TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

(INCORPORATED)

VOL. LX.

[Hach Author is responsible for the soundness of the opinions given and
for the accuracy of the statements made in his paper.]

PRICE: TWENTY SHILLINGS.

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DECEMBER 23, 1936.

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Parcels for transmission to the Royal Society of South Australia from the United States
of America can be forwarded through the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

(INCORPORATED)

[Each Author is responsible for the soundness of the opinions given and
for the accuracy of the statements made in his paper.]

PRICE: TWENTY SHILLINGS.

Adelaide:
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY,
ROYAL SOCIETY ROOMS, NORTH TERRACE, ADELAIDE,
DECEMBER 23, 1936.

[Registered at the General Post Office, Adelaide, for Transmission by Post as a Periodical]

PRINTED BY GILLINGHAM & Co. LimiTep, 106 ANp 108, Currie STREET,
ADELAIDE, SoUTH AUSTRALIA.

Parcels for transmission to the Royal Society of South Australia from the United States
of America can be forwarded through the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

(INCORPORATED )

Patron:
HIS EXCELLENCY MAJOR-GENERAL SIR W. J. DUGAN, K.C.M.G.,, C.B., D.S.O.

OFFICERS FOR 1936-37.

President:
HERBERT M. HALE

Vice-Presidents:
Cc. T. MADIGAN, M.A., B.E., D.Sc., F.G.S.
JAMES DAVIDSON, D.Sc.

Hon. Editor:
CHARLES FENNER, D.Sc., Dip.Ed., F.R.G.S.

Hon. Treasurer: Hon. Secretary:
W. CHRISTIE, M.B., B.S. HERBERT WOMERSLEY, F.R.E.S., A.L.S.

Members of Council:

H. K. FRY, D.S.O., M.B., B.S., B.Sc.
PROFESSOR J. BURTON CLELAND, M.D.
ERNEST H. ISING
PROFESSOR J. G. WOOD, D.Sc., Ph.D.
PROFESSOR J. A. PRESCOTT, D.Sc., A.LC.
H. H. FINLAYSON

Hon. Auditors:
W. CHAMPION HACKETT O. A. GLASTONBURY, A.A.LS., A.F.LA.

CONTENTS

Manican, Dr. C. T.—Centenary Address: The Past, Present and Future of the
Society, and its relation to the Welfare and Progress of the State

Woop, Dr. J. G.: Botany .. _
CAMPBELL, Dr. T. D.: Anthropology ie the Mad Society

CHapMan, Pror. R. W.: The Past Work of the evel ie ovis the isin
of Natural Science a

Buiacx, J. M.: One Hundred —— of fide ene Ss in South Siete
Davinson, J.: One Hundred Years of Entomology in South Australia ..

Jounston, Pror, T, Harvey: One Hundred Years of Zoology in South suelo.
Mawson, Sir Dovuciass Progress in Knowledge of the Geology of South Australia

Howcuin, Pror. W.: Notes on the Geological Sections obtained by several Borings
situated on the Plains between Adelaide and Gulf St. Vincent. Part I1]—Cowan-
dilla (Government) Bore

Prescott, J. A., and Hosxinc, J.S.: Some Red Basaltic Soils from ait n erate

Fenner, F. J.: Anthropometric Observations on South Australian Aborigines of the
Diamantina and Cooper Creek Regions

Tinvae, N. B.: Notes on the Natives of the ened Portion of Yorke Peninsula,
South Australia

CooxE, W. TERNENT: ediecn Notes on a eae - ane Coal ae ‘be
Balaklava-Inkerman Deposit :

Kieeman, A. W.: The Artracoona Meteorite .. A a
Jounston, Pror. T. Harvey: Remarks on the Nematode, aegis ee eo

Davipson, J.: Climate in Relation to Insect Baplome| in Australia. Bioclimatic Zones
in Australia

Prescott, J. A.: The Sire ee a the 2 a Eis Beis,

Woop, J. G.: Regeneration of the Vegetation on the Koonamore Vegetation
Reserve

Womenrstey, H.: Studies in Australian Pe ie Nie Species é Lenisiatidae
from South Australia .. a

Buacx, J. M.: The Botanical Features Sele Geiser, a Ernabella in Mi
Musgrave Ranges, with a ce List of Plants from the North-West of
South Australia . = :

Sracu, L. W.: South nemamalee canine HrheeELIN I

Davipson, J.: On the Ecology of the Black- pes Locust ie Sunes terminijor
Walk.) in South Australia =

Buakety, W. F.: Descriptions of Three New coeds and aa Variety ei seperate
of the Elder and Horn Expeditions, the ““White-wash Gum” of Central Australia,
and the Re-discovery of Eucalyptus orbifolia F. v. M. 3

Fintayson, H. H.: On Mammals from the Lake Byre Badin Patt II. The
Diprotodont Marsupials and Ovrnithodelphia we 3 oi

Brack, J. M.: Additions to the Flora of South Australia, No. 34
SHearp, K.: Amphipods from a South Australian Reef
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS ..

ANNUAL REPoRT =

Str JoseEpH VeErco Mepat ..

BALANCE-SHEETS

ENDOWMENT FuNp

Liprary EXxcHANGES a8

List or FELLows AND MEMBERS ..

INDEX

112

114
127

137

153

157
162
173
180
182
184

. 185-186

187

. 188-194
195-198

199

THE PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF THE SOCIETY, AND ITS
RELATION TO THE WELFARE AND PROGRESS OF THE STATE

BY DR. C. T. MADIGAN

Summary

Introduction.- The Council of the Royal Society was desirous of taking some part in the Centenary
celebrations of the State of South Australia, but considered that, owing to the nature of the Society,
its contribution could not be otherwise than internal, so that it was decided that the Centenary
should be marked by an address by the President in the nature of a review of the progress of the
Society and its relation to the progress of the State. This address is to be followed during the year by
addresses by other Fellows of the Society dealing in some detail with the work of the more
important sections of the Society's sphere of activities.

Transactions

of

The Royal Society of South Australia (Incorporated)

VOL. LX.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
CENTENARY ADDRESS

by Tue, Prestpent (Dr. C. T. Madigan).
Presented at the Ordinary Mecting on May 14, 1936.

THE PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF THE SOCIETY, AND ITS
RELATION TO THE WELFARE AND PROGRESS OF THE STATE.

Introduction.—The Council of the Royal Society was desirous of taking
some part in the Centenary celebrations of the State of South Australia, but con-
sidered that, owing to the nature of the Society, its contribution could not be
otherwise than internal, so that it was decided that the Centenary should be
marked by an address by the President in the nature of a review of the progress
of the Society and its relation to the progress of the State. This address is to
be followed during the year by addresses by other Fellows of the Society dealing
in some detail with the work of the more important sections of the Society’s
sphere of activities.

The time is very opportune for a stocktaking of the Society’s position, and
a reconsideration of its policy, objects, and future. The Royal Society is really
older than the State itself, for though it has had an unbroken existence only since
1853, apart from a mere change of name, yet its origin can be traced back to the
South Australian Literary and Scientific Association, initiated among the founders
of the Colony in London in 1834. Thus we can feel that we are not only celebrating
the Centenary of the State, but if not actually of the Society itself, at least of
the first scientific organisation in the Colony, of which we are the direct descendant.

The Presidential address was initiated by Professor Tate in 1878, when he
stated that he hoped he had established a precedent. At that time Professor
Tate was able to give a bibliography of the whole of the scientific work dealing
specifically with the new Colony that had so far been published. Such a task
would be practically impossible today. ‘The giving of a Presidential address never
became an annual custom, and Tate’s precedent has rarely been followed. In
the 57 years since the first Presidential address, 18 such addresses have been given,
but no further attempts to prepare a bibliography of scientific work have been
made. This year we propose to give a review rather than a bibliography. Of the
18 addresses, 9 have been papers of a purely technical nature read by the Presi-
dent, and of the remaining 9, while they were of a more general character, yet
only in a few cases did they review the work of the Society or refer to its policy.
Tate himself followed his first address by a technical paper, but in 1880 gave a
record of current literature relating to the natural history of Australia, and par-
ticularly of South Australia.

a

In 1895 his title was ‘Some Work of the Society since 1876.” This was his
last Presidential address, and in it, after making brief reference to past achieve-
ments in geology, anthropology, and comparative anatomy, he proceeded in greater
detail under the sub-heading of “Some Recent Advances to Our Knowledge of
Natural History of Australia.”

In 1889 Professor Rennie discussed the present state of South Australian
industries in which chemical science is involved; in 1901, agriculture in its relation
to biology and chemistry; and in 1903, the fisheries of Australia. In the 1901
address he urged the need of further work in entomology, plant pathology, diseases
in wine, the relation of birds to insect life, rural engineering, and diseases in stock,
Canon Blackburn gave an address on the ultimate aims of natural science, in 1891.
Sir Joseph Verco, in 1906, gave a review of the work of the Society from 1903
to 1906, published in vol. xxx of the Transactions. This was one of the most
useful and inspiring Presidential addresses ever presented to the Society. Not
only was past work reviewed, but attention was called to the branches of natural
science which had hitherto been neglected. The policy of the Society, particularly
in respect to the library, was also touched upon,

Dr. R. S. Rogers, in vol. xlvi, 1922, gave “A History of the Society, par-
ticularly in its Relation to other Institutions in the State” The evolution of the
Society, from its beginnings in London, is here carefully traced, with biographical
notes on the outstanding personalities in the foundation and subsequent vicissi-
tudes of the various bodies whose successively discarded mantle finally fell upon
the Royal Society. This address will long remain the standard work for reference
on the foundation of the Society and the chronology of the important events in
its history and constitution. The last Presidential address was given in the
following year, thirteen years ago, by Dr. Pulleine, on “The Pigmy Races of the
World.”

THe Past.

flistorical Review.—The past history of the Society divides itself naturally
into three parts, all completely distinct, the period prior to the founding of the
Adelaide Philosophical Society in 1853, the Adelaide Philosophical Society from
1853 to 1876, and the Adelaide Philosophical Society, and then the Royal Society
from 18/7 to the present. The first period is fully dealt with in the address by
Dr. Rogers already referred to. I will merely repeat the salient features.

The South Australian Literary and Scientific Association, formed in London
in 1834, collected together a small library and sent it out to the Colony. In the
first busy years of landing the Society found no leisure for its anticipated
activities at all, and does not appear ever to have functioned in the Colony, but
its founders took an active part in subsequent socicties, and its little library
passed on through two more such societies and was their focal point and the only
lasting thing in them.

In 1838 the Adelaide Mcchanics’ Institution was formed, to which the
Literary and Scientific Association handed over its books. This institution had
a reading room and circulating library, and evening lectures were delivered. After
six years, in 1844, the South Australian Subscription Library rose out of the
ashes of the Mechanics’ Institution, and took over its books. In 1847 a rival
body, The Mechanics’ Institute, sprang up, but in the following year the two
combined as the South Australian Library and Mechanics’ Institute,

The first period of the history of the evolution of the Royal Society closes
a few years after the formation of this Institute, with the foundation in 1853 of
the Adelaide Philosophical Society, mainly through the initiative of John Howard
Clark, who for many years remained the backbone of the Society. This was the

ita

first scientific society founded on a firm and lasting basis, for it has survived to
the present day, with only one important revival and a later change of name.

The second period is the history of the 23 years of the Adelaide Philosophical
Society, from its beginning to the time of this revival in 1876.

Through the combined efforts of the Adelaide Philosophical Society and the
South Australian Library and Mechanics’ Institute, the South Australian Institute
was brought into being in 1856. This was to be maintained by the Government,
and on the passing of the Institute Act of 1857 the old S.A. Library and
Mechanics’ Institute went out of existence. J. H. Clark and B. H. Babbage were
the moving spirits in this important advance.

In 1859 the Adelaide Philosophical Society became incorporated with the
S.A. Institute, receiving housing in return for a rental, This association con-
tinued for 25 years, until the Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery were
brought under one board of management in 1884, replacing the Institute, and the
Philosophical Society became affiliated with the new body. This incorporation
with the Institute linked the new Philosophical Society with the chain of past
events.

The Philosophical Society continued a useful existence, at times handicapped
by lack of papers, lack of interest, and lack of funds, and finally getting into rather
low water about 1872, until the coming of the University and Professor Tate in
1876, when its whole status was changed, new rules were drawn up, and the
Society entered upon the third period of its development, which extends to the
present day. For the first time, in 1878, publication was systematically dealt with
and the volume of the Transactions has appeared annually ever since. In 1879
the Society was put on the same footing as the Institutes, which by this time had
spread through the country, in the matter of Government grants, the Society
receiving a pound for pound subsidy on the amount of the annual subscriptions.

In 1880 the Society obtained permission from Her Majesty Queen Victoria
to assume the title Royal, and the name was changed from the Adelaide Philo-
sophical Society to the Royal Society of South Australia. Her Majesty also
accepted the position of Patron of the Society. Up to that time the State
Governors had always consented to be Presidents of the Society, and very fre-
quently took the chair at the ordinary monthly meetings. Sir E, E. F. Young,
Sir R. G. MacDonnell, Sir Dominic Daly, Sir James Ferguson, and Sir Anthony
Musgrave all figure prominently in the minute books of the Philosophical Society.
With the new rules in 1878, Governor Sir William Jervois became Patron and
Professor Tate President. Two years later, with the change of rules on the
assumption of the title Royal Society, when the Queen became Patron, the
Governors ceased to have any active connection with the Society, until the death
of Queen Victoria, since when the King’s representative in South Australia has
always accepted the position of Patron, and the President has been elected irom
among the Fellows of the Society.

In 1903 the Royal Society was incorporated, for the better management of
the newly established endowment fund. Since the beginning of the third period
in 1877 to the present the Society has steadily advanced in financial stability and
in status in the world of Science.

Objects of the Society—The period prior to the foundation of the Philo-
sophical Society in 1853 is now of little more than historic interest. The institutes
and societies in that period functioned much as a country institute and literary
society does today. Their object was discussion and dissemination of knowledge,
not original work, and thus they have leit no permanent records of their activities
behind them. The original idea is summed up in the objects of the S.A. Literary
and Scientific Association, drawn up in London in 1834, which were “The Cultiva-

a.

iv

tion and Diffusion of Useful Knowledge throughout the Colony.” With these
final remarks we will dismiss the pre-Philosophical Society period and deal only
in the remainder of this address with the Adelaide Philosophical Society and the
Royal Society, which I will refer to indifferently as the Society.

The laws, as they were called, of the Society, on its foundation in 1853, state
that the objects are “the discussion of all subjects connected with Science, Litera-
ture, or Art.” This would seem to indicate the exclusion of any original work,
but that was by no means the intention, for in the first annual report in January,
1854, the objects are more clearly put forth in these words: “The originators of
the Society had a two-fold object in establishing it. They were desirous that it
should not only afford an agreeable medium of intercommunication to those whose
tasks lead them to the pursuit of similar studies, but that it should also present a
means of illustrating and recording the many interesting natural phenomena which
are altogether peculiar to this colony, and which it is to be feared would be other-
wise in a very few years’ time irrecoverably lost to the records of Science.” Thus
it is clear that at the outset one of the main objects was the recording of the
natural history of the State. However, the old literary society traditions were still
strong, and it is curious that in the first 24 years of the Society’s history, in spite
of the clear intentions of the founders, the only natural history recorded was by
the Rev. Tenison Woods on the Tertiary fossils. The objects remained un-
changed in the rules for this period of 24 years, but natural science was greatly
neglected. The actual nature of the proceedings at that time will be mentioncd later.

The rules were revised in 1878 under Professor Tate, and the objects were
then defined as “the diffusion and advancement of the arts and sciences by the
meeting together of the members for the reading and discussion of papers con-
necied with the above subjects, and by other approved means.” The “arts”? were
still included, but it is not clear just what was meant to be covered by that term.

In his first Presidential address, in the year of the new rules, 1878, Tate
enlarges upon the objects, and says there are still, as at the foundation, two funda-
mental objects, that the Society should form an agreeable medium of intercom-
munication, but that it should also present a means of illustrating and recording
the many interesting natural phenomena which are altogether peculiar to this
country. From this time onwards the major interests of the Society have
undoubtedly been in this direction of natural history. At the change of name to
Royal Society in 1880 the “objects” clause in the rules remained unchanged.

In 1880 Tate scemed a little apprehensive that the Society was becoming so
technical that it was losing popular support, and he advocated that it might
acquire popularity without in any particular impeding the attainment of the higher
objects of the Socicty, by delivering poptular expositions af recent advances or of
new discoveries in science. This was the last appearance of the ghost of the old
traditions, No steps were taken in the direction indicated, but the position was
met to some extent by the formation of the more popular sections of the Society
a few years later.

In 1889 Professor Rennie remarked in his Presidential address that the
subjects dealt with by Fellows were for the most part connected with Natural
History, almost an apology for the chemical nature of his address.

In his last Presidential address, in 1895, Professor Tate stated that “facts
of identification and distribution are fundamental, and to the accumulation of
these the Sociely has almost exclusively given its attention during the last 15 years
or more.” Ile remarks that originally the Fellows were of the “good all-round
type,” and, therefore, popular expositors, but by then specialization was already
far advanced. ‘hat it took the form principally of specialization in natural history
was due to the energy and enthusiasm of Tate himself,

Uv

The next reference to the policy and objects of the Society was by Dr. W.
L. Cleland in 1898. Ile said: “The object of the Society . . . is to place on
record only new facts relating to science as they bear on South Australia.” This
seems a narrower view, that does not appear to have been generally held, nor is!
held today, though the trend of activities actually has been more and more in that
direction. He goes ot to say that “To some of the Fellows it may be a matter of
regret that attempts have not been made by the Council to place scientific subjects
in a popular form before the meetings. It should be remembered, however, that
the functions of a Royal Society are not to popularize science nor to give instruc-
tion, but simply to publish results of work done or to discuss the deductions which
may legitimately be drawn from ascertained scientific data.” This indicates that
the old idea of exposition was quite defunct. Even opportunitics for profitable
discussion, he points out, did not often present themselves, owing to specialization
and the few workers in each subject. That is even more the case today. At that
time the University and other bodies were already having a marked effect in
depriving the Society of one of its primary objects, to provide a common meeting
ground for the exchange of scientific thought. The popularizing of science also
was in more efficient hands in the University, and in the Society’s sections, so the
Society could feel free from any obligations in that direction, and its future utility
would be measured by the quality of its published memoirs.

The rules were revised in 1902, under Professor Rennie’s Presidency, and
the “objects” clause then read: “The objects of the Society are the promotion
and diffusion of science by meetings for the reading and discussion of papers and
other methods.” ‘The only change was the dropping of the word “arts,” which
never seems to have had any bearing on the Society’s activities.

In 1906 Sir Joseph Verco mentioned that medical science was not represented
among the subjects which engage the Society’s attention. In his review of the work
of the Society he said: “This record . . . indicates assiduous and intelligent
endeavour along truly scientific lines, and along many lines. And this variety
of subjects dealt with is one of the most satisfactory features. . . . Only by
such diversity can this Society be made generally interesting or generally useful,
and deserve its name.”

The next revision of rules was in 1923, when “objects” was changed merely
by the substitution of the words scientific knowledge for science. The last
revision, which gave us the rules of today, was made in 1931, and the clause now
reads: “The objects of the Society are the promotion and diffusion of scientific
knowledge by meetings for the reading and discussion of papers, and by such other
methods as the Council may from time to time determine.” It can thus be seen
that the objects of the Society have never really undergone any radical change,
and that specialization in natural history has not only been a natural development
in a new country, but also has always been a fundamental policy.

Past Achievements—The fore-runners of the Society, in the first seventeen
years of the State’s history were, as I have shown, of the Institule type, and
though they did good in their way, they had little connection with Science and they
left no permanent records. The achievements of the Society itself divide them-
selves very definitely inta two groups, those of the pre-Tate and those of the
post-Tate periods. The former covers most of the history of the Philosophical
Society, for the name was changed only four years after Tate’s arrival. In this
first 23 years of the Society’s existence the attendance at meetings was small,
often only half-a-dozen members, the publicity for papers was limited, and there
were no funds for publication. Very little original work was presented before
the Society. An annual report was usually printed, which contained an abstract
of the papers read, and in a few cases the papers were printed in full. These

vi

reports were apparently intended for private circulation only, They were printed
for the years 1854-1858 and 1865-1872, after which there was no printing till
Volume I of the Transactions appeared in 1878, These reports may be found bound
together in the Adelaide Public Library under the title Adelaide Philosophical
Society Reports, 1853-1871. Though containing much of historical interest, they
preserve practically nothing of permanent value except the Rev. T. Woods’
descriptions of new types of South Australian Tertiary fossils, referred to above
and begun in 1865. The character of the proccedings may be gauged from the
list cf papers read in 1858, which were on “Mesmerism,” “The Goodness of the
Deity as Manifested in the Creation of the Animal Kingdom,” “The Relations of
Capital to Labour,” “National Education,” “The Fertility of Soils,” “Drying
Fruits,” “The Probabilities of Gold in South Australia,” and “The Proposed
Expedition into the Interior.” In the eighteenth and last report of the Adelaide
Philosophical Society, printed in 1873, and covering the two years 1871 and 1872,
the papers mentioned for the two years are “Elementary Education,” “he Flight
of Birds considered with reference to Aerial Navigation,” “The Government Bill
for promoting Elementary Education in South Australia,” “The Fermentation of
Grape Juice,” and “The Theory of Evolution.”

Though the attendance at meetings was small in those days, it consisted of
very influential people. The Governor was frequently in the chair, and the Bishop,
the Chief Justice, the Judges, the Surveyor-General, the Postmaster-Gencral, the
leading educationists and the newspaper editors were active members; in fact, it
may be said that the Society included the majority of the prominent intellectuals
of the young colony. Thus, though its scientific status was originally negligible,
its local popular status was very high. It was the only body in the country which
could speak with any authority on matters of education or applied science, for
both of which there was great need, With ihe prestige of the Governor and the
strong support of the Press (Mr. W. W. R. Whitridge, editor of the Register,
was for many years a member), its influence, both as a Society and as individuals,
was very considerable. Its printed papers are now of no importance, but its
deeds, whose authorship is now lost sight of, will live for ever. The Society today
is in exactly the reverse position.

The old Society was the fore-runner, and in many respects may be considered
to have been the founder, of all the scientific institutions which have arisen since,
for its discussions, its resolutions, or its memorials to the Government may he
found in connection with the foundation of almost all of them. Its daughters
have now grown up, and they have become the authorities in the various branches
of science which they represent. Specialization has inevitably led to decentrali-
zation, and that essential requirement of scientific work, publication, has become
the chief function of the Royal Saciety,

| will give a few examples of this early work of the Society. IT have al ready
mentioned the foundation of the Institute, out of which eventually evolved the
Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery. The Society memorialized the
Government on this subject of the Institule in 1856, and the Institute Act was
passed in 1857. In 1856 the Society advocated the exploration of the North-West
Interior, and memorialized the Government on that subject as well, The work
was eventually carried out on the lines suggested by Mr. B. H. Babbage, the
President. The drainage of the City was also discussed in that year.

One of the first objectives of the Society had been the building up of a
Natural History Muscum, but for twenty years, owing to lack of funds and space,
the museum remained a small mineralogical collection in a natrow room upstairs
in the Institute Building. It had been hoped that on the building of the Institute
and the incorporation in it of the Society, proper space would be found for a

uli

museum. One of the objects of the Institute was, at the instigation of the Society,
the establishment of a Natural Ilistory Museum, but funds for this were not
forthcoming. Most of the expenditure was in the country. However, in due
course a separate building was provided and a Museum Director appointed. We
undoubtedly owe the Museum to the early efforts of the Society.

There were many papers and discussions on the City Drainage in 1865 and
1866, culminating in a memorial to the City Council on Drainage and Sewers in
1867. As a result a Bill was introduced into the House to enable the Corporation
to begin the work of deep drainage, thus initiating the modern system. Railway
construction and gauges also occupied the attention of the Society at that time.

In 1868 the Society turned its attention to education, and many papers on the
subject were read, ending in a resolution “that this meeting is of opinion that the
Government should take some action so as to provide means for the compulsory
education of the children of those classes that are either unable or unwilling to
pay the usual school fees.”

In 1869 the Society passed a resolution “that this meeting strongly impresses
on the Government the necessity of immediately erecting a time-ball at the
Semaphore on the plan of the model produced by Mr. Todd for the use of the
shipping at Port Adelaide.” ‘The time-ball has just been dismantled in this year of
grace 1936. Wireless time signals had rendered it obsolete.

Participation in public affairs did not cease with the reorganisation of the
Society in 1877, It is rather that the purely scientific side, hitherto neglected,
became much more strongly developed. New Government departments, too, were
able to relieve the Society of some of the burden of responsibility which it felt to
be upon it. While on the subject of the Society’s part in the development of the
State, I will briefly refer to the more important actions taken in the later period.
Under the Presidency of Professor Tate, the necessity of a geological survey of
the Colony was urged upon the Government in 1877; the teaching of practical
mining engineering at the University was advocated in 1879, which was probably
the first step towards the establishment of the School of Mines, for Professor’
Tate was a member of the first council of that institution in 1888; reports on
artesian water were supplied to the Government in 1881, when there was no
Government Geologist to advise on these subjects. In 1890 the Society urged the
Royal Society of New South Wales to approach its Government to appoint a
geologist for Broken Hill. Professor Tate fired his final shot in 1895, when he
said in his last Presidential address: ‘South Australia accepts a degrading position
in relation to its agriculture and botany with Victoria and to its geology with
New South Wales.”

Professor Rennie, in his Presidential address of 1889, gave much advice of
direct value to citizens, For the agriculturalist he discussed the exhaustion of
soils and the use of artificial manures, and advocated the institution of experiments
on the best methods of farming. In the same address he made helpful suggestions
on sulphuric acid manufacture, gold recovery, salt works, and gas retorts.

In 1901 the title of Professor Rennie’s Presidential address was: “Agricul-
ture in iis Relation to Biology and Chemistry.” In this address he particularly
advocated the promulgation of knowledge of the necessity of nitrogen in soils
and of the methods of its production, and pointed out the value of fallowing.
The use of phosphates is also discussed. He urged the need of more research
work in agriculture, of something more than Roseworthy, and said: “I am plead-
ing for scientific investigation, which will inevitably yield almost immediately
results of great practical value, and the sooner its importance is recognised the
better will it be for South Australia.” Today we have the Waite Institute, which
was father long in following such a strong appeal.

vii

In the same address attention is called to the necessity of the control of
fisheries, and in 1903 Professor Rennie gave an address on the “Fisheries of
Australia.” The Society took an active part in supporting measures then before
Parliament for fish protection, but control is still inadequate, and much scientific
investigation into the life history of our fish, as advocated by Professor Rennie
33 years ago, is still essential before legislation can cope with the problem of the
gradual disappearance of our best edible fish.

In 1898, during the Presidency of Dr. W. L, Cleland, a resolution was passed
on the desirability of united action on the part of the Australian Colonies to
arrange atid publish an authoritative treatise, as complete as possible, on the Aus-
tralian Race. No direct results appear to have followed this resolution, but at
last, during recent years, the native races are receiving the attention and study
they have long deserved, with Professor J. B. Cleland, Dr. Cleland’s son, as chair-
man of the Board of Anthropological Research in the University of Adelaide.

One of the last direct actions of the Society was a joint deputation to the
Government in 1906 from the Society and the South Australian Astronomical
Society, under the leadership of Professor Howchin, to ask that a seismograph
be installed in the Observatory, which project came to a satisfactory conclusion.

In addition, there is the important work of the Native Fauna and Flora
Protection Committee during the past 48 years, wiltich will be referred to under the
Sections of the Royal Society,

Publications —These deputations, Captus, and addresses show that the
Socicty in the past has taken no mean part in matters directly affecting the welfare
and progress of the State. Now let us turn to the more purely scientific work of
the Society, which has been not only of indirect value to the State, but has had
the whole world for its field in the advancement of human knowledge.

Prior to 1877 the scientific work was of small account, and its only publicity
was in the South Australian Press, in the form of reports of meetings. In 1876
there arrived the scientific leader the Society had long awaited, Professor Ralph
Tate, whose energy, organising ability, and wide range of scientific interests were
the inspiration of the Society for the next 25 years of his association with it, until
his death in 1901. Original scientific contributions came in abundantly for the
first time, and publishing was put on a sound and permanent basis by the appear-
ance in 1878 of the first of the subsequent 59 annual volumes of the Transactions.
Exchanges were soon arranged with other learned socicties, and before long our
Transactions had found their way into the libraries of every civilized country in
the world.

I have classified the papers read before the Society for the two periods, 1853-
1876, and 1877-1935, In the first period, the list represents papers read. Abstracts
of most of them appeared in the daily paper, and in the annual reports when these
were printed, and some were printed in full. ‘Whe first list includes papers on
anthropology 7, on astronomy 3, botany 9, chemistry 10, entomology 6, geology 17,
mineralogy QO, palueontolugy 5, mathematics 5, zoulugy (other than entomology) 16,
physics 7, mcteorology 3, experimental biology 0, medical subjects 5, engineering
25, literature 7, art 5, physiology and anatomy 5, philosophy 17, geography 11, agri-
culture 11, education 6, miscellaneous 26; a total of 206.

The second list includes all the papers published in the Transactions from
Vol. I, 1878, to Vol. LIX, 1935, a total of exactly 1,100 papers. They are made
up of anthropolog y 67, astronomy 6, botany 202, chemistry 28, entomology 249,
geology 159, mineralogy 23, palacontology 70, mathematics 3, zoology (excluding
entomology ) 233, physics 25, meteorology 13, experimental biology 5, medical
subjects 8, miscellaneous 9.

/
|
.

1¥

Classification was much simpler for the second list, and only nine papers
could not be placed under the headings chosen. Entomology was listed separately
from the remaining zoological subjects, as it forms much the largest unit in
zoology.

Physiography has been included under geology. It will be noted that
literature, art, philosophy, physiology, geography, agriculture and engineering
have entirely disappeared. The geographical papers in the first list were mainly
descriptions of other lands, and the agricultural papers were on viticulture and
such subjects. In the second series, the agricultural papers are of a much more
scientific nature, mainly on the properties of soils, and they fall more naturally
under the headings of chemistry or meteorology.

The papers may be more broadly classified into five groups, in order to show
the chief directions the activities of the Society have taken. The exact or mathe-
matical sciences form a group of their own, including astronomy, chemistry,
physics, mathematics, meteorology, experimental biology, and medical subjects.
Anthropology is a separate unit. The remainder are the natural or descriptive
sciences and fall under the three headings, botany, zoology, and geology. For
this purpose entomology is included in zoology, and mineralogy and palaeontology
in geology. The lists then read :-—

1853-1876, 1877-1935.
Anthropology = - - teckel 67
Botany - - - aren) 202
Zoology - - - - 22 482
Geology - - - Free? on
Exact Sciences - - - 33 88
Totals - - 93 1,091
Other Papers - - - 113 9
Grand Totals - 206 1,100

The lists for the two periods made up under these headings show the great
relative increase in work in the natural sciences, and the gain of the natural over
the exact sciences.

The Sections —In spite of his great enthusiasm for, and remarkable success
in, promoting original work in the Society, Professor Tate did not lose sight of
the need and value of a more popular side to the Society’s activities. In fact, this
was encouraged and fostered under his regime, but separated from the more
technical side, by the formation of Sections in the Society, membership of which
did not necessitate Fellowship of the Society nor the full subscriptions. The first
formed and most important of these is the Field Naturalists’ Section, inaugurated
in 1883 by a meeting in the Town Hall, at which Professor Tate gave a lecture
on the objects of the Section. One of the chief activities of this section has been
field excursions of a popular nature. Since 1919 the Section has published
a quarterly journal at its own expense, entitled The S.A. Naturalist. The Section
holds an annual wildflower show which is always a popular attraction.

The Field Naturalists’ Section formed, in 1888, a very important Sub-
section styled the Fauna and Flora Protection Committee, which has had a very
useful and active existence. It issued its fortieth annual report in 1928, but no
reports have since appeared in the Transactions of the Royal Society. The
Government grant ceased in 1930, since when the Royal Society has been unable
to publish the annual report of the Field Naturalists’ Section, including that of
the Fauna and Flora Protection Committee. Now that the Government assistance

*

has been partially restored, it is to be hoped that future ‘Transactions will continue
to include a synopsis of the activities of these important sections.

Much excellent legislation for the protection of our animals and plants has
been introduced at the instigation of this committee, Its most outstanding per-
formances have been in connection with the National Park at Belair, and Flinders
Chase on Kangaroo Island,

It was through the Committee’s persistent efforts that the old Government
farm at Belair was placed beyond the control of Parliament and vested in
Trustees, at a time when it was already cut up into blocks for sale. That was in
1891. The President of the Royal Society has always been an ex officio Com-
missioner of the National Park.

The struggle for a national reserve on Kangaroo Island began two years
after the Belair Park was secured. It included a public meeting under the auspices
of the Society in 1906, and ended sixteen years later in the Fauna and Flora
Reserve Act, 1919, proclaiming ‘Flinders Chase,” an area of 198 square miles,
for the protection, preservation, and propagation of fauna and flora. ‘The Com-
mittee has always kept an eye on Game Acts, helping in their introduction and
calling attention to their abuse.

A Microscopical Section was formed in 1887. It has had a chequered career,
It was revived in 1903, but held its last meeting in 1913. Another revival took
place in 1928, but under the title of the Microscopic Committee of the Field
Naturalists’ Section, which will ensure for it a more permanent status.

The Malacological Section has had a similar history. It was founded in
1895, resumed in 1901, and held its last meeting in 1917. Then the Field
Naturalists took it under their wing as the Shell Collectors’ Committee, since when
it has continued to do useful work under a much more suitable name,

The Astronomical Section came into being in 1892, under the Presidency of
Sir Charles Todd. After eight years it dissociated itself from the Society and
has ever since led a separate existence as the South Australian Astronomical
Society. Its books are housed in the Royal Society’s premises, where it holds its
meetings.

THE PRESENT.

I have endeavoured to trace the history and policy of the Society from its
beginnings to the present day. The present position as regards status and
activities has been arrived at by a process of natural evolution, though the policy
has remained practically unchanged throughout. The Society has never been more
flourishing than it is today, in spite of the definite change in the nature of its
stalus. This change can be concisely summed up as a change from a condition in
which the Society’s activities were largely discussional, when original work was
practically negligible, but local popular status was high owing to the Society
frequently speaking with one voice on questions of public interest and importance,
to the present position, where specialized original work is the main objective.
individualism has replaced concerted action, and publication has superseded
exposition. Local popular prestige may have fallen, but this loss is far outweighed
by the gain of an international reputation for the very considerable additions to
human knowledge given to the world through the medium of the Transactions
and Proceedings of the Royal Society of South Australia. At the present moment
our Transactions are sought by 257 learned societies throughout the world.

The interest shown in our work, as well as the publicity available to the
workers, is shown by the following list of the number of learned societies in each
country which receive our Transactions :—Great Britain, 29; Canada, 7; South
Africa, 5; New South Wales, 12; Victoria, 7; Queensland, 6; Western Australia,
4; Tasmania, 4; South Australia, 12; Canberra, 4; New Zealand, 5; Ceylon, 1;

x

Federated Malay States, 1; India, 4 (making a total of 101 within the Empire),
United States, 50; Germany, 15; France, 7; lialy, 8; Spain, 2; Portugal, 1;
Austria, 4; Hungary, 2; Czecho-Slovakia, 1; Belgium, 7; Holland, 2; Denmark,
4; Finland, 3; Norway, 4; Sweden, 4; Switzerland, 6; Poland, 2; Russia, 6;
Esthonia, 1; Latvia, 1; China, 6; Japan, 8; Hawaii, 2; Argentine, 2; Brazil, 2;
Uruguay, 2; Mexico, 3; Philippines, 1 (or a total of 156 foreign societies). All
these societies send us their publications in return, so that the Royal Society has
acquired a very valuable collection of scientific journals, in many cases the com-
plete series of publications of the society concerned. The list of exchanges 1s
continually being added to.

The Society no longer sees any necessity for attempting to popularize science.
The schools, the University, and other scientific and technical institutions have
relieved it of that duty. The Field Naturalists’ Section, which is as strong as ever,
encourages the study of natural history as a hobby, and fills the need of those who
desire some skilled guidance in that direction.

As regards the present trend of the Society’s interests, it has been shown
that they are definitely in the direction of Natural History, not only because that
has always been a fundamental objective, but also because of the growth of all
the highly specialized societies, particularly in the applied sciences, with their own
journals. The journals have become specialized, and it has fallen to the Royal
Society to specialize in Natural History. I have only to mention the Common-
wealth Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, the Australian Institute of
Engineers, the Australian Chemical Institute, and the State Geological Surveys, to
indicate the great range of scientific journals now available for the publication
of specialized work. Science has now become so international that leading
journals all over the world are also available to Australian workers for the publica-
tion of high-grade results of more than local interest.

The specialized institutions have naturally become the authorities in their
various branches of science, so that few directions are left in which the Royal
Society is naturally looked to for guidance. Leadership in investigation m subjects
of national economic importance has naturally passed to the Commonwealth
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, which has established a number
of specialized departments. The Royal Society, however, still retains the prestige
of its Transactions and their distribution, which is frequently availed of for the
publication of the results of investigations by workers in the C.S.LR. laboratories
and allied institutions, such as the Waite Agricultural Institute. It is to some
extent the publishing body for the institutions it has helped to create, and always
it has made no more than the modest claim to specialize in scientific work as it
bears particularly on South Australia. This is reflected in the high proportion
of Natural History in its accomplished work. The Society has made very valuable
contributions in Anthropology by its many papers on the Australian Natives. This
work has undergone a strong revival in recent years.

Administration.—The Society has always been governed by its own Council
elected by the I'cllows of the Society. It is affiliated with the Public Library,
Museum, and Art Gallery. The chiet points in this affiliation are that the Board
of Governors of the Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery find accommoda-
tion for the Society and its library. In return, the property of the Society becomes
in a sense the property of the Board, in that nothing can be removed from the
rooms allotted to the Society except by the consent of the Board. The Society
elects onc member to the Board of Governors.

The domestic relations between the Society and the Board of Governors have
always been most cordial. The Society’s influence on the Board in matters of the
general policy of the Board is confined to that of one member in a large and mixed

att

body. It might be argued that its influence could with advantage be greater.
However, I do not think this a proper occasion for me to discuss the affairs of
the Board, though I might add that former Presidents have not always been of that
opinion. Tate long ago said that the abnormal connection between the Museum
and Art Gallery should be severed, as their interests are somewhat antagonistic.
More recently one of the Society’s representatives resigned on the grounds that
in his opinion the Board did not subscribe to the ideals that must necessarily be
those of the Society, and some other of our representative Governors have held
similar views.

Finance —The basis of the income of the Society is the subscriptions of
members, and almost the whole of the expenditure is ‘in publishing the Trans-
actions. From 1879 to 1930 the Government subsidised the Society pound for
pound on the amount of the subscriptions. From 1905 to 1930 an additional
grant of £150 per annum was made towards the cost of printing. All subsidies
ceased in 1930, reducing the Society’s publication, that is to say its value to the
community and to the world, in proportion to its reduced income. This year,
1936, the Government has been able to renew the grant, which is now at the rate
of 50 per cent. of the cost of printing the Transactions, the amount not to exceed
£200. The first payment of this grant, £151, has just been reccived, based on the
Transactions for 1935, This is only about half the amount of former grants, but
exceedingly welcome to the Society, and it is earnestly hoped that the Government
will soon be able to return to the more generous scale of the past, which was in
vogue for a quarter of a century, thus enabling the Society to produce its maximum
results, and no longer forcing former contributors to seek publication outside
Australia, to the loss of our credit. The essential binding of the Society’s paper-
covered series of exchange journals is almost hopelessly in arrear.

An endowment fund was founded in 1908 by the late Sir Joseph Verco, who
was President of the Society for 18 years. His gift, and that of Mr. Thomas
Scarfe, each of £1,000, formed the nucleus of the fund. Bequests from Mr. R.
Barr Smith, Sir Joseph Verco and Sir Edwin Smith, and gifts from other
generous benefactors, together with life members’ subscriptions and occasional
additions from the current account, have brought the fund up to almost £5,000.
The intactness of this fund is now protected by by-law. The interest from it has
enabled the Society to carry on through the lean years.

The Society is practically unable to give any financial assistance in aid of
research. It was recently decided that the Endowment Fund must not be drawn
upon, as had occasionally been donc in the past, for this purpose, but that the
Society’s main resources should be conserved for publication, as the best means of
encouraging research. At the same time a research fund was instituted, to which
contributions from general funds of not less than £1 were to be made annually.
The fund stands at present at £6, a farcical amount.

The Society makes one award for distinction in scientific work, and that is the
Sir Joseph: Verco Medal. The establishment of the medal in 1928 served two
purposes, one the filling of a deficiency in the Society’s functions, for it is a usual
privilege of all societies of such standing as this to make awards in recognition
of outstanding merit, and the other to do honour during his lifetime, and eventually
to form a lasting memorial to the greatest benefactor and one of the greatest
workers and most outstanding personalities in the history of the Society. The
award is made for distinguished scientific work published by a member of the
Society, and at such times as the Council considers there is a worthy recipient.
Five awards have been made in the past seven years, to Professor Walter Howchin,
Mr. J. M. Black, Sir Douglas Mawson,. Professor J. B. Cleland, and Professor
T. Harvey Johnston. In the future the Council of the Society will consider

xin

recommendations for the award made by the holders of the medal, to ensure that
the standard shall always be kept uniformly at the high level that is intended.

THe Furure.

The Royal Society of South Australia is a very firmly established institution,
whose existence seems likely to extend indefinitely into the future. It may be
said to have thoroughly adjusted itself to its environment, as is shown by the
remarkable stability and uniformity of its history for over half a century. Finan-
cially and numerically there has been little change. The membership has varied
through the years between 100 and 200. At present it is 165. The policy has
remained unchanged. Variety of activities has been its safeguard. There has
been no high specialization, which proverbially leads to extinction. The Society
cannot be said to encourage any particular science, though Natural History has
always been a fundamental objective; yet, true to the traditions of its name, it
has received in the past and always will welcome contributions: in all branches of
science, descriptive, mathematical or applied. Publication will tend to become even
more the chief function of the Society.

As I have pointed out, it is no longer expected that the Royal Society should
take a lead in such work as the exact sciences, or the applied sciences such as
agriculture or engineering. Other institutions are better equipped to do that.
But 1 would suggest that the Society might take a more active part in directing
and encouraging original work in the descriptive sciences, which still remain the
special province of the Society, by setting forth from time to time the trend of
research work in those branches of science, and particularly by pointing out the
departments which are suffering from neglect. I hope my colleagues, who have
so readily agreed to assist me in this Centenary review, may establish a precedent
in this respect.

The Library.—Our library, accumulated through the 83 years of our unbroken
exchanges with other learned societies, now contains a very large and varied
collection of scientific journals, complete in the case of many journals and unique
in some, Both its intrinsic and scientific values are high. Yet this library has
never been the asset to scientific workers that it should be. It has never properly
fulfilled its purpose, and has been a source of worry to the Society throughout its
whole history. Accommodation has been one of the troubles, supervision the other.
The plain fact is that the Society has never been able to afford the library it set
out to provide. The accommodation is sufficient at present, with the main part of
the library in the room in which meetings are held, and the overflow, consisting
chiefly of spare copies of our Transactions, in a room kindly put at our disposal
by the University in the old police barracks buildings at the rear of the Museum,
and cut through by the line separating University property from that under the
control of the Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery. The whole library has
been re-arranged during the year, mainly by our Secretary, Mr. N. B. Tindale.
However, the question of availability is no further advanced than it has ever been.
The library is only open on one afternoon each weck, in addition to the half-hour
preceding the monthly evening mecting. A scientific library that can only be
entered once a week is suffering under a tremendous handicap. The worker will
search anywhere else sooner than wait for the day on which our librarian is in
attendance, ‘The result is that the only books used are the ones that cannot be
obtained elsewhere, and then the users may have to wait a week to get them.

Until the Society was housed where it is today, in 1907, the library was
nothing but a burden to it. The Annual Report of 1890 states: “Your Council is
far from satisfied with the present conditions under which the books have to be
kept. It had hoped that by this time arrangements might have been made to have

xiv

had them so placed in some portion of the Public Library that members could
have had access to them at any time during the day, The Council feels that the
present unsatisfactory condition cannot be allowed to continue, but that every
effort must be made to place at the disposal of the Fellows the library in a more
efficient way.” This report was quoted by Dr. Rogers in 1922, and reappears
today. The situation has not been met during the past 50 years. In 1901 a special
committee recommended that the only solution was to transfer the books to the
Public Library, which was not acted upon. In 1906 Sir Joseph Vereo said, “In
order to be useful they (the books) must be accessible and convenient for
reference, This they have not been for many years, if they have ever been.” Will
the same report be made 50 years hence?

At all times the Fellows of the Society have been very much against handing
the library over to any other body, so that its identity should be lost. The con.
tinuity of the journals reccived through our system of exchanges must never be
broken. Another fact which deserves attention is that the value of the library
lies almost entirely in the journals. No text books have been purchased for many
years, and what we have are of little more than archaeological interest. The
general scientific literature has never been anything like complete in any section.
We would save space, at no real loss to ourselves, by getting rid of all our books
except the journals, and I would recommend that they be presented to the Public
Library forthwith. This would leave our library with a definite character, a con-
tinuous series of certain scientific periodicals, always increasing in number and
diversity. I would further suggest two alternative ways in which this recon-
structed library could satisfactorily be dealt with. The first is that it should
become a section of some existing library, where its books would be separately
housed, and distinctively marked as part of the library of the Royal Society of
South Australia, yet available to a larger section of the community. Fellows of
the Society would enjoy the privilege of taking books out of its section. Either
the Public Library or the University Library could very satisfactorily carry this
out, and owing to our relations to the Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery,
the Public Library would appear more suitable.

The second alternative is that the Society should sever its connection
altogether with the Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery and seek new
accommodation. This would seem at: first sight impossible on the score of
expense. It would certainly require the consent of the Board of Governors, How-
ever, I believe this to be the solution to aim at.

A Science House,

We should have in Adelaide a building similar to Science Elause in Sydney,
There the majority of scientific institutions are housed in one building. The land
was presented by the Government, and the building was erected at a cost of
£43,000 by the three owner bodies, the Royal Society of New South Wales, the
Linnean Society of New South Wales, and the Institution of Engineers, Australia.
Fach bore one-third of the cost, and at the present time they are getting a return
of 4 to 44% on their capital outlay. Eleven societies have their headquarters in
Science House, Sydney. The advantages of such a building are too obvious to
detail in this address, but I will refer especially to the library, a small matter in a
much larger field. The libraries of all the tenant societies could be grouped together
and one librarian, with probably other secretarial duties as well, could be constantly
in attendance and take charge of them all,

Adelaide could begin in a more modest way than Sydney with its six-storey
building, and the cost might well be raised by a group of societies. I have good
reason to believe that the University would take a very sympathetic view of a

XU

suggestion that such a building should be erected on the University grounds, which
would be a most happy and excellent solution of the problem of a site and its
purchase.

I would recommend that this Science House project should be pursued before
any further steps are taken about our library, for it is a much bigger thing, and
carries the library with it.

CoNCLUSION,

This address has been of a general character and has made little reference to
the progress of work in particular branches of science.

In my analysis of the papers presented before the Society during its whole
existence, I classified them under the five headings: zoology, geology, botany,
exact sciences and anthropology. I mention them in the order of abundance of
papers submitted in each group. It was the Council’s desire that addresses on
each group should be given during the year by leading authorities in each, to which
my address would be introductory. These addresses will be in the nature of
reviews of past work in each subject, particularly as it affects South Australia,
and with special reference to the part the Royal Society has played, and will, I
hope, make suggestions for the guidance of future work. I have suggested such
titles as One Hundred Years of Botany in South Australia. Zoology has been
divided into two sections, separating entomology from the remainder, and botany
will be dealt with from two aspects, systematic, which represents the side which
has mainly occupied the attention of our workers, and physiological. I am very
pleased to be able to announce that the future addresses will be given, at dates to
be arranged, by Professor T. Harvey Johnston on general zoology, by Dr. James
Davidson on entomology, by Sir Douglas Mawson on geology, by Professor J. G.
Wood on botany, by Mr. J. M. Black on systematic botany, by Professor R. W.
Chapman on the exact sciences, and by Dr. T. D. Campbell on anthropology. They
are each very distinguished Fellows of the Society in their particular subject;
three are Verco Medallists, and four are Past Presidents of the Society.

CENTENNIAL ADDRESS-NO. 1.
BOTANY.

BY J. G. WooD, PH.D., D.SC.

Summary

The story of Botany in South Australia since its foundation has been a relatively simple one. It has
been concerned almost entirely with the accumulation of a complete flora of the State; that is to say,
of descriptions with reference keys to the species which make up the plant covering. Such a
procedure is a natural and an essential one in a new country. But from the point of view of the
science of Botany it is only a preliminary, not an end in itself, though it provides a means to an end.
It is convenient to distinguish plants by names just as it is convenient to distinguish Bill Jones from
Tom Smith. The collection and naming of angiospermous plants in South Australia is now almost
complete. Its history may be adequately written, and this will be done at a later date by one more
competent to speak of this aspect than I.

TUL

CENTENNIAL ADDRESS—No. 1.

BOTANY.
By J. G. Woop, Ph.D., D.Sc.

The story of Botany in South Australia since its foundation has been a rela-
tively simple one. It has been concerned almost entirely with the accumulation
of a complete flora of the State; that is to say, of descriptions with reference keys
to the species which make up the plant covering. Such a procedure is a natural
and an essential one in a new country. But from the point of view of the science
of Botany it is only a preliminary, not an end in itself, though it provides a means
to an end, It is convenient to distinguish plants by names just as it is convenient
to distinguish Bill Jones from Tom Smith. The collection and naming of
angiospermous plants in South Australia is now almost complete. Its history
may be adequately written, and this will be done at a later date by one more
competent to speak of this aspect than I.

The history of the other branches of Botany, and which constitute the bulk
of the subject, may be dismissed in few words so far as South Australia is con-
cerned. For one thing, their histories have been largely the history of the science
itself, which is not local, and, for another, professional botanists in Australia are
so few, Consequently, it is something in the nature of a stocktaking that I shall
make tonight, and consider not so much the past as those outstanding gaps in our
knowledge which seem to me to require filling in the future,

The divisions of Botany fall into two groups—the descriptive and the experi-
mental branches. To the former belong morphology, anatomy both gross and
minute, cytology and palaeontology ; to the latter physiology, genetics and ecology.
These subdivisions of Botany are often studied separately, often for convenience,
sometimes from lack of a broad vision. In this way the essential unity of the
science and the broad generalisations which shall form the basis of the science are
apt to be lost sight of.

I do not wish to consider the various subdivisions separately, but to view
them from another angle. We can picture any living organism as an equilateral
triangle, having its being and maintained by three things. One side of the triangle
we can label “What it is,” another “What it has,” and the third side “What it
does.”

First let 1s consider what plants are in themselves; obviously a species is
more than a name. The coming years will doubtless see the dead bones of classi-
fication revivified. I do not mean by the addition of new species. Biological
classification has the merit of resting on one broad generalisation—the idea of
evalution or change. We think that the doctrine of descent gives the key to a
perfect system; and an arrangement of plants is more or less natural according
as it brings out relationships. Our present sysierms are far from perfect ones
mainly because they are based on external morphology alone. Not until we study
the minute anatomy and cytology of plants and especially use the experimental
breeding methods of Mendel, will we be able to devise the perfect system which
will be no mere convenient device for finding the name of a plant, but a definite
achievement embodying two of the greatest generalisations made with respect to
living organisms—the idea of change and the idea that heritable characters act
as units which segregate on breeding.

Hit

In South Australia the anatomy of only a few native plants is perfectly
known, the cytology of none and the genetics of one or two native grasses. In
other parts of the world beginnings have been made, but much remains to be done.
It is hack work, but interesting to some types of minds, and its synthesis will reap
a rich reward. I would not wish to see one branch studied alone, but in conjunc-
tion with the others. I have considered here only the scientific aspects, although
the economic ones are not negligible—the varieties of some native grasses and
common saltbush species spring to my mind—for the more one studies the flora
the more complex becomes the mixture of biospccies, hybrids and ecotypes, which
all masquerade under the name of “species.”

Our system must consider not only the present but the past. The Tertiary
floras of Australia as a whole are practically unknown to us, Yet it is from
these that we shall learn most, since it is the Angiosperms, the plants of modern
times, which concern us particularly. The great group of the Pteridophyta is
one which might serve as ati example to us and in which phylogeny, palaeontology
and anatomy have been carefully studied.

The other groups of plants lag far behind. Let me state that not even a
census exists of the freshwater algae, of the mosses and liverworts, of the lichens
or of the bacteria. Nor are the saltwater unicellular algae known.

Yet these are interesting plants, and they lead us at once to my second group-
ing of what the organism has—the effect of environment upon it. The lower
plants appear to be practically cosmopolitan in their distribution. It is the environ-
ment which selects. From a handful of garden soil one can, by suitable cultures,
obtain bacteria and algae listed only, say, from Tanganyika or Burmah. Our
future studies of the lower plants of South Australia which I have mentioned must
be accompanied by careful quantitative studies of the factors of the habitat, if
they are to be of any use.

The higher plants—the Gymnosperms and Angiosperms—which are not
reproduced from light and easily carried spores are obviously more restricted ;
otherwise there would be no need for local floras. Nevertheless, they also occur in
definite groups or communities which live naturally together. The study of these
communities is termed Ecology or Plant Sociology. It attempts to find out the
laws which determine the maintenance and change of these communities, for the
communities act as units. ‘The factors which determine the presence of any
particular community are mainly environmental—especially meteorological factors,
soil factors and biotic factors such as the influence of other plants, or animals or
man. Partly, also, the physiological make-up of the plant is important, especially
in extreme climates. The environment here has exerted a sifting effect and only
plants with specialized mechanisms, either structural or metabolic, can survive
when a migrating population of species invades such a habitat. The background
required for these studies is a broad one, embracing, as it does, several sister
sciences.

In this State, so far the only one in the Commonwealth, the chief communities
have been described, and these will shortly be published. The work is, however,
mainly descriptive, as such reconnaisance work must necessarily be. Only in a few
cases has the environment been described adequately. ‘lhe task will be a long one.

From a scientific point of view, the major interests are the broad generalisa-
tions concerning the direction of change and the nature of the conditioning cnviron-
ment; but again the economic aspects are not to be neglected. A topical example
is the problem of drift and soil erosion in the northern areas of this State, which
is now distressing many people. The problem is mainly one of the management
of grazing animals on a plant community which is nicely balanced with its environ-
ment. Robert Bridges in that great biological poem, “The Testament of Beauty,”

rvitt

adequately describes the relation of organisms to their environment and
metabolism :—
“All Life's self-propagating organisms exist

only within a few degrees of the long scale

rangeing from measured sero to unimagiwd heat,

a little oasis of Life in Nature’s desert,

and ev'n therein are our soft bodies vext and harmed

by their own small distemperature, nor could they endure

wert not that by a secret miracle of chemistry

they hold mternal poise upon a razor edge

that may not ev'n be blunted, lest we sicken and die.”

In the North the razor edge has been blunted—by wool. In Queensland, as
also in other parts of the world, indiscriminate burning of plant communitics,
especially grasslands, without understanding their nature and the laws that govern
them, has resulted in complete deterioration of the communities. In South Africa
there is a Government Department of Plant Survey which is making a complete
vegetation survey before utilizing any new country.

Finally, we come to the question of what plants do—the realm of Plant
Physiology. This is an exact quantitative science, utilizing the methods of physics
and chemistry. It attempts at present to trace the course of metabolism and
explain the behaviour of plants in terms of physico-chemical laws. It is a young
and vigorous subdivision of Botany and has been limited in the past by lack of
adequate analytical methods, and also of adequate statistical methods for dealing
with the material.

Already we know a great deal about some fundamental processes like photo-
synthesis and respiration, It is paradoxical, however, that the best known practical
application of economic importance—that of manuring—has been least studied
from the point of view of utilization and metabolism in the plant itself. Already
in this State beginnings have been made with such problems of nutrition and their
effect on development which should lead to important conclusions. Beginnings
have been made also on the problems of drought resistance, a question of the
greatest importance to an arid State like South Australia. Problems in this field
are legion, and will be fruitful of results.

For ordinary practical purposes in physiology, as in physics and chemistry,
the old physical conceptions as developed along the direct lines from Newton and
Galileo will continue to be employed. But the science of Biology, of which Botany
is a part, will grow as the science of Physics grows. The living plant is not like
inorganic matter- -it lives, it grows, it reproduces itself, Tt is an expression of
ceaseless co-ordinated activity. On the Newtonian concept the physical universe
consists of essentially inert and unco-ordinated units of matter; but to the new
Physics an atom, or an electron, is also an expression of ceaseless co-ordinated
activity, and incapable of interpretation in mechanical terms as a mere particle.
The boundaries between the living and the non-living are slowly breaking down.

I have finished my all too brief survey. The achievements of the last one
hundred years have been amazing—in fact, they constitute the whole history of
the science of Botany. The things to be done in the future are also bewildering
in their number, but we have this consolation: we are standing on the margin of
a rich and fertile field. The future will be the Age of Biology.

CENTENNIAL ADDRESS-NO. 2.
ANTHROPOLOGY AND THE ROYAL SOCIETY.

BY T. D. CAMPBELL

Summary

Everyone is aware that the occupation and settlement of this country necessarily meant the taking of
the aborigines’ homelands, and perhaps the ultimate elimination of the natives themselves. Thus the
founders of this Colony and its settlers were, and its present inhabitants are, charged with a grave
moral and national responsibility. One may perhaps be excused for stressing again that the founders
of the Colony of South Australia were not ignorant of the problems involved in settling territory
occupied by a primitive native race. The British had long since been colonizers in native lands, and
by 1836 other parts of this continent had already been occupied for a number of years. Moreover, it
is obvious that the British Government was aware of this particular responsibility of settling South
Australia and the possible clash of peoples; for, as has elsewhere been pointed out, the Government
was so acutely aware of the grave responsibility involved that more than half of the proclamation
which Governor Hindmarsh issued at Holdfast Bay, one hundred years ago, consisted of an
exhortation and warning to the settlers concerning the friendly and just treatment they were to adopt
towards the aborigines.

RIX

CENTENNIAL ADDRESS—No. 2.

ANTHROPOLOGY AND THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
Dr. T. D. CAMPBELL,
[Read July 9, 1936.]

Everyone is aware that the occupation and settlement of this country
necessarily meant the taking of the aborigines’ homelands, and perhaps the ultimate
elimination of the natives themselves. Thus the founders of this Colony and its
settlers were, and its present inhabitants are, charged with a grave moral and
national responsibility. One may perhaps be excused for stressing again that the
founders of the Colony of South Australia were not ignorant of the problems
involved in settling territory occupied by a primitive native race. The British
had long since been colonizers in native lands, and by 1836 other parts of this con-
tinent had already been occupied for a number of years. Morcover, it is obvious
that the British Government was aware of this particular responsibility of settling
South Australia and the possible clash of peoples; for, as has elsewhere been
pointed out, the Government was so acutely aware of the grave responsibility
involved that more than half of the proclamation which Governor Hindmarsh
issued at Holdfast Bay, one hundred years ago, consisted of an exhortation and
warning to the settlers concerning the friendly and just treatment they were to
adopt towards the aborigines.

Clashes followed and problems arose; and present-day interest and discussion
shows that the same problems are still with us.

What bearing has the science of anthropology on this matter of our aborigines
and the problems arising out of our occupation of their country? Anthropology
as a purely academic study has been mainly concerned with investigations on the
physical and cultural history of the various types of mankind, and in particular
the more primitive races. For a long time it remained so. But in more recent
years the occupation of native territory has ceased to be merely oversea adventure
with spasmodic trading; it has become what we now hear described as empire
expansion, demanded by the pressure of social economics and national pride.
The closer study of native races has become something more than scientific
curiosity. We now have what is sometimes termed “applied anthropology,”
occupying an important place in the training of colonisers, administrators, officials
and missionaries, whose work takes them into native territories, And so we must
look on our own anthropology as a study which concerns not only the serious-
faced individuals who read papers before this Society, but something which can
and doves become closely associated with certain important problems of our State.

Let us now briefly review the study of the indigenous inhabitants of our own
territory. On account of the geographical association and the fact that for a long
time it was part of this State, [ shall include that portion of the Northern Terri-
tory now spoken of as Central Australia, For convenicnce we may roughly
divide our survey into four arbitrary periods.

Until about the middle of last century,’much of the data recorded on the
aborigines was merely incidental observation appearing in historical writings and
Government reports. Not that their occurrence in this manner lessens their value
as anthropological records; for they help towards our far too meagre fund of
information on the aborigines as they were at the early stages of settlement. And
while this form of record may not have attained the importance of a scientific

ar

anthropological treatise, many of them are the impressions of shrewd observers
and careful writers, and they are, therefore, eagerly studied and highly valued
by present-day workers. Ilowever, let it not be thought that in those early days
there was none sufficiently interested and capable to record with scientific detail
data on the natives. Only a few years after the foundation of the State, in the
forties, some extremely valuable publications were produced on native life and
customs. A number of these were on the languages of various groups; no doubt
the outcome of serious attempts to master speech with the natives. We shall ever
remain thankful for the works of Williams, Tieckelmann, Schurmann, Eyre,
Meyer, Moorehouse, and Angas.

By the time the second half of the century was on its way, mission stations
and aboriginal reserves of varying size and importance had been established to
preserve and look after the remnants of the rapidly diminishing aboriginal race.
With the close contact these means provided, a number of workers, either asso-
ciated with mission work, or as observant police officers in outback stations,
wrote up their notes and have Ieft an extensive and valuable fund of information.
Chief among these, one might mention some names which readily come to mind;
such as Taplin, Wilhemi, Cawthorne, Wyatt, and Wood; Gason and Willshire
in the far North; Mrs. Smith in the far South-East.

Then towards the close of the century was commenced that remarkable asso-
ciation of two outstanding workers, Spencer and Gillen, leaving for us that classic
legacy of tremendously detailed information on the aborigines of the Macdonnell
Range region, It is probably owing to the brilliance of Sir Baldwin Spencer as
a scholar, a teacher and a writer that the importance of Gillen’s place in that
remarkable partnership is apt to be overshadowed and underestimated. Gillen not
only conversed with the natives in their own tongue, but his observations were
so detailed and illuminating that his original notcbooks reveal the fact that much
in the famous volumes consists of a straight-out transcription of Gillen’s own
notes.

About the same time the late Sir Edward Stirling, on the Horn Expedition, laid
the foundation of his fine anthropological work; and he set out to collect and
preserve for all time objects associated with the cultural and industrial life of the
natives. The exhibits in the Stirling Gallery of our Museum, and the mass of
material not on display, are not only a wonderful monument to his name, but’
probably the finest collection in the world of ethnological material of the Central
Australian Aborigines.

And from then onwards to the close of last century, and during the first
twenty years of this century, research and collection of data became more intensive
and more specialized. It was possibly owing to the fact that the social organisa-
tion of our aborigines was becoming mure appreciated as an extraordinary,
complex and specialized business that sociological studies were attacked with
such vigour.

‘To the names of Spencer, Gillen and Stirling must be added those of others
who devoted considerable time to the study of the native; men like Strehlow, senr.,
Reuter, Krause, and Howitt. But, in addition, we have others who have added
valuably to our knowledge: Ramsay Smith, Mrs. Bates, Herbert Basedow, and
our present member, Mr. J. M. Black.

We come now to more recent years. The methods of anthropological research
have undergone rapid improvement, refinement, and specialization. The advent
of Professor Wood Jones was an important factor in making the early twenties
another outstanding time mark in anthropological interest in this State. It was
largely due ta Wood Jones’ infectious enthusiasm and methods of critical observa-
tion that he was such a stimulating influence on workers about him. There arose
a recrudescence of anthropological interest in and from Adelaide. The Anthro-

KI

pological Society of South Australia was founded. The University Council
established a Board for Anthropological Research, and gave anthropology an
official standing in the University. The South Australian Government was
persuaded to contribute its quota towards the establishment of the Chair of
Anthropology in Sydney. The post of Ethnologist was created at the South Aus-
tralian Museum.

During the later twenties were inaugurated field expeditions to Central Aus-
tralia and various parts of South Australia. These expeditions, under the direc-
tion of the Adelaide University—with whom the $.A, Museum readily co-
operated—have for the last ten years been an annual event, and have been the
means of amassing and collecting a considerable amount of valuable and original
scientific data and material in the form of ethnological objects, photographs,
cinemi films, and phonograph records, This expeditionary work has received its:
chief financial support from American funds provided by the Rockefeller Founda-
tion and administered by the Australian National Research Council. But we are
fortunate in this State, probably alone among all the States, in that we have also
received private financial support towards this research work.

This hurried survey of anthropological studies during the hundred years of
the State’s history shows that, from the commencement of the Colony, its original
possessors have been of considerable interest not only to scientific enquirers, but
also to those observant folk who were so keenly interested in happenings about
them that they took the trouble to record what now is to us very valuable data.
And even if we are forced to admit almost complete ignorance of the life and
customs of natives who lived in many parts of our State, we can at least feel
thankful for all that has been done.

Let us now turn for a few minutes and see in what way our Society has
interested itself in matters aboriginal. Although this Society dates back only to
1879, actually it existed under other names for many years prior to that time.
In fact, an ancestral line can be traced back to the very beginning of the State.
Whether or not the Statistical Society of South Australia was connected with
our Society’s ancestry, it is interesting to note that as far back as 1842 there was
a Statistical Society here, and it actually published in its transactions a report on
the “Physical appearance, habits of life, ceremonies, superstitions, numbers and
language, etc., of the aborigines of South Australia.” This is probably the first
record of a local society publishing data on the aborigines.

So far I have not been able to trace other anthropological papers in our records
prior to the Philosophical Society, which was the immediate forerunner of this
Society. But in the Transactions of the Philosophical Society there are seven
papers on anthropological matters, After this Society had become the Royal
Society, there was an average of about one anthropological paper a year for the
remainder of the century.

During the first twenty years of this century, we find only about seven or
eight papers were printed. But it is interesting to note that in 1915 a long and
important paper by the now well-known Malinowski was published by our Society.
In the early twenties commenced the modern outburst of interest. During the
last twelve years, an average of about three anthropological papers a year have
been published. Since the Society has been publishing its journal, a total of 74
papers of anthropological type have been printed. This includes several short
articles of interest and two Presidential addresses which were definitely
anthropological.

We can safely say that while this Society has not had the financial means for
directly supporting anthropological work in the field and on living natives, it has,
by its continued policy of publishing almost without exception every anthro-

xxit

pological paper presented to the Council, shown a keen sympathy towards this
aspect of its activities,

We are now brought to the question which is doubtless asked by some: Of
what use is this century of observation and publication on the aboriginal inhabitants
of this country?

I will remark firstly on the purely academic viewpoint, not because it is
necessarily the most important. In the Australian aboriginal people we have, still
existing in some parts of our country, a modern living example of stone-age man
—a primitive race which to anthropologists is one of the most interesting groups
of mankind on the eatth. With the spread of civilization to almost all parts of
the globe, some of these interesting primitive peoples have passed away with little
or no written record of their life and habits having been made. These are the
unwritten chapters in the history of mankind, pages on which the moving finger
has written nothing, or at the most has paused to enter but a word or two. For
the most part these pages must remain for ever blank, Thus the anxiety of
anthropologists in Australia, and even visiting workers irom overseas, to place
on record as much as possible concerning our Australian natives, and avoid for
example, the stigma and regret which remains concerning the long since extinct
Tasmanian race.

But this is not the only purpose in studying their life and habits. 1 have
already referred to what might be termed applied anthropology. Clashes between
settlers and indigenous inhabitants, unfortunately, seem to be inevitable. But a
closer understanding and sympathy towards the natives’ life and viewpoint surely
helps to soften and lessen these clashes. It is only by a careful and intelligent,
study of the native, his mode of living, his social organisation and mental make-up
that the correct sympathetic and reasonable outlook can be acquired, and the
necessary compromises and adjustments effected.

After a hundred years, we have at our disposal accounts of the earliest
contacts with native life and the difficulties encountered. We have the records
of mission activities, of attempts at civilizing and educating the natives; we have
the reports of protectors, of police officers, and a wealth of publications on native
life and customs. And yet today, knowing all these things, we still seem to be
floundering with precisely the same problems which confronted South Australians
one hundred years ago. Australian soil was once occupied by these dark-skinned
folk who, by our standards, are exceedingly primitive and crude; yet they at any
rate carried on a completely successful economic and possibly happy existence in
this country. Their homeland was, and still is, being filched from them, and im
returti they have received, for the most part, only our villainics and vices. It
would be a bold opinion that would assert that a fair deal had been given them.
Governments, inissionary efforts, so-called protection, national pride (if any) and
even the oft-proclaimed Australian spirit of good sportsmanship and fair play
all seem to have failed. It is high time that we Australians faced up squarely to
the simple and obvious question, Is the lingering remnant of this interesting and
simple people to be preserved, or is its present rapid and deplorable elimination
to proceed on its way? Any straightout answer to such a statement seems to be
one which we as a State and a Commonwealth have avoided with a disconcerting
persistence. Occasional voices are raised in protest, but apparently they might just
as well cry out in the sandy wildernesses which we have allotted to the natives,
for there they might possibly arouse the curiosity of some aboriginal nomad,

Reserves in the full scnse of the term should be established and controlled
solely for the benefit and preservation of the aborigines. We know definitely that
in those regions where the native is still alone and not interfered with he thrives
and gets along quite happily. Or, on the other hand, if his rapid passing is to be
tacitly accepted, at least some adequate method should be adopted to make his

wxtit

passing a respectable and comfortable one. Neither of these courses has yet
been seriously attempted. Some foll are aware that a large so-called reserve
does exist on the map; a few know that little serious attempt has becn made to,
make the reserve a genuine controlled preservation. In fairness, one is forced
to mention the recent gesture of the Commonwealth in appointing our own
Strehlow, junr. to the post of patrol officer.

To conclude these remarks, I will summarize by saying that concerning our
aborigines we still find ourselves with two important unfinished jobs. Firstly,
the one of pushing on apace with studying and recording as much as possible the
life and customs of the natives in a careful, broad and scientific manner, not
only out of scientific curiosity, but also for the practical value of the work. The
other, is a more honest endeavour to ensure the preservation of this interesting,
racc. The Royal Society is not expected to solve all the problems involved.
But these remarks are an endeavour to indicate what the Society has done and
what it might further do. I have already outlined the excellent service the Society
has performed in the publication of anthropological papers. For a moment I
want to revert to the year 1898. At the ordinary meeting of this Society on
July 5, 1898, Dr. Stirling moved, and Professor Tate seconded :-—

“That whereas the aborigines of Australia are rapidly disappearing it is
desirable, in the interests of science and of our successors, that a comprehensible
and enduring record of the Australian race, in the fullest anthropological and
ethnological significance, should be undertaken before it is too late; that this
Society communicates with the Royal Societies of Victoria, New South Wales,
Queensland and Western Australia and the Linnean Society of New South
Wales with the object of asking whether those societies will join in a com-
bined movement, together with such other scientific bodies as may be interested,
to induce the Governments of their respective colonies to promise contributions
of say £500 from each colony, payable in such annual instalments as may be
necessary to defray the expenses of such work; that contingent upon the
approval by this Society of the above resolution, the Council be requested to
put it into effect by forwarding copies to the bodies mentioned.”

At the Annual Meeting, October 4, of the same year, the Presidential
Address was given by Dr. W. I. Cleland. This address referred to the important
resolution passed at the July meeting, and was almost entirely concerned with
remarks on the Australian aboriginal race and the desirability for vigorous
and co-ordinated research. Dr. Cleland stated that:—“There is every reason to
hope that material assistance will be obtained from the various Governments for
effectively carrying out this national work, and it will also be conceded by all that
no time should be lost in setting about the collecting of all available information,”

Since that time our Society has certainly done some uscful work in attempt-
ing to fulfil the hopes of our predecessors. What reply the Society received from
the circularising of the important resolution | have not so far been able to ascer-
tain. Nor do | know whether the optimistic hopes of Dr. Cleland concerning
Government assistance were realized, Perhaps the assistance extended towards
the Sydney Chair of Anthropology was a belated move in this matter.

This Society is associated with the University Board for Anthropological
Research, for at present four of its Council members are also members of that
Board. Jet us hope that this association will continue; and I feel sure that if the
matter were taken up the University Council would readily agree to the Royal
Society being officially represented on its Research Board.

Another point. The importance of a thorough knowledge of aboriginal life
and customs, and an appreciation of his mentality and viewpoint is so well recog-
nised that it seems to me desirable in the light of the interest this Society takes

xxIV

in these matters, that it should be officially represented on the Government
Advisory Council on Aborigines.

My next point is perhaps not so much a constructive suggestion as a criticism.
It seems peculiar that that fine institution, the South Australian Museum, which
possesses such a wealih of anthropological and natural history material, should
have on its governing committee such inadequate numerical representation of
these sciences. At present there is definite provision for only one member likely
to be expert in natural history and scientific questions.

Our President pointed out that in days past and before this age of marked
specialization, this Society often acted in an advisory capacity and deputised the
Government on various State problems. The matter of really awakening to our
national responsibilities regarding the aborigines seems to involve the problem of
generally arousing and cducating public and Government sentiment.

I want to make a brief interpolation. Recently a young archaeologist, Mr.
Movius, was in Adelaide on a visit, and one evening gave at an Anthropological
Society meeting a very fascinating little lecture on his archaeological work in
Palestine, where he was associated with some excavatory research in which some
Neandertaloid skulls of great interest were unearthed. The remark which stood
out among his very interesting statements was to the effect that in that country,
as soon as any excavatory work, quarrying or digging of any sort, brought to light
any finds of archaeological interest, the Government immediatcly proclaimed the
spot a national reserve and it was properly controlled and protected.

Perhaps this Society, as one of the few institutions interested in anthropology,
could, with benefit, occasionally raise its authoritative voice in an endeavour to
stir up the conscience of the people of this State on the matter of its respon-
sibilities towards the remaining aborigines and their interesting relics.

CENTENARY ADDRESS-NO. 3.
THE PAST WORK OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OUTSIDE THE DOMAIN OF
NATURAL SCIENCE

BY PROFESSOR R. W. CHAPMAN, C.M.G.

Summary

A review of the work of this Society in those branches of Science which lie outside the domain of
what are commonly known as the "Natural Sciences" appears at first glance to be an easy task. For
a perusal of the tables of contents of the published volumes of the Royal Society shows that the
number of papers coming under this category is very few indeed. One seeks to collect the flowers to
press and preserve in the herbarium, only to find that these particular plants have almost refused to
flower. The total number of papers published in the Transactions since the first volume was issued
in 1878 is roughly 900, and out of these only 65 deal with Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics,
Astronomy or Engineering. The reason for this is not that there has been any marked shortage in
South Australia of able and enthusiastic workers in these departments, but that most of the
important research contributions in these sciences are naturally sent to those more specialized
papers or societies which devote themselves to the particular interests of one of these branches of
knowledge. Such an eminent mathematician as the late Sir Horace Lamb, for example, who wrote
his classical work on "The Motion of Fluids” while he was a Professor at the Adelaide University, is
represented in the annals of this Society by only two small contributions, one on "The Persistency
of Electric Currents in Masses of Iron," and the other on "The Causes of Luminosity in Flame,"
both on Physics. The great field of Mathematics is represented by a single paper by Prof. Wilton on
"Certain Diophantine Problems,” contributed in 1920. The chemists and the physicists and the
engineers have obviously preferred, for the most part, to send the records of their researches to
periodicals with a wider circulation amongst those interested in their own branch of work and where
their fellow-workers in similar fields in other parts of the world will be most likely to seek in order
to find the latest contributions to knowledge in those domains. Thus it has come about that our S.A.
Royal Society has become more and more the repository for new knowledge in the Natural
Sciences, particularly as displayed by the rocks, the flora and fauna, and the natural phenomena of
South Australia. However much this may be regretted by those who would like our own Royal
Society to emulate the catholic sympathies of the parent Royal Society of London, which
encourages contributions from every department of human knowledge, it does not seem at all likely
that this measure of specialization can be avoided. Modern knowledge is developing so complex a
growth that more and more it becomes essential to have specialization not only among’ scientific
workers but in the literature and the societies which provide the means of intercourse between those
labouring in any single field.

HRY

CENTENARY ADDRESS—No., 3.
THE PAST WORK OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY

OUTSIDE THE DOMAIN OF NATURAL SCIENCE
By Proressor R. W. Cuarman, C.M.G,

A review of the work of this Society in those branches of Science which lie
outside the domain of what are commonly known as the “Natural Sciences”
appears at first glance to be an easy task. Vor a perusal of the tables of contents
of the published volumes of the Royal Socicty shows that the number of papers
coming under this category is very few indeed. One seeks to collect the flowers
to press and preserve in the herbarium, only to find that these particular plants
have almost refused to flower. The total number of papers published in the Trans-
actions since the first volume was issued in 1878 is roughly 900, and out of these
only 65 deal with Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, Astronomy or Engineering.
The reason for this is not that there has been any marked shortage in South Aus-
tralia of able and enthusiastic workers in these departments, but that most of the
important research contributions in these sciences are naturally sent to those more
specialized papers or societies which devote themselves to the particular interests
of one of these branches of knowledge. Such an eminent mathematician as the
late Sir Horace Lamb, for example, who wrote his classical work on “The Motion
of Fluids” while he was a Professor at the Adelaide University, is represented in
the annals of this Society by only two small contributions, one on “The Persistency
of Electric Currents in Masses of Iron,” and the other on “The Causes of
Luminosity in Flame,” both on Physics. The great field of Mathematics is repre-
sented by a single paper by Prof. Wilton on “Certain Diophantine Problems,”
contributed in 1920. The chemists and the physicists and the engineers have
obviously preferred, for the most part, to send the records of their researches to
periodicals with a wider circulation amongst those interested in their own branch
of work and where their fellow-workers in similar fields in other parts of the
world will be most likely to seek in order to find the latest contributions to know-
ledge in those domains. Thus it has come about that our S.A. Royal Society has
become more and more the repository for new knowledge in the Natural Sciences,
particularly as displayed by the rocks, the flora and fauna, and the natural
phenomena of South Australia. However much this may be regretted by those
who would like our own Royal Society to emulate the catholic sympathies of the
parent Royal Society of London, which encourages contributions from every
department of human knowledge, it does not seem at all likely that this measure
of specialization can be avoided. Modern knowledge is developing so complex
a growth that more and more it becomes essential to have specialization not only
among scientific workers but in the literature and the societies which provide the
means of intercourse between those labouring in any single field,

The Reports of the Adelaide Philosophical Society, before the days of the
publication of an annual volume of Transactions and of its blossoming out to
become the Royal Society of South Australia, show that in those early days there
was no such bias towards the Natural Sciences as the Royal Society has since
developed. Its papers and discussions ranged over the whole field of human
thought, from literature to science, from philosophy to problems of practical
engineering. The Rev. J. Maughan, in a paper which he contributed on August 15,
1865, on “The Drainage of Adelaide, Considered in its Scientific Aspects,”
remarked in his introduction that “Ilowever important it may be to explore the

BRUM

various ramifications of natural phenomena, it is still more important to bring
the teachings of science to bear upon questions of public utility. To deal amply
and elaborately with things theoretical, and sparingly, or not at all, with those
that are practical, would be as little accordant with the spirit of true philosophy
as with the characteristic tendencies of the age in which we live.” And the Society
seems to have lived up to the ideals thus eloquently expounded, Taking the first
six papers read before the Society, in 1853, the first was on Meteorology, the
second on “The Theory of the Arch,” the third dealt with “The Mathematical
Theory of Musical Harmony,” the fourth with “The Rise of English Comedy,”
the subject of the fifth was “The Structure and Uses of the Hand,” and the sixth
“The Structure of the Aboriginal Dialects of New Holland.” The menu provided
certainly did not lack variety, and there was little danger of the members suffering
from a lack of some particular vitamins because of the monotony of their fare.
But at that stage in the colony’s history it was not to be expected that much
original scientific research could be done. The population of the whole of South
Australia in 1853 was only about 75,000, most of them actively engaged in the
pioneer work necessary in a new country, and there were few people with either
the training, facilities or opportunities for much in the way of scientific investiga-
tion, On the other hand, the Socicty was undoubtedly from the first a helpful
mental stimulant to the community, and its influence in the moulding of public
opinion and public policy was strong. Important public questions were frequently
discussed. Before Mr. B. Herschel Babbage set out in 1858 on an exploring
expedition past the western side of Lake Torrens, he discussed with the Society
what he proposed to do. In 1870 Mr. Charles Todd brought before the Society
his plans for the building of a telegraph line across the continent, from south to
north. “the Drainage of Adelaide” was a subject to which attention was first
called by a paper from Mr. Babbage in 1856, The Rev. J. Maughan brought it
up again in 1865. In 1866 there were three papers on the subject by Messrs. J.
Macgeorge, J. Allen and B. H. Babbage. And in the Report for 1867, it is stated
that at the close of the discussion on the subject of Drainage the following resolu-
tions were adopted :—‘That this Society desires to impress upon the authorities
of the City of Adelaide the importance of taking prompt measures for: Ist, An
organised system of scavenging for the removal oi the solid refuse of the City;
2nd, The absolute prohibition of cesspools in those portions of the City which are
supplied with sewers; 3rd, The construction of sewers in the centres of streets, in
place of under the footpaths, of sufficient depth to drain the cellars of the City;
4th, The arrangement of such a system in the construction of all sewers as will
enable the sewage to be ultimately conducted to a distance from the City, and as
far as practicable utilized by some process of irrigation or otherwise.” A memorial
embodying the resolutions was consequently prepared and forwarded to the City
Council, It was but a few months later that a Bill was introduced into the T.egis-
lature to enable the Corporation to commence a system of deep drainage. On such
questions amongst the contributors to discussion in the Society were leading public
men, and the Socicty was thus enabled to exert a wholesome influence on matters
of great importance to the community. In the sixties the question as to whether
a sparsely populated country should be developed by building the more solid but
more expensive railway lines on the 5 ft. 3 in. gauge or lighter and cheaper lines
on the 3 ft. 6 in. gauge was one on which engineers themselves were divided, It
was one on which South Australia had to come to a decision for carrying the rail-
way out into new areas on which only a small population was to be expected for
many years. Four papers read before the Society, with appropriate discussions,
show the interest that was taken in this big question. There were two papers on
this subject in 1867, one by Mr. J. Macgeorge and the other by Mr. W. Hanson,
and two more in 1870 by Messrs R. C, Patterson and A. F, Lindsay. These were

revit

apparently backed up by vigorous discussion which has, unfortunately, not been
recorded, but three out of the four papers advocated the construction of narrow
gauge lines on the 3 ft. 6 in. gauge. Whether the discussions had any direct
influence upon the Government policy it is impossible to say, but during the next
few years, in the seventies, a change was made from the broad gauge of the earlier
lines, and isolated light railways on the 3 [t. 6 in. gauge were pushed out from
Port Augusta, Port Wakefield, Port Pirie, Beachport and Kingston to bring the
products of the country to the seaboard. ‘These formed the basis of our present
narrow-gatige system.

During the lifetime of the Adelaide Philosophical Society education in South
Australia was compulsory but not free. The Central Board of Education had
power to grant licenses to teachers, and to pay them out of State revenues salaries
ranging from £40 to £100 per annum in addition to the fees paid by the parents
of the children. The system of public education was one that we should regard
now as totally inadequate, and it was not until 1875 that a big forward move was
made by giving over the management of public schools to a Council of Education
under the presidency of a competent paid Inspector-General. Education was,
therefore, naturally a subject that interested members. There were two papers
dealing with the subject in 1868, one by Mr. T. S, Reed on “Education of the
Working Classes,” and the other by Mr. James Hosking, entitled “Education in
South Australia.” In both of these papers the establishment of free schools was
advocated. It was stated that enquiries had shown that there were then at least
1,000 children in the City of Adelaide who were not attending any school because
of the inability of the parents to pay the necessary fees. Mr. Reed, in his paper,
said that one man had told him, “I have ten children who can’t read or write. I
can’t read or write myself; why should they?” No wonder that the subject
aroused the interest of the Society. There were two more papers in 1871, both
by Mr. Hosking, on “Educational Legislation,” which, judging from the abstracts
which are preserved in the records, promoted a vigorous discussion. The dis-
cussion was, however, severly hampered by the fact that according to the rules
of the Society any debate on either political or religious subjects was forbidden,
and speakers were continually brought to order by the Chairman for transgressing
the law. .

The last report of the Society, before the advent of the present form of the
Transactions, at the end of 1871, winds up on a very familiar note, “The Council,”
it says, “would take this opportunity of urging upon members the necessity of
paying their subscriptions punctually. During the past year, out of 62 ordinary
members only 34 have paid their annual subscriptions.”

Coming now to the published Transactions in their present form, which in
the third volume became the Transactions of the Royal Society of South Aus-
tralia, we find two papers contributed in 1887, one by Dr. Jamicson and the other
by Dr, H. Whittell, dealing with the ‘Drainage of Adelaide and its Influence on
the Death Rate,” which form a very satisfactory conclusion to the discussions on
Drainage, that we have previously noted, of the old Philosophical Society. A
careful examination of statistics shows that the death rate in the city for the year
1883-84, just before deep drainage was installed, was 20°4 per 1,000, and that for
the two years since the deep drainage had been completed it was 17°6 per 1,000.
And Dr. Whittell concludes his paper in these words:—‘Meanwhile, we may
fairly assume that the abatement of city nuisances, the speedy removal of filth from
our premises, and the blessing of pure air, have produced the beneficial results
we arc entitled to expect from them, and that a large part of the remarkable
reduction of mortality in Adelaide is due to the completion of our new system of
drainage.”

B

aaxvin

Between the years 1904 and 1907 a most important series of papers, seventeen
in all, was communicated to the Society by W. H. Bragg, Elder Professor of Mathe-
matics and Physics in the University of Adelaide, now Sir William Bragg, O.M.,
F.R.S., President of the Royal Institution of London. Bragg had previously
contributed a paper in 1891 on the “Energy of the Electro-Magnetic Field,” but
in this series of papers he described the methods and results of the experiments
in which he, with the later collaboration of Kleeman, Madsen, Dr. W. T. Cooke,
and Glasson, first clearly established the specific character of the alpha rays emitted
by radium and other radio-active elements in the process of disintegration. In
particular he showed that each species of radio-active atom, if it emitted an alpha
ray at all, ejected this particle with one and the same initial velocity and energy,
so that the rays from this element had, unlike other kinds of radiation, a definite
range in air of a few inches alt most, coming to an abrupt stop when their energy
was exhausted by interaction with the atoms encountered on their path. These
experiments furnished the basis of a new and valuable technique of investigation
into problems of radio-activity and threw much new light on the nature of the
obscure process of radio-active disintegration. In his later papers Bragg turned
his attention to other kinds of radiation, such as the beta and gamma rays from
radio-active elements and X-rays. In regard to the latter he put forward an
interesting speculation as to their nature, at that time unknown, and although this
has not been confirmed by subsequent development, its fundamental concept, viz.,
an elementary particle. devoid of electric charge—now termed a “neutron”—has
recently been shown to have a real existence and to be an important constituent
of all atomic nuclei. In this early work on X-rays we miay see the basis of the sub-
sequent great work of Bragg’s life, for which he, jointly with his son (Professor
W. L. Bragg, of Manchester), received the award of the Nobel Prize in Physics,
vig., the application of X-rays to the experimental analysis of the structure of
crystals. This series of papers represents a most fundamental and important
contribution to the physical science of the day and, apart from any ieeling of
Joyalty to the Royal Society of South Australia that there may have been with a
South Australian research worker, these papers were sent to the Society mainly
because in that way prompt publication could be sectired in comparison with that
obtainable by sending the papers overseas. That is an advantage that may’ still
hold good under similar circumstances.

Of other papers on Physics, one by Prof. Kerr Grant and Mr. G. E. M.
Jauncey, in 1912, demonstrated that ionisation is a general consequence of the
collision of solid bodies in air, and Messrs. R. C. Mitton and E. G. H. Gibson
contributed papers dealing with research work phenomena of surface tension,

About half of the papers of the kind under review, in the published Procced-
ings of the Society deal with subjects in the domain of Chemistry, Of these the
majority apply the principles of inorganic chemistry to investigate the rocks and
minerals, the waters and sands of South Australia. In the seventies the late
Mr. J. T. Cloud, Metallurgist of the Wallaroo Smelting Works, called attention
to the occurrence of various rare minerals. Professor EF, II, Rennie, in 1887,
made a chemical examination of the so-called rubies of the Macdonald Ranges
and found that in all cases they proved to consist of silicates of alumina and iron,
with small quantities of oxide of manganese, lime and magnesia, and hence were
undoubtedly garnets. Mr. G. A. Goyder, at that time in charge of the Govern-
ment Assay Department, investigated the composition of new minerals which he
named Stibiotantalite and Sulvanite. Mr. A. J. Higgins dealt with tellurides
from Wortupa in 1899. Qur radio-active ores have been examined from the
chemical standpoint by Messrs. Radcliffe, Prof. Rennie, Dr. Cooke and Mr. A. C.
Broughton. Mr. R. G. Thomas discussed the gem sands of Encounter Bay in
1922, and Mr. A. R. Alderman the “Vanadium Content of Certain ‘Titaniferous

eae

Ores” in 1925. Dr. W. T. Cooke made a chemical examination of Davidite from
Olary in 1916, showing that it gave off helium in quantity when heated to a red
heat, 100 grammes yielding 15 c.c. of helium, and he completes the list with two
papers recording chemical investigations into the nature of the brown coal at
Noarlunga, published in 1932 and 1934.

In the field of organic chemistry, Professor E. H. Rennie devoted his spare
time for many years to the examination of natural products of South Australian
plants, and in particular he investigated the colouring matters of the insectivorous
plant Drosera Whittakeri, which occurs abundantly in our hills, The colouring
matters he thought to be hydroxy-methyl naphihaquinone, a conclusion which
has since been confirmed, and colouring matters of similar composition have been
found in more recent years in Bacillus Tuberculosis and in the green husk of the
walnut. He contributed a paper on this subject in 1887. Since then other papers
on natural plant products, especially essential oils, have been contributed by
Messrs. H. H. Finlayson and P. A. Berry.

There are one or two other chemical papers of a more general and less local
character, such as one on the “Toning of Photographic Silver Images,” but by far
the greater majority of the papers invalving chemical investigation that have been
contributed to the Society have dealt with the composition of materials, whether
organic or inorganic, found in South Australia, and have been in the nature of a
careful examination of the natural products of the country in which we live.
They have thus been particularly appropriate to the Royal Society of South Aus-
tralia. Apparently our chemists have sent their contributions to knowledge of a
more general character to the Chemical Societies of Great Britain and have given
to this Society chiefly the result of work on local products.

Apart from Chemistry and Physics, there are a few odd papers which may
best perhaps be classified under Astronomy and Engineering. The astronomical
papers begin with a discussion by Mr. C. Todd of the comet of February, 1880.
Then follow papers on “The Variations of the Compass in South Australia,”
“Weather Forecasting in South Australia,” “Observations on Jupiter,” and finally
a paper on “Circum-elongation Observations for Azimath,” in which formulae
are deduced for the reduction of a number of observations made on a circum-polar
star near its elongation with the object of getting an accurate measure of the
direction of the true meridian. These are of so varied a character that one can
hardly discuss them, but obviously two of them at least are essentially South Aus-
tralian. As associated with Engineering we might class two papers by Mr, G.
Goyder, dealing with the “Cyanide Process for Gold Extraction,” a paper dealing
with the results of physical tests of South Australian timbers, another one on
British Standards, and two dealing with the theory of columns and beams.

It is hardly to be expected that there will be any change in the tendency for
papers, conveying the results of investigations made in this State into subjects
dealt with in this review, to be diverted from the Transactions of the Royal Society
of South Australia to periodicals and records of the more specialized big societies
where they will be brought more directly under the notice of those specially
interested in the subject considered, But there are many phases of these subjects
which have a direct bearing upon South Australian problems, research upon which
would be fittingly recorded in our Transactions. We cannot separate the different
branches of Science into water-tight compartments. Many of the most difficult
problems in Geology, Botany and Zoology depend for their solution upon the
collaboration of the physicist and the chemist, and many of the special problems
presented by these subjects in this State must probably be solved in the same way.
The papers on Chemistry that are preserved in our records are for the most part
fitting illustrations of the application of that science to the furthering of a know-
ledge of the products of our own State, but they are by no means the only contribu-

URX

tions that involve the use of chemical analysis, which enters into many of the papers
presented, especially those on Geology and Mineralogy. But Physics and
Mechanics may be also very essential to the progress of knowledge of our environ-
ment. Such matters as climate, magnetic surveys, investigations into the strength
and physical properties of our timbers and of our building stones, tidal and other
natural physical phenomena, gravity, geodetic and geo-physical surveys, the flow
of underground water, and many others obviously require the mathematical appli-
cation of the principles of Physics and Mechanics. It is to be hoped, therefore,
that the present policy of the Society of encouraging the contribution of such
papers will be continued, because the Royal Society of South Australia seems to be
the most fitting repository for all work advancing our knowledge of the State and
its resources, and to make this knowledge complete it must be viewed from every
aspect.

CENTENARY ADDRESS-NO. 4.
ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF SYSTEMATIC BOTANY IN
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

BY J. M. BLACK, A.L.S.

Summary

Although this paper deals with systematic botany in South Australia during the last 100 years,
it would be impossible to ignore entirely the initial point in the collection and description of our
plants-the visit of the celebrated botanist, Robert Brown, in Captain Flinders’ ship, the
"Investigator," in the year 1802. This voyage meant not only the discovery and survey of almost the
whole coastal area of our State, but also the discovery of its flora. Brown began his work at
Fowler's Bay and ended it near Mount Gambler. The result of his collection during a voyage round
the greater part of the Australian coast was published in London in 1810 in a work, which
established his fame.

NET

CENTENARY ADDRESS—No. 4.
ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF SYSTEMATIC BOTANY IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
By J. M. Brack, A.L.S.

Although this paper deals with systematic botany in South Australia during
the last 100 years, it would be impossible to ignore entirely the initial point in the
collection and description of our plants—the visit of the celebrated botanist,
Robert Brown, in Captain Flinders’ ship, the “Investigator,” in the year 1802.
This voyage meant not only the discovery and survey of almost the whole coastal
area of our State, but also the discovery of its flora. Brown began his work at
Fowler’s Bay and ended it near Mount Gambier. The result of his collection
during a voyage round the greater part of the Australian coast was published in
London in 1810 in a work which established his fame.

After the proclamation of the Province of South Australia in 1836, the first
expedition on which botanical specimens were successfully collected was that of
Captain Sturt in South and Central Australia, in the years 1844 to 1846. From
this arduous journey the great explorer brought back about 100 plant specimens,
which were dealt with in a botanical appendix from the pen of Robert Brown.
Previous to this date Eyre made a collection of plants during his daring overland
journey along the Great Bight to King George’s Sound in 1840-41, but they were
lost in transit to Adelaide.

In 1847 Dr. Ferdinand Mueller (later Baron Sir Ferdinand von Mueller)
landed in South Australia and at once began collecting in various parts of the
State. His first paper on our flora was published in Hooker’s Journal of Botany
in 1852. Subsequently, with his headquarters in Melbourne, he became the
acknowledged leader in botanical science throughout Australia, identifying
numbers of plants collected by himself and other explorers during the latter half
of the nineteenth century and describing many new species. Among the collec-
tions with which he dealt, and which are of special interest to South Australians,
may be mentioned those of David Hergolt in the country west of Port Augusta
(Babbage’s expedition of 1858), of J. McDouall Stuart in the same districts
during 1858-59, of Ernest Giles and his assistant (W. H. Tietkens) in the country
near Ooldea and in the Musgrave Ranges in 1875 and 1876, of Sir John Forrest
in his journey from Perth to Adelaide in 1870, and of William C. Gosse (later
Deputy Surveyor-General of South Australia) in that part of Central Australia
which lies immediately north of our border during 1873.

Among the local collectors who have done excellent work should be men-
tioned Dr. Hermann Behr, whose plants, collected near Gawler about the middle
of last century, were described by Schlechtendal in the twentieth volume of
Lannaea (1847); Carl Wilhelmi in the Port Lincoln district from 1851 to 1854,
and the Rev. J. E. Tenison Woods in our Tatiara district. J. GO. Tepper, an
active member of this Society, contributed several papers to our Transactions on
the flora of Yorke Peninsula and of the Adclaide plains and hills.

One of the finest collections of South Australian and Western Australian
plants was that of R. Helms, who acted as collector of Lindsay’s Expedition in
1891-92, the expenses of which were defrayed by Sir Thomas Elder. The
botanical results were published by Mueller and Tate in our Transactions of
1896. Helms’s specimens were distributed between the University Herbarium of
Adelaide and the National Herbarium of Melbourne, and have been re-studied by
many subsequent botanists, Australian, English and German.

XX

The safety and effectiveness of exploring expeditions, and incidentally their
ability to collect botanical treasures, was greatly increased by the substitution of
camels for horses in sandhills and desert country. Tested experimentally by John
McKinley during his journey to Cooper’s Creek in 1861 for the relief of the
Burke and Wills expedition, the use of camels became general on most of the
great traverses in the seventies and in subsequent years. The Elder Expedition
of 1891 had 44 camels, 10 riding and 34 pack animals.

Professor Ralph Tate published in 1890 his Handbook of the Flora of Extra-
tropical South Australia and divided the State, for botanical purposes, into two
regions—the Eremian, or dry and desert lands of the North, and the Euronotian,
comprising the districts with better rainfall, from about the latitude of Port
Augusta to Mount Gambier. He was the botanist, as well as the geologist, of the
Burke and Wills Expedition, the use of camels became general on most of the
numerous botanical papers to the Transactions of this Society, among them the
first florula of Kangaroo Island. He was active in founding the Field Naturalists’
Section of the Society and became its first chairman.

