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VOL. LXI.

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oe en

Parcels for transmission to the Royal Society of South Australia from the United States
of America can be forwarded through the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

(INCORPORATED)

VOL. LXI.

[Each Author is responsible for the soundness of the opinions given and
for the accuracy of the statements made tn his paper.]

PRICE: TWO GUINEAS

Adzlaide:
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY,
ROYAL SOCIETY ROOMS, NORTH TERRACE, ADELAIDE,
DECEMBER 24, 1937.

[Registered at the General Post Office, Adelaide, for Transmission by Post as a Periodical]

PRINTED BY GILLINGHAM & Co. Limitep, 106 AND 108, Currie STREET,
ADELAIDE, SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

Parcels for transmission to the Royal Society of South Australia from the United States
of America can be forwarded through the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

(INCORPORATED )

Patron:
HIS EXCELLENCY MAJOR-GENERAL SIR W. J. DUGAN, K.C.M.G., C.B., D.S.O.

OFFICERS FOR 1937-38.

President:
PROFESSOR JAMES DAVIDSON, D.Sc.

Vice-Presidents:
HERBERT M. HALE
H. K. FRY, D.S.O., M.B., B.S., B.Sc.

Hon. Editor:
CHARLES A. E. FENNER, D.Sc., Dip.Ed., F.R.G.S.

Hon. Treasurer: Hon. Secretary:
W. CHRISTIE, M.B., B.S. HERBERT WOMERSLEY, F.R.E.S., A.L.S.

Members of Council:

ERNEST H. ISING
PROFESSOR J. G. WOOD, D.Sc., Ph.D.
PROFESSOR J. A. PRESCOTT, D.Sc., A.LC.
H. H. FINLAYSON

A. R. ALDERMAN, D.Sc., F.G.S.
RALPH W. SEGNITT, M.A., B.Se.

Hon. Auditors:
W. CHAMPION HACKETT O. A. GLASTONBURY, A.A.LS., A.F.I.A.

tit

CONTENTS Page
Osituary Notices: Prof. Walter Howchin, with portrait i 3 = iv-Vvill
Mr. W. H. Selway, with portrait .. ie oe as .. X-Xi
a ee Mr. W. Ham, Mr. C. R, J. Glover, Mr. W. J Kimber,
Dr. Chas. Chewings ; xi
CuarMan, F.,: Descriptions of Tertiary Plant Remains from Central ena and
from other Australian Localities .. z a a a a - 1
SHrarp, K.: A Catalogue of Australian Gammaridea & 17
Mowntrorp, C. P.: Examples of Aboriginal Art from Napier Broome Bay and Parry
Harbour, North-western Australia ae ia ee tly
Trumpte, H. C.: Climatic Control of Agriculture in South Australia aM 41
Rait, W. L.: A Study of the Growth of the Fore Wing-sheaths in Eusthenia
spectabilis (Westwood) fs 63
Rait, W. L.: Some Observations on the Immature Stages of Eusthenia spectabilis
(Westwood), Pitre ote: Aes Ae Bums oH)
Coox, W. T.: An Examination of the Brown Coal « of Moorlands ; 80
Mowuntrorp, es P.: Aboriginal Crayon Drawings Relating to Totemic Places belong-
ing to the Northern Aranda Tribe of Central Australia a of on) OF
Womers_ey, H.: Studies in Australian Thysanura, No. 2, Lepismatidae a} Nes PO)
Womerstey, H.: A New Marine Chironomid from South Australia .. a be LOY
Womers_Ley, H.: On some Australian Coleoptera of the Subfamily Cossoninae
(Curculionidae) 2 ’ Ze ifs .. 104
Trinpae, N. B.: Native Songs of the South-East me South Australia - 107
CARTER, iz J.: Some New Tenebrionidae in the South Australian Museum, together
with Notes and Descriptions of other Australian Coleoptera .. 121
Asusy, E., anp Corron, B. C.: Description of Two New Species a Australian
Chitons, with Additional Notes and Records... 145
Tinpate, N. B.: Two Legends of the Ngadjuri Tribe fcom the Middle Woes OE
South Australia : Ss Me .. 149
Womenrsrry, H.: New Species and Records of Australian Collembola a 154

Rarr, W. L.: Further Remarks on Terminology relative to the Growth of the Fore
Wing- -sheath in the Larva of Eusthenia spectabilis (Westwood) (Order Perlaria) 158
Trxpatz, N. B., ann Barrrert, H. K.: Notes on some Clay Pots from Panaeati

Island, South-east of New Guinea .. 159
AwnnprewartHa, H. V.: A New Species of Thysanoptera of Economic Importance i in

South Australia : a .. 163
Womenrstey, H.: Studies in 1 Australian Thysanura, ‘We. s Campodeidae : ger GG
Womerstey, H.: A New Species of Marine Hydrachnellae from South Australia so US)
Womerstey, H.: Australian Acarina of the Genus Megisthanus Thorell, .. 175
Mawson, Sir D.: The Most Northerly Occurrence of Fossiliferous Cambrian Strata

yet Recorded in South Australia .. 181
Manican, Dr. C. T.: The Boxhole Crater and the Huckitta Meteorite te Aust). 187
Jounsron, Pror, T. H., anno CreLtanp, FE. R.: Larval Trematodes from Australian

Terrestrial and Freshwater Molluscs, Pt. I. A Survey of Literature .. 19}

Jounston, Pror., T. H., ann CLeLtanp, E. R.: Larval Trematodes from the Aus-
tralian Terrestrial and Freshwater Molluscs, Pt. I], Cercaria (fuwreocercaria)

jacnschi, n. sp. 202
Kireman, A. W.: The Nature and Origin of the s so- »-called Diorite Inclusions in the

Granite of Granite Island .. 7 Be BF e207
Istnc, E. H.: Notes on the Flora of South Australia, No: Seas. 221
Mountrorp, C. P.: Aboriginal Crayon Drawings, II, Relating to Totemic Places j in

South-western Central Australia .. oe = Re 745)
Buack, J. M.: Additions to the Flora of South Australia, ‘No. 35 : 241
JouNston, Pror. T. H., anp CLELAND, Pror. J. B.: A Survey of the Literature Relat-

ing to the Occur rence in Australia of Helminth Parasites of Man .. 5 .. 250
Apstract oF PROCEEDINGS = ‘els ea re a a Ae me e278,
ANNUAL REPorRT .. se Re: Sr i - as a th one 285
Str JoserpH VERcO Mepat a Re e uh Be = a: st 285
Balance SHEETS .. a ee =G a aa 2 me hee s 286-287
ENDOWMENT FuND va care Be a ef ee a i es .. 288
Liprary EXCHANGE oe ce = a Ee a Rs = ie 289-295
List oF FELLows, ETC... ni 2 wii ot on chen #3 es 296-299
Past OFFricers ae <r ae re ae ae ¥e A: he es .. 299
INDEX es yes be as oe o te = ts zt Se: 300-305

CoRRIGENDA = = ae ote a ‘a We in ie ne nals)

Proressor WALTER HOWCH:N, F.G.S.

OBITUARY NOTICES.

WALTER HOWCHIN, 1845-1937.

Professor Walter Howchin, F.G.S., died at his home at “Stonycroft,”
Erskine Street, Goodwood East, on November 27, 1937. For over half a century
Professor Howchin held an important position in the scientific life of Australia,
and particularly of South Australia. While his chief work lay in geology, his
interests embraced the allied sciences.

Walter Hlowchin was the son of the Rev. Richard Howchin, a Primitive
Methodist minister, He was born at Norwich, in Norfolk, on January 12, 1845,
and received his early schooling at the Academy, King’s Lynn. He was one of a
family of eleven, five boys and six girls. There would appear to have been little
or nothing in the broad, flat plains of Norfolk, either around his birthplace or
on the flat shores of the Wash at King’s l.ynn, to arouse a special interest in the
rocks of the earth. Indced, the Professor himself refers to these parts as the
“tame lowlands of Norfolk and Suffolk.” He has placed it on record that the
very absence of rocks in his surroundings caused him to be keenly interested in
the cobble stones with which the yard of his home was paved; and he traced his
interest in geology from that starting point.

Young Howchin’s slow climb to fame as a scholar and a scientist was in
no way aided either by college or university training. He left school when he
was 12 years of age, obtained a position as junior clerk in London, with a com-
mencing salary of 2/- per week plus board and lodging. A little later he went
back to his father’s home, now at Great Yarmouth, and there he was apprenticed
to the printing trade. Working as a compositor in the day-time, he spent his
evenings in studying for the ministry with the intention of following in his
father’s steps.

In 1864, when he was 19 years of age, he was accepted for “trial” as a
preacher, and was duly ordained the following year. He entered the ministry
in 1865 at Shotley Bridge—a small place not far from Newcastle-on-Tyne, He
was destined to live for the next 16 years in various places within the geologically
rich area of the Tyne valley: Hartlepool, Gateshead, Hexham, Blyth, Halt-
whistle, and North Shields. Here he was accustomed to do much walking, and
here his interest in geology, now strongly aroused, was encouraged by the
abundant outcrops of the coal-bearing and associated rocks of Carboniferous Age.
At Haltwhistle there was the additional significant interest of abundant glacial
till. From these glacial hills there was, in part, produced the mind that later
revealed to the world the existence of a glacial age infinitely older than anything
previously conceived by man; and further, that great discovery was made in a
remote country on the other side of the world. In a similar way, his early
discoveries among the flint implements of Northumberland were continued and
extended among the stone artefacts of the Australian aborigines.

Howchin published his first scientific paper when he was 29 years of age,
and it dealt with scientific dredging in the deep seas. His most considerable
scientific effort was published in 1876 and dealt with the foraminifera of
Carboniferous and Permian times. He had carly come under the influence of
Dr. IT. B. Brady, one of the leading authorities on the foraminifera, and it was at
this time also that he first made contact with Frederick Chapman, with whom he
was in continual correspondence up to the time of his death. Many papers on

vt

foraminifera were to follow this carly effort, and the Professor’s last important
paper deals very largely with the foraminifera of the rocks of the Adelaide Plains.

At the age of 33, having published about ten scientific papers und definitely
established himself as a geologist, Professor Mowchin became a Fellow of the
Geological Socicty of London, In these years he was a very sick man, carrying
on his work in the ministry, still undertaking some geological work in the field,
and fighting against an onset of severe lung trouble. In the year 1881 he retired
from the munistry on account of ill-health, and set out to South Australia in the
hope that the climatic conditions there might assist him in his struggle with
disease. It would appear that he was directed towards this country by an
Adelaide doctor whom he met in England.

Close friends of his family in England have recorded the seriousness of his
illness. Tt was not anticipated that he would be able to live long enough to reach
the end of Ins journey. It is likely that only his own courage and determination
carried him through the long voyage. Ile was carried ashore on arrival at Port
Adelaide, and spent a period of recuperation with friends in the Saddleworth
district.

Early the next year he was able to come to Adelaide; and at a meeting held
on March 3, 1882, he was welcomed by his fellow-churchmen. The Rev. Mr.
llowchin, as he was then, said that, as he faced that meeting, his mind went back
to the time when his life was filled with hope and brightness, and he most severely
felt the blow that had broken his life down almost at its commencement and had
made it necessary for him to turn in new directions, He added that in the short
time he had already lived in this Colony he had experienced an almost surprising
effect upon his health and spirits.

When reviewing the long life of hard scientific research and lectures that
lay before this young man, it is interesting to contemplate that, although he felt
lis life had been finished at 35, the fact was that his greatest period of pro-
duciivity was to take place between the years of 60 and 80, with an astonishingly
rich production between 80 and 90, continuing in valuable papers after that age.

After his arrival in South Australia the Rev. Mr. Howchin linked up with
the church as a supernumerary; and although he never took a circuit, he always
attended Conference and preached from time to time until about 20 years ago.
In his early years he did journalistic work, writing for the South Australian
“Register” on folk lore, geology, ete., and he also became assistant editor of the
“Christian Colonist.” He often recalled with pleasure that the first money he
earned in this country was for a series of newspaper articles advocating the
establishment of an official geological survey of the State. In 1886, five years
aiter he had come to South Australia, his health appears to have been completely
restored, and he took a position as secretary of the Children’s Hospital, which
he held for over 15 years, steadily carrying on his geological researches during
that time.

During his week-ends and holidays Professor Howchin prosecuted his study
of the geology, mineralogy, and palaeontology of the State. Ife had many good
friends among the Methodist ministers, and some of these were stationed in areas
where the geology was of special interest. Mr. Howchin would visit them at
their homes, would often preach in the church on Sunday, and get in a con-
siderable amount of gevlugical wandering on the other days of his visit. The
foundation of his knowledge of the State was laid in these early years, tramping
afoot with bag and hammer, often in broiling sun, over the hills and plains of
South Australia, He was a vigorous walker, and so continued to be to within a
few years of his death. When he was well over 80 he undertook long walks in

witb

the country collecting and carrying specimens and making observations in the
field. Wis field work was spread over practically 50 years.

It may be thought that some clash of intellect was inyolved in his dual
position as minister of religion and professor of geology. Just about the time
that young Howchin entered the ministry, Charles Darwin’s “Origin of Species”
was arousing the interest of the world; and a little later Darwin published his
book, “The Descent of Man.” Thus Howchin’s religious life lay for over
60 years in a period of most profound importance in religious thought-——a period
of transition and controversy and adaptation. [rom the scientific point of view
this period was the most progressive and brilliant, perhaps, in the whole history
of man, so far as the biological sciences are concerned. Through all this time
Professor Ilawehin, by the special qualities of hig mind, retained an cven balance
and composure. Ile was able to accept the teachings of science without destruc-
tion of his religious beliefs, and, as already indicated, he was able to successfully
function hoth as a preacher and as a critical researcher and impersonal teacher
of modern science.

In the year 1&83 he became a member of the Royal Society of South Aus-
tralia, and so impressed the Fellows with his ability and interest in scientific work
that he was appointed Editor of the Journal the same year, a position which he
was to fill, though not continuously, for 40 years.

It was then that Professor Howchin started his 50 years of greatest scientific
productivity. In 1902, after he tad held minor positions as lecturer in
mineralogy at the Adelaide School of Mines, and at Gawler, he was appoimted
lecturer in Geology and Palaeontology at the University of Adclaide. He entered
into this new sphere of labour, where he was destined to achieve so much, at the
age of 57. For four or five years the preparation of courses and the requirements
of his classes absorbed so much of his energy that he produced no more than one
scientific paper per annum; but from 1907-1937 there succeeded a period of
extraordinary productivity of sound scientific papers, and in addition, not less
than seven bound volumes on geography, geology, and anthropology. In 1908
he was appointed honorary professor of the Adelaide University, and from this
position he retired in 1920, retaining the title of professor, This left him with
17 years of leisure, a time that was actively filled, partly by field work and partly
with collecting and correlating his accumulated material for purposes of publica-
tion. The writer of this note, who succeeded Professor Howchin as Editor of
the Royal Soctety’s Journal m 1934, remembers with pleasure a certain day in 1935
when Professor Ilowchin, the picture of healthy and energetic old age, presented
for publication a large folio of papers entitled “Part I’ of a new series of
geological papers. The association between the presentation of the paper by a
man in his ninetieth year with the fact that it was Part One of a new series was
interesting and characteristic. Other papers of the series were produced later,

The Protessor’s association with the Public Library, Museum, and Art
Gallery of South Australia commenced in 1910, when he was elected a Repre-
sentative Governor of the Board by the Royal Society. With his customary zeal
and thoroughness he carried out these duties for 22 years, and on his retirement
was appointed Honorary Palaeontologist to the Museum, a position he held until
his death.

In 1894 Professor Howchin came into association with the late Professor
David, of Sydney, later Sir Edgeworth David. They were closely associated in
geological work until Sir Edgeworth’s death, 40 years later, in 1934, In addition
to the fact that both men were sons of the manse they had much in common,
as may he realized from the obituary notice on Sir Edgeworth David written by
Professor Howchin for the Society’s Volume in 1934.

The Royal Society of New South Wales honoured Professor Howchin with
its medal in 1907. The Australian Association for the Advancement of Science
awarded him the von Mueller Medal in 1913. The Geological Society of London
presented him with the moiety of the Lyell Fund in 1914. In 1934 the London
Geological Society awarded him the Lyell Medal for his South Australian
researches; and the Royal Society of South Australia, in 1929, presented Pro-
fessor Howchin with the first Sir Joseph Verco Medal. Sir Joseph Verco, who
had been a lifelong friend of Professor Howchin, personally attended the mect-
ing and presented the medal. In 1934, when he was presented with the Lyell
Medal, Sir Thomas Holland, President of the Geological Society of London,
eulogised Ilowchin’s work and referred to him as an outstanding figure among
the senior Fellows of the Society.

Howehin’s experiences on the glacial accumulations of the last Great Ice
Age in England were further roused by his association with the same material,
but of a vastly greater age, first at Hallett’s Cove in 1895, Inman Valley in 1898,
and Kangaroo Island in 1900. In the early years of the century came his
astonishing discovery, with all the associated argument and controversy, whereby
he ultimately convinced his geological colleagues of Australia and of the world
of the existence of a series of glacial rocks in the Cambrian (? Pre-Cambrian)
series of the Mount Lofty Ranges. The scries of papers associated with this
discovery comprise Ilowchin’s greatest contribution to scientific knowledge.
A complete list of his scientific works was published in the Transactions of this
Society for the year 1933, vol. Ivii, pp. 242-249. Since that date there have
appeared Parts I and II of his notes on geological sections from bores on the
Adelaide Plain. The following fossils were dedicated to the Professor: -
Foraminifera, Genus Howchinta, Gypsina howchini, Rotalia howchini, Lepi-
docvclina howchini; Mollusca, Mactra howchiniana.

In 1870 he married Esther Gibbons, who shared with him over 50 years of
happiness and hard work. She died in 1924. Their family consisted of two
daughters, Stella and Edith. Both married and were living abroad at the time
of his death; Mrs. W. R. Parkinson, B.Sc., in British Columbia; and Mrs. W.
Uppill, in Dorsetshire, England. At the time of his death the Professor’s closest
relative in South Australia was his sister’s son, Mr, F. L. Morter, one-time
Supreme Court Librarian of this State.

In his later years Professor Howchin wrote: “South Australia has been
very kind to me. It saved my life, it has supplied ample fields for research, and
it has given mea fulness of years that would have been impossible in a less genial
climate.”

South Australia is in turn under a great debt to Walter Ilowchin. With
persistent and unfailing enthusiasm, with no considerations of personal gain,
and with a critical and unswerving regard for scientific truth, he sought to
discover from the rocks the story of the geological development of his adopted
country. His work has merited and received the approbation of his fellows all
over the world.

C. FENNER.

Adelaide, December 8, 1937.

WititrAm H. SeLway

xt

WILLIAM HAM, 1865-1936,

By the death of William Ilam on December 12, 1936, shortly after his
seventy-first birthday, our Society lost a member whose bright and loving per-
sonality endeared him to a wide circle of friends, Born at sea in 1865, he entered
the Education Department in 1885, and by accepting appointments to different
centres he acquired a knowledge of the country which enabled him to speak
rather as a general scientist than as a specialist. His chief scientific work was
done in the Field Naturalists’ Section of this Society, but he was a regular
attender at our meetings and always willing to join in a discussion. He leaves
a host of friends.

WILLIAM H. SELWAY, 1859-1936.

The late William I]. Sclway was one of the oldest members of our Society,
to which he was elected a Fellow in 1891. He was a very active member, and a
regular attender at our meetings, when he generally added some observations of
interest on botanical matters. He was a member of the Council from 1893-1909,
As a field naturalist he was keenly interested in the Field Naturalists’ Section,
of which he was one of the founders, He was a member of the Fauna and
Flora Protection Committee of the Field Naturalists’ Section, and as such did
meritorious service in the establishment of our National Park.

CHARLES RICHMOND JOHN GLOVER, 1870-1936.

The late C. R. J. Glover was a fellow of this Society since 1923, and until
the last year or so had been a regular attender at our meetings. He came to this
State with his parents at the early age of two years, and, after leaving Prince
Alfred College, followed the profession of pharmaceutical chemist with Messrs.
Faulding & Co. until 1898, when he joined the Stock Exchange. During his life-
time he was actively associated with the Municipal life of Adelaide, occupying
the offices of Councillor, Alderman, and lastly Lord Mayor. He was a great
reader, and his private library contained a considerable collection of Australiana.

W. J. KIMBER, 1862-1936.

By the death of W. J. Kimber our Society has lost a keen and active member.
After a long life devoted to commercial fruit-growing in this State, he was for
eleven years the secretary of the Fruilgrowers’ and Market Gardeners’ Association,
and, as such, took a kcen interest in all scientific matters affecting his profession.
He retired in 1926. Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1918, he was a
regular attender at our monthly meetings, at which he frequently took part in the
discussions. Although he did not publish any scientific papers, he was a leading
collector of shells, and a number of new species bear his name. He was a very
active member of the Field Naturalists’ Section and for many years President
of the South Australian Shell Club.

CHARLES CHEWINGS, Ph.D., F-R.G.S., 1859-1937.

The late Dr. Chas. Chewings died on June 9, 1937, at the age of 78 years.
He had spent a large portion of his life in traversing little known parts of Central
Australia, and his experiences and observations were the basis of many papers
in the Transactions of our Society. Between the years 1898 and 1902 he studied
at the London University and Heidelberg, from the latter University receiving
the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, At the close of his career was published a
popular account of his experiences with the Aborigines of Central Australia in
his “Back to the Stone Age.”

DESCRIPTIONS OF TERTIARY PLANT REMAINS FROM CENTRAL
AUSTRALIA AND FROM OTHER AUSTRALIAN LOCALITIES

BY FREDERICK CHAPMAN, A.L.S.

Summary

The following series of fossil plant remains, preserved in the Tate Museum of the University of
Adelaide, were kindly sent to me for description by Professor Sir Douglas Mawson in 1932.
Amongst the most important specimens in this collection are the silicified sandstones from
Central Australia. They are the original samples examined and tentatively named by the late
Professor Ralph Tate, A.L.S., F.G.S. These fossiliferous sandstones are secondarily hardened by
siliceous waters after the mode of the formation of "duricrust," as named by Dr. Woolnough.
On the surfaces of these sandstones fossil leaves are exposed, which often show the utmost delicacy
of structure.

Transactions

of

The Royal Society of South Australia (Incorporated)

VOL. LXI.

DESCRIPTIONS OF TERTIARY PLANT REMAINS
FROM
CENTRAL AUSTRALIA AND FROM OTHER AUSTRALIAN LOCALITIES

By Frepertck CHAPMAN, A.L.S.,
Hon. F. Roy. Mier. Soc., and of Roy. Soc. 5S. Aust., F.G.S.

[Read November 12, 1936. ]
Pruates I-III.

I, INTRODUCTORY.

The following series of fossil plant remains, preserved in the Tate Museum
of the University of Adelaide, were kindly sent to me for description by Pro-
fessor Sir Douglas Mawson in 1932. Amongst the most important specimens in
this collection are the silicified sandstones from Central Australia. They are the
original samples examined and tentatively named by the late Professor Ralph
Tate, A.L.S., F.G.5. These fossiliferous sandstones are secondarily hardened
by siliceous waters after the mode of the formation of “duricrust,” as named by
Dr. Woolnough. On the surfaces of these sandstones fossil leaves are exposed,
which often show the utmost delicacy of structure.

There is also included a small collection of fossil leaves referred to Magnolia;
these are preserved in grey pipe-clay, from Lake Frome, Central Australia, and
were first referred to by Tate in 1882. Also sundry specimens, as impressions in
sandstone, from various localities in South Australia.

A third series in the Geological Department of the Adelaide Universily
comprises fossils from Gunning, New South Walcs, and Bacchus Marsh, Vic-
toria. The fossil flora from the latter locality, with the exception of Cinnamomum
and Laurus described by Sir I'rederick McCoy, is still practically unknown.

Copious notes were made upon the Bacchus Marsh series at the National
Museum by the late Mr. Henry Deane, and the work is now being continued by
Miss Paterson, B.A. The two species included in the present collection afford
welcome evidence as to their relationship with living Australian genera.

1197.

1232.

1194.

1195,

1196.

1198.

1190.

1188.

1187,

1189.

1191.

1193.

2

II. LIST OF SPECIMENS DESCRIBED.

The Tate Museum specimen number, information on label
and present determination.

“Leaf impressions determined by Prof. late (Kucalyptus Diemeni), west
of Lake Torrens.”

Nothofagus aff. Moorei (v. Mueller). Fhindersia ct. Mackinlayi
(Ettings.). Tristania angustifolia (Deane), Eucalyptus Diemenii
Ettings.

“W.of L. Torrens. Leaf impression in sandstone. Top of Desert Sand-
stone (Eyreian). Note: this specimen is marked from Arcoona, and on
a subsidiary label it is recorded as W. of Lake Torrens.” It is of a type
labelled also from “‘Carrapateena,’”’ west of Lake Torrens.

Flindersia ci. Mackinlayi (Ettings.). Tristania angustifolia (Deane).
Eucalyptus Diement Ettings.
Marked by Tate “Eucalyptus, Miocene from Desert Sandstone at
William Springs.”
Eucalyptus cf. Kitsont Deane.

Same locality as (1194).

Banksia cf. grandis, sp. nov.; tip of flowering spike. Also leaves of
Banksia cf. marginata Cavanilles.

“No data, but apparently the same rock and locality as (1195).”

Persoonia cf. cuneata Deane. Banksia cf. marginata Cav. Eucalyptus
Houtmanni Ettings.

“Bombax Sturtii” (Etheridge). (This determination is erroneous.) “Near
the Elizabeth Mine, Elizabeth River, C. Aust., C. Sabine in 1883,”
(Specimen collected prior to the Horn Expedition but from similar
locality.)

Banksia praegrandis, sp. nov. Hakea ambigua Meissner. Lomatia
cf. perspicua Deane. Hedycarya latifolia Deane, Tristama prae-
conferta (probably the “Bombax Sturtu’” of Tate). Eucalyptus Lout-
manni Ettings. E. Kitsoni Deane, E. Mitchell: Ettings.

“No data.” This specimen probably came from Wyeculuna, Central
Australia, since Tate (loc. cit., p. 67) cites this species as “Quercus
Wilkinsont,’ from there.

Nothofagus Wilkinsoni (Ettings.).
“William Springs, far North. Collected in Oct., 1872.”
Cinnamomum Tater, sp. nov.

Tate’s label is: “Exogenous leaves. Cretaceous. Lake Frome. Magnolia
Brownii.’ See Tate, 1882, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. iv, p. 98.
Five specimens in grey pipe-clay.

Magnolia Brownii Ettings.

Fossil Plants from various Localities in South Australia.
Tate’s Jabel reads: “Cordia, sp., Upland Miocene: obtained a type,
Stockade: Presented by Mr. Edmonds.”
Coprosmaephyllum Edmondsi, sp. nov.
Labelled “Rocky Point, South of Ardrossan, Yorke Peninsula, S. Aust.”
Nothofagus Risdoniana (Ettings.).
‘late’s label reads: “From a well at 94 feet deep, 22 miles inland from
Streaky Bay, Eyre Peninsula, S. Aust. Pres, 5, Miles, Feb., 1885.”
Lomatia Mazsoni, sp. nov.

z
v

1192. The original label reads: “Darling Plains, east of Broken Hill (between
Broken Hill and Menindie). Pres. $. Dixon.”
? Sterculia, sp.

A Small Collection of Fossil Plants from New South Wales and Victoria.
1186. “Leaf cast from the Tertiary sandstone at Dalton, near Gunning,
N. 5S. Wales.”
Ficus Sturtii (Ettings.).
1185. The original label was: “Cinnamomum polymorphoides, Tertiary leaf
beds, Bacchus Marsh, Victoria. Collected by E. R. Stanley.”
Corrected name: Endiandra Mitchelli (Ettings.).

1184. The original label reads: “Laurus werribeenensis. Tertiary leaf beds.
Bacchus Marsh. Collected by E. R. Stanley.”
Corrected name: Endiandra praepubens Deane.

III. SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION OF THE FOSSIL PLANTS.

ANGIOSPERMEAE.
DICOTYLEDONES.

Family FAGACEAE,

Genus Notuoracus Blume.

Noruoracus aff. Moorer (von Mueller).
Pl. i, fig. 1.

Fagus Moorei von Mueller, 1866, Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae, vol. v.

Quercus Greyi Ettings., Tate (in Tate and Watt), 1896. p. 67 (name only).

Observations —This fossil leaf was originally identified by Prof. Ralph
Tate as Quercus Greyi and labelled as such on the specimen before us. It has,
however, little in common with Ettingshausen’s type figure of that species (Ettings-
hausen, 1888, pl. ix, fig. 10). Moreover, this figure cannot be referred to
Nothofagus, as can many of the so-called “Quercus” of the Australian Tertiary.

The present example is a good typical leaf of a fossil Beech Myrtle and its
nearest relative is the living N. Moorei, of New South Wales and Queensland.

We refrain from distinguishing it by a new name, since the specimen, other-
wise well preserved, is not complete. Its characters are: a broadly ovate leaf,
straight, slender mid-rib, with finely marked secondary veins nearly straight or
only gently curved and equidistant. The surface of the leaf is slightly wrinkled
and shows a finely reticulated tertiary venation, Approximate length when com-
plete, 40 mm.; width, 30 mm.

Occurrence—West of Lake Torrens. Associated on same slab are
Flindersia cf. Mackinlayi (Ettings.), Tristania angustifolia (Deane), and Euca-
lytus Diemenii Ettings. Lower Oligocene age. Coll, Geol. Dept. Univ. Adelaide,

Notuoracus Risponrana (Ettings.).
Pl. i, fig. 2.
Fagus Risdoniana Ettings., 1883, pt. i, p. 121, pl. i, figs. 18-20. Idem, 1888, p. 35, pl. i,
figs. 18-20.
Observations —An impression of the underside of a leaf of the genus
Nothofagus occurs in the pale yellowish sandstone, Ardrossan, Yorke Peninsula,
South Australia. It measures 29 mm. in length and 17 mm. in width. In its

4

comparatively ovate outline and fairly close parallel secondary venation it matches
the figures of the Geilston travertine examples, which are of late Tertiary age.
The older form, Nothofagus Luehmanni, figured by Henry Deane from the
Berwick pipe-clay beds (Deane, 1902, p. 30, pl. vii, figs. 5, 6, 7, 9,) shows a more
elongate type of foliage, whilst the sccondary venation is more widely spaced.
Occurrence—Rocky Point, South of Ardrossan, Yorke Peninsula. Of
Miocene or Pliocene age. Coll. Geol. Dept. Univ. Adelaide, No. 1191.

NotHoracus WILKINSONI (Fttings.).
Pl. i, fig. 3.

Fagus Wilkinsoni Tttings., 1883, p. 120, pl. ii, fig. 1. Idem, 1888, p. 32, pl. ii, fig. 1,
Quercus Wilkinson (Ettings.) Tate (in Tate and Watt), 1896, p. 67. Nothofagus Wilkin-
sont (Ettings.), Paterson, 1934, p. 266, pl. xiii, fig. 7. Chapman and Crespin, 1934, p. 108.

Observations —This type of Beech Myrtle has a long ovate leaf. The
specimen before us exactly matches one lately figured by Miss II. T. Paterson,
from Pascoe Vale, near Essendon, Victoria, from a leaf-bearing clay beneath the
Older Basalt. It is slightly more elongate than Ettingshausen’s figured specimen
which came from Gunning, New South Wales, but there can be no question as to
specific agreement.

This species has also been recorded from the siliceous mud sandstone of
Cape Riche, near Albany, West Australia, in beds of Lower Miocene or
Oligocene age.

Occurrence.—The original label with this specimen says “no data.” Ilow-
ever, in Tate’s list of plant remains identified by him from Central Australia,
there occurs the present species, as “Quercus Wilkinsoni,” from Wyeculuna. This
locality may, therefore be provisionally recorded for the fossil Na. 4.

One was inclined to believe that the fossil might have been obtained from
Gunning, in New South Wales, on account of the peculiar white sandstone
matrix, but for the record of the species at Wyeculuna by Tate. Lower
Oligocene age. Coll. Geol, Dept. Univ. Adelaide. No. 1190,

Family MORACEAE,
Genus Ficus Linné.

Ficus Sruartir (Ettings.),
Pl. i, fig. 4.

Artocarpidium Stuartit Ettings., 1883, p. 124, pl. iii, fig. 5. Idem, 1888, p. 39, pl. iii, fig. 5,

Observations—This leaf, which occurs in pale yellowish sandstone, measures
in its broken condition, 76 mm. in length and 47 mm. in width; it was originally
of a broadly ovate form, more or less prolonged at the apex. When complete it
must have attained a length of about 13 cm. and about 6 cm. in width. The
midrib is gently curved and strong, with sccondary veins arising from it with
a gentle curve, at an angle of 60°; when nearing the edge they turn inward from
the margin and at about 5 to 6 mm. from it, thus having a camplodrome character.
The secondary veins are nearly parallel for the most part and are distant from
16 to 22 mm.

The type of “Artocarpidiwm” Stuwartii figured by Ettingshausen, whose
specimen came from the same locality as the present one, namely Gunning, is
that of a similar leaf; it is more complete, showing a pointed apex like that of
the living Queensland Ficus infectoria Roxburgh, which in this and other
characters bears a close resemblance to the Gunning fossils. The living
F. infectoria (or as it is usually known, #. Cunninghamii Miquel), ranges through

5

India, the Malay Peninsula and Australia. It is common in the coastal scrub of
Eastern Australia, from Macleay River, New South Wales, to North Queensland.
In the writer’s copy of Ettingshausen, Mr. Henry Deane has noted against
the figures of the fossil leaf Artocarpidium Stuarti, “not a bit like Artocarpus
rigida as stated in the text.”
Occurrence—Dalton, near Gunning, New South Wales. Miocene age.
Coll. Geol. Dept. Univ. Adelaide. No. 1186.

Family PROTEACEAE.
Genus PERsoonraA Smith

Persoonra cf. cUNEATA Deane.
Pl. i, fig. 5.

Persoonta cuneata Deane, 1904, p. 213, pl. xx, figs. 11, 12.

Observations——The small cuneate leaf with strong midrib and acutely
divergent secondary veins, compares closely with figure 12 of Deane’s drawings.
From Nethofagus it differs in the curvature of the secondary veins and in their
wide interspacing. he leaf, imperfect at apex, measures 26 mm. in length and
14 mm. in width.

Deane’s type species came from the Lower Miocene of Sentinel Rock, Otway
Coast, Victoria. The living species, Persoonia salicina (Persoon), or Willow-
leaved Geebung, a native of Victoria and New South Wales, approaches the above
fossil very closely, except for the greater elongation of the leat.

Occurrence —From William Springs. Associated with leaves of Banksia cf.
marginata and Eucalyptus Houtmanni, Lower Oligocene age, Coll. Geol, Dept.
Univ. Adelaide. No. 1196.

Genus Bawxsra Linné,

BANKSIA ci. MARGINATA Cavanilles.
Pl. i, fig. 6.

Banksia marginata Cavanilles, 1799, Anal, Hist, Nat., vol. i.

Banksia cf. marginata Cav. Chapman, 1910, p. 25, pl. v., fig. 4.

Banksia marginata Deane, in Mawson and Chapman, 1922, p. 145. Chapman, 1934, p. 120.

Observations —On specimen No. 1195, from William Springs, there occur
several fragmentary leaves with entire margin, allied to the above species, and
one also having an indented edge; this latter has a length (imperfect) of 29 mm.
and is 9 mm. in width. There are three denticles in a length of 13 mm. These
leaves are associated with an impression of the tip of a flowering spike of
Banksia cf. praegrandis, sp. nov.

Another indurated sandstone slab (No. 1194) shows a fragment of a leaf
like that of the Silver Banksia. It is the impression of the underside and shows
the inrolled margin. ‘The midrib is strong and prominent, with the secondary
veins both transverse and oblique. The width of the leaf is 9 mm.

Banksia marginata has a wide distribution at the present day, being found
in Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia, New South Wales and Queensland. It
has occurred fossil in the Lower Oligocene lignites of Moorlands, South Aus-
tralia (recorded by Henry Deane), in Tertiary ironstone (Miocene or Pliocene)
at Redruth, Victoria, by the writer, and in the volcanic ash (Pleistocene) of
Mount Gambier, South Australia.

Occurrence —On three slabs [rom William Springs, Central Australia. On
No. 1195 associated with the flowering spike of another species of Banksia cf.
pracgrandis, sp. nov.; also on No, 1196, associated with icaves of Eucalyptus
Houtmanni and Persoonia cf. cuneata. On No. 1198, near the Elizabeth Mine,
Central Australia. Lower Oligocene age. Coll. Geol. Dept. Univ. Adelaide.

6

Banksia praegrandis, sp. nov.
PL i, figs. 7, 8 and 9.

Banksia praegrandis Tate (in Tate and Watt), 1896, p. 67 (name only).

Description of Leaf. No. 1198—An almost complete leaf of this very
striking form is well preserved in the yellowish sandstone from near the Elizabeth
Mine (No. 1198.). It shows a close resemblance to the living Banksia grandis
Willdenow, the Great-coned Honeysuckle Tree of Western Australia (Deane,
1925, pl. lxvii, fig. 16), in having a fairly broad leaf with huge denticles, three
pairs of which are preserved in this fossil. The leaf, as far as preserved, measures
98 mm, The greatest width, between the points of the middle pair of denticles,
is 47 mm. Compared with the living B. grandis, the fossil species differs in
having a pair of triangular cusps almost exactly opposite, instead of slightly
alternate in the upper or distal margin, the upper edges forming a straight base
to the apex of the pair as it points backwards. Also, the fossil species has more
numerous secondary veins, six as against five in the living species, and in the
roundly pointed outer margins instead of the sharp, prickly termination in the
living form.

In the fossil leaf, also, the pair of denticles near the petiole is greatly pro-
longed down the midrib, whereas in the living form there is a tapering succession
of smaller leaflets down to the most minute.

Description of Inflorescence—On the slab 1195 there occurs a discoidal
impression which, after many comparisons with structures of cones and buds
of Australian plants at the National Herbarium, in which work I have been greatly
aided by the officers, Messrs. J. W. Audas and F. P. Morris, I have been able
to refer this fossil impression to the tip of a flowering spike of Banksia. ‘The
nearest that could be found was that of the living Banksia grandis, which, how-
ever was a little smaller than in the examples handled.

The diameter of this impression is 15 mm. The almost scale-like pellicles
are identical in both fossil and recent structures.

Occurrence.—Near the Elizabeth Mine. From C. Sabine, 1883. Associated
on the same slab are leaves of Hakea ambigua, Lomatia cf. perspicua, Hedycarya
latifolia, Tristania praeconferta, Eucalyptus Houtmanni, E, Kitsoni and
E. Mitchell.

This slab (No. 1198), with leaf of “Banksia praegrandis” named by Prof.
Tate, is recorded by him from Bottle Hill. (See Tate, in Tate and Watt,
1896, p. 67.) Lower Oligocene age. Coil, Geol, Dept. Univ. Adelaide.

No, 1195, with impression of flowering tip of Banksia cf. praegrandis, asso-
ciated with leaves of Banksia cf. marginata, came from William Springs, Lower
Oligocene age, Coll, Geol, Dept, Univ, Adelaide,

Genus Lomatra R. Brown.

Lomatia Mawsoni, sp. nov.
Pl. ii, fig. 10.

Description .eaf large, long ovate, apparently acuminate, with strongly
curved lateral margins that are finely denticulate. Midrib strong, straight and
in this negative impression of the upper surface, ridged and distinctly grooved
along the centre, corresponding to the median channel of the positive surface;
secondary venation consisting of nine (in imperfect leal) almost straight and
opposite veins disposed at an angle of 40° with the midrib and almost evanescent
at the margin, where it enters the denticle. Although the natural surface of the
lamina seems well preserved, there is no pilosity shown, which points to the
character of a hard and almost polished surface.

7

Observations ——A somewhat similar leaf has been figured from Dalton, near
Gunning, under the name of Quercus Darwinii (Ettings., 1883) (p. 118,
pl. ii, fig. 3), with a slightly narrower lamina and more numerous secondary
venation. ‘Chere is also a related form from the Tertiary of Ebbw Vale, Queens-
land, in the writer’s collection in which the secondary veins are more curved and
the margin carrying more pronounced denticles. I have much pleasure in naming
this species after Sir Douglas Mawson, F.R.S., to whom I am indebted for the
privilege of describing this collection.

Occurrence.—In fine-grained ferruginous and micaceous sandstone. From
a well at a depth of 94 feet, 22 miles inland from Streaky Bay, Eyre Peninsula,
South Australia. From Mr. S. Miles, February, 1885. Age: Probably Lower
Miocene (Plantagenet Series). Coll. Geol. Dept. Univ. Adelaide. No. 1193.

Lomatia cf. PERsPIcUA Deane,
PL ii, fig. 11.

Lomatia perspicua Deane, 1902, p. 28, pl. v, fig. 1.

Observations —The present example is an ovate-lanceolate leaf, 42 mm.
long (when complete, approximately 80 to 90 mm.), with a width of 19 mm.
The midrib is firm and strong, whilst the secondary veins are about 5 mm. apart
and gently curved. Margin of leaf slightly denticulated. Surface showing a fine
reticulation.

Occurrence—Near Elizabeth Mine, Central Australia. Collected by C.
Sabine, 1883. Associated on same slab with Banksia praegrandis, Hakea
ambigua, Hedycarya latifolia, Tristania praeconferta, Eucalyptus Houtmanni,
kK. Kitsont and E. Mitchelli, Ot Lower Oligocene age, Coll, Geol. Dept, Univ.
Adelaide. No. 1198.

