RECORDS OF THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM VOLUME 22 PART 1 MAY 1988 CONTENTS: BAEHR, B. & BAEHR, M. On Australian Hersiliidae (Arachnida: Araneae) from the South Australian Museum. Supplement to the revision of the Australian Hersiliidae BARKER, R.M. Yanyuwa canoe making CLARKE, P.A. Aboriginal use of subterranean plant parts in southern South Australia CLEVERLY, W.H. Australites from the vicinity of Finke, Northern Territory, Australia GOMMERS, FL. Diamonds from the Echunga Goldfields, South Australia GOWLETT-HOLMES, K.L. & McHENRY, B.J. Fossil mollusc type specimens in the South Australian Museum. I. Polyplacophora HEMMING, S.J. Ngurunderi: a Ngarrindjeri Dreaming HIRST, D. Amended type localities of five species of spiders (Arachnida: Araneae) described by H. R. Hogg in 1905 HORTON, P. Review of The Dynamic Partnership: Birds and Plants in Southern Australia’ LAMPERT, R.J. & HUGHES, P.J. Early human occupation of the Flinders Ranges PICKERING, M. & DEVITT, J. Notes on a wooden implement type from north-eastern Arnhem Land SCOTT, G.G. & RICHARDSON, KC. Osteological differences of the axial skeleton between Lasiorhinus latifrons (Owen, 1845) and Vombatus ursinus (Shaw, 1800) (Marsupialia: Vombatidae) SCOTT, G.G. & RICHARDSON, K.C. Appendicular osteological differences between Lasiorhinus latifrons (Owen, 1845) and Vombatus ursinus (Shaw, 1800) (Marsupialia: Vombatidae) SOUTHCOTT, RV. Two new larval mites (Acarina: Erythraeidae) ectoparasitic on north Queensland cicadas STROMMER, NG. Genera Nabis Latreille and Stenonabis Reuter (Hemiptera: Nabidae) in Australia PAGES 13-20 173-188 63-76 41-48 131-138 I-11 191-193 77 189 139-168 169-171 29-39 95-102 103-116 79-93 WATTS, C.H.S. Revision of Australian Halipilidae (Coleoptera) WATTS, C.H.S. Revision of Australasian Hydrophilus Muller, 1764 (Coleoptera: Hydrophilidae) WHITE, I.M. The limits on fighting in an Aboriginal community WILLIAMS, E. The archaeology of the Cooper Basin: report on fieldwork Erratum for Volume 22(1) Volume 22(1)} was published on 4 July 1988. Volume 22(2) was published on 19 December 1988, ISSN 0081-2676 21-28 117-130 49-51 53-62 195 FOSSIL MOLLUSC TYPE SPECIMENS IN THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM 1. POLYPLACOPHORA BY K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES & B. J. MCHENRY Summary The South Australian Museum collection of fossil chiton types is the largest in the southern hemisphere. It contains primary type material, and some secondary types, of 63 species and subspecies. A further species is represented only by secondary types. All species are from the Tertiary strata of Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand. Species are listed alphabetically according to the original name of the genus or species. FOSSIL, MOLLUSC TYPE SPECIMENS IN THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM 1. POLYPLACOPHORA K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES & B. J, MCHENRY GOWLETT-HOLMES, K. L., & MCHENRY, B. J. 1988. Fossil mollusc type specimens in the South Australian Museum, |. Polyplacophora. Rec, S, Aust, Muy 22-(0): 1-11, The South Australian Museum collection of fossil chiton types 16 the lareest in the southern hemisphere, [tcontains primary type marerial, and some secondary types, of G3 species ald subspecies. A further species 5 represented only by secondary types. All species are from the Tertiary strata of Victons, South Australia, Tasmuaniiand New Zealand. Species are listed alphabetically according ro the onginal name of the genus or species: K. L. Gowlett-Holmes & B,J. McAeénry, South Australian Museum, North Terrace. Adelaide. South Australia 5000, Mannseript received 19 February 1987. Most of the fossil chiton types in the South Austra- lian Museum are due (o the work of E. Ashby, mainly inconjunction with B.C. Cotton and W.G. Torr, Other fossil chiton types are the result of the work of Cotton & Godfrey Since Conan & Godlrey (1940) litlle has been published on Australian fossil chitons, and no further types have been added to the collection. We believe that the South Australian Museum col- lection of fossil chiton types is the largest in the southem hemisphere and one of the more significant collections in the world. It includes type material for 64 species or subspecies, all of which haye been verified by us according to available material and information. The specimens are all individual valves, und are listed as ‘complete’ when the insertion plates and sutural lamina are present, as ‘incomplete’ when these ane missing or the valve slightly damaged, or as ‘fragment’ When less thin half of the valve is present in one piece, In the following list, species are arranged alphabeucally in familiesunder the original name at the time of description. Changes in familial status have been cross-referenced. The present status ofeach species ts, unless indicated otherwise, according to van Belle (1981), except that the family Afossochitonidae is not recognised following Gowlett-Holmes (1987), The fallowing abbreviations are used jn the text NMV = Museum of Victoria, Melbourne; N.Z%. = New Zealand; S.A. = South Australia; SAMA = South Australian Museum. Adelaide; Tas, = Tasmania; Vic. = Victona. Srrarickapuical Norks All Fossil chiton types in the South Australian Museum come Jrom the Tertiary strata of Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand, ranging from carly Miocene to late Pliocene (Tables 1, 2), During this study i! was noticed that there were-several inaccuracies and ambiguities in the geological data of the onyinal type descriptions. so it is necessary te make some correctioas and clarifications at this stage, According to Johnston( 1877), the fossiliferous beds at Table Cape, Tasmania, occur at two Small bluffs near the township of Wynyard, The Table Cape Group exposed here includes two formations: the Freestone Cove Sandstone (the ‘Crassatella Beds’ of Johnston) which grades upwards into the overlying Fossil Blu(y Sandstone (Banks 1962), Ashby (1929) proposed the ‘Lower Bed! at Table Cape to be the rype locality and horizon for Laricella gigantea Ashby & Torr, 190|. Quilty (1972) refers to 'chiton plates in the lawer six inches’ of the Freestone Cove Sandstone and we be- lieve this to be the level from which the Ashby speci- mens were collected. Arthal time, the age of the fossil deposits at Table Cape was tholght « be Eocene (Johnston 1880, 1885; Pritchard 1896) and was until quite recently believed lo be Janjukian (Banks L942). Later studies (Quilty 1966; Ludhrook 1967a, 1973) have shown these strata to be Longfordian, thus the Janjukian age of the Table Cape chiton types needs further consideration. The original description of CLepidopleuris clifdenensix Ashby, 1929 states that this species is from Clifden at the southern end of the South Island of New Zealand and is Hutchinsonian (basal early Miocene) in age, but no stratigraphical data are sup- plied, Both B.L. Wood in Suggate er al, (1978) and Ludbroak (1967b) indicate that Hutchinsonian strata at Clifden are most likely the Clifden Limestone, and so we believe this to be the formation from which this species. was collected, The fossil locality at Gellibrand River, Victoria, occurs in either the Longfordian-Batesfordian Gelli- brand Marl or the underlying Janjukian Longfordian Clifton Formation. Both of these unis crop out on the mm FOSSIL MOLLUSC TYPES, 1. POLYPLACOPHORA OTWAY BASIN AUSTRALIAN BASS STRAIT NEW ZEALAND ST VINCENT BASIN TYRENDARRA EMBAYMENT STAGES PORT PHILLIP R' SERIES EMBAYMENT PLEISTOCENE} WERRIKOOIAN YATALAN PLIOCENE KALIMNAN GRANGE BURN FORMATION CHEL TENHAMIAN MITGHELLIAN BAIRNSDALIAN BALCOMBIAN FYANSFORD FORMATION (* BALCOMBE CLAY *} MIOCENE BATESFORDI AM LUNGFORDIAN CLUPDEN LIMESTONE TABLE CAPE GROUP TAR IU LAN, TABLE 1. Generalised correlation chart for the relevant fossil chiton horizons of south-eastern Australia and New Zealand. ADELAIDE PLAINS DRY CREEK SANDS UPPER PLIOCENE Acanthochiton (Eoplax) adelaidae Chiton (Arthochiton) tricostalis relata Cryptoplax ludbrookae TABLE 2. Geographic and stratigraphic distribution of SAMA names, see text for changes and synonymies. MAGDONDONALDS, FORSYTHS: GRANGE BURN FORMATION MIDDLE PLIOCENE Acanthochiton drunus: A, forsythensis A, (Lirachiton) inexpectus A. singleton! A, tlanguloides Affasochiton (Telochiton) magnicostatus A, stich Anthochiton duadeni A, macdonaldensis A, octoeostatus Cryptoplax numious ©, sicus Gallistochiton greedi © jmexpectus C. reticulatus Gallochiton macdonaldt Isochnoetiton cossyrus 1 durius neglectus 1 numantius 1 dsurus | vatenae |. vinazus Belchiton pulchernimus Lwpidopleurus babidus L badioides: L. sephus L. sinervus L, singus L. uxellus Molachiton naxus Loricella concave L. magnipustulesa CUFTON BANK MUDDY CREEK MARL MIDDLE MIOCENE Acanthochiton casus A. pilsbryoides AL siabratus Atfesochiton cudmorel A. (Telochiton) dandus A, (Telochiton) iscus Callistochiton reticulanis Ischnochiton (Rasiella) clittonensis Lepidopleurus badioides L diversigranasus Ls magnograniler L. nivarus L pamphilius L relatus Aulacochiton erma Lorica oculeia L. varena Ovehiton hall) MORNINGTON BALGOMBE CLAY LOWER-MIDDLE MIOCENE Acanthoctitas (Notoplax) granulosis A. rostratus Acanthochiton balcombiensis Galloctitor (Ocellochiton) sulci BASS STRAIT TABLE CAPE GROUP LOWER MIOCENE Chiton fossicus C. paucipustuiosa Lonca aftinis L. compressa Loricella gigantea NEW ZEALAND CLIFDEN LIMESTONE LOWER MIOCENE Lepidopleurus clitdensis fossil chiton types. Species are listed under their original K.L. GOWLETT-HOLMES & B.J. MCHENRY 3 coast of western Victoria approximately | km north of the mouth of the Gellibrand River (Abele ef al. 1976). Although the type specimens of Plaxiphora concen- trica and P. gellibrandi were designated as coming from this locality, subsequent examination of the valves by the authors has led us to believe that the specimens are in fact recent examples of the living species Plaxiphora (P.) albida, and not fossil remains at all, Species described from Mornington, Balcombe Bay and Schnapper Point, Victoria, all come from the early (Batesfordian) to middle (Bairnsdalian) Miocene Balcombe Clay, a unit within the Fyansford Formation which crops out along the eastern coast of Port Phillip Bay, Vic., in the region of Mornington. The two main fossil localities for this formation are Fossil Beach (the type section for the Balcombian Stage) and south of Manyung Rocks. It should be noted that at Schnapper Point the exposed sediments belong to the non-fossiliferous fluviatile Baxter Sandstone of Mitchellian to Cheltenhamian age (Gostin 1966). so it appears that the fossils described from this locality must represent material from either Fossil Beach or south of Manyung Rocks. The species described from the Hamilton area of Victoriacome from the fossil localities at MacDonalds (Bank), Clifton Bank and Forsyths (Bank). The local- ity at Clifton Bank occurs in the Balcombian— Bairnsdalian Muddy Creek Marl which crops out on Muddy Creek. Disconformably overlying this form- ation is the Kalimnan (early Pliocene) Grange Burn Formation which occurs on Muddy Creek at MacDonalds (Bank) and on Grange Burn at Forsyths (Bank) (Spencer-Jones 1971). It should be noted that Ashby’s locality for Clifton Bank is incorrect, as it is situated on Muddy Creek not Grange Burn. The species described from South Australia are from Torrensville Bore and Holden’s Bore at Woodville, both in western suburbs of Adelaide. All three species come from the late Pliocene (Yatalan) Dry Creek Sands.Where possible, the original type localities have been updated. Family ACANTHOCHITONIDAE Genus Acanthochites Risso, 1826 Acanthochites (Notoplax) granulosus Ashby & Torr, 1901 Trans. R. Soc. 8, Aust. 25(2); 139, p14, fig. 9. = Protochiton granulosus (Ashby & Torr, 1901) (PROTOCHITONIDABE). Syntypes: T844, 1 incomplete median valve, from Schnapper Point, Mornington, Vic., Balcombe Clay, early to middle Miocene (Batesfordian — Bairnsdalian), collector and date of collection unknown.T845, 1 incomplete median valve, same collection data as T844. Note: See note on Schnapper Point in the Stratigraphi- cal Notes. Acanthochites rostratus Ashby & Torr, 1901 Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. 25 (2): 140, pl. 4, fig. 5. = Afossochiton rostratus (Ashby & Torr, 1901). Holotype: T841, 1 incomplete median valve, from Schnapper Point, Mornington, Vic., Balcombe Clay, early to middle Miocene (Batesfordian — Bairnsdalian), collected by R. Tate and J. Dennant, date of collection unknown. Note: See note on Schnapper Point in Stratigraphical Notes. Type unique. Genus Acanthochiton Gray, 1821 em. Iredale, 1915. Acanthochiton (Eoplax) adelaidae Ashby & Cotton, 1936. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 5 (4): 510, fig. 2. = Notoplax adelaidae (Ashby & Cotton, 1936). Holotype: P10159 (ex D12882), 1 incomplete median valve, from 151 m depth, Torrensville Bore, Adelaide, S.A., Dry Creek Sands, late Pliocene (Yatalan), col- lected by W.J. Kimber, date of collection unknown. Note: Type unique. Acanthochiton balcombiensis Ashby, 1939 Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond. 151(3): 188, pl. 3, fig. 4. = Acanthochitona balcombiensis Ashby, 1939. Holotype: P10160, 1 incomplete median valve, from Balcombe Bay, Mornington, Vic., Balcombe Clay, early to middle Miocene (Batesfordian— Bairnsdalian), collected by F.A, Cudmore, date of collection unknown. Note: Type unique. Acanthochiton casus Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 214, pl. 20, fig. 30. = Acanthochitona casa Ashby & Cotton, 1939. Holotype: P4349, 1 incomplete median valve, from Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian— Bairnsdalian), collected by W. Greed, date of collec- tion unknown. Note: Cotton and Weeding (1941) suggest this species may be a juvenile of Afossochiton cudmorei Ashby, 1925, which is followed by van Belle (1981). How- ever, we believe the specimen is adult and represents a distinct species of Acanthochitona. Type unique. Acanthochiton drunus Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec. S. Aust. Mus, 6(3): 214, pl.20, fig. 29. = Acanthochitona druna Ashby & Cotton, 1939. Holotype: P4348, 1 incomplete median valve, from MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown. Note: Type unique. 4 FOSSIL MOLLUSC TYPES. Acanthochiton forsythensis Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec. S, Aust. Mus. 6(3): 213, pl. 20, fig. 27. =Acanthochitona forsythensis Ashby & Cotton, 1939, Holotype: P4345, 1 incomplete median valve, from Forsyths (Bank), Grange Burn, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown. Paratype: P10156, | incomplete median valve, with same collection data as holotype. Note: The specimen from Clifton Bank recorded by Ashby & Cotton (1939) is missing, presumed lost. Acanthochiton (Lirachiton) inexpectus Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec. S. Aust. Mus, 6 (3): 215, pl. 20, fig. 31. =Notoplax(Bassethullia) inexpecta (Ashby & Cotton, 1939), Holotype: P4350, 1 complete posterior valve, from MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown. Note: Generic placement follows Gowlett-Holmes (1987). Type unique. Acanthochiton pilsbryoides Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 216, pl .20, fig. 27. = Acanthochitona pilsbryoides Ashby & Cotton, 1939. Holotype: P4346, 1 complete median valve, from Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian— Bairnsdalian), collected by W. Greed, date of collec- tion unknown. Note: Type unique. Acanthochiton sabratus Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec. S. Aust. Mus.6(3): 215, pl. 20, fig. 25. = Acanthochitona sabrata Ashby & Cotton, 1939, Holotype: P4344, 1 incomplete median valve, from Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian— Bairnsdalian), collected by W. Greed, date of collec- tion unknown. Note: Originally labelled and registered as Acan- thochiton parus, later corrected to A. sabratus. A. parus may have been the original manuscript name, but was never published. Type unique. Acanthochiton singletoni Cotton & Godfrey, 1940 ‘The Molluscs of South Australia Part IT’ p. 570, fig. 588. = Acanthochitona singletoni 1940, Holotype: P4341, | complete median valve, from MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown. Cotton & Godfrey, 1, POLYPLACOPHORA Note: This specimen was originally recorded as Afossochiton cudmorei Ashby, 1925 by Ashby & Cot- ton (1939), and incorrectly labelled ‘holotype’ on the plate caption. Type unique. Acanthochiton trianguloides Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 216, pl. 20, fig. 28. = Acanthochitona trianguloides Ashby & Cotton, 1939. Holotype: P4347, | incomplete median valve, from Forsyths (Bank), Grange Burn, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown, Note: Type unique. Genus Afossochiton Ashby, 1925 Afossochiton cudmorei Ashby, 1925 Proc, R. Soc. Vic. (NS) 37(2): 179, pl. 18, figs 6, 7. Paratypes: P10150, 1 incomplete median valve, from Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian— Bairmsdalian), collector and date of collection un- known. T846, | incomplete median valve, same col- lection data as PIO150. Note; P10150 is registered as from Balcombe Bay, Vic. and labelled as from MacDonalds, Muddy Creek. However, as it is definitely Ashby’s (1925) figured specimen 'No, 2, paratype’ we regard both the register and the label as incorrect. T846 corresponds to Ashby’s (1925) specimen 'No. 3, paratype’. Holotype in NMV (P13311). Afossochiton (Telochiton) dendus Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 211, pl. 20, fig, 24. = Afossochiton dendus Ashby & Cotton, 1939. Holotype: P4342, 1 incomplete anterior valve, from Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian— Bairnsdalian), collected by W. Greed, date of collec- tion unknown. Note: Type unique. Afossochiton (Telochiton) iscus Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec. §. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 212, pl. 19, fig. 20. = Afossochiton iscus Ashby & Cotton, 1939. Holotype: P4339, 1 complete posterior valve, from Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian— Bairnsdalian), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown, Note: Type unique. Afossochiton (Telochiton) magnicostatus Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 212, pl. 20, fig. 23. K.L. GOWLETT-HOLMES & B.J. MCHENRY 5 =Afossechitan magnicostaius Ashby & Cotton, 1939, Holotype: P4343. | incomplete median valve, from MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown, Note: Type unique, Afossochiton sulei Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec, §. Aust, Mus. 6(3).. 210, pl, 20, fig..21. Holotype: P4340, | complete anterior valve, from MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Bum Formation, carly Pliocene (Kalimnati), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown. Note: Type unique, Genus Notoplax H Adams, 861 Molachiton naxus Ashby & Cotton, 1939 =Notoplax (Bassethullia)inexpecta (Ashby & Cotton, 1939). see LEPTOCHITONIDAE Family CHITONIDAE Genus Anthochiton Thiele, 1893 Anthachiton duedent: Astby & Cotton, 1939 Rec, §. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 235, pl. 20, fig. 38. = Chiton (Rhyssoplax) duodeni (Ashby & Cotton, 1939), Holotype: P4357, | incamplele median valve. from MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Burn Formation, early Phocene (Kulimnan), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown. Note. Type unique. Anthochiton macdonaldensix Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Ree, 8, Aust. Mus, 6(3); 234, pl. 21, fig. 39, = Chitan (Rhyssoplax) macdanaldensis (Ashby & Cotton, 1939) Holotype: P4359, | complete posterior valve, from MacDonalds (Bank), Maddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan). collected by W_ Greed, date of collection unknown. Note: Type unique. Anthavhiton octocestatus Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Ree, 8, Aust Mus. 6(3) 235, pl. 21, fig. 40, =Chiton (Rhysseplax) octocostatus (Ashby & Cotton, $939), Hulotype: P4360, 1 half median valve. from MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek. Hamilton, Vic, Grange Burm Formation, carly Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected by W Greed, date of collection unknown, Note: Type unique. Genus Chiton Linnaeus. 1758 Chiton fossicus. Ashby & Torr. 1901 Trans. R, Soc. 8, Aust, 25(2); 140, pl. 4, fig. 4. = Chiton (Rhyssaplax) fossicus Ashby & Tarr. 1901, Holotype: T840, | incomplete median valve, from Table Cape, Tas.. Table Cape Group, carly Miocene (Longfordian), collected by R. Tate and J. Dennani, date of collection unknown. Note: Type unique. Chiton paucipustulosus Ashby & Torr, 1901 Trans. R. Soe. 8. Aust. 28(2): 141, pl. 4, fig. 2. = Loricella pauetpustulosa (Ashby & Torr, 1901) (SCHIZOCHITONIDAE). Holotype: T839, | complete median valve, fram Table Cape, Tas., Table Cape Group, early Miocene (Longfordian), collected by R. Tate and J. Dennant, date of collection unknown. Note: A specimen of this species in the collection (P4366) 1s labelled 'Pleisiotype’. This specimen is Ashby and Cotton's (1939) ‘Hypotype' and has no type Status. Type unique, Chiton (Anthochiton) tricostalis relata Ashby & Cot- ton, 1936 Rec. 8. Ausr. Mus. S(4): 509, fig. 1 = Chiten (Rhyssoplax) tricostalis relatus Ashby & Cotton, 1936, Holotype: P10157 (ex D12883), | incomplete median valve, from 151m depth, Torrensville Bare, Adelaide, 8.A., Dry Creek Sands, late Pliocene (Yatalan). col- lected hy W.J. Kimber, date of collection unknown, Note: Type anique. Family CRYPTOPLACIDAE Genus Cryptoplax Blainyille, 1818 Cryptoplax ludbrookae Ashby, |940 Trans. R. Soc, 8, Aust. 64(2): 266. Holotype: P4285; | complete anterior valve. from 103-117 m depth, bore at Holden’s Motor Body Works, Woodville, Adelaide, 5_A., Dry Creck Sands, late Plioeene (Yaqalan), collected by S.A. Department of Mines, 1934. Note: Type uniques Cryptoplax numicus Ashby & Cotton. 1939 Reo §. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 219, pl. 19, fig. 18 Holotype: P4337, 1 inconiplete median valve, from MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Bum Formation, early Pliocene (Kaliminan), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown Note: Type unique, MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown. Paratypes: P12829, | incomplete anterior valve and | incomplete median valve, with same collection data as holotype. Note: The anterior valve in lot P12829 is Ashby & Cotton’s (1939) 'Hypotype’. Family ISCHNOCHITONIDAE Genus Callistochiton Dall, 1882 Callistochiton greedi Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 232, pl. 21, fig. 41. Holotype: P4369, 1 half median valve, from Forsyths (Bank), Grange Burn, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown. Paratypes: P12823, 2 median valve fragments, with same collection data as holotype. Note: Ashby and Cotton (1939) list 4 paratype frag- ments. The label of P12823 states 'l sent USA Dec 1938', so the 4th fragment is presumed lost before reg- istration, as register only lists 2 specimens. Callistochiton inexpectus Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec. S, Aust. Mus. 6(3): 233, pl.21, figs 41, 42. Holotype: P4372, 1 incomplete median valve, from MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown. Paratypes: P4373, | complete posterior valve, with same collection data as holotype. P12818, | incom- plete median valve and | incomplete posterior valve, with same collection data as holotype. Note: P4373 is Ashby and Cotton’s (1939) 'Hypotype', labelled and registered as 'Pleisiotype’. All three lots originally labelled and registered as Callistochiton affinis, an unpublished name, and later corrected to C. inexpectus. Callistochiton reticulatus Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec. S, Aust. Mus. 6(3): 233, pl. 21, figs 44, 45. Holotype: P4370, 1 incomplete median valve, from MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown. Paratypes: P4371, 1 incomplete median valve, from Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian — Bairnsdalian), collected by W. Greed, date of collec- tion unknown. P4381, 1 incomplete posterior valve, from Forsyths (Bank), Grange Burn, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown. FOSSIL MOLLUSC TYPES. 1. POLYPLACOPHORA P12820, 2 half median valves and 1 incomplete poste- rior valve, with same collection data as P4381. Note: Ashby & Cotton (1939) list a 'Hypotype' (P4383) from the same locality as the holotype, which could not be found in the collection, however, the register lists P4383 from Forsyths. P4381 is labelled 'Pleisiotype' (="'Hypotype’) but the locality on the label (Forsyths) differs from the locality in the register (MacDonalds). We believe the 2 specimens were con- fused before registration, that the 'Hypotype' specimen of Ashby & Cotton (1939) has been lost, and replaced by P4381, which is part of the lot of 4 specimens from Forsyths mentioned by Ashby & Cotton (1939), the remainder of the lot being P12820. Genus Callochiton Gray, 1847 Callochiton macdonaldi Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 227, pl. 21, fig. 46. Holotype: P4368, 1 incomplete median valve, from MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown. Note: Type unique. Callochiton (Ocellochiton) sulci Ashby, 1939 Proc, Linn. Soc. Lond. 151(3): 187, pl. 3, figs 1-3. =Ocellochiton sulci (Ashby, 1939). Holotype: P10158; 1 incomplete median valve, from Balcombe Bay, Mornington, Vic., Balcombe Clay, early to middle Miocene (Batesfordian— Bairnsdalian), collected by F.A, Cudmore, date of collection unknown. Paratypes: P26776, | incomplete anterior valve and 1 incomplete posterior valve with same collection data as holotype. Genus Ischnochiton Gray, 1847 Ischnochiton (Radsiella) cliftonensis Ashby & Cot- ton, 1939 Rec. §. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 231, pl. 19, fig. 14. = Lavenachiton cliftonensis (Ashby & Cotton, 1939) (INCERTAE SEDIS), Holotype: P4333, 1 incomplete median valve, from Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian— Bairnsdalian), collected by W. Greed, date of collec- tion unknown. Note: Type unique. Ischnochiton cossyrus Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 229, pl. 20, fig. 37. Holotype: P4356, 1 incomplete posterior valve, from MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown. Note: Type unique. K.L. GOWLETT-HOLMES & BJ, MCHENRY 7 Ischnochiton dertus Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Ree S. Aust Mus. 6(3): 230, pl. 20, fig. 33. =Isehnochiton cossyrus Ashby & Cotton, 1939, Holotype: P4352. | incomplete posterior valve, from MacDonalds (Bank). Muddy Creek, Harnilton, Vic., Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown, Note; Type unique, Ischnochiton neglectuy Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Ree. S, Aust, Mus. 6(3); 231, pl. 20, fig. 34. Holotype: P4353, 1 half median valve, from Forsyths (Bank), Grange Burn, Hamilton, Vie., Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected hy W, Greed, date of collection unknown, Paraly pes; P12819, 2 fragments of median valves with same collection data as holotype. Ischnochiton numantius Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rev, S, Aust, Mus, 6(3): 229, pl. 19, fig. 16, Holotype: P4335, 1 incomplete posterior valve, from Torsyths (Bank), Grange Burn, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Burn Formation, carly Plioeene (Kalimnan), collected by W, Greed, date of collection unknown, Note: Type unique. Iyehnochiton isurus. Ashby & Catton, 1939 Ree S. Aust, Mus, 6(3); 228, pl, (9, fig. 15, pl. 20, fig. 35, = lschnaehiron vinazus Ashby & Cotton, 1939. Holotype: P4334, 1 half median valve, from MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Bur Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimman), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown. Paratypes: P12838, 1 fragenent ofamediun valve, with sume collection data ag holotype. P26767, | half me- dian valve, trom Forsyths (Bank), Grange Burn, Hamilton, Vic,, Grange Burn Formation. early Plio- cene (Kalimnan), collected by W. Greed, date of cal- lection unknown, Note: One paratype of this species, Ashby & Colfan’s (1929) 'Hypotype’ P4354. is now the holotype of isclhnwechiton varenae Couian & Godfrey, 1S), Isclinochinon varende Cotten & Godfrey, 194) “The Motluses of South Australia Part 1” p, 570, fig. 57% Holotype; P4354, | incomplete postenor valve. from Forsyths (Bank), Grange Burn, Hamilton. Vie., Gringe Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalinin), collected by W. Creed, dave of colleenon unknown. Note: This specimen Was of einally.a paratype ol fc michifon fsurus Ashby & Colton, 199% [Ashby & Cotes (19359) 'bipritype’), Type vnique Jychnahitant vineses Ashby & Coton, 1959 Reo. S Avvt, Mug 6(3), 228, pl, 20, fig. 36 Holotype: P4355, ( half median valve, from Macdonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected by W, Greed, date of collection unknown Paratypes: P12828, 2 fragments of median valves with same collection data as holotype. Genus Ocellochitun Ashby, 1939 Lericva eculea Ashby & Cotton, 1939 = Ocellochiton sulei (Ashby, 1939), see SCHIZOCHITONIDAE Lartca varena Ashby & Cotton, 1939 = O¢ellochiton sulet (Ashby, |939), sce SCHIZOCHITONIDAE Family LEPTOCHTTONIDAE Genus Belchiton Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Belchuon pulcherrimus Ashby & Cotton, 19349 Ree, §, Aust, Mus, 6(3): 221, pl. 19 fig. 10, = Leplochiton pulcherrimus (Ashby & Cotton, 1939), Holotype; P4329, | incomplete median valve, from MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Burn Formation, early Pllocene (Kalinin), collected by W, Greed, dale af collection unknown. Paratype: P12799_ | incomplete median valve, with same collection data as bolatype Genus Lepidopleurns Risso, 1826 Lepidapleurus babidus Ashby & Catan, 1939 Rec. S. Aust, Mus, 6(3): 226, pl, 19, fig. 6. = Leptochiton bahidus (Ashby & Cotton, 1939), Holotype; P4325. | half median valve, from MacDonalds (Baik), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vie., Grange Burn Formation, early: Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown, Paratype: P1282). 2 median valve fragments, with same collection data ax holotype. Lepidopleurus badioides Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Ree, S, Aust. Ms, 6(3); 222, pl 1%, fi 4. pl 24, fig. 47, = Leptachiton budivides (Ashby & Canon, 1939) Holorype: P4323_ L incomplete peatenor valve. fen Clifton Bank, Muddy Crack, Hamilion, Vie,, Murty Crock Marl, early to middle Mioegne (Balcorablan - Bajmsdalian), collected by W. Greed, date of collec hen unknown, Puratypes; P4358, 2 frauments of amedian valve. fom Porsyths (Bank). Grange Bunt, Harrilian, Vic, Grange Burn Formanon, carly Pliocene (Kalininan), collevied by W Greed! date of colleetion unknown, PL2304, 2 fraements of a posteriay valve, wall care collection Wate as 4358, PI2S05, | incomplete median yalve, with same collection data as P4358. Lepldopleurus clifdenensiy Ashby, 1979 Trans, N. Z. Inst. 60: 367, pl. 32, figs 8a, 8b. = Leptochiton clitdenensis (Ashby, 1929). Holotype: P10162.1 fragment of amedian valve, from Clifden, South island, N.Z., Clifden Limestone, early Miocene (Hutchinsonian), collector and date ot coll- ection unknown. Note: Type unique. Ashby (1929b) lists two Trag- ments of the holotype, the second fragment is missing, presumed lost, Lepidopleurus diversizrunasus Ashby & Cotton, L939 Ree S. Aust. Mus, 6(3); 227, pl. 19, figs 1, 9. = Leptochiton diversigranosux (Ashby & Cotton, 1939). Holotype: P4328, 1 incomplete posterivr valve, from Cliflon Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vie., Mudely Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian- Baimsdalian), collected by W. Greed. date of collection unknown. Paratype: P4320, | incomplete median valve, with same collection data a§ holotype, Note; The paratype P4320 is Ashby & Cotton's (1939) 'Hyparype’. Lepidepleuras magnogranifer Ashby, 1925 Proce. R, Sac. Vic, (NS) 37(2); 171, pl. 18, fig. 1. = Leptechiton magnogranifer (Ashby, 1925). Holotype: 1847, 1 incomplete median valve, from Muddy Creek, Hurilton, Vic., exact stratuyn nol re- corded, collected by J, Dennant and R. Tale, dale of ¢ollection unknown, Note: A label with the holotype lists the locality as Clifton Bank, (Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic,, Muddy Creck Marl, early to middle Miocene (Baleombian- Buimnsdalian), which js the type locality defined by Ashby and Corton (1939) with their 'Pleisiotype’ (P4322), which is not a valid type, Type unique, Lepidepleurus nivarux Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Reco. §, Ausr. Mus. 6(3): 222, pl. 19, fig, 5. = Leptochiton nivaras (Ashby & Cotton, 1939). Holotype. P4324, 1 incomplete median valve, from Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian — Baimsdalian), collected by W, Greed, date of collection unknown. Paratypes: P26744, 2 fragments of median valves, with same collection data as holotype. Lepidoplenrus pamphilias Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec. §. Aust, Mus, 6(4): 222, pl, 19, fig, 2, = Protechiton srannlosus (Ashby & Torr, 1901) (PROTOCHITONIDAE) Holotype: P4321, 2 lrayments of amedian valve, from Clifton Bank, Maddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy FOSSIL MOLLUSC TYPES, 1. POLYPLACOPHORA Creek Marl, early to iniddlé Miocene (Baleombian — Baimsdalian), collected by W. Greed, date of collec- tion unknown. Note: Type unique. Lepidopleurus relaius Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec. §- Aust. Mus. 6(3). 224, pl. 19, fig. 12. = Leptochiton magnogranifer (Ashby, 1925), Holutype: P4331, 2 fragments of amedian valve, fram Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vie., Muddy Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian— Baimsdalian), collected by W. Greed. date ol collection unknow#, Paratypes: P12807, 1 median valve fragment. with same collection data as holorype. P12808, 1 median valve fragment, with same collection data as holotype. Note: After examining both types, we agree wilh Cotton & Weeding (1941) and van Belle (1984) in synonymising this species with L, magnugranijer (Ashby, 1925). However, the types of the latter are much more worn than the types of L, re/atuy, not the reverse, as Was slated by Cotton & Weeding (1944), The holotype was broken into two pieces subsequent to its deseription. Lepidepleurts sephus Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Ree. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 225, pl. 19, fig. 11. = Leptachiton sephus (Ashby & Cotton, 1939), Holotype: P4330, | incomplete median valve, from Forsyths (Bank), Grange Burm, Hamilton. Vic., Grange Burn Formation. early Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown, Nate: Type umque. Lepidopleurus sinervas Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 225, pl. 19, fig. 7. = Leptovhiton sinervies (Ashby & Cotton, 1939). Holotype: P4326, 1 fragment ef an anterior valve, from Forsyth (Bank). Grange Burn, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Burn Formation, carly Pliocene (Kalirmanan), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown. Paratype: P26743, 2 fragments of an anterior valve, With same collection data as holotype, Lepidopleurus singus Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec. §. Ausr. Mus, 6(3): 226, pl. 19, fig. 8. = Leprocititon singus (Ashby & Cotton, 1939) Holotype: P4327, | complete posterior valve, from MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamillun, Vic. Grange Bum Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnau), collecled by W.Greed_ date of collection unknown. Note: Type unique. ” Lepidopleuris jexcellus Ashby. & Cotton, 1939 Rec S. Aust, Mus, 6(3), 223, pi.19, fig.t3, = Leptochiten uxellus (Ashby & Cotton, 1939). Holotype; P4292, | incomplete posterior valve, from K.L. GOWLETT-HOLMES & BJ. MCHENRY 9 Forsyths (Bank), Grange Burn, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown. Note: Type unique. Genus Molachiton Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Molachiton naxus Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 220, pl. 20, fig. 32. = Notoplax (Bassethullia) inexpecta (Ashby & Cot- ton, 1939) (ACANTHOCHITONIDAE) Holotype: P4351, 1 half median valve, from MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown. Note: Generic placement follows Gowlett-Holmes (1987). Type unique. Family MOPALIIDAE Genus Plaxiphora Gray, 1847 Plaxiphora concentrica Ashby & Torr, 1901 Trans. R. Soc. §, Aust, 25(2): 138, pl. 4, fig. 8. = Plaxiphora (P.) albida (Blainville, 1825) (Recent species). Holotype: T836, | complete posterior valve, from Gellibrand River, Vic., early Miocene, collector and date of collection unknown. Note: We believe that this valve is from a recent specimen, and that the age and stratum are incorrect. We therefore regard it as a synonym of P. (P.) albida, an extant species. Type unique. Plaxiphora gellibrandi Ashby & Torr, 1901 Trans. R. Soc. S, Aust, 25(2): 139, pl. 4, fig. 1. = Plaxiphora (P.) albida (Blainville, 1825) (Recent species). Holotype: T837, 1 complete posterior valve, from Gellibrand, Vic., early Miocene, collector and date of collection unknown. Note: The age and stratum are apparently in error as the valve is from a recent specimen. Type unique. Family PROTOCHITONIDAE Genus Protochiton Ashby, 1925 Acanthochites (Notoplax) granulosus Ashby & Torr, 1901 = Protochiton granulosus (Ashby & Torr, 1901), see ACANTHOCHITONIDAE Lepidopleurus pamphilius Ashby & Cotton, 1939 = Protochiton granulosus (Ashby & Torr, 1901). see LEPTOCHITONIDAE Family SCHIZOCHITONIDAE Genus Aulacochiton Shuttleworth, 1853 Aulacochiton erma Cotton & Godfrey, 1940 ‘The Molluscs of South Australia Part II’ p. 570, fig. 588. = Lorica compressa Ashby & Torr, 1901. Holotype: P4286, 1 incomplete median valve, from Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian— Bairnsdalian), collector and date of collection un- known. Note: Van Belle (1981) considers A. erma to be a distinct species, but after comparing the holotypes of this species and Lorica compressa, we believe they are conspecific, and that the holotype of A. erma is a very weathered example of L. compressa. Type unique. Genus Lorica H. & A. Adams, 1852 Lorica affinis Ashby & Torr, 1901 Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust, 25(2): 137, pl. 4, fig. 7. = Lorica compressa Ashby & Torr, 1901. Holotype: T843, 1 incomplete median valve, from Table Cape, Tas., Table Cape Group, early Miocene (Longfordian), collected by R. Tate and J. Dennant, date of collection unknown. Note: The locality and age were not given by Ashby & Torr (1901), but the type is clearly labelled 'Table Cape', which is the locality given for this species by Ashby (1925). Type unique. Lorica compressa Ashby & Torr, 1901 Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust, 25(2): 136, pl. 4, fig. 6. Holotype: T842, | incomplete median valve, from Table Cape, Tas., Table Cape Group, early Miocene (Longfordian), collected by R. Tate and J. Dennant, date of collection unknown. Note: The locality and age were not given by Ashby & Torr (1901), but the type is clearly labelled 'Table Cape’, which is the locality given for this species by Ashby (1925). Type unique. Lorica oculea Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 237, pl. 21, fig. 48. = Ocellochiton sulci (Ashby, 1939) (ISCHNO- CHITONIDAE). Holotype: P4362, 1 incomplete median valve, from Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic,, Muddy Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian— Bairnsdalian), collected by W. Greed, date of coll- ection unknown. Paratype: P12817, | incomplete median valve with same collection data as holotype. Lorica varena Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 238, pl. 21, fig. 49. 10 FOSSIL MOLLUSC TYPES. 1. POLYPLACOPHORA = Ocellochiton sulci (Ashby, 1939) USCHNO- CHITONIDAE). Holotype: P4361, 1 incomplete median valve, from Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian— Bairnsdalian), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown. Note: Type unique. Genus Loricella Pilsbry, 1893 Loricella concava Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec, S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 236, pl. 21, fig. 51. Holotype: P4367, 1 incomplete posterior valve, from MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown. Note: Type unique. Loricella gigantea Ashby & Torr, 1901 Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. 25(2): 137, pl. 4, fig. 3. Holotype: T838, 1 incomplete anterior valve, from Schnapper Point, Mornington, Vic., Balcombe Clay, early to middle Miocene (Batesfordian— Bairnsdalian), collected by R. Tate and J. Dennant, date of collection unknown. Note: Ashby (1925) states the above locality is in error for the Freestone Cove Sandstone (‘Lower Beds’), Table Cape, Tas., early Miocene (Longfordian). See note on Schnapper Point in Stratigraphical Notes. Type unique. Loricella magnopustulosa Ashby & Cotton, 1939 Rec. §. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 235, pl. 21, figs 50, 53. Holotype: P4365, | incomplete anterior valve, from MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown. Paratype: P4364, 1 half median valve, same collection data as holotype. Note: P4364 is Ashby & Cotton’s (1939) 'Hypotype’. The two paratypes listed by Ashby & Cotton (1939) are missing, presumed lost. Chiton paucipustulosa Ashby & Torr, 1901 = Loricella paucipustulosa (Ashby & Torr, 1901). see CHITONIDAE Genus Oochiton Ashby, 1929 Oochiton halli Ashby, 1929 Proc. R. Soc. Vic. (NS) 41(2): 222, pl. 24, figs La, b, 2, 3a-c, 8a, b. Neotype: P4393, 1 complete anterior valve, from Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian— Bairnsdalian), collected by W. Greed, date of coll- ection unknown. Note: Neotype selected by Ashby & Cotton (1939) to replace type destroyed by fire in Ashby’s house on March 9, 1934. This specimen was selected to replace ‘holotype of the head valve of this species’ according to Ashby & Cotton (1939), however the holotype was a median valve according to Ashby (1929a). As none of the types listed by Ashby (1929a) could be found, we believe that they were all destroyed by fire, and that the anterior valve listed above is a valid neotype. INCERTAE SEDIS Genus Lavenachiton Cotton & Godfrey, 1940 Ischnochiton (Radsiella) cliftonensis Ashby & Cot- ton, 1939 = Lavenachiton cliftonensis (Ashby & Cotton, 1939), see ISCHNOCHITONIDAE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We wish to thank Mr D.J. Holloway for supplying us with information regarding types held in NMY. We would also like to thank Mr W. Zeidler and Mr N. Pledge for their advice and encouragement during this project, and Ms J. Thurmer for advice and assistance in drafting the figures, Dr N.H. Ludbrook and Dr J.M. Lindsay are thanked for critical com- ments. REFERENCES ABELE, C., KENLEY, P.R., HOLDGATE, G, & RIPPER. D. 1976. Otway Basin, In Douglas, J.G, & Ferguson, J.A. (Eds.) ‘Geology of Victoria’. Geol. Soc. Aust. Spec. Publ. No. 5, pp. 198-229. ASHBY, E. 1925. Monograph on Australian fossil Polypla- cophora (chitons). Proc. R. Soc. Vie(NS) 37(2); 170- 205, pls 18-22. ASHBY, E. 1929a. Notes on and additions to Australian fossil Polyplacophora (chitons). Proc. R. Soc. Vic. (NS) 41(2): 220-230, pl. 24. ASHBY, E. 1929b. New Zealand fossil Polyplacophora (chitons). Trans. N. Z. Inst. 60: 366-369, pl. 32. ASHBY, E. & COTTON, B.C.1939. New fossil chitons from the Miocene and Pliocene of Victoria. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 209-242, pls 19-21. ASHBY, E. & TORR, W.G. 1901. Fossil Polyplacophora from Eocene beds of Muddy Creek, Mornington (Schnap- per Point) and Moorabool, Victoria, with definitions of nine new species, and notes on others. Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. 25(2): 136-144, pl. 4. BANKS, M.R. 1962. Cainozoic: Marine succession, The geology of Tasmania, /. Geol. Soc. Aust. 9(2): 233-236. COTTON, B.C. & GODFREY, F.K. 1940. 'The Molluscs of South Australia. Part Il. Scaphopoda, Cephalopoda, Apla- cophora and Crepipoda’. S. Aust. Govt Printer, Adelaide. COTTON, B.C. & WEEDING, B.J. 1941.The correlation of Recent and fossil Crepipoda (Mollusca) of the Australian Sub-Region, Rec. §. Aust, Mus. 6(3): 435-450. GOSTIN, V.A. 1966. Tertiary stratigraphy of the Morning- ton district, Victoria. Proc. R. Soc. Vic. (NS) 79: 345-359, GOWLETT-HOLMES, K.L. 1987. The suborder K.L, GOWLETT-HOLMES & B.J. MCHENRY II Choriplacina Starobogatov & Sirenko, 1975 with a rede- scription of Choriplax grayi (H. Adams & Angas, 1864) (Mollusca: Polyplacophora). Trans, R, Soc. S, Aust, 111(2): 105-110. JOHNSTON, R.M. 1877. Further notes on the Tertiary marine beds at Table Cape. Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1876: 79-90, JOHNSTON, R.M. 1880. Notes on the relations of the Yellow Limestone (Travertin), of Geilston Bay, with other fluviatile and lacustrine deposits in Tasmania and Austra- lia, together with descriptions of two new fossil helices, Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas, for 1879: 81-90. JOHNSTON, R.M. 1885. Additions to the list of Table Cape fossils, together with further remarks upon certain fossil shells supposed to be identical with living species. Pap. Proe, R. Soc. Tas. for 1884: 220-224, LUDBROOK, N.H. 1967a, Correlation of Tertiary rocks of the Australasian region, /n 'Tertiary correlations and cli- matic changes in the Pacific’, Symposium No. 25. The Eleventh Pacific Science Congress, Tokyo 1966. Sasaki Printing & Publishing Co, Ltd,, Sendai. LUDBROOK, N.H. 1967b. Tertiary molluscan types from Table Cape in the Tasmanian Museum, Hobart. Pup. Proc. R. Sac. Tas. 101: 65-69. LUDBROOK,N.H. 1973. Distribution and stratigraphic util- ity of Cenozoic Molluscan faunas in southern Australia. Sci. Rep. Tohoku Univ., (2) (Geol.) 6: 241-261 (Hatai Mem. Vol.). PRITCHARD, G.B. 1896. A revision of the fossil fauna of the Table Cape beds, Tasmania, with descriptions of new species. Proc, R. Sac. Vic. (NS) 8; 74-150. QUILTY, P.G. 1966, The age of Tasmanian marine Tertiary rocks, Aust. J, Sci. 29(S): 143-144. QUILTY, P.G. 1972. The biostratigraphy of the Tasmanian marine Tertiary. Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. 106: 25-44, SPENCER-JONES, D. 1971. Marginal Tertiary deposits of the Tyrendarra Embayment — Grassdale and Hamilton district, Jn Wopfner, H. & Douglas, J.G. (Eds.). ‘The Otway Basin of southeastern Australia’. Special Bulletin, Geological Surveys of South Australia and Victoria pp. 241-249, SUGGATE. R.P., STEVENS, G.R. & TEPUNGA, M.T, (Eds,) 1978. 'The Geology of New Zealand. Vol. LI’. Government Printer, Wellington. VAN BELLE, R.A. 1981. 'Catalogue of Fossil Chitons (Mollusca: Polyplacophora)’, W. Backhuys, Rotterdam, ON AUSTRALIAN HERSILITDAE FROM THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM (ARACHNIDA : ARANEAE) SUPPLEMENT TO THE REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN HERSILITDAE BY B. BAEHR & M. BAEHR Summary A collection of hersiliid spiders from the South Australian Museum is examined. Tamopsis forresti sp. nov. from north-western Queensland and T. ediacare sp. nov. from central south Australia are newly described. New records are given for T. eucalypti (Rainbow), T. queenslandica Baehr & Baehr, T. raveni Bachr & Baehr, and T, fickerti (L. Koch), mainly from South Australia and central Australia, and the range of some species are considered extended. ON AUSTRALIAN HERSILIIDAE FROM THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN 13 MUSEUM (ARACHNIDA: ARANEAE) SUPPLEMENT TO THE REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN HERSILITDAE B. BAEHR & M. BAEHR BAEHR, B, & BAEHR, M. 1988. On Australian Hersiliidae from the South Australian Museum (Arachnida: Araneae). Supplement to the revision of the Australian Hersiliidae. Rec. §. Aust. Mus. 22 (1): 13-20. Acollection of hersiliid spiders from the South Australian Museum is examined. Tamopsis forresti sp. nov. from north-western Queensland and T. ediacarae sp. nov. from central south Australia are newly described. New records are given for 7. eucalypti (Rainbow), T. queenslandica Baehr & Baehr, T. raveni Baehr & Baehr, and T. fickerti (L. Koch), mainly from South Australia and central Australia, and the ranges of some species are considerably extended. B. Baehr & M. Baehr, Zoologische Staatssammlung, Munchhausenstr. 21, 8000 Miinchen 60, Federal Republic of Germany. Manuscript received 4 May 1987. The collection of Hersiliidae from the South Austra- lian Museum, Adelaide (SAMA), comprises about 25 specimens from Queensland, South Australia and Western Australia. Because two new species and sev- eral new records, mainly from central Australia, are involved, it is worth noting in a separate paper, re- garded as a supplement to our recent revision of the Australian Hersiliidae (Baehr & Baehr 1987), This supplement is evidence of the little known fauna of more remote regions of Australia, especially in inland areas. Measurements were taken as indicated previ- ously (Baehr & Baehr 1987). ABBREVIATIONS ALE — anterior lateral eye AME ~ anterior median eye bS — basal segment of posterior lateral spinneret LB — total length of body LL — total length of Ist leg PLE —posterior lateral eye PLS — posterior lateral spinneret PME — posterior median eye tS — terminal segment of posterior lateral spinneret I — Ist leg II — 2nd leg Ill — 3rd leg IV —4th leg CLASSIFICATION In our revision of the Australian Hersiliidae all known species were transferred from Chalinura or Tama, respectively, to a new genus Tamopsis. All newly described species, with exception of the singular Hersilia australiensis Baehr & Baehr, also belong to Tamopsis. As the collection from the SAMA comprises only species of Tamopsis, apart from a single juvenile Hersilia specimen (N11979100) which we are unable to determine, no generic diagnosis needs to be included. Tamopsis eucalypti (Rainbow) Tama eucalypti Rainbow, 1900: 487 This species is widely distributed in south-eastern Australia from south-east Queensland through eastern New South Wales, Victoria to Eyre Peninsula in South Australia. Specimens from SAMA are identified by the conspicuous shape of the female vulva. New records South Australia: 2 females (N 1987181), Belair NP, Mt Lofty Ranges, i. 1936, Coll. H. Womersley; | female (N1987182), Fullarton, Adelaide, x. 1935, Coll. H. Womersley; 5 females (N 1987183), Ade- laide, 1936, Coll. H. Womersley. Tamopsis cf. queenslandica Baehr & Baehr (Fig. 4) Baehr & Baehr, 1987: 372 This species was newly described from a male and female from southern Queensland and from New South Wales, respectively. It belongs to a group of several closely related species characterized by the depressed eye area and rather similar male palpi and female vulvae (see Baehr & Baehr 1987). The single specimen from the SAMA is doubtfully assigned to T. queenslandica by virtue of the shape of its female vulva. This assignment, however, is some- what hypothetical, because the specimen was appar- ently dried out and, as a consequence, is rather dam- aged. Hence the vulva is difficult to examine. If our determination is right, this would mean a considerable expansion of the range of this species right through 4 B. BAEHR & M. BAEHR central Australm to the Northen Territory-Western Australian border. lis worth noting mn this connexion thatborhoriginal records of 7 gueenslandica are from west of the Great Dividing Range. Perlaps this is an inland species, New record Western Australias | female (N 1987184), Gill Pm- nucle, Schwerin Mural Crescent, 24°54°S, 128°46'E. xt, 1963. Coll, P. Aitken & N.B. 'Imdale. Tamopsis raveni Baebr & Bachr (Fig. 4) Baehr & Baehr, 1987; 373 Another species of the yueensdandica group and extremely closely related to 7 guevenslaniica. 7. rav- eni was previously knowa only froma single locality in south-east Queensland, The single female specimen from the SAMA is assigned tothis species muinly by the shape of its vulva, New record South Australia: 1 Fenmale (N [987ERS), Oaktrees, Rrown Hill Creek Reserve, Adelaide foothills, i, 1965. Coll, C, Luscombe, This record extenils considerably the range of T) raveni to the south-west, Tamopsis forresti sp. hoy (Figs 1.2,4) I'vpes Holotype; male UN 1987186), N,W. Queensland, LSkm W., by N- of Riversleigh Homestead, collected by beating bushes on dry area abave Gregory River. 30. iv. 1986, Coll. J, A. Forrest Paratype: | feniile (N 1987187), same dala. Diagnosis Medium sized species with high eye area, large AME and moderately elongate legs, recognized by mile palpus with a large, spoon-shaped, hoaked proc- cas and a small lateral process on mednin apophysis and with three elongate lateral processes al apex of lateral upophysis, and by unique shape of female vulval Description of holarype (ndle) Measurements; Body length: 3.48 mm. Cephalo- thorax lengthy |.48-mm; width; 1,40 mm, Abdomen length: 2 mm, width: 1.65 mm, Legs: 1: 10.04mm, Ue 9328 mm, Wh 3.72 mm, IV; 9.08 mm. Ratio: 1; 0,92; 0,37; 0.90. Ratio L.B/LL: 0.35. PLS length: 1.84 mm; bS: 0.48 mm; tS: 1.36 mm. Eye ratio: 1; 0.33:0.78; 0.67. Colour, Cephalothorax light brown, eye area, bor- der, several radial spots, and dorsal groove piceaus to blackish. Clypeus dirty white, with nwo dark spots. Chelicerae greyist to brown, Abdomen ototiled, with distinet lancet-shaped median stripe and lateral or ders dark, posteriorly with some transverse lightand dark bands. Ventral surfiice light, Legs. light, cor spicuously ainulate. femora anteriocly—veotnally striped with black. Cephalithorax: Circular, slightly narrower than abdomen. Eye area considerably raised, clypeus slightly higher than eye area, AMT, by fir largest. PLE shightly smaller than PME. Distunee AME/AME. Slightly less than diameter of AME, distance AME/ ALE about equal ty diameterot AME, Distance PME/ PME about half of diameter of PME. distance PME/ PLE about equal to diameter of PLE, Chelieeric about 1'/ sas longas wide, posteriorly with 3 minute teeth. Stemum selose, Ahdamen: Elongate oval. Dorsally with 5 pairs of rather circular muscular pils. Ventral muscular pits 1 ay-shaped aringement. PLS slightly Shorter than al- domen, Legs: Measuremenis see ubove, Moderately eloti- gate, HE Slightly longer than 1/3 of 7. Palpus: Median apophysis strongly contarted, apex wilh wide, membraheads area Within, leqminally with a large. spoon-shaped process, und hiterally with a shoner, curved process which is conspicumisly Happed outside, Lateral apophysis alsa contorted. apex deeply excised, laterally of excision bering three elongate, slender, finger hke, hook-shaped structures, Inner finger apically curved away from palpus. Description of paratype (fenales Measurements: Body length: 3.60 nun, Cephalo- thoras length: 1.44 mm; width: 1.40 mm Abdomen length: 2.16 mm, width; 2,28 mim, Les: { &. 66 mm, Us. 7.72 mm, th 3.04 mm, V2 744 mm. Ratio: 10.95°0.37: 0.91, Rune LB/Lb: O44. PLS lemth: 1.92 mm) bS: O48 mm: tS: 1.36 mm. Bye ratio: 1: 0,5; O.88: O88, Culour, Very similar to male holotype, Abdomen still more mottled, legs more contrastingly coloured, Cephalothorax Similar tomale, but much narrower than abdomen, Clypeus slightly higher. Eyes smaller, especially AME smaller in relation to ALF, ALE nearly half as large as AME. PME and PLE of abour equal size. Abdomen: Slighuly wider than Jong, rather triangu- lar Arrangement of dorsal und ventral muscular pits 05 in male. PLS stightly longer in relation to abdomen Ubi a Tales Leay; Measurements see above. Moderately clon- pate. HW about as long as in male, Epigyne' Laterally with a large opening covered by a plate. Parts of vulva low, widely separated, Vulva: With two receptacula seminis, though inner recepraculim characteristically bent and prolonged veulrally, apex shghtly recurved, Only outer recep- AUSTRALIAN HERSILIIDAE Is (iculim wlindular beneath capsule, Introductory duet bent, V-shaped. posteriorly produced. Distribution Thus far known from north-western Queensland close ta Northern Territory border. Habits Not exaeny known, Caieht by beating bushes nes river. Collected in April, Relationships This species is certainly closely related to Eterna Baehr& Buehr from southern Queensland, The male palpi of both spevics are fairly simidurand they are ree ognized by their long, finger-like processes at the apex of the lateral apophysis. The palpis of 7. forrest, however. dilfers tn thal the inner process of the lateral upephysis is curved outside rather thao inwards. and thatthe median upophysis possesses a strong lateral process. As the female of 7) (foy\is.as yer unknown. nothing can be said on dilterences of female epigyne aod vulva. The epigyne of 7. forrest). however. is out- standing within the apice group tothe form of the in- ner receplaculum seminis. fidlentification For idenrificution the key to species in aur revision (Bache & Baehr 1987) should be altered as following: Couplet 1} — cancel Southern cevtral Qeenshad rwreocate te teteledet doer /twl helste! «in (ronyy sp.noy.” then add ‘16a, Lateral border ot MA not modified to uspoon- like process, Inner finger of LA curved inwards. Southern central Queensland, ... dren. Baehr & Baehr — Lateral border of MA modified to u spoan-like process, napped Outside, Winer finger of LA curved outwards, North-western Queenslatd ......6;.068 Loker boone Jforresti sp. nov ‘= Smaller species with wider body, less than 4.5 mm long. Legs and PLS rather stout. Lateral RS- directed horizontally or posteriorly. Bridge of Y nai a NAETOW GVES PP ones ese eee erento nee pepe eect ees 37a. then add ~47 4, Lateral RS very small. directed horizontally. ID not strongly v-shaped, North-western Queensland he tet erleichardiana Bachr & Buehr ~ Lateral RS large, elongate, directed posteriorly. apex conspicuously incurved. ID strongly v-shaped. North-western Queensland ....2.... forresté sp. noy.' Tamopsis ediacarae sp, nov, (Figs 3,4) Holotype Female (N 1987188), South Australia, Ediacara(W, of Leigh Creek), 15. v. 196) - Diaenosis (male unknown) Medium-sized species with high eye area, large AME. and rather elongate legs. characterized by vulva with (wo equal receplacula seminis on each side, strongly coiled basal parts of introductory duets, and anteriorly a Wide bar. Description Measurements: Body length: 4.64 mm. Cephalo- thorax length: 188 mire width: 1&8 mn, Abdomen length: 2, 7670m: widilt: 2.62 mm. Legs: I: 14.08 mm, HW: 13.40 mm, HL. 4.60 mm, 1V: 1248 mm. Ratio: 1: O.9S:0,33: 0.89. Ratio LB/LL: 033, PLS length: 244 mm, bS 0.08 m: tS: L80 mm, Eye ratio: lL: OA; 0.8; 0.9, Colours Light-coloured, Cephulothoras medially whitish, hiterally dark yellow. Eye area, lateral bor- ders, and some radial spots blackish. Clypeus and cheliverae wholly yellow, Abdomen rather light, slightly mottled, with laneer-shaped median stripe and lateral borders fading brown. Legs and palpi very light, inconspicuously annulate, PLS laterally near base and apically in last hind with distinct dark spots. Cephalothoray’ Cireular as long as wide. Eye area Strongly raised. clypeus slightly higher than eye area. Eyes rather small, AME largest, PME slightly sinaller than PLE, Distance AME/AME slightly less than di- umelerof AME. Disiange PME/PME more than hulfol diameter of PME, distance PMEB/PLE about equal to diameter of PLE. Chelicerae rather elongate, about 1*/,x a8 long as wide, Sternum heart-shaped, setose. Abdomen: Rather wide. almost as wide as long, slightly trapezoidal much wider than cephalotharax. Dorsally with’ pairs of circularmuscular pits. Ventral muscular pits ina slightly v-shaped arrangement, PLS: rather short, considerably shorter than abdomen. Les: Measurement see above. Elongute, Hc. 1/3 us long as 1. Epivyne: Laterally with an opening covered by a plate. Parts of vulva widely separated. anteriorly with a Wide, sclerotized bridge. Vulva. Wide. with Iwo receptacula seminis und a basal bulbus on egch side. Receptacula glandular ii basal half. Introductary duct basally strongly coiled and produced outwards. Distribution Lake Eyre Basin, central eastern South Australia. Habits Unknown. type collected im May- Relarionsitips T. ediacarae belongs to the large Mypica group: Judging from the shape of the female epigyne and vulva and from relative length of legs and PLS, 7, ediicarae is certainty most closely related to 7. pseudocircunvidens Baehr & Buehr from south-west- 16 B. BAEHR & M. BAEHR erm Australia which has a fairly similar vulva. How- ever, the following differences are to be noted: lack of conspicuous median black stripe on clypeus in 7. ediacarae, slightly different ratio of eye size, greater relative length of PLS, transverse bar of vulva located far anteriorly instead of medially, and introductory duct strongly coiled at base. Since both species are known only from the female holotypes, it is at present impossible to decide whether they are actually species or just strongly varying speci- mens of common species with very wide range. From our experience, however, distribution of the same hersiliid species across the Nullarbor Plain is rather unlikely. Identification For identification the key to species in the revision (Baehr & Baehr 1987) should be altered as following: Couple 36 — cancel “South-western Australia...............ccceeeeee eee es then add *36 a, Bridge located rather posteriorly between RS. ID basally not coiled (Fig 34). South-western Austra- lia“ eee pseudocircumvidens Baehr & Baehr —Bridge located rather anteriorly at apex of RS. [ID basally strongly coiled. Eastern central South Austra- NE A Ry AAR eet nO ediacarade sp. nov.’ Tamopsis fickerti (L. Koch) (Fig. 5) Chalinura fickerti L. Koch, 1876: 830 This is a widely distributed species in eastern Aus- tralia, though not yet reliably recorded either from Victoria or South Australia. Females of this species are at first glance recognized by their heart-shaped median plate in the epigyne. New records South Australia: 1 female (N 1987189), Renmark, 27.iv.1981, Coll. R.V. Southcott; 1 male (N 1987190), Mitcham, Adelaide, 14. xi. 1986, Coll. R. V. South- cott; | male (N 1987191), Bellevue Heights, Adelaide, 5. xii.1979, Coll. A. Bowie; 5 females, | juv. (N 1987192), Belair N.P., Mt Lofty Ranges, i.1936, Coll. H. Womersley; 2 females (N 1987193), Belair N.P., 16.ii.1936, Coll. H. Womersley. Habits For habits of this species see Baehr & Baehr (1987). Several label notes of the SAMA specimens give evidence of a rather common occurrence of T, fickerti on walls and houses. In the wild, however, this is a true tree-inhabiting species, living on the bark of diverse eucalypts. T. fickerti seems to be rather common in the en- virons of Adelaide and is perhaps distributed over the whole of south-eastern Australia from south-eastern Queensland to at least Adelaide in South Australia. Discussion As demonstrated by the present work, the Austra- lian Hersiliidae fauna is not yet adequately known. Certainly still more species are likely to be discovered and the range of most species is far from being exactly known, because several species are only known from single specimens or from a single locality. This is certainly due to the inadequate exploration of vast areas, especially in central, western, and north-west- ern Australia, and also to the difficulties of collecting such extremely well-camouflaged spiders as Hersil- lidae which commonly sit motionless in small hollows on the bark of trees or attached on branches. The following comments stress or slightly alter those in our revision (Baehr & Baehr 1987): 1. Northern Queensland is one of the regions pos- sessing the most diverse hersiliid fauna. Most species, however, are rather unspecialized. Although the newly described T. forresti of north Queensland be- longs to a derivative species group, within this group it is also rather unspecialized. 2. Some species are far more widely distributed than hitherto realized. This applies mainly to species occur- ring in well-wooded eastern, south-eastern, and south- ern Australia, where tree-dwelling species are able to spread more easily over wide ranges. 3. No species were previously known from central Australia and very few from South Australia, but both faunas are more diverse than supposed. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We are indebted to Dr David C. Lee(Adelaide) for the loan of the specimens from the SAMA. REFERENCES BAEHR, B. & BAEHR, M. 1987. The Australian Hersiliidae (Arachnida, Araneae): taxonomy, phylogeny, zoogeography. /nvertebr. Taxon. 1: 351-437. KOCH, L. 1876. ‘Die Arachniden Australiens’. Nurnberg 1871-1883. RAINBOW, W.J. 1900. Descriptions of some new Ara- neidae of New South Wales. No. 9. Proc, Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 25: 438-494. AUSTRALIAN HERSILIIDAE e FIGURE 1. Tamopsis forresti sp. nov., male holotype. a. Body shape; b. Lateral view of head; c. Frontal view of head; d, Ventral view of palpus; e. Lateral view of palpus. Scales: a, b, c: 1 mm, d, e: 0.25 mm. 17 18 B. BAEHR & M. BAEHR FIGURE 2. Tamopsis forresti sp. nov., female paratype. a. Body shape; d. Lateral view of head; c. Frontal view of head, d. Epigyne; e. Vulva, Scales: a, b, c: 1 mm, d, e: 0.25 mm, AUSTRALIAN HERSILITDAE 19 EE Ee Se ee eee ae ee es FIGURE 3. Tamopsis ediacarae sp. nov., female holotype. a. Body shape; b. Lateral view of head; c. Frontal view of head; d. Epigyne; e. Vulva. Scales as in Figure 2. 20 B. BAEHR & M. BAEHR Be AN Pad en + 20S, OIL a4 FIGURE 4. Distribution of Tamopsis queenslandica Baehr & Baehr: WT. raveni Baehr & Baehr; A, T. forresti sp. nov.: @, and T. ediacarae Sp. nov.: #. FIGURE 5. Distribution of Tamopsis fickerti (L. Koch), revised map. REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN HALIPILIDAE (COLEOPTERA) BY C. H. S. WATTS Summary The Australian halipilids are revised. All belong to the genus Haliplus. Eight species are recognised, four of which are new : H. alastairi sp. nov, H. nicholasi sp. nov, H. stepheni sp. nov. and H. sindus sp. nov. The synonymy of H. australis Clark with H. testudo Clark 1985 is confirmed. A key to species is provided and relationships between species briefly discussed. REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN HALIPILIDAE. (COLEOPTERA) 21 C.H.S, WATTS WATTS, C. H. 5. WATTS 1988. Revision of Australian Halipilidae (Coleaptera), Rec, §. Aust. Mus. 22 (1h 21-28, The Australian halipilids are revised. All belong to the genus Halipluy, Eight species are recognised, four of which are new: H, alastairi sp. nov, H, nicholasi sp. nov, Hi, stepheni. sp. nov. and H, sindus sp. nov. The synonymy of H. australis Clark with. testudo Clark 1985 is confirmed. A key to species is provided and relationships between species briefly discussed C.H.S, Watts, South Australiun Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000. Manuscript received 17 June 1987. The Australian Halipilid fauna is small with only eight known species. All belong to the worldwide genus Aaliplus, Halipilids can be recagniged [rom all other Australian aquatic Coleoptera by the large post- coxal plates which cover the bases of the hind legs, They are found among aquatic vegetalion in still water around the coast from Adelaide eastward to Darwin. In addition, two species occur in the south-west of Wester! Australia and one in Tasmania. No specimens are known from the north-west. Bath adult and larval Stages are aquatic. Ne larvae of Australian species have been described. They are rare in collections and although [think this ts to some degree a reflection of vollecting pressure itis clear that they are not abundant. Structurally. Australian Hatiplus fall into two clear groups. One, consisting of H, fuscatus, H. gibbus and HA, bistriatus, is charactensed by relatively small size, grooved pronotal process, well marked pronotal plicae with a depressed area between them, interstrial punctures absent or subobsolete, and a relatively narrow head, The other group, H, testudo, H. alastairt, HH. stepheni, H. nicholasi and H. sindus, have a flat pronotal process, no pronotal plicae, no depressed area at back of pronotum and have a moderate number of punctures in most interstriae. The only major taxonomic work on Australian halipilids is that of Clark (1862) who described four species from south- eastern Australia, Regimbart described two New Guinean species in 1899 and Wehncke described H. bistriatus from Adelaide in 1880. The collections from which specimens were examined are listed under the following abbreviations: AM Australian Museum, Sydney ANIC — Australian National Insect Collection BMNH British Museum (Natural History). London CW Private Collection of Author MCZ = Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard EUQ Entomology Department, University of Queensland, NMV _ National Musuem of Victoria NTM _ Northern Territory Museum SAMA South Australian Museum QM Queensland Museum QPI Queensland Department of Primary Industry, Mareeba Systematics Key ‘ro AustRALIAN HALPLus |. Pronotum with short to moderate plicue (Fig. 4), area between plicae depressed; pronotal process grooved; interstrial sia gl lacking or subobsolete .. set Ri Pronotum lacking plicae, hind. ‘portion not depressed; prorotal process flat; interstrial punctures sparse but well marked ............0c.0, 2 2. (1)<2.5 mm long; upper surface unifornily yellow- brown..,, ss _STRdaS Sp. NOV. >2,5 min tong ‘alytron usdally. with dark spots or markings ,. WHITE Sra Rasenep de dneVosloopaedpetiditeyrag TS 3. (2)Punctures and striae over most of elytron-except laterally black, first interstria yellow-brown for most of its length (Figs.4 & 5). Elytral plicae weak. often reduced to 2-3 deeply impressed punctures... ..testudo Clark First interstria ‘af ‘elytra. black ‘Tor most of its length; restof elytra patternedas in Figs 1-3. Elytral plicae absent or short but Well marked ....:.).5....4 4. (3) Elytral plicae short but well marked, , elyon pattem as in Fig 3... 6 5 ish psi absent; eltron pattem a as in n Fig. 3 uotudarvertstditessccdaplacketaeesen’ . nicholas] sp, nov. C.H.S. WATTS 22 @e cece Shistee, ett eee eee FIGURES 1-6. 1, Colour pattern on elytron of H. alastairi; 2, ditto H. stepheni; 3, ditto H. nicholasi; 4 & 5, ditto, H. testudo extreme examples; 6, dorsal view of H. bistriatus showing elytral and pronotal plica. 5. (4)1-5 punctures in first interstria of elytron, 0-1 in third. Elytron without dark markings along anterior Margin (Fig. 2) ..ccscsseeeeeees Stepheni sp. nov. 10-20 punctures in first interstria of elytron, 3—7 in third. Elytron without dark markings along anterior margin (Fig. 1) .....cceeeeeseeeees alastairi sp. nov. 6. (1) Elytral plicae moderately-well marked; pronotal plicae curved (Fig. 6)............bistriatus Wehncke Elytral plicae absent or virtually so; pronotal Plicae straight ........ ccc cscecesscescssesseesecneseeseesenes 7 12 7. (6) Aedeagus broad (Figs 8 & 9)........... gibbus Clark Aedeagus narrow (Figs 11 & 12)...fuscatus Clark. FIGURES 7-13. 7, Lateral view of aedeagus of H. alastairi; Haliplus sindus sp. nov. 8, dorsal view of aedeagus of H. gibbus; 9, dorsal view of aedeagus and paramere of H. gibbus; 10, ditto H.alastairi;11, Description (number examined 2) lateral view of aedeagus and paramere of H. fuscatus; 12, Length 1.7—2.4mm. Yellow-brown. Oval, broadest lateral view of aedeagus and paramere of H. fuscatus. at shoulders, narrowing rather abruptly at apex. Elytron AUSTRALIAN HALIPILIDAE 23 weakly and broadly triangularly flanged about one quarter way from apex, lip sharply pointed, weakly serrated at shoulder, Head with scattered punctures about size of eye tacets, Pronotum wider behind than in tront, sides weakly convex when viewed from above, with scattered large punctures, hind margin produced backwards in a small neayly equilateral triangle in roldline. Elytcon smooth, shiny, with well marked strial punclures, stronger laterally, sutural stria small but distinct, a very few scattered interstnal punctures except in interstriae three—four and fiye-six which lack punctures, Elytral plicae short, crescent shaped, well impressed. Pronotal process flat, wider slightly behind, with large scattered punctures. Front portion of mesosternum weakly concave, broader than pronotal process With sides sharply undercut with scattered well (arked punctures, sides of mesosternum with a few very large punctures, much smaller in midline, Coxal lohes more densely covered with punctures, large towards sides to yery small in midline, Types Holotype, sex unknown. Qld “Bentinck Is. “Ninvilki” 6th June, 1963. P. Aitken, N.B. ‘Tindale’.in SAMA. Paratype F,1, ‘Homehill Qld. 7.4.63 'C.W.” in CW, Distribution (Fig. 14) Known only from the type lacalities. Remarks The small size and lack of pronotal plicae readily. separate this tare species fron’ other Australian Hatiplus. \Ldoes not appear to be closely related to any other Australian species. Haliplus nicholasi sp. nov. (Fig. 3) Description (number examined 4) ) Length 3.3 — 4.1 mm, Oval, broadest at shoulders. Elytron only weakly tapering until final one third; apical one quarter weakly flanged and setrated; humeral angles weakly serrate. Head relatively broad between eyes; red-brown with scattered punctures about the size of eye facet; punctures at rear larger. Pronotum wider behind than in front, sides evenly diverging or slightly concave; strongly punctured particularly around margins, with an almost impunctate transverse band acrosspronotum behind middle; hind margin broadly triangularly produced in midline; reddish-brown, Antenna short, reaching to just behind middle of pronotum, five apical segments larger than rest, apical segment twice lengih of penultimate, Elytron reddish-brown with extensive black markings. Strial punctures on elytron large laterally, progressively weaker toward suture. Sutural punctures well marked, a little larger and much more numerous than those hetween stria one and two, Interstrial punctures small, sparse, absent [rom interstriae Whree to four, Elyiral plicae absent, position marked by row of three or four punctures. Pronotil process flat, widening slightly toward rear, with scattered well marked punctures of varying size, Front sechion of mesostermum flat, not bordered by raised margin but margins sharply undercut; wider than pronotal process; punctured as on pronotal process; sides moderately covered with large punctures, much smaller towards midline, Coxal lobes more densely covered With punctures, those towards sides smaller than on sides of mesosternum, those towards midline about same size, Abdominal segments with one or two transverse bands of small to moderate punctures, apical segments with a few large punctures. Underside reddish-brown, legs a little darker. Male: Protarsi a litle exposed, Types Holotype, F “Townsville, Qld, Feb 1972 T. Ingeldew', in NMV., Paratypes, |, M.“Hometill Ok, 7.4.63 CW". 2FF, ‘Cairns Qld. 16.4.63 CW" in CW. Distritation Fig, J4. Known only from the type localities near Caims and Townsville in North Queensland. Remarks A tittle known species. resembling the widespread A. tesrudo, Tt is slightly snialer, has fewer interstrial punctures, and differently parterned elytra. The aedeagus of the only known male specimen has been lost. The pattern on the elytra resembles in some respects that in /1, sighatiperiniy Regimbart from new Guinea. H, nicholasi ditters from this species (and from the other known new Guinea species, A. ferruginipes Regimbamn) in lacking punctures between stra three and four, and in lacking the transverse depression at the base of the pronotum present in these species. Haliplas testudo Clark (Figs 4 & 45) Haliplus testuda Clark, (862, p. 400 Haliplas australis Clatk, 1862, p. 400, Syn. after Watts, 1985 and se-examination of types. Types H., testudo, Lectotype, F, right hand specimen of two mounted on card, No locality, previously with BMNH Type and syritype labels, here designated. Companion specimen designated paralectotype. H. dustralis, Lectotype, F. no data excep! hand written BM label, previously with BMNH type and syntype labels, here designated, 24 C. H, 8, WATTS Description (number examined 118) Length 3,2 — 4.1 mm. Oval, widest at shoulders, tapering towards apex of elytra, lateral margin of elytron serrate in apical one quarter. Head relatively broad between eyes, yellow to yellow-brown, moderately covered with punctures about same size or slightly larger than facets of eye. Antenna stout, reaching over half way back on pronotum, apical five segments noticeably larger than rest, apical a little longer than penultimate. Pronotum relatively short, wider behind than in front, lateral margins evenly diverging or slightly bowed out when viewed from above; unevenly covered with scattered moderate to large punctures which are densest around margins, with an almost impunctate band across pronotum behind middle; hind margin with small but well marked backward extension in midline; yellow to yellow- brown, some punctures particularly towards rear outlined in black. Elytron yellow to yellow-brown, punctures and usually stria also black. Strial punctures well marked, a little larger than those on pronotum, those in striae one to three smaller than others. Sutural punctures small but quite dense and well impressed, about size of those in interstria one to two. Interstrial punctures numerous, one third to half size of ones in striae, absent or very sparse in area between suture and first stria, alternate interstriae starting between striae three and four have fewer punctures with the more lateral ones virtually impunctate. Elytral plicae absent or represented by two to three enlarged sometimes contiguous punctures in stria five. Pronotal process broad, flat, diverging slightly behind, with well marked lateral ridges, sparsely punctured. Mesosternum sparsely punctured, punctures large, laterally subobsolete in midline; well-marked ridges running backwards from pronotal process for about half length of segment. Coxal lobes large, strongly punctured laterally, weakly in midline. Abdominal segments with one or two transverse rows of small punctures. Apical segments with some moderate to large punctures in apical half. Underside yellow-brown with darker motlings particularly at bases of legs. Male: Basal two joints of protarsi a little expanded. Variation: Some specimens reddish all over. Distribution: (Fig. 14) Coastal regions from Darwin to Melbourne. Also from Charleville, Qld. Remarks By far the commonest and most widespread Australian halipilid. A variable species with yellowish specimens predominating in the south and darker reddish specimens in the north. In some southern specimens the characteristic black pigment around elytral punctures and striae is greatly reduced (Fig. 4). In some there are vague darker patches on the elytron suggestive of H. alastairi or H. nicholasi but in all specimens that I have seen the dark elytral striae have been separated by yellow-brown. In all but a few examples the elytral plicae are virtually absent. The aedeagus is variable in lateral view, with some specimens, notably those from more southern localities, being much wider in the middle.Separable from the other species lacking pronotal plicae by characters mentioned under H. alastairi and H, nicholasi. Haliplus alastairi sp. nov. (Figs 1, 7, 10) Description (number examined 16) Length 3.0-3.6 mm. Oval, tapering quite rapidly behind shoulders, Humeral angle of elytron serrate, apical one quarter of elytron weakly flanged and weakly serrate. Head relatively broad between eyes, dark yellow-brown, moderately punctate; punctures larger than eye facets. Pronotum wider behind than in front; lateral margins evenly diverging when viewed from above; strongly punctured particularly around margins, with an almost impunctate band across pronotum behind middle and a row of three to six noticeably larger punctures above hind margin at each comer; hind margin with small sharply triangular extension in the midline; reddish brown. Antenna reaching beyond middle of pronotum, last five segments larger than rest, apical about 1.5x longer than penultimate. Elytron reddish brown, with dark-brown to black markings. Strial punctures will marked, about size of pronotal punctures, those in striae one to three smaller than others. Sutural punctures well marked, as large as and more numerous than punctures between striae one and two. Interstrial punctures rather sparse, about one quarter to one third size of those in adjacent striae, alternate interstrial starting from between striae three and four have fewer punctures with the more lateral ones impunctate. Elytral plicae short (three to four punctures long) but usually deeply impressed; punctures on humeral angle between plica and edge of elytron large and crowded. Pronotal process relatively narrow, flat, quite strongly punctured. Front portion of mesosternum a little wider than pronotal process, flat or even slightly convex, sides rounded, undercut but not ridged. Mesosternum rather sparsely punctured, punctures strong at sides, small but well-impressed in midline. Coxal lobes more densely but still only moderately covered with punctures, those at sides moderate, about size of those in stria on elytron, those towards midline small but well impressed. Abdominal segments with one or two transverse bands of moderate punctures, apical segment with a few larger punctures. Underside reddish with darker areas, particularly legs which are mainly dark red-brown. Male: Two basal segments of protarsi a little expanded. AUSTRALIAN HALIPILIDAE 28 Variation: One specimen from Tambourine Mountain, Old that ! refer to this species has the elytral plicae reduced to short series of slightly enlarged punctures. Types. Holotype, M, ‘{2°36'S 132°52'E Magela Creek, N.T, | Km NNW of Mudginbarry HS. 25.v.73, Matthews & Upton’ in ANIC. Paratypes: 1. *Cardstone Qld 4-16. -1966 K Hyde’. 