A REJOINDER TO SOME RECENT ETHNOLOGICAL PAPERS (’), (’), (*) By WALTER HOWCHIN EMERITUS PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY AND PALAEONTOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE Summary While engaged in geological field-work on Kangaroo Island, in 1902, the writer came upon evidences of a previous occupation of the island by aborigines. As it had been believed previously (from negative evidence) that the Australian natives had not crossed from the mainland to the island, it was thought worthwhile to incorporate the facts thus obtained with other observations made at the time. As my main object in visiting the island was in other directions, only such anthropological observations that came casually under my notice were recorded, concluding with the words, “Now that attention has been called to this subject it is probable that further evidences of the occupation of Kangaroo Island by an aboriginal population will be secured” (No. 4). Two localities were specially noticed. One of these was at Hawk’s Nest, where the implements were formed from quartzite. The other was on the southern cost, at the Brecknells sand-dunes, in which worked stone implements were discovered ; adjacent to which were the remains of two heaps of broken and whole sea-shells that had the characteristics of being “kitchen middens” left by the aborigines. A REJOINDER to some RECENT ETHNOLOGICAL PAPERS (1) 2.) By WALTER HOWCHIN, Emenires Propessor of Grotoay aNp Pararon'ronocy, Unrversrry ov Apnea. Wine engaged in geological fieldavork on Kangareo Island, in 1902, the writer came upon evidences of a previous oceupation of the island by aborigines, As it had been helieved previously (from negative evidence) that the Australian natives had not crossed from the mainland to the island, it was thought worth while to incorporate the facts thus obtained with other observations made at the tune. i\s my main object in visiting the island was in other directions, only such anthroepo- logical observations that came easually under my notice were recorded, concluding with the words, ‘‘Now that attention has been called to this subject it is probable that further evidences of the occupation of Kangaroo Island by an aboriginal population will be seeured’? (No. 4). Two localities were speeially noticed, One of these was at Tlawk’s Nest. where the implements were formed from quartzite. The other was on the southern coast. at the Brecknells sand-dines, in which worked stone implements were discovered ; adjacent to which were the remains of two heaps of broken and whole sea-shells that had the characteristies of being “Kitchen middens”’ left hy the aborigines. In the Records of the South Australian Museum for 1981 (7), Messrs. 'Tin- dale and Maceraith published a paper deseribing a visit to the island and the collection of further native implements. Their chief collecting growuid was, as noted in my case, around Hawk’s Nest. Tn the preamble to their paper they state, “Tn the following paper the Tlawk’s Nest oceurrence is deserihed in detail, after which brief records of some other localities, some corrections in a previons account, anda general discussion ave given’? (q). 276). 28 The promised ‘corrections in a previous aeconnt.”’ which is stated to be “Towehin’s,"* were placed under a separate heading, and inelnded two items. 7 The first of these dealt with the ‘kitchen middens.’’ which my crities declared (1)! Traces of an Extinet Aboriginal Population on Kangnroo Tsland,?? by Norman B, Tindale and Brian G. Maegraith, (2) Notes on the Supposed Prinitive Stone Tmplements from the Tableland Regions of Contral Australia,?? by Norman B. Tindale. ()"*A Contribution to the Study of Boliths; Some Observations on the Natural Porees td work in the production of Flaked Stones on the Coutral Australian Tablelands’? hy 1. Wood Jones and T. D. Campbell. e) RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM had been formed, not by liman ageney, but by the aetion of sea-birds, or the effeets of waves, which aay have carried up the shells from the beaeh ou to the top of the cliffs, The possibilities of such a fortuitous origin of the shell- mounds had been disenssed in wy paper, and a ceeision reached on the following evidences ; (uv) Its height above the beach. My evities wave their estimate at 6 metres; biy estimate was 80 feet. The cliff was vertieal, with a slielt shelvine towards the beaeh at its summit. (bh) The eroat extent of the shell-eovered area, that measured 40 yards by 20 yards, (¢) The size of the mound and the great number and variety of the shells, whieh included some very large examples, The large Tube staminens was plen- 1iful. One example, that [still possess, measures 12 inches in eirth, and although mich weathered weighs 93 oz. The number of (his species present may be judged frou the faet that | brought away with me a dozen opereula that belonged to other exaniples of the same species and of equal size; also a shell of the large and very rare gasteropod, Chavon (lampos) rebiewnda, which has a loeal distribu- tion and is near extinetion, (7) Situated baek from the cliffs a vertical seetion of the sand-dimes, ent by the wind, exposed another ‘ midden.’’ of dike kind, ina layer of shells with drift- sand hoth above and below if This was a collection that eoulel uot have heen east up by the sea. Tf is signifieant that this essential part of the evidence is ignored in the eriticism, as it proves destructive to the theory brought forward, (e) The faet that nearly thirty years had elapsed since my observations were made should have led the critics to exercise caution in basing an arevment on such tnstable factors asa shell mound that had been exposed to fhe weather on a wind- swept headland over so long a time. Tf this first “‘correetion”? fails to carry its point, the second is hopelessly astray: if ealls in question the validity of my determinations of the quartz imple- ments that Tobtamed from the sandhills of the same neighbourhood, and implies that these quart, specimens were there in a fortuitous way, and that their frae- tire was cansed, not by human ageney. but by “thermal action,” or in other words, hy sun-flaking. The authors write: ‘'As mentioned by Tlowehin, numbers of amall quartz flakes were found to be present at low levels in the sandhills at the Breeknells; none of these showed signs of intentional manufacture: in one ease it was possible to fit several pieces towether and to see that thermal action had caused the flaking. Quartz pebbles were also found on the adjacent beach, AL of the quartz ¢hippings seen by the writers at this beach must be regarded as Howcutn--A REJOINDER TO SOME ETHNOLOGICAL PAPERS 3 formed by the natural weathering of quartz pebbles washed wp during heavy weather?’ (No. 1, p. 284). (av) 1 did net mention any ‘tlow levels’? in my paper, As a matter of fae the implements were found in the deep, wind-blown bollows of the sandhills, 100 feet or more above sea-level, In the same hollow Lowas fortunate in finding the bones of the small extiner cm of Kangaroo Island, The presence of these stones (one, a well-flaked core, weighs 7 oz.) under sueh ciremmstances is in itself a sufficient proof of hmman ageney, as they could net oceur in such a position by any other means. (b) Ina e-examination of the quartz specimens from the Breekuells, in my possession, | find they total 38 specimens, ineluding J seraper, 1 gonge, 1 awl, 10 points, 23 flakes and chips, and 2 cores, It is extraordinary that, because (as stated by my erities) ‘All of the quartz chippings seen by the writers at this beach must be regarded as formed by the natural weathering of quartz pebblos washed up during heavy weather,’ they should make, by implication, the correc tion’? in my paper without haying seen the objects they condemn, (e) The writers proceed (loc, cil.) +‘ In one ease it was possible to fit several pieces together and to see that thermal action had eaused the flaking.”? This ts remarkable, for quartz, as an hexagonal crystalline form, is a very refractory mineral, and has no definite cleavage, but a hackly, irregular fracture. Tt does not show the same facility of fracture by ‘thermal action’? that amorphous silica does, so that for one to be able to collect and piece together such irregular frag- ments, if they had been caused by natural processes. would be miracrlous, especi- ally if he had to colleet the fragments from a wind-swept trough of shifting sands, As the oceupation of Kangaroo Island by aborigines was definitely proved by myself in 1903, and by Tindale and Maegraith nearly thirty vears later, the seientifie faets had been established quite independently of the evidences at the Breeknells. These authors ignore the time factor of an interval of nearly thirty years, omit material evidence in the existence of a second shell-heap, beyond the reach of the waves, and, by implication, condemn the validity of a collection of native implements they hac never seen, The second paper mder notice (No. 2) appeared in the previous voliune of this publication (vol, iv, 1932. p. 485), In 1921 the present writer deseribed a collection of stone implements fron Central Australia (No. 5), whieh forms an exhibit in the South Australian Museum. Tindale, ina criticism of my determinations in the paper referred to, associates his paper with another on the same subject, published by Professor 4 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MuSEUM Wood Jones and T. D, Canipbell (No. 3), which he considers so conclusive that, in his opinion, “it would appear almost ainecessary to consider any Further the 7 and then offers a presentation of ‘the problem from validity of these objects,’ quite a different yiew-point’? (No. 2, p. 488). Ti will be eeessary fo consider Wood Jones and Canpbell’s paper first. Tn the paper by Wood Jones and Campbell the authors have spent mutch labone in explaining and iWustrating the phenomena of roek-splitting under natural weatherine, especially moder the steam brought about by differential dintnal temperatures that exist in Central Australia. Sueh phenomena are a commonplace 10 geologists, especially to Anstralian ecologists, and 1 had already devoted three pages in the article these authors criticized in deseribing anc detin- ine these featires. fam quite in accord with them on the broad aspeets of the question when properly applied, The real objeet of the paper is 10 associate the speenmens that T have described as Loman tools with the naturally flaked stones of the interior, On page 116 we rend: “Are these flaked stones of the Australian rableland the work of man, as las heen @laimed?) Tin the first place, i would seem impossible that human ageney emild be inveked for the flaking of all these myriads of stones, when we consider that the Darren tablelands, during what we mi deseribe as the life-eyele of the stones, have been places altogether nnatteactive for himan habitation, or even for Niitian adventure. ’’ Ona later page (p. 122) they repeat this idea in the sentence: We also con sider that a Inonan origin for the countless millions of them seattered over lin- dreds of square miles of tableland country is inevedible.”’ TL quite agree. No one ‘ could imawine that these ‘‘eountless millions’? of stones that form the stony deserts of Australia hac been individually ehipped by Titian hands, and yet 1 mm Gredited with this absurd idea. The fact is that, as the result of mar two excur- sions into Central Australia, among these “eountless millions’? of @ibbers, I collected loss than fiffy specimens that were cousidered to be of diiman workman. ship. The authors of the paper under discussion have ereathy exageerated the solar- flaking that takes place on these stony gibbers. The latter very eomnionly show original beddine-planes, vertical jointing, and irregular fraetures, but rarely a smooth coneayve surface that might have resulted from insolation: anc. still more rarely, a secondary lineal flaking, by minor pittines, whieh latter, when they do occur, can be easily distinenished trom chippines that ave caused by design, ft (as snggested by these authors) these ‘eountless millions’ of bare desert-stones Howcuin-—A REJOINDER TO SOME ETHNOLOGICAL PAPERS 5 had been subjected to such universal sun-faking Uoroughout then loug life-history of a million (nore or less) years, they should all, by this time, have been reduced io their ultimate sun-flaked chips. The argiunent advanced by Wood Jones aud Campbell deals exelisively with veneral principles, which, in their proper application, no one disputes; the vital point, however, ventres in the validity or imyalidity of certain objects as human tools, ‘The question rests, not on abstract principles, but with eertain specified concrete objects, and these are not considered in any way by iny erities. ‘To make their eritieism effeetive they must show one or other of two things, either that the so-called jmuplanents do not give ¢vidence of human workuanship or that the flaking and chippiue, in each particular specimen, can be adequately explained as the result of natural causes. This the authors have not done. They have not challenved a single specimen, so that their argument is pointless and irrelevant ; they leave the question where they found it. In a further wisrepresentation Wood Jones aud Campbell lave eredited ute throughow! with defining these tableland specinicus as eelffis, and if is this view of the subject that elaimis their chief attention. On page 116 of their paper we read :'* Phere is an extremely difienl) probleny fo face it in Australia there be, in fact. a real colithie culture, as Was been claimed \In footnote (1), ‘* Llowebin, Professor Walter’? |, sumcderced from the typical el tre of the blacktellow by an unbridged cultural gap? 1 hive never elassed. these iiplements as *‘voliths,’? nor do L think that they are such, and in only oue instance have TP nsed the tevin in connection with these objeets-—and then merely incidentally, Tnany paper vider eriticism detailed ceseriptions are given of 16 examples of tableland implements, In the ase of No, S spechuen, among other features cleseribed, it is casually stated that i ‘resembled a cominon colithie typec’ This is the ouly place where L have used the term with reference to the jableland specimens. This statement is, moreover, governed by what is said on p. 224, viz.s ‘*The stave of eulture, inclicated by any particular gronp of arte- facts, is determined by the highest and most characteristie types in the group.” Types of lower culties frequently occur casually among even the highest forms of stone dnplements, a faet well known to experienced collectors, anc it was in this sense that a passing comparison was mule with respect to No, 8 specimen, Yot Wood Jones and Campbell have seized on this sentence of five words, that bad no general application, to build up their pseudo-erttical theory. The point ts laboured to such a degree that they have attribnated to me this theory wo less than sixteen times, varied by sneh phrases as “‘the eoliths,”” the ‘so-called eoliths,"” ’ the ‘plateau eoliths,’’ and ‘tan eolithie eulture claimed by ILowehin.’’ 1 have made no sueh pretensions. Notwithstanding all this, Tindale, considering thet 6 Recorps oF THE S.A, MttskuM this paper had dealt a finishing-stroke to the subjeet, states that at as ‘Sabaost nnecessary to constder further the validity of these oljects.”? Under the heading, Origin of the Tnplements,’? 1 have sne@gested (p. 216) several possible theories as to their authorship. Briefly stated, they were : (a) A local variety of iplements produced by the existing Australian natives, modified by the nature of the vaw aaterial, and having a considerable wtiquity. (6) Karly and vader attempts at the making of stone implements by the present race of aborigines at a time when less developed in the art than at present. (¢) The remains of an earlier race of people, as the Tasmanians, for example, diiring a former occupation of the continent. The last-named seemed the most probable, on the high probability (reaching iilmiost a certainty) of the Tasmanians being the true antoehthonous race of Australia, This yiew is also, apparently, confirmed from the great similarity that many of the tableland specimens bear fo the stone implements made by the ‘Tasmanians. Some ten or fifteen vears avo there was a vather lively discussion among the archaeologists of Kurope on the eolithie question, whieh was referred to in my paper. In these discussions the Tasmanians were referred to as ‘representing one of the most primitive and generalized types of mantined.’’ Professor Sollas (*), whom [ quoted, says, * The Tasmanians, thongh recent, were at the same time a -alacolithic, ar even, it has been asserted, an‘ Holithie’ race... the most unpro- gressive in the world, whieh, im the niddle of the mineteenth century, was still living in the dawn of the Palaeolithic epoch’? (4). Sollas is not expressing his ‘ own views that the Tasmanian stone implements were ‘teoliths,’’ but is stating the views of others. Aime T stated: *'The point of interest in these discussions, so Taras the present paper is concerned, is that several authors have drawn com- parisons between the Tasmanian stone piplements and the colithic, or prepalaco- lithic, implements of Mirope.’? Phe objeet of these references was purely his- fovical, and was in to sense, either on the one side or the other, an expression of ny OW Views. There has been much confitsion in the diseussion of this subject, To wet a clearer yiew of its bearings we raise the question, What is an eolith? Mr. Ce. C. MacCirdy (No. 6), the Direetor of the American School of Prehistoric Research in Burope, defines it as Follows: ‘*Caanted that there be an Bolithie Period, the (*)** Ancient Tunters,’’ quoted from the 111 Edition. (7) Tt would have been more appropriate to haye used the words Palaeolithic culture instuad ’ of Palueolithie epoch’? as a past epoch (or geological stage), when passed, cun never be repeated, HlowcHIN —A REJOINDER TO SOME ETHNOLOGICAL PAPERS ? definition of an colith becomes a comparatively simple matter, Am eolith is a fliut (or other stone) that has been shaped or utilized by man or his precursor during the weologieal period known as the Tertiary.’ MacCurdy is correct, The word colith involves the faetor of time. Tt is the *'dawn’’—the stage in the ¢le- velopment of the himman creature when he first learned to shape stones as tiple- ments for use and. according to the evidence, this seems fo have happened tna late Tertiary Age. Who can inagine that himanty-worked stones have lain on am exposed surface of Central Australia from Tertiary times! There cau be only ’ one ‘‘dawn.’?) The ‘eoliths’? whatever they are. belong to the Tertiary Ago, 1 would be as great au anachronism to eall present-day stone implements ‘eoliths’? as if would be to ase the word Hovene (the dawn of modern life) as applicable to any shellfish existing in present seas. The coliths. Tasimarntiap artefacts, and table. land duplements represent respectively three madependent classes, both as to tine and type, and must be judged on theit vespeetive merits. In my paper there are sections ot SS The Origin of fhe Liplements,’? and alse ac* Summary and Conelusious. "Thad b really considered the tableland: tiple. nmients to be coliths TF could uot lave avoided stating the fact under such headings, bat the word was never mentioned, When cisciissiige the Tasinanigia iaypleanents | stated tp. 224): "Phe stage of cultume jnicdieated by amy particular group of artefaets is detemmuimed by the hiwhest wud most characteristic types in the group. Thus the polished iniplement ¢learly defines the Neobthie stage, while the relative diversity of type-forms and the finish shown in the workmanship are made the Dasis in distinguishing the respeetive stages that preceded the Neolithie standard. Tt is on the priiciples just stated that the Tasmanian standart of cultire, in implement making, is placed at about the lowest level.’ This does mot class (he Tasmanian objects as eoliths, whieh are still ina donbttul category, and with wluch, for reasons already given, the Tasinanian artefacts caamot be synchronized. The latter are a yery isolated eroup, diclare better placed ina cistinet class (or perhaps two), as sugested by Dr, Novtlinw (No. 7) as qnoted by me (p. 219). The definitely shaped implements such as serapers, he calls “timerpholithes’’; and those of an irreealar, or less defined kind, he calls *“Samorpholithes,"” This meets the ciffieuliv of finding a place for a very primitive type of implements, without mvolvine ai INcomsisteney by ealling them either palacolithic, prepalacolithic, or colithic. Place the 'Tas- Inanian doplements where you will in the archacolowieal scale of culture, the table land specimens have an independent setting, and are too little known at present for classification, henee the absurdity of calling them ‘Seoliths.’? They present it new field for arehaeologieal iivestigation, and day yield most iteresting results. 8 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM The third paper wider notive is, as already stated, by Mr. N. B. Tindale (No. 2), Tindale, like his associates, must haye read ny paper carelessly. as he quakes me responsible for statements | have not made, and whieh are foreign to my true position, Hor example, he opens his paper by saying, ‘tla 1921 Eowehin deseribed some flints from the platean revion of Central Australia’? The faet is that the implements concerned are mer flints, and the only time that | used the word ‘‘flints’* in ny paper was lo say that they were not flints but desert sana- stone’? (p. 209). Neither were they stated to be ‘plateau flints."" Central ts Australia caanot be properly called a ‘tplateau.’’ The tems ‘‘tableland’? and tabletop’ were used by me from their @eneral use, but the more appropriate terms, “miesas’’ anc ** buttes,’? were sugeested. Tindale has also pieked wp the ‘teolt/h myth, and feeely uses sel plivases his eoliths.’’ the so-called ‘plateau eoliths,’? ete., anil r be as‘ TTowehin's eoliths,’ in eaeh case places the terms under quotation marks, This, of course, places the eritie ander the responsibility that he is representing the exaet words of the paper that he eriticizes, which is not the ease. Tindale does attempt to apply a scientific test as to the validity, or otherwise, of the objects in question. Archaeolovists have come to recoenize certain chavae- r teristic features in prehistoric stone-craft, which Tindale recapitulates (p. 489). briefly put, as follow: “ttn himmantyanade flint iinplements the blows) structs against the edge tend: (1) To be delivered at a coustant angele. (2) The flakes removed are not usually squat. and ave detached in sueh a marimer as not fo leave a step or edwve at the point of the final separation from the implement. (3) Ripple inatks are seldom numerous. (4) The secondary sears tend to be confined to one face, and produce a straieht euttine-edee, (5) The ereatest part of the work dias been done at one tine, These criteria are based on the ideal—the perfeet implement and are sabe jeel to many Limitations and exceptions. Every experienced collector knows that the mathematically correct implement. sueh as Tindale defines, is a very rare object. The necessary conditious would be an inherited traditional hivh stancdéara of stone enlture—a highly efficient workuan-—a flawless stone that is homogeneous In composition, With a perfeet couchoidiel Cractiire, aud finally, perfeet wood Trek in its manipulation throughout, The Australian aborivine is often careless in his workmanship. In one of ney visits to the late Canon Greenwell, of Durham Cathedral (who hac one of the finest private colleetions of prehistories in the Kingdenu. he Lifted a ronelily hipped but mounted Australian iuplement. and said, ‘SH this had not been mounted wo collector would have thought of putting it in his bag."” Spenecr aud Gillen (Noo, p. G43), state: ** Practice at the work is of course HowcHiIn—A REJOINDER TO SOME ETHNOLOGICAL PAPERS 9 esseittial. ad there are soine natives who are more suecesstul than others, but the making of a really wood knife is, more or less, a matter of chance, and the endless number of discarded flakes show how long a time is offen speut before a suitable one is steuek off.’ Tn another place (No. 8, p. 641) the sine authors state, “For every one (lake which is considered good ecuough to nse there ave, at least, a-seore disuarded,” These “rejects,” although they do not conform to the ideal standards, are as sure an evidence of Inman ageney as the atost finished iustrimment. Tindale iuiplies. by the use of such terms as ‘fend’? aud “seldom,” that there may be some exceptions to his mathematical standards, But where does he draw the line between the trae and the counterfeit? The collection under discussion consists of 45 specimens. Tindale Tas seleeted and figured one of these, which he uames a “Plateau Bolith,” both of whieh terms | disown as not used by me and as inappropriate. In his paper be submits this particular example to a kind of micro-analysis, in which be states, “Of the twenty ‘primary’ flake-sears examined the directions of six contorin (within a range of 10°) to the ‘normal’ for himmanly struck blows,’? thas adnit- tine that out of twenty shots blind Nature made six bulls-eyes. PE subinit that is more than could be expected from an umeonseions ayeirt, and is sueevestive of desien, Of the minor flake sears be states, “Bight deviate from this angle hy between 20° and 45°, and the rest lay between 45° and TS0°. The actual angles wre approximately» 20°, 15°, 85°. 20°, 85°) 40°, 180", 70°, 60", 40°, GO", 50", 140°,” This statement is extraordinary, for an examination of the specimen shows that these minor chippings are practically mieroscopie aud defy all attemipts to take Measurements of their axes, The tests on whiell Tindale relied were not mtended to be hard and ast rules or to be of mniversal application. Uf sueb metienlars niethods were weuerally acopted hall the collections of Europe would have to be thrown on the waste-hoap. The rewarity of the flaking depends Jareely on the homoveneity of the stone operated upon, ancl flint is the wost reliable in this respeet. Theaatervial from which the Central Australian implements were meant factured is mostly desert sandstone. This is a hetevogencous, elastic voel. tine to voarse in the erain, and is held together by a chaleedonie base. Flakiay ia this Material cannot be relied upon tor exuet ane witform fracture. With reference to the genuineness of the tableland tmplements, two of these are specialized forms, while the rest show a definite and uniform style of mainu- facture. OF the hwo specialized examples, one of these (ld on op. 214, pl xix) ts a laree bal-ehopper of the coup de poing type, worked to a arob at one end for erasping, and a sharp cuttine-edee at the opposite extremity. which is elupped an both sides, as is usual with intplements of this class. The other (16 on p. 215, pl. xxi) is a biconverx, quacdvate impleinent, that, at one extremity, has been 10 Recorps oF THE S.A. MUSEUM shaped to an edge and @round toa smooth surface on both sides, corresponding to the so-called “tomahawk? of the Australian aborigine, the chief difference between the two implements being that while the latter is made from basalt, the tableland implement is formed from desert sandstone, no basaltic roek being available for this purpose. The remainder of the implements comprise cutting tools, serapers of different types, points, ete. They possess certain features in common. (é) The ventral or under surface is invariably smooth, showing conchoidal fracture in one plane. 17 and frequently a ‘bulb of percussion. No secondary ¢hippings oceur on this face. The particular specimen selected by Tindale for analysis is exceptional, in that its sharp edge has sulfered abrasion ui one or two places. probably received in the collector's bag. (b) The secondary chippines are on the dorsal or upper surface, which forms the working edee of the tool; these vhippings are marginal, follow the periphery, and are usually very numerous, Llow is one to recoucile this uniformity in the flaking of over 40 exauples with a fortuitous cause? (c) The terruginous glaze, whieh isa desert featuve, varies in intensity and eoloue, but is generally a deep red, brown, or almost blaek, (2) With very few excep. fious this cortical glaze is as deeply marked on the hipped portions as if is on the natural surfaces, The example figured by Tindale shows the quost iarked Variation, in this respect, of any in the group. This charaeteristie colouring of the desert varies considerably in different stones, and often ine different portions of {he same stone, arising from such cormtingencies as belong to position, partial protection, varying texture of the stone, aud the yarving susceptibility of the vrain for absorbing the ferrneiitons taint. Ont of the 45 examples on exhibit Madale has coulined his atteition to one only, but tuntil he has taker in the whole of the evidence bis areiuments are worth- less. LE this particular specimen he challenwes tails ro stand the test, there ace still 44 others to be considered. Wis a eroup exhibit and must be considered us a whole. To obtain an independent jndement on the genuineness of these Central Australian implements, | sent a copy of ary paper to Mr. J. Reid Moir (an authority recognized by Tindale) for his opinion, and asking permission to publish his reply. He response LT received the following letter: Ipswich, 26th September, 132. Dear Professor LLowehin, Please wecept my thanks tor vour letter ane the reprint of youn interestiny paper on the Aboriginal Stone liiplements of Central Australia. -udging from the photographs of the specimens you deseribe, | feel that several of them exhibit IlowcHiIn—A REJOINDER TO SOME ETHNOLOGICAL PAPERS 11 hitman flaking, for example, 3 and 3a, pl. xii (*); 1 and 2, pl. xi; 1, pl. xv; ph xviii; pl. xix. Ut is possible that the others you figure also show definite evidence of man’s work, but it would be necessary to examine the aetual specimens before arriving at a conclusion. Some of the implements appear to me to be of eolithic (Ilarrisonian) types, while others are later, | am much interested in your yiews as to the driving out of the Tasmanians from the centval tableland. You are quite at liberty to make any use vou wish of the remarks [ have written about the specimens thistrated in your paper. With any kind regards, Yours sincerely, J. REID MO. REFERENCES CID. I. Tindale, N. Be and Maegraith, BL G. (1931). °° Praces of an Extinet Aborigi- nal population on Kangaroo Island,’ Ree. S. Aust. Mus., iv, No. 8. pp. 275-289. 2. Tindale, N. BL (1982) 2° Notes on the Stupposed Primitive Stone Laplements from the Tableland Regions of Central Australia,’ Ree. S. Aust, Mus. iv, No. 4, pp. 488-488. oO. Jones, KB. W. and Campbell. PT. D. (1925): ‘tA Contribution to the Study of Holiths; Some Observations on the Natural Forees af work im the pro- duction of Flaked Stones on the Central Australian Tablelands, * Jor:. Roy. Authropol, Inst. of Gt. Britain and Treland, Iw., p. 115. 4.0 Tlowehin, W. (1908): °* Further Notes on the Geology of Kangaroo Islam. Aboriginal Occupation of Kangaroo Tsland,’? Trans. Roy. Soe. S. Ast. XXVL, p. 90. ®. Llowebin, W. (1921): °*On the Occurrence of Aboriginal Stone Luplements of Vnusual Types in the Tableland Region of Central Australia,’ Trans. Roy. Soe. S. Aust. xiv., pp. 206-230, pls. xi-xx1. G. MaeCurdy, G.G. (1924) :°* What is an Holith??? Nat. istory Journ. of An, Mus., xxiv, No. 6, pp. 656-658. Nocthing, FL (1906-7) (1908): *t Notes on the ‘Pasmeanian Aimorpholithes, =! Pap. and Proce. Roy. Soe. Tas., p. 30. 8. Speneer, Bo and Gillen, F.-J. (1904) :‘* Northern Tribes of Central Australia,”’ (*) This is the implement that Tindale has figured and condemned, REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN GHOST MOTHS (LEPIDOPTERA HOMONEURA, FAMILY HEPIALIDAE) PART IL(’) By NORMAN B. TINDALE, B.SC., SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM Summary Oncopera Walker. Oncopera Walker, List Lep. Ins. Brit. Mus., vii, 1856, p. 1558. Oncoptera Meyrick, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, iv (2), 1889, p. 1124. Oncopera Eyer and Turner, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1, 1925, p. 272. Antennae of few segments, usually from fourteen to twenty, very short, less than one- sixth length of forewing, almost cylindrical, either swelling gradually towards the apex to form a club, or filamentous ; a tuft of hairs on the basal segment projects over the eyes. The labial palpi only moderately developed, slender, projected straight forwards, concealed in dense hairs, the maxillary palpi short, obsolete, and concealed. Males with hind tibiae with large curved tuft of hairs arising from an expansion of the margin. Veins R, and R; of forewings stalked either before, at, or after radio-median cross-vein. Vein M, of hindwings forms a distinct Y-fork with radio-median cross-vein. REVISION or tor AUSTRALIAN GHOST MOTHS (LEPIDOPTERA HOMONEURA, FAMILY HEPIALIDAE) PART 11,” By NORMAN B.TINDALT, BoSe., Saunt Ausreanian Museum. Fig, 1-92. Oncoprrna Walker. Oneapera Walker, List Lep. Tus. Brit. Mus, vil, 1840, p. 1958. Oncoplera Meyriek, Proe. Linn. Soe. N.S. Wales, iv (2), 1889, p. 1124. Oncopera ver and Traner, Proe. Linn. Soe. NS. Wales, i, 1925, p. 272. Antennae of few seements, usually from fourteen to twenty, very short, less than one-sixth leneth of forewing, abnost eyvlindrieal, either swelling gradually towards the apex to form a club, or filamentous; a tuft of hairs on the basal seg- ment projects over the eyes, The labial palpi only moderately developed, slender, projected straight forwards, concealed in dense hairs, the maxillary palpi short, obsolete, and concealed. Males with hind tibiae with large eurved tuft of hairs arising from an expansion of the margin. Veins Ry and R5 of forewings stalked either before, at, or after radio-mecian eross-vein. Vein My of hindwings forms a clistinet Y-fork with radio-median cross-vein. Genotype: O. miricala Walker, 1896. Meinbers of this genus are easily distinguishable from all other genera of the family by the short subelavate or filamentous antennae and by the tibial hair- tufts of the males. At least twelve species are known. They range from Tasmania novthward to Kuranda in North Queensland and westward as far as Mount tumbier in South Australia. Most of the species are grass feeders in the larval state and are potentially harmful to pastures, At least two species, O. wufocera Tableland and O. ¢nfrdeata in Tasmania are major fann pests. on the Atherton Other species have been recorded as injuring grazing lands in the wetter parts af Vietoria. The distribution of the members of the genus (fig. 1) Hes entirely within the belt of (hirty-inch annual uniform rainfall, and each species appears to be re- (1) Part L, published in Ree. S. Aust. Mus., iv, 1932, pp. 497-5386. 14 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM stricted within relatively narrow general limits of climate. That temperature is an important factor seems to be confirmed by the study of the range of O. albo- qauitata which oceurs near sea-level at Svdney at the southern end of its range, again at some elevation in the Dorrigo distriet, about three hundred miles further north, and at 38,000 feet in the National Park in southern Queensland. © wesewcees + OF parva ~po-o-- 0. alpina . 0. rufobrunnes - O. faseieutita neers O. argentata ©. bracty phy ths ----— = O. mitocera O. intricoides O. alboguttata O. intricata mnen-u-n-e O. brunneata O. epariyra Pig, 1. Distribution of the species of Oncopera, Four species appear to be present on the Atherton Tableland; two of them have been deseribed from unlocalized specimens labelled ‘‘ Cairns District,’ Jut it appears probable that they were not collected on the lowlands. The presence or absence of a saceulus in the male genitalia might be used to divide the genus into two sections, (a) a northern one embracing O. witocera, O. parva, Ov argentala and O. brachyphylla and (b) a southern one containing the TINDALE—AUSTRALIAN GHOST MOTHS 15 other seven species. O. parva, O. argentata, and O. brunneata are linked by the conuMon possession of specialized white scales on the mundersides of the hindwings. The form of the cighth sternite tends to link O. ntlocera and O. brunneata, species Otherwise quite apart. R, Re S (A 1A Cum Cus NRT Vig. 2.) Oncopere fasciculata (Walker) Venation, male, The form of the antennae proyides a natural subdivision of the gents. Clavate antennae are characteristie of the tvpieal subgenus (with O. infricata as type); this contains all of the southern species (Vietoria, Tasmania and alpine New South Wales) O. fasciculata. O. alpina, O. intricoides, and O. rufobrunned. The subgenus Paroncopera subgen. nov. (with O. nuifocera as type) contains the other seven species, including O, albaguttata, O. brunneata, O. brachyphylla, O. parva, O. argentata, and O. epargyra. They are characterized by possessing’ filamentous antennae, usually clothed with large fattened seales. O. albofasciata, mm the sum of its characters probably stands as the most 16 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM eeneralized member of a specialized genus; it has links on the one hand with O. brachyphylla and O. mitocera and also, somewhat less obviously, with the typical subgenus. Philpott (2) fioured as characteristic of the genus the venation of an example of O. milucera in which Ry of forewing forks with R; distally fvom the radio- median eross-vein. This must be exeeptional even within the species, for in {wenty-two out of twenty-three examples examined for this character, if appears to branch at the eross-vein. The character may be a variable oue for in O. alha- quétate the fork may be either before, at, or well after the eross-vem. Tn all members of the typieal subgenus and in O. branaenla, however, the forking is well before that vein. Kor the detailed study of the members of this genus wenitalia preparations are useful. Owing to its lower refractive index choral hydrate is preferable to balsain as a temporary mounting medinm. Type preparations should be sub- sequently remoiunted in balsam for permanent storage. The eharaeters of the vinenlin, harpe, teeumen and eighth sternite are of special naportance. The juxta is offen not well chitinized aml is diffienlt to examine without dissection, In O. jadricaides and O. rufobrunne it is folded dawn so as to appear transverse. In O. alpine this does not appear to happen. When detached if is seen to he broadly concave on the posterior margin in the last-awmed species, with an obseure median noteh. In the two former species it is then longer than wide. shehtlhy convex on posterior margin, which bears an acute median notch, For material for the study of the members of this genus | am particularly indebted to Messrs. G. FL TN and A, Tonnoir, of the Entomological Division, C.S.0R.. and to Mr. CG. L. Goodie, of Moe, who made special collections. Key to TH Srecies OF ONCOPERA. (basecl on male genitalia) a. Saeculus absent (a saccular lobe sometimes present). hb, Vinenlum with heavily ehitinized portion wider than lone be i, “3 us .. dntrteata bh. Vineulum with heavily chitinized portion loneer than wide, e, Harpe with shaft neither dilated nor stronely bent at one half, d. Tegumen with mesal processes broadly tri- angular, acutely temuinated, marginal armature almost obsolete +b .. fasciculata (2) Philpott, Trans, Hint. See, Lond., 1925, pl. ii, TINDALE—AUSTRALIAN GHOST MOTHS dd. Tegumen with mesal processes not broadly triangular, but blunt -pointed and armed with conspicuous mareinal den- ticles. « Denticles of tezumen acute. f Juxta with ventral margin not broadly concave. e. Highth sternite with protuberance obsolete... “. fs 2 rhfobrmenned eo. Kiehth sternite with well-devel- oped protuberance bs .. Mlricoides Mf. Juxta with ventral margin broadly concave ie as Pac .. alpina ee. Denticles of tegument rounded. . .. Mboguttata ee, Harpe dilated and stronely bent at one half .. branneata aa. Saeculus present. h. Saeculus short .. Le ie J. Le brdehyphylla hh. Saeceulus lone. 1. Teoumen tunarmed, j. Base of harpe slender... +4 L. parne Jj. Base of harpe broad. k. Cueullus dilated apically .. .. argentala kk. Cueullus not dilated apieally Le CPAP Gyra i. Peeumen armed with denticles —.. .. netocera Kry To THE SPECIES OF ONCOPERA (based on general characters). a. Forewines with an inner marginal fascia. bh. Forewines with dull white markings forming a sub- reticulate pattern. ¢. Males. d. TWindwines with ciliae not unieolorous. «Abdomen and lees light fuseous , .. tnleteata ee, Abdomen and lees dark brown .. .. alpine dd. THlindwines with eiliae unieolorous .. .. dnlricaides ce. Hemates. f Wines broad .. be *, te .. intricoides rf. Wines narrow. eo, Markines obseure n- ns .. tntricata { faseteulata ‘) alpina bh. Forewines without dull white markings; males .. fasciculata aa. Korewines without inner mareinal fascia. h. Antennae elubbed. uw » Markings well defined i. Korewings brown; male. . s- on 2 rufobrunnen Hi. Korewines erey ; female L. 3 .. rufobriunnedt hh. Antennae not elubbed. 18 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM j. Males. k. Ilindwines beneath with dense silvery- white seales on posterior half, 1. Forewings with oblique o¢hreous-brown fascia from apex to two-thirds inner margin ; .. brunneata Hl, Forewings without oblique faseia. m. Hindwines above with auluer yt white seales .. . . argentala min, THindwings above withotit silvery- white scales... ' parva kk. Tlindwings beneath without silvery white seales. : . albaguitata n. Forewines pointed at apex J g | eparquyrd un. Rorewings not pointed at apex. 6. Forewines short and broad 2. brachyphylla oo. Porewings not short and broad .. anitecera jj. Females, \ bracnneata p. Expanse less than 45 mm, , | pared pp. Expanse greater than 45 mm. q. Forewings with numerous obsenre ocellate markings of small size ¢lbogultate qq. Forewines withont numerous ob- seure ocellate markings 2 niitacert ONCOPERA INTRICATA Walker. Fie. 3-11. Oncopera intricata Walker, List Lep. Ins. Brit. Mus., vii, 1856, p. 1559. Oncoplera intricata Meyrick, Proc. Linn, Soe., N.S. Wales, iv (2), 1889, p. 1124. Oncopera intricate TAM, Australian Couneil for Sei. and Indust. Researeh, pam- phlet 11, 1929, pp. 1-48, 1 plate (bionomies). 2 Antennae short, sunbelavate, usually of nineteen seements, elub apical. twice as wide as shatt, vellowish-brown; palpi with median segment relatively long and slender, more than twice as long as apical one; thorax dark Tuscous; head, abdomen, and legs light fuscous; tuft of hairs on posterior tibiae yery dense, light ochreous-brown in colour. Forewings hyaline, dark greyish-brown with a conspicuous intricate pattern of greyish-white lines obscured by ochreous and fnscous linear marks; beneath grey without pattern. Hindwings hyaline, dark erey, basal two-thirds of costal margin pale ochreous; ciliae white with darker todhibyakge line, veins dark grey. Beneath with apex of wings densely, elsewhere more scantily pubescent. Expanse, 37 mm. ? Head, thorax, and abdomen slightly more fuscous than in male, ore- TINDALE—AUSTRALIAN GHOST MOTHS 19 wings narrow and elongate, markings as in male but somewhat obsenred. Tind- wings rather uniformly dark grey, costa very narrowly ochreous, Expanse, AG mm. Loe, Tasmania: Scottsdale 1; Hobart 1; Snue River; Launeeston 2. 