During recent years several of our members have distinguished themselves
as diligent plant collectors in our Far North and in Central Australia, among
whom should be mentioned Professor J. B. Cleland, H. H. Finlayson and N. B.
Tindale. Professor Cleland has published several florulas of districts extending
from Kangaroo Island to the Far North, as well as his Handbook of the Toad-
stools and Mushrooms of South Australia. Mr. E. H, Ising has made extensive
collections in the Ooldea districts, the Nullarbor Plain, the Far North and Central
Australia, and has published four papers in our Transactions dealing with his
discoveries. The author of the present address produced the Naturalised Flora
of South Australia in 1909 and the Flora of South Australia between 1922 and
1929, besides a series of botanical papers appearing in our Transactions sincq
1909. Our orchids have always been in the able hands of Dr. R. S. Rogers, who
described all our local species in the Flora of South Australia. Professor J. G.
Wood published in our Transactions of 1930 an exhaustive paper on the
Vegetation of Kangaroo Island and the adjacent peninsula.“

Many distinguished botanists outside South Australia have assisted in the
elucidation of our flora during the present century. Foremost among these
stands J. H. Maiden with his revision of the Eucalypts, an illustrated work con-
tinued after the death of the great Sydney botanist by his assistant, W. F.
Blakely, who in 1934 published his valuable Key to the Eucalypts, with shorter
descriptions of all the species. The genus Pultenaea was revised by the Vic-
torian botanist, H. B. Williamson,, and a similar service was performed for
Bassia by R. IL. Anderson, of the Sydney National Herbarium. ‘The experts of
the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew have done much for Australian systematic.
botany by the publication in recent years of the following’ revisions :—Lilacopsis
by Sir Arthur Hill, the Panicum of Bentham’s Flora and Stipa by Miss D. K.
Ilughes, Prankenia by V. 5. Summerhayes, Dentella by H. K. Airy-Shaw, and
several genera of Australian grasses by C. F, Hubbard. Dr. K. Domin, of
Prague, who travelled widely in Queensland, has published, during the last 20
years, a series of papers revising a great portion of the Australian flora. Dr. J.
Th. Henrard, of Leiden, has issued a monograph on the genus Aristide, throwing
much new light on our Australian species. Dr, Wheeler, of the University of
California, has quite recently done a great service to Australian taxonomy by

Om) Among the toted systematic botanists not mentioned in this article is Mr. J. M.
Black, A.L.S. Mr. Black has published “The Naturalized Flora of South Australia’
(1909), and a 4-volume “Flora of South Australia” (1922-1929), together with a large
number of botanical papers, of which “Additions to the Flora of South Australia, No. 34,”
is published m this volume of the Royal Society’s Jotrrnal—Ed.

eeEUIL

her revision of our Nicotianas, based largely on living specimens of our tobaccos
grown from seed.

One word as to the broad basis of systematic botany—the classification of
families and genera. The arrangement of Linnaeus, which was based chiefly on
the number of stamens and styles, was greatly improved by Jussieu, who, in 1779,
was the first botanist to co-ordinate the genera of plants into families more or
less as we know ,them today. His work was elaborated by De Candolle in 1818,
and later in the century by Bentham and Hooker in their Genera Plantarum, and
by Bentham in the Flora Australiensis. All these systems were based on the
idea of the fixity of species. The first phylogenetic system proposed, subsequent
to the general acceptance of the theory of descent, was that of Engler and Prantl,
which was published about the end of last century and which has been followed
by most botanists up to the present day. During the last ten years a Kew
botanist, Mr. |. Hutchinson, has published two volumes making certain changes
in Engler’s classification, and doubtless the last word has not been written on
this difficult subject. Hutchinson’s system shows a tendency, in regard to the
sequence of some of the larger groups, to revert to that of Bentham and Hooker.
For instance, he places the Dicotyledons before the Monocotyledons on the ground
that certain monocotyledonous families, such as the Alismataceae and Scheuch-
geriaceae are closely allied to the Ranunculaceae or Buttercup Family, which he
considers to be the most primitive of herbaceous Dicotyledons.

There have always existed among botanists two opposite tendencies with
regard to the treatment of genera. Some prefer large comprehensive genera,
divided into few or many sections, while others consider it better to treat each
of these sections as a distinct genus. In botanical slang these two classes of
botanists are termed “lumpers” and “splitters,” and, of course, there are the same
two diverse tendencies in regard to the treatment of some species. Of recent
years the division of large and sometimes unwieldy genera has become very
popular. Let me give one example. When the illustrious English botanist,
George Bentham, wrote some 60 years ago that great and indispensable classic,
the Flora Australiensis, he maintained Panicum as a comprehensive genus of
grasses. When Miss Hughes, in 1923, revised Bentham’s Panicum, she divided
it into 14 different genera, following the example set by the great agrostologist,
Dr. Stapf, in the Flora of Tropical Africa, Another grass genus, Andropogon,
has also undergone considerable division. All this work leads to changes in
nomenclature, puzzling at least for a time, the argument of the revisionists being
that the final result will be additional clarity and an increase in scientific exactness.

During the last few years a plea has been voiced, chiefly in forestry circles,
for the creation of a list of certain well-known specific names to be conserved,
although they are not the earliest names given to the species in question. he list
of generic names which it has been determined to conserve (nomuna generica
conservanda) is pointed to as an example which should be followed in regard to
species. .Rut the two cases are scarcely analogous. In 1891 a German botanist,
Dr. O, Kuntze, published a revision of genera, in which the law of priority was
rigorously applied. The result was chaotic—about 30,000 names of plants were
changed. To overcome the confusion thus caused, the Botanical Congress of
Vienna (1905) agrecd upon a list of generic names to be conserved, and this list
was extended by the Congresses of Brussels (1910) and of Cambridge (1930).
But genera are comparatively few, while the number of species is enormous.
The majority of systematic botanists has always been opposed to a system by
which certain specific names would be arbitrarily conserved although they are
not the earliest under which a description was published. The proposal for a
list of specific names to be conserved was first raised and rejected at Cambridge,
and at the Congress of Amsterdam (1935) the motion came to a division and

xaerxiv

was defeated by 208 votes to 61. Subsequently it was decided “that an inter-
national committee be appointed to draw up a list of names of economic plants
according to the international rules, and that this list may remain in use for a
period of 10 years.” The publication of this list will be awaited with much
interest.

As two examples of the changes in specific names under the law of priority
to which objection has been raised in Australia may be mentioned the substitu-
tion of Eucalyptus gumamifera for E. corymbosa as the name of the Bloodwood
of New South Wales and Queensland, and the change in the name of our well-
known Redgum from Eucalyptus rostrata to E, camaldulensis. On the other
hand, it may be noted that the name of the Remarkable or Monterey Pine, which
has been extensively planted in Australia as a timber tree, has been altered from
Pinus insignis to the earlier name of P, radiata, and that this change appears to
have been accepted by foresters and dealers without any difficulty.

Turning now to the future, it may be said at once that there is plenty of
work ahead for Australian botanists and collectors in searching our vast
territory for new species and for further research in regard to species
which are still imperfectly known. Even in the comparatively well
investigated area of the Adelaide Plains and the Mount Lofty Range new
species have been discovered in recent years, and other native plants previously
only known from distant localities have been found to exist. There are also the
introduced aliens, sometimes beneficial and sometimes mischievous, increasing in
number with every year, to be studied and recorded. Among the cellular plants
the larger fungi have been recently described by Professor Cleland in one of
the science handbooks, but other forms, such as the seaweeds, mosses, liverworts
and stoneworts have received little, if any, attention. In addition to this there
are many important genera of our flowering plants still awaiting a revision by
careful and enthusiastic botanists, whose researches will add notably to our
present knowledge of a great flora.

CENTENARY ADDRESS-NO. 5.
ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF ENTOMOLOGY IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

BY J. DAVIDSON, D.SC.

Summary

At the time of the foundation of the Province of South Australia in 1836, several well-known
naturalists in Europe were interested in collecting and describing insects. As a branch of natural
history, however, insects were generally regarded with indifference. This may have been due to
their abundance and relatively insignificant size compared with other animals.

With the appearance of the first volume of the classical work, "An Introduction to Entomology," by
W. Kirby and W. Spence, in 1815, followed in 1839 by Westwood's "Introduction to the Modern
Classification of Insects," an increasing interest in entomology developed in England. The Royal
Entomological Society of London was founded in 1832.

HAV

CENTENARY ADDRESS—No. 5.
ONE HUNDRED ‘YEARS OF ENTOMOLOGY IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

By J. Davipson, D.5Sc.,
Waite Agricultural Research Institute, University of Adelaide.

At the time of the foundation of the Province of South Australia in 1836,
several well-known naturalists in Europe were interested in collecting and describ-
ing insects. As a branch of natural history, however, insects were generally
regarded with indifference. This may have been due to their abundance and rela-
tively insignificant size compared with other animals.

With the appearance of the first volume of the classical work, “An Introduc-
tion to Entomology,” by W. Kirby and W. Spence, in 1815, followed in 1839 by
Westwood’s ‘Introduction to the Modern Classification of Insects,” an increasing
interest in entomology developed in England. ‘The Royal Entomological Society
of London was founded in 1832.

Owing to the abundance of insect life compared with other animals, it was
inevitable that workers of this period would be engaged chiefly in recording,
describing and classifying the different kinds of insects, according to the accepted
binomial system of nomenclature. Entomology gradually developed along these
lines, as a special branch of zoology, due largely to the enthusiasm of a number
of amateur workers who devoted their leisure to the study of insects. It is perhaps
difficult for us to appreciate now, that the conception of the cellular structure of
animals was unknown until the work of Schwann about 1839.

Prior to the foundation of the Province, Francois Péron and C, A. Leseur,
naturalists to Baudin’s expedition, had collected insects on Kangaroo Island;
some of these were described by Latreille of the Paris Museum, who became
Professor in 1829 following the death of Lamarck.

In the early Transactions of the Entomological Society of London, the Rev.
W. Hope described new species of insects collected at Adelaide by Mr. C. D. E.
Fortnum, who appears to have resided in the colony during 1840 to 1845.

Charles Algernon Wilson, one of the original members of the Adelaide
Philosophical Society, merits the title of being the first entomologist in South
Australia. Wilson arrived here in 1839, and was an officer of the Supreme Court.
A cousin of Alfred Russell Wallace, he had a naturalist’s interest in insect life,
and paid particular attention to insects which were troublesome to the colonists.
From i840 onwards Wilson contributed numerous articles on entomology to
“The Register,” and later to the “Garden and Field,” under the pen name of
“Naturae amator.”’ In 1856 he read a paper to the Society entitled “Wood-eating
Insects,” which contained observations he had made on the collapse of a wooden
bridge on the Adelaide main road, due to damage caused by boring beetles. Wilson
also contributed observations on South Australian insects to the Transactions of
the Entomological Society of London,

In 1867 F. G. Waterhouse, first Curator of the South Australian Museum,
read a short paper on a parasite of the order “Strepsiptera,” which had been
collected near Gawler by Mrs. Kreusler; it is the first record of this interesting
order for Australia.

Prior to 1878 there appears to have been little advance in our knowledge of the
insect fauna of the State. In the anniversary address to the Society in that year,
Professor Tate remarked ttpon the lack of interest shown in the natural history

NUVI

of South Australia. This address apparently stimulated J. G. O. Tepper to com-
municate a paper to the Society in 1879, entitled “The Insects of South Australia:
An Attempt at a Census.” Tepper pointed out that Tate had stated that only
782 species of insects had been recorded from South Australia, whereas Tepper
had 2,655 species represented in his collection; he had been collecting insects in
the State for some 20 years. About 1883 Tepper became associated officially with
the South Australian Muscum. He communicated several papers on insects to the
Society as well as observations on many cxhibits; he added considerably to the
insect collections of the Museum.

The Rev. T. Blackburn, a resident of Adelaide, began publishing on Aus-
tralian Coleoptera in the Transactions for 1886-1887; from that date until his
death in 1912 he regularly communicated papers to the Society; he also con-
tributed papers to outside journals. An obituary notice of this distinguished
Coleopterist states that his entomological publications reached a total of 3,696
pages, and that he described or named 3,069 species of Australian Coleoptera,

Arthur M. Lea, who came to Adelaide in 1911 as entomologist at the Museum,
in succession to Tepper, had communicated a paper on Australian Coleoptera to
the Society in 1879, ‘After his arrival in Adelaide, Lea was a regular contributor
to the Transactions on Australian beetles, until his death in 1932, An obituary
notice states that |.ea presented 43 papers to the Society, which occupied 2,378
pages in the Transactions; he described nearly 6,000 species, of which 2,329 were
described as new. An enthusiastic collector, he greatly enriched the collection
of insects of the Muscum during his period of office.

Of other workers on Coleoptera, E. W. Ferguson, who died in 1927, com-
municated papers to the Society in 1914 and 1915; H. J. Carter contributed
several papers to the Transactions during 1913 to 1919, and Albert H. Elston
during 1919 to 1929,

In the order Lepidoptera, Edward Meyrick, a world famous authority of
this order, collected in South Australia during 1882; he published a list of South
Australian species in the Transactions for the following year. In 1890 he com-
menced a long series of papers on Australian Lepidoptera, which appeared in the
Transactions at intervals until 1907.

Dr, Alfred Jefferis Turner, another authority of the Lepidoptera, began com-
mutiicating papers on Australian species to the Society in 1894; his papers
appeared in the Transactions at intervals until 1933.

Oswald b. Lower, a resident of Adelaide, worked particularly on the
Lepidoptera of South Australia. A number of papers under his name appear in
the Transactions during 1892 to 1923. Lower died in 1925,

Other contributors to the Transactions, on Lepidoptera, were C. A. Wilson
(1865), W. H. Gaze (1881), M. E. Guest (1882-1887), and N. B. Tindale (1922-
1923), Tepper refers to several collectors in the State, but they do not appear
to have published their observations. These names include Bathurst, Behr,
Odewahn, Jung and Waterhouse.

In the remaining orders of insects, our knowledge of the South Australian
fauna is small. ‘epper was interested in all the orders, but gave particular
attention to the Orthoptera; in recent years N, B. Tindale has dealt with certain
of the families. H. Womersley, who succeeded Lea in 1932 as entomologist at
the South Australian Museum, has contributed papers dealing with the apterygota
of Australia; in 1932 he established species of the order Protura, for Australia,
on specimens collected by D, C. Swan. In the Hymenoptera there are five papers in
the Transactions by A. P. Dodd, one by AA. Girault, and two by W. M. Wheeler.
It is interesting to recall that the “honey pot att,” Camponotus inflatus, was
described by Sir John Lubbock in the Journ. Linn. Soc. London, from specimens
sent from Adelaide in 1880. Specimens taken at Barrow’s Creek were exhibited

aX EVI

at a meeting of the Society in November of that year; this appears to be the first
record for Australia, and it was stated at the meeting that only one other species
of “honey pot ant” was known (from Mexico).

In the Hemiptera there are two small papers by W. M. Maskell on Coccidae,
and one by J. H. Ashton on the cicadas in the South Australian Museum. During
recent years W. IJ. Hale has contributed studies on aquatic Hemiptera; J. W.
Evans, two papers on the Eurymelinae and Ipoinae; R. J. Tillyard, two small
papers on wing venation and new species of “stone flies.” In the Presidential
address to the Society in 1895, Professor Tate was able to show that 1,559 new
species of insects had been described in ithe Transactions.

During the nineteenth century there was a marked development of agricul-
ture in Europe and North America. Associated with this development was a
definite realization of the damage to forest trees, crops and stored products, caused
by the activitics of insects. Moreover, about the end of the century, it was demon-
strated that certain insects were vectors of particular diseases of man and domestic
animals. Beijerinck had discovered the presence of virus diseases in plants in
1889. These developments created a demand for specific information about
economic species, which resulted in the appointment of official entomologists in
several countries, whose duties were to study injurious insects and recommend
measures for their control. In his address to the Society in 1878 Professor Tate
referred to the increasing importance of entomology in this respect. In the Annual
Report of the Society for 1885-1886, it is stated that the Council had made a
recommendation to the Board of Governors of the Museum with regard to the
formation of a collection illustrative of economic entomology in the State.

Here we have the beginnings in South Australia of what is now widely
known as “Economic Entomology.” The term is a useful one, since it fixes the
attention on the practical aims. Kescarch on injurious insects, however, embraces
studies in all departments of entomology. The real objective is to establish exact
knowledge which may be employed in the control of insects. This aspect of
entomology is referred to in Europe as “applied entomology.” The development
of all branches of entomology during the past half century is closely bound up
with the history of applied entomology.

Locusts and other insects affected the crops of the early settlers. Fortunately,
insects were not troublesome as vectors of disease to man or to his domestic
animals. The numerous articles on injurious insects written by C. A. Wilson in
“The Register” and “Garden and Field” show that there was a demand for this
kind of information.

In 1870 Mr. T. S. Reed read a paper before the Society entitled “The Import-
ance of Silk Culture as a Branch of Colonial Industry.” Successful attempts to
cultivate silkworms had been made in New South Wales, and the paper discussed
the possibilities of doing so in South Australia. In the following year Dr.
Schomburgk gave a paper on “The Causes of the Disease of Silkworms’’; the
paper dealt particularly with the discase of the caterpillars, which swept through-
out silk-producing countries about 1853.

In April, 1882, C. A. Wilson presented at a meeting of the Society a copy
of the important French publication on Phyllovera of the vine, by Maxime Cornu,
This subject was of importance to vignerons, owing to the severe losses m vine-
yards caused by this pest in Europe, and its discovery in Australia some time in
the 1870's.

The Agricultural Bureau was formed in 1888. About this time Mr. Frazer
Crawtord, a photolithographer in the Surveyor-General’s office, was widely known
in the State for his interest in economic insects. Crawford was clected a Fellow
of the Society in 1865; but his interests in entomology lay more with the habits
of injurious insects. In 1886 Crawford had reported on the apple pests of the

LEV

State, and in 1890 he presented a report to the Agricultural Bureau dealing with
the insect and fungus pests of the State. He was an inspector under the Vine,
Fruit and Vegetable Protection Act.

Crawford’s name will live in the history of applied entomology for the part
he played in the successful introduction into California, in 1889, of the ladybird,
Novius cardinalis. At that time the citrus-growing industry in California was
threatened owing to the cottony cushion scale (Iceryva purchasi) pest, a species
which arrived there from the Australasian region. Crawford discovered a
parasite fly (Lestephonus) attacking this scale insect near Adelaide. As a direct
result of this, the United States Department of Agriculture sent A. Koebele to
investigate the position. Koebele arrived in Adelaide in October, 1889, and
together with Crawford and Tepper, visited a garden in North Adelaide where
the ladybird, Novius cardinalis, was found feeding on the scale insect. Some of
these beetles were sent to California, the first consignment being collected at
Mannum. The predator multiplied rapidly in California, and within six months
they had controlled the scale insect. When Crawford died in 1890, the Department
of Agriculture of the U.S.A. paid a tribute to his help in this classical example
of successful biological control.

This striking success stimulated greater interest in applied entomology in
Australia. Within the next few years government entomologists were appointed
to the Departments of Agriculture in the various States. In South Australia the
official entomologist at the South Australian Museum determined specimens for
the Department of Agriculture, and gave information and advice on injurious
insects. ‘[his service appears to have been adequate for the requirements of the
department, since a definite post as government entomologist was not created in
this State.

In 1894 Geo. Quinn became associated with the horticultural branch of the
Department of Agriculture. He published observations on various economic
insects of the State in the “Journal of the Department of Agriculture,” which
made its first appearance in 1897. Some years later a service of agricultural and
horticultural instructors was established. These officers advise the farmer and
orchardist on matters relating to the control of insect pests.

In 1924, and again in 1926, the woolly apple aphis parasite (Aphelinus mali)
was introduced into South Australia from New Zealand by Mr. Quinn. This
parasite became established in the apple-growing districts and now exerts a
partial control over the aphis.

In 1923 T, Harvey Johnston communicated a paper to the Society dealing
with the blowfly problem in Australia.

In 1929 a Department of Entomology was established at the Waite Agri-
cultural Research Institute, of the University of Adelaide. Courses in entomology
are given to degree students, and research is carried out on various entomological
problems. In addition, an advisory service to the Department of Agriculture is
provided on entomological matters, Since its inception in 1929 certain insect
problems of pastures, cereals, orchard and market garden crops have been investi-
gated, In addition, experimental work on the effect of climate and weather on
insect abundance, including systematic field observations, has been carried on,
with a view to obtaining more definite information relating to the ecology of insects
in Australia.

We have seen that the entomological papers communicated to the Society
have been mainly concerned with the description and classification of insects.
Very little attention has been given to their structure and habits. In 1922
O. W. Tiegs communicated a comprehensive paper dealing with the structure and
post-embryonic development of the Pteromalid wasp, “Nasonia,” and the physio-
logy of insect metamorphosis. During recent years papers relating to the ecology

UNIS

of insects, particularly with reference to the influence of climate, have appeared
in the Transactions.

With the commencement of the annual publication of the Records of the
South Australian Museum in 1918, certain entomological papers by the Museum
staff are now placed in that Journal. A few papers dealing with experimental
work on insects have been published in recent years in the “Australian Journal
of Experimental Biology and Medical Science,” an Adelaide University publication.

Although few papers dealing with the applied aspect of entomology have
been published in the Transactions, the Society appears to have been kept informed
of such matters affecting the State through the varied exhibits presented at its
meetings. Certain of the exhibits are of interest in relation to the spread of
particular insects. In 1903 Tepper exhibited specimens of “Chermes,” an aphis
pest on Pinus halepensis; this insect was doubtless Pineus pint, a European
species now commonly occurring on Pinus radiata, At the May meeting in 1915,
Lea exhibited living pupae of Macleay’s orange butterfly (Papilio anactus), taken
on citrus at Berri; this was the first record for South Australia. The species is
now frequently seen in summer on the Adelaide plains, presumably having made
its way down the Murray from New South Wales.

One of the important aims of natural history in a new country is that of
placing on record the fauna and flora of the country. Therefore, considering the
wealth of insect forms, the descriptive character of the earlier papers presented
to the Society is understandable. Amateur enthusiasts have assisted greatly in
the collection and recording of the insect fauna in many countries. The workers
have been relatively few in South Australia and many groups of our insects
remain unexplored.

There are many difficulties associated with a practical and rational system
of classification of insects. Many of the earlier papers in the Transactions may
appear to be a monotonous descriptive catalogue of a collection of inanimate
objects. Taxonomy, however, is a useful and practical method of arranging
insects. It is a valuable aid in the study of other branches of entomology; but it
cannot be considered as an end in itself. Post-Darwinian developments in biology,
particularly in genetics, show that the modern concept of a species embodies much
more than a consideration of its external characters.

A species has been defined as a community of individuals having distinctive
morphological features and habits which separate them from related communities ;
they are fertile within themselves. In the absence of knowledge about habits and
biology, errors in classification may readily arise: we are familiar, for instance,
with examples of seasonal variation and sexual demorphism. The effect of
environment on external characters in insects is often difficult to assess; in
general, insects are plastic and adaptable, and the range of variation may be large.
Variations due to discontinuous mutations, and the problem of convergence, all
add to the difficulties of establishing the correct placing and phylogenetic relation-
ship of many “species.” There is also the question of physiological races.

In order that systematic studies may be carried out efficiently today, the
worker must have access to adequate collections and complete literature on the
subject. The South Australian Museum has one of the richest collections of
insects in Australia; it includes a large number of types. The value of the
collection will be increased when the various groups have been worked out by
specialists. The publication of comprehensive revisions of particular groups of
insects might well be considered as an important function of a natural history
museum. Research of this kind would be helpful to workers engaged more in
the applied branches of entomology. Biological surveys, and the grouping of
insects of the State according to their habits and environment, would enable us
to understand more clearly the inter-relationship of insects in an ecological sense.

xl

An accurate record of the parasites and predators of our insects would be a
valuable contribution to South Australian entomology.

During the past 20 years or so our knowledge of the biology of insects has
been advanced considerably ; this is largely due to the demand for exact informa-
tion about species of economic importance. There has been a big development
of experimental work relating to the physiology of particular insects and their
reactions to changes in the temperature and moisture in their physical environ-
ment. Attempts are being made to understand the precise conditions in the
physical and biotic environment which cause irregular fluctuations in insect
numbers and lead to insect plagues. Investigations at the Waite Institute include
experimental work relating to the effect of temperature, moisture and food on
the seasonal occurrence and rate of multiplication of several species of insects of
economic importance in South Australia. A knowledge of the exact conditions
in the physical environment of these species, in relation to the influence of climate
and weather, is an important consideration in this respect. A knowledge of the
influence of competition for food, and the effect of parasites and predators is
equally important.

For research in these branches of entomology more extensive equipment
and laboratory facilities are required than is the case with studies in taxonomy
and the natural history of insects. However, our knowledge of the insect fauna
of South Australia, from the aspect of taxonomy and natural history, is still
very far from complete. ‘The amateur naturalist, who is interested in insects as
a hobby, can do much to extend this knowledge if he has the equipment of
enthusiasm and accurate powers of observation. It was these qualities which
appear to have been mainly responsible for the outstanding contributions of
Charles Darwin to Biology, and of Henri Fabre to Entomology.

CENTENARY ADDRESS-NO. 6.
A HUNDRED YEARS OF ZOOLOGY IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

BY PROFESSOR T. HARVEY JOHNSTON

Summary

It has been a difficult task to select a suitable title for this address, which forms one of the series
intended to represent our Society's contribution to the celebration of the Centenary of the State of
South Australia. An attempt to survey the growth of our knowledge of the local zoology during the
past century would have been too ambitious; would have necessitated far too great an amount of
research; and would have been far too lengthy for the time allotted and the printing space allowed
for similar addresses. It has been deemed more satisfactory to adopt the above title, as it permits one
to take into account zoological work published in South Australia, whether it relates to our State or
not. Excepting early references to our zoology, it excludes work relating to our fauna published
elsewhere. It thus indicates more particularly what part the local organizations have played in the
publication of scientific information concerning the chosen subject; and it indicates especially the
important part played by our Royal Society in such work. The address is, then, largely concerned
with the zoological activities of our Society and of its parent, the Adelaide Philosophical Society. It
also takes into account the work of the various organisations which have directly or indirectly arisen
from it-such as the Field Naturalists’ Section, the South Australian Museum, and the Ornithological
Society.

whi

CENTENARY ADDRESS—No. 6.
A HUNDRED YEARS OF ZOOLOGY IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
By Proressor T. IlArvey Jonnston, University of Adelaide.

It has been a difficult task to select a suitable title for this address, which
forms one of the series intended to represent our Society’s contribution 1o the
celebration of the Centenary of the State of South Austraha. An attempt to
survey the growth of our knowledge of the local zoology during the past century
would have been too ambitious; would have necessitated far too great an amount
of research; and would have been far too lengthy for the time allotted and the
printing space allowed for similar addresses. It has been deemed more satis-
factory to adopt the above title, as it permits one to take into account zoological
work published in South Australia, whether it relates to our State or not. Except-
ing early references to our zoology, it excludes work relating to our fauna pub-
lished elsewhere. It thus indicates more particularly what part the local organisa-
tions have played in the publication of scientific information concerning the chosen
subject ; and it indicates especially the important part played by our Royal Society
in such work, The address is, then, largely concerned with the zoological activities
of our Society and of its parent, the Adelaide Philosophical Society. It also takes
into account the work of the various organisations which have directly or
indirectly arisen from it—such as the Field Naturalists’ Section, the South Aus-
tralian Museum, and the Ornithological Society.

The title is not quite correct, because by arrangement with the Council of
the Society, entomology has been excluded almost entirely and has already been
dealt with by a fellow-member. Anthropology has been excluded for a similar
reason, but animal (including human) physiology has been included, though only
very brief notice is given to this important portion of experimental zoology. It
has been difficult to draw the line when one has attempted to review the activities
of such a publication as the Australian Journal of Experimental Biology and
Medical Science, since Physiology, Serology, Pathology, and some aspects of
Biochemistry and Bacteriology may be interrelated. Palaeontology has been taken
into account in the case of Tertiary and Post-tertiary forms, which are chiefly
molluses, brachiopods, polyzoa, echinoids, corals, and foraminifera. The papers
relating to marsupials found in Post-tertiary deposits are mentioned.

Various short references and identifications of zoological interest, by Tate
and others, contained in the earlier volumes of our Transactions, are not con-
sidered in this address, nor are records and notes contained in the Abstract of |
Proceedings of the various meetings of our Society.

Though the State’s history did not begin until late in 1836, some of its zoology
was then already known, and brief references may now be made to some of these
early records, Flinders discovered Kangaroo Island in March 1802, and in his
account, “Voyage to Terra Australis,” published in 1814, he referred to the
abundance of kangaroos, some of which furnished fresh meat for his men, and
on that account he gave the island its present name, This animal is usually
regarded as Macropus (or Thylogale) eugeniu, which Desmarest described, in
1817, from a specimen taken on St. Peter Island, Nuyt’s Archipelago. Wood
Jones, though accepting and applying the name, thought the specific identity of
the wallabies from these two isolated insular localities, to be unlikely. Flinders,
in 1802, collected on Flinders Island, Investigator Group, specimens of a very
small wallaby, regarded by Wood Jones in 1924 as a distinct form, Thylogale

lit

flindersi. He reported the presence at one or more of the localities visited by
him—Fowler’s Bay, St. Peter Island (Nuyt’s Archipelago), Denial Bay, Thistle
Island, Port Lincoln district, Gulf St. Vincent, and Kangaroo Island—of the
following animals:—teal and other ducks, kangaroos, seals, emu or cassowary,
pelicans, pied shags, sea-eagle, gulls, sea pie (? Daption), snakes, rays, oysters
and winged freshwater insects. He recorded seeing the tracks of dogs (dingo,
probably) and of the emu or cassowary on the mainland (Fowler’s Bay). The
extraordinary tameness of kangaroos and seals on Kangaroo Island was regarded
as evidence that iC was uninhabited by man. He published an illustration of a
beach on the island near Kangaroo Head, showing seals of two different sizes,
several wallabies or kangaroos, and two emus.

Very soon after Flinders’ visit to these regions, which subsequently became
part of the colony of South Australia, Baudin, with the French ships “Gceographe”
and ‘“Naturaliste,” arrived at Kangaroo Island (which he renamed Ile Decrés) in
April, 1802; and again in January, 1803. Accompanying him as zoologist was
Peron, who made extensive collections during a month’s sojourn there, and wrote
an account of his experiences in his “Voyage de Decouvertes aux Terres Aus-
trales,” vol. ii (1816). Peron reported the occurrence on Kangaroo Island of
parrakcets, cockatoos, titmouse (with a collar of ultramarine blue), fly-catchers,
bullfinch (with red tail feathers), thrushes, golden-winged pigeons, owl, white
vulture, yellow-throated pelicans with black and white wings, terns, oyster
catchers, sea eagle, teal, Procellaria spp., and great flocks of emus. He referred
to the presence of two kinds of kangaroos, Dasyurus, hair and fur seals (Otaria),
and various lizards, and stated that Kangaroo Island had enriched his collection
by 336 different species of crustacea, spiders, Julus, centipedes, insects, worms
and zoophytes; there being 54 new species of insects in 33 different gencra,
26 species of sponges, two of scorpions, etc. Sotme of these organisms were
designated generically. Pina, the oyster, and Haliotis were also mentioned.
Fish were referred to and included Labrus, Scomber, Scombresox, Coryphaena,
barracouta, trumpet fish, Balistes, etc.; and he mentioned the abundance of a
large species of shark, 15 to 20 fcet in length, in Nepean Bay, where it probably
fed on seals. The collection was studied by various investigators, amongst whom
were Latreille (1817, insects), Dumeril and Bibron (reptiles) and Lamarck
(1818, molluscs). Mr. B, Cotton has shown me a specimen of a chiton, Ischno-
chiton lineolatus (Blainv.), now the property of the South Australian Museum,
bearing in Peron’s handwriting the locality “Ile King,” this shell being actually
on board when Baudin and Flinders (accompanied by the celebrated botanist,
Robert Brown) met on the French vessel, “Le Geographe,” in Encounter Hay,
April 8, 1802. This interesting and historic specimen was obtained through the
kind offices of Mons. Dupuis (formerly Conchologist at the Brussels Museum)
and of Mr. i”. Ashby, one of our members.

Peron recorded seeing numerous emus (“casoars”) and published an illustra-
tian showing a group of them. Baudin named a locality near Cape Borda, Ravine
de Casoars. Three living specimens of this small emu were taken to France and,
ultimately, two reached the Paris Museum, while the third, according to Giglioli
(“Nature,” May 31, 1900), is now in the Zoological Museum in Florence. The
species, which soon became extinct through the activities of the sealers and their
aboriginal consorts some years prior to the official settlement of the island in 1836
(according to Moore in 1924), was regarded as Dromaeus ater Vieillot. But this
term was really a renaming of 2), novdehollandiac, the larger form inhabiting the
mainland ; consequently, Rothschild in 1907 designated it D. peroni, and separated
it specifically from the small emus (also now extinct) which occurred on King
Island (D. minor Spencer, or D, spenceri Mathews) and in Tasmania (D.

wliti

diemensis LeSouef). The literature regarding the Kangaroo Island emu was
summarised by Howchin in 1926. Mathews, in 1912, suggested that D. peront
was generically distinct from the mainland form and erected Peronista to receive
it. It is represented in Australian collections by skeletal fragments taken mainly
from caves,

An American whaling vessel visited Kangaroo Island in 1803, and a few
sealers and escaped convicts took up their abode there soon afterwards, and
supplied salt, seal skins and kangaroo skins to small ships from Sydney and else-
where, which called there occasionally for cargo and fresh water. Captain Dillon,
in 1832, reported that he had visited Kangaroo Island in 1815, and had taken away
a cargo of seal skins, 500 from the island and 100 from Althorpe Island; he also
recorded the presence of abundance of kangaroos, emus and porcupines (7.e.,
Echidna), Captain G, Sutherland gave a brief report on his stay of about seven
months in the island in 1819, and mentioned the presence of abundant kangaroos
and emus, hair and fur seals, whales, porcupines, parrots, wild pigeons, black
swans, ducks, snakes, guanas (apparently Varanus), snapper, sharks, and oysters;
but his report was not published till 1831. Captain Goold was there in 1827 for
seals and recorded the presence of kangaroos and turtles resembling hawksbills.
Wootton visited the island in 1823 and referred to the kangaroos. Though sealing
played an important part in the early history of the island, a critical examination
of our seals was not undertaken until 1925, when Wood Jones endeavoured to
remove the confusion associated with their identification. Whaling operations
were carried on in the vicinity of Kangaroo Island by Pemberton as early as 1803.
Hudson (1832) recorded seeing numerous whales there and mentioned that 160
were observed in one day in Encounter Bay—chiefly the black whale (7.¢., Balaena
australis), but the sperm whale was also represented. Hamborg visited Port
Lincoln in May, 1832, and reported that whaling had been in operation during
the preceding three seasons (1.¢., 1829-31) and that the black whale was common,
but that sperm whales were rarely met with. Ie referred to the abundance of
seals and fish, mentioning amongst the latter, grey mullet, red mullet, soles,
mackerel, herrings, snapper, jewfish, salmon, trumpeters, parrot fish, rock cod,
and sting-ray; in addition to turtles, oysters, mussels and cockles. Hart visited
Kangaroo Island in 1831, and obtained 150 seal skins and 12,000 wallaby skins
from the islanders.

Sturt, in volume 2 of his work, “Two Expeditions into the Interior of
Southern Australia during 1828, 1831,” etc., published in 1833, referred
to the abundance of swans, pelicans, ducks and geese (p. 171), as well as cockles
(p. 170) in the Encounter Bay district, and also to a kind of salmon entering
Lake Alexandrina, apparently from the sea (p. 236). In an Appendix, he gave
a list of fossils (molluscs, echinoids and polyzoa) from the Murray cliffs. In an
Appendix to his later work, “Narrative of an Expedition into Central Australia,
1844-5-6” (vol. 2, 1849), he published a list of the “animals and birds of Central
Australia,” and referred to fossils, fish, etc.

In the “Hobart Town Gazette,” of June 12, 1826, there is an article on
“Kangaroo Island and the Runaways (i.¢., escaped convicts) in the Straits,” in
which reference is made to kangaroos, seals and scaling, cockatoos, etc. This
short account was republished by T. Gill in 1909, together with a letter dated
September 14, 1836, from one of the earliest of the new settlers on Kangaroo
Island, also referring to sealers and scaling, Fisher visited the island in 1836
and mentioned seeing parrots, black cockatoos, gulls, black snake, and periwinkles.

This State was founded as a British Province in 1836, and whaling stations
were established in Encounter Bay (1837), Sleaford Bay (1839), Thistle Island
(1839), and Hog Bay (1841). The difficulty of indicating a locality for many

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of the earlier-described South Australian animals is due to the former use of the
term “New Ilolland” for the eastern half of Australia, and of “South Australia”
for any locality along the southern coast of the continent. Then again, because
the Northern Territory was for so long a part of South Australia, and its main
collections were lodged in the Museum in Adelaide, some specimens from the
north of Australia came to be indicated as having been collected in South
Australia, :

W. H. Leigh, in “Reconnoitering Voyages and Travels in South Australia”
(London, 1840), mentioned various forms of animal life met with in Kangaroo
Island during his visit in 1837—opossum, kangaroo, wallaby, Norway rat (which
had overrun the island), birds (including mutton birds), guano (= goanna—his
account suggesting Varanus sp), snakes, ants, blowflies, spider, scorpion, cray-
fish and oysters. T. H. James, in ‘Six Months in South Australia” (London,
1838), mentioned seeing “sooty petrels” and “barnacle geese” at Petrel Bay, near
St, Francis Island, and stated that Port Lincoln was a resort for black whales
during June, July and August.

Capper, in 1838 and 1839, refcrred to many forms of animal life, mention-
ing the native dog, five kinds of kangaroos, two or three kinds of flying
squirrel, two opossums, bandicoot, emu, black swan, two or three kinds
of ducks, several pigeons, snipes, plovers, quails, wild turkey, parrots, cockatoos ;
also fish such as snappers, bream, mullet, whiting; rock and bed oysters, and
prawns. Whales were abundant. Various arthropods were also mentioned—
scorpions, centipedes, tarantulas, flies (stated to be very troublesome and
abundant), mosquitoes and locusts.

W. H. Selway, one of the oldest members, in his jubilee address to the
Field Naturalists’ Section of our Society, drew attention to the following ttem
of interest. J. Blacket, in his “History of South Australia,’ stated that in
December, 1838, there was formed, in Adelaide, the Natural History Society of
South Australia, the chief worker being an entomologist, C, A. Wilson, who con-
tributed under the pen-name of “Naturae amator” weekly notes on natural history
subjects to the “South Australian Register.”

Dr. Litchfield gave a lecture on the natural history of South Australia, and
this appeared in the local Press in 1839, being republished in London in 1840, He
referred to the outstanding characters of marsupials and mentioned the kangaroo,
Phascolomys, “potaro” (ie., rat kangaroo), “peramle” (2.¢., Perameles, bandi-
coot), “phalangers, Dasyurus or native dog |the description being apparently that
of the Tasmanian wolf and not the dingo], vulture, cream-bellied falcon, orange-
speckled hawk, milk-white hawk, owls (his description applying to the boobook
owl), parrots, cockatoos, paraquets, cassowary or emu, black swan, heron, wild
turkey, bronzewing pigeon, enormous whales, seals, dolphins, sea serpents, huge
cuttle fish, and Nautilus.”

On November 26, 1839, there was exhibited at a meeting of the Zoological
Society of London (P.Z.S., 1839, 172) a collection of marine specimens
from Kangaroo Island, forwarded by Dr. J. B. Harvey, In the following year
the latter (1841) wrote “A Sketch of the Natural History of Port Lincoln” in
the South Australian Magazine, vol. 1, and referred to various mammals
generically as Sorex, Mustela, Nasira (apparently meant for Nasua), Myorus
(all of these obviously in error); and to others as Phascolomys, Macropus,
Dasyurus, etc.; also to three species of Phoca, two of them being hair seals and
one a fur seal; and to various Cetaceans (Delphinus, Physeter, Balaena, Grampus,
finback, and thresher). The house mouse, Mus musculus, and the brown rat,
Mus decumanus, were stated to occur there. The wild dog (ie., dingo) was
referred to as Hyaena viatica, These various identifications were reviewed in
1909 by Zietz.

aly

In addition to Harvey’s article, several others of a zoological nature appeared
in the South Australian Magazine, vols. 1 (1841-2) and 2 (1842). There is a
review of Gould’s Birds of Australia, Part 1 (1841) and his descriptions of two
South Australian birds, Trichoglossus porplyriocephalus and Pedionomus
torquatus, are republished. Hart referred incidentally to the whale fishery at
Encounter Bay. Bentham described Port Lincoln and its neighbourhood, referring
to the oysters; the abundance of Cape geese (i.e., Cape Barren geese), kangaroos,
wild ducks and seals; the mutton birds (z.e., Puffinus spp.), whose eggs were used
as food; and the prevalence of whales and whalers (1841). Wilson, under the
name “Naturae amator,” published a series of “Notes on the Natural History of
South Australia’; Nos. 1 and 2 in 1841 and Nos. 3 to 7 in 1842, but most of them
dealt with insects, the remainder referring to native birds, seashore shells, whales
and porpoises. As already mentioned, Wilson contributed a number of articles
on the local entomology to “The South Australian Register” in 1841. This active
entomologist published in the “Farm and Garden” (an Adelaide monthly) vols.
ii to v (1859 to 1863), a number of articles on injurious insects; and in Proc. Ent.
Soc., London, 1864, “Notes on the Entomology of South Australia.”

In the Adelaide Miscellany, vol. i (1848), Davis published three entomological
articles, and in vol. 1 (1849) others dealing with snakes, fish and scashore
molluses, as well as a “Naturalist’s Calendar,” giving the date of appearance of
various birds, insects and blossoms.

In 1845 there appeared Eyre’s “Journal of Expeditions of Discovery into
Central Australia, etc., 1840-41.” Tt contained appendices (vol. 1) by Gray deal-
ing with a bat, reptiles, frog, crayfish, a mollusc and a Spatangoid; Richardson
on fish; White on insects; Gould on birds; and Doubleday on Lepidoptera,

In 1846, G. R. Waterhouse published his “(Natural History of Mammalia,”
vol. i, “Marsupiata,” and in it referred to various South Australian species,
including Macropus fuliginosus (Desmarest, 1820), whose locality is quoted (?)
Kangaroo Island; Lagorchestes leporoides, described by Gould (P.Z.S., 1840)
from the plains of the Lower Murray (South Australia), and Macropus greyi
Gray (List of Mammals Brit. Mus., 1843), based on a specimen sent by
Governor Grey. In 1847 Angas published figures of local kangaroos and insects
in his “South Australia [ustrated.”

Francis wrote a series of articles on Australian mammals and birds in “The
Farm and Field,” vols. iv and v, published in Adelaide, 1861-1863. Gould
referred to some South Australian birds in his great Monograph (1848) and
Handbook (1865), and to some mammals in his work on the “Mammals of
Australia” (1863). Ile had previously described marsupials in 1840, and a
rodent (Leporillus apicalis) in 1851. Krefft dealt with some vertebrates from the
Lower Murray in Tr. Phil. Soc., N.S.W., 1865; and with our snakes in his book
“On oF Snakes of Australia” (1869). Sclater referred to some of our mammals
in 1865. '

An account of McDouall Stuart’s ‘Explorations across the Continent of
Australia, 1861--2,” was published in Melbourne in 1863; and his “Explorations
in Australia . . .” (1858 to 1862), published in London in 1864. ‘The latter
work contains appendices by Gould on the birds (the account appearing also in
P.Z.S., 1861) ; Angas and Adams on Molluscs (also in P.Z.S., 1863) ; and Pfeiffer
on a land snail. A report by F. G. Waterhouse on the fauna and flora of the
region traversed by the expedition appeared as a South Australian Parliamentary
Paper in 1863.

Angas published a number of papers relating to South Australian mollusca
in P.Z.S., 1865, 1868, 1871, 1873, 1875, 1876, 1877 and 1878; Baird referred to
some of our polychaetes in his papers in the Jour. Linn, Soc. (Zool.), London,
1864-1870; Milne-Edwards to Crustacea in 1840; C. S. Bate to amphipods in

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1862; Duncan to Tertiary corals and echinoderms (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1864,
1865, and Q. J. Geol. Soc., 1877); Laube to Tertiary echinoids (S.B. Akad.,
Wien, 1869). Parker and Jones wrote on Foraminifera from the Mount Gambier
Polyzoal limestones (Q.J., Geol. Soc., 1860); Tenison Woods on various Ter-
tiary deposits (T. Phil. Inst. Vict., 1859; Q.J., Geol. Soc., 1860; T.R.S., Vict.,
1865), molluscs (T.R.S., Vict., 1877), Polyzoa (J.R.S., N.S.W., 1877), Echinoids
(P.L.S., N.S.W., 1877), and Corals (P.L.S., N.S.W., 1878); Busk on Polyzoa
from Mount Gambier (1860); Etheridge on our Tertiary Brachiopods (Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist., 1876), Post-tertiary Foraminifera and Ostracoda (Geol, Mag.,
1876), as well as Tertiary Polyzoa (J.R.S., N.S.W., 1877); Gray on lizards
(1867); Cox on land shells (1868), and on Volutes (1872); and Brazier on
molluscs (1872, 1875).

Waterhouse’s “Classified Catalogue of mammals and birds met with in South
Australia” appeared in W. Harcus’ “South Australia” in 1876. Castelnau
described many of our fishes in Pr. Zool. Acclim. Soc., Victoria, vols. 1 (1872)
and ii (1873). Andrews contributed a report on the fauna, fossils, etc., of
Lewis’s Exploring Expedition (appearing as a S.A. Parliamentary Paper in 1876) ;
and published a series of ten articles entitled ‘‘Notes on the Zoology of South
Australia” in the South Australian Chronicle (1877). Tate wrote on our Ter-
tiary Belmnites (Q.J., Geol. Soc., 1877) and our Tertiary Ostracods and Foram-
inifera (Geol. Mag., 1877).

These dates bring us forward to the time when the Royal Society of South
Australia began its career, but it would now be advisable to consider the contribu-
tions to zoological knowledge made through its predecessor, the Adelaide Philo-
sophical Society, which was founded in January, 1853. Its first Report (January,
1854) stated that “matters directly relating to the natural history of the colony
have been the subject of occasional discussions at the meetings . . . Intimately
connected . . . is the formation of a Museum for the preservation of specimens
illustrative of the natural history of the colony.” Of the ten papers read in 1853
and published in abstract, three were zoological—one by Hammond dealing with
the structure and uses of the hand; one by Wilson on the saltatorial motions of
animals; and one by Bompas on the nervous system of invertebrates. Of the
nine papers abstracted in the second Report (January, 1855), three were zoo-
logical—by Wilson, on the saltatorial power of animals (Part 2); by Gosse, on
respiration; and by Bompas on the circulation of blood. The third Report (1856)
stated that the Council had most unwillingly been forced to decline natural history
specimens because of the delay in establishing a Public Institute on account of
the financial state of the Colony. Two of the nine papers abstracted were—one
by Davis on human spontaneous combustion; and one by Little on the supposed
footprints of a gigantic saurian. ‘The fourth Report (1857) referred to the estab-
lishment of the South Australian Institute and contained abstracts of two zoo-
lagical papers—both by Wilson, one dealing with the raptorial power of animals,
and the other with wood boring insects of the State. In the fifth Report (1858)
referetice was made again to the need for a Museum, and the hope was expressed
that the governors of the South Australian Institute would obtain parliamentary
authority to proceed with its establishment. The report contained an abstract of
two papers on mesmerism. Reports from the seventh to the eleventh, inclusive,
are not available to me, and it seems probable that these were not published; but
in 1862 Francis read before the Society a paper on the acclimatisation of plants
and animals, this being published in the same year. The twelfth Report (1865)
mentioned the titles of several zoological papers read, but of the nine published
three, written by Tenison Woods, were zoological and dealt with the molluscs
atid brachiopods of the Tertiary rocks of the State; while the next Report (1866)
included a paper on the Tertiary echinoids, by the same author. In the fourteenth

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Report (1867) there is a short paper by Waterhouse on Stylops; while the
fifteenth (1869) and sixteenth (1870) contain no articles of zoological interest.
The seventeenth (1871) included a paper by Lloyd on the camel in South Aus-
tralia; and two papers relating to silkworm culture, one by Reed, and the other
by Schomburgk. ‘The eighteenth Report (1872) covered the work of two years
(1871, 1872) and included a paper by Rutt om the flight of birds, considered with
reference to aerial navigation; and one by the Chief Justice, Sir R, Hanson, on
the theory of evolution.

As far as known to me, the Philosophical Society did not add much original
research work in Zoology apart from that of Tenison Woods. It was the appoint-
meut of Ralph Tate to the newly-established chair of Natural Science in the
University of Adelaide, which led to the founding of the Royal Society on the
foundation of the moribund Philosophical Society, and to a greatly awakened
interest in scientific research.

Tate was especially interested in Botany and in the Mollusca, and also devoted
much attention to Geology and Palaeontology. He was elected to be the first
President of the reorganised Philosophical Society, which two years later altered
its natne to Royal Society, and his presidential address was of a very high order
and appears as the first paper in our Transactions. That address referred, in part,
to Australian Zoology generally, but made special reference to South Australia
where possible, mentioning Waterhouse’s Classified Catalogue of our mammals
and birds (1876) Krefft’s book on Australian snakes (1869); Angas’ list of all
known South Australian species of marine mollusca (1865); Bednall’s list of our
marine shells (1874) ; as well as others. The various groups of our insects were
also reviewed, ‘Tate’s address made an excellent beginning for the new publica-
tion and set a very high standard, which was reflected in the other papers which
comprise Volume I of our Transactions. Tate also took a leading part in found-
ing the Field Naturalists’ Section of our Society.

The other name which stands in the forefront of scientific activity on the
zoological side in South Australia is that of Sir Joseph Verco, a pillar and
benefactor of our Society, and for eighteen consecutive years its active President.
His obituary notice appears in our volume for 1933. To him we owe largely our
endowment fund, which has been of such assistance to the Society in publishing
scientific work, Verco was himself an ardent worker in Conchology, especially
after Tate’s death, and carried out extensive dredging along the continental shelf
from Beachport to Fremantle, his material (other than molluscs) being distributed
to other investigators for study and report. His work on behalf of our Society
was recognised by the institution of the Verco Medal for Research. He took a
very important part in the medical life and in medical education in this State,
and by his generous gift to the University of Adelaide was instrumental in placing
on a sound financial footing the Australian Journal of Experimental Biology and
Medical Science. This serial, issued in four parts annually by the University,
is an avenue for the publication of high-class papers on experimental work in
physiology, zoology, botany, bacteriology, etc.

Tt is not proposed to enter into any detail regarding the various zoological
papers appearing in our Transactions, but rather to group them and to indicate
after the author’s names the years (in abbreviated form) in which the volumes
containing their contributions appeared. This arrangement will provide ready
reference to the papers dealing with any particular group of organisms. Figures
in parenthesis following the year indicate the number of papers on the subject
published by the author in our volume in that year,

The Presidential Addresses appearing in our Transactions and having a
definitely zoological interest are those given by Tate (78, 80, 95), Stirling (90,

xlotit

on Weissmann’s theory of heredity), Rennie (03, on the Fisheries of Australia),
and Howchin (97, on Foraminifera).

As would be expected, the mammalia have received considerable attention.
Stirling published a number of papers relating to the marsupial mole, Notoryctes
typhlops [89, 91 (2), 94]; while Wilson (94) and Elliot Smith (95) described
the myology and brain, respectively. Wood Jones contributed a series of short
papers dealing with the external features of the pouch embryos of marsupials
[20, 21, 22, 23 (3), 24 (2)], as well as many others relating to the morphology
and classification of marsupials, rodents, seals, dingo, ete, [21, 22, 23, 24 (2), 25,
27]. Finlayson has taken up the study of the Australian mammalian fauna and
has published a number of papers on structure and especially habits |27, 30 (2),
31 (2), 32 (2), 33 (3), 34, 35 (2)]. His rediscovery of the long-lost
Caloprymnus campestris Gould, is noteworthy (31, 32). Other contributors are
Zietz (90, List of South Australian Cetacea; 92, List of our wallabies and kan-
garoos; 06), Stirling (99, Phascolonus), Stirling and Zietz (93, Elder Expedi-
tion, mammals), Haacke (84), and Waite (14, 15, 17).

Information regarding birds was published by Stirling and Zietz [93, Elder
Expedition; 96 (2), fossil Struthious bird from Lake Callabonna], Zietz (00,
11), White (14, 15, 17), Morgan (97, 98), North (98), Hall (00), Andrews
[83 (2)], Ashby (01, 29), Cleland (23), and Wood Jones (26). Lea examined
the stomach contents of birds (14, 15, 17, 23) and his work has been continued
by Gray, but the results have been published in the “Emu.”

Reptiles have received attention from Zietz [88 (2), 99, 14, 15, 17], Stirling
and Zietz (93), Stirling (12), Tepper (82), Proctor (23), and Waite (97, 14,
15, 17, 23, 27). Waite wrote on amphibians (14, 27). Papers dealing with fish
were published by Zietz [02, 08 (3), 09], Waite (14, 15, 16, 23), and McCulloch
and Waite [15 (2), 16, 17]; while Rennie (1903) discussed Australian fisherics.
The only paper on Tunicata is that by Whittell (83),

The Mollusca have received a great deal of space in our Transactions—due
largely to the energy and particular interest of Tate, Verco and Ashby. The
following list includes papers on Tertiary as well as Recent molluscs, and in some
casts Brachiopoda are also included. Tate’s contributions number about 43, dis-
tributed between 1878 and 1900. They were published as follows :—78 (2), 79,
80 (3), 81, 82 (2), 86, 87 (5), 88, 89 (4), 90, 91 (2), 92 (2), 93 (3), 94 (3),
95, 98 (3), 99 (5), 00 (2). Tate and May (00). Verco’s twenty-four papers
on Mollusca appeared in 95 (2), 96, 04, 05, 06 (2), 07 (3), 08 (2), 09 (3), 10,
11 (2), 12 (3), 13 (2), 18. Ashby published twenty-six papers on the
Polyplacophora (Loricata) in our volumes, as follows :—00, 18 (3), 19 (3),
20 (3), 21 (2), 22 (2), 23 (4), 24 (3), 26, 28 (2), 29, 30, as well as one in
collaboration with Torr (98). Torr also published papers on the same group in
1911 and 1912. Other papers on Mollusca were those of Dennant (89, 94),
Matthews (14), Riddle (15, 20), Woods (31), Bednall (78, 86, 93), Brazier (87),
Cossmann (97), Torr (14), Basedow (02, 05), Basedow and Hedley (05),
Hedley (05), and Maughan (00—on chitons).

Brachiopods received attention from Tate (80, 86, 87), Dennant (89), and
Verco (10), The Polyzoa (Bryozoa) were studied by Tenison Woods (80),
MacGillivray (89, 90), and Stach (36).

The arthropods occupy a preponderating part of our Transactions, largely
because of the work of such entomologists as Blackburn, Lea, Tepper, Lower,
Turner and many others, but these have been dealt with by Dr. Davidson (1936)
in his address. There are no papers in our voltines dealing with Myriapoda;
only one on scorpions (Glauert, 25); five on acarincs—Planks (16), Holdaway
(26), Hirst (29) and Womersley [33 (2)]+ and six on spiders—Hogge (10),
Rainbow (15, 17) and Pulleine (14, 19, 22), The lower Crustacea have received

awlix

no attention in our Transactions, except in part of a paper by Chilton (17). The
higher forms have been studied more especially by Baker and by Hale. Baker’s
papers appeared in 04, 05 (2), 06, 07, 08, 10, 11, 13, 14, 26 and 28: and those of
Hale in 24 (2), 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 (2). Other contributions are those of Zietz
(88), Tate (83), Rathbun (29), and Chilton [17 (2), 22 (2)).

The Annulata received little attention in our volumes, there being two papers
on Hirudinea, viz: by Leigh Sharpe (16) and Mrs, Best (31) ; and one on Poly-
chaeta by Ashworth (16).

Helminthology was responsible for several papers, as follows :—Haematozoa
of birds, by Cleland and Johnston (10), and by Cleland (15); Linguatula by
Johnston (10), Trematoda by Johnston (27, 29, 34) ; Cestoda by Davies Thomas
(83, hydatid disease), and Johnston (35) ; parasitic Nematoda by Johnston (21,
36), and Bull (19); Acanthocephala by Johnston and Deland [29 (2)]. The
various endoparasites of Trachysaurus were discussed by Johnston (32). The
life-history of the nematode, Habronema, was studied experimentally by Bull
(19). Cleland (22) published a list of ecto- and endoparasites recorded from
Australian birds.

The Echinodermata have formed the subject of papers by Tenison Woods
(79, Echinoids), Tate (82, 91, 92, Echinoids), Joshua and Creed (15, Holothu-
rians), and Mortensen (29, Echinoids)..

The Coelenterata, apart from Corals, have not received attention in our
Transactions. The chief worker was Dennant, who published between 1899 and
1906 his papers on Tertiary and recent corals—99 (2), 01, 02 (2), 03, 04 (2), 06.
Others were Tenison Woods (78, 80), Tate (78), and Howchin (09), the last-
named giving a bibliography for each of the twenty-four recent species recorded
as occurring in South Australian waters. The Porifera are not represented by
any papers in our volumes.

The Protozoa, apart from the Foraminifera and a few parasitic species, have
also failed to secure representation. The Foraminifera have been specially studied
by Howchin whose papers relate chiefly to Tertiary and Post-tertiary forms, but
one of them deals with the estuarine species identified from the Port River (90).
Howchin’s papers were published in 86, 89, 90, 91 (2), 92, 93, 95 (2), 97, 99,
and 15. Schlumberger contributed one in 1891. The parasitic protozoa are
represented in papers on Haematozoa of birds, by Cleland and Johnston (10),
and by Cleland (15); and on the protozoon entozoa of the stumpy-tailed lizard,
Trachysaurus, by Johnston (32).

Ecological papers, based on entomological problems, have been published by
Johnston (23, 26) and Davidson [34 (2), 35, 36]; Tiegs (22) contributed an
excellent account of the embryology of an insect.

Amongst miscellaneous papers which might be classed satisfactorily under
animal physiology, are those by Tiegs [22, 23 (2)]; and Robertson (05) on
muscular action ; Cleland on blood grouping (27) and on the sizes of the red blood
cells of Australian vertebrates (15); and Robertson (20) on the physiology of
the fly’s intestine. The last-named author also published, in 1910, an address on
recent experiments in chemical fertilization of animal eggs.

Zoological reports relating to the Elder Expedition appeared in 1892-96.
Those of Captain White’s Expedition to Central Australia to the east of the
present railway to Alice Springs (1914), White's Expedition (with R. L. Jack)
to the Musgrave and Everard Ranges (1915), and the South Australian Museum’s
Expedition (under Waite) to the east of lake Eyre (1917) appeared in the
volumes indicated by the dates mentioned, The fauna of the Nuyts and Investi-
gator Groups has been studied by Wood Jones and colleagues (19-23). Tate
investigated the natural history of the region around the head of the Great Aus-
tralian Bight (1879), and of Kangaroo Island (1883).

I

The Memoirs of our Society contain important papers dealing with fossil
animals from Lake Callabonna:—Stirling and Zietz on Diprotodon (99), Phas-
colomys or Phascolonus (13) and Genyornis (00, 05, 13). Cretaceous molluscs
and brachiopods were reported on by Etheridge (02) ; and the Cambrian Archaeo-
cyathinae by Taylor (10).

The Records of the South Australian Museum appeared first in 1918 and
contain many zoological articles, but in the following account those on Entomology
are omitted.

Cetacea were responsible for reports by Waite (19, 26, 22) and Hale [31 (3),
32]. Wood Jones contributed papers on rabbit bandicoots (23), jerboa mice (25)
and the eared seals (25). Reptiles received attention from Waite [18 (2), 25].
Waite and Longman (20), Zictz (20), and Kinghorn (35), the last-named referr-
ing also to Amphibia (35). Fish were described or recorded by Waite [21 (2),
22 (2), 24, 27], McCulloch and Waite [18 (2)], Whitley (35), and Hale (35).
One of Waite’s papers is a very important onc, being an illustrated catalogue of
South Australian fish, this report becoming the basis of his Handbook on our
Fishes, published later for the British Science Guild.

The Crustacea are represented in papers by Hale [24, 25, 28, 31, 32, 36 (2)],
Baker (26), Tattersall (27, 28), and Sheard [36 (3)|. Rainbow (2) contributed
a paper on spiders; atid Womersley two on Acarina (34, 35).

The various groups of Mollusca are responsible for many papers :—Verco
(22, 24), Verco and Cotton (28), Berry (21), Ashby and Cotton (35, 36),
Cotton [30 (3), 31, 32, 34, 35, 36 (2)], Cotton and Woods (33, 35), Howchin
and Whitehouse (28, Crioceras).

Other phyla represented are the Echinodermata by an important paper by
Lyman Clark on Crinoids, Asteroids, Ophiuroids, and Echinoids (28); the
Bryozoa, by Livingstone (28) ; and the Trematoda by Johnston (28).

Crawford published a number of short entomological articles in “Garden
and Field,” vols. vi to xi, as well as in P.R. Agr. Hort. Soc. S. Aust., 1881-1884.
In the latter journal there were also articles written by him on car-cockle of wheat,
due to the Nematode, Anguillula tritici (1881) ; and on the Mite, Phytoptus pyri
(1882).

The Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science held three
meetings in Adelaide—in 1893, 1907 and 1924, the respective volumes being
published there in 1894 (vol. v), 1908 (vol. xi) and 1926 (vol. xvii). They all
contain papers of zoological interest. The volume for 1893 includes two papers
by Howchin on fossil Foraminifera, one of them being a census of those known
from Australia, the list beng composed mainly of species from the Tertiary and
Post-tertiary. Both Hedley and Blackburn dealt with aspects of the distribution
of the Australian fauna; Campbell gave an account of the eggs of Australian
Charadriid birds; and Dendy contributed a short paper on the land Planarians of
Tasmania and South Australia. Barnard and Park drew attention to worm
tumours, due to Spiroptera (now known as Onchocerca gibsoni), occurring in
Queensland cattle. The presidential address to the Biology Section was given by
De Vis and entitled “Life.” Tn the Handbook issued in Adelaide in connection
with this meeting, Waterhouse published (1893) “The Fauna of South Australia,”
which was a list of the mammals and birds.

The report for 1907 includes a paper by Hedley and Taylor dealing with
Queensland Coral Reefs, and one by the latter on the Archaeocyathinae. Brails-
ford Robertson gave an account of recent advances in our knowledge of protein
salts and of their role in biological phenomena. Berry described a teratological
lamb and offered a developmental explanation of the monstrosity. Cleland made

hi

remarks on the natural history and diseases of rats from the vicinity of Perth
and Fremantle, The presidential address by Maiden to the Biology Section,
though not concerned with Zoology, may be mentioned because it is of special
interest to this State; it was entitled “A Century of Botanical Endeavour in
South Australia.”

The volume for 1924 contains a presidential address by Agar on some
problems of evolution and genetics; a paper by Chapman and Crespin dealing
with Miocene fossils (chiefly Mollusca) from Western Australia; an entomological
one by Froggatt ; one by Longman on the uniqueness of the Australian fossil mar-
supials; and one by Ashby dealing with the regional distribution of Australian
chitons, The Handbook published in Adelaide for the use of members at this
Adelaide meeting (1924) contains brief articles on the marsupials by Wood Jones ;
reptiles and batrachians by Waite; birds by Morgan; insects by Lea; marine
fauna and fishes by Waite; Crustacea by Hale; and Mollusca by Verco.

The Field Naturalists’ Section of our Society was founded in 1883, largely
through the influence of Tate, who became its first Chairman, with Whittell and
Howchin as the two Vice-chairmen. In 1919 the South Australian Naturalist
began its career. The history of the Section during the first fifty years of its
existence was published in it (1933) by W. Selway, one of the few surviving
members. As one might expect, the scope of the publication zoologically is largely
limited to local notes and observations, and consequently most of the articles
appearing in it do not call for comment in an address like the present one, but
there are a few which should be mentioned. Hale, Brenn, Elston, Tindale,
Holdaway and others contributed papers on entomological subjects; Hale on
Crustacea (25, 30); Blewett on fish (29); Hale and Blewett on the parasitic
infusorian, Ichthyophthirius (31); Walton on Mollusca from Outer Harbour
—an ecological paper (24); Trigg (Shell Collectors’ Club) on Mollusca (1926,
etc.) ; Cotton on Mollusca (31, 33, 34) ; and especially Cotton and Godfrey who
published, between 1931 and 1935, a series of fifteen well-illustrated articles con-
taining descriptions of South Australian shells, Vhe forthcoming booklet, to be
issued by the Section, on the fauna and flora of the National Park, Belair, contains
brief reference to its animal life.

The South Australian Ornithologist commenced publication in 1914. It
contains numerous papers, most of them short, and many of them giving lists of
birds seen in various districts. As one would expect, the volumes consist largely
of observations on bird life, but there are occasional papers by Morgan (1932, etc.)
which contain some physiological or anatomical data. A few papers call for special
notice. Amongst these are Sutton’s List of South Australian Birds (23);
Ilowchin’s (26) interesting survey of the literature relating to the extinct emu of
Kangaroo Island; Parsons’ article on the flight of birds (30); McGilp’s account
of South Australian hawks (34); Condon’s identification of the albatrosses
collected from our coasts (36); and Wood Jones’ record of the breeding of
Puffinus gravis in Tasmania (36).

The Medical and Scientific Archives of the Adelaide Hospital, volumes 1 to
xv, published annually between 1922 and 1936, all contain one or more papers
relating to cases of hydatid disease met with in that institution.

The pages of the Australian Journal of Experimental Biology and Medical
Science are occupied mainly by papers on some phase of Animal Physiology, but
other phases of Zoology are also represented. Papers have been published relat-
ing to parasitic Protozoa by Turner and Murnane [30 (2), trypanosomes; 32,
Giardia]; Rickettsiatike bodies by Gordon (33); Piroplasmosis by Legg (26);

lit

cytology of certain Infusoria by Horning [25, 26 (2), 27 (3), 28, 29]; growth
of Infusoria in certain culture media by Robertson [24 (2), 25,27]. The presence
of Golgi bodics in Hydra was reported by Horning (28). Helminthology is
represented by papers on Trematoda by Johnston [30 (2), 31, 34], and Kellaway
(28, anaphylaxis and Fasciola extracts); on Cestoda by Johnston (31), Clunies
Ross (27 Hydatid toxicity), Cameron (26, Hydatid enzymes), Kellaway and
Williams (24, 28, Hydatid antigens); on Nematoda by Walker (24, Filarial life
history), Fielding (26, 27, 28, Oayspirura life history), Heydon (27, Onchocerca),
Woodruff (27, Onchocerca), Clunies Ross (31, Haemonchus), and Gordon
(33, Trichostrongyles). Ecological studies based on certain insects were pub-
lished by Davidson [31 (2), 32, 33 (2)]. Sex ratio in certain insects was dis-
cussed by Holdaway and Smith (32, 33); and sex determination in Thrips, by
Davidson and Bald (31). Mutation was observed in Lucilia by MacKerras (33).
Australian snakes or their venoms were studied by Kellaway either alone or in
collaboration with other workers [29 (2), 30, 31, 32 (4), 33 (2), 34 (2), 35,
36], by Holden (32, 33, 34, 35, 36), and by Thomson (30). Kellaway also
investigated poisoning by mussels (35) and (with LeMessurier) the venom of
the platypus (35). Duhig and Jones (28) dealt with the venom of a fish,
Synanceia, Agar contributed a paper on experimental behaviour in some
acarines and crustaceans (25), and also a review of the experiments relating to
the inheritance of acquired characters (32). Papers on cytology were published
by Horning [25, 26, 27 (3), 28, 29, 30], and Bourne (35); on tissue culture by
Horning and his colleagues [29 (3)], and by Bourne (35) ; and on transplantation
of tissues of chick embryos by Murray (28), and by Selby and Murray (28).
Certain aspects of the physiology of aquatic organisms were studied by Dakin and
Edmonds (31). Cleland dealt with blood grouping (26, 30).

Papers relating to some aspect of animal (including human) physiology,
published by the following investigators singly or in collaboration with others,
have appeared in the Journal. Anderson (24), Arden [34 (2)], Bollinger (32,
34, 35), Bourne [30, 34, 35 (4), 36], Cameron and Amies (26), Coates and
Tiegs (28, 30, 31), Cotton [28 (2), 31, 32 (3), 35], Cox and Hicks [33 (3)],
Dunn (33), Dawbarn [24, 28, 29, 32 (2)], Dickinson and Bull (31), Faul and
Osborne (36), Freeman (34), Gay (32), Harker and Moppett (36), Hicks (26,
27, 31, 35), Hicks and colleagues [26, 31 32 (2), 33 (2), 34 (2), 35 (2)], [ind-
marsh (27), Holden and others [28 (2), 32, 33 (2), 35], Horning (25), Hunter
and Royle (24), Kellaway and colleagues [25 (2), 27], Lennox (35), Lines (32),
Loeb (32), MacCallum (32), McLeod (32), Matters and others [29 (2), 34 (2)],
Marston [32 (2)], Mitchell (24, 31, 36), Nord (36), Norris and others (29, 30),
Osborne [24, 26, 28, 29, 30 (2), 31], Pierce (34), Robertson [26 (2), 28 (2),
29], Robertson and others [25 (2), 27, 29, 32, 33 (3), 34] Shaw [35 (2), Splatt
(27), Thomas (33), Tiegs [24 (3), 25 (2), 26 (4), 27 (3), 29, 30, 32, 341,
Underwood and Shier (36), Wardlaw and others [26, 28, 32 (2), 34, 35],
Watson [33 (3)], Whetham (27), and Woollard (32). Papers which seem to
be essentially biochemical have been omitted.

Experimental pathology is represented by papers hy Albiston (27), Burnet
(28), Hill (28), Kneebone and Cleland (26), Platt (36), and Turner (35).

The Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, South
Australian Branch, contain a number of papers of greater or less zoological
interest, and these may be indicated thus:—Phillipson (95, Camel in Australia),
Reed [40 (2), Occonography, but the papers do not refer to Australian condi-
tions], Dobbie (07, Coral islands and reefs), Mellor (09, Birds), Etheridge (18,
Fossils, chiefly Brachiopoda), Hedley (18, Molluscs), Rainbow (18, Insects and
arachnids), McCulloch (18, Fish and Crustacea), Briggs (18, Corals and

litt

Polyzoa)—the last five authors dealing with material collected by Basedow in
North-west Australia; Mawson (21, Fauna of Macquarie Island), Mrs. Bates
(21, Animal Life at Ooldea), Newland (23, Whaling at Encounter Bay), White
(24, Birds of the Finke River), Hodge (32, Whaling at Encounter Bay). Gill
(1909) contributed an interesting article in vol. x on his visit to historic localities
in the vicinity of the entrances to our two great Gulfs. In it he republished
information from Flinders’ and Peron’s accounts, as well as from various authors,
including Harvey’s sketch of the natural history of Port Lincoln (1841), Zietz
adding comments on the identifications. Moore, in 1924, published “Notes on
the Early Settlers in South Australia Prior to 1836,” and included many references
to early sealers and whalers who visited Kangaroo Island and the adjacent regions
from 1803 onwards.

The volumes of the Journal of the Department of Agriculture of South
Australia, i to xxxix (1897 to 1936) have been searched and the following papers
(after excluding those dealing with entomology) may be noted because of their
zoological interest:—On Sarcosporidiosis, by Place (17); bee disease (due to
Nosema), by de Crespigny and Bull (13); plant parasitic Nematoda, by Editor
(97, 99), Spafford (22), Davidson (30), Hickinbotham (30), and Garrett (34) ;
endoparasites (chiefly Nematodes) affecting domesticated animals and stock, by
Desmond [05 (2)], Place (12, 15, 18), Murray-Jones (14), Robin (26, 29), and
McKenna (26, 33) ; Nematodes from fowls, by Laurie (10); Acarida, by Laurie
(99, 13), Johnson (30), Lea (12), and Swan [34 (2)]; a series of illustrated
articles on insectivorous birds, by Edquist (13); report on the distribution, migra-
tory movement and control of starlings in South Australia, by Kinghorn (33) ;
and on the pathology of the condition in eggs known as floating yolk, by Anderson
and Platt (36).

The series of Handbooks of the Flora and Fauna of South Australia, issued
by the Ilandbooks Committee of the British Science Guild (South Australian
Branch) and published by the Government of this State, occupy a very important
place in the record of local biological work. The various authors have prepared
the manuscripts for these handbooks gratuitously, the Government setting aside a
sum each year to allow of their printing and publishing by the Government
Printer. Hence these books have been made available to the public at a very low
cost. The committee controlling the preparation of these excellently illustrated
books is a small one and its members (J. B. Cleland, J. M. Black, H. M, Hale
(Editor), and T. Harvey Johnston) are all actively associated with our Royal
Society.

Wood Jones dealt with the Mammals of this State, in a work issued in three
parts, in 1923, 1924 and 1925, respectively, the whole account being authoritatively
and interestingly written. Waite contributed the volume on fishes (1923), and
(posthumously) that on reptiles and amphibia (1929). The higher crustacea have
been handled in an excellent manner by Hale, whose account appeared in two
parts (1927, 1929). All these works are amply illustrated and have appealed to
a wide public. Other zoological handbooks are in active preparation.

The history of events leading up to the reservation, under the title of Flinders
Chase, of a large tract of territory in the western portion of Kangaroo Island, as
a sanctuary for the fauna and flora, was published in 1920 by 5. Dixon.

The First Intercolonial Medical Congress of Australia (1887) held its meet-
ing in Adelaide. Its transactions appeared in 1888 and contain a paper on
Echinococcits of the brain, by Davies Thomas; and one by Creed on fear as a
factor in producing many of the alarming symptoms following the bite of Aus-
tralian snakes. The Congress met again in Adelaide in 1905 for its Seventh

liv

Meeting, its publication (1906) being styled The Transactions of the Australasian
Medical Congress. It contains the following papers:—By MacCormick and Hill
on a larval cestode (Sparganum) from a human being ; by MacCormick on cerebral
hydatids ; by Johnson on Trypanosomiasis; and by Tidswell and Flashman on the
etiology of dysentery, amoebic dysentery being discussed in it.

Some of the earlier biological reports of the Australasian Antarctic Expedi-
tion of 1911-1914 were published in Adelaide. They include those on the Fishes
by Waite (1916), and Mollusca by Hedley (1916). It is expected that several
reports, now in the press and dealing with zoological collections made by the
British, Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Expedition of 1929-1931, will be
published in Adelaide during the present year (1936). ‘hey are those on the
Birds by Falla; Loricata by Cotton, Collembola by Womersley; Coleoptera by
Womersley; Brachiopoda by Cotton; Diptera by Womersley; Cumacea and
Phyllocarida by Hale; Sundry Insecta by Womersley; and List of biological
stations by Johnston.

Hodge, in his book on “Encounter Bay” (1932), devotes a chapter to early
whaling in that district (1803-1851), and in another part refers to some of its
birds, fish and larger crustacea.

In 1935 there was published in Adelaide “Combing the Southern Seas,” by
the late Sir Joseph Verco. his work was based on the diaries which he kept
relating to his extensive dredging trips ranging along the continental shelf from
Beachport to Fremantle. The publication was undertaken at the request of Lady
Verco and was edited by B. Cotton, who illustrated it by a great many of his own
drawings of species collected by Sir Joseph. There was added, as a republication,
Verco’s “Catalogue of the Marine Mollusca of South Australia,” originally issued
in 1908.

In 1935 Finlayson published his book, “The Red Centre,” dealing amongst
other matters, with some aspects of animal life in Central Australia. One chapter
dealing with his re-discovery in the Eyre basin of the small mammal,
Caloprymnus campestris, the “oolacunta,” which had escaped observation for
nearly a century after its description by Gould, and was believed to be extinct.
Though published in Sydney, the book is mentioned here because of its particular
interest to South Australia.

A very brief survey of the Zoology of our State was published by Johnston
in “The Centenary History of South Australia,” 1936 (pp. 336-38). Amongst the
various South Australian smaller publications not issued under the aegis of any
of the scientific societies mentioned above, the following have a zoological
interest :—

W. T. Bednall: “List of South Australian Marine Shells” (1874).

Db. J. Adcock: “Handlist of the Aquatic Mollusca Inhabiting South Aus-
tralia” (1893),

J.C. Verco: “Catalogue of the Marine Mollusca of South Australia” (1908) ;
reprinted in Verco’s “Combing the Southern Seas” (1935).

J. Davies Thomas: “Hydatid Disease, with Special Reference to Its Preva-
lence in Australia.” (Government Printer, Adelaide, 1884.)

J, Davies Thomas: “Hydatid Disease of the Lungs.” (Adelaide, 1884.)
Other papers and books by this author were published outside South
Australia.

W. Howchin: “Native Animals of South Australia.’ (Department of
Intelligence, Bull. 14, 1910, Adelaide.) Refers to vertebrates only.)

T. P. Bellchambers: “Nature, Our Mother.” (Adelaide, 1918.)

list of books on Ormithology in the Public Library of South Australia,
Adelaide, 1926.

lv

From the foregoing survey, it will be seen that much work remains to be
done in the sphere of Zoology in South Australia. Apart from the Mollusca,
higher Crustacea and certain groups of Insecta, comparatively little is known of
our invertebrate faunma—in fact, there are great groups which are practically
unstudied. One might mention the Protozoa (apart from the Foraminifera),
Turbellaria, Nemerteans, free-living Nematoda, Chaetognatha, and ‘lunicata.
The identification of our Coelenterates (apart from Corals), Sponges, Rotifera
and Annulata has been incompletely carried out. Even the local parasitology in
which the present author is more particularly interested, is very little known.
The lower Crustacea, as well as many of the insect families, would repay study.

The ecological relationship of the fauna constitutes an almost untouched field.
Embryology of our marine forms is likewise almost unknown. Fisheries problems
await investigation. Cytology and genetics offer wide fields for zoological
research, The main direction in which our energies are likely to be directed for
a considerable time in the future, as far as Zoology is concerned, will probably be
along morphological, embryological and ecological lines.

CENTENARY ADDRESS NO. 7
PROGRESS IN KNOWLEDGE OF THE GEOLOGY OF
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

BY SIR DOUGLAS MAWSON, D.Sc., F.LR.S.

Summary

One hundred years ago almost nothing was known of the geological features of the large region
now included within the borders of this State. All that had been gleaned at that date is comprised in
the casual observations of the earliest explorers. With the rapid extension of settlement following
the establishment of the Province in the year 1836, knowledge of its geography and of its simplest
and broadest geological features was steadily developed. The early discovery of rich copper
deposits at the Burra, Moonta and Kapunda undoubtedly quickened public interest in geological
affairs.

CENTENARY ADDRESS No. 7
PROGRESS IN KNOWLEDGE OF THE GEOLOGY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
By Str Doucras Mawson, D.Sc., PRS.

IntTRopucToRY BIBLIOGRAPHIC REVIEW.

One hundred years ago almost nothing was known of the geological features
of the large region now included within the borders of this State. All that had
been gleaned at that date is comprised in the casual observations of the earliest
explorers.

With the rapid extension of settlement following the establishment of the
Province in the year 1836, knowledge of its geography and of its simplest and
broadest geological features was steadily developed. The early discovery of rich
copper deposits at the Burra, Moonta and Kapunda undoubtedly quickened public
interest in geological affairs.

Ilowever, as there were then in the Colony but few competent geological
observers and but little facility for the publication of such knowledge as was
acquired, the first 42 years after the founding of the State served only to lay
broad and imperfect foundations upon which the subsequent more exact and com-
prehensive rendering has since been achieved.

This primary period in the evolution of geological knowledge of the State
terminated in 1878 with the inauguration of the Royal Society of South Aus-
tralia, which event initiated a new era of progress in all sections of natural science.
No department of scientific enquiry received greater impetus, at that time, than
Geology, for the person mainly intcrested in the launching of our Society was
Ralph Tate, himself a geologist, who had arrived in the Colony in 1875 to occupy
the Chair of Natural Science at the University of Adelaide.

Tate’s Presidential Address, which appears in the first volume of the
Society’s Transactions, contains a valuable bibliographic summary of publications
bearing on the Geology and Palaeontology of the State published to that date,
thus covering the primary period of our review. Tate’s list of works relating to
general geology, but not including purely palaeontological contributions, amounts
to 15 in all. A further 17 palaeontological papers dealing with South Australian
Tertiary fossils are also cited. At that time no pre-Tertiary fossils had becn
discovered within the hotundaries of the State,

Of the contributions to general geology that had appeared at that time the
more important are the following :—

Publications of the Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods; more especially lis well-
written “Geological Observations in South Australia,” printed in Ingland in 1862.

Reports on the mineral resources and the geology of portions of the State,
respectively, by A. R. C. Selwyn in 1859, and by G. H. IF. Ulrich in 1872,
published as Parliamentary papers.

Finally, there appeared in 1875 a “First Sketch of a Geological Map of Aus-
tralia” by R. Brough Smyth. Of this Tate remarks it “embodies the labours of
Selwyn and Woods and the inedited observations of our Survey Department
and of some explorers.”

The embryonic state of geological knowledge even in 1875 is well portrayed
by this first geological map, for therein, within the boundaries of South Australia,
cognisance is taken of only three divisions, namely, Tertiary, Silurian and Igneous ;
even so, it is greatly in error.

(vit

The 58 years that have elapsed since 1878 have been a period of steady and
fairly rapid progress in the elucidation of the geological fabric of the country.
In this our Society has played a direct part, as is evidenced by the large number
of contributions on geological subjects printed in the Society’s volumes. Further,
by its action in helping to secure the appointment, in 1883, of the Government
Geologist, an office which had not existed prior to that date, the Society has
greatly promoted geological science in this State.

The distribution of literature in the form of original contributions to the
Geology and Palaeontology of South Australia that have appeared since Tate’s
address in 1878, may be briefly summarised as follows :—

Firstly, the Geological Survey reports and various reports by the Govern-
ment Geologist and others, which have been printed at the Government Printing
Office as Parliamentary Reports or as productions of the Geological Survey
Department, are embodied in about 200 separate publications; included amongst
these are coloured maps issued, respectively, at successive intervals illustrating
the distribution of the various geological formations as known at the time of
printing. Shortly after his appointment as Government Geologist, Dr. L. K.
Ward included as an addendum to his annual report for the year 1915 a catalogue
of official publications dealing with the geology and mineral resources of South
Australia; this is a valuable reference list, complete to that date.

Apart from the official publications of the Geological Survey, the volumes
of the Royal Socicty of South Australia are outstanding as a source of published
information concerning the geology of the State. Comprised within the regular
annual volumes of transactions and the special quarto memoirs of the Society
which were issued some years ago, there are about 191 contributions on general
geological and mineralogical subjects and about 60 of a purely palaeontological
nature, all relating to matters within this State. In addition there are 16 papers
dealing with the geology of Central Australia and the Northern Territory, most
of which by the geographical proximity of that region have a direct bearing on the
geology of the northern areas of our State.

A third source of published information, in the nature of original observa-
tions on the Geology of South Australia, are the volumes of the Australasian
Association for the Advancement of Science (now the A.N.Z,A.A.5.), In these
are to be found some valuable summarics relating to certain aspects of the subject.
One of these deserves special mention here; I refer to Professor Ralph Tate’s
Presidential Address delivered in the year 1893, “A Century of Geological Pro-
gress,” in which he traces the rising tide of geological knowledge of Australia
and Tasmania during the first 100 years of colonization, In all, there appear in
the Science Agsociation’s volumes 35 papers relating to South Atstralia that are
of a general geological nature, and 5 that are purely palaeontological; 7 other
contributions refer casually to South Australian matters, and 3 deal with Central
Australia contiguous to South Australia.

In the above three publications are to be found the main bulk of all original
observations relating to South Australian Geology. About another dozen con-
tributions bearing on our local geology are to be found in the Proceedings of the
Royal Geographical Society of Australia, S.A. Branch.

Some important contributions are contained in works published outside the
State, of which the following have come under my notice.

Many papers dealing with the Tertiary marine rocks and fossils of Victoria,
published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, make some refer-
ence to corresponding beds in this State and their fossil contents.

Reference to Cretaceous fossils forwarded by H. Y. L. Brown and deter-
mined by W. H. Hudleston appears in the Geological Magazine of 1884, page 339.
In the same magazine, page 342, H. P. Woodward supplied notes on trilobites,

lvitt

etc., from Ardrossan, forwarded to him by Tate and Brown. Again, in the Geolo-
gical Magazine of 1885, page 289, H. P. Woodward describes Mesozoic and Ter-
tiary (?) plant remains from Leigh’s Creek and Mount Babbage. At a much
later date, Dr. C. E. Tilley published in the Geological Magazine important petro-
logical papers on Pre-Cambrian rocks of Eyre Peninsula (vol. lvii, p. 449 and
p. 492; vol. lviii, p. 251, and vol. xii, p. 309).

In a paper published in the Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S5.W., vol. xxi (1896), pp. 571-
583, T. W. E. David and W. Howchin relate the occurrence of radialaria and
oolitic structure in South Australian Pre-Cambrian (?) rocks and discuss the
question of age of the Brighton Limestone and associated beds.

In the Q.J.G.S. Howchin has written on the Sturtian Tillite [vol. kxiv (1908),
p. 234]. In vol. Ixxxii (1926), p. 332, Cretaceous glaciation in Central Australia
is referred to by T. W. E. David and W. G. Woolnough, There is also another
paper on some algal limestones of South Australia [vol. Ixxxv (1929), p. 613].
In addition, there have appeared in this Journal, in recent years, several important
papers by Dr. Madigan and others on the geology of Central Australia, which
observations have a special interest to South Australia.

A notable paper by Dr, C. T, Madigan dealing with the Lake Eyre Basin is
to be found in the Geog. Journal, vol. Ixxvi, p. 216.

As long ago as 1894 Dr. C. Chewings contributed original observations in
a dissertation for the doctorate degree at Heidelberg University, published as
“Geologie Siid und Central-Australiens” by the Heidelberg University press.

Important summaries relating to the geological features of South Australia
have appeared in certain of the Commonwealth Handbooks (see especially 1914
and 1920) and in handbooks issued in connection with Adelaide mectings of the
A.A.A.S. In the Proceedings of the Pan Pacific Science Congress of 1923
(Sydney) there are references to South Australia in relation to the Marine
Tertiary formations of southern Australia.

Professor W. Howchin’s “Geology of South Australia,” which first appeared
in 1918 and again as a revised edition in 1929, assembles under one cover most
of the accumulated knowledge concerning the geology of this State.

Howchin’s production, “The Building of Australia and the Succession of
Life,” which appeared in three parts between the dates of 1925 and 1930 as a
handbook of the British Science Guild (South Australian Branch), may also be
consulted, but the purely geological matter contained therein is marshalled from
his preceding work and other published matter.

In 1932 Sir T. W. Edgeworth David’s “New Geological Map of The Com-
monwealth of Australia” and accompanying book of “Explanatory Notes” were
published by the Commonwealth Council for Scientific and Industrial Research.
This work incorporates some previously unpublished matter and, so far as is
within its scope, it brought the subject of South Australian Geology right up to
date at the time of publication,

Memoirs, by R. and W. R. Bedford, No. 1 (1934) and No. 2 (1936), of the
Kyancutta Museum (a private museum in S.A.), dealing with new species of
Archaeocyathinae and other organisms, have recently appeared.

This year Messrs. Angus and Robertson have published a memoir by the
late Sir ‘I. W. Edgeworth David and R. J. Tillyard on Fossils of the Late Pre-
Cambrian from the Adelaide Series.

Thus outlined in the foregoing paragraphs is the distribution of original
literature on the subject of this address, Other expositions of South Australian
gcological features as recapitulations of already published matter are to be found
in British, American and German publications.

2

lix

The principal contributors to this mass of literature were, firstly, officers
of the Geological Survey, more especially H. Y. L. Brown, Dr. L. K. Ward and
Dr. R. L. Jack. The work of the Survey Department has of necessity been con-
centrated mainly upon economic matters.

Secondly, a large and very important share in the unravelling of the geo-
logical history of the State and in the detailed scientific treatment of some of the
problems presented has been achieved by geologists associated with the University.
Mention may be made of Professor Ralph Tate and Professor Walter Howchin
in eatlier times; whilst in more recent years the number co-operating in these
investigations has greatly expanded, including, especially, Sir T, W. Edgeworth
David, Dr. W. G. Woolnough, Dr. W. N. Benson, Dr. W. R. Browne, Dr. C. T.
Madigan, Dr. C. Fenner, Dr A. R, Alderman and Mr. P. Hossfeld. My own
observations have been devoted largely to the investigation of the older rocks of
the North-Eastern areas.

Finally, some notable contributions to the common task have come from
investigators not associated with either of the above institutions, as is exemplified
by the very important foundational work of the Rev. J, E. Tcnison-Woods.

Tue PROBLEM OF THE OLDER Rocks.

We will now turn to a review of some of the outstanding problems that have
faced geologists in this State.

To begin with, the stratigraphy of the very large areas of ancient rocks con-
taining little or no fossil remains is a problem yet only partially solved. Based
on conjecture only, these and the somewhat less ancient terrain, now recognised
as Cambrian, were figured in the earliest maps as Silurian. The first positive
information bearing on their age was the discovery by Mr. Otto Tepper, in 1878,
in limestone near Ardrossan, of trilobites and coral-like fossils (Archaeo-
cyathinae). It was immediately recognised that this discovery demonstrated the
occurrence of beds of older Palaeozoic age, but it was not until several years later
that the age was finally fixed as Cambrian. Thus a section of the older rocks of
Yorke Peninsula came to be recognised as Cambrian, whilst a crystalline formation
disposed unconformably beneath them was then relegated to the Pre-Cambrian.
The great mass of older rocks forming the Mount Lofty Ranges still defied
analysis, and it was Tate’s opinion, in 1893, that they were all Pre-Cambrian and
would be found to be without fossils. However, in 1896, when in company with
Howchin on a visit to Selwyn’s rocks in the Inman Valley, Professor David
discovered Archaeocyathinae fossils in the limestone of the Normanville-Sellick’s
Hill belt. At that time, on account of the fact that over large areas in the Mount
Loity Ranges the dip of the sediments is in a general easterly direction, Tate
was of the opinion that progressively newer beds would be found towards the
east side of the Range. The metamorphic and igneous areas of the central and
eastern belts were at that time interpreted as the result of subsequent igneous
injection.

Howchin laboured for long endeavouring to unravel the structure and
sequence of beds of the western flank of the range near Adelaide. He demon-
strated the faulted character of the formation and finally succeeded in presenting
the sequence of a vast series of sedimentary beds unconformably overlying the
crystalline complex, ta which Woolnough had given the name Barossian on
account of their strong development in ‘the Barossa Ranges. Though no
perfectly continuous series was proved in the vicinity of Adelaide, yet Howchin
was then of the opinion that the fossiliferous Cambrian beds of Sellick’s [Hill were
the topmost members of a continuous series of sediments extending down to the

lx

underlying Barossian terrain. Accordingly all those beds overlying the Barossian
were regarded as of Cambrian age.

The Sellick’s Hill-Normanville formation and like beds distributed elsewhere
in the State containing undoubted Cambrian fossils were referred ta as Upper
Cambrian. The underlying series, apparently unfossiliferous or almost so, well
developed in the environs of Adelaide, was relegated to the Lower Cambrian.

Later, with the progress of investigations elsewhere in South Australia, it
became apparent that these “Lower Cambrian” beds were developed over large
areas of the State without any association of the fossiliferous Cambrian (“Upper
Cambrian”). Further, no clear cut succession, without a break, from the “Lower
Cambrian” to the “Upper Cambrian” had been demonstrated. Consequently, as
the horizon of Archaeocyathinae elsewhere in the world had proved to be low
down in the Cambrian, it then appeared likely that Howchin’s thick “Lower
Cambrian” formation is in reality Proterozoic, This contention is supported by
the occurrence in it of a glacial horizon located near its upper limit, a feature
which has been recorded elsewhere in the world in late Pre-Cambrian times.

In any case, it seemed desirable to distinguish by some relevant name this
thick series of somewhat uncertain age. Many years ago I suggested to the late
Sir T. W. Edgeworth David the adoption of some non-committal term such as
“Adelaide Series” to designate this thick series of sediments.

This distinguishing name met with Howchin’s approval and has since been
adopted. It signifies the thick sediments of the neighbourhood of Adelaide, lying
between the Barossian (older Pre-Cambrian) formation below and the fossiliferous
Cambrian beds above.

It has long been recognised that investigation of the Adelaide Series extended
beyond the type locality may supply evidence for subdivision into several stages,
which subdivisions may even be separated by stratigraphical breaks. Unpublished
evidence from our northern areas garncred long ago has supported this contention.
Recently Paul Hossfeld, discussing a northerly extension of these beds, has. pro-
duced evidence for dividing the Adelaide Scries into two sections separated by
an unconformity. He recognises a lower division referred to as the Para Series,
including from the base as far as the Upper Phyllite horizon, just below the
Mitcham and Glen Osmond Quartzites. The balance of the Adelaide Series is
comprised in his upper division, styled the Narcoota Series.

Hossfeld’s extensive field observations assist miaterially in defining, over a
considerable area in the Mount Lofty Ranges, the limits of the Barossian
formation.

Dr. Madigan’s geological mapping of the western scarp of the southern
section of the Range has defined the existence of a complete overfold in the
neighbourhood of Sellick’s Hill, so that the fossiliferous Cambrian beds appear
to underlie older non-fossiliferous strata,

The complete elucidation of these older formations of the State is still our
greatest problem. It will be seen that already much has heen published con-
cerning them. But since great areas of rocks of this class exist in our northern
areas, it will be long before they are fully explored.

‘The basement complex so widely outcropping in this State presents a mine
of intensely interesting problems that will occupy petrologists for generations to
come. With these are associated important problems in ore formations of con-
siderable economic interest.

Only two determinations of age based on radioactive disintegration relating
to these old rocks of South Australia have yet been made, It ig obvious that an
extension of such age estimations is most desirable.

lat

Mesozoic ForMATIONS,

Another formation much newer than the older rocks just considered but
widely extended in South Australia is that which forms the Great Artesian Basin.
On account of its location in the far interior, this system of rocks did not come
much under notice of geologists until the eighties of last century. Tate was the
first, in 1877, to distinguish a fossil (Belemnites australis) from Stuart Creek as
indicating an area of Mesozoic age. Two years later he expressed the opinion
that fossils from this area were of Cretaceous facies. H. Y. 1. Brown’s official
geological may of the State, published in 1885, represents a widespread region
around Lake Eyre as “Mesozoic (Cretaceous and Oolite) with or without over-
lying Tertiary beds.” The exploration of the limits of the Cretaceous basin was
rapidly extended and finally finished by Brown in 1904,

In the meantime other Mesozoic formations had turned up. In 1885 Wood-
ward described fossil plants of Mesozoic age from Leigh Creek. Attention was
drawn to the coal-bearing beds in this locality in 1889, when Brown referred to
them as Cretaceous (?) Later, in 1891, Etheridge, having examined a series of
plant fossils from those beds, placed them under Lower Mesozoic, More recently,
with the increasing knowledge of Australian Mesozoic flora, the Leigh Creek .
beds have been finally relegated to the Triassic.

Carbonaceous beds underlying the marine Cretaceous strata of the Artesian
Basin have been located on the western limit of the Cretaceous area, near [Lake
Phillipson and at a locality just north of the northern tip of the Flinders Range
at Kuntha Hill. The exact age of these beds has not yet been determined. They
are variously referred to the Triassic and to the Jurassic periods. Artesian
bores sunk through the Cretaceous formations have yielded additional evidence
indicating the widely extended occurrence of these carly Mesozoic formations as
a. basement feature of the Artesian Basin area. It is to be hoped that further
exposures of these beds may be found to afford opportunities for their more
critical study, for knowledge of them is yet all too vague.

Having regard to the extensive area occupied by Cretaceous beds in this
State, little intensive examination of the series has yet been undertaken, and
should well repay investigation, Dr. Whitchouse, of Brisbane, an authority on
the Cretaceous beds of the Artesian Basin, has had the opportunity of examining
fossils from the South Australian region and has thus been able to materially
assist in the zoning of our formations, but more detailed palaeontological and
stratigraphical work remains to be done.

THe Tertiary Marine Bens.

Turning now to a late but very important feature of South Australian strata,
we remark the swecp of Tertiary marine beds which range along much of the
coast and extend far inland in the region of the Bight and in the area that Tate
designated as the Muravian Gulf, where in Miocene times the sea extended far
up towards Broken Hill. These Marine Tertiary formations are well exposed
in coastal cliffs and in the banks of the Murray River in its lower course. Thus
they came under observation at a very early date. Peron, in 1810, described a
limestone of this formation met with at Kingscote, and in 1833 the explorer Sturt
found that the Murray River, in its course through South Australia, cut its
channel down through fossiliferous marine limestone which he referred to the
Eocene.

Tenison-Woods, between the years 1859 and 1865, spent much time investigat-
ing these limestones in the South-Eastern district, but it was not until Tate’s
arrival in South Australia that rapid progress was made in their stratigraphy and
palaeontology. In 1878 ‘late divided the Older Tertiary of the Aldinga and

leit

River Murray cliffs into two series, Eocene and Miocene. These two divisions
were subsequently found to be a general feature throughout the areas occupied
by our marine Tertiary formations. Throughout succeeding years there was
much controversy as to the exact age of the beds. Eventually, some 30 years ago,
as a result of intensive investigation of their foraminiferal contents, Mr. F.
Chapman gave good grounds for stepping down ‘Tate’s Eocene to Miocene and
Miocene to Pliocene, which finding still applies in the main.

In the year 1890, as a result of the examination of marine fossiliferous beds
traversed by bores put down, respectively, at Dry Creck and at Croydon in the
coastal plains near Adelaide, Tate announced the existence in that locality, at
some depth beneath the surface, of a still younger marine series, which he pro-
visionally referred to the Older Pliocene. With the stepping down of Tate’s
Miocene to Pliocene, the superior series met with in the above bores is now
referred by Howchin to the Upper Pliocene.