1, ‘Cooktawn N.Q. 1/71 GB’, 2, ‘Katherine, N.T. at light. 9.1168 J.A.L. Watson’, 1, ‘King. River, 2, [4°30'S:143°20! E.22.vi.68. FP. Parker allin ANIC. 1, ‘Lake Buchanan Qld. 21°30'S 145°S0'E B.Timms 25/9/83’, in CW; 1, "Cairns CJ.W." in QM, Distriburion (Fig. 13) The east coast of Cape York and the top end of the Norther Territory. If the specimen from Tambourine Mountain near Brisbane does belong to this species it may indicate a more extensive range down the Queensland coast. Remarks Morphologically close to A. testude, H: nichalasi and 1. stepheni but averaging smaller than the first two of these Species (3.0 mm compared with 4.0 mm and 3.3mm respectively) with a more spindle shaped and less parallel sided. form. The elytral plicae are well mirked in all the specimens [ have seen wherews they are virtually absent in all but.a few specimens of H. wsinda and H. nicholas. The larger number of intestinal punctures separate it from HM, stepheni, The colour pattern on the elyrron differs from these species, ‘The aedeagus is very similar to that of H- stephen. Wis a little thinner in dorsal view to 1. testido, Haliplus stephkeni sp. nov. (Fig, 2) Description (number examined 13) Length: 2.8-3.0 mm. Oval, tapering quite rapidly from about halfway back on elytrae. Humeral angle of ely(ron serrate, apical quarter of elytran weakly flanged and weakly serrate. Head relatively broad between eyes, dark yellow-brown, shiny. moderately punctate, punctures larger than eye facet. Pronotum wider behind than in from; lateral margins evenly diverging when viewed from above except forextreme tron! portions; sparsely covered with large punctures, impunctateareas ondise, row of larger punctures along, tind edge at each side, laterally depressed in middle near hind edge, hind margin with small triangular extention if the midline, coloured as on head. Antenna teaching hearly to elytron, last five segments. larger than rest, apical about same length as penultimate Elytron dark yellowish-brown, with Well defined dark pattern (Pig. 2). Strial punctures well marked, abou size of those on pronotum, those on disc smaller than others, sutural punctures numerous, well marked, about half the size of those in adjacent striae. Interstrial punctures small and sparce, those in alternate interstria starting from interstriae |—2 very sparse, lateral areas impunctate. Elytron plica short, 3-6 punctures. long, deeply impressed, punctures between plica and edge of elytron only a litte longer than others and nut particularly crowded, Pronotal process relatively narrow, fal, quite strongly punctured. Front portion of mesosternum a tittle wider than pronotal process, flat excep! for trontedge which is sharply depressed, sides slightly undercut, sparsely punctured with a row of punctures on Vertical surface along sides, center virtually impunctale. Coxal lobes more densely but stillonly moderately covered with punctures, those at sides about size of thasé in lateral elytral striae, those towards midline small but well impressed, Abdominal segmenis with one or two bands of small punctures- apical segment with a few larger punctures, underside reddish with darker areas, particularly legs which are mainly dark red-brown. Male; Last five joints of antenna a little smaller. Types Holotype, M. "AUSTRALIA, N.T. Hampty Boo, 6 km EL, Gaii-4, 1.1987. R.L Storey’ in SAMA, Paralypes same dala, 8 in QPL, 2in CW. Distribution Known only from the type locality near Darwin, N.T, Remarks A strikingly marked species separated from H, alastairi and H. nicholasi by the extension of black markings along front margin of clytron, Some individuals also have a dark patch on the front edge of the pronotum in the midline. The presence of well marked olytral plicae distinguish it from H. nicholasi and the greatly reduced number of interstrial punctures from H. alastairi. The pronotum is more strongly folded than in the other species and there 1s a hint of a basal depression in some specimens. The aedeagus is very similar to that of #7, alastair, It is 4 little thinner in dorsal view to M, /estude, Halipius bistriatus Wehncke (Fig. 6) Haliplus bistriatus Webneke. 1880, p. 72, Types None located. (Thev are not in BMNH nor Paris National Museuin.) 26 C.H.S. WATTS Description (number examined 39) Length 2.5—3.4 mm. Oval, sides of elytra subparallel in central half. Elytron weakly flanged in apical one quarter. Head relatively narrow; yellow-brown; sparsely covered with scattered small punctures about the size of eye facets. Antenna short, reaching to about middle of prothorax, apical five segments noticeably larger than rest, apical segment largest. Pronotum wider behind, sides weakly bowed outwards when viewed from above; hind margin widely triangularly produced backwards in middle; with well marked plica teaching one third way across pronotum, curving inwards; area between plicae depressed; strongly punctured, particularly at sides and at front; yellow- brown with front margin and area between plica darker. Elytron dark yellow-brown with striae, other than at sides, outlined in dark-brown to black. Striae composed of rather large well impressed punctures, those in inner two striae about half size of others. Interstrial area impunctate, sutural row of punctures sparse and very small. Elytral plica moderately marked, a little longer than pronotal plica. Pronotal process broad, with row of strong punctures along edges, concave in cross-section. Mesosternum raised in forward midsection, without lateral ridge but sharply undercut; front portion same width as pronotal process and slightly depressed in midline; midline with scattered small punctures, larger towards rear, lateral sections covered in many strong punctures. Punctures on coxal plate vary from very strong laterally to subobsolete in midline, largest slightly smaller than those at sides of mesosternum. Abdominal segments with small to moderate sized but well marked punctures; apical segment strongly punctured. Undersides dark yellow-brown with extensive dark mottlings. Male: Protarsi a little expanded. Distribution (Fig. 13) Coastal Queensland from Brisbane to Cooktown. Remarks H. bistriatus appears to be relatively common in coastal Queensland where it is the only Haliplus with pronotal plicae and depressed basal area of pronotum. It is readily separated from the more southerly H. gibbus and H. fuscatus with which it shares these characters, by the larger and distinctly curved pronotal plicae and the presence of well marked, though short, elytral plicae. The aedeagus is distinctive. The type locality is given as Adelaide. In the absence of the type this must throw doubt on my identification of this Queensland species. However, the description fits this species particularly in the unique (in Australia) character of having both pronotal and elytral plicae. This species has also been recorded from New Caledonia by Fauvel (1883) whose specimens were identified by Wehncke. Haliplus gibbus Clark (Figs 8 & 9) Haliplus gibbus Clarke, 1862, p. 400. Type H. gibbus, lectotype, M. with genitalia extracted, ‘S. Aust, Bakewell 59/24’, previously with BM(NH) type and syntype labels, in BMNH, here designated. Description (number examined 32) Length 2.4-3.2 mm. Widely oval. Lateral edges of elytra parallel in central half. Elytron weakly flanged in apical quarter. Head relatively narrow, yellow-brown, sparsely punctured with small punctures about size of eye facet. Antenna short, reaching to about middle of prothorax, ten segmented, apical segment largest, next four subequal and noticeably larger than rest. Pronotum wider behind, sides smoothly diverging or slightly bowed except for hind corners where subparallel for short distance, hind margin widely triangularly produced backwards in middle, well marked sharp plicae to one quarter to one third width of pronotum, subparallel or weakly converging, positioned in line with front corners of pronotum, area between plicae depressed, moderately punctate, punctures uneven in size and distribution small on disc large at sides, yellow-brown, with front margin and area between plica often darker. Elytron yellow-brown with striae on disc outlined in dark-brown or black, some specimens with vague darker patches on elytron, nine elytral striae composed of moderately impressed punctures, those on inner two or three striae weaker, interstriae impunctate, sutural punctures sparse, very small, elytral plicae absent but punctures at front of stria five close together and often with their lateral margins accentuated. Pronotal process broad, margins ridged, concave in cross section. Mesosternum raised, weakly longitudinally depressed on forward midsection, fornt corners wider than adjacent pronotal process with distinct tendency to be bulbous and delineated from rest of mesoternum by fine line running backwards for about half length of segment. Lateral lobes of mesoternum with a few very large punctures, midline with subsolete to moderate punctures, larger behind. Coxal lobes. strongly punctured laterally, weakly so towards midline. Undersde yellow-brown often with considerable brown-black areas, paerticularly pronotal process, lateral areas of mesosternum, first three abdominal segments ane parts of legs. Abdominal segments weadly punctured except apical one which has a few stronger ones. Male: Protarsi weakly expanded, Distribution (Fig. 13) The wetter areas of southern W.A., S.A., Victoria and Tasmania. A southern species. Populations of either AUSTRALIAN HALIPILIDAE 7 this species orH, fuscatus or some very similar species are also known from Lake Gailee in Central Queensland and near Katherine in the N.T. Unfortunately these are only represented in collections (CW & SAMA) by females so their taxonomic status is uncertain, Haliplus fuscatus Clark (Figs 11 & 12) Haliplus fuscatus Clark 1862, p. 400. Type H. fuscatus, Holotype, F, no data, in BMNH, locality given as Adelaide by Clark. Description (number examined 13) As for H. gibbus except for the aedeagus which is much narrower. Distribution (Fig. 13) Victoria, S.A. (type) and Rottnest Island, W.A. Remarks Does not appear to be as common as H. gibbus, nor as widespread. I have been unable to separate this species from H. gibbus. Although only known for certain from Rottnest Island, W.A. and Victoria, further collecting will undoubtedly extend its known distribution (See also note under H. gibbus). The type of H., fuscatus is a female and as such [ cannot assign it to either of the two species of southern Australian Haliplus with weak or absent elytral plicae and straight pronotal plicae. Future studies may well show that H. fuscatus is a synonym (senior) for H. gibbus and that the species described above as H. fuscatus is new. In a previous publication (Watts 1985) I listed H. fuscatus and H. gibbus as synonyms since I was unable to separate the types. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I thank the curators of the collections listed earlier for allowing me to examine specimens in their care. In particular, I thank M.E. Bacchus [BMNH] for sending type material and searching for the type of H. histriatus. Mrs P. Kidd and Mrs D, Brunker typed the MS. Special thanks are due to Ms J. Thurmer for several of the illustrations and to Dr E. Matthews for comments on the manuscript. REFERENCES FAUVEL, A. 1883. Les Coleopteres de la Nouvelle- Caledonie et Depenances. Revue d'Ent, 2: 335-372. REGIMBART, M. 1899. Revision des Dytiscidae de la region Indo-Sino-Malaise. Ann. Soc. Ent. France 68: 186-367, CLARK, H, 1862 Catalogue of the Dytiscidae and Gyrinidae of Australasia, with description of new species. J. Entom. 1: 399-421. WATTS, C.H.S. 1985, A faunal assessment of Australian Hydradephaga, Proc. Acad. nat. Sci, Philad, 137: 22— 28. WEHNCKE, E. 1880. Neue Haliplus Sretr. Ent. Zeitung 75: 72-75. 28 C. H. S. WATTS a H. fuscatus © H. fuscatus or H. gibbus 0 ° H. bistriatus * H. alastairi O H. gibbus FIGURE 13. Distribution map of H. fuscatus, H. bistriatus, 4. alastairi and H. gibbus. a H. sindus a H. testudo © H. nicholasi © H. stepheni 5 FIGURE 14. Distribution map of H. sindus, H. testdo, H. nicholasi and H. stepheni. OSTEOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES OF THE AXIAL SKELETON BETWEEN LASIORHINUS LATIFRONS (OWEN, 1845) AND VOMBATUS URSINUS (SHAW, 1800) (MARSUPIALIA : VOMBATIDAE) BY G. G. SCOTT & K. C. RICHARDSON Summary Many of the bones from the axial skeleton of the extant hairy-nosed wombat, Lasiorhinus latifrons (Owen, 1845) and common wombat Vombatus ursinus (Shaw, 1800) are statistically significantly different. The gross morpohological features are summarised to facilitate rapid specimen identification at the generic level. OSTEOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES OF THE AXIALSKELETON BETWEEN LASIORHINUS LATIFRONS (OWEN, 1845) AND VOMBATUS URSINUS (SHAW, 1800) (MARSUPTALIA: VOMBATIDAE) G, G. SCOTT & K. C, RICHARDSON SCOTT, C.G., & RICHARDSON, K.C, 1987, Osteologieal differences of fhe axial skeleton of Lastorhinus latiftrois (Owen, 1845) and Vonbarus pesinuy (Shaw, (800) (Marsupuitia: Vombatidae), Ree S. Aust Mus. 22 (1) 29-39 Many of the bones from the axial skeleton of the extant hairy-nosed wombat. Lasionhimns latifrons (Owen, TRAD) and common wombat, Venbares aesinus (Shaw, (800) ure stutistically: significantly different, The gross morphological features are summarised to facilitate rapid specimen jWentification at the generic level. A number of newly recognised diagnostic lifferences are recorded: (i) athis, (a) nansverse processes. short and eylindreal ia 4. farifrons, but long and fat in). wasiius, (by crantal articular surface, dorsal horder begins above root of transverse process in L lati/rons, bur below in WV. ursiiis. CC) intervertebral foramen, small ind. darfions, borane in Vestine, (d) neural areh, tubercle present at the apex in L. fan[rons, bata saleus in V. desiuds. (c) transverse foramen, almostenclosed by bone in V ursiuis. but open in 6 lafifreny, (1) lamina, cranial border flatin L, farifrons, but arched in} ia'y/eese(it) axis, (av) Iransverse processes, extend laterocuudally beyond caudal surface of vertebral body in V_esniis, but termmat’ level with, or before, caudal surface of vertebral bady in 4. larfrens. (hy dens. directed craniodorsally, apes Les above dorsal surfice of vertebral body iL. dations, but projects cranially, and apex hes helow dorsal surface of vertebral body in Vo deyis: (iD manubriuny of srermum, (a) arteu lr process torchavicle, conical nL. latifreny, bul laterally flucened in VW wrsines: tb) clavieular notch, shallow int, dati/rons, but deep ii) weseus. Significant differences in size were found for (i) axis; lamina thickness, himina diameter, dens length: (ii) thoricic vertebrae, dorsoventral diameter of body of all but the 3rd vertebra; craniociudal diameter ot vertebral body of byt, 2nd. 7th. 9th. 1Orh, (bth, 12th and Nath vertebrae; (iii) lumbar vertebrae, Maximum transverse process diameter of 1st. 2nd and. 3rd vertebri: (iv) sacral vertebrae. maximund transverse process diamelerof 2nd, 3rd and 4th-yertebraes ane (vb shall diameter for ribs | 1. (2and 13. C.G_ Stott & KC. Richirdson, School of Veterinary Studies, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australian 6150, Maiuseript reeeived (5 June 1O87, 29 The common wombat Vonbatas ursinuy (Shaw, T8000) was first discovered by Bass on Clarke Island in Bass Suvitin 1797. Although the skull aroused consid- erable taxonomicdiscussion fram | 800, it was only in 1538 thut Owen first deseribed its axial skeleton. Owen added to this deseription in 1839, Subsequent work on the axial skeleton by EByerewu (1453) and Home (1853) provided no new information. Even though (he hairy-nosed wombat Laslorhimnis latifrens (Owen, 1845) was first discovered in 1845, it was in 1867 that Murie described its axial skeleton and compared it with Vo w/yitiiy. Other workers such as Lydekker (1894), Murie (1892) and Marlow (1965) confirmed, in part, many of Murie’s (1867) findings, but added Hite lo (he existing information. To date the descriptions of the axial skeletin of the two wombat genera have lacked udequate detail. In muny instances, they were nor accompanied by ligures Or definitions to allow ready specimen identification especially of isolated small bones. This paper presents a number of newly recognised diagnostic features and ineorporates, where valid, previously deseribed diagnostic features Maternats Asi MiP riinbs Specimens Bones of the axial skeleton of L. kutifrany and 4 ursinus were examined inthe collections of the Aug- tralian Museum, Sydney: Museum of Victoria, Mel- bourne; Queensland Museum, Brisbane; South Aus- tralian Museum, Adelaide; and Western Australian Museum, Perth. Porthis study additional specimens af L. latifrany were collected at Bhinehetown, Roonks and Swan Reach in South Australia; and of }, wesines over the Great Dividing Range and adjacent regions, Measurcments The morphology of the axial skeleton bones was ex amined and any diagnoytic features not previously recorded in the literature noled, Bait adult and juve- nile specimens were examined, but only bones fram adults were compared for diagnostic purposes. Linear measurements were made with vernier callipers on adult specimens. 30 G_G. SCOTT & K, C. RICHARDSON Axial Skeleton Measurements |. Aas (1) lamina, craniocaudal diameter at summit; (ii) maximum dorsoventral height from apex of arch to ventral surface of body. 2. Axis (i) maximum dorsoventral height from apex of spinous process to ventral surface of body: (ii) lamina, thickness at pomt of maximum constriction dorsal to the caudal articular surface; (ii) lamina, craniocuudal diameter at point of maximum constriction dorsal to the caudal articular surface: (iv) dens, length from ventral surface to apex; (y) dens, maximum lateral diameter; (vi) vertebral body, dorsoventral diameter at midline; (vii) vertebral body, craniocaudal diameter. including dens, at midline; (viii) spinous process, length from apex of vertebral foramen Lo summit of spine. 3. Cervical Vertebrae (i) maximum combined diameter of the transverse processes. 4. Thoracic Vertebrae (i) vertebral body, dorsoventral diameter at midline; (ii) lamina, craniocaudal diameter at point of maximum constriction dorsal to caudal articular surface; (iii) spinous process, length from apex of vertebral foramen to summil of spine; (iv) | maximum combined diameter of the Iransverse processes, (v) maximum dorsoventral height fram apex of spinous process lo ventral surface of body; vertebral body, craniocaudal diameter at midline. (vi) 5. Lumbar Vertebrae (i) maximum combined diameter of the trans- verse processes. 6. Sacral Vertebrae (i) maximum combined diameter of the trans- verse processes. 7, Coccygeal Vertebrae (i) maximum combined diameter of the transverse processes. (ii) - vertebral body, craniocaudal chameter at midline. 8. Stemum (i) manubriuin. craniocaudual length al midline: (11) = maximum diameter opposite articular surfaces for Ist ribs. 9, Ribs (i) shall, maximum diameter immediately distal to tubercle. Osteological terminology used is as in the Nemina Anatomiva Veterinaria (Habel ef al. 1983). Analysis Methodology Includes Student's Hest, 2-‘tatled’, and bivariate analysis (Simpson ef al. 1960). Bivariate regression analysis of specimens of known sex shows no significant sexual dimorphism for any of the char- acters examined, so measurements of both sexes were combined, Resuvts General Size range overlap exists between V..westauy and L- lalifrons for most measurements, However, V. ursinus is significantly larger for: 1. Axis, () lamina. dorsoventral thickness (P< 0.001), (ii) lamina, craniocaudal diameter (P< 0.001);Giti) dens, length (P <0.001), 2, Lumbar vertebrae. maximum combined diameter of the transverse processes of the Ist, 2nd und 3rd verte brae (P< 0.001). 3. Sacral vertebrac, maximum combined diameter of the Lransverse processes of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th verte- brae (P< 0,001). L, latifrons is significantly larger than V. ursinus for: 1. Thoracic vertebrae, (i) vertebral body, dorsoven- tral diameter, T2 and 11 (P< 0.001):TI. 4,6, 7 and 12 (P< 0,01); and T5,8, 9, LO and 13 (P < 0.05): (iD Vertebral body, cramiocaudal diameter,’ (P<0.001); and T2, 7,9, 10, 11, 12 and 13 (P < 0.05), 2, Lumbar vertebrae, maximum combined diameter of the transverse processes of the lst, 2nd and 3rd verte- brace (P< 0).001). 3. Sacral vertebrae. maximuni combined diameter of the transverse processes of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th verte- brace (P< 0.001). 4. Ribs. shaftdiameterofthe |2thand 13th(P<0,001) and 11th (P< (0.05). Axial skeleton meastrements for both taxa are given in Tubles 2-16, Specific Vertebral Calumn As Owen (1839), Wood Jones (1923), Lydekker (1894), Murie (1867) and Marlow (1965) correctly pointed oul. V wravnuy and L. latifrons possess differ- ent numbers of vertebrae in several paris of their vertebral column (Table 1). Cervival Vertehrae ‘Vitese are the smallest vertebrae. excluding the coc- cygeal veriebrae. Only the allas and axis show any consistent gross morphological differences, Linear measurements show no significant differ- ences between the two wombat genera (Table 2.) Atlas: Transverse process. Cranial articular surface, Intervertebral foramen. ‘Tubercle. ‘Transverse lorumen. Laimina. Ventral areh incomplete. ANTS! Dens. Spinous process, Transverse process, L. lanfrons short and eyvelindnical. begins above level of transverse process. small. present ul apex of neural arch, apen, cranial border flat. V-shaped, L.. latifrans directed cramodorsally, apex lies above dorsal surface of vertebral body. short and thick, terminates level with, or before, caudal surface of vertebral body. AXIAL SKELETONS OF VOMBATIDAE ty} Vooursuias long and dorsoventrally flattened, begins below level of transverse process. lurge. ubsent, a sulcus. almost enclosed arehed. shallow, Vi. u/sinius directed rostrally. apex lies below dorsal surface of verltebriul body- long and Harrow , terminates beyond caudal surface of vertebral body. Significant size differences in the aais were found lor; G) dorsoventral lamina thickness, (ii) craniocau- dal lamina diameter, and (iii) dens length (Table 3). No gross morphological or significant size differ- ences Were found between the two Laxd for the five caudal cervical vertebrac (Table 4). Thoracic Vertehrae These are morphologically similar in the two wom- bal taxa, L, Jatifrony is significally larger than V, wsinus in dorsoventral diameter of the vertebal body forthe following vertebrae: T2 and 11 (P<0.001);T1, 4,6, 7and 12(P<0,01); 75, 8,9, [and 13 (P< 0.05) (Table 5). There were no significant size differences between the two wombats for craniecaudal diameter of the lamina (Table 6), and length of the spinous provess (Table 7). Maximal combined diameter ofthe transverse processes decreases frora T] to a minimum althe l2th vertebra in V. ursinus, bul at the 13thin £ latifrans. There is no significant size difference be- (ween the measurements appearing tn Table 8. Maxi- mum dorsoventral heaght of the vertebrae alsa de- creases caudally toa point of minimum size atthe 13th vertebra in V.wrsinis, but }2th ind. larifrony. There is no significant size difference between the measure- ments in Table 9, Contrary to this, craniocaudal diameter of the vertebral body increases caudally in both genera, L. Jatifrous is significantly larger than V wsinus for vertebrae: TL (P <0,001) and T2, 7,9, 10. Tl. 12, 14 4P < 0.05) (Table 10). Mammillary proc esses usually presentatthe | 2th thoracie yertebrain V’, Henny, progressively increase in size to the second lumbar vertebra, then decrease in size to the end of the sacrunr, iL, falifrony they were generally present it (he 13th thoracic veriebrae then progressively in- creased in size to the fourth lumbar vertebra, and decreased in size to the end.of the sacrum, This is only oF diagnosne value when measurements for dorsoven- (ral vertebra! body diameter (Table 5) and cranincau - dal vertebral body diameter (Table 10) are also avail- able. Lumbar Veriebrae These are morphologically similar in the wo wom- bat taxa, However, V_ ursinits possesses four, but L, latifrons has six lumbar vertebrae (Table 11). Maxi- mum combined diameter of the transverse processes of the first three vertebrae is significantly greater in V, ursinus, there is no size overlap between the two genera. Sacral Vertebrae In defining the number of sacral vertebrae in \ ursinus, Owen (1867) saids'if we regard those yerte- bra¢ only as sacral which join the ossa innominata then there are but three. If’ on the other hand, anchylosis is the test, then the sacral vertebrae may vary from 3 ly 4-5, innumber indifferent specimens”, On the anchy- losis criterion none of the V) wrsinus specimens that we examined had only three vertebrae. but the major- ity (46.19%, n = 22) possessed four. On the other hand three out of four of the L, larifrons specimens that we examined had four vertebrae, In addition, the L. lati- Jroas saccum is rostrally broader bul narrows more sharply caudally j,¢. the 5th vertebra is approximately 32. G,G, SCOTT & K.C. RICHARDSON 44% narrower thun the {st in L. lati/rons, but 21% narrower in V. xrsinus. There are no gross morpho- logical differences in the individual vertebrae to dis~ linguish them between the wo wombat taxa. Lincar measurements shaw significant differences for the following vertebrae: $2, 3 and4(P<(),00T) (Table 12). Caveygeal Vertebrae There are no consistent gross morphological or siz- nificunt size difference in the individual bones to dis- tinguish them between the two wombat fuxa (Tables 13 and 14). Manubrinm ef the Sternun Gross morphological differences in the manubrium ol the wo wombat genera were found in the following features: L.. latifrans Vi. ursins. Articular conicgal, laterally. process for flattened, the clavicle. Clavicular shallow, deep. noteh. There were no significant size differences lor ieas- urements appearing in Tuble 15. Other stemebrac [rom the Wombats were similar in form for each species: Ribs These are similar in the two wombul zenera, The cranial Hibs are more curved than those sueceeding them, and maximum shaft diameter generally de- creases caudally through the rib series, The rit shatt diameters for, wrsiauy are significantly srowller than those for L. larifrons for ribs: 1) (P< 0,05). 12 (P< 0.001) and 13 (P-< 0.001) (Table 16). Discussion Verlebral differences in the axial skeheron niipror yanlations in burrowing behaviour of L. Jun/rans and Vo wevinus, For exumple, differences in. the marpbol- oy ofthe atlas nd adits are retleeted in Angas’ (L861) observation that V, ursinus does not hold its head as erec| as does &, lutifrens when standing. Indeed this is suggested by the Jarsoerunial oricowaon of the dens ofthe axis inh. /adfrony as well ashy the presence on the skull of a Well developed nuchal erest at the junction of the parietal and occipital bones for the altachiment of jum, ceettes Capills. Wi coyreast the dens oF WV wesiimes isdirecied cranially and the parietal borne is flat. However, the transverse processes of the atlas OL. uesetieeare very large indeed when conipared 10 thosein £, darifeans, This allows @ greater surfiece aren for muscle attachment, particularly mint, abliqnits vap- iy and van Hderiransversant longi, and probably facilites a preater degree of head rotation, as well as more powerful lateral and dorsal head movements in Vo ursinuy. As for the difference in the number of thoracic ver- tebrac and thus thoracic ribs, Owen (1838) believed that W. zesrnus had the greater number i.e. 15 pairs of ribs because “The pressure to which the trunk of the Wombat must occasionally be subjected, imits subter- rancan burrowings, is probably the condition of the development of the additional pairs of ribs’. Unfortu- natcly . /atifrans is also*a thorough adept in the art’ of burrowing (Angas 1X61). The reason probably lies with Vo ursinus being greater in body size, However, the point of minimum combined vertebral transverse process diameter, and minimum overall dorsoventral size of the vertebrac, which together indicate the centre of greatest spinal mobility, avcurs atabout the same point, the anticlinal vertebra, in the axial skeleton of both genera. This supports Slijper’s (1946) conclusion. that the inelima- tion of the neural spine does not depend on the con- struction of the trunk in itsentirety, bul instead must be affected only by the demands of the tnuscles and ligaments attached to them. In other words, the reason for ursinty having 15 pairs oftibs, while L, harifrons only has 13 pairs. is astructura reflection of the need to Transmit a greater visceral weight via the ribs, and the oblique and transverse abdominal muscles, di rectly to the body's axis than does L. larifrons. Slipper (1946) also found that spinous process length is propartional ro the mechanical demands of the hody. They are on average, with the exception of thoracic vertebrae 6,7 and'8, the longestin ©. latifrans. This provides the added mechanical adyantage of a longer lever lo move the diaphragniatic vertebrae which. logether with two fewer ribs, would undaubt- edly inereuse the ability of L-latifrons to bend its body laterally inlay curving tunnels, Unfortunately na mobility studies of the wombal vertebral column bave yer been undertaken. But the generl grossmorphology of the cervical, thoracic and Nitnbar Vertebrac sugeesta shift in vertebral colurin mobility. The cervicals are very mobile in bath dod soventral aad jateral directions, especially in the era nial part oF (he culuma, in both genera, because of the “free” and ‘uncrobracing” uature of the wiion between the pre-and pnsizygapophyses af successive vervicil vertebrae. Thoracic vertebral mobility 1s: particularly preat ml bot genera, However, the [4ihand 'Sih thoracic vertebrae in | ursinus ave decidedly lumbar-like in appearance, but passess ths! Indeed lumbar venebrae numbers 3—6 in L. lanjruas are more vunmparcuble in size ro |) in wesine (Table (1) Tf both genera, lumbar vertebrae Of the postliplirmumatic region of the spine are much less mobile in the dorsal direction and ates! absolutely inmmobile in the ventral direction. Lateral mobility is negligible, che vertebrae bemp ‘locked’ AXIAL SKELETONS OF VOMBATIDAE together by their pre- and postzygapophyses. How- ever, the mobility of the lumbosacral joint appears to be comparatively great in both directions in both genera, though the union between the two is more ‘free’ in L. latifrons. w w ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We would like to thank Dr T. Flannery, Australian Mu- seum; Dr C.P. Groves, Australian National University; Dr D. Horton, Institute of Aboriginal Studies; Joan Dixon, National Museum of Victoria; Dr R. Molnar, Queensland Museum; Dr FIGURE 1. Atlas of (A) L. datifrons and (B) V. ursinus. Where a, transverse process; b, cranial articular surface; c, arrowed, dorsal tubercle; d, arrowed, intervertebral foramen; e, ar- rowed, dorsal sulcus; f, arrowed, incomplete ventral arch. Scale line is | centimetre. A FIGURE 3, Sacral and coccygeal vertebrae of (A) L. /atifrons and (B) V, ursinus. Where a, sacral vertebrae; b,coccygeal vertebrae. Scale line is | centimetre. FIGURE 2. Axis of (A) L. latifrons and (B) V. ursinus. Where a, spinous process; b, arrowed, transverse process; c, cranial articular surface; d, arrowed, dens; e, vertebral foramen. Scale line is | centimetre, B 34 G. G, SCOTT & K.C. C. Kemper, South Australian Museum, for making material available to us; and to Dr D, Kitchener, Western Australian Museum forthe specimens used in the photographs. Drs C.P. Groves and D, Horton both gave valuable advice and support over the duration of the project. We wish to thank Mr G, Gniffiths for photography and Ms D, Passmore for so care- fully typing the paper and its earlier drafts, The project was primarily supported by an Australian National University Research Grant. FIGURE 4.Manubrium of sternum of (A) L. /atifrens and (B) V. ursinus, Where a, arrowed, articular process for clavicle; b, arrowed, articular process for Ist rib. Scale line is | cen- timetre. TABLE 1. Vertebral formula in V, arsinus and L. larifrans RICHARDSON REFERENCES ANGAS, G.F. 1861. Notes on the broad-fronted wombat of South Australia (Phascolomys larifrans Owen). Proc. Zoal. Soe. Lond. 1861: 268-271, EVERETT, H. 1853. Descriptive catalogue of the ostealogi- cal series, Royal College of Surgeons of England (Lon- don), p. 331, HABEL, R.E., FREWEIN, J,, SACK, W.O, (Eds). 1983. “Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria’ 3rd ed. International Committee on Veterinary Anatomical Nomenclature. Ithaca, New York. HOME, E. [453,. Descriptive catalogue of the osteological series. Royal Calleve of Surgeons of England (London), p. 331. LYDEKKER, R. 1894. "The Wombats’. /n Marsupials. John F. Shaw and Co, Ltd, London. MARLOW, B,J. 1965. Wombats. Aust, Nat. (Hist. 15(3),65 69, MURIE, J. 1867. On the identity of the hatry-nosed wombat (Phascolomys lasierhinus Gould) with the browd-nosed wombat (7; latifroas Owen). Proc. Zool Soc. Lond. for 1867, 838-854. MURIE, J. 1892. Remarks on Post-Tertiary Phascolomidae. Proc, Linn, Sac. of New South Wales, 2nd series. for 1892, VI, 235-246, OWEN, R. 1838. On the Osteology of the Marsupiatia. Trans, Zoal. Sac. Land. 26: 379-412. OWEN, R. 1839. Outlines of a classification of the Marsupialia. Trans. Zeal. Soc. Lond. 22: 315-333. SHAW, G. 1800. ‘General Zoology”. Kearsley, London, SIMPSON, G.G,, ROE, A., & LEWONTIN, R.C. 1960, “Quantitative Zoology’, Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., New York. SLUPER, E.J. 1946. Comparative biologic-anatomical in- vestigations on the vertebral column and spinal muscula- ture of mammals, Kon. Ned, Akad, Wet., Verh. (Tweede Sectie), DILXLI1, No. 5: 1-128. ‘ - . | Vertebrae Vo ursinus | L_ latifrons cervical 7 7 thoracic 15 13 lumbar 4 6 sacral 4 4 caudal 10-12 15-16 TABLE 2. Atlas dimensions (mm) in V. ursinus and L. latifrons. Measurements: (1), craniocaudal diameter of the lamina; (2), maximum dorsoventral height of the vertebra. Measurements (mmm) V. ursinus L, latifrons a mean sd a mean sd | (1) 14 13.6 1.82 | 6 13.0 1.90 14 30,3 30.7 2.68 | (2) AXIAL SKELETONS OF VOMBATIDAE w we TABLE 3. Axis dimensions (mm) in V, ursinus and L. latifrons. Measurements: (1), maximum dorvosentral height of the vertebra; (2), dorsoventral thickness of the lamina; (3), craniocaudal diameter of the lamina; (4), dens length; (5), maximum lateral diameter of the dens; (6), dorsoventral diameter of the body; (7), craniocaudal diameter of the vertebral body; (8), spinous process length. V. ursinus L. latifrons Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd (1) 20 45.7 2.23 8 42,3 3.60 (2) 19 3.1 0.56 7 2.6 0.40 *** (3) 21 12 0.72 8 9.1 1.60 *** (4) 19 9.7 1.01 6 79 0,78 *** (5) 20 8.0 0.72 9 8.0 1.15 (6) 20 10.9 O.88 8 10.0 L.88 (7) 19 26.5 1.20 8 26.0 2.02 (8) 17 28.6 2.07 7 25.4 4,20 ** P< 0,001 TABLE 4, Cervical vertebrae, maximum combined diameter of the transverse process (mm) in V. ursinus and L. latifrons. V_ursinus L. latifrons Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd C I(atlas) 14 63.3 4.09 5 55.6 4.11 2 (axis) 17 37.3 1.69 4 35.8 (0.67 3 18 417 2.67 7 42.4 2.31 4 18 50.0 2.93 5 47.3 2.69 5 21 55.3 3.44 6 49.7 2.64 6 19 58.1 2.79 4 53.2 3.18 7 19 59.2 2.94 5 52.5 1.52 TABLE 5. Thoracic vertebrae, dorsoventral diameter of the vertebral body (mm) in V. ursinus and L. latifrons. V. ursinus L, latifrons Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd Tl 9 10.2 0.62 4 11.5 0.99 ** 2 i 10.8 0.46 4 12.7 0.99 #% 3 I 11.1 0.72 4 13.2 2.38 4 12 11.2 0.62 3 13.7 2.16 ** 5 12 Ih. 0.74 4 12.7 1,99 * 6 12 11.1 0.68 4 12.8 1.69 ** 7 12 11.1 0.80 3 12.8 1.40 ** 8 11 1.1 0.82 4 12.4 1.41 * 9 10 11.2 0.78 4 12.4 1,18 * 10 9 11.2 0.81 4 12.5 1,19 * 11 il 1d 0.86 4 13.0 0.80 *** 12 Il 11.7 0.92 4 13.5 115 ** 13 11 12,1 0.96 4 13.7 1.08 * 14 1 12,9 1.17 15 8 13.5 1.37 * P< 0.05; ** P< 0.01; #** P< 0,001. ai G. G. SCOTT & K. C. RICHARDSON TABLE 6. Thoracic vertebrae, craniocaudal diameter of the lamina (mm) in V. wrsinus and L. latifrons, V. ursinus L, latifrons Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd TI 8 91 0.70 5 O.7 0.89 2 11 11.6 0.89 5 11.6 1.60 3 ia] 14.9 0,99 5 14,1 2,21 4 12 15.7 0.99 4 14.9 2.01 5 12 16,2 2,24 4 15.1 2.53 6 12 17.9 2,22 5 16.1 1.10 7 12 18,0 2.00 4 16.5 2,27 8 1 17.7 1.90 4 1.71 2.05 9 10 17.0 2,21 4 18.2 2.04 10 9 15.8 1.56 4 17.8 1.45 11 11 16,1 1.63 4 19.4 2.08 12 1 16.1 1.66 4 19.0 2,53 13 1] 16.7 1.70 4 18.9 2.32 14 11 17,1 1.57 15 8 175 2.47 TABLE 7. Thoracic vertebrae, length of the spinous process (mm) in V. ursinus and L. latifrons. V, ursinus L. latifrans Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd Tl 8 43.8 1.74 4 48.7 3.49 2 10 43.5 1.72 3 48.9 2.54 3 10 42.0 1.26 4 46.4 4.25 4 Il 45.2 1.63 4 47.6 4.02 5 10 47.5 2.41 3 50.8 2.62 6 12 48.2 3.69 5 47.2 3.53 7 11 46.1 5.21 4 45.0 5.35 8 10 427 2.82 4 41.0 7.39 9 10 39.6 4.45 43 40.7 2.83 10 9 34.6 2.90 4 34.9 3.63 11 10 31.3 5.32 3 32.0 6.67 12 11 26.9 2.48 3 29.5 5.66 13 10 25.0 2.12 3 26.9 5.12 14 11 23.5 1.70 15 8 22.9 2.25 V. ursinus L, lutifrons Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd TI 10 56.2 2.80 5 50.8 4.9] 2 12 48.9 2.00 5 43.1 3.78 3 13 45.7 2.53 5 39.0 2.46 4 12 43.0 2.36 4 39.3 3.76 5 12 41.0 2,90 4 37.7 1.65 6 12 38,2 1.73 5 35.8 2.01 7 12 36.5 1.47 4 34.5 1.96 8 il 35.0 1.22 4 35.2 2.01 9 10 35.2 1.28 4 34.1 2.77 10 10 34.3 1.23 4 32.6 2.58 Il 12 33.0 1.60 4 32.7 3.83 12 12 32.7 1.50 4 32.6 3.34 13 12 33.9 2.01 4 31.6 1.40 14 12 36.5 2.48 15 ] 39.) 2.58 AXIAL SKELETONS OF VOMBATIDAE TABLE 9, Thoracic vertebra, maximum dorsoventral height (mm) in V, wrsinus and L. latifrons. 37 V. ursinus L. latifrons Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd Tl 9 52.3 5.16 4 59.0 6.79 2 11 49.6 4.59 3 51.4 7.30 3 10 45.6 3.67 3 50.0 6.54 4 11 44.5 2.86 3 50,5 5.17 SS 9 43.7 1.21 3 50.5 7.09 6 12 43.1 1.84 4 51.9 5.40 7 12 42.7 1.87 3 52.8 5.71 8 10 42.7 2.27 4 49.8 4.88 9 10 42.4 2.13 3 47.9 3.12 10 9 41.6 2.08 4 45.4 1.68 11 11 41.6 2.74 3 44.5 3.68 12 I 40.9 2.40 3 43.9 4.37 13 11 40.7 2.13 3 44.0 5.14 14 II 41.3 1.60 15 8 43.7 1.94 TABLE 10. Thoracic vertebrae, craniocaudal diameter of the vertebral body (mm) in V. ursinus and L. latifrons. V. ursinus L. latifrons Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd Pal 11 10.8 0.94 4 12,8 0,69 *** 2 13 13.3 0.77 4 14.9 1.68 * 3 14 14.5 105 4 15.5 1,77 4 13 14.5 1.04 3 15,9 1.46 5 13 14.7 1.29. 4 15.8 2,29 6 13 15.1 1.14 4 1.67 1.38 7 13 15.5 1,18 3 17.4 0.35 * 8 12 16.2 1,08 4 17,1 2.17 9 ll 16.4 0.97 4 18.3 1.59 * 10 11 16,6 1,23 4 19.5 2AT# Il 1] 17.0 1.30 4 20.6 2.38 * | 12 13 17.4 1.11 4 20.9 3.00 * 13 13 17.6 0.98 4 21.7 3.32 * 14 13 18.5 1.43 15 10 19.7 1.25 *P<0.05; *** P< 0.001 TABLE | 1. Lumbar vertebrae, maximum combined diameter of the transverse processes (mm) in V. ur'sinus and L. latifrons. V. ursinus L. latifrons Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd LI 17 69.6 5.00 4 48.0 2.90 *#* 2 16 88.9 6.39 4 61.3 Ak aaaiaal 3 16 98.5 6.77 4 73.3 5.83 ee 4 14 90,3 6.45 4 88.4 9.26 5 3 OLS 9.45 6 3 92.8 2.38 ***® P< (0.001 38 G. G. SCOTT & K. C. RICHARDSON TABLE 12. Sacral vertebrae, maximum combined diameter of the transverse processes (mm) in V. ursinus and L. latifrons. V. ursinus L. latifrons Measurements (mm) n mean sd = n mean sd Sl 13 78.7 ity! 4 82.4 3,30 2 13 69.0 3.93 4 59.8 2.08 Ste 3 13 66,7 4,39 4 50.8 357 *#* 4 13 64.1 3.62 4 51.4 4,20 *** 5 7 62.6 3.34 l 46.2 0.00 6 2 58.8 0.00 weet P< ().001 TABLE 13. Coccygeal vertebrae: maximum combined diameter of the tranverse processes (mm) in V. ursinuy and L. latifrons. Vo ursinus 4 —_—- SS L. latifrons 11 Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd Col 12 58.5 4.92 3 48.8 2.77 2 13 56.5 5.13 3 $2.2 2.74 3 11 47.6 5.14 3 474 1.72 4 12 39.1 3.14 wd 44.5 0.00 5 9 30.8 2.45 2 38.6 0.00 6 5 19.7 4.68 3 31.1 1.53 ss 2 11.6 0.00 I 18.0 0.00 8 | 10.6 0,00 9 I 7.0 0.00 TABLE 14, Coccygeal vertebrae, craniocaudal diameter of the vertebral body (mm) in V, ursinus and L. latifrons. V. ursinus L, latifrons Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd Col 11 17.9 0.64 3 17.2 1.07 2 13 17.1 0.80 3 16.5 1.40 3 12 16.2 0.56 3 16.4 0.67 4 13 15.0 0.88 2 15.0 0,00 5 I 13.8 1.06 2 14.3 0.00 6 6 11.2 1.42 3 13.9 1.46 7 2 8.2 0.00 1 11,2 0.00 8 1 7.0 0.00 I 8.8 0.00 9 ! 6.1 0.00 TABLE 15. Sternum, manubrium dimensions (mm) in V. ursinus and L, latifrons, Measurements: (1), maximum craniocaudal lengths; (2), maximum diameter opposite the articular surfaces for the Ist ribs. V. ursinus L. latifrons Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd (1) lI 44.3 3,10 3 46.0 7,80 (2) 32.9 2,72 3 28.9 5.08 AXIAL SKELETONS OF VOMBATIDAE 39 TABLE 16. Rib diameter (mm) in V. ursinus and L. latifrons. V. ursinus L. latifrons Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd 1 iz 10.1 1.12 6 8.8 0.33 2 12 8.4 0.61 4 79 1.16 3 13 8.4 0.67 11 8.5 0.68 4 13 8.4 0.78 9 7.9 0.80 3) 11 8.2 0.84 5 8.1 1.27 6 9 8.3 0.77 6 8.5 1.11 7 11 7.9 0.48 7 7.9 Lite 8 11 7.8 0.53 6 8.1 0.60 9 11 i 0.51 6 74 0.29 10 8 PA 0.77 5 7S 0.65 11 11 5.3 1.15 5 6.7 0.81 * 12 11 4.5 1.01 6 6.3 BOs 13 9 4.3 0.46 6 Die! 0.60 *** 14 9 4.5 0.98 15 5 $1 0.63 * P<0.05, *** P< 0,001 AUSTRALITES FROM THE VICINITY OF FINKE, NORTHERN TERRITORY, AUSTRALIA BY W. H. CLEVERLY Summary Australites from the vicinity of Finke, Northern Territory, are generally larger and less weathered than those of inland localities in Western Australia. Specific gravity studies show the presence of two populations, one of which contains the larger australites. Amongst notable specimens is one derived from a button which had an exceptionally large spherical primary body nearly 36 mm in diameter. AUSTRALITES FROM THE VICINITY OF FINKE, 4) NORTHERN TERRITORY, AUSTRALIA W.H. CLEVERLY CLEVERLY, Wu. 1988. Ausiealites from the vieinty af Finke, Northern Territory, Austealia. Rey -¥. Ause. Muy, 2211 44-48. Auntralites from the vicintly of Finke, Nodhern Tenstory, are generally Jarger and Jess weathered Than those of inbind Incalities in Western Australia. Specific gravity studies show the presence of two populations, one afwhichcontams the larger australites. Arongsl norblespecimens.is onederived from n button which had an exceptionally large sphetical primary body nearly 36 mim in diameter, W. IL Cleverly, Western Australian School of Mines, Kalgoorlie, Western Australia 6430. Manuscript received 15 June 1987. The australites considered in this paper form the major part of the Finke Collection which ts registered under TI308-TI1341, TI343-T1364, T1375-T1389 and 71393-11407 in thetektile collection of the South Australian Museum, Adelaide. The australites were acquired by purchase in 1972 from the former Apatula Mission located at Finke, N’T) (13434, 259358), Ms J.M. Serymyour of the South Australian Muscum look at representative grab sample and chose Other australiies. from the parcel available for sale, which she estimated to number between 10.000 and 12000. When choosing specimens, the most weathered and “shapeless” were excluded which inereased slightly the classifiable percentage in this material, Some ol the largest und most interesting specimens had been sold before the residue was offered to the Museum. It was inescapable, therefore, that even the grab sample should be representative only of the residue and that the chosen material should have been both degraded by prior sales.and further affected by selecuon, MrG. MeTayish of the Apatula Mission stated that nearly ull he ausiralites were found *wilhin 30 miles” (48 km) of Finke (Pig. 1), but the distance is certainly vague, bemg hearsay (rom Aboriginal collectors, and the intensity of occurrence and/or collection muy have viried greatly with direction from the Mission. An exception are the 1% specimens trom the more south- erly localities named in Fig. | outside the 48 km radius, The 1838 specimens of ihe Finke collection may be reduced by these 18 and the 9 spurious ones detected to leave 1811 from the vicinity of Finke. The 1811 comprise the representative sample of 304 (T1389) and [507 chosen specimens. Differences between these Lwo groups and from the original parcel are io be expected. Thus there are 40.2% of essentially com- plete australites of mean weight 4.4 ¢ in the grab sample and 45.7% of mean weight 4.2 9 in the chosen material. The effects of prior sales cannot be esti- mated, In view of these uncertainties, the 1811 speei- meris are henceforth treated as a single unit, but the inherent bias needs to be considered when making comparison with samples front elsewhere. Finke 1s near the northern boundary of the australite strewnfield, Whichever of several suggested boundaries is preferred. Il ts the most northerly cenire in its longitude around whieh australites have been foand in quanuty. There is partial overlap of the provenance with that of the Kennett Collection which is also held by the South Australiin Museum. All localities of the small excluded southern group of the Finke Collection le within the provenance of the Kennett Collection (Fig. |) and some of them were visited by Mr Kennet imhis collecting (Fenner 1940). The Jarge number of australites known from the Finke and Charlotte Waters regions (—18.000)- 20000) may appear remarkable but a huge area is also in- volved, The average density represented ts only about one ausiralite per square kilometre. A larger number hus been collected fron a very much smaller urea in Western Australia (Cleverly 1986), Mor pranoy A morphological classification of the 1811 austral- ites is presented in Table | using the system ol Clev- erly (1986). Representatives of 30 of the 48 recognised shape types are present, a large number considering the severity of the climate in central Australia. How- ever, only 7 shape types. a more realistic number, are present in the grab sample. Extracts have been made from Table 1 for comparison im Table 2 with a saniple from Edjudina Station (centred 122"21°E, 2949'S), a typical inland area of Western Australia from which a sample of comparable size is available. The percentage of classifiable. specimens (Table 2) is distinctly higher ut 42 W.H. CLEVERLY Finke. This percentage varies with the degree of exactitude written into the system of classification, but when the same system is used by the same person, the principal residual cause of difference between representative samples is the intensity of weathering and erosion. There is some evidence that the lesser degree of weathering of the Finke australites is real rather than the result of bias inthe sample. There are 49 specimens in the Finke collection showing radial secondary schlieren on the anterior surface. Such schlieren are particularly sensitive indicators of the degree of weathering because they were within the last film of migrating secondary melt, a layer only a few tenths of a millimetre thick. The schlieren are made more evident by light differential etching but are readily removed by abrasion. There do not appear to be any published abundance figures but personal experience is that it would be unusual to find more than a fraction of that number in a collection of comparable size from inland Western Australia. One only such specimen was found in 1883 australites from Edjudina Station. Nor is it likely that all such specimens could have been selected for the Finke Collection unless the large parcel were scrutinized exceptionally carefully. Even if this were so, the abundance would be about 8 per 1883 of the original parcel, i.e. 8 times that at Edjudina. The percentages of the plan view shapes (round, oval and so on) are much the same at Finke as at Edjudina Station (Table 2), but this similarity may perhaps extend to any locality for which a sufficiently large and representative sample is available. How- ever, the elevational shape abundances differ mark- edly, Flanged and allied fragile forms and indicators still in progress towards more stable lens and core forms total 13.9% at Finke against only 2.8% at Edju- dina Station (Table 2), Even in the degraded grab sample the total is 5.7%, confirming the lesser degree of weathering at Finke. The mean weight of 4,24 g for complete specimens is rather high but there is evidence in the core/lens abundance ratio of 0,74 (and 1.26 in the grab sample) compared with only 0,49 at Edjudina that a high mean weight was to be expected. Insummary, the less weathered condition and larger mean weight of the Finke specimens compared with those from Edjudina Station are at least partly real rather than the result of bias in the sample. SPECIFIC GRAVITY The specific gravity (S.G.) is of special interest because Chapman ef al. (1964) found that the frequency diagram of S.G. for the Kennett Collection from an adjoining and partially overlapping provenance is bimodal, suggesting the presence of two australite populations. They further noted that the difference between component populations was one of size only. The 28 large cores investigated by them belonged to the component of lower density, whilst medium-sized lenses and small cores included both components. Subsequently Chalmers e7 al. (1976: 32) noted the presence of two components further south in the Lake Torrens — Lake Eyre region and drew attention to the explanation offered initially by Summers (1913) that a band of australites of low S.G. is present between Victoria and the Lake Eyre region and a more widely distributed population of higher S.G. A frequency diagram for a sample of 202 specimens from Finke (Fig. 2) is also bimodal but differs in detail from both the preceding. If only one of the populations contains large indi- viduals of low density, its existence should be evident ona mass-S.G. scatter diagram, but attention is first drawn to a relationship between mass and 8.G. which is compounded with variation resulting from the chemistry. Australites contain bubble cavities of a range of size and irregular distribution, It is therefore expected that the largest individuals of a population as the largest samples of a heterogeneous material will have the best chance of representing average material for that population and will show a relatively small variation in S.G, from one specimen to another, When successively smaller sizes are considered, the ratio of surface to volume increases, and with it the probability that cavities will be breached; hence the upper limit of S.G, rises. But simultaneously, if cavities of signifi- cant size are present but are not exposed, their effect upon the S.G, is greater than for large australites and the lower limit falls. Thus the entire range of S.G. is extended, For example, 29 unusually large australites from south-western Australia (Cleverly 1974, 1981; Cleverly & Scrymgour 1978; Scrymgour 1978) of average mass exceeding 170 g have specific gravities extending over a range of only 0.3 units whilst a sample of 46 specimens from Kulin West, which is about central to the region, and of mass ranging down to | g have S.G. values extending over 0.6 units. Thus, fora large sample, if mass is plotted as ordinate against S.G. as abscissa, the points representing individuals are likely to fall within a triangular area with its base on the x-axis, the largest individuals with small vari- ability of S.G. occupying the apical region and the smallest ones occupying the broader base of the tri- angle. There may also be an effect related to sample size. A numerically small sample usually shows a small variation in S.G. but a larger sample may contain the more extreme and rarer variations in size and chemis- try and hence show a larger range of S.G. This effect is unlikely to be a major cause of difference when the sample numbers (29 and 46 in the above example) are of the same order. Consider now the scatter diagram for the Finke sample (Fig. 3). The log-linear plot accommodates the large range of mass in which the number of individuals AUSTRALITES FROM SEAR FINKE, N,T 43 decreases sapidly with inerease in muss, but bas the effect of bending the sides of the two triangles which may be visualized as cnelosing all cacept lwo points, One of the exceptional points could be accounted for by a bubble cavity inthe orderof 4 ram diameter; the olier exceptional specimen ts perhaps an import te the area, To assist in defining the apices of the triangles. the S.G’s of 27 additional large specimens were determined. The apices are approximately oo the modal S.G, values previously established. Most of the larger specimens meluding all those weighing more than 28 gare in the triangle corresponding lo the lawer mode and it is also clear from the frequency polygon lor larger specimens. in Fig, 2 that (ber contribution is especially to the lower mode. There are thus (wo austratite populations, The one of lower modal 8.4, has a linger runge of size than the one of high medal SG. Noirs on Psowtitiar Symciniews bolded Bowl Tlado Dimensions HLA x 4.6% 7.1 mim Weight 0441 g. Small howls sometimes failed during a lite stage of ablation Night by folding on a hinge. the opposing sides folding back wariduway from the pressure on the convex gnterior surface (Cleverly 1979), The least tolded specimens simply show andulaling of the rear muirgin. More intensely folded specimens shaw the sides inereasingly high relauve to vie ends of the hinge until contacts made at the mid-pointofthe lips®. This last is the degree of folding shown by the Finke speci- men (Pig. 5 Al-A4), which has an elliptical area of fused coatuel ¢. 4% | mim representing about 10% - 15% of the area of the sides. The calculated original di- mensions of the bow) Cleverly 1977) are very up- proximate because of somewhat asymmetrical tolding and distociion. twas a round or slightly oval bowl, «. 1x 9x Samm (Pig. 4A and B). Battany Tidtl and T1314 The button T1311 (Fig, 5 BI-B3) is one of several which are surpnsingly well preserved, The stale of preservation has prompred the naking of some meas- urements dnd caleulitions relating to the primary body and its secondary development for comparisen with huttons fram Victoria, The less well-preserved button T1314 (Pig, 5C) was also measured and calculated. he results lor this second button are placed in bruck- ets immediately after those of TIAl). The radias of the primary sphere (Fig. 4Cy was (letermined trom two traverses of the posterior surface of flight in planes normal to the surface and at right angles to cach other using 2 travelling vernier microscope. This tedious method has the advantage over projection of an enlarged profile that observations are made on parts which would otherwise be obscured by flange, thus reducing the risk that an oblately spberoidil primary body will be mistaken for asphere. The radii ure §.6 (10.5) im and 8A ETL OD min, Using the mean radius, the primary sphere had volume 2,76 (5,20) env und the mass wits 6,66(12,77) g. provided thar the primary sphere had the same $.G, JATS (2.449) as the button formed trom it. The radius of corvature of the anterfor surface, which 1s complicated by the presence of Mow ridges, was determined from profiles projected with a lantern. These profiles inthe same planes as the traverses of the posterior surface have radii 11,2 (13,7) mmi and 11.0 (12.7) mmrespectively. The volume of the budy of the button (7.2. the button less the flange) was then calcu lated as 1.18 (2.57) em by reparding the body as comprising segments of lWo spheres of knowa pada, buse (o base, The volume of the burton was calculated as 1.72 (3.20) em! from loss of weuht in pare toluene qt known temperature and thus of kngwn $.G. Hence by difference, the volume of the Mange se. 0.54 (0.63) cov. The volume of the secondary body at the time when the frontal surface first encroached upon the ‘equator’ of the primary sphere wats calculated as {-§2(3.65)cm * by the same method as tor the body. It wus assumed (hat curvature of the anteriorsurface wasthe same then as now (dotted line of Fig. 40). anassumption likely ww only approsimetely correct. From (hat dime onward the flanks of the secondary body. previously divergent rearward, became increasingly convergent. Melt stripped from the anterior surface could be caught in the eddy currents beltind |he leading edge and curled into the protective “shadow” of the cooler posterior surface 1c, Dange-building could commence. Since the volume of the body is 1.18 (2.57) cm‘ the yolume of material stripped from the anterior surface during the porentially flange-forming stage was 0.64 (1.08) cm’. The flange volume is 0,54 (0.63) cm’ and therefore 85% (59%) of the stripped material was retained tipon the button as Mange. The above may also be expressed m terms of per- centages of the volume ofthe primary sphere. Thus the total loss from the frontal surface was 57.1 (S0.6)%, but 19.7 (12.2)% Was retained as Mange, so that thre volume of the button and ner loss from the primary body are; — 100 -—57.1+19.7=62,.6% = Loss 37.44% (LO00—S50.64+ 12.2 =61.6% Liss 38.4%) These figures are within the wide limits found by Baker (1962) Sor buttons from Victoria. Buttars T1309 One specitnen (Pig, 5D) has a distinet roll in the posterior surface of the flange and w gap beneath i suggesting that whilst still hor the flange was partially detached and pushed backward. A similar specimen has been noted and illustrated by Fenner (1940 174 and Pl. TV, Ala 7 and 10), bur Whether an entrapped 44 W.H. CLEVERLY bubble was the cause of weakness and detachment or whether the air-filled gap is the result of the detach- ment is not clear. The other specimen (Fig. 5 E1 and E2) has a distinct gap in the flange. Two possibilities are suggested : (i) This is a stage beyond that of the previous speci- men and a short length of flange was completely detached. If so, it is puzzling that orientation should have been maintained and the scar smoothed by further ablation. Flow ridges are continuous around the dip in the edge (Fig 5 E2). (ii) The specimen is one half of a symmetrical flanged dumbbell which was ablated to the stage of separation. Again, the maintenance of orientation presents a problem though it would need to persist only briefly after separation to smooth the break. Round indicator 1 T1375 This specimen (Fig. 5 Fl to F3) derived from a button is uniquely large for its type amongst the estimated 60 000 australites which the writer has examined. It has dimensions 35,7 x 29.3 x 20.5 mm including the surviving remnants of stress shell and flange. Mass 21.326 g,S.G. 2.438. The primary sphere had diameter 35,9 mm, volume c, 24 cm* and mass c. 59g on the assumption that it had the same S.G. as the indicator, The manner of development of secondary bodies is size-dependent. The largest primary bodies were not ablated to an extent sufficient for flanges to form but they usually shed the stress shell spontaneously to become cores, Primary bodies of medium to small size were ablated to the stage when a flange could develop but the total expansion and contraction were less than for large bodies and the stress shell was usually retained, perhaps to be lost later together with flange during terrestrial residence. The upper limit of size for the medium group is usually placed at about 30 mm diameter for spheres or 30 mm thickness for other bodies measured parallel to the line of flight. Thus, for example, the largest primary sphere of 23 buttons studied by Baker (1962; 277) was 27.1 mm diameter. The large round indicator | draws attention to a shadowy and ill-defined category of behaviour be- tween the medium-sized ‘flange-forming’ primary bodies and the larger ‘core-forming’ primary bodies. The 30 mm dimension is not necessarily the upper limit of size for bodies which developed flanges but only the usual limit for those with incontrovertible evidence of having done so. The larger the body, the more readily would it discard the stress shell with the flange. Baker (1962: 302) has listed a round indicator I derived from a primary sphere 34.7 mm diameter. That specimen and the one under discussion with primary sphere 35,9 mm diameter represent the known upper limit of 35 — 36 mm for the category in which flange was formed and almost immediately lost again when the stress shell was detached. In rare instances such as these two specimens a remnant of the flange survives to indicate beyond doubt that flange develop- ment occurred. The Finke specimen is also excep- tional in its degree of preservation, having a shallow obtuse ridge upon the anterior surface marking a line of parting of the stress shell (Cleverly 1987), Complementary to the preceding specimen is a teardrop-indicator IT having only a short length of the butt of the flange (Fig. 5 G1—G3), The styles of the two specimens are very similar. Itis likely that the teardrop was in the same size category, but reconstruction of the parent body is not possible with confidence. Obtuse ridges are present on the anterior surface of this specimen also. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I thank Ms J. M. Scrymgour for information on the acquisition and provenance of the Finke Collection and Dr Brian Mason for specific gravity data on the Lake Torrens—Lake Eyre australites, Ms J. M. Wearne drafted Figures 1-4. Mr M. K. Quartermaine proc- essed my photographs used in Figure 5. REFERENCES BAKER, G. 1962, Volumenbeziehungen von wohlerhal- tenen Australit-Knopfen, —Linsen und —Kernen zu ihren primaren Formen. Chem. der Erde 21: 269-320. CHALMERS, R.O., HENDERSON, E. P. & MASON, B. 1976. Occurrence, distribution and age of Australian tektites. Smithson. Contrib, Earth Sci. 17: 46 pp. CHAPMAN, D.R., LARSON, H.K. & SCHEIBER, L.C. 1964. Population polygons of tektite specific gravity for various localities in Australasia. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 28: 821-839 CLEVERLY, W. H. 1974, Australites of mass greater than 100 grams from Western Australia. /.R. Soc. W. Aust. 57: 68-80. CLEVERLY, W. H. 1977. Folded australite bowl from Port Campbell district, Victoria, Australia. Mem. Nat. Mus. Vic, 38: 255-259, CLEVERLY, W.H. 1979. Morphology of small australites from the Eastern Goldfields, Western Australia. /. R. Sec. W. Aust. 61: 119-130, CLEVERLY, W.H. 1981, Further large australites from Western Australia, Rec. W. Aust. Mus. 9: 101-109, CLEVERLY, W. H. 1986. Australites from Hampton Hill Station, Western Australia. /.R. Soc. W. Aust. 68: 81-93. CLEVERLY, W.H. 1987. Morphology of a remarkably well preserved australite found near Ravensthorpe, Western Australia. Rec, W. Aust. Mus. 13; 327-335, CLEVERLY, W.H. & SCRYMGOUR, J. M. 1978. Austral- ites of mass greater than 100 grams from South Australia and adjoining states. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 17: 321-330. FENNER, C. 1940. Australites, part 1'V — The John Kennett collection with notes on Darwin glass, bediasites, etc. Trans R. Soc, 5. Aust. 64: 305-324. SCRYMGOUR, J. M. 1978. Three large australites from South and Western Australia. Ree. §. Aust. Mus. 17:331- 335. SUMMERS, H. S. 1913. On the composition and origin of australites. Report of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science 14: 189-199, AUSTRALITES FROM NEAR FINKE, N.T. wer N.T. oN Iotistetie Waters (ruins) @Mt.Dare H.S. } Blood’s Creek @ (abandoned) v4 ~ 5 2 f =~ eGidyea Abminga 9 Bore 12 Mile Dam e \erinc’ H.S. ® Federal (abandoned) SCALE FIGURE |. Map of country adjoining the Northern Territory/South Australian border showing provenances of the Finke and Kennett australite collections. Finke and Abminga (open circles) were stations on the now abandoned Central Australian Railway. 100 : . . r . . —y . . —y 60> l 4 50- zi 40+ g / | -. \ 30 9 4 4 ° . ° os % fe) | 20 fe} Jo 0° oO dy A ee 2) = SOURS Bo foe w OL “ o 9} d 4 8} eh 4 *. = At . g 6 7 ° ° as : . 4 : ¢ : 4p he noe 1 3 : * 4 . hy?) * 2 4 ae ‘ . . te bef r x if . h - ” ee | 09 4 ie . al fos fe ; ] 0-7 =i 1 nl A n 1 n — 1 n 238 2:40 2-42 244 246 248 2:50 SPECIFIC GRAVITY FIGURE 3. Semi-logarithmic plot of mass against specific gravity for a sample of 202 australites from the vicinity of Finke less five points in the lower mass range closely coinci- dent with others. The open circles represent 27 additional specimens weighing more than 11 g each which are not part of the random sample. The broken lines are an interpretation of the distribution. PERCENT 45 fy bay 236 238 240 242 SPECIFIC GRAVITY FIGURE 2. Frequency polygons of specific gravity for australites. Filled circles — sample of 202 from vicinity of Finke. Open circles—420 from Charlotte Waters region (from Chapman er al. 1964 Fig. 7) Dots—761 from Lake Torrens — Lake Eyre region (adapted from Chalmers et a/. 1976 Fig. 15).Open squares — 46 specimens each weighing more than 11 g from vicinity of Finke. FIGURE 4. A. Side view of folded bowl T1346 with restored cross-sectional shape of bowl (broken line) within it. B. End view of folded bowl T1346 and restored pre-folding shape (broken line). C. Cross-section of button T1311 with restoration of spherical primary body (broken line) and profile of anterior surface when flange-building commenced (dotted line). Figures are volumes of various parts in cubic centimetres. 46 W.H. CLEVERLY FIGURE 3, Ausialites from the wreinity of Finke, NT. In side views, Uireutin nf flight is lawards potlon ul page ‘A. Folded round of slightly oval bowl. T7346, 11.4 mm long AL Posterior view, Me narrow pale streak wlcing te: marddie ip the hisedt union between the pidew AZ Side vaew (ower site al AL), Aa, Bod View (naht-hand end of Al). Ad. Same side view as A2 but in trunsmitwd Light Nurrow etliptiutl acca near “lips” by ihe abst ‘Of fised contact, B. Bitton. 71311, 20,5 num. diameter, BY. Posterior View, B2, View shahtly oblique to unteriar yurlaye showing keft-himdeal helical Mow vidge. B3. View vory oblique 1 anterior surtier vbeswinys some tif the rasital secondary schlieren, CC Botion, 11314, 25.6 — 24,7 mm diunwier, pursterwe view. D Button, TL309, 21,8 mai diameter. side: view showiny toll in lange biwards upper Fight ant torn hole below it. E. Burton, 11309, 20.2 mnt wate. 61, Pontenor view showing lich af Mange uz ne sue. E 2 Site vyew bvking bite the Mange sap and showing commnully of Flow ridyes around thie gap. F. Round indicator 1, 11375, 95.6 mm across. Pt, Posterior view showing smal] Mange rerneant aright P2. Side view wilh renmintot Mange and stress shell mt right) FA, Meant viewstiywong compilers flow ridges on remnant of stress shell G_ Teardrap-indicator 11,771375,39-4 rim lang G).Postermr view showing remninté of atrens shell around narrow end und belww, Lallet veth short length if burt of flange, G2. Side view showing. Now ridges on stress shell. Cid. Front view with flow ridges an stress shell ahove ind at ight Mo "Tailed? or tbeaked” core, T1389, 155 mm across. HI Side vew HEL View somewhat ible to front surface to emphnsize the ‘txeak” J. Round Indieator f, T1395, 23.7 mm wide, 11, Rear view showin large remnant of flange. 12, Side view K, Fragment of hollow pore, T1402, 34.5 mm thigh. L. Browd oval core, T1384, 24,6 mun long. ear view showing Bow owitl, M_ Narrow oval core, T1389, 35.5 mim long, rear view AN 'Small” round core, T1989, 17.5 mim diameter, side views AUSTRALITES FROM NEAR FINKE, N.T. 47 TABLE |. Morphological classification and masses of australites from vicinity of Finke, N.T. Number of specimens Masses of complete specimens, g Shape type Button Round Bowl Round indicator | Lens Round indicator II Round Core Broad oval canoe Broad ocal indicator | Broad oval lens Broad oval indicator II Broad oval core Narrow oval plate Narrow oval canoe Narrow oval indicator | Narrow oval lens Narrow oval indicator II Narrow oval core Boat-canoe Boat-indicator | Boat-lens Boat-core Dumbbell-indicator | Dumbbell-lens Dumbbell-indicator I Dumbbell-core Teardrop-lens Teardrop-indicator I Teardrop-core Conical core Aberrant ad Nw ii ee a Bed] me ln aA=--—o Mean Fragments Flakes and flaked cores* * 'Core' as used by the anthropologist. y 2 48 W.H. CLEVERLY TABLE 2. Comparison between australites from the vicinity of Finke, N.T., and Edjudina Station, W.A. Finke Edjudina N.T. Station, W.A, Complete or essentially so % Incomplete but classifiable % Total classifiable % Fragments % Flakes and flaked cores % Round forms % Broad oval forms % Narrow oval forms % Boat forms % Dumbbell forms % Teardrop forms % Flanged, disc, plate, bowl and canoe forms % Indicators I % Lens forms % Indicators II % Cores % Cores/lens forms Number of complete australites Mean mass of above (g) Total number of specimens Mean mass of all specimens (g) THE LIMITS ON FIGHTING IN AN ABORIGINAL COMMUNITY BY ISOBEL WHITE Summary This brief paper describes fighting at Yalata, an aboriginal community in the far south-west of South Australia and compares this favourably with the uncontrolled aggression and violence in western society. THELIMITS ON FIGHTING IN AN ABORIGINAL COMMUNITY 49 ISOBEL WHITE WHITE, L M. 1988. Fighting in an Aboriginal Community. Rec. $. Aust. Mus. 22 (1): 49-51 . This brief paper describes fighting at Yalata, an aboriginal community in the far south-west of South Australia and compares this favourably with the uncontrolled aggression and violence in western society. I. M. White, Department of Anthropology, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National Uni- versity, GPO Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2601. Manuscript received 7 April 1986. Revised manuscript received 15 October 1987, Every newspaper today carries reports of deaths and grave injuries caused by terrorism, violence and ag- gression, covering a whole range of brutality, from the bashing of harmless old women, to bombing of build- ings, to full-scale war, These reports come from the so- called civilised world of Europe, the Middle East and the Americas. Moreover a rash of violence has broken out on the sports field, even in Australia, All this has made me reconsider the instances of aggression and violence I witnessed in a remote Aboriginal comm- unity nearly twenty years ago. This shocked me at the time but more recently I have come to the conclusion that the Aboriginal anger and antagonism I witnessed were mild compared with what is in the news today, that the amount of bodily injury was strictly controlled and that after an episode of violence, aggression was quiescent for some time. Consciously or uncon- sciously Aborigines had so ordered their outbreaks of aggression and violence that death and injury were controlled and minimised. This is unlike what happens in the western world where perpetrators of violence, even in time of so-called peace, take little account of the amount of death and injury they cause, or whether their victims are those responsible for the original con- flict. Yalata is an Aboriginal community situated in mal- lee, western myall and melaleuca scrub on the coastal strip between the head of the Great Australian Bight and the Nullarbor Plain in the far west of South Australia. The inhabitants are Western Desert people who first came south to the newly constructed railway line in the 1920s and 1930s. Most congregated during the 1930s and 1940s around the United Aboriginal Mission (U.A.M.) at Ooldea and were induced to move even further south in the early 1950s to Yalata Lutheran Mission after the U.A.M. withdrew quite suddenly from Ooldea (White 1985: 222-223). They were pre- vented from returning to their own territory during the period of nuclear weapons experiments at Maralinga and Woomera (Brady 1987). The new Yalata Abor- iginal Reserve was outside their own territory and when I visited them they still felt displaced and land- less (White 1985: 226); but they had become economi- cally dependent on European—Australians (White 1985: 217-219). At the same time they maintained their language (Pitjantjatjara and other Western Desert dialects) and much of their traditional culture, including some of their ceremonial life. Boys were initiated, though I was told that the rituals were abbreviated; for example, the period of seclusion only lasted a few weeks. While the initiation ceremonies still included the bestowal of a daughter by the circumciser, the promise was not always fulfilled, leading to some of the fighting des- cribed below. A rain ceremony was performed each year (White 1979). For my benefit the women per- formed a number of their secret ceremonies with great enthusiasm (White 1975: 132-133) but they were not teaching these to the girls in the old manner and they admitted they did not perform them in my absence. When I last paid a visit to Yalata in 1981 my friends told me that their last performance was the one I saw in 1973. The descriptions of fighting in this paper are based on my experience during fieldwork at intervals be- tween 1969 and 1973, each visit lasting between three weeks and two months. I am not considering here the killings that occurred in this community following breaches of the laws against sacrilege. I know little of the events behind such deaths, which fall into quite a different category from the open brawling whose origin normally lay in disputes over marriages, betrothals and adultery, en- tirely secular matters. T.G.H. Strehlow (1970: 112— 122) while describing punishment inyolving many deaths in Central Australia for sacrilege of various kinds, emphasises that these were quite different from personal quarrels arising from such matters as marital disputes. These personal quarrels would be settled by the persons involved with the help of their kin, Though some bodily injuries were tolerated killing should not occur, except that the Aranda punishment was death for incest between aman and his mother-in-law and for the seduction of the wife of an important ritual leader. Before | first pitched my tent in the ‘big camp’, 50 1M WHITE ahout 15 km Irom the mission headquarters, the white mission staff at Yalata wamed me that ‘the Aborigines were always brawling’ and that | would lind these briwls noisy and alarming. | admit J was at first tnghtened when loud quarreling broke outa week or twa later, Bot | soon found that | was not in the least tireatened and that Danighr us well observe what was happening. At this and later incidents f noted particu- larly that these contlicts followed a luirly regular pat- tern and that noise far outran action. Injuries were limited and seldom serious and when ene ur other of the protagonists was hurt the fighting normally ceased alonce, though (bere might be some incidental quar rels and injuries in other parts of the vamp. Similarly in Diese peripheral quarrels action stopped as soe as any injury occurred, Unfortunately some of the rules wenrby the board ifthe contestants were drank, 4 hat serious, sometimes fatal, injury resulted, though C did nol witness such an event. Moreover when there were dninken peaple about there might be danger jnrvalved to hon-parlcipants. Care was always taken Ww keep aut of the way of such irresponsible individuals. On one sucleoceasion the adult women of ‘my Camily’, nel ding myself, picked yp toddlers und babies in order to be ready to evacuale the family campsite. These events seemed to me equivalent tog weekly Visit ty the movies or lo a sporting fixture ia our socicty, and certainly leas dangerous than some sport- ing events have become. Just as the amount of alcobol available increases the danger at football und cricket matches, so the danger increased with che amount of alcoho) available in the camp, where there were no police present to attempt control and pethaps to be- come the target of all spectators, To an outsider, life in the camp atan Aboriginal settlement may seem rather dull for the inhabitants and these fights certainly li- vened up the daily round and were a mater for excited discussion for many days afterwards The standard order of events was as follows: loud shouting would be heard from one part of the camp and most of the inhabitants Would rush to the scene as sup- porters oF the contestants or asx observers, Usually those supporters who fell themselves involved in the dispute would take off their clothes, the main combat- ants having already done so. Forexample, wheitan old couple near me heanl the rused voices of their daughter and son-in-law they immediately hurried towards Lie Contest aking off their Clothes ancl Cie me them aside as they ran, Each adult man would pick up his spears and Spearthrower on his bef hand and his fighting boomerang in his right, mote as a gesture of streneth and alertness than with any mtent to use them immediately. [tséems there Were rules about the choice of weap- ans. Sometimes the protagonists would have spears and spearthrowers or perhaps knives but when 7 wit- nessed a quartes between two brothers (same father, different mothers) they bad nie weapons at all but merely wrestled, Where spears,.or knives, were used, skill was needed so that the wound was in the fleshy part of the- thigh and did not cause too inmuch bleeding. For such an injury men didnot always go to (he mission nurse, They were proud of their scars, which would have been less obwious if skilfully stitched. The only wound of this kind T actually saw at close quarters (1 droye the injured wontae to the mission for treatment} was in the thigh of the daughter mentioned above. inflicted with a knife by her disappointed dover when he realised she was retuming to her much older hus- band. Her wound was deep and painful bat notdanger ous, This partienlor dispute broke out into violence ar near violence at intervals over several days. Some hours after this knifing, fhere was another hour of shouting and abuse between the lover and members of the Woman's kin and affines, Then the “big men’ of the camp moved in on him with their weapons al the teady (as Ldeseribe later) but instead of obeying them arel ceasing to threaten violence he produced a rifle and lhreatened them, By now it was very late ut night and all retired to their own camps, but in the morming the tibles were rummeéd on the young man when two police- men arrived from Ceduna and arrested him. | was told that the camp Teaders Had taken the unusual step of asking ihe mission superintendent 10 send for the polive, because the young man had behaved in away they could not counter, in prodacuy a rifle. Moreover this was not the first time he had seduced w woman of their community; a year before he had eloped with a much ydunger unmarried girl and had maniged to travelonatrain to Kalgoorlie with her, before her mate Kin caught up with them and managed to bring her ack. The above account represents an unusual series of events and [now return to the more normal processes ot a camp light, When fighting first broke out if was interesting to observe the behaviour of the children. Clearly they knew they must nol join in the ring of ob servers, cither because of instruction from their par- ents, Or because hey were tou tightened by the noise of quarreling, fam not sure at what age they could join in. only knew that when | observed these scenes all children between the ages of about five and fifteen immediately gathered in small groups and retired to the outer periphery of the camp where they Jit their own small fires and stayed until the noise and shouling. died dawn. In the meantime, as | have already de- scribed, the adult women stayed clase by babies and toddlers, ready to pick them up if they felt there might be danger. Margaret Bain, who has lived for many years with Pitjantjatjara speaking communities, told me that by carrying a child, arnan ora woman signalled thal he or she was notinvalved in the quarrel. [have never heard of a child being injured in these brawls, certainly nat by micntion, and not by accident because of nveasiires taken by hoth adults and children, ABORIGINAL FIGHTING 51 While the original contestants were shouting at each other and preparing for action, subsidiary quarrels would be disinterred so that it soon sounded as though everyone was shouting loudly. This made the dogs bark and howl frantically and the noise was quite deafening. (I made a tape-recording of one such epi- sode.) The original dispute was likely to concern, im- mediately or marginally, a proportion of the inhabi- tants. Here is an example: the two brothers who wrestled together were fighting over a woman. Mean- while their old blind father was begging them to desist, claiming it was not proper for brother to fight brother. The older of the two brothers had been deprived of his promised wife some years before because the girl was supported by her mother in her preference for another man. (For this the mother had been speared by the disappointed young man.) Now the mother of the younger brother resurrected the dispute and loudly ac- cused the mother of the girl of causing the present fight, because her son would not now have been fighting his brother about a woman if that girl had been given to her proper husband in the first place. I] knew both these two older women well; they had cooperated in the performance of women's ceremonies and I had not suspected that the old dispute was still an issue be- tween them. The main fight was the pretext for many other old conflicts to be revived and for old disagreements to be aired very loudly. There was even a resurgence of ri- valry between the two dominant groups in the camp, the Pitjantjatjara and the Yankuntjatjara, normally almost indistinguishable after two or three generations of living together and intermarrying; now each ac- cused the other of horrible customs. Another reason for further quarrels to break out in various parts of the camp was that some of the shouting consisted of sexual boasting by one of the men, whom [ had recognised as a local Don Juan. Since these boastings were likely to involve married women within hearing, several new quarrels would break out between these and their husbands, or between the husbands and the boaster, In the end it seemed that half the people were shouting abuse at the other half, at the tops of their voices. This would go on for an hour or two, by which time there would be a small number of minor injuries. One or other of the original protagonists might have been hurt so that that particular fight would have ceased. But by now everyone would be tired and mothers would complain that their children should be allowed to sleep. Eventually the senior men, the ‘big men’ of the community, would intervene. Each in turn would put brushwood on his fire so that it would send flames several feet into the air and he would stand in front of it for all to see. He would first proclaim on the rights and wrongs of the main quarrel. He would then say something to the effect that the young men must stop fighting now, they had had their chance to settle their disturbances, they had caused a lot of noise and distur- bance but now everyone had had enough and it was time to stop. In turn several of these older men would repeat this performance. With their weapons in their hands they would then move in a circle against those still fighting, thus showing the power of the leaders against the younger men, Quickly the noise would cease, pcople returned to their own camps and soon all would be asleep. In the morning there might be a few with headaches or in pain from injury, but there would be peace in the camp and the contestants from the previous night would seem to have resolved their quarrels, Certainly all the furore had had a cathartic effect. It had been salutary to have had all the dissension out in the open and for once to tell one's neighbours exactly what one thought of them. All the evil remarks and accusations seemed to have been forgotten, though they might be a pretext fora later conflict. Aggression was limited to a few hours at intervals of some weeks, Occasionally, in the middle of the night, the silence would be broken by aman voicing his grievances and shouting abuse at some other person. The rest of the time in my observa- tion these Western Desert people behaved in a quiet. restrained and dignified manner. Conversations were carried on in low voices and shouting was seldom heard, Even against misbehaving children voices were not raised. The chief noise in the camp was of dogs barking rather than of human voices. REFERENCES BRADY, M.1987. Leaving the spinifex: the impact of rations, missions and the atomic tests on the Southern Pijantjatjara. Rec. S, Aust. Mus, 20: 35-45. STREHLOW, T.G.H. 1970, Geography and the totemic land scape in Central Australia, Jn R,M. Berndt (Ed.). ‘Austra- lian Aboriginal Anthropology’, Pp. 92-140. University of Western Australia Press, Perth. WHITE, I.M. 1975. Sexual conquest and submission in the myths of Central Australia. /n L.R. Hiatt (Ed.), ‘Australian Aboriginal Mythology’, Pp, 123-142. Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, Canberra. WHITE, I.M. 1979. Rain ceremony at Yalata. Canberra Anthropology 2, No.2: 94-103. WHITE, I.M. 1985, Mangkatina: woman of the desert. I. White, D. Barwick & B. Meehan (Eds.). ‘Fighters and Singers’, Pp. 215-226. Allen & Unwin, Sydney. THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE COOPER BASIN : REPORT ON FIELDWORK BY E. WILLIAMS Summary This paper presents the results of the first season of fieldwork of an archaeological study of the Cooper Basin near Innamincka, South Australia. THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE COOPER BASIN: REPORT ON FIELDWORK 53 E. WILLIAMS WILLIAMS, E. 1988. The archaeology of the Cooper Basin: report on fieldwork. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 22(1): 53-62, This paper presents the results of the first season of fieldwork of an archaeological study of the Cooper Basin near Innamincka, South Australia. E, Williams, Department of Prehistory, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National Uni- versity, GPO Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2601. Manuscript received 29 July 1987. Australia is a dry continent — 60% of its land surface is covered in arid vegetation while a further 22% is covered in semi-arid species (Williams 1979, V.I. Fig. 1). In the past at the height of the last glaciation, an even greater proportion of the continent lay within the arid zone (Bowler 1982). Yet until recently, little archaeo- logical research was carried out in arid Australia, despite the importance of the region to questions about the colonisation of the continent. The work which has been carried out suggests that a number of areas within what is now the arid zone, were occupied during the Pleistocene. Dates of 20 000 years BP and older come from sites in the Hamersley Plateau, north-western W.A. (Maynard 1980, Brown 1987); the Cleland Hills, central western N.T. (Smith 1987); Koonalda Cave, southern S.A. (Wright 1971); and Lake Yantara, north- western N.S.W. (Dury & Langford-Smith 1970). Whilst these sites show that much of the drier part of the continent was utilized during the Pleistocene, it ap- pears that the most intensive occupation took place during the mid to late Holocene (Gould 1977; Hughes & Lampert 1980; Lampert 1985; Smith 1983, 1987). Although much archaeological work has been un- dertaken recently in many parts of the arid zone, little was known about the archaeology of one area, the dunefields of north-eastern South Australia. This pro- ject was initiated to expand our knowledge of the region. The area chosen for study is that section of the Cooper Basin near Innamincka, South Australia (Fig. 1). It comprises a number of features — the main Cooper channel, an ancillary channel — the North- west Branch, and an extensive series of clay-pan lakes in the Cooper flood-out zone lying within the Strzelecki dunefield. These lakes are the only ones which regularly fill with water for thousands of square kilometres, My particular focus is the lakes, since little is known about either the prehistoric occupation or the environmental history of these features. There are a number of reasons why this project can tell us more about the occupation of arid Australia. The first is that while the region is an extremely arid one — il receives one of the lowest rainfall readings of any in Australia (125 mm per annum) and is mostly covered by a large dunefield, the Strzelecki, there are reliable water resources there. This made the area an important one for Aboriginal settlement, at least in the recent past (Sturt 1849). The Cooper drains the Channel Country of central Queensland and every year the wet season rains come down the river, filling a succession of deep waterholes on the Cooper at Innamincka and then the Coongie lakes, 100 km to the north-west. The large waterholes on the Cooper and its overflow channel, the North-west Branch are permanent, while the lakes hold water from between five months to most of the year, depending on their location relative to the channel. While the abundant (albeit seasonal) water resources make this area atypical when compared to many parts of the arid zone, this region can tell us much about how people in the past dealt with fluctuations in water availability. This is because although there are large, reliable waterholes near Innamincka, there are few permanent water resources in the surrounding region. Early explorers such as Sturt (1849) and Burke & Wills (1861) always retreated back to this stretch of the Cooper because of a lack of reliable water anywhere else — upstream or downstream. Even the upper reaches of the river contain very little standing water, much less than around Innamincka and the channel does not always flow (Gregory & Gregory 1884: 205-206, Jones 1979). In order to reach the lakes and permanent waterholes, the initial colonisers would have had to push through extremely arid areas and would have thus needed to develop a flexible economic system which could deal with these variations in water availability. Such hydrological fluctuations have char- acterised the Cooper drainage basin for at least the last 20 000 years. It was probably only prior to 30 000 yBP that there were abundant water resources throughout the region. The second reason why this area was chosen for study concerns the probability of finding Pleistocene archaeological material there. Wasson’s work on the sedimentary and climatic history of the dunefields, which is described later, has shown that exposures of 54 E, WILLIAMS \ LN \ kudriemitehie Waterhole Typingiaie fWorerhote }—27°30' = === Major tracks 7°00" ull ais P oo | Dunes wil L allie lil rs Kilometres ||! | [3 i Marr edlobadlibbs i { \ i : 7 ) ae a \ | \ 140° 00") ps8 \\4a073077 | / 2 147" 00" ‘Lake ie { \ ny ot oe Yih eee & Les _ L— . diate \ON \ Lek Pear . T\ ey 27°00'— < 1 [Apanburra, Sf \ \; as Soy os, lI5 hits Z- se ay a OW x \ yy 5 a be it rt Fe ‘ \ N \. ~ take Sic Richard i ( 7 eR ES H / \ \ it = ‘ fa \ ~ \ ; ) ) ae = | i i rt Wee V 1 mk 2) Mirkacalratiie P\ ace ee ; “ 3 B { if eS tea ee ‘ Fo Kane ‘ asst ace ee I | age nt Sm et No s || A = 2] 7 ( pettias Elz J Ay ahs bh a . , ae or as ( \ \ coun } ERS \. 1 say - x a8 , \ ~~ / ‘ CF TO RY , 27°30! | eas ee Wy he APS J ‘c x ye \ Nh N \ : Nappa oN ‘mere Pim NS, A ge i . ee ” hole ‘Burke Waterhole 4 Innaminekaf poucerbidie {Marerhole Nappaonine Waterhole Marpoo Waterhole FIGURE 1. Locality map. Pleistocene sediments are common in these landforms and the region is thus a promising one in which to look for early sites. As well, his work provides a valuable framework in which to place work on the history of Aboriginal occupation. The major aim of the project is to obtain baseline archaeological data for the region and if possible, determine whether it was first settled during the Pleis- tocene. The question of the Pleistocene occupation of the arid zone is a contentious one. Bowdler (1977) believes that aridity was a major problem in the colonisation of Australia. She claims that the first settlement of the arid zone occurred quite late — around 12 000 yBP, after people had first colonised the coastline and then the major river systems. She be- lieves that once the coastline was settled, people then moved up the major river systems taking with them a specialised ‘coastal’ economy, expressed as a depend- ence on fish, shellfish and small mammals. She sug- gests that the move away from the major river systems and the development of a non-aquatic adaptation or ‘desert’ economy only appears quite late, after about 12 000 yBP and involves a shift from aquatic foods to the wide-scale and specialized exploitation of grass- seed and a dependence on larger mammals, especially macropods. It appears, however, that recent work in the Northern Territory refutes this model. An excavation of Puritjarra rockshelter in the Cleland Hills, has re- vealed an archaeological sequence extending back 22 000 years (Smith 1987). This site is located in an extremely arid area, well away from major drainage systems, in a region which would have also been very dry throughout the late Pleistocene. Smith’s work shows, therefore, that people were living in the core arid zone well before that predicted by Bowdler’s model. Other research by Smith refutes further aspects of the model. His work on grindstone morphology shows, for example, that the intensive exploitation of seed plants did not take place until the late Holocence, which is much later than Bowdler predicted. This COOPER BASIN ARCHAEOLOGY x adaptation could therefore not have triggered the initial colonisation of arid areas (Smith 1984). Smith’s data suggest that people had pushed into the arid core of the continent by at Icast 22 000 yBP_ It appears these carly colonists had a fairly generalised economy, lacking four example a specialised seed- grinding technology. While the development of the more detatled model awaits further publication of Smith's work, one aim of my project will be to look at the issue of Pleistocene occupation as regards north- eastern South Australia. ts there evidence for Pleisto- cene occupation here and if so, what rype of economy did the early colonists possess? As well as this interest in Pleistocene occupation 1 have a number of other aims, The first is ta determine when the mosi intensive period of occupanon took place — was itdunng the mid to late Holocene period, as other work to the south, and in other regions has shown (Hughes & Lampert 1980; Lampert 1985: Lampert & Hughes 1987; South 1983, 1987)? See- ondly, the information on prehistoric sites Will be ulti- mately used to forma number of management propos- ils to protect the archaeological material from a num- ber of threals including oiLand gas exploration, paster- alism and tourism. Here 1 will be working closely with the Aboriginal Heritage Branch of the South Australian Department Australian-of Environment and Planning. The project is funded tor three years and this paper reports an the results of this, the first field season, Given the preliminary nature of the work, my data and conclusions will be fairly general, Before describing the resultg of the fieldwork, T will first provide an environmental context for the research hy presenting below information on the geography of the region and then on climatic change. ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING The region has a hot, dry, desert climate with short, coal locold winters. Raintallisextremely low (125mm peranoutt) and unreliable, while mean annual evapeor vation is very high (3800 nim per annum), There is no distinct seasonal pattem to ihe rainfall distribution, Within the region there ure two distiner land-systens (Lawl etal, 1977. Hughes & Lampert L980). These are briefly desoribed here, because as) will sutline Tater, the nature of the archacnlogieal muteriq? varies wallt hand system. i. Merninie Environmental Assaciation This tand-systeni Les i Gheeastern pant of the scudy arch fo Ue cust ite Alindsville track (Fig. 1) de consists of we gently undulating stony plain woul low stloreie-capped aises. Here de Cenper is confined within wtarraw fowiplain unt comonses a serics of Pcie WaterbUles cach Lp to-several kilometres long, Eust-west trending dunes have formed along the margins of both banks of theriver and Hughes (Hughes & Lampert 1980) notes that they broadly resemble those of the Cooper flood-out zone to the west (see below). The vegetation in this land-system. consists of oceasional stands of mulga (Acacia arewra) and a sparse low shrubland of nave fuchsia (Eremaphila spp.) and dead finish (Acacia lerragonaphyila) over tufted grasses such as saltbush (Atriplex spp.) and Mitchell grass (Astrebla pectinafa). The Cooper chan- nel and floodplain is fringed by woodlands of river red gum (E. cuma/dulensix), coolibah (E, nitvrotheca) and coolihah box (£. interrexta). Stony land-systems which have similar landforms and vegetation ure also found in this general region and lie to. the north-west, north and north-east of the study area, They ure virtually identical to the Merninic landsysrem and are therefore not described here. More information on them ¢an be obtained from Laut e7 ai, (1977). ii. Cooper Creck Environmental Association This land-sysiem covers most of the study area, lying ta the west and north-west of Innamineka. It comprises the Cooper Nood-out zone and consists of a field of parallel dunes and interconnected claypans pe- riodically Hooded by Coopers Creek. A numberof the largerclaypans form lakes. Some of these, for example the Coongie Lukes system (Pig, 1 | are filled annually hy freshes of Water Which came down the Cooper front the Channel Country of northern and western Queen- sland. These lakes fill from an overflaw channel of the Cooper, the North West Branch, but only one or Lwe lakes hold walter for more than six months of the yeur. Other Jakes und claypans are filled either witty the Cooper food-out, or by prolonged local previpitation, The dunefield consists mostly of longitudinal dhines which trend north-south, Transverse dunes ane found on fhe northern (downwind) sides ol laedhyts (Twiddle 1972. Wasson 1983), Both (ypes of dunes are Neh in chay wath che clay eceurring in sand-sige agyre prates or “pellets”, The vegelation on the dunes and arolind the tikes is yvarable, ranging fron samphive (Arthrocrenium spp.) and chenopod shrubland: of ate man sallhush to lignan (MueAlentevkia cunring- Aen?) andl ganegrass (Eragrostis australagied), The flondplains and channels af the major river syetens ace fringed by the same uve species (iM noted for the PreviOns find-system ie, ver red gum, comiatr enc cool|bahy buy. The reeion tag not alawys been eavinorimencally Stable and over time there have beet sigiatieanr changes in the climate aml hirallsems, Given the scale of these chantes. dey weld have vndeubleally al fouled Nioriin metupation, and are Uhereline outlined here 56 E, WILLIAMS ENVIRONMENTAL HIsTORY The clay-rich linear and transverse dunes have been studied by Wasson and preserve a sediment record of climatic change in the region (Bowler & Wasson 1984; Gardner et al, 1987; Wasson 1984, 1986). The pres- ence of clay pellets suggests that the dunes were formed when muds and fine sands deposited by the Cooper were deflated from salinized swales, The floodplain sediment was derived from alluvium depos- ited directly by the Cooper or, where areas were cut off from a direct supply of flood sediment, from saline groundwater-controlled deflation. The pelletization of the clays requires the salinisation of sediments and this occurs in a regime of fluctuating saline groundwater. As well as this mode of formation there is now recent evidence which suggests that clay pellet formation can occur without salts as long as there is a supply of fresh alluvium (Gardener et al. 1987). The dunes contain four main stratigraphic units, The uppermost is a modern mobile aeolian sand, mostly quartzose with rounded clay pellets. Below this is a unit which also comprises quartzose sand and clay pellets and is late Holocene in age. The next unit has a similar composition of quartzose sand and clay pellets and as well has some carbonate formation and was deposited between 13 000 and 23 000 yBP. The lowermost unit also contains quartzose sand and clay pellets but is also slightly reddened and has pronounced carbonate for- mation. Thermoluminescence dating of this unit sug- gests it may have been deposited as long ago as 240 000 yBP (Gardner et al. 1987). Analysis of these sediments and of other features in the regions and in other areas gives the following environmental sequence beginning with the late Pleistocene (Bowler & Wasson 1983; Wasson 1994, 1986). About 50 000 years ago lakes in the southern half of Australia were noticeably expanded. At this time also the Cooper was depositing predominantly sandy allu- vium in contrast to the muds and silts it deposits today. This suggests the river was discharging water at an increased velocity relative to the present and could indicate a greater discharge overall, If this was the case then it is probable that the lakes in the study area, like those in southern Australia, were also noticeably larger. The lakes in southern Australia remained full for some time although after about 30 000 yBP there was some oscillation in lake levels. This lasted until around 22 000 yBP when the lakes began to dry up. About this time too, the Cooper ceased depositing predominantly sandy alluvium and began depositing a mixture of sand, silt and clay, indicating a decrease in stream yelocity. The presence of the clays in the floodplain sediment initiated the period of clay pellet formation in the swales between the dunes. During this time a major phase of dune building began and continued until the terminal Pleistocene. The most intensive periods of sediment mobilistion took place between 16 000 and 20 000 yBP at the height of the last glaciation. Dune building was triggered by a combination of factors: an increase in wind speed, radiant summer energy and pressure gradients, and a decrease in humidity. These also induced a lowering of the water table, increasing the salinization of the clay-rich floodplain sediments. Ataround 12 500 yBP there was another significant climatic shift in the region when frequent flooding of the outer areas of the Cooper floodplain ceased. This removed most of the sediment available for dune build- ing and the dunes ceased accumulating sediment. Dune building began again in the late Holocene, although on a smaller scale than in the late Pleistocene. This event mostly involved a reworking of older dune units and there does not seem to have been areturn to the climatic conditions of the last glaciation. Wasson believes that this mobilisation of sediment is linked to shifts in climate, reflected by falling lake levels in eastern Australia, He also outlines the possibility that it may be related to a more intensive occupation of the region by Aboriginal groups through the firing of vegetation for example, but notes that there is insufficient evidence to look at this hypothesis at present (Wasson 1986). The data presented above show that the region has undergone significant climatic change in the last 50 000 years. This has undoubtedly affected Aborigi- nal occupation of the area and I will be focusing on this issue by looking at the occupation history of the lake systems. As I will show below (by citing historical accounts of Aborigines), the lakes were an important focus for settlement. An analysis of the archaeology of these areas can not only provide information on prehis- toric occupation but, as well, data on climatic change, through the study of the sedimentary history of dunes associated with the lakes. As well, information derived from the latter work can be compared with Wasson’s chronology derived from his work on the dunefield. Before presenting the results of the survey work, I will first put the data within an ethnographic context, by briefly summarizing the historical accounts of Abo- riginal subsistence and settlement patterns for the re- gion. HisTorICAL ACCOUNTS OF ABORIGINAL SUBSISTENCE AND SETTLEMENT Historical records show that the Cooper and its asso- ciated lakes were the main focus of settlement in the region (Sturt 1849, Burke & Wills 1861, McKinlay 1862). These areas were densely populated. Sturt saw a camp of between 300 to 400 people about 50 km east of Nappa Merrie station in Queensland (1849: II, 75-79). North of Innamincka, around the Coongie lakes, McKinlay saw over 300 people at Hamilton Creek, 200-300 people along the North West Branch of the Cooper just south of Coongie and at least 150 CDOPER BASIN ARCHAEOLOGY 57 peuple around the Lake Lady Blanehe (1862: 37, 38. 46). Most groups, however, were smaller than these Jarge aggregations. Camps of between 20 and 40. people were Common and some settlements seemed to have been occupied ona Semi-permunent basis (Sturt 1849, Burke & Wills 1861, McKinlay 1862). Huts at these camps were substantial domed structures (Horne & Aiston 1924), The main food cousumed in the vicinity of the lakes and river country was fish and mussels, water birds and dardoo (Mar siled spp.),a small clover-type plant that grows on floodtlats, The sandhill country was also utilized. and as Janes (1979) bas shown, was more productive than the lakes and rivers as regards foud plants and small mammals. Staples obtained from the dine Helds comprised a witle variety of seed plants, especially native miller (Panteun decompisium) and “Munyerso' (Partudaca spp.), and roots sud cubes. espegially ‘yams’ (probably Prapomaeu spo (Sones 1979, Kerwin & Breen 1981), Snakes. other reptiles. and many species of small mammats were used as food TCSOUFCES. Jones (1979) has studied the histoney! matertal and his developed a madel of subsistemee and settlement patterns which is supperted by the avajlable storical evidence. He shows that while people mostly lived close to the major water sources, affer rain, groaps pushed oul inte the dunefielkts to explou the plant foods whiglt had germinated and to obidin the grubs, reptiles and stall inamunis whieh were abundant here, As the surluce water in claypans between the dunes began la dry Up, people moved back.on to the creeks, rivers and Jukes to harvest the plants.such as Panieun: and nardoa How ripening on (he Flondplau. As well as this pattern of seasonal movement, [ones ohserves that some groups remamed on the lakes and nver dirgughout the year. [n these ancas there were sufficient resources fo Support semi-permanent setdement(e.g. King in Burke & Wills 1861), Jones alse found that the stony country conlained significantly (ewer food resources than other lund-systems and was not « favoured area for settle- micnt (e.g. Sturt PR4Vs 1, 43). From this brief overview of the historical material We can hypothesize that the largest sites will be found in areas which have permanent or semi-permanent water sources, Surface campsite malerial will beTound in the dunefields but sites will he smaller thu those on the margins of lakes and permanent waterholes, These ideas, along with those converning Pleisto- cone occupation, wre discussed in the light of field data in the following scerion, The results of previous work in the regian are discussed firsi. PREVIOUS ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN THF AREA The previous work m ie feglon has comprised short-term studies of small areas as part of environ- mental consultancy projects (Hiscock 1984. Hughes 1983, Lance & Hughes 1983) and “recorinaissance’ trips Lo ippraise the archaeological potential ofa region (Hughes & Lampert 1980, Lampert 1985), Almost all surveys were restricted to the region south of my study area, to the dunes and the main Cooper channel and little work was carried out on the lake Although none of this work has involved long-term studies ancl it did not Jook at the Jake systems, sufficient surveys have been done to isolate some trends i site type and distribution, These are ourlined below. The survey found (hat sites are common in the region and that site type varies with land-system and environ inental context. Quarries, stone arrangements and en- graving sites are restricted to the stony country ic. the Merninie land-system. General artefact scatters, shell middens and buryal sites are found in botl the stony country and the Cooper flood-out zone, but shell mid- dens dre restricted. to the margins of lakes and perma nent Waterholes of the main stream and river channels, General arnefact sealiers were found to be the most comma site type in the region. As regards jhe age of sites, at was found that most Sites datcd (On typological grounds) to Ihe mid to late Holocene Pletstocene siles are extremely rare, al least i the dunefeld and areund the main Cooperchannel, The only Pleistovene site found isan Ahorigimal hearth, site JSN' dated by Wasson (1983), The hearth lies in the middle of the dunefield, about 270 km south-west of Janamineka and 90 km west of Strzelecki creek. Two dates have been obtained — 13 850 + 190 yBP (ANU 2278) and 13 1504831) yBP (ANU 2279). Beesuse of the rarity of Pleistogene sites in the region, Lampert (1985) has hypothesized thatthe region was not settled onany permanent basis until the late Holocene ard Chat any. Pleistocene materia! found resulted from ocea- sional trips made by the prehistoric inhabitants to ihe region from better watered areas to the south-west, such as the Flinders Ranges (see also Lanypert & Hughes 1987), Does (his patterning of archaemlogical material also apply to the Jake systems? tn the following section | present my dar for the lakes and conclude with a discussion On this issue mn the light of my Tindinigs. Preco Wok Preliminary Work The study area is very remote and there are logistic problems in ruuning field work there. For tis, my tirse field season, | concentrated therefore on ua relatively accessible area — the lakes around and including Coongic. | begay planning imy field work by first examining colour aerial photogriphs of the reson (Fig, 2). Using these | isolated features relevant lo (he archaeology of the drea and these are discussed belaw. 38 E, WILLIAMS The photos showed that some lakes (Coongie, Mar- roocoolcannie, Marroocutchanie and ‘Toontoawaran- nie) fill ona regular basis while others (Apachirie and Mitkacaldrauillic) do not. Although the last wo lakes do not consistently hold water now, they do however have lake-shore features and thus regularly filled some time in the past. As well as this difference in water levels today, there is a distinction between these two groups of lakes in regard to a particular type of dune feature. On the lakes in the first group there is a pale coloured dune or series of dunes, trending north-west to south-east, which lies on the north-east margin of the flood-out zone of each lake, These features are abserit on the last two lakes noted above, The dunes range in Orientation from 15" to 30" west of north, They appear to be transverse dunes or Twidale's ‘leeside mounds’ (1972: 85-86) and are similar to the lunettes or clay dunes of semi-arid regions. Such features are formed when longshore drift transports debris to beaches or the lee shore of lakes. This sediment is then locally redis- tributed by the wind before being trapped by vegetation close tothe lake margin. The reasons for their presence on lakes in the first but not the second group is unclear, but is possibly linked to higher water levels some time in the past. As well, there are a series of these dunes within the food-out zone between Toontoowarannic Toontoowaranie — Flood -out zone Kilometros \} iM = te ome a " Taam Pole ‘leeside’ dunes = S, Longitudinal dunes FIGURE 2. Part of the Cuangie Lukes showing the pale-coloured ‘leeside’ dunes. COOPER BASIN ARCHAEOLOGY hd and Coongie. The mode of formation of these features is unclear because they are not directly associated with ihe lake sbore as are the other dunes. A priority of the light work was to examine both types of dunes lo determine how and when they were formed and whether they contain in sila Pleistocenearchacological matenalas do che lunettes of the Willandra and Darling lakes, As well as looking at these pale dunes | examined exposures oF Pleistocene sediments in the longitudinal dunvfield, for Or sitw archaeological material, 1 also looked al sites generally wnound the lakes und creeks, to obtiin information on site type and location. The (ffeld surveys InJuneand July 1986 Tiniade two tips.to the Cooper froma base in Broken Hill. The lime spent in the field totalled five weeks, On both trips, work was curtailed because of heavy, unseasondl rainfall bur despite this | managed to obtain data relevant to the issues outlined above. During this field work | concentrated on getting an overview of the archaeology of the lakes. L surveyed sections of fiye lakes (Coongie. Marroacoolcannie, Marrouculchanie, Toonloowarainte and Goyder! and While | mainly concentrated on checking the paledunes described eurlier, Lulso looked at lake margins where there were no pale dunes and also al seme parts of the main longitudinal dune field. General comments about site type and distribution are noted first, followed by a discussion of sites on the pale dunes. Inallareas Surveyed | found chat artefact density and site size inereased as one approached permanent waler sources. Site density was extremely low away fram ihe lakes and major river channels. Because of the large number of aplefact scalter sites scen, | did not reeard every sile and instead only noted either very large sites of siles where | collected material for dalmy purposes. Record eards for these sites are held hy the Aboriginal Heritage Branch, South Australia, Artefuet scatters were the most common site type found and these Gomiprised d scatter of artefaers exposed as & lag on dune blow-outs, where the more compacted Pleisto- cene sediment wis exposed. On many siles, Freshwater wudse! shell Was assnet ited wilh the wrefacl scatters, but this material was resinicied to those areas where porahent or senj- permanent witer was present i.e, he larger lakes slid pemanent waterholes on the channels, There wits some Variation tn ite Quaiimy and uiauitution of shell relative co other archacologigal material | tound, for example, Mat large midden sites, Where shell is the dominant Wrelweoycel material, were pestacicd to areas where watural mussel beds were particulurly ubutidanici.c the margins of lukes close to inbel chun nels and fhe edges of lurpe, permanent waterholes, Samal) scatters of shell, similar to Meehan’s (1982) ‘dinnerlime camps’ were Scattend jntermittently around the margins of the larger lakes and channels. Future work will look at these differences in distribn- tion in more detail. In-virtually all cases the archaeological material was not ja sity and had apparently deflated down from Holocene units. Typologically. most. if not all ar (efacts, dated to the mid to late Holocene, The main urtefaet types were tula itdzes and adze slugs, small scrapers, cores, flakes and fragments of large, flar sandstone grindstones of the type described by Smith (1986). As well, largish, cube-shaped silcrete cabbles which were often pround on one or more surfaces were common. Cores and Nukes were small in size and noticeably reduced and this is prabably due lo the Fact that raw material sources le some distance away (more than 50 km), in the stony country, Occasionally larger flakes ard horse hoof cores were present. Favoured raw materials were silerere. quartzite, chert and chalced- ony. Hearth material, usually fragments of burnt ter mile mound, was often scattered across sites and oved: sionally fragmented human bone Was also found. [so- lated hearths were also present. Within the longitudinal dunefield proper, T saw only one site where material Was not lying in the upper section of the late Holocene unit. This is Blur Creek 1, which comprised a fermite mound hearth (sir. lying near the base of the late Holocene unit. The hearth dates to 3080 + 170 yBP (ANU 5428). Asnoted eurlier, sites Increase insize and the density of material increased as siles became Clouser Lo penta- nent water. At Typingime waterhole, for example, a pentianent waterkole of an intermittent drainage line within the longitudinal dunetield, there was a higher density of muterial. especndly termite mound heat retainers, tharyon sites inthe dunefiekl generally, The largest siles (nthe study area were found onthe margins of the lakes close lo either inlet or outlet creeks and on the edge of large, permaneni walerholes on the main watercourses. Espectally large sites were found on the lakes nearoutlet crecks, towurds the southern end of the lakes. Sites of this type inchide Luke Toontoowaranme sies | and 2, which comprise 7000 square melres-and 11) 000 square metres of shell midden respectively. The ar¢hacological material en these Iwo siies is similar co that outlined earlier and consisted of [rierented yas sel shell, artefacts. scattered heal retainers and fray- mented bariats. As well, there were the remains of 4 collapsed ‘gumyalt’ on the former site, Shetls and ar- tefaers oo these sites lie either within tale Holocene sodimentuwy watts or are deflated down from Holocens Units to lie us float on exnosed Pleistocene secon, A sample of shell (rom this site was submited for daring and a expected, is late Flytocene — 3304 80) yBPLANU 5425). Such large andl compley sites ire rol Honmally characteristic of and areas and thus reflect the Tmiportunee of the kes tu ie rogton. The presence ts consistent With the bizh population densiries observed hy the surly explorers. 60 E. WILLIAMS Apart from these large sites, smaller scatters of artefacts, shells, hearth material and bone were found on the flanks of the longitudinal dunes along the mar- gins of the lakes. These are larger than the sites found in the dunes away from the lakes. Examples of this type include Marroocoolcannie Sites 1 and 2. At the latter site there was also an area of burnt bone and shell. This material appears to be in situ and the bone, although not identified formally as yet, appears to be that of fish and small mammal species. This is consistent with the enthno-historical data outlined earlier which identifies fish and small mammals as important food sources. At both sites most of the material was again deflating from Holocene units onto Pleistocene deposits. At Site 1, mussel shell which is in situ dates to 1020 + 80 yBP (ANU 5427) while at Site 2 a termite mound hearth dates to 1130 + 110 yBP (ANU 5429), As regards the pale-coloured dunes noted earlier, Isurveyed exposures along the length of these dunes on Coongie, Marroolcoolcannie, Marroocutchanie, Mar- radibbadibba and in the floodplain between Toontoow- arannie and Coongie. With the exception of a site at Marradibbadibba — Lake Goyder 1, I found that all archaeological material was deflating down from the upper, recent units. The sites were all similar and resembled the smaller lake-margin sites such as the Marroocoolcannie Sites 1 and 2 described above i.e. scatters containing artefacts, burnt termite mound and fragmented human bone. Shell midden material and large artefact scatters were scarce except for one large shell midden (Marrootcoochanie 1), on the north-west end of the Marroolcoolcannie dune, which in turn lies close to the inlet of Lake Marrootcoochanie. This is the only section of one of these white dunes which lies near the inlet channel of a lake. As well as general artefact scatters, a mounded burial (Browne Creek Burial Site) of the type described by Elkin (1937) was found in an area of pale dunes between Toontoowarannie and Coongie, The relative lack of material on these dunes, except for where they are close to inlet channels, reinforces the trends in site patterning noted earlier for the lakes generally. It suggests that source-bordering dunes in this area were not especially favoured for occupation as such. Future work will explore this proposition further. The one site found within the lower part of one of the white dunes was Lake Goyder | and it lies within a white dune on the north-western margin of Lake Mar- radibbadibba. It is similar to the sites described earlier, with some exceptions. Heat retainer material is calcrete rather than termite mound and there is a burial and a small scoop hearth of burnt soil about 1 m across, lying within more consolidated sediments which are below what appears to be a recent unit. A sample of charcoal from the hearth is quite young, 810 + 130 yBP (ANU 5424). It is difficult to determine the significance of this date, given that it is much younger than expected. It is possible the sample was contaminated, possibly by recent floodwaters. Air photos reveal that this locality was submerged for some time during the 1974 floods. While I am unable to resolve this problem, there are other clues to the age and origin of the white dunes. Soil samples taken from the pale dunes associated with the present lake shores of Marootcootchanie and Marra- dibbadibba (features between Coongie and Toontoow- arannie were not examined because of a lack of time), comprise sand rather than clay pellets, suggesting that the dunes originated from beaches. Since a number of the dunes are now some distance from present lake margins (Fig. 2) it seems that they were formed in the past ata time of higher lake levels. The morphology and colour of the dunes associated with the lakes in the whole of the Coongie system generally, suggest that they are late Holocene rather than Pleistocene features, (B. Wasson pers. comm.), indicating that the most recent rise in lake levels occurred some time during this period. Further work will be carried out on this hy- pothesis, before I relate my work back into Wasson's chronology. As well as the site described above, work around Goyder and Marradibbadibba revealed other items of interest. While sites in this area were generally similar to those on the lakes further south, there was a greater variety of artefact types and raw materials here. An edge-ground hatchet manufactured from green stone was found on one of the sites (Lake Goyder 2) and flaked greenstones and rock-crystal was found on other sites. These differences seem to result from a relative lack of amateur collecting in these more remote lakes rather than for example, differences in site function or availability of raw materials. Goyder is not closer than Coongie to sources of these rock types and there appears to be no difference in food resources between the lakes. Many artefacts have been removed from around Coongie and from Coongie south to Innamincka by specialist collectors (see for example the collections in the South Australian Museum) and also by stockmen and tourists. The more remote areas in the lake system to the north of the old Coongie station, are not visited as much and fewer artefacts seem to have been collected from there. Collecting is an ongoing problem and will get worse as tourism increases. I will therefore take this into account when quantifying data on artefacts for the region in the future. CONCLUSIONS I found that there are specific constraints on the lo- cation and distribution of sites in the Coongie system. The availability of permanent or semi-permanent wa- COOPER BASIN ARCHAEOLOGY 61 ter, for example, 1s probably the most important. Al- lowing for this, the presence of large, complex sites in the region, reinforces the historical data that population densities here (at least for the recent past) were high. Regarding the chronology of settlement, I have found it difficult to look at the issue of Pleistocene settlement. I have confirmed that Pleistocene archaeo- logical material is rare, but this could be partly due to the fact that most dunes associated with the lakes are quite recent. The dunes are recent, because the Coongie system is still operating. Future fieldwork will explore the issue of Pleistocene occupation further, with a study of Pleistocene-aged dunes associated with a series of now-dry lakes, located north of the Coongie. Allowing for these problems with Pleistocene con- texts, I would argue that the relatively late appearance of a more intensive occupation is a real phenomenon. I have surveyed many exposures of Pleistocene sedi- ments in longitudinal dunes near the lakes and have found only more recent sites. Other researchers work- ing closer to the main Cooper Channel have found the same pattern. It seems, therefore, that although the region was first occupied during the late Pleistocene, the area was only exploited on an intermittent basis until the mid to late Holocene. This pattern is also seen in other parts of the arid zone. How can we account for this phenomenon —can it be explained by factors such as climatic change for example? For the Coongie, it is possible there were higher lake levels in the late Holo- cene, and this could be haying some impact on occupa- tion, Itis unlikely, however, that environmental shifts alone can explain this phenomenon, Higher ground water levels were present in the region in the late Pleistocene and in neighbouring areas such as Lake Frome during the early and mid-Holocene (Singh 1981), yet there is no evidence for corresponding increases in population at these times. Could the pat- terning be explained by another model, such as a con- tinental-wide process of economic intensification dur- ing the mid to late Holocene, as outlined by Lourandos (1985)? Whilst it is tempting to see the Coongie data as supporting such a proposition, I have argued elsewhere (Williams 1987) that the detection of intensification in the archaeological record is complex. Given the pre- liminary nature of my work in the Coongie, I will therefore leave a more detailed discussion of this issue until | have completed further fieldwork. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The project reported upon in this paper is funded jointly by the National Research Fellowship Scheme, Department of Science and the Department of Prehistory, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. I thank these bodies for their support. Ideas in the text benetited from discussions with Roger Luebbers, Mike Smith, Bob Wasson and Steve Webb, Pam Maljkovic typed the text while Betsy- Jane Osborne drew the illustrations. REFERENCES BOWDLER, S. 1977. The coastal colonisation of Australia. In Allen, J., Golson, J. & R. Jones (Eds). ‘Sunda and Sahul: Prehistoric Studies in Southeast Asia, Melanesia and Australia’, Pp. 205-246. Academic Press, London. BOWLER, J. M. 1982. Aridity in the Late Tertiary and Quaternary of Australia. /n Barker, W. R. & Greenslade. P. J, M. (Eds). ‘Evolution of the Flora and Fauna of Arid Australia’, Pp. 35-45. Peacock Publications, Adelaide. BOWLER, J. M. & WASSON, R. J. 1984. Glacial age environments of inland Australia, Jn Vogel, J. C. (Ed). ‘Late Cainozoic Palaeoclimates of the Southern hemisphere’. Pp. 183-280. A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam. BROWN, S. 1987, Toward a Prehistory of the Hammersley Plateau, Northwest Australia. “Occasional papers in Prehistory No. 6’. Department of Prehistory, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, Canberra. BURKE, R. O. & WILLS, W. J. 1861, ‘The Burke and Wills Exploring Expedition’. Wilson & Mackinnon, Melbourne. DURY, G. H. & LANGFORD-SMITH, T. 1970. A Pleistocene Aboriginal campfire from Lake Yantara, northwestern New South Wales. Search 1 (2): 73. ELKIN, A.P. 1931. The social organisation of South Australian tribes. Oceania 2: 44-73. ELKIN, A.P. 1937. Beliefs and practices connected with death in north-eastem and western South Australia. Oceania 7: 274-299. GARDNER, G. J. , MORTLOCK, A. J., PRICE, D. M., READHEAD, M. L. & WASSON, R. J, 1987. Thermoluminescence and radiocarbon dating of Australian desert dunes, Aust. J. Sci, 34; 343-357. GOULD, R. A. 1977, Puntutjarpa rockshelter and the Australian desert culture. The Anthrop. Paps. of Amer, Mus. Nat, Hist. 54: Pt. 1. GREGORY, A, C. & GREGORY, F.T. 1884. ‘Journals of Australian Explorations’. Government Printer, Brisbane. HISCOCK, P. 1984. An archaeological survey of the Jackson to Naccowlah Road/Pipeline Corridor and associated developments, south-western Queensland. ANUTECH, Canberra. HORNE, G. & AISTON, G. 1924. ‘Savage Life in Central Australia’. Macmillan, London. HORTON, D. R. 1981. Water and woodland: the peopling of Australia, A.LA.S. Newsletter 16: 21-27. HUGHES, P. J. 1983. ‘An archaeological survey of the replacement Moomba—Wilton Gas Pipeline, Strzelecki Desert, S.A." ANUTECH, Canberra. HUGHES, P. J. & LAMPERT, R. J. 1980, Pleistocene occupation of the arid zone of southeast Australia: Research prospects for the Cooper Creek-Strzelecki Desert region. Aust, Arch. 10: 52-67. JONES, W. 1979. ‘Up the creek: hunter-gatherers in the Cooper Basin.’ B.A. (Hons) thesis, University of New England, Armidale. KERWIN, B. & BREEN, J. G. 1981, The land of stone chips. Oceania 51 (4): 236-311. LAMPERT, R. J. 1985. Archaeological reconnaissance on a field trip to Dalhousie Springs. Aust. Arch, 21; 57-62. LAMPERT, R. J. & HUGHES, P. J. 1987. The Flinders Ranges: a Pleistocene outpost in the arid zone? Rec. 8. Aust. Mus, 20: 29-34. LANCE, A. & HUGHES, P. J. 1983. ‘An archaeological survey of the revised route of the Jackson oilfield access 62 E. WILLIAMS road’. ANUTECH, Canberra. LAUT, P., HEYLIGERS, P. C., KEIG, G., LOFFLER, E., MARGULES, C., SCOTT, R. M. & SULLIVAN, M.G. 1977. ‘Environments of South Australia, Province 8, Northern Arid.’ C.S.LR.O., Canberra. LOURANDOS, H. 1985. Intensification and Australian Prehistory. Jn Price, T. D. & Brown, J.A. (Eds). ‘Prehistoric hunter-gatherers: the emergence of cultural complexity’. Academic Press, New York. MCKINLAY, J. 1862. ‘McKinlay’s Journal of Exploration in the Interior of Australia’. F. Balliere, Melbourne. MAYNARD, L. 1980. A Pleistocene date from an occupation deposit in the Pilbara region, Western Australia. Aust. Arch. 10: 3-8. MEEHAN, B. 1982. ‘Shellbed to Shell Midden’. Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, Canberra. PRETTY, G. L. 1968. Excavation of Aboriginal graves at Gidgealpa, South Australia. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 15 (4): 671-677. SINGH, G. 1981. Late Quaternary pollen records and seasonal palaeoclimates of Lake Frome, South Australia. Hydrobiologia 82: 419-430. SMITH, M. A. 1983. Central Australia: preliminary archaeological investigations. Aust. Arch. 16: 27-38. SMITH, M. A. 1986. The antiquity of seedgrinding in Central Australia. Arch. in Oceania 21 (1): 29-39. SMITH, M. A. 1987. Pleistocene occupation in arid Central Australia. Nature 328: 710-711. STURT, C. 1849 ‘Narrative of an Expedition into Central Australia’. T. & W. Boone, London. TWIDALE, C. R. 1972 Landform development in the Lake Eyre region, Australia. The Geographical Rev. 62: 40-70. VOGEL, J. C. (Ed). 1984. ‘Late Cainozoic Palaeoclimates of the Southern Hemisphere’. A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam. WASSON, R. J. 1983. The Cainozoic history of the Strzelecki and Simpson dunefields (Australia) and the origin of the desert dunes. Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie NF. Supp!-Bd. 45: 85-115. WASSON, R. J. 1984. Late Quaternary Palaeoenvironments in the desert dunefields of Australia. /n Vogel, J.C. (Ed.). ‘Late Cainozoic Palaeoclimates of the Southern Hemisphere’. Pp. 419-432. A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam, WASSON, R. J. 1986. Geomorphology and Quaternary history of the Australian continental dunefields. Geographical Rev. of Japan. 59 (Ser. B) 1: 55-67. WILLIAMS, E. 1987. Complex hunter-gathers: a view from Australia. Antiquity 61 (232): 310-321. WILLIAMS, O. B. 1979. Ecosystems of Australia. In Goodall, D. W. & Perry, R. A. (Eds). ‘Arid-land Ecosystems: Structure, Functioning and Management’. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. WOPFNER, H. & TWIDALE, C. R. 1967. Geomorphological history of the Lake Eyre Basin. /n Jennings, H. J. N. & Mabbutt, J. A. (Eds). ‘Landform Studies from Australia and New Guinea’. Pp. 118-143. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. WRIGHT, R. V. S. (Ed). 1971. ‘Archaeology of the Gallus Site, Koonalda Cave’. Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, Canberra. ABORIGINAL USE OF SUBTERRANEAN PLANT PARTS IN SOUTHERN SOUTH AUSTRALIA BY P. A. CLARKE Summary This paper discusses the importance of underground plant parts as sources of food, medicine, string fibre, narcotics, pigments and drinking water in southern South Australia. Information was obtained from contemporary Aboriginal accounts and historical sources. In spite of an earlier view of the flora of the region as providing meagre food resources, it appears that some root species were very important. The paper also suggests that Aborigines in this area more actively managed their resources than has previously been thought. ABORIGINAL USE OF SUBTERRANEAN PLANT PARTS 63 IN SOUTHERN SOUTH AUSTRALIA P.A. CLARKE CLARKE, P. A. 1988. Aboriginal use of subterranean plant parts in southern South Australia. Rec. S. Aust. Mus, 22 (1): 73-86. This paper discusses the importance of underground plant parts as sources of food, medicine, string fibre, narcotics, pigments and drinking water in southern South Australia. Information was obtained from contemporary Aboriginal accounts and historical sources. In spite of an earlier view of the flora of this region as providing meagre food resources, it appears that some root species were very important. The paper also suggests that Aborigines in this area more actively managed their resources than has previously been thought. P. A. Clarke, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000. Manuscript received 13 August 1987. Although some early southern South Australian ethnographers reported plant roots as significant sources of food, Cleland (1957, 1966) considered that the flora was unable to provide significant Aboriginal food sources. The failure of Cleland to take into account the early reports of plant use in historical records and early ethnographies of the region has been documented for Victoria by Gott (1982, 1983) and by myself for southern South Australia (Clarke 1985a, 1985b, 1986a, 1986b). This article argues that Cleland’s view can be seen as a reflection of an earlier opinion that Aborigines were wholly passive occupants of their landscape. In pursuing this aim, the study of Aboriginal plant use from southern South Australia is placed into a broader perspective of southern Australian Aborigines as being active managers of their environment and resources. In some cases, plant use records from outside southern South Australia are used as a guide to the species of root that could have been used in this region. Sources AND METHODS For the purposes of this article, southern South Australia is defined as the area receiving rainfall of at least 35 cm annually (Fig. 1). This region contains the lower portion of Eyre Peninsula, Yorke Peninsula, the Mt Lofty Ranges, the Fleurieu Peninsula, the Lower Murray River and Lakes, Kangaroo Island and the South East. Information obtained from early historical sources has been supplemented by consultations with Aboriginal people from the south-eastern region. This has been part of an ongoing, long-term research project involving the South Australian Museum and the Ngarrindjeri community. The project, begun in 1981, aims to record aspects of Aboriginal culture in this region. Major contributors, to the project and to this paper, include Ron Bonney and Lola Cameron-Bonney from Kingston in the South East of South Australia. Ron Bonney is a descendant of West Coast Aboriginal people but was brought up among the Moandik (his term for people of the Kingston area) in the South East of South Australia. He also has detailed knowledge of the Lower Murray cultural region. Lola Caieron- Bonney is a descendant of the Milmandjeri/ Temperamindjeri groups from the northern end of the Coorong. Her family has had a deep interest in Aboriginal medicine and healing practices going back to pre-contact times. Another Milmandjeri/ Temperamindjeri descendant who has provided important information is Fran Kernot from Kingston. The most significant sources from the Ngarrindjeri community of the Lower Murray have been Dick Koolmatrie and George Trevorrow from the Coorong and Meningie area, and Henry and Jean Rankine from Raukkan (Point McLeay) on the southern shore of Lake Alexandrina. An ethnobotanical collection gathered during fieldwork in the Lower Murray and the South East by Steve Hemming and myself is being permanently lodged in the South Australian Museum. This collection at present numbers over sixty specimens with plant use records for over forty species; much of this is new information. Although the Museum has an existing ethnobotanical collection of about fourteen hundred specimens from most parts of Australia, the southern region was poorly represented before commencement of this project. An analysis of the historical sources of ethnobotanical information from this region appears in Clarke (1986b), In the present paper, scientific plant names given are those used in ‘The Flora of South Australia’ (Jessop & Toelken 1986). South Australian Museum specimens referred to are referenced in the Endnotes by Anthropology Register number and by collector or source. The plant use information put forth 64 P.A, CLARKE in this paper should not be considered as a complete listing of all plant roots that would have been used traditionally by Aboriginal people in southern South Australia, This is because ethnobotanic data historically have been recorded in a fragmented fashion and it is unlikely that I have located records for all the species that were used. However, it is likely that most of the major root species that were significant as foods were recorded by the sources cited in this paper. This paper also takes into account the possiblity that the Aboriginal use for some species, as recorded from contemporary oral sources, has significantly changed since European settlement. There are, in addition, plant species found in southern South Australia for which no record exists of Aboriginal usage. The underground parts of some of these, however, have been recorded as being utilized by Aborigines elsewhere in Australia. These are listed in Table 1. The distribution within South Australia of the main species discussed in this paper is summarized in Table 2. European naming of plants used by Aborigines requires discussion before we can move on to the data in the paper. Nearly all the plants that the colonists encountered in Australia were totally unknown to = 200 KM a ANNUAL RAINFALL South East FIGURE 1. Locality map of South Australia showing district abbreviations used in Tables | and 2. ABORIGINAL USE OF SUBTERRANEAN PLANT PARTS TABLE 1. A list of other possible sources of edible tubers. Species Arthropodium milleflorum (DC.) Macbr (=A, paniculatum) Arthropodium strictum R, Br, Bulbine bulbosa (R, Br.) Haw, Burchardla umbellata R. Br, Caladenia species Caesia viuata R, Br. Chamuescilla corymbasa (R, Br.) FyM ex Benth, Clematis microphylla be. Convolvilus species Crinum flaveidum Herbert Cyrtaxiviis species Dicksoniaantaretica Labill, Dipodinm species Diuris species Gastrodia xesamvidex R. Br. Geranium species Glossodia species Lyperanthus species Mivrotis spectes Nymphoides crenata (P.yv. Mo Kuntze (= Liminanthemum crenatiem) Nymphoidey geminata (RUBr_)Kuntze Common Name Pale vanilla-lily Lily Bulbine lily Milkmaid Spider orchid Pale grass lily Blue squil! Old man’s beard Bindweed Murray lily Gnat orchid Tree fern Hyacinth orchid Donkey orchid Native potatoes: Geranium Wax-lip orchid Fire orchid Onion orchid Wavy marshwort Entire marshwort (= Linmanthemum geminatum) Portulaca aléracea L., Prasophyllum species Plerastylis species Santalum murrayanum (T.L, Mitchell) C, Gardener (= Fuyanuy persicarius) Senchuy species Thelymilra species Thysanotus patersonii R. Br Thysanorus tuberosus R. Br. Wurmbea species (= Anyuilluria species) Common pigweed Midge orchid Green-hood orchid Bitter quondong, Ming Sow thistle Sun orchid Fringe lily Fringe lily Early Nancy, Blackman’s potatoes Family Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Orchidaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Ranunculaceae Convolvulaceae Amuryllidaceae Orchidaceae Dicksoniaceac Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Geraniaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Menyanthaceae Menyanthaceae Portulacaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Santalaceae Compositae Orchidaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Locality For Recorded Use Vie. Vie. Vie, Vic. Vic. Vic. Vie. W. Vic. W. Vic. E. States’ Vie. E, States? Vic. W. Vic. Tas. Vie. Vic. Vie. Vic. N. Qd N. Qd L. Byre Basin Vie. Vic. E. States? E, States’ Vic. Musprave Ra,,S.A.; Vic. Vic., NW. Aust. Vic. Mallee & Wimmera Source von Mueller (878; 213 yor Mueller 1878; 213 yon Mueller 1878; 212 von Mueller 1878; 212 von Mueller 1878: 212 von Mueller (878; 213 Hope & Coutts 1971: [07 Dawson 1881: 20 Dawson 1881: 20 Maiden L884; 20) yon Mueller 1878; 212 Gunn cited Maiden 1889: 22 von Mueller (878; 212 Dawson 1881: 20 Irvine 1957, 118 von Mueller 1878; 212 yon Mueller (878; 212 von Mueller (878; 212 von Mueller 1878; 212 Palmer 1883; 100 Roth 190]; 13 Cleland et al. 1925: yon Mueller 1878; 212 von Mueller 1878: 212 Maiden 1889: 32 Hooker cited Maiden 1889: 59 von Mueller 1878: 212 Cleland & Johnston 1937; 213, yon Mueller 1878: 212 Crawford 1982: 42 von Mueller 1878: 213 65 Occurrence in S.A, SE NW FR EP NL MU YP SL KI PREP NL MU YP SL SE EP SL KI SE Statewide FR EA EP NL MU YP SL KI? SE Southern 5.A. FREA EP NL MU YP SL KI SE Southern 8.4, LE GT FR EA EP MU FR EP NL MU YP SL KIS SL? SE? SL SE Southern §.A. SLKISE Southern S.A. NL SL SE Throughout southern districts Throughout southern districts LE MU KI NW LE GI FR EA YP SL SE Throughout southern districts ‘Throughout southern districts FR EP MU YP SL SE Statewide Throughout southern districts All areas except LE von Mueller 1878: 212 SE Statewide 66 P_A, CLARKE TABLE 2. South Australian localities of main species with useful subterrdnean paris. Species Family Locality within S.A. (See Fig. 1 for area codes) Boerhavia dominii NYCTAGINACEAE NW LE GT FR BA EP NL MU YP SL Bulboschoenus valdwellit CYPERACEAE LE FR EP NL MU SL SE Balbaschoenus mediamas CYPERACEAE MU SL SE Cyperus species CYPERACEAE Statewide. Dianella longifolia LILIACEAE. ‘Southem districts Droxera whittakeri DROSERACBAE NL MU SLKISE Eucalyprus dumoxa MYRTACEAE FPR EA? EP NL MU SE Eucalyptus fascicilosa MYRTACEAE MU SL KI SE Eucalyptus gracilis MYRTACEAE NW NU GT FR EA EP NIL MU YP SL SE Eucalyptus incrassata MYRTACEAE NU EP NL MU YP SL KI SE Euvalupres olepsa MYRTACEAE Statewide Layalera plebeta MALVACEAE Sitewide Microserls seapigera COMPOSITAE GT FR BA EP NL MU YP SL.KISE Oxalis species OXALIDACEAE Statewide Polyporus mylittae POLYPORACEAE Southern districts Preridium esculennim DENNSTAEDTIACEAE EP SL KISE Sanralam murrayanuer SANTALACEAE FR, EP MU YP SL SE Triglvehin procerwen JUNCAGINACEAE LE, MU St. KI SE Typha species TYPHACEAE NW LE FR MU YP SL. KI SE Xanthorrhiea species LILIACEAE NW PREP YPNL MU SL KISE science, The folk terms that were used for plants inthe setler’s country of origin were often imposed upon plants to which they generally showed only superficial resemblance. For example, the early ethnographies of southern South Australia contain descriptions of Aboriginal edible roots which are cited as native potato, native parsnip, native radish, native carrot, native dandelion, onion grass and native truffles. There is evidence to suggest that some of these descriptions have been used independently in several accounts of diflerent species. Some also appear to have had the statusof commonly used names whereas others-seein to have beer used only by ethnographers when attempting to describe a species with no other name. Determining the reasons for a plam being given s particular name is sometimes difficult. In some cases, the names reter to the use and properties of the species. In other cases, the plants were named solely on appearance. For example, most records of roats described as being like a radish are considered by Gott (1983) to be Microseris seapigera due to the similarity between (he toot of the latter and the cultivated radish. However Microseris scapigera is also commonly referred to as the yam daisy because of the similarity of the above ground parts of the plant with those of common daisies. To make the task of identifying some of these European terms today even more difficult, some of the folk terms associated with Aboriginal words for edible roots may have only been used for a short period in fairly restricted, local areas, The transfer of plant names between Aborigines and Europeans also occurred, There are many records of the use by Aborigines of Aboriginal terms for European foods and plants. For example, there are the Adelaide words ‘parangota’ for potato and ‘parre’ for rice (Wyatt 1879) 174, Williams [839: 295, Teichelmann & Schuermann 1840; 37). The term parangota was also used for an unidentified species of Aboriginal root food. On lhe other hand, Aboriginal terms for Australian plants were sometimes adopted by Europeans and, in some cases, their use has continued to the present, Exaniples of this are ‘Pitjuri ' (widely used term for Duboisia hopwoodii), ‘Mantari > (South Australian and Victorian term for the fruit, Kunzea pomiferd), and ‘Murnong” (Victorian term for Microseris scapigera). Enuxpararac Devas oF Roor Use Boerhavia duminii Meikle & Hewson NYCTAGINACEAE This species is commonly called tar-vine and has been suggested by Cleland (1966: 135 — his name B. diffusa L.) as the possible identity of one of the roots listed by Schuermann (1879: 216) as having been eaten by the Port Lincoln Aborigines. Black, in his ‘Flora of South Australia’ (1943; 333), mentions that the root was eaten by Aborigines but does not give a source or locality for this statement. It is highly likely that B. dominii is often the plant described m the ethnographic record under the category ‘edible roots’, Apart from in the South East region, this species is found throughout southern South Aastralia. Bolboschoenus sp. CYPERACEAE This species is most likely the’ poolilla* described by Angas (1847ar 101) as a “inangular species of grass or reed’ and eaten by the Aboriginal people of the Murray River, Eyre (1845, 2: 254, 269) refers tu reed roots called ‘beliilah’ that were an important source of Fool ABORIGINAL USE OF SUBTERRANEAN PLANT PARTS 67 and found in abundance onthe flats of the Murray. Eyre described them as walnut-sized and prepared by being roasted and pounded between stones into a thin cake. Gott (1982: 59-62) considers the 'belillah’ to be Scirpus medianus V, Cook which is a synonym for Bolboschoenus medianus (V. Cook) Sojak. In this article I follow Jessop & Toelken (1986: 2007) and refer to this plant by the latter name. Cleland collected roots of a species of Scirpus (or Bolboschoenus?) from the mouth of the Inman River, south of Adelaide, in January 1940 and wrote that they were probably eaten’. However, he did not state the reasons for this suggestion. Von Mueller (1878: 213) lists Scirpus maritimus (called Bolboschoenus caldwellii (V. Cook) Sojak by Jessop & Toelken 1986: 2007) as a source of edible roots used as food by Victorian Aboriginal people. It was apparently an edible root species that was available in autumn and was roasted. This species is widespread in southern South Australia, Cyperus sp. CYPERACEAE Tindale (1974: 60) states that the Peramangk people of the Mt Lofty Ranges were able to exist all year round without venturing onto the plains because of the availability of Cyperus corms. Cyperus species have been recorded as major food source from other regions such as Central Australia (Cleland & Johnston 1933: 115, 118; 1937: 213) and north-western Australia (Crawford 1982: 40). It is possible that some of the records of ‘Native Onions’ refer to species of Cyperus. For example, Tindale (1981: 1880) records that the southern South Australian Aborigines ate the onion grass corms throughout the year except during the growing season. However, Tindale's records of Cyperus and onion grass corms mentioned above may also refer to a species of Bolbschoenus, as this genus is also in the Cyperaceae family. Dianella longifolia R.Br. LILIACEAE The reddish brown roots of this plant, commonly referred to as the pale flax-lily, were boiled and the solution taken internally for colds according to Lola Cameron-Bonney. It was termed peeintook by the Milmandjeri/Temperamindjeri, but was called pintook by the Moandik’. Drosera whittakeri Planchon DROSERACEAE D. whittakeri, or the scented sundew, is the most likely species referred to by Worsnop as an Aboriginal source of pigment: The native tribes around Adelaide obtained a brighter red pigment from the bulbous roots of the small sundew plant, which contains a small red pustule between the brown outer skin and the white inner bulb. This red pustule they used to scrape off and mix with fat for coloring the fillet of opossum hair-twine which they bound round their heads (Worsnop 1897: 15). The blister-like growth or pustule of this bulb may have been used for decorating the large bark shields made by the Adelaide people for deflecting reed- spears. Stephens records that during their manufacture they ‘received a coating of pipeclay or lime, and were then ... oramented with red bands made from the juice of a small tuber which grew in abundance on the virgin soil’ (1890: 487). It is interesting to note that it is European oral tradition in South Australia that early settlers in the Adelaide area also used this species of sundew as a source of pigment for ink (R. Matthews pers, comm.). It is highly likely that the use of this plant by Europeans was copied from Aboriginal people in the area, Eucalyptus sp. MYRTACEAE Eucalyptus roots were sometimes used as a source of drinking water and as food, The need to obtain water for drinking from plant roots in the southern South Australian region was probably confined to the mallee areas of Eyre Peninsula, Yorke Peninsula, Murray region (away from the river) and parts of the South East. This is because surface supplies of freshwater are scarce in these areas, despite relatively high annual rainfalls. Elsewhere in the southern regions, water from springs and soaks appears to have been available all the year round. For instance, Hemming (1985: 25) records the ease with which Aborigines of the Fleurieu Peninsula obtained drinking water from coastal springs during the summer months even when local creeks and soaks had dried up. Gara (1985: 6-11) discusses methods of obtaining water in arid regions of South Australia. Smyth (1878: 220-221) also records similar uses of the Eucalyptus roots from the mallee areas of Victoria. Magarey (1895) provides the most detailed account of water extraction from roots. Some of Magarey’s data on Toot water comes from coastal areas of the Great Australian Bight and depends on the data of Eyre (1845, 1: 349-351, 359, 2: 248-249), Margarey describes in detail the trees that were used by the Aborigines as a supply of root water and the methods for the extraction of it. In his list of ‘water-trees’, Magarey (1895: 4) includes species of Eucalyptus such as E. dumosa Cunn. ex Schauer, £. gracilis FvM, E. incrassata Labill., E. oleosa FVM ex Migq., and E. fasciculosa FyM (Magarey’s E. paniculata). All of these trees exist in the mallee areas of southern South Australia, It was through the availability of root water that the Aborigines were able to enter arid regions, The Ngarkat people of the Murray Mallee relied heavily on 68 P. A, CLARKE root water and only needed to travel to the Murray River at times when severe drought had decreased their otherwise reliable sources of water (Tindale 1974: 62). The use of Eucalyptus roots as food is recorded by Maiden (1889: 27) who says that the South Australian Aborigines powdered the bark of the root of E. dumosa and perhaps other species and ate it by itself or with other plants. Maiden claims that it was called ‘Congoo’ but does not mention the area in which this name was used. This mallee is found over much of southern South Australia and the areas to the east of the Flinders Ranges. Eyre (1845, 2: 250) states that the smaller roots, less than an inch (2.5 cm) in diameter, were used as food by the Aborigines (presumably from southern Australia). He records that: The roots being dug up, the bark is peeled off and roasted crisp in hot ashes; it is then pounded between two stones, and has a pleasant farinaceous taste, strongly resembling that of malt, I have often seen the natives eating this .., but it is, probably, only resorted to when other food is scarce (Eyre 1845, 2: 250, see also p. 224, 251, 273), There is also a record of the use of Eucalyptus roots as medicine. Moriarty (1879: 52) states that rushes and the roots of the Mallee tree were boiled (presumably together) and drunk for internal afflictions by the Narrinyeri (Ngarrindjeri). Lower Murray Aboriginal person, Laura Kartinyeri, says that the roots of a species of Eucalyptus were boiled and the solution drunk for colds. Dawson (1881: 57) recorded the use of the roots of a narrow-leaved species of gum tree as a cure for indigestion, In this case, the roots were infused in hot water and the resulting solution drunk as a tonic. Lavatera plebeia Sims MALVACEAE The roots of a white flowering variety of mallow were recorded as commonly used as food by the Aborigines of South Australia (Bailey, cited in Maiden 1889: 37). They were described as having the consistency of parsnips. Maiden considers that this plantis L. plebeia, tha Australian hollyhock or mallow. Wyatt (1879: 170) lists in his Adelaide and Encounter Bay vocabulary the terms ‘kannoonta’ for mallow plant and ‘peecharra’ for mallow shrub. The latter appears to have been used as a source of fibre for string making: Wyatt (1879: 176) records the term ‘teeyappe peecharra’ as ‘chewed fibre of mallow’. Eyre (1845, 2: 311) states that the fibres of the root of the mallow were used in net making, though he does not state in what area. L. plebeia has been recorded as used for this purpose elsewhere, such as the northern Flinders Ranges (Cleland & Johnston 1939; 176) and the Lake Eyre Basin (Clarke n.d.). Microseris scapigera (Sol. ex A. Cunn.)Schultz-Bip. COMPOSITAE This species, commonly known as the yam-daisy, is possibly another of the many plants recorded simply as ‘edible root’ from southern South Australia. The tuber is recognized as one of the major food sources for Victorian Aborigines (Gott 1983: 2) and the fact that it occurs widely in southern South Australia suggests that it was probably a major source in this region also. Bellchambers (1931: 132) states that of all the tubers eaten by the Murray River Aborigines, he thought the yam was the most prized. Unfortunately it is not clear whether Bellchambers’ ‘yam’ is M. scapigera, and it is possible that he is referring to another root species. In the Adelaide and Encounter Bay area, the edible root terms ‘umba’ and ‘yungumba’ were said to be Microseris by Wyatt (1879: 176). One of the Port Lincoln terms for ‘edible root’, ‘ngamba’, (Schuermann 1879: 216) probably referes to M. scapigera, as it is similar to terms for Micraseris recorded in cognate languages, such as that recorded from the Adelaide and Encounter Bay area. The yam- daisy was used on the west coast of South Australia. The South Australian Museum has specimens of Microseris roots that were registered in 1913 as an Aboriginal food from Elliston’, Also, Namba is the recorded word for this species used by the Adnyamathanha of the Northern Flinders Ranges (McEntee 1986: 11 — his Adnamatana). Berndt & Vogelsang (1941; 10) list the term Ngumpa for “Yam” from the Ngadjuri people of the Mid-North. In view of the fact that Berndt and Vogelsang recorded different words for wild potato and wild carrot, it is likely that their yam refers to a single species, such as Microserts, rather than being a collective term for all edible roots. Gott (1983: 14-15) suggests that the lower Murray term Ngamko, meaning ‘native radish’ (Moorhouse 1935: 30), is likely to be M. scapigera. Another possible record of the yam-daisy is provided by Sanders (1907, 9: 69) who states that the local Aboriginal families in the Echunga area, dug up the roots of a ‘dandylion’, called ‘waldies’. Gott (1983:14— 15) also considers that the Booandik terms ‘Moorna’ or ‘Mar-o-ngire,’ described as ‘edible roots’ by Smith (1880; 129), refer to this species in the South East. Gott (1983: 8) quotes a note by Bailey on a specimen of Microseris from South Australia in the Queensland Herbarium, which states that the colonists of South Australia used to eat the roots of this plant following the practice of the Aborigines who relied on it as food. Oxalis sp. OXALIDACEAE Angas (1847a: 84) records that in the South East, Aboriginal women dug up the edible roots of a species of Oxalis. For the Adelaide people, Stephens claims that: The root most sought after is a highly nutritious oxalis resembling a small carrot and tasting like cocoanut. It is dug up chiefly by the women, with a heavy pointed stick five feet long which they force, by throwing, into the earth to the depth of about eight inches, thereby bringing up the object of their search, It is very abundant and discovered ABORIGINAL USE OF SUBTERRANEAN PLANT PARTS au by leaf. Three persons have been lost since the foundation of this colony, who would probably have been saved had they known where to look for the root (Stephens 1923, 7), There are other records of edible ‘Native Carrots’ that may refer to Oxalis. Polyporus mylittae Bertr. POLY PORACEAE The common names for this species of fungus — native truffle and Blackfellows bread (Daley 1931;28) —Sugeestits edible quahties. The species is possibly the edible fungus mentioned also by Byre (1845, 2: 264) us found. below the ground, Maiden (1889: 46) records that the Tasmanian Aborigines looked for truffles in the ground about the vicinity of a dead tree, The South Australian Museum has specimens of Polyporus mylittae listed as Aboriginal foods from Myponga (South Australia)", Lake Albert (South Australia)’, Gippstand (Victoria) ard north Tasmania’, Most of the above specimens measure above 5 em in length breadth and heiphr. ‘Che biggest is fram Tasmania and measures 26.5 by 16 by 10 em. The ethnographic record indicates that this apecies Was used as food slespite Cleland’s (1966; 135) doubt that it could be eaten due to Us loughnegs. Duwsen (/RRI: 20) reconds 4 species of large underground fungus trom Western Victoria called native bread, about the size of an ordinary \mip. that was caten uncooked and which tasted, in his words, “vory good". Sinych (1878: 209) claims that the mative Iruffle ‘Was much soughtafter by the natives’ and thar he had seen specimens weighing several pounds; funher, that in same ilistriors, a fungus weighing Sifpy pours (abour 24 ke) is occasionally Found, Bonwick (1870) 15) states that in Tasmania, this fungus wae peeled nd ihen roasted beton= heing ealen, Hawever. Daley( 193 1228) claims that was generally eaten raw by the Australian Aborigines, the dirt simply being shaken off. In View of evidence, I is difficult seyypart Clelund’s doutis about (his fungi, Other species of subterranean fungus were probably alsa caver Fteridium esculentum (Forst,f,) Cockayne DENNSTAEDTPLACEAE ‘This species fy commonly called bracken fem and it is livket Tere us a probable source of food for the southern South Australian region. [is use in Tasmania has beet dueunented by Robinson (cited in Gort 1982: 6). In iis record, the rhivemes and young fronds were chewed, DaWson CIS81° 20) claims that the Wester Viclonan Aborigines Made a kind of bread frou the road of the cornmon fem thatwas roasted in hot dishes dnd helen inte a pasie with a stone, lt ty possible that Dawson was refering o bracken (Gon J985: 8). Muidert (1889: 54) states that the starchy rhizomes af this plant were eaten hoth raw and roasted hut he does not give any locality, Mathews (1903: 73) recorded the Bungundity name *Me-e° for bracken fern in the South East and Smith (1880; 129) recorded the term ' Maa-aa™ for tern root for the same group of people (Smith's Booandik), In Tasmania, according to Robinson (cited in Hiatt 1967: 130), bracken roots were cut into short pieces and roasted in ashes. In spite of the records of the use of Ihis fern outside South Australia, tt does novappear to have beena major food source in the southern South Australian region, It was not mentioned by early ethnographers and it was nol known as a food source by Ron Bonney and Lola Cameron-Bonney who were sble fo descrihe several ather types of edible roots for the South East region, However, Bonney did maintain thal they were edible because pigs will eal the routs, IE was possibly a food only resorted to by humans in difficult dimes. Triglochin procerum R.Br. JUNCAGINACEAE This species, commanty called water ribbons, has numeruus and very fleshy roots. I is possibly the *“Maracrow’ recorded by Bellchambers (193 1: 192) as a food with ‘succulent roots’, Cleland (146; 132) suggests thal the tubers of 7. procerue were used by the Aborigines of the coastal areas of Adelaide and couliguous regions, He lodged at the Museum a food specimen of this plant fron) the Onkaparioya River a Noarlunga, south of Adelaide, tl did not give the source of his information concerning is Aboriginal use’. Use of this rant species as food has heen recorded from Vietoria (yon Mueller 1878: 274) and Arnhen Land (Spechl 1958; +83), In the Tatler wecount. if was enten raw of cooked tn the-fire forabout ten minutes une apparently had a nutty ste On Groote Eylandy the mots Were eaten raw or roasted in the-Not Sarid ander the fife wad were ary important part of fle diet (Levill 1981- 39). This isa palatable easily obtained fred whtel was probably highly prized, Typha sp. TYPHACEAE The rcearded Aboriginal names for mist ebble roots deseribed as growing on river banks and |n water for tie Southern South Australian region prohably refer Typha, commonly knowns the flag or bulrush, This 18 especially so Tor such reacs also fisted as a source of fibre for siring making, Angas (1847: 55) states what in southerm South Australia the bulrush root was chewed and then che (bres scraped, usin freshwater miusse! shells, forthe purpose of making eord for their nats and baskets, Angas (18470: 90) records that this fibre |s also converted |nto tope out of whiel: the soutien Aborigines make ther fishing lines and nets for hunting anc fishing. 