour; head, thorax and legs
yellowish-fawn, abdomen grayish-fawn, posterior legs slightly reduced ;
no tibial plume. Forewings with costa straight, apex, termen, and
inner margin well rounded. Wing colour pale brown with paler fawn
transverse bands obscurely margined with darker brown; a patch of
seales just below apex and an area along costa from near base to two-
thirds with golden yellow scales which show a brilliantly golden and
metallic gloss from certain angles. Hindwings with costa sinuate,
apex well rounded, termen and inner margin angled, colour pale
grayish-fawn, showing a pale bronzy lustre from some angles. Wings
beneath pale grayish-fawn without markings. Wing length 25 mm.,
expanse 53 mm.

Loc. Laos: Thadua. 8 Oct., 1915, R. Vitalis de Salvaza (allotype
female, in Cornell University, lot 841, sub. 266). Burma: Bernardmyo,
5,500-7,000ft. (type, a male, in British Museum).

The male was redescribed in my 1941 paper. The female which is
now confidently associated with it, extends the range of the species from
Burma to Laos,

The female genitalia (fig. 18) have the 7th sternite almost as long
as wide, with the posterior margin convex in the midline and showing
slight lateral concavities; the 8th sternite is large, wide at the anterior
end and evenly rounded posteriorly with a raised rim when seen in
ventral view; the anterior gonapophyses are slender and spine-like,
ending in a sharp point.

This species shows some relationship with E. sericeus of Java,
and is superficially like Nevina aboe but is readily differentiated from
the latter by the typical Hndoclita venation.

Endoclita niger (van Eecke)

Plate xx, fig. 2 and text fig. 19-21

Phassus niger van Hecke, 1915, Zool. Med. Leiden, i, p. 248.

Phassus pfitenert Gaede 1933, Seitz Macrolepidoptera, 10, p. 843,
pl. 100a,

182 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Male. Antennae threadlike short, ochreous. Head with eyes
moderate; head, thorax, abdomen and legs pale fawn; posterior legs
somewhat reduced, a specialized plume of hairs present but concealed
ina fold of the metathorax. Forewing’ with costa sinuate; a moderate
costal expansion at Se,; wing tip strongly faleate; im vein from close
to fork of M, and M.; ground colour several shades of pale brown
arranged in circular patches between the veins with a tendency for each
ring to have a small ochreous-white spot outlined with fuseous; more
conspicuous ereamy-white spots at basal M fork and at junetion of
rm vein with M,; a slight infusecation runs along vein R, nearly to
termen, Hindwings with im vein directly from lork of M, and M., only
one vannal vein (1V) to margin, PCu obsolete exeept at base, wing
texture subhyaline, colour gray exeept at tip where the forewing pat-
tern is present; the gray parts of the wing are perhaps brilliantly
iridescent in life but only traces of a purplish sheen remain in the
specimen deseribed. Wing length 39 mm., expanse 83 mm.

Loe. Java: Vulkan Gede (Prilwitz, 1894),

The type of 1, niger has not been examined, but there seems little
doubt about the synonymy given above.

From the expanse given (140 mm.) if is possible that the type is
a female, not a male, as deseribed, A female of close to the given
dimension, from Western Sninatra (ea Frulistorfer Collection), is in
the Tring Collection,

FE. atkasama also from Vulkan Gede, and deseribed In this paper
Was originally associated with this speeies. However it is much
larger (146 tm. expanse), uid is not the sume species. The two
differ in colour and in the form of the genitalia.

The type of £. pfitznert from Western Java in the Berlin Museum
has been examined. It is larger than the male example deseribed
above (expanding 121 mm.), but otherwise it agrees very well with
it. It also agrees with the figure published in Seitz Macrolepidoptera
10 (plate 100a) save that its wiity tips are little more faleate than shown
there and, as in the described specimen, there are many fine yellow
marks forming elongate ocellate centres to each dise-like marking ou
the forewing, The hindwing is more a dull purplish-gray than the
colour indicated in the figure. The antennae are shown as far too long
in the Seitz figure,

Viz, 20-21 show two views of as much of the male genitalia of
the type example of pffenert as may be seen without dissection. The
teeminen in lateral view (fig. 21) is evenly arched posteriorly, the

TINDALE—REVISION OF GHOST MOTHS 183

Fie, 19-21. 19, Hndoclita niger (van Eecke), Vulkan Gede, male genitalia,
ventral aspect. 20-21, Type male of 4. pftenert, free hand sketches of
male genitalia, ventral and Interal aspects,

margin has a slightly serrated appearance from spines which project
laterally from the ae dly turned over lip of the tegumen, as may
be seen in ventral view (fig. 20). The third figure (fig. 19) is a ventral
view of the genitalia of Oe ingle example from Vulkan Gede described
above. This shows more of the anterior portion of the tegumen than
is evident in the type of FE. pfiteneri. The contour of the tegumen
from below is a trifle more angulate than in that example.

Endoclita crenilimbata (Le Cerf)
Plate xx, fig. 3 and text fig. 22-25

Hypophassus crenilinbata Le Cerf 1919, Bull. Mus. Nat. D’Hist. Nat.
Paris, 25, p. 471.

Male. Antennae (wanting in example studied), head with eyes
relatively small; head, thorax and legs pale fawn in colour with a
narrow black tine on side of thorax; posterior legs slightly reduced,
with a very large tibial plume of oechreous-fawn hairs, abdomen eray,
slightly paler near base. Forewings with costa strongly expanded
at Se, apex with trace of faleation, postero-lateral angle of wing
with crenulated indentations between the veins; im vein nearer to
fork of M, and M, than in the genotype and tonching M, after fork
of M, and M,; wing colour pale ochreous fawn tending to a grayish-
fawn on terminal third; indistinct traces of black lines enclosing
gray patches of scales along costa and notably in apical third of wing.
Hindwings with im vein as in forewing, vannal region with two well

184 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

developed veins after Cu.; these are probably 1V and 2V, with vestiges
of a PCu at base, between Cu, and 1V; wing colour dark gray without
any marked metallic sheen even when viewed from many different
directions. Wing length 43 mm., expanse 93 mm.

Loe. China: Yao Gi, 4,000-5,000ft (male in United States National
Museum); Pin-Fa, Kwaichau, R. P. Cavalerie, 1918 ( type, probably
a female, not a male, in Paris Museum).

The specimen described as the male is in the collection of the
United States National Museum and has been kindly loaned to me for
study, along with the other material not yet described.

This species is unmistakeable because of the crenulated margin
of the forewings in the region of the anal angle, and the dilation of the
costa at Se,, which in this species probably attains almost a maximum.

In the original description the type example was said to be a
male but later on in the paper is indicated to be a female; since the
posterior legs are indicated to be ochreous gray and no mention is
made of the very large plume of ochreous hairs it is probable that it is
a female.

The male genitalia (fig. 22-23), so far as visible without dissection,
show the 8th sternite broadly excavated on its posterior margin. The
tegumen has a strong ventral keel, finely serrated on its margin, the
two sides diverge strongly towards the posterior extremity.

*

22

23

Fig, 22-24, 22-23. Hndoclita crenilimbata (Le Cerf), Yao Gi, male genitalia,
ventral and lateral aspects. 24. Hndoclita topeza Tindale, Kiang Kong,
female genitalia, ventral aspect.

TINDALE—REVISION OF GHOST MOTHS 185

In the form of its genitalia this species seems to fall into the
same section of the genns as F. excrescens from which it differs
greatly in the degree of expansion of the costa of forewing as well
as in wing pattern.

Endoclita anmae (Le Cerf)

Hypophassus amnae Le Cerf, 1988, Bull. Soe. ent. France, 38, p, 181.
Loe. South China: vicinity of Tatsienlu, 1910. Type deseribed

as a male, expanse 96 mm. (ew collection of Charles Oberthur in

collection of R. Biedermann). This species has not been examined.

From the deseription it would seem to fall near ZB. erenilimbata
since the inner margin of the forewing has (hree crenulations between
M, and 1V. No costal dilation of the forewing is mentioned and the
hindlegs are not indicated as armed with « tuft, On the other hand
there is mention of some crenulation on the margin of the hindwing
and the presence of silver spots on the forewings. The expanse of the
wings is given as 96 mm. If the sex determination is correct this must
be a very distinct species; if however it should prove to be a female
it is just possible it could be the same species as I. crenilimbata.

Endoclita topeza sp. nov.
Plate xx, fig, 4 and text fig. 24

Female. Antennae (wanting in available specimen). [ead with
eyes moderately large, but in lateral view not concealing whole of
head; head, thorax, abdomen and legs dull oclireous fawn, Forewings
with costa straight, traces only of a costal dilation af Sei, apex well
rounded, termen rather straight, immer margin well rounded, wing
eolour fawn with grayish-fawn suffusions and pale brown markings
between the veins enclosing paired oval areas of ground colour; five
black spots on costa, each with a diffused fawn-coloured centre and
three groups of black-bordered creamy-white spots, small ones near
apex, a group of two or three with one larger spot at r-im vein and
two smaller spots in cell at about one-third its length, Hindwings
with costa concave in middle, apex well rounded, termen straight and
hind margin well ronnded, small traces of the forewing pattern at
apex, rest of wing ochreous fawn, somewhat brighter than forewing,
Wing length 51 mm., expanse 109 mm,

Loc. aos: Kiang Kong (Xiang Khong) 14 April, 1920, RB.
Vitalis de Salvaza (type. a female) unique, in Cornell University
Collection, lot 841, sub. 267).

186 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

This specimen stood in the Cornell University collection nnder
the name Phassus stgnifer but it is not that species. [ am indebted
to Dr, W. T. M. Forbes for the opportunity of studying it. Through
his kindness T have held it for some years. Its closest relationship is
with BE. chalybeata, both in wing markings and in the form of the
female genitalia, The last named organs differ in the more robust
character of the table-lee-shaped Sth sternite, which contrasts with
the more truly spatulate form met with in FE. chalybeata, 1t may be
regarded as the eastern representative of a small species group
embracing 2, chalybeata and the present form,

The female genitalia have the 7th sternite about as long as wide,
its posterior margin broadly coneave; the Sih sternite is narrow at the
anterior extremity and even narrower towards the middle of its length
before it swells into a large spade-like portion with strongly dilated
sides. The anterior gonapophyses are somewhat irregularly shaped
plates and the posterior gonapophyses are well chitinized members:
a narrow dise-like portion near the midline is separated hy a deep
constriction; the integument ol the sternite forms an incomplete hood
over the ovipore,

Endoclita davidi (Poujade)

Plate xxi, fig. 1 and text fig, 25-26
Hepialus davidi Poujade 1886, Bull. Soc, Ent. France, 6 (vi) p. xcii
(male and female),
Hypophassus excrescens Viette, 1948, Musée Heude, xii (8) p. 84 (nee
Butler).

Female, Autennae (wanting in example deseribed), eyes normal,
moderate; head, thorax, apical half of abdomen above, and nnderside,
also legs, bright orange-brown; basal half of abdomen above, dark
brownish-fawn; posterior legs small, without notable tibial plume,
Forewing with costa straight save for a rounded eminence at Se.
termen gently rounded in a eurve continuous with inner margin; im
from just before fork of M, and M, and touching fork of M, and M,:
wing colour orange-brown with traces of darker orange-hrown spots
along costa and in a triangular patch in middle third of wing, traces
of ochreous-yellow marks outlining some brown spots, also {wo areas
flushed with yellow, one in cell and the other along inner margin below
Cu,,; there is another yellowish band, broken into reetangular patches,
running slightly obliquely to the termen; internally from this is a
row of raised brown spots, some margined with darker ochreous-brown.

TINDALE—REVISION OF GHOST MOTHS 187

Hindwings with costa straight, termen evenly rounded, anal area with
veins Cu,, 1V and 2V to margin, Peu represented only near base;
wing colour dark gray, the scales being long and hair-like except along
the termen, where they are orange-brown, and near apex, where the
colour and markings are like those of forewing. Wing length 48 min.,
expanse 103 mm,

Loe, Tibet: Moupin (type a male, and allotype female in Mus.
Soe, Mint, de France; not examined), China; Chia Kou Ilo (two males,
one female, in British Museum). Formosa: Suishako, 1907; Oryusan,
TIpinehiku 6,500ft., A, i, Wileman, 24 Nov,, 1908.

The fernale example from Suishako, described above and figured,
resembles very closely ones from Chia Kou Ilo standing in the British
Museum under this name. Some doubts may remain as to the proha-
bility that specimens from Formosa and ones from Moupin are likely
to belong to the one species, but the deseriptions fit very well, The
ochreous forewings and dark hairy-sealed hindwings with ochreous
marging are highly distinctive. T do not follow Viette in regarding
this species as synonymous with F, excrescens.

Pfitzner, in Seitz Macrolepidoptera, i, p. 484, regarded the species
as a form of MWepialus nebulosus Alpheraky but the three males and
the female example standing in the British Museum are certainly
members of the genus E'ndoclita and possess a distinct costal expansion
at Se, of forewing so that they eannot fallin the genus Hepialus, The
male genitalia show relationship with those of FE. crenilimbala trom
which the species differs markedly iu wing form. Fig. 25 is based on
a sketch of the tegumen of one of the British Museum male examples
of F, davidi from Chia Kon Ho, as viewed from the side. It, shows a
long, gently arcuate and finely serrated margin to the tegumen, in
eontrast with the shorter, slightly exeavate margin found in the
related F, crenilimbata (fig. 25).

The Chia Kou Uo examples were taken by A. IE, Pratt at 1,700ft.
in July, 1889. The female closely resembles the one deseribed above
from Formosa; its abdomen had been detached and remounted ventral
side nppermost, bat is unlikely to be ineorrectly associated, An example
from Canton, China in the United States National Musenm has the
costal expansion very conspicuously developed and another from Suifnu
in the same collection shows an even more extreme development of
this feature. Since these specimens were not critically studied it is
possible they do not represent the one species.

188 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

The genitalia of the Formosan female (fig. 26) show the 7th
segment semicircularly excavate on posterior margin; the ventral
portion of the 8th sternite is produced posteriorly into a long digiti-
form process, this is narrower than the dorsal portion of the same
seyment, which, from a wide root extends backwards to a similar pro-
cess, whose ventral surface shows indications of grooving. The anterior

25

Fig. 25-27. 285-26, Bndaoclita davidi (Poujade). 25. Freehand sketch of
genitalin of male from Chia Kou Ho, in British Museum, lateral aspect.

26, Female, Suishako, genitalia, ventral aspect. 27. Zndoclita kosemponis

(Strand), Rokki, female genitalia, yentral aspect.

gonapophyses are large oval plates with the inner margins slightly
erenulated. In the example under examination there is a newly laid
egg in the channel formed by the folding over of the terminal segment.
This egg is 0.55 mm. in diameter, spherical with a small micropyle at
the end directed anteriorly; it is cream coloured.

Endoclita kosemponis (Strand)
Plate xxi, fig. 2-3 and text fig. 27

Phassus signifer var kosemponis Strand 19 , Arch. Naturg. 81, Abt.
A. 12, p. 150.

TINDALE—REVISION OF GHOST MOTHS 189

Female, Antennae short, threadlike; eyes moderate, in lateral
view not concealing outline of head; head, thorax, abdomen and lees
grayish-fawn, Forewings with costa straight, apex not acute, termen
rounded; wing colour light grayish-fawn with dark grayish-brown
inarkings, principally a large triangular patch in centre of forewing
embracing a black bordered creamy-white spot near end of cell; a
series of grayish-brown spots alone costa and delicate semi-lunate
hight fawn areas, margined by grayish-brown, principally along inner
marginal and terminal portions of wing. Hindwings with costa con-
cave, apex well rounded, termen rounded, a slight concavity at hinder
angle, pale grayish-lawn without markings save for traces of two
darker spots along costa near apex, Wing length 44 mm., expanse
94 mm,

Loc, Formosa: Kosempo (H. Santer 1911, type, a male and allo-
type female, same details but captured June 1907, iu Deutsches Intom.,
Mus., Dahlem): Rokki (L. Gressitt) 13 May 1934, a female, described
above, in Cornell University Collection, and another, same details,
but taken 17 May 1954, in South Australian Museum.

1 am indebted to the authorities of the Deutsches Entom, Museum,
at Dahlem for the photographs of the type and allotype reproduced in
this paper. I examined the examples briefly in 1986 but failed to note
the dimensions and Strand’s original description is not available to me.

The female deseribed is in the Cornell University collection.
Through the courtesy of Dr, W. T. M. Forbes I wag able to compare
it directly with the type female in Berlin.

The male is similar to the female described above, grayish-brown
in colour; in neither sex are there any indications of a costal swelling
ou forewing. The head is slightly wider in the male than in the female
but in both the eyes are of normal size,

This species is abundantly distinct from MH. signifer of Assam with
which if has little in common. Its principal relationships are seen
inely with EL. damor and HB, chalybeata which possess the same basic
wing patterns and equally are without costal expansion on the fore-
wing.

The male genitalia could not be examined in detail during my
visit to Berlin, but inspection of the type showed that the hind margin
of the 8th sternite was widely and deeply notehed in a sweeping curve
while the teguiuinal margins of the two sides, in ventral view, appeared
to diverge widely from the anterior end to the middle of their length
and then to converge again, leaving a subrectangular median space.

190 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Female genitalia (fig, 27) based on the example from Rokki, have
the 7th sternite transverse, the eighth modified into a ventral heart-
shaped median plate with a shallow central groove and a more dorsal,
posteriorly produced flat projection narrowly grooved along its mid-
line; the anterior gonapophyses are large and plate-like with a spine
or distal projection on the postero-median extremity. There is a pair
of slender, distally hair-covered processes which may be the posterior
eonapophyses. In some details the female genitalia are reminiscent of
Prdoclita damer wut in that species the anterior gonapoplyses are
irregular in shape, the postero-median projection of the 8th sternite
is not grooved for its whole length, aud what appear to be the posterior
gonapophyses are broad plates,

Endoclita warawita sp. noy,
Plate xxi, fig. 4 and text fiv, 28

Female. Antennae wanting in only example available, eyes moder-
ate, head, thorax, except a lateral brown line, and base of abdomen
above, pale ereamy-brown with scales of fine velvety texture, abdomen
somewhat darker (mueh abraded in the type example). forewings
short and wide, costa with a marked dilation at Se,, wing tip strongly
faleate; im vein directly from ork of M, and M.; wing colour warm
brown. Wing pattern of usual Hndoclita type; eight riel brown patches
on costa, each in part outlined with black and white lines; three groups
of silvery-white spots one at junction of rm vein and M, and three-
fifths the distance between rm vein and M,, a second around fork of
M, and M,, and the third between R, and. M, at three-fifths the distance
between rm vein and wing margin; the pattern on the imner margin
and the transverse lighter bands are marked with scattered silvery-
white seales which give the wing a slightly glistening appearance.
Hindwings strongly angled, slightly faleate at tips; veins with Peu and
1V both well developed, also basal fraces of 2V; apex of wing narrowly
brown within a darker spot, texture of rest of wing sub-hyaline, with
dusky-brown seales, strongly opaleseent, and violet or purplish-brown
when viewed from most angles. Forewing length 86 mm., expanse T6
minh,

Loe. North Borneo: Mt, Kana Bal, 1,200 to 1,500 metres (Water-
stradt) 1894. Type, a female, unique, in Museum f. Naturk,, Berlin,
marked as part of Staudinger Collection, No. K739,

TINDALE—REVISION OF GHOST MOTHS 19]

This species is readily distinguishable from P, ijereja which occurs
in the same locality, because of the marked costal expansion of the fore-
wing, The origin of im vein on M, and M, is also different, It is much
smaller than that species and has ochreous-brown wings rather than
grayish-brown ones. In both species the hindwing shows a purple
sheen in certain lights, particularly marked in the present species,
being evident also on the underside of both wings. Although the only

Fig. 26-30. 28. Lardoclita maravita Tindale, Mt. Kina Balu, female genitalia,

voutral aspect, 29. Andoelita williamai Tindale, Los Banos, female genitalia,

yontril aspect. 380. Hndectita tarany Tindale, Lebong Sandai, female geni-
talia, ventral aspect, with egy appearing in orifice of ovipore.

available specimen is much worn there should be no difficulty im reeog-
nising it again with the aid of the figure.

The female genitalia (fig. 28) have the 7th sternite transverse, and
with an entire hind margin mych drawn backwards at the sides; the
Sth sternite has a digitiform median process and rolled lateral margin;
the anterior gonapophyses are rounded and plate-like; the posterior
gonapophyses have strongly chitinized and dilated terminal processes.

Endoclita williamsi sp. nov.

Plate xxii, fig, 1 and text fig, 29.

Female, Antennae (wanting in available specimen); eyes large,
in lateral view masking whole of head; head, thorax, abdomen and legs

192 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

pale fawn, hind legs small, without specialized plume of hairs. Fore-
wing with costa straight, slightly faleate at tip, dull brown with
unobtrusive paler bands following general pattern characteristic of
the genus; some ill-defined black spots along costa, a group of three
small silvery-white spots around junction of rm vein and M,, another
white spot at fork of M, and M,; traces of minute, generally paired,
ochreous spots outlined in dark brown, on apical third of wing. Hind-
wing with both Peu and 1V veins present; smoky-brown except very
narrowly at wing tip; an obscure opalescent blue sheen on wing in
certain lights. Wings beneath dull brown without well defined mark-
ings. Forewing length 44 mm., expanse 93 mm.

Loc. Philippine Islands: Los Banos, at light (F. X. Williams)
type a female, unique, in United States National Museum.

This species is named for Mr. F. X. Williams to whom T have been
indebted for many observations on Hepialidae. At first glance this
species might be thought to be the EZ. ijereja of Mt. Kina Balu, but the
eyes are much larger and there are significant differences in the sex
organs.

The female genitalia (fig. 29) show a seventh sternite with hind
margin entire and straight, with claw-like anterior gonapophyses. The
8th sternite has a large medial ventral elevation and internally a broad
plate with the lateral margins curled down. The semi-circular hind
margin of the median elevation is clothed in dense hairs on small
papillae. The terminal part of the abdomen is widely flanged.

In the form of the genitalia this species probably falls closest to
E. hosei of Sarawak, also described in this paper but differs in the
shape of the anterior gonapophyses and the form of the 8th sternite.

Endoclita taranu sp. nov.
Plate xxii, fig. 2 and text fig. 30

Female. Antennae short, threadlike, purplish-brown, of about 22
segments. Head with eyes large but not covering silhouette of head;
head, thorax above, abdomen and legs pale fawn, sides of thorax
brownish-black, posterior legs of normal size, without specialized plume
on tibia, Forewings long, slender, costa sinuous with a marked costal
expansion at Se; apex strongly falcate, termen and inner margin
well rounded in a single curve; colour grayish-brown with dull brown
suffusions, notably in the middle of the wing, and enclosing a triangular
patch of light gray scales in middle of cell; a pair of black-bordered

TINDALE—REVISION OF GHOST MOTHS 193

silver spots at one-third length of cell and a group of tliree around
junction of rm vein with M,; faint traces of other spots along costa
and in a line of brownish suffusion extending from near apex to inner
margin at three-quarters; a white and black bordered brown spot
inwards from inner margin at one-half. Hindwings with costal margin
slightly concave, tip of wing markedly faleate, termen well rounded
with a slight concavity at hind angle, colour dull grayish-brown with a
bright purple suffusion evident from some angles of view, tip of
wing with rudiments of wing pattern of forewing, Wing length
56 inm., expanse 119 mm.

Loe. Sumatra: Lebong Sandai, Benkoelen (type a female, unique,
in Joicey Collection at British Museum, 1925-122.).

From the similarity in size one might consider this species to be
the female of the large Ff, aikasama of Java, but there is apparently
no instance of a species with the costal dilation of forewing developed
in the female and absent in the male. The wing patterns are similar
and both have faleate wing tips. On close inspection the similarities in
the two species hecome less apparent and it is with some confidence that
they are kept apart.

The female genitalia show a broadly transverse 7th sternite with
parallel sides, and a broad vertical projection to 8th sternite, about as
wide as longs the posterior gonapophyses are slightly dilated at their
posterior extremities. In the available specimen (fig. 30), an ege is
held in the opening of the ovipositor, it is nearly spherical, smooth
and pale cream coloured.

Endoclita hosei sp, nov.
Plate xxii, fig. 3 and text fig. 31

Female. Antennae short, filiform, of 22 segments. Eyes large,
dilated, but in lateral view not quite concealing rest of head. WUead,
thorax, legs, and probably abdomen (much abraded in the type speci-
men) pale fawny-brown, posterior legs of normal size without special-
ized plume. Forewings with eosta straight, except for a moderate
expansion at Se,, apex slightly faleate, fermen and immer margin mm a
single swept curve; im vein just beyond fork of M, and M,; wing eolour
pale brown with richer brown areas in centre of wing and in a series
of circular patches running parallel to termen; a double pateh of brown
towards costa, and of black below it at the point of obsolescence of
Cuz; a series of dark brown and black spots along easta; there are

194 RECORDS OF THE S,A. MUSEUM

traces of a series of tiny black-ringed ereamy-white spots just below
each vein along termen; a group of three larger ones at junction of
Tro vein and M,, two others at the basal M fork and trace of others.
Hindwing with costa straight, termen and inner margin angulate, im
vein before fork of M, and M, but after branching of M, and M,; Peu and
1V_ both extending to margin; wing tip brown, with pattern of fore-
wing; rest of wing dull gray, in certain lights with a dull purplish
suffusion. Wing length 46 mm,, expanse 97 mm,

Loc. Sarawak: Baram district (Charles Hose), Type a female,
nnique, in Tring Collection at the British Mnsenm.

A first impression is that this species is close to BH. warawita from
nearby Mt. Kina Balu, because of the almost identical wine patterns,
bit the wings are relatively longer and the costal eminence on forewing
less conspicuous; the form of the Sth sternite and of the genital pro-
cesses show it to be quite a different species.

The female genitalia have the 7th sternite transverse, with the
side margins converging towards the anterior end. The 8th sternite is
a broad plate with semicircular posterior margin, the posterior gona-
pophyses have the distal extremities dilated.

in the type specimen unhatched eggs are visible through a break
in the wall of the abdomen, They are spherical, matt surfaced,
0.5 mm. in diameter, and show traces of a micropyle on one side.

Endoclita kara sp, nov,
Plate xxil, fig, 4 and text fig, 82

Female. Antennae (wanting in described specimen); head with
eyes moderately large, in lateral view not covering silhonet(e of head;
thorax, abdomen and legs ochreous-fawn. Forewing with costa siuuons,
slightly dilated at Se, apex blunt-pointed, termen and iiner margin
well rounded, wing volour pale grayish-fawn with brownish-lawn suifu-
alta; particularly a V- shaped area in middle of wing marking off
au area of pale ground colour in cell; groups of black-bordered white
spots at two-fifths cell and near r-m vein, a series of brown margined
circular patches between veins, principally in terminal third of wing,
each eirele with traces of a tiny central brown-ringed cream-coloured
spot, a figure eight shaped black spot obscurely margined with eream-
coloured scales inwards from inner margin at one-half, and traces of
others. Windwings with costa nearly straight, apex blunt, termer
rounded but slightly straightened near inner angle; grayish-l'awn with

TINDALE—REVISION OF GHOST MOTHS 195

a brassy lustre from some angles of view; traces of forewing pattern
only at tip of wing. Wing length 27 mm., expanse 57 mm.

Loc. Java: Vulkan Gede, Preanger district (1896, Prilwitz, type,
a female, unique, in Mus. f. Naturk., Berlin).

Related to EZ. sericeus from which it appears to differ in the nar-
rower dorsal part of the 8th sternite, the form of the posterior margin
of the 7th sternite, and in the longer, apically acutely pointed anterior
ronapophyses.

The female genitalia (fig. 32) have the 7th sternite transverse
with the lateral margins converging towards the anterior extremity,

35
33 34

Fig. 31-85. 81. Andoctita hoset Tindale, Sarawak, female, genitalia, ventral

aspect, 32, Lndoclita kara Tindale, Vulkan Gede, female genitalia, ventral

aspect. 33-35, Dadoclita ijereja Tindale, Mt. Kina Balu, 30-34. Female
genitalia, oblique and ventral aspects. 35, Egg diameter 0.60 mm,

The 8th sternite has a nose-like ventral process and a well rounded
osterior margin; the anterior gonapophyses are large and triangular

Pp Bins | or Boney §

in shape, terminating posteriorly in blunt points.

Endoclita ijereja sp. nov.
Plate xxiii, fig. 1 and text fig. 33-35

Female. Antennae (wanting in the described specimen); head
with eyes moderate, in lateral view not masking whole of head; head,
thorax and base of abdomen pale fawn, abdomen possibly darker (much
stained on type specimen); hind legs small, without specialized hairs.
Forewings with Se; present but withont appreciable costal swelling,
im vein separated from fork of M, and M, by a stalk shorter than in

tv

196 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

the type of the genus; wing colour smoky-brown with numerous paler
smoky-fawn markings, including a broad band across forewing from
costa af four-fifths to inner margin at. three-quarters; a line of black-
centred pale-fawn-margined spots along costal vein, others on costal
margin and a larger brownish-black spot where Cu. becomes obsole-
scent; a cluster of three white spots at junction of r-m vein and M,, and
another two (or three) at fork of M, and M,, other fleeks of creamy-
white scattered on outer third of wing. Hindwings with veins Peu and
1V both present; apical fifth of costa marked as in forewing, rest of
wing smoky-brown; in certain lights all but the anal margin and the
apical fifth of wing glows with a purplish-brown sheen. Forewing
length 54 mm., expanse 114 mm.

Loc. Borneo; Mt. Kina Balu, 1,200-1,500 metres, 1893 (Water-
stradt) type, a female, unique, in Mus. f. Naturk., Berlin.

This example bears a Staudinger collection No. K. 739, At first
glance it is like #, sigufer in the pattern of wing markiugs but the
wing tip is slightly more faleate, the costal markings are more numerous
and there are many points of difference in the details of the markings.

The female genitalia (fig, 33-34) have the 8th sternite with its
posterior margin spade-shaped and the 7th with posterior margin
straight, the anterior gonapophysial elements, in view from below,
show a rounded spine-like proeess overlying a blunter projection; in
oblique lateral view it appears more like a plate with two rounded
projections; the posterior gonapophyses are large with a median keel
and deep medio-lateral fold. In the form of the genitalia this species
bears no relationship to EF. signifer-

Hees dissected from the abdomen are available as are also others
still adhering to the apex of ahdomen, They are 0.6 mim, in diameter,
spherical, smooth, with a smal] circular area of different texture around
the mieropyle, Colour of dried eges, dark brown (fig. 35).

Endoclita sibelae (Roepke)
Phassus sibelae Roepke 1935, Trop, Natuur. 24, p. 102, fig.
This species, described from Batjan Island, has not been examined.
Endoclita signifer (Walker)
Phassus signifer Walker 1856, Cat. Lep, Het. Brit. Mus., vii, p. 1568.

Endoclita signifer Tindale 1941, Ree, S. Austr. Mus., 7, p. 30,
Hypophassus siqnifer Viette 1948, Musee Hende, xii (8), p. 83.

TINDALE—REVISION OF GHOST MOTHS 197

Viette reports this species from Tonkin at Hoa Binh. It is not
clear whether he has critically examined and compared the genitalia
of his specimens. Previous identifications of the species in Hastern
Asia all have proved to be based on other species, for example the
female example described in this paper as EF. topeza long stood under
this name in the Cornell University Collection.

UNIDENTIFIED SPECIES OF ENDOCLITA

Other species thought to belong to Endoclita but not. critically
considered for this revision are Phassus dirschi Bang Haas 1939 from
Kansu, and Gorgopis niphonica Butler 1879.

REFERENCES CITED
Bang-Haas, O. 1939: Iris. p. 59, fig.
Butler, A. G. 1879: Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (5), iv, p. 357.
Zeuner, I, . 1943: Trans. Zool. Soc. London, 25, p, 110.

ADDITION TO PREVIOUS PART
Sahyadrassus magnus Tindale
Plate xxiii, fig. 2

In a previous part of this revision, Tindale (1942, p. 154), this
species was described, but not figured. The paper had been rather
rapidly completed during a brief leave from military duties. The
deficiency is now made good. The only known example, in the British
Museum, is a rather dilapidated looking male which was much injured
in the post when being sent to me in Australia. In the original descrip-
tion it was ascribed in error to the South Australian Museum collection,

Rre. SoA. Museen Vou. NILE, Pearse NVI

+

Fie der panes | ebe |

wl

Ree. Sok. Museen Voto NIL, Phare NVI

Reine SOAS Ma osne Vor NEEL Phare AVOUT

1) kt

ri]

\
4

Vhade, ae

a)
=
=

ine, SON. Meso Von NUTT, Pravin NUN

(Huh.

the, SoA. Meanie M Von, XU, Phare XN

+

Mie SLA AP siiem Vor, NIE, Piark ANI

Rime, SoA. Moeswoa Vot. NULL, Paave XAT

Y1S) tty,

dale, femme, Los

Tite williawesé

Rre. SoA. Mose Vow. NET, Phare NNIE

Pig. 1. Andoelita igerveda Vondales Herik Ma. Kine Bray Tht ta,
Wie 2) Sehyadiitssns mois Vindale, aide, Deni Tlis, Roo didia, Phe an

NEW CRETACEOUS FOSSILS FROM NEW GUINEA

BY MARTIN F. GLAESSNER, UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE

WITH A CONTRIBUTION ON A NEW AMMONITE GENUS

BY R. CASEY, GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GREAT BRITAIN
Summary

Mollusca including the ammonite, Chimbuites sinuosocostatus gen. et sp. nov., Pleuromya cuneata
sp. nov. and several species previously known from Australia are described from the Albian of
Papua and New Guinea. Two new Trigonias, a dimitobelid belemnite and a new species of
tubicolous worm Rotularia are described from the Cenomanian. An introduction summarizes new
data on the Cretaceous of New Guinea which have become known during the last decade.

NEW CRETACEOUS FOSSILS FROM NEW GUINEA
By MARTIN F. GLAESSNER, Universrry of ApDELAIDE

With a Contribution on a New Ammonite Genus

By R. CASEY, Geotoctcar Survey or Grear Brrrarw

Plates xxiv-xxvi and text fig, 1-5

ABSTRACT

Mollusca including the ammonite Chimbuites sinuosocostatus gen.
et sp. nov., Pleuromya cuneata sp. noy. and, several species previously
known from Australia are described from the Albian of Papua and
New Guinea. Two new Trigonias, a dimitobelid belemnite and a new
species of tubicolous worm Rotularia are described from the Ceno-
manian. An introduction summarizes new data on the Cretaceous of
New Guinea which have become known during the last decade.

INTRODUCTION

Much progress has been made in the study of Cretaceons sediments
and fossils in the Australian part of New Guinea since they were last
reviewed (Glaessner 1943, David 1950). The main results of the new
discoveries can be summarized as follows: (1) greater extent and
completeness of the Cretaceous record, (2) confirmation and extension
of Australian relations of the faunas, and (3) zoning of facies according
to tectonic environment. Any approach to detailed biostratigraphy
of this large and little-known area can only be gradual and detailed
zonal correlation of Cretaceous strata is not yet possible. It should
be based on detailed zonal collecting from continuons fossiliferous
sequences which could not be carried out because of difficulties of
terrain and tectonics. Nevertheless, the identification of a number of
fossils has led to age determinations which though necessarily some-
what vague and provisional, have added to the record of Cretaceous
geological history of the area.

200 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

The Cretaceous commences in New Guinea with basal Lower
Cretaceous (Jvfravalanginian) shales, with a fauna corresponding to
that of the Lochambel beds at the top of the Spiti shales in the
Himalaya. It ineludes Haplophylloceras strigile (Blanford), a distine-
tive species which is also well known from the Suly [slands and from
Western New Guinea. It was fonnd recently in Papua, in the Vicinity
of the Kereru Range, The Infravalanginian Zone ammonite Subthur-
mannia boissieri (Pietet) has been recorded by Spath (1952, p. 23)
from this locality,

The presence of higher Neucomian cannot be as clearly demon-
strated, The absence of well-dated faunas of this age is, however, less
likely to be due to regional non-deposition than to lack of suitable facies
or to local erosion prior to a transgression of the Aptian or Albian.
Evidence of such a transgression was found in the headwaters of the
Fly River (Osborne 1945).

The Aptian is not represented hy distinctive mollusean faunas.
The genera Maccoyella and Peratobelus which are abundant in the
Aptian of Anstralia have not been found in New Guinea and the
ammonite tentatively identified as Deshayesiles is shown by Casey to
represent a new genus of Albian affinities. Assemblages of smaller
foraminifera suggesting Aptian are oceur but are not yet sufficiently
well known to permit definite correlations.

The Albian is well represented but has not yet been zoned, Ans-
tralian affinities are now well established though other elements are
also present in the Albian fauna of New Guinea. Among them are
Ptychomya and Nerinea (Glaessner 1945), and. Puzosia,

The foraminiferal fauna of the Albian of New Guinea contains
a number of well-known Enropean and North American species, in
addition to some from the Great Artesian Basin and others from the
Carnarvon Basin (Western Australia).

In the Cenomanian, affinities can he established only with the
northern and western fringes of the Australian continent (Melville
and Bathurst Islands, Carnarvon Basin), as the Great Artesian Basin
does not contain marine deposits of this age, Such affinities have been
found among the foraminifera and mollusca but further discussion
has to be deferred until the Australian Cenomanian faunas are
described,

GLAESSNER—CRETACEOUS FOSSILS 201

The following Table summarizes the known faunal relations:
New Guinea Australia

Pseudavicula papyracea™ .. 64 22 45 0+ =. ee Alb. Alb,
Aucellina gryphaeoides .... 1... -- =. +... Alb. $8
Plewromya cuneata ooo. ce ce ee ee ee ee ee Alb? —
Linotrigomia (Oistotrigania) lima .. .. .. .. Cen, Met
“Trigania’’ PAPWANd oo eee ce ce ee ee ee ee Con. 4
Cymaloceras hendersond o.oo. 6. ce ee ee ee es Alb. Alb.
Cymatoceras Sp... ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee Cone —
Chimbuites sinuosocostatus .. .. .. .. 6... Alb. —
Puzosia cf, plamulata.. 2. 6. 6. ee ee ee Alb, —
Myloceras davidi .. .6 ¢. cc alee ee ee eee ATD. Alb.
Myloceras cf. ftndersi .. 6.66 oe ce ee ee ee Alb. Alb,
Labeceras trifidum .. 2. 0. 6. 2. ee ae ee as) ADD. Alb,

Porahibolites blanfordi® 0. 0. 0. 0... 0... Alb. —
Dimitobelus (Tetrabelus) macregort .. .. .. Alb-Cen, ©
Rotularia spirulaeoides .. 5,-2.6 -. 7 ee ee) Cen. _—

The Chimbu Cretaceous sequenee on the north flank of the Kubor
Anticline) is characteristic of a distinctive tectonie zone which
Edwards and Glaessner (1958, p. 111) recognised as geosynelinal. They
referred to it as miogeosynclinal while Rickwood (1955, p. 81) considers
it as ‘more nearly eugeosynclinal than miogeosynclinal’’. There 1s
agreement on the necessity of assuming more mobile belts to the north
and east of the area, with volcanic islands as a souree of the abundant
voleanic component, while a relatively stable area was situated to the
south and west, In this area the Albian and Cenomanian fossils here
deseribed were collected from greensands and caleareons shales. These

(1) See Glaessner 1945. (2) Similar speecias or subspecies in the Albian of the Great Artesian
Basin,

(8) ‘This section is included in the area studied by Rickwood (1955) who found further fossils
und revised the stratigraphy. He mapped’ the Kondaku Tujfs (Lower Cretaceous) and
fhe overlying Chim Group (Marit Shales and Chimbu Tuffs of Edwards and Glaessner),
pointing out that its subdivisions are recognizable only in the Chim Valley and that
it is ‘‘probably not wholly Upper Cretaceous’? as ammonites found by natives in this
vicinity and deseribed below as Albian tame from its hase, There is of course no reason
why the rock-stratigraphie Kondakn/Chim boundary used in mapping should coincide
wilh the chronological Albiun/Cenomaninn boundary. The top of the Chim Group is
probably uot younger than Cenomanian (or Turonian) rather than ‘fa record of
uninterrupted sedimentation from the uppermost Cretaceous . . .« to Eovene’’ as
Edwards and Glaessner had thought possible, Rickwood has found that not only one
but all limestone ‘‘lenses’? with Eocene foraminifera included in the upper part
of Noakes’s section below the main Eocene searp are slump blocka and that Cretaceous
fossils, including Dimitobelus macgregort (Glaessner) oceur only 1,500 feet below the
top of the Chim Group.

202 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

sediments are probably an eastward extension of the Albian-Ceno-
manian Feing Group (Osborne 1945, Glaessner 1945) of the Upper
Fly River area 200 miles to the west-north-west, which they resemble.

OF EASTERN NEW GUINEA
showing

FOSSIL LOCALITIES +

Reference: 1. Masul Village
2. Kubukirua Ck. W.of Kuage
3. Sura Creek
4. Kerabi Valley
5. Sebe Creek

Fig, 1 Locality map.

It is probable that the fossils described from a less altered portion
of a phyllitie greywacke series (Kaindi Schists) near Wau in New
Guinea (Glaessner 1949) are also of Albian or Cenomanian age. The
geuera Cliona, Cucullaea, Glycymeris, ‘‘Trigonia’’, Cardium, Vulsella,
Inoceramus and Tibia? have been recognised. These rocks represent
a regionally metamorphosed zone of the mid-Cretaceous geosyncline of
New Guinea.

The localities of most of the deseribed species are shown on the
accompanying map (fig. 1) which was kindly made available by the
Australasian Petroleum Company.

Holotypes of the new species are in the palaeontological collection
of the University of Adelaide. Paratypes are in the South Australian
Museum. Other examined specimens have been returned to the private
collection of the Australasian Petroleum Company.

GLAESSNER—CRETACEOUS FOSSILS 203

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is indebted to the Australasian Petrolerm Company
for permission to describe these fossils and to publish this paper; to
Dr. P. HK. Kent, Mr, W, D. Mott, Mr. F. K. Rickwood and Mr, G, A. V.
Stanley, who collected or obtained the fossils and supplied information,
and to the Departments of Geology of the Universities of Melbourne
and Queensland, and the Australian Museum (Sydney) for the loan
of specimens. The Australasian Petroleum Company provided the
drawing of text fig, 1; Miss A. M. OC. Swan assisted in the drafting of
the other text figures, and Miss M. J. Wade (University of Adelaide)
photographed most, of the specimens.

DESCRIPTIONS
Aucellina gryphaeoides (Sowerby)
Plate xxiv, fig. la-b and text fig. 2

Avicula gryphaeoides J. de C. Sowerlyy, Trans. Geol. Soe., ser, 2, vol. 4,
1526, pp. 156, 335, pl. 11, fig. 3.

Aucellina gryphaeoides Pompeckj, N. Jahrb. Min. ete., Beil.-Bd. 14,
1901, pp. 354, 365, pl. 16, fig. 6-8,

Aucellina gryphaeoides 11, Woods, Mon. Cretac, Lamellibr. England
vol. 2, pt. 2, Palaeontogr. Soe. 1905, p. 72, pl. 10, fig. 6-13.

Aucellina aryphacoides hughendenensis (non Etheridge), Edwards and
Glaessner, Proc. Roy. Soe, Vict., vol, 64, 1953, p. 98.

Material and occurrence: Two left valves and one right. valve
from Kubukirua Creek, west of Knage Village, Eastern Highlands of
New Guinea, abont 5 miles northeast of Wahgi-Purari junction (Coll.
G, A. V. Stanley). One left valve from Sura Creek, east-south-east of
Lake Tebera, Papua (Coll. F. K. Rieckwood).

Remurks: The specimens from New Guinea agree remarkably
well in shape, eurvature, aud ornamentation with the English species,
two specimens of which from the Cambridge Greensand were kindly
forwarded for comparison by Dr. L. R. Cox, of the British Museum
(Natural History), In the right valve the height is slightly less than
the length and the radial ribs are more pronounced on the surface of
the internal mould, In the left valve the proportions and eurvature of
the umbo are identical with those of the Nuglish form.

204 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

A comparison was made with specimens from the Tambo Forma-
tion of Queensland (Granada and Ilfracombe) of the species described
by Etheridge as Avicula hughendenensis. R. Etheridge Jr. in Jack and
Etheridge. 1892, p. 461), remarks that A. gryphaeoides differs from the
Australian form in having a much larger umbo in the left valve, ‘‘and
the general characters of the right valve are quite different.’’ The
first of these statements can be confirmed, the second is of questionable
value. Pompeckj noted the longer auricle of the left valve and the
radial sculpture. These distinguishing characters are of minor import-
ance compared with differences between other species of the genus
and may therefore be considered as subspecific. Only the somewhat
more pronounced radial sculpture is seen in the New Guinea specimens
which are thus closer to the English form. On examination of further
material from with the very wide geographic range of the species,

ii a a
Sm.m.
Fig. 2. Aucellina gryphacoides (Sowerby). Enlarged view of the proximal

portion of right valve (pl. 1 fig. 1b), camera lucida drawing showing outline
of complete posterior and fragmentary anterior auricle.

GLAESSNER—CRETACEOUS FOSSILS 205

they may be found to constitute another subspecies, The characters
of the umbo and auricles are, however, definitely as in the English form
to whieh the present specimens are therefore referred.

A, inecurva Wtheridge from the Albian of Darwin, A. exglypha
Woods from the Albian of New Zealand, A. parva (Stoliczka) from the
Cenomanian of Southern India and A, radiatostriata (Bonarelli and
Navera) from the Upper Aptian of South Georgia are clearly specific-
ally different, the last-named differmg in the much stronger radial
sculpture, the less projecting umbo and the less strongly developed
posterior part of the left valve (see Wilekens 1947).

Age: It is diffienlt to reach a definite conclusion about the strati-
graphic range of this species and allied forms, Woods (1903) listed
it from the Upper Gault, the Cambridge Greensand, and the Ceno-
manian up to the zone of Holaster subglobosus. Gillet (1924) also
includes in this species d'Orbigny's Inoceramus coquandt (Upper
Aptian). Pompeckj (1901) considers the identity of this species with
A, gryphaeoides as “very probably’? but points ont that it has not
been properly described. D’Orbigny’s type figure does not show the
characteristic shape of the umbo of the English form, An Aptian age
of any typical gryphaeoides does not seem to be well established.
Neither has it been figured from the Upper Cenomanian. In the Canca-
sus it was listed hy Renngarten from the Upper Albian where it occurs
stratigraphically above the Lower Albian A. caucasica Abiech. <A.
aryphacoides is therefore to be considered as mainly an Upper Albian
form, possibly extending into the Lower Cenomanian (Woods, Pom-
peckj), Harlier and later references require confirmation, A, g, hugh-
endenensis is according to Whitehouse restricted to the Middle and
Upper Albian Tambo Formation of Queensland and its equivalents in
South Australia. H. O. Fletcher collected many fine specimens of this
subspecies at Onepah Station, about 30 miles N.N.E. of Tibooburra,
New Sonth Wales (Anstralian Museum, Nrs. F; 42149, 42155-7, 42169-
70, 42179, 42208, 42215, 42219),

Linotrigonia (Oistotrigonia) lima sp. nov.
Plate xxv, fig, 7a-b and 8-9

Material: Wolotype (Adelaide University Geol, Dept. No. F15324)
showing both valves in apposition, partly concealed by hard sandy
matrix. Paratype, a left valve, carinal portion and umbo broken but
surface well exposed by weathering. Also abont 10 external and
internal moulds and fragments (Coll, F. K. Rieckwood).

206 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Diagnosis: Flank ribs mostly gently eurved, bearing long, stout,
close-set spines; area very wide, covered with numerous small blunt
tubercles which are arranged to form oblique curved costae diverging
from the flank ribs at an angle of about 60-70° in the young and about
40° on the adult shell,

Descriptions Shell thick, broadly elliptical in outline, but with
a straight, relatively short postero-dorsal margin. Umbo small, very
slizhtly projecting. Area wide, almost flat; marginal carina obtuse,
straight. In young specimens the area is covered with numerous crenu-
lated costae which are straight near the carina and bend npward near
the dorsal margin. In the adult the areal costae break up into numerous
small blunt tubercles giving the area a distinctive ragp-like surface.
Flank ribs reaching the ventral margin at an angle of about 70-80";
they are very gently curved, separated by wider spaces, about 10 with
a few short antero-ventral intercalations. There are 7-8 additional
anterior flank ribs, diverging sharply from fhe main ribs towards the
anterior margin which they reach at right angles, The main and some
of the anterior costae are at first covered with and later in ontogeny
break up into long stout close-set spines. The chevron-like divergence
of areal and flank ribs on the marginal carina is well marked, parti-
enlarly in yonng stages (pl. xxv, fig. 9), bnt in the adult the areal eostae
are much weaker than the flank ribs and growth lines become increas-
ingly well marked. The eostae are seen on the internal surface of
the valves as broad depressions, The interior margin is crenulated.
Teeth and buttress well developed, with fine dental crenulations, but
not well preserved.

Measurements; Length 41 mm., height 31.3 mm., length of carina
about 40 min. (holotype), maximum thickness 28.6 mm. Length of
paratype about 37 mm.

Comparison: This species resermbles closely the form deseribed
as Trigonia (Acanthotrigonia) phyllitica Glaessner (1949), from the
sheared and partly contactanetamorphie greywacke-phyllite complex
of the Kaindi Group in the Morobe District of New Guinea. Since then
Cox (1952) has revised the taxonomy of the Trigoniidae and has
removed the ‘‘spinose scabrae’’, to which both this and the new species
belong, from Acanthotrigonia (now placed in the synonymy of Ptero-
trigonia), to form a new subgenus Oistotrigonia. This is a far more
satisfactory grouping, Linotrigonia (Oistotrigonia) phyllitica (Glaess-
ner) differs from the new species in the ornamentation of the area which
is covered with fine but distinet ribs becoming obsolescent near the

GLAESSNER—CRETACEOUS FOSSILS 207

lateral edge. The flank ribs appear to have been sharper and are
covered with ‘small protuberances’’. While these observed differences
make it impossible to place the present material in L, (0.) phyllitica,
the discovery of better preserved material of this species must be
awaited before their significance can be fully evaluated, In other
species of the subgenus the flank ribs swing forward much more
strongly, the spines are less distinet, and the area is not as closely
papillate.

Occurrence: Bast of Lake Tebera, Papua; common in dark green
glauconitie sandstone, with Dimitobelus macgregort, Dentalium sp.,
gastropods, and other lamellibranchs,

Age: While the subgenus Oistotriyonia ocenrs throughout the
Cretaceous and is therefore unsuitable for detailed age determination,
the association of the new species with other mollusea unlike thoge from
the Lower Cretaceous of New Guinea point to a probable Cenomanian
age. This does not conflict with local stratigraphic observations.

Remarks: Another species of Trigonia (sensu lalo) oceurs in the
Purari Greywackes. It has a small area and numerous flank ribs
which are vertical in the median part. The available material does
not permit detailed description and identification,

“Trigonia” papuana sp, nov,
Plate xxvi, fig. la-b

Material: (1) Holotype: Right valye, almost complete but with
the umbonal portion worn smooth (Queensland University Geol. Dept.
No. F'17914, coll. W. D. Mott, loose in stream gravel in outcrop area
of Cretaceous sandstones); (2) Fragment of caleareous matrix
(Queensland Univ, Geol. Dept. No, F17915) containing two almost com-
plete left valves and numerous fragments. Worn. Coll. W. D. Mott;
(3) Fragmentary right valve. Coll, R, A. Woodward; (4) Rock
fragment measuring about 14 x 2 x 3 inches containing remains of at
least. twelve valves forming a shell breeeia (Inmachelle). Coll. R. A.
Woodward.

Description: Shell thick, triangular to pentagonal in outline, length
equalling height, almost equilateral, moderately convex, Anterior
margin straight, ventral margin convex, postero-ventral angle obtuse,
posterior and postero-dorsal margins straight and subequal in length.
Umbo broadly rounded, worn in all available specimens.

208 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

Area wide, moderately convex, with a very faint median furrow
and weak eoncentric growth lines. Marginal carina well developed
in the holotype, rounded, with a shallow furrow between it and the
area and a wider and deeper suleus along its anterior side. Both
suleus and carina appear to be variable, the suleus being better deve-
loped in the paratype specimens in which the carina is not as clearly
visible as in the holotype.

Umbonal portion of the valve smooth, showing only faint growth
lines, the beginning of the median ridge, and the sulcus. Anterior and
ventral part of the valve ornamented with concentric ridges (8 in the
holotype). They take an arcuate course from the anterior margin of
the valve to the anterior border of the suleus where they end abruptly,
or to the veutral margin, The surfaces of the first two ridges are
smooth to undulating, the later ones are covered with close-set rounded
knobs becoming more distinct and numerous on the younger costae and
varying in size.

Hinge teeth of right valve long and strong, finely crenulated.

Comparison: This species belongs ta a rather obscure and uncom-
mon group of Trigoniidae, Some of its distinctive characters occur
in a somewhat vagne manner in some of the specimens deseribed by
Woods (1917) as T. hanetiana @Orbigny from the Senonian of Amuri
Blutf, New Zealand. Among them are the snbtriangular outline, the
carina and suleus, and the oblique arcuate trend of the costae (see parti-
cularly pl. 9, fig. 4). Im the new species there is no indication of the
divergent short anterior ribs which form an angle with the main ribs in
most of the specimens figured hy Woods, The valves are not elongate
in ontline, the tnhercles on the ribs are different in shape and size, and
the senlpture of the area is much weaker in the New Guinea species.
The New Zealand form does not agree entirely with the typical South
American T. hanetiana which is even less like the new species. YT.
obtusa Tupé was included by Woods in the synonymy of 7. hanetiana
as ‘‘a short form’’, I was unable to see figures or descriptions of this
form in the literature at my disposal.

Taxonomic posilion; Marwick (1932) erected a new genus Paci-
trigonia in which he placed J. haneltiana d’Orbigny, T. explectu Wil-
ckens, and his new species P. sylvesteri. In these Upper Senonian
species the oblique sculpture is weak while in the new speuies it is
dominant. Other differences are the oblong, Inequilateral shape and
the obscure carina in Pacitrigonia. Among the new wenera and sub-
genera deseribed by Cox (1952), Buchotrigonia (Syrotrigonia) shows

GLAESSNER—CRETACEOUS FOSSILS 209

the closest resemblance but according to the generic diagnosis the
costae are non-tuberenlate. The correct generic and subgenerie posi-
tion of this species must therefore remain undecided until more material
becomes available and publications which are at present inaccessible
to the writer can be consulted.

Occurence: Kerabi Valley, north-west of Mt. Murray, Papua.

Age; Cenomanian, greensands with Mantelliceras and other Acan-
thoceratids,

Pleuromya cuneata sp. nov.
Plate xxiv, fig, 2a-c¢

Plenvromya n. sp., Rdwards and Glaessner, Proce. Roy. Soc, Vict., vol.
64, 1958, p. 64,

Holotype: Adelaide University Geol. Dept. No. F15300.

Material: 19 specimens, with both valves in apposition.

Diagnosis: Shell thin, ornamented with conspicuous coneentric
folds varying in strength, with occasional irregular fusion of adjoining
folds in the central part of the shell. Folds bluntly triangular in cross
section, with a gentler ventral slope. Fine growth lines on and between
folds. Umbones situated between one-third and a half of the shell
length from the anterior end, incurved, not prominent. Anterior end
short, broadly and evenly rounded, posterior end narrowed. Greatest
height either in front of or at the umbo. Posterior suleus weak in
some specimens, absent in others. Posterior gape moderate.

Measurements: .
Ant. distance

Spec. Length Height Max. thickness of umbo
MB ac te ws 32 a 69 46 36 30,5
b (Holotype) ..., 67 47.5 33.0 24
C eee ee) GAL 46 30.5 35
ne elec cee ge 36 27 21.2
Bee o.oo ee 3h 0 30 25 20.5
No, 194 (Erni) .. 56.5 40.5 28.5 22

Description: In all specimens both valves are preserved, with some
of the thin shell adhering to the cast. Some are partly enclosed in
hard caleareous nodules. The hinge is not exposed but after cutting a
specimen sagittally a small tooth-like projection was found under the
umbo of the left valve. The external ligament and strong nymphs are
clearly visible. One or two specimens show faint traces of the deep

210 RECORDS OF THE 8.A. MUSEUM

pallia] sinus which appears to end below the umbo. In eight specimens
the right valve igs slightly larger or at least higher at the umbo and
hinge than the left valve. In three specimens the valves and their
heights are equal. The valves taper strougly and evenly towards
the narrowly rounded posterior margin and the thickness of the shell
decreases along an almost straight line from its maximum which is
anterior to the umbo, This gives the shell a prononneced wedge shape
in both lateral and dorsal views. There is a slight variation in the
position of the umbo, in the strength of the folds, and in the posterior
suleus which is fainthy visihle in only five of the specimens. There is
no anterior ridge or other radial sculpture.

Remarks: The new species shows all features recently enumer-
ated in the diagnosis of Pleuromya (Arkell 1934), with the exception of
details of the hinge structure which are not clearly visible in closed
shells. P, ewneata differs from P. alduini, the type species, in its much
straighter ventral margin bringing the greatest height almost below
the umbo. It resembles closely and appears to be econgenerie with P,
borealis Warren from the Albian of the Mackenzie River Valley,
Canada (Warren 1947), Specifie differences are seen in the narrow
umbo and in the anterior end being more evenly rounded and sharply
angular in dorsal view, The posterior gape ts wider.

Occurrence: The exact localities at which this species ocenrs are
not known. The present specimens were collected by natives near
Masul Village, on a tributary of the Chimbu River, about three miles
east-sonth-east of Chimbu, Kastern Highlands of New Guinea, together
with specimens of Chimbuites sinuosocostatus and a few other species.
Two further specimens were obtained by a missionary from natives
living in the nortli-esstern slopes of the Bismarck Mountains, about
25 miles north-west of Chimbu. These were nsed by members of the
Gende tribe as magie stones in connection with their gardening. It
is probable that the specimens from the Chimbn area were colleeted by
the natives for sunilar purpose but if is unlikely that all the specimens
eame from the same source as there is little intercourse between the
tribes in this area, and similar rocks are known to oceur at both loeali-
ties. The specimens from the Gende tribal area were briefly described
by Erni (1944, p, 474) as “Plewromya or Panopaea”’ and their geulp-
ture was compared with Panopaea gurgitis (Brongniart), The pos-
terior end of one specimen and the posterior dorsal side of the other
are damaged, Plaster casts of the two fossils presented by the late
Dr. Bernoulli of the Basel Museum show that they are specifically

GLAESSNER—CRETACEOUS FOSSILS 211

identical with the Chimbu material which is well enough preserved to
show all features required for generic identification.

Cymatoceras hendersoni (R. Etheridge Jr.)
Text fig. 8a-¢

Nautilus hendersoni R. Etheridge Jr. (MS,) in Jack and Wtheridge,
Geol, Pal, Queensland and New Guinea, 1892, p, 502,

Nautilus (Cymatoceras?) hendersoni R, Etheridge Jr. Queensland
Geol, Survey Bull,, 13, 1901, p. 34, pl. 1, fig, 1-2, pl. 2, fig. 1-3.

Nautilus (Cymatoceras?) henderson R. Etheridge Jv., Contr. Pal.
South Aust., No. 14, 1905, p. 16, pl. 1, fig. 6-9, pl. 3, fig. 9-12.

Eutrephoceras henderson (Ktheridge), Teichert. J. Paleont,, vol. 26,
p. 737,

Cymatoceras &p. Rdwards and Glaessner, Proce, Roy. Soe. Viet., vol, 64,
1958, p. 98.

Material: Three incomplete casts, one with some of the outer
shell well preserved.

Description: The best preserved specimen, about 150 mm, in diame-
ter and 100 mm, wide, shows the distal half of the outer whorl enclos-
ing the complete inner whorls. It is septate throughout, Only a small
portion of the surface of the shell is visible. There are eight to nine
septa in each of the preserved half whorls. The suture line consists of
a wide ventral saddle, a shallow rounded lateral lobe, a high and
undulating umbilical saddle. There is a small annular lobe, the whorl
section is regularly rounded, the height being about three-fifths of the
width. The venter is gently arched. The umbilicus is deep and narrow.
The siphuncle is centrodorsan where the height is abont 63 mm,

Another specimen which must have reached a diameter of over
200 mm. is poorly preserved but shows surface sculpture consisting
of fine wavy ridges with a wide lateral forward sweep. They are
unequal in strength and spacing, giving on the whole the impression of
being somewhat accentuated at intervals of about 5mm, These ridges
are seen only on thei outer surface of the shell which is thick. Very
fine longitudinal striae can be seen only with a hand lens.

The third specimen is smaller, 87 mm, in diameter, and much worn.
It shows clearly 16 septa in the last whorl.

E

212 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Tels

Cc

Fig. 3. Cymatoceras hendersoni R. Etheridge jun. a. Septal view, b. mature
suture, c. Juvenile suture,

These specimens agree well with Etheridge’s description of the
Queensland species, particularly in the general shape and the delicate
sculpture. The umbilical lobe seems to be more strongly expressed in
the present specimens but as Etheridge did not draw the suture line
and only figured it on a cast in which the edges of the chambers were
damaged, the significance of this possible difference is uncertain.

GLAESSNER—CRETACEOUS FOSSILS 213

Occurrence: The figures represent characters of a specimen found
in a concretion in shale, outeropping in Kubukirna Creek, west of Knage
Village, 5 miles northeast of the Waligi-Purari Junction, Kastern High-
lands, New Guinea (Coll, G. A, V. Stanley), Other specimens were
found by natives near Masul Village, 3 miles east-south-east of Chimbu
airstrip, Central Highlands of New Guinea.

Age: The age of the specimen from near Knage is Albian. It
was found together with Aucellina gryphacoides, and a foraminiferal
fauna of Albian age oceurs in close proximity. The specimens from
near Masul were received together with Chimbuites but other fossils
indicating younger (Cenomanian) age (Mantelliceras and Turrilites)
were also obtained from natives in this vicinity.

Remarks: Another species of Cymatoceras oecurs in the Ceno-
manan greensauds with Acanthoceras in the Kerabi Valley. It ean
be distinguished by its much more sinuous costae which are separated
by narrow sharp furrows. here are also very fine longitudinal ventral
furrows spreading out laterally. The only known specimen measures
47 mm. in diameter.

Chimbuites Casey and Glaessner gen. nov‘?
Type species: C. sinuvosocostatus Casey and Glaessner nov. sp.

Diagnosis: More or less involute, Whorls subrectangular in
section, with flattened sides, rounded ventro-lateral shoulders and
feebly convex venter. Umbilical wall steep, smooth, but with rounded
rim. Costation of flexuous primary ribs, thickened on the lower half
of the flanks and terminating at the umbilical margin, alternating with
groups of secondary ribs. Secondary ribs end mostly at, mid-flank;
others make low-angle bi- or tri-fureation from the primaries, Ribs
traverse the venter with a forwards sinuosity, their regularity inter-
rupted by periodic, shallow, vestigial constrictions, confined to the
venter and the outer half of the flanks, Suture line with narrow, sub-
symmetrically trifid lateral lobes, and numerous auxiliaries declining
with gentle obliqnity to the umbilicus,

This new genus is to be placed in the Family Hoplitidae sensu
lato and ig allied to the genera Uhligella Jacob, Lemuroceras Spath,
Cymahoplites Spath, Puzosigella Casey and Pachydesmoceras Spath.

(4) The deseription and diseussion of this new genus was contributed by RK, Casey who also
reviewed the description of its type species. T wish to thank Mr, Casey for his
valuable ¢ontribution (M.F.G,),

214 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

These are all heavily ribbed derivatives of the Desmocerataceae which
connect that superfamily with the Hoplitaceae. Uhligella has much
blonter ribbing and the ribs are raised into bullae at the umbilical
margin on the inner whorls, Lemuroceras and Cymahoplites are more
compressed, the umbilical wall is oblique and the eostation different.
Pugosigella has a more distinet rim to the umbilicus, which on the early
whorls is surmounted by obtuse bullae, the inner half of the flank tends
to hecome smooth at the size of the New Guinea specimen, and the
suture line has the reduced number of auxiliaries and umbilical retrac-
tion of Puzosia. Pachydesmoceras bas nore numerous, finer, secondary
costae on the inner whorls which rarely branch trom the primaries; on
the outer whorls the costation simplifies by reduction in the proportion
of secondaries to primaries and bifureation is there more frequent,

UVhligella ranges from Upper Aptian to Middle Albian and is
typically European (though the generic name bas heen used imeritically
for ribbed desmoceratids from all parts of the world). Lemuroceras is
top Lower to basal Middle Albian and is at present known only from
India and Madagasear. Cymahoplites and Puzosigella are of about
the same age; the former occurs in Central Russia, the latter in Cali-
fornia, Pachydesmoceras is known mainly from oceurrences in the
uppermost Albian of Eurasia, but has heen reported from the Lower
Turonian of Japan and Cameroons.

Chimbuites sinuosocostatus Casey and Glaessner sp. nov.
Plate xxiv, fig, 3a-b; plate xxv, fig. la-b and 2, and text fig. 4

1953 Deshayesiles n, ap. Edwards and Glaessner, Proc. Roy. Soc. Viet.
vol. 64, p. 98,

Holotype: Adelaide University Geol. Dept. No. F15308.
Material: Hight apecimens in varying states of preservation,

Description: Whorls thick, with slightly rounded flanks, and arched
but flattened venter; nmbilicns narrow. Greatest whorl thickness half-
way between the mid-flank and the umbilical rim, Ribs gently sigmoidal
on the flanks and continuous across the venter with a pronounced
forward sinus. There are only 12-13 primaries which bifnreate some-
what irregularly abont the middle of the whorl height, with inter-
ealation of three to four rounded but distinct secondaries, There is
little if any difference between primaries and secondaries across the
venter. Fine growth lines appear on the surface of the shell, On the

GLAESSNER—CRETACEOUS FOSSILS 215

last whorl of the largest specimen and on the body chamber of the
holotype the ribs become flatter and less distinct. The suture is as
described for the genus,

Measurements:

Specimen: a b e d e ft
Holotype
mm % mm, % mm. % mm. % mm. % mm. %
diameter .. ..130 100 87 100 94.5100 84 100 62 100 40.5100

whorl height.. 60 46 438 49 44 46 40 47 32 51 20 49
whorl thickness 46 35 36.5 41 39 41 35 41 265 42 17 41
umbilicus .. .. 23 17 17.5 20 21 22 19 22 125 20 84 20

Remarks: All specimens are septate throughout but the largest
shows the spiral suture extending another quarter whorl, apparently
without septation. The holotype, which is intermediate in size, shows
the body chamber over one-third of the last whorl. There is little

Fig. 4. Chimbuites sintosocostatus Casey and Glaessner n, g., n. sp. Whorl
section, A.U.G.D, No, 15311.

variatiou in ribbing, inflation, or width of umbilicus over this size range
but the sculpture becomes weaker and smoother on the body chamber of
the larger specimens. The venter is more broadly rounded in smaller
specimens and the inflation of the whorls near the umbilical margin is
more pronounced in the largest specimen which is, however, somewhat
deformed and abraded, The forward inclination of the primaries seems
to increase with age. There is a slight variation in the depth of the
ventral forward sinus but in all specimens in the present collection,
except one, it is well formed, This exceptional specimen is preserved
as a septate fragment of two whorls with a maximum height of about
30 mm., equal to that of the smallest measured specimen of C. sinuo-
socostatus. The ribs divide here closer to the venter. The external and
lateral lobes are wider and the external saddle is more elaborate, This
may represent another species.

216 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Locality: Near Masul Village, about 3 miles east-sonth-east of
Chimbu airstrip, Hastern Highlands, New Guinea, collected by natives
probably from pebbles in a small local stream, and Presented to a
party led by Mr, G. A. V. Stanley in 1949.

Age: Probably Albian. The matrix of the holotype contains
another fragmentary specimen and also abundant small gastropods.

Puzosia cf. planulata (Sowerby)
Plate xxv, fig. 3

ef. Ammonites plonularis Sowerby, Sharpe, Cret. Ammonites, Palaeon-
togr. Soc., 1855, pt. 2, p, 29, pl. 12, fig. 3 (mon fig, 4),

Description: Two specimens of Pugosia haye been found close
together, one over 300 mm, in diameter and the other less than 35 mm.
The smaller specimen is complete but the shell is only partly preserved
and the distal nmbilical portion of the body chamber is damaged. There
are six constrictions. On the surface of the shell they form a rounded
tongue-like ventral forward sinus which is marked proximally by a
ventrally much widened and projecting smoothly rounded rib. On
the internal cast the ribs are extremely faint and hardly noticeable.
The distal edges of the constrictions are more strongly marked than
the proximal "edges, The ventral sinug is angular and almost inter-
rupted. Spath (1923, p. 48) deseribed P. planilata (Sowerby) as
compressed, haying a larger umbilicus than P. communis Spath, acute
chevrons on the periphery, and more distinet costation. In these
respects the small specimen agrees with P, planulata but in the absence
of material for direct comparison and of sufficient literature on other
species the identification must be left in doubt.

In the large specimen of Puzosia the outer whorl is septate through-
out. One third of this whorl was lost and in the gap one third of
the penultimate whorl is seen. At a diameter of about 300 nm. the
height and width of the whorl are about 160 mm., at its proximal
fracture they are about 112 mm. The diameter of the umbilieus is
about 100 mm, The venter is more arched and the flanks are more
rounded than in the small specimen. The ornamentation is similar
but obsolescent and the ventral sinus is more rounded though not less
pronounced,

Locality: Kubukirua Creek, west of Kuage Village, 5 miles north-
east of the Wahgi-Purari Junction, Mastern Highlands of New Guinea.

Age: Albian,

GLAESSNER—CRETACEOUS FOSSILS 217
Myloceras davidi Whitehouse
Plate xxvi, fig. 2-3

Crioceras sp. R. Etheridge Jr., Rec. Aust. Mus., vol. 7, 1909, p. 144,
pl. 38, fig. 1-2.

Myloceras davidi Whitehouse, Mem. Queensland Mus., vol. 8, 1926, p.
235, pl. 37, fig. 2.

Material: Two incomplete specimens (coll. F. K. Rickwood).

Description: ‘‘ Coiling crioceratid, whorls compressed; first whorls
more loosely coiled than later; costae thin, numerous, with small papil-
late ventro-lateral tubercles; septal suture with rectangular saddles
and deep very numerous L,’’ (Whitehouse). This species is distin-
guished from others, according to its author, by the compressed shape
of its shell and by the deep narrow lateral lobe of the septal suture.
Both characters are well shown in the present specimens in which the
costae are slightly flexed as in the holotype.

Locality: Vicinity of Sura Creek, south-east of Lake Tebera,
Papua.

Age and distributions: This species is known from the Upper
Albian Tambo Formation of Queensland. Its occurrence provides a
further valuable link between the Albian faunas of Queensland and
New Guinea.

Myloceras cf. flindersi (McCoy)

ef. Ancyloceras flindersi McCoy, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, vol. 20,
1867, p. 356.

ef. Crioceras flindersi (McCoy) (partim) R. Etheridge Jr., Rec. Aust.
Mus., vol. 7, 1909, pl. 39, fig. 1-3.

ef. Flindersites flindersi (McCoy), Whitehouse, Mem. Queensland Mus.,
vol. 8, 1926, p. 237.

Material: Two fragments of the distal part of the shell, mostly
preserved as casts (Coll. F. K. Rickwood: No. 226KH, with Pseuda-
vicula? sp.; 245K H, with Inoceramus sp.).

Description: The fragments, both from the straight part of the
shell, agree in size and development of ribs and nodes with Etheridge’s
figures. There is considerable irregularity in the height of insertion of
secondary ribs. The tubercles are markedly elongate. The venter is

218 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

preserved in one specimen but it is too badly crushed for an exact
description of its ornamentation. It was apparently much narrower
than in Etheridge’s specimens.

Measurements: Dorso-ventral diameter 60-65 mm., transverse dia-
meter about 25 mm. (deformed by compression). Length of larger
fragment about 80 mm.

Occurrence: Vicinity of Sura Creek, east-south-east of Lake
Tebera, Papua.

Age: Albian.

Remarks: Spath (1938, p. 601) has placed the genus Flindersites
Whitehouse in the synonymy of Myloceras Whitehouse.

Labeceras trifidum Whitehouse
Plate xxvi, fig. 4a-¢

Crioceras sp. R. Etheridge Jr. in: Jack and Etheridge, Geol. Pal.
Queensland and New Guinea, 1892, p. 502, pl. 33, fig. 4.

Crioceras laqueus R. Etheridge jun., Rec. Aust. Mus. vol. 7, 1907, pl.
49, fig. 7, 9 (non fig. 8).

Labeceras trifidum Whitehouse, Mem. Queensland Mus. vol. 8, 1926,
p. 228.

Material and preservation: Three specimens showing the terminal
‘‘hook’’. In one of them the collapsed straight portion and the aperture
can be seen, in another the entire body chamber from the last septum
to the apertural margin is preserved. Both are from a greenish grey-
wacke. The third specimen, from a grey shale, is distorted.

Description: The species was based on incomplete specimens
showing the ‘‘body chamber with prominent dorso- lateral tubercles
from which very fine but prominent ribs trifureate’’ (Whitehouse 1926,
p. 228). This description of the ornamentation, as well as the reference
to subcircular whorl section with flattened venter, fits the specimens
from New Guinea well. It is noted that the trifurcation is common but
not regular; bifurcating ribs with and without tubercles occur also, as
in the specimens figured by Etheridge. Some of the tubercles are very
prominent, particularly in the area of strongest curvature. The
apertural lappets are arcuate and directed slightly inward. They pro-
ject 6 mm. beyond the straight ventral margin of the peristome in a
specimen in which they are 12 mm. apart and in which the greatest
width of the chamber is 17 mm.

GLAESSNER—CRETACEOUS FOSSILS 219

Measurements: he distance between the aperture and an external
tangent to the back is 32.5 mm, in a speeimen in which the dorso-ventral
and transverse diameter of the last septum are 13.2 mm. The other
specimens are about the same size.

Occurrence: From the area north of the Middle Purari River,
Papua, One specimen was found 5 miles north of a point on the river
6 miles below Hathor Gorge, the others are from the same area,

Age and distribution; This species is known from the Upper Albian
of Queensland and South Australia. The genus is restricted to the
Upper Albian.

Dimitobelus (Tetrabelus) macgregori (Glaessner)
Plate xxvi, fig. 5a-b and 6, text fig. 5

Tetrabelus macgregori Glaessner, Proc, Roy. Soe. Viet., vol. 56, pt. 2,
1945, p. 160, pl. 6, fig, 12.

Dimitohelus n, sp,, Rickwood, J. Geol. Soc. Aust., vol. 2, 1955, p. 73.

Material: Holotype (Melbourne University Geol, Dept. No, 1876) ;
two fragmentary rostra (Queensland University Geol. Dept. No.
F'14501-2, coll. W. D. Mott) ; one well-preserved small and seven larger
fragmentary rostra, Of these, four represent the apical portion and
three shows the phragmocone, two af them are partly embedded in the
matrix, and one is free and very large (coll. F. K. Rickwood),

General remarks: The stndy of the new material has made it
necessary not only to amend the description of the species but also
that of the genus, The large new specimen (15294) shows the phray-
mocone to a length of about 70 mm, (25 mm. maximum width), with the
rostrum broken between the two main longitudinal grooves (see pl. xxvi
fig. 5) so that the siphunele is exposed between them, This proves that
the main grooves are ventro-lateral, not dorso-lateral as [ had stated in
the original description of the species. This description was based on
a comparison with an unnamed species of Tetrabelus trom New South
Wales (Ktheridge 1902, p. 46, pl. 9, figs. 3-6, Whitehouse 1924, p, 414).
A careful study of other species of Tetrabelus shows, however, that in
7’. seclusus and kleimi, Blanford, Giirich, Spengler and in faet White-
house had considered that two deeply incised furrows correctly as
ventro-lateral. This is clearly seen to be the position in rélation to the
siphunele in a specimen from Mountain Well, Onepah Station, 30 miles
north-north-west of Tibooburra, New South Wales (Coll, H, O. Fletcher,

220 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

vd

fal

a b Cc

Fig. 5. Dimitobelus (Tetrabelus) macgregori (Glaessner). Holotype.

a. Ventral view. b. Left lateral view. ¢. Right lateral view. vl. Ventro-

lateral grooves. dl. Dorso-lateral lines. 1dl. Lateral double lines (left
side covered with matrix).

Aust. Mus. No. F42263) which probably represents the form which
was described but not named by Etheridge from the same area. More-
over, this relation of the same grooves to the siphuncle can also be seen
in the specimen figured by Etheridge (1902a) as Belemnites eremos
Tate from South Australia, though Tate, Etheridge and Whitehouse
had described them as dorso-lateral in this and other forms which are
now placed in Dimitobelus. I have stated elsewhere (Glaessner
1957) that there is no evidence for this interpretation which must be
abandoned.

GLAESSNER—CRETACEOUS FOSSILS 221

Generic position: Although originally distinguished mainly on the
assumed presence of dorso-lateral grooves the genus Dimitobelus should
not be merged with Peratobelus in which only ventro-lateral grooyes
but no lateral double lines are present. J etrabelus was believed by
Whitehouse to be ‘‘a direct descendant. of Dimitobelus, the line of
division occurring at the stage when the ventro-lateral groove ceases
to be dependent on the dorso-lateral, but has an independent existence
(now disconnected from the lateral lines" (Whitehouse 1924, p. 414).
His definition of the Tetrabelus is: ‘*Clavate belemnites with dorso-
lateral grooves and lateral lines, but having, in addition, independent
ventrolateral grooves’’. In Dimitobelus the ventro- (not dorso-)
lateral grooves merge (after a swing towards the dorsal side) with
the lateral lines, and a dorso (not ventro-) lateral anterior extension of
these lines may also be present, This makes the separation (*‘indepen-
dence’’) of the ventro-lateral grooves from the lateral lines the main
distinguishing feature, not the two pairs of lines (see Whitehouse’s
fig. 3), Ktheridge’s species, however, and the new specimen from New
Sonth Wales do not show this separation allhough in other characters
they resemble 7. kleini and 7. seclusus, tis therefore preferable to
consider Telrabelus a subgenus of Dimitobelus.

Description: Rostrum clavate, stvongly constricted in the alveolar
region, dorso-vertrally compressed, particularly where it expands to
its greatest width. Ventro-lateral grooves deeply incised and sharply
defined, extending well below the protoconeh, straight but directed
towards a lateral position at {heir posterior end where they approach
the fine lateral double lines, Dorso-lateral lines weakly inpressed in
the alveolar region. Apex tapering gradually, The compression of
the rostrum seems to increase during growth. The alveolar angle is
about 15°, increasing slightly anteriorly. The bulbous protoconch is
about 0.55 mm. wide and 0.4 mm. lone, the following chamber of the
phragmocone 1 is 0.25 mm. long. The ratio of maximum transverse to
maximum dorsoe-ventral diaineter of the clavate portion of the rostrum
is 1.8 in five specimens, 1,4 in one, and 1,2 in the smallest individual,

Comparison: This species resembies closely D. diplychus (McCoy)
=B. canhami Tate) but differs in the less clavate shape of the rostram
and in the less intense dorso-ventral flattening, the mean ratio of the
maximum transverse to the maximum dorso-ventral diameter being
1,3 (range 1,2—1,4), as compared with 1,4—1.5 in D. diptychus. Tt
appears from a study of type specimens in the collections of the Uni-
versity of Adelaide that the forms deseribed by Etheridge from South

222 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Australia as Belemnites eremos (R. Etheridge Jun., 1902, p. 51, pl. 7,
fig. 18-21) should be ineluded in D. diptychus.

Occurrence: Middle Purari River, Paw Creek and about 8 miles
north-west; vicinity of Sebe Creek, east of Lake Tebera, Papua; Chim
Valley, 2 miles north-west of Chimbu, Western Highlands of New
Guinea (coll. F. K. Rickwood) ; Kerabi Valley, north-west of Mt. Mur-
ray, Papua (coll. W. D. Mott).

Age: Upper Albian and Cenomanian. The specimen (pl. xxvi,
fig. 5) which was found about 8 miles north-west of the locality of the
holotype was associated with Myloceras and Labeceras trifidwm, Both
these occurrences are in the Upper Albian. The specimens from the
Kerabi Valley are associated with large Mamtelliceras and other Acan-
thoceratids in greensands. The specimens from near Lake Tebera were
found in similar greensands, together with the Linotrigonia described
above, stratigraphically above the fossiliferous Albian. The material
from the Chim Valley came from a very hard shelly impure glauconitic
limestone 1,500 feet below the top of the Chim Group, several thousand
feet above the horizon of the fossiliferous Cenomanian ‘‘Maram”’
Shales which contain foraminifera in the Chimbu section and Huom-
phaloceras at Mingende about 7 miles west.

Rotularia spirulaeoides sp. nov.
Plate xxv, fig. 4a-b and 5-6

Material: Six specimens (Queensland University Geol. Dept. No.
1833, coll. R. A. Woodward), 5 specimens collected by W. D. Mott,
including the holotype, Adelaide University, Geol. Dept. No. F15320.

Description: Shell small, discoidal, umbilicate on both sides.
Whorls inflated, apico-basal diameter increasing rapidly up to the
last whorl, radial diameter of the whorl increasing slowly. The
earliest portion seen consists of two flatly trochospiral whorls followed
by one or two planispiral adult whorls expanding above the blunt apex
of the initial coil incompletely and somewhat irregularly involute on
both sides, at first to about half the whorl height but finally becoming
evolute and ending in a short tangentially projecting constricted tube.
Peripheral margin with a single broadly rounded keel, externally sep-
arated from the body of the whor] by shallow but clearly marked grooves
which are about equidistant from the umbilical and peripheral margins.
Surface showing arcuate growth lines concave towards the aperture’
above and below the lateral groove in which the direction of curvature
is reserved. Irregularities of growth tend to produce alternating

GLAESSNER—CRETACEOUS FOSSILS 223

umbilieal constrictions and ribs, The coiling is sinistral (in the sense
of Cox 1953, not of Wrigley 1951). In transverse section the inner
tubular space is cireular, with a dense inner and a layered outer wall
which is very thick along the umbilical edge, and with a thin brownish
‘‘epidermal’’ covering,

Measurements: Diameter np to 21 mm., ereatest thickness of last
whorl in largest specimen 7 mm. diameter of tube 2.7 mm.

Comparison; The species differs from ‘ Tubulostinm’’ discoideum
Stoliczka (Cenomanian of Southern India) in the rounded peripheral
keel, the periphery in the Indian species being truncated. The new form
resembles ‘‘Hotuwaria’’ spirulaea (Lamarck) very elosely in shape and
surface seulpture but differs in the lower and more rounded keel and
the depressed early whorls which according to Rutsch (1940) often
project above the adult coils i that common Huropean Kocene species.
In the new form the early whorls are lower than in “‘Rotularia”™’
elymenivides (Guppy) !rom the Hocene of the Antillean Region. Other
differences are the gradual transition to the planispirally eoiled part
of the shell and the greater thickness of the flanks at the level of the
periphery of the preceding whorls in the new species, The forms
described by Gardner (1939) from the Mocene of the Gulf Province of
North America differ in surface seulpture and the development of the
peripheral keels,

The new form differs from ‘‘Spirulaea’? gregaria R, Btheridge
Jr., in that the latter is concavo-sub-convex, and the periphery is vot
ridged or angled, In ‘‘Tubulostinm’* ornatum Wilekens from New
Zealand the peripheral keel is separated from the lateral bulging
zones by two much more pronouneed furrows. ‘7'.’ fallax Wilekens
from the Senonian of the Antaretie has a triple peripheral keel. 7,
australis Cox is smaller than 2. spirulacoides, being 14 mm. in diameter,
and appears to he less involute and more discoidal, and the straight
section of the tube is longer,

Taxonomic position: The taxonomy and nomenclature of the group
to which the new species helongs has heen discussed extensively in
recent years (Gardner 1939, Rutsch 1939, Wrigley 1951, Cox 1958).
While Rutsch has argued in favour of considering these fossils as
gastropods and of applying to them the name Tubulostinm, Wrigley has
shown conclusively that the earliest stage of formation of the tube.
which is rarely preserved, has the character of a worm tnhe. Wrigley’s
arguments m favour of the application of the generic name Rotularia
Defrance 1827 instead of Tubulostivm Stoliezka 1867 (which may

224 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

replace it if the prior use of Rotularia by Lamouroux in 1822 is con-
firmed) were accepted by Cox (1953).

Locality: Kerabi Valley, north-west of Mt. Murray, Papua.

Age: The genus ranges from Albian to Lower Oligocene. The
association of the new species with Mantelliceras and other Acantho-
ceratids places it in the Cenomanian.

REFERENCES

Arkell, W. J., 1934: A Monograph of British Corallian Lamellibranchia,
pt. 7, Palaeontogr. Soc. (1933), pp. 277-324, pls. 37-44.

Carey, S. W., 1945: Note on Cretaceous strata in the Purari Valley,
Papua. Proc. Roy. Soe. Vict., vol. 56, pt. 2, pp. 125-130.

Cox, L. R., 1952: Notes on the Trigoniidae with outlines of a classifica-
tion of the family. Proc. Malac. Soe. Lond., vol. 29, pp.
45-70, pl. 3, 4.

1953; Lower Cretaceous Gastropoda, Lamellibranchia and

Annelida from Alexander I Land. Falkland Is. Depend.
Surv. Se. Rep. No. 4, pp. 1-14, pl. 1, 2.

David, T. W. EK. (ed. W. R. Browne), 1950: Geology of the Common-
wealth of Australia, London.

Edwards, A. B., 1950: The petrology of the Cretaceous greywackes of
the Purari Valley, Papua. Proc. Roy. Soe. Vict., vol. 60,
pp. 163-171.

and Glaessner, M. F., 1953: Mesozoic and Tertiary sediments
from the Wahgi Valley, New Guinea. Proc. Roy. Soe.
Vie., vol. 64, pp. 98-112, pl. 3.

Erni, A., 1944: Ein Cenoman—Ammonit, Cunningtoniceras holtkert
n. sp. aus Neuguinea. Eclogae Geol. Helv, vol. 37, pp.
468-475, pl. 11.

Etheridge, R. Jr., 1902: A monograph of the Cretaceous invertebrate
fauna of New South Wales. Mem. Geol. Survey N.S.W.,
Pal. No. 11.

1902a: The Cretaceous Mollusca of South Australia and the

Northern Territory. Mem. Roy. Soc. South Aust., vol. 2,
pt. 1.

Gardner, J., 1939: Notes on fossils from the Eocene of the Gulf
Province 1. Annelid genus T'ubulostwm. U.S. Geol. Surv.
Prof. Paper 193n.

GLAESSNER—CRETACEOUS FOSSILS 225

Gillet, S,, 1924: Htudes sur les lamellibranches néocomiens, Mém.
Soe. Géol, Mrance (n.g.) vol. 1.

Glaessner, M, F',, 1943: Problems of stratigraphic correlation in the
Indo-Pacific Region. Proc. Roy. Soe. Viet., vol. 56, pp.
41-80.

1945: Mesozoic fossils from the Central Highlands of New
Guinea. Proc. Roy. Soe. Vict., vol. 56, pp. 151-168.

1949: Mesozoic fossils from the Snake River, Central New
Guinea, Mem, Qld. Mus. vol. 13, pt. 4, pp. 165-181, pl.
14, 15.

1952: Geology of Port Moresby, Papua. Douglas Mawson
Anniv. Vol. Univ, Adelaide, pp. 63-86,

1957: Cretaceous belemnites from Australia, New Zealand
and New Guinea. Aust. J. Sei., vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 88-89.

Jack, R. L., and Etheridge, R. jun., 1892; The Geology and Palaeon-
tology of Queensland and New Guinea, Brisbane and
London.

Marwick, J., 1932: A new Trigonia from Canterbury. Ree. Canter-
bury Mus., vol. 3, No, 7, pp. 505-509, pl. 67,

Osborne, N., 1945: The Mesozoie stratigraphy of the Fly River Head-
waters, Papna. Proe, Roy. Soe. Vict., vol. 56, pp, 131-148.

Pompeckj, J. F., 1901: Uber Ancellen und Aucellen-ihnliche Formen.
Neues Jb, Min, Geol, Paliont., Beil.-Bd. 14, pp. 319-366,
pl. 15-17,

Rickwood, F’. K., 1955: The geology of the Western Highlands of New
Guinea, J. Geol. Soc, Aust., vol, 2, pp. 63-82.