Tate also recognised the existence of Pleistocene marine beds located above
sea level in the South-East and at other points along the coast and in the vicinity

of Port Adelaide.
Until recently, literature dealing with the Tertiary limestones of South Aus-
tralia, whilst accepting as Miocene and Pliocene the main formation observed, has
had no regard for the existence of Oligocene marine beds, which age is now
accepted for certain marine calcareous formations at the base of the type section
at Blanche Point (Port Willunga), and for a similar horizon encountered in a
recent bore at Knight’s Dome, near Mount Gambier.

Howchin, in 1923, in a paper dealing with the formations exposed along a
portion of the coastline of St. Vincent Gulf, relegated to the Oligocene a belt of
sandy beds underlying the classic Miocene turritella beds of Blanche Point. Con-
firmation and extension of this finding has recently been supplied in a contribution
dealing with the marine calcareous beds of that area by F. Chapman and Miss
Irene Crespin. This and Chapman’s finding of Oligocene marine and terrestrial
beds below the Miocenc near Mount Gambier, suggests that there is in all
probability a widespread development of these beds at the base of the marine
Tertiary of South Australia.

Present knowledge of these marine beds is obviously very far advanced, but
this system still offers a rich field for further investigations. Until the several
observers working on Australian marine Tertiary beds arrive at greater unanimtity
regarding the age of the several horizons represented, the position cannot be
regarded as completely satisfactory.

TERTIARY TERRESTRIAL FORMATIONS,
Passing now to the terrestrial beds of Tertiary Age, there is certainly a very

important field open for investigation. In recent years Ward proposed the term
Eyrian to signify an extensive series of Tertiary fresh water beds overlying a
considerable part of the central artesian water basin. In places these beds are rich
in fossil plant remains. At many other points in the State limited formations of a
terrestrial naiure have been encountered also carrying leaf impressions and fossil
wood. Further, by systematic boring operations the Mines Department has in
recent years proved the existence in this State of extensive areas of ‘Tertiary
terrestrial beds, rich in fossil plant remains and in places including considerable
thicknesses of brown coal, similar to the Tertiary brown coals of Victoria. As
these are known to underlie marine beds of Middle Miocene age, Chapman and
I in 1920 suggested an early Miocene age for our South Australian brown coal
formations. Now, however, the age must be put back to Oligocene, for I have
found plant impressions of the same kind in terrestrial beds underlying the marine

lettt

Oligocene (Chapman and Crespin) at Maslin’s Bay near Blanche Point. In this
finding Chapman, who has examined and reported upon the plant impressions, is
agreed.

It is, therefore, becoming more and more obvious that we have in this State
a very extensive early Tertiary terrestrial record. This will provide geologists
with a field for investigation for a long time to come.

GLACIAL PHENOMENA,

LATE PALAEOZOIC GLACIATION.

‘Now I come to one of the most enthralling features of South Australian
strata, namely, the repeated occurrence therein of well authenticated evidence of
past glaciation. In no country in the world perhaps are recurrent glacial periods
better illustrated than in South Australia.

The first reference to past glacial action in the State dates from 1859. On
that occasion Selwyn, then Government Geologist of Victoria, visited South
Australia to report upon the geological features and mining possibilities of certain
areas. When passing through the Inman Valley he noted a polished glacial
pavement exposed in the bed of the Inman River at a spot where he happened
to have made a halt. Though he definitely asserted that this was evidence of past
glacial action, little general notice was taken of his report until many years
afterwards.

Selwyn’s report came under notice of Tenison-Woods, who, in his “Geologi-
cal Observations in South Australia” in 1862, enumerated further evidence which
he believed indicated past glacial action; but subsequent investigations have not
substantiated Tenison-Woods’ assertions.

On May 7, 1877, Professor Tate announced his discovery of a glaciated
pavement along the edge of the sea cliffs at Hallett’s Cove. Though he sub-
sequently notified this discovery in several publications, little attention was
paid to his finding until about 10 years later, when it was confirmed by other
geologists and acclaimed as an outstanding discovery. From this date onwards
Australian geologists became thoroughly glacially-minded, Reports of phenomena
indicating past glacial action in several other States were thereafter published in
quick succession.

Tate assumed that his Hallett’s Cove discovery was evidence of a Pleistocene
glaciation, such as he was well acquainted with in its occurrence in Europe.
Later (1894) a committee of investigation, appointed by the Australasian Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science, proved the polished pavement to be pre-
Miocene, and it was then immediately linked up with Selwyn’s discovery in the
Inman River Valley and assumed to correspond with the discovery of glacial
evidence of Permo-Carboniferous age at Bacchus Marsh, Victoria. By that time
also glacial horizons (ice-transported erratics) had been established in the Permo-
Carboniferous marine beds of the Sydney-Newcastle coal basin.

In more recent years Howchin has done much to increase and consolidate our
knowledge relating to the glacial formations of this age in South Australia, and
has mapped extensive formations of the kind in the Inman Valley and neighbour-
ng regions.

In Sir Edgeworth David’s recently-published Geological Map of Australia,
the Hallett’s Cove and allied glacial beds of southern South Australia have been
relegated to a late stage in the Carboniferous period, but there seems no valid
reason why they may not be considered as late as early Permian in age.

lriw

LATE PRE-CAMBRIAN GLACIATION.

In 1885 H. P. Woodward, then attached to the Geological Survey of South
Australia, in a report on “The Geology of Country East of Farina,” when describ-
ing a supposedly older Palaeozoic rock formation in the northern Flinders Range,
remarks: “Towards the north-east end of the range these beds gradually change
their lithological characters into a conglomerate, with boulders from several tons
in weight to small pebbles of quartzite, sandstone, granite; limestone, marble
and slate, scattered through a slaty matrix, of which there are large patches,
without any boulders or pebbles. These beds, from their resemblance to boulder-
clay, have most probably been formed in a similar manner, viz., by floating ice
dropping boulders and pebbles on to clay beds in process of formation.”

These remarks constitute the first suggestion of glacial features in South
Australian strata older than the Hallett’s Cove beds.

Howchin, in 1901, after mature consideration of boulder-bearing beds
exposed in the Sturt Creek near Adelaide, made a very important announcement
that they represented glacial morainic debris at least as old as the Cambrian
This discovery was received throughout the world with great interest, For many
years, subsequently, he continued to follow up this discovery. Eventually,
mainly as a result of his own observation, evidences of this glaciation were traced
over a large part of the State.

In particular, Howchin followed it to the north end of the Flinders Range,
joining up his discovery with that of Woodward and proving that Woodward’s
earlier discovery is also of Sturtian age.

For long the period of this glacial horizon was regarded as Lower Cambrian,
but as the tillite on the Sturt Creek underlies the Brighton |.imestone it is part
of the Adelaide Series and consequently is now thought to be of late Pro-
terozoic age.

CRETACEOUS GLACIATION.

Still another glacial horizon recorded in Cretaceous strata in this State has
now been clearly demonstrated. The first evidence of this glaciation was observed
in the year 1905, This appears in H. Y. L. Brown’s “Report on Geological
Exploration of the north-west,” where under date of May 10, 1904, he records
abundance of erratics, some very large, resting on soft Cretaceous shale and silt
on the plains near Stuart’s Creek Station, located between Lakes Torrens and
Eyre. Though he was convinced that they were ice-borne erratics, he assumed
that they had been transported there by ice “at some time since the Mesozoic
period.” Dr. Ward reported the occurrence of erratic boulders associated with
Cretaceous marine strata in that region, and further to the west in the year 1912
and on several occasions thereafter.

David, White and Howchin, in 1921, met an ice-scratched erratic lying on the
surface of Cretaceous beds north of Oodnadatta. Later, in 1924, Dr. Woolnough
reported what appeared to be erratics in Cretaceous beds at Moolawatana Station
at the northern tip of the Flinders Range.

A convincing summary of the evidence for a Cretaceous glacial horizon near
the base of the marine Cretaceous beds of the Great Artesian Basin is supplied by
Dr. R. L. Jack at the meeting of the A.N.Z.A.A.S. in 1932 (p. 461). The
evidence indicates that floating ice transported erratics in the Cretaceous sea of
that time.

PROFOUND CLIMATIC CITANGES IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA IN TITE PLEISTOCENE
CoINcIDENT WiTH GLACIATION ELSEWHERE,
There is no evidence of glaciation in South Australia during the Pleistocene
period, a time when large areas of other lands were overwhelmed with ‘ice.

Lyi

Evidently South Australia, taking into consideration its latitude, was not suffi-
ciently elevated to favour permanent accumulations of ice such as are known to
have formed on the more elevated portions of the Australian Alps in the
neighbourhood of Mount Kosciusko. But there is ample evidence of a
remarkable change in the climate of Central Australia during that period of
world-wide glaciation. Aridity, which appears to have usually prevailed in
Central Australia during the ages, was then dispelled and it became, for a time at
least during the Pleistocene, a moderately well-watered region, Tate was one of
the first to draw attention to evidences supporting this contention. In one place
Tate remarks “a vastly increased rainfall over what is now the arid region of
Australia during the Diprotodon Period is demanded by the extinct rivers,
circumscribed lacustrine basins marked by their coincident sand beaches, and the
remains of large herbivores, whilst the lacustrine origin of the low level deposits
is indicated by the presence of crocodiles, turtles and fish.”

Howchin, in recent years, has written much on the “dead rivers” to which
reference has just been made.

David, in his “Explanatory Notes” accompanying his recent geological map
of Australia, elaborates this lake period of the Pleistocene.

Some of us have observed old wave-cut terraces of one-time Greater-Lake
Frome and Greater-Lake Eyre. There is no doubt that extensive fresh water
lakes did exist in the interior during the period of the Pleistocene Ice Age, and
these must have received annual increments of sediment, in proportion related
to the annual variations in climate and probably, for a time at least, rhythmically
affected by winter snowfall and summer thaw. There is, therefore, good prospect
of climatic variations during our Pleistocene being recorded in the sediments of
our lakes. Perhaps it may some day be possible to test the nature of such deposits
by boring into the Pleistocene deposits in the basin of Lake Eyre.

‘THE CHANGING LEVEL of THE SEA DURING TUE PLEISTOCENE ICE AGE.

Further, there is still ample scope for detailed investigation of the Pleistocene
history of the South-Eastern region of the State. That great flat region must
have offered exceptional opportunities for recording negative and positive move-
ments of the sea during and after the Pleistocene Ice Age. Such movements of
the sea following the ice loading and unloading of polar lands may account for
recurrent old shore lines marked by the dune ridges of the South-East,

Tectonic MoveMENTs aANnp Puysiocrarurc RELIEF,

Another phase of geological research in South Australia undertaken during
more recent times is that relating to diastrophic movement resulting in the present
outstanding topographical features. Dr. Benson was one of the first to take a
notable interest in such work. In the year 1908, in order to illustrate his views
on the block-clevation of the Mount Lofty Ranges, he constructed a plaster model
illustrating their topographical features and drawing attention to the raised
peneplain. Howchin continued these studies and developed the subject in more
detail and in reference to the whole State. T'inally, Dr. Fenner has completed
the study in elaborate detail.

Tuer Icnrous Rocks.

With regard to the igneous rocks of South Australia, a brief review of the
progress achieved in relation to these was published in 1926 (Mawson, A.A.A,.S.,
p. 230). Since then several important contributions to the subject have appeared
in the volumes of this Society.

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGICAL SECTIONS OBTAINED BY SEVERAL
BORINGS SITUATED ON THE PLAINS BETWEEN ADELAIDE AND GULF
ST. VINCENT.

PART II-COWANDILLA (GOVERNMENT) BORE.

BY PROFESSOR WALTER HOWCHIN, F.G.S.

Summary

The notes already published in the present series have included the borings at Hilton, Black Forest,
Brooklyn Park, and Glanville [Howchin, W., 19351. The present paper offers observations of a
similar kind with reference to a boring at Cowandilla.

It must be understood that the palaeontological descriptions (as was stated in Part I) are not
exhaustive. Other borings in the same prolific and interesting geological field await examination
and time is a pressing question with the author, but it is hoped that these preliminary sketches will
contribute towards the comprehensive studies of the Tertiary faunas of southern Australia. As stated
in Part I, Mr. B. C. Cotton, of the South Australian Museum, rendered the author valuable
assistance in the determination of certain species.

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGICAL SECTIONS OBTAINED BY SEVERAL
BORINGS SITUATED ON THE PLAINS BETWEEN ADELAIDE AND
GULF ST. VINCENT.

PART II—COWANDILLA (GOVERNMENT) BORE,

By Proressor WALTER Howcutn, F.G.S.

Also an Appendix in which the Author and Bernard C. Cotton, conjointly,
describe a New Gasteropod.

[Read April 9, 1936]

Priate J,

CONTENTS.
Page
I. Inrropuctory REMARKS ; 44 1
II. SrraTIGRAPHICAL AND PALAEONTOLOGICAL Deaneaaidns Ve ea 2
1. Nonfossiliferous Fluviatile Deposits we ran 7 a 2
2. Adclaidean (Upper Pliocene} a bn bs on sn 3
3. (?) Lower Pliocene .. ‘ 44 fy ni a ae 26
III. REMARKS ON THE GEOLOGICAL Scant a bs a . a 27
1. General .. ie = 4a ae a _ oS a 27
2. Pleistocene ee ay ra ir Es 27
3. Adelaidean (Upper Pliocene) 2y oe ef ov shes 27
4, (?) Lower Pliocene .. - = 4A a bor 28
5. Palaeontological = .. ie i oe as wt 30

APPENDIX,

TV. Descrrprion or A New Gasteropop. Plate I... = ey ah 31
V. Anpenpdsa TO THE MoLLusca OF THE GLANVILLE Bore .. fa jag 32
VIL REFERENCES of wd as a 45 K. sed oy ss 32

I—INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

The notes already published in the present series have included the borings
at Hilton, Black Forest, Brooklyn Park, and Glanville [Howchin, W., 1935].
The present paper offers observations of a similar kind with reference to a boring
at Cowandilla.

It must be understood that the palaeontological descriptions (as was stated
in Part 1) are not exhaustive. Other borings in the same prolific and interesting
geological field await examination and time is a pressing question with the author,
but it is hoped that these preliminary sketches will contribute towards the com-
prehensive studies of the Tertiary faunas of southern Australia. As stated in
Part I, Mr. B. C. Cotton, of the South Australian Muscum, rendered the author
valuable assistance in the determination of certain species.

With reference to the present bore: in the first instance, a large quantity of
the material was forwarded to the author from the richly fossilifcrous zone
included within the 485 fect to 507 feet levels, on which attention was at once
directed. In some way the rest of the samples from the bore appear to have
gone astray, and it was feared that the parcel mentioned would be the only part
of the bore material available for description, and was, therefore, dealt with from
that standpoint. At a later stage some of the missing parcels were recovered,
which completed the samples from the surface to a depth of 550 feet, still leav-

Cc

2

ing a blank from the latter level to a depth of 670 feet, at which stage the boring
was stopped.

It will be noticed that in the present bore the fossils catalogued are con-
siderably in excess of those recorded from any of the other bores dealt with in
the present series. It does not follow that the Cowandilla sediments are relatively
richer in their fossil contents than the others, but the material available was much
larger in quantity than in the case of any! of the others, and permitted a greater
expenditure of time and effort in obtaining the palaeontological results.

The 470-485-feet sample (which was taken from the upper limits of the
richly fossiliferous zone that continued to the 508-feet level) did not come to hand
until the notes on the latter had been completed, so that in the examination of
the supplementary sample at a higher level only such species were recorded as
had not been previously noted, or these were only bricfly referred to.

The Cowandilla bore is situated in the north-western corner of Section
No. 92, Hundred of Adelaide, at the corner of Plympton Road and Hounslow
Avenue.

IIL—STRATIGRAPHICAL AND PALAEONTOLOGICAL

DESCRIPTIONS.
1. Non-rossitirerous FLuviaTILe Deposits.

Depth, 1-38 ft—Three samples were washed and examined within these
limits. The prevailing feature is a yellowish clay, more or less sandy with
occasional small pebbles. Beds of loose argillaceous sands occur at the respec-
tive depths of 12 feet and 38 feet. The sand 1s very fine and sharp and carries
spangles of mica, Between the 12 and 36-feet levels is a well-defined gravel-bed
with pebbles of white quartz and some quartzites up to two inches in diameter.
Two examples are of honey-combed (vein) quartz, and one pebble of milky-
quartz carries inclusions of black, fibrous tourmaline, a common type of rock that
occurs in the Pre-Cambrian beds of the River Torrens gorge.

Depth, 36-45 ft.—Coarse to fine grit, held together by a darkish yellow
clay. The bed carries a few small rounded pebbles of quartz and quartzite, but
otherwise consists of angular and sharp fragments that show little evidence
of wear.

Depth, 45-81 ft—Similar to the last-named but limited to the smaller
grade material and mixed with more clay.

Depth, 81-101 ft—Quartz and quartzite gravel, mixed with coarse, sharp
grit and fine sand with some yellow clay.

Depth, 94-100 ft—Clear, fine, uniform, yellowish quartz sand, the larger
grains rounded, the smaller, sharp.

Depth, 101-148 ft—Yellow clay and sharp sand, more clay than sand.

Depth, 148-171 ft.—Coarse and fine sharp grit, held together by clay.

Depth, 171-189 ft.—Variegated clays with fine sharp sand.

Depth, 189-216 ft.—Yellowish sandy-clay, excessively fine-grained with
minute flakes of mica.

Depth, 216-218 ft—Ycllow clay and fine, sharp sand.

Depth, 218-236 {t—Similar to the preceding.

Depth, 236-278 ft.—Ditto, with small pellets of ferruginously-hardened
clay.

i Depth, 278-283 it.—Reddish clay with sharp sand, of medium grade; a
few ferruginous pellets, as in the last sample; vegctable tissue much iron-stained.

Depth, 283-304 ft.—Reddish incoherent sand, fine to coarse.

3

Depth, 304-370 ft.—Lighter-coloured clay with high proportion of coarse
and fine sand. Many of the larger granules are a light-coloured quartzite, like
the whitish felspathoid quartzite of the basal beds, Mount Lofty.

Depth, 370-383 ft.—Drab-coloured clay with high proportion of quartz
sand; larger grains well-rounded, the rest sharp.

Depth, 383-385 ft. 9 in—Rather light-coloured material—probably taking
their appearance from the milky-coloured quartz sand which is present in con-
siderable quantity. A few small pellets of carbonate of lime, in the form of cal-
careous tufa, forming a cement in the aggregation of sand grains. No organic
remains.

Depth, 385 ft. 9 in.-386 ft.—This sample consisted simply of two very
compact, solid lumps of calcareous sandstone. Tested by HCl. the stone is a
uniform, excessively fine quartz sand, closely packed and cemented by a film of
carbonate of lime. No organic remains can be recognised in it. According to
the workman’s log the layer is limited to a thickness of three inches and may be
only a casual rock fragment.

2, ADELAIDEAN (Upper Piiocene).

Depth, 386-408 ft.—Three kinds of rock were present in the sample. Two
pieces represented a calcarcous sandstone, somewhat similar to the last described ;
there were also several lumps of a whitish tufaceous limestone, of an open texture,
that could only be formed under dry conditions; while the balance is a dark,
bluish, argillaceous limestone in small pieces, that goes down completely when
treated with HCl, leaving a residue of very fine sand and a black sediment of
carbonaceous mud. This limestone was not met with again at other depths.

It was at the present levels that organic remains made their first appearance.
A few fragments of pelecypod shells were seen sticking in the limestone. The
only powdery material was what could be got by washing the rocky samples
present, and from this source were obtained, broken spatangoid spines, two small
imperfect gasteropods, about half the test of the flat echinoderm, Laganum
platymodes Tate and the following foraminifera :—

Quingqueloculina seminulum d’Orb.

Triloculina trigonula Lamk., T. tricarinata d’Otb.

Clavulina parisiensis d’Orb.

Cribrobulimina mixta (syn. polystoma) P. and J. Sp.

Sigmoidella elegantissima P. and J.

Guttulina problema d’Orb.

Cibicides lobatulus (W. and J.).

Discorbis turbo (d’Orb.).

Epistomella polystomelloides (P, and J.).

Rotalia beccarit Linn. R. howchini Chap., Parr and Coll.

Elphidium (?) macellum (F. and M.).

‘The last-named species is an unusual variety, Its depressed form and sharp
periphery are characteristic of the species named, but is usually of larger dimen-
sions [2 mm.], develops a marked umbilical prominence of clear shell substance,
and about twice the number of segments that are characteristic of the typical
E. macellum, and in these respects resemble E. craticulatum (F. and M.). It may
be taken as an annectant of the two species, or, otherwise, a new species.

Depth, Uncertain—All the larger lumps, up to one inch in length,
consist of light-coloured tufaceous limestone of open texture. The organic
remains observed were a few small gasteropods, broken echinid spines, one frag-

4

ment of a ribbed Dentaliwm, a single valve of a much-weathered Venericardia
compacta, the valve of an ostracod, and a few foraminifera of the same species
as last described. A lump of the white, tufaceous limestone, treated with HCl,
left a considerable residue of dark-coloured flocculent mud and very fine sand.

Depth, 410 feet—The sample formed part of a core cut by a six-inch
revolving boring tool and showed a junction between overlying red clay and a
lower bluish clay-silt. The coarser material (apart from two small rounded
pebbles of quartzite) consisted of shell fragments, amongst which could be
recognised remains of Pectenidae, greatly discoloured; no complete valve of a
pelecypod and no gasteropod. The only determinable organic remains were fora-
minifera, and these were in a very weathcred condition, generally blackened and
often broken. The sediments are suggestive of a mixed origin-——fluviatile deposits
laid down on a marine floor by a change of physical conditions,

Depth, 414 ft. A dark-coloured calcareous silt in hard lumps. Portion
of a valve of Chlamys asperrimus sub. sp. antiaustralis (Tate) was firmly
attahed to one of the latter; very thick portions of the tests of Miltha
(Milthoidea) grandis (H. Woods) were firmly embedded in some of the lumps.
Only a small amount of the soft and loose portion of the bedding was available
for examination, and in this the microzoa were scarce.

Depth, 420 ft—Darkish-grey calcareous silt with a high proportion af
very fine sand; in consolidated lumps when dry. Fossils scarce and chiefly
limited to the foraminifera, of which the following species were obtained :—

Triloculina trigonula Lamk., T. tricarinata d’Orb,

Quingueloculina venusta Karrer.

Spiroloculina aff. arenaria Br. This is a very remarkable object in the
present fauna. It is relatively large, measuring 1°8 mm, in length, and resembles
the above species, in some respects, but differs in others. Brady’s figure shows
the test to have a uniform rather fine sandy surface. The present species is
built up of coarse material in which clear or white quartz is the normal mineral
used, set plumb with the surface, in a white lime-like matrix. Scattered over the
surface, and, usually, rising slightly above the normal level, are a number (varying
from about 12 to 20, or even morc) of black, shining granules, mostly more or
less rounded but sometimes angular. ‘These black, bead-like grains set in the test
at intervals, make a remarkable feature in contrast with the white background,
forming a speckled object. The species is persistent through a considerable
thickness of strata and will be referred to again.

Cribrobulimina mixta (syn. polystoma) P. and J. sp.

Gutlulina problema d’Orb.

Discorbis turbo (Br.).

Rotalia beccarii Linn. R. howchini Chap. Parr and Coll.

Elphidium (2?) macellum (F. and M.),

Marginopora vertebralis (Quoy and Gay), a fragment.

Casual specimens include tuberculated plates and spines of echinids, an
ostracod valve, and the otolith of a fish. All the remains are much weathered
and many are imperfect.

Depth, 430 ft—A six-inch core of bluish clay similar to the preceding.
The coarser residue left by the washing consisted of the harder and unreduced
portions of the bedding with a considerable number of small angular fragments
of pelecypod shells. Some of the latter have formed part of thick tests, probably
from the shells of Miltha (Milthoidea) grandis (11. Woods) ; a single valve of the
Recent, Nucula obliqua Lamk., and a fragment of Dentalinm intercalatum

francisensis Verco. The foraminifera include most of those mentioned as
occurring in the preceding sample, with the additions, Quinqueloculina seminulum
d’Orb. and Sigmoidella kagaensis Cush. and Oz. All the remains are greatly
weathered,

Depth, 440 ft.—Small pieces of the bedding, as nodules, not much larger
than peas, form the coarser material, and are speckled with white flakes of shelly
matter, which have helped to cement the matrix into nodules, Except fragments
of certain pelecypod shells, chiefly broken down Pectenidae and probably Muiltha
grandis, and one small example of Cylichnella callosa Tate and Cos,, the fossil
remains were limited to microzoa, of which the foraminifera formed the principal
feature, The species are mainly those previously mentioned. Elphidium (?)
macellum and Rotalia howchint are particularly numerous, large, and well pre-
served; others worthy of mention are Discorbis turbo, Cibicides lobatulus, Guttu-
lina problema, and Cribrobulimina mixta (syn. polystoma).

Depth, 448 ft—Part of a six-inch core, consisting of a compact slate-
coloured clay with a high proportion of fine, sharp sand. No fossils visible in the
mass, which washes down easily. Residue, after washing, consisted of pellets of
the bedding, slightly calcareous; mollusca represented only by small, flaky frag-
ments; foraminifera similar in species to the preceding and with about the same
frequency, most of the latter are discoloured, some quite black.

Depth, 458 ft.—Similar to the preceding, consisting of an argillaceous
silt with a high proportion of very fine sand, No fossils were visibly present, and
the larger particles, after washing (scldom exceeding 5 mm. in diameter), were
shell fragments, mostly angular; polyzoal remains, a little more common; and
foraminifera, as previously noted, but in rather fewer numbers.

Depth, 465 ft.—A slate-coloured, uniform silt, defectively coherent; no
fossils visible in the mass, goes down, easily and is much reduced by washing, the
residuc chiefly a very fine siliccous sand. Shell fragments small and not
numerous. The only pelecypods sufficiently preserved for definition were, a very
small valve of Glycymeris sp., only 2 mm. in diameter, and a small, imperfect
Leda sp.; a few small gasteropods, mostly broken, and fragments of polyzoa.
The foraminifera are abundant but restricted to few species, including Quin-
queloculina seminulum d’Orb., Clavulina angularis VOrb., Marginulina costata
Batsch, Gutulina regina (Br. P. and J.), and G. problema d’Oth.

Depth, 470 ft—Material similar to the last described. Weight of sample
in the rough, when perfectly dry, 21 oz.; when washed and dried, 9 oz. of very
fine quartz sand. The coarser siftings contained objects up to 5 mm. in length
and consisted almost entirely of shell fragments, which were angular and sharp.
As the core was delivered in its original shape this brecciated condition could
not have been caused by drill-percussion but from some natural causes, probably
those of transport. Other fossil remains, very scarce. In the very small material
two minute Recent shells were obtained, namely, Leda (sub-gen. Scaeoleda)
verconis Tate and Cylichnina pygmaca (A. Ad.). The foraminifera are the most
important fossiliferous features, Rotalia beccarii and R, howchini Chap., Parr
and Coll. are the most prevalent forms; others are, Spiroloculina aff. arenaria Br.,
Cribrobulimina mixta (syn. polystoma), and Marginopora vertebralis Q. and G.;
one of the latter a nearly complete disc, and others in thick fragments from

complex forms. In addition, a few common kinds of microzoa and otoliths of
fishes.

The Section, next following, from 470 feet to 507 feet, commonly spoken of
as “The Oyster Bed,” comprises the chief fossil-bearing Zone of the Bore.

6

Depth, 470-485 ft.—Up to and including the last sample under examina-
tion (with the exception of one or two almost microscopic shells) no complete
valve of a pelecypod had been met with in the borings. At about the 470-feet
level a complete change occurred. Within the vertical limits now under descrip-
tion very large molluscan shells and other marine objects make a sudden appear-
ance, and many of them in an excellent state of preservation. These were
evidently individually selected from the bore material, as the bag containing them
had little of the matrix present, and were intended as the first fruits of the rich
harvest that was to follow. By an oversight, the succeeding sample, representing
the 485-508-feet levels, was forwarded first, and in the absence of any further
samples was investigated and the fossils described before the preceding 470-485-
feet sample came to hand. This explanation is necessary, as many of the species
in the present sample had been described in M.S., under the next heading, before
the present sample was received, and, thercfore, the latter requires only a brief
notice here. The smaller objects were obtaind by washing down the matrix that
was attached to the larger fossils.

PROTOZOA,

FORAMINIFERA.

The following species have not been previously observed in this bore, or
recorded in the next following sample :—

Pyyrgo elongata d’Orb. A single imperfect example.

Triloculina linnaeana d’Orb. Has strong longitudinal ribs or costae.

Triloculina circularis Bornem. An anomalous form with irregularly dis-
posed chambers, large aperture and wide tooth.

Epistomella polystomelloides (P. and J.)—The occurrence of this some-
what rare species in the present bore is of some interest. It was first described
by Parker and Jones as “from the Australian coral reefs (Jukes Dredgings),””
and named Discorbina polystomelloides ; defined, as “large, symmetrical, extremely
rough, the chinks between the chambers partly bridged over so as to form a rough
canal system as in some of the Polystomellidae.” Brady (“Challenger” Report)
records it from three stations south of New Guinea. Heron-Allen and Earland
obtained it from the Kerimba Archipelago, Portuguese East Africa [H. and E.,
1915]. The same authors [1911] also obtained it from the shore-sands of Selsey
Bill, Sussex, as a supposed derived Tertiary fossil and state: “We have no know-
ledge of any previous occurrence as a fossil.” ‘lhe authors quoted evidently had
overlooked my record of the species from the Lower and Upper beds at Muddy
Creck over 30 years previously [Howchin, W., 1888]. We have, in_ the
Cowandilla bore, yet another instance of its ogcurrence, in which it is sparingly
represented, The specific features are so strongly marked it cannot be mistaken.

MOLLUSCA.

PELECYPODA,

Cucullaea corioensis McCoy. Two examples, rather below medium size.

Glycymeris convexa (Tate). A single valve.

Pinctada (Margaritifera) carchariarum Jameson, One valve that includes
most of the hinge plate and 85 mm. in the dorsal-ventral measurement.

Ostrea hyotidoidea Tate. Four practically complete valves.

Chlamys polymorphoides Zittel, One valve.

Chlamys asperrimus subsp. antiaustralis (Tate). One example.

Eucrassatella kingicoloides (Pritchard). Two right-hand valves, eacn
imperfect on the posterior side.

7

Miltha (Milthoidea) grandis (H. Woods). A practically perfect right valve ;
length, 84 mm.; width, 74 mm.; also imperfect right and left valves.

Meretrix sphericula Tate and Basedow. A perfect example, with the two
valves in position and filled with the original silt of the bedding; also many frag-
ments of shells belonging to other examples of the same species.

Antigona (?) dimorphophylla (Tate). Part of a single valve, lacking the
dorsal portion—must have been of very large size.

GASTEROPODA.

Neodiastoma provisi (Tate). Two examples that show variant features.
Pelicaria howchini B. C. Cotton. Three examples.
Siliquaria australis Q. and G. Several short broken lengths.

Promiscuous REMAINS,

EcHINODERMATA. Spines, mostly Spatangoids.

Ostracopa. As single valves.

Potyzoa. Common in small pieces.

Iisa Remains, A small sharp-pointed teleostean tooth, otoliths, coprolites,
and numerous black-coloured pellets and flakes as undeterminable fish remains.

Depth, 485-507 ft.—This, with the preceding sample [470-485 ft.], forms
the chief source from which the fossils of the bore have been obtained. The
matrix is a fine, sandy, greyish silt, with fine sand in excess. The bed is incoherent
in mass. After separating the coarser shell material—whole and broken—by
sieves, the finer material was passed through sieves of successive fineness from
which the smaller objects could be selected.

The following is a list of the fossils at present determined at this particular
depth :—
PROTOZOA.

ForAMINIFERA,

Triloculina trigonula Lamk. A form more characteristic of temperate than
tropical seas, in shallow water. Present in Australia at most Tertiary horizons.

Triloculina tricarinata d’Orb. A cosmopolitan species, attains greater depth
than the preceding. A common Tertiary fossil.

Triloculina oblonga Mont. Found at all depths, but most at home in shallow
temperate seas. Dates from the Eocene.

Spiroloculina aff. arenaria Br. This is the black and white speckled form
described under the 420-feet horizon.

Quingueloculina polyana d’Orb. This form belongs to the quinqueloculine
group that is characterised by a rounded periphery and costate, or striate, sculp-
ture. The test is elongated and carries rather fine and numcrous costae. It differs
from Q. costata d’Orb. in its relatively narrow and elongated outline, and has not
the produced apertural end that is often present in the latter. It is a common
form in the shore lands of the West Indies: noted by d’Orbigny (“Cuba’’) ; also
Cushman (“Atlantic Ocean”). It is recorded by some authors under Muiliolina
bicornis W. and J.

Quinqueloculina aff, ferussacti d’Orb. One example, d’Orbigny’s “modéle,”
illustrating this species, shows a narrow form, multiangulated, in transverse
section, and with a produced neck. The Cowandilla example is an clongated-oval
in outline, angulated, and without a produced neck; agreeing with such examples
as figured by Parker and Jones (“Foram. of the North Atlantic and Arctic
Oceans,” pl. xv, fig. 36) and Sherborn and Chapman (“Foram. of London Clay,”

4

pl. xiv, fig. 5). The “Challenger” Expedition obtained it only from two or three
dredgings off the Australian coast. It is a common fossil in the Tertiary beds of
Europe, and has a considerable vertical range of beds of the same age in Australia.

Cribrobulimina mixta (syn. polystoma) P. and J. sp. This is an interesting
local species. It was first figured by Parker and Jones, in Carpenter’s “Introduc-
tion” without description, hut showing two kinds of aperture, which are classed
as varietics of Valvulina iriangularis V’Orb. In 1864 (1865) the same authors
in a paper published in “The Philosophical Transactions, Royal Society,” on
“Some Foraminifera from the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans,” included some
“Miscellaneous Lists,’ one of which (Col., No. 30) was stated to be from Mel-
bourne, Australia, and by a foot-note affixed the name Valvulina mixta to the
figure that had been previously published by them in Carpenter’s “Tntroduction.”
At the same time they added another name, V’, polystoma, for a supposed related
species, also without description. It is probable that the authors intended to give
specific distinction based on the two kinds of aperture. Neither C. D. Sherborn,
in his “Index” (1893), or J. A. Cushman, in his “Foraminifera” (1928), accepted
the second name, but recognised mixta P. and J. as of specific value. Moreover,
Cushman [1928, p. 129] substituted the generic name, Cribrobulimina for
Valvulina, and regarded the difference of aperture in individuals a matter of age,
a simple valve-like opening in youth, and in the adult a series of small openings
forming a cribrate plate. Over 50 years ago the writer obtained from the shore
sand of Gulf St, Vincent examples of both kinds, Subsequently, Mr. W. j. Parr
collected specimens from the same locality [Parr, W. J., 1932 (a), p. 6]. Parr
considers that P. and J.’s list (mentioned above) really came from South Aus-
tralia and not from Melbourne, as stated by these authors [in the early days
Melbourne and South Australia were commonly regarded as one and the same
locality], and states: “Two of the species listed, Valvulina polystoma and
VY. mista, have not occurred in any of my material from Victoria, while others
mentioned are much commoner in South Australian waters.” Parr also suggests
that C. mixta represents the megalospheric, and C. polystoma the microspheric,
form of the species. The only known fossil occurrences for this form are the
older raised sea beach (Pleistocene) of South Australia and the Upper Pliocene
of the Adelaide faulted basin.

Clavulina parisiensis d’Orb. Five examples were obtained. Test, finely
arenaceous ; triserial part forms the greater portion; aperture circular with tooth.
First recognised in Eocene of Paris and London. Occurs in Sorrento bore (Vict.).
Recent: sparingly in all the main oceans.

Marginulina costata (Batsch). One large and perfect specimen. As a
Recent form, mostly limited to the North and South Atlantic and Mediterranean ;
as a fossil, it dates from the Mesozoic; Australian—Cretaceous: Hergott and
‘Tarkaninna; Miocene: Muddy Creek, Murray Plains and Sorrento bore.

Sigmoidella elegantissima (P. and J.). Before Cushman and Ozawa under-
took the reclassification of the Polymorphinidae the present species was included
in the genus Polymorphina, The latter has now a very restricted range and has
given place to several new genera, subgencra, and species. S. elegantissima is,
typically, Australian in its distribution in Recent seas, and has been recorded
from most of the Tertiary horizons in Victoria and from the Lower Pliocene of
South Australia.

Sigmoidella kagaensis Cush. and Oz. Similar to S. elegantissima but is more
elongated, the sides more or less parallel for some distance,

Guttulina yabei Cushman and Ozawa, Rather scarce, ‘his is considered
by the authors to be the same form that Brady (“Challenger” Foram, 1xxiii,

9

figs. 2, 3) erroneously referred to Polymorphina oblonga d’Orb., and consequently
renamed it as above. (C. and O., 1930, p. 30.) The test is elongated with
inflated, almost spherical chambers, with depressed sutures, somewhat resembling
a small bunch of grapes. Brady’s specimens were from the Australian region,
and C. and O.’s, off Japan. The Cowandilla specimens resemble closely the type
illustrated.

Guttulina problema d’Orb. Rather scarce. Brady united Polymorphina
problema and P,. communis d’Orb. under a single species. Cushman and Ozawa
have done the same, with a long synonymic list. The test is short and somewhat
broadly fusiform in outline, chambers slightly elongated and inflated, arranged in
a clockwise order. It is a widely distributed form in existing seas. Dates from
the Cretaceous and is particularly common in the Tertiary formation of many
lands, including Australia.

Discorbis turbo (d’Orb.), Moderately common. <A_ well-differentiated
species, with a smooth, conical, dorsal surface, faintly impressed sutural lines,
and rather coarse perforations, Dates from the chalk, and is a common species
in the Eocene of the Paris basin, It is widely distributed in existing seas,
reported from two dredgings, in the “Challenger” crtise, off the coast of New
South Wales; a frequent species in the Tertiaries of Victoria and South Australia.

Cibicides lobatulus (W. and J.). Two examples, This species has the
parasitic habit of attaching itself to algae and other objects and reverses the usual
order in that the dorsal side, which is, usually, the upper and convex face, is, in
this species, the under side flattened as the side of attachment; while the ventral
side forms the upper and convex surface. It is subject to considerable variation.
It is almost of cosmopolitan distribution, especially in the cooler seas, and is
equally plentiful in a fossil condition—there are few Tertiary horizons in which
it does not occur,

Rotalia becearti Linné. This is, by far, the most abundant species in the
present material, and include examples of all ages and sizes up to unusually large
specimens. It is, characteristically, a shallow water species and favours temperate
seas. It is also one of the commonest middle and later Tertiary fossils in most
lands where these beds occur, including Australia.

Rotaha howchini Chap., Parr, and Collins. This species was described by
myself as a variety of R. clathrate, obtained from both the lower and upper beds
of Muddy Creek [Howchin, W., 1889, p. 15]; also from the bore at Lilydale
sheep station [Howchin, W., 1915, p. 350]. The above authors considered it to
be worthy of specific rank, as given above [Chap., Parr and Collins, 1934, p. 566].
It is quite common in the present sample of material, and seems to have a much
wider distribution in the Australian Tertiaries.

Elphidium striatopunctatum (F. and M.). Rare. This species is the weakest
modification of the genus. It has few chambers, and the examples in the present
material illustrate the range of variation usually seen in the species; some of which
have the septal lines marked by simple punctures; while in others, septal bridges
of small size are developed. A cosmopolitan species. mostly with a shallow-water
habit, and is sometimes found as small and weakly-developed examples in
estuaries. It lives in the Port Adelaide River. A common Tertiary specics at
most horizons.

Elphidium macellum (F, and M.). Rather scarce. [Sce ante, p. 3.] A
comparatively, shallow-water species. Occurs in the Port Adelaide River
(Howchin) and is a common form in the Australian Tertiaries. Chapman
records it in the Sorrento bore at five horizons, ranging from 476 feet to 1,320 feet.

Elphidium crispum Linn, A few examples agreeing with the specific features
and with similar geographical and geological occurrences as the preceding.

10

Elphidium craticulatum (¥. and M.). Three good cxamples. This is the
largest and most highly developed species of the genus. The test is thick with
very numerous septal bands and the umbilicus shows a considerable development
of clear shell substance that has an even surface with the rest of the test. It is
more tropical in its distribution than the other members of the genus—according
to the “Challenger” Report, “from the J.evant, southwards, to the shores of Aus-
tralia.’ The same Report says, “It is not known as a fossil species.” The Aus-
tralian geological observations came as a subsequent discovery, The species
occurs at Muddy Creek, and in the Sorrento bore at a depth of 1,060 fect. It is
interesting to find it in the Upper Pliocene beds near Adelaide, a further evidence
of the warmer conditions that formerly prevailed in these latitudes.

MOLLUSCA.

PELECYOPODA.,

Leda apiculata Tate. Inflated, acuminately rostrated, whole surface marked
by concentric raised threads. Length of largest specimen, 11:2 mm.; height,
6°5 mm.; eight smaller examples were obtained, Very common in Turritella
clays at Blanche Point, Aldinga; also in Adelaide bore, and at Muddy Creek and
Schnapper Point (Vic.).

Arca pseudonavicularis Tate, Two valves, right and left. Other occurrences,
Adelaide bore and Table Cape.

Arca (Barbatia) sp. indet. Portion of a right valve, 50 mm. in length,
incomplete on the ventral and posterior margins. The posterior portion of
another example was obtained.

Cucullaea corioensis McCoy. In a previous paper |Howchin, W., 1935,
pp. 85, 89] reference was made to the very large examples that occur in the
Adelaidean Upper Pliocene. Three very large and thick-shelled fragments of the
above species were obtained from the present boring, limited to the ventral por-
tions of the shells, the largest having a length of about 90 mm.; a few ephebic
examples that were also present show the complete valve.

Cucullaea corioensis McCoy, var. (undetermined), A single left valve was
obtained that shows the general outline of the type, with a length of 76 mm.
and breadth of 65 mm., but differs from the species inasmuch as the growth lines
are strongly marked in variable concentric laminae, the radial lines are limited to,
and only faintly indicated on the anterior side; the shell, as a whole, showing a
relatively smooth surface. The ventral edge, on its inner margin, is very strongly
crenulated with prominent narrow ridges that increase in length to 10 mm. towards
the posterior angle; vertical teeth obsolete, lateral teeth imperfectly developed and
lamellose.

Cucullaea adelaidensis Tate. Two valves were obtained that apparently
belong to this species. One, a nearly perfect left valve, accords with Tate’s type
in its size, degree of obliquity, and fineness of radial sculpture; also, a somewhat
less complete right valve of corresponding size, and having fewer and rather
broader riblets than on the Icit valve, a peculiarity in this species that has been
pointed out by Singleton [1932, p. 304].

As an Australian Tertiary genus Cucillaea has its chief occurrences in Vic-
toria, most characteristically in the Balcombian and Janjukian stages of the
Miocene, and less so in the Kalimnan of the Lower Pliocene. The genus has a
remarkable development, with very large examples in the Upper Pliocene
(Adelaidean) of South Australia. C. adelaidensis has, hitherto, only been
recorded from the Miocene beds of the Kent Town bore, near Adelaide, and is
the oniy Miocene record for this genus in South Australia.

i

Glycymeris convera (Tate), This is one of the commonest species of
Glycymeris in the material. It is of medium size, high convexity, and has an
average of 24 radial ridges that are narrower than the interspaces.

Occurrences :—Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.): More or less, at the same horizon,
in all the bores in the faulted Adelaide basin. Kalimnan (Low. Phioc.): River
Murray (Up. Ser.) ; Aldinga (Up. Ser.); Hallett’s Cove (S. Aust.) ; Muddy
Creek (Up. Ser.) ; Mallee bores (Vict.).

Glycymeris flabellatus (T. Woods). Among the glycymerids present, three
examples were of outstanding size. The largest of these is slightly ovate and
somewhat oblique in outline; has a length of 49 mm, and height of 50 mm.; has
23 radial costae that are broad and flattened and wider than the intervening spaces ;
the costae are crossed by numerous concentric lirae which are less defined in the
intercostal spaces, the weathered condition of the test has probably softened some
of the ornamental lines. The specimens have a close resemblance to the above
species with some slight differences, the fossil examples being anccstral to those
now living.

Occurrences :—Recent: Not common on the local beaches, but fairly common
in moderately deep water. Adclaidean (Up. Plioc.): Cowandilla bore (S. Aust.).
Werrikooian (Western Vict.).

Glycymeris planiuscula Chap. and Sing. This was a MS name by Tate that
was utilized by Dennant in a list of fossils obtained from the Glenelg River
(Vict.), 1887. The name was revived and the type specimens lodged in the
National Museum, Melbourne, described by Chapman and Singleton [1925, p. 43].
The examples from the Cowandilla bore agree closely with the type. It is a
graceful little shell. The straight dorsal line immediately attracts attention. A
medium-sized specimen has a length of 13 mm, and a height of 11 mm., orna-
mented with 27 rounded, radial riblets separated by wider interspaces. In some
cases the riblets, instead of being straight, are more or less curved towards the
respective anterior and posterior margins. The riblets or costae are crossed “by
fine thread-like lines of growth,” in a regular order of two lines to a millimetre
and each line is continuous throughout the whole length of the shell. In the
specimens obtained from this material there is a great range in size, from neanic
forms of 3 mm. in length up to a length of 23 mm. and height of 21 mm. In the
larger specimens the concentric fine lines become thickened and more laminar,
approaching the characteristics of G. convexa.

Occurrences :—Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.): Cowandilla bore (S. Aust.), com-
mon. Werrikooian: Glenelg River (Vict.). Kalimnan (Low. Plioc.): Grange
Burn, Muddy Creek (Up. Ser.), and Mallee bore No. 6 (Vict.).

Phylobrya, sp. indeter, This small and somewhat peculiar shell is not a
common genus in the Australian fauna, either Recent or fossil. In the present
material it is represented by ten examples. ‘Ihe largest specimen has a length of
7 mm, and a height of 6°5 mm., subcireular and somewhat oblique in outline,
inflated, umbos prominent and incurved ; ornament, numerous rounded concentric
costae crossed at right angles by radial costae; surface of valve divided into about
four inflated growth folds, divided by deep sulci; ventral inner margin finely
crenulated by nodular prominences, from which extend fine striations inwardly.
One example of the same species was obtained from the Glanville bore, at 375-400
feet, but was overlooked at the time.

Occurrences :—Two living species are recorded from Southern Australia and
Tasmania; one from the Newer Tertiary of New Zealand, and two from the
Miocene of Victoria. With none of these can the Cowandilla examples be
identified.

12

Pinctada (Margaritifera) carchariarum, Jameson, A species of “pearl oyster”
that was formerly very common in the waters of Southern Australia, but is now
restricted to warmer latitudes. Over 30 fragments were obtained of this shell from
the present washing, but no complete valve. Further particulars are given in the
article on the Brooklyn Park bore | Howchin, W., 1935, p. 83].

Occurrences —Recent in the northern seas of Australia and subfossil in the
Pleistocene [older raised sea-bed near Adelaide]. Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.):
Common in the bores of the Adelaide basin. Kalimnan (Low. Plioc.): Murray
River cliffs (S. Aust), Mallee bores (Vict.). Janjukian (Mioc.): Muddy
Creck; Mallee bores (Vict.).

Ostrea hyotidoidea Vate. The sample of material now undergoing examina-
tion belongs to a very characteristic geological horizon which, on account of the
prevalence of this shell, has received the name of the “oyster bed” in the
Adelaidean Upper Pliocene. Single valves are extremely common in the present
sample, which, in the aggregate, broken and whole, must represent 100 distinct
individuals. Some of these are very turgid and massive—one lower valve (not
complete) weighs 9 ounces. Sec further remarks under the “Brooklyn Park
Bore’ [Howchin, W., 1935, p. 82].

Chlamys asperrimus subsp. antiaustralis (Tate). Since Prof, Tate’s time,
oti a question of priority, certain groups of the genus “Pecten” have been tlrans-
ferred to Chlamys Bolten, 1798; and some of these haye been specifically
examined and further revised by Gatliff and Singleton [1930]. In this revision
the authors referred to consider that Tate’s P. antiaustralis is a sttbspecies of the
Recent asperrimus Lamk., and should bear the name as given above. The sub-
species, as defined, “differs from asperrimus chiefly in the wider ribs and lamelli-
form character of the mature ornament.”

Occurrences :—Adclaidean (Up. Plioc.) : Moderately common, but mostly by
fragments, some indicating large examples, and often determined solely on the
ornamentation on the test fragments; at Cowandilla and other bores on the same
horizon. Also Kalimnan (Low. Plioc.): At Upper levels, Aldinga (S. Aust.).

Chlamys asperrimus subsp. dennanti Chap. and Sing. In the asperrimus
group there is not only a considerable range in individual variation, but some
may be clearly distinguished, when mature, that are indistinguishable in their
respective ephebic stages. Some varieties that occur in the Werrikooian, of the
Glenelg River (Vict.}, have been distinguished as a subspecies (dennanti) as
above. which also probably occurs among the remains of the Adelaidean basin.

Spondylus arenicola Tate. Although no complete valve was obtained of this
shell from the bore material, the characteristic spiniferous ornamentation that it
carries, together with the typical dentition, seen in some of the fragments, are
sufficient for its determination. The species is subject to considerable variation,
both as to shape and ornamentation, and as these characteristics are also present
in a species of the same genus living in the adjacent seas, some hesitation is felt
it. making a determination based on imperfect examples, but as the present
remains occur with their known fossil associates elsewhere, the latter has weight.

Occurrences :-—Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.): Recorded from all bores at this
geological horizon. Kalimnan (J.ow. Plioc,); Very fine examples in the upper
beds at Aldinga Bay; also at Hallett’s Cove.

Eucrassatella kingicoloides (Pritchard). This is one of the largest and most
abundant pelecypods in the Adelaidean material. All stages of growth are repre-
sented, in the present sample, up to a measurement of 75 mm, in length and
62 mm. in height, which exceeds that of Pritchard’s type. The larger shells are
mostly more or less in a broken condition, but the sum total of their occurrence,
jn the sample washed, must represent more than a hundred individuals, [See
under “Brooklyn Park Bore.” Howchin, 1935, p. 83.]

13

Occurrences :—Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.): Present in all the bores of the
Adelaidean basin, at this geological horizon, often in considerable numbers.
Kalimnan (Low. Plioc.): North-west Bend, R. Murray (S. Aust.) ; Jimmys
Point. Kalimnan: Gippsland Lakes and “fairly abundant” in the Mallee bores
(Vict.).

Eucrassatella carnea (Tate). A much smaller species than the preceding.
Tate’s type is 22 mm. in length and 19 mm. in height; largest bore specimen,
length 16 mm., height 13 mm., surface concentrically ribbed,

Occurrences :—Recent: Shells on beach, dredged alive from Yankalilla Bay
and off Rapid Head by Dr. Verco. Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.) : Moderately com-
mon; first record of the species in a fossil condition.

Venericardia trigonalis (Tate), The left valve of an adult specimen from
this material measures 9 mm. in length and 8 mm, in height; has 16 crenately-
nodulose, rounded radiating ribs; a few shells in the ephebic stage of growth
were also obtained.

Occurrences :—Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.) : Cowandilla bore, Kalimnan (Low.
Plioc.): Blanche Point, Aldinga Bay (S. Aust.) ; Mallee bores, Sorrento bore
(Vict.). Janjukian (Mioc.): Mallee bores, Sorrento bore (Vict. ).

Venericardia (?) compacta (Tate). About a dozen specimens obtained from
this bore are placed, a little doubtfully, under this species. They range, in size,
from 3 mm. by 3 mm. in the smallest, up to 7 mm. by 6°5 mm, in the largest. They
show a general likeness to the species indicated but with some differences, The
latter consist partly in the number of the ribs, as they possess 16 or 17 radial ribs
as contrasted with the 24 ribs of /. compacta, They agree with the latter in that
the ribs are furnished with a closely-set, crenatcly-granose ornamentation, that
usually extends, like a bar, over the entire width of the respective ribs; while they
also differ from the species named, again, in that the interspaces, which vary
individually, are usually wider than the reported “linear interspaces” of the type.

Occurrences :—Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.): Abattoirs and Cowandilla bores
(S. Aust.). Kalimnan (Low. Plioc.): Mallee bores, Sorrento bore (Vict.).
Janjukian (Mioc.): Mallee bores, Muddy Creck, Sorrento bore.

Lucina affinis Tate. A small shell, the surface ornamented with concentric
striae and the margin minutely crenulated.

Occurrences :—Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.) : Dry Creek, Abattoirs, and Cowan-
dilla bores. About a dozen examples in the latter, including many juveniles.
Kalimnan (Low. Plioc.): River Murray, North-west Bend (S. Aust.) ; Sorrento
bore (Vict.).

Divaricella quadrisulcata (d’Orbigny), A shell easily recognised by its dis-
tinctive ornamentation. Has a wide distribution as an existing species in the
Australian, New Zealand and associated seas, known by its synonymic name
cumingi, As a fossil it is limited to the Newer Tertiaries, and, in the present
bore material, its separated valves occur in hundreds,

Occurrences :—Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.): In all the bores at this horizon in
the local sinkings, Kalimnan (Low. Plioc.) : Oyster bed, Murray cliffs, at
North-west Bend (S. Aust.) ; also in the Wanganui (Tert.) Series (N.Z.).

Loripes icterica Reeve, Finely concentrically and radiately striated.

Ocecurrences:—A common Recent form in South Australian waters. Ade-
laidean (Up. Plioc.): Fairly common in present bore material, and in the
Abattoirs bore (S. Aust.).

Miltha (Milthoidea) grandis (H. Woods). ‘This large, compressed, and
thick-shelled pelecypod forms one of the most striking features in the Adelaidean
Upper Pliocene fauna. The genus has a Tertiary and Recent record, but in no
case is it a common object, more particularly so with respect to the Australian

14

Region, so that its presence in the Adelaidean faulted basin is of much interest.
Among the specimens collected from the Cowandilla bore was a nearly complete
right valve that has a length of 82 mm. and a height of 81 mm., the thickness
of the test at one-third distance from the umbo is 12 mm, [For further par-
ticulars sce Singleton and Woods, 1934. ]

Occurrences :—Adelaidean (Up, Plioc.): Tate notes the genus, without
specific determination, as present in the Dry Creek bore; Miss N. H. Woods
records it from the Abattoirs bore [1931]; portions of five valves were obtained,
by the writer, from the Brooklyn Park bore [1935]; and six from the present
bore. A new subspecies [flindersiana Sing. and Woods] has been described
from a bore on Flinders Island, Bass Strait [1934, p. 207]. Kalimnan (Low.
Plioc.): An allied imperfect shell from Beaumaris (Vict.),

Meretrix sphericula Tate and Basedow, This large, thin-shelled, inflated,
and regularly convex pelecypod, has been badly preserved in a fossil condition.
When unsupported by an internal compact cast it was easily reduced to frag-
ments; and when filled tightly by the matrix was easily exfoliated on exposure,
leaving only the internal cast, making a satisfactory diagnosis somewhat difficult,
which may explain its late recognition, in the local fossil fauna, The determina-
tion made by the late Prof. R. Tate was posthumously published by Mr. H.
Basedow [1902]. The holotype was obtained from Edithburgh (Y.P.), from
which locality, as well as some others, the writer has obtained further examples.

Occurrences :-—Adelaidean (Up, Plioc.): Glanville, Brooklyn Park and
Cowandilla bores. Ten examples of incomplete valves were obtained from the last-
named. Kalimnan (Low. Plioc.): Edithburgh, western side of Gulf St. Vincent;
Aldinga (Up. Ser.) ; Hallett’s Cove (5. Aust.).

Antigona propinqua (TY. Woods). Formerly classed under Venus or Chione.
The present material yielded two mature valves and a large number in various
stages of growth.

Occurrences: Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.): Dry Creek, Abattoirs, Brooklyn
Park, and Cowandilla bores. Kalimnan (Low. Plioc.) : Muddy Creek (Up. Ser.),
common; Mallee bores (Vict.). Janjukian (Mioc.): Table Cape (Tas.) ; Muddy
Creek (Low. Ser.), rare.

Antigona hormophora (Tate). This and the following species agree, in a
general way, with Tate’s specimens, although the local examples are somewhat
larger. Tate’s dimensions of the above species are: length 65 mm., height 57 mm. ;
while the Cowandilla largest specimen measures, respectively, 72 mm. by 60 mm,
The ornamentation is very slrongly marked in both species and, in relation to the
above, is defined by ‘late as “numerous concentric lamellae . . . the interstitial
spaces with numerous flattish radial ridges” [Tate, R., 1886-87, p. 155], The
numerous, very fine, and well-marked concentric ridges seen on the umbo, in the
Cowandilla specimens, are not shown in Tate’s figures, nor mentioned by him as
a feature in his types. His figure of the present species appears to possess about
27 concentric ridges, as compared with about 55 such ridges in the Cowandilla
examples; and, while the former are continued, uniformly, to the ventral margin,
in Tate’s figure, the marginal area, in the Cowandilla specimens (in a breadth of
10 mm.), is occupied by 10 closely-packed, small concentric ridges, separated only
by lineal depressions. Two valves, right and left, that have identical features, fit
exactly, and may have formed parts of the same individual shell.

Occurrences:—Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.): Two complete, right and left,
valves, and fragments of others. Miocene: Table Cape (Tas.). Type locality.

Antigona (?) dimorphophylla (Tate). This is a slightly smaller species
than the preceding, figured, but only very briefly described by Tate. The shell
has, respectively, less height in relation to ils length, is less inflated, and the umho

15

is placed more posteriorly than the preceding. It possesses similar very fine and
numerous concentric ridges on the umbo, as mentioned above with regard to the
species hormophora, but are not shown in Tate’s figure. Moreover, the relative
number of concentric ridges, shown in Tate’s figures to be more numerous in
dimorphophylla than in hormophora, is reversely so in the Adelaidean examples.
The present species is, presumably, represented by several single valves, none of
which, unfortunately, is sufficiently complete for precise determination, but the
specific distinctions have a strong probability.

Occurrences :—Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.): Abattoirs, Glanville, Brooklyn
Park, and Cowandilla bores. Kalimnan (Low. Plioc.): Beaumaris, Royal Park
(Vict.). Janjukian (Mioc.): Common in the calciferous sandstone of River
Murray cliffs, Muddy Creek (Low. Ser.)

G. B, Pritchard has described two very similar species to the above under
the names Chione etheredgei and C. cognata, the former from the Janjukian and
the latter from the Kalimnan of Victoria. [Contribu. to the Pal. of the Older
Tert. of Vict., Lamell, pt. iii, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. xv (N.S.) 1903,
pp. 87-103, pl. xii.|

Tellina aequilatera Tate. Ovately-oblong and subequilateral, :

Occurrences :—Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.): Common in Brooklyn Park, Glan-
ville, and Cowandilla bores (S. Aust.). Kalimnan (Low. Plioc.): Muddy Creek
(Up. Ser.) (Viet.), and River Murray, Nor’-west Bend (S. Aust.).

Lellina (?) albinelloides Tate. Shell, elongated oval ; length, 28 mm. ; height,
15 mm.; exterior ornamented with fine, regular, concentric striae.

Occurrences :—Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.): Dry Creek and Cowandilla (one
example) bores (S. Aust.). Kalimnan (Low. Plioc.): Common in upper beds
of Muddy Creek (Vict.),

Corbula (Notocorbula) ephamilla Tate. The right valve is concentrically
corrugated; left valve nearly smooth with irregularly striated lines of growth.

Occurrences :—Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.): Dry Creek, Croydon, Abaitoirs,
Brooklyn Park, Glanville, and Cowandilla (very common) bores. Kalimnan
(Low. Plioc.): River Murray, Nor’-west Bend; Mallee bores, upper bed
of Muddy Creek, Sorrento bore (Vict.). Janjukian (Mioc.): Lower bed of
Muddy Creek, lower part of Sorrento bore ( Vict.) ; Table Cape (Tas.).

Corbula (Notocorbula) pixidata Yate. Bath valyes ornamented with fine
and close-set concentric ridges. [C. compressa Verco is a synonym of this species. |

Occurrences :—Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.): Cowandilla, rather scarce. Ka-
limnan (Low. Plioc.): Mallee bores, Sorrento bore (Vict.), Janjukian (Mioc.) :
Muddy Creek, Sorrento bore (Vict.); Table Cape (Tas.).

Corbula (Notocorbula) sp. undetermined. Shell strongly convex. Right
valve, length 12 mm., height 10 mm.; umbo prominent and incurved; postetior
margin obliquely truncated; surface smooth and, in well-preserved specimens,
polished, with faint concentric (? colour bands); a few irregularly placed,
depressed radial ridges with very fine and closcly-packed radial lines, only seen by a
magnifying lens; has a single strong vertical tooth, Left valve, few examples
recognised as compared with the right, and a little indefinite, as no shell was found
with both valves attached; surface marked by concentric laminae, somewhat
irregular in outline, and, in some, a few depressed radial ridges, but not so charac-
teristic as those seen in the right valves. There is some difficulty in distinguish-
ing the left valve of this species from the left valve of C. ephamilla. Not un+
common in the Cowandilla bore.

Saxicava australis |amk, From the bore material were obtained, one right
valve, with a length of 24 mm. and height of 15 mm.; also a juvenile shell with
a length of 10 mm,

16

Occurrences :—In existing seas this genus is almost cosmopolitan in distribu-
tion, from the Arctic to Cape of Good Hope, including the Australasian Region.
Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.): Dry Creek, Abattoirs, and Cowandilla bores. Kalimnan
(Low. Plioc.): Gippsland Lakes (Vict.). Janjukian (Mioc.): Aldinga
(S. Aust.) ; Muddy Creek, Cape Otway, and Mornington ( Vict.).

ScAPHOPODA.

Dentatupar, A group of tubular molluscs that show considerable indi-
vidual variations which make specific distinctions often difficult. In discussing
the species Dentalium aratum Chapman and Gabriel remark, “A critical examina-
tion of the Recent related forms of the above genus has resulted in the following
conclusions: The Australian Dentaliidae form a large group, the characters of
which show a great amount of variation. D. arafwm is no exception, and the
species most likely to be confused with that form are the living D. robustum
Brazier, D. intercalatum Gould, and D. francisense Verco, D. robustwm can be
separated by the absence of longitudinal striae. A constant feature of the
costation in D. intercalatum is in the ribs becoming distinctly rounded in later
growth. In the case of D. francisense we agree with Verco who remarks, “1 am
inclined to think that even this species is but an extreme variant of the D. mter-
calatum Gould.” [Chap. and Gab., 1914, p. 314.] ;

Dentalium intercalatum Gould. Has priority over other names. Verco’s
observations on this species are very suggestive. |Verco, 1904, p. 136.] He
states, “he number of ribs very rarcly remains the same throughout the entire
length of the shell.” This increase occurs in two ways: 1, By intercalation, when
secondary, or more, riblets are developed in the interspaces; and 2, By
rib-splitting, when a groove is formed, which gradually widens until the single rib
becomes duplex. Either of these methods, or both, may occur in the same indi-
vidual. Verco had under examination more than 300 dredged individuals, and
states, “I have vainly endeavoured to discover more than one species among them.
They are exceedingly variable, and were it not for intermediate forms quite a
dozen species might be created” (loc, cit., p. 135).

Among these variants in the Cowandilla bore the following may be
mentioned :—

Dentalium intercalatum aratum Tate. A small graceful shell, distinctly
curved. Tate says, “The ornament varies in the acuteness and strength of the
ribs and, therefore, in the depth of the interspaces; in some specimens, by reduc-
tion in volume of the primary ribs and the increased size of the intermediate ones,
the anterior part is subrotund and multicostated.” [Tate, R., 1886-7, p, 192.
In the Cowandilla specimens the ribs at the posterior end are acute and
prominent, which become reduced im size towards the apertural end with a
corresponding widening of the intermediate spaces in which faint secondary
riblets appear, and, in well-preserved specimens, fine transverse striations occur.

Occurrences —Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.) : Thirteen examples; the longest has
a length of 25 mm.; diameter of aperture, $imm. Janjukian (Mioc.): Muloo-
wurtic, Ardrossan, Murray Cliffs, Morgan (S. Aust.) ; Muddy Creek (lower bed)
and Schnapper Point (Vict.).

Dentalium intercalatum. francisense Verco. Shell moderately solid; number
of ribs 11, more or Jess; ribs round, or broad and flattened; rihs frequently split
at varying distances from the posterior extremity, producing duplex ribs, which
may, again, subdivide. Dredged by Vereo off St. Francis Island, Cape Borda,
Gulf St, Vincent, and Geographe Bay, Western Australia, The only fossil record
is from Cowandilla bore, several imperfect examples, the longest 25 mm,

17

Dentalium intercalatum var. Certain examples occur in this material that have
a nearly smooth surface with about 15 very narrow, low, thread-like ribs with wide
interspaces, maintained with great regularity. Sometimes a weak and scarcely
recognisable riblet is present in the centre of the interspaces. The shell surface
shows concentric lines of growth. Seven fragments of this kind were obtained,
the longest measures 13 mm. with a transverse diameter of 2 mm.

Dentalium sp. (undetermined). Fragments only, Shell large and strong;
longest piece 28 mm., breadth 7 mm.; ornamented with broad ridges separated
by narrow interspaces; or numerous ridges, of various sizes, irregularly deposed,
massed in places and fading in others; numerous annular constrictions and very
fine concentric striae. 1 cannot refer these specimens to any known species, either
Recent or fossil, Four examples.

GASTEROPODA.

Emarginula dennanti Chap, and Gab. A unique but imperfect specimen was
obtained from this horizon, consisting of the apical portion of the shell—the
marginal testaceous base, including the “slit,” is absent through fracture. The
evidences available for determination show that the shell belongs to the
Fissurellidae, the shell is oval and conical in outline, the apex recurved and
situated postmedially, the surface cancellated, The fragment, although only 6 mm.
in length, agrees very closely with the above species [Chapman, F., and Gabriel,
C. J., 1923, p. 27], having about 24 primary, radiating ribs with secondary riblets,
and these are crossed by concentric ridges with tegulated prominences at the
intersections. The latter, especially on the primary ribs, by abrasion, show worn
surfaces, and these, when viewed through a compound microscope, expose a
pseudo-septate or cellular structure.

Occurrences :—This fragment from the Cowandilla bore is the only record
of the fossil in the Adelaidean beds. Chapman and Gabriel give the following
localities: Baleombian (Oligocene) type from Grice’s Creek (J. F. Bailey coll.).
Also from Altona Bay coal shaft, Balcombe Bay and Muddy Creek (Cudmore
coll.), Muddy Creek (Dennant coll). Janjukian (Mioc.): Gellibrand River
(Cudmore and Parr coll.), An internal cast of a related, if not identical, shell
occtits in the Murray cliffs at Morgan (F. A. Cudmore coll.).

Phasianella australis Gmelin. A common living species in the local seas.
Although no shells of this gasteropod were obtained from the present bore
material, its presence was clearly indicated by the occurrence of several charac-
teristic opercula, of medium size, Its first record as a fossil.

Calliostoma sp. No. 1 (undetermined). Specimen incomplete, consisting
only of the base and penultimate whorl of the spire. Shell nacreous internally.
Diameter of base, 22°5 mm. Base flat and keeled. The portion of spire pre-
served is ornamented with granulous spiral ridges, separated by smaller and,
mostly, non-granulous spirals. The base is ornamented with ten concentrically
encircling ribs of uniform size, faintly granulous. The four outer circles carry
single, smaller, interstitial riblets in the depressions between the stronger ribs.

This fragment shows some likeness to C, rubignosum (Valenciennes =
Trochus nobilis Philippi), a Recent South Australian species, but can be easily
distinguished.

Calliostoma sp. No. 2 (undetermined). Five examples of a small and very
ornainental shell were obtained from this material. The largest of these, which
hag lost about half the spire by fracture, had a diameter of, 8 mm.; the next in
size, which is complete, has a diameter of 5 mm, and a height of 6 mm.; the
smallest measures 2°5 mm, by 2:5 mm. The second mentioned is selected for
description. The shell is acutely conical, the protoconch makes three turns and

18

is smooth and colourless. There are six whorls, Towards the apex the first three
or four whorls have close-set spiral ribs and are crossed by equally close-set radial
ribs, both sets are closely charged with granules. A thicker and somewhat
prominent spiral rib originates not tar below the summit, increasing in size as it
descends, ullimately forms a prominent and somewhat overspread peripheral keel
This dominant rib carrics somewhat larger granules than the rest, and the latter
take the form of vertical bars, while the rib, as a whole, shows numerous fine,
longitudinal striations. Four secondary ribs occupy the spaces between the chief
spiral, which are also granulous. The base is ornamented with eight concentric
and encireling rounded ribs,

Clanculus sp. (aff. dunkert Koch.). A single specimen only. Diameter,
6°5 mm.; height, 6 mm.; slightly depressed, consisting of five whorls, Protoconch
smooth, making one and a half turns. Aperture ovately-subangular, nacreous,
columella with bidentate terminal ; outer lip costated internally ; periphery rounded,
marked by a spiral of larger beads; penultimate whorl carries two granulous
spirals, increasing in size, followed by an infra-sutural row of granules that are
still larger. Above the sutural depression the same order of granulous spirals
follow in decreasing strength with an apical band of exceedingly fine granulous
spirals below the protoconch. The interstitial depressions, separating the granu-
lous lyrae, are covered by fine oblique threads. ‘The last whorl is somewhat
gibbous and ornamented with nine concentric spirals feebly marked by granulcs,
and the depressions by fine oblique threads. ‘The shell has a general likeness to
C. dunkeri, but is evidently distinct,

Callamphala (Teinostoma) depressula (Chap. and Gab.), Six examples,
well preserved and showing good polish. Greatest diameter, 2°5 mm. Agree in
all particulars with the figured type.

Occurrences :—In 1878 Tate described a related species from Gulf St. Vincent
under the name Ethalia (?) cancellata [1879, p. 139], afterwards altered to
Teinostoma cancellata. Differs from the present specics in being considerably
larger, more lenticular in shape, and carries fine cancellated ytriae. Adelaidean
(Up. Plioc): Only known from Cowandilla bore. Kalimnan (Low. Plioc.):
Occurred in three samples in Mallee bore, No. 10, “all of which contain a
Kalimnan fauna.”

Cyelostrema homalon Verco. Twelve examples. Longest diameter of largest
specimen, 3 mm. Reported by Chapman from a Kalimnan horizon in the Mallee
bore, No. 10. Dredged by Verco off Capes Borda and Jaffa.

Neodiasloma provisi (Tate). This is one of the largest and most charac-
teristic gasteropods in the Adclaidean Upper Pliocene. [Tate, R., 1893, p. 177.]
Sixteen specimens were obtained from the present bore material, the largest has
a length of 45 mm.

Occurrences :—Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.): Found in all the examined material
from bores at this horizon, generally quite common, The only occurrences
recorded outside the above-mentioned area and horizon are Tate, Hallett’s Cove,
and Howchin, in the small outlier at Marina, near Brighton (S. Aust.), both of
Lawer Phlocene age, A related form has been recorded by Chapman [from
Vivonne Bay, Kangaroo Island.

Zeacrypta (Crepidula) att. dubitabilis (late). ‘Vhe “Slipper Limpet.”
The shell has an oval outline, in juvenile examples the dorsal surface is somewhat
depressed, but, in maturity, is strongly convex marked with growth lines; apex
submarginal. Seven specimens were obtained from Cowandilla, the largest has
a length of 28 mm., and breadth 20 mm.; the smallest 5 mm, by 4mm. Differs
in minor particulars, but can be, provisionally, placed with the above species.

Occurrences :--Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.): Seven examples. One, apparently
the same species, measuring $0 mm. by 22 mm., was obtained from the Brooklyn

19
bore. Kalimnan (Low. Plioc.): Gippsland Lakes (Vict.), Janjukian (Mioc.) :
River Murray cliffs, (S.Aust.) and Mornington (Vict.).

Calyplraea (Sigapatella) undulata Tate. Shell thin and orbicular in outline;
spire elevated with a circinately-coiled apex. ‘Ten examples, immature and small,
the largest measuring 6 mm. in diameter, but as the sharp and delicate periphery,
in each case, has been damaged, the true diameter is not shown.

Occurrences :—Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.): Only known in this bore. Jan-
jukian (Mioc.): River Murray cliffs (S. Aust.) ; Muddy Creek ( Vict.).

Polinices (Natica) subvarians (Tate). Three examples, all more or less
imperfect.

Occurrences :—Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.): Brooklyn Park, Glanville, and
present bore. Kalimnan (Low. Plioc.): Hallett’s Cove, Aldinga (Up. Ser.)
(S. Aust.); Gippsland locality (Vict.).

TURRITELLIDAE, This family of gasteropods is abundantly represented in the
Adelaidean Upper Pliocene, in small examples, the examination of which has
been deferred, especially as the group, including closely related genera, is under
critical revision at the present time. [Since the above was written Mr. Cotton
and Miss N. H. Woods have published their paper on this subject. See References
at end. |

Vermicularia (Thylacodes) sipho (Lam.). Was described by Iamarck under
Serpula. Has a vermiform or tubular test in a twisted irregular growth, more
or less spiral. The surface has concentric growth lines crossed by numerous, fine,
longitudinal costae. It is a common Recent form, often found cast up on the
beach. In the present bore the remains are much weathered and chalky and much
broken up. The longest fragment measures 35 mm. in length, and the largest
apertural diameter measures 12 mm. A large fragment was caught during life
between two oyster shells which, by their united growth, enclosed it. Another
fragment is enclosed within a solid mass of argillaceous limestone. This appears
to be its first record in a fossil condition,

Siliquaria australis Q. and G. ‘Tubular with a spiral commencement, sub-
sequently irregularly coiled, Can be distinguished from Vermicularia by possess-
ing a longitudinal slit or fissure, which is sometimes bridged and thereby reduced
to perforations. Common in shallow water and on beaches in South Australia.

Other Occurrences :—Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.): Cowandilla, common. Jan-
jukian (Mioc.): Collected by the author at Hackham, McLaren Vale and River
Murray cliffs (S, Aust.).

Pelicaria howchini Cotton [Cotton, B. C., 1934]. In relation to this species
Mr. Cotton has favoured me with the following note: “This is a typical fossil
of the Upper Pliocene and is distinguished from P. coronata Tate by the non-
canaliculate sutures. The latter species is typical of the Lower Pliocene and
occurs in the deposit at Vivonne Bay, Kangaroo Island, together with Neritina
and tropical species of Nerita. Chapman [Association for Advancement of
Science, 1935, p. 125] records the Vivonne Bay deposit as Upper Pliocene, but
the remains are typically those of the Lower Pliocene.” Mr. Cotton has also
called my attention to the use of the term Tylospira for this genus (Pelicaria), by
some writers, as being unwarranted. Thiele, in his Handbuch der Systematischen
Weichterkunde, pt. i, p. 251, 1929, gives Tylospira Harris, 1897, as a synonym of
Pelicaria Gray, 1857; so that, on a question of priority, the latter must be retained.

Occurrences :—Adelaidean (Up. Plioc.): All bores, at this horizon, in the
Adelaide basin. In the present bore, abundant, but badly preserved.

CeritHoip shell. Two fragments of the same large species obtained from the
Glanville bore [Howchin, W., 1935, p. 90] and described as a new species in an
Appendix to the present paper, were obtained from the present bore. Both

20

specimens are portions from near the aboral end; one measures 27 mm. in length,
and the other 18 mm.; the ornamentation of the surface, in each case, is well
preserved.

Erato minor Tate, One example, in good condition, white and shiny. Length,
5 mm.; width, 3 mm.

Other Occurrences :—Janjukian (Mioc.): Muddy Creek (Vict.); River
Murray cliffs (S. Aust.).

Nassaria (Nassa) tatei (T. Woods). Thirty-two examples were obtained
from this bore material; they are small but typical.

Other Occurrences—Janjukian (Mioc.): Muddy Creek (Vict.); River
Murray cliffs (S. Aust.).

Marginella atypha (Tate). Agrees with Tate’s Mitra atypha, A single
small specimen. Length, 4 mm.; breadth, 2-5 mm.

Other Occurrences :—Kalimnan (Low. Plioc.): Muddy Creek (Up. Ser.),
Vict.

Ancilla (Ancillaria) semilaevis T. Woods. A single example, Length,
8 mm.; breadth, 3 mm.

Other Occurrences :—Janjukian (Mioc.): River Murray cliffs (S. Aust.) ;
Muddy Creek (Tow. Ser.), Vict.

Oliva adelaidae Tate. One example. Length, 6 mm; breadth, 3 mm.

Other Occurrences:—Miocene: Kent ‘'own bore,

Pupa Bolten [non Lamk.] sp. (indeterminate). A single imperfect specimen,
including the body whorl but not the spire. Judging from the fragment available
it has some resemblance to the Recent shell Pupa (Buccinula) intermedia Angas,
but it is smaller, the body whorl less globose, and is differently coloured. Height
(of fragment), 5 mm.; diameter, 3 mm.; length of aperture, 4-2 mm.; is of a
uniform brownish colour, and surrounded by fine spiral threads. The genus is
represented by two species in South Australian waters, mostly dredged, and not
common,

Cylichnella callosa Tate and Cossm. An opisthobranch gasteropod. ‘lwelve
specimens, all more or less juvenile; the largest has a length of 8 mm. and a
breadth of 2-5 mm. ;

Occurrences :—Rare in distribution. Miocene of Aldinga (S. Aust.) and
Cape Otway (Vict.) are the only records,

Tornatina aptycha Cossm. ‘This is another opisthobranch gasteropod.,

Occurrences :—Adclaidean (Up. Plioc.): Three examples, Cowandilla bore.
Janjukian (Mioc.): Muddy Creek (Low. Ser.), Vict.; Table Cape (Tas.).
Reported by Chapman from the Mallee bores, but the horizon is, apparently, not
indicated,

DPTEROPODA,

(?) Pteropod fragment, A V-shaped vessel with oval aperture, dull white
colour, height 5 mm., greatest breadth 4 mm., showing eight parallel bands of:
growth. The upper edge is a line of fracture. Zoological position doubtful—
seems most likcly to he portion of a pleropod.

DECAPODA.
Two maxillipedes of a small crab.

PIsceEs.
fish remains are, in a general way, rather scarce and consist mainly of such
as consist of hard parts and a fair size.
1. Diodon sp. Palatal plate, being part of the dental appliance of the
Porcupine or Globe I’ish that lives in the local seas and is sometimes cast up on

al

the beach. The plate measures 23 mm. by 20 mm. Portions of the armature of
the jaw of the, same kind of fish were obtained from the Glanville bore.

2. Otoliths. A great number of small otoliths, ranging in size from 1 mm.
to 7 mm., in the longer diameter, were obtained from this bore, probably repre-
senting several species of fish.

3. A promiscuous variety of small fish bones were selected that are in-
determinable.

No remains of Sclachians were obtained.

End of the Chief Fossiliferous Zone—470-507 Feet,

Depth, 510 ft.—A fine-grained incoherent silt, like the last sample. The
only large fossil was a complete shell of Polinices subvarians (Tate), which was
probably derived from the overlying bed. In other respects the larger material
was limited to shell breccia. The foraminifera, moderately common, Other
observations made were, one example of Lucina affinis Tate, Tellina aequilatera
Tate, two small gasteropods, and the mandible of a small decapod crustacean.

Depth, 515 ft-—A loose, greyish silt, limited to objects of rarely mone
than a few millimetres in diameter; the larger composed of angular shell frag-
ments, the organic remains, otherwise, being very scarce. There came under
observation, a few very minute mollusca, mostly imperfect; polyzoa very rare,
and a considerable number of fragments of a rough cellular kind that are probably
the triturated remains of the cellular structure in the pelecypod Mintha grandis,
as previously suggested. Foraminifera scarce and small.

Depth, 520 ft—Argillaceous silt with more clay than in the preceding,
which gives more cohesion to the bed but goes down easily in water. Shelly
fragments rather larger than in the last sample but are rarely sufficiently com-
plete for determination. Most of the organic remains are of almost microscopic
size.

FoRAMINIFERA,

Triloculina trigonula Lamk.

Quinqueloculina linnaeana d’Orb, Q. ferussacti d’Orb.

Spiroloculina aff. arenaria Br.

Guttulina yabei Cush and Oz. G. regina (B. P. and J.).

Sigmoidella elegantissima (P. and J.). S$. kagaensis Cush and Oz.

Discorbis turbo (d’Orb.).

Elphidium striatopunctatum (F. and M.). FE. macellum (I. and M.).

Rotalia beccarti Linné. R. howchint Chap., Parr and Coll,

PELECYPODA.

Nucula (Pronucula) micans Angas. Several examples with a length of
2-5 mm. Recent, Gulf St. Vincent.

Austrosarepta (Lissarca) rubricata (Tate). Several examples, varying in
length from 1-0 mm. to 2-0 mm., have several small nicks on the ventral edge.
Recent, in Gulf St. Vincent.

Lucina araea ‘Tate.

Tellina aequilatera Tate. T. albinelloides Tate. These are the only forms
in the fossil remains of the sample to reach a moderate size.

GASTEROPODA.
Calypiraea (Sigapatella) undulata Tate. One imperfect specimen.
Nassaria tater (T. Woods).
Tornatina aptycha Coss. A small [3-5 mm.] but perfect specimen,

22

Pupa Bolten [non lamk.] (?) intermedia (Angas). A broken specimen.
Cyclostrema homalon Verco. Recent, in South Australian waters,

SUNDRIES,

Potyzoa,—Moderately common and varied. In a broken-up condition; may
have contributed to the irregular cellular structures that are common in the residue
from washing.

OsrracopA—Occur only as single separated valves.

ECHINODERMATA.—Plates and spines of echinids.

Pisces.—Otoliths of teleostean fishes.

Depth, 525 ft—Dark-coloured friable silt, carries very few visible organic
fragments. Under examination the recognisable fossils were almost limited to
such as were of nearly microscopic size.

FoORAMINIFERA,

These are well represented, some species exceedingly common.

Triloculina trigonula Lamk.

Quinqueloculina linnaeana d’Orb. Q. oblonga Terg. Q. ferussacii d’Orb.

Spiroloculina aff. arenaria Br. Morc common than usual,

Cribrobulimina mixta (syn. polystoma) (P. and J.).

Sigmoidella elegantissima (P. and J.). S. kagaensis Cush. and Oz.

Gullulina spicaeformis (Roemer) var, australis (d’Orb.), fusiform in out-
line with elongated chambers and longitudinally costated, the costac coarser than
those in G. regina. G. problema (d’Orb.). G. (Sigmoidina) pacifica Cush and
Oz. The last-named bottle-necked with longitudinal chambers.

Discorbis turbo (d’Orb.).

Epistomella polystomelloides (P. and J.). One example.

Rotalia beccarti Linné. R. howchini Chap., Parr and Coll.

Elphidium macellum (F and M.).

PELECYPODA.

The coarser residue, after passing through the sieves, consisted mostly of
triturated bivalve shells, among which the thicker parts of the shell, Muiltha
(Milthoidea) grandis H. Woods, iormed some of the larger pieces. The smaller
species had been better preserved than the larger ones and constitute the greater
number of the recorded forms.

Ostrea sp. A few neanic examples.

Antigona propingua (T. Woods). A much weathered valve of this species
was the only fossil of moderate size obtained irom the washing; but there were
five other small examples of the species in good condition.

Tellina aequilatera Tate; T. (2?) albinelloides Tate: T, (?) masoni Tate.

Loripes icterica Reeve. L. stmulans Tate.

Lucina affinis Tate.

Austrosarepta (Lissarca) rubricata Tate.

GASTEROPODA.
Vermicularia (Thylacodes) sipho (Lamk.),
Polinices subvarians (Tate). A few juvenile specimens.
Nassaria (Nassa) tatei (T. Woods).
Cyclostrema homelon Verco.
Callomphala (Teinostoma) depressula (Chap. and Gab). One example,
measures 2-2 mim.
Cylichnella callosa Tate and Coss,

23

SUNDRIES,

PoLyzoa.—In considerable numbers and variety, but much weathered.
EctiNnoDERMATA.—Spatangoid spines, cidaridid tuberculous plates.
OsTRACODA.—Some species quite common, mostly single valves,
ANNELIDA.—Cadulus acuminatus Tate, one good specimen,
Pisces.—Undeterminable fragments, otoliths, small coprolites.

Depth, 530 ft—A dark-coloured silt precisely similar to the preceding
sample. The larger fragments consisted mainly of broken shells, among which were
recognised Ostrea, part of a valve of Spondylus arenicola Tate, the dorsal portion
of a valve of Meretrix sphericula Tate, a single valve of Antigona propinqud
(T. Woods), and a small Neodiastoma provisit (Tate). The balance was made
up of small objects seldom exceeding a few millimetres in extent, and the fauna,
generally, corresponded with that at the 525-feet level, although in some instances
in somewhat greater numbers. Among the rarities was a portion of a very small
shell belonging to the Patellidae with the apex and basal portions missing, the whole
measuring only 2-0 mm. in length. It is probably akin to another example of this
family recorded from the 485-507-feet level [ante, p. 17], under the genus
Emarginula.) The foraminifera differed little from former lists; those worthy
of mention are, the arenaceous Spiroloculina, with a speckled black and white test,
Quinqueloculina seminulum, Adelosina bicornis, and Marginulina costata,

Depth, 535 ft.—A dark-coloured incoherent silt which in water has the
appearance of black mud. Before treatment gives no visible signs of organic
remains. Coarse residue from washings, apart from two pieces of oyster shells,
consisted mainly of shell-detritus in pieces a few millimetres square. The recog-
nisuble fossils are either of microscopic size or examples mostly below the
normal size,

FORAMINIFERA,

Pyrgo elongata d’Orb. One imperfect specimen.

Triloculina trigonula Lamk, T. gracilis d’Orb.

Quingueloculina linnaeana d’Orb.

Spiroloculina aff. arenaria Br. Speckled arenaceous test.

Clavulina (?) parisiensis d’Orb, Uniscrial chambers only.

Marginulina costata (Batsch).

Sigmoidella elegantissima (P. and J.) S. kagaensis Cush. and Oz.

Guttulina spicaefornis (Roemer) var. australis (d’Orb.). Resembles
G, regina (B. P. and J.), but the chambers are elongated and carry stronger
costae. G. problema (d’Orb.).

Cibicides lobatulus (W. and J.).

Epistomella polystomelloides (P. and J.).

Rotalia beccarit (Linné). Abundant with large examples. R. howchini
Chap., Parr and Coll, Abundant with large examples.

Elphidium aff. craticulatum (F. and M.) (variety). This is a variety of the
species, with which it closely agrees except in being compressed, where it resembles
E. macellum (F. and M.). The specimens are large and have a glassy, almost
clear shell substance throughout which, in a measure, obscures the septation. They
have a graceful appearance and are common, There are a few smaller forms
that approach £. crispum and E. macellum as species.

Marginopora vertebrais (Q. and G.). Formerly classed under Orbitolites
complanatea Lamk., which latter is now restricted to an Eocene species. The late

@ A complete shell of this species (length, 8 mm.; width, 5-3 mm.) was obtained from
the Glanville bore, at a depth of 375-400 feet, but was overlooked at the, time.

24

Tertiary and Recent forms are now distinguished as above, One example in
present material, not quite perfect.

PELECYPODA.

Vermicularia (Thylacodes) sipho Lamk. The spiral base of one specimen
shows the surface of attachment; also fragments of the tubes.

Pronucula micans (Angas). A very minute shell, occurs in the beach sand
of Gulf St. Vincent.

Leda (subgen. Scaeoleda) verconis Tate. A minute shell, measures 1:5 mm.;
dredged in Gulf St. Vincent, etc. Was compared with Recent examples.

Austrosarepta (Lissarca) rubricata (Tate). Was placed by Tate under
Limopsis. Very minute, specimens measure—antero-posterior—1°O mm. to
2:0 mm. Dredged from Backstairs Passage, etc.

Tellina aequilatera Tate.

Lucina araea Tate; L. affints Tate.

Corbula (Notocorbula) ephamilla Tate.

Loripes icterica Reeve.

Venericardia (Cardita) aff. trigonalis (Tate). Length 6-0 mm., height
6:0 mm., with 12 strong radial ribs; much weathered.

(ZASTEROPODA.

Nassaria (Nassa) tatei (T. Woods).

Polinices subvarians (Tate).

Cyclostrema homalon Verco.

Callomphala (Teinostama) depressula (Chap. and Gab.).

Zeacrypta (Crepidula) aff. dubitabilis Tate, A small neanic specimen, but
complete.

Pupa Bolten [non Lamak.] aff. intermedia (Angas). A small and imperfect
specimen, probably the same species as the one recorded from the 485-507-ft. level.

Rhizorus rostratus Adams [Opis.]. Three examples. A common Recent
Australian form.
Cylichna pygmaea Adams [Opis)] Recent occurrences near Port Lincoln,
Nine examples.
SUNDRIES.

Potyzoa,—In considerable numbers and variety. One interesting species, not
previously met with, is in the form of a minute inverted cone, pointed at the base,
widening rather rapidly in its upward growth with a circular and approximately
level surface. The zooecia form tubes, that lie side by side in a radial position,
occupying about one-third of the marginal surface, while the oral apertures form
the periphery. The central portions of the zoarium consist of massed vesicular
tissue. The single specimen obtained from the present sample measures 1°5 mm,
in height and 2°0 mm. in greatest breadth. Later, at greater depths, specimens
were obtained up to 2‘0 mm. by 3-0 mm. in height and breadth.

ANNELIDA-—A broken specimen of Ditrupa cornea var. wormbetiensis
McCoy.

OsrracopA.—Moderately common.

[Also the usual microzoa pertaining to echinoderms and fishes.]

Depth, 540 ft.—Dark-greyish, incoherent silt showing only slight indications
of organic remains. Residue from washings, chiefly pelecypod fragments within
a centimetre grade as to size.

25

FoRAMINIFERA,
Triloculina trigonula Lamk.
Spiroloculina aff. arenaria Br. S. grata Terg. Test ornamented with strong -
longitudinal ribs.
Clavulina parisienses d’Orb. Originally named from specimens in the Eocene
of Paris. In present seas at all depths down to 3,000 fathoms.
Sigmoidella elegantissima P. and J. S. kagaensis Cush. and Oz.
Sigmoilina tenuis Cj. Two specimens. ~
Guttulina problema d’Orb.
Pyrulina sp.
Cribrobulimina mixta (syn. polystoma) P. and J. sp.
Cibicides lobatulus (W. and J.).
Discorbis vesicularis Lamk., D. turbo (d’Orb.).
Rotalia beccarti Linné. Very common. R. howchini Chap., Parr and Coll.
Very common.
Elphidium aff. craticulatum F. and M.; E. macellum (F. and M.); E. crispume
(Linné.).
PELECYPODA.

Pronucula micans Angas. One good example.

Glycymeris convexa Tate. One small example.

Corbula (Notocorbula) ephamilla Tate.

Tellina aequilatera Tate. The Tellinidae form the greatest part of the fossil
remains.

Austrosarepto Lissarca rubricata (Tate). Two specimens.

Loripes icterica Reeve.

Lucina affinis Tate.

Divaricella quadrisulcata (Yate). One neanic specimen.

Antigona propinqua (T. Woods). Two examples.

SCAPILOPODA,
Dentalium intercalatum aratum Tate. One imperfect example.

GASTEROPODA.

These are rare, small, and mostly imperfect.
Cyclostrema homalon Verco. One example.
Rhigorus rostratus Adams [Opis.].

Cylichna pygmaea Adams [Opis.].

SUNDRIES.

Similar to the preceding, including another example of the rare cone-shaped
polyzoan.

Depth, 543 ft—Only three feet separate this sample from the preceding
one, but differs considerably from the latter in the nature of the sediment. In the
dry condition it is a hard black mud with no signs of anything else. After wash-
ing, the larger fragments, that average about a quarter of an inch in diameter,
consist of pellets of the bedding made adherent by the presence of calcareous
cellular structures. Mixed with these are fragments of rather thick bivalve shells
that give no direct evidence as to their origin. There is an almost entire absence
of molluscan remains that can be recognised. The minute pelecypod valves that
have been the chief evidences of mollusca in the upper levels are here entirely
absent. There are a few polyzoa, greatly weathered, that include three additional

26

examples of the rare inverted cone species. The foraminifera are fewer than
usual and, generally, are not so well preserved. Those worthy of mention are
Llphidium att. craticulatum (F. and M.), which are common and attain a size
equal to 2°2 mm.; a very fine example of Adelosina bicornis (W. and J.); and
two examples of Nodosaria comata Batsch, thick-set stumpy tests, showing five
chambers with an extreme length of 2 mm. The foraminifera, as well as the
other microzoa, are commonly encrusted by gritty particles which obscure the
surface. Glauconitic grains are present, as in other levels, as well as a consider-
able number of jet-black particles, rounded, irregular, and sometimes angular in
outline, which, while present at all fossiliferous depths, seem particularly numerous
in the present sample; their origin is obscure.

Depth, 545-548 ft—There is less clay, in the descending levels, from the
last sample, the material being a light-grey free silt; three-fourths sand. Organic
remains scarce and limited to objects of small size. The foraminifera are
still represented most conspicuously by the large species Elphidium aff. craticu-
lotum, which have the same defacing incrustations as mentioned above. The
Polyzoa are moderately common in small weathered pieces, with larger lumps up
to three-quarters of an inch of irregular cellular structure, which is sometimes set
in a dark-coloured calcareous base which may, in part, be the product of broken-
down polyzoal tissues. Two more examples of the polyzoan, having the shape
of an inverted cone, were obtained from this horizon. A feature of these washings
was the presence of a large number of broken annelid tubes. These were free,
straight, or slightly curved, some contracted at the primordial end, They occur
in fragments, measuring about onc millimetre in breadth and five millimetres in
length, probably belonging to the Serpula socialis group; also a few Ditrupa cornea
var. wormbetiensis. ‘Che only pelecypod shells recognised were two fragments of
Divaricella quadrisulcata, a neanic valve of Loripes icterica, and a single valve of
Austrosarepta (Lissarca) rubricata that measured only 0-8 mm. in diameter. No
remains of gasteropods were seen.

Depth, 550 ft—An excessively fine and free quartz sand that mostly
passes through the miller’s finest silk sieves. Fossils rare and almost limited to.
microzoa. Foraminifera are limited in species and rather scarce, but include some
very fine examples of Elphidiwm aft. craticulatum as well as other species,
especially characteristic of the Upper Pliocene beds, as Sigamoidella elegantissima,
Epistomella polystomelloides, Discorbis turbo, Rotalia beccarii and R. howchini.
The Annelida, as in the previous sample, are represented by numerous short-length
smooth calcareous tubes, straight or slightly curved, and a few Ditrupa cornea
var. wormbetiensis. “he Polyzoa are common in small pieces and disfigured by
sand grains. The lumps of a dark-colourcd limestone, up to 15 mm. in diameter,
enclosing undefined cellular tissue, mentioned under the last sample, are present
again in this sample, and have been probably derived from some other geological
horizon. A weathered fragment of a Tellina sp. valve and two small imperfect
gasteropods were all the mollusca noticed ; two-tovthed mandibles of small decapod
crustaceans; and undefinable fish remains.

3. (?) Lowre Prrocene,

The bore was continued, further to a depth of 670 feet, but as the samples
below the 550-feet level had gone astray, further examination was arrested. I am,
however, indebted to the Assistant Government Geolugist, Mr. R. W. Segnit, who
most courteously supplied me with the personal notes he had made, at the time,
in relation to that part of lhe boring covered by the missing samples. I very gladly
incorporate these notes, which in a measure, fill the blank, and are as follows:—

27

Depth, 550-599 ft. (49 ft.) —Grey fossiliferous sands.

Depth, 599-620 ft. (21 ft.) —Light buff and fine fossiliferous (drift) sands.
This buff sand came up the casing during drilling.

Depth, 620-670 ft. (50 ft.) —Bright yellow very fine sand.

III—REMARKS ON THE GEOLOGICAL SECTION.

1. GENERAL.

(a) The first 400 feet consist of fluviatile deposits, varying in grade from
fine to coarse, which represent the usual superficial sediments of the Adelaide
Plains and can be classed with the newer River Systems of South Australia, and,
locally, belong to the origin and development of the River Torrens.

(b) The second stratigraphical section consists of a fossiliferous series of
greyish and dark-coloured silts, heavily charged with mud in a thickness of about
200 feet, from the 400-feet level to about the 600-feet level.

(c) The third and lowest section of the sediments reached consist of a light,
buff-coloured, drift sand with marine fossils that was proved (in a thickness of
about 50 feet) to the bottom of the bore at 670 feet.

2. PLEISTOCENE.

The 400 fect of alluvial deposits show a disconformity both immediately
above and below them. In the Glanville and Port Adelaide district these beds
are overlain by two marine horizons, a Lower and an Upper Raised Sea Bed
(now partly below sea level), the lower member of which may be regarded as
of late Pleistocene age, and the underlying thick alluvial beds as belonging to a
stage somewhat earlier. Tate, following a European terminology, designated
these alluvial beds as ‘““Mammaliferous Drift,” as they carry the remains of extinct
mammals.

3. ADELAIDEAN (Upper PLIOcENE),

At about the 400-feet level a marked disconformity occurs, where the coarse
fluviatile sediments give place to beds of a different lithological nature and that
carry marine fossils. The conditions under which these fossiliferous beds were
laid down are to some extent uncertain. It is only in a zone of about 3/7 feet that
normal marine conditions appear to have existed, for whilst in this narrow belt
marine life is abundant and includes shells of exceptional size, the rest of the
beds, both above and bclow this rich fossiliferous zone, are almost destitute of
fossils beyond those of almost microscopic size, whilst the debris of larger shells
constitute the greater part of the organic remains. Moreover, as a six-inch core
was cut, and often delivered intact, the shelly debris was not the result of the drill-
ing tool, but arose from natural causes incidental to the deposition of the beds.
The explanation seems to be that the sediments in this part of the section were
essentially fluviatile in their origi, and that the organic remains found in them
were cither wholly, or in the main, derived from extraneous sources. Two sources
may be suggested—One of these, the gradual sinking of the Adelaide trough, con-
comitantly with the rising of the land in the background, would, from time to
time, leave behind mural fault scarps consisting of older fossiliferous formations,
the waste of which would naturally come within the range of adjacent river
currents and become mixed with the alluvial wash. Or, again, as the situation was
near the outlet of a river, as well as in close proximity to the coastline (the sea
certainly made a transgression over the area at one stage of the sedimentation),
the prevailing winds would operate on the dry beach deposits and would carry
light material inland, which might easily be dusted over the lower reaches of the
river. The limitations of this agency may explain why the organic remains

28

through most of the deposits are so small. The foraminifera would especially be
subject to such a means of transport. Lvidences pointing in the same direction
as suggested above were given in my previous paper, Part I, 1935,

4. (?) Lower PiioceNe,

At about the 600-feet level another geological disconformity occurs, par-
ticulars of which the author, as stated above, is indebted ta the courtesy of the
Assistant Government Geologist (Mr, Ralph Segnit). There is the strongest
contrasts in the nature of the sediments at this level as compared with those that
overlie them, although they are both fossiliferous. In consequence of the samples
from this section having gone astray no fossils are available for comparison, but
there is the highest probability that these free, buff-coloured sands represent a
distinct geological system from the overlying silts and, consequently, of greater age.