'Teichelmann & Schuemrann (1840; 53) desertbe the Adelaide word “warnpa’ as a farinaceous rool growing on the mver banks, the Nulritiguy part is ¢aten and the tough parts made into strings, nets, etc.’, Gell (1904: 94) also peeorded this 70 P, A. CLARKE word from this area but he simply described it as an ‘aquatic plant’, However, based on the fact that ‘warnpa’ was an aquatic plant whose root was used as both a food and for fibre, it is most likely to be Typha. In the Lower Murray River area, Typha appears to have had the name ‘Moomoorookee’ applied to the whole plant and ‘Menungkerre’ to the root (Taplin 1859-79: 47). Ngarrindjeri people, Henry and Jean Rankine, use the term, ‘Manungkari’, for the bulrush in general. Cleland (1966: 138) records ‘Manungkari’ as the Murray River name for ‘Typha’, but he gives no separate name for the root. Fran Kernot states that she and her family used to eat the bulrush root when they lived along the Coorong in the 1940s and into the 1960s. The name she gave for the plant was ‘milmuruki’ and she described it as being two feet long (about 60 cm). It was cooked in ashes or boiled. Ron Bonney said that the Moandik name for the Bulrush was ‘manakari’ and that the root was about eighteen inches long (approximately 45 cm) and was easy to pull out. He stressed that this food source was available throughout the year. The importance of Typha to the overall diet of the South East Aborigines is summed up by Angas (1847a: 89) who states that the ‘staff of their existence is the bulrush root which the women gather among the reeds...’ Once on his trip through southern South Australia, Angas (1847a: 59) met an Aboriginal woman carrying an infant on her back chewing ihe ‘favourite bulrush root’. Another child was standing alongside also chewing a long piece of bulrush. Angas (1847a: 92) recorded the name of a Lower Murray Aboriginal person ‘Chembillin’, meaning chewing the bulrush root’. Eyre also stressed the usefulness of Typha or the broad flag-reed, as he called it. He states, for example, that: ‘In all parts of Australia, even where other food abounds, the root of this reed is a favourite and staple article of diet among the aborigines’ (Eyre 1845, 2: 62). Further, he records that the bulrush was the staple food source through out the year on the Lower Murray but that it tasted best after the floods had receded and the tops had decayed and been burnt off (1845, 2: 269). Krefft says, concerning the bulrushes, that on the New South Wales section of the Murray River: at a certain period, I believe January and February to be the months, the women enter these swamps, take up the roots of these reeds, and carry them in large bundles to their camp; the roots thus collected are about a foot to eighteen inches in length, and they contain besides a small quantity of saccharine matter, a considerable quantity of fibre. The roots are roasted in a hollow made into the ground, and either consumed hot or taken as a sort of provision upon hunting excursions... (Krefft 1862, 5: 361). Angas (1847a: 58) says that bulrush roots were steamed between heated stones beneath ovens or cooking fires resembling kilns. Angas (1847b: plate 47) illustrates such a kiln. Beveridge (1889: 71) states that on the Murray, the outer cortex of the bulrush root was removed and the inner part chewed. Angas (1847a: 90) claimed that he saw large numbers of heaps of the fibrous parts of the bulrush roots in the shape of pellets around the campsites. Dawson (1881: 20) notes for the western districts of Victoria, that the root of the bulrush was eaten uncooked as a salad and had a taste resembling celery. Thomas (1906: 116) records that in South Australia the bulrush root was usually eaten with mussels. The roots were sometimes taken as provisions during hunting and gathering activities as noted in the accounts of Krefft and Angas cited above. Taplin (1859-79: 151) indicates that the Aborigines of the Lower Murray River area were often paid by settlers to collect large amounts of bulrush root. Mason, Aboriginal Protector on the Lower Murray in the 1850s, lent a boat to some Aboriginal people from the Point McLeay Mission so that they could collect ‘Moomoorooke’ for a storekeeper at Wellington on the Murray. Taplin on one occasion went with the Aboriginal women to collect the roots in the Point McLeay Mission whale boat; he notes that he gave them a good price for the plants (1859-79: 57). This is not the only record of Europeans using this root: Mr G.W. Batty, a long time European resident of the Victor Harbor area, remembers the bulrush also being eaten by local settlers up until the 1920s’. Xanthorrhoea sp. LILIACEAE The ethnographic record of southern South Australia suggests that the roots, at least of some species of Xanthorrhoea —commonly called grasstree or yacca, were eaten. Schuermann, describing the plant foods of the Port Lincoln Aborigines, claimed that: the only root known to me as eaten in the raw state is that of the grasstree which grows in great abundance on the barren hills and plains of Port Lincoln, and is consumed by the natives in prodigious quantities at different seasons of the year (Schuermann 1879: 216). Angas (1847a: 84) records that the roots of the smaller species of Xanthorrhoea (probably X. minor R.Br.) of the South East were eaten. Of the smaller species of grasstree, Angas reports that: They eat only the lower portion of the leaves at their junction with the root, drawing them out of the ground, and biting off that part which was underneath the soil: the flavour resembles that of a nut (Angas 1847a: 203). According to Pate & Dixon (1982: 141), probably only the young roots would have been utilised. Ron Bonney stated that witchetty grubs (larvae of wood-boring and root-feeding beetles and moths) could be obtained from the roots of the Xanthorrhoea. ABORIGINAL USE OF SUBTERRANEAN PLANT PARTS 7 Unknown species—medicine LEGUMINOSAE Dick Koolmatie, an Aboriginal man {ram Meningie, said that the root of a yellow flowered plant called ‘Soorunthunta’ was used as a cure for coughs and colds. The long root was boiled and then chewed to “get the oil out’, Laura Kartinyeri says that this. plant is a bush which has red and yellow flowers like that of a pea, She said that the root tasted like liquorice powder and thar it was used asa medicine. Ron Bonney and Lola Cameron-Bonney say that the roots of this plant were boiled and the solution used for stomach trouble and tharit is * good iron medicine for problems wiilr the blood". They said that the flowers were like a yellow pea With a red-brown centre, The leaveswere said to be long. Ron Bonney claims that it was called Koorunthunta. However, Lola Cameron-Bonney said. that her grandfather. Alfred Cameron, had called it ‘Koolunthunta’. This probably reflects a difference in dialect. 1 previously considered this plantto be the yam daisy (Mitroseris scapigera (Sol, ex A. Cunn.) Schult Bip. based ona brief description given by Dick Koolmatrie (Clarke 1985a: 5), More recent fieldwork with Ron Bonney, Lola Cameron-Bonney and Laura Kartinyer] Suggests that the classification of this plant is not amongst the Compositae (as is Mirraseris) but rather in the Leguminosae. The identity of this species will only be known [or certain. when d specimen can be Obtained, Despite several attempts to find this plant with Ron Bonney and Lola Cameron-Bonney, we have tiot been able to do so. The lack of remaining large stunds of mallee scrub in the upper Coorong area has made finding this root species (and others) difficult. Unktiown species — narcotic Family unknown Angas (1847: 73) refers to a plant root that was obtained from the scrub and which was frequently used To cause intoxication. Cleland (1966:120) considers it to be Anthocercis myosotidea FYM [now known as Cyphanthera myosotidea (FvM)_. Haegi|, and may liaye based this ona stiggestion by von Meuller (1878: 222-223) thal species of this genus be vested for the ‘suroulating power’ of pitjuni [Dubaisia hopwoodii (FVM)FyM|_ a well known narcotic used in central Australia and closely related to Anthoeervis. I previously Considered that this narcouc was possibly the roots of Dubersia or Niconana (Clarke 1987- 12- 13), Late (pers, comm.), however, states that it is unlikely thar the roots of these plants would have been used in preference to the leaves. Gon (pers. comm.) suggests that if may be the roots of the ming [Scaitelim murrayanum (T.L. Mitchell) C.Gardner], Stone (19! 1: 445) records that the root and bark of this plarit were used by the Lake Boga people of Vicloria fo make a stupefying drink. Unknown species — fuod LEGUMINOSAE? Sanders (1907-9: 69) records that the roots of a species of vetch, called “Tidlars’, were eaten by the Echunga people. Unknown species— food Family. unknown Ron Bonney and Lola Cameron-Bonney state that wild onions were eaten by the Aboriginal people in the South Bast region. The brief description given of the appearance of this plant indicates that 1s nat a species of Cyperas. Field tips to the remnant pockets of scrub in this aréa have nol yet produced a specimen, Thus its identity remains unknown lor the present. Unknown species — food Family unknown A species: known by contemporary Aboriginal people as Wild parsnip is another root that Was used as food in the South Bast A specimen of it is yel lo be found. Unknown species — food Family onknown According to Lola Cameron-Bonney. the Coorong Aboriginal people ste a wild potatoes that they cullet ‘Murunguooal”. Ron Bonney claimed that the same plant was called ‘Punmanthi’ by the Moundik, Withou! u specimen, the identity of this plant is uncertain. Unknown species — food Family woknown Ron Bonney and Lola Cameron-Bonney deseribed a type of wild carrot that not only had an edible et like a carrot but had.asimilar top as well, This plant grew in the sandhill areas of the South Bast and the Hunimndcks of the Coorong. Recent attempts to locate this plant for identification have Vailed as it now appears co be locally very rare. [i ts possible that the ‘Wild Carrots” mentioned by Sanders (L9U7—9: 69) as being eaten hy the Echunge people, may refer to aspecies of Bulliine. Oxalis or similixr plant. THe SIGMIREANCE OF Roors OF the food souroes listed and discussed above, 17 different plants with subtermadean parts were detimtely usea inthe southern South Austrahan region. A further 30 were possibly used. This is same indication of the diversity of root food availuble m the temperate regions across southem Australia. Inthe south-west of Westem Australia, Grey (1841263, 241) recorded the use of 29 types of roal and there were probably others. In Victoria. Gott (1982: 6D) stares that 218 species were possibly used, 166 of these being orchids Plamley (eited in Giott 1892: Gt) lists 1) cifferent root species 72 P. A, CLARKE for Tasmania although there would undoubtedly be many more. It appeur from ethnographic and contemporary sources that af least some species of roots (Microseris, Typha, Triglochin aid Oxalis for example) held a significant place in the diet of southem South Australian Aborigines because ihey were available for-all or most of the year. Some raots, such as those of the Eucalyptus, were probably more important as-drought or “hard time’ foods. In spite of the difficulty in obtaining from the historical record quantitative dataon the proportions of plantand animal foods intheAboriginal diet, the early ethnographies provide an indication of the range of foods available. Tt is assumed that those foods upproaching the status. of staples are present in the ethnographic record. It is alsa clear (hat some of the early travellors through southem South Australia were stnick by the rehanceof Aborigines on certain species of roots. As noted, Angas (/847a: 89) considered the bulrush root to be ‘staff of their existence’, This was bused. on his many sightings of Aboriginal people gathering and eating bulrush rours during his trip through southern South Australia, Another record of Aborigines. collecting tubers 1s trom Eyre, As he approached the Flinders Ranges fram |he south on 1 May 1839, he “found 2 good many natives digging yarns’ (T98d= 198). Qn 27 June VA, ay le was wavelling just south of Crystal Brook, in the northem Mount Lofty Ranges, be ‘came suddelenty spon a seal party of natives cnaged in digeing yams. of which Ure plains were full -., (PR4S, 1: 42), fiyre sured that the rooe called ‘Belillah’ (probably Bolbaschosans medians) was an imporiant lod source and. whlch, as Wehave noted, was abundane on the flats of fhe Murray (Eyre 1845 2; 269), Five's imterest in Aboriginal use of roots uppers to he hased, in part ofthis use of diem tosupplemens hhr oy fend and water provisions when travellmg across Ausrulia on hus expeditions (1845, 1) 370-3712) pe ST, Getet, 72, 248-189) However, not all early accounts of Aboriginal food and food-getting in southern Auseralla tlustrate the importance of plants. Some sources have a bray towards foods resulting from mule weuvinies This was possibly because most of Ihe Murly eecounts are from. men, This Histuncal record certainly documenty the division of labour by gender for food prodiction, For example, Veiehelmann stares thal when the Adelaide people yre travelling: “The mon star first, carrying nothing buta small net hag and huntig implements the women, burdened hike camels, follow, gather & prepare on the road vepetable food for the night, whilst Ihe men are looking ont Jor neal! .,. (Teichelmann Vedi: 7) This division was enshrined in mythology, too. Teichelmann describes, how, in the Adelaide Aboriginal beliefs, "The Pletades are girls gathering roots and other vewerables; the Orion are boys, and are hunting” (1841: 9). Men hunted Jarger gamte that, generally, would have contributed less in quantity to the overall requirements, but which was probably more highly valued by the group. Another factor contributing to possible bias in the ethnographic record was that events such as the spearing of emu and kangaroo may haye left a more enduring impression on the memories of the recorder than those of the daily gathering of. for example. bulrush roots by the women and children.Thus the recording of hunting and gathenng techniques, often written up many years utter the events were observed, has tended to over-emphasize the hunting aspect and fo devalue the gathering component. For example, Wursnop (1897) and Taplin (}874) have published detailed accounts of fishing and snaring for southern Sooth Australia, which barely mention plant foods, Similarly, Bulmer states that the food of the Aborigines of the Lower Murray (New South Wales/Victorian section), Wimmera, Gippsland and Maneroo districts “consisted eliefly of animal substances, lo whieh were added a few vegetables and some roots, which must have been very hard of digestion’ (Bulmer 1887: 15). Barly sources, such as Bulmer. did not appreciate the scasemal fuctWation of meat and vegetable foods, Some arial foods, such as fish, emu and kangatuo, may have been highly favoured fuods when available Yot vexetable foods such as roots were probably the main stay when meat was not casily obwinable A report froin the Statistical Society in 1442 gives Sonu idea of He seasonality of Aboriginal food in the Adelaide area". in spring, vegelables and grubs were muinly eaten. With the commencement of summer, the ebes and young of binds wereeaten as were kangaroas, emus, fish und lizards. Durie the hottest part of the year, passums and Acara gum were obtained, while in autumn, berries and nectar were available, fn the Winter 2 vaniery of roots were consumed, iu. were possume aiid other animals. The report lusirates chat roots Were used as food ata Lime of the year when other fuod sources, perhaps more highly favoured, were not procuratile, Asother factor distaning the views of early wiilers on (he southern Aboriginal diet was the rapidity wilh which mdigenous rout and many other vegetable foods were replaced by European foodstulfs, Information given by Aboriginal people today on bush foods obtained inthe Lower Murray area mi the last 50 to 60) yours, indicates far less use of roots than of other indigenous fuuds such as fish, water fowl, kangaroo, emy and hermes. The European food obtained from (aris and towns probably led to a significant decrease ABORIGINAL USE OF SUBTERRANEAN PLANT PARTS 73 in consumption of less favoured vegetable foods. As stated above, the bulrush root, for example, contains a great deal of fibre. All indigenous roots used as food sources with unfavourable properties (in taste or texture or difficulty of procurement or preparation) would have been replaced by foods such as European potatoes, turnips, flour and rice. This fact must be taken into consideration when reconstructing Aboriginal plant food lists from contemporary sources. The above reasons, as well as the lack of quantitative data on the importance of vegetable food, led scholars such as Cleland to understate the role of this component in the overall diet of Aborigines. Cleland considered plant foods in southern South Australia to be ‘hardly procurable’ and believed that the Aborigines were essentially meat-eaters (1966: 188-119). Gott (1982, 1983) and myself (Clarke 1985a, 1986b) have undertaken detailed historical analyses of Aboriginal plant use records combined with field work with Aboriginal people in an attempt to refute this position as itapplies to southern Australia. Cleland’s treatment of Aboriginal plant use in southern Australia does not reflect the diversity of plant use and relies on inadequate documentation of use. He also did not fully appreciate the amount of information on plant use that could have been gleaned from the ethnographic record and from Aboriginal informants of the period in which he conducted his research. PAssIVE. WANDERS OR Active Resource MANAGERS? Assuming Cleland was mistaken in his view, the question, then, is how he came to his conclusion about the poor food value of the southern Australian vegetation. Cleland had a medical background and made significant scientific contributions in the areas of medicine, human biology, ethnology and botany. He published widely from the 1900s through to the 1960s in these fields, Cleland (1966) claims that the Aborigines remained hunters and gatherers primarily because the Australian continent did not have plants and animals suitable for agriculture and pastoralism. He maintains that: The animal and vegetable surroundings of the first comers to Australia were singularly unfavourable for the development of a pastoral or an agricultural people, In fact such knowledge as they might have possessed in regard to these matters before their arrival could have been of little or no use and must have been quickly forgotten from want of application (Cleland 1966: 113). This statement illustrates how Cleland linked the Australian biota closely with the development (or perhaps even degeneration) of the Aboriginal mode of subsistence. It is probable that the (mistakenly) low estimates ofAustralia’s Aboriginal population levels prior to colonization had a significant influence on Cleland’s views concerning the carrying capacity of the southern Australian environment. For example, he argued that ‘To what extent these areas [south and central Australia] were occupied depended primarily on the availability of food and water’ (Cleland 1966: 126). Cleland’s approach reflects the influence that the biological sciences had on his ethnographic work. Working largely with medical and biological models, Cleland treated the population levels and distribution of Aboriginal hunters and gatherers as with any other non-human organisms, and as the product of a set of environmental determinants, largely independent of the cultural dimension. However, it is now widely accepted by researchers studying hunters and gatherers, that in general, the lack of intense pressure exerted by the hunting and gathering mode of subsistence is such that food alone would not limit long term population growth (see Williams & Hunn 1982), Cleland relies on and reinforces an old view of the stereotypic hunter and gatherer as a passive food collector with little or no control over the environment. These stereotypes have been attacked by Hallam (1975, 1986) whose description of Aboriginal land use patterns in the south-west of Western Australia, an area similar in some respects to south-eastern Australia, illustrates how the Aboriginal people living here actively managed their resources. This region had a comparatively large, semi-sedentary population living in areas close to their main food resources — for example, the swamps where bulrush roots were obtained and the ‘warran’ grounds where yams (Dioscorea hastifolia Endl.) were procured. So intensive, extensive and successful were the efforts of the hunters and gatherers in the exploitation of their resources in this area (including firing the vegetation), that it is difficult to refer to the Aborigines as passive food collectors. Similarly, in Tasmania, Hiatt (1968: 212, 219) suggests that the burning of the vegetation was used by the Aboriginal people there to convert rain forest vegetation into sclerophyll forest. Sclerophyll forest was a better food-producing environment and its encouragement by use of fire is suggested by Hiatt to be a deliberate action. Throughout the southern South Australian region, burning of the vegetation appears to have been a common Aboriginal practice. One report from 1851 in a South Australian newspaper describes the problems the Port Lincoln land owners of the lower Eyre Peninsula had with the Aboriginal people “burning the runs. which is [the] ...customary mode of hunting game ...'''. Another newspaper report from the same area in 1841 states: “Independently of the danger which follows in the wake of a tribe of natives carrying fire- sticks through ripe grass, two or three feet high, they always set fire to scrubby places whenever a small patch is found, in order to hunt’." 4 ABORIGINAL USE OF SUBTERRANFAN PLANT PARTS From the Adelaide area, another newspaper records thatin 1839, an Aboriginal man named Williamy wus charged with firing the grassy in. the purk-lands. However, he was released due to lack of proof of malicious mient as it was considered by the Aboriginal people “a necessary and laudable practice annually to burn off withered grass on their bunting-grounds to facilitate and hasten the growth of the young grass of Which the nave animals are so fond’."’ Finlayson states that in the Adeluide Hills, during early February 1837. ‘the natives had set fire to the Jong dry yrass lo enable them more easily to obtain the animals and Vermin on which a great part of vheir living depends” (1902-3; 40-1). The regulae burning off of the Lakes arca of the Lower Murray region was apparently a sufficient threat to the local farmers for it te be reported in the Aboriginal Protector's Report of 1850. Here it wis noted some land owners were offering incentives. inthe form of goods. to Aboriwinal people if they cauld get through the dry season without cavsing 4 serious bushfire’, These accounts and others imdicate Unal he burning off of the vegetation in southern South Australia frequeotly resulted trom Aborignal acuvity. Although most accounts of firing ure linked by: Observers 16 hunting practices, at 4s possible that Aboriginal people also used fire lo open up the country by removing the understory to allow easier travelling und to promote the growth of prass for gant species, Eyre remarked at length on the wide, open plains tothe north of Adelaide, He appears to have been puxzled by them, particularly when there were remnants uf large growths of timber nearby. In other places, the dense mallee type vegetation had pockets ar grassy openings ihat to Eyre were like ‘oases of the desert”. Eyre Suggests that ‘the plains found interspersed among the dense scrobs may probably have been oveasmned by fires, purposely or secidéentally lighted by the notives in thelr wanderings”... (1845, |; 3f). 111s interesting to note that Eyre considered these grass plams to be an inpravement on the dense Hucalypni dunwse scrub as they provided feed forhis horses und were casier to traverse. Many of the food-plant species discussed in this paper would benefit from the opening of the understory aud the build-up of ash produced from regular burnings, Ellis discusses the pole of fire in producing the open grasslands in the Adelaide area, staling that “Certainly the area surrounding the presen site of metropolitan Adelatde was the seene of deliberate Aborginal environmental manipulation, almost entirely dependent tipon the use of fire’ (1976: 113), Aboriginal people would nol only five realised thatthey had.an effect on the ability of the enviranment 10 produce fond, hut also appear ty have ucuvely used firing as a resource managemeny tool Another important part of resource management was the replanting of tubers. This has been vecorded from several parts of Australia, Gregory (1887; 131) States thatthe Aborigines of the west coast of Australia, ‘variably re-insert the head of the yams so a8 1 be sure of a futlre crop’. Irvine (1970; 27%) describes the practice in the above record as cultivation. Vindale (1977: 349) records a similar practice by the women of Flinders Island, Queensland. Batey (cited in Frankel 1982: 44) records that in Sunbury, Victoria, there existed numerous mounds which were caused by the “accidental gardening’ that occurred while gathering “myrong’ (Microseris srapigera as identified by Frankel), Batey suggested thal Aboriginal people must have realised the effect they were having on the numbers of edible roars in the ground. Digging would haye helped disperse and replant the undersized tubers for collecting in the future. The evidence, both direct and by extension from similar environments, seems to puint lo Aborivinal people in southern Austraha, taking much more active role in the use-of their land and resources [han earlier observers such as Cleland suggested. Cone usION Subterranean plitnt pans appear to have provided a varied and reliable source uf food lor the Aborigines of southern Australia. Certain species Were also important for other hunting and gathering: activities ws they provided libre for net bays and fishing nets. Other species were used as medicines, narcoucs, suurces of witer and as pigment. Work with contemporary: Aboriginal people from the Lower Murtuy and South Evst regions of South Australia is significantly increasing our knowledge of plant root usaye. Although this type of imlormauion does not provide uccurate quantitative wise data, it cam provide an indication of the value Certuin species could have had in the pre-European subsistence panern. The view pul forth by Cleland sugpestiig the insignificance of southern! vegetation types in providing food is not supported by the evidence provided here. Cleland may have been restricted to his collection of data by the brief that only ‘tracigenal’ Aborigines could supply data an the ses of plams and plant-use. Data from cantemperary Aboriging) sources cited in this puper suggest thatthis isincormect A fullerand more accurate View of Aboriginal use of the Australian environment may be gained by focusing on Aborigines as resource managers lastead ol as merely passive inhabinamnts of their landscupe, ACKNOWLEDUMENTS I wish to thank the members of the Aberipinal cammunities in seuthen South Australia who pave iilormation concemuy Aboriginal plant se and whe helped to Jocale und pdentify the species Invalved. In particular Henry und Jean Rankine ot Ravkkan, George Trevorrow of Meninie, and Roa Boniey and Lola Cameron-Bonney of Kingston showed much interest in recording aspects of their cullure und wert very generotis in the hospitality shown ABORIGINAL USE OF SUBTERRANEAN PLANT PARTS 75 Steve Hemming and myself on our field-trips. | an grateful to Robert. Foster who assisted me in locating particular historical accounts. In preparing the data and ideas in this piper, Lowe much to Steve Hemming, Comments on dratts of this paper Were also received trom Peter Sutton, Beth Gort and Peter Latz. Jenni Thurmer prepared the figure. Enpnorks 1, S.A, Museum specnnen A6&31 |. Cleland collection, 2, All references in this paper to contemporary Aboripinal deseriphons and information comes from notes and tapes made onfieldtrips to the South Hast and the Lower Mueray by Steve Henining and myself at various Limes during 1986 and 1O87, These are lodged in the S.A. Museum Archives. 3, SA. Museum specimen A2084, Symes & Lewis 4+. S.A. Museum specimen A776. Advertiser Co, collecnon. 5 S.A. Maseum specimen A} 781, Source unknown, 6.5.4. Museuny specunens Al778 & A27233. Thorup & Wail callection; S.A. Museum specimen AI779, Tape collection. 7. S.A, Museum specimen 41777, Phillipson collecnon. 8. 5.A, Museum specimen Abs304. Cleland caliecnon. 9 Toterview with Mr,G,W, Batly concerning early Victor Harbor history (6/11/86) S.J Heniriing & P_A_ Clarke. 10, Transactions of the Sranstival Society, Sau Australian || Jaa. 1842, pp LT 12, | L. Ohyerver 31 May 1431, page 5 12. Adelaide Chronicle and S Aust Ciperian ys Recon? 22 Devo 184), page 4 1a. Sow Australiut Guzetié und Colunial Record 4 Miareh 1839, pape 7. 14. Aboriginal Protectors Report Souwih Australian Gazette and Colonial Recara 2) Apnl 1850, page 4. RereRiNOLS ANGAS, G.F. [847a. “Savage Life and Scenes ih Australia? Smith, Hlder & Co, , London. ANGAS, GF [847b. Original sketches for Soult Australia Niuytraied”. 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University of Western Australia, Perth. ROTH, W.E. 1901. Food, its search, capture and preparation. N. Qld. Eth. Bulletin. No. 3. SANDERS, J.S. 1907-9. Reminiscences of Miss Jane Sanders Sanders, Only Daughter of George Sanders. Unpublished manuscript, South Australian State Archives, No. 1208. SCHUERMANN, C.W. 1879. ‘Aboriginal Tribes of Port Lincoln’. Dehane, Adelaide. SMITH, C. 1880. ‘The Booandik Tribe of South Australian Aborigines.’ Govt Printer, Adelaide. SMYTH, R.B. 1878. “The Aborigines of Victoria‘. Vol. | Govt Printer, Melbourne. SPECHT, R.L. 1958. An introduction to the ethnobotany of Arnhem Land. /n R. L. Specht & C. P. Mountford (Eds). ‘The American-Australian Scientific Expedition to Amhem Land’, Vol 3. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, STEPHENS, E. 1890. The Aborigines of Australia. J. Vroc. R. Soc, N.S.W. 23 : 476-503. STEPHENS, J. 1923. Adelaide tribes, Jn T.A. Parkhouse (Ed.) “Autochthones of Australia’. The author, Adelaide. STONE, A.C. 1911. The Aborigines of Lake Boga, Victoria. Proc. R. Soc. Vict. 23: 433-468. TAPLIN, G. 1859-79. Journals. South Australian Archives, Adelaide. TAPLIN, G. 1874. The Narrinyeri. /n J.D. Woods (Ed.). “The Native Tribes of South Australia.” E.S. Wiggs, Adelaide. TAPLIN, G. 1879. ‘Folklore, Manners, Customs and Languages of the South Australian Aborigines’, Govt Printer, Adelaide. TEICHELMANN, C.G, & SCHUERMANN, C.W. 1840. “Outlines of a Grammar ... of the Aboriginal language of South Australia’. Part 2. Thomas & Co., Adelaide. TEICHELMANN, C.G. 1841. ‘Aborigines of South Australia’, Committee of the South Australian Wesleyan Methodist Auxillary Society, Adelaide, THOMAS, N.W. 1906. ‘The Natives of Australia’. Archibald Constable & Co., London. TINDALE, N.B. 1974. “The Aboriginal Tribes of Australia’, Australian National University Press, Canberra, TINDALE, N.B. 1977. Adaptive significance of the Panara or grass seed culture of Australia. Jn R.V.S, Wright (Ed.) ‘Stone Tools as Cultural Markers’, Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, Canberra. TINDALE, N.B, 1981. Desert Aborigines and the Southern Coastal peoples: some comparisons. Jn A, Keast (Ed). ‘Ecological Biogeography of Australia’, Junk, the Hague. WILLIAMS, N.M. & HUNN, E.S, (Eds). 1982. Resource Managers: North American and Australian Hunter- gatherers’. Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, Canberra. WILLIAMS, W. 1839. ‘A Vocabulary of the language of the Aborigines of the Adelaide District... MacDougall, Adelaide. WORSNOP, T. 1897. ‘The Prehistoric Arts, Manufactures, Works, Weapons, etc., of the Aborigines of Australia’. Govt Printer, Adelaide. WYATT, W. 1879, Some account of .., the Adelaide and Encounter Bay tribes. Jn J. D. Woods (Ed.) ‘The Native Tribes of South Australia.” pp. 151-181. E. S. Wiggs, Adelaide. AMENDED TYPE LOCALITIES OF FIVE SPECIES OF SPIDERS (ARACHNIDA : ARANEAE) DESCRIBED BY H. R. HOGG IN 1905 BY D. HIRST Summary Lycosa gilberta, L. molyneuxi, L. phyllis, L. stirlingae and Dolomedes habilis were described by H.R. Hogg in 1905 from specimens sent to England from the South Australian Museum. Type specimens are lodged in the South Australian Museum, with the exception of Lycosa stirlingae, the whereabouts of which is unknown (McKay 1985). In the same work, McKay also stated the whereabouts of three female Lycosa habilis types as unknown, the generic change having been made by Rainbow (1911). Recently two of these types were located in the South Australian Museum collection and have been found to be Dolomedes. AMENDED TYPE LOCALITIES OF FIVE SPECLES OF SPIDERS (ARACHNIDA: ARANEAE) DESCRIBED BY H. R. HOGG IN 1905 Lycosa gilherta, L. molyneuxi. L. phyllis, L. stivlin- gaeé and Dolomedes habilis were described by H. R. Hogg in 1905 from specimens sent to England from the South Australian Museum. Type specimens are lodged in the South Australian Museum, with the exception of Lyeosa stirlingae, the whereabouts of Which is unknown (MeKay 1985). In the same work, McKay also stated the whereabouts of three female Lycosa hahiliy types as unknown, the generic change having heen made by Rainbow (1911), Recently two of these types were located in the South Australian Muscum collection and have been found to be Dalomedes. The vials conttin labels giving the locality as ‘Gilbert River’, or ‘Gilbert River. Riverina’, the state being omilled, Hogg, in his introduction, stated that they were ‘chiefly from the north sidé of the River Murray in New South Wales’, This localily has not heen questioned by subsequent revisers (Rainbow 1911; McKay 1975, 1985), although both authors had appeared to be in doubt over the type locality of Lycosa gilberta, Rainbow's being ‘Australia’, while McKay (1985) recorded the locality as ‘Gilbert River, Riverina, S.A." all other type localities of the species ubove being given as from New South Wales, During. a routine check of localities | found there was a Gilbert River near Riverton in South Australia. Knowing also that A, Molyneux, the collector of the above material, had sent specimens to the South Aus- tralian Muscum from nearby Tanunda, my suspicions were aroused, From further enquiries | learnt that A, Molyneux had lived and worked in that area of South Australia, Subsequent searches of the relevant maps, the Gazetteer and enquiries to both the South Austra- lian Geographical Names Board and the Geographical Names Board of New South Wales failed to show the existence of a Gilbert River in the Riverina of New South Wales, It is postulated that ‘Riverina’ on the labels is a misspelling of Riverton, This small town is situated on the Gilbert River, a tributary of the Light River in South Australia, All type specimens referred to above are here considered to have been collected from Gil- bert River, Riverton, South Australia. (34°10°S, 138°45°E). As McKay (1975) considered the ‘Gilbert River area is of special significance in the clarification of species within the “leuckartii” group’, this new light on the type locality should provide for more fruitful re- search in the future on that group of wolf spiders, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS [wish toexpress my thanks to Hans Mincham for informa. tion regarding A. Molyneux. REFERENCES HOGG, H.R. 1905, On some South Australian spiders of the family Lycosidae. Prov. Zool, Soc. Lond. 1905: 569-590), McKAY, R, J. (1975). The wolf spiders of Australia (Ara- neae: Lycosidae): 6. The /evckartii group. Mem. Qd Mus. 17 (2): 319-328. McKAY. R. J. (1985). Lycosidae, In Zod. Cat, Aust. 3:.73- 88. Australian Government Printing Service, Canberra. RAINBOW, W.J, (1911). A census of Australian Aruneidae, Ree, Aust. Mus, 9 107-319, D. HIRST, South Australian Museum, Norih Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia, 5000, Ree S Auye. Muy. 22 (1): 77 RECORDS OF THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM VOLUME 22 PART I MAY 1988 ISSN 0081-2676 CONTENTS: ARTICLES | K.L.GOWLETT-HOLMES & B. J. MCHENRY Fossil molluse type specimens in the South Australian Museum. I. Polyplacophora 13. B.BAEHR & M. BAEHR On Australian Hersiliidae (Arachnida: Araneae) from the South Australian Museum. Supplement to the revision of the Australian Hersiliidae 21 C.H.S. WATTS Revision of Australian Halipilidae (Coleoptera) 29° G.G. SCOTT & K. C. RICHARDSON Osteological differences of the axial skeleton between Lasiorhinus latifrons (Owen, 1845) and Vombatus ursinus (Shaw, 1800) (Marsupialia: Vombatidae) 4) “WoC GEEVERIEY Australites from the vicinity of Finke, Northern Territory, Australia 49 1. M. WHITE The limits on fighting in an Aboriginal community 53. E. WILLIAMS The archaeology of the Cooper Basin: report on fieldwork 63 “Pi AvCEARKE Aboriginal use of subterranean plant parts in southern South Australia NOTES 77D. HIRST Amended type localities of five species of spiders (Arachnida: Araneae) described by H.R. Hogg in 1905 Published by the South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000 RECORDS OF THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM VOLUME 22 PART 2 NOVEMBER 1988 GENERA NABIS LATREILLE AND STENONABIS REUTER (HEMIPTERA: NABIDAE) IN AUSTRALIA BY N. G. STROMMER Summary Descriptions of three species of Nabis Latreille and and seven species of Stenonabis Reuter are presented. Two new species, Stenonabis henriettae sp. nov. and Stenonabis morningtoni sp. nov., are described and illustrated. A key to Nabis and Stenonabis is provided. GENERA NABIS LATREILLE AND STENONARBIS REUTER (HEMIPTERA: NABIDAE) IN AUSTRALIA N.G. STROMMER STROMMER, NG. 1988. Cienera Nafis Latredle and Stenonahis Reuter (Hemiptera: Nabidae) in Australia, Ree So Aust Mus, 22(2), 79-93, Descriptions of three species af Nabis Latreille and seven species of Srenonabis Reuter are presented, Two new species, S/enonabin henrie(iae sp. noy. and Stenonabis marningiuni sp. nov, are deseribed and illustrated, A key to Nabis and Srenariahis species is provided. NG. Strommner, 190 Canterbury Road, Heathmonr, Melbourne, Victoria 3135, Manuscript received 12 May 1988. First investigations and preliminary deseriptions of the Australian species of Nabis Latreille and Stenonahis Reuter were done by Dr |.M. Kerzhner (1969). His work was mainly based on the material oF jhe South Australian Museum, Adelaide (SAMA). Additional material for the present paper was supplied by the Queensland Museum, Brisbane (QM); Entomology Department, Queensland Uni- versity, St Lucia (EUQ) Australian National Insect Collection, Canberra (ANIC): Western Australian Museum, Perth (WAM); Australian Museum, Syd- ney (AM); Museum and Art Galleries of the North- ern Territory. Darwin (NTM); Zoological Museum der Humbold-Universitat, Berlin, DDR (7BM). Other abbreviations of the Museums; AMNH — American Museum of Natural History, New York, USA; BMNH — British Museum Natural History; ZIN — Zoolovical Institute, Leningrad, USSR. The common species Nubis biformis Bergroth, previously known only from New Zealand (Ker- abner 1969), is here recorded from Australia, The macropterous form of Nahis fraternus Kerzhner js recorded and described. The female genitalia in Nabis biformis Bergroth and Nabis frarernus Kerzh- ner are illustrated lor the first time, Both macro- and brachypterous fornis of these two species are redescribed with the use of the additional material from other Museums in Australia, Nebis kinbereti Reuter, previously misidentified in Australia as Nabis capsiformis Germar (Kerzhner 198), Wood- ward 1982, Woodward & Strammer 1982) is re- described. Out of 11 species of Sfenonghis. knowh in Australia so far, 2 species are newly described, 1 species (8. genicu/atus Erichson) is described fully in the first time, 4 other species (8. jvritator Kerzhner, 5. roseus Kerzhner, S. nitdicallis Kerzh- ner, & derwind Kerzhner) are redescribed with the use of additional material; the remaining 3 species (S. communis Kerzner, S. robusrus Kerzhner, and S. australicus Kerzhner) are presented in Kerzhney (1969). New illustrations are given for the female genitalia in Sfenonabis geniculatus Brichson, and male genitalia in Srenonabis roseus Kerehner, Sten- onabis darwini Kerzhner and Sfenanabis nitidicallis Kerzhner. A previously unrecorded, brachypterous form of Stenonahis nitidicollis Kerzhner is described, Genus Nabis Latreille, 1802 Type-species: Cimex vagans Fabricius, 1787 = Cimex ferus Linnaeus, 1758, designated by West- wood, 1840, Body rather narrow, with sides parallel or slightly widening in middle of abdomen, especially ip females, Head margins behind eyes nearly parallel: ovelli set rather wide apart. Antennae without dark rings; legs often with dark patches or short lines on femora, bul without dark or black rings. Pro- notum without punctation and with brown paltern on fore lobes, comprised of series of irregular ly-shaped and sized brown patches. Connexivum yellowish, very rarely with dark patches, separated underneath from abdominal sternites by a groove and elevated in middle part of abdomen ina cylin- drical form. Paramere variously shaped, bur most often with body of blade semicircular; aedeagus with a variable number of selerites; vagina symmetrical or asym- metrical, with 1-2 parietal glands. Macropterous and brachypterous forms, but he- melytra nearly always reaching end of abdomen, The genus includes subgenera Nabis, Tropiconabrs and Reduviolus, differentiated from one another by the form of che genitalia, subgenus Redisviolus is not represented in tropical areas (Kerzhner 1981), At the suggestion of Dr 1.M. Kerzhner, the two Australian species of the genus Nabis have been placed in (he new sub-penus Australonabis, Besides: these two closely related species (VN. biforinis and 80 NO, STROMMER N, Jraternus) discussed below, the subgermus includes N. larvatus Kerzhner from New Caledonia. REY 10 AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF Naas 1 — Always macropterous. Length of fore femora less than 2.3 mm. Aedeagus. with 3 scterites. Vagina with 4 dorsal sack covering base of cam- mon overduct {Subg. Thopiconabis) -. 0... ‘sh 2 it tail Nabis kinhergii Reuter _ ~ Mostly brachypterous, Length of fore femora 2,5-3.1 mm, Aedeagus with numerous similar selerites in basal part and with 4 ar 5 dissimilar selerites in apical part. Vagina without dorsal sack (Sube. Austrdlonabis) .............. 2 m — Acdeagus with 3 sclerites in apical part; vagina symmetrical, with rounded or flat hase, walls of vagina Withour sclerotized bands . . _.. Nabis biformis Bergroth — Aedeagus with 4 sclerites in apical pari, Vagina slightly asymmetrical, with cone shaped base and sclerotized bands in right wail . . Nabis fravernus Rerzhner sper pe er tae Ausinilonabis subgen, nov, Nabis bifortlis Berer-Gruppe* Kerzhner, 1969: 346. Type-spevies: Reduwiolus biformis Bersroth, 1927 Species with pronounced wing reduction: in most specimens of N. biforrtis and in all known speci- mens of No fraternus, hemelyira about twice the length of scutellum, without membrane, while A. larvatus is apterous, Dise of paramere nearly semi- circular, With pointed apex; aedeagus with a row of fumerous similar sclerotized plates in basal half and some additional selerites in apical half (4-5); vagina without sack covering its opening, with or-wifhoul sclerotized bunds in rhe wall Disuinguished fram the other subgenera by [he unique sclerotized strueryres in the basal part of the aedeagus, Nabis. biformis (Becgrath) (Figs la, b, ¢, d) Reduvialus bijormis Bergrorh, (927: 681. ?Nabis lineatus Hutton, 1904, 372 pp. (nen Dabl- bom. 1851). Nabis biformis Kerzner, 1969 346-347, Fig. 43. Macrapterous form Head; pale yellow with dark areas behind eyes alid ocelli, pale brown longitudinal stripe between ocelli and eyes and broad dark brown median stripe beneath; clypeus brownish. Antennifers brown, an- teonal segments brownish yellow, segment [1 with brown.apex; rostral seements | and If pale yellow beneath, brown dorsally, segments U1 and IV brownish, Eyes and oeelli reddish brown. Short shiny yellow haits, becoming denser behind eyes and ovelli and & few longer ones dorsally; medium-sized and rather dense hairs beneath, Sides behind eyes parallel, Thorex: pronotum yellowish with dark brown markings: broad median longitudinal stripe becom- ing narrower on collar and Hind lobe; brown pattern on fore lohe and addilional pale brown. parallel stripes on each side of median one on hind lobe, Small dark dots on collar and hind lobe. Pronotum as long as head, lalerally distinctly sinuate, with base about 2.5 or more times broader than apex; fore lobe slightly eonvex, 1,2.times longer than hind lobe, latter strongly declivous, forming an angle with fore lobe, Scutellum large, wider than long, with pointed apex, dark brown, with 2 yellow rounded patches on sides, Hemelytra reaching end of abdonien; corium and clayus coyered with short pale hairs, corium with prominent yellow veins and dark clavus; membrane hyaline, transparent, with distingtive dark Veins. Coxae yellowish with dark brown patches bayally, bath anteriorly and post- eriorly; femora pale yellow with touch of pinkish toes and brown markings: 2 rows of short trans- verse parallel stripes (15-16) larerally and irregular row of dots dersally tibiae yellow with brawn apives and bases. Legs covered with pale, medium-sized hairs, becaming dense ventrally and with sparse long ones laterally and dorsally; tibiae with 2 rows of dark, very Small teeth ventrally, A bidlomen,; brownish beneath, covered with shart decumbent hairs. Brachypleraus Jorn Head: as in macronplerous form, Thorax: hind lobe of pronotum pale yellow with indistinct additional stripes on sides of median one; punctuation on collar and hind lobe of pronotum indistiner; pronotum a little shorter than head, at sides slightly sinuate behind middle, at base 2 or less times as broad ay al apex; hind lobe not forming angle with fore lobe, 2.5 times shorter than fore lobe. Scutellum smaller than in macropterous form, a little wider than long. Hemelytra short, mare than twice as long as scutellum, without membrane; outer margin of cortum jncurved posteriorly, apical angle somewhat distant from lateral margin of abdomen, apical margin obliquely straight, forming righ! angle with apical margin of outer corium. Addamen; brawn with yellow patehes on connexivum beneath or yellow with brown median stripe dorsally. Male genitalia: parameres Jarge, with body of blade broad and apex curved (Fig. la, b); aedeagus PLANT BUGS, NABIDAE a with furmerous similar sclerites (plates) in basal part and with 5 dissimilar sclerites in apical part, with 2 of them dentate (Pig. in Kerzhner 1969), Female genitalia: vagina symmetrical, with roun- ded or I'lat base; base of vagina without sclerotized bands; parietal glands asymmetrical in Shape and unequal in size, with their posterior parts (loops) lying on dorsal side and anterior loops on ventral side of vaginas fight gland larger, with dorsal and ventral loops of equal size, left gland much smaller, with ventral loop much larger than dorsal one (Fig, je, d). Tepe material Syntynic series rom New Zealand, examined by Kerzhner (1969) — | 9, macropterous, Henderson, Auckland, 14 Mar. 1922, ad Lizzia (Albizzia’?), Myers; | 9, brachypterous, Herne Bay, Auckland, 24 Feb. 1919, G. Howers; | 9, brachypterous, Whangarei, 18 Feb, 1923, JuG, Myers; | Q, brachy- pterous, N, Auckland, Peu.(?), T.R. Harris (all BMNH). Other material examined Tasmania: 1 of, brachypterous, 7 mls W. Rosebury, 18 Feb. 1963, 1.2.3. Common & M.5. Upton (ANIC); 1 o, brachypterous, Lake Dobson Rd, & Feb. 1955, TAR. Woodward, bracken Tern (OM); | @, macropterous, Devonport, 16 Feb. 1967, G. Monteith (OM); 1 9, brachyprerous,, Waratah, A.M. Lea, former paratype of Nabis fraternus Kerzhner; New South Wales: | o, brachypterous, Bartington Tops, via Salisbury, 28-30 Dee. 1965, T. Weir (QM); | 9, macrapterous, | 9, brachypterous, Mt. Dromedary, ar Narooma, 2100 ft. 4 Feb, 1969, M.S. Upton, Taylor, Cardale (ANIC): 3 ©, brachypterous, Pilot Hill, Bago, Forest below (7), 12 Mar. 1957 (ANIC); Australian Capital Territory: | co, brachypterous, Blundells, 31 Jan. 1970, ELF. Riek (ANIC); Victoria: 1 or, brachypterous, Frankston, Melb,, 17 Jan. 1955, T.E. Woodward (QM); 2. 9, brachypterous, Beech Forest. 42 1937, RV. Fyfe (ANIC), Measurements In Kerzhner (1969), Remarks N. biformis was described fram New Zealand by Bergroth (1927) from 3 females. bul he did not examine the genitalia. Kerzhner (1969) re-examined supposedly the same syntypes together with addit- ional material from New Zealand and provided measurements both macro- and brachypterous forms and drawings of the male genitalia. The above description of the macro- and brachypterous forms together with the description of the female genitalia are prepared from material examined from various locations in Australia. Examination of the material from Australia shows that NV, biformis is a rather common species widely distributed in New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory, Victoria and Tasmania. The species is very similar in appearance and in most measurements to N, fralernus Kerzhner, and dis- tinguished from the latter by its longer legs, antennae and rostrum, but it is very difficult ta separate the two species without comparing their genitalia. The male genitalia of N, biformis dilfer from those of N. frafernus by the presence of 2 additional dentate sclerites in the distal part of the aedeagus, by the noticeably broader body of the blade of the paramere and its curved apex. The difference in rhe female genitalia is not as marked as in the male, but the vagina of N, bifarmis lacks the sclerotized bands in the ngeht wall and has a rounded base (ovally protruding in N. fralernus). FIGURE 1. Nabis hi/armis Bergrs a — paramere, lateral view; b — lhe same, [rom below; e — vagina, View from above; d — the same, from below.. He NoaG. STROMMER Nabis traternus Kerzhner (Figs 2a, b,c, d) Nabis fralernus Kerzhner, 1969: 347-349, Fig, 44, Macroplerous form ffead: pale yellow with brownish areas in Front of and behind eyes; longitudinal median stripe pale brown between ocelli and eyes, fadirie toward base ul clypeus; broad median stripe beneath; clypeus and antennifers dirty yellow. Antennac brownish yellow, segment Ul with brown apex; rostral seg- ments | and I] pale yellow ventrally, brown dorsally; segmems IIT and TV brownish. Eyes shuny, silvery; ocelli yellow with red rim. Thorax: pronotum dirty yellow with pale brown median longitudinal stripe becoming narrower an find lobe and with indistinet brown pattern on fore lobe: small dark dots on collar and hind lobe. Pro- notum a little longer than head, al sides distinctly sinuate behind middle, at base aboul 2,3 times broader than apex. Fore lobe nearly Mal, 1,3 times longer than hind lobe, latcer stranyly declivous, forming an angle with fore lobe, Scutellum yellow with wide dark hrown median stnpe becoming narrow toward apex and with irregular brown areas basally and laterally: Coxae yellow with brown. bases; femora piukish yellow with brawn markings: 2 rows of shart transverse parallel stripes (12-13) and an irregular row of dark brown dots dorsally; tibiae yellow wilh brawn apices, fore tibiae with 2 dark rings on basal 1/2, all tibiae with 2 longi- Iudinal rows of small teeth ventrally. Hemelytra dirty yellow, reaching end of abdomen or little shorter, corium with prominent yellow veins and small dark dots basally and on clayus; membrane hyaline, transparent, with indistinet veins: carium and clavus covered with short decumbent hairs. Abdomen: yellowish beneath, with brown median stripe, connexivum brownish, with pinkish tones. Brachvpterous form Head: as in macropterous form, bul with dark brown eves and oceili; brownish median stripe bet ween eyes and ocelli widening toward base ot’ clypens. Thorax. pronotum with dark brown median sicipe gor narrowing on hind lobe and less prom- inent punctation on collar and hind lobe; fore lobe convex, raised atiove collar, hind Jobe not forining angle with fore Jobe. Sculelluny smaller chao in naac- replerous forin, a bite lonwer than wide. Leys without pinkish tones, fore tibiae without vistble tings an basal 1/2 Hemelytra very short, dirty yellow, without visible dots on base of corium and clavus, more than twice as long as.seulellurm:; mem- brane absent Abdomen: dark brawn beneath, with yellow med- jan stripe, yellowish brown dorsally, with brown median longitudinal stripe and yellow connexivum. Mole genitalia: paramere large, with relatively narrow body of blade and slightly curved apex (Figs 2a, b); aedeagus with 4 dissimilar sclerites in apical part and numerons similar plates in basal part (Fig. in Kerzhner $969). Female genitalia: vagina slightly asymmetrical, with cone shaped base and sclerotized bands on right wall; parietal glands asymmetrical and of un- equal size; left gland much smaller, with its. ventral loops larger than dorsal ones (Fig, 2c, d). Dpe material Holotype — | o, brachypterous, Tasmania, Waddamana, R. Ouse, below outlet, 20 Feb, 1936, Parker (BMNH), paratypes — 3 9, brachyplerons, the game location (BMNH, #1N, not examined), but the fourth paratype, 9, brachypierous, Tasntanin, Waratah, A.M. Lea (SAMA), has been examined and found to be a specimen of Nabis biforniis, Other marertal examined New South Wales. 1 9, macrapterous, Byron Bay, 25 Noy, 197J, N, Monroe (EUQ); Tasmania: 1}, brachypterous, Miena, Great L,., 17 Feb. 1955 (EUO); 1 o, brachypterous, Duck Cr, nr Dee, 12 Feb, 1955, T.E. Woodward (EUQ), Measuremens Macropterous form: head length 1.40, preocular part 0.70, postocular 0.25, length of eyes 0,45, width across eyes 0.90, interocular distance 0.40, width in frant of eyes 0.45, behind eyes 0.60. Length antennal segments 1 1.10, 111.75, UT 1,75, PV 1.45; length rostral segments FT ¢.10, PM 1.0, tV 0.45. Median length of pronotum 1.50, collar 0.25, fore lobe 0,70, hind. Jobe 0.55; anterior width 0,70, posterior width L.60; width of scutellum 0.90, length 0.80. Lengtty fore femora 2.60), tibiae 2,00, mid femora 2.25, tibiae (85, hind femora 3.35, libiae 3.60. Length of body 3.7 moi, Width across hemelytra 1.7 mm (9 from malerial examined), Brachypterous Jorm: in Kerzhner (1969), Remarks Nobis fraternus Kerzh. is a rather rare spevirs known se far from New South Wales and Tasmania and is tepresenited both by macro- and brachyp- terous forms. It is very similar to. N. Ajferniis and is separated jose convincingly by Lhe construction of the genitalia, Subgenus Trepiconabis Kerzhner, 1968 Type-species (original designation): Wabls cupsiformis Germar, 1938. PLANT BUGS, NABIDAE 83 DB FIGURE 2, Nebis frulernus Kerzh a — paramere, lateral view; b — the same, fram below; ¢ — vagina, view from above; d — the same, from below, Macropterous species, with wings extending well beyond end of abdomen. Paramere simall, with semicircular blade; aedeagus with two. larger sclerites pointing in opposite directions, and third, smaller one; Vagina with oval sack covering hase of common oviduct dorsally, with (NV. capsifermis) or without (NV. Ainbergii) division on left and right parts. The subgenus is represented in tropics and subtropics and includes, hesides N, capsiformis and N. kinbergit, N. maericus Walker (New Zealand) and N. consinullis Reuter (Ecuador, Peru, Galap- agos [s). In Australia there is only one species, N. kKinbernit. Nahis kinhergii Reuter (Figs 3a, b, ¢) Nabis kinbergii Reuter, 1872; 90 (part) Sastrapuda nigrolineuta Distant, 1920: 159 (syn, wiilt NX. kinbergti by Kerzhner, 1981), Nabis nigrolineata: Cheesman, 1927: 158 Nabis tustnanicus Remane, 1964: 257 (syn. with N. nigrolineatus by Kerzhner 1969). Nabis nigrolineatus: Kerzhner, 1969: 354-355 Tropicanahis nigrolineatus: Kerzhneér, 968: 852; Woodward, 1982: 143-146, Nabis (Tropiconabis) kinbereii: Kerzhner, |981> 294-296, Nabis capsiformis: auct, non Germar: non Woodward & Strommer, 1982: 306, Descriplion Head: dull, with shiny clypeus and antennifers, yellow with dark brown areas in front of and behinel eyes and with median longitudinal stripe between ocelli and eyes, broadening (oward clypeus; anten- nifers and base of clypeus brownish. Head beneath brown greyish or greyish white, or head entirely pale yellow with darkish areas in front of and behind eyes and antennifers: pale beneath, Byes and ocelli shiny, reddish brown, yellowish brown or silvery brown. Antennae brownish yellow or yellowish brown with segment | yellow ventrally. Rostral segment | yellow with brown base, segment MH and IL yellowish brown, yellow ventrally, segment 1V with brown apex, Head covered with short pale hairs dorsally and on antennae and rostrum, be coming longer and denser ventrally on clypeus and rostral segment I. Thorax’ pronetum dull, yellow, dirty yellaw oar pale greyish yellow, with dark brown markings: brown median longitudinal stripe, becoming much narrower on collar and hind labe, brown pattern on fore lobe and very indistinet additional pale brown stripes, two on each side of median one; where pronotum very pale, only pattern on fore lobe visible. Scutellum yellow, orange yellow or pale yellow with broad brown or darkish median stripe reaching or not reaching its apex. Pronorum longer than head, at sides slightly sinuate behind middle, at base or 1.8-2.1, 9 2.2-2.3 times broader than at apex. Fore lobe slightly convex; hind lobe slightly raised above fore lobe. Coxge yellow or pale yellow; legs entirely yellow or brownish yellow; sometimes fore femora with row of short horizontal parallel brown stripes externo-laterally; fore and mid tibiae with 2 rows of very small brown teeth ventrally; Hemelytra translucent, sometimes transparent, dirty yellow or pale yellow to whitish, exceeding end of abdomen by up to 1/2 their length; corium with prominent yellow or pale yellow veins, these some- times with irregular brown markings; clavus brown- ish, dirty yellow or pale yellow with brown apex, with short decumbent hairs; membrane with brown: ish veins. Ventrally thorax yellow with dark brown meso- and meta-sternum and with dark brown longitudinal stripe on mesopleura becoming much Narrower on metapleura; sometimes entirely pale yellow, without brown markings or with very pale ones. Rd NG, STROMMER Abdomen: yellowish brown with yellow confexivum and median stripe, or sometimes. entirely pale vellow with or without median stripe, covered with small decumbent hairs. Male geniialiay paramere with inner margin angularly incised at junction of shank and blade, apex of blade curved (Fig. 3a); aedeagus with 3 sclerites, one of them large, next to-very small one, pointing in same direction, third sclerite of medium size, pointing in opposile direction to other two (Fig, 3b), Fenialeé eerijtalia: yauinia entirely membranous, thin-walled, without division into right and lett fobes (in contrast 10 No capsiformtis, Fig. 3c). Type niaterual Lectotype of Ainbergii (desiznated by Kerzbner, 1981) 1 O, ‘Sydney’, Kinberg, Naturhistoriska Riksmusect, Stockhaolin; Holotype of nizeolineata, 9, Central New Caledonia, 17.41.1914, PD. Montague (BMNE); Holotype of /usmanicus, 2, Tasmania, King Lb. Lea, Zool Mus., Helsinki University, paratypes (rom Bismarck Is, Australia and Fiji (the same Museum) and in Dr R. Remane’s collection (Mahrburg/ Lahn, BRD), Orhet mutterial examined Northern Territory: 1 oo, Magela Cr; Queensland: | @, Lake Idamea, Glenormiston St, | ©, Normanton, | co, Mornington, | 2, Cunnamulla; New South Wales: | 9, Upper Williams R.; South Australias | o, 1 Q, L. Eyre, | of, 1 9, Wirreanda Cr, 1 o. ar Victory Well, Everard Pk, | o, Athelstone, | o, 1 9, MI. Lofty, 1 9, Coward Spring, | o, Jirry’s Well; Fijiz 1 9; New Hebrides (now Vanuatu), 1 ot, | 9 (specimens from vanous collections in Australia). Measurements Head length o 1.00-1.08, 2 1.05-1.10, preocular part o, 9 0.50-0,55, postocular part of 0.15-0.20, © 0,20, length of eyes o 0.30-0,35, 9 0,35; width across eyes. o 0.70-0.80, Q@ (L75-0.80, interocular distance o' 0.35-0.37, 9 U.35-0.40, width in front of eves & 0.40, © 0,40-0.45, behind eyes oo 0,50-0.55, 9 0.55, width of eyes ce 0,17-0.20, 9 0.22. Length antennal segments | o [.05-1.20, 3 0.90-L.05, 1k o 160-L80, ) 145-180, Ll o 1,.65-1,70, 9 LS0-1L60, [V co 0.90-1.00, 9 0.90. Length rostral seaments Ho 0.85, 9 1.00, ILL & 0.85, 9 1.00, IV o U.40, 9 0.40-0.45, Median length of pronotim cf 1.10-1.35, 'P 1,30-1,40, collar a, 2 0.20, fore lobe co 0.50, 9 0.50-0.55, hind lobe o 045-0.60,. 9 0.60-0,45; anleriar width o, & 0.70, posterior width o 1.30-1.5U, 9 1.55-1.60. Length of scutellum @& 0.55, 9 0.60, width o 0,65-0,70, 9 0.75. Length fore femora o 2 LU-2,15, 2 2,00-2.05, tibiae o 1,60-1.75, 9 1,70-1.75; mid femora O 1.85, 9 1,75-2,10, tiblae or 1.74, 9 1.80: hind femora ce 275, 2 280-3.10, tibiae o 3.40-3.50, 9 3.25-3.55. Length of body o& 7,0-8.7 mm, 9 8.5-9.7 mim; width across hemelyira o 14-1.75, 9 1.6 oun lexamined material). Remarks In Australia, New Zealand and some |stands in the Weslern Pacilic, N. Ainbersii replaces another widespread and very similar species N. cupsiformis Germar (Kerzhner 1968, 1969, 1981), with which i had been confused in Australia for years. (Wood- ward 1982, Woodward & Strommer L982), Detailed examination of the male and female genitalia of large numbers of spevimens (all previously referred lo MN. capsiformis) trom different regions of Ausiralia, undertaken by Dr Kerzhner, Dr TE, Woodward and by the present author, convince us thal NV, kinhergit is one af the niost common and widespread species of Nafidae in all parts of Australia, including Tasmania. The species was lirst recognized as distinet from N. capsiforinis by Remane (1964), who described it as N. tasmanicus, Later it was found that Sastrapada titgrelineatus Distant Trem New Caledonia is not a junior synonym of WN, cupsifarmis, bur a senior synonym of WN. fasmanicus, However, an earlier name N, kinbergii Reuter, based on a female from Sydney and two females From Buenos-Aires, had been synonymized with WV. capsiformis until Rerzhner (1981) designated the specimen from Sydney as lectotype, thus making N. nigrolineata asynonym of N, Kinbergii; however, the females tram Buenos-Aires belong to WN. vapsifarmis. N_ kinbergiiis very similar in appearance and in mos! Measurements ta M. capsiformis. Comparison. of N. kinhergii wilh the description given by Kere- hnec (1981) of NL capsiformis shows no signilicant differences, However, there are obvious differenees in the male and fernale genitalia, best seen in a com- parisan of the aedeagi which have quantitative dif- ferences: (he absence of the smail hook (sclerite) in N. capsifornis; the parameres tn N. capsifurmis are concavely and more shallowly excavated than in N. kinbereii, The vagina in N. capsiformis is distincily divided into smaller, thick-walled night lobe and much larger membranous left lobe, while in \. kitbered( the vagina consists only of the thin- walled lobe (Remane 1964, Woodward 1982), Genus Stenowabis Reuter, 980 Type-species (original designation): Cnriseres annulicornis Reuter, 1882. Body more or less elongated, Head behind eyes with approxintately parallel sides. Ocelli set wide PLANT BUGS, NABIDAE a5 Cc FIGURE 3. Nabis kinbersit Reut: aedeagus; ¢ — vagina, a — paramere; b — Antennae and legs long, often with dark rings, Collar and hind lobe of pronotum with prominent punctuation; fore lobe with characteristic pattern of brown patches. Connexivum seen from below not separated from abdominal segments by impression or groove, often with dark patches. Parameres of diverse shape, often with complex outlines; aedeagus with various set of selerites in shape of hooks, plane or dentate plates, etc. Vagina of various shape, more often asymmetrical, with two parietal glands. Majority of species macropterous, some repre- sented both by macro- and brachypterous forms; hemelytra sometimes considerably reduced. The genus is widely distributed in Australia, except for the western regions, KEY fo THE AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF STENONABIS ] — Dark median longitudinal stripe on hind lobe of pronolum more or less widening toward base; hind temora dark apically ..........0 005 2 — Dark median longitudinal stripe on hind tobe of pronotum usually not widening toward base; if So widening (S. roseus), all femora not dark FY) (0: | hr rn Baa — Outer vein of corjum(R+M) and cubital vein (Cu), at least distally, pink or pinkish or heme- lyira short; total length of body 6,0-7,6 mm , PS RON mani na = nitidicollis, Kerzhner — Veins of corium without pink tones, macrop- terous; total length of body 7.-75-9.60 mm . . tae pete le dted wetted vied darwint Kerzhner 3 — All femora yellowish, without dark tones 4 -— Hind or mid femora dark or black ..... 5 4 — Narrow and long, with yellow or yellowish pink body and outer vein of corium bright pink or pink, al least distally; macroprerous; total length of body 95-10.) mm, width across hemelytra 1,95-2.15 mm .... roseus Kerzhier — Broader, with derty yellow body and veins of corium without pink [ones; macropterous or brachypterous; total length of body 8,0-9.4 mm, width across hemelytra 2,0-2.9 MM .......4. jae oalnist ese fp vse freee tenner eer i, wee tt robustus Kerzhner an — Dark median longitudinal stripe on pronotum uniformly wide tor its whole length ....... 6 — Dark median longiludinal stripe wider on collar and lore Jobe and noticeably narrower on hind lobe of pronotum , 6 — Pronotum with addilional stripes on cach side of median stripe, very indistinet on hind lobe of pronotum; brachypterous; total length of body TST MM ocr ccc geniculatus Erichson — Pronotum with additional stripes on each side of median stripe, distinct on hind lobe of pronotum; maeropterous; total length of body (a) 8.0mm . _ moarningtoni sp. nov. 7 — Whole body, including head and ai a dulk total length 7.4-7.9 mm ._..-..- 8 — Hind lobe of pronatum more shiny than tore lobe; extreme lateral stripe on hind lobe broad, unbroken; one of two others, closest to median stripe, reduced to small patch al base of pro- notum; total length of body 6.7-7.3 mm -- . ee ae ee communs Kerzhner — Hind and fore lobes of pronotum equally shiny, the rest of body dull, all three additional stripes on each side of hind lobe noticeable, but nearly always broken ...... 00.00 ecrjcow a 9 — At least radio-medial vein (R+M) of corium distally pink or pinkish; eyes reddish brown; blade of paramere relatively narrow, with a large hook; vagina asymmetrical; total length of budy 708.6 MM vo. repre i imitator Kerzhner — Radio-medial vein of corium without pink or pinkish tones; eves pinkish brown; blade of para- mere broad, with relatively small hook; vagina symmetrical; total length of body 7,75-8.25 mm Peer Le re es ee henrieitue sp. nov. 86 N.G. STROMMER Stenonabis henriettae sp. nov. (Figs 4a, b, c, d, e, f) Description Head: slightly shiny except very shiny vertex, clypeus and median stripe on collar; pale yellow, with pale brown stripe between eyes dorsally, widen- ing toward base of clypeus, eyes and ocelli reddish brown, clypeus and antennifers brownish; head beneath dirty yellow. Antennal segments I and II, except brown apex, dirty yellow, segments III and IV yellowish brown. Rostral segments yellowish brown dorsally and yellow ventrally. A few hairs dorsally, shorter sparse hairs ventrally and very short dense ones behind eyes dorsally. Thorax; pronotum yellow, with pale brown median stripe, becoming narrower on hind lobe; two additional parallel brownish stripes on collar laterally and brownish pattern on fore lobe; three brownish broken parallel stripes on both sides of median one on hind lobe. Collar and hind lobe of pronotum with distinct punctation; collar with shallow transverse impress- ion in middle; demarcation between fore and hind lobes distinct; anterior margin of pronotum slightly concave, posterior margin nearly straight, lateral margins shallowly concave between lobes, fore lobe slightly raised above collar; hind lobe slightly raised above fore lobe; fore lobe 1.2-1.5 times shorter than hind lobe. Scutellum dull, dirty yellow with dark brown median stripe not reaching apex and with shallow impression in middle. Legs brownish yellow. Coxae and trochanters stramineous; fore and mid femora pale yellow dorsally, brownish with irregular yellow patches ventrally; hind femora stramineous except brown distal one-fifth; all tibiae brownish yellow, brown distally. Hemelytra brownish with yellow veins and yellow areas between them, with brown apex; clavus with two rows of indistinct punctures along basal half of claval suture; mem- brane yellow, translucent, with brown veins and without closed cells (rarely with | or 2); hemelytra surpassing apex of abdomen. Ventrally thorax brownish, meso- and metapleura with dark brown stripe laterally, meron and metepisternum yellow, Abdomen: yellow beneath with brown median and lateral longitudinal stripes on each side of med- ian one; genital segment brown, with long light hairs. Abdomen in females dull, in males very shiny, covered with short yellow hairs. Male genitalia: paramere of medium size, with wide blade, prominent hook laterally and small tooth on top of blade (Figs 4a, b, c); aedeagus large, with number of differently shaped sclerites (Fig. 4d). Female genitalia: Vagina small, symmetrical, thin- walled, with light transverse wrinkles and large parietal glands (Figs 4e, f). Type material Holotype — 1 o, North Queensland, Henrietta Cr., Palmerston Nat. Park, 23 Jan. 1970, G.B. Mon- teith (QM); Paratypes — 3 9, same data as for holotype (QM). Other material examined North Queensland: 1 o, 1 9, Iron Range, Cape York Pen., 26 May-2 June 1971, B.K. Cantrell; 1 o, Iron Range, Middle Claudie R., 19-20 Oct. 1974, M.S. Moulds; | o’, lron Range, 16-23 Nov. 1965, G. Monteith; 1 o, Dividing Range, Cape York Pen., 15 km W. of Captain Billy Cr., 142°45’ E., 11°40’ S., 4-9 July 1975, G. Monteith (all specimens QM). Measurements Head length o 1,05-1.10, 9 1,05-1.25, preocular part o& 0.55-0.60, 9 0.55-0.70, postocular part o 0.15, 9 0.10-0.15, length of eyes o 0.35, 9 0.35-0.40; width across eyes & 0.85, 9 0.80-0.85, interocular distance o 0.35, 9 0.30-0,35, width in front of eyes o, 9 0.40-0.45, width of eyes o, 9 0.25, width behind eyes o, 9 0.60-0.65; length antennal segments! o 1.10, 9 1.05-1.35, II o 1.50, 9 1,35-1.50, II] 9 1.60-1.85 (Oo missing), 1V 9 1.55-1.60. Length rostral segments II] o 1.05, 9 1.10-1.20, I] o, 9 0.95-1.05, IV co, 9 0.50. Median length of pronotum o 1.50-1.70, @ 1.60-1.70, fore lobe o 0.55, 9 0.55-0.65, hind lobe o 0,65-0.85, 9 0.75-0.85, collar o 0.25-0.30, 9 0.30; anterior width o 0.70, 9 0.75-0.85, posterior width o 1.55, 9 1.70-1.90. Scutellum length o 0.55-0.70, 9 0.65-0.70, basal width o 0.75, 9 0.80-0.85, commissure o 0.95-1.00, 9 0.95-1.15. Length fore femora o 2.50-2.55, 9 2.30-2.65, tibiae o 2.25-2.55, 9 1,.75-2.35, mid femora & 2.30-2.45, 9 2.15-2.50, tibiae o 2.05-2.30, 9 2.00-2.95, hind femora o 3.00-3.30, 9 3.00-3.50, tibiae o 3.50-3.75, 9 3.25-4.00. Length of body o 7.75-8.10 mm, 9 8.00-8.75 mm; width across hemelytra o 1.60 mm, 9 1.75-2.05 mm (type material). Remarks S. henriettae is found so far only in Queensland. It is very close in appearance and body measure- ments to S. communis and S. imitator; from the former it differs by the less shiny hind lobe of pro- notum, from the latter by the absence of the pink tones of the veins of the corium, The difference bet- ween the male and female genitalia of S. henriettae and these two species is very obvious: the presence of the hook on the top of the blade of the paramere (lacking in S. communis and S. imitator) and the asymmetrical vagina and parietal glands (symmet- rical in these two species). PLANT BUCS, NABIDAF a7 FIGURE 4 Srenonabiy henrietiae sp. nov.) a,b, © — paramere, various positions, d — aedeagus; e — vagina, view from above; [ — the same, from below. Stenonabis imitator Kerzhner (Figs 5a, b, ¢, d, e) Stenonahis initaror Kerzhner, 1969: 310-312, Fig, 17. Descriplion Head, collar and pronatum slightly shiny, heme- lytra and scutellum dull, sometimes whole body except clypeus dull. Head: dirty yellow with darkish elypeus; same- limes areas in front of and behind eyes and long- itudinal stripe between eyes brownish yellow with brown clypeus; head beneath yellow to brownish yellow, sometimes whitish. Eyes and ocelli reddish brown or brown; antennifers brown, antennae and rosirum yellow or dirly yellow, antennal segment I brown apically. Thorax: pronotum yellow or dirty yellow with median longittidinal stripe becoming very narrow and sometimes indistinct on hind lobe; collar yellow with median and two additional lateral siripes, sometimes indistinet; fore lobe with pale brown or brown, sometimes very indistinet, pattern; hind lobe with additional stripes on each side of median one: broad curved lateral and two narrower, broken, in- distinet stripes between lateral and median, Collar wilh shallow punctures, those on hind lobe of pro- notum deeper ard denser; fore lobe raised above collar, hind lobe raised above front lobes basally; auterior and posterior marging of pronotum nearly straight; lateral margins slightly concave; fore lobe separated from hind by shallow impression. Scut- ellum yellow to dirty yellow with dark brown dif- fused median longitudinal stripe. Coxae yellow Lo dirly yellow, trochanters yellow; femora yellow 10 dirty yellow, hind (sometimes also mid) temora brown apically; ubiae yellow to clirty yellow, brown apically, Hemelytra yellow to dirty yellows veins of corium and clayal suture yellow with brownish lat- eral margins; R+M vein of corium pink or pinkish distally; apex of corium brown; membrane opaque, yellow or brawnish yellow, with straight brown veins, Ventrally thorax yellow or brownish yellow; sometimes meso- and metasternum brownish: pleura yellow with broad median stripe, sometimes meso- and metapleura brownish yellow or dark brown. Abdomen. yellow or brownish yellow ventrally with brown farrow median longitudinal stripe and broader lateral stripes on each side of median; sometimes all stripes fused together, diffused or indistinct, in this case whole abdomen becoming brawnish yellow; sometimes median stripe and two lateral very indistinet, in this case whole abdomen appears brownish; conmexivum dirty yellow or brownish, Male and female genitalia: in Kerzhner (1969). Type material Holotype — | co. Queensland, Cairns District, AM. Lea (SAMA); Paratypes — 4 07, 2 9 same dala as for holotype (SAMA, ZIN, examined except for malerial rom Z1N). Other material examined North Queensland; | o, Mossman, 25 March 1967, M.S. Upton (ANIC); Lo, | @, The Boulders, via Babinda, 15 Dec. 1966, B. Cantrell (EUQ); 1 or, Innisfail, a1 light, 16 May 1954, P, Kennedy (EUQ); Northern Territory: | o, 1 km SE of Batchelor, wi ligt, 12 Apr. 1966, N, McFarland (SAMA). Measurements In Kerzhner (1969). Remarks S. imitator is very similar in appearance and body measurements lo 8. communis and §. henriet(ee. but differs very clearly in the male and female geni- jalia; il also differs (rom these species in the pink tones of R +M vein of the corium (8. henriertae), int the less shiny hind lobe of the pronotum (4. compinnis). Stenonabis geniculgtus (Erichson) (Pigs 6a, b) Nahis geniculaius Erichson, 1842: 282. Reduviolus (Stenonabis) geniculatus; Reuler, 908: Log. Srenonabis geniculatus: Kerzhner, (969: 300. 