Rutsch, R., 1939: Die Gattung Tubulostiwm im Kociin der Antillen.
Kelogae geol. Helv., vol, 32, pp. 231-244, pl. 12.

Spath, L. F,, 1923-1939; Monograph of the Ammonoidea of the Gault,
Palaeontogr. Soc.

1952: Additional observations on the invertebrates (chiefly
ammonites) of the Jurassic and Cretaceous of East Green-
land, II. Sone Infra-Valanginian ammonites from Linde-
mans Fjord, Wollaston F'orland; with a note ou the base of
the Cretaceous.—Medd. om Grénland, vol. 133, No. 4.

Warren, P. §., 1947: Cretaceous fossil horizons in the Mackenzie River
Valley. J, Paleont., vol. 21, pp. 118-123,

226 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Whitehouse, F. W., 1926: The Cretaceous Ammonoidea of Hastern
Anstralia. Mem, Qld, Mus., vol. 8, pt. 3, pp, 195-242, pl.
34-41,
1924: Dimitobelidae, a new family of Cretaceous belemnites.
Geol, Mag., vol, 61, pp, 410-416.
Wilckens, O., 1947: Paliiontologische und geologische Ergebnisse der
Reise von Kohl-Larsen (1928-29) nach Siid-Georgien,
Abh. Senckenberg naturf. Ges., No. 474, pp. 1-75, 9 pl.
Woods, T1., 1905: Monograph of the Cretaceous Lamellibranchiata of
England, pt. 2. Palaeontogr, Soe,
1917: The Cretaceous faunas of the north-eastern part of
the South Island of New Zealand. N.Z. Geol. Sury., Pal.
Bull, no. 4, pp. 1-41, pl. 1-20,
Wrigley, A., 1951; Some Hocene Serpulids. Proce. Geol. Ass., London,
vol, 62, pt. 3, pp. 177-202, fig. 1-66,

EXPLANATION OF PLATE FIGURES

PLATE XXIV
Fig. lx-b. Auecllina gryphacoides (Sowerby). Ja, Left valve, internal mould, A.U,G.D,
No, 15812, xi.8. 1b. Right valve, internal mond, A,U.G.D, No, 15313, x1.4,
Fig. 2u-«. Plewromya euneata u, sp. Holotype, A.ULG.D. No, P15800. Nat. size,
Fig. da-b. Chimbuites sinuosocostatus Causey and Glatssner n.g., n. sp. Tlolotype, A.U.G.D.
No. FI5308. Note regeneration of damaged shell flank in Fig. 3b, x0.77.

PLATE XXV

Fig. la-l. Chimbutles sinvosveostatus Casey und Glaossner, i.e, sp. Paratype, A-U.G.D, No.
Fipall. Nat. size.

Fig. 2. Chimbuites sinuosocostatus Casey and Glaessner, 1.g., ms. Paratype, A.U.G.D, No,
15810, x0.47.

Fig. 3. Puzosia ef. planulata (Sowerby), A,U.G.D, No, 15315. Nut. size.

Pig. 4a, 4b, 5, 6. Rotwlaria vpirulaevides n. sp. Fig. da, b, Holotype, ATG.D, No. 15320,
sla. Vig. 5. Paratype, AUG, No, 15381, x15, Fig. 6. A.U.G.D No, 15322, x1.

Fig. Ta, 7b, 8, 9, Linotrigonia (Oistotrigonia) lima n. sp. Papua. Fig. 7a, b, Holotype,
A.U.G.U. No. FIS824, nat. size, Fig & Paratype, damaged left valve showing
spinose sculpture, A.ULG.D, No. 15825, 0.9 not. size, Vig. 9. Plastotype of external
mould of young left valve, A.U.G.D. No, 15326, x1.4.

PLATE XXVT

Fig. la, b. ‘'Trigonia’’ papuana vn. sp, Right valve, holotype, Q.U.G.D. No. 17914. Nut. sive.

Fir. 2, 8. Myloveras davidi Whitehouse. Fig. 2. A.U.G.D. No. F15817. 0,8 nat. size,
Fig. 6. AU.G.D. No. W15318, 0.7 nat, size,

Fie. dae. Laheceras trifidum Whitehouse. Complete body chamber, internal mould with
shell remnants, A.U.G.D. No. 115293. Nat, size.

Fig. 5a, b, Dimitobelus (Tetrabelus) maegregori (Glaessner). = Fragmentary rostrum,
A.U.G.D, No, F15294, Fig. 5a. Proximal portion of incomplete rostrum, The part
covering the phragmovone has been removed to show the siphuncle and the smooth
‘Csnlitting surfaces’? between the ventro-luteral grooves and the phragmocone, Fig.
Hb. Showing transverse section, upper half of periphery indented by ventro-lateral
frooves, Nat, size,

Fig. 6. Dimitobclus (Tetrabelus) macgregort (Glacssner). A.U.G.D Wo. F15295, Split
rostrum showing cast of protoconch and proximal portion of phragmocoue in situ. x8,

Rime. SAL Muswen Von NILE, Phare NNT

ae

3b

To fae jutge 226, |

wi

Pre, SOAS Mesto Vor, NOT, Prare NAV

Rae, SOA. Messen Vou, NUL Phare NNVI

AUSTRALIAN BEETLE-MIMICKING BUGS OF THE FAMILY
LYGAEIDAE (SUBFAMILY RHYPAROCHROMINAE-TRIBE LETHAEIND

BY GORDON F. GROSS, SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM
Summary

During sorting of the Museum collections of Lygaeidae Rhyparochrominae the writer came across
the four very interesting species described in this paper. They belong to two new genera which must
be placed in the tribe Lethaeini in respect of the three tricholbothria on sternum V, the last of which

lies posterior to spiracle V (Scudder, 1957, p. 154).

AUSTRALIAN BEETLE-MIMICKING BUGS OF
THE FAMILY LYGAEIDAE (SUBFAMILY RHYPAROCHROMINAE-
TRIBE LETHAEIND

By Gorvon F. Gross, Soura Austranmn Muszum
Fig. 1, A-D

INTRODUCTION

During sorting of the Museum collections of Lygaeidae Rhyparo-
chrominae the writer came across the four very interesting species
deseribed in this paper. They belong to two new genera which must
be placed in the tribe Lethaeini in respect of the three trichobothria
on sternum V, the last of which lies posterior to spiracle V (Scudder,
10957, p. 154).

In both genera the hemelytra have lost all trace of a membrane and
have become hardened so that there does not appear to be any distine-
tion between clavus and corium. The condition does appear to be one
of brachyptery for, although hardened, these ‘‘elytra’’ extend almost
to the apex of the abdomen. This is also true of the brachypterous
hemelytra of Myocara Bergroth. I would suggest that in the case of
these two new genera the macropterous form is either absent or very
rare,

At first glance both genera resemble small beetles and the resem-
blanee of one of them (Carabocoris nov.) to some of the smaller
members of the Carabidae is particularly striking.

The four species are extremely shining and without (Coleocoris
nov.) or virtually without (Carabocoris) punctation above. This condi-
tion is also partly developed in some other members of this section of
the Lethaeini (e.g., Myocara Bergroth). The types of all four species
are lodged in the South Australian Museum.

SYSTEMATIC
The four species and the two genera may be distinguished by the
following key.
1. Pronotum with lateral margins in anterior three quarters
broadly curved, in posterior quarter straight and parallel thus making

F

228 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

pronotum of pronounced carabid shape. Hardened hemelytra with
sparse punctations, Upper surface of insect chestnut brown except for
four yellow patches, a pair on lateral margin of each ‘‘elytron’? . . .
Carabocoris biplagiatus sp. nov.

Pronotum trapezoidal, upper surface largely piceous (Coleocoris
nov.) ... 2

2. With three lateral yellowish patches, one on humeral angles
of pronotum the other two on lateral margins of ‘elytra’? . . .
Coleocoris triplagialus sp, nov.

Coloration not as above, but with at least some of the coloration as
longitudinal or transverse lines . . . 3,

3. Lateral margins and base of pronotum yellow, so also lateral
margins of ‘‘elytra’’ and also a longitudinal line on ‘elytra’? abont
one-third out from inner margin and not reaching to base or apex
. . . Coleocoris lineatus sp, nov.

Base of pronotum only, and lateral margins of ‘‘elytra’’ as well as
two patches very near the Inner margin and about one-quarter way
along length of inner margin from tip of scutelluam yellow -— .
Coleocoris ocellatus sp, nov.

Genus Coleocoris nov.

Above shining, impunctate with seattered long hairs. Beneath
with a few punctations for the most part arranged in rows on the
thorax but otherwise impunctate with sparse long hairs and a short
pilosity. Head strongly triangular, immersed almost to eyes which are
moderately large, ocelli apparently absent. Tylus just surpassing
jugac. Antennae about half length of body, first segment shortest but
surpassing apex of head, second the longest, third a little shorter, sub-
equal to or a little longer than fourth, Antennae with a short semi-
adpressed pilosity and three or four spine like hairs on first segment and
apical part of second, Rostrum of various lengths but always surpass-
ing middle coxae.

Pronotum, flattened trapeziform, almost square anteriorly, pos-
terior and lateral margins straight, latter marginate, posterior angles
almost a right angle, anterior ones shortly eurved, no trace of a collar,
Scutellum about as long as wide, flattened, with apex acuminate and
lateral margins smoothly excavate in a sweeping curve.

GROSS—BEETLE MIMICKING BUGS 229

Ilemelytra feebly convex, thoroughly hardened like beetle eylytra,
reaching almost to base of last abdominal segment, apical margins
eurved and lateral margins broadly curved.

Fore femora incrassated with three or four spines beneath near
the middle running towards apex and several near apex on upper side,
hind and mid femora likewise with several spines on upper side near
apex and hind femora also with several spines near apex below. All
tibiae with about 15-20 strong spines scattered along their length. First
segment of tarsi at least twice ag long as remaining two segments
together. Coxae with two or three spines, Sternum V with three
trichobothria placed in line, anterior pair close together, posterior one
placed behind spiracle and near hind margin,

Genotype: Coleocoris triplagiatus sp. nov.

IT am unable to exactly place this genus amongst the described
forms though it does seem to have some affinities with Myocara Ber-
groth. The head is longer in Myocara and the latter genus has ocelli
but, otherwise the head and pronotum are very similar in shape to those

Fig. 1, A, Coleacoris triplagiatus gen. et sp. noy. B. Coleocoris lineatus
sp, nov, C. Colvocoris ocellatus sp. nov. D. Carabocoris biplagiatus gen.
vt. sp. mov. (All approximately x7.)

of Coleocoris. There are odd punetations on the pronotum and seutel-
lum of Myocara and quite a lot on the hemelytra of Myocara but the
underside of the two genera is very similar, even to the arming of the
legs. In brachypterous Myocara acuminata Bergroth the hemelytra are
likewise quite large but there is still a distinction between clavus and
corium,

230 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

Coleocoris triplagiatus sp. nov.
Fig, 1A

Above and below a shining dark brown with seattered long brown
hairs and «a very short and very sparse white pilosity, thicker and
longer on the underside of the abdomen and the antennae. Above with
three yellowish spots on either side, one in each posterior angle of the
pronotum and two on the lateral margin of each ‘‘elytron,’’ an oblique
one about half way along and an oval one at about three quarters.
Coxne, rostrum and three apical seements of antennae brown, first seg-
ment of antennae, apex of fourth and legs yellowish brown, a light
yellow triangular patch on outer posterior margin of the propleuron
confluent with yellow pateh on opper side at inmeral angle. Rostrum
surpasses nid coxae, some long hairs on head and pronotum, length
of antennal segments 0.30 mm., 0.70 mm., 0.70 mm., 0.70 mm., hind
femora 1.0 mm., hind tibiae 1.1mm. Total leneth 3.4-4.0 mm., width
1.7 mn, length pronotum 0.90 mm.

Loes. South Australia: Holotype male (Reg. No. 120,092) allo-
type female (Reg, No. 120,098) from Moolooloo Station, Flinders
Ranges 2,000ft. (Hl. M. Hale, 1921) ten paratypes, two of which are
lary: ad (Reg. No. 120,094), from Leigh Creek (no collector or date) and
one paratype (Reg. No, 20,095) from Mt. Remarkable (October, 1925,
F. EK. Wilson).

Coleocoris lmeatus sp, nov.
Fig. 1B

Body above and below a dark shining brown with above an
extremely sparse and short pilosity, below, at least on abdomen, lees
and antennae this pilosity somewhat thicker and longer. Above with
lateral margins of thorax and elytra and upper apical quarter of third
antennal segment bright yellow, hind margin of pronotum and a longi-
tudinal stripe on each “elytron?? about one-third way out from inner
margin and commencing at about half length of seutellum from basal
margin and not reaching apical margin by about half this distance
dirty yellow. Femora, rostrum and antennae brown, tibiae and tarsi
yellowish brown.

Head with a long hair on vertex on each side of the line joining
middle inner margin of eye to base of tylus and another in each anterior
corner of pronotum. Rostrum surpasses mid coxae, length of antennal

GROSS—BEETLE MIMICKING BUGS 231

segments 0.30 mm., 0.65 mm.,, 0,63 num., 0.50 mm., hind femora 1,1 mm.,
hind tibiae 1.3 mm. Total length 3.7 mm., width 1,7 mm., length
pronotum 0,70 mm,

Loc, Thursday Island: Holotype female (Reg. No. 120,096) and
two paratype females (Reg. No. 120,097), No other data.

Coleocoris ocellatus sp. noy.
Fig, 10

Body above and below piceous, with a very fine white pilosity
beneath, thicker on the abdomen and antennae, Tlind margin of
pronotum continuing obliquely across hind angles, and a patch beneath
contiguous with it on the outer posterior angle of the proplenra,
lateral margins of *‘elytra’’? (wider in the hindermost portion) and
two rectangular patches near the inner margin a little behind apex of
seutellum, and last antennal segment (except at base) white, the apical
two-thirds of latter a dirty white. First three segments of antennae,
rostrum, coxae, femora, dark brown, tibiae brown, tarsi yellowish
brown.

Rostrum reaching almost to base of third ventral segment, length
of antennal segments 0.30 mm., 0.66 mm., 0.57 mm., 0.60 mm., hind
femora 1.1 mm., hind tibiae 1.4 mm, Total length 3.8 mm., total width
1.6 mm., length pronotum 0,77 mm.

Loc. Western Australia: Holotype female (Reg, No. 120,099)
and paratype female (Reg. No. 120,098) both from Swan River (J.
Clark, no other data).

Genus Carabocoris nov.

Above shining, with scattered punctations on elytra and scattered.
long hairs especially along edge of pronotum and ‘‘elytra.’’ Beneath
with strong punctations for the most part arranged in rows on the
thorax, otherwise impunctate with sparse long hairs and a sparse short
pilosity. Head strongly triangular, immersed almost to eyes which are
moderately large, ocelli apparently absent, Tylus just surpassing
jugae. Antennae abont half length body, second segment the longest,
third and fourth subequal and both shorter than second. Antennae
with a short adpressed pilosity and a few strong hairs on first segment.
Rostrum reaching hind coxae.

232 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Pronotum flattened, anterior and posterior margins straight,
lateral margins marginate, anterior three quarters a smooth convex
eurve, posterior quarter straight parallel sided, hind angles almost a
right angle, no trace of collar, Whole pronotum in appearance remark-
ably like that of a typical carabid beetle. Seutellum about as long as
wide, flattened with apex acuminate and lateral margins smoothly
exeavate in a sweeping curve, seutellim somewhat smaller than in
Colevearis,

Hemelytra leebly convex, thoroughly hardened like beetle elytra,
reaching base of penultimate abdominal segment, apical and lateral
margins broadly curved. Surface sparsely punctate.

Fore femora incrassated with three or four short spines beneath
in the apical quarter, mid and hind femora with some very short spines
near apex, All tibiae with abont 8-12 strong but short spines scattered
along their length. First segment of tarsi at least twice as long as
remaining two segments together, Sternum V with three triehoboth-
ria placed in line, anterior pair elose together, posterior one placed
behind spiracle V and near hind margin,

(renotype: Carabocoris biplagiatus n. sp,

The affinities of this genus are undonbtedly with Coleocuris. It
must rank as a separate genus as the three species of Coleocoris
described above from widely separate localities are all remarkably close
to one another structurally and Carabocoris talls considerably out
of this range in features other than the distinctive shape of the
pronotum (e.¢., punctation of ‘“elytra,’’ different position of anterior
femoral spines, weaker arming of tibiae and antennae, ete.).

Carabocoris biplagiatus sp. noy.
Fig. 1D

Body above and below dark brown, with legs antennae, rostrum
and two lateral patches on “elytra,’? one about the middle and the other
just before apical angle, yellow, A few sparse dark hairs near apex of
head, along lateral margins of pronotum and lateral and apical margins
of “‘elytra,’’ and beneath; on upper surface of abdomen and on legs and
antennae a yery short close white pilosity, Length of antennal seg-
ments 0.30 mm., 0.60 mm., 0.57 mm.,, 0.57 mm., hind femora 0.9 mm.,
hind tibiae 1.6 mm. Total length 3.8 mm., total width 1.6 mm,, length
pronotum 0,69 mm.

GROSS—BEETLE MIMICKING BUGS 233

Loc. Western Australia: Holotype female (Reg. No. 120,100)
from Lake Austin (H. W. Brown, no other data) and two paratype
females (Reg. No. 120,101) from Cue (H. W. Brown, also no other
data.).

REFERENCE

Scudder, G. G. E., 1957: ‘‘The higher classification of the Rhyparo-
chrominae (Hem. Lygaeidae)’’ Hint. mon. Mag., 4 (18); 152-156.

ON CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS
(WITH NOTICE OF RELATED SPECIES FROM ADJACENT TRACTS)
PART Il — THE POTOROINAE

BY H. H. FINLAYSON, HONORARY CURATOR OF MAMMALS, SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM
Summary

Since the Horn Expedition of 1894 (Spencer, 1896) comparatively little has been published on the
marsupials of Central Australia. This venture while rich in new discoveries, left many gaps in the
detailed knowledge of eremian species. Much is still obscure regarding their general biology and
local and regional distribution and status, and in particular, the level of subspecific differentiation
attained by eremian marsupials in relation to corresponding forms in the peripheral areas of the
continent, is almost unknown.

ON CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS
(With notice of related species from adjacent tracts)

PART HI—THE POTOROINAE

By H. H. FINLAYSON, Honorary Curator or MamMats, SoutH
Austratian Museum

Plates xxvil-xxxi and text fig. 1-2

CONTENTS
Introduction, 236.

1, Bettongia lesueurt Quoy and Gaimard 1824—
(a) History of the Species and General Distribution, 238.

(6) The Central Australian Representative
Distribution and Habits, 239; Material Examined, 245; External Characters,
945; Cranial Characters, 249; Dentition, 253.

(c) The Lower South Australian Representative—
Distribution and Habits, 259; Material Examined, 261; External Characters,

261; Cranial Characters, 261; Dentition, 262; Relationship of the Central
Australian and Lower South Australian Populations, 264; Remarks on
Subspecific Differentiation in B. lesweurt, 264.

2. Beltongia penicillata Gray 1837—
(a) Distribution, Habits and Status of the Species as a Whole, 268.
(b) Material Examined, 275.
(c) Characters of the Species as Exemplified by B. penicillata ogilby: Gould, 276;
External Characters, 276; Cranial Characters, 279; Dentition, 281.
(d) Subspecific Differentiation in B. penicillata—
Comparison of South and Western Australian Moieties of the Series of
B. penicillata ogilbyt used in ¢ (supra), 286; The Waldana karpitchi, 286 ;
“B. gouldi Gray” and Dwarfism in B. penicillata ogilbyt, 287; B. penicillata
francisca Finlayson, 289; B. penicillata anhydra Finlayson, 290.
3. Status of Other Members of the Subfamily in Central and South Australia, 293.
4, Post-pleistocene Representatives of the Subfamily in the Same, 295.
5. Remarks on the Distribution and Bionomie Interrelations of the Potoroinae, 296.
6. Summary, 299.
7. References, 301.
8. Explanation of Plates, 299.

236 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

INTRODUCTION

Since the Horn Expedition of 1894 (Spencer, 1896) comparatively
little has been published on the marsupials ol Central Australia.
This venture while rich in new discoveries, left many gaps in the
detailed knowledge of eremian species. Much is still obscure rezard-
ing their general hiology and local and regional distribution and
status, and in particular, the level of subspecifie differentiation
attained hy eremian marsupials in relation to corresponding forms in
the peripheral areas of the continent. is almost unknown.

Pastoral settlement in Central Australia since 1894 has had an
adverse effect on the mammalian life of large areas, including that
worked over by the Horn Expedition, but the creation of Aboriginal
Reserves originally totalling 75,000 square miles on the adjoining
borders of the States of South and Western Australin and Central
Australia has incidentally provided a partial sanctuary for fauna.
Tere the introduetion of domestie stock and most other Muropean
enterprise is banned, and nearly virgin conditions prevailed until the
entry of the Enropean fox in mwnbers within the last 24 years.

During the years 1931-35 the writer visited this area four times
spending in all some 13 months in field observation and collecting,
between 136° 30% and 128° 10’ Kast and 22° 30° and 28° 0’ South
(approx.). The main collecting stations and routes covered during
this portion of the work are indicated upon a detailed map which
accompanies a general description of the eountry, published by the
writer in 1936 and two preliminary papers upon muridae from the
same sonree appeared in 1940 and 1941. The mammals of the Lake
Hyre Basin had been dealt with earlier (1931-89), Since 1945 enquiry
and further field work have been extended to areas of the Northern
Territory to the north and east of the main reserve. In the present
series of papers the term “Central’’ is used for the whole tract
covered without reference to political boundaries, since conditions as
they effect the ecology of mammals are not sensibly different in the
three sections,

The summaries of distribution of most species are given in broad
outline only and are subject to future modification, The sparse and
fluctuating occurrence of many of the surviving mammals, the vast
areas involved and the confusion caused by European occupation,
make a more detailed treatment impossible. All that is attempted
here is to quote localities for all material examined, to add the results

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART IIL 237

of personal observation and of enquiry among natives and corres-
pondents, and to combine this with existing records, many of them
little known and seattered through the literature of exploration and
surveys. The body of data assembled in this way, provides a con-
siderable advance both in seope and accuracy on the information
previously available, but anything approaching a satisfactory survey,
has long since ceased to be possible, Systematic interrogation of
aborigines, with authentic specimens to stimulate interest and
facilitate comparison, has long heen practised by the writer and has
prove a most fruitful source of information. When subject to
checking and cross cheeking among the older people of widely
separated and independent groups, such testimony can be refined to a
high degree of ntility, and it is keenly to be regretted that the chaos
into which aboriginal life has sunk, has brought this source almost to
an end.

The data and material obtained on these private expeditions has
formed the nucleus on which the following reports are based, but in
addition, much other relevant material in the South Australian
Museum has been consulted, In reviewing the morphology of Central
Australian species, one of the chief aims has been to provide a reliable
description of an authentic series, which might serve as a basis for
comparison with other populations when such are available, and so
shed light on the degrees of subspecitic differentiation mentioned
above, In some cases also where fossil or subfossil material has been
available in sufficient, amonnt, such a comparison has given usefal
information on the Post Pleistocene history of the species. In this
work metrical dala in the form of ranges and approximate means of
dimensions and indices has been freely used in arriving at tentative
conclusions, but conventional statistical analysis is deferred. It has
been necessary to distinguish a few well marked forms by nomen-
elature, but in general T have been chary of adding new names for
such differences as have been demonstrated and taxonomic treatment
along trinomial lines has not been consistently followed. In the present
state of the development of the subject, such a course, even if desired,
is a hazardous one owing to the frequent inaecessibility of type
specimens and the impossibility of forming just estunates of the
normal range of variation in the species they represent.

In this connection it may be noted, that within the Central Aus-
tralian field itself, conditions as they apply to ground living mammals
are especially ill adapted to the operation of the Formenkreise type of
mechanism, which underlies the theory of the development of the

238 RECORDS OF THE 5,A. MUSEUM

geographic subspecies. Over vast areas of tle country, the ecological
gradient is exceedingly low and physical barriers to the free move-
ment, even of stall forms are absent. On the other hand, climatie
faetors in the form of sparse and irregular rainfall, exert cataclysmic
effects by periodic depopulation of whole districts during drought and
repopulation of the same by the breaking of drought. These popula-
tion movements are almost entirely capricious in direction, and in
mammals of high mobility and dispersal capacity result in a constant
mingling of communities over areas so wide that regional differentia-
tion of a permanent character is largely suppressed.

Bettongia lesueuri Quoy and Gaimard 1824

Originally described !rom Dirk Hartog Island in Shark Bay on
the Western Australian coast in lat, 26° South, this rat kangaroo has
since been shown to have had one of the most extensive continental
ranges of any of the Australian marsupials, reaching from about
14° South lat. in the north-west down to the extremity of the south-
east coast in lat, 37° 50’ South, and from the west eoast almost across
to the eastern cordillera in New South Wales, The north-eastern
sector embracing most of Queensland and part of New South Wales
has yielded no published records of the species and thus forms an
interesting hiatus in its distribution, but whether of fact or merely
record, is somewhat doubtful (fig. 1).

The range has frequently been given as Western and South
Australia and this has misled many writers, even in recent years, to
overlook its former presence in Vietoria and New South Wales. That
it occurred in the Murray districts of these States in 1863 was plainly
attested by Krefft m Lydekker (1894) and more doubtfully, in
northern New South Wales in 1865 by Maegillivray (in Iredale 1937).
Tate (1948) has also publisted evidence of its occurrence in Victoria,

The former habitat included a wide range of climates but
wherever it occurred it seems to have followed a fossorial way of life
on more ar less open plains, and has shown itself, especially in arid
distriets, markedly intolerant of pastoral occupation, so that both its
numbers and dispersion have been greatly reduced from what obtained
primitively. Nevertheless, it still occupies large areas in the States
of Western and South Australia and the Northern Territory,

Two races have heen separated from the original insular form;
B. lesueurt qrayi Gould 1840 based on the Swan River in Western
Australia and B, lesuewri harveyi Waterhouse 1842 from Eyre

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART ITI 239

Peninsula, South Australia. In addition, the insular form B. lesweurt
lesueurt Qnoy and Gaimard 1824, has now been accorded a representa-
tion on the adjoining mainland by (Hanert (1950). While these names
have been widely used, the morphological basis on which they have
rested is of the flimsiest, and as Harper (1945) has pointed out, the
lines of demarcation or intergradation between the forms are quite
unknown.

The material in hand comprises series from both Central Aus-
tralia and the lower districts of South Australia, and these will be
considered separately,

THM CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN REPRESENTATIVE

Disramrrmon ann Hasrrs: The former distribution in the Centre
was wide (fig. 1), but its limits can now be but vaguely indicated in all
those areas which have heen under pastoral occupation for long.
Probably its greatest stronghold was along the east-west axis ol the
Macdonnell Range system and in the south-west seetor in and about
what are now the great Aboriginal Reserves on the borders of the
three States, As late as 1940 it was still numerons here, particularly
sa in the Musgrave-Everard Range area from which it extended with
increasing sparseness into the north-west districts of South Australia,
to about lat. 30° South. Forty years before this, at about the tnrn of
the century, its eolonies were continuous over the western half of the
latter State, as far down as the Adclaide-Wakefjeld plain.

OF its northern extension, there is little satisfactory evidence,
bot [ place its limit provisionally at about 20° South lat. To the west
of Stuart’s line in this latitude if may exlend somewhat further north,
but to the east of it, the Barkly Tableland was apparently never
oeeupied, and interrogation of Wombaia survivors there has given
only negative results,

The eastern limits lie near the Queensland border, It is well
known to the eastern Arunta and the [lyowra, and remained within
their territory between the Plenty and Sandover Rivers until the late
1920's. The Wonkanooroo have a name for it in the south-eastern
extremity of the Arunta desert but it was not reported by either
Colson in 1938 or Madigan in 1989 in their traverses of the central
portion of this region. South of the Arunta Desert, Andrews (1876)
collected it in 1874 in the Lake Eyre clistrict probably on the Macnmba
at the north end, and Sanger (1882) recorded it from the lower
Cooper on the east side, Sanger’s account of it, however, is more

RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

240

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FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART III 241

suggestive of Caloprymnus than B, lesueurt and in 1931 I was unable
to get any positive evidence of the latter in this part of the Lake Eyre
Basin. Longinan (1930) does not record it as a Queensland species.

T'o the west, the records are few and derived chiefly from journals
of exploration in the Sandridge, Gibson, and the Victoria Deserts and
their value is uncertain owing to frequent confusion in the accounts
with Lagorchestes spp. and Thalacomys, and the absence of material
m support. Ilowever, I accept Giles’ citation (1889) at approximately
24° 42’ South and 127° 44" Hast in Gibson Desert ur 1874 ag the mode
of occurrence is characteristic and I have taken it personally north
of Desolation Glen in the Rawlinson Range, only 50 miles south-east
of his locality, Carnegie’s (1898) record from Wilson Cliffs in the
Sandridge Desert at lat. 22° 1’ South and 126° 57’ Hast may perhaps
relate to Thalacomys. The Canning Stock Route Expedition of 1981,
Which crossed about 100 miles west of Wilson Cliffs, recorded neither
the animal nor its warrens, nor is there any recognizable account of
the animal in J. Forrest’s journal of the 1874 traverse along the 26°
paraUel, though in the latter case as in most early exploration, such
negative evidence is not likely to be significant. The qnestion of the
isolation of these Central and South Australian populations of
B, lesueuri from those of Western Anstralia, which has an obviows
bearing on the validity of the three races named is thus Jett undecided
by the published reeords. The case for continnity of distribution in
the recent past, based on the continuity of ayailable habitats is, how-
ever, a yery strong one; even if the eentral portions of the three
western deserts are regarded as impassable barriers, there remain
three avenues. of feasible jntercommunication along three routes, viz,
the coast lands of the Bight, the 26° parallel, and the north and
eastern margin of the Sandridge Desert. In conneetion with the
latter it may be noted that the large ‘trabbit’? warrens recorded by
M. Terry in 1929 in the Tanami district in approximately 28° South
and 129° 51’ Mast, would almost certainly be warrens of B. lesveurs
doubtfully parasitized by rabbits.

Its present status (1958) is everywhere a rapidly dwindline one,
It survives in very small mumbers in the territory of the northern
moiety of the Tlyowra and of the Worgaia to the east and north of
the Elkedra (Ilketera) River, which has only recently been bronght
under pastoral aceupation; possibly also, as an extremely attenuated
remmant at one or two points in the drainage of the Sandover and
Plenty Rivers, and in the Reseryes of the south-western seetor, In
the latter its persistence will depend in large part on the extent to

242 RECORDS GF THE S.A. MUSEUM

which the fox is able to increase its range to the north, The southern
portions of the Reserve have been heavily infiltrated by this post im
recent years and it is doubtful if it exists today in the Musgrave
Range area, where it was in large numbers only twenty years ago.

The species formerly oeeupied a prominent place in aboriginal life
and lore, in practical venery aud in legend. Its identity is easily
tracealile in their accounts, by its habit, unique in the Macropodicdae,
of exeavating large warrens for community dwelling und by its
trueculenee, To the Pitjanjarra of the Reserves it is known as metika
or tehungoa, and the seeond of these terms has a very wide usage,
ranging in the north beyond the Rawlinson Range into Pintubi
territory, while in the south reeognizable variants of it can be traced
as far as Ooldea. The western Arunta eall it tnunka, but their eastern
moiety bave largely adopted the Ilyowra word, alutta, which in recent
times they have carried into the Pituri creek and Toko range ares on
the Queensland border in lat, 22° 30° South upprox. The original
Wonkamnnna of this district are now reduced to a very few
individuals who no longer ocenpy their home territory, and in a recent
visit to it Twas unable to learn their name for the animal trom their
supplanters, or to fix definitely whether the species ever oceurred
there. However, it certainly extended to a point about half way
between the Tarlton and Toko ranges, and within 50 miles of the
horder. These two names also have considerable extension to the
north and are used or understood, far beyond the boundaries of the
Arnnta and Ilvowra as drawn by Tindale (1940), The Wonkanooroo
and Dieri call it kanunka, which snygests a recent derivation from
the Arunta word.

In 1951-38, before the fox had beeome a serious factor, I found it
one of the most plentiful maminals of the Reserves, Tlowever, its
numbers fluetuate greatly and its oceurrence is loeal and discontinuous
and not uniform. Warrens housing a big population during one
season may be found quite deserted the next, though conditions lave
not greatly changed in the meantime. It has often been deseribed as
an animal of the ‘sandhills’? bot this is only true in the vernacular
sense in which all areas away from rocky ranges, are so described.
With the exception of rocky hills and ranges and dense thickets, it
colonizes most types of country; grassy and herbaeeous loam flats
within the Major ranges, open mulea and ironwood parks skirting the
ranges, and penetrates deep into the true sandridge areas as well, Here
as elsewhere, however, its warrens are usually made in the firm loam
at slight clevations on wndulating swales and not in the sandridges

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART III 243

proper, On the northern margin of the Amadeus Basin the burrowing
is often done into slight outerops of friable limestone and gypseous
rock and in 1950 T noted a similar occurrence over a small area
between the western Macdonnells and Stuart Bluff Range, though the
animal has long been extinet there. This is the type of warren noted
by Giles (supra) and is affected also apparently by the coastal
colonies at Roebuck and Shark Bay.

In general, Central Australian warrens are much less complicated
than those described in Western Australia by Gilbert in Gould (1855)
and Dahl (1897). One excavated on a loam Hat at Yaringa, sonth-
west of the George Gill Range, went to a total depth of no more than
four feet, at which level lay the main gallery from which two
tehungoos were taken. Above this were many short off-shoots which
were occupied by rabbits only and this arrangement is a frequent one
but whether it is universal here as Wood Jones (1923-1925) avers it
is further south, is doubtful. The burrowing habit is more funda-
mental in tehnngoos than in rabbits, a large proportion of which in
these latitudes lead a surface existence or make use of shallow excava-
lions only for shelter or breeding. When the rabbit invaded the
contre, abandoned or incompletely utilized tehungoo warrens were
plentiful as they are now, and it seems more likely that the rabbit
parasitized the tehungoo than vice versa, as has been suggested, and
this is also the native version. No doubt the rabbit has introduced an
adverse Jaetor into the ecology of FB. lesweuri as with other small
native herbivores, but in the 60 years they have heen together in the
south-western areas of Central Australia, it has not proved a fatal
one, and hut for the imerease of the fox it meht have continued ta
enjoy a somewhat reduced tenure, indefinitely. In areas of pastoral
occupation still other factors are superimposed by the presence of
stoek, with which it cannot cope.

Tt is extremely shy and cautious, strictly nocturnal and in summer
at least, leaves the warrens only long after dark and is a most
dificult animal to observe under natural conditions, even when it is
plentitnl, In the accounts of the Llorn Expedition and of some of the
explorers it. is confused with Laygorchestes hirsutus which is often seen
in daylight in spinifex tracts. The tehungoo, however, is not normally
found in such eountry but burrows in areas where the small plant
cover tends to be rather varied with salsolae and suceulents such as
Culandrinia and Portulaca and when large warrens are occupied, its
pads—tchungoo roads in local parlance—are often conspicnons,

c

244 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

radiating out to its feeding grounds. The track nearly always shows
a distinct imprint of the tail between those of the feet, and these are
wider apart than in Lagorchestes.

In addition to the green parts of a large muumber of plants, it
excavates and eats quantities of bulbs and tubers, of which the roots
of the very widely spread procumbent species, Boerhaavia diffusa, are
the most important (Pitjanjarra, karrpilba; Ilyowra, ayeppa). The
bulbs of the yelka or ont erass, Cyperus bulbosus, and of a lily called
hy the Dyowra ilelennya (Crimean sp.) are also sought out, as well as
an unidentified yamlike product known as poonha in the Musgrave
Range area. In the south-west seetor, where the quondong (Hucurya
acuminata) is plentiful, its fruits (waianoo, mangada) are an
important item of diet and are taken down into its burrows in
quantity. Not only is the (fleshy rind eaten but, like the local Notomys,
it makes use of the oily kernel of the nut as well, which necessitates
enawing away a large part of the flinty lard easing; a task for which
the stout rodentlike first meisurs are well adapted (Pl. xxvii, fig, Hj
Pl. xxviii, fig. A).

Under present day conditions it is not easy ta get mmdamaged
apevimens. Tt is wary of traps especially on warrens and when caught
in the ordinary types of small steel trap is difficult to hold owing to
its fragile limbs. A good many are taken accidentally by doggers in
the tnch larger dog trap which often takes the animal by the middle
and prevents struggling, Praetically the only way of getting it
undamaged is hy digging it ont which is extremely laborious, It is
powerlnl for its size and when taken from a burrow struggles
violently and seratehes and bites severely, making the while a harsh
aspirant soand with aceasional grunts. The latter 1 presume is the
eall which it has often heen stated to make at night when abvoad,
though T have never heard if thus in the Centre,

On moonlight nights the blacks occasionally take them when
feeding away from the warrens, either by the spear or with dogs, and
if pressed for food, the women will sometimes dig out the smaller
burrows, though nowadays the labour involyed is out of all proportion
to the probable results. In the heyday of the species on the Sandover
River, where for a tite it was in very large numbers, the Ilyowra
practised some ingenions methods of shortening this labour. Haying
selected a large and well populated warren, a party of men working
in the middle how's of the night, when the animals were away feeding,
securely blocked up the entrances to all the deep burrows, but left

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART UI 245

open a number of shallow experimental drives which were always
present on the outskirts of the larger warrens. The aluttas, returning
hefore dawn, were thrown into confusion by this denial of their
acenstomed refuge, and after frantic but unavailing efforts to clear
the entrances, were forced by the rising sun to take shelter in the
shallow drives, Here they were promptly stupefied with smoke to
prevent them digging deeper (whieh they otherwise do very expedi-
tiously) and were then dug out in numbers with little trouble. They
were munch relished as meat. Thirty-five years ago, towards the end
ol their major tenure of the Ilyowra country, their way of life became
considerably disorganized and a portion of the remnant forsook the
warrens and lived in holes in creek banks.

From most nonhuman predators it was well protected by its
strictly noeturnal feeding and deep burrowing habit, but the largest
of the local lizards (Varanus giganteus), a voracious creature,
attacked it in the warrens, and took considerable toll.

The specimens personally examined have heen free from the
larver ectoparasites. The animal has no characteristic smell, Repro-
duetion appears to extend over the greater part of the year and pouch
embryos and young, up to 170 mm, Jong, have been obtained both in
mid-summer and mid-winter,

ExrerxaL Craracrers: The material examined represents 32 indi-
vidnals, obtained from the following localities, all in the south-western
sector: (a) Chundrinna, N.W. of the Mverard Range at lat. 26° 5178.
and 132° 18’ E.; (b) several other points between Chundrinna and the
southern [ront of the Musgrave Range; (c) Allarimna, on the northern
front of the Musgrave Range; (d) near Murrachurra Spring, 20 miles
east of Mount Conner in lat. 25° 26’ 8. and 182° 13’ B.; (¢) Yaringa,
12 miles S.W. of King's Creck in the George Gill Range; (/) north of
Desolation Glen in the Rawlinson Range at about 24° 53’ S. and
128° 16° EK. That portion of the series which is sexed comprises
123, 189.

Wood Jones (1928-1925) has given an extended aceount of the
external characters of a series from the Lake Phillipson area and as
the present material is in substantial agreement with his, a full
deseription is dispensed with and the following supplementary notes
substituted,

His illustration of the head gives a much better impression of the
appearance of the living animal than earlier figures; the deep abruptly
trnneated muzzle ts especially characteristic and in this point it differs

246 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

from its congeners while somewhat resembling Caloprymnus. In lite
the rhinarium is bluish pink and its upper margin is evenly convex
and not spurred upwards in the centre, The facial vibrissae are well
developed thongh slender; the genals and supraorbitals are unusually
large and exceed the mysticials. The ear backs are evenly convex and
without indentation as in Caloprymnus,

In the manus the palm is vellowish white and coarsely granular;
the palmar pad being less developed than in Caloprymnus. The
digital formula based on the distal extension of the digits is
3>2>4>5>1 as given by Wood Jones, but the disproportion im
general development of the three central digits is slight and the
formula for size is 3>4>0r — 2>5>1; the claws are white and
translucent. In the pes, the plantar surface where exposed is
yellowish white, and coarsely granular over its whole extent whether
covered or exposed; at about the mid point of the metatarsos the
granules are hexagonal and average 13 per em. but elsewhere they
vary mich in shape and are often irregular. The encroaching of the
hairs from the dorsum vf the foot over the plantar surface is a
constant feature in all young and young-adult animals and the con-
dition is usually much as figured by Wood Jones (op. cit., fig. 199),
The hairs at this stage are uot felted down mto a mat but are
arranged in two overlapping layers taking origin in opposite margins
of the dorsal surface and remaining quite separate; the development
of hair is profuse and the insulation of the less calloused portions of
the sole and digits, very effective. In old animals, however, the hairs
are thinned out by abrasion and the entire plantar surfaee of pes
and digits is not infrequently quite naked. The apical segment of
the fourth digit is much less expanded than in Caloprymnus or
Aepyprymnus, and the elements of the main interdigital pad are sume-
times incompletely (nsed as in Poforous, a shallow suleus dividing it
into two longitudinal moieties. The nails of the digits are yellowish
white and translucent.

The tail is nearly circular in section and tapers slowly to its apex;
calloused areas ate not developed upon it. The pouch opening is
posterior to the mid point of the ventral length and the space inter-
vening between its lower margin and the cloaea is often nearly nude,
aml sharply defmed by laterally diverging hair tracts, The cloaca
has no enlarged bristles, but a short fleshy process is developed on its
posterior margin, similar to but smaller, than that which I have
recorded for Caloprymnus (1932), No sternal gland has been
observed,

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART II 247

Secondary sexual differences are slight; the male is not superior
to the female in linear dimensions, but is more massive, with a thicker
blunter head, and deeper muzzle, and heavier feet.

Pevace: The general colouration viewed from a distance of a few
feet varies in different individuals from grizzled buff grey to grey
brown with lighter ventrum and the head and appendages distinetly
eoutrasted in warmer buff and tan, At its best the pelage is dense
and soft; mid dorsally the main pile reaches 22 mm, with guard hairs
to 30 mm, lengthening on sides to 25 mm. and 33 mm. respectively,
The basal half of the main pile is about Ridgway’s slate grey, the
suceeoding third forms a sharply contrasted band varying in different
individuals from light buff, to tilleul buff, and the extreme tip clove
browu, The guard hairs are slate grey in the shaft, with a narrow
brown hand separating it from the flattened blade which varies from
ivory yellow to near white and the extreme tip shades off from sepia
io black; a small proportion of guard hairs are dark throughout. The
composition of the pelage is fhus similar to that of Caloprymnnus \ut
the overlay of ivory and white is mach less profuse and has less effect,
on the general ground eolour, which ranges from deep olive buff to
light brownish olive-

The sides are similar to the dorsum, but paler and less grizaled
and are sometimes separated from the ventrum by a lateral line of
rieh buff. The ventral fur averages 17 mm, with a sparse overlay
reaching 30 rm.; it is mostly bicolor, with a basal zone of slate grey
almost obscured by the terminal colour which is creamy white variably
washed and dappled with warm buff, The scrotum, small areas on the
throat, and mid helly are ereamy white to the base. The head is more
warmly eoloured than the body, the ground colour varying from tawny
olive to Ginnamon buff; on the muzzle it is closely grizzled with brown
and buff but the erown and genal surfaces are more uniform, The
inner surfaces of the ear are nearly nude except distally where they
are sparsely covered with short adpressed cinnamon bulf liairs.
Externally the ear backs ave well covered with loose Muffy fur, slate
at base, rich tawny olive terminally and conspicuously bordered at the
anterior margin with clove brown,

The forelimb is externally long haired, buff dulled by the basal
slate colour; internally somewhat lighter; the manus densely clothed
with adpressed hairs of clear cinnamon buff lengthening over the base
o! digits but not obsetiring the claws. The hind limb is externally like
the sides or rather darker and sometimes has a poorly developed

248 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

lighter hip stripe. The pes also is cinnamon buff or slightly richer
and has a tendency to darken on the outer metatarsal surface and the
fifth digit. Its hairing is close, short and dense dorsally, but is
greatly lengthened on the sides so as to overlap and obscure large
areas on the plantar aspect of the digits. In most examples the digits
of both manus and pes ave stained a bright orange tan by clay dust;
this can be completely removed by mild detergents leaving the colour
the prevailing buff. The immediate tail base is clad with dorgal body
far which gives place suddenly to short coarse hairs, which are closely
adpressed except on the terminal third of ifs dorsum, where a pro-
gressive lengthening hegins, Laterally and ventrally the colour is
uniform einnamon buff, hut dorsally this is darkened by a peneilling
of brown, increasing distally until it completely replaces the buff
ground colour of the subterminal fifth or more by rich prout's brown
to clove brown, The apex of the tail for distances averaging 35 11m.,
is pure white on all surfaces when unstained and dorsally its hairs
are lengthened to 20 mm, and frequently form, especially in subadults,
a (distinet erect erest. The tail is everywhere densely clad and its
scutation completely obseured.

Variation of the pelage in density, texture, degree of grizsling
and ground colour is considerable, hat in the present series cannot be
satisfactorily linked with local, seasonal, or sex factors. The shabbiest
coats with the darkest ground colour are found in winter months,
when rump abrasion is often marked; but dense, even, richly coloured
cots and their opposites occur al all times of the vear and there is
little evidence of a seasonal moult affecting members of a colony,
simultaneously, The coat in subadults as late as the P?M® stage, is
often looser, with a greater exposure of ground colour than in adults.

Wood Jones (op. cit.) comments on the fugitive nature of the
*‘vellow’? colouration in this species. T find that field skins in my own
collection, personally made in 1932 and 1933, and which have had no
contact with liqnid preservatives and have been stored in the dark,
still show the original colouration as noted on the freshly killed
animals at the time. Others in the South Australian Museum of the
same provenance which were treated there by immersion in alum and
salt pickle, show a more or less marked change of olivacious ground
eolour to warmer browns, which are not normal to the living animal,
and there is a variable degree of bleaching of the cinnamon buff of the
appendages.

Under the name ‘*Belfongia lesuenr grat’? Gould, Boardman
(1949) has deseribed the hair tracts in an advaneed pouch young trom

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART I 249

Bernier Island, whieh however, would more conventionally be
regarded as representing the typical race B. lesueuri lesueuri of Quoy
and Gaimard, In the present series, examples suitable for checking
the primary tracts are lacking, but in adults, except for small
suprarhinal and preorbital divergences, the external pelage over the
entire dorsal surface is directed uniformly caudad, and on the limbs
distad, the postaxial trends of the latter being largely obseured, In
undisturbed material the ventral inelination of the lateral fur is
slight and there is no median opposition ridge on the ventrum, as is
frequent in Caluprymnus. A reversed gular tract, directed forward
and outward is constant, and radial tracts diverging from the pouch
margins and precloacal areas of females, and the serotal area of
males, can usually be made out, In general, interruptions to the
primitive candad flow in the adult pelage, are much less in evidence
on both dorsum and ventrum, than in most Maecropodinae.

Dimexsions: The range and mean yalues in mms. of conventional
nensnrements for a bisexual series of eight fully adult mdividuals at
the P'M! stage, is given in tabular form on p. 267. Even when age
ehanves are thus drastically restricted, the variation in all items is
high, reaching 26% in the head and body length, Sexual differentia-
tion is inappreciable, the adult female being as large as the male.
Maximum dimensions for ear and pes are often attained as early as
{he P*M? stage. The tail is always shorter than the head and body in
adnits, but may be snbequal in younger animals,

The following figures give the detailed measurements of a
subadult ¢ (P*M*) trom Yaringa Creek, at the western end of the
George Gill Range, in Central Australia: head and body, 285; fail,
285; chest, 150; length of manus, 24; nail of third digit, 9; pes, 101;
4th toe, 42; nail of 4th toe, 17; ear, 86 x 22; rhinariym to eye, 31;
eye to ear, 25; eye (intercanthal), 11; weight in grammes, 910.

Weiehts of adults are not available, but would probably reach
3,000 grammes,

CGranian Crarscters (PI. xxvii, fig, A-IT): Both skull and
dentition of B. lesveuri present notable features which have been
imperfectly described and some of these separate it decidedly from
its congeners, by making an approach (especially in dentition), to the
more advanced condition of Aepyprymnus and Caloprymnus.

Since existing descriptions give little information on the variation
which oceurs, and are based for the most part on mixed series from
several localities, the whole question of subspecific variation on these

250 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

inportant heads, remains quite vague. In the present work, 72 skulls,
(the majority of them not sexed), from South, Central and Western
Australia have been used in examining the eranial and dental
characters of the species as a whole; fifteen of these, taken from
individuals of known external characters, represent the Central Aus-
tralian population, and these alone form the basis of the following
description, Differences shown by material from other localities, are
dealt with in the sequel, using this homogeneous series, as a standard
of comparison,

Intrinsie variation within the series, is lugh, both in non-metrical
morphology and dimensions; in a series of 23 eranial and mandibular
measurements the percentage variation in adults ranges from
7.5-40%, with a mean of 159%. Many of the most salient features of
the skull observed singly, such as the development of the rostrum,
size and shape of nasals, width of zygomatic arch and interorbital
region (which are very apt to give premature impressions of sub-
specific difference) are subject to marked individual yariation,

The skull is densely ossified, with strong musele ridging, and with
the mandible, attains a maximum weight of 19 grammes; it is the
shortest and widest in the eenns and in this respect is equalled hy
Caloprymnns alone amongst the Potoroinae, the length + breadth
‘atio falling as low as 1.5. The maximum aygomatic width is usnally
posterior, but wide variations occur in the overall zygomatie outline,
which is sometimes similar to Trichosurus vulpecula,

The nmzzle region is short deep and less conieal than usual, and
the mean facial index of 181 is one of the lowest lor the subfamily.
The nasal bones reach or slightly exeeed the Jevel of the anterior
margins of the orbits; their length <- breadth ratio is variable as is
also their overall shape and the conibined posterior margin may be
almost transverse, sharply angulate or invaginate in the mid line:
there is always a distinct and sometimes a sudden, constriction of
their width just anterior to the maxillo-premaxilliary suture. The
interorbital area of the frontals is of medium width averaging 25%
of the basal length; but is parallel sided until late in life when the
free margins converge slightly to form a moderate intertemporal
constriction. The supraorbital ridges are sharp and overhanging and
occasionally develop rudimentary postorbital processes. The varia-
bility of the coronal portion of the frontoparietal suture mentioned
by Wood Jones (op. cit. p. 209) is well illustrated but the transverse
condition is the commoner. The development of the temporal ridges

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART IIL 251

reaches a maximum for the subfamily in B. lesweuri, but their eon-
finence on the parietals is very posterior and a sagittal crest as in
Potorous tridactylus is not formed, At a lower level on the vault,
the sqnamosal suture is often strongly ridged, A crescentie inter-
parietal is long persistent and overlaps in part the supraoccipital on
the lambdoid crest, which is but moderately developed.

The occipital plane is nearly vertical and deeply indented and its
arch is low and broad; the paraoecipital process is well developed and
distinct posteriorly though its anterior surface is closely applied to
the bulla and it has little free projection,

On the lateral aspect, the premaxilla is reduced, though less so
than in Aepyprymnus, and still makes an important contribution to
the wall of the nasal cavity: its suture with the nasal is about equal
in length to that of the maxilla. The facial plate of the laerymal has
from } to 4 the area of the orbital plate; the lower foramen in adults
is usually larger than the upper, but they may be subequal and are
oceasionally conflaent. The zygomata, especially the malar contribu-
tion, are relatively much the most powerful in the Potoroinae, and the
infrazygomatie process of the maxilla, thongh it falls far below the
standard of Calaprymnus and the Macropodinae, is distinetly indicated,
The area of the temporal pterion is rugose and deeply impressed and
the series inspected affords no exception to, nor important variant of,
the frontal-squamosal contaet, which, following Owen’s original
observation (1866) now proves to be constant lor the subfamily
(Finlayson 1932, 162, and Pearson 1950, 213-221). The diastema, with
that of Aepyprymnus, is relatively the shortest in the subfamily, and
{he posterior palate is one of the narrowest; its posterior vaeuities
are also Jong and narrow and oceupy almost the whole of the inter-
molar space, the medium septum and posterior bar being reduced to
fragile remnants often lost by damage; their anterior extension varies
from the middle of M! to its anterior margin, and a pair of small
foramina sometimes lie beyond this. The anterior palatal foramina
are execedingly variable, the length fluctuating over a 40% range,

The enormous expansion of the alisphenoid bulla is perhaps the
most conspicuons specialization of the skull, though it comes as a
culmination of a well marked tendency in the Potoroinae, and is less
remarkable in the Macropodidae as a whole since the discovery of
Lagorchesles asomatus which approaches it in this character. Never-
theless the bulla in B. lesweuri is probably the Jargest in relative
volume in the Marsupialia and has comparatively few rivals in the

252 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

whole of the Mammals, In the prepared skull, owing to the incom-
plete condition of the upper rim of the tympanie annulus, the jalla
communicates [reely with accessory cavities in the posterior root of
the zvyvoma and adjoining parts of the squamosal; the eondition in
varying degree is general throughout the Potoroinae but is especially
developed in B, lesneuri. While the habits of L. asomatus are
unknown, &, lesuewi remains unique in the Macropodidae as a
fossorial adept and in seeking some funetional correlation of the
enlarged bulla, this fact inevitably comes to mind, and receives some
support from the fossorial and strongly bullate Thalacomys of the
same region. However, the conflicting evidence of the fossorial and
non bullate wombats amongst marsupials, and bullate and non bullate
rodents of burrowing habits must leave the matter am open one,

Tate (1948, p. 241) has noted a condition in the mastoul
sqnamosal region in whieh the Phalangweridae and Macropodidae
differ. I find that the same area has differential value both at snub-
family and species rank, within the Jatter. Tn the Macropodinae with
few and partial exceptions, the mastoid margin of the squamosal and
the root of the zygomatie process are separated by a deep fissure above
the tympanie annulns. In all genera of Potoroinae persistent attempts
are made to bridge this gap, by the oulgrowth of a delicate flange-
like process from the mastoid margin of the squamosal, which narrows
the fissure to a channel. In B. /eswewrt alone, this channel is in old
ave sometimes converted inte a closed canal by a separately ossified
plate joining the Hanee to the zvgoma root (Pl, xxvn, fig. F).

The mandible is distinguished by the stoutness and convexity of
the lower border of the horizontal body below the molar rows, the
width and relative erectness of the ascending process, and the exten-
sion of the angular proeéss into a slencler style conforming to the
contours of the billa. The confinence of the pterygoid and masseteric
fossae, is wide as noted by Tate, but very variable, and the masseteric
canalis very large, Abbie has sugeested that the latter is a lonectional
correlation in the Potoroinae to the presence of a large premolar, but
{le relative development of the canal seems to bear no simple relation
ty the size of the premolar or the length of the jaw in the different
species, as one would expect if this were sv. Potorous tridactylus with
a long slender jaw, and comparatively small P* has the canal as
strongly developed as &. lesuewri, where these proportions are
reversed, Moreover the long slender jaw of Dorcopsis luctuosa which
supports an enormous premolar (hoth absolutely and relatively larger

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART III 253

than anything shown by the Potoroinae), makes no departure from
the meagre development of the canal general in the Macropodinae.

The evidence of sexual differentiation is unsatisfactory, being
supported on the female side by two adit skulls only, but so far as
it may be aecepted indicates that cranial differences are slight. The
female skull tends to be slightly smaller, with shorter nasals, wider
interorbital space, Jonger anterior palatal foramina and a higher
facial index. Musenlar impressions tend to be less in aged females
than in aged males. Ave changes are not marked and their recog-
nition ig complicated by irregularities in dental suceession and
individual variation. ‘This leads to a wide overlap in dimensions and
strnetural detail hetween different dental groups; thus skulls as early
dentally as P*M* may be as large in overall size as aged skulls of the
same sex at P*M*.

Dimensions: As the sexual factor eainot be accurately assessed
in any of the three recent popwations and searcely at all in the snb-
fossil one, but is known to be slight, comparisons have been made for
the most part with bisexual series. The following figures give the
range antl approx. mean of skull measurements of (1) a bisexual
series of 8 at P'M' and (2) : females at P®M*: greatest length,
64,3-73.3 (69.2), 62.5-65.8 (63.4); basal leneth, 54.2-60.2 (57.2), 52.3-52.6
(A2 BY avgomatic breadth, 40) 5-45. 6 (48.0), 28.7-40.6 (39.9); nasals
length, 22.8-28,6 (26.3), 32.5-24.9 (23.6); do, greatest brendth et
(12.4), 10.7-12.1 (11.6); do. least breadth, £9-6,8 (5.9), 5,2-5.4 (5.3) ;
depth rostrum, 14,0-18.6 (13.0), 11.3-12.9 (11.8); interoxbital sonetrie.
tion, 15.2-16.3 (14.5), 14,0-15.4 (14.5) palate length, 34.8-38.0 (36.4),
31 4-34.9 (32.8); do. breadth inside M*, 9.8-12.2 (11.8), 9.5-11.1 (10.4);
ant, palatal foramina, 2.2-3.8 (2.8), 2.0-2.9 (2.5); Hr ery 7.3-9.0
(7.6), 6.0-8.4 (6.8); bulla Jength, 15.1-17.0 (15.9), 14,8-16.6 (15.0);
bulla breadth, 11.0-13.8 (12.2), 11.2-12.1 (11.6); facial index, 171- 191
(181), 166-197 (179); mandible, maximum breadth, 40.2-44.0 (41.7),
36,5-38.8 (37.9), maximum depth below M., 8.1- we (8.8), 6.6-8.6
(7.6); breadth ascending process, 13,7-16,3 (14.8), 12.5-13.5 (13.0),

Desrreion (CP). xxviii, fig, A-M): Variation in “Baas dimensions
ol teeth not rapidly altered hy wear, such as the premolars and
molars, ranges from 5-349 with a mean otf 15%,

The incisors, as a group are relatively large and functionally
important teeth, by the standards of the genus, and they sustain heavy
wear. As a resnlt the Ist and 2nd are subject during life to marked
changes of size and shape. I’ when unworn has a broad alveolar base

254 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

tapering to a pointed apex; growth is persistent however over a large
part of the life span and as the tooth is extruded the apex is worn
back to a chisel edge whieh steadily widens until it yields the
maximum diameter of the tooth, Its size dominance over I° and 1
is greater than in B. cuniculus or B, penicillata and tends to inerease
with age, and from 4 to 4 of its height prajects beyond their working
level, The dorsoventral height ranges in the present series from
4,9-7.9 rom. and its antero-posterior diameter from 2,2-3.0 mm, Both
Thomas and Waterhouse claimed that a broader and flatter I’ was
tliagnostic of B. lesweurt, but the material in hand does not support
this. There is however a noticeable rotation af the tooth with
advancing age, so that its labial wall becomes more and more anterior
in aspect and less lateral.

I? is relatively constant, reaching a maximum antero-posterior
length of 3.0 im. to young skulls and a transverse breadth of 21. 1°
when wnworn is comparatively narrow and upright with a vertical
height of 3.1-8.6 mun, and antero-posterior length of 2.0-2.6; with age,
it is thrust forward more and more and obliquity of wear may
increase the latter value to 3.3 mm. The transverse broadening of
I? and the inturning of the eutting edge of I are both more marked
than in other beltongs and foreshadow the extreme condition of
Aepyprymnus.

The lower incisor is comparatively stout for the genus but shows
all the differential characters separating the Potoroinae from the
Macropodinae in this feature; i.e, its great absolute length and
relative narrowness, Maximum width at alveolus with evenly tapering
outline to the apex, absence of median expansion of the blade, and of
abrupt ineurving of the upper margins. Tn adults of moderate wear,
the anteroposterior length from alveolus is 10.6-11.4, and this is main-
tained or even inereased in very old animals, where the shaft of the
tooth may be completely denided of enamel. The maximum trans-
verse breadth of enamel ranges from 2.7-3.1 and shows considerable
resistance to age changes nntil late in adult life, though its site moves
steadily distad. On the other hand the maximum breadth of the tooth
as a whole, ineluding dentine, increases markedly with age and 1s
always proximal; in eight adnits it varies from 3,2-4.3.

The canine is well developed but variable in size, shape and
inclination, In the young fully enamelled condition it is flattened and
incisiform, with the labial face nearly as large as that of [', and with
a vertical height of 3 mm. ca. and anteroposterior breadth of 2.2 mm,

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART Hl 255

As wear advances the apex becomes more pointed, the recurvature is
accentuated and both height of the tooth and width of root exposure
in alveolus may increase to 3.7 mm, The premaxillary suture bisects
its alveolus and the tooth is always much nearer to the 3rd incisor
than to either of the premolars, Although clearly a functionally
important tooth its apex never descends much below the middle of LI’.

In the permanent premolars, B. leswewrt illustrates in an extreme
degree the general trend of the Potoroinae towards enlargement,
suppression of cusps and vertical corrugation, P* is a narrow anid
usually almost parallel and straight sided blade and in relation to
skull size is by far the largest tooth in the subfamily, Wear ts heavy,
but is chiefly seen in removal of the surface grooves, and reduction
o! the height of the blade; the latter may fall trom 3.8 mm. to 1.7 mm,
while length and breadth are almost unchanged. In taloned forms of
the tooth, the maximum breadth is always posterior, otherwise at
about the anterior third. Both the erest of the blade and the
enamelled wall ol the crown are of nearly even height throughout its
length, the main posterior eusp alone being sometimes slightly raised ;
in 10-grooved examples the anterior cusp is seareely differentiated.
The number of grooves on the external wall varies from 8 to 10; 9
being present in 50% of examples and 8 and 10 occurring with equal
frequency in the remainder. The grooves may form an even series of
shallow crescents with the convexity anterior or they Maay have a more
or less radial arrangement converging postero ventrally to a common
centre below the posterior angle of the ¢rest. The normal inclination
of the long axis of the tooth is evenly anterointernal towards the
midline of the palate; rarely it may be parallel but never extraverted
as i penieillate.

A point of some general significance with P* is the variability of
the postero-internal talon and its cusp and the internal ledge—
struetures which in the Macropodinae are regarded as of great specific
integrity. In B. lesveuri of this series, both may he completely absent
or strongly developed in premolars of the same degree of wear
(Pl, xxviii, fiz, F and G), and the talon is sometimes aceompanied by
a posterior fossette. Anteroposterior length of unworn or slightly
worn examples ranges from 7.6-8.7 mm, with a mean of (8.2), trans-
verse breadth 2.5-3.3 (3.0) and vertieal height of enamel He 38 (3.5).

The lower secator Py, is a siinplified and somewhat reduced
version of the upper, with length and breadth about 15% less but with
the height of the blade retained, The maximum breadth may he

256 RECORDS OF THE $,A, MUSEUM

either posterior or anterior or at both, but never median. External
grooves vary from 8 to 10 and generally conform to those of its
opponent; where the number differs, the lower tooth generally has the
fewer, The talon and internal ledge are almost completely suppressed,
Antero-posterior length 6.5-7.3 (7.0); transverse breadth 2.5-2.5 (2.7);
vertical height of enamel crown 3.2 3. § (3.5).

The 3rd upper premolar P* is a much shorter and broader tooth
than the secator; Its Maxiinum width is always median and its outline
oval in superior view. ‘The talon is absent, buf the internal ledge
variably developed, and either 56 or G grooves are present an the
external wall with equal frequency; the grooves are commonly almost
intaet when the tooth is shed, The 3rd lower preiuolar P, is similar
to the upper and is reduced in about the same proportion as the lower
seeator, Its outline is slightly reniform, the lingual wall being con-
cave with the crest of the blade conforming to this curvature; grooves
0 or 6. Seven examples of upper and lower 3rd premolars, derived
from skulls showing a rather wide range of development, have the
following dimensions, respectively:—atitero posterior length, 4,7-5.4
(5.0), 4.04.9 (4.5); transverse breadth, 2.7-3.1 (2.9), 2.3-2.8 (2.5);
height of enamel crown, 2.7-8,2 (2.9); 2,9-3.3 (3.1),

The upper deciduous premolar MP*, is of the usual quadrate
molariform type and is frequently as large as the third trae molar.
Its chief interest lies in the sectorial modification of the antero
external cusp, augmenting the blade of the contiguous P*, 1 first
drew attention to this feature in Aepyprymnus (1981) where it is
very strongly developed and Tate (1948, 249) has since diseussed it in
other genera. In B. lesueuri, it is well, thonglh variably developed in
both upper and lower series, The mandibular tooth MP, is trigonid
the anterior lobe heing alinost monopolized by the secant antero-
internal eusp; it remains however four rooted, In size MP, is much
inferior to M;. The following are the dimensions of MP* and Be,
respectively in the 7 subadult sknlls; antero-posterior length, 3 3.3-3.8
(3,5), 33-85 (3.3); breadth anterior Jobe; 2,8-3.2 (3.0), 1.8-3.5 (2.2);
breadth posterior lobe, 3.3-3.7 (3.5), 2.7-3.0 (2.9).

The upper molar rows, in distinction from B. cuniculus and B.
peniclata are decidedly arched, with the greater convergence
posterior, The effect is accentuated by the rapid diminution, in
overall size and especially of transverse breadth, of the 2 posterior
molars, whieh is a marked though not exclusive characteristie in
B. lesueuri. Tate (1948, 269) has recently redirected attention to the

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART IL 257

difference between the Potoroinae and Macropodinae in molar
formulae and has published some dimensions of the molars of 3
examples of B. lesuewri. As noted earlier by Wood Jones, however,
there is much individual variation in this regard, and in the present
series the range in dimensions is wider than given by Tate. I find
also, that in expressing the general size relations of the molars as
funetional units, an approximation to the sectional crown area is a
more convenient and more adequate criterion than linear dimensions
alone, and the formulae which follow are based on the values of
1 (“2”), where 1 is the anteroposterior length, and ab and ph
are the transverse hreadths of the anterior and posterior lobes,
respectively.

In the upper molars the sequence M’>M'>M'>M* occurs in 9
of the 7 eompleted dentitions measured, the other 2 showing the
alternatives M'>M!2>M'>M* and M’=M?>M">M? the position of M*
and M' being constant throughout. In the remaining 8 skulls,
M?>M? holds in all, and M'>M® in the 3 examples in whieh the latter
tooth has erupted, Clearly therefore there is a high degree of
probability, that on completion of the molar series in the subadult
examples, 18 of the 15 examples (87% ea.) would show the dominant
2.1.3.4, sequence, The frequencies qnoted later in comparing popula-
tions have been deduced in this way from mixed series of adult and
suhadult dentitions, rather than on adults alone, whieh sometimes
form less than half the available material and would certaimly yield
less accurate estimates, The range and mean of the molar crown
areas expressed as a percentage of that of the corresponding first
molars are: M' (100); M* 97-114 (106); M® 63-95 (78); M* 20-49 (31).
Tn the mandibular series, the declension in size is less rapid. The
sequence M.>M,>M,>M, hols tor approx. 62%, M,>M, im 31%
and M,—M, im the remainder; M. and MM, are constant in the sequence,
The variation in erown area of the lower molars and their mean
valnes, expressed as a percentage of that of M, is: M, (100); Mz
113-134 (124); M, 90-121 (104), and M* 40-60 (49).

With regard to size relation belween the upper and lower series
there is also much overlapping, but in general the npper Ist and 2nd
molars are larger in crown area and relatively wider than the lower
and the lower 3rd and 4th molars are larger in area and wider than
the upper, Length > breadth is the commoner condition in most of
tle molars of both series, but breadth > length has the higher
frequency in M?, M* and M,. In M? the posterior lobe is generally

258 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

wider than the anterior, and in M, invariably so; in all other molars

both upper and lower, narrowing of the posteri ior lobe is by far the
commoner condition, Mt is exeessively variable and sometimes almost
vestigial and is not always strictly bilobed in form, so that its
quantitative relations are less aceurately expressed than in the
anterior teeth.

The erown pattern of the molars is essentially similar to that of
Caloprymnus and Aepyprymnus and represents an advanee on the
lophodont element of the biuno-lophodont system of cusps which
prevails in the vest of the sub family. In the upper molars, however,
the main transverse ridges are still confined to the bueeal cusps,
There is a general increase in height and saliency of all cusps and
ridges and in particular a preeursor of the anterior basal ledge of
the Macropodinae is strongly developed, In unworn upper molars,
the oeclnsal surface is narrow, occupying only about 4 the available
width of the crown, and the exposed lingual wall is frequently twice
the height of the bueeal. Cor responding features in the lower teeth
are similar but less marked. Crown wear on the molars is compara-
tively slow and at the P' M* stave dentine exposures are generally
confined to the lingual cusps of M'; in very aged examples it does,
however, proceed ta complete obliteration of crown pattern. Inter-
proximal wear is also negligible except in very aged exainples. In the
three dimensions studied there is no signifiennt difference between
corresponding molars of adult and subadult dentitions,

The range and mean (in brackets) for—(1) the antero-posterior
leneth; (2) breadth of anterior lobe; and (3) breadth of posterior
lobe, of the molars in a bisexual series of 15 skulls, follows :—
M', 4,0-4,4 (4,.2)5 3.9-4.5 (4.2); 3.94.6 (4.3). M*, 4.0-4.5 (4.2); 41-47
(4.5); 4.0-4.6 (4.2). M*% 3.6-4.0 (3.8); 3642 (3.8); 30-35 (3.2).
M', 2.0-3.0 (2.8); 24-2.8 (2.3); 1.522 (18). My. 2.7-42 (4.0): 3.0.36
(34); 3642 (3.8), Mi 4049 (44); 39-45 (41); 3840 (4.0).
M,, 8.641 (3.9); 3.7-4.2 (4.0); 3.0-3.8 (3.5), M.. 2.4-3.1 (2.8); 2.6-3.0
(2.8); 1.6-2.2 (2.0). The values for Ms.is in situ are: Upper 11.4-13.0
(12.1). Lower 11.8-12.8 (12.2).

The tooth ehange in B. lesweurt ig subject to considerable varia-
tion; the commonest condition is that P* erupts after M* or with M’,
when the skull has attained to 90% of its metrical development and
somatic development is equally advanced. The premolar condition in
B. lesueurt is a more reliable guide to maturity than the molar; M*
is erratic in coming into place, sometimes delayed until the skull is

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART I 259

aged, at others appearing precociously in very early life, The
functioning dental condition P*M* appears to be long persistent and
tides the animal over a considerable range of developmental stages.

Sexual differentiation in the teeth is chiefly shown by the Ist
upper incisor which in both adult and subadult groups is distinetly
larger in males than in females and of more persistent growth. In
this it usurps the usual sex linkage of the canine, which is not
appreciably different in the sexes.

THE LOWER SOUTH AUSTRALIAN REPRESENTATIVE.

DistarsuTion axp Hasrrs: There is abundant evidence to show
that Belflongia lesueuri was formerly one of the most numerons and
universally distributed mammals of South Australia, finding and
colonizing suitable habitat zones im all the distriets of the State with
the possible exception of the deeper Mallee and the flooded portion of
the lower South-KMast and the inner portions of the Nullabor Plain,
Tt was well established on the Adelaide Plain, where its remains are
sometimes brought to light today from long forgotten warrens, by
suburban building operations.

To the early settlers it was a familiar animal and traditional
knowledge of it persists im many eountry districts, but written
accounts are rare, the early press commentators on the South
Australian fauna nearly always quoting the existing uccounts of
Waterhouse and Gould, which relate almost entirely to Western Ans-
tralia, A valuable exception was provided by A. Molineux who
published some interesting details of its abundance in 1855-6 in the
farming distriets of the Lower North between the Light and Gilbert
Rivers, 50 miles north of Adelaide, where it did some damage at
harvest time, both to standing erops and hay stooks. He mentions
having shot 149 in four nights, and 50 in one night in this locality,
and confirms mueb that had been oliserved by Gilbert in Western
Australias particularly in the enormous size of the warrens, the call,
and the strietly nocturnal habit. Fle considered that they were grass
and erain eaters in the main, and referred to the Enropean prejudice
against the flesh, whieh he had personally found baseless. J. H.
Browne (1897) also gave a valuable account of it in the same district,
deseribing its burrows and the natives’ method of procuring it there-
from which inelnded a fumigating technique as in the Centre.

G. W. Francis records that in 1862 it was one of the first
zoological items in the collection maintained in the Botanic Gardens,

260 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

as an early preeursor of the Adelaide Zoologieal Gardens, and two
years later M, Symons Clarke gave details of two specimens taken
near the suburb of Walkerville, and again in 1889 near Two Wells, 30
miles north of the town. From 1900 to 1904 the greater number of
the specimens in the South Anstralian Museum were received, chietly
trom the Gawler River district, which at this time, was one of its last
strongholds on the Adelaide-Wakefield Plain. A small group from
this locality was maintained in captivity in the Museum grounds, and
formed the basis of the mounted group now exhibited there, The lust
specimen from Kyvre Peninsula was obtained at Worunda, near Port
Lineoln—the locality of Waterhonse's type of harveyi—in 1909.

With regard to aboriginal names for the species in lower South
Australia, the only terms whieh ean be assigned to lesuewri with mueh
certainty, are yelki of the Narranga of Yorke Peninsula, and bukurra
or bokra of the Neadjeri of the Lower North district,

The chief causes of its remarkably sudden decline have been
discussed hy Wood Jones (op. cit.), but these are not adequate for a
complete explanation in all districts. The late Mrs. Daisy Bates while
at Ouldea collected considerable evidence from the aborigines to show
that its numbers had diminished markedly in the coastal areas at the
Head of the Bight before Huropean influence had become appreciable
there, and this at a time when if was still very plentiful in the drier
tracts north of Ooldea to the Musgrayes, However, by 1910 from one
canse or another, it appears to have been virtually extinet in the
Southern Division of the State, below the parallel of 32° South, which
includes all the agricultural areas. In the pastoral country to the
north of this line, the sueceeding 40 years have, as far as can be
ascertained, seen its disappearance from all except the fav north-
western distriet, where both its populations and its prospects of
survival are identical with those of the Centre, already reviewed,

We owe to the energetic intervention of the late Professor Wood
Jones the possibility of the survival of the species in the south. Ju
1920 he obtained living specimens from the Lake Phillipson area in
the north-west division, and suceesstully maintained them as a breed-
ing colony at the University of Adelaide for some years. Some of the
progeny of this gronp were transferred in 1924 to the sanctuary of
Flinders Chase at the western end of Kangaroo Island at the mouth
of St. Vineent Gulf. The site is for the most part densely bushed and
not very well suited to its habits, but reeent reports from the Ranger
indicate that it is still extant though its inerease is slow.

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART IIL 261

Reports of the reeurrence of ‘kangaroo rats’? in the southern
mainland of South Australia, are made almost yearly, but all which
have been investigated prove to be due to contusion with the bandi-
eoot, Jsoodon obesulus.

Remains of the species are plentiful in alluvium and eave deposits
throughout the State and are a common constituent of aboriginal
kitchen mididens.

The series examined below represents approximately 36
individuals, of which the bulk is unsexed skeletal material. It is mueh
more restricted in geographic range than the Central Australian
collection, comme for the most part from the coastal Adelaide-
Wakefield Plain, with outlying specimens {rom the nearer foothills of
the Mt. Lotty Range and from Yorke and Eyre Peninsulas. The locus
of ifs most northerly specimens is 700 miles south-west of that of the
most southerly of the Central series. Sethe examples bred in captivity
by Wood Jones from stock from Lake Phillipson, an intermediate
sie, are anomalous in respect to pelage and cranial eharacters and
have been deleted from both accounts,

External Craracrers anp Pauace can he tested only on four
individuals; a skin from southern Eyre Peninsula and three mounted
speciniens from the Adelaide district, which have heen on exhibition
in the Sonth Australian Mnseum for thirty years. Soft parts, so far
as they can be checked in this dried material are in close agreement
with the Central animal. The Eyre Peninsula skin is in good preseva-
tion, unfaded and indistingnishable from winter skins from the Centre,
The mounted specimens are too faded for colour comparisons, but are
in close agreement with Central skins in all points of composition and
colour distribution; the subadult specimen has a white apical erest
strongly developed, The pelage is not richer in the south.

Fiesir Diwenstons are quoted in the table on p. 267 for a bisexual
series of 9 examples at P*M', The variation is still wider than in the
Centre, reaching 26% in the head and body length, and there is a wide
overlap with that series in each item; the slight increase in the mean
length of pes in the south may he significant, but the other differences
are doubtfully so.

Cranran Craracrers (Pl. xxvii, fig, C): Twenty skulls from
Lower South Australia have been examined and measured; four only
ave subadult, the remainder are at ?*M* and for the most part are
much more aged than skulls of the same dental stage trom Central
Australia,

262 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

In structural features there is close agreement with the Ceutral
series but the southern skull tends to he slightly larger. In a series
of 21 cranial and mandibular measurements of ie 16 at P*M"*, the
increase in the mean value varies from 1 to 15% with an average
increase of 5%; the greatest being the length af ae anterior palatal
foramina (15%), depth of mandible (18%) and diastema (11%).
Two other measurements are lower; the least width of nasals (2%)
and the facial index (4%). The increase is greater in longitudinal
dimensions than in teene Ves rse, so that the sknll is frequently propor-
tionately narrower in zygomatie width (8%) and in the width of the
mandible and its condyle (9%),

The differences hetween the two geographic series have no doubt
been accentuated by the greater average age of the lower South Aus-
tralian skull, but are not primarily due to this cause, since the sub-
adult skulls at P*M* show similar differences from their Central
counterparts. The mean variation in the dimensions of the southern
series is even greater than in the Central one, in the proportion of
22-15, and in nearly * of the measurements the range completely over-
laps both maxima and minima of the latter. As in the Central series
dwart (nlly adult skulls ocenr, smaller in most dimensions than
average subadults,

Dimenstons: The following figures give the range and mean of
skull measurements of bisexual ee of (1) 16 at P*M* and (2)
4 at P*M®, Greatest Jeneth, 63.2-76.2 (72.9), 68.0-70,0 (69.3); basal
leneth, 54.0-66.5 (63.1), 57.1-60.0 (5 9): pierce breadth, 39.5-46.2
(43,9), 41.8-48.2 (42.4); nasals length, 23,8-30,0 (27.8), 24.7-25,7 (29.3) ;
nasals greatest breadth, 11.5-15.8 (13.2), 10,0-11.9 (11.1); nasals least
breadth, 5.0-7.0 (5.8), 4.6-5.5 (5.1); depth rostrum, 11.5-141 (13.3),
11.7-13.6 (12.7); interorbital constriction, 14.0-17.0 (15.5), 14.6-16.2
(14.9); palate length, ae 41.2 (88.7), 34,0-87.5 (35.9); palate, breadth
inside M2, 10.8-13.8 (12.5), 10.8-11,8 (11.3); ant, palatal foramina,

95-44 (3,3), 2.7-3.2 tear, diastema, 6.7-10.2 (8.7), 7.7-9.0 (8.2) 5 bulla
loneth, 14,6-18.7 (17.1), 16.0-18.0 (16.7); bulla breadth, 10.5-14.8 (12.6),
12,4-13.5 (13.0); facial index, 162-195 (174), 171-181 (174); mandible,
maximum breadth, 38.0-45.0 (42.4), 40,5-40.5 (40.5); mandible, depth
helaw M., 9,0-11.8 (10.3), 8.1-9.2 (8.7); mandible, breadth ascending
process, 13.4-17,0 (15,0), 14.0-14.4 (14.2).
Dewrrrion: Here also the range of variation in dimensions is

greater than in Central Anstralia, and in all items there is a generous
overlap between the two series. The mean dimensions of teeth which

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART Iil 263

are substantially free from age and wear changes, such as the length
and breadth of premolars and molars tend to be slightly higher than
in Central Australia, the chief increases being P* 3.5%, P* 6%,
Mst3 30%, M.. 4%, M* 15%, M, 10%. In many other dimensions,
however, there is a virtual identity of mean values and Py is 2% and
M, 4% lower. The prediastemal teeth are difficult to cormpare
accurately owing to age changes, but in subadults are also slightly
larger, the canine probably as much as 10%.

Structurally the teeth in the two series are in close agreement.
The erown of the canine is obscurely bicuspid in two examples. P* is
somewhat more constant in talon development than in the Central
series and its anterior expansion is more frequent and more marked;
one 7-grooved example occurs, but otherwise 8, 9 and 10 grooves
uppear with abont the same frequeney as before, In the lower Pia
taloned variant with sigmoid outline (Pl. xxviii, fig, J) not seen in the
Central series, occurs in 2 examples.

The chief change in the absolute dimensions of the molars as
compared with their Central Australian counterparts, 1s the mean
increase in the 3rd and 4th of both jaws, and of the 2nd in the upper,
and a decrease in M, of the lower jaw. The molars also tend to be
slightly narrower,

The gradation in molar size as interpreted hy the sectional crown
area yields the same prevailing sequences as in the Central material.
The enlargement of the posterior teeth with respect to the first how-
ever (especially marked in the lower jaw), leads to the occasional
appearance of such conditions as M'=M' and M;—M,, which have
not been noted in the Centre, while M'>M*, M,=M,, and M,>M, do
not oceur. In the upper molars M*>M'>M*>M* accounts for approx.
90% of the cases, M2>M'=M*>M? for 5% and M2—M'>M3>M?* for
5%. In the lower series M,>M,>M,>M4 oeenrs in approx. 79% of
eases and M.—M,>M,>M, in the remainder. The range and mean
of the sectional crown areas expressed as percentages of those of the
first molars, are as follows: M?. (100); M®. 100-124 (112); M*. 68-100
(83); M*. 27-59 (36) and M,. (100); M.. 117-142 (180); M,. 104-182
(119); My. 53-82 (62).

The tooth change is not illustrated. There are no supernumary
molars, but a vestigial I’ oceurs in one example. The following
figures give the range and mean of the linear dimensions of the cheek
teeth; the values for the third and the deciduous premolars are
derived from 4 subadults and the remainder from 16 ut the P*M*

264 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

stage. P* length, 7,7-9.8 (8. 5); P" breadth, 2.6-3.6 (3.1) ; P* length,
5.0.5.6 (5.3); Pa breadth, 9.63.0 (28); MP* length, 343.7 (35),
MP* breadth ant. lobe, 2834 (2. 9); Ms'* in situ, 113 14.0 (12.5);
wid in the mandible P, length, 6.0-7.5 (6.9); Py breadth, 2.5-3.3 (2.7);
Ps leneth, 4,3-4.6 (4.4); ; P; breadth, : 2.3-2.7 (2 wet 5); MP, length, oa
(3.4); MPs breadth, 2.0-2.3 (2.2); Ms. in situ, 11.1-13.0 (12.7); Mt
anteroposterior length, 8.9-4.6 (4.2): ite: anterior lohe, 3.7-4.5
(4.2); breadth posterior lobe, 3.6-4.5 (42). M*®, 4.2.5.2 (4.5); 4.05.0
(44); 3.64.8 (4.2); M4 BAD rats R542 (40); 37-40 (A)
M! 19-86 (2.7): 31-33 2.8); 17-25 (2.1); My. 3542 (38); 3.13.5
(3.3); 344.0 (3.7); Ma. 404.9 (44): 564.3 (41): 37-45 (40): Me
3.6- BT | ei ; 86-43 (4.1); 3444.1 (3.7): My. 3.0-34 (3.1); 2.7-8.4 (8.0);

Supsvectric DirrwkeNvrrarton «N Rettongia lesueuri.

The relationship of the Central Australian and lower South
Australian Populations: While it is possible by the close examination
of series to detect and define divergent trends in these two popula-
tions, it must be emphasized that the differences noted are not only
slight in theniselves but are of an average character and leave many
individnals of both groups virtually inseparable by an appeal to the
minutae of morphology, and certainly quite inse parable by the facile
and subjective methods which have been rife in differentiating
geographical ‘*forms’’ of Australian mammals. TA is noteworthy that
the range of variation in the seographically restricted sample from
lower South Australia is greater in most items than in the more
widely clispersed one from the Centre: a act which appears to conflict
with the helief, for which there seems much justification in other
eases, that aridity with its concomitant of instability in ecological
conditions, is a potent factor in promoting variability in eremian
forme.

Under these cireumstances the use of another trinomial to
distinguish the Central Australian animal is clearly superfluous and
for practical purposes the two groups are here regarded as forming a
taxonomnie unit,

The wider question of the validity of Bl. harveyi as a South and
Central Australian subspecies, in relation to the typical B. Ll. lesweurt
of Shark Bay and B, 1. grayi of the Swan River district, is beyond
the practical scope of the present work. Although large colleetions of
hoth the latter are in existence and both have heen stated to be
variable, no detailed analysis of characters has been published, and

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART III 265

without sueh the material locally available is madequate for a decision,
Tate (1948, 269) the latest commentator, on a basis of existing
accounts, opines grayi doubtfully distinet from lesneurt, harveyi
probably more so. Cabrera (1919) held the opposite view.

The following comments, suggested by the results of the fore-
voing examination, are made as an interim contribution on this head.
Recent belie in the distinctness of grayi from harveyi, seems to be
based chiefly on the statement of Wood Jones (op. cif. 210) that the
Western Australian auimal was larger bodied and shorter eared. The
comparison from which this conelnsion arose, appears to have been
made between South Australian animals measured in the flesh and the
dimensions of the type as given by Thoinas (1888) for the stuffed skin,
in which the ear would have been much contracted and the body very
probably stretehed. The more recent measurements of Shortridge in
Thomas (1907) made on animals in the flesh from the Avon district of
Western Australia give values for the head and body and tail which
are much closer to those of South, Central and north-west Australian
specimens, while both ear and pes are actually the longest recorded,

The skull characters of the south-western animal have not
hitherto heen known with certainty: the specimen Q measured by
Thomas (1888) is doubtfully localized and gives values which merge
almost entirely with those of lower South Australia, The provenance
of Waterhouse’s specimens is also uncertain. Three skulls from
south-west Western Australia which have been examined during the
present work, differ from the lower South Australian population in
much the same way as the latter do, ftom that of Central Australia,
ic, there is an average 6% increase in the mean of all dimensions
except 3; the greatest being in the rostrum which is noticeably deeper
aud wider and in the least breadth of nasals. The diastema, inter-
orbital constriction and breadth of bulla are slightly lower by 2-3%.
Avain, however, as in the South-Central Australian comparison there
is a very wide overlap in the range of dimensions, which involves 20
of the 23 items studied,

Similar size increases oceur in most elements of the dentition and
there is a slight inerease in hypsodontism especially of P* (Pl. xxviii,
fiz, K) which is a stouter as well as a higher tooth when unworn, ils
vrooves are 10 in the 2 examples which can be connted—Thomas
records wp to 14 for the species, The mean for the length of molar
rows ig not increased but the individual teeth are slightly broader than
in Sonth Australian skulls. In matters of proportional development

266 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

which can be tested by mensuration, the south-western skull and
dentition are closer on the whole to those of lower South Australia
than to those of the Centre, but in a small residue of characters an
mtermediate condition obtains. In the crown area ratios of the molars
for example, the upper teeth repeat and accentuate the trend in the
lower South Australian series, towards enlargement of the posterior
teeth at the expense of the first. But in the lower jaw there is a
return to the Certral Australian condition. The size sequence formula
however, for both upper and lower teeth is the dominant one as it
occurs in both South and Central Australia.

One only of the 8 skulls examined is accurately localized; this is
a large male at P*M*, taken at. West Popanyinning, 90 m, south-east of
Perth (PI. xxvii, fig. D). ITts dimensions are as follows: greatest
length, 76.0; basal length, 66.1; zygomatic breadth, 47.4; nasals,
length, 31.5; nasals, greatest breadth, 14.5; nasals, least breadth. 6.6;
rostrum, depth, 14.8; interorbital constriction, 14.5; palate length,
41.5; palate breadth inside M*, 13.0; anterior palatal foramina, 3.9;
(iastema, 8.6; bulla, 17.0 x 12.5; facial index, 175; mandible, maximum
breadth, 44.0; mandible depth below M., 11.0; mandible breadth ase.
process, 17,6; P* 88x 3.5; Ms™ 13.2; P, 7.0x3.0; Ms, 13.3.

A single skull from Coolgardie, 330m. east of the Swan River
district (in the subarid Goldfields environment) is closer to the means
for lower South Australia.