Genus Haxea Schrad.

HaAKEA AMBIGUA Meissner.
Pl. ii, fig. 12.

Tlakea ambigua Meissner, 1847, Lehmann, Pl. Preiss, vol. ii, p. 260.

Observations,—It is extremely interesting to find fossil leaves of the living
West Australian Doubtful Hakea (Hakea ambigua) of so great an antiquity.

About two-thirds of the leaf (33 mm.) is preserved, the termination being
cut off by the fracture of the rock. It has a width of 8-5 mm. A living leaf of
this species measures 60 x 10 mm.; it also shows the trinerved character exactly
as in the present specimen.

In the above comparison [ have the confirmation of Mr. J. W. Audas, of the
National Herbarium.

Occurrence—Near Elizabeth Mine, Central Australia. Coll. by C. Sabine,
1883. Associated on the same slab with Lomatia cf. perspicua, Banksia prae-
grandis, Hedycarya latifolia, Tristania praeconferta, Eucalyptus Houtmanni
E, Kitsoni and FE. Mitchelli, Of Lower Oligocene age. Coll. Geol. Dept. Univ.
Adelaide. No, 1198,

Family MAGNOLIACEAE.,

Genus Macworia Linné.
Macnotta Browntr Ettings.
Pi. ii, fig. 13.

Magnolia Browntt Ettings., 1883, p. 137, pl. v, fig. 7. Idem, 1888, p. 59, pl. iv, fig. 7.
Tate (in Tate and Watt), 1896, pp. 66, 67 (name only).

Observations—The specimens now commented upon are the originals from
Lake Frome, Central Australia, obtained for the collection of the Geological

8

Department at Adelaide University prior to 1882. These and other occurrences
of Magnolia Brownii such as those found at Dalton, New South Wales and at
Mount Lofty, South Australia, by their structure leave little doubt as to their
being correctly assigned to that genus. In the writer’s copy of Ettingshausen,
Mr. H. Deane has pencilled on the figure of Magnolia Browntt “see Melicope.”
Species of Melicope, however, show tertiary venation of a delicate network
easily distinguishable from Magnolia, which has a wavy tertiary venation at right
angles to the oblique and parallel secondary veins.

The first reference to these actual leaf remains now before us was written
by Prof, Ralph Tate in his Supplementary Note (Tate, 1882, p. 98), and is as
follows :—“The leaves, which are embedded in a blue clay, belong to one species,
as far as can be ascertained from their fragmentary condition. The largest frag-
ment, 3 inches long by 13 inches wide, belongs to an elliptical leaf, coriaceous in
texture and surface rugose; the midrib is thick, and the strong lateral veins which
arise therefrom converge towards the margin and become confluent with the
marginal view . . . The formation may be referred to the Miocene epoch.”

Tate, in Tate and Watt’s chapter on “General Geology,” Horn Expedition
(1896, pp. 66, 67) comments on this occurrence and says:—‘‘On reconsideration
of the evidences in the light of additional and collateral information, he (Tate)
is of opinion that the marine fossils are of Cretaceous age, as the known distribu-
tion of the marine Eocene is incompatible with its occurrence at this locality,
whilst the Cretaceous age conforms with the area over which undoubted marine
beds are known to cover.”

The present writer suggests that the leaves of Magnolia Browni, which
elsewhere have been correlated with the Lower Oligocene, had probably drifted
on to a base-levelled remanié deposit, containing shell-bearing molluscan detritus
worn down from a Cretaceous rock.

The genus Magnolia is very typical of the present, as well as the past,
Tertiary floras in North America. In recent times its distribution extended
through Southern Europe, India, China and Japan.

Previous fossil records of AZ. Brownti are:—Dalton, near Gunning, New
South Wales (Ettingshausen) ; Baker’s Gully, Lower Onkaparinga Valley, Mount
Lofty Ranges, South Australia (Dr. C. Fenner); there is also an allied form,
Magnolia microphylla, recorded from the Lower Oligocene of Pascoe Vale,
Essendon, Victoria (Paterson, 1934, p. 266, pl. xiii, fig. 8).

A plaster cast of a very fine longitudinal half-leaf of this type of fossil was
sent me by Dr. Chas. Fenner in 1931. ‘The original leaf, with many others, was
found in ferruginous grit al Baker’s Gully; in form and structure it compares _
exactly with the figure of Magnolia Brownit, by Ettingshausen.

Occurrence-—The specimens labelled by Prof, Tate as “Exogenous leayes—
Magnolia Brownit, Cretaceous? Lake Frome.” No, 1187, are five on one tablet,
the upper left-hand one being the original measured and described example, Age:
Lower Oligocene. Coll. Geol. Dept. Univ. Adelaide.

Family MONIMIACEAE.,

Genus Hepycarya Foster,

Hepycarya LATIFOLIA Deane,

Pi. ii, fig. 14.

TTedycarya latifolia Deane, 1902, p. 27, pl. vi, fig. 3. Chapman, 1921, p. 118. Idem,

1926, p. 186, pl. xiii, fig. 7. Paterson, 1935, p. 70, pl. ii, fig. 11,
Observations-—This is the larger portion of a broadly ovate leaf with a
slender midrib, tenuous and rather irregularly spaced secondary veins which

9

curve upwards at about 30° and finely reticulate tertiary venation. The struc-
ture of the leaf shows it to have been thin and undulate on the surface. It agrees
generally with the structure of previous occurrences of this fossil, the type of
which was originally described from the Lower Oligocene pipe-clay beds of
Berwick, Victoria, and has since been found at Narracan in Gippsland.

Occurrence—Near the Elizabeth Mine, Central Australia; associated with
Banksia praegrandis, Hakea ambigua, Lomatia cf. perspicua, Tristania prae-
conferta, Eucalyptus Houtmanni, E, Kitsoni and E. Mitchell, Collected by
C. Sabine, 1883. Age: Lower Oligocene. Coll. Geol, Dept. Univ. Adelaide.
No. 1198.

Family LAURACEAE.
Genus Crinnamomum Linné.

Cinnamomum Tatei, sp. nov.
Pl. ii, fig. 15.

Original note in above reference. “A well-defined impression of a
Cinnamomum leaf on the surface of a characteristic piece of chalcedonised Desert
Sandstone.”

Description—Leaf (underside), long-ovate, margin slightly undulate, with
strong midrib; about six upwardly curved secondary ribs evanescent before reach-
ing the margin, alternating on each side about the central third, basal pair slightly
longer than remainder but not so long and marginal as in many species of
Cinnamomum. Surface with fine granulations but not pilose as in the living
Cryptocarya obovata, which it much resembles, especially in the terminal leaves
of the flowering tips (Francis, 1929, p. 114, fig. 70). Apparently the true
affinities of the above leaf from William Springs are with Cinnamomum of the
C. virens type, on which Henry Deane, in his paper on the fossil leaves of Morwell
has written so convincingly, when he described a fossil species, Cinnamomum
praevirens (Deane, 1925, p. 496, pl. Ixiii, fig. 14; pl. Ixiv, figs. 21, 22).

In passing, it may be as well to note that the fossil leaves figured by Ettings-
hausen and others under the name of Pomaderris Banksii (ci. Ettingshausen,
1888, pl. xiv, fig. 10, pl. xv, figs. 1, 2; also Paterson, 1934, pl. xiv, figs. 11) closely
resemble in form and venation the above fossil specimen, as well as the Morwell
fossil, C. praevirens, ‘The venation is very similar, and in such cases where the
leaf is thin and lanigcrous on the underside it should be referred to Pomaderris,
whereas, in the case of a thicker and more coriaceous type of leaf it may be
accepted as Cinnamomum.

Dimensions —Length, 54 mm. (circ. 60 mm. when complete). Greatest
width, 17 mm.

Occurrence.—William Springs, 123 miles South from Oodnadatta, Central
Australia. Age: Probably Oligocene or Miocene. Presented to the South Aus-
tralian Muscum in 1872. Coll, Geol. Dept, Univ. Adelaide. No, 1188.

Genus ENDIANDRA R. Brown.

Enpranpra MrrcHerti (Ettings).
Pi. ii, fig. 16.

Bombax Mitchel Ettings., 1883, p. 138, pl. vi, fig. 2. Idem, 1888, p. 61, pl. vi, fig. 3.
Paterson, 1934, p. 267, pl. xiv, fig. 12. Chapman and Crespin, 1934, p. 108.

Observations —Many years ago the writer, whilst Victorian State Palaeon-
tologist, referred some large ovate fossil leaves in the National Museum collection
from Bacchus Marsh Tertiary ironstone beds, having curved secondary and
transverse tertiary venation, to the genus Bombax. In discussing their probable

10

affinities later on with Mr. Henry Deane, he suggested that they might belong
to the genus Kennedya. Subsequently, Mr. Deane reconsidered this and pencilled
on the margin of my copy of Ettingshausen’s Flora against the figure of Bombax
Mitchelli, “see Endiandra patens.” Miss Paterson, who is later taking up the
study of the Bacchus Marsh fossil flora, agrees with the writer that Endiandra
is fairly common therein.

As regards the genus Bombax, this is chiefly South American, although one
species is found extending to tropical Asia and Australasia. I have lately com-
pared the leaves of Bombax with the Bacchus Marsh fossil leaves above referred
to, as well as the specimen from the Adelaide University collection, and have
failed to find any close resemblance to that genus. It is, therefore, of particular
interest to find the real relationship of the fossil form with another of the
lauraceous plants present at Bacchus Marsh, which already contains other genera
of the Lauraceae,

The original type of Ettingshausen’s “Bomba” Mitchelli came from Dalton,
near Gunning, New South Wales. Miss H. T. Paterson has lately recorded the
same specics from the Lower Oligocene of Pascoe Vale, Essendon, in a brown
pipe-clay underlying the Older Basalt. It has also been described by the writer
and Miss Crespin from a siliceous clay-bed containing Lower Miocene shells,
from Cape Riche, Western Australia. Although this species has never been
previously noted in any publication from the Bacchus Marsh Tertiaries, although
labelled in the National Museum collection as above mentioned, it is in that
locality perhaps as common as the other lauraceous leaves found there, viz.,
Cinnamomum polymorphoides and Laurus werribeensis, both of McCoy.

Occurrence.—One very fine specimen from the Tertiary ferruginous sand-
stone of Bacchus Marsh, Victoria; this leaf must have reached a length of
63 inches when complete. Age: Miocene, Coll. Geol. Dept. Univ. Adelaide.
No. 1185. Ex E. R. Stanley.

ISNDIANDRA PRAEPUBENS Deane.
Pl. iii, fig, 17.
Endiandra praepubens Deane, 1907, p. 3, pl. xxxiv, fig. 3.

Observations This is a fragmentary leaf-impression of the underside, large,
broadly ovate, with a strong midrib and tertiary venation that emerges at an angle
of 50°. It is distinguished from the preceding species by the broader form and
straighter secondary veins,

Occurrence —From the Tertiary ferruginous sandstone of Bacchus Marsh,
Victoria. Age: Miocene. Coll. Geol. Dept. Univ. Adelaide. No. 1184, Ex.
R. E. Stanley.

Family MELIACEAE,

Genus Friinpersra R, Brown.

Fuinpersta cf, Mackinuayr (Ettings.),
PI, iu, figs. 18 and 19.

Apocynophyllum Mackinlayi (Ettings.), 1883, p, 118 pl. xiii, figs. 6, 7, Idem, 1888, p. 147,
pl. xili, figs. 6,7. Tate (in Tate and Watt), 1896, p. 67 (name only).

Observations Leaves resembling those of the Queensland Crow’s Ash
(Flindersia australis) are occasionally met with in the Tertiary flora of Australia.
Similar kinds of fossil leaves have hitherto been referred to Apocynophyllum
(by Ettingshausen and Deane), a genus of European Tertiary plants, with leaves
resembling Apocynum; this latter genus, however, is found living only in North
America and the Adriatic country.

i

It seems more logical to seek for the affinities of these Tertiary leaves amongst
the existing flora of Queensland or New South Wales. There, indeed, Flindersia
does occur, which has the same type of long ovate and pointed leaf of a medium
size, with numerous, curved and parallel secondary veins and of a coriaceous
nature. (See Francis, 1929, p. 159, and Bailey, 1909, p. 91 and pl. iv.) More-
over, the fruits of Flindersia have already been identified by Deane with
Rhytidotheca Lynchii von Mueller from the Deep Leads of Haddon (v. Mueller,
1874, p. 15, pl. iv, figs. 1-7), whilst Deane himself has described a new species
of Flindersia fruit from the Deep Lead at Foster, Gippsland, under the name of
Rhytidothesa major (Deane, 19257, p. 491, pl. Ixix, fig. 12). He also comments
there on the identity of the two genera. In Mr, Deane’s copy of Baron von
Mueller’s work on the Fossil Fruits of Haddon, which I possess through the
kindness of Miss M. E. Deane, he has written on pl. iv against the figure of
Rhytidotheca Lynchi, “Certainly Flindersia.’

Of the figures leaves referred to Apocynophyllum, only the A, Mackinlayi
of Ettingshausen (loc. supra cit.) and the A. berwickense of Deane (Deane, 1902,
p. 25, pl. vii, fig. 11) could be suggested as comparable with the Flindersia leaves
referred to in this collection.

Occurrence—West of Lake Torrens. In reddish indurated sandstone,
associated with leaves of Nothofagus aff. Moorei, Tristania angustifolia and
Eucalyptus Didmenti, No. 1197. Also Arcoona, west of Lake Torrens. In
ycllowish indurated sandstone, associated with leaves of Tristania angustifolia
and Eucalyptus Diementi, Age: Lower Oligocene, Coll. Geol. Dept. Univ.
No. 1232.

Family STERCULIACEAE.
Genus SrercuLta Linné
? STERCULIA, sp.

Acer subproductum Ettings., 1883, p. 125, pl. xiv, figs 2, 2a, 3. Idem, 1888, p. 158,
pl. xiv, figs. 2, 2a, 3.

Observations.—This is a large broad type of leaf, rather fragmentary, having
a strong midrib, fine secondary venation at an acute angle, and with transverse
interspaced threadlike veins. In general characters it resembles “Acer” sub-
productum, from Vegetable Creek, New South Wales (Ettingshausen, loc. supra
cit.), but in the absence of the leaf margin it can only be doubtfully recorded.

Occurrence —Lake Silistria, Darling Plains, East of Broken Hill (between
Broken Hill and Menindie), New South Wales, Pres. S. Dixon. No. 1192.
Age: Probably Lower Oligocene. Coll. Geol. Dept. Univ. Adelaide.

Family MYRTACEAE,
Genus TRISTANIA Rk, Brown.

‘TRISTANIA ANGUSTIFOLIA (Deane).
Pl. iii, fig. 20.

Tristanites angustifolia Deane, 1902, p. 23, pl. iti, fig. 1; pl. vi, fig. 7. Chapman, 1921,
p. 118. Idem, 1926, p. 185, pl. xii, fig. 5. Paterson, 1935, p. 69.

Observations —The above species, in its elongated leaf-character, approaches
the living Victorian, New South Wales and Southern Queensland species,
T. laurina R. Brown, the “Kanooka.” One of the fossil specimens, on slab 1197,
has a length of 32 mm, and is 7 mm. wide. A wax squeeze gives a good idea of
its essential characters, the fossil being a negative cast of the underside.

12

On slab 1232 there are more than 20 specimens of fossil leaves, most of
which can be referred to Tristania angustifolia and to Eucalyptus, chiefly
E, Diemenit. The leaves of Tristania on No. 330 show traces of the intramarginal
vein.

This species has already been recorded from Lower Oligocene strata at
Berwick and Narracan in Gippsland, Victoria,

Occurrence —West of Lake Torrens. No. 1197. Associated with leaves
of Nothofagus cf. Moorei, Flindersia cf. Mackinlayi, and Eucalyptus Diemenii.
Arcoona, West of Lake Torrens. No. 1232. Associated with leaves of Flindersia
cf. Mackinlayi and Eucalyptus Diemenii, Age: Lower Oligocene, Coll. Geol.
Dept. Univ. Adelaide.

Tristania praeconferta, sp. nov.
PI. iii, fig. 21,

Description Leaf, elongale-ovale, acuminate towards the tip, rounded at
the base; margin entire; texture coriaceous with a finely granulated surface where
better preserved; midrib narrow but strongly defined; secondary veins well
marked and regularly spaced, about 5 mm. apart, curving upward at about 60°
with the midrib, subparallel to one another, near the margin of the leaf turning
sharply upward and forking; tertiary venation delicately and openly reticulate.

Length of fossil, 86 mm. (circ. 100 mm. when complete) ; greatest width in
middle of leaf, 36 mm.

Observations This form of leaf closely agrees with the living Brush Box,
Tristamia conferta R. Brown, of New South Wales, Queensland and Northern
Australia. It differs in being more rounded towards the leaf-stalk, whilst the
secondary venation is closer and a trifle more regular, as compared with examples
grown in the writer’s garden in Victoria, in which the secondary veins are
generally 7 mm. apart. The granulated surface referred to in the above descrip-
tion is strikingly similar in both living and fossil examples.

Occurrence —On a slab of indurated sandstone, near the Elizabeth Mine,
Central Australia. Associated with Banksia praegrandis, Hakea ambigua,
Lomatia cf. perspicua, Hedycarya latifolia, Eucalyptus Houtmanni, E, Kitsont
and E. Mitchells. Collected by C. Sabine, 1883. No. 1198. Age: Lower
Oligocene. Coll. Geol. Dept. Univ. Adelaide.

Family Mysracrae.
Genus lYucaryptrus L’Heritier.

Eucatyetus Drementy Fittings.
PL iu, figs. 22 and 23.

Eucalvplus Diemenii Ettings.. 1883, p. 131, pl xv, figs. 9, 9a, 10. Idem, 1888,
p. 170, pl. xv, figs. 9, 9a, 10. Tate (in Tate and Watt), 1896, p. 67 (name only).

Observations—A very fine and well-preserved example of Ettingshausen’s
species is seen on slab No. 1197. It was identified by Prof. ‘late from Ettings-
hausen’s figure and matches it very closely. It is a medium-sized ovate-lanceolate
leaf with narrow but distinct midrib. The secondary venation is set at an angle
of 65° to 70° from the midrib. In the lattcr character it may be compared with
the living Eucalypius longifolia Link, of Victoria and New South Wales. It
measures 62 mm, in length and is 19 mm, in maximum width,

Occurrence —West of Lake Torrens, Central Australia. No. 1197. Asso-
ciated with leaves of Nothofagus aff. Moorei, Flindersia cf. Mackinlayi and
Tristania angustifolia, Age: Lower Oligocene. Coll. Geol. Dept. Univ. Adelaide.

13

Evucatyprus HoutTMannt Ettings.
Pl, iti, fig, 24.

Eucalyptus Houtmanni Ettings., 1883, p. 132, pl. xv, figs. 3, 3a. Idem, 1888, p. 171,
pl. xv, figs. 3, 3a. #. cf. Houtmanni, Deane 1902, p. 24, pl. iv, fig. 1.

Observations —This fossil leaf is fairly large (89 mm, long), broadly ovate,
with corroded margins ; petiolate portion tapering and the midrib greatly thickened ;
secondary veins fairly close and parallel (about 4 in 10 mm.) and divergent from
the midrib at 40°. Greatest width of lamina, 38 mm, Although naturally etched
out of the siliceous rock, it has its characters well enough preserved to allow of
its reference to Ettingshausen’s species. Although not so broad a leaf as the
living E. rebusta Smith, or Australian Brown Mahogany Wood, with which
Ettingshausen compares his species, it shows the characteristic form, close and
widely divergent secondary venation of the original type from the Deep Lead
(Lower Oligocene) of Vegetable Creek, New South Wales. Deane has also,
tentatively, referred one of his figured specimens from the Lower Oligocene of
Berwick, Victoria, to that specics.

Occurrence —No. 1196. From William Springs. It is possible that the
three specimens, Nos. 1195, 1194 and 1196, are those referred to in the Horn
Expedition Report. General Geology, p. 66, as follows:—“Bottle Hill and
Andamooka (west side of Lake Torrens). Several slabs of flaggy quartzites,
rich in leaf impressions, were obtained at these localities by Mr. W. L. R. Gipps
in 1876, and presented by him to the University Muscum at Adelaide. Similar
specimens from the former locality, collected by Mr. Westworth Hardy in 1883,
were donated to the same institution.” Age: Lower Oligocene.

Eucatyptus Kirsoni, Deane,
Pl. iti, fig. 25.
Eucalyptus Kitsont, Deane, 1902, p. 25, pl. iv, figs. 5, 6, 7. E. cf. Kitsont, Chapman, 1921,

p. 118, pl. viii, fig. 9. EH. Kitsont Maiden, 1922, p. 188, pl. ccxxiti, figs. 10a-c. E. cf. Kitsont
Chapman, 1926, p. 185, pl. xiii, fig. 6. E, Kitsoni, Paterson, 1934, p. 268. Idem, 1935, p, 71.

Observations—On No, 1194, marked by Prof. Tate as “Eucalyptus,” from
Lake Torrens, there occurs a long narrow leaf, tapering at the petiolate end,
broadening at the middle and less acute towards the distal extremity. The mid-
rib is moderately strong, with sccondary veins inclined at about 40° to the midrib.

On No. 1198, from the Elizabeth Mine, Elizabeth River, there occurs an
elongated, curved and tapering Eucalyptus leaf which can also be referred to the
above species. It is associated on the same slab with Banksia praegrandis, Hakea
ambigua, Lomatia perspicua, Hedycarya latifolia, Tristania praeconferta, Eucalyp-
tus Houtmanni and E. Mitchelli.

These fossil specimens may perhaps be most closely compared with the
widely distributed Tertiary species, E. Kitsoni. It is a very common form in the
Lower Oligocene pipe-clay at Berwick in Gippsland; it has also been recorded
from the Lower Oligocene of Pascoe-Valc, Essendon (Paterson) and from
Narracan in Gippsland (Chapman and Paterson).

Occurrence——No, 1194. A dark ochreous rock (duricrust) with fossil
leaves and other organic remains weathered in relief. Lake Torrens, Central
Australia.

No, 1198. An ochreous quartzitic sandstone, the surface of which is crowded
with fossil leaves, as mentioned above. From the Elizabeth Mine, Elizabeth
River, Central Australia.

Collected by C. Sabine, 1883. Age: Lower Oligocene. Geol. Dept. Univ.
Adelaide.

14

EucaLyptus MItcHetyi Ettings.
Pl. iti, fig. 26.

Eucalyptus Mitchelli Ettings, 1883, p. 131, pl. xv, figs. 6-8, 7s, B. Idem, 1888,
p. 169, pl. xv, figs. 6-8, 74, 8. Tate (in Tate and Watt), 1896, p. 67 (name only), Deane,
1902, p. 24, pl. ui, figs. 5-8.

Observations —L.eaves of the type figured by Ettingshausen, from the Deep
Lead of Vegetable Creek, New South Wales, appear to be common in the sand-
stone of the Elizabeth Mine, Central Australia. They are strong, elongate,
laminae, with close secondary venation set at an angle of 50° to 60° to the mid-
rib. The species is easily distinguished from E. Kttsoni by the even, long-ovate
outline, the latter having a tapering and flexuous extremity.

This species was also frequent in the Lower Oligocene beds of Berwick,
Victoria.

Occurrence —No. 1198. Near Elizabeth Mine, Central Australia. Associated
with the leaves of Eucalyptus Houtmanni, E. Kitson, Hedycarya latifolia,
Banksia praegrandis, Lomatia perspicua and Hakea ambigua. Collected by
C. Sabine, 1883. Age: Lower Oligocene, Geol. Dept. Univ. Adelaide.

Family RUBIACEAE.
Genus CoPpROSMAEPHYLLUM Deane.

Coprosmaephyllum Edmondsi, sp. nov.
Pl. iii, fig. 27.
“Cordia sp.,” on label (presumably by Prof. Tatc).

Description—This is an ovate-lanceolate leaf with rounded base and sub-
acute apex. It measures 35 mm. in length, but was probably 40 mm. when
complete, and 20 mm. in width. It is very well preserved in a buff-coloured
travertine limestone which contains traces of ostracoda.

A portion of the petiole is still preserved in solid form, indicating a strong
fleshy leaf; midrib well marked, giving off secondary veins that are roundly
curved, running to within the recurved margin, where they turn upwards to meet
the vein above. Secondary venation wavy, and often anastomosing. The margin
of the leaf is entire and gently undulating.

Observations,—A leaf somewhat resembling the present one has been
described and figured by Ettingshausen as Cordia tasmanica (1883, p. 134, pl. v,
fig. 3), but differs in having, besides a much broader leaf, a transverse tertiary
venation. Moreover, in our fossil there is no evidence of its having an alliance
with the Boraginaceac, for this leat was smooth-faced.,

In the present case the nearest comparison can be made with Deane’s genus
Coprosmacphyllum, or even the living Coprosma, the New Zealand species
C. Baueriana Endlicher only differing from the fossil in its more compressed
sides, For the same reason it can be distinguished from the Warrumbungile
Mountain fossil, Coprosmaephyllum Kitsont Deane (1907, p. 3, pl. xxxv, fig. 1).

Coprosmaephyllum Edmondsi most nearly approaches C. ovatum Deane
(1904, p. 212, pl. xx, figs. 1, 2, 3.) from the Lower Miocene of Sentinel Rock,
Cape Otway, Victoria, but is distinguished by its rounder base and less elongate
form. ‘The venation is very similar.

Oceurrence—From the Stockade (? Adelaide Plains). Probably of

Pliocene or Pleistocene age. Lacusirine beds. Collected by Mr. Edmonds.
No. 1189. Geol. Dept. Univ. Adelaide.

15

IV. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

BaiLey, F. M. 1909. Comprehensive Catalogue of Queensland Plants, pp. 1-879.
16 plates and 976 woodcuts.

CHAPMAN, TF. 1910. New or Little Known Victorian Fossils in the National
Museum, pt. ii. On an Impression of a Bird’s Feather in the Tertiary
Ironstone of Redruth, Victoria. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. xxiii
(N.S.), pt. i, pp. 21-26, pls. iv, v.

CuHapMan, I, 1921. A Sketch of the Geological History of Australian Plants:
The Cainozoic Flora. Victorian Naturalist, vol. xxxvii, Nos. 10 and
11, pp. 115-119, and pp. 127-133, pl. viii.

CuapMan, F. 1926, New or Little Known Fossils in the National Museum,
pt. xxix. On some Tertiary Plant Remains from Narracan, South
Gippsland. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. xxxviii (N.S.), pp. 183-191,

pl. xii, xiii.

Cuapman, F. 1934. The Book of Fossils. Shakespeare Head Press, Sydney.

CHAPMAN, F., and Crespin, I. 1934. The Palaeontology of the Plantagenet
Beds of Western Australia. Journ. Roy. Soc. W. Aust., vol. xx,,
pp. 103-136, pls. vi-xi.

Drange, H, 1902. Notes on the Fossil Flora of Berwick. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict.,
vol, i, pt. ii, pp. 21-32, pls. iii-vii.

Deane, H. 1904. Further Notes on the Cainozoic Flora of Sentinel Rock,
Otway Coast. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. i, pt. 3, pp. 212-216, pl. xx.

Deane, H. 1907, Notes on Fossil Leaves from the Warrumbungle Mountains.
Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., vol. viii, pt. 3, pp. 189-191, pls. xxxiv-xxxvi.

DEANE, H. 1925, Tertiary Fossil Fruits from Deep Lead, Foster, South Gipps-
land. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. iv, pt. iv, pp. 489-492, pl. Ixix.

Deane, H, 19257, Fossil Leaves from the Open Cut, State Brown Coal Mine,
Morwell, Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. iv, pt. iv, pp. 492-501, pls. bxi-Ixviii.

ETTINGSHAUSEN, C. von, 1883. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Tertiar-flora Ats-
traliens, pt. 1. Denkschr. K.K. Ak. Wiss., Wien, Cl. Math. Nat.
vol. xlvii, pp. 101-148, pls. i-vii.

ETTINGSHAUSEN, C. von, 1886, Pt. ii. Ibid. vol. liii, pp. 81-142, pls. viii-xv.

ETTINGSHAUSEN, C, von, 1886. Contributions to the Tertiary Flora of Aus-
tralia. Mem, Geol. Surv., N.S.W., Palaeontology, No. 2, pp. 1-189,
pls. i-xv.

Francis, W. D. 1929. Australian Rain Forest Trees: excluding the species
confined to the Tropics. 1-347 pp. and 226 figs. Brisbane.

Maipen, J. H. 1922. A Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus, vol. vi,

(pt. iv).

Mawson, D., and Cuapman, F, 1912. ‘The Tertiary Brown Coal-bearing Beds
of Moorlands. Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. xlvi, pp. 131-147.

MUELLER, F, von. 1874. Observations on New Vegetable Fossils of the

Auriferous Drifts. Geol. Surv. Vict., Decade i, pp. 1-31, pls. i-x.

Paterson, H. T. 1934. Notes on some Tertiary Leaves from Pascoe Vale.
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. xlvi, pt. ii, pp. 264-273, pls. xiii-xiv.

Paterson, H. T. 1935. Notes on Plant Remains from Narracan and Darlimurla,
South Gippsland. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. xlviii, pt. i (N.S.),
pp. 67-74, pls. v, vi.

Tate, R. 1882. Plant-bearing Beds between Lake Frome and the Barrier Ranges.
Supplementary Note. Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. v, p. 98.

Tate, R. 1896. In Tate and Watt. Report on the Work of the Horn Scientific
Expedition to Central Australia, pt. iii. Chapter on General Geology,
pp. 65-66,

a
a
i

ct
GR
SP ND HF &

16

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Puate I.

Nothofagus aff. Moorei v. Mueller, West of Lake Torrens, Central Australia.
No. 1,197. Slightly under natural size.

Nothofagus Risdomana (Ettingshausen). Rocky Point, south of Ardrossan, South
Australia. No. 1,191. Natural size.

Nothofagus Wilkinsont (Ettingshausen). Wyeculuna, Central Australia. No, 1,190.
Natural size.

Ficus Stuartii (Ettingshausen). Dalton, near Gunning, New South Wales. No.
1,186. Slightly under natural size.

Persoonia cf. cuneate Deane. William Springs, Central Australia. No, 1,196.
Circ. °/o natural size.

Banksia ci. marginata Cavanilles. Near the Elizabeth Mine, Central Australia.
No. 1,198. Cir. natural size.

Banksia praegrandis, sp. nov. Lake Torrens area, Central Australia. No. 1,198.
Cire, °/7 natural size.

Banksia ci. praegrandis, sp. nov. Impression of flowering tip. Wilham Springs,
Central Australia. No. 1,195. Circ. natural size.

An impression (positive) of the preceding, in plasticene.

Prate II.

Lomatia Mawsoni, sp. nov. Streaky Bay, Eyre Peninsula, South Australia. No.
1,193. Natural size.

Lomatia ci. perspicua Deane. Near the Elizabeth Mine, Central Australia. No.
1,198. Three-quarters natural size.

Hakea ambigua Meissner. Near the Elizabeth Mine, Central Australia. No. 1,198.
Three-quarters natural size.

Magnolia Brownii Ettingshausen, Lake Frome, Central Australia. No. 1,187.
Slightly larger than natural size.

Hedycarya latifolia Deane. Near the Elizabeth Mine, Central Australia, No. 1,198.
natural size.

Cinnamomum Tatei, sp. nov. Near William Springs, Central Australia, No. 1,188.
Natural size.

Endiandra Mitchelli (Ettingshausen). Bacchus Marsh, Victoria. No. 1,185. Slightly

reduced,
Piate III.
Endiandra pracpubens Deane. Bacchus Marsh, Victoria. No. 1,184. Slightly
reduced,

Flindersia cf. Mackinlayi (Ettingshausen). A leaf which has evidently been dried
and curled before inclusion in the sediment. West of Lake Torrens, Central
Australia. No, 1232. Natural size.

Flindersia cf. Mackinlayi (Ettingshausen). Portion of anotoher leaf. Trom the
same locality. No. 1,197. Natural size.

Tristania angustifolia (Deane), West of Lake Torrens, Central Australia. No.
1,197. Slightly enlarged.

Trislania proeconferta, sp. nov. Near the Elizabeth Mine, Central Australia,
No. 1,198. Slightly under natural size.

Eucalyptus Diementi Ettingshausen, West of Lake Torrens, Central Australia.
No. 1,232. Slightly under natural size.

E. Diemenii Ettingshausen. The same locality. No. 1,197. Slightly under natural size.

Eucalyptus Houtmanni Ettingshausen. Lake Torrens area, Central Australia, No.
1,196. Slightly under natural size,

Bucalypius Kitsoni Deane. William Springs, Central Australia. No. 1,194, Slightly
under natural size.

Eucalypius Mitchelli Ettingshausen. Near Elizabeth Mine, Central Australia.
No. 1,198. Natural size.

Coprosmucphyllum Edmondsi, sp. nov, The Stockade, ? Adelaide Plains. No. 1,189.
Natural size,

A CATALOGUE OF AUSTRALIAN GAMMARIDEA

BY KEITH SHEARD

Summary

The character of the research work that has been done on the Gammaridea during the last
twenty-six years makes it necessary to preface this catalogue by a very brief summary of some of
the results in so far as they bear on the changes that occur in individuals during development, and so
affect taxonomic procedure.

17

A CATALOGUE OF AUSTRALIAN GAMMARIDEA

By KerirH SHEARD,
Hon. Assistant in Zoology to the South Australian Museum.

[Read November 12, 1936.]

The character of the research work that has been done on the Gammaridea
during the last twenty-six years makes it necessary to preface this catalogue by a
very brief summary of some of the results in so far as they bear on the changes
that occur in individuals during development, and so affect taxonomic procedure.

1909 Sexton, E. W.—Proc. Zool. Soc., 1909, vol. ii, pp. 849-851 :—

(1) Secondary sexual characters undergo great modification after sexual
maturity is reached. The female undergoes quite as much modifica-
tion as the male.

(2) There is frequently a great modification of the chitinous cuticle
with age.

(3) The mouth-parts appear to be practically constant through the various
stages taken under the same condition,

1911 Sexton, E. W.—Jour. Mar. Biol. Assn. U.K. (N.S.), vol. ix, p. 220 :—

(1) The proportions of the peduncle segments alter with growth.

(2) Spinose processes on the cuticle commence as small swellings, develop-
ing at maturity to round tubercles and assuming their characteristic
shape with the further development of the animal. (In this case
Laetmatophilus tuberculatus Brug.)

1919-1922 Sexron, E. W., and Huxzey, J. S—Jour. Mar. Biol. Assn. U.K.

(N.S.), vol. xii, pp. 560-567.

Intersexes occur in Gammarus.
1923-1925 Sexton, E. W.—Jour. Mar. Biol. Assn. U.K. (N.S.), vol. xiii,
pp. 340-401,

This is a careful study of the growth changes of Gammarus.

1. “There is a constant change in the proportions of the body from birth
to maturity, e.g., the peraeon which is practically subequal to the pleon
in length at birth, is a third as long again at maturity.”

2. “The early growth-stages of the male are externally indistinguishable
from those of the female, and the secondary sexual characters are not
recognised until the sixth stage.”

3. “The male takes longer than the female to reach the “definitive adult”
stage, and its secondary sexual characters undergo much greater modifica-
tion. This fact, hitherto unknown, is probably the cause of much of the
confusion in the taxonomy of the Amphipoda, the different breeding stages
being described as different species.”

Another cause of confusion may be the similarity of the young
immature stages of the species of a genus. If, as in the case of Gammarus,
several closely allied species inhabit the same locality, a dredging will con-
tain the growth-stages of various specics, with more young specimens than
mature, In many instances these have been described as belonging to one
single variable species, and the specific boundaries enlarged to admit of
the so-called “varieties”.

18

4. “The differences between species—even closely allied species—is very
marked, in the number of moults to maturity, the length of the moulting
period, in the size and number of the eggs, the length of the incubatory
period, and the times of extrusion of the young.”

5. “The side plates, which may undergo less change than other external
parts, appear to be the most reliable characters for distinguishing the species
of a genus, at least as far as Gamunarus is concerned.”

1928 Kunxer, B. W., and Ropertson, |. A.—Jour. Mar. Biol. Assn., U.K.
vol. xv, pp, 655-681.
A study of the relative growth in Gammarus chevreusi.

1929 STEPHENSEN, K.—Die ‘Tierwelt der Nord- und Ostsee, Teil x, f.
“Amphipoda.”
General discussion, pages x, f, 3-39.

1932 Prrrot, J. M—Siboga-Expeditie, livr, cxvii, pp. 100-111, Les maxilli-
pedes des Amphipodes fouisseurs.

Although these studies are strictly only applicable to the species concerned,

it is legitimate to assume the possibility that the results may also apply in some
measure throughout the Sub-Order.

For general taxonomic reference the following publications are useful :-—
1906 Srepstne, T. R. R—Das Tierreich, vol. xxi. Amphipoda I, Gammaridea.
1927 ScHELLENBERG, A.—Nordisches Plankton, Lig. 20 (vol. vi, pp. 654-720).
1928 STEPHENSEN, K.—Die Tierwelt, pp. x, f, 45-170.

1932 Barnarp, K. H.—The Discovery Reports, vol. v, pp. 1-326.
1935 STEPHENSEN, K.—Troms. Mus. Skrifter, vol. iii, pt. 1. “The Amphipoda
of N. Norway and Spitsbergen,”

A reasonable working bibliography can be obtained from the above reports.

The tally recorded from Australian waters is now 190 species.

Acknowledgments are due to Dr. C. Anderson, Director of the Australian
Museum, Sydney; Professor T. Harvey Johnston, of the University, Adelaide ;
Professor G, E. Nicholls, of the University, Perth, for their courtesy in providing
literature not otherwise accessible, and to the members of the staff of the South
Australian Museum, for their general assistance.

Family LYSTANASSIDAE,

Amaryllis macrophthalma Haswell. Stebbing (1), pp. 569, 633; Chilton (11),
p. 55; Schellenberg (34), p. 243; Hale (23), p. 208; Schellenberg (38), p. 10;
Barnard (40), pp. 114-116, (39), p. 34; Pirlot (44), pp. 122-123,

Amaryllis bathycephala, Stebbing (1), p. 633; Pirlot (44), p. 122.

Onesimoides carinatus, Stebbing (1), p. 633; Pirlot (44), p. 139.

Waldeckia chevreuxi, Stebbing (1), p. 633; Chilton (11), pp. 40-41; Chilton
(12), p. 4; Tale (23), p. 208.

Waldeckia obesa (Chevreux). Stebbing (1), p. 572; Chilton (29), pp. 56-57;
Chilton (28), p. 471 (JV. sschaui) ; Chevreux (30), p. 91; Schellenberg (34),
pp. 253-255; Barnard (39), pp. 41-42.

Waldeckia kroyeri (White). = Epippiphora kroyeri While. = ? W. obesa
(Chev.) ; Chilton (11), pp. 35-40; Hale (20), p. 314; Hale (23), pp. 203,
206, 208.

Parawaldeckia kiddert (Smith). Sec under W. obesa and W. kroyeri,; and
Tattersall (14), pp. 3-4; Monod (35), pp. 51-52; Stephensen (36), pp. 300-
302; and Schellenberg (38), p. 6.

The only contribution that can be made to ihe knowledge of the forms
contained within the above three names is that the examination of a long

19

series from St. Vincent Gulf makes it very difficult to maintain the specific
identity of W. obesa (Chev.). Hale (23) refers Epippiphora kroyert
White to Waldeckia. Various authors have suggested the identity of
E. kroyeri (White) and W. obesa (Chev.) but it appears better to leave the
question still open, pending the publication of the “Aurora” amphipods
(G. E. Nicholls) and the results of the examination of the recent “Discovery”
Lysianassids. It is evident that the disentanglement of the relationships and
identities of these forms should be attempted with great caution.

Hippomedon geelongi Stebbing. Stebbing (1), p. 633.

Glycerina tenuicornis Haswell. Stebbing (1), p. 633.

Tryphosa camelus Stebbing. Stebbing (1), p. 634; Chilton (11), pp. 43-44 [as
T. sarsi (Bonnier) |; Stephensen (53), p. 82.

Tmetonyx miersi Stebbing. Stebbing (1), p. 634.

Lysianassa nitens Haswell. Stebbing (1), p. 634. Genus uncertain.

Lysianassa australiensis Haswell. Stebbing (1), p. 634. Genus uncertain.

Lysianassa affinis Haswell. Stebbing (1), p. 634. Genus uncertain.

Endevoura mirabilis Chilton. Chilton (11), pp. 44-52.

Euonyx normani Stebbing. Chilton (11), pp. 52-54; Pirlot (44), p. 120.

The specimen of Chilton (4) is probably not the male of E£. normani
Stebbing.
Family STEGOCEPHALIDAE,

Andaniotes corpulentus (G. M. Thomson). Stebbing (1), p. 575; Chilton (11),

p. 55; Barnard (37), p. 328; Schellenberg (38), pp. 51-52.

Family AMPELISCIDAE.

Ampelisca acinaces Stebbing. Stebbing (1), p. 635; Chilton (33), pp. 75-93 ;
Barnard (24), p. 119.
Ampelisca australis Haswell. Stebbing (1), p. 634.
Ampelisca pusilla Sars. Stebbing (1), p. 576; Chilton (10), p. 79; Barnard (47),
p. 279,
Family HAUSTORIIDAE.

Urohaustorius halei Sheard. Sheard (26), pp. 445-449.

Two simple eyes are visible as white circular patches in freshly caught
specimens. These fade rapidly in spirit. The peduncle of antenna l,
although swollen, is flattened on the inferior surface.

Urohaustorius vercoi Sheard. Sheard (26), pp. 449-450,

Family PLATYISCHNOPIDAE.