88 WG. STROMMER PIGURE 5, Srenonahis intitatur Kerazh.: a — paramere, lateral view; b — (he same, from below; © — acdeayus, d — Vagina, view trorn above; e — the same, fram below (Kerzhuer 1969), Desvription Head, pronotum and abdomen shiny, hemelytra and seutellum duil. ead: brown, whitish beneath; clypeus and juga smooth and more shiny than rest of head; head dor sally wich fwo dark brown parallel lines between eyes, diverging toward clypeus; eyes and ocelli large, feddish brown, Antennal segments f and II yellow, {1 brown apically (segments I}l and TY missing). Rostral segment | yellowish brown, segment I! brownish yellow, HI and IV pale brown. Thorax; pronotum yellowish brown with wide median longitudinal stripe; additional stripes on hind lobe of pronotum rudimentary, represented by two dark brown patches at base on each side of median stripe. Collar and hind Jobe of pronotum with coarse punctures; demarcation between ore and hind lobe indistinct; anterior and posterior margins of pronotum slightly concave: lateral margins shallowly concave between lobes; fore lobe arched and raised above collar, hind lobe Iat, short. Scutellum with wide black median slripe reaching apex and dirty yellow sides and wirh transverse impression basally. Coxae dark brown, hind ones yellow basally; trochanters brownish yellow; fore femora dark dorsally and yellowish brown ventrally, with clongated yellow, irregularly shaped pateh on lateral surface distally and with yellow areas on ventral surface distally; mid femora yellowish brown, dark brown apically, with two small yellow patches on ifner surface, third basal patch indis- tinet; hind temora brownish yellow with abour distal 1/4 dark brown; fore tibiae dirty yellow, mid and hind tibiae yellow, dark brown apically, Fore femora stout, slightly swollen in basal hall, mid (emora with distal half thicker than basal one, hind femora thin. Coxae covered with short decumbent hairs, becom- ing longer and denser on fernora, especially on yen- tral surface, Hemelytra very short, cover first visible tergite laterally, their apical margins straight, oblique, direcced toward apex of scutellum, with a few very short hairs; membrane extremely short, hardly noticeable. Abdomen: yellowish brawn, with dark brown median longitudinal stripe dorsally; lateral margins and end of abdomen ventrally brownish yellow, Shorl decumbent yellow hairs ventrally, smooth and hairless dorsally, exeepr for hairy lateral margins, Male gentialia: unknown, Female genitalia’ vagina asymmetrical, very wrinkled above and beneath, with pointed rounded apex; parietal glands large, nearly symmetrical, vis- ible from above (Fig, 6a, b). Type inaterial Holotype ~— 1 9, brachypterous, Tasmania, Schayer (Z4BM, examined), Other material examined Tasmania: | 9, brachypterous, Cynthia Bay, Luke St Clair, 7-8 Feb, 1967, G, Monteith (QM). Males unknown. Measurements Head length 1.10-1,15, preoeular part 0.55-0,60, postocular 0,10, length of eyes 0.45: width aeross eyes 1.00-1,05, inlerocular distance 0.45, width in front of eyes 0.50-0.55, width of eyes 0,25, widtl behind eyes 0,75, Length antennal segments | 0,70-0.75, [1 1.00-1.15, TH 1,20, (1V sezment miss ing); length rostral segments IL 1.00, JI 1,00, 1'V 0,50, Median length of pronotum 1,55, fore lobe 0.75-0,80. collar 0.20-0.30; anterior width 0,95, nasterior width 1.70-1.75; length of scutellurn 0.55, width 0.60. Length fore femora 1.80-1.85, width 0,50, ibiae 1.75; mid femora 2.00, width 0.40-0.45, tibiae 1,70-1.75; hind femora 2,50, tibiae 2.75. Lengih of body 7,0-7.1 mm, width across abdomen 2.7-2.8mm (holotype and another 9 from Tasmania). Remarks S. geniculalus is a rare species; the specinien examined differs from the type by the general dark brown colour of the body and appendages (brown- ish yellow in the type), by the presence of two paras lel dark brown lines between the eyes dorsally (lack- ing in the type) and by the evenly brawn colour al the abdomen (yellow With a brawn median longi- PLANT BUGS, NAKIDAE 89 tudinal siripe in the type); the size and proportions of the body in Lhe two specimens are very close. The species differs from the other Australian species by the markings of the pronotum and the structure of ihe female genitalia. A FIGURE 6, Stenonabls geniculatus Erich.; a — vagina, view from above; b — ihe same, from below. Slenonabis roseus Kerzhner (Figs 7a, 6, ¢) Stenonabis roseus Kerzhner, 1969: 306-307, Pie. 14. Description Light-coloured species: head and hind lobe of pronotum very shiny, collar and fore lobes less shiny, hemelytra and scutellum dull. Main colour pinkish yellow to dirty pink. Head, antennae, ros- trum, legs and hemelytra pale, without any dark markings, Head: Pinkish yellow with pinkish clypens and brownish ted eyes} antenmilers darkishy antennal segment I pinkish yellow, other segments, as well as rostral ones, dirly yellow. Thorax: Collar and fore lobe of pronotum pink- ish yellow, hind lobe yellow; collar, pronotum and seurellum with light brown, rather narrow median stripe, sometimes widening at base of pronotum; fore lobe with light brown pattern; hind lobe with 2 or 3 additional broken pale brown stripes on each side of median one, sometimes without any visible additional stripes. Collar with dense punctures; pronotum with fore and hind lobes separated by shallow impression; anterior and posterior margins of pronotum slighUy curved, lateral margins shal- lowly concave between lobes; hind lobe gradually raiged toward hind margin; punctures on hind lobe coarser and deeper anteriorly, becoming finer and shallower posteriorly. Scutellum with yellow sides, Coxae and trochanters stramineous; fore femora pinkish yellow with aboul proximal 1/5. stram- ineous; mid and hind femora dirty yellow with about proximal 1/2 stramineous; all tibiae dirty yellow. Hemelytra pinkish yellow; well surpassing apex of abdomen, clavus and membrane basally dirty yellow, clavus with two cows of indistinct punctures alongside basal 1/2 of claval suture; all veins of corium or at least Cu vein pinkish or pink, membrane with brown veins. Ventrally thorax yellow with brown lateral stripe on cach side, Abdomen: shiny, brownish yellow beneath, except segments 1-1V which are stramineous, with broken brown longitudinal stripes laterally, covered with extremely short decumbent hairs; connexivum brownish with yellow oval pateh on each segment; genital segment pale brown. Male genitalia: parameres large, with pointed api- cal process of blade and double hook ventro-later- ally (Pig, 7a, b); aedeagus with few plane selerites (Fig. 7e). Female genitalia: in Kerzhner (1969). Type nraterial Holotype — | @, Queensland, Cairns District, AM, Lea (SAMA); Parattypes — 2 9, the same data (SAMA, ZEN; examined except for material from ZIN), Other material examined Queensland; | o (head and pronotum missing), West Normandy R., 40 ml? of Cooktown, 5 May 1970, G, Monteith (QM); 1 9, Kuranda, 28 Dec. 1963, G. Monteith (QM). Measuremen(s In Kerzhner (1969), Length of body 9.50- 10.0 mm, width across hemelytra 2,10-2.15 mm (type material). Remarks §. rosevs is known so far only from North Queensland and is distinguished from other species by its large and light pinkish body and appendages, by the markings of the pronotum and the structure of the male and female genitalia, FIGURE 7. Srenanabis roseuy Kerzh,; a, b — paramere, various positions, ¢ — aedeagus. Stenonabis nitidicollis Kerzhner (Figs 8a, b, ¢, a) Stenonabis nitidicollis Kerzhner, 1969: 307-308, Fig, 15. 90 NG. STROMMER Macrapierous form Heed: brownish yellow, shiny, appearing whitish beneath, areas around eves pale yellaw; rwo dark brown parallel lofgitudinal lines restricring brown- ish areas between eves; eyes and ocelli reddish brawn, Antennae and rostrum yellow to dirty yel- low, antennal segment J] with dark brown ning at about distal |/5. Short yellow hairs distally, white pubescence and longer sparse hairs ventrally; sides behind eyes nearly straight. Thorax: pronotum shiny yellow with narrow brown median stripe, more or Jess widening ar post- erjor margin of very shiny hind lobe; additional brown stripe on collar on each sides lore labe with brown pattern; hind lobe with curved brown strupe an each side of niedian one, sametimes widening al posterior margin. Collar and hind Jobe of pronotum with sparse, fine punetures; anterior and posletior margins of pronotum nearly straight, lateral imipression between lobes shallow, demarcation between lobes indistinct medially; fore lobe slightly raised above collar, hind lobe raised toward posterior margin. Scuteilum slightly shiny with wide black median stripe reaching apex, Legs brownish yellow to pale yellow, coxae pale yellow 10 dirly yellow with lore caxae brownish anteriorly; fore and mid femora brownish yellow, pale on inner surface and with short brown Iransverse stripes on outer surface; hind femora brownish yellow with brown ring near distal 1/5 all tibiae pale yellow with brownish sing apically, Hemelytra slightly shiny brownish yellow; commissure and veins of corium yellow With brownish rim along both sides, R+M and Cu veins of corium red for about posterior 1/2 and on border With membrane between veins thus forming triangular ell; space between veins yellow lo dirty yellow: menibrane hyaline, yellow, with brownish straight veins. Heme- lytra reaching end of abdomen; vovered with short yellow hairs basally and for 3/4 length taterally. Ventrally thorax yellow, metasternum with dark brown patch medjaliy, pleura yellow with dark brown, nearly black longitudinal stripe en each side. Abdomen; yellow beneath, with brown median longitudinal stripe and another one on each side of median; connexivum yellow with pinkish narrow external edge and small pinkish spots on each segment. Brachyprerous forni Head: dorsally dark brown, appearing whilish beneath; rostral segments 1 and If dirty yellow (segments IL and IV and antennae missin). Thorax: pronatum shiny, with coarse punctures on collar and hind lobe: anterior margin of pro- hotum slightly concave, posterior marzin curved; demarcation between lobes indistinet; hind lobe nor (aised aboye fore lobe; pronotum shorter than in macropterous forms. Black médian stripe on scul- ellum noc reaching apex; scutellum with truncate apex, wider than long. Hemelytra dirty yellow, with indisuinet veins, very short, vovering first visible fergile laterally, apical margin straight, oblique, directed toward apex of scutelluim, with few shart hairs; membrane absent. Abdamen; shiny, covered with short deewmbent silvery hairs, Male genitalia: paramere of medium size and distinct shape, with oblique tooth on top of blade and hook laterally (Fiz. 8a, b, c);.aedeagus small, with numbers of sclerites (Fiz. &d). Female genitalia: in Kerzhner (1969). Type matertul Holotype — | 2, New South Wales, Engadine (?) (difficult to read label), 6 Dec. 1958 (AMNH, not examined). Other muterial examined Queensland: | of, macroprerous, Bald MI. area, 3000’ =4000' via Emu Vale, 26-30 (month omitted) 1975, G, Monteith (QM); | o, macropterous. Crater Nat, Park, Atherlon Tbid,. 25 Apr. 1970 (QM); 1 9, macropterous, Brisbane, 5 Oct, 1942, E.A. Bernays (QM); 1 o&, brachypterous, Upper Brookfield, 14 Apr. 1962, T.E. Woodward (QM), Measurenients Macrapteraus form: head length @ 1,00, 9 1.05, preocular part O 0,50, 9 0.55, posracular oF 0.10, 2 G15, length af eyes o, > 0.35: width seross eyes co 0.80-0.85, 9 O85, interovular distance co 0.35-0.40, 9 0.35, width in front of eves o 0.35-0,40, 9 0.45, behind eyes o 0.55-U.60, 9 0,60. Length antennal segments | cf 0,85-0.95, 9 0.90, Jo, O 1.25, lo 140, § 150 Ivo @ 150. Length rostral segments 11 o 0,95-1.00, © 1.00, WE o& 0.80-0.95, 9 0.95. TV co, @ U.50- Median length of pronotum o& 140-150, Q 1.60, collar c, 9 0.25, fore lobe om 1.0, 9 Lt times shorter than fiind lober cr 0.55-0.60, @ 0.55 ana @ 0,60-0.65, 9 (80 respectively; anterior width cr 0,65-0,70, 9 0,70, posterior width er 7.60-1,70, 9 1.75. Seurellum Jength o 0.60-0.65, 9 (1.90, widilh o 75, 2 1.00. Lensth fore femora o 1.95-2.10, 9 2.00, tibiae o& [-60=1.85, © 1.80, 1nid femora o, 9 2,00, tibiae oF 1.60-1.85, © 1.75, hind femora co 2.50-2.75, 9 SO. tibiae o 2.75-3.25, Y 3.00. Toral lengit of bady: & 6.0-7.5 mm, © 7.6 mm; width across hemelytrra o 1.5-7,7, @ 1.7 mm {material examined). Brachypterous form: head lengih (or) 1.00, pre- ocular part 0.51, pastecular part 0.15, length af eyes U.37, width behind eves 0.15; antennae missing. Length rosiral sepment 1 1.00 (WL and 1 missing). Median length of pronotum 1,25, collar 0.20; hind Jobe very short, 1,3 times shorier than fore lobe PLANT BUGS, NARIDAE “I (0.45 and 0.60 respectively), anterior width of pronotum 0,75, posterior 1,50; seutellum length 0.60, width 0.75, Length tore femora 2.10, tibiae 1.85, mid femora 2.00, tibiae 1.75, hind temara 2.75, tibiae 3.25, Length of body (co) 6.75, width acrass hemelyira 1,45 mm (examined material), Remarks S. nitidicollis differs trom other species by its small size, by the kind of markings.of the pronotum and by the structure of the male and female geni- talia, FIGURE 8. Sterunabis nilidivallis Kereh. a, by © — paramere, various positions, d — aedeagus. Stenonabis darwini Kerzhner (Figs 9a, b, ¢) Stenanabis darwini Kerzhner, 1969; 304-306, Fig. 13. Description Upper side of body slightly shiny, scutellum dull, Head: brown; areas near eyes dirty yellow dor- sally, with 2 dark brown lines, parallel berween eyes and diverging before base of clypeus, Eyes and ovelli reddish brown; antennifers and antennal segments brownish yellow, segment IH dark distally; rostral segments dirty yellow, segment IV dark distally. Thorax: collar and pronotum dirty yellow, with dark brown markings; median longitudinal stripe, narrower on hind lobe distally and widening again basally, and | or 2 addilional stripes on each side of median one so that all 5 stripes parallel and more prominent posteriorly; fore lobe with brown pat- tern. Collar and hind lobe of pronotuin with fine Punetures; anterior and posterior margins of pro- notum straight, lateral margins. shallawly concave between lobes. Scutellum dark brown, nearly black, with 2 small yellow patches laterally. Coxae and irochanters brownish yellow; fore lemara yellow on inner and brownish on outer surface, mid femora brownish yellow ou about proximal half and dark brown distally, hind femora with about proximal 2/3 yellow and about distal 1/3 brown; all ubiae yellow with dark brown apices, Hemelytra almost reaching apex of abdomen; clavus, corium and membrane yellow; conum with yellow, membrane with brown veins; membrane hyaline, with or with- out closed cells and with ¥ or LO veins at posterior margin. Ventrally |horax dark brown, Abdomen: brownish yellow, with small yellow spot on each segment of connexivum, covered with short silver hairs, genital segment with long pale ones, Male genitalia: parameres small, with tooth on top of blade medially and large hook laterally (Fig. 9a, b); aedeagus small, with @ sclerites (2 dentate and 4 plane) in basal half (Fig, 9c). Female genitalia: in Kerzhner (1969). Type material Holotype — | 9, Darwin, GF Hill (SAMA) (examined), Other matertal examined Northern Territory: | or, 1 9, S km NW of Cuhills Crossing, East Alligator River, 28 May 1973, M.S. Upton (ANIC); Queensland! | oa, Lockerbie Area, Cape York, 13-27 Apr. 1973, G. Montenh (QM). Measurements Head length o 1.05-1,35, 9 [.20-1.35, preocular part o 0.55-0.75, 9 0.64-0.75, postocular parl & 0.15-0,20, 2 0,14-0,20, length of eyes o 0.35-0.40, 2 0.40-0.43; width across eyes co 0,80-0,95, ().83-0.95, interocular distance co, 9 0.30-0.40, width in front of eyes ov 045-050, 9 0,44-0,50, behind eyes cr 0,60-0.65, @ 0.60-0.70. Length anlennal sepyments | co 1,30-1.50, 9 1,36-1,75, or 2.00-2.10, § 2.10-2.35, IH o 2.45, @ 2.10-2.35, LV missing. Length rostral segments Ho! 0.85-1,10, © 0.86-1.10, LW o 0.95-1.00, 9 0.79-1.00, IV o 0.50-0.55, ¢ 0.36-0.55. Median length of pronotum o 1,45-1,70, @ 1.50-L8U, fore lobe o 0.65, 9 0.60-0.70, collar co 0,25-0.40, © 0,30-0.35, anterior width o 0,60-0.75, 2 0.70-0.80, posterior width o 145-165, 9 1,50-1.75. Median length of scutellum ct 0.75, 9 0.70-0.75, basal width o 0,70-0,80, 9 0.70-0.75, Length tore femora cr 2,45-2,50, 9 2.65-3.30, tibiae & 2,25-2.50, 9 2.35-2,75, mid femora o 2.25=2.75, 9 2,35-2.75, tbiav o 2.25-2,50, 9 2.25-2.65, hind lemora & 3.40-4.00, 9 3.65-4.50, tibiae o 4.70-4.25, Oo 4.60-4,65, Length of body o 7.75-9.00 mm, 9 8.80-9.60 mm, width across hemelytra @& 1.30-1.75 mm, 9 |,50-1,80 mm (material examined). Remarks S. darwini is known so far from the Northern Territory and Queensland and is distinguished from other Australian species by the narrow body, dark 92 NG, STROMMER coloration, proportions and markings of the pro- notum and the structure of the male and female genitalia. FIGURE 9. Srenonabis darwin) Kerzh.. a — paramere, lateral view; b — the same, from helow; ¢ — acdeagus. Stenonabis morningtoni sp. nav. (Figs 10a, b, c, d) Description Head dorsally, pronofum and abdomen shiny, scutellum, hemelytra and thorax dull, Head: dark brown dorsally except for dirty yellow areas around eyes; appears whitish beneath. Anten- nal segments [| and If brown (f11 and 1V missing); rostral segments yellow except for brown | one; antennal segment [1 with brownish distal fifth. Short silver hairs ventrally and on areas around eyes dorsally and a few long fine hairs on each side later- ally, Ocelli large, shiny, nearly touching posterior margin of head, with anterior margins in front of level of posterior margins of eyes. Thorax: pronotuin yellow with wide brown med- ian longitudinal stripe; collar brownish ventrally, with narrow brown additional stripe on each side of median one laterally, tore lobe with brawn pat- tern; hind lobe with 2 parallel brownish stripes laterally on each side of median one, one of them, nearest to median, broken and indistinct. Collar with very fine and hind lobe of pronotum with coarse punctures; fore lobe raised above collar rather steeply, hind lobe raised aboye fore lobe gradually toward base of pronotum; demarcation between lobes indistinct; anterior margin of fore lobe slightly convex, posterior margin of hind lobe nearly straight; lateral margins of pronotum shallowly concave, nearly straight between fore and hind lobes; fore lobe 1.15 times longer than hind lobe, Scutellum yellow with broad black median longitudinal stripe reaching its apex and with basal impression and pointed apex, Thorax beneath yellowish brown with yellow metasternum and dark brown meso- and mmetapleura. Leys brownish yellow, coxae and trochanters yellow, fore coxae brown anteriorly; fore femora dirty yellow on inner lateral surface and much darker outside dorsally and ventrally; mid and hind femora dirty yellow, pale yellow basally, brown apically, with indistinct pale brown ring medially; all tibiae brownish yellow. Hemelytra brownish yellow with indistinet veins, corjum covered with two rows of punetures alongside basal 1/2 of claval suture; membrane greyish yellow, translucent, with 3 closed cells; hemelytra surpassing apex of ab- domen, Abdamen: brown beneath, with yellowish brown basal area and dirty yellow connexivum; abdomen covered with shart dense silver hairs; small shiny areas free of hairs on 1] basal segment of con- nexivum, Male genitalia; parameres large, with wide blade and 3 hooks on it, big hook ventro-laterally with pointed apex and 2 smaller ones dorsally, one of these al base of blade and another on top of blade medially (Fig. 10a, b, c); aedeagus of medium size, with 6 rather big selerites (3 plane and 3 with forked end, Fig. 10d), Tipe material Holotype — | o, macropterous, Qld, Mornington Cr: (? not clear writing), J, Mission, 15 May 1963, N,B. Tindale and P. Aitken (SAMA), Females unknown, Measurements Head length 1.15, preocular part 0.60, postocular part 0.15, length of eyes 0.40; width across eyes 0.85, interocular distance 0.30, width in front of eyes 0.45, behind eyes 0.55. Length antennal segments L 0.85, 1] 1.25; length rostral segments 11 0.80, [11 0.95, ['V 0.30, Median length of pronotum 1.70, collar 0.30, fore lobe 0.75, hind lobe 0.65; anterior width 0.85, posterior width 1.80, Scutellum length 0.85, width 1.00, Length fore fernora 2.00, tibiae 1.55, mid PLANT BUGS, NAB/DAE 93 FIGURE 10. Srenonabis marningtoni sp. nov. a; b, e— paramere, yarious positions; d — aedeagus. femora 1.90, tibiae 1.75, hind femora 2.60, tibiae 2.80, Length of body 8.0 mm, width across hemelytra 2.2 mm (holotype). Remarks The species is known only from type locality in Queensland. It is close in appearance to other Stenonabis species, but is clearly distinguished by the kind of markings of the pronotum and by the distinet shape of the male genitalia. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ‘This study was supported and the facilities provided by the Museum of Victoria, for which special thanks are due to Dr A. Neboiss and Mr K. Walker, For the loan of the material, (he author is grateful to the Museums listed in the Introduction. Particularly appreciated was the help of the late Dr TE. Woodward and Dr 1,M, Kerzhner, of the Zoological Institute, Academy of Science, USSR, in the preparation of this paper. (Dr Kerzhner helped es- pecially with the drawings of the female genitalia in Nabis fraternus and Nabis bifarmis, as well as the ‘Remarks’ to Nabis kinbersii). REFERENCES BERGROTH, E.E, 1927. Hemiptera Heteroptera from New Zealand. Trans. Proc. N.Z. Inst. 57: 681, CHEESMAN, L.E. 1927. A contribution toward the insect fauna of French Oceania. Part I. Trans. R. Ent. Soc. Lond., 75: 147-161. DISTANT, W.L. 1920. Rhynchota from New Caledonia. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) 6: 143-164, ERICHSON, W.F, 1842. Beitrag zur Fauna von Vandie- mensland mit besonderer Riicksicht auf die geograph- ische Verbreitung der Insecten. Arch, £ Naturgesch, 8(1): 83-287. HUTTON, FW. 1904. ‘Index Faunae Novae Zealandie’. Dulau & Co., London, VIII, 373 pp. KERZHNER, [.M. 1968. New and little known Palearctic bugs of the family Nabidae (Heteroptera), Ent. Rev. Wash. 47; §17-525. KERZHNER, I|.M, 1969. Neue and weing bekannte Nab- idae (Heteroptera) aus den tropischen Gebieten der Allen Welt, Acta entom. Mus, nat. Pragae 3%; 279-399, KERZHNER, [.M. 1981. Hemiptera family Nabidae. Jn OA. Searlato, (Chief Ed.) and G.S. Medvedey (Ed.). Fauna SSSR Insecta Rhynchota (Nauka: Leningrad) \3 (2): 1-326 (in Russian). REMANE, R. 1964. Weitere Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Gattung Nabis Latr. (Hemiptera, Nabidae), Zool. Beitr. (N.E) 10 (2): 253-314. REUTER, O.M., 1872, Nabidae noyae et minus cognilac. Bidrag till Nabidernas Kannedom, Of. Kgl. Vet. Akad. Férhandl. 29 (6); 79-96. REUTER, O.M. 1908. Bemerkungen uber Nabiden nebst Beschreibung neuer Arten, Mem. Soc. entom, Belg. 15: 87-130. WOODWARD, T.E. 1982. The identity of the species com- monly known in Australia as Nabis capsiformis Germar (Hemiptera: Nabidae). J) Aust. eni. Soc, 21: 143-146, WOODWARD, T.E, & STROMMER, N.G. 1982. Nabis kinbergit Reuter, the current name far Tropiconabis nigrolineatus (Distant), and its Australian distribution (Hemiptera: Nabidae). 2 Aust. ent. Soc. 21: 306. APPENDICULAR OSTEOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LASIORHINUS LATIFRONS (OWEN, 1845) AND VOMBATUS URSINUS (SHAW, 1800) (MARSUPILIA : VOMBATIDAE) BY G. G. SCOTT & K. C. RICHARDSON Summary Brachial, antebrachial and carpal bones from the hairy-nosed wombat (Lasiorhinus latifrons) and common wombat (Vombatus ursinus) are, with the exception of the first and second carpal bones, all distinguishable. Likewise the pelvis, femur, tibia, fibula and epipubic bones from the hairy- nosed wombat (L. latifrons) and common wombat (V. ursinus) all have specific characteristic differences. To facilitate rapid specimen identification at the generic level, the different gross morphological features are summarised. APPENDICULAR OSTEOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LASIORINNUS LATIFRONS (OWEN, 1845) AND VOMBATUS URSINUS (SHAW, 1800) (MARSUPIALTA: VOMBATIDAE) GG. SCOTT & KC. RICHARDSON SCOTT, GG & RICHARDSON, KC, 1988. Appendicular ostealogical differences between Lasiarhinus latifrans (Qwet\, 1845) and Farmbarus ursinus (Shaw, 1800) (Marsupialla’ Vornbatidae), Ree, 5, Aust. Mus. 22(2): 94-102. Brachial, antebrachial and carpal bones from the hairy-nosed wombat (Lasiarhinus lalifrons) and common wombat (Fombaris ves/Aus) are, With the exception of the first and second earpal bones, all distinguishable. Likewise the pelvis, femur, tibia, fibula and epipuble bunes from the hairy-nosed wombat (2. larifrens/ and common wombat (kK uesinus) all have specific characterisric differences. To facililale rapid specimen identification at the generic level, (he differen( gross Morphological fearuves are summarised, A number of consistently different features berween specimens of the two genera have been recognised during this study, In the forelimb the scapula has a large process present on ils caudal anuvle in L, Avifrons, but only a tubercle is present in KE lersinus, The scapula spine is narrow in L. datifrons, and broad in VF. wrsiaws. The coracoid pracess groove which accommodates the bicipiial tendon is wide in dL. darifrons, bur narrow In K arsinas, The scapula articular tuberosity is vestigial in L, /atifrons, bul well developed in yrsinus, A deep triangular fossa 1s adjacent (o rhe scapula Infra-articular wiberosity in L. datifrons, but absent in kt wrsinus, The clavicular shafl has a ¢anvex tedial surlace in L£. /eri/rons, but this is sharp and sickle-shaped in / wesinus, A large ridge on the laterodorsal surface of the shaft in L. Jarifrons is vestigial in Mo wrsinus. The sternoclavicular surface is roughened wilh a deep lossa in L. durifrons, but roughened having a fossa confluent with a deep groove in Ke wrsinus, The acromioelavicular articular surface has a large tubercle in L. dutd//rors. which is vesogial inh uesinus, The clavicular breadth, diamerer of the humeral head, amd ihe width of (he humeral shaft are all significantly different. Many previously unrecorded, consistent differences were found in the hind|inib. The pelvic iliae crest is directed laterally and forms a right angle with body of ilium in _L.. farifrons, bur is Nickle-shaped' in ursinus, Its lateral extremiry is expanded in L, lati/rons, but pointed in b ursinus, The iliopectineal eminence is a large process in L. lalifrons, bul a small tubercle in Vo ursinus, The pelvic ischiahe tuberosity is narrow, approximately 20 mm, in L. larifrons, but wide, approximately 40 mm, in M ursinws, Epipubie bones are quite distinct, with the articular surface broad and elongate in CL. larifrons, bur narrow i E wesinus, Its proximal ventral surface is deeply concave in L. fati/rons, but flatin Ko wrsinus, The femur has few distinguishing features, the greater trochanter is deeply grooved in L. darifrons, but is only a tuberosity in Eo wrsints. On the tibia the medial intercondylar eminence fs long craniocaudally in L. /arifrans, but pointed in F wesinus. The articular surface for the laleral condyte of the femur is circular in L. /afifrens, but elongate in K ursinius, Other than a number of trivial differences in the fibula the only reliable, readily recognisable difference is that the medial and caudal borders of its plantar surlace are rounded in L. Javifrons, but square in wrsinus, The pelvic lengrh and breadrh, femur length and fibular length are all significantly different. G.G. Seo & KC. Richardson, School of Veterinary Studies, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Wesrern Australia 6150, Manuscript received 3 May 1988, Inchividual bones, particularly small ones suc as the carpals, tarsals and phalanges, are commonly found once decomposition, disarticularion and wea- thering all play their part on the body of a dead animal. These bones, commonly scattered over the (errain, may be found individually, sometimes a Few (upether, and occasionally large numbers in a pro- (ected site or archaeological digging, Whatever the cane, the identification of (hese bones is offen diffi- cull. In some instances species identification may be biased by modern perceptions of zoogeographic boundaries. This study collates the scanty information pre- viously published on asteology of the wombat fore- limb (Qwen 1838, Murie 1867, De Vis 1892, Scott 1915) as well ag that of the hindlimb (Owen 1838, Murie 1867, De Vis 1892), [t describes the diag- nostic features of bones of the forchmb and hind- limb of the hairy-nosed wombat (Las/orhinus tatt- Jrons) and of the common wombat (Pomparts ursinus) Which separate the extant genera, MATERIALS AND METHODS Specimens Bones of the forelimt: and hindlimb of L. /ati- Jrans and . ursinius were examined in the collect- ions of the Australian Museum, Sydney; Brilish Museum (Natural Histary), London; Museum of Vicroria, Melbourne; Queensland Museum, Bris- bane, South Australian Museum, Adelaide: and 6 GG, SCOTT & K.C. RICHARDSON Western Australian Museum, Perth. For this study additional specimens of L. letifrons were collected al Blanchetown, Roonka and Swan Reach in South Australia; and of k ursinus over the Great Dividing Range and adjacent regions, Measurements The morphology of individual bones of the forelimb was examined and any distinguishing fea- tures noted. Adult and juvenile specimens were examined, but only bones from adults were com- pared for diagnostic purposes. Linear measure- ments were made with vernier calipers on adult specimens, Forelimh Measurements 1. Seapula (i) breadth, measured from the cranial angle to the caudal angle, (ii) length, measured from the supraglenoid tub- ercle to the cranial angle. . Clayicle (i) length, measured from the elavicle-acromion articular surface to the claviele-sternum articular surface. (ii) breadth, measured al the point of maximum constriction of the shaft proximal to the clav- ivle-sternum articular surface, 3, Homerus (i) length, measured from the proximal surface of the head to the distal surface of the capitulum. (ii) head diameter, measured lateromedially, (ii) deltoid tuberosity, maximum height above the shaft, (iv) articulating condyles, width measured from the lateral surface of the lateral epicondyle to the medial surface of the medial epicondyle, (v) shaft width, minimum measurement proximal to the deltoid tuberosity, but distal to the greater tubercle. 4, Ulna (i) length, measured from the proximal olecranon to the distal surface of the styloid process. 5. Radivs Gi) length, measured from the proximal surface of the head to the distal surface of the styloid process. Mw Hindlimh Measurements |. Pelvis (i) length, from the proximal surface of the hac crest to the distal surface of the ischial tuberosily. (i) breadth, from the medial surface of the iliac tuberosity to the lateral surface of the iliae process. 2. Femur (i) length, from the proximal surface of the head to the distal surface of the medial condyle. (ii) shaft diameter, midway along (he shalt. 3. Tibia (i) length, from the proximal surface of the inter- condylar eminence to the distal surface of the medial malleolus. (ii) shaft diameter, midway along the shalt. 4, Fibula (i) length, from the proximal surface of the lateral condyle to the distal surface of the lateral malleolus. (ii) shaft diameter, midway along the shaft. The bones of the distal forelimb and hindlimb were examined only for morphological differences. Osteological terminology used is as in the ‘Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria’ (Habel ef ai. 1983). Analvsis Where appropriate Student's t-test, 2-'sided’, and bivariate analysis (Simpson er a/. 1960) was used, Bivariate regression analysis of specimens of known sex shows no significant sexual dimorphism lor any of ihe characters examined, 40 measurements of both sexes were combined, RESULTS Measurements For most features measiired there was an overlap in the range of measurements between F ursinus andl, latifrons, However, clavicle breadth, humerus shalt width, the laleromedial diameter of the hum- eral head, pelvis breadth and femur length were all significantly larger (? < 0,001) in FB wrsinus. Pelvis length (P < 0.01) and fibula length U2 < 0,05) were also larger in Ff ursinus, Forelimb measurements for both genera are given in Table 1. Hindlimb mea- surements for both venera are given in Table 2. —_— bl = d FIGURE. |, Dorsal view of the left scapula in (A) latifrans and (B) V. ursinus, Where a, eranial border; b, cranial angle; c, vertebral border; d, caudal angle; @ caudal border, f, arrowed, intra-articular tuberosity; g, spine. Scale line is 2 cm, Morphology The following morphological features were found lu be diagnostically different for the two genera: Scapula Caudal angle Dorsal spine Coracoid process Clavicle Shaft (i) Medial surface (ii) Latero- dorsal surface Al APPENDICULAR SKELETAL DIFFERENCES OF WOMBATS 97 L. latifrons large process about 3 mm wide deep and wide- ly grooved, no fossa L, latifrons convex large ridge Ke oursinus small tubercle about 6 mm wide Narrow grooye, large fossa present Ve ursinus sharp and sickle-shaped vestigial cet em Infra-articular tuberosity Sternal articu- lar surface Scapula artic- ular surface L. latifrons (i) vestigial Vs ursinus well-developed (ii) deep no fossa, only triangular fossa roughened present surface L. latifrons Ko ursinus deep fossa fossa confluent present with a deep groove large tubercle — vestigial present FIGURE 2. Right clavicle in (A) L. latifrons and (B) V. ursinus. (i) is a dorsolateral view, (ii) is a medial view. a, arrowed, large ridge; b, fossa; c, groove. Scale line is 2 cm. TABLE 1. Forelimb measurements (mm) for L. latifrons and V. ursinus. Scapula breadth Scapula length Clavicle length Clavicle breadth Humerus length Humerus diameter Humerus deltoid tuberosity height Humerus articular condyle width Humerus shalt width Ulna length Radius length * P< 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001 L. latifrons n mean 6 49.0 6 119.6 4 81.5 5 6.3 7 108.1 7 26.9 13 27.2 9 50.6 19 13.1 4 141.9 4 109.8 TABLE 2. Hindlimb measurements (mm) for L. /atifrons and V. ursinus. Pelvis length Pelyis breadth Femur length Femur shaft diameter Tibia length Tibia shaft diameter Fibula length Fibula breadth * P< 0,05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001 L. latifrons mean 184.5 DRUwWwWwinwS rs la Vo ursinus sd n mean sd 7.58 21 53.6 3.13 7.41 19 122.5 4.09 3.03 14 83.9 4.74 0.70 14 7.3 0.S9"** 7.89 29 121.7 3.82 2.23 28 29.8 1,35** 2.00 29 27.2 1.43 3.55 25 54.5 1,97 1.19 29 14.6 O0.85*** 10.90 13 154.2 6.957 6.41 10 115.7 4,97 Vo oursinus sd n mean sd 20,54 17 206.9 8.16** 3.65 14 71.6 4,28*** 1,33 25 156.3 5.767** 0,63 27 15.1 O81 7.13 14 122.8 5.20 0.65 15 9.0 0.76 0.38 10 116.8 4.73% 0.44 9 6.9 0.60 O8 GG. SCOTT & K.C. RICHARDSON A Ac b B B iy ; , FIGURE 5, Craniomedial view of the left radius in (A) b Vv ursinus and (B) L. latifrons. Where a, neck; b, radial oe, tuberosity; ¢, arrowed, styloid process, Scale line is 2 em, FIGURE 3, Cranial view of the deft humerus in (A) L, latifrons and (B) V. ursinus. Where a, teres tuberosity; b, deltoid tuberosity; c, medial epicondyle; d, lateral epi- condyloid crest. Scale line is 2 em. bi p f fp oO — Cc i D FIGURE 4, Lateral view of the left ulna in (A) M ursinus - ; d and (B) L, /atifrons, Where a, olecranon; b, arrowed, ‘a e \ e coronoid process; c, arrowed, pit for the radial tuberosity; =. a d, styloid process, Seale line is 2 em. Humerus L. latifrons oursinus co ‘ i , ; Deltoid acutely angled shallow angled FIGURE 6. Proximal view of left radial carpal bone in tliberasit rine Fidee (A) L. latifrons and (B) V. ursinus. Where a, radial surface; y . 8 g b, palmar tuberosity; c, medial tubercle. Proximal view Teres tuberosity small elongate of right ulnar carpal bone in (C) L. latifrons and (D) ¥. Lateral epi- straight caudal shallowly eve Where d, palmar tuberosity; e, ulnar surface, Scale condyloid crest border convex proxi- ine is 5 mm. mally, concave : distally Radius Ulna L. latifrons Koursinus L, latifrons Vsoursinus Neck shallow con- — deeply concave Anconeal cavity proximal process ; to radial ; . > ey tuberosity (i) cranioproxi- ridge large process mal surface Shaft ii) viewed cranial surface sickle-shaped . laterally parallel to Lateral surface flat deep oblique caudal surface ; depression Coronoid elongated circular Distal forelimb process Radial carpal bone: Shatt L. latifrons Vo oursinus Gj) Depression : Palmar for radial shallow larger circular tuberosity small large tuberosity pit il roximally, concave . ; a) Lateral fap * Medial tubercle small and massive and surface and concave tapered blunt distally APPENDICULAR SKELETAL DIFFERENCES OF WOMBATS Ulnar carpal bone: L. latifrons Vo ursinus Ulnar articular small and oval large, concave facet and semi- circular circular with pronounced lateral tubercle Accessory car- small pal articular facet Palmar facet circular elongate for 3rd and 4th carpal bones Accessory carpal bone: L. latifrons lateral border M. ursinus Ulnar carpal lateral border articular facet short and elongate square Medial prox- small pronounced imal tubercle Shaft broad and flat constricted in middle A B Cc — D /f Va d 1G ~ E a, F pee (* 7) “SN eo Ls FIGURE 7. Proximal view of the right accessory carpal bone in (A) L. /atifrons and (B) V ursinus. Where a, proximal facet for the ulnar carpal bone; b, constricted shaft. Medioproximal view of the right 3rd carpal bone in (C)_L, latifrons and (D) Vo ursinus. Where c, medial process; d, sulcus; e, articular surface for 3rd metacarpal. Proximal view of the right 4th carpal bone in (E) L, latifrons and (F) V. ursinus. Where f, hamulus; g, articular facet for ulnar carpal bone; h, fossa. Scale line is 4 mm. Third carpal bone: Mediodistal process Proximal sulcus Fourth carpal Palmar artic- ular facet for 4th and 5th metacarpals Hamulus Body of ulnar carpal separated from hamulus by — L. latifrons large and pointed shallow bone: L, latifrons small and shallow narrow shallow fossa 99 Vo oursinus broad and squat deep Vo oursinus large and deep broad at its base deep fossa No consistent gross morphological differences were found for the first carpal bone, second carpal bone, metacarpals or phalanges. Pelvis Iliac erest Iliac fossa Iliopectineal eminence Ramus of pubic bone Rectus femoris m, origin Surface area of Ischiatic table Ischiatic tuberosity L, latifrons (i) points laterally and forms sharp angle with body of ilium (ii) lateral extremity broad present large VK. ursinus points caudally ‘sickle-shaped’ pointed absent small same width as_ half width of pubic bone bet- pubic bone bet- ween the obtur- ween the obtur- ator foramina ator foramina deep fossa on indistinct body of ilium approximately much smaller same as obtur- ator foramen narrow, well-developed, approximately approximately 20 mm wide at 40 mm wide point of maxi- mum width 100 GG. SCOTT & K.C, RICHARDSON A B FIGURE 8. Ventral view of the pelvis in (A) L. /atifrons and (B) ¥. ursinus. Where a, iliac crest; b, arrowed, iliopectineal eminence; c, arrowed, pecten; d, obturator foramen; e, acetabulum; f, ischiatic table; g, ischiatic tuberosity. Scale line is 2 em. FIGURE 9. Dorsal view of right epipubic bone in (A) L. FIGURE 10, Cranial view of left femur in (A) L. latifrons latifrons and (B) V. ursinus. Where a, articular surface and (B) V. ursinus. Where a, head; b, vreater trochanter; for pecten of pubis; b, arrowed, proximal tubercle; c, shaft. c, 3rd trochanter; d, lesser trochanter; e, medial condyle, Scale line is 2 cm, Seale line is 2 cm, Epipubic bone Femur L. latifrons Vo oursinus L. latifrons Vo oursinus Articular sur- elongate with narrow elongate — Greater deeply grooved indistinct face for pectin medial surface with parallel trochanter groove of pubic bone much broader sides than lateral Lesser present pronounced surface trochanter Proximal ven- concave flat tral surface Third pronounced present Lateral tubercle indistinct pronounced trochanter APPENDICULAR SKELETAL DIFFERENCES OF WOMBAT nt FIGURE 1]. Lateral view of left tibia in (A) L. Jatifrons and (8) b wesinis. Where a, arrowed, medial intereondylar eminence; b, arrowed, articular surface for Fibula. Seale line is 2 em. Tibia 1, latifrons Fo oursinus Medial inter- same size as larger than condylar lateral lateral crimence Lateral condyle (i) lateral almost (lat angled surface (i) articular circular clongate surface for lateral condyle of femur Mibula L. latifrans Mo ursinus Malleolus rounded, square (plantar view) medial surfaces Distal hindlimb Tarsal bone morphology varied considerably within each genus. No diagnostic differences were found belween the two wombat genera for the tibiotarsal, fibular tarsal, central tarsal bones, or for Ist, 2nd, ard and 4th tarsal bones. No morphological differ- enees were observed for the metatarsals and phalanges. DISCUSSION This study found that a dumber of the morpho- logical features claimed by Murie (1847) as being diagnostically significant for separating the forelimb bones of L. lutifrons from those of ursinus are not reliable. For instanee Murie’s claim that a marked dilference exists between the proportion of length to breadth of the scapula of the two wombat taxa (56% in L. lalifrons and 72% in Vo iersinus) was found to be marginal. Other diflerences such as scapula shape and curvature of the scapular spine, as well as Che yarralions in depth of the sulous lor the bivipital tendon as desoribed by Muri (1867) were found fo be inconsistent and of no diagnostic value. Likewise Murie (J867) claimed that the anterior border of the iium points downwards in &. fatifrons, but outwards In FC ursinws, and that the femoral shaft breadth is greatest in ZL. /atifrons. He also reported that the fibula length was equal in both wombat genera, and that the fibula shaft was straighter in L, datifrons, None of (hese findings are supported in this study. The current study tabulates a number of diag- fostic morphological differences allowing many individual wombat bones of the appendicular skele- ton to be identified to generic level. Jn addition to this it was noted that the scapula of wrsinuys bears a larger surface area for the insertion of M, lrapezius and M, deltoidius than does the scapula of L, latifrons, However, the L. /atifrons scapula possesses a larger and more developed surface lor the insertion of M, rhomboideus and M, serratus ventralis. The significance of this difference in muscle insertion sites is reflected nat only in differences in the overall structural meehanics of the thoracic limb of the two Wombat taxa, but alse in differences in their burrowing and locomotor behaviour. For example, F, wrsinus more readily accommo- dates the actions of the trapezius muscle to elevate and protract the limb and the deltoideus muscle to flex the shoulder joint as well as to lift (he humerus, By contrast £. /udifrans is more adapted to accom- modate the action of rhomboideus musele which elevates and retracts the limb and shoulder, The ventral serrate muscle supports. (he trunk, and carries the trunk forward or backward, These features are probably linked to L. /atifrans being a plains dweller which digs burrows. into a flat, usually limestone-underlaid, topography; while ursinus is an inhabitant of the mountainous eucalyptus forests, and commonly resorts to digging its burrows into decomposed granite. The bones of the forearm in both genera are well adapted for pronation and supination, both impor- lant prerequisites for (heir burrowing, Lt is also evident, that except for relative size, the general overall morphological structure of the forelimb skeleton in Lhe wombat is quite similar to those of the kangaroo and the koala. Ulumately, differences in forelimb asteology of L.. fatifrons and KF oursinuy can he explained by reference to differences in their myology and structural mechanics. Sonntag (1923), and more recently Hildebrand (1974) have set (he lead in this respect, However, Sonntag only looked at the mya- lozy of Kk ursinus, while Hildebrand only eonsid- ered the structural mechanies of the forelimb of L. larifrens. In both cases their work was generalised 12 GG. SCOTT & KC, RICHARDSON and did not attempt to explain the functional anatomy of the two wombat genera, Of all the hindlimb bones studied, the pelvis shows more pertinent morphological differences between the two extant wombat species, However, relating these differences to the functional anatomy of the pelvis, and the hindlimb in general, awaits comprehensive information on the musculature of the hindlimb in the two wombat species. No detailed work has been done on wombat hindlimb myology. Waterhouse (1846), Macalister (1850), Sonntag (1923), and Elftman (1929) provided only general information on wombat (FV. ursinus) musculature, Their studies described the origins and insertions of a small number of muscle groups, but lacked detail, definitions and figures. In most instances they are of little value for interpreting the functional musculoskeletal anatomy of the pelvic region of the two wombats. Although this paper has compared the ost- eological differences of the hindlimb of L. /atifrons arid M ursinus, the interpretation of these differ- ences in terms of their respective functional ana- tomy awaits-a detailed investigation of the myology of the pelvic limb, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We would like to thank Dr C.P. Groves, Australian Nationa! University; Dr T, Flannery, Australian Museuin; Dr D. Horton, Institute of Aboriginal Studies; Joan Dixon, National Museum of Victoria; Dr R, Molnar, Queensland Museum; Dr C, Kemper, South Australian Museum, for making material available to us; and Dr D. Kitchener, Western Australian Museum for the specimens used in the photographs. Drs C.P, Groves and D, Horton both gave valuable advice and support over the duration of the project. We wish to thank Mr G. Griffiths for photography and Ms D, Passmore for so carefully typing the paper and earlier drafts, The project was primarily supported by an Australian National University Research Grant, REFERENCES BEWICK, T. 1800. ‘History of Quadrupeds’. 4th ed. Be- wick, Newcastle. CUNNINGHAM, D.J. 1882. Voyage of H.M.S. Chal- lenger. Zoal. ¥(xvi): 1-92, DE VIS, CW. 1892. Remarks on post-tertiary Phasco- lomyidae, Proc, Linn. Soc. N.S,M% 6(2); 235-246, ELFTMAN, HO. 1929, Functional adaptation of the pelvis in marsupials. Bull, American Mus, Nat. Hist. LVILI: 189-232. FLINDERS, M, 1801, ‘Observations on the coasts of Van Diemen’s Land, on Bass Strait and its islands, and on part of the coasts of New South Wales’. John Nichols, London, HILDEBRAND, M. 1974. ‘Analysis of Vertebrate Structure’. Wiley, New York. HABEL, R.E,, FREWEIN, J, SACK, W.O. (Eds,) 1983. ‘Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria’, 3rd Ed. International Committee on Veterinary Anatomical Nomenclature, Ithaca, New York. MACALISTER, A, 1850. On the myology of the Wombat and Tasmanian devil, Ann. May. Nat. Hist. 4 (5): 153-173, MURIE, J, 1467. On the identity of the hairy-nosed wombat (Phascalomys lasiorhinus Gould) with the broad-nosed wombat (A /atifrans Qwen), Prac. Zoal. Soc, Lond. 1867: 838-854. OWEN, R. 1838. On the osteology of the Marsupialia. Trans, Zool, Soc. Lond, 26: 379-412. SCOTT, H.H. 1915. Some notes on the humeri of wor- bats. Queen Kier, Mus, Launceston Brochure No. 5. Queen Victoria Museum, Launceston, SHAW, G, 1800. ‘General Zoology’, Kearsley, London, SIMPSON, G.G., Roe, A. & Lewontin, R.C.. 1960. ‘Quan- tilative Zoology’. Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc,, New York. SONNTAG, C.F. 1923. On the myology and classification of the wombat, koala and phalangers. Proc. Zool, Soe. Lond. 1923: 863-896, WATERHOUSE, G.R, 1846, ‘Natural History of the Mamunalia’. Vol. i; Marsupialia. TWO NEW LARVAL MITES (ACARINA: ERYTHRAEIDAE) ECTOPARASITIC ON NORTH QUEENSLAND CICADAS BY R. V. SOUTHCOTT Summary Two new larval mites are described, ectoparasitic on cicadas from Cape York Peninsula, Queensland : Leptus torresianus sp. nov. on Venustria superba Goding & Froggatt and Tamasa doddi Goding & Froggatt; Caeculisoma mouldsi sp. nov. on the same two species of cicadas and also on Mardalana suffusa Distant and Psaltoda fumipennis Ashton. Leptus torresianus larvae were attached to the denser chitin of the cicadas (first leg tibiae). Most Caeculisoma mouldsi larvae were attached to the wing veins, on both surfaces of both pairs of wings. TWO NEW LARVAL MITES (ACARINA? ERYTHRAEIDAE) ECTOPARASITIC ON NORTH QUEENSLAND CICADAS RV. SOUTHCOTT SOUTHCOTT, KY, 1988, “Fwo new larval mites (Acarina: Erythraeidae) ectoparasitic on north Queensland cueadas, Rec. S. Awsl, Afus, 22(2): 103-116. Iwo new larval injles are described, ectoparasitie on cicadas from Cape York Peninsula, Queensland: Leplus forresiunuy sp. nov. on Feaustria superba Goding & Proggatt and Tamasa doddi Goding & Froggatt, Caeculisoriu niduldst sp, nov, on (he same two species of cicadas and also on Mardaluna suffusa Distant and Psaltoda fumipennis Ashton, Leptus torresianus lurvae were attached to the denser chitin of rhe cicadas (first leg Hibiae), Most Cueculisania mouldsi larvae were allached lo [he wing veins, an both surfaces of both pairs of wings. RY. Southcott, Honorary Research Associate, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Manuseripr received 24 August 1987, Erythracid larval mites attach as ectoparasites to a wide variety of terrestrial arthropods (insects, collenibolans, arachnids) (Oudemans 1912; South- cott 1946, 1961b; Greenslade & Southcott 1980; Wel- bourr 1983). Various host usages ol cicadas have been recorded. Ishii (1953) recorded that Leprus kyushuerisis Ishii (Leptinae) parasitized three spe- cies in Japan: Graptosaliria colorata (Stal), Mei- muna opalifera (Walker) and Platypleura kaempyeri Matsumara; from New Zealand Mamorangia jack- soni Southeott (Callidosomatinae) was recorded trom Melampsalla oromelaena Meyers, and Momo- rungia vallara Southcart was recorded from Mel- ampsalia oramelaena and Melumpsalta sp. (South- cott 1972); Welbourn (1983: 138) recorded Lepius sp, on Mugicicada seplendecim (L.) in the United States. Various erythracid mite larvac have been found on other Homoptera eg. in the families Aleyro- didae, Aphididae, Cercopidae, Cicadellidae, Delph- acidae, Pulgoridae, Membracidae, Psyllidae (e.g. Qudemans 1910, 1912) Pussard & André 1929; Southcott 1946, 1961b, 1966, 1972; André 1951; Kawashima 1958, 1961a, b; Smiley 1968; Somermaa 1973; Tseng e/ a/, 1976; Yano & Ehara 1982; Wel- bourn 1983; Young & Welbourn 1987). Mr M.S. Moulds, Sydney, N.SW,, observed (pers. comm. 1987) small red miles parasitizing cicadas in north Queensland, and forwarded six pinned cicadas. Five of them had dried mites attached to the legs, wings and thorax, which represent two un- described species of Erythraecidae larvae. These are described below as Leplus /orresianus sp, nov. and Caeculisoma mouldsi sp, nov, (Fiz. | A-D shows a cicada and mites i” situ). Seta and other terminology follows Southcott (196la, b, c; 1963, 1972). All measurements are in micrometres (zm) unless otherwise stated, Two new shield measurements AAS and LX are introduced here. AAS is the distance between centres ol bases of AL scutala and ASens of the same side. LX is the distance of the levels of the AL scutalae behind the anteromost point of the scutum. (see Figs 2A-E). These measurements introduce a slight redundaney, since \ AAS? y, ( AW oe y: (ASBa-LX assuming perfect symmetry, Nevertheless, they appear useful in specific diagnoses of erythraeid mites, The types of both species are deposited ui the South Australian Museum. Genus Leptus Latreille, 1796 For synonymy see Southeott (1961b: 514). Diagnosis (for larva) See Southcott (1961b: $14), Remarks This is a cosmopolitan genus, with many species having been described as adults, and others as jarvae. Although in some cases correlation between larvae to deutonymphs had been recorded (South- cott 196lb: 517-521), a Cull correlation of a larva to the deutonymph and adult in Lepfus (an un- identified North American species) was achieved anly in 1973, by Treat (1975), Larvae parasitise a wide variety of terrestrial arthropods (Oudemans 1912; Southcolt 1961b, 1984: Treat 1975; Welbourn 1983). 104 RY. SOUTHCOTT FIGURE I. North Queensland cicada and its ectoparasitic mites. A, cicada, Venustria superba G. & ¥,, A2824, pre- served dry, with ectoparasitic larval erythracid mites in situ, serials ACA2308, 2309. Mite Y, attached to right tibia lis Lepius torresianus sp. noy., holotype, ACA2308. Other mites are Caeculisoma mouldsi sp. nov., ACA2309 series; mite J, attached to inferior surface of lef hind wing is holotype of C, mouldsi. B, holotype of L. forresianus, attached to lateral end distally of right tibia I, C, mites, C. mouldsi, specimens ACA2309B, C, D attached to vein of dorsal surtace of left anterior wing. D, mite ACA2309Z, C. mouldsi, seen in transparency, attached to wing vein on inferior surface of left posterior wing. All drawings to nearest scale. Leptus torresianus sp. nov. fed) 897, width 498, overall length from tip of (Figs 3A, B, 4A, B, 5) mouthparts to posterior pole of idiosoma 1118. Dorsal scutum moderately sclerotized, and forms Description of Larva (principally holotype, supple- approximately an equilateral triangle. Central part mented by paratypes) of its anterior border produced to a low protuber- Colour in dried state red. Idiosoma (mounted) ance, containing the anterior sensilla. Lateral bor- of normal ovoid shape for genus, length (partially — ders short, sloping anterolaterally. Posterolateral LARVAL MITES ON CICADAS 105 Latcx!| MedCx\|\ LatCxil| edCxi lI ~~ ——Pps FIGURE 2. Explanatory diagrams for conventions of abbreviations and measurements used for the larval erythraeid mites. A, dorsal scutum of a larval erythraeid mite with two pairs of scutalae (Leptus). B, dorsal scutum of a larval erythraeid mite with three pairs of scutalae (Caeculisoma). C, dorsal view of Caeculisoma sp., with legs omitted beyond trochanters. Oc. ‘ocular seta} MDS mid-dorsal setae; PDS posterior dorsal setae. 106 borders concave. Posterior pole of scutum rounded, enclosed in two narrow bars of chitin not meeting in the middle. Scutal scobalae curved, blunted, a little clavate, with dense covering of short, pointed, pigmented setules. Sensillary setae filiform, with fine setules distally. Standard and other data of scutum and legs as in Table 1, Eyes circular, 1+1, posterolateral to scutum, 24 across, RY. SOUTHCOTT Dorsum of idiosoma with 50 setae, slightly cla- vale, with pigmented but only slightly outstanding setules; setae arranged approximately 4, 6, 8, 8, 8, 8, 4, 4. Ventral surface of idiosoma: sternalae I bushy, blunted, more or less parallel-sided, sternalae II similar, 40 long; between levels of coxae II and III are four setae, anterior pair (sternalae III) bushy, expanding, 26 long, and posterior pair (sternalae IV) more medial, bushy but more slender, 42 long. TABLE |. Standard data for Lepfus torresianus sp. nov, larvae. Holotype Paratype Paratype Character ACA2308 ACA2311A ACA2311B Mean AW 102 92 94 96 PW 114 102 108 108 SBa 15 12 13 13.3 SBp 16 15 13 14.7 LX 13 24 14 17 ASBa 9 36 16 20.3 [ISD 48 39 58 48.3 L 76 73 84 77 Ww 12] 111 11S 115.7 AAS 42 38 40 40 A-P 16 16 19 17 AL 62 58 64 61.3 PL 65 67 67 66.3 ASE ¢.30 31 33 31.3 PSE c.60 c.55 46 53.7 DS 45-58 38-58 51-56 57.3* ‘Oc.’ 45 42 47 44.7 MDS 53 49 35 52.3 PDS 58 58 56 57,3 Gel 160 155 158 157.7 Til 230 228 226 228 Tal(L) 162 165 ~ 163.5 Tal(H) 21 20 — 20.5 Til/Gel 1.44 1.47 1.43 1.45 Gell 130 122 140 130.7 Till 199 195 _ 197 Tall(L) 140 138 ~ 139 ‘Ta(H) 20 20 =< 20 Gelll 155 139 155 149.7 Till 288 267 288 281 Tall) 160 1S6 157 157.7 Talli(H) 20 21 22 21 Tilll/Gelll 1.86 1.92 1.86 1,88 AW/ISD 2.13 2.36 1.62 2.04 ISD/A-P 3.00 2.44 3.05 2.83 AW/A-P 6.38 5.75 4,95 5.69 Stu 42 38 44 41.3 Cxi 83 73 _ 78 Cxil ¢.22 25 _ 23.5 Cxlll 40 c.40 48 42.7 TiL/AW 2.25 2.48 2.40 2.38 Till /AW 2.82 2.90 3.06 2.93 THUIN/Til 1.25 1.17 1.27 1.23 AW/AL 1.65 1.59 1.47 1,57 AL/AAS 1.48 1.53 1.60 1,54 *For the maxima of DS LARVAL MITES GN CICADAS or Between and behind coxae IIE 16 setae, 38-50 long, arranged 4, 4, 6, 2; setae well setulose, blunted, shghily expanding, posieriars tending to be more clavate and resembling posterior dorsal idiosomalae. Coxalae |, |, |, arising.as figured, Coxala 1 parallel- sided, terminally tapering to a blunted point, and carrying many fine, pointed setules; coxalae If, IL blunted, well setulase, somewhat clavate. Legs normal; lengths (including voxae and claws) 1935, IL 860, ib) 1015. Leg specialized sensory setae Uengths in parentheses); SoGel.42d(29), SoGel,59d(29), Vs- Gel, Y2d(6). Sotil.66d(35), SoTit.75d(42), Solil.87d(25), VsTILB9pd(5). VsGell.9ipd(9), Sofill.04d(29), SaTill-88d(23). SoTitLl.03d(36). Tarsus 1 with Sotal,62d(38); tarsus. 11 with Solall,42d(18), Tarsal claws: antertor almost straight with terminal ventral book; middle lJongesr, faleiform, smooth; posterior recurved, with ventral seluiles (see Fig. 3). Gnathosoma: chelicerae with rounded posterior element to bases, smooth, tapering 10 long anterior projections; length 205, maximum width of bases (22) ventral surface with faint transverse striations, With two pairs of hypostomalae, pointed, nude, anterior dorsal, 20 lang, posterior ventral (also near tip of hypestome) ¢. 60 long. Palpal setal formula 0,0, 1, 1, 3, 7, Palpal femorala and genuala well setulose, tapering, pointed, not clavate, tibialae setulose, Palpal supracoxala not identified. Palpal tibial claw smooth, wilh a single Lerminal hook, Material examined Holatype: Queensland; C.R,E.B, [a Queensland Regional Electricity Board| Road, ar Mt Hemmant, N. of Daintree, 2.7,1984, M.S, & BJ. Moulds, in rainforest; latva attached to lateral aspect of distal end of R. tibja | of cicada Venustria superba Goding & Froggatt (A2824) (see Fig. LA, B), N1987194 (ACA2308), Paratvpes: Mt Hartley, nr Roseville, S. of Conktown, 111984, M.S. & BJ. Moulds; on distal end of R. tibia lof cicada fariasa daddi (Gading & Froggatt) (A2826), two larvae N1987195 and NIY87IIG C(ACA23ILA, B). Remarks on laxonomy Leptus terresianus sp.nov. is placed in the group of Leptus laryae with one femoral seta and one genual seta on (he palp, which includes the majanly of described members of the genus, However it dil- fers from all deseribed larvae with the preceding character sel int having two specilized sensary setae (xpinalae or salenaidalac) on leg genu I. All others of this group have only one spinogentiala, except L, stiégimayri (Qudemans, (905) from Brazil, whieh has five (OQudemans 1912; 165), Some other Lep/us larvae have two or more such setae on venu I, but (hey also have two palpal femoral setae (scobalae) — these being L. ecvhinepus Beron, 1975, from Bulgaria, with five spivalae on genu lL, and L, south. corti Beron, 1975, ftom Bulgaria, with two spinalae on genu lI, Remarks on biology Lepius larvae appear generally to prefer hard, heavily chitinized parts of their hosts on which to attach by their mouthparts c.g. tibia in the case of L, torresianus, Treat (1975: 224) has also com- mented on this preference of an unnamed North American larval Leprus for an externally exposed sclerouzed area: “There is no seeking of soft mem- branes or crevices’. They are presumably able to util- ize a small apparently mabile tooth on the tip of the cheliceral digits (see Fig. 4B) as a gouging or boring piece. Etymology The specific name is from the Torresian region of northern Australia, Genus Caeculisoma Berlese, 1888 For synonymy see Southcort (L96)b! 524, 1972: 25). Diagnosis (far larva) See Southcort (1972: 25). Cavculisoma mouldsi sp. nov- (Figs 6A4-C, 7A, B, 8) Description of larva (principally Jram holotype. supplemented by paratypes) Colour in dried state red, [diosoma (mounted) of normal ovoid shape, length (partially fed) 600; width 385; overall length from tip of mouthparis to posterior pole af idiosoma 710. Dorsal scutum approximately oval, with slightly coneave anterior margin and rounded anterolateral angles. Anterolaleral borders almost straight; post- erojateral borders evenly rounded, Posterior sen- Sillary bosses protrude a little at posterior pole of scutum, Scufalae curved, tapering, blunted, lightly setulose with adnate setules. Sensillary setae li- form, with a few distal setules. Standard data as in Table 2. Eyes 1+], circular, 22 across, Dorsal idiosama setae curved, tapering, pointed, with a few adnate setules; arranged 2, 7, 6, 6, 4, 4, total 29. Ventral surface of idiosoma: sternalae curved, tapering, pointed, with a few setules; 1140 long, [Il 36, Behind coxac [1 about 12 similar setae, 33-38 long, arranged 4, 4, 2, 2. Conala [ slender, tapering, 108 RY. SOUTHCOTT / F - { Pasctit [ P Peg | | f PascGe ‘a I = } ' f Pasctis \\ Le a PaScFe Ns cz FIGURE 3, Leptus torresianus sp. noy., larva, holotype. A, dorsal view, legs omitted beyond trochanters, B, palpal tibia and tarsus, dorsal view. (Each to nearby scale.) LARVAL MITES ON CICADAS 109 um FIGURE 4. Leptus torresianus sp. nov., larva, holotype. A, ventral view, legs omitted beyond trochanters. B, tip of gnathosoma, ventral view. (Each to nearby scale.) 110 RV. SOUTHCOTT TABLE 2. Data on larvae of Caeculisoma mouldsi sp. nov. Character Holotype n range mean s.d. CV. AW 68 43 58-75 68.33 3.3432 4.8931 MW 77 43 72-82 77.16 2.7683 3.5876 PW 76 45 69-80 76.11 2.4423 3.2088 SBa 9 46 7-11 9.13 0.9800 10.7333 SBp 14 48 11-15 13.81 0.9600 6.9500 LX 7 38 5-9 6.24 1.1954 19.1660 ASBa 29 38 24-33 28.50 2.3452 8.2288 ISD 61 41 48-66 57.24 3.4408 6.0108 L 95 38 84-100 92.21 3.9808 4.3170 WwW 96 44 87-101 93.25 3.1852 3.4157 AAS 35 41 34-41 36.00 1.3038 3.6218 A-M 17 46 14-22 17.50 1.9061 10.8922 A-P 45 46 37-50 43.63 2.9010 6.6491 AL 54 33 35-56 48.18 5.2408 10.8771 ML 58 41 44-64 53.90 5.1176 9.4943 PL 56 45 38-56 47.18 4.1522 8.8011 ASE 44 44 35-49 41.59 3.1425 7.5557 PSE 67 41 55-68 63.37 3.0146 4.7574 DS 40-63 50 47-64* 56.43 4.0466 7.1712 Oc. 63 49 47-64 56.61 4.0353 7.1280 MDS 55 50 38-57 46.04 3.6809 7.9951 PDS 55 50 42-55 47.36 3.2561 6.8753 Gel 147 51 131-153 142.75 4.9673 3.4798 Til 201 50 175-206 186.70 7.0138 3.7567 Tal(L) 154 50 129-155 144.16 5.8322 4.0457 Tal(H) 18 50 16-22 18.60 1.3401 7.2049 Til/Gel 1.37 49 1.17-1.39 1.3018 0.0491 3.7719 Gell 140 51 122-142 131.06 5.0296 3.8376 Till 174 51 156-182 169.14 5.5462 3.2791 Tall(L) 147 51 131-151 140.43 4.1533 2.9576 Tall(H) 18 51 16-21 18.59 1.0035 5.3987 Till/Gell 1.24 51 1.19-1.35 1.2906 0.0418 3.2374 Gelll 157 50 140-165 151.10 5.8910 3.8988 Tilll 259 51 240-279 255.96 9.7118 3.7942 TallI(L) 156 51 137-164 152.84 5.5834 3.6531 TallI(H) 16 51 14-18 16.35 0.9343 5.7134 Tilll/GelllI 1.65 50 1.58-1.86 1.6942 0.0615 3.6309 AW/ISD 1.19 39 1.03-1.44 1.1941 0.0857 7.1750 ISD/A-P 1.36 41 1.16-1.53 1.3159 0.0814 6.1857 AW/A-P 1.51 38 1,30-1.86 1.5621 0.1211 7.7539 Stl 29 28 27-38 31.43 3.7061 11.7923 CxI 49 40 37-58 49.75 4.1618 8.3654 LatCxlII 38 48 26-40 34.94 3.1244 9.1560 MedCxII 45 42 36-53 45.19 3.1487 6.9675 LatCxIII 33 42 25-38 32.07 3.6519 11.3867 MedCxIlII 49 41 36-49 43.78 3.4894 7.9701 Til/AW 2.96 42 2.46-3.05 2.7305 0.1491 5.4640 Till1/AW 3.81 43 3.35-4.26 3.7614 0.2244 5.9670 AW/AL 1.26 28 1.20-1.97 1.4218 0.1881 13.2264 AL/AAS 1.54 29 0.97-1.62 1.3500 0.1498 11.0988 *For maxima of these setae pointed, with a few setules. Lateral coxala II curved, blunted, lightly setulose, lateral III similar; medial coxalae II, III as described for coxala I. Legs normal; lengths (including coxae and claws): I 790, II 750, III 915. Leg specialized sensory setae (lengths in parentheses): SoGel.85d(36), WsGel.90pd(5). SoTil.65d(60), CpTil.73d(7), SoTil.74d(55), VsTil.87pd(5). SoTill.79d(27). SoTill1.06d(50). VsGell.92pd(5). SoTill.07d(51), Tarsus I with SolaI.33d(48); long, tapering, pointed. Tarsus II with Sofall.43d(31), terminally expanding a little, blunted. Tarsal claws as for genus, all falciform. The posterior tarsal claw is somewhat obtusely-angled about halfway along, with a few ventral setules. LARVAL MITES ON CICADAS WM 100 200 ym FIGURE 5, Leptus torresianus sp. nov., larva, holotype. Legs I, Il, IIL, to standard symbols. Inset: tip of tarsus T, dorsal view. The symbol A indicates that the scta is shown in both drawings of the leg or other structure. a, m, p indicate anterior, middle and posterior tarsal claws, respectively, Vs vestigiala. So is used for tarsal solenoidala, Sp for other leg solenoidala (spinala), as in author's terminology. 112 RY. SOUTHCOTT 0 0 5 100 9 100 um 404 FIGURE 6. Caeculisoma mouldsi sp. nov., larva, holotype. A, dorsal view, legs omitted beyond trochanters. B, dorsal scutum. C, dorsal idiosomal seta. (Each to nearest scale.) LARVAL MITES ON CICADAS 113 FIGURE 7. Caeculisoma mouldsi sp. nov., larva, holotype. A, ventral view, legs omitted beyond trochanters. B, palpal tibia and tarsus, ventral view, from paratype ACA2310D (not to scale). RV, SOUTHCOTT 4 WI gs I, IT, Ill, to standard symbols, as in Fig. 5; Cp FIGURE 8. Caeculisoma mouldsi sp. noy., larva, holotype. Le companala; Fa famala. LARVAL MITES ON CICADAS 5 Grathosoma: cheliceral bases pyriform, smooth, 120 long by 93 wide (combined). Galeala smaoth, simple, pointed, 27 Jong. Hypastomala arises anter- ior to palpal trachanters, 40 long, with several long. setiiles, Palpal setal formula 0, 0, 1, 1, 3, 7. Palpal femorala tapering, pointed, well setulose, c. 42 long, Palpal genuala lapering, painted, 27 long, with a few setules. Palpal ribialae pointed, with a few set- iiles. Palpal tibial claw bifid, the dorsal tine weak. Palpaliarsus as figured. Gnathiosomal supracoxala a blunted peg, 4 long. Material examined Holotype: Queensland: C.R.E.B, Road, ur Mt Hemmant, N, of Daintree, 23,1984, M.S. & BT. Monlds, in rainforest, on wing of cicada Venusiria superba G. & F (A2824), larva NL987197 (ACA- 2309), Paratypes: Same data as holotype, nine larvae NI1I987198-N1987206 (ACA2309A-D, H, K-N). Mt Hartley, nr Roseville, $. of Cooktown, 11,1984, M.5. & Bl. Moulds, on Fenusiria superba G. & PF, (A2825), 27 larvae N1987207-N1987233. (ACA- 2310A-Z, ZA). Same locality, date and collectors, on cicada A2826 Tamase daddi(G. & F.), two larvae N1987234, NI987235 (ACAZ312A, B). Same locality, date and collectors, on cicada A2827 Mardalana suffusa Distant, nine larvae N1987236-N1987244 (ACA23139A-1). Same localiry, date abd collectors, on cicada A2829 Psaltoda fumipennis Ashton, three larvae NI987245— NJ987247 (ACA2314A-C), Remarks on distribution and laxanamy: Caeculisoma was founded by Berlese (1888; 186) on (wo adult mites. referred to C tberculaium Berlese, 1888, one collected under decomposing fungi at Buenos Aires, Argentina, and the other trom under tree bark at Asuncion, Paraguay. Cor relation with the larva was estabhished by Southcott (196la, b) for the Australian C darwiniense South: cott, 1961, The species are known only from South- ern Hemisphere locations, and larvae have beet! described only from Australia arid New Zealand, ©. darwiniense is known fram Northern Territory, Queensland, New Sourh Wales, South Australia and Western Australia, recorded hasts being Acrididae (Orthaplera); GC cooremarti Southeott, 1972, is known from Western Australia (Acrididae); © Auxleyi Southcatt, 1972, is reeorded from New Zealand, patasitizing Xanthorhoe sp. (Lepidoptera: Geometridae), GC mouldsi sp. nov. is Known only as Jarvae froma Limited area of rropical Australia (Cape York Peninsula), parasitic on cicadas. Fora discussion of the generic classification of the tribe Callidosomatini, see Treat (1985) and ‘Southeatt (L988). In the key to the larvae of Cuecwlisorma (Southeott 1972; 25-26), © nrouldsi comes down to caption (3), whicl may be replaced by: 3 (2) PD setae in range 20-30um long ........- _& sparnoni Southeott PD setae in range “40- 90um long ...... 4 4 a PD serae in range 40-60um long - Ate eg Fe ent deta Cc. mouldsi sp. nov, PD setae in range 70-90pm long —..-..-. Bigeye: C. huxleyi Southcatt (New Zealand) Etvnrelogy The Species is named for the collectors. ACKNOW! — DOMENT T thank the Australian Biological Resources Study fer support, REFERENCES. ANDRE, M. 1951. Nouvelles observations sur le Bochurtia kuvperi Qudemans (acarien), Bull, Mus, Hest, Nat, Paris (2) 23 (3); 253-255. BERLESE, A. 1888. Acari Austra-Amerivani qos callenit Aloysius Balzan. Boll, Soe. Ent. Ital. We: 171-222. RERON, PF. 1975. Erythraeidae (Acurifarmes) larvaires de Bulgurie, dew zoolaygica bulearica W 45-75. OREENSLADE, PLM, & SOUTHCOTT, RY, 18U- Parasitic mites on smintharid Collembola in Australia. Entomulogisc’s man. Mag. (V6. 83-87. ISHIL, ¥. 1953. A new species of Leplus trom Kyushu (Acarina: Erythraeidae). Igaku Kenkyuu (Acta medical 23 (9): 160-163, KAWASHIMA, K. 1958, Studics on larval erythracid mites parasitic on arthropods fram Japan (Aearina: Erythracidac). Avushu J ted. Sei. 9: 190-2) b. KAWASHIMA, K. I94@la. Notes on larval mites of the venus Charlerontu Oudemans, 1910 in Japan (Acarina: Erythravidae), Ayushe £ red. Sei. V2 O): 15-19, KAWASHIMA, K, 1961b, On the occurrence of ihe genus Eryrhraeus Latreille in Japan, with key fo known genera and species of Japanese larval Erythraeidae (Acarina). Ayushy J med, Sei, 12 (5) 233-239, LATREILLE, P.A, 1796, Précis des caracteres. genériques des insecles, disposes dans un ordre naturel, Prévot, Paris & F. Bourdeaax, Brive. OUDEMANS, AC. L905, Acarologische aanteekeningen XVII, Ent. Ber, Antst. b (24); 236-241. OUDEMANS, A.C. 1910. Acarologische aanteckeningen XXNI, £nt, Ber, Amst. 3 (52): 47-4). OUDEMANS, A.C, 1912, Die bis jetat bekannten Laryen von Thrombidiidaec und Erythracidae mit besonderer Berticksichtigung der fiir den Mensehen schidlichen Arten, Zool, Jb, Abt. 1, Suppl. XUV, No, |: 1-230, PLISSARD, R. & ANDRE, M, 1929, Nole sup Bochartla kuyper) Oudms., acaricn parasife de pucerons. Revue Path. ves. Brit. agric. Fr. 1619 & (0): 295-302. 116 RY. SOUTHCOTT SMILEY, R.L. 1968. A new genus and three new species of Erythraeoidea (Acarina; Erythraeidae and Smarididae). Prac. ent. Soc. Wash. 70 (1): 13-21, SOMERMAA, K, 1973. Versuche mit chemischer Bekampfung von Javesella pellucida (F.) (Hem, Delphacidae) und Beobachtungen iiber Raubmilben (Acar., Prostigmata und Gamasina). Meddn_ St, VaxtskAnst, 15 (150): 357-370. SOUTHCOTT, RY. 1946. Studies on Australian Eryth- raeidae (Acarina). Proc, Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 71 (1-2): 6-48. SOUTHCOTT, RY. 196la. Notes on the genus Caecu- lisoma (Acarina: Erythracidae) with comments on the biology of the Erythraeoidea. Trans, R. Soc. 8. Aust, 84: 163-178. SOUTHCOTT, RV. 1961b. Studies on the systematics and biology of the Erythraeoidea (Acarina), with a critical revision of the genera and subfamilies. Aust. J. Zool, 9 (3): 367-610. SOUTHCOTT, RY. 1961c. Description of two new Aust- ralian Smarididae (Acarina), with remarks on chaeto- taxy and geographical distribution. Trans. R, Soc, 8, Aust, 85: 133-153. SOUTHCOTT, RV. 1963. The Smarididae (Acarina) of North and Central America and some other countries. Trans. R. Soe. S. Aust. 86: 159-245, SOUTHCOTT, RV. 1966, Revision of the genus Charle- tonia Oudemans (Acarina: Erythraeidae). Aust. J. Zool. 14 (4): 687-819. SOUTHCOTT, RY. 1972. Revision of the larvae of the tribe Callidosomatini (Acarina; Erythraeidae) with observations on post-larval instars. Aust. J. Zool, Suppl. Ser, 13; 1-84. SOUTHCOTT, RY. 1984. Acari from Operation Drake in New Guinea. 4. A new species of Lepius (Eryth- racidae). Acarologia 25 (4): 351-358. SOUTHCOTT, RY. 1988. A new Australian larval callido- somatine mite (Acarina: Erythracidae) parasitic on flies, with notes on subfamily and tribe classification. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.WO 110 (2): 193-204, TREAT, A.E. 1975. Mites of moths and butterflies. Cor- nell Uniy. Press, Ithaca and London, TREAT, A.E, 1985. Larval Callidosoma (Acari, Eryth- raeidae): new records and a new rearing from the Americas, Internat. J. Acarol. 11 (2): 93-124. TSENG, Y.H., YANG, 8.L., & PAN, Y.S. 1976, Two new erythraeid mites from Taiwan (Acarina: Prostigmata). Taiwan Sugar Research Institute, Report No. 74; 63-73. WELBOURN, W.C. 1983. Potential use of trombidioid and erythraeoid mites as biological control agents of insect pests, Pp. 103-140 in M.A. Hoy, G.L. Cunning- ham & L.. Knutson (Eds). ‘Biological Control of Pests by Mites’. Agric. Exp. Sta, Div. Agr. Nat. Res. Univ. Calif., Berkeley, Special Publication 3304, YANO, K. & EHARA, S. 1982. Erythraeid mites (Acarina, Erythracidae) parasitic on planthoppers. Kontyfi 50 (2): 344-345, YOUNG, O.P, & WELBOURN, WC. Biology of Lasio- erythraeus johnstoni (Acari: Erythraeidae), ectoparasitic and predaceous on the tarnished plant bug, Lyeus lineo- laris (Hemiptera: Miridae), and other arthropods, Arn, ent. Sac, Am, 80 (2): 243-250. REVISION OF AUSTRALASIAN HYDROPHILUS MULLER, 1764 (COLEOPTERA : HYDROPHILIDAE) BY C. H. S. WATTS Summary The genus Hydrophilus Muller in Australia, New Guinea and New Caledonia is revised and descriptions given for each of the 11 species recognised, three of which are new (H. novaeguineae, H. viridis and H, infrequens). The following new synonyms are proposed : 1) Hydrophilus picicornis (Chevrolat, 1863) = Hydrophilus gayndahensis Macleay, 1871 = Hydrophilus sabelliferus Fairmaire, 1879 = Stethoxus sabellifer Bedel, 1891: 2) Hydrophilus brevispina Fairmaire, 1879 = H. scissipalpus Blackburn, 1901: 3) Hydrophilus loriai (Regimbart, 1902) = Hydrous gebieni Knisch, 1922a. A key to species is provided. REVISION OF AUSTRALASIAN HYDROPHILUS MULLER, 1704 (COLEOPTERA: HYDROPHILIDAE) CHS. WATTS WATTS, C.H.S. 1988, Revision of Australi Hyedrophitus Muller, (764 (Coleoptera Nydraphilidacy, Kec, S dusé Mts. 22(2)2 17-10, The genus /vdrophilus Muller in Australia, New Guinea and New Caledon: is revised and deseriprions given for each of the Lb species recogmised, three of which are new U/L. novacenineac, Al. viridis anc HM. infrequens). The followin oew synonomys are proposed? 1) Avdrophilus picicornis (Cheyrolit, 1863) = Aydraphilus gayndahensis Macleay, IN71 0 A ydrophilus sabelliferus Falrmaire, 1879 - Stethonus shelliter Bede, 180122) Mydrophilus brevispina Pairmaire, W879 = HH. scissipudpus Blackburn, 1901: 3) Mydraphilus loria’ (Regimbart, 1902) = Hydrous eehiend Kaisch, 1922a, A key Lo species is provided, C.HLS. Watts, South Austavian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia S000, Manuscript received 8 March 1988. Among the most prominent of Australian water beetles are the large black species of Hydrophilidac which belong to the world-wide genus Ayvdrophilus Muller 1764 (see Balfour-Browne 1941, and Pope 1985, for discussion of the use of this name for the genus). They are conimon in collections although they are seldom abundant in any one waler body, An exeeption occasionally oceurs in drying inland pools when both adults and larvae of same species can be found in large numbers. The Aus(ralasian species have been revised and keys which invlude the Australasian species have been produced by Bedel (1891), and Regimbart (1902), But these studies were based on the exam- ination of the relatively few specimens avatlable i Europe at the time with the result thal variation within species is underestimated. Conversely the lack of type material in Australia has led to mis- identifications being perpetuated, As a resull mal- erial in Australian collections is usually poorly identified, My studies have shown that there are seven en- demic species in Australia, one in New Caledonia and iwo in New Guinea. In addition the common Indonesian species, A. picicornis, oecurs widely in New Guinea and eastern Australia, Hydrophilus \s a world wide venus. Because of this 1 have made no allempt to think cladishcally uboul the Australasian species. Suffige to say that phenotypically they fall into (three groups, The largest group, characterised by a short stout sternal spine and little abdominal pubeseence, comprises H. latipalpus, H. pedipalpus, A, macronyvx, H. australis, H. novaegnineae, H. albipes, and H, hrevispina, A second group, comprising /. picicarnis and H, loriaand characterised by a very long sternal spine and conmipletely pubescent sternal segments, is part of a large group of Asian species. Phe final group comprises lwo new species, H- viridis and H, infrequens, which have a short sternal spine and the sides of the abdominal sternac broadly pubescent: they are also smaller and srouter than most Hydrophilus, resembling Mfydrobiomorpha Blackburn in general shape. Both adult and larval Aydrophilus are aquatic. The larvae are large, fleshy and carnivorous, livirie and hunting among the weeds at the edges and bottom of shallow ponds. Although frequently collected, no larvae of Australian species have yet been described, Diagnostic characters of the penus Mydrophilius are; large (21-46 mm), prominent keel on underside produced hackwards into & spine of varying length, apical margin of clypeus complete, prosiernun deeply sulcate (hood-like) posteriorly ta receive apes of sternal keel. Specimens were examined from the following collections: AM Australian Museum, Sydney ANIC Australian National Inseet Collection, CSIRO, Canberra BMNH Brilish Museum (Natural History), London CW Private collection of author MNHP Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris NMY Museum of Victoria, Melbourne NTM Northern Terruory Museum and Art Gallery, Darwin bUQ Snromology Department, Liniversity of Queensland QDPI Queensland Department of Primary Industties, Mareeba QM Queensland Museum, Brisbare SAMA South Australian Museum, Adelaide WAM Western Australian Museum, Perth SYSTEMATICS KEY TO AUSTRALASIAN /7YDROPLIILNS 1 —‘Tipolsternal carina reaching beyond 2nd ubdoounal segment, abdominal segment Ms UALS, WATTS entirely pubescent...) 2.2... .2.2., 2 — Tip of sternal carina not reaching beyond 2nd abdominal segment, abdominal segments with at least central portions non-pubes- d-1)] ee Se eo ee ee, ear ne bee 3 2(1) — Front portion of sternal carina wide, broadly suleate (Fig. 4) /oriai (Regimbart) — Front portion of sternal carina narrow, narrowly sulcate (Fig. 5) ......,..,., oki {Aad feta ., pleicornis (Chevrolat) 3(1) — Abdominal segments with all but ventral portions pubescent, small (18-25 mm), often olive-greenish ..... pecreer ee IO — Abdominal segments only pubescent in front angles, usually larger (20-46 mm) 4 43) — Tip of elytron distinctly spined, tip of Slernal carina reaching to second abdominal segment, groove on front cdge of pronotum reaching past level of inner edge of adjacent eve ....,-,... ee. 005 re itemtars § australis Montrouzier = Tif of elytron rounded or weakly spined. Tip of sternal carina usually not reaching second abdominal segment, groove on front edge of pronotum yariable ,.. 5 5(4) — Rugose area on front edge of Ist abdo- minal segment <4 length of segment, Metalemur robust ...-....-.....2.. 6 — Rugose area on front edge of Ist abdo- minal segment !2-*4 length of segment 8 6(5) — Spine on underside of claw on protarsi of female in middle of claw, labial palpi thickened particularly in male, claws on protarsi of male enlarged, somewhat flatrenedl,, outer twice size of inner (Fig, 1.) a re! novaezuinege 6p. Noy. — Spine on underside of claw of protarsi of female towards base of claw, labial palpi normal, outer claw on protarsi of male either grossly enlarged or thin and not fattened (Figs 10 & Ih) ..,, 7(6) — Large (34-40 mm), groove along front edge of pronotum usually short, confined to extreme sides, protarsal claws of male Hreatly enlarged, spade-like, punctures on ouler face of protibia sharply impressed afehe wapea's aoe. . nucronyz (Regimbart) — Small (27-35 mm), groove along front edge of pronotum usually reaching to level ol inner border of eye, protarsal claws of male subequal but only slightly enlarged, punctures on outer face of protibia Weak a ehe aletsmech = brevispina Fairmaire &(4) — Smaller (21-30 mmm), row of stout setae on outer face of pratibia to about !4 length ol tibia, male maxillary palpi of male simple oy. cy. cee ». albipes Castelnau — Larger (30-46 mm), row of stout setae on outer face of protibia more than 24 length of tibia, male maxillary palpi of male PMlae ad ep es es 9 9(8) — Elytral striae relatively weak, sternal car- ina in male deeply grooved in front, flat in female, male antenna with Jirst and second joint greatly expanded, maxillary palpi in male expanded .,..,.,...., apt aA at p pedipalpus (Bedel) — Elytral stride Well marked, particularly to- wards apex, sternal carina of male flat, in female with rounded downward extention at anterior apex, apex of elytron rounded or squared off, male antenna with moderately expanded second segment, maxillary palpiin male normal ARES As Prneeen oan latipalpus Castelnau 1Q(3) — Small (18-21 mn), light olive green when dry, inner edges of rugose areas on abdominal segments 2 and 3 not adjacent, giving saw-toothed pattern... ... 20.02. Aas See ne oe» ee viridis Sp. Nov, — Large (23-25 mm), dark olive-green or reddish black when dry, inner edges of Tigose areas on abdominal segments 2 and 3 approximately adjacent ..-....- 4 omin Seca eh snee seen eet sents infrequens sp. nov. Hydrophilas macronyy (Regimbart) Stethoxus macronyx Regimbart, 1902, p. 194, Hydrous macronyx (Regimbart), Knisch, 1924, p. 249, Description (Mumber examined 11) Length 34-39 mm, Oval. Dark olive-green to black, appendages lighter, reddish with well marked yellowish spots at side of each abdominal segment, Most of emarginate area on clypeus and mem- branous area of hind edge of abdominal segments 3-4 yellowish. Head with clypeus widely emar- ginate, 60-80 large punctures on frons area, densely covered with small punctures of two sizes, the smal- ler greatly predominating. AUSTRALASIAN HYDROPHILUS 119 FIGURES 1-5. 1, maxillary palpus of male H. /atipalpus; 2, H. brevispina; 3, ditto H. pedipalpus; 4, sternal keel of holotype of H. loriae; 5, ditto of H. picicornis (holotype of H. sabelliferus). 420 CHS WATIS fronotal punctures as an head, with a distinel groove around lateral edge, exeept near exterior lind angle, extending lor only a short distance dlong front margin, some large punctures cowards side, Elytron punctured as on head wilt four langi- tudinal rows of scattered large punctures in weak brooves, Manked an each side by row of very small punctures, traceable over whole elytron, a little more developed towards apes where they remain muvh smaller rhan punctures in maio rows. Apes of elytron smoochly rounded. Stermal carina (lat, with narrow grove on hind section, well marked Short carina on surface between mexocoxae, spine Short. bhint reaching to little more than “ way uvross lirst abdaminal segment. Prosternal pillar wide, scoop-like with quite deep groove for feveplian ob stemal carina, Lateral plate of mesosivrnum short, broad, Metatibia very broad, much larger than width of 2nd abdominal segment, Metacoxal plates pot particularly jarrow, about sume width as 3rd abdominal seement Pilose portion of Ist abdommal sezment reaches about la AWAY across seprient. Pilose portions of sides of other abdominal segments abour o width of segment, Mind edge of Ist abdominal seement with some Well marked punctures. Abdominal segment weakly roofed in midline. Grouve around edge of apical abdominal segineht complete except for small portion al tip. Female: protarsi not §>(253 -4- 1) in lenzth}, Male: protarsi as in Fig. 16. Segment 5 massively expanded especially on bottom front edge, behind this Hap is.a row of stout setae; segment 4 und to ao lesser degree segment 3 with elongate triangular expansion jy same plane as seement § [38> >(1=2=3 =4)in length], Outer claw massive, Natly expanded, almost as large as segment S, inner claw greatly expanded, parallel-sided and flattened, {sr scement of lapial palpi a little stouter ian if female, Purameres narrow, bent, hooked al tip, Aedeagus shorl narrow, spermathecal opening very witle, beyond middle, expanded [segment Type Stethaxus macrony; Revimbart. Rockhampton, in MNHP, One of two Specimens ised by Regimbart burt fot specifically. destznated as the Type. Herein designated lectolype. Distribution (Fig. 17) Koown only from coastal regions of Noriherr Territory and Cape York. Remarks A large speeies readily recouiised tron the other large Australian species, ff, pedipalpis and H, fali- polpus, by (he robust metafemurs and the greatly emarged spade-like claws on the male protarsi. Separated from F/, nevaeguinewe by characters given under that species, Additional localines N.T. — Darwin AM, Qenpelli NMV, SAMA, NTM, OLD — Pt Denison AM, Tolya QDPI, Yirrkala AM, Hydrophilus pteicornis Chevrolat Aydrophilus riuficornis Boisduval, 1835, name preoceupied by Mydrophilis ruficornis Klug, 1833), Hydroperns pivicortus Cheyrolat, |863, p. 204; Srethoxus piciwarais (Chevrolaly. Bedel, 189b, p. 316; Kuwert. 