The only Jocal formation at all resembling these deep-seated yellowish sands
is the Lower Pliocene sands (with indurated layers) that form the plateau on
which Adelaide is built, and have been penetrated, in well-sinking, by scores of
business houses within the limits of the city. It was anticipated that the |.ower
Pliocene beds would underlic the Upper Pliocene marine formation for the follow-
ing reasons. In the step-faulting of the Adelaide ranges towards the great
downthrow on the westward side there is a step, or shelf, caused by a great fault-
block slipping down about every 500 feet of vertical height. In illustration of this
point see the accompanying diagram on page 29.

GEOLOGICAL SECTION.

The Mount Lofty Ranges, in their typical development, may be taken to have
an average height of about 2,000 feet, which represents the original peneplained
surface of the country antedating the elevation of the ranges. ‘Lhe step-faulting,
which was a concomitant of this elevation, settled in platforms at the following
levels :-—

No. 1 Faulted-block formed the sloping platiorm of Upper Sturt, at an
average height of 1,500 feet above sea level.

No. 2. Ditto, formed the Blackwood-Belair platform, at 900 feet.

No, 3. Ditto, the Adelaide-Mitcham platform, at 100-200 feet.

No. 4. Ditto, caused a fracture of the Adelaide platform, with a down-

throw of the broken segment, to 600 feet below sea level.

The fault-plane that caused the last-named displacement has a north and
south direction; to the northward it follows the western side of the rounded scarp
of Prospect, Enfield, Gepp’s Cross, and passes between the Metropolitan Abattoirs
bore and the Stockade; to the southward it follows the western parklands and
passes between the Black Forest bore and Cowandilla bore. The boring was
stopped at a critical level, geologically, and by an unfortunate mishap, as stated
above, the material at this depth was not available for examination, information
concerning which being limited to personal notes, made at the time by the Assistant
Government Geologist (Mr. R. W. Segnit), but all the ascertained facts suggest
that this very distinctive bed that occurs at the 600-feet level is the faulted Lower
Pliocene from the Adelaide platform, and it was on this submerged shelf that the
Upper Pliocene marine beds, as well as the overlying 400 [eet of alluvium, were laid
down. There can be little doubt that if the bore had becn continued a few feet
lower it would have penetrated the fussiliferous Miocene beds which underlie
the Lower Pliocene of the Adclaide platform, as proved by the Black Forest and
Kent Town bores and are at the surface in the banks of the River Torrens above
Adelaide.

29

W

MEL of ty Ranges

Geological féelalionshins

i, pincrailia Bore

Sotto
PANS ISRO
YOAV AA

LEGEND

FESEGHTLLHESTEISTA ae
if Feee= Alluviom Up. Plice.
se EdD owPiod [Miocene fl FiTH| Act Series

Y
CMA

Geological Section.

30

5, PALAEONTOLOGICAL.

During the deposition of the Adeclaidean Upper Pliocene sediments there
seems to have been an alternating action and reaction between the forces of the
land and sea. It was only during the deposition of about 30 feet or 40 feet, as
already stated, that normal marine conditions existed and marine life occurred
in situ over the area, Throughout the rest of the deposits there was an almost
total absence of conspicuous forms of life, the organic remains being limited to
shell debris and to such forms of life as were of almost microscopic size, just
such ohjects as might be transported by wind-action or gentle currents of water.
The physical conditions were unstable, A base-level with a rising hinterland at
the back, and oscillating sea margins in front, formed a somewhat indefinite
borderland. The prevailing south-westerlies would carry the light material of
the shore inland, and the streams, by lateral erosion, would carry along the waste
from older fossiliferous systems that formed their banks. This seems to explain
the incongruity of clear-water marine life, such as Polyzoa, being embedded in
dense mud.

In the present paper the species recorded number, approximately, 38 fora-
minifera, 36 pelecypods, 26 gasteropods, and a promiscuous assemblage in various
classes in smaller numbers. The foraminifera are generally plentiful, as to indi-
viduals, but limited as to species. They consist, mostly, of relatively common
species of shallow water habit, more limited in variety than the present occurrences
on our local beaches and in the Port Adelaide River [Howchin, W., 1890] and,
in some species, they show a certain affinity with those found in the Miocene and
IKalimnan beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

Among the more striking species of this class found in the Cowandilla bore
is Spiroloculina aff. arenaria Br, [sce ante, p. 4]. It has a coarse arenaceous
test interspersed with black, shiny granules that give the test a speckled appear-
ance. These black grains appear to have been obtained from the bed in which the
shells are found, for similar grains are fairly abundant in the finer material. A
few greenish pellets of glauconite occur in the material, but there seems no relation-
ship between these and the black, shiny grains. The lattcr have some resemblance
to certain forms of fish remains which take on this colour in a fossil condition.
Can these minute granules represent the fossilized forms of the hard roes of
fishes? These black particles are not all of a spherical form, but may be angular
or flattened, suggesting other parts of a fish beside roes. LH the black ingredients
of the test were obtained from the sediments in which these foraminifera occur,
it proves that the latter lived contemporaneously with its formation and are found
mm situ. A somewhat similar form, but destitute of a speckled test, has been
figured by J. M, Flint [“Albatross” dredgings] off the coast of Florida; also by
W. J. Parr [1932] from dredgings at Westernport Bay, Victoria. It is certainly
distinct from Brady’s species.

Another remarkable foraminiferal species, Epistomella polystomelloides [see
ante, p. 6] occurs sparingly at a few horizons in the bore. It has a tropical and
subtropical distribution, and is one of the species in the present hore that shows
some relationship with the Muddy Creek fauna, The large and somewhat
abundant Elphidiwn which possesses the numerous septation and umbilical pro-
minences of /. craticulatum with the compressed form of E. macellum, also shows
a remarkable modification of types, in this class, which has been noted in earlier
pages.

The larger pelecypods, as Ostrea hyotidoidea, Cucullaea corioensis, Eucras-
satella kingicoloides, Miltha grandis, and some others, occur at the level of the
“oyster-hed” zone in all the bores within the Adelaide basin, but are not seen,
except by occasional fragments, at other levels. The larger gasteropods are rare

31

and restricted. Polinices subvarians occurs, only, either as neanic or dwarfed
specimens. The only others that could be mentioned are Pelicaria howchint and
Neodiastoma provisi, both of which are limited to the “oyster” zone. The last-
named is subjected to considerable variation. At the Dry Creek bore the examples
have prominent longitudinal costae crossed by faint threads; in the present and
other bores, the shells are slightly variced; while a specimen, obtained by the
author from a small outlier at Marino, has the costae strongly cancellated; in some
the sutures are slightly overlapped, while in the last-named specimen the sutures
are deeply channelled. The large and highly ornate Cerithoid shell, first dis-
covered from the Glanville bore, occurs again by two broken specimens in the
present bore. It is believed to be a new species and is described here, in an
Appendix, with a reproduced photograph, as pl. 1.

The very minute shells that occur at depths where larger fossils are practically
absent, such as Austrosarepta (Lissarca ) rubricata, Pronucula micans, Leda
(Scaeoleda) verconis, Cyclostrema homalon, Cylichna pygmaea, and others, all
of which are living species in the adjacent sea, might easily be carried in a dry
condition by the wind inland and mixed with fluviatile material in course of
deposition ; but this is not put forward as the sole cause of the abnormal distribu-
tion of the marine forms of life at different depths.

APPENDIX.

IV—Descerprion oF A New Crriruoip Fossit SHELL.
By Professor Walter Howchin and Bernard C. Cotton.

Terebralia adelaidensis, n. sp.
[Ref., Howchin, W., 1935, p. 90.]

Shell large, pyramidal, thick, sides slightly convex; adult whorls twelve,
protoconch and early whorls absent; sculpture consisting of coarse irregularly
spaced spiral sulcations numbering about twelve on the penultimate whorl; lower
half of each whorl with raised, thick ribs, numbering ten on the penultimate
whorl; aperture ovate, canal broken in all specimens, but apparently short; outer
lip produced in front of the canal, below; apical angle 25°.

Holotype-—Upper Pliocene, Glanville Bore, Depth 375-400 fect. Length,
85 mm.; width, 27 mm. (Reg. No. D. 12852, S.A. Museum).

The species is related to the Recent Terebralia palustris Linn., which occurs
in estuarine localities on the northern coasts of Australia, The coarse, raised
longitudinal ribs and close spiral sulcations distinguish this fossil from the Recent
shell. The holotype and four paratypes were sclected by the senior author from
the Glanville bore at a depth of 375-400 feet, as stated above. Two further
specimens were procured from the Cowandilla bore.

The occurrence of this tropical genus in the Upper Pliocene of the Adelaide
Basin suggests that subtropical conditions prevailed at that time in southern
Australia.

In 1899 Tate described a large cerithoid fossil, based on two imperfect
examples obtained from two well-sinkings on the Murray “Desert” [Plain]. This
remarkable shell he named Cerithium iorrii, estimating that, when complete, it
would have a total length of 160 mm. [Tate, R., 1899, p. 109]. He remarks,
“T do not know of any species of cerithoid shell, Recent or fossil, with which to
compare C. forrii.’ From the mixed nature of the fauna, Tate was in equal
difficulty in determining the geological horizon of the deposits. He was impressed
with the facies that many of the fossils bore to those found in the borings near

32

Adelaide. He states, “The fossils from the Murray Desert do not resemble those
of any known locality yielding Older Tertiary fossils. But they do resemble those
of the Pliocene beds in the Dry Creek and Croydon bores near Adclaide” [loc. cit.,
p. 103]. The fine shell from the Glanville and Cowandilla bores, now described,
is clearly distinct from the Murray Desert examples, especially in its particularized
and ornate sculpture; but the two species can be closely associated in their common
likeness to the characteristic estuarine group of shells so well known along the
northern and north-eastern coast of Australia,

V—ADDENDA TO THE MOLLUSCA OF THE GLANVILLE BORE.

By an oversight the following species were omitted from the list of the 375-
400 feet sample of the Glanville bore :—

Emargmula dennantt. A complete shell of this species occurred at the
above level.

Nucula obliqua Lamk, A single left valve in excellent preservation,

Phylobrya sp. One example.

Saxicava arctica Linné. One complete right valve, 15-5 mm. in length and
10 mm. in width. The surface is rough with prominent laminae.

VI—REFERENCES.
Cuapman, F., 1928. The Sorrento Bore, Mornington Peninsula. Rec. Geol. Sur.
Vict., vol. v, pt. i, pp. 1-195.
CuapMan, F., and Gapriet, C. J., 1914, Descriptions of New and Rare Fossils

obtained by Deep Borings in the Mallee, Part II, Mollusca. Proc, Roy.
Soc. Vict., vol. xxvi (N.S.), pp. 301-330.

CHAPMAN, F., and Gasrier, C. J., 1923. A Revision and Description of the
Australian Tertiary Patellidae, Patelloididae, Cocculinidae, and Fissurel-
lidae, Proc. Roy. Soc. Viet., vol. xxxvi (N.S.), pp. 22-40, pls. 1-3.

CHapmaN, F., Parr, W. J., and Cotrins, A. C., 1934, Tertiary Foraminifera
of Victoria, Australia——The Balcombian Deposits of Port Phillip, Pt. III.
Linnean Soc, Zoology, vol. xxxviii, No. 262, pp. 553-577, pls. 8-11.

CrapMan, F., and Stneieton, F. A., 1925. A Revision of the Cainozoic Species
of Glycymeris in Southern Australia, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. xxxvii
(N.S.), pt. i, pp. 18-60, pls. 1-4.

Corton, B. C., 1934. A New Species of Fossil Shell from the Upper Pliocene
of the Adelaide Plains. S, Aust. Nat., vol. xvi, No. 1, p. 7.

Corton, B. C., and Woops, N. H., 1935. The Correlation of Recent and Fossil
Turritelidae of Southern Australia. Rec. S. Aust. Mus., vol. iii,

pp. 369-387,

Cusuman, J. A., 1928. Foraminifera, Their Classification and Economic Use.

Cushman Labor, for Foram. Research. Special Pub., No, 1. (lirst
Edition.)

Cusuman, J. A., and Ozawa, Y., 1930. Monograph of the Polymorphinidae,
Recent and Fossil, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., Smithson Inst., No, 2,829.

Gaturrr, J. H., and SincLeron, F’. A., 1930. On the Relationship between “Pecten”
asperrimus Lamk. and “Pecten™ antiaustralis Tate, with a Deseription
of an Allied Iossil Form. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. xlii, pt. (N.S.),
pp. 71-77, pls, 2-4.

33

Heptey, C., 1900. Studies on Australian Mollusca, Part II. Proc. Linn. Soc.
N.S.W., pp. 495-513,

Heron-Aien, E., and Eartanp, A., 1911. On the Recent and Fossil Foram-
inifera of the Shore-sands of Selsey Bill, Sussex, No. vii, Supplement.
Jour. Roy. Micr. Soc., pp. 298-343,

Heron-Axien, E., and Earvanp, A., 1915. The Foraminifera of the Kerimba
Archipelago (Portuguese East Africa), Part II. Trans. Zoolog. Soc.,
London., vol. xx, pp. 543-766, pls. 40-53.

Heron-Atten, E., and Eartanp, A., 1924. Miocene Foraminifera of the Filter
Quarry, Moorabool River, Vict. Jour. Roy. Micr. Soc., pp. 121-186.

Howcurn, W., 1888. The Foraminifera of the Older Tertiary of Australia,
No. 1, Muddy Creek, Vict. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. xii, 1889,
pp. 1-20, pl. 1.

Howcuin, W., 1890. The Estuarine Foraminifera of the Port Adelaide River.
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. xiii, pp. 161-169.

Howcuin, W., 1893. A Census of the Fossil Foraminifera of Australia. Aus.
Assoc. Ad, Science, Adelaide, vol. v, pp. 348-373.

Howcutn, W., 1915. List of Foraminifera and other Organic Remains obtained
from Two Borings in the Lilydale Sheep Station. Trans. Roy. Soc.
S. Aust., vol. xxxix, pp. 345-351.

Howcuin, W., 1935. Notes on the Geological Sections obtained by Several
Borings situated on the Plains between Adelaide and Gulf St. Vincent,
Part I. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. lix, pp. 68-102.

Parker, W. K., and Jonss, T. B., 1864-1865. “Miscellaneous Foraminifera,”
contained in “The Foraminifera from the North Atlantic and Arctic
Oceans.” Philosophical Trans., 1865, p. 325 [see p. 421].

Parr, W. J., 1932 (a). Victorian and South Australian Shallow-water Foram-
inifera, Pt. 1. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. xliv (N.S.), pp. 1-14, pl. 1.

Parr, W. J., 1932 (b). Victorian and South Australian Shallow-water Foram-
inifera, Pt. II. Jbid, pp. 218-234, pls. 21-22.

Srncieton, F, A., 1932. Studies in Australian Tertiary Mollusca, Part I. Proc.
Roy. Soc, Vict., vol. xliv, (N.S.), pp. 289-308, pls. 24-26.

SINGLETON, F, A., and Woops, N. H., 1934. On the Occurrence of the Pele-
cypod, Genus Miltha, in the Australian Tertiary. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict.,
vol. xlvi (N.S.), pp. 207-210, pl. 8.

Tate, R., 1878-1879. Descriptions of Two New Marine Gasteropoda from South
Australia. Trans. and Proc. Philosoph. (Royal), Soc. of Adelaide,
vol. ii, p. 139.

Tate, R., 1884, Descriptions of New Species of Mollusca of the Upper Eocene
Beds at Table Cape. Papers and Proc. Roy. Soc., Tas., p, 230.

TaTE, R., 1886-1887. The Lamellibranchs of the Older Tertiary of Australia,
Part Il. Trans. Roy, Soc. 5. Aust., vol. ix, pp. 142-200, pls. 14-20.

Tate, R., 1893. Unrecorded Genera of the Older Tertiary Fauna of Australia,
including Diagnoses of some New Genera and Species. Roy. Soc.
N.S.W., pp. 167-197, pls. 10-13.

Tate, R., 1899. On some Older Tertiary Fossils of Uncertain Age from the
Murray Desert. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. xxiii, pp. 102-111, pl. 1.

34

Tate, R., and Basepow, [., 1902. Descriptions of New Species of Fossil
Mollusca from the Miocene [Low. Pliocene] Limestone near Edithburgh.
Trans. Roy. Soc. 5,-Aust., vol. xxvi, pp. 130-132, pl. 2.

Verco, J. C., 1904. Notes on South Australian Marine Mollusca, with Descrip-

tions of New Species, Part I. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol, xxviii,
pp. 135-145, pl. 26.

Verco, J. C., 1911. Notes on South Australian Marine Mollusca, with Descrip-

tions of New Species, Part XIV. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. xxxv,
pp. 204-215, pl. 26.

Woops, N. H., 1931. Pelecypods from the Abattoirs Bore, including Twelve
New Species. Trans. Roy. Soc. 5, Aust., vol. lv, pp. 147-151, pls. 7-8.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE I.

Fig. 1. Terebralia adelaidensis, n. sp. [Holotype], x 1-6.
Fig. 2. Terebralia adelaidensis, n. sp. [Paratype], x 1-6.

SOME RED BASALTIC SOILS FROM EASTERN AUSTRALIA.

BY J. A. PRESCOTT AND J. S. HosKinG”

Summary

Notable for their natural fertility, the soils derived from basaltic rocks are amongst the first to be
cleared and developed in eastern Australia. Their attractiveness to the settler is associated mainly
with a high content of plant nutrients which render them independent of the need for artificial
fertilisers, particularly superphosphate, during the early years of development, and in the case of the
red soils is further associated with a loamy texture, rendering them readily permeable to water even
in regions of high rainfall.

35

SOME RED BASALTIC SOILS FROM EASTERN AUSTRALIA.
By J. A. Prescort and J. S. Hosxrnc,“ Waite Institute, University of Adelaide.
[Read April 9, 1936. ]

Notable for their natural fertility, the soils derived from basaltic rocks are
amongst the first to be cleared and developed in eastern Australia, Their
attractiveness to the settler is associated mainly with a high content of plant
nutrients which render them independent of the need for artificial fertilisers,
particularly superphosphate, during the early years of development, and in the
case of the red soils is further associated with a loamy texture, rendering them
readily permeable to water even in regions of high rainfall.

Tertiary basalts giving rise to such soils are important in all the eastern
States of Australia, from Queensland to Tasmania. They are unknown in South
Australia, and are possibly only of importance in Western Australia in the
Kimberley region. J. S. Hosking (1935) has recently discussed a range of
black earths derived from such basalts, and the present paper deals with the red
soils. Only soils from Queensland and New South Wales will be discussed,
although similar soils occur in Victoria and Tasmania. The latter are at present
being studied from Hobart by Mr. C. G. Stephens.

The soils derived from basalt vary remarkably in character with the degree
of pre-weathering and leaching that they have undergone, so that a range of soils,
including red loams, peneplain laterites, brown earths, podsols, black earths, and
chestnut earths is known to the authors. In Queensland, the close association
between red loamy soils and basalt in the coastal areas is well recognised, but there
are many characteristic red loams which cannot be related to basalts although
popularly supposed to be so derived.

The soils investigated in the present instance were collected, principally, in
1928 by Mr. W. R. Winks, of the Queensland Department of Agriculture, and
by arrangement with Professor R. D. Watt, of Sydney University. Owing to the
absence of marked variations in the profile, the soils were sampled at the pre-
arranged depths of 0-9, 9-18 and 18-27 inches. The soils fall within the zonal
groups—red loams and red brown earths—principally the former. In Queens-
land, apart from the Clifton sample, where trees were scarce and stunted, the
soils are associated with rain forest and the samples are taken from virgin country.
Only one sample was available from the Atherton tableland, No. 1,253, from
Malanda. Of the samples from New South Wales, that from Wollongbar is most
closely related to the Queensland group. The remainder are from the plateau
country away from the coast, and are associated with a much lower rainfall. The
Guyra and Crookwell samples are associated with potato-growing. The Gunnedah
sample was from a wheat farm cleared from savannah woodland, which type of
vegetation was also characteristic of the samples from Bathurst and Glen Innes.
The climatic conditions in each locality are given in Table II, where the sample
sites are arranged in order from north to south.

MEcHaANIcAL COMFOSITION.
The mechanical analysis of the soils shows in general a remarkably high
content of the clay fraction, in spite of which the soils possess an unusual degree
of permeability which may be related to the chemical and mineralogical nature of

@ From the Division of Soils, Council for Scientific and Indastriat Research

36

the clay. Although it is not possible to distinguish any change in texture in
descending the profile, in most cases the analyses show an increase in the clay
content with depth. As will be seen from Table I, there is evidence from a con-
sideration of such published analyses of the original parent basalt as are likely
to be relevant, that the clay content of the soil is related to the felspar content
of the rock as calculated by conventional methods from the chemical analysis.

Taste I,

Illustrating a possible Relationship between the Clay Content of
the Soil and the Mineralogical Composition. of the Parent Basalt.

Locality. Orthoclase. Albite. Anorthite. Total Clay in
a Felspars, Dry Soil.*
% % % % %
Toowoomba - - - 8-3 27-8 15-3 51 55
Bathurst - - - 8-9 21-5 28-1 1 58 54
Tweed Heads !

(for Coolangatta) - 12-8 29-9 19-2 62 69
Burleigh Heads - - 8-9 27°8 25°8 63 70
Ballina (for Wollongbar) - 10-6 28-3 25:0 64 63
Montville - - - 7°8 31-4 28-9 68 76

*Meun value to 27 inches depth.

The actual values for clay will be found in Table II, while the triangular
diagram in fig. 1 gives a general survey of the whole data. It will be seen that the
silt values vary from 10 to 25 per cent. of the mineral fraction of the soil.

CLAY

SILT Fig. 1. SAND

Triangular diagram illustrating mechanical analyses of red basaltic soils.
Sold dots represent surface soils. Open circles represent subsoils.

37

Fig. 2.
Summation curves of mechanical analyses of four typical soils:
900 Coolangatta 1,005 Gunnedah
921 Toowoomba 1,014 Wollongbar

In the lower part of the diagram are given the distribution curves derived from the above

as percentages of the soil, allowing ten intervals to each of the three fractions, silt, fine

sand and coarse sand. There is a relatively high frequency of particles around the

diameter, 0-20—0-25 mm., just in the coarse sand fraction, with a subsidiary mode in the

fine sand. The greatest frequency of clay particles occurs in the colloid zone beyond the
margin of the diagram.

38

In a number of cases more detailed mechanical analyses were carried out by
appropriate sieves and by allowing the prepared suspensions to settle for ten days.
These suspensions were then sampled at a depth of 8°6 cm., giving log settling
velocity of 5, From fig. 2 where four such analyses are given, it will be seen that
there is relatively high frequency of particles of 0°20-0-25 mm. diameter with a
less important mode in the fine sand fraction.

For one locality, Clifton, the fine sand fractions have been examined minera-
logically by Miss D. Carroll (1932), who reports that the heavy fraction consists
principally (up to 90 per cent.) of ilmenite. Leucoxene is absent, but rutile is
conspicuous. Zircon and limonite are present, but subordinate. In the light
fraction were present, quartz, orthoclose, plagioclase, kaolinised material and
sponge spicules.

CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS,

The soils were examined by standard methods of chemical analysis, and
values for nilrogen, carbon, and for phosphoric acid and potash soluble in hydro-
chloric acid will be found in Table II. The ratio of carbon to nitrogen varies

pa
al
ve)
ie)
©
&
a
z
20 40 60 80
RAINFALL (INCHES)
Fig. 3.

Relationship hetween rainfall and nitrogen content of soil.
Nitrogen figures are average values to a depth of cighteen inches.

from 8-4 to 21-1, with a maximum frequency between 14 and 15. The sigmifi-
cance of these values and of the nature of the distribution curve has recently been
discussed elsewhere, together with those for other groups of Australian soils
(Hosking, 1935). There is a general relationship between the organic matter
content of the soil and the rainfall, best illustrated as in fig. 3 by the values for
nitrogen. As the rainfall increases, so the native vegetation becomes more
abundant, culminating in rain forest with correspondingly increased litter and a
high nitrogen content of the soil,

The values for phosphoric acid are variable, as would be expected from the
recognised variability of the parent rock in this respect. Apart from the samples
from Gunnedah and Wellington Point, the values are satisfactory from the point
of view of plant nutrition. Even these two exceptions are better than in the case

39

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40

of most Australian soils derived from other rocks. It must be remembered, how-
ever, that the presence of high amounts of free iron oxides in these soils is.
supposed to reduce the availability of the phosphoric acid and that separate
standards are required for these basaltic soils.

The values for potash fall into two groups, depending on the degree of leach-
ing and decomposition of the parent rock. The Queensland soils all show low
values, particularly when viewed in relation to the clay content of the soil. The
tableland soils of New South Wales are much richer, both absolutely and in relation
to the clay content. A characteristic feature is the higher potash content of the
surface horizons. Of the correlations examined, the ratio of potash to clay is
inversely correlated with the rainfall and directly correlated with silica-alumina
ratio of the clay. These correlations are not, however, very high.

The soil reaction was determined by means of the antimony electrode, using
a ratio of soil to water of 1 to 25. None of the soils is strikingly acid, except
that from Montville, where the low potash content also indicates considerable
leaching. The sample from Gunnedah, a red-brown earth rather than a red loam,
is alkaline in reaction and has also the highest potash content as well as the highest
silica-alumina ratio.

On a number of the samples, exchangeable hydrogen to pH 8*4 was deter-
mined for us by Mr. C. S. Piper (1936) of this laboratory, using the equilibrium
between a suspension of the soil in a solution of meta nitro phenol for this purpose,
developed from the methods of Schofield (1933).

The sum of exchangeable bases and of this exchangeable hydrogen gives a
measure of the base exchange capacity of the soil when in equilibrium with calcium
carbonate under atmospheric conditions. The values recorded in Table I are
reviewed in a subsequent section in relation to the chemical composition of the
clay fraction.

EXCHANGEABLE BASES.

The exchangeable bases, together with exchangeable hydregen, as noted
above, are recorded in Table III. Soils from ten localities only were examined,
and all show the Australian characteristic of high values for magnesium. The
values for exchangeable hydrogen should be examined in relation to the pH values.
given in Table II. Taking into consideration the clay content of the soil and the
organic carbon, the total base exchange capacity was divided between the clay and
the carbon values. Ina number of profiles, notably Childers, Toowoomha, Clifton,.
Coolangatta, and Wollongbar, a satisfactory distribution could be obtained by
simple algebraic methods, and the mean of the values for the organic carbon so
obtained, namely 512 milligram equivalents per 100 gm. carbon was used in the
case of the remaining soils, These values should be compared with that of 455.
obtained by Rice Williams (1932), and a mean of 623 obtained by Slater and
Byers (1934), Allowing for the exchange capacity of the organic matter in this.
way, the residual exchange capacity due to the clay was calculated, giving values.
ranging from 17-1 to 100-2 milligram equivalents per 100 gm. of clay, This wide
range is associated with the chemical character of the clay, and of a number ot
possible correlations, the highest (R 0-90) was found between the exchange:
capacity and the silica-alumina ratio. This relationship is illustrated in fig. 4.

The relationship between base exchange capacity and silica-alumina ratio has
been previously discussed by Rice Williams (1932), who found no evidence of
such with his range of soils, mostly from Wales. He obtained a mean value of
57 m.e. per 100 gm. of clay under conditions similar to those discussed above,
namely equilibrium with calcium carbonate, Crowther and Basu (1931) obtained
a corresponding value of 61 for the Woburn soils. Slater and Byers (1934),
with colloids extracted from a wide range of soils from the erosion stations of

41

Tasce III.
Exchangeable Bases in Red Basaltic Soils.

; x xchange
, ee Total Proportion as Exchange- Exchange rant
Locality. 3 'D Bases ‘. Hydrogen fo Capacity per pet ret
™* Vc [ate [x | wa PEE | MORSE | Gobin
|
Bundaberg .... | 927 23-3) 75 21 3 ] — —-
928 143 | 72 24 3 1 - —
929 11°3 | 69 27 2 2 7°3 20-1 (512)
Childers we | 1312 19-6 | 69 23 7 1 — —
1313 9-6 | 64 27 6 3 9-1 17-8 423
1314 4-3) 54 33 7 | 6 11-0 17-5
Toowoomba ..}| 921 23-2 | 63 34 2 1 17:3 41-6
922 13-8 | 53 44 1 2 19-0 ' 41:8 673
923 12-0 | 46 51 1 2 15-2 41°5
Clifton ... ... | 906 16:0 | 55 41 1 | 3 — —_
907 17-2 | 48 48 1 3 10-8 31-3 463
- 908 18:5 | 45 50 1 4 7°6 31:3
Coolangatta .. | 900 18-8 | 58 34 4 4 17°33 20-4
901 | 11-5 | 42 48 4 6 16°5 24-1 538
902 7°2 | 38 49 5 8 16-5 22°2
Wollongbar .. | 1014 7°7 | 55 37 6 | 2 20-7 20-8
1015 5*1 | 53 36 7 4 15°7 17+1 452
1016 5:0 | 46 43 7 4 13°+6 19-1
Gunnedah .... | 1005 45+7 | 72 22 6 0 2-4 88-1
1006 52:6 | 70 26 3 {1 0:5 100-2 (512)
1007 | +57-6 | 64 32 2|2 0-3 —
Bathurst .... | 1008 | 20-7 | 54 37 8 1 10:3 55-2
1009 23-9 | 51 45 3 1 12-5 48-2 (512)
1010 31:5 | 48 49 2 1 9-8 76°9
Guyra .... .... | 1203 14-2 | 66 26 6 2 8-4 64-9 (512)
Crookwell .... | 1011 | 17-6 | 54 37 8 | 1 12:6 69-4
1012 | 22-4 | 52 42 5 1 13+1 68:0 (512)
1013 | 31-3 | 50 46 3 | 1 14-9 99-0

the United States, obtained relationships closely parallel to those obtained in the
present work, as are also those obtained by Mattson (1926). The American
workers, however, had a different end point for base exchange capacity in the
neighbourhood of pH 7.

It may be pointed out that a correlation coefficient of 0°90, while implying
a general relationship, is not sufficiently high for discussion of physico-chemcial
problems. It will be noted that for a silica-alumina ratio of 2°0 in fig. 4, a range
of from 18 to 41 milli-equivalents is to be observed in the exchange capacity in
spite of the uniform origin of the parent matcrial. Recent discussions by
Marshall (1935) suggest that not until the mineralogcial composition of the clay
has been determined will a more completely satisfying relationship be obtained.

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF CLAy FRAcTION.

From those soils on which base exchange relationships had been obtained, the
clay fraction was separated by preliminary dispersion and repeated decantion.
In order to avoid possible decomposition of the clay by acid treatment, the dis-
persion methods used were those advocated by Puri (1930, 1935), involving treat-
ment with sodium chloride, or boiling with ammonium carbonate followed by
sodium hydroxide where the first method was not sufficiently effective. The time

42

of sedimentation was 24 hours in a depth of 8°6 cm., the old British standard on
which much previous clay analysis has been based. The separated clay was
flocculated with calcium chloride, filtered and washed with alcohol. There is a
tendency for some calcium carbonate to remain in the clay. The clays also contain
some organic matter. They were analysed by fusion with sodium carbonate in
accordance with standard mineralogical practice, the tri-acid method advocated
by R. C. Groves (1933) having been found to be only occasionally reliable with
these clays.

The results of the analyses are given in Table III. In addition to the ordinary
determinations, an estimate of the free iron oxide was attempted following the

AVIO ‘D 001 Ydd SLNHTIVAINOD WVXOITIIN

Relationship between the molecular ratio of SiOz to AleOs of the clay
and the base exchange capacity of basaltic soils at pH 8:4.

procedure of Drosdoff and Truog (1935). While these results are not to be
considered as final, they are of the correct order of magnitude. Of the tron oxide
present in the clay, from 35 per cent. to 85 per cent. is present in the free state.
The values for titanium are relatively high, and it would be of interest to speculate
on its state of combination. In view of the predominance of ilmenite in the heavy
minerals of the fine sand fraction, possibly some may be present in these clays.
Such ilmenite would further reduce the amount of iron oxide combined with silica.

The molecular ratios of silica to alumina and of silica to sesquioxides have

been calculated and will be found in Table Il. There is a general relationship

between rainfall and the ratio, the higher the rainfall the lower the ratio. The
Clifton samples afford a notable exception. This characteristic red loam is out of

keeping with the local climatic conditions, and the soil characteristics may have

been imposed in a previous climatic cycle of greater rainfall.

Se =~

43 F}

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND NATURE OF THE
Cray FRAcTION.

It is well recognised that the basaltic red loams possess favourable physical
properties in the field entirely out of keeping with the amount of clay present.
As a measure of the physical properties, both sticky points and moisture equiva-
lents were determined on a number of these soils, and the results have already
been discussed elsewhere by Prescott and Poole (1934). In general, a close
correlation between sticky point and moisture equivalent was observed, but when
compared with other Australian soils the moisture equivalents were low for the
corresponding sticky points. The multiple correlation between moisture equivalent
and clay, silt and organic matter, was not so satisfactory as in the case of other
groups of soils examined at the time. The examination of these soils, both with
respect to exchange capacity and with respect to the composition of the clay |
fraction, afforded an opportunity of reconsidering the data for moisture equiva-
lent previously obtained. An allowance of 130 per cent. was made with respect

AI ERG EO

I
i
Taste IV, (
Analyses of Clays Separated from Red Basaltic Soils. i
2 a Free . | Loss on } Ratio }
Locality. ae SiO, Al,O, Fe,O, Fe,O, TiO, | Ignition | Moisture | Pree Fe,0, 1
| %. %, %. %. %. | %. %. |TotalFe,O, i
| |
Bundaberg .... 927 22°33 19-79 12-81 — 1-98 24-12 2:30 == i
929 31-65 25-72 20:20 17-25 2:38 14-05 3-12 *85 .
Childers Seeds 30:22 26°15 13-65 7°95 1-80 17-40 2-48 | +58
1314 32-22 27-40 14-49 9-37 1-81 15-45 2-67 -65
Toowoomba .. 921 28-85 20-79 21-35 12-28 2:71 17-44 6°24 , 158
922 31-02 24-80 19-85 11-56 aeee 15-10 5:80 +58
923 30°55 25-96 20°35 12-32 2-59 13-60 5°36 -60
Ghiitonds.. Ook. 907 33-32 27-63 13-75 7-03 1:24 15°38 4-83 e511
908 32°02 25°51 14-33 7°12 1-38 15-46 5:01 -50
Coolangatta .. | 900 25°17 22°79 11-88 6-89 1-53 23°81 4-47 “58
901 27-60 27-09 11-50 — 1-61 20-20 4:20 | oe
902 30:61 29°81 11-00 5:35 1-51 18-42 3-04 50
Wollongbar .. | 1014 17-30 24-21 29-70 10-24 2-71 19°85 1-95 +35
1015 15-72 22-84 27-60 11:25 2°46 20°35 2-20 “41
1016 18-20 24:77 29-60 14-28 2:58 17°47 2°28 -49
Gunnedah .... | 1005 42-10 20-78 9-23 5-82 0-94 13-04 8-30 63
1006 | 43-95 19-64 9-21 4-96 0:87 10-84 9-79 “54
1007 43°22 19-92 9-02 4-94 0-81 10-59 ae ype oab)s)
Bathurst ... | 1008 36:27 24-24 13-45 8-50 1-26 15-78 oA El 263
1009 37-44 25-59 11-92 7-16 0-95 14-03 6°54 60
1010 38-45 24-47 11-41 6:03 0:99 13-84 7-06 53
G@uyra ... .....| 1203 | 33°35 17-18 22-00 14-35 4-47 13°87 Seales perwlals
3 Crookwell .... | 1011 35:80 19-07 17-32 8-64 2-66 13-16 6-80 | -50
F | 1012 36-02 20-86 16°86 8-98 1-80 11-66 8:12 | +53
| 1013 36°62 20-93 16-56 8:35 1-61 11-42 8:49 ! +50

to organic matter, and 30 per cent. with respect to silt, the residual moisture
equivalent being allotted to the clay. In this way values for the moisture equiva-
lent per 100 gm. of clay were calculated, and the values so obtained plotted against
various other constants calculated for these clays. There is a good correlation

q between the silica-alumina ratio and the moisture equivalent, but a somewhat
better one between exchange capacity and moisture equivalent (R = 0-887). No

: i. improvement of this correlation would on inspection appear to be possible by
| & allowing for the free iron oxide in the clay, for the pH values of the soil or for

44

the proportion of replaceable sodium and potassium. The factors in the clay,
therefore, that make for high base exchange capacity, also make for high moisture
equivalent, and the favourable physical characteristics of these soils may, there-
fore be related to chemical composition of the clays.

LNJIVAINDA = FJYNLSIOW

50 100

MILLIGRAM’ EQUIVALENTS
EXCHANGE CAPACITY

Fig. 5.

Illustrating the relationship between the moisture equivalent and exchange capacity per
100 gm. of clay. Calculated from soil values after allowing for organic matter and silt
in the case of moisture equivalent, and for organic carbon in the case of exchange capacity.

The relationship between moisture equivalent and base exchange capacity is
illustrated in fig. 5, where the regression lines have also been drawn. It is of
interest to note that with clay of no exchange capacity, there is still a moisture
equivalent of 25 per cent., which is near the value of 30 already assumed for the
silt fraction of these soils.

SUMMARY,

The chemical and physical characteristics of a series of red soils from
Queensland and New South Wales derived from tertiary basalts are discussed.
The soils fall into two groups: (1) red loams, associated generally with coastal
rain forests; (2) red brown earths, associated with the lower rainfall of the
plateau country of New South Wales.

The clay content of the soils is higher than would be expected from field con-
siderations and appears to be correlated with the felspar content of the original
basalt. Values for total nitrogen, carbon, phosphoric acid and potash, and for
exchangeable bases and exchangeable hydrogen, are recorded and discussed. The
soils vary in degrec of acidity, but are rarely very acid.

Relationships between moisture equivalent, exchange capacity and composi-
tion of the clay fraction are examined. There is a notable correlation between
the exchange capacity calculated per 100 gm. of clay and the silica-alumina ratio
of the clay. A close relationship between exchange capacity and moisture equiva-
lent is also indicated.

45

An appreciable proportion of the iron oxide occurring in the clay fraction is
in a free state.
REFERENCES.

Carrott, D. J. Roy. Soc. W. Aust., vol. xviii, p. 125. 1932.

Drosporr, M., and Truoc, E. J. Amer. Soc. Agr., vol. xxvii, p. 312. 1935.
Groves, R. C. J. Agr. Sci., vol. xxiii, p. 519. 1933.

Hosxine, J. S. “> Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aus., vol. lix, p. 168. 1935.
——_—___—__—— &») Soil Research, vol. iv, p. 253. 1935.

MarsHAL, C. E. J. Soc. Chem. Ind., vol. liv, p. 393T. 1935.

Mattson, S. J. Amer. Soc. Agr., vol. xviii, p. 458. 1926,

Preer, C. S. J. Coun. Sci. Ind. Res., vol. ix, p. 113. 1936.

Prescott, J. A., and Pootz, H.G. J. Agric. Sci., vol. xxiv, p. 1. 1934.
Puri, A. N. Second Int. Congress Soil Sci., U.S.S.R., 1930, vol. i, p. 19.
—— Soil Sci. vol. xxxix, p. 263. 1935.

ScHortetp, R. K. J. Agr. Sci., vol. xxiii, p. 252. 1933.

Svater, C. S., and Byers, H. G. U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. No. 461. 1934.
WuttaMs, Rice. J. Agr. Sci., vol. xxii, p. 845. 1932.

ADELAIDE UNIVERSITY FIELD ANTHROPOLOGY,
CENTRAL AUSTRALIA.
NO. 13-ANTHROPOMETRIC OBSERVATIONS ON SOUTH AUSTRALIAN
ABORIGINES OF THE DIAMANTINA AND COOPER CREEK REGIONS.

BY FRANK J. FENNER

Summary

The observations recorded in this paper form part of the systematic work done on the tenth
Anthropological Expedition to Central Australia, carried out under the direction of the Board of
Anthropological Research, University of Adelaide. The expenses of the expedition were mainly
covered by funds made available by the Rockefeller Foundation, through the Australian National
Research Council. The party made its base camp at Pandi Pandi, on the Diamantina River, and also
worked at Mirra Mitta during August, 1934.

46

ADELAIDE UNIVERSITY FIELD ANTHROPOLOGY,
CENTRAL AUSTRALIA,

No. 13—ANTHROPOMETRIC OBSERVATIONS ON SOUTH AUSTRALIAN
ABORIGINES OF THE DIAMANTINA AND COOPER CREEK REGIONS.

By Frank J, FENNER.
[Read April 9, 1936.]
Puates II. anp IIT.

The observations recorded in this paper form part of the systematic work
done on the tenth Anthropological Expedition to Central Australia, carried out
under the direction of the Board of Anthropological Research, University of
Adelaide. The expenses of the expedition were mainly covered by funds made
available by the Rockefeller Foundation, through the Australian National Research
Council. The party made its base camp at Pandi Pandi, on the Diamantina River,
and also worked at Mirra Mitta during August, 1934.

The approximate boundaries of the territories of the various aboriginal tribes
of north-eastern South Australia are indicated in fig. 1, which was constructed
from information kindly supplied by N. B. Tindale, the ethnologist of the South
Australian Museum. Members of the tribes, the names of which are underlined
in the map, were measured at Pandi Pandi and Mirra Mitta. It can be seen that
aborigines from a very large area have drifted together into a few cattle stations,
from which they were gathered to Pandi Pandi and Mirra Mitta in August, 1934.
Several of the individuals examined were the last remaining members of their
respective tribes.

Natives examined —Of the fifty or more surviving members of the tribes
of the Central and Eastern Lake Eyre Basin, detailed anthropometric observations
were carricd out on forty-one full-bloods. Owing to physical and other disabilities
there were a few full-bloods to whom anthropometric methods could not be
applied, while the measurements of several half-castes and three-quarter castes
are omitted from this series.

The natives in question are “station blacks” living in a semi-civilized condition
and receiving rations from the Government ; in addition to which some of the men
work as stockmen and some of the women as domestics, All are accustomed to
wearing European clothing, and, as they were loth to discard all their garments,
the identification of certain of the bony points was difficult. The names, approxi-
mate ages, and tribal groups of the individuals examined in detail are set out in
Table I. The ages were estimated by three members of the party, working on the
bases of physical appearance, dental condition, and social relationships, respec-
tively. These estimates were correlated and the final decision embodied in the
table. Concerning Arinjanpika (B)@) and Akawiljika (EE), Mr. L. Reese, of
Minnie Downs, who greatly assisted the expedition at Pandi Pandi, was able to
supply the exact ages.

Measurements recorded —The key numbers to the measurements made are
given in Table II. The majority of these measurements are in accordance with
the definitions of the International Agreement, Hrdlicka (1). Those not thus

© In native words the letter 7 represents the soft y sound as in yacht.

47

defined, viz., Nos. 9, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, and 38 of Table 11, have
been made in accordance with the definitions of F. Wood Jones (2) [P. 15 (42).
P. 16 (57, 59, 62, 66, and 69). P.17 (71, 73, 74, 75, and 76). P.23 (17), respec-
tively]. All linear measurements are in millimetres, and weights are recorded as
kilograms. Where the features are bilateral, the measurements of the left-hand

side only have been recorded.

vPANDI PANOI.

_ Wonkan quru
*s
7

. i

\

\ WJauraworka’

OODNADATTA®, : :
A

gd
&
re
a
u
3
c
<

Arabana.

a
meen een

49 69 a 100 miles

so 200 kilos.

Place names : MARREE. State boundaries: — -—-

Tribal names . Aranda Railways of 00 cere

Tribal boundaries:----- Route of 1954 hip teeee
Fig. 1.

The experience gained in the field work embodied in these records supports
the opinions expressed by Wood Jones and Campbell (3), and Campbell and
Lewis (4), that under the existing field conditions the determination of certain of
the bony landmarks, for instance the trochanterion and symphysion, is at best
approximate and at worst so inexact that the resulting measurements are of very
doubtful value.

Instruments used —As on previous expeditions Martin’s anthropometric set
was used; this consists of a stature rod, spreading calipers and sliding compasses.

48

A metallic millimetre tape, Parson’s radiometer, and a pelvimeter (graduated in
centimetres only) were also used. Weights were determined on a spring balance
suspended from a tree, deductions being made for the weight of clothing.

From the experience gained during several expeditions, modifications have
been made to the stature rod. These ensure a firm horizontal base and a vertical
rod. Figure 2 shows the apparatus assembled for use, the board and pantograph
projecting from the upright being a contrivance for the determination of spinal
curves.

chin rest

and

ope board...

nfograph

stature vod

sliding”

Data recorded —The results of the anthropometric work are summarized in
Table ITI, the key letters indicating individuals, and the key numbers indicating
measurements (see Tables land II), The indices derived from these measurements
are given in Table LV. In order to avoid confusion and uncertainty, care has been
taken to refer each index to its exact definition, the reference numbers in Table IV
alluding to the page and number of the formula used, as given by F. Wood
Jones (2).

In determining mean values for measurements and indices, individuals
a, b, c, and d, who were not fully developed, were excluded from the series,
although their actual measurements have been placed on record in Table III.
Separate mean values have been worked out for males (A to T) and females
(AA to PP),

49

Standard portraits, some of which are reproduced in plates II and III, were
taken by N. B. Tindale, who also made an ethnographic record of each individual.
The various data collected in Table I have been compiled from these records.

General Summary.—During the last nine years, annual expeditions organised
by the Board of Anthropological Research of the Adelaide University have been
making systematic records of the physical anthropology of the Australian aborigine.
The early results of this work were published in the Transactions of the Royal
Society of South Australia (4) (5). Records made in the interval between 1928
and 1933 have becn incorporated in a monograph shortly to be published. ‘The
field work, which forms the basis of this paper, was done after the manuscript of
that monograph was completed.

The number of individuals examined is too small to draw any definite con-
clusions from these records. However, a brief description can be extracted from
these and previous tables of the physical proportions of the Central Australian
aborigines. Their physical characteristics are well defined and appear constant from
group to group. There is a considerable individual variation; for instance, the
extremes of the value of the cephalic index in the group dealt with in this paper
are 83°5 (JJ) and 645 (J). ‘he physical characteristics which can be derived
from measurements may be summarized as follows :-——

Body and limb proportions (compared with European standards ) :-—
Slightly less than “average human height” (1,650 mms., Topinard).
The limbs are long relative to the trunk.

The distal segments of the limbs are unusually long.
The shoulders and chest are carried high.
The hands are long and narrow.

Head and face:—
The head is long-—dolichocephalic.
The face is rather broad.
The supraorbital ridges are prominent and the eyes decp set.
The nose is widespread and flattened at the bridge.
The lips are moderately full.
The ears are large, well shaped, and about twice as long as they are broad.

An inspection of the plates will confirm the impressions derived from a study
of the measurements. The portraits also show other typical features of the
physiognomy of the Australian aborigine, notably the sloping forehead, the
prognathism, and the “beetling brow” of the males, which are not obvious from
a study of the measurements alone.

Note on THE Mortality OF THE NATIVES.

Information subsequently received from Mr. Reese and from Mr. G. Aiston,
of Mulka (January, 1936), indicates that since August, 1934, when the records
were made, thirteen of the natives of that area have died. Besides those indicated
in Table I, the following are now dead:—Sandy, who was measured at Mactuumba
[No. 1 of the series of Campbell and Hackett, 1927 (5) ]; Oscar, who was not
measured; the daughters of Aida (NN) and Clara (BB); the babies of Dorisi
(HH) and Esther (II) ; and an old gin (unspecified). This means that in eightcen
months 20 per cent. of the aboriginal population of the Central and Eastern Lake
Eyre Basin have died. Moreover, four of these were children, and several of the
others were young men and women. These figures force home the realization of
the very rapid disappearance of the Australian aborigine, when once he has been
detribalized and has degenerated to a hanger-on on the cattle stations.

*Subject,

AMOAwW pS

—

Cat ot a)

=e

—

QOWPHYROVORY
OD >

CEGhe)
ios

GG
HH

*The figures in parentheses are the ori

(J3)

(7)

(J10)
(J12)
(J19)
(J23)
(J24)
(J25)
(J26)
(31)
(J32)
(J38)
44)
(J47)
(J48)
Jl)

2)

G8)

(J13)
(J46)
J4)

(J5)

(9)

14)
(J16)
(J20)
(J21)
(J34)
(735)
(J41)
(J15)
(J27)
(J29)
(J40)
(742)
(J45)
(J33)
(J18)
(J22)
(J11)

Sex.

Male

mY
Male
Female
an

Age.

45
29
50
25
22
50
37
50
47
30
45
50
50
23
45
75
60
65
70
75
45
19
50
40
48
33
35
19
33
33
72
60
60
55
18
18
17
15
15

7

50

Tapsie I,

Native Name,
Arupalondika
Arinjanpika
Warukili
Djitjibui
Pokkawinna
Injili Witturu
Juruli

Injili Parubata
Djeigina
Mendjina
Paputooka
Pidia
Wangpulu
Tankaijuna
Njira
Tintibanna
Tenpili
Negaltjagintata
Palpilinna
Karatjarni
Keidanankara
Kakuluru
Negalijuru
Akawiljika
Ekewiljika
Kappina
Minimini
Tarangoju
Mingipani
Kanpili
Tjilkeila

expedition, J being the key Ictter for this trip.

tlndicates that the subject has died since examination.

European Name.
Jimmy Naylon
Johnny Reese

Mungarannie Mick

George
Arthur
Pandi Mick
Walter Naylon
Jimmy
Arunta Mick
Jimmy Finn
Finke Bob
Leslie Pondi
Johannes
Les Russell

Tommy Lumpkins

Taffy
Sam
Nipper
Old Billy
Ned
Lizzie
Clara
Sarah
Topsy
Maudie
Topsy
Topsy
Dorisi
Esther
Florrie
Lucy
Nancy
Maggie
Aida
Alice
Olga

Tommy Naylon

Nellie
Thea
Linda

Tribal Group.
Wonkanguru
”?
Jandruwanta
Andekeringa
Wonkanguru
”

”

Andekeringa
Aranda
Kujani
Arabana
Dieri
Wonkanguru
Mittaka
Dieri
Ngameni
Aranda
Wadikali
Wonkanguru

Dieri
Wonkanguru

Arabana
Wonkanuguru

”
Aranda
Wonkanguru

ginal key numbers which appear in all the records of

the

Body

Tasce II,
Stature Foot 24.
Sitting height 25.
Height to suprasternal notch Head 26,
Height to chin 27.
Height to shoulder 28.
Bihumeral ‘breadth Face. 29,
Biacromial breadth 30.
Arm span 31.
Biaxillary diameter 32.
Transverse chest diameter 33.
Anteroposterior chest diameter 34.
Bispinal diameter 35.
Bicristal diameter 36.
Bitrochanteric diameter 37.
Weight 38.
Length of the upper limb Nose 39.
Length of arm 40.
Length of forearm 41.
Length 42.
Breadth Mouth 43.
Length of the lower limb 44,
Length of thigh Ear 45.
Length of leg 46.

51

Foot length

Foot breadth

Length

Breadth

Height

Height gnathion crinion
Height gnathion nasion
Height gnathion stomion
Diameter minimum frontal
Diameter maximum bizygomatic
Diameter maximum bigonial
Maximum interorbital
Maximum intercanthal
Minimum intercanthal
Bi-orbito-nasal arc

Length

Height

Breadth

Prominence

Breadth

Bilabial height

Length

Breadth

52

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54

Tasie IV.
No. of Mean No. of Mean
Index. Reference. Sex. Indivs. Vatue. Sex. Indivs. Value.
Head Indices—

Cephalic on ... 26, 1 Male 20 73°9 Female 16 75°8
Height We w. 29, 2 a 18 67°3 c 16 70:0
Breadth mas. ve 299 3 “ 18 92-3 a 14 92-3
Facial i w. 29, 5 * 20 135-0 3 15 123-0
Morphological Facial 29, 6 +3 20 83-8 5 15 79-0
Mandibulo-Jugal ... 30,12 t 20 74:8 3 14 74:7
Fronto-Jugal .. 38,13 y 20 80-1 3 16 83-6
Nasal Elevation ... 30,16 4 20 394 ” 16 44-2
Nasal Breadth .. 30,17 * 20 93-2 A 16 90-5
Ear .... ve ... 30,19 vy 20 $3°7 A 16 52-2
Trunk and Limb Indices— ks 16 52-2
Brachial... w. 19, 1 i 20 78°3 35 16 75-3
Forearm-Hand ......_ 19, 2 . 20 72:8 i 16 74-4
Hand ne we 19, 3 » 20 42:4 iy 16 41-3
Tibio-Femoral .. 20, 4 * 20 92:7 mt 13 93°6
Limb — .. 20, 6 43 20 70°3 m 13 69-2
Thoracic... .. 21, 18 sy 19 142-0 sf 13 142-0
Cristo-Spinal .. 20,14 a 19 87-3 ‘i 13 90-0

Stature Indices— 19, a
Sitting Height ne 3 20 50-0 3s 16 49-0
Arm and Forearm iy 20 35-4 a 16 35+1
Thigh and Leg... i 20 48-4 a 13 51-4
Biacromial .... pe hy 20 22-1 a 16 21-3
Bicristal —.... Be: a3 20 15-5 3 14 16-8
Manouvrier Proportional . 20 96-0 +; 16 106-0

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS,

Lam indebted to Dr. T. D, Campbell and Mr. N. B. Tindale for their generous
help in the preparation of this paper, and to Dr. J. H. Gray and members of the
1934 expedition for help and advice with the field work.

REFERENCES.
1. Hepiiexa, A., 1920—‘Anthropometry.”
Woon Jonzs, F., 1929—“Measurements and Landmarks in Physical Anthro-

pology.” Bernice P. Bishop Museum. Bulletin 63.

3. Woon Jones, F., and CAMPBELL, T. D., 1924—Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust.,
vol, xlviii.

4. Camppett, T. D., and Lewis, A. J., 1926—Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. 1,

5. Campsett, T. D., and Hacxerr, C. J., 1927—Trans, Roy. Soc. 5. Aust.,

vol. li.

DESCRIVTION OF PLATES II AND III.
Pirate I. Types of aborigines described in the text:—Males. 1. Pokkawinna (E);
2. Djitjibui (D); 3. Tintibanna (Q); 4. Ngaltjagintata (S).
Prare II. Types of aborigines described in the text :_Females. 1. Thea (c); 2.
Negalijuru (DD); 3. Kappina (GG); 4. Maggie (MM).

NOTES ON THE NATIVES OF THE SOUTHERN PORTION OF
YORKE PENINSULA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

BY NORMAN B. TINDALE, B.SC.

Summary

The natives of southern Yorke Peninsula are represented today by a sole woman survivor,
representing a family group which may have at one time numbered about sixty individuals. In the
first part of this paper are recorded some fragmentary observations obtained from her. It is
unfortunate that her knowledge is incomplete, and that the legends she related are , mere outlines of
once treasured stories, only portions of which would be known to a woman.

55

NOTES ON THE NATIVES OF THE SOUTHERN PORTION OF
YORKE PENINSULA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

By Norman B. Trnpacz, B.Sc., Ethnologist, South Australian Museum.
(Contribution from the South Australian Museum.)

(Read April 9th, 1936.)

The natives of southern Yorke Peninsula are represented today by a
sole woman survivor, representing a family group which may have at one
time numbered about sixty individuals. In the first part of this paper are
recorded some fragmentary observations obtained from her. It is unfortun-
ate that her knowledge is incomplete, and that the legends she related are
mere outlines of once treasured stories, only portions of which would be
known to a woman.

The second part of this paper consists of a vocabulary and list of place
names. The majority of the 410 words and place names in it were gathered
by Mr. J. Howard Johnson during the years 1898 to 1900; principally from
the same woman survivor of the aborignes at Marion Bay and from her
husband, who was of European extraction. Her people apparently belonged
to a local group, called Warri or Worri [War:i] of the Narranga
[Nar:anga] Tribe. The notes and vocabulary give a useful insight into
the life of this tribe, which would have otherwise remained unchronicled,
save for a few scattered references in the literature of the Australian
aborigines.

In 1935 it was possible for the present writer to visit Marion Bay and
to obtain the outlines of the stories, and to confirm the list of words with the
same native informant (Louisa), now grown to a great age. It was possible
to re-write the words in a phonetic system adopted at the University of
Adelaide,“ and to add some new details. Because of the dual sources of
the original data it has been considered desirable to print the vocabularies
in separate columns, as gathered by Johnson and by Tindale. The conven-
tion has been adopted of grouping words commencing with [b], [d] and [g]
with the words [p], [t] and [k], respectively, for these pairs of sounds are
often confused and little differentiated by the natives. The English descrip-
tion of the vocabularies is based on Johnson’s work, but has been amplified
and extended to include the new material gathered. In a few cases our
informant has forgotten the words formerly related, and in such cases there
is a blank in the first column.

Isolated words in the text which are spelled according to the above
system are placed within square brackets.

The similarity of this Yorke Peninsula dialect with that spoken by the
members of the Kaurna or Adelaide Tribe indicates a close relationship
between the two peoples. Their boundaries adjoined near the head of
St. Vincent Gulf. This relationship was recognised by Schmidt.@) In his
work both dialects are included under ‘“Meyu Sprachen.” The last survivor
of the Adelaide Tribe, Ibaritja, with whom some work was done before her
death in 1929, considered that the Narranga spoke her own language, but
without clearness. Our aged Yorke Peninsula informant thought similarly
of her eastern neighbour’s speech; she had known Ibaritja and recognised

@) Tindale, N. B., Records of the S, Aust. Museum, vol. v, 1935, p. 261-274.
@) Schmidt, P. W., Die Gliederung der Australischen Sprachen. Wien, 1919,

56

that the dialects had much in common; nevertheless, she thought that
Ibaritja “was hard to understand.”

To assist comparison some Adelaide Tribe words are given in the
appropriate places. These are spelled according to Teichelmann and Schir-
mann’s ‘) originals. The Kaurna origins of such additions are indicated by
the letters KA. which precede them. Some Kaurna words terminating
in [o] seem to be better rendered in southern Yorke Peninsula forms by [u].

When compared with Kaurna there seems to be a tendency for the
initial [p] sounds to become [b], [k] to become [g], and [t] to become [d],
but in the body of the word this does not often occur. The same tendency
has been recently noticed in the words of the language of the people in the
country near Laverton in Western Australia, when contrasted with the same
words in the Pitjandjara dialect of the Mann Range in north-western South
Australia.

(DUS LAGOWIE} 1 (Ravsay)
z , 1 H
space. i r + Hl
Py aaa y}---- Plat ef afhh nn BE SS (STanssuay)
’ EY, "Babli kawi
i ; . r *(CADOGROWIE LaGooN)
1 "Jaliwerawi
; is
‘ Punpi
1 eWinta:nja
4 UPL haut *
' ‘Kawipadta (pd)
y eAntini
aNudjati : 3 (Yorne Town)
Koliwi Nantowarti * casei ans » i Mank rl ,
ats TERE einhe §ae SR ates ops ey ee SMaMaree ee” (ASLUIBEE)
, rt 9 a : 1 @Mankara ;
Kundarawi = Wurawi (pd) =! ,
ao et Pe oi 7 (eeomanog}) \ i '
(wagageaac) af Wokcali®

eKaribi

Naljawi (pa) ‘Watiulis

NATIVE PLACE NAMES
pF Kadjarawi ON
=~" (Point YORKE)

SOUTHERN YORKE PENINSULA

HIN 44 SOUTH AUSTRALIA
fAp) — S€ALE-
Matkabalban (STENHOUSE BAY} °_| 2 3 4 § 67 489 10 Mnes {pd} = position doubtful
a¢ 68 DR (Waver.oo BAY) = European Placa Name,

Semen vat alae Swamp

[aaa

I am indebted to Miss M. Klem, of Corny Point, for confirming locali-
ties, Mr. H. T. Condon for checking of the names of the birds, and to Mr. H.
H. Finlayson for help in the identification of mammals.

Mr. J. Howard Johnson kindly gave permission for his manuscript
vocabularies to be published in the present form. J was grateful for their
use while working with Louisa.

Notes anp LEGENDS.

The country of Louisa’s mother and her kinsfolk was at the south-
western extremity of Yorke Peninsula, and extended as far north as Daly
Head. Their eastern boundary was at ’Bananta, which is slightly to the
east of Nugent, on Sturt Bay. In this triangular area of some 200 square
miles there lived the Warri [’War:i] group of the Narranga [’Nar: anga]
Tribe, whose country extended northwards as far as the fringe of the South

@) Teichelmann, C. G., and Schiirmann, C. W., Outlines of the Aboriginal Language
... Spoken... around Adelaide. Adelaide, 1840.

37

Hummocks Range [’Nantu’waru], where the country was inhabited by
people who spoke the [’Nantu’waru], literally “the kangaroo language,” and
belonged to another tribe.

There were many place names in her country besides those given in
the accompanying list, but Louisa had forgotten them. She explained also
that “My people never named the inland places, only those near the coast.”

The places named were waterholes and soaks, as well as good hunting
and camping places. At Daly Head, for example, the water was called
[’Waluri| ; it ran into the sea from under a big rock, at tide mark. There
was a big rock there from which they fished for Snapper (Pagrosomus
auraius). At Marion Bay, Kokudawi [’Kiokudawi], was the principal place
for fishing. Most of the spearing was done at night; fish spears with a double
head were used; torches were burned to attract the fish, these were made
of bark. The best place to spear Butterfish (Sciaena antarctica) was at
Penguin Point [’Kanarap:a]. In December many Yellow-tail (Seriola
grandis) were caught at Kokudawi.

Fish nets were made from the fibre obtained from broad flags [’buntu,
’buntu]. These were placed in a long hole or oven and covered with hot
ashes for about a day. After this preliminary wilting the stems were chewed
and the fibre made into string by working and rolling on the thighs. Women
chewed the fibre; it made their teeth smooth, and sometimes caused them to
be sore. Each man owned his own net, which was six to eight feet long,
five to six feet high, and usually of small mesh, suitable for fish such as the
sea Mullet (Mugil cephalus). Sometimes nets with a larger mesh were made
for catching the Australian Salmon (Arripis trutta). In fishing three or four
nets might be joined together, with sticks standing between to support them.
There were neither sinkers nor floats. The people dived down to secure the
fish. Bundles of grass were sometimes tied on the top of the nets to keep
the fish from jumping over, and might help to keep the nets floating. When
many nets were joined together they would form a line many hundreds of
feet long,

Nets for snaring wallabies were made from kangaroo and wallaby
sinews. These were placed on the kangaroo pads after fences of brush-
wood had been built and apertures left at intervals to guide the animals to
the nets. At these apertures a triangular bag net of sinews [’minti] was
tied. It had a string looped around the opening. When the animal entered
the bag it thrust‘its head down into the small pocket end. The noose string,
which was tied to a branch, closed the mouth of the bag.

The natives made net bags knotted like the fish nets, called [’mandeiko].
They carried these over their shoulders, supported by a string.

Coiled baskets were unknown to the natives of Marion Bay. After the
white men came a native woman visited them, either from the Murray River
or the Coorong, and taught some of the women how to make them.

At Pondalowie [Pandalawi] there was a famous kangaroo hunting place,
where the animals were driven on to a small peninsula and slaughtered. Plain
wooden spears were used in hunting. Kangaroo and wallaby skin rugs were
made from the pelts of these animals and worn as cloaks. There is an excel-
lent example, made from Dama wallaby skins, in the South Australian
Museum (A. 6,409), which was presented by Mr. J. Howard Johnson, It
bears on its inner surface a regular pattern of crossed lines formed by rubbing
the folded skin with a broken piece of quartzite hammerstone. Though of
comparatively recent manufacture, this rug was made by an aborigine in
the native way. The skins were simply pegged out and dried in the sun, and,
after trimming to a regular shape, they were stitched together with kangaroo

58

or wallaby tail tendons. The cross markings were made by folding and
firmly pressing the skins, fur side inwards, and then by scoring the prominent
edges of the folds thus formed with the sharp edge of a stone implement or
shell. In this case the markings were simply to make the skins more flexible,
but besides such geometrical patterns it was the custom to mark the skins
used for rug making with various other, and more irregular, designs, which
may have been signs of proprietorship. Such figures were often made more
conspicuous by colouring them with red ochre or other native pigments.

When worn as a cloak the rug was passed under the right arm and
fastened over the leit shoulder with a wooden or bone pin. Both arms were
thus left free.

The gum [’budala] of the wattle trees [’kundaraka] was sweet and liked
as a food. Therc were many trees with this gum near Moonta,

Wild peaches [’parabara] were much liked. Louisa remembered an old
song which came from the north country, and which was sung at Marion
Bay. It tells how the sun “burned” or “made red” the peaches.

Sone or THE Peacu TREE,

[Parabara ’wanarni *tjindu *kalala *kambarni
wild peaches “come” sun light burn
(Lucarya acuminata)
*jarugareitja *madeitja "tjindu *kalala *kambarni. |
“go round and sun light burn.

gather them”

“Wild peaches hanging in the trees, the sun will burn you (to the colour
of fire) we will gather you (for food),”

Louisa’s mother was born at Marion Bay; her husband was known as
“King Tommy.” His country extended as far north as Wallaroo; he came
often to Marion Bay. He had a very loud voice, and one could hear him
talking “half a mile away.” “We married our own people. We did not have
anything to do with strangers. We married with people only as far north
as Wallaroo. If we obtained a woman from the ‘North pcople’ (the Kangaroo
people north of the IIummocks Range) they would come and take her back
again.”

At [’Papuldawi] (Bubladowie WH, Section 11B) large numbers of
people congregated for ceremonies. The adult menfolk initiated their young
men there. At such times natives from the northern end of the Peninsula
came to Papuldawi.

The bodies of natives were stated to be sometimes buried in the ground.
At other times they were smoke-dried over a fire, tied up in grass and sheets
of bark in a flexed condition and placed in caves, such as occur near Corney
Point [nan:ep:al].

Tue Story or NcArNA AND ’BADARA.

Ngarna [narna] was a big, powerful man, who lived on Yorke Peninsula.
He was a powerful club thrower. On one occasion he stood on the point of
Wardang Island [’Wordan], and saw a woman seated on the rocks at Point
Turton [Punpu]. She was fishing, and had a baby tied to her back. He
hurled his club [wir:i] across miles of water and struck the woman dead.“
He exerted such effort that he imprinted his foot-track on the rock. The
woman turned into a large stone (apparently a large granitic erratic) at
Punpu. Near to it is another rock with a pattern on it like the rectangular

(4) According to Louisa’s son, who has lived at Point Pearce, the club was thrown
from near Port Victoria to Point Pearce, i.e, from ’Gagat’hi to “Boys” Point.

59

pattern to be seen on wallaby skin cloaks ; this is the woman’s cloak [’palta]
or rug. Ngarna desired to kill Madjitju (literally, the bat man), who was a
small person, one of the [’ilara] people. He walked down the Peninsula to
[’Warilben] (Section 20, Warrenben), accompanied by a party of men. They
planned to vanquish the bat man, who proved to be too clever for them. He
turned Ngarna into a sleepy lizard and then escaped by turning himself into
a bat and flying away. Ngarna met a man_ called Badara at Emu Bay
(between Rhino Head and Penguin Point). Badara was a little man and
was lying down at rest on the flat near Narawi (Hillderowie Well, Section 2,
Warrenben). Badara made some remark, whereupon the big man Ngarna
came up and tormented him, saying, “You are only a little fellow; what you
say is a joke.” Before the little man could rise, Ngarna attacked him. A
fight commenced. Badara was struck down by a blow from Ngarna’s large
club [’yal:a’wiri]. Ngarno thereupon cut him open, dragged out his intes-
tines, and tore out the caul fat [man:i]. A clearing in the mallee scrub
marked the place, and a bare patch of ground remained where Badara’s
intestines were thrown out on the grass.) Ngarna then picked up the body
of his enemy, carried it into the Salt Lagoon (Section 10, Hundred of War-
renben), and threw it down in the middle of the lake. A pile of stones
remains there to mark the body of Badara; they are Badara’s bones. There
were no stones there before Badara was killed. Sea-gulls nest on Badara
nowadays, and one may go out, in summer, and gather the eggs. Ngarna
travelled around the coast. At Nildidjari [’Nildi’djari], near Cape Spencer ‘
he made a rug of wallaby fur sewn with sinews, and left it near the beach.
It remains as a large rock; there are seams on it like the scarified marks on
a rug. Finally he himself turned to stone at Rhino Head, and became the
large outlying rock on the point. His wife sat down at his feet, and is
represented there today as a large block of rock at the base of the cliff.
According to a version obtained by Mr. J. Howard Johnson, Ngarna (called
Arrner) was a giant, supposed by the natives to be buried at Royston Head,
near Cape Spencer. He was a big man who quarrelled continually with
another giant called Badara (Budderer). Finally Ngarna threw a club from
Point Turton which killed Badara, who was near Minlaton. Johnson’s story
came from Louisa’s husband.

Madjitju was a clever man; he was a man, not a bat. He stood on the
shore of the sea at a place near Marion Bay. He made a shark [’widat:a]
and placed it in the water; it commenced to wag its tail and swam away.
At this Madjitju was surprised and shouted out after the animal:

[“Wan:i ’adjini ‘nargun.” |
“Let me look I want to see.”

He wished the shark to “turn around, hold your head up, let me have
a look.” The shark did this to please Madjitju, and continues the practice
today. The madjitju afterwards became a bat. Before turning into a bat
he made all the natives of the country.

Sutton © mentions this being under the name majaja in his brief
account of a somewhat different story.

At Pandalawi (north-west corner of Section 26A, Hundred of War-
renben) there lived a wicked old woman named ’Bulgawan. She was out
fishing, lying on the rocks, when she became turned into stone; she lies

©) This place has been recently ploughed and cultivated.
(") According to Miss Klem this place is at the lagoon near Cape Spencer, worked
for gypsum. (Sect. 18,500, etc, Hundred of Warrenben.)

® Sutton, T. M., The Adjahdurah Tribe of Aborigines on Yorke Peninsula.
Proceedings of Geographical Society of Australia, South Australian Branch, 1889, p. 4.

60

there still. The sea water rushes into a long tunnel under the rock and comes
out in a fountain near the shore, throwing up a column of spray. The natives
considered that the water entered by her mouth and was ejected from
her anus.

At |’Ila’rawi] there once lived many |’ilara]. They were little people.
They could not talk. They had mud camps, and according to Louisa you
may still see the traces of their huts as mud heaps in the scrub. They were
like any other natives, only small (“3 feet”), They could not talk the
Narranga language, and only made “strange noises.” They came to water
at “Emu Waterhole,” and so the place is called Iarawi.

Mr. Tom Egginton, who was born in the district, and lives at Warooka,
speaks the native language, and was able to add the following details to the
above notes and legends :-—

Ngarna was a strong man. He threw a club from Wardang Island to
Point Turton and killed a woman. He was outwitted by Madjitju, whom he
tried to kill. Ngarna was turned into a sleepy lizard and remains as one
today.

Bulgawan was once a woman who is now a “blowhole” at Pondalowie
Bay. Air, froth, and water are forced under the rocks and is ejected as a
fountain from a round hole about a foot in diameter.

Tue Evit Spirit CALLED WAINJIRA.

One day an old man went digging out kangaroo rats at Point Yorke,
called Kadjarawi (Section 97, Hundred of Coonarie). He had two spears
with him because he had the notion that an evil spirit being called [’Wainjira]
might be lurking about in the scrub. He was busily engaged in his task when
he felt or heard a big wind approaching. He knew that this was Wainjira’s
doing. “Ah! I can hear Wainjira coming.” He hid himself behind a clump
of mallee, where there was a narrow space [’talbu], betwcen adjacent clumps.
As Wainjira passed between the trees, he tripped him up by passing one
spear between his legs, and pierced him with the other. It took a large
crowd of men to carry Wainjira away to the beach at Kadjarawi, and there
to throw him into the sea. Great waves sprang up and rushed over the rocks
as the giant fell into the water, and they continue to do so today. Wainjira
was a |’Nukunu], ie., a northern stranger, and was supposed to be tall in
stature.

The [’Ilara] were a group of small people who lived in the scrub near
Marion Bay. They were stupid people and could not speak to others. They
lived in mud huts in the scrub,

GENERAL VOCABULARY

TINDALE JOHNSON
’aipam:a T am caming i-bumma
’alalatu native cranberry (Aslroloma humifusum) al-lal-a-doo
’alibuma you and I are going; I am going (with you) ally-bumma
*am: i breast, mother um-me
anki female, girl, young woman arn-kee, ung-kee

‘antubatu-’wite’katja “mouse” (a short-armed animal; digs quickly); untoo-buttoo-
cf., KA, witte, quick; katta, digging stick vith-c-catcha

apul: u that other one; what is his name? ubble-loo
‘arntu arm arrn-too
’atjika a mate, my mate ud-jig-ga, ud-ge-ga

*In the absence of Mr. N. B. Tindale abroad, these proofs were kindly read by
Professor J. S. Fitzherbert, of the Adelaide University. Professor Fitzherbert is of the
opinion that there should be an accent mark before each word in the first column of the
vocabulary. The letters KA. indicate Kaurna, or Adelaide tribe, as set out in the context.

61

GENERAL VOCABULARY

TINDALE

’awatji estuary catfish (Cnidoglanis megastomea)

“lara A dwarf people who were supposed to live in
former times at Ilarawi. They made camps of
mud, traces of which, as mounds, are supposed
to be present in the scrub country.

*indala fairy penguin (Eudyptula undina)

itja skin

itjina balta boot (new term)

*gairo blood

’kainbara, nudli
*kaipulja, ’gaibulja
’kaijera

kaijera

gaka-nak: olitji

butterfish or mulloway (Sciaena antarctica)

pardalote (Perdalotus) and allied species of birds

swamp

tea tree, black (Melaleuca pubescens)

headache (lit., head spinning around); cf., K A.,
kakka, head, nakkondi, awake, ti, prohibitive
mood

’gakanu hat

black-naped snake (Denisonia gouldi); lit., black
head; cf.,, K A., kakka puljonna, head black

*gaka-puljoli

’gakabun: u hat

*gakati shoulder-blade; cf., K A., kartakka, shoulder
*gaka-warli hat; cf., K A., wodli, house

*gaka-wilja hair on head; cf., K A., wilya, foliage

head
flat forehead
red-headed person

*kak: a, ’gak:a
*gak:a ‘bin: ani
*kaka 'tilali

*kalala to light up (e.g., a fire)

*kalalu thornbill (Acanthiza)

*kaltitja to be enamoured (with any object)

*kaljaru wallaby (Thylogale eugenti)

*kam: idla mother’s mother (woman speaking)

kambarni to burn scrub or Dama, to ripen in the sun

‘kanara north

*kanika to bark (like a dog)

*kani’gar:a cockroach

*kanti thigh; ef, KA., kanti, thigh, leg

*kanti palta trousers (new term)

*kanduwaru a species of wading bird

*kanu-barti scorpion, ¢cf., K A., karndoworti, species of scor-
7: "SF, pion; kuinyo barti, death grub

*gapatja ankle

*kabi, ’kawi, ’gabi water; cf., K A., kauwe, water

*gari, *kari emu (Dromaius novachollandiae); cf., KA. kari

fly whisk (i.e. tuft of emu feathers); cf. KA,,
gariwoppa, tuft of emu feathers

“pigface” (Mesembrianthemum aequilaterale); cf.,
K A.,: karkalla, a species of plant, the fruit of
which is eaten

*gari ’wop:a

karkala

‘garkanja, ’karkanja Nankeen kestrel (Falco cenchroides); cf., KA,
karkanya, a species of hawk

karlko shea-oak ©(Casuarina Muelleriana); cf. KA,
karko, she-oak

*garntu thunder and lightning, ¢f,, K A., karndo, thunder
or lightning.

*karto wife

*yaruga’larto wood-swallow (Artamus)

gatankala, kungula = blue swimming crab (Portunus pelagicus)

*gatapit’parti groper (Achoerodus gouldi)

*kadla fire, any light; cf., K A., gadla, fire

"*kadli dingo, wild dog (Canis familiaris dingo); cf.,

K A., kadli, dog

JOHNSON
ower-jee

yin-da-la

gurroo
gyne-burra
gy-bull-ya
ki-er-a-wurta
ki-er-rah
gocker nargo-lidge

gurg-gun-noo
gurr-gun-noo
cooka-bull-yooly

gug-gut-tee
gucka-wurley
gugga-willyer
cucka-willya
gock-a, guck-ker
bucka binyinny

gul-ul-loo
gul-didger
culyeroo

cun-arra
gon-nick-ker, or
can-nick-ker
gunning-gurra
cun-tee
cundybulta

gunnee-wurta, or
gunner-berty
gub-ut-cha

cabby, cow-wee, cowie

gorry
gurry-woo0-poo

gurrdguller

gurr-gunya
curl-koo, currlk-oo

currn-too

gurr-goo-larrt-too
gud-ung-ala
gutter-be-berty
currd-la

cud-lee

62

GENERAL VOCABULARY

TINDALE JOHNSON
‘kadbari, ’gadburi snapper (Pagrosomus auratus) cud-burry
‘gad: ara stingaree (Urolophus testaceus), small species gud-der-ah

fiddicr, a species of ray guddoo-la
gat: ika female of red kangaroo (Macropus rufus) guddi-ga
*katurta sword stick, a fighting club guthurta
*’wawana mother’s brother
*kua, “kuwa crow (Corvus); cf, K A., kua, crow. goo-we

kua-mil: atu

a real thief; ie., one who takes by force, like a
crow; cf., KA, kua + milla, violence, taken
by force

goowa millado

gulalja Australian salmon (Arripis trutta) gool-ul-ya
*kuladi gray butcher-bird (Cracticus torquatus) goo-laddie
*kulu barley grass (Hordeum maritinuin) coo-loo
*kunara north, north wind

*kundaraka A species of wattle which yields an edible gum

called budala, which see

baby, a small child
woman (with child in arms); lit., child owner
blue swimming crab (Portunus pelayicus)

*gurjanj a, kunanj a
kun anja-nantiku
kungula, gatankala

gung-un-yer
oong-unya narndickoo

*kuninti mosquito
*kunkaratji birth goon-gurrage
*kunda wallaby (Petrogale sp. probably P. xanthopus) coon-ter

Only found in rock country; was never found

on southern coast of Yorke Peninsula.
*gunti’mar chestnut teal (Querquedula castanea) goon-de-mar
-euntu chest; cf., K.A., kunda, chest coorn-too
*kunjulu parni swearing ; an oath goonyer-a-barnin
’kupil: a grog; cf. KA., kopurla, seawater, intoxicating goo-billa

drinks
‘supia “devil” or “spirit being” of an ordinary kind goo-binya, coop-a
’kura, ’gura broad daylight; cf., K A., kuranna, noon goora
*’guralu, kuralo daytime gooraloo

’*kuran: a
*kuran: a-mulki

’ouratu, "kuratu banded-carpet shark (Orectolobus devisi) goorat-too

-ouriweidj singing (a corroboree) coordy-witch

kur ti native peach (Eurcarya acuminata) goorb-tee

*kudaka young of kangaroo; cf., KA. kurtakka, young gooduck-a, gudaga
kangaroo

kudaka-paltia rug made. from kangaroo skins gudaga-bulter

‘gudil’jaro lark

gudlu louse

gudlu, kudlu louse (Pediculus) cood-loa

*kutju one; cf, KA,, kutyo, little, few goot-choo

*kuja fish (any kind of), applied sometimes to butterfish; gooya, coo-ya
cf., K A, kuya

*ku: pa southern spiny lobster (Jasus lalandi); lit, ugly coop-a
looking; cf, K A., kunggurla, crawfish

‘kuwa crow (Corvus) go0-wa

‘mai, ‘maji bread, vegetable food; cf., K A., mai, vegetable mi-e, or mi-yee
food

*maiabaro Cape Barren goose (Cereopsis novae-hollandiac); mi-e-burro
anything eatable, mai = bread, barro = meat

*makakilakila skink lizard (Leiolepisma) mug-a-gilla-gilla

’malc: o clouds; cf., K A., makko, cloud muck-koo

’makuwarta heel tug-wurta

*malawari sandfly (Culicoides) mulla-wurry

*maldalja foreign speech (German, gibberish, unable to mul-dulya
understand); cf., K A., maltangaitya, speaking
badly

*maldeira pink-flowered teatree (Melaleuca acuminata); cf. mul-der-ra, or

good
good looking (good looking person or face)

KA., maltarra, a species of eucalyptus resem-
bling the stringy bark tree

goo-ranner

goo-ranner-moolkee

mul-deer-ra

TINDALE

*malka
*mambala
‘mana’tjena

*manka
"mayka

*mankawi, ’marnkawi

‘mayku
*man: 1, marni
*manpi

*mandeiko

manti
mandiltu
mandipalta
manto
mantu
*manja
’marna
*marni
mar: a

’
,
2
»
’

mar:a piri

*mar : a-walpa, ’wititu

*’mar : awitji

’mardi kawi,
‘mardi ’gawi
’madle

'matjara
*Madjitju

mena, mina
mena ’guguli
mena-puti
*minka
‘minka
’minkara
minti

’minja

*Mitji
*mok:a
*mora
’mukalta

mula-’kudaka
mulara
mular:a
mulawi
*mulki
*mulka-pinjini
*muryka

y
2
>
’

63

GENERAL VOCABULARY

white; a limestone waterhole

anyhow

tremendous, big; i.¢.,, big kangaroo, man (any-
thing).

Australian goshawk (Astur fasciatus)

“black and blue ant”; apterous female of a thynnid
wasp (Diamma bicolor).

three (no higher numerals known); cf, KA,
marnkutye, three

cross or angry

fat, caul fat

common bronzewing (Phaps chalcoptera); some-
times applied to other pigeons

swag; i¢. parcel wrapped with string; net-bag
made of puntu fibre carried over shoulder with
string; cf., K A., mandarra, string

sound of a blow

stingray (a large species of)

stingray (Dasyatis brevicaudatus)

boy; cf., K A., yerli, male

fighting-man, an adult

rain; cf., K A., manya, cold, rainy

big (fat)

fat; cf., K A., marnendi, to be fat

hand (includes wrist and fingers); cf. KA,
marra, finger, hand

finger nail; cf., K A., marra birri, nail of the finger

native cherry (Exocarpus cupressiformis)

lit, “many hands,” octopus; cf. K A., marra,
hand; witte, much
mirage

inside of thigh; cf, KA. madleari, the gluteus
muscle,

moderately strong waves

Name of a supernatural being who takes form of
a bat; the name is also applied to bats in
general; cf., K A., maityo maityo, bat.

bat; cf., K A., maityo maityo, bat

knee; cf., K A., matta, knee

eye; cf., K A., mena, eye

cross-eyed

eyebrows; cf., KA., mena + puti, eyes -+ hairy

bad; cf., KA. mingka, wound, hole in garment

long-needled wattle (Acacia longifolia)

silver wattle (Acacia rhetinodes)

triangular net bag made of sinews, used in snaring
wallabies

a white-flowered bush, a species which grows on
beach

a natne

egg, cf., K A., muka, egg

small-needled wattle (Acacia rupicola)

kidney; cf., K A., muka, egg; anything of a circu-
lar or oval shape

starved young kangaroo

boobook owl (Ninox boobook)

pregnant; with young

cormorant (Phalacorcorax sp.)

face

flat face

thick-tailed gecko (Gymnodactylus miliust)

JOHNSON
mulka
mum-bala
munna-gin-er

mun-ka
mun-ker

mung-ga-wee

mung-goo
murrn-nee
mun-pce

mun-duck-koo

mun-tee
mun-dilt-too
mundy-bulter
yurd-lee
mun-too
mun-ya
murrn-na
murrn-nee
murra

murra-birry
murra-wulpa,
whid-dit-too
murra-widgee

murr-da-gowie
mud-dlee

mud-ger-ra
mud-jet-choo

mud-jet-choo
mut-ta
min-na

minna-booty
mink-ka

ming-ka, more-ra
ming-gurra

minya, or meen-ya

Mit-chee

mooka, mook-ker
more-ra, morea
moo-gul-ta

moola-good-da-ga
mool-e-ra
moo-ler-ra.
mool-a-win
mook-ke

moolka binyinny
moonk-ker

64

GENERAL VOCABULARY

TINDAILE JOHNSON

*mun ti stinging ant, a fierce species of

‘mun: u white-winged chough (Corcorar melanorhamphus) moon-noo

’mura’warti sleeping lizard (Trachysaurus rugosus) moo-rower-tee

‘muru white-backed magpie (Gymnorhina hypoleuca) moor-roo

*murugadja crying; cf., K A., murka, cry, weeping moor-gudge

*mudatj tadpole mood-dach,
nood-dach

*mudla nose; cf., K A., mudla, nose mood-la

*mudlanki old woman mood-lunkie

mudlahaki miserable (out of sorts) moola bucky

*mudlabaki‘napika cold south wind; Ht., “a nose freezer” moola bucker
nubber nigger

‘mudla wikili long-nosed ; cf,, K A,, mudla, nose; wikendi, to find mudla wigilly

fault with

*mutja stump

‘muj ca seaweed moo-yer

fagura a whale wol-burra, wul-burra

nagura-wadli blow-hole (Hit., whale’s nest) ; orifice in limestone wulburra wordly

cliff whence wave action forces a stream of
water or vapour

nanto, nantu kangaroo, old male grey (Macropus giganteus); nanto
var., melanops; cf., K A., nanto, male kangaroo
nanto horse (originally pindi nanto; [t., white man’s nan-toc
, } kangaroo); cf, KA, pindi nanto, horse
‘nanto-mak : A horse-shoe nanto-muckee
nanja pubic hair nun-ya
BAER ago tawny frogmouth (Podargus strigoides) narrn-ne
yal: awiri long waddy; cf., K A., ngalla-wirri, a long, heavy nulla-whirry
club resembling in form a sword
‘nam: i mother
‘yarata hack now-er-ta
"yarna A powerful being who possessed great skill at Arrner

club throwing; he threw a wir:a from
"Wordan and killed a woman and child who
were fishing at Punpu (Pt. Turton), He
sought a quarrel with a small man called
Badara, killed him with a ‘yal: awiri club,
removed his caul fat (man:i), and threw him
into a salt lagoon. Negarna became turned to
stone at Rhino Head.

narsi teal (any duck) nurry

ae yoke of egg nurr-roo
yarula centipede nulfoo-ra
"yatju my or mine; e.g., “natju-’kadli, my dog nally-go
‘yatju mulki my face

'yadjali pipeclay

‘nini-nanki you are a woman; cf., K A., nganki, woman. ninny-unkie
nib: ali wrinkled

‘nip: u black man nip-poo
nip-wayki black women nip-wunkie
njinkali “master,” “your father” nin-gully
‘nuk: e cold in the nose (mucus of the nose) nook-kce
‘nukunu wild blackfellows from the north; phantom, ghost; noog-gunner

the worst kind, always causing harm, The
greatest evil was caused by a bald-headed
nukunu, pirika-nukunu, who was greatly feared,

‘nudhi, kainbara butterfish, mulloway (Sciaena antarctica); called noodly
nudli “because he has a bent tail”
ba! look out (an exclamation) ; ¢.g., when one sees a buh

snake, one exclaims ba!

65

GENERAL VOCABULARY

TINDALE JOHNSON
’baitja snake, any species, also applied to insects; cf. KA. bu-cher, buy-cher,
paitya, vermin, reptile but-cher
’baga'ku erested bell-bird (Oreoica gutturalis); cf., KA. bug-ug-koo
sound, noise.
*bagijak:a native currant (Acrotriche depressa) buggy-juck-er
*bak: a black snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus) bucker
’balta, ‘palta trousers, coat or shirt; cf. K A., paltapaltarendi, bulta, bulter
to stretch one’s self [one’s skin]
palta skin cloak bulta, boolta
balja native fuchsia (Eremophila maculata); cf. KA.,
palya, a shrub resembling myrtle bull-yer
*bary'ardo little swamp bird (“hopping jennies”’; live along bung-ar-roo
swamps; have black breasts)
*pandala back-bone
*bandauri gun (a dangerous thing, one that killed) bun-dow-ree
*panjanitj tell him bunyer-nitch
*‘panjaworta daylight (broad), daybreak; cf., K A., panyiworta, bunyer-wurta
banjiwarta daybreak, morning
banji morning, this morning buntee
’bap:i father bup-pe
bara hole
parabara native peach (Encarya acuminata)
parluni death (a dead man) barl-loonie
*barni ’bamani teigani come here, sit down
*parnda stone; cf., K A., parnda, limestone, lime bunt-ta, ponda
*parnu yours, cf., K A., parnakko, theirs burrn-noo
*parnujarngana father’s sister (possibly incorrect)
*parpari premature child (lit. skin); cf., KA. parpa, skin brar-brerry, or
of the human body brarbrary
"par ta blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) burr-ra
har’ti grub boring in stem of wattle birr-tee
*baru, "baro meat borroo
hadana hold fast
Badara A small ancestral man who was killed by yarna Budderer
with a club. See narna.
pat: ana many, much, all; full of butten-er
bi: paru brown hawk (leracidea berigora) be-e-burrow
’bilta common opossum (Trichosurus vulpecula); cf. bill-ta
KA,, pilta, opossum
*pilta hip; cf. KA, pilta = hip, side, and opossum bill-ta
*piltaku a camp; cf. KA., bulto = place bilduckoo
*pilta-balta opossum-skin rug bilta-bulter
biyku, pinku pinkie, rabbit bandicoot (Thalacomys lagotis), “has bing-coo

hook on his tail; he hooks himself on ground
while he digs; lives in burrow”; cf, KA,
pingko, a small animal with a white tail that
burrows in the earth

*pinti wind binty

pindira, *kudnju whitefellow; cf., K A., pindi, white-man; kuinyo = bindra, good-inyoo
dead person, also a ghostly being

*pindranki white women: cf. KA, pindi, ngangki, white- bin drunkie
man female

‘pira moon birr-ra

*pira mutton-fish (Haliotus); lit., moon birra

*pira land-shell; 2t., moon birr-roo, birra

*biradja baldhead; cf. K A., piripiri, old, past child bear- birry-ger
ing; burka = old

*bir iu silver gull (Larus novae-hollandiae) biroo, bith-roo

*bitjila forked stick, used in making native hut bid-jer-la

*bidnu Jew-lizard (Amphibolurus barbatus) hid-noo

bit: i intestines, entrails bitt-tee

"biju smoke (tobacco or wood smoke), a pipe bee-yoo

TINDALE
*bulka

*bulka anki
"Bulgawan

*bultu
*puljoli

? buntu

*puntu, buntu
*bundunja

*burku
*burlai
*budala

buda-buto

*pudara
budla

*budli, ’pul: i
*budni

"put: i, but: i
*bud : ili

da: bara
ta: jukuli, ta-jukuli

Ta: jukuli

*takari
*talbu

dalti

"dalti ’bit: i
tam: uli
‘danka
‘dan: i
*"dabap: o

*darga’ri
*darni-mudlu

*dar:a
‘dawo
*deigani
‘dia
‘tiarti

‘dia-tutala
dikibar :a
dilali

diltja

‘dim: e’ra
*dinditja
dinti-wonkani
*didna

66

GENERAL VOCABULARY

grey-haired man, old;
ete,
old woman

A wicked old woman wh

ef, KA., burka, old, of age,

became turned to stone there.

“travelling”
track (spoor, mark)

black or dark, dark-haired ;

black

ef, KA,

o fished at *Pandalawi; she

pulyona,

common reed (Phragmites communis J; used in
making mats; natives learned it froma

woman when informan
before; “we made nets
A broad-leafed flag or reed

of native flag.”

used in making fish nets.

death adder (Acanthophis antarcticus }

pandonya, a species of goana
dew; cf. K A., burko, dew
two; cf, K A,, purlaitye, two
gum from wattle trees; sweet; gather and eat it
from ’kundaraka trees, growing near Moonta

lit.,

full of ashes, meaning full

bream (Nematolosa erebi)
bush, a small sandhill species

calf (of leg)

star; cf., K A, purle,

star

Coorong

t was a little girl; never
, the fibres of which are

; cf, KA,

of bones; bony

mallee fowl (Leipoa ocellata); cf., K A., budni
hairy, hair on animals; cf,, KA,, puti =

hairy (on animals on

blowfly
tooth

lif., teeth hole; mouth (no name for chin

all included in mouth);
(Rhombosolea flesoides) (lit.

flounder
mouth)

2

hairy

ly); cf, KA, puti, hairy

or jaw,

cf., KA, ta, mouth

crooked

Name of a man who had a. crooked mouth; it
became twisted because he lay out in the moon-

light.
tomorrow

a gap; a space between adjacent clumps of trees
ear; cf. KA, tarlti, wing

“long ears”; rabbit (introduced)
mother’s father (female speaking )
liver; cf, K A,, tangka, liver

sea, surf

bung-eye fly and common fly (Musca); cf, KA,

tappo, fly

tomorrow; cf. K A., tarkarri, future
toado, toad fish (Spheroides pleurogramma); cf.,
KA,, tarni, surf, mudla, nose
string; cf, K A., tarra, string
a gap or cutting; any crack; cf, KA, tau, hole

sit down
tooth
Pied oyster-catcher

sharp; cf., K A., tiarka, sharp
toothache (Ht., tooth growl or in bad temper )
armpit; ¢cf., K A., tiki, rib

red, fair, fair-haired

tendon; cf., K A, tiltya, vein, sinew

bed
straight

impudence (h#., 10 talk in the daytime)

foot; cf., KA., tidna,

foot

(Haematopus ostralegus); lit.,

JOHNSON
bullka

bull-away
bool-too
bull-yooly

boon-poo, boon-too

boon-dun-ya

boork-koo
bull-i

booda-buttoo

bood-ara
bood-la
bool-lee
hood-ne
hooty
bood-a-lee
boo-wa

thar-burra

thabarayoogooly

tukerce

tul-tee .
thurrueta-bitty

dab-bup-poo

dunny-mood-loo

turr-ra
thow-woa
tha-gunny
dee-ya
deer-de

deeya doodala
thig-gi-burra
dill-ar-ly, or thil-lully
tilt-ya

dim-ara

din-dij (dindidge)
dinny wonganna
didna

__ TINDALE
*didna-piri

‘diti'dilja, ’didi’deilja

dit: i
djindu-kambalaratj
djindu kambanitj
*tjindu, djintu
*tjununtju

duk: utja
*tumbula

dunka

*tundura
*duru-bunbuli
*dudia
tudla-wonkanina
*duwa'ra

’wainjira, wanjura

’wakakara
*wakak : 0

’wako, waku
’walgana
’walpa

walta, werltau

67
GENERAL VOCABULARY

toenails

restless flycatcher (Seisura inguicta)

white-breasted sea-eagle (Haliaetus leucogaster)

sunrise; cf., K A., tindo kambarendi, to be hot sun
sun burnt

sun; cf., K A., tindo, sun

ee babbler (Pomatostomus supercilio-
sus

small; cf. K A., tukkutya, small, little

marchfly (Tabanus); cf., K-A., tuburra, a specics
of large fly

bad smell

tea-tree (Leptospermum coriaceum)

hump-backed man

temper; cf., K A., turla, angry; turlawinko, anger

savage talk; cf., KA., turla-warpo, quarrelsome

welcome swallow (Hirundo neoxena)

Evil spirit which hides in the scrub; makes strange
sounds; feared nearly as much as is the
nukun:u (Noog-gunner).