Platyischnopus mirabilis Stcbbing. Stebbing (1), p. 635 [non Barnard (40),
pp. 142-143 = P. capensis Barnard (41), pp. 338-340] ; Chilton (12), pp. 4-6;
Pirlot (43), pp. 103, 110; Pirlot (45), p. 180. ‘

Family PHOXOCEPHALIDAE.

Phoxocephalus basst Stebbing. Stebbing (1), p. 635.

Pontharpinia pinguis (Ilaswell). Stebbing (1), p. 635.

Pontharpinia rostrata (Dana). Stebbing (1), p. 635; Stebbing (32), p. 357;
Barnard (24), p. 119; Pirlot (43), p. 62.

Pontharpinia barnardi Pirlot. Barnard (24), p. 119 (as P. rostrata); Pirlot
(43), pp. 62-68.

Pontharpinia villosa (Haswell). Stebbing (1), p. 635; Tattersall (14), pp. 4-6;
Schellenberg (34), pp. 300-301; Schellenberg (38), pp. 75-78.

20

Family AMPHILOCHIDAE,

Gitanopsis squamosus (Thompson). Chevreux (30), p. 104 (as G. antarctica) ;
Chilton (29), p. 479 (as Amphilochus squamosus); Chilton (15), pp. 84-85
(as A, squamosus) ; Schellenberg (34), pp. 301-302; Schellenberg (38), p. 95,

Barnard (39), p. 104-105, differs from this synonomy. See his note under
G. antarctica,

Gitanopsis marionis (Stebbing). Stebbing (1), p. 577 (as Amphilochus
marvonis); Schellenberg (34), p. 302; ? Stephensen (36), pp. 308-309 (as
A, squamosus); Schellenberg (38), p. 95,

Amphilochus neapolitanus Della Valle. Chilton (15), pp. 82-84.

Chilton states that the Australian specimens which he refers to the above
species cannot be distinguished from Gitanopsis pusilla Barnard; Barnard
(40), pp. 144-145; Barnard (41), pp. 341-342. Schellenberg (50), 140-141,
maintains Gitanopsis pusilla as a separate species,

It is unfortunate that the characters involved in the separation of the above
species are so subject to variation as to be of dubious value, While it is
possible, for example, to readily distinguish between different types of molar
processes, the differentiation is difficult in borderline cases, and confusion
in synonomy results from the bias of the author,

Sexton (loc. cil., p. 17) has clearly demonstrated the occurrence of
marked growth changes in the Amphipod genus Gammarus. One result of
this investigation is that comparisons between specimens involving relatively
small differences, are of little value unless the specimens are al the same
growth stage.

Cyproidca ornata Haswell. Stebbing (1), p. 578; Hale (20), p. 314 (by a mis-
print as Stenothoe valida); Corrected, Hale (23), p. 209; Barnard (41),
p. 41.

Paracyproidea lineata Haswell. Stebbing (1), p. 636.

Gitanogeiton sarsi Stebbing. Stebbing (1), pp. 578-580.

Cyclotelson purpureum Potts. Potts (4), pp, 87-88.

Family SEBIDAE.

Seba typica (Chilton). Chilton (11), pp. 56-59: Chilton (17), pp. 269-270;
schellenberg (34), p. 309; Schellenberg (38), pp. 83-92 (revision of family) ;
Barnard (37), p. 339 [Barnard (39) cannot mean to unite this species with
S. antarctica Walker, as he has retained the later specific name. ]

Family LEUCOTHOIDAE.

Leucothoe spinicarpa (Abildgaard). Stebbing (1), p. 636; Chilton (28), pp. 478-
479; Barnard (40), pp. 148-149; Chilton (11), pp. 59-60; Tattersall (14),
p. 6; Chilton (13), p. 34; Chilton (15), pp. 85-88, (Syn.); Monod (35),
p. 53; Hale (23), pp. 210-211: Barnard (39), p. 106; Schellenberg (38),
p. 92; Barnard (47), pp. 175-177; Cecchini (56), pp. 175-176. :

A cosmopolitan species comprising L. Spinicarpa Stebbing, L. miersi
Stebbing, L. trailli G. M. ‘Thomson, L. tridens Stebbing, L. brevidigituta
Miers, L. antarctica Pfeffer, L. commensalis Haswell, L. gracilis Haswell,
and L, diemenensis Haswell,

Leucothoe furina (Savigny). Schellenberg (51), pp. 635-638; Barnard (24),
p. 120.

Paraleucothoe novae-hollandiae (Ilaswell). Stebbing (1), p. 581; Chilton (15),
pp. 88-89; Chilton (12), pp. 6-7.

21

Family STENOTHOIDAE.
Stenothoe valida Dana. Stebbing (1), p. 637 (as S. miersi Haswell) ; Chilton
(15), pp. 95-100; Chilton (17), p. 270; Barnard (37), p. 341; Schellenberg

(51), p. 641.
S. dollfusi Chevreux appears to be a dimorphic male of S. valida Dana.

Family PHLIANTIDAE.
Sub-family EoprmLiANTINAE.

Eophliantis tindalei Sheard. Sheard (26), pp. 457-459.
Bercenna nichollsi Sheard. Sheard (26), pp. 461-462.

Sub-family PNLIANTINAE.

Palinnotus thomsoni Stebbing. Stebbing (1), p. 637; Sheard (26), p. 463.
Iphiplateia whiteleggei Stebbing. Stebbing (1), p. 637; Sheard (26), p. 463.
Ouasimodia womersleyi Sheard. Sheard (26), pp. 464-466.

Quasimodia capricornis Sheard. Sheard (26), pp. 466-467.

Quasimodia barnardi Sheard. Sheard (26), p. 468.

Since the publication of the above paper, records of two additional genera
in this sub-family have been received. Pariphinotus (Kunkel, 1910, Trans.
Connecticut Ac. Arts and Sci., vol. xvi, p. 19).

This genus is very close to Heterophlias (Shoemaker, 1934, Papers from
Tortugas Lah. Carnegie Inst., Wash., vol. xxvili, p. 250), and the type of
Pariphinotus should be re-examined to determine whether the third uropods,
which are very small in this group, are really absent.

The two genera are interesting in possessing a partially reduced inner
ramus to pleopod 3.

Family COLOMASTIGIDAE.
Colomastix brazieri, Haswell. Haswell (1), p. 637; Chilton (28), p. 484;
Chilton. (11), pp. 60-64.
See notes by Barnard (41), p. 347, and (39), p. 114.
Family OCHLESIDAE.
Ochlesis innocens Stebbing. Stebbing (1), p. 582.

Family ACANTHONOTOZOMATIDAE.
Iphimedia ambigua (Haswell). Stebbing (1), p. 584.
Iphimedia discrela Stebbing. Stebbing (1), p. 586; Schellenberg (51), p. 643;
Barnard (37), p. 346.
Iphimedia stimpsont Bate. Stebbing (1), p. 638; Barnard (37), p. 346.

Family LILJEBORGIIDAE.

Liljeborgia aequabilis. Stebbing (1), pp. 588-589; Chilton (11), pp. 64-65 (as
L. brevicornis); Barnard (37), p. 365.

Liljeborgia dubia (Haswell). Stebbing (1), p. 638; Chilton (28), p. 485;
Chilton (11), p. 65; Barnard (37), p. 365; Barnard (39), p. 142.

Family PARDALISCIDAE.
Pardalisca australiensis Barnard. Barnard (24), p. 121,

22

Family OEDICEROTIDAE.

Exoediceros fossor Stimpson. Stebbing (1), p. 638; Sheard (26), pp. 454-455.
Exodiceros maculosus Sheard. Sheard (26), pp. 452-455.
Oediceroides ornatus (Stebbing). Stebbing (1), p. 589; ? non Chilton (11),
p. 66, ? = O. apicalis Barnard.
Oediceroides pirloti Sheard. Sheard (27). pp. 173-175.
Further specimens from Sellick’s Reef, South Australia, show that
peraeopod 1 is furnished with a very weak seventh joint.
Ocdiceroides apicalis Barnard (24), pp. 121-122.
Perioculades aequimanus (Kossman). Schellenberg (51), p. 641; Barnard (24),
p. 121.
Family SYNOPIIDAE.

Synopia ullramarina Dana. Barnard (24), p. 122. [Synonomy in Schellenberg
(34), p. 341.]
Family TIRONIDAE,

Brugeha australis Stebbing. Stebbing (1), p. 590; Barnard (40), p. 169 (note).
Syrrhoe semiserrata Stebbing. Stebbing (1), p. 639.

Family CALLIOPIIDAE.

Sancho platynotus Stebbing. Stebbing (1), p. 639.
Paracalliope fluviatilis G. M. Thomson. Stebbing (1), p. 639.
Later literature is referred to under P. indica Barnard (47), pp. 280-281.
Tt is doubtful whether Chilton’s extra-Australian specimens can be referred
strictly to P. fluviatilis Thomson.
Harpinoides drepanochew Stebbing. Stebbing (1), p. 592.
Apherusa laevis (Haswell). Stebbing (1), p. 639.
This species is still obscure,

Family ATYLIDAE.

Nototropis homochir Haswell. Stebbing (1), p. 639; Chilton (28), pp. 507-508;
Schellenberg (28), p. 167,
This species is common in South Australian and Victorian waters.
Nototropis minikoi (Walker). Chilton (12), pp. 9-10; Barnard (37), p. 383.

Family EUSIRIDAF.,

Eusiroides monoculvides (Tlaswell). Stebbing (1), p. 595; Chilton (29),
pp. 57-58 (as Bowallia monoculoides); Barnard (40), pp. 174-175; Chilton
(11), pp. 66-68 (as B. monoculoides); Chilton (17), pp. 270-271 (as
B. monoculoides); ? Stephensen (36), pp. 316-317 (as B. monoculoides) ;
Hale (23), pp. 211-212 (as B. monoculotdes); Schcllenberg (38), pp. 173-
174 (Synonomy).

‘This species is often confused with the genus Bowallia (B. gigantea), See
Chevreux (30), p. 168; Schellenberg (38), p. 180; and Barnard (39),
pp. 196-197 (for literature and discussion). Examination of specimens
referable to £. monoculoides, in the South Australian Museum, appear to
indicate that the conclusions drawn by Schellenberg and Barnard are correct.

The specimens obtained from Antarctic Waters appear to be referable to
Bovallia,

Eusiroides crassi Stebbing. See discussions under the above references.

Euswoides lippus Haswell. Stebbing (1), p. 639.

Rachotropis platycera Barnard. Barnard (24), p. 122.

23

Family PONTOGENEIIDAE.
See Revision and Discussion: Stephensen (36), pp. 315-342; Schellenberg (52),
pp. 273-282; (38), pp. 180-202 and discussion; Barnard (39), pp. 195-211.

Schraderia serraticauda (Stebbing). Stebbing (1), p. 640 (as Atyloides serrati-
cauda); Stephensen (36), p. 339; Schellenberg (52), p. 280 [as Afyloides
gracilis Pfeffer = A, serraticauda Stebbing]; Schellenberg (38), pp. 193-
194 (as A. gracilis); Barnard (39), pp. 204- 205.

If Pfeffer’s name has the priority, then Pfeffer’s genus has the priority.

Pseudomoera gabrieli (Sayce). Stebbing (1), p. 640; Stephensen (36), p. 324;
Schellenberg (52), p. 281.

Paramoera fontana (Sayce). Stebbing (1), p. 640; Stephensen (36), p. 324;
Schellenberg (52), p. 281.

Probably the three species P. fontana (Sayce), P. japonica Tattersall, and
P. aucklandica (Chilton) should be transferred to Pseudomoera.

Paramoera fasciculata (Thomson). Stebbing (1), p. 640; Stephensen (36),
pp. 332-336; Schellenberg (52), p. 280.

Paramocra austrina (Bate). Stebbing (1), p. 640 (part). For references and
discussions see Chilton (11), pp. 68-70; Schellenberg (52), pp. 280-281;
Monod (35), pp. 55-57; Stephensen (36), pp. 329-332; Schellenberg (38),
pp. 194-197; Barnard (39), pp. 206-207.

Barnard’s remarks, (39), p. 207, are very much to the point. In this case it
is not a question of nomenclature, but of the identification of Dana’s species
with those described later—an identification difficult to establish.

Paramoera megalophthalma (Haswell). Stebbing (1), p. 640 (part) ; Stephensen
(36), pp. 336-339; Schellenberg (52), p. 281.

Pontogeneia tasmaniae (Thomson). Stebbing (1), p. 640; Schellenberg (52),
p. 278

Pontogeneia simplex (Dana). Stebbing (1), p. 640; Chilton (28), p. 495 (as
P. danai); Stephensen (36), p. 381 (as P. danat); Schellenberg (52), p. 278,
and (38), pp. 181-184; Barnard (39), p. 198.

No critical determination of any species of the Pontogeneiidae should be
attempted until the discttssions cited above have been considered carefully.

Family AMATHILLOPSIDAE.
[Pirlot (45), p. 202.]
Amathillopsis australis Stebbing. Stebbing (1), p. 641; Pirlot (45), p. 203.

Family GAMMARIDAE.

Parapherusa crassipes Haswell. Stebbing (1), p. 641; Chilton (5), pp. 199-207.

Protecrangonyx fontinalis Nicholls. Nicholls (19), pp. 71-78.

Neoniphargus thomsoni Stebbing. Stebbing (1), p. 641; Smith (2), p. 76 (as
N. montanus).

Neomiphargus spencert (Sayce). Stebbing Op ae ; Smith (2), p. 76.

Neoniphargus fultoni Sayce. Stebbing (1), p

Neoniphargus obrient Nicholls. Nicholls (19), iby 79-86.

Neoniphargus branchialis Nicholls. Nicholls (16), pp. 105-111.

Neoniphargus exiguus Smith. Smith (2), p. 74.

Neoniphargus alpinus Smith. Smith (2), p. 75.

Neoniphargus niger Smith. Smith (2), p. 76.

Neoniphargus tasmanicus Smith. Smith (2), p. 74.

Neoniphargus wellingtoni Smith. Smith (2), p. 75.

Neoniphargus yuli Smith, Smith (2), p. 73.

24

Uroctena westralis (Chilton). Chilton (18), pp. 81-84; Nicholls (19),
pp. 107-108.

Uroctena setosa Nicholls. Nicholls (19), pp. 107-108.

Uroctena affinis Nicholls. Nicholls (19), pp. 109-111.

Uroctena yellandi Nicholls. Nicholls (19), pp. 113-116.

Useful discussions of this group of the Gammaridae are contained in the

papers by Nicholls cited above.

Niphargus australiensis Chilton. Chilton (15), pp. 80-81.

Niphargus pulchellus Sayce. Stebbing (1), p. 641.

See Schellenberg, Zool. Anzeiger, 1932, vol. xcix, pp. 313-314, and 1933,
vol. cii, pp. 255-257, for a partial revision of Eucrangonyx, Niphargopsis,
and Niphargus.

Gammarus mortoni (Thomson). Stebbing (1), p. 641; Smith (2), p. 77.

Gammarus antipodens Smith (2), p. 78.

Gammarus ripensis Smith (2), pp. 77-78.

Gammarus australis Sayce. Stebbing (1), p. 643; Smith (2), pp. 78-79; Chilton
(7), p. QL.

Gammarus haaset Sayce. Stebbing (1), p. 643.

Gammarus barringtonensis, Chilton (7), p. 86.

Parelasmopus suluensis (Dana). Stebbing (1), p. 642; Chilton (12), pp. 7-8;
Pirlot (45), p. 233; Barnard (47), pp. 286-287.

Melita fresneli (Audouin). Stebbing (1), p. 596; Barnard (40), p. 189-190;
Chilton (15), p. 93; Hale (23), pp. 212-213; Schellenberg (51), pp.644-646 ;
Shoemaker (55), pp. 239-240.

Add to synonomy Dulichella spinosa Stout.

Melita festiva (Chilton). Stebbing (1), p. 624; Chilton (6), pp. 359-362.

Paraceradocus micramphopus Stebbing. Stebbing (1), p. 596.

Ceradocus rubromaculatus (Stimpson). Stebbing (1), p. 642; Chilton (6),
p. 366; Chilton (12), p. 8; Tattersall (14), pp. 6-8; Chilton (15), pp. 93-94;
Schellenberg (50), p. 154; Hale (20), p. 314; Hale (23), pp. 213-214;
Barnard (24), p. 124; Sheard (27), p. 177.

Maera inaequipes (A. Costa). Stebbing (1), p. 599; Chilton (6), pp. 365-567;
Barnard (40), pp. 193-194; Chilton (8), pp. 17-19; Chilton (11), p. 72;
Schellenberg (51), pp. 646-647; Hale (23), pp. 214-215; Cecchini (56),
pp. 198-200.

Maera hamigera (Haswell). Stebbing (1), p. 642; Barnard (40}, pp. 196-197;
Chilton (6), p. 362; Chilton (11), p. 73.

Maera tenella (Dana), Tattersall (14), p. &

Maera mastersi (Haswell), Stebbing (1), p. 642; Chilton (6), pp. 367-368;
Barnard (40), p. 195; Chilton (11), p. 72; Tattersall (14), p. 9; Hale (23),
p. 215; Sheard (27), pp. 177-179.

Elasmopus subcarinatus (Haswell). Stebbing (1), p. 602; Chilton (11), p. 76;
Tattersall (14), pp. 9-10; Barnard (47), p. 286.

Elasmopus diemenensis (Haswell). Stebbing (1), p. 643; Chilton (11), pp. 74-76.

Elasmopus viridis (Haswell). Stcbbing (1), p. 643; Chilton (6), p. 362; Chilton
(11), p. 73; Stephensen (36), p. 342.

Elasmopus rapox A. Costa. Chilton (8), pp. 17-19; Schellenberg (51), p. 647,
(38), p. 203; Cecchini (56), pp. 201-203.

Elasmopus swensis (Haswell). Stebbing (1), p. 643.

Elasmopus boecki (Ilaswell}. Stcbbing (1), p. 643; ? Barnard (40), pp. 199-200.

Elasmopus crassimanus (Miers). Stebbing (1), p. 643.

25

Family DEXAMINIDAE.

Dexamine miersi Haswell. Stebbing (1), p. 644.

Paradexamine pacifica (Thomson). Stebbing (1), p. 644; Chilton (28), pp. 501-
502; Stephensen (36), p. 347; Barnard (37), pp. 389-390, (39), p. 217.

Despite Barnard’s remarks the argument raised by Chilton (28), p. 502,
appears reasonable.

The position illustrates the necessity of carefully figuring all details of new
records of specimens referred to debatable species.

Paradexamine flindersi Stebbing. Stebbing (1), p. 603.

Polycheria antarctica Stebbing (1), p. 644; non Barnard (40), p. 211 (= P. atolli
Walker) ; Chilton (28), pp. 502-507. (These remarks may possibly apply to
Antarctic fornis, but it is doubtful if they are correct of the extra Antarctic
records.) Chilton (11), p. 77; Schellenberg (34), p. 370; Hale (23), p. 216;
Barnard (37), pp. 390-391; Schellenberg (38), pp. 212-220; Barnard (39),
pp. 217-218.

Polycheria tenuipes Haswell. Stebbing (1), p. 644; Chilton (28), p. 502;
Schellenberg (38), p. 213, p. 221 (as Polycheria anterctica Stebbing
f. tenwipes Haswell).

Polycheria brevicornis Haswell. Stebbing (1), p. 644; Chilton (28), p. 502.
This is probably a synonym of P. tenuipes Haswell.

Family TALITRIDAE.

Talitrus sylvaticus (Haswell). Stebbing (1), p. 644; Smith (2), p. 79; Chilton
(7), p. 83; Barnard (40), p. 223; Hale (23), pp. 217-219; Stephenson (46),
pp. 19 and 24.

The group accepted by Barnard as belonging to genus Talitriator Methuen
does not appear to warrant generic rank.

Talitrus kershawi (Sayce). Sayce (3), p. 32; Hale (23), pp. 217-219; Stephen-
sen (46), p. 24.

Orchestia marmorata (Haswell). Stebbing (1), p. 645; Chilton (9), pp. 97-99;
Hale (23), pp. 220-221; Stephensen (46), p. 7.

Orchestia pickeringti Dana. Stebbing (1), p. 645; Chilton (1921, Mem. Ind.
Mus., vol. v, pp. 538-540) considers this a synonym of O. platensis Kroyer;
Stephensen (46), p. 8.

Talorchestia pravidactyla Haswell. Stebbing (1), p. 644.

Talorchestia novaehollandiae Stebbing. Stcbbing (1), p. 645; Hale (23), p. 291;
Stephensen (46), p. 10.

Talorchestia quadrimana (Dana). Stebbing (1), p. 645; Stephensen (46), p. 11.

In a letter to Ifale in 1928, Chilton stated, “I think T. nowaehollandiae is
almost certainly = T. quadrimana. J examined specimens from West Aus-
tralia some years ago and came to this conclusion.”

Specimens in the South Australian Museum from Brighton must be
referred to T. novaehollandiae.

A point of difference that appears to be constant between these South
Australian specimens and both Dana’s and Stcbbing’s specimens, is the
possession by the first-named of an accessory keel to the joint 2 of peraeopod
5. [See fig. 217, Hale (23) ]. However, even this is faintly indicated in
Stebbing’s figure of T. novaehollandiae (Stebbing, Trans. Linn. Soc., Lond.,
Ser. 2, Zool., vol. vii, pt. 8, pl. 31a), and its specific value is doubtful.

The value of the palmar process of gnathopod 2 is equally doubtful, as
South Australian specimens present all the stages from a pointed process
comparable with that figured by Della Valle (llora and Fauna Golfes V,
Neapel, vol. xx, pl. 57, fig. 63), and the rounded angle figured by Stebbing
and by Hale.

26

Regarding Dana’s and Stebbing’s species, as Stephensen (46) points out,
T. novachollandiae possesses marginal spines on the outer ramus of uropod 1,
while in 7. quadrimana these spines are absent. Accordingly, until it is
shown that this is a variable secondary sexual or growth factor the two
species must be regarded as separate.
Talorchestia limicola Haswell. Stebbing (1), p. 645; Stephensen (46), p. 10.
Talorchestia diemenensis Haswell. Stebbing (1), p. 645; Stephensen (46), p. 10.
Talorchestia spinipalma (Dana). Stebbing (1), p. 645; Stephensen (46), p. 12.
Such species of the Talitridae as are separated only by variations in the
secondary sexual characters of the male, present great difficulties. The
palmar shape and armature of gnathopod 2 of the male are particularly
variable factors, and it is only by their correlation with other factors that a
satisfactory determination can be made.
Chiltonia australis (Sayce). Stebbing (1), p. 646; Smith (2), p. 79; Chilton
(15), p. 95; Chilton (17), p. 273.
In this species uropod 3 consists of two segments—the peduncle and a single
ramus.
Chiltonia subtenuis (Sayce). Stebbing (1), p. 646; Ilale (23), pp. 221-222.
Neobule gaimardti (Milne-Edwards}. Stebbing (1), p. 646.
Ayale maroubrae. Stebbing (1), p. 646.
Hyale crassicornis (Haswell). Stebbing (1), p. 646.
Hyale nigra (Haswell). Stebbing (1), p. 646; Schellenberg (51), pp. 659-661.
Hvyale rupicola (Haswell). Stebbing (1), p. 646.
Allorchestes compressus Dana, Stebbing (1), p.647; Stephensen (36), p. 351.
Allorchestes humilis Dana. Stebbing (1), p. 647.

Family AORIDAE.

Aora typica Kroyer. Stebbing (1), p. 647; Schellenberg (34), p. 372 (for litera-
ture) ; Schellenberg (38), pp. 230-231; Barnard (39), pp. 220-221.

Microdeutopus haswelli Stebbing. Stebbing (1), p. 647; ? Pirlot (45), pp. 229-
230.

Lembos philacanthus Stebbing. Stebbing (1), pp. 605-606; Chilton (11), pp.
77-79.

Lemboides australis (Haswell). Stebbing (1), p. 647.

Paraorides unistilus Stebbing. Stebbing (1), pp. 606-608.

Xenocheira fasciata Haswell. Stebbing (1), p. 648; Barnard (24), p. 125.

Family PIITOTIDAE.,

Photis brevicaudata Stebbing, Stebbing (1), p. 648; Chilton (11), p. 125.

Photis dolichommata Stebbing. Stebbing (1), pp. 609-610; Chilton (11),
pp. 79-80.

Cheirtphotis ausiraliae Stebbing. Stebbing (1), pp. 611-613.

Haplocheira barbimana (Thomson). Stebbing (1), p. 648; Barnard (37), p. 391;
Barnard (39), p. 255.

Eurystheus atlanticus Stebbing. Stebbing (1), p. 648; Chilton (11), p. 81;
Tattersall (14), pp. 10-12; Hale (23), pp. 222-223.

Eurystheus crassipes (Haswell). Stebbing (1), p. 648.

Eurytheus thomsoni Stebbing. Stebbing (1), pp. 614-615; Chilton (11), pp. 81-
83; Hale (23), p. 224.

Eurystheus dentifer (Chevreux). Stebbing (1), p. 648; Chilton (11), p. 81;
Schellenberg (38), pp. 243-244,

Eurystheus persotus Chilton. Chilton (11), pp. 83-85; Hale (23), p. 224.

Eurystheus maculatus (Johnston). Chilton (11), pp. 80-81; Cecchini (56),
pp. 220-222,

27

Stephensen (1927; in Medd., fra Dansk. Naturh. Foren., Bd. 84, pp. 128-
129) regards E. erythrophthalma (Lilljeborg) and E. melanops (G. O. Sars.)
as separate species, but Cecchini and Parenzan (56, p. 220) reunites
E, erythrophthalma with E. maculatus.

Family AMPITHOIDAE.

Ampithoe cinerea (Haswell). Stebbing (1), p. 649.

Ampithoe quadrimana (Haswell). Stebbing (1), p. 649.

Ampithoe flindersi Stebbing. Stebbing (1), p. 616; Chilton (11), pp. 85-87; Hale
(23), pp. 224-225.

Ampithoe australiensis Bate. Stebbing (1), p. 649.

Grubia setosa (Haswell). Stebbing (1), p. 649; Chilton (13), p. 35; Tattersall
(14), pp. 12-13; Schellenberg (51), p. 666; Shoemaker (55), p. 245.

It appears probable that this species is part of the synonomy of G. filosa
(Savigny), as suggested by Schellenberg and Shoemaker in the references
given above.

Grubia variata Sheard, Sheard (27), pp. 175-177.

This species may be a variant of the form described by Tattersall (14),
pp. 12-14, and may therefore, if the synonomy suggested above be maintained,
become a synonym of G. filosa (Savigny).

Family JASSIDAE.

Ischyrocerus anguipes Kroyer, var. longimanus Haswell. Stebbing (1), p. 649;
Barnard (40), pp. 264-265; Stephensen (36), p. 353 (both as Wyvillea
longimana Haswell) ; Barnard (37), p. 393.

Jassa falcata (Mont.). Stebbing (1), p. 649 (as J. pulchella),

For literature and synonomy see Barnard (40), p. 263; Schellenberg (34),
p. 383; Schellenberg (38), pp. 250-251; Barnard (39), p. 241.
The variability of the species is discussed by Sexton [Jour. Mar. Biol. Ass.,
U.K. (N.S.), vol. ix, pp. 212-221].
The females of the family Jassidag closely resemble those of several
genera of the Ampithoidae. They may be separated by :—
Ampithoidae: Lower lip deeply notched.
Jassidae: Lower lip not notched.

Family COROPHIIDAE,

Cerapus abditus Templeton. Stebbing (1), p. 650; Barnard (40), p. 271; Hale
(23), p. 226.

Siphonoecetes australis. Stebbing (1), p. 619.

Siphonoecetes sellicki Sheard. Sheard (27), pp. 450-452.

The examination of a number of further specimens, collected at Sellick’s
Beach, indicates that this species is probably a synonym of S. australis, Both
are very close to S. smuthianus Rathbun.

Paracorophium excavatum (G. M. Thomson). Chilton (10), pp. 1-8.
Dryopoides westwoodi Stebbing. Stebbing (1), pp. 621-622.

Family PODOCERIDAE.

Laetmatophilus hystrix (Haswell). Stebbing (1), p. 650.
Cyrtophium minutum Haswell. Stebbing (1), p. 650.
Leipsuropus parasiticus (Haswell). Stebbing (1), p. 650.
Podocerus inconspicuus Stebbing. Stebbing (1), p. 650.
Podocerus lobaius (Haswell). Stebbing (1), p. 650.

28

Podocerus cristatus (G. M. Thomson). Stebbing (1), p. 651; Schellenberg (50),
p. 188.

Podocerus laevis (Haswell). Stebbing (1), p. 651.

Podocerus hystrix Stebbing. Stebbing (1), pp. 622-624.

Icilius australis Haswell. Stebbing (1), p. 628; Chilton (11), pp. 88-89; ITale
(23), pp. 227-228.

Tcilius punctatus Haswell. Stebbing (1), p. 627; Chilton (11), p. 88.

Icilins danai Stebbing. Stebbing (1), p. 626; Chilton (11), p. 88.

Family CHELURIDAE.

Chelura terebrans Phil. Schellenberg (51), pp. 673-674 (Literature) ; McNeill
(25), pp. 19-20 (as Chelura cambricans McNeill).
Specimens of McNeill’s species have been examined by H. M. Hale, who
states (in MS.) that they are inseparable from C. terebrans.

List oF PUBLICATIONS.

(a) Australian Records and Discussions,

1910 Sreppinc—Austr. Mus. Mems., iv., vol. ii, pt. xii, pp. 565-658.

1909 Smitu—Trans. Linn. Soc., Lond., Ser. 2, Zool., vol. x1, pp. 73-92.

Sayce—Proc, Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. xxii, (N.S.), pt. 1, pp. 29-34.

1915 Porrs, F. A-~—Carnegie Inst. papers, Dept. Mar. Biol., vol. viii,
Fauna Trop. Reef, pp. 87-88.

1916 Crimron, C.—Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 8, vol. xviii, p. 200.

1916 Cuittron, C.—Trans. and Proc. N.Z. Inst., vel. xlviii, pp. 354-359.

1916 Critton, C.—Jour. Roy. Soc. New South Wales, vol. 1.

Cuitton, C.—Jour. of Zool. Res., vel. it, pt. 1.

1918 Cuitton, C—Jour. of Zool. Res., vol. iii, pt. 4.

1920 CyiLton, C.—Mem. Queensland Mus., vol. vii, pt. 1.

1921 CxHintox, C-—Biol. Res. “IEndeavour,” Sydney, vol. v, pt. 2,
pp. 33-92.

fA Nit
—_
Oo
i=)
\O

rm OO MN On
he
Ke)
me
NJ

owed

12, 1922 Cuittox, C—Mjoberg’s Swed. Sci. Exped. Austr., 1910-1913,
vol. xxxi, pp. 1-11, Kungl. Svenska Veten. Handl., Bd. 63, No. 3.

13. 1922 Cnitron, C-——Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xlvi, pp. 34-38.

14. 1922 Tarrersart, W. M.—Jour. Linn. Soc. Lond. Zool., vol. xxxv,
pp. 445-504.

15, 1923 CuHirton, C—Rec. Austr. Mus., Sydney, vel. xiv, pp. 79-100.

16. 1924 Nicnorrs, G, E.—Jour. Roy. Soc. W. Austr., vol. x, pp. 105-111.

17. 1924 Cuuittron, C.—Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. lv, pp. 269-280.

18. 1925 Ciutrox, C.—Jour. Roy. Soc. W. Ausir., vol. xi, pt. 9.

19. 1927 Nicnotrs, G. E.—Jour. Roy. Soc. W. Aust., vol. xii.

20. 1927 Hare, H. M.—tTrans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. li, pp. 314-315.

21. —— —————

22.

23. 1929 Hare, H. M—Crustaceans of S. Austr., British Sci. Guild Pub.,
S. Austr. Branch, pp. 202-229,

24, 1931 Barwnarp, K.—Brit. Mus. Sci. Repts. Great Barrier Reef Exped.,
vol. iv, pp. 111-135.

25. 1932 MecNemr, F. A—Destr. of Timber by Marine Organisms, Port of
Sydney. Sydney Harbour Trust, New South Wales.

26. 1936 Sunarp, K—Rec. S. Austr. Mus., vol. v, pt. 4, pp. 445-468.

27. 1936 Suearp, K.—Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. 1x, pp. 173-179.

1912
1913
1913
1914

1914.

1917
1926

1926
1927

1930
1931

1932

1916
1925

193]
1932
1933
1934
1935
1935
1923
1925

1925
1928

1929
1931

1935
1935

1935

29

(b) Antarctic Records and Discussions.

CuiLtton, C—Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, vol. xlviii, pt. 2, No. 23,
“Amphipoda of the Scottish Antarctic Exped.”

Cui_ton, C.—Mitt. Naturh. Mus., Hamburg, vol. xxx, “Revision of
the Amphipods of South Georgia.”

Curvreux, E.—Deuxieme Expedn. Francaise (1908-1910), “Amphi-

odes.”

Siloewaned, C, R—Sci. Bull. Mus., Brooklyn Inst. Arts and Sci,
vol. ii, p. 204, “A Report on the South Georgia Expedn.”

STEBBING, T. R. R——Proc. Zool. Soc., Lond., vol. i, “Crustacea from
the Falkland Is.”
Cuitton, C.—Jour. Zool, Res, vol. ii, pt. 2, “The Identity of
Ampelisca eschrichtti Kroyer and A, macrocephala Lilgeborg.
SCHELLENBERG, A.—Deutsche Siidpolar Exped., 1901-1903. Band
xviit Zool.; Band x, “Die Gammariden.”

Monon, ‘l—Res, Voy. “Belgica,” 1897-1899, Zool., “Amphipodes.”

STEPUENSEN, K.—Medd. fra. Dansk. foren., Bd. 83, “Crustacea
from the Auckland and Campbell Is.”

Barnarp, K. I].—british Antarctic (“Terra Nova’) Exped., 1910,
Zool, vol, viii, No. 4, pp. 307-454.

SCHELLENBERG, A.—Swedish Antarc, Exped. Further Zool. Res.,
vol, xi, No. 6.

Barnarp, K. H.—Discovery Reports, vol. v, pp. 1-326.

(c) South African Records and Discussions.
Barnarp, K. H—~Ann, Sth. Afr. Mus., vol. xv, pt. 3.
Barnarb, K. H.—Ann. Sth, Afr. Mus., vol. xx, pt. 9.

(d) Indo-Pacific Records and Discussions.

STEPHENSEN, K.—Rec. Indian Mus., vol. xxxiii, pt. 1, pp. 13-19.
Prrevor, J. M—Siboga Expeditie, Mono, xxxiiib, Livr., exvii.
Pririot, J. M—Siboga Expeditie, Mono, xxxiiic, Livr., cxx.
Prrror, J. M.—Siboga Expeditie, Mono, xxxiiid, Livr., exxii.
STEPHENSEN, K.—Pac. Entom. Serv. Publn., 8 art 3 ( Talitridae).
Barwarp, Kk. I].—Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xxxvii, pt. 3, pp. 279-319.

(e) General,

STEPHENSEN, K.—The Danish Ingolf. Expedn., vol. iii, pt. 8, Crus-
tacea Malacostraca V (Amphipoda 1).

STEPHENSEN, K.—The Danish Ingolf. Expedn., vol. iii, pt. 9, Crus-
tacea Malacostraca V (Amphipoda 2).

SCHELLENBERG, A.—Kennt. Meeresf. West Afr., vol. iii, Amphipoda.

SCHELLENBERG, A.—Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond., vol. xxii, pt. 35, pp. 633-
692, Cambridge Exped. Suez Canal, “Amphipoda.”

SCTIELLENBERG, A.—Zool. Anzeiger, Bd. 85, pp. 274-282 (Ponto-
genelidae).

STEPIENSEN, K——The Danish Ingolf. Expedn., vol. iii, Crustacea
Malacostraca V (Amphipoda 3),

STEPHENSEN, K.—Tromso Mus. Skrifter, vol. iii, pt. 1.

SHOFMAKER, C. R.—N.Y. Ac. Sci., vol. xv, pt. 2. Sci. Surv., Porto
Rico and the Virgin Is. “Amphipoda.”

CeccuIni, C. and Parenzan, P.—Pub. Stazione Zool., Napoli,
vol. xiv, pt. 2, pp. 153-250.

EXAMPLES OF ABORIGINAL ART FROM NAPIER BROOME BAY AND
PARRY HARBOUR, NORTH-WESTERN AUSTRALIA

BY C. P. MOUNTFORD

Summary

Aboriginal art has reached a higher stage of development along the northern coast of Australia than
elsewhere in the continent. This is no doubt due to the fact that, for many centuries, intermittent
contact has been made with the more advanced people of the northern islands through the visits of
Malayan pearl and trepang fishers. These contacts, although slight, have in time influenced the art
and culture of the indigenous people. Jennison (2) states that many Malayan words are in common
use among the natives of the Elcho and Goulbourn Islands. Warner (1) also calls attention to Malay
influence in the same area.

30

EXAMPLES OF ABORIGINAL ART FROM NAPIER BROOME BAY
AND PARRY HARBOUR, NORTH-WESTERN AUSTRALIA

By C. P. Mountrorp, Honorary Assistant Ethnologist, South Australian Museum.
[Read November 12, 1936.]

Aboriginal art has reached a higher stage of development along the northern
coast of Australia than elsewhere in the continent. ‘his is no doubt due to the
fact that, for many centuries, intermittent contact has been made with the more
advanced people of the northern islands through the visits of Malayan pearl and
trepang fishers. These contacts, although slight, have in time influenced the art
and culture of the indigenous people. Jennison (2) states that many Malayan
words are in common use among the natives of the Elcho and Goulbourn Islands.
Warner (1) also calls attention to Malay influence in the same area.

Several writers, when travelling through this area (fig. 1) have seen and
later described rock paintings of an unusual type. In 1837 Sir George Grey (3)
discovered strange human figures on the walls of caves between Brunswick Bay
and Glenelg River (fig. 1).

In 1892 Bradshaw (4), while on the Prince Regent River (fig. 1) in the
Kimberley district of Western Australia, made sketches of paintings, illustrating
groups of human beings wearing a curious type of head dress and various
personal ornaments.

Considerable controversy was aroused by the publication of both Sir George
Grey’s and Bradshaw’s drawings, and it was not until 1929 that the mystery
surrounding Grey’s sketches was solved. In that year Love (5) published the
actual significance of these figures.

The area investigated by Love is indicated by the shaded area in fig. 1.
Elkin (6) added further valuable information to that already obtained.

The paintings and rock scratchings described in the present paper were dis-
covered on the Drysdale Mission Station at Napier Broome Bay, and at Parry
Harbour. The latter locality is slightly south of Cape Bougainville, and about
40 miles from Napier Broome Bay.

The area in which these examples of aboriginal art were discovered is about
100 miles more er less north-east of Prince Regent River. It was in the country
adjacent to that river that Bradshaw, Love and Grey recorded human-like figures
of unusual interest, all of which lie within the area marked 1V by Davidson (7).
The curious anthropomorphs, known to the natives as Wondjina, seem to be
confined entirely to this area.

While engaged on scientific work in 1910, Mr. Gerald Hill, of the Depart-
ment of Economic Entomology, Canberra, made sketches of over forty rock
paintings at Napier Broome Bay, and a group of rock scratchings at Parry
Harbour. he writer is indebted to Mr. Hill for the opportunity of recording,
in the present paper, the sketches and relevant data obtained by him on that
occasion. ‘Vhose sketches have since becn presented to the South Australian
Museum.

The paintings were portrayed in water colour, the colour of the pigments
used by the natives being matched as closely as possible. As the expense necessary
to reproduce these skelches in colour is not warranted, five colours are represented
diagrammatically, 7.¢., red, yellow, brown, black and white. The actual colours

31

in the sketches were matched with Paul and Mertz’s Dictionary of Colour (8)
and the results recorded with each figure.

In order to preserve accuracy of detail, the author reduced the sketches to
a size suitable for publication by means oi the camera lucida,

THE Rock PAINTINGS.
Five groups of paintings were found within a radius of five miles of the
Drysdale Mission Station. The majority were under ledges of rock which had
served as a temporary shelter for natives during inclement weather.

The key to the colours indicated in the figures is shown below figs. 2-11.

Ti170R SFA,

BWOPIER BROOME SAY

CAMBRIOGCE

a ~>/s GOLF

GLENELG RIVER
RVG SOUMO

Fig. 1.
Map showing position of Napier Broome Bay and Parry Harbour.
Groupe I,

Locahty—Two and a half miles north-east of Mission Station.

In the locality sketches were made of nine designs, 2-10, Fig. 2 was painted
on a vertical wall at the back of a cave (colour, terracotta 12p, pl. 4) and
depicts a native in the act of spearing a kangaroo. The poise of the figures and
their placing give a greater suggestion of action than is usual in Australian
aboriginal art.

The extension, B, probably represents the commonly used chignon type of

head dress. The two arms (somewhat out of position) and possibly a spear-
thrower are shown in the front of the figure.

“) The colours in the sketches were matched with those in Paul and Mertz’s Dictionary
of colour, New York, 1930.

32

Fig. 3 was painted on the roof of the same cave as figs. 6 and 7. The figure
was in white and obviously that of a somewhat conventionalized fresh-water
turtle. The head, however, has a similar appearance to that of the Wondjina
figures, recorded by Love (5).

aS

A

=s

SSS

WEI RED HM BLACK
LolwHite E2=!BROwN
Figs, 2-11.

Fig. 4 was found on the black background of the roof of a cave. The figure
itself (colour, rufous 121, pl. 2), outlined with a narrow band of white, is pro-
bably anthropomorphic, the circular eyes similar to those of fig. 2, and most likely
influenced by the same source.