1899, p.9L; Regiimburt, 1902, p. 203; Knisch, 1922b, p, 2; Kniseh, 1924, p, 256, Fydrophilus guvndahensis Macleay, 1871, p. 124, syn. nov.; Blackburn, 1901, p. 129. Hedrous gavn- dahensis (Macleay), Kuwert, 1893, p. 92; Kniseh, 1924, p. 248. Hydraphilus sabelliferus Fairmaire, 1879, p. 80. syn. tov, Avdrous sabelliferus (Fair- maire), Knisch, 1924, p. 248. Srerhoxus sabellifer Bedel, L891, p. 316. syn. nov. (unjustified emen- dation of subelliferus Mairmaire); Regimbart, 1902, p, 204, Hydrous sabellifer (Bedel), Knisch, 1924, p. 248, Deseriplion (umber examined 233) Length 21-32 em. Blongate oval. Dark olive green (o black, appendages of head and a diffuse spot laterally on each abdominal seamen) reddish- brown, Heacl with clypeus relatively weakly eMarkinale; 40-60 large punctures in (rons area, densely punctured with small punetures of two sizes, the smaller morc numerous and minute, Pronotum punctured as on head, with a distinet groove around lateral edge, excepe for hind anvle, and along [ront lo about “ width of provotum on either side; a few very large punetures towards sides, Elytron with very line reticulatian but virtually lacking puuctures other than the following, excep! lor some very small ones towards apex. Pour distinet rows of even punetures, the 1st, 2nd and 4th, to a lesser degree, with puhetufes close {ogether, the 3rd with only a few sparse punctures, Each row flanked on each side by a row of very small punctures only visible in certain lights. Apex of elyiron trunvated with or without a small blunt spiue ot suturalangle. Sternal carina thin, weakly and widely grooved in (ront portion, hind portion with slight thin groove, spine ereatly clongared, sharp, reaching to hind “2 of 3rd segment with tendency fa bend downwards towards tip. Prosternal pillar squat, deeply and narrowly grooved for reception of sternal carina. Metacexal plate a little narrower than metatibia, Metatibia AUSTRAL ASIAN FY DROPTILUS it about width of Ind abdominal segment. Pilose area on underside completely covering abdominal sez- melts, Oecasjonally some thicker goldeh fairs i midline. Female; prolars: not expanded [seement Rm =2> —(1 —3>4) in length], Male: provarsi as in Fig. 9. Fut seument weakly expanded almost equal mm length to 2nd. Claws narrow, curved, outer considerably larger than inner [segment S< <(2> >3>4= 1) in lengih], Parameres elongate, thin, aedeagus thick at base, rapidly. tapering at tip. Spermathecal duct opening near lip. Types Hydrophilus govaduheasis Macleay, There are two Specimens int the ANLC (on permanent loan from the Macleay Museum) fram Gayndah labelled as syotypes. One is a male in good condihon, the other has Jost most of its tarsi, In addition there wre (Wo specimens in AM cach labelled ‘Holotype’. Presumably these are the specimens designated hy MeKeows 1948. One, without locality and labelled only K19395'is a specimen of A. a/bipes, the other with the same number is labelled “Wydraphilus gayndahensis Gayndal’ and is a specimen of H, varndahensis, | leel reasonably certain that the true holotype is among these specimens anc herein designate the specimen labelled “A‘ydrophilus gayn- dahensis Gayndah’ in AM as the lectotype and the Macleay Museum specimens as paraleclotypes. Hydroporus picicornis Cheyrotat. Not located, Type locality given as Cuba by Chevrolat but this locality has been discounted by most authors (cf, Bedel 1891; Kniseh 1924), Hydrophilus ruficornis Boisduyal, Not loeared. Type locality, ‘Nouvelle Hollande’ It is possible that this is the same insect as A. picicornis, It is however an occupied name having been used in 1833 by Klug for a Madagascan species. Alydrophilus sabelliferus Pairmaive, mate, labelled ‘Aydrophil sabelliterus Fairm L, Viti-leon’ (rom collection Leon Pairmaire 1904, in MNHP, | herein designate it leetolype since it is ulclear Whether this isa holotype or a syntype. Synonymy based on examination of types and deseription of tl picicornis Renuirks Readily recognisable from all other Ausiralasian Hydrophilus, except HA. feriai, by long sternal carina, Which reaches 2 length of abdomen. and by the abdominal scuments completely covered by pilosity; separated from H. furia: by characters given under that species. Distribution Coastal Australia from the Kimberly to northern New South Wales (Fig, 17), Sew Guinea and other islands ta north of Australia. A widespread species through Indonesia, New Guinea, Pacine Islands and yorthert Australia, 1 have nat seriously studied the northern ar western geographic boundaries of this species but consider specimens seen from Vietnam and the Philippines should be included, There is a north-south trend in size with Specimens trom Sulawesi and the Philippines uveraging considerably larger than those from Australia. Addinanal Localities W.A, — Drysdale R, ANIC, Mitchell Plateau ANIC, QLD -~ Ayr ANIC, Bigvenden ANIC, Brisbane ANIC, BMNH, Bundabere ANIC, Cairns ANIC, Cooktown QDPI, Kdungalba ANIC, Ingham ANIC, Innisfail QDPI, Iron Range ANIC, Lamington Nat, Pk ANIC, Marreeba ODPI, MI Spee ANIC, Nambour ANIC, Ravenshoe ANIC. Rockhampton ANIC, AM, Samford ANIC, Tolva QDPI, Tully ANIC. N.T, — Adelaide R. NIM, Cobourg Pen, ANIC, Daly River Crossing ANIC, Daly R. SAMA, Darwin ANIC, Gave NMY. Humpty Doo QUPI, Jabiru NTM, Roangarra ANIC, Mt Cahill ANIC, Nabarlek Dam ANIC, Nourlangie ANIC, NMY, 120° 34°S8 [31> THR NTM. N.S.W. — Bonville ANLC. Iuka AM. Kempsey ANIC, SAMA, Lismore AM, Mucleay R. ANIC, Pc Macquarie AM, Repten AM, ALC, 1. — Black Mt ANIC, Other — Fiji BMNH. Finesterre Mes (P.N.G.) BMNH, Java SAMA, 90 kay W Lae (P.N.G.) BMNH, Minnka R- (P.N AG.) BMNH, PL Moresby (P.N.Gi,) BMNH, Pr Yiperres (P.N.G.) BMNH, Sulawesi HMNH. Hydrophilus torjai (Reeiibar) Stefhoxus luria’ Regimbart, L902, yy. 194_ Hydraus gehieni Rnisch, 1922, po VOR, win nis Descriplion (number examined 9) Length 31-33 mm. As for #7 picicarnds except as follows. Generally larger. Apex of elytnt backcut towards sutural edge which usually has a small but well-narked spine. Sréechal carina broad in front, narrowing behind, mesastermal portion broadly and deeply sulcate (Fig. 4) whereas in A. picicornis the carima is narrower and has a mugh weaker groove (Fig. 5). Apical portion of sternal carina tending to bend upwards so a4 to renin equidistant from abdamen Whereas in piecurntis il is almost invariably straight ar bent downwards away fram the abdomen, The tips of the parameres dre more swollen in this species, Types Sterhoxus loriai Rezimbart, Holotype male labelled ‘T.,Loria/Miuse Civ Genova’ with hand- written label 4oriai Reg’ in MNP. therein desip- 122 C.H.S. WATTS FIGURES 6-16. Protarsus of male: 6, H. viridis; 7, H. infrequens; 8, H. albipes; 9, H. picicornis; \0, H. brevispina; ll, H. australis; 12, H. loriae; 13, H. pedipalpus; 14, H. novaeguinea; 15, ditto H. latipalpus; 16, H. macronyz. nate it lectotype since it is unclear whether this is Distribution a holotype or a syntype. New Guinea; L. Loria, Amboin (ANIC), Lae Hydrous gebieni Knisch. Not located (not in and Humboldt Bay District, Irian Jaya (in BMNH), BMNH, MNHBP, or Brussels). Synonymy based on Kaiserin Augusta River (type locality of H. examination of type and description of H. gebieni. gebieni). The four specimens from Amboin, New AUSTRALASIAN HY DROPITILUS 12 Guinea, (Col. H, Ohlmus 16/10/74) agree well with the type except that they are notiveably broader. Remarks The differences between 4. loriai and A. pici- cornis are slight and at irst J eansidered the former only a subspecies of H. picicormjs, However the three Amboin specimens were collected together with typical A. pielcornis which virtually rules out subspecies, This and the lack of specimens with intermediate characters, particularly the broadly suleale slernal carina, have persuaded me to treal- H. loriai as a good" species. Hydrophilus australis Montrouzier Hydrophilus australis Montrouzier, 1860, p, 248; Fauyel, 1883, p, 351. S/ethoxus australis (Mantrau- zier), Fauvel, 1903, p. 354: Bedel, 1891, p. 317; Kuwert, 1893, p. 87; Regimbart. 1902, p. 207. Hydrous australis (Moptrouzier), Raisch, 1924, p, 247. Description (number examined 26) Length 32-36 mm. Qvyal, dark olive-green 16 black. Appendages of head, a well marked spot at sides of cach abdominal segment, the membrancous hind edge of abdominal segments 2-4 and hind portion of emarginate area on clypeus reddish- yellow. Head with clypeus deeply and widely emar- ginate, 40-60 large punctures on frons area, densely covered with extremely small punctures. with scallered larger ones, Pronotum punctured as on head, with a distinct groove around lateral edge. exeept for hitid angle, and along front margin to about vs way to centre, some large punctures towards sides, Elytron punctured a§ on head with au minute reticulation, four longitudinal raws of rather sparse seattered large punctures, each row Nanked on either side by a row of small punctures, towards apex these become more noticeable than main rows of punctures, towards front virtually Untraceable. Apex of elytron rounded, with well- marked small spine, Sternal carina quile broad particularly towards front where it is deeply and widely grooved, weakly but sharply grooved towards rear, spine sharp, reaching fo or just beyond base of 2nd abdaminal segment. Posternal pillar pointed, deeply grooved for receiving end of sternal carina. Lateral plate of mesosternum relatively lone and narrow. Metalibta relatively narrow, equal to or a litle less chan width of second abdominal scwment.. Metacoxal plate narraw, lie narrower than metatibia. Pilose partion of Ist abdominal segment reduced to narrow band along front margin, that on other abdoniinal seements tia about ! width of seermerits, both virtually lacking in selae, Abdominal segments 2-5 with broad, rather ill-defined roofing, groove around edge of apical abdominal segment lacking in apical a. Female> protarsi not expanded [segnicst §<(2>3> -4<1) in length]. Mule; protarsi asin Fig, 11. Claws thin, curved, subequal [segment $<(2>3=4<1) in length], Parameres Ilat, aedeagus relatively shart, opening of spermathecal duct beyand middle. Type A specimen of unknown sex, labelled 'Hydro- philus Australis Montr, N. Caledonie’ in MNHP fram Coll. L, Bedel, 1922. The specimen lacks palps and protarsi, Since itis unclear whether this is a holotype or syntype | herein designate il as lectotype. Distribution New Caledonia. Remarks Separated [rom the other large Hyvdrophilus af the region by having the tips of the elytra distinetly spined and the spine of the sternal carina reaching al leas! to the second abdominal segment. Hydrophilus brevispina Fairmaire Hydrophilus brevispina Fairmaire, 179, p. RO: Fauvel, (883, p. 351. Sre(hoxus hrevispina (Pair naire), Bedel, 1891, p. 317; Reglmbart, 1902, pp. 208, Alvdraus brevissimus Kuwert, 1893, p, 87, either a mistake or unjustified emendation of Hydrous brevispina Fairmaire, 1879; Blackburn, 1896, p. 225. AYydrous brevispina (Fairtiaire), Knisch, 1924, p. 247, Aydrophilus scissipulpis Blackburn, 1901, p. 128, syn. nov. Aydrons scissipalnis (Blackburn), Knisch, 1924, p. 257. Descripfion (number exaniined 219) Length 27-35 mm. Elongate oval. Dark olive- green, appendages reddish, an orange-yellow patel) in middle of cach ventral abdominal segment a! sides. Head with clypeus deeply and widely elon- gare, exposed poriion yellowish, 60-80 large pune- tures in frons area, densely covered with much smaller punctures af two sizes, smallest very small bul well-marked. Pronotun purictured on head, with distinct gropye around lateral edge and lor about 4 way along lront margin, some large punc- tures inwards of this groove in front angles. Elytron punctured as on head with four longitudinal rows of seattered punctures in weak depressions, Nanked on either side by a row of extremely small punctures }24 C.H.5, WATTS only noticeable in some lights; .peX of elyturon hionily rounded, nat traneated, Sternal carina owrow, flacin trent, weakly but sharply grooved in hind quarter, a short sharp ridge in midline at rear of Mesesternal portion in some, spine short, blunt reaching lo about ve way aerogs first ubdoniinal sternite. Prosternal pillar thin, poitried, open with little or no hood over groave for stecual carina, Lateral plate of mesosternum relatively shortand broad, Metalibia relatively broad, 4 little larger than width of 2nd abdominal segment Pilose portion of Ist.abdominal seginent to about ‘ys Width, Rugose portions of Other abdominal seemenls reduced to small patches ia trontangles at sides about 44 width of segment. Abdominal seg- ments Weakly rooled in midline. Groove around edue of apical abdominal segment complete or only broken for short distance at apex. Metacoxal lobe narrow. narrower than width of melatibja, Feniale: protatsi not expanded [segment § (253 >4>1) m length], claws subequal with large subbasal tooth. Male; protarsi as in Fig. 10, Seement 5 expanded with menmbrave like fap on bottom front nrargio [segment > >] «2-3 ~ 4) in length] Claws clon- gale, Ouler larver and thinver than inner, Second joml of maxillary palpi expanded slightly bri- aneularnly inwards near apex. Acdeagus win, weakly exparided aj tip, Parameres weakly hooked on outside of ip. Opening of spermathecal duct midway along aedeauus, Tiipes Hiydrophilus brevispina Baiymat'e. Not located. Type locality, Brisbane, Hedrophilus scissipa/pis Blackburn, Holotype, 4697) Central Australia’, BMNH Synonym based on deseriplion afd ¢xamination of Type. Pisteibution (Vig- 17) Widespread throughout Australia except for the south-cast ind Tasmania and possibly also the SOUTI-West, WY. brevispina \s ollen confused with AL ulbipes but is readily separated from that species by its much more robust oreralemora as well as charaeters givent in the key. Both species are celatively common and are widely sympatric, However /f, brevispind occurs much further porth than A, albipes. Fi. albipes is common in south-casterh Australia, Tasmania and (he south-west where A. hrevispina is absent, Kemarks iL brevispina is moderate-sized, stoul, dark olive-green species readily recognized by the complete gropve on the apical abdaminal segment, small amount of pilasity on abdominal segments, SIOUL Melalemur, narraw posternal pillar and relavely large marginal groove along front edge of pronotum, Additianal Lacalities Vic. — Ouyen ANIC, Wyperteld ANIC, 73 km WN.S.W, — Armidale ANIC, 32 km SSW Bourke SAMA, Byroek ANIC, Deniliquin NMV, Dubbo NMVY, Glen Innes AM, Grafton ANIC, Milparinka SAMA, Mitchell AM, Moolwingee ANIC NMV, Moree AM, ML Hope ANIC, Paroa R, BMNH, Parkes AM, Singleton ANIC, ‘Tamworth ANIC, Tibooburra ANIC, Tooraweendh ANIC, Trangic ANIC, Wanaarine ANIC, Willandra Bridye ANIC, Wyvern Bringagee AM, QLD, — Alexandria Sin AM, 49 km SW Arrilalah ANIC, Ayr QDPI. Bedourtec ANIC, 138 km NW = Bedourie AM, Biggenden ANIC, Bowen SAMA, Burnett R. ANIC, Calliope R. ANIC, Camooweal ANIC, Chillagoe ANIC, Coopers Creek BMNH, Cunnamulla ANIC AM SAMA, Durham Downs ANIC, Fidsvald AM, Emerald ANIC, Funnel Ck ANIC, Glenormiston ANIC, Goondiwindi ANIC, 48 km ESR Hungerford ANIC, 35 km SE Iifravombe ANIC, Lake Dynevor ANIC, Lawn Hill ANIC, Longreach ANIC, Mackay AM, Mareeba QDPI, Mitchell SAMA, MI Spec ANIC, Noccundra ANIC, Nockatunga ANIC, Normanton SAMA, Rockhampton ANIC SAMA, 40 mile Scrub ANIC, Silver Plains ANIC, Somerset Dam ANIC, Tanbar ANIC, Taroom ANIC, Thylungra ANIC, 10 km E Tjabulka AM, Townsville ANIC BMNH QDPI, 90 m S Urandangic ANIC, Warwick AM, Wilson R, ANIC, Yeppoon ANIC (BMNH). S.A. — Anna Ck Stn SAMA, 26 km NW Alberga RS SAMA, Blinman SAMA, Cadelga OS. SAMA, Callabonnag SAMA, Camerou Corner SAMA, Coward Spr. 40 koi E Frome Downs SAMA. Hay B_ Simpsoan Desert SAMA, Iron Duke SAMA, Kalamurina Sin SAMA, Lake George ANIC, Mabel Ck Stn SAMA, 28 km SSW Mabel Ck Stn SAMA, Marree SAMA, Mt Serle SAMA, Oodnadatta NMV SAMA, Strathearn HS SAMA, Stuart Ck Stn SAMA, N.T. — Alexandria BMNH, Alice Springs SAMA NTM, L km N Barrow Ck NIM, Borroloola ANIC, Glenorntiston Stn SAMA, Hermannsbureg BMNH, Kings Canyon NTM, MeArthur R, ANIC, 19 Ko SW Mtr Cahill ANIC, Simpson Gap NTM SAMA, 41" 8 133" 25° NTM, 24° 05'S 134° 00° NTM, Yuendurmu ANIC W.A, — Ashburton R. WAM, Barradale ANIC, Cane River HS ANIC, Cape Bertholer ANIC, Carnarvon-Exmouth Rd BMNH, Kununurra ANIC, Minilya R. ANIC, Prairie Down Stn SAMA, Wuranga ANIC, AUSTRALASIAN HYDROPHILUS | Hydrophilus albipes Castelnau Hydrophilus albipes Castelnau, 1840, p. 51. Steth- oxus albipes (Castelnau), Bedel, 1891, p. 317; Reg- imbart, 1902, p. 207. Hydrophilus albipes Castel- nau, Blackburn, 1896, p. 255. Hydrous albipes (Castelnau), Kuwert, 1893, p. 87; Knisch, 1924, p. 245. Description (number examined 487) Length 20-31 mm. Narrowly oval. Black, appendages reddish, diffuse reddish patches at sides of abdominal segments. Head with clypeus quite deeply and widely emarginate, exposed portion yellow only in hind half, 60-80 large punctures on frons, densely covered with small but well-marked punctures .of two main sizes, the large less numerous than the smaller. Pronotum punctured as on head, with distinct groove around lateral sides and a short distance along front margin; some large punctures inward of this groove in front angles. Elytral punctures as on head, witu four longitudinal rows of scattered punctures, flanked on either side by a row of extremely small punctures only visible anteriorly in certain lights but well-marked at apex. Apex of elytron rounded, with very small spine in extreme apex. Sternal carina thin, a little broader in area of mesosternum, flat except for weak sharp groove towards rear, spine short blunt reaching to about '4 width of first abdominal segment. Pros- ternal pillar broad, bluntly pointed, groove for sternal carina reaching only about '2 depth of pillar. Lateral plate of mesosternum relatively narrow. Metatibia relatively narrow, a_ little narrower than 2nd abdominal segment. Rugose portion of first abdominal segment covering all but narrow area along hind edge, hind angles and midline of segment, lateral portions on other abdominal segments about “% width of segment. Anterior abdominal segment quite strongly roofed in midline. Groove around edge of apical abdominal segment lacking in apical 14. Coxal lobe narrow, narrower than metatibia. Female: protarsi not expanded [segment 5< (2>3>4>1) in length], claws with a large basal tooth. Male: protarsi as in Fig. 8 [segment 5 expanded, particularly on bottom front margin [segment §<(2=3>4>1) in length]. Claws stout, inner a bit stouter and a little shorter than outer. Palpi normal. Aedeagus and paramere long and thin. Opening of spermathecal duct “4 way along aedeagus. Type Hydrophilus albipes Castelnau, Not located. Type locality given as New Holland. ~m 7) Distribution (Fig. 17) A widespread southern species. Remarks H., albipes is a small, narrow, black species sep- arated from other Hydrophilus by its small size, short sternal carina, incomplete groove around edge of apical abdominal segment, slim metafemur, and with row of setae on outer face of protibia only about 4 length of tibia. Additional Localities N.SW. — Balranald ANIC, Bathurst AM, Bin- naway AM, Broken Hill SAMA, Canberra ANIC, Corowa ANIC, Deniliquin ANIC, Girilambone ANIC, Gundaroo ANIC, Hay ANIC, Louth AM, Marrabui BMNH, 24 km ENE Broken Hill AM, 5 mS Mendooran AM, Mitchell AM, Moree MM, Mt Moodie ANIC, Mudgee ANIC, Rylstone SAMA, Silverton ANIC, Singleton ANIC, Trangie ANIC, Uralla ANIC, Wagga Wagga ANIC, Will- andra Bend ANIC, Yagobie ANIC, Yanco AM. VIC. — Benambra AM, Bendigo ANIC, Bundoo Rng. AM, Euroa NMV, Gelibrand NMV, Gram- pians ANIC AM, Halls Gap SAMA, Hattah lakes ANIC SAMA, Kerang AM, Kulkyne Forest ANIC, Lady Julia Percy |. AM, Little Desert ANIC, Melbourne BMNH, Frankston AM, Melbourne NMV BMNH SAMA, Moe ANIC, Moyston ANIC, Otways SAMA, Sealake ANIC, Terang ANIC, Warragul ANIC, Warranabool NMYV, Wyperfield Nat. Pk ANIC, Yanac ANIC. S.A, — Adelaide BMNH SAMA, Beachport SAMA, 23 m NE Billa Kalina HS SAMA, Bool Lagoon SAMA, Coward Sp. SAMA, Etadunna WAM, Fairview Park Con. Res. SAMA, 40 km E Frome Downs SAMA, Frome R. Crossing SAMA, Kangaroo I. AM, Koonamore Stn SAMA, Lake Callabonna AM SAMA, Lake Eyre SAMA, Monarto SAMA, Mungerannie Stn SAMA, Mylor SAMA, Nang- warry SAMA, Naracoorte SAMA, Parachilna SAMA, Penola SAMA, Taratap Stn SAMA, Waitpinga SAMA, Whyalla NMV, Yunta SAMA. TAS. — Carlton ANIC, Hobart SAMA, Laun- ceston NMV SAMA, Longford ANIC. W.A. — Albany WAM, Armadale WAM, Boxwood Hill ANIC, Bullsbrook WAM, Cape Arid ANIC, Cer- vantes ANIC, Claremont ANIC, Culcurdool WAM, Darling Rng. AM, Esperance ANIC, 63 km E Esperance ANIC, Forrestdale WAM, Geraldton ANIC, Guilderton ANIC, Helena R. WAM, Hope- town ANIC, Kalbarri Nat. Pk ANIC, Mt Arid ANIC, Point Peron WAM, Preston R. ANIC, Thomas R. ANIC, 10 m SW Three Springs SAMA, Wanneroo WAM, Wilga ANIC. 126 C.H.S. WATTS eH. infrequens 4 aH. viridus 3 H. brevispinna o H. macronyx vy H. picicornis vi H. latipalpus \4 o ‘ H. pedipalpus U H. albipes 4 FIGURE 17. Distribution maps of Australian Hydrophilus species. AUSTRALASIAN J/¥OROPHILUS 27 Hydrophilus infreqaens sp, nov. Description (number examined 4) Length 24-25 mm. Oval. Upper surface, when dry, varying from dark with olive-green tinges to dark with reddish tinges, elytra with vague dark strips in. serial puncture lines, at higher magnih- cation elytra covered with thin black interdigitating lines more noticeable in greenish individuals. Ventral surlace black, appendages of head and lateral patehes on abdominal segments reddish. Head shallowly emarginare for about hail width of (rons, basal half of exposed portion yellowish, front portion black, About 60 large punctures lying i two V-shaped weak grooves on frons, which is densely covered with small bul well-marked punetures predominantly of two sizes with the smaller more numerous, A well-separated pair of pits bearing long selae in middle of frons, Pronotum punctured as.on head, with a distinct groove along lareral edges and along front edge for@ very short distance, a few groups af 2 large punecures towards sides. Elytron with lightly impressed line reiculation and scatlered very small puncturgs of variable sizes, also four loose rows of large punctures flanked on cach side by a row of punctures which are subobsolete towards front but ug large as serial punctures al apex. Band of closely placed bur scattered punctures along lateral edge of clytron. Apex of elytron rounded. Sternal carina, lal, broad, particularly mesostermal portion, constricted belween mesocoxae and narrowing at both front and rear end, spine blunt reaching,a little over width of first abdominal segment, Prosternal pillar pointed, groove to receive sternal carina narrow about 2 width of pillar in depth. Lateral plate of mesosternum narrow, relatively long, metacoxal plate narrow, both narrower than width of metafemur which is about same width as second abdominal segment. Pilose area on underside covers all abdominal segments except for approximately the central half of segments 2-5, Female: protarsi not expanded, pratarsal claw with small spige on underside about middle |seg- menl 5< =(2>3>4=1) in length]- Male: projarsi as \n Fig. 7. Segments a little thicker Ihan in female and Slightly expanded on front bottom edge Claws simple, evenly curved along outer edge. Segment 5-(2>3=41) in length. Parameres short, broad, Acdeagus with sperm- athecal duct openiig near tip. Types Holotype: om '28''52'S 153° 03' E Casing, N.SW, 12.M11.971, Key and Balderson’, ‘al hght'in ANIC. Paratypes: |, o “Brisbane 1/30" LG. Brooks. Be- quest 1976; 1, o, ‘tL ml N of Brunswick Heads N.SM. I Jan (973 RAL Kohout’, in ANIC, Distribution (Fiz, 17) Known only from the type localities on che east eoast near the New South Wales/Queensland border. Remarks This and H. viridus are closely related and sep- arated from other Australasian Hydropiilus by the extensive lateral pilosity on the abdominal segments and (he presence of a pair of setae bearing pits or a light group of large punclures.on the front of the frons, H. infrequensis separated from H. viridis by its generally larger, dacker and more rounded shape, stronger punctation on upper surfaces, slight differ étice in pilose area on underside, broader tip tothe parameres, spermathecal duct opening al end of adeagus rather than further down, and slightly more robust male protarsi. Hydraphilus viridis sp, nov. Description (number examined 4) Length 18-21 mm. Elongate oval, Glive-green, extreme edges of elytron, pronotum and seutellum black, No small black spots at rear of pronolurn, Underside black, legs reddish, appendages on head yellow-brown, Head deeply but rather narrowly emarginated, basal half af exposed portion yellaw- brown, front pornioan black, 70-90 large punctures lying itt two V-shaped weak grooves on frons, a well- separated pair of small pits in middle of Trans with large setae emerging from therm, densely covered with small but well-marked punctures of varying sizes, Pronorum punctured as on bead, with distinct groove around lateral edge and along front edge for a short distance, a few groups of large punctures towards sides. Elytron with fine reticulanoyi and scattered minute punctures, also four loose rows 41 large punctures flanked on ¢ach side by a row of very small punctures more distinct towards apex. Apex of elytron rounded. Sternal carina wide, con- stricted between mesocaxae and narrowing al both front and rear, Spine blunt, reaching to beginning of second abdonvinal segment. Prosternal pillar pointed, narrowly but not deeply grooved for re- ceplion of sternal carina, Lateral plate of meso- sternum narrow, relatively long, metacoxal place narrow, both narrower than metafemur which is about width of 2nd abdominal segment. Pilose area of underside covers all abdaminal segments excep! for central 2 of segments 2-5. Male: protarsi as in Fig. 6. Segments not expanded, claws simple, sharply bent near base [segment 5> -(2>3=4=1) in length]. Porameres short, broad. Aedeagus with spermathecal duet Opening, around middle. 128 CALS, WATTS Distribution (Fig, 17) Known only from the type localities in enastal northern Queensland. Types Holotype: cr ‘idm, 8, Coen.N.Q 780° 18.5.72. JG. Brooks’ ‘At light’? ‘B73 of &2' in ANIC, Paratypes: |, cy ‘Ingham Qld 24,2,J960 KL, Harley* in ANIC; 1, & ‘Townsville Qld, 19.4,43 CW in CW; 1, 9 ‘Atherton 14.X01.58, G, Evrersiauk® in OM. Rernarks A rare species with a pronounced olive-green colour when dry, Separated fram the closely related H. infrequens by characters given under that species. Afydrophilus nevaeguineae sp. nay, Description (number examined &) Length 32-43 mm, Elongate oval. Black, appen- dages of head and small round patches at sides of abdominal segments dark-reddish. Head with elypeus deeply emarginate for about half width of clypeus, exposed portion dark reddish iq front halt, 60-80 large punctures on frons in addilion to a dense patch inwards from each eye, moderately densely covered by small but variably-sized punctures. Pronotum punctured as on head, wilh a distinct groove around lateral edge and a short distance along fronl edge, scattered large pusictures towards sides. Elytron punctured as on head with four longitudinal rows of scattered well-linpressed selae-hearing punctures cach flanked by a row af very small punctures, virtually untraceable towards lroni, and a single line of close punctures adjacent to lateral edge. Apex of elytron rounded without spine. Sterna! carina slightly swollen, sharply but weakly wrooved in final section, widely bul very shallowly grooved in front seetion, hind portion of front section with distiiet midline carina, hind end of from section slightly above from end of rear section; spine blunt and short, reaching a little more than halfway across first abdominal seament, Frosternal pillar sharply pointed only shallowly grooved to take sternal carina, Laleral plate of mesosternum short, relatively broad, Metatibia stout, noticeably wider than 2nd abdominal sep- mienl, melacoxal plate narrower than metafernur Pilose portion of Ist abdomipal seyment covering abour '4 of width of segment, that on sides of other segments about 4 of width of seaments, Abdo- minal segments | weakly roofed in midline. Groove around edge of apical abdominal segment abserit |f apical portion. female: protarsi, segment $> >(2+3=4>1) in length, claw with strongly developed spine under- neath in about middle. Front seetion of sternal carina lat. Groove on prosternal pillar deeper than in male. Labial palpi stout, Mule: protarsi as i Pig. 14, segments 1-4 same length, shor, progressively more expanded, segment 5 twice length of other segments combined and with thin projection along front edge about hall width oF rest of segment [segmenl 5 >(1-2=3-~4) in length}, Claws considerably enlarged, outer about ‘4 again length ofinner, Maxillary. palpi with apex ol second segment weakly expanded and fal, labial palpi expanded, nruch stouler than in temale, Geni- talia broad, tip of paramere curved, terminating in small sharp spines, acdeagus relatively thiek and shorr, sperniathecal dict openie a lille below tip. ]\pes Flolorype @ ‘Papua 9 ml. NE. by N. of Port Moresby. 9722'S 147°13'F, 23 viii. 1970, Key and Balderson, (Key's field notes; Trip (67, stop 21050.8). At hehe, in ANIC. Pararypes: 2, @ ‘New G\linea, Port Moresby (Mt, Lawes, 1300. fi), 5.3-12.5.1963. WW. Brandt,’ in ANIC, Distribution New Guinea; known only from the eype localities and Amboin (in ANIC and CW), Remarks The large sive, relalively short, broad male geni- lalia with hooked tips ta parameres, robust meta- femur, and small amount of pilosivy on first abdo- minal segment, ally A. novaegnineae to Ho mac ronyx, IL 1s separated from Urat species by the much less elaborate male protarsi, thickened labial palpi and the spine on the tinderside of the protarsal claws in the female being towards the middle of the vlaw rather than al the base. Hydrophilus pedipalpus (Bedel 1891) comb. nov, Stethoxns pedipalpus Bedel, 1891, p. 317; Kuwert. 1893, p, 87, Regimbart, 1902, p. 210. Hydrous peri palpus (Bedel), Knisch, 1924, yx. 250, Description (wumber examined 72) Length 35-46 mm. Elongate oval. Black, appen- daves of head, and round patches at sides of ubdominal segments dark-reddish, Mead with clypeus deeply emarginale bul for a relatively short distance (deepest point '2 width of elypeus). Ex- posed portion dark reddish ia hind half, 60-80 lange punelures on Trons, detisely covered with very. small bul variably sized punctures, Pronotum punetiired as an head, with a distinet groove around lateral AUSTRALASIAN JTYDROPIHLUS 129 edee, except hind 'sth, viltually absent from tront margin, with scattered large punctures cowards sides. Elyrron punctured as on head with four longitudinal tows of seattered weakly-iinpressed large punctures, these are Manked on each side by a row of very small punctures, distiner towards extreme apex but aver much of elytron virtually Jacking and anly visible in certain lights, aot lying in grooves CXcept extremely weak ones at extreme apex. Apex of elytron weakly truncated with small blunt spite. Sternal carina swollen, constricted between mesacoxac, weakly grooved in hind partion, broadly and quite deeply grooved in trant partion, Spine stort, blunt, reaching to about halfway across Ist abdominal segment, Posternal pillar sharply pointed. vraoye for recepuion of sternal curina relatively shallow, reaching less thad halfway into pillar on top cde. Lateral plate of mesosternum short, relarvely broad, Metafemur quite broad, a little wider than 2nd abdominal seginent, Metocoxal plate narrow, marrower that metafemur. Pilose partion of Isc abdominal svument covering wellover ‘2 Width thal segment, that on sides of other abdominal segments about i) width of segment. Abdonioal segments 1-4 roofed in midline, Groove around cde of apical abdominal segment Iueking in apical Y—le, Fernale: protarsi nol expanded [segment $< < (2>324>1) in lenth]. Front portion of stermal groove flat, groove on prosternal pillar deeper than in male Male, provarsi as in Fig, 13, Segments 5 and 4 and portion ol 3 enlarged, particularly on outer bottom edge [seament §< <(2-3-4>1 in length], claws elongale, strongly curved at base, subequal inJongth, inner stouler thab outer, Maxillary palpi with first segment expanded particularly in apical Vi where it is deeply excavated below, apical sex- ment short and stour, Labial palpi with first seg- mentexpanded. Genialia with paramere tips broad and (lat, aedeawus relatlvely thick, spermatheeal duct opening beluw muddle. Type A male labelled ‘Australia E. Deipolle/Pedipalpus Bed', in MNFIP. Stace it is unclear whether this is a holorype or syritype, thereby designate i lecta- (ype. Distribution (Fig. 21) Coastal eastern Australia from Vietora northwards. A more northern species than the quite sinvilar 74, lalipalpus, These species occur sympat- Healy on the south coast of New South Wales. 7. pedipalpus ditlers trom A. (atipalpus by the weaker development of elytral striae, by the Mat anterior portion of the sternal keel in both sexes and the strongly expanded maxillary and labial palps tn the male. Additional Localities QLD, — Atherton, Biggenden ANIC, Brisbane AM, Edungalba ANIC, Julatten AM, Proserpine ANIC WAM, Rockhampton BMNHFI, Surters Para- dise ANIC QDFI, Yeppoon ANIC. NuS.W, — Als- tonville AM, Armidale ANIC, Casino ANIC, Ces- nock AM, Clarence R. BMNH, Evans Head ANIC, Fairfield BMNH, Kempsey SAMA, Macleay R. ANIC, Maitland ANIC, Pt Macquarie AM, Rose» ville AM, Tamarong AM, Terrigal ANIC, Tyndock AM, Wang Wauk AM, Wauctiope AM, Hydrophilus latipalpus Castelnau Hydrophilus latipalpus Castelnau, 1840, p. St. Stethoxus latipalpus (Castelnau), Bedel, 1891, p. 317; Regimbart, 1902, p. 209, Mydraus lalipalpus (Castelnau), Kuwert, 1893, p. 87; Knisch, 1924, p, 249, Deseripron (umber examined 121) Lenerh 30.41 mm. Gval. Black, patehes at sides af abdominal seements Und appendages of head lighter. Head wilh clypeus deeply emarginate, 100. 120 large punctures in frons urea, densely covered With Small punctures of Wo sizes, the smaller sizes predominating. Pronatunt pinetured as on head, with a distinet graove around lateral edge except hind /s, and for a shore distance along front inargin, with numerous large puretires Tnwurds of proove in front angles, Elytron punerured as on head! with four longitudinal fows af suattered large puoe- tures, these are flanked on each side by well marked rows of scattered small punctures which, except ov disc, and particularly tawards apes, lie in shallow grooves. Apes of elytrom bluntly sounded Stertval eurma thin, flat exept for well-marked groove ip midline toward rear, spine shore, sharply pointed. reaching tO. about base of 2nd abdoinual segmenr, Prosternal pillar sharply pointed, groove for sternal carina deep. Lateral plale of mesostey num short, reluuively broad. Metatibia quite broad, about as Wide as 2nd abdominal segment. Metucoxal plate narrow, narrower than menttibis. Pilase portion of Is} abdlonjinal segment covering & bir mere than fall of seement, that on sides of other abdaninal seumients reaching a little under hall way across seement. Abdominal segments |-4 quite strongly fidged in midline. Groove wround edge of apical abdominal segment lacking fram apreul by. Females provarsi now expanded [sexment S<- (2>3> <4d> Nan length], claws elongate each with a basal jooth. Vront edyve of sternal carina projecting downwards to a variable degree Male: protarsi as iy Fig. 13, moderately expan ded, claws subequal, bent, Mattened with small ex panded lobe al base [segmen| S< (2 >3-4-1) in lenguh|. Maxillary palpiwilh apical ball of second 130 CHS, WATTS segment greatly expanded, hollow beneath, apical segment a little expanded below apex. Tipe Not localed, Type Joeality given as New-Holland, Distribution (Fig. 17) South-eastern and south-western Australia and Tasmania, Remarks The commonest of the large Aydrophilus in Australia, readily separated from Al. pedipalpus (and H. australis from New Caledoma) by the downward lump at the front of the sternal carina in the female, and the moderately expanded male maxillary palpi and by the stronger development of the elytral striae, Additional Localities N.SW. — Araluen ANIC, Leeton AM, Paroo R, HMNH, Nowra BMNH, Strathtield AM, Sydney AM. VIC, — ANIC, Dimboola SAMA, Grampians SAMA, Hattah Lakes ANIC, Hazelwood ANIC, Latrobe Valley NMV, Little Desert ANIC, Mel- bourne BMNH, Morwell NMYV, O1way Ra. SAMA, QOuyen ANIC, Strathfield NMYV, Stawell NMV, Swan Hill ANIC, Wyperfield Nat, Pk ANIC. S.A. — Adelaide SAMA, Bool Lagoon SAMA, Cape Jaffa SAMA, Coorong SAMA, Furner SAMA, Glencoe SAMA, Kingscote (K.1.) AM, Kingston SAMA, Mi Scott SAMA, Naracoorte AM, Penola SAMA, Turatap Stn SAMA. W.A. — Midland WAM, Morgers Lake WAM, ML Arid ANIC, Perth WAM, Swan R. SAMA, Wilga ANIC. TAS, — Freycinet Nat. Pk ANIC, Launceston SAMA, Longford ANIC, Swansea ANIC, Tasmania SAMA. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The curators of the collections listed earlier are thanked for free and rapid access to their collections. Dr E, Mat(hews kindly read and improved the manuscript, Mrs D. Brunker typed successive versions af the paper and Miss J Thurmer expertly drew the illustrations. Mra M. Anthony, Librarian of the South Australian Museum, helped by rapidly obtaining references without which progress would have been much slower. Mr R. Ruehle kindly translated the German description of Af, vehieni, REFURENCES BALFOUR-BROWNE, F 194). The aquatic Coleoptera of East ancl West Sussex. Entomol. Mon. Mug. 77: 257-272. BEDEL, L. 1X91, Synupsis des Grands Hydraphiles (genere Ste(hoxus Solier). Rev, Entarial (; 306-323, BLACKBURN, T. 1896. Coleoptera (exclusive of the Carabidae), pp, 254-308, /n B. Spencer (Ed.) ‘Report on the Work of the Horn Scientific Expeduion ca Central Australia’, Part 2 ~ Zoology. Melville, Mullen & Slade, Melbourne, BLACKBURN, ‘T. [90]. Further qotes on Australian Coleoptera with descriptions of pew genera and species, part XXIX, Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust, IS: 99-13), CASTBLNAU, FL. LAPORTE de. 1840, ‘Histoire Naturelle des insects, avee une introduction renfermant I"anatomie et 1a physiologie des animaux articules par M. Brulle’. Dumenil, Paris, Vol, 2. 563 pp. CHEVROLAT, M. 1863. Coleopteres de Iie de Ciha, Ann, Soc. Entomol, (4) 3: 183-210, PAIRMAIRE, L. 1879. Descriptions de Coleapteres nou- veaukx Ou peu connus du Musee Godeffroy, £ Mis. Godeffroy xiv: 80-114. KNISCH, A. 1922a. Hydrophiliden-Studien. (Op.10). Arch, Nalurgesch, 88: 87-126. RNISCH, A. 1922b, Results of Dr B. Mjoberg's Swedish Scientific Expeditions to Australia 1910-1913, Vol, 29, Hydrophilidae, ark. Zool 14: 1-4. KNISCH, A, 1924. Tydrophilidae. Pp. 1-306 in S. Svhenkling (Ed,) ‘Coleopterorum Caialogus’, Vol. xiv. Drophilidae-Dermestidae. W. Junk, Berlin. KUWERT, A. 1893, Die urossen Hydrophiliden des Erde balls des genus Hydrowy Leach, Drseh. Ent. Zeit. 1893: R)-93, McKEOWN, KiC. 1948, A reference list of types of Coleoptera in the Australian Museum. Rec. Aust. Mus. 22: 95-139. MACLEAY, WS. 1825. ‘Number 1 of Annulosa Javanioa, or an allempl to illustrate the natural affinities and analogies of the insects collected in Java by ‘Thomas Horshield, M.D.E.L. & G.S. and deposited by him in the Museum of (he Honourable Bast India Company’ Kingsbury, Parbury and Allen, London. Pp. 1-50. | plate, MACLEAY, W.J., 1871, Noes an a collection of insects from Gayndah. Vrans. Entomol, Sac NAW Oh: 79-205. MONTROUZIER, P1860. Essay sur la Faune Ento- mologique de la Nowvelle-Caledonie (Balade) et des Iles des Pins, Art, Lifuc, ele: Ana. Sve, Entomol. France (3) & 229-308, REGIMBART, M, 1902. Revision des grinds Hydrophiles. Ann. Sov. Entomol, Fr WW: (88-232. Pls 7 and 8. POPE, R.D. 1985. Flvdrophilus, Myvdrous and Hydro chare (Coleoptera: Hydrophilidae). Eniamal. Mon. Mag. 121: 181-184. DIAMONDS FROM THE ECHUNGA GOLDFIELD, SOUTH AUSTRALIA BY F. L. GOMMERS Summary Small gem quality diamond crystals have been found by miners working the alluvial gold deposits on the Old Echunga Diggings west of Chapmans Gully near Echunga, 30 km south-east of Adelaide. The first diamonds were recovered in 1859, and in the next fifty years at least 20 and perhaps as many as 50 more were found. The largest stone weighed 5 5/16 ct. Only five of the diamonds found at Echunga last century can be traced; three are in the collection of the South Australian Museum, and two in the collection of the South Australian Department of Mines and Energy. This paper traces the history of the diamond occurrence and establishes the authenticity of stones in the Museum collection. DIAMONDS FROM THE ECHUNGA GOLDFIELD, SOUTH AUSTRALIA FL. GOMMERS GOMMERS, F.L. (988, Diamonds from the Echunga Goldlield, South Australia, Rec. S, dust Mus. 22(2): 191-138. Small gem quality diamond crystals have been found by miners working the alluvial gold deposits on the Old Echunga Diggings west of Chapmans Gully near Echunga, ¥) km south-east of Adelaide. The first diamonds were recovered in 1859, and in the next (fly years al least 20. and perhaps as many as 50 more were found, The largest stone weighed § 3/16 cc, Only five of the diamonds found ai Echunga last century can be traced; three are in the collection of the South Australian) Museum, and two ip the colleetion of the South Australian Department of Mines and Energy. This paper traces the history of the diamond occurrence and establishes the auth enticity of stones in the Museum collection. EL, Goriners, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia S000, Manuseript received 9 November 1987. The South Ausiralian Museum collection cor- tains three diamonds which are purported to have come from the Echunga Goldfield, 30 km south- east of Adelaide (Fig, 1), These specimens are amongst the most frequeritly examined and studied specimens in the Museum's mineral collection, However, there has long been uncertainty and scepticism over authenticity of the locality data for these stones, The diamonds were reputed (o occur With alluvial gold, bul no kifberlitic source or indicator minerals were found by early investigators, Geological units in the Goldfield comprise Holo- cene and ‘Tertiary sediments, predominantly ferru- ginous alluvial gravel and sand, unconformally overlying kaolinised slate and schist of Torrensian age, The alluvial gold is thought to have been de- rived from quartz reefs in the older rocks (Ludbrook 1980). BACKGROUND The discovery of gold in Victoria in 1851 and ihe ensuing rush to the Ields from all parts of Australia prompted the government in South Australia to offer a reward of £1 000 for the discovery of payable gold in the colony. W, Chapman Sor, R. Hardiman and H, Hampton were first to claim the reward lor the diseovery of gold, near Kehunga in the Mount Lofty Ranges. They were eventually paid £500 by the Government. In 1852 Chapman's son William, who had recently returned from the Victorian goldfields, found allu- vial gold near Warland’s Wheatsheaf Inn, now known as *Warrakilla’, on the Onkaparinga River. William Chapman and his father traced the gold back (uo ité Source in a gully, later to become known as Chapman's Gully (Whimpress 1975), The initial rush here lasted only a few months but, at its height, 600 people were living on the diggings and about 5 000 oz. of gold were found. From 1853 1a 1868, further discoveries were made in an area west of Chapman's Gully, notably at Long Gully, Christmas Rush and Poor Man’s Hill, and further afield at Donkey Gully and Hahndorf Gully. In 1868, Thomas Plane and Henry Saunders found a rich field ar Tupuer Creek, 3 km south of Chapman’s Gully; they received £300 and £200, respectively, from the South Australian Government in reward for their discavery, Jupiter Creek was worked in several phases berween 1868 and 1907, Up to 1 500 diggers were working the field at the height of the rush between 1868 and 1871. The Echunga Goldfield now covered three areas, the Old Echunga diggings (including Chapmans Gully), Jupiter Creek, and the Hahndorf to Mylor area which included Donkey Gully and Biggs Flat (Fig, 1), By 1900, about 400 000 oz, of gold had been recovered and ihe area had become the state’s most productive ficld. Drew (1984) gives a more complete outline af the geology and history of the workings. Miners Working the Echunga alluvials occas jonally found small. gem quality diamonds in their pans and cradles, Over the fifty-year period in whieh the goldfield was active, approximately 50 diamonds were reported to have been recovered (Brown 1908), These uppear to have come mainly from the older part of the Echunga diggings west of Chapmamns Gully, the principal localities being “Long Gully’, ‘International Dam‘, ‘Poor Man's Hill’, ‘Christmas Rush'and ‘New Rush Hill’. Doubts have been expressed about the occurrence and even the authenticity of these slones. 132 F.L. GOMMERS SOUTH AUSTRALIA Mylor @wADELAIDE s 7: an fe ECHUNGA a’ - GOLDFIELD “5 sabe GULLY cs Wheatsheaf Inn BIGGS FLAT. DIGGINGS ..- Alluvial workings JUPITER CREEK /~".’ DIGGINGS-/' Mt. Bold Reservoir FIGURE I. Map showing main areas of the Echunga goldfields. Diamonds were found on the Old Echunga Diggings west of Chapmans Gully. QIAMONDS FROM ECHUNGA a) Sugpesuions were mace that digeers returning trom the South African fields had been ‘salting’ the area with diamonds, or that the stones were Brazilian or Indian (Duffield 1909). 1 is highly unlikely that the stones are Sourh African, however, as the Kimberley field was nor discovered until 1866, seven years aller the first diamonds were recovered at Echuoga History oF THE DIAMOND Fisps Fiest discoveries Uncertainty exists as lo when and by whom the fest diamoud was found, The Adelaule Observer a newspaper of the day, reported that Robert Fore- staw found a diamond near Echunga in March 1859 (Fiz, 2) The yellow coloured stone was said to be abour the size of a small pea, and was found ata depth of 2m text to a sniall gold nugget. This seems to be the earliest recorded find. Tom Hall anc ms brother Rabert also claimed to have found the first diamond, at New Rush Hill. This stone was sold ta Me &.R. Simpson of the Sourh Australian Contpany (Hales 1909). No date for this find was given, however. Diimonns—On Monday alternoon, 30 Echuogs digger named Robert Poresbaw exhibited In Adelaide a small diamond which he found at a depth of six fvet,close ta a hugget of gold welahing 3 penaywelzhs anda half, There is no doubt of tha genuinoness of the diamond, which is about the sizvafa small pea, Its shape is good, bat in oolour ft is rather yellow. He mentlonad that he bad found two, but we oply saw ong of them, We would reammend the digwers to look more closely for diamonds, a3 we Delleye that Bchunga ts extensively a diamond formation. MIGURE 2 Report of Fest ditimand Cind at Eehunge from The Observer, 26 Maret) 1859, The ddelaide Observer of 2) January 1860 reported, A digeer named Walhan Hall who had been at work wethe dew divwings at Behn, bas broughe dower (ree supposed diamonds, which he mcently discovered there While searching for gold. One is of large dimensions and weighs about an ounce; and the other two an abou the size of peas. (Adelaide Observer, 21 Jan. 1860), It seems highly unlikely that tie one ounce stone was & diamond, as diantonds of this size (over 140 cl) wre extremely rare and valuable. Had a 140 et diamond been recovered then more extensive reporting of such a lind would have been expected; ihe sloue Was mare probably clear quartz. By Beeember of 1860, Mr Simpson fad pur- chased 11 diamonds from miners at Echunga, wo or three of these were said to be very pure in colour and the size of large peas (Adelaide Observer, 15 December 1860). In 1864, Mr Simpson offered two diamonds to the South Australian Institute for £12, which he said were’... if not the first found, which | believe, they are by far the most perfeet of any yet discovered’, These niay have heen purchased by the South Australian Government and could be the slones mentioned jn Brown (1908) as having been purchased by the Museum authorities. These are uot, however, ibe two uncut stones currently held i the Museum collecnon. Lurgest stane The largest authenticated diamond found onthe Hield appears to be the 5 5/16 (5 1/2) et stone discovered by a dipper, John Glover, in August 1877 at Long Gully (Warden of Goldfields, 10 August 1877), Hales (1909) wives the weight as aboul 14 erains (4.5 ct) and places the find at Poor Man's Hill, bul this accoulit was compiled from remine scenees in 1909 and the weight conflicts with catalowue entries. Brown (1908) reparts a 9 1/4 ef stone but no other mention of this gem was made in early records; the weight is probably a misprint of carats for grains, with the true Weight being about 3 el. ‘Rennells Vision’ diamond, found at Poor Man's Hill, was valued at £90 in the rough. Rennells, a prospector, known as the miner's prophet ~.. dreamt thar he saw an angel pointing to the spot at the foat of Poor Man's Hill and heard a voice telling him to dig’ (The A4dverriser, 16 June 1909), His male, not believing him, threatened to throw Rennells into the dam if he did nol continue with their usual gold prospecting. A struggle look place newrthe edge of the water, but the ground gave way and his mate fell in, putting an end to his objections. Rermells continued seatching and soon found his diamond. Unfortunately, the weight of this stone was not recorded A diamond weighing 3 1/2 ct was found in Long Gully by John Brown while gold washing in Devember 1867 (Warden of Goldfields, 8 December 1867), The Dodd and Bean Reports In the late 1870s, the diamond oOecurrence al Echunga was of considerable interest, wath newspapers urging miners to be on the lookout tor these gems and giving regular accounts of new Ninds, In J878 atid 1879, the Government eon- missioned two reports! on che diamond oc- currence, 134 FL. GOMMERS At the Paris Universal International Exhibition in-1878, wo rough diarnonds found by gold diggers John Brown and John Glover were exhibited in the South Australian Court (Fig. 3). Me Boothby, Special Executive Commissioner for the South Australian Court, (hinking the occurrence of dia- monds in South Australia might be of great im- portance, submitied the gems to an expert, Mr Arthur Dodd of P.G, Dodd & Sons, diamond mer- chaars, Loridon, for af appraisal. The gems, of 5 5/16 ct and 3 1/2 cl, were cut on Dadd's recom- mendation. His report expressed the opinion that: A diamond field must exist near where chese diamonds were fonnd, for two reasons — First thar the elevation of Echunga is abour me highest point in {he range of mountains forming a backbone of the country, therefore these stones could nor have been wasted down lo thal place; and secondly, by the evidence of the stones themselves showing no signs Of travelling by worn surfaces or broken points. | am therefore of (he opinion (hai the diggers for gold, who for years past have worked and washed the grovind in [his place, lave passed unheaded hundreds of diamiends, not knowing them for worthless crystals or other stones of no value. His report concluded: We do nat suppose that Echuinga is another South Alrica, bur at all events there 15 every reason to believe that the district is rch in diamonds, and i) will pay a few enterprising men Lo give ira trial. (f anything like success iS attained there will of course bea rush. In that case the Government will have to make sore arrangements tor the proper rewulation of claims, and companies no doubt will he orgunived to carry on a systematic search for the beaurilul crystals (Suuchers Arius, 24 July 1879). Follawing, recommendations of the Dodd repart, the Commissioner of Crown Lands in 1879 ap- pointed Mr GT, Bean, an experienced gem digger, to examine the potential of the Echunga Goldfield for diamonds and to recommend a course of action for their recovery, Bean reported that the field was similar lo those in South Africa and recommended that a systematic search be made. He suggesred thar four or five men led by an experienced cdiumond digger should search the area. Bean also recom- mended that claims be 50 feet by 30 feet, with every digeer entitled to two claims. The discoverer of a new tind would be entilled to select five claims. and a company able to hold a black af upto lO claims. He voneluded that the best method was to wash all soil and gravel in 4 cradle and sereen, and sorc the screenings on a table, Bean nominated Mr A. von Doussa of Hahndorf, a diamond digger from Kim- berley in South Afvica, as leader of the search party (Adelaide Observer, 23 August 1879). When the report was published orhers offered their services, One such offer was ‘a gentleman. , . who was willing lo organise a party and make. search for two or three months fora payment of £5 per week, which would nor be claimed jf their elforls were successful! (ddelaide Observer, 23 August 1879), Ln IR80, to Turther help gold diggers on the jelds to recognise diamonds, a collection of 1) rough Brazilian diamonds was displayed at the South Australian Unstitare, the forerunner of the South Australian Museum. These were obtained through Mr J. Boothby in London at a cost of £20, Linfor- tunately, they were stolen from the Museum in December 1883," Few additional diamonds appear to have to have been found after 1880; the only known report was of a diamond obtained by Mr Bertram of Echunga in 1886 (The South Australian Register, 22 May 1884), The recommendations of the Bean Repart were raised in South Australian Parliament in August 1879 by Mr Bray (Member for East Adelaide), At this time the Commissioner of Crown Lands reported the matter under consideration (South Australia, Parliament, (879) but no further action appears to have been faken by the Government and the matter was drapped. li has not been possible to accurately establish the number of diamonds found on the field between 1859 and 1900. Brown (1908) estimated that 50 stones had been found but an extensive search of newspaper reports and reports by the Warden of Goldfields a1 Echunga gave definite reference (o only about 20 stones (Table 1), Hales (1909) lists uw number of miners as having found gems on the field buc no details of the stones are given. CLASS 39.—JEWELLERY AND PRECIOUS STONES, Bteiner, Henry ; Jewollars Rundle Strevt, Adalaide, Collection of Gold and Silver Jewellary, ecfanhsaearet evo HKarrings, Crosses, Neohlaces, Lookots, a Brown, John; Gold Digger; perch Sowa datrabia, Diamond, rough os found on the Echungs Gold Field. Glover, John; Gold Digger; Zebwayo, South Australis. Dietmond, rough oa fonnd on the Rohwnge Gold Fiold. FIGURE 3. Catalosde entry for Eehuinga diamonds exhibited at the Paris Intcesational Exhibicion, 1878, Reeent exploration Little interes! was expressed this century in the Echunga diamond occurrence until the mining boom of the 19705 entived several companies to explore the ared. The most extensive studies were made by Kimberely Diamond Quest NL and Nickel & Mineral Search NL who contracted Pacific Ex- ploration Consultants to process over 75 (onnes of jailings from the Old Echunga Diggings, but these revealed only one microdiamand. CRA Exploration Piy Lid also undertook extensive geophysical ¢x- ploration in the area and located several magnetic TABLE |. Records of diamond finds at Echunga. NAME OF FINDER LOCATION DATE Robert Foreshaw William Hail E.R. Simpson, South Australian Company, Adelaide John Brown H. Heuzenroeder, Chemist, Rundle St, Adelaide James Warland A digger (prob. John Glover) Davis Col. Biggs ” John Glover Allred Rennells Tom and Robert Hall John Whillis fom Hall Loveland, Goomlitte, DIAMONDS FROM ECHUNGA New Rush Hill Echunga Echunga Long Gully Echunga Echunga diggings Long Gully Echunga diggings| Echunga Echunga Poor Man’s Hill Poor Man's Hill New Rush Hill Poor Man's Hill Poor Man’s Hill New Rush Hill DETAILS REFERENCE 2 — first found 3 — al ounce stone (prob. quartz), 2 the size of peas 11 diamonds purchased from miners in the last twelve months { weighing 342 cts (exhibited in Paris) Acquired 2 diamonds, |! and 1 cts (exhibited in Melbourne and Sydney). In South Australian Museum collection. 2 diamonds 2 diamonds — | weighing 5 cls 1 small diamond | weighing 34% ets Yla ois (prob. a misprint — Ol) prs = 3 cts) 2 diamonds. One about (4 grs plus smaller one. 544 cts exhibited in Paris. Now in §.A.M, collection. 1 ‘Rennells Vision® diamond Claim to have found the first stone | small diamond 1 between 2 and 3 prs Diamonds were found by Adelaide Observer. 76 March 1859 Adelaide Observer, 21 January 1860 Adeluide Observer, \5 December 1860 Mem. of Proc. by Warden of Goldfields, 8 December (867 Adelaide Observer, \7 hily 1869 The Lantern, 7 April 1877 Mem. of Proc. by Warden af Goldlelds, 10 August 1877 Mem, of Proc. by Warden of Goldlichts, 24 February 1877 The Lantern, 21 April 1877 Brown 1908 Hales [909 Advertiser, 16 Tyne [909 Hales 1909 Hales 1909 Hales 1909 Hales [909 Longman, Jimmy Gibbs, Sam Ewen, Harry Pilcher these diggers anomalies of possible kimberliti¢ nature on (he Old Echunga Diggings, Jupiter Creek Diggings and Bigas Flat arca. Samples from these anomalous vones contained zireon, chromite and corundum Which may be of kimberlitic origin, but no kim- berlites. were located (Gerdes 1987). Western Queen (South Australia) Ply Ltd ex- plored for diamonds in the Lobethal area of the Mount Lofty Ranges, 20 km north of Echunga, and found fresh picroilmenite indicator minerals sug- vesting possible kimberlites (Gerdes 1987). In January 1987, John Popeskul, a fossicker, found a 0.91 et diamond while panning for gold near National Dam on the Old Echunga Diggings. DIAMONN SPECIMENS FROM ECHUNGA Only five of the diamonds found at Echunga last century can be traced. The collection of the South Australia Department of Mines and Energy con- tains wo small diamond crystals, and three stones (two uncut and one cut) are in the South Australian Museum collection The largest of these is a fine brilliant-cut yellow diamond of 2.84 ct (Fig. 4). The gem was said to have originally been pale red in colour (Cloud 1883; Brown 1908), but to have changed colour in the 1950s as a result of being stored with radioactive ninerals. This stone was probably (he one cut from the § 5/16 ct crystal found by John Glover in 1877 and displayed, together with another uncut stone, at the Paris Universal International Exhibition of 1878, Both were cut in London in 1879, The cut diamonds were returned to Australia and displayed at the International Exhibitions held in Sydney in 1879 and Melbourne in [880 (Sydney International Exhibition 187%, Melbourne International Exhibition 1880) (Fig. 5). The South Australian Museum Curator’s Monthly report of December 136 FE.L. GOMMERS ’ FIGURE 4, Brilliant cul diamond (2.84 ct and 9 mm across) from the collection of the South Australian Museum (G6500); this was cut in London in 1879 from a rough weighing 5 5/16 ct (photo: JA. Forrest). 286 Commissioners for South Australia. Collection of South Avstralian Miverals, prepared for the Commla~ aion hy T. OG. Cloud, ARS.ML, F.0\8,, PLC. DIAMOND, 1 Bellligus fut ‘val diamond, trom Fehungs Go ela Kelde~ unit in the rough, 7 present weight, - Govern 2 wat aut bana ete) wn urige Gani Fields ~ evelghe in the rough, Spresayy| it 2 Diantond, iitural urs werlbutine the [aney of the drinks ootabedron— welght, ¢) carnta > Echinga. Gold Fieldn. BE. Thewkeunroudor. ‘ Diamond, Arakuneal Wexakly oekahed sult Kletly, ron —weluht, 14 varala; Echunga eubkenevedur, FIGURE 5, Catalogue of the Melbourne International Exhibition, 1880, giving details of four diamonds from Echunga. Three of these stones are now in the collection of the South Australian Museum. 1881 notes the purchase of a diamond, presumably the large cut stone in the Museum collection; the fate of the smaller cut stone could not be traced. The two small uncut diamonds displayed at the Sydney and Melbourne Exhibitions are also in the South Australian Museum collection; these were acquired in 1949, The stones, a sharp trisoctahedron of 1.5 ct (Fig. 6a) and a distorted octahedron of | ct (Fig. 6b), were the property of Mr HLY. Heuzenroeder, a Rundle Street chemist and coin collector, When exhibited, They were purchased by the Museum from Mr TW. Hastings, Heu- zenroeder’s grandson jn 1949 for £45, Ina letter to Herbert M, Hale, the Museum Director at the time of the purchase, Hastings claimed that the two stones were exhibited in Paris in 1878, but these gems were cut in London after the exhibition. The Adelaide Observer of 17 July 1869 states that ‘Mr Heuzenroeder of Rundle Street brought to our office on ‘Tuesday two fine rough diamonds, weighing 1 1/2 carats and | carat, both of which were found at Echunga some time ago' (Adelaide Observer, 17 July 1869), Mr Heuzenroeder may have bought the stones from Mr Simpson of North Adelaide, who earlier offered two diamonds to the Museum in 1864 , The two diamonds are certainly some of the earliest found on the Echunga goldfields. FIGURE 6. Uncut diamonds in South Australian Museum collection (G6505). These stones, exhibited by the South Australian Government at the Sydney and Melbourne International Exhibitions of 1879 and 1880, were pur+ chased from Mr Hastings in 1945. (a) 1.5 ct sharp trisoctahedron, 6 mm across (photo; JA, Forrest); (b) 1 ct distorted octahedron, 4 mm across (photo: JA. Forrest). The two diamonds held by the South Australian Department of Mines and Energy weigh 0.836 and 0.462 cl. Unfortunately, their history cannot been traced, but they may be the two stones offered to the Museum by Mr Simpson in 1864.3 The gems are of good crystal shape and strongly yellow in colour (Fig. 7). The larger stone is a combination octahedral-dodecahedral crystal, and the smaller is a flattened dodecahedron (Hall & Smith 1983). FIGURE 7. Two diamonds [rom the collection of the South Australian Department of Mines and Energy, The larger stone weighs 0.836 ct and is 5mm across. The smaller stone, a flattened dodecahedron, weighs 0.462 ct and is 3 mm across (photo: JA. Forrest). DIAMONDS FROM ECHUNGA 437 The 0.91 ct diamond found on the Gld Echunga Diggings in January 1987 is still in the possession of the Jinder. The stone has a slightly clongate, almost oval shape showing what appears to be a combination of octahedral and dodecahedral forms; it is pale straw yellow in colour (Fig. 8). FIGURE 8, Diamond, weighing 0.91 ct(4 « & » 3 mmm), found near National Dam on the Old Echunga diggings by J, Popeskul jn lahuary 1987 (photo: JA, Forrest), OTHER DIAMOND LOCALITIES IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA Numerous kimberlité pipes. and dykes have been found in county Kimberley, 250 km north of Adel- aide. Microdiamonds were recovered trom several of these, including the pipes at Pine Creek, Ketch- owal, and Franklyn (Colchester, 1972}, A total of 140 microdiamonds were recovered during exploration of kinmberlites near Eurelia, 20 km north of Orroroo, by Stockdale Prospecting in the early 1980s (Scatt Smith ef wh 1984), No larger diamonds have been found in either county Kimberley or the Orroroo kimberlites, and neither appear have of econamic significance. Brown (1908) reports recovery of .a i ct diamond from auriferous gravel at Algebuckina, 900 km north-north-west of Adelaide, but no further details, including current location of this stone, could be traced, Liltle exploration appears to have taken place near this occurrence, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to thank Allan Pring and John Drexel for assistance and encourgement with the project and particularly for help in finalising (he manuseripyt Thanks are also due to John Popeskul, Jan Forrest, Jenni Thurmer and June Serympour for their help in various ways, The assistance of the staff of the Mortlock and State Libraries and the South Australian Department of Mines and Energy is gratefully acknowledwed. ENDNOTES 1, Aitempts to locate copies of the Dodd and Bean Reports were unsuccess!ul ald information on their con tent is drawn trom newspaper reports. 2. Reports hy the Muscum Curator an the progress of the Museum, November 1863 to 1882. See reports dated March 1880 and December 1881. Public Records office ORGI9/168, Adelaide. 3, Letters and Memoranda received by the General Secretary concerning evaluarions, donarions and purchases ol Museum specimens and apparatus, § December 1857-10 March 1865. See letters dated 26 February 1864 and 11 March 1864, Public Records Office GRGI9/167. REFERENCES Adelaide Observer, 26 March (859, 21 Jan. 1860, 15 Dec, 1K60, 17 July 1869, 23 Aug. 1879. (Newspaper published from | July 1843 to 26 February 1931 ane incorporated imo The Chronicle.) Advertiser, 16 June 1909, BOOTHBY, J. 1878. ‘Paris Universal International Lxhibition, 1878: Calalogue of the South Australian Court. Waterlow & Sons, London. 36 pp. BROWN, HLY.1.. 1908. ‘Record of the Mines of South Australia’, 40h Bd. Government Printer, Adelaide. 382 pp. CLOUD, PC. 1883. A catalogue of South Australian Minerals. Travis. Ro Soe, 5. Alust. € 72-93. COLCHESTER, DM. 1972. 4 preliminary nore on Kimberlile occurrences in South Australia. A. Geol, Soe. Aust. 9: 383-386. DREW, G, 1984, The Echunga Goldfield, S. Aust, Dept! Mines add Enerey report 83/042 (unpuh- lished). DUEPIELD, T1909. Bulletin No, 9, Department of (nteligenee. South Australia, Government Printer, Adelaide. Pp, 4-11. GERDES, R.A, 1987. Geophysical appraisal of the Echunga district with reference to mineralisaion within the middle-late Proterozoic rocks, S. Aust. Dept Mines and Enerny repor| 87/98) 18 pp. (ubpublshed). HALE, H.M, 1956. The first hundred years of the Museum, (856-1956. Ree. 8. dust Mus. 12; 1-225, HALES, F.C. 1909. History of the Quest, In: The South Australian Register, V7 June 1909 HALL, A.E, & SMITH, C_B. 1983, Morphological study of two diamonds from Eehunga, South Australia, for CRA Exploration Piy Lid. 8. Aust, Dep| Mines and Energy open tile Env. 4994 (unpublished). LUDBROOK, N.H. 1980, A guide to the geology and mineral resources Of SOuth Australia, Handbook &. Aust. Dept Mines and Enerey No. 5, 230 pp. MELBOURNE INTERNATIONAL, EXFLUIBITION 1880. ‘South Australian Court, Official Catalogue of Exhibits’) Sands & MeDougall, Melbourne. 54 pp. SCOTT SMITH, B.H., BANCHIN, RV, HARRIS, UW. & STRACKE, KJ. 1984. Rimberlites near Orrorao, South Australia. /a J, Kornprobst (Rd.). ‘Kimberliles”. 138 F.L. GOMMERS Vol. 1, Proceedings of the Third International Kimberlite Conference. Developments in petrology series, 11A, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 121-142. SOUTH AUSTRALIA, PARLIAMENT, 1879. Debates in the Houses of Legislature during the second session of the Ninth Parliament of South Australia from 29 May 1879 to 25 October 1879. W.K. Thomas & Co., Adelaide. Register, Observer and Journal Offices, Grenfell Street. See House of Assembly, 5 August, 13 August, 27 August. The Lantern, 7 April 1877, 21 April 1877, The Southern Argus, 24 July 1879. (Published in Strathalbyn, South Australia, 17 March 1866 until present.) The South Australian Register, 22 May 1886. (Formerly South Australian Gazette & Colonial Register published in London. Published in Adelaide 18 June 1836 to 20 Feb. 1931 and later incorporated into the Advertiser.) SYDNEY INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION 1879. ‘South Australian Court. Official Catalogue of Exhibits’, Gibbs, Shallard & Co., Sydney. 46 pp. WARDEN OF GOLDFIELDS, 1867, 1877. Memorandum of Proceedings 8 Dec. 1867, 10 Aug. 1877. (Held by S. Aust. Dept Mines and Energy, Adelaide.) WHIMPRESS, J.A. 1975. ‘Echunga 1839-1939’, Lutheran Press, Adelaide. 159 pp. EARLY HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES BY R. J. LAMPERT & P. J. HUGHES Summary The climatic amelioration that followed the last glacial maximum (17-15 000 yBP) prompted more widespread human occupation of the Australian arid zone. Whereas the better watered Flinders Ranges were a focus of human activity as early as 15 000 yBP, the shores of Lake Frome became popular during generally moister conditions of 9.5-4 000 y BP, and the widespread occupation of the Strzelecki Desert, with its highly epheremal surface water, took place mainly within the last five thousand years. Technological change accompanied these movements. The Kartan industry, dating to 15 000 yBP, is present at early sites in the Ranges, while small tools characterise the widespread recent sites. Lying temporarily between these is an industry of core tools, shaped differently from those of the Kartan, found on the early Holocene Lake Frome sites, On the evidence of this and earlier investigations, the Kartan has an upland distribution, ranging from hills of Kangaroo Island to the desert highlands of the north. EARLY HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES R.J. LAMPERT & PJ. HUGHES LAMPERT, RJ. & HUGHES, PJ. 1988. Barly biiman occupation at the Flinders Ranges, Mee § Aust. Mus, 22: 139-168, The climatic ameliorarion thar followed the list glacial maximum (17-15 QOD BP) prompted more widespread human occupation of the Australian arid zone. Whereas the better watered Flinders Ranges Were a focus of human activity ay early as 15 (XM) yBR, ihe shores af Lake Frome hecame popular during generally moister conditions of 9.5-4 O00 yBR, and (he wodlesprene oveupation of (he Sirzelecki Desert, witlr ils highly ephemeral surtace water, took place mainly within the last five thousand years, Technologival change accompanicd (hese movements, Phe Kartan industry, dating to 15 000 yBP, is present al early sites im the Ranges, while smal! lools characterise the widespread recent sites, Lying remporally belween [hese is ay industly of core rools, shaped differently from (hose of the Kartan, found on the early Holocene Lake Frome sites, Ore the evidence of rhis and earlier investigations, the Kartan has an upland distribution, ranging from the hills of Kangaroo Island to the desert highlands of {ve porth, R.J, Lampert, Australian Maseum, 6-8 College Street, Sydney, New South Wales 2000 and VI Hughes, University of Pupua New Guinea, PO Box 320, Port Moresty, Papua New Cruined, Manuseript received 23 December 1987, Our research on carly Aboriginal occupation of the Flinders Ranges, and adjoining areas of the arid zone of south-eastern Australia, began on temperate Kangaroo Island, several hundred kilometres to the south (Lampert 1981). There, allempts to date (he Kartan industry, present oly on surface sites, had met with limited success, The presefice of this industry also on parts of the mainland close to Kangaroo Island, together with evidence lor the separation ol the island from the mainland by post glacial sea tise some 9 500 yBP (years Before Present), suggested a late Pleistocene age for the industry, This view received support from Lhe absence of large core tools, whieh are the hallmark of the Kartan, from a number of sites on the island with ages ranging between 11 000 and 4 300 yBP, These sites have securely stratified oecupauon horizons containing aeeeprably large samples of an industry characterised by small adzes and scrapers made on stone fakes, Lampert concluded trom his Kangaroo Island research (hat the Kartan Was a regional variant of the core lool and seraper tradition, (he earliest Australian stone-working tradition yet recognised; that ip dated back to the late Pleistocene; that it preceded an industry of smaller tools, made on flakes rather than cores, this succession being part of a trend towards smaller tool types throughout Australia; and that the later industry was essentially part of (he mainland small (ool tradition despite the absence from Kangaroo Island ol tater and more characteristic tool forms (Lampert 1981). Other more tentative hypotheses were raised, notably one concerning the differences. between the Kartan and more widespread examples of the core tool und Seraper tradition, Whereas large cote tools pre- dominate in the Kartan, such toals are smatier and fewer in other todustries of tbe tradition, the much more common tool being U flake scraper, However, large core tools predominate in some early sites i South East Asia, lands from whieh Australia muse have received its early human population. The similarity of these tools to those of the Kartan had been noted earlier (Tindale 1937; McCarthy 1940, 1941, 1949), although later research (Marchews L96f) showed that this relationship was tot particularly close. This evidence raised the possibility that the Kartan was different from other midusiries of the ‘Australian core tool and seraper tradition beeause it had retained tool forms earlier in origin Ul this is the case, some Kartan sites should have ages in excess Of 30 O00 years. To address such questians, there was clearly a need to locale the Karlan in stratified contuats tal would allow ifs age and cultural asouations to be determined more accurately, The discovery of suit able sites on Kangaroo Island and nearby peninsulas of the mainland seemed untikely piven the number of lengthy reconnaissanves that hud already failed in this attempt. Attention was turned to the Flinders Ranges where Cooper (1943) hac reparted the dis covery of Kartan tools. The northern sector of the Ranges scenied the more promising because, lying within the arid vane, it was subject to a cycle of deposition and erosion that could cover archaeological materials ad ex- pose them again to allow discovery, 140 RJ. LAMPERT & PUL AUGHES In the event, investigations there illuminated not only the problem of the Kartan. but also yeneral questions about the antiquity and nature of human occupation in the arid zone of south-eastern Australia (cf Gould 1971, Bowdler 1976, Horton I9B1, Ross 1981). THE SENTING Present environment Landforms Structurally, by far the larger part of the Flinders. Ranges (see Fig. 1) has developed fram sedimentary rocks laid dowu between S00 and 1000 million years ago, These rocks were compressed, buckled and lractuired: they Were uplifted slowly and eroded, In the arid northern Ranges, where vegetation is sparse, the intricate folding and faulting. and the effects af erosion, can be best appreciated. The landforms here are spectacular, the Ranges as a whole rising abruptly from the surrounding plaing, and containing deep gorges, jagged ridges and enclosed synelinal basins or ‘pounds’, the best known of which is Wilpena Pound. Predominant among rock lypes is quartalte which grades out into sandstone and silistone. Limestone is. fairly ex- tensive, some igneous rocks ate present in the Mt Painter region, and there are a few smal! outcrops of silcrete. To the north, the Ranges become more subdued and eventually terminate in the dunefields and stany plains of the Strzelecki Desert Sandy plains some 30 km in width separate the northern Ranges fron Lake Frome to the east and Lake Torrens to the west. These lakes are huge saline playas that rarely eontain water. Streams flowing from the Ranges soan peter out, reaching the lakes only rarely, Under this regime, the streams drop their bedload of sediments within a short distance, causing alluvial fans to form an the piedmont. Climate and vegetarian The northern Ranges receive an annual raintall slightly less than 300 mm which decreases from south to north, the riorthern limits falling below the 250 mm isohyet, These average fivures are deceptive because of considerable varialion in rainfall fram year to year, Rainfall is 50% grealer in the Ranges than on the surrounding plains which receive only 200 mm, a figure that diminishes to a mere 125 mm in the heart of rhe Stezelecki Desert and at Lake Frome. As weil as having a higher rainfall, the Ranges have deep shady chasms with a rocky substrate that allows the retention of surface water in pools. The plains, by contrast, have only highly ephe- eral streams and salt pans, plus a few widely spaced artesian springs with water that is not always drinkable, The northern Ranges are thus a reason- ably well-watered strip within an arid region. Vegetation communities in the Ranges vary main- ly if accordance wilh soi types which mm turn reflect the kinds of parent rock and weathering processes to which they have been subjected. Sails range from skeletal soils, found mainly at higher latitudes, through red brown soils and podsols, to the deep alluvial soils found in valley bottoms (Kuchel (980: 69). Shrubland dominated by various species. of Acacia, Cassia and Erentuphila is common, partic ularly on the stony soils of vpper hill slopes. Native pine (Calhtris calumellaris) and sheoak (Causwariru stricta) ate found on lower slopes and flats. Calcareous podsols develaped on a sandy base are colonised mainly by mallee {Evcalyptus spp.) with spinifex (Trjodia irritans) occurring on more mobile sands, Plants af the family Chenopodiaceae, including salt bush (4rripley spp.) and blue bush (Maireany spp.) are found on stony flats and hill Slopes, oorably at the northern end of the Ranges and on the Lake Frome plain. Valley bottoms and stream courses support the lofty river red gum (Sucalyplus camaldulensis), specimens of which in the better watered gorges reach an enormous size. Past events Before 45 000 yBP Evidence from this early period is sparse, but thermo-luminescence (TL) dates for the onset of dune building in the northern Strzelecki Desert at least 250 000 yBP (Gardner ef af 1987), indicate (hal deserl condiljons were in place well before human occupation of the continent. In the Willandra Lakes, just outside the present arid zone, well-developed soils below lake bed depasits give evidence for dry conditions from 120 000-45 000 yBP (Bowler & Wasson 1984), 40) 000-25 000 yBP Signifivantly wetter eonditions throuyhout sou- ibern Australia are Shown by a variety of evidence. Lakes filed in the Willandra system and in south- eastern South Australia (Bowler 1971), Rivers of the Murray-Darling system were up to four times their present width (Pels 1964, Bowler ef a/, 1976), Lake Eyre covered three times its present area and was up to 17 m deep (Fwidale 1980: 30), Lake Frome experienced a high water phase mininially dared by C-14 ro 36 800 4 J 700 yBP from Cowiella shells in a beach ridge, while a dune thought to be associated with risirig lake levels has a TL date of 48 UOO 4 & 900 YBP (Gardner e/ al, }Y8T1. uring this moist phase, high rates of runatf and erosion in ibe Ranges produced the immetise HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES 141 Dalhousie ®e Simpson Desen Cooper Basin «. e - %e ee® «6 °° *, e ° 8” ® ee “ JSN Strzelecki e @L.Murteree Desert *S °% L. Blanche e Moung ee Prings ee L.Callabonna Puntarra a Ff \ mEudli Wagloona EF Balcoracana Ck Moorowile Well Chambers Gorge Murray-Darling R. —= Olary mae Eyre Pen. Fleurieu Pen. Kangaroo Island i) 100 km — FIGURE 1. Places mentioned in text. 142 Rul DAMPERT & PLL MUGHES wluyial fans thal form the pediments of hill slopes and exiesd outward across valley bottoms. Col- lectively, these sediments are known_as the Pooraka Formation (Williams 1973). They are up ta 10m thick where cur through by Hookina Creek, just north of Hawker township. Radiocarbon dates indicate that this formation had begun to build uj before 38 000 yBP and was completed by 30 000 yBP, alter which the abseuce of sedimentation Wlowed a soil profile, known as the Wilkatana Palaeosol, (@ develop on its surface. Bones of Pleistocene fauna, meluding Diproiodan, have been recovered fram deep sediments of this formation along Hookina Creek. 25 000-20 000 VBP Condilions became cooler and drier (hroughout southern Australia. The Willandra lake levels were low and fluctuating; at Lake Frome there was a change from lake deposits to dune building; in the Strzelecki Desert extensive sandy clay dunes began to form (Bowler & Wasson 1984). 2) 000-15 U0 ¥BP This was the coldest and most arid phase, with Jakes drying up and aeolian activiry gt its most intense, The Willandra system became almost eom- pletely drys dunes were formed around Lakes Torrens and Frame, and continued to be built in the Strzelecki Desen.. Near Edeowie Creek in the northern Ranges, dunes were formed on top of sediments of the Pooraka Formation, Dissection, by itregular stream action, of fan and valley fill sediments of the Pooraka Formation began at this Time, wid continues today (Williams 1973), 15 00U-10. 