1) males, 9 females. Wig. 8-0. Oneopera intricata (Walker), Lett side; 8. male, Launceston; 4. type, a mate, Tasmania (in British Museum), Right side: 5, female, Scottsdale; 6, female, Seattsdale. The deserihbed male example (fig. 3) was taken at Lanneeston (Pebruary 7, 1902). It compares well with Walker's type example (fig. +) in the British Museunt. The latter cane from Van Dieman’s Land, and is one of sixteen exam- ined by him. The female (Scottsdale, January 31, 1927) deseribed and figured is of normal form and size (fig. 5); the other example is a dwarfed one taken ai the sume loeality a vear later (January 30, 1928). The male genitalia have the vinenulium wider than lone, with the median pro- eess distinetly transverse. ‘The teenmen has the eaudal margin produced into a broad fold; the mesal processes are armed with sharp saw-lke teeth. The harpe is without a sacentus, relatively broad, eurved and rounded at apex; it is well clothed with specialized hairs, short at apex, stout at base. The Sth sternite is rectangular and without a spine or protuberance, 20 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM The genitalia figured by Eyer and Turner (Proc. Linn, Soe. N.S. Wales, |, 1925, pl. xxsii, fig, 1) may belong to this species, but the form of the tegumen and {he spine-like anal process are not in elose agreement with any examples examined. Dr. Traner has been unable to vive me details of the provenanee of thei specimen, ~~ labial Palp antenna Wig, T-11, Oneopers intiieata (Walker). Scottsdale, 7. male genitalia: 8 eighth sternite ; antenna; T-11, palpi showing range of variation, O.intricata is veadily distinguishable from all the other species of the wens by the broad vinenhin of the male, with its ransverse median process, also by the compactness of the tibial hair-tilts aud the short, broad wings. The females have relatively lone, narrow wine's bearing marked traces of the male wine-pattern, There is only one other known Tasmanian species, O. rufobrunnea, trom whieh if is easily distinguished by its small size, short wings, and whitish reticu- latecl maarkine's. This speeies is a serious pest of the grasslands of Tasmania. Ou mixed Tari. ing land it attaeks permanent sown pastures, which normally beeome avatlable in the second year after planting, and remain profitable for from eight to twenty years. Under the present conditions such pastures are depleted of their best erasses in the second and third years and ave destroyed in the fourth, The adult emerges between the last week of Jaunary and the middle of Keb- ruary, The life-eyele and the habits of the adults have been deseribed by Lal, who has also published an account of experiments on methods of control, TINDALE—AUSTRALIAN GHOST MoTHS 2] ONcOPERA wascToULArTA (Walker). Wie. 12-19, Hepialus faseieuata Walker, Char, Undese. Lep. Iet., 1869, p. Gs. Oncoplera tiiricala Turner, Mem. Nat. Mtus. Melb. 4 1912, p. 1s. é Antennae subclavate, widest before apex. usually of 14-15 seeinents, apleal seoment slightly produced, palpi with median sewment stout, less thar twice as lone as third, apical segment long, Llead, thorax, abdomen, and legs ochreous- brown. Forewings bright opaque ochreous-brown with obseure darker infusea- flows; a subinateinal white streak from near one-fifth inner margin bordered! above with oehreous and below with black, forewing beneath ochreous-fuscous, Hindwines opaqie, vrevish-brown, with costa tinged ochreous from base to apes, beneath fiscous. Wxpanse, 44 man. Wig, 12-15, Oneopera faseientata (Walker). 12. male, Moe: 13. male. Gishoriie: 14. feniile, Moe; 14. female, Gishorne. 2 Lead and thorax grey, abdomen slightly paler. Forewings opaque, obscurely browatish-black with a well-developed intricate pattern of ochreous marks mareined with grevishawhite; a conspicuous streak at one-Afth inner mar- gin, as deimale. Tlindwines grey. Expanse, 50 nim. 22 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM Loc. Victoria: Moe 10; Gisborne 10; Leongatha 10; Caulfield ; Melbourne ; Paekenham. South Australia: Yahl Paddock near Mount Gambier 9, 50 males, 31 females. Wig. 16-19. Oneopera fascienlata (Walker). 16. uiale weuttaliag U7. eighth sternite; IS, Jabial palp; 19. antenna. The male and female examples deseribed and figured are both from Moe (October 9, 1929), and are typical of long series from the same logality. Walker's (ype, in the National Museum, which isa inale (not a female as described), awrees closely with the male deseribed above, The other pair figured are from Gishorne (October 19, 1922, and October 11, 1895). The male is somewhat darker and female lighter than usual. The male eenitalia are characterized by the long, slender vinculim, somewhat yariable, but often twice as long as wide; this bears a feebly convex median pro- cuss. The iesal processes of the tewumen are broadly triangular and acutely terminated, without or at most with obsolete armature; in lateral view the mesal process is broad and strongly convex on posterior margin. The harpe is simple, the apex slightly swollen, truncated, and sub-reetangular, a slight swelling or carina may be present in the position of the saceulus of some other species of the venus. The juxta. usually not well chitinized, is apparently transverse in ventral view. The eighth sternite bears a small hollow protuberance. In two unlocalized examples, typical in general appearance, the vineulum is as wide us in uormal O. rufobrunned. TINDALE AUSTRALIAN GITOST MOTHS 23 Mr. C. GL, Gooding made systematic collections of this moth at Moe in October, 1929, and his results incievate that the first examples emerged on Oeto- ber 4.) Males were then mueh more abundant than females. Males swarmed on the Tth and 9th. On the former night females were abseut, or ware, bit on the 9th they outnumbered the males. Tsolated female examples were eaptared om the 12th and 16th, and males on the 16th. Fron this it appears that the emergence period is a limited one, Ad Gisborne, in 1895. Females emerged on Oetober 11, in 1922 inales were taken abnndantly on Ovtober 19 and sparsely on the 25rd, One pair ol this species in the Lyell collection bears erroneous date labels, indicating January 15, 1920, as the time of capture, Mr. Gooding, tn 1928, sus- peeted that he had made an error in dating these, and by intensive collecting proved that the January form from the same locality is a distinct species. ONCOPERA RUFOBRUNNIEA Sp. LLOY, Wie, 20-92, 6 Antennae weakly sabelavate, widest before apex, clothed with line, seat tered, semi-ereet bairs. usually seventeenscemented, oehveous-browi; palpi with second sezment stout, third segment ovate. Plead. thorax, and abdomen oehreous fulyous, tibial phones somewhat lighter, Forewings hyaline, broad, dull reddish- brown with obseurve darker infuscations, beneath rey. Llindwines grey, costal margin rather broadly ochreous, Mxpanse., 47 aon. 9 Head, thorax, and abdomen fulvous. Morewines broad, liyaline, vether wiifomuly fiulvons, with numerous small, obscure, darker marks. Hindwines hvaline, wuformmly erey. Expanse, o7 mm, hoc. New South Wales: Lee Creck, ELC VT, 11, 12. Moe 1, 11, 12 (January IS and 16, 1930, C. G. Gooding, type, a male, and alletype female, 1, 18670, ins. Aust. Mus.) ; Healesyille 12; Leongatha 12; Hawthorn 11, 12; Dandenone Rane 12; Toora 12; Gisborne 12; Geclone; Caulfield; Meeuiyan 2. Tasmania: Tyenna 12; Hobart 123 Maria Ustiand 12. 129 males, 47 females, The type pair were taken in company with many others. The second pai figured are from Gisborne, captured on December 16, 1912, The wings of the Gisborne male are more oehreous in colour, the infuscations are less conspicuous. and the oehreous costal margin is broader. The female is lighter in colour, The third pair figured are Tasmanian; the male from TLobart in December, 1927, the female from Tvenna, Devember 8, 1920. The fourth pair showin ave a very dirk- coloured inale from Moe (Jantary 11, 1980) and a female from Tawthorn November 28, 1927). The latter emerged, before 7-45 pan,, from a bitfalo-grass lawn. Dy RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM The male genitalia have the vinculum longer than wide and posterior margin strongly and evenly convex. Tegnmen with mesal processes blunt-pointed, arnned with couspicuous medially directed acute denticles (fig. 29); the ventral margin Pig. 20-27. Oheopera rufobronica sp. muy, 20. Lype, a amide, Myey SL, nile, Gishorne 2) mule, Hobart; 23. male, grey form, Mee; 24. allotypu femme, Moe: 25. female, Gisborne: wr. “i. female, Lyemna; 27. temuile, Tawthorn, is well chitinized, Llarpe in yontral view eventy curved, slightly swollen at apex, in Jatteral view broadly flattened towards base; jrexta tramsverses not well ehitie ized at lateral margins. The ciehth stermite has the margin without or at most with an obsolete hollow protuberance. One aberrant male exatiple bears a stall sacendis on one harpe; this is absent on the other valve. The wenitalia figured are from an example from Lobart, TINDALE—AUSTRALIAN GHOST MOTHS 25 Mr. G. Lyell states that males of this species oevasionally come to lights at wight, The species is probably the most common one in eastern Victoria, and its range extends to Maria Island and Tasmania. Wig, 2882. Oneopera rufobrimied sp. ov. 28. male genitalia, Lobart; 29, ablique view af ferumeny al. cighth sternite, Moe; 1. antenna; 82. labial palp. Mr. G. Ff, Lill reared both sexes of the species at Leongatha and Lawthorn. Several pipal shells have been examined, but owing to the absence of adequate comparative material have not yet been deseribed. Tho mask may eventually be proved 10 @ive useful characters for the separation of the pupae of the different specles. ONCOPERA INTRIVOLDES Sp. nov. Hie, 33-3). @ Antennae with elub Jong contpared with shaft, a very sparse clothing of sub-ereet hairs, a basal tuft of very long hairs: usually composed of sixteen sew ments; apical segment twice as long as penultimate; palpi moderate, third sex ment Jong, truncated at apex. densely clothed with long hairs; head, thorax, abdomen, and legs dark-brown, tibial hair-tufts of posterior legs paler. Fore. wings rather broad, opaque, dark-brown with black scales, with irregular patter of ovhreous seales obscurely mareined with erevish-white; traces of an irregular fascia near base of inner margin bordered posteriorly with black; beneath pale erey without pattern. Tindwings rather uniformly dark-brown exeept near aper. Expanse, 42 mm. 26 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM 9 Worewings rather broad. opaque, the pattern similar to male; the faseia near base of inner margin is somewhat less conspicuous. Llindwings greyish- brown, ut costa narrowly yellowish; ciliae between veins tipped with dull white, at veins dark brown, Expanse, 56 mm. Wig. B8-86. Qaenpera inbricoides sp. wove Ba. hype, a mile, Moe; 34. male, Mov; 44. allotype female, Moe; 36. female, Moe. Loc. Vietoria: Moe 1,11. 12 (Deeember 28, 120, C. G. L, Gooding, type, a male, and allotype female, 1. 16671, in S. Aust. Mus.) ; Leongatha 12; Navracan 11: Caulfield; Toora 12, 25 males, 5 females. The amale genitalia have the vineulran longer than wide; the posterior margin is conyex. The tegumen has the mesal processes murrow, long, and blunt-pointed, the ventral margin armed with moderately conspicuous aeute dentic¢les ; the ven- tral margin is well chitinized, The harpe in ventral yiew is long and narrow, ‘ather strongly curved and somewhat truncated at apex, a Feeble ridge indicated by a line of hairs from base to two-thirds; juxta apparently transverse, posterior matein with a median notch. The figure of the genitalia is drawn from an ex ample from Leongatha (December 15, 1927), ti many examples the denticles of (egumen are absent from the inargin for a short distance from the apex. The type pair were taken together. Dates of capture of the series examined suggest that this insect is most abundant between December 15 anc 30, and that TINDALE— AUSTRALIAN GuHostT Motns 27 its emergence is limited to a few suitable nights during that period. Males con- tinne to emerge in January, and at Moe in 1980 a series was taken on, the 20th, In 1932 4 male was captured at Moe as early as November 29, Viv, 37. 87-39, Oneopera titricoides sp. diov., inale genitalia, Leongatha, 38. juxta ind trullewm; 8). cighth sternite, 40-41. 0. alpina sp. noy. 40. male genituling 21, juxta and trulleum, The status of this form has been diffieult to determine. Lts range extends over part of that of O. rufebrunnea, it oeeurs at about the sane season of the year and in the same veneral distriets. Tt is mueh rarer than that species, Mar, C. G. Gooding considers that the larvae may be found to thrive wider different soil conditions; he has noticed that some larvae oceur on well-drained hillsides in sandy soil, others ou the stiffer soil of the valley bottoms. In general appearance it is quite distinet from O. rufobrunnea. The abundantly marked wings, the sub- marginal fascia on hind margin of forewings, and the similarity of the sexes are well-marked characters, but the male evenitalia indicate rather close relationship. The presence of amarked protuberance on the eighth sternite is a distinet dilfer- ence: in O. rufobrunned (his is normally absent, but in a long series intererada- tious may occur, for there is an example in the series with a small but distine! process. An aberrant exaniple from Moe (November 29, 1932) has the vinenlum divided by a rounded anterior note into two lobes, ONUOPURA ALPINA Sp. Noy. Wie, 40-47. § Antennae short, clubbed, usnally of fifteen se@ments, clubbed portion long, one and a half times as wide as shatt, apical se@ment small, as wide as lone; 28 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MuseuM ochreous, densely clothed with flattened seale-like hairs. Palpi stout, niodian se@ment two and a half times as long as third, the latter sub-reetangular and aore than twice as long as wide, Ilead, thorax, abdomen, and legs dark brown. Fore wines opaque, dark brown with darker suffusions: a well-defined, irregular pat- fern of pale ochreous marks bordered with darker ocheeous and creaniy-w lite scales, sub-marginal fascia near base of inner margin well developed. Ciliae ochreous, at veins dark brown; wings beneath clothed with uniform grey lair. like seales. Elindwings greyish-brown, costa from base fo apex pale ovbreous; villae pale ochreous, at veins greyish-brown, lxpamse, 35 ru, @ Antennae similar to male, pale ochveous; bead, thorax, abdomen, aie lows pale o¢hreous-grey. FBorewings dark grey with greyish-white patterm similis to that of male. Tindwings vrey, paler near base. Hxpanse, 41 ait. fo nebulose form noy. Shuilar to typieal form. Forewings dull oeltveotis- brown with the markings obseured. Hlindwings as in typieal fori. Hxpaaiuse, SO uu. Loe. New South Wales: Mott Koseiuska 12 (Deeember 7, 1922. G. M. Gold- fitch ; type, a male, in Goldfinch collection; allolype female, at 5,000 feet, Decem- ber A-10, 1921, £18672, in S. Aust. Mus.). 8 amales, 1 femate. fo nebulosa, Mount Kosciusko, 5,000 feet, 12 (lype, a male, Lo s673, ins. Aust. Mus.), 3 males. The series examined were all taken by Messrs. G. M. Goldfinch amd uA. -1, Nicholson at 5,000 feet on Mout Kosemsko, between December 3 ane TO, 127, and on December 7 of the following vear. Associated with the typical examples were several males with (he forewing markings obscured and suffused with o¢hreous-brown, (hus resembling im general appearance chwarted examples of Oo rufobrwnned. tu the strietures of the weni- talia they agree closely with typical O. afping, and Gan therefore be treated onty asa form or variety. Mr. Goldfinch writes with vegared to this species: *'E have no doubt thet the vamous forms represent only one species, They were all taken at the lights ou the verandab of the hotel, but T bave found examples hiding for shelter wader bark iid logs in cold weather. Empty pupal cases whieh, | have little doubt, belony to this species are not infrequently seen projecting from tufts of snow e@rags.”' The wale eonitalia have the vineulum longer than wide; the posterior mare is transverse or very shehtly rounded. The tegumen has the ventral marein wi- folded and relatively lightly chitinized, the downward tilt of the posterior par- lion, as viewed from the ventral aspeet, causes it Lo appear Like an anal spine or proeess; (he mesal processes are blunt-pointed and armed with Conspicuous may einal acutely-pointed denticles. The harpe is without a saeeulus ane is relatively TINDALE—AUSTRALIAN GHOST MOTHS 29 broad aud evenly enrved: fhe apex is shvltly inflated and triueated, The jraoxta is as wide as lone; the lateral margins are coneave, The trnileune is rectangular, Big, 42-47, 4244. Oneopera alpina sp. wove 42. males; 4a. type, a male; 44. allotype female AAT. Goalping f webulosa form noy. 45. type, a male; 40-47, males, Mt. Mosciusia. The eenitala figure is drawn from the type example. Ever and Turner’s fiewre (fae eth, ploxxxil, fie 1), aserthed te O. dlricata, may have been based on an example of this species. The posterior portion of the tegmmuen appears from eertain aspects to be like a true anal process. Dr. Trrmer has been mwnable to trace details as to the loeality of his cisseeted specimen, so that the matter is invonelisive, The species differs fram QO. ai/eieaia in the form of the yinewlium of the male maudlin the colour of the body and wings. From O. rvfobrimnea it is distmeuished by the presence of a marked submarginal fascia near base of inner margin, From male O, pririeaides it differs in the smaller size, the varieoloured ciliae of hind Wings, and the Form of the juxta and tesiunen., The female O. intiieaides is larger and has broader wings, 30 RECORDS OF THE S,A. MUSEUM ONCOPERA (PARONCOPERA) ALBOGUTTATA Sp. HOV. Fig. 48-60. Oneopera mitocera Turner, Proce, Linn, Soe. N.S. Wales, 1, 1925, p. 272, pl. xxxil, fic. 2 (nee Turner, 1911), a Antennae short, not markedly elubbed, brown, usually cighteen-seg- mented, a long tuft of hairs at base. TTead, thorax, and logs brown, abdomen ereyish-brown, Forewings pointed, almost subfaleate, pale brown with small Fig, 48-55, Oncopera alboguttata ap. noy. AS. type, a male, Killara; 49. male, Killarn; 50. male, reddish ochreous form, Nillara; 41, male, National Park, Queensland; 452. allotype female, Killara; 53. female, Killara; 54. female, Killara; 35. male, National Park, Queensland. TINDALE—AUSTRALIAN GHOST MOTHS 3) irrewular spots of darker colonr; a gronp of three submarginal ereyish-white spots near oue-third inner inarein partly surrounded Iny black scales, a vroup of two similar discoidal spots near base of My; beneath grey. Tlindwings ervey, apex broadly and costa narrowly brown as on forewings, base white. Expanse. 40 mm, @ PRorewings less acute at apex than ti male, termen strongly rounded, pale hrown with very scattered darker flecks, Traees of markings near one-third juner marvin, also dications of subterminal and diseoidal dark brown marks. Ulind- wings as in male, base of wings dull erevish-white. lExpanse, 48 moi. Loc. New South Wales: Killara 2 (Febrnary 12. 1928, G. AL Waterhouse, type, amale, mid allotype female, Bebruary 26, 1928, 1. 18674, in S. Aust. Mus.) ; Ash Island; Deo Vale 1; Dorrigo 1.2. Queensland: National Park (2,000 feet) 1,172. 25 males, 7 females, The pair deserihed above are very typieal, Both sexes are variable, Fie. 50 depicts a male example from Killara (Bebrnary 12, 1928), taken with the type, in which the markings ave almost obsolete and the head, thorax, and forewines are bright reddish-ochreous. Sueh ruddy oexiumples are common at Dorrigo, In other male examples Cig. 51) the eround colotm remains as in the typieal form, but the white marks become obsolete. Some fenales (fig, 48-54) are heavily infuseated ; in such cases the tiny fleek-like spots may stand out as dark-centred brown oeelli- form marks, Male genitalia with yineuhun longer than wide; the mareinal and less heavily chitinized portion sometimes broad ; posterior marein strongly and evenly convex, Tegrimen with mesal processes blant-pointed, armed with conspicuous rounded dentieles, which vontinne along ventral margins of teewmen te one-half: anal portion strongly chitinized, appearing as a rounded prominenee. Larpe loug and curved, outer margin somewhat irregular, saceulis absent: a well-ehitinized sae- cular lobe at one-half. -fixta as wide as long, lateral mareins coneave. Biehth sternite longer than wide, the posteriar exiremity narrowed and stronely ehitin- ized asa blunt process, The genitalia figure was drawn from an ¢xaniple taken in the National Park. Queensland, in January, 1928, Disseetions show that the posterior imarein of the yvinewhun in this species is evenly convex and that the ei@hth sternite is pro- dieed tito a bhmt posterior process. This latter feainre was interpreted as a “prominent median prowess’? of the yvinewkhon by Eyer and Turner (lee eft. p. 203). The species was taken by Seott at Ash Tslind many years ago, but the speci Inens remained undeseribed. Dr GQ. A. Waterhouse, who eapiured it in his warden at Killara on Bebrnary 12, 1928, writes: ‘1 was out at the back of my house just at dusk, and saw numbers of the Qneaperd flying at one spot. L canes 32 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MuSEUM oneand. . . saw that it was not the common Mepialid, For the next week Twas na at home or it was raining very hard. . . . After T had set the others jon February 22 and 26) T caught two whieh [ think ave the females of the same ’ species.”’ In 1929 he wrote: ‘Last year on the day I collected the eight speci- mens... they were exceedingly common, and | caught them all within a few minutes... . This year they are almost absent. On 17th February, with Gold- finch, we got fwo only, and may have seen another two. On the 19th February. thongh | waited from just before dusk until dark, T saw none. On the 22nd 1 caught the only two examples seen. On the 24th | caught one and may have seen another, They are not on the wing until 6.50 pau, and it hecomes too dark to see ” them atter 7 p.m. Wie, 56-68, S660, Oneapera athaguttata spo nove 36. male genitalia, National Park, (uecnshuul; 57. juxta; 5S. eighth sternite; Of. antennas; GO. labink palp. G1-05. Oneoperd hrinnedta sp. nov. Gl. male genitalia, Mt. Pomah 62. juxta; 65. cighth sternite. Turner apparently sent Queensland National Park specimens of this species to Eyer under the name O. mifocera. Examination of the type of the latter has since shown that the present species is a distiuet one, and that true O. werloeera has a well-defined sacenlus somewhat similar to that of O. epargyru. In the form of the wings this species is related to O. epargyra, The white base to the hindwings links it with O. brachyphylla, from which it differs inark- edly in wing-form aud in the absenee of sa¢eulus in the male. By the latter character it is allied te the southern O. 7ntricata eroup of species, but differs fron TINDALE—AUSTRALIAN GHOST MOTHS 33 all of them in the form of the genitalia, wines, and antennae. The life-history is quite unknown. Oxncopera (PARONCOPHRA) BRUNNEATA Sp. TOY. Fig. 61-65. @ Antennae short, not chibbed, relatively sinooth, a marked tuft of hairs ao base. Tlead aud thorax greyish-brown; lees @reyish-brown, posterior pair ornamented with tufts of lone bright oehreous hair. Forewings short, broad, Ry and Rs branching well before radiozanedian cross-vein, brown with miumerous black seales, an oblique ochreous-brown faseia from near apex to two-thirds inner marein, obseure pale brown markings along costa, termen with obseure oelreous Big. G45, Oneopera brinncate sp. nev. G4. paatype male, Mb. Tonuil; 65, atloty pe female, Eber. suffusion, traces of ochreous blotches near base of wing, beneath uniformly grey. Hindwines rather uniformly grey, costa near apex rather narrowly barred with paler grey; beneath with apical (hird grey, posterior part of wing clothed with specialized silvery-white scales, Expanse, approx, 33 mm. 9 Antennae asinainale. ILead, thorax, and legs pale greyish-brown. Fore- wines rather lone and narrow, grey with a few obscure darker scales. no definite traces of pattern, Hindwines uniformly erey; hencath grey; no traces of silvery seales of male, Kxpanse, 34 mm. Loc. New South Wales; Mount Wilson 1 (ype, a male, January 11, 1929, A.J. Nicholson, 1. 18675, in S. Anst. Mus.) ; Mount Tomah 12; bor 12 (Decem- her 27. 1911, RT, Tillyard, allotvpe female, in Lyell coll). 2 males, 1 female. The dates of captive ranee from Deeenther 27 to January 11. The female from Khor is worn, and as it was aot taken with the male is associated with some 34 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MusSEUM slight hesitation. In its diminutive size and in the form of the antennae it agrees quite well with the other examples. The male genitalia have the yinenhim wider than long, markedly V-shaped, with the posterior margin somewhat concave. The tegumen has the ventral mar- gin (shown in lateral view in the figure) undulate and produced into a large rounded lobe, The harpe is long, dilated, especially near base, sharply angled at one-half, and inflated at apex, The juxta is in the fomm of an inverted T, and is Jouger than wide. The eighth sternite is as long as wide, and is armed with a consplenous median process. The possession of a process on (he eighth sternite links this speeies with 0. mifocera, from which it is otherwise cistinet, The presence of specialized dense silvery-white seales on the posterior half of the underside of the hindwings allies itwith OL argentata and O. pared, from beth of which it is distinet in the presence ofan oblique fascia from uear apex to two-thirds timer marein, Ma. G. M. Goldfinch has taken an example of this species, and has forwarded the following notes :*' Mounts Wilson and Tomah... are only a few miles apart, and both are eapped with basalt. The country is a rain forest area. The males fly ata ereat mate two or three inches abowe the eround in the serub elearings, al late cask, and are most difficult to sce and catch, One is aware that something dark is flying. . 2. T noticed that the specimen T finally ecanght hac a detinite track past dhe base of a small tree, and after several cunsnecessful attempts secured it.’? ONCOPERA (PARONCOPERA) BRACHYPHYLLA Tuner. Bie. 66-72. Oneopera brachyphylla Turner, Proc. Linn, Soe. N.S. Wales. 1, 1925, p. 273, pl. xxxul, fig. 3. é Antennae not clubbed, dark brown, smooth, a conspienous tuft of hairs from base, apex acute. TTead, thorax, and legs brown, posterior pair paler, with moderately developed oehreous tibial hair-tuft; abdomen greyish-brown. Kore- wings short, broad, with Ry and R; branchine just before radio-median eross- vein, brown with some seattered black seales; an irregular white discal mark at two-thirds, conneeted by an oblique white fascia with three-fourths inner marein ; traces of a subterminal ¢rey line at one-half. internal to whieh there is an irregn- Jar black bloteh; beneath uniformly dull brown, costa narrowly tinged oehreous. Hindwings, except at base, uniformly brown above and below. base obscured dull white. Hxpanse, 85 mm, 9 Wnknown. TINDALE—AUSTRALIAN GHOST MOTHS 35 Loe. WWerberton 1.2; Avelyn Serub 2; Kuranda; Cairns district, 12 males. The desevibed male example (fig. 67) is one from Kyelyn Serub, February, 1911, A second example (fie. 66) bas the forewings uniformly ochreous-brown with the white markings obsolete. In a third the white markings are alsa obso- lete, but the apical half of the wing is obscurely and irregularly blotehed with paler ochreous scales (ig. 68). Ina fourth the vround-colour is paler oehreous- brown, with a broad irreeularly-defined silvery-white streak from base to near one-half inner marvin aud a narrow cliseal streak from near base to three-fourths, where if is expanded to form an irreeular blotehed mark (fig. 69). An example of the type series from Evelyn Sevib hits also been examined, The wenitalia have heen detached from this specimen, so that it is probably the one studied by Eyer, Mig, G60. Oncopera brachuplhylla (Turner). G0. male, Herhertan; 67. male, Evelyn Serub: G8. male, Terbertean; §9. wale, Kursiada. The male eenitalia have the yineulun long and narrow, with the thinner lateral parts poorly developed; the posterior margin is slightly convex, The fewtmen has long, nmmarmncd inesal processes. The harpe is long and slender, has a narrow base, a short blunt sacculus, and a long enrved eneullus. The juxta is wider than lone, the anterior margin transverse, the other margins concave. The ciehth sternite is about as wide as Joug, with the posterior margin strongly CONCAVE, The short, broad wings and compact form of this species is characteristic; in this respeet i shows some relationship to large examples of OQ. pareve and to 0, 36 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MuskuUM argentata, |talso resembles these two species in the wnarmed margin of the tegu- nen with ifs long mesal process, but differs from them in possessing a reduced sacetilus. Krom both of them i may also be distinguished by the uniformly brown hindwings and the absenee of {he specialized white scales beneath. The late Mr, A. M. Lea found this species flying in the twilight of the rain forest before dusk. The type specimens were taken by Mr. K.P. Dodd in the Evelyn Scrub. It seems possible that the larvae recorded hy Atherton as feeding ou fallen leaves (see reference under O. mitocera) inay belony to this species, Te SAV 5 “Larvae in the rain forest live in burrows with unprotected entrances. [ere they feed on fallen leaves, in particular those of the strangling fig (probably Micus Wathinsonit), These fallen leaves, though yellow to some extent, are usnally sucentont for some tine after they fall to the round ; but dey leaves and ever soft , wood may be taker by the insect ONCOVERA (PARONCOPERA) PARVA sp. nov. Wie, 75-76, 79-81. § Antennae short, slender, smooth, not clubbed. a tutt of short hairs tron base. TTead and thorax pale brown, legs paler, posterior pair with long, well. developed tibial hair-tufts. Forewings shehtly pointed at apes, Ry and R- branching at radio-median cross-vein, pale brown with o¢hreous and ereamy-white seales forming an obseure sulfusion alone costal margin and on apieal third of wing. Hindwings greyish-brown, costa and apex rather broadly ereamy-white heneath with apieal third chill brown, posterior two-thirds and base elothed with dull white seales, FExpanse. 30 tin. 9 Antennae short, dark brown; head. thorax, and abdomen dull fulvous. Borewings relatively long and narrow, dull greyish-brown with some paler seales, pattern obsolete. Tindwings pale brown, costa narrowly eream, beneath rmi- formly pale brown. Expanse, $+ an. Loe, Queensland: Cairns district (ALM. Lea, type, a male. and allotype female, 1. 18676, in S. Aust. Mus.). 3 males. 7 female. Two males and a female were taken tovether by the late Mr. A.M. Lea. The female example is rather worn, A third inale (fig. 81). from the Lower eollee- tion. is larger (35 mm.), and differs from the typical form in possessine a broad ereamy-white mark parallel to hind maven and extendine to one-half, also a trirrower discal stteak fron near base to three-fourths, and a rounded yellow spot at twothirds inner margin, The posterior wines are similar to the typical form. The male venitalia haye the vineulum somewhat broad and the posterior TINDALE--AUSTRALIAN GHOST Mortirs 37 margin convex. The tegumen has the mesal processes relatively lony, slender. and wnariued; in lateral yiew they are only slightly aneled at their juncture with main body of texmmen, The harpe is lone and narrow at the base. the sae- culus is long and aente, the eneullus strongly angled at two-thirds. The juxta is subrectangtlar and longer than wide, Wig. 70-78, 70-72 Oneopera brachyphylla (Turner), 70, male genitaling 71. juxta; 72. vighth sternite. 74-76 0. parca sp. nov, 73. male genitalia; 74. bateral aspeet of portion of legumen; 75. harpes 76. justi, 77-78. O. argentata sp. nov, 77. lateral aspect of portion of teyumen; TS. arpe, This species resembles O. braancela in the underside of the hindwings and in the form of the wings of the female, but differs widely in (he form of the male venitalia and in wing markings. From O. brachyphylla it is distinet in the lone. slender mesal processes of tegiumen, the long sacculus, rectangular juxta, and in the presence of specialized dull white scales on the underside of the hindwings. From the next species (O. argentata) it differs in the proportions of the harpe and in the absence of silvery-white seales on the base of the hindwings. 38 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM The exact localities of the types of this and the following species were not indicated by the late Mr. A. M. Lea, all the insect material he collected daring his visit to North Queensland in the year 1912 being labelled simply ‘‘ Cairns Dis- 1 ivict.’? This obseures the relationship between the warm temperate fauna of the highlands and the coastal tropical species which he then collected. The following principal collecting dates and locations may serve ultimately as chies to the real distribution of some of the species : Cairos: February 12-18, 19-20; Mareh 16-17, melnding attempts to visit Green Island; Mareh 29. Very little collecting was done. Kuranda: February 14; Mareh 11-13; small collections only. Nelson: February 15-19; Marel 14-15, 18-20, 28. Large collections. Athertou: Pebrnary 21-26. Abundance of insects of all kinds, Tolga: February 26. Brief visit. Malanda: February 26 to March 1, Good collecting. Yungaburra: Mareh 2.) Brief visit, Chumbrumbra: March 3. Brief visit. Peeramon: March 4-5, Brief visit, Kulara: Mareh 6-7, 9-10, Extensive collections, Sharp’s Siding (Yungaburra): Marek 7-8. Good collections, llarvey Creek, at base of Belenden Ker: Mareh 20-27, Large collections. Edge Hill, near Cairns: Mareh 50.) A brief visit only. ONCOPERA (PARONCOPERA) ARGEN'TATA Sp. NOV. Me. 77-78, 82. ¢ Head and thorax ocvhreous-brown. Forewines with Ry and Rs branebiny just before radio-median cross-vein, dull brown, costa ear base pale oclreots with traces of brown spots near apex, whole of diseal region from base to three- fourths clothed with specialized cream-tinged silvery-white scales; beneath mni- formly dull brown. Llindwings dull brown, apex broadly, fermen and vets narrowly pale oehreous, discoidal region narrowly and base broadly elothed with silvery-white seales; beneath with costal third dull brown, posterior portion dull white, HExpanse, 36 mm. Loe. Queensland: Cairns district (A, M. Lea, type, [. 18677, in S. Aust. Mus.). 1 male. The wale genitalia are somewhat similar to those af O. parva; the larpe lias the base very broad, the sacenlis almost as long as cneullus; the enenllus short, bent, and inflated at apex. The mesal processes of (egumen are unarmed; in lateral view they are strongly angled at juneture with main body of tegumen., TINDALE—-AUSTRALIAN GuostT MoTHS 39 In the form of the male genitalia this species appears to be most nearly te lated to O. epargurd, but it differs from the published figure and description in possessing an apically dilated cueullis. The form of the median process of the tevumen also appears to be different. Mig, TU-S2. TO-81. Oncopera parca sp. noy, 7, type, a male, Cairns district: 80. allotype femme, Coins distriet; SL male, Cains district. 82. 0. argentala sp.nov. type, a inae, unique, Cairus district. At first sight it is very close to O. parva, bit the different harpe, stout, bent mnesal process of tegmmen, ane the silvery-wlite scales on hindwings are dis- linctive. ONCOPRERA (PARONCOMERA) HPARGYIA Tupier, Oncopera cpargyra Turner, Prog. Linn, Soe. N.S. Wales, 1, 1925, p. 278, pl. xxxii. fig. +b, “Valves with sacentis narrow and acutely pointed, almost as lone as cucul His, @ueuliis less broad than in breach yphaylla, not diated apieally ; eighth sternite shuttlecock-shaped, upper angles projecting: vinculiu broad. not cniareinate, without median process; aedeagus a somewhat oval plate.” Loc. Queensland: National Park, 3,000 feet) 12. This species was deseribed from two examples taken in tle National Park, Queensland. The type has not been exantined, but Dr. Turner has kindly for- warded the second specimen for study. This unfortunately proves to belong to a different species (OQ. d/boguttafa), in which there is no sacentus. Eyer and Tur- 40 ReEcorRbDs oF THE S.A. MUSEUM ner’s figure and the description of the genitalia iu their key (loe. eit., po 272) should be sufficient to determine the species when further material is available. OnoorbkA (PARONCOPERA) MITOCERA (‘Tuner ), Fig. 83-92. Oncoptera witucera Turner, Amn. Queensl Mas., 1911, p. 182. Oncopera mitocera Armivillins, Arkiv, f. Zool., Stockholm, 18 (2), 1920, p. 45. Oneopera uifocerd al. suffusa Aurivillius, doe. cif. Oneopera inttocera ab. lineata Murivillius, lac, eth, Oncopera mitocera ab. otlata Murivillius, foe. crf. Oncopera aittocera Philpott, Trans, New Zeal. Tnst., 97, 1926, p. 725, fig. 15 (maxilla). Oncopera cpargyra Philpott, Trans. Mat. Soe, Lond., 75, 1927, pl. 1, fig.) Ceeni- talia). Oncopera udlocera Atherton, Grass pests of the Atherton tableland, pamphlet, 8 pp., Dept. Avricultnre. Qieensland, Noy, 1931. p. 3d Cbionomies). & Antemmae short, slender, not clibbed, elothed with flat seale-Like hairs, a tult of long hairs at base, usually twenty segments. Lead, dhorax, and lows ochreous-brown, abdomen darker, Forewines with Ry and Rs branching at sadio-anedian cross-vein; brown with obsolete traces of a subterminal oblique fascia from cise to two-thirds inner margin. Lindwings grey, apex paler, costa narrowly ochreous, beneath grey near apex, base and portion of posterior halk of wing with dill white specialized seales. Pxpanse, 44 mm, 9 Head, thorax. and lees dull ochreous brown. Forewines pale ochreous with darker brown seales forming an obscure pattern, Tlindwines dull ereyish-brown, at apex irregularly paler, giving a dappled effect; wings below uniformly dull brown. Expanse, 55 min. Loe. Queensland: Kuranda + (type, a male, April, L907, in Turner coll.) ; Lerberton 2; Cairns. 25 males, 11 females. Dr. Tarner’s type example has been deseribed anc figured, The second male specimen differs in possessing a dull white subterminal fascia somewhat expanded in diseoidal region, and an equally well-defined white streak nearly parallel to the inner margin and extending from the base to the subterminal faseia. The female deseribed was taken by Ma. F. P. Dodd at the same place as the type, in April, 110. The second female is an example from Cairns in the Macleay Museum. [1 is of a somewhat duller brown than the first one, and may possibly not belone to the species; it differs in that Ry and Rs branches well after the vadio-median cross-vein, TINDALE. -AUSTRALIAN GHOST MotTHs 4] The male vouitalia have the vineulim strongly V-shaped; the thinky ebitin iged marginal parts are broad; the posterior margin shehtlhy concave. Teeren with yentral margins inflated, strongly amned with denticles from mesal process nearly to anal extremity. Llarpe stout at base, with lone, acutely-pointed sac- eulus present ; cucullus slender. curved, slightly inflated at apex. -huxta about as wide as long, anterior marein slightly econeave, posterior notehed, lateral mareius deeply coneaye. Highth sternite armed with a stout median process. Pip, RSS, Oneopera mitocera (Turner), S84. types i mele, Ruranday; $4. male, Nuraaila: So. Comite, Kuranda; 86. female, Cairns. Three forms or aberrations of the male of this species haye been deseriber by Auvivillius but have not yet been recoenized amongst our material ; f suffuso Aurivillius, ‘SAlae antiewe supra ochraceae fasens tribus irreen- laribus fusco-briunneis, ad mareingin posticm ceonjunetis costam autem hand alingentibus ornatae; fasciae duae primae latae, terlia submareinalis aneustior ef prope medium excurvara, omnes eubtis parvis uiveis irrevularifer conspersac.” I! fineata Avrivillos. Alae anticae supra subaequaliter fusco-brunneo-et ochraceo-yarievatae, inter meareinen posticum et costam 7 linea postdiseali undu- Jala pivea fusco mareinata ornatae.”? fooitlata Avpivillins. ‘SAlae antieae supra brunneo-ochraeeae vitta median fere a bast acl apieem cellnlae et deinde in plagam magnam apicen et aneulam posticum versus dilatata ornatae.’? 42 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MusEUM These three male forms were taken at Malanda, Queensland, in association with normal examples. In the absence of figures itis not possible to state whethe: they are colour forms of O. neifocerda ov separate species, 7 Pig, 87-02. Oneopera mitoceva (Turner), ST. male genitalia; SS. juxtus 88. ciphth sternite; 90, labial palp, showing rudimentary masxilkury qadps H4. antenna; 92, an antennal seule. This species is of considerable cvonomic importance, owing to tts depreda- Tableland iu jions, in the larval state, pon the pasture lands of the Atherton North Queensland. Some details of the life-history ave known, Aceording 10 Atherton, who has made some interesting observations, Oncopera moths are on the wing between January and April. Egys are distributed freely among the grass, and larvae may be collected from July to December; when full grown they attain a leneth of over Sem. ‘Pupation takes place in the larval burrow from Decem- her to March at a depth of 4 to G inches... . The... vertical burrows excavated by the grubs may be from less than 6 inches to more than 15 inches in depth, the last 3 or 4 inches beine unlined with sill. The larvae may construct a chamber in the burrow just below the surface of the ground, whieh possibly facilitates turnine when excavations ave iu progress. ‘Che soil is apparently collected from the base of the extending Murrow and held in the mouth parts as the larva hacks into the chamber, in whieh it turns before carrving the bnrden ontside. . 