Fig. 5 (colour, raw sienna 101, pl. 13) formed one of the group, with figs. 3
and 4, and may represent a conventionalized human being or, alternately, a turtle.

33

The face is similar to that of its companions, and it is not unlikely that the three
figures form a group of ceremonial importance similar to the Lightning Brothers
recorded by Davidson (6), pp. 110-111, pl. 1.

J
ie,
oe
ra

SSNS

~
NS = xT

SS

mnZz_,
Ze meer ETI OEE em as eel Ma gt
23 *4

Fig. 7 consists of a central red disc (colour, cardinal 51, pl. 5) with white
dots placed symmetrically around the greater part of the circumference.

The whole is surrounded by a flame-like periphery (colour, primrose ]6,
pl. 10).

Fig. 8 is an example of the well-known paintings of hands which occur in
all parts of Australia.
B

A

The sketch does not indicate, however, that the hand was stencilled in the
usual manner, Z.¢., by spraying a chewed pigment from the mouth around a hand
placed against the wall. With the latter method, the hand would appear in
“negative.” This example was probably produced by “stamping,” 1.¢., by press-
ing the hand on a slab covered with ground charcoal and then against the rocky
wall. The outline would then be retouched by the artist. These may also have
been “freehand” drawings, as recorded by Hale and Tindale (9) from Bathurst
Head, North Queensland.

Fig. 9 was found under an overhanging rock. The figure was outlined in
black, the inner colour being rufous (121, pl. 11).

The significance of this painting is obscure, but it bears a certain resemblance
to the lower part of fig. 4.

It may be that fig. 9 is badly weathered and the upper portions have
disappeared.

Fig. 10 (colour golden brown 12r, pl. 14) is of a similar design to paintings
and rock carvings in South Australia. The writer (10) has examined a large
number of rock carvings at Panaramittee, ncar Yunta, in which similar patterns
are portrayed. They appear to be more common in the latter district than else-
where in Australia.

Fig. 11 was painted on the same rock as fig. 9, and is probably a conven-
tionalized representation of a fresh water turtle. The main figure was executed
in rufous (121, pl. 11), the outline colour being primrose (J6, pl. 10).

The long neck and the scparate digits lead one to believe that a fresh water,
rather than the larger sea-going turtle, was portrayed.

Grovr If.

Locality—Three miles east of Mission Station.

In the above place, figs. 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 and 17 were seen. Figs. 12, 13 and
14 formed a group on the roof of a cave. ‘The paintings were about a metre apart,
fig. 12 on the left and fig. 14 on the right of fig. 13. The heads of the figures
faced the cave entrance and were inclined toward each other.

Fig. 12 (colour, terracotta 12p, pl. 4) pictures a particularly elongated indi-
vidual with slit-like openings in the trunk. The same characteristic can be seen in
figs. 25, 28, 37, 38 and 39. To a limited extent, they are apparent in the turtle-
like designs of 3, 5, and 11. This does not appear to be an attempt to indicate
prominent skeletal features, such as is evident on the bark drawings of Arnhem
Land or the rock paintings at Oenpelli, on the Alligator River, Northern Terri-
tory. The latter were photographed by Pennifold and described by Tindale (11).

Designs with slit-like openings in the body have not been recorded from any
other part of Australia.

Figs. 13 and 14 (colours, terracotta 12p, pl. 4) possibly represent fish. They
bear a resemblance to those recorded by Ilale and Tindale (12).

Fig. 15 (colour, terracotta 12p, pl. 4) is an example of the grouped boomerang
design. This grouping is of continent-wide distribution, having been recorded in
all States in the Commonwealth. It has been recorded from South Australia by
Hale and Tindale (13), Mountford (10), pp. 345-351, and other writers.

The author has collected a number of sheets of crayon drawings made by
the natives of the Warburton Range, Western Australia. On several of these
shects are grouped boomerangs, which the natives identified as such.

Figs. 16 and 17 represent either crocodiles or lizards. Although the correct
number of digits is indicated in fig. 17, there is a total disregard for accuracy

35

in fig. 16, the numbers being five and eight on the forelegs, and 10 and 11 on
the hind legs.
Group III.

Locality—Four miles north-east of Mission.

Five paintings were recorded from this locality, all of which were executed
on a vertical surface and consisted of animal and human footprints and symbolic
figures.

Fig. 18 resembles two kangaroo tracks, the colour of the inner figure being
primrose (J4, pl. 10), and the outer terracotta (12p, pl. 4).

The representations of the footmarks of animals and birds, as well as those
of human beings, are present in almost all localities where examples of aboriginal
art are found. In the Yunta district of South Australia they are by far the most
numerous of the designs carved on the rock surfaces (10), pp. 342-343.

Figs. 19 and 20 represent human footprints. These were painted in terra-
cotta (12p, pl. 4), and do not approach the accuracy shown in similar rock carv~-
ings in South Australia.

36

Fig. 19a is a drawing of a petroglyph from old Netley Station, South Aus-
tralia (10), p. 357, fig. Gl, and indicates how well the native depicts a footprint
as one would see it in sand or dust. Castings of similar petroglyphs have been
made by the writer and presented to the South Australian Museum.

Fig. 21 was painted on an upright face of rock and represents a somewhat
simplified pair of kangaroo-like footprints. The colour of the centre is primrose
(J4, pl. 10), and that of the outer margins terracotta (12n, pl. 4).

Fig. 22 is a curious elongated figure in primrose (J4, pl. 10), and
outlined in terracotta (12p, pl. 4). Its meaning is not apparent, but may repre-
sent a badly drawn or extensively weathered emu.

Tindale (14) records a design which, if the feet were deleted, would
resemble fig. 22.

Fig, 23 (colour, rufous 121, pl. 11), whose locality is not mentioned except
that ot Napier Broome Bay, is of unknown meaning. It somewhat resembles
the ladder-like design recorded by Campbell (15), and has been seen by the writer
in the Salt Creek group on Panaramittee Station, South Australia, It may be
that at Napier Broome Bay, the figure represents the béche-de-mer or sea slug.

big. 24 was painted in primrose (J4, pl. 10) and its meaning is unknown.

Fig. 25 was painted in terracotta (12p, pl. 4) on a vertical face of sandstone
rock three feet from the ground and about 50 cms. from fig. 29. The painting
represents a male figure, and shows the same characteristics as fig. 12 and other
paintings mentioned previously, No attempt has been made to show features or
hands and feet, although the penis is shown somewhat out of position.

Fig. 26 (colour, terracotta, 12p, pl. 4) occupied an exposed position on an
upright face of rock at the top of a hill. The painting was adjacent to fig. 27 and
much faded, the head and one of the legs having disappeared. The design is
zoomorphic, the carapace with its parallel lines suggesting a turtle.

Iig. 27 is one of a line of four figures on the game rock surface as fig. 25,
all of which are faded and weathered. It represents some kangaroo or wallaby-
like creature, The colours used were terracotta (12p, pl. 4).

Fig. 28.—This curious figure (colour, terracotta 12p, pl. 4), resembling an
anthropomorphic being crawling along the ground and wearing a large head dress,
was painted on a vertical face of sandstone in a small cave. Here again slit-like
openings are shown in the figure. The straight line, projecting at right angles
to the head, resembles a barbed spear, but no specific interpretation of this could
be given without the artist’s assistance.

Pig, 29 is a human being with some form of head dress. Some object,
probably a shield, is indicated on the right hand.

Fig. 30 shows a bifurcated figure which was painted in terracotta (12p,
pl. 4), on the roof of a small cave. No meaning can be assigned to this curious
design.

Fig. 31 represents a human figure, the trunk, arms and head being realistic,
while the lower part of the body has been conventionalized into a barred circle
design, At the base of the figure was a wasp’s nest.

Tf the arms of the figure had been jointed to the body, the whole painting
would somewhat resembie, in general, the barred circle designs recorded by
Mountford (10), pp. 351-353, from Mount Chambers’ Gorge, South Australia.

Figs. 32 and 33 were found adjacent to cach other on an upright surface of
sandstone, They were painted in terracotta (12p, pl. 4). Fig. 32 is a combined
design, including some form of multi-pronged weapon, probably a type of fishing
spear. Davidson (16).

lig. 33 (colour, terracotta 12p, pl. 4) is a much attenuated anthropomorphic
being. ‘The appendage B, like that of figs. 2, 30 and 34, resembles the head

37

No arms are shown

in fig. 33, and as portion of the body has disappeared because of weathering, it

dress shown in the much discussed Bradshaw sketches (4).
may be that the arms have been eroded away by the same agency.

In common

Fig. 34 (colour, rufous 121, pl. 6) is somewhat similar to fig. 33.
with the majority of the examples, it was placed on a rock surface protected by

The

SMM

The appendage C may represent a head dress, but as a

portion of the figure has weathered away, this point cannot be settled.

SY
\
N
N :

unusually long head dress and the slimness of the figures of both 33 and 34 bear

a certain resemblance to Bradshaw’s sketches from the Regent River.

an overhanging ledge.

38

Fig. 35 (colour, rufous 121, pl. 11), like that of 31, was associated with a
wasp’s nest. The colours had been heavily laid on, the red resembling thick clay
and water.

The whole figure appears to have been painted with a black substance
resembling gum before the thick red pigment had been applied, The black spots
on the main pattern indicate where the red pigment had flaked away. The mcan-
ing is unknown.

Group IV,

Locality—Four and a half miles south-east of the Mission Station.

Four figures were recorded from the above locality, i.¢., 36, 37, 38, 39. All
the figures are probably anthropomorphic, with a possible exception of fig, 39.

Fig. 36 (colour, terracotta 12p, pl. 4) consists of two human figures,
apparently male and female, a group of three boomerangs and an oval design.
This group may represent two individuals fighting with sticks, while in a seated
position. The objects on the arm of the female may be dilly bags or wooden
dishes. It might also be an example of superimposition of designs, the one design
having been painted over the other at a later date.

Fig, 37 (colour, rufous 121, pl. 11) is a curious being with large dis-
torted hands of four digits, a head resembling that of a dog, and short legs with
the feet pointing backwards. Slit-like openings, as seen in figs. 12, 25, 28, etc.,
are again present. The painting was somewhat protected from the weather by
an overhanging ledge of rock and a large tree.

Figs. 38 and 39 were adjacent to each other (colour, terracotta 12p, pl. 4).
38, in all probability, is a conventionalized male figure, while 39, on account of its
proximity and similarity in pattern, is doubtless also anthropomorphic. The
extremities may have been eroded by the elements.

Fig. 40 ranks with fig. 2 as one of the finest examples of aboriginal art, in
which action is portrayed, known to the writer.

The extended head dress, as mentioned previously, resembles those in the
Bradshaw sketches (3). Fig. 40 was associated with fig. 37, the single foot is
turned backward, as are the two feet in its companion painting. The colour used
was terracotta (12p, pl. 4).

Group V,

Locality—24 miles south-east of the Mission Station.

Fig. 41 (colour, rufous 12, pl. 11) suggests an aboriginal in a seated position,
one hand resting on the knee, and the head thrown well back.

Fig. 42, exccuted in terracotta (12p, pl. 4), may be anthropomorphic or
zoomorphic, probably the former. It might also portray a frog as figured by
Hale and Tindale (9), p. 149, fig. 226 J, except that it lacks the short tail-like
projection.

Fig. 43, painted in the same colours as 41, resembles the circle with
appendage recorded by Mountford (10), p. 349, etc., and Tindale and Sheard (17).

Figs 44 and 45 were included in the collection of sketches and marked as
belonging to an unlocalized spot north of the MacDonnell Ranges, Central Aus-
tralia. Both designs are typical of those used within that area, where highly
conventionalized patterns form the bulk of those found in the rock shelters. No
meaning can be assigned to them.

Rock ScRATCHINGS.
Parry Harbour, North-west Australia,

Hive examples of rock scratchings from the above locality were traced. The
designs were scratched into the surface of a basaltic rock with a sharp piece of

39

stone, which could be seen lying alongside. The outer heavy lines were cut more
deeply into the rock than the inner ones; the latter were only faint scratches.
The whole surface had been lightly rubbed with a piece of stone, which gave the
work a smudged appearance.

Rock scratchings, which consist largely of designs, made of straight lines,
occur in the cliffs of the River Murray, Mountford (10), p. 339, pl. 3, also
Sheard (18) records meandering lines and turtle-like designs on the roof of a
tock shelter at Devon Downs, on the River Murray. These, however, are unlike
the example from Parry Harbour.

The soft limestone, of which the River Murray cliffs are composed, can be
easily scratched with a piece of hard wood, and no great labour would be involved
in the making of the various designs.

At Parry Harbour the figures are cut in a basaltic rock and, as mentioned
previously, the inner part of figure filled in with finer scratches and the whole

48

surface rubbed, a technique which, as far as the writer’s knowledge is concerned,
is not recorded from any other part of Australia. ;

Fig. 46 is a bird design, probably an emu, although the bustard is often
pictured in a similar manner.

Fig. 47 may be an incomplete kangaroo design, for the outline only was cut,
no internal scratches being present.

Fig. 48 is capable of two explanations, that of a boomerang or a sea slug.

Fig. 49 represents a badly drawn kangaroo, the internal scratches being
present, as in fig, 46.

DISCUSSION,

A comparison between the examples of rack paintings and scratchings
described in this paper, with thosc in the more southern areas, reveals the
following :—

(a) that the majority of the designs from the northern coast, although in
some cases conventionalized, are definitely naturalistic, whereas those in Central

40

and southern Australia are, almost without exception, symbolical, and their mean-
ing not evident without previous knowledge.

The concentric circles and spirals, which form the basis of most of the Central
Australian tjurunga patterns, and figure largely in the cave paintings of that area,
as well as in the crayon drawings obtained by the writer from the Warburton
Ranges, Western Australia, and Central Australia, are not recorded in the series
from Napier Broome Bay.

(b) That a larger range of colours is used in the Napier Broome series than
is usual. “his may be in common with the area, for Bradshaw (4) mentions that the
colours in the paintings at Prince Regent River were black, brown, yellow and
pale blue. These colours, with the exception of pale blue (which apparently took
the place of the white in the present series), are used at Napier Broome Bay.

With reference to the pale blue mentioned by Bradshaw, the writer has scen
paintings at Ayers’ Rock, Central Australia, where a pale grey was used in the
place of the usual white pigment. The grey colour had the appearance of wood ash
mixed with grease. It is possible that the “light blue” mentioned by Bradshaw is
in reality the pale grey seen by the writer.

REFERENCES,
Warner, L.—Oceznia, vol. ti, No. 4, p. 447.
2. Jennison, J. C—Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust.,.vol. li, p. 178.

3. Grey, Sir Georce—Journal of Two Expeditions in Australia, 1837, vol. i,
pp. 201-203, pl. 1-2.

4. BrapsHaw, Jos.—Notes on Recent Trip to Prince Regent River, Journ. Roy.
Geog. Soc. Aust., Vict., 1891, p. 100,

5. Love, J. R. B—Journ. Roy. Soc. W. Aust., vol. xxii, pp. 6-15.
6. Erxin, A. P.—Oceania, vol. i, No. 3, pp. 258-269, pls. 1-3.

7. Davinson, D. $.—Memoirs Amer. Phil. Soc., vol. v, 1936, p. 68.
8

9

=

PauL and Mertz—Dictionary of Colour, New York, 1930.
Hate and TrnpALE—Rec. S. Aust. Museum, vol. v, No. 1, 1934, p. 152.

10. Mountrorp, C. P.—Aboriginal Rock Carvings in South Australia, Aust.
Asso. Adv. Sci., Hobart, vol. xix.

11. Trnpare, N. B.—South Aust. Naturalist, vol. ix, No. 2.
12. Hare and Tinpate—Rec. S. Aust. Museum, vol. v, No. 1, p. 149, fig. 226.

13. Hare and TinpaLe—Rccords S. Aust. Muscum, vol. iii, No. 1, p. 51, pl. 20,
hig. 10.

14, Tinpate, N. B.—Nalives of Groote Island, Rec. S. Aust. Museum, vol, xiii,
No. 2, fig. 63.

15. Camprett, W. D.—Aboriginal Carvings of Port Jackson, Broken Bay, Geol.
Surv. N.S.W., Ethnological Series, No. 1; pl. 11, fig. 1; pl. 15, fig. 2;
pl. 10, fig. 5,

16. Davinson, D. S—Journ. Polynesian Soc., vol. xliii, p. 56, fig. 6.

17. Tinpare, N. B., and Smearp, H. L.—Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. li, p. 15.

18. SHearp, H. L..—Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust., vol. li, pp. 18-19, pl. 4.

THE CLIMATIC CONTROL OF AGRICULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

BY H. C. TRUMBLE, M.AGR.SC.

Summary

The climate of South Australia has been discussed by a number of workers, including Griffith
Taylor (25), Adamson and Osborn (1), Trumble and Davies (29), Wood (30), Prescott (20), and
Davidson (4), (5). It has been shown that the agricultural areas of this State are essentially dissimilar
in climatic features from the more humid regions of Western Europe and New Zealand, in which an
intensive type of agriculture is practised, and where major advances in pasture husbandry have
occurred. Apart from differences in latitude, and, therefore, in the length of day and temperature
range, all parts of the State are liable each year to a period of aridity, which varies from several
weeks in the lower southeast to more or less continuous drought in the desert regions of the north-
west.

41

THE CLIMATIC CONTROL OF AGRICULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

By H. C. Trumsie, M.Agr.Sc., Agronomist,
Waite Agricultural Research Institute, University of Adelaide.

[Read April 8, 1937.]
Wits THree Maps.

INTRODUCTION,

The climate of South Australia has been discussed by a number of workers, in-
cluding Griffith Taylor (25), Adamson and Osborn (1), Trumble and Davies (29),
Wood (30), Prescott (20), and Davidson (4), (5). It has been shown that the
agricultural areas of this State are essentially dissimilar in climatic features from
the more humid regions of Western Europe and New Zealand, in which an
intensive type of agriculture is practised, and where major advances in pasture
husbandry have occurred. Apart from differences in latitude, and, therefore, in
the length of day and temperature range, all parts of the State are liable each
year to a period of aridity, which varies from several weeks in the lower south-
east to more or less continuous drought in the desert regions of the north-west.

The nature and development of the agricultural flora appear to be governed
principally by the seasonal relationship between length of day, rainfall, tempera-
ture and evaporation. The winter incidence of the rainfall coincides with a
period of short days, moderate temperatures and low evaporation, The mean
air temperature for the coldest month does not, at any centre, fall below 45° F.
(16), and apart from the restricted area of elevated country, is above 50° F.
Growth, therefore, although retarded in mid-winter (9), is not inhibited. The
major “flush” with both cereals and pasture plants is in spring, when mean air
temperatures in the neighbourhood of 60° F. (15:5° C.) coincide with conditions
of surplus moisture. From spring or early summer until autumn, the duration
of this period depending on the location and the season, growth tends to be
limited by associated conditions of low rainfall and high evaporation.

LenctH or Day AND TEMPERATURE.

‘The length of day and the mean air temperature do not vary greatly from
centre to centre within the agricultural areas. The latter lie between the parallels
of 32° S., and 38° S.; elevation varies from sea level to approximately 2,000 feet,
and the mcan air temperature for the coldest month varies from 45°5° F. at
Stirling West to 52'5° F. at Kingscote. On the other hand, both length of day
and temperature act as decisive factors in determining the nature of the crop and
pasture types that can be grown within this region. The importance of these
factors in regard to varietal adaptation in wheat has been demonstrated by Forster
et al, (11) and Forster and Vasey (12). At the Waite Institute it has been
observed that herbage plants from Furopean and North American sources may
fail to flower and set seed normally, although supplied with abundant artificial
water. [Examples are Phalaris arundinacea, Avena elatior, Agropyrum tenerum,
Bromus inermis. This is also true of ecotypes or varieties of Lolium perenne,
Dactylis glomerata, Phleum pratense and cereals from northern European sources.
On the other hand, types from southern Australia, when grown in Great Britain,

42

usually run to stem and seed rapidly, with comparatively little vegetative growth
(13), (11).

The majority of the naturalized herbage plants that have spread with rapidity
over the agricultural areas of South Australia are of southern European, Asiatic
or Mediterrancan origin. Similarly, the cultivated herbage plants of importance,
namely subterranean clover, lucerne, Wimmera rye-grass, Phalaris tuberosa and
the types of perennial rye-grass most suited to local conditions appear to have
originated under climatic conditions approaching the Mediterranean type.

The optimum range of temperature for the germination of winter-grown
herbage plants has been found by the author (27) to lie between 10° C. and
28° C, (50-82° F.). On the other hand, sub-tropical species which can be grown
at Adelaide only by the aid of summer irrigation, are characterised by the range
22-38° C, (72-100° F.). The mean monthly soil temperature at one inch, at the
Waite Institute for the period 1925-35, falls within the former range over the
period April to November, inclusive, and within the latter range over the period
November to March, inclusive. It will be shown later that the period April to
early November coincides with the mean effective rain period at this centre; from
November to the end of March average conditions of summer aridity prevail.

RAINFALL.

In Australia, generally, the mean annual rainfall has been most frequently
employed as a climatic index for agricultural purposes. That the incidence,
reliability and effectiveness of the rainfall are of considerable importance has been
generally recognised, although in the past there has been an absence of satisfactory
measures of these factors. The realization that wheat production is largely
governed by the rain falling during the growing pcriod of the crop, has led to
the somewhat arbitrary choice of the April-October or April-November rainfall
as a measure of the seasonal precipitation (23), (19). In this particular State,
“Goyder’s Line” (18) has been largely used as a guide to agricultural settlement.
This line was based on the appearance of the country following two years of
severe drought in 1864 and 1865, and was also related to the southern limits of
saltbush steppe. No definition of the line has been found possible in terms of
rainfall, and it was not originally associated with wheat production, but it has
been consistently employed as a guide to the limits of agricultural settlement and
as a basis for assessing the suitability of the conditions for wheat culture.
Experience has shown that it has proved, with a few exceptions, a fairly reliable
guide for this purpose.

That the mean annual rainfall itself is an unsatisfactory guide to local
climatic variation is indicated by the fact that areas in the south-castern portion
with only 19 inches of rainfall arc by common acceptance more humid than centres
only 3 degrees farther north which receive 20 to 24 inches.

lew attempts have been made to differentiate the effects of rain falling at
different periods of the year, but in this connection Trumble and Cornish (28)
recently showed that the yield of a natural pasture in the Adelaide environment
was largely governed by autumnal and early winter rainfall. The spring raits,
which had been popularly belicved to be of major importance in determining the
total seasonal yield, were found to have little effect,

It has also been shown by Cornish (3) that over a period of 95 years at
Adelaide, there has been a definite oscillation, with a period of 23 years and an
amplitude of 30 days, in the incidence and duration of the winter rains. T he
total quantity precipitated showed no statistically significant changes.

43

EVAPORATION AND SATURATION DEFICIENCY IN RELATION TO
Errective Som. MorstTure.

Until recently, evaporation has not received the attention it merits as a factor
governing the effectiveness of rainfall. This is in part due to the practical diffi-
culties associated with its measurement and a lack of standardization among the
types of evaporimeters in use. A satisfactory approach to the question of effective
soil moisture has been made possible, however, by the use of saturation deficiency
and its relation to rainfall as expressed by the Meyer ratio.

Prescott (20), (21) reviewed the various methods that had previously been
designed to secure a single numerical index to climatic conditions, and adopted
the Meyer ratio of rainfall to saturation deficiency in connection with the leaching
factor of soils and the classification of soil and vegetation. More recently (22)
he related the monthly Meyer ratio of 4 or 5 to the distribution of the Australian
deserts. Davidson (4) showed that for South Australia the mean monthly values
for saturation deficiency at different stations could be expressed in terms of
evaporation by referring these values to the data for free water surface evapora-
tion at Adelaide. By this means it was possible to define the months and approxi-
mate areas in which the mean monthly rainfall exceeded evaporation. He also
applied this method to the remaining States of the Commonwealth (6), (7),
using evaporation factors of 1:0 and 0:5, and recently mapped Australia in terms
of bioclimatic zones (8), using a ratio of rainfall to evaporation equal to 0-5,
as a critical monthly value.

THe EvAporaTION OF WATER FROM A STANDARD TANK,

The mean monthly evaporation from a standard 36” tank“) and the mean
monthly rainfall for the period 1925-35 at the Waite Institute, together with the
standard deviations of the mean values, are shown in Table I. It will be seen
that evaporation has been materially less variable than the rainfall.

Tasrie I,

Showing the mean monthly rainfall and evaporation (from a standard 36” tank)
at the Waite Institute, Glen Osmond, 1925-35, (Inches.)

Month - Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov, Dec. Total
1. RAINFALL:
Mean... 2... = +59 98 1.03 1.68 3.20 3.12 3.10 3.32 2.98 1.80 1.11 1.06 23.98
Standard Error 4:1] 4.33 £-25 +.414.64 448 4.30 +37 4.30 4.314.28 4.32 +.68
SE. % .. 2. 189 332 244 24.6 200 154 98 11.0 101 17.3 260 308 28
2. EVAPORATION:
Mean... ... 9:23 7.40 6.79 4.22 3.04 1.96 1.93 2.50 3.37 4.83 6.71 8.49 60.47
Standard Error $736 4.25 4.17 4,234.14 4.10 4.094.09 4.10 $.134.12 4.21 41.1
SE. % a. a 40 34 26 55 47 50 46 36 30 28 18 25 19

Although the mean variability of the total yearly rainfall is only 2-8 per cent.,
the variability of the monthly values ranges from 10 to 33 per cent. ‘The
variability of the annual evaporation figure is again low, 1:9 per cent., but

here the monthly values are also low, the standard error ranging from 1:8 to
5°5 per cent.

_© The standard evaporimeter consists of an inner circular tank 36” in diameter and
36” in depth, surrounded by an outer jacket 48” in diameter and 34” in depth. The water
in the jacket is maintained at the same level as in the tank, and the flange of the tank is
thus two inches higher above water level than the outer rim of the jacket.

44

The mean rate at which water is lost from the evaporimeter following
individual falls of rain also tends to be comparatively uniform, as shown in
Table II. A fall of rain has been taken as the rain falling on three or less con-
secutive days and has been related to the time taken for this rain to be dissipated
by evaporation from a 36” tank, commencing from the day following the initial
recording of the fall.

Tare IT.

Showing the mean rate at which rainfall was evaporated from a
free water surface (36” tank), Waite Institute, 1925-35.

yooact bx.
(y = time in days for x = rainfall to be evaporated).
Month - Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Constants
a 75 37 25 66 —44 20 95 77 15 0 41 56
b 043 046 .055 -083 145 166 154 116.094 077 = .048 036
S.E. (b) 0061 .0041 .0041 0071 .0055 .0045 .0057 .0052 .0036 .0027 0023) = .9015
tan b 2.5° 27°. 3.2° 47° 8.39 94° 88° 6,3° 5.4° 44° 2,8° 2.1°
Days taken for
one inch to be
evaporated. 5.0 5.0 5.7 9.0 4.1 16.8 16.4 12,4 9.6 7.7 5.2 4.2

S.E.y (%) 4.95 6.02 4.78 4.76 3.68 3.01 2.61 3.31 3.16 3.42 4.98 3.59

Adverting to Table I, it will be seen that the mean rainfall for each of the
five months, November to March, inclusive, is below 1-20 inches. Over the eleven
years in question, 76 separate falls of more than 10 points occurred in these
months, but only 8 of them exceeded one inch. Thus, at the Waite Institute,
rain received in the five months’ period from November 1 to March 31 is, in most
cases, lost from a free water surface within five days and can have little effect in
promoting and sustaining the growth of herbage plants.

THE EVAPORATION OF WATER FROM SolL.

The rate of evaporation from soils has received attention from Keen (14),
Fisher (10) and others, but principally under laboratory conditions. The results of
this work have shown that both the external environment and the internal pro-
perties of the soil, which may be suitably expressed in terms of the moisture
equivalent, govern the rate of evaporation from a soil. The latter can be expressed,
in the case of drying chambers, by means of linear and discontinuous rate curves,
provided that movement of moisture through the drying mass is uniform. It is
generally agreed that so long as the soil surface remains saturated, the rate of
evaporation approximates that [rom a free water surface maintained under
identical external conditions. As the surface soil dries, however, retentive forces
depending on moisture equivalent and the amount of moisture present come into
play, causing a reduction in the evaporation rate.

To investigate the relative losses by evaporation from the soil surface com-
pared with that lost from free water, soil blocks, 14-4 em. x 11-4 em. x 15 cm.
in depth, were removed in situ from the experimental field at the Waite Institute
and fitted to glass containers of similar size (capacity, 2:4 litres), each jar being
covered with bible paper. Corresponding jars were filled with water, in all cases
the surface level being 2 mm. from the edges of the jars, Tests were carried out
in quadruplicate in March, April and May, 1936, the equivalents of 0-20, 0-40

45

and 0-60 inches of rain being applied to the soil blocks when at the hygroscopic
coefficient. The jars were maintained in a glasshouse enclosure, with glass roof
and open sides, and were weighed three times daily. The evaporation from a
standard evaporimeter alongside the tests was found to be materially less than
that from the jars containing free water. This was due to differences in the
height of the protecting flange, and in the volume and surface area of the water,
resulting in turbulence differences.

The depth to which the surface soil was wetted by varying applications of
water under laboratory conditions of low evaporation was tested separately and

found to be as follows :—
Rainfail Equivalent of Water Added.

Depth of Penetration. 0-20” 0-40” 0-60” 0-80" 1-00”
Immediately after application 0-8” 1-5” 2:1" Z7" . 3-4”
After 20 hours a 1h 1-5” 3-1” 3-6” 4-6" 5+3”
Increase in penetration ah 0-7" 1:6” 1-5” 1-9” 1:9”

The minimum effective amount of rain in a single fall has been discussed in
a footnote by Davidson (8), p. 91. Falls of 0-15, 0-20 and 0°25 inches have been
suggested by various workers, and Osborn, Wood and Paltridge (Proc. Linn. Soc.
N.S.W., vol. Ivi., p. 302, 1936) have stated that falls lighter than 0°25 inches
do not penetrate the soil more than 2-3 cm. On the basis of the present observa-
tions, 0°25 inches would penetrate the Waite Institute. soil to one inch (2-5 cm.)
immediately, and after 20 hours of low evaporation would be expected to reach a
depth of 1:9 inches (4°8 cm.). A fall of -20 inches, by penetrating 0-8 to 1°5
inches (2:0 to 3:8 cm.) would be regarded as cffective, provided it were followed
by conditions of low evaporation.

The results of ten independent determinations of the loss from soit of appli-
cations equivalent to 20, 40 and 60 points of rain have been expressed as a ratio
of the water added to the water lost by evaporation from a free water surface
during the period taken for the wetted soil to be reduced to the wilting point,
and are given in Table III.

Tasie III.

Comparison of sotl evaporation with free water surface evaporation, following
varying applications of moisture, Waite Institute, March-May, 1936.

i Mean loss by
Days taken Evaporimeter evaporation

for added loss = E’, =E”, from Ratio Ratio

Water water to for same jars for same R R

Date Test added = R_~ evaporate to period period pat —
commenced, (inches). wilting point. (inches). (inches), E’ E”
28th March .... +20 2:3 +426 +724 +47 +28
-40 5-3 1-096 1-791 +36 -22

“60 7°5 1-471 2°265 *4] +26

4th April... -20 4-0 +742 -880 +27 +23
+40 42 “762 +901 +52 “44

“60 14:0 2-140 2-906 *28 “21

l6th April... -20 7:2 +732 -800 27 “25
-40 12-0 1-394 1-745 "29 +23

“a0 18-0 2-212 2983 *27 +20

4th May 2s -20 5+5 +726 “911 -28 123.

Mean -34 4 +029
°23 4 +022.

46

‘The observations covered a period in which the mean rate of evaporation
(evaporimeter reading) for the duration of any single test varied from °*102”
to °207” per day; that is to say, at rates which normally occur at the Waite
Institute in the months of March, April, May, September, October, November.
By means of a more extensive series of tests, tt would be possible to establish a
relationship between soil evaporation and free water surface evaporation for all
rates of the latter and for different types of soil.

The present results may be expected to hold for the commencement and
termination of the growing season at the Waite Institute, and indicate that under
these conditions the surface will be maintained at or above the wilting point when
the rainfall over a period of weeks is approximately one-third the evaporation

from a 36” tank. The value 0°3E (or =) is taken, for simplicity in handling

large numbers of readings.

LENGTIL OF THE GROWING SEASON.

The concept of the growing season, as delineated by low temperature or
moisture deficiency, has been in evidence for many years and, in the older agri-
cultural countries, much attention has been paid to the limitations imposed by
temperature. Blackman (2), for instance, has recently shown under English
conditions that below a soil temperature at 4 inches of approximately 42° F. no
growth of pasture takes place. In South Australia this temperature, as pre-
viously indicated, is exceeded for the greater portion of the coldest month, in all
parts of the State.

The periods over which the mean air temperature remained above 50° F.
and 68° F. were employed by Koppen (15) to define the tropical, sub-tropical,
temperate, cold and polar belts, as early as 1900. Schimper (24) employed the
isotherm of 43° F. for the coldest month to mark the boundary between deciduous
and evergreen forest, and Miller (17) used this figure to show, graphically, the
length of the growing season,

In Australia, generally, the growing season for pasture commences when the
moisture gained by the soil from rainfall is sufficiently greater than the soil
evaporation to initiate and sustain the vegetative growth of herbage plants; it
concludes when transpiration has exhausted the available reserves of moisture held
by the soil and the rate of soil evaporation has again exceeded the rate at which
rain is received, as measured over a suitable interval of time, e.g., per month or
per fortnight, The period over which available moisture tends to occur in the
surface layers of soil is very clearly defined in the Mediterranean type of climate;
it varies in length with the season and with the locality.

In connection with the use of the factors, evaporation or saturation deficiency,
for the determination of this period, the following two questions arise: (1) What
expression of the free water surface evaporation should be taken to represent
soil evaporation? (2) Can a finer measure of the growing period than a number
of whole months be obtained?

So far as the first is concerned, the data in Table III indicate a value in the
neighbourhood of 0°3E for the Waite Institute soil, and further justification for
the selection of this factor will be shown. Assuming for the moment that 0-3E
is satisfactory, it is apparent, in regard to the second question, that an interval
of almost one or almost two months shorter than the true period is likely to be
recorded where 0-3 E is slightly in excess of P for one or for two months, respec-
tively, at the commencement and/or termination of the rain period.

47

The interval between the two points at which the line for P crosses the line

for 0-3E can be readily measured, however, for if P’, P” and E’, E” are the

respective rainfall and evaporation values for the two adjoining months showing

an inversion of P with respect to 0° 3E, then the Ce at which the line for P
eG! 3E”

crosses the line for 0°3E is given by the ratio (0- 3E/_ p’ yb (P*0- 3B”).

Under South Australian conditions the cross-over is comparatively steep, but
the use of functions varying from O°2E to 0°6E gives values ranging from 6:1
months to 8:5 months at the Waite Institute, as shown in Table IV.

Tasle LV.

Showing the period over which the mean monthly

rainfall exceeded (1) the mean monthly evaporation

from a 36” tank, (2) various expressions of the latter
value, Waite Institute, 1925-35,

Coefficient Interval

of E. Commencement. Completion, (months).
1 29th April 20th Sept. 4-7
0-6 12th April 14th Oct. 6-1
0-5 7th April 21st Oct. 6:5
0-4 Ist April 28th Oct. 6-9
0-3 27th March 5th Nov. 7-3
0-3 23rd March 8th Nov. 7-6
0-2 10th March 23rd Nov. 85

The work of Trumble and Cornish (28) indicated that over this period of
years, rain falling in April was more effective in determining the total yield of
a natural pasture at the Waite Institute than in any other month, but that the
March rainfall was highly effective in certain seasons. Moreover, the termination
of seasonal growth invariably occurred about the first week in November. This

suggests that a value of 0°3 E or 0-3 E would be suitable, especially as effective
rains in March would be most likely to fall towards the end of the month.

A more rigid test was made by determining the length of the growing season
for natural pasture for each of the eleven years at the Waite Institute, using

0°3E, both directly from the monthly evaporation readings and indirectly from
the monthly values for saturation deficiency; these were then compared with the
estimated length of the growing season for each year, determined independently
by inspection of the daily rainfall and evaporation records, referred to the data.
given in Table II, and collated to field observation. The results are given in the
following table :—
TABLE V.

Length of growing scason for natural pasture at the Waite Institute

for each of the years 1925-35 as determined from (1) monthly

rainfall and evaporation, (2) monthly rainfall and saturation

deficiency, (3) estimated fram daily records collated to field

observations.
Year we wwe eee «1925 «19260 «619270 «©1928 «©1929 «6193001931 1932 1933 1934 1935 Mean
(1) Evaporinster ae = 6.87 7.23 5.78 7.33 6.17 6.34 6.57 8.24 7.20 8.79 8.67 7.20
(2) Sat. Def. we ee = 6.84 7.68 5.62 7.Al 6.03 6.12 6.49 8.14 6.93 8.63 8.41 7.09

(3) Estimated wee ae «=6.90 6.89 5.61 7.76 5.98 654 684 8.00 693 8.21 8.31 7.0%

48

Mean Length of Growing Season,

1. Mean break to mean close (estimated) * Re 7-09 months
3rd April to 5th November

From mean rainfall and mean evaporation for 11 years 7°33 months
27th March to 5th November

Mean of 11 yearly values determined from evaporation 7-09 months
2nd April to 4th November

Mean of 11 yearly values determined from saturation

deficiency

es f be

hat eee ste dt Ty a 7-20 months
3lst March to 5th November

The results show good agreemtent, the greatest deviation in any individual
year being ‘65 of a month, or 20 days, whereas most of the differences are of a
few days only, and the four eleven-year means are particularly close.

THe EvarorimMreter Factor,

The factors 1-0 and 0-5 have been employed by Davidson (7) to correlate
the number of months in which the P/E ratio exceeds one or other value with
the distribution and seasonal fluctuations of insects affected by moisture condi-
tions at the soil surface. In the course of the present investigations a comparison
was made between the Adelaide and Waite Institute evaporimeters, since
Davidson’s South Australian values for evaporation were based on the Adelaide
tank. The following results were obtained :—

Mean Free Water Surface Evaporation.
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total.
Waite Institute (1925-35) 9.23 7.40 6.79 4.22 3.04 1.96 1.93 2.50 3.37 4.83 6.71 8.49 60.47
Adelaide (65 years)? otk 9.08 7.39 5.92 3.50 2.05 1.26 1.29 1.88 2.87 4.78 6.61 8.49 55.12

Adelaide (with Waite
Institute as 100) ope 98 100 87 83 67 64 67 75 85 99 99 100 91

The progressive reduction of the value for Adelaide, compared with the
corresponding Waite Institute value, from 100 in February to 62 in July, followed
by a progressive rise to approximately 100 for the entire period October to
February, led to a detailed inspection of the Adelaide evaporimeter. This
revealed differences in its shape and size and the type of screen, compared with
the standard equipment at the Waite Institute. The evaporimeter at Adelaide,
moreover, is temporarily shaded by a neighbouring building during the carly
afternoon, in the winter months. The building in question is the observatory,
and it was erected prior to the installation of the evaporimeter. A comparison
of the saturation deficiency: evaporation relationships at the two centres shows
that the use of the factor 0°5 in conjunction with the Adelaide evaporimeter
corresponds to a factor of 0°31 + ‘O15 for the Waite Institute evaporimeter over
the period March-November, Owing to the steepness of cross-over of the rain-
fall and evaporation curves in South Ausiralia, the use of the factor 0'5 for
Adelaide evaporation data and 0°3 for Waite Institute evaporation data give,
under South Australian conditions, similar values when uscd to determine the
period over which moisture tends to be available in the surface soil. It ig a
coincidence that Davidson’s factor of 0-5 should fit these results so closely when
applied to the Adelaide readings, but this figure is too high to give a true value
for the agricultural rainfall season, when assessed from 36” standard tank read-
ings, under fully exposed conditions,

©) From the Official Year Book of the Commonwealth of Australia, No. 28 (1935).

49

The ratio P/E=0-3 in the case of the standard exposed 36” tank, or
P/E =0°5 for the Adelaide evaporimeter, gives under South Australian condi-
tions a measure of the mean time interval over which rainfall influences the growth
of annual herbage plants; this is the period over which the soil tends to be main-
tained at or above the wilting point. The Meyer ratio of P/S.D.=5 may be
used similarly (23). This interval may be referred to as the period of influential
rainfall, or the influential rain period. It provides a measure of the effective rain-

10

Ou oO? og
S.D.(incnes Hq}
RELATION BETWEEN EVAPORATION AND SATURATION DEFICIENCY,
WAITE INSTITUTE. 1925-35

Fig. 1.
Relation between the mean monthly free water
evaporation from a standard 36” tank and mean
monthly saturation deficiency, Waite Institute,
1925-35.
fall season, but does not necessarily coincide with the full growing season in the
case of plants able to use subsoil reserves of moisture.

For survey purposes, either free water evaporation or saturation deficiency
may be used. Szymkiewicz, quoted by Prescott (21), pointed out that saturation
deficiency was more satisfactory than evaporation owing to the dependence of
the latter on the form of the evaporimetcr, as well as on humidity, atmospheric
pressure, wind velocity and insolation. Provided that evaporation is measured
from a standard tank under standard conditions, however, it has the advantage
of providing a full record over each 24 hours, as against the single 9 a.m. reading

50

for wet and dry bulb temperature; moreover, it is the closest single measure of
the atmospheric conditions affecting transpiration or soil evaporation, and it
expresses water loss in the same unit as the rainfall figures express water gain.