No material of the typieal race certainly localized in Shark Bay
or the North-West Division of Western Australia, has been examined
hy the writer, but Shortridge’s field measnrements (in Thomas, 1907),
indicate that the means for Bernier Island specitnens are slightly
higher than those of Central or Sonth Australia, except for the ear
which is equally shortened. Ol pelage characters, little can be gleaned
except that fide Collett (1897) the apieal blanching of the tail is less
frequent In adults than in South and Central Australia.

The only detailed skull measurements of this typical form ayail-
able to me are those of Waterhouse (1846, 205) based on a drawing
by Owen and doubtfully comparable with the other data. However,
as amplified by Collett and Thomas, it would appear that a very
small bulla (eonsiderably below the mean in any other group)
exists in a comparatively large skull, and if tlris ratia is constant, it
would provide a valid distinction from the series here studied. Collett

267

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART III

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268 RECORDS OF THE 8.A. MUSEUM

mentions also a sagittal crest and a bieuspid canine; the former has
not been noted but the latter oceurs sparsely in South Australian
skulls.

In taking a general view of the inter-relationships of the material
reviewed, it is clear that, in cranial and dental characters at least, the
three populations of Beltongia lesueuri in Central, South, amd the
south-western portion of Western Australia, form a metrical cline
ascending in the sequence named, but with a wide overlap between
sneceeding groups. At each stage of the transition a few characters
may be found to provide examples of lag or even reversion, but abrupt
discontinuities, of a kind foreshadowing speciation, are not presented.

Bettongia penicillata Gray 1837, subspp.

Drsrrieurion AND Hanrrs: The presence of this species in Central
Australia has not hitherto been reeorded; Le Souet indeed (1926)
expressly exeludes it therefrom in his remarks on its distribution,

In 1932, Mrs. D. Bates at Ooldea, drew my attention to an
aboriginal myth based on the karpitehi, an animal deseribed as
resembling Caloprymnus in size ancd appearance, in sharing also a
nestmaking habit, but difering in its black brushed tail. A year later,
in the Everard-Musgrave Range district, I learned that the karpitehi
was a living entity and known by that name, both to the original
Yankunjarra and to the Pitjanjarra, who partly supplanted them from
the west. They compared it with the tchungoo or metika (B. lesueurt),
but confirmed the nestmaking and black eandal crest, and knew it as
a sparsely occurring animal over a considerable area straddling the
South and Central Australian border. In the next two years it was
reported from Pundi (the most southerly point, about 85 miles sonth-
west of Ernabella), at Unyaha Hill on the Officer Creek, at Mount
Harriett, where a specimen was taken which was kept for a time by
a white dogger as a pet, and near Mount Conner, approximately 70
miles west of north of Ernabella, on the Central Australian side.
Tn none of these eases was I able to examine any material, but in the
old collections of the South Australian Museum is a specimen taken
near Waldana Spring, about 125 miles north-west of Ooldea, and this
is the only example of the karpitehi here studied,

The species is also recognized by aborigines from specimens, and
substantially similar aceounts given of its habits, over large areas of
the eastern and north-eastern parts of the Territory, where it has long
ceased to exist. In the hill country of Huckitta the Ilyowra called it

FINLAYSON—CENTRAIL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART III 269

indwarritcha; to the Worgaia on the Buchanan and Rankin Creeks it
was windijarra, and probably the velkamin of the mixed Warramunga
atid Walpari people east of the Murehison and Devonport Hills.
North of the Barkly Tableland along the Gulflands both in Queensland
and the Northern Territory it is probably still extant, and groups of
mixed Alowa and Mara blacks from Tanumbirini and Nutwood,
recently gave if the name, yamul. Hisewhere in the north there are
but vague accounts of it at Mainoru, at the Katherine and possibly in
the Finnis River district; but it may be noted that the vast areas of
richly grassed eucalypt savannah south of the Arnhemland platean,
would by analugy with its habitats in she south, provide ideal stations
for the species, but for the presence of stock.

In the winter of 1933, Michael Terry, while prospecting on the
Western and Central Australian border, observed ‘‘spinitex rats’? of
whieh he las given some account in his book ‘Sn and Sand.’’ This
aceount, however, has a three species basis, invalvine Lagorchestes
asomatus, Lagorchestes hursutus and Betlongia penicillata. Among
specimens sent by him to the South Australian Museum is a portion
of a skull from an animal taken in July 1983 near the Melwin Hills
in the Lake Mackay area about 470 miles north of the Waldana site,
and in the sequel this is treated tentatively as a second and markedly
distinet eremian phase of B. penicillata,

Disrrisirros Knsktwiern mw AusrrantA: Much uncertainty pre-
vails as to the former extent of the distribution of B. penicillala in
Australia, with some conflict in existing accounts, While it is no
longer possible to ascertain the foll truth, a review of records State
hy State, will fill in other gaps than the Central and Northern Aus-
tralian one, and elarily some obseurities,

Western Australia: The work of Shortridge (1910, and in
Thomas 1907) and of Glanert (1983, 1950) has made the position
elearer here than in the Hast. The northern record is at Shark Bay,
whence it extended in a widening belt to the Pallinup River on the
south coast. Kast of this line it is also aecorded some tenure by these
authors, but the extent of it is vague and leaves the question of linkage
with the south and central populations unsolved. However, the
Central Australian records given above are sited in eremian conditions
much more severe than those of its presumed eastern frontier in
Western Australia and go far to support the existence of such links,
if not today, at least in the recent past.

South Australia: The early writings of Gray (1848), Gould
(1852), Harvey (1840) and Waterhouse (1841) establish it on lower

270 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Eyre Peninsula, at the head of St. Vincent Gulf and in the Adelaide
district, Later, rural tradition following its extirpation, gives it a
very wide, if not universal distribution over the southern parts of the
State, It is less easy to trace in this way than B. lesweuri, however,
and was sometimes confused with Lagorchestes leporoides, mt when
both bettongs were known, B. penicillata seems to have been the
commoner species, Mainland records for South Australia supported
by recent material locally available are limited to a few examples in
the Sonth Australian Museum (infra) which come from the west
slopes of Mount Lofty and from Waldana, but sub fossil and native
camp site specimens, many of the latter quite recent, confirm its
presence in the lower South-Kast, the Fleurien Peninsula, Murray
Mallee, and Yorke Peninsula.

North of the 32° parallel, there are neither material records nor
accounts which can he regarded as free from entanglement with
Lagorchestes, except those of the Waldana and Musgrave-Hverard
Range area in the far North-West, noted nnder Central Australia.
The karpitchi legend is not local ta Ooldea but derived from visitors
fram the Musgraves. In spite of this wide hiatus in records in the
subarid areas of the State, the Muserave-Waldana occurrences
support the view of a former complete north-south occupation of
South Australia, as in the ease of B, leswewri, though it cannot be
supported by evidence as with that species. At least one, possibly
more insular representatives occurred in South Australian waters.
A skull of the extinet St. Francis Island bettong has been examined
(infra) and proves to be a form of B. penrcillata as predicted by
Wood Jones; and the “kangaroo” smaller than a cat, taken by
Flinders’ party on Flinders Island in 1802 (Cooper 1953) may also he
referable to this genus. However, Flinders’ accounts of the small
macropods of these islands, like those of Baudin, Peron and Ronsard
(Cooper 1952) are evidently a blend of Thylogale eugenti with smaller
forms.

Extirpation of B. penicillata in South Australia appears to have
followed much the same conrse as with B. lesweuri; the last three
examples taken, of which T have been able to get reliable accounts,
were at Riverton in the Lower North district in 1908, at Lameroo in
the Murray Mallee in the same year and on the Wild Dog Creek in
the Flentieu Peninsula in 1910,

OF the several aboriginal words which haye been applied to
“kangaroo rats’? in lower South Australian yocabularies, only one,
the coolgar of Harvey (1840) at Port Lincoln on Eyre Peninsula can

271

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART III

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272 RECORDS GF THE S.A. MUSEUM

be applied with certainty to B. penicillata, the animal so-called having
heen identified by Gould in 1858. This is clearly equivalent to kulka
of the later Parnkalla vocabularies of Kyre Peninsula and probably
also to koka and kurka of the Kaurna of the Adelaide distriet. The
names bukurra or bokra of Le Brun and Browne’s providing, have
been linked with B, ogilbyy (= penteillala) by Johnston (1943) but
definitely belong to the burrowing: species, B. lesueuri.

Victoria; There are several categorical and inclusive statements
of the oeeurrenee of B. penicillata in Vietoria, viz, Forbes Leith and
Lucas (1884) and Thomas (1888), but the extent of its oceupation is
uncertain. Brazenor (in Harper 1945) states that Victorian specimens
are in the National Museum, Melhourne, and that the last record was
in 1857, Later, however (1950), le omits B. penicillata trom the list
af Vietorian mammals and substitutes RB. cwniculus Ogilby, hitherto
revarded as exclusively from Tasmania, where B. penicillata does
not veenr.

T have accounts of a nest building bettong from West Victoria
generally in 1854, and tle Grampians district in 1910. Nest building
would not of course distinguish B. exniculus from B. penicillata, but
the Sonth Australian populations in the lower South-East and Murray
Mallee distriets were almost certainly continuous into Vietoria, and
they are based upon a form with a small rounded extrayverted secator,
quite different from that of B. cwntenlus.

New South Wales: The elvief sources here are Gould and Krefft.
The former (18411852) bad personal knowledge of 11 down the course
of the Namoi to its junction with the Gwydir and on the adjacent
Liverpool Plains, He accorded it also a wide distribution thronghout
New South Wales except lor the coastal slopes of the Divide, where
he considered it to he replaced wholly or in part by gaimadi, held ly
some to be a closely related, possibly subspecifie form. Kretf (1864)
recorded it in western New South Wales on the lower Murray between
the Darling junction and Envston, 60 miles south-east, and made the
interesting statement that at Gunbower Creek, 150 E. of Huston, it is
completely replaced hy Aepyprymnus, He does not mention B.
penicillata on the Victorian side of the river.

Queensland; The species is not listed for Queensland in any of the
earlier accounts, and until quite recently, localized records were limited
to the original one at Coomnmoboolaroo in the Dawson Valley. This
was based upon the personal testimony to the writer of Charles
Barnard (a well informed naturalist and son of Lumboltz’s Lost), wha

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART III 273

comtributed largely to the latter’s collection. W. Boardman (1943),
however, published on an example from Pine Mountains in south-
eastern Queensland (Aust. Museum Sydney, No. 1121). Three
localities are so named in this area, and which is relevant is not
known—a mean position for it is plotted on the distribution map.
Tate (1948, 267 and 1952, 592) has given details of seven more in
American mnseums, taken at Mount Spurgeon and Ravenshoe towards
the western fall of the Atherton tableland; three of these were taken
as late as 1932. Recent enquiry by the writer in the field suggests
that it may still survive in the Gulf country of the north-west of the
State adjoining the Northern Territory border, though no material is
available in support,

The overall range of B. penictllata as outlined above, was probably
as extensive as that of B. lesuwenri, While it was absent from a con-
siderable north-vestern sector occupied by the latter, its eastern and
north-eastern extension was much vreater, and this, containing the
chief highlands ol the country, adds much to the total diversity of
hahitats occupied. The Torresian oceurrence is noteworthy as its
northern extension nearly equals that of Aepyprymnus rufescens,
which belongs exclusively to the east coast lands. Thomas’ dictum of
1888, on the range of B. penicillate “fall Australia exeept the extreme
north’? seems to have been at that time an expression of opinion
rather than an ascertained fact, but in the sequel as developed above,
it comes near the truth (fig. 2),

The status of the species is even more insecure than that of
B. lesueuri. Probably oths of its former range is now empty of it
and it survives only in three widely separated localities of North
Queensland, the Western Centre, and the south-west. of Western
Australia, Tts hold in the two former is slight and in the latter alone
does there seem much hope of perpetuating it.

IIanrrs: The sites which furnish the above records present
eeological contrasts of an extreme kind, They vary from North
Queensland forests under a 5Uin. rainfall, to spinifex plains on the
edge of the Sandridge Desert; from coastal dunes in Western Aus-
tralia to 5,000ft. plateaux in New South Wales; and from thermal
constaney under the monsoon in the north to marked seasonal changes
and sharp winters in the sonth-east. Morcoyer, versatility in exploit-
ing habitats is shown not only on this regional scale but in the
frequently ubiqnitous nature of its occurrence in restricted areas, In
South Australia it was less selective in this regard than B. Jesueurt

274 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

and oeeurred in the Mallee and in the higher stringy hark (Hucalyplus
obliqua) tiers of the ranges, where the latter was rare or absent, On
the Fleurieu Peninsula, much favoured nesting sites were the patches
of blue gum forest (Mucalyplus lencoxylon) with a wiry tussock sedge
(Lepidosperma carphoides) and sparse herbage on an otherwise rather
open floor. At Cuballing in the south-west of Western Anstralia
where in January 1926 I obtained part of the series examined below, a
rather similar plant association ocenrs in Wandoo forest (Hucalyptus
redunca var. elata); but here the terrain is varied with rocky ridges
supporting thickets of a prickly shrub, Dryandra nobilis.

Nest making appears to be very characteristic of the species and
in some form or another is exhibited in all types of country even in
the spinilex flats of the Centre. But nests are not the only form otf
eammps used; in Western Anstralia it is sometimes locally yery
abundant, as Shortridge records for Pingelly in 1904 and as [1 found
it at Cuballing, where the animal was much more numerous than its
nests in the quite restricted areas from which it was flushed. I is
probable that at such times a proportion shelter in hollow logs and
rock cavities on the Dryandra vidges. The type of nest made
evidently yaries somewhat with locality; Gould’s account from New
South Wales differing considerably from Gilbert’s in the Swan River
district of Western Anstralia. 1 have seen no examples in South
Australia but they are described by those who knew them hoth here
and in western Vietoria, as rounded and woven of grass stems and
there is no mention of the earth excavation at the base as in New
South Wales nor of the wse of sticks in place of grass and of a tubular
entry poreh as in Western Anstralia,

At Cuballing, those put up in the day time from grassy flats had
a characteristic somewhat unwallaby-like gait with the head low, back
much arched and the tail not rigidly curved but fluent and with the
black brush displayed very conspicuonsly—it did not seem at all fast,
under these conditions. Wood Jones records that it was used in
coursing in South Australia nnder the name ‘*Squeaker’’; but this
term was also applied in Sonth Australia to a hare wallaby
Lagorchestes leporoides, whose speed and saltatory powers were
exceptional. In the evenings they were constantly about the enclosure
at the homestead, and even when invisible could often be located hy
their solt grunting in the dusk. By means of freshly toasted bread
they were enticed np on to the verandahs, where they were not at. all
abashed by the presence of three people, several cats and a lighted
lamps cats and bettongs were often within a few feet of one another

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART UTI 275

and neither animal showed the slightest interest in the other's
presence. They were taken very easily in a crude form of box trap
improvised for the purpose and baited with toast. Indeed it was often
easier to get the animals into the trap than to take them out alive, for
il less fierce than B, lesweuri, they are exceedingly quick and nunble
and bite and struggle as the latter does, with remarkable strength.
It shares with B. lesvewri and with most of the subfamily the phalan-
geroid characteristic of a tender pelage, and large patches of fur and
epidermis are easily lost in such encounters. A South Australian
observer, M. 8, Clark, stated that a local example taken im 1864
showed some slight prehensile power of the tail; I was not able to
confirm this with living animals at Cuballing—either in the open or
when trapped, but I am not prepared to follow Shortridge (1910, 821)
in discounting either its ability, or habit, of carrying grass with the
tail for nesting wurposes, Gould’s positive statements on the matter
were apparently based on his own observations and were subsequently
confirmed by animals in captivity. Photographie evidence of the sane
habit in Polorous tridactylus is provided by Le Souef (1926, Pl. 54).

Data on reproduction in the field is scanty; a female im my
collection taken in July at Angusta in the extreme south-west of
Western Australia, had a large furred pouch young of head and body
leneth 210mm, D. L. Serventy (1958-55), who has given an interesting
account of his observations in the same district as my own, records
large pouch young at the end of March, These two records seem to
indicate that the very rapid increase of its populations, which used to
oceur in Western Anstralia, were due to the species breeding several
times in the year as Krefft (1862) suggested was the case with B.
lesueuri. Krefft observed only single young in the pouch in New
South Wales.

At Cuballing, the living animal was observed to have a strong and
somewhat unpleasant smell. No ectoparasites were noted but ova of
such were present in the fur,

Recent Matarian or B. penicillata Wxaminep: This is both less
plentifnl and more ¢liverse than in the case of B. lesueuri. 1. For the
characters of B, penicillata ogilbyi LT have relied chiefly on 7 skins and
skulls in my own collection, taken at several points in south-west
Western Australia and fully authenticated, supplemented by 2 skins
and 6 skulls in the South Australian Museum collection and believed
to be of local origin. 2, The Waldana karpitchi (sxpra) in aleohol,

1

276 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

3. A markedly dwarfed skull of lower South Australian origin, 4. The
holotype of B. penicillata francisca Finlayson. 5. The holotype of
B. penicillata anhydra Finlayson.

Bettongia penicillata ogilbyi Gould

ExrernaL Craracréns: Anthenti¢e material illustrating the
external characters of the species, is available chiefly from Western
Australia, and the following brief review is based on dried material
representing 7 individuals from Cuballing, Popanyinning, and Augusta
im the south-western district and is provided to parallel that of B.
lesueuri (supra) and to draw attention to the marked variation in
pelage which oecurs there.

B. penicillata has been said to be the smallest of the genus, but
the material in hand indieates that at comparable dental stages it is
as large or larger, than the Central Australian B. lesueuri. In life
the animal appears slighter and more trimly built than the latter, and
its limhs are even more delicate, and tail, pes aid ear, are all shorter
in comparison to head and body length, The head is narrower, the
ear broader at base and the upper lip less developed than in
B, lesueuri. The mien is bold, alert and impish; characteristic of the
genus and differing widely from the prevailing types of physiognomy
in the Macropodinae (Pl. xxxi),

The upper margin of the naked tesselate rhinarium is produced
upwards and backwards in the centre as a more or less acute spur.
The mysticial vibrissae reach 40 mm, in length; the lower rows pale
brown or whitish, but the remainder jet black; the genals and supra-
orbitals, reaching 87 mm., are also black and less developed than in
B, lesueuri . Wye lashes are weak, as is general in the subfamily, but
erescentic rows of stout bristles (to 15 mm.) are strongly developed
on the lower margin of the orbit and less so upon the upper, Of
submentals and interramals few have survived undamaged in the
material—these are colourless and transparent, and in the latter
group, reach 12 mm, only,

The manus is similar in its main features to that of B. lesweuri
but is somewhat longer and slighter and with longer digits and elaws.
The second digit is longer in relation to the third than in that species,
but the digital formula is the same, and the thickening of the fourth
digit is carried still further. The claws are yellowish white, have
moderate curyature, are laterally compressed and taper little to the
apex, in a superior view. The maximum length of the third claw is

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART III 277

14.5 (as against 11 mm, in B, lesweurt); the fourth claw is little
inferior to the third, The palmar structures ave not well shown. Of
brachial vibrissae only the ulnar carpal has been seen; a colourless
bristle of 12 mm.

The pes is also more slender than that of B. lesueuri, but agrees
with it in the hairing of the plantar surfaces, which involves the same
areas but is less dense; in this it differs markedly from B. cuniculus
and Aepyprymnus, and also from Waterhouse’s plate (1846, Pl. 12,
fie. 5), which, however, may he based on an abraded example. The
granmation of the sole is finer, averaging 19 per em.,, and the coloura-
tion of integument and nails, though variable, is generally darker; in
the darkest examples the sole is nearly black and the nails dusky
brown, in contrast to the pale manus.

Dimensions: Published dimensions of the species appear to have
heen derived chiefly from processed skins and are for the most part
uncorrelated with maturity data; the pes measuremeuts also are
partly vitiated by inelusion of the nail.

The following are the conventional measurements in mm, taken
in the flesh from two adyvaneed subadult males (P*M") at Cuballing:
lead and body, 430, 805; tail, 261, 279; pes, 107, 104; ear, 38, 38. In
an adult female (P*M"), the pes reached 110 mm. The percentage
relations to the head and body Jength in these two subadalts, as com-
pared with Central Australian B. lesuewri at the same dental stage,
ure respectively: tail, 79-91 (85), 100-122 (108); pes, 32-34 (33), 35-41
(37)3 ear, 11-12 (145), 19-14 (13.3).

Priace: This presents much of importance which does not emerge
in existing accounts, In the adult unworn pelage the texture is
variable; offen erisp or even harsh as in depyprymnus and quite
unlike B. lesueuri. Mid-dorsally the main pile of under fur, which is
copious, teaches 20 mm., with guard hairs to 382 mm., and the length
does not increase much elsewhere. The basal { of the under fur is
about blaekish-plumbeous of Ridgway, followed by a subterminal hand
of snuff brown deepening to cloye brown and black on the points.
The euard hairs are profusely developed and the majority reach
26 mm.; the banding is the same as in the underfur, except that a
narrow zone of dark brown separates the basal grey trom the flattened
subterminal segment, which is much lighter in colour, near cinnamon
buff, A considerable proportion of guard hairs (much higher than in
other species) are black throughout their length and more strongly
flattened; they sre so numerous as to constitute almost a third pile

278 RECORDS OF THE 5.A, MUSEUM

reaching 32 mm. in length. The general dorsal eolour is a rich
grizzled brown near snuff brown and is determined by the admixtare
of brown, buff and black of the terminal and subterminal bands, the
basal grey being entirely excluded from the surface, It is uniform
over the head, body and limbs, the tail alone contrasting in darker
and richer tones.

The sides are slightly paler; there is no lateral line of buff but a
gradual transition to the ventral colour, which is greyish white washed
with eream buff; areas of pure white ave sometimes present on mid
line of belly and throat. The muzzle is brown (near bistre) and not
grizzled, the rest of the head like the back. The ear backs are well
furred, snuff brown to the buse and not grizzled nor darkened at
margins and little contrasted with the crown; the inner surface
sparsely clothed and somewhat lighter than the backs; the tuft at the
tragoid noteh, inconspicuous.

The manus and digits are well haired but the nails are not
abseured, The colour variable; basally a deep brown, but bleaching
irregularly on the surface to grizzled clay colour; the digits pale drab
or near white, The pes also well haired and strongly fringed, the
terminal bristles on fourth tue reaching 25 mm. but not obscuring the
nail; metatarsus and digits usvally darker than the manus but varying
from bistre to huffy brown and paling proximally to buff; the margins
may be either lighter or darker than the dorsum.

The fur of the tail base shares the body ecolonr and length for
80 mm. or go, but is then shortened to 15 mm, and its colour enriched
to a red brown (russet to tawny) which may extend over half or more
of the dorsal and Jateral surface. The fur is then progressively
lengthened, darkened, and erected, forming a black or brown-black
dorsal erest reaching 30 mm. ut the apex, The lateral surfaces are
coloured like the dorsum and inay or may not eontribnte to the brush,
The ventral surface in adults is always much lighter (cinnamon buff
to cream buff) and the hair is bristly and adpressed distally, where
seale exposure by abrasion may occur. The hairing and colour of the
tail varies considerably, chiefly with age; the blackest and most exten-
sive crests aré in subadults, and in such there may be a coextensive
blackening of the ventral surface, but never a ventral duplication of
the crest.

The chief variations of pelage, which are of a marked kind, are
clearly age characters and independent of sex and season, In suh-
adults as late as the P*M* stage, which may be almost full grown, the

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART IIL 279

coat is softer and looser in texture, and the overlay of guard hairs
and the resulting grizzling much reduced. The subterminal band of
the underfur pales to olive buf or buffy brown and of the guard hairs,
to ivory or near white and the pale basal grey shows through to the
surface—the resulting dorsal colour being a weak grey brown or drab.
A fully furred pouch young (head and body ea, 210 tm.) shows a
smooth adpressed coat about 13 mm. long dorsally, with a colour
scheme similar to the adults, but even darker and richer.

The adult pelage of this Western Australian series as given above
is notably different from other bettongs I have examined—larker,
browner, and with less contrast between the subterminal band and the
external colour. The darkest examples are quite close to the pelage
of Potoraus tridactyjlus. In subactults the difference is less and skins
of all species which haye been immersed for long periods in saline
preservatives may justify Thomas’ phrase ‘not definitely different.”

The hair tracts in the above pouch young are in substantial agree-
ment with Boardman’s figures (1943, fig. 17 and 18) exeept im the
vicinity of the eve. Here a strongly eonspicillate effect is produced
by radial tracts from its margins interrupting the general candad flow
on the taee: that from the anterior canthus is a direct reversal of
considerable extent and is marked off by strongly developed opposi-
tion ridges. On the tail, the distal flow of the lateral surfaces has an
upward infection, and the mid dorsal tract which is strictly distal, is
separated fvom it by converging ridges; a similar condition occurs in
Culoprymuus at the same stage. In adults the condition in penicillata
is much as in lesweuri.

CrantL Cuanserers (PL xxix, fig, A-F): The treatment of
cranial and dental characters is made to cover some areas of conflict
in existing accounts and to supplement these where possible and is
chiefly based on a series of 14 skulls, drawn in equal proportion from
south-west Western Australia and from lower South Australia. A
preliminary comparison (infra) having shown it to be sufficiently
homogencous for treatment at subspecies level, IT regard if as repre-
senting B. penicillata ogilbyi Gould, and use it as a standard for the
definition of other forms. The roimparisons made are with B. lesnewrt
unless otherwise stated, and where metrical, with the means of the
three populations of that species studied (supra). Individual varia-
tion both metrieal and nonmetrical is considerable, but ich less than
in B. lesueuri; the mean variation for 24 cranial measurements being
10 per cent.

280 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

In general form the skull is close to that of BR. cuniculus. When
fully adult it is longer than in 8. leswewri but narrower and shallower,
so that the overall size as measured by the displacement volume
(54 ce.) is searcely vreater than in Central Australian B. lesueuri.
The ossification is lighter, and the surfaces smooth, with museular
impressions redueed; mean adult weight 16 g,

The chief regional difference is in the rostrum which is longer,
yielding a rostral index of 43 and facial mdex of 226 as against 36
and 178 respectively; it is also relatively wide and deep basally and
forms a steeply tapering eone without the lateral constriction or
dorsal flattening of B. lesneuri. The nasal bones are both actually
and relative to skull length, longer and narrower posteriorly, but their
shape varies, partly at Jeast as an ave character, In subadnlts the
posterior margins are often sinuous and irregular and invaded by
spurs from the frontals and the lateral are suddenly constricted at
the maxillo-premnaxilliary sutore, giving shapes like some of the B.
lesueuri variants. In adult and aged skulls the posterior margins are
transverse and nearly rectilinear and are well in advance of the
interorbital line; the junction is sharply angular with the lateral
margin which converges evenly to the anterior nares, where it is
suddenly constricted to a sharp apex, over-reaching the gnathion
anteriorly—a condition different from amy phase of B, lesweuri. The
zygomatic arches are shorter as well as narrower, with the maximum
width posterior to mid point, rarely anterior to it; the interorhital
space wider, less concave and virtually umeonstricted throughout life,
an incipient. post-orbital process impressed on their edges, and the
temporal ridges searcely evident before the tooth ehange, and always
weak. The interparietal is variable, similar to B. lesweuri when
present, but sometimes not developed or very early fusing with the
parictals.

Tn lateral aspect, the premaxillae make a larger eontribution to
the wall of the rostrum, their nasal suture equal to or greater than,
the maxilliary; malar much weaker, its median depth but half that of
B, lesveuri; the supratympanie canal is not completed by bone and
the squamosal-frontal contact at the pterion, is invariable.

The palate is longer and wider than in B, lesvenri and differently
shaped owing to the extraversion of the secator and anterior
divergence of tooth rows. The anterior palatal foramina are variable,
with dimensions overlapping those of B. lesveuri, but yielding means
above the Central Australian and about equal to the lower South Aus-
tralian population of that species, The posterior vacnities vary both

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART III 281

in size and site, but in general are smaller and usually lie entirely
within the palatine bone, whereas in B, lesuewri they are bounded
anteriorly by the maxilla. The diastema is the longest in the genus,
averaging 20 per cent of the basal length. The alisphenoid bulla is
much smaller, its chief diameter relative to basal length being 25%
lower; it is still, however, a prominent feature, quite similar in
general shape, and in size, the second in the subfamily; it is not trans-
parent as stated by Thomas, unless very greasy.

The mandible ig slighter throughout, with most dimensions
10-15% helow the B. lesuewri means, the diastemma alone being longer.
The lower border is less convex, the ascending process less erect, and
the masseteric foramen, though variable, usually decidedly smaller.

Sexual differentiation earnot be adeqnately assessed, but is
apparently slight, the female as large as the male, Age changes slight
bnt more definite than in B. lesvewri and chiefly shown by the shorter
rostrum and relatively wider nasals in the subadult skull and a lag
in the expansion of the bulla and mandibular condyle.

Dimensions: The following figures give the range and mean of
skull dimensions in mm, for (1) 5 adults at P*M’*, of both sexes; and
(2) 5 subadults at P*M* of both sexes: greatest length, 76,8-81.0 (78.3),
70.5-74.5 (72.4); basal length, 64.5-68.5 (66.1), 59.8-62.8 (61.1) ;
zygomatic breadth, 39.6-42.7 (41.4), 38.7-40.1 (894); nasals length,
31,0-32.6 (31.8), 27.5-30.5 (28.9); nasals, greatest breadth, 12.0-14.3
(13.3), 13.0-18.7 (13.4); nasals, least breadth, 6.3-7.9 (7.3), 6.2-6.8
(6.5); rostroam depth, 14.3-15.9 (14.9), 12.6-15,0 (14.0); interorbital
constrietion, 16,.8-18.4 (17.7), 16.3-18.0 (17.3); palate length, 42.0-45.4
(43.8), $8.5-41.4 (39.8); palate breadth inside M’*, 12.0-13.2 (12.4),
10.8-12.4 (11.8); ant. palatal foramina, 2.9-4.0 (84), 2.6-3.2 (2.9);
diastema, 12.7-14.0 (13.5), 12.0-18,7 (12.7); bulla length, 13.8-15.0
(14.4), 12.844.2 (13.3); bulla breadth, 9.6-10.1 (9.9), 8.2-9.1 (8.5) ;
basieranial axis, 19.2-22.8 (20.5), 18.3-20.0 (19.0); basifacial axis,
45-2-47.5 (46,2), 41.1-43.6 (42.5); facial index, 213-236 (226), 210-237
(224); mandible, maximum breadth, 38.5-43.0 (40,8), 35,9-39.1 (37.8) ;
depth of ramus below M®, 8,9-9.8 (9.2), 8.0-9.0 (8.4) ; breadth ascending
process, 11.6-15.6 (12.7), 10,2-12.0 (11.5),

The series contains larger examples than have hitherto been
recorded.

Destrrvion (Pl. xxx, fig, A-J and 0): The dentition is similar to
that of B. lesueuré Wut less specialiaed and with a greater residuum
of phalangeroid characters; it was regarded hy Bensley as directly

282 RECORDS OF THE 8,A, MUSEUM

linking the genus with Hypsiprymnodon. In most eategories the
dimensions overlap those of the Central Australian series of B-.
lesuewri, but are decidedly below the means of the three populations
of that species reviewed above, and there is a general tendency to
narrowness and slightness, thongh there are one or two exceptions to
that, The mean variation in dimensions of functionally stable teeth
is slightly lower (14%). In the following account the comparison
throughont is with B, lesweurt unless otherwise stated,

The incisor rows meet at a narrower angle and are more separate
from the canine. T' is a smaller tooth, rather less upright, and with
its labial face lateral throughout life, Dorso vemtral height 5.5-6.4
(5.8) ; anteroposterior length 2.2-2.5 (2.3). T? much narrower and with
its anteroposterior length about equal to that of I", not notably
longer as ight he inferred from Bensley’s comparison with
THypsiprymnodon; it is the first of the prediastemal series to erupt;
anteroposterior length 2.3-3.0 (2.5); transverse breadth 1.6-1.9 (1,8),
I* with its crest more normally aligned in the ineisor row; its shape
much as in &, lesvevri and with similar changes with wear; dorso
ventral height 2.8-3,7 (8.2); anteroposterior length 1.9-8.0 (24). The
labial faee of all three incisors is longitudinally grooved more
frequently than in B. leswenri, but there is much variation—fie, A
shows a strongly grooved phase of I! and [’. T, longer and more
slender, with a greater tendency to slight upward curvature weakly
sugvestive of Pefaurus and Distoechurus m the Phalangeridae;
anteroposterior length 11.4-14.4 (12.7); breadth 3.0-3.3 (3,1).

The canine is a larger tooth, showing similar variation in shape;
dorsoventral height 4.54.8 (4,7),

Dental differences between B. lesweuri and RB. penicillata culminate
in the permanent premolars, the two species representing in this
feature the extremes of specialization and consetvatism, within the
genus. The ehief distinctions of P* in the latter are its smaller size,
hypsodontism, and extraversion of its axis, and convexity of erest
anteriorly.

In the present series, while the angle of rotation is fairly constant,
the degree ta whieh the posterior portion of the blade abstains, varies.
The body of the tooth, however, is always decidedly curved, its out-
lines as seen from above following a shallow sigmoid, with a constric-
tion at the posterior one-fifth and maximum breadth at the anterior
one-third of its length, A posterointernal talon is always developed,
but is quickly reduced by wear; an internal ledge scarcely

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART III 283

differentiated. In profile the unworn crest undulates; an anterior
rounded and grooved portion, and a smooth posterior cusp, being
separated by a shallow declivity, but equality of height is soon
attained by wear. In contrast, the enamel wall of the crown is nearly
twice as high anteriorly as posteriorly; its grooves are constantly
seven on the buceal wall and are either vertical or converge to the
centre of the crest; they are generally wider than in B, lesweuri, In
unworn or slightly worn exariyiles, anteroposterior length 7.0-7.4 (7.1) ;
breadth 2.8-3,2 (3.0); height (of enamel) 4.3-4.6 (4.4).

The Jower secator P, is simpler than its opponent, 10% shorter
hut with breadth and height slightly greater, relatively; extravergion
of its axis is even throughout its length; its outline from above almost
straight sided, with the greatest breadth near the anterior one-third;
no talon is developed. The profile of the erest is quite straight and
the enamel of the wall higher anteriorly; grooves constantly seven;
anteroposterior length 6.2-6,7 (6.4); breadth 2.7-3,.0 (2.9); height (of
enamel) 41-48 (4.2). |

P* is very much smaller than the secator, but generally similar to
the anterior half of that tooth; evenly rotated outwards and with its
maximnm breadth median and its ontline from: above oval except for
a re-entrance at the posterointernal corner; the profile of its erest
straight or at most very slightly rounded; its enamel wall as in the
seeator; grooves constantly five. In the skull of a pouch young, the
erest of P* which is erupting, shows no extraversion, but lies parallel
to the midline of the palate; anteroposterior length 4.0-4.6 (4.4);
breadth 2,4-2,7 (2.6); height of enamel 3,5-4.8 (4.0). P. similar to its
opponent, scarcely reduced, but more evenly sie erooves five; antero-
posterior length 3.7-4.1 (4.0); breadth 2.5-2.7 (2,5); height of enamel
3.5-44 (3.9),

The upper deciduous premolar MP* ig similar to that of B.
lesuveuri, but smaller; markedly smaller than M*; the blade of the
anteroexternal cusp is less developed amd its crest more oblique to that
of P*® It is the first of the cheek teeth to erupt, its appearance
synchronising with I? and preceeding P*, Its lower opponent MP, is
also smaller, bot with its anterior lobe relatively wider than in B.
lesucuri; the crest of the anterointernal cusp is obscurely notched on
its outer surface, and meets that of P, more directly than in the upper
tooth, Dimensions of seven examples of MP* and MP, respectively,
showing slight to moderate wear are; anteroposterior length 3.0-3.6

284 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

(3.3); 2.8-3.5 (3.0); breadth anterior lobe 2.6-2.8 (2.7); 2.0-2.5 (2.3) ;
breadth posterior lobe 3.0-3,3 (8.1); 2.4-2.7 (2.5).

The molar rows, whieh in relation to skull length are the shortest
in the genus, diverge anteriorly in straight lines. he absolute sive
range of all molars as shown by the crown areas overlap the minimum
for the combined B. lesueuri groups, but the means are decidedly
lower (from 4 to 19%), the inferiority being greater in the seeond
and third of both upper and lower series,

The interrelations of crown areas are generally similar to those of
R. lesueuri, Wot there is an inerease in the relative size of the first
molars, both upper and lower, and a decrease in the second and third.
In the upper jaw this creates a tendency towards subequality of M*
and M? and in the lower jaw to dominance of M, over My, both con-
ditions being rare or of minor frequency in B, lesuewri and quite
absent in 2. cuniculus where the latter condition is excluded by a
characteristic enlargement of M,. The index of reduction or ratio of
largest to smallest molar, is lower (less steep) than in B. lesuewri, the
mean values for the upper and lower series respectively being 2.9 and
2.0 as against 3.3 and 2.3 in the latter, he molar formulae and their
approximate frequencies and the percentage relation of the crown
areas of individual teeth to the corresponding first molars, is as
follows: in the upper jaw M?>M'>M*>M* 50% M'>M? 42% M'=M*
8%; M* and M* being constant in the sequence; and M* 100; M* 90-107
(99); M" 70-80 (75); M' 26-43 (36). Tn the lower jaw M:>M.>M,>Mu
839; Mi=M, 8%; M.>M, 9%; M, and M, being constant; and M,
100; M,; 107-120 (113); M. 90-108 (96); M, 48-70 (56).

The size and shape relationships of the corresponding upper and
lower molars and their variations, and the relation of anterior to
posterior lobe, are much as in B. lesueuri; the breadth/length ratio
tends to be slightly lower than the B, leswewri means in the upper
teeth, and slightly higher in the mandibular set,

The range and mean of the anteroposterior length, breadth
anterior lobe, and breadth posterior lobe in the molars of the bisexnal
series of eleven skulls is as follows;—M! 3.7-4.2 (4.0); 3.5-4.4 (3.9);
3.74.2 (4.0). M® 3.6-4.5 (4.0); 3.844 (4.0); 3.5-4.2 (3.8). M® 3.5-4.0
(3.7); 3.8-3.8 (3.6); 2.7-3.2 (3,0). M* 2.2-3.0 (2.5); 2.0-2.9 (2.5);
1.7-2,.2 (1.9). Ms.’" length in situ. 11.0-12.7 (11.8). M, 3.5-4.0 (3.7);
8.2-3.7 (3.5); 3.5-4.1 (38.6). M. 3.84.2 (4.0); 3.7-4.1 (3.9); 3.6-4.0
(3.8). My, 3.5-8,.9 (3.7); 3.54.0 (3.7); 3.2-3.7 (84), My 2,7-3.5 (3.0) 5

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART III 285

2.7-3.2 (3.0); 2.7-3.2 (3.0); 2.1-2.7 (2.3). Ms.., length in situ, 11,1-12.5
(11.5),

The crown pattern of the molars is very similar to that of B.
lesueuri, but with the eusps and lophs lower and less prominent. An
accessory cuspule originating at cingulum level on the buccal wall of
M! and M* and sealing that aspect of the median valley, is developed
in about half the series, and more rarely appears on MP* and M*; the
analogus feature on the lower molars, mentioned by Bensley, has not
been traced. M{ are somewhat less variable than in B. lesuewri and
simulate more or less crudely the main structural features of Mj.

The series affords no example of the tooth change, but the erup-
tion of P{ may be delayed beyond that of M4; this, however, is as
likely to he due to proeocity of Mj as to retarded seeators, as it ocenrs
in skulls still metrically and suturally subadult. There is no instance
in this series of the secator preceding the 4th molar as is frequent in
B. lesueuri and B. euniculus, so that, ou the whole, a later tooth elange
seems indicated for B. penicillata,

Suesprciwie Divrenenrration iw Bellongia penicillata.

B. penicillata ogilbyi, Gould; The western representative of B.
penicillula in the Swan River districts was early separated by Gould
and Waterhouse (1841) from the type of New South Wales, as a full
species under the name B. ogilbyi; while a single immature skin from
South Australia, was made the type of a third species, B. gouldi, by
Gray in 1843, Later examination of more material from all three
localities revealed much local variation and overlapping, and Thomas
in 1888 merged both names in B. penicillata Gray 1837, and it is only
in recent years that they have reappeared in suspecifie form, without,
so far as T can ascertain, any new evidence in support of this course,
being addueed,

T lave examined no material certainly localized in New South
Wales, but the local variation in south-west Western Australia outlined
above is sufficiently wide to vitiate most of the pelage distinctions
claimed for the eastern animal and the metrical differences implied
hy Waterhouse’s and Gonld’s data, are not significant when compared
with the range in the present series except possibly for the sceator,
which is confirmed by Tate for North Queensland (1948 op, cit., 267).
The eastern animal would appear to be very weakly differentiated,
with at most a slightly ¢reyer pelage, occasionally longer secator, and
possibly some slight differences im nidification,

286 RECORDS OF THE S,A, MUSEUM

The South Australian animal, so far as it can be understood from
material available here, is even less distinct from the western one.
In the South Australian Musewn are two skins and six skulls whieh
although without reliable data, are probably of local origin; fwo of
the skulls almost certainly so. A close and detailed comparison of the
cranial and dental characters of these skulls with Western Australian
material from the south-western districts only, ciseloses slight average
Jifferences of which the following are the chief. (1) The rostrum
tends to be slighter in the Sonth Australian skull. (2) The zygomatic
process of the squamosal is also slighter, move concave above and the
adjoining squamosal more inflated, (3) In the mandible the mandi-
hular foramen is often larger. (4) The antemolar teeth are virtually
identical, but in the molars the condition M'>M* is twiee as frequent
in the South as in the Western Australian group. The variation in
all characters is high and this with the inadequacy of the samples,
easts doubt on the significance of the differences, which in any ease
are somewhat less than those separating the Central and South Aus-
tralian populations ol B. lesweuri. The overall similarity of the two
samples from localities so remote is much more impressive. The two
South Australian skins present no characters whieh cannot he
reconciled with the Western Australian range.

These findings appear ta me to justify and confirm the clear
statements of Gonld and Waterhouse (op, eit), often overlooked, that
“B. ogilbyi’? of the Swan River districts, also occurred with very
slight modification in the State of Sonth Australia, and if Krefft
(1864) is right. extended far beyond it, into the lower Darling Basin
of New South Wales,

The Waldana karpitchis This was taken about 1897 by R. T.
Maurice at Waldana Spring on one of the preliminary journeys which
culminated in his traverse with Murray from Fowler’s Bay to the
Cambridge Gulf, in 1902. The loeality is about 125 miles north-west of
Ooldea in the arid western division of South Australia, and about 100
miles sonth of Pundi, whenee came the most southerly of the reports
I had of it from the Pitjanjarra in 1934, Maurice mentions having
seer! ‘kangaroo rats’? im some plenty both sonth and north of
Waldana, but what species are involved in this observation is doubtful.

The specimen (South Anstralian Museum, registered number
M4140) is an aleohol preserved female poneh young having the
dimensions; head sand body, 173; tail, 190; pes, 78; ear, 28. The
pelave in its present condition is paler and more grizzled than is usual
in B, penicillata ogilbyi, but it is a moot point how mneh of this is

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART IIT 287

due to bleaching during the 60 years of its partial immersion in
spirit. The colow® distribution on maanus, pes and tail is quite as in
ogilbyi; the tail darkening rapidly distally and forming a low but
distinet black brush over the terminal third. The skull (greatest
length 46.6 rum.) is functionally edentulous or nearly so, but I! and
[? and the third and milk premolars of both jaws are sufficiently
advanced for examination of their crowns alter removal of soft tissue.

This is the only fleshed specimen of B. pentcillata from an
eremian distriet which | have examined and it is unfortunate that its
immaturity and storage history render a full appraisal, al subspecies
level, impracticable. In essentials it is reconeilable with the standard
ogubyt series reviewed and is quite distinct cranially from the form
anhydra from 470 miles further north.

No skull of B. penicillata ogilbyi, strietly matched dentally with
the Waldana specimen, has been available for comparison, and growth
changes in the skull are so rapid at this stage, that differences between
individnals are of doubtful significance. Nevertheless 1t seems
questionable to me whether the Waldana skull at dental maturity
would have attained to either the maximum length or relative rostral
development of full seale ogillyi and the length of MP", which is the
most advaneed of the teeth and appears to be fully formed, is below
ihe mean of the standard series (2.9 ef. 3.3 mm,). Jf these three
differences were realized in the adult it would snggest aflinity with the
stnall skulls next considered, with taxonomic implications which are
there indieated.

“B, penicillata gouldv? Gray; The type of Gray's Bettongta
gouldi was a small skin without skull believed to be immature, but the
second specimen reviewed hy Waterhouse (1846, 22, Pl. 6, fig. 1) in
the same conection was an adult skull of very small size. The
present material includes a very similar skull, whieh, thongh not
formally localized, may be inferred from associated material and other
evidenee to be from the western slopes of Mount Lofty; this has been
élosely compared with the standard L. penicillata ogilbyi series with
the following results.

It is an udvaneed subadult at P*M*, and remarkably small in the
relevant age group of ogilbyi; 18 of 23 lmear dimensions studied
falling below the range of these, with an average difference from the
mean of —13%; its displacement volume is only 60% of that of
Bop. ogilbyi. Differences im proportional development (shown by the
pereentage relationships of dimensions to the basal length) exceed

288 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

5% in 10 items; the chiel changes being in anterior palatal foramina,

leugth of bulla, breadth and depth of mandible (-++8 to 12%) and
palatal breadth and facial index (—12 and —11% respectively).
Laterality in the posterior structures of the mandible is especially
noticeable, the transverse breadth of condyle being + 14%; the
mandibular foramen of the same region, is both actually and relatively
the widest in the series; otherwise nonmetrieal differences are absent.
an the general appearance of the skull normal for ogilbyt,

The dentition as a whole is proportionately reduced, with, how-
ever, a slightly narrower I° and slightly stouter Pf. The crown ares
seqnenees and percentage ratios are: M® 103>M* 100>M* 73 and
M: 118>M, 100=M, 100 and the index of reduction (three teeth
only) is L4 (upper) and J.1 (lower); these size relations ean all be
closely matched in the standard series of ogilbyi,

The (dimensions of this sknIl are:—ereatest length 62.5; basal
leneth 52.5; zygomatic breadth 36.0; nasals lengih 23.5; nasals
greatest breadth 10.5; nasals least breadth 5.8; rostrum depth 12.05
interorbital constrietion 14.5; palate length 32.8; palate breadth inside
M* 9.0; anferior palatal foramina 2.4; diastema 10.8; bulla 124 x 7.8;
basicranial axis 17.5; basifacial axis 35.0; facial index 200; mandible:
maximum breadth 36.2; depth below M, §.2; breadth ascending process
10.0; breadth of condyle 4.8. Ms2* 9.7. Msas 9.6, P*® and Ps
respectively; length 3.5; 3.3 breadth 2.5; 2.6 grooves 5; 5. The agree-
toent with the older skull of Waterhouse, so far as it can he studied
from his account, is very close. The palatal length given by
Waterhouse (11 lines) is evidently a typographical error.

The general level of differentiation reached by these small skulls
is quite appreciable and is distinetly wreater for example than that
shown by the South ag compared with the Western Australian moieties
of the ogilby? series used as a standard. But thongh they are by no
means mere miniatures of the B. p. ogilbyi skull, their taxonomic
recornition Taises biological objections and seems to me contra-
indicated. On the one hand, to treat them as representing a sub-
species of B, penicilluta, existing in very small numbers side by side
with B. p. ogilbyi at widely separated points, is to violate the chief
principle held to underlie the equilibrium between geographic races,
by attributing to if a reproductive isolation which should not exist at
subspecitie level, On the other hand to treat them as representing a
full species is clearly unjustifiable on worphological grounds,

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART III 289

The alternative is to regard them, as Waterhouse suggested, as
dwarfed examples of ogilbyt owing their distinctions to individual and
physiological rather than genetic causes, This is supported by the
existence in the same region of similar though less marked dwarfism
in the allied species lesweuwri, where subspeeifie distinction could not
be seriously considered. Dwarfism and gigantism within species of
Australian mammals, especially under eremian conditions, offers an
interesting field for the study of changes in proportional development
with changing body size, The amplitude of the size difference in
material otherwise strictly homogeneous at subspecies level, is often
astonishing, as shown for example hy Spencer (1896, 25) and Wood
Jones (1928a. 106) for Dasycereus and which I have confirmed im the
subspecies hillieri of the Lake Eyre Basin (1933), and im Rattus
villosissimus.

“2B. gouldi’’ as a form (either specific or subspecifie) oceurring
between the head of Gulf St. Vincent and Mount Lolty in territory
densely aecupied by B. py. ogilbyi, under a 20-80 inch raintall, is
difficult to aeeept., But the ease might be different if these localities
were erroneous and the material were derived from further north,
Hi might well then represent a subspecific eremian offshoot of ogilbyt,
to which the Waldana specimen from 600 miles north-west of the head
of the Gulf, should be referred,

In the absenee of this evidence, T am confirmed in the rejection
of these dwarf skulls from lower South Australia as representing a
distinet race or species (whether * B. gouldi’’ or not) by the existence
of two others in which the distinction of even smaller size, is
reintoreed by structural changes of a much more decided kind, and by
adequate geographical isolation.

Betlongia pemvillata franeisca Finlayson, 1957: This formn was
based upon a portion of a skull in the old collections of the South
Australian Museum (Registered number M, 5484), which came trom
St. Francis Tsland, Nuyt’s Archipelago, off the Hyre Peninsula coast
of South Australia in approximately 32° 35° 8. lat, and 183° 20° Bi.
longt.; no other details of its provenance are reeorded.

The speeimen lacks the occiput, nasals and mandible, but has a
eomplete adult maxilliary dentition, together with the two first
incisors and L* of the right side. The dimensions available suggest a
complete skull of about the same size as the Mount Lofty dwarf in its
present subadult condition. As eompared with B. penicillata agilbyr

290) RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

of the adjacent mainland, the rostrum, while normal in shape, is
probably reduced in relative length though the rostral index cannot be
determined. The interorbital breadth and breadth of palate are
relatively greater, and (he anterior palatal foramina longer.

The incisors are worn and damaged and little of differential value
can be inferred trom them, but the premolars and molars are well
preserved, though the erowns of the latter show heavy wear. The
secator, P* (PL. xxx, fig. M and N) conforms in a general way to that
of penicillata s. lat. in its long axis being rotated outwards from the
midline of the palate; in the wall of the erown, being twice as high
anteriorly as posteriorly; and in the broad grooves. It differs from
B, p. ogilbyi in the extraversion of the axis being less in degree and
more ever in mode, with less torsion of the erest; in reduction of the
eroaves from seven to six and in its greater breadth, The last
distinetion is critical; while the length of the tooth is reduced by
nearly 20% as compared with the means for vgilbyi its hreadth is
actually increased by 6%, leading to a breadth/length ratio of 95 as
against 42. The general appearance ol the secator is similar to P*
of ogilbyi, but it differs in its distinet posterointernal talon and mich
sreater bulk, which is 2} times that of P* in the Mount Lofty dwarf of
the same cranial size,

The erown areas of all the molars (PL xxx, fig. N) are below the
‘ange for ogilbyz; the reduction being much less on M' and M* than
on M* and M*. The percentage size ratios ealeulated from the crown
areas are: M* 105>M? 100>M*® 68>M! 24, yielding an index of
reduction of 4.4 as against a maximum of 3.8 in ogilbyi,

Dimensions: interorbital breadth, 14.0; palatal length, 94,0;
palatal breadth inside M*, 11,2; anterior palatal !oramen, 3.2; Ms."
10.4: P' length, 5.8; P? breadth, 3.2.

The former presence of this bettong on St, Francis Island was
recorded by Wood Jones (1928b), who inferred from the deseriptions
of those who had known it in life, that it represented penicillata, The
external characters are otherwise unknown, and the present fragment,
as far as IT am aware, is the only material relic of the animal, which
is believed to have become extinet some 70 years ago,

Bettongia penicillata anhydra Finlayson 1957: The type and only
known specimen of this form, is a part skull with mandible (Sonth
Australian Museum, registered number M. 3583) from an aminal in
the flesh collected by M. Terry in July 1933 near the McKwin Hills

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART Il 291

of the Lake Mackay area of Central Australia, in approximately
22° 2/8, lat. and 129° 47° KH. longt, The external characters are not
known with sufficient precision for recording.

The skull (PL. xxix, fig. G and H) lacks the occiput, basioccipital
and posterior portion of the bullae but has a complete mandible.
Suturally and dentally it is fully adult but not aged, and the dentition
which is complete, shows moderate wear, In general size it is inferior
to francisea and is the smallest skull of the genus yet examined; its
estimated displacement volume being 34 ec. approx, as against a mean
value of 54 ce. in the standard series of B. penicillata ogilbyi and
53 ee. for the Central Australian 2. lesueuri. In absolute dimensions,
17 of the 19 items tested tall below the minimum for ogilbyi with an
average difference trom the means of 20%. Proportional development
as determined by the percentage relation of dimensions to the length,
disclose a high order of distinetion from ogilbyi, the mean difference
in this eategory being 11%. The elief proportional changes are:
zygomatic breadth + 13%; interorbital constriction — 1890; diastema
— 24%; breadth of bulla + 25%; depth of mandibular ramus + 17% ;
tires idth of ascending process + 26%. In addition the rostrum is
much shortened, the rostral index falling to 34 as against 43 in ogilbyt.

Some of these changes indicate convergence towards B. lesueuri,
but especially characteristic are the Sollowing: the narrowness and
general weakness of the muzzle region; the narrowness of! the nasals;
the very short anterior palatal foramina and a strongly developed
interorbital constriction, unique in the genus, The brainease ts
relative narrow and more tapered anteriorly than in either B. lesueurt
of Central Australia or B. penicillala agilbyi and the temporal crests,
which are strongly developed, are differently disposed towards the
midline, Im the mandible, the proportions of coronoid, ascending
process and mandibular foramen are nearer BL lesuewri, and the
relative depth of the body of the ramus is actually greater than in
that form.

In the dentition, the incisors show characters of both species, I?
being broader than is usual in B. penicillata ogilbyi and T° lacking the
inturning of the crest, seen in B. lesneur?. The seeator, P* (Pl. xxx,
fig. L and R) is aetnally longer and as broad as in the much larger
ogtlhyi skull, but its height is about 10% less and is more evenly
distributed alone its leneth. It shows many of the fundamental
characters of the B. penicillata secator and in extraversion of its axis
and torsion of erest is intermediate between B. p, ogilbyi and B. p.

K

292 RECORDS GF THE S.A, MUSEUM

francisca; its grooves are wide and seven or eight in number.
Morphologically the tooth differs widely from its B. lesueuri analogue,
in its relatively greater breadth; greater anterior height yielding a
height/length ratio of 47 as against a mean of 42 in Central Ans-
tralian B. lesuewri; and in the extrayersion and torsion of its crest,
which are not remotely approached hy any specimen of B. lesweuri in
the three populations studied, in which a straight crest and distinct
introversion are invariable. The outturning of the lower tooth P, 1s
less marked; its crest is straight aud its grooves are reduced to seven,

The length of the molar rows in situ, and the crown areas of all
the molars individually, ure below the minima for B. penicillata
ogilbyi. The reduetion, as in B. p, franeiszea, is least on the first and
second molars, and greatest on the third and fourth, but the eolateral
disparity between these pairs is even greater, and the fourth molars
are extremely small teeth. M* on the other hand is particularly large
and broad as in ogilhyi, These changes lead to an unprecedentedly
high index of reduetion (greatest erown area/least) in both upper and
lower jaw as follows: B. p. anhydra 6,5 wpper, 4.2 lower; \ Central
Aystralian B, lesueurt, 1.9-5.1 (3.3), 1.5-3.2 (2.3); and B. p. ogilbyi,
2.4-3.8 (2.9), 1.7-2.3 (2.0). The size sequence of the molars and the
approximate percentage relation to the first molar, as gauged hy the
crown areas, are: M! 100>M? 94>M* 62>M* 15 and M, 108>M,
100>M, 81>M, 26; these sequences occur in both B. penicillata and B.
lesueurt, but are more frequent in the former. The upper molar rows
are slightly curved and there are no supernumerary cusps on the
anterior members. Dimensions: greatest length, 62.1; zygomatic
breadth, 37.4; nasals, length, 23.7; nasals, greatest. breadth, 9.5; depth
of rostrum, 11.6; interorbital constriction, 12.2; palate length, 32.5;
palate, breadth inside M*, 9.4; anterior palatal foramina, 2.4; diastema,
8.0; bulla, anterior breadth, 10.4; mandible, depth below Mz, 8.7;
breadth of ascending process, 13.3; P* and P, respectively, length 7.5,
6.4, breadth 3.0, 2.8; Ms.", 10.5; Ms..,, 10.2; I’ dorsoventral height
5.8; anteroposterior length 2.1; I? anteroposterior length, 2.6: trans-
verse breadth, 1.8; I* dorsoventral height, 2.6; anteroposterior
length, 2.2.

As stated iu the original description, this skull presents a blend
of the characters of B. lesuewri and B. penicillata, with a basis of
intrinsie features. The combination, if constant, would undoubtedly
merit recognition at full species level, but in the absence of any

(1) Wrongly cited in the original deseription as 3.9.

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART IIL 293

further material to supplement the holotype, I fmd the possibility of
metrical anomalies introduced by dwarfing, and the lack of any
information on the external characters of the animal, a sufficient
deterrent to that course. While the balance of likeness is perhaps
towards B, lesuewri, the highly diagnostie P* is so different from the
secator of that species, and has so munch in cormmon with that of B.
penicillata, that I have chosen to associate it provisionally with the
latter as a subspecies.

The overall development of the Bettongia penicillala group
though very imperfectly known, would seem to be served by the
conception of B, penicillata ogilbyi as a dominant south-western race
extending east from the Swan River districts by way of coast lands
into South Australia and beyond into the eastern portions of the
Darling basin of New South Wales. B. penicillala penicillata would
then represent a poorly differentiated highland race distributed on a
north-south axis chiefly on the western slopes of the Great Divide, and
possibly extending into a subtropical littoral zone round the Gulf of
Carpentaria both in Queensland and the Northern Territory. PB.
gouldi Gray as at present known is void and founded on local dwarfs
of the ogdbyi populations, while avhydra and francisca may have
arisen from similar dwarts, stabilized and further differentiated under
ereniian and insular conditions respectively.

STATUS OF OTHER MEMBERS OF TUE SUBFAMILY IN
THE RHNGION.

Several aboriginal vocabularies contain words for animals which,
while but vaguely known to the present generation, are suggestive of
members of the present group, either from the general drift of the
aceount or from the volimiary selection of known members of it, for
comparison, One such is the telmaki, of the Pitjanjarra and
Yankunjarra, which, though known to many of the older people, has
not been seen nor taken for many years in the granite ranges about
the 26th parallel, which was its locus. It is compared always, though
in varying terms, to the karpitehi or the tehungoo, These last, repre-
senting PBeltongia penicillata and B- lesueuri respectively, together
with Caloprymnus campestris Gould of the Lake Kyre Basin are the
only species of which there is definite evidence as living or recently
living forms in the Centre and adjacent arid tracts,

of

294 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Since I recorded the sudden increase of Caloprymnus in the Lake
Eyre Basin (1982; 1986.) there have heen few, if any, reliable reports
af it. Bolliger (1938) published some observations on a rat kangaroo
to which he gave this name, but he has since been good enough to
inform me (in litt) that the identity was mistaken and that the animal
(an unloealized zoological gardens exhibit) was probably Aepyprym-
nus rufescens. All attempts to trace Culoprymuus as a living or
recently extinet species beyond the limits mapped in 1932 have given
only negative results, but the finding of skeletal remains in eaves of
the Evela district (Lundelins 1957) tends to confirm Tate’s statement
(1879) of its presence at the head of the Great Anstralian Bight
eighty years ago. This I was inclined to reject in 1932 as no material
of the species is mentioned by Tate, while on the other hand, skulls in
the old collection of the South Australian Museum, which had been
labelled Caloprymnus (possibly by Tate), were actually B, lesueuri.

Potorous, as a genus of modern species, seems to be almost
entirely subeoastal in its mainland distribution. Early compilers of
faunal lists claim more than one species for lower South Australia,
and there is a rural tradition that ¢ridactylus oceurred in the lower
Sonth-Mast District of the State, but Thomas’s (1888, 120) record of
a skull from the Murray River is the only material evidence in
support. The extent of its inland diffusion is quite conjectural, but
from what is known of the habitat preferences of the species, it is very
unlikely that it occupied the subarid districts in modern times.
Aietz’s use (in Gill 1909) of Potorous tridactylus for an animal at
Port Lincoln is probably based on Betlongia penicillata.

Several references to Bettongia gaimard: Desmarest exist in early
lists of South Australian mammals, which may be derived from the
statement of Waterhouse (1846. 207), but no eonfirmation of this has
been obtained in the succeeding years. The forms deseribed here as
B. penicillata anhydra and B. penicillata francisca were closely eom-
pared with the standard deseriptions of B. gaimardi but no evidence
of any special affinity to that form could be found.

In the South Australian Musenm is a skull of Aepyprymnus
rufescens Gray of normal characteristics, labelled as from ‘* Lake
Fiyre."* The locality is some hundreds of miles west of the most
inland of anthentic records of the species and presents features
radically different from the kaown habitats of Aepyprymnus. There
is no other relevant data, and the anomaly should probably be
attributed to a confusion of record.

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART III 295

POST-PLEISTOCENE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE
SUBFAMILY.

The mammal palaeontology of Central Australia except for the
Lake Eyre Basin, is almost unknown and the writer has examined no
relevant material from these areas. In lower South Australia, how-
ever, superficial deposits, ancient camp sites and cave deposits have
yielded bones copiously, and the South Australian Museum has con-
siderable collections of subfossilg so derived, much of it gathered by
N, B, Tindale and his associates in aboriginal archaeology, Small
amounts in my own collection have also been available.

The chronology of the collections is in most cases, only vaguely
known; the oldest are probably those from layer 11 of the Devon
Downs beds which Tindale (1957) links with his Prepirrian culture
with a possible age (based on radiocarbon data) of about 5000 B.P.
At the other extreme, some of the superficial camp site bones may be
eoeval or nearly so with the Huropean occupation, though very few
specimens of many hundreds examined show signs of gross recency
in the form of soft tissue or fat stain,

The Potoroinae in that portion of this material which has been
available to me, is referable to known species and the greater part of
it to Bettongia lesueuri and B. penicillata, Of the eleven sites ranging
from Hawker in the north to Tantanoola in the extretne south whieh
have yielded Betlongia remains, eight contain Jesweurt and six
penicilluta, while only three contain both. Little or nothing on the
former local status and distribution of the species can be deduced
from the collection as a whole, however, which consists for the most
part of chance surface finds not fully representative of the deposit.
In the case of the Tantanoola, Kongarati and Devon Downs finds,
where systematic excavation was made, RB, penicillata was much the
more numerous of the two. This accords with the modern status of
the two species and probably indicates that it was locally still more
dominant at that time, since the densely ossified skull of lesxeurt is the
more resistant to weathering and disintegration; cranial, as distinct
from mandibular specimens occur more frequently with lesvewri than
penicillata, Species of Potorous, broadly referable to fridactylus and
morgan’ also occur sparsely. The latter is present for example in
level 1 of the Devon Downes deposits of Murundian age and also in the
deeper Mudukian beds of level 6. The possible northern extensions
of earlier forms of such fossils into the Centre, and especially into the
Lake Kyre Basin, derives interest from its bearing on the hypothesis

296 RECORDS OF THE S,A, MUSEUM

to which I have referred (19382, 165) of the evolution of Caloprymnus
there, from a Potorous like ancestor, which would be a natural
eonsegence if Spencer’s ideas (op. cif.) on the evolution of the
Diprotodonts, are well founded.

The archaeological site of Tartanga, which is adjacent to that of
Devon Downs but considerably older was but sparsely mammaliferous
and yielded no Potoroinae. It may be noted here in passing, that the
Tartanga Macropus molar which was formerly regarded as anomalous
with respect to M. giganteus and to which Tindale has reverted
(1957.9) is probably reconeilahle with that species, Examination of
larger series than were available at the time has shown that a
maximum breadth of 10 mm. in the anterior lobe of M, is occasionally
reached in the local form, M. qiganleus melanops, Gould,

A comparison of the cranial and dental featnres of the Potoroinae
of these collections, with the series reviewed (supra) will be presented
elsewhere. Treatment of the skeletal material is deferred pending
completion of a review of the general ogtcology of the group, which is
in hand.

REMARKS ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND BIONOMIC
INTERRELATIONS OF THR POTOROINAK

In the modern wreck of this remarkable group of mammals the
plan ol its unfolding into the vast territories, which it formerly
oeeupied, is but dimly te be seen. The contributions of palaeontology
are yet to come,” and the recent distribution, imperfectly known as
it is, together with the phylogeny of its members at species level, are
the main sources of such insight as may be had, and they leave much
unexplained.

Deductions made on a continental seale from what is known of
distribution, are apt to be fallacious here, unless due regard is had for
the comparatively recent and unequal effects of aridity. This
(whether it be a waxing or a waning influence) has undoubtedly left
its mark on the range of some species, which were probably first
occupied under climates very different from the present. Even such
broad questions as the site of origin of the radiation and the diree-
tions iu which species have diffused are largely speculative. It may

(2) T¢ the molar figured hy Johnston (1882) to which ottention has recently been redirected
by Edmund Gill (1957) is neeeptrd as a member of this group, it would nppear to
be the earliest recorded oceurrenee, Tt came trom the beds of One Tree Point,
Tasmania, stated to be of Upper Tertiary age.

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART IIT 297

be noted that there is in a general way a tendency for concentration
hoth of species and population, in the south and east and that
Tasmania was oceupied by both sections of the subfamily, whereas m
the north and west representation is more sparse and neither section
attained a footing in New Guinea.

Recent work on the phylogeny of the group by Pearson (1947;
1950), whose main theme in his later papers is the distinction of the
rat kangaroos as a whole from the Macropodidae at full family level,
bas tended to obseure the deep cleavage between the potoroos and
bettongs. This was first developed by Bensley (1903) from cranial
and dental eonsideratious chie(ly and was considered by him to eall
for subfamily distinction. The merits and demerits of this are
variously regarded, but it seems to derive some geographical support
from what is known of the present occurrence of the most primitive
forms of both sections. Unless the sites now occupied are to be
regarded as mere fortuitous residual areas in a much wider former
range, they might be accepted as points of origin of two distinct
radiations, the one stemming from a Hypsiprymnodon-like ancestor in
the north-east and yielding the Beltungia species and Aepyprymnus,
and the other arising in the extreme suuth-west from a primitive
Polorous species or potoromorph and leading, as Bensley believed, to
P. tridactylus as its linear end point and to Calaprymnus as a highly
aberrant offshoot. Tn both cases the evolution leads from dense serub
or jungle living forms of sedentary habit and restricted range to
highly mobile, wide ranging denizens of open forest or plains, The
similarity of Belfongia and Caloprymnius in somatic features is
remarkably close but attained through convergence of phylogenetically
distinct stocks, Spencer’s postulate (1896,1.184) of a widely separate
origin of Betfongia and Hypsiprymuadon, the former in the main
east-central originating centre of the Diprotedonts and the latter in
a north-eastern Torresian site, seems to clash with the generally
accepted derivative relation of the two genera,

In the field relations of Bettongia penicillata with B, lesyeurt and
Aepyprymnus rufescens there is much that is interesting and signifi-
cant. Morphologically and in relation to the main evolutionary trends
of the genus, B. penicillata may be regarded as a basal and compara-
tively generalized form, while B. leswewri and Aepyprymnus on the
other land are advanced in the same sense and have in addition
adaptive specializations of an individual kind. There is little doubt
that over much of South and Western Anstralia, B. penteillata and
DB. lesueuri were truly sympatric, camping and feeding over the same

298 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

areas and exploiting ecological combinations of a very similar kind.
In the higher rainfall areas B. penicillata more than held its own and
often maintained much denser populations than B, lesuewrt, But with
inereasing aridity this proportion was reversed until in the Centre
B. lesueuri vastly outnumbered B. penicillata, which in all probability
was being rapidly eliminated there long before any of the adverse
factors of Mnropean oecupation operated against either species. Here
under present day conditions, when population clensity in relation to
total area ayailable is always low, it is doubtful whether direct com-
petition plays much part. in the eliminating process, which is probably
decided by adaptive deficiencies in the uest-building habit as cot-
pared with the fossorial one of B. lesneurt. Caloprymmis, a nest
builder, succeeds in maintaining only a very tenuous hold on the Lake
Eyre Basin, where it has no marsupial competitors on the same
ecological level.

In eastern Australia, similar relations must have existed between
B. penicillata and Aenyprymius, WKrefft indeed, quoting the blacks,
stated that there were considerable discontinuities in the habitats of
the two in New South Wales. bot in many districts, the Dawson
Valley for example, in Queensland, blending of territories or very
close interdigitation of the same, must have oceurred, The recession
of B. penicillata from these fertile and well-watered districts, which
was also largely independent of Kuropean influences, was much more
probably due to direct competition, in which dAepyprymnus, also a nest
builder, would be advantaged by its superior size, and more advanced
herbivorons dentition and greater range of food plants,

The general distribution pattern of the species and their con-
trasting status, snggests that B. penicillata, as an earlier protean
generalized form gained transcontinental distribution in the absenee
of competition, and under somewhat more pluvial conditions than now
obtain. It was then encroached on by later developing and more
specialized forms; Aepyprymuus ultimately replacing it in most of
the north-eastern coastal areas, gatmardi in a portion of the Pacific
Slope of the Divide, and cuniculus in a later insulated Tasmania;
while in the south and west lesweuri reached equilibrium with it where
the rainfall was assured and supplanted it in the Centre with the aid
of increasing aridity. So far as is known, no species of Bettongia
occurs in the eastern portion of the Lake Eyre Basin which is the
present habitat of Caloprymnus; the failure of B. lesueuri to supplant
the indigenons Calaprymnus in this area, which is near the eastern
frontier of its advance in this latitude, is probably due, like other

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART III 299

similar anomalies in the Centre, to lack of sufficient population
pressure in the former to provide the incentive for invasion of a
habitat of such rigorous conditions,

SUMMARY

1. The results of field work on Central Australian representatives
of the Potoroinae are summarized,

2. The continental distribution and status of Bettongia lesueurt
Q). and G. and of Bettongia penicillata Gray is diseussed and the
distribution approximately mapped,

3. Detailed reviews of external, cranial and dental characters of
authentically localized populations of these species are made and
suhspecific differentiation assessed in general terms.

4. There is brief treatment of habits, bionomic interrelations,
post-Pleistocene representation and related topics.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES

(The dental elements figured are of the right side of the dorsal aspect of the skull
unless otherwise stated.)
PLATE XXVIL
The skull in Betlongia lesueuri Quoy and Gaimard, 1824,
Fig. A. Dorsal aspect in an adult @ from Mount Conner, Central Australia. A broad short
muzzled phase (X 0.9).
Fig. B. Dorsal aspect in an adult ¢ from the Musgrave Range area of far north-west South
Australia, A narrower, longer muzzled phase (X 0.9),

Fig. C. Dorsal aspect in an adult g¢ from River Light, lower South Australia (X 0.8).
Fig. ” Pati aspect in an adult @ from West Popanyinning, south-west Western Australia
X 0.8).
Palatal aspect of exumple figured at A (X 0.9),
Lateral aspect of the same (X 0.9).
Occipital aspect of the same (X 0.8),
Lateral aspect of right mandibular ramus of example figured at B (X 1.1).
PLATE XXVIUT
Dentition of Bettongia lesucuri Quoy and Gaimard, 1824,
Fig. A. Labial and buecal aspects of the upper incisors, canine, P* and MP* in a subadult. 3
from Mount Conner, Central Australia (X 2.9),
Fig. B. The occlusal aspect of same (X 2.9),

Fig. C. Buecal aspect of the lower teeth P,, MP,, M,, M, in an immature 9 from the Mus-
grave Range area of South Australia (X 3.0).

Fig. D. Occlusal aspect of P, and MP, of the same (X 5.0).
Fig, E. Buceal aspect of P* in an adult ¢ from the Musgrave Range area (X 2.9).

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

300 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

Fig. F. Ocelusal aspeet of the same, showing strong development of the postervinternal
(talon) eusp. (X 2,9),

Fig. G. Occlusal aspect of unworn P* in a young adult @ from the same locality, showing
virtual absence of talon (X 2.8).

Fig, H. Bueeal aspect of P, of tha same individual (X 3.1),
Fig, T. Occhisal aspect of the same (X 3.0).

Fig. J. Occlusal aspect of P, in a young adult from Ti-Tree Gully, lower South Australia; a
taloned variant with sigmoid outline (X 2.8).

Fig. K. Buceal aspeet of P* (of left side) in a young adult ¢ from Popanyinning, south-
west Western Australia (X 2.8).

Fig. L. Ocelusal aspect of upper cheek teeth in the immature Q figured at C and D, showing
unworn crown patterns in M* and M* (portion of M? im alveoli) (X 3,0).

Fig. M. Ocelusal aspect of M*M* in an adult g from Mount Conner, Central Australia,
showing moderate wear (X 4.0).
PLATE XXTX
The skull in Bettongia penicillata subspp.
Fig. A. Dorsal aspeet of an adult 9 of B, penicillata ogilbyi Waterhouse from Augusta,
south-west Western Australian (X 0.9).

Fig, B, Dorsal aspect of a subadult of the same at P*M* from Mount Lofty, South Australia
(X 1.0).

Fig. C. Palatal aspeet of the example figured at A (X 0.9).

Fig. D. Lateral sspect of same (X 0.9),

Fig. E. Occipital aspeet of same (X 0.9).

Fig. F. Lateral aspect of right mandibular ramus of same (X 1,1),
Fig. G. Dorsal aspect of type skull of RB. penicillata anhydra (X 0.0),
Fig. H. Palatal aspect of same (X 0.9).

PLATE XXX
The dentition in Betiongia penicillata subspp.

Fig. A. Labial aspect of upper incisors and canine of the left side in an immature 3 of
B. penicillata ogilbyt from Cuballing, south-west Western Australia (X 3.0).

Fig. B. Occlusal aspect of same (X 3.0).

Fig, ©, Bueeal aspect of P* and MP* in an advanced subadult ¢ in which the molar rows
have been completed before the tooth change. Same locality (X 3,1).

Fig. D. Occlusal aspect of the complete upper series P*-M"*, in the same (X 2.8).
Fig. KE. Buccal aspect of the lower serics in the same (X 2.8).
Vig. F, Occlusal aspect of the same (X 2.8),

Fig, G. Bueeal aspect of P* in an adult 2 of B. penicillata ogilbyi from Augusta, south-
west Western Australia (X 3.1),

Fig. H. Occlusal aspect of same (X 3,1).

Fig. I. Bueeal aspect of P, in same individual (X 2.9),

Fig. J. Occlusal aspect of same (X 2.9),

Fig. K. Bueeal aspect of P* in the type of B. penicillata anhydra (X 2.8).
Fig, L. Occlusal aspect of P* and M*M* of the left side of the same (X 2.8),
Fig. M. Buceal aspect of P* in the type of B. penivillata francisea (X 3.0).
Fig, N. Occlusal aspect of P* und M*-M* of the left side of the same (X 3.0).

Fig. O. Ocelusal aspect of P* and M*M®* (right side) in an adult ¢@ from lower South
Australia, showing considerable wear and a well developed accessory buceal cusp on
M? (X 2.8).

FINLAYSON—CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS—PART IIL 301

PLATE XXXT

The charaeters of the head in Bettongia penicillata ogilbyi; an immature 9 from
Cuballing, south-west Western Australia, (Photographed January, 1926.) (X 1,3¢a,)

REFERENCES
Abbie, A. A., 1939: Proe, Zool. Soc. London, 109B, 276
Andrews, F. W., 1876: S. Aust. Parl, Paper No. 19,
Bensley, B. A., 1908: Trans. Linn. Soe., London, 2, TX, 83-217.
Bolliger, A., 1938: Aust. Medical Review, 1118.
Boardman, W., 1948: Trans. Linn. Soc., New South Wales, LXVITI, 106,
1949: ibid. LXXTIYV, 195.
Brazenor, C. W., 1950: Mammals of Victoria, Melbourne, 46,
Browne, J. H., 1897: Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Aust., 72.
Cabrera, A., 1919: Genera Mamalium; Monotremata, Marsupialia,
Madrid, 135.
Carnegie, D. W., 1898: ‘‘Spinifex and Sand’’, London, 249 et seq.
Collett, R., 1897: Proe. Zool. Soe. London, 317-336,
Cooper, H. M., 1952: ‘*French Exploration in South Australia’’,
Adelaide, 1-200,
—— 1958: “*The Unknown Coast’’, Adelaide, 39.
Dahl, K,, 1897: The Zoologist, 671, 210,
Finlayson, Ti. H., 1981: Trans. Roy. Soe. S, Aust., LV, 89.
—_—— 1932: ibid, LVI, 148-167,
1933: ibid, LVII, 201.
1935: The Red Centre, Sydney, Map.
1936: Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust., LX 159.

1940; ibid. 64. 1. 125-136.
1941: ibid. 65. 2. 215-232.

——— 1957: Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 12, X, 552.
Forbes-Leith and Lucas, 1884: Vict. Nat., 1. 4.
Gill, Edmund D., 1957: Memoirs. Nat. Mus., Melbourne, 21, 189.
till, Thomas, 1909; Proce, Roy. Geog. Soc. Aust’asia., S, Aust. Branch,
X (1907-1908), 181.
Giles, H., 1889: ‘‘Australia twice traversed’’, London 1, 280.
Glauert, L., 1933: Jour, Roy. Soc. West. Austr., XIX, 26.
—— 1950: ibid. XXXIV, 115-134.
Gould, John, 1840: Proc. Zool. Soe. London, 178.
———— 1841: ‘tA monograph of the Macropodidae’’, London, Pl.
XTV.
1852: ““Mammals of Australia’’, Pl. LXII and text.
1855: ibid. Pl. LXIV and text.

302 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Gray, J. F., 1887: Charlesworth’s Mag. Nat. Hist., London, 1, 584.
1843: List Mammals Brit. Museum, London, 94.
Harper, F., 1945: ‘*Hxtinet and vanishing mammals of the Old
World’’, New York, 79-81.
Harvey, J, B., 1840: 8S. Aust, Magazine, 1, 210,
Iredale, T., 1987: Aust. Zoologist, 9. 40,
Johnston, R, M., 1882: Pap. and Proe. Roy. Soc. Tasm., 1881, 12,
fig. G4a-e.
Johnston, T. H., 1943; Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 67 (2). 263,
Krefft, G., 1862: Trans. Phil. Soc, New South Wales, 1.
1864: Cat. Mamms. Aust. Museum, Sydney, 45,
Le Sonef, A. S., ef al, 1926: ‘‘Wild Animals of Australasia’’, 236.
Longman, H. A., 1930: Mems. Queensland Museum, X, 1, 55-64.
Lundelins, E., 1957: West, Aust. Naturalist, 5, 173-182,
Lydekker, R., 1894: ‘‘Marsupials and Monotremes’’, Allen’s Nat.
Library, 68.
Owen, R., 1866: ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates’’, 2. 342.
Pearson, J., 1947: Reports of A.N.Z.A.A.S. (Adelaide), 1946, 91-93.
———— 1950: Pap. and Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., 211-229,
Qnoy and Gaimard, 1824: ‘‘Voyage Uranie’’, Zoology, 64,
Sanger, EH. B., 1882: Am. Naturalist., XVIII. 9-14.
Serventy, D. L., 1953-55: West. Aust. Naturalist, 4, 136.
Shortridge, G. C., 1910: Proc. Zool. Soc, London 2, 803-848.
Spencer, B., 1896; ‘‘Reports of the work of the Horn Scientific
Expedition to Central Australia’, Pt, 2. Zoology.
Tate, R., 1879: Trans. Phil. Soc. 8. Aust. (1878-1879), 124.
Tate, G. H. H., 1948: Bull. Am. Mns. Nat. Hist., 91, 269.
1952; wid, 98, 592.
Thomas, O., 1888: ‘*Catalogue of Marsupials and Monotremes in the
British Museum’’, 112.
1907: Proe. Zool. Soc. London (1906), 769-773.
Tindale, N. B., 1940: Trans. Roy. Soe. 8. Aust., 64, 1, 142-231, Map.
1957: Rec. S. Austr. Museum, XIII, 1-49.
Waterhouse, G. R., 1841: Jariine’s Naturalists Library, XI, 183.
1842: Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 47.
1846: Natural History of Mammalia, Lond,, 1, 203.
Wood Jones, F’., 1923-1925: ‘‘Mammals of South Australia’’, Adelaide,
207.
1923b: Trans. Roy. Soe. S. Aust., XLVI, 94.

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RECORDS

OF THE

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM

Vol. XIII, No. 3

Published by The Museum Board, and edited by the Museum Director

Adelaide, 2nd July, 1959

Printed in Australia by W. L. HAWES, Government Printer, Adelaide
Registered in Australia for transmission by post as a periodical

OBITUARY NOTICE

SIR DOUGLAS MAWSON, O.B.E., F.R.S., D.SC., B.E.,
1882-1958

It is with deepest regret that we have to record the death of Douglas Mawson on the 14" October,
1958, at the age of 76.

It truly may be said of him that he was the most notable and active of those who have served in an
honorary capacity in the South Australian Museum.

Air Douglas Mawson, O.6.70,, PATS. Dese, BAL, TRS 1958.

OBITUARY NOTICE

Sm DOUGLAS MAWSON, O.B.E., F.B.S., D.Sc., B.H., 1882-1958

It is with deepest regret that we have to record the death of
Douglas Mawson on the 14th October, 1958, at the age of 76,

It truly may be said of him that he was the most notable and
active of those who have served in an honorary capacity in the South
Australian Museum.

His association with this institution commenced fifty-two years
ago—surely a record. For about fifty years he was Honorary Curator
of Minerals; for many years a prominent member of the Museum
Committee; and later, of the Museum Board, of which he was
Chairman at his death.

He vigorously advocated the need for separating the Museum,
Art Gallery and Public Library into independent departments, instead
of all being controlled by a composite Board of Governors with
unrelated interests. His representations were a major factor in
bringing about the adoption of the system of separate control for
each of these public institutions.

His scientific achievements and world-wide reputation are too
well-known to need mention here. It is because of the high esteem
in which he was held by those fortunate enough to have been closely
associated with him that his passing will be so deeply mourned by
all Members of the Board and Staff of this institution where, through
his active interest, everyone was privileged to enjoy his quiet
and modest disposition—always the sympathetic friend and wise
counsellor.

Douglas Mawson was a noble figure physically; but also, in every
sense, a great man—one long to be remembered.

TOTEMIC BELIEFS IN THE WESTERN DESERT OF AUSTRALIA
PART I
WOMEN WHO BECAME THE PLEIADES

BY NORMAN B. TINDALE, B.SC., SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM

Summary

In Western Desert lore the Pleiades and the Morning Star are ancestral Women Beings, given
various names (Kungkarungkara, Okaralja, Aragutja, IIknarindja, etc.). They climbed into the sky
and became stars to escape the attentions both of a man named Njiru, and of his son Jula. These
women attacked Njiru with packs of dogs which they kept as their protectors. In the sky of autumn,
the early morning appearance of the Pleiades, low down in the east, marks the beginning of the
aboriginal New Year and the commencement of the season when dingo dogs (papa) give birth to
their young. Since these pups serve as food for men, Increase Ceremonies for the dingo are a feature
of the autumn season. The stories of the would be virgin women are made complex because the
names of some of the principal beings are changed and even became transposed in some tribal
versions of the stories.

TOTEMIC BELIEFS IN THE WESTERN DESERT OF AUSTRALIA
PART I

WOMEN WHO BECAME THE PLEIADES
By NORMAN B. TINDALE, B.Sc., Sours Avustranman Museum
Plates xxxii-xxxix and text fig, 1-8

SUMMARY

In Western Desert lore the Pleiades and the Morning Star are
ancestral Women Beings, given various names (Kungkarungkara,
Okaralja, Aragutja Uknarindja, etc.), They climbed into the sky and
became stars to escape the attentions both of a man named Njiru,
and of his son Jula. These women attacked Njiru with packs of
dogs which they kept as their protectors. In the sky of autumn, the
early morning appearance of the Pleiades, low down in the east,
marks the beginning of the aboriginal New Year and the commence-
ment of the season when dingo dogs (papa) give birth to their young.
Since these pups serve as food for men, Increase Ceremonies for the
dingo are a feature of the autumn season. The stories of the would
be virgin women are made complex because the names of some of
the principal beings are changed and even became transposed in some
tribal versions of the stories.

In this paper Mandjindjara, Pindiini, Pitjandjara, Ngadadjara
and Jangkundjara outlines of the stories are given and a preliminary
description also is given of a cave, Owalinja (‘Walinja, O’walinja),
on the northern side of the Musgrave Ranges, where Jangkundjara
tribespeople held Increase Ceremonies for the Kungkarungkara, Papa
and associated totems, in a sacred cave. They also depicted their
Ancestral Beings on its walls.

INTRODUCTION
This is the beginning of a series in which it is proposed to set
out basic data on some myths and totemic beliefs of the several
peoples of the Great Western Desert of Australia.
It is planned to give an account of the material evidences for
the totemie beliefs, and where possible to give texts and details of

306 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

song cycles and ceremonies, Stone arrangements, secret places, and
associated markings and paintings will be described and eeremonial
objects figured.

This data will be amplified with drawings made by aborigines
themselves in illustration of statements they have made about their
beliefs. There will be discussions on the significance of the stories.

Data is in hand for the Jangkundjara, Pitjandjara, Mandjindjara,
Pindiini, Jumu, Kukatja, Pintnbi, and Neadadjara tribes among
others in the eastern and central areas of the Desert, as well as
much other data from the Wanman, Mandjildjara, and several other
tribes of the northern and western portions of the Desert. The
distribution of these tribes is shown in a map published by Tindale
(1940) of which a new edition is in preparation, The name Pindiini
relates to the tribe called Wongaii on the map. The name Pindiini is
now preferred,

Observations on which this series is based commenced among
Pintubi and Jumu people met at Mount Liebig, Central Australia,
during a Board for Anthropological Research and South Australian
Museum Hxpedition, August, 1932. During this University of
Adelaide Expedition beliefs abont the Pleiades group of stars and
about the ancestral virgin women linked with them, were first bronght
to the personal notice of the author in their Jumu and Pintubi versions.
Two years previously he had been shown tlie Aragutja Ilknarindja
Ceremony of the Kukatja near Hermannsburg, Central Australia.
These stories aroused his interest and it became evident that a
detailed study might have high value in the understanding of native
beliefs.

During a three-monthtong journey in the Mann and Musgrave
Ranges (May-Angnst 1933) many sheets of drawings and associated
data were collected from Jangkundjara and Pitjandjara men and a
first attempt was made to learn the language of the Western Desert
people and to collect, their stories in text (see preliminary report by
Tindale 1933). Jangkundjara men at this time depicted drawings and
related outlines of myths connected with Owalinja, Aliwanjawanja,
and other sacred places in the area, and gave details of the
Kungkaringkara woinen, Ceremonies in which the activities of some
of the Beings were enacted, were filmed at Konapandi and at
Ernabella and were published (Board for Anthropological Research
16 mm. films Nos. 20, 26, and 27),

TINDALE—TOTEMIC BELIEFS IN AUSTRALIA 307

Field work continued at Ooldea in November 1934, among Pindiini
and Mandjindjara men from west of Ooldea and with Jangkundjara
people who had come south from the Everard Ranges. Men named
Kakana, Mindjukuli (the latter then abont 50 years of age), Mana
and some others of the Jangkundjara tribe had memories which
went back to before the times of the Carruthers Survey of 1888-1890,
when the aborigines made their first. effective contacts with white
men. Their kinsmen of course had had brief encounters with earlier
explorers, including Giles (1874) who had an armed encounter with
some 200 of the Musgrave Range aborigines at Officer Creek, on
September 6, 1875.