2. [tis commonly found that in pastures with a fairly long growth . . . the larva builds TINDALE—AUSTRALIAN GHOST MOTHS 43 a sort of anteroom over its burrow . . . brought to within } inch of the surface, and there flared out like the top of a test tube. Built over the top of this is a covering consisting of pieces of earth and dead erass. . . . The whole of the cavity is lined with silk, and a passage-way of similar material leads away from it ina horizontal direction. ’’ On general grounds it is tempting to disagree with Atherton’s conelusions (not quoted here), which suggest that O. mitocera was originally a rain-forest dweller, with a dead-leat-eating larva, and that its attacks on pasture grasses are an induced habit brought about by the clearing of the jungle and the destruction of its normal food. Tt seems possible that the observed differences of habit between the grassteeding larvae which build an ante-room to their silk-lined burrow, and the rain-forest-dwelling, dead-leaf-eating larvae with an unprotected entrance to the burrows, are of a specific nature. REMARKS ON THE NEW HARPID (MOLLUSCA) GENERA OF FINLAY AND IREDALE By BERNARD C. COTTON AND NELLY HOOPER Woops, M.A. Summary The two papers referred to in this article are: Finlay : Trans. N. Zeal. Inst., 1xii, May 23, 1931, pp. 11-14. Iredale : Rec. Aust. Mus., xviii, No. 4, June 29, 1931, pp. 230-231. In these works, published within a month of each other, two leading Australasian conchologists express their views on the generic location of some dozen species of the family Harpidae. As we have the type specimens of ten of these comparatively rare forms, we take this opportunity of making clear some of the complications which have ensued. Finlay proposes to use three genera, Iredale four, the latter all new and three without a description. Finlay introduces Austroharpa, taking as type a species (Harpa pulligera Tate) with an extreme form of large and bulbous proto-conch. REMARKS on ror NEW HARPID (MOLLUSCA) GENERA or FINLAY ann IREDALE By BERNARD C. CO'T'TON ann NELLY HOOPER WOODS, M.A, Big. 1-9, The two papers referred to in this article are: Wilay ; Trans. N. Zeal. Inst., bxii, May 23, 1931, pp. 11-14. Iredale: Ree, Aust. Mus., xviii. No. 4, June 29, 1931, pp. 230-231. In these works, published within a month of each other, two leading Australasian conchologisis express their views on tlie generic location of some dozen species of the family Marpidae. As we have the type specimens of ten of these comparatively rare forms, we fake this opportunity of making elem some of the complications which have ensued. Minkiy proposes to ase three eenera, Iredale four, the latter all new aud Hee without a deseription. inlay introduces slustroharpa, taking as twpe a spectes (arpa pidligera Tate) with an extreme form of large and bulbous proto- conch. The remaining members of the genus have a protoconeh of the same type, Init smaller and more depressed. Ror the same group Lredale introduces Den lipo withow a description, and this name beeomes a synonym. Similarly Refluharpa was tniroduced withont diagnosis; he merely states: ‘* HL. lamelliferd and T. suleas may be classed together wider the wenerie name Refluhanpa. . ¥ As Jar as the protoconeh is concerned Marpa lameltifera Tate is a typieal Bocithara amd Harpo suleosa Tate is an Austroharpa. Therefore Refluharpa. is aosvnonvin of Mecithara Wor Harpa spirata Tate, Iredale introduces Traue- havpa, merely stating, “SH. spiral is separable with the eenerie name Teaie- arpa’ But we agree with Finlay that arpa spirala Tate is an Anustraharpe, so that Tramehinpa becomes a synonyvnr, Austroharpa late’ Pinay, from an examination of Abattoir Bore specimens, septs to be a loeal variety of sl, su/eosa Tate. the type of whieh is (he most deeply suleate of our specimens, Tredale states: “Harpa pachycheila ean le compared with dhbremata’’ in what respeet he does not say. Harpa abbreviatu has the ctustraharpa type of protoconch, and so has arpa pachycheila Tate. though in the latter species it is much smaller. We do not think H. pachycheila Tate and IH, cassinoides Tate are cassis, as Finlay suggests. They haye not the 46 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM le jo ° yw vent yw yn)" spay teehee = Fig, 1-0, Protoconchs of Mollusca of the family Harpidue (all K 10). 1. Hoeithara lamellifera; 2. Austroharpa suleosay 3. A. spirata; 4. A. cassinoides; 5. A. clathvata: @, A. pachychetla; 7. A, abbreviata; 8. A. pulligera;: 9. A. tenuis, COTTON AND \Woops—REMARKS ON NEW MOLLUSCA GENERA 47 widely reflected inner lip, the dentition of the outer lip, the plication on the columella and the sharply recurved snout of Cassis. On protoconch features they should be placed in Austroharpa, and also the recent H. punctata Vereo. Iredale’s new species, P. exrquisita, the type of the new genus Palamharpa, appears to be an Austroharpa, so that Palamharpa probably becomes another synonym of Austroharpa. Our classification then reads : Austroharpa Finlay, May, 1931, type H. pulligera Tate = Deniharpa, Trameharpa, and Palamharpa Iredale, June, 1931. A, pulligera (Tate), spirata (Tate), sulcosa (Tate), fatei Finlay (? = sulcosa var.), lenws (Tate), elathrata (Tate), punctata (Vereo), pachycheila (Tate), cassrnoides (Tate), erguisita (Iredale), ubbrewmiata (Tate). Kocitthara Fischer, 1883, type H. mutica Lamarek = Refluharpa lredale, June, 1931, H. lamellifera (Tate). NOTES ON THE TYPE SPECIMENS OF HESPERITDAE (LEPIDOPTERA) IN THE MUSEUMS IN AUSTRALIA, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THOSE IN THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM By G. A. WATERHOUSE, D.Sc., B.E., F.E.S. Summary On a recent visit to Adelaide (April, 1932), Brigadier W. H. Evans and the writer were granted facilities to study the Lower Collection of Hesperiidae, which had been purchased by the South Australian Museum. In this examination we were ably assisted by Mr. N. B. Tindale, of the Museum. As a number of doubtful points arose, it seemed desirable that they should be recorded before General Evans leaves Australia, so that he might concur in them ; Mr. Tindale has also seen this paper before publication. NOTES ox turk TYPE SPECIMENS or HESPERIIDAE (LEPIDOPTERA) weoruzr MUSEUMS ix AUSTRALIA, wirH SPECIAL REFERENCE tro THOSE tx rune SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM By G. A. WATE RAOUSE, D.Se., BAM. FILS. On a recent visit to Adelaide (April, 1932), Brigadier W. H. Evans and the writer were granted facilities to study the Lower Collection of ILesperiidae, which had been purchased by the South Australian Museum. In this examination we were ably assisted by Mr. N. 1B. Tindale, of the Museum. As a munber of doubtful points arose, it seemed desirable that they should be recorded) before General Evans leaves Australia, so that he might coneur in them: Mr. Tindale has also seen this paper before publication. As the South Australian Mnsenm authorities have purchased the collection of the late Dr. T. P. Lueas, of Brisbane, whieh contains several types of Rosen- stock and Miskin, and have had in their possession for many years types of species deseribed by Tepper and Guest, these also are ineluded, To make this review more comprehensive, some of the types of this family inthe other Australian Musemus are treated as well, The late Ma. O. B. Lower was the first Australian entomologist to study indletail this interesting family, and all his papers on it have been published in the Transaetions of the Royal Society of South Australia. The first paper ap- peared in 1902, xvi, by Meyriek and Lower (quoted M. and t., 1902), and as stated on page 39, Meyrick drew up the geuerie characters and identified the species, whilst Lower was responsible for the deseriptions, Lower in the same Transactions for 1907 and 1908 (quoted Low., 1907, and Low., 1908) described further species, and in 1911 (quoted Low. 1911) published his final revision, During the time Lower was prepariue this last revision Twas in eonstant correspondence with him, and lent him aiumbers of specimens; 1 have still the correspondence in my possession, and it has been very useful in elucidating several doubtful points. This correspondence will be deposited in fhe Anstraliin Museum, Svdney. for future reference. Lower, early in 1908, wrote saying he would give the type localities, but in Most Cases he Failed to do so, and [ have, aided by my tive friends, endeavonred fo vectify this. AIL specimens marked as types by Lower have been earetully eheeked with his descriptions, and where no specimen was marked as type one 50 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM has been nominated as such, care being taken to see that it was one of the original series and that it agreed with the description, In 1914 The Butterflies of Australia, by Waterhouse and Lyell, was pub- lished (quoted W. and L., 1914), when several changes were made in the elassi- figation, some new species deseribed, and all the then known species figured. Almost all the specimens used to illustrate this work are now in the Australian Muse, Sydney. The above works will be those that are chiefly quoted, and the species will he listed imder the names given in Lower’s revision of 1911. TRAPHZITES IeTEROMACULA Meyrick and Lower, Trapezites heteromacula M. and L., 1902, p. 8+; We and I, 1914, p. 176, fi 623. The holotype is a male from Cooktown (Endeayour River) in the Macleay sient, e, 622, Museum, University of Sydney. Lower’s loeality, Cairns (low., 1911, p. 1746), requires confirmation, as Lhave never seen a specimen from there, Trapnarres Lures (Tepper) TTesperila lulew Tepper, Trans. Roy. Soe, S. Aust., iv, 1881, p. 38, pl. ii, fig. 6. Trapezites lutea Low. 1911, p. 187 (in part). sic clan ia end W. and I, 1914, p. 177, fig. G60, 7-48, Tepper’s holotype male is from Ardrossan, South Australia, and is now in very poor condition. This species must be very rare in South Australia, as Lower ouly had one male from Port Lineoln and one male from Stonytell, and | haye another male from the latter locality, given me by Lower. Two specimens only are known from Victoria, both caught at Castlemaine in February. Other spect mens are known from New South Wales and South Queensland, Lower’s record of Duaringa in 1902 (M. and L., p. 91), but omitted in 1911 (Low., p. 187) is ue doubt correct, as there was an undoubted specimen with a Duaringa lahel in his eollection mmonest his specimens of 7. petitia. T ne satay locality refers to the race glimeus Wy and L., lc., 1914. p. 177. fig. 661, 739 TRAPEZIPES PHIGALLA (TLewitson). Hesperia phigatia lew,, Dese. Hesp., 1868, p. 82. Tropeziles phithyra Miskin; Proce. Roy. Soe. QUL, vi, 1889, p. 158. The holotype male phillyra Miskin, which is a synonyin of phigalia, is m the South Australian Musetun Colleetion from the Lucas Colleetion, In the Lower Collection are two males and one female labelled Cairns, Lower Coll, but this lovality requires confirmation. WaATERHOUSE—NOTE ON TYPES OF HESPERIIDAE 51 ANISYN'TA POLYSEMA (Lower). Hesperilla palysema Low., 1908, p. 311. female. Anisynta palysema Low., 1911, p. 142, male; W. and L., 1914, p, 188, fig. 745, 754. The holotype is a female from Petford, near Chillagoe, Queensland, Keb- rary, 1908, and is now in the Australian Museum, The allotype male is in the South Australian Museum, from Port Darwin, February, 1909, and there is also a paratype male in the Australian Misewm from Port Darwin, February, 1909. Ofher known specimens are from Port Darwin, males January and Mareh, female April. A male from Flinders Island, Queensland, January, 1927, is in the South Australian Museum, and f have seen a male trom Stanley Tshind. Queensland, January, 1927, ANISYNTA SPITENOSEMA (Meyrick and Lower), Trapezites sphenosema M. and 1, 1902, p. 92. Trapezites paraphaes M, and ., 1902. p. 93. Anisynta sphenosema W. and T., 1914, p. 181, fie. 643-6, Deseribed from a single specimen said to be a female, but the speeimen in the Lower Collection, marked as type female, on examination proved to be a male. No, 8775, from Perth, Western Australia, collected in November by FP. M. Aneel. No specimen marked as the type of pavephacs could be found, but this name was sunk tnder sphenosema by Lower in 1911, p. 143, and no separation under these fwo names was nade in his collection, ANiSYNTA CYNONE (Ilewitson), Cyeclopides eynone Ilew., Exot. Butt., v. 1874, fie. 17. Hesperilla gracilis Tepper, Trans. Roy, Soe. 8. Anst., iv, 1881, p. 34, pl. ii. fie. 7. Anisyntn eynone W. and L., 1914, p, 182, fig. 761-3. General Evans writes from London that he has examined Tlewitson’s type of eynone in the British Museum. Tt was the only spechnen there, and is a male labelled **Australia.”’ On comparing it with specimens from South Australia (gracilis Tepper) and Victoria (grisea Waterhouse, Proce. Linn. Nov. N.S. Wales, 1982, p. 220), which he had taken to London, he finds that the type is smaller (25 im. against 28-30 wm.). with wines rather more pointed, on fore- wing no spots in Ja, 4, and 5, only the cell spot. discals in 2 and 3, and three sub- apical dots. The hindwing below is more ereenish-ochreous, as in grisea, but the discal band is darkened, appearing as composed of darkish brown eontiguows spots; the basal markings tend to be snnilar, ie. dark and maeular. Tt aimst be regarded as a separate race from some other, perhaps intermediate, locality, and if anything nearer grisea, 52 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM Hewitson deseribed the underside of eynone as ‘Srnfous-brown with several white spots separated by a band of blaek spots.’? The figure is of the inderside, and is not very satisfactory. The type locality of eynone for the present is unknown, and there will be two races, gracilis and grisea, Mesopina AELUROPIS Meyrick. Vesodina aeluropis Meyriek, Ent. Mo. Mag., xxxvii, 1901, p. 168; M. and L.. 1902, p. 46; W. and L., 1914, p. 180, fig. 698-9. The holotype male is in Meyrick’s collection from Katoomba, New South Wales, in November. This species is confined to the Blhie Mountains, from Went- worth Falls to Mount Victoria. MersopinaA HALYZIA CYANOPIIRACTA Lower. Vesodina halyzia cyanophracta Low., 1911, p, 119; W. and L., 1914, p. 180. fie. 774-5. There were two males and two females in the Lower Collection, all from Perth, Western Australia, but without type labels. A] male specimen was nominated as holotype, and a female, canght in November, 1900, as allotype. TinspertLbha MUNTONGA Olliff. Hesperia manionga Olilt, Proce. Linn. Soe. N.S. Wales, iv, 1889. p. 628; Low. 1911, p. 136, Orcisplanus munionga W. and L., 1914, p. 184, fig. 670, Holotype male and allotype female in) Australiana Museum, from Movit Koseinsko, March, 1889. Ifespertuta compacta (Butler). Telesto compacta Putler, Ann, Mag. Nat. [ist (9) ix, 1882, p. 87. Hesperilla compacta Low., 1911, p. 124. Dispar compacta W. and L., 1914, p. 197, fig. 705-8. Telesto sceplicalis Rosenstock, Ann. Mae. Nat. Hist., (5) xvi, 1885, p. 379, pl. x1, fie, 2, There is a female of seeplicaiis in the South Austvalian Musermn from the Lucas Colleetion, from Healsville. Vietoria, which was no doubt seen by Rosen- stoek, but the holotype so marked is in the British Museum, Timsperin.a tymBorHORA (Meyrick and Lower). Telesto tynbophora M, and L., 1902, p. 70. Hesperia linbophara law., 1911, p. 124. Signela tymbophora W. and L., 1914, p. 198, fig. 662-4. WATERHOUSE —NOTE ON TYPES OF HESPERIIDAE 53 Holotype male from Mount Kembla, New South Wales, in the South Ades: tralian Museimn, with allotype female and other males labelled lyuibaphara by Lower in fhe Australian Musemmn from Mount Kembla. Tlespekibta Leucostiama (Meyrick and Lower). Telesto lencostiguua M, and i, 1902, p, 73. Poawidia lewcostigavd fencostigiie W. and di. 14, p. 191, fie. 616-7. The original description (1902, p. 73) inelades the northern race (parasenie | as well as the southern race. The holotype is a male labelled Sydney, but this showd be Mount Kembla, New South Wales. No female of the southern race was fond in the Lower Colleetion. [na letter to me, dated Jrne 4, 1908, he stated be had no females. tn the Australian Museum there are a anale and a female from Mount Kembla labelled as /eacostiguia ly Lower. TIeSPekILLA LEUCOSTIGMA PARASEMA Lower. Hosperilla leweastigima parasema Low., 1908, p. 312; Low., W11, p. 125: W. an di, 1914, p. 192, fie. 637-8, The holotype male is the specimen from Kuranda, October, mentioned in 102, pp. 75. [owas caught by Dr AL. Turner in 1900. The allotype feniale is from Kuranda, Dodd, December, 1904. Both are in the South Australian Museu, HesperiLbA MASTERS! Waterhouse. Hesperilly mastersi Waterhouse, Proce, Linn, Soe, N. S. Wales, xxv, 1900, p. od, pli, fig. aS; Low., 1911, p. 185; W. and L., 1914, p. 186, fig. 650-1. Holotype male, Clifton, January, 1897, and allotype female from Mount Kembla, New Sonth Wales. in Australian Museum. An additional locality is Narrara, uear Gosford, in November and December (1H, lL. Moss-Robinson), TDGsrPertnLA ORNATA MONOTHERMA (Lower). Hesperitla arnata monotherma Low. 1907, p. 169: Low., 1911, p. 185; W. and L,, 114, p. 184, fie, 635-6. The holotype is a female from Kuranda, October, 1906 (FL PL Dodd). The inale is nach nearer the typieal southern race on the upperside. TIESPERILLA CRYPSARGYRA CRYPSARGYRA (Meyrick ), Telesto erypsargyra Meyrick, Proc. Linn, Soe. N.S. Wales, ii, 1887, p. 820. Hesperia crypsargyra Wand L., 1914, p. 186, fig. 600-1. The holotype is a male from Blackheath, New South Wales, in November or February. 54 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MuSEUM LIESPpERILLA CRYPSARGYRA HOLSONT Waterhouse. Hesperilla erypsargyra hopsont Waterhouse, Proc, Linn. Soe. N.S. Wales, Li, 1927, p. 282, pl, xxvi, fig. 11-12, 15-16. The holotype male (bred in Sydney in October) and the allotype feniale, February, are in the Australian Museum, from Barrington Tops, New South Wales. A new locality is Deervale, near Dorrigo, New South Wales. HESPERILLA IpoTURA (Miskin), Trapeziles idothea Miskin, Proe. Roy, Soe. Qld., vi, 1889, p. 152. Hesperilla idathea Low., 1911, p. 125; W. and L., 114, p. 187, Pe 716-8. Trapezites dispar Kirby; Ann. May. Nat. Hist, (6) sil, 1898, p. 435. The holotype is a female from Victoria, in the South Australian Muse. from the Lucas Collection, It should be noted that Kirby described both sexes, and not only the male, as Lower (1911, p. 123) has listed. Tlespeeniuna cnaosroua (Meyrick). Teleslo chaostolu Meyrick, Proe, Linn, Soe. N.S. Wales, U1, S87, p. 880; MM. anil L., 1902, p. 65. Hesperilla chuostola Low., 111, p. 182; W. and L., 1914. p. 167, fig. G90-1, 700, The holotype is a inale from Blackheath, New South Wales, in November, in Meyrick’s Collection. The species is very rare in New South Wales, but is more common in Vietoria, and a very few specimens are kuown from Tasmania, The allotype female is from Inonyille, Tasmania, in December, and is in the Lyell Collection. and not in Lower's Collection, as stated (Low., 1911, p. 132). TgseeRinba CRYPSIGRAMMA (Meyrick and Lower). Telesto erypsigramma M, and L., 1902, p. si. Hesperilla crypsigramma Low., 1911, p. 128, Towidia crypsigramma W. and L., L14, p. 190, fie. 639-40. The holotype male in the Lower Collection, from Herberton, is one of two specimens caught by C. J. Wilde; the other is in the Queensland Musetun, Bris. bane, Lower also had a male from Bunya Mountains, Queensland (Noveaber, 1801, IL. Tryon). There was also in the Lower Collection a female from Tfer- herton, Queensland (January 31, 1911, F. P. Dodd), but if was placed under sesgutlata, which was not represented in his collection. HespERILLA MALINDEVA Lower. Tlesperitla matindeva Low., 1911, p. 129. Toridia malindeva W. and L., 1914, p. 190, fig. 740-1, 749. WATERHOUSE —NOTE ON TYPES OF TIESPERILDAE 55 The holotype male is in the Lower Collection, the allotype female and a paratype male in the Australian Museum, all from Herberton, Queensland, in January, 1910, F. P. Dodd. Lower also had five males and three females frou Herberton, January 31,1911, no doubt added after his description was written, The species has been caught and bred by Mr. J. Macqueen, near Milnerran, South Queensland, from October to January. Lluspeninba sexcurrara (lferrich-Sehactter ). Telesto sergullata Ulerrich-Schaelfer, Stett. Ent. Zeit.. 1869. p. S80, pl. ii, lig, 16. Hesperilla secquttati Low., 11. p. 126. Taridia secguilalu W. and di, 14, p. 1, fig. 641-2. The holotype is a female, as shown by the figure, but its whereabouts is unknown. The type locality is Rodkhainpton. Lt was not represented in Lower’s Collection, Of bis localities Roekhanpton is from Terrich-Schaetfer. Bowen refers to aanale aud female in the Queensland Museum, and Lerberton refers to the female erypsigramud, which he thought to be sergultata. OF this rare species there is a pair in the South Australian Museum from Grote [sland and a female froin Winchelsea [sland. ILespekinua Tyretivs (Mabille). Tovulia tyrrhus Mab., Comp. Rend. Soe. Ent. Bele, xxxy. 1891, p. [Xxx, Hesperitla tyrrhus Low., 1911, p. 126. Towidia tyrrhus W. and L., 1914, p. 192, tiv. G18-9. Velesto bathrophora M, and L., 1902, p. 82. As stated by Lower (1911, p. 127) the holotype of fyrrius, now in the Berlin Musein, and of whieh I have seen a eoloured drawing sent to Lower, is a female From Cooktown, and not a male, as stated by Mabille. The holotype male and the allotype female of bathrophora trom Mackay are in the South Australian Museum. Miskin in his collection had this species under halyziu Hew. THausrperinbA MBLANIA (Waterhouse ). Telesto melanie Waterhouse, xx, Viet. Nat., 1908, p. a4. Hesperitla melania Low., 1911, p. 126. Towidia melunia W. and L., 1914, p. 193, fie, 667-9. The holotype male and allotype female from Kuranda, Queensland, Mel rary, 1902 (RR. E. Turner), Cairns district, are now in the Australian Museum, Sydney, 56 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MusEUM LIesperRIDUA CHRYSOTRICHA ClitysoTRIciEA (Meyrick and Lower). Telesto chrysolricha M. and L., 1902, p. 59. Hespevilla chrysotricha Low. 1911, p. 121; W. and Lb. 1914, p. 18s, fie, 651, 776-7. The holotype is a male in the South Austvalian Museum froin Wing George's Sound (Albany), Western Australia, A anale with the same type of printed lnhel is in the Australian Museum from the same locality. This suggests that i was eau@ht by the late A. S. OL. L was not able to see the worn female specl- men mentioned by Lower (1911, p. 122) from Goolwa, South Australia, taken in March, The lovality and date snegest that if is a form of donnysa vather than chrysolricha, whieh is only a spring insect in Western Australia, TIeSPERILLA CLIRYSOTRICHA GYCLOSVILA (Meyriek and Lower). Telesto eyelospila M. and G., 02, p. 63, Hesperilla cyclospila Low., 1911, p. 121; W. and L., T814, p. 188 (in part; tol fiw. 632), Lesperilla lencospila Waterhouse, Proce. Linn. Soe, N.S. Wales, Hi, W927. p. 280, pl. xxvi, fig, 25-28. This race has caused some diffierdty. M. and L. deseribed it from ** Port Lincoln, South Australia; Melbourne. Vietoria; two specimens in November.” In 1911 this is repeated without the number of specimens and the addition of “Types in Coll. Lower.’ In November, 1910, Lower lent me three specnnetis, and his letter reads ‘'1 male, 1 female eyclospild. 1 male do., Melbourne”? The Melbourne speeinen is undated. and the Port Lincoln specimens are dated October, The Port Lincoln male bore his type male label, but it does not agree with the 1902 deseription, in that it lacks the uppermost silver spot on the hind: wing beneath, which is found in his Melbourne male and also rarely in other Victorian specimens. Although there is no doubt in my mind that the type locality of Port Lin- voln was intended, General Evans, Mr. Tindale, and TP decided to remove the type label from his Port Lincoln male and place it pom his Melborurne imale, as that was the only specimen in the collection that agreed with the deseription, Tha leucospila Waterhouse sinks as a diveet synonym and the type loeality of cycle spila will be near Melbourne. 1 MOorASINGITA DIRPILLA TRIMACULATA (Tepper), Hesperitla trimaculata Tepper, Traus. Roy, Soe. 8, Aust., iv, 1881, p. 32. pl. il. fig. 1. Hesperia quidrimetcuiata Tepper, Le, pl. i, 4 = iS al WaATERHOUSE—NOTE ON TyPEs OF HESPERIIDAE 57 Motasingha dirphia low., W911, p. 120 (in part); W. and L., 1914, p. 195 (in part). Haying seen Tepper’s types of feimueulata, a male fvon Monarto, and quadrimdculdla, a female from Arciossan, and compared them with other South Australian specimens at Adelaide. i am convineed that these vonstitute a race distinet from the typical @irphie from Western Australia, Tt may be distin- wished by having the wuniderside more reddish than grey and the silver spots more distinct. Movrastncua ATKALBA ATRALBA (Tepper), Hesporila atpalha Tepper, Trans. Roy. Soe. S. Aust., iv, 1881, p. 38, pl. ii, fie. }. Motasingha atvalba We and li, 114, p. 195, fie. 649. The holotype is a female from Ardrossan, South Australia, and now consists of only two forewmes. On a collecting trip to Port Noarlunga in Apvil, 1932, | found larvae and a pupa on Guhime lanigera (R. Be.) Bentham. The larya is somewhat like that of A. dirphia, and it pupates head downwards, but without the silken pad, as in Mesodina. Meyrick and Lower’s ceseription of a/rafba (1902, p. 71) applies to the race from Western Austtailia, as amongst other elaacters the stigma is stated to be strong and blackish, In typical afradba it is narrow and very difticull to see. MOWASINGHA ATRALBA DACTYLIOTA (Meyrick), Telesto ductyhiote Meyrick, Proc, Linn, Soe. N.S. Wales, ii, 1887, p. 831. A varefy) comparison of the original description shows that although Mes rick wave both South Australian aud Western Australian localities his deserip- tion applies ouly to specimens Frou Western Australia. Type in Coll. Mevriek. Morasingua bomMINnuLA (Plétz). Telesto dominula Plotz, Stett. Wut. Zeit, Ss4, p. 379. Previously | had never seen any specimens as large as Plitaz’s coloured figure from Tasmania, and so doubted that loeality. Both the Australian and the South Australian Museums live now specimens from low elevations in Tasmania agree ing in size and markings with the figure, Typieal daminula will therefore apply fo these specimens from Tasmania, whilst dreelhmophora Mevriek, trom Mount Kosciusko, is the race frou Australia. The locality of Neweastle given by Lower (1911, p. 155) is erroneous, as the rave in Australia has never been taken below 3,000 feet. Specimens frou high elevations in Tasmania are very much smaller, TiesrerinuA XUPHIPHORA Lower. Hesperitta viphiphara Gow., 1911, p. 180, Neohesperila viphiphora W. and L., 1914, p. 194, fie. 656. 58 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM The holotype male is from Darwin, Mareh, 1909, allotype female from Dar- win, February, 1909, m the South Australian Museum, and paratypes in Ats- tralian Musewn from Darwin, LimspekinbA XANTHOMERA (Meyrick and Lower). Telesto canthomera M. and L., 1902, p. 80. IHesperilla croceus Miskin, Proe. Roy, Soc, Qld, vi, 1889, p. 150 (female, but not male). Neohesperilla canthomera W. and Li, W14, p. 104, fig. G7A-5, The fixation of the type of this species has been attended with great diffi. culty. The deseription is based on male 30 mim,, female 36 mun. ‘Brisbane anc Cairns, Queensland, two specimens in March and September.’ Lower’s collec- tion contained four specimens, all niunbered 8759, which agreed with his register, The only male is from Townsville, of 35 mm, expanse, September, 1900, the dai being in Dr. A. J. Turner’s handwriting. This agrees with the deseription, except size and loeality, and has been considered as the holotype. A. female from Townsville, whieh had 1 veins on the left forewing, ts mentioned in his note, bul is over 36 nun. A female from Cooktown, 30 mm, in expanse, in which the fourth spot is confluent with the third, is mentioned as sometimes occuring ia the deseription; this specimen had a female type label, and was recorded in the register as March. These three specimens must have been before Lower when he wrote (he deseription, as at least fwo females are indicated, The fourth specimen was from Brisbane, and may possibly, though doubtfully, have been added after the description was written, Nevertheless, taking into account Lower’s carelessness in respeet of many of his deseriptions, it seems obvious that the Townsville male must be considered as ihe holotype. The species, as was well known to Lower, is much more common in Brisbane than elsewhere in Queensland, BinLA ANISOMORPHA Lower. Bibla anisomorpha Low., 1911, p. 146; male. Taructrocena wmsomorpha W. and L., 1914, p. 201, fig. 385-4, Lower’s holotype is a male from Port Darwin, March, 1908; the specimen he had labelled as the female is also from Port Darwin, but is the male of a very distinet species, Taractroceru ina Waterhouse. This is a rare species; in the South Australian Museum it is also from Roper River, Fortescue River, and Gayndah, I have it also from Mackay aud Westwood, near Rockhampton. WATERHOUSE--NOTE ON TYPES OF HESPERITDAE 59 TARACTROCERA INA Waterhouse. Turaetrocera tna, Proc. Linu, Soc. N.S. Wales, Ivii, 1982, p, 228, The holotype of this species is a imale in the South Australian Museum, ane is the specimen which Lower marked as bis type female of Bibla unisomarpha, OCYBADISTES LYPOMELOMA Lower, Ocybhadisles hypomelomu Low., 1911, p. 152. Padravne hypomeloma W. and 1, 1914, p. 204, tig. o84, 878—t. Lower deseribed both sexes, but bis locality note is badly punetuated, and should reac: Terberton and Kuranda, Queensland iu Mareb, one female (Dodd) ; Roseville, near Sydney, two male specimens in April (Waterhouse), Lower added that the types were in his collection, On examination it was found that he had a female from Kuranda, March, 1907, with a label in his handwriting, “hypomelame type female? Ile also had a amale front Terbertou, January 31, 111, but it was not marked as the type male, nor did it agree with his deserip- tion, and was without doubt added to his collection after his deseription was written, The difficulty regarding his type male was settled by a speeimen in ty collection from Roseville, April 4, 1904, bearing in Lower’s handwriting a label, “hupomelona type male Lower’? 1 had this specimen with me in Adelaide, and it avreed with the deseription in having the upper two of the five spots of the distal band of the forewing half the size of the remaining three and the small somewhat ovoid spot lying ou vein 6 of hindwing well separated from the obliqie band. If further proof were wanting it is supplied by a letter from Lower to me dated April 20, L911, in which he says: ** Lam sending the lenale Jaspomelona, | have no male. so that yoru male will be the type male, my female the other sex, You will perceive that the female came from Dodd.’? The holotype male is without doubt the specimen marked as type male by Lower from Roseville, near Sydney, and is now in the Australian Museum, Sydney, and the type loeality will he Sydney. OCVBADISTES WALKERD HYPOCIILORA Lower. Oeybadistes walkert hypochlura Low, 1911, p. 140. Ocyhadistes flavavittata hypochtora W. aud li, 1914, pp. 204, fig, 860, 867, The holotype male and the allotype female are from Parkside, Adelaide. 1 has been shown (W. and L., 1914, p, 208) that the name flevovitlata must be applied to the common small orange and brown Iesperiid found at Sydney, and not 10 ayrdulia ILewitson from Westem Australia, as Lower bas done. Mr. N.D, Riley (Trans. Hut. Soe, Lond, 1926, p. 289) confirms this, 60 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM PADRAONA HETEROBATIURA (Lower). Apoustus heterobathra Low., 1908, p. 816. Pudraona hetervbathra Low,, 1911, p. 154: W. and L.. 1914, p. 202, fig. 872. Lolotype male is from Kuranda, April, 1907, allotype female, Kuranda, Mareh, 1907, in South Australian Museum. General Evans has pointed out to me that this species, though without a sex brand, las sex scales over vein 1, on either side of vem 2, and below vein 3, and also that it must be placed as a race of ceded Bethune-Baker, Ann. May. Nat. Hist. (7) 18. 1906, p. 348. PADRAONA LASUIVLA ( Kosenstock ). Pomphila lascivia Rosenstock, Ann. Mag. Nat. List. (5), xvi, TS8o, p. S78, pl. xt, fi. 1. clpaustus lascivia M. and L., 1902, p. 100. Padraone lascivia, Low., 1911, p. 158; W. and L., 1914, p, 202, fig, o87-5. The holotype is a male from Beaconsfield, Victoria, in the South Australian Musetan, from the Lueas Collection. In the paper m which this species and Telesto scepticalis are deseribed, Rosenstock states that the specimens were from South Australia, receiyed from Dr. Lueas, of Melbourne. This is another mstance of the confusion of South Australia with southern Aistralia. TELICOTA AUGIAS MESOPTIS Lower. Telicota augias mesoptis Low., 1911, p. 167. The holotype male and allotype female are from Kuranda, April, 1907, A discussion on the augius-like species must await further investigation, as there are probably three or more different species passing under this name in Aus- tralia, and deseriptions under at least five different names have been given of Australian specimens, TPELICOTA ANISODESMA Lower, Telicola anisodesma Low., L911, p. 157. The holotype is a male from Ballina, Richmond River, caught by miysell, and is at Adelaide. L have sunilar specimens from the same locality and also fron South Queensland. TEnICOTA BURYCHLORA Lower, Telicolu euryehtora Low., 1908, p. 314; W. and L., 11-4, p. 210, fig. 692-3, S61. The holotype male and allotype Female from Ballina, Richmond River, Meb- ruary, 1898, are in the Australian Museum, Sydney. TELICOTA BRACLIYDESMA Lower. Telicala brachydesma Low.. 1908, p. 312; Low., 1911, p. 159; W. and L., 1914, p. 209, fig. 671-2, 878-9, WATERHOUSE ~NOTE ON TYPES OF HESPERIIDAE 61 The holotype male and allotype female from Cooktown, labelled so in Lower’s handwriting, are in the Australian Museum, Svdney, Lower’s note (1908, p. 314) is correet that the types were in Coll, Waterhouse, and incorreet (1911, p. 159) when he said that they were in Colls. Lower and Waterhouse. CORONE TRICHOPEPLA (Lower), Brynnis trichopepla Low., 1908, p. 315. Erynnis palmarwn M. and 1, (vee Moore), 1902. p. 110. Cephrenes trichape pla We and L., W914, p. 207. fig. 676-7. The holotype is a amale from Mackay in the South Australian Museum, General Hyans considers that this may have had a common origin with palaurruin Moore, int is sufficiently distinet to rank as a species, TLAsorA ALEXIS CoNTEMPTA (Plitz), Jsmene contempla Plotz, Stett. Ent. Zeit, 1884, p. 56. Parola chromus M, and L. (nee Cram), Low., 1911, p, 169. Tsmene Iucescens Lineas, Proe. Roy. Soc. Qld, 1899, p. 138. Parala chromus contempta W. and li, 1914, p. 217. fig. 729-30. The holotype male and allotype female of Z. /ucescens are in the South Ats- tralian Museum from South Queensland ex Lieas Collection. General Evans has shown that aleris Fabr. is the name of the typical race of this species, and that after examining the long series in the Lower Collection at Adelaide he is eon- Vincved that they are all the same, and that Lower had no justification in makine two. if not three, species from his series, PRINCIPAL REFERENCES TO AUSTRALIAN TESPERIIDAR. Anderson and Spry (1894): ‘ Vietorian Butterflies,’ pt. 2, 1894, pp. 79-129. Butler, ALG. (1882): On a sinall collection of Lepidoptera from Melbourne. Ann, May. Nal, Hist, (5), ix, 1882. pp. 84-87. Hewitson, W. C. (1867-8): Deseriptions of one hundred new species of THes- peridae, pl, 1, 1867, pp. 1-24: pt. 2, 1868, pp, 25-56, Hoewitson, W. C. (1874): Exotie Bittertlies, vol. v.. plate Cyelopides and Hes- perila, TA, Kirhy, W. FB. (1898): Deseriptions of new Australian Iesperiidae. Ana. Mag. Nat, Hist, (6), xvi, 18938, pp. 434-8. Lower, O13, (1908) : Deseriptions of new Australian Hesperiadae. Trans. Roy. Soe NS. clusl., xxxii, 1908, pp. 311-7, Lower, O. Ti. (1911): Revision of the Australian Tesperiadae. Trans. Roy. Sov. S, dust, xxxv, 1911, pp. 112-172. 62 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM Mabille, P.: Genera Tuseetorum. Fasieule 17, Hesperiidae, 1908-4. Meyrick, BE. (1887): Deseriptions of new Australian Rhopalocera, Proc. Lunn. Soc, N.S. Wales, (2), ti, 1887. pp. 827-834. Meyrick and Lower (1902); Revision of the Australian Hesperiadae, Trans. Roy. Sov. 8. Aust., xxvi, 1902, pp. 38-129, Miskin, W. II. (1889); Deseriptions of some new species of Australian TLos- peridae. Proc. Roy. Soe. Qld., vi. 1889, pp. 146-194. Miskin. W. Tf. (1891) : Synonymieal Catalogue, Butterflies of Aust ralia. slanels Queensland Musewn, No. 1, 1891, pp. 1-82, and supplement. Olliff, A. S. (1889): On Rhopalocera fron: Mount Kosciusko, N.S. Wales. Pree. Linn, Sov. N.S. Wales, (2), ii, 1889, pp, 619-624. Plitz, C, (1883): Die Hesperiinen-Gattung MWesperia Aut. und ihre Arten, Ntett. Ent. Zeil., 1883, pp. 26-64, pp, 196-258. Platz, C. (1884): Die Ilesperiinen-Gattumg Apuastus Tb, und. ihre Arten. Stet. Ent. Zeit, 1884, pp. 151-166, Plitz, C. (1884); Die Mesperiinen-Gattung Ismene Sw. und ihre Arten, Ste/f. Bat. Zeit, WS84, pp. 91-66, Plitz, C. (1884): Die Hesperiinen-Gattung Trlesto Bsd. und ihre Arten. Steff. Bul. Zeil., W884, pp. 376-384, Rosenstock, R. (1885): Notes on Australian Lepidoptera with descriptions of new speeies. slain. May. Nal. Hist., (5), xvi, 1885. pp. 876-385, Seitz, A, (1927): The Maerolepidoptera of the World, vol. ix, Hesperidae, by A. Seitz, 1927, pp. 1027-1107, plates elxiii-elxxv. Huglish edition. Tepper, J. G.O, (1882): The Papilionidae of South Australia, Tras. Roy. Soe. NS. Aust., vol. iv. for 1880-1, pp. 25-36, plates ii, iii, published Jan., 1882. Waterhouse, G A. (1927) + Australian MWesperiidac, pt. 1, Prac. Linn. Soc, N.S, Wales, ii, 1927, pp. 275-283, plate xxvi. Waterhouse, (A. (1982): Australian ILesperitdae, pt. 2. Prac. Linn, Soe, NS, Wales, Wii, 1932, pp. 218-288, 2 text-figures. Waterhouse, G. A. (1903): Deseriptions and notes of Anstralian Tesperidae, chiefly Vietorian. Wiel, Nat., xx, 1908, pp. 42-7. Waterhouse. G. A. (1982): New Genera of Australian Tlesperiidae and a new subspecies. lust. Zoologist, vil, (3), pp. 198-201. Waterhouse and Lyell (1912): Deseriptions of and notes on some Anstralian Tlesperidae. Wet. Nat.. xxviii, 1912, pp. 228-8. Waterhouse and Lyell (1914): The Butterflies of Australia, 1914. TLesperidae, pp. 172-224. All Australian species figured, some in colour, Waterhouse and Turner (1904); Notes on TLesperidae deseribed hy Mabille and reputed to be Australian, Viel, Nat., xxi. 1904, pp. 109-110. ABORIGINES OF PRINCESS CHARLOTTE BAY, NORTH QUEENSLAND By HERBERT M. HALE (DIRECTOR) AND NORMAN B. TINDALE, B.SC. (ETHNOLOGIST) Summary In December, 1926, the Board of Governors of the South Australian Museum sent the writers to Southern Cape York Peninsula, North Queensland, with the object of elaborating the hitherto meagre Museum collections from this locality. January and February, 1927, were spent at Flinders and Stanley Islands, Bathurst Head, Stewart River and Silver Plains, and on the shores of Princess Charlotte Bay. Our first station was on Flinders Island, where a small hut had been erected to accommodate stores required by trepang and pearling fleets working on the Great Barrier Reef. The fortnight set aside for marine work at this island was extended to five weeks, owing to the detention of our cutter by cyclonic weather near Cooktown. Fortunately, natives of several tribes visited the island, while the extended stay permitted visits to many nearby places of interest. A shortage of food necessitated journeys to other islands and to the adjoining mainland in order to obtain dugong, kangaroos, shell fish, and other native delicacies to eke out our depleted supplies. ABORIGINES or PRINCESS CHARLOTTE BAY, NORTH QUEENSLAND By HERBERT M. HALE (Dirreror) ann NORMAN B. TINDALE, B.Sc. (ErHNoLoaisr). CONTENTS. Puge I. Tntvoduetion +3 ote a wie ha Sx he 03 Il. Geographical Description of Princess Charlotte Bay District . se (4 IIT. Plaee Names na af . as fe oa fe 66 IV. Tribes ota a vs at a ws ot an G7 Vv, Tvpes of Natives a4 wa as - eo te ne 71 Vi. Mutilations .. oe ae A, ios és e+ Ap Thi VIL. Population .. o os 83 ie es BE ai 77 VIII, Social Organizations and Totems r; :s rt ar % vit) IX. Marringe Customs ., ote we +4 is ik 4% tt] X. Initiation .. “f ok w 4. ot ote is SA XI. Ceremonial Life Ey rt = ot 4 28 es S5 XII. Personal Names re Ly oe . “6 ee ts MN) XIE, Magie aA 30 “3 re abs de te $e n0) XIV, Dreams an a $3 ce bf Ape oe - 3 XV. Death, Mourning, and Burial .. sri ee ra “F "4 NVI. Fighting and Weapons ‘a os de a os of Ys NVIT. Hunting and Fishing; Collecting and Preparation of Poods “ ri 107 INTRODUCTION. Ix December, 1926, the Board of Governors of the South Australian Museum seut the writers to Southern Cape York Peninsula, North Queensland, with the object of elaborating the hitherto meagre Museum colleetions from this locality. January and February, 1927, were spent at Flinders and Stanley Islands, Bathurst Head, Stewart River and Silver Plams, and on the shores of Princess Charlotte Bay. Our first station was on Flinders Island, where a small hut had been ereeted fo aecommodate stores required by trepane and pearline fleets working on the Great Barrier Reef. The fortnight set aside for marine work at this island was extended to five weeks, owing to the detention of our entter by eyclonie weather near Cooktown. Fortunately, natives of several tribes visited the island, while 64 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM dhe extended stay permitted visits to many nearby places of interest. A shortage of food necessitated journeys to other islands and to the adjoining maintand in order to obtain dugong, kangaroos, shell fish, and other native delivacies to ele out our depleted supplies. When the entter returned we visited the Stewart River distmet, and speat several weeks at the mouth of the Stewart and at Silver Plains, some five riles inland. A few days were spent at Flinders Island on the return journey, anc, after a protracted delay in Cairns, due to the passage of the Willis evelone, we left North Queensland for Adelaide in April. The following notes were vathered in the intervals of marine and general yoolowival research. which faet serves as an exeuse for, and an explanation of, their incompleteness, GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION. Prineess Charlotte Bay is a large, northwardly-directed indentation tt the east coast of Southern Cape York Peninsula. It is everywhere shallow and muddy and, except at its sandy western extremity, is lned with a dense fringe of mangroves. Several large rivers flow into the Bay from the south and south- west. and their delias form extensive aveas of swamplaud, lagoon, and nivileflat. The country cast of Princess Charlotte Bay is a gently rising plain extending to ihe Main Cape York Dividing Range; it is covered with open forest, swamps, and in isolated places with dense riverine jungle and tropical rain forest. The country east of the Bay between Bathurst Head and Cape Melville is a dissected plateau of horizontally bedded sandstone of Triassic awe, resting on a pavement of massive granite, and eulininating in the rather inaccessible Alfan- mout Range, over 2,000 feet in height. The Flinders Islands. to the north of Bathurst Ilead, ave outliers of this dis- seeted platean; they rise in steep red sandstone cliffs on almost all sides, and owing to the sterility of their scant soil vegetation is sparse, The lighest peak on Flinders Island is 1,051 feet in height. There are several small depressions on its hare sides which contain pockets of soil, wherein yams and other plants may erow, otherwise the whole aspect is one of iufertility and aridity, The relative dryness of the island climate may be judged by the fact that in the wettest montis of the rainy season (January-Webruary) less than an ineh of ram fell, although during the same period some thirty inches were reeorded at Stewart River. This may be accounted for by the fact that during the northayest monsoon this grou) ison the lee of the Cape York Peninsula. Flinders Tsland is skirted by number- HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 65 Tribal names..... ROK SMA LAMA Local Group names.,., Varsall Seale of miles ei 4 THURSDAY ISLAND Margaret Byy ve oF yal Range Y princess Chavtorr® tio COOKTOWN oy gNigne Lo NOKMANTON ‘OWNSVILLE Cape Sidmautth, QUEENSLAND = -XQOCKHAMPTON QUEENSLAND COOKTOWN TO CAPE WEYMOUTH, CAPE YORK PENINSULA. bDhu Reef (Yangal mini) Barrows AF veint (Wupkelal) © | “He. 8G, Mirrdoch Point cp Turtle Group ° ny eTARME RIVER Lookwut Point Cope Flattery - . fe ee “ JACK CREEK iss Cape Bedford Tadian Head KIRA ey 23 —-COPKTOW 8 “ Walker Buy ANNAN & Wa TAL TAS 66 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MuSEUM less coral reefs and islets of the Great Barrier Reef, Hach affords a variety of marine foods for the native inhabitants. Drinkine-water is scarce, although a few permanent native wells exist, wud. there is stated to be a submarine fresh-water spring off Denham Island, The Flinders Groups and vicinity were first noticed by King (1), who mace no fewer than three visits to Princess Charlotie Bay. TLis description is. stum- mary: ‘Cape Flinders . . . is the extremity of a group of islands of high and rugged character forming the western head of Bathurst Bay.’’ King saw evidence of the presenee of natives on Stanley Island, and in several places meutious having seen natives, or evidences of recent camps, there. Remains of early shipwrecks oeeur on the coasts of the island, auc have pro- vided the natives with a supply of iron For several generations. Therefore no evidence of the use of stone tools remains, Despite its stern appearances the Flinders Groip has been visited by several exploring vessels. The ship #/y was there in 18435 the ship Bramble cruised for ten days inthe Bay in August 1838, while waiting for the explorer iwennedy, who, during his overland trip to Cape York, was apparently the first to examine the interior of the country. Tlann explored the coast at Stewart River in 1872. Roth visited Princess Charlotte Bay, but as far as ean be ascertained from bis writings the greater part of his notes refer te the natives of the mainland tribes. The ships sllert, Ratilesnahe, and Dart also engaged in zoologieal and other re- searches along this coast. European ocenpation was stimulated by the discovery of extensive goldfields in the Coen district, but since the exhaustion of the viehest alluvial claims the country has been largely abandoned. The natives were early alfected by Huro- pean ¢ontacts, bit have in part reverted to their former state. his is especially trne of the inhabitants of the less invitine Coastal areas. PLACE NAMES. Place names vary from tibe to tribe. Roth (2) has reeorded names for some of the geographical features of the Princess Charlotte Bay area in the langue Of! the Koko-warra, an inland tribe, This uomenclatiire is dissimilar to thal employed by the coast tribes for places within their own bounds, The nines on the accompanying maps (fie, 1-2) are in every case those applied by Jocul members of the tribal group. (1) King, Philip, Survey of Australian, i, 1827, p, 280. (2) Roth, Ree, Aust. Mus,, viii, 1910, p. 94. ITALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSI.AND 67 TRIBES. Natives of six tribes were met with, and random notes relating to others were eathered. Onur pringipal contacts were with natives of the Mutumui, Wahubaria, Kokolamalama, anid Barunenan tribes. The accompanying sketch map (fie. 1) indicates the veneral distribution of the tribes. Definite bound- aries cannot be marked off by means of lines; if the map were coloured it would, ¢ am we ¥ Neoroma Ty? Clack L PMR a nth QUEENSLAND FLINDERS GROUP AND %,, BATHURST HEAD IA . nant i) a ‘Be Blackwood T, AS ug anint f Q me = S OMANINI a 2 s Denham I, OI “nba, - g 4 = oo, ae ° Bathurst Bay Torpini gq Titara 2 axBay Hill Wi" (1415) aityy =e hy % Princess Charlotte Bay ie my) a Scale of miles Lt _J 68 RECORDS OF THE S.A. Museum as a rule, be necessary to run the colours one into another in-arder to indicate svitbolically the definite divisions between the peoples. The Mutunnti people, mi the south-eastern part of the area wader eonsidera- fion, are shore-dwellers, frequenting the coastal plain bebween Murdoch Point andl Bathurst Bay. Barrow Point and Periwinkle Creek are among their chief eimip- ig places, The tribe is divided inte seyeral small local groups or clans, each of which elaiis one ora pair of totems. Bach clan ar totem kin ay be referred to either by the name of the ehiel locality or, nat so frequently, ly the naanwe of the prineipal totem, Tach of these elas speaks a slivbthy diferent dialect of the dame Laneawe, Gelled Eahole (Kbole or Mipoliny. This aaime is also applied in {he form Nihoele ta one of the surviving elins. The Ongwara clan camp is principally at Mack River, the Yinini at Cape Melville, the Eibole at Barrow Point. Other groups, members of whom we did not ineet, are stated to oceur at Noble Island. the Wurkuldi, and at Starke River, where the langnage was said to change very auch. The Yinini elan (Cape Melville) are known to the Kokolainalaina people as Bantam (or, according to one old nen who had a peeuliay enunciation, Basthow |. The Mutuniii are essentially a coastal people. and anky visit the sandstone table- HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 69 lanccountry to gather honey and hint opossrmams and rock wallabies, Thot native tracks or pads extend everywhere along the coast, turning inland ouly wher necessary to avoid rocky cliffs (fig. 3). Their water supplies are obtained chiefly in little soaks alone the beaches. The Onewara seetion of the Mutumii people, who live in the countyy nea and behind Bathurst Bay. refer to the Yinini as ‘alei,” or saltwater, They apply ihe same term to the Walubaria. A Kokoyimidir wonuin, from near Cooktown, knew the term Kokonegodi (of Roth) as one applied to the Mutiumui by the Cooktown people; it is not kuown to the Murtuumit themselves. The Flinders tslands and Bathurst ILead are occupied by the Waliubiaria tribe, whieh is divided into two pringipal elas, the Warren, who live on the islands, and the Tartali, of Bathurst Tlead. The southern borndary of the tribe lies between Atimukin in Bathurst Bay and the eastern extremity of Princess Charlotte Bay. Their language is called Yaleawara, and the uatives clistingish a ‘Taviali dialect used only by the mainland seetion of the tribe. Naines applied by others to this tribe are Wonkayi, Ketjringa, and Mba. The two. tast-nanul are Kokolamalama terms, The Walnibaria are a fishing people, livin prinei pally on shore-fishes, niolluses, erustaceans, and oveasional dugomes anid turtles, Verwo- table foods are relatively searee, and the consequent carbohydeate Iiuiger leads them to consider such food the ereatest of lixtries. Denham [sland (Omani) was once inhabited by a special group of Walim- baria natives who are now extiuet. There was au important eamping place at Wokanoka beach, an dhe northern side. Water is found at Omenini Port; the natives tol of a fresb-water spring below sea level. At high tide they dive down und drinks at other times they lower shell buckets tito the sea to obtain supplies. Glaekwood Island (Wakayi) was never permanently inhabited. but there os a lire¢e camping place at the northern end, which is used when fishing exeursiots are mace to the island. The Kokolamalame ave inhabitants of the banks of the Normanby aud North Kennedy Rivers, Their coastline is swampy anc manerove-linedk so that thes are largely an inland people. but they do not extend beyond the tidal limits of the rivers. The term Nokolamatama is veally the name applied to them by a amore sort lie ern tribe; they call themselves Bakanambia and Wanbara. Those who live near Jane Table Hill, anc who are in close contact with Walmbaria people, sometimes eall themselyes Wahunbana om Mbawalnbaria. To the south-west they are in contact with the Koko-rarmul people deseribed by Roth. The Kokoavarva tribe of Roth was known by contact to members of the Noke- 70 RECORDS OF THE S,A. MUSEUM Jamalama, with whom we conversed at Bathurst Head. They were said to live on the upper waters of the Normanby River and to extend as far as Laura. heir main camp was at a place called ‘'Daidan,’’ which the authors have since recog nizedas being the Deighton River. This is probably the *‘ Laura-Deiehton’? tribe, whose brass ‘‘king plate’? was accidentally kieked vp out of the sand by one of is ona beaeh at Flinders Tsland, The Yettenern tribe live west of the Kokolamalnuna, alone the Saltwater Creek and Annie River. They are called the ‘salt pan blaekfellows’’ by natives speaking Enelish, and use a clislectic variation of Kokolamalama, They are nearly extinel, only one old man and five women remaining alive in 1927. There were two clans, one on the seashore and one inland, but little could be learned about them. The Barunenan tribe extends alone the coast fromm Running Creek in the south nearly to Cape Direction. Kokolamalimes ames for the tribe are Baa and Banjmgam. The Karnyn, an inland people, eall them Baka. There are at least five local groups or clans who claim this tribal nane. The southernmost is the Yuinbata, who frequent the country south of Stewart River, on the southern bank of the month of which they make their northermmost camp. Their main eanps ajreon Balelutha Creek. The Bntjinga live alone the banks of the Stewart River, the mouth of which is also known as Entjinea. Rormerly they ranged inland, in search of honey and small game, for some thirty miles, but sinee the stocking of the main range with eattle they have been compelled to confine themselves to the relatively infertile sand beaches, coastal swamps, and mangreve-lined foreshores, At Entjinga they camp only on the northern bank of the river, The Apownna (also called Konaniuauma) clan have their main Gaps alone Massey River. In recent years they have become greatly diminished in umubers, and have linked themselves with the Entjinga simvivors, although they still keep their camps about fifty vards apart. The Ompeila range from Rocky River (Ompecinganama) northward to the Nishet River, Some of their main camps are on the Rocky River, and a perma- nent lagoon one mile north of the mouth of the river is also an important caniping eround. Dialectic variations oeeur in the languages ‘of these elans. Thus the Yuin- hata word for water is ‘opola,’ the Entjinga is tipi.’ and the Ompeila is ‘pii.’ North of the Onpeila is the “Night Island” group, about which little was learned, except that they Intermarry with the other clans of the Bartmgnuan and speak practically the same dialect as the Ompeila, North of the Night Island people were other tribes, the language of which was not known to the informant, a Night Island woman named Oreji, who was married to an Entjinea mar. HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 71 The Karnyvu (Karnju, Karna, Karntjn) tribe is an inland group belonging to the main dividing range country between Coen, the headwaters of the Archer River, and the sources of {le Lockhart. They were formerly at enmity with the coast tribes on both sides of the Peninsnla. Our acquaintance with them is slight and basecl on brief conversations with a man at Stewart River. A few exaniples of their vocabulary recorded in the word Usts, and some other facts, indicate the possibility of a definite break im type of social sirueture and relationships between these two groups, TYPES OF PEOPLE. The coastal natives of Princess Charlotte Bay and Flinders Island are of mediun stature, seldom attaining 5 ft. 7 in. in height. Many of them are reta- tively small, with statures of 5 ft. 1 in. to 5 ft. 2 in. No detailed measurements were secured. Theiv bodies are stout and nuwseular, but. as is usual in Australian tribes, the thighs and legs are relatively thin, he body colour may be of two distinet Shades of brown, either very dark or a lighter shade. Body hair varies from scant (the usual condition) toa far rarer moderately hairy eondition. The head hare varies from low waves (kymatotrich) to spiralled (wotrieh), the inland and southerm people possessing on the average straighter hair than those on the eoast. A dark skin and ulotrichous hair is very characteristic of the Walhnbaria survivors, as well as some of the Princess Charlotte Bay peoples. Among the thirty-four people with untrimmed hair at Flinders [slau (coastal Wahubaria, Kokolamalama, and Mutmmui tribes) the estimated pro- portion of hair types according to Martin’s scheme (*) was as follows: Kymatotrich 2 6% Q 3 I f 13 38% Vlotrich o WW 30% h 6 18% ie. 4-7 show full-face and profile views of two Walmbaria men. Wondal, the Jast adult male snevivor of the Stanley Island @roup (fie. 4-4) dias nlotriehous hair of the type h. His skin was of the darker shade and his body was relatively hairy, Further north on Cape York an even @reater proportion of the natives have frizay hair. Bie. 45 depicts four men of the upper Archer River whom we met. Three of them have markedly ulotriehous hair. (%) Martin, I., Lehrbuch der Anthropologie, 1928, vol, 1, p. 24, fig. 74, ~r bo RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM Kokolwmaliins men, i. t _ Stanley Walubarin men, (4-5, (s-$), Jai g. 47. Vis HALE AND TINDALE ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 73 Poiut). IS-19, Barrow > 1-17, Cape Melville; Maek Rive ) 1 (12-18, Mutunii nen. ig, 12-19. 74 RECORDS OF THE S,A, MUSEUM Fie. 34-42 depiet Wabubaria women. Where the hair remains uneut it is nsnally deeply waved on the borders of ulotvichy. bi later life, after continued enlfing, dW appears to be less enrled. Kokolmmationa den are depieted in fie, 811. Mitiwinui men are shown in tiv. 12-39, wonen in fiw. 24-33, and children in 44. Bie, 20-23 show full-face said Mie. 20-21. Barunguan man, sod fe. 22-24, Barnuguan woman (both Stewart River), HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND y Wig, 24-88. Motommi ween, (24-27, Cpe Melyille; 28-01, Cape Bowens 82-08, Barvayw Point). Pig. S45. Walnlaria women (34 39. Plinders [slands 34 48, Bathurst Head). 75 76 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM profile views of a Barunguan man and woman from Stewart River; the women shown in fig. 46-47 and 50 and the children in fig, 49 are from the same locality. Marked assymetry of the breasts was a noticeable feature among the women of the Barunguan e¢roup; in all the cases observed the left breast was of small dimensions as compared with the right. Fig. 50 depicts one of the less marked Instances, Me. 45. Men from Upper Areher River; Pig. 44. Mutuwmni children, three have markedly ulotrichous iin. MUTILATIONS. Tooth evulsion is praetised among the Wabubaria aud Barnunenan, either the rivht or Jett upper central incisor beige removed in all members of both sexes. Biv. 47 depicts a Barunguan youne woman with the right upper cemteal missine, A broad short transverse vieatrice is generally cut on the upper chest of Walmbaria males; this may be followed by a second or third. tn recent years the practice has tended to lapse. Long, thin, transverse abdominal vicatriees were the fashiou at Stanley Tsland, as well as numerous short vertical marks on the upper and outer part of each arm: typical examples are shown in fie. 4-5, The Barungnan of both sexes econimonly cut transverse sears on the lower part of the chest, as well as one or more vows of vertical vicatriges on the upper HALE AND TINDALE—ARORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 77 ams. Also they sometimes pierce the lobes of their ears, and keep them dis- tended with pieces of wood. but the practice was never tiniversal, and has been largely abunconed by the younger veneration. Mutu, Walnibaria, and Darnunenan people pierce the nasal septum, and conumonty wear short, transverse, wooden nose-plugs or longer earved shell orna- mots through the bole. The effeet of this mutilation is seeu in fie. 46 aud 48, Ciremmeision is not known or practised amoug any of the tribes met with at Princess Charlotte Bay, and no operation is practised on adolescent oirls, POPULATION. In 1926 there were no diving childven of the Walmbaria tribe, the youngest person then being a youth about ciehteen vears of age. Some ten males and fifteen females survived, a few on the island and the others at Bathurst Head. The total area of their countey was little more than 30 square miles (of whieh 10 tiles was included in the islands, the rest beine on the mainland). Pig. 46, Barunenay owemsn, showing Fig. 47, Batinguan woman, with incisor pierced masah suphums Et, Stewart, tooth removed; Pt. Stewart. Genealowies show that in previous generations the average miumber of ehil- dren per Family reaching (heir majority was 3-2 (average of seven families). tn (wo families there were five surviving children, Indications suggest that the tribal bonndary has remained constant within the memory of the present natives, but that the population bas deereased. The Family lists show that two generations ago there were between thirty and forty 78 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM people on the islands and about thirty at Bathurst Head, the larger nuniber on the island being determined primarily by the greater available area of food- providing coast and reef, Che population, two per square mile, was demse, con- sidering the sterility of the sandstone tableland, which constitutes the major part of the area, Mip. 48. Walmbaria woman with wooden pose pegs liners [slanc. The depletion of the iribe in the present gencration has heen partly observed by a northward drift of adult Mutiumii people accompanied by two children, The country of these people has been adversely affeeted by the advanee of cattle stations in the south, Tua Kokolamalama camp at Princess Charlotte Bay ouly few children were seen, Fig. 49. Barunguan children, Stewart Fig. 50, Barunguan woman, Stewart Liver. tiver, : HALE AND TINDALE—ARORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 79 At Stewart River few opportunities for study of the population occurred. The Yettenerw tribe is almost extinet, and the survivors could give us little idea of its former miumbers. Several children were present in the Barunguan camp, but only one family had more than two. At least eight women of child-bearing age had no surviving children, although they had had numerous pregnancies. No estimate of the pre- sent or former population can be eiven. SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND TOTEMS. Walmbaria Tribe, Brie! observations made on Flinders Island sug@eest that the basis of the social organization in the Walubaria tribe is a two-class system, either degenerate or puperfectiy developed, anc now falling into disuse. The two classes are now always referred to by the names applied also to (he principal totems, namely : a, Owaimini. bh. Uneawn. One suspects that formerly other uames were known; in the Barunguan tribe the terms Karpia and Koiana are still used. This dichotomous organization is associated with patrilieal descent and patrilocal marriage. As in some other areas where only moeities and totems occur, the reckoning of descent is simple, the child (male or female) taking the moeity, the totem, and the totem country of its father. The totem kins are strongly localized and are exovamous. The totems are comparatively few in number in each of the tribes under consideration. and each tends to be strietly localized in some particular part of the tribal area. The following oceur in the Walmbaria tribe : Class A, Class B. Owaimini (kangaroo) : Uneawu (native companion ) : Stanley Esland and Minders Lsland. Bathurst ILead. Arkeita (whale) : Rokali (ved kangaroo) < Flinders Island, Denham Island, The Rokalu people of Denham Island are extinct. Some of the people elaim both kangaroo and whale totems; they regard Owaimini as being more important to them than Arkeita. An emu totem also formerly existed on Flinders Island. Dut details were not obtained. 80 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM Flinders Island men and women talk freely of Owaimini as their totem, and it is only on close questioning that the subsidiary totem ‘arkeita’ will be men. timed, This subsidiary totem is possessed by all individuals, There is one woman who claimed to be arkeita alone, but this was not supported by other members of ber tribe, Strict prohibition of the eating of the kangaroo exists among all these people, but does not extend to the whale totem; if one of these giant manuals were stranded, everyone would eat of it. At Bathurst Mead the native vompanion is not eaten. In the Walmbavia tribe a man was permivted to marry his mother’s brother’s danghter or i person who stood in the same relationship, and (he former normal method of marriage was for two men suitably related to exehange sisters, These notes disagree with Roth (4), who states that throughout North Queensland mother’s brother’s daughter, aud father’s sister's danghter, are prohibited mar- rigges, Since the breaking-up of the tribe organization, and {he decimation of the tribe, this practice has been practi¢ally abandoned in fayour of more indis- criminate unions with individuals of remote tribes. The wife of one Flinders Island native is from Cooktown, another woman is from Night Island, a third from Saltwater Creek, The kinship system, unlike that of the Kokoyimidir recorded by Roth (*), makes no distinetion between younger and older brothers and sisters aud between mother’s younger and older brothers and sister, A brother and sister apply the came terms, ‘ambui’ and ‘arwui,’ to a sister's children. There are four terms for the second ascending generation, The same terms probably apply to the second descending eeneration, but are not shown in any of the genealogies we obtained, In the accompanying diagram the Walmbaria terms, so far as known, have been set out on the framework first devised by Fry (°%) during an Anthrapolowieal Expedition to Central Australia in 1929, The list of kinship terms is not exhaustive, and one or two of them are open jo eriticism. The term ‘kagai,’ obtained for both mother’s and father’s brother, may de incorrect in so faras it applies to father’s brother, The latter has another term, ‘oayi,’ which is probably the more correet one, One female informant apparently gave us the terms ‘amin’? (son) and ‘arwi’ (daughter) with the meanings trinisposed; this may be due to a misunderstanding or to a clerical o) errov. The term ‘purne@ai’? was given to 1s once as being applied to brother’s ehildren, but this usage was not confirmed, (+) Roth, Ree. Aust, Mus,, viii, 110, p. 102. (*) Roth, North Qld. Ethnography, ti, 1907, p. 10. (%) Pry, Trans. Roy. Soe., 8. Arst., Iv, £991, p. 17, QO 81 HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND fase “PIOMUY *P 8,.TO4STS TAMIW d ‘pq’ y resnare suryeads ‘SA “sa Teyed (oTeutay) ODu vy "VY pue B ale uotp[iya oy} “q sortrent ‘opeut ve ‘e isnyy, “smort}Ecoues urol souty [BOLp1aA aq} ‘SaPRLLeUl o}Rorpu seq [ejWoZLoY oy, *asea aaddn ut ‘suryeods apeutos Tomo, ur pojurd ‘Suryreds opeyy taqrag, vireqwuypey, eq} Fo Asopourtia} Arysuryp TOS TONGAN V TLOS S,.To]SIS THQ UL OY TLV UOS "q°TU HOS 8,L0}8T8 FU TV OOCV TOS S$, LO]STS “F “Q'M BILAL q q ‘Dp ANYTW tos ody Vv R TAISTS “YTV OOACV IOJSTIS “M BILLY suryeads P 8,doqsis fF “pq “Ma BUMALW — WOS “q"y “q'd “q'a TeBnae (o[BUL) Osny q eB ‘SAUL “S*O UL TRORY "UL TBR TY a ort reytlye J, Y FU VUVITV FA IQ “QUE ROR yy q ‘Fu reorlug 4 weet TV SICAL “UA TUR TR TY “QF lesey j “q'} LXeo THPSIS “Ff TBE J TRYBT AA Vv RB “UT TRSTQR I, ‘Py wsnMg I v 82 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM The obtaining of detailed genealogies was laborious, owing fo the marked reluctance with which the natives spoke of the dead. This factor, and the rapid deweneration of native custom which has occurred since Ewropean contact, incli- cate that only a limited time remains for useful work in this field of study. Other Tribes, In the Mutumui tribe there appears to be a similar social organization to that of the Flinders Island people. There are no less than six loealized totem eroups, each of which may have a subsidiary totem, Our information. is insuffi- cient to explain the details, but the following is a list of the totems obtained : A. B. Wivara (dugong) : Karnyen (frilled lizard) : Cape Melville. Inland from Barrow Point. Wivara (+Karuyen, frilled lizard) : Tokanba (blaek kangaroo) : ‘ape Melville. Mack River. Wiyara (--Ngapoyi, leathery turtle) : Tokanba (--Arundi, white pigeon) : Cape Bowen. Kast of Mack River, Arayil (loggerhead turtle) - Yalnga (shell turtle) ; Noble Island. Cape Melville. Yerkunguru (emt) : Mack River, In addition there was one totem about which our informants were themselves in doubt, namely, ‘alpongora’ (pelican), from Yokowara, cast of Bathurst Tead. Marriage is patriloeal, and the children inherit the totem and totem place of the father. The totem animal is never eaten. The only Kokolamalama totems which we are able to record are; A. B. Alputa (dugong) : Kurkur (native companion) : Jane Table Mill. Jane Table Hall. There is a prohibition against cating the totem animal. The country of the dugone people extends somewhat further inkind than that of the native eom- panion people, so that their temptation fo indulge is lessened by their laek of opportunity. Our stay at Stewart River vielded few opportunities for enquiries into social organization. HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 83 MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. At Port Stewart the people of the Entjinga and Yuinbata local ereups were found in mourning, for recently an old man of the latter group had been buried. Their hair had remamed uncut for several months, anc they were wearing muner- ous objects of mourning. including pendants and wooden tablets, Shorthy after our arrival.a brief ceremony was held, at which the principal event was the cut- ting off of the hair of all the individuals in mourning; this was followed by a feast, for which food had heen aceumulatecd for several days. The objects of mourning were then destroyed or discarded, except by the widow, who still wore them when the writers left Port Stewart. During a period of general mowing no marriages take place, but the ban is lifted after the bair-entting ceremony, In the Mutumeg tribe a woman whose husband dies becomes the wife of her former husband’s brother, and tf she proyes unsatistactory may be passed by him toa father’s brother’s son, The wile leaves the tribe in whieh she was horn and enters that of her busband; children always belone to the tribe of the father. Ifa Yettenern man deserts his wife she may return to her tribe, and may fmuporarily succeed in keeping the children; the sister of the former daisbaud, however, nay become largely responsible for securing food for them. Tooth evyulsion is practised by the Walnbaria and Barnnguan (fig. 47), and it is considered proper that all men and women should have parted with an upper incisor before marriage takes place. In the Barnnguan tribe a man is compelled to provide frequent contributions of animal food for his wife’s mother, with whom he is not permitted to have any (lireet contaet ov conversation. A Walinbaria qian paints the hody of his future mother-in-law with oehre as a sign of betrothal to the daughter, Hyom this thne on he provides food for the daughter, and after the aiarriage continues te contribute food to his wife's father and mother as well. Ifa child is bor after its mother has been travelling in the country of some group or tribe other than that of the father, the child inay be recognized as belong ine to that country, for the mother remembers the time when the child suddenly entered her. Tt was assertecl too that it would also receive the totem ol that country. tn the only conerete exainple provided the contrary was the ease, for a Klinders Island hoy, whose country was Mack River, retained the owainini totem, INITIATION, The first step in the initiation of the adolescent Walmbaria lad takes place af the age of about eleven or twelve years. Up to this tine he has had mueh free- 84 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM dom of association with his sisters, his mother, and other madividuals of the oppe- site sex, The advent of initiation is marked by a series of events of great dramatic foree, which appear to impress on the child the beginning of a new life period, The ceremony commences when he is suddenly secreted in a mangrove swamp, oF ina hole in the reeks, by a eroup of women, who stand enard over the spot, and try by various subterfuges, sueh as erasing bis footprints, to disguise iis hiding place. A body of men then appear. They are decorated with pipe-clay sprinkled in the hair, broad transverse bands of colour on the chest, and long evrved nose- hones and feather plumes; armed with newly-painted fighting spears, they rosh to the spot and foreibly remove the ehild, or children, amid the sereams and mock heroies of the women-folk, Pig. 51-54. Decornted turtle skulls; Widnibaria tribe, Stanley Tslaud. Pig. 55-56. Wooden * rain-anakers* ’ > Mirtumui trihe, Barrow Point, The eluld now becomes attached to an individual, usually a tather’s brother (Coayi’), who instructs hin in the varions arts of manhood. Kor sone months he is forbidden to speak to the women-folk of the camp, and is thus subject to a series of rules of ceremonial avoidance. For instance, in walking in the bush he must not follow the tracks of any women, even if they be old. Ilis ears may be pierced, and one of his upper incisors is removed; as before mentioned, eireumn- cision is not practised. When he is of age, he is given a wife, for whom he has promised, or given in exchanee, a sister, ov a father's brother's sister. The girl he obtains is usually about his own age, or somewhat younger. The understand- ing whereby he has obtained her may be of old standing; at Stewart River the Hate AND TINDALE—-ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 85 pareots may arrange a coucitional marriage for their infant son during (he preguaney of a mother, on the chance that the mmborn infant is a giel, The principal event in the life of the young Walmbaria initiate ocenss when lie has so far profited by the instructions of his oayi that, unaided, he has killed his first turtle or digoug with harpoon wid line. The animal so obtained is eaten ata ceremonial feast next evening, the lad being waily painted and the centre of attraction at the weeompanying danee, The skull of the turtle or lower jaw of the dugong is painted hy the initiate, and it is then seereted in a hole or crevice at the baek of a roek-shelter, where it rests in company with nwucrous similar records, Fi. 51 depiets the turtle skull decorated by Wondal (the last of the Stanley Island males) when he was au initiate. [owas shown to the writers when exam- ining a large shelter at Endaen, and was preserved in a narrow erevice. Lt was associated with nine other painted (iutle skulls and seven dugone lower jaws, all of which were bronght out and displayed for the purpose of a photograph, Hig. 92-53 represent older skulls, the colour patterns of whieh were revived by Wondal; fi. 54 shows an aneient example preserved in its natieal state. CEREMONIAL LIFE. Reference is made above to the hinting feast whieh is held when a youth kills his first turtle, and various other phases of cercinonial life are deseribed under the heading of trading customs, and death and burial rituals, Ui is here possible to record only a few eeremonials and danees of the less serious type. These performances. however, play au extraordinarily important part in the everyday life of the natives, their frequence being an index of the physical and mental well-being of the community. The advent of the pearling and trepane fisheries on the Great Barrice Reef, and the consequent employment of the majority of the younger men as divers aud hands on the boats. struck a deep blow at the whole social fabric of the coastal natives. The older people, deprived of their food-gatherers, and ravaged hy introduced epidemic diseases, are dying out rapidly, while the prolonged absences of the potential fathers of the coming generation has no cowbt assisted in recdue- ing the birth rate almost to yanishing pot. Under sieh conditions the intensity of their ceremonial Ute has naturally greatly diminished, aml many of the more nnportaut phases will shortly entirely disappear. In good seasons, when food is abundant, danees are held almost nightly, in a cleared space within the preeinets of the camp. At Apa, on Flinders Tslancl, this dancing area was so situated (fig. 57) that the wet-season huts of the various fanulies were placed around it, each wroup on the side nearest to its home country, 86 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM Owen Channel Pig. 57, Plan of native camp at Apa, Flinders Island, during north-west monsoon season, January, 1927. a, Camp of Stanley Islud natives. b, Plinders and Bathurst Head cuinps. o, Kokolamalama camps. d, Dancing ground. e, Ares where ceremonial receptions of yisitors were held. f, Pile of dugong bones. g@, Native well, sole water supply om island. h, Camo lench. i, Apa mangroye swamp. jy Sinall area with wild yams. k, Camp of Museum expedition, (Depths in fathonis; contours at 50 foot interyals). On one oceasion when such a dance was held each man was decorated as follows; The hair was combed out into a mop and dusted with pipeclay. White rings were painted around cach eye, so that they joined upon the nose, and a white streak ran across his forehead. The side of the neck and the arms were decorated with vertical stripes, there was a white ring around the shoulders, two broad stripes crossed the chest obliquely, and three bands of the same colour were painted around each leg. HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 87 The women had their limbs decorated in a similar manner, bit thei faces were marked in one of two ways. In the front there was a forehead band aud a broad spot of white on each check; in the other a pyriform design was formed by a stripe passing down between the eves and nose, across the cheeks, to meet its fellow on the chin, An oblique forehead stripe completed the desivn. The old men sat na group and sang in high-pitched voiues. Several of them avconupanied the singing by beating pairs of tapping-sticks; the women sat to- wether ina group at the opposite end of the cleaved space, and also beat tine by striking thei enpped hands against the wpper and inner parts of their thighs. From time to tine one of then rose and placed branches of trees and bundles of grass upon the fire to provide added ibtoniiation to the sce, Seagull Dance. The ‘arwora,’ or seagnll dance of Ngoromo (Clack Tshimd) was perforined. The refrain of this dauce was as follows : “Wongal nvanjia unbarworoloi’’; repeat. The performers were placed in three semieivenlar lines, with the eoueayve side facing the old men. The two front rows consisted of men, the hindermest of women. Themen stood with arms anc lees outstretched and rieid, and took three shuffling hops, first to the right and then back to the left, bending their bodies somewhat in the cireetion of progress. At the commencement of the danee the men simultaneously uttered a series of loud oexelamations— jer! Ter !'—atter which they continued to grunt loudly throughont the performance, whieh cor- tuned, with pauses for breath. for about half an hour. The women performers stood upright in the background, with their fect close together, and shuffled side- ways by moving alternately on their heels and then an their toes, At first their progress was towards the left, bat when the men changed direction they returned towards the right. Ancestral and Other Dances, Another dance described the way in whieh ancesival beings cleared a track through a big serub or jungle on the mainland. The ‘track’? appears to be similar to those periodi¢ally ent through the forests of North Queensland by evelones. The older men sang: ‘* Alngeriiuga mangar matali mangala mangala.’’ The men knelt down ina long line in the foreground, while the women per- formed the same evolution as in the preceding dance, grunting londly all the time. The kneeling performers swept the wround before them with twigs held in 88 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM the right hand, swaying from side to side, twitching their bodies, and grunting as they did so, No name was given to the following danee, in whieh the men stood in a line wail stamped vigorously ; their lees were wide apart, and they held leafy (wigs in their hands, whieh they first displayed high above their heads, and then suddenly with a jerking movement withdrew behind their backs, only to raise them again equally snildenly a few moments later. These alternating movements were kept up for nearly an hour, during which the women shufiled as before, iu the back- vromul, The old men sang the following song : “Ac mangala mangala aa da la qdanwala meaneala’’; repeat. At the conclusion of this performance the men simultaneously @ave an un- usually lowd writ as they raised their vieht hands above the head and aaother as they jerked then suddenly down. In another danee (vaguely described as being the attempts of two ancestral beings to cohabit) two men stood back to back, with their legs apart ancl their hands linked together. They stamped Gu ihe ground, making a show of great effort as they lifted their feet and brought them cdown. The right foot of the one performer and the left foot of the other were lifted sunulaneously. The women continued their usual shuffling dance and their grunting, while the old men sang the same sone as in the previous dance. Closely following on this dance was one in which both sexes performed like rhovemuemts. The performers took their places im two semi-cireles, as in the Arwora dance, the men in front, the women behind. THoldime a leafy buneh rigidly before bimsell with ontstretehed arias, each performer moved sideways with the shuffle practised by the wonten m previous dances. A sheht yariation in the method of movement enabled each performer to eradually move forward towards the centre (instead of sideways), so that the whole troupe of dancers eventually came together in a closely-packed buneh. They then worked gradu- ally bavkwards until they reached their former positions. The ‘Ae tanpale mangala’? sone was sune throughout this danee, and the inteusification of execite- ment throughout it was indicated by the vigour of the @runting and the strenuous, though restrained, movements of the performers. The danee was continued for perhaps half an how, and was conehided with two very loud @riunts, as before. This performance was the climax of the evening, and at a signal from thie oltinen the proceedings concluded, i being then midmieht, An oceasional sound ol exeited langhter and brief snatches of various sones drifted over from the diferent camp-fires for au howe or more before silence prevailed. HALE AND TINDALE-—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND &9 Women’s Dances, Some Walmbaria tribe dances are performed lareely by women, the men being present ¢liefly as spectators or as sinwers and Lime-besaters, The women are decorated with pipe-elay (from a deposit on the south side of Winders Island) ov, more rarely, with yellow oelive. Usually a broad white band is painted aeross the forehead, and a line runs down the middle of the nose: one young inmarried girl had broad white marks painted on each temple, but Was not otherwise ornamented, The bodies ave marked with broad trausverse hands of pipe-clay, which are not contimied on the back. In one such dance observed by us several men kept time by clappinie hands, another beat time on a paper-bark bandle or eushion taken from a eanoe, while yet avother struck a metal tin obtained from our camp. One man sane the whole time the familiar, but apparently now largely meaningless, word recorded above (Ae nungala,’ ete). The others joined in at intervals to relieye or assist him. In the first dance the women took their positions in two transverse lines facing the men. who were erouped together at the northern end of the daieiny- ground, and shofiled sideways in the ustal manner, putting ereat efforts into the dance andl eviunting loudby, This preloninary movement was followed inancdiately by the “Topanpo,” or eassowary dauee, in which a spear was driven upright info the gronnd, aud the women performers vrouped themselyes around it in a balf-eirele at a distance of perhaps five yards, One man took part in this dance, Ee took his position at the right end of the semi-cirele, but only a couple of yards trom the spear, and moved counter cloek-wise in a circle. The woien also moved very slowly ina counter clock-wise direction as the dance proceeded, and slowly closed in on the nan, so that eventually all were crowded closely together aeainst the spear, Bach performer danced in # crouched position, with the right hand raised up to sitinlate a bird’s head, and the left raised to the shoulder, In a second movement of this danee the spear was removed, and the nian stood upright in its plaee, with feet widely apart, and holding bunches of leaves in his hands, which were held apart at arm's length, The man’s part m the pre- vious danee was now taken by a small boy of some eleven years, who imitated the man’s auctions of the ecassowary thronghout. Tach dance took ouly about owe minute to perform, after whieh there was a pause of from ten to thirty seconds, during whieh the performers returned to their former positions. After perhaps fifteen minutes the first moyement was replaced by the seeond, whieh continued for a sinuilar period. Excitement beeame intensified as ihe performers reached the elinuix of the dance, after which they hurriedly departed for their respective camp-fires. 90 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM PERSONAL NAMES, No restrictions are placed on the use of personal names, but in ordinary con- versation kinship terms are frequently employed in referring to tudividuals and in addressing them individually. Nieknames are not common, but a person may bear three or even more names, Two or more closely related adults may have the same individnal name, and this tends to prove perplexing at first; as examples it may be mentioned that two Mutumei hallsisters by the same mother (the fathers were brothers) bear the name Atenmale, and that two Walmbaria full brothers bear the name Wondal. Frequently a sou is given the name of a father or father’s father, and ia dangbter may be named after its father’s sister, Others are named after loeal- ities, ee, Wondal is a morntain peal on Bathurst Iead, and Kkanjin (a Woman's name) isa place name in the same district, KEndaen is the name of the principal cave of the Stanley Island aborigines, us well as the name of a father aud son belonging to that place. Two Barunguan girls, about ten and twelve years of age, were both kaiown by their mother’s name, Opoja or Oposi. They had a young married sister, prte- viously also known as Opoja, who had been given a further uaime (Motjutowa ) just before marriage. This custom of naming a girl after its mother is in marked contrast to that of the Luritja tribe of Central Australia, among whont it is the wrayest of all insults to call a person either by his mother’s or bis father *s name, Children ave frequently without names. Two Mutumui children at Flinders Island (a boy and a girl aged about six and nine) were nameless at the time of our visit, Our interested enquiries led the mother to send a message stick (with a yerbal message) to the father, who was absent on the maiuland, His reply was received about a wonth later, and the names of his choosing were immediately adopted, In another ease the father’s brother bestowed the name borne by a boy. MAGIC, The writers were anxious to seeure as many hair samples as possible, but were suceesstul in only a score of cases, The Walmbaria and Baringuan people are averse to allowing another to obtain portion of their hair, beleving that the ‘ possession of this gives an enemy the power to ‘wish’? harm, or even death, to the man from whow it was taken, a belief whieh. in vations forms, ts world-wide. In all the Princess Charlotte Bay tribes, when a man trims his hair be is eareful, therefore, that no one shall pick it up with vefarions purpose, and if near the coast May even go on to a reef, so that the entiings will he carried away on the tide. HALE AND TINDATLE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 91 The Walmbaria people believe that, in certain cirenmstances, the death of a iin nay be brought about by the painting of magical figures. Jf a aan steals a woman, aud escapes with her to the mainland. the old men visit Clael [sland and paint the figure of a man on the rocks; the seducer soon sickens, and eventu- ally clies. Fig. AS. Turtle Gnerease charm; Wala Big. SY. Disearded belongings of dead bai tribe, Batdinest Tes. girl: Wahuharia tribe, Bathurst Head. Some old beliefs are carried down in the form ot legends; apparently some of the stories have been originated to explain natural features of their country. Hor instance, Blackwood [sland (*Wakayvi’), when viewed from Bathurst Lead, resembles a recumbent man; from this circumstance has arisen the story of a bygone warrior who was buried there on lis baels. When the Minders Islanders intend to visit the mainland the old men, by lightiuy a tire and ‘‘singing,’? ¢an make fine wines come, aud this ensure a sate passage for their canoes, The latter ave then paddled along the coast to near Tilpanga (fig. 2), where a pointed cylindrical stone projects above a pile of rocks. This is said to have been erected lone age, and marks the spot from which canoes must leave the island (fie. 61). The women, when searching for food, sing in order that abundant supplies shall be fortheoming. The free translation of the song of a girl looking for oysters ona veef at Bathurst Head is as follows: After finding an oyster she sang, 92 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM “7 have one, why have T not two!”’ (‘1 find him one, why no more | find him two?'’); finding a second one, she said, ‘*T have two, why have L not three?”’; this was repeated until a third was found, Apparently after the fourth oyster was discovered the song began afresh. Fig. 60. Dugong increase charm; Walmbaria tribe, llinders Island. Fig. 61. Cylindrical stone marking point from which canoes must leave Flinders Island. HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 93 Of similar import was the Walmbaria injunction sung to the piece of yain vine thrown back into the hole after recovery of the yam: ''Go baek, make a hig one’? Magical objects are sometimes associated: with invocations, When the water holes are drying, and the men are ‘‘sineine’? rain, additional assistance is afforded by hanging ‘‘vain-makers’’ in the trees, These cousist of flat reetaneular pieces of wood, painted with red ochre and pipe-clay, whieh are shine by a lenoth of Linistond-tibre twine, so that they will twist about in the breeze, (Pie, 55-96.) When these objects rotate in the wind, vain is sure to eome within a short time. If good cateh of turtles is made in a particular loeality the Walmbaria people paimt the heads of their captures and place them in trees in the Vicinity lo ensure further good supplies (fig. 58). Captain Phillip P. King (7), when visiting the Flinders Islands in 1819, remarked on turtle heads treated in this way. Tle stated: ‘*On the braneh of a tree near at hand were three turtles’ heads; and sinee they had been placed there the young branches had expanded, using us to wonder at first how the heads could have passed over them 2... we have since frequently noticed the same thine, whieh could only have heen left by jhe natives’? Mor the same reason the Walmbaria natives collect the bones of duvones after Feasting (fig. 60) and pile them towether, We saw many of these heaps, of various sizes, both on the islands and on the mainland of Princess Charlotte Bay ; some inchided the bones of only one or two animals, but one we examined near acamp at Bathurst Mead was six feet in leneth, three feet in width, and about three feet in hei@ht. All the major bones of the mammals were present, bint dows had chewed away all the thinner portions of the skulls. DREAMS. Some little difficulty was experienced in explaining to the Walmbaria and Mutiunui natives just what we meant bv ‘‘dreaming,’? but ones they compre- hended information was forthcoming. The natives often dream, and the follow- ing experiences are typical, One man several times dreamt that he saw dead people, or a dead person, come ont of the ground and walk abouts on these oceasions he tried te rin, bud his knees doubled wp, and he could only erawl very, very slowly. A man sleeping with a friend during a hunting expedition dreamt that he was dead; he awoke and told his companion. and they both laughed. Others dream that they are chased by bie, savage fellows, and that they cannot run away, (7) King, Survey Consts Aust., 7, 1927, qh 21, 94 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM because their legs refuse offiee; they commonly dreain of everyday occurrences, hunting du@one, turtle, ete. of wallabies in the roeks and kangaroos in the serub. The natives are afraid of the dark, and the women in particular hesitate to inike even short journeys away from the light of the camp-fires. DEATH, MOURNING, AND BURIAL. Death among the Walmbaria natives is not attributed to natural causes, but to magic, and in earlier times, before native troopers and white men had broken down some of the old customs, tribal fights succeeded the decease of a man. Sone time after the funeral ceremonies (apparently about two months after) the Walm- haria people sallied forth and attacked one of the neighbouring tribes, They foneht on open, sandy beaches for preference; spears were used, and sometimes the combat lasted all nieht, considerable damage being inflicted. The Bathurst Head and Flinders Islands groups of the tribe often combined with the Koko- lamalama to attack the natives of Barrow Point, Cape Melville, Cape Boyne, Starke River, and Maek River. At times, however, the Flinders Islands people heeame unfriendly with the Jane Table Till people, and fights took place between them, Some of the older men point with pride to the sears left by stingray spears asa result of these combats. ul a A /\ Fig, 62-68 and 67-69. Wooden mourning tablets; (62068, Walmbaria trihe, Bathurst Tlewd: 67-G8, Walmbaria tribe, Flinders Island, fashioned from spear smothers of the de- conseds 60, Barunguan tribe, Pt. Stewart). Fig, 64-66. Mourning pendants of tum lie; (64, Walmbaria tribe, Bathurst Head; 65-66, Barunguan tribe, Pr Stewart). . Lee > HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 95 When a man dies the body is wrapped im bark: a mourning ceremony is performed, at which there is much ritual, wailine, and enttine of the hody with shells, and the corpse is then buried. Usually the hones are disinterred later, wrapped in painted bark, and the bundle is placed in a tree, Sometimes a lone period vlapses before this lappens, sometimes only a few days, and in a few cases the buried body is left andisturhed. Wig. 70. Barungnan nian with mourning Fig. 71. Barunguin man with mourning atrings; Stewart River. pendant of hyir eavered with beeswix Stewart River, Some special objects are nsed at the burial and during mourning, and special iv, G2-07), eustoms are observed. Rectangular tablets, known as ‘opamaka’ (( painted with red ochre and white pipe-elay, are placed in branches of trees at the place of the ceremony. These are usually made hy the men, and vary in number aeeording to the importance of the deeensed: in some eases they are fashioned from the spear-smoothers of a dead man (fie. 67-68). "he hai of the corpse is ent off, and bound over with Linistoaa twine to form sansave-sha pec or evlindrical bundles (fig. 64-65), which ave hine around the necks of mourners asa sign of evief: often these pendants are covered with beeswax so Hs to wholly conceal the nnderlying hair and string (fie. 66,71). Tf available, a ceremonial net dress (Civawi’) and cap (akwama’), nade frou fishing nets used hy fhe deceased are worn, the relatives taking tues tn the wearing of this eostame 96 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM during the wailing, erying, and daneing. The dresses and caps appear to he rare, but we were able to secure two ancient examples (fig, 73). Painted wooden stuves (fig, 74-75) or ‘‘wailine-sticks,"’ five to seven feet in length, and with a limp of etm at one end, are nsed at the ceremony and elsewhere, and afterwards are placed on the temporary erave of the departed, whose possessions are hung upon then: in some eases two sueh stieks ave held, perpendicularly, one in each Pie, 72, Demonstrations of Wahubaria Pip, 738. Metuming apparel made fram methad of Tashing a corpse to aw pale for fishing nets of deeeased, Mlinders Tsland. burial hand, by a relative during wailing. If a good hunter dies the young mien sonte- times ent out the ulna from both arms, and the bones are aftermyards msed for making the heads of turtle spears. During the mourning period following the burial a widow plasters herself with mud, both head aud body, and may also wear a painted wooden pendant around the neek, plaited stvings wound around thee ‘rms and sometimes round the neck also, When these strings are removed from the neeks of women they are rewound and worn by male mourners; in the latter vase the loop of the chain-strites is passed ever the head and under one ari, so that it extends diagonally across the chest and back; gencrally two sets of strings are thus worn, as shown in fig. 70, Tair pendants are also worn by mourning relatives, who do not trim their hair for months, and, in the case of men, allow the beard to grow unchecked. “I HALE AND TINDALE—ABOKIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND g The following is a description of a grave which we opened at Bathurst Head for the purpose of securing the skeleton of Wapinarinji, one of the Walmbavia natives, A semicircular hut of sticks and bark, about seven feet in diameter, and similar to those used in temporary beach camps, had been erected over the graye, which was situated among grass-erown sandhills near the beaeh. The body was tied fo a stake in a erouched, sitting position, with the head fallen forward ; in this posture it had been wrapped in a bark package and buried in the semi-erect attitude. There was a large sheet of bark over the head, which was no more than two feet below the surface of the eround. Ennan, son of Wapin- arinji, posed, as shown in fig, 72, in the approximate position in which his father had been interred. Pig. 71-75. Mourning staves; Widiibaria tribe, Plinders Tsland. Wig. TO, Dingone harpoor lewd; Mutumui tribe, Barrow Point. Fig. 17, Womnn’s digging stielk: Barunguan tribe, Pt. Stewart. Wig. 78-79, Canes prepared for honey collecting; Barunguan tribe, Pt, Stewart. Pig. 80-81. Miresticks with decorated showths; Barungunn tribe, Pt. Stewart. In olden times the dead were sometimes buried in ihe extended position, flat ou the back; others in the squatting posture, lashed toa stake, Sometimes, uspeci- ally in the latter method, the face was turned up to the sky. but in other eases the head was allowed to fall forward. Ai Walacimini, on Bathurst Head, we aceidentally noticed a heap of dis- carded uative materials beside the ruins of a temporary hut at a place where a gs RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM wourning ceremony for a young girl (Yerkungar, eum totem, of Flinders [stant ) had been held (fig. 59). The objects, which were in a perished condition, cou- sisted of dilly-bags, a small pubic tassel, wooden tablets (‘opamaka’) similar to those already referred to, and a mourning pendant of human hav hung on a forked stick, This girl, we were informed, had plenty of hair, enough fo make any nourning pendants, one of whieh had been discarded by a passing relative, who had considered his mourning complete. A ball of luman hair was also pre- sent, but this had belonged to aman whe had died at about the same tine. At Stewart River the mourning tablets are more clongate (fig. 69), but the butial and mourning eustoms of the Barunguan tribe are apparently similar in many respects to those of the Walnbaria. The body is buried for a variable period, exhiuoed, and the flesh then pieked off the bones, whieh are carried about for as long as two years; there is then a big ceremony, at which the persou acensed of causing the death is punished, The bones are transported to aed finally buried at, the birthplace of the deceased; mourners, who have been wear- ing their hair long, trim it after this ‘‘finish-np’’ ceremony. The Barungnau people also use the painted wailing-stieks, A Barunguan woman havine dive, the husband obtained one of the objects, Tle held the stiek horizontally between his upraised hands, and at intervals bent his body and arms to the eround, wail- ine loudly the while, continning these avtions for several hours. Wheu a strange native dies at Stewart Kiver, or in the neighbourhood, the Barunguan people Iniry hint in a sand-bank in the bed of the river, in the hope that the next flood will wash his bones away; then his spirit will not walk about unhappy in a strange place and trouble the Barunguan people, FIGHTING AND WEAPONS. It has alveady been mentioned that tribal fights at oue time followed a death, Although these were more or less in the nature of ceremonial affrays, they often developed into serious battles. When the Bathurst Llead people anticipated hostilities they kept wateh at Meltjelin, on Bathurst Head, from which place they could see eastward along the coast, When their enemics appeared they prepared for battle by freshly painting their spears and hastily splashing white paint over their bodies, so as to nuke an impressive show (fig. 82). The spear is the usual weapon of combat, and men’s fighting spears, hike most other kinds, are almost always thrown with the aid of the throwiig-st 1ek, The awriters witnessed a ceremonial fight on Flinders Island. One afternoon a small party of Kokolamalama natives from the mainland reached the island. The Barnnguan wife, Mini, of Awnda (Walinbaria tribe) was in the Flinders HALE AND TINDALE—ARORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 99 Island eamp with her husband; she had been previously speared in the shoulder by one of the new arrivals, and this was a rankling grievance, The men arra need themselves into two parties, each man carrying spears and spear-thrower, They fitted their spears into their spear-throwers. and made passes as they walked towards each other, lowering their weapons when within strikine distance; the Wig, SE. Method of holding spear and spear-thrower; Walmbaria tribe, Minders Island. walk was a half shuffle, in whieh dust was kicked up in a elond. The woman Mini also carried a spear, which she brandished; after a ereat deal of talk she retveated some distance, and pretended to throw the spear at the mainland party. During this affair the men shouted at each other in high-pitched voices, and others sang a song, while women who were ot directly concerned talked exeitedhy, Several men took no interest whatever in the happening, whieh was apparently iu the nature of a threat to the delinquent. The method of holding the spear and spearthrower (fig. 82) is very similar to that iustrated by one of the writers in a previous paper dealing with Groote Kylandt natives (%), The spear-throwers are ent from hardwood trees (fie. 84), and are flat and usnally rather wide; a hardwood peg (with a nick to receive the shehtly hollowed end of the butt of the spear) is fastened against one end with sium and twine, while at the opposite end is a rather large baler shell ornament, the making of whieh oceupies considerable time. Two pieces of shell are roughly chipped to shape (fig. 90), and are then ground to an oval form on stones, Sarl and water assisting the operation (fie. 91-93): next the convex outer face is polished on a smooth rock (fig. 83), using finer sand as an abrasive, until it is pnve white. The shells are then placed, one on each side and with the concave or inside faces opposed, at the ‘Serip’’ end of the throwine-stick, and fastened with heeswax, whieh fills the gap between them. A chart is frequently eoneealed (4) Tindale, NL BL, Ree, S. Aust. Mus., iii, 1926, p. 154, fig. 65, 100 Recorps OF THE S.A. MUSEUM ’ portion near the within the adhesive between the two shells. The thin ‘‘erip’ shell ornament is coated with bloodwood wum, and sometimes also bona with string. The shell ornament may also be bound across with wallaby or kangaron sinews (fig. 95.97), During combat the spear-thrower is used to divert, or parry thrown spears. the fat of the implement guiding the spear fo one side or over the shoulder. Pig 88. Grinding baler shell armament for Fig, 84. Pelled tree, with spear-throwers spedr-thrawer; Walmbiaria tribe, Flinders in the making: Walmbarin tribe, Bethurst Island. Head. This type of spearthrower (fig. 86) is made by all the Princess Charlotte Bay tribes; those used at Jane Table Hill by the Kokolamaluna (fig. 87) are wore slender than those of the Walubaria tribe (fig. 88). Some of the spear- throwers of the eoastal tribe near Cairns are Similar (fig. 89), birt lack the baler shell ornament and the eum and lashing at the grip end: these people, however, use shields. The Princess Charlotte Bay people depend only on their throwing sticks to protect themselves from spears, and the baler shell ornament is said to prevent it from slipping ont of the hand when thus used. The area within whieh these baler shell spear-thrower ornaments are made is HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 101 limited to Cape York, but the shell dises detached from the throwers are articles of trade to southern mland peoples. By slow degrees they may pass south-east as far as Cooper Creek in South Australia, where they are highly prized as neek ornaments to be worn by young male initiates. The Yendrowunta of Cooper Creek have no knowledge of their origin, save that they come from the north, Fig. 85. Throwing stick in the course of manufacture; Walmbaria tribe, Bathurst Mend, Fig. 86-89. Types of throwing sticks; (86, Barunguan tribe, Pt. Stewart: 87, Kekolamalama frihe, Jane Table Hill; 88, Walmbaria tribe, Stanley Island: 89, UWileman tribe, Mong-moua, Atherton). Fig. 90-93. Stages in making of baler-shell armament for throwing stick, Walmbrria fribe, Minders Island, Fig. #4, Huealyptus gum for lafting speurs; Baruiguian tribe, Pt. Stewart. Pig. 95, Sinews as drawn out from tail of Agile Wallaby, tail tip attached; Bavunguan tribe, Pt. Stewart. Pig. 96. Wallaby sinews prepared tor use; Barunguan tribe, Pt. Stewart. Mig. 27. Sinews of lavge grey kanguroor Walmbaria tribe, Bathurst Hear. Spears with a bamboo shaft and a plain hardwood point were used at the ceremoal fight noted above, but spears barbed or tipped with the spines of stingrays and of the stone fish (Synaneeja) are the real fighting weapons of the Walmbaria, Mitwumnui, and Barunguan. The authors obtained a couple of dozen of these spears, which show some variation in the arrangement of the stingray spines. In one Barunguan type a single large spine forms the point of the spear (fig. 98); it has a spine fastened into a piece of paliwood twenty inches in 102 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM length, which is itself joined to a five-foot hardwood shaft, to the base of which is spliced a further two-foot length of light, soft wood, forming the butt. Additions of this sort (due either to the weapons having been damaged or to the desire to haye the head of the spear heavier than the shaft) are quite common, and repre- sent a distinet advance upon the single-piece spears met with further south. Fic, 99-108 show spears with a cluster of small stingray spines at the apex, lashed on in eroups with wallaby sinews. In another type (fig. 104-106) small spines are tied on to a palmwood head so as to form barbs; often a dozen or more spines are thus arranged. Fig. 98-106. Stingray spear heads from Princess Charlotte Bay (98, Tipped with a single spine; Barunguan tribe, Pt. Stewart, 99-108, Tipped with a cluster of small spines; Barunguan tribe, Port Stewart-99-101; Mutumui tribe, Cape Melville-102—; and Walmbaria tribe, Stanley Island—103-104—-106, With a series of spines arranged as barbs; Barunguan tribe, Pt. Stewart —104-105-; and Walmbaria tribe, Flinders ITsland—106—). Fighting spears are always painted with red ochre and white pipe-clay, the spines being coloured as well as the head and butt. The Walmbaria people some- {imes anoint the barbs with a vegetable poison obtained on the mainland, and say that a man dies quickly when wounded by them; a native who gave us two prized spears made at Bathurst Head warned us that the spines were thus poisoned. One of the very few other records of poisoned weapons amongst Australian abor- HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 103 i@ines is that furnished by Chatfield ("), who, writing of the Natal Downs (Queensland) natives, states that unbarbed spears of these people ‘are covered with the gram of the eidyah-tree, which is sipposed to ageravate the wound,’ Fig, LO7-L08, Butt (top) and head portions of woman's fighting spears; Banunguan tribe, Ii. Stewart. Fig, 109-110, Hardwood Tends of small hunting spears used by wonien avd children; Barunguan tribe, Pt Stewart, Fig. 711-112. Three and four pronged fishing spoaes ; Barungui tribe, Pe, Stewart. Pig. 119. four preonged (ishing spent, Mutumai tribe, Barrow. Poiut, Two women sometimes settle a quarrel by avtnal fighting. Their weapous are either heavy yam stieks (with which severe sealp wounds are inflicted) or hardwood javelius made in one piece, and used for women’s fights only, When using the spears the women stand a short distanee apart, and jab at each other with the pointed ends. Two of these women’s fighting javelins are shown (fie, 107-108), They are mueh thicker and heavier than the other types, one of those illustrated weighing 52 ounces, the other 40 ounces. They are decorated with bands of red ochre, whieh in the photograph are scareely visible on the ved hard- wood, Alinost all other types of spears are made in from two to four pieces, a shaft of bamboo, softwood, or hardwood, and a hardwood head, which is usually about one-fourth as long as the shaft. Sometimes a spear is made from a single piece of hardwood ten feet or so in length, and a short basal part of bamboo ouly about a foot in length; in this type the hardwood is shaped so that the head is thicker and heavier than the basal half. The gum chietly used for joining or morticing lengths of wood to form the shaft, and for fastening the head to the (*) Chatiiold, in Curr, The Anstralian Race, i, 1866, p. 473, 104 Reconps OF THE S.A. MUSEUM shaft is the exudate of the bloodwood (Huculyptus), which the Walmbaria people call ‘otara’; it is obtained from the mainland, the main supply (fig, 9+) being secured through trade from Starke River, where the tree is common, The joint is bound with twine or sinews, and is smoothed with a flat piece of wood fix, 114-121), shaped for the purpose and hafted with gum. A perfectly fin- ished splice exhibits a shellac-like gloss of glassy smoothness. During the work aiman dexterously rotates the spear with one hand, at the same time applying the Pig, 114-121. Spear smoothers; the example shown in lig, 120 is alsa a graver (114, 119, nnd 720, Barunguan tribe, Pt, Stewart; 115-115, Walmbaria tribe, Flinders Islam; 117, 118, wid 121, Mutumui tribe, Barrow Point, andl 118 only, Cape Melville), splice to the flat of the smoother (whieb is held in the other had) with consider able force; occasionally a hand is drawn across the forehead to collect sweat and crease, which is applied to the splice, and assists in obtamig the desired result, One of the spear-smoothers illustrated has a small spike at one end; to this pro jection the incisor tooth of a wallaby is fixed, to be used as a graver, seraper, or cutter (fie. 120). Two of the smoothers shown (fig. 118 aud 121) differ in having the end opposite the gummed portion not thin-edged or pointed, but thiek and plentifully smeared with eum. The end of this type is used to press melted gum into or against a splice. A form of scraper or chisel commonly used in the manufacture of spears and throwing-sticks by the Barunguan natives, and less commonly by the Walmbaria, HALE AND TINDALE-—-ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 105 consists simply of one of the lower jaws of an agile wallaby (fig. 122-123), From time to time the tooth is broken across between the teeth of the operator, so that it presents a fresh cutting edee of enamel, Big, 122-123. Agile Wallaby jaw as graver; Barunguan. tribe, Pt, Stewart. Wig, 124-127. Gouges fashioned from leg bones of birds; Barunguaw tribe, Pt. Stewart. Mig, 128. Implement of luman bone used for stripping Pandanus fibre; Walmbaria tribe, Bathurst THestd. Both for trade purposes and for eonvenient use eum is often melted into thick ‘‘paneakes’? around a short piece of wood, leaving one half of the latter projecting as a handle (fig, 94). Wooden speer-heads are sometimes anointed with an oily substanee, whieh is obtained by heating a kind of candlenut (Alewrites moluccana), ealled ‘tor- torwul’ by the Walmbaria, whieh drifts into the coast from the north or north- 106 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM cast: this fluid ‘fixes’? the pigments with whieh the spears are ormamented. The men’s hunting spears, with hardwood head, usually have a barb at the tip, formed by laying a slim piece of wallaby-bone, wood, or (in recent times) iron, poimted at hoth ends, against the point of the spear, so that one end of the former forms the aetual tip and the other the barb (fig. 129) ; (his is bonne and smoothed, as are splices. There is no doubt that iron has been used to some extent by the Walmbaria natives for more than a century. King (1), after deseribing the wreel: of the Frederick on Stanley Island. says: ‘‘The natives appeared to have taken notiee of the iron-work, for some spike nails were found about their fire- places,” Pig. 12H. Tip aud barb of hunting spear; Walmbaria tribe, Flinders: Tslutud. Kishing spears are made in the same way as the others, but have three or four hardwood prongs, cach from one foot six inches to fyo feet im length; the tips of these are usually barbed, as deseribed, but sometimes terminate in plain points (fig, 111-1178). Miniature spears of this sort are made for the children, who, however, always throw them by hand; as a rule adults use the throwing: stick with fishing spears, but sometimes throw them without. Numbers of small spears, with a slender hardwood shaft and a plain hardwood head, are also made (fig. 109-110); these are about six feet in length, and have the end of the butt hollowed to fit the pew of the wommera. These little weapons are commonly used by women and children to obtain crabs and small fishes in shallow water, and are then utilized without the throwing-stick, Jlarpoon shatts for dugong and turtle are similar to some of the North Australian types described by Roth and others, and more recently by one of the writers (11); the detachable head here illus: trated (fig. 76) is from Barrow Point, and was secured at Flinders Island; it is thirteen inches in length, aud is made of heavy hardwood, and has a wooden peg lashed to the tip, and coated with gum, to form a barb, A collar of string and erm about two inches from the base forms a plig, which fits the hollow end of the heavy shaft. Roth (12) states that this collar is absent on harpoons from Flin- ders [sland examined by him. (1) King, Survey Coasts Aust., i, 1827, y. 232. (11) Tindale, Ree. S, Aust. Mus,, iii, 1925, pl, vii, fig. 25-26, (12) Roth, North Qld. Ethnography, vi, 105, p. 32. HALE AND TINDALE—ALORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 107 The highly decorative shields commonly used in the Cairns district. and some of which are five feet tn leneth (fig. 130), are known to the Walmnbaria natives by repute, but are never employed, as all spear-awardine is done by means of the spear-thrower, HUNTING AND FISHING: COLLECTING AND PREPARATION OF FOODS, The Nokolamalama and Barunguan tribes, and some of the Walmbaria people, kill three species of wallabies with their spears; the most common is the agile wallaby (Macropus agilis). A black species of kangaroo oveurs at Bathurst Head and in the vicinity, but is apparently very shy. The laree red Kangaroo Wig, 1a. Deeoratel shiell; Hilewian tribe, Mena mona, Atherton Tabtlelaud, (Muerapus antilopiies) is also sometimes seen in the coastal distriets of Princess Charlotte Bay. The inswlar Walmbaria people, who belong to a kangaroo totem. refrain from killing and cating the red kanwaroo, even on the oveasions of their visits to the mainland, and this prohibition will also prevent them from eating the nailtailed wallaby. No amount of persuasion would tempt Wondal, a Stanley Island native, to eat a portion of one of the latter animals, although he had hac hittle food for two days, The mainland Wahnbaria showed great aversion to hunting or molesting the native companion, When foraging for food to augment dwindling stores they persisted in remaining in camp, after enlisting the aid of Kokolamalama men of other folems to assist one of the authors in a hunt for them, In like manner if was dithenlt to persuade Ainbarabara (Mutumui tribe) to aecampany the writers when shooting biz kangaroos, alfhoueh he vagerly assisted in stalking roek wal 108 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM labies. These inhibitions are caused by the desire not to molest the particular totem animals with which the individual claims relationship. The same relation- ship between the totemic object and the tribesmen exists in all the tribes under consideration, Eges of the sernb-turkey (Tolegalla lathami) and other large birds are coi- lected and eaten, and the birds themselves are snared or speared, Goannas (Varanus) are not uncommon on the maindand, and two species, Varanus gouldit and V. punctales ocellulus, occur on the Klinders Islands; these and frogs (which are ever abundant on the mainland during the wet season) are freely used as food, and pictures of the batrachians aud reptiles are not tuneommon in raelk- shelters, As is to be expected in the case of coastal natives, much food is obtained frow the sea, and for securing most of the larger marine creatures the spear serves well. The natives throw their spears with great accnraey, whether by hand alone or with the aid of a spear-thrower, although the weapon is, of comrse, projected with much greater foree with the last-named. One day we watched a man, with a fishing spear in each hand, walking along a low cli? overlooking the sea, A mullet Hashed out from under the roeky ledge, and in a wink the man had thrown his two spears, using each hand in tin; both spears transfixed the fish, When conditions are favourable a man, working in shallow water with a single spear, will, in an hour or less, capture as many fish (small sharks, mullet, and se on) as he ean carry. Just inside the eastern end of Princess Charlotte Bay is a large rock, jutting ont into deep water. It is hollowed beneath, and the Walubaria men, spear in hand, dive down and trausfix rock-cod, groper, and other fish sheltering in this under-water Gavern. The Flinders Island natives evince wreat fear of the stone-fishes (Synancejd horrida and S. verrucosa), aud are well aware of the sometimes fatal results averuing from the poisoned wounds occasioned by treading on the fish as they lie partly buried in soft mud; the severe and prolonged effects of Synanceja venom have been veeorded recently (13), When wading in shallow water both men and women tread carefully, watching for sigus of this dreaded fish; if pos- sible, they travel in single file, each stepping into the footmarks of the leader, When a stone-fish is discovered it is invariably speared, and if the fishers are near camp it is carried there on the points of a spear to be exhibited, and, as men- tioned above, the spines may be used to tip spears, Crocodiles are not abundaut at the Minders Islands, although we saw two in EEE (13) Dubig and Jones, Mem, Qld. Mus., ix, 1028, pp. 148-150; Aust. Journ, Exp, Biol. and Med. Sci., vy 1928, p. 174, ete, HALE AND TINDALE— ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 109 the mangrove swamps there. In the Stewart River, however, the reptiles are fairly common, and the Barunguan natives kill them at every opportunity. If they manage to ‘‘corner’’ a crocodile in some narrow reach or backwater, they first prod out its eyes with their spears, with the object of placing it at the greatest disadvantage before the coup-de-erace is administered. Mig, 181, Child digging out Swift Crabs at Flinders Island, ishing in deep water is usually earried out by hook and line, alt hough the pearl-shell hook, and other hooks of native manufacture, are things of the past, owing to the introduction of Huropean fish-hooks by trepangers. Swift-crabs (Ocypode ceratophthalma) and hermit-erabs are commonly used as bait, The first-named move so quickly that, to obtain a supply, the natives usually dig them out from their burrows in the sand (fig. 131). The hermit-erabs are easily obtained, for on Flinders Islands we noticed that, both during the day and at night, these crustaceans collected themselves together into heaps at low tide, a single heap sometimes consisting of two hundred or more individuals; a some- what similar habit of hermit-crabs, when sheltering from the sun, has been noticed in Roebuek Bay, Western Australia (14), and in Africa (1°). The hermit-crabs (4) Knut Dahl, ‘Tm Savage Australia,’? 1926, p. 269, (1) Schmitt, Bull, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., lili, 1926, pp. 54-55, pl. ix, fig. 1. 110 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM are prepared by deftly breaking the protective mollase shell with a stone; on Stanley and Flinders Islands these broken shells oeenr in considerable wmubers in places where bait is obtained thus. Apart from sometimes collecting runmniing- erabs and hermit-crabs for bait, ehildren “*hnnt’’ sinall marine animals, whieh are apparently not wtilized either as food or bait, and at low tide sometimes aniuse themself by throwing small stieks and pebbles at the miid-skippers (Lireharista- pus kalolo) vesting on the mangrove roots, rarely failing to knock them over. They obtain the little mole-crab (Hippa advelyla) and the smaller sea-liee (/yrerr- olane orientalis), both of which are common near the Flinders Islands, by se rately ing rapidly in the sand at the water’s edge ; in fact, they early show a knowledye of the habits of all animal life in their tribal avea, whether or not it be of econonue import to them. ) Pie. 182. Brush fish trap in a creek at Bathurst Lene, Several old men at Bathurst Head told us that ‘ta long time ago’? whenever a sucking-fish (Remora) was secured it was used to assist in spearing tirtle. They stated that a line wis fastened around the caudal pedunele in such a way that the fish was not injured; a turtle basking at the surfaee of the sea was cautiously approached, and the remora was carefully thrown in the cirection of the chelonian. to whieb it attached itself, The natives were then able to care- fully haul the creature to within speariig distance. We saw an old fence fish-trap at Walaeimini, on Bathurst Head. This was built across a small mangrove creek, so that fishes passing over it at high tide were caught behind it as the water ran out. It was mace of brush, and had been about twenty-tive feet in length (fig. 132). HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 111 Vegetable poisons, as has been deseribed by Roth and others, are sometimes used to stupefy fishes in large rock-pools, ete. Both the Walmbaria and Barun- guan natives use bag-like, shallow fishing nets, which are fastened to oval frames, formed by lashing together two or three pieces of cane or saplings. These nets are made of wattle-bark fibre, or of Livistona fibre twine, and various meshes are employed in different nets. They are operated in the sea, the fishermen wading out until they are waist deep. Often two or more such nets are used at once, and many persons participate. Each net is grasped by two men (one at each side of the frame), who scoop it forwards through the water just below the surface, and raise it at arm's length at frequent intervals for examination. Meanwhile a wide semicircle of men splash the water in front of the operators, and so seare fish towards them (fig, 133-134). Surprisingly large fish (mullet, snapper, and so on, three or four pounds in weight), are captured by this method, Mig. 133-134. Fish nets in use at Flinders Island. The large Crustacea—the fresh-water ¢ ‘ayfish, the mangrove erab (Seylla), the blue crab (Porlunus), the rock lobster (Panulirus), ete—are collected by the women, although the men sometimes spear the last-named. Crustaceans are often placed intact on hot coals to roast, but sometimes the Walmbaria women, having obtained a large Seylla, take off the carapace, remove all the flesh from the rest of the body and legs, and place it in the ‘‘shell,’’ which is then put on the fire and the meat cooked therein. The Flinders Island people designate the mangrove crab (their main edible erab), ‘apoyi,’ and most of the other smaller crabs are either ‘apoyi-indilka’ (medium-sized ‘abs, such as Thalaniita), or ‘apoyi-anga’ (very little, or baby, crabs). Nevertheless, some of the small crabs, either because of some noticeable peculiarity, of because of their plentitude or economic importance (for instance, those used as bait), have special names, 112 REcorDs OF THE S.A. MUSEUM The Walmbaria and Barungnan natives apparently always roast their fish, Jugong, and turtle. Tf two or three men are hunting some distance From a camp they cook their fish before returning with them. Small sharks are relished, and their livers in particular are considered a great delicacy; these fish are placed on the embers for a few minutes, they are then taken out, opened with a finger, and the livers extracted, after which the roasting is completed. If the cooking is not undertaken in camp, the remoyed livers are cavefully wrapped in grass or bark for transport. Oysters are collected mainly by the women, but men also assist them oeca- sionally. Oysters are smashed by hanunering with a stone, and the animals are picked out from the broken shell and are boiled. This method of preparat int did not commend itself to us during the time we were dependent on native food, for we found that the cooked molluses were plentifully mixed with splinters of shell. A laree land shell (Thersifes bipartita) is found in abundanee after the first ‘ains of the ‘fwet?? season, and this also is boiled. Smaller molluses are some- times collected in the mangrove swamps, and are mixed with other ‘dishes,’? svel as those of green ants, deseribed below. As usual, the grubs of large moths and beetles, the larvae of bees, and yarious other inseeis are eaten. The Mutnnoai aud Walubaria tribes prepare a coneoc- tion from the ever-abundant green ant (Qecophila simaragding), both on the Flinders Islands and on the mainland. The women colleet great quantities of these antsy from their nesis iv the trees into bark dishes; on reaching camp they are tipped into baler-shells or other receptacles, and mashed. Plenty of water is then added to the erushed mass: this water is drunk with relish, and the mashed ants are then caten. Of the Princess Charlotte Bay natives, at least those of the Barnnguan tribe employ a length of lawyer cane (Calamua) for secure honey. One end of a lone eane is frayed till it forms a brush (fig. 78-79); the brush-like end is in- serted into the opening in a tree leading te a bees’ nest, and is twisted about util amass of honey and eomb is colleeted on it. The Barunguans stated that some of the bees (namely, the introduced species) are ‘plenty hot fellow.’’ Roth (1%) has published a long list of the vegetables and plants eaten by the natives of Northern Qneensland, The tribes encountered by us made use of any plant, root, fruit, or plant-exudation which their districts afford, and whieh by any stretch of imagination can be termed edible, especially when they are lacking meat or fish. Many of the small friits, such as that of Buchan, ave eaten raw, without any preparation. Several kiuds of edible fruits drift into Princess Char- (16) Roth, North Qld, Ethnography, iii, 1901, pp. 9-16. HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 113 lotte Bay during that part of the year when a current sets into the coast, and are picked up on the shores, Tone spatulae (fig. 124-127) and small pieces of bone (fig, 128) are used in the preparation and eating of some vegetable foods, The yam (Dioseorea sativa) is, of course, mueh utilized during the wet season, The roots are plentiful on parts of Flinders and Stanley Islands, where the women dig them out with yam-stieks (fig. 77). At places on the rocky slopes of Flinders Island the tubers are abundant, and are found in sueh places as far as 1,000 feet above sea-level; io secure them the natives dig down between rock crevices filled with earth, aud often overturn large stones in their efforts to obtain the delieaey, Some of the holes exeayated in these crevices were only nine inches Pig. 135, Munvroye fruits. Fig. lat. Pandunus fruits prepared for eating, or a foot in diameter, but were quite five feet in depth. Where the yam is abundant hundreds of these deep holes are evident in a comparatively small area. Women on Flinders Island elaim that they always throw back into the hole a portion of the yam vine after removing the tuber, with the injunction to eo and make more yams; we saw no evidenee of this practice when examining the holes, The Walmbaria people grate the yam tubers against a stone, catehing the resultant pulp in a baler-shell; this is washed in several changes of water, and boiled to form a sort of gruel or sago-like mass, whieh is much relished, 114 RECORDS OF THE §.A. MUSEUM The rhizomes of a small species of lily growing in fhe shallow waters af lagoons are collected on the mainland by women, who use a short hardwood stick, like a miniature yam-stick, to lever them out of the m ud. During lean periods the fruits of the serew-pine (Pandanus) and of tye species of inangroves are gathered. The pandanus fryits are thrown on to a fire wuitil eharred, after which one end of the husk is ent off (fig. 136) with a sharp- edyed stone or some other implement, The tiny elongate roasted ‘‘muts’’ are then picked ont with a long splinter (fig, 137) of bone or woods when this food alone is available mueh time is oecupied in thus tediously obtaming enoneh noivi- ment {0 Satisfy the appetite. Pig. 187, Picking the roasted ‘fnuts?! from prepared Fundanus fruits. We witnessed the preparation of the fruit of one of the aforementioned man- eroves, and were told that a more spherical fruit of a second species was also used. The fruits (fig. 135) are collected at low tide, for the trees apparently erow towards the middle of the swamps. When camp is reached a small, hot fire is made, and for thirty or forty minutes stones are heated therein, The fire is theu raked out, and the mangrove fruits are thrown in amongst the hot stones, whieh are distributed eyenly amongst them with a stick. The heap is then covered with a piece of paper-bark, and this in turn is covered with a laver of sand an inch or so in depth. The mass is left mndisturbed for about an hour, after which, the covering is taken off, anil the roasted fruits (now brownish-grey instead of green) are removed. When they are cool enough to handle, the tops ave pulled off and thrown away, after which the fruits are picked up, one or two at atime, pounded between two stones, and thrown into a baler-shell. They are next tipped into an open-work basket and taken to the beach, where a large container HALE AND TINDALE—-ABORIGINES OF NORTH (QUEENSLAND 115 is filled with sea-water. With the basket standing in the salt water in this dish, the woman vigorously kneads the erushed mass; the water beeomes yellow and then milky as the foury contents of the fruits pass through the open meshes of the hasket, After fifteen minutes or so of Kneading, the husks are thrown out of the basket. and the floury sediment in the dish is allowed to settle, a rising seni on the surface being skimmed off meanwhile. The water is then carefully poured off. and the sediment similarly washed in a further change of sea-water, After the second ** pouring off’? the thin, niushy sediment is tipped into a ¢losely-wovyen illy-bag, whieh is squeezed to eet rid of excess water, and finally undergoes two Washings in fresh water, with much kneading between each. This manerove fruit wash resembles paper-pulp of a greyish eolour, but is eaten with evident eujoy- ment when other food is searee. Big, 18. Digging for fresh water now the Margin of the sen; and fig, 189, testing the witer scoping tite the excavation; Barungian tribe, Pt. Stewart. Fresh water is not available in nalimited quantities in the districts oceupied hy the Walmbaria aud Kokolamalama. tribes, particularly during the dry season. In the wet season small creeks are filled intermittently on the mainland, and at other times various small soaks and wells provide a supply, although the old men sometimes have to ‘sing’ for rain or enlist the aid of rain-makers (fig. 55-56), The dry and barven Flinders Islands laye ve permanent streamlets—in faet, water draining into any of the small courses runs only for an hour or two alter ‘ai—but several inconspicuous soaks provide water, while (as mentioned in the 116 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM introduction to this paper) H.M.S. Dart visited Flinders Island in 1899 and cleared out a well, which furnishes murky but palatable water, which is used by the natives and by the trepangers. The Barunguan people have the Stewart River as a source of water supply. At the mouth the water is salt or brackish at low tide, but at high tide the surface- water is usually somewhat fresher. On several occasions we noticed natives digging holes in the sand only a few yards from the margin of the sea at Stewart River (fig. 138-139). These holes rapidly fill with water, and the digger dips a finger in the fluid, and tastes it to ascertain whether it is fresh or brackish; if it proves too salt he tries other places. Tolerably sweet water is obtained in this way when the river water is quite unfit for drinking. The Walmbaria people stated that at one time they were in the habit of eating human flesh. When food became very scarce at the end of the dry season, and especially when dugong hunting had long proved ineffective owing to rough weather, meat hunger led them to kill adults. Persons killed in quarrels were sometimes disposed of in the same manner ; newly-born children were eaten, especially if a second appeared before the first was weaned. In such cases the child would be struck on the nape of the neck with a yam-stick, or its mouth would be filled with beach sand. PUBLIC LIBRARY, MUSEUM, AND ART GALLERY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA RECORDS OF -THE SOUTH: AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM Vol--V; No? 2 Published by the Board of Governors, and edited By the Museum Directer (Herbert ©. Fale) Avenaipe,; Jey 3357, 934: PRINTED AT-THE-HASSELL PRESS, 104 CURRIF STREET ABORIGINES OF PRINCESS CHARLOTTE BAY, NORTH QUEENSLAND PART II By HERBERT M. HALE (DIRECTOR) AND NORMAN B. TINDALE, B.SC.., (ETHNOLOGIST) Summary Canoes Wooden canoes of two types were seen in the Princess Charlotte Bay district, and as they both belong to forms similar to those described by Roth ('’) our comments are brief. At Flinders Island and Bathurst Head the type in favour (fig. 146-148) has a single outrigger (‘appa’) placed on the right (starboard) side of the hull and supported by six pairs of horizontal arms (‘aipar’) lashed to pairs of crossed sticks, usually of mangrove wood, driven obliquely into the outrigger log (fig. 149). The outrigger booms are passed through rectangular holes cut in side boards, which are lashed to the sides of the canoe after the spaces between them and the hull have been packed with paper bark pads. ABORIGINES or PRINCESS CHARLOTTE BAY NORTH QUEENSLAND 5 PART TI. By HERBERT M, HALE (Direcror) ann NORMAN B.