000 yBP This period was one of transition berween earlier intense aridity and Jater, moister and warmer vonditions. Dune building ceased in the Strzelecki Desert. These conditions allowed the formation of such soils as the Motpena Palaeosol, dated la c, 12 000 y.8P, and present in (he northern Ranges on fEdeowie and other dunes (Williams $973) 10. 000-35 000 VBP More frequent high water levels at Hawker Lagoon in the Flinders Ranges (this report) and at Lake Frome, associated With greater vegetation cover (Singh 1981), indicate moister and warmer conditions, at least in the south-easrern secior of the arid zone, for any time during the past 30 000 years. Lakes near the south-eastern coas! of Seurh Australia and on Kangaroo Island provide evidence for similar wetcer conditions ac much the same rime (Dowson 1974, I974b, 1975; Dadson & Wilson 1975, Lampert 1981). Afler 5 000 vBP Drier conditions began to return reaching a max imum around 2.000 yBP when the climate was slightly more arid than il is today (Bowler e/ wi, 1976), Revonnaissance of the region A major aim ol field research in the Ranges was to locate subsurface Kartan sites which could be ex- cavated ro provide the sort af information unavail- able from the surface sites encountered previously. This information included ihe age of (he Karlan; the nature of the ‘vemplere' industry eg. whether it was a6 dominated by large core tools as surface sites had suggested; and the strativraphic relationship oF the Kartan with small tools. Another interest developed during research lay in the gcogruphical spread of Kartan vis-a-vis small tool sites over a broader region than the Ranges alone since differences mught reflect the pace of human colonisation of the arid zone. North af the Ranges In 1979, We raconnoitred transects through the Coaper Basin and Strzclecki Desert as well as the northern Flinders Ranges (Hughes & Lampert 1980; Lanipert & Hughes 1980). In the desert regions north of the Ranges we examined approximately 100 sites, all of which are of late Holocene age judging from the ubiquitous presence of toals typical af the small rool tradition, the almost total absence of core tools and jarge serapers, and the stratigraphic position of these in the unconsolidated surface sands of dunes. No artefact was seen in the consolidated sediments that form the dune cores, and date back 15 000 to 18 000 years, despite numerous deep eXposures (hrough them, Al Lake Murteree, stone tools protruding from the eroded slope ofa dune vore appeared (0 be iisitu, but later excavalion showed the tools lic in a slope washed skin, consisiing of more recent. sands, covering the eroded face of the dune. In deeper excavation at this site, 00 artefact predating the dunetield was found. This had seemed a particularly promising site for carly ocelipation, being adjacent ta a waterhole and feat an outcrop of high quality silerere from whielr twols al the site had been flaked. The absence of evidence alt such a favourable location suggested that human presence before the late Halovene was. Sparse enough to be generally below the threshold of archaeological visibility. However, people were not totally absent, as the ISN Sile shows (Wasson 1983), This site, some Si) km west of Lake Murteree consists Oba lens of charred wood together with mussel shell, dated toe. 13 500 yAP and presumed io be an Aboriginal fireplace HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES 13 Mound springs These strerch in 4 broad are that follaws the south-western edge of the Great Artesian Basin lrom Lake Frome, across the northern margin oF the Tlinders Ranges, along the south-western shore of Lake Eyre, to Dalhousie on the western edge of the Simpson Desert, The springs are natural outlets for artesian water containing a number of soluble salts which solidify to form mounds as the water evaporates, The water from these varies considerably in quality. A few springs have excellent drinking water, most are brackish but still potable, while some are pjologically inert because of massive quantities of salts in solution, Except for the last, the springs support small areas of lush vegetation, as well as malluses, araphipods and small fish. They attract such mammals as the ced kangaroo, and birds that include ducks, the brolga and stills. Altlough their outpul of water is low, Ihe springs appear as Oases in a region Where the annual rainfall averages only 125 mm, Every major spring complex has at least one large Aboriginal surface site adjacent to i| (Hughes & Lampert |985, Lamper) 1985). Variations between sites in types oF tools, kinds of raw materials, and core reduction techniques, are currently under investigation by S. Florek (Umiversity of Sydney). Like those in the Cooper Basin, these siles appear io have been occupied mainly in the late Holecene, judging from the presence of such small tools as pircis, tulas and microliuhs. Only occasionally are there a few artefacts in carbonate-sohdified lower sand horizons to give a hint of sparse earlier occupation. Sues in the Ranges We examined a number of sites in the Ranges during our (979 survey. Chambers Gorge and nearby Moorowié Well we assume to be Karta judging from the presence of heavy core tools. and the rarity of smaller flaked artefacts lying on the surface. Hawever, the sparseness of artefacts gen- erally, and the unlikelihood of findiug stratified material in the skeletal soils of the rocky slopes on which the sites are situated, did not prompt any closer research. Only Hawker Lagoon, where stane tools of niany types, including large core lools, seemed to be eroding from stratified dune horizons, offered the chance of finding dated sequences. In the 30 000 16 38 YOO years old sediments of the Pooraka Formation along Hookina Creek a quartzite core Was found well embedded in the eroded slope of a gully, We aecepted this as being in sti at the ime (Lampert & Hughes 1980), but onareturn visit alter heavy rain Lampert noted how Huid the deposit became when wet. Whole blacks of sediment slumping downward and becoming embedded in bollaws within lower levels, carrying with therm material from the present surface, force ug to revise our opinion of the stratigraphic pro- verianve of this artefact. Despite the examination of many kilometres of exposures through the Poor- aka Formation along the water courses, no sign was seen of human activity in these sediments. LAKE FROME Lying aboul 30 km east of the northern Ranges, Lake Frome is a saline playa same 100 km long and 45 km wide With an annual rainfall ranging bet- ween 100 and 125 mm, and an evaporation raie exceeding 2 200 mm, it is One of Australia’s driest places. Because Lake Frome lies at the end of a long chaih of ephemeral lakes and watercourses. substantial amounts of water reach it only rarely. Cooper Creck, which drains fram south-western Queensland, must have sufficient discharge to fload Strzelecki Creek, then Lakes Blanche and Calla- bonna before walter can reach Lake Frome, On the western side of the lake a gravel beach 20 m higher than the present lake bed denotes a high stand of fresh water more than 31) O00 years aga, Since then, apart from moist phases 9 500- 8 000 and 7 VO0-4 G00 years ago (Singh 1981), the lake bed has been almost continuausly dry. A survey of the westera and southern shores revealed that artefacts are very rare around Lake Frome. A few sparse seatters of faked stone, varying in densily belween one flake per 5 m* and one per 50m? being found along the banks al Passmore River (Wilpena Creck), Balcoracana Creek and the channe} joining Lake Frome with Lake Callabonna to the north. These sites are all within one kilometre of the Jake shore. Except lor one tula slug and a few care iools, Ihe artefacts are all undiagnostic small flaked pieces. Actual sites, that is, places;where artefacts are concentrated within a definable area, are similarly rare: they are also small and have a low densiry of artefacts compared with sites in the Ranges. A report follows on detailed research at one of these, Balcoracana Creek, and comments on a second, Big John Creek, BALCORACANA CREEK The site is on the southern bank of Baleoracana Creek, aboul one kilometre apstream from the aut- let of the creek inio Lake Frome, Only on very rate occasions does the creek bed contain water The nearby dunefield is interpreted by Dr R. Wasson (pers, comm., Gardner ef af, 1987) as being source bordering rather than continental in origin, 144 R.J. LAMPERT & P.J. HUGHES iY? , ip: FIGURE 2. Artefacts from Balcoracana Creek: b, f and g are core tools from the carbonate palaeosol; a, c, ¢ and h from the overlying sand; i and j are adzes from the overlying sand. HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES HAWKER LAGOON MAY 1983 O76) LEGEND SANDY hae TOPSOIL %) RELATIVE HEIGHTS IN METRES WASH 059” COVERING @ = ARTEFACT IN UNIT TB AREA JUNCTION OF UNIT ITB AND 145 UNIT TA \ \ OVERLYING SANDY WASH \A\ SANDY WASH ULL JUNCTION OF UNIT TB AND IR / a 43 Hesy oH _ 27 UNIT TB . of ‘ ‘ \ ’ / es UNIT TA } o , OcHancoat fe es / i } _- F = _ lu 146 ' \ ' G 57 SANDY WASH a SANDY WASH i / e \ \ \ UNIT ee \ IY é UNIT IB ~ e 5) \ NJ 1 y \ v e PROFILE y e PROFILE — > y E ——— md e \ \ e ; e D UNIT TA ed eo &e UNIT 1B FIGURE 3. Hawker Lagoon locality map. 1809 MICROLITH COLLECTING AREA 4 6 8B 10m 146 Rul, LAMPERT & PJ. HUGHES The site is in a dune blow-out, deflation having exposed the horizontally bedded carbonate horizon of a palacosol. Al the time of our investigation, artefacts lay scattered both on the surface of the carbonate and on the lower slopes of dunes surrounding the blow-oul, During our initial appraisal (Lampert & Hughes 1980) we noted that artefacts lying on the sand appeared to be different from those on the carbonate, both in type and in Whether or not the artefact was coated with carbonate, This suggested (o us the possibility of identifying two industrial phases at the site through more careful scrutiny. [n 1981, we revisited the site and collected, for closer examination, all stone artefacts, noting whether each lay on sand or on carbonate. We were accompanied by Drs R. Wasson and J, Ash who investigated the age and origin of the dune sands from which the artefacts had ernded, The stone industry The stone industry consists of 1451 pieces of worked stone found within the blow-out. Two sorts of stone were used; silcrete that is variable both in texture and in colour, and a reef quartz that js somewhat granular in texture. A high frequency of rounded cortical surfaces On the artefacts shows that the raw materials were pebbles, possibly from pebble beds in the Burinalla formation, exposures through which are located within (wo kilometres of the site, A list of the various types of artefact is given below and in Table | but for some types (Fig. 2) a more detailed deseription follows in another section of (his report. Core foals All of these are made on silcrete pebbles that vary widely in both texture and colour. Because some of the pebbles are water-rounded, sub-angular blocks rather than smoothly curved pebbles we have chosen to call the group core tools rather than pebble tools, Flake scrapers ‘These are made on both quartz and silerete, and include typical steep-edged forms at the heavier end of the range, while lighter specimens merge with adzes. Noan-tila adzes All of these are made on silerete. They are recog nized by the characteristics listed by Lampert (1981: 134-142), and include one typical burren adze, but not all could readily be distinguished from some of the lighter scrapers. Tula adze Made on silcrete, (fis is a typical tula slug as des- cribed by McCarthy (1976: 31). Hamimers Made on silcrete, they display the pitting that characterises percussion stones generally (McCarthy 1976; 55-9), TABLE |. Baleoracana Creek: artefact Lypes and their CONLEXLS. Core tool Flake seraper silcrete quarle Non-tula adze Tula acze (slug) Hammer Trimming tlake Silerete core Silcrete fluke Quart? pieve Tota! number Total weight Trimming flakes All are of silcrete. The small flake scars along the platform suggests thal these (lakes result from the resharpening of core tools. They are similar to those found at Kartan core tool sites on Kangaroo Island (Lampert 1981; 44), Silerete vores Unlike core tools, these are recognised by the multi-ditectional removal of primary flakes, and the absence of a working edge along which smaller flakes have been removed. Silcrete flakes Quuriz pieces Because of the coarseness of the raw material not many pieces could be recognised either as coves or as flakes, and hence are simply termed quartz pieces. Unlike the quartz component of the indus- tries from most of the early to mid-Holocene sites on Kangaroo (sland, no bipolar cores were found al Bulcoracuna Creek, but whether this is due to areal absence of bipolar flaking or to our inability fo recognise it among the course material is unknown, HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE PLINDERS RANGES 14) Time differences within the stone industry Scattered over the surface of the palaeosol and on loose sand remaining from overlying dunes, the stone industry presented the usual problems of age and association that make surfave sites difficult to assess, To louk for (einporal divisions within the riaterial we examined twa lines ol evidence. One was the presence or absence of a carbonate coating on cach stone artelacl, Our assumption being thal tools coated with carbonate had lain formerly in sifu, near tbe carbonale rich palaeosol, and. are therefore relatively old; while tools from which carbonate js absent had been provenanced im Ingher dune levels, which contain much less ground carbonate, und are therefore younger (cf, Bowler e/ al. $970: 48). Such & strategy had oeeurred to Us during our first visit 10 the site in 1979, when initial Couns of tool types showed carbonate to be present on all excep! one of the 14 care tools bul absent trom the three adzes then lovated (Lampert & Hughes. 1980). Following a complete collection of artefacts 1n the blow oul during oir 1980 field season, these relationships were examined more rigorously. Table 2 shows frequencies for the occurrence of carbonale on various types of artelact, while Table 4 lists the statisrivally signifivant relalionships using X?. The results confirm our inital observation thal more core tools (han adzes are encrusted with carbonate. The same difference oecurs between core tools and flake scrapers, while another interesting result is che much greater rarity of carbonate on quartz pieces than on silerete Makes. Belore deducing trom these differences an his- torical progression of arlefact types, it is warth looking at another possible cause. Observations of sections naturally croded through several alluvial fans in the region show, beyond doubt, that carbon- ate coating is remavect from pebbles following their exposure, presumably by wind and rain. From this evidence it is possible that more core tools are ear bonate-coated because they were exposed only recently, whjle adzes have lain for longer on the surface. However, this would again suggest a greater depul below the surface for the provenance of the core tools OF the two mechanisms considered so tar for dif- lerenives in earbonate coaling, bolh suggest [hat core tools generally lay buried deeper than adzes and are therctore older, We see tio other likely cause for the pattern of carbonate encrustation- The silerctes used for boil Lol lypes are broadly identical. Although care tools huve more cortical surfaces than flake wals, carbonate coals the flaked Surlaces of enre iools as wnuch as it does the cortex, There is no obvious lateral variadion in the distribution of the two fool types. We therefore tentatively accept this evidence a§ support for the greater antiquity af core foals at the site, TABLE 2. Balcorucana Creek: carbonale coating on ariefacls. Wot carbanale coated Carbonate coated Care lool Flake scraper Non-tula adze Tula adze (slue) Silcrere core Silcrete Take Quartz piece A second method for seeking temporal divisions wilhin the assemblage was to record during collection whether each artefact lay on the palaeosol or on the overlying sand, We reasoned that, by fatural means at Jeast, artefacts would have moved downward, bul could nat have maved upward, is the blowout developed. Artefacts found on the palaeoso! would thus include a larger number originally from lower levels, while a greater number of those from the dune flanks would be from upper levels. Initially we divided the dune flanks into twa stratigraphic levels, consolidated lower and Inose upper sand, but because the samples were too small fo allaw us to make use of this separilion, we combined them aod simply compared palacosol with sand, Table 4 shows the distribution of artefact types on palaeosol and sand (Table 3 listed the differerices that can be supported statistically). Adzes are more likely to be found on the sand than are core tools, but (his difference |§ al the ‘probably significant! level, as is [he increase in quariz pieces over silcrete flakes on the sand. Like carbonate coating, this is not firm evidence for historical changes in the stone industry, How- ever, the 1wo lines of evidence do support each other, Compared wilh core tools, fewer adzes are carbonate-coated and fewer are from the palaeosol, Similarly, fewer quarts pieces than silerere flakes are either carbonate-coated or from the palaeosal, Further, there is a strong positive correlation bet- ween carbonate coating, aod palaeosol as a contest, for allartefacts (Tables 3 and 4). We conclude ten- tatively that, within an industry vontaining core tools and Make scrapers, adzes became popular later, and the use of quartz increased, Dating Several radjocarbon (C14) and TL dates (Gard- ner ef a/, 1987) provide a time framework lor the build-up of the dune series from which the artefacts have eroded (Table 5 ). Dates for the palae- 148 Ru. LAMPERT & Pal. HUGHES osol, both trom carbonates formed within it, and from land snails (Sinumelon sp.) embedded in its exposed surface, show that the antiquity of the earliest tools must be less than 13 000 yBP.. It is presumed that the carbonate-coated artefacts were eroded out of carbonate rich sands, dated by TL to ¢, 10 000 yBP, lying immediately above the pal- aeosol, Other artefacts, without carbonate on their surfaces, came from miore recent satids, which continued to accumulate until after 5 000 yBP. As demonstrated later (Tables 5-7), the indusiry as a whole is typologically akin ro that from. the Kangaroo Island site of Pigs Water Hole, for which an early Holocene date is favoured (Lampert |981: 88), while the scrapers. and non-tula adzes are like those from several Kangaroo Island sites dated between c. 1! 000 yBP and c, 4 300 yBP (Lampert 1981), Dated tulas from elsewhere in south-castern Australia indicate that (he tula found at this site dates to within the past 5 000 years, while evidence already discussed suggests that this specimen was deposited during the latter part of the . There is great variety too, both in artefact types and in raw materials: large cores, core (ools and flakes made of jocal quartzite, erindstones of sandstone, and such small tools as ptrris, microliths and tulas, made of a wide variety of imported, fine-grained sileretes and cherts, During our initial inspection of Hawker Lagoon, we discovered a large core tool apparently Jr siter in a compact lower horizon of the dunelield along. the western side of the valley about 300 m soute of the swamp. We also noticed that microlithic mat- erial was eroding from the uppermost sands, sug gesting the presence of a two phase industrial sequence. To test this hypothesis, Lampert returned to the site for several seasons af excavations while Hughes visited less frequently to investigate the sedimentary history, Site stratigraphy The north-western sector The main excavation wench called HL! (an abbreviation of HLI-5 shown on Fig. 4) was opened ip in the richest part of the concentration of artéfacts in the dunefield, just beyond the western end of the lunetie. Examination of stratigraphy exposed in the side of a gully (Fig. 4) al this point had revealed four superimposed layers of sand: 1, Unit LA, the top unit, of loose orange sand (Fig. 5: 1), from which microlithic material was emerging; 2. Unit 1B, the middle unit, of grey brown compact sand (Fig. 5: 3), in which no artefact was seen; 3. Unit 1A, not present in this part of the site, 152 R.. LAMPERT & PJ, HLIGHES 4, Unit 1LB, the bettom unit, af tightly bonded, almost rock hard, red sand (Fig. S: 5), from which core tools, cores and large Makes appeared to be eroding. 5. Unit 11, mottled yellow and grey clayey sand without artefacts. Jn this gully and along the edge of the dunefield faving (he swamp units |A and 1B, and the top few centimetres of Uni UB had been stripped by ¢rosion, The exposed surface Was of the hard unit 116 material, on which some artefacts lay and others seemed to be still i situ. After ourexperiences al Lake Murteree and at Hookina Creek (chis repor., there were obvious dangers in accepting artefacts us being wi silte without thorough investigation, Therefore, ina residual in the gully, where all three stfata were superimposed, a trench 4 « 2 mm was opened up, Artefacts were found in all three units but not in sufficient quantity in Unit 1B to allow the bottom industry lo be characterized, nor was charred wood suilable for dating found, Also, the hardness of this unit made excavation difficult and very slow, Three more seasons were needed, and the trench was extended to a total of 4 » 6m, before a reasonable sumple of artefacts, and a carbon sample of acceptable quality for dating were obtained, Having established through excavation that artefacis are unquestionably embedded in Unil (1B, we increased the sample by removing those emerging [rom 11B sediments exposed in the gully fleor, Before removal, the matrix around each artefact was half sectioned to a depth af 20 cm Lo make sure it was in undisturbed unit 11B sand and not a slope washed skin. Ln all cases the matrix remained consistent, through depth, with the stratified unit IIB sands jn the fain excavation, Therelore, artefacts were judged to be fv situ. Duting of HLI Radiocarbon dates from Trench WLI are shown in Jable &. The single sail carbonate date (Unit 111) provides only a minimum age for the sediments themselves, Judging from its wide divergence from the consistent series Of charcoal dates above, the carbonale formed much later than Unit I sedi- ments. Also warthy of comment is the modern date for Unit JA, a horizon that must have suffered past oecupational wind disturbanee, lying discon- formably on Unit 1B. HL 30 and HL 32; the lazoon bed and luneite Trenches HL. 30 and HL. 32 were excavated by Professor RWS. Wright (Dept of Authropology, University of Sydney), who visited Hawker Lagoon during our 1982 fieldwork season if search of faunal remains and ather environmental evidence in the swamp sediments, Trench HL 30 is al m2 fest pit in approximately the centre of the lagoon bed, excavated loa depth of 1.6 m and from there auvered to a total depth af 3.9 m below the surtace of the swamp bed. Throughout this depth the sediments were found to be hard clayey sand, grey in colour and devoid of stratigraphic differences. Other than an occasional fleck af charcoal, no organic substance was seen, nar was pollen found in samples submitted to Dr J, Dodson (Liniversity of NSW). Aline of auger holes extending from the swamp bed southward across the eastern end of the lunette helped to locate where lacustrine and terrestrial sediments intersected at (he shoreline, Al (his point, Trench HL 32, alm? test pit, was opened up to investigate possible stratigraphic relationships bet- weet! artefacts and the lunette: The trench was excavated to a depth of 1,0 m then a $mall sondage was dug for a further 40 ci The straia encountered were: A 0-45 en loose orange sand becominu compact with depth — backed blade at 45 cm B 45-45 cm light grey sand containing a small flake at 65 em © 65-15 em hard red clayey sand — tiny carbonate Alecks in top 4 en — no artefact recovered D 130+ cm mottled yellow and grey clayey sand, intersecting with the grey clayey sand found in the swamp From the outset, several of the strata seemed Inky those of HLI; stratuin A correspanding to Unil 1, C ro LIB, D to LI, but B having no counterpan in HLI, Stratum B is interpreted as beach sand, partly because of its loose, coarse texture, but mainly because it i§ present only at the swamp margin, Where sediments found while augering the swanip bed meet with Unit U1. It diminishes in thickness TABLE ¥, HEL radiovarban dates, Unic Unit Sample a no. depth dent Description Agr tem) tem) JA 0-20 15-20 Scattered Hy S50 chareaal it (SUA! 2254) loose sand (RB W4r 18-32 Scarrered 3100 « 100 charewal (SUA: 2253) WB 32-012 W412 Firepfaee i 14 770 + 270 jut (SUA: 2130) ITl 12. 2-120 Caleium 2950 + 70 Carhonare UANLI 3353) HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES 153 VA ea LASS ESL LM ey VY, yy, SOUL AST } LINAS LASS LE re \ 3 ° CLEAR \ ~< eo ? < ¢ Bo6%p20y 08 SECTION TT M4, es area Begs os N ~ t ° > -7-4 7? pA ry] H ~ fa a 7 oe. | PD at KO DATUM TT of | 4 e 4? * 3% \/_ ALIGHTLY VP f ) l f 4 °o OP 6he o ooo oO r9% \4 o LEGEND 9 ——— 8 FAT KARTAN voy] SMALL TOOLS —-—-— LIMIT OF THE FOREST FIGURE 4, Plan of main excavation area of Hawker Lagoon. and peters out, southward from the swamp, as auger — deflation had not only unearthed a large number holes revealed. of artefacts but also revealed stratigraphy like that seen in HLI. Three strata were revealed: HL 40 and the north-western sector Further to examine these putative relationships, HL 40, another 1 m2? test pit was opened up on the 0-12 cm grey-brown compact sand lunette some 100 m SW of HL, 32. At this point, containing flakes 154 R.J, LAMPERT & PJ. HUGHES i rant 2 FIGURE 5. Stratigraphy of Trench HL1 -5, Hawker Lagoon: |, Loose orange sand (1A), HL3-2 NLT 2, Disturbance (animal burrow), 3, Compact, grey-brown sand (IB), 4. Grey-brown clay band, 5. Hard red clayey sand (11B), 6, Scattered charcoal, 7. Hearth in pit, dated by SUA: 2131. HL 32 |—- 99 » ——_- LUNETTE Be ee ee Legoow suome COMPACT Clarey Seno HL 40 MELT |-——— +00 mn —_—_- | Ta 1B oO —_> FIGURE 6. Composite section showing stratigraphic relauionship between the three excavation trenches at Hawker Lagoon, 12-62 em hard red clayey sand with tiny carbonate flecks in top 4 cm and containing core tools carbonate zone in mottled yellow and grey clayey sand 62+ cm These are unmistakably the same strata as Units IB, IIB and Hin trench HLI some 700 m westward (Fig. 6). At HL40, Unit IA has been stripped away by deflation but is present just a few metres away on the surface of the lunette. Having established this relationship, a line of closely spaced holes was augered between HL40 and HL32. These show that the top stratum (A) in HL32 is continuous with both Unit [A and Unit 1B, even though no clear division can be seen in the HL32 section, while stratum C is continuous with Unit IIB in HL4O (Fig. 5). HL TT and the south-western sector HL. TT is a section, exposed in a creek bank, 500 m south of HL1, showing the dune stratigraphy at this part of the site. Unit Unit Description Age No. depth (cm) 1A ()-22 Loose orange sand Modern lying disconformably on IA IIA 22-57 Fairly compact red >8 380 4 sand with large 110 yBP carbonate nodules in (on carbon- top 15 cm, lying ate) discontorm- ably on LIB [JB 57-76 Hard red clayey sand JIL 764 Mottled yellow and >13 930 4 grey clay with 140 yBP carbonate horizon (SUA-I 751) (on carbon- ate) Because the eroded sediments above Unit 11 were discontinuous between HLTT and HL1, a complete stratigraphic section between the sites could not be examined, However, Units IA, IIB and III are com- STRATIGRAPHIC umild HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES 15 mon to both sites, and are clearly identical in terms of appearance, hardness, stratigraphic position and age. Unit IB is absent from HLTT, its stratigraphic position between IA and IIB being taken by IIA, a compact red sand with massive carbonate blocks in the top third of its thickness. Regional stratigraphy and palaeoenvironments From the morphology of the valley, it is apparent that all wind blown deposits overlie the tails of alluvial fans which mantle the middle and lower hill slopes. According to Williams (1973) such fans are part of the Pooraka Formation deposited between 40 000 and 30 000 years ago. However, there is no evidence for human occupation in the region at this time. The earliest aeolian sedimentary unit encount- ered, Unit III, is also devoid of evidence for human presence. Lying between Unit IIB and the Pooraka Formation, Unit III must have been laid down some time between 30 000 and 15 000 years ago. Lying conformably below Unit IB it appears to have still been accumulating at the end of this period, Thus, the upper sediments of Unit III may be part of widespread dune building of the arid phase which lasted altogether from 22000 to 13 000 yBP (Bowler & Wasson 1983), Unit IIB sands which contain the earliest evidence for human occupation, accumulated around 15 000 yBP, towards the end of the arid phase. Red in colour, I[B sands resemble those of the Edeowie dunes, some 45 km to the north, which also built up during the arid phase (Williams 1973). This was overlain by ITA, also a red sand but not cemented as tightly together as IIB. Towards the top of IIB a layer of massive tabular blocks of soil carbonate developed (Section HLTT) dated to older than ec, 8 400 yBP, but possibly a local expression of the Motpena Palaeosol dated to c. 12 000 yBP (Wil- liams 1973). A phase of erosion followed, Unit IIA being stripped away completely in some areas (e.g. at HL1) and stripped down Lo the top the blocky carbonate palaeosol in others (e.g. at HLTT). In places where IIA had been stripped away the surface of 11B was weathered, then disconformably overlain by IB. We see no obvious reasons for this in the climatic models available. According to Williams (1973), from 16 000 to 12 000 yBP in the Flinders Range the climate was temperate with sufficient moisture to allow soil formation, while from 12 000 to 5 000 yBP conditions were generally more arid but rainfall was of great intensity causing high stream discharge rates. However, the broader climatic model of Bowler & Wasson (1983) shows the arid phase diminishing after 15 000 yBP but persisting until at least 13 000 yBP, after which conditions continued to improve as the moist phase of the Early Holocene was reached. Neither of these La models offers an explanation for the weathering of Units IIA and IIB, which might result from peculiar local conditions caused perhaps by the site location in a narrow valley through which wind is channelled either from the north or the south. The stratigraphy revealed in HLTT can be traced over most of the south-western sector of the Hawker swamp site complex. Because this sector had been cleared of its original woodland cover (mallee and native pine) much of it has been eroded deeply, usually to a level within the Unit IIB clayey sand. However enough remnants of overlying deposits are present to show the consistency of the stratigraphy across the sector. Core tools, cores and largish flakes were found on and eroding from the exposed horizontal surface of Unit IIB but typical small tools are extremely rare in the south-western sector. Two core tools were found in situ within IA while a number were found, as a lag deposit, on remnants of the exposed horizontal surface of IIA. Wind erosion seems to have ceased on reaching the horizon of massive carbonate nodules, which are harder than the sandy matrix of ILA, Later, the deposits were dissected deeply by numerous small streams carrying runoff to the valley floor, leaving flat topped columns of sediment capped by carbonate. While the nature of the sediments that have blown away cannot be ascertained beyond doubt, sections at the edge of the cleared land where upper deposits are still protected by mallee woodland, show that the IIA red sands continue for some 20 cm above the car- bonate horizon. Because carbonate horizons form within, rather than on, a sedimentary unit, it seems likely that ILA red sand once lay above the car- bonate horizon throughout this sector of the site. Summing up the stratigraphic evidence Table 9 brings together stratigraphic evidence from the various excavations and natural exposures discussed above. While not all strata are present in any one section, three (IA, IIB and III) are present throughout, and two others (JB and IIA) are closely dated enough to allow them to be placed in sequence, The stone industries (Figs 7-10) Surface evidence The seemingly patchy distribution of artefacts shown on the site map (Fig. 3) results partly from lack of visibility where erosion has not occurred, This map shows also that while the Kartan industry is widespread, the small tool industry is confined almost entirely to areas where the two outflow channels emerge from the lagoon, where its dis- tribution overlaps that of the Kartan. Two controlled surface collections, designated HLA2 and HLSWI, were made in the cleared rec- tangular areas where the industry appeared to be 156 RJ, LAMPERT & PJ. HUGHES purely Kartan ic. large core tools dominant but small lools entirely absent, while a third (HL7) was made at the western end of the lunette in a purely small tool area on recent sand (Unit [A) on the top of a dune. Surface collection HL A2 This was collected near HL. TT, in the SW sector of the site, Here the landscape is deeply etched with erosion channels, leaving less deeply eroded pedestals of sediment. Large core tools, cores and flakes were found both lying on the surface of these pedestals and partly embedded in the IIA red sand, some exposed in vertical sections being unques- tionably /n situ. All the exposed material was col- lected, and the following artefact types were identified:— N+ 9 Flake scraper 4 39 Core tool 20 19.6 Trimming flake 8 7.8 Core 19 18, Flake 31 50.0 Surface collection HL SWI This was made in the extreme south-western corner of the site, where the eroded area finishes abruptly at an old fence line, beyond which the dunefield is well stabilised by its original thick cover of mallee. Along the eastern side of the fence line, where the site lies, the sediments have been eroded down uniformly to Unit HI material, on which the artefacts now lie, This surfce is devoid both of vegetation and of naturally occurring stone. From the outset this area looked like a typical Kartan site on Kangaroo Island, with its predominance of large core (ools among artefacts, However, it Was seen to have an important advantage in that the industry is fully exposed on a clay base, unlike the Kangaroo Island sites where both vegetation and naturally shattered stone aroused suspicion of a bias in sampling (Lampert 1981). A strip, 150 » 30m, parallel to the fence was marked out and all stone collected. The following artefact types were identified: TABLE 9, Correlation of dune stratigraphy at Hawker Lagoon. Depositional Unit Geological activity Both units lie above beach of former high water level; water level now low 1A: loose, orange wind blown sand Depositional 18: compact, Depositional urey-brown sand; present only in and near Junelte Beach sand at swamp margin None recognised] Erosional;: weathering of IIB and TA Depositional Depositianal WA: red wind blown sand present onl in SW see- tor of site IIB: hard, red wind-blown clayey sand Both units continue below beach of high water level III: mottled yellow and prey clayey sand with carbonate horizon Relalionship with swamp Depositional| Water level fizh Early-mid-Holocene Age Archaeological evidence Late Holocene: present day land surface. Modern carbon date fram bottom of unit shows post-depositional wind disturbance Small tools including geometric microliths concentrated in small areas One small thumbnail scraper of microlithic character Mid-to late Holocene; date of ¢, 5 100 yBP from. bottom of unit Microlith lying on, but nor in, beach Terminal Pleistocene? None recognised; no lag of artefacts on T1B surface Greater than ec. Kartan tools 8 400 yBP on carbonate horizon which could be Motpena Palaeosol (¢, 12 000 yRBP) Pleistocene; date of c¢. Kartan tools 14 800 yBP from pit in unit Greater than c. 13 900 yYBP on carbonate date, hut must be older than LB HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES 157 FIGURE 7. Core tools from Hawker Lagoon surface collections: a and b from HL2; c and d from SWI. 158 R.J, LAMPERT & P.J. HUGHES FIGURE 8. Core tools from Hawker Lagoon Unit IIB: a-f excavated from exposed surface (HLZ). N % small artefacts over a larger area, of which HL7 was Flake scraper 6 4.5 seen as typical. The following artefacts were col- Core tool 31 23.5 lected: Trimming flake 10 7.6 Core 19 14.4 N Ts Flake 66 50.0 Geometric microlith 6 0.2 Tumbnail scraper 3) 0.1 Surface collection HL 7 Miscellaneous retouch 9 0.3 This was made in a small (3 x 4m) patch of IA Bipolar core 1 0.1 sand some 40 m N. of the main excavation trench Core 5 0.2 HLI. Wind had exposed a heavy concentration of Flake 2570 99.1 HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES 159 FIGURE 9. Core tools from Hawker Lagoon Unit IIB: a and b from HLZ; ¢ and d from Trench HLI. The preponderance of flakes over other artefacts is noteworthy, as is the small size of the material, most of which is 1-2 cm? and the largest piece, a flake, has a length of 5 cm. The 2 594 artefacts have a total weight of only | 860 g. Also of interest is the high density of artefacts: more than 200 m@ at this one stage in the process of deflation. A year later, further erosion of IA sand had exposed a similar density of artefacts in this same small patch. This is typical of eroded patches in the north-west sector of the site suggesting that an immense amount of flaked stone lies buried within the nearby dunes. Excayated samples from HLI and HLZ Table 10 shows the distribution of artefact types through the three sedimentary units in HLI1, the main excavation trench. Unit IB has been divided into three levels of equal depth to demonstrate that artefacts are embedded deeply enough in it to have been deposited during the unit’s sedimentation. Also shown are the artefact types excavated from HLZ, the eroded surface of IIB sediments adjacent to HLI. The HLZ artefacts provide a larger sample from IIB than that given by HLI alone. The excavation of trench HLI confirms that the two industrial traditions, recognised from surface 160 RJ. LAMPERT & P.J. HUGHES fe + a aa Pee | y | k lay FIGURE 10. Artefacts from Hawker Lagoon Trench HLI: a toi, flake scrapers from Linit ITB; j, piece of reniform slate scraper from IA; k and l, microliths from 1A; m, thumbnail scraper from IB, evidence, were popular at different times. The earlier, dated to around 15 000 yBP, is characterised by core tools, trimming flakes and a high core to flake ratio (1:23). The later, dated from about 5 000 yBP, onward, is characterised by such typical small tools as geometric microliths, a_ pirri, thumbnail scrapers, a fragment of a reniform slate scraper and a low core ta flake ratio (1:616). Other changes occurred during the history of occupation. Sixteen of the core tools from (1B (HL1 and HLZ) are made on quartzite and one is on silcrete, Whereas the microliths, pirri and thumbnail in 1A and B are all made on silcrete. Flake scrapers, however, are made on silcrete and quartzite in roughly equal proportions throughout. This in- creasing popularity in the use of silerete can be seen best in ‘waste’ flakes (Table 11), a change that is statistically significant. The size of artefacts changed, seen not only in the obvious change from core tools to small tools, but also in the decrease in size both of ‘waste’ flakes (Table 12) and of flake scrapers (Table 13) both changes being statistically highly significant. Excavated samples from HL40 In this eroded area at the eastern end of the lunette only part of Unit 1B and all of ITB were available for excavation, IA having been stripped away entirely. The following artefacts were recovered from Unit IIB; HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES lat TABLE 10. Hawker Lagoon: excavated artefacts from HLI and HLZ. Slate scraper Misc, retouch a re e|2 g | é _ = = 2 & | a Core tool IIB iii N Ty Flakes 81 92.0 Cores i hl Core tools 3 3.4 Serapers ee meee Trimming (lakes i] 11 This | m? test pit confirms that artefacts are in sit; that the strata are (1B overlain by IB, as found also at HL1I; and that the IIB artefacts, in which core tools and flake scrapers predominate, conform with (hose trom HL. Excavated samples from HL, 32 A 1 m2 test pit made to examine the stratigraphy at the lagoon shoreline, HL 32 revealed three strata described earlier, The following artefacts were re- covered: Units IA and IB combined (no strati- graphic division visible) Flakes 434 Geometric microlith | Flakes 63 Thumbnail seraper | Grey beach sand Unit 1B No artefact found Che microlith was in the bottom 10 em of ynits TA-1B and the thumbnail scraper was in the (op 10 em of the grey beach sand. It is possible that more recent material was trodden into the soft sand of the beach, indicating that the beach could have been formed belore the advent of small tools. However this could not have been much earlier because the exposed loose sands of the beach would almost certainly have been either stripped away by deflation or a protective soil would have formed in its upper horizon. Given also the fact thal the beach lies disconformably over Unit 11B, which shows (he Trimming Flake Trimming flake Core tool same upper zone of weathering here as it does below 1B, it seems likely that the beach formed not long before IB ie, at the mid-Holocene. This interpre tation accords With the type of stone artefacts found inthe beach. Not only is there a thumbnail scraper made on a section of a silerete blade bul (here are many small flakes of silerete, reminiscent more of the stone from upper levels (IB and LA) in HL! than the lower level (1B). Typological relationships among core iools To compare Hawker Lagoon core tools with those from Kangaroo Island, the same metrical obser- vations were made (Lampert 1981), Samples pro» vided by surface collections HLA2 and HLSWI, and by excavation of HLI/HLZ, were each com- pared with a sample of 76 block tools from Kang- aroo Island (Fig. 11), As Tables 14 to 16 show, umong 27 comparisons there are only two differ- ences significant at the 0.05 level. There are other similarities between (he industries of the two regions; 1. With few exceptions, local stone of jndifferent quality was used for core tools. 2. With the exception of HLI, where the sample is small, core tools predominate among formal tool types. 3. Given the number of finished tools, [lakes and multidirectional cores are fewer than on non-Kartan sites. 4, Site areas are large with artefacts scattered fairly thinly. Given this close correspondence with Kangaroo Island, the early industry at Hawker Lagoon must also be Kartan. Summing up at Hawker Lagoon Hawker Lagoon is a large open site with stone industries eroding from several strata in a lunette 162 R.J. LAMPERT & P.J. HUGHES TABLE 11, HL1 — distribution of unmodified flakes of silcrete and quartzite between upper and lower units. Total 1A, IB 50 50 100% IIB 43 57 100% TABLE 12. HL! — distribution of unmodified fakes according to size between upper and lower units. Lev [5m 1A, IB 66 31 3 (IB 23 4] 36 and contiguous dunefield. Artefacts of the Kartan industry are present over a wide area, but small tools are confined to two localised patches where the lunette terminates near the sides of the valley and two channels carry overflow from the swamp downstream. The Kartan tools are provenanced to two lower horizons, IIB and IIA, dated to 14 770 + 270 yBP and older than 8 380 + 110 yBP, respectively; the small tools to two upper horizons, IB and IA, dating back to 5 100 + 100 yBP, and possibly to beach sands stratigraphically between tA and IIB. Further excavation is planned to elucidate the late Holocene stratigraphy, not only at the swamp shore, but also near the location of Trench HL1 where the upper horizons (IA and 1R) suffered post-occupational wind disturbance. Over much of the site, Unit ILA is not present, presumably stripped away by the same climatic event that weathered the surface of IIB. However, no particular reason for this event, between c. 15 000 and 5 000 yBP, can be identified in the broad palaeoclimatic history of the region, suggesting it may have local rather than regional causes. The presence of a beach, stratigraphically bet- ween I!A and IB, shows that a stand of high water also occurred in the 15 000-5 000 yBP period. Because the weathered surface of IIB continues be- low the beach, the phase of erosion preceded that of high water. The wetter local conditions that must have caused the stand of high water are thought to be part of the early Holocene wet period evidenced for southern Australia generally, suggesting a terminal Pleistocene date for the phase of erosion, THE REGION IN THE CONTEXT OF AUSTRALIAN PREHISTORY The Kartan industry Description of the Kartan industry Because some of the main conclusions reached in this report depend upon proper recognition of TABLE 13, HL1, HLZ flake scrapers comparison between upper (IA, 1B) and lower (11B) depositional units. 8.D, = standard deviation, N = sample size. Attribute Length Breadth Height Breadth/length Height/breadth Retouch Jength Retouch percent Rerouch angle Weight Significance Level 05 O01 O01 NS HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES 163 PWHO Balcoracana Creek gy - \'Sai Yok QSeelands KISB W Maitland gy Kiseg KIC Kisc Oo Eyre Peninsulalll a Hawker Lagoon A2 gy Hawker Lagoon SWI @hisc OKIC “Moonee Schnapper Point Oo FIGURE 11. Discriminant function analysis comparing Hawker Lagoon and Balcoracana Creek core tools with those from elsewhere (data from all sites outside the Flinders Ranges are mentioned in Lampert 1981: Fig. 36). Note that Hawker Lagoon clusters with other South Australian Kartan sites while Balcoracana Creek is closer to Pigs Water Hole (PWH). KI = Kangaroo Island. the Kartan we put forward the following criteria, taken from Lampert (1981, 1983): i. The Kartan is found on Kangaroo Island and in nearby parts of mainland South Australia, mainly on open sites near fresh water. 2. The dominant artefact in Kartan assemblages is a large core tool made on either a pebble or block of quarried stone in accordance with the availability of local stone. 3. Kartan core tools have metrical-statistical characteristics, described by both Matthews (1966) and Lampert (1981), which distinguish them from core tools in all other known industries from the Australian-South East Asian region. 4, Another characteristic that appears unique to Kartan assemblages is the rarity of flakes, flake tools and cores, compared with core tools. 5. Kartan core tools are unifacially flaked from a flattish base, producing a working edge that extends, on average, around half the base perimeter. 6. With use and sharpening, the edge becomes steeper and extends further around the perimeter, leading eventually to the classic horsehoof core on which the edge is too steeply overhung for the artefact to be functional as a tool. Since this description was published, other information has emerged. From his excavation of a 7 000 year old occupation level at the Cape du Couedic rockshelter on Kangaroo Island, Draper (1987) claims to have recovered Kartan tools, and believes that the Kartan owes much of its character to the use of a particular reduction sequence, suited to the kind of stone. For different raw material, another technology was favoured. At the very least, this view provides an alternative hypothesis to those explored by Lampert (1981) in seeking to explain the spatial separation of Kartan from most other sites on Kangaroo Island. Characterised by ‘two large pebble choppers, a couple of small ones (comparable to. . . examples from Pigs Water Hole 164 R.J. LAMPERT & P.J. HUGHES TABLE 14. Core tools from surface site HLA2 compared with KI block tools. S.D. = sample size. Attribute Length Breadth Height Breadth/length Height/breadth Retouch length Retouch percent Retouch angle Weight NS Significance Level 05 Ol standard deviation, N = -001 Mean (S.D.) (N = 20) 107.5 (16.7) 90.8 (14.7) 73.0 (20.5) 118.6 (13.4) 132.4 (30.8) 184.2 (64.3) 57.2 (16.5) 84.9 (4.6) 927.4 (331.7) HLA2 TABLE 15. Core tools from surface site HLSWI compared with KI block tools. S.D. Length Breadth Height Breadth/length Height/breadth Retouch length Retouch percent Retouch angle Weight Attribute standard deviation, N = sample size, —— Mean Mean Significance Level (S.D.) (S.D.) NS — .05 Ol .001 HL KI (N = 31)/(N = 76) + 109.6 106.4 (13.5) (20.2) + 90.3 85.4 (15.0) (16.6) + 65.8 65.0 (16.0) (17.8) + 122.8 126.9 (16.2) (22.4) + 145.3 144.1 (45.6) (56.0) + 130.0 156.7 (49.1) (71.4) + 40.1 51.0 (12.2) (21.8) + 82.8 84.0 (6.3) (8.7) + 846.9 881.7 (350.8) | (451.4) HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES 165 TABLE 16. HI. excavated sample compared with KI block tools, $.D, = standard deviation, N = sample size. Attiibute Length Breadth Height Breadth “length Height/breadth Retouch lengit Retouch percent Retouch angle Weight ...)' and ‘hundreds of quartzite flakes’ (Draper 1987; 5), the Cape du Couedic assemblage appears to have greater similarity with the Pigs Water Hole site (Lampert 1981; 81-96), for which, like Cape du Couedic¢, an early Holocene age is indicated, than with (he more usual range of Kartan sites. However, the presence of large pebble choppers within the assemblage does suppor! Draper's sugvestion (1987; 6) that Cape du Couedit is the ‘missing link’ in site variation, indicating a closer relationship between Pigs Water Hole and Karlan siles (han Lampert’s rescarel) SUgpBeESLS. Research at the Lime Springs site, in inland northern New South Wales, has revealed an indus- try featuring horsehoof cores and large fake scrapers, termed Kartan by the authors (Gorecki er al, 1984), in the upper levels of a deposit dating back some 19 000 years. Because this industry has not been fully described by the authors its relationship with the Kartan from South Australia cannot be determined, However, 4 metrical-statistical compar- ison between core (ools from South Australia and coastal rorthern New South Wales (Lampert 1981) shows no close relauionship; instead it reinforces a view of the Kartan ws a regional industry confined to South Australia. Other writers question the status of the horsehoof! core as a tool, Both Kamminga (1982) from the absence ol use wear, and Flenniken & White (1985) from the steepness of edge angle, conclude that most horsehoofs are simply cores rather than core tools, a view mor greatly differen! from that of Lampert (L981: 65) who sees the horse- Significance Level NS 05 01 OOL hool core as the worked out remnant of a tool’ rather (han a functional tool per se. The geographical range of the Kartan Previous typological studies (Matthews 1965, 1966; Lampert 1981) establish the Kartan as a regional industry within the Australian core tool and scraper tradition, confined to Kangaroo Island and the three nearby mainland peninsulas, Fleurieu, York and Eyre, with the Wakelield River as the most northerly site recognised. That view is changed by the presen! study which confirms reports by Cooper (1968) of Kartan sites in the northern Flinders Ranges, However, oo Kurtan site was found while reconnoitring surrounding desert areas, ranging as far north as Innamineka, Birdsville and Oodnadatta (Hughes & Lampert 1980, 1985; Lampert 1985); nor have Kartan sites been reported from coast and hinterland to the west and east of the three peninsulas. On present evidence then, the Kartan extends froma clearly defined sector of the South Australian coast, through the Mount Lofty Range, and the southern and northern Flinders Ranges, but is absent from surrounding regions. As Lampert (1981) shows, Kartan sites are invariably in hilly county, near cither a stream or lagoon, and usually placed on the lower slope of a hill, often: with a northerly aspect. Sites in the Flinders Ranges con- form tO this locational pattern, both Mount Cham- bers and Mooroowie Well being on slopes near streams, while most Hawker Lagoon Kartan tools lig on the lower slopes of the Yappalla Range. 106 R.J. LAMPERT & PJ. HUGHES The Kartan industry has an upland distribution, ranging from humid coastline in the south to desert ranges in the north. Such a distribution indicates cullural Unity through the long chain of ranges, despite climatic diversity. Recent patterns of Aboriginal culture show unity within drainage basins, but division along watersheds, such as ranges (Peterson 1976). However, the ranges in question are wide enough to have been a culcural province themselves. Indeed, present day Aboriginal inhabitants. of the northern ranges, who were inierviewed by Lampert, distinguish between ‘rack” (or hill) peaple, such as the Adnyamathanha, and ‘sult’ Water? (inland salt lake} people like the Arabana. Age of the Kartan From jts presence on Kangaroo Island, an anti- quity greater than the flooding of the land bridge that had jomed the island to the mainland (ec, 9 500 yBP) is inferred (Tindale 1957, Cooper 1960, Lampert 1981). While the Hawker Lagoon date of ¢ 15 000 yBP confirms that the Kartan has Pleis- locene origins, recent excavations at Cape du Coue- dic, Kangaroo Island, suggest that Kartan tools were suillin.use al some sites as recent as ¢. 7 000 yBP (Draper 1987), This modifies the view of Lampert (1981), deduced from the absence of the industry at several dated sites, thal Karfan tools had gone outof use at leas! before 1! 000 yBP, and possibly before 16 000 yBP. Later core taol assemblages The Lake Frome sites at Balcoracana Creek and Big John Creek, the Kangatoo Island site at Pigs Water Hole, and possibly Cape du Cauedic, have several features in common, including an early Holocene age, Like Kartan sites, core tools pre- dominate iti the assemblages, bul the tools are smaller and have working edges of different onen- tation. These differences, though statistivally sig- nificant, are nor as great as those between either group and loval assemblages of the small tool tradition; nor is there a great ume difference between the tWo groups judging fram the dates of Hawker Lagoon and Balcoracana Creek. Possibly we are looking at a ‘sub-Kartan’ industry, which has developed oul of the Karian and retained same of its fearures. Movement af people At Hawker Lagoon the bulk of the archaeological evidence is concentrated within twa broad phases: {i) an early phase around 15 000 yBP with Kartan artefacts, (ii) a late phase beginning about 5 000 years ago and continuing possibly until rhe late 19th century. Stratigraphically these phases are repre- sented by units [}A-U Band JA-DB, respectively, but in the thre’ excavated areas ILA is nol presented, The disconformity between [1B and [A represents 2 10 000 year gap in the site's despositional and human history. Jf the site had been popular during that time artefacts should appear as a lag on the Weathered [1B surface, but this is motthe case. The possibility of artefacts having shifted by natural means at the site js currently being investigated by taphonomie studies. Conducted by Dr J.PL White (University of Sydney) and the authors, these srucies involve annual observation over IQ years Preliminary results from fieldwork in 1987 indicate that small, flattish flakes arc moved easily by strong gusts of wind, some being blown as much as 4 m uphill on an eroded dune face, suggesting that the ‘industry'in Unit JA, Trench ALI, which consists almost entirely of flakes of this kind, is in fact a wind sorted component of an industry. Meanwhile we assume that a whole industry, in- cluding its larger elements, could not have been swept away ennurely by runalf, wind or other natural force, and this part of the site was not occupied to an archaeologically visible degree during those years. Why this should have occurred during the early Holocene when conditions were mois} and (he lagoon brimming with fresh water seems paradoxical, In answer we propose thal moister conditions allowed people to spread themselves more widely, occupying regions that had been inhospitably arid. Under this explanation jt comes as rio surprise Lo learn that the main phase of occupation of the shores of Lake Frome was the early Molocene. With moist conditions general, the more reliable water sources such as Hawker Lagoon Were no longer a focus. The early accupalion of the arid sone Recent Aborigines in arid and semi-arid regions have a pattern of movement that takes maximum advantage af the availability of water and other resources, Buring dry times they fall back on te- liable sources Of water such as streams (Allen 1974) or desert uplands (Peterson & Long 1986), bul alter rain move out across the landscape exploiting ephemeral water sources such as pans, soaks und streams, and with them a wider range and greater abundance of foods. Far the Flinders Ranges, a senior Adnyamathanha man told Lampert that his people Were based in the Ranges bu! somelimes Sn a goud season’ they made brief forays as far as the shores Of Lake Frome. One of the places visited was Eudli Wagloona, on the south-eastecn shore of Lake Frome, where Lampert noted an extremely sparse scatter of stone flakes (1 per 50m) around an ephemeral waterhale. On a much longer timescale, this pattern of movement is the same as that envisaged in the mare distant past, people based in the better watered HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE PLINBERS KANGES \67 Ranges within a dry phase nioving out to the stores of Lake Frome as conditions became wetter during the early Holocene. Hawker Lagoon shares nuniber of similarities with Puritjarra, a rock shelterin the Cleland Hills of central Australia in which oceupation dates back to ¢ 22.000 yBP and appears to be continuous through the fast glacial maximum until at least 12 000 yBP (Smith 1987), Both sites not only con- firm a Pleistocene age for human sertiement of the arid interior bur are in desert uplands, At both sites the deposits are sandy and devaid oF such direct evidence for past environments as pallen or plant and animal remains. However, the desert uplands ii Which the sites lie fringe the Lake Eyre Basin where siratified sediments spanning much of the Pleistocene and Holocene contain a wide variely of environmental evidence. This enormous. basin, draining about one million square kilometres, is {he focus of future arid zone prehistoric studies, both by the authors and by other researchers (Lampert in press, Lampert et a/ i prep.) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This project would nor have been possible without the help given by local landholders. and other residents, notably Mrs E, Jarvis and Mr V. Jarvis, of ‘Pine Flar’, Mr F. Teague and. family ol Hawker, Mrand Mrs B. Powell of Quorn, Me J. MeForee of ‘Erudina’, MrT, Rieck of ‘Merty Merty’, Mr A. Wilson of ‘Frome Downs’ and Mr REPERE ALLEN, H. 1974, The Hagunji of the Darling Basin: cereal gallierers in an uncertain environment: Wearld Arch & 309-422. BOW DLER, 8. 1977. The coastal colonization of Aust- ralia. Ja J. Allen, J. Galson & R. Jones (Eels), ‘Sunda and Sahul: Prehistoric Studies in South-east Asia, Melanesia and Australia’. Pp. 205-246. Avademie Press, London BOWLER, J.M, 197|. Pleistocene salinilics and climatic change: evidence Irom lakey and luneites in south- castern Australia. Jn DJ. Mulvaney and J. Golson (Eds.j, ‘Aboriginal Man and Environment in Australia’, Pp. 47-65. ANU, Press, Canberra. BOWLER, J.M.. JCINES, R., ALLEN, H. & THORNE, AG, 1970, Pleistocene human remains trom Australia: a living sile and humin cremation from Lake Muryeo, westorn New South Wales. World rch. 2. 39-60). BOWLER, 1.M., HOPE, G.S., JENNINGS, JN., SINGH, G. & WALKER, D. 1976, Late Quaternary climates of Austeaha and New Guinea. Quurernart Res, &: 350-394, BOWLER IM, & WASSON, RJ. 1984, Gihacial age ens vironments of inland Anstealia, Jr J.C. Voxel (Ed.) “Late Caiwozoic Palaeoclimates of the Southern Hemsphere’. Pp, 183-208. Balkema, Rotterdam. B, Reynolds of ‘Yankanina’, We were encouraged and guided throughoul by Aboriginal peaple of ihe local Adnyamathanha community, particularly by the late Mi J. Mekenzic, and by Mr C. Coulthard, Mrs P. Mekenszie, Miss C. Wilton, Mr R. Wilton and Mr. Coulthare. The project was funded jointly by the Australian Research Grants Scheme, the Australian Museum and the Australian National University, A number of scientists contributed specialist knowledge: Dr R. Wasson (C.S1-R.0.) and Dr J, Ash (Australian National University) examined dune stratigraphy; Professor R.V.S. Wright (University of Sydney) and Dr M- Sullivan (University of Papwa New Guinea) worked on stratigraphic problems at Hawker Lagoa, an whiel, Dr R. Sprigy (‘Arkarcola’y alio gave advice; Dr J. Dodsan (University of New South Wales) sought pollen in sail samples; Dr J. Bowler (Museunt of Victoria) gave information on landforms and sites at Lake Frere; My M. Smith (Museum of the Northern Territory), Professor Jim Allen (La Trabe Universicy) and Dr Hurry Lourandos commented on a draft of this paper Mr S. Florek and Ms A, Richards (both Australian Museum) dratted mast of the final drawings, During excavations al Hawker Lagoon, we were wasisted by members of the Aboriginal Heritage Unil, Department of the Environment and Plaruting, Adelaide (R. Buchiin, §. Martin, R. Leubhers, V. Porezny and T Power); by museum staff and volunteers, and by stall and studemts from several universities (S. Robinson, C.A. Metirath, 5. Wright, B. Wright, C, Mackenzie, M. Kelly. T. Phithips, J, McDonald, G, Alkin, S. Holmes, S. Claydon, R, Sim, D. Donton, NM. Franklin, A, Ross, A, Cluck, V. Attenbrow, F. Papps, S. Homer, RB. White, S. Moss, G. Houghton, B Pyenore, PL Thorley, M. Goinmersal, A. Corrie, M- Thiedman, C. Conrade, A, Blandford and B, English). Last Gut not least we thank My R. Teusner (Taqunda) Whose information Jed us to the Hawker Lagoon site. NCES CALLEN, R.A. 1975, FROME geological sheer SH54-10. Geol. Actas Se, Geo. Surv, 8. Ausi. CALLEN, R-A. & TEDPORD, R.H. 1976, New late Cajnozaic rack units and deposidional environments, Lake Frome area, South Ausiraha. 7rann R. Sov. 8, Aust. UW 125-167. COOPER, A-M- 1943. Larwe stone implements. trom South Australia, Ree; So dsr, Mix. 7 343-369, COOPER, H-M_ 1960, Kangaroo Island — archaeology, Ree S. Aust, Mies, 13; 48-803. DODSON, LR. 19744. Vegetation history abd water Quctuutions at Luke Leake, south-eastern Sout Australia. 1 19 O00 ¥BP do present. 4ust, Bor 2: TIO-T4h DODSON, JR. 1974b, Vegerarion and climativ history near Lake Kellambele, Western Viclaria, Aust. 4 Bor, 22: FO9-717, BODSON, JR. 1975, Vegetation Wistory and water fluctuations at Lake Leake, south-exstern South Australia, 1) 30 000 yBP ta 10 000 yBP. Awsn J Bei. 24, RIS-R43. DODSON IR. and WILSON, 1.8. 1975) Past and presen vegelartun of Marshes Swainp in sauth-eastern South Australia. ust. £ Bor. 23: 123-150, 168 KJ, LAMPERT & PJ. LLUGHES DRAPER, N, 1987, Context for the Kartan; & preliminary report On excavations at Cape du Couedic rock shelter, Kangaroo Island. Arch. Oceania 22: 1-8, FLENNIKEN, J..& WHITE, JP. 1989. Australian flaked stone Lools: a Lechnological perspective. Kec. Aust, Mus, 36: 131-151. GARDNER, GJ, MORTLOCK, A.J, PRICE, B.M,, READHEAD, M.L. & WASSON, RJ. 1987. Therrmo- luminescence and radiocarbon dating of Australian desert dunes. Ausi. . Barth Sei 34; 343-357. GORECKI, P.P., HORTON, D.R., STERN, N. & WRI- GHT, RV\S. 1984, Coexistenve of humans and mepa- fauna in Australia: improved stratified evidence. “tren. Oceania 19: WT-119 GOULD, R.A. 1971. The arehacolowist as ethnographer: a case from the western desert of Australia, Mare Arch. 3; 143-177. HALE, H.A. & TINDALE, N.B. 1930. Notes on some human remains in the Lower Murray Valley, South Australia, Rec. 8. Ausi, Mus, 4: (45-218. HORTON, DLL, 1981, Water and woodlands: The peopling ol Australia. Aust. Inst. Ab. Stud. Newsl. 16: 21-27, HUGHES, PJ, & LAMPERT, R.J. (980. Pleistocene occupation of the arid zone jn south-east Australia: research prospects for the Cooper Creek-Surzelecki Desert region. Aust. Arch, UW) 52-67, HUGHES, Pi. & LAMPERT, R.J. 1985, Cultural and Natural Heritage Survey of Moudd Springs in South Australia: Assessment of Aboriginal Archaeological Significance, Unpublished report to Kinhill Stearns, Adelaide, KAMMINGA, J. 1982, ‘Over [he Edge’, Anrtropalogy Museum, University af Ouvensland, Oceas, Pap. Alnthrop, No, Mt, KUCHEL, R.A. 1980, Vegetation, Jn D, Corbet! (Ed.). "A Field Guide to the Flinders Ranges’, Pp, 65-193, Rigby, Adelaide, LAMPERT, R.J, 1981, ‘The Great Kartan Mystery; Terra Australis 3. Research School of Pacific Studies, Canberra. LAMPERT, R.J, 1983, The Kartan Mystery revisited, dust, “Arch, 16: 175-177, LAMPERT, R.J. 1985. Archaeological reconnaissance on a field trip to Dalhousie Springs. Aust. Arch, 2k: 57-62. LAMPERT, R.J. in press. Archaeology. Jn W. Zeidler & W.F.. Ponder (Eds), ‘Natural History of Dalhousie Sarined Chapter 3, South Australian Museum, Adel- aide. LAMPERT, RJ. & HUGHES, PJ. 1980, Pleistocene nichaeology in (Ne Flinders Ranges: research prospects, Aust. Arch. 10: 11-20. LAMPERT, R.L, SUTTON, P.& SMITH, M.A, in prep, A. new archacological project planiied far the Lake Eyre Basin, in the ‘Dead Heart’ of Australia. MeCARTHY, FB. 1940. Camparison of the prehistory of Australia with that of Indo-China, the Malay Pen> josiila and Netherlands Bast Indies, Proce. Third Congress Prehistarians of the Far Bast: 30-30. MeCARTHY, §.D, 1941, Two pebble industry siles of Hoabinhian [ type on the qorth coast af New South Wales. Ree. Aust Mfus.. 1: 21-27. MeCARTHY, 1D, 1943, Trimmed pebble implements of Karlan middens al Clybucea, New South Wales. Ree. Aust. Mus, 21: 164-168. MeCARTHY, FD 1976. ‘Ausrealian Aboriginal Stone Implements’, Australian Museum, Sydney. MATTHEWS, 1M. 19635, The Hoabinhian in south-east Asia and elsewhere. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Australian National University, Canberra. MATTHEWS, J.M, 1966. The Hoabinhian affinities of some Australian assemblages. Arch. Phys. Anthrop. int Oceania V, 3-22, MULVANEY, D.W, 1960. Archaeological excavations at Fromm '’s Landing on the lower Murray River, South Australia. Proc. Ro Sac. Vie. 72» 53-85. PELS, 8. 1964, The present and ancestral Murray River system. Ausr Geow. Stud. 2: 1-119. PETERSON, N. 1976. The natural and cultural areas of Aboriginal Australias a preliminary analysis of pop- ulalion groupings wilh adaptive significance. Jn N- Peterson (Ed.). ‘Tribes and Boundaries in Australia’ Pp. 50-71. Australian Instiume of Aboriginal Studies; Canberra, PETERSON, N. & LONG, J. 1986, Australian territorial organization. Oceania Monograph No, 30, ROSS, A. 198]. Holovene enviranments and prehistoric site parterning in the Victorian Mallee. Arvh. Oceania 16; 145-154, SINGH, G, 1981, Late Quaternary pollen records and seasonal palaeoclimates af Lake Frome, South Australia, Ayvdrobjologia 82; 419-430, SMITH, M. 1987. Pleistocene oecupation in arid Central Australia. Nétvre 328: 710-7iL TINDALE, N.B. 1937. Relationship of the extinct Kangaroo Island cullure with cullures of Australia, Tasmania and Malaya. Kec, S. Aust, Mus. 6: 39-60, TINDALE, WB. 1957. Culture succession in south-eastern Austraha from tale Pleistocene (o the present, Rec. Ausf. Mus. 13: |-44. TWIDALE, C.R. 1980, Landforms, dn B, Corbett (Ed.), ‘A Bivld Guide t the Plinders Ranges’. Pp. 13-41. Rigby, Adelaide. WASSON, RJ. 1983, The Cainozoie history of the Strzelecki and Simpson dunefields (Australia), and the Origin of (he desert dunes. Zeil. Geomorphologie 45; 85-115. WILLIAMS, G.E. 1973, Lare Quaternary picdmont sedi- mentation, soil formation and palaeoclimales in arid Sooth Australia. Zeit, Geomorphologie 48: 85-115. NOTES ON A WOODEN IMPLEMENT TYPE FROM NORTH-EASTERN ARNHEM LAND BY M. PICKERING & J. DEVITT Summary This paper presents data on a wooden implement found at a site in north-eastern Arnhem Land and discusses briefly its significance for archaeological research elsewhere. NOTES ON A WOODEN IMPLEMENT TYPE FROM NORTH-EASTERN ARNHEM LAND M. PICKERING & J, DEVITT Pickering, M. & Devitt, J. 1988. Notes on a wooden implement type from north-eastern Arnhem Land. Ree. 8S. Aust. Mus, 22(2): 169-171. This paper presents data on a wooden implement found at a site in north-eastern Arnhem Land and discusses briefly its significance for archaeological research elsewhere, M, Pickering & J, Devitt, Northern Land Council, PO Box 39843, Winnellic, Northern Territory 5789, Manuscript received 4 February 1988, ‘This paper illustrates, describes, and discusses a particular type of artefact from north-eastern Arn- hem Land, northern Australia. Consideration of these artefacts helps illustrate the importance of functional, as Opposed to morphological, obser- vauions in the typological classification of artefacts. The implements were collected during fieldwork in the Nhulunbuy area of north-eastern Arnhem Land in late 1986, They were recovered from sites on a small island which is connected to the main- land by a 300 m permanent exposed sandbar, This island 1s basically a granitic rocky outcrop consoli- dated by sandy soils and coastal scrub vegetation, lt is edged by a rocky boulder shore, often steep in places, The island is a popular visiting spot for Yuingu and white residents. of Nhulunbuy. During a casual walk around the island, easily accomplished in two hours, the authors’ attention was drawn to the numeraus scatters of rock oyster shells (Saccostrea cuecullata). These scatters were, characteristically, usually within 20 m of the water and on bare flat rock surfaces. The shells were often burnt and/or associated with charcoal and burnt sticks, No sites were observed which had any strati- graphic depth or, indeed, potential for formation of deposit. The seatters were usually within the zone subject to wind, wave and rai action, particularly in the summer wet season. Even before we discussed these shell scatters with local informants it was obvious that they were the product of shellfish collecting for food. They reflect single transient oc- cupation, such asa ‘dinner camp’. A small perma- nent Yulngu community resides approximately 2 km away. The island falls within the traditional country of the Rirratjingu clan group, THE IMPLEMENTS ‘Two of the shell scatters were subjected to closer examination. These contained eight wooden imple- ments in definite association with the shells and charcoal. Figure | provides a field map of the site from which these artefacts were collected, This site is typical of the location and condition of these sites. A tyre lever was seen in a crevice. This may have been used for removing the oysters from the rocks. LEGEND QO Bush Rock ----= Water(ine ie Concentrations of shelis and artefacts FIGURE |. Field nap of site from Which artefacts were obtained. Scale approximately | cm 2m. Compiled from field sketch. A Yulngu informant (Warramirri clan) identified these artefacts as Birngal and described their func- tions as being for picking shellfish out of their shells or for the removal and/or cleaning of small skin 170 WOODEN IMPLEMENTS FROM ARNHEM LAND eruptions (caused by parasitic infection or biological actions e.g. pimples). They could be produced at any time. Meehan (1982: 101, 102, 110) reports the similar use of wire and bone points to break open the shells and remove the flesh of oysters, (Crassostrea amas) amongst the Anbarra of north-central Arnhem Land. Also on the site were several tops of soft drink cans, though no cans were found, The informant explained that the cans were sometimes used to carry oysters back to camps, the tops being removed and discarded to make the container. The implements are illustrated in Fig. 2 and are best described according to their level of modifi- cation. Implement 4 is simply a twig from which the bark has been peeled to make a point which has subse- quently been rounded through use, Implement | is a split twig, triangular in cross-section, retaining some bark on the outer surface. The lip is modified, possibly through grinding, Implements 5, 6 and 8 are similar to | and 4 except the tips have been shaped through cutting. They retain some remnant cut facets. Artefact 2 is a single-pointed implement with a modified butt, The point is smoothly shaped with some remnant cul marks almost obscured through % rounding, probably by use, The shaft appears to have been worked smooth. The butt is abrupt with clear cut marks and facets, Implement 7 is bi- pointed, The shaft shows clear faceting through cutting, though use has rounded the edges. Both points are rounded. The implement has a low sheen, presumably through being held. Implement 3 is a highly modified bi-point. It has remnant facets along its length showing its manufacture by cutting. Use has, however, tended to round and obscure the edges of these facets, which do not show up in the illustration except in cross section. DISCUSSION With the exception of implement 4, all imple- ments were made with a steel knife. In some exam- ples the direct evidence of this, the cut marks and faceting, have been obscured through use. Such use- wear is probably quick in forming given the hard abrasive nature of the oysters’ homes. Sites such as the one we have described and their associated artefacts are unlikely to last long in the archaeological record, The action of wind, waves and other activity would quickly disperse all site contents. Even where conditions were more stable, and formation of deposit likely to occur, the wood- dem FIGURE 2, Wooden implements found at site near Nhuluinbuy, north-eastern Arnhem Land, M. PICKERING & J, DEVITT 17] en artefacts would rapidly decay, or their tech- nological attributes erode to a degree where status as implements is concealed. The implements also illustrate a question of typology. Put simply, the artefacts vary greatly in their form but not in their functions. Conventional typologies, based on observation of technological attributes and unsupplemented by ethnographic data, would obscure this functional unity. The description of these implements also has implications for interpretation of archaeological remains from elsewhere in Australia. One author (Pickering 1979) has suggested that bone artefacts, frequently recovered from south-eastern Australian coastal sites, may have been complemented by a similar range of wooden points which had decayed and so were not represented archaeologically. Fresh wood and fresh bone share similar structural char- acteristics in the form of high tensile and compres- sive strength, which makes them sometimes inter- changeable. The morphological range of the wooden artefacts described here is analogous to examples of bone points found throughout coastal Australia. It is, therefore, not unreasonable to suggest that similar artefacts would have been utilised by other groups which exploited shellfish. REFERENCES MEEHAN, B. 1982 ‘Shell Bed to Shell Midden’. Aust- ralian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, Canberra. PICKERING, M., 1979. ‘Aboriginal Bone Tools from Vic- toria’. Unpublished B.A. Hons. thesis. YANYUWA CANOE MAKING BY R. M. BAKER Summary This paper describes the construction of a dugout canoe near Borroloola in the Northern Territory in 1987. The history of canoe making and use in the area is also documented using written and oral records. The taping of information about objects collected by Museums has often been neglected. This paper illustrates the value of collecting such oral accounts both in documenting the process of manufacture and in revealing the wider cultural context of that object. When such information is ignored, there is the danger of viewing the collected object out of its social and historical context. YANYUWA CANOE MAKING R.M. BAKER BAKER, R.M. 1988. Yanyuwa canoe making. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 22(2): 173-188. This paper describes the construction of a dugout canoe near Borroloola in the Northern Territory in 1987. The history of canoe making and use in the area is also documented using written and oral records. The taping of information about objects collected by Museums has often been neglected. This paper illustrates the value of collecting such oral accounts both in documenting the process of manufacture and in revealing the wider cultural context of that object. When such information is ignored, there is the danger of viewing the collected object out of its social and historical context. R.M. Baker, Department of Geography, University of Adelaide, GPO Box 498, Adelaide, South Australia 5001. Manuscript received 1 July 1988. CANOE CONSTRUCTION construction of a dugout canoe which had been In 1987, as part of research on the contact history commissioned by the Australian National Maritime of the Yanyuwa who live in the Borroloola area of | Museum in Sydney. This article presents a descrip- the Northern Territory (Fig. 1), | documented the _ tion of this construction along with background A er ee Ms Vi DARWIN ate \ NN (f 10 km ta : . Pig. Gulf of ge > Carpentaria \ ; 7 ff NS Cad ae, Rorroloola A ~, . he ao e@ Raratharra NORTHERN / TERRITORY QLD / Jey / Wulukulirni fe Wulalamba e } - 4, Borrologla i aos —~_l a “a to Burketown = \ _—-- ~~ DARWIN lant —Tidal limit af ee 980 RY Ry cg \ McArthur River ™~ ve Ngangkungani 7 3 — asfemnal a ) Kalwanyi ey a oO km § if a [a eae CU J FIGURE |. Borroloola area and surrounding region. 74 KM. BARKER information on the history of Yanyuwa. canoe making ard use.! The canoe was constructed by Annie Rarrakayn, her husband Isaac Walayungkuma and Ida Nin- anga, Karrakayn is approximately $5 years in age, Walayungkuma 65 and Ninanga 70 (see Fip- 2), Ninanga had previously made a dugout canoe which was purchased by the Museum of Australia in 1986, Isaac Walayungkuma is an experienced canoe maker who worked on canoes when they were still constructed for use in the area, He has also made a number of canoes to sell as artefaers. A sinall canoe Which he nade ts part of the collection of the Museum and Art Galleries af the Northern Territory, Annie Karrakayn had not worked on a canoe before, but like the orhers she bas an intimate knowledge of dugout canoes gained [rom years of experience using them. She recalls, for instance, literally growing up in one; ‘When Tim? had that big boat, that canoe, we used to stick in (hal canoe .,. big meb of kid, right up’ Walayungkuma aod Kartakayn usually live on their outstation Wardawardala, which is about 30 kin from Borroloola, Ninganga once lived in this area, bul since being widowed usually lives in Borroloola, Ninganga and Karrakayn are Yanyuwa speakers and Walayungkuma is a Garawa speaker. All three spent much of their younger days living On ar near the Sir Edward Pellew Eslands which are lovated at the mouth of the McArthur River. All ree used dugout canoes regularly to move from island to tsland or to Visit the mainland, Canoes in the area were usually made by a group of people bul it is new for wonien to help in this process, a5 Annie Karrakayn notes! ‘Someone was helping one another, two of three or four... but man used to work before, not women, woman used to go hunting for oad". A goad descripnioan of how canoe making was a communal affair comes from Tim Rakuwurlma: ‘We doublebank, two fella first time cut hin, owe fella man, nght two tella sit down, another two fella now, lone (ime you know’, On another occasion aller a particulary tiring day’s work Anmie Karrakayn also exclaimed: ‘just men {used to make canoes], that’s lirst time lady, me and her, that's the lirst time for us, and I'm sivk of this tao, .. yeah! Beeause | know women didn’t work, only man’. The selection of a suitable tree took four exhaust- ug, clays of searching along the McArthur River. The main selection criteria were size, straightness and 4 Jack of branches and holes in the bark. Great arieuton was also paid to checking Whether there were any. holes beneath the bark eXtending into the trunk, The canoe was made from a large paper-bark lree MJelalewca argenteu, Known in Yanyuwa as Binjirri, which was felled on the banks of the MeArthur River about 10 km upstream of Borro- loola, There are no tree Species in the area which are suitable for canoe construction, this Melaleuca and the ‘Leichhardt pine’, Nauelea orientalis; both are common along freshwater streams in (he area. Loca! Aboriginal people have differing opinions on the relative virtues of making canoes front these two trees. These conflicting views are based on the fact thar while the Leichhardt pine js definitely easier to work, the miuch harder Melu/euca makes a canoe which is considerably longer lasting. The advantages of Leichhardt pines are discussed by Tom Wantbarirri: ‘Leichhardt tree, , . easier ro gue hint’ and by Tim Rakuwurlma: ‘Leichhardt tree more soft, good ane, you finish quick”. Because of the number of canoes that have been made in the area in the past from Leichhardt pines, there are not any large trees of this species left, Therefore wher the canoe makers were asked to make a ‘proper big sea going canoe’ a Melalewca was the only choice possible, The smaller Leichhardts are only sujtable for ‘kid canoes', The Yanyuwa used to construct small canoes known as a-dubarl for children to use. A umber af people have told me how as children they were given canoes ‘for training’, The spot where the tree was felled and the canoe Was constructed is close to a lagoon called Kalwanyi (Fig. 1) which also has the European came of Goose Lagoon. At this spot in the late dry season, the McArthur River is reduced to a trickle and the tidal reaches of the river are some 10 km downstream, In the dry season the river from Kalwanyi to the tidal reaches-consists of a series of tresh water billa- bongs separated by a combination of stony bars and sandy banks. At this time of year a canoe cannot be patdied downstream, In earlier times canoes were usually made up- siream on the McArthur River in the late dry season and then moved downstream when the riyer levels rose after the first wet season rains. This samelimes inyolyed using ropes to pull canoes across shallow bars. .As Eileen Manankurramara recalls: ‘They been put him cross stick and pull him . . - push thar canoe right vp long big river’. Usually however, the focal cainmaker is said to have provided rain at the appropriate time to enable the canoe to be floated all the way down the river. Tim describes how one year fie had to go downstream (o Borroloola fo (ell the rainmaker to delay the rain as the canoe makers had not quite finished the canoe. He recalls the following exchange between the rainmaker and himself? Tim Rakuwurlma: ‘Don't otake rain yer". Billy Hooker; 'Righi you finish hint up, all right come back. . when you finistied thal canoe, allright. , MWesend tim food fer vou, Moodwater.’ In keeping with Yanyuwa tradition the canoe is called ‘Rra-Kalwanyimara’, which can be translated YANYUWA CANOE MAKING 178 oo = <8 ic On » ha - , sd " ad i + “th = ‘ ~ FIGURE 2. The catioe makers, left lo right; Ninanga, Karrakayn and Walayungkuma. Also Kylie Marikbalinya, grand- daughter of Karrakayn and Walayungkuma. literally as ‘the female one from Kalwanyi’, As Annie Karrakayn puts it: ‘All the canoe got name ... [from the] country where they come from’. Tim Rakuwurlma called one of his canoes made in the Kalwanyi area, ‘Rra-Kudanjimara’, because the country around this area belongs to Kudanji people. There are two general Yanyuwa terms for dugout canoes: rra-muwarda and rra-libaliba. The latter is of Macassan* origin and the former is by far the most commonly used term. The canoe construction camp was only about 30 minutes drive from Borroloola. This proximity enabled me to bring out a number of the elderly former canoe makers who were keen to see how the construction was going. I was told to bring out cer- tain people whose opinions were valued. The com- ments these former canoe makers made on these visits made it very clear that there was a community standard of what a ‘proper olden time canoe’ looked like and that the canoe makers had to meet this standard, AS well as the canoe, the following items were made lo go with it (see Fig. 3): 1.. Paddles were made by Isaac Walayungkuma from a ‘Pine tree’, walkuwalku (Callitris intra- trapica). 2. A sail and mast were made by Annie Karrakayn and Isaac Walayungkuma respectively. The mast was made from a small messmate tree, budanja (Eucalyptus tetradonta), and the sail was made from calico. 3. Jerry Rrawyajinda made a dugong rope which is used when harpooning dugongs (and salt water turtles) from boats. To make the rope the bark of young ma-kawurrka (Acacia fortulosa), saplings is pulled off in long strips. These strips of bark are called na-wamara and are pulled apart into thin threads which in turn are rolled into twine and then made into a two-ply rope. A number of separate trips Were made to get the bark necessary for the rope. Most of the bark came from Wulukulirni and Ngangkungani (Fig. 1). 4. Don Manarra made dugong hunting points, na-malbi, and a dugong harpoon, ridiridi, with ‘sugar bag’ wax? binding. The points were made from the wood of the mangrove, arndiny, Lumnitzera racemosa and the harpoon was made from the straight trunk of a young messmate tree, budanja (Eucalyptus tetradonta). Construction time The tree was felled on July 16th. The first work on hollowing out the canoe started on July 19th and 176 R.M. BAKER BAWA - sail BALIYARRA mast —+f WATHA J pole (lit immature ) NANDA-WUKU (lit MA- NGADUKU iit place for her NANDA-=RAMA (lit. her buttocks } RRA-RIMI paddle back } NANDA =- WUNHAN her breasts ) Dugong rope NANDA- MABALUMA (lit her navel) (lit FIGURE 3. Yanyuwa terms for parts of a dugout canoe. it was exactly a month later that it was moved into Borroloola. Whilst the canoe was in situ, work usu- ally proceeded six days a week, with the three canoe makers each averaging eight hours work a day. The canoe was moved into Borroloola before it was completely finished as one canoe maker in par- ticular was keen to return to town. Work on the canoe was much less consistent once it was moved NANDA-WURDU— her stomach }) DALADALA seat to town. Pressures of town living and the fact that the canoe was locked up inside the Adult Education Workshop and work could only proceed when this building was unlocked, limited the times the canoe makers could work, If we had remained in the bush, I think the canoe would have been finished in about another six working days. A rough estimate for person hours for construction is 720 person hours TANYUWA CANOE MARKING 7 based on three people working eight hours a day for 30) days. This figure corresponds approximarely 10. the only ptece of historical information | have been able to obtain ow the time ic took ta make a canoe in jhe old days. This comes from Don McLean,” He told me of seeing a canoe made; “It had taken six of them seven days ta hollaw this... The lump of timber was 15 feet [4.5 m] Jong but it (ook them seven days... , They worked day and night, there'd always be someone [working]. If one estimates thal cach man averaged 10 hours a day, this would repre- sent 420 man hours. There are two likely reasons why this figure would be less than that for ‘Rra- Kulwanyimara’ Pirst, the canoe McLean saw was about 50 cm smaller if his recollegtion of 35 feet is correct. Seeond, it is quite likely [hat the canoe he observed had been worked on belore it was moved to the spot where he saw it. The construction work that he saw occurred near the mouth of tbe MeAtthur River. It is likely that at least some work had been done on the log to lighten it and make it easier to move, prior to ii being floated to the construction site Construction methods After felling, the tree had its bark stripped and ihe hollowing oul of the log was begun. This in- volved making a series of cuts’ with tomahawks and axes! al right angles across the log at abour 20 cm intervals, This formed a series af blocks whieh could chen be removed when they were hit by a larae adze swung parallel ta the Jong axis of the log (see Fig, 4), Most of the hollowing out was. done in this way. A smaller adze was used to do some chipping oul of the lnsides and then the toma- hawks were used to do Finer work, Finally, files were used inside to smooth the surface, On the outside of the canve the Same combination of tomahawks and files was used, The hardest work was the con- struction of the twa ends, This was done by Isaac Walayuingkunra using a large axe. ‘This was the only example of one af the canoe makers doing all of a specific job, All the rest af the work was shared hy the canoe makers, When the series of cross cuts were being pul in, it was possible for all three to work ai The same tare, However, when the blecks were being removed il was safe for only the person doing, this ro be in the canoe. Walayungkunia did nrosr-af this block removing but Karrakayn and Ningana also did some. Towards the end of the four weeks® work at the canoe camp the canoe was burnt inside and out. Some of the chips of wood that had been chopped off, plus dead leaves and twigs from the felled tree were gathered and placed inside and under the canoe and burnt. The burning material inside the cunoe was stoked by lang poles. The flames burnt for about five minutes and then {he fire smouldered for about another ten minutes. The fire was of low intensity ard was carefully monitored to make sure it did not get too hat. This burning was done for two reasons, to aid the smaothing up of the canoe and to allow it to be ‘spread’. The spreading was achieved by ramming some cross sticks inside the canoe flush against both sides and then burning the inside of the canoe. As Annie Karrakayn notes, the burning and ramming of cross sticks is Lo ‘make it wide and [tel clean him really, make him smoath ... that canoe gol tO burn first, then when it finished Mame fire, you can hit him |the stick] then, knoek himin, kilock, knock, .. that stick fall, that mean he wider’, When ‘Rra-Kalwanyimara’ was burnt it spread sufficiently for the cross sticks, previously flush against both sides, to be easily knocked down to the canoe floor, Then, as soon as the fire was coal enough, rasping inside the canoe commenced. Another good description of burning comes front Steve lolinsan: They used Lo fill [the cunoe) up wilh water and tet it-soak fora while and (hen put the fire in it, put grass and all che shavings. Nor stuff thar’ burn a hole in it, but enough to heat it up, then they'd pal the sticks in and bash the sticks in (o spread it, They'd spread them a bit af a time, spread them abour an inch today and then they'd push them back, sink them in Lhe water —, . anid in ubour a-weeks time they'd pet into them again and do (he sante thing. They used (a derthat for months afer. Some of them used jo go loo lar alid fhey'd start cracking on the bollom . .- trant tae much spreading.” Steve goes On to pote that the expert canoe makers knew from expenence exactly how far a tree could be spread without cracking ul. Steve on another occasion gave the following reasons why Mac and George Riley made the best canoes: ‘Everything they cul was good because they knew how co line them up and straighien them, they cut them with the timber and they were really good boats they made If the tree wasn't good enough they wouldn't start on it’. Initially the canoe construction of ‘Rra-Kalwanyi- mara’ occurred on the spot where the tree had fallen, Later, when the canoe was light enough, It was moved furlher down the bank, This was done by using a number of poles, cut [rom the trunks of small trees, as levers and also by placing (he canoe on rollers made from shor. sections of tree irunks. It was first placed on a sandy bank and, later, on a rocky bar, The latter site had the advan- tage that the canoe could be paised on Large stones and the fire could, therefore, burn immediately underneath it. As Annie Karrakayn put it, the canoe was moved ‘because [the new spol] good place, so 178 R.M. BAKER a FIGURE 4. ‘Rra-Kalwanyimara’ in the first stages of construction, July 1987. VANYUWA CANOE MARKING 179 we can pur bushes underneath, chips’, The ‘bushes* and ‘chips’ Annie relers }o were pul under the canoe and set alight as part of the burning provess de- scribed above, Another advantage of moving |he canoe onto the stones was thal the canoe could now be lean! from one side to another.so thal Lhe under surfaces could be warked an, When the canoe makers had a day off ta go hunt- ing or shopping in town they very carefully covered With strips af paperbark all surfaces that would be exposed to the sun Annie Karrakayn explained why they did this: ‘We go back home now, town, so we covered {hat canae, just keep him away sun, he might get crack... if ir’s dry he'll erack bul we have gol to pul paperbark and caver it, -, everyday when we fo out’, On the 14th of August [he canoe was Taunched' by moving ic the 10m to the MeArchur River. Ir was taken for a test paddle and the balance of the canoe was. carefully assessed to determine where the Tos! weight fad to be taken off in the final tinish- ing wp work. This balancing work was subsequently done al Borraloola. On the 19th of August the canoe was towed into Borroloola aller winching it up the bank and onto a boat trailer, Wark on finishing the canoe then proceeded inside the Adult Education Workshop in Borroloola, The canoe was ‘made lighter’ with tomahawks and files. Some further shaping of the two ends of the canoe also occurred. At the end of each day’s work, the cance was filled up with water and covered with wet blankets to keep it from drying out too fast, Finishing the canoe in town fits in with what Usually occurred in the past. The canoes were taken down the river 10 Borroloola before the canoe makers had completely tinished (hem. They (hen worked on thenr at their leisure on the banks af the river. In the past, as Gceurved with ‘Rra-Kalwanyi- mara’, the canoes were paddled to see how well they floated. Il aucessary, the Canoe makers would highten particular areas to improve the balance. During this ‘finishing off period the canoes were often filled up with water and left in the river so that the wood did nol dry out too quickly, A number af peaple remarked thai the purpose of bringing the cane (0 town and Pinishing it slowly was to allow the timber ta dry out slowly and thus to avoid cracking. The mast for the sail was fitted tnto the canoe when it was in Borroloola. This was done by drilling a hole only fractionally larger than the mast in a board that resis firmly between the aanda-wunhaa (Fig. 3), The mast was then lowered through this hole and lodged firmly in another hole in a mound, tanda-mabalumes, lettin the base of the canoe for this purpose, The rear seat or daladala and the front ‘seat’, ma-ngadukw for (le dugoneg rope iu resi on were also made in Borroloola, These were made out of timber from the ‘Leichhardt Pine’ (Nauclea wrien- talis), The wood from ald packing cases is said Lo be ideal for these seats and was. much used jin the past, HIStokY O) ANOKIGINAL WAPERO RAPT IN THE BORROLOULA ARLA Logs and rafts The sumplese type of warercraft used by Abor- iginal people in the Borroloola area was a swimming log. Tim Rakuwurlma told me how he and twa other Yanyuwa men had to ‘get a log’ to help them swim from island to island in the Sir Edward Pellews alter they jumped off a European lugeger on which they had been employed. As well as providing extra buoyancy far the swimmer, such logs were felt ta provide some safely [rom crocodiles and sharks. Herbert (n.d.s 155) observed people swimming the Roper River (200 km north-west of Borroloola) using such logs. He notes that: “It was not clear whether the alligators regarded this apparition a» a triendly object, or a deadly enemy charged with possibilities of destruction to themselves, but in either case the log was recognized by the native as a greal safeguard’. Ratts of various types were also constructed in the area, These were lypically constructed on stte, when groups who were walking needed to cross one of the large salt water rivers in the region. They were constructed in both triangular and. rectangular shapes. The triangular rafts were similar to the Mornington Island one illustrated in Macintyre (1921: 60) and the Bardi ones front Western Aust- tralia (Ackerman [97S: Fig. 1), The Yanyuwa made rafts by lashing together number of thick logs, using twine made from the bark of the following trees: karrski ( Wrightia sal- fend), ma-lhalhaki or masmurndurtarra (Brachy- chiton diversifolius), ma-rdardski or ma-yatha (Brachychiten paredoxus) and ma-kawurrka (Acaciu (orulosa), Twine was also Sometimes. made fromm lily stems. Paperbark was piled on top of the lashed logs to raise the craft above the water. Thomson (1957) and Davidson (1935) note that such tafts were used across the whole of northern Australia. Bark canoes Bark canoes, known in Yanyulwa a9 na-wulka, were made by sewing together the bark of the mess- mate tree (Eucalyplus tetradonta). They were trade in |he area before dugout canoes were constructed. As Isaac Walavungkuma notes, they were ‘olden 180 RM. BAKER lime, first time canoe. - that first time they been make then”. The Yanyuwa bark canoes were quite distinct from Crarawa Ones made to the east, which were smaller and mace froria single piece of bark, The Garawa ones were only used in calm waters while the Yanyuwa canoes were suited to the rough conditions that could be encountered in voyages. from the mainland to their Islands. The Yanyuwa canoes had rounded sterns and had extra height in the bow to stop waves washing in. The first writtenaccount of Yanyuwa bark canoes is contained in Flinders’ description of his voyage around the Sir Edward Pellew. Group in December 1802. He found on North Island two canoes ‘formed of slips of bark, like planks, sewed logether, the edge of one slip overlaying another, as lo our clincher built boats’ (Flinders 1814, 2: 171), He also nates that ‘their construction was much superior co that on any other part of Terra Australis hitherto discewered* ibid ; 172), On the grounds of this sup- erior construction, he questions whether they were made by Aboriginal people Bark canoes of varying lypes Were made across a wide area of northern Australia (see Bell 1956, Davidson 1935, Holland 1976, Hornell 194) and Thomsen 1934a, 1934b, 1939, 19494, 1949b_ 1952 and 1957), Bell (1956) describes and illustrares with a series of photographs the steps involved in niaking a small bark canoe in the Archer River region of Cape York Peninsula. Thomson (}934a) describes the construction and use of bark and dugout canoes in the Batavia River area o! Cape York. He con- cludes. that the bark canoe is ‘employed chiefly as a river craft, While the wooden oultigger canoe is 4 sea-going vessel and is used especially in dugony and turtle hurting’ (Thomson [934a: 229). In his 1934b article Thomson gives.a detailed des¢eription of the dugout canoes and the dugong and turtle hunting carried oul from them in the Stewart River area of eastern Cape York. tn his 1934 article he documents a localised variation of bark canoes made for hunting geese and collecting eggs in the Arafura Swamp of north central Arnhem Land. Thomswn’s. 1952 article is a review of (he distri- bution of Various Wateroraft across northern Aust- ralia, However, on his distributional map he incor rectly excludes the Sir Edward Pellew area from having both dugours atid bark canoes. Davidson (1935, 73), likewise, excludes che Pellew group, citing the eastern limits of dugout canoes as the Roper River. Hornell (1940) presents a world-wide survey of calloe types and gives an unconvincing argument for an evalutionary transition from bark canges to dugouts to plank boats, He does, however, give good detailed descriptions of three bark canoes made in the Borroloola area thal he saw in the South Australian, Victarian and New South Wales stare museums, One of the best descriptions of a bark canae being constructed is that of Banfield. He describes how a Cape York mau got the bark ‘Yaw from the tree [and how] he would soak the single yheet in water and while sodden, steam it overa smoky fire, and, as it softened, mould it with hand and knee” (1918: 127). Despite their frailty these bark canoes were used by the Yanyuwa to make lengthy sea trips, Spencer & Gillen, Who were in Borroloola in 190), describe (1972: 484) 4 bark canoe carrying six men from Van- derlin Istand ta Borroloola. This is a voyage of about 50 km across the Gulf of Carpentaria then 30 kim up the McArthur River. Spencer & Gillen alsoinclude a detailed sketch of a bark canoe (/hid.; 483) and give a description of their manufacture (¢bid,: 482-484), Tim Rakuwurlma has told me of a Yanylwa revenge party that sailed all the way to and from Massacre Injet in Queensland in bark canoes, a return trip of about 400 kin_ This trip was made at the turn of the century and as Tim notes, it was made in paperbark canoes: ‘iiuewitlka . ., paddie him all the way’ Dinny Nyliba McDinny also recalled in [986 how, when he was young, his family travelled back and forth in bark canoes along the Gulf of Carpentaria coast between Manangoora and Robinson River, a distance of about 100 km each way; Spencer in his natebook gives 3 detailed deserip- lion of haw these bark canoes Were constructed! The salt water men build very decent vanoes, Thev strip... long pieces of bark olf the big wattle trees and sew them together at each end and then they have a lone thin bough which forms the gunwal on each sue... fund which] are held lightly stretched by means of sticks Which run seross foi side to side Some a} these caioes are twelve and filteen feet Jone Bo yall hold three or four men (Spencer 1901; 98). Bark canoes remained jn use in the area alter che Macassuns introduced dugout canoes, presumably becatise of the ease ot bark canoe construction, Paradice gives an example of Ihe continuing use of bark canoes, recording a ‘very fine canoe — cwenly feet long — [thal] was made of a large-sheet of bark’ (Paradive 1924: 7) and includes a photograph of it, Similarly Pyro Dirdiyalma who was born around 1930 and who grew up in Garawa country on the coast Lo the east of Barroloola, recalls such canoes being used but also noves that bark catioes were becoming rare (‘fust about finished"), when he was young. Tim Rakuwurlma deserihes how a bark canoe could be made in only two days: ‘No-wolka ] heen make that kind . . not hard work like canoe, him two days thatisall... mend [sew] him all the way... le him quick, we been mend fin with thar string now’, YANYUWA CANOE MAKING tat Because of the ease of their construction, the bark canves could be treated ina Fairly ‘disposable" manner. Brown, the Northern Territory Government Geologist, Far example, visited the Borroloola area in 1907 and described how a bark canoe was pad- ded out to meet the steamer ‘and as the cance was stave in against the side of the vessel they ler it float away and remained on board’ (Brown 3908: 6), Brown goes on to also describe (/bid: 7) how (hey ‘passed canoes with blacks crossing the river on Ewo or three occasions’, Whilst bark canoes had the advantage of quick construction they were not nearly as durable or as safe as dugout canoes. Many Yanyuwa peaple can recount storics of relatives drowning as a result of bark canoe mishaps. Tim Rakuwurlma, for exam- ple, describes his older brother drowning in one such incident that Tim managed to suryive by holding onto his mather: ‘My mother, | been hold [her] shoulder all the way long Wulibirra country ithe nearest landfall to the spot where the canoe sank] ... bark canoe, no good one... he been leak, when no canoe yer... behind {after}, him been make [dugout canoes)’. On another aceasion Tim told me, ‘no good bugger, plenty men heen drown .. . more eood one Leichhardt tree, leave that messmare canoe now, leave him altogether’. Isaac Walayungkuma and Annic Karrakayn in the following exchange also stress the dangers of bark canoes and the comparative advantages of dugauts: isaac Walayungkuma — Walganyi!! he drowned for ood now, he can't float, no further, be sink right town finish. Annie Karrakayn — [dugont canoes when full of Water} turn him around... ar someiime just bail Hint out quickly [indigates doing this by shaking the canoes back and forth], Another important advantage which dugouts have over bark canoes was that they are sturdy enough to allow the erection of a mast and sail. As well as making the canoes faster and saving inmuch effort in paddling, the sails add to the handling of canoes. The anthropologist Donald Thomson, whe made preat vse of both canoe types in his travels in northern Australia, notes (19457: 19) that sails, ‘helped steady the crafi in a following sea’, [tshould he noted, however, that sails of a Sort Were used in paperbark canoes. A number of people have des- cribed to me branches being pur up in paperbark camoes as sails. Tim Rakuwurlmia should be given the final say on the disadvantages of paperbark canoes with tus dramatic comment: When something bite him, shark, well he been drawn, everybody been drown long middle water . . , sometime blind shark... bite him make a hole... when you wo carly fella morning, yo along sea naw, shark come along you, bite him that canoe, kock him down, early fella morning he'll bile anything, Inireduciion of dugout canoes Spencer & Gillen fecord both dugout and messmate canoes in use in the Borroloola area itt 190\. Aboriginal and historical records tight across the Top End’ of the Northern Territory suggest that production of dugouts did nat commence until afer the Macassans siopped coming and supplying them Warner (1969: 459) and Thomsan (1937) both quote informants who say dugout canoes were nat made umil the Macagsans stopped bringing them. Thom- son (1952: 3) makes [he same point but in more general terms and does not mention the informant, Warner goes on 10 suggest that in the area where he was Working (north-eastern Arnhem Land), people reverted to using paperbark eanoes for a while until they learned haw tv construct dugauts from Aboriginal people from the English Company Islatids. Worsley (1954: 61-62) from his work on Groole Eylandr, also concludes that. dugout canoes were obtained from the Macassans and not made until afler they stopped their yisils to northern Australia Heath (1980; 532) presents a Nurig- pubuyu text (from the Roper River area) thai de scribes how bark canoes were used first and that the duyours were introduced later as a result of Macassan contact. Timi Rakuwurlma’s account given to me in 1983 supports this suggestion: My. father, messmate [canoe], lim been tive [irst time, By and by, he been think about how, Him been tind biy, tree there, Leichharde tree, along island alone him catatry. Tohink UM cut hin! 1 been hip boy, { never had corrohorree along ne yel [he had not been through cireumeision initiation veremony), That big | been (indicated about 10 years old) and old Banja |his older brother] was there. 4 think Pwanl lo aut hi canoe alan you cwo fella, we got to make hin cance fihalita’. Hint been talk We've Bot ta niake him tibaliba’, Ge on’, ‘Yeah | been look thar mob fram Groote Bylanat, Inguea mob beod jearm me’. Old fella been learn him my father lone Groote Eylandr peaple, blackfvlla, When them been come along that bi: boal Malay! men, coloured mew. That rob been learn him, him cur [the dugout canoe) hunsetf ... lone (omahiawk.- The first Yanyuwa-made dugout canoe was constructed well infand aud as Tim deseribes, we all been pull him down ... all the way [to the coast]® If 1987 Tim told me this story again and alter noting that the early canoes were made Irom a Leichhardl Ping, says ‘tea-tree (Melaleuca sp,) that 182 RM. BAKER one behind [after], we been cut that kind when my father been finished . .. when no more Leichhardt tree there long island, my father been finish them up. We been go along McArthur River higher up’, Using Tim’s mention of his age in the above quote, this first Yahyuwa-made dugout can be dated to about 1910. This corresponds with the information presented by Warner and Thomson that canoes Were not constructed until after the Macassans stopped coming, The last voyage made by the Macassans to Australia was in [906-1907 (Macknight 1976: 126). Further support for this posi-Macassan commencement of canoe construction comes from Stretton’s (1893) comments on how Aboriginal people on Vanderlin Island obtained their canoes. Writing in the decade before the Macassan visits stopped he notes that ‘the Vanderlin iribe are expert canoeists, and are possessed of some very fine canoes, made out af solid trees, which have been left behind by the Malays’ (Stretton (893; 228), He makes no mention of the Yanyuwa building their own dugout canoes. The rise and decline of Vanyuwa canoe making Yanyuwa canoe making probably reached a peak in the 1930s and 1940s when, with ready access to European metal tools, a large mimber were made. Several of the European residents in Borraloola cammissioned canoes and these were somerimes used to transport stores up the McArthur River, The canoes carried the supplies upstream from the landing some 30 km downstream where the coastal supply boat unloaded the carga. The vital part these Europeans ptovided in the construction of jhe canoes was the supply, as payment, of preservable Food such as flour. As Tim Rakuwurlma observes, canoes took a long time to make and the canoe tnakers were dependent on others to provide chem with food during the period they were working full time; Might be three weeks . , , long time no tucker .. , but this time big mob of tucker flour’, Tim goes on to note how he made canoes with food being provided by a European called Hayey and cornpares this food source with that his father lived on when lie made vanoes. ‘Charlie Havey alla [always] send tucker for me. - . get a bag of flour all the way.. - my father been cut a canoe and he been had munjal ., . cooked by my mother’, {t was not only Europeans who commissioned canoes, Aboriginal people also commissioned canoes from a number of expert canoe makers. The terms of this trade included supplying the maker with food during the construction phase and then giving a proportion of food caught from the vanoe far sometime afterwards. Steve Johnson describes Mac Riley making canoes ‘for trade’ and says he got half the catch for the first six months of the canoe's life as part payment, Tim Rakuwurima also describes how Mac made him a canoe and sent it down Fram Mara country (to the north-west) to him and how he kepr the Mara name given to this canoe; ‘t been buy nm long blanket ., - him been make him long his country .., ‘Bayilmalkulma’, .. that mob Mara [named it]... | been keep name they been call him that way’ Mac is also mentioned in the Welfare Department files (Australian Archives 1952) as having made (with others) five canoes in 1982, Tim Rakuwurlma who supplied me with much of my information. on Yanyuwa canoes, was a par- ticularly renowned canoe maker. As Ted Egan re- counts: Old Tim was always workihy ofa canoe... Moat ii down... half make itand either carry itor Moat jt 10.8 beach and finish i there... . he was referred lo ay Much by the term fhe ‘canve man’ as Cild Tim"! Egan also recalls how a European boat would sometimes tow dugout canoes: ‘They had about ten canoes When | Was there. Jack Bailey had a wonderful old chug chug boat and Jack would often pull a string of canoes up the river’. The South Australian film maker, Roy Vyse, visited Borroloola in July 1954 and describes!* how ‘hunting is done fram dugout canoes of which there are a large number”. A nvissionary based in Borro- loala describes. how jn 1958 ‘a party of sixteen fad lef Borroloola to pick up ‘about eleven canoes’ (hal had been made at one location that year (Main 1958: 15). Kettle (1967: 95) reports seeing Id dugout canoes at Borroloola in 1955. An interesting burse of canoe making occurred in 196) when the Yan- yuwa were meyed by the Welfare Branch to Dan- gana on the Robinson River! Musso Harvey recalls how six canoes were made in the seven or eight months people lived there atid how ‘we all {came}! sailing back’ to Borroloola, Yanyuwa people aisey made canoes when they were away from Borroloola working on cattle sta- tions, Some stations provided ready access to snit- able large trees. The residential quarters on many stations in the region are located on springs that are lined with tall trees. Herice there was the opportunity to work on canoes during slack periods aft the cattle work. As Jean Kirton!’ recalls, the Yanyuwa would often come back from the cattle stations on trucks with new canoes: When they came back there, maybe (wo or three canoes Would tome buck on the backs of the rrucks . there were all kind of 2eod things associated with the coming of the wet season, all (he relatives comin back anc new canoes coming hack with ther. YANYLWA CANOE MAKING 183 Canoe construction began to decrease in the eatly 19605 as the Yanyuwa began (6 have the cash to buy European aluminium dinghies, The last canoe built by the Yanyuwa for their own use was made by ‘Old Dhulu’ jn 1977 at Ryan’s Bend. This particular cunae was camnnssioned by Tim Rakuwurlma and stayed in use volil 198t. Af the end of ane day’s work on ‘Rra-Kalwanyinara’ Agnie Karrakayn remarked how all (he old canoe makers ‘been die now? and thal no younger canoe makers had replaced them ‘hecause they had the dinghy now, white fella dinghy’. Use of dugout canoes [tis possible la document long voyages made by the Yanyuwa in dugout canoes. Pyro Dirdiyalma deseribed how a relative used to travel all the way (0 Burketown in a dugaut canoe (a distance of over 400 km each way) Tooking for tobacco’. Don MeLean told me of a round trip of over 500 km he made in a dugout canoe with three Yanyuwa men in 1943 to and from Grooie Eylandt. Peaple also travelled from Borroloala to Numbubwar (250 km to fhe north-west), in dugout canoes lo attend cere- monies. As Steve Johnson pecalls, whenever possible such trips Would haye involved Salling and not paddling: They sailed them wher the wind Was favourable they never paddled beeause they wanted to, Most of them waited forthe wind to come the night way before they evel) Start, Probably sit (here for a week wailing for favourable weather .. . unless they were in a hurry there is no Way they'd paddle against it. Bue if they were out there and got vaughi, some of them ald fellas could paddle tor days without getting off thar paddle, As well as being a means of transport, dugoul canoes played an important role in the Yanynwa economy. This was particularly the case with turtle and dugong hunting. It should be noted, however, that older Yanvuwa individuals are adamant that people did hunt dugong and turtle from bark canoes in the ‘old days, As Tim Rakuwurlma notes: ‘They heen make him messmate tree, bark [cance] _~ hig mob dugong killer, black fella, right up long Wanubarryt [100 km north-west. of Berrotoolal". h is conceded however thatthe dugout is far superior for hurting due to its greater size and stability. Indeed the dugout is in many ways superior ta the aluminium dinghies powered by outboard engines used foday. As Mick Pollard recalls, Tyson Walayungkuma told him how dugout canoes were supenor for dugong hunting asm them alaminium boat, you vo aut and your toenail touch thar Moor, them dugong go for one mile’, Dugong are renowned lor their acuie hearing. In a canoe 4 hunter could silently glide over herds of turtles and dugongs and literally (ake his pick. Today, however, hunting in aluminium boats involyes a hair raising high speed chase as the hunters altempt to oulrun the turtle and dugong. The canoes also obviously have the advantage of not requiring fuel. Today it js quite a logistic effort co carry enotigh (uel to rake the lang trip down the McArthur River, ga hunting and still have enough fuel ro rerurn ta Borroloola. Another disadvantage of outboard powered dinghies is the tact thar the occupants usually get covered with spray when travelling in them. The following Yanyuwa terms are given for the crew of a dugout canoe. The person behind, sitting on the daladsla (Fig. 3) was called ramangks figulakari, the person in the front ot the canoe was called ngurrungu and the person in the middle was called a-kuyita wumbiji- However, when hunung dugong and turtle in the past in dugout canoes or today in aluminium dinghies, different names are used for the person al the front and at |he back of the canoe. The dugong hunter in the front armed with the harpoon.and looking for dugong is known as maranja. This person indicates with hand signals which way the wungkayi (who is silting behind) should paddle. Dugong hunters took great care of their hunting equipment, When on hunling trips, ropes were cane- fully coiled so they would not get tangled and the harpoon was mounted on the side of the canoe with nails holding it in place. The harpoon was placed on the right-hand side of the canoe for rizht-handed hunters and on the left side for left-handed hunters. Dugongs and. turtles were often hunted at night, with the hunter following the phosphorescent trailé left in the wake-of (he animals, Such nighi time hunting trips could be quite long and young child- ren were often taken out and hedded down for a night’s sleep in the canoe, On cold dry season nights another advantage of dugout canoes was that a fire could be lil in the canoe. As Steve Johnson told me They used to have a fine going [here fon) a biz Pal rock oF sheer of iron and a bil of mud on it clay. have a fire going thére all day. They be paddling down the river and you'd see smoke in the boat, , - (hey used 4o even cook a feed, cook a fish ar some- thing like that —, - if they went our for a Jong trip they'd Lake a bit of extra wood with them, they’é anchor all day ond (hore wailing for the dugong ro come back in from the deeper water, if they had some fish they’d cook thar up, they lived like kings ow there _ _ boil the billy . . . rhey"d cook a few erabs. IL was the job of the person in the middle uf the canoe, the a-kuyila wumbiji, to keep the fire burn- ing, These fires served the dual functions of cooking and keeping people warm. Isaac Walayvungkuma 184 R.M. BAKER gives another description of these fires: ‘Big canoe, you can put dugong and swag, put flat stone, make a fire there too’, Another good description of these fires is given by Ricket Murnudu in which he makes the point that when paddling the canoe the person behind was kept warm by the smoke drifting back: Fella in front he cold, but this one behind [is warm| because he keep smoking long him behind when he paddling’. However, as Tim Rakuwurlma recalls, the results of not putting a fire out properly were serious. He describes how once, when he lent his canoe to his brother: Him been go out night time hunting and he been come back and been leave that boat rhere, he been wet that fire long sult water, wet him... but that fire been alight, canoe been burn him ,., [next morning] Banjo been come out. ‘Ah that boat been drown here . : . oh | been burn [it] long fire’. Tim goes on to describe how a European resident of the area ‘been fix that boat now, got copper tack, copper nail and iron’. , Z "s As well as being used for hunting and carrying dugong and turtle, dugout canoes were also very useful for carrying loads of people, possessions and food, Annie Karrakayn notes for example how people used to ‘fill him up libaliba . . . right up’ with shell fish gathered from mudflats. Canoes were also filled up with sea bird chicks, gathered by shaking mangrove trees during the wet season. Sometimes these birds were also cooked on fires in the canoe. Large quantities of cycad fruit were also carried in canoes from where they grew to places where there was plenty of water to leach the toxic substances out of the cycad. Annie Karrakayn, for example, describes how people used to go to Manangoora where there are dense stands of cycads (Cycas angulata) and ‘fill up canoe ., , and take him to ... spring country, .. . soak it there now for eat’, Canoes were also used to carry dogs. The last couple lo travel regularly around in canoes, for a long time had one canoe each so that all their dogs could fit in. In the 1950s and 1960s when a large number of Yanyuwa people had moved in to Borro- loola, dugoul canoes were often used to carry fire- FIGURE 5. Forty-four gallon drums being carried by canoes, Photograph Steve Johnson, circa 1955, YANYLIWA ©ANOL MAKING 186 wood back to their camp. They were also used to carry strips of paperbark that were collected [rom trees along the river to roof the shelters people built for themselves in Borroloola, It is nol surprising considering the time people spent in canoes that at least. one Yanyuwa person was actually born in one. Also a umber of other births: were apparently brought on when heavily pregnant wamen were paddling canoes and just managed to make landfall before giving birth. Early government alficials such as Patrol Olticers also made use of dugour canoes to travel around the Borroloola area, as they were the only possible form of transport for much of the wet season. The long time regional head of the Welfare Bratich, Les Penhall, described how “We bought two dugouts off one of the Aborigines out there so we could have transport available’. As well as being used for carry- ing supplies (Fix. 5) up the river from the deep water jetty downstream, canoes were used by the Welfare Depariment to get good timber to Borroloola. Annie Karrakayn, for instance, recalls how people used 6 get pine trees (Callitris intratropica) downstream along. the McArthur River and braught them back to Borraloola with ‘that canoe, pulling beliind like a trailer’. A number of European crocodile shooters in the area also used dugouts, for, as when hunung dugomz, the crocodile hunter could silently glide of lop of the prey. Considerable use of dugout canoes was alsa made by the arnry unit that was based on ihe Sir Edward Pellew Group during World War LI. Don MeLean describes how canoes Were used (0 carry supplies and persounel, to patrol for mines, to Carry Inessages and to locate an American airman who once crash landed in the area. Canne size Spencers diary contains a good indication oF how large were the canoes which the Yanyuwa obtained trom the Macassans. He notes that: A biv canoe has come up the river from the coast with about 20 datives iit tis quite Untike the bark canoe and is simply a great log hollowed our and shaped intow bot. Lis quile 30 feet long, . , This particular boat was made by the Malays who come all down the eoasi every year in their Prahus in quest of lojlorse [sic] shell (and) beche de mer which [hey barter for with (he blacks (Spencer (901: 110), The larkest canoe made in livitig memory was measured by Steve Johnson to be 27 feet (8.23 m) long and was called the ‘Butterfly. The Yanyuwa classify canoe size in terms of how many large salt- water Lurtles they Would hold: the ‘Bucterfly’ being a ‘four turtle Ganoe® Tim Rakuwurlma also com- Tents on a ‘four turtle canoe! and goes on to say that it could alsa carry four 44 gallon drums, ‘Sonny’ Raggart, che former manager of a station for which supplies were brought up the river in canoes, recalls Gne canoe that carried five 44 gallon drums or forty 50 lb bags of flour. Annic Karrakayn in the conversalion quoted above on how all the kids used to ‘stick in that canoe’, noles that the canoe also carried ‘big mob of load’ which included swags, billy cans and 44 gallon drums, Another mention of the capacity of dugout canoes is in Giriffin’s (L941; 32) description ofa visit to Borroloola. She records a canoe pacl- dled by Tim Rakuwurlima’s brother Banjo carrying his lubra, and her sister, two piccaninnies, two dags, one puppy, two gulahs, and coolamons of lily seeds, roots and wild raspberries, not ta mention billies and pannikins’. Canoe life-span Most dugoul canoes appear to have lasied Icss than three years. Thomson (1934; 244) discusses the short life-span of canaes al Stewarl River, Cape York, and comments on one lasting only seven to eight months. The fact that one canoe lasted five years before jt sank is. noted as being unusual by Johnson Babaramila Timothy: ‘Him sunk down. . , might have been too old, One boat from Roper, we had it for long time, for about, might have beer more than five years’. The oldest canoe deserthed ro me was the lager ofe oWned by Tyson Walayungkuma, This. canoe, accarding fa Steve Johnson, was a ‘good ten years old’ when it was finally wo rotten to patch up apy more. The spreading of canoes, described above, makes canoes particularly susceptible to cracking. Aswell, boring water worms tended to eat through the canoes. Canoes were constantly patched, using the reddish bark of ma-wunjurrwunjurr (Terminalia carpentaride), a ree thal grows on (he Sir Edward Pellew [slands. As Steve Johnson notes: "They used to use thal, scrape the bark off... and they'd pound it up nto wa putty and then use that to shut the cracks’. When available, however, tron and tacks were considered preferable, As ‘Steve goes on to note, ms-wunjlirewonjurr bark was only used $f they were out bush and didn't have that gear [fnetal) . . - they even used taud, that hard clay tor repairs’. Canoes were often removed fram the water and rolled over to dry in the sun in attempts to kill the borers. Also, canoes Were painted with a red ovhre to protect them fron worms, When available, tar, pitch and various boating oils were used as they were mare effective. Jean Kirlon gives a good summary of the prob- lems people had maintaining their canoes end illus- 186 R.M, BAKER trates Why aluminium dinghies were so readily adopted in preference to dugouts: There were two kinds of borer that got into them, a freshwater one and a sallwater one and most of them only lasted two years, They would patch them and they would leak a lot. It got to the stage where they would leak so much they would be under water, [it] wets a bit discouraging bailing something when the entire thing is under water every time you want to use it. So [at] that point it got relegated to being drowned, When you could get an aluminium dinghy that borer did nothing to it. CONCLUSION The Yanyuwa history of canoe making is a good example of Aboriginal culture’s quick response to change. Canoes were readily adopted by the Yan- yuwa as they were a better version of something they already had. As such they represent cultural change very much on Yanyuwa terms, Use of dugout canoes allowed the Yanyuwa to exploit their environment in new ways. Resources such as bird and turtle eggs on isolated islands could be obtained and previous activities such as turtle and dugong hunting would have been both safer and more productive. Methods of construction and repair of dugout canoes changed according to supply of natural resources, and to the provision of European tools and food sources, The move to use aluminium boats instead of dugouts occurred for the same reasons thal dugouts were originally adopted. The new item had great advantages, In the case of adoption of aluminium boats how- ever, as has been the case for many aspects of European culture adopted by Aboriginal people, there have been unforeseen ramifications. The decline in canoe making has been but one part of an overall pattern of greater dependency on Euro- pean resources and services that has led to a great reduction in Yanyuwa independence overall, The decision to adopt European dinghies occurred in the late 1960s when, with the granting of equal wages on cattle stations, there was plenty of cash about to buy dinghies. However, the prosperity of this time was short-lived. Massive lay-offs of Abor- iginal people in the cattle industry in the 1970s have resulted in very few Yanyuwa people currently being employed, Today, there is little money to buy ding- hies or outboard motors and offen not enough mechanical ‘know how’ to keep those motors going. Hence Tim Rakuwurlma (Fig. 6) who spent much of the first two-thirds of his 90 years travelling in dugout canoes around his island country, can now lament ‘| want to go island, sit down long island, but no boat too much... | got no boat too much, | want to sit down long my country’. FIGURE 6. Tim Rakuwurlma and his canoe, July 1954, From the Les Penhall Collection, Northern Territory State Reference Library. Reproduced with Penhall’s permission. YANYUWA CANOE MAKING IST ACKNOWLEDGMENTS T wish to thank all the Yanyuwa people who shared with ie their Knowledge of canoes, | am also most graceful to all the non-Aboriginal people with experience in the Rorroloola area who helped me with their memaries of Yanyuwa canoe use. I thank the Australian National Maritime Museum for giving permission to publish here sections of a repor| | prepared for (hem. Research in the Borroloola area has also been supported by the Australian Instituie of Aboriginal Studies, the University of Adel- aide, the Northern Avstralian Research Unit of the Australian National University and (he Royal Geographic Society of Australasia (South Australian Braneh). In addition, | wish to thank Chris Anderson, Michael Bardsley, Fay Gale, Philip Jones, and Beth Slatyer for useful comments on earber drafts of this paper. | am also particularly indebted to John Bradley for all bis logistic And Haguistie wasishuice, ENDNOTES |, All the conversations quoted are [rom recorded inter- views, now lodged with the Australian Institute of Abor- iginal Srucics in Canberra. A copy of this paper footnoted with details of tape number for each quote and the place on (he ape where the conversation aceurs is lodged with the A.LAS. Most quotes are trom Aboriginal people from the Boroloola area. Where the quotes are nol ram Abor- iginal people, | give in an endnote, background information on how the individual concerned came to be in the area. A detailed set of photographs documenting the construction is also lodged at the A.LALS., as area number of historic collections of photographs which | have located relating 10 the area and which inclide photographs of canoes. 2. She is eclerpty here to Tim Rakuwurlma, an old Yan- yoWa man who las supplied me with much of my infor- imahoron Yanyuwa watercraft, Tim was born some dime late Just century. 3. This ik an Aboriginal English term for helping someone. 4. Macassans are fishermen who came to northern Aust- ralia from the porrof Macassar in the Celebes (naw known as UjUng Pandang and Sulawesi respectively) prior to European settlement of Australia, Uheir visits stapped in WOT as a result Of South Australian Cavernment lenis~ lanioan. They came to collect, amongst other things, tre- pang, (See Macknight 1969, 1972 and 1976 for further details.) 5. ‘Sugar bay’ is an Aboriginal Boglish term for the native bee nests that contain wax und honey. 6. \ buropean soldier based of tle Sir Edward Pellew Group during part of World War Tf, 7. [he photographie recording of the canbe construction illustrates cach stage of pracuction it went through. The copy of this article lodged with the ALAS. ieludes a daily record that details each pholograph Laken. 8. All tools used were purehased metal ones. In the recent past most work was done with similar tools, Don MeLean, however recalls seeing ‘wedges made oul of stone and they were on a long handle... like an adze’ and describes them being used in the same way | observed larie steel wdzes bein used. 9, Steve Johnson has lived all his fife on Vanderlin Island, Mis father was & European trepanger who lived most of his life there with Steve's mother, a Yanyuwa woman. Steve has a detailed knowledge of catioes trom the ase Aboriginal people rude of them around his home, Vanderlin Island. 10. Spencer & Gillen collected one such canoe which is vow held by the National Museum of Victoria, The South Australian Museum also holds a canoe collecred fram Borrolonla aroufd the Ginn of (he century and [for nell (1940) also gives a detailed description of another bark canoe made in the Borroloola rexion, held by rhe Aust- ralian Museum in Sydney, 1}. As Holed above, Isaue Walayuliekura is a Garawa speaker and hence uses this Giarawa term and nor the Yanyowa tern Na-wulka, Trigger (1987: 80) mentions Carawa watercraft und notes the Garawa use of (his tern for hark canoes. [2. Malay’ was the incorrect term Europeans applied for a long time ty the Macassan trepangers. Tim would have learned this from Europeans and oot from the Macassany themselves. The Groote Eylande Aboriginal people Tim mentions came down on the Mavassun boats, 13. A term forthe eyead phat grows iW abundance in (he area, Wis processed (o leach oul toxic substances and is then prepared into preservable danipers. 14, Egan was the relieving Welfare Officer at Borroloola for a number of brief periods in the 1950s, 15, This quote comes [rom 5.A. Museum Archives Acc. No. 1676, which is a notebook of his trip. Vyse fade film of his trip (also held by Sourh Australian Museum) Which includes a shot of Tim Rakuwurlma paddling 4 canoe aeross the MoArthut River. The photograph in bie 6 Was alse raken ar this tie i6. The Northern ‘lerritory Wellare Braneh Annual Report 1960/61 76 documents the move of 133 Aborivinal people previously resident at Borroloola, 17_Jean Kirtan has worked as a linguist at Borroloola since 1963, 188 R.M, BAKER REFERENCES ACKERMAN, K. 1975. The double raft or kalwa of the West Kimberley. Mankind 10: 20-23. AUSTRALIAN ARCHIVES, DARWIN 1952. Fl Tiem 52/770. BANFIELD, E.d. 1918, ‘Tropic Days! T. Fisher Unwin, London. BELL, F, 1956. Building a bark canoe, Walkabout, May: 22-23. BROWN, HY.L, (908. ‘Report on Geological Reconais- sance of the Eastern Coast from Van Dieman Gulf to the McArthur River ete. made by the Government Geo- logist in 1907”. South Australian Parliamentary Papers, Adelaide, 1908, DAVIDSON, D.S, 1935, The chronology of Australian watercralt, J. Polynesian Sac. 44: (1): 1-16, (2): 69-84, (3): 197-152, (4): 193-207. FLINDERS, M. 1814. ‘A Voyage to Terra Australis." G. & W. Nicol, London. Republished 1966, as Australiana Facsimile Editions No, 37, Libraries Board of South Australia, Adelaide. GRIFFIN, E.M, (941, Camping with the Yanular blacks. Mulkabout, Sty: 29-32, HEATH, J. 1980. ‘Nungubuyu Myrhs and Ethnographic Texts’) A.LA.S., Canberra. HERBERT, SM, nd, ‘Reminiscences by Sidney Welling- ton Herbert of Life in the Northern Territory during the Construction of the Overland Telegraph, August {870 to November 1872’. South Australian Public Record Office Accession No. 996, Adelaide. HOLLAND, R.C. 1976. Distribution and methods of construction of Aboriginal bark canoes. University of Queensland Occasional Papers on Anthropology &: 69-87. HORNELL, J. 1940, The genetic relation of the bark canoe (o dugouts and plank-built boats. Man 40: W4-119. KETTLE, E. 1967. ‘Gone Bush FP. Leonard, Sydney. McINTYRE, J.N. 1921. * “Where Ignorance is Bliss — T's Folly to be Wise” Capabilities of the Gulf Country” Unpublished typescript O 984.6M, Mitchell Library, Sydney. MACKNIGHT, C.C. 1969, "The Macassans: a Study of the Early Trepang Industry along the Northern Terri- tory Coast’: Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. Australian National University, Canberra. MACKNIGHT, C.C. 1972. Macassans and Aborigines Oceania 42: 283-321. MACKNIGHT, C.C, 1976. ‘The Voyage lo Marege: Mac- assan Trepangers in Northern Australia’. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, MAIN, C.A, 1958. Borroloola, NT. Our Aim, May: 05. PARADICE, W.E.J, 1924, The Sir Edward Pellew Group of Islands, Commonwealth Parliamentary Puper, No. 143, SPENCER, W.B. 1901. Diary 1901. Titled S and G 2 1901 No. 4, held by National Museum of Victoria, Mel- bourne. SPENCER, W.B. & GILLEN, Fil. 1912. ‘Across Australia’ MacMillan, London. STRETTON, WG, 1893. Customs, rites and superstitions of the Aboriginal tribes of the Ciulf of Carpentaria. R. Geog. Soe, Australasia, 8. Aust. Branch 17: 227-253, THOMSON, D.F, 19344, Notes on a hero cult from the Gulf of Carpentaria, North Queensland, J R. Anthrop. Inst, 64: 217-235, THOMSON, D,P. 1934b, The dugong hunters of Cape York. J. R. Anthrop. Inst. 64: 237-262. THOMSON, D.F. 1937, Thomson Collection File No, 94, National Museum of Victoria, Melbourne, entry for 14.1,1937, THOMSON, DF, 1939, The tree dwellers of (he Arafura swamps; a New type of hark canoe [rom central Arnhem Land. Man 39: 121-126. THOMSON, D.b, 1949a. Arnhem Land: exploration among an unknown people. Geog. J. 114 (3): 53-67. THOMSON, D.F. 1949b. ‘Economic Structure and the Ceremonial Exchange Cycle in Arnhem Land’. MacMillan, Melbourne. THOMSON, D.F, 1952. Notes on some primitive waler- craft in Northern Australia. Moan 52: 1-5. THOMSON, D.F. 1957. Some watereraft of the Australian Aborigines. Holkaboul, June: 19-20. TRIGGER, DS. 1987. Inland, coast and island: traditional Aboriginal society and material culture in a region of the southern Gulf of Carpentaria. Rec. S. Ausi. Mus. 21 (2): 69-84. WARNER, W.L. 1969. ‘A Black Civilization: a Social Study of an Australian Tribe’, Harper and Brothers, New York. [Reprint of 1937 edition.) WORSLEY, F.M, 1954, ‘The Changing Social Structure of the Wanindiljaugwa’. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. Australian National University, Canberra. REVIEW BY P. HORTON Summary The dynamic partnership : birds and plants in southern Australia edited by Hugh Ford & David Paton. The Flora and Fauna of South Australia Handbooks Committee, Adelaide, 1986. 199 pp., 8 colour plates, 23 figures, 38 tables. Paperbound, $A19.50. REVIEW The Dynamic Partnership: Birds and Plants in Southern Australia edited by Hugh Ford & David Paton. The Flora and Fauna of South Australia Handbooks Commirtee, Adelaide, 1986. 199 pp., 8 volour plates, 23 figures, 38 tables. Paperbound, $A19.50, The editors, Hugh Ford (University of New Eng- land) and David Paton (University of Adelaide), themselves contributors to the book, are fa be com- mended for bringing together much of (he current understanding.of bird-plant relationships in south- ern Australia — ag yet a relatively litthe studied field. The resulting publication is the first broadly-based irealise On this subject for Australia, The title sugpests that ihe book pertains ta southern regions of Australia only, but in fact many of the hypotheses arid conclusions put forward may be applicable ra most of the continent. The book is divided into sixleen chapters, and each discusses a parneular aspect of bird-plant in- teractions, Some are specific, such as the pollination and seed dispersal of mistletoes (by N. Reid), and others are more generalised. such as lifestyles and food resources ol birds in inland enviranments (by K.S, Shurcliff), Some authors largely restrict their discussions (o an analysis of the available data, for example PA, Patan in her chapter on the use of aqualic plants by birds in the Coorong, South Australia, Others are more speculative, for example D.C. Paton ln his chapter on the evolution of bird pollination in Australia, Inevitably with Such a di- versiry of topics, the book is essentially a collection of papers, However, the editors have grouped those with similar theres, except for some that fall inte no pariicular category, and there is Somme crass- referencing berween chapters. This, together with the provision of introductory and concluding chapters, gives a degree of continuity throughout. Despile the diversily OF material discussed, there are still several aspects of bird-planr interactions lett unexplored, such as the use of plants for nest sites: anc nesting materials. But as is suggested in the introductory chapter, some subjects are beyond the scape ol the book; these may well serve as the basis for (ture publications. Most of the book deals with endemic plant and bird Communifies, bul Wwo chapters examine rhe adaptations ta and ulilisation of exotic habitats by birds, in comparison with adjacent areas of native habitat. These are studies in suburban gardens (by R.J, Green) and pine forests (by BC. Gepp). 1 found AN. Milewski’s chapter, also comparing bird communities in different habitats, particularly interesting, In this case they are both endemic habilats — southern Australla and southern Africa. Despite the presence of many plan! and bird families thatare the same in bork regions, Milewski points out some distinct differences, which he attributes to chirnatle and soil differences between the continents, Thus in southern Africa there is a diversity of birds that consume fleshy fruits and of plants that produce them, while in southern Australia there is a diversity of honeyeaters. and necrarproducing plants. Much of the book examines bird-plant inter actions from the point of view of the use of or dependerice on plant species by particular birds, or olf che mutualistic relationship between the two groups, Chapter 15 (by H.A. Ford) on birds and eucalypt dieback, however, is taken from the point ol view of plants’ dependence on birds not just for enhanced dispersal of pollen and seed but more directly for (heir health and survival. This and several other chapters also address the question of the future for bird and plant communities in Australia, and suggest management strategies for their conservation, Perhaps the overriding impression gained from the book is that in attempting fo answer many questions abour bird-plant relationships, ir raises many more, as would be expected in such a youthtul field of research. The reader js provided with a kal- eidascape af bird-plant interactions yel 10 be inves- ligated, and is given many suggestions as to the directions that future research may take. The literary style adopted by most of the thirteen authors is somewhat more expansive and descriptive tban would appear in a seientifie journal, and the book is liberally illustrated with tables, figures and colour plates, so it should he an informative text for amateur ornithologists, botanists and ecologists as well as for the scientific community, The book lias beer well-produced, the layout is good, and the printing excellent; a minor criticism is that many of the chapter sub-headings are larger and bolder than is aesthetically necessary. tt is priced reason- ably, and is a ercditable addition to the series of Handbooks of the Flora and Fauna of South Aust: alia. | recommend it 10 anyone interested ip evology and conservation. PB HORTON, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000. Ree. S. lust Mus. 22(2): 189, LORS NGURUNDERI : A NGARRININDJERI DREAMING BY S. J. HEMMING Summary The South Australian Museum has for several years been developing an exhibition depicting aspects of the Aboriginal culture of the Lower Murray region of South Australia. Central to the religious beliefs of the people in this region was the Dreaming ancestor Ngurunderi and the story of the creation of the Murray River and many other geographical features in the Lower Murray and Coorong areas. The exhibition incorporates as a central theme the Dreaming of Ngurunderi. As an introduction to the exhibition, the South Australian Museum, in association with the South Australian Film Corporation, Pepper Studios and the Ngarrindjeri Community have produced a short film entitled ‘Ngurunderi: A Ngarrindjeri Dreaming’. After several years of planning it was finally completed in 1987 and was launched early in 1988. The film won a silver award in the education/social studies category at the New York World Film and Television Festival. It also won a gold award for camera work from the Australian Society of Cinematographers. Since the launch it has been screened continuously in the introductory area to the planned exhibition. This was the Museum’s intended function for the film, with the possibility of its use by the South Australian Education Department. The South Australian Film Corporation, which holds the copyright of the film, are trying to market it as widely as possible and copies are presently available from the Film Corporation or through the South Australian Museum shop. NGURUNDERL A NGARRINDIERI DREAMING! ‘Yhe South Australian Museum has for several yeurs been developing an exhibition depicing aspects of the Aboriginal culture of the Lower Murray region of Sourh Australia. Central ta the religiaus beliefs of the people in this region was the Dreaming ancestor Ngurunderi and the story of the creation of the Murray River and many other geo- graphical features in the Lower Murray and Coor- ony areas, The exhibition incorporates as 4 central theme the Dreaming of Ngurunderi. As an intro- duction to the exhibition, the South Australian Museum, in association with the South Australian Film Corporation, Pepper Studias and the Nearr- indjeri Community have produced a short film entitled ‘Ngurunderi: A Nyarrindjeri Dreaming’. After several years of planning it was finally cam- pleted in 1987 and wats launched carly in 1988. The film wan a silver award in the education/social studies category at the New York World Film and Television Festival. fr also won a gold award tor camera work from the Australian Sociely of Cinematographers. Singe the launch it has been screened cominuously in the introductory area Lo the planned exhibition. This was ithe Museum's intended function for the film, with perhaps ihe possibility of its use by the South Australian Education Departrnent. The South Australian Film Corparation, which holds the copyright of the film, are trying 10 market it as widely as possible and copies are presently available from the Film Corpor- alion or through the South Australian Musturn shop. A number of accounts of the Ngurunderl Dream- ing were recorded by anthropologists, missionaries and other non-Aboriginal commentators including Cawiharne, Tapha, Meyer, Smith, Berndt, and Tin- dale. Most relate only to a small segment of the Dreaming, usually focusing upon Neurunderi’s ex- ploits in one particular area. Professor Ronald Rerndt’s version (1940) js the most detailed pub- lished accounl andl is upori this that the Museum's film is mainly based. Dr Norman Tindale, the other anthropologist to have worked extensively in the urea, also collected lengthy accounts, but these are yel to be tully published, His one brie! published vecount (Tindale & Prerty 1978) differs in certain details from that of Bernds. Both these anthro- pologis(s worked with Aboriginal people from dif- ferent groups in the region: Berndt's main souree of information was Albert Karloan, an initiated man of the Yaralde people; Tindale’s primary source was Clarence Long. an initiated roan from the Tangane people. This may be the reasan for the variation in the two accounts. The peaple in each Nearcindjeci group would have known in most detail the section of the Newrunderi Dreaming thal related to their awn region. This phenamenon still exists today and those in the Ngarrindjeri com: munity who have heard about Ngurunderi [rom the old people usually know something of the section which. relates to the areas associated with their families, In several of the published accounts, Ngurun: deri’s epic journey appears to have staried in the Darling Junction area of the River Murray and con- tinued down the Murray to che Lakes. Some Neary rindjeri people (oday see this as providing evidence that Ngarrindjeri terntory, before the arrival at the Europeans, stretched as far as the Darling region. In Berndt's version, Ngurunderi chases the giafit cod, punde, into Lake Alexandrina and with the help of his brother-in-law Nepele, the cad is speared and cul into many pieces. He changes each picee into one of the present-day species of (reshwatet fish inhabiting the area, George Trevorrow, a Ngar- riodjeri man with a Coorong bavkground, knows another version of this part of the Dreaming He describes a different location for the culling up of the cod and includes the creaian of saltwater lish such as the mulloway, A combination of this and Berndt’s version is used for this incident in the film. Henry Rankine, another Nygarrindjeti man who provided details not available in the Berndt version al the Dreaming, has a connection through his father with {he Lower Murray area and the northern shores of Lake Alexandrina. He supplicd some detail about Ngurunderi's use af smoke signals and (his was also included in the filin. According to Berndr’s account, Ngurunderi’s journey continued from the Lakes area, down the Coorony to Kingstoo. During this part of the Dreaming, his runaway wives become a central feature of the events, At Kingston, Nguranderi fought with an evil sorcerer called Parampari. He killed Parampari and burnt his body, which changed into the Granites near Kingston, Ngurun- deri then pursued his wives back towards (the Murray mouth, crossed it and travelled around Encounter Bay, Along this coust he created many of the islands, including Granite Island. | have not spoken with any Negarrindjeri people who know details of the Encounter Bay section of the Neurunder Dreaming. This is to be expected, given the rapid occupation of this area by the British and the itypact that this had on the culture of rhe local Nearrindjeri group, the Ramindjeri. Ngurimnderi caught up wilh his wives, wha had broken several Nearrindjeri laws and drowned them by flooding the land berween the mainland and Kangaroo Island — their bodies became ‘The Pages’. He crossed 192 S.J. HEMMING Backstairs Passage to Kangaroo Island where he entered the spirit world. According to Ngarrindjeri belief, Ngurunderi established many laws and when someone dies the spirit follows Ngurunderi to Kangaroo Island and from there into the spirit world, Today Ngarrindjeri people still bury their dead with the head facing towards Kangaroo Island in the west, The association of this practice with Negurunderi’s laws is now only becoming widely known through the greater availability of the pub- lished versions of the Ngurunderi Dreaming. It is also due, though, to the activities of the South Aust- ralian Museum, its exhibition and the inclusion of this Dreaming story in new courses being developed by the South Australian Education Department. As previously mentioned, most of the available accounts of the Ngurunderi story are fragmentary. One of the earliest examples is provided by the missionary H,A.E. Meyer (1846). Here ‘Nurrunduri’ is described as controlling the life of the moon, who was a woman, When she becomes too thin he orders her to be driven away to eat roots and so recuperate. Meyer’s version of the cutting up of the cod and the creation of the fish from the pieces varies con- siderably from Berndt’s account. He says Pungn- gane caught a ponde and divided it into pieces, each becoming a cod. Strangely enough he threw them into the sea, The association with saltwater is to be expected here as Meyer’s informants were Ram- indjeri people and therefore predominantly coastal dwellers. Tindale (1935) says that Pungngane is the equivalent of Nepele, Another early version of the Dreaming story was recorded by W.A, Cawthorne in the early days of British settlement and published in 1926, Here ‘Ooroondovil’ (Cawthorne’s spelling) is described as the ‘first great spirit’, who made the land, when all that existed was water. This is very different from Berndt’s account of the Dreaming story in which Ngurunderi appears in the later phase of the Dreaming, after the land, sea and other basic forms have already been created. However, there are some similarities and interestingly, Caw- thorne says that after leaving Kangaroo Island, Ooroondovil *. . . went on westward, where he still lives, though by this time a very old man, and has taught the Europeans the use of firearms, how to make clothes, etc.’ (Cawthorne 1926: 26). During research for the main exhibition and for the film, I worked with a number of Ngarrindjeti people who were at least partly familiar with the Dreaming of Ngurunderi, All knew only fragments of the detailed Dreaming story that must have once existed. One interview | had with a non-Aboriginal, former riverboat captain, Don Ledo, also provided some interesting information. As a child he grew up on the Murray and he spent much of his time with Aboriginal friends. He remembers listening to an old Aboriginal man telling, or rather acting out, the Dreaming story of Ngurunderi. George Taplin, the missionary who established Point McLeay settle- ment, records in his diary a corroboree he witnessed which incorporated song and dance and, as he dis- covered, concerned Ngurunderi (Taplin 1873, 1879). There would have been many such corroborees con- cerning Ngurunderi. When I first asked Don Ledo whether he knew anything about Ngurunderi, it took him a few minutes to recognise my initial crude attempt at pronunciation. However, he soon worked out that I meant, ‘Ngoorroonderree’ (primary stress on the first syllable, ‘oo’ as in ‘book’, and the ‘rr’ trilled), as he pronounced it. Of the several Ngar- rindjeri people whom I have heard use the word Negurunderi, most employ the same pronunciation as Ledo. The Ngarrindjeri spoke several different dialects and this probably accounts for some of the variations. For instance, some Coorong people pro- nounce the word with a ‘u’ sound as in ‘but’, Initially, missionary George Taplin used the word ‘Ngurunderi’ as a convenient translation for God. He wanted to use the local language and a modified version of the Dreaming as a tool in the conversion of the Ngarrindjeri to Christianity. However, he soon discovered that Ngurunderi was responsible for many customs with which he was loath to assoc- iate his God. He subsequently set about dissuading the use of Ngurunderi as the equivalent for his concept of the Christian God. There are a number of historical examples of his lack of success in this endeavour and a few Ngarrindjeri people have con- tinued to equate Ngurunderi with God. For example, this is the philosophy of the Ngarrindjeri church at Meningie, on Lake Albert. When consul- tations regarding the making of the film were started, | was told by various people including the Chairman of Point McLeay, Henry Rankine, that I would have to speak to Mrs Lola Sumner, as she was one of the most important and knowledgeable old people in the Ngarrindjeri community. She approved of the idea of the Museum making a film of the Ngurunderi Dreaming. She also pointed out that Ngurunderi was the Ngarrindjeri way of saying ‘God’. Her pronunciation of the word was the same as Ledo’s and it was on her authority that we used it in the film. Mrs Sumner, who is now deceased, was recognised in the Ngarrindjeri community for her excellent knowledge of the language. The main Ngarrindjeri contributors to the devel- opment of the film’s script were Henry Rankine, George Trevorrow, and Harvey Karpany. However, most of the detail used was from Berndt’s version which was recorded in the late 1920s and early 1930s from information supplied by Ngarrindjeri people such as Albert Karloan. It was decided early during the film’s planning that, ideally, a Ngarrindjeri nar- rator and Ngarrindjeri actors were required. Henry Rankine was selected by the South Australian Film NGURUNDERI 193 Corporation to be the narrator and the actors for the film were chosen from the Point MeLeay and Meningic Aboriginal communities, The selected locations were as close as possible to the actual places mentioned in the Dreaming. The actors were: Henry Rankine jnr. (Ngurunderi), Maxwell Rankine (Nepele), Fred Sumner (Paramipari), Susan Rankine (Wife) and Margaret Rankine (Wife). IL was felt necessary and ayreed upon by Ngarrindjeri people that the actors be of a dark skin colouring for the authenticity of the film. From the beginning i! was also decided that identifiable facial shots should not be used in the film, in an attempt to retain a mys- tique about the identity of Ngurunderi. For the film, we paid particular attention to detail in the items of material culture used. We high- lighted, as much possible, the differences between the southern Australian Aboriginal cultures and peoples and those of the desert and the north. The baskets and mats used in the film were made by Yvonne Kooimatrie, Ellen Trevorrow and Glenda Rigney. These women have continued the Nearrind- jeri basketry tradition in that ihe technique and materials they use have not changed since at least 1836. Prior to the final version of the film being released a seminar was organised for the Ngarrind- jeri community during which they could view the film and comment on its development, The progress of the exhibition itself was alsa discussed. About two hundred Negarrindjeri people attended this seminar and the response to the film was very encouraging. The film has certainly been successful in its role as an introduction to the Ngarrindjeri exhibition and it will also have applications outside the Museum in areas such as education and tourism. Its production, however. required a complicated series of consultations with members of (he Ngarrindjeri community, particularly given the Museurm’s inexperience in the area of film- making. However, the finished product was worth the effort, due in no small way to the sensitive handling of the subject by Pepper Studios, Many opportunities exist for similar films to be made in the future and perhaps the education system should be seeking funding for their production. In the final analysis, however, the film ‘Ngurunderi’ illustrates the value for museums, of a close, co-operative, working relationship with the Aboriginal community and the value of film as a medium for effectively educating the wider Australian public about Aboriginal culture. ENDNOTE 1. When the British first arrived in South Australia, the peoples of the Lower Murray were identified by a large number of local clan and language-group designations, Today most of the local peaple from this area identify themselves as Ngarvindjeri people. The Ngarfindjeri com- munity numbers several thousand people.and is spread (throughout (he Murray River and south-east region of the state. REFERENCES BERNDT, R.M. 1940. Some aspects of Jaralde Culture, South Australia. Oveania 11: 164-168. CAWTHORNE, W.A, 1926. Rough notes on the manners and Customs of the Natives. R. Geog. Soc. Aussi. S. Aust. Branch Proe, 27: \-3\. MEYER, H.A, (846, ‘Manners and Customs of the Aborigines of che Encounter Bay Tribe’. Allen, Adelaide. TAPLIN, G, Adelaide. 1874. ‘The Narrinyeri, Govt Printer, TAPLIN, G. 1879, ‘folklore, Manners, Customs and Languages of the South Australian Aborigines’, Govt Printer, Adelaide. TINDALE, N.B. 1935. The Legend of Waijungari, Jaralde Tribe, Lake Alexandrina, South Australia, and the phonetic system employed jn its transcription. Rec. 8. Aust. Mus, 5(3): 261-274. TINDALE, NB. & PRETTY, GL. 1978. ‘Excursion Guide. The Aboriginal Cultural Landscape of the Lower Murray Valley. South Australian Museum, Adelaide §), WEMMING, South Australian Museum, North ‘Verrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Ree S$. Aust, Mus, 222): 19)-193, 1988. ERRATUM FOR VOLUME 22(1) WATTS, C.H.S. 1988. REc. S. AUST. Mus. 22 (1): p. 22 — Lower caption should read: FIGURES 7-13. 7, lateral view of aedeagus of H. alastairi; 8, lateral view of aedeagus and paramere of H. gibbus; 10, ditto H. alastairi; 11, lateral view of aedeagus and paramere of H. fuscatus; 12, dorsal view of aedeagus of H. fuscatus ERRATUM FOR VOLUME 22(1) WATTS, C.H.S. 1988. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 22 (1): 21-28. p. 22 — Lower caption should read: FIGURES 7-13. 7, lateral view of aedeagus of H. alastairi; 8, lateral view of aedeagus and paramere of H. gibbus; 9, dorsal view of aedeagus of H. gibbus; 10, ditto H. alastairi; 11, lateral view of aedeagus and paramere of H. fuscatus; 12, dorsal view of aedeagus of H. JSuscatus. p. 27 — Start of ‘Remarks’ should read: Does not appear to be as common as H. gibbus, nor as widespread. I have been unable to separate this species from H. gibbus except by the male aedeagus, which is narrow and sinuate, but broad in H. gibbus. RECORDS OF THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM VOLUME 22 PART 2 NOVEMBER 1988 ISSN 0081-2676 CONTENTS: ARTICLES 79 N. G. STROMMER Genera .Wabis Latreille and Srenonabis Reuter (Hemiptera: Nabidae) in Australia oS GvG: SCOTT-& Kk. C. RICHARDSON Appendicular osteological differences between Lasiorhinus latifrons (Owen, 1845) and lormbarus ursinus (Shaw, 1800) (Marsupialia: Vombatidae) [03 (KR. V.SOUTH COLT Two new larval mites (Acarina: Erythraeidae) ectoparasitic on north Queensland cicadas 17 CH. S. WATTS Revision of Australasian Hydrophilus Muller, 1764 (Coleoptera: Hydrophilidae) 131 F. L. GOMMERS Diamonds from the Echunga Goldfield. South Australia 139 R. |. LAMPERT & P. J. HUGHES Early human occupation of the Flinders Ranges 69 M. PICKERING & J. DEVITT Notes on a wooden implement type from north-eastern Arnhem Land 173, R. M. BAKER Yanvuwa canoe making NOTES 189 P. HORTON Review of ‘The Dynamic Partnership: Birds and Plants in Southern Australia’ 191 S. J. HEMMING Ngurunderi: a Ngarrindjeri Dreaming 198 Erratum for Volume 22(1) Published by the South Australian Museum, North Terrace. Adelaide. South Australia 5000