In 1935, gathering of data, including drawings, was continued
among Neadadjara people durimg an Hixpedition led by the author
to the Warburton Ranges in Western Australia. These people were
then fully tribalised. Some of the drawings were obtamed jointly
with an associate on this occasion, and some of them have been
described (Mountford 1937). It was agreed that he should amply
himself more particularly to diseussion of the artistic aspects of the
work of these people, leaving the exposition of the mythological
content to the present writer. Some details of the Wati Kutjara myth
have been given in a paper published shortly after the Expedition
returned, Tindale (1936, p, 169).

In 1989 field work was continned with some of the same
Ngailadjara informants as were first encountered in 1935. By this
date they had congregated in the vieinity of Laverton, Western
Australia, Tribal disintegration, brought abont in part by the estab-
lishment of the Warburton Range Mission, and by the transportation
of some of the natives ta the township, had enticed them many miles
away from their own territories. Unfortunately few ever retarned
to thetr original homes and most of them were still missing from
there when the area was visited again in 1957,

After a rather long break, orccasioned by other activities during
the war, Ooldea Soak was re-visited in 1949. Between the two visits
Mr. and Mrs. R. M. Berndt had studied there, publishing their field
notes in a series of reports in Oceania, Berndt and Berndt (1944).
Because of the changing population at that Soak it is not certain that
any of their data was obtained from people T met there earlier, and
their notes touch only incidentally on stories referred to in this paper,

Some Pintuhi and Nealia aspects of the Kungkarungkara myth
were studied agam at Yuendumu, Central Australia in 1951.

308 RECORDS OF THE 8.A. MUSEUM

Western Australian data, coming from tribes as far west as the
Indian Ocean, were gleaned during a period of six months field work
im 1953. Still further data was added at Haast Bluff, Central
Australia during visits in 1956 and again in 1957, Tape recordings
were made of several versions of the Kungkarungkara and assaciated
tuyths. In between the two visits to Haast Bluff, the Jangkundjara
and Pitjandjara tribal territories were re-visited as far west as
Lightning Rocks, Western Australia, in eompany with Mr. W, B.
MaeDougall, Native Patrol Officer. Many ceremonial places were
visited in the Rawlinson, Blyth, Cavanagh, Musgrave and Everard
Ranges and southward to beyond Mount Lindsay. During this
journey it was possible to visit Owalinja in company with one of the
aldest of the western Pitjandjara men and to learn a little about
the vast detail of paintings depicted in the Owalinja Rock Shelter.
Subsequently it was possible to talk with several Jangkundjara men
about the significance of this cave,

KUNGKARUNGKARA AND THE MAN NJIRU

While men were waiting for a party of young initiates to arrive
at Oollea during one of the concluding stages of the minu initiation
ceremonies of 1934, at which T was present by invitation, fourteen
men took part in a disenssion ahowt the journeyings of the Wati
tjitji tjukur of Koljorn. Those present included Pindiini (Wongalt),
Mandjindjara, and Jangkundjara tribesmen, some of whorm had never
met each other belore this series of ceremonies, The author happened
to come on them on the Sth November just after discussions had
hegun and was able to wateh old Pindiinit and Mandjindjara men
drawing circles, one by one, on the ground, joining them with single
and multiple lines, as they described the encounter of the Being
Njiru with the Minma (Okaralja, or Kungkarungkara) women, The
occasion so fortunately and wuhexpectedly encountered, was the
description by a Pindiini man, to a Jangkundjara andience, of the
Mandjindjara and Pindiini versions of the myth, He was assisted
hy a Mandjindjara man.

Fig. 1 depicts a copy of the ground drawing, which, after over two
hours of exposition, extended over the sand for a length of about
25ft. During this time the audience had shuffled and moved along
the sandy ground, without rising to their feet and thns had kept pace
with the growth of the pictographie record of the progress of the
story.

Kapi Koljoruna

Jalainja Pandiinia Kapi Koljoruna

Jolperna

Manakanbini
Alunitjanja

Wunbunbunja

Mujuna pena

Mitata
Kulalja

genaptiuionia
Oilpurudjara na

Oleininja AnmayaO

UR.

Fig. 1. Journey of the Wati Njiru from Koljoru to Anmango, as depicted in a ground
drawing 25ft. long, at Ooldea, South Australia, 5th November, 1934. The design has been
cut into five lengths so that Para is followed by Manakanbini and so on.

310 RECORDS OF THE 5.A. MUSEUM

The given outline of the journey was that known to Pindiini
men in whose territory the place Koljoru, figuring largely in the
story, was said to be.

Wati tjitji kotjo tjokotjoko (man child one small), who became
the Ancestral Being Njiru appeared in the west as a child at Kapi
Koljoruna, the Koljoru Water Place (Kaljorn, Koloru, Kaljornnga,
ete.), which is south-east of the Warburton Ranges in Western
Australia. Its position on the map was learned many years later,

Whence Njiru came no-one present knew, but he arrived from
the north-east. He then travelled north-westward from Koljoru, but
Mandjindjara men who knew of his track were not at Ooldea to tell
of his earliest wanderings, as a boy. However Koko, a Pindiini man,
who had heen to Laverton, Western Australia and who spoke some
English, thought Njiru had gone as tar west as Tarlu (Lake Darlot)
“near Meekatharra, but long before white man went there.’’ In the
west Njira became a man, After he had been cireumeised and
subincised he journeyed south from Tarlo, and then eastwards to
Tjokoranja and again eastward to Jalainja. One day when he went
into Jalainja to drink water he was attacked by a pack of dogs
belonging to Minma tjuknr (women totem). These Minma or women
were the Kiungkatungkara (also called Kungkarara or Okaralja).
Njirn fled into the bushland, trailing an injured member, forming a
long water-course called Njirunjawipu (Njirn penis) extending to
Wangarna. After this he travelled on to visit various waters,
including Pandjinja, Pilapila and Pandiunja, returning again to Kapi
Koljerina before going on to Pedinja. Near Pedinja at a place
called Korukading he had an encounter with a Being named Korukadi
of whom more will be said in a later paper. As he journeyed still
further eastward towards lara, Njiru, now healed of the wounds to
his wipu, made a line of sandhills extending north-eastwards. This
is the Njtrunatali, along which he caused stall watering places to
appear, at intervals, At Para he lay down on a sandhill (tali),
leaving an impression of his hody, known as the Talimurumuru, He
then continued on to Tali 'Tjangara and Manakanbini. Pollowing the
same line of waters for seven or more stages to Jompilnga he again
encountered the Kungkarungkara women, near Mojuna, The women
who had fled from Jalainja after their Papa (dogs) had driven Njiru
away, went to Papulnga where there was a Kapi tjangara (ie, a
water depression) frequented by Koneia, a Snake Being, Tlis Being
had come from Koljoruna by a different track, The women killed the
snake at Papulnga, cansing the water to dry up, and then continued

TINDALE—TOTEMIC. BELIEFS IN AUSTRALIA 311

in the direction of Mujuna. In the ground drawing, four lines made
by running fingers through the sand marked the journey of the
women towards Mujuna.

Near Jompilnga Njirn had discovered tracks of these four
Kungkarungkara women walking separately across country to Mujuna
from the north-avest. He followed them, passing Mujuna, then the
Mujunapena (Mujuna clay pan) and continued on their trail, first
to Wunbunbunja, and then to Alungitjanja. Tere the four women
were seen to be together, and Njiru caught up with them, but they

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Fig, 8 Geographical drawing showing the Vieinity of Konkakutjarana (place of two
women) also called Minma Kutjara. The left half shows the jnbu (hills) from which a
watercourse, cutting across other hills, runs from Koljoruna to Kapi Pedinja (Petinga),
represented by the eirele, The watercourse runs in # north-casterly direction; wavy lines
at right are runnels of water off the range, called ‘water anakes'', The whole records an
episode in the journey of Njiru from Koljoruna to Pedinja. Tt was drawn in black, red
(represented by dots) and yellow (indicated by short linea) by Kakana, a Pindiini man
at Ouldea, 9th November, 1984. Tt should be compared with Fig, 3b, depicting a separate
event of the atory, which represents this part merely by a line connecting two cireles.

312 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

eseaped again and fled in the same WNW direction to Tjawaltjawal
(this is also the name of a sandhill-growing tobacco plant), to
Tetunja, Ukanja, and thence to Tjiimatanja-mama, visiting the main
waterhole and also the camping place of Tjiimatanja. They then
hastened on passing Klponja, Mitata (a ngama waterhole), Patagi
and Kaltjan, turned ESH to Kulalnga, and again NE to Oleininja
and Oilpurudjarana, At Alanjinga, Njiru almost caught up with
them but they took flight, like eagles, and escaped leaving no tracks
(maka tjena), Unable to find them Njiru walked NE to Pokoding
(Pokodinja), going a long way without seeing any signs of them.
He then turned SE and at Kongauga found stale (racks of the women,
He followed these to Konkatjutanja (women-many-place) a very long
way, This is the western-most water used by the Jangkundjara
tribesmen and situated south of Cheesman Peak (native name
Pingkikavinga). At this point Pindiimi and Mandjindjara men “lost
the story,'’ for Njiru had gone into the territory of Pitjandjara
people at Anmango, Njiru became a star and Kelilbi the morning
(and evening star) represents some of the women who kept dodging
away from him, Kvery man has a share in this wapar (story) and
each place meritioned in the above summary has its own song.

In the course of the next few days several men made drawings
which brought ont details of the story, Thus fig. 2 shows the
geographical setting of events in tie life of Njiru near Koaljorw.
Vig. 3 b sngyests the activities of the Kungkarungkara after the
attack by Njiru at Jalainja and fig. 4 a shows the line of sandhills
made by Njiru between Pedinja and Para. All the places are west
of Anmango, whieh, I learned in 1957, is at the western end of a
range close to and west of Cheesman Peak, near the border of
Western and South Australia,

During the evening and night following this exposition of the
journeyings of Njiru and the Kungkarungkara, the stars of Orion's
Belt were pointed out to me as representing the Being Njiru. As the
night progressed a series of three pairs of stars successively rising
were iniicated to be the footprints ol Njiru (Njirn tjena). Some
days later a man made a drawing of Njiru (fig. 4, bh) wearing a
wanigi (or string figure) made of paduru (fur string) to represent
these Inma Njirunja tjena. The tips of such wanigi are decorated
with tjwrlpn tjaljurupa (bird feather deeorations). In the night sky
a very bright star ovar Orion’s Belt is Tjantjalu; this star wears
such tjnrlpu feathers. These tjaljuru (taljuru) feathers, detached
from wanigi and placed on a stick, are worn by young men in their

ler

tt ae saree eee

a

ee eee

Thee weer e ne ee

/

wih)

Fig. 3. a, Minma or woman following Papa (dog). Tracks as drawn by Lenggat-
jukur, a Pitjandjara man about 52 years old, at Umbukulu in the Mann Ranges,
Ynd July, 19383. The original drawing was in white. b, Geographical drawing repre-
senting the tracks of the Kungkarungkara women as they fled wildly away from
Jalainja (red cirele, top left) with their dogs; drawing shows their change of pace
as they neared Papulnga, where they found water jn a small piti or rockhole (central
spot) in a tjangara or large basin (large concentric spiral). The water was brought
there hy Koneia (a snake) from far away Koljorunja (down from top right). They
killed the snake, so destroying the water, and travelled away northward (series of
lines to right). The Being Njiru, having been bitten by the Papa (dogs) of the
Kungkarungkara, at Jalainja, dragged his injured member, making a gorge or water
channel, Njirunjawipu rimuing to Wangarna (top left). He then made a track east-
ward through Pilapila, Pandunja, and Koljoruna to Pedinjakapi (double circle at
hottom centre), Beyond the limit of the drawing he continued to Para and Mana-
kanbini. A line of waters from Papulnga to Pedinja shows the distance which
separated Njirn and the women. These waters were Jaldainga, Japurunja, Pujudunja,
Neapartinja, Ngintajarunga, Porpordjun and Korukading (near Pedinja). Drawn
by Kakana, at Ooldea, 18th November, 1934. Dots represent. red, black lines are black
in the original.

314 RECORDS OF THE §.A. MUSEUM

hair when they return to their homes after they have passed through
the final stages of the minu ceremony of initiation.

After the stars representing Njiru tjena had risen in the sky
the Kungkarungkara (also called Okaralja, Kungkarara and Minma)
appeared in the early summer sky, These are the Pleiades. Still
later, before dawn, a pair of stars were seen which are called Ipi

ani

Fig. 4. a. Njirunjatali, a line of sandhills made by the Wati Njiru when travelling
north-eastward from Kapi Pedinja, at the left, to Pars, where he Iny down in a
depression beside the Talimurumuru and then continued towards the north-east. The
sandhills (tali) are of the kind called Tali tjangara with long-lasting-water-hearing
depressions in them. Red spots, depicted here by dots represent water places, the
Talimurumuru is shown as a black-ringed red patch, the tali were yellow in the
original; drawn by Kakana, November, 1934. b. Wati Njiru dancing with a wanigi
of puduru (fur string) on his head. The wanigi has the extremities of the arms
decorated with tjurlpu tjaljurupa (bird feather ornaments). Alongside him is
depicted the minu walk, decorations painted on the badies of minu (subineised men)
as chest or back ornaments when they return to their families as fully initiated men.
Drawn by Mana, November, 1984, ec. Pitjandjara drawing showing Ipi, the two women
who became the wives of the Wati Kutjara. They are called Kalka kutjara by the
Ngadadjara. This design is painted in a cave at Mount Lindsay. d, Sand drawing,
original about 2ft. in diameter, depieting the Kungkarungkara as the Pleiadew in the
sky, Drawn by a Pitjandjara man on the ground, with his finger, while talking about
Owalinja Rock Shelter.

TINDALE—TOTEMIC BELIEFS IN AUSTRALIA 345

(the Women’s Breasts, or Milk). The last named stars are, as 1
learned some years later, linked by the Pitjandjara with Japu Minma
Tjukur, a Woman Ceremonial Stone, against which young girls press
themselves to cause their breasts to grow and their milk to flow.

The Ipi themselves are depicted sometimes as in fig, 4, ec. ‘The
Tpi women were wives of the Wati Kutjara.

JULA SON OF NJIRU AND THE KUNGKARUNGKARA

In Ngadadjara belief in the Warburton Ranges, Western Aus-
tralia, Jula was of the Purnngu ¢lass. He had come from the west to
Kanamara, a place to the east of Lake Carnegie. He chased and
married Pananka and Milangka women.

Ceremonies for hit were held at Kapi Rera in the Warburton
Ranges, At this place a ceremonial board, carvetl with intricate
patterns, was enclosed in a ceremonial object made from fur string
and displayed during a rite mtended to increase the supply of dingo
pups. Fig. 5, © shows a native drawing of the ceremonial object at
Kapi Rera, Further north there was another place, at Jakornka in
the eastern Rawlinson Range, Jula arrived there from a place called
Kunangura passing eastward along the Range to Jakornka where
there is a cave in which the Papa (dog) ceremony takes place.

A stone emblem, said to be that of Wati Jula, was seen at
Jakoruka by Mr. W, B. MacDougall during his exploration of the
area in 1950. He has shown me a photograph of it. Tt lay under a
pile of fresh Bucalyptus leaves held dawn hy stones. Hach stone was
of the size of a large ball, The stone emblem itself was about 2it.
long.

According to one statement the Being chased two Kungkarung-
kara women up the gorge in winter time (njenga), and his penis
became so cold thaf it snapped off.

Ngadadjara men of the Western Rawlinson Ranges say however,
that this object is the wipu (phallus) of Jula which had been bitten
hy Papa (dogs) belonging to the Kungkarungkara, and the stone halls
represent the kuna or faeces of the Dog Beings. Ceremonies are
held in the autumn season, aimed at expediting the rising of the
Pleiades growp of stars and stimulating the increase of dingo pups.

Jula is represented in the heavens as * and B Orion, The
‘helt of Orion’? represents the ‘toes’ or tracks of Jula. His wives
are represented by three red stars between « and P Orion.

316 RECORDS OF THE 8.A. MUSEUM

After leaving Jakoruka Jula passed out of Ngadadjara territory
in a south-easterly direction to Wankarei (= Wankari) where he
went tarupango (he entered the ground or changed his state).
Wankarei is near Poka, a water east of Trew Gap on the north side

Wig. 5. a, Wati Julana, the man Jula at the plaee Ngaltabalunga, west
of Anmango, bearing a wanigi or string cross on his head. b. Bullroarer,
{fmbibubi, of the man Jula, at Ngaltabalunga, whence he travelled eastward
into Pitjandjara country. Drawn by Mindjukuli at Ooldea, 9th November,
1934, ¢, Wati Jula tingari tjukur, the man Jula secret totem, of the place
Kapi Rera in the Warburton Ranges, Western Australia, drawn by Katabulka,
4 Ngadadjara tribe old man, 23rd May, 1939, Drawing shows extremely
stylised human figure, incorporated into a representation of the secret board
of Jula. In Ngadadjara Increase Ceremonies the tjurung board (middle of
figure) is made the eentral feature of an elaborate string figure. The black
spots in pairs along the margin represent highly stylised tjaljuru (tjaljira)
or tufts of feathers terminating cross bars upon which the puduru or strings
are bound. In the two main drawings contrasted here, one seems to be a
highly stylised derivative of the other.

TINDALE—TOTEMIC BELIEFS IN AUSTRALIA 317

of the Mann Range. The name Nijiru does not seem to appear in
the Ngadadjara version of the myth and it is Jula who is attacked
by the dogs of the Kungkarungkara.

In the Pitjandjara version Wati Julana, fig. 5 a, is the son of
Njiru. He came into the Pitjandjara country from the far north-west,
swinging a bullroarer (bubi bubi) fig. 5 b, and appeared first at
Ngaltabalunga (place of good kurrajong trees), This water is west
of Anmango, and west of the Tomkingon Range, Nygaltabalunga is
on the border between Ngadadjara and Pitjandjara country. Fig, 5 a
shows Jula carrying a wanigi at Ngaltabalunga. He journeyed east
to a place called Jula, near Trew Gap in the Mann Range, where he
attempted to mate with Mingari. He had just succeeded in doing sa
when he was attacked by Papa Kantju.

Papa Kantju, or Kantjanja, was a dog devil being (papa mamu
tjukur). He attacked the Wati Julana, son of the Kungkarungkara,
drageed ont his testicles, and fed ou them. In Pitjandjara story this
event took place at Jula, west of and near Trew Gap in the Mann
Range, Jula had travelled from Poka to Umbukulu and thence to
Jula.

In ceremonies held in autumn the Pitjandjara enact this attack,
which they aseribe to the place Warara. Freshly scraped wood
shavings are made up into parcels and saturated with blood drawn
from the arms of participants by lashing the upper arm and piercing
a vein. The gory objects, kept highly oxidised by the fresh shavings,
are then either tied to the head of the dancer representing Jula or
held between the teeth of men acting the part of the Papa Kantju.
16 mm, films were taken of this ceremony by the present author in
1938 at Konapandi, and again at Ernabella in the Musgrave Ranges
and these were published by the Board for Anthropological Research,
University of Adelaide in their films Nos, 20 and 27.

PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE PLEIADES MYTH OF THE
JANGKUNDJARA

The central theme of the Jangkundjara myth of the women of
the Pleiades is the life and behaviour of women of the dawn time as
they try to avoid the efforts of a male Being, Njiru, to enter into
incestuous relationship with them, for Njirn was ‘‘wrong’’ for them.
Niiru in part was successful, and Jula, a second Being was his son.
Jula had two sons, Milpali and Jungku by Mingari, The two lizard

318 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

So

ge ot tee

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StS oat
‘ re "

Se STONY BEE BEN STS waae

Pig. 6. The Wati Kantjeiri who attacked Jula, son of the Kungkarungkara.
a. Wati Kanjeiri of Kandjanja. b. The Kanba (snake of the water Kand-
janja. c. Inma kudidji bunu ngalta, ceremonial shield of kurrajong tree,
used by the Being Kantjeiri, when he attacked Jula. d. Kudidji tjokotjoko,
small shield (i.e. one of normal size) used by present day Jangkundjara
people. e, f£. Ngalta kanku, desert kurrajong (Brachychiton gregorii) growing
at Kantjanja in the Everard Ranges. Drawn by Manana, 13th November,
1934.

TINDALE—TOTEMIC BELIEFS IN AUSTRALIA 319

men are the Wati Kutjara, who married the [pi sisters. A
genealogical tree makes this clear ;—

NJIRU = Okaralja (Kungkarungkara)
JULA = Mingari
Tpi = MILPALT JUNGKU = Ipi

In Jangkundjara belief the activities of all these ancestral beings
were closely linked together, they all lived their lives at about the
same time and some of them were descendants of the others, all being
associated with each other, as Jangkundjara folk are in their kinship
system. In some ways this complicates the telling of details of the
several myths. As a first step I have therefore chosen to give a brief
outline of some of the activities of each of the principal ones and then
where text material is available to give more intimate details, The
Beings about whom details are available include :—

Jula, son of Njirn.

Mingari, the woman whom he chased (in animal form, the Moloch
lizard).

Wati Kutjara, the two men, Milpali and Jungku (in animal form,
two kinds of Varanus lizard or ngintaka) the sons of Jula
and Mingari. In Western Anstralia these men are not called
brothers (Tindale 1936, p. 171) and are known as Mumba
and Kurnkadi.

Wati Malu, the Kangaroo man.

Kantju, a Dog Being who attacked Jula,

Wati Tawalpa (in animal form the tawal or hare wallaby
Onychogale lunata).

Kalaia, the Kmnu man.

Korukadi, with whom Jula had an encounter at Korukading.

THE PLEIADES MYTH OF THE JANGKUNDJARA

An outline of the Jangkundjara version of the virgin women myth
commences at the opposite end of their territory from Konkatjutanja,
the place named in the Pindiini version, and begins with the
appearance of the Kungkarungkara women from the north at Uluuru
(Ayers Rock). Here in ancient times many different Beings met, An
elaborate drawing of the place Uluuru is available and will be depicted
in a later contribution when details of texts are being placed on
record. The women attempted to kill Koneia, the great snake of

zB

320 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Ulonrn. There was a fight and the women fled, Jowrneying sonth
from the vicinity of Ayers Rock the women, the Minma Kungkarung-
kalpa, sat down for a while at Junamba (Ju: namba) whieh is the
native water at the Yununba Hill of maps. They then travelled
westward to Owalinja (O’walinja, ‘Walinja).

About the time the women arrived at Owalinja a Being named
Tawalpa who lived at Owalinja, provided stones with which Njiru,
then a youth, was circumcised. He became aman. At Owalinja the
Kungkarungkara women were camped with their dogs, when Njiru
appeared te them as a man. He wished to cohabit with the
Kungkarungkara. He attempted an assault but was frustrated by
Papa, the dogs. Before the dogs drove him away be had had coitus
with one of the women, as is depicted in the cave at Owalinja.

The Kungkarungkara women left Owalinja and crossed over the
Musgrave Ranges to Aliwanjawanja (the Hrliwanyawanya of maps)
on the south side,

At Aliwanjawanja there is an outerop of stone of a type (diorite)
called algara, used in stone axe-making. The rocks around this place
are likened to the shape ol! a woman's sex organs and the site is
therefore connected with a ceremony of the Kungkarungkara, for in
native belief the women caused the stone to appear there.

At Aliwanjawanja Nijiru again attacked the women and the
presence of the deep rockhole at this place is ascribed to hia having
penetrated the body of one of the women, The dogs again droye him
away. In the cave beside the rockhole at Aliwanjawanja, Njiru is
said to have left bis ’walka (painting) showing himsel! in the act
of mating. From this place the Kungkarungkara women passed in
a westerly direction along the southern side of the Musgrave Ranges.
They visited Ulparakindja, which is west of Kuli on the south side.
They then went to Topalnga and Palingga, In the west Jula, son of
Njiru, was born. Turning sonth across the sandhills and travelling
a great distance, to the remotest place in Jangkundjara territory, the
women arrived at Akandjudula. There they changed state or went
into the ground (tarupango). They went up into the heavens (ilkari,
alkari) and now appear in the early morning sky during the ‘‘cold
time’? (njenga) and ‘‘walk'’ across the sky. Their appearance in the
sky is shown in a sand drawing made by a Pitjandjara man when
discussing the Owalinja Cave (fig. 4, d).

Jangkundjara men who have travelled out of their own country
have learned that the Kungkarnngkara went south into the Pangkala

TINDALE—TOTEMIC BELIEFS IN AUSTRALIA 321

territory near Port Augusta with Njira still in pursuit. They have
tle idea that the Beings made a circuitons eastward journey returning
again to the north, During this journey Njiru and the Kelilbi (Star
women) are supposed to have visited a big jabu (hill) beside the sea,
south and east of Port Augusta (perhaps one or other of the peaks
of the Flinders Ranges, Mount Remarkable, Mount Brown, ete., which
possesses a deep gorge). The Beings then went north and the women
are believed to have fled to Erumangara, « big plain ‘‘near Alice
Springs’’.

TWO JANGKRUNDJARA VERSIONS OF THE STORY OF
JULA AND THE WOMAN MINGARI

Kongka Mingari (woman mountuin-devil lizard) came from the
west and arrived at Mingari (in the country of the informant's wife,
a Pitjandjara woman). rom the place Mingari, the Being went to
Pilki, which is west of Walukutjara, and therefore somewhere to the
west of 129° Ki. long. x 28° 8. lat, She then travelled eastwards for
a great distance to Tjalapina (Tjslpanbinja, Talbanbinja), the
approximate position of which is near 131° H, long. x 28° 20’ S. lat.
She bronght with her many papa inura, wild dogs. Today Tjalapina
is both a papa and a mingari tjukur place. From here Mingari
travelled south-eastwards to Kalaingga, situated on a line of waters
running from Puntana to Tlili near the Everard Ranges, fetching her
many dogs with her. Before the Kongka Mingari came, there were
no dogs, only men tjukur in the country. One of the papa inura,
named Bulgo, beeame lost at Kalaingga and the woman called to him,
loudly *Po:! ’Pat! Bulgo ‘poz! but no dog eame. Mingari lay
down, Bnigo returned during the middle hours of the night, lay
down and went to sleep (angen). LBye-and-bye Mingari rose to
urinate (kombo) and to look about. She noticed that Bulgo had
returned, The dog woke and pricked up its ears to listen, for it
heard a noise in the ground,

It was the sound of the kata (son) of Njiru, named Jola, who
was sneaking up to capture the woman. Bulgo leaped up and seized
Jnla by his penis (kalu). Then the whole pack of dogs surrounded
Jula, who fled back towards Anmango, During his outward journey
to steal the woman, Jula had travelled underground all the way from
Anmango to Indinkarta (also ealled Indinkartn), a day’s walk west
of Kalaingga. On the way, at Tjalapina, he had urinated and a
roaring sound, like tji:::! still can be heard there within the rockhole

322 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

as evidence of his passing. He had used his penis to dig a track.
At Indinkarta he had emerged from the ground and travelling on the
surface came to Kalaingga, where, while mating with Mingari, he
was beset by her dogs, who chased him away to the north-west. Some
of the dogs hung close to him all the way to Anmango whence he
had come, others became tired, and some died at Okarta (not yet
located). Bulgo was among those which disappeared and although
Mingari called him he never returned.

Njiru, at Anmango, saw the plight of his son and picking up a
kali (boomerang) in one hand and a branch in the other stood up to
beat off the dogs, thrusting all black dogs on one side, brindle dogs
on another and yellow ones in a third place. All the dogs were killed
and were piled up in different heaps according to their markings.

Kongka Mingari followed after her dogs but gave up the chase
at Julbudjaru and returned to the east. Having been assaulted by
Jula she gave birth to the Wati Kutjara. It will be noted that the
relationship between coitus and childbirth is recognized,

Mingari gave names to all her dogs, and Jangkundjara dogs
today receive similar names according to their markings.

Names of the dogs of Mingarv:

Bulgo—fawn dog.
Julpunj—yellow dog.
Njukali—black dog.

Tjerei—white dog.
Negotjarun—another white dog.
Toldjaru—brindle dog.
Tjundalka—white nose and mouth,
Kongi—white and black slut.
Tjapina—black slut.
Karderi—white mark on legs.
Tjitangkanja—white mark on neck, otherwise brown,

Both Njiru and Jula remained thereafter at Anmango, the home
of Njiru, in Pitjandjara country.

From the context it might appear that some of the details of
this version were derived from the informant’s Pitjandjara wife and
Milina, the narrator, a middle-aged man, after telling his story said:—
‘‘The old men may know more than this about the story of Mingari

~

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a

wee eee sewer] * 68 want

4
a
i]
‘

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i
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Fig. 7. a, b, left and right. Drawings of the Wati Kutjara (ngintaka) tjukurupa
of the place Owalinja, in the form of concentric circles, called kuri kuri, as drawn
by Moinkorei, a Jangkundjara old man, in August, 1953. These figures are
depicted in Owalinja cave and are reproduced on the bodies of performers during
the ngintuka tjukurupa ceremony. ¢. Drawing of the Wati Kutjara (ngintaka)
of the place Ngankuru on the South side of the Mann Range, as drawn by a
young man, Lankatjukurupa, of the Pitjandjara tribe, 18th August, 1933, Milpali
and Junka (Jungku) are represented as together supporting the kuri kuri figure.
d. Man carrying a wanigi in a ceremony as drawn in August 1933 by Djimindinja,
a Pitjandjara old man of Peltadi in the Mann Range.

324 RECORDS OF THE 5,A. MUSEUM

but sometimes they do not talk. Some tjilpi (old men) say there is
more to be told’’.

In a second Jangkundjara version from the Everard Ranges,
told by an older man, the Being who attacked Jnula was a dog in
human form, the Wati Kantjeiri (antju) who was associated with
the place Kandjanja, north-east of Karumilnga. The name is
identified with the Kandoenna Creek of maps, running north-eastward
from Mount Carmeena (Karumilnga), This creek flows into the
Alberga River,

In attacking Jula, the Being Kantjeiri carried a rectangular
shield made from wood of the ngalta or kurrajong tree, A ceremonial
drawing of the shield shows on it the same minu marks which were
depicted on the body of the minn imitiate at Ooldea, on his return to
his people (fig. 6, ¢). WKandjanja, where ceremonies are performed
for the Papa Kantjeiri tjukur being, is an important native water,
at which lives a large snake, Kanha, Beeanse the snake lives there
the water is a permanent one,

Fig. 6 shows a native drawing of Wati Kantjeiri in human form,
his inma kudidji bunu ngalta (ceremonial shield wooden kurrajonz),
the Kanba (snake) of Kandjanja, two ngalta kanku (kurrajong
trees), and an ordinary shield,

OWALINJA CAVE AND THE KUNGKARUNGKARA WOMEN

Owalinja (“Walinja, O’walinja) Cave is situated on the south side
of a granitic outcrop on the plain north of the Musgrave Ranges.
There is a second native place of this name near Ernabella, Data on
it and indications of the association of the Kungkarungkara women
with the cave waa first obtained in May 1933, when the name appeared
on several drawings made hy aborigines, for example, fiz. 7, a, b.
This was during a journey to the Mann Range. Dr. C, J. Hackett
and I passed too far south of the place to make a visit. The late
Rey. J, R. B. Love later informed me that he knew the Owalinja
Cave, and that it had many paintings in it. Tts existence has been
a matter of record since the days of the Carruthers Survey.

During May 1957 T was able to visit this cave in eompany with
Mr. W. B. MaeDougall, Native Patrol Officer, who earlier had
informed me also of its interest and made arrangements for my visit.
A few days after visiting the cave, Tommy Dodd (Tjnndaka), the
F\ half-caste who had escorted Mr. C, P, Mountford on a trip to the

TINDALE—TOTEMIC BELIEFS IN AUSTRALIA 325

Mann Range several years previously, told me that they had passed
neat the eave but he had not thought to draw attention to it, From
the published acconnt hy Mountford (1948, p. 124), it appears they
were in some haste on this part of their journey. There are brief
references to the myth in his book (p, 155).

The area in which Owalinja stands was until 1914 the territory
of a northern group of the Jangkundjara, but following the serious
drought of that and the following year, Pitjandjara men, forced east-
ward out of their usual living areas in the Mann and Tomkinson
Ranges by the drying up of waters, successfully moved into the
Owalinja country and deprived these people of their territory. They
killed some and forced others to move south to the Everard Ranges.
This shift foreed some hordes of the Jangkundjara to attempt a
migration still further south. They in their turn seem to have
displaced some Kokata people, who from fear of the ‘*Northerners,”’
moved south-eastward, away from Ooldea towards Kingoonya; others
went to the coast at Fowler Bay. In making this migration the
Jangkundjara moved alone the boundary zone between the Ngalea
and Kokata peoples following the track of an ancient traditional
trade route, Up to the year 1984 they still maintained links with
their former mulga and sandhill (erritory in the north, bot having
continned to retreat towards Ooldea rather than towards the Everard
Ranges whenever waters of the desert failed them, they finally
settled down and now have become detribalised around the Mission
on the const near Yalata and at Koonibba. Those who survived the
effects of contact with European diseases, ete, are now widely
seattered. A lew returned to the Mverard Ranges, others are still
living on the coast near Yalata and a few, when last encountered,
were in camp near Port Augusta.

Of set purpose the exact position of Owalinja is not mentioned
in this report pending offictal decisinn as to action to protect it from
wnauthorized visitors and vandalism, In the interest of science it
is hoped that a carefully controlled archacological excavation may be
permitted since its rightful owners, the Jangkundjara no longer
use it.

This rockshelter is possibly one of the most spectacular ones in
Australia, and the layer upon layer of paintings on its walls will
reqnive ovach patient work and analysis by artists to ascertain the
suecession of gtyles, ete., depicted on its walls, The present
preliminary account gives only a history of the known succession of

326 RECORDS OF THE §.A. MUSEUM

tribal visitors from Jangkundjara through Pitjandjara to Ngadadjara
and will indicate the associations the cave has with some Jangkund-
jata beliefs about the Kungkarungkara, Njirn, the Wati Kutjara and
kindred ancestral Beings.

To the usurping Pitjandjara who came from the west in
1915-1916 the eave was so far unimportant that even women ani
children were able to visit the rock and were permitted to camp at
Owalinja, without much restriction, The usnal camping places for
women were on the northern and western sides of the hill, Here they
sheltered from rain in the summer time. The southern, formerly very
sacred cave, is visited only by Pitjandjara men. They say that as
there are paintings of wanigi (ceremonial string figures) and other
secret objects which must not be seen by the wninitiated, women
cannot go there. Paintings of wanigi on the walls of the western
shelter are ignored,

In legendary time Njiru, the Kongkarungkara, the Wati Tawalpa
the lizard woman Milpali, the Wati Kutjara and the Wati Malu all
visited Owalinja, leaving records of their passage in the eave,
Fig. 8, a is a drawing of a wanigi of the Wati Kutjara by a Jang-
kundjara man in 1934 which is paralleled hy wanigi of the same toter
im Owalinja Cave, while fig, 8, b depicts a figure of the same totem
drawn by a Pitjandjara man of the Mann Range in 1933. The Jast-
named has below it the marks painted on the backs of the performers
during Increase ceremonies for lizards at which the string figure is
displayed. Njiru made his attack on the Kongkarungkara in the cave
and Tawal (the hare wallaby, Onychogale lunata) after residing there
leff, on a visit to Aliwanjawanja in company with the Milpali
tjukurupa, before he went on a journey south to seatter knife-stones
over country near Armaroodina, as will be related in another part of
these records.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF OWALINJA MAIN CAVE

The main cave is entered from the south, It is under a great
dome of granite which has been weathered out to form a chamber
45 yards long, 10 yards wide and 3 yards high at its highest point.
Part of the floor at the western end, where it is lowest, is cluttered
wilh smaller granite boulders and a ramp of sloping rock runs
upwards at the east, ending in a narrow crevice. The front of the
reckshelter is hidden hy large native fig trees so that the cave is not
very conspienous from the south, and its size is only appreciated when
at the western entrance. The whole of the walls and roof are painted

fears
“Te igh,

ed
dts
eee

4,

‘>
omy
ae

:

EWN

ee

See est

Fig. 8. a. Jangkunjdjara wanigi (thread cross) of the Wati Kutpara and Milpali
drawn by Manana, about 55 years of age, at Ooldea, 13th November, 1934.
The memory of this man went back to before the Carruthers Survey; he was a
middle-aged man before the Pitjandjara drove him and his companions away
from the Owalinja area, The drawing is in red (dotted) and black. b. Pitjand-
jara wanigi of the Wati Kutjara ngintaka tjukurupa (men two lizard totem)
drawn by Tjinguinja a newly iniated youth, on Gth June, 1933. The marks below,
also in white are called inma tjana walka and are painted on the backs of
performers during the Increase Ceremony for ngintaka; wanigi depicted in
Owalinja and ascribed to the Wati Kutjara, closely resemble these drawings.

328 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

and overpainted again and again, designs continuing even on the
lip-like overhang of the roof at the entrance, where they are in partial
darkness except at the brightest time of day,

First impression is that most of the older paintings, and these
include the earliest ones designated as being of the Minma
Kungkarnngkara, are in ved ochre, but on closer examination there
is seen to be great variety.

There are several very late ones in yellow ochre. A Pitjandjara
old man, who accompanied ns, ascribed these to recent visits by
Ngadadjara men rom the Warburton Range. These men had vome
over on a visit to the Wrnabella Mission, since its foundation just
before World War Il. The newly painted yellow figures include,
according to him, representations of a snake (leiro), one of a watiinma
njurtidjara (man ceremonial object carrying), and a third group
ineluded some he conld not identity,

It is of interest to note that a sonree of the yellow pigment
(garnierite) is the nickel ore outerop near Wro:tjo, north of Mount
Hinekley, This is an important native place on the boundary between
Ngadadjara and Pitjandjara tribal territories. The pigment itself
is gathered from the rims of the nests of ants which mine the little
pellets of if in the course of their burrowings.

Marks which my informant, and other Pitjandjara men had placed
as an overlay on the older Jangkundjara figures since 1915 were
recognized and pointed out, Some of those indicated as of recent
Pitjandjara origin were of men riding camels. These and some of
the other Pitjandjara dvawings were in black and white, and all had
been painted after 1915,

Tt is of some interest to note that drawings, in chalks of kinds
issued by the Mrnabella Mission, had been added in the western eave
since a visit by MacDougall in the previous year, and our native
giude was able to confirm that Pitjandjara people from the Ernabella
Mission had camped at Owalinja dnving the summer of 1956-1957,
hence the rockshelters preserve native records from ancient times
right up to the present day.

THE CEREMONTAT, PAINTINGS AT OWALINJA

The figure of the ancestral Being Nijiru in coitus with the
Kimgkarnngkara (Pl, xxxv, A) is a curious drawing; the posture is
that of similar drawings 1 have seen elsewhere and ean be beat
understood alter an appreciation of the method of mating adopted by

.

TINDALE—TOTEMIC BELIEFS IN AUSTRALIA 329

Central Australians. Roth (1897, p. 179, fig. 433) gives a useful
deseription and figure,

The oldest Minma Kangkarungkara paintings are depicted usually
without mouths, in red, with their hair long and as pointed out to me
by old man Peter, rolled wp in a coil, folded in on the forehead, as
was the fashion for Pitjandjara and Jangkundjara women, and was
still the practice among the Ngadadjara in 1935 (Pl, xxxix, A).
Photographs taken in 1903 by Basedow (1914) in the Musgrave
Ranges, show this style, which in 1933 was still in vogue among
both Jangkundjara and Pitjandjara people.

The later paintings of Njiru and the Women are in black, and
are less elaborately done.

The Jangkundjara used to hold Inerease ceremonies for Papa
dingo) in this eave. They depicted their dogs showing two eyes, in
a 7 2 > ?

black outlined with white.

A flat stone on the western end of the Owalinja Cave was used
in the Papa ceremony as a rubbing place for papa kuloinba or dog
excreta, with the while powder of which some of the paintings were
done, as part of the ceremony. During the rites a song was sung
deseribing the effects of the attack on Njiru by the dogs belonging to
the Kungkarungkara,

Song :—
I: Njirunja kala nalkur
Exelamation Njiru penis bitten
nari keildjoro keildjoro itjarta
lay (bleeding) spear
Njirunja kalo nalkur nari
Njiru penis bitten lay

The ceremony was performed in the cave because there was a
close association hetween the Kungkarungkara Women and their dogs.
Fivures painted represent the papa (dogs) themselves, the imma.
pndurn bulka (ceremonial-object string large), wanigi (string figure)
and men carrying wanigi on their heads during the Papa ceremonies.

The Papa ceremony is shown by Pitjandjara to young men before
circumcision. They are given only brief glimpses of highlights of
the dances at this time. The proceedings at such a ceremony were
witnessed by the author in 1933, at Konapandi on the southern side
of the Musgrave Ranges. A film record of the ceremony, taken by

330 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

him, has been published as part of Film No. 20 in the 16 mm. series
of the Board for Anthropological Research at the University of
Adelaide.

Plates xxxii-xxxvili show some of the paintings in the two caves
examined; an approximately complete coverage would require more
than five times this number of figures. In the explanations to the
plates notes are given on those recognized by Peter, our Pitjandjara
informant. It is hoped to be able to take Jangkundjara men to the
shelter. Some text and song detail already has been gathered and
will appear in Part IT of this series.

During my 1933 visit to Aliwanjawanja I happened to be
examining the rockshelter there and sketching in my notebook when
a Pitjandjara man followed my tracks into the cave. After watching
me for a while he departed but later returned and began, of his own
accord, making drawings in the shelter with charcoal as pigment.
We each worked silently for some time, but when he had finished
and had turned to go, I learned he had painted leiru or snake
markings, in part over inma njurtidjara wati (men carrying
ceremonial objects) in white paint. I photographed him (Pl. xxxix,
B) at work.

REFERENCES CITED

Basedow, H., 1914: Proc, Roy. Geog. Soc. of Aust., 8. Aust. Branch,
Adelaide. 15: 57-242.

Berndt, R. M., 1941: Oceania, Sydney. 12: 1-20,

Berndt, R. M., and Berndt, C., 1945: Preliminary Report of field
work in the Ooldea Region. Sydney,

Carruthers, John, 1892; South Australian Parliamentary Paper,
Adelaide. 179,

Giles, E., 1875: Geographic travels in Central Australia from 1872 to
1874. Melbourne.

Mountford, C, P., 1987: Rec. 8. Aust, Mus., Adelaide. 6; 5-28.
1948: Brown Men and Red Sand. Melbourne.

Roth, W. E., 1897: Ethnological studies among the north-west Central
Queensland aborigines. Brisbane.

TINDALE—TOTEMIC BELIEFS IN AUSTRALIA 331

Tindale, N, B., 1933: Oceania, Sydney. 4: 101-105,
1985: Oceania, Sydney. 6: 199-224.
1936: (1) Oceania, Sydney, 6: 481-485,
——— 1936: (2) Oceania, Sydney, 7: 169-185.
1940: Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., Adelaide. 64: 140-231.

EXPLANATIONS OF PLATES

PLATE XXXIT

Fig. A, South side of Owalinja granite dome looking east, showing native fig trees con-
evaling entrance to tho main shelter,

Fig. B. Shelter used by women and children on the western face of Ovwalinja; the
protected area beneath the large central boulder is about 15ft. long and 10ft wide,
with oceupational debris present in « aand-floored alwove at fhe gouthern end.

PLATE XXXIIT

Vig. A. Fifteen fect of the back wall and roof at the westorn end of the main shelter at
Owaliaja, with Pitjandjara informant, Peter, Above his head a pieture of man aud
horse, painted since 1915. The roof shows faintly visible substrata of large-sized
human figures chiefly in red ochre overlain by black figures outlined in white.

Fig. B. Tip of rock shelter near western end showing lines of small white figures and black
oes, some outlined with white. On the right is the figure of Njiru with a
Kungkarungkara woman (see Pl, xxxv, fig. A), and at upper left the figure of
man with supposed horse (see also Pl. xxxv, fig. B),

PLATE XXXIV

Fig. A. ‘The upper figure of Pl, xxxiv shows a heroié sized figure of Njiru in red outlined
in white, the nose is represented by « white fine and thore are traces of eyes; to the
right are traces of red figures of the Kungkarungkara overlaid with black ones ot
Niiru outlined with white; the nose and eyes are shown. At the left the overlay
consists of black figures of the Kungkarungkara, with apots representing stars on
their bodies and the pudenda drawn as wide black openings; benvath them is the

e of one of their defending dogs, in black with the outline and paired eyes in
white At the lower right of middle is a cruder figure of a wanigi-bearing man in
black outlined in bright yellow. This is one of those ascribed to recent Ngadadjaru
visitors, The background is a maze of red lines representing earlier paintings,

Fig. B. This shows a, portion of the wall approximately 12ft. wide « little more to the right
and extending lower down on tho back (han the one above. There is some overlap.
A contral figure und one to the left are each of Njiru, in different styles but both
painted in black, outlined with white; that on the loft shows chat cieatrices. The
white foot track painted over it, to the knowledge of our Pitjandjara informant, was
done after 1915, At lower middla is the figure of a black dog, the Papa Kantju,
outlined in white; above its tail is another inma njurti wati, painted entirely in yellow
ochre; this overlay is ascribed to the recent Ngadadjara visitors, The emu (kalaia)
figure at the left of middle is Kalaia tjukurupa, a Being who appears as a group of
stars and aa dark patehes in the Milky Way; the spots on the body represent stars,
Just to the left of the middle is a squatting figure of one of the Kungkaraagkarsa
in black, outlined with white; two similar figures with white spots on their bodies also
represent Kungkarungkara women.

332 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

PLATE XXXV

Fig. A. Enlarged view of the figure of Njiru cohabiting with one of the Kungkarungkara;
the design is in black outlined with white; the white semicirewar design is a later
addition. The design was painted over an earlier figure, apparently of the same su bjact,
in red ochre

Fig. B. Vigures in red of two Kungkarungkurn women. The smaller human figure and
animal in black outlined with white was said to be a man with a horse, Below it is
a supposed cattle brand added by a civilized aboriginal.

PLATE XXXVI

Fig. A. Njiru (right) and a Kungkarungkara woman (left), These are painted over two
kuri-kuri circles representing the Wati Kutjara, whose wanigi, thread ¢ross or string
figure is partly shown at the right.

Fig. B. Portion of roof at eastern end of main ghelter, about 15ft. wide, showing two
large wanigi of the Wati Kut,jara and kuri kuri or concentric circle Marks representing
the Wati Kutjara. The kuri kuri may be compared with text figure 7 (right), and the
wanigi with those in text figure 8,

PLATE XXXVIT

Fig. A. Paintings in the Western or Women’s cave. At left is & figure of u woman
carrying wooden dishes on her head, below is a man riding a camel. The older
paintings consist of white spots un a black surface, concentrie eireles, lines of emu
tracks in white with an underlay of obscured figures in red ochre, and innumerable
white spots,

Fig, B. Contral portion of the Women's enve showing some recent, designe in crayons
obtained from the Mission over smoke obscured white paintings, The central figure,
suid to represent a motor truck, is believed to have been done by Pitjandjara living
at Owalinja in the summer of 1956, The concentric circles are in white and at the
extreme right and extending beyond the picture are traces of wanigi designs in red
overlain by white designs; they are shown in PL, xxxviii,

PLATE XXXVTIL

‘Two figures bearing wanigi (thread erosves) as depicted at the southern end of the Women’s
Cave (of the Pitjandjara). The main figure on the right of the middle is painted
in red with a. black ace, and varries an inma njurti in red, outlined with white;
the central part of the wnnigi is black with red and white bars. The large wanigi
in the middle is ved outlined in white. There are two cross sticks in red and i
central pala; the white outline appears to bu un addition, Tt is supported on the head
of a man figure painted in white with the face and body indicated in black. The
lines of man, dog and kangaroo tracks were made after the wanigi design. AU the
designs in this shelter are darkened by smoke from camp fires.

PLATE XXXIX

Pig, A. Pitjandjara man making leirn or snake markings, in Aliwanjawanja. (Erliwanya-
wanya of maps) Cave on 20th Jume, 1932; his efforts were superimposed on white
figures of inma njurtidjara wati (ceremonial-ohject-carrying-men).

Pig. B. Unmarried woman of the Ngadadjara tribe, Warupuju, Warburton Range, Western
Australia, showing her hair folded in on the brow, as in Kungkarungkara women
depicted in Owalinja Shelter (photograph by the late Mr. BE, O. Stocker, taken during
the University of Adelaide Expedition of August 1935).

Ree. SoA. Mesncw Vou. XT, Phare NNNII

Raw SOAS Alnseim Vou, NUE Pravin NAXNITEL

Rie. SAL Mesteua Vou. XI, Prats XXXIV

aK
.

Rae SoA. Messer at Vou, XIU, Phare NNAY

Rie, SOAS Mesnew Vou, NIL, Phare SNAVI

Ree, SoA] Mesueom Von NTH, Phares NNNWII

Ree. SOAL Mosnecs Vor NT, Prare SNXNVIL

Rec. S.A. Museum Vou. XI, Phares NNNTX

THE PIGMY SPERM WHALE ON SOUTH AUSTRALIAN COASTS
(CONTINUED)

BY HERBERT M. HALE, DIRECTOR, SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM
Summary

Some data concerning two young Pigmy Sperm Whales, Kogia breviceps (Blainville), are recorded.
These examples were stranded on the shore of St. Vincent Gulf, South Australia. In one of them
cartilaginous vestiges of the pelvis were present.

Passing references are made to post mortem changes of colouration in Mesoplodon layardii (Gray)
and to the identification of Pseudorca crassidens (Owen) off the coast of South Australia.

THE PIGMY SPERM WHALE ON SOUTH AUSTRALIAN COASTS
(Continued)?

By HERBERT M. HALE, Director, SourH Avstranin Musrum
Plate xl and text fig. 1-2

SYNOPSIS
Some data concerning two young Pigmy Sperm Whales, Kogia
breviceps (Blainville), are recorded. These examples were stranded
on the shore of St, Vincent Gulf, South Australia. In one of them
cartilaginous vestiges of the pelvis were present.

Passing references are made to post mortem changes of coloura-
tion in Mesoplodon layardii (Gray) and to the identification of
Pseudorca erassidens (Owen) off the coast of South Australia,

INTRODUCTION

On July 11, 1958, two small whales were noticed floundering in
shallow water at Largs Bay, a residential and holiday resort on the
eastern shore o! St. Vineent Gulf in South Australia; here, at low
tide, a considerable expanse of ‘‘flat’’ is exposed owing to the gently
sloping sandy coast. Both examples were described by observers as
being about 7ft, in length; they were stranded on the beach next day,
unfortunately a Saturday, when crowds of visitors were present.
With one of the Museum preparators (Mr. A. Rau), and his assistant,
I went to the abovementioned beach soon after the specimens were
reported, hoping that we might recover them. Regrettably, however,
one example had been literally hacked to pieces and the skull smashed,
but the remains on the beach showed it to be, without doubt, Magia.
Moreover, Mr. I’. Johnson, a resident of Largs North, had secured
two 35 mm. Ferrania eolour photographs of this example, taken as
it was thrashing about in very shallow water.

The second specimen had been removed by Mr, Howard Trotter
and was exhibited during the week-end outside his refreshment rooms
at nearby Outer Harbour, <A description and measurements of this
example were made and shortly afterwards the animal was brought
to the South Australian Museum.

(1) Bee also Ree, 8. Aust. Mus, viii, 1947, 531-546,

334 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

Specimen No. 1. Sex Unxnown

The photographs reproduced on pl. xl are enlargements from the
two eolour photographs secured by Mr, Johnson. The portions
which are dark in the half-tone prints were blue on the back (as in
Boschma’s illustration of 1951, fig. 1) merging into blackish brown
on the upper part of the head and body, The light areas, however,
are much more extensive than in examples previously recorded, the
greater part of the snout, the belly, and the lateral parts of the body
below the level of the eye, being white. The mottlings which appear
on the caudal portion (pl. xl, upper) are apparently splashes of
blood diluted with sea water. The colour pictures show the water
nearby to be blood stained, and the animal to he bleeding from wounds
on the front of the snout and dorsal fin, the edges of the flukes and
the underside of the caudal parts,

The snout is blunt, somewhat as in the adult female previously
described from South Australia (Hale, 1947, pl. xiv, upper fig.)
and in Boschma’s abovementioned figure; it is obviously longer than
in the other juvenile (No. 2) deseribed below. The dorsal fin is
large and faleate, and the open blowhole is obvious in the lower
photograph on pl. xl herewith.

The photographs alone must suffice as a record for this example,
which, as already noted, was said to be 7ft. in length.

Srrcimen No. 2. Youna Mare

Colowr.—When examined by us the animal had been dead for
about 48 hours. The colouration then was almost black above, lighter
below.

External Characters —The measurements of the young male
Kogia were as follows:—

mm. per cent.

Total length to notch of tail flukes .. .. ., 1930 100
Tip of snout to vertieal level of anterior

corner of eye .. , 180 9.3
Tip of mandible to vertical ‘evel ‘of anterior

corner of eye .. , . 140 7.3
Tip of snout to vertical level of anterior edge

of dorsal fin .. .. , ool ant ae wt Meu 48.2
Tip of mandible to axilla ate pie! cad 386 20.0

Tip of mandible to anterior point of ‘genital
BUS pg Spier et en Ge ee ae vere OD 65.8

HALE—PIGMY SPERM WHALE 335

mm per cent.

Width of flukes .. .. 1. 0. ee ee ee ee ee 408 24.6
Length of base of dorsal fin . .. .. -- .- 220 11.4
Height of dorsal fin .. .. .. -. .. -. +.» 160 8.0
Greatest length of pectoral fin .. .. -- -. 300 15.5
Greatest width of pectoral fin . .. .. .. .. 105 5.4
Length of eye 2. 4. 2 66 ce ee be ee te 24 1.2
Depth ‘of eye . 2 ci Gd sa ee Ge pe ae ae 13.5 0.7

Fig. 1. Young male of Kogia breviceps, Largs Bay, South Australia,
Sketeh to scale made 48 hours after death. (Specimen No. 2, % natural
size.)

In general the body proportions approach those of the smaller
calf deseribed by the writer in 1947. It will be noted, however, that
the faleate dorsal fin is much larger and commences slightly anterior
to the middle of the total length of the animal, while the pectoral
fins (fig. 2) are relatively shorter and narrower; the upper edge in
both flippers had been damaged, and had healed, during life. [Sexed
examples of Kogia recovered during the past decade show that the
size of the dorsal fin is no indication of sex (Allen, 1941, p. 29).]
The snout is considerably shorter and has a more abrupt downward
dorsal curvature, its tip being on a level with the eye. In the foetuses
recorded by Allen (1941, fig. 1) and by me (1947, fig. 5) the tip of
the snout is below eye level.

The tips of two tiny teeth were visible at the anterior end of the
upper jaw, projecting very slightly above the gum. In the lower jaw
there were 13 teeth in the right ramus, 12 in the left. The single
blowhole was ecrescentric, curved obliquely backward from the mid-
line; it was apparently similar in calf No. 1 (see pl. xl, lower
photograph) and not as in Boschma’s illustration of an adult female
(1951, fig. 1).

°

336 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

The notch in the tail was well marked, approximately 25 mm.
in depth.

The differences in the shape of the head, as shown in the photo-
graphs of the living example, reproduced on pl. xl and in the sketch
of the dead young male (fig. 1) are quite marked.

Fig. 2. Left (upper) and right flippers of Kogia breviceps, Largs Bay,
South Australia. (Specimen No, 2, 4 natural size.)

Skeleton.—The flesh has been largely removed from the skeleton,
which is in process of maceration, pending further examination. In
the partly fleshed skeleton, with the vertebrae all in place, a count
showed a total of 57: cervical, 7; thoracic, 14; lumbar, 10; caudal, 26,
the last being very small, only about 4 mm. in length.

Vestiges of the pelvis are present. They are hard, but are
cartilaginous, as suspected by Glover M. Allen (1941, pp. 32-33),
and are about 24 mm. in length, slightly curved and approximately
five times as long as deep.

Skeleton in South Australian Museum, Reg. No. M6186.

HALE—PIGMY SPERM WHALE 337

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND REMARKS

My best thanks are due to Mr. F’, Johnson for the colour slides
of eall No. 1, and to Maseum Artist and Photographer, Miss M. Boyee,
who is responsible for the hall-tone enlargements therefrom, Also
to Mr, Howard Trotter, who readily parted with the young male when
he was informed that it was of scientifie interest; and to Mr. A, Ran,
who painstakingly and successfully searched for the pelvic cartilages.

It is a matter for regret that, in ny experience, whenever small
whales, or for that matter larger species, are stranded near populated
areas, they are at once matilated by visitors. In South Australia
small whales cast up on beaches are almost invariably reported as
“ Blackfish,’ with, maybe, the remark that as ‘Blackfish’? ave common
in our seas they cannot be of much interest. In all probability the
smaller whales occurring off our coasts are by no means as rare as
it would appear trom published records. It it certain that maty
strandings are not observed, as whales surely must be cast np from
time to time ou uninhabited portions of the vast coastline of Australia,

It is worth stressing the fact that post mortem changes occur
very rapidly in at least some of the small whales, In February, 1956,
a young male Strap-toothed Whale (Mesoplodon layardii) was seen
swimming off Rocky Point in the Ameriean River Hstnary at
Kangaroo Island, South Australia, for about a week, During that
period it was studied by Prof, Richard Blackburn and Dr. James
Forbes, competent observers, who deseribed the colouration as bronze-
brown on the dorsum, pale grey ventro-laterally grading to off-white
on the underside.

Me. F. J. Mitehell of the Mosenm staff, together with one of the
preparators, went to the site 48 hours after this specimen, injured
by gunshot, was stranded. Its colouration then was black ahove,
grading to purplish-pink on the sides and with isolated grey patches
on the underside of the head.

The animal, being in obvious distress, had been killed by Dr,
Forbes soon afler if came ashore and it was noted that the whale
lost ils life colouration immediately after death,

‘he complete skeleton and some measurements of the whole
animal were secured; ] am indebted to all the abovementioned for the
data and material obtained concerning this Mesoplodon,

Opportunity is taken to correct an error in identification of a
herd of whales stranded at Port Prime, on the eastern side of St,
Vineent Gulf in South Australia. An extremely hurried visit was

338 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

made here by the late Prof. Harvey Johnston and me during the days
of petrol rationing, the trip being made possible by one of the local
newspapers. (Hale, 1956, p. 181) and the species was recorded as
Globicephalus ventricosus. Later examination of all photographs
secured at the time by a news photographer, and of a skull recovered
by my friend Mr. H. A. Brooks, of nearby Buckland Park, shows that
this herd consisted of examples of the False Killer Whale (Pseudorca
crassidens).

REFERENCES CITED

Allen, Glover M., 1941: ‘‘Pygmy Sperm Whale in the Atlantic’’.
Zool. Series, Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Chicago, xxvii, 17-36,
fig. 1-4.

Boschma, H., 1951: ‘‘Some smaller whales’’, Endeavour, x (9),
181-135, fig. 1-4.

Hale, Herbert M., 1947: ‘‘The Pigmy Sperm Whale (Kogia breviceps
Blainville) on South Australian Coasts’’. Ree. 8. Aust.
Mus., viii, 531-546, pl. xiv-xviii and text fig. 1-17.

1956: ‘‘The First Hundred Years of the South Australian

Museum’’. Rec. S. Aust. Mus., xii, 180-181, fig.

Ree, S.A, Mesrnear Vou. XT, Proare SN

Young Tigny Sperm While aground in shallow water, CSpeeimon No, 1, Large Bay,
South Austeatia.)

REDESCRIPTION OF TWO OF CANESTRINDS 1884 SPECIES OF
AUSTRALIAN ACARINA

BY H. WOMERSLEY, SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM
Summary

Fresh material referable to the two species of Acarina-Mesostigmata described and figured by
Canestrini 1884, as Laelaps dolicacanthus and Laelaps coniferus has now been studied and the
species are redescribed and refigured. Two new genera Cosmetolaelaps and Conolaelaps are erected
for the species respectively. The nymph of dolicacanthus and male and nymph of coniferus are
described and figured for the first time.

REDESCRIPTION OF TWO OF CANESTRINIS 1884 SPECIES OF
AUSTRALIAN ACARINA

By H. WOMERSLEY, Sour Avustravin Museum
Fig. 1-3

SYNOPSIS

Fresh material referable to the two species of Acarina-
Mesostigmata described and figured by Canestrini 1884, as Laelaps
dolicacanthus and Laclaps coniferus has now been studied and the
species are tedeseribed and refigured. Two new genera Cosmetolae-
laps and Conolaelaps are erected for the species respectively, The
nymph of dolicacanthus and male and nymph of coniferus are
described and figured for the first time.

INTRODUCTION

In 1884 Canestrini deseribed a number of species of Acarina from
material collected in Queensland by Prof. Pulle of Padova University.
Amongst these were Laelaps dolicacanthus u. sp, and Laelaps
coniferus n. sp. neither of which has since been collected or recognized
although Rainbow (1906) in listing Canestrini’s records states that
there are in the Australian Museum specimens which are probably
this species collected by S. J. H. Moreau at Antonio, near Rydal,
New South Wales. At my request for the loan of these specimens,
Mr. A. Musgrave, Entomologist, Australian Museum has very kindly
searched the collections, but failed to find the preparations. It must
therefore be considered that the specimens have been lost over the
years.

Recently, however, specimens which undoubtedly belong to
dolicacanthus were found on an old slide in the South Australian
Museum collection. The slide was labelled ‘‘Laelaps, sp. off Ontho-
phagus laminatus Macl., Townsville, Queensland—F. H. Taylor’’,
without any date of collection. Taylor, however, was working in that
area in the 1920’s. Canestrini stated that he had several specimens
from on a lamellicorn’’ beetle, briefly described both sexes, and
gave recognizable figures of the male venter and dorsum and of the
male chela.

340 RECORDS OF THE S,A. MUSEUM

Laelaps coniferus n, sp. was described from specimens fuand in
a vial of insects collected by Prof, Pulle in Australia. Canestrini
shows (fig. 4) a recognizable figure of the ventral surface althongh
if is now clear that if is not quite correct in certain details, Speci-
mens referable to coniferus have recently been collected from
millipedes in a rotting Hucalypt log at Hampton, 30 miles NE of
Toowoomba, Queensland, Oetuber 3rd, 1956 by Dr, G. F. Bornemissza.
Only the females were found by Canestrini, bot Bornemissza’s
material comprised both sexes and a solitary eedysing nymph.

As both the above species are unique amongst the Laelaptidae
in many features, new genera are erected for them; viz., Cosmetolae-
laps for dolicacanthus and Conolaelaps for conifers.

Genus Cosmetolaelaps nov.

Laelaptidae with 2-tined specialised seta on palpal tarsus. Dorsal
shield entire, covering almost the whole of the dorsum in both sexes,
furnished with ea. 81 pairs of generally long and strong ciliated seine
of which 8 pairs are laterad of the shield and all but the posterior
pair are anterior of the mid-dorsal line,

Female without pre-endopodal shields; sternal shield much wider
than long with 53 pairs of setae; metasternal shields absent,
represented only by seta and pore; genital shield short and drop-
shaped with one pair of setae; no ventral shield; anal shield broadly
pear-shaped with the paranal setae in line with the posterior of anns,
postanal seta the longest; endopodal shields of eoxae IIT and IV well
defined and free, Legs shorter than body, IL somewhat stouter than
others; tarsi with pad-like caruncle but without elaws, Gnathosoma
normal with 4 pairs of setae, the posterior two pairs ciliated. Teetam
roughly triangular.

Male with the sternal, genital, metasternal and ventral shields
coalesced, finely punetate with striate Tines, the combined shield
narrowest between coxae TV then expanding and narrowly separated
hy striate cuticle from the separate anal shield: sternal setae of
moderate length and stronger than in female, metasternal setae
strong and very long reaching to tip of ventral shield; renital setae
also strong and long: ventral shield with two pairs of short lateral
setae; anal shield with the postanal seta. much longer than the
paranals. Stigma between coxae IIT and LV with the peritremal
shield extending shortly posteriad and the peritreme running to coxae
TI. Gnathosoma as in female, Chelicerae similarly with each finger

WOMERSLEY—TWO AUSTRALIAN ACARINA REDESCRIBED 341

stout and furnished with one strong tooth, movable finger with a long,
hackwardly directed spermatophore carrier, the tip of which itself is
also chelate. Legs not longer than body, all tarsi with pad-like
caruneles and no elaws; leg IL very stout, tarsus apically with 3
strong spines.

Cosmetolaelaps dolicacanthus (Canest. 1884)

Laelaps dolicacanthus Canest, 1884. Acari dell'Australia. Atti
ist. Veneto, 2 Ser. Vi: 709, tav. VII, fig. 2, 3; Rainbow, 1906.
Synopsis of Australian Acarina. Ree. Aust. Mus. 6: 172,

Fig. 1 A-B, 2 A-F

A strong sclerotised brown species of oval form; with the above
generic characters, The following specimens are deseribed.

A single female of idiosomal length 7502 and width 520, and
legs I 4802 long, IT 4802, LIT 4600 and TV 6550p. Dorsal shield 690,
long by 430« wide, with a number of pores and 31 pairs of long to
very long strong ciliated setae, the longest being the two posterior
setae to 290”, Ventrally the sternal shield is strongly and finely
punctate with striate lmes, 244 wide by 108» long medially, anterior
margin lightly coneave, posterior margin lightly concave with 3
excavations of which the median is the deepest, with 3 pairs of strong
setae 47 long, and two pairs of pores; metasternal shields only
represented hy a seta 45 long and a small pore; genital shield as
figured, slightly wider than long, 117» hy 94», with one pair of setae

2u long; anal shield as figured, 117« long by 125 wide, paranal
setae 40p long, postanal seta 70« long, eribrum present; on ventral
cuticle with 9 pairs of small setae.

Two males, one of 800” idiosomal length and 6104 width, the
other $902 length, 670« width. Length of legs respectively, I 580,
(590), IL 700u (730), TIT 550u (580x), 1V 730» (812), The follow-
ing measurements are from the stnaller specimen; dorsal shield 754
lang ly 600. wide; posterior dorsal setae 450” long; the combined
sternal, metasternal, genital and ventral shield 440» long, sternal
portion 255 wide, ventral portion 244 wide, separated posteriorly
from anal shield by 35; anal shield 116 by 116/; sternal shield with
3 pairs of normally placed setae 944 long; metasternal setae very
long to 285. and strong; genital setae also very long to 155» and
strong; lateral setae on ventral portion 37 long; paranal setae 80,
long, postanal 145,, Legs as figured, femur, genu and tibia each

342 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Fig. 1. Cosmetolaelaps dolicacanthus (Canest. 1884), A-B, Female of 7504 length
mounted, A. Dorsum, B. Venter. C.-D, Nymph of 510 length mounted, C. dorsum, D.
venter. E. Chelicerse of female,

WOMERSLEY—TWO AUSTRALIAN ACARINA REDESCRIBED 343
with apophyses on II, and tarsi II with 3 strong apical spines; leg IV
with a small stout posterior spine on femur.

A single nymph of idiosomal length 510p, width 360», as figured.
Legs I 420u long, II 406», ITI 370», IV 4064. Dorsal setae as figured,

Fig. 2. Cosmetolaclaps dolicacanthus (Canest. 1884). Male of 800u

length mounted. A. Venter. B. Gnathosoma and palpi. C, Cheli-

cerae. D. Tip of spermatophore carrier much enlarged. WH, Tined
seta of palpal tarsus. F, Tectum,

344 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

14 pairs, posterior to 2354 long. Venter as shown with a shield-
shaped sternal shield with 3 pairs of fine setae. Peritreme short and
not extending beyond coxae ILL

Locality. The above specimens were found mounted in ‘balsam’?
on an old slide in the S.A, Museum collections. The slide was
labelled by the late F, H. Taylor as Laelaps sp. and the specimens
had been collected by him at Townsville, Queensland (no date, but
probably in the early 1920’s) from Outhophagus laminatus Macl.

Remarks. No record of this species apart from the doubtful one
by Rainbow (1906) has been made since Canestrini’s original descrip-
tion of specimens collected hy Prof. Pulle in Queensland from a
lamellicorn beetle, Canestrini described both sexes, but only figured
the male. The female and nymph are now described and figured.

Genus Conolaelaps nov.

Laelaptidae with 2-tined specialised seta on palpal tarsus. Of
ovoid shape with entire dorsal shield completely covering body in
both sexes. Dorsum with a number of pores and some exceedingly
minute setae,

Female without pre-endopodal shields, sternal shield longer than
wide with 8 pairs of setae, of which setae TL and TL are short and
cone-like, anterior edge deeply exeavate, posterior rounded; metas-
ternal shields absent, only represented by small cone-like setae
between the well developed free endopodal shields of coxae ITT and
IV; genital shield small, flask-shaped with eone-like setae and widely
separated from the oval anal shield; between the genital and anal
shield with 4 pairs of cone-like setae; other setae on ventral euticle
minute and simple. Legs fairly stout and shorter than body, with
normal setae except on coxae TV which has the seta cone-like, tarsi
with strong pad-like carnnele and now claws. Stigma between coxae
TIt and TV and peritreme extending to coxae If, Teetum a pointed
cone, Gnathosoma and chelicerae normal,

Male with the facies of the female but smaller. With a combined
sternal to anal shield with 7 pairs of small conical setae. Male
genital opening in the anterior of the sternal shield. Legs stout as
in female but tarsi 1 with a pair of strong claws and tarsi [LTV with
2-0 small cones ventrally, Chelicerae of male consisting of only the
movable finger which is long as figured. Teetum conical with rounded
apex.

WOMERSLEY—TWO AUSTRALIAN ACARINA REDESCRIBED 345

Conolaelaps coniferus (Canest. 1884)

Laelaps coniferns Canest. 1884. Acari dell’Australia, Atti ist
Veneto 2 Ser. VI: 711. tav. VII, fig. 4.

Fig. 3 A-L

Redescription of Female. Body egg-shaped, widest between
coxae TL and TIT. Dorsal shield covering entire body and furnished
with many pores and exceedingly minute setae difficult to distinguish
from pores. Length of idiosoma to 670%, width 410~ (Canestrini
gives 530” and 230p respectively), Legs shorter than body and rather
stout, length in a specimen of only 688 idiosomal length, I 390»,
Tl 8325p, IIL 3848p, 1V 440p, setation wenerally minute and simple except
the setu on coxae TV which is a small short cone; all farsi with large
catuncular pad and no claws. The sternal shield is shield-shaped
with «a deep anterior excavation within which are the minute simple
sternal setae 1, sternal setae If and TI1 are small aud coniform the
posterior margin is deeply rewnded and extends to inner angles of
coxae LIL; only the endopodal shields of coxae ITL and IV are present,
free and well defined; the metasternal setae only are present and are
coniform: the genital shield is small, flask-like, with one pair of small
eoniform setae; the sternal shield is 141p wide by 126” long medially
and the genital 564 long by 33 wide; the anal shield is as figured
70a long by 70 wide with mimute setae. The stigma is between coxa
TIT and IV but the peritreme is relatively short only reaching to
hetween coxac TT and Ill, The gnathosoma has probably the usual
4 pairs of setae but these are minute and difficult to ascertain,
Chelicerae as fignved with ove medium sized tooth on each finger.

Description of Male. Of similar facies to female. Length of
idiosuma 4308, width 300e. Lees T 8704 long, IT 290%, ITT 2904, TV
350». Dorsum as in female, Ventrally all the shields are coalesced
to form a single holoveniral shield, the anterior sternal margin of
which is excavate as in the female. Sternal setae T are minute and
simple and lie within the anterior excavation, the lioloventral shield
itsell with 7 pairs of small coniform setae and posterior of coxae
1V 4 or 5 pairs of minute setae besides the anals, Legs are stout
and similar, the tarsi armed as in the generic description. The
chelicerae are considerably modified, the fixed finger being absent, the
movable finger being elongate and untoothed as figured.

Description of Nymph. One specimen with idiosoma 508. long
and 300% wide and legs T 380” long, TT 810, TIT 2908, TV 3880p, shows

346

RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Fig. 3. Conolaclaps coniferus (Canest. 1884). A-B., D.-F. Female of 6404

length mounted, A. venter, B, dorsum, D. tectum, BE. tined seta of palpal tarsus,

F, ehelicerae, C., GK. Male of 4304 length mounted, C. gnathosoma from below,

with right palpi from above, G. venter, H. chelicerae, I, tarsus 1 from below, J.

tarsus LV from below, K. tectum, L. Nymph of 508« length mounted showing
ecdysis between proto- and deutonymphal stages.

WOMERSLEY—TWO AUSTRALIAN ACARINA REDESCRIBED 347

the ? protonymphal features still within the skin of the next stage
(? deutonymph), the various setae being duplicated as figured,

Locality. Four females, one male and one nymph from millipede
under a Eucalyptus log, Hampton, 30 miles NE of Toowoomba,
Queensland, 3rd October, 1956 (coll. G. F. Bornemissza).

Remarks. Canestrini described this species as Laelaps coniferus
from specimens found in a tube of insect material collected by Prof.
Pulle in Queensland. His description is somewhat brief and his
figures inaccurate as far as the delineation of the genital and ventral
shields are concerned. From his figure, although the characteristic
coniform setae are arranged as shown it is evident that he failed to
gee the outlines of the genital and anal shields and the transverse
line which he shows running between the coxae IV is erroneous. The
sternal shield is as shown in his figure. Canestrini only had the
female sex, but in the material collected by Dr. Bornemissza I found
one male and one nymphal specimen which is evidently in process of
ecdysis from proto-to deutonymph.

REFERENCES

Canestrini, G., 1884: Acari dell’Australia Atti ist. Veneto, 2 Ser.
VI: 705-730.

Rainbow, W. J., 1906: A Synopsis of Australian Acarina. Ree.
Aust. Mus., 6: 145-193,

A NEW SPECIES OF URODISCELLA (ACARINA, UROPODIDAE) FROM
AUSTRALIA

BY H. WOMERSLEY, SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM

Summary

The myrmecophilous genus Urodiscella Berlese 1903 is recorded for the first time from Australia. It
is represented by the new species Urodiscella nitida sp. nov. described from a single female found
on the larva of an ant Myrmecia gulosa Fabr. from Carlton, New South Wales.

A key to the known species of the genus, four from England and Europe and one from South Africa,
besides the new species is given.

All the species with the possible exception of the South African one are myrmecophilous in habit.

A NEW SPECIES OF URODISCELLA (ACARINA, UROPODIDAE)
FROM AUSTRALIA

By H. WOMERSLEY, Sours Ausrrarian Musrum
Fig. 1

SYNOPSIS

The myrmecophilous genus Urodiscella Berlese 1903 is recorded
for the first time from Australia. It is represented by the new
species Urodiscella nitida sp. nov. described from a single female
found on the larva of an ant Myrmecia gulosa Fabr. from Carlton,
New South Wales.

A key to the known species of the genus, four from Hngland and
Europe and one from South Africa, besides the new species is given.

All the species with the possible exception of the South African
one are myrmecophilous in habit.

INTRODUCTION

The genus Urodiscella was erected by Berlese (1903b) for
Uropoda ricasoliana Berl. 1889, Uropoda philoctena Trouessart 1902
and Urodiscella alophora n. sp. with ricasoliana as the genotype, all
of which are associated with ants. All three species were figured in
Berlese 1903¢,

In 1918 Hull added a fourth species U7. signata n. sp. from
England, also myrmecophilous in habit.

More recently a fifth species has been described by Ryke (1958)
from South Africa but this species was found in straw and not there-
fore definitely associated with ants.

Brief keys to the earlier species were published first by Berlese
(1903b, ¢) and then Hull (1918). Ryke did not attempt to key his
species. The brief descriptions of Berlese and Hull make their keys
difficult to assess, but a tentative key to all the five known species is
here attempted based on those of Berlese and Hull.

350 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF URODISCELLA

1. Dorsal setae strong and lanceolate.

Female 625» long .. .. .. .. .. potschefstroomensis
(S. Africa in straw.) Ryke 1958
Dorsal setae smaller and tapering . 2

2. Dorsal shield medially with shallow
punctures, ventral shields also

pitted. Female 485p long .. .. signata Hull 1918
(England; with Lasius flavus.)
Dorsal shield smooth .. .. .. .. .. 38
3. All ventral shields smooth and
iti Fs Ps a i pe ie
At least the perigenital shield
punctate ., .. 6. 6. ee ae ee oe 8
4. Length of female 570p . .. philoctena (Trouest. 1902)

(England, Ireland, Europe, ‘with
Lasius spp. and Messor
destructor.)

Length of female 8124... .. nitida sp. Nov.
(Australia, with larva of M; yrmecia
gulosa.)
5. Ventral shields punctate. Female
7502 long .. .. ricasoliana (Berl. 1889)
(Europe and England with Lasius
spp-)
Ventral shields smooth and ee
Male 9304 long . .. .. alophora Berl. 1903

(Luxemburg, in ants’ nest.)

Urodiscella nitida sp. nov.
Fig. 1, A-K

Type. Holotype female, from the collection of Dr. R. V.
Southeott (No. ACA 484) from the larva of Myrmecia gulosa Fabr.
(No. A 257) and collected at Carlton, N.S.W., 15th July, 1958 (coll.
D. Miller).

WOMERSLEY—NEW SPECIES OF URODISCELLA 351

_ ‘The specimen presented to the South Australian Museum by Dr.
Southcott has been disseeted, one slide containing the gnathosoma,
cliclicerae and legs I, the other the remainder of the body,

Description of Female. A broadly ovate almost rounded, dark
brown convex species, Length of idiosoma 812p, width 660,

Dorsum, The dorsal shield smooth and shining, with many
ininnte fine setae; similar setae on the marginal shields, The
marginal shields contour the dorsal shield and are entirely separated
by a narrow atrip of cuticle except anteriorly where they unite and
are fused with the dorsal shield (fig. B).

Venter. As shown in fig, A. All shields smooth, All setae
small and simple, An anterior pair of sternal setae (shown by Ryke
for potschefstroomensis) cannot be seen and the four setae in a
transverse row shown by Ryke as being on the anterior of the
perigenital shield appear to be on the sternal shield (see fig. A);
the perigenital shield otherwise has only two pairs of sefae, one
situated between coxae II and III, and the other pair at the posterior
end; the margin of the perigenital shield is simple except in the region
of coxae II where under high magnification it is seen to be finely
crenulate. The genital shield is oval with truncate base; if is 232,
long by 166» wide and extends from the middle of coxae IV to the
middle of ecoxae Il. The ventrianal shield bears approximately eleven
pairs of setae besides the paranal and postanal setae, the paranals
being placed well behind the anus. The leg grooves and exopodal
shields are as shown. The peritreme is strongly folded (fig. G) with
the stigma situated opposite coxae TIT and extending a short distance
posterior of the stigma, The tritosternum is as shown (fig. EH) with
four laciniae.

Guathosoma, The hypostome (fig. C) bears the usual four pairs
of setae of which at least the posterior two pairs are ciliated or
serrated; the second pair is much the longest, The labial cornicles
are as figured, short and stout. The tectum is similar fo that
deserihed and figured hy Ryke for potschefstroomensis. The tined
seta of the palpal tarsus is 2-+tined (fig. F); the palpal tarsus bears
two moderately long serrated setae, Chelicerae short and stout, each
finger with ene tooth (fig. D).

Legs. Coxae of leg I with outer laminae or crests as figured, at
the base of which is a geta (fig. J and H); femora of other legs all
with similar crests or laminae. Ambulacra of all legs well developed

352 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Urodiscella nitida sp. nov. Female, A, Ventral view. B. Dorsum, ©. Gnathosoma.
D. Chelicerae. E. Tritosternum. F. Tined seta of palpal tarsus. G. Stigma and
peritreme. H, Crest of femur I, I, Crest of femur IV. J, Leg I. K. Leg IV.

WOMERSLEY—NEW SPECIES OF URODISCELLA 353

with long pretarsi, and paired claws. Legs I rather more slender
than the others, to 464» long, IT and III 370» long, IV 394» long, some
of the tarsal setae on legs II-IV strongly spinelike.

REFERENCES

Berlese, A., 1889: A.M.S. ital. reperta., fase. 54, no. 10.
1908a: Zool. Anz., 27 (1): 21.
1903b: Acari nuovi, Manipl. I: 249.

1908e: Illus. monog. Acari mirmecofili:—Redia. I. 339-343,
taf. VIIT fig. 19-23.

Donisthorpe, H. St. J. K., 1915: British Ants: 200.
1927: Guests of British Ants: 204, 212.

Hull, J. H., 1918: Terrestrial Acari of the Tyne Province—Tr. N.H.
Soe. Northumberland and Durham 5 (1): 50.

Ryke, P. A. J., 1958: Proc. Zool. Soe. London 310 (2): 223, fig. 16-21
Trouessart, EH. L., 1902: Notes sur les Uropodinae: 36.

A NEW ASTERNOLAELAPS FROM AUSTRALIA
(ACARINA, ICHTHYOSTOMATOGASTERIDAE)

BY H. WOMERSLEY AND R. DOMROW

Summary

The mite family Ichthyostomatogasteridae Sellnick is recorded from Australia for the first time. It
now includes two species, Asternolaelaps fecundus Berlese from Europe, and A. australis, sp. nov.
from a bat cave in South Australia.

A NEW ASTERNOLAELAPS FROM AUSTRALIA (ACARINA,
ICHTHYOSTOMATOGASTERIDAE)

By H. WOMERSLEY”™ anv R. DOMROW™
Fig. 1

SYNOPSIS

The mite family Ichthyostomatogasteridae Sellnick is recorded
from Australia for the first time. It now includes two species,
Asternolaelaps fecundus Berlese from Hurope, and A. australis, sp.
nov. from a bat eave in South Australia.

INTRODUCTION

In 1953 Sellnick erected a new cohort Ichthyostomatogasterina
and family Ichthyostomatogasteridae, which were based on his new
genus and species Ichthyostomatogaster nyhlent from the nest of the
velvet skater duck, Melanitta fusca (1), from the island of Stora
Karlsé, off Géttland, Sweden. Tis syntypes (two nymphs, four
females, one male) are in the Entomology Department of the
Stockholm Museum.

Berlese had earlier (1923, p. 252) described withont figures both
sexes of Asternolaclaps fecundus from humus and moss from Vallom-
brosa, Italy. His types are in the Stazione di Entomologia Agraria in
Florence. This material has since been redescribed and figured in
detail by Evans (1954), and shown to be conspecific with Sellnick’s
species. Evans therefore synonymised J. nyhleni Sellnick with A.
fecundus Berlese, but retained Sellnick’s cohort and family names,
apparently in accordance with Recommendation 54 (1) (a) of the
Copenhagen Decisions on Zoological Nomenclature.

A single male of a second species of Asternolaelaps very close
to Berlese’s species was found on a live bat in a cave at Naracoorte,
South Australia. It is, however, probably not a true parasite of bats
or any other animals, Although it possibly only represents a sub-
species of A. fecundus Berlese, because of several small morphological
differences and the widely separated localities, it is here briefly

(1) South Australian Museum, Adelaide.
(2) Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane.

356 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

—To ——=
ear =

i

somal setae. H. Leg I. I. Leg If. J. Leg ITT. K. Leg IV. L. Tritosternum.
M, Ventral view of palp.

WOMERSLEY AND DOMROW—A NEW ASTERNOLAELAPS 357

described as a new species in comparison with Berlese’s, the only
other species in the family. Pending publication of the London
Decisions, the family name is left unchanged.

Asternolaelaps australis, sp. nov.
Fig. 1, A-M

Type: Holotype male in South Australian Museum, Adelaide; F
associated with bats in a cave at Naracoorte, South Australia, 26. viii.
to 2. ix, 1956, E. Hamilton Smith coll. The speeimen is dissected,
one slide containing the gnathosoma, the other the remainder of the
body and the chelicerac,

Description of male; Similar to A. fecundus Berlese except in
the following characters, Tdiosoma 818» long, 501» wide (imeasure-
ments ealenlated from text-figures A and B), Body setae rather
uniform (to 42 long), a few of the stronger ones heing slightly
ciliated, Sternal shield 176 long medially, 146» wide between coxae
IV; anterior sternal setae slightly ciliated, 36, long. Ventrianal
shield 390. long, 388 wide anteriorly (the measurements of the
sternal and ventrianal shields are direct from the specimen as
dissected). Metapodal shields 176» long, 26» wide, with six setae
along their length. Tectum triangular, with linear markings forming
a network over its surface, Dorsodistal margin of palpal femur quite
straight. Legs 1 504», IT 4194, TIT 427», TV 5238» long. When first
mounted a slight depression was seen both anteriorly and posteriorly
on the dorsal “shield ; these are now difficult to distinguish as depres-
sions in the dissected specimen.

Norz: The following key will serve to recognize the new species.

KEY TO SPECTES OF ASTERNOLAELAPS BERLESE

Metapodal plates without setae; tectum taper-
ing twice to form distinct spine anteriorly;
tectal striae spinulose in part; dorsodistal
margin of palpal femur with process;
European .. .. .. .. ». A. feewndus Berlese.

Metapodal plates with six astute alone their
length; teetum tapering once, evenly triangu-
lar; teetal striae without spinulae ; dorso-
distal margin of palpal femur quite
straight; Australian .. .. ., .. .. -. .. A. australis, sp. nov.

358 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

REFERENCES

Berlese, A., 1923: Centuria sesta di acari nuovi. Redia, 15: 237-262.

Evans, G. O., 1954: On the genus Asternolaeclaps Berlese, 1923
(Acarina-Mesostigmata). Ent. mon. Mag., 90: 88-90.

Sellnick, M., 1953: Ichthyostomatogaster nyhleni, eine neue Acaride
aus Schweden. Ent. Tidskr., 74: 24-37.

ON THE AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF COON BUGS
(OXYCARENUS FIEBER, HETEROPTERA-LYGAEIDAE)

BY GORDON F’. GROSS, CURATOR OF INSECTS, SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM

Summary

The three Australian species of Oxycarenus are described, and figured, and differentiated. Their
status is discussed and it is concluded the three species concerned are O. luctuosus (Mont. And
Sign.), O. arctatus (Walker), and a variety of O. bicolor (Fieber).

ON THE AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF COON BUGS

(Oxycarenus Fieber, Heteroptera-Lygaeidae)

By GORDON F, GROSS, Curator or Lysects, Sour AUSTRALIAN
Museum

Plate xli

SYNOPSIS

The three Australian species of Oxycarenus are described, and
figured, and differentiated. Their status is discussed and it is con-
cluded the three species concerned are O. luctwosus (Mont, and Sign.),
O. arctatus (Walker), and a variety of O. bicolor (Fieber).

INTRODUCTION

Every Australian entomologist is familiar with the small black
and white Lygacids of this genus. They often swarm in great
numbers, when all stages from the earliest nymphs to single and
pairing adults are present at the one time as large and fairly localized
swarms in grassy paddocks and savannah areas. ‘This curious
swarming phenomenon is also found over much the same range in
the south of Australia in the Pyrrhocorid Dindymus versicolor
Schaeffer and in the southern part of the dry centre of the continent
by the Coreid Leptocoris mitellatus Bergroth.

The name ‘‘coon bug’? first appears in the literature for the
Australian members of the genus in Froggatt 1901, It was in this
paper that Froggatt fixed the name that almost without exception
has since been used for all Australian Oxycarenus, namely luctuosus
(Montrouzier and Signoret) and he figured what he thought was this
species. Froggatt made it quite clear that he was aware that there
were at least two species in Australia (something that Tillyard 1926
p. 147 was unaware of) and that the northern one was luctuosus,
In spite of this he figured and described as luctuosus in this very
same paper the species that is commonest in the southern half of
the continent and does not occur in the northern half at all. What
is more incomprehensible still, there are specimens of this southern

360 RECORDS OF THE 8A. MUSEUM

species labelled O. frencht im the National Mnseum collections in
Froggatt’s handwriting. O. frenchi is apparently a Froggatt manu-
seript name; I can find no reeord of its publication.

There are actually three species of Oxycarenus in Australia
recorded in the literature, but one of these, considered to be a form
of the Asiatie Oryewrenus bicolor and possibly first recorded from
Australia by Bergroth in 1918 seems to be rather uncommon and from
the few specimens I have seen is restricted to the tar north of the
continent, It is easily distinguished from the other two in that in
our specimens, excep! for a narrow costal stripe on the hemielytra, it
has no white ou the npper side and need not concern us for the
moment in the following disenssion on the status of lactuosus,

The original type of luctwosus seems almost certainly to be lost,
the species was described from New Caledonia. In 1914 Distant
figured (rom New Caledonian specimens) what he took to be
luctuosus and it is this species that is the ouly one of our prominently
white marked species that occurs in the northern half of the continent.