‘TINDALE, B.Sc., (Erunotocisr). CONTIENTS. Page NVILL Cnnoes 4 ve = es ij +4 = 4 117 NIX. Trade Routes ts m 2 _ at a's ae) 122 XX. Cumps and Shelters. . ae 7 A 9 .- a 124 XXT, Camp Utensils +e = te ry a Lt Ag at) XX. Clothing and Ornament Sa a eu 7 - 139 NAL. Roek-paintings o ce 7 “4 oe ote be 146 XXIV. Messayve Sticks sts 7 de 7 BF at a4 156 XXV, Langunge ., F As “ = ie fe “ 158 NXVL. Comparative Vocubularies of Four Tribes sa da we be 160 NXVL. Supplementury Notes ag ss a4 aa 4 ote 171 CANOES. Wooden canoes of two types were seen in the Princess Charlotte Bay distriet, and as they both belong to forms similar to those deseribed by Roth (17) owr comments are brie. At Flinders Island and Bathurst Head the type in favow: (fig. 146-148) has a single outrigger (‘appa’) placed on the right (starboard) side of the hill and supported by six pairs of horizontal arms (‘aipar’) lashed to pairs of crossed sticks, usally of mangrove wood, driven obliquely into the outrigger log (fig. 149). The outrigger booms are passed through rectangular holes cut in side boards, which are lashed to the sides of the canoe after the spaces between them and the hull have been packed with paper bark pads. A canoe of this type is made from a tree felled in one of the vain forest areas near the mouths of the rivers enterime Prineess Charlotte Bay. It is ronghhy trimmed on the spot with an axe and then carried to the nearest water, whence it is floated to the beach for final dressing, the latter taking several weeks, Formerly the axe used was of stone, as in the specimen shown (fig. 168) from the country further south, Both at Flinders Island and at Stewart River metal equivalents have been in use for at least two generations. Kokolamalama people make canoes (‘tuppal’) of this character, and trade them to the Mutumui in (17) Roth, Ree, Aust, Mus., viii, 1910, pp. 12-14, tig, 11-18. 118 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM return for shell ornaments (‘anir, omarern’) and spears (‘alka, awita’). The Mutumui also give them bloodwood gnm (‘otara’) and ochre colours, obtained by trade from people further to the south, 145 144 Fig. 140-142, Bows and (fig, 148) stern of single out rigger eanoes; Walmbaria Tribe, Flinders Island. Pig. 144, Bow and (fig, 145) stern of double outrigger canoes; Barunguan Tribe, Stewart Hiver. The Walubaria also trade with the Kokolamalama for eanoes, offering spears tipped with stingray spines and with metal obtained from a wreek on Stanley Island. They eall the canoes ‘akaala’, Several types of prow (‘alpayi’) (fig. 140-142) are recognized, and are specially characteristic of different canoe makers. Stern pieces (‘turiene’), in the form of a projecting flat counter (fig. 143) are a consistent feature. Propulsion is by means of paddles (wiriapu’) and long poles. The paddles are some four feet long, with the flat extremity abruptly differentiated from the handle, not tapered and merging into it, as is the ease with some trom the Gulf of Carpentaria, An example of the ‘akaala’ canoe from Flinders [sland (the one shown on fiw, 148) is in the South Australian Museum collection. Its overall length is 16 feet 6 inches and it has a beam of 16 inches. The outrigger is 12 feet long and 6 inches in greatest diameter. It is lashed at a distance of 2 feet from the hull of the canoe. It is made from a special type of light drift-vood which floats ashore alone the coast, and is much sought after beeause of its special characters, Canoes of this type were used by Mutumui and Walmbaria natives in travel- ling as far south as Cape Flattery (to Cooktown in modern times), and oceasion- ally to Stewart River, HALE AND TINDALEABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 119 —_ Fig. 146-148. Sivgle outrigger canoes of Walobarin Tribe, Flinders Island; 146, canoes drawit upon the beach at Apa; 147, poling a eainoe in the shallow water of Owen Channel, Wilpianta Point in baekerounmd; 148, paddling a canoe, Owen Channel, Tautini camp in lott background, 120 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM Fig. 149. Method of mounting outrigger (lashings and bark pads omitted); Walmbaria Tribe, Flinders Island. The Baruneuan people use a double outrigger canoe called ‘tanju’ (fig. 150-151). This is hollowed out from a tree in the riverine jungle of the Stewart or Rocky Rivers in the same manner as is the single outrigger further south. The bows are not sharp, as in the Flinders Island canoes, being well rounded, with a projecting lip-like prow (fie. 144 and 150). The stern is usually trumeated (fig. 145) ; oceasionally it may have the general form of the ‘turiene’ of the ‘tuppal’ Canoe. Sa Fig. 150. Double outrigger canoe; Barunguan Tribe, Stewart River. Hate AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 121 The two outriggers of the ‘tanju’ canoe are supported by a pair of long, exible booms, Tt will be noticed (fig, 150) that these booms are lashed directly fo the outrizver poles and to the gunwales, one being nearly amidships and the other near the stern. The outrigeers do not reach forward to the line of the bows, as is usually the case in the ‘tuppal’ canoe, and, contrary to Roth’s experience, the examples witnessed all had the booms lashed to the top and not piereine the hull of the vessel, the lashings themselves being passed through ome or mere sinall holes in the eunwale (fie, 151), Fig. J). Baling double outrigger canoe with a shell dish: Barunguan Tribe, Stewart River. Canoes of the double outrigger type are common to the Barnngnan people and the natives near Cape Direction, They ave not made by natives south of Running Creek. The equipment of a Barunguan ‘tanju’ includes two or imore paddles, a baler (usually a devo shell with the inner shell whorls removed, fig. 151 and 177), a dugong harpoon and rope, a large stone tied to a rope fo serve as anchor, pads of paperbark fo act as cushions for the paddlers, and various fishing lines, bait, and other tneidental ohjeets. We disagree with Roth’s theory that the single outrigger canoe of Flinders Island is a local moditieation of the double outrigger, in which the outriggers of one side have been suppressed, and the side boards and an extra number of booms added in order to inerease stability. The local evidence is rather more in fayour of the idea that they are both due to external cultural influences, different in time, and that the double outrigger canoe is likely to be a later acquisition than the single outrigger vessel. 122 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM TRADE ROUTES. The Flinders Island natives trade with the mainland, obtaining heavy wooden Spears and canoes in exchange for stingray-barb spears, throwing stielks, und woven baws. The canoes are obtained from the Kokolamalama people in the south-western corner of Princess Charlotte Bay, where suitable big softwood trees vrow. ILardwood spearthrowers and their baler shell ornaments are mace at Flinders [sland and on Bathurst Lead for trade to people further south and east, as mentioned on p. 101.) Red oehre and bloocdwood gun are produced in the Starke River distaict, and find thew way north either by eanoe or by an overlaid route whieh crosses from Barrow Pomt to Maek River, and thence alone the coast to Bathrrst Head. Pipe-clay is ‘ound on the south side of Flinders [sland and is carried to the mainland. The natives of the Walmbaria and Mutumid tribes are of a wandering disposition, and parties may travel in smele outriggercel ‘anoes as far south as Cooktown. They do not appear to vo further north than Dhu Reef (Yangalwini) or Clack Island, and seldom venture further west thay Saltwater Creek, The Barmuguan people. who wander north as far as Wey- mouth Bay, use the smaller double-ontvigver canoes; they are less veuttutesome suilors, possibly beeanse there are few islands (except Night [slaucd) of any size which they are able to visit. Natives who were engaging in a trading venture left Fluders Island at cay- break when the sea was calm. seenred spears on the mainland by trading fron Kokolamaluua wen, and returned at dusk when the wind had dropped. Mavour- able light winds are mawieally induced by the old men, who light a special smoke fire aud chant over it a phrase involying the use of the word ‘wind?’ A: saceess- ful trading visit to Tartali is carried out with a certain degree of formality; on the morning decided upon for the voyage no mention is made of the journey until the canoe and its oecupants have arrived opposite a place called Tilpanga, where there is a rouch evlindrical stone about eighteen inches in heiht standing upright amonest the sandstone boulders on the point (p. 91 and fig. 61). This was erected in the past by a legendary old man to mark the place from which canoes sould ay leave for the maintand. One of the men will say : here is no wind, let us ¢o to Tartali’’; or i! the wind springs up he will say: ‘SLet us eo back to Apa?’ Tlaving deeided to proceed with the joumey the ban of silenee is liftect and plans may be discussed in detail as the natives paddle across froin Tilpanga to the east coast of Wakayt. ‘They then pole their canoes in the shallow roek-strewn water in the lee-of that island until opposite EKdaimbar. Here they restane paddling, attempting to strike the mainland at Worei, but sometimes they are carried into Wakarma by the powerful tidal current which races through the passage. The HALE AND TINDALE—-ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 123 Kokolamalama people frequently camp on the second bay on the west side of Bath- vest Lead, where there is a permanent fresh-water well and much shell-fish food to be obtained on the rocks. The yovayers pole along the shore, stopping frequently to gather oysters and to spear fish in the shallow waters of Walaeimini Bay. On artiving near a camp of the Kokolamalama people they light a signal smoke, anid moving forward still closer, sit down, fully armed, for perhaps half an how, An individual of the mainland tribe, followed aid supported by a group of armed fellow-tribesmen, then approaches with uplifted spear, and shouts out a series of erievanves they bear agaimst the islanders. Ile then linrls the spear at them. Lf they are welcome the spear will uot travel more than two-thirds of the distance towards them, Another man may then come forward with a firestick. Barteriiy does uot take place. A parcel of trade objects is simply placed in the miain- landers’ canip, aul when they are about to depart a return offering is produced and placed near tle eainp of the islanders, Open criticism of the return exchange is seldom dade while the islaiders are away from them own country; any cefi- Glencies ave remembered and are brought forward as grievances when the main- landers repair to the islands on similar visits, CAMPS AND SHELTERS. The camps Cambawanga’) of the Walnibaria aatives may be classified as lemporary and seni-perinanent. The former may be constructed by stuall partivs daring hunting exenrsions away from the principal shore camps, or wheu the tribes- people intend to remain in one place for a brief time only; iu sueh eireimstances erected shelters differ considerably from those of eainps, which may be oeeupice continnously for longer periods up to several weeks or months. A typieal tem- porary raimy-seasou tut, bolt daring a short visit of some Klinders Island people to Bathurst Head, is shown in fig, 152. These Walmbaria huts are semiciveular in shape, and only four or five feet in diameter at the widest part; they are formed of a framework (‘Siku’) of thin saplings or cates, ever whieh strips of bark (*waltja?) are laid. Leafy boughs stuek in the evound around the huts, or laid on the bark root, provide additional shelter from the heat of the sun; the open side faces away from the prevailing wind, and thos most of ihe rain is exeluded. The huts are wueh larger and higher in the more enduring camps, whieh are infencded for weeks of occupation during the progress of the rainy season. ‘The supling framework is then built up int the form of a rounded deme with a eireular base about ten feet in diameter (fie. 153). Bark is laid ever this, com- pletely covering the tvame, excepting for a small doorway only twelve to sixteen 124 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM inches in height, The bark is then thickly covered with tissecks of erass (fie. 154). A hut of this type provides eftident shelter from all but the heaviest rains; the thick grass thatehing renders if comparatively cool in the day and warm at night; driving rain does not seriously inconvenience the oceupants, owing to the small size of the euteance, anid this feature, and the ever-present smoke fire within the hut also mitigates the ubiquitous mosquito nuisance. The term used ‘ aral-mininhala’. for hut is ‘arrar’, and to build a lint is expressed by the tern Fig. 152. Teniporary hue al Bathurst Head; Walmbaria Tribe, Pig. 158. Sapling franie: work of large Int at Walkeiwt Stamey Island: Walmbaria Tribe. Fig. 154. Cimpleted larire hot; Walmbaria Tribe, Worei, Bathurst Head. Fig, 155. Bark but at Stewart River; Baran. guan Tribe; in front is m widow wearing mourning tablet (eqmpuure fie. G7, Gi), Apert from these two kinds of sleeping-quarters. Shade-huts are ereeted in the permanent camps. Four forked sticks, each about fonr feet in height, are plaved upright in the ground; sticks are laid horizontally in the forks, and leafy branches, bark, or grass ave laid over the stieks. When in eamp the natives stay in the shadow of these covers all day, with their utensils and other perso belongings seattered about on the ground, and their spears on top of the shelters, During short visits to open beaches a shade is often provided for old men ane children hy merely placing leaty honghs upright in the saud. Places where camps are regularly established—sites whieh have been period- or HIALE AND TINDALE ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 12 ically occupied for years—are uumistakably apparent owing to the quantity of food debris, Some of the kitehen middens on the Klinders Islands and on Bathurst lead ave very exteusiye, and are marked by heaps of bones of turtle, dugone (see p. 98 and fig. 60), and fish, portions of shells of the mangrove crab (Seylla) and rockJobster (Paimulirus), as well as a vast quantity of mollase shells, coekles, clams, various kinds of oysters, land shells, and so on, with the coekles predominating. Although, as previously mentioned, the Stanley Island section of the Walmbaria is to-day represented by ouly one surviving male, there is ample evidence in support of his statement that the island was at one time the home of many people, Kitchen middens on the shores and inland cover acres of the sniall island and show that abundant food was available. The Barunguan people at Port Stewart ereet dome-shaped huts ten to twelve Feet in diameter, covered, with bark and shaded with boughs. In all seen by us the doorway was much larger than in those made by the Walnbaria people, and im some cases one side was completely open, as in the small temporary huts of the last-named trihe (fie. 155-156), Rock-Shelters. The only type of shelter to which the term ‘‘permanent’’ ean be justly applied is that afforded by caves and voek-shelters (‘edidana’), whieh, when conmuodious, are occupied by large bodies of natives, sometimes for long periods, aud particnarly during the wet season, Food debris is naturally abundant in and around these ever-available retreats. We examined several of the rock-shelters utilized by the Walmbaria people. In addition to fen moderately or very extensive examples, many small shelters were noted. In some cases the last-named consist merely of a leaning roek, which offers protection front the prevailing wind (fig. 157), but even in sueh, aceumu- lated food debris is often abundant. The main shelters include three large caves at Endaen, on Stanley Island and seven on Bathurst Head. At Endaen there are six caves within a half-mile radius which show signs of oeenpation ; only one cou- tains rock-paintings, he last-named was the principal camp of the Stanley Island group of the Walmbaria tribe within reeent times, and it is by far the largest ane most imposing of all ihe roek-shelters examined: hereafter it ‘ is referred to as the ‘*Hudaen shelter’. Captain Phillip P. King (15) notes that during one of his visits to the Flinders Islands, Mv. Allan Cunningham (the botanist on board) visited a roek-shelter ou Stanley Island, apparently one of those on the declivities of Castle Peaks, in which no paintings were apparent, Cunninghain, in the notes quoted by King, says that **The general mass on the (18) King, Survey Coasts Aust., i, S287, pp. 878-374, 126 ReEcoORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM slopes or declivities are deeply excavated, furnishing spacious retreats to the natives. | entered one of these caverns... a laree natural chainber, capacious enough to hold conveniently a large tribe of natives, who, front the mamerots fire- places. broken turtle staffs. and other relies, bad not very long since dwelt there”? ; 156 = : Wig, 150. Paper dairk duty Barunguan Wig. 157, Leaning rock formmg wind ani Vrihe, Steyrrt Biver, rain sereen far stmalbeamips Walmbaria Tribe, Flinders Tslatd. The Kudaen shelter, which we examined in some detail, is formed by exten- sive natural undermining of a cliff near the north coast of Stanley Island, aud consists of two easily accessible chambers or caves. That at the eastern eric is the main part of the shelter (fig. 158); here the elif is uaidermined to such an extent that there ix an overhanging roek real twenty-five feet in width at its broadest part and approximately one landed Jeet in leneth; the shelter is from eight to ten feet in height, anc is rendered more effective owing to the faet that a huge mass of fallen rock partly protects the opening, whieh faces north-west. Towards the western end the floor rises at a rather steep slope, and leads into another extensive cavern, the root of which is honeycombed with holes im whieh owls rest. This chamber and a small and abnost iusceessible eave in the rock face above show 10 signs of oceupation. The large eastern chamber exhibits many evidences of prolonged habitation. The walls and roof are covered with hundreds of paimt- HALE AND TINDALE—ARORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 127 ines (fie. 161), and we estimated that the talus of food remains, ashes, aad other ocenpational debris situated near the fallen rocks to be at least eight feet (at most twelve) in depths the food remains consist largely of bones of turtles, fish, aud igongs, shells of coekles (principally Arce drapezia). oysters (Osfrea) and ober shellfish, also birds’? eaves. Wig. 158-16). Endaen rock shelter; Walmlscrina Tribe, Stanley Lslamd; 155, weneral vtew; 159, furthé beads aud iiivong hones of veremonial inports; 160, framework of an cleyater sleeping racks V1, paintings oon wall, aul stone slit used for grimling colours. Ona ledee, and in a ereyice nearby, at the castern end was a series of painted hurtle-heads (fig, 159) and some digong skulls (see p. 85). A wooden frame- work, relic of a sleeping rack or two-storied hut similar to those desertheel by Roth, oceupied a portion of the oor (fig. 158, 160). Away from the food-niennds and fire-places, the Heor is covered with fine dust. and in this, pear the baek of the shelter and beneath the widest part of the overhang, are the sleeping-places—soft and ilry throughomt ihe wet season, We prepared a plan of this camping place (fiw. 162). At Wakarna Beach, on the north-east coast of Dathnrst Plead, is a shelter which consists of a somewhat fattened block of sandstone perched at an angle on three other boulders. This has been used as a camp, and there are paintings on the underside of the reofing bowder (fie, 227). 128 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM "tales slope. | “talus slope Fig. 162. Ground plan of Hnudean rock shelter; Walmbaria Tribe, Stanley Ishund. About half a mile to the west of Wakarma is the Worei camp, which includes two shelters worthy of mention. The first and largest is situated at the western end of the little Worei Bay, facing the sea. The cave proper is wedge-shaped, and has a floor area of about two hundred square feet; the smoke-blackened roof is about six feet above the floor at the front, and only a foot or so at the back. Large masses of rock have fallen from the cliff above, hiding the true entrance. Fig. 163. Hast Worei shelter, with native staff of Mxpedition; Bathurst Heid. HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 129 but leaving an inverted V-shaped gap about five feet in height, through which one passes to reach the cave proper (fig, 163). This shelter is thus closed in on three sides; although rain drifts through various crevices near the front. During a visit to the place we used this retreat for a time in order to keep our gear dry ; as shown in the photograph the partly protected ante-chamber formed by the fallen rocks is large enough to accommodate a tent, while the cave behind proved useful as a store for perishable goods. The roof of this inner cave is covered with paintings, Another shelter at Worei is sitnated a little further to the west; it consists of a vertical rock-face, twenty feet in height, protected from the weather by a jutting ledge. Fig. 164. Walaeimini shelter; Walmbarin Trihe, Bathurst Head. Following the coast a little further to the west one comes to the large Walaeimini camp site, and striking inland for a short distance may find a laree shelter adjoining the eamp (fig. 164). Here a long noteh has been weathered out by former marine erosion at the base of a low hill of Triassi¢ sandstone (fig. 164). The retreat is about forty feet in leneth and only four or five feet [rom floor to root, so that nowhere in if can aman stand upright or walk with comfort. At its widest part the shelter extends imwards about fifteen feet. The main part of the cavity opens to the north and north-east, and faces open, marshy country with black soil, in which tracks of game are plentiful, The smoke-blackened roof and 130 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM the back wall present small rock faces due to the presence of joint planes in the sandstone. The food debris on the floor is, on the average, only a foot in depth, and consists largely of one species of cockle (lrea frapezin). At the time of our examination there was a laree Hat erindine-stone, weigh- ing maybe a hundvedweight, at the south-eastern end of the eave. Three deep, (lish-like depressions had been ground into the surface as a consequence of gener. ations of use as a nether millstone. Af the Wobolni camping-place. on the most westerly point of the north coast of Bathurst Head, are also three rock-shelters containing uative paintings. CAMP UTENSILS. Several of the domestic dnaplements in common use lave been referred to in fhe accotnts of Ute preparation and collecting of foods; in addition the following were seen, The Wabubaria, Kokolamalama, and Baruneuan tribes make fire by iwitling between the palus of the hands a thin stiek (held in a perpendieular 167 Wika, * ——— = Vig. 165, Large nether mill-stime; Barnnguan Tribe, Stewart River. Pig, 166. Siuall upper millstone; Barungugan Trihy, Stewnrt Rives. Fig. 167. Repaired Neudifis shell used as aleink jig vessel> Mutunini ‘Tribe, Cape Melville, Fig. 168, Iafted stiune axe; Hileman Tribe, Mona-mona, HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 131 position), which has ifs lower extremity pressed (rinly tate a noteh in the side of asiinilar wail laid on the ground aoe held in place with the foot, The tywirhig sticks are at first offen five or six feet ii length, but of econrse gradually becom redieed with use, When not in vise the ends of the sticks are protected iu a sheath or ease (as deseribed by Roth) ; sometimes this case is enthellishedt wilh a Mig 16. Crndo hamid chopper nosed for opening serew palo fruits, Bowen, Queenatanel. (4) tl. awe.) knob of wax, tate whieh jequirity seeds (Abrus preealarms) ave fised. More rarely the sfieks themselves have a seratehed or Garyved pattern (fie. SO-81). A an rotating the upright stiek places his hands near the top of it, and as i ts tWirled dis pablus travel down the shalt. With a quieék movement he then brings them up again, During wet weather the process of firemaking is offen tector, dnd wo persons tay assist, one quickly continuing the twirlme when the other tires. The firesticks are not resorted to amless absolutely necessary, and parties carry smouldering Hucatypilis beinehes with them, even taking then from the islands to the mainland in their canoes, rather than be put te the necessity of genorating fresh fire, Crude hand-choppers of stone, really only broker pebbles are inonse for eutting such fruits as that of Pandanius: the example shown (fix, 169) was found near Bowen lying in a recently vaeated eamp, together with a heap oof Pandanus fruits and seme shells whieh) had been used for load. The Charlotte Bay exminples are similar. and have heen made by breaking a snitable pebble af quartzite so as to seenve a cutting edve, The Walmbaria natives use flat grinding-stones for preparing foods, powdering oehre, ete. As mentioned above. @ large and very heavy grinding-stone, with deep depressions ino the siurface. was seen in the Walaeimini roelk-sheller at Bathiyst Llewd. At Stewart River the Barunguan people valiie their stones hivhly, for there is no available rock in the viernity—the specimens dlustrated were stated to have been obtained 132 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM by trade from the Coen, distriet, forty miles away: these mills (fig. 165-166) are used for preparine food and also for evinding ochre for paints. Baler shell is utilized for makine dishes as well as for spearthrower ornaments, Nautilus, trochus, and oyster shell are formed into neck-pendants and other objects of adornment, Le ae 173 Paes hr " Fip, 170-171, Wooden mallets from Barnnguan Tribe, Stewart River, qa Walmbaria Tribe, Wlinders Islind. Wig. 174-174. Wooden implements used by women tor digging up wuter-lily roots; Kakolamalama Tribe, Princess Charlotte Bay. Pig. 174-170. Pads used when carrying heavy objects on the head; 174, puperbark pad, Mokolimplionna Trihe, Prineess Charlotte Bay; I75-17, paperbark- and grass-pads, Mutumui Tribe, Barrow Point aid Cape Melville, Polished stone axes were formerly im use, but no exwmuples were obtained locally; the large example shown (fig. 168) is from Mona-mona. Queensland, and has a cane handle, but the wax cementing sobstance is missing fron it Mallets (‘otun’), used by women for pulping various foods and for breaking oysters, ave qoade of ironavood and other hard timbers. The Walnbaria, Barun euan, and Mutumni tribes conimonly use the form shown in fig. 170. This js eylindric¢al in shape, with one end abruptly narrowed to form the handle, and is very similar in form to the @wone-heaters of Melanesian peoples. On Flinders Island and Bathurst Tlead a much thieker, shorter, aud heavier mallet is also made; this may be employed as an anyil as well as a pounder; the example illus- HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 133 trated in fig. 171, origmally eylindrical, has become suboyal in section owine to continued use as a chopping-block. Both types are cui from a single piece of wood, A similar mallet is known also to the Kokowarra people, who eall it ‘neawal’. Short pointed sticks of hardwood for grubbing ont water-lily roots (fig. 172-1793) and the longer yam stick (of which the sharpened extremity is Shown in fig. 77) have already been referred to (pp. 113-114). Thick rimg-pads, which are placed on top of the head wheu leavy weights are carried are too well-known to need description. We saw them used only by women, who quickly fashion them from either Welalewea bark (fig. 174-175) or grass (fig. 176); they were made by all the Princess Charlotte Bay people encountered, Mig. 177. Baler-sholl dish (repaired with resin) which bas been used as a ecouking pot; Mutumui Tribe, Cape Melville, Wines of large birds provide fans with which flies and mosquitoes are warded off, and also Form brushes with which the tidier members of a camp occasionally sweep out their huts; the wing of a wild woose illustrated (fie. 178) was secured from a Barunguan man who was suffering from large open sores, aud was there- fore particularly worried by the multitudinous flies and mosquitoes, Smoke fires provide move efficient protection against the hordes of mosquitoes and sand fties, aud on a still night many natives were seen carrying a smouldering root or stick 134 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM with whieh to repel the little pests, These insects worry the natives far more than flies, and at times prevent them from sleeping; their abundance may be appreei- ated when it is stated that in some of the riverine jungle areas the writers experi- enced difficulty in aiming their euns owme to the obscuring of the sights by the hovering clouds of mosquitoes, which were also attacking all exposed parts of the hody. Vig. 178. Wing feathers of goose, used as fly whisk and broom; Barunguan Trike, Stewart River. Fig, 179. Bark dish; Iokolummlama Tribe, Princess Charlotte Bay, Fig. 1X0, Palin spathe basket; Baronguan Tribe, Stewart Riyer. Fig. IS. Grass as used for making baskets; from a cave stove; Walmbavia Tribe, Stanley tstand. Large baler shells (Welo dimdlema) are used as water vessels, containers for various kinds of foods, ete., and for baling canoes; they are simply prepared by breaking away the ventral surface, the remainder forming an efficient if some- what fragile basin. These vessels are placed on the fire to boil liquids, and con- sequently all we saw had the outer surface jet black (fig. 177); if they become eracked with the heat they are repaired with gum. Portions of coconnt shells and the shells of the true nautilus (Nautilus pompilius) ave usecl as drinking vessels, The lasi-named are not prepared in any way, but after continued use become HALE AND TINDALE—ARORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 135 worn and blackened around the lip where soiled by the mouth; when aecidentally eracked or perforated they are repaired with gum (fig, 167). Other shells may be used for mixing piement—for instance, on Bathurst Tead we saw one valve of a blacklip oyster being utilized as a ‘‘palette’? by a man painting on the walls of a roek-shelter. The Baruneuan people make spatulas from the thicker bones of birds and large mammals; these are formed by cutting or erinding the bone to the desired shape (fig, 124-127), The end is smooth, rounded, and spoon-like, and we were told that these implements are utilized to gouge the meat from a species of ur (not the coconut) found at Stewart River and other places, We cid not see the bone awls mentioned by Roth (1), ‘ Bark vessels of the ‘pleat-type’’ were seen in a camp of the Kokolamalamia people; they are mace of stiff bark, the ends of whieh are bent wp and pleated so as to forme a troneh. A spike of palmwood is thrust through the pleats to told them im position (fig, 179). The Walmbaria natives manufacture paper-bark vessels by neatly pleating the ends and tying them around with twine. Palm- spathe baskets are extensively used by the Barineguan people, They are made Vig. 182. Palm spathe basket used as Fig, 183. Method of carrying palm spathe trade; Bavanguan tribe, Stewart River. cradle; Darungusn Tribe, Stewart River, from a single large piece of leaf. The sides and ends are bent up, and then the outer portions of the latter are folded in and stitehed throneh at the top (fig. 180). Some of the baskets of this type ave relegated to the ecarrvyme of babies, and are not used for food (fig. 182); in this ease the handle is not usec and the basket containing the baby is supported on one shoulder, where it is held in position with (4) Roth, North Qld, Ethnography, Bull. vi, 1908, p. 25, 136 Recorps OF THE S.A. MUSEUM one ot both hands (fig. 183), Around the camp women carry their children straddled across the hip, or, in the ease of youne babies, held against the side, with the hand beneath the ehild’s buttocks and the forearm behind its back; the basket is used when they are travelling lone distances. We selected about 70 dilly bags from amongst those in use by the Princess Charlotte peoples met with, and photovraphs of a few of these are reproduced in Fig. 184-192, Typos of dilly-hags from Princess Charlotte Bae; 145 and IST, gre nine with knatted technique, the others hourglass; 184-185, Mutamui Tribe, Cape Melville and Darraw Point; 186-188, Baruiguan Tribe, Stewart River; TS-190, Wahnhuaria Tribe, Stanley sland; 191, Walmbarin Tribe, Bathurst Wend; 192, Kokulamiulaisa Tribe, Table Hill, Prineess Char lotte Bay. HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 137 fig. 184-192; the mesh of the nets obtained is mostly the hour-glass or double-loop pattern, although the knotted netting stitch pattern is rather common. The bags are of all sizes, from three inches to two feet in diameter; some are of fine mesh, and used (like certain baskets) as strainers (see p. 115); larger ones are utilized ‘ for collecting screw palm nuts and similar foods; others are employed as ‘‘ecarry- alls’’ for desirable odds and ends. In this last connection it may be interesting to note that the contents of a dilly-bag examined in a Baranguan natives’ camp were; three spear-smoothers of hardwood; a sheath studded with jequirity seeds, for the ends of firestieks; prepared wattle-bark and grass for string; wallaby sinews ; beeswax and gum; fragments of red ochre; and a small quantity of string made from grass. Fig. 198, Method of making dilly-bag with hourglass feehnique; Walnbaria Tribe, Flinders Island, Much of the twine for dilly-bags and many other purposes is prepared from the fibres of Livistona, as described by Roth (2°), and the barks of wattles (Acacia) are also used. Acacta bark is soaked in salt water, and when thus pre- pared is reddish-brown in colour, String from Acacta and Livistona are used alternately in some dilly-bags, so that a transverse striped pattern of brown and white is produeed. Various other barks are used in the preparation of thicker string, such as that used for large fishing nets and for the mooring ropes of canoes. (20) Roth, North Qld. Ethnography, Bull. i, 1901, pp. 9-10, pL ii, figs. 8-11. 138 RECORDS OF THE $A. MUSEUM Bie 198% shows a Hlinders Island bag in the makine, stretched between the Lwo sticks sloping away from the operator, who is invariably a woman. The bavk fibre is kept soaking in water, ancl about six feet of the two-stranded twine is prepared at a tome, the excess being wound loosely around the two sticks during the preparation. Wallaby tendons, wentioned above, are obtained in the usual way; a simul transverse cut is wade near the end of the tail, and the portion beluind the cut is pulled off. the tendons stripping out with it; when required they are rendered supple by damping and chewing. 