Dtella lizard (Peropus variegatus)

young of wallaby (Thylogale eugenti); cf., KA,
wakwakko, child, offspring

spider; cf., K A., wako, spider

fog

waterhole, claypan

hot; cf., K A., werltate, a hot season

‘wal'da: ro, ‘gudil’jaro lark

’waltja

>walto, ’werlto
*warawara

’waripa'tja

wari
’warto
’waruka
’wadibaru
‘watjara

watbula
wauwi

*werlto, walto
widli, wil:i

'wil:i, ’widli
wilpa

wiltja

‘wiltjalu, wiltja: lo
wilto

’wina’nak: a

win: a

win: ara, winata
*winta

*winta

Australian bustard (Eupodotis australis); it.,
long neck; cf, KA., walta, turkey = bustard

neck (or throat)

witch-doctor, sorcerer; cf.
doctor, sorcerer

brown goana (Varanus gouldi); cf, KA, paitja,
reptile

south; cf. K A., worri, extreme point of anything

hairy-nosed wombat (Lasiorhinus latifrons); ch.
K A., warto, wombat

KA, warrawarra,

g

seal (probably Arctocephalus doriferus)

bull-ant

hut, “wurley”

bluebush (Kochia sedifolia)

female kangaroo (Macropus giganteus var. mela-
nops); cf., KA. wattwe, female kangaroo

neck (or throat); cf., K A., werlto, nape of neck

deep water (long way down)

Australian pelican (Pelecanus conspicillatus) ; lit,
long neck

shallow water

daylight (dawn)

night

night time

wedge-tailed eagle (Uroactus audax);
wilto, species of eagle

A shrub which creeps about on ground (probably
Kungea pomifera); fruit has strong smell like
that of apples.

net, fishing net; cf, K A., widni, sinew of which
the natives make nets

frost, frosty

barn-owl (Tyto alba); cf, KA,
of owl

type of spear thrown only by hand, javelin

cf. KA,

winta, a specics

JOHNSON
didna-birry
did-e-dilya

tintoe-gumble-urrage

tin-too
joon-nun-choo

doog-idge
doom-bulla

doon-dra
toora boon ballee
doodala

doo-woo-pa
wun-yerra

wug-a-gurra
wug-ug-coo

wock-oo
wul-gun-nah
wulp-pa, wulpa
wurl-to, wol-toe
wul-durra
wurlt-choo

wurrl-too
wa-wurra

bunna, warry-but-cher

wurree
wurrt-too

wurr-ker
waddy-burroo
wud-ger-ra

whud-bulla
wo-wee

wurrl-too

willa-la

whelp-pa
whilp-pa, wilpa
will-cha

wilt-too

whin-ner

whin-ner-rah, winner-er

win-ta

whin-ta, win-ta

TINDALE
windar:a
wip:a
wir:a

wir:

wiru

widat:a

wititu, mar: awalpa

witja
widjali

*witpara
witia
‘wid: ara

wit 1 i
"wom: ara
*woneidja
"worgala
*wongara
wornka

jak: ana
jak: ara
‘jak : i-wadli

jalku
jalku-adjinidji
jalku-parto-tawara

jalku-wikili
jalku-jukuli

jampu

janar:a
jangar:a
janka, jankari,
jerkari

jardli, jerdli
jarugareitja
*jadli

jaui

jelki
jel: a-paltari

jerkari, janka
‘jer:

‘jerta
jerdli, jardli
jerdlo

‘yuk: u
jukuli, juguli
julara

"jultu

*junga

68

GENERAL VOCABULARY

west wind

red ant

gum tree, more properly forest of trees, mallee ;
cf., KA. wirra, wood, forest, bush

waddy, small throwing club

southern stone-curlew (Burhinus magnirostris )
shark

native cherry (Exocarpus cupressiformis )

dry; cf., KA, wityarnendi, to fade, wither

long

“snipe”

whip-snake (Demansia psammophis)

stone gecko (Diplodactylus vittatus), small variety
mallee scrub, serub

“sandpiper,” probably the dottercl

plain

to fall down

to fall down; to fall suddenly

head-wind, bad wind (lit., west wind)

brown snake (Demansia textilis)

sister; cf., K A., yakkana, sister

spear-thrower

“down below the hill’: a nice sheltered place; foot
of a hill; lt, valley camp; cf, KA, yakki,
valley

leg, shin; ef., K A., yerko, leg

leg weary

big short leg, ic, leg of a European when com-
pared with native ideals; cf, KA, yerko, leg;
tawara, large; parto, thick

long-legged

bandy-legged ;
crooked

common dolphin (Delphinus delphis) ; cf, KA,
yambo, large species of fish

crested tern (Sterna bergi)

Painted Dragon (Amphibolurus pictus)
moustache, whiskers

cf, KA, yerko, leg; yokunna,

spotted whiting (Sillaginodes punctatus)

to go around and gather [food]

“humbug” (exaggeration)

Pacific Gull (Gabianus pacificus); cf., KA, yao,
seapull

kangaroo rat (Bettongia lesucuri); cf. K A., yerki
small burrowing animal

leggings (new term); cf., KA, yellamuka, calf
of leg.

moustache, whiskers

“Tam going after you”; dual; cf, K A. yerra, an
indefinite pronoun

the ground, sand; cf., KA, yerta, earth, land

spotted whiting (Sillaginades punctatus)

rough waves (big, rough swell) ; cf. KA, yerlo,
sea

ship (new term)

crooked; cf. KA, yokunna, crooked

box-bush (Bursaria spinosa)

“a cheeky rogue”

brother; cf, K A., yunga, brother

,

JOHNSON
wind-darra
whip-pa
whirrah

whirry

weer-do

withut-too
whid-dit-too,
murra-wulpa

witcha

wigilly

whil-lee

wid-burra, we-burra
wit-ta

whid-dar-ah,
whid-der-ah
whit-tee

wummerra, wam-mera

wong-ala
wong-gurra
wurrn-koo
yug-gun-na
yuckurra
yuggy wurley

yalgoo, yalkoo, yal-koo
yalgoo-udjini-gy
yalgoo buttoo-dowera

yalgoo wigilly
yalgoo yoogooly

yump-poo

yun-gurra
yun-gurra
yunkkar-ree, yarnker

yurrd-lee

yud-lee
yow-wo0o

yel-kec
yellow bulteree

yurrk-ka-re
yurry

yurr-tur, yut-too
yurrd-lee
yurd-loo

yurk-koo
yoogooly
yoo-ler-ra
youll-too
yung-er

TINDALE
Kunara banji
takart ’manja

TINDALE
*Antini

"Awatji

"Tiarawi

Kaliwi

Kalkaberi
"Kanarap: a

*Garimalka

’Karinja
’Garganja’ka

‘Karibi
Katja’rawi,

‘Kadjarawi
Kawi-padla

*Kokudawi
’Gula’wul’gawi
*Kulkari

’Kulkawi

‘Kundarawi,
Gundarawi

*Ku: bawi
"Malkabalban
(Malka-palpa)
Maltirawalpa

"Mankara
*Manka’warli
*Madpa’rawi,

'Madbu'rawi

*Manbi’wi
Minlakawi

*Mu: rawi
Nanto-warli

’Nantuwartt
‘galiawi

‘qan:ep:a
narna

69

PHRASE

North wind today, tomorrow rainy.

PLACE NAMES

Jim Barrett’s = Balaklava, Section 171, Hundred
of Parawurlie.

Waterhole near the Telegraph Linc; l:t., a catfish.
Section C, Hundred of Warrenben.

Hillderowie Well of map; lit.,, dwarf’s waterhole.
Also localized at Emu Waterhole (Yuillow-
rowic).

White Hut; lt., dog waterhole.
dred of Carribie.

Lit., sheoak country, position uncertain.

Beach near Penguin Point; opposite Section 11B,
Hundred of Warrenben. Natives caught butter-
fish there.

Curramulka township; Ht, “emu white,” ie, a
limestone waterhole where emus come to drink.

Yorketown; lit. Emu Place.

Cut-cut-culier, or Sparrow-hawk Hill, near White
Hut; cf., KA., kurkinya, a small hawk.

Carribie Station Well; fit, where emus drink.
Section 8a, Hundred of Warrenben.

Point Yorke (opp. Section 97, Hundred of
Coonaric).

Alf, McDonald's, Hundred of Parawurlie, cf.,
KA., kauwe, water; padlopadluna, dying.
Marion Bay, Scction G, Hundred of Warrenben.

A flat area of ground near Cape Spencer.

A waterhole where emus come to drink; f#t., place
where emus made a noise; cf, KA., kalluru,
noise; kari, emu.

Old Cadd’s near Ilarawi, castern end of Section 10,
Hundred of Warrenben.

Dust holes; lit., bad water. Section Z, Hundred
of Carribie; cf, KA. kudna + kauwe, bad
water.

Coobowie township; [it., a ghost.

Davey’s Fence, Stenhouse Bay jetty.

Section P, Hun-

Little Round Swamp Waterholes,
Hundred of Carribie.

Tuckok-Cowie, Section 211, Hundred of Moor-
owie; /z,, young woman.

Section 53, Hundred of Melville.

A flat near the Old Gypsum Bins, Marion Bay
(really the watcrhole there); cf., K A., matpo,
venereal discase (perhaps yaws); dawi, water.

Point Davenport

Fresh water well.
cowie).

Port Moorowie.

Lit. Kangaroo Hut, Minchin’s Hut, Section 6c,
Hundred of Warrenhen.

South Hummocks Range; lif., kangaroo language ;
the place where the kangaroo people live.
Little Serub Hut, Hundred of Warrenben; lit.,

quiet place.

Corny Point,

Royston Head.

Section K,,

Section 8, Hundred of Minla-

JOHNSON
coonara buntce
tukeree munya

JOHNSON
Un-din-e

Ower-jee

Yillow-rowie,

Eela-rowie, Erlarowie

Calloway
Kalkabury
Gunner-rapper
Curramulka

Gurreena, Gurrina
Gul-gonuck, or

Gurrl-gun-yer-nucka

Carriebie
Gud-gerowie
Cowie-purdla
Cock-a-dowie
Gool-a-wool-gowie
Gool-gar-ry
Gool-gowie
Goon-derowie
Coobowie
Mulka-bulba
Mulderra wulpa

Mun-gurra

Mud-borowie

Minlacowic

Nanto-wurlie
Nanto-warra
Nul-yow-wee

An-ne-pa
Narrn-noo, Arna

TINDALE
"Nudjali

gurikawi

*Nildi'djari
Niltidjeri
Bananta
*Bantalawi,
Pandalawi

Babladawi
Bablikawi

’ Pararmarati
Parawarli

’Pingalti
’Puljakara
Punpu
*Taliwonko
Takok : awi

*Wadjalawi
"Wak: uli

"Waluri
Waltuwirra

"Wan: a’nawi

‘Waril’bin

"Wili’badla

*Winta: nja

"Wiru’ka, Wir: uka

Wit:u
"Wok: uli

"Wordany
Wurawi

Jaliwi’'rawi

Janantu

70

PLACE NAMES

Pipeclay Well, east of Section K, Hundred of
Carribie; Daly Head; Hit., Pipeclay = ‘nudjali,

Wattle Springs, Section 56 H, Hundred of Para-
wurlie,

Rhino Head.

Lagoon north of Cable Hut.

Sturt Bay.

Stony waterhole; if, limestone water. Water
Reserve No. 2, Hundred of Warrenben, Parnda,
limestone; katuwwe, water,

Lit., where young men are circumcised.

Brackish waterhole. Section 351, Hundred of
Dalrymple.

Edithburgh.

West Cape; lit., plenty of meat. High bluff on
Section 26h, Hundred of Warrenben.

Peesey Hill, Section 222, Hundred of Moorowie.

The Dairy, Section 147, Hundred of Carribie.

Point Turton; flat near Point Turton.

Lake Sunday, north-west of Yorketown.

Section 211, Hundred of Moorowie; lit,, boggy
watering place.

West of Point Davenport.

North-eastern end of Section 2, Hundred of
Coonarie.

Daly Head.

Old man Jolley’s ; fit, gap in the forest; cf. K A,,
waltu, space, neck: wirra, forest, trees,

Jim Brown’s Waterhole. Water Reserve No. 1,
Hundred of Warrenben,

Waterhole, Section 20 of Hundred of Warrenben ;
lit, windy; cf, K A., warri, wind ; binna, adult,
big.

Lit., pelican creek, Beach north of Jim Brown's,
Section 3a Hundred of Warrenben.

Cottar’s Swamp, near Section 152, Hundred of
Parawurlic.

Warooka township; Ht, muddy waterholc.,

Sandhill Waterhole; it., white sandhills,

Sandy Point Well, Section 24, Hundred of
Coonarie.

Wardang Island.

Big Scrub Hut (Gumtree Waterhole), near Sturt
Ray.

Cottar’s Custle, Section 157, Hundred of Para-
wurlie,

Swivel Hut; south-east corner of Section 4d, Hun-
dred of Warrenben.

JOHNSON
Mood-jully

More-a-cowie (also cor-
tupted to Orric-cowie)
Nilder-girrie

Bun-un-too
Pondalowie

Bubladowie
Bubla-cowie

Barrarm-marrattce
Para-wurlic

Bin-gultie
Bull-yer-gurra
Boon-poo
‘Tally-wonkko
Tucock-cowie

Wald-o-wirra
Wun-un-owie

Warrin-ben (now
Warren-ben)

Willie-bulla,
Wildy-bulla
Win-tan-ya
Warooka,
Weer-rooka

Whit-too
Wock-oo-lee

Woorowie

Yu-nun-too

ANALYTICAL NOTES ON A SAMPLE OF BROWN COAL FROM
THE BALAKLAVA-INKERMAN DEPOSIT.

BY W. TERNENT COOKE, D.Sc., A.A.C.1.

Summary

About 25 bores have been sunk on the Balaklava-Inkerman deposit of brown coal, and the results of
partial analysis of the samples are to be found in the official publications of the State Department of
Mines ( 1 ) . Unfortunately, official samples are apparently no longer available. The sample, about
16 grammes, on which the following tests were made, was obtained from a private source, but the
donor was unable to state from which bore it was obtained.

71

ANALYTICAL NOTES ON A SAMPLE OF BROWN COAL FROM
“THE BALAKLAVA-INKERMAN DEPOSIT.

By W. Ternent Cooke, D.Sc., A.A.C.T.

[Read June 9, 1936.]

About 25 bores have been sunk on the Balaklava—Inkerman deposit of brown
coal, and the results of partial analysis of the samples are to be found in the
official publications of the State Department of Mines (1). Unfortunately,
official samples are apparently no longer available. The sample, about 16 grammes,
on which the following tests were made, was obtained from a private source, but
the donor was unable to state from which bore it was obtained.

As received it was a finely divided very dark brown powder, much darker
than say the bulk coal of, e.g., the Noarlunga deposit. It showed the usual
chemical reactions for brown coal, attack by cold nitric acid, and solubility in
alkali. The ash content of the sample is very high, 23% on the dry basis, a figure
in marked contrast to many of the officially published results; thus, the average
ash content of the field is about 15%, reckoning on a dry basis (2). The
equilibrium moisture content of the material, under ordinary atmospheric condi-
tions is 8 to 10% ; the official figure is 16°6% (2).

The following analytical results, with one or two minor exceptions, are the
mean values of at least two determinations. The lack of material precluded the
carrying out of distillation tests.

SULPHUR DISTRIBUTION,

Applying Powell’s method (3), but grouping “sulphate” and “‘pyritic” sulphur
together, there was found :—

(a) Total sulphur = - - - - 3:54%
(b) Sulphate + pyritic - - - 1:49%
Organic, Calc. (a-b) - - - 2:05%
Organic, found - - - - 1:82%
Fe, (as FeS,) equivalent to (b) - 1°30%
Fe, found - - - - 1:23%

ProxIMATE ANALYSIS.
Volatile Matter. Fixed Carbon. Ash.
40-20% 41°85% 17-95%
The ash contains 13-4% SOQ,.

CALORIFIC VALUE,

This was found to be 9,283 B.T.U. per lb. for the dry material (4). The
official figure for material with 16°5% of water is 8,150 (2), which calculated
to dry material is 9,760. Applying Parr’s formula (5), using the figures 3°54%
sulphur and 23-04% ash, one obtains the value 12,430 B.T.U. for “unit coal’;
this figure places the coal in the class “brown lignite.” Of the various formulae
tried for calculating the heating value from analytical data, Dulong’s gave 9,652,
Inchley’s (6) 9,872, Schreiber’s (7) 9,517.

72

COMPLETE ANALYSIS.
Combustion of the coal gave 57:1% carbon, 3°54% hydrogen, and 23-04%

ash. ‘lhe ash, however, contains 21°33% of SO,. Correcting for this and insert-
ing the value 3°54% total sulphur, one obtains :-—_

Carbon. Hydrogen, Sulphur. Difference, Ash, Carbon/Hydrogen.
57°10% 3°54% 3°54% 17-70% 18:12% 161%
69-72% 4-32% 432% 21-62% as dak

Tue AsuH.

This was found to contain:
SiO,. Al,O,. Fe,0,. Cad. MgO. SOs Diff.
36°16% 12:00% 7:-64% 7-28% 746% 21°33% 813%
Detectable amounts of phosphate and titania are present. The 21°33% of
SO, accounts for about 55% of the total sulphur in the coal; the high content
of lime and magnesia is responsible largely for this retention of sulphur.

REFERENCES,

Beginning with Mining Review No. 37, Department of Mines.

Mining Review, No. 60, 1934.

U.S. Bureau of Mines, Technical Paper, No. 254, 1921.

The author is indebted to the Animal Nutrition Laboratory for kindly carry-
ing out this estimation.

Jour. Industrial and Enginecring Chem., vol. xiv, 1922, p, 921.

Mitchell, “Fuel Oils,” p. 46.

Brit. Chem. Abs. B., 1932, p. 166.

Bate

NP OV

THE ARTRACOONA METEORITE.

BY A. W. KLEENMAN, M.Sc.

Summary

The Artracoona meteorite is an aerolite from the north-east of South Australia. It was found in 1914
by Mr. G. Amesbury on the Carraweena Run, eight miles north-west of the Old Carraweena Head
Station and six miles west of Artracoona Hill. The station is situated on the Strezlecki Creek and is
in 29’ 11’ south latitude and 139' 59' east longitude. Mr. Amesbury, in a letter, says that it was "lying
exposed on the side of a sandhill. It might have been’ buried for years and then uncovered, as that
country drifts in dry seasons." This meteorite is thus very close to two other meteorites, the
Carraweena, found six miles south-east of the Head Station, and the Accalana from Accalana Wells,
six miles south of the Head Station. All three are stony and are very similar in appearance. The two
latter are being described by Dr. A. R. Alderman, in a paper to be printed in the Memoirs of the
South Australian Museum, and a locality map is to be given in which the position of all three will
be shown.

73

THE ARTRACOONA METEORITE.
By A. W. KLEEMAN, M.Sc.
[Read June 11, 1936.]

Puate IV.

The Artracoona meteorite is an aerolite from the north-east of South
Australia. It was found in 1914 by Mr. G. Amesbury on the Carraweena Run,
eight miles north-west of the Old Carraweena Head Station and six miles west
of Artracoona Hill. The station is situated on the Strezlecki Creek and is in
29° 11’ south latitude and 139° 59” east longitude. Mr. Amesbury, in a letter,
says that it was “lying exposed on the side of a sandhill, It might have been
buried for years and then uncovered, as that country drifts in dry seasons.” This
meteorite is thus very close to two other meteorites, the Carraweena, found six
miles south-east of the Head Station, and the Accalana from Accalana Wells,
six miles south of the Head Station. All three are stony and are very similar in
appearance. The two latter are being described by Dr. A. R. Alderman, in a paper
to be printed in the Memoirs of the South Australian Museum, and a locality map
is to be given in which the position of all’ three will be shown,

The stone, when acquired by the University of Adelaide, weighed 45 Ibs.
14 ozs., or 20,810 grams. This is probably the whole of the meteorite, except for
sotne small pieces that were chipped off by Mr. Amesbury before he was aware
of the nature of the body. It is a well orientated stone and stands on a flat
trapezoidal base, 31 centimetres across the longer diagonal. [See plate IV.]
The four sides converge towards a common peak about 21 centimetres above the
base. There is over the whole of the surface of the stone a dense dark brown skin
about a millimetre or so in thickness. Above this, but not continuous over the
whole, is a light brown coating caused by terrestrial weathering. The inner skin
is missing from the peak and seems to have been removed by the impact’ with
the ground.

The stone is compact and the chondri break with the matrix, When viewed
on a broken surface it is a dark-brown in colour and, to the naked eye, almost
aphanitic, the only visible structure being the light-brown chondri 1 to 2 mm. in
diameter. Examination with a simple lens reveals small patches of nickel-iron.

The microscope shows a granular stone in which there are some chondri.
The most obvious feature is the great amount of haematite present. It is in
indefinite veins and impregnating cavities and cracks between the individual
grains. The other ferrous minerals are metallic nickel-iron and pyrrhotite. The
nickel-iron is shiny and silver-white in colour, and the pyrrhotite is bronze-ycllow.
Both minerals occur as small grains and as aggregates. The silicates are
hypersthene, olivine and plagioclase, They are granular and rarely show the
proper crystal form except in some of the chondri. Most of the grains range
from 0-1 to 0'4 mm. diameter, but there are some, a smaller generation, below
0-05 mm. ‘The chondri are of three types and average 0°8 to 1-0 mm. across.

The most prominent of the silicates are hypersthene and olivine. Both are
nearly colourless and both have a moderate birefringence and an optic axial angle
close to 90°, and it is well-nigh impossible to distinguish them in random section.

74

However, the analysis shows the presence of both the meta- and ortho-silicates,
and in some of the chondri crystals show their characteristic crystal form. The
axial angle of the olivine is 80° to 85°, and it is negative in sign. That of
hypersthene is closer to 90° and the sign is indeterminate,

The plagioclase is not readily distinguishable and has been inferred rather
than specifically determined. It has a low birefringence and almost straight
extinction parallel to the elongation and to the cleavage. It is distributed through
the stone as small grains and, in addition, often forms chondri. The extinction
angles suggest the composition of basic oligoclase, and this observation is borne
out by the value, Ab,.An,,, calculated from the analysis,

One of the most common types of chondrus is that in which large idiomorphic
crystals of olivine are set in a matrix of indeterminate silicate. Another common
type is that composed of laths of hypersthene radiating from a point eccentric to
the centre of the chondrus. There ts usually some dust between the laths. Many
of the chondri consist of felspar; in one type there are a number of parallel laths
of felspar, and the other is composed of one large crystal of felspar enclosing
innumerable brown inclusions.

The structure of the stone apart from the chondri is granular and without
any special relations between the various minerals. It is compact and dark brown
and contains light chondri which break with the matrix. In the Rose-Tschermak-
Brezina System it would be designated as Black Chondrite (Cs).

The Specific Gravity is 3-52.

The bulk analysis, as made by the writer, is as follows :—

SiO, - - 37°80 P,O. - - 0:22
Al,O, - 4:21 NiQ- - - O13
Fe,O, - 7°64 CoO - - tr

FeO - - 12°48 Cr,O - O51
MgO - - 23:43 CO, - - 0-42
CaO - - 1°77 Cc - ~ 0-04
Na,O - - 1-14 FeS - - 5:50
KO. - - 0-10 Fe - - 1°68
H,O+ - 1:80 Ni - - 0-10
H,O- - 0°50 ——-.
TiO, - - md, 99-47

In this analysis Mr. A. F. Pilgrim determined the total carbon by combustion,
and the value for free carbon was found by subtracting the value for cambined
carbon from the result so obtained. ‘the value for ferrous iron is approximate
only. It was determined by the modified Pratt Method“) on a sample from
which all of the free iron and most of the sulphide had been removed by a magnet.
Allowance was made for the iron in the sulphide still left in the sample, but no
allowance was made for the reducing effect of the 0°5% of sulphur.

In order to obtain the approximate amount of the various silicates present
the non-magnetic portion was separated into two portions, one soluble in hydro-
chloric acid and the other insoluble in acid. The analyses of the two portions are
set out below, and in them the proportions of the various oxides are given as
percentages of the total composition of the meteorite,

(©) Washington, H. S., “The Chemical Analysis af Rocks,” New York, 1930,
pp. 213-217.

75

(1) Portion insoluble in acid :—

SiO, - 24°62 Orthoclase - 0°56

Al,Q, - 3:90 Albite —- - 9°45 14-73
FeO - 3°83 Anorthite - - 5:28 } ‘
MgO - 7:42 Hypersthene (Fs) 6°86 25-56
CaO - 1:43 (En) 18-70 ;

Na,QO - 1:14 CaSiO, = - - 0:70

K,0 - 0-10 SiO, - - 0°84

The orthoclase is, no doubt, in solid solution in the plagioclase. The
calcium metasilicate is part of the pyroxene. The excess of silica is probably
some that was rendered insoluble in the dissolving of the acid-soluble portion of
the sample.

(2) Portion soluble in acid :—

SiO, - - 10°83 Forsterite - - 25°36 i 28-01
Fe,O, - - 20°13 Fayalite - - 2°65
MgO - ~ 14°73 Ferrous Sulphide - 1:48
CaO - - 0°20 Iron Oxides - 16°79
CO, - - 0:42 Magnesite - - 0°50
S - - 0°51 Calcite = - - 0°35

The magnetic portion also contained some silicate, but this has been assumed
to have the same composition as the non-magnetic. The several analyses recalcu-
lated to 100% give the following mineral composition :—

Olivine - - 29:5 Ferric Oxides - 77
Ilypersthene - 27°55 Carbonates - - O09
Plagioclase ~- - 16:2 Nickel-Iron - 1:8
Ferrous Sulphide - 5-5 Chromite - - 08

The hypersthene has the composition MgSiO,:FeSiO, = 73:27. In the
olivine the ratio Mg,SiO,:Fe,SiO, is 9:1. These compositions agree well with
the optical properties of the minerals. The presence of a considerable amount of
carbonate can be taken as an evidence of terrestrial weathering. This is borne
out by the fact that some of the nickel is in the non-magnetic portion and is pre-
sumably in the oxidised condition.

The stone is thus ona of the class in which a small amount of nickel-iron is
present in a stony base. The mineral composition is that normal to the meteorites
of this type, but owing to the weathering the ratios of nickel to iron and of nickel-
iron to the whole are too unrcliable to be significant,

Department of Geology, University of Adelaide.

REMARKS ON THE NEMATODE, GONGYLONEMA PULCHRUM.

BY PROFESSOR T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC.

Summary

In February, 1936, a nematode was received for identification from Dr. W. Gilmour, Director of the
Pathological Laboratory, Auckland Hospital, together with a statement that it had been taken from
the tissue immediately under the inner surface of the upper lip of a Jugo-Slav living in
New Zealand. The specimen was submitted by Dr. T. H. Pettit, Auckland, and the circumstances
associated with the case are being published in the New Zealand Medical Journal (Johnston, 1936).

76

REMARKS ON THE NEMATODE, GONGYLONEMA PULCHRUM.
By Proressor T. [LArvey Jounston, M.A., D.Sc., University of Adelaide.
[Read May 11, 1936.]

In February, 1936, a nematode was received for identification from Dr. W.
Gilmour, Director of the Pathological Laboratory, Auckland Hospital, together
with a statement that it had been taken from the tissue immediately under the
inner surface of the upper lip of a Jugo-Slav living in New Zealand. ‘The
specimen was submitted by Dr. T. H. Pettit, Auckland, and the circumstances
associated with the case are being published in the New Zealand Medical Journal
(Johnston, 1936).

The worm proved to be Gongylonema pulchrum Molin, 1857, which is
normally a parasite of the submucosa of the upper half of the digestive tract of
sheep, cattle and pigs, occurring more frequently in the oesophagus in the first!
and second, and in the tongue region in the pig.

This species seems to have been recorded from human beings on seven
previous occasions, the first two from Italy, and the remaining five from the
south-eastern portion of the United States.

In 1864, Pane briefly described as Filaria labialis an obviously immature
female worm taken from a small pustule on the inner surface of the upper lip of
a medical student in Naples. The parasite was 30 mm. long, with the vulva and |
anus situated at 3 and 0-5 mm., respectively, in front of the end of the short
club-like tail, Pane’s description and main figure were republished by Leuckart
(1876, 616-7), wha stated that the position of the female aperture was more like
that in Strongylidae, though he retained the species under Filaria provisionally.
Leuckart also drew attention to Leidy’s very brief account (1850, 117) of Filaria
homiis orts from a human lip (? locality), but he regarded the two as distinct,
probably correctly. Leidy thought that his parasite may have been the male of
Filaria medinensts, but some later authors have suggested it may have been a
Mermithid. Its dimensions (length, 140 mm.) and the form of the posterior end
seem to exclude it from Gongylonema pulchrum. A summary of Pane’s account
was given by Davaine (1877, CVII), Cobbold (1879, 207), Blanchard (1890, 14),
Braun (1903, 275; 1906, 305); Parona (1911, 321). Fantham, Stephens and
Theobald (1916, 407) gave the same information as Braun but called the parasite
Agamofilaria labialis; as also did Castellani and Chalmers (1913, 522; 1919, 641).
Sambon (1925, 49; 1926, 251) referred to Pane’s record, republished his figure
and identified the parasite as having been, most probably, Gongylonema pulchriem.
Yorke and Maplestone (1926, 314) listed it as G. labiale, though they remarked
that Baylis (1925) regarded it, along with several other species, as a synonym
of G. pulchrum.

In 1908 Tecce reported taking from a small tumour on the finger of a young
man in Italy a female worm 13 cm, long and one millimetre wide. It was handed
to Pierantoni, who identified it as Fuaria labialis Pane and described and figured
it (1908). A bricf abstract of these two papers was published by Parona (1911,
465 and 367, respectively). I have not seen Pierantoni’s account, but it seems
unlikely that a parasite of such a length taken from the subcutaneous tissue of a
finger would be Gongylonema pulchruwm. I have, accordingly, refrained from
including this record in the number of reported cases of undoubted Gongylonemua
from man. Castellani and Chalmers (1913, 522; 1919, 64) mentioned Pierantoni’s
reported occurrence of the parasite,

77

The second record was that by Alessandrini (1914, 42), who reported having
examined several worms extracted from tunnels in the submucosa below the
tongue of a girl near Rome. Ile recorded them as belonging to a new species,
Gongylonema subtile, resembling G. pulchrum. He had previously (1908, 163)
recognised G. scutatum as occurring in Italian sheep and cattle. Sambon (1925,.
69; 1925, 315) referred to Alessandrini’s case, and published notes (1926, 254)
supplied by Carega, the physician who first drew attention to it. Sambon reported
the parasite to be G. pulchrum, this identification being due to Baylis (1925, 361),
who reported, after examining Alessandrini’s specimens, that G. subtile was a
synonym of G. pulchrum.,

The next to record the parasite from human beings was Ward (1916), who
gave a detailed account of a specimen taken from the lower lip of a girl in
Arkansas, U.S.A. Tle regarded it as being probably G. pulchrum, his figures
being republished by Brumpt (1922). Ward suggested that Filaria hominis oris
might possibly have been G. scutatum, but thought it improbable because Leidy
was an acute observer who was hardly likely to miss the prominent cuticular
bosses which occur anteriorly in species of Gongylonema.,

It was Stiles who reported the next two cases; one fram the lower lip of a
woman in Florida (1918, 64; 1920, 200; 1921, 197) ; and the other from the back
of the mouth of a woman in Georgia (1921, 197; 1921, 1,177). The Florida
worm was regarded as cither G. pulchrum or G, scutatum, In the account of the
case from Georgia, it was recognised that the parasite resembled G. pulchrum,
but Stiles thought it advisable to name it as a distinct species, G. hominis, until
mature specimens of human origin should be available to allow comparison with
the worm occurring in the pig. The three North American cases to date were
regarded by him as relating to G. hominis. Brumpt (1922, 637) placed the latter
as a synonym of G. pulchrum.

Ransom (1923, 244) made brief reference to the finding of an immature
female in the mucosa of the mouth of a man in Louisiana. Stiles and Baker
(1929, 221; 1928, 1,891) recorded another case, this time from the mouth of a
girl in Virginia, the worm being called G. homunts rather than G. pulchrum because
of the doubt regarding the identification of the specics from pigs in U.S.A..
Chapin (1922) had previously described the parasite of North American pigs as
a distinct form, G. ransomt, though this name was definitcly synonymised with
G. pulchrum by Baylis (1925) and Lucker (1932, 134), the latter having re-
examined Chapin’s material.

The present case from a man in Auckland, New Zealand, constitutes the
eighth recorded from human beings. The worm was a female, 58 mm. long,
0-33 mm. in diameter, and had just reached maturity, since it contained abundant
fertilised eggs, while within the vagina was a single egg (0-059 by 0-035 mm.)
with a well-developed, typical, thick shell and a coiled embryo. The vulva and.
anus were situated at 1°93 and 0:22 mm., respectively, from the bluntly rounded .
tip of the narrowed tail. The dimensions agree closely with those given by
Baylis (1925, 362) and other investigators.

The relationships of the genus have not yet been settled. Originally placed
in the Filartidae, Hall (1916, 190) transferred it to a new subfamily, Gongy-
loneminae, belonging to the Spiruridae. This classification is that accepted by
Yorke and Maplestone (1926, 312), Cram (1927), Rauther (1930), and Sprehn
(1932). Nicoll in 1927 emended the name to Gongylonematinae, Baylis and
Daubney (1926, 217) considered the subfamily was unnecessary and placed the
genus under Arduenninae. Baylis (1929, 233) mentioned that the genus showed
certain affinities with the latter subfamily. Chitwood and Wehr (1932, 168; 1934,

78

313) regarded the Gongylonematinae as a valid group but placed it under
Thelaziidae,

Some authors quote the type species as G. minimum Molin; others regard it
as G. musculi (Rud.) Neumann, The former group includes Ransom, 1911;
Yorke and Maplestone, 1926; Sambon, 1926; Cram, 1927; Rauther, 1930; Chit-
wood and Wehr, 1934; and Sprehn, 1932. The latter group comprises Neumann,
1894; Hall, 1916; and Baylis and Daubney, 1926, Since Rudolphi (1819) did
not describe his Filaria musculi but merely mentioned its presence in the stomach
and liver of the mouse and listed it as a doubtful species, several authors have
regarded it as a nomen nudum. Because Molin placed it as a synonym of his own
name, it seems best to consider it validated by such action, so that the type of the
genus would be G. musculi, as described by Molin, It has been suggested that
Rudolphi’s specimen from the liver may have been Hepaticola Fall (1916) ;
Sambon (1926, 251-2, 261, 264).

The anatomy of G. pulchrum has been described by Stiles (1892) under
Myzomimus scutatus; Neamann (1894), Ransom (1911, 100) and Seurat (1916)
under G. scutatum; Chapin (1922) and Hall (1924, 120) under G, ransomi;
Baylis (1925, 47-51) and Hall (1924, 118) under G. pulchrum. A summary’,
usually accompanied by figures, has been given under either G. scutatum or
G. pulchrum, by various workers, including Brumpt (1922), Baylis (1929),
Faust (1930), Sprehn (1932), and Neumann (1905). Tabulated measurements
of G. scutatum, G. ransomi, G. pulchrum, and G. neoplasticum were published by
Baylis (1925, 72-74). The recent treatises on the parasites of domesticated
animals, by Monnig (1934) and Cameron (1934), and those of pigs by Hall
(1933), are not yet available in Adelaide,

The life history of G. scutatum was investigated by Ransom and Hall (1915),
who found that a number of species of dung ‘beetles (Aphodius ; Onthophagus }
were suitable intermediate hosts in the United States, the larval stage of the
worm being found in the body cavity of the adult and larval stages of these
insects. The cockroach, Ectobia germanica, was also proved to be able to serve
as an intermediate host, eggs of Gongylonema from cattle and from pigs having
been used for the experimental infections. Attempts to infect a pig with larvae
of ruminant origin, the cockroach being used as the intermediary, failed, this
failure being regarded as supporting the view that the pig parasite is specifically
distinct from that occurring in sheep and cattle. Sheep were infected experi-
mentally by larvae from a cockroach, but developed from worms from cattle.
About three months elapsed between infection and maturity in the sheep.
Attempts to infect a rabbit and a guinea pig failed. A period of about a month
was required to complete the larval stages in the cockroach, These authors
showed that the life history was similar to that made known for G. neoplasticum
of rats, by I'ibiger and Ditlevsen (1914), who reported that three species of
cockroaches (Periplaneta americana, P, orientalis, Ectobia germanica) as well as
the meal worm, Tenebrio molitor, could serve as intermediaries, while the adult
stage could be developed in the two common rats, Epimys norvegicus and
A. ratius, as well as in the mouse, rabbit and guinea pig.

Scurat (1916) thought that some of the larvae from coprophagous beetles,
described by Ransom and Hall (1915) as G, scwtatum, belonged to another
species, but these latter authors (1917) brought forward evidence to support their
earlier contentions and stated that the larvae which Seurat regarded as those of
G. scutatum belonged to some other Gongylonema.

Baylis, Pane and Sambon (1925) were successful in transmitting G. pulchrum
of ruminants to rats. They reported the parasite to be common in cattle in parts
of Italy, and obtained the larval stages from four species of coprophagous beetles,
but cockroaches were not found to be infected naturally, One species of the

79

latter, Blattella germanica, could be readily infected artificially, but these authors
failed with Blatta orientalis, They published figures of the insect hosts and of
the larval parasites. Blair (1925; 1926) referred to the finding of these larvae
in the following scavenging beetles in Italy—two species of Onthophagus, and
one each of Caccobius, Aphodius and Oniticellus, Sambon (1926, 257-61):
mentioned these coleopterous hosts as well as the cockroach, Blattella germanica,
and published figures of them as well as of the larvae found in them. Baylis had
stated previously (1925) that G. scutatiwm, amongst others, was a synonym of
G. pulchrum and had suggested (1925, 75) that G. neoplasticum might also belong
to the same species. This view was controverted by Leiper (1926, 56; 1926, 70),
who published two papers in 1926, adversely criticising the views of Sambon
(1925) regarding Gongylonema as a possible cause of cancer in humans, and those
of Baylis (1925) relating to the synonymy of G. pulchrum. Leiper considered
the latter, G. scutatum and G. neoplasticum as distinct species. He found the
last-named in rats and, as larvae, in cockroaches (Periplaneta aynericana) in the
London Zoological Gardens. Material from bisected cockroaches was fed, one
half to laboratory bred rats, and the other half to lambs, both groups of animals
becoming infected, but the measurements of the adult worms were those of
G. neoplasticum, He stated that, though his parasite could under experimental
conditions be developed in sheep, in that abnormal host is retained the morphology
characteristic of it im its normal host, and consequently was not a synonym of
G. scutatum.

Leiper’s criticism was replied to by Samhon (1926, 314) and by Baylis (1926,
503) who maintained their previous views as to the identity of G. pulchrum, and
G. scutatum, though G. neoplasticum was admitted to differ in one particular
feature. Leiper (1926, 504) gave a further reply, maintaining that the three were
distinct species.

Baylis, Sheather and Andrews (1926, 194) carried out investigations regard-
ing the life history, using dung beetles, the cockroach (Blattella germanica), and
Gongylonema irom cattle. They were able to transmit it to cattle and to sheep but
not to pigs, but no morphological differences between worms from pigs and from
ruminants could be detected. Adult worms were found in a calf and in sheep
twenty weeks after infection, The same authors a little later (1926, 346)
announced that they had succeeded in infecting pigs by using Blattella germanica
and Gongylonema derived from cattle. G. ransomi, described by Chapin from
American pigs, was added to the synonymy. It was stated that perhaps pigs and
human beings were only accidental hosts of the species which normally inhabited
the mucosa of the oesophagus of ruminants, whereas in the other hosts it occurred
in the mucosa of the mouth and tongue rather than the oesophagus. Infective
larvae were found to emerge spontaneously from their insect intermediate hosts
when the latter were killed and placed in water. Since they are able to live some.
days in water, the latter must be regarded as a possible source through which final
hosts may become infected. Blair (1926, 297) referred to the rupture of the cyst
wall enclosing the larva when in contact with water, thus permitting escape.

Stiles and Baker (1927, 67) were able to transfer G. scutatusm of cattle to
white rats (Rattus norvegieus albus) through Blattella germanica, there being a
light infestation in the oesophagus of only a few of the experimental rodents, and
no trace of cancer such as is found associated with the rat parasite,
G. neoplasticum, was caused.

Schwartz and Lucker (1931, 46) utilized worms from sheep, infected cock-
roaches and then succeeded in infecting pigs. Lucker (1932, 135) found that 106
days were necessary for Gongylonema to reach maturity in the pig, the eggs
having been derived from sheep and cattle, and the larval stages passed through
cockroaches. The period required was much greater than that reported by Baylis,

80

Pane and Sambon (1925) for ruminant Gongylonema to attain maturity in rats.
Lucker re-examined Chapin’s material of G. ransomi and confirmed Baylis’
opinion (1925, 75) that it, together with G. scutatwn, was a synonym of
G, pulchrum, Mature specitnens of ruminant origin, developed experimentally
in white rats, guinea pigs and rabbits, were found to be indistinguishable from
G. pulchrum, which was fairly common in pigs in U.S.A. Alicata (1934, 51);
published some observations on the development to maturity in the guinea pig.

G, pulchrum in its structure and life history closely resembles G. neoplasticum,
which appears to be a distinct species infesting rats and mice. The latter was
first known from Denmark and the Danish West Indies (Fibiger, 1913; Fibiger
and Ditlevsen 1914) and has been found subsequently in Holland and Surinam by
Wassink (1916, 1,108) and Baylis (1925, 316); in London by Leiper (1926) ;
in Formosa (var. orientale) by Yokogawa (1925); in U.S.A. by Lucker (1931) ;
and in Russian Asia by Sassuchin, Tiflow and Schulz (1935, 656). Its larval
stages can be passed in the cockroaches Blatta orientalis, Periplaneta americana
and Ectobia (or Blattella) germanica, as well as in the meal worm, Tenebrio
molitor. Yokogawa (1925) reported that the larvae of G. ortentale occurred in
the muscles of ‘Periplancta americana and P. australasiae. G. neoplasticum and.
G. orientale differ from G. pulchrum in their pathological effects, as they may give
rise to neoplasms, Fibiger (1913; 1920), Wassink (1916) and Yokogawa (1925)
having paid particular attention to this subject.

Hall (1924, 122-3) mentioned the use in meat inspection of pigs in U.S.A. of
a scratching apparatus consisting of a wooden skewer from the conical end of
which a bent pin projected less than one-quarter inch. The instrument is pulled
across the tongue to make a series of shallow furrows in the dorsal mucosa between
the papillae at the root of the organ and a line drawn across it, two or three inches
in front of the vallate papillae. Worms, if present, are pulled out and recognised.
Lucker stated that examination for the presence of this parasile in pigs’ tongues
is now part of the routine of mcat inspection in U.S.A.

Sambon published figures showing abundance of the worms iv sifw in the
oesophagus of Italian sheep (1925, 71) and cattle (1926, 257).

Railliet (1893, 541) suggested that G. scutatum might be a synonym of
G. pulchrum, and Neumann recognised the close relationship betwcen the two.
The latter author (1894) attributed a very imperfectly known form, Spiroptera
ursi Duj 1845, to the genus, and this together with some of Molin’s species
(filiforme and spirale) was subsequently considered by Baylis (1925) as probable
synonyms of G. pulchrum. lt should be remarked that the three species of Molin
described in 1857, and just referred to, have page precedence as follows :—
G, filiforme (p. 220), spirale (p. 222) and pulchrum (p. 223); hence if they are
synonyms, (. filiforme has precedence. G, spirale was obtained trom a deer,
Cervus dama and is probably synonymous with G. pulchrum., G. filiforme will
be referred to later.

Baylis (1925) considered that C. wrst (Duj.) was a probable synonym. This
species, described by Dujardin (1845) as a Spiroptera, was a renaming of
Sp. ursi-arctt Rudolphi (1819, 253). The latter author referred to it also as
Sp. ursi and Strongylus ursi (p. 28) and placed it amongst the doubtful species.
His briet account is based on that of Bremscr who examined four worms 12-14
lines long from the oesophagus of a brown bear, not a polar bear as stated in
several parasitological articles. Stiles and Fassall, in the Index Catalogue (1926),
indicate that Rudolphi’s name was based on Taema ursi Gmelin 1790, and was
attributed by him in 1809 to Strongylus, Diesing in 1851 transferring it to
Nematoideum. It scems obvious that the parasite is quite unrecognisable and the
name had best be treated as a notmen nudum, otherwise the name ursi must take
precedence over all the others associated with G. pulchrum, if they are synonym-

81

ous. Sambon (1925, 315) also referred to CG. ursi.2) In 1860 Molin described
contortum from the same host species, Ursus arctos, Cobbold (1879, 297) calling
it Spiroptera (Gongylonema) contorta. In 1894 Neumann (1894, 473) regarded
it as a synonym of G. ursi which he transferred to Gongylonema, and this opinion
was supported by Stossich (1897, 133), but the latter retained Molin’s name.
Faust (1930, 421) accepted G. ursi as a synonym of G. pulchrum. Baylis (1929)
and Sprehn (1932) did not refer to G. wrst in their lists of synonymis.

G. confusum Sonsino (1896) from a horse in Egypt, was regarded by Seurat
(1916, 726) as synonymous with pulchrum, and this opinion is accepted by later
authors.

G. pulchrum of Seurat (1912, 1914—not 1916) from a hedgehog in Algeria,
is a distinct species, subsequently described by that author (1916) as
G. mucronatum.

The following is a list of the synonyms of G. pulchrum Molin 1857 :—
Spiroptera scutata oesophagea bovis Muller, 1869; Filaria scutata Veuckart, 1873;
Spiroptera scutata; Gongylonema scutata Railliet, 1892; G. confusum Sonsino,
1896: G. ransomi Chapin, 1922; Filaria labialis Pane, 1864; Agamofilaria labialis
Castellani and Chalmers, 1913; G. labiale Yorke and Maplestone, 1926; G. subtile
Alessandrini, 1914; G. hominis Stiles, 1921; M yzdmimus scutatus Stiles, 1892.

The following may perhaps be synonymous with G. pulchrum:—Strongylus
ursi Rud., 1809; Spiroptera ursi Rud., 1819; G. contortum Molin, 1860; Spiroptera
contorta Cobbold, 1879; Spiroptera ursi-arcti Rud., 1819; Spiroptera ursi Duj.,
1845; G. filiforme Molin, 1857 (in part), and other species from monkeys, referred
to later; and G. spirale Molin, 1857. The last-named was taken from a deer and,
since undoubted specimens of G. pulchrum have been recognised from other deer
by Baylis (1925) and Lucker (1933), Baylis was most probably correct in adding
it to the synonymy, but the name has page priority over G. pulchrum.

The parasite is known from a wide range of hosts, though it occurs more
commonly in the domestic ruminants, especially sheep and cattle. To this list
are to be added goats, zebu, and buffalo; as well as the deer, Dama dama (by
Molin, 1857); chevrotain, Tragulus sp. (by Baylis, 1925); and mule deer
Odocoileus hemionis (by Lucker, 1933, 249). The pig not uncommonly serves
as a host, and the parasite has been reported from the wild boar. Occasional hosts
are man, certain monkeys, horse, ass and dromedary. Baylis and Daubney (1923,
569) reported it from the ox; Bos bubalus; and the Karkar sheep or urial, Ovts'
vigneri, from India. Perhaps the brown bear may serve as a host.

It has been carried through to maturity (by experimental infections with
larvae) in the rat (Zpimys norvegicus albus), rabbit and guinea pig.

The larval stages are passed through in various species of dung beetles belong-
ing to the gencra Onthophagus, Aphodius, Caccobius and Oniticellus, as well as
in the cockroach, Blattella germanica.

G, pulchrum is now known from various European localities, having been
reported more frequently from the warmer southern portions, more particularly
Ttaly and France (Railliet; Neumann). Alessandrini (1908), Sambon (1925, 66;
1926), Baylis (1925, 71) and Sebastiano (1926) referred to its abundance in
Italian shcep and cattle. Ratfaeli (1925) reported it as occurring in 20% of oxen,
70% of sheep and 0°3% of pigs slaughtered at Ravenna. Baylis (1925, 73)
mentioned its presence in domesticated buffaloes in Italy. Sambon (1925, 316)
reported it from oxen in Ilolland.

© It is of interest to note that Inukai and Yamashita (Trans. Sapporo Natt. Hist. Soc.,
vol. xiii, 1934, p. 324-5) have recorded the occurrence in the Japanese variety of the brown
bear, Ursus arctos yesoensis, of a nematode, Ascaris Iumbricoides, whose common hosts are
human beings and pigs.

82

It has been recorded by several observers from the United States :—Stiles
(1892), Ransom (1911), Hall (1924), Chapin (1922), Lucker (1932), and
others. Other localities are India, China (Schwartz, 1926) and Victoria (Sweet,
1909). Additional Australian localities are mentioned at the end of this paper.

The species of Gongylonema from primates other than man may be referred
to. Seurat (1916) mentioned Macacus sinicus and M. sylvanus (i.e., muus) as
hosts. Lucker (1933, 248) recorded it from the spider monkeys Ateles sp. and
Cebus capucinus. Stiles, Hassall and Nolan (1929, 468), in their catalogue of
parasites reported for primates, mentioned two species of Gongylonema, wiz.:
G. pulchrum from man and the two monkeys Macacus sylvanus (inuus) and
Silenus sinicus; and G. filiforme from the former. ‘The latter parasite was named
by Molin (1857) to replace Filaria gracilis simiae-inui, but Linstow (1899)
Stossich (1897), as well as Yorke and Maplestone (1926), regarded it as a
synonym of Dipetalonema gracile Dies. Baylis (1925) suggested that it was a
synonym of G. pulchrum. Van Thiel (1925) considered it a valid species of
Gongylonema, as also did Lucker (1933, 248), the latter stating that the only
host now definitely known to harbour G. filiforme, was Macacus inuus, Lubimoy
(1931, 446) reported a new species, G. macrogubernaculuim, from the oesophagus
or bronchi of three monkeys, Macacus rhesus, Cebus hypoleucus, and Cercopithe-
cus tamapsin (? = 1alapoin) from the Zoological Park, Moscow; Lucker (1933,
243) recording it from Macacus lasiotis and Papio rhodesiae, both from Zoological
Gardens in U.S.A, Gebater (1933, 730) described G. microgubernaculum from
the oesophagus and bronchi of Silenus rhesus. In view of the known variability
of G. pulchrum and its capability to parasitise primates, as well as the fact that
dung beetles and cockroaches serve as its intermediate host and would have access
to intective material from ruminants, etc., housed in zoological gardens and could
be eaten by monkeys lodged there, it is suggested that these species, especially
G. macrogubernaculum and G. microgubernaculum, may be synonyms of
G, pulchrum. Van Thiel (1925, 176) described a nematode, Sqguamanema bonnei
from a South American monkey Alouatia seniculus, which he placed in the Gongy-
loneminae, but Yorke and Maplestone (1926, 315), as well as Baylis and Daubney
(1926, 212), considered the genus as close to Parabronema, which is placed in a
different subfamily of the Spiruridae, while Chitwood and Wehr (1934, 319)
regarded it as a synonym of Parabronema (Habronematinae). In his account of
G, saimirisi from a Brazilian monkey, Artigas (1933) discussed the possibility of
it becoming a human parasite,

‘Three species of Gongylonema have been recorded as occurring in Australia,
viz.: G. scutatum by Sweet (1909, 523) from a cow in Victoria; G, ingluvicola
Ransom by Johnston (1918, 215) from the proventriculus of a fowl in sydney,
and Crongylonema sp. by Johnston (1918, 61) from the liver of a mouse and of a
white rat in Sydney,

G. pulchrum (syn. G, sculalum) occurs occasionally in cattle in Queensland,
and I have seen specimens from the same host from Sydney and Adelaide
abattoirs. It has not yet been identified from sheep, pigs or goats in Australia.
Kauzal (1930) makes no reference to it in his list of parasites known to occur in
pigs in New South Wales, nor does Roberts (1934) in his list of those reported
from domesticated animals in Queensland. G. ingluvicola occurs in North Queens-
land, as I have received material taken from chickens in Mackay, Gongy-
lonema sp. from rodents was probably G. neoplasticum.

Cleland (1918, 119-120), in referring to the carcinogenic effects attributed
to the latter species, suggested that in a case of very heavy infestation of the
stomach of a rat, Epinys norvegicus, in Western Australia, by nematodes
recorded by him in 1912 as Protospirura muris, the parasite may perhaps have
becn G, neoplasticum, since pathological changes were present in the stomach wali.

83

He stated that sections of the stomach of an apparently normal rat revealed
portions of a nematode embedded in keratinised squamous epithelium. The worms
taken from the lumen were examined by me and were undoubtedly P. muris,
while those represented in the sections were probably Gongylonema, though
Capillaria (or Hepaticola) gastrica Baylis is a possibility, Bonne, in 1926, having
described a cancerous condition of the gastric mucosa associated with that species
in the rat.
SUMMARY.

A review is made of the occurrence of Gongylonema pulchrum in man and
various other animals, its life history, synonymy and distribution, Records of the
occurrence of the genus in Australia are given.

Acknowledgment is made of the assistance derived from Stiles and Hassall’s
Index Catalogue, Nematode (1926).

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8&5

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86

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87

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CLIMATE IN RELATION TO INSECT ECOLOGY IN AUSTRALIA.
3. BIOCLIMATIC ZONES IN AUSTRALIA.

BY J. DAVIDSON, D.SC.

Summary

The insect fauna of an area is largely determined by the nature of the physical environment, in
which temperature and moisture are dominating factors. Fluctuations in the numbers of insects and
the intensity of their activities are largely determined by temporary or seasonal weather changes;
biotic factors, such as food and competition, are important additional considerations.

88
CLIMATE IN RELATION TO INSECT ECOLOGY IN AUSTRALIA.
3. BIOCLIMATIC ZONES IN AUSTRALIA.

By J. Davipson, D.Sc.
(Waite Research Institute, University of Adelaide.)

With large coloured Map of Australia.
[Read May 11, 1936.]

The insect fauna of an area is largely determined by the nature of the physical
environment, in which temperature and moisture are dominating factors. Fluctua-
tions in the numbers of insects and the intensity of their activities are largely
determined by temporary or seasonal weather changes ; biotic factors, such as food
and competition, are important additional considerations.

The distribution in Australia, month by month, of the chicf elements of
climate affecting temperature and moisture in the environment of insects was
discussed in parts 1 and 2 of this paper (Davidson, 1934a, 1935). With the aid of
this earlier information, which was presented in the form of monthly charts, the
writer mapped Australia into areas, in which the average moisture and tempera-
ture “conditions” are known. By means of suitable combinations of these areas,
various zones have now been defined, which are referred to as Bioclimatic zones;
they are shown on the map of Australia presented here. From the aspect of
insect ecology, these Bioclimatic zones are areas in which the essential elements
of climate, affecting the physical environment of insects, have been assessed, so
that comparisons may be made of the insect fauna in zones having similar or
different environments. ‘Apart from edaphic factors, temperature and moisture
largely determine the distribution of vegetation types, with which insect life is
intimately associated. Therefore, from the broader aspect of ecology, the term
Bioclimatic zone embraces the clements of climate and natural features which
characterise a zone, and determine life responses within the zone. The term was
used by Hopkins (1921), who states“. . . . It is to temperature that we must
look for the most reliable guide to the preliminary interpretation of the distribu-
tion and range of the zones .’ Although temperature has been widely used
as an index to the distribution and seasonal activity of insects, ecological studies
during the past 15 years or so have abundantly demonstrated the importance of
moisture, and shown that temperature alone cannot be considered as an adequate
climatic index for this purpose‘?

Moisturr ZONES,

Rainfall and atmospheric humidity are the chicf climatic elements which
determine the moisture available in the environment of insects. Species differ in
their moisture requirements and resistance to dryness; those best suited to an
arid environment appear to have low water requirements or to resist the loss of
body water. In dry regions, moisture restricts or limits the permanent establish-
ment of insects, and in those areas having a definite dry scason their activities may
be restricted to the favourable months of the year (wet season); the insects
survive the dry months by acstivation in particular stages of their development.
Owing to the mild climate and marked seasonal rainfall in Austraha, moisture
is to be considered as the major influence affecting the distribution and seasonal
activity of insects in the continent. The significance of the mean monthly Pre-

G) See R. N. Chapman, 1931, Animal Ecology, chapter 10: B.P, Uvarov, 1931,
Insects and Climate, Trans. Entom. Soc., London, vol. Ixxix.

89

cipitation -Evaporation ratio, referred to as P/E, as an index to moisture “con-
ditions” in the environment of insects, has been discussed in the earlier papers.
By means of this ratio, the intensity of wetness or dryness in any month may be
classified according to the following values for P/E,

Degree of

Values for P/E. Wetness or Dryness,
>4 wet
2—+4 humid
0-5—2 setmi-humid
0-25—0°5 semi-arid
> 0°25 arid

For the purpose of mapping moisture zones in Australia, P/E = 0°5 has
been selected as the value below which adequate moisture will not be ayail-
able for general plant growth at the soil surface, and in the upper layers
of the soil, Under Australian conditions, the months in which P/E has a value
of 0-5 or over may be considered as the “growing period” ; those months in which
P/E is less than 0-5 may be considered as the “dormant period.” Owing to
accumulation of moisture in the soil at the end of the growing period, moisture
will be effective, for a time, after the value of P/E falls below 0-5. The length
of this period will depend upon the P/E ratio together with soil type and vegeta-
tion. Temperature and the value of P/E will be the dominating factors affecting
the growth and activity of plants and animals during the growing period. In the
dormant months, temperature and atmospheric saturation deficit will be the
important factors associated with P/E, determining the intensity of desiccation.
The areas in Australia, month by month, in which P/E = 0°5 or over, are defined
in the earlier paper (Davidson, 1935). By superimposing the twelve monthly
charts, a composite chart of Australia was prepared, showing the months and
approximate areas in which P/E = 0-5 or over (fig. 1). It was not practicable
to illustrate, separately, on the map presented with the present paper, the areas *
for individual months, so areas were defined showing the number of months in the
year in which P/E is 0°5 or over. For those months included in the period
November to April, the areas are shown in colours; by this means the regions in
which summer rainfall is effective are clearly defined, In the case of the months.
included in the period May to October, the areas are shown by hatching lines;
in this way the regions in which winter rainfall is effective are clearly defined.
The total number of months of the year in which P/E = 0°5 or over, for any
area, is obtained by adding together the months for both periods.) The degree
of wetness or dryness in any area, month by month, depends upon the duration
of particular values of P/E. Those arcas having a run of one to six months in
which P/E = 0°5 or over are classified in the arid gone, and those having a run
of seven to twelve months in the humid sone. The subdivisions of these zones are
given in the key at the top right-hand corner of the map. When considering the
classification of an area, it is necessary to note the number of consecutive months
in the year in which P/E = 0-5 or over. Over the northern portion of Australia,
the months during which P/E = 0°5 or over lie in the period November to April,
In the southern portion they lie in the period May to October ; with some areas they

©) The months and approximate areas in which values for P/E lie between 0°5 and
0-25 were also defined, but this information has not been included in the map. These low
values for P/E are important in relation to the subdivision of the arid central portion of
Australia. It is considered inadvisable at present, however, to usa values for P/E less
than 0-5 for this purpose, because of the inadequate meteorological data available for this.
region. Moreover, high values for atmospheric saturation deficit, particularly during the
summer months, and the prevalence of hot winds render the computed values for evapora-
tion liable to considerable error,

90

extend into the period November to April (fig. 1). In the eastern portion of the
continent the demarcation of the monthly areas is complicated by overlapping of
effective summer and winter rainfall, and in certain parts of this region, the

AAL3,5-8 JOOP2-6

0-5 OR OVER

pes
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SHOWING AREAS AND MONTHS

Fig. 1.

In the areas defined on the chart, the months are given in which valucs for P/E are
0-5 or over. These months are designated by letters or by appropriate numbers,
e.g., WV = December to March, June and July; 12-3 December to March. The
broken lines are isopleths of (¢) mean annual temperature 70°F., (b) mean tempera-
ture 43°F. for the coldest month (July); these lines form the boundaries between
(a) hot and warm temperate climates, (b) warm temperate and cool temperate

climates as stated in the text.

91

months in which P/E = 0-5 or over do not run on consectitively (fig. 1). Where
the intervening period, during which P/E is less than 0-5, is one month only,
adequate moisture will be available for that month, and it can be included in
forming a consecutive rim of months in which P/E = 0-5 or over. Where the
period is longer than one month, it is to be considered as a dry period ; the intensity
of the dryness will depend upon the value of P/E and the duration of the period.
It is seen from fig. 1 that the area in which P/E =0°5 or over during June,
extends well into Queensland; to a less extent, this is also the case with July.
This extension, during the winter months, into a definitely summer rainfall zone,
is due to the effect of low temperatures in reducing evaporation,

The extremes of aridity will be in those areas having low values for P/E
maintained for long periods. The values may be infinitely small if no rain falls;
when rain does fall, it may have no biological significance owing to being insuffi-
cient to penetrate the soil, or to the tapid loss of moisture in the dry soil and by
evaporation.) The term desert is used in this paper in an.ecological sense, to
include the arid central regions of Australia, in which the values for P/E are
below 0°5 for every month of the year. The vegetation is characterised by climax
associations of the semi-desert and desert type (Prescott, 1931). The percentage
rain reliability over the greater part of this region lies between 35-40 (Andrews,
1932). Seasons occur with adequate rains, when ephemeral vegetation and certain
insects may be temporarily abundant; the intervening drought periods may be
prolonged for several seasons.

The extremes of wetness will be in those areas having high values for P/E
maintained for long periods. The number of consecutive months in which P/E
is greater than unity is a general guide to the degree of wetness in an area
(Davidson, 1934), A more detailed classification can be developed by taking
into account the duration of the following values for P/E :— ;

O-5—Z (semi-humid), 2—4 (humid), over 4 (wet).

TEMPERATURE ZONES.

The range of temperature favourable for insects varies with the species.
Low temperatures restrict or limit the distribution of insects polewards or in
altitude, Outside the equatorial belt, the seasonal march of temperature may
restrict or limit insect activity to the warmer months of the year. Species inhabit-

@) The minimum amount of rain, in one fall, necessary ta ensure that moisture in
the soil may be biologically effective, will vary according to circumstances, Apart from
soil type and its vegetation covering, it will depend. upon the requirements of the particular
plants and animals in the area. Also, it will depend upon whether the fall occurs during
a definite rainy period (growing period referred to in the text), or during a drought period
(dormant period referred to in the text). The amount of rain required will be less during
a rainy period than during a dry one; in the former, moisture accumulates in the soil;
during a dry period the rain must not only penetrate into the soil, but adequate moisture
must be retained for the requirements of the organisms,

With heavy falls of rain, there is an unavoidable waste by “run-off” water going to
local situations. The minimum amount of rain, in one fall, which will bring this about
depends upon the slope, soil type and vegetation, and the amount of rain in relation to the
duration of the fall.

Miisson, C. T. (Agric, Gazette, N.S. Wales, 1904, vol. xv, p. 781), in dealing with
variations in rainfall at Hawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond, New South Wales,
states that only rains amounting to 0-20 inches do real good in an agricultural way.
Cannon, W. A. (Carnegie Institution, Washington, 1921, Pubn. 308, p. 48), from observa-
tions made in the dry north of South Australia, defines an ecologically effective rainfall as
one consisting of 0-15 inches or more and which falls during a distinct rainy period.
Osborn, T. G. B.; Wood, J. G.; and Paltridge, T. G. B. (Proc. Linnean Soc. N.S. Wales,
1936, vol. Ivi, p. 302), from observations made at Koonamore in the dry north of South
Australia, consider “that about 0-25 inches is nearer the minimum amount df rain that
is effective during a dry period; lighter falls do not penetrate the soil more than 2-3 cm.”

92

ing these regions survive the cold months by hibernation in particular stages of
development.

Temperature has long been used as a basis for the classification of climates.
Miller (1931, p. 53) discusses the question and has prepared a table showing the
approximate boundaries of different climates based on temperature. The first
three climatic zones adoped by Miller are :—

A. Hot climates—Mean annual temperature above 70°F,
B. Warm temperate—No month with mean temperature below 43°L.
C. Cool temperate—One to six months with mean temperature below 43°F.

The climates of Australia lie in the Zones A and B, with the exception of
elevated portions of the Australian Alps in Victoria and southern New South
Wales, and the western highlands of ‘Tasmania ; these latter areas fall into Zone C
(fig. 1).

The distribution over Australia of mean annual temperatures, at intervals of
5°F., is shown on the map. The kcy to the temperature zones adopted is given in
the top right-hand corner of the map. The isopleth for the mean annual tempera-
ture 50°F. has been adopted as the boundary of the cool temperate and warm
temperate zones, but in many respects the isopleth for 55° F, could very well be
taken as the boundary (compare the area enclosed by the isopleth 43°F. for the
coldest month in Tig. 1).

From an ecological point of view, mean annual temperatures have little value;
they are adequate in this instance for defining the broad temperature zoncs, since
moisture is the dominating factor. By reference to the charts showing the dis-
tribution of mean monthly temperatures (Davidson, 1935), the mean temperatures,
month by month, may be defined for the various moisture zones.

C. W. Thornthwaite (1933) employed the term “temperature efficiency” in
association with that of “precipitation effectiveness,” for the purpose of the
delimitation of the boundaries of “The Climates of the Earth.” The methods
whereby numerical values for these concepts were calculated is described in an
earlier paper (Thornthwaite, 1931). With regard to temperature efficiency, the
tollowing equation was developed by empirical means, from which monthly indices

were obtained :— Monthly Temp. °F. — 32°F.

4

By means of appropriate values for summations of monthly indices, six
temperature zones were defined. With regard to precipitation effectiveness, values
for this concept were calculated by means of a formula which has been discussed
by Prescott (1934).

It is of interest to compare the boundaries of the climatic types in Aus-
tralia given by ‘Thornthwaite (1933) with those developed by the writer in the
present paper.

REFERENCES.
Anprews, J. A. 1932. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. lvii, pp. 95-100.
Davinson, |. 1934. Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Australia, vol. lvili, pp. 33-36.
__"- 1934a. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. lviii, pp. 197-209.

_— 1935. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. lix, pp. 107-124.

Hopkins, A. D. 1921. Monthly Weather Review, U.S. Dept. Agric., Washing-
ton, vol. xlix, No. 5 (Mar.), pp. 299-300.

Mitter, A. A. 1931. Climatology, p. 68. Methuen, London.

Prescott, J. A. 1931. Counce. Sci. Indus. Res. (Australia), Bull. 52.
«1934. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. lviii, pp. 48-61.
TrrorntHwaite, C. W. 1931. Geographical Review, vol. xxi, pp. 633-655.
1934. Geographical Review, vol. xxiii, pp. 433-440.

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J. Davrason.

THE CLIMATIC CONTROL OF THE AUSTRALIAN DESERTS

BY J. A. PRESCOTT, D.SC.

Summary

In a previous paper (1934) the usefulness of monthly climatic factors combining rainfall with some
function of evaporation was pointed out, and Davidson (1936) has subsequently developed his
previous work on this subject in the subdivision of Australia into bioclimatic zones based on a
critical ratio of rainfall to evaporation of 0-5 for any given month. Andrews and Maze (1933) have
already discussed aridity in Australia, using the de Martonne relationship of rainfall to temperature
for this purpose. For various reasons, previously outlined, the most suitable relationship is one
which combines rainfall with the saturation deficit of atmospheric humidity; the ratio of
precipitation to this deficit is probably the most efficient for the purpose, having been first
suggested as an annual ratio by Meyer, after whom it is usually named.

93

THE CLIMATIC CONTROL OF THE AUSTRALIAN DESERTS

By J. A. Prescott, D.Sc.,
Waite Agricultural Research Institute, University of Adelaide.

{Read August 13, 1936.]}

In a previous paper (1934) the usefulness of monthly climatic factors combin-
ing rainfall with some function of evaporation was pointed out, and Davidson
(1936) has subsequently developed his previous work on this subject in the sub-
division of Australia into bioclimatic zones based on a critical ratio of rainfall
to evaporation of 0-5 for any given month. Andrews and Maze (1933) have
already discussed aridity in Australia, using the de Martonne relationship of
rainfall to temperature for this purpose. For various reasons, previously out-
lined, the most suitable relationship is one which combines rainfall with the satura-
tion deficit of atmospheric humidity; the ratio of precipitation to this deficit is
probably the most efficient for the purpose, having been first suggested as an
annual ratio by Meyer, after whom it is usually named.

As a test of the efficiency of the successive monthly values, this ratio has been
calculated month by month for the more arid regions of Australia, and lines
drawn representing the values below which the ratio does not fall in any of the
twelve months of the year. For no part of Australia does the ratio fall below
1 for all twelve months, but there is an appreciable area in which these values
never rise above 2. This area coincides with the heart of the Artunta or Simpson
Desert, which is suspected from the lack of aboriginal occupation and from the
difficulty of penetration, to be the most arid part of the continent. Lines have
been drawn for the values 3, 4, 5 and 6, and the greater part of the truly desert
region is seen to fall within the area circumscribed by the lines representing twelve
months with values of less than 4 or 5.

On the same map (fig. 1) have been projected the areas covered by sand
ridges, as recently delineated by Madigan (1936),

The significance of these values is evident from a consideration of soil
moisture relationships; a value of 5 corresponds roughly with a precipitation-
evaporation ratio of Q°3 allowing for evaporation from a Jarge water surface such
as a reservoir. At the Waite Institute, a ratio of 5 is sufficient to maintain
the moisture content of the surface soil at about the wilting point.

Koppen (1923) has suggested that desert areas can be determined climatically
by the following relationships :—

(a) for rain in the cool season, P is less than 4 (t + 22),
(6) for uniform rain, P is less than 4 (t + 33),
(c) for rain in the warm season, P is less than $ (i + 44),
where P is annual rainfall expressed in centimetres,
and t is the mean annual temperature in degrees centigrade.
The limits imposed by the above relationships have, therefore, also been depicted
on the map.

A consideration of three methods of approach, use of the 10-inch isohyet,
the Képpen formulae and the use of monthly values of P/s.d., indicates successive
turns in the axis of aridity in a clockwise direction. There is a suggestion in the
map that a further turn in this direction is required to bring the axis into con-

94

formity with that of the existing zonc. Szymkiewicz (1925) has suggested
273 + T
the substitution of the value s.d. X ——-—— for saturation deficiency, a factor
273
which takes into account the greater diffusivity of water vapour at the higher
temperatures. The monthly ratios of precipitation to this new measure of evapora-
tion have, therefore, been calculated, but without any appreciable change in the
general features of the map or in the alignment of the axis. The most important

rt ani see [a 5 aa 5 < =
{| ——— ie Pay | a
f

ol PEE EIpLE
filet tte

cS pa
tn

\ AUSTRALIA

or oe <a eh a A

Fig. 1

Showing the zones for which the monthly ratios of precipitation to saturation

deficit are less than the values indicated for every month of the year.

The broken line indicates the limits of desert climate calculated according to
Képpen’s formulae.

The shading indicates the extent of desert sandhills according to Madigan.

remaining feature omitted from consideration is the effect of wind, which, as the
south-east trade wind, plays a very important part in the northern half of this
arid region. This would, undoubtedly, tend to extend the climatic zone towards
the north-west.

CONCLUSIONS.

A satisfactory estimate of the aridity of the Australian climate can be
obtained by a consideration of the monthly values for the ratios of precipitation

95

to the saturation deficit of water vapour pressure. Where these values do not
exceed 4 or 5 for any of the twelve months of the year, the soil moisture through-
out the year is maintained below the wilting point of plants except immediately
after rain for short periods or in special habitats, so that desert conditions may
be expected. A close relationship between these values and the known distribu-
tion of sandy deserts is to be observed. A small portion of Australia, near the
borders of Central Australia, Queensland and South Australia, shows values of 2
or less for each of the twelve months, This area has long been suspected from
other considerations to be the most arid in Australia.

REFERENCES,

ANprReEws, J., and Maze, W. H. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,, vol. lviii, p. 105, 1933.
Davinson, J. ‘Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. Ix, p. 88. 1936.

Képren, W. Die Klimate der Erde. Berlin. 1923.

Mapican, C. T. Geogr. Rev., vol. xxvi, p. 205. 1936.

Prescorr, J. A. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. lviii, p. 48. 1934.
SZYMKIEWwIcz, D. Acta Socictatis Botanicorum Poloniae, vol. ii, p. 239. 1925.

REGENERATION OF THE VEGETATION ON THE KOONAMORE
VEGETATION RESERVE, 1926 TO 1936.

BY J. G. WooD, PH.D., D.SC.

Summary

In a previous paper (2) an account was presented of the progress of work at the Koonamore
Vegetation Reserve up to 1931, that is, after five years of enclosure. That paper dealt with the
climatic data, the methods of study employed, general biological observations on arid plants and
with the initial stages of regeneration of the perennial native plants.

96

REGENERATION OF THE VEGETATION
ON THE KOONAMORE VEGETATION RESERVE, 1926 TO 1936.

By J. G. Woon, Ph.D., D.Sc., Department of Botany, University of Adelaide.
Pirates V to XIV.
[Read August 13, 1936.]

In a previous paper (2) an account was presented of the progress of work
at the Koonamore Vegetation Reserve up to 1931, that is, after five years of
enclosure. That paper dealt with the climatic data, the methods of study
employed, general biological observations on arid plants and with the initial stages
of regeneration of the perennial native plants.

The present paper describes quantitative measurcs of the regeneration of
plants which has taken place within this area during a period of ten years. The
data which have been acquired are especially valuable since they have been
obtained during a period of prolonged drought, and give an insight into the drought
resistance of the species concerned.

The Koonamore Vegetation Reserve, an area of 1,260 acres, situated in
32° 15’ S. lat., 139° 27’ E. long., was enclosed by a sheep- and rabbit-proof fence
in July, 1925. Since that time no sheep or other stock have been inside the
Reserve, although in 1931 rabbits reached plague numbers and extermination
became necessary. About 7,000 rabbits were killed at the end of that year, but
since then none have been present on the Reserve.

INCHES PER ANNUM

RAINFALL

{
(890 (900 1910 4920 1930 1949

Fig. 1.
Graph showing annual rainfall at Koonamore from 1889 to 1936. The dotted tine
shows the mean annual rainfall, The Koonamore Vegetation Reserve was enclosed
at the time indicated by the arrow. Note that since enclosure of the Reserve,
the rainfall has been below the mean.

Permanent observations on the vegetation were commenced in June, 1926,
utilizing the methods which have been described in the previous report, and these
observations have been continued without interruption to the present time.

Since enclosure of the Reserve the North-East pastoral district, in which the
Reserve is situated, has been subjected to prolonged drought conditions, which
have exceeded in their severity any previously expericnced since the country was
first colonised. In text fig. 1 is given a graph showing the annual rainfall at
Koonamore in each year since 1889. The graph shows that wet years and drought
years tend to occur in cycles, although the observations do not extend back far

97

enough to define these cycles. Since 1922, and including the whole period during
which the Reserve has been enclosed, the annual rainfall has been below the mean
value.

ft has been pointed out previously (loc. cit.) that the annual rainfall has little
significance in arid Australia since violent storms are common during which
3 inches or more may fall in 24 hours, or alternatively many small falls occur
which do little more than wet the surface of the ground. Therefore, whilst the
annual rainfall gives a rough guide, a more detailed analysis is necessary to under-
stand the reaction of arid plants to rainfall. From extended observations we have
decided that a fall of less than 25 points is not effective in times of drought,
although smaller falls are effective following other rains. The monthly raintall,
the number of rainy days, and also the number of days in which 25 points or more
fell are given in Table I.

TABLE I,
Rainfall at Koonamore during the period 1925-1936, together with the number of
rain days and falls greater than 25 points. Rain periods which had a marked
effect upon the vegetation are shown in black type.

Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apl. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Get. Nov. Dea Total.
1925 Rainfall ... ... 159 10 0 36 218 1 $115 20 35 14 28 5 637
Rainy days 3 1 0 2 9 it 6 2 1 1 2 1 29
Falls > 25 points 2 0 0 1 3 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 9
1926 Rainfall 0 2 36 64 166 61 24 104 224 0 7 62 750
Rainy days... 0 1 2 3 6 3 6 8 6 0 1 4 40
Falls > 25 points 0 0 1 1 2 1 0 2 3 0 0 1 11
1927 Rainfall 62 33 7 0 1 76 26 17 90 8 50 39 409
Rainy days 4 2 1 0 2 5 5 1 5 4 4 3 36
Falls > 25 points 1 1 0 0 0 2 0 6 2 0 0 0 6
1928 Rainfall 1 390 40 Q 27 108 103 6 28 0 0 0 703
Rainy days 1 4 3 0 2 6 5 1 2 0 06 QO 24
Falls > 25 points 0 1 1 0 0 3 2 0 1 0 0 0 8
1929 Rainfall 0 0 15 18 0 9 12 26 62 QO 35 327 504
Rainy days 0 0 1 1 0 1 ] 1 2 0 3 3.0413
Falls > 25 points 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 2 4
1930 Rainfall 7 93 0 80 33 0 80 47 90 112 38. 108 688
Rainy days 1 4 0 2 3 0 6 4 3 6 2 3. (34
Falls > 25 points 0 1 0 2 0 0 1 0 2 2 1 3. «12
1931 Rainfall ... 0. 0616 0 76 437 84 148 76 27 25 47 4 0 839
Rainy days 1 0 3 ee la 9 4 2 Zs 3 3 2 43
Falls > 25 points 0 0 2 2 0 0 I 0 0 1 0 0 8
1932 Rainfall 0 86 29 42 151 33 21 #50 71 18 36 0 537
Rainy days... 4 7 2 5 4 4 2 6 4 1 2 og 43
Falls > 25 points 0 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0) 0 0 5
1933 Rainfall 0 ... 40 45 26 1 65 7 S50 67 fb 14 162 22 510
Rainy days 2 1 1 1 1 3 6 6 2 1 3 4 31
Falls > 25 points 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 3 0 7
1934 Rainfall O 42 34 3 QO 10 71 9 7 55 177 0 408
Rainy days _.... 0 4 2 2 0 3 4 1 2 5 6 0 29
Falls >25 points 0 0 1 0 0 0 2, 0 0 0 2 0 5
1935 Rainfall ... 0 0 33 36 1 28 0 3.0.55 67 16 16 255
Rainy days... 0 0 2 5 1 3 0 3 4 3 2 1 24
Falls > 25 points 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 (O 0 3
1936 Rainfall .. ... 196 15 10 0 91 2900 —- — me ~_ a
Rainy days _... 6 2 1 0 1 3 -
Falls > 25 points 2 0 0 0 1 Om Let hetge “uae

98

Inspection of the table shows that on the average only between one-third
and one-quarter of the total falls of rain are effective as far as the plants are
concerned. Correlation with the vegetation brings out the fact that only five
rainy periods have been effective. These periods are the winter rains of 1926,
1928 and 1931 and the summer rains of 1930 and 1933. It is noteworthy that
heavy falls such as those of February, 1928, December, 1929, and April, 1931,
when over 3 inches fell in 24 hours in each case, caused no response from the
permanent vegetation and did little but scour the ground and cause a deteriora-
tion of the seed bed.

The vegetation of the Reserve consists of three main types: The saltbush
communities on hard loats containing travertine limestone nodules; the mulga
scrub on sandhills; and annual communities on watercourses and flooded flats.
A fourth type is also present, namely, a black oak (Casuarina lepidophloia) com-
munity on sand plains. The latter community is not dealt with here, for it is a
stable community, reproducing from root buds and only occasional shrubs or
annuals are found beneath the trees. The soils of the three main types have
already been described (2). These three soil and vegetation types are similar to
practically the whole of the plains area of the North-East of South Australia.

I—THE SALTBUSH COMMUNITY

The saltbush community on the Reserve prescnts a phase intermediate
between the mallee and true shrub-steppe. The mallee in South Australia is
defined fairly accurately between the 15-inch and 8-inch annual isohyets. Within
it two well-marked regions occur. Between the 15- and 12-inch isohyets the
dominants are cucalypt species, chiefly &. oleosa and E. duamosa, whilst the per-
manent undergrowth consists of sclerophyllous undershrubs. Between the 12-
and &8-inch isohyets the eucalypt species, with the exception of E. oleosa, practi-
cally disappear. Their place is taken by the sandalwood (Mvyoporum platycarpun)
and the sclerophyllous shrubs are replaced by chenopodiaceous species, especially
saltbushes (Atriplex vesicarium and A. stipitatum) and the .bluebush (Kochia
sedifolia). At about the 8-in isohyet the eucalypt species disappear entirely and
a very open community containing scattered individuals of Myoporum platy-
carpum and a continuous cover of saltbushes takes its place. The bluebush
(Kochia sedtfolia) replaces the saltbushes where limestone comes close to the
surface. With increasing aridity Myoporum platycarpusn disappears and a pure
shrub steppe of Atriplex vesicariuan takes its place.

The latter phase is not present on the Reserve, although it occurs and has
heen studied in areas not far removed from the Reserve. The community under
investigation at Koonamore is the Myoporum-Atriplex community, but from the
point of view of regeneration of saltbush the results obtained in the study of this
community apply equally to the true shrub-steppe.

The permanent members of this community are seven in number: a tree,
Myoporum platycarpuan (sandalwood), a shrub Cassia Sturtit Chirdseye or kan-
garoo bush), the shrubs Atriplex vesicarium and A. stipitatum Cbladder saltbush
and mallee saltbush, respectively), and Kochia sedifolia (bluebush), and two
short-lived perennial undershrubs, Bassia patenticuspis and B. obliquicuspis.
After rains a wealth of annuals, especially members of the Compositae and Cruci-
terae and a short-lived perennial Stipa nitida (speargrass) occur, but these are
drought-escaping rather than drought-resistant plants and are not permanent
members of the community.

99

ATRIPLEX VESICARIUM (Bladder Saltbush).

(a) Chemical Structure and Anatomy.

This species is the most important fodder bush in arid Australia, since it
alone supplies a food reserve in time of drought. It is nutritious and drought
resistant.

The following analysis shows the mean composition of the turgid leaves,
the constituents being expressed as percentage of fresh weight :—

Water - - - - - 90:
Respirable Carbohydrates - - + |
Protein - - ~ - - 2
Crude Fibre - - . - :
Ash - - - - - 3:
Alkali Soluble Resins, etc. - - pm 32z

Total - 100-3

The soluble salts (expressed on a fresh weight basis) in the ash are:—
K,O, 1°00 per cent.; Na,O, 0°86 per cent.; CaO, 0°28 per cent.; MgO, 1-6 per
cent.; Cl, 0°79 per cent.; P,O,., 0°14 per cent.

Its composition is strikingly different from that of most plants in that its
protein and salt contents are high, whilst the respirable carbohydrates and crude
fibre are exceptionally low. In itself it presents a well-balanced diet to sheep,
provided water and roughage are available.

Its drought resistant properties depend on several factors. The most
important are its metabolism and its peculiar structural make-up. Little starch
is stored but chiefly pentosans; these, together with the proteins, have a high
hydration capacity and hold water with great avidity. Furthermore, even during
drought periods the rate of photosynthesis exceeds the rate of respiration, so that
at no time does the plant live upon its carbohydrate reserves. The chief structural
features contributing towards drought resistance are first, the presence of a very
slightly cutinised epidermis which enables the leaf to absorb water from an
atmosphere 85% saturated with water vapour; and second, its shallow root system
which produces deciduous feeding roots only after rains.

(b) Ecotvpes.

The species, Atriplex vesicarium, is by no means a homogeneous one. At
least three different ecotypes have been defined, one on hard loams of the Reserve
type; another on silty soils on watercourses; and a third occurring on silty soils
but also on sandy soils. Others possibly exist, especially a form on sandy plains
and another around salt-lakes, but these have not been fully defined as yet. The
three ecotypes which have been defined are illustrated m figs. 1 and 2, pl. v.

The ecotype on the travertine soils (orm A) is an erect twiggy bush with
an average height of about 32 cms. and diameter of 34 cms. The leaf form is
variable in outline, frequently lanceolate or with sinuate margins, The bladders
on the fruiting calyx arc small and sometimes absent.

The ecotype on silty soils (Form C) is a robust rounded bush, about 50 cms.
high and with stout stems. Very large bladders are developed on the fruiting
calyx. It presents the appearance often associated with tetraploid mutants,

The third form found on silty and also on sandy soils (Form B) is a very
twiggy bush, about 40 cms. high, with narrow lanceolate leaves and generally
without bladders on the fruiting calyx.

100

Only the first-mentioned ecotype occurs on the Reserve; this is the most
drought resistant form of the three, and is the form on which grazing experi-
ments have been performed at Koonamore (1). The saltbushes are gregarious
and occur in clumps containing three or four individual plants. ‘his is due to
the fact that mounds of sand accumulate around the bases of the bushes and
provide secdbeds in which seedlings of various sorts, including saltbush, germinate.
The bushes do not form a continuous cover but are separated from one another
by bare patches of soil, Flowering and fruiting may occur at any time of the
year. .

(c) Regeneration.
The factors controlling regeneration of Atriplex vesicarium are grazing by
stock; length of life of the species; climatic conditions; the nature of the seed-

bed; and the presence of “nurse” plants, which disseminate seed, adjoining the
eroded areas.

(4) Length of Life.

Under the conditions of drought which have prevailed during the last ten
years the length of life of the form of Atriplex vesicarium found on the Reserve
is about 12 years. On a hundred square metre quadrat (No. 10a), when laid down
in 1926, there were 56 plants of Atriplex vesicarinm present. Many of these
were seedlings and did not survive beyond December, 1928, when 27 mature
plants were present. Of these plants only eleven were alive in 1936, and all of
these are sprawling bushes with only a few shoots bearing living leaves. The
seedling mortality is high. Following winter rains in 1931, 178 plants of Atriplex
vesicarium were listed in August, 1931, on this quadrat. Only 59 of these sur-

vived until June, 1932, but these established plants were all present and growing
vigorously in June, 1936.

The length of life of the other ecotypes is not known. Observations in other
parts of the North-East indicate that they are shorter lived and less drought
resistant than the form under consideration.

(vi) Climatic Conditions and Rate of Regencration.

The relation of regeneration to climatic conditions has been studied by means
of quadrats and transects. Table II gives the numbers of Atriplex vesicarium
plants present on a hectare quadrat (No. 100) within the Reserve on different
dates.

Tasie II.
Numbers of A. vesicarium Plants present on Quadrat 100.
Date. No. of Plants.

24-5~26 - - - 1
15-8-27 ~ - - 29
11-12-28 - - - 42
27-2-30 - - ~ 50
1-6-31 - - - 351

30-8-32 - - - 74 + seedlings
30-10-33 - : - 129
22-8-35 - - - 170
26-5-36 - - - 167

Increases in the numbers of plants occurred after the winter rains of 1926,
1928 and 1931, and the summer rain of 1933. It is apparent, therefore, that
species will germinate over a wide temperature range. The changes in Quadrat
No. 100 are shown in the chart in text fig. 2.

101

In 1931 two transect lines were surveyed in the north-eastern corner of the
Reserve; both lines commenced from a fence separating the Reserve from a
paddock which contained a good stand of saltbush. Table III gives the numbers
of A. vesicarium plants in 50 metres intervals along these lines at different times.

go ? os

e@ ce
re)
a

Fig. 2.

Chart of Quadrat No. 100, a hectare quadrat, in May, 1936, showing salt-

bushes (Atriplex, spp) present. Full circle represents plant of Atriplex

vesicarium, open circle represents plant of Atriplex stipitatum. Only one

Atriplex plant, that represented by a cross in the south-west corner of the

quadrat, and now dead, was present when the quadrat was first started
in May, 1926. Scale, */:00.

Taste IIT.

Numbers of Plants of 4. vesicarium along transect lines.
Transect No, 1—

aan 0-50, 50-100. 100-150. 150-200. 200-250. 250-300. Total.
246-31 - 19 8 3 0 0 0 30
26-32 - 17 34 34 4 0 0 89
25-5-33 - 17 20 13 3 0 0 53
12-8-34 - 33 26 16 6 0 2 81
21-8-35 - 30 26 19 5 2 2 82
27-6-36 - 32 26 19 5 1 2 85

102

TasLe II] (continued).
Numbers of Plants of 4. vesicarium along transect lines,

ie hoe 0-50. 50-100. 100-150. 150-200. 200-250. 250-300. —‘ Tutal.
Transect No. 2—

246-31 - 19 15 2 1 3 0 AO

26-32 - 6 33 11 20 6 3 79
25-5-33 - 10 31 13 3 1 2 60
12-8-34 - 23 35 19 0 2 2 &l
21-88-35 - 22 33 15 1 2 2 75
27-60-36 - 23 33 14 2 1 2 83

These transects show that substantial increases in numbers of bushes occurred
after the winter rain of 1931, and also after the summer rain of 1933. The
decrease in numbers between 1932 and 1933 is due to the fact that the 1933 fgures
include seedlings which had disappeared by 1933,

The transects also show that the greatest spread of the bush occurred after
winter rains in 1931. Since that date there has been no further advance of bush
over the barren soil of the Reserve. The summer rain of 1933, which was followed
by a drought period, caused germination only in the area already occupied and
chiefly in the mounds of sand which accumulate around established bushes.

(iit) Nature of the Seedbed and Accessibility of Nurse Plants.

It is conceivable that during a drought of extreme severity the shorter-lived
forms of Atriplex vesicarinm might be killed, but this is certainly not the case
with the ecotype found on the hard loamy soils of the North-East.

Overstocking is the primary cause of degeneration. The salibush com-
munities are nicely balanced with their environment, as are all natural com-
munities. It has been shown previously (1) that controlled moderately heavy
stocking increases the vigour of the bush by pruning; overstocking results in death
of the bush community.

Three stages resulting from overstocking can be distinguished :—

(1) The bush is killed but the dead sticks are not removed.

(2) The bush is removed, but the soil is still held by short-lived perennial
plants.

(3) Total removal of all plant cover, so that the soil drifts and the bare
stony sub-soil is exposed.

The cycle of events when the plant cover is totally removed is best shown in
figs. 1 and 2, pl. vi. These photographs were taken around a bore put down in
1926 in an area which then carried good saltbush right up to the bore. In 1927,
6,000 sheep were watered at this bore for three months. ‘he first photograph
taken in 1929 shows how the bush cover has been totally removed and the surface
is covered with drifting sand. Fig. 2, pl. vi, was taken in August, 1931, after
winter rains. The plants are all annuals, the chief being :—Aygophyllyon fruti-
culosum, Z, ammophilum, Z, prismatolhecum, Z crenatum, Schismus calyctnus,
Tetragonia eremaca, Sida iniricata, Helipterum floribundum, Babbagia acroptera,
Atriplex spongiosum, Bassia parado.va, and Salsola Kalt. No perennial plants were
present, so that when the short-lived annuals died the sand again commenced to
drift. Fig. 3, pl. vi, shows the area in 1935, when practically all the soil had been
removed and the hard sub-soil exposed. Fig. 4, pl. vi, taken in 1936, shows the
same area after rains. Regeneration of any plants on such exposed sail is
impossible.

Figs. 1-4, pl. vii, show the cycle on arcas where the bush has been removed
but the soil is held by short-lived perennials, chiefly Bassia patenticuspis, B.
obliquicuspis, and RB. sclerolaenioides, This was the state of the soil in the Reserve

103

at the time of enclosure. The series of photographs were taken from a point
within the Reserve removed from any Aériplex plants which would supply seed.
In fig. 1, pl. vii, photographed in 1926, the ground is covered with the litter of the
two Bassia species. Fig. 2, pl. vii, shows the changes after winter rains; the
dominant plant is the speargrass, Stipa nitida. After summer rains, Bassia
species and Tetragonia eremaea are dominant; fig. 3, pl. vii, shows the profusion
of Bassia, spp., under such conditions. Fig. 4, pl. vii, photographed in 1936,
shows the ground still held by the Bassias after extreme drought. he state of
the soil is similar to that of the 1926 photograph but the gradual advance of the
saltbush over this area may be seen in the background of fig. 4, pl. vii. A cycle
exactly similar to this occurs in areas where the dead sticks of saltbush are not
removed but remain standing.

Fig. 3.

Chart of Quadrat No. 10a, a one-hundred square metre quadrat, showing

distribution of Atriplex vesicarium in relation to Bassia patenticuspis and

its litter The shaded area represents that covered with Bassia patenticuspis

or its litter throughout the ten years’ observations; the other area is bare,

stony soil, The area of the canopy of the saltbushes is shown in black.

Dotted areas represent dead bushes of saltbush. Charted May, 1936.
Scale, “Zino.

The Bassia, spp., and their litter play a two-fold role in the regeneration of
saltbush, first in preventing soil drift and second in holding mechanically the
seeds of the saltbush. The light-winged fruits of Atriplex cannot remain
stationary on the bare wind-swept soils, but the spines and litter of Bassia hold
seeds effectively.

*

104

The chart in text fig. 3 is that of a 100 square metre quadtat (No. 10a).
charted in 1936 (e., after ten years’ observation). The relation of saltbushes to
Bassia is obvious. Figs. 1 and 2, pl. viii, show a portion of the same quadrat.
The lack of regeneration of the bttsh on the bare stony area is clearly shown,
whilst the marked regeneration on the outer Bassia-covered areas is equally
marked.

One of the most important factors in regeneration is the presence of nearby
nurse plants which shall provide seed for dissemination. The transect counts
described above shaw how regeneration has occurred from seed derived from
plants outside the Reserve fence. Figs. 3 and 4, pl. viii, show clearly the lack of
regeneration when all seed plants are killed. Fig. 3, pl. vili, was photographed in
1925 at a point removed about 2 miles from the bore shown in figs. 1, 2, 3, 4,
pl. vi. ‘Vhe healthy stand of bush outside the Reserve fences should be noted.
Inside the Reserve the ground is bare but is held by Bassia, spp., and is of exactly
the same type as that on which regencration has occurred in other parts of the
Reserve. Fig. 4, pl. viii, was photographed in 1936. It will be noted that no
regeneration of bush has occurred. The reason is that all the bush outside the
Reserve was killed im the early months of 1927 by the overstocking previously
mentioned, when all the potential nurse plants were removed,

Whilst it is the object of this paper to describe the changes in vegetation
which has occurred on the Reserve, it has been made quite clear to us that
regeneration and maintenance of saltbush communities are not essentially problems
for a botanist but are a question of management. The bush is not eaten by rabbits.
Provided the equilibrium between the plants and their environment is not upset
by overstocking, saltbush will withstand prolonged drought and regenerate
readily.

B. ATRIPLEX sTIPITatum (Mallee Saltbush).

Atriplex stipifatum is a well-defined species, commonly known as “mallee
saltbush.” Within the Reserve it occurs mixed with Atriplex vesicarium to some
extent on sandy patches, but is characteristic of deep sandy soils, which in the
North-East carry mallee and black oak (Casuarina lepidophloia) as the dominant
trees. It is not found in the treeless shrub steppe.

It approximates to A. vesicarium in chemical composition and structure but
ig unpalatable to stock on account of a bitter principle which it contains. Never-
theless, it is an important plant in arid areas, since it seeds freely. germinates
readily, and consequently regenerates rapidly. It is a shorter-lived plant than
A, vesicorium, the quadrat charts show that the average length of life of indi-
vidual plants is about 8 years. A. sfipitatum flowers and fruits during the summer
months and is mare exacting in its germination reyuiremenls than A. vesicarium.

Its regeneration in relation to rainfall may he seen from Table TV, which
shows the number of A. stipitaliuen plants present in a hectare quadrat (No. 100).

‘TABLE LV.
Numbers of Atriplex stipitatum Plants on a Hectare Quadrat,

Date. No. of 4. stipitafunt Plants.
24 5-26 - - - 1
15-8-27 . - - 3
11-12-28 - s - 61
27-2-30 - - - 63
1-6-31 - - - 68
30-8-32 “ 4 - 155
30-10-33 - - - 163
22-8~35 - - - 170

26--5-36 - - - 179

105

It is clear from this table that germination occurred following early winter
rains in 1926 and 1931. This is confirmed by transect counts (Table V) in the
south-eastern corner of the Reserve. These transect lines were surveyed from a
fence separating the Reserve, which was bare of A. stipitatum at the time of
enclosure, from a paddock containing a healthy stand of this saltbush.

TABLE V.
Numbers of Plants of A. stipitatum along transect line.
Transect No. 3—

in Metres. 0-50. 50-100. 100-150. 150-200. 200-250. 250-300. 300-350, 350-400.

11-7-29 - 48 2 6) 0 0 0 0 0

5-8-30 - 71 3 1 0 0 0) 0 0
246-31 - 76 4 0 0) 0 0 0 0)

3-6-32 - 127 134 11 4 1 0 0 0
27-5-33 - 85 39 4 4 0 0 0 0
14-8-34 - 73 56 10 1 1 0 0 0)
22-88-35 - 55 50 3 2 1 0 8) 0
29-5-36 - 54 45 3 2 1 0 0 0

Transect No. 4—

11-7-29 - 28 3 4 6 5 3 0 0

5-8-30 - 35 5 7 5 2 2 8) 0
246-31 - 36 11 14 8 4 2 0 0

3-6-32 - 151 137 121 35 29 26 27 8
27-5-33 - 90 126 71 48 34 10 1 11
14-8-34 - 95 106 103 25 26 15 1 1
22-8-35 - 71 97 62 23 17 28 4 1
29-5-36 - 72 95 57 21 20 28 4 2

In the period during which the transects have been run only one marked
germination has occurred, viz., after the winter rains of 1931. Comparison with
the transects of A. vesicarinm shows that in the case of A. stipitatum there are
many more plants per 50 metres, and also that the area over which regencration
has occurred is much greater than is the case with A. vesicarium., On the other
hand A. sitpitatum is much less drought resistant than A. vesicarium, as is shown
by the marked falling off in the number of plants per 50 metres during the drought
years from 1932 to 1936. Figs. 1 and 2, pl. ix, show an area along ‘lransect No. 3
in 1929 and 1936, respectively, and illustrate the marked increase in A. stipitatum
plants during this period.

C. Kocwia seprrotia (Blucbush).

The “old man bluebush,” Kochia sedifolia, occurs on soils where the traver-
tine limestone comes close to the surface. It is a very long-lived perennial. At
the onset of drought it loses its leaves more readily than do the saltbushes, and
the stems die also. In this condition it will survive long and severe drought.
After rains new shoots and roots are produced from patches of living tissue in the
“stumps,” which are contorted masses of stem and root bases. Figs. 3 and 4,
pl. ix, show the condition of K. sedifolia during a wet season and after a pro-
longed drought.

Kechia sedifolia produces seeds only at infrequent intervals, and seedlings
are rarely found. This is offset, however, by the longevity of the individual
plants.

D, MyororumM PLaTycarrPuM (Sandalwood),

In the saltbush areas of the Reserve the sandalwood (Myoporum platy-

carpum) is the most important tree. In this area it reaches approximately the

106

northern limit of its range. -Its fate in the North-East is one to cause concern,
for it is dying out rapidly and no regeneration is taking place. The branches of
sandalwood are pulled to provide feed for sheep in times of drought. This
normally does not kill the tree.

During the 1928-1929 drought many trees became almost defoliated. In 1931,
after the winter rains, vigorous new branches developed at the point of the main
forking of the stem. During the prolonged drought from 1932-1936, however,
many of the trees died. Table VI gives a comparison of sandalwood trees present
on two quadrats in 1926 and 1936.