The insect Distant figured was described by Kirkaldy in 1905 as
a new species (Jifuanus) and if seems likely that Kirkaldy was guided
in this by Froggatt’s figure. Kirkaldy says, ‘This may be Macroplax
lnetuosus Montr,, but that species is described as finely granulated,
with the clavus whitish “‘(my italies)’’ and the membrane brown.
It is also a little larger than O. lifuanus.”? This white clavus ig not
mentioned in Montrouzier and Signoret’s original description which
is ‘Long. 4 mill—Lifu (1) Petit, noir; partie coriace des homélytres
blanche, ayee une tache noire, arrondi au milieu; partie membraneuse
rembrunie; téte trés pointue, finement granuleuse, ainsi que le
corselet.*?

In view of the solely southern distribution of the species that
Froggatt figures and the apparent commonness of the species that
Distant figured in New Calendonia there can be little doubt that
Disiant’s figure is of the true lyetuosus Moutrouzier and Signoret
and that this is our common northern Ocycarenus,

In 1872 Walker deseribed Anthocoris arctatus from Anstralia
and in 1901 Distant pointed ont that this was actually a species of
Orycarenus. Specimens of the species figured by Froggatt have been
sent to the British Musenm for comparison with this species and
Mr, R. J, Tazard, who compared the specimens, is in no doubt that it
is in faet Oxycarenus arctatus (Walker),

GROSS—AUSTRALIAN COON BUGS 361

The three species may be separated by the following key :—

1, The only white above being along the
costal margin of the corium .. .. Oxycarenus bicolor
Fieber var.
Coriaceous part of hemelytra with
considerable white .. .. .. 2

2. Clavus black, corium with a large
median black patch generally not
reaching costal margin and a
minute black point in the apical
angles .. .. 0.2 ee ae ee ee ee ey )~©Oxyoarenus luctuosus
Montrouzier and Signoret
Clavus white, except behind tip of
scutellum, corium with a_ large
median black pateh never reaching
costal margin and a large black
point in the apical angles .. .. .. Oxycarenus arctatus
( Walk.)
Oxycarenus bicolor Ficber 1851

Oxycarenus bicolor Fieber 1851: Abh. Konig. Bohm. Gesell. Wissen-
schaft VIL Prag: 463. Distant, 1903: Faun. Brit. Ind. Rhynch.,
2: 44. Bergroth, 1918: Phillip. J. Sci., 13 (2-8): 73. Horvath,
1926: Bull, Soe, Ent. Fr,, 136. Esaki, 1926; Ann. Mus. nat. hnng.,
24: 161. 1941: Proe, 6th Pacif. Sci. Congr., 4: 411. Usinger,
1946: Bull. Bernice P. Bishop Mus., 189: 29. Barber, 1958:
B. P. Bishop Mus. Insect of Micronesia, 7 (7): 191.

Fieber described his species as follows, a eopy of which was most
kindly sent me by Mr. Izazard:—‘'O. bicolor, m. YWiihler schwarz.
CGlavus briunlich. Corium sehwarz, Grundbilfte weiss, Wurzel
braunlich, Spitze dreieckig weiss, mit schwarzem Endpunkt, Membran
rauchbraun, Innengrundwinkel mit dreieckigem weissem Fleck, Spitze
weisslich. Aus Hinterindien von Dr. Helfer gesammelt, Linge 14
Linien. Kopf, Pronotum, Schild weiss behaart, nebst Fihler und
Schnabelscheide schwarz, Clavus braéunlich. Bauch schwarz, glatt
glinzend. Brust schwarz, matt, groh-punktiert, Hinterbrustrand und
Ecken weiss. Schenkel pechbraun, Schienbeine weisslich, am Grunde
mit schwarzen Ringe, am Ende breit verwaschen und die Vorder-
schienen braun,’’

Bergroth 1918 records typical O, bicolor from various places in
Australia but T am inclined to think Bergroth actually had luctuosus

362 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

which fits Fieber’s description very well except that it has a pale
transparent membrane, Bergroth could have taken arctatus as being
luctuosus on account of Froggatt’s figure. Also if typical bicolor is
as common in Australia as Bergroth says it is it should be in some
of the collections before me,

The species I have before me is apparently widespread in
Indonesia, Micronesia, Philippines, New Guinea and enters Australia
in the Torres Strait area. Its identity has been accepted by all the
authors after Distant and Bergroth listed in the reference above as O.
bicolor Wieber. There is still some doubt on this score. My three
specimens do not fit the description given by Fieber for his species
(which eame from “Hinterindien*’ which T take to mean Eastern
India but which could also refer to Burma or Indo-China) in certain
respects of colour pattern.

The three specimens I have before me are piceous black wilh
sparse short erect white hairs all over and in addition with fairly
dense adpressed hairs on head, pronotum, and prothoray. The clavus
is not as piceous as the rest of the body and the corium in the main
and the membrane is dark brown as are the tibiae, tarsi, and eyes.
The corinm has a broad costal white stripe running almost all of its
length (the very apieal angle is blackish) and this stripe is expanded
hasally and apically. The membrane is thinly margined with white
and ventrally there is a broad medial white stripe on the hind tibiae
and to hind roargin of the metaplenron (broadly) and also the fore
and mid acetabnla are white. The head and pronotum are coarsely
punctate, They range in length from 3.5-4.0 mm,

Mr. Izzard who has seen two of these specimens has compared
them with Distant’s specimen of bicolor from Bnrma. This specimen
apparently agrees very well with Fieber’s deseription and from it
my specimens differ in not having ‘‘the white basal areas of eorium,
nor the triangular white patch at the apex with the small black
point’, Strneturally my specimens agree with Distant"s conception
of O. bicolor.

Usinger 1946 mentions a whole series of variants which he places
in this species. His Papnan specimens have the eostal margins pale
as do my specimens. His Pelelin specimens were smaller than the
Guam specimens with pale at bases and apices of eoria and apical
margin of membrane faintly paler. The Guam geries was very black,
completely so beneath, with only the bases and subapices of coria
white.

GROSS—AUSTRALIAN COON BUGS 363

Bergroth 1918 apparently had this species in front of him from
the Philippines but he is definite that it is dagubris Motschulsky (1859;
Btud. Ent., 8: 108 as Stenogaster lugubris, also Distant, 1901: Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist. (7) 8: 475. 1903: Faun. Brit. Ind, Rhynch., 2: 44)
and it certainly does fit the description of /ugubris better than that
of bicolor. Distant 1903 was of the opinion that Rhopalus ? funeralis
Kirby (1891; J. Linn. Soc. Zool., 24: 97 pl, TV p. 7) is a synonym of
lugubris and Bergroth that O. limbatipennis Breddin (1899: Jahr.
Hamburg Wiss. Arstatt 16: 174) from Lombok is one also,

There is quite sufficient reason, I think, to consider for the
moment all of these forms as belonging to one species in which the
costal margin tends to become whiter towards the New Guinea and
Indonesian limits of its distribution, while the Guam specimens
represent a blackish phase, Certainly the picture will not be clearer
until much better series of specimens are obtained. For the moment
Esaki and Usinger’s determination of the species as bicolor has been
permitted to stand. Usinger seemed somewhat inclined to regard
lugubris as a variant of bicolor but Izzard (in, litt.) is of the opinion
they are distinct.

Specimens seen: Mabuiag I., lorres Straits, Queensland, C. T.
McNamara, 14, and Bisiatabu, Port Moresby, Papua, W. N. Lock,
14,12 (SAM).

Oxycarenus arctatus (Walker) 1872
Plate xli, fig. C

Anthocoris arctatus Walker, 1872: Cat. Heter., 5: 153,

Oxycurenus arctatus Distant, 1901: Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7) 8:
475. Gross, 1957; Ree. S. Aust. Mus., 18 (1); 187.

Cardiastethus avctatus Gross, 1954: Ree. 8. Aust. Mus., 11 (2): 133,
Oxycarenus luctuosus Froggatt (in part) 1901: Agric. Gazette N.8.W.
Mise, Publ. 538 (fig. 6 and only part of text on p. 8)-

Pieeous or dark brownish black, with a few scattered short stiff
erect white hairs. Clavus white except broadly along apical margin
where it is black. Corinm largely white with extreme apex black and
a large irregularly shaped blackish spot in the middle, this latter is
based on apical wargin of corium and occupies it from apex of clavus
to half way to apical black spot, this median large spot transversely
placed but not reaching costal margin. Membrane hyaline. Fore

364 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

and mid acetabula and hind margin of metapleuron (broadly) white.
All tibiae and tarsi lighter, mid and hind tibiae with a prominent
broad white annulus in the middle. Eyes brownish. Head and
pronotum prominently punctate, scutellum rather less punctate.

Length: 3.2-4.6 mm,
Localities ;

Western Australia; 33-363/5 Tunney 28 &, 12 (W.A.M.).

South Australia: Underdale, 5 T 1958, coll, G, F. Gross, a large
series: North Adelaide 19 IT 1953, coll. G. F. Gross, Reg. No. 722,
1°; ditto, 15 I 1953, 24 4, 39 2, Reg. No. E.S.1, 330; ditto, 23 XI
1954, 38 6,22 2, Reg, No. E.S.1, 3687; Adelaide 2 I 1898, coll, J. G. O.
Tepper, 16: Parachilna (this locality is doubtful it could also be
from Owanigan Pound some miles to the east), 14: Spilsby 1, N. B.
Tindale, a series (S.A.M,).

Victoria; Murtoa, 29 VIII 1904, coll. 'T. A. Hill, on fence, large
series: South Yarra, VI 1923, a series: Melbourne, 33 8, 399;
Buckrabanyule, 20 IT 1950, coll. H. Knnis, 2¢ ¢, 49 ¢ (N.M.),

Oxycarenus luctuosus (Montrouzier & Signoret) 1861

Plate xli, fig. B

Macroplaa luctuosus Montrouzier & Signoret, 1861; Ann, Soe. ent.
Fr, (4) 1: 67.

Oxycarenus luctuosus Froggatt, 1901; Agric. Gazette N.S.W., Mise.
Publ, 538; (text, but not fig, 6). Distant, 1914: Nov. Caledon.
Zool., 1, pl. 12, p. 8 1920: Ann, Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) 6: 153.
Tillyard, 1926: Insects of Australia and New Zealand: 147.
McKeown, 1945; Australian Insects: 81 (the last two apply also
to arctatus),

Oxycarenus lifuanus Kirkaldy, 1905: Trans. ent. Soc. Lond.: 347,
1908; Proc. Linn, Soc. N.S.W., 32: 773.

Piceous black, with sparse short erect stiff hairs. Clavus entirely
black, Corium white with a large median blackish spot in the same
position and of much the same shape as in arctatus, but often reaching
costal margin, apex of corium with a small black spot. Membrane
hyaline.

“The following abbreviations of institutions have been used. NM. (National Museum,
Melbourne); 8,A.M_ (South Australian Museum, Adelaide); U.Q. (Entomology Department,
University of Queensland, Brigbane); and W.A.M, (Western Australian Museum, Perth).

GROSS—AUSTRALIAN COON BUGS 365

All tibiae and tarsi somewhat lighter in colour, hind tibiae with
a broad medial white ring, mid tibiae with a narrower testaceous
one. Fore and mid acetabula and hind margin of mesosternum
(broadly), white. Margin of orifice of scent canal orange or whitish.

Head and pronotum coarsely punctate, sentellum fairly smooth.
Length: 3.2-3.9 mm.

Localities :

Southern South Australia: Medindie, 9 [TT 1958, coll, E. W. Lines,
a series: Underdale, II 1959, coll, G. F, Gross, 1% (S.A.M.).

Northern South Australia: Moolooloo, 2,000ft. Flinders Ranges,
1921, eoll. H. M. Hale, 1¢ (S.A.M.).

New South Wales: Tweed Heads, 16 VII 1958, coll. Coghill, a
series (N.M,).

Queensland: Brishane, 25 VI 1954, coll. K. L. S. Harley, 12,19:
ditto, ITT 1951, coll, Lipsett, 12 : ditto, IV 1955, eoll. N. J, Thompson,
1¢: ditto, 7 VIT 1955, coll, D. Griffith, 1¢: ditto, 15 TIT 1956, coll.
W. Jones, 12: ditto, 26 TX 1956, coll. I. Bonner, 12: ditto, 14 X
1956, coll. T. A. Bull, 22 @: ditto, 17 X 1956, coll, R. White, 1%:
ditto, X 1956, coll, J. O’Donohue, 14: ditto, 13 TIT 1957, coll, 8.
Sekhon, 14, 29 2: ditto, 24 V 1957, coll. G. Diattoff, 12, 12: ditto,
24 VITI 1957, coll, G. Ettershank, 18; ditto, 14 TX 1957, coll. B. R,
Grant, 14: ditto, 20 X 1957, coll. M. Playne, 19: Bell-Bunga Road,
S.K. Qid., 11 VIII 1955, coll. T. EB. Woodward, a series: Lawes, 4
IV 1944, coll. J. Rosser, 19: ditto, XIT 1954, coll. J. Thapa, L?:
Carnarvon, 29 V 1954, coll, T. E. Woodward, 12°: Victoria Pt. 11
IX 1954, coll, O. R. Byrne, 12: Bundamba, 17 VIII 1952, coll. J,
Davis, 14: Gaythorne, 18 TV 1946, coll. A. R. Bird, a series; Manly,
18 III 1954, eoll, G, Hooper, 14: Deception Bay, 25 TIT 1954, coll.
Y. P. Beri, 12: St. George, West Qld., in peach tree, 12 1 1956, 22% 9:
Approx. 40 miles N. of Gympie, 20 VIL 1952, 19: Bundaberg, 2 II
1949, coll. R. Boller, 2° 2: Roekhampton, 10 T 1954, eoll, K. 8. Chang,
2° ¢: Canungra, 27 IIL 1937, coll, R. F, Langdon, 22 2: Lockhart
R. Mission, Nth Qld,, 8 VI 1956, coll, E. N. Marks, by sweeping grass
and weeds, 3a 6 (U.Q.); Magnetic Island, coll. G. F. Hill, a series:
ditto, coll, A. M, Lea, a series: Rockhampton, 1¢, 1°; Stuart R.,
T-II 1927, coll. H. M. Hale & N. B. Tindale, 14, 12 17(S.A.M,):
Coen, 27 V 1951, coll, C. Oke, 19 (N.M.).

366 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Northern Territory: Roper River, coll. N. B. Tindale, a series:
Darwin, 1é, 12 2 nymphs (S.A.M.): Batchelor, coll. G. F. Hill,
presented 6 VI 1917, 22 2 1 nymph (N.M,).

North Western Australia: coll. Lea, No. 6362, 12 (N.M.).
Millstream, in flowers of yellow hibiscus, 17 VII 1958, and Millstream,
Deep Reach, 23 VII 1958, all coll. R. P. McMillan, a series (W.A.M.).

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I am indebted to the Directors of the National Museum,
Melbourne and Western Australian Museum, Perth, for permission
to study the material in their collections and to Dr. T. EB. Woodward
for arranging the loan of material from the Entomology Department,
University of Queensland.

REFERENCES

Bergroth, E., 1918: ‘‘Studies in Philippine Heteroptera’’—I. Philipp.
J. Sei, 13 (2): 43-73.

Breddin, G., 1899: Hemiptera Insulae Lombok in Museo Hamburgensi
asservata adiectis Speciebus nonnullis, quas continet
Collectio Auctoris.’”” Jahr. Hamburg Wiss. Anstalt.
16: 155-197. Twelve figs.

Barber, H. G., 1958: Insects of Micronesia, Heteroptera, Lygaeidae,’’
B. P. Bishop Insects of Micronesia, 7 (4): 171-218.
Eleven text figs. 1 map.

Distant, W. L., 1901: ‘‘Rhynchotal Notes—XI Heteroptera: Family
Lygaeidae’’, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7) 8: 464-486 &
497-510,

1903 & 1904; ‘*The Fauna of British India including Ceylon
and Burma. Rhynchota’’, Vol. 2: i-xvii and 1-242
(1903), 248-503 (1904), 319 text figs.

1914: ‘*Rhynchota from New Caledonia and the surrounding
Islands’’ in F. Sarasin and J. Roux’s Nova Caledonia,
Zoologie, 1 livre 4 (10): 369-390, pls. 11-12.

——— 1920: ‘‘Rhynchota from New Caledonia’’, Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist. (9) 6: 143-169.

GROSS—AUSTRALIAN COON BUGS 367

Hsaki, T., 1926; ‘‘Verzeichnis der Hemiptera-Heteroptera der Insel
Formosa’’, Ann, Mus. nat. hung., 24: 136-189.

1941: Proc. 6th Pacif, Sci. Congr. 4:

Fieber, F. X., 1851: ‘‘Rhynchotographien, drei monographische
Abhandlungen. Sciocoridae, Oxyearenus, Notonectaé
Abh, Konig. Bohm, Ges. Wissenschact Prag (5) 7 (4):
425-488,

Froggatt, W. W., 1901; ‘‘Notes on Australian Hemiptera,’’ Agric.
Gaz, N.S.W., Mise. Publ, 538: 1-10, 1 pl.

Gross, G, I"., 1954; ‘*A Revision of the Flower Bugs (Heteroptera-
Anthocoridae) of the Australian and adjacent Pacific
Regions I’. Ree. 8S. Aust. Mus., 11 (2): 129-164, 4
text figs.
1957: **Ditto—I1’’, Ree. S. Aust. Mus., 13 (1): 131-142, 1
text fig.

Horvath, G., 1926: ‘‘Sur les Oxycarenus nuisibles aux Cotonniers,
avee la deseription d’une espéce nouvelle (Hem.-
Lygaeidae), Bull, Soe. ent. Fr., 135-6,

Kirby, W. F., 1891: ‘‘Catalogue of the described Hemiptera Heterop-
tera and Homoptera of Ceylon, based on the collection
formed (chiefly at Pundaloya) by Mrs, KE. Ernest
Green’, J. Linn, Soe. Zool., 24: 72-176, pls. 4-6.

Kirkaldy, G. W., 1905: ‘‘Memoir on the Rhynchota collected by Dr.
Arthur Willey, F.R.S., chiefly in Birara (New Britain),
and Lifu’’. Trans. ent, Soe. Lond., 327-862, pl. 17.
1908: ‘*Memoir on a few heteropterous Hemiptera from
Eastern Australia’’. Proce. Linn, Soe. N.S.W., 32 (4):
768-788, pl. 43.

McKeown, K, C., 1945: ‘‘ Australian Insects. An introductory Hand-
book’’, Sydney, 1-303, many text figs.

Montrouzier, X & V. Signoret, 1861; ‘*Hssai sur la Faune entomo-
logique de las Nouvelle-Calédonie (Balade), et des Iles
des Pins, Art, Lifu, ete.’’ Ann. Sei. ent. Fr. (4) 1:
09-74.

Motsehulsky, V., 1859: ‘‘Insectes des Indes orientales’? Etud. Ent.,
§: 25-118,

368 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Tillyard, R. J., 1926: ‘‘Insects of Australia and New Zealand’’.
Sydney, i-xi, 21-560. Many text figs. and plates.

Usinger, R. L., 1946b: ‘‘Insects of Guam—2. Hemiptera Heteroptera
of Guam’’. Bernice P. Bishop Mus. Bull., 189: 11-103,
fig. 27.

Walker, F., 1872: ‘‘Catalogue of the specimens of Hemiptera Hete-
roptera in the collection of the British Museum—V’’.
London 1-202.

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THE GEOLOGY AND LATE PRECAMBRIAN FAUNA
OF THE EDIACARA FOSSIL RESERVE

BY M. F. GLAESSNER, UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE,
AND B. DAILY, SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM

Summary

More than a decade has passed since Sprigg (1947) first found fossilized soft-bodied animals in
what were then believed to be Lower Cambrian quartzites near the old Ediacara mining areas, some
380 miles (by road) north of Adelaide. In recent years the significance of these finds has received
recognition in the palaeontological literature. At the same time further collecting has revived
interest in the area and in May 1958, in view of its scientific importance, the area of the original
discovery was proclaimed a fossil reserve, to be under the control of the Minister of Education and
the authorities of the South Australian Museum.

THE GEOLOGY AND LATE PRECAMBRIAN FAUNA OF THE
EDIACARA FOSSIL RESERVE

By M. F. GLAESSNER, Untversiry or AprbLamng, ann B, DAILY,
Sourn Avustranian Museum

Plates xlii-xlvii and text fig. 1-2

CONTENTS
Introduction.
Geology. By M. F. Glaessner and B. Daily.

1. Stratigraphic sequence—

a. Adelaide System.

b. Lower Cambrian.

c. Cainozoie gravels.
2. Structure.
3. Distribution of fossiliferous strata.

Fauna. By M. F. Glaessner.
1. Annotated Catalogue of genera (with descriptions of two
new species).
2. Conditions of preservation.
3. Conclusions.

References.
INTRODUCTION

More than a decade has passed since Sprigg (1947) first found
fossilized soft-bodied animals in what were then believed to be Lower
Cambrian quartzites near the old Ediacara mining areas, some 380
miles (by road) north of Adelaide. In recent years the significance
of these finds has received recognition in the palaeontological
literature. At the same time further collecting has revived interest
in the area and in May 1958, in view of its scientific importance, the
area of the original discovery was proclaimed a fossil reserve, to be
under the control of the Minister of Education and the authorities of
the South Australian Museum.

It was considered desirable to give now a brief account of the
geology of the fossil reserve and the surrounding areas. This was
compiled by the authors on the basis of field observations which they
made first separately and then jointly (October 1958). This account
is followed by a review of the fauna and its significance, including

370 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

GEOLOGICAL
SKETCH MaApP
OF
EDIACARA
FOSSIL RESERVE

FOSSIL
RESERVE

Jerrace
gravels

Lower
Cambrian

Pound
Quartz te
Foss! eas

Marino
si/fstane ana
dolomite

WARRIOOTA

GLAESSNER AND DAILY—EDIACARA FOSSIL RESERVE 371

descriptions of two identified and several other new species. For this
part. one of the authors (MLF.G.) is alone responsible, but he had the
benefit of stimulating discussions of palaeontological problems and
observations with his colleague.

Information and material were kindly placed at our disposal by
Mr. R. ©, Sprigg and Geosurveys of Australia Ltd., Mr. H. Mincham
and Mr. B. Flounders who generously presented their rich private
collections from Ediacara to the South Australian Museum, and Mr.
I. M, Thomas of the Zoology Department, University of Adelaide.
Dr. W. Hiantzschel of the Geologisches Staatsinstitut in Hamburg and
Dr. W. Struve of the Senckenbergiseches Museum, Franklurt, supplied
casts, and Dr. F. €. Truter and Professor 8. W. Carey sent photo-
graphs of South African fossils, Miss A. M. ©. Swan (Geology
Department, University of Adelaide) painstakingly drew the
geological sketch map. Photographs not acknowledged to others in
the explanations to the plates were produced by Miss M. P. Boyce
at the South Australian Museum,

GHOLOGY
By M. F. GLAESSNER ayv B. DAILY

1. Srrarterarnio Sequence
a, Adelaide System

The oldest rocks exposed in the area are red and purple well-
bedded siltstones and sandstones, They are exposed in cliffs along
the Warrioota Creek and on the hill slopes along its banks south of
Randell’s Lookout, as well as along the eastern foot of the range
which culminates in this hill. Strong folding, the encroachment of
sand dunes trom the west and deep weathering in the east obscure
the succession, Current-bedding is well developed and flute casts up
to 2in. in diameter, the direction of which indicates currents coming
from the west, are seen on lower surfaces of some beds. Ripple marks
are often found, trending N-S and also E-W. The siltstones contain
large nodules and veins of barytes, These beds are overlain by well-
bedded olive- to buff-eoloured dolomites. This part of the sequence
is assigned to the Marinoan Series of the Adelaide System (fig. 1).

Fig, 1. Geologiral sketch map of Ediacara Fossil Reserve and surrounding areas, The

co-ordinates of Mount James are 188" 09’ B, 30° 46° S, Lands Department maps and

serial photographs aud maps published by Segnit and Broadhurst. have been used. F—F
Gap Creek Fanlt,

372 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

It is followed by typically developed Pound Quartzite which forms
the hilly slopes around Ranidell’s Lookout in the south and Mount
James in the north, The thickness of this formation is estimated to
be about 2,000ft. The quartzites vary from thiek-bedded to flaggy,
with erossbedding, ripple marks, and mud pellets on the bedding
planes. Casts of worm burrows were observed about 300ft. above its
base near Randell’s Lookout. Beds with abundant small siliceous
nodules are seattered throughout the sequence. A prominent band of
white quartzite forms a conspictiots zone in the upper part where red
laminated siltstones also appear.

The fossiliferons member oceurs 100-200ft. below the top of the
formation. It is a fine- to coarse-grained quartzitic sandstone or
quartzite, with varying amounts of weathered felspars and irregular
very thin argillaceous partings and lenses. The sandstone is white
to grey when fresh and weathers to a deep rusty red to purple, with
black stains in depressions. Exposed surfaces are bleached. he
weathering produces flags of varying sizes which are rarely more than
Zin, thiek. Hxposnres of beds in situ on steep hill slopes show that
the individual bedding planes are uneven and wavy and the beds are
very strongly lenticular, Cross-hedding of various orders is present
throughout, The better developed bedding planes are covered with
ripples which are more or less irregular, with crests up to 3in. distant,
A bed with contorted slump rolls up to 10ft. long was found near
the southern end of the outerop of the fossiliferous member. Slump
structures also occur commonly towards the base of the fossiliferous
member at the northern end of the area.

The beds above the fossiliferous member include lenticular bodies
of more solidly silicified quartzite, some of which are distinguished
in Segnit’s mapping as ‘‘quartzite’’ from the ‘sandstone’ of the
rest of the formation. One of them forms a speetaenlar cliff about
# mile south of Gap Creek, Silicification is not confined to a single
stratigraphic horizon but extends through at least the top 10ft. of
the fossiliferons member in same places,

Broadhurst (1947) recognized the oecurrence of transition beds
between the (Pound) quartzite and the overlying (Ajax) limestones
(which had not been named at that time). Such passage beds are
now widely known throughout the Flinders Ranges and also at
Kulpara on Yorke Peninsula (Daily 1956), Their occurrence proves
that there is no stratigraphic break below the Lower Cambrian Ajax
Limestone, as Segnit (1939) had Suggested. Mineralization is
frequent at this horizon but it is believed to be related to hydrological

GLAESSNER AND DAILY—EDIACARA FOSSIL RESERVE 373

conditions and the pronounced change in permeability and porosity
on this boundary rather than to exposure and weathering. In agree-
ment with regional observations, the top of the transition beds is now
taken as the top of the Pound Quartzite and is placed a little lower
than in Broadhurst’s mapping. The position of the transition beds
is shown in the sections (fig. 2). They can be described as inter-
bedded sandstones and sandy and silty dolomites. They are white,

Fig. 2. Measured sections of the fossiliferous member
of the Pound Quartzite and overlying strata. Left:
Adit near south workings of the old Ediacara mine,
near the southern end of the Cambrian outcrop.
Right: In Gap Creek Fault valley, one mile south of
Gap Creek. Top: Cross-bedded and well-bedded sandy
and oolitic dolomitic limestone. 1—Interbedded argil-
laceous standstone and sandy dolomitic limestone, 2a
—Quartzite band. 2, 2b—White knotty sandstone.
3—White and reddish quartzite. 4—TFossiliferous
flaggy quartzite, cross-bedded and ripple-marked, 5—
Unfossiliferous white to red and purple quartzites and
sandstones. A—Lower Cambrian, B—Passage Beds,
C—Fossiliferous Member. Scale—lin. to 100ft.

374 | RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

yellow and purple, often leached, soft and poorly exposed while the
overlying dolomites are hard and form goad outcrops.

b. Lower Cambrian

Ocenpying the central position of the area and conformable with
the underlying Pound Sandstone is a sequence of limestones and
dolomitised limestones estimated by Broadhurst (1947) to be abont
530ft. thick. On lithological and faunal grounds these beds are
correlated with part of the Ajax Limestone which is exposed in the
Mount Scott Range, 18 miles to the north-east.

The base of the Ajax Limestone is taken at the horizon where
carbonate deposition becomes dominant and continuous, The Ajax
Limestone is variable in colour and composition, It exhibits all
gradations from a yellowish colonred dolomitised limestone, particu-
larly near the base, to grey, blne-grey and buff coloured limestones
above, either siliceous, dolomitised or both, Oolitic, often crass-
bedded dolomitic limestones with well rounded quartz grains ocenr
commonly at the base of the formation. Nodular structures, possibly
referable to algae, intraformationally brecciated limestones, and large
nodules of chalcedony are eonspicuons features of the Ajax Limestone
in this area as they are im the same formation in the Mount Scott
Range (Daily, 1956).

Poorly preserved Cambrian fossils have been found in the upper-
most 60!'t. of the Ajax Limestone, the remainder of the formation still
heing under investigation. The fossils oceur sporadically within grey
and buff colonred partially dolomitised limestones but concentrations
of small shell fragments are found in small lenses. The fossils
include silicified archaeoeyathids, phosphatic brachiopod fragments,
and phosphatie-shelled tubular organisms of onknown affinities, A
new brachiopod genus, represented by forms to which Tate referred
as “*Ambonychia macroptera,”? ranges throughout the 60ft. of beds
investigated whilst a representative of another new brachiopod genus,
known as Micromitra (Paterima) etheridge (Tate), together with the
enigmatic tubwar organisms have been found in the top 30ft.

The ‘‘Ambonychia,”’ ‘Micromitva’’ and tubular organisms are
characteristic elements of the Lower Cambrian ‘Faunal Assemblage
No. 2”? (Daily, 1956), with whieh this assemblage is correlated, It is
widespread and has been found in the Ajax Limestone near Mount
Scott, in the Kulpara Limestone at Ardrossan and Curramulka, and
in the Wilkawillina Limestone near Wirrealpa.

GLAESSNER AND DAILY—EDIACARA FOSSIL RESERVE 375

ce. Cainozoie Gravels

A large area between Winnowie Hut and Randell’s Lookout is
covered with coarse, well-rounded quartz gravels. They form con-
spienous eliffs near the hed of Warrioota Creek, opposite and above
Winnowie Hut. Near the head of one of the minor tributaries of this
ereek where it is deeply entrenched, the base of the gravels is seen
at least 100ft, above the level of the creek, resting on about 6ft, of
strongly silicified quariz conglomerate which is lensing in a more
sandy matrix. This conglomerate, in turn, overlies deeply weathered
and mottled Mavinoan silty shales whieh are here exposed to a depth
of 30ft. The silicified sandstones and conglomerates have also been
observed elsewhere in the area, é.9., on low hills in the headwaters of
the ereek which flows around the southern end of the Cambrian
dolomite outerap. No direct, evidence of their age has been found but
they are thought to be part of the widespread mid-Tertiary
continental sedimentary formations which elsewhere eontain plant
remains and which are invariably converted by silicification into part
of the duricrust’ of inland Australia,

The overlying terrace gravels are not related to recent drainage
which has eroded them deeply. They could be either Late Tertiary
or Pleistocene, No fossils have been found in them bnt in September
1958 Dr. R. Morwitz found a piece of freshwater limestone with
abundant gastropods west of Winnowie Hut near the boundary
hetween the terrace gravels and the Marinoan dolomite outerops, and
identical rocks were subsequently found in situ about 4 mile west of
the southern end of the Cambrian dolomite outerop. At this locality,
thin lenses of similar freshwater limestone with gastropods outcrop
at the base of a terrace gravel which resembles closely that which
was first found near Winnowie Hut. The gastropods have not been
identified,

2. Srrucrure

Earlier observers have already recognized the strueture of the
aren as essentially synclinal, Tt is, however, not a simple syneline,
nor is it ag extensively faulted as Segnit's map (1939) had indicated.
The axis of the syncline trends northward in the south, from near
Warrioota Creck, but it is offset to the west and shows a more
north-easterly trend in the central area, and a similar shift occurs
near Mount James. The dips are generally low, between 10° and
20°, Int the east flank is steeper, with dips up to 80°. There is only
one distinct fault in the area. It trends SW from near Gap Creek.
Tt was recognized by Segnit and correetly mapped by Broadhurst.

376 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

The faults shown on Segnit’s map near Mount James and around
the southern end of the Cambrian outerop do not exist and the
individual beds can be followed around it easily. The Marinoan silt-
stones and sandstones along Warrioota Creek are more strongly
folded than the overlying formations and steeper dips and closer folds
can be seen in the cliffs. It may be assumed that there is some
incompetent folding of the softer siltstones beneath the hard quartzite
bot the structure of a large area oceupied by Marinoan south of
Warrioota Creek remains wnexamined. Both limbs of the Ediacara
Syneline disappear under alluvium. The flanking anticlines have not
been observed.

3. Disrrisution or vHe Fossmirerovs Srratra

The fossiliferous member in the upper part of the Pound
Quartzite was first discovered near the southern end of the Lower
Cambrian dolomite outerop. From that point on the ereek whieh ents
across it and which Ieaves a small west-dipping outlier of dolomite
on a low hill on its southern bank, the fossiliferous band can be easily
followed up the creek northward to its headwaters. It may continue
a short distance further np the east flank but it becomes difficult to
follow where the soil cover of the eastern plains eneroaches on the
bedrock. The actual occurrence of fossils depends on the flagginess
of the rock and decreases markedly where the rock becomes slightly
more Massive. On the western limb of the structure the fossiliferons
band can be followed across » hill north of the main creek until it
disappears under a patch of talus from the Cambrian dolomite hills.

The fossiliferous beds are also well developed near the northern
end of the main dolomite outerop. Here they are locally duplicated
by a normal fault, This explains the reference by Sprigg (1949, p. 73)
to two distinct fossiliferous horizons found by Mawson ‘in the
northern extensions of the fossil occurrences”, They can be followed
uorth acrosa Gap Creek and np the southern slopes of Mount James
where they are less rich owing to a gradnal change in lithology and
where they are cut off by erosion and obseured by talus from above.
The entire northern outerop of the fossiliferons strata is outside the
fossil reserve area.

The horizon in the Pound Quartzite corresponding to the
fossiliferous member has been seen in many parts of the Flinders
Ranges but has not heen found anywhere, except on the north-western
end of the Mount Seott Range, to be developed in the flaggy facies
which has proved snrprisingly suitable for the preservation of fossils.

GLAESSNER AND DAILY—EDIACARA FOSSIL RESERVE 377

Two areas nearer to Ediacara where the Cambrian-Precambrian
transition is likely to be exposed and where it could contain equiva-
lents of the fossiliferous member remain to be examined. ‘They are
in the southern extension of the range of hills about 8 miles south of
Warrioota Creek near Mount Michael, and near Beltana Hill about
4 miles south of Beltana HLS.

FAUNA
By M. F. GLAESSNER

1, Annotatep Caratoourn or Genera (with descriptions of two
new species)

It is estimated that to date about 800 specimens of fossils have
been collected from the fossiliferous member near the top of the
Pound Quartzite at Ediacara, The study of such abundant material
will take several years and will require extensive comparative investi-
gations on recent as well as fossil specimens. The work of the last
12 months has, however, revealed several facts of outstanding
significance which make it desirable to review briefly our present
knowledge of this fauna.

1. The fauna consists not only of Medusae believed to represent
the Seyphozoa and Hydrozoa but there are also Anthozoa (Octo-
corallia) and Annelida and at least two entirely new types of
invertebrates.

2, Certainly one and possibly more elements of this fauna show
relations to the fauna of the Nama System of South Africa.

3. Stratigraphic and palaecontological evidence supports the
placing of this fauna in the Late Precambrian rather than the Lower
Cambrian,

Apart from factual evidence in support of these statements, it
seems desirable to record here some observations on the type
specimens of Sprigg’s fossils from Hdiacara (1947, 1949). These
types are deposited in the palaeontological collections of the
University of Adelaide. Sprigg considered all his species as probable
hydrozoan or seyphozoan medusae, Their taxonomic position was
recently reconsidered by Harrington and Moore (1956) and briefly
reviewed by Caster (1957). There has not yet been an opportunity
of making careful comparisons between the types and the abundant
new material of medusa-like fossils. Such further studies are

378 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

expected to influence morphological interpretations and systematic
placement of at least some of the taxa, on the specific as well as on
higher levels. As a basis for such future work, an annotated catalogue
of all genera described by Sprigg and others is here given in
alphabetical order; descriptions of some of the new forms are included
in it. Numbers prefixed ‘‘P’’ refer to specimens in the South Aus-
tralian Museum. Others refer to Adelaide University palaeontological
collections.

Beltanella Sprigg
Beltanella Sprigg, 1947, Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Aust., 71, p. 218.
Beltanella Sprigg, 1949, Trans. Roy. Soe. 8. Aust., 73, p. 81.
Beltanella Harrington and Moore, 1956, Treatise Inv. Paleont., p. #70.

This genus was placed by Sprigg in the Suborder Trachymedusae
(Trachymedusina) and left in this position by the later authors.
There is only one species, B, gilest Sprigg, represented by a single
specimen, and no further specimens have been assigned to it.
(Holotype No. T 38-2056.)

Cyclomedusa Sprigg
Cyclomedusa Sprigg, 1947, Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Aust., 71, p, 220,
Cyclomedusa Sprigg, 1949, Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Aust., 73, p. 91,

Cyclomedusa Harrington and Moore, 1956, Treatise Inv. Paleont.,

p. F158,

Ediacaria (part) Harrington and Moore, 1956, Treatise Inv, Paleont.,

p. P74.

This genus (type species C. davidi Sprigg, Holotype No, T 5)
was described by Sprige (1949) together with other ‘‘medusoid
problematica’’, and Harrington and Moore diseussed it under the
heading ‘‘Medusae imcertae sedis’’, These later anthors combined
the species OC, radiata with Tateana inflata and considered both as
‘‘exumbrellar impressions’? of Hdiacaria jlindersi. A preliminary
study of the types indicates that Sprigge had correctly placed C.
radiata in the same genus as C, david), Tateana imflata does not seem
to be distinguishable generically and possibly even specifically from
C. radiata, Wossils of the same general type, with variations dne ta
preservation, are found very commonly and are well represented in
the new collections. The holotype of the third species, C. gigantea
(No. 2035) is not easily matched by any other specimen. This applies
at present also to the two incomplete specimens described by Sprigg

GLAESSNER AND DAILY—EDIACARA FOSSIL RESERVE 379

(1947, pl, 5) as Hdiacaria flindersi. It is therefore undesirable to
accept Harrington and Moore’s procedure and to place the species
C. radiata and the genus Tateana in the synonymy of Ediacaria
flindersi. Russian workers on Lower Cambrian faunas, particularly
I. Zhuravleva, (personal communication) have expressed the opinion
that Cyclomedusa may be related to certain saucer-shaped Archaeo-
eyatha which they have found in shale and sand facies of the Lower
Cambrian, The external resemblance is undeniable but no evidence
of the distinctive double wall of the Archaeocyatha has been found
in Cyclomedusa.
Dickinsonia Sprigg

Dickinsonia Sprigg, 1947, Trans. Roy, Soc. 8, Aust., 71, p. 221.
Dickinsonia Sprigg, 1949, Trans. Roy. Soe. 8. Aust., 73, p. 95.

Dickingonia Harrington ond Moore, 1955, Kansas Geol. Survey, Bull.
114, pt. 5,

Dickinsonia Harrington and Moore, 1956, Treatise Inv. Paleont.,
p. F24,

Dickinsonia Glaessner, 1958, Trans, Roy. Soc. 8, Aust., 81, p. 188.

Dickinsonia Glaessner, 1959, Geol. Rundschau, 47.

Sprige (1949) had considered the affinities of this genus as
‘extremely uncertain’’ but had concluded that ‘‘the coelenterate
category seems the most logical association for the present’.
Harrington and Moore established for the genus Dickinsoma the new
Class Dipleurozoa. I have stated that it resembles certain worms
more than any coelenterates. No finality can be reached until the
entire material which now amounts to well over 100 specimens ranging
in length from 10 to 330 mm. is examined. The type species is D.
costata Sprigg (Holotype No. T 6-2055).

Ediacaria Sprigg
Ediacaria Sprigg, 1947, Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Aust., 71, p, 215,
Ediacaria Sprigg, 1949, Trans. Roy, Soc, 8, Aust., 73, p. 83.
Ediacaria (part) Harrimeton and Moore, 1956, Treatise Inv. Paleont.,
p. F74,

The genus which is represented by the imperfectly preserved
holotype of EF. flindersi Sprige (No. T 1) and one other doubtful
specimen, was considered hy Sprigg as representing the Semaeosto-
matida but listed under Trachylinida incertae sedis by Harrington

380 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

and Moore, who placed in its synonymy the genus Tateana and the
species Cyclomedusa radiata. I have stated above that they cannot
be separated from other Cyclomedusa. At present no other specimens
ean be identified as Hdiacaria and its reconstruction (Sprigg, 1949,
fig. 5) rests on uncertain grounds,

Madigania Sprigg
(See Spriggia Southeott)

Medusina Walcott
(See Protolyella Torrell)

Papilionata Sprigg
Papilionata Sprigg, 1947, Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Aust., 71, p. 233.
This genus was described for the single specimen of its type
species P. eyrei Sprigg (No, T 8). It was not mentioned by Sprigg
in 1949 and was listed by Harrington and Moore (1956, p. F159) as
‘‘nroblematie form of unknown affinities, not a medusoid’’. It appears
to be a poorly and incompletely preserved specimen of a Dickinsonia,

Parvancorina Glaessner
Pl. xlvii, figs. 5, 6 |
Parvancorina Glaessner, 1958, Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Aust., 81, p. 187.
Parvancorina, Glaessner, 1959, Geol, Rundschau, 47.

This form, of unknown affinities, originally described from a
single specimen, is now represented by 16 individuals ranging in
length to 25 mm. The only additional morphological detail which
has been observed is a division of the two lateral areas by about
7 or more fine oblique lines on either side of the main anchor-shaped
depression. They are slightly convex towards the narrow (posterior?)
end of the body and join the lateral margins at approximately right
angles. They may represent traces of appendages. The main anchor-
shaped depression is unsegmented in all specimens. The type species
is P. minchami Glaessner (Holotype No. P 12774),

Protodipleurosoma Sprigg
Protodipleurosoma Sprigg, 1949, Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Aust., 73, p. 79.
Protodipleurosoma Harrington and Moore, 1956, Treatise Iny.
Paleont., p. P79, F'87.

GLAESSNER AND DAILY—EDIACARA FOSSIL. RESERVE 381

This is a rare form which has been assigned to the Leptomedusae,
Le., the medusoid forms of Calyptoblastina (Ilydroida), The genus
was based on a single specimen of its type species, P. wardi Sprigg.
(Holotype No, T 36-2023.)

Protolyella Torrell

Harrington and Moore (1956, p, F153) bave shown that
Walcott’s name Medusina which Sprigg (1949, pp. 89, 90) had used
for three new species, is inapplicable. They extended the generic¢
concept of Protolyella to accommodate them, A preliminary study
of the types shows that ''M.’’ asteroides (Holotype No. T 40-2021)
is probably identical with ‘‘M.’’ mawsoni (Holotype No. T 39), while
the position of the third species, ‘‘M.’’ filamentus (Holotype No.
T 68) is in doubt. The exammation of the numerous new specimens
should elarify the status of these species.

Protoniobia Sprigg
Protoniobia Sprigg, 1949, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 73, p. 77, 79.

At the end of his deseription of Protoniobia wadea from Western
Australia Sprigg states: ‘‘A second example of Protoniobia has been
discovered amongst material from Ediacara . . . The example occurs
on the same quartaite fragment as fossil No. 2010’’. This fossil, now
numbered T10-2010 is a hypotype of Cyclomedusa radiata. The
small speeimen on the same rock face is not a Protoniobia but repre-
sents the new form described below as Tribrachidiwm heraldicum nav.
gen., noy. spec,

Pseudorhizostomites Sprigg
Pseudorhizostomites Sprigg, 1949, Trans. Roy. Soc, 8. Aust., 73, p. 87.
Pseudorhizostomites Harrington and Moore, 1956, Treatise Inv.

Paleont., p. F'52.

Sprigg has compared this monotypic genus with the Jurassic
Rhizostomites and placed it in the ‘*Rhizostomae’’ (Seyphozoa),.
Harrington and Moore considered these fossils as ‘* *{Seyphomedusae
incertae sedis’’, Recent collecting has proved them to be common;
some 75 specimens are known. They show no trace of any umbrellar
margin. The branching of the grooves is variable and the centre is
usually depressed. Some specimens, however, show a more or less
irregular convex area in or near the centre. ‘‘Medusina’’ filamentus
closely resembles these specimens which also provide a link with Pseu-
dorhopilema which cannot be distinguished from Pseudorhizostomites.

382 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

Pseudorhopilema Sprigg
Pseudorhopilema Sprigg, 1949, Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 73, p. 88.

Pseudorhopilema Harrington and Moore, 1956, Treatise Inv. Paleont.,

p- F'51,

This genus and its type species, P. chapmani Sprigg, are based
on a single, somewhat eroded specimen (No. T 74-2086). There seems
fo be intergrading between the typical specimens of Pseudorhigos-
tomates with depressed centres and others with the branching impres-
sions extending around convexities. These forms are generally much
less regular than had been expected on the basis of the first few
specimens. The separation of the genis Pseudorhopilema from
Pseudorhizostomites cannot be maintained,

Pteridinium Giirich
Pteridium Qirich, 1930, Zeitsehr, deutseh. Geol Ges. 82, p. 637
(nom. preoce,, non Seopoli 1777),

Pteridinium Chirich, 1933, Palaeont. Zeitechr., 15, p. 144.
Pteridinyem Richter, 1955, Senckenb, Leth,, 36, p. 246.

This genus was established for specimens which have since been
lost. Richter later discussed it in great detail on the basis of
relatively abundant material from the type locality in the Kuibis
quartzite al the Nama System of South Africa, from which he selected
a neotype (Richter 1955, pl. 1, fig. 1). This genus is ineluded in the
present catalogue because of the close resemblance with the neotype
of twa specimens (pl, xlvi, figs, 3, 4) on one slab (No. P 12744).
Neither these nor any other specimens in the present collection
resemble closely such specimens as were figured by Richter (1955)
on pls. 3-6, The problems connected with their peculiar preservation
and Conularia-like appearance are beyond the scope of this discussion.

The present specimens are each about 70 mm. long and 16-17 mm.
wide. They show a median depression which takes a more or less
indistinet zig-zag course, as a resull of weaker transversal furrows
joining it alternatingly, separating hetween them faint and slightly
curved elevated {ransverse ribs which are about 2 mm. wide, 8 or 9
ribs oceupy about 20 mm. along the axis. The lateral margins are
indistinct but there is a gentle convergence towards that end which
is faced by the concave side of the curvature of the lateral ribs, In
the specimen in whieh the ribs are less laint, they extend 4 mm. and
then flatten out markedly.

GLAESSNER AND DAILY—EDIACARA FOSSIL RESERVE 383

The differences between these specimens and the neotype of
Pteridinium simplex Giirich are their smaller size, less distinct and
narrower ribs, and narrower shape, The specimens from Hdiacara
may be referred to as Pteridinium sp. iirich and Richter have
considered Piteridinium as closely related to Rangea, This view is
undoubtedly correct and on the South Australian material alone no
generic distinction would have been made.

Rangea Giirich
Rangea Giirich, 1930, C.R. 15th Int. Geol, Congr., 2, p. 680.
Rangea Giirich, 1930, Zeitschr, deutsch. Geol. Ges., 82, p. 637.
Rangea Giirich, 1933, Palaeont. Zeitsehr., 15, p. 139.
Rangea Richter, 1955, Senckenb, Leth., 36, p. 264.
Rangea Wells and Hill, 1956, Treatise Inv. Paleont., p. F478,

The most striking and unexpected discovery is the common
occurrence of representatives of the genus Rangea in the Ediacara
fauna. This genus was first described from the Kuibis quartzite of
the Nama System of South-vest Africa, where it is rare, About 40
specimens of fossils which cannot be generically separated from
Rangea are now known from Hdiacara. Sprigg (1949, p. 73) has
referred to some of them as algae. Gtirich compared Rangea (type
species R. schneiderhdhni Giirich) with the Ctenophora, without
assigning it to any Class. Richter (1955) placed it with Pteridinium
in a new family Pteridiniidae which he assigned to the Order
Gorgonaria, Suborder Holaxonia, of the Anthozoa (Octocorallia).
This family is not mentioned in the Treatise on Invertebrate Paleon-
tology where Wells and Hill (1956) refer to Giirich’s comparison of
Rangea with Ctenophora as very doubtful. The new material makes
it possible to assign the genus to the Order Pennatulacea of the
Anthozoa (Octocorallia).

Rangea arborea sp. nov,
Plate xliii, figs. 1-4; pl. xliv, figs. 1-3; pl. xlv, figs. 1, 2; pl. xlvi, fig. 1.

(a) Deseription

This description is based on a large number of specimens, some
of which differ considerably in appearance. Existing transitions
indieate that at least some of these differences are not of any
taxonomie value but due to differences in preservation, Others may

r

384 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

indicate the presence of more than one species but all available
specimens are more or less incomplete and there is not enough
evidence, particularly from measurements, on which to base specific
diagnoses.

The species Rangea arborea is characterized by a leaf-shaped
main body consisting typically of a median field, the sides of whieh
converge towards the distal end. It may appear convex (pl. xliv,
fig. 1; pl. xliii, fig. 4) or concave (pl. xliii, fig. 1), and may have a
zig-zag shaped structure impressed on it (pl. xlvy, fig. 2), or it may
consist only of such a structure (pl. xliii, fiz. 3) or become reduced
to a Zig-zag groove (pl xlvi, fig. 1). A variable number of trans-
versely direeted lateral furrows divide the lateral portions of the
leaf into convex or flatly moulded areas or branches. The furrows
extend from the median field or groove outward at angles varying
between 60° and 80°. The bases of the branches overlap the median
field partially, giving the impression of being inserted in it with
their narrowing, down-turned bases (pl. xliii, fig. 4). They alternate
in position on the sides of the axis, irregularly or more regularly,
which accounts for the zig-zag structure. In the best-preserved
specimens a division of some of the lateral branches by closely set
secondary furrows ig seen. They are 1-3 mm. apart, mostly more
distinet on the proximal margins of the branch, and set at approxi-
mately right angles to the lateral furrows so that they trend obliquely
across the leaf from the outer margin inward towards the axis.
Other specimens (pl. xliv, figs. 2, 3) show hardly any trace of
secondary furrows and the lateral furrows grade into bundles of fine
grooves arising from the median field in a similar manner to that
observed in more typical forms, This field may also be marked by
similar but longitudinally directed grooves. The entire structure
appears to consist mainly of impressions of bundles of spicules, some
of whieh may be up to 40 mm. long. Details of their shape and
surface seulptire cannot be recognized, as the width of the individual
vrooves is close to or even less than the average grain size of the
qnartzitic matrix,

The lateral margins of the main hody are often clearly marked
by more or less sinuons lines. The ratio of length to width appears
to have been variable and some leaves are broad while others are
very long and narrow. As all specimens are incomplete, this ratio
cannot now be used for specific distinctions. The width of the branches
also varies conspicuously but is believed to be to some extent a
function of growth. Several specimeng have a peduncle attached to

GLARSSNER AND DAILY—EDIACARA FOSSIL RESERVE 385

the proximal end. It can be up to 12in, (30 em.) long, with parallel
sides, and about 20 mm. wide. In other specimens the peduncle is
shorter or less well defined, or the proximal end of the maim body is
obsetired or broken off. The maximum width of the body is about
44in, (over 11 em.), the maximum length (without peduncle) about
Yin. (28 em.) but all specimens are incomplete, Holotype: No.
P 12891.

(b) Comparison

Because of the marked differences of opinion concerning the
morphology and taxonomy of Rangea, a neutral terminology was used
in the description of the new species. Tt will also be used im its
comparison with R, schueiderhohni Gtrich, This species shows
clearly the leaf-shaped main body with its median field, and the lateral
branches which are separated by transverse lateral furrows and
subdivided hy secondary furrows arising from their proximal margins.
The similarity in these characters is the basis for the weneric
identification of the new form with the genus Rangea. To addition,
there is the downward turn and the narrowing of the bases of the
lateral branches and their partial overlap over the median fiell in the
distal part of the body which puzzled Riehter (1955, p. 266). The
differences are considered as specific. They are seen mainly in the
more regular arrangement of the lateral branches, the more distinet
secondary furrows, aud the sharp outer margin, with certain lateral
impressions (‘*Aussenfeld’*?) beyond it in R. schneiderhohni, Tn com-
paring a single specimen (Rf, schneiderhohni forma turgida Girich
is too obviously distorted to be of much use) with the rich new
material it is difficult to decide whieh of its features may be due to
accidents of preservation of this individnal. Such an accident may
explain the lateral projections which are seen only on one side of
the holotype specimen, and also the duplication of some furrows.
However, the regular outline and the arrangement of furrows shown
by this specimen have no parallel among the many specimens from
Ediacara and specific distinetion seems justified on this basis.
Rangea ? brevior Giirich, a single specimen which has since been lost,
cannot. be eonsidered,

(c) Interpretation

(tiirich had considered, and rightly rejected, the possibility of his
specimens representing tracks (1920a, p. 679; 1983, p, 141), He then
compared them briefly with Pennatula but rejected this as a lead to

"a

386 RECORDS OF THE §.A. MUSEUM

their interpretation because they showed clearly an outer margin of
the leaf-shaped body. He interpreted them as meridional sectors of
melon-like bodies, and this led him to a comparison with the
Ctenophora.

Riehter (1955, p. 266) re-interpreted some of the structures of
Rangea and revised some of Giirich’s descriptions. Tt is his eon-
elusion (p. 285) that these fossils are thin membranaceous leaves and
not remains of spherical bodies, and that therefore they are not
Ctenophora, He had abundant material of Pieridinium but uo new
specimens of Rangea aud his conelusion that both these fogsils
represented Gorgonaria Was based mainly on Pteridinium.

The study of the new material of Rangea places it clearly in the
vicinity of the Pennatulacea. This assignment explains (a) the
peiluncle, (>) the leat-shaped main body, (¢) the median field which
represents the median ‘‘dorsal track’? of the Pennatnlacea, (d) the
zig-zag junction of alternating branches which corresponds to the
“‘ventral track’, (e) the lateral branches which are comparable to
the ‘leaves’ of the Pennatulidae, and their secondary divisions which
reflect the placing of the anthocodia on them, and (f) the spicular
impressions in some of the fossils.

Some difficulties remain, but they are to be expected when an
attempt is made to place a very ancient fossil in the system of recent
forms, The diffienlty which led Giirich summarily to reject relation-
ships between Rangea and Pennatula still requires an explanation.
In Pennatula the polyps sit on lateral extensions of the rhachis which
are generally known as ‘‘leaves,’’ while in Rangea the lateral branches
appear to have been fused to form the single leaf-shaped main body
which shows a well marked onter edge in a namber of specimens.
One exception from this was recognized by Richter who deseribed the
distal ends of F. schnetderhohni forma turgida as freely projecting.
Some specimens of FR. arborea sugyest a certain measure of separation
and mobility of the lateral branches. Hven a solid single leaf with
a regular arrangement of polyps in lateral transverse rows would
not be in confliet with the basic structure of the Pennatulacea, though
this particular type of organization is not represented in the living
fauna, In Renilla which is leal-shaped with an undissected outline
the polyps are irregularly distributed and oceur on the ‘‘dorsal’’ side
only, while in Pennatula they sit on separate lateral leaves on the
‘ventral’? side. In Rangea the position of the polyps is not yet
known but they must have ocenrred jn transverse rows supported by

GLAESSNER AND DAILY—EDIACARA FOSSIL RESERVE 387

major spicular selerites as in Pennatwa, on a leaf-shaped expansion
of the rhachis similar to that of Renilla.

The assignment of Rangea to the Pennatulacea supports the view
that the different characters of some specimens are due to different
types of preservation, though a later separation of additional species
within the genus is not excluded. The preservation of the forms with
“snicnlar’’? structure seems to have occurred after some maceration
of the fleshy body had exposed the spicules which in living specimens
are embedded in the flesh. Jt is further suggested that the ventral
aspect af Rangea is represented by the forms with a median zig-zag
groove (pl, xlvi, fig. 1) where the lateral branches, comparable to the
‘eaves’! in living Pennatulidae arise in close proximity to the middle
portion of the rhachis, leaving hetween them a groove (‘‘ventral
track’) instead of a median field (‘‘dorsal track’), In other
specimens the ventral and dorsal aspects are superimposed,

The relationship of Pileridinmm and Eangea suggests that
Pteridiniwm also belongs to the Pennatulacea rather than the
Gorgonacea. This seems more satisfactory but a re-interpretation of
Pteridinium will be possible only after re-examinatiou of the South
African material,

Rangea? sp.
Plate xlvi, fig. 2

A very striking but unique specimen is here tentatively assigned
to the genus Rangea. Tt is 70-75 mm. wide, with partially well marked
lateral margins, but its distal and proximal portions are broken off.
The fragment is 16 em, long. It shows a median zig-zag line from
which branches arise at angles of only 30-40", These branches are
separated by distinct sub-parallel furrows which are 16-20 mm,
distant from each other. There are also secondary fnrrows abant
5 mm. apart, diverging from the primary furrows at right angles and
almost but not quite crossing from one to the next, A relationship
with Rangea is suggested by its similarity with R. arborea in the
presence of primary and secondary furrows on a leaf-shaped hody
and with its suggested ventral aspect in the development of a median
zig-zag line, Differences are seen in the strong, widely spaced
primary and secondary furrows and in the sharply defined straight
outer margin. The secondary furrows do not seem to be confined to
the proximal margins of the lateral branches tf these are taken to
diverge distally as in A. arborea. In the absence of the pedunele

388 RECORDS OF THE 38.A. MUSEUM

the orientation of this unique fragment is still uncertain and the
discovery of further specimens will have to, be awaited before it is
fully deseribed. (See Addenda, pp. 396-397.)

Spriggia Southcott

Madigania Sprigg, 1949, Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Aust., 73, p. 93.
(Madigania nom. preocc., non Madigania Whitley 1945).

Madigania Harrington and Moore, 1956, Treatise Inv, Paleont,
p. 1154,

Spriggia Southeott, 1958, S, Aust. Naturalist, 32, p, 59,

This monotypic genus (type species Madigania annulata Sprige,
Holotype No, T 2031) differs from Cyclomedusa in the complete
absence of radial ornamentation at least from the inner portions of
the dises. More than 15 specimens are known at present. Harrington
and Moore (1956) listed this fossil as ‘‘medusae incertae sedis’’,

Spriggina Glaessner
Spriggina Glaessner, 1958, Trans. Roy, Soe. §. Aust., 81, p, 158.
Spriggina, Glaessner, 1959, Geol. Rundschan, 47.

Since this fossil was first described, four additional specimens
were found which do not contribute anything new to the knowledge
of its characters, This is at present one of the rarest of the
identifiable fossils from Ediacara. All specimens clearly belong to
the type spevies, S. floundersi Glaessner (Holotype No. P 12771,
pl. xlvii, fig. 1), One of the additional specimens is 24 mm. long and
about 9 mm. wide, apparently complete with about 23 segments. The
other (pl. xlvii, fig. 3) is 37 mm. long and about 11 mm. wide,
incomplete, with about 29 sezments preserved and the tail end broken
off, The third specimen is 15 mm. long and 5.6 mm. wide. The fourth
is very small and indistinct.

Tateana Sprigg

Tateana Sprigg, 1949, Trans. Roy. Soe, 8. Aust., 73, p. 86.

Ediacaria (part) Harrington and Moore, 1956, Treatise Inv. Paleont.,
p. F74.
As stated above, this genus which was based on the type species
T. inflata Sprigg (Holotype No. 2017, hypotype No. 2018) is not
considered distinguishable from C'yclomedusa, It may be specifically
identical with C. radiata.

GLAESSNER AND DAILY—EDIACARA FOSSIL RESERVE 389

Tribrachidium gen, nov.
Type species; 7, heraldicum sp. nov.
Characters as described for the type species.
Tribrachidium heraldicum sp. nov.
Plate xlvii, figs. 7, 8
Holotype No. P 12898,
Material: 238 specimens.

Desoription: All specimens are preserved as sub-cirenlar impres-
sions up to 26 mm, in diameter, with a sharply impressed outer rim
and a distinetly seulptured surface. This seulpture consists of three
hooked ridges of similar size and shape, radiating from the centre,
and ending along the periphery in a fringe of tentacular projections.
No such type of organisation has ever been observed in any known
organism, and uo specific descriptive terminology is available for it.
Until more is known about this new organism, only general descriptive
terms will be used, and they are not intended to carry any implica-
tions of homology. The basis of the following deseriptions is not the
fossil as it is observed but its artificially produced counterpart, all
known specimens of the fossil being considered as external moulds.
The reason for this interpretation is the observation that the marginal
projections in the fossil merge with the matrix which rises steeply
above them to the general level of the rock face, and that they end
against a deeper depression away from the periphery. Reversal of
the sculpture by casting shows the tentacular fringe arising from the
outer slopes of three smoothly convex arms and ending as three-
dimensional objects a little above the level of the surrounding rock.
This seems a more likely interpretation of the original organie
structure, and what follows is baged upon it.

The centre of the structure is very slightly depressed but not
sharply outlined, the inner ends of the three arms tapering slightly
towards it. The arms then radiate, for a distance of about 5 mm, in
the holotype, at equal angles. A convex, somewhat irregular area,
here termed a bulla, is seen in each of the three interspaces, but these
bullae do not rise to the level of the upper surface of the arms. The
arms then turn at right angles, all in the same plane and in the same
direction (dextrally in the artificial casts, sinistrally in all the natural
specimens). Their distal portions are convexly curved so as to
conform to the subcireular periphery of the structure, <A peripheral
tentacular fringe commences on the bend, extendimg to the tip of the

390 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

arm which is indistinet because of overlap by the beginning of the
fringe of the next arm. The tentacles number about 18 on each arm;
they extend from its flank to the periphery and their length decreases
gradually towards the tip of the arm. They are generally slightly
eurved in the same direction as the arm and are not perfectly
regularly arranged, some diverging more than others. They are not,
seen to branch or bifureate, The coarse grain of the matrix obscures
observation of their finer structure. In a few places suggestions of
similar tentaenlar projections can be seen also on the inner sides of
the arms, directed towards the bullae. These bullae lie within the
curvature of the arms but each seers to be more closely joined to
the radial portion of the arm next to that which ewrves around it.
If that is correet then the bullae arise from the arms in a direction
opposite to that of their hooked distal branches and about half-vay
between the eentre and the angle. The periphery is sharp, surmounted
by the blunt distal ends of the tentacles.

Remarks: This animal, thongh imperfectly known, is excluded
from all known major groups by its three tentaculate arms, A super-
ficial resemblance to certain echinoderms (Edrioasteroidea) which
comes fo mind must be discounted because of the complete absence of
skeletal plates, That the body was soft and fleshy but tough ean be
concluded from the slight distortion of the ontlines of the various
specimens and of the tentacles in the fringes; bout the arms nust have
been rigid lophophores as their position never varies, These fossils
are sufficiently numerous to make it clear that the characters deseribed
above are of taxonomic value and not aceidental features. The mouth
was not in the centre, its position remams unkown. The organism
could be considered an aberrant coclenterate, or else remotely related
to one of the other groups of tentaculate invertebrates; but tri-vadiate
symmetry of structures supporting tentacles which is obvious in the
present fossil is otherwise unknown,

A onmber of mndeserihed fossils from Ediacara correspond in
size and outline with this new form. They are flatly conical impres-
sions, with indistinct, broad, radial ridges and furrows. About §
of these impressions have been collected. The possibility of consider-
ing them as casts of the reverse side of Tribrachidinun should be kept
in mind thongh at present there is no evidence for such a supposition,

The specific name was chosen because of the striking similarity
of the pattern of this fossil to the well-known heraldic design of three
radially arranged arms or legs, as in the coat-of-arms of the Isle

of Man,

GLAESSNER AND DAILY—EDIACARA FOSSIL RESERVE 391

Unidentified Fossils

In addition to the fossils listed or deseribed in this catalogue
there is a relatively small number of others, One group of these
comprises bodily preserved animal remains which are represented by
insufficient numbers of specimens. About 6 of them are similar in
appearance and vaguely suggest alfinities to Siphonophora (pl, xlvii,
fiz. 9). Being irregular in shape and different in details, probably as
a result of compression in various directions, they cannot be satis-
factorily deseribed on the basis of the present material. Another
group consists of traces of life activities such as tracks, trails or
burrows. There are several types of casts which were probably
produced by secdiment-leeding worm-like organisms. They are
remarkably rare in relation to the large number of other fossils in
these beds. There are also problematical flat casts in the shape of
what appears to be a flat spiral, vaguely resembling a distorted and
fattened string of beads, There is no evidence of actual coiling and
no proof of their organie origin (see p. 395).

2. Conprtions or PRESERVATION

The study of the preservation of these remarkable fossils is
essential, firstly, for the full nnderstanding of their morphology and
taxonomic characters, and secondly, for the reconstrnetion of the
environment in which the animals lived and became entombed.

All fossils are seen as elevated or depressed areas on bedding
planes of the quartzite, According to Sprigg (1949, p. 215) they oceur
“always on the upper surface of these slabs’’, Mincham (1958,
p. 217) has observed that they ‘‘appear mostly, if not entirely, on the
lower surface of each stratum’’, Some confusion is likely to have
resulted from the faet that it is casier to find the fossils on loose
blocks which cover the hillsides below the outcrops, than on outerop-
ping rock slabs im sifu, and that on loose blocks they are more easily
seen on the rain-washed upturned than on the soil-covered lower
surfaces. Thus it is easy for the collector to gain the impression
conveyed by Sprigg, yet special studies in the field have shown that
the fossils are almost, though not entirely, confined to the lower
surfaces of the quartzite slabs. In fact, the favoured technique in
recent ecallecting consists in the wholesale npturning of slabs jutting
out of hillside outcrops in the hope that the rain (amonnting only to
a few inches a year) will wash away the soil and decomposed rock
with which the lower surfaces are almost invariably clogged, and so
expose the fossils.

392 RECORDS OF THE §.A, MUSEUM

A search was made for counterparts which should appear on the
opposing upper surfaces. As a rule, upper surfaces show nothing
at all. There is only one known exception, Dr, B. Daily has photo-
vraphed a medusa-like fossil appearing as usual as a convexity on
the lower surface of a large slab, together with its concave eounter-
part on the opposing upper surface of the bed below. He has also
collected a sequence of three adjoining layers of quartzite (No.
P 12900 A, B, C) from an onterop. The bottom of the top layer (A)
shows a Dickinsoma and medusae. The top of the middle layer (B)
contains no counterparts. I1s bottom shows a Tribrachidium. There
is again no counterpart of this on the opposing top of the lower layer
( Cc), while its bottom contains Cyclomedusa. Loose slabs eannot be
reliahly ortentated as they represent usually single or incomplete sets
of cross laminae. Yet for some specimens in the collection orientation
is suggested hy observed textural features and this makes it probable
that at least one specimen of Dickinsonia (Adelaide University coll,
No, T65-2024) is preserved on the strongly ripple-marked upper
surface, while tubular worm casts project from and along what
appears to be the lower surface. Three specimens collected by
1. Mineham and B, Flounders are very unuswal in appearance and
seem to have come from the same bed, They are covered with long,
narrow, leal-lke specimens of Rangea, One slab, No. P 12716, shows
on the opposite face an impression of Tribrachidium heraldicum. in
the usual preservation, This appears to be the lower surface, These
are the only specimens with fossils both on the mpper and on the lower
surface of a single slab, ‘he extreme rarity of fossils on upper
surfaces, and ol counterparts, can be explained with a high degree of
probahility hy the embedding of the organisms in thin layers and
films of clay and the subsequent casting of either the organie bodies
or their impressions by the overlying sand. The thin clay layers
which are responsible for the flagginess are destroyed by the weather-
ing which separates the flags or slahs from each other, Traces of very
thin clay lenses are seen on fresh vertical fractures of some quartzite
beds bnt the rock is sa strongly welded aronnd them by silicification
that if has not yet been possible to obtain fossils by splitting along
such lenses, Fossils can be found in situ by opening up flags in
outerop and removing the weathered material separating them, but
some weathering has so far proved essential far the discovery of
fossils. The same conditions were reported to exist in the lossiliferous
Kuibis quartzite in Southwest Africa (Richter 1955),

GLAESSNER AND DAILY—EDIACARA FOSSIL RESERVE 395

The distribution of fossils throughout the thickness and outcrop
area of the fogsiliferous strata seems to be essentially random, and
the more frequent species are found trequently associated on single
slabs in considerable numbers. Parallel orientation, presumably by
currents, has been found on one or two slabs containing elongate
types of Rangea. Most other forms which are rounded in outline, do
not show orientation or accumulation by transporting forees thongh
some of them occur in groups. There is no evidence of fossils or
bedding laminae being distorted by seavengers and nothmg points to
functional interrelations of the various types of organisms.

Sprigg bas observed and discussed the important fact that all
fossils represent soft-hodied organisms. This has been fully eon-
firmed by later collecting. In addition to the evidence of the medusae,
there is the distortion and folding over, before or during embedding,
af specimens of Parvancorima, Dickinsonia and Rangea, proving that
their tissues were soft. The onflines of the mednsae and of
Tribrachidiwm vary slightly and specimens of Spriggina show
sigmoidal eurvature. There is no evidence of hard parts other than
impressions of spicules in Rangea,

The orientation of the organisms relative to the bedding planes
(irvine burial still presents difficulties of interpretation as they are
practically all new so that their appearance and orientation in life
are onknown, All Parvancorina, Tribrachidium and Spriagina (in
(his instance judging from the head which must have been conver )
are preserved as impressions or “negatives”. Beltanella, all or most
Cyclomedusa, Spriggia, and ‘*Protalyella’’ ave preserved as flat or
high (Geltanella) convexities on the lower surfaces of the beds. Cross
sections through some medneoid fossils show evidence of consideralile
compaction and of even greater original convexity. This creates some
difficulty in the comparison with recent medusae which are mostly
found stranded in convex-ujprward position (Schafer 1941). Further
studies of these convex-downward genera and also of Psewdorhizos-
lomites whieh differs trom them in preservation are reqnired. ‘The
genera preserved as ‘negatives’? appear to be external moulds of
actual individuals embedded in clay partings which have vanished,
while Rangea seems to represent casts of impressions made by
individuals in different positions.

The preservation of Dickinsonia has yet to be stndied, but at
least some specimens are elearly impressions on the lower surfaces of
the beds and are therefore to he interpreted as external moulds.

394 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

3. CoNcLuSIONS
a. Composition of the fauna

The Ediacara fauna can no longer be considered as consisting
almost exclusively of medusa-like fossils, though these constitute the
majority of specimens collected. The following seven genera can be
recognized :—

Pseudorhizostomites Sprigg
Beltanella Sprigg
Ediacaria Sprigg
Protodipleurosoma Sprigg
Cyclomedusa Sprigg
?Protolyella Torrell
Spriggia Southeott

Much detailed and comparative work remains to be done on the
hundreds of medusoid specimens which are available. The latest
published taxonomic revision (Harrington and Moore, 1956) places
the first of these genera in the Scyphomedusae, the second and third
in the Trachymedusae (Trachylinida), the fourth in the Leptomedusae
(Calyptoblastina), and lists the representatives of the remaining three
as ‘‘Medusae incertae sedis’’. These assignments and the underlying
morphological interpretations are subject to further revision in the
light of the abundant new material.

The Phylum Coelenterata is represented in the fauna not only by
possible Seyphozoa and Hydrozoa but also possibly by Siphonophora
and by Anthozoa Octocorallia. The genera

Rangea Giirich and

Pteridiniwm Giirich
have been recognized and placed in the Order Pennatulacea. The first
of these is a common element of the fauna,

The Phylum Annelida is represented by

Spriggina Glaessner
which resembles the living Tomopteridae. This Phylum could also
include the common genus

Dickinsonia Sprige,
of which abundant material has yet to be examined. Life activities
of annelid (and possibly other) worms are represented by tracks and
burrows which, however, are not very common.

GLAESSNER AND DAILY—EDIACARA FOSSIL RESERVE 355

Two entirely new types of invertebrates complete the fauna as it
is known at present, They have been described as new genera

Parvancorina Glaessner and
Tribrachidiwm Glaessner,
each represented by a single new species.

bh, Keology

The fauna is marine and eonsists of pelagic and benthonic
elements, Sprige has diseussed the fossils which were known to him
with reference to living medusae and their pelagie mode of life.
Little ean be added to the disenssion of this part of the fauna at the
present stage of the investigations. We know now more abont. the
conditions of embedding and preservation of soft-bodied animals
(Schafer 1941). The preferred orientation of the medusa like fossils
in a convex-downward position is puzzling and requires explanation.
A ‘prominent benthonic element in the fauna are the sessile Penna-
tulacea, Their living representatives occur in upright position in
varying depths of water, with the peduncles buried in sandy sediment,
They lived probably not far from their place of burial. There is
evidence of worms burrowing in the sandy sediment, Spriggina could
have lived either on the sea floor or in the water above it. The mode
of life of Parvancorina and Tribrachidiwm is unknown. Representa-
tives of these three genera were trapped on muddy ground, probably
hy receding water. That the sedimentary environinent was a very
unstable one is proved by the ubiquitous eross-bedding and ripple
marking of the fossiiferons strata and by slump rolls and mud pellets,
The nature and direction of the currents remains to be established
by modern methods of analysis of cross-bedding, Sandstone casts of
mud surfaces with drying cracks have been found and drying cracks
on rippleamarked surfaces (*‘Manchuriophycus’’, see Hantzschel 1949)
also occur, These occurrences prove that the water was shallow
enough to make occasional emergence of newly deposited sediment
possible. Some of the soft-bodied animals could have been preserved
by desiccation, and in this sense Sprigg was justified in visualizing
the area as one of “fossil beaches’*, If the problematic markings
(pl. xlv, fig. 3) are in fact identical with the foam impressions
deseribed hy Hiintzschel ani Richter (1954) which they resemble more
than any known traces of organie aetivities, they would support the
available evidence of emergence and drying of bedding planes.

396 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

ec. Biostratigraphic relations

Sprigg (1947, 1949) had considered the age of the Ediacara fauna
as Lower Cambrian, at a time when the place of the previously
diseovered Cambrian fossils in the general time-stratigraphy of that
System was unknown and when the Pound Quartzite was thought to
represent the Lower Cambrian, Daily (1956) has since placed the
overlying Archaeocyatha limestones in the lower part of the Lower
Cambrian. The occurrence of a rich new fauna. without any known
Lower Cambrian elements below these limestones is a valid reason
for placing the Pound Quartzite at the top of the Precambrian and
for considering its age as Late Proterozoic. Sedimentation was
regionally continuous from Precambrian to Cambrian and has
produced again and again through long spans of time similar rock
types, so that there is little difference between the Marinoan and the
Lower Cambrian dolomites, ar the quartzites in the lower part of the
Marinoan, the Potind and the Lower to Middle Cambrian. As in the
time stratigraphy of later geological periods, only biostratigraphic
observations can determine the position of the base of the Cambrian,
Below that horizon only absolute measurements of geological time ean
he used, with the exception of the possible time significance of the
Proterozoic ice ages—and of the Late Proterozoic fauna,

With the recognition of elements of the fauna of the Kuibis
quartzite of the Nama System in the Edtacara fauna, this stands no
longer alone and the way to its use in inter-regional correlation is
opened, The occurrence of Rangea in the Bdiacara fauna, together
with Pteridinium and medusoid fossils which are at. least similar to
Paramedusinm africanum Giirich is a strong argument in favour of
placing the fossiliferous part of the Nama in the Late Precambrian.
Medusoid fossils have been reported from the Late Proterozoic of
other parts of Australia and from the Algonkian Nankoweap Group
of the Grand Canyon of Arizona. Detailed comparisons of these
fossils and further collecting in Late Preeambrian fossiliferous strata
should be stimulated, because of not only their palaeozoological but
also their biostratigraphic interest, by the diseovery of a rich and
varied Late Proterozoic fauna in South Australia,

ADDENDA
While this paper was in press, several publications were received
to which reference should be made. Their titles have been incor-
porated in the list of references below hut no alterations have been
made in the lext above.

GLAESSNER AND DAILY—EDIACARA FOSSIL RESERVE 397

Ford (1958) described Precambrian fossils from Charnwood
Forest in Leicestershire, England, as Charwia masont Ford and
Charniadiscus concentricus Ford. The first name refers to frond-lke
hodies about 10-25 em, long and up to 4.5 em. wide, consisting of
oblique lobes which meet alternatingly at a sinuous median groove,
Each of these lobes is divided by secondary furrows, at right angles
to the lateral furrows, into about 13 secondary ‘‘segments’’. The
structure is almost identical with that deseribed here (p. 387, pl. xlvi,
fig. 2) as Rangea? sp. This fossil which is about twice as large as
the Charnian type specimen should now be known as Charnia sp.,
as it is closer in stracture to this genus than to Rangea. Specific
identification must await the discovery of other, more complete
specimens at Hidiarara.

The oceurrence of Charnia among the Late Precambrian Lossils
of South Australia raises further points concerning the nature of
these fossils, in addition to its obvions bio-stratigraphic interest.
The English fossils end proximally in *‘blunt stalks’* which are 2 em.
wide, This confirms the view that Charnia and Rangea represent
similar organisms; what has been clemonetrated concerning the
Pennatulacean affinities of Rangea should apply to Charnia, Ford
(1958, p. 214 f.) states that Chornia resembles Rangea schneiderhdhm
Giirich and rightly rejects the view that these fossils are Ctenophora
or Gorgonaria. His conclusion, however, is that ‘‘Charnia masont
may most rationally be interpreted as an algal frond’’, He suggests
that Charniodiscus concentricus Ford (‘‘a disc-like organism 5-30 em.
in diameter with a roogh-surfaeed central area surrounded by a
smooth flange which may or may not bear concentric corrugations’’)
may be the basal part of the same alga, ‘In one case only are frond
and disc apparently associated’’, “Il Charniadiscus were considered
alone, it could be compared favourably with one or the other of the
various forms of medusae stich as those in the Lower Cambrian of
Australia’. This is of extraordinary interest, as the possibility of
some medusoid fossils from [diaeara being the bases of the stalks
of Rangea had been considered bat put aside for lack of decisive
evidence. Stalk-like projections from the centres of medusoid fossils
haye been observed but none of them shows a Rangea or Charnia-
frond at the other end. A further search for such speciinens will be
made in the field. Ford's statement concerning the affinities of his
fossils coucludes: ‘*The only likely alternative is that they represent
a primitive eoelenterate of unknown affinities’. The new material
of Rangea suggests that this alternative view is preferable, and that

398 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

these Precambrian Coelenterates were closely related to the
Pennatulacea.

The stratigraphic range of this group seems to have been
extended to the Lower Palaeozoic by the discovery of a Pennatula-like
stalked frond about 12cm. long and less than 2 em. wide, which was
very briefly described by Tremblay (1941) from a coarse sandstone
lithologically resembling the Upper Cambrian Potsdam sandstone,
but found at a locality 90 miles down the St. Lawrence from Ottawa,
where the geological map of Canada _ shows only Ordovician.
Hantzschel (1958) has recently reviewed doubtful fossil Octocorallia
and prefers to consider most of them as tracks of unknown animals.
He admits, however, that Tremblay’s fossil, though not definitely
assignable, is comparable with Pennatulacea.

Finally, curious projections on lower surfaces of sandstone beds
of Early Palaeozoic age have been described by Howell and
Hutchinson (1958) from Washington and referred to Bergaueria
Prantl, originally described from the Ordovician. Prantl thought them
to be infillings of cavities occupied by Ceriantharia-like coelenterates
and Howell and Hutchinson conelude that their fossils may have held
the stalks of pennatulid-like animals,

EXPLANATION OF PLATES

PLATE XLII

Fig. 1. View of Mount James. Looking north across the outcrop of massive quartzite and
the underlying fossiliferous strata, from just below the base of the Cambrian, about one
mile north of the Ediacara fossil reserve. Photo, M.F.G.

Fig. 2. Outcrop of fossiliferous strata below top of Pound Quartzite, about one mile south
of Gap Creek. Photo. B.D.

Fig. 3. Outerop of fossiliferous strata below top of Pound Quartzite, near locality of Fig. 2.
Photo. M.F.G. Length of scale Qin,

PLATE XLIII

Figs. 1-4. Rangea arborea nov. sp. Fig. 1. Holotype. Large specimen on weathered surface.
Note distinct left lateral margin and secondary furrows mainly on right lateral
branches, No. P 12891. Fig. 2 Specimen with distinct lateral margins, median field
and lateral furrows. No. P 12890. Fig. 3 Specimen with zig-zag trace of median field,
with ‘‘spicular’’ structure (compare with Pl. XLV, Fig. 2). No. P 12892. Fig. 4.
Fragmentary specimen, with traces of secondary furrows on lower margins of lower left
lateral branches. No. P 12896,

Fig. 5. Rangea schneiderhéhni Giirich. Photograph of latex mould of holotype, forwarded
by Dr. W. Hantzschel, Geol. Staatsinstitut, Hamburg, Germany.
Scale in centimetres.

PLATE XLIV

Figs. 1-3. Rangea arborea nov. sp. Fig. 1. Specimen with long pedunele, on ripple-marked,
eroded surface. The main body with its median field, lateral branches and secondary
furrows is seen above a medusoid fossil, probably Protolyella? mawsoni (Sprigg). No.

GLAESSNER AND DAILY—EDIACARA FOSSIL RESERVE 399

P 12888. Fig. 8. Specimen showing ‘‘spicular’! structure of median field, and lateral
margins, partly folded over on left, Natursl size. No, T 94-2015. Fig, 3. Specimen
showing ‘‘spicular’’ structure of median field and lateral branches. x0.9. No, T
93-2016. Photographs 2 and 3 by Mr. K. P. Phillips.

PLATE XLV

Figs, 1-2, Rangéa arborea nov, sp, Fig, 1. Several individuals, partially overlapping, show-
ing ‘‘dorsal’’ and ‘‘ ventral’? aspects, preserved on upper surface of bed. No. P 12716,
Fig. 2. Fragmentary eppetmnen (upper right), preservation intermediate between Pl,
XLITI, figs. 2 and 8. Below are two unidentified medusvid fossils, No. P, 12895-

Fig. 3. Unidentified casts. No, P 12893,

PLATE XLVI

Fig, 1. Rangea arborea nov, sp. ‘Ventral’? aspect, Compare with Fl, XLIII fig. 3, 4/3
natural size (length of seale 1 em.), No, P 12894.

Vig. 2. Rangea? xp. Specimen with straight lateral margins and median zig-zag proove,
Natural size, No, P 12897,

Figs, 3-4, Pteridimium sp, Two specimens from one slab, poorly preserved. Natural size.

No. P 12744.
PLATE XLVIT

Figs. 1-4 Spriggina flowndersi Glaessner. Fig. 1. Holotype, 5/4 natural size. No. P 12771.
Fig. 2. Paratype, 5/4 natural vize, No, P 12772, Pig. 3, Speeimen No, P 12809, 4/3
natural size. Fig. 4. Median portion of specimen No, 12772 enlarged to show acicular
setae, attached to parupodia, x24,

Figs, 5-6 Parvancorina minchamt Glaessner, Two specimens showing oblique traces of
possible nppendages on the Intoral areas. The apparent ‘‘tail’’ of fig. 6 appears to be
due to fortuitous grooving of the bedding plane. Fig 5, x12, No. P 12001, Fig. 6
natural size, No, P 12887,

Figs. 7-8. Tribrachidium heraldicwm noy. gen., nov. sp. Fig. 7, Holotype, natural size, No.
P 12898. Fig. & Paratype, natural size, No, P 12889,

Fig. me Problematic fossil, possibly belonging to the Siphonophora, 4/3 natural size, No.
12734.

Specimens represented by figs. 1-8 are preserved as concave impressions but lighting
chosen for clarity may give the appearance of reversed sculpture,
Photographs of figs. 4-7 and 9 by Mr, B, Tlounders,

REFERENCES

Bayer, F, M., 1955: Octocorallia. In: Moore, R. C. (ed.), Treatise
on Invertebrate Paleontology, Part F, pp. F166-F231.

Broadhurst, E., 1947; Ediacara silver-lead field. South Aust. Dept.
Mines, Mining Rev., No. 84, pp. 87-105.

1953: The Wdiacara silver-lead field. Geology of Australian

Ore Deposits, Fifth Empire Min. Met, Congress Proc.,
vol, 1, pp. 524-527.

Caster, K. E., 1957: Problematiea. Geol. Soc. Amer. Mem. 67, pp.
1025-1032.

Daily, B., 1956; The Cambrian in South Australia. 20th Int. Geol.

Congress, El Sistemo Cambrico ete,, Sympos, pt. 2, pp.
91-147.

400 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Ford, T. D., 1958: Pre-Cambrian fossils from Charnwood Forest.
Proc. Yorkshire Geol. Soc., vol. 31, pp. 211-217, 3 figs.

Glaessner, M, F., 1958: New fossils from the base of the Cambrian
in South Australia (Preliminary Account). Trans. Roy.
Soc, 8, Aust., vol. 81, pp, 185-188, pl. 1.
1959: The oldest fossil faunas of South Australia. Geol.
Rundschau, vol. 47, pp. 522-531.

Girich, G., 1930a: Die bislang iltesten Spuren von Organismen in
Siidafrika, C.R. 15th Int, Geol. Congress, vol. 2, pp.
670-680, 5 figs.
1980b: Uber den Kuibis Quarzit in Siidwestafrika.
Zeitschr, deutsch. Geol. Ges., vol. 82, p. 637.

1933: Die Kuibis-Fossilien der Nama Formation von
Siidwestafrika. Palaeont. Zeitschr., vol. 15, pp. 157-154,

Hiantzschel, W., 1949: Zur Deutung von Manchuriophycus Endo und
aihnlichen Problematika. Mitt. geol. Staatsinst. Hamburg,
H. 19, pp. 77-84.
1958: Oktokoralle oder Lebensspur? Mitt. Geol. Staatsinst.
Hamburg, EH. 27, pp. 77-87.

Harrington, H. J. and Moore, R. C., 1955: Kansas Pennsylvanian
and other jellyfishes. Kansas Geol. Survey Bull, 114,
pt. 5, pp. 153-163, pl. 1-2.
1956: in Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, Part F,
Coelenterata.

Howell, B. F. and Hutchinson, R. M., 1958: New Lower Paleozoic
Coelenterate from Washington. Bull. Wagner Free Inst,
Sci., vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 13-15, 2 pls.

Mincham, H., 1958: The oldest fossils found in South Australia.
Education Gazette, S. Aust., vol. 74, pp. 216-219, figs.

Richter, R., 1954: Marken von Schaumblasen als Kennmal des
Anttauch-Bereichs im Hunsriickschiefer-Meer. Senckenb.
Leth,, vol. 35, pp. 101-106.
1955; Die altesten Fossilien Siid-Afrikas. Senckenb. Leth.,
vol. 86, pp. 248-289.

Schifer, W., 1941: Fossilisations-Bedingungen von Quallen und
Laichen. Senckenbergiana, vol. 23, pp. 189-216.

GLAESSNER AND DAILY—EDIACARA FOSSIL RESERVE 401

Segnit, R. W., 1939: The Pre-Cambrian-Cambrian Succession. Geol.
Survey South Aust, Bull. No. 18, pt. ITI, Geology of the
Ediacara Mining Field, pp. 57-63, figs. 22-23.

Southeott, R. V., 1958: South Australian jellyfish, 8S. Aust.
Naturalist, vol. 32, pp. 53-61, figs.

Sprigg, R. C., 1947: Early Cambrian (?) jellyfishes from the Flinders
Ranges, South Australia. Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Aust., vol.
71, pp. 212-224, pls. 5-8.
1949: Early Cambrian ‘‘Jellyfishes’’ of Ediacara, South
Australia, and Mount John, Kimberley District, Western
Australia. Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Aust., vol. 73, pp. 72-99,
pls. 9-21.
Tremblay, P., 1941: Morphologie externe d’un fossile nouveau.
Le Naturaliste Canad., vol. 68, p. 272, 1 pl.

Wells, J. W., and Hill, D., 1956: Ctenophora. Im: Moore, R. C.
(ed.), Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, Part F,
p. F478.