198 Pig, 144-190. Grass baskets (fwined technique); 194-195, Walmbaria Tribe, Flinders Islvnd; 196-198, Barunguan Trihe, Stewart Rivers 199, Hileman Tribe, Mona-mona. HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTILT QURENSLAND 139 In the same tribes baskets are made by the twining technique. Two von- tintious strands of grass fibres are twisted about vertical rigid or flexible bundles of fibre, An elonwate evlindrical form with rounded bottom (fig. 194, 196, 197) 1s wanufachured in great numbers, but a type with a very wide imouth is also made ; that shown in fiy. 195 was obtained from a Walmbaria native. As with the dilly- baws, some of the baskets have handles of string, split cane, or pandannus. The small type (fie. 199), with a forehead strap, both ends of which are fixed to one side of the rin of the basket, is conumon in the Mona-moua district, on the coast east of Cains. Th ix carried on the back, and the louver strap is supported on the forehead, As pointed out by Davidson (21) twined baskets ave the most primitive form recognizable, and were mace by the extinet Tasmanians. Amoug the Walmbaria the raw materials for the manmitfaeture of camp uten- sils, weapons, ete, and even prized weapons. are stowed away and tuedden in erevicees of voek-shelters and other suitable situations. A bundle of grass fibre (fiv. 181). for baskets. was taken from a store of this material ina small cave on Stanley Island, CLOTHING AND ORNAMENT, Contact with Asiaties and Europeans has naturally influeneed the clress of the Princess Charlotte Bay people, and when first in the eoupany of strangers some Kuropean clothine is worn by most of the younger men and women. Youn virls, when not otherwise covered, wear pubic tassels of string, but uo clothing is considered necessary for young boys. Old men wear at least a strip of paper-bark or Other material depending from a waist-cirelet, and covering the genitals. Apart from this many of the old methods of personal adormmeut are continued. As mentioned elsewhere in this paper, decoration of the body with paint, searring, and the knoekine out of a front incisor have special significance. These practices and decorative objects, like the bean lee-ratiles (whieh ave similar to the yoannt rattles figured by Haddon (27) ). used by women diving dancing (fig. 200), certainly increase the personal vanity of the individnal. and may all be ee recorded therefore as ‘ornaments’. Certain objects, such as uct dresses, hair pendants, compound ¢hain—or rolled—strines, and wooden pendants, worn cra ing mourning and funeral ceremonies, have already been referred to; with such associations the articles are not altogether to be considered ornamental. in facet, they haye a rather depressing influence on the wearer, and he discards them after atime so that he will not continue to feel mournful, (21) Davidson, Journ. Polynesian Sov., 42, 1988, pp. 247-299. (#2) Haddon, Anthrop. Exped. to Torres Straits, yi, 1908, p, 812, fiz, TU. 140 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM The hair (and in men the beard also) is generally kept close-cropped ; during mourning periods it is allowed to grow unchecked, Most of the men and many of the women have the septum of the nose pierced, and wear various kinds of ‘‘nose-pegs’’; these often consist of a smooth eylin- drical piece of wood or bamboo (fig. 46 and 48). and if a pee of this type be at all large it considerably alters the appearance of the face as seen in profile. Several Bartiunguan men were scen wearing euryed nose-pins cut from ribs of the whorls of the Megalatractus shell (fig, 201 and 207); some of these were large, seven or cieht inches in length, and at a little distance the persons wearing them 200 hig. 200. Woman’s Jeg rattle of halved goanut shells; Walmbariy Tribe, Flinders Island. Hig, 201. Barunguan men wearing nose ornament made from earina of a shell (Megalotractus wruanis), Stewart River (compare fig. 207). appeared to have long nioustaches of the ‘walrus’? type, As far as could be ascer tained nose ornaments have no ceremonial significance amongst the Princess Charlotte Bay people, and are worn simply as decorations. A few of the men had the lobes of the ears piereed anc artificially distended, and on oceasion thrust through these holes objects similar to those worn in the nose, Small implements and utensils are also occasionally fastened in the ear- lobe, which thus becomes a convenient temporary repository. Necklaces, particularly those made fron. Nowtius shell, are plentiful Those secu in the Princess Charlotte Bay districts consisted of small rectangular picers HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 141 of the shell, each piece pierced with a single hole. The shell is strung on two strings of Linistona fibre, which are made to pass through the hole from opposite sides, so that the pieces of shell closely overlap. That shown in fig. 202 was made by the Walmbaria, 208 by the Kokolamalama, 204 by the Barunguan, and 205 by the Mutumui tribesmen. These necklaces are worn by women and children, ocea- sionally also by men, but are apparently rarely used as fillets. The example in fir, 203 has a larger ovate piece of Nautilus shell at one end of the double string ; this pendant hangs at the back of the neck. Fig. 202-206. Shell ornaments; 202, Walnmbaria Tribe, Flinders Island; 203, Kokolamelams Tribe, Table Hill, Princess Charlotte Bay; 204, Bronnguan Tribe, Stewart River; 205, Mutumnui Tribe, Barrow Point; 206, Lileman Tribe, Mona-mona, A necklace formed of rather large, suboval pieces of Nawlilus shell, each pierced with two holes and strung on a single string, was obtamed from Mona- mona (Hileman tribe). This type (fig. 206), according to Roth, may have been bartered from the Carpentaria coast. Hillets of string or other material are sometimes wound tightly on the head— not as an ornament, but to cure headache. Grass and reed necklaces (fig. 208-209), whieh consist of scores of shart pieces of the stem strung on a string, are often made. They may be of consider- able length, but are not so highly valued as the shell ones. 142 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MusEuM Portions of Newlilus and peari-ovster shell, eround to an oval or blade-liké shape, are pierced at one end, threaded on a string, and hung around the neck; the shell rests on the breast (fig. 210-214). At fig. 215 is an unpierced pearl-shell ornament, while fig, 212 shows a pendant of two pieces of the shell. This last Fig, 207. Shell (Megalotractus) nose-pin. Fig. 208-209, Reed necklaces; Walmbaria Tribe, Stanley and Wlinders Islands. Fig. 210-15, Shell pendants; 210, Nautilus shell, the mMhers pearl shell; 210-211, Walmbaria Tribe, Flinders Island; 212, Walmburta Tribe, Mlinders [Sand and Bathurst Head; 213, Walmbaria Tribe, Stanley Island; 214, Kokolamalamu Tribe, Table Hill, Prineess Charlotte Bay; 215, Barungnan Tribe, Stewart River, example is of interest in that one of the shells was ground on Flinders Islaud and the other was made at Bathurst Tlead, on the mainland, and eventually obtained by barter by the Barunguan native who was wearing if. Pearl-shell pendants are more plentiful than any other kind on the coast and are more sought after. Pandanus armlets (fig, 216-217) are quickly made. A strip of screw palin leaf, twenty inches or so in Jeneth and from one to two inches in width, is used: HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 143 the method of manutaeture is similar to that deseribed by Roth (7#) for other tribes, namely, one end of the strip is split into tags, and a corresponding number of slits made near the other end. The leaf is first rolled to the desired diameter, and the tags are passed through the slits and knotted inside the armlet. The Fig, 216-217, Paoidaius leaf armlets; Walntiaria bribe, Stanley Tshiul Big. 218, Por tions of a waist belt; Barunguan Tribe, Stewart River, veatness of the tay auc slit join varies considerably. Some of the Walmbaria natives cut one end into from ten to twelye tags, and ria a sharp tool across the outer surface of the leaf at the base of the tags, ensuring that ihe latter casily bend down through the slits na straieht line; others ave not so particular, and form an irregular seam with only a few tags pushed through aud knotted. Fig. 218 shows a type of waist-belt, or waist-cirelet, which is now apparently rather rare in the tribes encountered; it is only one-cighth of an inch to three- sixteenths of an inch in diameter at the widest part, and is from four to six feet in leneth, This kind of ornament was seenred from the Mutamui and Barunguan (28) Roth, Novth Qld. Ethnography, Bull, 1, 190), p. 1, ploy. 144 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM people. It is made from a strip of yellow fibre or bark, wound closely around two lengths of two-ply Livistona string, aud bound with a single ply of the saine fibre; the latter is passed over one side of a turn of the cane-strip, then drawn down between the two strings and across the opposite side of the turn, Thus the con- pleted article is yellow with a longitudinal median blackish line of the fibre on each side. Inthe Mafulu district of Papua a similar yellow fibre. obtainable from a species of orchid found only in the mountains, is an important article of trade with the coastal people. A single string may be used as a deeorative waist belt (and is also used as a ligature to relieve abdominal pains). The natives obtain a certain amount of Kuropean cotton material, and in sonte eases this is adapted to form armlets, belts, ete. A flour-bar may be picked to pieces and the material mace into twine for chain mourning-strings, waist-cirelets, or armlets, Ai Flinclers Island we dis- carded a length of cinematograph film; the natives eagerly secured this, and wound pieces of it around the waist as a cirelet, The black and red paper baek- ings of our Kodak roll-films were similarly nsed. NARCOTICS. When ample tobacco is available smoking is indulged in fo excess until the supply is exhausted or considerably depleted. Eyen small children smoke, often to such an extent that they become drugged and sick. The praetice seems to be a newly acquired one, and appears to have entirely supplanted any earlier forms of narcotics that may have been indulged in, Tubular smoking-pipes—evlinders with one end closed and with a small lateral hole near the closed end—are still quite conimon. Bamboo is the usual and preferred material; all the coastal tribes of Princess Charlotte Bay depend upon drift-bamboo for their supply, and as the current which earries this to their shores operates only for a limited period each year these pipes are prized, are used for long periods, and, if necessary, are repaired with wax or gum. Photographs of a selection of the pipes secured in Prineess Charlotte Bay are reproduced in fig. 219-225. At fig. 219 is a large example which belonged to a Walmbaria man; this is three feet six inches in length, and is decorated with alternate bands of red ochre and pipe clay, leaving an unpainted space in the middle. The second and smaller pipe (220) was also the property of a Walmbaria man; this is decorated with a few lozenge-shaped and triangular markings, pro- dneed hy scraping away the cortex of the bamboo. At 221 is a much-tused pipe marked with eight or nine nes cut or scored around its circumference at itervals of about three to five inches; these are not apparent in the figure. The pipe ITALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 145 helonged to Ambatalmini, who was the dominant oldl man of the Mutumui tribe in 1907. The example ai 222 came from the Mack River; it is wmusually slender, heing two feet two inches in length and only half an inch in diameter inside; and Big. 219-224. Bamboo tobacco-pipes; 219-221, Walmbaria Tribe, Flinders Islami; 222, Mutumui Tribe, Cape Melvillo; 228, Barunguan Tribe, Stewart River; 224, Mutumui Trihe, Mack River, Fig. 228. Wooden pipe; Kokolimatana Tribe, Table TAIT, Princess Charlotte Bay, shows how bamboo not particularly suited for pipes may be used when no other is available. The old pipe at 223 is from a Barunguan camp; the surface has been worked by skinning off the cortex for one and a half inches from the open end: it is coated with wax to support the mouth, which has split, owing to removal of the outer laver of the bamboo. A Flinders Island pipe, similarly skinned and extensively repaired with gum, is shown at 224. The last exainple (fix, 285) is an old pipe made from a length of hollow bough; if is only one foot four inches in length, with an inside diameter of one and a quarter mehes, One end is blocked with em, and the small lateral apertare is bored further from the elosed end than in any the bamboo pipes examined. This was used by a Koko- lanalama num. UH has become eracked, and has heen repaired with gun, The manner of using these pipes has been well described; the tube is filled with smoke by a man smoking a European pipe, or a pipe manufactured on those lines, and the smoke is then inhaled by him or his friends, usually through the small lateral hole. With the aid of one of these eylinders a man can inhale bis smoke more than once, or Gan share it with others. 146 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MusEuM ROCK-PAINTINGS. The surfaces of large and easily accessible roek-shelters usually bear paint- ings. Those which it is intended to discuss were selected from large series present in the huge Endaen cave, in the shelter at the Wakarma camp, in the two Worei retreats, and in the Walacimini shelter. These probably offer a fair sample of the variety and types of designs which oeeur on the walls and roots of the wet-aveather retreats of the Walnbaria natives. As the pigments are usually dull red, yellow, and black against a brown rock background, and do not lend themselves for good photographie reproduction, our illustrations in the main are sketches of the originals, almost all drawn to seale, Other sketches than the series here pre- sented were made, but have been omitted because we were unable to obtain definite and confirmatory evidence from the natives as to the objects whieh they are tended to represent. The Walmbaria natives readily furnished details regarding each of the drawings represented. Some of the figures obviously represent the animals and objects they are intended to depict, but in certain eases the subject is far less evident. Doubtless nuch depends upon the skill of the individual artist, and doubtless also continual copying and reeopying of particular designs by different artists has led to the development of conventional forms. The native purposely exaggerates certain features in his pictures, partien- larly those of a phallie nature, The genitalia ave often given great prominence in drawings of human figures. The abdomens of moths and butterflies are shown (sproportionately large, possibly because the bodies (as distinet from the wings of the inseets) are edible, and thus make a stronger impression on the aboriginal nund, It is doubtful whether (except in a few of the series mentioned below) indi- vidual drawings bear any direet relationship to one or more of the adjoining figures—that is to say, in the main cach seems to haye been an entity ; no ‘“pieture story’’ has been attempted. No appreciation of relative size was noted; a por- poise five inches in length was shown alongside a moth covering seven and a halt inches by six inches of wall-space, and rubbing shoulders with a man only four inches from head to heel. The pictures may be compared with the drawing of a child, which often bears little resemblance to the actual subject, but which never- theless conveys to the artist a vivid impression of the object depicted, fn many cases the artists have made no attempt to orient their pietiures, and on an upright wall space, or on a roof, the figures are drawn in just where they will fit. All drawings on a small portion of the Endaen shelter are shown in the top part of fig. 226 to illustrate this. .A few definite series of figures do exist, however, and HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 147 a connected set of markings interspersed and overlaid with other drawings is reproduced in fig. 232, showing part of the Walaemini shelter. In most of the shelters the picture are of different ages, some are almost obliterated, and partly erased examples are commonly overlaid by newer pictures. A few are decorative, like the designs on weapons, implements, turtle heads, ete., but unlike the last- named apparently have no utilitarian or symbolical purpose. Walmbaria men deseribed rock-paintings of special and magical significance on Clack Island (see p. 91). Cunningham and another member of one of King’s expeditions visited this island in 1821. After describing the geological features, he notes (7+) that on the south-east part ‘‘there is a horizontal stratum of black schistose rock, which was of so soft a consistence that the weather had excavated several tiers of ealleries; upon the roof and sides of which some curious drawings were observed : .... they were executed upon a ground of red ochre .... and were delineated by dots of a white argillaceous earth, which had been worked up into a paste. They represented tolerable figures of sharks, porpoises, turtles, lizards, ... . trepang, starfish, clubs, canoes, water-gourds, and some quadrupeds. .... The figures, besides beine outlined by the dots, were decorated all over with the same pigment in dotted transverse belts. Tracing a gallery round to windward, it brought me to a commodious cave... . sufficiently large to shelter twenty natives. Many turtles’ heads were placed on the shelfs or niches of the excavation. The roof and sides of this snug retreat were also covered with the uncouth figures... .’’. Roth saw these paintings on Clack Island and illustrated some of them (7”). As is to be expeeted in coastal shelters, a vast number of the drawings exam- ined by us represent marine creatures. Animals living in the serub-lands, human figures, and native implements have also reeeived due attention. A few designs are admittedly only decorative, and a number are meaningless to the present-day representatives of the Walmbaria people. Throughout the reproduced sketches the colours are indicated as follows: White—outline only; red cross-line shading ; yellow—dotted shading; reddish- yellow—dot and line shading combined; black—solid black. In the main the general colour scheme is thus made moderately elear in the line illustrations, although the method has some disadvantages; a few clear interspaces, for in- stance, may possibly be construed as representing white instead of bare rock. The Walmbaria people collect pipe-clay for preparing these drawings from a deposit on the southern side of Flinders Island. At least some of their red ochre comes trom Starke River, whence it is obtained by trading. (24) King, Survey Coast Aust., ii, 1827, pp. 26-27. (25) Roth, Aust. Assoc, Adv. Science, ix, 1902, pp. 498-495, pl. xiv. 148 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM Endaen Shelter, All drawings on a five-foot strip of the wall of this shelter are shown above the dotted line in fig. 226; the remaining sketches are selected from our notes, and occur on different parts of the shelter. The paintings in this retreat are the work of the Stanley Island group of the Wahubaria tribe; some of them have been executed during the last twenty years, but the origin of others is not known to any of the present inhabitants (see d), As usual, they are of two general types; in one an object is simply out- lined in colour or filled in solidly with one eolonr, but in the other a more ornate effect is produced by mareining or banding the figure with different colour. hoie dy Py ge 8, and w may be taken as examples of monochrome figures, while more ambition has been evidenced in the execution of most of the others, two colours having been used. Some of the figures (for instance, the turtles, dugone, cassowary, frog, and most of the fish) are fairly obvious representations of the animals ecancerned. One of the most simply drawn, or conventionalized, of the paintings is that of a flying- fish (p); this consists of seven yellow strokes each the width of a finger, When questioned about the figure e (whieh appears with variations in several coastal shelters) the natives brought us a smooth, pink Tolothiian whieh this drawing is supposed to represent. The common blackfish, another Ilolothurian which was abundant, was shown to them, but they stated that this was not the subjeet—tandi’, the paler sea-shig, was the one depicted, The amorphons mass at one end represents the filamentous Cuyierian organs which a few species eject when alarmed. The human figure at a has the head pointing to the right; the legs are shown in a squatting position, and between them is a large pair of testicles. A grotesque dancing man (7) is drawn around a eavity in the rock: other cavities (see 4 and uv) have colour patterns around them, in some eases merely a decorative effect being aimed at. The small fish ealled ‘mornn’, shown in g, lives in the MATIZTOVE- swamps, but we were unable to ascertain the species; it is not the abundant mud- skipper (EBuchoristopus kalolo) of the vicinity. Other designs consist of the familar cirele-patterns, double-headed figures, men, ete. Photographs of part of the roof and a small portion of the lower part of one wall are reproduced in fig. 161. The last-named shows a mother with her newly born baby, with the nmbil- ical cord conneeted ; in this picture may be seew a large square block of stone on which pigments are ground. Other drawings, including a recently executed one of a trepang entier, are indistinetly shown on the wall above some turtle-heads (fig. 159), HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 149 RED......., QS YELLOW... . aed a \\ SQ x Qos e k QS SESS SSS oS Pig. 226, Roek paintings in Endaen shelter; Wrlmbaria Tribe, Stanley Island; a, man (heangai); b, goanay ¢, fresh-water turtle; /, partly obliterated old paintings; e, holethurian (fimdid; f, devil ray or dinmond fish (foal); og, eurlew Curnituenl) > fi, eassewary track; 7, 9 lish—Cantherines—(wongani) ; 7, frog (tarai); ky shovelaosed ray (atiwnl) 3 1, female dugone (rauntowera) ; 1a, dog puppy with wobilival cord; 2, advineed hunian foetus; a, turtle; p, flying fish (vindwerta); q, smadl fish Guerun); 7, jelly fish Colel)y 4. coasowary; ¢, daneing man; wot, deeorative patterns; uw, carpet snake: av, long-tailed stingray (fombiembiu). a, s, and we are not drawn to the seale indicated, 150 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM Wakarma Shelter. The pictographs in this small retreat are chiefly depieted in red, and the artists seem to have had a predilection for ‘double-headed’? human figures, de- seribed to us simply as ‘Smen’’; their double heads may possibly be intended to Wie, 227. Rock printings in Wakarma shelter; Wahobaria Tribe, Bathurst Heads a, by a, ft, human figures; ¢, turtles ¢, aetapms; c, moth; f, voek Tizard. represent ceremonial head-dresses ; there are about ten of these figures in different paris of the shelter. A few selected illnstrations are shown in fie, 227. The painting at is that of a walking man with a very large penis. East Worei Shelter. There ave a number of paintings on the smoke-blackened roof of this retreat, most of them being under a foot in leneth; they are drawn in white pipe-clay and ved ochre. A few representative designs are shown in fie. 228. Pig. 228, Rock paintings in East Worei shelter; Walmbaria Tribe, Bathurst Heads a, turtle; b. eroeodile; ¢ f, 7, emu tracks; dd. stingray; e, dugeng, The emu-tracks, ¢, f, and gy, are of yery different sizes. The drawing of ihe stinvray (7) has a stranee appearance, and differs a great deal from one of the other drawings of this fish on Stanley Island (fie. 226, 2). Several other draw- ings are fairly well defined, and there are traces of many almost obliterated figures. One of the most recent represents a irepang entier, a type of vesscl which has only become common along the coast within the last three decades. HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 151 West Worei Shelter. On the high wall face of this shelter are many very old and faded outlines of large size. The pietographs which are clearly traceable are shown in fig. 224, These desigus econyey no special meaning to the present-day natives; the five on the left appears to be that of a quadruped. 4 Uy, We Wy ‘iy iy *4 MM BS & FEET L Pig. 229. Ancient paintings in West Worei shelter; Walmbania Tribe, Bathurst Tend, Walaeimini Shelter. Owing to the rugged nature of the roek-surface, few smooth spaces of large area are available in this shelter, and consequently most of the hundreds of drawings on the walls and roof are of a foot or less in length (fig. 250-251). As in the Endaen shelter red ochre and pipe-clay are the main pigments used; an oveasional figure is depicted in yellow ochre. In the inain the figures are solid red, or ave broadly outlined in red; in many the red designs are margined with white lines or with a series of approximated white dots applied with a finger tip; some of the figures are stippled all over the solid eround-colour with white dots, Some of the drawmes appear to be rather older than the others, but no definite break in technique or design could be discernect. A ten-foot strip of the baek and roof near the northern end of the low eave is shown in fig, 282. Owing to the length it has heen necessary to divide this into two parts, placing the right-hand portion below the Jeft part. On the lower part of this wall is a lone line of upright markings (some of whieh are enclosed in a semi-circle) and a trident-like fieure, obviously forming a connected series; the natives did not know the meaning of these old designs, some of which are shown also in fie, 231. Above and around them are paintings of more recent origin and remains of even older figures. On the roof are two butterflies, not distinguished 152 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM by the natives from woths (@) and a flvine-fish ()); much more effort has been expended in the last-named than in the simpler delineation of the same subjeet in the Kndaen shelter (compare fig, 226, p). Pig, 240-251. Paintings in the Walueimini shelter; Walubaria Tribe, Bathurst Head, A well-drawn honey-bee appears on the back of the cave (¢) ; this is exeented in vellow ochre, outlined and banded with red. Ationest other designs are repre- sentations of a devil ray or diamonil-fish (ed), a dugong (e), a spear-thrower (/), and two human hands (g and 4); the hands are not of the usual steneil type, but are ‘free-hand”’ drawings. The drawing of the devil ray is of imterest when compared with the figure of the same fish in the Endaen shelter (fig, 226, /), for it Shows how variable may be the rendering of similar subjeets by different artists, The sketches reprodueed in fig, 238 represent paintings whieh oeenr on different parts of the roof and back, near and at the south-eastern end of the shelter. HALE AND TINDALE—ARBORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 153 Several kinds of pietures are very common in this part of the shelter, par- fienlarly small homean figtiires, lizards, stencitled hands, and moths. The lizard (1) is blocked in with red ochre, ts surrounded with a margin of white finver-stipple dots, and has several bars of similar dots across the tail, In three of the human figures the genitals are given great prominence. The testicles of one man (b) are SX NI > sry 2: Nats NaN wens oh" to =.3 ‘ a i= Nan : SESSA — ae a 4 5 SSSR S > . S832 = > SEPES 8 SOO NS g gst STFS § Sey PSs 5 sezgy Fss yerse Ss 3 F B = SsePSF gsi Ss Sig 8s Ss = = = 3 FP PY Tse ySrse 8 S$ SFE Ss dX: = . TSPTS SF sy FTP EEE a t sz 8s s SSeS FTES SREY ~§sy se_ FS RS Sg > = = NNN Lae ~y s£8 SF 8 er Ml ia Qe GS “PooHFl & = & & Ns ‘ S Ne N Saas aR i NE CaS: N wx sg Ly ot LLL: : N Sa Ye Sy pee sees ; SS Ss. ‘ ys SX gi SINS egy oad) 888 as © YX _ x “ga dl Sse ee gear & § SS SNL ie sey f HANAN FSS \..), NN: go eR EESLE SS PSST EY SS SF egsisss stas 3s SX & § ¥S$ 8 N S$ Fs EF SE RS SES ESS 28s sg = x = NN SY = NaS $3 HAESL SL SEES ESS SS ETERS Fig, 242. Two portions of wall of Walneimini shelters; Walmbarin Tribe, Bathurst Herds a, moths; b, flying fish; ce, lee; a, devil ray or dinmond fish; ©, dugong; /, spearthrowers g and hy human hands, : 154 RECORDS OF TIE S.A. Museum disproportionately large, while the piefure at (vt) was said to represent a Tittle woman with a big vulva; aloneside the last is a man with an enormous penis. The frigate-bird is as sinyply dvawn as the flyine-fish previously mentioned (fie. 226, p), and consists practically of three broad finger-strokes: nevertheless, the Big, 233. Selected paintings in Walaeimini shelter; Walmbaria Tribe, Bathurst [Terel; a, ligard; bye, anid vu, men Cheangal); d, tragate bird Coreti); 6 and fy star fishes; ¢. Cephalopod: fool b, turtles; Gaon oe, Wuman handle; ifr, anid, butterties and moths (mot jala) 3; 2, spenr throwers dd, wornan (ngumbul); py, fresh-water cravlish; a, vam; x, frog (harai); f, wneecog nized; 4, porpoise; 27, kingaroo, partly obliterated; iy (vdanant). long body and tail, and the spreading wines are rather well sug@ested. A lone line emuates from one of the star-fishes on the roof (e), and this is supposed to indicate the track. We bave already mentioned that in drawings of butterflies nd moths the size of the abdomen is wreathy exaggerated, A marked feature of pictures of invertebrates having autemnae is that the cephalon and its appendages ave drawn vither as a Yo or as a short stalk carrving a crescent, the arms of the last-named. or the fork of the Y, representing the antennae, This is evidenced in d/. ip, aud w, showing fresh-water erayfish and moths. Lt is interesting to note IIALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 155 that the body somites of the craytish ave sugeesied—iaccurately, i is true—by narrow white bars, but the less obvious segmentation of the abdomen of the Lepi- doptera is rarely indi¢ated. *Motjala? Gmoths and butterflies) are depicted again and avai in this shelter, white, yellow, and red beiue used in various eombina- lions, We did not learn with certainty what object is represented by the figure at y, Dut were consistently told that it was *toanam’, Curiously enough this is the name of the food-pounder on Korsyth aud Mornington Islands. Que is naturally somewhat surprised to see a spear-thrower drawit in such a crude inanner us in the painting at #&. While the artist who made this drawing was probably quite competent to produce a smooth, shapely weapon, he appar- ently tool little pains to record his handiwork pictorially. The pee agaiust which the spear fits is grossly disproportionate and the baler-shell erip is lLdrawn. We watched a inan painting a red hand similar to those at 7 and o, and the laborious maaner of the task astonished us. The wative obtained a palm frond, and elewed one end until it frayed sufficiently to form a crude brush (fig, 235). After mixiue pipe-clay and water to a paste (with an oyster shell as palette) he spread his hail flat against a rock-face, and carefully drew ait outline around the hand anc digits, and then, removing his hana, filled in the outline solidly with red. Mauy of the patntings are executed with a forefinger dipped in the pigment, while, as mentioned, sttppling is produecd with the tip of this digit, The natives areas absorbed as children during this recreation. Other Forms of Decorative Art. Pigment is of course applied to decoratively colour objects other than the walls of rock-shelters, but usually for different reasons. Occasionally a paintine depicting some definite object or other is drawn on a piece of turtle bone, or some other convenient “‘eanyas’’, but amore usually the decoration ii uo manner resembles the cave pictures. Fig. 234 shows portion of a turtle bone on whiel is drawn, in red, white, aud black, the fignve of a man. This was discovered in a crevice of the Endaen shelter. [f is reminiscent af some styles of drawings made by natives of Torres Straits and Papua. Apart from decorations pure and simple the desigus painted ou implements and other objects are in the main (a#) marks of ownership or tradesnanslip, (b) symbolical, in couneetion with ceremony and magie. Mention of such forms of art are scattered through the pages of this report in the deseriptions of the various aboriginal objects, but as examples of the two mein types may be mentioned (a) the patterns on spears and other weapons, (lb) the painting of the turtletieads by the young initiate at Stanley Island, and for magieal reasons at Clack Island, the 156 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM decoration of ‘‘ram-makers’’, mourning tablets and staves, and the ornamenta- tion of the body with ochres and pipe-clay for various ceremonies and dances. 235 Wig. 234. Painting of human figure on turtle bone; Walmbaria Tribe, Stanley Island. Fig. 235. Palm-frond paint brush; Barunguan Tribe, Stewart River. MESSAGE STICKS. While trading for old bags and baskets at Stewart River numbers of message sticks were noted among the contents of some baskets which were being emptied for our inspection. This led to our being able to secure a series of these interest- ing objects; some of them were of recent date, others were old, In no case was there any attempt made to indicate a message by symbols on the stick; the com- munication passed verbally with the piece of wood. The makers of the various sticks were known by peculiarities in style of workmanship; thus these objects were evidences of good faith, giving authority to the verbal communication. They may also have had some slight mnemonic value. Mention has already been made of the message stick forwarded by a Mutumui HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 157 244 | 245 ip, 286-250. Message Sticks; 286-257, Walmbaria Tribe, Flinders Tslumd; 258-248, Bar- unguan Tribe, Stewart Riyer; 249, Mutanni Tribe, Barrow Point. Pig. 250. Hardwood peg for spuarthrower; Barunguan Tribe, Stewart River. 158 REecoRDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM woman af Hlinders Island to her former husband, who was camped inland from Stewart River, This stick was passed on wilh a verbal message asking that their two children should receive names. Kie. 249 is an exaniple which had passed between then on a former occasion and had been retained by her. After messages have been delivered the stieks are usually retained for a long period, being either stowed in string bags or tneked away amony the leafy eoyer- ings of the huts. When interest was expressecl by us, more than a hundred old ones were pro- duced for inspection within a few moments; only ina proportion of the eases could the message be recalled. The verbal messages related to the sending of parcels of spears; arrangements regarding the entting of canoe trees on the Normanby Ktiver in exchange for spears; promises to meet at specified places, either after the elapse of so many moons, at the time when some fruit was ripe, or when eer- lain flowers of seasonal nature were blooming, Fie, 236 and 237 show message sticks which were in the possession of Walmbaria people, Fig, 238-248 have been selected from a long series of old ones without associated messages which were obtained at Stewart River (Barungman tribe). Big. 250 represents an uncarved picee of hardwood sueh as is frequently carried among a man’s personal effects. Lt can be adapted either as the peg of a spearthrower or as a message stick. LANGUAGE, Opportunity was takew to record comparative yoeabularies of several of the principal languages and dialeets, but tle general nature of our observations unfortunately prevented the recording of texts whieh would have given data as to the structure of the languages. The vocabularies were recorded in conformation with the Royal Geographical Society’s seheme as detailed in Notes and Queries (26), and it has been thought wudesirable after this lapse of time to transeribe then: into any other phonetic system. Unless otherwise indicated the ng sound is bari as in finger, not soft as in singer, A stress accent is placed at the beginning of the enphasized syllable. An approximation to the normal pronunciation of the word has been aimed at. There is considerable variation even in simple words, Thus one would not he incorrect in transeribing Enijinga, the name for the month of the Stewart River, as enjongu, enjunga, yinjingd, yenjinga, yenijinga, ye wijunga, or yiue- jinga, for variations which approximate to these renderings may occur amon® the natives of the district. Many of the Kokolamalama people talk rather indistinetly, with markedly (26) Notes and Queries on Anthropolugy, Loudon, 4th. ed, 1912, p. 186 et seq. HALE AND ‘TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 159 aberrant aspirated ‘d? and ‘w’, strongly voiced ‘th’ and ‘s’ and *£? sounds which are absent in their neighbours’ speech. 11 was noticeable that several individuals of this tribe suffered from palatal abnormalities, and the aboye-mentioned modifi- cations may be due to this factor, the manner of speech of the abnormal indi- viduals having become the norm for others of the group, In the following vocabulary there are approximately 2,000 native equivalents for some 570 English words. The Mutumui and Walmbaria words were written down by direct translation into English with an interpreter. The great majority of the others were obtained as direct equivalents of these words without the use of English. Our notebooks suggest that the detads viven for points of the compass may be confused. Most of the Enelish words used in compiling the original lisis were selected from Roth’s vocabulary of the Kokoyvimidir, in order that they might facilitate the future comparative study of the northern languages. The Flinders Island natives have a collective word, ngyalnlhin, for many animal foods. Sueh terms are vate in some southern languages. In this term they entbrace land mammals, the whale, lizards, fish, snails, shellfish, and wreen tree ants. The importance to the coustal and island natives of the shallow-water lishes asa perennial food supply, such as can be speared by walking in the surf at low water, Is shown by the extensive series of names for species of stingrays. sharks, and other shore fish detailed in the vocabulary. In addition to those listed, many other species whieh we were not able to recognize were made known to us by name. A few recently introduced words are recorded in their places in the yorahu- laries. The origins of the native terms for some foreign articles, eg., ‘‘bottle’’. “ou? ete, have not been recognized. Lathe Gulf of Carpentaria many of them are of Malay origin. One word, *kalako’, for pubie tassel, is obviously Hnglish (¢alico). The influence of visiting pearlers may be refleeted in the general Muti- miu word for bird, ‘tori-teri’, whieh is a duplication of the Japanese word ‘tori’. A similar origin inay be postulated for the term *kani’ for trade tobaveo. whieh compares well with the Japanese word ‘kane’, meaning ‘money’? The acconpanying vocabularies are placed in four colmus; in each case there ave cialectie variations, which are shown in brackets. The few words by Curr, ou the authority of Todgkiuson (27), from Prineess Charlotte Bay are the only ones recorded from the district. They have been placed in tbe Enelish column for comparison and reference, They appear to agree best with those recorded in our voeabulary for the Baruneuan tribe. (27) Hodgkinson, in Cure, Australian Raee, i, 1886, p. 389-391, 160 English. above, high up .. o4 uuross, pver T. rrr adder, death (Aemithophis mnfarchious) alive nie at a6 avimals oe ie animal food; general term . . wukle oo. aa + ae ereen tree (Oeraphylha wm, suweeragdinin ) wt, eteen tree, female of ant, green tree, nest of ay urn oe ee hep armlet ., "ary aa urmipit ., ushes .- te a Jnekbone Are, ate buek of neck “is ae bad: wicked persen £5 log, dilly- Ds we lag, string dilly: .. ale Tner-shell (Mela diademe) . bamboo (for spears und pipes) bandicout (Leoodon imacrure) burramundi (Srleropages leiehardti) bark, of tree @ oe hasket (folded putin leaf) lasket (twined grass) a leach .. heard (watta fide Curr) .. leckon, to 2 “y lee, nitive (T'vigaena) = hee, honey of nutive aa hheo, wax of native lnewtles (Cetoniid, Longicorn, ete.) behind —. _ x helly iid os be bird ~; , hitter, salty oo =" black oo. an ie bliekfellaw oe Le blood Cof tan, animal or fish) Dlow, to aw ve blow tiy im +: blunt oo. 24 hout (foreign ) a“ hoat, foreign two-masted bone ote ts: Ue RECORDS OF THE S.A. MuSEUM Mutumui Tribe. The language called Mibole Cibele, Kipo- lin), together with the Ongwara (Banlatmn ) diulect (in brackets). Walmbaria Tribe. (Retiringa, Mba, Woukayi). The language called Yalgawarra, together with the Tartali dia- leet (in lrackets), utendowalo walan'gar Thecth ret bent asa ‘vorlpun ‘arm wundn aral inta inguin Comborir) opuel awul' war *wurkun oLwail junku wart (onyin) (warnings) wongoral (wanl) imuar aluvoinoboar whew (alti) ngandeal (ngunideal) ariwala wamar olkal winnar Owiarmaruka ) yawal ambul tori tori ‘inna (aetna) tambila (wundyurd) womol alpu ngakulkin edaimbal wundu walela aral inta mangal Cartta) upapul (walwa) teide aruga (Iho, Ibon' gar) wurungy (relia) waraki, warawi okotomo, olcatome okutomo adaala, adola antamu wiltia wultyi wiltii iwala pal (talalpar) onguye ngamo ngamo fubayi, bord tu piala wawi (aimbul) nguyulpu, ulwara wolpii abba (arwun) mendayt waruwi Kokolamalama Tribe. (Wunbura, Bukuba- nambia), The langiage, together Barunguan Tribe. (Ba, Baka, Banji- ngum). The language, together with the YVetteneru| with the Ompeila dia- dialect (in hraekets).] lect (in brackets), kalwive (Giyaranmu ) Wobar — (inalikul) yuwar (omar) timbatl, arcduw (thejer) orupun (ol warn) nejir armiar tapout warm (iwi) rufun erbour arija (oppa) {jan debwati mibyipor wonum luppie urke bar Cigapar) lean (ipa) ‘ar mul koin pampan (ethal) minya woruko (ota) Ponta lek wattu Cwatha) porikit owtntji deilimba, tilumba (inimpa ) fate (Icolpa) attinyu Cuttimyy ) oll kawa (wiriki) Inaynpu (imayupu) wirki poya, tulyl (poy) farrat tonga tong paromis kami liril kawitha yuro-pahau —— HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 161 English. Mutumui Tribe. (in brackets, Ongwara) Walmbaria Tribe. (in brackets, Tartali) Kokolamalama Tribe. (in brackets, Yetteneru) Barunguan Tribe, (in brackets, Ompeila) hoomerang (witthe fide Cner) bottle (lotsam) hoy hoy, small me wT break a ' breast (chacha fide Curr) .. hreast, nipple : breath .. os _ hroken brother, ete. : bueket, or drinking vessel .. build, (a hut) too. as bury A sia fs bustard, Australian (Mw poe dotis australis) huttertly as as Iattoelk ealt etl, to. Ze camp Owippe fide Cure) sundlenut (flotsam from e@lse- where) abnor, outrigger dugout (tandi fide Curr) eanoe, outrigger, booms of canoe, Outrigger of en eanoe, paddle of eanoe, prow of, eatae, stern of |, a eassowiry (Crsvarins cage rT Hs ) eal, native catus) channelill (Segthraps noarde hollanidiae) cheek chest child on child, newly born. ehin ue ¢ chiton ., . (Dasyurus halle eieatrix (on chest and shoul- ders) elean noke hy blowing, to clear sky aa climh (trees), to. . cloud He ape eoekatoo, bhiek (Calyptorhin- hus bankst) eockatoo, white (Nahkatoe gals erita) Cwattalda fide Curr) cockle 4 coconut (flotsam). . a cold) (pitja, in) Karnyn lan fuage) come, to te kapinio “ainjir olngata oy em par oy tit aTpoinio yembar talmbayopal urpili Cowure) awur wondundu (wen- dundu) alemia, agale (alemin) takkal tpi werapa forinji tongal teleul warkeal (woke) murukaul wakka (yawn) eitja (eitja) ngandear wallu eiti arumbual wowunha arwandula walngo waruka eital, ikarla oyongi (ayumi ) worumba (lin) wiawt (mbom) eital urugad uraltoininbala wahayala motjala moyu yulpaa Damanjal smbawsngern tortorwul acai ltt nipar APTN wiriapu ulpiayi turiene fopanjp wanindil murkul (retalnga) werta (nariti) thitjange warpar takkal dul (taradn ) ambu mateatla tabwara matayi alulu manjar farumbu yalyanimnai dopal yum (oyanigt) (ngaalal) holpam ngalutagan phur wongal ‘ar whar phukaneimy urir tuppal dapanpo (olowen) ‘dor liam yalnatdiiwsa ‘arbuar (wap par) boar otothir dhor-thratal tenyungy reikviru tjial mokiun tjoitio tyotjo, nyuwanye fjotjo natia Gmantapa) kkalla (lealli) tanju katjabunko, lampi (nami) (ampoyu) wing awan, ping Cowan) kuhi, wopoyi kattu, ngeke (ngeke) fudtala (keila) (paips) 162 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM English. Mutumui Tribe. (in brackets, Ongwara ) Walmbaria Tribe. (in brackets, Tartali) Kokolamalama Tribe. (in brackets, Yetteneru ) Barunguan Tribe. (in brackets, Ompeila) tome (imperative) come (to many) .. complain, to _ a cook, to, . = os corpse .. . 23 cough, to “me ole crab a ew = erahb, hermit De erab, mangrove (Vhalamita) . erab, running (Ocypode) eral (Seylla) 24 oe eral (Xanthiag) .. me eral (Uea) ae bt erayfish or rock lobster (Panu- lirus ornatus) ereek, or river ., a eracodile (Crecodilus porasus) erocodile, nest of .- crocodile, young .. dot crooked, , ba a3 crow (Corvus cecilae) (telpee fide Curr) ery, to .. fay x eut, to .. L a: daytime : a daughter (male speaking) daughter (female speaking) . deep down die, to dig, to 2. zi lish (bark (rough ) dish (Melo shell)... dive, to -. i. dog, native eump fide Curr) (queanrga. dug, wild (Canis faniliaris dingo) dream, to rf oe drink, to drinking vessel dry we duel =. -< duck, white-headed Shelduek (Tadorna vradjah) duck, black (Anes supereili- Osa) dack, plumed whistling (Den- droeugui eytoniy dugonge (Mualicare dugong).. engle (Urodaetus audax) eur (yimpa fide Curr) eur, pierced (or south-east) ent, to eust arwalai (arwala) nokotakka wiandun waandun ikenji wore ekenji anear enta ogunn arkinges yelpal oltamolu anlcown undiyi akala oruma olen fombaya elear yatine, yetangor otunga alpangear wiyirs tepul oven, oyul akkane yatalia onguye, ippara tuyu apoyi taramba upoyi indulka anjai apoyi ambiertia apoyi mokowala aya wurungnr watt ogo undala wondeiwa aller urwii wakku tuyu wahave waltji adolit witarumbaala ikare adultjala mandi montawara otella (rukuta) walin akaimo atala delwai batjwandema pipiyi mulin a’tur thrimin arfiar (ebewu) koparing (otjorawon- won) ndar angeul-anveal wawabalo ijun polpol (o'bu war) buturhama retal arija (oppa) HruMan ga towarpanwm towar thredala holpam thderno liu, nirula korli tjibivu ulputa Timbawiard Gtna) mollir i’moyu ETE T TTT | paku munlen ngapi (ngapu) (tieta) bungako (tawaya) oll tilumba Qvanam) kouga, okokoyi iurkamu tumpi (tampi) Waitai (Wataa) yempa (yampa) HALE AND TINDALE—-ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 163 Mutumni Tribe. Walmbaria Tribe. Kokolamalama Tribe. Barunguan Tribe. Bpgiiel: {in brnekets, (in hawekets, Tartuli) Gn brackets, (in brackets, Ompeila) Ongwara ) Yutteneru ) eel undal, yawnlam (ang — — kuttong-tjoir Krila) egy Comil fide Curr) .. | anir ara udian Wwilipu elbow - - _- — tungu (devambar) _—— kunkol, kangula emu (Dromaivs novae-hol-| yerkonguru (orukun- thrimuy ui landiae) (hoonwil file Curr) evening: a \e excrement - aye (toontree fide Curr) we eye, to open a fo eye, to shut als eyebrow eyelash an fall down, to fan, to far away a fat, or grease fat, solid ae a. father .. . father, adopted _- father’s brother ., father's father. , ete father's mother father's sister out of fibre, red wattle-bark fibre, palm (Liviytona) as fig tree, nmutive (Fiews) ; finger _. “1 .