Taste VI,
Numbers of Living Trees of Myoporum platycarpum.
Quadrat. 1926. 1936.
100 - = - 33 22
400 - - - 23 12

Figs. 1 and 4, pl. vii, and figs. 3 and 4, pl: viii, indicate the extent to which
these trees have died. It is no exaggeration to state that approximatcly one-half
of the trees living in 1926 were dead in 1936. Germination of the seeds of
Myoporum platycarpum occurs frequently. Occasional seedlings have been
recorded from time to time on the quadrats but none have survived except in
special rabbit-prooi enclosures. One stich seedling, which appeared in an area on
which the debris had been burnt and then enclosed from rabbits, is now (1936)
a tree about 8 feet high. Regeneration of the sandalwood, as of trees generally in
the pastoral country, is inhibited by the rabbit, which reaches plague numbers in
good seasons,

E. Cassra STURTI] AND CASSIA EREMOPHILA.

Before stocking became general, bushes of these two species were present in
quantity, for the dead branches of the bushes are a feature of the landscape in the
Reserve. Cassia Sturtit occurs on hard loam soils, whilst C. eremophila is more
frequently found on sandy and silty soils. The seeds of both species germinate
readily after heavy summer rains or after burning debris.

Fig. 4

Chart of Quadrat FR6 in May, 1936. Debris was burnt in this area in

May, 1928, and then enclosed from rabbits. The areas of the canopies of

the different shrubs are shown, Cs, represents Cassza Sturtit; Ce, Cassia

eremophila; Ab, Acacia Burkittii; and S, Myoporum platycarpum..
Scale, */s00.

107

Text fig. 4 is a chart of an area on sandy soil on which the debris was burnt
in May, 1928, and then specially protected from rabbits. In June, 1928, 6 bushes
of C. eremophila and 4 of C. Sturt were present. By December, 1928, there
were 5 bushes of C. eremophila and 12 of C. Sturtii. These bushes are still present
in the enclosed area (1936), and in addition one extra plant of C. eremophila and
two plants of C. Sturtu which appeared after the summer rains of 1933. The
bushes are about 1 metre high and about 1 metre in diameter, and have seeded
twice. Figs. 1 and 2, pl. xii, illustrate the regeneration in this area in 1928 and
in 1936.

Seedlings of both species of Cassia became general over the Reserve after
the heavy summer rains of 1929. During 1930-31 rabbits reached plague numbers
in the Reserve and all the Cassia seedlings on the quadrats were grazed to ground
level. Many of these were listed as dead in subsequent charts, but with the dis-
appearance of the rabbits in 1931, many of the grazed plants produced new
juvenile shoots from the base. A further germination of seedlings occurred after
the summer rain of 1933. Table VII shows the pertinent data regarding Cassia
Sturtti, on two hectare quadrats; No. 100 is on hard loamy soil, No. 300 on silty
soil.

TasBLe VII.
Numbers of Cassia Sturtii Plants on Hectare Quadrats.
Quadrat No. 1930. 1936.
100 - - - 65 48
300 - - - 29 45

©) Includes 34 plants originally present in 1930.
() Includes 25 plants originally present in 1930.

II—THE SANDHILL COMMUNITIES.

The sandhill communities of the Reserve are typical of those in the North-
East as a whole. ‘he climax community on the sandhills is an open scrub in
which Acacia aneura (mulga) is the dominant tree, whilst the shrubs Acacia
Burkittit (wattle) and Eremophila Sturtit (turpentine) are common. These
three shrubs, apart from Loranthus, spp., parasitic upon them, comprise the only
permanent members of the community. Before the introduction of stock Cassia
eremophila was also common, but the latter has disappeared with the introduction
of grazing, and regeneration is now prevented by the rabbit. All the above-
mentioned trees on the Reserve, and indeed in the North-East generally, are old
trees, and several counts of the annual rings in the wood of several different trees
indicate that they are at least 40 years old. Mulga and wattle seedlings appear
in the mature communities occasionally after heavy rains, and readily after burn-
ing; they are very slow-growing plants and never reach maturity, but are
invariably eaten by rabbits, All these species, and especially Acacia aneura, have
extensive root systems which effectively bind the loose sand,

However, these species, even if protected from rabbits, will not stabilise
disturbed sandy soils, but pioneer species must first bring about a stable soil before
the tree and shrubs can reach maturity. In. most parts of the world the pioneer
plants on sandhills, whether coastal or arid, are rhizomic perennial grasses.
Tussocks at intervals along the rhizome and the roots of these plants cffectively
stabilise the soil and allow other plants, generally shrubs, to grow and reach
maturity.

In arid Australia there are no such perennial plants, and the pioneers on
sandhills are annuals. In a succession of good seasons the soil is stable long
enough to permit the establishment of the shrubs and trees mentioned above, and
even during short droughts the debris of the annual plants remain in the soil long

108

cnough to allow establishment of shrubs. Although these perennial plants have
appeared in the Reserve they have never survived, except in special rabbit-proof
enclosures.

The nature of the pioneer annual plants on disturbed sandhills depends on
the incidence of rain. Alter sttmmer rain Salsola Kali var. strobilifera is the
pioneer plant, and associated with it are Chenopodium cristatum and Boerhaavia
diffusa (see fig. 2, pl. xa). Following late winter rains Zygophyllum Billardieri.
(fig. 1, pl. xa) is the chicf pionecr plant. Both these plants are large shrubby
annuals with shallow root systems and are readily blown away if a dry season
intervenes; the sandhill then reverts to its original state. The most prolonged
stabilisation of the soil occurs after early winter rains, The dominant plant under
these circumstances is Stipa nitida (speargrass), a short-lived perennial, and asso-
ciated with it are large numbers of ephemeral plants, especially AHelipterium
moschatum, Tetragonia eremaea and Playiobolhrys plurisepala, Figs, 1-6,
pls. xA and xs, illustrate these pioneer changes on a disturbed sandhill in the
Reserve. Fig. 1 shows Zygophillwm Billardieri as the dominant plant after the
winter rains of 1928, whilst fig. 2 shows Salsola Kali as the dominant plant after
the suminer rains of 1930. Stipa nitida appeared in quantity after the heavy
early winter rains of 1931 (fig. 3). Figs. 4, 5, 6, pl. xp, show the gradual dis-
appearance of the speargrass under drought conditions. The final stage (fig. 6)
shows a return to the original conditions—the surface is again loose and no
shrubs have become established. On the mature scrub-covered sandhills the
seasonal cycle is similar; Salsela Kali is the chief summer annual and Stipa nitida
the dominant alter winter rains. These changes are illustrated in figs. 1-4, pl. x1,

Yet shrubs, and especially mulgas, will regenerate if protected from rabbits,
and the seedlings will also survive prolonged droughts. This has been shown in
experiments on sandhill areas. Here the debris was burnt and portions of the
burnt area enclosed by rabbit-proof fencing, whilst other eyuivalent areas were
left unfenced to serve as controls. In one set of experiments the burns were
made in August, 1927, seedlings appeared at the margins of the burns after the
heavy rains of February, 1928. By June, 1929, there were 4 A. aneura seed-
lings in one quadrat (FR. 2) and 18 in another (FR, 4). During one night of
July, 1929, a rabbit burrowed under the netting of FR4 and ate all the mulgas,
except one. All the mulgas in the unfenced areas were eaten, Today (June,
1936) the enclosed mulgas are still growing vigorously.

Another area (FRA. 1) was burnt in June, 1929, and 4 A. aneura seedlings
appeared after the rains of December, 1929, and a further seedling after the rains
of October, 1930. These five seedlings are now small bushes, the tallest is ahout
4 fect high and the stem about 4 inch in diameter, Figs. 3 and 4, pl. xii, illustrate
the regeneration on Quadrat FRA. 1 in 1929 and in 1936.

It appears, therefore, that 4. ancura will germinate after summer rains and
ig sUmulated by fire. It is extremely drought resistant cven, in the seedling stage,
but regeneration under natural conditions is inhibited hy the rabbits.

TH—WATERCOURSE COMMUNITIES.

The silty flats and watercourses are important after rains. The plant com-
munity found there is an ephemeral one showing well marked seasonal aspects,
and the wealth of species and of individuals makes this community a valuable one
as to the pastoralist. It presents few problems of regeneration, since the plants
are annuals and the soil contains such a high percentage of silt and clay that it
has no tendency to drift. The chief of the problems which this community is
likely to present in the future is the capture of the habitat by alicn plants. In
parts of the North-East Diplotaxis tenuis, (Teetulpa weed), Xanthium spinosum

109

(Bathurst Burr), and Reseda luteola (weld) have been observed to totally replace
the more valuable native annuals. In the Reserve these plants do not occur.

Trees and shrubs are infrequent, although a tree, Evemophila longifolia,
occurs occasionally, The cycle of events on silty soils is best described by the series
of photographs shown in figs. 1-4, pls. xiii and xiv, taken from a point within the
Reserve. Hig. 1, pl. xiii, shows the vegetation after summer rains. The dominant
plants on silly soils are Erodium cyygnorum (geranium) and Erodiophyllum Elderi
(Koonamore daisy); Zygophyllum crenatum and Z. iodocarpum are also
important. On sandy-silt soils Zygophyllum prismatothecum is dominant.

Fig, 2, pl. xii, shows the vegetation after winter rains and consists of Stipa
nitida (speargrass), which is dominant, together with young plants of Erodium
eygnorun (geranium) and Bassia patenticuspis.

Fig. 3, pl. xiv, shows the flat after prolonged drought. The soil is littered
with the woody heads of Erodiophyllum Elderi. Fig. 4, pl. xiv, shows the flat
after a late summer thunderstorm. The dominant plant is Hrodiophyllum Elderi,
whilst Lrodium cygnorum, Lotus australis, Bassia patenticuspis, and Clianthus
Speciosus are also present. In this photograph the shrubs in the middle distance
are Eremoplhila longifolia which have appeared on the flat.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS,

Acknowledgments are especially due to Professor T. G. B. Osborn, now of
the University of Sydney, through whose efforts the Koonamore Vegetation
Reserve was established and who was Director of the Reserve from 1926 to 1931.
Many of the observations from 1926 to 1931 quoted in this paper were made by
him or by T. B. Paltridge, an officer of the Council for Scientific and Industrial
Rescarch, who was stationed at the Reserve from 1928 to 1931,

SUMMARY.

1. This paper presents an account of the regeneration of vegetation which has
occurred in the Koonamore Vegetation Reserve over a pcriod of ten years.

2. During the whole of this period the rainfall has been subnormal,

3. The factors influencing regeneration of saltbushes (Atriplex vesicarinm and
A, stipttatum) are the nature of the grazing, length of life of the species,
climatic conditions, nature of the seedbed and presence of seed-dispersing
plants. Quantitative measurements of these factors and their effect on
regeneration are given. Control of these arcas can only be effected by adequate
management of grazing.

4. The sandhill community is discussed. The pioncer plants arc annual plants,
which only in good seasons stabilise the soil long enough to permit development
of shrubs and trees. Regeneration of the latter is inhibited by the rabbit.
Quantitative measurcments of regeneration are presented.

5. Watercourse communities are not subject to drift, but carry a wealth of annual
plants with marked seasonal aspects.

REFERENCES,

(1) Oszorn, T. G. B., Woon, J. G., and Pattrince, 1. B. On the Growth and
Reaction to Grazing of the Perennial Saltbush, Atriplex vesicarium.
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. xlvii, p. 377, 1932.

(2) Osporn, T. G. B., Woon, J. G., and Pattrmer, T. B. On the Climate and

Vegetation of the Koonamore Vegetation Reserve to 1931. bid,
vol. 1, p. 392, 1935.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Ne

gee Ba.

110

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

PuatEe V.
Ecotypes of Atriplex vesicarium.
Form A on travertine loam in Koonamore Vegctation Reserve,
Forms B and C on Tin Hut Watercourse.

Piatt VI.
Series of photographs taken from a point at an overstocked bore.

February, 1929. Saltbushes removed and surface covered with drifting sand.

August, 1931. Annual plants (chiefly Zygophyllum, spp.) on sandy patches after
winter rains.

August, 1935. After prolonged drought. Sand totally removed and sub-soil exposed.

May, 1936. Lack of regencration of annuals on exposed sub-soil after summer rains.

Priate VII.

Cycle of vegetation changes in overstocked saltbush community, The bushes have

whe

Fig. 2

Fig.

Fig,

Fig.
Fig.
Tig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Sr hors

Sone

disappeared but the soil is still held by Bassia, spp.

May, 1926. Soil covered with litter of Bassia patenticuspis.

December, 1926. Stipa nitida (speargrass) dominant after winter rains.

June, 1931. Bassia, spp., dominant after summer rains.

May, 1936. Alter prolonged drought. Soil still held by Bassia, spp. Compare this
photograph with that of May, 1926, and note that practically all the sandalwood
trees have died.

Pirate VIII.

Two areas showing regencration of saltbush.

May, 1926. Portion of Quadrat No. 10a.

May, 1936. Portion of same quadrat showing regeneration of Atriplex vesicarium
in background and lack of regencration on hard, stony soil in foreground.

March, 1925. View along fence separating Reserve (foreground) from an outside
paddock. Note good stand of saltbush outside Reserve. This was killed by over-
stocking early in 1927.

May, 1936. View from same point. Notice lack of regeneration inside Reserve,
although the soil is suitable, due to removal of plants which would form seed.
Compare trees in two photographs and note that all the sandalwoods have died.

Pilate IX,

Two areas showing vegetation variations over several years, as set out in context.

September, 1929. View along one of line transects to study regeneration of Atriplex
stipttatum,

May, 1936. View from same point, showing marked regencration of Atriplex
stipitatum.

August, 1931. View along fence separating Reserve (right) from an outside paddock.
Outside well foliated bluchush (Kochia sedifolia); imside, in background, note
regeneration of bluchbush from stumps, foreground Sfpa nitida after winter rains.

August, 1935, View from same point. Blucbushes completely defoliated.

Piate XA.
Cycle of vegetation changes on a disturhed sandhill.
July, 1928. Zygophvllin Billardicri, pioneer plant after late winter rains.
March, 1930. Selsola Kali var. strobilifera, pioneer plant, summer rains.
August, 1931, Stipa nitida and annuals, pioneer plants after early winter rains.

PLATE XB.
(Continued from Plate Xa.)
June, 1932. Death of Stipa nitida at onset of drought.
May, 1933. Drought still prevailing, but stumps of Stipa nitida still holding sand.

May, 1936. Drought still prevailing and sandhill bare except for few small Salsola
plants.

Fig,
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

SNe

Face ty,

ia)

lil

Plate XI.

Cycle of vegetation changes on stable sandhill.
May, 1936. Sandhill stabilised by climax community of Acacia aneura (mulga).
December, 1926. Stipa nitida dominant after winter rains.
June, 1931. Bassia paradoxa, Erodium cygnorum and Stipa nitida after summer
rains, followed by winter rains.
May, 1936. Salsola Kali after summer ‘thunderstorm.

Pirate XII.
Two areas showing regeneration of trees and shrubs,

June, 1928. View of area on which debris burnt and enclosed from rabbits.

May, 1936. View of same enclosure from a different angle, showing regeneration of
Cassia Sturt and C. eremophila within enclosure.

December, 1929. View of area on which debris‘ burnt and enclosed fram rabbits.

May, 1936. View of same area, showing young plants of mulga (Acacia aneura)
which have appeared within enclosure.

Piate XIII.

Cycle of vegetation changes on a flooded area with silty soil.
July, 1928. After summer rains followed by winter rains. Erodinm cygnorum
(geranium) ‘dominant.
August, 1931. Stipa witida (speargrass) dominant after winter rains.

Pirate XIV.
(Continued from Plate XIII.)
May, 1934. Area bare after prolonged drought. Flat covered with woody capitula
of Erodiophyllum Elderi,
May, 1934. Erodiophyllum Elderi dominant after summer rains. Note appearance
of bushes of Eremophila longifolia in mid-distance.

STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN THYSANURA.
NO. 1. A NEW SPECIES OF LEPISMATIDAE FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

BY H. WOMERSLEY, F.R.E.S., A.L.S.

Summary

The species of Silver Fish described in this paper is interesting in that it constitutes the first record
of a species of Nicoletia (subfamily Nicoletinae) from Australia.

The subfamily Nicoletinae comprises the Lepismids in which the eyes are wanting, the last segment
of the labial palp with sensory papillae, and the gonapophyses sword-like or clubbed. It includes a
number of both scaled and unsealed species, the first section of which contains a large number of
species belonging to a number of genera, confined to the nests of ants and termites.

112

STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN THYSANURA.
No. 1. A NEW SPECIES OF LEPISMATIDAE FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

By H. Womersiey, F.R.ES., A.L.S.
[Read September 10, 1936.]

The species of Silver Fish described in this paper is interesting in that it
constitutes the first record of a species of Nicoletia (subfamily Nicoletinae) from
Australia,

The subfamily Nicoletinae comprises the Lepismids in which the eyes are
wanting, the last segment of the labial palp with sensory papillae, and the
gonapophyses sword-like or clubbed. It includes a number of both scaled and
unsealed species, the first section of which contains a large number of species
belonging to a number of gencra, confined to the nests of ants and termites, In
the non-sealed section are the three genera, Trinemophora Schaetf., Nicoletia
Gerv. and Trinemura Silv., which may be separated by the following key :—

1. Exsertile vesicles present on segments VII or II-VIII; stylets present on II-IX or on
I[I-1X,

Exsertile vesicles absent; stylets only on VITI and TX. Trinemophora Schacft., 1897
2. Exsertile vesicles only on VII; stylets present on [JI-IX Trinemura Silv. 1908
Exsertile vesicles on segments III-VIIL; stylets on II-IX. Nicoletia Gerv.. 1842

Nicoletia australis, sp. n.
(Text fig. 1, A-Q.)

Description—Length of body, ¢ 9%, 8-9 mm.; antennae, half the length of
body ; cerci, three-fourths length of body. Eyes absent. Exsertile vesicles present
on sternites II-VIII, stylets on II-IX. Eyes absent. Median tail appendage
ventrally with a double series of setae. Legs as figured; claws, three (cf. fig. 1,
Q). Mandibles with five apical teeth and a series of short spines. Maxillary
palpi as in fig. 1, F. Labial palpi with apical segment globose with sensory
papillae. ‘Vhorax as wide as abdomen. Posterior margins of thoracic and
abdominal segments with a row of strong setae.

é second basal segment of antennae with an inner apophysis and a series of
strong setae; genital segments as in fig. 1, N.

@ anterior gonapophysis as in fig. 1, L; posterior gonapophyses subapically
with an inner series of closely placed curved hooks (cf. fig. 1, K. M.).

Locality —Several males and an immature female taken from a rotten log in
the National Park, Belair, South Australia, July 12, 1936 (J. S. W.), and several
more males and an adult female from the same log, July 19, 1936 (J. S. W. and
H.W.}.

EXPLANATION OF TEXT FIGURES.
1, A-Q. Nicoletia australis, sp. n.

Dorsal view of insect without cerci, 4. Second leg. @.
Cerci and median tail appendage of » Third leg. 2.

same. @. Posterior gonapophyses. @.
Basal segments and base of antennal Anterior gonapophysis. 9.

flagellum. 2. Tip of posterior gonapophysis. 9.
Mandible. $4. Segments VIII-X of male from below.

‘ another view. @. Basal segments of median tail append-
Maxillary palp. 2. age. a.

Labial palp. 2. Basal segments of cerci. 2.
First leg. ¢. Claws. @.

al

Gam c ep
Cn OZEMAK

113

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ere

an in

The

THE BOTANICAL FEATURES BETWEEN OODNADATTA AND
ERNABELLA IN THE MUSGRAVE RANGES, WITH A LOCALITY LIST
OF PLANTS FROM THE NORTH-WEST OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
IDENTIFIED BY MR. J, M. BLACK, A.L.S.

BY J. BURTON CLELAND, M.D.

Summary

During the Seventh Expedition, organised by the Board for Anthropological Research of the University of Adelaide, in
conjunction with the South Australian Museum, for the study of the Australian aborigine, to Ernabella in the Musgrave
Ranges, opportunity was taken as circumstances permitted to make notes on the flora of the country visited. In addition
to a study of’ the uses made by the natives of the plants in the Musgrave Ranges, and their names for these, and the
general ecological relationship of the natives to the vegetation, notes on the various plants seen were taken during each
mile of the journey there and on part of the way back. Ernabella itself is in the eastern part of the Musgrave Ranges,
nearly 300 miles north of west of Oodnadatta. Travel was by motorcar and motor lorries, the outward route being the
southern one. This ran for about 75 miles, more or less, along the southern branch of the Neales Creek. After
descending from a gibber tableland, a branch of Arkaringa Creek was crossed at 87 miles. After leaving Wellbourne Hill
Station (Mr. Giles) at 100 miles, the track passed north-west to Wantipella Swamp (159 miles), on which is situated
Indulkana hut. It there passes west to Mount Chandler Station (175 miles) and on to Moorilyanna Rocks and Station
(193 miles). From here the route is again north-west through Echo Hill (219 miles), across Tietkens’ Birthday Creek
(270 miles), and on to Ermabella in Glen Ferdinand (277 miles). The return journey left this track a few miles west of
Indulkana, passing more or less east, or even north-east at times, through Granite Downs (about 20 miles from Mount
Chandler and 158 from Oodnadatta) to Lambinna (107 miles from Oodnadatta) on the Alberga, Todmorden Station (60
miles from Oodnadatta) where the Alberga is again crossed, and then over extensive plains to Oodnadatta.

1l4

THE BOTANICAL FEATURES BETWEEN OODNADATTA AND ERNABELLA
IN THE MUSGRAVE RANGES, WITH A LOCALITY LIST OF PLANTS FROM
THE NORTH-WEST OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA IDENTIFIED BY
MR. J. M. BLACK, A.LS.

By J. Burron Creranp, M.D.
[Read September 10, 1936.}

During the Seventh Expedition, organised by the Board for Anthropological
Research of the University of Adelaide, in conjunction with the South Australian
Museum, for the study of the Australian aborigine, to Ernabella in the Mus-
grave Ranges, opportunity was taken as circumstances permitted to make notes
on the flora of the country visited. In addition to a study of! the uses made hy
the natives of the plants in the Musgrave Ranges, and their names for these, and
the general ecological relationship of the natives to the vegetation, notes on the
various plants seen were taken during each mile of the journey there and on part
of the way back. Ernabella itself is in the easterm part of the Musgrave Ranges,
nearly 300 miles north of west of Oodnadatta. Travel was by motor car and
motor lorries, the outward route being the southern one. This ran for about
75 miles, more or less, along the southern branch of the Neales Creck. After
descending from a gibber tableland, a branch of Arkaringa Creek was crossed at
87 miles. After leaving Wellbourne Hill Station (Mr. Giles) at 100 miles, the
track passed north-west to Wantipella Swamp (159 miles), on which is situated
Indulkana hut. It there passes west to Mount Chandler Station (175 miles) and
on to Moorilyanna Rocks and Station (193 miles). From here the route is again
north-west through Echo Hill (219 miles), across Tietkens’ Birthday Creek (270

miles), and on to Ernabella in Glen Ferdinand (277 miles). The return journey
left this track a few miles west of Indulkana, passing more or less east, or even
north-cast at times, through Granite Downs (about 20 miles from Mount Chandler
and 158 from Oodnadatta) to lambinna (107 miles from Oodnadatta) on the
Alberga, Todmorden Station (60 miles from Oodnadatta) where the Alberga is
again crossed, and then over extensive plains to Oodnadatta.

The country between Oodnadatta on the one hand, and Indulkana and Granite
Downs on the other, is essentially what is known as “tableland” with frequent
gibber plains and rises and scattered table-top hills. It is crossed at intervals by
broad, usually dry, watercourses, near which may be flood plains. The country
gradually rises as one proceeds eastwards to over 1,000 feet above Oodnadatta,
which itself is 397 feet above the sea. This gradual rise continues towards the
Musgrave Ranges, where the plains may be nearly 2,000 feet above Oodnadatia’s
level. Mulga scrub oceturs frequently between the gibber plains or scattered
sparsely over them, Along the watercourses, for 50 miles from Oodnadatta,
gidya (Acacia Cambagei) is met with. Near Oodnadatta the coolebah or box
(ucalypius miicrotheca) is found on the flats near the creek, but further cast
Red Gums (Ff. rostrata) are morc usually in the creek beds.

The gibbers themselves vary in size, those in any one area being all of
approximate size, This may be from an inch or less to rocks nearly the size of
an infant’s head. The smaller ones become flat and polished (the desert glaze)
and may be closely set as in a pavement, covcring more than half of the surface,
or the stones may be more scattered, The gibber areas may he almost quite devoid
of shrubs or show scaitered groups of ‘nulga (Acacia ancura) or occasional

115

shrubs of dead finish (A. tetragonophylla) or species of Cassia and Eremophila.
The most interesting features of the gibber “tablelands” are the “crab-holes,”
slight depressions, generally about the size of a dinner-table, which may be
numerous, only a few yards separating them, widely scattered or almost absent.
The “crab-holes” are devoid of gibbers, and after rain become boggy and spongy
and may hold water. In these a wealth of ephemeral plants spring up after rains
and, as such had recently fallen, many were already in flower at the time of our
visit, From place to place the species vary. ‘Thus about 20 miles east of Oodna-
datta were noted the grasses Asirebla pectinata (Mitchell Grass), Traqus
racemosus, and Iseilema vaginiflora; Frankenia planifolia, F, flabellata and
F. serpyllifolia, Lotus australis var. parviflorus, Pimelea simplex, Goodenia
subintegra, Centipeda thespidioides, Helichrysum podolepideum, Senecio Gregorit
and other composites.

A few miles further on were seen Triglochin calcitrapa, nardoo (Marsilea.
hirsuta) and the leaves of a Crinum, In other crab-holes, species of Bassia
(B. uniflora, B. lanicuspis, B. intricata, B. divaricata and B. Blackiana), Mala-
cocera tricornis, species of Kochia (K. ertantha, K. spongiocarpa, K. ciliata and
K. brachyptera), and of Atriplex (A. vesicarium, A. Quinii, A. fissivalve, A. hali-
moides var. conduplicatum and A. spongiosum) predominated, or crucifers .
(Blennodia nasturtioides, Lepidium oxytrichum and Stenopetalwm lineare var.
canescens) occurred,

PLAINS BETWEEN MoorILyYANNA AND ERNABELLA.

The 80 miles between Moorilyanna and Ernabella is essentially mulga scrub,
at times dense but mostly open, with a break at 25 miles from Moorilyanna when
the track passes through a gorge in Echo Hill and with occasional sandy patches.
As Ernabella is approached, outlying hills and rocks and watercourses from the
Musgrave Ranges are met with. The mulga scrub consists chiefly of Acacia aneura,
with some examples of the broad-leafed var. latifolia and witchetty bush
(A. Kempiana) with occasional small trees and shrubs such as the needle bush
(Hakea leucoptera), corkwood (H, lorea), a shrubby Grevillea, the prickly Acacia
Victoriae, dead-finish, Pittosporwm and Eremophila, spp. Beneath these were
dead looking tufts of mulga grass (Aristida), and under-shrubs of Kochia and
Bassia.

At Echo Hill, amongst the rocks, grew the fern Notholaena, Amaranthus,
Parietaria debilis, Erodium cygnorum, crucifers, Oxalis, Chenopodium, blood-
wood, native fig, Tecoma, the everlasting Myriocephalus Stuartii and Sarcostemma
with its snake-like branches. On a flat almost exactly half-way across giant salt-
bush and samphire grew, and on the surrounding sandy rises, Myriocephalus,
Calandrinia, Salsola Kali, the dainty crucifer Menkea sphaerocarpa, the cucumber
Melothria, Pittosporum, Grevillea and the mallee Eucalyptus oleosa. Eucalyptus
intertexta grew on the flat of a watercourse near Ernabella.

ERNABELLA AND ITs SURROUNDINGS,

i Ernabella itself is situated in a usually dry watercourse, the Ernabella or
Ferdinand Creek, in the picturesque Glen Ferdinand, a more or less flat valley
hemmed in by tall and rugged Triodia-covered sloping mountain masses. These
flat valleys, resembling those in the MacDonnell Ranges, are characteristic also
of the Musgrave Ranges, at least of the eastern half seen by the expedition, They
wind in and out among the hills which rise abruptly from the plain without any
noticeable rise or heaps of debris at the junction and are traversed by water-
courses. Glen Ferdinand itself is several miles long, narrow in places, but a

116

quarter of a mile or more in others. Interspersed along the sides or towards the
centre are knolls and low hills of jumbled rocks, succeeded further back by moun-
tains such as Mount Ferdinand. The vegetation can be divided up into that of
these plains or glens, of the watercourses, of the rocky knolls and of the moun-
tain slopes.

Lhe Plains or Glens are open stretches with widely seperated shrubs and
small trees of witchetty bush (Acacia Kempeana), the corkwoods Hakea lorea
and H, Iveryi and Acacia Victoriae, with occasional herbs such as Swainsona
villosa. Abutting on the creek to the east was an extensive flat of giant saltbush
(Atriplex nummularium) and similar flats, holding water after rains and known
as swamps, were met with occupying some acres in extent between Ernabella and
Upsan Downs (23 miles east) and Erliwanjawanja Rock Hole (37 miles east)
along the southern side of the ranges. On the road to the last-named waterhole,
on the plains’ between outliers af the ranges, the vegetation changed somewhat
from time to time. Thus mulga (Acacia aneura), scattered or moderately dense,
was a feature of some parts, ironwood (A. estropiolata) with its characteristic
change of foliage from the juvenile to the adult state of others, whilst open spaces
were sometimes occupied by small species of Atriplex or of Kochia. An occasional
_Pittosporum phillyraeoides or dead tinish (A. tetragonophylia) also occurred.
Nicotiana Gossei, a species chewed by the natives, grew round Erliwanjawanja
Rock Hole.

Ernabella Creek and other similar Watercourses grew picturesque examples
of red gums (Eucalyptus rostrata), the trunks often as white as those of
FE. papuana, and the sucker leaves broader and their stems more quadrangular
than is the case near Adelaide. Two or three cxamples of another species of
Eucalyptus (2. bicolor var. tanthophylla), with spreading, scrambling branches,
also grew near Ernabella, Black Teatree (Melaleuca monticola), with dark rough
bark, and M. glomerata, with papery bark grew near or in the bed with clumps
of sedges (Cyperus vaginatus)—the rushes of the explorers—and the herb
Samolus repens, here with small pink flowers, In the beds of the creeks, water
is held up in places as at Ernabella itself. The heads are in moutiiain ravines,
and where the rock surfaces are suitable pools of water may be found for months
after rain. Two such rockholes were visited lying 8 and 10 miles north of
Ernabella, close to the track through the east end of the Musgraves to their
northern aspect, and so round to Opperrinna, These and a ravine a few miles
west of Ernabclla showed an abundance of plants, mostly herbaceous. These
included Nicotiana excelsior, whose leaves arc chewed by the natives as a narcotic,
which was coming up in abundance: it has smooth, glossy leaves, fragrant flowers,
and onc example seen was a handsome plant about 3 fect 6 inches high and several
feet wide, a mass of white blooms. Other nnder-shrubs and herbs scen included
Stemadia viscosa, Pterocaulon Sphacelatum, Trichodesma ceylanicum, the
introduced sow thistles Sonchus oleraceus and S. asper (the former quite
common), several Malvaceae (Sida virgata var. phacotricha and Ilibiscus Sturtii),
Trichimium obovatum, the fern (rymnogramme Reynoldsii (much larger than its
minute southern relative G, leptophylla), a white-flowered herbaceous heliotrope
(Cynoglossum australe var. Drummondii), the minute Crassula Sieberiana, the
prickly Solanum petruphilum, and a few large plants of the handsome prickly
Acacia strongylophylla,

The Boulder-strewn Knolls and Lower Hills—Scattered round the bases of
the mountain sides or sometimes situated as isolated units in the adjacent plains
were small knolls, hills or ridges covered with large tumbled gneissic boulders.
In the decomposed soil hetween these grew a number of shrubs, under-shrubs and
herbs. The shrubs included dead-finish (A. tetragonophylla), A. Kempeana, mulga

1i7

which was abundant on some low hills and absent in other places, native cypress
pine (Callitris glauca), also abundant on some hills and rare or absent on others
but not growing with the mulga, the scrambling native fig (Ficus platypoda),
sometimes Hakea lorca, Santalum lanceolatum in places, Dodonaea petiolaris, a
few plants of Rhagodia spinescens, occasionally giant salt-bush (Atriplex nummu-
larium) (a wanderer from the society of this in the adjacent plain), Cassia, the
green-flowered Eremophila serrulata, the fuchsia-flowered HE. longifolia, and often
near the base or extending on to the adjacent plain the picturesque Pittosporum
phillyreoides. The very prickly Solanugn petrophila, with handsome large blue
flowers, was also common, but S. ellipticum, the fruit of which is eaten, was rare.
The snake-like branches of Sarcostenuma australe formed intricately-twined
masses. More lowly plants included the fern, Notholaena Brownti, exceedingly
common in rock crevices, Erodium cygnorum with blue or pink flowers, Amaran-
thus Mitchellii sometimes less than an inch high, Isotoma petraea very abundant
in places and rarely extending on to the adjacent flats, Parietaria debilis in shady
spots moistened by recent rains, a few plants of the pea Glycine clandestina, rarely
Justicia procumbens, Luphorbia Drummondii and sometimes £. australis, and
scattered grasses such as kangaroo grass (Themeda australis), Digitaria Brownn
(Panicum leucophaem), Paspalidium gracile, etc.

The higher Hills and Mountains —The higher hills and motmtain masses have
steeply sloping sides covered with rocks and pale coloured porcupine grass
(Triodia aristata) in about equal amounts. At their bases, where more water has
collected, the Zriedia clumps may reach 2 fect 6 inches in, height and 4 feet in
breadth. Whilst practically the only vegetation in the exposed areas is the 7riodia,
in the ravines and lower portions a few other plants are to be found, the species
merging into those of the rocky knolls and of the heads of the streams. Figs may
scramble over the rocks even at some considerable height, Tecoma doratoxylon
(used for spears) grows usually near the bases, bloodwoods (FE. terminalis)
straggle round the base and lower slopes of some hills, as does Pittosporum,
Loranthus Miguelii, with yellowish brown leaves, is common on the bloodwood.
The white-flowered Heliotropium asperrimum is often found in the lower parts
between the Triodia, Occasionally Sturt’s desert rose (Gossypium Sturtii) also
was found on the lower slopes as well as Eremophila longifolia wath fuchsia-like
flowers, Solanum petrophila (very prickly) and rarely the harsh-leaved Wedelia.

Tast or PLANTS COLLECTED IN THE NorTu-EAst or Soutt AUSTRALIA.

(Identifications made or confirmed by Mr. J. M. Black. The records
include some obtained on previous expeditions. )

FILICALES !—

Cheilanthes tenuifolia Swartz, Erliwanjawanja.

Natholaena Brownii Desv. Echo Hill, Ernabella.

Gymnogramme Reynodlsi F. v. M. Amongst granitic rocks, rockholes,

8 and 10 miles north of Ernabella.

Marsilia hirsuta R. Br, 22 miles west of Oodnadatta,

M. Drummondii R. Br. Ross Waterhole, on the Macumba, near Oodnadatta.
PINACEAE :-—

Callitris glauca R. Br. , Ernabella, Erliwanjawanja.

TYPILACEAE :-—

Typha augustifolia L. Uamilton Bore.
POTAMOGETONACEAE :-—

Potamogeton sp. Dam at Oodnadatta.
SCHEUCH ZERIACEAE :-—

Triglochin calcitrapa Hook. 22 miles west of Oodnadatta.

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GRAMINEAE !—

Pollinia fulva (R. Br.) Benth. Ross Waterhole, Hamilton Bore.

Andropogon exaltatus R. Br. Ernabella, rockhole 10 miles north of Ernabella.

Themeda triandra Forsk. Ernabella,

fseilema vaginiflora Domin. 16 miles west and north-west of Oodnadatta.

I. actinostachys Domin. Abminga.

Tragus racemosus (L.) Haller. William Creek (Dec.), 16 miles west of
Oodnadatta, Ross Waterhole.

Eriochloa punctata (L.) Hamilt. Ross Waterhole, Hamilton Bore.

E. punctata var. acrotricha Benth. (? E. pseudo-acrotricha Hubb.) 16 miles
west of Oodnadatta, Ross Waterhole,

Digitaria Brownti (R. et S.) Hughes (Panicum leucophaeum). Echo Hill,
between Moorilyanna and Ernabella, Ernabella.

D. coenicola (F. vy. M.) Hughes. Blood Creek.

Paspalidium gracile (R. Br.) Hughes. Ernabella (also dwarf form), Ross
Waterhole.

Panicum decompositum R. Br. Edward Creek, Gypsum Bore (50 miles
west of Oodnadatta), also 16 miles west.

Spinifex paradoxus (R. Br.) Benth. Ross Waterhole, Hamilton Bore,

Aristida arenaria Gaudich. Ernabella, 15 miles west of Oodnadatta, Ross
Waterhole,

A. echinata Henr. var. nitidula Henr, Ernabella and rockhole, 10 miles north,

A. anthoxanthoides (Domin.) Henr. 15 and 20 milcs west of Oodnadatta.

Stipa nitida S. et H. North of Marrce; north of Irrapatana.

Sporobolus actinocladus F. v. M. QOodnadatta,

Eriachne aristidea F. v. M. Ross Waterhole,

E. ovata Nees. Ross Waterhole.

£. ovata var. pallida Benth, Ross Waterhole,

Pappophorum nigricans R. Br. Ernabella, Hamilton Bore, Blood Creek.

P. avenaceum Lindl. Curdinurka.

Triraphis mollis R. Br. William Creek, Irrapatana.

Triodia aristata J. M. Black. Half-way between Moorilyanna and Ernabella,
Ernabella and rockhole 10 miles north.

Eragrostis interrupta (Lamk.) Beauv. var. densiflora Black. Ross Water-
hole.

E. pilosa (L.) Beauv. Erliwanjawanja, Ross Waterhole, Hamilton Bore,

F. concinna Steud. Ross Waterhole.

E. speciosa Steud. Ross Waterhole,

£. Browni Nees. William Creep, north of Irrapatana.

E. minor Host. William Creek. (Dec.).

E. setifolia Nees, Between Granite Downs and Lambinna, 20 miles west of
Oodnadatta, north of Marrec, Wangiana (erect), Ross Waterhole,
Blood Creek.

£, Dielsti Pilger. North of Marree, Irrapatana (prostrate), Coward Springs,

15 miles north of Oodnadatta, Ross Waterhole.

E., sp. nov. ? Ross Waterhole.

Asirebla pectinata F. v. M. 16 miles west and 15 miles north-west of
Oodnadatta.

Dactyloctenium radulans (R. Br.) Beauv. Ross Waterhole.

CYPERACEAE :—

Cyperus distachyus All, Bore at Marree (Dec.),

C. squarrosus (1..). Ross Waterhole.

C. vaginatus R. Br. Ernabella and rockhole 10 miles north, Hamilton Bore.

119

C. differmis L. Ross Waterhole.

C. Iria L. Ross Waterhole.

C. rotundus L. (apparently). Erliwanjawanja.

C. bulbosus Vahl. (probably). Rockhole 8 miles north of Ernabella.
Scirpus cernuus Vahl. Ross Waterhole.

JUNCACEAE :—

Juncus polyanthemus Buch. Ross Waterhole.
MorACcEAE :-—

Ficus platypoda A. Cunn. Erliwanjawanja.
URTICACEAE :—

Parietaria debilis G. Forst. Echo Hill between Moorilyanna and Ernabella,
Erliwanjawanja, Ernabella.
PROTEACEAE :—

Hakea lorea R. Br. or H. Ivoryi Bailey. Ernabella, Erliwanjawanja.

H. Ivoryi Bailey. Ernabella (leaves, 1°5 mm. diameter), fruit curved at

summit.

Grevillea nematophylla F. vy. M. Ernabella, between Moorilyanna and

Ernabella.
SANTALACEAE :-—
Santalum lanceolatum R. Br. (broad-leafed form). LErnabella.
LorANTHACEAE :—
Loranthus Preissii Mig. On dead finish (Acacia telragonophylla ) at Anna
Creek.
L. Miquelii Lehm. On bloodwood (E. terminalis). Ernabella.
L. Maidenii Blakeley. Ross Waterhole.
POLYGONACEAE :—
Rumex crystallinus Lange. Beresford.
Polygonum plebejum R. Br. Gypsum Bore (50 miles west of Oodnadatta).
CHENOPODIACEAE -—
Rhagodia spinescens R. Br. Amongst rocks, Ernabella.
Rh. spinescens var. deltophylla F. v. M. Blood Creek.
’ Rh. nutans R. Br. Blood Creek.
Chenopodium pumilio R. Br. Rockhole 10 miles north of Ernabella,
Ernabella.

Ch. melanocarpum Black. Ernabella, Esliwanjawanja.

Ch. cristatum F.v. M. Between Ernabella and Moorilyanna.

Chenopodium Blackianum Aellen (Dysphama littoralis R. Br.). Erliwanja-

wanja, Ross Waterhole, Hamilton Bore (sweet-scented).

Atriplex nummulariwn Lindl. Giant saltbush, 15 miles north-west of
Oodnadatta, Ernabella on flat and amongst rocks, near Upsan Downs
(Musgrave Ranges), half-way between Moorilyanna and Ernabella;
aberrant (?) form, 10 miles north of Oodnadatta.

_ angulatum Benth. Curdimurka,

. velutinellum F, v. M. Ross Waterhole.
vesicarium lew. Bladder saltbush. Curdimurka, 20 miles and
50 miles (Gypsum Bore) west of Oodnadatta, between Moorilyanna and
Ernabella (apparently bladderless form).

A. Quinii F. v. M. 20 miles and 50 miles (Gypsum Bore) west of Oodnadatta.

A. fissivalve F. v. M. 20 miles west of Oodnadatta.

A. rhagodioides F. vy. M. Coward Springs.

A. Muelleri Benth. (A. varivm Ewart and Davies, if this is more than a

form). Hamilton Bore.

Ds os os

120

A. lobativalve F. v. M.. Macumba River.

A. limbatum Benth. William Creek, Ross Waterhole, Hamilton Bore.

A. halimoides Lindl. Curdimurka, Strangways Springs, Gypsum Bore
(50 miles west of OQodnadatta).

A, halimoides var. conduplicatum F. v. M. et Tate. 15 miles north-west of
Oodnadatta.

A. spongiosum F. vy. M. Strangways Springs, Coward Springs, 20 miles west
of Oodnadatta, half-way between Moorilyanna and Ernabella.

Bassia uniflora (R. Br.) F. v. M. 15 miles north-west of Oodnadatta,

Hamilton Bore.
. bicornis (Lindl.) F. v. M. Ross Waterhole.
. patenticuspis R. H. Anders. Oodnadatta District or between here and
Alice Springs,

. danicuspis F. v. M. 20 miles west of Oodnadatta.

. miricata R. H. Anders. 20 miles west of Oodnadatta.

. divaricata (R. Br.) F. v. M. 15 miles north-west of Oodnadatta.

. Blackiana Ising. 20 miles west of Oodnadatta.

Matacocera tricornis (Benth.) R. H. Anders. 15 miles north-west of
Oodnadatta.

Kochia pyramidata Benth. Alberrie Creek (22 miles north-west of Oodna-
datta).

K, Sih F.v. M. 20 miles west of Oodnadatta.

Aoods wh

K. Georgei Diels. Near Upsan Downs (Musgrave Ranges).
K, aphylla R. Br. Cotton bush. 15 miles north-west of Oodnadatta.

PPS

. Spongiocarpa I’, v. M. 20 miles west of Oodnadatta.
. ciliata F. v. M, 15 miles north-west of Oodnadatta.
K, brachyptera F. v. M. (Bassia brachyptera R. H, Anders.). 20 miles west
of Oodnadatta.
Babbagia dipterocarpa F. v. M. Strangways Springs.
B. sp. Rust on leaves. 20 miles west of Oodnadatta.
Salsola Kali 1... Between Moorilyanna and Ernabella, Ross Waterhole.
Thelkeldia inchoata J. M. Black. Gypsum Bore (50 miles west of Qodna-
datta).
Arthrocnemium halocnemoides Nees. Beresford, Coward Springs.
A, halocnemoides var. pergranulatum Black. Beresford, Coward Springs.
AMARANTACEAE !—
Trichinium obovatum Gaudich. Rockhole, 8 miles worth of LErnabella,
Abminga.
T. exaltatum (Nees) Benth, Abminga.
TL. helipteroides . v. M. var. minor ), M. Black. Abminga.
T. nobile Lindl. 20 miles west of Oodnadatta.
T. corymbosum Gaudich. Abminga.
Amaranthus Mitchellii Benth, Echo Flill, amongst granite rocks at Ernabella.
Alternanthera angustifolia R. Br. 22 miles west of Oodnadatta.
AIZOACEAE :—
Tetragonia expansa Murr, Gypsum Lore, 5. Neales, 50 miles west of
Oodnadatta.
Guania septifraga Iv. M. (?). South of William Creek.
Gunniopsis sygophylloides (F. v. M.) Maid. et Betche. 1£5 miles west of
Oodnadatta, Alberrie, Curdimurka.
G. quadrifida (F. v. M.) Pax. William Creek.
Glinus loteides Loefl. Beresford, Ross Waterhole, Oodnadatta.
G, spergula (L.) Pax. Ross Waterhole.

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PoRTULACACEAE :-—
Portulaca oleracea L. Gypsum Bore, S. Neales, 50 miles west of Oodnadatta,
Ross Waterhole (Macumba).
Calandrinia volubilis Benth. TErnabella and Rockhole 10 miles north.
C. sp. Between Echo Hill and Ernabella.
C. piychosperma F. v. M. Ross Waterhole.
C. stagnensis J. M. Black. Ross Waterhole.

RANUNCULACEAE :—
Ranunculus parviflorus L. 22 miles west of Oodnadatta, Beresford.

CAPPARIDACEAE !—
Polanisia tiscosa (L.) DC. Ernabella, Ross Waterhole.
CRUCIFERAE :—

Blennodia trisecta (F. v. M.) Benth. Wangianna.

B. nasturtioides (I. v. M.) Benth. 15 miles west of Oodnadatta.

B. canescens R. Br. Half-way between Moorilyanna and Ernabella, Irra-
patana.

Menkea sphaerocarpa F. v. M. Half-way between Moorilyanna and Erna-
bella.

Lepidium rotundum DC, Near Lambinna, Curdimurka, Abminga.

L. oxytrichum Sprague. Ernabella, 15 and 22 miles north-west of Oodna-
datta; S. Neales, 75 miles west of Oodnadatta; Echo Hill, between
Moorilyanna and Ernabella; Gregg’s Camp.

L, Muelleri-Ferdinandt Thell. Granite Downs, 100 miles west of Oodna-
datta, Ross Waterhole.

L. pseudo-ruderale Thell. (apparently). Ernabella.

Hutchinsia eremaea J. M. Black. Wangianna, north of Marree.

Stenopetaluim velutinum F.v. M. Lambinna, Ernabella.

S. lmeare R. Br. var. canescens Benth. 15 miles north-west of Oodnadatta,
Grege’s Camp (S. Neales, 75 miles west of Oodnadatta), between
Moorilyanna and Ernabella.

S. nutans F.v. M. Abminga.

S. sphaerocarpum F. vy. M. Ernabella.

CRASSULACEAE !—
Crassula Steberiana (Schultes) Ostenf., Erliwanjawanja; rockhole 8 miles
north of Ernabella.

PITTOSPORACEAE -—~
Pittosporum phillyreoides DC. Half-way between Moorilyanna and
Ernabella.

LEGUMINOSAE -—
Acacia Victoriae Benth. FErnabella, Hamilton Bore.
. ligulata A. Cunn. Ernabella, Ross Waterhole (Macumba).
._ strongylophylla F. v. M. Rockholes, Ernabella,
. tetragonophvlla F. v. M. Ernabella.
. estrophiolata F. v. M. Ernabella.
A. coriacea DC. Ross Waterhole,
. stenophvlla A. Cunn. Oodnadatta, Ross Waterhole.
. Cambaget R. T. Baker (Gidya). Near Oodnadatta, Abminga.,
A. Oswaldit F. v. M. S. Neales at 50 miles west of Qodnadatta, 15 miles
north-west of Oodnadatta.
. Kempeana VY. v. M. Ernabella.,
ancura F. v. M. Erliwanjawanja, between Ernabella and Echo Hill,
T.ambinna.

PS AS AS aS

A AR

aS os

122

A, aneura F. v. M. var. latifolia J. M. Black. Between Ernabella and
Moorilyanna.

A. brachystachya Benth. Gypsurn Bore (50 miles west of Oodnadatta),
Erliwanjawanja.

A. cyperophylla F. v. M. (Red Mulga). Hamilton Bore.

Cassia pleurocarpa F. v. M. Hamilton Bore.

C. Sturtii R. Br. Blood Creek.

C. artemesioides Gaudich. Ernabella.

Crotalaria Milchella Benth. Ilamilton Bore.

C. dissitiflora Benth. William Creek, Ross Waterhole, Hamilton Bore.

Trigonella suavissima Lindl. Wangianna, Beresford.

Lotus australis Andr. var. parviflorus Benth, 22 miles west of Oodnadatta.

(Near) Indigofera Basedowti Pritz. (I. longibractea J. M. Black).
Ernabella.

Psoralea patens Lindl. Beresford, Irrapatana, 15 miles west of Oodnadatta,
rockhole 10 miles north of Ernabella, Ross Waterhole.

Swainsona villosa }, M. Black. Between Echo Hill and Ernabella, rnabella
and rockhole 10 miles north, Erliwanjawanja.

S. oroboides F. v. M. Beresford.

S. campylantha F. vy. M. Edward Creek, Wangianna.

S. stipularis F. v. M. (brick red or orange red flowers), Curdimurka.,

S. phacoides Benth. Irrapatana.

Aeschynomene indica L. Ross Waterhole.

GERANIACEAE ~~
Erodium cygnorum Nees. Ernabella to Echo Hill. Petals pink or blue.
Some of the pink forms have upper leaves divided, glandular hairs and
shorter awns.
OX ALTDACEAE :—
Oxalis corniculata L. Ernabella.

ZYGOPILYLLACEAE :—
Zygophyllum Billardieri DC. Ernabella.
Z. ammophilum EF. v. M. (probably). Amongst granite rocks, Ernabella.
Z. iodocarpum F. v. M. Gypsum Bore (50 miles west of Oodnadatta).
Z. Howitii F. vy. M. Irrapatana.
Z., sp. Ross Waterhole.
Tribulus terrestris L. Ernabella.
EUPHORBIACEAE -—~
Euphorbia australis Boiss. Amongst granite rocks, Ernabella,
E. Drummondii Boiss. Ernabella, Blood Creek.
E. eremophila A. Cunn. Ernabella.
Phyllanthus lacunarius F. v. M, Uamilton Bore.
SAPINDACEAE ©» -
Dodonaea petiolaris T. v. M. Ernabella.
MAaLvaAcEAE :—
Malvastrum spicatum (1..) A. Gray. Blood Creek.
Plagianthus glomeratus (Hook.) Benth. Coward Springs.
Sida corrugata Lindl. var. trichopoda Benth, [Edward Creek,
‘S. intricata F. v. M. Oodnadatta, Ross Waterhole, Hamilton Bore.
S. virgata Hook. var. phacotricha (I. v. M.) Benth. Erliwanjawanja, rock-
hole 10 miles north of Ernabella.
Abutilon leucopetalum F. v. M. Ernabella. 20 miles west of Oodnadatta.
A, otocarpum F.v. M. Hamilton Bore.

123

A, Frasert Hook. Edward Creek, Anna Creek.

A, halophilum F. v. M. 20 miles west of Oodnadatta.

Hibiscus brachychlaenus F.v. M. Ernabella.

HT, Sturtu. Hook. (cleistogamous form). Ernabella, and rockhole 8 miles
north. :

Gossypium Sturtu F. v. M. Amongst rocks, Ernabella.

FRANKENIACEAE :—

Frankenia planifolia Sprague et Summerhayes. 16 and 22 miles west of
Oodnadatta.

F, flabellata Sprague. 22 miles west of Oodnadatta.

F. serpyllifolia Lindl. 15 miles north-west of Oodnadatta, Hamilton Bore.

f. latior Summerhayes. Abminga.

THYMELAEACEAE -—

Pimelea microcephala R. Br. 20 miles west of Oodnadatta, Gypsum Bore
(50 miles west of Oodnadatta).
P. simplex F. v. M. 5 miles north of Marree, 20 miles west of Oodnadatta.

LYTHRACEAE :—
Ammania multiflora Roxb. Ross Waterhole.

MYRTACEAE -—

Melaleuca linophylla F. v. M. 10 miles north of Ernabella.

M. monticola J. M. Black. Ernabella, and 16 miles south-west.

M. glomerata F. v. M. 16 miles south-west of Ernabella,

Eucalyptus intertexta R. T. Baker. (A tall box gum with “stocking” base.)
On watercourse 16 miles south-west of Ernabella, Oodnadatta,

. bicolor A. Cunn, var. ranthophylla Blakeley. A spreading tree with rough
bark hanging in shreds and clean branches. In watercourse, Ernabella.

. microtheca Maiden. Gypsum Bore (50 miles west of Oodnadatta).

. oleosa F. v. M. Arkaringa Creek, 85 miles west of Oodnadatta, half-way
between Moorilyanna and Ernabella, Erliwanjawanja.

. rostrata Schl. Ernabella, Ross Waterhole, Hamilton Bore.

. terminalis F. v. M. or E. dichromophloia. Between Moorilyanna and
Ernabella. “I think these are a small-fruited form of Z. terminalis, as
shown in Maiden’s illustration. E. dichromophloia has small, very
smooth fruits with thin walls” (J. M. B.).

HLALORRUAGIDACEAE :-—
Halorrhagis heteraphylla Brongn. Rockhole 10 miles north of Ernabella,
Hamilton Bore.
Myriophalldm verrucosum Lindl, Erliwanjawanja, Ross Waterhole, Hamil-
ton Bore.

ty

nh ty ty

UMBELLIFERAE :—
Hydrocotyle trachycarpa F. v. M. Ernabella and rockhole 8 miles north.
Didiscus, probably D. glaucifolius F. v. M. Rockhole 8 miles north of Erna-
bella (probably), 40 miles north of Beresford.
Daucus glochidiatus (labill.) Fischer, Mey et Ave-lall, Trnabella and
rockhole 8 miles north.
PRIMULACEAE :-—
Samolus repens (Forst.) Pers. Ernabella (flowers pink).

CONVOLVULACEAE ‘—
Ipomoea Muelleri Benth. Ross Waterhole.
Convolvulus erubescens Sims. Rockhole 10 miles north of Ernabella,

124

ASCLEPIADACEAE -—
Sarcostemma australe R. Br. Used for sores by natives and whites. Ernabella.

CONVOLVULACEAE :—
Convolvulus erubescens Sims.

BorraGINACEAR -—
Ileliotropium europaeum L. Gypsum Bore (50 miles west of Oodnadatta).
H., asperrimwum R. Br. Ernabella.
Near H. apiculatum Mey. Ross Waterholc.
Trichodesma zeylanicum (Burm,) R. Br. Erliwanjawanja,
Cynoglossutm australe R. Br. var. Drummondu Brand, Ernabella.

VERBENACEAE -—
Verbena officinalis L. Ross Waterhole.

LABIATAE :-—
Teucrium raccmosum R. Br. Ross Waterhole.
Plectranthus parviflorus Ilenckel. Rockhole 8 miles north of Ernabella.
Prostanthera striatiflora F. v. M. Erliwanjawanja.

SOLANACEAE -—

Solanum petrophilum F. vy. M. (Yellow berries.) Amongst rocks, Erna-
bella; rockhole 10 miles north of Ernabella,

S. cllipticum R. Br. Among rocks at Ernabella, Abminga.

Nicotiana excelsior J. M. Black. Near Ernabella.

N. Gossei Domin. Erliwanjawanja.

Nicotiana near N. velutina Wheeler. 15 miles north-west of Oodnadatta;
S. Neales, 50 miles west of Oodnadatta; between Ernabella and [cho
Hill; Ernabella.

Duboisia Hopwood F. vy. M. 20 miles south of Ernabella.

SEROPH ULARTACEAE !-—
Stemodia viscosa Roxb. Rockholes 8 and 10 miles north of Ernahetla.
Limosella Curdieana F. v. M. Beresford.
Glossostigma spathulatum Wight et Arn. Ross Waterhole.

BIGNONIACEAE :—
Tecoma doratoxylon J. M. Black. Ernabella.

ACANTHACEAE -—
Justicia procumbens L, Trnabella.

MYoOPoRACEAE :—

Eremophila Sturtii R. Br. Upsan Downs Station (Musgrave Ranges).
E. Latrobei F. v. M. Echo ITill, between Moorilyanna and Ernabella.

. longifolia (R. Br.) F. v. M. Ernabella.

_ rotundifolia F. v. M.S. Neales, 30 miles west of Oodnadatta.

. Hreelingii F, v. M. 20 miles west of Oodnadatta, Gregg’s Camp (5. Neales,
75 miles west of Oodnadatta), Echo Ifill (between Moorilyanna and
Ernabella), Ernabella, Abminga.

_ Duttonii F. v. M. Arkaringa Creek (90 miles west of Oodnadatta).

_ serrulata (A. Cunn.) Druce. FErnabella.

_calycina S. Moore. Between Moorilyanna and Ernabella,

_ neglecta J. M. Black. S. Neales (50 miles west of Oodnadatta).

. MacDonnell: F. v. M. Ross Waterhole.

. MacDonnellii var. glabriuscula J. M. Black. Hamilton Bore.

trom hy

125

PLANTAGINACEAE :—
Plantago varia R. Br. 15 miles west of Oodnadatta, Gypsum Bore (50 miles
west), and between there and Welbourn Hill.
RUBIACEAE :—
Synaptantha tillaeacea (I. v. M.) Hook. f. Ross Waterhole, Abminga.
Plectronia latifolia (F. v. M.) Benth. et Hook. (?) Near Lambinna.
CUCURBITACEAE :—
Melothria maderaspatana (L.) Cogn. Ernabella.
CAMPANULACEAE -—
Wahlenbergia, sp. (flowers white or blue, sometimes on the same plant).
Ross Waterhole.
Tsotoma petraea F. v. M. Ernabella.
GOODENIACEAE :—
Goodenia lunata J. M. Black. Ross Waterhole.
G, subintegra F.v. M, 15 miles west of Oodnadatta, Gypsum Bore (50 miles
west), Hamilton Bore.
Scaevola depauperata R. Br. (?). Hamilton Bore.
S. ovalifolia R, Br, Hamilton Bore,
COMPOSITAE :—
Brachycome pachyptera Turcz. 20 miles west of Oodnadatta.
B. ciliaris (Labill.) Less. Lambinna, Beresford.
B. ciliaris var. lanuginosa (Steetz.) Benth. Beresford, Anna Creek.
Minuria Cunningham (DC.) Benth. (?). Curdimurka.
M. integerrima (DC.) Benth. Beresford.
M. denticulata (DC.) Benth. Gypsum Bore (30 miles west of Oodnadatta),
Abminga, Wangianna, Blood Creek, Edward Creck.
M. annua Tate. Curdtimurka, (south of Quorn).
Calotis cymbacantha VF. v. M. Between Moorilyanna and Ernabella.
C. erinacea Steetz, Hamilton Bore.
C, multicaulis (Turez.) J. M. Black. 15 miles north-west and 50 miles west
(S. Neales}) of Oodnadatta, between Moorilyanna and Ernabella,
Abminga.
C. porphyrocephala F. v. M. Ross Waterhole.
C. hispidula F. vy. M. 20 miles west of Oodnadatta, half-way between
Moorilyanna and Ernabella, north of Marree.
Erigeron sessilifolius F. v. M. Ross Waterhole.
Podocoma cuneifoha R. Br. Anna Creek,
P. nana Ewart et White. Half-way between Moorilyanna and Ernabella.
Wedelia verbesinoides (F. v. M. herb.) Benth. Ernabella.
Siegesbeckia orientalis 1.. Echo Hill, Ernabella, and rockhole 10 miles north
of Ernabella.
Dimorphacoma minutula F. v. M. Curdimurka.
Centipeda Cunningham (DC.) A. Br. et Aschers. Beresford, Ross
Waterhole.
C. thespidioides F. v. M. 20 miles west of Oodnadatta.
Senecio Gregorit F. v. M. 20 miles west of Oodnadatta.
S. brachyglossus F. vy. M. 15 miles, 50 miles (Gypsum Bore), and 70 miles.
west of Oodnadatta.
S. magnificus F. v. M. (?). Rockhole 8 miles north of Ernabella.
S. Cunningham DC. Quorn.
Pluchea dentex R. Br. Ernabella.
P. rubelliflora (F. v. M.) J. M. Black. Ross Waterhole.
Pterigeron liatroides (Turcz.) Benth, Ross Waterhole, Hamilton Bore.

126

Pt. cylindriceps J. M. Black. Blood Creek.

Epaltes Cunninghami (Hook.) Benth. Ross Waterhole, Hamilton Bore.

E, australis Less. Ross Waterhole, ;

Pterocaulon glandulosem (F. v. M.) Benth. et Hook. var. velutinum Ewart
ct Davies. Rockhole 8 miles north of Ernabella.

Pt. sphacelatum (Labill.) Benth, et look. Ross Waterhole.

Guaphalium luteo-album L. Irrapatana, Ross Waterhole.

Gn, japonicum Thunb. Ernabella.

Gu. indutum Took. f. Ross Waterhole.

Helipterum floribundum DC. 15 miles north-west of Oodnadatta, between
Echo Hill and Ernabella.

H. albicans (A. Cunn.) DC, Wangianna.,

H. stipitatum F.v. M. Lambinna.

IT, Pitzgibbont F. v. M. Lambinna.

H. microglossum (F.v. M.) Tate. Beresford, Anna Creek, 15 miles west and
23 miles north-west of Oodnadatta, between Granite Downs and [.ambinna.

H. strictum (Lindl.) Benth, Beresford; 16 miles, 22 miles, and 75 miles
(Grege’s Camp on S. Neales) west of Oodnadatta, Abminga.

I. moschatum (A. Cunn.) Benth. Between Echo Hill and Ernabella.

H. uniflorum J. M. Black. North of Marree, Beresiord, 20 miles west of
Oodnadatta.

H. Tietkensit F. v. M.S. Neales (50 miles west of Oodnadatta), half-way
between Moorilyanna and Ernabella, rockhole 10 miles north of Ernabella.

H. Charsleyae F. v. M. 22 miles and 75 miles (Gregg’s Camp) west of
Oodnadatta, Ross Waterhole, Abminga (probably).

Ixiolaena leptolepis (DC.) Benth. Spreading, 18 in. high. Curdmiurka,
10 miles west and 15 miles west of Oodnadatta, Blood Creek,

Helichrysum Cassinianum Gaudich, Lambinna.

. roseum (Tindl.) Druce. Between Moorilyanna and Ernabella.

. Ayersti F. v. M. Granite Downs (150 miles west of Oodnadatta),

. bracteatum (Vent.) Andrews.. Ernabella,

. apiculatum (Labill.) DC. Ernabella (or H. ambiguum), Hamilton Bore.

. ambiguum Turcz. Strong, unpleasant smell. Trnabella, and rockhole

8 miles north.

H, podolepideum F.v. M. Anna Creek.

Rutidosis helichrysoides DC. Ttbunga, north of Oodnadatta, Blood Creek.

Podolepis canescens A. Cunn. Lambinna.

eegsegee aes

P. capillaris (Steetz.) Diels. Between Moorilyanna and [rnahcella, Ross
Watcrhole.

Myriocephalus rhisocephalus (DC.) Benth, var. pluriflura J. M. Black.
Beresford.

M. Stuartti (F. v. M. et Sond.) Benth. Between Ernabella and Echo Hill,
rockhole 10 miles north of Ernabella,

M. Rudallii (F. vy. M.) Benth. Ross Waterhole.

Angianthus pusillus Benth. Between Echo Hill and Ernabella.

Gnephasis cyathopappa Benth. William Creck, Abminga.

Calocephalus multiflorus (Turez.) Benth. Ross Waterhole.

Craspedia pleiocephala Pv. M. Curdimurka.

Basedowia tenerrima (F. v. M.) J. M. Black. Rockhole 8 miles north ot
Ernabella.

INTRODUCED.

Sonchus oleraceus L. Waterholes near Ernabella.
S. asper Hill. Waterhole near Ernabella.

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN CAINOZOIC BRYOZOA. - PART I.

BY LEO. W. STACH, B.SC.

Summary

At the instigation of Prof. W. Howchin a series of studies on the Cainozoic Bryozoa of
South Australia has been commenced. This first contribution deals with material from two horizons
in the Cowandilla Bore, vis., 485-507 feet (1) and 520-550 feet (2), and three horizons in the
Glanville Bore, vis., 375-400 feet (3), 405-450 feet (4) and 445-490 feet (5) (vide Howchin,
1935 and 1936).

The material has yielded three new species and provides interesting stratigraphic and distributional
data, particularly in connection with the species Thalamoporella gracilis Maplestone, 1900, and
Cellaria vaniabitts ( Busk, 1884) . The type material has been deposited with the South Australian
Museum.

127

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN CAINOZOIC BRYOZOA—PART I.

By Leo, W. Stactt, B.Sc.
(Howitt and MacBain Research Scholar in Zoology, University of Melbourne.)
(Communicated by Prof. Walter Howchin.)

[Read September 10, 1936.] -
Pirate XV,

INTRODUCTION.

At the instigation of Prof. W. Howchin a series of studies on the Cainozoic
Bryozoa of South Australia has been commenced. This first contribution deals
with material from two horizons in the Cowandilla Bore, wiz., 485-507 feet (1)
and 520-550 feet (2), and three horizons in the Glanville Bore, viz., 375-400 feet
(3), 405-450 feet (4) and 445-490 feet (5) (vide Howchin, 1935 and 1936).

The material has yielded three new species and provides interesting strati-
graphic and distributional data, particularly in connection with the species
Thalamoporelia gracilis Maplestone, 1900, and Cellaria variabilis (Busk, 1884).
The type material has been deposited with the South Australian Museum.“

List or SPECIES.

Selenaria maculata (Busk, 1852). 1, 2, 3.
Thalamoporella gracilis Maplestone, 1900. 1, 2, 4, 5.
Thalamoporella howchint, sp. nov. 1, 2.

Cellaria australis Macgillivray, 1880, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
Cellaria variabilis (Busk, 1884). 2, 3, 4, 5.

Caberea grandis Uincks, 1881. 2.

Porina gracilis (Lamarck, 1816). 2, 5.

Tubucellaria cereoides gracilis Canu and Bassler, 1929, 4, 5.
lodictyum cf. phoeniceum (Busk, 1854). 2, 3, 4.
Sertella porcellana (Macgillivray, 1869). 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
Adeonellopsis australis Macgillivray, 1886. 1, 2, 3.
Parmularia obliqua. (Macgillivray, 1869). 1.
Phylactellina cowandilensis, gen, et sp. nov. 2.
Conescharellina angulapora (Woods, 1880). 4, 5.
Conescharellina crassa (Woods, 1880). 4, 5,
Hornera foliacea Macgillivray, 1869. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
Hornera robusta Macgillivray, 1883. 4, 5.

Idmonea australis Macgillivray, 1882. 2, 3, 4, 5.
Idmonea macgillivrayi, sp. nov. 4, 5.

© The list of references at the conclusion of the paper contains only those references
which are mentioned in the text and those which occur more than once in the synonymies of
the species, these latter being referred to in the synonymies only by author and date, thus:
Livingstone, 1928, p. 111. Where a reference occurs in the synonymy only once, an abbre-
viated reference is given in the synonymy, thus: Maplestone, 1900, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic.,
n.s., vOl. xiii, (1) p. 6.

128

SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION
Family MICROPORIDAE Hincks, 1880.
Subfamily MICROPORINAE Hincks, 1880.
Genus SELENARIA Busk, 1854.
SELENARTA MACULATA (Busk, 1852).
Lumulites maculata Busk, 1852, appendix to “Voyage of the Ralilesnake” by J. Mac-
gillivray, i, pl. i, figs. 15, 16.
Selenaria maculata (Busk), Waters 1885, p. 309. Maplestone, 1904, a, p. 208; idem,
1904, b, p. 198; idem, 1909, p. 268. Waters, 1921, Journ, Linn. Soc. Zool., vol. xxxiv,
p. 417, pl. xxix, fig. 8, pl. xxx, figs. 13-15. Chapman, 1928, p. 148. Stach, 1935,
a, p. 341.
Observations—This form occurs in the Lower Miocene and Lower Pliocene
of Victoria, and is found at the present day along the continental shelf of eastern
and southern Australia (for detailed distribution, vide Stach, 1935, a).

Family THALAMOPORELLIDAE Levinsen, 1902.
Genus THALAMOPORELLA Hincks, 188/.
THALAMOPORELLA GRACILIS Maplestone, 1900.
(Text fig. 2.)
Thalamoporella gracilis Maplestone, 1900, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic., ms., vol. xiii, (1), p. 6,
pl. ii, fig. 13; idem, 1904, b, p. 199.

Observations—This species is unique in the genus in that the avicularium is
directed proximally. The zooecial characters of the present specimens are identical
with those of Maplestone’s form, but the zoarium appears to have been bilaminate
at the present locality. The zooecia of this species are very like those of
Thalamoporella elongata Canu and Bassler, 1935 (non Canu, 1917, p. 140) from
the Lower Miocene of Bairnsdale, but as these authors do not mention or figure
the avicularia, their conspecificity cannot be proved.

Distributtion—Lower Phocene: Jemmy’s Point, Lakes [entrance (Victoria).

Thalamoporella howchini, sp. nov.
(Pl. xv, fig. 2.)

Description—Zoarium bilaminate. Avicularia arranged in longitudinal series between
the vertical rows of zooecia. Zooecia rectangular in outline, less than twice as long as
broad, and separated by thick salient ridges. Aperture higher than broad, oval in out-
line and with inconspicuous hinge teeth; height of aperture equals less than one-third
length of zooecium. The adoral areas bear large projecting acropetalous spines of which
the diameter equals half the height of the aperture. The two opesiules are unequal in size,
the larger being transversely oval in plan and descending to the basal wall, while the
smaller is longitudinally oval and appears to reach the lateral wall, The cryptocyst is
much depressed below the level of the aperture and is perforated by about twenty fine
circular pores. The avicularia are elongate rectangular in outline and equal in length
about one and a half times that of the zooccia, their width being about half that of a
zooecium. The distal end of each avicularium is acute and slightly recurved, while a
well-developed broad cross-bar occurs proximal to the middle line,

Dimensions—Zooccium, length 0-58 mm., breadth 0°38; aperture, height
0°25, breadth 0:20; spine, diameter, 0-09; avicularium, length 0°85, breadth 0-22.

Type Material—Holotype: South Aust. Mus. Coll., No. 1.2. Bilaminate
specimen from 485-507 feet in the Cowandilla Bore. Paratype: South Aust.
Mus. Coll., No. L 3. A fragment from 520-550 feet in the Cowandilla Bore.

129

Observations—In the form of the zooecia, this striking species approaches
most closely to the Madagascan Thalamoporella harmeri levinsen, 1909, from
which it differs in the greater proportionate width of the zooecia and the much
greater proportionate length of the avicularia, This species is readily distinguished
by the arrangement of the avicularia, the short zooecia and the well-developed
spines of the adoral area. A specimen referable to this species (paratype) was
found at 520-550 feet, but although possessing the characteristic large avicularia
with cross-bar, the adoral areas were scarcely developed and the acropetaous spines
were absent. This suggests that the latter character is variable within species and
probably conditioned by local environmental factors.

Family CELLARIIDAE Hincks, 1880.
Genus CELLARIA Ellis and Solander, 1786.

CELLARIA AUSTRALIS Macgillivray, 1880.
(PI. xv, fig. 3.)
Cellaria fistulosa var. australis Macgillivray, 1880, dec. v, p. 48, pl. xlix, fig. 1.
Salicornaria clavata Busk, 1884, p. 88, pl. xii, fig. 8.
Cellaria australis Macgillivray, 1889, p. 26; idem, 1895, p. 29, pl. iii, fig. 19. Maple-
stone, 1904, b, p. 193; idem, 1909, p. 267. Chapman, 1928, p. 147. Livingstone,

1928, p. 115. Stach, 1935, a, p. 342; idem, 1936, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. ns.,
vol, xlix, (1), p. 62.

Observations—This species occurs fossil from Upper Oligocene to Lower
Pliocene in Victoria and is commonly dredged off the coast from New South
Wales around to South Australia (for detailed distribution, vide Stach, 1935, a).

CELLARIA VARIABILIS (Busk, 1884),
(PI. xv, fig. 1.)

Salicornaria variabilis Busk, 1884, p. 89, text fig. 7, pl. xii, figs. 3, 9.

Observations—This species has been recorded only in the vicinity of Ker-
guelen Island (southern Indian Ocean), from 25 to 70 fathoms. The present
specimens agree in all essential characters with Busk’s figures. This form is
allied to Cellaria contigua Macgillivray, 1895, var. corioensis Maplestone, 1901,
in the type of avicularium and general form of the zooecia, but differs from it in
having a shorter semi-circular aperture and a tendency to the development of
rhomboid zooecia.

Family SCRUPOCELLARIIDAE Levinsen, 1909.
Genus Caserea Lamouroux, 1816.

CaABEREA GRANDIS Hincks, 1881.
Caberea grandis Hincks, 1881, Ann. Mag. Nat. Llist., ser, 5, vol. viii, p. 2, pl. iii, figs. 4,
4 a-b. Waters, 1887, p. 90. Macgillivray, 1895, p. 25, pl. iii, fig. 9. Maplestone,
1904, b, p. 192; idem, 1909, p. 267. Livingstone, 1927, Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. xvi,
(1), p. 53. Chapman, 1928, p. 147. Stach, 1935, a, p. 342.
Observations—This species occurs in the Lower Miocene and Lower Pliocene
of Victoria, and has been dredged at moderate depths (10 to 40 fathoms) in
Torres Straits (?) and along the eastern and southern coasts of Australia.

Family PORINIDAE d’Orbigny, 1852.
Genus Porrna d’Orbigny, 1852.

PORINA GRACILIS (T.amarck, 1816).

Eschara gracilis Lamarck, 1816, Hist. Nat. An. sans Vert. vol. i, p. 176. Milne-
Edwards, 1837, Ann. Sci. Nat. ser. 2, vol. vi, p. 28, pl. ii, fig. 2, Macgillivray,
1880, dec. v, p. 40, pl. xlviii, fig. 3. Busk, 1884, p, 141, pl. xxi, fig. 6.

130

Porina gracilis (Lamarck), d’Orbigny, 1852, Pal. Franc. Terr. Crét., vol. v, p. 434.
Macgillivray, 1895, p. 103, pl. xiv, figs. 21, 22. Bassler, 1935, Fossilium Catalogus,
pt. 67, p. 175.

Porina dieffenbachiana Stoliczka, 1864, Reise der “Novara,” geol. Theil, vol. i, (2),
p. 135

Eschara buskit Woods, 1876, Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., vol. x, p. 149, figs. 16, (17.

Porina coronata Waters (? non Reuss, 1847), 1881, p. 333, pl. xvi, fig. 57; idem, 1885,
p. 297.

Porina gracilis var. dieffenbachiana Stoliczka, Macgillivray, 1895, p. 103.

Haswellia coronata Levinsen (? non Reuss), 1909, Morph. Syst. Stud. Cheil, Bryozoa,
p. 299, pl. xvi, fig. 1.

Acropora gracilis (Lamarck), Canu, 1913, p. 137. Canu and Bassler, 1920, U.S. Nat.
Mus. Bull, No. 106, p. 318, figs. 90 A-E.

Hasweillina coronata Livingstone (? non Reuss), 1928, p. 120.

Observations-—-The synonymy listed above refers only to the forms recorded
from southern Australia and New Zealand (fossil and recent). ‘The Australian
form has been regarded as synonymous with Porina coronata (Reuss, 1847) from
the Lower Oligocene (Priabonian) of Italy by Waters (1881) and others, while
Canu (1913) has listed several points of distinction between the two forms. Con-
cerning the latter, it may be remarked that these distinctions could be accounted
for by varying degrees of abrasion and normal variation within the species. A
critical examination of a large series of specimens is necessary before any con-
clusions may be drawn.

Further complication in the synonymy, caused by confusing “Myriozoum
australiense” Haswell, 1880, with this form, was ably dispelled by Busk (1884)
and was confirmed by comparison with topotypes from Holborn Island at 20
fathoms.

This species occurs in the Miocene of New Zealand and Victoria and is
commonly dredged off the Victorian and South Australian coasts.

Family TUBUCELLARIIDAE Busk, 1884.
Genus “uBucEeLLaria d’Orbigny, 1852.
TUBUCELLARIA CEREQIDES GRACILIS Canu and Bassler, 1929,

Tubucellaria cereoides gracilis Canu and Bassler, 1929, p. 355, pl. xliv, figs. 1, 2. Stach,
1935, a, p. 344, pl. xii, fig. 7.
Observations--This form appears in the Victorian Lower Pliocene and occurs
in the western Pacific and along the south coast of Australia.

Family RETEPORIDAE Smitt, 1867.
Genus Toprctyum Harmer, 1933.
Topicryum cf. pHOoENICcEUM (Busk, 1854).

Retcpora phoenicea Busk, 1854, Brit. Mus. Cat., vol. li, p. 94, pl. exxi, figs. 1, 2. Mac-
gillivray, 1889, p. 29. Livingstone, 1928, p. 117; idem, 1929, Vidensk. Medd. fra
Dansk Naturh. Foren., vol. Ixxxvii, p. 91.

Todictyuim phoeniceum (Busk), Harmer, 1933, Proc. Zool. Soc., London, p. 625; idem,
1934, p. 541. Stach, 1935, b, p. 141 (?).

(Not Kctepora phoenicea Waters, 1887, p. 197, pl. vi, figs. 15, 20 = J. willeyi
Harmer, 1934; Kirkpatrick, 1890, Sci. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc., vol. vi, (10), p. 612,
x= J, sangwineum (Ortmann, 1890),

(Not Schizellosoon pheniccum Canu and Bassler, 1929, p. 370, pl. xiviti, figs. 1-5
== I. projectum Harmer, 1934),

131

Observations—Three specimens are doubtfully referred to this species, their
preservation not permitting certain identification. They are typical Jodictyum,
but the fenestration of the fragments is more open than in Recent specimens of
I. phoeniceum. The latter is recorded with certainty from Victoria and South
Australia at moderate depths, but Queensland records are dubious. The author
(1935, b) doubtfully referred a fragment of a zoarium from Green Island (off
Cairns) to this species, but better material is necessary to check this. This is the
initial fossil record of the genus.

Genus SERTELLA Jullien, 1903.
SERTELLA PORCELLANA (Macgillivray, 1869).
(Pl. xv, fig. 4.)

Retepora porcellana Macgillivray, 1869, p. 140; idem, 1885, dec. x, p. 15, pl. xev, figs.
1-6; idem, 1895, p. 115, pl. xv, fig. 15. Stach, 1935, a, p. 344.

Observations—This species has been recorded from the Lower Miocene and
Lower Pliocene of Victoria and is fairly common at the present day along the
Victorian coast. The recent work of Harmer (1934) on Reteporidae necessitates
the above generic change.

Family ADEONIDAE Jullien, 1903.
Genus ADEONELLoPsis Macgillivray, 1886.
ADEONELLOPSIS AUSTRALIS Macgillivray, 1886.

(PL. xv, fig. 5.)

Adconellopsis australis Macgillivray, 1886, Trans. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. vol. xxii,
p. 135, pl. ti, figs. 2, 3. Stach, 1935, a, p. 345.

Observations—This species occurs in the Victorian Lower Pliocene and is
common in dredgings off the Victorian and South Australian coasts.

Family PARMULARIIDAE Maplestone, 1912.
Genus ParMuLaARIA Macgillivray, 1887.
PARMULARIA OBLIQUA (Macgillivray, 1869).

Eschara obliqua Macgillivray, 1869, p. 137.

Parmularia obliqua (Macgillivray), Livingstone, 1924, p. 190, pl. xxiii, figs. 1, 2,
pl. xxv, fig. 1, pl. xxvi, text fig. 1; idem, 1928, p. 119. Stach, 1935, a, p. 343,
pl. xii, fig. 5.

Observations—This species occurs abundantly in most of the deeper water
dredgings off the Victorian and South Australian coasts and has been recorded
from the Lower Pliocene of eastern (as Schizoporclla flabellata Maplestone, 1902,
p. 68) and western Victoria.

Family PHYLACTELLIDAE Canu and Bassler, 1917.
Genus Phylactellina, gen. nov.
Type: Phylactellina cowandillensis, sp. nov.

Description—Aperture with well-developed lyrule and strongly salient
peristome, producing a subcircular peristomice with a somewhat sinuate margin.
Upwardly directed avicularia occur on the outer proximal slopes of the peristome.
The ovicell is globular, cribriform and opens into the peristome; it rests on the
proximal portion of the distal zooecium.

132

Observations—The strongly salient peristome, cribriform ovicell opening into
the peristome and the aperture with lyrule place this form in Phylactellidae. From
Phytactella Hincks, 1880, it differs in the presence of large avicularia on the
peristome.

Phylactellina cowandillensis, sp. nov.
(Text figs. 1, 1 a-c.)

Description—Zoarium massive, escharilorm. Zooecia elongate-pyriform in
outline, attenuated proximally and separated by salient narrow ridges. The frontal
is granular and perforated by fine pores, the marginal areolae being deeply set
and widely spaced. Aperture subcircular with a well-developed lyrule. ~The
salient peristome has a broad base and bears a large acute avicularium directed
upward on its outer proximal slope and somewhat to one side. Occasionally a
smaller acute avicularium also occurs laterally on the peristome. Spatulate
avicularia occur rarely on the frontal. The ovicells are globular, wider than high
and bear on their summits a circular cribriform area,

Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

Fig. 1. Phylactellina cowandillensis, sp. nov. Cowandilla Bore at
520 to 550 feet. Holotype, South Aust. Mus. Coll, No. L4.
Portion of zoarium showing ovicelled zooecia and zooecial
detail. Fig. La, Zooccium with abraded peristome, showing
form of aperture. Fig. 1b. Zooccium with spatulate frontal
avicularium, Fig. 1c. Zooecium secn partly in lateral view,
showing an ‘additional acute avicularium on the peristome.

Tig. 2,

Fig. 2. Vhalamoporella gracilis Maplestone, 1900. Cowandilla Bore
at 520 to 550 feet. Plesiotype, South Aust. Mus. Coll.
No. L8. Zooccium and proximally directed avicularium.

Dimensions—Zooecium, length 0°85 mm., width 0-24; peristome, basal

diameter 0°23; peristomice, diameter 0-13; aperture, diameter 0°12: ovicell, width
0:22, height 0-20.

Type Material—Holotype: South Aust. Mus. Coll, No. L4. Specimen
showing ovicells, from 520 to 550 feet in the Cowandilla Bore.
Distribution—Cowandilla Bore at 520 to 550 feet.

Observations—The holotype shows avicularia on the peristomes of nearly
every zooecium, but other specimens from the same material have few peristomes

133

with avicularia, the zooecia being also often proportionately broader. (Paratype,
South Aust. Mus. Coll., No. L 5.)

Family CONESCHARELLINIDAE Levinsen, 1909.
Genus ConrsCHARELLINA d’Orbigny, 1852.
CONESCHARELLINA ANGULOPORA (Woods, 1880).
Lunulites angulopora Woods, 1880, p. 7, pl. i, figs. 3 a-c.
Conescharcllina angulopora (Woods), Livingstone, 1924, p. 205; idem, 1928, p. 121.

Observations—This species has been known previously as a recent form from
the coasts of south-eastern Australia. Macgillivray’s doubtful record of its
occurrence in the Lower Miocene of Victoria (1895) may be disregarded.

CoNESCHARELLINA cRAssA (Woods, 1880).
Lunulites (Cupularia) crassa Woods, 1880, p. 5, pl. i, fig. 1.
Conescharellina crassa (Woods), Livingstone, 1924, p. 212.
Observations—The occurrence of this form is similar to that of C. angulopora.

Family HORNERIDAE Gregory, 1899.
Genus Horners Lamouroux, 1821.
HorNnera FOLIAcEA Macgillivray, 1869.

Hornera foliacea Macgillivray, 1869, p. 142 . Busk, 1887, p. 17. Macgillivray, 1895, p. 127,
pl. xix, fig. 1.

Observations—This species occurs in the Victorian Lower Miocene and is
commonly dredged off Victoria and South Australia, numerous specimens being
observed in the dredgings taken by Sir Joseph Verco.

Hornera ropusta Macgillivray, 1883.

Hornera robusta Macgillivray, 1883, Trans. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. xix, p. 291, pl. i,
fig. 1; idem, 1886, dec. xii, p. 72, pl. cxviii, figs. 6-8. :

Observations—This species occurs commonly off the Victorian coast, but
this is its initial record as a fossil.

Family TUBULIPORIDAE Johnston, 1838.
Genus IpmMongea’ Lamouroux, 1821.

IpMONEA AUSTRALIS Macgillivray, 1882.

Idmonea australis Macgillivray, 1882, dec. vii, p. 30, pl. lxviii, fig. 2. Busk, 1887, p. 12,

pl. iti, fig. 3.
Observations—This species is recorded fossil for the first time. At the
present day, it is found from Port Jackson around the coast to South Australia.

Idmonea macgillivrayi, sp. nov.
(Text fig. 3.)

Tdmonea milneana Macgillivray (non d’Orbigny, 1839), 1882, dec. vii, p. 29, pl. Lxviti,
figs. 1, la, b. :

(Not Platonea scalaria Canu and Bassler, 1922, p. 49, pl. xi, figs. 1-5.)
(Not Diaperoecia scalaria ,Canu and Bassler, 1929, p. 537, pl. Ixxxi, figs. 3-7.)
Observations—Canu and Bassler recognise that Macgillivray’s figured

134

specimen is incorrectly referred to J. milneana, but they place his form with their
Philippine species, 7. scalaria. The southern Australian form, however, differs
from both Atlantic and Philippine forms in being much more robust and having
four or five zooecial tubes to each alternating fascicle, instead of two to four.

Dimensions—Width of branch 2:1 mm.; zooccium, length 0°6-0-8, width
0-25-0-30; aperture, diameter 0:18-0:22.

Fig. 3.
Idmonea macgillivrayi, sp. nov. Glanville Bore
at 415 to 445 feet. Plesiotype, South Aust. Mus.
Coll, No. L11, Portion of branch showing
ooeciostome,

CoNCLUSIONS.

Apart from the species described as new, all the forms are known to be
living at the present day, except Thalamoporella gracilis Maplestone, 1902, which
has been recorded previously only from the Lower Pliocene (Kalimnan) of
Jemmy’s Point, Lakes Entrance (Victoria). A recent study of a Lower Pliocene
bryozoan faunule from Hamilton (Victoria) (Stach, 1935, a) revealed only one
species ranging from Miocene to Pliocene, and one new species, Otionella grandi-
pora, which has since heen found in dredgings from off Beachport (South Aus-
tralia). “Lhe lack of typical Miocene forms and the recent aspect of the faunules
fixcs the age as later than Miocene, while the occurrence of Thalamoporella gracilis
suggests that the faunule is Pliocenc. The faunule is consistent with an Upper
Pliocene age as far as our present knowledge can be applied, since no. restricted
Miocene form has been found, while in the Lower Pliocene, as noted above, one
such species has been recorded.

REFERENCES,
Busx, G., 1884. Challenger Reports, Zoology, vol. x, (5), pp. 1-216, pls. i-xxxvi.
Busk, G., 1887. Ibid., vol. xvii, (2), pp. 1-47, pls. i-x,

Canu, I. 1913. Etudes morphologiques sur trois nouvelles familles de Bryo-
zoaires. Bull. Soc. Géol. France, ser. 4, vol. xiii, pp. 132-147, figs. 1-10.

Canu, F., 1917. Les Rryozoaires fossiles des Terrains du Sud-Quest de la France.

Tbid., ser. 4, vol. xvi, pp. 127-152, pls. it, iii.

135

Canu, F., and Basster, R. S., 1929. Bryozoa of the Philippine Region. United
States Nat. Mus. Bull., No. 100, vol. ix, pp. 1-567, 94 plates.

Canu, F., and Basster, R. S., 1935. New Species of Tertiary Cheilostome
Bryozoa from Victoria, Australia. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. xciii,
(9), pp. 1-54, pls. i-ix.

Cuapman, F., 1928. The Sorrento Bore, Mornington Peninsula, ete. Rec. Geol.
Surv. Vic., vol. v, (1), pp. 1-195, pls. i-xil.

Harmer, S. F., 1934. The Polyzoa of the Siboga Expedition, pt. 3—Fam. Rete-
poridae. Repts. Siboga Exped., monograph xxviiic.

Howcutn, W., 1935. Notes on the Geological Sections obtained by several Bor-
ings situated on the Plain between Adelaide and Gult St. Vincent.
Pt. L. The Glanville Bore. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. lix, pp. 87-
102.

Howcuin, W., 1936, Ibid. Pt. IL Cowandilla Bore. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust.,
vol. Ix, pp. 1-34, pl. i.

Lrvrincstone, A. A., 1924. Studies on Australian Bryozoa, No. 1. Ree. Austr.
Mus., vol. xiv, (3), pp. 189-212, pls. xxiti-xxvi.

Livincstone, A. A., 1928. Bryozoa from South Australia. Rec. South Austr.
Mus., vol. iv, (1), pp. 111-124, figs. 31-35.

Maccittivray, P. H., 1869. Descriptions of some New Genera and Species of
Australian Polyzoa. Trans. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. ix, pp. 126-148.

Maccitiivray, P. H., 1879-90. Bryozoa in Prodromus of the Zoology of Vic-
toria, by McCoy, decades i-xx,

Maccrtiivray, P. H., 1889. On some South Australian Polyzoa. Trans. Roy.
Soc. S. Aust., vol. xii, pp. 24-30, pl. it.

Maccriiivray, P. H., 1895. A Monograph of the Tertiary Polyzoa of Victoria.
Trans. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. iv, pp. 1-166, pls. i-xxii.

Martestonr, C. M., 1902. Further Descriptions of the Tertiary Polyzoa of Vic-
toria, Pt. VII. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., n.s., vol. xiv, (2), pp. 65-74,
pls. vi-vili.

Maprestone, C. M., 1904. a. Notes on the Victorian Fossil Selenariidae. Jbid.,
n.s., vol. xvi, (2), pp. 207-217, pls. xxiv, xxv.

MaptestTone, C. M., 1904. b. Tabulated List of Fossil Cheilostomatous Polyzoa
in Victorian Tertiary Deposits. Jbid., n.s., vol. xvii, (1), pp. 182-217.

MapcesTong, C. M., 1909. The Results of Deep-Sea Investigations in the Tasman
Sea, 1—The Expedition of H.M.C.S. Miner. 5—The Polyzoa.
Rec, Austr. Mus., vol. vii, (4), pp. 267-273, pls. Ixxv-Ixxviit.

Sracu, L. W., 1935. a. Victorian Lower Pliocene Bryozoa, Ft. I. Proc. Roy.
Soc. Vict., n.s., vol. xlvii, (2), pp. 338-351, pl. xii.

Sracu, L. W., 1935. b. Notes on Recent Australian Bryozoa, Pt. I. Australian
Zoologist, vol. viii, (2), pp. 140-142, figs. 1-3.

Waters, A. W., 1881. On Fossil Cheilostomatous Bryozoa from south-west Vic-
toria. Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc., vol. xxxvii, pp. 309-347, pls. Xiv-xvIlL.

Waters, A. W., 1885. Cheilostomatous Bryozoa from Aldinga and the River
Murray Cliffs, South Australia. /bid., vol. xli, pp. 279-310, pl. vii.

Waters, A. W., 1887. Bryozoa from New South Wales, North Australia, etc.
Ann, Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. xx, pp. 81-94, 181-203, 253-265,
pls. iv-vil.

Woons, J. E. T., 1880. On some Recent and Fossil Species of Selenariadae.
Trans. Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. iii, pp. 1-12, pls. i, i.

136

ACKNOWLEDGMENT.

Thanks are due to Mr. TH. Marriott, of the Anatomy Department, University

of Melbourne, for the photographic illustrations.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig,
Fig.

Fig.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XV.
Bryozoa From COWANDILLA Borg, S.A.

Cellaria variabilis (Busk, 1884). Cowandilla Bore at 520 to 550 feet. Plesiotype,
South Aust. Mus. Coll, No. L7.

Thalamoporella howchini, sp. nov. Cowandilla Bore at 485 to 507 feet. Holotype,
South Aust. Mus. Coll, No. L2.

Cellaria australis Macgillivray, 1880. Cowandilla Bore at 485 to 507 feet. Plesio-
type, South Aust. Mus. Coll, No. L6.

Sertella porcellana (Macgillivray, 1869). Cowandilla Bore at 485 to 507 feet.
Plesiotype, South Aust. Mus. Coll, No. L9.

Adeonellopsis australis Macgillivray, 1886. Cowandilla Bore at 485 to 507 fect.
Plesiotype, South Aust. Mus. Coll, No. L 10.

ON THE ECOLOGY OF THE BLACK-TIPPED LOCUST
(CHORTOICETES TERMINIFERA WALK.) IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

BYJ. DAVIDSON, D.SC..

Summary

A widespread plague of locusts developed over the agricultural areas of South Australia during
1934 and 1935. The species concerned was Chortoicetes terminifera Walk., which has a wide
distribution in Australia (vide Sjostedt, 1921, p. 41 ; 1935, p. 31). The species also occurred in
plague numbers during this period over the northern districts of Victoria, western districts of
New South Wales and certain areas in Queensland. It was present in smaller numbers in portions of
the south-west districts of Western Australia. An examination of the literature on locusts and
grasshoppers in Australia shows that this species has occurred in plague numbers from time to time
since the early days of settlement. The seasonal conditions which favoured these outbreaks also
favoured the multiplication of certain species of gregarious grasshoppers. Owing to the
characteristic black area at the tips of the hindwings in Ch. terminifera, it is generally possible to
recognise references to this species in the literature, if the winged form is described. Where
reference is made to the habits of the wingless hoppers, it is evident that some of the earlier
accounts refer to more than one species of gregarious grasshoppers.

137

ON THE ECOLOGY OF THE BLACK-TIPPED LOCUST
(CHORTOICETES TERMINIFERA WALK.) IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By J. Davipson, D.Sc.
(Waite Agricultural Research Institute, University of Adelaide.)

[Read October 8, 1936.]

I INTRODUCTION.

A widespread plague of locusts developed over the agricultural areas of South
Australia during 1934 and 1935. The species concerned was Chortoicetes
terminifera Walk., which has a wide distribution in Australia (vide Sjostedt, 1921,
p. 41; 1935, p. 31). The species also occurred in plague numbers during this
period over the northern districts of Victoria, western districts of New South
Wales and certain areas in Queensland. It was present in smaller numbers in
portions of the south-west districts of Western Australia.

An examination of the literature on locusts and grasshoppers in Australia
shows that this species has occurred in plague numbers from time to time since
the early days of settlement. The seasonal conditions which favoured these out-
breaks also favoured the multiplication of certain species of gregarious grass-
hoppers. Owing to the characteristic black area at the tips of the hindwings in
Ch. terminifera, it is generally possible to recognise references to this species in
the literature, if the winged form is described. Where reference is made to the
habits of the wingless hoppers, it is evident that some of the earlier accounts refer
to more than one species of gregarious grasshoppers.

From observations carried out in South Australia during the past two years,
it has been established that while Ch. terminifera was the chief species concerned
in the recent plague in this State, a gregarious species of Austroicetes also occurred
in large numbers in portions of the infested areas; this species is provisionally
considered to be A. jungi Brancsik, 1897. The writer visited the Eastern States
during the spring of 1934, and again in 1935, and was able to discuss the locust
problem with the entomologists in these States. Ch. terminifera was widely dis-
tributed in plague numbers in certain areas of these States; one or more species
of gregarious grasshoppers were also present in parts of the infested areas.

Owing to the lack of precise knowledge about Ch, terminifera, it has not been
generally accepted as a locust in the literature. Outbreaks in the early days of
South Australia were referred to in the press as ‘Locust plagues.” The “locust
plague” in Victoria in 1873 was evidently due to Ch. terminifera (vide Bath,
1873, p. 69); Olliff, in 1890, calls it the “plague locust” in New South Wales;
Tepper, in 1891, calls it the “wandering locust” in South Australia; Koebele, in
1891, refers to it as the “migratory locust”; Froggatt, in 1903, in New South
Wales, refers to it as the “larger plains locust’’; and in 1909 as the ‘‘wandering
plague locust”; Uvarov, in 1928, states it should be classed as a gregarious grass-
hopper and calis it “the wandering grasshopper.”

From observations on the habits of the species during the recent plague, the
writer considers that Ch. terminifera should be classed as a “locust.” The words
“wandering,” “migrating” and “plague” applied to a locust are redundant, and
the name “black-tipped locust” is proposed for this species. The regions in which
plagues of this species originate in South Australia (reservation areas), are
situated in the drier areas of the State, north of the wheat belt. The species
temporarily invades the agricultural areas and has a relatively wide range of
migration; swarms are known to reach the south coast and pass out to sea. The

138

term “wandering grasshopper” might be appropriately applied to certain species
of Austroicetes, such as A. Jungi Brancsik,

The preliminary account of Ch. termintfera given in this paper is based on
observations made in South Australia during the past two years. Work is in
progress relating to the biology of the species and the delimitation of its reserva-
tion areas.

IT NOMENCLATURE OF CHORTOICETES TERMINIFERA

The species was first described by F. Walker as Epacromia terminifera in
1870 (Cat. Derm. Salt. Br. Mus, iv, p. 777). The type collected in Western Aus-
tralia (Swan River) is in the British Museum. Brancsik, in 1895 (Jahresb. Ver.
Trencs. Com. xvii-xviii, p. 249), placed a new species, yorkelownensis, in the
genus Chortoicetes; this genus was described by Brunner in 1893 as differing from
Epacromia (Rey. Syst. Orthopt., p. 123), but Brunner did not name any species
with the genus; Ch. yorketownensis is a syn. of Walker’s Epacromia terminifera.
Kirby, in 1910 (Cat. Orthop, II), placed terminifera as genotype of Chortoicetes.
Sjostedt, in 192], p. 40, disagreed with Kirby’s placing of terminifera and created
anew genus for it, namely, Calataria, with Walker’s E. terminifera as genotype.