Rec. S.A. Mussum Vou. XIV, Prare NUII

Reo. SoA. Meseem Von. NTT, Puars XLUTL

Rec, ScA, Mirseem Vou, XU, Puare XLV

Von. XIU, Puars NUVI

Musrum

Reo. S.A,

V LVI

4
va)

Vou, NIL, Phar

Rec. SoA, Mouskum

RECORDS

OF THE

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM

Vol. XIII, No. 4

Published by The Museum Board, and edited by the Museum Director

Adelaide, 30th July, 1960

Issvep 19rn Aucust, 1960

Printed in Australia by W. L. HAWES, Government Printer, Adelaide
Registered in Australia for transmission by post as a periodical

A REVISION OF THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS HAHN
(HETEROPTERA: COREIDAE: RHOPALINAE)
FROM THE INDO-PACIFIC AND AUSTRALIAN REGIONS

BY GORDON F’. GROSS, CURATOR OF INSECTS, SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM

Summary

The species of the genus Leptocoris Hahn 1831 (= Serinetha auctt.) for many years have been
difficult to separate in the Indo-Pacific region.

My first introduction to this problem was an attempt to identify the Australian specimens of the
genus in the various Australian Museum collections. Most of the medium sized species were
labelled lurida (Dallas), the larger abdominalis (Fabr.) and a small unnamed species from Central
Australia was evidently vulgaris Bergroth. In an effort to find more satisfactory taxonomic
characters I dissected out the male and female genital capsules of a series of specimens and it was
soon evident that there were only three very distinctive species involved. The medium sized group
belonged to two species and it was possible to identify one sction of these with the name mitellata
Bergroth because of the presence in most (but not all) of a distinctive red spot on the hemelytra; this
is mentioned in Bergroth’s description. The remaining medium sized specimens belonged to the
same species as the small vulgaris whilst the largest specimens represented another species.

A REVISION OF THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS HAHN (HETEROP-
TERA: COREIDAE: RHOPALINAE) FROM THE INDO-PACIFIC
AND AUSTRALIAN REGIONS

By GORDON F. GROSS, Curator or Lysxots, Soura AusTRALIAN
Museum, ADELAIDE

Plate xlviii and text fig, 14

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am indebted to the following individuals and Institutions for
loan of specimens, comparison of types and all the other courtesies
and kindnesses without which such a revision as is presented here
would be impossible:—Dr. W. E. China and Mr. R. J. mg and
the Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History); Dr. H. C.
Blote and the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie, b sides Dr,
A, J. Nicholson and the C.S.1.R.0., Division of Entomology, Canberra;
Dr. J. W. Evans, the late Mr. A. Musgrave and the Trustees of the
Australian Museum, Sydney; Mr. C. W. Brazenor, Mr. A. N. Burns
and the Trustees of the National Museum, Melbourne; Dr. W. D. L.
Ride and the Trustees of the Western Australian Museum, Perth;
Dr. J, L. Gressitt, Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu, and other
Institutions providing material for the Insects of Micronesia project;
Dr. T, EB. Woodward and the Department of Entomology, University
of Queensland, Brisbane; Dr. Hans Sachtleben and the Deutsches
Entomologisches Institut, Berlin-Friedrichshagen (for the loan of
Breddin'’s type of Serinelha spectabilis); Dr. R. Malaise and the
Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet, Entomologiska Aydelningen, Stockholm
(for the loan of Stal’s type of Serinetha corniculata); Mr. O. L.
Cartwright and the Trustees of the United States National Museum;
Dr, W. Hackman, Helsinki; Dr, J. OQ. Hiising and the Zoologisches
Institut, Martin Luther Universitat, Halle-Wittenberg; Dr. S. L. Tuxen
and Dr. Anker Nielsen, Universitets Zoologiske Museum, Copenhagen;
Dr, T, Jaezewski and the Institute of Zoology, Polish Academy of
Sciences, Warsaw (for the loan of Dohrn’s type of Serinetha dallas) ;
and Mr. B, A. O’Connor and the Department of Agriculture, Suva,
Fiji Islands.

4

404 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

ABBREVIATIONS

The following abbreviations have been used for Institutions in
which the material used in this revision is lodged, A.M., Australian
Museum, Sydney; B.M., British Museum (Natural History) ; B.P.B.M.,
Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu; C.N.H.M., Chicago Natural
History Museum, Chicago; C.S.LR.0., Commonwealth Scientific and
Industrial Research Organization, Canberra; K.U., Kyushu University,
Fukuoka; N.M., National Museum, Melbourne; R.M., Rijksmuseum,
Leiden; S.A.M., South Australian Museum, Adelaide; U.Q., Entomology
Department, University of Queensland, Brisbane; U.S.N.M., United
States National Museum, Washington; W.A.M., Western Australian
Museum, Perth; and Zool. Inst. Halle, Zoologisches Institut, Halle-
Wittenberg.

INTRODUCTION

The species of the genus Leptocoris Halin 1881 (= Sermetha
auctt.) for many years have been difficult to separate in the Indo-
Pacific region.

My first introduction to this problem was an attempt to identify
the Australian specimens of the genus in the yarious Australian
Museum collections. Most of the medium sized species were labelled
lurida (Dallas), the larger abdommalis (Fabr.) and a, small unnamed
species from Central Australia was evidently vulgaris Bergroth. In an
effort to find more satisfactory taxonomic characters I dissected out the
male and female genital capsules of a series of specimens and it was
soon evident that there were only three very distinctive species
involved, The medium sized group belonged to two species and it was
possible to identify one seetion of these with the name mitellata
Bergroth because of the presence in most (but not all) of a distinctive
red spot on the hemelytra; this is mentioned in Bergroth’s descrip-
tion. The remaining medium sized specimens belonged fo the same
species as the small vulgaris whilst the largest specimens represented
another species,

The search for the eorreet names of these latter two species
involved examination of specimens from many collections ranging
over the whole of the Indo-Pacifie region, while even some African
and the two American species were examined for possible synonymy,
This survey revealed that the male genitalia belonged to only seven
very distinct types and that using the male genitalia as a basis of
classification a variety of forms quite different in general appearance
belonged to the same species, whereas in other cases specimens of

GROSS—THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS 405

almost identical appearance in colour and general shape belonged to
different species. The female genitalia were not quite so distinctive in
many cases, but in the several species (abdominalis and rufomarginata)
where a number of varied individuals came together in the range of
one species, whilst others very similar were referable to the other on
the basis of the male gentitalia, the female genitalia proved to be very
different from each other and gave the same result,

The number of male genital types seen has now been extended to
thirteen (following the examination of some unique types) and it
appears that each one of these reprsents a distinet species. The names
applied at various times to the Indo-Pacifie species of Leptocoris
number thirty-one. The types of five of these can no longer be traced
(tagalica Burmeister, rufus Hahn, mitellata and vulgaris Bergroth,
taprobanensis Dallas, and taitensis Guérin). One of the thirteen
species uppears to be new.

SYSTEMATIC
Genus Leptocoris Hahn 1831

Leptocoris Hahn 1831: Wanz. Ins., 1: 200. Burmeister, 1885: Handb.
der Hnt, 2; 305. Stél, 1870: Kongl. svensk, Vetens. Akad. Handl.,,
9 (1): 226, Distant, 1882: Biol. Centr. Amer. Heter., 1: 172,
Uhler, 1886; Check List, 13. Kirkaldy, 1905: Trans. ent. Soc,
Lond,, 350. 1908: Entom,, 41: 123. Distant, 1908: Entom,, 41+ 47.
Van Duzee, 1917; Cat, Hem. Nth. Mexico, 123.

Serimetha Spinola, 1840: Mssai sur les Hémipt., 247. 1850: Tavola
Sinot., 87. Dallas, 1852: List. Hemipt. Ins., 2: 459, Stal, 1862:
Stett. ent. Ztg.,, 28: 306. 1865: Hem, Afr., 2: 112, 1873: Kongl.
svensk. Vetens, Akads, Handl. 11 (2) +98, 99, Lethierry & Severin,
1894: Cat, gén. Hem, 2: 122. Distant, 1902; Faun. Brit, Ind.
Rhynch, 1: 418. Bergroth, 1913: Mém. Soe. ent. Belg., 22: 164.
Villiers, 1952: Hémipt. de l'Afrique noire, 108.

Lygaemorphus Blanchard, 1840: Hist. des Ins., Hémipt., 116,

Pyrrhates Westwood, 1842: Cat, Hem. Ins. Coll. Hope, 2: 6,

Tynotoma Amyot and Serville, 1843: Hémipt., 220.

Bowea Kirkaldy, 1910: Proc, Haw. Ent. Soe., 2: 123 (as a subgenus).
The species of this gers in this region belong to several groups

if the shape of the male genital capsule is taken as the sole guide.

In the first group the ventral part of the penultimate segment of
the capsule is produced beyond the furthest posterior extension of its

406 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

dorsal part but it is never produced very far or thrown into distinct
lobes or processes. To this group belong augur (Fabr.) and minuscula
Bléte and also some African species (e.g. intermedia Dist.),

In coimbatorensis sp. noy. and corniculata (Stal) the ventral part
of the penultimate segment is not very much more produced than in
the augur group, but is thrown into four short or medium sized lobes.
To this group also belong the two American species trivittatus (Say)
and rubrolineata Barber (both of these seem to have almost identical
male genitalia and may be only sub-specifically distinct) and some
African species (e.g. fulcratus Germ.)

In the Australian mitellata Bergroth is seen the first development
of the general Indonesian and Pacific region type of male capsule in
which the male penultimate segment is produced markedly posteriorad
by being thrown into two prominent lateral lobes (parandria) and
medially into a slender laminate (in the vertical plane) or triangular
(in the horizontal plane) process which extends posteriorad up between
the claspers. In mitellata these parandria are vaguely triangular in
cross section and somewhat bifid at apex.

In vicina (Dallas), subrufescens (Kirby), cozalis (Kirby), and
abdominalis (Fabr.) the parandria are circular in cross section and
nearly as long as the claspers.

In rufomarginata (Fabr.) tagalica Burmeister, isolata (Distant)
and marquesensis Cheesman the parandria are flattened or even shal-
lowly concave on the upper and inner face and rounded below and are
therefore vaguely semicircular in cross section. This is the only type
to be found in the astern Pacific.

The males can be separated by the following key. The female
genitalia in several cases are not so distinctive and it has not always
been possible to key right down to species.

Key to Indo-Pacific species of Leptocoris—Males :—

1. Male genital capsule with ventral
part of penultimate segment
(pygophore) produced posterior-
iad to about the level of, or just
surpassing anal segment. Apex
of penultimate abdominal segment
truncate or sinuate but never pro-
duced into distinct lobes .. .. .. 2

GROSS—THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS

Male genital capsule with ventral
part of penultimate segment sur-
passing level of anal segment, and
its apex thrown into two cylindri-
cal or flattish lobes or four short
lobes .. .. ..

2. Apical margin of penultimate. seg-
ment of genital capsule almost
truncate. Clasper with a pro-
minent outwardly and down-
wardly directed process on its
outer margin about halfway along
its length, and with a concave area
on its ventral surface near apex

Apical margin of penultimate seg-
ment of genital capsule sinuate.
Clasper without a ventero-lateral
tooth but fairly thin and only
slightly concave on the under sur-
faces .. .. ..

3. Ventral apical margin of pysophors
sinuate with only two vague lobes,
one either side of mid _ line.
Lateral margin widened at level
of clasper, produced inwards and
bearing a short cylindrical process
alongside the clasper. A _ pro-
minent tubercle on either side of
head in front of eye .

All lobes of apical margin of pygo-
phore whether two or four more
massive and conspicuous. With-
out a conspicuous tubercle on
either side in front of eye,
although there may be an oblique
keel running down from centre of
vertex to insertion of antennae ..

4, Apical margin of penultimate seg-
ment of genital capsule thrown
into four flattish lobes. Claspers
M@theh oe oo. ae al? LE

augur (Fabr.)

minuscula Blote

corniculata Stal

coimbatorensis, sp. Nov.

408

RECORDS ‘GF THE S.A.

Apical margin of penultimate seg-
ment of genital capsule thrown
into two long lobes, cylindrical,
flattened, or semicircular in cross
section. Claspers never com-
pletely flat, but always in some
section semicircular or semi-
circular with a coneave ventral
surface .......

. Lobes of Dannltirnaté secenditt of

genital capsule flattened circular
in cross section, slightly bifid at
tip. Claspers massive . ;
Lobes of penultimate segment of
genital capsule never bifid at tip.
Claspers usually slenderer

. Lobes of penultimate segment of

genital capsule circular in eross
section .. .. .. ;

Lobes of ‘penultimate seement of
genital capsule vaguely semi-
circular in cross section, with the
upper surface often shghtly con-
cave .. .,

. Male claspers in the Fors of a longi.

tudinal somewhat curved plate
basally, giving off distally a sinu-
ate elongate process .. ore

Male claspers broader, rounded
above, slightly concave below,
very nearly the same size for all
their length .

. Lateral lobes (parandnia): of pen-

ultimate segment of genital cap-
sule curved inwardly towards
apex .....

Parandria almost parallel.

. Parandria with a noticeable groove

running most of their length
above .. .

MUSEUM

mitellata Bergroth

“I

10

abdominalis (Fabr.)

coxalis Kirby
9

subrufescens (Kirby)

GROSS—THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS 409

Parandria smooth dorsally, without
a prominent groove .......... vicina (Dallas)

10. Parandria of pygophora as long as
claspers, markedly concave on
upper and inward surface. Para-
meres fairly thin and not very

elaborate .. .. ... . tagalica Burmeister
Parandria not as long. as aor:
less concave above... .. .. .. ..

11. Parameres prominently hooked at
apex, thence becoming broad and
laminate before roughly circular
basal part. Produced ventral part
of pygophore only vaguely tri-
angular. Large species care 29
mm.) . ! rufomarginata (Fabr.)

Parameres hooked ats apex but nar-
rowing between hooked region and
base and not becoming laminate.
Produced plate of ventral part of
pogophore elongate triangular,
noticeably keeled. Smaller species
(under 283mm.) ..........,. 12

12. Parameres long with a prominent
dorsolateral tubercle near the
apex, ventral produced part of
pygophore elongate .. .. .. .. .. marquesensis Cheesman

Parameres not as long and without
a prominent tubercle, ventral pro-
duced part of pyg ‘gophore not so
elongate ..., .. ese eee... tsolata (Distant)

Key to Indo-Pacific species of Leptocoris—Females :—

i. Female genital capsule with upper
pair of visible valves not produced
as club like processes but repre-
sented by two thickish short plates
with a few long hairs at apex,
devoid of spines... .. .... .. .. a@abdominalis (Fabr.)

410

RECORDS OF THE S.A.

Female genital capsule with upper
pair of visible valves produced as
club like processes (in some views
of L. mitellata they may appear
at first as elongate laminae), in
all but one case (rufomarginata
(Fabr.) ) bearing spines .. .. ..

. Club like upper valves devoid of

spines, smallish and rounded with
a long pilosity ..

Club like upper valves generally
larger, always with prominent
APINES 6 24 fk sj tcraege ae es

. Upper valves very convex, largish,
a ? 5

spines fairly numerous, appar-
ently in a single row or virtually
so...

Upper valves, generally flattened on
the inner surface, not so in one
species, but spines always scat-
tered over the surface of the club,
numerous or few.. ..

. Upper valves elongate claviform,

often appearing laminate at first
view, lateral valves small and
fairly elongate .. .. ..

Upper valves more freely clavate,
lateral valves fairly massive .. ..

. Upper valves large, not noticeably

flattened on the inner surface,
fairly circular in cross section,
spines always numerous ..

Upper valves generally not so large,
noticeably flattened on the inner
side, outer and terminal parts
moderately convex giving a club
shaped impression... .. .. .. ..

MUSEUM

rufomargimata (Fabr.)

mitellata Bergroth

commbatorensis sp. nov.

tagalica (Burmeister)
zsolata (Distant)

GROSS—THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS 411

6. Upper valves with club shaped por-
tion very small with only a few
spines .. ... subrufescens (Kirby)
Upper valves with ‘club altapsA} por-
tion moderately large and with a
moderate number of scattered
Sinnes...o c.f op ft ET
augur (Fabr.)
minuscula Blote
vicina (Dallas)
7. Lateral valves prominent as two
plates just beneath club shaped
upper valves .. .. .. vicina (Dallas)
Lateral valves as two nites hardly
visible beneath the club shaped
upper valves .. .. .. 1... .... augur (Fabr.)
minuscula Blote

Leptocoris augur (Fabricius) 1781
Fig. 1 A-C, 4 B
aul soi augur Fabricius, 1781: Spee. Ins., 2: 366. 1787: Mantissa Ins.,
: 301, Gmelin (in part) 1788: Syst. Nat., 1 (4): 2174, (Type in
Bank's Collection in British Museum checked by Mr. R. J. Izzard.)

Lygaeus augur Fabricius (in part), 1794: Entom. Syst., 4: 161. 1803:
Systema Rhyngot., 226.

Leptocoris augur Burmeister, 1835: Handbuch der Ent., 2: 305.

Serinetha augur Dallas, 1852: List Hem. Ins., 2: 460. Stal, 1868: Kongl.
Svensk. vet. Akad. Handl., 7 (11): 68. 1873: loc. cit., 11 (2): 99.
Distant, 1902: Fauna Brit. Ind. Rhynch., 1: 420. Maxwell-Lefroy,
1909: Indian Insect Life, 684. Hoffman, 1933: Lingnan Sci. J.,
12 (1): 22 (biology), figs.

Lygaeus chalcocephalus Fabricius, 1803: Systema Rhyngot., 226 which
has been placed i in the sy nonymy of this species 1s based on a com-
posite specimen from two species according to Stal 1868.

Serinetha dallasi Dohrn, 1860: Stett. ent. Ztg., 21: 42 (typ. vid,).
Distant, 1902: Faun. Brit. Ind. Rhynch. 1: 420. (New synonymy.)
Reddish or reddish ochraceous in the main; rarely pale cyclamen

coloured or yellow. Pilosity black.

412 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

Antennae piceows, basal segment reddish brown at base, some-
times almost to apex, With a short but thickish black pilosity.

Head fairly broad, tylus somewhat longer than jugae. <A
tumescence behind and in front of eyes and apex of tylus with a
few short black hairs. Heud otherwise fairly glabrous, not punctate,
a short longitudinal impressed line beginning just behind base of
tylus and reaching back to about ocelli, Ocelli on small raised
tumeseences, a fraction nearer to base of eye than each other,

Rostrum brownish piceous, two basal segments the palest, reaching
about middle of third true abdominal segment,

Pronotum with lateral margins straight and not laminate, anterior
margin very slightly concave, posterior almost straight, slightly sinuate.
With two obliquely directed flattish blackish depressed impunctate areas
in the anterior third (calli) which extend from the mid line to the
lateral margin. In front of their outer edges a tumeseence in each
of anterior lateral angles of the pronotum connected ta the one on the
other side by a raised triangnlar impunetate region, the apex directed
posteriorad and the sides adjacent to the apex forming the anterior
margins of the smooth depressed areas. Remainder of pronotum
finely but densely punctate, hind margin depressed, A fairly prominent
keel running from anterior depressed areas back. Pronotum in general
pretty glabrous but lateral margins and anterior raised triangular
area with a fairly sparse black pilosity,

Scutellum somewhat elevated with disc flat and a slight tendency
for the lateral margins to be keeled. Depressed at apex and trans-
versely just behind base of pronotum, Impunetate and only slightly
pilose.

Corinm and elayus finely but densely punctate with an extremely
fine short and sparse pilosity, probably greyish. Membrane black
tending brownish black broadly along the hind margin. One specimen,
presumed to be from Ceylon, in the collection of the Institut zoologique
de Warszawa has the membrane greatly reduced and the hemelytra
just surpass the middle of the abdomen.

Legs (except basal part of trochanters and coxae which are
coneolorous with main hody) piceons black with short black hairs.

Male genitalia as figured. Hind ventral margin of penultimate
segment of capsule almost truncate, very pilose, extending only a little
behind apex of anal segment. Male clasper fairly elaborate with a
ventrally and exteriorly directed tooth on the outer ventral margin
and about hall way to apex and a eoneave area on ventral face near apex,

GROSS—THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS 413

The clasper of minmuscula Bléte is on the contrary fairly simple and
without any prominent tooth.

Female genitalia as figured, they are not easy to distinguish from
certain other species (minuscula Bléte, vicina (Dallas) ) except in that
the clubs are not very convex and the inner margin is flat. These
have numerous brown spines and a few long whitish hairs. Long
whitish hairs also scattered elsewhere on the genital capsule.

Length: 11-16 mm. Width: 3.5-6 mm.

Distribution. In the British Museum and Rijksmuseum are
specimens from Formosa, Tonkin, Laos, South India and Java, The
species apparently is wide spread and abundant on the South East
Asian mainland aud penetrates into Indonesia.

Loe.

Formosa: Hans Santer, acquired 1908 1¢ Cat. No. 3 and 19
Cat. No. 4 and both also labelled No, 58. The female has an additional
pencil label with Takao 22 XI 07 (R.M.). Takao, No. 153, H. L.
Parker collection, 1¢ (U.S.N.M.).

Tonkin: Hanoi, Feb. 1917, R. V. de Salvaza,1é¢ and 2? ¢°. Guang
Yen ,7 V 1916, R. V. de Salvaza,1¢ and1? (B.M.).

Laos: Ventiane, 22 X 1919, 1¢ and 20 II] 1917 19, R. V. de
Salvaza. Na Peng, 25 X 1919, R. V. de Salvaza,1é. Haut Mekong,
Ban Quang, 24 TV 1918, R. V. de Salvaza, 1¢ (B.M.).

Siam: Nan, 20 XIT 1927, T. D, A, Cockerell, 19. Nonteburi,
9 TI 1923, Hugh Smith, 1° (U.S.N.M.),

North India: Punjab and United Provinces, VI-X (no year),
R. L. Wogbum Coll, 1¢ and 1¢. Caleutta, No. 58, no collector or
date, 1¢. Silhet, P. R. Uhler, 1¢ (U.S.N.M.).

Java: 12 simply labelled Java, Reinn and Cat, No, 2 (R.M.).

Indonesia: 14 labelled ‘‘Indes or INT H. de Saussure’’ and
another ‘‘Indes or’? with on back of label what looks like ‘*Puil, July”’
(U.S.N.M.).

Leptocoris minuscula Blote 1934
Fig. 1 D-F, 4 €
Leptocoris ninuscula Blote, 1934: Zool. Meded., 17: 267, fig.
Reddish or reddish ochraceous. Pilosity black.

Antennae blackish brown, with a short but fairly dense blackish
pilosity.

41d RECORDS OF THE S.A MUSEUM

Fig, 1: A-C Leptocoris augur (Fab.), A—male genital capsule from above, B—same from

below, C—same from left hand side. D-F Leptocoris minuscula Bliite, D—male genital

capsule from above, E—same from below, F—same from left hand side. G-H Leptocoris

corniculata, (Stal), G—male genital capsule from above, H—same from left hand side,

I-J Leptocoris coimbatorensis sp. noy., I—male genital capsule from above, J— same
from below,

GROSS—THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS 415

Head blackish brown, fairly broad. Tylus only slightly longer
than jugae. A swollen tumescent area behind each eye (which in
some specimens is paler), and a slightly swollen one in front of eyes
and apex of tylus with a short pilosity. Head otherwise fairly smooth.
Hyes and ocelli red. Rostrum reddish black, reaching second abdominal
segment,

Pronotum shaped very much as in augur but the two anterior
smooth areas (calli) are not so oblique, depressed or flat. There is
no tumescence on the margin in front of smooth areas nor a raised
anterior region of the pronotum in front of them. The calli are
blackish. Hind two thirds of pronotum fairly closely and densely
punctate.

Scutellum blackish, the two specimens [ have seen do not give
much idea of its form as the pins have been driven through at this
point.

Hemelytra with cortum and clavus reddish or reddish ochraceous,
finely punctured, also wrinkled. Membrane brown, The male from
Koepang has only a clavus left on the left side and corium and clavus
on the right. The corium of this specimen is rounded at its apical
angles and together with its rather square pronotum leads me to
believe that this specimen was brachypterous. Brachyptery was up
until now unknown as far as I can tell in Leptocoris, but in both
this species and augur there is evidence of its occurrence,

Legs brownish black, coxae yellowish in their basal 2/3, Most
of mesosternum and mesopleura (except the postero-lateral areas),
a patch on the propleura above the coxal insertion and most of the
visible metapleura brownish black,

Male genitalia as figured. Ventral apical margin of penultimate
segment sinuate, vaguely three-lobed, very pilose. Claspers fairly
thin, only slightly concave on their ventral surface.

Female genitalia as figured, very similar to augur in general
appearance. The clubs are flat on their inner surface and not very
concave on their outer surface, With rather fewer large spines than
augur. Apparently closely related to augur.

Length; 9-12 mm,

Loe.

Timor: Macklot, Cat. No, 5. Paratype ? (R.M.). Koepang, 6-21
June 1929, I. M. Mackerras, one brachypterous 4 (C.8,I.R.0.), The
type series was from Macklot.

416 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Dr. Bléte has kindly checked my genitalia drawings with his type
series and confirmed the status of this species.

Leptocoris corniculata (Stal) 1866
Fig. 1 G, H, 3 D

Serinetha corniculata Stal, 1866: Berl. ent. Ztg. 10: 381. 1873: Kongl.
svensk. Vetens.-Akad. Handl., 11 (2): 99. Distant, 1902: Faun.

Brit. Ind. Rhynch., 1: 420. (Z'yp. vid.)
Reddish ochraceous with a fine whitish or yellowish pilosity.

Distal segments of antennae brownish black, base of second segment
and whole of first segment reddish brown.

Head broad with a tumescence behind, and a short but prominent
tubercle in front, of each eye. Eyes concolorous with rest of head,
ocelli yellowish.

Depressed areas of pronotum vaguely oblique, fairly flat. Region
of pronotum in front of these calli raised but somewhat declivous
towards anterior margin. A strong keel runs back from between the
calli to the hind margin which is depressed and broadly curved. Lateral
margins behind calli curved laminate, the whole lateral margin gives the
impression of being strongly notched in the region of the calli as the
laminate lateral margins cease at this point and in front of the calli
the collar is produced laterally as a little lobe on each side. In the type
only the centre of the hind pronotal dise is flat, towards the lateral
margins it is inclined upwards and the lateral margins behind the
ealli are actually the highest parts of the pronotum. The pronotum
is coarsely punctate. Scutellum with sides vertical, upper surface flat.
Hemelytra very finely punctate with a pale vellowish pubescence,
membrane black.

Underside mostly yellowish ochraceous. Rostrum (except tip
which is black) and legs including coxae reddish. Dorsal margins of
abdominal segments and apical regions of seventh abdominal segment
also red. An area above coxae on both meso- and metapleuron blackish
and a faint one on propleuron tending fuscous. Fach ventral segment
laterally with a blackish area running from near dorsal margin almost
to venter and from anterior margin almost to hind margin, the hind
margin of each segment (except the seventh which is red) is therefore
yellowish ochraceous and this ochraceous band is wider ventrally than

dorsally.

GROSS—THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS 417

The male genitalia of the unique type are as figured, The ventral
surface of the pygophore is produced forward and the apical margin
is sinuate with an obsolete lobe either side of the mid line, Laterally
the margin of the pygophore is flattened and directed inwards, towards
the clasper, alongside of which it gives off a thinnish but fairly long
process, this process is hard to see amongst the pilosity, and due also to
its proximity to the clasper. The eclaspers are laterally flattened and
very pilose, their dorsal margin is straight but the ventral one tends to
he convex, Anal tube elongate. The ventral and lateral margins
of the pygophore, the external faces and the ventral margins of the
claspers and the apical margin of the anal tube are very markedly
pilose and this pilosity tends to conceal the structure of the base of
the claspers and the margins of the pygophore,

The female genitalia are unknown.
Length: 14 mm,
Loe.
Western [ndia, Diiben,. Reg, No. 364; 58,
Stal’s Holotype Male (Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet, Stockholm),

Leptocoris coimbatorensis sp. nov.
Fig. 1 1, .J,4 D
Reddish or reddish ochraceous. Pilosity black or white.

Antennae castaneous or black, basal segment reddish, sometimes
with a little black on top. Segments with a very short pilosity.

Head moderately broad with a tumescence behind each eye and in
front of eyes an obliqne fold beginning near midline of head about as
far back as line joining centres of eyes and proceeding forwards, out-
wards and downwards to insertion of antennae, This fold with a
shallow suleus in front of its anterior margin. In one specimen the
head is suffused in front with black. Ocelli small but on obvious
tumesences, much nearer eyes than each other.

Rostrum almost reaching fifth abdominal segment, mainly brown,
last segment in the main almost black.

Pronotum very similar in shape to augur but with the lateral
margins rolled like a selvage and anterior depressed smooth areas
somewhat convex.

Seutellum with centre raised, flat, and somewhat infuscated; lateral
margins tending to be slightly raised above this as low keels, reddish.

418 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Corium and clavus as well as scutellum and hind part of pronotum
covered with a very fine pilosity, Corium and clavus very finely
punctate in some specimens with smallish yellow patches. Membrane
brownish black.

Underside with a fine white pilosity, an area of black on each of
the pleurae above the insertion of the coxae, largest on the metapleurae.
Legs brownish, coxae red.

Male genital capsule as figured. Very distinctive. Ventral apical
margin of penultimate segment of capsule very pilose, thrown into
four short lobes, extending well behind apex of anal segment, concave
on its upper surface beneath the claspers. Claspers tairly broad with
flattened faces and set at an angle to one another. Ventral face with
a very dense pilosity giving the clasper somewhat of the aspect of a
toothbrush. A blunt tooth along the external (and due to the
inclination) dorsal margin about two-thirds of the way to apex.

Female genital capsule as figured. Upper valvulae very club-
shaped, not elongate with at most two rows of spines running from near
base to past apex. About 12 spines all told on each valvula and of
course the usual long hairs. Lateral valvulae fairly massive and
conspicuous.

Length: 10-15 mm.

Loe.

South India: Bolampatti Valley, Coimbatore District 20 IV 37,
B.M.-C.M. Expdn. to South India TV-V 19387. Reg, No. B.M. 1947-469,
Holotype ¢, allotype ¢, paratype ¢ and two paratype ° @ in the
collection of the British Museum (Nat. Hist.).

Leptocoris mitellata Bergroth 1916
Fig. 2 A-C, 4 4
Plate XLVIIT

Leptocoris mitellatus Bergroth, 1916: Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria 29: 31.
Woodward, 1951: Trans. Roy. Soc. N.Z., 79 (2): 207.
Leptocoris (Serinetha) sp, Evans, 1928: Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 10 (2):
463,
Ranging in colour from a purplish red to brick red, Long pilosity
black, short pilosity whitish.
Antennae piceous with a moderately close black pilosity shorter
than width of segment,

GROSS—THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS 419

Head broad with a tumescence behind eyes and an oblique ridge in
front of eyes running down to insertion of antennae very much like
coumbatorensts. Tylus and a quadrate patch on vertex with its apex
at base of tylus and running back to base of head with the ocelli placed
on its lateral margins black or brownish black. Sometimes also jugae
and tumescences behind eyes infuseated. Head with a few sparse black
hairs which are more numerous on the calli behind the eyes, the oblique
ridges in front of them and the tylus and jugae,

Rostrum black, reaching to base of second or third abdominal
segment.

Pronotum very finely punctate in the posterior two thirds, with
two oblique smooth anid slightly oblique blackish or purplish ealli in
the anterior third which are separated from the anterior margin by a
slightly raised triangular smooth area, This anterior smooth area and
the lateral margins with moderately dense stiff black hairs, Hind
margin of pronotum depressed and with a fine whitish pilosity: the
dise with a median keel beginning between the calli and evanescent
towards middle on base,

Scutellum raised, flat. on top, blackish or purplish, with a fine
whitish pilosity.

Corium and clayus very finely punctate, in the purplish red
specimens there is usually a small quadrate bright red spot at the
inner apical angle of the corium, also the humeral angles of the corium
are somewhat reddish and this extends a little along the lateral margin.
These two red areas are sometimes not obvious even in purplish red
specimens and especially so in brick red ones. Membrane black,
apically brownish.

Underside with black or purplish patches on anterior parts of
pleurae and sometimes lateral (and sometimes also ventral parts of
4, 5 and 6 ventral segments) of 2-6 segments blackish or purplish.

Male genital capsule as figured, pygophore thrown into two lateral
lobes (parandria) which are conspicuously notched at apex, almost
bifid. Claspers massive, elaborately constructed, with tips turned
downwards. Anal segment flattened dorsally. Ventral part of
penultimate seement blackish,

Female genital capsule as figured, upper valvulae produced into
two elongate clubs which are not as convex on the ventral surface as in
some species and are fiat on the inner posterior surfaces. These clubs
with for the most part a single row of spines running from about one

4

420 RECORDS OF THE 3.A. MUSEUM

third of their length from base to apex, changing direction at apex
and possibly becoming two rows. Lateral valvulae small but easily
distinguishable, Ventral valvnlae not distinct,

Bergroth’s type cannot be traced but there is no doubt on the
identity of the species.

Length: 11-16 mm.
Loe.

This is apparently the commonest of the Australian species and
is the only species in Southern Anstralia. It appears to occur almost
always south of the tropic of Capricorn and is apparently absent from
Tasmania, Tt is very abdundant in the drier centre of the continent.
Loe.

Western Australia: 77 miles east of Balladonia, June 1914—696,
12,12 (W.A.M.)

Northern and Arid South Australia; 407 miles west on Trans-
continental Railway 4 X 20 coll, Troughton & Wright, 2¢ 4, 29 2,
Reg. No. K45478 (A.M.) ; Ooldea, VIT 21 coll. J. A. Kershaw 12 (N.M.);
Ooldea, T. D, Campbell, 14 : Ooldea, no other data, 14: Barton, A. M.
Lea, 12, 12: 20 miles west of Kyehering Soak, Transcontinental
Railway S. to W.A., 11-08, M. Chandler 26 V 04, 2¢ 6, 12 (N.M,):
Kingoonya, Coll, R. Harvey, 1%; dead on salt, south-west gull of Lake
Gairdner, 18 ITL 50, coll, G. F. Gross & F, J. Mitchell, 18, Reg No.
B.S.1, 863: Mullaroo Peninsula, Lake Gairdner, 17-19 IIT 1950, G. F.
Gross 13,12 ; Bookaloo Siding, 19 VITI 1948, coll. G. F. Gross, 28 4,
12%: Whittata Sth. Andamooka Rgs., 19 August 1948, 22 2°, and 21
August 1948, coll G. F. Gross 344, 2292: Wongamoodla Ck,
Andamooka Res., 26 VITT 1948, coll, G. I, Gross, 2¢ 2,49 %, and many
nymphs: Birthday Well, Cariewerloo Stn., 9-12 [1 1950, coll. G. F.
Gross, 22 4, 29 2; near Frazers Hut, Cariewerloo Station, IIT 1950,
coll. G. F. Gross (all 8.A.M,); lron Baron, 4 TV 48, coll, D.S., 24 2 and
4¢ 92 (N.M.);: Whyalla, XT 1952, coll. Tans Mincham, 1? ; Hammond,
X 1950, 1. V. Mincham, 12, 1° (A.M.); Mern Merna, Flinders Rgs.,
15 IT 1949, coll, G, F. Gross, 22 4, feeding on Bullock Bush (/Hetero-
dendron olaeiformum) in large numbers, 8-15 IL 1949, coll. G. F. Gross,
542,622: Wilpena Pound, N. Mlinders Rgs., 27 X 1955, coll. E, T.
Giles, 12: Well 4 miles east of Oraparimna Stn., Flinders Regs.,
12 11 1956, at light, coll. G. F. Gross, 12, 19; Wirrealpa Stn., N.
Flinders Rgs., 28 X 1955, at light, coll, H, T, Giles, 19 : Italowie Gorge,
N. Flinders Rgs., 30 X 1950, coll. H. T. Giles, 22 2,29 2? : Owieandana,
N. Flinders Regs., coll. H. M. Wale & N, B. Tindale, 12 : Araona Spring

GROSS—THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS 421

(now Aroona Reservoir) nr. Copley, 30 XI 1951, coll. G. F. Gross, 12 :
Mt, Painter, N. Flinders Rgs., coll, H. G. Stokes, 18,19; Flinders Rgs.,
26 V 47, no collector, 54 ¢, 2% ?; Lake Frome 30 VIII 1952, coll. K.
Peake Jones and Party, Reg. No. .S.1. 169 (S.A.M,); Mt. Lyndhurst,
20 miles east of Farina, coll, KE. Troughton, 3¢ 3, 399, Reg. Nos.
K42721 & K42731: Berri, damaging garden figs, 28 IIT 1939 (A.M.).
Between Renmark and Mildura, on ‘‘bullock bush"' (Heterodendron
alaeciformum) 10 V 1959, M. Kenny, 1 and a series of nymphs
(S.A.M.).

Southern and Temperate South Australia; Karkoo near Pt Lincoln,
coll, D. Kimber, 1°; Bundaleer Forest, Southern Flinders Ranges,
911927, 1¢ :**Kurlge’’ Blackwood, 850/t, at mercury vapor light, coll.
N. B. Tindale, 19 X 1955 and 70°F., 18, 1 XI 1957 and 75°F, 19,
14 XT 1957 and 74°F, 12, and 28 XI 1957 and 77°F, 1 2 : Mt. Gambier,
VIO, coll. J. W. Rose, 19 and 3 nymphs: Kangaroo Island, coll. 8. H.
Shandon, 1¢ (S.A.M.); Clarendon, 27 X 1946, coll, H, M. Cane, 1¢
(C.S.1.R.0.).

Northern Territory: Hermannsburg, 73 3, 392; Jay Creek,
VI 1938, coll. C. Barvett: Finke R., coll. J. W. Rose (S.A.M.).
Bergroth’s types were from near Glen Helen, Macdonnell Rg, and
Nlamurta, James Range.

Victoria: North Vietoria, XL 1942, coll, R, Pescott, La, 32 ¢
(A.M.); Murray River, eoll. J. E. Dixon, presented Jan, 1940, 24 ¢,
322: Mallee, Murray River, IV 1919, coll. J, BE. Dixon, presented
11940, 14,12: Murray River, coll. C. French, presented 15 XI 1911,
2° 2: Murrabit, 31 TIL 1947, No. AS, 14,12: Kerang, 21 IV 1946, coll.
R, Bb, T. 424,32 2, and 11 V 1946, 2¢ @, and 3O VI 1946, 82 2 and
24 XI 1946, 18; Mehnea, 25 [V 1955, coll, KH. M,, 102, 29 @: Mallee
District, coll. J, E. Dixon, presented 3 ILI 1914, 12; Lake Hattah, coll.
J, KH, Dixon, presented 11940, 384 4,82 293 Hattah, 111 1914, coll. J. B,
Dixon, 13; Lake Hattah, 2 XT 1915, coll. J, E, Dixon, 24 ¢, and 1918
22 2: Hattah, no other data, 22 ¢ : Onyen, 29 XT 1916, coll. J, E. Dixon,
364,222: Sea Lake, IV 1916, coll. D. Goudie, 12 ; Inglewood, no
other data, 29 9: Gypsum, N. W. Viet., XI 1926, coll. J. BE, Dixon,
presented I 1940, 24 4, 12: Kiata, X 1928 coll, F. EK. Wilson, 29 ¢
(N.M.); Yackarandah, coll, W. D. Davey, 1¢ (S.A.M.),

New South Wales; Florida North, Moree, 4 I 1938, coll. Miss G.
Grace, Reg. No. K66769, 24 ¢: Watercourse at Moree, XT 1933, coll.
A, Musgrave, 12 (A.M.); Moree, 1919, coll. W. W. Frogeatt 12 and1¢
and 1920 1%: Therribri, XI 1932, coll. Mackerras, 14, 39 2; Goan
Water Hole, 4 V 1950, coll. K. Key, 12: New England National Park.

422 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

19 ILI 1954, coll. E. F. Riek 13,492 (C.S.1.R.0.); Mullaley, XI 1957,
coll, F. E, Wilson, 12 (S.A.M.); Curlewis, 29 X 1933, coll. A. Musgrave
& T. Iredale 14 ; Coonamble, XI 1906, coll. W. W. Froggatt, 18,2¢¢:
Trangie, 2 V 1950, coll. P. C, Minter, 14, 12:9 miles on the Dandaloo
Road from Trangie, 25 VIII 1950, coll. L. Chinnick and B. Cameron,
284,12: Trangie, 23 XI 51, coll. B. Cameron, 12,32 2 (C.8.1.R.0,) ;
Bogan River, coll. J, W, Armstrong, Reg. No. K64293, 2¢ 4, 1%:
Tennamungarnio via Dubbo, 4 TX 1947, coll, Mrs. G. Bakewell, Be Q:
Dubbo, XI 1928, eoll, A. J. Barrett, Reg. No. K5864, 12 (A. M,):
Newcastle, 3 IV 1946, No. R, 3,19 (N. M.); Marsden, I 1940, coll. Mrs.
R. B. Sanderson, 12, 32 2 (C.8.1.R.0.); Lannigan’s Creek, Geelong
Caves District, near Yerranderie, 18 VII 1927, coll, T, G. Campbell,
Reg. No. 56574, 12 and 10 XI 1927, coll, A. Musgrave and T. G.
Campbell, Reg. No, K56908, 12: Savernake, 24 XI 1948, 14, 19:
Lookout Tank near Broken Hill, 6 TV 1942, coll, Chadwick, 13 (A,M,):
Red Gum, Deniliquin, 1926, 1¢ (C.S.1.8.0.).

Queensland ; Clermont XI 1929, coll. Dr. K. K, Spenee, Reg. No.
K62359, 12 (A.M.); Biloela, 5 XUL 1926, coll. E, Bollard, 1é (U.Q.);
Bidsvold, V 1929-TV 1930, coll, T. L. Baneroft, 12 (C.S.1.R. ‘0. ): Morven
District, TV 1941, coll. N. Geary, 23 8,19: Bunya Mts., 18 XIT 1937;
3000’, coll. N. Geary, 13, 12 and 22 [ 1938, 2000’, 1a : Cunnamulla,
X 1944, N. Geary, 19 (A.M.); Brisbane, 28 VIIL, 1911, coll, H, Hacker,
12: Beaudesert, 30 V 1942, coll. . W. Withbraham, 14,29 2; Plateau,
Killarney, 14 XI 1932, coll. H. Hacker, 12 : Killarney, 1, XT 1982, coll.
H, Hacker, 14 (U.Q.); Stanthorpe, no other data, 19 : Lawes, 13 III
1952, coll. G, Saunders, 1?, (S8.A.M,),

Australia: Unlocalized, but presumed from Queensland, Koebele,
no other data, ahdomen missing (U.S.N.M.).

New Zealand: A single Leptocoris specimen has been recorded
from New Zealand and is mentioned in Evans 1928. If the identification
and locality were correct it could well be this species, or perhaps
tagalica Burmeister which occurs alsu in Samoa.

Leptocoris vicina (Dallas) 1852
Fig. 2D, H, 4 8
Serinetha vicina Dallas, 1852: List. Hem. Ins., 2: 460. Distant, 1902;
Fauna Brit. Ind. Rhynch,, 1: 420 (exelide reference to conalis).
(Type in British Museum checked by Mr. R, J. Izzard.)

Astacops nigricornis Walker, 1872: Cat. Het. 5: 36. (Type in British
Museum check by Mr. R. J. Izzard.) New synonymy.

GROSS—THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS 423

ew ;
— \

Fig. 2; A-C Leptocoris mitellata Bergroth, A—malo genital capsule from above, B—same

from below, C—same from left hand side. D-E Leptacoris vicina (Dallas), D—male

genital capsule from above, E—same from below, PvG Loptocorts subrufescens (Kirby),

F—male genital eapsule from above, G—same from |)clow. H-J Leptocoris coxalis

(Kirby) (drawn from the type male in the British Museum by Mr. R. J. Izzard and not

to same seale us remainder), I[—malu genital capsule from above, 1—same from below,
J—paramere in dorso-lateral view.

424 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Sermetha longirostris Dallas, 1852; List, Hem, Ins., 2: 461. (From the
sketch of the female genitalia supplied by Mr. Izzard this species
is probably a synonym of vicina.) New synonymy,

Leptocoris nigricornis Bléte, 1934: Zool. Meded., 17: 269.

Leptocoris carnivorus Usinger, 1946: B. P. Bishop Mus, Bull., 189;
25, fig. (Paratyp. vid.) New synonymy,

There is just a slight doubt that vicina is actually the final name
for this species. LL. victna was described from the Philippines as
was tagalica Burmeister. If the type of this latter species is ever
found it could possibly turn out to be this species, not the species which
I believe is tagalica, (See discussion under tagalica.)

Purplish or yellowish red. Long pilosity black, fine pubescence
greyish,

Antenna blaek or purplish red, with short stiff dense black hairs,
Head moderately broad with a tumescence behind the eyes and an
wblique ridge running down in front of the eyes like coimbatorensis.
Eyes a darker red than rest of head. Head with sparse stiff hairs more
concentrated on the tumescence behind the eyes and the tylus and
jugae.

Rostrum reaching {0 apex of second abdominal segment, black
or blackish brown.

Pronotum very similar in shape and structure to augur, but the
depressed anterior smooth areas (calli) are slightly convex, purplish,
Pronotum in some specimens infuscated posteriad,

Seutellum very similar in structure to augur, flat on top.

Corium and clavus very finely punctate with a fine greyish
pubescence, In some specimens the elavus and the inner half of the
eroium is infuseated. Membrane blackish brown,

Propleurae ahove coxae and most. of mesosternum, mesopleura,
metasternum, and metapleurae and the ventral part of all abdominal
segments I1-V generally blackish. Legs blackish brown,

Male genital capsule as figured, pygophore thrown into two lobes
(parandria) which are round in cross section and with a long yellow
pilosity. Claspers fairly simple, curved downwards at apex and
feebly concave on the underside in the terminal half. In the basal
half the under surface changes inelination by 45° and becomes broader
and less concave. Ventrally the pygophore is produced posterioriad
between the claspers as a narrow lamina (hypandrium?) with its broad
face in the perpendicular plane.

GROSS—THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS 425

Female genital capsule as figured, not easily distinguished from
those of augur and minuscula on first sight. Upper valvulae produced
as two clublike processes which are flat on their inner surfaces and with
numerous fairly long scattered spines on their outer surfaces and a
few long hairs. Lateral valvulae visible as two plates under the upper
valvulae and with a few long hairs at their apex. Ventral valvulae
somewhat convex.

Length; 12-15 mm.

Loe.

Indonesia: Java: Semirang, coll, E, Jacobson, 12, Cat. No, 2:
Java, no other data, 1¢, Cat. No. 7 (R.M.), Coral Island, Djakarta Bay,
15 V 1929, coll. I. M. Mackerras, 1 ¢ (C,S.1.R.0.).

Soembawa: Coll. vy. Lansberge, no other data, 1¢, Cat. No, L
(R.M.).

Wetter: coll. C. Schidler, acquired 1898, 19, Cat. No. 2 (R.M.).

Philippines: Luzon; Mt, Banahao, coll. P. I. Baker, 1¢ (U.S.N.M.);
Mt. Banahao, 2000’ North Luzon, coll. G, Béttcher, 1%: Bataan
Province, coll. G. Bottcher, 1¢,1¢ (B.M.); Mt, Makiling, coll. Baker,
1¢,22 9%; Los Banos, coll, P. I. Baker, 18,19 (U,S.N.M.).

Mindanao: Port Banga, South Mindanao, coll. G, Bottcher, 12
(B.M.),

Micronesia: Marianas; Saipan: Afenia-Charanka, 4 VII 1939,
coll, Teiso Esaki, 12 (K.U.).

Rota: V1 1952, coll. Y. Kondo, 12, 3 nymphs (B.P.B.M.).

Guam: Cetti Bay, 28 V 1936, coll. R. L. Usinger, 14, 1? (Para-
types of L. carnivorus Usinger) (B.P.B.M.); Inarajan, 28 1X 1938, No.
1240, on Ficus sp. and Colubrina asiatica, coll, K, G, Oakley, 62 2,19.
No precise locality or date, No, 1187, coll, D, T, Fullaway, 12
(U.S.N.M.). Ritidian Point, 2 VI 1936, coll. Swezey, 1é (Paratype of
L. carnivorus Usinger); Ritidian Point, 29 V 1945, by beating
vegetation, coll. 1H. S. Dybas, lot 2082, 34 ¢,3¢9 ° (C.N.H.M.). Ritidian
Point, 30 V 1945, coll. G. E. Bohart & J. L, Gressitt, 13, 19: VI 1948,
coll. J. L. Gressitt, 42 ¢,69 2. Ditto, on beach, 6 VI 1945, coll, G, EK.
Bohart & J. L. Gressitt, 29 ¢. Ditto, 1 VIII 1945, coll. J, L, Gressitt,
14, Point Oea, VI 1945, coll. J. L, Gressitt & G. E, Bohart, 62 ¢,
3292. One mile 8.B. of Asan, 4 XT 1947 and 30 X 1949 altitude 600-800
feet, coll. H. S. Dybas, 22 2 (B.P.B.M_.),

Western Carolines: Palau Islands: Ngariungs Islet, Ngaiang]
(Kayangel) Atoll, 16 XIT 1952, No, 5622, coll. J, W. Beardsley, ex

426 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

fern,14,52 2. Same locality and date, coll. J. L. Gressitt,1¢. Koror
Island, limestone ridge 8. of Inlet, 22 IT 1948 coll. H. 8. Dybas, I¢.
Koror Island, [V 1954, coll. J. W. Beardsley, 12, Peleliu Island, Mt.
Amiangal, 23 XII 1952, coll. J. L. Gressitt, 2¢ ¢,59 2. Pelelin Island,
East Coast, 31 VII 1945, coll, H. 8. Dybas, one male with mutated
genital capsule (B.P.B.M.).

Pulo Anna Island: 13 LX 1952, coll. N. Krauss, 14,192, 1 nymph
(B.P.B.M.),

Yap Islands: Mt. Metade near Yaptown, 12 VII 1946. No. 1087,
coll. H, K. Townes, 12. Rumung Island, 19 VI 1957, coll. C. W,
Sabrosky, 3¢ 4 (B.P.B.M.).

Ulithi Atoll: Falalop Islet, 4 X 1952 and 1 X 1952, coll. N. L. H.
Krauss, 22 2 (B.P.B.M.).

Woleai Atoll: Falalis Islet, 20 [X 1952, eoll. N. H. L. Krauss,
2é¢24 (B.P.B.M.).

Leptocoris subrufescens (Kirby) 1888
Fig, 2 F, G,4G
Lygaeus subrufescens Kirby, 1888: Proc. Zool. Soc, Lond., 553, 1900:

Monogr. Christmas Island, 128, Plate 15, fig. 3. (Type in British
Museum checked by Mr, R. J. Izzard.)

Shining brown, with a pale brown pilosity, Antennae concolorons
with rest of body. Head not very broad, structure very similar to
vicina, Eyes and ocelli red. Rostrum reaching to about middle of
fourth abdominal segment.

Pronotum shaped very mueh as in the preceding species.
Punetation of the portion behind the smooth areas more obvious.
Seutellum also shaped as in vicina. Corium and clavus more
conspicnously punctured than in the other species. Membrane the
same brown colour as the rest of the body.

Beneath the body is a pale brownish yellow with perhaps some
darkenings on the pleurae above the coxae. Legs brown,

Male genital capsule as figured, very similar in outline and also
the shape of the claspers to the preceding but the prominent lateral
lobes (parandria) of the pygophore are conspicuously grooved on their
upper surfaces for a good part of their length,

GROSS—THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS 427

Female genitalia as figured. The upper valvulae are produced as
clubshaped processes which are flat on their inner side. They are
however smaller than in vicina and with a lot fewer spines, apparently
not more than 10. The lateral valvulae are apparent as plates beneath
the upper valvulae with a few terminal hairs, Ventral valves fairly
convex,

Length: 11-14 mm.

Loc.
Christmas Island, Indian Ocean, 1 TV 1933, 18,19 (B.M.).

Leptocoris coxalis (Kirby) 1891
Fig. 2 H-J
Serinetha coxalis Kirby, 1891: Journ. Linn, Soc. Lond., Zool., 24: 93.

Serinetha vicina Distant (in part) 1902: Fauna Brit. Ind. Rhynch.,
1: 420.

This species is only represented by the unique male type in the
British Museum, figures of whose genitalia have been done for me by
Mr. Izzard and comprise fig. 2 H-J of this work.

The species is evidently distinct from vicina although it belongs
to the vicina group.

Kirby describes the species as ‘‘Red; antennae, except at extreme
base beneath, scutellum, membrane, legs except the coxae, pectus, and
ventral surface of abdomen except at the sides and extremity black.

Easily recognizable by the conspicuous red coxae on a_ black
background.”’

Length: 14 mm.

Loc.
Ceylon.

Leptocoris abdominalis (Fabricius) 1803
Fig. 3 A-C, 4 H
Lygaeus augur (in part) Fabricius, 1794: Ent. Syst., 4: 161, 88.

Lygaeus abdominalis Fabricius, 1803: Syst. Rhyng., 226. (Type
checked in Copenhagen by Dr. A. Nielsen against sketches of
genitalia. )

428 RECORDS OF THE SA. MUSEUM

Leptocoris abdominalis Burmeister, 1885: Handbuch der Ent., 2: 305.
Bléte 1984; Zool, Meded., 17: 266.

Lygacomorphus abdominalis Blanchard, 1840: Histoire nat, des
Insectes 3: 116.

Pyrrhotes abdominalis Westwood, 1842: Cat. Hem. Coll, Rev, Hope,
ete., 2: 26,

Serinetha abdominalis Dallas, 1892; List Hem, Ins., 2: 460, Stal 1868:
Kongl, svensk, Vetens.-Akad. Handl., 7 (11): 68, 1873; Loe. cit.
11 (2): 99, Tryon, 1892: Ann, Qld. Mus., 2: 22. Lethierry &
Severin, 1894: Cat. gén, Hém,, 2; 122, Distant, 1901: Ann. Mag,
nat. Hist. 7 (7); 428. 1902: Faun. Brit. Ind. Rhynch., 1: 419, fig.

?Leptocoris rufus Hahn, 1881: Wanz. los. 1: 201, f. 102. (The type
of this species cannot be located and its position here is only
conjectured, and traditional.)

Serinetha taprobanensis Dallas, 1852: List. Hem, Ins., 2; 461. (Type
presumed lost.) New synonymy,

Leptocoris bahram Kirkaldy, 1899, Bull, Liverpool Mus., 2: 46. (Type
in British Museum checked by Mr. R. J, Iazard.) New synonymy,

Leptocoris marginata Blote, 1934; Zool., 17: 267, fig. (Type checked
in Leiden against sketches of genitalia.) New synonymy.

Excepting the original references of Fabricius, and the references
to taprobanensis, bahram and marginata, practically all of the other
references probably refer also in part to the next species rufomarginata
(Fabr.), Most series I examined labelled either abdominalis or
rufomarginala were a mixture of both species.

Both are very variable species and abdominalis ean be separated
at the moment into at least three subspecies on colour and colour pattern
and the development of the keel on the dise of the pronotuin and also
on the convexity of the pronotal dise, These are :—

Leptocoris abdominalis taprobanensis (Dallas) 1852

Is the extreme western variant of the species, occurring on the
Islands of Ceylon and Socotra. Distant 1902 p. 419 also mentions the
“pale form taprobanensis Dall.—is not infrequent at Calentta,’’ The
general colour is a bright honey yellow, the eyes and ocelli are red and
the antennae, rostrum, all thoracic sterna and pleurae (except the dorsal
margins broadly of the pleurae, especially of the first and the hind
margin of the metaplenra narrowly, which are yellow) and all the

GROSS—THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS 429

ventral abdominal segments (except for a broad stripe along their
dorsal margins and except the last and those of the genital capsule
which are yellow) and membrane black, Pronotal keel fine, This
subspecies is fairly broad in relation to its length, Although Dallas’
type cannot now be found m the British Museum, there is no doubt it
was this form he had for it is common in all eolleetions from Ceylon
which [ looked over.

Leptocoris abdominalis abdominalis (Fabr.) 1803

Is the central variant arid the type race of the species oecurring
in Indonesia and the Philippines. The general colour is a dark brick
red but the distribution of red and black is the same as for the previous
subspecies. The dise of the pronotum just behind the impressed
smooth area tends to be rather more couvex than in either of the
other two snbspeeies and in one specimen (paratype of margimata
Bléte) [have seen if is conspicuously so. The pronotal keel is almost
obsolete, and the snbspecies is fairly broad in relation to its length,

Leptocoris abdominalis blétei subsp. nov,

Is the eastern variant of the species and confined so far as L
know to New Guinea. The general colour is a honey yellow, the
head tending to be a little suffused with red or blackish brown. Eyes
and ocelli red. The distrihntton of yellow and black beneath is exactly
as for the subspecies taprobanensis aud the membrane is black with a
greyish tinge, but above the pronotam has a Jarge semicireular black
patch with its diameter ou the hind margin of pronotum and occupying
three-quarters of this hind margin. ‘This spot extends forward to at
least half way to apex of pronotum., The pronotal keel and impressed
smooth areas are also black and in one specimen most of the collar in
front of these, as is the scutellum, clavus and all the corium except for
a broad longitndinal stripe along the whole length of the outer margin
which is yellow. The pronotal keel is more distinct, possibly because
it is outlined with black in the region of the pronotum anterior to the
large black posterior spot. This subspecies is also conspicuously more
elongate in relation to its width than the other two subspecies.

The description of the species with allowances tor the subspecifie
Variations is as follows.

General colour dark brick red (subsp. abdominalis) or honey
yellow (subsp. taprobanensis and blotei), Pilosity on antennae black,
long pilosity on body greyish, short pilosity golden.

430 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Antennae black, with a fairly thick short pilosity, Head broad,
with two obliquely placed suleit running from jnst in front of insertion
of antennae to join in middle of vertex at about level of middle of eye
thence continuing to base of head as a single longitudinal sulcus, the
three sulei in the form of a y. Head dark brick red (subsp.
abdominalis), honey yellow (subsp. taprobanensis) or honey yellow
suffused with red or brown (subsp. bldter). Eyes and ocelli always red.
Rostrum black.

Pronotum with the two somewhat depressed narrow smooth areas
running from centre line to lateral margin and somewhat obliquely
placed, yellow or yellowish brown in the subspecies taprobanensis,
red in abdominalis and black or piceous in the subspecies blote:. The
narrow collar of the pronotum in front of these depressed smooth areas
very raised and more annulus shaped than in most other species. In
the subspecies blotei often suffused with black, Lateral margins of
pronotum behind the depressed smooth areas fairly rounded, not nearly
as straight as in the eight preceding species although in the subspecies
blotei they are not as rounded as in the other two subspecies. Hind
rmoaargin sinuate. Dise of hind portion of pronotum coarsely punctate
and often convex or tumescent near the centre in the subspecies
abdomimalis, more finely punctate in the other two, Hind part of
pronotum brick red in abdominalis golden yellow in taprobanensis and
golden yellow with a large semi-cireular black spot with its diameter
about three quarters of the hind margin and extending forward to at
least middle of the pronotum. Keel from where it emerges from this
large spot on the pronotum to where if terminates at the impressed
areas black in blétez.

Seutellum slightly raised flat on top, yellow in taprobanensis, brick
red in abdominalis and black in blotet, Trmpunctate smooth.

Corium and clayus very finely and fairly sparsely punctate, honey
yellow in taprobanensis, brick red in abdominalis and black, except
for an onter margin of the corium which is broadly yellow in blétet.
Membrane black, or with a greyish or metallic greenish tinge in the
ease of bléter.

Hind part of pronotum, seutellum and coriaceous part of hemelytra
covered by a fine golden pubescence.

Underside largely black or blackish brown, Underside of head,
dorsal margin of propleura broadly, and dorsal margin of meso-pleura
and upper half of posterior margin of metaplenra narrowly yellow in
taprobanensis and blotei, red or reddish brown in abdominalis. Genital

GROSS—THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS 431

capsule, last visible ventral segment and a broad longitudinal streak
running along the dorsal parts of abdominal segments 1-5 yellow
suffused with sanguineous in laprobanensis, yellowish brown in blotet
and reddish brown in abdominalis.

Male genital capsule as figured. Penultimate segment thrown into
short lobes which are circular in cross section, convergent, and very
strongly pilose. Claspers as figured, in the form of a longitudinal
segment of a hollow cylinder basally, becoming a cylindrical and
somewhat sinuate process apically,

Female genital capsule as figured. Upper valves unlike all other
species are not in the form of clubs but are small plates beneath the
anal segment and with a few long terminal hairs. Lateral valves visible,
a similarly shaped set of plates below these again, and ventral valves
fairly convex.

Length: 14-21 mm.

Loe,

Ceylon (subsp. taprobanensis): 3 V 93, coll, Sir G. T. Smith,
292: Colombo, I 1915, coll, I. Me Eeh’n, 1¢ (S.A.M.); coll. Schaum,
no other data, 1¢ Cat, No. 46 (R.M.): no data, 1¢; no data except
Walkers Catalogue 52, 62,19 (B.M.), Peradeniya, X 1910, coll. R, L.
Woglum, 34 2, 32 2, Peradeniya, 12 X 1903, coll, W. F, Rosenberg,
2, Paradeniya, No. 59, no other data, 1° (U.S.N.M.).

Indonesia (subsp. abdominalis): Boloang Mengon don Modajag,
North Celebes, LX 1917, coll, W. Kaudern, 12, Cat. Nat. No. 2: Fort de
Kock, Sumatra, XI 1918, coll, Edw. Jacobson, 14, Cat. No. 33 (R.M.).
Java, from P, R. Uliler coll. 12 (U.5.N.M.).

Philippines (subsp. abdominalis): Bataan Province, Luzon, coll.
G. Béttcher,14¢ (B.M.). Baguio Benguet, coll. Baker, 2¢ ¢ 19. Samar
Island, coll, Baker, 18. North west of Panay Island, coll. Baker, 12
(U.S.N.M.).

Formosa (subsp. abdominalis): Grove, 1,5 miles 5, of Nodoe, 13
VIL 1929, coll. on Lingnan University 5th Hainan Island Expedition
1929,1¢,12 (U.S.N.M.),

Eastern Asia (subsp. abdominalis): Assam: No, 57, coll, W.
Ashmead, 14 (U.S.N.M.). Siam: Singora, VI 1929, coll. H. M. Smith,
13. Tha Lo 30 LX 1931, coll. Hugh Smith, 1? (U.S.N.M,). Vietnam:
Annam-Cana, Phanrang Province in Pinus merkusit belt at altitude
0-600 metres, 18-22 VIII 1932, coll. M. Poilane, 12 (U.S.N.M.).

432 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

New Guinea (subsp. blétei): ‘‘Mist Camp’’ of Netherland Indies—
American New Guinea Expedition, 1800 metres, 9 I 1939, coll. L. J.
‘Toxopeus, Holotype ¢, Allotype °, 1 paratype ¢, 2 paratype ¢ 2
(R.M.). Krisa, Vanimo, Nth. New Guinea, IV 1939, coll. L. E.
Cheesman, 1 paratype ¢, Reg No. I 20, 103 (S.A.M.); Goroka, 1550
metres, 10 VI 1955, in light trap, coll. J. L. Gressitt, 1 paratype
(B.P.B.M.).

Leptocoris rufomarginata (Fabricius) 1794
Fig. 3 H-G, 4 I

Lygaeus rufomarginatus Fabricius, 1794: Ent. Syst., 4: 152. (Type
checked in Copenhagen against sketches of genitalia by Dr. Anker
Nielsen.) 1803: Syst. Rhyng., 220 (exclude reference to stolli).

Serinetha rufomarginata Dallas, 1852: List Hem. Ins., 2: 460. Stal,
1868: Kongl. svensk. Vetens.-Akad. Handl., 7 (11): 68. Lethierry
& Severin, 1894: Cat. gén. Hém., 2: 123. Distant, 1902: Faun.
Brit. Ind. Rhynch., 1: 419. Esaki, 1926: Ann. Mus. nat hung., 24:
157.

Leptocoris ruformarginatus Kirkaldy, 1905: Trans ent. Soc. Lond.,
350.

Lygaeus taitense Guérin, 1830 (1838): Voy Coquille Ins., 2: 178, pl. 12,
fig. 15. (Type presumed lost.)

Serimetha fimbriata Dallas, 1852: List. Hem. Ins., 2: 462. (Imperfect
type in British Museum checked by Mr, R. J. Izzard.)

Lygaeus flavomarginatus Matsumura, 1913: Thous. Ins, Japan. Addit.,
1: 141, tab. 14, f. 4.

Leptocoris spectabilis Breddin, 1901: Allg. Zeitsehr. Ent., 6: 113-115.
(Typ. vid.)

Leptocoris insularis Kirkaldy, 1908: Proce. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 33:
353. (The type cannot be located but all the large specimens of
Leptocoris seen from Fiji have been rufomarginata) China, 1930:
Insects of Samoa 2 (3): 103. Bléte, 1934: Zool. Meded., 17: 267.

Leptocoris fimbriata Blote, 1934: Zool. Meded., 17: 267.

As mentioned after the synonymy of L. abdominalis in most
collections the series labelled abdominalis or ruformarginata have
each been a mixture of these two species. Therefore most of the
references above (except Fabricius’ or Breddin’s original descriptions
and references to insularis) refer in part also to abdominalis.

GROSS—THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS 433

This is undoubtedly the most variable species in the whole
Leptocoris complex of the Rast Asian and Pacific area. It cannot be
clearly differentiated into geographic races as can abdonunalis, or at
least not on the material before me, As one example, most female
specimens from the Solomon Islands J] have seen are typical ‘‘rufo-
margimata’’, very similar to those from the Philippine Islands, whilst
males from the Solomon Islands are very similar toe some rather fuscous
reddish specimens amongst the Queensland Coast series,

The ground colour varies enormously. It is often black, with in
the case of the two specimens from Lombok, bright yellow lateral
margins to head, pronotum and corium, or in the case of the type
“rufomarginata’’ form a reddish head and wide reddish lateral margins
to pronotum and eorium. The black however may become very reduced
or even absent from above making the ground colour red or yellowish;
in a pair of ° specimens from Misitna Island in the Lonisiade
Archipelago the black on the pronotum is restricted to the collar and
depressed callous areas and a large quadrate patch in the hind part
of disc, the seutellam is black, but the clavus and inner corium are
merely infuseated; in most Micronesian specimens there are two
longitudinal black lines on the pronotum (rarely fused into one or
absent) and the clavug and inner corium are infuseated, In many
speciinens the only black above is the black antennae, and in others
the membrane, the depressed smooth areas on the pronotum, and the
antennae are econeclorous with the main reddish or yellow above,

Amongst the forms in which the black is more or less reduced or
absent the ground colour is very variable. In specimens from Penang
(also one from Siam), the Nicobar Islands, and Sumatra and the
Misima [sland temales it is a bright brick red. In most of the
Queensland Coast speeimens there is a tendency for a purplish red,
and this is very well developed in nearly all the specimens of the small
form from Fiji, Samoa and Tonga. From Sipankat there are three
specimens which are a yellowish eyelamen colour, one of these has the
central pronotnm longitudinally, the seutellum, clavus, and inner corium
vaguely infuseated, i.e., the pattern of the rufomarginata form, The two
males [ have seen fron) Misima Island and the Micronesian specimens
are reddish ochraceous and fairly small, one from Misima has two
elongate large longitudinal blackish spots on hind part of pronotum
and this is generally the case m the Micronesian specimens. The form
‘*snectabilis’’ Breddin is ochraceous above except for the black
membrane and brown antennae.

434 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Fig. #: A-C Leptacorns abdominalia (ale), A—imale genital capsule from above, B—aame

from helow, C—right. paramere from ahove. J) Leptoooris eorntedtata (Stal), head

and pronotum, E-G Leptocoris rufemargmata (Mab), Be male genital vapeule [rom

above, F—same from beluw, G—right elaspor from right hand side. H-L Leptovoriv

tagatica Burmoister, —mnale genital eapeule from above, I—same from below, 4)
Leptocorts tsolata (Distant), male genital sapere from above.

GROSS—THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS 435

Beneath the species is generally black except for the underside
of head and the lateral margins of proplenra (broadly), mesopleura
and metapleura (also upper hind margin of latter) and dorsal margins
of abdominal segments broadly (except the sixth which is completely
red or yellow) concolorous with pale colony of above surface. In the
Sipankat specimens the underside is yellowish cyelamen tinged with
only the merest suggestion of fuscous where there is black in most
of the other specimens of the species. The legs, antennae and rostrum
of the Sipankat specimens are a dark cyclamen colour. The two
specimens from Lombok with the narrow yellow margins above are
bright yellow beneath with black legs (except eoxae), antennae, and
rostrum, and a black spot on each of mesosterum, mesopleura, and
metaplenra. The Queensland Coast specimens tend to have little blaek
on the abdomen and a black patch on the widerside of head; or to be
infuseated only on the pleurae. his is also trne of one Sumatran and
one Luzon example. Many of the specimens have a white encrustation
over the black beneath. The abdomen of Polynesian specimens tends
to be a vaguely infuseated reddish beneath.

Strueturally the species is very similar in size and form to
abdominalis. Polynesian specimens tend to be vather smaller than
is usual for the species. The head is shorter and broader, there is ¢
central longitudinal soleus running back from the base of the tylus.
There are two grooves running down obliquely from midline to
insertion of antennae but they are very shallow and very broad. The
rostrum reaches base of second abdominal seement.

The pronotum igs narrow auteriorly, braad posteriorly as in
abdominalis but the dise 1s fairly raised posteriorly and the lateral
mareins are not so curved outwards. he anterior portion of the
pronotun) is rather depressed, thus the pronotum is not so nearly
coplanar as in some species, he central keel is fairly obsolete.

The species can easily be distingnished from all others on the
shape of the genital capsules. Through all this series of varied
coloured specimens [ have examined T have seen only the one type of
capsnle in each sex, I have had jo hesitation in lumping all these
forms together under this one species solely on this character alone.
lf is apparent in the other species of the genus that where specific
differences do oceur the variation in the genitalia, especially those of
the male are very marked. In fact in only two species is there even
a semblance of difficulty in separating them on male genital characters,
i.e,, tagalica Burmeister, and isolata (Distant). In rufomarginata the
genitalia of the male and female are very distinctive and very constant.

fa

436 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

The male genital capsule has the penultimate segment produced
into two broad latero-ventrally flattened pilose lobes. These lobes are
feebly convex on the ventero-lateral surfaces and almost flat on the
dorsal interior ones. Ventrally the penultimate segment is produced
between the claspers as a triangular shaped, short arched plate,
directed upwards at about 45°. The male claspers are quite elaborate,
they begin basally almost triangular in cross section, then become
almost flat, broadish, and sinuate and apically they turn ventrally and
have a lateral hook on the outer surface.

The female genital capsule has the upper valves produced as club
shaped, very pilose processes which are flat (or even slightly concave)
on their inner surfaces like most other species but these clubs are
completely devoid of spines. The lateral and ventral pairs of valves are
also quite distinct. The basal parts of the ventral valves are convex
only near their inner margins and beneath appear to give off
membraneous processes which protrude up under the lateral valves.

In both sexes the genital capsules are reddish or yellowish with
yellow pilosity.

As already referred to this species has often been confused with
the preceding, amongst the various collections before me there are
specimens, male and female, of both species labelled abdominalis Fabr.
Sometimes the similarity is very great indeed. Amongst the Rijks-
museum material are two specimens, both males, that look almost
identical from above and below, both are red and would in the past
have been put confidently as abdominalis. One of these (Cat. No. 33)
from Fort de Kock, Sumatra, is an abdominalis, the other (Cat. No.
27) from Pulu Pandjang, Sumatra, is a rufomargiata.

The two species can be separated at a glance by the genitalia,
and generally the essential genital characters can be seen without even
dissecting the genital capsule out. In the male of abdominalis the
lateral lobes of the penultimate segment are rounded and convergent
whilst in rufomarginata they are broad, flattish and somewhat
divergent. The claspers of abdominalis are a long sinuous spine
apically becoming a curved plate basally, the claspers of rufomargimata
are hooked apically and have a short spine on their outer surface, thence
they widen and become a sinuous plate and finally basally become almost
triangular in cross section.

The upper valves of the female capsule in both species are entirely
devoid of spines (unlike all other species of the genus from the region)
but have a long pilosity. But in abdominalis the upper valves are

GROSS—THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS 437

in a primitive condition and are in the form of not particularly
prominent plates, in rufomarginata they are club shaped and very
prominent like all other species of the genus,

Length: 13-29 mm.

Loe.

Lower Siam; Trong, coll, Dr. W. L. Abbott, 12 (U.S.N.M.).

Nicobar Islands: No precise locality, 1903, coll. G, Rogers, 19
(B.M.).

Malay Peninsula: Penang, Rosenberg Collection, 14 (headless),
12? (U.S.N.M.).

Indonesia: Sumatra: Pulu Pandjang, Sim, Sumatra, V 1913,
coll, K. Jacobson, 12, Cat. No. 27: no precise locality, coll. Muller, 1¢,
Cat. No.2 (R.M.), Padang, no other data, 22 ¢ (Zool. Inst. Halle).

Java: Samarang, | 1910, coll. HK, Jacobson, 12, Cat. No. 41 (R.M.);
Bogor, I, coll A. M, Lea and wife, 12 (S.A.M.). No precise locality,
No. 538, P. R. Uhler collection, 14 (U.S.N.M.). No precise locality or
date, 12 (Zool. Inst. Halle),

Borneo: Labuan Island, coll. C. T. McNamara, 1?:; Sandakan,
eoll. C.'T. MeNamara, 12 (8.A.M.). Sandakan, coll, Baker, 62 4,42 2,
2 without abdomens, Mt. Kinabalu, North Borneo, coll. G. Haslam,
donated B.P. Clark, 43 ¢, 19 (U.S.N.M.,).

Celebes: Tondano, no other data, 1¢, Cat, No. 2 (R.M.), Toli-
Toli, North Celebes, XI-XIT 1895, coll, H. Fruhstorfer, 12, Reg. No.
40, Breddin coll. and Breddin’s type of Serinetha spectabilis (Deutsches
Entomologisches Institut Berlin-F'riedrichshagen), Same date, No.
4, C, F, Baker Collection 1927, 1@ (U.S.N.M.).

Lombok: Rindjani: Segard Anak, 2000 metres, TX 1936, coll.
R. van de Veen, 1? (R.M.).

Sumbawa;: Col. van Lansherge, no other data, 1%, Cat. No, 1
(R.M.).

Sipankat: 10-14 TX 1929, coll. Snellius Expedition, 246 4, 12
(R.M.).

Timor: Coll. Muller, no other data, 1¢, Cat. No. 3 (R.M.).

There are a further five specimens of this species in the collection
of Zool. Inst. Halle, 42 6, 12, 3 of them belonging to an interesting
yellow form very similar in appearance to L, abdominalis taprobanensis
which are utterly without label but I think probably come from
somewhere in the Indonesian Archipelago.

438 RECORDS OF THE 8A. MUSEUM

Philippines: Luzon: Mt. Makiling, coll. Baker, 1¢,29 9%. Manilla,
No, 18, P. R. Ubler collection 12 (U.S.N.M.).

Samar: Coll. Baker, 1° (U.S.N.M.,).

Mindanao; Surigao, coll. Baker, 3¢ 6,29 2? (U.S.N.M.). Surigao,
from Taeuber Collection, 13. Momungan, North Mindanao, coll. G.
Bottcher, 1¢ (B,M.).

Caroline Islands; Palau Islands: Koror L, limestone ridge S.
of Islet; 21 1 1948, coll, 1. 8S, Dybas,1¢. Koror I., [X 1952, coll. N. L.
H. Krauss, 12. Koror L., X11 1954, coll. J. W. Beardsley, 2 3,29 9,3
from Allophyllus sp. Koror IL, 18 LV 1957, coll. C. W. Sabrosky, 32 ¢.
Ngerkabesang I, 24 TV 1957, coll. C. W. Sabrosky, 12. Urukthapel
(Ngurukdabel) I., 16 VIII 1958, No, M. 455, 12 (B.P.B.M.).

Ponape: Kolonia-Jokaji, 24 VIL 1939, coll. Teiso Esaki, 12 (K.U.),
Nanue Islet, VI-IX 1950, coll, P. A, Adams, 1¢ (B.P.B.M.).

New Guinea: Mt, Lamington, North East Papua, 1,300-1,500 feet,
coll, GC. T. MeNamara, 1?; Misima I., Louisiade Archipelago, coll.
Rev. R. J. Andrew, 1¢,19 and coll. H. K, Bartlett 1¢, 19 (S.A.M.).
Normanby L, Papua, Wakaiuna, Sewa Bay, 8 I 1957, coll. W. W-
Brandt, 12 (B.P.B.M.),

Solomon Islands: No precise locality, VII-VIII 1909, coll, W, W.
Froggatt, 1¢, 12 (C.S.LR.O.). Guadaleanal, XIT 1920, coll. J. A.
Kusche, 63 ¢, 92 2. Ditto, I 1921, coll. J. A. Kusche, 248, 12
(B.P.B.M.).

Fiji Island Group: Suva, Viti Levu, 11 TX 1921, coll, Saunders,
12 (Fiji Dept. Agr,); Suva, Beach Road, 14 IT 1933, coll. C. H.
Wdmondson, 1¢. Moala L, ex coconut, 7 TX 1924, coll. R. H. Beek,
3144, 222%, Mothe-Lau, 14 VITT 1924, coll, E, H. Bryan Jr,, 19
(B.P.B.M.).

Tonga Islands; Kua L, § V 1928, coll. H. 8, Ladd, 24 4, 49 ¢
(B.P.B.M.),

Samoa Island Gronp: Savaii Island, coll, W. von Biilow, 12, Cat.
No. 1 (R.M.), Upolu Island, Afiamalu, 19 VI 1940, 2,200 feet, at light,
coll. Swezey & Zimmerman, 1%. Same data, except date 10 VI 1940,
284. Same data, except date 18 VI 1940,19%. Same data except date
24 VI 1940, 94 4, 12¢ 92. Same data, except date 30 VI 1940, 12,
322. Tapatapao, 17 VI 1940, 1,000 feet, at light, coll, Swezey &
Zimmerman, 2? 9 . Apia, TX 1926, coll. G, P. Wilder, 14 (B.P.B.M.).

GROSS—THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS 439

Queensland: Rockhampton, no other data, 19: Kuranda, coll.
F. P. Dodd, 1? (S.A,M.); Ayr, 25 XI 1954, coll. G. Saunders, 12 ;
Lawes, 21 XII 1952, coll. KE. Jones, 12 ; Brisbane, 12 VI 1952, coll. M. W.,
14; Brisbane, V 1949, coll. Talbot, 12 (U.Q.).

Leptocoris tagalica Burmeister 1834
Vig. 3 H,J,4 J
Plate XLVIIT

Leptocoris tagalicus Burmeister, 1834: Nov, Act. Acad. Leop., 16:
Suppl., 299.

Serimetha tagalica Dallas, 1852. List Hem. Ins, Brit. Mus., 2: 460.

Serinetha lurtda Dallas 1852; loc. cil., 461. Dist., 1901; Ann. Mag. nat.

Hist., (7) 7: 429. (Type in British Museum checked by Mr. R. J.
Izzard.)

Leptocoris vulgaris Bergroth, 1916; Proe. R. Soe. Vic., 29: 32. (Type
presumed lost.)

Leptocoris taitensis Cleesman, 1926; Ann. Mag. nat. THist., (9) 18: 369,

fies, (nee Guérim), (Type in British Museum checked by Mr, R.
J. Izzard.)

Leptocoris ahnnet Cheesman, 1927: Trans. ent. Soe. Lond., 75: 156 (n.
name for faitensis Cheesman).

This, like the previous species, is one of the most wide spread of
the species of the genus in the region, ranging from Tahiti to the
Philippines and far into Central Australia. It is variable in size and
also in ground eolor and it is not surprising that it has been described
under such a variety of names.

It is far from certain that the correct name is tagalica,
Burmeister’s original type cannot be traced and it is completely unsafe
to try and place any Indo-Pacific species of Leptocorts of this size
and color without an examination of the genitalia, In Dallas’ descrip-
tion of vicina which follows immediately after his reference to tagalica
he mentions several differences between his vicina and what he has
listed as tagalica. This species fits Dallas’ concept of tagalica, but. we
cannot be sure Dallas’ tagalica is Burmeister’s tagaliva. Tf the type is
ever traced it could turn out it is what I have called vicina and will
replace that name, then the next available name for this species is
lurtda Dallas. Tagalica and vicina were both described from the
Philippines, hence the type localities are of little help.

440) RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

The ground colour is generally a purplish red, but it is often
brick red (this is usually the case with the small Central Australian
form deseribed as L. vulgaris by Bergroth) or searlet or even a
brownish yellow as is the ease in a series of specimens from Cloncurry,
Queensland, Two specimens in the Rijkstnuseum collections identified
by H. C, Bléte as lomgirostris Dallas have the pronotum brownish
yellow (except for the smooth depressed areas which are purplish red
and in one specimen the lateral margins behind the ealli are tinged with
red) whilst the rest of the body above (except antennae) is purplish
red, Specimens from Saipan and Tinian are a deep chocolate brown
with a black head,

The long hairs on the head, antennae, legs and sides of pronotum
are blackish brown, the fine pilosity of the hody is golden yellow.

The antennae are brownish black or black, generally the first
segment is paler near base, and with a moderate thickness of short
stiff blackish brown hairs. The head is as broad basally as in all the
other species but the region of the tylus and the jugae seems narrower
and more elongate, There are generally a few seattered stiff hairs on
the head and a fine golden pilosity. The eyes and ocelli are generally
purplish red but in the yellow Cloncurry specimens are bright red.
There is a short longitudinal impressed line just in front of the ocelli,
a tumescence behind each eye and an oblique curved ridge in front of
the eye leading down to insertion of antennae. The pronotum has the
anterior smooth areas convex and almost transverse, in most specimens
they are concolorous with, or only shghtly darker than the ground
colour (including the Cloncurry specimens where they are yellow) but
in the two Rijksmuseum specimens with the yellow pronota they are a
purplish red. In front of these calli the pronotum is elevated into a
narrow qnite raised shallowly triangular area which often has a few
sparse hairs. The lateral margins of the pronotum hehind the calli
are rather selvaged and almost straight ar very shallowly concave, The
posterior margin is very feebly convex and slightly depressed, The
disk of the pronotum behind the ealli is flat or almost so, becoming
depressed before the lateral margins and immediately before the hind
margin. There is a fine longitudinal keel running from the calli to
almost the hind margin. The lateral margins have a moderately dense
development of stiff black hairs.

The seutellum is elevated and flat or even slightly coneave on top,
the lateral margins are strongly depressed and the dise is depressed
before the apex.

GROSS—THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS 441

The coriaceous parts of elytra, seutellum, pronotum and head are
covered with a fine golden pubescence. The membrane is black
becoming broadly browu near the apex. Specimens from the Mariana
Islands have a paler membrane.

Rostrum and legs (except ecoxae) concolorous with antennae,
brownish black or black. Thoracic pleurae in southern specimens
generally mainly blackish with a red or yellow spot (depending on the
ground colour) well ahove each coxa, also a thin line along apical
margin of several of the ventral abdominal segments blackish. In
Indonesian and Polynesian specimens these latter black areas beeome
very obsolete or absent altogether. The coxae are always reddish or
yellowish depending on the ground colour, The rostrum reaches to
or almost to base of the fourth abdominal segment, In specimens from
Saipan and Tinian the abdomen beneath is paler than the gronnd
colour.

The genital capsules of both the males and females are not such a
reliable guide to the idemtity of the species. They readily distinguish it
from all the preceding species, but the female is hardly distinguishable
from the next species, and in the male the characters are not as clear
eut as we have been encountering so far.

The male genital capsule has the penultimate segment produced
laterally into prominent pilose lobes which are convex on the ventero-
lateral surface and noticeahly concave and more pilose on the inner
dorsal surfaces. Ventrally the penultimate segment is produced
between the claspers as a prominent triangular process. The claspers
are fairly simple and are feebly hooked on their underside towards the
apex and tui somewhat though not markedly ventrad,. The claspers
lack the elaborate structure of the preceding species and the lateral
lobes of the penultimate segment are much longer in relation to the
leneth of the claspers than in either the preceding species or in the one
following. The expsule is generally the same general colour as the rest
of the inseet but in Saipan and Tinian specimens it is black.

The female genital capsule has the upper valves produced into
elub-like structures which are pilose and have a nomber (>20) of
strong spines. The clubs are flat on their inner surfaces. The lateral
valves are just perceptible as flat plates with a terminal pilosity
beneath the upper valves. Ventral valves fairly convex,

Length; 9-18 mm. Specimens from Central Australia are
consistently small and coul! he considered perhaps as a separate race
to which the name vulgaris Bergroth would have to apply. They are

442 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

also more uniformly reddish than the Queensland Coast specimens,
On the other hand specimens from Central New South Wales and
Central Queensland tend to bridge the gap between the typical vulgaris
type and the purplish red or yellow coastal forms in both colour and
size. It is perhaps best to leave this point to be clarified later in
the ight of additional material from inland New South Wales and
Queensland. Specimens from Saipan and Tinian are also very small
and could possibly also be regarded us a good subspecies, but again, it
would be desirable to see material from more Micronesian localities.
Loc.

Philippines: North Luzon: Pr. Bontoe Tinglayan, 1000 metres,
coll. G. Bottcher 1°: Los Banos, coll. G. Béttcher 1¢: Mt. Banahao,
2000, coll. G. Battcher, 12? (B.M.).

Mariana Islands: Saipan: Chalan Kanoa, Haw. 4061, 11 I 1949, No.
2951, on Physalis peruviana, 43 8. No precise locality, Haw. 4645,
25 TT 1949, No. 6818, 84 6, 3292 (U.S.N.M.). No precise locality,
1111949, coll. K. L. Maehler 244,49 ¢. Ditto, 2512 1949,4¢ 4,1¢.
As Lito, IL 1958, eoll, N. H. L, Krauss, 1? (B.P.B.M.).

Tinian: Tinian Harbour, 20 IL 1945, eoll. H. 8S. Dybas, 22 4
(C.LN.HLM.), 9 VI 1946, No, 498, coll. TI. Kk. Townes, 24 ¢ (B.P.B.M.),

Indonesia; Sumatra; Tanjong Morawa, Serdang, N.E. Sumatra,
coll, Dr. B. Hagen 14, Cat. No, 22 and 19, Cat. No, 8 (R.M.),

Celebes: Bankala, coll... CO. van Hasselt, 16 (B.M.),

Soembawa: Sima, 27 VI 1929, coll, I M, Macekerras, 24 4, 1%
(C.S.0.R.0.),

Polynesia: New Hebrides: Tanna, LX 1920, coll. L. E, Cheesman,
14 (B.M,).

Samoa; Utumapu, Upolu, 7 XT 1954, eoll, R. A. Cumber, 2¢ 4,
322 (U.Q.).
Society Ts.: Tahiti, 6 TIT 1925, coll. L. KE. Cheesman, 19 (B.M,)-

Australia: Queensland; Dunk Island, 25 VIIT 1927, coll, F. A.
Perkins, 1° (U.Q.); Magnetic Island, coll. G. F. Hill, 12 (B.M.):
same data, 126,12 (S.A.M.); Cloncurry, 8 TV 1947, eoll. H. Bell, 12,
5¢ 2,2nymphs: Julia Creek, 1 11946, coll. H. Bell, 12 (U.Q.); Powella,
Aramac, VIT 1920, coll. Ff. Bradshaw, 1¢, 29 9, Reg, No, K43437
(A.M.); Roekhampton to Yeppoon, 5-15 V 1956, coll. J. Baldwin, 14
(S.A.M.): Brisbane, on wild hop seed (? Dodonaea sp.), 11 XII 1927,
coll, MeLachlan, 14; Brisbane, Botanic Gardens, 3 XI 1952, coll. Dr.
T. BK, Woodward, 32 4,39 9°: Brishane, TTT 1955, coll. J. Thapa, 1¢ -

GROSS—THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS 443

Brisbane, 3 TV 1955, coll, D. J. Woodlard, 12: Brisbane, VIT 1956,
coll. J, O’Donohue, 12; Stanthorpe, 10 XI 1922, coll, F, A, Perkins,
1¢ (U.Q.): Stanthorpe, 9 X 1922, 24 ¢ (B.M.). No precise locality
from (. French Junior collection presented 15 X1 1911,18,12 (N.M.);
Cunnamulla, 22 X 1988, coll, N. Geary (A.M.).