“ finger, little finish =. - fire (yuma, fide Curr, yuma, Karyn ‘'ribe) firelight (metal, Karnyu Tr, ) firesticks, (A), (B) firewood oe ve fish (yunpoo fide Curr) yala, Karnyu Tribe) fish, — musl- kalolo) fish, rock ead . fish, stone (Synaneeja) fish, trumpeter (Lelates) fish, dorsal spines of fishhook, pearl-shell fishing net, oval frame fishing net, big meshed oval, . fish, seules of ‘ae fish, tail of an . fish, diamond ray (Manta), . fish, stingray adc * Thuse twirler (Buchoristapis fish, stingray (another apec- ies) guru) éelanitu, elarnniatiy (ungulutu) slatowangapola ngarimaul gugutjil larumingu oli wotte ngonti nearta, vinba wepal tunul wand mikur wong motumarayi tomimur oda wonha (ulin) ermal po ngandu wonhbsida (redier) wonhatakku (lirawu ) monjela wayalgala onkara apayala ngonda wiakai kagai kagai, oayi pariugai tubigad pakai tumbiara ugaral yikuwaruka winds windi (andindi) wisngul ngawu ngawu (uwala) oradula (A), toroko (B) NewAWiL eidi murayi weipal mutyunmal tandeina alnji abi, wanda woriri wotoal oboi talal ngovie tumbeimer WOranL buddan (eratjar) (erotana) nyirwhiril thruma (outjar) (yiai) (yeter) (ouyi) eifjelwuni rembarin (hran, kein (athi) thrantowha, weuman (yuwai, ewan) awar ardan (ureida) thoarwiti (nampi) tonftoyu (fhumtui) milmoya, yuanko (yankoe) watje miata kaikera okr, uunge, tumma tomongi; wudni (A), tadni (BH) minya, bangana (pon gan) tatila toitu, piita (pita) yua, (jalke, wonka luntitha, Waalki (banlki) piukura 164 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM English. Mutumui Tribe. (in brackets, Ongwara) Walmbaria Tribe- (in brackets, Tartali) fish, stingray (Dasvatis kuhlit) fish, stingray, cxudul spine of. five (also many) .. ef’ flat. v4 +4 te fly (Musea) ye ect food a ia rar foot (lakke fide Curr) . forearm oo wy forehead wh de four ee oe we fresh. a i frigute bird (Mregata ap.) . - frog (Tyla enerulen) wie vhost shy oo virl 23 rr vive me _ i voann (Vuranug gouldi) pd go away, to Py WF go away, (a great distance) to go away, (a short distance) to gu away, (for good) to x fo away, you (imperative), . good :4 - + grandmother (indefinite) ,. grasshopper ae res green. , - we round, earth, country grow, to 4 & gullet .. be zy gum (month tissue) rn gum, black (for spears) gum, bloodwood .. ty gum, mass on stick, for trad fon a ia 7 oe hair (men fide Curr) ar hair, pnbie (both sexes)... hair, under arm .. oe half-oaste a oon hand (hoolam fide Onrr) .. head (mea fille Our) a4 heart .. we S henvy .. fe oe heel a —_ a4 here os et o- here, very close to Bt heron, reef (Demtedvrella saera) hip oe 9 is hit, ta ., we rhs hold, te. . an bs hole 7 A Ma hot (wuln, Karnyu Tribe) ,. yerendi Web neawunds (orobwol) yt onndnl, wundur tetal imbimbusl talmal (ulman ) ngomber, onbur takai (orerwin) atendulia wereanguhowale atlenu atten wilnbul anbugr (otare) otara (otare) olangs yawul kavuwakka marra ekaurowakal, mellur wiere werekungundu alkun (okanambai) moyu ambata engoar mali tati waruka talpul witiaala, Adamo (rolhji) ngakulkin (animal food only) yedu (opeara) mangal (albir) imbara yubuyapal oroti (ured nugoroyi wartks Waretei wakaiyn, wokiuye oteanga weeri menni yilnjerta, woppan 'wuluyur (adealbu yertal yulpal (relnbapoan) otara wokka (towar) wakka tjitjal, enkel- wakkt wakka (atuwar’ ) mangal (kumanar) fagen Ckolari) wukella (rarunge) ongul akko wiyeri wilt allcala attenla abitjal Kokolamalama Tribe. (in brackets, Yettenern ) Barunguan Tribe. (in bruckets, Ompeila) komin piaro almbar tim, ka‘lay mal ruwurin ranganu (malakappear) twimbiar (ohonl) nwa theremin yelala Hobart Cerurwar) nalts nrapuila leiwa khiyi (epmei) arama “par putyol ru'war tiin Gwarepal) (nerepelu ) etjildoa (alam) arpaan (war) ngenhukwan kowam nyil loloyi alkona yali, konto wullu (pulpnl) tao miftja own, yantiln (ou) atu, manke palwu (palwu) tiotjolka, wannemok- kan yeta Cyeta) nearuke (ngaruke) yalnmiai, matali paruta yungana (yangan ) warta Jnilmenjima mitt, yopoke paanna (paan) moti tingkingi (moaki!) pil HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND English, Mutumui Tribe, (in brackets, Ongwara) 165 Walmbaria 'lribe, (in brackets, artali) Kokolamalama Tribe. (in brackets, Yetteneru ) Barunguan Tribe. (in brackets, Ompeila ) hunt, colleet, gather, to hushand oe oe husband's brother lhusband’s sister, . fs hint ef * ih hut, framework of hut, bark covering af ata in front a. it inside : intoxieating spirits (intro duced) jahiru CYenorhynchus asiati- cus) jelly fish - a jequirity seeds (Abrus preea- torius) jump over, eross .. je kangaroo wigan: tes) (yearpee fide Curr) kangaroo, big red (Macropus robustus yar.) kangaroo, tall black, literally “tall kangaroo, trea (Dendrolagus ) kaolin, white kiek, to knee (Macropus knee, hollow ut baelk of knife, shell enife, ston vnguage, mame of large aree rimbhers wugh, to lead, to eave . aye ee eg level, fat ick, to 2. lie dawn, to abe &., lift, to ite ar light (weight) |e oh, lightning lip ~ liver lizard os lizard (Lugosome) inte yviku owalmun alpina muntuwur ftauwu tokanba wongu mangar undundarila (tapila) oppar atjingi (werrer) eibole, eipslin mimbual ultulwi Cutul) talinba oltala undayi kalmbtiar leppa nndandal wopai adogai atji adogai arrar iiku waltju waleana aduwulu olel yenbun abowarala owaimini rokalu tokanhar ingowata teindi aralit tungu (ng asin “sing” ) wakku atwonji yalgawara waruka oppi wagaala talvonbi talpal wataka wandayi wiambalie tangul tater ngelngapepil Ceara. whl) warra (dir) wonjir monularaba, nyvaniara- hal (oragai) atjra noungathalla tror kouwan rokalum khar-inai reiangomar- ala arg Marne pan lil almbar tarukiedaalta noal manil kolkol whunaka OQvatanar) (anna) kuripeinu (sgn) (a'gar) kutjinityi Ckatjinatji) polpo Gnorupo ) pung-en, ponko waneini neanta onatali, wounamnba faiweinan kaama (saammian ) ankat (ankai) 166 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM English. frilled SHLUYUS ) lobster, spiny roek (Panulirus lizard, (Chlaniuydo- Or iiahus ) long ee 66 t+ lose, to ., a we make, to os as mullet, womun's inumwood- .. man, adult 4 minn, bigs ioe —- man, dead (eorpse) mun, dying mon, married mean, old Ae aa man, single Fs ai man, trade of (takko fide Chie) man, youre its =? Imingrave : mangrove (edible speetes) ., mantis (Rhodomantis sp.) —, many oo. mareh fly (Pabanies) obo pubie hair (both sexes) 7 pubic tassel (ealieo) ese pull (up), to ibe a3 pull (along), to .. 4 push, ty 3 put down, to 33 quail (Turnix sp.) 14 qnick .. = o ain *,° 9 = rainbow 3 6 raincloud, black .. A red fe age ty red ochre oF ongwara oyenba oyunba onguar upon (upon) tungoro (worungal) oyenbi, oyanumbir ngande atendowalo wamman untiec tambal winl (when low and serubby), opuel (when mature tree) waruwa alpongoro worukoi, wurukui moitoni (arayil) karuwakkna, enkel- wakka lake yetengar tapar watin ngoungun orungur (otjir) ongare ngolma (weku) onmawialin (alkuti) warawi wodume alpi, olnbi olle walpuars makul mital (ngarulkea } reiwu warnkeala andi tokoyi wiangar weiupa wonda irimar yelpai argingili elpal agualda atjal atjal wakka tyitjal angeala wagranls yagala ambatn apin, embal adi, adi waruka morda adda orungul wurmin (ngarata) pul duun (mareti) nein hana’ whar kutal lowan miawnr Citjrin) reiwu potiyol pandun poljor sthiumtan whombirinu whumbia rukai (otjthran) halhadw antjada (nerepelu ) mega) amgan ftouwarin Barunguan Tribe, (in brackets, Onipeila) niyi (niyi) tununge, nila umpayu, kolann (kolans) umute, kamaka (makoyi) walanga miatuya (matuys) Wilnga, wong pultn, owaran pulki? (mangili) kanuina (kanmi) witju APO yungkui, jimpi koppa (po-otn) RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM Mutumui Tribe. Walmbaria Tribe, Kokolamalama Tribe. Barunguan Tribe, English. (Gin brackets, : me . (in brackets , Ongwara) (in brackets, Tartali) Yottenern). (in brackets, Ompeila) reef, coral — moruku — kulla, tjayuka refuse, to af ars —— weyankni neartyin — rib 72 .. | warnun' gear wangeanit (avtjar) wiumo riee, will (Oryza sativa) .. ae —— ‘ur mama — 3 wyit loaka kopoka, manksa Cat- river oe * roeksheller (wet season eamp ) rope ae $2 ao rough run + run wway with, to cH sund, sandy country = sandfly .. serateh, to ms ce serub towl (Mepyepodins rein anil ) serub turkey Clleetura lath mul) set 4 = c songull (Larres wovde-lollan- dine) sen louse (aveirolana optent «lis ) seawater shadow oe a shike, fo shallow . . shark (general) — - sharp 4 26 shell, baler (Afelo dindewma).. shell, cockle . shell, cockle (Area trapezia) shell, giant clam (Tridaenia Wha ) shell, pearl ((eleagrina anar aveliferay shell, pearly nautilus (Nii tis pom pilius) shell, periwinkle (Natiem sy.) edible shell, snail, (Thersites hipartita) shell, trochis (Troehus ilo liens) shield, alsa wood (cheege file Curr) shin 2 = oe shorf oo. . a8 ee shoulder es shritnp (generie) .. ek sister. - zy 19 sister’s daughter (mile speak- ing) sister’s son (male speaking). sit down, to wnidear foweir Gawur) indi yenhba toki loka talon tulon ‘neorwan NS wongaral (wil) warttwa (ani) wongarwtl, wongar ‘wer tale Candin) apinga, yikeu wundul tampal wakal ong ta. edidana atjal aboaralia eiwala odugo Viner pila wilu vewort meljeri ogu walle oyungala warpal wutayi yelpai adola, adaala matayi otoltol viramal welapa fombolmne yapal wai hile opinga neulnani hoambar worupa (arenga) mokowala warnwi padkad uewui mubui inalie dadarumo piarkaril karilao nar tortor aeiam Whrodtan (kudom) dojindangal reharuka pbalbada wanam (awanam) Cede) arpumiin hboyungan mangear relnyal tipa) mualkana (mankan ) ko-ontu (ko-ontu) tuutu, (wonta) junta, nii-tin ohvnd Colanda) koitu weipa mawara (mawara) tilumba (mimpa) wailing kunnin tio, tale, ali panta, temman (tem mun) HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND English. skin Pag skull «(3 - sky sleep, Lo 9 w+ slow oe “3 es sinall, ulso thin, ete. sear, or grense, 60 smoke (tumpa fide Curr) smooth .. a snake (yeerum fide Curr) snake, carpet (2ythow) snuke, vigaitie poisonous (Oxyuranus scutellatus ) snake, poisonous (not deter mined) snake, sea- (J2ydrus) it sole of foot A, 7, son (male speaking) a son, female speaking) BOre o. “4 oe south (or south-west) speak ot (kulka file Curr) os spearguin (blaadwoad ) spear-smoothor Chuardwood), spear spider spittle. . os stand mp, to be ; star (fumpe fide Creer) v4 starfish in 7 stuy away one night, to rah stiy away two nights, fa. stuy aiway three nights, to stuy away altogether, to - steal, to De slick-inseet (Phasiidde) stomaeh (toolka fide Gurr), stone (koola fide Curr) i stone, large 23 stop, ta, oa straight wi = string, two stranded tative-. . strong subar, or sweet substaneas —- sun (wooteha fide Gurr) SUNTISG .. wi A sunset. on swallow, a ‘ swued oe on swim =. ae ts tea (the trade article) fears (weeping), . tormite tt termite mound es. = Mutumui Tribe. (in brackets, Ongw iri) worniol andayt wummnn (worpar) alkeui wuld, eitjann inarur ippene alla, awita obama Cotare) (oruwur ) ford kil mmarkangan, amarikan (mera) oruburipomt apil orupotenla apil orupulundi atten arpila ambul olpai (tunil) andeir awur wokear, wokkar vyewarta yvokel elirwornmoer Walmbaria Tribe, Gn brackets, Tartali) takkur takku Gikkiw) “neartjin wandayi mangayi tjifjanga, wiruheal mola wopal ngorupal farupayi takkur wpo anil eppare erukaala alki ota re obamangal marae neundy amarakanga yeralji, warar fokanban neural wmurkanga inala ngoru' par totianga waippal woga (tela) worarilige wogarumbale ngorparn, yagiali yoppa wondala mola ngakul otum Kokolamalania 'lrile. (in brackets, Yetteneru ) iE Cethal) thainel, sainel wrung) Congolar) ‘a Menakayi, aliwili Chortuga ) mumbarudi fovi (ozo) 1 "Let (ruwal) nwortial thridinam (erepe) orulfimwal bulinam “ar pungar Vein (oeracan ) “nar Cet) (eirathalnema) (errongoiyan ) phongalaa udunadan 169 Baruugnan Tribe. (in brackets, Ouipeila) kolkol nen tit Wwtninbu, onateli nwok kat (pan) (kappa) taipian pow, Kang Cpowa dy Kalle, arden katti tunpi, timbi Hatyaeing Cnatjacrie) Kol-i (kul) ofp punga, kampala Pa Wat Why piungatieakea alin 170 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM Mutumui Tribe. Walmbaria Tribe. Kokolamalama Tribe. English. (in brackets, (in brackets, Tartali) (in brackets, Ongwara ) Yetteneru ) testicle .. me nt --— odul udoul there oo. . ee +. | oltfteungandu akkaiya — thigh (puhn fide Ourr) ++ | marantal, umn aruga aurar three oo. oan vuntua (ountua) erungo barubuilyin throat... aed e+ | tain oko (nutalnga ) = throw, (spear, ete) to is adealu = throw away, to ., adeala =] throw down, ta.) x ambaradeule lavumurinyal throwing stick, slender type (hooteha fide Curr) throwing stick, flat type oa thumb .. :¢ b+ thunder Hs oe lie up, to it a tired, to become . . aa ti-tree (Melaleuvea) _ tubuceo (trade article) vr toe ne 2 a toe, little ake le toe, under the cat tomahawk (wakko fide Curr) tomahawk, stone head of tongue (darhi fide Curr) tooth (kKummun fide Curr) .. tooth, knocking out of is tooth, falling out of tortoise, freshwater track (or footprints) fide. Gurr) (takko trade parcel (tnere recently money ) turn, (the head) te AA turtle .. af turtle, green (Chelonia mydeas ) turtle, leathery (Dermochelys coriacem) turtle, loggerhead = (Carethen earetta) turtle, shell or hawksbill (Hretnochelys imbricata) turtle, egy of nae turtle, flippers of. . turtle, nest of oh - f turtle, shell of <¥ furtle, snout of 2. be live oe umbilical cord. , 2 ninbilieus , an untie, to age aah urine =... = + #3 vegetable food (yams, routs, flour) vomit, to ~, te vulva ,, os te tauppir athawatha, wathatha Tigarwar, arwen tokol (aruyel) wundul yetal ngapoyi arayil Cokolopod noreimba (yalnga) anir torumbal tala omual okol ofeara Coteara) wundu, ambulwnanur akeruman akerumah windi inondalit alge yertjin ont matja, warai windi windi (deambni) olor nitan idital wolkel (alala) wanda (relnba) gulwanda. monyin amba Wearala ngapoyi aratal takayi uteara ngaka widu (ambulayur) algaala ombo abba en-gul enam, eimam fhungalni real turia arngan ran iwini dundenw Iathnambda erierman (wagiu ) woar oratal toangat sho'war Cottal } (omman ) ngowaram kun Barunguan Tribe, Gin brackets, Ompeila) wokana, wakkial nyanta, kantane untu, kukuti wika (mainina) MAApaApAa, aap malundiji keini, ani tjolio ‘inula (aimala) tanpi kumuna, kammatn yanpangi tokla (fukul) eira wapuna, luppu (luppu ) karkara (karkara) koinungaya pauhamo, kouti kapamo (kapame) ngotjore rouwyl pukunoa, pinyu HALE AND TINDALE—ABORIGINES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND 17] English, Mutumni Tribe, (in brackets, Ongwiura) walk, to wallaby, mili) wallaby fera) wallaby, amas iMedlis ) agile (Mavrapus (Onyeliogile Mngt rock wash, to wasp water, Tribe) waterlily (Nyncliaea spp.) .. Wattle-bark fibre .. wittle tree Cleneia sp.) was fresh (pli, eanyu weak za (or north-west) west wet whitle what is it? where is it! wherein white .. of = white man (parra fide Curr) wife wife's father wife's mother wife's sister wind | wind, north-easti , . wind, south-east tride wing woman woman, single woman, old woman, young —,, wood (yoompa fide Curr) wurley or hut yam (Dioseored sativa) yam, some other .. yarustiek, women's yellow yellow ochre yes e you go first! (Tetrogale ef. wrndul (atin) oruyu fokumbar Olja (wuru) uwere, temuna, oware Citar) arura (otami) watmar (wamaruki) wwanidn yvalimburiinda nzailo ? ombomo aningir, alingir yiku enta Centa) ambiayil (tapal) wilpiar anni Carni) akokol Walmbaria Tribe, (in brackets, Tartali) olkayi ) fakun wbpavadn tiwul apna worun ber adi nygundii tambiara mnarpi tabayi, tori toalpin ownle muni arkeita ngane? anda? undalo waindil vabayi (muro ) awuna abibi maiani arua waya wayaongare wayakaimin ngambul (tama) wurupali anjul wirupali walkar warpar wo'lir alnkuruki Kokolamalama Tribe. (in brackets, Yetteneru ) Barunguan Tribe, (in brackets, Ompeila) aebimburwie kunyur [HCL wea nga (lirida Carete) loppia ngunkilkir (hdedu korlawari anilai? ngar po-om dappa, dabuliayii wrarar valyumalhin duun warkayi arunguin rebur (e@bar) tus wirki matty pare wohda, wuntu antayu antea, wopoikanyu wentjiewentja, winga- winga wopoikanyu soko SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. Bnqniries among the people mentioned in this paper did not bring to light any knowledge of the bow and, arrow. On an earlier visit to Cape York Penin- sula one of us (T.) saw children ising small bows and arrows at Batavia River 172 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM on the west coast. They stood in the breaking surf and aimed small arvows at fish whieh were momentarily visible as the combers curled. They also shot at garfish from small outrigger canoes which they paddled about in the weedy shal- lows. The bow was comparable with that figured in the English edition of Ratzel (75) as probably from Cape York, and was made from a simple unsplit piece of mangrove wood from two to three feet in length. The arrows were from twelve 1o fifteen inches in length and composite, an unbarbed palm or other heavy wood point being fixed into a reed shaft, In the Princess Charlotte Bay area boomeranes are not used. Only the Kokolamalama have a name (*tarumbu’) for boomerang. Tt is a weapon which is known to them by repute through contaet with natives to the south and south- west of the coastal area under ciscussion. Our enquiries lead us to believe that the boomerang is not in use anywhere on the Cape York Peninsula. Thomson (*") has deseribed fire and mourning ceremonies of the *Ompeli’ and *Yintjingea’ eroups of the Barunguan Tribe. Our accounts (anteu, p. 94, ete.) may therefore be regarded as supplementary. The ‘mola’ strings mentioned by him are shown in our fig. 70, and are described as ‘mourning strings’. Janfield (*°) deseribes a native companion dance by men from Princess Charlotte Bay; the performers painted themselves with streaks of white and “pink”? elay, Wearing hair and feather decorations, they formed a cirele, and, bowing to the centre, threw their hands ont behind their backs and whirled about, imitating the noise of the birds, They flapped with their arms and came suddenly fo a dead pause in unison. Hollow logs and hoomerangs (the latter perhaps being acquired cultural objects) were employed to beat time. The same writer also describes a dog dance in which the performers imitated the behaviour of two angry canines, progressing in spasmodie jerks and working up toa snarling, snapping climax. (28) Ratzel, History of Mankind, i, 1896, p. 854, (29) Thomson, Man, 32, 1982, No. 108. (40) Banfield, Confessions of a Beachcomber, L908, p. 273, PELECYPODA OF THE FLINDERSIAN REGION, SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA By BERNARD C. COTTON, CONCHOLOGIST, SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM Summary This has proved one of the most difficult families to classify. Probably the list of South Australian species should be as follows: Dosinia crocea Deshayes ( = circinaria Deshayes), D. victoriae Gatliff and Gabriel (not D. histrio var.), D. sculpta Hanley. Sunemeroe aliciae Adams and Angas (type from Encounter Bay). The last is very closely allied to S. vaginalis Menke, but apparently different. If it is the same species, S. vaginalis has priority by twenty years. Gouldiopia (') australis Angas, Circe weedingi sp. nov. described below. Notocallista kingi Gray, N. planatella Lamarck. Tawera (*) gallinula Lamarck, T. lagopus Lamarck. Chioneryx cardioides Lamarck (= Venus stiatissima Sowerby). Placamen placidum Philippi, P. tiara Dillwyn. Bassina disjecta Perry, B. pachyphylla Jonas, Gomphina undulosa Lamarck. Eumarcia fumigata Sowerby. Katelysia corrugata Lamarck (= scalarina Lamarck) K. peroni Lamarck. [K. corrugata and K. peroni are the sand and mud cockles respectively. These two common bait cockles are extremely variable, and although one is disposed at first sight to divide them into innumerable species, after careful examination of many specimens not more than two species can be recognized. Although both may be found living together, K. corrugata predominates on sandy beaches and K. peroni on muddy beaches.] Venerupis exotica Lamarck, V. mitis Deshayes, V. diemenensis Quoy and Gaimard, V. crebrelamellata Tate, and V. crenata Lamarck. PELECYPODA or rut FLINDERSIAN REGION, SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA No. 3. By BERNARD C. COTTON, Concno.oaisr, Sour AusrraniAN Mustum, Fig, 1-7. Pamitry VENERIDAE. Tits has proved one of the most difficult families to classify. Probably the list of South Australian species should be as follows: Dosiina crocea Deshayes (= eiremmuria Deshayes), D. victortiue Gatlill and Gabriel (not PD. histrio var.), D. sculpta Ianley. Sunemerve alictae Adams and Aneas (type from Encounter Bay). The last is very closely allied to 8S. vagindlis Menke, but apparently different. Lf it is the same species, S. vaginalis has priority by twenty years, Gowldiopia (1) australis Anewas, Circe weeding? sp. noy. described below. Notacallisla kingi Gray, N. planatella Lamarek. Tawerd (7) gallinula Lamarek, 7, lugopus Lamarek. Chionerye cardioides Lamarck (= Venus stiatissima Sowerby). Placamen plactdwin Philippi, ?. tiara Dillwyn. Bassina disjecta Perry, Bo pachyphylla Jonas, Gomphina wndulosa Lamarek. Kumarcia fumigata Sowerby. Kalelysia corrugala Lamarek (= sedlariid Lamarek), A. peront Lamarck. (Kk. corrugala and K. peront are the sand anil mud co¢ekles respectively, These two conunon bait cockles are extremely variable, and although one is disposed at first sight to divide them into innumerable species, after careful examination of many specimens not more than two species can be recognized. Although both may be found Lving together, A. corrugala pre- dominates on sandy beaches and A. peroni on muddy beaches.| Venerupis exalicu Lamarek, WV. mites Deshayes, Ve diemenensis Quoy and Gaimard, V. crebrelanel- latu Tate, and V. crenatu Lamarck. The remaining three species of Venerupis may be allotted to two subgenera, as follows: Subvenus Pullasira (8) Ve gdluetites Lamarek and VW. flabagella Deshayes. Subgenus Claudicancha Fischer 1887, V. camming? Deshayes. From Western Australia Vereo dredged Venerupis ecolicu, V. flabagella, V. galactites, V. erebrelametlata, and V, tridescens at localities between Albany and Premantle, 174 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM CIRCE WEEDING! Sp. noy. Kie. 3 and 4. Shell subtrigonal, rounded, truncate posteriorly, about as high as long, very depressed; cream or very light fawn coloured, usually without a vestive of radials though sometimes with one narrow, indistinet reddish-brown vacdial stripe; tinged with light fawn or violet within; hinge deep. middle cardinal teeth strongly developed; concentrically, irregularly, rugosely senlptured; obsoletely divari- cately sculptured about the wubonal area; inner margin of shells smooth, Holotype. ITeight 56 mm., length 56 mm., and breadth of joined valves BCC, Mig. Joan 2. Gastruchacnn frondlosa sp.nov. Vig, & and 4, Cirec weelingi spo nov. Mig. 3, G, and 7. Bankia gabricli sp. woy. 18 mm. Minlaeowie, West Coast of Yorke Peninsula, In Sonth Australian Museum (D. 10957). Conunon in Speueer Gulf on the beach to 14 fath.; good heach specimens being taken at Wallaroo, It is very rare in Gulf St. Vineent on the beach, but is nore commonly dredged down to 20 fath, At Murat Bay a shehtly more obese form occurs as a subfossil, Flincdersian specimens are somewhat like Reeve’s illustration (4+), which, however, is not the shell deseribed in the corresponding text as C. rimidlims Manke, the red-striped smaller shell shown at fig. 5 b in the same publication, COTTON—PELECYPODA FROM SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA 175 C. weeding? is separable from other Australian species of Circe by its irregu- lar concentric sculpture, lack of colouration, the weakly developed divaricate secuptire found only in the imainediate vieinity of the mmbo., and the conipara- tively greater heiebt. The ratio of the antero-posterior diameter to the wibo- ventral is seven to six jaa juvenile, and one to one in an adult. None of the numerous cdeseribed forms allied to the Peronian C. quay agrees with this Flindersian species. is named after the Rey. J. B. Weeding, of Hallett, whose discriminate collecting of shells from the western coasts of South Australia is providing valuable data. Faminy PETRICOLIDAF. In the Mlindersian region there are three representatives of this family. Naranio (Velargila) rubigrnosa Adams and Angas oe¢urs in both e@ulfs alive from 5 to 20 fath. The type from Port Jackson + fath. 18 mm. x 10 mm. Tasmanian specimens attain to 19 mm, x 14 mm., but in southern Australia 1] mm. x Simm, seems to be the maxuntin size. Verco dredged this alive at Albany m 20-28 fath. Specimens in this Museum from South Australia bearing the name Choristodan dinaricatus Chemnitz ave merely variants of the above. Naranio lugucida Chemnitz we have fron Port Willunga, Port Lincoln, St. Francis Island Beach to 30 fath., also Albany, Gunbury, Yallingup, Ellensbrook, and Fremantle Beach to 54 fath. Tate compared Port Lincoln specimeus with the type and pronounced them identical, Pamiry TE LLINIDAR. The following species oceur in South Australia : 1 Telling albimella Lamarek, T, aldingensis Tate, T. cnsiformis Sowerby. Semelangulus subditulus Tate, S. vincentianas Tate, S. tenniliratus Sowerby. Macoma (Salmacoma) (°) deltoidalts Lamarck, WM. modestina Tate, MM. semi- Jossilis Sowerby, Pseudarcopagiu victariue Gath and Gabriel. The following species have been erroneously recorded from South Australia, and have never heen taken there to our knowledge; Telling wvirgula, To slawrella, and Melis withonella. Between Albany and Mremantle Verco took Telling uldingensts, T. moadestind, Semelangulus subditulus, S. fenuilivatus, S&S, vincentianus, Macoma semmfossilis, Psendarcopagia victoriac, and some four or five as yet anidentified species. Pamiry SEMELIDAE. South Australian species are: Semele ertqua Adams, S. uda Adams. , montis Adams and Angas, The last has also been taken at Bunbury beach, Western Australia, in 15 fath. 176 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM Famiry GARIDAE. From South Australia we have Gari livida Lamarek, G. alba Lamarek, G, modesta Deshaves, G. brazier? Tate, Soletellina biradiata Wood, 8, donacioides Reeve (= floridu Gould preoce.). G. livida was taken at Albany and Rottnest down to 28 fath., and 8. braziert at Albany and Bunbury down to 35 ath, amity SOLENIDAE, Solen vuginoides may be added to the Western Australian list, as it was dredged at Albany in 22 to 35 fath. Famity DONACIDAE. From South Australia we have: Donax (Deltachion) clectilis Iredale, Donde (Hlemidonax) chapmant Gathit® and Gabriel, Donax (Plebidonar) deltoides Lamarek, Donan (Tentidanar) veriunus Hedley (St. Francis Island, 35 ath. typical), identified by Hedley. D. chapman? was taken at Albany, Bunbury, and Rottnest down to 28 fath. Donas delloides is plentiful from Encounter Bay southwards. Ht is fairly plentiful at Sellick’s Beach, and is actually said to be found alive as far north as Port Noarlunga. Being a favourite bait cockle it may have established itself in these places through being transported there by fisher- men. The empty shells are found wherever fishing is carried on. Famity MACTRIDAR. South Australian species are: Maclra (Austromactra) rufescens, WM. australis Lamarek, WM. (Nannomactra) jacksonensis Smith, MW. (Diaphoromactra) versi- calor Tate (= corrugata Tate), M. (Blectramacira) ovalina Lamarek, W. (T'ele- mactra) abbreviata Lamarek, Spisula (Notospisula) trigonella Lamarek (no living specimens seen from South Australia), Anapella eycladea Lamarek (= Muetra pinguis Crosse and Fischer), Labiosa meridionalis Tate. Mactra murygdata Crosse and Fischer, described from Spencer Gulf, appears to be merely the juvenile of M. pura Reeve. Mactra adelaidae Angas, To the Western Australian list may be added: M7, jacksonensis Smith, Albany to Bunbury, down to 35 fath. WM. ovaling Lamarck, Albany to Bunbury, to 22 fath. Pamiry AMPHIDESMATIDAE. Only three species are taken in South Australia: cLinphidesma (= Aimesu- desma Iredale 1930) angustata Reeve, A. cuneata Lamarck, A. nitida Reeve. COTTON-—-PELECYPODA FROM SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA 177 A, erycinaea Lamarek has been erroncously listed from South Australia, bit does not ocean here. Faminy HIATELLIDAE., South Australian speeies are: Hiatella australis Lamarek, angus: Angas, Panape australis Sowerby. IL. subalafa Gatliff and Gabriel was taken at the fol- lowing localities: Corny Point, 8 miles south of Tunk Mead, 16° fath., meid- channel between Cape Borda and Wedge Island, 60 fath. As pointed out by Iredale, this is apparently more nearly related to the Bximiothracia-Phiugmar- ismu series than to Hiatella. IL. austratis Lamarek was taken in Western Aus- tralia at Albany, Yallingup, Ellensbrook, Bunbury, and Fremanile. Pamity GASTROCHAENIDAE. Two speeies oeenr in South Australia, Gastrochaena lasmaniea 'Tenison- Woods and G. frondosa sp. nov., recorded by previous authors as G. lamellosa Deshayes, a Philippine Island species different m shape from ours. GASTROCIAENA FRONDOSA Sp). OV. Hie. 1 and 2. Fairly solid, inflated, leat-like in shape. very widely gaping, wmbos but slightly prominent, rounded behind, sharply rounded in front; ventral margin convex throughont its length; yellowish-white (cotype is darker, brown), blaish within; seulpture of numerous delicate concentric Lanellac, erowded in front, spaced behind; hinge with the yestige of a cardinal tooth and corresponding socket, and an obsolete posterior lateral; hgament external, posterior, small, Holotype. Heivht 15-5 mm., length 383 mm., breadth across joined valves 14:4 min. Baekstairs Passage, 35 fath,, burrowing in a sponge. D. T0968, Also Inyes- tivator Strait, 10 miles of Troubridge, Hardwicke Bay, 8 fath.; Port Adelaide Creek, borrowing in limestone; and Point Marsden, 17 fath. The nearest described species seems to be G. gigantea Deshayes from ie- kuown locality. Ov shell differs from this in the general shape of the shell. par- ticularly the ventral mare. Faminy TRREDIDAE. Species recorded from South Australia are: Teredo pocilliformis Molt and Roch, 7. eahauent Moll and Roch, 7. (Pingotercda) fragilis Tate, T. (Nolotercda) edie Uedloy. Barkin gabvieli sp. nev. A seientifie investigation of this family 178 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM has yet to be made in South Australia, when probably more species will be found to oeeur. BANKIA GABRIELLE Sp. noy, Fig. 5, 6, and 7. Shell of medium size, white; anterior auricle large, seulptured with very numerous riblets; posterior auricle small, elongate, smooth, except for aceroe- mental striae; median area medium in size: anterior median fairly broad, extremely closely marked with fine riblets; middle median narrow; posterior median narrow, smooth but for fine accremental striae; interior ivory-white ; knob small, circular, detached; blade thin, arising from behind the umbones: shelf elevated as a ridge runnine towards the umbones, not meeting the blade; hinge thick, wmbones fairly large. Pallets (fig. 6) consisting of cone-in-cone elements, well separated, numbering six, edges smooth; sinuate on one side, not sinnate on the other. Stalk long and thin, slightly longer than the cone-in-cone portion. Holotype. Shell, height 7 mm., length 6-8 mm. Pallet, leneth 10-5 mm., length of stalk only 5 mm., width of cone-in-cone section 1-9 mm. Dennekin Slip, Port Adelaide. In South Australian Museum (D. 10970), The pallets of the holotype have a small fragment broken from each end, so that the measurements of a complete paratype pallet is given here, Paratype pal- let (largest specimen) : Length 20-5 mm., length of stalk only, 11 mm., width of cone-in-cone seetion 2-1 mm, The specimen described as holotype was handed to me by Mr. C. J. Gabriel, atter whom it is named, According to our investigations it would seem that Cobra or Shipwormis are searce in the Port Adelaide River. REFERENCES. 1. Iredale: Proce, Linn, Soe. N.S.W., xlix, pt. 3, p. 209 (1924), 2. Marwick: Trans. N.Z. Inst., 57, p, 618 (1927), Sowerby : Sowerby’s Genera of Shells, pl. 72 (1826). t. Reeve: Conch. leon., xiv, Circe (1864), pl. 1, fig. 3a. 9. Iredale: Mem, Qld. Mus., ix, pt. iii, p. 267 (June 29, 1929), A REVISION OF THE TROMBID AND ERYTHRAEID MITES OF AUSTRALIA WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW GENERA AND SPECIES By H. WoMERSLEY, F.R.E.S., A.L.S., ENTOMOLOGIST, SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM Summary The two families of Acarina dealt with in this paper are very closely related ; both belong to the suborder Prostigmata, characterized by the position of the stigmata, which open at the base of the mandibles in the adults. In general appearance the members of both families are similar, but in the Erythraeidae the mouth-parts are more or less retractile, while in the Trombidiidae they are not so. In the larval forms the Trombidiidae have a stigmal opening between the first and second coxae. A REVISION or rut TROMBID ann ERYTHRAEID MITES or AUSTRALIA wirnh DESCRIPTIONS orf NEW GENERA anp SPECIES By H. WOMERSLEY, F.R.E.S., A.L.S., Enromotocisr, Sourn Ausrrarian Museum. Fie. 1-235. Tre two families of Acarina dealt with in this paper are very closely related; both belone to the suborder Prostigmata, characterized by the position of the stigmata, which open at the base of the mandibles in the adults. In general appearance the members of both families are similar, but in the Erythraeidae the mouth-parts are more or less retractile, while in the Trom- hidiidae they are not so. In the larval forms the Trombidiidae have a stigmal opening between the first and second coxae. Several species of Trombidiidae are of economic importance, for their larvae are not only of great annoyance to man, but transmit disease. In Japan the Kedani or river fever is caused by the bite of the Akamushi (Microtrombidium akamushi Brumpt.), while in Queensland and the Coorong district of South Australia the ti-ttree itech mite (Trombicula hirsti Sambon) is a source of irrita- tion to campers. The harvest mites of Europe comprise the larval forms of several species; similarly in Ameriea other species are regarded as pests. Other larval Trombids, while not attacking man, are pests of various animals, such as cats, rodents, and marsupials, and are generally to be found in the ears, on the serotum, ete. Adult Trombids, as far as is known, feed upon insects and their eeos, As far as is known none of the Erythraeidae attacks man or animals, but all species are essentially parasites of the early stages of insects. The adults prob- ably have similar habits to the adults of the Trombidiidae. In studying these creatures one is faced with the difficulty that only im one or two cases have the life-histories been to any extent worked out, and is foreed to give both generie and specific names to larval forms without any correlation with the adults. Comparatively little work on this section of the fauna has been carried out in Australia, only four workers having written on them, namely, W. J. Rainbow, N. Banks, 8S. Hirst, and L. W. Sambon. Most of our knowledge is due to the work of Ma. 8. Hirst, who was in South Australia during the years 1927-1928. 180 RECORDS OF THE $.A. MUSEUM In 1906 W. J. Rainbow (14) listed two species of Trombidiidae, Trombidiun sericaluim sp, noy, and Trombidium papnanwn Canestrini, Li this paper the first- named is referred to the genus Cvenothrombiunt of Oudemans, and is shown to be synonymous with two of Hitst’s later species. [ have not been able ta see the original description of the second species, but as Derlese, in his monograph of the group (*), does met mention it, probably it is not veeogmizable now and can be dropped. In addition Rainbow records three ocenrrences of *' Lep/us spp.”? on various insects. It is possible that these do belone to the @enus Leptits (Erythracidae) as now understood, especially considering their hosts: almost certainly they should not be placed in the Trombidiidae, Amongst the Erythrae- idae Rainbow lists Smeridia ertranea Koch from Queensland, Rhyncholophis montane sp. nov. trom Mount Kosciusko, and Rhynchalophus celeripes sp. nov. from Enfield, NSW. L have not seeu the original deseription of the first, and do not discuss it in this paper. The second is shown herein to be a species of Caceulisoma, and the third a species of Brythraeus. The next paper was by Banks (2). who described a number of Acarina taken in association with ants by the late Mr. A.M, Lea in Vietoria and Tasmania. Amongst the Trombidiidae he described Trombidiim dequilis, which is referable to Mierotrambidvim, as are alse Rhynchalophus attolus and BR. vetentus, whieh he refers to the Erythracidae. Pessania prominens Banks is a terme member of the Hrythraeidae, but the genus wrst be changed to Calyplostoua. The first of Hirst’s papers dealing with the Australian species was that in the Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist, for 1926 (%), when be described the following species; Aolhrombinum lerraereginae, Allothrambiion (Mesothrombiumn) anti- podiannm, AS (M.) a. var. olurinum, all belongine to the Trombidiidae. Tn the same journal for 1928 (8) he added the following species: Chyzerin australiense sp. nov., Nealrambidium barringunense sp. nov. Diplothrombium vustralionse sp. noy., Microlrombidian barringuncuse sp. nov., Micretrombidiiw (EB neno- thrombium) collinnm sp. nov., Mo (8) wyondrac sp. noy., Dinathrombium nuyniganense sp. nov., D. splendidion, sp. nov., D. forridvm sp. nov. De erassiwn sp. nov., and othroaubrum wyindrae sp, wov. auonest the Trombidiidae; and Caceulisona nasutiun sp. nov., Leplis pilosus sp. nov., L. reginge sp. nov., Lb, antipodianus sp, noy., L. dmperator sp. nov., Wieranaris gounuae sp. mav., end EBeloustium worregense sp. nov. amongst the Erythraeidae, Of the above all his species of Dinothrombinm are placed herein in the venus Caenothrombium, and D, splendidum is regarded asa svnonym of C. serieutum (Rainbow). The species of Leptis are now placed under Brythraces, and L. tieperater and L. antipodi- ‘aus ave Inchided in the synonymy of other species, Relawsiinn warregense is a member of the genus Leplius as now defined. WOMERSLEY—AUSTRALIAN MITES 181 In the Proe. Zool. Soe. London for 1928 (') Tirst listed the following: Chyzeriu montane sp. nov., Co neasgraci sp. now, Mterolrambidinin parang sp. nov., Jf. affine sp. nov., We montivagquin sp. nov., J. (Rnemathraubiun) lroordanmn sp. nov. M. (2.) simile sp. nov. Allothrombianne guilalium sp. nov., AL ornaliuin sp. nov, A. insigne sp. nov., al. antipodinwn var. kondiniun var. nov. Dinolhrombiaun rainbows sp. noy., D. ventricasim sp. noy., D. nobile sp. nov.. Do auguslac sp. nov., and D. faylori sp. nov. belonging to the Trombidiidae. Of these C. musgraver is reduced in this paper to varietal rank; MW. montivegain is placed in the genus Caenothrombnun, and D. rainbows is considered synonymous with it. AVothrombinmn ornatum is treated as a synonym of A. gultalum, D. ventricosum of C. sericatwm (Rainbow), and D. taylort of C. tarridum. Allo- fhrombiwm insigne is placed in the uew genus Auslrofhrombinm, as is also A, aniipodiamn var. kondintum, whieh is shown not to be velated to A. qui podianum. In the same journal for 1929 (1) Tirst added to the list Chyzerta arnmigeru sp. nov, C. insulana sp, noy., C. occidentalis sp. nov., Trambella warreqensis sp. nov., Allothrombium (Mesathrombium) australiense sp. noy., AL parvulwn amongst the adult Trombidiidac., and Trombicula novae-hollandive sp. nov. Sehangasha dasyeere) sp. noy,, and S. anfipodianwut sp. nov. amonest the larval forms. Ile suggested that C. occidentalis might be only a variety of (. auslral- Tense, aud | agree with this view, In the Arnals anc) Mag, Nat. Hist (49), 1927, Dr. L. W. Sambon deseribed larval Trombid from Queensland as Trombienda lars), while in the same publi- vation for 1929 Lirst recorded this species for South Australia, and described another larval form under the name of Sehongasha coorongense. The previous known act species of Trombid and Hryihraeid Mites from Australia, therefore, omitting one or two doubtful forms, as well ax those herein regarded as synonyms or reduced to varietal rank, are as Follows: Adult Trombiciidae, 82 species and 2 varieties. Larval Trombidiidae, 4 species, Adult Krythraeidae, 9 species. Larval Krythraeidae, nil. fn the present paper 46 species and 4 varieties of adult Trombidiidae are listed, of which 2 wenera, 14 species, and 1 variety are new. Of the larval Troim- hidtidae 2 new species are added. In the Erythraeidae 24 adult forms are listed. of whieh 14 species and 1 gents are new. No larval Erythraeids have been pre- viously recorded from Australia, bat no fewer than 9 species are now ceseribed. The writer is grateful to the Authorities of the Australian Museum, Sydney, 182 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM for the loan of type material, while his gratitude can hardly be expressed to Professor Harvey Johnston, to whom the material collected by Ifirst while im Australia had been given by Mrs. [lirst. This material contains a large namber of Tlirst’s types, the location of which may not have been made known otherwise. These types and many other of Hirst’s specimens have been deposited by Professor Johnston in the South Australian Museum, Thanks are also due to many other friends who haye collected specimens whieh have assisted in the preparation of this paper. Paminry TROMBIDITDAE. Cryzerta Canestrini, 1897. CHYZERTA AUSTRALIENSE [lirst, 1928. The type of this species, from ‘‘Swan River, West Australia’? is in the South Australian Mnseum. 1H is labelled as from the nest of the ant Ponera lutea. A second specimen from the same locality is a paratype. Through the kindness of the Authorities of the Australian Museum, Sydney, T have been able to examine all the types of Hirst’s Australian species, with the exception of C. occidentalis, and to compare them with a number of additional specimens recently taken in Sonth Australia. C. occidentalis was described in 1929 (1%) by Tlirst from a specimen col- lected on Rottnest Island, West Australia. [In his remarks he expressed the opinion that it might only be a variety of C. austratiense, differing mainly in the shorter and stumpier palpal claws and in the rather more developed lateral body processes. From an examination of all the material before me 1 quite agree with this view, and in this paper treat it as such, Further, Tirst’s (. musyrived must also be considered as a variety differing in that the median anterior plate is developed into a comparatively long process. One specimen amongst the Hirst material in Professor Ilarvey Johnston's keep- inv, and now in the South Australian Museum, is clearly intermediate between the two forms in respect of this character, the process being shorter and triangular, This specimen was labelled in peneil by Hirst as C. musgraver. All the specimens collected recently by Mr. M. W. Mules and myself in the Adelaide Distrier agree with this intermediate form, for which the name CL australiense var. liesti var. nov. is proposed. Loc. Type: Willunea, West. Aust.; paratypes: Woodside, S. Aust., July, 1938 (W.M,); Mt. Osmond, S, Aust., Sept. 17. 1983) (1E.W.); Glen Osmond. 3. Aust., Oet. 1, 1983( FLW.). WoOMERSLEY—AUSTRALIAN MITES 183 Wig, Id. Chaeeria australiense UWirsts 1, dorsal views 2. pulpy i, fromt tursts sand merit forsus; 4. anterior lateral and qnedial dorsal prominenees af var. deusyrnee’ Tirst, Key ro ctie AUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZeALAND Species of CryZERLA, Second aud third pais of dorsal lateral proeesses poorly developed and almost obsolete. No distinet metian anterior dorsal process. only a plate with rewnded posterior edge. A «istinet and comparatively lone median pracess posteriorly and ventrally. Front tarsus rather more than 3 times as Jone as hieh and one-fourth as long awain as the metatarsus. Palp with comb anc long aeeessory claw. . fr ~. Constralionse Tirst fap. Second and third pairs of dorsal lateral processes distinetly developed .. 2 A trianeular or elongate median anterior process present 0 LA, No such process, only a posteriorly-rounded plate ., ze a 2 With a comparatively long media anterior process. C1 australionse van, neusgravel Tirst. With a short trisnenlar process auteroauedially, CL austrabiense var, hirsii var, nov. 184 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM 4+. Terminal elaw and accessory claw of palp short and stumpy .. r4