B. P. Uvarov, in 1924 (Trans. Entom. Soc., London, p. 271), discusses the
generic placing of “terminifera” and concludes that it is rightly placed as the
genotype of Chortoicetes (Brunner 1893, Brancsik 1895); Calataria Sjostedt,
1921, is placed as an absolute synonym of Chortoicetes Brancsik, since the former
genus is based on the same genotype. Uvarov proposes the name Austroicetes nn.
for Chortotcetes Sjostedt, 1921 (nec. Brancsik, 1895), with Epacromia pusilla
Walk, as its genotype.

Sjostedt, in his second monograph of 1935, p. 31, retains terminifera in the
genus Calataria.

In Australian literature, Ch. terminifera has been referred to as Decticus
verrucivorus (Bath, 1873). Ina prefatory note by A. R. Wallis to Bath's paper
dealing with observations on the locust plague of 1873 in Victoria, the species is
figured (pl. ti, fig. 66) under the name Oedipoda musica Fab. This is evidently
an error for Decticus verrucwvorus, since Gastrimargus musicus is figured under
that name; Froggatt, in 1903, placed Decticus verrucivorus of Bath as a synonym
of Ch, terminifera, Tepper, in 1891, refers to the species as Epacromia terminalis
Walk. Koebele found it in large numbers in South Australia, 300 miles north of
Adelaide, in 1890, and in 1891 refers to the species as Chortolga australis. Olliff.
in 1890, refers to the species as Pachytylus australis Brunner; the figure given
shows he was referring to Ch. terminifera. It was known under the former name
in Australian literature until Froggatt, in 1903, dealt with it as Ch. terminifera,
which was the name subsequently applied to it. Sjostedt (1921, p. 41; 1935, p. 31}
gives a useful synonymy.

Hf RECORDS OF THE OCCURRENCE OF CH. TERMINIFERA
IN SOUTILT AUSTRALIA.

The province of South Australia was founded in 1836. It is recorded that
hordes of locusts visited Adelaide in 1844 and devastated gardens (Edwin Hodder,
History of South Australia, 1893, vol. ii, p. 165). From the description of the
flight of these locusts, it is highly probable that the species was Ch. terminifera,
“The Register,” Adelaide, December 16, 1871, reports “On December 15th an
cnormous swarm of locusts flew over the city, darkening the sky.” This was,
doubtless, Ch. terminifera. We know from the account given by Bath (1873)
that this species occurred in plague numbers in parts of Victoria during 1872;
Bath refers to locust swarms in the Wimmera in 1848, 1862 and 1869, but the
writer has no evidence to show if the species concerned was Ch. terminifera,

139

Species of Austroicetes were, doubtless, also associated with these early outbreaks.

In addition to the above references, there are numerous reports in the early
South Australian newspapers relating to “locust” outbreaks in the northern agri-
cultural areas of the State. In the light of our present knowledge, it is clear that
many of these reports refer to gregarious grasshoppers, which have a more local
range of migration in the wheat belt; presumably they were chiefly due to
Austroicetes sp. (? jungi). After 1871 locusts received less attention in the
South Australian press. This cannot be interpreted as indicating that they were
not troublesome; with the development of other interests in the State, local out-
breaks of locusts had less news value.

A widespread plague of Ch. terminifera developed in 1890 (vide Tepper,
1891). It extended over the northern districts of Victoria (vide Insect Life,
vol. iti, p. 419) and western districts of New South Wales (vide Olliff, 1890,
1891). There does not appear to be any record of outbreaks of this species in
South Australia in subsequent years, until the recent plague. Grasshoppers were
recorded in large numbers in 1908 in northern districts, particularly about Orroroo,
Wilmington and Quorn. The evidence indicates that restricted outbreaks
frequently occurred in those districts. Recent information suggests they were
due to Austroicetes jungi (vide Andrewartha, 1936).

Although widespread locust outbreaks, similar to those of 1890 and 1934
do not appear to have developed in South Australia in the intervening years,
swarms occurred, from time to time, over restricted areas in the northern por-
tions of the State (reservation areas).

The following earlier records are taken from collections in the South Aus-
tralian Museum.“? Unfortunately, the available information does not show
whether the specimens were solitary individuals or collected from swarms.

1886: January—Murray Bridge; March—Adelaide,

1887: March—Adelaide.

1888; Jan—Murray Bridge; February—Gremtinta, Dowlingville (Y.P.).
1890: February—Adelaide; April—Lyndoch, Tanunda.

1924; Wilpena Pound.

Other records (without date labels) are Parachilna, Karoonda, Owieandana,
North Flinders Range, Mount Serle, Ooldea and Kingoonya.

IV DESCRIPTION AND BIOLOGY OF CH, TERMINIFERA.
(a) The Adults.

There is considerable variation in the appearance of adults; certain variations
occur in association with the “phases” of the species. Adults taken from swarms
have a slender appearance, the wings extending about one-third of their length
beyond the abdomen. The general colour of both sexes is dark brown, but green
forms occur in swarms, or as solitary individuals. The characteristic feature is
the sharply defined, dark brown to black pigmented area at the tip of the hind
wings; otherwise the hind wings are clear. he fore wings bear a number of
dark patches distributed over their length, These features are shown in the
photographs given in a previous paper (Davidson, 1934). The pronotum has a
faint median carina without a lateral keel, and exhibits well-defined constrictions ;
with many specimens it bears an inverted “V-shaped marking, and a median,
pale band may extend forward over the head; these characters vary and may be
obscured in darker individuals. The femur of each hind leg bears two dark
bands; they extend over the outer and dorsal faces of the femur; in association
with the dark patches on the basal portion of the fore wings, they give the insect
a somewhat “banded” appearance. The inner faces of the hind femora are red,

@) I am indebted to Dr. K. H. L. Key for identification of the specimens.

140

becoming pale at the distal end; the knees are black; the tibiae are pale over the
proximal end, being red over the remainder of their length.

(b) The Nymphs.

The nymphs (hoppers) exhibit certain general features in all five instars;
there is, however, a wide range of variation in colour pattern. As with the adults,
certain variations are associated with the “phases” of the species. In general,
the nymphs are dark to black with an underlying dirty-grey or brownish colour.
In all instars there is a whitish X-shaped marking on the head and pronotum;
and a dorsal, median, whitish or buff-coloured stripe extends along the length of
the body, ‘he femur, in the hind legs, bears two dark fasciae; the tibiae are
black at the proximal end and over the distal two-thirds, with an intervening pale
band; each tibiae bears an outer row of ten spines, an inner row of eleven spines,
and four larger, articulated spines at the distal end. The sex of the nymphs can
be diagnosed in all instars from the character of the terminal abdominal struc-
tures, which resemble those figured by Uvarov (1928, p. 48) for Locusta
migratoria.

The Ist instar nymph is pale in colour on emerging from the pronymphal
moult; at 30° C., the characteristic dark colour develops within 14 hours. Wing
rudiments are not visible, but they may show up in spirit material, In the
2nd instar, wing rudiments are visible, but the appearance of the incipient venation
is not evident until the 3rd mmstar. In the 4th instar, a whitish area is seen about
the base of the hind wing; this feature is maintained in the 5th instar ; in the latter
stage the tibiae of the hind legs may exhibit a reddish tinge.

(c) The Eggs.

The eggs are yellowish-brown in colour. The chorion may exhibit an irregular
hexagonal pattern of ridges which represents the lines of contact with the frothy
secretion produced by the female during oviposition. The micropyle area is
posterior, being defined by a sub-terminal row of pores.

(d) The Egg Pods.

The eggs are laid in typical “pods.” They are disposed vertically in four
parallel rows, each egg lying obliquely to the long axis of the pod. The eggs are
embedded in a glistening, whitish, frothy secretion which also composes the walls
of the pod. The upper third of the pod does not contain eggs; it is filled with the
frothy secretion referred to above, The pods are usually disposed vertically in
the soil to a depth of 24 to 3 inches, but occasionally they are disposed obliquely.

The number of eggs in a pod varies. With 51 pods which were removed
from the soil and the eggs counted, 6 pods had 20-30 eggs, 23 had 30-40 cggs,
19 had 40-50 eggs, and 3 had 50-60 eggs. ‘These numbers compare with those
recorded by previous observers: Bath (1873), 32 to 45 eggs per pod; Gurney
(1919), 36; Johnston and Gross (1935), 30-50,

(e) Oviposition.

Field observations during the recent plague show that the females crowd in
dense numbers for egg-laying on selected sites. In the wheat belt zones these
are generally hard, bare areas, stock roads, thin pastures, dry hard flats, hills
with gravelly soil carrying short, nalive grasses, and banks of creeks. The egg
beds may cover a few square yards or many acres, according to the size of the
swarms. In the more intensive agricultural zone, during the peak of the plague,
the insects laid in various soils, in crops, in fallow soil, and in irrigated swamp
soils bordering the River Murray. Up to 200 pods per square foot were recorded
in egg beds at Renmark.

Observations during the past two years show that Ch, terminifera occurs in
the solitary phase over a wide area of the State (see Andrewartha, 1936, 1936a).
This wide distribution may be the outcome of the recent plague, but the insect
will probably be found permanently in various localities over the wheat belt and

141

the pastoral zone, Eggs must be laid by these solitary individuals over a wide
area, but it is interesting to note that there was no evidence in connection with
the early stages of the recent plague, that swarms were initiated in the wheat
belt zone. The writer made an extensive tour in the pastoral country in October,
1936; solitary individuals of Ch. terminifera were taken over a wide area, extend-
ing to Coward Springs in the north and west of Ceduna in the west,

(f) Development of the Eggs.

The eggs do not develop in dry soil. Where moisture and temperature are
suitable, development appears to take place, without any enforced diapause.
Successive generations of the species have been reared in the heated insectary.
Change to low temperatures or dryness inhibits development. Experimental data
are not yet available for the influence of temperature and moisture on devclop-
ment; eggs laid in dry soil, when remoistened at 30° C., hatched in 13 days.

When the embryo is mature, the chorion is ruptured with the aid of the
cervical ampulla, and the “vermiform larva” (Uvarov, 1928) works its way to the
soil surface, where it casts it pronymphal moult.

(g) Habits of the Nymphs.

The nymphs remain for a day or two hopping about the egg beds. Later
they become more definitely gregarious and advance in dense bands along an
irregular front, through sparse vegetation; they do not like dense, green herbage.
Activity depends largely on temperature. On cool, dull days they remain sluggish
and gather together in irregular, dense clusters in the shelter of depressions in
the soil, or behind suitable protective vegetation (vide Davidson, 1934). When
disturbed, they become agitated and hop about vigorously for a time, but soon
reform. In the early morning, they are sluggish; they may be seen sitting on
stones or pieces of dry sticks, with the long axis of the body directed to the sun.
During hot days (temperatures over 90°F.) the hoppers are very active (see
observations by Johnston and Gross, 1935). The writer has seen nymphs hopping
in a continuous procession down the dry creeks leading from hills carrying exten-
sive areas of egg beds, The insccts were not interested in feeding; they advanced
continuously during the warm hours of the day. The density of the hopper swarms
is amazing; the ground may be completely covered with the insects.

In the wheat belt areas the hoppers feed preferably on native grasses, such
as Danthonia and Stipa, or introduced grasses, such as “barley grass (Hordeum
murinum),; they readily attack cereal crops, fceding chiefly on the flag, although
the ear is also attacked, The insects eat through the stems and leaves, and the
hoppers on the ground feed vigorously on the fallen plants. They also eat
through the stems of grasses near ground level. Apart from these plants, the
hoppers will feed on almost any green plants composing the sparse vegetation.

In the more southerly agricultural areas the insects feed on pasture grasses,
lucerne, lawns and many other crops. In general, however, it would seem that
the nymphs find the environment of the sparse vegetation of the drier districts
more suitable. Hoppers were observed feeding on larkspur (Delphininsmn) in
gardens in the northern wheat districts. They eat the leaves, which contain
poisonous alkaloids, and die round the plants. This has long been known, as is
seen by the numerous references in the local press during previous plagues.
Suggestions have been made that the plant might be cultivated as a trap.

Complete development of the nymphs takes about 4-6 weeks under field
conditions in summer in South Australia.)

@) Eggs collected in the field in February, 1935, hatched in cages in the open-air
insectary on February 25; some nymphs became adult by April 7 (41 days); mean tempera-
ture for the period was about 70° F,

Eggs were laid in soil in cages in open-air insectary in December, 1935; soil was
allowed to dry out and then remoistened later. Eggs hatched June 5, 1936, and nymphs
reared in a heated cabinet. Some nymphs became adult by July 9. Oviposition first noted
August 4.

142

(h) Habits of the Adults,

For one or two days after the final moult, the winged adults make short,
irregular, hop-like flights. Later, they make longer flights in swarms. The
swarms vary considerably in size; a number of discontinuous swarms may be
distributed over a large area of country. These swarms often seem to make short,
indefinite flights, the direction of which varies. When the swarms extend more
continuously over the country, flight may be continued for days in one direction,
so that marked migratory progress is made. From the areas bordering on the
northern part of the wheat belt, these flights are often in a southerly direction;
this is also the case in the southern part of the pastoral zone. Hot north winds
may assist in this, since southerly winds are cool and the insects would be less
active. Although the insects become sluggish with a “cool change,” and during
the nights, there is evidence that they fly during hot nights. In general, the insects
appear to fly at heights varying from 50 to 200 feet; it is possible, however, that
they migrate at much higher levels. Bath (1873) records swarms advancing
south at Learmouth (Victoria) in January at 6-8 miles per hour, the density
being one individual per square inch. Bath observed them flying at a height of
about 300 feet across a lake one mile wide. Professor Harvey Johnston took
two individuals on the Polar Research ship, “Discovery,” at sea, 80 miles south
of Kangaroo Island. Mr. N. B. Tindale informed me that the lighthouse-leeper
at Cape Borda (K.I.) reported a swarm flying against the light on November 10,
1935; this swarm, doubtless, came from Eyre Peninsula, 60 miles away.

The available food plants are restricted in the arid north, and any green
herbage may be eaten. In the agricultural zone the insects feed on pasture grasses,
lucerne, lawns, vines, fruit trees and garden crops.

V THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF CH. TERMINIFERA
IN SOUTIT AUSTRALIA,

In order to understand the ecology of Ch, terminifera in South Australia,
it is necessary to consider briefly the physical environment of the insect as deter-
mined by the topography, climate and vegetation of the State.

A, Topography.

The general distribution of the highlands is shown in fig. 1. “The central
ranges, consisting of the Mount Lofty Range in the south, continue northwards
as the Flinders Range. The former attains an altitude of 2,334 feet near Adelaide
(Mount Lofty), and the latter 3,174 fect near the head of Spencer Gulf (Mount
Remarkable), The relief effect of these ranges on rainfall is illustrated by the
northward trend of the 10-inch annual isohyet (fig, 2), In the north-west corner
of the State, the Musgrave Ranges attain an altitude of some 5,000 feet,

Extending westwards from Lake Gairdner, the country merges into the arid
region of Miocene limestone known as the Nullarbor [lain. Westwards and
northwards from Lake Eyre much of the area consists of desert sandstone and
gibber plains, once the bed of a cretaceous sea. The arid country extends south-
wards, west of Lake Torrens, towards the head of Spencer Gulf. Eastwards
from Lake Eyre, sandhills with claypans and gibber plains are the chief features
of the country. Much of this area receives an average annual rainfall only
of about 5 inches (fig. 2). However, the rainfall fluctuates widely about this
mean; in certain seasons, after heavy rains, the numerous creeks which lead into
Lake Eyre basin and Lake Frome may flood over a wide area.

East of the Flinders Range the country consists of an arid plain, which
extends southwards across the River Murray into the better rainfall districts
comprising the South-eastern area of the State.

143

The general soil type over the northern portion of the State is classed as
Desert Steppe soils; the mallee occupies the greater part of the southern portion,
with red brown earths in the higher rainfall districts of the Mount Lofty Ranges,
and in the south-east corner of the State (Prescott, 1931).

B. Rainfall.
The chief feature of the rainfall in the southern portion of the State is the
well-marked incidence of winter rainfall, the summer months being dry (see data

(CJ o-soo rr.

(EJ 500-1000 rt,
000-z000FT,
EZ 2000—-a000FT,

Coe ba

\

ie
tea

& (WINGEO) = 1932 - 1933 N £

i ‘s
a& (HOPPERS) # = S Z :

° vee woe my at
” NG i z »)

1
[

oan a a
| A ie = 2

$s g «

Hi

oe
f\ ur
~rih
ES rt
‘ike )
SOUTH AUSTRALIA &-<?—\
ILLUSTRATING OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF |
CHORTOICETES TERMINIFERA WALK o

SCALE IN MES

pb 20 4060

bet
——"

Fig. 1.

Showing distribution of the highlands in South Australia, and districts
in which swarms of the black-tipped locust were recorded during 1932-34.

e
wa

oT

s
=

for Roseworthy, Table I). The average annual precipitation is greatest in the
south-east (Mount Gambier, 30°64 inches), and in certain elevated districts in
the Mount Lofty Ranges (Stirling West, 46°78 inches) ; it progressively decreases
towards the north (see data for Farina, Table I). The reliability of the average
amount of rain being received in any year also decrezscs markedly towards the

144

north; there are wide fluctuations about the mean resulting in drought years
interspersed with seasons in which rainfall is well above the average. In the
portion of the State situated north of the 10-inch annual isohyet (fig. 2), mean
annual rainfall figures, and even mean monthly rainfall data, are of little value
tor detailed ecological studies ; individual falls of rain have to be considered.

In the far north the influence of the northern monsoon causes irregular heavy
rains in the summer months. This region is outside the influence of the winter
rainfall system, which is illustrated by the data for Charlotte Waters (Table I),
situated just north of the South Australian border in Lat, 25° 56’, Long, 134° 55’,
The observations of Osborne and his colleagues at Koonamore illustrate particular
features of the rainfall in the arid northern portions of the State. From an
agricultural point of view, South Australia may be conveniently divided into three
zones, the agricultural development of which is determined by rainfall. Intensive
agriculture is practised in the south, in regions having an average annual rainfall
about 18 inches or over. The pastoral zone extends northwards from about the
10-inch annual isohyet ; it occupies 82% of the total area of the State (see fig, 2).
The wheat belt is situated in the intermediate zone, but the limits for safe wheat
cultivation do not extend so tar north as the 10-inch annual rainfall line
(see fig. 4).

TABLE L[,

Showing average monthly rainfall for selected stations;
the figures show points of rain, 100 points = 1 inch.

Station ea Jan. Feb, Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec, Annual
Roseworthy _ .... 44 70 59 80 138 185 245 193 211 195 166 104 86 1732
Farina rity, “att 52.0¢C«ST 55S 66CO AL eH BB OF OAL O4P 4B GSC
William Creek .. 57 51 42 60 41 41 #64 #23 28 40 41 48 56 535

Charlotte Waters 57 78 63 62 46 36 42 21 19 18 32 48 63 528

C. Soil Moisture.

The importance of rain from the viewpoint of ecology is primarily due to
its effectiveness in maintaining adequate moisture in the soil for the growth of
plants; soil moisture is important in relation to the development of the eggs of
the locust. The writer has discussed in earlier papers the value of the ratio of
monthly Precipitation to Evaporation (P/E) as an index to the etfectiveness
of rain in this respect. It has been shown for South Australia, that during the
months in which this ratio is 0°5 or over, based on Adelaide records, there will
be sufficient moisture available for plant growth in the soil, and these months
may he considered as the “growing period”; the remaining months in which the
value of this ratio lies below O0°5 are to be considered as dry months and con-
stitute the dormant scason (sec Davidson, 1935a, 1936), se

It is scen from fig. 2 that, in the arid north of the State, the ratio P/E, based
on mean monthly data, does not attain the value 0-5 for any one month of the year.
Owing to the wide fluctuation of rainfall in this zone, the records for individual
years have to be considered; in certain seasons, the rainfall in particular months
may bring the ratio well above the value of 0°5; creeks may flow and large areas
may be flooded, resulting in luxuriant growth of ephemeral vegetation.

D. Temperature.

Over the greater part of South Australia, the average air temperature for
the coldest month does not fall below 50° F.; in certain elevated districts in the
Mount Lofty Ranges the average for this month may fall 1o 45° F. The range of
temperature over the State is illustrated in Table II.

145

Taste IT,
Showing average monthly temperature for selected stations.
Station Yearly
Records Jan. Feb, Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Mean

Mount Gambier... 65 Max. 76 78 74 68 62 58 57 59 62 66 70 73 67
Min. 53 54 52 49 46 44 42 43 44 46 49 51 48

Roseworthy _. 22 Max. 87 88 82 74 66 61 60 62 67 73 79 84 74
Min. 58 59 55 S51 48 44 42 43 45 48 53 56 50
William Creck .. 39 Max. 96 96 90 80 71 65 64 69 76 84 91 95 82

Min. 69 70 64 55 47 43 41 44 49 56 63 67 56

[___] LES3 THAN 0-5
JUNE
(TL) mAy-vune
[77] MAY- JULY
KAA MAY-AUS.
MAY- OCT.
5 may- SEPT.
APRIL- SEPT.
(IM aArrit-oct.
[HEE Marcr-Nov. SOUTH AUSTRALIA
SHOWING AREAS ANDO MONTHS IN WHICH

THE RATIO =0-5 OR OVER

SCALE IN MILES
O 20 40 60

Sn

Fig. 2.

Showing areas and months for South Australia in which soil moisture is adequate for

the development of locust eggs and the growth of annual planis (R/T = 0°5 or over);

they are based on average monthly records for precipitation and atmospheric saturation

deficit, which may vary considerably from year to year. The 10-inch and 5-inch annual
isohyets are also shown.

146

In the semi-arid and arid pastoral zones, the daily range of temperature is
high. Frosts may occur during the period May to September ; temperatures may
be below freezing at night and uncomfortably warm during the day. These
features are important in relation to the true value to be allotted to the mean
(vide Osborne et al., 1935; Davidson, 1935).

Soil Temperature-—Data for soil temperatures are not readily available; they
are important in relation to the actual temperature experienced by the locusts at
the soil surface, and by the eggs in the soil. Owing to the variable character of
the soil surface and its vegetative covering, it is necessary to obtain temperature
data for local situations. The average monthly shade tempcratures, and soil
temperatures at 1 inch depth on fallow soil, taken from the Waite Institute
records, are given in Table IIT.

‘Tasie III.

Showing average monthly soil temperature at 1 inch depth, and air temperature
at the Waite Institute, during the 10 years, 1925-35,

Temperature Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Mean
Air... Max. 81 82 79 71 64 59 57 59 64 68 74 79 7
Min. 60 61 60 «54 50 47 45 45 48 SO 55 57 53
Soil ... Max. 113. 109 102 85 73 65 63 66 74 85 99 109 87

Min. 66 65 63 56 51 48 47 #48 51 55 61 64 56

Li. Humidity.

The monthly trend of humidity, expressed as atmospheric saturation deficit,
is shown in a previous paper (Davidson, 1934a). Observations by Osborne,
Wood and Paltridge (1935) at Koonamore show that the average minimum
humidity in the semi-arid north may fall below 35% at any time from September
to March, inclusive; the mean maximum humidity may exceed 80% in every
month. These observations illustrate the wide daily range in humidity. Dry
north winds and a high degree of insolation intensify the arid conditions. The
range of humidity over the State is illustrated in Table IV.

Tapte IV,
Showing average monthly humidity for selected stations.

Year!
Station Records Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec, Annual
Mt. Gambier 65 58 60 65 75 82 86 85 81 74 68 65 61. 72

Roseworthy.. 22 45 48 53 64 73 84 85 78 71 59 50 48 63
William Creek 39 32.33 360 43 5t 6055 48 383130, 30 4.

PF, Vegetation.

The zones of indigenous vegetation afford a valuable guide to the climate
and soil of the State. The distribution of the dominant vegetation types is shown
in fig. 3, which is based on the coloured map prepared by Trumble (1935) on
information established by J. G. Wood and J. A. Prescott. The vegetation zones
A-F occupy the major part of the pastoral country and comprisc climax associa-
tions of various desert or semi-desert types.

Zone A—The country consists mainly of desert sandstone and sandhills carry-
ing porcupine grass or spinifex (Triodia irritans and T. pungens),
with an area in the north-west (D) interspersed with mallee.

Zone B—IWlere we have the extensive zone of the mulga (Acacia aneura and
related species), with which are associated semi-desert shrubs, also
cotton bush (Kochia aphylla) and bluebush (K. sedifolia),

Zone C—This consists of an extension of the desert sandhills of Zone A inter-
spersed with the vegetation types found in Zone B.

147

Zone D—A restricted area of mallee (Zone I) situated in Zone A.

Zone E—Here we have a distribution of the mallee type of Eucalypts (£.
dumosa, E. oleosa and allied species (extending northwards into the
semi-desert Acacia scrub association (Zone B).

{
iow
H

ed a
————=

Ve Y |
W/4
N44,

mM
Wii *

In

PAE)

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

ILLUSTRATING VEGETATION TYPES

=a

A
1s)
c
D
E
F.
G
H

SCALE IN MEES
o 20 40 60

VEGETATION TYPES, AFTER F.6.woO0 ANO JAPRESCOTT

Tig. 3.
Showing the distribution of the main vegetation types in
South Australia, which are bricfly described in the text.

Zone F—This zone, together with G, forms the major area of the saltbush
steppe (Atriplex, spp.), with which cotton bush and bluebush are
associated, particularly in the northern parts of the area.

Zone G—Part of the saltbush steppe into which there is a northern extension
of the mallee (Zone 1).

Zone H-—An area of iron grass (Lomandra) hills with flats.

148

Zone I—This is the extensive zone of the mallee which extends right across
the State, south of the saltbush steppe. It is replaced in the central
highlands by dry savannah woodland associations (Zone K) and
savannah woodland (Zone L).

Zone J—Areas of sclerophyll scrub and heath.

Zone K—Dry savannah woodland associations.

Zone L—Savannah woodland associations.

Zone M—Sclerophyll forest associations in the heavier rainfall country,

For further information about the vegetation of these various zones, the
reader should consult the papers by Osborn, Wood and Paltridge (1935), and
Ratcliffe (1936); these papers contain references to earlier work. Extensive
areas of the mallee have been cleared for wheat-growing; portions of the southern
arcas of the pastoral country have changed considerably owing to stocking and
other causes (Radcliffe, 1936).

VI THE 1934-1935 LOCUST PLAGUE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

The peak of the locust plague in South Australia occurred during the summer
of 1934-1935, but evidence has been obtained relating to the development of the
swarms in the two previous years. Winged swarms of Ch. terminifera developed
in local areas in the pastoral zone during the summer of 1932-1933. In one
locality a swarm of wingless hoppers was recorded. The few records which
have been established by means of survey tours, and reports from holders of
pastoral leases, are to be considered as representing the beginnings of the sub-
sequent plague. Doubtless, there were other local swarms scattered over the
pastoral country during this period, but owing to the character of the country
and the sparse population, it is not surprising that more records are not available.
In particular, the chances of scattered gregarious bands of wingless hoppers being
observed are very small. It may be noted that individual sheep stations may
occupy some 1,000 to 2,000 square miles of country, carrying 20 to 30 sheep to
the mile; the greater part of the State above lat. 30° is practically unoccupied.

The winged swarms referred to above were observed during February to
May, 1933. They were adults from hatchings induced by local summer rains in
particular areas. It is convenient to refer to them as representing the first genera-
tion.“ This generation laid eggs from which nymphs of the second generation
commenced to hatch out the following spring (1933). Winged swarms of the
second generation were widespread during the late spring and early summer of
1933; they advanced southwards throughout the summer (fg. 1). From the
western part of the State, in the region west of Lake Gairdner, they invaded the
hilly country (Gawler Ranges) to the south and south-west of this lake. In the
central portion of the State, they advanced from the north-east, into the country
bordering on the wheat belt (figs. 1 and 4), Eggs were laid in these areas from
November onwards. Nymphs of the third generation were hatching in these
areas during the summer. This resulted in the development of numerous winged
swarms of the third generation in the summer and autumn of 1934. The areas
concerned extended across the State at irregnlar intervals. The swarms advanecd
southwards into the wheat belt in vast numbers. Eggs were laid in certain areas

@) The available evidence indicates that small, scattered swarms of Ch. terminifera
may develop any year in the arid and semi-arid northern country, due to irregular, local
falls of rain. When moisture is adequate, hatching may occur in any month of the year,
although temperatures during June, July and August are not very favourable. Because
of variation in the time of hatching in different areas, it is more suitable to refer hatchings
ta seasonal periods rather than individual months. In this paper, spring, summer, autumn
and winter are considered as including the months September-November, December-
February, March-May and June-August, respectively,

149

in the wheat belt and in cleared portions of this belt bordering on the pastoral
country.

Owing to the dry autumn of 1934 in the wheat belt area, and the retarding
effect of temperature during the winter months, the eggs did not commence to
hatch until the early spring of 1934. Nymphs of the fourth generation were
hatching out from late August onwards; the time of hatching depended upon the
temperature in particular areas. In Eyre Peninsula, in districts about Kimba
and Cowell, the nymphs were hatching during September and October, over
extensive areas. In certain districts the egg beds extended almost continuously
for two or three miles. During the summer of 1934-35, winged swarms of the

O (WINGED) 1934-35
@ (HopreRs) o* ~*
3 (SWARMS) 1935-36

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

ILLUSTRATING OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF
CHORTOICETES TERMINIFERA WALK,

SCALE IN MILES
O 20 40 60 80
|

Fig. 4.
Showing representative districts in South Australia in which swarms of the black-
tipped locust were recorded during 1934-36. Information relating to their occurrence
in the extreme north and west of the State is not available. The course of the 55° F.
isotherm for the coldest month (July) is shown. The solid black line marks the
northern safe limits for wheat growing. Cleared, undevcloped areas about this line
afford important temporary breeding grounds for the black-tipped locust in certain years.

150

fourth generation extended over a large part of the agricultural areas of the State
(fig. 4). They did not extend into the higher rainfall districts of the Mount Lofty
Ranges, nor into the south-eastern corner of the State. The extent of the invasion is
illustrated in fig. 4, where representative localities in the invasion area are indicated.

Eggs were laid freely in these invasion areas during the summer of 1934-35.
Extensive hatching of nymphs of the fifth generation occurred during the early
part of 1935 in localities where local summer rains produced adequate soil
moisture. In other districts, nymphs were found hatching after the early autumn
rains. The nymphs in all these instances died out at an early stage of develop-
ment. During the summer of 1935-36, only scattered, solitary, winged individuals
were found in the invasion areas, with the exception of two small swarms located
in November, 1935 (fig. 4); it is highly probable, of course, that small swarms
occurred in other localities. The species was found to be widely distributed as
solitary individuals over wide areas of the State during the summer of 1935-36,
They may represent the aftermath of the plague.

Vil FACTORS AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PLAGUE.

The breeding grounds of Ch. terminifera, in the pastoral zone, occur as
restricted localities, scattered across the State. This is due to variation in soil
type, vegetation and the irregular distribution of effective rains. The localities in
which swarms may develop, and the extent of the swarms, will depend primarily
upon the situations in which viable eggs are present, and the distribution of
effective rains. Information is not available regarding the occurrence of swarms
in the far northern regions of the State. They doubtless occur in restricted,
favourable situations, but the arid conditions may not permit of the development
of swarms over extensive areas.

The development of the recent plague in South Australia is associated with
the occurrence of rains, markedly above the mean, in parts of pastoral zone during
the warmer months of 1932 to 1934. These areas are situated in the north-west
and north-east pastoral country. The distribution of rainfall during these months
in these areas is illustrated in Table V.

In that part of the State which lies south of the 10-inch annual rainfall line,
rainfall is more reliable, but the region is under the influence of the winter rainfall
system (fig. 2). Locusts hatching out in the autumn, in this region, would
normally experience the cold, wet winter months, and the mortality would be
heavy ; those hatching in spring would be faced with a period of summer drought.

The dry autumn of 1934 in the wheat belt zone favoured the insects, since
they hatched out nearer the spring period (Davidson, 19354). The widespread
occurrence of swarms throughout the wheat belt, and the country south of it,
during the summer of 1934-35, was chiefly due to the eggs laid by winged swarms
which invaded these areas from the north during the previous autumn. The
climate in these southern portions of the State is such that this high density of
the locust population cannot be maintained for more than one or two seasons.
Owing to the varied conditions which must be fulfilled before a widespread plague
can develop in these areas, such outbreaks will occur infrequently and at irregular
intervals.

The reasons for the widespread deaths amongst the nymphs (fifth generation)
which hatched out during the early part of 1935 are not clear. To some extent
extreme dryness and lack of green food may have been responsible for this.
Development of the eggs and emergence of the nymphs are arrested it the soil
dries out, so that the emergence of nymphs in the field may extend over a pro-
longed period, due to fluctuations in soil moisture. LE-xtreme dryness is harmful
at certain stages of development, and the nymphs which eventually emerge may
be weakened. In general, the nymphs lacked vigour compared with those of the
previous generation,

151

Taste V.
Showing the rainfall in particular months during 1932-34 at certain stations
in the pastoral country. Rainfall figures in points (100 points = 1 ich).
The mean rainfall is shown im italics.

Yr. Jan. Feb. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
a Av. 39 59 125 106 94 63 44
0 32.«12si«a7BesiaH—( a 7B 2 55
S 3 20 0 133 86 25 424 34
4 6 109 201 36 11 179 0
a 2 ~
Ege Av. 20 57 64 33 32 40 64
= 28 32 «-24.Ci«d1388——i247—(i7s—id100'— as —s«*2“R
8 “Ed 3. O97 0 59 7 25 146 3
5s 4 1 2 44 2 37 157 0
Zz é
s | oAvy gf 62 53 4 66 45 S50 |
S 32 0 211 65 107 162 56 0
8 3 0 0 55 2 13 12 37
ig 4 0 73 51 9 43 108 0
7 Av. 58 62 72 72 68 7 #3
= 32 0 167 102 132 5 2k 5
aa 3. 63 0 6 103 33 331 «67
4 0 9 18 12 £72 =~ «139 4
—— ~
as
ts gg Av. 57 60 63 60 62 76 64
3 | go 32002 «OC HLL 70
3 ‘ae 3 7 43 30 52 6 409 2
es) qs 4 6 33 36 97 «127 0 564
| 4a
& . Av. 4 52 72 65 64 6 OF
5 32 0 wi 93 122 1 19 0
a 3 8 0 7 24 22 293 25
s 4 22 100 3 19 96 167 0

The egg parasite, Scelio fulgidus Crawford, occurred widely in the egg beds
during 1934-35 (vide Noble, 1935). Material was received from Renmark,
Burra and Murray Bridge. It appeared freely in egg beds at Murray Bridge, in
districts where Ch. terminifera had not becn recorded for many years. This
suggests that it may be a parasite of the eggs of local species of Acridids.
Emergence of the parasite from parasitised egg pods is arrested if the soil dries
out, so that emergence may extend over a long period under field conditions. A
section of soil taken from egg bed at Murray Bridge in February, 1935, was
allowed to dry out in the laboratory for 37 days. The average temperature in
the room for the period was 72° F. Parasites were emerging from the egg pods
when the sample was taken; they ccased to emerge after a few days. The soil
was watered on the thirty-eighth day and parasites emerged the same day.

Parasitism of the eggs and the unfavourable physical environment doubtless
contributed to the reduction of the locust population.

SUMMARY.

The Australian “black-tipped locust” (Chortoicetes terminifera, Walk.)
occurred in plague numbers over a large part of southern and eastern Australia

152

during 1933-1935. An account is given of the progress of the plague in South
Australia, and of certain factors affecting its development. The synonymy of
the species is discussed. The general characters of the egg pod, nymphs and
adults are described, and an account is given of the chief features of the biclogy
of the nymphs and adults. The physiography, climate and vegetation of South
Australia are briefly discussed, since they determine the character of the physical
environment of the insect.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS,

The writer is indebted to Professor A. J. Perkins and several members of
the staff of the Department of Agriculture of South Australia; also to Mr. N.
McGilp, of the Pastoral Board, for their helpful co-operation in many ways,
particularly relating to field observations.

The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research has provided a motor con-
veyance, so that more extended field work may be carried out on the locust and
grasshopper problem in South Australia; the State Department of Agriculture has
arranged for a special grant for travelling expenses in this connection. A detailed
study is being made of the biology of the species concerned, and of the endemic
areas in the State, in which locust and grasshopper outbreaks originate. This
work could not have been undertaken without this sympathetic co-operation and
generous assistance.

Mr. D. C. Swan and Mr. H. G. Andrewartha, Assistant Entomologists, made
observations on Ch. terminifera in the field, and on colonies reared in the insectary,
which have been incorporated in the paper.

REFERENCES.

AnprewartTia, H.G. 1936. Journ. Agric. S. Aust., vol. xxxix, p. 1,031, 1,223.

Batu, T. 1873. First Rept. Dept. Lands and Agric. Vict., p. 66.

Davipson, J. 1934. Journ. Agric. S. Aust., vol. xxxviii, p. 619.

Davipson, J. 1934a. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. lviii, p. 197.

Davipson, J. 1935. Jbid., vol. lxix, p. 107.

Davipson, J. 1935a. Nature, vol. cxxxvi, p. 298.

Davinson, J. 1936. Ibid, vol.

Froccatr, W. W. 1903. Agric Gaz. N.S. Wales, vol. xiv, p. 1,102.

Froccatt, W. W. 1909. Ibid, vol. xx, p. 764.

Jomnston, W. C., and Gross, F. C. C, 1935. Journ, Agric. 5S. Aust., vol. xxxviii,
p. 1,072.

Korzete, A, 1891. Insect Life, vol. iii, p. 419.

Nonte, N.S. 1935. Agric. Gaz. N. S. Wales, vol. xlvi, p. 513.

OtuiFF, A. S. 1890. Agric. Gaz. N. 5. Wales, vol. i, p. 287.

Oxuirr, A. S, 1909. Jbid, vol. ii, p. 74.

OsnorneE, T. G. B., Woop, J. G., and Parrrmor. T. B. 1935. Proc. Linn. Soc.
N. 5. Wales, vol. 1x, p. 392 (give references to earlier papers).

Prescorr. J..A. 1931. Counce. Sei. Ind. Res. Austr., Bull. 52,

Ratcuirrk, F, N. 1936. Counc. Sci. Ind. Res, Austr., Pamphlet 64.

Syosrept, Yngve. 1921. “Acridioidea Australica.” Kungl. Svenska Vetenskaps-
akademiens Handingar, Band 62, No. 3.

SiosteptT, Yngve. 1935. “Revision der Australischen Acridiodeen.” 2 Mono-
graphie, Kungl. Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens Ilandingar (‘l'redje
Serien), Rand 15, No. 2.

Tepper J.G.O. 1891. Garden and Field, Adelaide, Feb., p. 118.

Trumnzce, II. C. 1935. Journ. Agric. S. Aust., vol. xxxviii, p. 1.460.

Uvarov, B. P, 1928. “Locusts and Grasshoppers.” (Imp. Inst. Entom., [on-
don), p. 303.

DESCRIPTIONS OF THREE NEW SPECIES AND ONE VARIETY OF
EUCALYPTUS OF THE ELDER AND HORN EXPEDITIONS, THE
"WHITE- WASH GUM" OF CENTRAL AUSTRALIA, AND THE
RE-DISCOVERY OF EUCALYPTUS ORBIFOLIA F. V. M.

BY W. F. BLAKELY

Summary

Arbor 30-45 pedes (ca. 9-13 m.) alta, ramulis, foliis, fructibus maxime glaucis. Folia juvenilia
opposita, subamplexicaulia, sessilia vel breviter petiolata, ovata vel oblonga, crassa, glauca, 2-5 cm.
longa, 2-4 cm. lata; folia matura petiolata, alterna necnon opposita, oblongo-lanceolata vel
falcato-lanceolata, 4-6 cm. longa, 1-2 cm. lata; venae obscurae, venae laterales irregulares, angulo
30-35 graduum a costa media divergentes, vena intramarginalis a crasso margine remota; umbellae
axillares, sub-deflexae, 3-9-florae vel floribus pluribus passim praeditae; pedunculi teretes,
10-15 mm. longi, gemmae non visae. Fructus pedicellati, globulari-truncati vel fere rotundi, tenues,
glauci, glabri vel minute rugosi 6-10 x 6-10 mm. foraminibus contractis; capsulae 3-1-oculares,.
Profunde inclusae.

153

DESCRIPTIONS OF THREE NEW SPECIES AND ONE VARIETY OF

EUCALYPTUS OF THE ELDER AND HORN EXPEDITIONS, THE

“WHITE-WASH GUM” OF CENTRAL AUSTRALIA, AND THE
RE-DISCOVERY OF EUCALYPTUS ORBIFOLIA F. v. M.

By W. F. Biraxery, National Herbarium, Sydney. —
(Communicated by J. M. Black.)

[Read October 8, 1936.]

E. gongylocarpa, sp. nov., “Marble Gum.”

Arbor 30-45 pedes (ca. 9-13 m.) alta, ramulis, foliis, fructibus maxime
glaucis. Folia juvenilia opposita, subamplexicaulia, sessilia vel breviter petiolata,
ovata vel oblonga, crassa, glauca, 2-5 cm. longa, 2-4 cm. lata; folia matura
petiolata, alterna necnon opposita, oblongo-lanceolata vel falcato-lanceolata,
4-6 cm. longa, 1-2 cm. lata; venae obscurac, venae laterales irregulares, angulo
30-35 graduum a costa media divergentes, vena intramarginalis a crasso margine
remota; umbellae axillares, sub-deflexae, 3-9-florae vel floribus pluribus passim
praeditae; pedunculi teretes, 10-15 mm. longi, gemmae non visae. Fructus
pedicellati, globulari-truncati vel fere rotundi, tenues, glauci, glabri vel minute
rugosi 6-10 x 6-10 mm. foraminibus contractis; capsulae 3-1l-oculares, profunde
inclusae.

A tree 30 to 45 feet high (Helms); on sand formation, 50 to 80 feet high
(Spencer). Branchlets, leaves and fruits very glaucous. Juvenile leaves opposite,
subamplexicaul, sessile to very shortly petiolate, ovate to oblong, thick, very
glaucous, 2-4 x 2-5 cm. Mature leaves petiolate, alternate and opposite, oblong-
lanceolate to falcate-lanceolate, moderately thick, 4-6 cm. long or longer, 1-2 cm.
broad; veins indistinct, the lateral ones irregular, diverging at an angle of 30-35°
from the midrib; intramarginal vein very undulate and distant from the slightly
thickened margin; petioles 5-10 mm. long, usually compressed. Umbels axillary,
slightly deflexed, 3-9 flowered or more; peduncles terete, 10-15 mm, long; buds
not seen. Fruit on slender, terete pedicels 4-6 mm. long, globular-truncate to
almost round, rather thin, very glaucous, smooth or minutely wrinkled, 6-10 x
6-10 mm. contracted at the orifice and completely enclosing the three-celled
capsule, the disc forming a slightly undulate annulus around the orifice. The
calycine ring of the very young fruit is usually furnished with four microscopic
teeth, and it is slightly broader in the centre of the space between each tooth-like
projection.

South Australia—Mueller and Tate, Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. xvi,
p. 358, record a “variety with ovate leaves, 25 miles S.S.W. of Mount Watson.”
It seems to be the juvenile state of the species.

Northern Territory—Between Bagot’s Creek and Lake Amadeus, Baldwin
Spencer, Horn Expedition, 1894. In the desert country (from the George Gill
Range to Ayers Rock and Mount Olga), at p. 81 of the Horn Expedition Narra-
tive, Prof. Baldwin Spencer says, “All the morning we were traversing low sand-
hills, on many of which grew a fine sandhill gum, E. eudesmioides, which reached
a height of 50 to 80 feet. The trunk is silver-grey in colour and very shiny, except
the butt, where is it covered with a paper-like bark which peels off in long, yellow-
brown scales. The grey-green foliage usually forms a kind of umbrella-shaped
mass, and it is somewhat strange to find a big tree like this right out amongst the

154

waterless sandhills.” In L. C, E. Gee’s “General Report on Tanami Goldfield
and District,” S.A. Parliamentary Paper, p. 6, 1911, from Tanami to Mucka on
the Victoria River, Desert Gums were encountered—probably referable to this
species.

Western Australia—The following specimens were collected on the Elder
Exploring Expedition by R. Helms. Barrow Range, Victoria Desert, Camp 38,
“30 to 45 feet high; sandy habitat, 2/9/1891.” Victoria Desert, Camp 45,
“20 to 35 feet; on sand, 8/9/1891.” “The fine growth of Eucalyptus cudesmioides
(Desert Gum), extending for over 100 miles, gave the country a very pleasing
aspect.” Vicinity of Queen Victoria Spring, Camp 60, “30 to 40 feet high; sand
formation, 24/9/1891.” The Type—It is readily distinguished from
E. eudesmioides F. y. M., with which it has been confused, by ils much larger
size, ovate to oblong juvenile leaves, very glaucous and narrower mature leaves
with longer petioles, multiflowered umbels, and in the globular or marble-like,
very glaucous fruits.

E. papuana F. vy. M., var Aparrerinja var. nov.,
“Ghost Gumtree” or “White-wash Gum.”

A small to large graceful tree, with a smooth white bark, deciduous to the
ground, the surface covered with a fine white substance which retards excessive
evaporation from the chlorophyll-laden bark beneath and which is used by the
blacks as a powder or pigment in various ways. Juvenile leaves opposite for a
iarge number of pairs, elliptical to oblong-lanceolate, pale green, sessile to shortly
petiolate, the petioles swollen at the base, venulose, subhispid, the midrib very
prominent on both surfaces, 6 to 10 cm. long, 2 to 3°3 em. broad. Mature leaves
giternate, narrow-lanceolate to falcate-acuminate, sometimes very irregular in
shape due to insectival action, 10-15 x 1-1-5 cm., the somewhat irregular venation
more or less distinct. Inflorescence terminal, forming short panicles or abbre-
viated cymes of 3-9 flowers; buds shortly pedicellate, pyriform, 6 x 6 mm.,, the
operculum patelliform, much shorter than the calyx, covered with a minute
scurfy layer. Fruit brevipedicellate, campanulate, broader than long, 8 x 10 mm.,
thin, with a broad orifice, and a deeply enclosed trilocular capsule.

C.A-N.T.—Deep Well Station, Charlotte Waters, A. M. Kleining,
20/1/1925; Crown Point and Cunningham's Gap; Ross River Gorge, “Along the
river bed were giant gum trees, while one, the most beautiful and graceful of its
kind, bearing the unprosaic but descriptive name of White-wash Gum, clings to
the rock faces, its dazzling white trunk and bright green foliage standing out
against the blue sky and the red rocks.’ Professor Baldwin Spencer, in “Sydney
Sun,” 12/9/1923; near Temple Bar, T.. K. Ward; Gosse Range, 5.W. Macdonnell
ftanges; “Aparrerinja” or “Ghost Gumtree,” Dr, H. Basedow, Borroloola, large
tree; white stem, G. F. Hill. Professor Baldwin Spencer, in “Across Australia,”
gives an exccllent photograph of ‘Wrhite-wash Guin,” and on page 151 he says:
“This tree is characteristic of the Steppes. The trunk owes its colour to the
presence of a perfectly white dust which comes off when rubbed by the hand; in
fact, the natives actually use it to whiten their head-bands. We have never
seen any trunk to equal this in its intense whiteness.” And on page 176 he again
refers to it:-—“E. terminalis grows right on the ranges, and, with its dazzling
white trunk, forms a very characteristic feature of the vegetation.” It has been
referred to by various authors as E. ferminalis, a species with a rough, persistent
bark and long cylindroid-urceolate fruits. Its intense white, powdery bark, abbre-
viated inflorescence, pyriform buds, and broad campanulate fruits separate it
from the species. It seems to have a predilection for quartzite rocks, and should

155

be a very usetul tree for hot, dry, low-rainfall arcas. Its flowering period is
somewhat irregular, owing to climatic conditions, and ranges from August to
January, so far as observed.

E. trivalva, sp. nov., “Victoria Spring Mallee.”
Nihil de statura, facie vel habitu huius Mallee adhuc accurate compertum est.

Ramuli glabri, nitidi, pallidi; folia matura alterna, petiolata, angusto-
lanceolata vel lato-lanceolata, crassa, indistincte grisea, 6-9 cm. longa, 2-3 cm.
lata; venatio obscura, venae laterales tenuissimae, angulo 40-50 graduum a costa
media prominente divergentes, vena intramarginalis juxta marginem crassum
nervosum; petioli sub-compressi, 10-17 mm. longi, umbellae 3-8-florae vel multi-
florae, pedunculi compressi, 8-10 mm. longi, gemmae non visae.

Fructus flavidi, sessiles, turbinati, truncati, crassi, 7 x 7 mm., discus latus
introrsum alte obliquus capsulam 3-locularem angustam occludens, valvae, tres,
latae, firmae, sub-exsertae.

Size and habit unknown; branchlets smooth and shining, pale-coloured ;
mature leaves alternate, petiolate, narrow to broadly lanceolate, thick, dull grey
on both surfaces or somewhat subglaucous, 6-9 cm, long, 2-3 cm. broad, venation
obscure, the lateral veins very fine and rather close, diverging at an angle of
45-50° from the prominent midrib; intramarginal vein close to the thick nerve-
like margin; petioles slightly compressed, 10-17 mm. long. Umbels 3-8-flowered
or more; peduncles compressed, broad at the top, 8-10 mm. long; buds not seen.
Fruit yellowish, sessile, turbinate, truncate, thick, 7 x 7 mm., the rather broad
disc deeply internally oblique, partly concealing the somewhat narrow 3-celled
capsule, and the three strong, broad, conspicuous valves which are slightly exsert.

Only known from south of Queen Victoria Spring, Western Australia,
R. Helm’s No. 28, Elder Exploring Expedition, September, 1891.

The very pale-coloured leaves and fruits are reminiscent of E., pallidifolia
and £. confluens, but the fruits are entirely different to either species, and seem
to belong to Series Dumosae. In the absence of complete material it is difficult
to assign its true position, and for the present it is placed near E. dumosa A. Cunn.

E. leptophylla, F. v. M., var. floribunda, var. nov.
“Flowery Mallee.”

A Mallee, 20 feet high in granite formation (R. Helms). Branchlets slightly
glaucous ; leaves oblong-lanceolate to lanceolate, uncinate, pale coloured, 4-5-5cm,
x lem. Flowers very numerous, buds cylindrical; operculum conical, twice the
length of the calyx-tube. Fruit pyriform-truncate, 4 x 4 mm. The fruits are
figured in Crit, Rev., pt. xiv, pl. 62, fig. 17, as E. uncinata, Western Australia
-~Mount Churchman, about 50 miles north-west from Knutsford, Elder Explor-
ing Expedition, R. Helms, December 10, 1891, The main points which distinguish
it from the species are the much shorter and broader leaves, longer operculum,
smaller fruits, and subglaucous branchlets. It is a very floriferous variety and
in full bloom in December.

E. oxymitra, sp. nov., “Sharp-capped Mallee.”

Arbuscula “Mallee” valde glauca; folia alterna, petiolata satis lato-
lanceolata, uncinata, crassa, coriacea ad 7 em. longa, 2-4 cm. lata; venatio
obscura, venae laterales rectae, numerosae, a costa media angulo 30 graduum
divergentes; petioli firmi, 10-15 mm. longi. Umbellae axillares, 3-7-florae,
gemmae pedicellatae, globulari-rostratae, 10-12 mm. longae, 7-8 mm. diametro,

156

calycis tubus brevis vix 3 mm., operculum 7-9 mm. longum, rectum subulatumve,
ad medium rostratum, antherae “platyantherae,” a latere poris magnis orbicularibus
aperientes.

Fructus pedicellati, glauci, subglobosi, 11 x 11 mm., discus latus, semi-
conicus, truncatus, quam pars calycina minor, valvae 3-5 ligneae, deltoideae,
exsertae,

A very glaucous Mallee, size and habit unknown. Leaves alternate, petiolate,
somewhat broadly lanceolate, acute or uncinale, tapering abruptly into the
shghtly compressed petioles, thick, coriaceous, up to 7 cm. long, 2-4 cm. broad ;
venation obscure, the lateral veins straight and numerous, diverging at an angle
ot 30° from the midrib; petioles firm, 10-15 mm. long. Umbels axillary;
peduncles compressed, robust, with a disc-like expansion at the top, bearing 3-7
shortly pedicellate flowers. Buds somewhat globular-rostrate, 10-12 mm. long,
7-8 mm. in diameter, the calyx-tube very shallow, barcly 3 mm., the operculum
7-9 mm. long, straight or subulate-rostrate for half its length. Anthers Platy-
antherae, broader than long, opening laterally in large orbicular pores, the connec-
tive broad with a small terminal gland, and the filament attached at its base.
Fruit pedicellate, glaucous, subglobose, 11 x 11 mm., the disc broad, semi-conical,
truncate, smaller than the calycine portion, valves 3-5, ligneous, deltoid, exsert.

Central Australia—Sandhills near junction of Palmer and Walker; Mis-
sionary Plain by Pine Point, Professor Ralph Tate, Horn Expedition, 1894,
recorded as E. Oldfieldii F. v. M. It is allied to £. Drummondi and E. Lane-
Poolei, but nearest the latter in the sculpture and size of the fruit.

F. orbifolia F. v. M. On Mount Sonder, Central Australia, Ralph Tate,
1894; specimen in the University of Adelaide Herbarium. It is recorded in the
“Report of the Horn Expedition,” p. 159, as £. Oldjieldii, var., “with leaves oval-
oblong to ovate-obcordate, one to onc-and-a-quarter inches long.’ Previously only
known from about 30 or 40 miles north of Southern Cross, Western Australia.
It resembles E. Websteriana Maiden in the leaves, but differs from it in the striate
operculum, and in the large conical, truncate capsular disc.

I wish to express my indebtedness to Mr. J. M. Black, Miss Constance
Eardley, Curator of Herbarium, The University of Adelaide, and to Mr. EF. J.
kae, Government Botanist, Victoria, for the loan of specimens.

Anstracr or New SPpkEcIes,

The species are from the arid regions of Central and Western Australia,
and belong to Series Eudesmicae, Dumosae, and Leptopodiae, respectively.
i, gongylocarpa is allied to E. eudesmioides F. v. M., from which it is readily
distinguished by its multiflowered umbels and round marble-like fruits.
E. trivalva has the characteristic pale leaves and fruits of E. confluens, and
E, pallidifolia, but on the available evidence it is placed near E. dumosa A. Cunn.,
while E. oxymitra, a small glaucous Mallee, somewhat resembles LE. Lane-Poolet
Maiden in its floral and carpological characters,

ON MAMMALS FROM THE LAKE EYRE BASIN. PART ITI.
THE DIPROTODONT MARSUPIALS AND ORNITHODELPHIA.

BY W. F. BLAKELY

Summary

Macropus rufus (Desmarest); (Koongarra: of the Wonkonguroo) . The red kangaroo occurs sparsely
over the whole of the Basin, but is dispersed for the most part in small bands or even as individuals.
It is highly migratory and nomadic, however, and here, as elsewhere in the Centre, shows an

astonishing faculty, almost a prescience, for discovering and concentrating upon areas which have
been favoured by rain or local flood.

157

ON MAMMALS FROM THE LAKE EYRE BASIN. PART III.

THE DIPROTODONT MARSUPIALS AND ORNITHODELPHIA.

By H. II. Frytayson.

[Read October 8, 1936.]

MACROPODINAE.
Macropus rufus (Desmarest) ; (Koongarra: of the Wonkonguroo).

The red kangaroo occurs sparsely over the whole of the Basin, but is dis-
persed for the most part in small bands or even as individuals, It is highly
migratory and nomadic, however, and here, as elsewhere in the Centre, shows
an astonishing faculty, almost a prescience, for discovering and concentrating upon
arcas which have been favoured by rain or local flood.

In December, 1931, small parties of it were sighted at a distance on several
occasions, both on Sturt’s Stony Desert and in the white sandhill country of the
Barcoo and Strzelecki (both very forbidding areas even at that time), but it is
doubtful whether in a normal dry year it would tolerate the very severe summer
conditions of the gibber plains and sandhills for long. As a minor factor tending
to mitigate the conditions in these types of country, must be mentioned the
artesian bore streams, brought to the surface at a time when the economic possi-
Lilities of the country were rated much higher than now, but still gushing out
millions of gallons of potable water into the empty wilderness which the desertion
of the holdings has recreated. The area influenced by the bores is, of course,
very small, but it is probable that they are the means of retaining small numbers
of kangaroos in districts which would otherwise be completely deserted by them,
except in rain time; M. rufus being one of the few marsupials which casily
becomes addicted to regular and copious drinking if water is available.

The only locality in which large numbers were observed was on the Provi-
dence Creek, east of Sturt’s Stony Desert and near the western boundary of
Cordillo sheep run, which at that time was almost unstocked. The lower course
of the creek had been flooded three weeks previously, and kangaroos were on all
the green flats thereabouts and watering even in broad daylight at the pools in
the channel.

I have not applied a subspecific name to the local kangaroo, since but two
specimens of it were got, and in an animal exhibiting extraordinary individual
variation, such differentiation calls for a wealth of material. Some pure red-
coated individuals were seen (and a very dark plumbeous phase on Cordillo),
but a large proportion of those observed (and the two females collected) were
in an intermediate blue-red phase, such as commonly occurs at this time or a
little later on the saltbush tablelands in South Australia, between lats, 30-34°
south. For reasons already noted, the presence of M. rufus in those portions of
the Lake Eyre Basin, which have imposed subspecific differences upon resident
mammals, is but spasmodic and transitory, and if one may accept the validity of
the three described races of the red kangaroo, there is little doubt that the form
here noticed is reconcilable with the eastern race M, rufus typicus (Desm.).

Flesh dimensions of (1) a very aged female, (2) a yearling female, taken
near Tcherrikooninyee water, on a gibber plain, 15 miles east of Appamunna :—

158

Head and body, 964; 627. Tail, length®? 926; 668. Tail, girth at base
340; —. Chest girth, 460; —. Manus length, 70; 43. Nail of 3rd digit, 19; 13.
Pes length, 318; 258. 4th toe, 125; 95. Nail of 4th toe, 28; 19-5. Far, 137 x
50; 110 x 50. Rhinarium to eye, 102; 70. Eye to ear, 62; 50, Eye (intercanthus),
28; 21. Weight, 73 lbs; 21 Ibs.

Skull dimensions of the above aged female:—Greatest length 178, basal
length 165-5; greatest breadth, 93:0; nasals greatest breadth, 28°5: nasals least
breadth, 18-6 ea.; nasals length, 79-0; intertemporal breadth, 23-0; palate breadth
inside M2, 32 (ca.) ; palate length, 110°5; diastema, 48-1; basicranial axis, 43 (ca.) ;
basifacial axis, 126 (ca.); facial index, 293 (ca.); M'M®*, 30; ant. palatal
foramina, 13-5,

Other Macropodinae,

On the eastern and western margins of the Basin the uniformity of the
gibber plains is broken by firm rangelets, which provide a suitable environment
for Macropus robustus and Petrogale spp., and the accounts given by caltlemen
testify to the former presence of both in these localities. The testimony of the
blacks of the area about the two rivers on this point is surprisingly vague, and
except that a wallaby-like animal, called karndoo by the Dieri, is found in hills
tar to the north-east, I was not able to gather from them any information, and
material is quite lacking.

On the western side, in the Peake and Mount Margaret Ranges, the two
species may be set down with probability as M. robustus erubescens and Petrogale
xanthopus typicus, although the most northerly records of these two species in
South Australia is provided by specimens taken by the writer near Mount Nor-
west in the Willouran Hills, 170 miles south-east of Mount Margaret. There is
just a possibility, however, that the rock wallaby in these hills may have been
P. lateralis, the southerly record of that species being near Morilyanna,‘) 250
miles north-west.

On the eastern side also M. robustus erubescens and P. xanthopus are no
doubt responsible for the accounts of euros and rock wallabies ; the latter possibly
P. xanthopus celeris of Le Souef, the type of which came from the head of the
Bulloo Creek, 250 miles north by west of Cordillo.

At the time of the taking of the first specimen of Caloprymnus in 1931,
there were reasons for suspecting the presence in the same districts of a species
ot Lagorchestes, probably L. hirsutus, which, though predominantly a western
species, ranges on the Tropic to at least 136° E. longit. Its presence in the |.ake
Eyre Basin, now appears doubtful, however. No specimens have been obtained
i, the five years that have elapsed, and repeated questioning of the blacks has
narruwed their accounts of animals resembling Caloprymmus to the kanunka,
which is evidently of the Potoroinae, There is still, of course, the account given
by Mr. J. N. McGilp (vide Le Souef and Purrel, “The Wild Animals of Aus-
tralia,” p. 214) of a small “hare wallaby” near Lake /‘rome on the southern
fringe of the area here dealt with. This was considered hy Le Souef to be
L. hirsutus, and certainly the account of its behaviour when chased would
support that identification. L. conspicillatus, which in slightly higher latitudes
ranges from the east coast almost to Gibson’s Desert, is also apparently absent.

@) Flexed at right angles io trunk.

(©) Somewhat further to the west, it is reported from localities considerably further
south, but there is no material in support as yet.

©@) Mr. McGilp has since had an opportunity of inspecting skins of all the related
forms, and is now doubtful on this point.

159

Finally, in connection with this subfamily, should be noticed the statement
of Sturt (Expedition into Central Australia, vol. ii, appendix) that an animal
silvery grey in colour and crossed with dark bars on the back (and, therefore,
strongly suggestive of Lagostrophus fasciatus) was seen on the “plains of the
Interior,” and that the same animal was common north of Gawler.

PoroROIN AE.
Caloprymnus campestris (Gould).

Since my last reference to this animal (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1932,
p. 148-167) I have examined five more specimens which have been taken in the
same area since that time, and through the kindness of Mr. Reese, frequent
reports have come to hand regarding the movements of the oolacunta in his
country and that of his neighbours, Though it is still present in the area from
which the serics came in 1931, it is now almost as scarce there as before that
time, and from Cooncheri Flats, which seemed to be its headquarters then, it has
evidently disappeared. On the other hand, in 1933-34 it had a time of plenty at
Mulka, and it was frequently seen at Ooroowillanie as late as 1935. Om the
whole, the records to hand suggest that Caloprymmis participates in the north
to south drift which seems to characterise all the small mammals here after a
favourable season, though in this case the drift is evidently much slower than
with other species.

In the matter of proving the extension of its range outside the Lake Eyre
Rasin, little progress has been made. To the east, the enquiries of M.C. John
Finn amongst settlers has produced only negative results, but in the west there
is now no doubt that it was well established as far out as Ediacra (20 miles west
of Farina) in 1886, though it is many years since it was seen there, On the
Nullarbor the position is still obscure, but its former presence there seems less
improbable than it did in 1931. It transpires that the weelba (or wilba) of the
Banda Plateau blacks, which is the subject of the sand hill legend quoted (loc.
cit.), is not an entirely mythical animal, but was known in the flesh beyond the
period of white occupation. Moreover, Mr. Bolam has given an account of a
nest-building animal on the plain in 1912, and of the blacks’ method of taking
the same, which tallies well with what J have recorded for Caloprymnus on the
Diamantina. He reaffirms, too, that the name weelba was used by the Fowler’s
Bay natives for this nest-building animal. In all these accotints, however, the
possibilities of confusion with Choeropus, Bettengia and Lagorchestes are so
great that nothing short of specimens from the area will clarify the position. It
should be recorded here that the old collection of the S.A. Museum contains an
unlocalized skull upon which is pencilled “Bettongia campestris”? Tt has no
history, unfortunately, but as some other skulls in the Museum are from Tate’s
collection, it is possible that this is a relic of his journey to the head of the
Bight in 1878. It is the skull of B. lesueuri,

One of the specimens referred to above was an adult male, and though in
alcohol and strongly contracted, some of its flesh dimensions may be quoted here
as amplifying the data of Table I in my former contribution (loc cit.), Head
and body, 322; tail, 380; pes, 119; 4th toe, 52; nail of same, 17; ear, 41; rhinarium
to eye, 34; eye to ear, 25.

Skulls of two other large and fully adult males gave dimensions exceeding
those formerly quoted, and closely paralleling those of the type male, Flesh
dimensions of these two males are not available, but it now seems improbable that
the female attains to larger dimensions than the male.

The skull of the larger of the two males gives the following values. Greatest
length, 68°3; basal length, 57-6; zygomatic breadth, 41-2; nasals length, 32:0;

160

nasals greatest breadth, 21-2; nasals least breadth, 8°5; nasals overhang, 5°8;
depth anterior nares, 15-6; constriction, 15°5; palate length, 35-4; palate breadth
inside M2, 12:5; ant. palatine foramina, 4°3; diastema, 8°8; basicranial axis, 19-6;
basifacial axis, 39-4; facial index, 201; Ms!*, 12°6; P+, 5-6.

All efforts to obtain other members of the subfamily have failed, but the
Wonkonguroo who now live along the lower course of the Diamantina tell of a
“kanunka” which lives in the very arid districts which they have vacated. ‘Their
accounts suggest Beltongia lesueuri, but if it is so, it is curious that it should be
absent from the Lake Eyre Basin, since it thrives in equally poorly vegetated
areas to the north, west and south. In these districts its warrens betray it, but
I have seen none such in the Basin, and it is evidently not represented in the
contiguous tracts of South-west Queensland, since Longman does not list tt in
his. 1930 list.

PHASCOLOMYIDAE,

Though no wombat now lives within the area, and their warrens were not
scen, the family is listed here to draw attention to the interesting statement of
Sturt“ (generally overlooked) as to their former presence between the Barrier
and Grey Ranges, upon what might be regarded as its south-eastern border,
Early in December, 1844, during a time of hot winds, Sturt records that “the dogs
took shelter in wambut holes”; and as he must have been familiar with the
burrows and dung of both species in the south, there is no reason to doubt the
accuracy of his identification. Dr. Macgillivray, of Broken. Hill, N.S.W., some
ten years ago provided confirmation of the former presence of wombats in the
same area by the discovery of incisors in superficial deposits there.

PHALANGERIDAE,

Trichosurus vulpecula (Serr); (Unta).

The brush-tailed opossum is the only member of this family the presence of
which is attested by positive evidence. It is well known to all the native groups of the
two rivers. Unlike its kindred in the western Centre, it appears never to leave
the main channels of these two streams, where eucalypts provide it with the
environment familiar in the coastal districts. On the lower course of the
Diamantina it is evidently now almost a rare animal, and several natives who
have been encouraged by Mr. Reese to seek it in the channels of the Diamantina,
between Goyders Lagoon and the Queensland border, have not only failed to
secure specimens, but report that no traces of it can now be found there. It is
said to be more plentiful on the Cooper above Innamincka, but the only material
I have examined is a skin and skull of an aged male taken by Waite in 1917
between Kuttapirie Point and Innamincka. Size about as in eburacencis, con-
siderably smaller than in the south, Dorsal pelage very short and colour much
lighter than normal in individuals from southern South Australia, and consider-
ably lighter than the average pelage which prevails over west Central Australia;
the general colouration suggesting eburacencis or even arnhemensis, On the nape
and shoulders, however, the basal colour is a rather rich brown, which shows
through on the surface of these parts and in diluted form is suffused over the
whole of the dorsum. The colour is more uniformly spread than in any opossum
I have examined save jofhustoni, and it confers on the entire pelage a decided
vinaceous cinnamon tint, the more apparent from the virtual absence of black
guard hairs. Ventrum pale vinaceous cinnamon basally, cream terminally, the
midline from the rich brown sternal gland patch to scrotum browntsh gold, quite

(*) Exped. into Central Australia, vol. i, p. 197.

161

different from the dorsal colours. Manus, pes, ear and tail about as in
eburacencis,

Skuli:—Greatest length, 78; basal length, 70°6; zygomatic breadth, 51-1
ca.; nasals greatest length, 29-0; nasals greatest breadth, 15-1; intertemporal
constriction, 8°8; palate length, 40°5; palate breadth (inside M2? ant. angle), 15-1;
anterior palatal foramina, 6°3; P*, 4:1; Ms?, 12-3.

If the colouration described is constant, this form would apparently rank as
a rather well-defined geographical race, easily distinguished from its allies in
neighbouring areas. Colour aberations in Trichosurus are too frequent and the
treatment to which the above skin has been submitted, too uncertain, however, to
justify publishing a name for this single specimen.

ORNITHODELPHIA,

Echidna aculeata (Shaw), (inappa, or inniwallinga of the Wonkonguroo)
occurs in the area but cannot be said to be a common animal, since men of 30 years’
experience of the country have never seen one. Most reports of it are from stony
country, particularly the hills on Cordillo in the horth-east of the tract. It is not
altogether absent from the sandhills, however, and its tracks were seen in April,
1934, and June, 1935, between Appamunna and Pandi, but no specimens have
come to hand.

Reports of the sporadic occurrence of Ornithorynchus in the Diamantina
and Barcoo and other east central rivers, may be attributed with probability to
Hydromys.

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
NO. 34.

BY J. M. BLACK, A.L.S.

Summary

Spikelets 1-flowered, usually in pairs or threes along the rhachis of spike-like racemes, 1 sessile,
bisexual and fertile and 1 or 2 pedicellate, male or neuter; glumes of fertile spikelets usually 4,
the third one small and hyaline, the fourth or flowering glume small, narrow and usually awned.

162

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
No. 34.

By J. M. Buack, A.L.S.
[Read October 8, 1936.]
Piatt XVI,

GRAMINEAE,
Tribe Andropogoneae.

Spikelets 1-flowered, usually in pairs or threes along the rhachis of spike-like
racemes, 1 sessile, bisexual and fertile and | or 2 pedicellate, male or neuter;
glumes of fertile spikelets usually 4, the third one small and hyaline, the fourth
or flowering glume small, narrow and usually awned.

A. Spikelets all alike in sex.
B. Racemes in spikelike compound silky panicles; all spikelets pedi-

cellate and bisexual; flowering glume awnless .. 7: .. Imperata 1
B. Racemes digitate ; spikelets in pairs; flowering glume 2-toothed at
tip and awned between the teeth .. : - Fulatia 2

A. Spikelets of cach pair differing in sex, the sessile one fertile, the
pedicellate one neuter or rarely male, those at the summit of the
racemes arranged in threes; rhachis of the racemes or panicle-branches
articulate.

C. Racemes in a loose panicle without spathes; pedicels without a
translucent groove; awn rising between the 2 terminal teeth of
the flowering glume; pedicellate spikelets awnless.

D. Racemes with the lower spikelets mostly in pairs; ouler glume

finally hardened . » Sorghum 3
D. Racemes or panicle- branches bearing ‘only 3 terminal spi ‘celets :
outer glume membranous sa . Chrysopogon 4

Cc. Racemes not arranged in a loose panicle ; outer glume of sessile
spikelet flat or concave, 2-kecled near the incurved margins, the
2nd glume about as long, usually 3-nerved, with a blunt protuberant
keel and enclosing the narrow awned flowcring glume; racemes
more or less digitate along the primary rhach's of a rather dense
simple rarely compound panicle; pedicels and articles af rhachis
villous: 1 or 2 of the lowest sessile spikelets in each raceme male
or neuter and awnless, although resembling the fertile sessile
spikelets.
E. Awn rising frm the toothless summit of the short lincar
flowering glume.
F. Pedicels and articles of rhachis with a eee trans-
lucent furrow wh fu .. Bothriochloa 5
F. Pediceis and ar ticles of rhachis. opaque . Dichanthium 6
E. Awn rising from the toothless summit of the short linear
flowering glume; pedicels and articles opaque. Racemes in
pairs at the end of short branches, with a spathe or long
sheathing bract permanently supporting cach pat, the whole
forming a long leafy false panicle .. en .. Cymbopogon 7

1. Imperata cylindrica (L.) hasiab a= Genousniet Australia; also southern
Europe and Asia.

2. Eulalia fulva, O. Kuntze (1891); FE. Cumingit (Nees) A. Camus (1922);
Saccharum fulewm, R. Brown (1810) Pollinia Cumingii Nees (1855); P. fulva
(R. Br.) Benth. (1878) non Sprengel (1815)—Throughout Australia; also India.

Eulalia is rather narrowly distinguished from Pollinia by the silky-haired
spikelets and narrower leaves.

163

*3. Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. “Johnson Grass.” — Andropogon
halepensis (L.) Brot. An escape in all the States.

4. Chrysopogon Gryllus (L.) Trin—Andropogon Gryllus, L—Northern
part of South Australia, and all other States except Victoria and Tasmania ; also
southern Europe and Asia.

5. Bothriochloa, O. Kuntze (1891). (From Greek bothrion, a little pit;
khloé, grass = Amphilophis, Nash (1901).

The basal sessile barren spikelets in Bothriochloa and Dichanthium persist at
the summit of the stem some time after the upper spikelets have fallen.

Nodes glabrous; pedicellate spikelets neuter, with usually only 1 glume;
anthers purple; racemes usually 2-5 fs a 24 _ :

Nodes more or less pubescent; pedicellate spikelets sometimes male, with
usually 3 glumes; anthers yellow; racemes 7-22 .. a .. B inundata 2

1, B. decipiens (IIack.) C. E. Hubbard in Kew Bull, 10:444 (1934).
Perennial, glabrous except inflorescence; stems slender, usually rceddish-purple,
40-80 cm. high; nodes glabrous; leaf-blades usually flat, about 3 mm. broad;
panicle erect, simple 4-8 cm. long; racemes 2-5, rarely 6 to 8; 3-6 cm. long, sub-
digitate, shortly pedunculate, white-silky by the long hairs of the joints of the
rhachis and the pedicels; primary rhachis 14-2 cm. long; sessile spikelet lanceolate,
6-7 mm, long, including the short, bearded callus; outer glume flattish, more or
less channelled, glabrous or with scattered hairs on lower part of back, 5-7-nerved
between the two ciliolate keels, with a usually deep pit above the middle, forming
a boss on the inner face, or unpitted, or with a shallower inconspicuous pit only
near the base; second glume white, boat-shaped, 3-nerved; third glume flat,
hyaline, nerveless, 3-4 mm. long, ciliate in upper part; flowering glume about 3 mm.
long, supporting a brown awn 17-20 mm. long; anthers narrow, 14-2 mm. long,
purple ; pedicellate spikelets narrow-linear, 4-6 mm. long, neuter, usually consist-
ing of only one glume, which is 7-nerved between the keels, rarely with a second
smaller hyaline glume, (PI. xvi, fig. 6.)—Andropogon pertusus (L.) Willd. var.
decipiens, Hack, (1889); A. decipiens (Hack.) Domin (1915); A. pertusus,
Benth. (1878) non Willd.

South Australia—-Rremer Ranges near Woodchester, T. G. B. Osborn;
north of Saddleworth, 4. J. ddams; Bordertown, per G. H. Clarke, Apparently
rare here.—Northern and eastern Victoria; New South Wales, westward to
Riverina; Queensland. Called in the Eastern States “Red Leg” or “Red Grass,”
on account of the usually red colour of the stem, and is considered a good
fodder, at least in its early stages.

2, B. inundata (IV. v, M.) nov. comb. Nodi plerumque pubescentes ; panicula
simplex, sericea, 6-10 cm. longa, racemis 7-22, 23-5 cm. longis, quam rhachis
primaria longioribus; antherae flavae; pedicellatae spiculae saepius 3-glumes,
nonnunquam masculae,

Stems glabrous except the inflorescence, 30-80 cm. high, usually stout; some
or all the nodes appressed-pubescent ; leaves glabrous, except that the base of the
lower sheaths is usually silky, and the orifice of the sheaths is mostly villous, the
blades flat, 3-5 mm, broad; panicle 6-10 cm. long, simple; racemes more or less
erect, 7-22, 24-5 cm. long, silky from the long hairs on the joints of the rhachis
and the pedicels; primary rhachis 15-3} cm. long, shorter than the racemes;
sessile spikclet lanceolate, 4-5 mm. long, including the bearded callus; outer glume
glabrous or with a few scattered hairs on lower half, 5-7-nerved between the two
ciliate keels, sometimes faintly 1-pitted near the summit; second glume boat-
shaped, 3-nerved, ciliate; third glume hyaline, nerveless, ciliate, about 3 mm. long;
flowering glume linear, 2-24 mm. long, with an awn 15-25 mm. long; anthers
2 mm. long, yellow ; pediccllate spikelets neuter or rarely male, linear lanceolate,

B. decipiens 1

164

3-5 mm. long, the outer glume glabrous on back, 7-9-nerved between the ciliate
keels; second glume 3-4 mm. long, hyaline, 3-nerved, ciliate; third glume 2-3 mm.
long, hyaline, nerveless. ciliate, or absent; a grass growing near water.—
Andropogon inundatus, F. v. M. in Linnaea 25:444 (1852); A. imtermedins,
Benth. Fl Aus. 7:531 (1878) pro parte non R. Br.; Amphilophis intermedia
(R, Br.) Stapf in Agric. News, W. Indies 15:179 (1916) var. pabularis, Stapf.

South Australia—Mount Lyndhurst, Max Koch; Crystal Brook, Fou. M.
(type) ; Toorawatchie Waterhole (between Cordillo Downs and Cooper’s Creek),
J.B. Cleland; Callana (Lake Eyre Basin), M. Murray; Depot Creck (east of
Lake Torrens), R. Tate. Described by Koch as good fodder.

Central Australia —Finke River ; south of George Gill Range; Alice Springs ;
Burt’s Well; MacDonald Downs; Darwent Creek; Cockatoo Creek; Mount
Liebig.

Differs from Andropogon intermedius, R. Br. (Bothriochloa intermedia) in
the panicle subdigitate and always simple and in the pubescent nodes; from
Amphilophis glabra (Roxb.) Stapf (B. glabra), in the primary rhachis shorter
than the racemes, the panicle not compound and much shorter. The latter species
occurs in Queensland and New South Wales.

6. Dicuanturum, Willemet.

(From Greek dikha, apart, different, and anthos, flower.)

Stems 30-70 cm. high; racemes 3-5 em. long, densely silky; outer glume

of sessile spikelets 4-5 mm. long, 5-7 nerved, densely bearded near

summit by an arch of long hairs; awn 25-33 mm, long; outer glume

of pediccllate spikelets 7-13-nerved, the 3rd glume usually present .. PD, sericeum 1
Stems 10-30 cm, high; racemes 14-2 cm. long, with shorter hairs; outer

glume of sessile spikelets 4 mm, long, 3-5-nerved, villous along the

margins; awn 20-22 mm. long; outer ghime of sessile spikelets 7-9-

nerved, the 3rd glume absent ld .. D. humilius 2

1. D. sericeum (R. Br.) A. Camus in Bull. Mus. His, Nat. Paris 27: 549
(1921). —Andropogon sericeus, R. Br, Prodr. 201 (1910). (PI. xvi, fig. 2.)

South Australia——Sturt River, near Brighton; Watervale; Depot Creek,
near Lake Torrens; Swallow Waterhole, near Oodnadatta; Strangways Springs;
Lake Frome; Cordillo Downs; Diamantina River; Strzelecki Creek.

Central Australia.—Finke River; Alice Springs; lrukaru Creek,

Also New South Wales, Queensland and Western Australia,

2. D. humilius, nov. sp. Gramen humile, 10-30 cm. altum, nodis patente
breviterque albo-barbatis, culmis gracilibus; foliorum vaginae glabrae, rarius
sparsim tuberculatae, laminae inferne planac, 2-3 mm. latae, glabrae vel pilis
ex tuberculis ortis conspersae; ligula truncata, circa 1 mm. longa, ciliata; racemi
2-6, digitati, sessiles, villosi sed minus dense quam in D, sericeo, 14-2 cm. longi
(absque atistis) ; spiculae sessiles oblongae, truncatac, 4 mm. longae (cum callo
barbato) ; gluma extcrior 3-5-nervis inter duas carinas ciliolatas, durso fere glabra,
pilis longis suberectis sed non arcuatim dispositis marginata ; secunda gluma fere
aequilonga, 3-nervis; tertia gluma minuta, hyalina enervis vel nulla; florifera
gluma lineari-lanceolata, 2 mm. longa, in aristam 20-22 mm. longam desinens ;
spiculae pedicellatae obovato-oblongae, circa 3 mm. longae; glumh exterior 7-9-
nervis inter carinas, pilis ut in spicd sessili dispositis; secunda gluma circa dimidio
brevior, hyalina, 3-5-nervis, marginibus incurvis ciliata; tertia gluma nulla;
caryopsis obovata, 2 mm. longa. (Tab. xvi, fig. 3.)—Andropogon annulatus,
Forsk. var. (?) Aumilis, Benth.

South Australia——Near Oodnadatta, Miss Staer; Snake Gully, Pedirka,
E, H. Ising; Lake Frome, S. A. White; Diamantina River, J, B. Cleland.

Central Australia—Charlotte Waters, E. Giles.

165

Differs from D. annulatum (Forsk.) Stapf in the shorter stature and shorter
racemes, the nerves of the outer glume of the sessile spikelets fewer, the back
much less hairy, the pedicellate spikelets always neuter and their third glume
wanting.

The specimens from Charlotte Waters, kindly lent for examination by the
Victorian National Herbarium, are those on which Bentham founded his var.
humilis,

Owing to the existence of Andropogon humilis, Ilochst and A. humilis,
Wight I have slightly altered Bentham’s varietal name.

7. C¥MBOPOGON.
(From Greek kymbos, hollow, alluding to the spathes, and pégén, beard.)

Racemes more or less erect; awns conspicuous, about 15 mm. long; lcaf-
blades inrolled, filiform a ae f¢ ar “i Ke .. C. exaltatus 1
Racemes, or most of them, finally reflexed; awns inconspicuous, 5-8 mm.

long, or absent; leaf-blades flat _ Rie Res N C. bombycinus 2

1. C. exaltatus (R. Br.) Domin (1915). “Scented Grass.”—Andropogon
exaltatus, R. Br.

South Australia—-Gorges of Torrens and Little Para Rivers; Mannum;
Flinders Range, fromt Crystal Brook northward; Andamooka ; Strzelecki Creek;
Everard and Musgrave Ranges.

Central Australia—Alice Springs; Mount Liebig; Undoolya; Ayer’s Rock;
Hermannsburg; Mount Ultimo—Also New South Wales, North and Western
Australia.

2. C. bombycinus (R. Br.) Domin (1915) —Andropogon bombycinus, R. Br.

South Australia—Torrens Gorge; Black Hill; Lyndoch Valley; Murtho
(River Murray); near Everard and Musgrave Ranges.

Central Australia—Alice Springs; Barrow’s Creek—Also western New
South Wales and Queensland; Western Australia.

Agrostis avenacea, J. F, Gmel. (1791). Dr. T. A. Sprague, of Kew Her-
barium, states, in reply to a question, that he considers this is the valid name for
Avena filiformis, G. Forst. (1786). The name Agrostis filiformis (Forst.)
Spreng. (1807) is illegitimate because of the prior Agrostis filiformis Vill. (1787),
which is a different species. In the same way Calamugrostis filiformis, Cockayne
(1908) and Pilger (1921), is illegitimate on account of another species. which
was given the same name by Grisebach in 1868. Dr. Sprague places this grass
in Agrostis because “it has all the characters of that genus, whilst the hairy
prolongation of the rhachilla and the short-bearded callus are to be found in a
number of African and Indian species of Agrostis.” At the same time he
envisages the possibility that a revision of the group might show that Avena
filiformis, which was described from plants collected by Forster in New Zealand
and Easter Island, is a distinct species from Agrostis retrofracta, Willd. (1809),
which was described by Willdenow from plants collected in Australia.

If the opinion is followed that species with a short tuft or beard on the callus,
the hairs of which do not exceed about one-quarter of the length of the flowering
glume, should be placed in Agrostis, our other species, at present considered as
belonging to Calamagrostis section Deyeuxia, would be named as follows :—
Agrostis aequala, Nees; A. quadriseta, R. Br.; A. Billardierit, R, Br.; A. plebeia,
R. Br.; A. minor (Benth.) nov. comb.; A. densa (Benth.) F.v. M. Calamagrostis
would then be confined to extra-Australian grasses with beards almost equalling
or exceeding the flowering glume.

Triodia pungens, R. Br. Koontarra Soak, west of Cleland Hills, Central
Australia, January, 1935, H. H. Hinlayson. Panicle to 25 cm. long; spikelets

166

12-14 mm, long, mostly 9-flowered; outer glumes 54 mm. long, 7-nerved; flower-
ing glumes 63 mm. long; central lobe 3 mm, long, two lateral lobes 2 mm. long,
all very acute and 3-nerved.

CYPERACEAE,

Lepidosperma concavum, R. Br. Kirton Point, Port Lincoln, J. M. Black.
A first record for Eyre Peninsula.
PROTEACEAE,

Grevillea Wickhamiu, Meissn, Alice Springs, Central Australia. Received
per J. kX. L. Machell.
SANTALACEAE.

Anthobolus exocarpoides, F.v. M. Cleland Hills, Central Australia, January,
1935, H. H. Finlayson. “Over 1 m. high; fruits red.’ The succulent exocarp
dries orange.

NYCTAGINACEAE.

Boerhavia repanda, Willd, Between Middleton Ponds and Liddle’s Hills,
Central Australia, June 17, 1935, J. B. Cleland. This appears to be the first
record for Central Australia.

CHENOPODIACESE,

Arthrocnemum halocnemoides, Nees, nov. var. pterygospermum. Seminis
testa concentrice pluricostata, costis tenuibus, pinniformibus, suberectis, sub-
undulatis, multis lineis crebris transversis notatis. (Tab. xvi, fig. 7.)

The seed of this plant, collected by Miss C. M. Eardley on Mount Victor
Station, near Koonamore, in May, 1936, appears to be nearest to that of var.
pergranulatum, the concentric rows of tubercles of the latter being replaced by
concentric fin-like ribs marked with numerous fine transverse lines.

AMARANTHACEAE,

Amaranthus grandiflorus, nov. comb. Herba annua glabra, 15-30 cm. alta,
caule erecto rigidulo ramoso; folia ovato-lanceolata, longe petiolata, 2-3 cm. longa;
flores in glomerulos mox dense congregati; perianthii feminei segmenta 5, ovato-
oblonga, mucronata, demum superne patentia, 5-6 mm, longa, breviter unguiculata ;
perianthii masculi segmenta 5, lanceolata, 2-24 mm. longa, exunguia; fructus
indehiscens, transversim rugosus, ovoideus, perianthio paulo brevior; styli et
stamina 3; semina nigra, nitentia, 2mm. longa. (Tab. xvi, fig. 4.)—A, Mitchellii,
Benth. var, grandiflorus, J. M. Black in ‘lrans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 47: 368 (1923).

South Australia. Between Morgan and Renmark, Gross; near Mount Lynd-
hurst, J. B. Cleland; Mount Parry, R. Tate; Frome Downs, 7. B. Paltridge ;
Pernatty, B. J. Murray.

Central Australia—Finke River, HW. H. Finlayson; west of Erldunda, J. B.
Cleland,

This now secms ta me worthy of specific rank. Differs from 4. Mitchellii
(pl. xvi, fig. 5) in the female perianth-segments twice as long, with a short claw
and ovate-oblong lamina, instead of a cluw about as long as the fan-shaped
lamina, the flower-clusters larger and denser, the fruit transversely rather than
vertically furrowed, and the seeds larger.

PIYTOLACCACEAR,

Gyrostemon australasicus (Mog.) Heimerl. Sandhills near Koontarra Soak,
west of Cleland Hills, Central Australia, January, 1935, HY. 1H. Finlayson, Similar
to the North Australian specimens mentioned by Mueller and Bentham, with very

167

narrow leaves ($-1 mm. broad); anthers 8-9, obtuse, whereas in southern speci-
mens they number 8-13 and appear acute, owing to the deltoid membranous
extension of the connective above the cells. No female flowers have been collected
with specimens from North or Central Australia, so that some uncertainty exists.

AIZOACEAE,

*Cryophytum nodiflorum (L.) L. Bolus. Salt Swamps, Port Pirie. Pre-
viously found near Port Germein.—South Africa.

LEGUMINOSAE,

Acacia retivenea, F. vy. M, Fragm. 3: 128 (1863). Cleland Hills and Blood’s
Range, Central Australia, January, 1935, H. H. Finlayson, “14-2 m. high.” First
record for Central Australia and for extra-tropical country; hitherto found at
Short’s Range, north of Tennant’s Creek, North Australia, and at Margaret River,
north-west part of Western Australia. Phyllodes obliquely obovate, coriaceous,
3-5 cm. long, 2-34 cm. broad, with 4-5 prominent curved nerves confluent at base;
petioles stout, 2-5 mim. long; heads globular, 70-80-flowered, on stout axillary twin
or solitary peduncles 10-25 mm. long and exceeding the upper diminished floral
leaves, so that the inflorescence appears paniculate; calyx 2 mm. long, divided
from about the middle into five hairy spathulate lobes; corolla 3 mm. long, densely
hairy on the five short lobes; pod still unknown.

Bentham Fl. Aust. 2: 392 (1864) altered the specific name to retivenia, but,
under Art. 70, Mueller’s spelling nrust be restored.

Acacia minutifolia, F. v. M. Robert Range, Western Australia, February,
1935, H. H, Finlayson, Phyllodes obliquely obovate or oblong, thick, 2-25 mm.
long, obscurely 2-3-nerved, mucronulate on the upper angle; buds narrowly
conical. New for Western Australia,

Kennedya prorepens, F. v. M. Blood’s Range, Central Australia, January,
1935, Hf. H. Finlayson. “Low creeper in creek.” The flowers are arranged in
few distant clusters of 2-3, forming a narrow raceme about 3 cm. long, the naked
part of the peduncle rather longer. The standard bears two oblong calli above
the claw ; ovules seven in each of three ovaries examined ; stipules ovate-lanccolate,
about 4 mm. long; stipellae caducous.

*Trifoltum Cherleri, L. Beaumont (near Adelaide), November, 1934, J. B.
Cleland, This species, distinguished by sessile caducous flower-heads, which are
surrounded at base by the large orbicular stipules of the small floral leaves, is a
native of the Mediterranean region. Ditfers from T. striatum in the heads
globular, not ovoid; the uppermost stipules (sometimes without leaflets) rounded
at summit, not pointed; the calyx-teeth erect and about twice as long as the tube,
instead of the teeth somewhat spreading and only equalling the tube. A new
introduction.

MELIACEAE,

Owenia reticulata, F. v. M. Near the Granites, Central Australia, J. B.
Cleland,

EUPHORBIACEAE.

Euphorbia Steventi, Bailey. Specimens collected on the flood-plain of the
Diamantina in August, 1934, by Prof. J. B. Cleland show that the seed is at first
white and granular or almost smooth, but that when ripe it has a dark-brown testa

covered with minute whitish tubercles and is ovoid or almost globular in shape
and 34-4 mm. long.

168

STACK HOUSIACEAE,

Macgregoria racemigera, F. v. M—Near Coniston Station, Central Australia,
E. C. Black. These little plants, with their masses of white blossoms, are said
to resemble snow on the ground.

STERCULIACEAE,

Melhania incana, Heyne. Reefs near Wytookarri Rock Hole (between
Cleland Hills and Blood’s Range), Central Australia, January, 1935, H. H.
Finlayson; “40 cm. high.” The petals are not, as stated by Bentham, persistent,
but form a tubular calyptra round the ovary and then fall off,

MyrraceEAaek.

Eucalyptus gracilis, F.v. M. Near Mylor; December, 1935; C. D. Boomsma,
First record from the Mount Lofty Range; the mallee form and numerous. The
inflorescence agrees exactly with dry-country specimens, but the leaves are broader
(1-24 cm. broad near base) and without the black dots. ‘These variations are
probably due to the moister climate.

E. brachycalyx, Blakely, Key Euc. 119 (1934). Differs from E. dumosa
in the buds rather shorter; 7-8 mm. long, ovoid-oblong, instead of cylindrical,
more or less ribbed, distinctly pedicellate, with a ribbed obtuse cap almost as long
as the receptacular part; fruit turbinate, sometimes almost smooth, 5-7 mm. long,
about 6 mm. broad, the valves sometimes protruding; leaves narrow, shining,
15 mm. broad or less, rarely more; small tree or mallee, 3-8 m. high, with smooth
white bark except at the base.

Murat Bay and north thereof; near Moolooloo (Flinders Range). The native
name at Murat Bay is gheelya (gilja).

Var. chindoo, Blakely Lc. Differs chiefly in the fruit, which is turbinate or
almost globular- truncate, smooth or almost so, 5-6 mm. long, the valves with pro-
truding points.—E, incrassata, Labill. var. protrusa, J. M. Black, pro parte.

Murat Bay; Minnipa; between Whyalla and Iron Knob, Eyre Peninsula;
Mannum.

The cotyledons are reniform. Both the species and the varicty appear
endemic to South Australia.

E. largiflorens, F. v. M. (1854). Dr. T. A. Sprague, one of the leading
authorities on nomenclature, states in reply to a question, that in his opinion the
description of E. bicolor, A. Cunn. (1848) is not a valid one. (See FL.
S. Aust., 416.)

UMBELLIFERAE.

*Bifora testiculata, DC. A weed at Riverton, Worsley C. Johnston —Medi-

terranean region. A new introduction.

PLUMBAGINACEAR,
*Statice psiloclada, Boiss. Salt marsh, Port Pirie.

BorraGINACEAE.

Halgania glabra, nov. sp. Frutex glaber (absque staminibus)), viscidus,
circa metralis; folia integra vel rarius superne obsolete denticulata, lanceolata vel
oblongo-cuneata, in petiolum brevem angustata, supra concavula, 1-3 cm. longa,
3-9 mm. lata; flores 5-8 in quoque pedunculo, superiores solitarii, distantes,
inferiores bini vel trini; pedicelli graciles; calyx 7-9 mm, longus, segmentis
linearibus, obtusis; corolla 10-12 mm. longa; antherae pilis, brevibus deflexis
puberulac, loculis 4 mm. longis, rostro 3 mm. longo; fructus immaturus emargina-

169

tus, oblongo-cuneatus, circa 6 mm. longus, in dua carpella biloculata discedens.
(Tab. xvi, fig. 1.)

Blood’s Range, Central Australia, January, 1935, H. H. Finlayson, Differs
from other described species in being glabrous, except the anthers. It is perhaps
nearest to H. littoralis, Gaudich. var. glabrifolia, Benth. (H. Bebrana, F. v. M.)
and H. Gustafsenu, F. v. M., but differs in its viscid and glabrous character, the
leaves shortly petiolate and usually quite entire, and (as regards H. Bebrana)
the beak shorter than the anther-cells; also perhaps in the inflorescence, which
appears to be largely racemose.

SOLANACEAE.

Solanum hystrix, R. Br. Specimens from near Koonibba, Eyre Peninsula,
collected in May, 1935 and 1936, by J. 5. Foggo, show that the berry is depressed-
globular, 2-3 cm. diam., yellowish-green until ripe, drying dark-brown or purple,
at first enclosed in the calyx, later protruding from it. According to Mr. Foggo,
sheep and cattle like the fruit, and the natives scrape out the fleshy part and eat it.

Nicotiana.

Dr. Helen-Mar Wheeler has published, in the University of California Publi-
cations in Botany, vol. xviii (1935), the result of a revision of the Australasian
species of Nicotiana, undertaken in collaboration with Professor ‘. H. Goodspeed.
Not only were the collections in many herbaria studied, but most of the species
were grown from Australian seed in the congenial climate of California.
Altogether 15 species are described, including one from New Caledonia and the
Tonga Islands.

In Australian species of Nicotiana the corolla, calyx and pedicels are always
more or less pubescent, even if the rest of the plant is glabrous. The limb of the
corolla closes under a hot sun and opens about sunset, when a usually rather
faint perfume is emitted, The limb is always white, but the tube may be purplish
or yellowish-green. The root often appears perennial, but my experience with
three specics grown in the garden is that they are annual. The margin of the
leaves is usually more or less wavy.

The following key to our South Australian species, one introduced and one
Central and Western Australian growing near our border, is chiefly based on that
of Dr. Wheeler.