The relationship between the mean monthly evaporation and the mean
monthly saturation deficit for a period of eleven scasons at the Waite Institute
is shown in fig. 1. The relation is closer than that obtained by Davidson (4) in
the case of the Adelaide evaporimeter, for a period of 60 seasons. The divergence
between the values for October-January and those for Iebruary-May is due to a
variable wind factor. Allowing for this factor the relation becomes more closely
linear.

Duration oF RAINFALL SEASON IN SouTH AUSTRALIA.

Using the mean monthly rainfall data for 206 stations and the estimated
evaporation for these stations, determined from maps drawn for each month on
the basis of saturation deficiency for 25 stations, the duration of the period of
influential rainfall over the agricultural areas was determined and a map prepared
(Map 1) on which these data were related to the main types of climax vegeta-
tion and the distribution of wheat and seeded pasture at the commencement and
clase of the five-year period 1929-34. This period, commencing with the highest
peak of wheat production in 1929, and concluding with the latest returns avail-
able when the map was prepared, was characterised by a material decrease in the
area sown to wheat and a substantial increase in the area seeded to permanent
pasture, Owing to the critical economic conditions for wheat production over
this interval of time, it is to be expected that the reductions in acreage will have
occurred in those areas least suitable for wheat production.

RELATION BETWEEN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT AND LENGTH OF THE
RAINFALL SEASON,

The isochrones shown on Map I are for 5°0, 6°0, 7:5 and 9-0 months,
respectively. Each of these lines appears to possess material significance. It will
be observed that the 5 months line corresponds closely to the outer limits of wheat
cultivation, apart from a small area between this line and the Murray River, which
is of some interest. The 5 months line also gives a close expression of Goyder's
line, at least for those portions of Goyder’s line where the latter fits closely to the
present limits of wheat distribution. Where the two lines diverge, the 5 months.
line ig in better agreement.

The presence of the Murray River in the dry eastern portion of the State
has influenced the extension of the wheat area otitside the 5 months isochrone.
The river existed as a highway, with towns established along its course, many
years before the country south of it was opened to settlement by the construction
of railways and roads. It was natural, therefore, that the destination and termina-
tion of the latter should be the river. Had no waterway existed, it is probable
that the northernmost limits of wheat cultivation would have little exceeded the
5 months line, as is the case in the remaining parts of the State.

The average duration of the five months period in South Australia is May
to September, inclusive, but individual seasons may range from March-July to.
July-November, in addition to the scatter of seasons with a period longer or
shorter than five months,

Seeding, if properly carried out, commences after the opening of the rain-
fall season, and the seceding operations of an ordinary wheat farm take a fortnight
or more to complete. Furthermore, a period of ten days or longer elapses between
sowing and the appearance of the crop above ground, Thus the full crop would
not appear until at least a month after the commencement of the rainfall season..

51

At the Waite Institute,“ the earliest wheats require four months from brairding
to heading, and six months from brairding to maturity when sown in May. They
require two-and-a-half months to heading and four months to maturity when sown
in July. Under these conditions, therefore, soil growing wheat should contain
available moisture for five months after the commencement of the rainfall season,
to ensure full maturity of the grain. The earliest wheats have not in any season,
at the Waite Institute, matured their grain prior to mid-November.

In the more northerly wheat areas, ripening would tend to occur several
weeks sooner owing to slightly higher temperatures and accelerated transpiration
during the ripening period. It is known in practice, for instance, that the wheat
harvest in the earlier districts frequently commences in mid-October. An essential
feature of the five months period is that its termination occurs, on the average,
at the end of October, but frequently earlier. Provided sufficient moisture is held
in the subsoil to satisfy transpiration requirements in the final stages, the wheat
plant is capable of continuing its growth for several weeks following the termina-
tion of the rainfall season. The vicinity of the five months isochrone is charac-
terised, however, by low rainfall within the rainfall season, absence of stibsoil
retentiveness associated with limestone to a considerable degree, and a high
variability of scasonal rainfall conditions, ‘I’o ensure even moderate yields of grain,
therefore, an influential rain period of five months or longer appears to be required.

Perkins (19) recently determined the mean wheat yield for cach hundred in
South Australia for the 20 years period, 1915-35. Relating Perkins’ data to the
length of the rain period, as here determined, the following results are obtained :—

Taste VI

Showing mean yield of wheat per hundred (1915-35), according to the
length of the rainfall season in South Australia,

Period (in months)

1. MURRAY MALLEE— <5-0 5-0 to 6:0 | 6-0 to 7°*5 >755
No. of hundreds .... due ani 47 22 14 ws
mean of hundred means (bush.) 5:33 7:16 6°72 —
No. of hundreds > 6-0 bush. .... 16 15 10 -_
No. of hundreds > 9-0 bush. .... — 6 J =

2. CENTRAL AREAS—

No. of hundreds .... stat get 39 36 74 12
mean of hundred means (bush.) 5+39 11-05 15°71 1 14-28
No. of hundreds > 6°0 bush. .... 11 35 74 12
No. of hundreds > 9-0 bush. .... a | 25 74 12
3. WEST COAST—
No. of hundreds .... A 7, 41 74 37 7
mean of hundred means (bush.) 4-83 6°39 7°92 9-09
No. of hundreds > 6:0 bush, .... | 3 38 27 6
No. of hundreds > 9-0 bush. ... | — 6 11 3

4. STATE (excluding South - East) j
No. of hundreds .... en ren 127 132 125 19
mean of hundred means (bush.) 5°18 7°80 12-39 12-36
No. of hundreds > 6-0 bush. .... 30 88 111 18
No. of hundreds > 9-0 bush. .... — 37 86 15

@) The author is indebted to Dr. I. F. Phipps for information concerning the dates
of flowering and maturity of wheat varieties grown at the Waite Institute.

52

There is a major distinction between the soils of the central areas on the one
hand and most of the West Coast and the Murray Mallee soils on the other. ‘The
soils of the central areas, associated with the Mount Lofty and I'linders Ranges,
are largely of the red-brown earth or the grey soil type, and overlie retentive sub-
soils. These show a marked increase in yield with a lengthening rainfall season
up to the 7*5 months line, after which with increased leaching the soils tend
towards the podsolic type and yields are low except in small local areas of more
productive soils. Where the influential rain period is less than five months, how-
ever, the yields for the most part fall below the economic limit given by Perkins,
namely 6°O bushels per acre. In the mallee areas, both on the West Coast and in
the Murray Mallee, the yields are still lower than those of the central areas, where
the rain period is less than five months ; as this period iengthens, the yield increases,
but not greatly. The soils in these areas are of the light mallee type, and in many
cases overlie limestone rock; retentivity is not a common feature,

In view of Perkins’ figure of 6°0 bushels per acre, the 5-0 months isochrone
would appear to be a satisfactory delineator of the outer limit to economic cereal
culture under all soil conditions in South Australia. his line js materially south
of the 10” annual isohyet.

RELATION BETWEEN Pasture DEVELOPMENT AND LENGTH OF THE
RAINFALL SEASON,

Adverting to pasture establishment, the area under permanent seeded pasture
in 1929 and 1934 is also shown on Map I. It will be seen that apart from those
areas north of Adelaide, seeded pasture lies entirely within or close to the 7-5.
months isochrone. ‘This line appears to be critical in relation to subterranean
clover, on which the pastures south of Adelaide are largely based. This plant is
a surface-rooting, annual mesophyte, dependent on surface conditions of moisture
supply. It is at its best on light or friable surface soils, with a retentive clay sub-
soil within nine inches or less of the surface level. At the Waite Institute the
commercial mid-season type grew satisfactorily but failed to re-seed in each of
the years 1925, 1926, 1927, 1928 and 1929, after which attempts to cultivate it
were abandoned, and the Dwalganup variety, which flowers four to six weeks.
earlier, was grown with success and is now established over much of the property.
The highest value for these five seasons, based on evaporimeter readings
(Table V) was 7:3 months in 1928. In two later seasons, 1934 and 1935, with
influential rain periods of 8-8 and 8-7 months, respectively, the mid-season strain
produced sced abundantly. The mean influential rain period for the Waite
Institute meteorological station is 7*1 to 7-3 months, On the higher slopes of the
property, as the value of approximately 7-5 months is reached and excecded, the
clover is to be found in significant quantities, growing naturally. The close fit
of this line to the known limits of the clover over the Mount Lofty Ranges,
Kangaroo Island and the upper South-East is very striking. It appears perfectly
safe to mark the limits of the mid-season strain by the 7°35 months linc, ‘The
earlier maturing strain has heen grown successfully over a period of five years,
at centres with mean values of 6°5 to 7°5 months, and can probably be adopted
as an improved pasture species at least to the 6°5 months line, and possibly to.
the 6-0 months line,

The 9:0 months line shows a close agreement with the limits to the natural
distribution of such plants as Poa pratensis, Dactylis glomerata, Agrostis
stolomfera, Ilolcus lanatus and Trifolium repens. These have not persisted
except when the mean influential rain period exceeds nine-months, or where
additional soil moisture is available in summer, Lolium perenne and Trifolium

53

fragiferum are found almost to the 7-5 months line, depending to a great extent

on soil fertility or soil type.
There is a general relationship between the mean annual rainfall and the

influential rain period, and this is shown in figs. 2,4. The curves have been fitted

RELATION BETWEEN TOTAL RAINFALL AND LENGTH OF THE RAIN PERIOD. SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
10

©

LENGTH OF RAIN PERIOD (MONTHS)

5 19 1S 20 2s 30 35 40
ANNUAL RAINFALL (INCHES)
Fig. 2.

Graph showing relation between mean annual rainfall and length of the
mean influential rain period in South Australia.

RELATION BETWEEN TOTAL RAINFALL AND LENGTH OF THE RAIN PERIOD, SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
SOUTH EASTERN STATIONS ONLY.

LENGTH OF RAIN PERIOD (MONTHS)

3 10 15 20 2s " 30 35 40
ANNUAL RAINFALL (INCHES)
Fig. 3.

Relation between annual rainfall and influential rain period,
South-eastern stations only.

to the data for (1) the entire State, (2) Mount Lofty Range stations receiving
more than 20 inches, and (3) South-Eastern stations receiving more than 20
inches. Whe points of particular interest are, firstly, the marked difference
between the length of the influential rain period in relation to total rainfall, as

54

between the elevated stations on the one hand and the South-Eastern stations on
the other; and secondly, the marked deviation from the general curve of the
stations receiving less than 10 inches. This deviation indicates a change in the
rainfall type, due to the replacement of the Antarctic influence as a dominant
causal factor, by sporadic monsoonal disturbances ; and it appears to justify the use
of the 10-inch annual isohyct as a border line between the “Mediterranean” and
“arid” environments in South Australia. So far as the higher rainfall areas in the
Mount Lofty Ranges and the South-East are concerned, the difference between
the two zones explains why subterranean clover requires a mean annual rainfall
of 24 inches in the Mount Lofty Ranges and only 19 inches in the South-East,
the mean influential rain period of 7-5 months being the determining factor in
each case.

Linked with the length of the influential rain period and its converse, the
period of summer aridity, is the intensity of the latter. Thus a 9-0 months period

RELATION BETWEEN TOTAL RAINFALL ANO LENGTH OF THE RAIN PERIOD. SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
MOUNT LOFTY RANGE STATIONS ONLY.

zs

LENGTH OF RAIN PERIOD (MONTHS)

> 10 18 20 25 30 35 40
ANNUAL RAINFALL (INCHES)
Fig. 4.

Relation between annual rainfall and influential rain period,
Mount Tofty Range stations only.

of influential rainfall is characterised, not only by a shorter summer but by a cooler
and more humid summer than a 7°5 months pcriod,

INFLUENTIAL RATNFALL,

Having obtained a measure of the seasonal rain period, it is now possible
to determine the seasonal rainfall, or influential rainfall. on a logical basis, instead
of empirically. Since the period of influential rain defines the interval during
which the soil may be expected, under average conditions, to remain above the
willing point, there is justification for taking the rain falling within this period
as influential rain and discarding the rain falling outside the period as being
ineffective, at least as regards annual herbage plants, Very occasionally, in this
type of environment, a liberal summer rain may promote the development of a
little herbage from perennial species, but such rains are infrequent, sporadic and
invariably followed by high evaporation, resulting in the rapid dissipation of
moisture. There appears to be no justification, therefore, for including any

55

measure of these rains as a normal seasonal feature. The use of a correction
factor for evaporation over the influential rain period, moreover, appears to be
unnecessary, since the effectiveness of the rain in terms of the growth rate of
plants increases, within limits, as temperature and evaporation become greater.
‘The influential rainfall is taken, therefore, as the total quantity of rain falling
within the influential rain period.

This quantity has been determined for each of 206 stations and is shown, for
South Australia, on Map I. As is to be expected, the isohyets differ considerably
from the April-November isohyets (19), which are commonly taken to indicate the
rain received during the growing period.

RELATION BETWEEN INFLUENTIAL RAINFALL
AND TOTAL RAINFALL IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

50

40

a
o

INFLUENTIAL RAINFALL
Nu
te)

TOTAL RAINFALL

Fig. 5.
Graph showing relation between mean annual rainfall
and mean influential rainfall, South Australia.

A close relationship was found between the total rainfall and the influential
rainfall. The curve (fig. 5) is close to a straight line but follows the relation
y=a-+t bx + cx?, where a = —7°6674, 6 = + 1:2431 and ¢ = -0:0035. The
value for ¢ is significant. The graph indicates that rainfall in South Australia
ceases to be effective in the neighbourhood of the 6” annual isohyet.

Fig. 6 shows the mean yield of wheat per hundred, as given by Perkins
(loc. cit.), plotted against the mean influential rainfall for each corresponding
hundred. There is considerable variation in the quantity of wheat produced for
each inch of influential rainfall, due to differences in natural soil fertility, the
stage of settlement reached and the methods of farming practised. The maximum
value is 1°76 bushels per inch; the minimum is 0-42 bushels per inch. Retentive-

56

ness of the subsoil is an important edaphic factor governing the efficiency of
utilization of the rainfall available for the use of the wheat crop.

It is probable that an expression may be obtained which would relate and
compare, for agricultural purposes, the climates of different countries. The
starting point must be the delineation of the mean maximum growing season, as
a period of time. This will be the period over which neither temperature nor
lack of moisture inhibits the growth of agricultural plants. The march of the
length of day and of the mean air temperature, and the form which these take
over the growing period, will largely determine the types of plant which can be
grown.

24

20
id
a
QO
gf
is
W
a 16
is
tu
a
wy
i2
iM 42
Zz ;
Q }
a
w iz
7 ak ae he , eae é
n A Hy gt .
ui eye a
I ge Bg oMs
z egret ng ge 8
ae ae

‘ [= CENTRAL STATIONS

[+ = WEST COAST
e = MURRAY MALLEE ANS SOUTH EAST

l | 1 bac, |
8 12 16 20 24 28
INCHES OF !NFLUENTIAL RAIN

RELATION BETWEEN
YIELD OF WHEAT IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA = (1915-35)
AND AMOUNT OF INFLUENTIAL RAIN.

Fig. 4.
Relation of the mean yield of wheat in South Australia (1915-35)
and the amount of influential rain.

‘The arithmetic means employed in the present paper constitute a measure
of average conditions only, but their relative stability enables them to be con-
trasted in a general way. The further step of determining the variability of the
rainfall season and the amount of influential rainfall has not at this stage been
attempted. The question of micro-climates is also a further problem which,
naturally, should follow the separation of zonal types.

ZONATION OF AGRICULTURAL ArEAS IN TERMS OF VEGETATION,
SOIL AND CLIMATE.
The climax vegetation, as a composite reflex of native soil and climatic
conditions, affords a basis on which to construct and interpret the observed dis-
tributions of crop and pasture varieties,

57

The major types of association have been classified previously (26) from
the pastoral viewpoint as follows:—(1) Sclerophyll forest, (2) Savannah wood-
land—(a) Eucalyptus leucoxylon, (b) £. odorata, (3) Dry savannah woodland
(E. odorata), (4) Sclerophyll scrub and heath, (5) Mallee, (6) Lomandra with
flats, (7) Shrub steppe, (8) Semi-desert scrub, (9) Desert. The agricultural
districts are confined to the first six types of environment, the remainder being
devoted to pastoral occupation. The region of change from wheat culture and
mixed farming to purely pastoral production is indicated, approximately, by the
10” annual isohyet, the lower limits of shrub steppe, the 5 months isochrone
and the 5” isohyet for influential rainfall. These lines do not necessarily coincide
but rather congregate in the neighbourhood of what may be regarded as a
marginal agricultural area,

The major types of climax vegetation, together with the geographical changes
in the mean rain period and the mean influential rainfall, may be employed as
delineators of climatic types, with which specific soil types are associated. Follow-
ing the correlation of these measures of the native environment with the recorded
distribution of livestock, wheat and seeded pasture, the portion suitable for
permanent agricultural occupation has been classified on the basis of edapho-
climatic zones, each fitted for a particular form of land utilization. These are
shown in the accompanying Map III.

In this classification the edaphic and climatic types have for the most part
been linked, but intrazonal soils occur. These include the heavy black soils, which
resemble the rendzina type, the volcanic ash soils and the irrigated reclaimed
swamps of the lower Murray River. ‘The high natural fertility of these soils
and their importance to South Australian agriculture warrant their individual
separation at this stage.

The heavy black soils of the south-eastern portion have not previously been
outlined in toto, Their location on this map has resulted from a study by the
author of the original sectional surveys of the South Australian Lands Depart-
ment, which are characterised by much practical detail, recording local changes
in the type of vegetation and soil. This information was supplemented, where
possible, by visual inspection.“

The zones have been grouped into four broad climatic classes, namely,
temperate,‘ sub-temperate, semi-arid and arid, of which the arid group is out-
side the permanent agricultural area, This division is based on the length of the
influential rain period, supported by vegetational changes. The four climatic
classes differ considerably in the types of land utilization for which they are
best fitted. The temperate group is characterised by conditions approaching those
of southern Victoria, Tasmania, New Zealand and western Europe; the climate
is suitable for the English and New Zealand types of pasture mixture, the produc-
tion of root crops, potatoes, onions, ete., and the development of intensive agri-
culture, including dairying. The low fertility level of the soil over much of this
arca, however, limits the production of non-legumes and indicates a programme
of land improvement based on suitable pasture legumes such as subterranean

“) Additional sources of information:—(i) Map of portion of the excessively wet
South-Eastern lands, by W. J. Spafford (1922-25); (i) “he Craters and Lakes af Mount
Gambier, South Australia,” by C. Fenner, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vOl. xlv, pp. 169-205
(1921); (iit) “A Soil Survey of the Swamps of the Lower Murray River,” by J. K. Taylor
and H. G. Poole, C.S.1.R. (Aust.), Bull 51 (1931).

©) The term “temperate” is not used in the wide sense applied to the well-known
warld zones based on temperature, but in the restricted sense that temperate conditions
of both humidity and temperature occur over all or nearly all the year.

58

clover, white clover and naturally occurring clovers and trefoils. The European
grasses of low fertility requirement, such as Holcus lanatus and the Agrostis
species, are adapted to these soils.

The sub-temperate group includes the podsolised soils, on which sub-
terranean clover of the Mount Barker strain has provided the basis for agricul-
tural development and soil improvement. Subterranean clover fails on the heavy
black soils, although the climatic conditions associated with their occurrence
are wéll suited to its development. ‘The influential rain period within this group
is materially shorter than in the temperate group, tending to inhibit the persistence
of such herbage species as cocksfoot and white clover, and to restrict the produc-
tion of summer-grown crops.

The division between sub-temperate and semi-arid conditions also separates
the areas suitable for subterranean clover from those devoted to cereal cultivation
and lucerne establishment. It also marks the region of edaphic change from
podsolised sands to soils of the red-brown, grey mallee and wind-borne sandy
types. Apart from the heath soils, the semi-arid area includes practically all of
the land used for wheat culture in South Australia. Pasture development in this
area depends on the use of deep-rooted perennials such as lucerne and evening
primrose (Qenothera odorata) and on ephemeral legumes and grasses.

The outer limits of permanent cereal cultivation are indicated by the five
months isochrone, and this has been used as a dividing line between the semi-arid
agricultural area and the arid pastoral zone, Along the southern extremities of
the arid zone is a marginal area, in its virgin condition, dominated chiefly by
mallee, and in the eastern portion cleared for cereal cultivation, with resulting
economic failure and widespread soil drift, Although a limited amount of cultiva-
tion may be possible in this area, climatic and edaphic considerations indicate that
a perennial cover of vegetation is necessary to ensure erosion control and stability
of occupation. No attempt has been made to separate edaphic types within the
arid pastoral zone.

The following table summarizes the principal climatic, vegetational and
edaphic features of the agricultural areas, together with the type of agriculture
practised and the herbage plants considered to be most suitable for pasture
development.

The zones described in the above table are for the most part clearly defined
units characterised by specific vegetational, soil and climatic features. Zones 1,
2a and 2b are comparable in climate but differ widcly in soil type; 2c is charac-
terised by the presence of irrigation, and its type of agriculture is similar to that
of 2a and 2b. Zones 3 and 4 exhibit a more critical summer period; their climatic
features agree, bul they differ widely in soil type. Zone 5 is a distinct edaphic
type, comparable in rainfall to Zone 6. Zone 6 is characterised by the presence
of red-brown and grey soils with retentive subsoils, The predominant form of
vegetation is savannah, and this zone includes the most productive wheat arcas
of the State. Zone 7 is variable in edapho-climatic features but is characterised
by mallee vegetation and the mallee soil type. The portion north of St. Vincent
Gulf receives a short rainfall season, but this is compensated by the retentiveness
of the subsoils. In terms of rainfall, the wheat yields of this portion are high.
On Eyre Peninstla the rainfall season is longer, but this is offset by poorer sub-
soil retentiveness, with the presence of much limestone, Zone 8 is typical mallee,
with a mean influential rain period of 5 to 6 months. Subsoil retentiveness in this
zone is a major determinant of cereal production.

The above classification is necessarily on broad lines, but it provides for the
zonation of agricultural land on basic considerations rather than empirically.

59

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‘TIA STV iL

60

SuM MARY.

1, The principal climatic factors affecting the distribution of crop and
herbage plants in South Australia have been examined and compared with the
types of agriculture practised.

2. The nature and distribution of the agricultural flora appear to be governed
principally by the seasonal relationship between length of day, temperature, rain-
fall and evaporation. The period of growth for agricultural plants is, however,
essentially determined by the period of moisture availability, which varies con-
siderably over the State.

3. The period of growth is conveniently approached by the concept of the
“influential rain period,” which is defined as the time interval over which the
surface soil tends to be maintained above the wilting point for herbage plants.
This is equivalent to the period over which rainfall exceeds, approximately, one-
third of the evaporation (E) from the free water surface of a standard 36” tank.

Evidence is given for the use of the factor 0°3E. In the absence of sufficient
stations with evaporimeter records, the relationship between saturation deficiency
and evaporation may be used for the determination of the latter.

4. Over the agricultural areas, the mean annual period of influential rain-
fall varies from 5-0 months to more than 9-0 months. The 5-0 months isochrone
corresponds with the outer limits of economic wheat culture, the 7°5 months
isochrone with the limits of the standard strain of subterranean clover and
9-0 months isochrone marks the limits of white clover and European pasture
mixtures.

5. The amount of rainfall available for the use of agricultural plants grown
in the normal seasonal interval is termed “influential rainfall’ and is defined as
the quantity of rain falling within the influential rain period. This varies from
5:0 inches to more than 25-0 inches over the agricultural areas of South Australia.
Soil type, in addition to climatic factors, markedly affects the yield of wheat in
this State.

6. The major type of climax vegetation, together with the geographical
changes in the mean rain period and influential rainfall, have been employed for
the separation of edapho-climatic zones, each characterised by a particular form
of agriculture. Maps showing the mean influential rain period in relation to
wheat and pasture distribution, the amount of influential rainfall and the edapho-
climatic zones of South Australia have been prepared.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The author desires to acknowledge advice from Mr. E. A. Cornish, B.Agr.Sc.,
on the statistical methods employed for curve filling, and assistance from Mr
C. A. N. Smith, B.Agr.Se., with the considerable amount of computational work
involved. Thanks are also due to Messrs. E. J. Leaney and A. D. Cocks, who
carried out the final delineation and photography, respectively, of the various
maps and figures. Grateful thanks are duc to officers of the South Australian
Lands Department for the provision of facilities for the detailed examination of
original sectional survey maps.

REFERENCES.
1. Apamson, R. S.. and Osporn, T. G. B. “The Ecology of the Eucalyptus

Forests of the Mount Lofty Ranges (Adelaide District), South Aus-
tralia.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust., vol. xlviii, pp. 87-144 (1924).

10.

11.

12.

61

Brackman, G. E. “The Influence of Temperature and Available Nitrogen
Supply on the Growth of Pasture in the Spring.” Jr. Agr. Sci.
vol, xxvi, pp. 620-647 (1936).

Cornisu, FE. A. “On the Secular Variation of the Rainfall at Adelaide,
South Australia.” Quart. Jr. R. Meteor. Soc., vol. Lxii, pp. 481-490
(1936).

Davipson, J. “The Distribution of Swunthurus viridis L. (Collembola)
in South Australia Based on Rainfall, Evaporation and Temperature.”
Aust. Jr, Exptl. Biol. and Med. Sci., vol. xi, pp. 59-66 (1933).

Ibid. “The ‘Lucerne Flea’ Simynihurus viridis L. (Collembola) in Aus-
tralia.” C.S.LR. (Aust.), Bull. No. 79, 66 pp. (1934).

Ibid. “The Monthly Precipitation-Evaporation Ratio in Australia as
Determined by Saturation Deficit.’’ Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. lviii,
pp. 33-36 (1934),

Ibid. “Climate in Relation to Insect Ecology in Australia. 2. Mean
Monthly Temperature and Precipitation-Evaporation Ratio.” Trans.
Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. lix, pp. 107-124 (1935).

Ibid. “Climate in Relation to Insect Ecology in Australia, 3. Bioclimatic
Zones in Australia.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. Ix, pp. 88-92
(1936).

Daviss, J. G., and Sim, A. H. “The Influence of Frequency of Cutting on
the Productivity, Botanical and Chemical Composition and the Nutritive
Value of ‘Natural’ Pastures in South Australia.’ C.S.LR. (Aust.)
Pamphlet, No. 16, 28 pp. (1931).

Fisner, E. A. “Some Factors Affecting the Evaporation of Water from
soil.” Jr. Agr. Sci., vol. xiii, pp. 121-143 (1923).

Forster, H. C.,, Trucker, M. A. H., Vasey, A. J., and Wavuam, S. M.
“Experiments in England, Wales and Australia on the Effect of Length
of Day on Various Cultivated Varieties of Wheat.” Ann. Appl. Biol.,
vol. xix, pp. 378-412 (1932).

Forster, H. C., and Vasey, A. J. “The Response of English and Austra-
lian Wheats to Length of Day and Temperature.” Jr. Dept. Agr. Vic..
vol. xxxiii, pp. 352-364 (1935).

Jenkin, T. J. “Perennial Rye-grass at Aberystwyth.” Welsh Jr. Agr.,
vol. vi, pp. 140-165 (1930).

Kren, B. A., Crowtner, E. M., and Coutts, J. R. H. “The Evaporation
of Water from Soil, III. A Critical Study of the Technique.” Jr. Agr.
Sci., vol. xvi, pp. 105-122 (1926).

Korren, W. “Versuch einer Klassification der Klimate, Vorzugsweise
nach. ihren Beziehungen zur Ozeanenwelt.” Geogr. Zeitschr. (1900),
Quoted by Miller (17).

Meteorological Data for Certain Australian Localities. C.S.LR. (Aust.),
Pamphlet No. 42 (1933),

Mittrr, A, A. “Climatology.” Methuen, London (1931).

Perkins, A. J. “Goyder’s Line of Rainfall.” Jr. Agr. S. Aust., vol. xxxix,
pp- 78-84 (1935).

Ibid. “Our Wheat Growing Areas—Drofitable and Unprofitable.” Jr. Agr.
S. Aust., vol. xxxix, pp. 1,199-1,222 (1936).

28.

29,

30.

62

Prescorr, J. A. “The Soils of Australia in Relation to Vegetation and
Climate.” C.S.LR. (Aust.), Bull. No. 52, 82 pp. (1931).

Ibid, “Single Value Climatic Factors.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust.,
vol. Ivili, pp. 48-61 (1934).

Ibid. “The Climatic Control of the Australian Deserts.”” Trans. Roy. Soc.
S. Aust., vol. Ix, pp. 93-95 (1936).

Ricuarpson, A. E, V. “Wheat and its Cultivation.” Dept. Agr. Vict.,
Bull. No, 55 (new ser.), p. 182 ef seg. (1925).

Scuimper, A. F. “Plant Geography,” p. 417 (1903).
Tayior, GrirritH. “The Australian Environment.” Melbourne (1918).

Trumepie, H. C. “Pasture Development in Relation to Environmental
Factors in South Australia.” Jr. Agr. S. Aust., vol. xxxviii, pp. 1,460-
1,487 (1935).

Ibid. “The Effect of Temperature on the Germination of Some Typical
Herbage Plants.” Jr. Agr. S. Aust., 1937. (In press. )

Trumeie, H. C., and Cornisu, E. A. “The Influence of Rainfall on the
Yield of a Natural Pasture.” Jr. C.S.UR. (Aust.), vol. ix, pp. 19-28
(1936).

Trumeie, H. C., and Davies, J. G. “The Role of Pasture Species in
Regions of Winter Rainfall and Summer Drought.” Jr. CS.LR,
(Aust.), vol. iv, pp. 140-151 (1931).

Woop, J. G. (a) “Floristics and Ecology of the Mallee.” ‘Trans. Roy.
Soc. S. Aust., vol. liii, pp. 359-378 (1929). (b) “An Analysis of the

Vegetation of Kangaroo Island and the Adjacent Peninsulas.”
Ibid., vol. liv, pp. 105-139 (1930).

Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc S. Austr., 1937 Vol. LXI, Map 1.

VEGETATION

FOREST AND BLUE GUM SAVANNAH (£ leucoxylon )

SAVANNAH ~ CHIEFLY PEPPERMINT (E. ocoraia)—
AND IRON GRASS (Lomandra) WITH FLATS

MALLEE (£.dumosa, E. oleosa , efc.)

HEATH AND SCLEROPHYLi SCRUB

RAIN PERIOD
(Ne OF MONTHS OVER WHICH R> 0-3 E*)
5-0 6-0 75 2-0

GOYDERS LINE

WHEAT
4000 ACRES IN
fe 1929 AND IN 1934

1929 BUT NOT IN 1934 SOUTHERN AREA
1934 BuT NOT IN 1929 OF

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

SHOWING
SEEDED PERMANENT PASTURE

DISTRIBUTION OF WHEAT AND SEEDED PASTURE
_ L000 ACRES IN

1829 and IN 1934

1929 BUT NOT IN 1934 IN RELATION TO (a) NATURAL VEGETATION
1934 8UT NOT IN 19828

net Abas: i (b) PERIOD OF INFLUENTIAL RAIN

CS WALL GOVERNMENT PHOTOLITHOGRAPHER, ACEL AIDE

Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1937 Vol. LXI, Map II.

© see cy eatanremeasas ——— = momnemeressurnocuts

SOUTHERN AREA

OF
SOUTH AUSTRALIA

SHOWING
INFLUENTIAL RAINFALL
(RAIN RECEIVED DURING THE PERIOD IN WHICH R>o-3E )

E = evaporarion FROM A 36" TANK

C WALL GOVERNMENT PHOTOLITHOGRAPHER ADELAIDE

Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1937

ras = — RE

TEMPERATE AND IRRIGATION ZONES
| jPopsoLiseD = saNDs

2a fy VOLCANIC ASH SOILS
| 28 srack CLAY SOILS
acf@j ipricateo SWAMPS

" SUB-TEMPERATE ZONES
3 [| Jeopso.iseo SANDS

}4 Z7Zerack CLAY SOILS

|

SEMI-ARID ZONES
5 [| _|SANDS WITH HEATH AND SCRUB

6 [ij rep-BROWN AND GREY SOILS
7 (i) matcee sols
8 [MM ory MALLEE sols

ARID PASTORAL ZONES
9 [_]MARGINAL AREAS

!
}io[_]|SHRUB STEPPE AND DESERT SCRUB
q

EDAPHO-CLIMATIC ZONES

OF

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE

SCALE OF MILES
1 ie” eee") _.60

C. WALL GOVERNMENT PHOTOLITHOGRAPHER, ADEL AIDE

Vol. LXI, Map_ITI.

Legs. = ae a
j

H.C. TRUMBLE
1936

A STUDY OF THE GROWTH OF THE FORE WING-SHEATHS IN
EUSTHENIA SPECTABILIS (WESTWOOD).

BY W. LOCKHART RAIrT, M.Sc.

Summary

Shortly after my return from New Zealand to Australia, in 1928, I became interested in the
evolution of the wings of insects. Having accepted fully the Paranotal Theory, as set out by
Crampton (1916), it then became necessary to look for the mechanism whereby, in the phylogeny of
the Class Insecta, an expansion of the lateral margin of the notum might have been evolved into a
wing-sheath and, later on, into a wing. At once it occurred to my mind that the phenomenon of
heterogony would supply the modus operandi for the evolution of insect wings. Accepting the
Biogenetic Law fully for a case of this type, in which no larval specializations were involved, I
determined to test the matter fully by collecting and measuring the wing-sheaths of the larvae of
suitable heterometabolous insects against their thorax-or head width. For this purpose I selected the
larva of a primitive Dragon-fly, Synlestes weyerri, which is fairly common around Canberra.

63

A STUDY OF THE GROWTH OF THE FORE WING-SHEATHS IN
EUSTHENIA SPECTABILIS (WESTWOOD).

By W. Locxuarr Rait, M.Sc. (Adel.).
[Read May 13, 1937.]

ForEWORD.
By the late Dr. R. J. Tillyard, F.R.S., etc.

Shortly after my return from New Zealand to Australia, in 1928, I became
interested in the evolution of the wings of insects. Having accepted fully the
Paranotal Theory, as set out by Crampton (1916), it then became necessary to
look for the mechanism whereby, in the phylogeny of the Class Insecta, an
expansion of the lateral margin of the notum might have been evolved into a
wing-sheath and, later on, into a wing. At once it occurred to my mind that the
phenomenon of heterogony would supply the modus operandi for the evolution
of insect wings. Accepting the Biogenetic Law fully for a case of this type, in
which no larval specializations were involved, I determined to test the matter
fully by collecting and measuring the wing-sheaths of the larvae of suitable
heterometabolous insects against their thorax—or head width. For this purpose
I selected the larva of a primitive Dragon-fly, Synlestes weyerri, which is fairly
common around Canberra.

Pressure of official work prevented me from carrying out the very detailed
and arduous work of dissecting and measuring hundreds of specimens. In 1932
Mr. W. Lockhart Rait, B.Sc., a brilliant biological student of the University of
Tasmania, wrote to me asking for suggestions for a piece of research. I suggested
this line of work, which lack of time had prevented my following up myself.
Mr. Rait was unable to find, near Hobart, any suitable dragon-fly larvae common
enough to work upon; but he located suitable Perlarian larvae in abundance, and
his paper gives the result of his work with Eusthenia spectabilis Westwood, a
magnificent species which has proved entirely suitable for this work.

Incidentally, I would like to draw attention to two interesting points which
arise in connection with this work :—

(1) Opponents of the Biogenetic Law are, I think, inclined to forget that,
in spite of the numerous exceptions which can be proved to exist, and which have
been fully exploited by De Beer (1930), there arc many straight-out cases where
ontogeny does recapitulate phylogeny. The evolution of the insect wing appears
to be one of them. Even today, hemimetabolous insects pass through several
larval stages in which wing-sheaths are not present. These represent, in the
phylogeny, the ancestral evolutionary stages of the Thysanuroid Ancestor, which
also possessed no wings. The following stages, in which the wing-sheaths develop
from-small buds to fully formed wing-sheaths, present the evolutionary growth
of the heterogonic ancestral forms. The two fully winged stages of the May-
flies represent, possibly in shortened form, the actual evolution of the wings
themselves ; the power of flight of the subimago being definitely less than those of
the imago.

I have, in many letters and lectures, employed the term “hypergonic” for the
phrase “positively heterogonic.” I suggest this term as more suitable, since the

64
words “positive” and ‘‘negative” indicate direction rather than comparative size
For “negatively hetcrogonic’ I would substitute the term “bradygonic”’
(Greek, Bpaivs = slow).

(2) In searching for suitable material, Mr. Rait discovered numerous larvae
of the genus Tasmanoperla in which the males proved to be brachypterous. 1
now suggest that brachyplery may prove to be a special case of bradygony or
negative hetercgony, and [ have recommended Mr. Rait to follow this clue up in
a further paper, since larvae of Tasmanoperla are so abundant around Hobart.

It appears to me that Mr. Rait’s results are of intense interest and must
stimulate further researches into the problem of the evolution of the insect wing.
But, if there is any blame attachable to the author of the rather bold suggestion
that an ontogenetic result of this magnitude should be frankly interpreted phylo-
genetically, then, I think, it should fall on me, and not on Mr. Rait, who has
carried out his work carefully and faithfully, without attempting in any way to
influence the interpretation of the results unduly in favour of a fascinating theory
which modern exponents of animal evolution may not feel inclined to favour.
Belonging, myself, to a somewhat older school, I can say unreservedly that I
support the Biogenetic Law, and that the further I research into the problems of
phylogeny as revealed to us in the fossil record, the more [ am convinced that the
Law itself has many valuable applications, even though it may be most thoroughly
masked, in many cases, by the various types of larval specializations which tend
to hide the basic phylogenetic interpretation in the case of a more specialized
larval ontogeny,

GENESIS OF PROBLEM,

In 1928 Dr. Tillyard conceived the idea that the wing-buds in hemimetabolous
larvae might obey the law of heterogonic growth, and that, if this could be estab-
lished by work carried out on some primitive form of Dragon-fly, May-fly, or Stone-
fly larvae, the results might be applied phylogenetically, following the Biogenetic
Law of Haeckel. Pressure of official work prevented him from carrying out this
work as planned. He passed the idea over to the present writer in 1932, and
outlined a method of approach to the problem, together with suggestions as to the
technique to be employed. I wish here to express my sincere thanks to Dr.
Tillyard for his original suggestions, and also for his kindly assistance and
encouragement during the carrying out of the work itself.

INTRODUCTION.
Two theories have been advanced to account for the origin of insect wings :-—

(1) The tracheal gill theory of Gegenbaur, which has been upheld by
Lubbock, Graber, Lang, Verson, Woodworth and others. According to
this theory, wings are derived from thoracic tracheal gills, which have
lost their original function and beceme adapted for purposes of flight.

(2) The alternative theory has been conveniently termed by Crampton
(1916) the paranotal theory, It 1s due to Muller (1873-75) and among
the supporters of this point of view are Karschelt and Heider, Packard,
Comstock and Needham, Handlirsch and others. It is maintained that
wings arose in the first instance as lateral expansions of the thoracic
terga—a view which is not inconsistent with the facts of wing develop-
ment among the lower Pterygota,

@) An extended discussion of these and other theories is given by Woodworth (1906)
and Crampton (1916).

65

The majority of entomologists now support the latter theory. Tillyard
appears to be definitely in favour of it and has expressed the opinion that the
origin of insect wings has been brought about by heterogonic growth of para-
notal expansions in an organism of gradually increasing size. Assuming Till-
yard’s idea to be true and the Biogenetic Law to hold, it would follow that the
wing-sheaths in the larvae of present day forms would exhibit heterogony, Apart
from an interesting contribution to problems in differential growth it would seem
that a study of the growth of the wing-sheaths in the Insecta, hitherto unattempted,
would be of some value, since the existence of heterogonic growth in the sheaths
would not only support Tillyard’s idea but would also be strong evidence in favour
of the Biogenetic Law itself.

As no previous worker has attempted to apply the heterogonic growth Jaw
in practice to the wing-sheaths of the Insecta, the present writer decided to select
a suitable hemimetabolous insect and carry out a preliminary investigation. It
is proposed, in the present paper, to record the results of this work, which was
carried out towards the end of 1932.

Tue Hetrrroconic Law.

A study of the growth of the abdomen in the shore-crab, Carcinus maenas
(Huxley and Richards, 1931), showed that whereas in the male the ratio
abdomen-breadth : carapace-breadth remained constant, in the female it increased
continuously throughout life. Similar types of growth during the whole or part
of life have been recorded. Pézard (1918) has styled the growth of such an
organ heteregonic, Champy (1924) disharmonic, as opposed to isogonic and
harmonic, respectively. Huxley has investigated this form of growth in a case
where accurate measurements could be taken. Large numbers of fiddler crabs
were taken and the growth of the chelae studied. As is well known, the chelae
in the females in these animals are small and equal throughout life, while those in
the males are unequal, one being similar to that of the female, while the other is
much enlarged. The weights of the whole animal of every size and the auto-
tomised chelae were taken in Uca (Gelasmius) pugnax. Putting y = weight of
large chelae, w = total weight and + = w — y, it was found that when log. y
was plotted against log. #, a remarkably straight line was obtained,
log. y = k log. # + log. b, where & and b are constanis, k >1,b<1. The
simplest mathematical expression of these facts was shown to be y = ba*.@) This
formula, now known as the simple heterogonic growth Jaw, has been applied by
many workers to a variety of problems concerning growth.

Since Professor J. S. Huxley has recently published a book entitled “Problems
in Relative Growth” (1932), in which he has ably reviewed in detail the literature
on this subject, it would be irrelevant to include a lengthy account here. But from
the point of view of general interest some previous applications of the hctcrogonic
law to insects will be mentioned.