New South Wales: Gordon, 30 V 1948, coll. A. Musgrave, 1? :
Watercourse near Moree, XI 1933, coll. A. Musgrave 24 é (A.M.); 40
miles west of Wanaaring, 30 X 1949, coll. S.J. Paramonov, 28 ¢,22 9%;
Brewarrina, 1914, eoll, W. W, Froggatt, 12 (C.S.LR.0.); Yanda,
4 T 1954, coll. K. M. Moore, 14, 12 (A.M.); Belmont, 11 [X 1953,
eoll, A. W., 12 (U.Q.). Upper Williams River, X 1926, coll, A, M, Lea
& F. E, Wilson, 12 (N.M.,),

Northern Territory: McArthur Station, 6 IT 1912, coll, G. F.
Hill, 1¢ (N.M.): Murehison Range, 1932, coll. Basedow, 1¢, 19:
Coniston Station, coll, M, W. Mules, 5¢ ¢, 52 2 (S.A.M.); 59 miles
N.W. of Alice Springs, 7 V 1952, coll. N.W. Australian Party from
Aust. Mus.,1¢, 22 2 (A.M.); Undulya Gap, 6 VITT 1947, coll. C. W.
Brazenor, 13 (N.M.): 1 mile KH. of Simpsons Gap, 27 VI 1951, coll,
W. L. Brown, 22 @: Palm Valley, 30 VIII 1956, coll. N. B. Tindale,
14: Palm Valley, VITI-ITX 1957, coll, N, Mollett, 13, 29 @ ; Henbury
Station, 14 X 1953, coll. G. F. Gross, 14, 229 9, Reg. No, 1.8.0. 1181
(S.A.M.).

Western Australia: Beverley, 1918, coll. D. Bone (C.S.1,R.0.).

Leptocoris isolata (Distant) 1914
Fig. 34,44

Serinetha tisolata Distant, 1914: Ann. Mag. nat, Hist., (8) 18; 179,

1920: op. cif. (9) 6: 148. (Type in British Museum checked by

Mr. R. J. Tzzard.)

Leptocoris isolata Blote, 1984: Zool. Meded., 17: 267.
Leptocoris lariverst Usinger, 1952; Proc. Hawaii ent. Soe,, 14: 520,
fiz, (Paratyp. vid.) New synonymy,

This is a species of uniform (and m Leptocoris average) size and
pretty constant appearance occurring only so far as is known along
coastal New Guinea, the Solomon [slands, some islands between these
two (Louisiade Archipelago), and the Marshall Islands.

The ground colour is fuscous brown, reddish, or reddish ochraceous
above. Ininfuscated specimens the lateral regions of the head, anterior
and lateral margins of pronotum and the outer base of hemelytra are

Add RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

ochraceous, reddish ochraceous, or reddish, Antennae, membrane and
legs black or blackish hrown. The calli on the pronotum, usually the
scutellum and sometimes a small quadrate area between eyes in
otherwise not infuseated specimens blackish or purplish,

The longer hairs of head, antennae, legs and sides of pronotum and
the overall very fine pilosity golden or whitish.

Antennae as in all other members of the genus with a short thiek
golden (or perhaps blackish) pilosity, The head is very similar in
appearance to the preceding species, the eyes and oeelli are bright
red,

The anterior smooth areas of the pronotum are not quite trans-
verse, convex, In infuscated specimens they are conevlourous with
the fuscous centre of the pronotum, in others they range trom red
through bright purple and black and all stages muy he seen im a series
of specimens {rom any one locality. in front of these the pronotum is
slightly raised into a narrow, shallowly triangular area which ter-
minates laterally as {wo feeble pilose tumeseenees. The lateral margin
of the pronotum behind the ealli is shaped like a selvage, almost straight
but with a feeble coneavity just behind the veelli, The hind margin is
convex, ovate and depressed. The dise of the pronotum behind the
eall is flat or almost so, becoming depressed before the lateral and hind
margins, there are five feeble tumesecences along the line where it dips
to meet the hind margin, There is an obsolete central longitudinal
keel,

The s¢utellum is elevated and flat or even slightly concave on
fop, the lateral margins are strongly depressed and the dise is depressed
hefore the apex,

Rostrum and legs (exeept eoxae) concolorous with antennae,
reddish or brownish black or blaek, Thoracie plenrae generally
blackish or infuseated with broad ochraceous or reddish hordera, sterna
ochraceous or reddish, Abdominal aterna and pleurae blackish with
upper half of plenrac ochraceous or reddish, last segment wholly
reddish or ochraceous. Rostrum reaching to middle of third true
(2nd visible) abdominal segment.

The male genital capsule is not very distinet from that of the
preceding species and I cannot find characters in the female venitalia
to distinguish the two,

The male genital eapsule has the penultimate segment produced
laterally into prominent pilose lobes which are convex on the ventero-
lateral surfaces and noticeably concave and more pilose on the inner

GROSS—THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS 445

e AR

Mv
FT| SWAY 2
f Ree

Vy.

Pig. 4: A Leplocoris ixolota Distant, wale genital capsule from below. B Leptocoria augur
(Fab.), female capsule from below. C Leptocoris minuscule Blite, female genital capsule
from below. D Leptocoris commbatorensis sp, nov, female genital capsule from below.
E Leptocoris mitellata Bergroth, female ponital enpsule frog. bolow. F Leptocoris
vicina (Dallas), female genital capsule from helow, Ct Lepluceris subrufescens (Kirby)
female genital eapsule from below, GH Leplocoris abdominals (Fab), fomale genits
cupsule from below, IL Leptocoris rufomarginata (Fab,), fowele genital capsule from
below, | Leptocorix tagalioa Burmeister, fomule genital oapsole From below

446 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

dorsal surfaces. Ventrally the penultimate segment is produced
between the claspers as a fairly prominent (riangular process. The
claspers are more robust than those of fagalica and are strongly hooked
on their underside toward the apex, and somewhat excavated beneath
in the middle. They turn somewhat but not markedly ventrad at the
apex. The claspers are mucli louger in relation to the parandria than
those of tagalica and this is the one definite distinguishing feature
between the species. The genital capsule is also paler than tagalica and
in New Guinea and Louisiade Archipelago specimens the claspers are
a bright yellow.

The female capsule is to all intents and purposes the same as that
of tagalica,

Length; 11-16 mm.

Loe.

New Guinea: Toem, Dutch New Giinea, 10 1, 20 II and 20 IV
1945, coll. B. B. Vogtman, 3¢¢. Nadzab, Markham River Valley,
VI 1944, coll. K. V. Krombeim 12 (U.S.N.M.). Pt. Moresby, Papua,
LX 1949, coll, N. AL. Krauss, 12. Normanby Island, Papua, Waikuna,
Sewa Bay, 21-81 XIT 1956, coll, W. W, Brandt, 1¢@ (B.P.B.M.),

Louisiade Archipelago; Misima Island. coll. Rev. H. K. Bartlett,
444,422 (S.A.M.),

Solomon Islands: Guadaleanal, Tf 1921, coll. J, A. Kusehe, 4¢ ¢
49°92 (B.P.B.M.).

Marshall Islands: Kwajalein Atoll; Bwije Island, 30 | 1945, coll.
H. S. Wallace, No. 1247, 2¢ ¢, 29%. Berlin Island, 30 I 1945, coll.
H, 8. Wallace, No, 1256, 28 4, 222. Kwajalein Island, the airfield,
17 VII 1946, coll. R. G, Oakley, No. 1595, 12; no precise locality,
22 TV 1948, coll. K, L. Maehler,6¢ ¢, Namn Atoll; Majkon (Kaginen)
Tsland, 256 X 1953, on Allophyllus, coll. J. W. Beardsley, 75 8, 4% @
(B.P.B.M.), Jalnit Atoll; Imroj Island, 24 VIIT 1946, No, 1851, coll,
Townes, 1¢, Paratype of Leptocoris lariversi Usinger (U.S.N.M.).
Majuro Atoll; Uliga Island, 8 XL 1953, on Alophyllus, coll. J. W.
Beardsley, 54 ¢,12, Arno Atoll; Ine Island, 30 VIT 1950, eoll. Tra La
River, 16,69 2. No precise locality, 19 VIL 1950, coll. Ira La Rivers,
most of the specimens also bear the name Karl Stone on a single label,
7é 4,322, 1 nymph (B.P.B.M.). Ratak Island Chain; no precise
locality, coll, A. von Chamisso, 1° (R.M.). Ratak Island Chain; no
other data except one specimen (¢) bears the name indecorus Esch.
(= Eschscholz ?) which appears to be a nomen nudum as I cannot
trace its publication, 2¢ ¢ (Zool. Tnst., Halle).

GROSS—THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS 447

Leptocoris marquesensis Cheesman 1926

Leptocoris marquesensis Cheesman, 1926: Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., (9)
18; 368, figs. 1927: Trans. ent. Soc. Lond., 156.

I have not seen this species. From the original description it
is fairly close to isolata Distant, but differs in that the claspers have a
dorso-lateral tubercle on the outer sides. This point has been checked
for me by Mr. Izzard. The female is unknown.

Deep red, ocelli bright red; tylus, vertex, calli of pronotum, basal
two thirds of dise of pronotum, hemelytra (except basal balf of costal
margin) suffused with black and showing a dark purplish colour.
Antennae, rostrum, legs (except the red coxae and trochanters) and
hemelytral membrane black, Vertex with second to fifth segments
obscurely suffused with black.

Tylus arched, vertex strongly seultured, Rostrum reaches beyond
middle of third abdominal segment. Dise of pronotum densely but
finely rugosely punctate, calli transverse. Pronotal collar with
anterior margin lightly reflexed and sides tuberculate; dise slightly
rounded at the base. Hemelytra exceeding abdomen by one fifth of
their length.

Length: 12 mm,
Loe.
Marquesas Islands (Fatu-hiva).

REFERENCES

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1916: ‘*New Genera and Species of Australian Hemiptera’’.
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448 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Burmeister, H. C. C., 1834: ‘‘Rhyngota seu Hemiptera, in Meyens
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1901: ‘‘Rhynchotal Notes—IX. Heteroptera: Family
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1902: The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and
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—____— 1908: Entomol., 41: 123 and 147.
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1920: ‘‘Rhynchota from New Caledonia’’. Ann. Mag. nat.
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Esaki, T., 1926: ‘‘Verzeichnis der Hemiptera-Heteroptera der Insel
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Evans, J. W., 1928: ‘‘A Note on the Occurrence of the Coreid
Melanocanthus margineguttatus Distant in New Zealand’’.
Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., (10) 2: 463-4.

GROSS—THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS 449

Fabricius, J, C., 1781: Species Insectorum exhibentes eorum
Differentias Specificas, Synonyma auctorum, Loca Natalia,
Metamorphosin adietis Observationibus, Descriptionibus
2: 1-517.

—— 1787: Mantissa Isectorum sistens eorum species Nuper
Detectas adiectis Characteribus, Genericis, Differentiis
Specificis, Hmendationibus, Observationibus 2: 1-382.

1794: Entomologia Systematica, 4: 1-472,

———— 1803: Systema Rhyngotorum secundum Ordines, Genera,
Species, adiectis synonymis, Locis, Observationibus,
Deseriptionibus. 1-314.

Gmelin, J. F., 1790: Systema Naturae 1 (4): 1517-2224.

Guérin-Méneville, F. E., 1880 & 1838: Voyage autour du Monde sur.
La Coquille 1882-1825 ete. Zool. II, Div. 1, Chap. XTII.
Insectes 57-302. Atlas.

Hahn, C. W., 1881: Die wanzenartigen Insecten getreu nach der Natur
abgebildet und beschrieben, 1; 1-236, 36 plates.

lloffman, W. F., 1938: ‘*Life History Notes on some Kwantung,
China, Coreids (Hemiptera, Coreidae)’’. Lingnan Sei.
J., 12 (1): 97-127, 13 plates.

Kirby, W. F., 1888: ‘On the Inseets (exclusive of Coleoptera and
Lepidoptera) of Christmas Island’’, Proe. Zool. Soe.
Lond., 546-555.

1891: ‘‘Catalogue of the described Hemiptera Heteroptera
of Ceylon, based on the Collection formed (chiefly at
Pundaloya) by Mr. Ernest Green’’, J. Linn. Soe. Lond.
Zool., 24: 72-176, 3 plates.

1900: ‘‘Hemiptera’’ in Andrews ‘‘A Monograph of Christmas

Island (Indian Ocean), Physical Features and Geology
with descriptions of the Fauna and Flora by numerous
eontributors’’, 127-129, 1 plate.

Kirkaldy, G, W., 1899: ‘*Expedition to Soeotra, [X. Deseriptions of
ten new species of Hemiptera’’. Bull. Liverp. Mus., 2:
45-47.

———— 1905: ‘*Memoire on the Rhynchota collected by Dr. Arthur
Willey, F.R.S., chiefly in Birara (New Britain) and Lifw’’,
Trans. ent. Soe. Lond., 327-363, 1 plate.

450 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

1908a; KntomolL, 41; 123.
19088: ‘A Catalogue of the Hemiptera of Fiji’’. Proe. Linn.
Soc. N.S.W., 33 (2): 345-81.
1910: ‘‘Further Notes on Hemiptera, chiefly Hawaiian’’.
Proc. Haw. ent. Soc, 2: 118-128.
Lethierry, L. & G. Severin, 1893: Catalogue géneral des Hémiptéres.
Bruxelles, 2: 1-277.
Maxwell-Lefroy, H. & F. M. Hewlett, 1909: Indian Insect Life. A
manual of the insects of the plains (Tropical India).
1-786, plates.
Matsumura, 8., 1913: Thousand Insects of Japan. Addition 1.
Spinola, M, M., 1840: ‘‘Hssai sur les Insectes Hemiptéeres, Rhyngotes
ou Héteroptéeres’’. Extr. Ann. Sei. nat. (2) 12: 1-295.
1850: ‘*Tavola sinottica dei generi spettanti alla classe
degli Insetti arthrodignati Hemiptera L. Latr., Rhyngota
F., Rhynchota Burm’’. Mem, Matem. Fis. Soe. Ital.
Modena, 25, 1-43.

Stal, C., 1852: ‘‘Hemiptera mexicatia enumeravit speciesque novas
deseripsit’’. Stett. ent. Ztg., 23: 81-118, 273-281, 289-320,
437-462.

1865: Hemiptera Africana, 2; 1-181.

1866-7: ‘*Analecta THemipterologica’’. Berl, ent. Zeits., 10:
151-172 (1866), 381-394 (1867).

1868: ‘‘Hemiptera Fabriciana. Fabricianska Hemipterarter,
efter de i Kopenhamm och Kiel forvarade typeexemplaren
eranskade och beskrifne’’. Kong. svensk, Vet. Akad.
Handl., 7 (11): 1-148.

1870: ‘‘Nnumeratio Hemipterorum. Bidrag till en fort-
neckning ofver alla hillills Kanda Hemiptera, jemte
systematiska meddelanden’’. Kong. svensk. Vet. Akad.
Handl, 9 (1): 1-282.

1878: ‘‘Enumeratio Hemipterorum 3'’. Kongl. Svensk. Vet.
Akad. Handl. 11 (2): 1-163.

Tryon, H., 1892: ‘‘Zoology of British New Guinea, Part I—
Hemiptera’, Ann. Qld. Mus., 2: 13-24.

Uhler, P. R., 1886: Check-list of Hemiptera-Heteroptera of North
America.

GROSS—THE GENUS LEPTOCORIS 451

Usinger, R. L., 1946: ‘‘ Hemiptera Heteroptera of Guam”? in ‘‘ Insects of

Guam IT’’. B. P. Bishop Mus., Bull, 189: 11-103.

1952: ‘‘New Species and Additional Records of Heteroptera
from the Marshall Islands’’. Proc. Haw. ent. Soc., 14
(3): 519-524, 1 textfig.

Van Duzee, HK. P., 1917: ‘‘Catalogue of the Hemiptera of America,
North of Mexico, excepting the Aphididae, Coccidae and
Aleurodidae’’. Univ. Cal, Publ. Tech, Bull. Coll. Agric.
Exp. Sta., 2: l-xiv, 1-902.

Villiers, A., 1952: ‘‘Hémipteres de l’Afriqnue noire (Punaises et
Cigales)’’. Intiations africaines, 9: 1-256, 358 textfigs.

Walker, F., 1872: Catalogue of the specimens of Heteropterous
Hemiptera in the Collection of the British Museum—5,
1-202.

Westwood, J. O., 1842: ‘*Catalogue of Hemiptera in the collection
of the Rev. F. W. Hope and descriptions of the new
Species of Scutelleridae—2’’, 1-26.

Woodward, T. E., 1951: ‘‘The Occurrence of Acantholybas brunneus
Breddin in New Zealand (Heteroptera: Coreidae)’’.
Trans. Roy. Soe. N.Z., 79 (2): 206-9, 3 text figs.

Tu juee

S.A) \MUseum

pee AA |

Vor, NUL, Phare NLVITI

from Central Australia,

fori

‘vulgaris *

stall pile +

Leplocoris milclatis Bergroth, Right, Leploearis fagatiea Burmeister,

Lott.

THE GENUS BLAENA WALKER (~MACRY MENUS SIGNORET)
WITH THE DESCRIPTION OF FOUR NEW SPECIES AND
A KEY TO THE KNOWN FORMS (HEMIPTERA: CYDNIDAE)

BY RICHARD C. FROESCHNER

Summary

In 1868 Walker described as new the genus Blaena with the inclusion of a single species, setosa,
from an unknown locality. In 1880 Signoret described Macrymenus membranaceus as a new genus
and species from Australia. Distant, in 1899, pointed out the synonymy of the two names and
reduced Signoret’s scientific name to synonymy — Blaena taking precedence over Macrymenus by
virtue of both being based on the same species and Walker’s generic name having twelve years
priority. This treatment is here confirmed.

THE GENUS BLAENA WALKER (—MACRYMENUS SIGNORET)
WITH THE DESCRIPTION OF FOUR NEW SPECIES AND A
KEY TO THE KNOWN FORMS (HEMIPTERA: CYDNIDAE)

By RICHARD ©, FROESCHNER"?
Plates xlix-l, fig, 1-13

In 1868 Walker described as new the genus Blaena with the
inclusion of a single species, setosa, from an unknown locality. In
1880 Signoret described Macrymenus membranaceus as a new genus
and species from Australia. Distant, in 1899, pointed out the synonymy
of the two names and reduced Signoret’s scientific name to synonymy—
Blaena taking precedence over Macrymenus by virtue of both being
based on the same species and Walker’s generic name having twelve
years priority. This treatment is here confirmed.

The present paper is based on specimens from two sources: from
the South Australian Museum, made available through the kindness of
The Museum Board and Dr, KE, T, Giles; and from the Museum of
Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, loaned by Drs. J. Bequaert
and P. J. Darlington. To the eurators of these institutions the author
is grateful. He also wishes to thank Dr. W. L. Brown, of the Museum
of Comparative Zoology, for aid in locating certain Australian localities
as they appeared on specimens. The illustrations are by my wife,
Elsie Herbold Froeschner,

The format used in this paper follows that of the author in his
Monograph of the Cydnidae of the Western Tlemisphere which is now
in press, Measurements are given in millimeters and are based on one
to five specimens of each sex. If less than five were used the number
is indicated.

(1) Dept. Zoology and Entomology, Montana State College, Bozeman, Montana, U.S.A.
Contribution from Montana State College Agricultural Experiment Station, M.S. 38,
paper No. 432 Journal Series,

(2) After this paper had been submitted for publication a grant from the National Science
Foundation (NSF G7118) made possible personal examination of the types concerned.
As above, the results supported Distant’s contentions and not Bergroth’s (1912, Amer,
Mus, Nat. Hist., Bull, $1: 343-348) belief that they were separate species.

454 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSBUM

Genus Blaena Walker

1868 Blaena Walker, Catal. Wemip.-Heterop. Brit. Mus., part 3, p. 537.
1880 Maers ymenas Signoret, Bull. Soe, Ent, France, ser, 3, vol. 10,
p. Xviil,

1899 Blaena Distant, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, vol. 4, p. 224.

Diagnosis; The short coriam, which oceupies less than half (about
two-ilths) of the hemelytral length, plus the obliquely stylated eyes will
separate members of this genus from any other Cydnidae.

Description; Medium sized, elongate, sides subparallel; dorsum
flattened to weakly convex, Head: Little wider than long, dorsally flat
to weakly convex with coarse, crowded punctures; lateral margins
diverging from prevcular emarginations; juga meeting anterior to
elypeus, distinctly though narrowly reflexed marginally, apex rounded,
truncated or slightly produced; dorsally with several scattered or many
long bristles in addition to primary bristles; eyes small, higher than
long, prominent, oblique, moderately stylated ; ocelli very small, placed
far. behind line connecting hind margins of eyes, much closer to eyes
than to midline of head; anteniae five segmented, T and Tl shorter than
II, IV and V usually longer than latter and variable in relation to each
other; buceulae mueh higher than labial IT, equally elevated for
full length, abruptly terminated posteriorly af base of head; labinm
surpassing auterior coxae, sometimes reaching to bases of midcoxae,
L shortest, IT and JIL each longer than IV, LI compressed but not
dilated. Pronotwm: Length more than half of width; lateral margins
usually entire, narrowing from near base, sinnate or not at ends of
transverse impression; dorsal surlace of both lobes coarsely and closely
punetate nearly or quite to lateral edge; anterior margin strongly
concave; lateral snbmarein with a row of two, six or more setigerous
punetures, ouly one or two posterior to transverse impression; dise
usually with several to many scattered long hairs. Sevtellum; Width
distinetly greater than length, subtriangular, apex a broad, rounded,
obtuse angle; disc, except for oblique areas in basal angles, strongly
and vlosely punetate, Memelytra: Corial areas well-defined, mem-
branal suture oblique, strongly and angularly emarginate at end of
radial vein; costa sharp, weakly explanate, strongly incurved apically
so as to expose densely punctate connexivum, submarginally withont
or with five or fifteen setigerous punetures; membrane about twice
as long as basal width, nearly two-thirds of hemelytral length, dusky,
usually paler at base; veins darker, simple with few branches or
mostly reticulate. Propleuran: Shining, densely and strongly

FROESCHNER—THE GENUS BLAENA 455

punctate; prosternal carinae either low and indistinet or thiek and high
enclosing a labial trough deeper than height of labial II; anterior
margin nearly straight, slightly emarginate between prosternal carinae.
Mesopleuron: (fig, 6) Nearly flat, closely and distinetly puuctate,
including evaporatorium whieh follows posterior margin to lateral
margin of sclerite; posterior margin entire; medioventral line strongly
carinate. Metaplewron: (fig. 6) Nearly Hat, evaporatorium extensive,
but not reaching lateral margin, punctate; osteole opening prominently
and ventrally at base of elongate (length four to five times width),
partially suleate, polished and elevated peritreme, Legs: Moderately
long; anterior tibia (fig. 10) subterete to somewhat widened toward
apex, not prolonged beyond tarsal insertion, with six to eight distinet
to strong spines dorsally; tarsal IT shortest; middle and posterior
tibiae terete, latter in male simple or variously contorted, spined and
haired according to species: middle and posterior femora variously
armed ventrally according to species, Sternites: Convex, with
numerons prominent piinetures, with or without setigerons tubercles;
sometimes with a strong channel within lateral margins (fig, 9);
trichohothria typical of the subfamily Cydninae. Termimalia: Male
genital capsule opening dorsally or subdorsally; gonostyli uniformly
of one type in all species (fig. 8); female genital plates of type usually
found in pentatomoids.

Genotype: Blaena setosa Walker, monobasic, The genotype of
Macrymenus is M. membranaceus Signoret by virtue of the monobasic
original proposal of the genus, The present study confirms this
synonymy which was first pointed out by Distant in 1899 (Supra).

Disiribution: The range of this genns, from the more than fifty
specimens at hand, appears restricted to the continent of Anstralia,

Discussion: Members of this genus appear especially noteworthy
due to the stylated eyes and the strongly modified hind legs of the
males of some species. ‘The relatively simple anterior tibiae coupled
with such strongly contorted hind tibiae would suggest that these
forms are not adapted ta a burrowing habit. However, three of the

s?

specimens examined were labelled from ‘‘soil at base of talus’’, ‘under
dead [?] log’. Observations on habits are needed.

The genus, as determined during the present study, may easily
he assiened to the subfamily Cydninac as redefined by Froeschner (in
press) since it possesses the necessary trichobothrial arrangement,
primary setigerons putietures on head and pronotum, venation of hind
wing and other features. The exposed ahdominal sternites in this as

456 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

in other Cydnidae are actually segments III to VII, with I and II
reduced and hidden under the posterior lamellar expansion of the
metapleuron and VIII being telescoped into VII. This interpretation
is used in the descriptions in the present paper.

Considering the obvious clues to specific distinctions which are
furnished by the modifications of the hind tibiae of the males as well
as sculpturing and vestiture it is surprising that not more than one
species was described under each of the proposed generic names. In
this paper five species are considered. They may be separated by
the following key designed to work with both sexes :—

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF BLAENA WALKER

1. Lateral pronotal margins strongly
and broadly constricted between
lobes (fig. 4) .. .. 1... .... .. coarctata sp. nov.

Lateral margins straight or faintly
sinuate between lobes... ...... 2

2. Prosternal carinae high, forming
sides of a labial trough as deep as
height of labial II; abdominal
sternites without or with only a
vague sublateral groove... .. .. 3

Prosternal carinae vague, only
faintly elevated; abdominal stern-
ites sublaterally with a distinct,
broad, deep groove (fig. 9), the
punctures within it much finer
than those not in groove .... .. setosa Walker

3. Median line of pronotum and scutel-
lum with a prominent, calloused
earina; transverse impression of
pronotum deep, abruptly inter-
rupted sublaterally (fig. 5) .. .. mediocarinata sp. nov.

Median line of pronotum not or only
vaguely carinate; transverse pro-
notal impression neither deep nor
interrupted sublaterally .. .. .. 4

FROESCHNER—THE GENUS BLAENA 457

4. Sentellum weakly and broadly sul-
cate on midline of basal half; con-
nexivum with a single, subapical
setigerous pastor marginally on
each segment... .... ., .... ubsulcata sp. nov.

Scutellum not stikautte on thiedian line;
colnexivum with three or more
setigerous punctures marginally
on each segment... .. .... .. .. multitricha sp. nov.

Blaena coarctata sp. nov,
Fig. 4, 7, 12

Pragnosis: The strong, wide emargination of the lateral margin
of the pronotum opposite the ends of the transverse impression (fig.
4) marks both sexes of this species as distinet from others in the
genus, The strongly hooked apex of the hind tibia is also uniquely
distinctive of the male.

Description; Male: Parallel-sided, slencer for the genus, Head:
length little more than three-lourths width, 0.93 (0.85-1.04) ; 0,98 (0.93-
1.04); interocular width, 0.60 (0.58-0.63); anterior ontline parallel in
front of eyes, rounded at apex; jugum mostly flat, slightly elevated
marginally, with few long hairs submarginally and discally; clypeus
weakly convex, strongly and closely punetnred; antennals, I, 0.26
(0,24-0,29): IT, 0.87 (0,31-0,43):; ITI, 0.57 (0,53-0,66) + TV, 0.79 (0,75-
0.83); V (only one specimen with this segment), 0.88; labium reaching
bases of middle coxae, segments, I, 0.27 (0.24-0.29) : TT, 0.55 (0.54-0.56) :
TTT, 0.57 (0.55-0.60): TV, 0.42 (0.41-0.43). Pronotum: Length more
than half width, 1.80 (1.25-1.43) : 2.07 (1.90-2.82) ; diseally with ‘Scattered
hairs; side margins slightly expanded, broadly rounded on anterior
half, and broadly emarginate opposite ends of transverse impression
(fig. 4), with a submargin row of seven setigerons punctures; hind
margin broadly sinuate medially. Seutellwm: Distinctly broader than
long, 1,28 (1,17-1,36): 1.17 (1,10-1.80); somewhat convex, median line
usually vaguely carinate. Jlemelytron: Punctures of costal area
weaker and less distinet than those of clavas and dise; costal margins
without setigerons punctures but with seattered hairs similar to those
of disc; membrane reaching middle of last tergite, leavine genital
capsule exposed, veins straight and simple. Connexivum: Segments
IV, V, VI and VII each with a strong, subapical setigerous puncture on
margin. Proplewron; Densely and coarsely punctate except in lateral

458 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

submarginal line; prosternal carinae very low and indistinct; mid-
ventral line sharply carinate. Meso- and Metapleura: Virtually as
in fig. 6. Legs: Anterior tibiae subterete, slightly expanded on apical
third; anterior femur with a few low setigerous tubercles ventrally ;
middle femur with numerous smal] setigerous tubercles ventrally;
posterior femur with low blunt tubercles on anteroventral margin and
several more-prominent, acute tubercles on posteroventral margin;
hind tibia as in fig. 12, slender, coneavely curved on basal four-fifths,
abruptly decurved at apical fifth armed ventrally from base to
subapical bend with a series of tubercles increasing in length until
they form stout spines. Sternites: Densely and uniformly punctate
across full width except for a narrow strip laterally on II, IV and V;
surface with numerous minute, inconspicuous setigerous tubercles;
posterior margin finely denticulate. Terminalia: Genital capsule a
little finer and more densely punctate than sternites; posterior margin
deeply emarginate, with a prominent bluntly triangular projection
medially (fig. 7); gonostylus similar to fig. 8. Length of body, 5.46
(5.10-5.85).

Female (based on three specimens): Similar to males but hind
legs not modified as there. Head: Length: width:: 0.90 (0.85-0.93) :
0.97 (0.96-1.00); interocular width: 0.59 (0.58-0.60); antennals, I,
0.26 (0.26-0.27): TI, 0.31 ((0.381-0.32): TIT, 0.54 (0.53-0.55): IV, 0.75
(0.72-0.79): V, 0.82 (0.80-0.84); labials, I, 0.32 (0.30-0.36): II, 0.50
(0.50-0.51): III, 0.51 (0.50-0.53): IV, 0.42 (0.41-0.43). Pronotum:
Length: width:: 1.25 (1.20-1.85) : 2.05 (2.03-2.06). Scutellum: Length:
width:: 1.15 (1.11-1.18): 1.17 (1.16-1.20). Length of body, 5.18 (5.08-
5.17).

Type Data: Holotype male and allotype female, both in the
collection of the South Australian Museum, are labelled ‘‘Woodforde
Or., Andamooka Rgs., 31, Aug. 1948, G. F. Gross’’. Paratypes: same
data as types, two males (SAMus, RCF); ‘‘Mulwala, N.S.W., 1-16-53,
F. E. Wilson’’, one female; ‘‘Ultima [Victoria], 8-1915’’, two males
and one female (SAMus).

Distribution: So far this species is known only from the south-
eastern part of Australia as indicated by the data above.

Discussion: This is the most slender and shining of the species of
the genus. The distinctly emarginate lateral pronotal margins
suggested the specific name.

FROESCHNER—THE GENUS BLAEN«A 459

Blaena mediocarinata sp. nov.
Fig. 4

Diagnosis: The distinetly earinate midline of the pronotum coupled
with the abrupt and very deep triangular impression on either side of
the seutellum will separate this species from others in the genus, even
from subsulcata with which the male of this agrees in having the
straight, simple, hind tibia.

Description; (Based ou a single male.) Male: Elongate oval,
sides parallel, Head; Shorter than wide, 0.84: 1.10; interocular width,
0.73; anterior outlme parallel in frout of eyes, flatly rounded apically ;
jugum conyex above, forming « ridge paralleling elevated, punctate
clypeus, lateral margins broadly reeurved, submargin with a single
setigerous puncture in addition to the preocular one; antennals, 1,
0.23: 1, 0.14: LT, 0.56: TV, 0.538: V, 0.68; labium reaching between bases
of middle coxae, segments, [, 0.83: I, 0.54: TH, 0.53; IV, 0,44.
Pronotum: Vength more than half width, 143; 2.40; lateral margin
distinctly explanate with a single setigerous puneture on anterior lobe
and one on the strong prebasal angular projection; transverse
impression deep, abruptly interrupted by earinate midline and again
half way to lateral margins; punctures of anterior lobe rounded, of
posterior lobe (except umbones) with elongate, crowded punctures
making surface appear rugose; anterior lahe with a transverse row
of four setigerous punetures in front of frausverse impression;
posterior margin weakly bilobed, Seutellum; Width greater than
length, 1.47: 1.10; median line in part prominently carimate; decidedly
elevated basal third coupled with deep lateral impressions causing
apical two-thirds to appear abruptly depressed; punctures sparser on
apical part. Memelytron: Distinctly punetate to costal margin, with
no setigerous punctures; membrane with a whitish spot basally at
outer and inner angles; venation ivregnlarly branched, more distinetly
so marginally. Connexivwm; Segments V, Vi and VIT each with a
single subapical setigerons puncture on margin. Propleuron: Coarsely
and elosely punctate except in lateral submarginal line; prosternal
‘arinae thick and very much elevated, enclosing a labial groove deeper
than height of labial IT. Meso- and Metapleura: Virtually as in fig, 6.
Legs: Anterior tibia terete, weakly expanding toward apex; hind temnr
and tibia simple, not specially modified. Slernites: Not impressed
laterally; punetation laterally dense and coarse, absent from broad
Jateral band on V and VI, very widely scattered and much finer on broad
medioventral area; without setigerous tnhercles. Terminalia: Genital

460 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

capsule punctate to rngo-punctate, hind margin weakly concave, with
no medioapical prominence; gonostylus similar to fig, 8. Length of
body, 4.7 mm.

Female; Unknown.

Type Data: Holotype male, ‘‘Margaret River, 8S. W. A,, No. 5,
Haryard Anstr, Exp,, P. J. Darlington’, in Museum of Comparative
Zoology at Harvard University.

Distribution; The-species is known only [rom the type locality in
the southwestern corner of Australia in the State of Western Australia,

Discussion: As usual, there is considerable risk in deseribing a
new species from a single specimen, but if that specimen contains more
than one superficial difference from its nearest relatives such risk is
greatly reduced. Here characters of the antenna (IT mueh shorter
than I, 14:23), pronotum (carinate median line, lateral sub-basal angle
bearing a single setigerous puncture, transverse impression deep,
punetation of posterior lobe greatly elongate), and sentellum (trans-
verse, elevated basal third, very deep triangular impressions laterally,
broad low median carina, two arrangements of punctures), are all
anique with this species and any one of them will separate it from the
others in the genus. Ina group as poorly known as the Cydnidae there
is more advantage to ealling such a form to the attention of other
workers than there is in burying it among the unplaced specimens in
one’s collection.

Blaena multitricha sp. nov,
Fig, 13

Diagnosis: As the species name suggests, one of the outstanding
features is the abundance of long hairs on dorsal (except membrane)
and ventral surfaces and legs. The hind leg of the male has the ventral
femoral armature ineluding several large teeth on apical half and the
tibia distinetly bisinnate (fig. 13).

Description: Male (one specimen): Elongate oval, sides sub-
parallel. Head: Length: width;; 0,98:1.13; interoenlar width 0,70;
surface with numerous long hairs; anterior outline subparallel in front
of eyes, broadly rounded apically; juga flat with lateral margins slightly
raised; clypens subeconvex, punctate; antennals, [, 0,23: II, 0.30: ITT,
0.50; TV, 0.66; labium surpassing front coxae but not reaching middle
ones, segments, I, 0.36; 11, 0,58; TIT, 0,54; TY, 0.38. Pronotum: Length
more than half width, 1.36; 2.60; diseally with many long hairs, these

FROESCHNER—THE GENUS BLAENA 461

more abundant anteriorly and laterally where they completely confuse
the snbmarginal row of setigerous punctures; lateral margin entire,
straight at ends ol nearly obsolete transverse impression; punctation
on posterior lobe weakly longate; posterior margin broadly and very
weakly emarginate. Seutellum: Length: width:: 1.30; 1.49; diseally
with numerous seattered long hairs. Iemelytron; Clavus and corium
with numerous loug easily abraded hairs, eostally these much longer
and about six to fifteen in number; membrane reaching onto genital cap-
sule, venation moderately distinet, reticulate, Cownerwum: Margin of
each segment with several strong setigerous punctnres making the edge
appear denticulate. Propleuron: Densely and coarsely punefate except
in lateral submarginal line; prosternal earinae thick, high, enclosing
a labial groove about as deep as height of labial LL Meso- and Meta-
pleura: Virtually as im fig. 6, metapleural evaporatorium a little less
expanded. Legs: All with several to numerous long hairs, of which
many sre as long as or longer than the spines; anterior tibia not
markedly widened; posterior femur with three or four (variable on two
femora of lone specimen) long, strong teeth (fig, 13); posterior tibia
bowed, thiekened medially and apieally and with tubercles and hairs
as illustrated (fig, 13). Sternites; Punctation coarse and dense except
for impunetate lateral margin of TV and antero-lateral angle of V;
withont setigerous tubereles but with numerous short, ereet or nearly
erect hairs; hind margins finely denticeulate, with a small but strong
spine near ends. Terminalia: Genital capsule coarsely and closely
punctate, apical margin with broad, median emargination which js

7)

convex medially; gonastylus similar to fig, 8,

Female (two specimens): Similar to male except that it usnally
has more hairs, posterior legs are not modified as there, sternites TV and
V punctate to margin, and sublateral spine on posterior margin of
sternites less distinct or absent. Mead: Length: widths: 0.97 (0.88-
1.06): 1,16 (1.12-1.20); interoeular width, 0.70 (0.70-0.70); autennals,
I, 0.25 (0.25-0.26): TT, 0.88 (0.83-0.24); TH, 0.50 (0.50-0.51): TV, 0.68
(0.66-0,71): V, 0.65 (missing on one); labials, I, 0.37 (0.53-0,.41): 1,
0.51 (0.50-0.53); TIT, 0.39 (0.87-0.41). Pronetwn; Length: width::
1.43 (1,80-1,56); 2.62 (2472.77). Sentellam: Length: widths: L47:
1.69 (other damaged), Length of body, 5.48 (5.12-5,84),

Type Data: Holotype male and allotype female, both in collection
of the Sonth Australian Museum, are labelled ‘Cunnamulla, Q.,
H. Hardeastle’’, the allotype having been damaged by dermestids.
Paratypes: Woodforde Ck. Andamooka Res,, South Australia, 1,
Sept., 1948. G. F. Gross, two females (SAMns, RCP). .

462 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Distribution: To date this species is known only from South
Australia and Queensland in Australia.

Discussion: The species name was suggested by the abundant
long hairs on the dorsal (except membrane) and ventral surfaces as well
as on all legs.

Blaena setosa Walker
Fig. 1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11
1868 Blaena setosa Walker, Cat. Hemip. Brit. Mus., 3: 537.

1880 Macrymenus membranaceus Signoret, Ann. Soc. Ent. France,

1880: xviii.

Diagnosis: The virtual absence of prosternal carinae coupled
with the lack of an emargination in the lateral margins of the pronotum
easily separate this species from others in the genus. The male may
be readily recognized by the strong curvature of the basal two-thirds of
the hind tibiae (fig. 11).

Description: Male (fig. 1): Klongate oval, parallel-sided. Head:
Length: more than four-fifths width, 1.10 (1.07-1.14): 1.26 (1.23-1.28) ;
interocular width, 0.78 (0.76-0.80); anterior outline diverging from
preocular emargination, rounded at apex; jugum flat, margins narrowly
reflexed, mesoapical angles produced, submarginally with two setigerous
punctures anterior to preocular one; clypeus convex, punctate;
antennals, I, 0.26 (0.24-0.28) : I, 0.41 (0.37-0.43) : TIT, 0.51 (0.50-0.54) :
IV, 0.65 (0.64-0.66) : V, 0.62 (0.60-0.66) ; labium surpassing front coxae
but not reaching base of middle coxae, segment, I, 0.30 (0.30-0.31) : I,
0.58 (0.53-0.54) : IIT, 0.51 (0.48-0.53) : TV, 0.40 (0.38-0.43). Pronotum:
Length about half of width, 1.54 (1.49-1.59): 3.00 (2.86-3.09) ; lateral
margins not emarginate; lateral submargin with a row of a dozen
setigerous punctures; anterior lobe with numerous seattered long hairs;
posterior lobe with a transverse row of similar vestiture; hind margin
broadly and shallowly concave medially. Scutellum: Length less than
width, 1.49 (1.49-1.51): 1.71 (1.69-1.75); median line weakly or
obsoletely carinate. Hemelytron: Punctures of costal area weaker and
finer than on rest of corium; subcostal row of five setigerous punctures ;
membrane reaching onto genital capsule, veins simple or furcate, some-
times with a few closed cells. Conneatvum: Lateral margins of each
segment with three or four prominent setigerous punctures. Pro-
pleuron: Coarsely punctate; prosternal carinae absent; medioventral
line distinetly earinate. Meso- and Metapleurae: As in fig. 6. Legs:

FROESCHNER—THE GENUS BSLAENA 463

Anterior femur with setizerous punctures ventrally; anterior tibia
(fig. 10) weakly expanding; middle femur with setigerous punctures
and with one or two movable spines apically on both ventral margins
and two or three stout spines medioventrally on basal half; posterior
femur (fig. 11) ventrally with five stout spines, the median one distinetly
stouter and longer; posterior tibia (fig. 11) with basal two-thirds
strongly bowed outward, apical third straight, ventral margin of basal
two-thirds with a double row of strong tubercles whieh become finer
toward distal end of curvature and numerous long hairs which become
sparser toward base; distal end of curvature marked by a strong,
trianyvular tooth direeted hasad. Abdomen: Sublaterally with a strong,
continuous trough reaching from base to base of genital capsule (fig.
9), punetures in this furrow mach finer than elsewhere on stermites;
sternites ventrad of lurrow with seattered coarse punctures inter-
spersed with numerous setigerous tubercles, these more abundant along
moderate median band. Terminalia: Genital capsule coarsely and
closely punctate, apical margin slightly concave and without median
prominence; yonostylns as illustrated (fig, 8). Length of body, 6.46
(6.21-677).

Female: Mostly similar to male but with unmodified hind legs and
no setigerous tuhercles on abdominal sternites. Head: Length: 1.02
(1.01-1.03); 1.48 (1.15-1.24); interocular width, 0.75 (0.73-0.80) ;
antennals, I, 0.24 (0.23-0.26); LI, 0.35 (0,381-0,40) : ITT, 0.43 (0.41-0,47) :
LV, 0.55 (0.53-0.61) : V, 0.55 (0.53-0.58) ; labials, I, 0.29 (0.28-0.81) + IT,
0,44 (0.42-0.50) + ITI, 0.49 (0.46-0.52); TY, 0.41 (0.40-0.44), Pronotum
Length: width:; 1,58 (1.40-1.69) > 2.69 (2.55-2.94). Scutellum: Length:
width:: 1.37 (1.81-1.55): 1.52 (1.48-1.69). Length of body, 5,80
(5.28-6.28).

Type Data: Walker's type of Blaena setosa was described from
a female whose place of origin was indicated by a question mark as
being unknown; it is now in the British Museum of Natural History,
Signoret’s types ‘‘provient del’Anstralie’’, and are in the Signoret
collection in the Natnrhistoriseches Maseum in Vierma. The male now
labelled type is hereby designated the lectotype and the associated
female leetoallotype.

Distribution: The more than thirty specimens examined had all
been taken on the continent of Australia from the States of Western
Australia. South Australia, Queensland and Victoria.

Discussion: Since this species is the genotype its accurate fixation
was imperative. Notes and sketches kindly furnished hy Dr. W. E.

464 RECORDS OF THE S,A, MUSEUM

China of the British Museum and Dr. Max Beier of the Natur-
historisches Museum confirmed without doubt Distant’s earlier report
that Walker’s and Signoret’s generie and species names were based
on the same species,

A comparison of the full-tigure illustration in the present paper
and Signoret’s habitus and head drawings on plate 15, fig. 204 in his
“Revision”? (Ann, Soc. ent. France, ser. 6, vol, 3) reveals that his
figures are erroneous in several !eatures including the generically
important stylated eyes and the uniquely modified hind legs of the male.

Notes on three specimens from Victoria indicated that they had
been taken ‘‘in goil’’ and ‘‘under dead logs’’. Collection records were
for the months of September, October, December and January.

Specimens Examined; 18 tales, 11 females. Australia: Queens-
land: Bluff, Lmale (SAMus). Sonth Australia; Lake Eyre, Dee. 1951,
G. F. Gross, one female (SAMus); Mt. Remarkable, Oct, 1925, F. EB,
Wilson, one male (SAMus); Pt. Lineolm, one male (SAMnus);
Woodforde Ck., Andamooka Rgs,, 1, Sept. 1948, G, F. Gross, eight
males, three females (SAMus, RCI), Victoria: Carumley, 13 Jan.,
1887, ‘Tepper, one male, two females (SAMus), Western Australia:
Beverley, E. F. Boulay, two males, three females (SAMus) ; Geraldton,
Oct. 11, P. J. Darlington, four males, one female (MOZ); Munllewa, W,
D. Dodd, one male, one female (SAMas).

Blaena subsuleata sp, nov,

Diagnosis: The broad, shallowly suleate median line of the
scutellum gives a ready means for separating this species from the
others in the genus, The males of this and mediocarinalus are the
only ones within the genus with straight, unmodified hind tibiae,

Description: Male (one speeimen): Wlongate oval, sides sub-
parallel, Mead: Slightly wider than lone, 1.16:1.10; interoeular width
0.74; anterior outline weakly diverging from preocular emargination,
broadly rounded at apex and with mesoapical angles usually slightly
predneed; juga convex, lorming a strong but irregular ridge either
side of prominent, punctate elypens, lateral margin distinctly reflexed,
with submarginal preapical setigeronus puneture in addition to preocular
one; antennals, I, 0.23; LI, 0.23; TL, 0.64, TV, 0.76; V, 0.76; labium
reaching bases of middle coxae, segments, I, 0.33: II, 0.53: TI, 0.73:
IV, 0438. Pronotum: Length more than half width, 1.51; 2.70; lateral
margins weakly explanate, virtaally straight opposite ends of
transverse impression, with submarginal row of five or six setigerous

Rec. S.A Mesecm Vow NID Pouare NEIN

Pig, 1. Blaena setosa, gemerul libitis, dorsal view.
Pa fue ptate he]

Rec. 8.A Museum Vou. XII, Puate L

l2

Fig. 2. Blaena setosa, head in dorsal view, X 14. Fig. 3. Blaena
setosa, head in lateral view, X 14. Fig. 4. Blaena coarctata,
pronotum in dorsal view, X 10. Fig. 5. Blaena mediocarinata,
pronotum and scutellum in dorsal view, X 10, Fig. 6. Blaena
setosa, meso- and metapleura in ventral view, X 10. Fig. 7.
Blaena coarctata, male genital capsule in posterior view, X 25,
Fig. 8. Blaena setosa, gonostylus in mesal view, X 32. Fig. 9.
Blaena setosa, abdomen in lateral view, X 8. Fig. 10. Blaena
setosa, anterior leg in anterior view, X 10. Fig. 11. Blaena setosa,
posterior leg in anterior view, X 10, Fig. 12. Blaena coarctata,
posterior leg in anterior view, X 12. Fig. 13. Blaena multitricha,
posterior leg in anterior view, X 12.

466 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

punctures, including a single one on posterior lobe; anterior lobe
obsoletely elevated laterally, with a transverse row of four setigerous
punetures just peeron to transverse impression; hind margin almost
straight. Seutellun.: Length equal to width, 1.388: 1.38; disc somewhat
convex with midline broadly but weakly suleate Srotn hase to past
middle. Hemelytron: Costal area explanate, broadly and weakly
recurved, without setigerous punctures; membrane reaching on to base
of genital capsule, venation strongly reticulate. Connexivum: Seg-
ments V, VE and VIT only each with subapical setigerous punctures on
margins. Propleuron: Densely and coarsely punctate except in lateral
submarvinal line; prosternal carinae thick and very prominent,
enelosing a labial groove deeper than height of labial 11; midventral
line not earinate, Meso- and Metapleura: Virtually as in fig. 6. Legs:
Anterior tibia subterete; posterior femur and tibia unmodified.
Sterniles: Weakly impressed sublaterally; punctation just mesad of
spiracnlar row most dense and deepest, becoming weaker and sparser
laterally and toward midline; [TY with a broad, marginal, impunctate
line laterally ; without setigerous tubereles. Terminalia: Genital
capsule more densely punctate than sternites, apical margin flared,
entire; gonostylus similar to fig. 8 Length of body 5.87.

Female (three specimens): Generally similar to male but lacking
impunctate lateral oe on sternite TV, Head: Length less than
width, 1.07 (1.02-1.16); 1.22 (1.20-1.26); interoewlar width, 0.80 (0.77-
0.83); antennals, [, 0.25 (0,24-0,29): TL, 0,26 (0,24-0,28); ITT, 0.62
(0,61-0.66): IV, 0.73 (0.71-0.76): V, 0.79 (0,75-0,86); labials, 1, 0.35
(0.31-0.39): II, 0.61 (0.58-0.64): TIT, 0.69 (0,64-0.78): TV, 0.44 (0.43-
0.46). Pronotwm; Length; width:: 1.57 (1.49-1.62): 2.87 (2.79-2.93),
Scutellum: Length: width:: 1.44 (1.48-1.48)+ 1.58 (1,51-1.71). Length
of body, 6.05 (6.00-6.14).

Type Datu: Holotype male and allotype female are labelled ‘Coen,
C.fape] York, VII-6 '32, ().|/ueensland|, Australia, Harvard Exp.,
Darlington’? and are in the collection of the Mnsenm of Comparative
Zoolowy at Uarvard University. Paratypes: Four females with same
data as types (MOZ, RCP).

Distribution; The type series cones from the large peninsula at
the northeast corner of Anstralia; this is the only known locality of
occurrence,

Piscussion: The unmodified hind leg of the male is noteworthy
in that it oceurs on only one other species in the genus, mediocarinatus.

CAVE PAINTINGS IN THE MOUNT LOFTY RANGES,
SOUTH AUSTRALIA

BY CHARLES P. MOUNTFORD, (DIP, ANTHRO., CANTAB.),
HONORARY ASSOCIATE IN ETHNOLOGY, SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM

Summary

During this century, a number of examples of aboriginal cave paintings, all of which are in shallow
caves or rock shelters, have been found in the Mount Lofty Ranges of South Australia.

Stirling (1902, pp. 205-211), illustrated a few of the aboriginal paintings which he had found in a
cave on the banks of the South Para River, near Gawler. Tindale and Sheard (1927, pp. 14-17), later
revisited this cave, publishing a complete record of the designs at the site as well as others they had
found in some smaller shelters further downstream.

CAVE PAINTINGS IN THE MOUNT LOFTY RANGES,
SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By CHARLES P. MOUNTFORD (Dre. AnrHro., Cantas.), Honorary
Associate IN E}tTHNoLocy, Sours AustrRaLIAN Museum

Plate li and text fig, 1-2

During this century, a number of examples of aboriginal cave
paintings, all of which are in shallow caves or rock shelters, have been
found in the Mount Lofty Ranges of South Australia.

Stirling (1902, pp. 205-211), illustrated a few of the aboriginal
paintings which he had found in a cave on the banks of the South
Para River, near Gawler. Tindale and Sheard (1927, pp. 14-17),
later revisited this cave, publishing a complete record of the designs
at the site as well as others they had found in some smaller shelters
further downstream.

Fig. 1, Cave paintings in the Mount Lofty Ranges, 1/10th full size. Photograph—
C, P. Mountford,

Hossfeld (1926, pp. 287-297), described a group of cave paintings
ou the River Marne, in the Eden Valley district. Many of these
paintings, like those described in the present paper, show human beings
in strong movement.

No further examples of cave paintings were recorded from the
Mount Lofty Ranges until Mountford (1957, pp. 102-115), drew

Eg

468 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Fig. 2. Cave paintings in the Mount Lofty Ranges. 1/6th full size.
Photograph—C. P. Mountford.

MOUNTFORD—CAVE. PAINTINGS 469

attention to three additional localities where cave paintings had been
tound, i.e., Native Valley, Kanmantoo, Harrisons Creek, Tungkillo, and
Cooks Hill,

The present paper records a number of faded cave paintings,
recently found by Mr. Colin Griffiths, in a low rock shelter (Pl. li, A),
un section 2639, Hiindred of Macelesfield. ‘These paintings (illustrated
on PL. li, B and fig. 1 and 2), are entirely in red, and so faint that the
outlines of some of them could not be traced until they were sprayed
with water,

On the right wall of the shelter (Pl. li, A), which is less than
three feet high, are four human figures (fig 1, B), legs outstretched and
hands joined, who appear to be performing a dance. At their feet is a
line of six people walking. A, is an incomplete figure of a man with
a shield in his hand and C, a group of five parallel marks,

Shown on fig, 2, are drawings of the remainder of the paintings,
which are seattered around the wall of the cave, A and K are
representations of mien carrying shields in their hands, B and D,
simple ‘‘stick"’ gures, and C, a dancer, associated with an incomplete
circle. Fis probably a woman, with a digging stick in her hand and
a carrying bag over her shoulder. J, is a similar design, except for
a small cirele near the knee. This painting is also illustrated at Pl, li, B.

At Ei are two daucers, which somewhat resemble those on fig. 1, B;
G, a sumple dancing figure, H, another dancer associated with some
kangaroo-like creature, and at L, two human beings, the taller with
a shield in his hand, ard the smaller in the position of dancing.

DISCUSSION

These cave paintings have several] unusual characteristics; they
are painted entirely in red, all, with the exception of the kangaroo at
I, picture human beings, and most of them show action. In fact, with
the possible exception of those recorded by Hossfeld on the River
Marne (1926, fig. 1-4), they are the most spirited cave paintings that
| know of in South Australia.

It is not possible to estimate the age, nor to define the function of
these cave paintings, but the fact that there is no overpainting, except,
perhaps, the walking figures at fig. 1, B, and that the figures have been
painted entirely in red, suggests that they may have depicted some
inythical story helonging to the eeremonial life of the tribe.

470 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

SUMMARY

This paper records an unusual group of cave paintings in the
Mount Lofty Ranges of South Australia. The designs are figured,
described and their possible function discussed.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to acknowledge the assistance of both Dr. T. D. Campbell
and Mr. H. Bowshall, who motored me to the site and assisted in
tracing the cave paintings in situ.

REFERENCES

Hossfeld, Paul, 1926: ‘‘The Aborigines of South Australia. The
Occupation of the Eden Valley and Angaston Districts’’.
Trans. Roy. Soc., S. Aust., 50.

Mountford, Charles P., 1957: ‘‘ Aboriginal Cave Paintings in South
Australia’’, Ree. S. Austr. Mus., xiii.

Stirling, Edward C., 1902: ‘‘Aboriginal Rock Paintings on the South
Para River, Barossa Ranges’’. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust.,
26.

Tindale, Norman B., and Sheard, Harold L., 1927: ‘‘Aboriginal Rock
Paintings, South Para River, South Australia’. Trans.
Roy. Soc., S. Aust., 51.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE

PLATE LI

A—Rock Shelter in which paintings were located, B—Faint cave painting of woman with
carrying bag on back, Photographs—C. P. Mountford.

Vou. NET Phare dl

Ta feteo pute ATIe |

A NEW COPROPHILOUS UROPODID MITE,
CILLIBA COPROPHILA SP. NOV. FROM A BAT CAVE
IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA (ACARINA-CILLIBIDAE)

BY H. WOMERSLEY, SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM

Summary

A new Uropodid mite, Cilliba coprophila sp. nov. living in the damp guano of a bat cave at
Naracoorte, South Australia, is described and figured from the adults of both sexes, as well as from
the larval, proto-, deuto-, and tritonymphal stages. It is shown to be strongly negatively phototropic
in behaviour.

A NEW COPROPHILOUS UROPODID MITE, CILLIBA COPRO-
PHILA SP. NOV. FROM A BAT CAVE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA
(ACARINA-CILLIBIDAE)

H. Womerstey, Sourn Austrauian Muszum
Fig. 1-3

SYNOPSIS
A new Uropodid mite, Cilliba coprophila sp. nov. living in the
damp guano of a bat cave at Naracoorte, South Australia, is described
and figured from the adults of both sexes, as well as from the larval,
proto-, deuto-, and tritonymphal stages. It is shown to he strongly
negatively phototropic in behaviour.

Family Cillibidae Tragardh.

Tragardh, 1, 1944. Zur Systematik der Uropodiden—Ent. Tidsk.,
65: 171.

Genus Cilliba v. Heyden
von Heyden, 1896. Isis Oken., 19: 613.

Cilliba coprophila sp. nov.
Fig. 1 A-L, 2 A-G, 3 A-D

Types. The holotype female, allotype male and morphotypes of
the larval and nymphal stages as well as numerous paratypes in the
collection of the South Australian Museum.

Locality and Biotope. Found in very large numbers in the damp
guano on the floor of a bat cave at Naracoorte, South Australia, August
26th to September 2nd, 1956 and collected by members of the Cave
Exploration Group of South Australia led by Mr. E. Hamilton-Smith.

Description.

Holotype female. Fig. 1 A-K, M-N. A dark brown, strongly
sclerotised and broadly oval species with convex dorsum and somewhat
flatter venter: length of idiosoma 930»,width 670».

472 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Fig. 1. Cilliba coprophila sp. nov, A-K, M-N Female. A—venter, B—dorsum, C—
gnathosoma, D—dorsal seta, E—ventral seta, f—chelicerae, G—tritosternum, H—leg 1,
I—leg o, J—leg m1, K—leg rv, M—camerostome, N—tectum, L—male, intercoxal shield.

WOMERSLEY—A NEW UROPODID MITE 473

Fig. 2. Cilliba coprophila sp. nov. A-B, tritonymph, A—venter, B—dorsum,
C-G deutonymph, C—venter, D—dorsum, E—posterior dorsal seta, F—posterior
ventral seta, G—dorso-lateral and marginal setae in lateral and dorsal view.

474 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Fig. 8. Cilliba coprophila sp. nov. A-B protonymph, A—venter, B—dorsum. C€-D
larva, C—venter, D—dorsim,

WOMERSLEY—A NEW UROPODID MITE ATS

Dorsum tig. 1 B; smooth and shming, idiosoma almost completely
covered by an entire dorsal shield which is only separated by a narrow
strip of cuticle from the narrow marginal shields, anteriorly the
marginal shields coalesce with the dorsal shield while posteriorly they
are only separated therefrom at the most by a thin suture line, anterior
of the dorsal shield is the cone-shaped ‘‘vertex’’ shield which is
somewhat less sclerotised and bears a pair of long 96. vertical setae,
the dorsal shield is furnished with ca. 20 pairs of long 180, setae,
fig. 1 D, which are slightly swollen at the base and distally barbed, the
marginal shields carry a donble row of about 20 pairs of similar setae
on each side, in addition both dorsal aud marginal shields are furnished
with a number of small pores.

Venter fig, | A; anteriorly with a large camerostome, fig. 1 M,
in which are situated the enathosoma, ecoxae of legs JT and the
tritosternum; the ftritosternum, fig. 1 G, is exposed between coxae
I and consists of a {wo-segmented basal part and a single ciliated
lacinia which is trifid distally; the ventral shields consist of a sterno
venital shield extending from the posterior margin of the camerostome
to the posterior edee of acetabula IV where it is separated from the
large and expanded ventri-anal shield hy a strong suture line, the
anterior margin of the sterno-genital shield is lightly curved and 192.
wide and forms the posterior margin ol the camerostoime, in the
middle of the shield and extending from the anterior margin of
acetabula I to the middle of aeetabula IV is a large oval perigenital ring
in which lies the close fitting similarly shaped epigynial shield, laterad
of the perigenital ring the sterno-genital shield carries 7 pairs of
simple setae and one pair of small anterior lyriform pores, the anterior
three pairs of setae are small and le between coxae [1], the other
pairs are longer and lie between coxae TI and 1V with the last pair
posterior of the perigenital ring, the perigenital ring is 240» long by
150» and anteriorly has a small conical projection which divides the
anterior margin of the shield; the ventri-anal shield oeeupies the
whole of the venter posterior of acetabula [V where it is marked off by
a posteriorly eurved ‘‘metapodal line’’, the shield carries 6 pairs of
medium to long setae which are distinetly swollen basally, fiz. 1 KE, and
to 154» long, as well as a pair of paranal setac; the endopodal shields
are coalesced with the sterno-genital shield while the exopodals are
strongly sclerotised to form the edges of the ‘tfovealae pedales’’; the
stigma is situated between coxae IT and IT with a convoluted peritreme
as figured.

476 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

Gnathosoma fig. 1 C; ventrally with four pairs of long, strong
setae of which the capitular and both pairs vf post-rostral setae are
ciliated, the rostral nude; the tectum, fig. 1 N, is a long dentate hyaline
spike; palpt 5-segmented, the basal seyment carries two ciliated setae
af which the inner is short and blunt, the tarsus is supplied with a
nmimber of long setae and its basal specialised seta is 2-tined; chelicerae
as in fig, 1 F, strongly sclerotised, the fixed digit with only one strong
tooth and an apical blunt hyaline lobe within which ean be seen a canal
which rons back through the digit, movable digit with two strong
teeth,

Legs fig. 1 H-K; all short and six-seymented, the basal segments
of Tl-IV lying within distinct loveae, leg 1 is the slenderest and
furnished with coxal and femoral laminae as figured, legs 11 and III
also with femoral laminae, all tarsi with long carnnele and paired
elaws and on [I-IV with some strong spines: leg T 560. long, Il 468,
TI] 468, TV 526)»,

Allotype male. Ol! the same general lacies and size as in the
female, differing ouly in the stertio-genital shield in the centre of which
between coxae [1] lies the rounded genital orifiee and shield (fig. 1 L).
The chelicerae are similar to those of the female,

Morphotype tritonymph. Fig. 2 A-B; of the same general facies
as in the female, but much less sclerotised and lighter in colour; length
of idjosome 725p, width 550p.

Dorsum; dorsal and marginal shields as m adults, the dorsal
setae plain or only indistinctly barbed distally, and to 80, long, the
tnarginal setae slightly shorter.

Venter fig. 24; sternal shield extending from posterior margin
of eamerostome to slightly beyond acetatnla TV with a lightly concave
posterior margin well separated from anterior margin of the ventri-anal
shield, the anterior margin is 144» wide, the lateral margins closely
contour the eoxae but are separated from the endopodal shields by a
very narrow strip of enticle, the shield carries 8 pairs of setae and
two pairs of pores, the third and fourth pairs of setae are in a
transverse row, the anterior pores are lyriform and near fhe anterior
margin, the other pair are small and round and lie between the sixth
pair of setae, the shield is 326» long and its setae from 30, to 48, long:
the ventri-anal shield is as figured, 3602 wide and 182» long and
furnished with long 80 setae as in the female.

Gnathosoma as in female.
Legs as in female, | 292u long, TT-TTT 351e, TV 374u,

WOMERSLEY—A NEW UROPODID MITE. AT]

Morphotype deutonymph fig. 2 C-G; smaller and less selerotised
than the tritonymph; length of idiosoma 655p, width 468p.

Dorsum fig. 2 D; with four dorsal shields; a large median shield
410» long, rounded anteriorly then widening gradually to 222 in a line
with coxae IL] and then contracting sharply to a rounded end just in
front of the posterior shield, it is furnished with 5 pairs of simple
setae 244, and one pair of lyriform pores anterior of the first pair of
setae which are much nearer together than the other pairs; the posterior
shield is transverse with coneave anterior margin 1764 wide by 23,
long and without setae; laterad on each side of the posterior constricted
portion of the median shield is an elongate widely oval shield 117»
long by 59u wide and between the posterior end of these shields and the
median shield is a long strong blunt barbed seta 59»; the marginal
shields are not demarcated, only being indicated by two Jongitu:linal
rows of very peculiarly shaped setae, these setae are on papillae with
a very short peduncle and then a pickaxe-head shaped seta with an
expanse to 90a, owing to the short pedunele or halt these setae are
closely adpressed to the body surface, dorsally each seta is lightly
convex and in dorsal view is a long narrow pointed ellipse (fig. 2 G),
two other pairs of these setae lie clase to the posterior tip of the median
shield and in front of the posterior shield.

Venter fig, 20; sternal shield small, 164. long by 1054 wide,
extending from anterior of acetabula TL to posterior of acetabula II
with the posterior margin tapering to a blunt angle, with 3 pairs of
setae 35» long; anal shield trapezoidal, anterior margin straight 100p,
lateral margins divergent and posterior margin lightly convex 175z,
with only the paranal setae 35 long and the anus posterior, its length
is 105»; a pair of oval shields just posterior of acetabula TV 82u long
hy 35. wide; a posteriorly curved suture line, in which is a pair of
small rounded pores, runs between acetabula IV, between this line and
the anterior margin of the anal shield are two pairs of fine setae and
on each side laterad of the anal shield is a stronger seta with a pair
of rounded shieldlets close by.

Gnathosoma as in tritonymph.
Legs as in tritonymph, T 2355p long, If 3514, TO 3381, TV 346,,

Morphotype protonymph fig. 3 A-B; very similar to the deuto-
nymph but of smaller size; length of idiosoma 5144, width 3386p,

Dorsum fig. 3 B; with the shields of the same conformation as m
the dentonymph, median shield 418» lang by 884« wide, with 5 pairs

478 RECORDS OF THE 5.4. MUSEUM

of fine setae 20, long, posterior shield 2742 wide by 14, long, lateral
shields 125,» long by 64» wide; setae between lateral and median shields
61» long, the pickaxe-head shaped setae to 91p in expanse.

Venter fig. 3 A; much as in deutonymph, as figured; sternal shield
168 long by 1114 wide reaching posteriorly to level of anterior of
acetabula TV, only demarcated by discontinuity of cuticular striations,
with 3 pairs of setae 342 long; anal shield more rounded than in
deutonymph, 173 wide by 122, long with only the paranal setae; the
postero-lateral shields of the deutonymph are wanting; stigma and
peritreme much as in the deutonymph,

Gnathosoma including palpi and chelicerae as in the deutonymph.
Legs as in dentonymph, I 360,h long, IT 360n, ILL 345, IV 384p,

Morphotype larva fig, 3 C-D: small, length of idiosoma 480,, width
288, with only 3 pairs of legs.

Dorsum fig. 3 D; without any definite shields except the posterior
which is 125» wide hy 22. long; with a media! double row of 5 pickaxe-
head shaped setae which are very thin with an expanse to 67»,
marginally or submarginally with longitudinal row of 10 similar setae
on each side, of which the first 4 are thin, the others thicker and shaped
as in the deutonyimpb, just in {vont of the posterior shield is a pair of
similar setae with an expanse of 125y; the dorsal surface is irregularly
ornamented by pitting as figured,

Venter fig. 3 C; as in protonymph, but the sternal shield is only
indicated by the break in the cuticular striations, it is 1604 long by
102» wide with 3 pairs of setae 23p long; the anal shield is even more
rounded than in the protonymph, 91 wide by 63» long; between the
aternal and the anal shield is a single pair of fine normal setae and
laterad of these a very fine pickaxe-head shaped seta; the peritreme
is only shghtly developed and the stigma is just posterior of coxae IT,

Gnathosoma, pal and chelicerae much as in protonymph.
Legs as tigured, 1 356 long, I] 336, ITL 3124, TV 326,.

Remarks. This is an interesting and remarkable species in the
sudden and extreme morphological change in the form of the dorsal and
marginal setae from the pickaxe-head shape in the larva, protonymph
and deutonymph, to the normal type of seta found in the tritonymph
and adults. The pickaxe-head setae in the earlier stages may possibly
he of assistance in enabling the mites to traverse the pellets of guano
in which the mites live.

WOMERSLEY—A NEW UROPODID MITE 479

The collection of these mites, many thousands, was from a 2 lb.
treacle tin of moist guano collected from the bat cave and sent to the
Museum. When first opened the surface of the guano was a seething
mass of living mites, but within seconds of being exposed to the light,
they had all disappeared below the surface. This negative response to
light was repeated many times.

THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF KANGAROO ISLAND, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

BY H. M. COOPER, ASSOCIATE IN ANTHROPOLOGY, SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM

Summary

This paper refers to the archaeological stone implements of Kangaroo Island, an uninhabited land at
the time of its discovery by Captain Matthew Flinders, R.N., H.M.S. Investigator in March 1802.
The various groups, including some smaller types hitherto unnoticed, are described and compared,
where applicable, with similar material found upon the adjacent mainland. It is suggested that the
smaller implements may have been used concurrently with the dominant large pebble implement
industry of Kangaroo Island termed Kartan.

The diverse problems relating to the islanders’ time and direction of arrival and, in addition, their
departure or local extinction are referred to and some conjectural solutions discussed.

THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF KANGAROO ISLAND,
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

By H. M. COOPER, Hon. Associare In ANTHROPOLOGY,
SovurH Avstrauian Muspum, ADELAIDE

Map and text fig. 1-48

SUMMARY

This paper refers to the archaeological stone implements of
Kangaroo Island, an uninhabited land at the time of its discovery
by Captain Matthew Flinders, R.N., H.M.S. Investigator in March
1802.

The various groups, including some smaller types hitherto
unnoticed, are described andl compared, where applicable, with similar
material found upon the adjacent mainland. It is suggested that the
smaller implements may have been used concurrently with the dominant
large pebble implement industry of Kangaroo Island termed Kartan.

The diverse problems relating to the islanders’ time and direction
of arrival and, in addition, their departure or local extinetion are
referred to and some conjectural solutions discussed.

PHYSICAL FEATURES OF KANGAROO ISLAND

Kangaroo Island, which extends more than 90 miles in an east-
west direction and has a maximum width of 30 miles, is separated from
the mainland to the north-east by Backstairs Passage with a minimum
width of nine miles and in a northerly direction by Investigator Strait
which is about 25 miles wide. The ocean to the south of the island
deepens rapidly offshore with the exeeption of a few outlying reefs
and rocks, the 100 fathom line approaching the coast in one area to
within a distance of 30 miles. The interior of Kangaroo Island, shortly
after Captain Flinders’ discovery, was found to be covered in many
places with dense, sometimes impenetrable scrub and in others with
forests of Kuealyptus trees. The rainfall varies between 17 and 30
inches, the climate of the island, due to its position being cool, temperate
and equable. Fish, birds, kangaroos, wallabies, opossums and seals
abound. The highest official physical feature is Mount Macdonnell—
984 feet,

RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

482

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J9ys

Tbotig, o1D104, :

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VIASNINSd 3xHOA

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21paned np 'D

ppiog 'D

COOPER—ARCHAEOLOGY OF KANGAROO ISLAND 483

DISCOVERY AND FIRST TRACES OF PRIMITIVE MAN

‘aptain Flinders, when running along the north coast of the island
in J.M.S. Investigator during March 1802, wrote thus in his journal:—

‘Neither smoke nor other marks of inhabitants has as yet been
perceived upon the southern land,”’

This observant officer, deseribing the kangaroos seen feeding,
continued :—

‘Our landing gave them no disturbance . . . The poor animals
suffered themselves . . . in some instances to be knoeked on the head
with sticks . . , There was little doubt, however, that this extensive
piece of land was separated from ihe continent for the extraordinary
tameness of the kangaroo . . . concurred with the absence of all
traces of inen to show that it was not inhabited . . . That the natives
of the continent did not visit it was demonstrated if not by the want of
all signs of such visit yet by the tameness of the kangnroo, an animal
which ou the continent resembles the wild deer in timidity.’’

Captain Flinders revisited Kangaroo Island a week later and after
going ashore near lis former landing wrote :—

‘A party was sent to shoot kanguroos . . . The kanguroos were
found to be less numerous than at the first anchoring place, and
they had become shy so that very few were killed.’’ Early settlers
subsequently confirmed the soundness of Captain Flinders’ deductions
—that his discovery was an wninhalited land.

Definite evidence of an archacological native occupation, however,
was established with the discovery by Howehin (1903) of some hammer-
stones at Hawk's Nest Station adjoming Murray’s Lagoon. ‘Tindale
and Maegraith (1931) found !yrther examples at the same locality in
association with some massive trimmed pebble implements and Cooper
(1942) made an extensive examination during the period 1954-9 which
disclosed the existence of numerons camping places distributed widely
thronghout most of the island, 1,400 pebble choppers and **horsehoof”’
shaped trimmed cores were collected during the course of this survey
and, in addition, more than 150 lammerstones,

This preliminary inspection appeared to indicate that the massive
trimmed pebble chopper/core implement. industry was a completely
pure one with the exception of one or two small flakes with secondary
trimming which appeared to be merely fortuitous. A careful
examination of these and additional sites during a further survey,
however, disclosed the existence of a former well established small

¥

484 RECORDS OF THE 3.A, MUSEUM

and medium sized implement industry with the finding of more than
160 implements and, furthermore, a large number of smal] discarded
workshop cores which confirmed their origin, This material, which
has never been deseribed, is referred to in a later section of this paper.

THE LARGE STONE IMPLEMENTS OF KANGAROO ISLAND

The large trimmed pebble chopper/core block implement industry
has been deseribed as previously stated and a brief allusion to it will
suffice in this place, for comparison, before proceeding with a
description of the small and intermediate forms which constitutes a
principal section of this paper.

The large implements are prepared by hammer flaking most or
nearly all of one side of water-worn fine grained quartzite pebbles,
usnally oval in shape. The lower periphery of this side, after bemg
roughly flaked {o the desired shape, is secondarily trimmed with
vonsiderable skill to produce # fairly thin and often stepped working
edve. Treatment of the upper portions of this prepared side is
confined to rough flaking and only to such an extent that the pebble could
be held eouveniently im the hand during use,

The typical pebble chopper implement of Kangaroo Island,
therefore (fig, 1), is a semi-uniface core implement whose massive
form when completed is attained by primary and secondary hammer
flaking and trimming as described above, A fully unifaee pebble
chopper type exists ut sparingly,

The lower or working edge of pebble choppers, as indicated by the
existence ol numerous well ysed examples, gradually retreats backwards
from its original form owing to wear and retrimming antil it becomes
vertical and probably too blunt and obtnse to carry ont its original
frnetions. The heavily erushed and bruised edges of many, however,
appear to indicate their conversion for some other purpose in the
concluding stages of their nseful life.

An interesting feature of many of these pebble choppers is the
existence of well defined pitting and bruising upon the nether surfaces
suggesting their reversal when required lor hammers, The exercise of
this function is also evident wpon massive trimmed angular blocks
from Hallett Cove, Cooper (1959), and also on similar material which
the writer has recently collected upon campsites extending along the
banks of the River Wakefield.

Large core-like implements with stepped secondary trimming,
made chiefly from angular blocks, are relatively common upon

COOPER—ARCHAEOLOGY OF KANGAROO ISLAND 485

Kangaroo Island, They are, with) few exceptions, of ‘horsehoof’’
shape as in fig 2. Their working edges, when reduced by wear and
retrimming, hecome obtuse similarly to the pebble choppers, or even
concave im extreme cases, when the upex overliangs the trimmed
working base. (Cooper, 1943, fig. 2 and 3.) The Kangaroo Island
industry is practically devoid of millstones both upper and lower.

The existence of large assemblages of implements around many
lagoons and upon the banks of creeks, mostly inland, indicates that
such localities were favoured when seleeting the sites for important
camps. Primitive man upon Kangaroo Island, however, inhabited
many parts of the tableland country, espeeially in places where there
exist saucer shaped depressions or pans of various diameters and a few
feet deep with a tenacious clayey bottom often overlain by a thin layer
of sand. At examination of these places reveals the oceurrence, here
and there, of a depression around the margin of which two or three
stone implements may be found. ‘The ehoice of any particular pan
appears to have been related to its siperior capacity for retaining
water, The comparative fewness of implements in these surroundings
appears to associate them with the wanderings und temporary presence
of a small group or single family moving about from place to place
in seareh of food and water.

The existence of implements in almost iupenetrable sernb country
is diffenlt to explain, They may have been lost or discarded by hunters
during or after setling fire to the surrounding country—a favourite
means of rounding np animals and reptiles for food—or they could be
relics of a more rigorous climatic period and less vegetation if their
age were sufficiently remote.

The beauty and syminetry of many pebble implements indicate that
at some period af least the Nangaroo Islanders possessed craftsmen
capable of producing work of no mean order,

COMPARISON OF KANGAROO ISLAND AND MAINLAND
LARGE TYPHS

{t appears probable, from material gathered during the last 25
years, despite the existence of relatively few small implements, that
the dominant feature of the Kangaroo Island material culture was
the large trimmed pebble industry and that the ‘‘horsehoof’? shaped
trimmed core may have been a contemporary, The relative ratios of
these types collected at two localities—Hog Bay (Willson) River and
Discovery Lagoon near Mmn Bay—are interesting owing to their

486 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

similarity. There are no means of estimating, however, whether this
affinity is merely coincidental or presents some unknown significant
factor :—

Trimmed Pebble “‘Horsehoof”’

Choppers Trimmed Cores
Discovery Lagoon... .. 363 29
Hog Bay (Willson) River 337 23

The aggregates of pebble choppers and ‘‘horsehoof’’ cores collected
from all island campsites by the writer—1,277 and 118 respectively—
and the total absence of the latter from many sites, appear to indicate
that these were too few in number to represent a separate culture
period.

It is an interesting feature, but one difficult to explain, that none of
the camping grounds known upon the neighbouring main, many of
which are within visible distance of the island, show any trace whatever
of a dominant pebble implement culture although large numbers of
pebbles exist, at least at present, along its shores, including the
vicinity of Cape Jervis, near which place the writer discovered over
90 ‘‘horsehoof’’ trimmed cores, fashioned from angular, irregular
blocks, upon one spot alone. No dominant pebble implement industry,
moreover, has yet been discovered elsewhere in South Australia
although scattered examples have been found, apparently as a
subsidiary type, in association with many large implements such as at
Artipena water, Cooper (1943) and elsewhere.

The existence of the ‘‘horsehoof’’? upon Kangaroo Island, in
limited numbers upon some sites and its complete absence from others,
may indicate that it was a type already known to the islanders before
their arrival there and that its use was relatively unimportant in
comparison with the pebble implement culture which, owing to the
scarcity of other large forms, appears to have been evolved and
developed as a conventional type shortly afterwards.

SMALL KANGAROO ISLAND IMPLEMENTS

The writer, during extensive field work in the early thirties, found
a few small well defined implements of quartzite in association with
the large pebble implement industry. Others, derived from milky
quartz, with unmistakable secondary trimming were also discovered
but the relative scarcity of the latter did not account for the presence
of many small discarded working cores in that material, of which over
200 were collected. A more thorough examination at a later date of

COOPER—ARCHAEOLOGY OF KANGAROO ISLAND A8T

many flakes scattered about clearly indicated that there existed amongst
them, primitive endserapers and other types, with crude secondary
trimming, which had been overlooked by the very nature of their
extreme primitiveness, The presence, moreover, of a number of
simple but keen edged flakes, devoid of any secondary trimming, many
of whieh bore chipping upon iheir nether sides, indicating wear from
use, suggests their definite employment as knives, The existence of
so many discarded milky quartz cores and simple flakes, often showing
their bulbs of percussion, together with the scarcity of well worked
small implements upon numerous campsites reveals that many of these
simple flakes must have been deliberately made to serve as cutting
tools.

This small implement assemblage includes trimmed end and
‘nosed’? serapers, discoidal and irregular shaped adzestones, knives/
saws, awls, prepared cores and some solitary types which are included
in the accompaitying drawings. All those diseovered by the wriler are
derived from milky quartz and quartzite with a few exceptions which are
referred to in their proper place,

The number of small Kangaroo [sland implements available,
although rather cirenmseribed, is sufficiently large to enable a tentative
comparison to he made with those existing elsewhere in South Australia,
This incieates that they are comparable in some cases with, bat seantily
representative of, some types to be found upon the nearby main
although the island examples as a whole exhibit eruder workmanship.
Some allowance should he made, however, for those deriyed from milky
quartz, Which constitute the majority, because accurate primary and
secondary flaking of this material is most, diffienlt to control. The finish
npon those produced from quartzite is somewhat better,

Most of the small Kangaroo Island implements, the majority of
which retain their bulbs of perctission, have been strick from prepared
eores but a few are merely random nulky quartz natural blocks or
fragments which have received rough secondary trimming to provide
fhe necessary working edge. The preference for milly quartz appears
to be due to its prevalence upon the surface at or near many campsites
whereas quartzite had to be transported inland from restrieted spots
situated upon the coast. The seareity of small quartzite working cores
appears to mdicate that some implements in this material had their
origin in flakes of suitable size and shape disearded during the
manufacture of large trimmed pebble choppers. A tmmber of types
widespread upon the mainland, however, such as the beautifully

488 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

executed Pirri and Woakwine points, feometric and other microliths,
slate scrapers and polished axeheads have not been found upon the
island,

It is most difficult to determine whether the smaller implements of
Kangaroo Island were employed coneurrently with the large pebble
implement industry or whether they represent some other period in
its ocenpation by primeval man. Stratified deposits throughout the
world, generally, disclose the existence of the larger and progressively
improved stone implements in the lower (earlier) layers which in
turn were displaced, at least prince ipally, by smaller, lighter and hetter
designed forms—the result of experience and the demand for them
in the manufacture of a wider range of domestic, hunting and fighting
equipment,

The large and massive stone implements, improvised by primitive
man in earlier periods were eminently suitable for carrying out heavy
work such as eutting boughs lor shelters and the shaping of his rndely
designed cluhs and spears. ‘There would be other purposes, however,
which would need some small simple or trimmed flakes even at that
period such as making skin cloaks, for ceremomes and cutting in
general. In the absence of any well defined or established small
implement types, which upon the mainland are indicative of later
cultural periods, representatives of which oceur there in vast numbers,
it is possible that the somewhat limited and ill defined small forms
of Kangaroo Island, suitable for the performance of lighter duties such
as those just referred to, were contemporaries of the large pebble
implements of that aren,

THE CAPE CASSINT HOARD

This interesting and perplexing series was found in a little
shallow rocky hollow upon the top of the coastal cliffs at Cape Cassini
and within a few feet of their seaward edge, It ineludes several
mieroliths, some of whieh appear to possess pressure flaking, and also
several discarded working cores of microlithie form from which they
have heen struck. A smal! quartzite hammerstone was found nearby
aud may have heen used to fashion them, The importance of the find
justified the collection of all the discarded flakes for future reference—
82 in number, The material, identified by the late Sir Douglas Mawson
as a eherty flint, was considerably weathered and from the general
deposition of the assemblage it is apparent that the implements were
made where they Iuy and not transported, although the cherty flint
itself may have been derived from elsewhere,

COOPER—ARCHAEOLOGY OF KANGAROO ISLAND 489

The construction of the individual specimens, which constitute the
Cape Cassini hoard, makes it difficult or even impossible to associate
them with other Kangaroo Island implements. They appear to
resemble, in many respects, forms which exist in South East South
Australia and also in rock type, but their appearance in such an
isolated situation, if this be true, is surprising. There is convenient
access, however, to the cliff top where they lay, from an extensive flat
rocky platform a few feet above sea level. It is possible that they nay
be relics of a forced or chance landing from seawards in pre-historic
times, or, on the other hand, disclose the presence of a workshop site
made by a mainland native several of whom were known to have been
captured at the commencement of the Huropean occupation by roving
undesirables and forced to accompany them,

CONSTITUTION OF THE CAPE CASSINTI HOARD

Discarded flakes .. 2. 2. 2. 1. oe. 82
Discarded working cores .. .. .. -. i
Microlith endscraper .. .. .. .. .. 1
Irregular shaped knives .. .. .. ., 2
Microlith knives .. .. .. .. we es 2
Mndscrapers.., -. -- 2, -- 44 «+ 8: 3
Worn adze .. -. 6. we i ee ee 1
Concave adzes .. ,. .. 6. 2 ee ee 4
Irregular shaped adves fo kay “ele ls 2

Total. ce we tee et) LO

A TASMANIAN POST-HUROPEAN STONE IMPLEMENT
INDUSTRY

During historic times—shortly after Captain Flinders’ diseovery
in 1802—sealers, whalers and adventnrers [rom Bass’ Strait. and
elsewhere established camps at Antechamber Bay and Cape Hart
bringing Tasmanian women with them, Small well trimmed flint
implements, similar to those found in Tasmania, have been collected
at both sites associated with fragments of iron, glass and European
wun flints. Those discovered by the writer at the ¢ Cape Hart campsite
comprised more than 70 trimmed implements chiefly ‘‘nosed’’ scrapers,
adzestones and cores. Water-worn flint nodules upon ‘the adjoining
beach indicate the source of material, It is interesting to observe that
in contrast with the island’s early inhabitants the Tasmanian women
ignored the quartzite pebbles amongst the flint nodules. This Stone

490 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Age-Kuropean phase was of brief duration and ceased to exist with the
advent of permanent settlement and a stabilised administration. These
two sites were described by Tindale (1937), Alison Harvey (1941) and
Cooper (1948).

FOOD REMAINS

Cooper (1943) referred to the existence of sea shells upon three
eroded campsites in association with large pebble implements, hammer-
stones and, in one case, burnt hearth stones. A more recent examination
of two of these sites by the writer revealed additional extensive erosion
exposing, in one locality, a mound of burnt earth containing many
mussel shells and in the other a partly exposed stratum of further
mussel shells, two inches below which a simple quartzite flake was
embedded im situ. Both these species are living forms in the nearby
waters of Pelican Lagoon.

The sole surviving proof of primitive man’s occupation of
Kangaroo Island rests upon the existence of many stone implements
which is indisputable evidence but the significance of the shell food
remains in association with them upon three scattered campsites
continues unsolved until it is determined later by a Carbon 14 dating.
There is just a possibility that they may represent the feasts of the
Tasmanian women already referred to or other wanderers in the early
1800s. The association of these shells with pebble choppers in the
situations stated above suggests their contemporaneity and if confirmed
by a dating would be invaluable in providing a firm foundation upon
which to base investigations so necessary in the solution of the problems
still remaining.

ARRIVAL OF THE KANGAROO ISLANDERS

The date and direction of the Kangaroo Islanders’ arrival, the
duration of their occupation and, in addition, their departure—or
extinction in situ—are all at present unknown and impossible of solution
with the meagre details available. Some possibilities, all of them
purely hyopthetical however, may be advanced and discussed.

Their arrival at what is now Kangaroo Island could have been
accomplished in various ways three of which may be mentioned as
possible :—

(1) Via an unbroken landbridge when it was still part of the
main.

COOPER—ARCHAEOLOGY OF KANGAROO ISLAND 49)

(2) By means of a crossing which included a series of deep
water chanuels, shoals and dry land, involving walking,
swimming, wading and the use of canoes or rafts.

(3) By crossing the water in canoes or rafts by one of the
channels somewhat similar to those in existence today
such as Backstairs Passage or Investigator Strait. (Vide
accompanying map.)

The ocenpation of the island or its equivalent at that time would
present no difficulties if the conditions referred to in (1) prevailed but
if those in (2) or (3) existed a crossing in such circumstances would
have been difficult although not impracticable in the former but well
nigh impossible in the latter with the facilties which it may be supposed
{he natives of that period would have at their disposal, There is
nothing to indicate that they were better equipped than at the time of
the Huropean occupation but before proceeding further it may be useful
in this place to deseribe the two stretches of water which separate the
island from the main,

Investigator Strait has a minimum width of about 22 sea miles.
Its bed is rermarkably uniform in contour, a line of soundings drawn
from shore to shore in the vieinity of Point Marsden and Troubridge
Point giving the following successive depths in fathoms :—3, 17, 16, 17,
17, 18, 18, 18, 17, 18, 17, 16, 16, 15, 15, 14, 13, 10,9 and 5. Investigator
Strait is free of offshore dangers with the exception of those fairly
close in under the land snch as the Althorpe Isles,

The soundings in Backstairs Passage with a minimum width of
only nine miles, however, are very irregular deepening and shoaling
rapidly as for example from 17 fath. to 31, 7 to 31 and 4 to 18, They
range between 44 fath. off Cape St. Albans and 3 on the Yatala Shoal.
An examination of charts of Backstairs Passage indicates that deeps,
shallow banks and the Yatala Shoal lie, generally, in a northwest-
southeast direction and if this be due to seour, the tide which sets
through the passage in much the same direction, may be a contributing
fuctor.

The narrowness of Backstairs Passage, the irregular soundings
and the strength of the tidal stream, more especially when opposed
by contrary winds, all combine to cause rips, races and a steep breaking
sea which are dangerous even for a small well found boat. These are
the prevailing conditions with which the native would have had to
contend frequently when attempting a crossing.