A. All stamens with filaments of equal length, affixed near base of
corolla. Glabrous shrub; calyx 10-12 mm. long, with very short teeth;
corolla yellowish, its tube about 30 mm. long by 5 mm. diam.; limb
short, suberect; filaments about 20 mm. long; leaves ovate-
lanceolate, on long slender wingless petioles oth os “7 -» NN, glauca t
A. Four stamens on short filaments affixed near summit of corolla-tube,
the 5th filament longer and affixed lower down, but its anther not
reaching the same level as the others; hairs, when present, with
minute globular or sometimes discoid heads (except in N. occidenta-
lis); corolla-limb spreading, white; herbs.
B. Stem-leaves decurrent by 2 broad wings, glabrous or almost so,
ovate-lanceolate to obovate, 5-30 cm, long, 2-15 cm. broad, often
denticulate on margin, corolla-tube about 50 mm. long, 4-5 mm.
diam.; 5th filament affixed about middle of tube ae os .. N. excelsior 2
B. Stem-leaves not or scarcely decurrent.
C. Stem-leaves sessile, broad at hase.
TD). Plant pubescent all over with short hairs, many of them clavate
(cllipsoid-headed) ; stem-lecaves mostly 3-8 em. long, 1-2 cm.
bread, broadly lanceolate, subacute, half-clasping, the basal
ones narrowed downwards; flowers distant; calyx campanulate,
about 10 mm, long, the teeth usually shorter than tube; corolla
tube about 20-40 mm. long, 4-5 mm. diam. near mouth, taper-
ing downwards; 5th filament short, affixed in upper half of
tube; capsule about as long as calyx es ~~ - .. WN. accidentalis 3

170

D. Plant woolly all over with longer hairs, which mostly terminate
in minute globular heads; stem-leaves obovate-oblong, shortly
acuminate, sometimes fiddle-shaped, hali-clasping hy 2 broad
auricles, 5-20 cm. long, 2-12 cm. broad, the hasal ones small,
fugitive, oblong, with winged petioles; flowers crowded in
terminal panicles; calyx 16-24 mm, long, the lanceolate teeth
as long as or longer than tube; corolla-tube 30-50 mm. long,
about 4 mm. diam., cylindrical; 5th filament affixed at or below
middle of tube; capsule shorter than calyx .- .. N. Gossei 4
C. Stem-leaves not sessile, narrowed towards base or petiolate,
Corolla-tube 3-5 mm. diam., suddenly widened where it
emerges from calyx, the Sth filament usually affixed below
middle of tube; plants pubescent on stem-leaves, the basal
ones forming a rosette on the young plant, leaves oblanceolate
to obovate; calyx teeth shorter than or as long as tube.
Leaves 3-12 cm. long, 1-8 cm. broad, the stem-leaves taper-
ing into a narrowly winged petiole; whole plant softly
pubescent; flowers racemose or paniculate; calyx 8-12 mm.
long; corolla-tube 14-25 mm. long, capsule nearly as long
as calyx bee aa AA os sy * an .. N. velittina 5
F, Leaves 3-25 em. long, 2-10 cm. broad, more or less
pubescent, with petioles broadly winged and those of the
ster-leaves often half-clasping at base; calyx 10-20 mm.
long; cerolla-tube 18-22 mm. (rarely to 28 mm.) long;
capsule about equalling calyx. oy pan ad .. NN, maritima 6
FE. Corolla-tube slender, 13-24 mm. diam.
G. Leaves and stems glabrous or almost so; flowers sparsely
pubescent; leaves oblanceolate, mostly 4-15 cm. long,
1-5 cm. broad, tapering into narrowly winged petioles,
the radical ones in a basal rosette and usually broader
than the stem-leaves; calyx-tecth shorter than tube.
4. Calyx 12-17 mm. long, 10-ribbed; corclla-tube 30-
50 mm. long, tapering gradually downwards; 5th fila-
ment affixed near middle of tube; anne almost
cylindrical. 10-13 mm. long 4 N. ingulba 7
li. Calyx 7-10 mm, long; corolla- tube 14-20 mm, long;
Sth filament affixed in lower half of tube; capsule +
7-10 mm. long, oblong-ovoid : 5 N’. Goodspeedii 8
G. Leaves and stems pubescent or wwoatly with distening
spreading hairs; leaves ovate or oblong to almost
orbicular, obttise or subacute, with winged petioles, the
stem leaves few, sometimes oblanceolate; calyx 6-11 mm.
long, with linear teeth nearly as long as tube; corolla
tube 13-21 mm. long 14-2 mm. diam. the 5th "filament
affixed at or helow middle of tube; capsule narrow-
oblong, usually 7-8 mim. long .. oe N. rotundifolia 9

*1. N. glauca, Graham. The “Tree Tobacco” was fais tpiGeed’i in Australia
about 1860 as an immigrant from Argentina, Now common in many places.

2. N. excelsior, J. M. Black in Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 50: 286 (1926).
Erect, 1-2 m. high, branching in upper part of stemm—N. suaveolens var. excelsior,
Black in Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 39: 835, tt. 63 and 70 (1915) ; N. macrocalyx,
Domin in Bibl, Bot. Heft 89: 1147, t. 36 (1929).

South Australia. ». A, White;
Musgrave Ranges, J. B. Cleland; Mann Range, Tindale and Hackett, Leaves
chewed by natives as a narcotic. Names recorded in our North-West: Kaman,
okiri, pulanda, mingul, mingurpa and ingulba. It is certain that at least some of
these names are applied to various masticated species.

3. N. occidentalis, Wheeler in Univ. Calif. Publ, Bot. 18:52 (1935); Black
in Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 59: 260, t. 4, fig. 3 (1935). About 20-50 cm. high,
the short spreading hairs conspicuous on all parts of plant, the floral bracts usually
longer and more leafy than in other species.

al

4 t

171

South Australia—Musgrave Ranges, J. B. Cleland; Pundi Soak, 40 miles
south of Musgrave Ranges, H. H, Finlayson.

Central Australia—Mount Peake, /. C. Chandler.

Western Australia—Add to localities quoted by Dr. Wheeler: Victoria
Desert, September 15, 1891, R. Helms,

4. N. Gossci, Domin, in Bibl. Bot., Heft 89: 1146, t. 36 (1929). About
50 cm.- 1 m. high, with numerous spreading-erect branches and a bushy appear-
ance. Chewed by natives, at least in the Musgrave Ranges, and called mingul,
mingulba and pituri. (PIL. xvi, fig. 8.)

South Australia——Ernabella, Musgrave Ranges, J. B. Cleland. Also in
Central Australia.

5. N. velutina, Wheeler 1c. 55 (1935).

South Australia—-Mount Parry Gap, &. Yate; Copley, W. A. Cannon; Blin-
man and Wilmington, £. H. fsing; Petermorrow Springs, S. A. White; Diaman-
tina River, L. Reese; Alberga Creek, S. 4. While; Macumba River, J. B.
Cleland; Mount Gunson Mine, Mrs. Beckwith; Spalding, J. M. Black; Ocldea,
N.B. Timdale, The specimens from Ooldea have corollas more slender than usual.

Central Australia—Erldunda, Hermannsburg and Alice Springs, J. 2B.
Cleland; Horse-shoe Bend, Iinke River, £. H. Ising.

Also in western New South Wales and south-west Queensland,

6. N. maritima, Wheeler lc. 56 (1935).

South Australia.—Dudley Peninsula, K.I., Rk. Tate; Granite Island, EF. H.
Ising; Waterfall Gully, Inman Valley, Hallett’s Cove, J. B. Cleland; Mount Brown,
R, Tate; Kinchina, E. H, /sing; Port Noarlunga, Port Willunga, Mount Ferguson,
Telowie Gorge, Woolshed Flat and Stansbury, Yorke Peninsula, J. M4. Black.
Dr. Wheeler also quotes specimens from Port Augusta, Georgetown and Coffin
Bay, Eyre Peninsula.

These two species (Nos. 5 and 6) are nearly allied and sometimes show a
tendency to run into one another.

The true VN. suaveolens, Lehmann appears to be confined to eastern New
South Wales and eastern and central Victoria. The name was applied by
Bentham, Fl. Aust. 4: 469 (1869), to all the then known Australian species.

7. N. ingulba, J, M. Black in Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 57: 156, t. 9 (1933).
Stems rather slender. The names ingulba and mingurpa (probably dialectic
variants) are used by the natives, for more than one species whose leaves are
chewed.

Central Australia——Chambers Pillar, R. Tate; between Finke River and
Charlotte Waters, If. Kempe; Ilarper’s Spring, Kramer; Middieton’s Ponds and
Mount Liebig, /. B, Cleland; Horseshoe Bend and Macdonald Downs, E. (7. [sing.

Western Australia—Mount Squires and Victoria Desert, Rk. Helms.

8. N. Goodspeedii, Wheeler Le. 63 (1935).

South Australia—Fowler’s Bay, Afrs. Richards (co-iype in ‘Tate Her-
barium) ; Ocldca, J. B. Cleland; Mannum, R. Tate; north of Wilmington, E. H.
Ising; Overland Corner, Loxton, coast near Adelaide and Port Hughes, Yorke
Peninsula, J. Af. Black.

New South Wales.—Dr. Wheeler quotes the Ivanhoe district, to which may
be added: Coonamble, Narrabri, Gunnedah, /. B. Cleland,

9, N. rotundifolia, Lindley in Bot. Reg. Misc. 59 (1838). Sometimes flower-
ing in a raceme, or only 1-flowered when the plants are small.

south Australia—Oratunga and Moolooloo, E. H. /sing; Oodnadatta to the
Musgrave Ranges, J. B. Cleland.

Central Australia—Heavitree Gap (MacDonnell Ranges), J. B. Cleland.
Also in Western Australia,

172

LABIATAE,
Microcorys Macreadieana, ¥. vy. M. Between Middleton Ponds and Liddle’s
Hills, Central Australia, June 18, 1935, J. B. Cleland. Resembles our Broombush
(Baeckea Behrii), but the leaves are more slender and in whorls of three.

VERBENACEAE.

Spartothamnus teucriifolia, F, v. M. Ten and thirty miles north-east of
Ayers’ Rock, Central Australia, June, 1935, J. B. Cleland. Some of the lower
flowers are 2-3 on a short common axillary pedunele, the upper ones are solitary
in the axils of leafy bracts, which are caducous; the two small bracteoles at the
base of the pedicel are persistent.

GOODENIACEAE.

Goodenia erecta, Ewart Fl. N.T., 265, t. 22 (1917). Ayers’ Rock, Central
Australia, June 4, 1935, J. B. Cleland. ‘The type came from about 250 miles
further north. The basal and lower leaves are lyrate, 2-3 cm. long, including the
slender petidle, the lanceolate entire bracteoles about as long as the articulate
pedicels; the narrow racemose panicles are 8-15 cm. long and the upper peduncles
are often only 1-flowered. Each plant has several slender stems, 20-30 cm. high,
in our specimens.

COMPOSITAE.

*Chrysanthemum anethifolium (CWilld.) Brouss. Sandhills near Glenelg;
Semaphore, Maitland, Yorke Peninsula. An escape from cultivation.—Canary
Islands.

*Centaurea nigrescens, Willd. Millicent, South-East, E. S. Alcock. A new
introduction Southern Europe.

*Tolpis barbata (L.) Gaertn. Morialta, J. B. Cleland. A new introduction.
—Mediterranean region.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE.

Pirate XVI.

Fig. 1 Halgania glabra:—A, connate anthers and beak; B, calyx and fruit.

Fig. Dichanthium sericeum:—sessile and pedicellate spikelets and rhachis-joint from which
another sessile spikelet has fallen.

Dichanthium humilius:—a similar drawing.

Amaranthus grandiflorus: fruiting perianth and 1 perianth-segment.

Amaranthus Mitchellit:—fruiting perianth and 1 perianth-segment.

Bothriochloa decipiens:—C, upper portion of a raceme; D, adaxial face of sessile
spikelet, with pedicellate spikelet and rhachis-joint; Z, back of Ist or outer
glume of fertile spikelet; /, back of 2nd glume; G, 3rd glume and grain.

Fig. 7 Arthrocnemum halocnemoides var pterygospermum:—seed viewed from the side and
cross-section of same,

Fig. 8 Nicotiana Gosset:—H, fiddle-shaped stem-lcaf; J, basal leaf.

N

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Aub w

AMPHIPODS FROM A SOUTH AUSTRALIAN REEF.-PART 2.

BY KEITH SHEARD

Summary

Rostrum strongly curved, reaching to middle of first joint of peduncle. Eyes, contiguous at base of
rostrum, the pair together, circular. Sideplate 1 expanded anteriorly and fringed with setae on the
anterior lateral margin. Sideplate 2 deeper, only slightly expanded, anterior lateral margin fringed
with setae. Sideplate 3 is one and half times as deep as 2, antero lateral angle fringed with short
setae. Sideplate 4 deeper than 3 and nearly twice as broad, slightly excavated along the distal
margin, antero lateral angle with sparse setae. Sideplate 5 two-thirds as deep as 4, bilobed, with the
anterior lobe the larger. Sideplate 6, anterior lobe absent, posterior lobe small, sparsely setose.
Sideplate 7 represented by a slight postero expansion of the first joint.

173

AMPHIPODS FROM A SOUTH AUSTRALIAN REEF.—PART 2.

By Kerru SHEARD,
Hon. Assistant in Zoology to the South Australian Museum.

[Read October 8, 1936.]
Pirate XVII,

Family OEDICEROTIDAE Stebb.
OrEDICEROIDES Stebb.
Oediceroides pirloti, sp. n.

Rostrum strongly curved, reaching to middle of first joint of peduncle.
Eyes, contiguous at base of rostrum, the pair together, circular. Sideplate 1
expanded anteriorly and fringed with setae on the anterior lateral margin. Side-
plate 2 deeper, only slightly expanded, anterior lateral margin fringed with setae.
Sideplate 3 is one and half times as deep as 2, antero lateral angle fringed with
short setae. Sideplate 4 deeper than 3 and nearly twice as broad, slightly
excavated along the distal margin, antero lateral angle with sparse setae. Side-
plate 5 two-thirds as deep as 4, bilobed, with the anterior lobe the larger. Side-
plate 6, anterior lobe absent, posterior lobe small, sparsely sctose. Sideplate 7
represented by a slight postero expansion of the first joint.

Telson cordate in the dorsal aspect, with four setae on each of the lateral
margins and two spines on the apex.

First antenna, first joint subequal to second but nearly twice as wide, second
four times third, flagellum of 23 joints.

Second antenna, third joint equal to 1 and 2 together, fourth three times
and fifth twice as long as the third joint, flagellum composed of many com-
pressed segments.

All mouth parts very small. Mandible, cutting edge a little produced, dentate ;
secondary cutting edge, right, blade-like with four teeth, left, columnar with
9-10 teeth; spine row with 11-13 long, weak spines; molar strong with margin
finely denticulate; palp with first and third joints equal, small, second joint twice
first, weakly curved. Maxilla 1 with 8-toothed spines on inner plate, outer with
sparse weak setae, palp with spiniform setae on second joint.

Maxilla 2 with inner plate fringed with setae.

Gnathopods 1-2 alike, but first weaker and shorter than second; fifth joint
about one-third length of oval sixth, lobe small but reaching to edge of very
oblique palm, finger long, curved and slender, palm defined by two stout spines.

Peraeopods 1-2 weak, first with seventh joint apparently absent, second with
seventh joint present as a very small finger; fourth joint of both forwardly pro-
duced on the posterior margin to a setose lobe, Peraeopods 3-4, second joint
expanded, third ringlike, fourth longer than second and more widely expanded,
in peraeopod 3 the distal edge is produced to a Icbe nearly as long as the fifth
joint, in peraeopod 4 this production is much shorter, bilobed; joints 5-6 sub-
equal, the seventh joint is subequal to the fifth, leat-shaped. Peraeopod 5, more
than twice peraeopod 4; second joint sub-circular, third very small, fourth slightly
expanded, fourth fifth and sixth joints progressively longer, spined; seventh equal
to fifth but one-third as broad.

Uropod 1, outer ramus three-quarters inner, peduncle equal to inner ramus;
uropod 2, rami subequal 1, inner equal to peduncle; uropod 3, rami equal, lanceo-
late, peduncle four-fifths of rami; uropod 1 equal to uropod 3; uropod 2 slightly
longer. Uropods lightly spined.

174

Locality—South Australia: St. Vincent Gult, Sellick’s Beach. (Hale,
April, 1936.)
Type, female, South Australian Museum. Length, 12 mm.

K, S. del.
Fig. 1.
Oecdiceroides pirlott, Male—A, antenna 1; B, antenna 2; C, mandible; D, cutting edge left
mandible; FE, maxilla 1; F, lawer lip; G, gnathopod 1; H, gnathopod 2; I, peraeopod 1;
J, sideplate, peracopod 2; K-M, peraeopods 3-5; N-P, uropods 1-3; Q, maxilliped; R, eves.

pow?

175

Were more specimens of this form available, permitting a comparison of
male and female and the mapping of individual variations, it would be possible
to fix the generic position of the species more accurately; at present it is placed
in Oediceroides Stebb., pending the revision of the southern species of the family.
The fine denticulation of the margin of the molar process, the absence of the
seventh joint of the first peraeopods, and the wide expansion of the fourth joints
of peraeopods 3-4 are points of considerable interest.

The species is named in appreciation of the valuable discussion of Dr. J. M.
Pirlot on the relationships of the group to which this family belongs.

REFERENCES,
Barnarp—Annals South Afr. Mus., vol. xv, pt. ili; pp. 162-167, 1916 (and
references therein.)
Barnarp—Discovery Reports, vol. v, pp. 135-141, 1932.
Pirtot—Siboga-Expeditie, Livr, cxvii, pp. 81-99, 107-108, 1932.
The following papers. were not available for reference:
STEPHENSEN—The Danish Ingoli Exp., vol. iii, No. 11, 1931.
SCHELLENBERC—Furth. Zool. Res. Swed. Ant. Exp, 1901-3, vol. ii, No. 6.

Family AMPITHOIDAE.
Gen. GRUBIA Czern,
Grubia variata, sp. n.

Body robust. Sideplates moderately large. Antennac long. Sideplates 1-4
increasingly deeper and broader, Sideplate 1 produced forwards; sideplate 4,
the largest, rounded below; sideplate 5 forward lobe square in outline, as deep
as 3; sideplates 6-7 very shallow.

Eyes, small, rounded, on lateral lobes.

Antenna 1 with first and second joints subequal, third one-third of second,
accessory flagellum of six joints, very slender; fiagellam multi-jointed. The
antenna is subequal in length to the body.

Antenna 2, extending to fifth peraeon segment; fourth and fifth joints sub-
equal.

Upper lip longer than broad, terminal process furry.

Lower lip with inner lobes bifid, mandibular process relatively large.

Mandible with cutting edge and secondary cutting edge unidentate, spine row
of 5-6 weak spines, molar plate large, palp slender, first joint slightly widened,
subequal to third in length, second the longest.

Masilla 1, inner plate, very small with one seta, outer with nine spines, palp,
slender, with second joint three times first, tipped with setac. Maxilla 2 with
inner edge setose.

Maxilliped with outer plate fringed with many very small teeth, saw like:
inner small fringed with long setae; palp with first three joints expanded, third
bearing on its distal edge plumose setae, and opposing the fourth joint are two
strong selae bearing spines, the fourth jomt bears what can best be described as
a stout, movable spine.

Gnathopods 1-2 are of the same general pattern with the second joint
apically lobed; in gnathopod 2 the filth joint is produced on its infero distal angle
to a setose lobe, and the whole appendage is stouter than the first.

Peraeopods 1-2 with the second joints a little expanded, the fourth joints
are the next longest, slightly expanded on the anterior edge. Peraeopod 3
reverted, second joint expanded, joints 3-6 rounded, joint 6 the longest, finger
small, Peraeopod 4, second joint moderately expanded, nearly twice as long as

176

broad, joints 4-5 subequal, joint 6 more than three times joint 3, finger strong.
Peraeopod 5 longer than peraeopod 4, joint 6 equal to joint 2 in length.

Uropod 1 the longest, rami subequal, and subequal to the peduncle without
its long stout terminal spine; uropod 2 with inner ramus slightly the shorter,
both slightly shorter than peduncle; uropod 3 with stout peduncle and equal rami
of little more than half its length; the outer ramus on the left side is furnished
with two small terminal hooks, that on the right, with one, much stouter. ‘The

Fig. 2.

Grubia variata, Male—A, left mandible; B, palp, right mandible; C, maxilla 1; 1D,

maxilla 2; E, lower lip; F, maxillipeds; G, joint 4 and spine, maxilliped; H, upper lip;

L-J, gnathopods 1-2; K-Q, peraeopods 1-5; P, terminal joints gnathopods 2; Q, uropods 1-3;
R, uropod 3 and telson; S, spine of uropod 3, right; T, spines of uropod 3, left.

177

uropods are lightly armed with spines. The segment of uropod 3 bears two
spines on each side of the dorsal surface.

Telson as broad as long, distal margin well defined, the dorsal surface bears
two rows of spinc-like setae.

The specimen is only moderately setose.

Locality—South Australia: St. Vincent Gulf, Sellick’s Beach. (Hale,
April, 1936.)

Type, male, South Australian Muscum.

The female varies very little from the male, except that peraeopods 1-2 are
shorter and more slender. The asymetric arrangement of the hooked spines of
uropod 3 is constant in both sexes.

For the present this Amphipod is given specific rank, but it is possible that
future collections from Sellick’s Beach may result in a series of specimens which
may link it more closely with a known form.

It may be distinguished by the six jointed accessory flagellum; the compara-
tive length and expansion of peracopods 1-2, by the arrangement of the hooks on
the third uropods, and by the jointed spine on the fourth joint of the palp of the
maxillipeds.

REFERENCE,

1916 Barwarp, Annals S. Afr. Mus., vol. xv, pt. ini, p. 257 (and biblio.).

Family GAMMARIDAE.
Gen. Cerapocus A. Costa.
CERADOCUS RUBROMACULATUS (Stimps.),

Specimens which must be referred to this cosmopolitan species are very
common in the material from Sellick’s Recf.

The large male figured is typical of the form obtained, noteworthy being the
equally developed second gnathopods, comparatively bare of armature, the down-
ward extension of the second joints of peraeopods three to five and the length of
uropod 1 which extends nearly as far as the tip of uropod 3,

The figures given are self-explanatory. Of interest is the varied forms of
spines on the inner plate of the first maxilla.

Among the material are specimens of both sexes, evidently in different stages
of growth, in which the variations of the proportions and shape of the gnathopods
are considerable. It is evident that little reliance can be placed on these as specific
characters in such cosmopolitan species. In this regard the work done on Growth
Stages of Gammarus (E. W. Sexton, Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass. of the U.K.; ns. 13,
pp. 340-401, 1923-1925) and on Intersexes in Gammarus (Sexton and Huxley,
loc. cit., n.s. 12, 1919-1922, pp. 506-556) is of considerable value.

REFERENCE,
Biol. Res. “Endeavour,” vol. v, pt. ii, p. 71, Chilton, 1921.

Family GAMMARIDAL.
Gen. Marra Leach.
Marra mASTERSI (Haswell).

The Sellick’s Beach specimens of this species vary slightly from Haswell’s
description, but not sufficient to warrant the establishment of a new species. As
the existing description and figures are somewhat sketchy they are supplemented
in this paper.

The variations from Taswell’s description are (Compare Das Tierreich,
1f, 21, p. 439) -—

Accessory flagellum 10 jointed. Peraeopods 4-5 with the front margin of
the second joint irregularly spined.

178

The following additional description is furnished: —
Mandible—Palp slender, second joint four-thirds length of third, cutting

edge bidentate, secondary cutting edge quadridentate, molar not denticulate,
spine row weak.

Vig. 3.
Maera mastersi (Hasw.), Male—A, antenna 1; B, antenna 2; C, mandible; D, cutting edge,
mandible; T-, upper lip; F, maxilla 1; G, maxilla 2; H, maxillipeds; I-J, gnathopods 1-2;
K-O, peraeopods 1-5; P, palm, gnathopod 2; Q, pleon segments 1-3; R, uropods 1-3:
S, telson; T, palm gnathopod 1.

179

Maxilla 1, outer plate with cight weak spines, inner with three spines, palp
with setae on apex only. Maxilla 2 with a light fringe of very short setae on the
inner margins of both plates.

Maxilliped with the second joint of the palp not expanded, twice as long as
third; appendage sparingly setose.

Gnathopods 1-2, the palmar armature varies somewhat in different specimens,
those figured representing the average type.

Peracopods 1-2, slender and lightly spined, joint four a little expanded along
the hinder edge. Peraeopods 3-5, bear the following length ratios: 93: 12: 11,

Fig. 4.
Ceradocus rubromaculatus (Stimps.), Male—A, palp, mandible; RB, cutting edge, right
mandible: C, maxilla 2; D, outer plate, maxilla 1; FE, tip of immer plate, maxilla 1;
F-H, gnathopod 1; I-J, gnathopod 2; K, terminal joints, pcraeopod 4: L, joints 1-3 and
eye lobe, antenna Zz,

and approximate closely in outline to those figured for Ceradocus rubromaculatus
on pl xev of the Challenger reports.

Uropod 1 with rami subequal and subequal to dorsal edge of peduncle;
uropod 2 equal to peduncle of uropod 1, rami subequal and subequal to peduncle ;
uropod 3, rami equal, 24 times peduncle, shorter than uropod 1. Uropods
1-2 reach only a little beyond the peduncle of uropod 3.

ABSTRACT OF THE PROCEEDINGS

Summary

180

ABSTRACT OF THE PROCEEDINGS

OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
(Incorporated).

FOR THE YEAR NoOvEMBER 1, 1935, to Ocrorer 31, 1936.

Orvinary Merrinc, NoveMBer 14, 1935.

The President (Dr. C. T. Madigan) and 69 members and visitors present.
The Governor (His Excellency Major-Gen. Sir Winston Dugan, K.C.M.G., -
C.B., D.S.O.) attended and was received by the President.

Evection or I'ettows.—Herbert George Andrewartha, M.Ag.Sc., Waite
Agric. Res. Inst., Glen Osmond; (Mrs.) Hattie Vevers Andrewartha, B.Ag.Sc.,
M.Sc., 28 Eynesbury Avenue, Mitcham.

PRESENTATION OF THE Six Joserit Verco MepaL.—The President announced
the presentation of the Verco Medal to Professor T. Harvey Johnston. Sir
Douglas Mawson paid a high compliment to the recipient for the variety and
excellence of the scientific investigations which he had carried out over a long
series of years. Details were given of the many journeys of scientific enquiry
extending over every continent and of the highly valuable research conducted by
Professor Johnston during two long journeys in Antarctic seas.

His Excellency the Governor, in presenting the Medal, congratulated Pro-
fessor Johnston on the high honour which the Royal Society had done him. Pro-
fessor Harvey Johnston appropriately responded.

Lecrures.—Professor J. B. Cleland delivered a lecture on “Native Life in
Central Australia,” which was elaborated by slides and cinema films depicting
native life, shown by Mr. N. B. Tindale.

Orpinary Meetine, Apriv 9, 1936,
The President (Dr. C. T. Madigan) and 21 members present.

Nominations as Fettows.—Albert Ray Southwood, M.D., M.S. (Adelaide),
M.R.C.P. (London), 170 North Terrace, Adelaide; Hon. Sir Langdon Bonython,
K.C.M.G., Montefiore Hill, Adelaide.

Papers.—“Notes on the Geological Sections obtained from several Borings
situated on the Plain between Adclaide and Gulf of St. Vincent, Pt. II,” by
Professor W. Ilowchin; “Anthropometric Observations on South Australian
Aborigines of the Diamantina and Cooper Creek Regions,” by F. J. Fenner;
“Notes on the Natives of the Southern Portion of Yorke Peninsula, South Aus-
tralia,” by N. Bh. Vindale; “Some Red Basaltic Soils from Eastern Australia,” by
Professor J. A. Prescott and J. S. Hosking,

“Note on a Sample of Water containing Sulphuretted Hydrogen.”

Exutpits,—Mr. H. II. Finlayson exhibited a specimen of a rock mass,
possibly a sandstone, some surfaces of which showed a decidedly vitreous
character, such as to suggest that the rock had experienced incipient fusion. The
substance was found by Mr. D. Bowman, of Tempe Downs Station, on a hill
near Ilamurta on the southern edge of the James Range in Central Australia.
Mr. Bowman had suggested that the mass was a product of metcorite impact,
and had asked that it should be brought to the notice of geologists.

181

Orprnary Meetine, May 14, 1936.

[he President (Dr. C. T. Madigan) and 40 members and 4 visitors present.

ELecrion or Fettows.—Albert Ray Southwood, M.D., M.S. (Adelaide),
M.R.C.P. (London), 170 North Terrace, Adelaide; Hon. Sir Langdon Bonython,
K.C.M.G., Montefiore Hill, Adelaide.

Parrrs.—“Analytical Notes on a Sample of Brown Coal from the Balaklava-
Inkerman Deposits,’ by Dr. W. Ternent Cooke; “The Artracoona Meteorite,”
by A. W. Kleeman, M.Sc.

Appress.—The President delivered his Centenary Address on “The Past,
Present and Future of the Society and its Relation to the Welfare and Progress
of the State.”

Exuipsits——Mr. Mincham (visitor) exhibited a series of miscellaneous
insects collected in the dry area around Mount Lyndhurst during the past three
months. Dr. J. Davidson commented on the exhibit.

Orptnary MEETING, June 11, 1936.

The President (Dr. C. T. Madigan), 32 members and 1 visitor present.

Nominations As FrELLows.—Lorna Maud Waterhouse, 35 King 5treet,
Brighton; Albert Edward Platt, M.B., B.S., D.T.M., D.T.H. (Syd.), Dip. Bact.
(London), Adelaide Hospital.

Papers.—“Remarks on the Nematode, Gongylonema pulchrum,” by Pro-
fessor T. Harvey Johnston; “Climate in Relation to Insect Ecology in Australia,”
by Dr. J. Davidson.

Appresses.—‘Centenary Resume of Botanical Progress (other than systema-
tic),” by Professor J. G. Wood; “Centenary Review of Anthropology,” by Dr.
T. D. Campbell.

Orpinary Meretinc, Juty 9, 1936.

The President (Dr. C. T. Madigan) and 25 members present.

Execrion As Fettows.—Lorna Maud Waterhouse, 35 King Street, Brighton;
Albert Edward Platt, M.B., B.S., D.T.M., D.T.H. (Syd.), Dip, Bact. (London),
Adelaide Hospital.

Appresses.—““The Past Work of the Royal Society outside the Domain of
Natural Science,” by Professor R. W. Chapman; “A Hundred Years of
Systematic Botany in South Australia,” by Mr. J. M. Black.

Orpinary Meetine, Aucust 13, 1936.

The President (Dr. C. T. Madigan), 20 members and 2 visitors present.

Nomination as Fertow-—Keith Sheard, Hon. Assistant in Zoology, South
Australian Museum, 46 Sydenham Road, Norwood.

NomINATION as AssocrATE.—Reginald Claude Sprigg, Student, Lanor
Avenue, Goodwood.

Appress.—‘A Hundred Years of Entomology in South Australia,” by Dr. J.
Davidson.

Papers—‘The Climatic Control of the Austvalian Deserts,” by Professor
J. A. Prescott; “The Regeneration of the Vegetation of the Koonamore Vegeta-
tion Reserve, 1926-36,” by Professor J. G. Wood.

Orpinary MEETING, SEPTEMBER 10, 1936.

Dr. T. D. Campbell in the chair, and 24 members and 2 visitors present.

Exvection As Ferrow.— Keith Sheard, Hon. Assistant in Zoology, South
Australian Museum, 46 Sydenham Road, Norwood.

182

ELection as Associate.—Reginald Claude Sprigg, Student, Lanor Avenue,
Goodwood,

Appress.—“A Hundred Years of Zoology in South Australia,” by Professor
T. Harvey Johnston.

Papers.—‘The Botanical Features between Oodnadatta and Ernabella in
the Musgrave Ranges,” by Professor J. B. Cleland; “Studies in Australian
Thysanura, No, 1,” by H. Womersley; “South Australian Cainozoic Bryozoa,” by
L. Stach, communicated by Professor W. Howchin.

ANNUAL MEETING, Ocroser 8, 1936.
The President (Dr. C. T. Madigan), 35 members and 2 visitors present.
Annual Report read and adopted.

Financial report read and adopted. Thanks expressed to Treasurer and Hon.
Auditors.

Evection oF Orricers—Mr. H, M. Hale, President; Dr. C. T. Madigan,
Dr. J. Davidson, Vice-Presidents; Dr. C. A. E. Fenner, Editor; Mr. H.
Womersley, Secretary; Dr. W. Christie, Treasurer; Dr. H. K. Fry and Mr. H.
H. Finlayson, Members of Council; Messrs. O. Glastonbury and W. Champion
Hackett, Auditors.

Professor T. Harvey Johnston moved, and Sir Douglas Mawson seconded,
a vote of thanks to the retiring President.

ApprEss.—‘‘Progress in the Knowledge of the Geology of South Australia
(A Centennial Review),”’ by Sir Douglas Mawson.

Papers.—‘Descriptions of three new Species, and one variety of Eucalyptus
of the Elder and Horn Expedition, etc.,” by Mr. W. F. Blakely, communicated by
Mr. J. M. Black; ‘‘Additions to the Flora of South Australia, No. 34,” by Mr.
J. M. Black; “On Mammals from the Lake Eyre Basin, Part 111,” by Mr. H. H.
Finlayson; “On the Ecology of the Black-tipped Locust ( Chortoicetes
terminuifera) in South Australia,” by Dr. J. Davidson, communicated by Mr.
D.C. Swan; “Amphipods from a South Australian Reef,” by Mr. K. Sheard.

ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL, 1935-36.
PRESENTED AT THE Annuat. Mertine on Ocroner 9, 1936.

The average attendance of Tellows at the meetings held during the year has
been thirty-four. At the November meeting His Excellency the Governor,
Maj.-Gen. Sir Winston Dugan, K.C.M.G., C.B., D.S.O., graciously attended,
and was received by the President. During the meeting His Excellency presented
the Sir Joseph Verco Medal to Professor T. Harvey Johnston, on behalf of the
Society,

During the year seven special Centenary Addresses, reviewing the work of
the Society in the various branches of Sciencc, have been given as the Society’s
contribution to the Centenary of the State. These addresses were:—Dr. C. T.
Madigan (“The Past, Present and Future of the Society”), Dr. J. Davidson
(“Entomology”), Professor R. W. Chapman (“Other than Natural Sciences’),
Professor J. G. Wood (“Botany, other than Systematic’), Mr. J. M. Black

183

(“Systematic Botany”), Dr. T. D. Campbell (‘Anthropology’), Professor T.
Harvey Johnston (“Zoology”), Sir Douglas Mawson (“Geology”).

Papers have been communicated to the Society as follows :—

Anthropology - Messrs. F. Fenner, N. B. Tindale and Prof, Cleland.

Entomology - Dr, J. Davidson and H. Womersley.

Zoology - - Prot. Harvey Johnston; Messrs. K. Sheard, L. Stach,
and H. H. Finlayson.

Mineralogy - Mr. A. W. Kleeman and Dr. W. T. Cooke.

Geology - - Prof. W. Howchin.

Soils = - - Prof. J. A. Prescott.

Climate - - Prof. Prescott and Dr. J. Davidson (2).

Botany - - Prof. Cleland, Prof. Wood, and Messrs. J. M. Black

and W. F. Blakely.

Seven Fellows and one Associate have been elected, and one Fellow re-
admitted during the year; six Fellows have resigned, and two have been struck
off the roll. The Membership is now :—Hon. Fellows, 4; Fellows, 160; Asso-
ciates, 2. Total, 166.

Dr. C. T. Madigan and Professor J. A. Prescott were elected delegates of
the Society to the Auckland meeting of the A.N.Z.A.A.S. During the year Mr.
N. B. Tindale was granted leave for his trip to America and Europe, and Mr. H.
Womersley consented to act as Secretary in his stead.

The Council are gratified that the Board of Governors of the Public Library,
Museum and Art Gallery have been able to provide a modern Epidiascope for the
use of the Society at its meetings,

The rearrangement of our library by Mr. Tindale and our Librarian has
much improved the amenities of our meeting room, and is duly appreciated.

The Council was pleased to receive during the year a partial restoration of
the Government Grant.

In his Centenary Address the President outlined a suggestion for a Science
House for the Scientific Bodies of this State, and this resulted in the calling
together of a meeting of representatives of all suitable societies. A memorandum,
stating the views of the socicties has now heen presented to the Minister for
Education, and a report also made to Dr. Grenfell Price of the State Library
Commission.

CYT. Mapican, President.

H. WomeErsLey, Secretary.
October 8, 1936.

SIR JOSEPH VERCO MEDAL

Summary

184

THE SIR JOSEPH VERCO MEDAL.

The Council, on August 23, 1928, having resolved to recommend to the
Fellows of the Society that a medal should be founded to give honorary distinction
for scientific research, and that it should be designated the Sir Joseph Verco

Medal, a motion was submitted to the Society at the evening meeting of October 11,
1928, and a later meeting, held on November 8, 1928, the recommendation of
the Council was confirmed on the following terms :—

REGULATIONS,

XI—“The medal shall be of bronze, and shall be known as the Sir Joseph
Verco Medal, in recognition of the important service that gentleman has
rendered to the Royal Society of South Australia. On the obverse side of
the medal shall be these words: ‘The Sir Joseph Verco Medal of
the Royai Society of South Australia” surrounding the modelled
portrait of Sir Joseph Verco, while on the reverse side of the medal thcre
shall be a surrounding wreath of eucalypt, with the words: ‘Awarded
Etostatesseeeehtrccrt he AN apt i Reels CO eit NO Sy teste lsuels for Research in Science,’ the
name of the recipient, and the year of the award. The Council shall select
the person to whom it is suggested that the medal shall he awarded, and
that name shall be submitted to the Fellows at an Ordinary Meeting
to confirm, or otherwise, the selection of the Council, by ballot or show
of hands. Vhe medal shall be awarded for distinguished scientific work
published by a Member of the Royal Society of South Australia.”

AWARDS.
1929 Pror. Warrer Howcurn, F.G.S.
1930 Joun McC, Brack, A.L.S.
1931 Pror. Sir Douctas Mawson, B.E., D.Sc., F.R.S.
1933 Pror, J. Burrow CLetanp, M.D.
1935 Pror, T. Harvey Jonnston, M.A., D.Sc.

BALANCE SHEETS

Summary

185

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ENDOWMENT FUND

Summary

187

THE ENDOWMENT FUND.

1902.—On the motion of the late Samuel Dixon it was resolved that steps
be taken for the incorporation of the Society and the establishment of an
Endowment and Scientific Research Fund. Vol. xxvi., pp. 327-8.

1903.—The incorporation of the Society was duly effected and announced.
Vol. xxvii., pp. 314-5.

1905.—The President (Dr. J. C. Verco) offered to give £1,000 to the Fund
on certain conditions. Vol. xxix., p. 339.

1935.—The following are particulars of the contributions received and other
sources of revenue in support of the Fund up to date:—

SUMMARY OF THE ENDOWMENT FUND (30/8/35).

(Capital... ... £4,900 lis. Id.)
Donations—
£ s da £é 3 d ££ gs a
1908, Dr. J. C. Verco £. 1,000 0 0
1908, Thomas Scarfe at 1,000 0 0
1911, Dr. Verco ae nee 150 0 0
1913, Dr. Verco it ut 120 0 0
Mrs. Ellen Peterswald ths 100 0 0
1934, Prof. Walter Howchin,
F.G.S. a ae 1, 40 0 0
“Anonymous” is *. 5 5 0
Small Sums ai ea os 6 0 0
1934, J. M. Black, A.L.S. hs 20 0 0
2,441 5 0
Bequests—
1917, R. Barr Smith aif 1,005 16 8
1920, Sir Edwin Smith os 200 0 0
1935, Sir J. C. Verco Oe 322 17 6
—_——_—- 1,528 14 2
Life Members’ Subscriptions ... _ .. 24015 0
4,210 14 2
Total Subscribed Capital fa £4,210 14 2

Additions from the Current Account have been made at various dates. These have
enabled the Society to purchase Government Stocks amounting to (face value) £4,880.
Cash in Savings Bank on account of the Endowment Fund amounts to £20 11s. Id. The
total capital of this Fund is, therefore, £4,900 11s. 1d,

GRANTS MADE IN AID OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH,

s. d.
1916, G. H. Hardy, “Investigations into the Flight of Birds” va es 15 0 0
1916, Miss H. A. Rennie, “Biology of Lobelia gibbosa”’ hs J! we 22 0
1921. H. R. Marston, “Possibility of obtaining from Azine precipitate
samples of pure Proteolytic Enzymes” fide Lae Fa A. 30 0 0
1921, Prof. Wood Jones, “Investigations of the Fauna and Flora of Nuyts
Archipelago” ah ae Sa sa i any, fo et 4416 7
1934, H. H. Finlayson, “Mammals of Central Australia” - FW, Ps 10 0 0
1934. T. T, Colquhoun, M.Sc.. “Regeneration of Vegetation after Bush-fires” 5 00
1935. H. H. Finlayson, “Mammals of Central Australia” hs a neh 5 0 0

W. CHRISTIE, Hon. Treasurer.

LIBRARY EXCHANGES

Summary

188

ROYAL SOCIETY LIBRARY.

List of Governments, Societies and Editors with whom
Exchanges of Publications are made.

AUSTRALIA.

Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne.
Bureau of Census and Statistics, Canberra.

Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Melbourne.
Library of Commonwealth Parliament.

SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

Botanic Garden, Adelaide.

Mines Department, Adelaide.

Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery of South Australia.
Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (S.A. Branch).
South Australian Institutes Association, Adelaide.

South Australian Museum, Adelaide.

South Australian Naturalist, Adelaide.

South Australian Ornithologist, Adelaide.

South Australian Parliamentary Library.

University of Adelaide.

Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond

NEW SOUTH WALES.

Australian Museum, Sydney.

Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

Department of Agriculture, Sydney.

Geographical Society of New South Wales, Sydney.
Linnean Society of New South Wales.

Mines Department, Sydney.

Public Library of New South Wales.

Royal Society of New South Wales.

Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales.
School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Sydney.
Technological Museum, Sydney.

University of Sydney.

QUEENSLAND.

Department of Agriculture, Brisbane.
Geological Survey, Brisbane.
Queensland Museum, Brisbane.

Public Library of Queensland, Brisbane.
Royal Society of Queensland, Brisbane.
University of Queensland, Brisbane.

TASMANIA.

Government Geologist, Mines Department, Hobart.
Public Library of Tasmania, Hobart.

Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobart.

University of Tasmania, Hobart.

189

VICTORIA.

Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria, Melbourne.
Government Botanist, National Herbarium, Melbourne.
Mines Department, Melbourne.

National Museum, Melbourne.

Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne.

Royal Society of Victoria, Melbourne.

University of Melbourne.

WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

Geological Survey Department, Perth.
Public Library of Western Australia, Perth.
Royal Society of Western Australia, Perth.
University of Western Australia, Perth.

ENGLAND.

British Museum Library, London.

British Museum (Natural History), South Kensington.
Cambridge Philosophical Society.

Cambridge University Library.

Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
Geological Society of London.

Geologists’ Association, London.

Imperial Institute, South Kensington.

Imperial Institute of Entomology, London.
Linnean Society of London.

Liverpool Biological Society.

Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society.
National Physical Laboratory, Teddington.
Rhodes House Library, Oxford,

Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden.
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

Royal Empire Society, London.

Royal Entomological Society of London.
Royal Geographical Society, London,

Royal Microscopical Society, London.

Royal Society, London.

Science Museum, South Kensington.

Zoological Muscum, Tring, Ilerts.

Zoological Society of London.

SCOTLAND.
Edinburgh Geological Society.

Geological Society of Glasgow.
Royal Society of Edinburgh.

IRELAND.
Royal Dublin Society,
Royal Irish Academy, Dublin.

190

CANADA.

Canadian Geological Survey, Ottawa.
Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.

National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa.
Nova Scotian Institute of Science, Halifax.
Royal Canadian Institute, Toronto.

Royal Society of Canada, Ottawa.

University of British Columbia, Vancouver.

CEYLON.
Colombo Museum, Colombo.

FEDERATED MALAY STATES.
Royal Asiatic Society, Malayan Branch, Singapore.

INDIA.
Government Museum, Madras.
Geological Survey of India, Calcutta.
Royal Asiatic Society, Bombay Branch, Bombay.
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

NEW ZEALAND,
Auckland Institute and Museum.
Dominion Museum, Wellington.
Royal Society of New Zealand, Wellington.
Otago University Museum, Dunedin.
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, Christchurch.

SOUTH AFRICA.
Albany Museum, Grahamstown.
Geological Society of South Africa, Johannesburg.
Royal Society of South Africa, Cape Town.
South African Museum, Cape Town.
South African Association for the Advancement of Science, Johannesburg.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

Academia Nacional de Ciencias, Cordoba.
Universidad de Buenos Aires.

AUSTRIA.
Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna.
Geologische Bundesanstalt, Vienna.
Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna,
Zoologisch-Botanische Gesellschaft, Vienna.

BELGIUM.
Académie Royale de Belgique, Brussels.
Institut Solvay, Brussels.
Musée Royale d’Histoire Naturelle de Belgique, Brussels.
Société Entomologique de Belgique, Ghent.
Société Royale de Botanique de Belgique, Brussels.
Société Royale des Sciences de Liége.
Société Royale Zoologique de Belgique, Brussels.

191

BRAZIL.

Instituto de Biologia Vegetal, Rio de Janeiro.
Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro.
Museu Paulista, Sao Paulo.

CHINA,

Geological Society of China, Nanking.

Geological Survey of China, Peiping.

Institute of Biology, National Library of Peiping.
National Research Institute of Biology, Nanking.
Science Society of China, Nanking.

Shanghai Science Institute, Shanghai.

Sun Yatsen University, Canton.

CZECHO-SLOVAKIA.
Ceskoslovenska Botanicka Spolecnost, Prague.

DENMARK,

Conseil Permanent International pour Exploration de la Mer.
Dansk Naturhistorisk Forening. Copenhagen.

Kobenhavn Universitets Zoologiske Museum.

K. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. Copenhagen.

EGYPT.
Société Royale de Geographie d’ Egypte, Cairo.

ESTHONIA.
Universitas Tartuensis, ‘artu (Dorpat).

FINLAND.

Academia Scientiarum Fennica, Helsinki.
Societas Entomologica Helsingforsiensis.
Societas Scientiarum Fennica, Helsingfors.

FRANCE.
Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris.
Société Bourguignonne d’Histoire Naturelle et de Préhistoire, Toulouse.
Société des Sciences Naturelles de ’Quest de la France, Nantes.
Société Entomologique de France, Varis.
Société Géologique de France, Paris.
Société Linnéenne de Bordeaux.
Société Linnéenne de Normandie, Caen.

GERMANY.

Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Munchen.

Berliner Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte.
Botanischer Garten und Botanisches Museum, Berlin.

Deutsches Entomologisches Institut, Berlin,

Deutsches Museum fiir Landerkunde, Leipzig.

Fedde, F.: Repertorium specierum novarum regni vegetabilis, Berlin.
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gottingen.

192

Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde zu Berlin.

K. Leopoldinische Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher, Halle.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Freiburg.

Naturforschende und Medezinische Gesellschaft, Rostock.
Oberhessische Gesellschaft fiir Natur- und Heilkunde, Giessen (Lahn).
Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin.

Senckenbergische Bibliothek, Frankfiirt a. M.

Zoologisches Museum, Berlin.

Zoologisches Staatsinstitut und Zoologisches Museum, Hamburg.

HAWAIIAN ISLANDS,

Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu.
Hawaiian Entomological Society, Honolulu.

HOLLAND.
Musée Teyler, Haarlem.
Rijks Herbarium, [Lciden.

HUNGARY.

Hydrological Dept., Hungarian Geological Soc., Budapest.
Musée National Hongrois, Budapest.

ITALY.

Laboratorio di Entomologia, Bologna.

Laboratorio di Zoologia Agraria, Milan,

Laboratorio di Zoologia Gencrale e Agraria, Portici.
Societa Adriatica of Scienze Naturali, Trieste.

Societa di Scienze Naturali ed Economiche, Palermo.
Societa. Entomologica Italiana, Genova.

Societa Italiana di Scienze Naturali, Milan.

Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Pisa.

JAPAN.
Hiroshima University.
Kyoto Imperial University.
Ohara Institute for Agricultural Research, Kurashiki,
Osaka Imperial University, Osaka.
Taihoku Imperial University.
Tokyo Imperial University.

LATVIA.
Latvijas Universitat, Riga.

MEXICO.

Instituto de Biologia, Chapultepec.
Instituto Geolédgico de Mexico.
Sociedad Cientifica “Antonio Alzate,” Mexico.

NORWAY.
Bergen Museum, Bergen.
Botanisk Museum, Oslo.
Kongelige Norske Videnskabers Sclskabs, Trondheim
Tromso Museum, Tromso.

193

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
Philippine Journal of Science, Manila.

POLAND.

Société Botanique de Pologne, Warsaw.
Société Polonaise des Naturalistes “Kopernik,” Lwow.

PORTUGAL
Sociedade Broteriana, Coimbra.

RUSSIA.

Académie des Sciences, Leningrad.

Comité Géologique de Russie, Leningrad.
Institut des Recherches Biologiques de Perm.
Institute of Plant Industry, Leningrad.
Leningrad University.

Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, Kieff.
Université de L’Asie Centrale, Tachkent.

SPAIN.

Academia de Ciencias y Artes, Barcelona.
Instituto Nacional de Segunda Ensenanza de Valencia.

SWEDEN.

Entomologiska Féreningen i Stockholm.
Geologiska Foreningen, Stockholm.

Lund University, Lund.

Stockholm’s Hogskolas Bibliotek, Stockholm.
Regia Societas Scientiarum Upsaliensis, Upsala.

SWITZERLAND.

Geographisch-Ethnographisch Gesellschaft, Zurich.
Institut National Genevois, Geneva.

Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Basel.

Naturforschende Gesellschaft in Ztirich.

Société de Physique et d’FHistoire Naturelle de Geneve.
Société Neuchateloise des Sciences Naturelles, Neuchatel.
Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles, Lausanne.

UNITED STATES.

Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.

Academy of Science of St. Louis.

American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston.
American Chemical Society, Columbus, O.

American Geographical Society, New York.

American Microscopical Socicty, Manhattan, Kans.
American Midland Naturalist, Notre Dame University, Ind.
American Museum of Natural History, New York.
American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.

Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass.

Biological Survey of the Mount Desert Region, Bar Harbour, Me.

194

Boston Society of Natural History, Boston, Mass.
California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco.
Californian State Mining Bureau, San Francisco.
California, University of, Berkeley, Cal.

Chicago Academy of Sciences.

Citrus Experiment Station, Riverside, Cal.

Connecticut State Library, Hartford, Conn.

Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.

Denison Scientific Association, Granville, O.

Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IU.
Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania, Philad.
«farvard Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.
Illinois State Natural History Survey, Urbana, Tl.
Itinois University Library, Urbana, Ill.

Indiana Academy of Science, Indianapolis.

Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.

Kansas University, Lawrence, Kans.

Marine Biological Laboratory, Wood’s Hole, Mass.
Maryland Geological Survey, Baltimore, Md.

Michigan University, Chicago.

Missouri Botanical Garden Library, St. Louis, Mo.
Missouri, University of, Columbia.

National Academy of Science, Washington, D.C.
National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C.

New York Academy of Sciences, New York.

New York Public Library.

New York State Library, Albany, N.Y.

New York Zoological Society, New York.

Ohio State University Library, Columbus, O.
Princeton University, Princeton, N.J.

San Diego Society of Natural History, San Diego, Cal.
Smithsonian Institution and Bureau of Ethnology, Washington.
Stantord University, Stanford, Cal.

United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.
United States National Museum, Washington, D.C.
Wagner Free Institute of Science, Philadelphia, Pa.
Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.

West Virginia University, Morgantown, W. Va.

Yale University Library, New Haven, Conn.

- URUGUAY.

Museo de Historia Natural, Montevideo,
Sociedad de Biologia, Montevideo.

LIST OF FELLOWS, MEMBERS, ETC.

Summary

195

LIST OF FELLOWS, MEMBERS, ETC.
AS EXISTING ON NOVEMBER 30, 1936.

Those marked with an asterisk (*) have contributed papers published in the Society's
Transactions. Those marked with a dagger (f) are Life Members.

Any change in address or any other changes should be notified to the Secretary.
Note,—The publications of the Society will not be sent to those whose subscriptions
are im arrear.

Date of FT Adee ysis m
Election. Hoxorary FELLows.

1910. *Bracc, Sir W. H., O.M., K.B.E., M.A, D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Director of the

Royal Institution, Albemarle Strect, London (Fellow 1886).

1926, *Cuapman, F., A.L.S., National Museum. Meibourne.
1898. *Meryricx, E. T., B.A, F.RS., F.Z.5., Thornhanger, Marlborough, Wilts, England.

1894. *Witson, J. T, M.D., ChM., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy, Cambridge University,

England.

1883. }*Howcurn, Proressor Watrer, F.G.5,, “Stonycroft,’ Goodwood East—Sir Joseph
Verco Medal, 1929; Rep.-Governor, 1901-22; Council, 1883-84, 1887-89, 1890-94,
1902-33; President, 1894-96; Vice-President, 1884-87, 1889-90, 1896-1902; Editor,

1883-88, 1893-94, 1895-96, 1901-1933; Honorary Fellow, 1934.

FELLOWS.
1926, AneLt, L. M., Chapman Camp, British Columbia.

1935. Avam, Davin Bonar, B.Ag.Se. (Melb.), Waite Agricultural Research Institute,

Glen Osmond.
1925. Aprey. W. J. C.M.G., 32 High Street, Burnside, 5.A.
1927. *Aperman, A. R., M.Sc, F.G.S., West Terrace, Kensington Gardens, S.A.
1931. Anvrew, Rev. J. R., Methodist Mission, Salamo, via Samarai, Papua.

1935. AnNpREwaRTHA, Herwert Gzorcr, M.Ag.Sc., Waite Agricultural Research Instiitute,

Glen Osmond.

1935. Anprewarrua Mus. Harrie Vevers, B.Ag.Se., M.Sc,, 28 Eynesbury Avenue, Mitcham.

1929, AwnceL, Frank M., 34 Fullarton Rd., Parkside.

1895. }*Asusy, Epwrn, F.L.S., M.B.O.U., Blackwood, S.A—Council, 1900-19; Vice-

President, 1919-21,
1902. *Baxetr, W. H., Ningana Avenue, King’s Park, S.A.
1933. *Barnes, T. A. B.Sc, 13 Leah Street, Forestville.
1932. Beco, P. R., D.D.Sc., L.D.S., 219 North Terrace, Adelaide.
1928. Best, R. J., M.Sc, A.A.C.L, Waite Agricultural Rescarch Institute, Glen Osmond.
1928. *Best, Mrs. E. W., M.Sc., Claremout, Glen Osmond.
1931. Brirew, H, Mcl., M.R.C.S., M.R-C.P., D.PM., Mental Hospital, Parkside.
1934. Buacx, E. C., M.B., B.S., Magill Road, Tranmere.

1907. *Biack, J. M., A.L.S., 82 Brougham Place, North Adelaide--Sir Joseph Verco Medal,

1930; Council, 1927-1931; President, 1933-34; Vice-President, 1931-33.
1936. BonyrHon, THe Hon. Srr Lancpon, K.C.M.G., Montefiore Hill, North Adelaide.
1923. Burvon, Roy S., B.Sc., University of Adelaide.
1921. Burton, R. J., Ward Street, Kalgoorlie, W.A.

1922, *Camppett, T. D., D.D.Sc., Dental Dept., Adelaide Hospital, Frome Road, Adelaide—
Rep.-Governor, 1932-33; Council, 1928-32, 1935; Vice-President, 1932-34; Presi-

dent, 1934-35.

1907, *CuarmMan, R. W., C.M.G, M.A, B.CE, F-R.AS., Professor of Engineering and

Mechanics, University, Adclaide—Council, 1914-22.
1931. *Cuewines, CHAs., Ph.D., F.G.S., “Alverstroke,” Claremont Road, Glen Osmond,

1929. Curisttr, W., M.B., B.S. Education Department, Flinders Street, Adelaide—

Treasurer, 1933-.
1930. Crarxe, G. H., B.Sc., Waite Institute, Adelaide.

1895. *CLELAND, JouHN B., M.D., Professor of Pathology, University, Adelaide—Sir Joseph
Verco Medal, 1933; Council, 1921-26, 1932-; President, 1927-28; Vice-President,

1926-27.
1929. CrELanp, W. Parox, M.B., B.S., Dashwood Road, Beaumont.
1930, *CotguHoun, T. T., M.Sc., University, Adelaide.
1907. *Cooxe, W. T., D.Sc, A-A-C.L, Lecturer, University of Adelaide.
1929. *Corron, Bers «io C., S.A. Museum, Adelaide.

196

Date of

Election.

1924. pE Crespieny, C. T. C, D.S.0O., M.D., F.R.C.P., 219 North Terrace, Adelaide.

1929, Davinson, James, D.5c., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond—
Council, 1932-35; Vice-President, 1935-,

1928. Davies, J. G., B.Sc., Ph. D., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond.

1927. *Davies, Prof. E. Harorp, Mus.Doc., The University, Adelaide.

1930. Drx, E. V., Glynde Road, Firle.

1915. *Dopp, Atan P., Prickly Pear Laboratory, Sherwood, Brisbane.

1932. Dunsrons, H. E., M.B., B.S., J.P. 124 Payneham Road, St. Peters.

1921. Durron, G. H., B.Sc., 12 Halsbury Avenue, Kingswood.

1931. Dwyer, J. M., M.B., B.S., 25 Port Road, Bowden.

1933. FEarpitey, Miss C. M., B.Sc., 68 Wattle Street, Fullarten Estate.

1902, *Engurst, A. G., 19 Farrell Street, Glenelg.

1925. *Eneranp, H. N., B.Sc., Commonwealth Research Station, Griffith, N.S.W.

1917. *Fenner, Cuas. A. E.. D.Sc. 42 Alexandra Avenue, Rose Park-—-Rep.-Governor,
1929-31 ; Council, 1925-28; President, 1930-31; Vice-President, 1928-30; Secretary,
1924-25; Treasurer, 1932-33; Editor, 1934-.

1927. *Fintayson, H. H., The University of Adelaide—Council, 1936.

1931. Frewinx, O. W., M.B., B.S., 68 Woodville Road.

1923. *Fry, H, K., D.S.0., M.B.. B.S, B.Sc., Glen Osmond Road, Parkside—Couneil, 1933-.

1932. *Grnson, E. S. H., B.Sc., 297 Cross Roads, Clarenee Gardens.

1935. GLastonpury, JAMES O iver Garner, B.A. M.Sc. Dip-Fd., 4 Mornington Road,
Uniey.

1919. +Grastonzury, QO, A., Adelaide Cement Co., Brookman Buildings, Grenfell Street.

1927. Gonrrry, F. K., Robert Street, Payneham, S.A.

1935. +Gotpsack, Harotp, Coromandel Valley,

1934. Goopnart, W. W., 7 Harrow Road, St. Peters.

1925. +Gosse, J. H., Gilbert House, Gilbert Place, Adelaide. '

1880. *Goyner, Grorcz, A.M., B.Sc., F.G.S., 232 East Terrace, Adelaide.

1910. *Grant, Kerr, M.Sc., Professor of Physics, University, Adelaide—Council, 1912-15.

1933. Gray, James H., M.B., B.S., Orroroo.

1930. Gray James T., Orroroo, S.A.

1933. Greaves, H., Director, Botanic Garden, Adelaide.

1904. Grirrirn, H., Hove, Brighton.

1934. Gunter, Rey. H. A., Woodside, S.A.

1916. Hackett, W. Cuampion, 35 Dequctteville Terrace, Kent Town,

1927, *Hacxert, C. J., M.D., c/o Bank of Adelaide, London.

1922, *Harz, H. M., The Dircctor, S.A. Museum, Adelaide—Council, 1931-34; Vice-
President, 1934-,

1924. Hawxnr, Captain C. A. S., M.A., M.HLR., Dillowie, Hallett, South Australia.

1927. Ho.pen, E. W., B.Sc., Dequetteville Terrace, Kent Town, S.A.

1933. Hosxinc, H. C., B.A., 24 Northcote Terrace, Gilberton.

1930. *Hosxinc, J. S., B.Sc.. Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond.

1924. *Hossrern, Pau S., M.Sc., Office of Home and Territories, Canberra.

1928. Hurcomre, Miss J. C., 95 Unley Road, New Parkside.

1928. Trourn, Percy, Kurralta, Burnside.

1918. *Istnc, Ernest H., c/o Comptroller's Office, S.A. Railways, Adelaide—Council, 1934-.

1918. *Jennison, Rev. J. C., Yankalilla, S.A.

1910. *Jonnsow, E. A., M.D., M.R.C.S., Town Hall, Adelaide.

1934. Jounsron, J. ASS.A.S.M., 32 Fisher Street, Norwaad.

1921. *Jounsron, Proressor T. Harvey, M.A. D.Se., University, Adelaide—Sir Joseph
Verco Medal, 1935; Rep.-Governor, 1927-29; Council, 1926-28; Vice-President,
1928-31; President, 1931-32.

1929, Jurunsron, W. C., Manager, Government Experimental Farm, Kybybolite, S.A.

1920. *Jones, Proressor F. Woon, M.B., B.S., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., D.Sc., F.R.S., University,
Melbourne—Rep.-Governor, 1922-27; Council, 1921-25; President, 1926-27; Vice-
President, 1925-26, ;

1918. Kraprr, W. J., 28 Second Avenue, Joslin.

1933. *Kreeman, A. W., M.Sc., 12 Ningana Avenue, Kings Park.

1915. *Laurie, D. F., Agricultural Department, Flinders Street, Adelaide.

1930. Lz Messurrer, D. H., B.Sc., 133 Mills Terrace, North Adelaide.

1922. Lenvon, Guy A., M.D., B.S., M.R.C.P., North Terrace.

1930. Louwycx, Rev, N. H., The Rectory, Yankalilla.

1931. *Luneroox, Mrs. N. H., M.A., Elimatta St.. Reid, F.C.T,

1922, *Manican, C. T., M.A, B.E., D.Se., F.G.S., University of Adelaide—Couneil, 1930-33;
Vice-President, 1933-35; President, 1935-36,

1923, Marsxatt, J. C., Darroch, Payneham,

197

t

Bicction.

1928. *Marcraitu, B. G., M.B., B.S., Magdalen College, Oxiord, England.

1930. Macarey, Miss K. ve B., B.A, B.Sc., 38 Winchester Street, Malvern.

1932. Mann, E. A., C/o Bank of Adelaide, Adelaide.

1929. Martin, F, rom M.A., Technical High School, Thebarton.

1905, *MAWwsOoN, Sm Douazas, D.Sc., B.E., FLRS., Professor of Geology, University, Adelaide
Sir Joseph Verco Medal, 1931; Rep. Governor, 1933-; President, 1924-25; Vice-
President, 1923-24, 1925-26,

1919. Mayo, Heten M., M.D., 47 Mclbourne Street, North Adelaide.

1920. Mayo, Herzert, LLB. K.C,, 16 Pirie Street, "Adelaide,

1934, McCoucury, C. L, BE, AM.LE. (Aust.), 271 Melbourne Street, North Adelaide.

1929. McLaucutin, E., M. B,, B. S., M.R.C.P., Adelaide Hospital,

1907. MELROSE, Rozert tT, Mount Pleasant,

1930. Murer, J. 1, 18 Ralston Street, Largs Bay.

1925, +Murcuect, Professor Sir Wittiam, K.C.M.G., M.A., D.Sc., The University, Adelaide.

1933. Mutrcuerr, M. L., B.Sc. Fitzroy Terrace, Prospect.

1924. Morrson, A. J., Deputy Town Clerk, Town Hall, Adelaide.

1930. Morris, L. G., Beehive Buildings, King William Strect, Adelaide.

1925. +Murray, Hon. Sir Georcze, K.C.M.G,, B.A., LL.M., Magill, S.A,

1926.
4930.
1913.

1929.
1924.

1928.

1926.
1936.

1925.

1926.

1925.
1911.
1925,
1905.

1931.
1934.
1933,
1924,

1925,
1936.
1928.
1920.
1924,
1925.
1936

1935,

1922.

1932,

1924.
1929.

1933.

1923.

1935.

1894.

1925.

1933.
1924,
1912.

1936,
1930.

*Mountrorp, C. P., c/o Engineering Branch, G.P.O., Adelaide.
OcKeNvDEN. G. P., Public School, Streaky Bay, S.A.
*Oszorn, T. G. B., D.Sc., Professor of Botany, University, Sydney—Council, 1915-20,
1922-24; President, 1925-26; Vice-President, 1924-25, 1926-27.
Pautt, Avec G., M.A., B.S., 10 Milton Avenuc, Fullarton Estate.
Perkins, Proressor A. J., Marlborough Street, Brighton,
Purrps, Ivan F., Ph.D., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond.
*Prper, C. S., M.Se., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond.
Prart, Avert E., M.B., B.S., D.T.M., D.T.H. (Syd.), Dip. Bact. (London), Adelaide
Hospital, Adelaide.
*Prescott, Proressor J. A., D.Sc. A.LC., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen
Osmond—Council, 1927-30, 1935-; Vice-President, 1930-32; President, 1932-33.
Price, A. GRENFELL, C.M.G., M.A., Litt.D., F.R.G.S., St. Mark’s College, North
Adelaide.
Ricuarpson, Professor A. E. V., M.A., D.Sc., “Urrbrae,”’ Glen Osmond, S.A.
*Roacu, B. S., 81 Kent Terrace, Kent Town—Treasurer, 1920-32.
Rocers, L. S., B.D.Sc., 192 North Terrace, Adeiaide,
*Rocrrs, R. S., M.A. M.D., D.Sc. F.L.S., 52 Hutt Street, Adelaide—Ceuncil, 1907-14,
1919-21; President, 1921-22; Vice-President, 1914-19, 1922-24.
Runp, E, A,, 10 Church Street, Highgate.
Suinkrietp, R. C., Meteorological Bureau, West Terrace, Adelaide.
Scunemer, M., M.B., B.S,, 175 North Terrace, Adelaide.
*Srcnit, Ratpu W., M.A., B.Sc., Assistant Government Geologist, Flinders Street,
Adelaide—Secretary, 1930-35.
*S HEARD, Harorp, Nuriootpa.
Suearp, Keiru, S.A. Museum, Adelaide,
SuHoweLt, H., 27 Dutton Terrace, Medindie.
Simpson, A. A., C.M.G., C_B.E., F.R.G.S., Lockwood Road, Burnside.
Simpson, Frep. N., Pirie Street, Adelaide.
{SMITH, Tf. Bare, B.A., 25 Currie Street, Adelaide.
SouTH Woop, ALBERT R,, M. D., M.S. (Adel), M.R.C.P, (Lond.), Medical Practitioner,
170 North Terrace, Adelaide.
STRICKLAND, ArtTitUR Georrrey, M.Ag.Sc. (Melb.), 14 Stirling Street, Tusmore.
Sutton, J., Fullarton Road, Netherby.
Swan, D. C., B.Sc.. Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond,
Symons, Ivor G., Murray Street, Lower Mitcham,
*Taytor, Joun K., B.A. M.Sc. Waite Agricutural Research Institute, Glen Osmond.
Taytor, Miss V., 40 Eton Street, Malvern.
*Trnpaze, N. B., B.Sc., South Australian Museum, Adclaide—Secretary, 1935-36,
Trac, FRANK, Government Print’ ng Office, ‘Adelaide,
*TuRNER, A. JEFFERIS, M.LD., F.E.S., Wickham Terrace, Brisbane, Queensland.
Turner, Dupey C., National Chambers, King William Street, Adelaide.
WALELEY, A,, B.A., B.Sc,, Ph.D., 20 Urrbrae Avenue, Myrtle Bank.
WALKER, W. D,, MB., BS. B.Sc, c/o National Bank, King William Street.
*Warp, L. Kerra, B.A. B.E., D.Sc, Govt. Geologist, Flinders Street, Adelaide—
Council, 1924-27, 1933-35; President, 1928-30; Vice-President, 1927-28.
Waternouss, Lorwa M., 35 King Street, Brighton.
Wuirtrtaw, A. J. B.Sc., High School, Mount Gambier.

198

“Woodfield,” Fisher Street, Fullarton.

S.A. Museum, Adzlaide—Secretary, 1936-.

University of Adelaide—Council,

Sir Doweras Mawson, D.Sc. B.E.,

G. B. Oszorn, D.Sc.

KF, Woop Jones, M.B., B.S.
M.LR.C.S., L.R.C.P., D.Sc, ERS.

Pror. Joun B. Creranp, M.D.

L. Kerry Warp, B.A,, B.E.,
F.G.S.A,

Cuas. Fenner, D.Sc.

Pror. T. Harvey Jounston, M.A,
D.Se.

Pror. J. A. Prescott, D.Se., A.LC.

J. M. Biacx, A.L.S.

YT. D. Camrnett, D.D.Sc.,

C. T. Mavican, M.A., B.E., D.Sc.

D.Sc.,

E.G.S,
H. M. Hare

G. G. Mayo, CE.

R. H. Putrerne, M.B., Ch.M.
Watter Rutt, CE.

Cuas. Fenner, D.Sc.

R. H. Purrerng, M.B., Ch.M.
Ratru W. Seonir, M.A., B.Sc.
NorMAN B. Tinpace, B.Sc.
Hersperr WoMeERsLey

W. B. Poorer.

B. S. Roacu

Cuas, FeNNER, D.Sc.
W. Crretstir, M.B., B.S.

Pror.
Pror,
Pror.
Pror, WattTer Howcrtr,
Citas. FENNeEr, D.Sc.

Rateu Tate, F.G.S., F.L.S.
Water Howcnin, F.G.S,
Rare Tate, F.G.S., F.LS.
F.GS.

Date of
Election.
1931, Wison, Cuas. E. C., M.B., B.S.,
1920. *Wirton, Professor J. R., D.Se., University of Adelaide.
1935. Winkter, Rev. M. T., B.A., 20 Austral Terrace, Malvern.
1930. *Womerstey, M., F.R.E.S., A.1.S.,
1923. *Woop, J. G., D.Sc. Ph.D., Professor of Botany,
1935-.
ASSOCIATE.
1935. *FENNER, Frank Joun, 42 Alexandra Avenue, Rose Park,
1936. Spricc, Recrnatp Craupr, Lanor Avenue, Goodwood.
PAST AND PRESENT OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY.
PRESIDENTS.
1877-79 Pror. Rateu Tarte, F.G.S., F.L.S. 1924-25
1879-81 Cuter Justice [Sir] S.J. Way. ;
1881-82 [Sir] Cartes Topp, C.M.G.,F.R.A.S. 1925-26
1882-83 H.T. WHIrteLt, M.A., iL D., "F.RMS. 1926-27
1883-84 Pror. H. Lams, MA. ERS.
1884-85 H. E. Mais, M.LC.E. 1927-28
1885-88 Pror.E.H.Renniz, M.A. D.Sc., F.C.S. 1928-30
1888-89 [Sir] Epwarp C. STIRLING, fon £.G.,
M.A, M.D. (Cantab.), F.R.C.S., 1930-31
ERS. 1931-32
1889-91 Rev. Tuomas BLAcKgurn, B.A.
1891-94 Pror. Rater Tate, F.G.S., F.L.S. 1932-33
1894-96 Pror. Water Howcurn, F.G.S. 1933-34
1896-99 W. L. CLeLanp, M.B, 1934-35
1899-03 Pror.E.H.Renwir, M.A., D.Sc., F.C.S. 1935-36
1903-21 Sir Joserpu C. Verco, M. Dz, ER CS.
1921-22 R. S. Rocers, M.A., M.D. 1936-
1922-24 R. H. Purrerne, M.B., Ch.M.
SECRETARIES.
1877 W. C. M. Finniss. 1896-09
1877-81 Watter Rutt, C.E. 1909-12
1881-92 W. L. Crecann, M.B. 1912-24
1892-93 W. C. Grassy. 1924-25
1893-94 W. B. Poorer. 1925-30
1894-95 § W. L. Crerann, M.B. 1930-35
UW. B. Poors. 1935-36
1895-96 W. L. CLeLanp, M.B. 1936-
TREASURERS.
1877 J. S. Luovn. 1909-20
1877-83. Tuomas H. Smeaton. 1920-32
1883-92 Water Rutt, C.E. 1932-33
1892-94 W. L. Cierann, M.B, 1933-
1894-09 Watrer Rurrt, C.E.
EDITORS.
1877-83 Pror. Ratru Tate, F.G.S., F.LS. 1894-95
1883-88 Pror. Watrer Howcury, F.G.S. 1895-96
1888-93 Pror, Rap Tarte, F.G.S., F.L.S. 1896-00
1893-94 { Prop. WaLTER Howcnn, EGS. 1901-33
UPror. Ratpa Tarr, F.G. S,, F.L.S. 1934-
REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNORS.
1877-83 [Sir] Cuarres Topp, C.M.G.,F.R.A.S. 1922-27
1883-87. H. T. Waitt, MA, M.D., ERM. S$. 1927-29

1887-01
1901-22

Pror, Rarer TATE, F. G.S., F, LS.
Pror. WALTER Howcurn, E.G. S.

1929-31
1932-33
1933-

Pror. F. Woon Jones, M.B., ete.
Pror, T, H. Jounsron, M.A, D.Sc.
Cuas. Fenner, D.Sc.

T.D. CAMPBEEL, D.D.Se.

Str Dovucras Mawson, D.Se., F.RS

GENERAL INDEX

Summary

199

GENERAL INDEX.

[Generic and specific names in italics indicate that the forms described

are new

Abstract of the Proceedings, 180

Acacia Anuera, 114, 116; A. Cambagei, 114;
A. Kempeana, 116; A. minutifolia, 167; A.
retivenea, 167; A. Victoriac, 116

Acknowledgments, 109

Additions to the Flora of South Australia,
J. M. Black, 162

Adelaide Public Library, vi

Adelaidean (Upper Pliocene),
Bore, 3

Adelaide Miscellany, xlv

Adelaide Philosophical Society, xl

Adeonellopsis australis, 131

Agrostis avenacea, 165

Aiston, G., Mortality of the Natives, 49

Aizoaceae, 167

Alderman, A. R., Meteorite, 73

Amaranthaceae, 166

Amaranthus grandiflorus, 166

Amesbury, G., Meteorite, 73

Amphilophis glabra, 164

Amphipods from a South Australian Reef,
Keith Sheard, 173

Ampithoidae, 175

Analytical Notes on a Sample of Brown Coal
from the Balaklava-Inkerman Deposit,
Cooke, W. Ternent, 71

Andrewartha, H. G., locusts, 152

Andrews, Aridity, 93

Andropogoneae, 162

Andropogon Gryllus, 163

Annual Report, 182

Anthobolus exocarpoides, 166

Anthropological Research, Board for, xxi

Anthropological Society of South Australia,
XXI

Anthropometric Observations, Diamantina
and Cooper Creek, Fenner, F. J., 46

Antigona (?) dimorphophylla, 14; A. hormo-
phora, 14; A. propinqua, 14

Annual Rainfall at Koonamore, 96

Aphelinus mali, xxxviii

Arca (Barbatia) sp. 10; A. pseudonavicu-
laris, 10

Arthrocnemum halocnemoides
mum, 166

Ariracoona Meteorite, Kleeman, A. W., 73

Ashton, J. H., xxxvii

Astronomical Section, x

Ateciplex nummularium, 116; A. stipitatum, 98,
104; A. vesicarium, 98, 99

Avena filiformis, 165

Cowandilla

plerygosper-

Babbage, B. Herschel, xxvi

Bacillus Tuberculosis, xxix
Balaklava-Inkerman Brown Coal, 71
Basedow, Herbert, xx

to science.]

Bassia patenticuspis, 98

Bates, Mrs., xx

Baudin, xlii

| Benson, Dr., Ixv

Bentham, xxxiii

Bettongia lesueuri, 160

Bifora testiculata, 168

Bioclimatic Zones in Australia, Davidson, J.,

Black, J. M., xx; Additions to the Flora of
South Australia, 162; Botanical Features
between Oodnadatta and Ernabella, 114;
One Hundred Years of Systematic Botany
in South Australia, xxxi; Specimens
eucalyptus, 156

Blackburn, Rev. T., xxxvi

Black-tipped Locust, 149

Blakely, W. F., Three New Species of
Eucalyptus, The “white-wash gum,” and
the re-discovery of eucalyptus orbifolia,
153

Board of Governors of the Public Library,
xi

Body and Limb Proportions, 49

Boerhavia repanda, 166

Borings situated on the Plains between Ade-
laide and Gulf St. Vincent, 1

Borraginaceae, 168

Botany, Centennial Address, J. G. Wood, xvi

Botany in South Australia, xvi

Bothriochloa decipiens, 163

Bothriochloa inundata, 163

Boulder-strewn Knolls, 116

Bragg, Sir William, O.M., xxviii

British Science Guild, Ini

Brown, H. Y. L., Ixiv

Brown, Robert, xxxi

Burke and Wills, xxxii

Caberea grandis, 129

Calamagrostis filiformis, 165

Calliostoma. sp., 17

Callomphala (Teinostoma): depressula, 18

Caloprymnus, 158; C. campestris, liv, 159

Calorific Value, Brown Coal, 71

Calyptraca (Sigapatella) undulata, 19

Campbell, Dr. T. D., Acknowledgments, 54;
Centennial Address, Anthropology and the
Royal Society, xix

Cambrian Fossils, ix

Carraweena Run, Meteorite, 73

Cassia Eremophila, 106; C. Sturtii, 106

Casuarina lepidophloia, 98

Cellaria australis, 129; C. variahbilis, 129

Centaurea nigrescens, 172

200

Centenary Address, Dr. C. T. Madigan, 1;
C, Address, Past Work of the Royal So-
ciety outside the Domain of Natural
Science, Prof. Chapman, xxv

Centennial Address, Anthropology and the
Royal Society, Dr. T. D. Campbell, xix;
C. Address, Botany, J. G. Wood, xvi

Central Australia, xix

Ceradocus rubromaculatus, 177, 179

Chapman, Professor R. W., Past Work of
the Royal Society outside the Domain of
Natural Science, xxv.

Chemistry, xxvili

Chenopodiaceae, 166

Chewings, Dr. C., lviii

Chlamys asperrimus, 4, 6; C. asperrimus sub-
sp. antiaustralis, 12; C. asperrimus subsp.
dennanti, 12; C. polymorphoides, 6

Chortoicetes terminifera, 137, 138

Chrysanthemum anethifolium, 172

Chrysopogon Gryllus, 163

Cibicides lobatulus, 3, 5, 9

Clanculus sp., 18

Clavulina angularis, 5; C. parisiensis, 3, 8

Cleland, J. B., Prof., viii, xxxti, 180

Cleland, Dr. W. L., v

Climate in Relation to Insect Ecology
Australia, Davidson, J., 88

Climatic Control of the Australian Deserts,
Prescott, J. A., 93

Compositae, 172

Conescharellina angulopora, 133; C. crassa,
133

Cooke, Dr. W. T., xxix

Cooke, W. Ternent, Brown Coal from Bala-
klava-Inkerman Deposits, 71

Corbula (Notocorbula) pixidata, 15; C.
(Notocorbula) sp., 15; C. (Notocorbula)
ephamilla, 15

Cotton, Bernard C., Terebralia adelaidensis 31

Council of Education, xxvii

Cowandilla Bore, 1; C. Bore, Diagram, 29

Crawford, Mr. Frazer, xxxvii

Cretaceous Glaciation, Ixiv

Cribrobulimina mixta, 3, 4, 5, 8

Cryophytum nodiflorum, 167

Cucullaea adelaidensis, 10; C. corioensis, 6, 10

Cyclostrema homalon, 18

Cylichnella callosa, 5

Cylichnina pygmaea, 5

Cymbopogon, 165; C. bombycinnus, 165; C.
exaltatus, 165

Cyperaceae, 166

Cyperus vaginatus, 116

in

Dasyurus, xlii

David, T. W, E., lviii

Davidson, J., Bioclimatic Zones in Australia,
88; Climate in Relation to Insect Ecology
in Australia, 88; One Hundred Years of
Entomology in South Australia, xxxv;
Ecology of the Black-tipped Locust
(Chortoicetes terminifera Walk.) in South
Australia, 137

Decapoda, 20

Dentalium sp, 17; D. intercalatum, 4, 16; D.
intercalatum aratum, 16; D. intercalatum
francisense, 16

Development of Locust Eggs, 145; D. of the
Plague, 150

Dichanthium humilius, 164

Dichanthium, 164; D. sericeum, 164

Diprotodon Period, Ixv

Diprotodont Marsupials and Ornithodelphia,
Finlayson, H. H., 157

Discorbina polystomelloides, 6

Discorbis turbo, 3, 4, 5, 9

Distribution of the Black-tipped Locust, 143

Divaricella quadrisulcata, 13

Dromaeus ater, xlii

Drosera Whittakeri, xxix

Eardley, Miss Constance, Specimens Eucalyp-
tus, 156

Early Work, vi

‘Echidna aculeata, 161

Ecology of the Black-tipped Locust (Chor-
toicetes terminifera Walk.) in South Aus-
tralia, Davidson, J., 137

Egginton, Tom, Native Language, 60

Elphidium, 4; E. craticulatum, 10; I. crispum,
9; E, macellum, 3, 9; E. striatopunctatum,
9

Emarginula dennanti, 17

Epacromia terminifera, 138

Epistomclla polystometloides, 3, 6

Eremophila longifolia, 117; E. serrulata, 117

Ernabella, 114

Ethnologist, xxi

Eucalyptus brachycalyx, 168; E. camaldulen-
sis, xxxiv; E, dumosa, 98; E, gracilis, 168;
E. gummifera, xxxiv; E. largiflorens, 168;
E. microtheca, 114; E. oleosa, 98; . E.
rostrata, 114, 116

Eucalyptus leptophylla, F. v. M., var. fleri-
bunda, 155; E. orymitra, 155; E. papuana
F, v. M. var. Aparrerinja, 154; E. gongy-
locarpa, 153; E., trivalva, 15

Fucrassatella carnea, 13; E. Kuingicoloides,
6, 12

Eulalia Cumingii, 162; E. fulva, 162

Euphorbiaceae, 167

Euphorbia Drummondii,
167

117; E. Stevenii,

Fauna and Flora Protection Committee, ix

Fenner, Dr. C., Ixv

Fenner, Frank J., Anthropometric Observa-
tions, Diamantina and Cooper Creek, 46

Field Naturalists’ Section, ix

Field Naturalists, xli

Vilaria labialis, 76

Finance, xii

Finlayson, H. H., Exhibit, 180; Mammals
from the Lake Eyre Basin, The Diproto-
dont Marsupials and Ornithodelphia, 157

Flinders Chase, x

i Fluviatile Deposits, Cowandilla Bore, 2

201

Foraminifera, 3, 6, 21, 22, 23, 25

Forrest, Sir John, xxxi

Gammaridae, 177

Gasteropoda, 21, 22, 24, 25

Gasteropods, 3

Geology of South Australia, Progress in
Knowledge of, Sir Douglas Mawson, lvi

Geological Survey, Ivit

Glacial Phenomena, 1xiti

Glen Ferdinand, 115

Glycymeris convexa, 6, 11; G. flabeliatus, 11;
G. planiuscula, 11

Gongylonema pulchrum, 76; G. scutatum, 78

Goodeniaceae, 172

Goodenia erecta, 172

Gossypium Sturtii, 117

Goyder, G. A., xxviii

Gramineae, 162

Grevillea Wickhamii, 166

Groves, R. C., Soils, 42

Grubia variaia, 175

Guttulina problema, 3, 4, 5, 9; G. regina, 5;
G. yabei, &

Gyrostemon australasicus, 166

Hale, H. M., xxxvii

Halgania glabra, 168

Hergolt, David, xxxi

Higgins, A. J., xxviii

His Excellency Major-General Sir Winston
Dugan, 180

Hooker, xxxiii

Hornera foliacea, 133; H. robusta, 133

Hosking, J. S., and Prescott, J. A., Some Red
Basaltic Soils from Eastern Australia, 35

Hossfeld, Ix

Howchin, Prof,, viii, Iviii; Cowanditla Bore,
1; South Australian Cainozoic Bryozoa,
127

Hrdlicka, 46

Hundred Years of Zoology in South Austra-
lia, Johnston, T. Harvey, xli

Icerya purchasi, xxxviii
Idmonea australis, 133
Idmonea macgillivrayi, 133
Tgncous Rocks, Ixv

Imperata cylindrica, 162
Todictyum cf. Phoeniceum, 130

Jack, Dr. R. L., Ixiv

Johnson, J. Howard, Native Vocabulary, 55

Johnston, T. Harvey, xxxviti; A Hundred
Years of Zoology in South Australia, xli;
Remarks on the Nematode, Gongylonema
ptilchrum, 76

Jones, Wood, xlviti

Kangaroo Island, xiii
Kaurna, Native Tribe, 55
Kennedya prorepens, 167
Kirby, W., xxxv

Kochia sedifolia, 98; K. Sedifolia (Blue-
bush), 105

Koonamore, Rainfall, 97; K. Vegetation Re-
serve, 96

Labiatae, 172

Lagorchestes, 158

Lamb, Sir Horace, xxv

Lea, Arthur M., xxxvi

Leda apiculata, 10; L. verconis, 5
Leguminosae, 167

Leigh, W. H., xliv
Lepidosperma concavum, 166
Leseur, C. A., xxxv
Library, The, xiii

Linnaeus, xxxili

Locust: Plague, 137, 148
Loripes icterica, 13

Lucina affinis, 13

Macgregoria racemigera, 168

Macropus (or Thylogate} eugenii, xli; M.
rufus, 157

Madigan, Dr. C. T., Centenary Address, i

Madigan, Dr. C. T., Iviii; Sand Dunes, 93

Maera mastersi, 177, 178

Maiden, J. H., xxxii

Malacological Section, x

Mammals from the Lake Eyre Basin, Finlay-
son, H. H., 157

Marion Bay, Native Words, 55

Marginulina costata, 5, 8

Marginopora vertibralis, 4

Maughan, Rev. J., xxv

Mawson, Sir Douglas, Progress in Know-
ledge of the Geology of South Australia,
Ivi

Maze, Aridity, 93

McKinley, John, xxxii

Mechanical Analyses of Soils, 36, 37

Mcchanics Institute, ii

Medal, Sir Joseph Verco, xii

Melaleuca monticola, 116

Melhania incana, 168

Meliaceae, 167

Meretrix sphericula, 7, 14

Mesozoic Formations, 1xi

Meyrick, Edward, xxxvi

Microcorys Macreadieana, 172

Microscopical Section, x

Miltha grandis, 4, 5, 13

Mincham, Mr., Exhibit, 181

Mirra Mitta, 46

Moisture Zones, 88

Moorilyanna, 115

Mortality of the Natives, 49

Mueller, Baron Sir Ferdinand von, xxxi

Musgrave Ranges, 114

Myoporum platycarpum (Sandalwood), 98,
105, 106

Myrtaceae, 168

National Park, x

Natives of the Southern Portion of Yorke
ere South Australia, Tindale, N. B.,

202

Natural History Museum, vi

Neodiastoma provisi, 7, 18

New Species of Eucalyptus, Elder and Horn
Expedition, Blakely, W. F., 153

New Species of Lepismatidae from South
Australia, Womersley, H., 112

Ngarna and ‘Badara, 58

Nicotiana, 169; N. excelsior, 116, 170; N.
glauca, 170; N. Goodspeedii, 171; N.
Gossei, 116, 171; N. ingulba, 171; N. mari-
tima, 171; N. occidentalis, 170; N. rotundi-
folia, 171; N. velutina, 171

Nicoletia, 112

Nicoletia austraiis, 112

Noarlunga, Brown Coal, 71

Northern Territory, xix

Novius cardinalis, xxxvili

Nucula obliqua, 4

Nurse Plants, 102

Nyctaginaceae, 166

Ocdiceroides pirloti, 173

Older Rocks, lix

One Hundred Years of Entomology in South
Australia, J. Davidson, xxxv

One Hundred Years of Systematic Botany in
South Australia, Black, J. M., xxxi

Oodnadatta, 114

Ornithodelphia, 161

Ornithological Society, xl

Ornithorynchus, 161

Osborn, Prof. T. G. B., Acknowledgments,
109

Ostrea hyotidoidea, 6, 12

Owenia reticulata, 167

Oyster Bed, 5

Paltridge, T. G., Acknowledgments, 109

Pandalawi, 59

Pandi Pandi, 46

Papilio anactus, xxxix

Parmularia obliqua, 131

Paspalidium gracile, 117

Past, Present, and Future of the Society, i

Past Work of the Royal Society outside the
Domain of Natural Science, Prof. R. W.
Chapman, xxv

Pedionomus torquatus, xlv

Pelecypoda, 21, 22, 24, 25

Pelicaria howchini, 7, 19

Péron, Francois, xxxv

Pettit, T. H., Gongylonema pulchrum, 76

Phascolomyidae, 160

Phasianella australis, 17

Philosophical Society, iii, xxvii

Physical Environment of Ch. terminifera,
142

Phytolaccaceae, 166

Phylactellina cowandillensis, 131, 132

Phylobrya, 11

Pilgrim, A. F., Analysis, Meteorite, 74

Pinctada (Margaritifera) carchariarum, 6, 12

Pinus halepensis, xxxix; P. radiata, xxxiv

Pisces, 20

Pittosporum phillyraeoides, 116

Place Names, Native, 69

Plains or Glens, Far North of South Aus-
tralia, 116

Plant Physiology, xviii

Pleistocene, 27; P..Ice Age, Ixv

Plumbaginaceae, 168

Polinices (Natica) subvarians, 19

Pollinia Cumingii, 162

Pollinia fulva, 162

Porina gracilis, 129

Prescott, J. A., Climatic Control of the Aus-
tralian Deserts, 93

Prescott, J. A, and Hosking, J. S., Some Red
Basaltic Soils from Eastern Australia, 35

Pre-Cambrian Glaciation, Ixiv

Progress in Knowledge of the Geology of
South Australia, Sir Douglas Mawson, lvi

Procellaria, xtii

Proteaceae, 166

Pteropoda, 20

Publications, viti

Public Library, iii

Pyrgo elongata, 6

Quinqueloculina aff. ferussacii, 7; Q. polyana,
7; Q. seminulum, 3,5; Q. venusta, 4

Ramsay Smith, xx

Rainfall and Nitrogen in Soils, 38

Rate of Regeneration, 100

Ravine de Casoars, xlii

Re-discovery of Eucalyptus orbifolia, Blakely,
W. F., 153

Regeneration of Vegetation, 100

Regeneration of the Vegetation on the Koona-
more Vegetation Reserve, Wood, J. G., 96

Remarks on the Nematode Gongylonema pul-
chrum, Johnston, T. Harvey, 76

Rennie, Professor, it

Rennie, Professor E. H,, xxviti

Rhagodia spinescens, 117

Rice Williams, Soils, 40

Rockfeller Foundation, 46

Rogers, Dr. R. S,, ii

Rotalia beeearii, 3, 4, 5, 9; R. howchini, 4, 5, 9

Royal Geographical Society, lti

Royal Society of South Australia, iii, Ivi

Saccharum fulvum, 162
Saltbush Community, 98
Sandhill Communities, 107
Santalaceae, 166
Santalum lanceolatum, 117
Sarcostemma australe, 117
Saxicava australis, 15
Scaphopoda, 25

Scarfe, Thomas, xti
Scelio fulgidus, 151
School of Mines, vii

203

Science House, xiv

Segnit, R. W., 28

Selenaria maculata, 128

Selway, W. H., xliv

Selwyn, A. R. C., Ivi

Sertella porcellana, 131

Sheard, Keith, Amphipods
Australian Reef, 173

Sigmoidella clegantissima, 8; S. kagaensis,

from a South

Sihquaria australis, 7, 19

Silver Fish, 112

Sir Joseph Verco Medal, xii, 180

Smith, Elliot, xlviti

Smith, Mr. R. Barr, xii

Smith, Sir Edwin, xii

Smyth, R, Brough, Ivi

Soil Moisture, 144

Soil Values, 44

Solanaceae, 169

Solanum hystrix, 169; S. petrophila, 117

Some Red Basaltic Soils from Eastern Aus-
ll J. A. Prescott and J. S. Hosking,
3

Song of the Peach Tree, Native, 58
Sorghum halepense, 163

South Australian Cainozoic Bryozoa, Stach, |

Leo. W., and Howchin, W., 127
South Australian Museum, xli
South Australian Ornithologist, li
Spartothamnus tcucriifolia, 172
Spence, W., xxxv
Spencer and Gillen, xx
Spiroloculina aff. arenaria, 4, 5, 7
Spondylis arenicola, 12
Stach, Leo. W., South Australian Cainozoic

Bryozoa, 127
Stackhousiaceae, 168
Statice psiloclada, 168
Statistical Society, xxi
Sterculiaceae, 168
Stipa nitida, 98
Stirling, Sir Edward, xx
Stuart, J. McDouall, xxxi
Studies in Australian Thysanura, Womersley,

H., 112
Sturt, xliii
Sturt’s Stony Desert, 157
Summer Rainfall Zone, 91
Sundries, Mollusca, 24
Swan, D. C., Locusts, 152

Tate, Professor, i

Tate, Professor Ralph, xxxii, xlvii, lvi

Tectonic Movements, Ixv

Selina (#) albinclloides, 15; T. aequilatera,
1

Tempcrature Zones, 91

Tenison-Woods, Rev. J. E., lvi

Tepper, J. G. O., xxxi, xxxvi, lix

Tertiary basalts, 35

Terebralia adelaidensis, 31

Terrestrial Formations, lxii

Tertiary Marine Beds, xi

Thalamoporella gracilis, 128

Thalamoporella howchini, 128

The Governor, 180

The Library, xiii

Tiegs, O. W., xxxvili

Tilley, Dr. C. E.,, lviti

Tillyard, R. J., xxxvii

Tindale, N. B., 46

Tindale, N. B., Natives, Yorke Peninsula,
South Australia, 55

Todd, Charles, xxvi

Tolpis barbata, 172

Transactions, vi

Trichoglossus porphyriocephalus, xlv

: Trichosurus vulpecula, 160
: Trifolium Cherleri, 167

Triloculina circularis, 6; T. linnaeana, 6; T.
oblonga, 7; T. tricarinata, 7; T. trigonula,
Oy AF

Triodia pungens, 166

Tubucellaria cereoides, 130

Turner, Alfred Jefferis, xxxvi

Umbelliferae, 168

Venericardia (?) compacta, 13; V. trigona-
lis, 13

Verbenaceae, 172

Verco, Sir Joseph, v, xii, xivii; Medal, 184

Vermicularia (Thylacodes) sipho, 19

Vocabulary, Native, 61

Waite Agricultural Research Institute, xxxvili

Wandering Grasshopper, 137

Ward, Dr. L. K., lvii

Watercourse Communities, 108

Waterhouse, F. G., xxxv

Waterhouse, G. R., xIv

Watt, R. D., Prof., Soils, 35

White, Captain, xlix

“White-wash Gum”
Blakely, W. F., 153

Williamson, H. B., xxxii

Wilson, Charles Algernon, xxxv

of Central Australia,

: Winks, W. R., Soils, 35

Womersliey, H., Studies in Australian Thy-
sanura. No. 1, A New Species of Lepis-
matidae from South Australia, 112

Womersley, H. 183

Wood, J. G., Centennial Address, Botany,
xvi; Regeneration of the Vegetation on
the Koonamore Vegetation Reserve, 96

Woods, Rev. Tenison, iv, xlvii

X-rays, XXvill
Yorke Peninsula, Native Dialect, 55

Zeacrypta (Crepidula) aff. dubitabilis, 18

Trans. and Proc. Roy. Sac.

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. Austr., 1936

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Bryozoa FROM CowANpILLA Bore, S.A.

Pig. 1, Cellaria variabilis (Busk, 1884), Cowandilla Bore at 520 to 550
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QO South Aust Mus. Coll, No, L 2

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type, South Aust. Mus. Coll., No, L6.

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haloenemoides var. plervgospermum. 8. Nicotiana Gossei.

Gillingham & Co. T.td., Adelaide

Vol. LX, Plate XVII.

Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1936

Photo by Bernard C. Cotton.

A Oediceroides pirloti, n. sp. C Maera mastersi

3 Grubia variatus, n. sp. D- Ceradocus rubromaculatus

Gillingham & Co. Ltd., Adelaide

7
CONTENTS i)
Me
: il
® Maopican, Dr. C. T.—Centenary Address: The Past, Present and Future of the are : | i
Society, and its relation to the Welfare and Progress of the State .. = i i ! |
Woop, Dr. J. G.: Botany .. = ae = Re xvi i iH
Campsett, Dr. T. D.: Anthropology soe ee Royal Society S xx ' i
CuaprMan, Pror. R. W.: The Past Work of the ay sau eae the para : I
of Natural Science .. : XXV ETE,
Buack, J. M.: One Hundred Vents of Sle eae in South rs 38 XxXxi | ;
Davison, J.: One Hundred Years of Entomology in South Australia .. a XXXV }
Jounston, Pror. T. Harvey: One Hundred Years of Zoology in South Karate xli
Mawson, Sir Doucrass Progress in Knowledge of the Geology of South Australia lvi

Howcurn, Pror. W.: Notes on the Geological Sections obtained by several Borings
situated on the Plains between Adelaide and Gulf St. Vincent. Part I1—Cowan-

dilla (Government) Bore .. 1
Prescott, J. A., and Hosxrne, J. $.: Sonne Red Basaltic Soils ti Bases Aastpalia 35
Fenner, F. J.: Anthropometric Observations on South Australian Slik ose of the if HE
Diamantina and Cooper Creek Regions .. : 46 ae
Tinpace, N. B.: Notes on the Natives of the Soisthern Poston of Yorke Penis, i Mi
South Australia 2 : 55 |
Cooxe, W. TERNENT: Aniaiseics! Rates on a Satante of Bice Coal irda the
Balaklava-Inkerman Deposit .. = 2 ie ee te A nS 71
KireemMan, A. W.: The Artracoona Meteorite .. - : = 73
Jounston, Pror. T. Harvey: Remarks on the Nematode, coiginaea lean Pe 76
Davipson, J.: Climate in Relation to Insect a in Australia. Bioclimatic Zones
in Australia ne F Be ae oe 88
Prescott, J. A.: The Climatic Chaat ‘of the deste peda es 93
Woop, J. G.: Soe of the Serotaaes on the Koonamore Vegetation
Reserve .. : 96
Womenrstey, H.: Staaten in Saseaven Thysanra, os Pa Species of Lepismatidae
from South Australia .. 112
Brack, J. M.: The Botanical Renta: cciaee Goines aS Ernabella in the
Musgrave Ranges, with a egaed List of Plants from the North-West of
South Australia ae: : 114
StacH, L. W.: South ‘Maeitian Cateiciit Se Pat ii = eee 127
Davinson, J.: On the Ecology of the Black- Hpeed Locust . ( Chortoicetes terminfora
Walk.) in South Australia .. i 137
Brake.y, W. F.: Descriptions of Three see ‘Seeciee and One Variety of Bucalpntis
of the Elder and Horn Expeditions, the “White-wash Gum” of Central Australia,
and the Re-discovery of Eucalyptus orbifolia F. v. M. : 153.
Fintayson, H. H.: On Mammals from the Lake Byre Buchs Part It, The
Diprotodont Marsupials and Ornithodelphia a es : 5 157
Buack, J. M.: Additions to the Flora of South Australia, No. 4 = Ee e 162
Suearp, K.: Amphipods from a South Australian Reef .. a vs oe e 173
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS .. = = ae = SF eG ns i = 180
ANNUAL REPORT... = oe a 3 as “e a 3 aa 182
Str JosepH VeERco MEpAt .. ae ue isd *% =a as oe me 184
BALANCE-SHEETS..’ es ox = < 3 rae Se S = .. 185-186
ENDOWMENT Funp se = a os ae ee 3 As et = 187
Liprary EXCHANGES a — rs a a Si es ea is .. 188-194
List or FELLOWS AND MEMBERS .. = a ee a i Ss .. 195-198

INDEX .. a = a is a = os a = ae a am 199