Previous APPLICATION TO ENTOMOLOGY,

The principle of heterogonic growth greatly simplifies a large number of
problems concerning form. Polymorphism and dimorphism in insects can be
shown in some cases to be the direct consequence of heterogonic increase in
particular organs with increase of size.

@) This implies that if during any given period p is the fractional increase of x
(total weight less chela), that of the large chela in the same time is p*. This would receive
a biological explanation if the rate of the cell divisions were greater in the large chela
than in the rest of the body throughout life, the two rates being as k: 1).

Cc

66

(1) Polymorphic Neuters in Ants,

Many species of ants show more than one kind of neuter. Sometimes a con-
tinuous series can be traced from very small workers to very large soldiers, and
all sorts of terms—micrergate, mesergate, macrergate, deinergate, etc. (Wheeler,
1910)—have been proposed to distinguish these types. Linear measurements made
by Huxley and Bush on a collection of Anomma nigricans, and weight measure-
ments made by Banks on Camponotus gigas, showed clearly that the relation of
head size to size of rest of body in these forms can be expressed over almost the
entire size-range by the above formula.

(2) Mandibles of Beetles and Appendages of Earwigs.

Tluxley (1927) analysed the original data of Bateson and Brindley (1892)
on the mandibles of Lucanus cervus and those of Durich (1923) on the mandibles
of another Lucanid, Cyclommatus tarandus, together with his own measttrements
on Lucanus lucifer, and showed that in each case the mandibles grow heterogoni-
cally in relation to body size.

Bateson and Brindley (1892) demonstrated that the length of the ¢ forceps
in Forficula and of the é cephalic horn in Xylotrupes showed a bimodal
frequency curve, whereas that of the body length was unimodal. Djakonov
(1925) later extended this work. Huxley has analysed the work of these authors
and shown heterogony to exist in the forceps of Forficila and the cephalic horn
of Aylotrupes. Certain complications arose which will not be discussed here.

PRESENT APPLICATION,

The formula for simple heterogonic growth put forward by Professor J. S.
Huxley (1927), viz., y = bak, where y = organ measurement, + = standard
measurement, b and k are constants, has been applied to this paper. This formula
means that when the logarithms of the organ and standard measurement are
plotted, a straight line is obtained, log. y = log. b +- k log. x. The value of e
can be then read off from the slope of the line, It expresses the ratio of the two
growth rates concerned, 7.e., when k =1 the compared rates are equal; where
k > 1 the organ in the ordinates grows faster (hypergony), and when k < 1 the
standard in the abscissae has the higher relative growth (bradygony).

Now, if this law applies to the growth of the wing-sheaths in the nymphs
of insects, a graph of the form shown below should be obtained when y, the index
of wing growth, and x, the index of thorax growth, are plotted on log.-log. paper.

If this form of graph is obtained in which the points closely approximate
to a straight line with the instars represented by groups, it follows that the law
of simple heterogonic growth y == ba* may be applied to the ontogeny of the
insect.

MATERIAL——SELECTION OF INSECT.

During January—August, 1932, a survey of the insect fauna around Hobart
was undertaken in order to ascertain the most desirable and convenient collecting
ground, A stream, known locally as Guy Fawkes Rivulet, situated near Strick-
land Avenuc, Hobart, was finally selected. This stream was rich in aquatic life,
and its close proximity to the city afforded the opportunity of frequent visits.
In July large numbers of nymphs belonging to many orders were taken from the
stream and cxamined in the laboratory, These consisted mainly of (a) May-flies
(b) Dragon-flies, and (c) Stone-flies and were considered separately.

?

() There is, however, a certain amount of individual variation in the relative size
of the mandibles due to variations in the constants b, or k, or both.

67

(a) May-flies. A detailed study revealed the presence of at least four distinct
species, belonging, with one exception, to the common Australian genus
Atalophlebia. These species were all small, the largest being about three-quarters
the size of Atalophlebia australis Walker. As these were found to be un-
described species they were no longer considered, owing to the possibility of
confusion. Being abundant, however, they were saved in order to check several

measurements later.

LOG WING-SHEATH LFNGTH

instar

3
&

LOG MESO-THORAX WIDTH
«

Fig. 1.

(b) Damsel-flies and Dragon-flies. Tt had been hoped that one of the
Damsel-flies, Austrolestes annulosus (Sel.) or Ischnura heterosticta (Burm.),
both common throughout Tasmania and suitable for the purpose required, would
be represented. Unforiunately, all the nymphs found were Dragon-flies and
belonged to the genus Austroaescha, These were discarded owing to their
scarcity.

(c) Stone-flies. Stone-flies are very common throughout Tasmania and, as
was expected, these insects were well represented in the collection. Three distinct
species were recognised, viz., Leptoperla sp. (probably L. beréde Newman), family
Leptoperlidae; Tasmanoperla diversipes (Walker), family Austroperlidae, and

68

Eusthenia spectabis Wwd., family Eustheniidae. Tasmanoperla diversipes secmed
ideal for work on heterogonic growth as it occurred abundantly, and being large
could be measured easily, A study of the life history was carried out, and on rearing
the larvae in order to make sure of the species the insect was found to be brachyp-
terous in one sex (male). The fully-winged females were scarce. Out of a collec-
tion of fifty imagines taken in September only five were females. Since it is obvious
that a brachypterous form would diverge seriously from the heterogonic curve
this insect had to be rejected also. Eusthenia spectabilis was next considered.
This insect was found to be fully winged in both sexes, and also differed from the
previous insect in that the males were scarce and the females numerous. Six
males were taken in a collection of sixty. This inscct was finally selected and
fifty female nymphs were taken at the end of September and preserved in 70 per
cent. alcohol. It may also be mentioned that the life history of Eusthenia
spectablis has been studied in detail in order to make sure that all the nymphs
collected belonged to the same species. Some of these observations are recorded
in a further paper.
TECHNIQUE.
The following measure-

ments were taken :—

(a) Head width, X Y. B

(b) Mesothorax width, BD.

(c} Wing- sheath lengths,

BC and CA.

(@) the index of the thorax
growth was taken as the
distance B PD in all cases.

(c) In order to measure
the wing-shcaths it was neccs-
sary to dissect them off
together with the thoracic
tergite and suitably mount
them. The sheaths and ter-
gites showed such a strong
tendency to bend medially that
without dissection they were
greatly fore-shortened, and so
incapable of accurate measure-
ment. It was found best to

place the sections in a 10 per C
cent. solution of caustic
potash for several seconds Fig. 2.

before mounting.

‘The first index of wing growth that suggested itself was the area, which
could be obtained conveniently by projecting the magnified image on a glass plate
over which co-ordinate paper ruled in millimetres could be moved freely, the
paper being sufficiently thin to allow the image to show through. This method
was tried, but after a number of measurements had been taken it was realized
that perhaps after all a single linear dimension would give a better measure of
absolute size. Since an area is the product of two linear dimensions, a far greater
error might occur. The datum line decided upon was the maximum distance B C.
This length was measured for both forewings and the mcan recorded. The mean
distance C4 was also taken for checking purposes. The measurements of the
head, thorax and distance BC were all taken by means of a mechanical slage,

and those of the smaller distance CA were made by means of a micrometer eye-
piece—the combination of the lenses being such that one division of the screw

vernier equalled 0°33 mm.

Three hundred measurements were taken in all, each specimen being treated
separately and measured under identical conditions. The figures are tabulated

below :—

69

MEASUREMENT OF LARVAE OF EUSTHENIA SPECTABILIS (WESTWOOD).
Distance C A in Eye-Piece Divs.
(Fore Wing-sheath)

Sex
fe] In mm.
Spec. No. Head.
1 4.39
2 4.61
3 4.19
4 ... 3.50
5. = 3.98
6 we 421
7 4.62
8 3.30
9 w.. 3.90
10 aw. 3,10
ll...) 6.40
12)... = 2,90
13... 8.80
14... =~ 6.00
15.) 4,60
16. = 4.80
17... 5.10
1... = 4.00
19... = 3.90
20... = 4.00
21 a ~—4,30
22... ~+3.70
23. = 3.70
24... = 5.70
25. = 4.60
26 =... ~=— 3.80
27... = 3.0
28. = 3.40
29... = 3.10
30.—«w.. 3.20
31 we 2.80
32... = 2.60
33.0. = 5.60
34... 5.40
35 a «©6270
36. 2.10
37). = 2.90
38. 2.60
39°. 2.90
40... 3.20
41 wae 2,92
42... = 3.20
43... = 2.60
44... = 2.20
45... 1.90
46... 240
47... = 2.00
48... = 2.10
49... = 3.20

50. «= 3.85

in mm.

Thorax.

3.50
3.80
3.40
2.90
3.40
3.40
3.90
2.90
3.20
2.55
5.10
2.62
3.32
5.00
3.80
4.10
4.20
3.60
3.40
3.50
3.60
3.25
3.30
4.80
3.80
3.30
2.90
3.00
2.80
2.90
2.50
2.30
4.80
4.60
2.50
1.90
2.60
2.40
2.58
2.90
2.62
2.70
2.20
1.75
1.70
1.80
1.65
1.80
2.60
3.15

Distance B C in mm.
(Fore Wing-sheath)

R. Wing.

2.20
3.00
2.40
1.30
2.10
2.20
2.80
1.40
1.80
1.25
6.10

NOS SSeo-
ShHNRADNS
RAANARWA

L. Wing.

2.30
3.00
2,20
1.40
2.10
2.30
2.80
1.45
1.90
1.25
6.20
1.20
2.11
5.60
2.80
3.10
3.00
2.60
2.30
2.60
2.80
1.90
1.90
5.80
3.00
2.20
1.35
1.90
1.38
1.42
1.20
1.02
6.00
6.00
1.18
1.00
1.35
0.98
1.17
1.41
1.25
1.12
1.05
0.726
0.66
0.66
0.40
0.75
1.38
2.06

Mean.

2.25
3.00

6.15

SRAQM EH eee Nor SRN DN WwW NUN
SOS ONRBRWOWN CBO OaAANASHE NAN
SSaADOSHOUUNSGSSSSUNSSumnsesd
wn

R. Wing. L. Wing.

2.50
3.70
2.30
1.70
2.20
2.30
3.70
1.80
1.90
1.20
11.40
1,52
2.25
10.80
3.70
3.90
3.80
3.20
2.20
3.20
3.20
1.80
1.80
10.60
3.30
2.20
1.70
1.80
1.70
2.00
1.30
1.30
10.20
10.80
1.30
0.90
1.80
1.20
1.40
1.70
1.32
1.60
1.00
0.50
0.60
0.60
0.40
0.50
0.53
1.80

2.50
3.60
2.30
1.70
2.10
2.30
3.70
1.70
2.00
1.20
11,60
1.50
2.25
10.80
3.70
3.90
3.90
3.20
2.20
3.20
3.20
1.80
1.90
10.60
3.40
2.20
1.80
1.90
1.70
2.00
1.30
1.30
10.20
10.80
1.40
0.80
1.80
1.20
1.40
1.70
1.32
1.60
1.00
0.50:
0.60
0.60
0.40
0.50
0.53
1.90

Mean.

2.50
3.65
2.30
1.70
2.15
2.30
3.70
1.75
1.95
1.20
11.50
151
2.25
10.80
3.70
3.90
3.85
3.20
2.20
3.20
3.20
1.80
1.85
10.60
3.35
2.20
1.75
1.85
1.70
2.00
1.30
1.30
10.20
10.80
1.35
0.85
1.80
1.20
1.40
1.70
1.32
1.60
1.00
0.50
0.60
0.60
0.40
0.50
0.53
1.85

70

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF RESULTs,

In graph 1, fig. 3, the width of the head capsule is plotted against mesothorax
width BD. It is seen that the points approximate very closely to a straight line
inclined at an angle of 45° to both axes, This indicates that the head and thorax are
growing at the same rate. This graph is of importance, since the head measure-
ment can be taken far more accurately than that of the thorax and may, there-
fore, be used as a check on the thorax measurement.

HEAD WIDTH (tn mms)

3 4 5
MESO: THORAX WIDTH IN mms,

Fig. 3.

In graph II, fig. 4, wing-sheath length B C is plotted against mesothorax width
BD on ordinary graph paper. The graph indicates that the wing is growing faster
than the thorax, 1.e., positively heterogonically, or hypergonically,

In graph ILL, fig. 5, the indices of wing and thorax growth are plotted on a log.~
log. grid. It is seen that the points approximate to a straight line and the grouping
of the instars is alsa indicated. The straight line is of the form 4y = bak, where
y = wing-sheath length BC and « = mesothorax width BD. Taking y=CA
and considering 35 measurements, the plottings log. x against y, log. y against +
and log. x against log. y, were each considered. Coefficients of correlation were
derived in each case, according to the formula :—

Say — Nay
V 3(a2- Na?) ¥ (9#-Ny®)

r =

71

These were checked by a competent mathematician and were as follows :—

w against log. y r = 0°730
log. y against + r= 0-772
log. + against log. y r = 0-899
k= 2:37 andb=O141 .. y= 01412737
CONCLUSIONS.
It is seen from the above figures that the formula y = b+* gives the best

approximation.

The high correlation to the other plottings and the divergence of points from
the lower end of the line in fig. 5 may to some extent be accounted for by the
fact that the wing-sheaths appearing in the early instars are very small and difficult

.

4

3

WING SHEATH (Length Bc) IN mms

2

3 4
MESO- THORAX WIOTH IN mms,
Fig. 4.

to measure owing to their shape and also that the wing-sheaths appear to be grow-
ing at the same rate as the thorax during the third instar, i.¢., heteragony does
not become obvious until after the third instar. The grouping (in fig. 5) indicates
also that Eusthenia spectabilis passes through at least seven instars during its
life history.

It may be pointed out that the simple heterogonic formula y = ba* is slightly
inadequate to express all the facts in the present case. Huxley’s formula assumes
x =o when y = 0. This, however, is not the case here, since the wing-sheaths

72

are not present in the earliest instars. A more correct formula is denoted by the
expression y == ba* + c.

The constant ¢ is not in itself important, but it bears some relation to the
time, in larval life, at which wing-buds begin to manifest themselves: also, its
correct calculation may help to modify the value of k, possibly as far as the first
decimal place. The value of k for Eusthenia was anticipated to be 2 or more, as
otherwise it would be hard to see how the wings could possibly reach a reason-
able size for flying, within the limits of the few instars available. The value
2°37 is fairly high. Huxley (1931) states that the values 1-83 to 2:36 for the

i na NOT NE

4%a

ore

xs

B20 ar

WING SHEATH LENGTH BC(Y) IN mms,

Py
io

oso 160 3.20 4°30 640 80
MESO*THORAX WIDTH(X) IN mms.

Fig. 5.

growth of the segments of the abdomen (width) relative to carapace (length) in
the pea-crab (Pinnotheres pisum) are among the highest figures hitherto found
for differential growth. These values have, however, been exceeded by those
found by Locket (1932) for the growth of the ialx and the distance between the
tooth and falx in the jaw of the spider Theridion lineatum (Clerck). The values
of & found in this case were 2°55 to 2°70, respectively.

It is not proposed to discuss the significance of the results in detail at the
present moment, Far more data will be necessary. But it may be seen that the
above result seems quite hopeful, and should subsequent work show that this

73

form of growth is general throughout the ontogeny of insects the far wider
problem of applying the heterogonic law to phylogeny may be anticipated.

REFERENCES.
De Beer, G. H. Embryology and Evolution, Oxford. Clarendon Press, 1930.

Huxcey, J. S., 1924 Constant Differential Growth Ratios and their Significance,
“Nature,” 895.

Huxtey, J. S., 1924 The Variation in the Width of the Abdomen in Immature
Fiddler Crabs considered in relation to its relative Growth-rate,
Amer. Nat., 58, 468-475.

Huxtey, J. 5., 1927 Further Work on Heterogonic Growth, Biol. Zentralblatt,
47, 151-163,

Hux ey, J. $., 1929 The Existence and Importance of Growth Gradients, Biol.
Zentralblatt, 49, 490.

Huxtey, J. S., 1931 Notes on Differential Growth, Amer. Nat., 65, 289-315.
Houxtey, J. S., 1932 Problems in Relative Growth, London, Methuen & Co.
Huxtey, J. S., and Forp, E. B., 1927 Mendelian Genes and Rates of Develop-
ment in Gammarus chevreuxt, Brit. Journ. Exp. Biol., 5, 1-22.
Huxrey, J. S., and Ricuarps, O. W., 1931 Relative Growth in the Abdomen
and the carapace of the Shore Crab, Carcinus maenas, J. Mar. Biol.

Assoc., 17, 3.
Iuus, A. D., 1926 A General Text Book of Entomology, London, Methuen
and Co.

KunveL, B. W., and Roserrson, J. A., 1928 Contribution to the Study of Rela-
tive Growth in Gammarus chevreuxi, J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. 15, 2.

Locket, G. H., 1932 Some Cases of Heterogonic Growth in Spiders, Ann. Mag.
Nat. Hist., 9 (10), 407-419.

Sexton, E, W., 1924 The Moulting and Growth Stages of Gammarus with
Descriptions of the Normals and Intersexes of G. chevreuxi, J. Mar.
Biol. Assoc., 13, 340-401,

Suaw, M. E., 1928 A Contribution to the Study of Relative Growth in parts in
Inachus dorsettensis, Br. J. Exp. Biol., 6, 145-160.

TiLtyArp, R. J., 1926 Insects of Australia and New Zealand, Angus & Robert-
son Ltd.

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE IMMATURE STAGES OF EUSTHENIA
SPECTABILIS (WESTWOOD).
PART I.

BY LOCKHART RAIT, M.SC.

Summary

The Stone-flies, or Perlaria, form a distinct order of insects of wide distribution. The members of
this order occurring in the Australian region are clearly marked off by their archaic character from
those of the Northern Hemisphere and of the Tropics. Although these insects have been known for
many years, until recently (Tillyard, 1920) Australian and New Zealand forms had received very
little attention. As far as the author is aware, no observations on the early stages and life histories of
the two interesting and most primitive genera, Tasmanoperla and Eusthenia, have been recorded.
Both these genera occur in Tasmania, Eusthenia being confined to that State. The closely allied
genus Stenoperla, occurring in New Zealand, has been dealt with by Hudson (1892, and again in
1904). Since this paper was written, Helson (1934) has reviewed the literature of S. prasina
Newman, its classification, systematics and distribution. He also discusses its bionomics and gives a
detailed account of the anatomy of the nymphal and imaginal instars. Later (1935) he points out the
scarcity of information about the post-embryonic stages of Stone-flies, and describes the hatching
and early instars of the same species.

74

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE IMMATURE STAGES OF
EUSTHENIA SPECTABILIS (WESTWOOD).
- PART I.

By Lockuarr Rait, M.Sc. (Adel.).
[Read May 13, 1937.]
Piate IV.

INTRODUCTION,

The Stone-flies, or Perlaria, form a distinct order of insects of wide distribu-
tion. The members of this order occurring in the Australian region are clearly
marked off by their archaic character from those of the Northern Hemisphere
and of the Tropics. Although these insects have been known for many years,
until recently (Villyard, 1920) Australian and New Zealand forms had received
very little attention. As far as the author is aware, no observations on the early
stages and life histories of the two interesting and most primilive genera,
Tasmanoperla and Eusthenia, have been recorded. Both these genera occur in
Tasmania, Eusthenia being confined to that State. ‘The closely allied genus
Stenoperla, occurring in New Zealand, has been dealt with by Hudson (1892, and
again in 1904). Since this paper was written, Helson (1934) has reviewed the
literature of S. prasina Newman, its classification, systematics and distribution.
He also discusses its bionomics and gives a detailed account of the anatomy of the
nymphal and imaginal instars. J.ater (1935) he points out the scarcity of
information about the post-embryonic stages of Stone-flies, and describes the
hatching and early instars of the same species.

During March-December, 1932, large numbers of Perlid nymphs were
collected for a study in heterogonic growth. The collection of this material
afforded an excellent opportunity to gain some knowledge of the immature stages
of the two species concerned, viz., Eusthenia spectabilis (Westwood) and
Tasmanoperla diversipes (Walker). The results of observations on the former
species, although incomplete, are summarized in the present paper, whilst those
relating to the latter will be recorded in another paper.

REviiw or Previous WorkK.

The Eustheniidae was first recognised as a distinct family by Tillyard
(1921 a). Te showed that the species Husthenia thalia (Newman, 1839) was not
a true Eustheniid but belonged to his newly-cstablished family, the Austropcrlidae.
The genus Tusmanoperla was then proposed for the reception of this and the
closely allied Tasmanoperla diversipes, the lattcr species being designated as the
genotype. Later Tillyard (1921 b) divided the family Eusiheniidae into threc
sub-families, Thaumatoperlinae, Eustheniinae and Stenoperlinae, and pointed out
that only four species belonging to this family had been described. These were
Eusthenia spectabilis (Westwood, 1832), from Tasmania; Eusthenia costalis
(Banks, 1913), also from Tasmania; Stenoperla prasina (Newman, 1845), from
New Zealand; and Diamphipnoa annulata (Br., 1869), [syn, lichenalis (Gerst.,
1873), from Southern Chile}. As already mentioned, the genus Lusihenia is con-
fined to Tasmania, the following species and sub-species having been recorded :—

75

E. spectabilis (Westwood, 1832), from Southern Tasmania; E. costalis (Ranks,
1913), from high elevations in North-West Tasmania; FE. lenulata Till., 1921, only
known from the streams around Lakes Lilla and Dove and Crater Lake, Cradle
Mountain, about 3,200 feet; E. lacustris Till, 1921, only known from the same
lakes at high elevations; E. purpurescens Till., 1921, from Southern Tasmania;
E. spectabilis eulegnica Till., 1921, from Tyenna; and E. purpurescens extensa
Till., 1921, from Russell.“
MATERIAL.

On October 4, 1932, some eggs were obtained from the underside of a sub-
merged rock in a stream situated near Strickland Avenue, Ilobart. These eggs
were not easily detected, as their colour was almost identical with that of the
rock, Apart from this fact, the adhesion of numerous particles of sand and
small pieces of débris to the gelatinous substance surrounding them, gave an
appearance similar to tubes once inhabited by Caddis-fly larvae and by a casual
observer might have been mistaken for these. On examination the eggs were
found to be partially developed, so they were kept in a small dish into which
water was allowed to drip continuously. An embryo examined on October 26
had developed sufficiently to show that it was a Stone-fly belonging to the family
Eustheniidae. Unfortunately, towards the end of October the eggs were
attacked by a fungus which subsequently killed the embryos.

Mr. V. V. Hickman, Lecturer in Biology, University of Tasmania, after
examining this material, informed me that he had found a number of eggs under
like circumstances in a creek at Lenah Valley, Hobart, on April 11, 1932. Some
of these eggs had been preserved in alcohol; others had been placed in a smail
aquarium. He very kindly made these specimens available. ‘Those which had
been preserved in alcohol were highly segmented, whilst those in the aquarium,
which were still alive and in good condition, appeared to be identical and at the
saine stage in development as those found on October 4. During November a
large number of these eggs were also attacked by a fungus, but on November 30
several of them hatched. The newly hatched larvae were seen to belong to the
genus Eusthenia. The process of hatching was not observed. On December 3
anothcr batch of eggs was obtained from Strickland Avenue, of which all but
three had already hatched. They were transferred to a dish containing water
freshly taken from the stream, and the process of hatching was observed in all
three cases,

DETERMINATION OF SPECIES,

Only two species belonging to the genus Eusthenia have been taken in the
vicinity of Hobart, Eusthenia spectabilis being plentiful and Eusthenia pur-
purescens comparatively rare. As the later instars of Eusthenia spectabilis were
numerous on the rocks from which the eggs were taken on October 4 and
December 3, and since no specimens of Eusthenia purpurescens were taken in this
locality, it seems justifiable to assume that the eggs and nymphs described in the
present paper belong to Eusthenia spectabilis.

OVIPOSITION,

The writer has observed Tusmanoperla diversipes (Family Austroperlidae)
laying eggs in September, These eggs are laid in masses which break up aiter
coming into contact with running water. The eggs thus separated are carried

©) “As Tyenna is not far from Russell, it appears that in the elevated National Park

ies species from Hobart is there represented by a distinct sub-species.” Tillyard

76

away by the current and either lodge in the crevices of rocks or become attached
to the surface of some slimy water plant. In October masses of Spirogyra, taken
from rocks over which water was flowing, were examined undcr the microscope
and found to contain the first instars of a species of Leptoperla (probably
L. berée Newman). These observations indicate that the Austroperlidae and
Leptoperlidae deposit their eggs in running water. So far as it is known at
present this is the general rule for the order. Helson states (1935) that he has
not observed the oviposition of Stenoperla prasina and suggests that it is similar
to that of other Stone-flies. The oviposition of Stenoperla prasina was observed

7 iN
Fig. 1 (a-f).
a, Newly hatched larva; b, labium; c, maxillary pulp ; d, mandible; e, labrum; f, ova.

by Tillyard many years ago. This unpublished observation was passed on to the
present writer by letter in January, 1933. The extract reads as follows :—“T have
not observed the oviposition of Eusthenia, but Stenoperla females pair with the
males at midnight on rocks in the stream, and then the female crawls alone to the
edge, carrying the exuding mass of eggs tipped up by turning the end of her
abdomen up like that of a scorpion; she often gets into a mess by daubing her
hindwings with the egg-mass, but in the end she goes into the waler on the lee
side of the current and sticks the eggs in a smooth, compact mass on to the rock;
each egg is hard and dark, shaped like a little pear. Incidentally, I have seen

77

Stenoperla go right under water to lay its eggs and emerge perfectly dry on to
my hand.” Lusthenia does not deposit her eggs directly into running water. In
this genus the eggs are laid in large numbers and are attached uniformly in a
single layer to the surface of a smooth rock in such a position as to remain under
water throughout the year. The actual oviposition has not been observed, but
taking into consideration the appearance of the egg mass and its manner of
attachment, it may reasonably be inferred that the process is identical with that
which has been observed in the allied genus Stenoperla by Tillyard. The eggs
of Eusthema are laid during January and February and hatch towards the end
of the year.
THe Ecc.

The egg is almost spherical, measuring 0°57 mm. long by 0°53 mm. wide, and
varices in colour from light to dark brown. ‘The chorion is thick and rather
opaque without much pattern or sculpture. In comparison, the egg of Stenoperla
is distinctly pear-shaped and relatively smaller and darker in colour; whilst the
eggs of Tasmanoperla are small and perfectly white, resembling those of the
Trichoptera.

THE Empryo,

The position of the embryo within the chorion is quite typical. It lies with
its dorsal surface in close contact with the vitelline membrane, except in the region
of the thorax, where in most cases there is the intervention of a quantity of yolk
cells. The head and last segments of the abdomen almost meet at the pole, with
the cerci lying above and to the side of the head, terminating near the antero-
lateral border of the prothorax. The mouth parts and eyes are well defined, the
latter appearing as four darkly pigmented areas. The characteristic abdominal
gills are quite easily distinguished.

Tue HAtTcuIne,

The hatching of the larva was not accompanied by anything unusual. It may
be summarized as follows :—An egg, observed at 6 p.m. on December 3, measured
0°57 mm. by 0°53 mm. At 5 p.m. on December 5 a slight movement was noticed,
the embryo drawing its fore legs in near the body and immediately extending
them again. During the next twelve hours this movement was repeated at vary-
ing intervals, and towards midday on December 6 similar movements were seen
in the middle and hind pairs of legs. Although the thickness of the chorion made
accurate observations rather difficult, it could be inferred that the embryo was
adjusting its legs, which were tucked under the body with the tibiae and tarsi
lying in close approximation to the abdomen, into such a position as to exert a
pressure on the chorion, At 6.10 p.m. on December 6 there was a sudden upthrust
in the region of the thorax, caused by the extension of the hind legs, the move-
ment being counteracted by the elasticity of the vitelline membrane. A few
seconds later the movement was repeated with increased vigour, causing the
rupture of the chorion, a split commencing above the prothorax and extending
rapidly to the poles. The embryo remained still for a few minutes, presumably
exhausted, and then by extending its legs forced a portion of the yolk mass out
of the shell and freed its fore legs. ‘Vhe head and antennae were soon withdrawn,
followed by the abdomen and cerci, the process being aided, apart from the
struggles of the larva, by a downward pressure on the shell exerted by the fore
legs. The process occupied 14 minutes, the time being measured from the rupture
of the shell to the complete emergence of the larva. The second and third eggs
hatched in precisely the same manner.

78

DESCRIPTION OF TITE NEwLy HatcHep LArva.

The newly hatched larva measures 1°60 mm. in length, about 24 times as
long as the egg in which it was confined, the measurement being taken from the
tip of the mandible to the posterior border of the last abdominal tergite.

General form resembles very closely that of later instars. Body delicate and
dorso-ventrally flattened, widest across eyes and tapering towards its posterior
extremity.

Head—Large, nearly as long as wide, tapering towards front with its dorso-
lateral borders slightly rounded and projecting in mid-line to form a well-defined
labrum. Eyes small and at an early stage in development, consisting in cach case
of four groups of simple eyes. Antennae long and flexible, measuring 1:02 mm.
in length, about two-thirds as long as body, tapering towards the front and beset
on the anterior lateral borders of the head, 11 jointed segments longest at distal
end; termini and joints provided with spines, otherwise bare.

Mouth Parts—Labrum about twice as wide as long, distal border concave,
angles rounded, mandibles strong and well developed, each armed with two large
and four smaller teeth, supplemented by five sharp spines on the innermost border.
Maxillae—Maxillary palps not much longer than galea and 3-jointed with the last
segment the longest. Galea slightly longer than lacinia, apical denticles of galea
and lacinia strong, innermost border of lacinia with six papilla-like spines.
Labrum complete, glossae shorter than paraglossae and deeply cut, the last seg-
ment narrower but longer than ihe second. Hypaglossa nearly as wide as long
and well formed.

Thorax well formed. Prothorax (measuring 0°32 mm.) slightly wider than
mesothorax, has its anterior-lateral corners rounded and its anterior border slightly
concave. Pro- and mesothorax are subequal, metathorax measuring 0°25 mm. Legs
stout and dorso-ventrally flattened; coxa short, femora strong and slightly longer
than tibia and cach possessing spines; tarsi bare and each provided with a pair of
sharp curved claws; fore and mid pairs of legs are subequal, hind legs larger.

Abdomen, measuring (0°79 mm.) about half as long as body, ventral side
somewhat flattened, not markedly tapered posteriorly, maximum width at seg-
ments three and four. It possesses ten segments, with a rudimentary eleventh.
The post lateral borders of last four tergites provided with spines. Subanal lobes
triangular, Gills on segments three to six inclusive, one pair on each segment,
all four pairs long, filiform and subequal. Cerci 0°82 mm. long, slightly longer
than abdomen, with five segments, rapidly tapering towards distal end, each joint
provided with spines.

‘The newly hatched larva of Eusthema differs [rom that of Stenoperla in one
important feature, namely, the number of abdominal gills. Stenoperla hatches
with three pairs on segments three to five, against Husthenia’s four pairs on
segmenis three to six. The fully-devcloped Lusthenia nymph possess six pairs
of gills situated on segments one to six, whereas in the last nymphal instar of
Stenoperla there are five pairs present on the first five abdominal segments. It is
highly probable that these gills are primitive abdominal paired appendages,

It is also of interest to note that near the posterior corner of each abdominal
tergite and sternite is to be found a small globular body of unknown function.
These bodies are probably of setal origin and do not appear in later instars.
(See microphotographs, pl. iv).

REFERENCES.

Hetson, G. A. H., 1934 Bionomics and Anatomy of Stenoperla prasina, Trans.
Roy. Soc. N.Z., 64, 214-248.

79

Hetson, G. A. H., 1935 The Hatching and Early Instars of Stenoperla prasina
Newman, Trans. Roy. Soc. N.Z., 65, 11-14.

Hupson, G, V., 1892 Manual N.Z. Entomology, West Newman & Co., London.
Hunpson, G. V., 1904 N.Z. Neuroptera, West Newman & Co., London.

TILLYARD, R. J., 1921 (a) Classification of the Order Perlaria, Canad. Entom.
Feb., 1921, 35-44.

Truiyarp, R, J., 1921 (b) Revision of the Family Eustheniidae (order Perlaria)
with Description of New Genera and Species, Proc. Linn. Soc. New
South Wales, xivi, 2, 221-236.

TILLyARD, R. J., 1921 Wing Venation of Leptoperlidae (order Perlaria) with
Description of a new Species of the Genus Dinotoperla, from South
Australia,” Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., xlv, 270.

Tittyarp, R. J., 1923 The Stone-flies of New Zealand (order Perlaria) with
Descriptions of New Genera and Species,” Trans. N.Z. Inst., 197-217.

Tittyarp, R. J., 1924 New Genera and Species of Australian Stone-flies,” Trans.
Roy. Soc. S. Aust., xiviii, 192-195.

Tiziyarp, R. J., 1926 Insects of Australia and New Zealand, pp. 118-123.

TittyArp, R. J., 1931 On a Collection of Stone-flies (order Perlaria) from South
Africa, Annals S.A. Mus., 30, 1, 109-130,

UsEno, Masuzo, 1929 Studies on the Stone-flies of Japan, Mem. Col. Sc. Kyoto
Imperial University, B, 4, (2), 97-155.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IV.

Eusthenia spectabilis (Westwood).
1, Newly hatched larvae. 2. Abdominal organ. 3. Same (end view).

AN EXAMINATION OF THE BROWN COAL OF MOORLANDS.
BY W. TERNENT COOKE, D.Sc., A.A.C.I

Summary

Existing data concerning the deposit of brown coal at Moorlands are to be found in the various
Mining Reviews of the Department of Mines of this State. The coal was first discovered in 1909,
and an account of earlier work appears in No. 13 of December, 1910, and numerous references are
to be found up to No. 55 of December, 1931. During this interval of about 20 years 192 bores were
drilled, and several shafts sunk. The distance between the extreme bores running east to west is
about 50 miles, and north to south about 40 miles, but the area proved by boring is stated to be
about two square miles, showing a tonnage of about 24'/) million tons (1). Sufficient coal has
been mined to enable extensive firing tests to be made (2)) and the carrying out of small scale
distillation tests (3). Various reports also have appeared dealing with the deposit generally, and its
possibilities (4).

80

AN EXAMINATION OF THE BROWN COAL OF MOORLANDS.
By W. TERNENT Cooke, D.Sc., A-A.CI,
[Read May 13, 1937.]

Existing data concerning the deposit of brown coal at Moorlands are to be
found in the various Mining Reviews of the Department of Mines of this State.
‘The coal was first discovered in 1909, and an account of earlicr work appears in
No. 13 of December, 1910, and numerous references are to be found up to No. 55
of December, 1931. During this interval of about 20 years 192 bores were drilled,
and several shafts sunk. The distance between the extreme bores running east
to west is abeut 50 miles, and north to south about 40 miles, but the area proved
by boring is stated to be about two square miles, showing a tonnage of about
244 million tons (1). Sufficient coal has been mined to enable extensive firing
tests to be made (2), and the carrying out of small scale distillation tests (3).
Various reports also have appeared dealing with the deposit generally, and its
possibilities (4).

As regards analytical data, there are very abundant figures in the Reviews
giving proxiimate analyses, percentages of sulphur, moisture, ash, calorific value,
and bitumen, but one only set of figures showing complete analysis appears, (5) ;
this analysis was carried out in London, and is reproduced in Table I, No. 1.

The object of this paper is to present fuller analytical data, pertaining to the
bulk coal, and also to certain specific constituents of the coal, The materials
investigated were kindly procured by Mr, D, O’C, Blackham, and were obtained
from the dump at the main shaft of mining Section 1,233, Hundred of Sherlock
(5a).

The coal in bulk is by no means homogeneous in appearance (6). When air-
dried, with about 12°4 of moisture, the major portion is seen to consist of dull
brown earthy material, but shiny jet black particles, occasional lumps of one-time
resin, and pieces of woody material are plainly visible; also patches of a yellowish
mineral incrustation. For convenience, the following selection of materials has
been made:—Bulk coal, jetty black (anthraxylon), dull brown material, resin,
wood, mineral incrustation. Also, a sample of the so-called “shale,” really a
carbonaceous clay overlying the coal, has been analysed.

Mineral Incrustation—This was found to consist cssentially of basic sulphate
of iron.

The black clay, sometimes referred to as a shale, is found generally above
the bed of coal proper. It is friable, non-gritty, with a greasy texture resembling
impure graphite; it is quite distinct in nature from a typical oil-shale. Analyses
gave the following results :-—

General Analysis:

Moisture to 105°C. - - - - - O1%
Loss on ignition, carbonaceous material - ~ 245%
Residue on ignition, mincral matter = - - - 69°5%

The carbonaceous matter was found to consist of :

Volatile - - 70% or referredto - 171%
Fixed carbon - 30% the clay - 74%

81

The ash contained:

Silica - - 66°4% Lime - - 06%
Alumina - 22:0% Magnesia - 1:°6%
Ferric oxide - 30% Difference - 47%
Titania a Ley,

It is interesting to note that the ratio of silica to alumina is roughly 3:1,

which is that usually desirable in a Portland cement.

Resin—This occurs in roughly spherical or pear-shaped pieces up to one
inch diameter, and sometimes in irregularly shaped bigger pieces. It is dull black
on the unbroken surface, with a jetty black conchoidal fracture; it is brittle but
somewhat hard. The analyses (No. 6, Table I) show it to be a distinctive con-
stituent of the bulk coal, It is not the same as the other jetty-black material,
the anthraxylon, deseribed later, although fractured pieces are, to the eye, indis-
tinguishable from it. Its high hydrogen and low ash content are distinctive.
Chemically, however, it behaves much as any other constituent of the coal, it is
attacked by nitric acid, and is soluble in caustic soda; also it is practically insoluble
in alcohol, ether, chloroform, and glacial acetic acid.

Wood—The material in the bulk coal which still retains characteristics of
wood is dark brown in colour, fibrous, but distinctly brittle and easily disintegrated
mechanically, On being gently heated an odotr distinctly resinous, although
somewhat musty, is noticed. Analyses of the wood, with and without adhering
bark (Nos. 7 and 8, Table I), seem to indicate that the bark exercises a protective
action on the wood against mineral penetration. T he question of the type of the
original wood has been investigated by Nobes (7), and it was probably a species
allied to the present-day native pines. Incidentally, the same origin is said to
apply to the woody material found in the brown coal of Morwell, Victoria (8).
For the sake of comparison the figures for the composition of cellulose are given,
and also those of the analysis of a sample of pine wood from the district (analyses
9 and 10, Table [).

Jetty-black, Anthraxylon—Any one random piece of jet-black material may
be either derived from a piece of wood, or may be a fragment of resin, since both
break with a jet-black conchoidal fracture, although that from wood is generally
the more brittle. A true piece of anthraxylon should show at least one flat dull-
brown surface, with parallel striations, a surface that has been flattened by
pressure. Materials can be found varying in colour from the dull brown of true
woody material with its fibrous structure to jet-black structureless anthraxylon.

Analyses of jet-black material not especially selected (No. 3, Table I), 2.e.,
containing possibly some resin, and specially selected portions are given (No. 4);
it will be seen that both these differ markedly, especially as regards hydrogen
content, from that of the resin.

The Dull-brown Material—This accounts for a large proportion of the bulk
coal. To the naked eye it presents no particular structure, but under a low power
is seen 10 be simply the bulk coal in a state of communition ; it contains dull-brown,
jet-black, and woody material. It is typically detrital matter, the “attritus” coal
in American terminology (9).

Tables of results dealing with proximate analyses and with the sulphur dis-
tribution, respectively, of the bulk coal and certain constituents, are given in
Tables IL and III. The results of Table III were obtained by the method of
Powell (10).

The Ash—To obtain a sufficiency of material of uniform composition about
20 grammes of bulk coal were incinerated, with frequent stirring, at a low red

82

heat. As thus obtained the ash has a light-brown colour; stronger ignition causes
the ash to become darker and redder in colour. An analysis showed :-—

Silica (SiO,) - - ~ 26°56 Magnesia (MgO) 5 - 8:42
Ferric oxide (Fe,O,) - - 7°70 Soda (Na,O) - - - 6°26
Alumina (AL,O,) - - 16°10 Potash (KO) - - - 85
Titania (TiO,) - - - +99 Loss on ignition - - - 4°38
Manganese oxide (Mn,O,) - -47 Sulphuric acid (SO,) - ~ 17-68
Phosphoric acid (P,O;) - 790

Lime (CaO) - - - 10-18 100°49

Thirty per cent. of the ash is insoluble in strong hydrochloric acid. It shows
the usual characteristic of brown coal ash—a high percentage of lime and magnesia.