492 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

The Kaurna (Adelaide) Tribe, whose territory extended south-
wards to Cape Jervis, possessed neither canoes nor rafts at the time
of the European occupation nor did the Narangga of Yorke Peninsula.
The natives of the lower River Murray used primitive bark canoes and
those living around the lakes, just above its outlet to the sea, had frail
and flimsy rafts of reeds in addition. Both types of craft were believed
to have been propelled solely by means of poles before the advent of
the European which would restrict navigation to waters no more than
a few feet deep. Any successful crossing of Investigator Strait or
Backstairs Passage as they exist today, their most convenient directions
of approach, either in a frail bark canoe with a few inches of freeboard
or upon a crazy reed raft, would need skill and much good fortune
even in tolerably fine weather and if propelled by poling, apparently
their only means of propulsion, an obvious impossibility. There is
the chance, however, of an isolated enforced crossing or two due to
being driven over before the wind.

A NATIVE LEGEND OF KANGAROO ISLAND

The former inhabitants of Kangaroo Island having disappeared
before its discovery in 1802 no local legends are available and it is
necessary to depend solely upon information secured from tribes who
lived upon the adjacent mainland such as the Kaurna (Adelaide), the
Jarildekald and other peoples of the Encounter Bay area. Both the
Kaurna and Jarildekald natives believed Kangaroo Island to be the
home of the spirits of departed ancestors, Pindi in the former’s
language meaning the spirit of departed humans, hence one of their
names for Kangaroo Island—Pindingga—the abode of spirits. Several
variations survive of an interesting legend relating the wanderings and
feats of Ngurunderi, a great ancestral spirit of the Jarildekald. His
field of activities included Kangaroo Island and as it is rather
applicable, at least in theory, to certain references in this paper, the
legend, as recorded by Berndt (1941) is referred to briefly as follows.

Ngurunderi, during one of his epic achievements, having travelled
down the River Murray along which he made many features of the
country as he proceeded upon his way, arrived on the shores of
Encounter Bay, where he caused Granite Island and other islets to
emerge from the sea. He hastened thence westward in search of his
two fleeing wives whom he perceived at last hastening ahead of him
near Tjirbuk (Blowhole Creek) where Ngurungaui, the land of spirits
(Kangaroo Island), is clearly visible. Ngurungaui, at that time, was
almost connected with the main so that it could be reached by walking

COOPER—ARCHAEOLOGY OF KANGAROO ISLAND 493

and wading and this the fugitives attempted to do, Ngurunderi, in
very bad humour, had arrived meantime at Tjirbuk and pausing until
his unfaithful wives had reached mid-channel he called with thunderous
voice for the sea to rise and overwhelm them.

Cawthorne (1846), surveying from the neighbouring cliffs the
scene of Ngurunderi’s revenge as enacted in the native legend, wrote
as follows in his diary :—

“Away upon the breeze is borne
From setting sun to rising morn
Bounding from crag to reedy pool
The voice of great Ooroondool.”’

(Ooroondool is a variant spelling of Ngurunderi.)

Great waves, Berndt's aecount continues, rapidly arose and falling
upon his wives they were overwhelmed and swept away. Ngurunderi
thereupon transformed them into two little rocky islets called Meralang
(Muralang) now The Pages and a reed basket carried by the younger
hecame a nearby reef,

Neurunderi continued his journey to Kangaroo Island where after
proceeding westward he created a great Casuarina tree and rested in
its shade. He then walked to the end of the island where he hurled
his last remaining spear into the ocean whence rocks appeared from
which he dived into the sea after which he rose up into the sky where
he vesides until this day in the spirit world. Ngurunderi, before bidding
his Jaralde people farewell, told them that after death they would
follow his tracks to Kangaroo Island, the spirit world, and there they
would reside with him,

It may be observed in relation to the above legend that as The
Pages are to the east of Tjirbuk, Ngurunderi’s irresistible advance of
the sea would have entered Backstairs Passage from the westward, that
is through Investigator Strait and thus isolated the island from the
north.

Neuruuderi’s achievements, as related in this piece of interesting
folklore survival, cannot, of course, have any direct bearing upon the
eause of Kangaroo [sland’s insularity but if its severance by natural
changes oceurred after the first arrival of primitive man upon the
neighbouring main, there may be just a possibility that the event, for
which the great Neuronderi might quite naturally have been given full
credit, has survived in folklore as related above, The legend, upon
the other hand, may be totally imaginary and not a highly coloured
version of an actual happening in which ease it is devoid of significance.

494 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

The following is a list of names, some mere variants, which have
heen attached to Kangaroo Island by the natives of adjoining mainland
tribes:—Karta, Kukakun, Kukakungar, Narnnggawi, Ngurungaui,
Peendeka, Peendingga, Pindeka and Pindingga.

DURATION OF THE OCCUPATION—DISAPPHARANCE

It is impossible to suggest, with the information available, even an
approximate date for the first of Nanwaroo Island’s settlers arrival
there nor is it possible, in the absence o! skeletal remains, to identify
them as of Tasmanoid, Australoid or other origin, The implements
themselves, the only unassailable proof of man’s former presence there,
do not offer sufficient evidence which could indicate whether these
people comprised a small community whose stay was prolonged over
a considerable period of time or whether they are due to a large group
and a brief occupation, In the event of the island having become
insulated from the tnain, perhaps after their arrival by way of a partial
or complete land bridge, the relative searcity of the implements and the
widely seattered nature of their ocenrrence might suggest the presener
of a small group who wandered far and wide over the island for some
considerable time. Tf this be true, the absence of any well defined small
culture types such as the beatifully fashioned pirris, microliths, scrapers
and adzes whose members occur in large quantities wpon the main.
might indieate that the island dwellers’ isolation from outside inter-
ference and the continuation of their own relatively pure and dominant
large pebble implement enlture persisted over a prolonged period. The
development in the local fauna and flora of many sub-species and
variants in comparison with comparable forms upon the adjacent
main, and the total absence of others, favour a considerable period of
insularity,

There appear to be at least two logical alternatives for the ultimate
disappearance of the Kangaroo [slanders—their deparfirre or extinetion
in. sttu—but any theories relating to them are purely hypothetical
and precariously based.

The natives, after an occupation of unknown duration, may have
been forced to retreat northward owing to the advent ol rigorous
climatic conditions—assuming their arrival was early enough—nusing,
perhaps, the same land bridge as before if it still existed or oven because
the same land bridge itself was threatened with extinction. It is
possible, therefore, that their former home, subsequent to its conversion
to an island, may have remained deserted until historic times although

COOPER—ARCHAEOLOGY OF KANGAROO ISLAND 495

in the event of such an evacuation it is strange that no traces exist
upon the adjacent main of their pebble implement industry with its
characteristic trimming.

he only alternative to the disappearance of the Kangaroo Island
people, if it were not due to their departure elsewhere, appears to be
that they fmally sueeumbed in the country wherein they had dwelt.
The loeal native community, more especially if it were small from the
ouiset, and isolated from contact with the outside world over a long
period, may have deteriorated to such a degree from reasons now
unkuown including, possibly, disease, intermarriage, climatic conditions
and internecine tribal fights as to finally lead to their extinction, There
is no evidence, unfortunately, to confirm the likelihood of any of these
causes being responsible or even contributory. The reference in the
preeeding paragraph to the total absence of the Kangaroo Tsland pebble
choppers upon the nearby mainland strengthens the possibility of the
islanders succumbing in the land where they lived and that their pebble
implement culture died with them,

LATER VISITORS TO KANGAROO ISLAND.

The question naturally arises whether Kangaroo Island was
visited subsequently by parties from the mainland, more especially
after the waters which now sirround it attaimed their present form.
The vision of Kangaroo Island, an unknown land, to a venturesome
Kuropean, laid out as it were almost at his feet and separated by
a sleyder thread of sea, would arouse lis curiosity when viewed from
the main.

It is reasonable to suspect, however, that the neighbouring tribes-
men may have had very good reasons of their own for avoiding its
shores, They were men of the stone age in its most primitive form
whose minds were inextvieably steeped im superstition and possessed, in
addition, an woshakable belief in the workings of magic as inherited
from theiy forefathers. The knowledge imparted by their ancestral
legends, that the island was the dwelling place of departed souls and,
in addition, the total absence of smokes arising from this mysterious
land—a familiar indication to them of the presence ol primitive man—
would tend to strengthen their belief that the place was truly a land
ol the dead,

There may be reasonable grounds for supposing, therefore, that
no planned visits may have been made to Kangaroo Island dnring
recent years, although the possibility of casual torced landings due

496 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

to stress of weather, as already mentioned, should not be overlooked if
water transport by frail canoe or clumsy raft were available. Such
an adventure could explain the presence of the Cape Cassini hoard,

CONCLUSION

It can be said without fear of contradiction—and the writer readily
agrees—that the portion of this paper dealing with the arrival and
departure or disappearance of the old inhabitants of what is now
Kangaroo Island offers nothing indisputable enough to determine,
free from doubt, the perplexities involved or, indeed, any salient feature
relating to them. The purpose of the possibilities proffered herein—
and they are purely hypothetical and tentative in their conceptiou—
is that they may assist in evolving sounder and more logical ones with
which to at least lessen the obstacles standing in the way of solving
the problem of the Kangaroo Islanders.

The writer, meanwhile, offers with some hesitation, a final
problematical succession of events but with the proviso that it is as
hypothetical and unconfirmed as those in this paper which precede it.

There is a possibility that :—

(1) The old Kangaroo Islanders were Tasmanoids.

(2) They arrived by way of a land bridge, partial or complete.
(3) They were a small party.

(4) Their home subsequently became an island.

(5) They thenceforth pursued a life of isolation and solitude.
(6) They died where they had lived.

REFERENCES
Berndt, R. M., 1940; ‘‘Some aspects of Jaralde Culture, South
Australia’’, Oceania, Sydney, 11 (2), pp. 164-185.
Cawthorne, W, A., 1846: ‘Unpublished journal’’, Arehives Depart-
ment, Adelaide, South Australia (No. A558).
Cooper, H. M., 1943: ‘‘Large stone implements from South Australia’’.
Rec. 8. Aust. Mus., Adelaide, 7, pp. 343-369.
— 1948: ‘‘Examples of Native Material Culture from South
Australia’. South Australian Naturalist, Adelaide, 25
(1), pp. 1-8.
1959: ‘‘Large archaeological stone implements from Hallett
Cove, South Australia’’. Trans. Roy, Soc, 8S. Anst.,
Adelaide, 82, pp. 55-59.

COOPER—ARCHAEOLOGY OF KANGAROO ISLAND 497

=)
SS

N
SN

Nat. Size Sv2 Nat. Size

RECORDS OF THE $,A. MUSEUM

498

Size

All 2/3 Nat.

499

COOPER—ARCHAEOLOGY OF KANGAROO ISLAND

All 2/3 Nat. Size

500

RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

All 2/3 Nat. Size

All 1/2

Nat. Size

COOPER—ARCHAEOLOGY OF KANGAROO ISLAND

501

502 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Harvey, A., 1941: ‘‘F lint implements of Tasmanian manufacture fonnd
at Cape Hart, Kangaroo Island’’, Ree. S. Aust. Mus.,
Adelaide, 6 (4), pp. 363-368.

Howchin, W., 1903: ‘‘Aboriginal occupation of Kangaroo Island’’,
Trans. Roy, Soe. 8. Austr., Adelaide, 27, p. 90.

Tindale, N. B., 1987: ‘Tasmanian aborigines on Kangaroo Island,
South Australia’. Ree. S. Aust. Mus., Adelaide, 6 (1),
pp. 29-37.

Tindale, N. B., and Maegraith, B. G., 1931: ‘‘Traces of an extinet
aboriginal population on Kangaroo Island’’. Ree. 8,
Aust. Mus., Adelaide, 4 (3), pp. 275-289.

DESCRIPTION OF FIGURED SPECIMENS

Fig. 1. A typical Kangaroo Island semi-uniface trimmed chopper. Made from a rounded
pebble.

Fig, 2. A ‘‘Horsehoot*? shaped core with stepped trimming; showing overhang due to wear
and consequent retrimming,

Fig. 3 and 4, Small semi-uniface pebble choppers; a reversed view of Pig. 4 shows pitting
due to its use as a hammerstone,

Fig. 5. Rectangular uniface chopping or scraping implement; made from a rounded pebble.
Fig, 6. A small ‘‘Horsehoof’’ shaped core with well defined stepped trimming.

Fig. 7, This specimen, with heavily battered surface, appears to be a throwing ball.

Fig. 8. Adzestone derived from a small natural angular block.

Fig. 9. Adzestone made from a flat pebble.

Fig, 10, 11 and 12. Three working cores from which flakes have been deliberately struck
to manufacture small implements.

Fig. 18, 14 and 15, Fairly thick adzestones derived from flakes.
Fig, 16. Small trimmed core; ‘‘Horsehoof’’ type.

Fig. 17-23. Flake endserapers. An examination of these seven implements and many other
examples indicates that there was no preconceived attempt at uniformity in striking
off flakes even faintly similar in shape. The utilisation of any piece of stone, which
could be roughly fashioned into an implement with a secondary trimmed scraping end,
shows the primitiveness of the industry. This erudity in manufacture and yagueness
in shape refer also to Fig. 32-37 and, indeed, to many other of the figured specimens.

Fig. 24 and 25, Adzestones roughly discoidal in shape. Mlake implements.
Fig. 26. Adzestone made from a thin ovate flake,

Fig. 27. Roughly trimmed adzestone made from « flint flake,

Fir, 28. <Adzestone flake derived from 4 piece of clear quartz erystal,
Fig. 29. Awl made from a flat flake,

Fig. 20. Semi-biface adze flake.

Fig. 81. ‘‘Slug'’ shaped trimmed flake.

Fig. 32-37. Knives or saws. All are flake implements except Fig. 37 which has been mado
from a small natural block.

Fig. 88. Abrupt trimmed point which may have been pressure trimmed.
Fig. 39,40 and 41. Small trimmed knives.

COOPER—ARCHAEOLOGY OF KANGAROO ISLAND 503

CAPE CASSINI HOARD

Fig. 42. Microlith endscraper with pressure flaked trimming.
Fig, 48. Small endseraper.

Fig. 44. Coneaye adzestone,

Fig. 45. Adzestone of irregular shape.

Fig. 46. Discoidal adzestone.

Fig. 47. Appears to be a worn and retrimmed adzestone.

A LARGE STONE POUNDER

Fig. 48. This massive implement, 6$1b. in weight, has been made from a large water-worn
quartzite pebble. The battered condition of its working edge indicates use as a
pounder for some type of very heavy work, <A definite groove upon each of its
narrow edges suggests that it was mounted in some form of wooden handle or
withy which would increase its effectiveness. It was found by the writer recently in
association with pebble choppers near a fresh-water swamp inland from American
River.

ROCK TYPES OF WHICH FIGURED SPECIMENS ARE
COMPOSED

Fig. 1 and 2 were drawn by the late Miss G. Walsh and the remainder by Miss V.
Richardson, South Australian Museum, whose assistance is acknowledged with appreciation.
Miss Richardson also prepared the excellent sketch plan of Kangaroo Island.

Milky quartz: 7, 10, 11, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 29, 33, 35, 86, 37, 38, 39, 41
and 46.

Quartzite: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 18, 14, 15, 25, 26, 30, 31, 32 and 34.

Clear quartz crystal: 28.

Cherty flint: 42, 43, 44, 45 and 47.

Flint: 27,

Smoky quartz: 40.

Dr. B. Daily, Curator of Fossils and Minerals, South Australian Museum, kindly
identified the various rocks selected generally by the natives in the manufacture of their
implements.

LOCALITIES OF FIGURED SPECIMENS
Near Muston, Pelican Lagoon: 3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 28,
34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40 and 41.
Diseovery Lagoon, Emu Bay: 4, 6 and 9.
Bay of Shoals: 13 and 15.
Hog Bay (Willson) River: 2, 16, 25, 26, 27, 29, 31 and 35,
East of Pennington Bay: 24 and 33.
Near Kingscote: 30.
Cape Cassini: 32.
Point Morrison: 1,
Cape Cassini Hoard: 42, 43, 44, 46 and 47.

DECORATED ABORIGINAL SKIN RUGS

BY CHARLES P. MOUNTFORD (DIP. ANTHRO., CANTAB.),
HONORARY ASSOCIATE IN ETHNOLOGY, SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM

Summary

The aborigines of Southern Australia and Tasmania used rugs, made from the skins of animals, to
keep themselves warm at night and during the inclement weather. The inside surface of some of
these rugs was plain; others were decorated with a series of elaborate patterns which had been
scratched on the skin with sharp mussel shells and darkened by an application of charcoal and
grease. Dawson (1881, facing p. 8), illustrated an aboriginal woman from Victoria wearing one of
these decorated skin rugs (PI. Iti, A).

DECORATED ABORIGINAL SKIN RUGS

By CHARLES P. MOUNTFORD (Dir, Anraro., Cantas.), Honorary
Associate tn Eranonrocy, Sourm Avustratian Museum

Plate lii and text fig. 1

The aborigines of Southern Australia and Tasmania used rugs,
made from the skins of animals, to keep themselves warm at night and
during the inclement weather. The inside surface of some of these
rugs was plain; others were decorated with a series of elaborate
patterns which had been scratched on the skin with sharp mussel
shells and darkened by an application of charcoal and grease. Dawson
(1881, facing p. 8), illustrated an aboriginal woman from Victoria
wearing one of these decorated skin rugs (PL. lii, A).

A number of Australian authors, Dawson (1881, p. 8), Smyth (1878,
p. 294), Worsnop (1897, p. 51), Howitt (1904, p. 742) and Parker (1905,
p. 121), have deseribed both the methods of manufacture and the
decorations on aboriginal skin rugs, while Continental authors, Ratzel
(1896, p. 364), and Van Gennep (1905) illustrated examples of these
skin rugs.

Yet, in spite of the interest shown in these rugs by the early
ethnologists, and the fact that many thousands of these rugs were in
use during the early days of the colonisation of Australia, remarkably
few examples have been preserved. The rug deseribed by Van Gennep
was destroyed at Leiden, and that of Ratzel, at present in Berlin, is
in an exceedingly bad state of repair.

Within the last year or so, however, the author has been able to
locate several additional examples of decorated skin rugs; one (No,
5803) at the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, which was brought
from South Australia by the 1838 Wilkes’ expedition, and two in the
ethnological collection of the National Museum of Victoria, One (No.
1627), collected at the aboriginal station of Condah during 1872, and
the other (No. 16724), from the aborigines at Eehuea during 1853,
Two single decorated skins have also been located, one from South
Australia, in the collection of the National Museum of Vicioria (No,
9248), and the other (No. 4571), from New South Wales, in the
collection of the British Museum.

506 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

This paper deals briefly with the Victorian rug from Condah.
A more extensive paper, in the course of preparation, will describe the
remaining examples of rugs and single skins, and discuss more fully
the methods of manufacture, the decorations and the uses of these
aboriginal skin rugs,

The Condah rug, still in an excellent state of preservation, and
made up of forty-nine decorated and one undecorated skin, is seventy-
five inches in length, and fifty-six inches in width. The following note
is attached to the rug.

‘Aboriginal possum rug, obtained about 1872 by Mr.
Begg, Principal of the Academy of Hamilton, from the maker
and wearer, a black living at the aboriginal mission station at
Condah. The decorations on the back of the skins are of
genuine native design and the rng is a fair example of those
worn as cloaks hefore Victoria was colonised by Huropeans.
It is sewn with the sinews of the tail of a kangaroo."’

A number of writers, Howitt (1904, p. 742); Parker (1905, p. 121);
Smyth (1878, p. 288); Frazer (1893, p. 201) and Greenway (1901, p.
198), have either stated or inferred that the marks on the decorated
skin rngs, or at least some of them, are the totemie marks of the owners,
The statement that the aborigines marked belongings with their totemic
marks is more or less supported by the ‘'signatures’’ of the nine
aborigines who signed the infamous document (PI. li, B), by which
Batman claimed a large area of aboriginal land adjacent to Geelong
(Dawson, 1881, facing p. 111). Dawson (1881, p. 111), commenting
on these signatures states, ‘‘the marks of the nine chiefs are the
genuine and usual signatures which they were in the habit of carving
in the barks of trees and their message sticks.’’ No doubt, these
aborigines would have used similar marks on their skin rugs.

An examination of the Condah rug shows a wide range of abstract
designs. It is possible however, that the oft-repeated lozenge-shaped
motil's are the totemic marks of the owner.

SUMMARY

This paper describes a decorated aboriginal skin rug from Condah,
Victoria. The rug is illustrated and the method of mannfacture,
function and the designs are briefly disenssed.

MOUNTFORD—ABORIGINAL SKIN RUGS

a

Aboriginal skin rig from Condah, Vietorin,

Fig, 1.

508 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to the Trustees
and Director of the National Museum of Victoria for permission to
photograph this and other specimens in their ethnological collection,
and to Mr. A. Massola for his willing assistance on this and all
occasions.

REFERENCES

Dunbar, G. K., 1943: ‘‘Notes on the Ngemba Tribe of the Central
Darling’’. Mankind, Vol. 3, No. 5,

Dawson, J., 1881: Australian Aborigines, Sydney.

Frazer, J., 1893: ‘‘Aborigines of New South Wales’’. Journ. Roy. Soe.,
N.S.Wales, Vol. 16.

Greenway, C., 1910: ‘The Kamilaroi Tribe’’. Science of Man, Vol. 11,
No. 10.

Howitt, A. W., 1904: The Native Tribes of South-Kastern Australia.
London.

Parker, K. L., 1905: The Kuahlayi Tribe. London.
Ratzel, F., 1896: The History of Mankind. 3 Vols. London.
Smyth, R. B., 1878: The Aborigines of Victoria. 2 Vols. Melbourne.

Van Gennep, A., 1905: ‘‘Dessins sur peaux d’opossum Australiennes’’,
Verlag Rijks Ethnographisch Museum.

Prare LI

XIU,

Von.

S.A) Musmew

Rec.

“PUR FO OL RA
LOf Fon VOC, URURE HO SOULSMOGMy JO seu RUdig

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Gruen wseniyy* tipay-o2 oe,

forreyer SEBS 1§ Be lee Z 2 sa anes
le aalaas ee ol Wee LO Pi PY A
| aap pre Payosereyy, 7G Jory rt
| i ge neh ruby poe ry. ry

W- Q5OG CDI PP? PY he

SF tig ee Pts te GOR ag cade fF
“ awe

FY ak ate i
OAD pt PTY Peesaed Se 4 ati e Ary

“SNY MUYS
minssody POPRLOsdC) TLE AS WO \Y [RIED LEO yy WED A

ceva

THE PIRRI-— AN INTERESTING AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINAL
IMPLEMENT

BY T. D. CAMPBELL, HONORARY ANTHROPOLOGIST, SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM
Summary

This study consisted of an examination of a large number of pirris in order to give a more concise
typological account of the implement than provided hitherto.
Measurements of length, breadth and thickness and detailed data of other features have been

recorded on over eight hundred specimens.

THE PIRRI—AN INTERESTING AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINAL
IMPLEMENT

By T. D. CAMPBELL, Honorary AnTHRopoLocist, Sours
AustraLiAn Museum

Fig. 1
SUMMARY

This study consisted of an examination of a large number of
pirris in order to give a more concise typological account of the
implement than provided hitherto.

Measurements of length, breadth and thickness and detailed data
of other features have heen recorded on over eight hundred specimens.

Mathematical analysis of the data confirms the general observation
that two forms of the pirri occurred; a northern and a southern type
to which the names Hyrean and Fulham are applied.

Examination of available collections shows that the distribution of
the typical pirris had fairly definite geographical limits; these tend to
distinguish the pirri as what might be termed a South Australian type
of stone implement.

Several minor variations in form and the types of raw material
used are described.

Suggested possible uses ot the implement are discussed.

The interest and importance of the pirri give ample seope for
further research.

INTRODUCTION

In the manufacture of his stone implements, the Australian
aboriginal was a highly efficient craftsman. The biface pressure
trimmed, symmetrical point, sometimes called the Kimberley Point,
and the widely distributed microlithie forms in the shape of small
eeometrics and segments, are fine examples of lithoclastie art. The
uniface trimmed point known as the Pirri, is another example of skilled
technique in producing an attractive, shapely implement.

Apparently the first record of recognition of the pirri as a native
artifact, was that of the specimens received by the South Australian
Museum from H. Y. [., Brown, then South Australian Government

510 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

Geologist. He collected them in the latter part of last century in the
region of Kucolo Creek, north-west of Port Augusta; but no aecouut
was made of these specimens at that time. The pirri was first deseribed,
illustrated, and so named, hy Horne and Aiston (1924). Later is
was discussed by Hale and Tindale (1930) and by Howehin (1934).
Campbell and Noone (1943) illustrated and deseribed the pirri,
ineluding a more concise typological account than had hitherto been pre-
sented, In a memoir on the stone implements of Australia, McCarthy,
Bramell and Noone (1946) provided a comprehensive list of previous
publications which referred to this implement; they also described
some of its special typological features. More recently, Mitchell (1949),
Tindale (1957) and MeCarthy (1958) have discussed the pirri at some
length. Mitchell added useful factual data; the observations of the
other two authors dealt mainly with their views on its so-called
cultural significance,

The object of the present paper is to present results of a further
study on the typology and distribution of the typical pirri, Tt secins
obvious that until information on these aspects of this implement is
clarified, its significance in relation to the development and sequence
of other implements in Australian material culture eannot be properly
assessed.

Regarding the work of Horne and Aiston, it should be mentioned
that for the name ‘‘pirrie’’, nsed in their original account of the
implement, the more desirable spelling ‘pirri’? has sinee become
generally adopted, And although their work did not provide a detailed
typological account of the pirri, there is no doubt to which particular
implement they gave this vame—their illustrations (H&A, fie. 57)
adequately confirm this-

TYPOLOGY

The pirri is a uniface trimmed, symmetrical point; produced from
a narrow lanceolate flake of trigonal eross section, with its median
ridge on the onter surface. The onter surface is trimmed by removal
of small flakes from the lateral margins np to the median ridge; with
subseqnent finer edge trimming. The flaking of the two faces of the
outer surface is continuous from the point to the butt end, Tt is
considered that this secondary trimming was done by pressure. The
implement varies in size and shape; but occurs mainly in a somewhat
narrow leaf-shaped form, in whieh the maximum width is about one
third of the length of the implement, Tts length ranges from occasional
large examples reaching up to 60 to 70 mm., down to many of micro-
lithic dimensions (30 mm. and under). Its maximum thickness is

CAMPBELL—THE PIRRI Sl

about one third af its maximum breadth, (See fig 1 a, b,c.) More
precise and detailed data on its dimensions are provided in Table I
of the statistical analysis. In the more completely trimmed examples
—over 50 per cent of those examined in detail—the butt end was shaped
to a thin rounded margin, by removal of the striking platform and the
adjacent part of the median ridge, In these, near the butt end, the
implement is of a thin plano-convex cross section whieh then becomes
of an isosceles outline and tapering to a small equilateral triangle
towards the point end, The best examples of these completely trimmed
piri are fine specimens of symmetry and delicate workmanship. This
account deseribes the particular type of implement first presented and
illustrated by Horne and Aiston as the pirri (pirrie),

A similar, but smaller implement although differing in some
features from the above typical account, must be included as a form
of pirri. This implement was called the ‘* Fulham Poiut’’ by Campbell
and Noone (1943). A number of them were among the material
collected from eampsites in that loeality near Adelaide, and were in
the South Australian Museum collection at the time of their survey.

As it is desirable that some specific names be given to the original
and to the southern, smaller form of pirri, they are herein referred to
as ‘*Ryrean’’ and ‘‘Fulham’’ types respectively. The term Kyrean
seems suitable as the first deseribed and illustrated pirris came from
an area just to the east of Lake Eyre. Large numbers of this typical
form have been collected frem sites in other areas which are part
of, or adjacent to, the “Myrean Basin’’; and most of them were made
from materials which are geologically typical of that large region,
The term ‘‘lulham’’ is retained for the southern type of this imple-
ment; and on aceount of some significant differences from the typical
northern pirri, it is deseribed in the following section.

Tae Funwxam Prreri

This unplement is a small form of pirri and occurs fairly often
among the various pointed types collected trom areas—many of them
coastal sites—near to, and sonth of Adelaide. Moreover it is the
prevailing form of the pirri from all districts to the immediate north;
to which must be added Yorke and the southern part of Byre
Peninsulas.

A survey of available collections shows that there are several
features in which the Fulham type differes from the typical Eyrean
form. Most significant is the fact that with few exceptions, the
former tends to be of microlithic size. In relative dimensions, it is

512 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

much thicker than the northern form (see Table 1), and it was made
from different materials. Larger sizes tend to increase in numbers
going northwards, towards the region of the Hyrean pirri. The
statistical analysis of the measurements shows definitely that the
Fulham pirri is of distinetly different form (see fig. 1 d).

Somewhat similar in form is the ‘‘ Adelaide point’? (Campbell and
Noone) the shaping of which was limited to only abrupt trimming
of the lateral margins. This southern form has heen subjected to the
same details of examination as the Hyrean pirri.

The measurements of these implements were made with vernier
eallipers in millimetres; other features are recorded by descriptive
data,

It is hoped that the results of the present observations will provide
some useful data to supplement what has already been written on this
implement. Certain features have been examined and recorded in
greater detail than hitherto, in order to increase our knowledge of
this fine example of our aboriginal stone implements.

TABLE I
Approximately
75 per cent of
Standard population lies
Mean Vurinnee Devintion Range bet ween—
Length—
Groups 1—6§ .. .. 40.60 70.73 8.41 24.6—77.5 311—48,5
7—8 4, . “0,01 33,40 7.23 21.1—48.5 24.1—34.0
Breadth—
Groups 1—6 ., . 16,73 4,00 2.00 9.6—26.5 14.6—19,0
78 .. ws WU 5.20 2.30 9,1—19.5 10.6—15.0
Thickness—
Groups 1—6 .. ., 6.01 1.07 1.04 3.4—10.6 4.5— 6.9
7—8 ows 6,09 1.29 1.14 3.6— 9.6 4.8— 7.2
(Groups 1—6, Eyrean; Groups 7—8, Fulham.)

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA

The relationship and differences between the Eyrean and Fulham
form raise some points of interest. The following notes have been
derived from an analysis carried out at the C.S.LR.0, Division of
Mathematical Statistics. This involved a consideration of the three
measurements made on the pirris examined in this study, from which a
compound linear index has been derived.

If the length, breadth and thickness are represented by a, 2x2
and wa respectively, the method has been applied to derive the linear
function of these three measurements: X = ),z, + Aor, + Ag®s which
will best discriminate between the Eyrean and Fulham groups, on
the basis of measurements alone.

CAMPBELL—THE PIRRI S13

The discriminate function X is:
X = 0.000167a1 + 0.000963x2 — 0,0001058a:

Since only the ratios of the coefficients are required, for greater
convenience, the coefficient of length may be taken as 1; then the
coefficients for breadth and thickness are 5.76 and —6.32, so that the
frnetion now takes the form:

X = wi + 5.76x2 — 6.322%

The average value of X for the two groups is: Hyrean form 99,91
and Fulham form 65.89. The mean difference is 34.02 with a standard
deviation of 1.38; and this being 23 times its standard deviation, is
very strongly significant. The linear function thus calculated, there-
fore definitely discriminates between the two groups.

The general summarising statistics individually show that the
groups are quite distinct, but it is of considerable importance that
after allowing for the correlations which exists between the measure-
ments, the compound measurement also yields this clear distinction.

The general difference in form between the two groups may be
due to several factors. It seems likely that the difference mainly arose
from the differences in the nature of the raw material available in the
two regions concerned. The aboriginal workman in both regions
deliberately aimed at making pirris; probably by the same _ basic
technical procedures; but in each region he recognised the working
properties of his raw material, the result being two different forms
of the one kind of implemeut—the pirri.

In any ecuse, on the basis of the measurements alone, a clear
distinction in form exists. A second use of the linear compound is to
classify a specimen of unknown origin, by using only its length, breadth
and thickness. The following table shows values of the compound X
in the region where the two groups overlap, along with the probability
of misclassification-

Value of X Probability
BO i ed pede re 1m a ve 2 Ag
10 << Sep Sate Seth ee chee EE 37
BOo-2 ., of oF As een Bal se 10
GD ols Ae Ger, ba 17
LOD Eo bce et heh hPa tata tefl soled of 70
xs SA errs rr, On 435

120.92 559. 8. 25-8 32 3333

$14 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Examples: A specimen giving a value for X of 60 would, if it
were a northern form, be wrongly classified as a southern type only
once in 192 trials. Similarly, for values of 70 and 80, with correspond-
ing probabilities of 1 in 87 and 1 in 10. As the value 90 exceeds the
point midway between the two means (65,89 and 99.91) the form of
statement changes—thus a specimen giving a value of X — 90 would
if it were really a southern form, be wrongly classified as a northern
form 1 in 10 times. Similarly for values of 100, 110 and 120. Beyond
60 and 120 there would be no difficulties at all. It will be seen
therefore, that only in a small region from 80 to 95 (where the two
groups principally overlap) the odds against misclassification are rather
weak.

(f) (h)

Big. 1 (a), (b) und (ec) are drawn to mean measurements of Table 1.

CAMPBELL—THE PIRRI S15

DISTRIBUTION

On the basis of its known distribution the pirri, might, with some
justification, be considered as, almost exclusively, a South Australian
implemeut.

From assessment of available collections and data, the typical
Eyrean pirri occurs as follows. It belongs to an area, the northerly
limit of which approximates to the latitude of the southern margin of
the Simpson Desert. Occasional specimens have been collected in
areas which might be geographically termed central Australia; bnt
these are obviously adventitious occurrences, The southern boundary
of the northern type would roughly correspond with the latitude of the
northern end of Spencer Gulf. In its easterly distribution, it occurs
in areas reaching into south-west Queensland and north-west New
South Wales and to the south along the Darling River. These State
borders are based on certain lines of longtitude and latitude and bear
no velatiou to so-called ‘‘natural regions’’, Mitchell, writing of certain
areas adjacent to the River Darling, states ‘‘Although searce, pirris
oceur; Lake Kyre, their provenance, is 500 miles away to the west, and
these two areas are apparently near the limit of their eastern
distribution.** Tindale (1957) has stated that ‘‘The Pirrian culture
hus now been reported from almost all parts of Australia excepting
only Cape Yorke Peninsula, coastal Queensland and parts of eastern
New South Wales; in these three places insufficient collecting has been
done to regard their eutire absence as established beyond doubt."
McCarthy (1958) stated that lis examination of ‘‘many thonsands of
knapped implements in the Australian Museum amassed by a number
of collectors over a period of over forty years from surface sites on the
south coast of New South Wales failed to reveal a pirti industry,”
Black (1949) who collected extensively in the north-west of New South
Wales, stated concerning the pirri: ‘‘1 have never fond any pirris
south of the Broken Hill—Menindee railway and verv few east of the
Paroo River in the Darling River Valley,”*

As yet, it has not been established hew far the pirri occurs west-
wards; but examples have been collected near Coober Pedy in the
north-west of South Australia and some rather poor specimens from
Ooldea. The southern limit of the pirri appears fo correspond very
definitely with the River Murray, Although a few specimens haye been
collected from campsites on what might conveniently be termed the
southern hank of that stream, the typical pirri does not oceur in regions
to the south of the Murray in South Australia, where large collections
of implements have been made over the last thirty years. Mitchell who

H

516 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

has collected extensively over Victoria for many years considers the
pirri was unknown in that State; the present writer also is acquainted
with many Victorian sites, but nothing resembling a pirri hag ever been
obtained there.

Like its northern counterpart, the Fulham pirri appears to have
had a fairly definite range of distribution. In the south, it extends to
the River Murray wltich, as stated above, is the southerly limit for all
pirris. Its northerly boundary corresponds with the southerly limit
of the Hyreean type; although occasional instances of overlapping of
the two kinds have been noted. As a general observation, it seems that
as one goes away from the main areas of the northern pirri, that is to
the south, south-west, and south-east o! pirri distribution, the Fulham
type tends to become scarcer and with increasing percentage of the
smaller sizes. ‘he peripheral south-eastern sites apparently produce
mainly the smaller implements; for example, regarding the Darling
River region and up towards south-west Queensland, Mitehell states
‘FAs one proceeds westward, pirris increase in numbers; but they are
small compared to those at Lake Kyre and are seldom longer than
30mm, In size and shape many are similar to the Fulham pirri of South
Australia deseribed by Canrpbell and Noone (1943).’’

To the west, this smaller type predominates on sites on Yorke and
on the southern part of Myre Peninsnla, An interesting fact is that
on the Kyre Peninsula area especially, this Fulham pirri mingles
with a small triangular type of trimmed point, some of which show,
complete biface trimming—the latter type of implement has not as yet
heen described in detail.

There have been reports of the occurrence of the pirri on sites well
removed from the regions outlined above. It is likely that some of these
have been mistakedly deseribed as pirri. But where the technique of
pirri manufacture was obviously an established part of aboriginal
stone industry, the implements oceur in relatively large numbers; and
as stated above, these particular regions are somewhat cireumseribed.

MATERIALS USED

The major proportion of the Eyrean specimens eoncerned in this
study came from two main areas. First; the region from which the
originally described pirris were obtained—an area in the vicinity of,
and north of, Cooper Creek, where the Birdsville Track traverses the
far north-east of Sonth Australia, east from Lake Eyre. Second;
large numbers from the region to the immediate west of Lake Torrens.

CAMPBELI—THE PIRRI 517

With these regions—which might be considered part of the Kyrean
Basin in its broadest. sense—are associated the so-called desert sand-
stones and those materials which come under the general eategory of
the chaleedonised, fine-grained sandstones and clays; the porcellanites,
jasper, opal and agate, In addition, many implements were made from
line-grained quartzites which abound in the abovementioned areas
in the form of the well-known ‘‘gibbers’’; although exceedingly tough
in texture, it was obviously a favoured material from which many
well finished examples were made. These materials are part of the
so-called duricrust formation, attributed to the late Cretaceous and
subsequent periods. All of these materials are noted for their
conchoidal (fracture and are awenable to smooth primary and secondary
flaking. The finer grained the material, generally the better and more
delicately finished are the implements.

As with most other implements of the Adelaide area, the vast
majority of the Fulham pirris were made from varieties of quartzite
derived from local rocks of the Mount Lofty Ranges, The fine-grained
chaleedonised materials, characteristic of the northern pirri, were not
readily available; the small numbers of implements made from the
latter materials are examples most likely acquired from further north,
or made from imported materials.

It is interesting to note that proceeding uorth from the Adelaide
districts, an increasing nutaber were made from a better type of
material—inostly in the form of smooth cherts,

When the available material was mainly the coarse, tough textured
quartzites, the preparation of a core, and knapping of long, lanceolate
or leaf shaped flakes was not an easily controlled procedure, While
the craftsmen no doubt strived for, and utilised, primary flakes of
suitable shape, some of the smaller type of pirri give the impression
that possibly the median ridge of the finished implement was formed
mainly during the secondary flaking process, rather than that it was
an essential part of a primary flake with a trigonal cross section, The
statistical results show that the thickness of these small implements is
greater, relative to their general dimensions, than with the northern
pirri. This tends to bear out the idea of the difficulty in securing the
longer, more shapely primary flake. It is a remarkable tribute to
the skill of the southern workers that so many well made implements
were fashioned from these tough, intractable materials.

"1

518 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

BUTT END

Apart from the excellent shaping of the pirri, by flaking from the
lateral margins up to the mid-ridge, its further development was
effected by trimming the butt end.

Trimming of the butt was apparently carried out in several fairly
definite stages—as revealed by the conditions seen in the collection of
pirris examined in this study.

First: those specimens showing the neat lateral flaking, but with
the butt end intact, its striking platform practically untouched. An
important feature in this stage is that the surface of the platform
slopes downwards to the inner surface of the implement (see fig. le).

Second: in this stage, the platform had been partly trimmed away
—on the outer surface—this being readily effected owing to the acute
angle at the platform outer margin. This partial removal of the
platform resulted in only a limited shaping of the butt end.

Third: here the striking platform had been completely trimmed
away by further flake removal on the outer surface, which also reduced
the butt end of the mid ridge; and so this end of the implement was
shaped to a neat rounded margin.

Fourth: this stage seems to have been a supplemental treatment
of the butt end of some implements where further reduction of butt
end thickness was desired. At the third stage, the platform had been
completely eliminated, so that it was then possible to detach flakes
from the inner surface of the butt end. In effect, this reduced the
convexity of the bulb of percussion and resulted in a thin, sharp edge
to the rounded butt margin (see fig. 1 ¢).

This last mentioned treatment of the butt end involved some
trimming of the inner surface of the implement; but it affected only
a small area and served the special purpose of reducing some of the
bulb convexity, by detaching a few small flakes. The slight inner face
trimming gives no justification for considering the pirri a biface
trimmed implement—term which has a definite and accepted connota-
tion; as for example, the Kimberley point.

A likely variant of this butt treatment is seen in some specimens,
the inner surface of which is quite flat. This may have been the result
of deliberately striking off the butt end of the partly formed implement,
to remove extra thickness due to a marked bulb convexity; after which
the usual thin rounded margin was completed. In these examples,
nothing remains of the bulb curvature.

CAMPBELL—THE PIRRI 519

The following figures have been derived from records made on
this particular feature in the specimens examined,

Recorded on 650 implements.

Butt end not trimmed .... .. .. ........ Ba
Butt end partly trimmed .. . .. .. 2. 2... .. 193
Butt end fully trimmed... .. .. ., 2. 2... .. 378

Mitchell states that of 235 pirris he collected at Mulka—in the area
ol the originally deseribed pirri—36.1 per cent showed either trimming
or thinning on the butt; the striking platform being intact on the
remainder,

From the above figures in this study, it is seen that 57 per cent
of the implements so examined, show complete peripheral trimming;
that is, with finished butt end as well as lateral trimming.

Included in the ‘fully trimmed” records are the variations of the
rounded butt margin.

Also in this examination of butt trimming, 43 per cent showed some
flaking of the inner surface, This inner flaking was somewhat irregular;
often only a partial reduetion of the bulb convexity was effected, but
generally sufficient to attam the apparently desired thin margin.

Some attention was directed to ascertaining what might have been
the main factor which facilitated the forming of the thin rounded
margin of the butt. The type of material was observed, Finer grained,
more tractable material should have made it easier to obtain the neat
butt margin; but if was found that among the best finished implements,
a wide variety in texture of material was evident. he robustness or
thickness of the primary flake might have affected the reduction of the
butt end; but this approach showed that many thick implements have
a thin, rounded butt margin. Perhaps this neat finish to the butt end of
so many of the implements may have been—as Howchin suggested—
a matter of the artistry and pride of the worker at the time of making
any particular implement.

Whatever was the purpose of this thin, rounded margin—functional
or otherwise—the varions conditions in the implements examined
showed that the aboriginal craftsman carried out a definite sequence
in their shaping. When all these stages of pirri manufacture were
carried out to finality, exceedingly beautiful implements were produced,

SOME VARIATIONS IN FORM

There are a few variations in form which eall for comment. The
number of specimens showing features by which they differed from

520 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

the typical pirri, were few in number out of the large total examined.
They are good evidence that the skilled aboriginal workman knew
exactly what he was doing—when circumstances called for some
departure from customary procedures, he nevertheless produced the
desired result.

Cross Section. The vast majority of pirri were fashioned from a
primary flake, trigonal in cross section, The inner surface being the
base of the triangle; its apex represented by the outer midrib, which in
the finished tool is trimmed away at the butt end. Some of the primary
flakes used, had a midrib which bifurcated into two ridges, ending at
the lateral margins of the platform. The lateral trimming reaches
the single median ridge for part of the length of the implement; and
then up to the two separated ridges, leaving an untrimmed triangular
portion of the outer surface, towards the butt end. Less than 3 per cent
of the hundreds of specimens examined showed this variation (see fig.
1, f and g).

Unilateral trimming. Another variant is the specimen made from
a primary flake the cross section of which must have been scalene,
rather than the outline of an equilateral or isosceles triangle (fig. 1, h).
This is another example of convenient adaptability in technique. By
trimming the wider of the two outer faces of the unworked flake, the
removal of material ultimately increased the angle of that margin,
to correspond with that of the untrimmed side. Thus producing the
customary symmetrical form with a cross section being brought more
to the equilateral form (see fig 1.i). In the total of over 800 implements
for which details were recorded, less than 3 per cent were of this
unilateral trimmed form. But apart from having one face untrimmed,
in other respects this variant has the main features of the typical pirri;
the flaking of the trimmed face is continuous from point to butt end
and involved the whole face up to the mid ridge; and generally with
the butt trimmed and rounded. The final result gave the outline of
the typical trimmed symmetrical point.

Dentate margins. In a few rare examples, a final trimming of
the flaked margins of the implement produced a dentate effect to the
borders, not unlike that seen in many of the Kimberley Points.

USE OF THE PIRRI

Regarding the question of the use of the pirri, no satisfactory
answer has yet been provided. On account of its general shape, the
possibility of its use as a spear point has been the customary suggestion
but other uses have been submitted.

CAMPBELL—THE PIRRI S21

Horne and Aiston (1924) wrote of its use‘, . . as a graving
ool to make decorative marks on wooden weapons, and occasionally
it is used as a drill for ight boring work.’’ In the South Australian
Museum collection ave a number of specirnens purported to be wood-
working tools, with pirri mounted in gum. These came from the district
where Aiston lived for many years and were made by aborigines there.
In their volume, they state that these natives were not conversant with
the making of pirri; furthermore, the mounting of these pirri on the
wood handles varies—on some, the inner surface of the stone tool
faces one way, and on other handles in the opposite direction, Such
ineconsistancy in mounting these stone tools rather suggests that these
natives really knew nothing about the main use of the pirri and mounted
them according to.a use suggested to them.

Hale and Tindale (1930) stated ‘It seems possible that this
artifact nay have been a spearhead.”

Howehin (1984) expressed doubt as to their use as a spearhead.
He also discussed its possible use as a tool for seribing fine, decorative
lines on wooden objects, THe wrote *‘Among the more highly fmished
examples were some that possessed exceedingly sharp points that could
not bear the pressure used with a graving too) withont fracture; it is,
therefore, possible that these beautifully finished and delicately pointed
specimens were held as a matter of pride as to exeeution rather than
as tools.’’

Tindale (1957) stated ‘‘that the pressure flaked biface blade culture
of North Western Australia is likely 10 have been a direct development
from the pirrian,’’ Ue further stated ‘The most characteristic imple-
ment, the pirri itself . . . was # spearpoint.’’ Fis illustration
(fig. 4) in support of this contention and on examination of the partly
trimmed point concerned, show that this isolated example is obviously
not a typical pirri point.

The stone headed spears in the South Australian Museum were
earelnlly examined by the late H. V. V. Noone who considered the
few odd specimens with small trimmed points were not typical pirri
and quite fortuitous among the touch larger, untrimmed trigonal stone
flakes on Central Australian spears,

The resemblauce in some respects of the pirri fo the Kimberley
point spearhead has been cited in favour of the pirri having been so
nsed, But typologically there are several obvious differences between
the typical pirri and the Kimberley point; espeeially when regarding
them both as spearheads. Both are symmetrical trimmed points and
the pirri is also regarded to have been produced by pressure flaking.

522 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

A parallel examination of collections of both types of point does not
give the impression of a strikingly close resemblance. Tn general, the
Kimberley point is a much larger implement; it is nmeh broader and
thinner relative to its length; it is a biface trimmed point; its lateral
margins are consistently serrated or dentate, Above all, the Kimberley
point has the appearance of being a spearhead of marked potential for
penetration and wounding for which purposes the pirri would be
almost completely ineffective, both in size and form, The writer has
subjected a range of over one hundred Kimberley points of various
shapes and sizes to the same measurements as made on the pirri, There
are obvious differences in size and form; only four Kimberley
specimens out of the lotal are of microlithie size.

Tt has been shown that the pirri is often of microlithie size:
predominantly so with the Fulham type. With the customary
Australian practice of mounting a stone spearhead in gum, very little
of most of these implements would be exposed for such a functional
purpose, On account of their size, it might be more fittingly suggested
that it would have heen suitable as an arrow head; but there is no record
of the Australian aboriginal having known the use of the bow and arrow.
Moreover, the pirri bears no resemblance tu the typical stone arrow
heads which are so well known from many parts of the world, Or
again, on the score of size, it would have heen more suited for the head
of something in the form of a small hand lance; but here again its
mounting and fitting to a shalt wonld leave it a very ineffective point
for serious, much less lethal, damage. However, this is another aspect
of the pirri ealling for continued research,

DISCUSSION

A study of a large collection shows the fine craltsmanship involved
in the production of the completed form of the typical pirri, Tt presents
features which clearly reveal that those responsible lor its making
had a clear idea of the kind of implement they set out to produce, and
also had the teehnieal skill to make it.

The figures given above show that the pirri, in both its northern
au southern forms, is a relatively amall point. The former was
sometimes made in microlithie size and veeasional specimens are
“outsize”? in length—Mitchell has recorded specimens up to 90 om.
But in general, the standard deviation for the dimensions of both types
is fairly low in value; some variation in length, but consistently low
for breadth and thickness. The prevalence of microlithic forms among
the southern type is interesting.

CAMPBELL—THE PIRRI 523

From present knowledge, the occurrence of the pirri appears to
have had fairly definite geographical limits which make it almost
exclusively a South Australian implement.

The northern form was made from materials well suited for the
skilled technique applied to its manufacture; they are characteristic
of certain geological formations of the region and thus constitute a
factor in the distribution of this particular form of the implement.
The finest examples are always associated with the availability of the
fine grained chaleedonised materials. For many of the Adelaide region
the available materials were mainly tough, coarse grained quartzites
which seems to have been the important factor in the predominant
occurrence of those of microlithic size,

‘The use of the pirri is a question for which, as far as present
knowledge goes, no satisfactory answer las arisen, Its use as a
spearhead has been suggested on somewhat superficial morphological
grounds. But the occurrence of so many implements of small and
of microlithie dimensions seems rather against it having been an
effective and useful kind of spearhead.

It is unfortunate that the term pirri has, by some writers, been
applied to a variety of implements which bear little or no resemblance
tothe pirri. As stated above, itisa symmetrical, uniface trimmed point
with certaim definite typological features, There are many kinds of
‘‘noints’’ of symmetric and asymmetric form, showing varied degrees
of secondary trimming. These range from the slightly retouched leaf-
shaped flake, to more fully worked types, like the bilateral abrupt
trimmed points. Beeause these may have the general shape of the
pirri, there is no justification whatever for them being classified as
such. Varions types of trimmed points were prodneed by the aboriginal
craftsman, but for most of them very little or nothing is known of
their funetion: therefore their classification must rest mainly upon
morphology. Unless the typology of the various forms be based on
clearly definable specific features, confusion must prevail in their
classification. Many leaf shaped points of more or less symmetrical
form oceur, with indications of secondary trimming which may or may
not have been abortive or discarded attempts at prodneing a pirri; but
the typical pirri has been collected in such large numbers and shows
definite features in the stages of its production, that indiscriminate
application of the term pirri to partly and irregularly chipped flakes
is not warranted.

524 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

The present study shows that the pirri is an intriguing Australian
stone implement. Its skilful manufacture and meticulous finish make
it an object for admiration; its limited distribution and its own specific
features of interest provide ample scope for further research.

In addition to that of the writer, these observations were made
on the following collections: South Australian Museum and the private
collections of Messrs. E. M, Mudie, 8S. R. Mitchell, H. M. Cooper and
Dr. Ian North.

The writer’s thanks are due to the following for generous assistance
in the preparation of this paper. Mr. H. M, Hale, Director, S.A,
Museum; Professor ©. A. Cornish, C.S.1.R.0. Division of Mathematical
Statistics for analysis of the dimensional data; Dr. H. Marston and
Mr. Murray C. Childs of the C.S.1.R.0. Nutrition Laboratories for the
preparation of illustrations; Drs. P. 8. Hossfeld and B. Daily for
advice on geological notes; Mr. H. M. Cooper and Miss B. Pearce in
the preparation of the notes.

REFERENCES
Black, R. L., 1949: ‘*Notes on the material culture of the aborigines
of the Darling River Valley’’, Mankind, 4 (38).
Campbell, T. D., and Noon, II. V. V., 1948: ‘‘South Australian
microlithic stone implements’’. Rec. S. Aust. Mus., 7 (3).
Hale, H. M., and Tindale, N. B., 1980: Ree. 8. Aust. Mas., 4 (2).
Horne, G., and Aiston, G., 1924: ‘‘Savage life in Central Anstralia’’,
MaeMillan, London.
Howchin, W., 1984: ‘Stone implements of the Adelaide tribe'’.
Gillingham & Co., Adelaide.
McCarthy, F. D., 1958: Mankind, 5 (5).
McCarthy, F. D., Bramell, E., and Noone, H. V. V., 1946: ‘The stone
implements of Australia’. Mem. Aust. Mus., IX.
Mitchell, S. R., 1949: ‘Stone age eraftsmen’’. Melbourne.

1955: ‘*Stone tools of the Tasmanian and Australian
aborigines’’. Jour. Roy, Anthrop. Inst., 85, pt. 1 and 2.

Tindale, N. B., 1957: ‘‘Culture succession in South-Kastern Australia
from Late Pleistocene to the present’’. Rec. S. Aust.
Mus., 18 (1).

INDEX TO GENERA AND SPECIES

INDEX to GENERA Anp SPECIES

Pace PAGE
abdominalis abdominalis, Leptoeoris . 429 | Asternolaelaps .. 345, 888 (reference)
aubdominalis blotei, Leptocoris .. ., 429 astercides, ‘*M?? . th tee BBL
abdominalis, Leptocoris 427 Auneellina 2... -. +. +. es +. 201, 208
abdominalis tuprobanensis, Leptocori is 428 augur, Eulima .. .. Howe te ye TEE
abesulus, Isoudon .. aioe ee A Qapl augur, Leptocorig -. .. 4... .. +. 411
aboe, Nevina -« $181 aurantia, Iredalina .. 6... 6. 5. ++ 128
Acatia, .. 6. ea se we gee th ede LS surantiagum, Latirus .. - -. 122
Acanthocerss Filet Be ac CBR aurata, Mndoclita . 161, “179, 186, 181
Acanthotelson .. .. 144 nuricula, Stomatella —~ .. 127
acuminata, Euearya 244 aurifer, Bndoclita 160, 173, ‘174, 175, 179
acuminata, Myocara . . re 71!) australiensis, Strombiformis .. .. .. "124
acutissima, Leiostraca ., a es TSS australis; Asternolaclaps .. 355, 356, 357
aemulus, Phissus .. +. Thd, 165 australis, Capulus .. s+ +s 2+ ee ee 127
Acpyprymnus .. 246, 249, 251, 254, 256, australis, Qrius 2. 2. 6. 2. ee ae ee 1G

258, 272, 277, 204, 297, 295 australis, Ostrea 129
africanum, Pargneiunig 3 8: oe B98 australis, Rotularia .. 2... 6. 64 223
ahinei, Leptovoris .. 439 australis, Suxostrea “ 130
aikasuma, Endoelita .. “470, 171, 182, 193 Avieula 203
Alathyria .. 6. 2... . ab
aldwini, Pleuromys 210 Baluvstium .. 2. -: -- pono BF
Allocorhynehus .. one, ABT bahram, Leptocoris .. .. 2. 2... 64 428
alophora, Beata. . =. -. 349, 350 berretta, sateen -s ae ee «128, 124
Altivasum .. +. st Leee” aztie doe Belemnites TE te iat AWE, 1 ee BBD
alumnus, Nautilus” sp ah ei ss <5 oe 08 Sergauerin .. ~ oy 3 et 598
ambiguus, Unio .. .. -- -. -- 4: +. 80 bernardus, Osphiranter rs -. 152
Ambonychia .. .. 2. )- 5+ re = 374 Bettanclla ... a ee 378, 03, 394
amiesi, Platydyptes . - dent, ue OF Rettongian .. +. +. 985, 248, 297, 298
Anadara, .. 2. 4. -- 28 bicolor, Oxyearenus 369, 360, 361,
Ancyloreeras .. .- 217 362, 3863
aneura, Acacia .. -. 1 bifrons, Chlamys .. foe yee ( 1aT
angasianas, Bulimus fF icteus si “bes hifrons, Eqniechlamys .. .- .. +. .. 127
angasit, Ostrea .. ae ae Se ye, “WF bilineata, Eulima .. Pa ct 126
annae, Wndoclita 162, 185 biplagiatus, Carabocoris .. .. .. 228, 232
amae, Hypophaseus .. 162, 185 bivittata, Leiostraca .. 6... 4. ee 186
annulata, Madigania .. ws ass Blaena .. .. ee. 6458, 454
antaretieus, Palaeeudyptes .- ‘52, 5A, 55, blandfordi, Parahibolites .. .. -. 2. 201
46, 57, 65, 67 Hliona ew a ee, de FL ee 202
Anthocoris 300, AO8 Boerhaavin oe lel ot eet
Anthracocaris . - Y44, 145 Boises Vi ed Peng | SOF
Anthropornis i) £+ .. 67, 67 hoissieri, Subthurmannia .. .. .. .. 200
antipodes, Melania .. fi2 borealis, Plouromyw ., .. -. +. -- +. 210
Aptenodytes .. «. ale “58, G0, tt Bothriembryou ve ee os, 123, OR4
arborea, Ranges 85, 384, 386, 387 Brachy chiton .. vp efote oa ode
Arca .. +. sis +> 1288 brazivri, Stylifer . 2, 325, 136
Archaeosphenisens + 57, 61, 67 brevieeps, Kogia . .. 384, 830, 388
aretatus, Anthocoris -: ie ‘860 lirevieristatum, Myrmicotrombium .. 91,
aretatas, Gardiatethus. ., os 363 is 94, 95, 6
arctatus, Oxyearenus . 360, 361, 362, brevior, Rangeal P. de , oa» =68B5
23, B64 broadbenti, Strombitormis ca pe! plat ele, LDF.
argo, Argonanta 119 Broderipia. ~ se OY,
Argonauta .. , 119 hroma, Bndoclita .. 174, 175
aridimpressna, Cardiastethus fee ate tte Ad AD) brunea, Stylifer ., ape ee ke Te
armatus, Orius .. . .. 16 Buchananiella .. ett ; 131, 133
avoura, Endoclita "160, 177 Buebotrigonia ole t ote : 208
Arthrodytes .. .. .. 4. 66, 68 bueullaea ts £3 4 oe vee 202
articulata, Eulima .. .. |. rapes eS bnihosus, Cyperus . - . B44
asperrimus, Mimachlamys .. .. .. -. 127 | Bulimus .. =e -+ 128
asomatus, Lagorchestes . 251, 252, 269 Bulinns -- 34, 38

526 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Pat
Calandrinia .. ov cs ve «ta. 1. 1. 248
Callidosoma -. .. -. .. 2.2. 2. wg 98
Callitris .. .. . 16

Caloprymnus 241, 246, 247, 249, 251, 258,

268, 279, 204, 296, 297, 298
campestris, Caloprymnus 0 ve ae oe, 293
camphoraec, Endoclita . 160, 166, 167,

168, 169, 170
eamphorae, Phassus ., ,, . «. 161, 169
candida, Emarginula ., .. ., .... 127
canhami, Belemnites .. ., .. .. .. 281
Capulus -. -. - -. . -. 127

Carahoeoris ., .. “227, 228, 241, 232

Cardiastethus .. . 431, 140, 363
Cardium .. .5 «. eT 202
carnivorus, Leptocoris . ve re pe fe ce S84
carphoides, aApiigapermn cree et te O74
Casuarina’ ar ve we as us ot en ty 135
eaucasica, Av ioula poe sein ce 30 5. BOS
Cellana ., .. - sees oes 210
chaleoceptralus, Lygaeus #4 het erieens “Sah
chalybeata, Phaysus -. .. -. .. _. 186
chapmani, Pseudorpilema ic be ex (382
CHarnIG re. ion 4s ot oe oe ee ae ce -ORT
Charniodiseus .. 0, 4. 4, 5 ee ey) BOT
Chimbuitos .. -2 4. 22 4. 2.) 190, 218
Chlamys -. Ro. ie Se At .. 127
Olirysoulima .. o.oo oe ole ee es SBE
Cilliba ., «4: as be 1 471
eladocalyx, Euealyptus . ste. 3, te OT
elymenioides, Rotularia .. ,, ., , 8238
coarctata, Blaena ., .. 2. .. 2. y. 457
coimbatorensis, Leptocoris | “) 417
Coleovoris .. 14 ae | ant 8 298, 299, 932
eommensalis, Evlima -. .. 125
comméreialis, Ostrea .. 2. 22, w. TRO
communis, Puzosia ee 4... 4) ee ae 816
concentricus, Charniodiseus .. .. ,, 397
coniferns, Conolaelaps .. .. .. 845, 346

339, 340, 847

coniferns, Laelaps .
389, 340, 344

Conolaelaps ~. -- +. 4-

continua, Buchananiella ee 143
Conularia .: .. wioee - s. B82
coprophila, Cilliba 2. at
coquandi, Inoceramus .. .. . - .. 205
Corbicula .. .. .. cet cc utr ae OS
eorniculata, Leptocoris , veee os ve we 8416
eornuta, Curveulima . .. ,. ,. .. 225
Cosmetolaclaps .. .. .. 4. ~. 339, 340
costata, Dickinsonia .. ~~ -- cs 30
eoxalis, Leptocoris .. .. -. .. -- 427
eoxi, Hypermastus . :- -p oe am 196

.. 338, 338
161, 162, 166,
183, 184, 185, 187

erassidens, Pseudorca
erenilimbata, Endoclita

erenilimbata, Hiypophiamas os 161, 188
Crinum .. .. os ps ot te ve B84
Crivceraa ,. .. Apr ed Oc 217, 218
erista, Casuarina. fie wae ied ele eM eee LAO
eunaeformis, Eulima .. .. -: 124
euneata, Plenromya .- “499, 209. 210

PAGE

254, 256, 272, 277,

euniculus, Bettongia
280, 284, 285, 298

Cunningtonceeras _ __ .. 224 (references)
Curveulima .. -- .- 2. ce ee ame ue) 185
Cuspeulima . , - 125
Cyclomedusa . 378, 379, 388, “392, 393, 394
Cymahoplites 1, 4... 2. e, 213, 214
Cymatoceras .- .. -, ., .. 201, 211, 213
Cyperus: ,5 v4 ve ae pccek as ee av 244
Cypra@a 005 ce es oe ne ea ee ce IDI
dallasi, Serinetha -. .. .. .. 6... 411
damor, Endoclita .. ., 178, 189, 190
Danilia .. 6. . tects Bales os 127
dannevigi, Scaphella ~ ame 2s QeE
Dusyeereus .- .- 5. ys ue ae oe oe 280

davidi, Cyclomedusa th bel we ese as Jt8
dayidi, Endoclita .. .. 161, 186, 188

davidi, Myloceras .. . », 801, 217
deeresensis, Bulimas ,. .. .. .. .. 124
Delphinornis .. 6. 6. ee ee ee ke 67
deltoides, Plebidonax .. .. .- . 25
Dentalium .. .. coer ry «0 ge S07
derricki, Lasiochilus se em te me 0+ 188
Dashayesites . 200
Dickinsonia .. 370, ‘380, “392, 393, 394
diffisa, Boerhaavia .. . . , a. 244
Dimitobelus (Tetrabelus) | 201, 207, 219,
220, 221

Dinassoviea ., 6. 2. 22 wo. we 109
Dindymus .- 1... -. .- 22 44 a; 359
Diprotodon .. , ee se no ae 1B
diptychus, Dimitobelus ., .. 221, 222
dirsehi, Phassus .. .. .. 162, 197

discoideum, Tubulostium ,. . ,. ., 223

Distoeechurus .. .. 23> +} 282
divaricata, Leschenaultia Dat m4 16
dolabrata, Pinna .. .. + =. 129

dolicacanthus, Cosmetolaelaps. 341, 342, 343

dolicacanthus, Laelaps . 339, 340, 341
Dorgopsis.,. 2 41 +2 as te ae cp 952
Dryandra, 2. 4. we ise ey wg ee BIS
dufresnii, Melanella .- .- \ er oe 1294
Duntroonornis .. . ‘ ve lee OF
dymenioides, Rotularia.. ., .. |. 2238

Ediacaria . .. .. 378, 379, 380, 388, 394

edwardsi, Enlima .. . ve ve 1284
edwardsi, Melanella .. .; tT ews 125
elsa, Molanella .. ., : oe ue ue a. =
Emarginula ,: .. -, 127
Endoelita 157, 158, 159, “781, 1 187, 190
Entomella . - 127
Eosphaeniseus se Re oo lot af ty 58, 67
Equiehlamiys 1... 66 ee bs 2) ve ae «BT
eremos, Belemnites . -, .. .. .. 220, 22

Erythraens .. .. re-ut -. «- 98
etherid poi, Micrometra (Paterina) «. 374
Eucalyptus .. .- on oe 44 OT, 315
Eucarya -, 6. 20 oy ee ee ee en ee) D4

INDEX TO GENERA AND SPECIES 527

Enehelus w= si oy ¥
euclia, Charonia .,
Eudyptula .. .:
eugenii, Thylogale .,
englypha, Avicula ,
Euliamaustra

Bulimia «

ERulimea .. 6... -.
Euomphaloceras
Eutrephoceras ..

Eutriton ae 2G we LO Se 23 he

ovansi, Unio ,. .. -.
exerascens, Endoclita ,.

exerascens, Hepialus ~.
exerescens, Hypophassus ,
oxerescens, Pliussus .. .
exoptauda, Voluta
oxpunsilabra. ..

oxplecta, Trigonia

eyrei, Pupilionata ,

Fulda .. .. .
fallax, Tubulostiun ,
fecundus, Asternolaelups
fomoralis, Oplobates .
Fossonia . . a
filamentus uM" +o 4
fimbriata, Leptocoris +s

flavolimbatus, Alloorhynehus .

flavomarginutus, Lygaeus . .
flindersi, Altivasum .. .
flindersi, Ancyloceras .
flindersi, Crioceras .
flindersi, Ediacaria, -
flindersi, Flindersites
flindersi, Myloceray
Hindersi, Ouustus -.
flindersi, Xcnophors
Flindersites .. 0. .

floundersi, Spriggina ,.

forsteri, Aptenodytes ..
frenchi, Oxycarenus
fricata, Eulima .. .) ..
funeralis, Rhophatus . -
fusca, Melanitta ~.
Fusceulima. ..

gaimardi, Bettongia . ,

gawleri, Strangesta .. ,
gawleri, (Zonites) Helix .,
Gene os. net) -1 ne owe

Gen nyornis oe

gaorglirogia, Rulima ..
gigantea, Cyclomedusa
giganteus, Macropus ae

gigantens, melanops, Magropus vy ee 296

gigaunteus, Varanus ., ,
gilesi, Bettanella 2.
glaberrima, Lasiellidea

‘I94, 125, 136

160, 164, 105,
168, 185, 187

Paar

». 127
120, 121
61, 62

a 970
rere 805

124

125
222
211
12

164
186
165
121
125
208
BRO

137

a 223
355, 357

.. 188
97

381

432

137

452

122

217

m4 oF
47H, 479

» B17, 218
» 2801, 217
oon 18
ve =» 138
. 217, 218
t 288
60, 62
360

126

ahs

555

126

Pact
Globicephalus .. 0. | cf hae 6h SES
glomerata, Ostren —. .. ve ae ee 130
Glyeymeris eee oe be ye ov 0 oa. 208
gmelina, Endoclita. 173, 174, 176
Gorgopis .. ve ae ree he ve ADT
gracilis, Iehthyopteryx .. ode ee te OF
#radata, Bulima .. .. , owe ae 184
grandis, Arthrodytes -. .. -. .. 2. 66
pregaria, Spirulaea -. .. ,. .. ,. .. 288
gregorii, Brachiton .. .. .. .. .. .. 318
gryphacoides, Aucellina . .. 201, 203, 204

gryphaeoides, Avicula . 203, 204, 205, 212
gryphaeoides, hughendenensis 203, 204, 205

gunneri, Eosphaeniseus . .. 1. .. 67
gurgitis, Panopea .. .. . . .. .. 210
hanetiana, Trigonia os wet ce oe 208
Haplophyllocerag ., -. .. .. .. .. 200
Hebeulima .. .. .. |. te ee oe 196
helena, Melanella .. .. . a eye ee as 195
Helix .. as. oa ws et on 123
hendersoni, Cymatoceras | ---- 3. 801, 212
hendersoni, Hutrephoceras ~ , 211
hendersoni, (Cymatoceras?) Nautilus 211
Hepialus .. .. eevee 164, 187
heraldicum, Tribrac hidiom . "381, 388, 392
Herpetopoma .. .. .. .. 127
herzi, Phassus .. “184, 166, 168
hesitata, beddomei ., .. 6, 5. o. 122
hillieri, Dasycereus .. 2, i> .. 289
Hirstiosoma .. . ae : ar OF
hirsutus, Lagorchestes cr ye ee =6243, 269
Holaster .... » 205

holtkeri, Cunningtoncieras 204 (reference)

hosei, Endoelita -. 158, 162, 193, 195
Hypernastus tF ai ae de ne Mee, RG
Wypophassus .. .. 6... » «: 158, 183
Hypsiprymnodon .. .. .. 2. -. 282, 297
Ichthyopteryx , . ree ae)
Ichthyostomatogaster eb de eihiny, 1 5@ 000
ijerija, Phassus , . 162, 191, 192, 195
imbricata, Btomatella ., .. .: .. ©. 127
immaculata, Stylifer .. .. .. .. .. 124
immersa, Zeacrypta -. .. 6. -. -. 127
ineurva, Avicula .. .. .. 9, 2. .. 205
indisereta, Buling tos wn ar ve ree) 188
inflata, Eulima .. cme tte ate ac ad
inflata, Tateana .. . 0 .- .. .. 378, 388
Tnoceramus .. .. be wt be ete 205
insunlaris, Leptocoris wel tet mefe stpace = = Ae
instructa, Charonia .. .. .. ,... ., 190
insta, Leiostracea 1 nT bo Ustenar Lee
Tredalina .. .. . ot A yhs bet 128
isolata, Leptocoris , wtoak on ae ee t 443
Tyoodon wi sz. ee a be de -. 261
jacksonensis, Fusecenlima .. .. .. ,, 126
Javaensis, Endoclita ., 160, 164, 173, 174
joshuana, Leiostrnea .. .. .. .. 125, 126

jourdani, Dinassovien ~ 2 .. -. .. W198

528

RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

PAGE

kara, Endoclita 2, 194, 195
Katelysia .. .. - +. 128
kleini, Tetrabelus 219, 221
Kogia a 334, 335
Korora .. .. * atte OF
kosemponis, Endoclita ., 168, 188
kreuslerae, Voluta .. 121
Labeceras .. .. be 201, 218
lactarius, Stylapex ee : 126
Laelaps . se ae .. 889, 344
Lagorchestes ate ‘241, 244, 269, 270
laminatus, Onthophagus os ee ee 6839, B44
laqueus, Crioceras .. .. 218
larsenii, Delphinornis .. 67
laseroni, Stylapex .. 126
Lasiellidea .. ‘ 139
Lasiochilus .. .. 138
laticostata, Gellana 119
Latirus .. . se 122
layardii, Mesoplodon +a " 334, 337
Leiostraca .. 3 125, 126
Lemuroceras .. 213) 214
Lepidosperma wir Kt 274
leporoides, Lagorchestes tees es 270, 275
Leptocoris .. 359, 405
Leptus .. .. Fe Ave 98
lesbia, Leiostracea. +3 ‘ 125
Leschenaultia c yes 16
“‘Jesueur, Bettongia’? eV be Bes . 248
lesueuri, Bettongia 235, 238, 241, 243, 252,
254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260,

264, 265, 267, 268, 270, 273, 275,

276, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 297,

298, 299
lesueuri, grayi, Bettongia

lesueuri harveyi, Bettongia .

lesueuri lesueuri,

Bettongia .

leucoxylon, Eucalyptus .. .. ..

lifuanus, Oxycarenus .

lima (Oistotrigonia) Linotrigonia

limbatipennis, Oxycarenus .,

lincolnensis, Cardiastethus

Linotrigonia (Oistotrigonia)

lineatus, Coleocoris
Listronius .. ..

lodderae, Leiostracea ree

longicornis,
longirostris,
lopdelli,
lowei, Archaeospheniscus
luctuosa, Dorcopsis

Serinetha,

Parapsyllus ..

Archaeospheniscus

luctuosus, Magroplax .. ate

luctuosus, Oxycarenus .

lugubris, Stenogaster ..
lunata, Onychogale
lurida, Serinetha ..
Lygaeomorphus ..

359,
362,

264, 265
238, 260,
264, 265
239, 249
1. O74
360, 364
201, 205
363
.. 140
201, 222
221, 230

68

360, 361,
363, 364
363
326
39
405

PAGE
macgregori, Dimitobelus .. .. .. 201, 219
macroptera, Ambonychia .. 374

Macropus .. .. . 6s 4. ee ae ‘12, 296
Macrymenus PE eee So) en AOR
Madigania .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 380, 388
Maecoyella .. ..... fete ee ee 1200

magellanicus, Parapsyllus ta me “4 €- 68
magnus, Sahyadrassus .. =% 197

Magroplax ae tee nc) Oe ay ys ele 360
mamilla, Mamillana 121
mamilla, Voluta .. .. 122
Mamillana ia, 121

“Manchuriophycus’? 395, 400° (reference)
Mantelliceras .. .. .. 209, 213, 222, 224

Margarites .. .. 7 127
marginata, Leptocoris | “p seek og FEB
marginenotatus, Endoclita .. 159, 162
marquesensis, Leptocoris se ee 447
masoni, Charnia .. .. 4. «. «6 +. 397
mastesi, Bulimus .. - 123, 124
mawsoni, ‘‘M’? .. .. 381
mayi, Eulima bo ioe oe ote 124
mediocarinata, Blaena . anes he 459
Medusina .. " 380, 381
Melanella .. A 124, 125
Melania .. .. 34, 38, 62
Melaniella .. 225 24 sata ce ote ae 124
Melamitta: 0. 6 vo ace ere ap ae BOE
Melo . pvp tte Erbe afte Bede gaa” “HTG
Mesoplodon .. .. .. .. 2... .. 384, 337
Micromitra .. fuser 374
miltonis, Melo .. .. .. .. 2... 119
Mimachlamys sv 127
minchami, Parvancorina nf -- .. 880
minor, Eudyptula . 61, 62
minuscula, Leptocoris . .. 413
mitellata, Leptocoris 418
mitellatus, PeErAgOE pa ee 2% ge (359
Moceramus . .. geek ce et § 208,9217
modesta, Melanella. 125
Moloch 319
montageuna, Eulima 124
montebelloensis, Eulima 124
morgani, Potorous ‘ 295
mucronatus, Hulima 126
multitricha, Blaena . 460
munita, Eulima . 125
Murex .. .. 120
murrayae, Eulima s 124
Myloceras .. 201, “217, 218, 222
Myoeara fae + oe ’ 297° 22
Myrmecia, gulosa “ht 349
Myrmicotrombium emai’ 91, 92, ‘93, "95, 96,
97, 98
Nassaria .. -. 122
Nautilus . .. és "117, 118, 120
nebulosus, Hepialus . =i we ove 186
Nerinea .. ool. 200

Nevina ..
niger, Endoclita

. -. 181
162, 171, 181, 182, 183

INDEX TO GENERA AND SPECIES

PAGE

niger, Phassus .. . Sah 181
nigricornis, Leptocoris. +¢ wo. 424
niphonica, Gorgopis .. oe eter 162,59 197
nitida, Urodiscella .. . 3849, 850, 352
nobilis, Dryandra .. vy) te oat QTE
nodosa, Argonauta .. ate dea 119
nordenskjoldi, Anthropornis .. 67
Notomys .. eer cane 244
Notovola .. aig 127
novaczealandiae, Platydyptes “4 "63, 67
nyhleni, Ichthyostomatogaster . .. 355, "358
( ref.)

obtusa, Trigonia . .. .. ..
ocellatus, Coleocoris . .. ..

208

"298, 229, 231

Oecosmaris .. Saf et chp et te OE
Oenetus .. .. .. ee ee ee ee e- «6157, 158
Oestotrigonia .. .. .. 206, 207
oliqua, Euealyptus .. .. 274
oliveri, Korora .. .. 67
Onustus .. 6. -1 ee ee 123
Onthophagus .. .. .. 339
Onychogale .. oot tae: hie Gg 319
Oplobates .. 2. 6. 21 ee ee ee 137
Orius .. . ein ace 136
ornatum, Tubulostium ae, § 223
Ornithodorus .. .. 69
Osphranter .. . 152
Ostrea .. és 129, 130
Oxycarenus .. " 359, 360, 367 (ref.)
Pachydesmoceras .. 213, 214
Pachydyptes .. .. a 67
pachyrhynchus, Budyptula 4 62
Pacitrigonia .. .. .. «. : 208
Palaeeudyptes Wo) 51, 5 52, 53, 54, 56, 57,
65, 67
Palaeocrangon . 148, 144
Palaeospheniscus . . .. 59, 62, 63
palankarinnica, Perikoala .. +. 71, 72, 78
Papilionata .. . aD ye Lies 8s 380
papua, Platydyptes nse The BES dang 02
papuana, Trigonia .. .... .. .. 201, 207
papyracea, Oseudavieula .. .. .. 201, 217
Parahibolites . iW + Jets tess 201
paraja, Endoelita . .. 160, 162, 163, 164,
176, 177, 180
parallelus, Scoloposcelis n 140
Paramedusium .. 396
Parapsyllus .. 68
Pariopea .. .. +. +. 210
parva, Avicula .. ; » +. 205
Parvancorina . .. .- 4. +: 380, 393, re
parvus, Duntroonornis .. .. ..
patagonicus, Aptenodytes .. 58, 60, é2
penicillata, Bettongia .. . 235, 254, 255,
256, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273,
275, 276, 279, 282, 285, 287, 288,
289, 290, 292” 293, 294, 295, 297,

298, 299

529
PAGE
Pennatula .. . 885, 386, 387, 398
Peratobelus .. nae See . .. 200
perexiguus, Rissoa .. .. 126
Perikoala .. ’ 71, 72, 73, “78, 80, 81
Petaurus ., .. «+ «- .» 282
petterdi, Bubivid 25 eee ie senor 198
petterdi, Stylifer .. .. 6... 6. ee. 126
pfitzneri, Endoclita . ‘ 171
pfitzneri, Phassus .. .. .. “181, 182, 183
Phascolaretes .. 71, 73, 74, 79, 80, 81
Phassus .. . AE are cal 164, 165
philoctena, Uropoda is 349, 350
Phreatoicus .. . 145
Phyllitica trigonia ‘(Acanthotrigonia) 206
Pinna .. .. 129
planicincta, Bulitha: «co, an (a eewed, 194
planulata, Puzosia .. .. 216
planulata, Stomatella .. 127
Platydyptes .. . a “62, +:
Plebidonax, deltoides en als
Pleuromya .. . 199, 201, 210, 209
pompilius, Nautilus .. rcs 117, 118
ponderosus, Pachydyptes .. .. .. -. 67
Poronotellus .. ee ee 131
Poronotus .. etree 131
Portulaca .. 2. 2. 00 es ee ae oe es 248
Potorous .. .. .. .. 246, 251, 294, 296
potschefstroomensis, Uropoda 350, 351
powelli, Charonia . .. .. 4+ 120, 121
problematicus, Palaeocrangon 148, 144
Procoptodon . .. -. -. .. es ee o) 612
profuga, Alathyria .. .. .. 2... .. 36
Prosoponiscus .. 2. +. ee eee 143
Protodipleurosoma .. .. ee " 380, 394
Protolyella . ‘380, 381, 393, 394
Protoniobia .. .. .. .. .. 381
protovittatus, Unio .. “9, 35
proxima, Bulima .. «. 124
Pseudavicula .. .. .. 2. oe. 201, 217
Pseudocheirus .. .. ” 1, Mm, 19 80, 81
Pseudorca .. -. +. + we ee 884
Pseudorhilema .. .. .. . +. 881, 382
Pseudorhizostomites 381, 382, 393, 394
Pseudostomatella .. .. .» 127
Pteridinium 382, 383, 386, 3887,
394, 396
Pterotrigonia 206
Ptychomya .. ei eu bfe -. 200
Puzosia .. e- oe ee ee oe oe ee «©6200, 216
Puzosigella .. .. .. 213, 214
Pyrrhotes .. 405
queenslandica, Falda .. 137
raapi, Endoclita . 160, 162, 179
radiata, Cyclomedusa .. 378, 379, 380,
381, 388
radiatoshialata, Avicula .. .. we ee 205
Rangea .. 383, 385, 386, 387, 392,
393, 394, 396, 397
Rattus .. .. “4 wee ee 289

530 RECORDS OF

Paay
Redia .. .. ,. -. 358 (ref.)
redunca var. elata, Euealyptus bacevus “O74
Renilla... -. cc ce ye es -- 888, 387

repertus, Nautilus . ., ,. _. 117, 118
Rhizostomites .. 2. 2 2... yy. 881
Rhophalus -. -. ., -) 6, 4... 2. B68
ricasoliana, Uripoda vn ee 348, 350
Rissoa .. 2. Ve et sp ley wr ue aS
roegerae, Eulima se tt Gees ce ee ty 184

robertsianus, Listronius .. .. 2... -. 69
Rotularia ,. .. .. 199, 201, 222, “323, 224

Roya .. .. 4; a) sa o> EDF
rubicunda, Charonia ., 1s ees Jae 380
rufescens, Aepyprymnus .., 273, 294, 297
rufomarginata, Leptocoris., ., ,. ., 432
tufus, Leptocoris .. .. .. .. .. .. 428
rustica, Endoclita .. .. .. .. ., .. 178
Sahyadrassus .. 2.0 2 ww 2
salyazi, Endoclita . .. ,. 160, 162, 177
Banton ye nd civ fleherys oe Fen 1. 16
Sarcophilus .. ,. :. 4... +. -- ,- 12
Saxostrea .. .. . ~2 tr: es oe o- 180
sealarina, Katelysia _ Fes a ose: t= «198
Seaphella .. 2. 2... . 121
schneiderhohni, forma turgida, Rangea, 385,

386

383, 385, 397
71, 76, 79, 80, 81

schneiderhéhni, Rangea .
Schoinobates , .. .,

Scleromaris .. 1. .. 2 .. 5, 2...) 97
Beoloposcelis ,, 1... 6. ws we ts ae MO
acotica, Anthracocaris .. .. .. ., -. 144
seclusus, Tetrabelus .. . 219, 221
sericeus, Endoclita . .. 160, 163, 171, 172,
174, 181, 195
sericus, Phassus .. ., .. .. «\ of 172
Serinetha .. 2. 2.2 6. ey. 4. 405, 418
setosa, Blaena ., .. 2. 4. 4. yy ve 462
sibelae, Endoclita .. .. .. "157, 162, 196
sibelae, Phassus .. .. .. .. + on 196
signata, Uropoda .. .. .. ,. .. 349, 350
signifer, Hypophassus .. .. .. .. .. 196
signifer, Phassus . .. .. .. 186, 188, 196
simplex, Pteridinium .. .. .. .. .. 383
sinensis, Phassus .. .. 160, 162, 167, 168
Rinuata, Ostrea .. ., re 5 129
sinuosocostatus, Chimbuites ; "199, 210,
213, 214, , 215
Smaris .. .. . ee eee
sodalis, Buchananiella . oho ey :- 131
sodalis, Cardiastethnus .. ., 2. 2...) 181
sodalis, Porontellus .. .. .. ,... .. 131
apectabilis, Leptocoris .. .. ., . .. 432
Spirulaea .. oe as ot ek es we ee BBB

spirulacoides, Dimitobelus .. .. ,, ., 201
spirulaeoides, Eotularia ~ 76 201, 299, 223

Spriggia .. .. ©... 2. 4. 380, 388, 394
Spriggina ., .. .. .. 388, 393, 304. 395
Stenogaster .. ., .. .. 368
Stomatella ,. .. 6. 1. 1. 2. w. 187
Stomatia .. 2. 0. ee ee ee ee uy ee 987

THE S.A. MUSEUM

PAGE
Straugesta .. ae b-|
strigile, Haplophylioceran 4- ih ck ba “B08
Strombiformis .. . «+ ee 184, 125
Stronglylocentrosus at netedarf/ sig. 326
BtyApEr ol aye Se OEMS od oy RS
Stylifer .. on 4. 2. 2. 4. 124, 185, 126
Stylimella .. . se eke mel et 126
subglobosus, Holaster 2.” ips -- 206
subruteyeens, Leptocoris -. .. .. .. 426
subsuleata, Blaona .. ,. 0, 2.) .,) 484
Subthurmannia ., .. 6... 4. 2. .. 200
sylvesteri, Pow. 2. ok, » Seep? BOR.
Syntharella 2... 0. 02) wy uk ee 188
Syrotrigonia .. 6. =. we yy, 208
tugalica, Leptocoris . . Pe 439
taitense, Lygaeus .. 6.) y, ye ABB
faitensis, Leptocoris . sheen = 489
talaje, Ornithodorus .. .. .. 2. 2. 69
taprobanenis abdomenalis, Leptovoria . 428
larunu, Endoclita ... -. -. 162, 191, 192
Tateana a. 2... -. , 378, 379, 380, 388
tatei, Xenophorn. teen ab de we, LBS
tenisoni Holima ,. 2...) oe 1
Tetrabolus.. 2... 0. 0. 0, 219, 281
Thalucomys., .) 0... 4) 0... 41, 262
Thylogale .. 6. ys 2. 2. ee, 270
Vibia .. 4. 4. ey tle chelsea ote “BOB
topaziaea, Enlima .,,, ey «+ «- 136
topeza, Endoclita . .. ,, 161, 144, 185
torri, Nassaria .. 2. 2. 2, . 122

tosa, Mndoelita ., 160, 164, 162, 166, 167,

168, 170, 176, 177, 179, 150

trapezia, Anadara .. ., r+ +» 188
trapezia, Area 2. 1... seiner eo 498
Tribrachidium 381, 489, 390, 392,
393, 895

Triehosurns . 71, 74, 74, 78, 79,

80, 41, 250

fridactylus, Potorous , 251, 252, 275, 279,

204, 295
triggi, Melanella .. ~. .- 2... 0. 2.) 1285
Trigonin . .. -. 2. ,. 301, 202, 206, 207
Triodia .. .. -- eevetees Ga Ad, 16
tripidum, Lahecurus . 2... 201, 218, "229
triplageatas, Coleocoris , ,. 221, 229) 230
Tritoniden ., .. -, 2. -. 2. y, 2, 120
tritonis, Murex .. .. 2. -- 0. 0. 4, 120
Trochus. ve pe ce ey nd ae ye ee es) 186
tromatm ©. pk ek ce ee ee 16
tryoni, Mulima .. 2... , 124
Tubulostium . ,. 2 0. 0. "923, ‘p24 ‘(ref,)
Turrilites ., ,. 2... 2). re ee 218
Tynotoma oe oe ee ee ee ee 408
Uhligella , sale oe es 3: 2. BEB B94
Umbilia .. .. - =. .. 122
ambilicuta armeniacia . Cyprac -- 121, 122
Unie saw oe ot". . 9, 17, 35, 37
Urodiseella De, Bete te 849

Wropoda -. 2. 2. 6. 6. 2. 2. B49

INDEX

Varanus ..

ventricosus, Globicephalus .. .. ..

versicolor, Dindymus ..
vicina, Leptocoris ..
villosissimus .. .. .. ....
vitiensis, Lasiochilus ..
vitrea Eulimea .. ..
Voluta .. .. 6. 2. we e,
vulgaris, Leptocoris . ..

vulpecula .. .. .. 1. we ee be

Vulsella ..

TO GENERA AND SPECIES

PAGE

245,

"121,

wadea, Protoniobia .. .. .. .. .. ..

319
338
359
422
289
139
125
122
439
250
202

381

|

531

PAGE
warawita, Endoclita .. 162, 190, 191, 194
wardi, Protodipleurosoma .. .. .. .. 381
whitei, Buchananiella . .. .. .. 131, 133
whitei, Poronotellus .. . . 131

williamsi, Endoclita .. ..... .. 162, 191

williamsi Strombiformis .......... 125
woodwardi, Oplobates .. Abs 137
Wynyardia .. .. .. .. «2 we we we) 79
Xanthorrhoea .. .. .. .. .. .. we.) 16
Xenophora .. .. .. .. .. we we ee ee) 128
Zeacrypta .. .. 6. 6. we ee ee ee ee 127