Tasce I.
Ultimate Analyses. Peres
Ash — Moisture
No. Material. ion H. oO. Ss. N. %. Colour. H. %
(Difference)
lL - - - 55°95 4-25 21-85 4-3 0-4 13+25 14-1 55
64:50 4-91 25-20 4-96 46 fae
2. Bulk Sample - 55-16 4-19 20:65 4-1 — 15-90 Red- 13-1 12-14
65°55 4:98 24-60 4-87 Sem — Brown
3. Jet Black - 58-00 4-24 23-71 3:98 = 10-07 Light 13-7 173
64°48 4-71 26°34 4-42 — — Buff
4. Do., Selected - 59:14 4:20 23-39 3-85 — 9-42 Pink 14:1 16-5
65:30 4:64 25-82 4-24 = —
$5. Dull Brown - 57:98 4-69 19-70 4-15 as 13°48 Dull 12°3 13:2
67-01 5°42 22:77 4-80 —_ _ Brown
6. Resin - - 66°93 7:16 18:06 3-34 — 4-51 Light 9+35 42
70-05 7-50 19:05 3:5 _ —_ Red
7. Wood - 55°85 5°50 35-590 0-40 — 2°57 White 10:0 = 13-4
57°30 5°74 36°53 “41 —_— _—
8. Do., with Bark 54-92 5-45 34-51 NUD, — 5+12 White, 10°8
57°89 5-74 36-37 Ea — Red Specks
9. Cellulose - 44-44 6-17 49-38 — — 7-2
10. Pine Wood - 51:00 6:00 40:99 <@Q-1 — 2-01 White 8-5 8-9
52°04 G12 41-83 ne —_
TanLe II.
Prowximate Analyses,
Moisture. Volatile. Fixed. Ash.
1. Department of Mines = - - 51-4 21-8 13-9 12-9
Average* - 2 - - — 44-9 28-6 26°5
2. Bulk Sample - - - = 48-5 36-6 14-9
3. Resin = - = - — 68:1 27°3 4-6
4. Black Clay - - - 6:1 17-1 7:4 69-5
— 18-2 7-9 74-0

*Mining Review, No. 60, June, 1934, p. 29.

83

TasLe III.
Sulphur Distribution.
; SULPHUR. | IRON, as FeS,.
Total Sul- % % Organic. % Organic Cale. Found.

%. phate, of Total. Pyritic. of Total. Calc. of Total. Found.
1. Bulk Sample 4-1 +386. «9-4 911s 22-228) 68-3301 1-13 1-01

2. Resin - - 3-34 +06 1-8 33 9-8 2-95 88-3 3:14 +29 “11
3. Jetty Black - 3-98 +23 5-8 86 21-7. 2:89 72-5 2:9 -76 +65
ADDENDUM,

Table I—The figures given are the results of at least two determinations and
refer to moisture-free material, the original moisture content being given
separately in the last column. The restilts have been calculated to include the figures
for total sulphur, thus introducing in some instances an error, due to the fact
that some of the sulphur is included again, as sulphate, in the ash. From
Table III it will be seen that about three-quarters only of the total sulphur is
organic sulphur.

REFERENCES.
(1) Mining Review, vol. lx, p. 29.
(2) - » vol, xliv, p. 31.
(3) i * vol. xxxvii, p. 73.
(4) ” b vols. xxxiii, xxxvii, xlli, xlv.
(5) 35 » vol, xxxvii, p. 61.
(5a) . ,» vol, xxxili, p. 71.
(6) ¥ vol. xxxiii, p. 66.

(7) Proc. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., vol. xlvi (1922), p. 528.

(8) Geol. Survey of Victoria, Bull. 45 (1922), p. 129.
(9) U.S. Bureau of Mines. Technical Paper 446 (1929).
(10) U.S. Bureau of Mines. Technical Paper 254 (1921).

ABORIGINAL CRAYON DRAWINGS
RELATING TO TOTEMIC PLACES BELONGING TO THE NORTHERN
ARANDA TRIBE OF CENTRAL AUSTRALIA

BY C. P. MOUNTFORD

Summary

This paper places on record a suite of crayon drawings relating to certain totemic places in the
Northern Aranda country. They are the work of an Aranda native called Padika, a member of the
honey ant totem, whose totemic place is adjacent to the Glen Helen Station (fig. 18). This aborigine
was attached to a party who were travelling in Western Central Australia, of which the writer was a
member.

84

ABORIGINAL CRAYON DRAWINGS
Relating to Totemic Places belonging to the Northern Aranda Tribe of Central Australia,

By C. P. Mounrrorp, Hon. Assistant in Ethnology, South Australian Museum.
[Read June 10, 1937. }

This paper places on record a suite of crayon drawings relating to certain
totemic places in the Northern Aranda country. They are the work of an Aranda
native called Padika, a member of the honey ant totem, whose totemic place is
adjacent to the Glen Helen Station (fig. 18). This aborigine was attached to a
party who were travelling in Western Central Australia, of which the writer was
a member.

The drawings were produced during the brief periods, night and morning,
when the camp work was completed. Padika was given sheets of brown paper,
red, yellow, black and white crayons, and asked to make “blackfellow marks” on
the paper. No other suggestions regarding subjects were given.

Mr. T. G. Strehlow, whose knowledge of the Northern Aranda people is
well known to all students of Central Australian ethnology, was also a member
of the party and assisted the writer in obtaining the interpretation of the drawings.
It was interesting to notice that, although the native was anxious to produce as
many drawings as possible for the author, he was disinclined to explain their
meanings unless Strehlow was present. Padika contended that Strehlow knew
“all about blackfellow” and, therefore, would understand the explanations given
better than the author. No objection was made, however, to the writer being
made conversant with the details of the drawings, or taking possession of them,
when their interpretation was complete.

The drawings relate to seventeen totcmic centres connected with the doings
of nine ancestral beings, ie., the Emu, Native Cat, Honey Ant, Kangaroo,
Opossum, Rock Wallaby, Uncircumcised Boy, Woman and Snake. Nine of the
drawings referred to totemic localities that were the property of cither the artist
or his near relatives. It is possible that the remainder would have the same or
similar owners.

The resemblance of the majority of the drawings to designs on the
tjurungas of the Aranda, suggests that the whole suite are copics of those sacred
objects with which the artist had become familiar while visiting the various
totemic centres of his tribal country.

Oricgin or Myrus AssocrAtep with ‘Totrmic Cenrres ANp TyJURUNGAS.

in order to understand the significance of the sacred totemic places of the
Aranda, and the tjurungas connected with them, a short description of the abori-
gine’s belief regarding his creation is given. It must be understood that such a
description is general, the creation of one particular ancestor differing from
another. The general principle underlying them all, however, is similar.

The Aranda believe that, in the long distant past, referred to by them as the
Altjeringa (1, p, 388), mythical semi-human ancestors were created hy two
beings, the Ungumbikula, from creatures who were previously animals, plants,
and in some cases inanimate objects, The ancestral people, after their creation,
travelled about the country, carrying with them sacred stone or wooden slabs

86
called “Tjurungas,” with which the spirit part of the possessor was closely asso-
ciated. From these semi-human beings arose the original tribal groups, each one
bearing an intimate association with the particular animal, plant or material object
from which their original being sprang. The particular object from which the
aborigine has been thus evolved is spoken of as his totem.

Previous to the creation, the country was featureless, a large plain stretching
away to the horizon. Every natural feature that exists today, such as mountain
ranges, waterholes, creeks and trees, were made by one or the other of the newly-
created beings.

Sometimes a waterhole was produced alier a ceremony had been performed.
At another place, mountain ranges, gorges or claypans, miraculously appeared
where the progenitor had slept, made a fire or performed some menial task. At
certain places the mythical beings died, leaving their sacred tjurungas behind them.

These spots are, today, the repositories of the sacred tjurungas belonging
to the aborigines of the same totem as the ancestor who died at this place. The
men of that group believe themselves to be descendants, and, in some cases
reincarnations of the original being, and, as such, are as intimately associated
with his tjurunga (which he believes to be identical to that of the Altjeringa
times, as was the original owner. Such totemic places dot the surface of the
country of the Aranda and surrounding tribes. Spencer and Gillen (1), pp. 119-
127, give a more detailed description of these beliefs.

Figs. 1-17 refer to places which are specially associated with the Northern
Aranda people.

Description or DrAwiINGs,

The explanations obtained regarding the drawings were necessarily brief,
due, largely, to lack of time. The party with which both the artist and the writer
were associated was travellimg during the day, the only time available for the
production of the drawings, and their interpretation, being that after camp duties
were completed.

Emu Toremic CENTRES,

Four of the drawings, i.c., figs. 1, 2, 3, and 5, relate to various Emu Totemic
Centres. Three of these were adjacent to Haast Bluff (fig. 19). The one at
Ulumbaura, which is at a large spring, is the most important in that area.

Fig. 1 relates to the central totemic place, Alpilkari, at Haast Bluff (fig. 19).
A mythical Emu woman who had lived there always, after performing many
ceremonics, dicd and entered the ground where the spring now exisis. ‘The series
of concentric circles, A, symbolize the internal organs of the ancestral Emu, the
footprints of which form the background of the design.

Fig. 2 pictures a small bull-roarer, swung by the Emu men at Ulumbaura to
charm the women (fig. 19). The bull-roarer™) has marks, engraved on its
surface, that relate particularly to women.

Because of this the natives helieve that, when the bull-roarer is swung, its
humming sound exercises a strong attraction on any woman who hears it, and
that she will, sooner or later, visit his camp,

D, E, F represent the scars between the breasts of the Emu women, and the
spirals A, B, C, the stomach or intestines. These are supposed to be the seat of
the emotions, for when a woman is charmed by another man “her internal organs
shake with emotion,” (1), p. 545.

© A “bull-roarer” is usually a small tjurunga, to one end of which is attached a
Iength of fur string. When swung rapidly around the head a characteristic humming
sound is produced. Fig. 2 is a fair representation of the object.

87

Figs. 9 to 17.

88

Spencer and Gillen (2), p. 473, relate how women are obtained from distant
parts by the swinging of a small bull-roarer or tjurunga, called Nawo-tewtnna.
‘The man and his friends spend a whole night in the scrub, singing, and continually
swinging the small bull-roarer, the humming sound of which is supposed to be
carricd far away to the woman he wishes to charm.

On the occasion of the Adelaide University Anthropological Expedition to
Mount Liebig, Mr. S. Stocker obtained a complete cinematograph record of the
construction and use of a small bull-roarer called parmalba, which, when hung
in the breeze and allowed to swing freely, was believed to be capable of attracting
women Lo the spot.

This magical method of obtaining women is a well recognised one and has
the sanction of the tribe. Should a man of one group be successful in charming
the wife of another aborigine, provided she is of the correct marrying class, the
friends of the charmer will support his claim against the enraged husband.

Fig. 3 belongs to Ajantja, an Emu place eight miles south-east of Mount
Liebig, fig, 18. The prominent spirals, A and B, are the waterholes at which the
semi-human ancestors obtained their water supplies. C, D is the symbolical repre-
sentation of the long neck of the emu. The tracks are those made by these
ancestors as they walked to and fro between the waterholes.

Tig. 5 also belongs to Ulumbaura, near Haast Bluff (figs. 18 and 19) (sce
fig. 2), which, as mentioned previously, is one of the most important Emu totemic
centres in the country. This is the totemic place of the mother of the native who
made the drawing. Fig. 5 is similar in meaning as fig. 3, the spirals A, B, C, D
depicting the waterhole at which the birds drank, and the tracks are those made
by the mythical birds.

Spencer and Gillen give details (1), p. 179, of a ground drawing prepared
during the performance of a ceremony for the increase of emus.

The description is as follows:—‘It (the drawing) is supposed to represent
certain parts of the emu, two large patches of yellow indicated lumps of fat, of
which the natives are very fond, but the greater part, represented by means of
circles and circular patches, are the eggs in various stages of development, some
before and some after laying. Small circular patches represented the small eggs
in the ovary, a black patch surrounded by a black circle was a fully formed egg
ready to be laid, while the two larger circles meant an egg which had been
incubated so that a chicken had been formed. In addition to these marks, various
sinuous lines, drawn in black, red and yellow, indicated parts of the intestines,
the excrement being represented by black dots - - - - - -- -- ;

“The large yellow patches representing fal, the small yellow circles, eggs in
the ovary, the patches with enclosing circles, eggs with shells, serve io show that
the original designer had a definite idea of making the drawing, conventional
though it be to a large extent, indicative of the objects which it was supposed to
represent.” ,

Witp Car Toremic Centres,

Fig. 4 referred to the mythical Wild Cat (Atjilpa) people. This par-
ticular group camped at a place called Rantjalanana, north-west of Mount Hay
(fig. 18), A, B, C, D, are the camp fires around which the ancestors kept warm.

The men themselves are symbolized by the series of parallel straight lines
E, F, G, which, according to the artist, represents the seats across the chest. The
short straight marks dotted over the body of the drawing depict the footmarks
made by the wild cat men.

Spencer and Gillen (1), pp. 403-419, give a full account of the wanderings
of the Atjilpa people. Four groups entered the Aranda country from the

89

south (1) (see map, p. 386), and, travelling north, passed out of the Aranda
tribal area on the northern boundary. The route of the most westerly horde lay
to the west and north-west of Mount Hay (fig. 18). It is possible that the
totemic centre at Rantjalanana was created by this travelling party.

Reed (4) describes a tjurunga belonging to the Wild Cat totemic group of
the Luritja tribe that came from the south and, leaving one man behind, who
became lame, continued on their journey. These were probably individuals of
the westerly group, the route of the other three passing entirely through Aranda
territory, whereas the group under consideration travelled through portion of the
Luritja tribal areas (1), p. 386.

The native cat ancestors are also credited with having introduced the rite of
sub-incision and of having arranged the initiation ceremonies in their present
order, i.e., circumcision, sub-incision and the Engwura (1), p. 422.

er , tie ae Haast Bluff vt Heughtin

se

seme zeil ‘Smee Hai

"0 ring QUE
Uf pt, LPH APT men Heh at thy
in Pu seme

Za an 9 e
areenitR aehy tla ly
mM pi, ETE at Nepean be (tet?

Pr La
Tre -WOW? Mise

ee a

Miles

Fig. 18.

Honey AND TOTEMIC CENTRES,
Three drawings belonged to the mythical honey ant forefathers.

The living representative of this ancestral group is an ant (Camponotus
inflatus}, found in burrows in the ground, which are as much as five feet in
depth. This insect is fed on honey by the workers of the colony until its abdomen
becomes enormously distended, so much so that the ant is quite incapable of
moving from one place to another. The aboriginal women spend much time
digging for these reservoirs of honey, this being one of the few available sweet
foods.

Fig. 6 belongs to the honey ant people of Glen Helen (fig. 18). The ants
themselves travelled from A to B, their tracks being shown as parallel lines
between the concentric circles, C, D, E, I’, and radiating outward at right angles to
these points. C, D, E, F are unspecified places passed through by the ants in
their journeyings. The short lines on the body of the drawing symbolize the
ants. The Glen Helen totemic honey ant centre belongs to the artist himself,
this being his tribal country,

90

It is of interest to note that Spencer and Gillen (3), p. 121, mention that the
main burrow of these ants extended vertically downward for some five or six feet,
from which point horizontal tunnels radiated outward. Honey ants were found
in the horizontal passages as well as at the base of the main opening. It will be
seen that fig. 6 bears some resemblance to the plan of an ants’ nest. The signifi-
cance of the groups of concentric circles G, H, J, K was not obtained, but may
represent small openings in the burrow as at C, fig. 7.

Fig 7 pictures the honey ant men at Lukarea, some 12 miles from Red Banks
(fig. 18). The group of concentric circles A, B, are the main openings, and C
one of the smaller openings to the nest. The groups of more or Iess U within U
designs D to P are the honey ants lying in cells in the ground, their abdomens
fully distended with honey.

Fig. 11 belongs to Alabina, a spot west of Mount Zcil. ‘he honey ants,
when travelling westwards from Jukarea (fig. 7), passed through Alabina on
their way to Aljabi, an unlocalized place some distance west. A, B, C, D, and
similar figures, are the honey ant men seated on the ground; the spirals, E. F.

ULUMBAURA APILKARI ANJALI
ent tte, attire oS
ce Wry,
g Say, Bile AM 9IMg SNM all, itty, Mtn Ns ANU, Mie Ne SNe age,
awe z o My, fers
- = 3 é
" Z e a
cag TINS aw g scanner ten ante fe °
ng HN OS Hany AN ae ys eS HT PR agg me “ONIN
Fig. 19,

G, H, are the entrances to the nests, The groups of parallel lines, M, N, O, P,
which are right angles to the central axis of the drawing, depict the branches
along which the ants travelled in order to reach the honey-laden flowers. These
are represented as small dots and circles on the background.

The artist Padika was ceremonially connected with the three honey ant
centres, Glen Helen and Alabina being specified as being his own place.

According to Spencer and Gillen (1), p. 438, certain mythical ancestors of
the honey ant people originated at Mount Ilay (fig. 18). One party went north
and were exterminated by the honey ant people of the Burt Plains, Another
party went west, arriving at Lukarea (see fig. 7). Here they found a large
number of honey ant people who had many tjurungas. The local people
frightened the travellers away, who then moved westwards, forming various
totemic centres along the route. It is possible that the locality, to which fig. 11
refers, was established by this travelling group. Continuing their wanderings, this
group of honey ant people reached Unapunna, adjacent to Mount Licbig (1) (map,

91

p. 243). At this place they were killed by the honey ant people of Mount Liebig
(fig. 18). Their tjurungas, however, remained behind, giving rise to an important
honey ant ceremonial locality.

SNAKE TOTEMIC CENTRES.

Two drawings were associated with the snake progenitors, 1.¢., figs. 8 and 9.
Both referred to ceremonial centres adjacent to Mount Liebig (fig. 18),
ie., Ajanti and Winbarku.

The former is unlike any other drawing in the suite, most of which resemble
tjurungas, both in form and pattern. The locality to which fig. 8 belongs is about
eight miles east of Mount Liebig (fig. 18). Fig. 3 is also connected with this

lace.

‘ The openings, A, B, C, D, are the entrances into a large burrow in which
many snakes made their home. The meandering lines, E, G, F, portray the tracks
of the snakes as they moved from one opening to the other, while H, K, and F
indicate the marks made by the snakes in their short journeys over the surround-
ing plain. The snakes, called Tatalba by the natives, were quiet and non-
poisonous. The paternal aunt of the artist, who was a snake woman, belonged to
this place.

The meandering line, such as in figs. 8 and 9, is used extensively to represent
some form of serpent or natural features associated therewith.

Fig. 9 is connected with the snake place of Winbarku, some 12 miles south-
east of Mount Liebig, near Blanche Tower (fig. 18),

According to the native legend, two women came from Pilkili (Mount
Davenport), and travelled south with the express purpose of marrying the snake
man of Winbarku.

On their arrival, the women seized the snake man by the wrists and held
him until he agreed to their request. The three then travelled north for a long
way, their track being indicated by the sinuous line, A, B. The concentric circles,
C, D, E, F, G, I, J, were interpreted as entrances to the snake’s burrows or resting
places on their journeys, both being the same to the natives.

The U within U symbols, M, N, O, Q, R, S, T, U, depict the women seated
on the ground, while the designs representing the newly acquired husband are
K and L. The parallel straight lines joining the arms of K and L indicate the
body scars on the chest of the man. This manner of differentiating between the
man and the women is of interest.

KANGAROO TOTEMIC CENTRES.
Three of the drawings, i.e., figs. 10, 12 and 17, refer to mythical kangaroos
and the totem centres created by them.

Fig. 10 helongs to Padika’s elder brother and refers to an important totem
place at Kaantji, a mountain some 80 miles west of Alice Springs. The European
name was not given, but should be somewhere in the vicinity of Mount Hay
(fig. 18).

Unlike the previously described drawings, this example portrays various
anatomical features of the ancestral being, A, B, C, D, etc., are the worm-like
linings of the intestines of the kangaroo, the spirals, E, F, G, H, L, the fat of
the creature, while the parallel lines joining these places are indicative of the
teeth. J has a similar meaning.

Fig. 12 illustrates the doings of the kangaroo men at Yaya waterhole, some
10 miles north-west of Mount Liebig (fig. 18). A, B, C are the camps of the

92

men in the Ya Ya creek. The ancestors seated in the camps are shown by the
U within U symbols, E, F, G. At this place the ancestral kangaroo men hunted
kangaroos for food. The paircd tracks of the hunted animals are shown on the
background, and the spears used by the hunters to kill the game are the parallel
straight lines at H, J.

Jn this legend we find a reference to the kangaroo ancestors hunting their
own totemic animal, an unusual aspect in aboriginal mythology. Spencer and
Gillen (1), however, mention several examples, pp. 320 and 341.

Fig. 17 pictures a waningi worn by the kangaroo ancestors when they were
hunted by the dogs in Altjeringa ©) times.

Fig. 17, with the exception of figures H, J, K, L, M, N, is a passably good
representation of a waningi, such as is carried on the heads of certain men during
ceremonies. Spencer and Gillen (1), p. 307, fig. 57, illustrates a rather more
elaborate form, although a waningi similar to fig. 17 is commonly used. A, B,,C
are bunches of white eagle feathers, and D, E, F, G masses of eagle down attached
to the main framework. The fur string, such as-in the actual object, is wound
from one stick to the next, is indicated by the lines passing between the main
framework, thus producing a diamond-shaped object at the end of a long pole.

Combats between dingoes and kangaroos are common in Central Australian
mythology. Spencer and Gillen (1), p. 196, record several. Although the
ancestral kangaroo man was killed and almost completely destroyed on three
occasions, he miraculously reconstructed himself from the remnants and went on
his way. He was finally killed at Undaira, which place is now an important kan-
garoo totemic locality (fig. 18).

Similarly, in Spencer and Gillen (2), p. 253, a legendary fight is recorded
between a euro (a form of hill kangaroo) and a dingo. The dog was again
victorious.

While the writer was attached to the 1935 Adelaide University Expedition
to the Warburton Ranges he obtained several crayon drawings which related to
combats between an ancestral kangaroo and dingoes. After many vicissitudes, the
kangaroo was finally killed at Minnie Creek,“ its ancestral body forming a rocky
bar across the watercourse.

In the case of fig. 17 the same combat appears to have taken place, H, J, K,
L, M, and H representing the dogs, who had fallen asleep after having gorged
themselves with kangaroo meat,

Boy ToreMic CENTRES,

Fig. 13 belongs to the uncircumcised boy totem of Emianga, which is
adjacent to Hamilton Creek, some 50 miles north of Alice Springs. ‘This place
belongs to the artist’s paternal grandfather.

The three spirals, A, B, C, are the fires at which the boys warmed them-
selves, the boys being indicated by a series of semi-circles, D, D; E, E; F, F.
The meaning of G was not specified. Parallel lines H, J, K are the body scars
across the chests of the youths.

Spencer and Gillen (1), p. 392, refer to certain uncircumcised Ulpmerka
men who were not operated on by the original creators, the Ungumbikula. The
boy, between the period of throwing up and circumcision, is also called Ulpmerka.

@) The full details of the aboriginal belief in the Altjeringa is dealt with in Epenaen
and Gillen (1), p. 387-450.

@) See Western Australian map, viii, 800, Section 3,292.

93

This ceremonial spot may be connected to a group of ancestral boys who
were not of sufficient age to have passed through the first initiation ceremony.

Woman ToTEMIC CENTRES.

Fig. 14 relates to Intinkankiva, a place at which a large number of ancestral
women gathered in the Altjeringa times. Intinkankiva is adjacent to Central
Mount Wedge. These women had never married, yet played games with gum
leaves to find out when and who would be their husband. The leaves, stuck up
in the sand, are indicated by small circles in the background of the main design.

A, B, C are the camp fires around which the women sat in various positions.
The latter are shown by series of U within U designs, D, I, F, G, H, ete.
Parallel lines, K, are the scars between the breasts of the women.

Ovossum ToTEMICc CENTRE,

Fig. 15 tells of the mythical opossum place of Emalknga (Mount Heughlin)
(fig. 18), This totemic spot belongs to Padika’s son.

The three large spirals, A, B, C, are the openings in the boulders in which
the legendary opossums sheltered, while the tracks made by them in their search
for food are drawn at D, E, F, G, etc. Their food consisted of wild oranges,
bark and leaves. These are symbolized by a series of small circles and dots which
are scattered all over the drawing.

Rock Wa.LLaspy ToTEmMIc CENTRE,

Fig. 16 belongs to Unabunna or Unapunna, a place described by Spencer and
Gillen (1), p. 439, and map, p. 423, as an important honey ant centre. The map
shows Unabunna as being adjacent to Mount Liebig (fig. 18).

In this case, however, the drawing belongs to the ancestral rock wallaby, the
totemic spot itself being the property of Padika’s elder brother.

Fig. 16 shows, in a highly conventionalized manner, the catching of the
mythical rock wallabies by two ancestral men, A, B and C, D. The wallabies
lived in caves (spirals E, F, G), which they left toward evening to feed on the
plains (see paired tracks around caves). When the wallabies returned, the
ancestral men hit them on the head with sticks. These are seen lying on the
ground at J, K and L.

DISCUSSION.

In reviewing the designs recorded in this paper, it will be noticed that 14
out of the 17 figures are similar in shape and arrangement to the sacred tjurungas
of the Aranda. The drawings consist of a conventional arrangement of circular,
semi-circular, spiral and meandering lines. In 10 of the figures, 7.e., 1, 3, 4, 5, 7,
11, 12, 14, 15 and 16, paired kangaroo tracks, short straight lines and circles form
the background to the main motif.

The most frequent design met with is the spiral, surrounded in some cases
with a series of concentric circles. This occurs in 16 of the drawings. In
general, this symbol indicates a particular locality; in figs. 3 and 5 it represents
watetholes near Mount Liebig, in fig, 6 unspecified localities, and in fig. 11 the
openings of the nests of the ancestral honey ants.

Another figure referred to by various workers as the U within U design
appears in eight of the figures. With the exception of fig. 3, such symbols
picture certain individual beings, in most cases seated by the camp fires. It is

94

more than probable that this sign has developed from the mark made in sand or
loose soil by a seated aborigine,

As mentioned previously in connection with fig. 8, the meandering line is used
extensively, but not exclusively, to represent a snake, its track, or, in the more
symbolical of the drawings, the course of a creek or watercourse that had been
created by that ancestor.

Parallel straight lines, such as those seen on figs. 2 and 4, across the limbs of
K and L, on figs. 9, 12, 13 and 16, are, in the cases of 2, 4, 9 and 13, symbolical
of the scars on the chests of the ancestors, while the same design in fig. 12
indicates speats, and in 16 sticks used for killing game.

These three designs, i.¢., the spiral or concentric circles (which to the
aborigine is one and the same), the U within U design and the parallel straight
lines, form the bulk of the figures used to illustrate the mythological stories asso-
ciated with the totemic centres to which the drawings refer.

It must be understood that the details obtained with these drawings are the
merest fragments of a rich and extensive mythology that exists around the natural
features of the country.

It is with a sense of regret that one realizes that much of the legendary
history of these places must be lost, not because of workers sufficiently interested
to collect the information, but because of lack of funds to carry out the
investigation.

A characteristic which is of considerable interest in the drawings under dis-
cussion is the placing of the various design elemetits in order to obtain symmetry.
Some of the figures, such as 9, 11 and 14, are definitely decorative.

On a recent expedition, the writer was interested to notice that an aborigine,
when he found that the totemic design which he was painting on a wooden dish
did not satisfactorily fill the available space, added short white lines and dots to
fill in the blank portions. The final effect was pleasing, no sense of overcrowding
being evident. The same characteristic is present in figs. 1-17. This attempt to
achieve symmetry must at least indicate some degree of artistic appreciation
of design.

The drawings of the Central Australian aborigines are peculiar in that,
instead of depicting the particular animal, human being or object in a naturalistic
manner, a conventional symbol is used. For example, as pointed out earlier, the
U within U design is often used to indicate a human or semi-human ancestor ;
the circle or spiral, a waterhole, hill or totemic place; the tracks of certain
creatures, the animal itsclf.

It seems possible that in the drawings, paintings and rock engraving of the
Australian aborigine can be seen a particularly primitive form both of artistic
expression and a desire to record events of the long distant past. The designs
have all the characteristics of primitive pictographs, while the symmetrical
placing of designs suggests some appreciation of decorative symbolism.

An examination of the figures in this paper will illustrate the danger of
attempting to interpret aboriginal rock paintings or carvings without the help of
the artist who produced them, or alternatively, an aborigine who knows their
meanings ultimately. Symbols, which in one drawing represent a waterhole, will
in another illustrate a hill or a camp. It is obvious that the exact meaning cannot
be even guessed at, although, in general, certain symbols are used extensively to
illustrate the same or similar objects.

95

SUMMARY.

This paper places on record a suite of 17 aboriginal crayon drawings from
Central Australia, the work of a Northern Aranda native. The interpretations,
as given to the writer, are recorded, similar legends from existing literature noted
and the symmetry and conventionalisation of the drawings discussed.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS,

The writer desires to acknowledge the assistance received from Mr. T. G.
Strehlow, who at the end of a day of strenuous travel found time to help the
writer to obtain the meanings of the drawings here recorded.

REFERENCES,

Spencer and GILLEN—Native Tribes of Central Australia.
SpENcER and GitLen—Northern Tribes of Central Australia,
SPENCER and GiLLEN—“Across Australia.”

Rerp, H.—Art and Society, London, p. 51.

Fone

STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN THYSANURA.

BY H. WOMERSLEY, F.R.E.S., A.L.S.

Summary

The Lepismatidae, together with the Machilidae, form the suborder Ectotrophi of the Thysanura.
As the subordinal name implies, their mouthparts are not retracted within the head-capsule as in the
Entotrophi, which comprises the Campodeidae and the Japygidae.

96

STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN THYSANURA.
No. 2—LEPISMATIDAE.

By H. Womerstey, F.R.E.S., A.LS., Entomologist, South Australian Museum.
[Read June 10, 1937. |

The Lepismatidae, together with the Machilidae, fcrm the suborder
Ectotrophi of the Thysanura. As the subordinal name implies, their mouth-
parts are not retracted within the head-capsule as in the Entotropht, which com-
prises the Campodeidae and the Japygidae.

The family under discussion comprises those insects generally known as
silver-fish. It is divided into three distinct subfamilies, Lepismatidae, Nico-
letinae and Maindroniinae, the last of which does not occur in Australia. The first
two subfamilies may be separated as follows :—

1.. Suhcoxae of genital segments broad and flat, covering bases of gonapophyses. Eyes present.
Terminal segment of maxillary palpi without sensory papillae. Body always scaled.

Lepismatinae Esch., 1905

2. Subcoxae of genital segments narrow, not covering bases of gonapophyses. Eyes wanting.

Terminal segment of maxillary palpi with conspicuous sensory papillac, Body scaled or

unscaled. Nicoletinae Esch., 1905

Both the above subfamilies differ from the Maindrontinae Esch., 1905, in
that they have the inner edge of the maxillary lacinia furnished with teeth and
bristles and not smooth. :

Silver-fish are generally to be found under bark, or fallen logs or stones, and
certain specialized forms are inhabitants of the nests of ants and termites, Other
species are limited to houses and factories in which various kinds of comestibles
are manufactured or stored. Of the eight genera and twenty species known to
occur in Australia, three genera represented by five species are probably introduc-
tions by way of commerce from other parts of the world. The remaining five
genera and fifteen species are truly indigenous, although all have representatives
in other countries. The genus Heterolepisma occurs in South America,
Acrotelsella in North and South America, Atelura in almost all regions but
especially Africa and South America, Atepatelura in South Africa, and Trmemura
in New Caledonia. The last genus is closely related to Nicoletta which occurs in
many regions, and to Trinemophora which is known from South America.

The above distribution would seem ta support the theory of the earlier
connection of Australia, South Africa and South America via Antarctica.

Subfamily LEPISMATINAE Esch., 1905.

Five genera containing thirteen species and one variety are known from this
country, Three of the genera and five species are extra-Australian and have
probably been introduced by commerce.

The species are all long, narrow, fish-like insects with very long antennae
and three long tails. ‘hey are heavily covered with scales and vary in colour
from silvery-white to dark brown or almost black. In certain lights the darker
forms often show remarkable reflections, The introduced forms may frequently
be found in houses, factorics and generally in warm places. These feed upon a
variety of substances such as the starchy matter of wallpaper and book-bindings,

97

and on many household materials such as woollens and artificial silks, The native

sp

mI

10.

11.

12.

13.

ecies are to be found under loose bark, stones and logs.

Key To THE AUSTRALIAN GENERA AND SPECIES OF LEPISMATINAE.
All dorsal and thoracic setae naked. 2

The larger dorsal and thoracic setae serrated, arranged in one or two pairs of brushes or
combs. 6

The larger dorsal and thoracic setae single, never in brushes or combs.

Genus Lepisma L, 1758
saccharina 1, 1758 (Cosmopolitan)

The setae of head and tergites arranged in brushes or combs. Rather flat species with
tergite X very short and only sl ghtly longer than TX; the inner pairs of dorsal setal
brushes weak, consisting of one long and two short sctac.
Genus Heterolepisma Esch., 1905. 3
Metasternum a simple more or less rounded or triangular plate. 4
Mctasternum complicated, consisting of a small anterior plate which tapers posterior'y
to a point, and on each side of the taper with an oval plate. Tergite X slightly longer than
wide at the base, with tapering sides and squarish apex. Stylets only on sternite IX.
TI. hartmeyeri Silv., 1908
Stylets present only on sternites VIII to TX. 5
Stylets on sternites V-IX, occasionally only on VI-IX or VII-IX. Metasternum with
apex slightly concave. Tergite X wider at base than long. H. stilivarius Silv., 1903

Metasternum as long as wide at base with tapering sides and rounded apex. Tergite X as
long as wide at base. H. michaelseni Silv., 1908

Metasternum wider than long and evenly rounded. Tergite X triangular with rounded apex.
H. kracpelini Silv., 1903

Tergite X long and triangular with sharp apex and laterally with many (at least two)
brushes of setac. Prosternum without a brush of setae. Genus Acrotelsella Silv. 7
Tergite X shorter, trapezoidal or rounded, or a short obtuse triangle, with only one lateral
brush of setae. il
Sternite IX of male considerably produced, 8
Sternite IX of male not unduly produced. 9
Sternite of male produced to twice the length of stylet IX. A, producta (Esch., 1905)

Sternite IX of male only produced to length of stylet IX.
A, splendens (Nicholls and Richardson, 1925)
10

Stylets present on sternites VITI-IX.
Stylets present only on IX. A. devriesiana s.sp. perspinata (Silv., 1908)
Stylets on sternite VIII of normal length. A, devricsiana (Silv., 1908)

Stylets on sternite VIII very much reduced. 4 qwestralis (Nicholls and Richardson, 1925)

Anterior abdominal tergites (at least II-VI) with four brushes, the following with two.
Maxillary palpi 5-segmented. Genus Clenolepisma Esch. 1905 (Tropicopolitan) 13
Abdominal tergites II-VIII with only two brushes of sctae. Maxillary palpi 5- or
6-segmented. Genus Thermobia Berg., 1890 12
Maxillary palpi 5-segmented, T. aegyptica (Luce., 1840)
Maxillary palpi 6-segmented. T. domestica (Pack., 1873) (Cosmopolitan)

White or cream-coloured species with the outer brushes on tergites II-IV. Stylets on
VITI-IX. C. longicaudata Esch., 1905

Brownish species with more or less of two longitudinal lighter streaks. Outer brushes on
tergites M-VII. Stylets on VIL-IX, C. lineata var. pilifera (Luc., 1840)

98

Genus Lerisma Gerv.
LEpPISMA SACCHARINA L., 1758,

This is the common house silver-fish of Europe which has been introduced
by commerce into Australia. It is to be found in grain and similar factories in
the larger towns of the Commonwealth.

Genus Hetrroterrsma Esch, 1905.
An indigenous genus represented by four known species from Australia.

HETEROLEPISMA STILIVARIUS Silv., 1908.

Hitherto known only from the original localities in Western Australia, where
it was taken by the Michaelsen Hartmeyer Expedition, I have recently received
two specimens, collected from under a log at Mount Lofty, South Australia,
May 15, 1937 (J. S. W.). As indicated in the key, the number of stylets is
variable.

HETEROLEPISMA MICHAELSENI Silv., 1908.

Described from the Michaelsen Hartmeyer material from Western Australia,
this species has also been found under eucalypt bark at Glenunga, South Australia.

HETEROLEPISMA KRAEPELINI Silv., 1908.

Described from Yalgoo, Western Australia. It is a fairly common species in
the foothills of the Mount Lofty Ranges at Glen Osmond, South Australia.

HETEROLEPISMA HARTMEYERI Silv., 1908.

This species is only known from the original locality at Northampton,
Western Australia, where it was taken by the Michaelsen Hartmeyer Expedition.

Genus ACROTELSELLA Silv.

This genus was erected in 1934 by Silvestri for all Escherich’s species
of Acrotelsa except the genotype, A. collaris, which differed from the rest
by the presence of a strong brush of setae on the prosternum. Four species and
one subspecies are known from Australia.

ACROTELSELLA PRopucTA (Esch,, 1905).

Only known from the original material in the Hamburg Museum from “Peak
Downs,”’ North Australia. Two varieties have been described (1934) by Silvestri
from the Marquesas.

ACROTELSELLA DEVRIESIANA (Silv., 1908).

This species was described from the Michaelsen Hartmeyer material from
many localities in Western Australia. A number of specimens were collected by
the writer from under fallen logs at Inneston, Yorke Peninsula, South Australia,
in April, 1936. ;

Subsp. PERSPINATA (Silv., 1908), .

Described from Denham and Dongarra in Western Australia, this variety
differs from the typical form in the absence of stylets on sternite VIII,

99

ACROTELSELLA SPLENDENS (N, and R., 1925).

This species was described from Mount Nairn and the Milly Milly district
of Western Australia. It is very close to A. producta but differs in the much
shorter prolongations of the ninth sternite. It has also been taken at Marino
and Glen Osmond, South Australia.

ACROTELSELLA WESTRALIS (N. and R., 1925).
Only known from a single male from Beaconsfield, Western Australia. It
can be distinguished as in the key.

Genus Crenotepisma Esch., 1905.
CTrENOLEPISMA LONGICAUDATA Esch., 1905.

This is considered to be a South African species which has become largely
tropicopolitan. It is very abundant and widespread in Australia and frequently
a serious pest in houses. It is of a whitish cream colour but lacks the silver sheen
of Lepisma saccharina.

CTENOLEPISMA LINEATA var. PILIFERA (Lucas, 1840).
This is an Egyptian form which has probably been spread by commerce.
I have specimens from Melbourne collected by Miss E. Lindsay. The typical
form differs from the preceding species morphologically in having the outer
brushes present on tergite VII. From the typical form the variety pilifera differs
in having three pairs of stylets.

Genus THERMosIA Berg, 1890.
THERMOBIA DoMESTICA (Pack., 1873).
Commonly known as the “fire-brat” of Europe and America, this cosmopoli-
tan insect occurs in Melbourne, and was also recorded as taken by the Michaelsen
Hartmeyer Expedition at Day Dawn, Western Australia.

THerMonta AEGYPTICA (Luc., 1840).
I have seen specimens of this introduced species collected by Miss Janet Raff
in Melbourne.

Subfamily NICOLETINAE Escherich, 1905.

In Australia this subfamily comprises the three genera Trinemura Silv.,
Atelura Heyd. and Atopatelura Silv. The last two are mainly confined to the
nests of ants and termites, and their species are rather small oval insects with
comparatively short antennae and tail appendages and are always thickly covered
with scales, which give them a somewhat golden colour. The species of Trinemura
are elongate parallel-sided insects and are not scale covered,

Key To THE AUSTRALIAN GENERA AND SPECIES.

1. Body elongate with parallel sides, without scales. Cerci and median tail appendage long.
Colour, whitish or creamy white. Stylets present on segments JII-IX. Exsertile vesicles
on VII, or on ILI-VII, Genus Trinemura Silv., 1908. 2
Body broad and oval, rapidly tapering, scaled. Cerci and median tail appendage short.
Colour, yellowish or golden. 3

2. Exsertile vesicles only on segment VII. Second antennal segment in male without apophysis.

T. novae-hollandiae Silv., 1908
Genotype from Western Australia.

Exsertile vesicles on segments III-VII. Second antennal segment in male with apophysis,
T. excelsa Silv., 1920. South Australia

100

3. Stylets present on sternites III-IX, those on III placed clase together on medial line.
Vesicles present on sternites VI-VII, Genus Atopatelura Silv., 1908 4
Stylets present only on V-IX or VLIX, and always widely separated. Vesicles on
sternites VI-VILI. Genus Atelura Heyd., 1855 6

4. Dorsal setae of abdominal tergites in a submedial transverse row, the setae almost as long

as the segments. Antennae 16-segmented. A. harimeyeri Silv., 1908. Western Australia

Dorsal setae not so long and relatively thicker, in a subposter‘or transverse row on each
segment. 5
5. Antennae 17-segmented. A. kracpelini Silv., 1908. Western Australia and Victoria
Antennae 20-segmented. A. michaelseni Silv., 1903

6. Four pairs of stylets present, on segments VI-IX, A. disjuncta Silv., 1903
Five pairs of stylets present, on segments V-IX.

A, similata Silv., 1908. Western Australia

Genus AteLura Heyden, 1855.

The silver-fish belonging to this and the next genus are rather small, some-
what oval insects with a rapidly tapering body. They are eyeless and scaled
with hyaline multiradiate scales. The antennae are shorter than the body and
many segmented, while the legs, although rather short, are very powerful and
enable the creature ta run with very great rapidity. The cerci and median tail
appendage are comparatively short, the tail being the longest. In the Australian
species of Atelura, stylets are only present on sternitcs V-IX or VI-IX, and
exsertile vesicles on VI-VII. In Atopalelura stylets are found on sternites ITI-IX,
but those on III are placed close together near the middle line. Both genera are
to be found associated with ants and termites.

ATELURA DISJUNCTA Sily., 1908.
Atclura disjuncta Silv., 1908. Fauna Stidwest Austr., vol. ii, p. 56, pl. vi,
figs. 75-87,
Silvestri’s material was collected by the Michaelsen Hartmeyer Expedition
from Guildford and Gooseberry Hill, Western Australia. I have material also
from the following localities, all in Western Australia.

Parkerville, July 5, 1930 (H. W.); Perth, October 4, 1930 (H, W.); Perth,
February 21, 1931 (with ants) (Hf. W.) ; Perth, April, 1931 (H. W.); Mandurah,
April 30, 1931 (H. W.); Waroona, May 2, 1931 (H. W.); Red Hill, August 27,
1931 (D. C. S.) ; Chittering, October 10, 1931 CH. W.).

ATELURA SIMILATA Silvy., 1908,
Atelura similata Silv., 1908, Fauna Siidwest Austr., vol. ii, p. 55, pl. v, figs.
65-72; pl. vi, figs. 73-74.
Only known from the original material from Roorabbin, Western Australia,
collected by the Michaelsen Hartmeyer Expedition.

Genus ATOPATELURA Silv., 1908.

Differs from Atelura Heyd. as detailed under that genus. The type species
A. furcifera Sily, is from the Congo. ‘The following three Australian species
are known.

ATOPATELURA HARTMEVERI Silv., 1908,

Atopatelura hartmeyert Silv., 1908, Fauna Siidwest Austr., vol. ii, p. 60,
pl. viii, figs. 117-127,

In addition to the original locality I have material from the following Western
Australian places.

101

King’s Park, Perth, September 28, 1930 (with termites) (H. W.); Red Hill,
August 27, 1931 (D. C.5.); Chittering, October 10, 1931 (with ants), (H. W.);
Kalamunda, June 1, 1932 (with ants), (G. E. N.).

ATOPATELURA KRAEPELINI Silv., 1908.

Atopatelura kraepelini Silv., 1908, Fauna Siidwest Austr., vol. ii, p. 58, pl. vii,
figs. 103-108; pl. viii, figs. 109-116.

Originally recorded from the nests of ants at Albany, Western Australia, the
writer has also found it in King’s Park, Perth, Western Australia, and associated
with the ant Notoncus sp. at Pern Tree Gully, Victoria, in January, 1937,

ATOPATELURA MICHAELSENI Silv., 1908.

Atopatelura michaelseni Silv., 1908, Fauna Siidwest Austr., vol. ii, p. 57,
pl. vi, figs. 88-89; pl. vii, figs. 92-102.
As yet only known from the original locality of Gooseberry Hill, Western
Australia.
Genus TRINEMURA Silv., 1908.

This genus was erected for a species T. novae-hollendiae Silv. from Western
Australia. It is very close to the genus Nicoletia Gerv., from which the genotype
differs in having only a single pair of exsertile vesicles on_ sternite VII, and
stylets on III-IX instead of vesicles on II-VII and stylets on II-IX. Trinemophora
Schiff. has no vesicles and stylets only on VIII and IX. In 1920 Silvestri
described a second species from South Australia under the name of T, excelsa
which possessed vesicles on sternites II-VI, and the male of which had an
apophysis on the second antennal segment. In 1936 the present writer described
a species Nicoletia australis from South Australia, being at the time unaware of
Silvestri’s second species of Trinemura. My species was placed in Nicoletia
because of the presence of exsertile vesicles on sternites III-IX. The stylets were
given as being on II-IX, but this was in error as they only occur on IIT-IX.
Silvestri appears to regard the number of stylets as of more importance generically
than that of the vesicles, and, therefore, while my species is conspecific with his
T. excelsa, my placing of it in Nicolctia docs not stand.

A third species, T. novae-caledoniae, has also been described by Silvestri from
New Caledonia which has exsertile vesicles on sternites II-VI.

TRINEMURA NOVAE-HOLLANDIAE Silv., 1908.

Trinemura novae-hollandiae Silv., 1908, Fauna Siidwest Austr., vol. ii, p. 62,
pl. ix, figs. 128-141,

Originally described from Gooseberry Hill, Western Australia, the writer
found several specimens under a stone in the damp bed of a creek at Armadale on
August 21, 1931, and again at Kelmscott on September 4, 1932, while Mr. D. Cc.
Swan took it at Pinjarra on September 30, 1931. It is not known outside of
Western Australia.

TRINEMURA EXCELSA Silv., 1920.

Trinemura excelsa Silv., 1920, Boll. Lab. Zool. Portici, vol. xiv, p. 216,
figs. 1, 2.

Nicoletia australis Wom., 1936, Trans. Roy. Soc, S. Austr., vol. lx, p. 112,
fig. 1 a-g.

The original material, two males only, was collected by Prof, Silvestri in the
neighbourhood of Mount Lofty, South Australia, while my own material was
found in a rotten log in the National Park, at Belair, South Australia. Recently
I collected a single specimen from under a stone on Mount Lofty, May 12, 1937,

A NEW MARINE CHIRONOMID FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

BY H. WOMERSLEY, F.R.E.S., A.L.S.

Summary

In 1926 Dr. F. W. Edwards (Proc. 2001. Soc., London, vol. ii, p. 796) described the extremely
interesting genus of midges Pontomyia for P. natans sp. n., from material collected by Dr. Buxton
along the coast of Samoa. Recently a second species of the same genus has been found inhabiting
the coast of Reevesby Island, one of the Sir Joseph Banks Group in Spencer Gulf, South Australia.
The specimens were collected by Mr. B. C. Cotton, of the South Australian Museum, while with the
Melbourne University McCoy Expedition under the leadership of Prof. F. Wood-Jones in
December, 1936.

The new species, which is named in honour of the discoverer, differs in but small characters from
the genotype, so that in the following description it is only necessary to direct attention to these.
Male specimens only were obtained.

102

A NEW MARINE CHIRONOMID FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
By H. Womerstey, F.R.E.S., A.L.S., Entomologist, South Australian Museum.
[Read June 10, 1937.]

In 1926 Dr. F. W. Edwards (Proc. Zool. Soc., London, vol. ii, p. 796)
described the extremely interesting genus of midges Pontomyia for P. natans sp. n.,
from material collected by Dr. Buxton along the coast of Samoa. Recently a
second species of the sare genus has been found inhabiting the coast of Reevesby
Island, one of the Sir Joseph Banks Group in Spencer Gulf, South Australia. The
specimens were collected by Mr. B. C. Cotton, of the South Australian Museum,
while with the Melbourne University McCoy Expedition under the leadership of
Prof. F. Wood-Jones in December, 1936.

The new species, which is named in honour of the discoverer, differs in but
small characters from the genotype, so that in the following description it is only
necessary to direct attention to these. Male specimens only were obtained.

Fig. 1, a-g.
Pontomyia cottoni, sp. n.

(a) antenna, (b) wing, (c) leg 1, (d) leg TT, (ec) leg ITT,
(f{) maxillary palp, (g) mule hypopygium.

Pontomyia, cottoni, sp. n.

Description of Male——Differs from the genotype as follows: the eyes are
not bare but distinctly pubescent; the tarsi of third legs lack even rudiments of
claws, while the ventral tubercle of same is large and distinctly sucker-like; the
seventh abdominal segment does not appear to be asymmetrical and lacks the
prolongation figured by Edwards; the abduminal segments have the following
dorsal setae on each side, I-ITI one, 1V-V three, VI two, VII one, VIII four.
The colour is as given for P, natans, except that the apical abdominal segments
are somewhat darkened. The wings show the same peculiar twist as in P. natans.

103

The genus Pontomyia is defined by Edwards thus :—Male: Antennae
15-segmented, long, slender and bare. Palpi large, 2-segmented. Labium
atrophied. Tip of abdomen permanently rotated through 180°. Front legs long;
first tarsal segment longer than tibiae; no claws. Mid-legs remarkably short and
rather stout; claws of peculiar structure. Hind legs long; claws rudimentary; no
tibial combs or spurs; no empodium. Wings reduced in size and of peculiar form,
the basal part puffed out, the tip flattened and jointed, venation not clearly defined.
Female: vermiform, without appendages except for the rudimentary posterior
legs. Larvae and pupae resembling those of Tanytarsus.

From the similarity of the larvae and pupae of P. natfans to those of the
two normally developed and unmodified species of Tanytarsus, halophilae Edw..
and maritimus Edw., which occur in the early stages along with those of
Pontomyia, Edwards considers that P. natans is a species of Tanytarsus that has
become largely modified in the adult stage to suit it to a submarine existence.

In a subsequent paper to that of Edwards, Buxton describes the extraordinary
habits of the adults of the Samoan insect. The larvae and pupae are found in
small mud tubes attached to the leaves and stems of the marine plant Halophila
ovalis, which grows at or below low water mark. The food of the larvac appeared
to consist largely of diatoms and, while some of the leaves showed evidence of
having been eaten, it was not definitely ascertained that this was due to the larvae.
The female insect is very much reduced, quite apterous and lacks appendages
except for the rudiments of the posterior two pairs of legs; they do not appear
normally to leave the pupal tube and copulation may take place while still within
the tube. The male is generally at home in the water, swimming in search of the
female. Locomotion is accomplished by means of its long first and third pairs of
legs and apparently without the use of its wings. Strong tidal currents did not
appear to interfere with it much, and Buxton caught most of his material by means
of a tow-net dragged through the water over and amongst the plants at low or
half tide and after sundown. ‘hey were not found during daylight hours.

Of our South Australian species there is, as yet, little in the way of observa-
tions on its habits to report, but I am indebted to Mr. Cotton for the following :—

“These small insects were taken on the west coast of Reevesby Island at sun-
down on December 7, 11 and 12, 1936, while sieving the surface sand for small
crustaceans. They were to be seen skipping about on the surface in slight depres-
sions in the drier sand close to the waters edge. At no time during the day when
this work was being carried on were they observed, and at sundown it was only
close examination of the sand surface to observe the habits of burrowing
amphipods that revealed them. A few specimens were also seen floating on the
water at the extreme edge of the tide.” :

As far as the above observations go, our Australian species would appear to
be not quite as truly submarine as P. natans and possibly may not be as closely
associated with Halophila, although Mr. Cotton informs me that this plant was
growing in the neighbourhood. Associated with the midge were specimens of the
small Curctlionid beetle Notiomimetes pascoei Wollaston belonging to the
Cossoninae which are essentially inhabitants of the coasts of islands around the
Australian and New Zealand coasts.

@) The early stages of the Chironomidae often show more marked generic and
specific differences than are to be found in the adults.

ON SOME AUSTRALIAN COLEOPTERA OF THE SUBFAMILY
COSSONINAE (CURCULIONIDAE).

BY H. WOMERSLEY, F.R.E.S., A.L.S.

Summary

The Cossoninae are a very interesting group of small weevils which appear to be specially adapted
for life on oceanic islands. They are very abundant in New Zealand, Lord Howe and Norfolk
Islands, and about fifty species are known from Australia.

104

ON SOME AUSTRALIAN COLEOPTERA OF THE SUBFAMILY
COSSONINAE (CURCULIONIDAE),

By H. Womers.ey, F.R.E.S., A.L.S., Entomologist, South Australian Museum.
[Read June 10, 1937.]

The Cossoninae are a very interesting group of small weevils which appear to
be specially adapted for life on oceanic islands. They are very abundant in New
Zealand, Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands, and about fifty species are known from
Australia.

In the Coleopterorum Catalogus, pt. cxlix, 1936, p. 110, the genus
Notiomimetes Wollaston, 1873, is given as synonymous with Psaldus Pascoe,

Fig. t.

Notiomimetes pascoci Woll.
(a) dorsal view of bectle, (b) lateral view of head, (c) ventral view,
(d) leg 1, (e) leg IJ, (£) leg ITI, (g) antenna, (h) clytral selae.

1870, evidently on the opinion expressed by Lea in the Proc. Linn. Soc. New
south Wales, vol. xxii, p. 638. On referring to the vriginal descriptions of these
two genera, however, we find that in Psaldus (type liosomotdes Pascoe) the
antennal funicle is stated to be 7-segmented, and in Notiomimetes (type pascaci
Wollaston) to be 4-segmented. Obviously, then, there can he no such synonymy
as given by Lea,

In 1909, in his paper on the Curculionidae of the Michaelscn and Harimeyer
Expedition (Fauna Stidwest Australiens, vol. ii, p. 231) Lea erected the genus
Wollastonicis for the species W. minutus with a 6-segmented antennal funicle.
Of this species he had but a single specimen from the German collection fram the
neighbourhood of Denham, South Western Australia. In addition, however, he

105

had two other specimens from the Australian Museum, Sydney, which he surmised
had been taken by Masters in the vicinity of St. George’s Sound, Western Aus-
tralia, These two specimens, which have no locality label, are evidently those in
the Lea Collection in the South Australian Museum and marked by Lea as
TYPES of W. minutus.

In the course of determining some material from Reevesby Island, South
Australia, collected by Mr. B. C. Cotton while with the McCoy Expedition of the
Melbourne University, under the leadership of Prof. F. Wood-Jones, to the Sir
Joseph Banks Group in December, 1936, it was found that the specimens standing
under the name of WV’. minutus Lea in the Museum Collection comprised more
than one species.

Fig. 2.
a-c, Psaldus liosomoides Pasc.: (a) entire dorsal view, (b) antenna,
(c) elytral sctae; d-e, Wollastonicis minutus Lea: (d) antenna,
(c) elytral sctae.

Of this material certain specimens collected at Port Lincoln by Blackburn
possessed a 6-segmented antennal funicle and otherwise agreed well with Lea’s
description. Other specimens had a 4- or 7-segmented funicle. The two specimens
supposed to be from King George’s Sound were re-examined and found not to
agree with the description in that they had a 7-segmented funicle. It was, there-
fore, clear that they were not identical with the single specimen collected by
Michaelsen and Hartmeyer, but agreed with Pascoe’s genus and species Psaldus
liosomoides. The specimens in the Museum Collection with 4-segmented funicles
were in agreement with Wollaston’s Notiomimetes pascoet.

The position then is that the three genera Psaldus Pascoe, Notiomimetes

Wollaston and Mollastonicis Lea are abundantly distinct in the segmentation of
the antennal funicle, and although superficially very similar there are, as shown

@) At this time Lea used the term TYPE in a very wide sense.

106

in this paper, very striking differences of specific value in the setae of the elytra.
The three genera and species may be keyed as follows:—

1. Elytral interstices with a double row of only minute punctures ; carinae more pronounced.

Antennal funicle 7-segmented. Gen. Psaldus Pasc., 1870
Setae of elytral carinae large and of peculiar form: those of interstices small, simple
and short. ltosomoides Pasc., 1870

la. Elytral interstices with a double row of larger punctures; carinae not so pronounced. 2
2. Antennal funicle 4-segmented. Gen. Notiomimetes WollL, 1873
Punctures with simple long, basally widened setae; carinae with stout slightly curved
simple blunt setae. pascoei Woll., 1873

2a. Antennal funicle 6-segmented. Gen. Weollastomicis Lea, 1909

Punctures with quadrified setae; carinae with stout fimbriated setae,
minutus Lea, 1909

From the matcrial in the South Australian Museum the distribution of the
above species is as follows :-—

Psaldus liosomoides Pasc—South Australian Coast and adjacent islands;
King George’s Sound, Western Australia.

Notiomimetes pascoei Woll. South Australian Coast and adjacent islands.

Wollastonicis minutus ‘ea. Denham, South Western Australia; Port
Lincoln, South Australia.

As no detailed drawings of these beetles appear to have ever been published,
figures illustrating the generic and specific characters are now given. No reference
is made in any of the three descriptions to the comb of teeth at the apex of the
tibiac, but this feature is common to all and is figured for N. pascoet,

In the generic description Notiomimetes is stated to be eyeless. Eyes are,
however, distinctly present, although small and tending to be hidden under the edge
of the pronotum.

NATIVE SONGS OF THE SOUTH-EAST OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

BY NORMAN B. TINDALE, B.SC.

Summary

The material discussed in this paper was obtained by the writer during a brief period of work with
Milerum (Clarence Long), one of the few surviving natives of the South-East of South Australia, in
December, 1932. It comprises seventeen songs sung by the Tanganekald.

The early life of Milerum was spent among the aged people of the Tanganekald (Tangane Tribe)
during the last of their days of nomadic living in the unsettled country near Salt Creek on the
Coorong. He did not learn either to read or to write, and thus was the more able and willing to
absorb the lore of his forefathers. As a consequence, this knowledge and the remembrance of
several native dialects has survived into a period when the former inhabitants of the whole extent of
the South-East of South Australia have vanished and are scarcely remembered in the land where
they once roamed.

107

NATIVE SONGS OF THE SOUTH-EAST OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

By Norman B. Trnpate, B.Sc., Ethnologist, South Australian Museum.
[Read June 10, 1937.]

The material discussed in this paper was obtained by the writer during
a brief period of work with Milerum (Clarence Long), one of the few surviv-
ing natives of the South-East of South Australia, in December, 1932. It
comprises seventeen songs sung by the Tanganekald.

The early life of Milerum was spent among the aged people of the
Tanganekald (Tangane Tribe) during the last of their days of nomadic living
in the unsettled country near Salt Creek on the Coorong. He did not learn
either to read or to write, and thus was the more able and willing to absorb
the lore of his forefathers. As a consequence, this knowledge and the remem-
brance of several native dialects has survived into a period when the former
inhabitants of the whole extent of the South-East of South Australia have
vanished and are scarcely remembered in the land where they once roamed.

Nineteen songs were sung and described by Milerum and were trans-
cribed. Somewhat later it became possible for sixteen of them to be recorded
on Edison wax cylinders by Prof. Harold Davies and myself. It is to be
hoped that they may be reproduced in a more permanent form together with
other songs in the growing collection of original records belonging to the
Board for Anthropological Research of the University of Adelaide.

The spelling of the words is based on the scheme proposed by a
Language Committee at the University of Adelaide.“ In Tanganekald there
are two series of dentals; one is alveolar like the English ones. In producing
the other series the tongue tip is protruded about one-eighth in front of the
teeth. The second series is denoted by [t], [d] and [n].

For convenience a strict rendering of the tribal name is only given once.
Thus the [’Jarilde’kald] is elsewhere written in the more conventional
manner as Jaralde, while the [’Tanane’kald] or [’Tayani’kald] are spoken of
as the Tangane, the [’Po:taru’wutj| as the Potaruwutj, and the [’Ra:minjeri]
as the Raminjeri.

Natives vary between [injeri] and [indjeri] in the pronunciation of the
termination of some tribal and clan names. In this account [injeri] is
preferred, although both were used by my informant.

Isolated words written in the phonetic script are enclosed in square
brackets when they appear in the ordinary text.

The subjects of these songs are varied. Often they were of major
importance in the life of the people, helping to record their history, chronicle
the dramatic incidents of the lives of their great men, control their habits,
excite them to battle, and even magically. condemn them to sickness and
death.

To the Tangane natives many of the songs are known as [‘tunari], others
as [’mantu’mangari]. Of the [‘tuyari] they distinguish several kinds, includ-
ing [’pekere ’tunar] or “dream time” songs, and [’peika ’bak:i ’tunar] or songs
associated with death. Among the [’tunari] are included various totemic
songs. Thus we have the [’kondoli ’tunari], which relates to the whale
totem of the Murray Mouth. Songs of a different order, associated with

() Tindale, N. B., Records of S. Aust. Museum, vol. v, 1935, pp. 261-274.

108

inter-tribal disputes, are known as [’pelekawi] among the Tangane, and as
[weritjin] to the neighbouring Potaruwutj people who live somewhat inland
from the Coorong and south of the place called “Cold and Wet.”

For the purpose of the present paper the songs may be classified into :-—

(a) “Dream” Songs or Pekere,

These record the traditions of the arrival of the first natives in the
country and tell of the adventures of ancestral beings. Some of the older
songs of this type are sung in archaic dialects and their meaning is partly
obscured.

(b) Magical Songs.

Some of these are associated with bullroarer magic. Songs of this
character may mention also the practice of being able to become invisible, a
power believed to be possessed by certain types of native magicians.

(c) Songs associated with Sickness and Death.
(d) Yotemic Songs.
(e) Hunting Songs.
(f) Dramatic Songs and Epics.
. (g) Ltghting Songs.
These are sung either during fighting, or, more often, during the period
when men are working themselves into the mood for battle.

(h) Songs Demonstrating Public Opinion.

The subjects of such songs include rebukes to widows and _ threats
against neighbouring tribes.

The singing of these songs often helps to crystallize public opinion against
those who break the conventions. For example, the widow who attempts
to bring herself before the notice of young men before her period of mourn-
ing has concluded is reminded of her transgression, and is threatened with
punishment. In the larger sphere of inter-tribal issues such songs often gave
excuse for strife or helped to cause it, even though their real purpose was to
hold evil-doers up to scorn and ridicule.

The texts are piven with inter-linear translations, and are followed by
more detailed notes and descriptions. Wherever possible the actual wards
used hy the informant are given, the degree of approximation to his actual

remarks being roughly indicated by the use of double and single inverted
commas,

A DrrAM-TIME Sona,
(Song 11 of Milerum series.)

‘Gurw’nulun ‘and “wardand *wanun’ganji
Talking people all around (say) retreat
*goroynkanal ‘lei a’meing *nain’gara’nal
terrible roaring stopped them to rush about in disorder
(goroykol, “a noise which brings you to (“like white men in a cily
a sudden stop, unable to move with street”)
fear’’)
‘guru’nulun ‘and “wardand ‘terto vlin
talking people all around (say) = tartuwalin

“asking what shall we do” “settle down”

109

C(hjend ’barum ai! ‘walanala talana’leir
our settled place cut off all round “settle down”
(r)’einamb ‘maran’gara’nal.

make the best of it not trouble to move.

Repeat several times to make a ceremony.

This is one of a series of Tanganekald songs about ancient times [’pekere
‘tunar]. It was learned by Milerum from [’Talda’madeorn], an old man of
McGrath Flat Point (native place name [’Talda’madinjeri]), who was the
[‘natjunu] (reciprocal [natj]) of Milerum. Milerum’s mother’s mother
[’natjunuwi|] married this old man.

“When natives arrived in their country in [’pekere] (dream) times, they
came from the north out of [’lerami], the inland scrub country. They heard
a great noise, which was so terrible that it brought them abruptly to a stand-
still. Some were unable to move with fear, while others began to rush about
in panic. One man asked the people, for there were many of them :—

“[’Tano’walo’yan.’] “What will you do now?’ They replied, ‘Let us
go back’ [wanun’ganji]. Word went around saying, ‘We must stay here; we
are cut off all around; let us make the best of this country.’ The noise was
made in order to tell people they must stop, and not travel further. The noise
was just like the sound of the great waves beating on the Coorong beach.”

The name of the Tangane Tribe is derived from the leader’s exclamation,
[’Tano’walo’yan !’]

Milerum, in describing the effect of the [’goronkol], or “noise which
brings you to a sudden stop,” likened the people rushing about without order
[‘nain’gara’nal] to “white men in city streets.’ The ceaseless roar of the
surf on the ocean beach is a characteristic feature of the Coorong.

A story similar to that related above was told to Brown,@) and is briefly
mentioned in his paper on the social organisation of the Murray River tribes.

A Seconp Dream Sone.
(Song 12 of Milerum series.)

n’gawa’reilar i ‘damb :’aran’gal “toropo ‘alni
n’gawal (or country) "tamb/’aran’gal from end to end
travelled over
‘bunarei’lar ’winma ‘nal ‘woreijg ’galowei
remain here “satisfied” everything right
“made for us” (water, food, meat, fish>
’kol’keilin “tarupul ‘nal yn’ ganan’palo’ wei *manta’lana’nar
demonstrated what to do disappeared magically
’wudkeilin “tarupul ‘nal *manta’lana’nar n’ganan’galo’wei
? what to do magically disappeared
Repeat,

This old [’pekere ’tunar] of the Tangane was sung a “long time ago,”
and the word for word meaning is somewhat obscure owing to the archaic
words it contains.

@) Brown, A. R., Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst., London, vol. xlviii, 1918, p. 226.

110

When the natives first came to the Coorong they were accompanied by
a [’malda’wuli] or ancestral being, who led them over all their new country.
He showed them where water, meat, fish, herbs and other foods were to be
obtained. The [’malda’wuli] taught some of the old men how to practice
[’manta’lana’nar] (ie, “kurdaitja,” or walking with magic shoes}, and then
used the magic to cause himseli to disappear.

A man who wishes to practise [’manta’lana’nar] prepares coverings for
his knees, legs and hands. These are called [’tawal’atami]. Ile then places
on his feet a pair of shoes called [’karaigat’atami]. Finally he “smokes” him-
self by standing in the dense smoke of a fire made of green wattle branches,
smears his feet and the shoes with a magical mixture and instantly vanishes
on his secret mission. With the aid of [’manta’lana’nar] he can travel the
whole length of the Coorong in one night, “bone” a man and return to his
own camp before morning.

The mixture which the practiser of [’manta’laya‘nar] places on his body
is compounded of hair plucked from the dead, pieces of cpidermis peeled
from a body during the smoke-curing process, and snake poison, or [’luk:i]
(literally “death-adder poison’),

The slippers, or [’karaigat’atami], which leave no track, are made of
human hair (the long hair of women) and tea-tree (Leplospermum) bark.
The human hair string forms the weft, and the “tea-tree” the warp. A hole
is left for the big toe.

The knee, leg and hand coverings, known collectively as [’tawal’atami],
are formed of netting made from animal sinews and of rush matting such as
is used for native baskets.

Old men, who kept [’karaigat’atami] and ['tawal’atami] in their camps,
would take them out, from time to time, and oil them with emu and fish oil.
They did this ostensibly to keep them soft, pliable and fit for use in crawling
upon their intended victims, but also hoped, thereby, to remind people of
their powers.

STorM Sone,
(Song 10 of Milerum series.)

’Larinum ‘maygun al ’mantal *koron’kondo’leir "jenawalin
Listen everyone thunder rumbling overhead
‘teipulan’ganam ai ‘nalande "turtangal
very near “close and dangerous” forked lightning
nulu’nulukein ‘mur’pununel "belindju:n
“lightning” strikes keep a look out beware (alarm, warning)

nu‘ralda‘leinar,
of the raging thing.

“A very old song of the Tangane tribe. It tells of stormy weather, and
warns people against the practices of evil magic. Stormy weather is the
proper time for the bad men to sneak about [’tampun] with a poison bone.

“When a storm is raging old men bring out their parcels of bones
[‘neiljari], hold them in the smoke of the fire, wipe them and make them
ready so that they may go ‘sneaking about’ [’tampun]. People sleep most
soundly at times when it 1s raining, and it is then rather easy to ‘bone’ them.
The storm erases all marks of the visit. An old man would not go [’tampun]

to catch a man at times when the nights were clear because his tracks could
be traced.

111

“When a [‘neiljari] has been ‘smoked’ lightning will not strike it if the
point is kept directed downwards. When lightning is near an old man who
has no grievances will bury his [’neiljari] for safety against the lightning.
If he wishes to use his ‘bones’ he puts them in warm ashes, and then wipes
them with swan-down or emu feathers. When he goes [’tampun] he holds
the bones point upwards, to ‘keep the lightning there,’ and thus is able to
hold the storm overhead until his work is done.”

MIMIKUR OR BULLROARER SONG.
(Song 9 of Milerum scries.)

’Noala ‘nala ‘matu’weiangur ‘kalaten
“That is her’ Matu (name) a young woman glances
*balinji:n ‘jorankeinj ’noala ’nala
very free standing about that is her
(in sight of young man)
*matu’welayngur *’manea ‘ganda’lou
‘wolma’wia Jawun ’geitjal *konkinj
n’goreing ny’ gorein’ gur
Repeat,

This song belongs to the people of the Meintank [’Meint’a:nk] tribe,
who lived in the inland scrub country [‘lerami] south-east of Salt Creek. It
is a song of Milerum’s mother’s tribe. Only the first part was translated.

It is the first of a series sung in order to kill a person. Its effect is to
“bruise” the individual and make him ill, “It came directly from
{’Gargum’bitj], also called [’Rupuli], a mythical being. An idea passes into
the mind of an old man saying, ‘That person is going to be ill.” The same
song is used by the Buandik [’Bun’gandait}] tribesmen near Mt. Gambier,
but is by them intended to kill outright. The Buandik practice was to kill
the person straight away, take the caul fat, and bury the rest of the body.”

DEATH FEAR SONG.
(Song 13 of Milerum series.)

Ter’tayala ’gawanda ‘wera’toana
Smoke (signal) made going straight upward (indicates
(also a man’s name) a signal)
‘tarndei ‘nara ‘purntai ‘manju’rumund
“to show from whence” returning from killing (having done the
work of killing)
ter’tanala *gawanda ‘mula ‘nain ‘nankar
smoke made “that’s for him’ “good fellow”
*kulda’lai *perien ‘lar ’en: ar Jarumulun
‘Kulda, man’s name, a “the thing that killed them” they dropped down
maldawuli, who came (small pox)

out of “Ju: ki

*bonkulun ‘peilpiai - ‘ye’rei’luna *podo’pulun
rose up quickly “wasted no time” departed

12

‘neija’ mane ‘not ta’ramang
“to their place” (spirit country) “out of sight” (in the West)

This is a [’peika ’bak :i ’tunar], or “death fear,” or “death approach” song.
It was said to have been sung when the [’muk: uwalin] or [’merki] (smallpox)
epidemic) came to the tribe several generations ago, and was taught to
Milerum by [’Kal’murinjeri], a man of the [’Kan’geilinjeri] clan at
j’Kalmurung], the Needles, near McGrath Flat.

The song describes the sudden appearance of a |’malda’wuli] (dream
man) out of the Southern Cross [’Ju:ki], like a flash of light, too bright to
look at. Ile went westward, and when he arrived at his camp made a “smoke
signal” and waved his arms as a sign that many natives should follow him.
People heard a great noise, and looked up [’meinjana ’nampi], saw him move
his hand and said, [“Ha! ’peika ’bak:i1”] or “Ah! death comes.” The “small-
pox” came along and many died because he made this signal. ‘Their spirits
followed the [’malda’wuli] to Kangaroo Island, which, to the Tangane
natives, is the home of the dead. Many bones in the sandhills of the Coorong
belong to people who have been “beckoned to” by ['Kulda] the [’malda’wuli].

WHALE SoNG,
(Song 14 of Milerum series.)

’Galing ‘nen “jowar ‘dur :’ein’gol hei! ei!
“Around the bay” mother and son
‘galing ‘nen “jowar ‘pulu’rein’gol
‘galing ‘nen ’jowar hei! ei! ei!

Repeat.

The [’kondoli ’tunar], or whale song, belongs to the Raminjeri tribes-
people at Encounter Bay, and is sung in the Raminjeri language.

“A female whale and its calf are sporting on the white sandy bottom and
in the shallow water near the beach at Encounter Bay. The young whale
is nearly ashore. Some natives are anxious that it should strand so that they
may collect the oil or [’kraipunuk]. A [’kondoli] totem man would sing the
above song with [’miwurun], that is, with the wish that the whale and its
young (called its son) should go around the bay and escape, lest it be inter-
fered with by ‘evil-minded’ people.”

The [’miwund| or |’miwurun] is expressed in the vehement [hci! ei! ei!]
described by informant as “setting your mind on wishing.’ The word
[dur :’ein’gol] is a combination of [duri] (mother), and [‘ol:i] (male child).
The meaning of the word |’pulu’reingol] was not known to Milerum.

Whale oil is employed as a base for native poisons used on [/neciljari]
bones, and is mixed with red ochre as a body paint.

HUNTING Sona.
(Song 1 of Milerum series.)

‘KReinjeruna a’denaru ‘wulga’renal
Grass-tree scrub hunting commenced

‘keinangal ‘a ‘anambar *terewalt “tanal
“there they are” all over place hop they go

©) Stirling, Sir Edward C., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. xxxv, 1911, pp. 4-46.

113

‘keinjeruna a’denar ‘tau ‘wangular ‘pereilba.
grass-tree scrub hunting look around (dogs) chasing
*wanbi’jul ‘ynulu’nand = ata ’woreint ‘jonga “namu
hill look back walking up quickly
‘woreint’anun ‘an ’nambina jata’wul
looked and saw (them) all over place was surprised
every where
‘tanatin ‘lamindjul 'teki ‘napunt
misjudged raised (spear) missed aim.
Repeat,

A Tanganekald hunting song which was a great favourite at corobori
gatherings. As many as 50) or 60 men would sing it together. It describes
an occasion, at least several generations ago, when many men went hunting
together and drove game on to Monokoru Point on the Coorong (Hundred
of Glyde). This Point is in the form of a broad, flat peninsula with a narrow
neck, and juts out into the waters of the Coorong. The hunt commenced
in the grass-tree scrub, with a long line of men driving the game before them.
The composer describes how he “saw kangaroos and emus moving about
through the grass-tree scrub.” A man who had lagged behind relcased
his dogs too soon; he should have held them in leash; the other hunters,
therefore, had to let their’s loose also. “The song-maker walked quickly up
a hill and saw that, despite this mishap, the success of the hunt was assured
because kangaroos were hopping everywhere. A kangaroo surprised him,
he misjudged the distance, raised his spear hurriedly into the spear-thrower
and ‘let fly,’ but missed his aim.” The sequel is not told in song.

The game were driven on to the Point; many natives thereupon stood
guard across the narrow part while special men, armed with clubs, and men
carrying spears, went on to the peninsula to kill the emus and the wallabies
that awaited them in the natural trap.

Sone of Watr’s Ficnt.
(Song 15 of Milerum series.)

’Wakun ‘derubul ‘nil’nilwan :in ’war’wand
Shouting out are you ready (Wati) stepped out
(men lined up for a fight)
*kanma’na ‘jonkindj ’warantjenin’gel
on the right-hand side (boomerangs and clubs) they were not difficult
they threw to dodge
“wakun’derubul ‘nilnilwan:in ‘war’ wand ‘kan’ guna
shouting out are you ready (Wati) stepped out on left-hand side
“jonkindj ‘warinin in’ gel
they threw difficult ones to dodge
"buin gol gol jonkindj ‘boygi ’kan’guna jonkindj
backwards they threw them Icft hand they threw them
na ‘warinkan in’gel ’wakun’derubul ‘gil’nil’wan sin
ones very difficult to dodge shouting out are you ready
‘war’ wand ‘ganuna "jonkindj.
stepping out on every side they threw them.

Repeat.

114

This is an epic of the Potaruwutj people, and the words are in the
language of the tribe. The song is thought to have originated as a corobori
some three generations ago. It recounts the adventures of Wati. Milerum,
when a little boy, saw Wati on one occasion. He was then a very old man
who was engaged in setting duck nets. The song describes a challenge fight
which too place by arrangement at Baukara. The origin of the fight was as
follows :—

“The Kangarabalak |’Kanarabalak] tribe of natives came from the north,
at Naracoorte, and challenged the Reedy Creek natives to a fight at
[’Baukara], which is on the Reedy Creek main road, running north from
Kingston to Naracoorte. It is near the spot where the present main road
crosses the creek (Section 93, Hundred of Bowaka). A line of men prepared
to fight. Wati, a man of [’Parmpam], on Reedy Creek, stepped out in front
of his mates, and all the enemy threw their boomerangs at him. His com-
panions shouted advice to him. They warned him because specially poisoned
boomerangs [‘nerum’nerum] were being thrown at him from left and right.
These boomerangs had been dipped in dead-body-juices, and were thus
especially dangerous (‘if goes in you die’). Wati’s mates warned him of
throwings made by the enemy. One enemy threw an ordinary boomerang
at him, and as he warded off the weapon another aimed a [’nerum’nerum] at
him. Wati had to be warned so that he could ward off the dangerous weapon
with his shield while dodging the ordinary boomerangs. When Wati had
demonstrated his prowess his mates stepped forward, forced the enemy back,
and chased them, as related in the following song” ;—

Sone. or Wati’s Vicrory.
(Song 16 of Milerum series.)

ngeia *moromorowan ‘wawit} "ninge’ri inkarmia
(flourish) kneeling down (defence) afraid shift backwards scatter them

ar’ galbi’tei “joroy’ solo’ wei *moromorowan
“beating them” knocking them down kneeling down (defence)
’wawitj "njingar *mait’paul’ding *barininarum
scared flinching yield ‘nerum ’yerum
boomerangs
*wirin’tjangi *put ’pu:d “joron’golowei.
keep at it all over “knocking them out.”

(old men said)

“The Kangarabalak men were on the defensive; they knelt low down in
their cfforts to dodge the boomerangs; they became frightened and retreated,
Scattering as they went. Many of them were struck by boomerangs, Some
threw away their weapons (would then no longer be attacked in a challenge
fight). The old men who watched the fight said ‘keep on,’ but it was all
over. Wati and his mates won, having knocked out eight of the Naracoorte
natives. In any case, they were in the wrong, because they had previously
killed Wati’s brother.”

MARAMANDANGUNURU’s ComRAT.
(Song 18 of Milerum series. )

n’gala’panantai:n *nankan’ark kela’namunun

‘Coming with vengeance” in day time do not mind
“danger”

115

*manatanarang njinkunduyeil kurukeila
showed bravery I despise them blood-shed
M. speaking
“‘turt’angala ‘nunu’yjolald ‘tayanji’neind
run for life abbrey. of ‘nunu’nola’nangald “cannot feel their rage”
I go with you not afraid
‘naral’dein a ‘gawari ‘jagand
in temper coming with vengeance.

A [’tunari] of the Tangane Tribe. It is an old song and is sung in an
archaic form of Tangane. [’Mara’manda’nunuru], the hero, was a legendary
being who made songs about Ngurunderi [’nu’runderi], the greatest of the
ancestors of the Murray River people. One of his songs is given below.

“T*Mara’manda’nunuru| was married to a woman of the Raminjeri tribe
of Port Elliot. He was a Tanganekald belonging to [’Punandi’tjin], a place
on the lagoon shore on the coast side of the Coorong, due south of Cocoanut
Well. He was living at Port Elliot, ["Rawaru’yald], in his wife’s country,
when the incident occurred. :

“The quarrel which led to the combat commenced because of a matri-
monial gricvance. [’Mara’manda’nunuru] saw two young men at the Finnis
Creek, near [’Karapo’ar] (Section 2351, Hundred of Alexandrina). Because
one of the young men had possession of a woman who, he thought, should
be his, [’Mara’manda’nunuru| rushed at them with a club, and killed them.
Ie then retreated into the scrub and went back to [’Rawaru’yald], where
he waited, unafraid, for the men who gathered to attack him with vengeance
in their hearts.

“One man, who was a friend of [’Mara’manda’yunuru], said, ‘T will go
with you. Run for your life. There will be bloodshed’

“M. replied, ‘They are coming full of temper’ (therefore not steady
enough for real fighting). M. ‘smoked himsclf’ by standing in the smoke of
wattle branches, rubbed himself with emu fat and awaited the enemy. He
stood up like a man; the avengers threw spears at him for a long time; blood
was drawn; several men stood up beside M. to protect him from cowardly
attacks. Men watched to see fair play and insisted that the attackers should
not press M. back into the scrub, where spears might be deflected and strike
him unawares.

“Go back on the plain! Give him a fair chance,’ they shouted. Mes-
sengers, young lads, went to M.’s companions’ camps and brought assistance.
When they arrived the fight was almost over. M. was a great man. Ile was
the best spearsman in the country.”

A Sone asout NGURUNDERTI.
(Song 19 of Milerum series)

*Thuyarei’nar ‘nari’meing *parlpa’ wulinar
Words (of Ngurunderi) shore edge completed
words or song, “tunari
eraijajanamp mi’nin’ gund n’deitj’undal
“hill” remain always
‘thuna’‘reinar ‘nari’meing *parlpa’wulinat

words shore edge completed

116

ha! a! “eilc ’einin nere’ gei *njunum’puduyge
“early start of day” wonderful work
earliest dawn
neilin ‘nanana’ bin "jeke’jeril “jJaragara’neil.
for us did it Jekejere (man’s name) completed it.

This Tangane song was made by [’Mara’manda’nunuru], the hero of
the previous song, whose country was [’Puyanditjin], south of Cocoanut
Well, on the coast side of the Coorong.

It describes the time when the great ancestral being Ngurunderi came
to [’Rawaru’yald], Port Elliot, and told [’Jeke’jere], another lesser being,
that he had made the fishing grounds there quite as well as if he himself had
done it. This incident will be described in the Legend of Ngurunderi,
Tanganekald version, to be published in another paper,

“Ngurunderi’s words were obeyed, the hill was formed near the shore
so that we can see the moving shoals of fish. [’Jeke’jere] made an early
morning start and left a wonderful place for us.”

“The country had to be nursed; everything was made so nicely that the
fish would always come in towards the shore there and could be caught in
nets.”

GROWLING SONG,
(Song 17 of Milerum series.)

Mai- “munu’nul:un “mano "ral’muru’mun
*‘munou’nul: un mayo *wenkan’dol “tureil ‘majir:
‘lawo: lin *menem *minulun *perenok “nem = “panali,

water

This song is sung when men are growling and working themselves into
a mood to pick up their waddies for combat. It was used during a scries of
fights which were caused by a woman [’Pan’gelinjeri], whose name appears
frequently in Tangane tradition.

SONG To MaKe A Wipow BEnave.
(Song 8 of Milerum series.)

"Tat: ayolne al “tarai/bulni ai (Repeat twice)
She stands looks about
(e.g., ’perakolnc—man stands up)
y’ganti’jina miwi ’hon’dhondo nat} *miwi *pinkin.
“expecting” go “on’dondo about go “hope to find him.’*
follaw

A ['tuyari] of the type called [’mantu’mangari], or “caution,” of the
Raminjeri people of Goolwa. It is sung when a widow appears too anxious
to remarry. ‘The words are in the Raminjeri language. This song was
explained as follows :—

“A man goes ta [’Kultuy’gal], Goolwa, and stays there; several days
later the widow woman follows him with a party of other women. She stands
up and looks about, displaying herself and making herself conspicuous when
ever he approaches. She may have been only one season (‘12 months’) free:
he is probably a young man; she wants him ‘too soon.’ The old women are
indignant; they sing this in derision. ‘The talk is there,’ Le, it shows that
people are talking about her behaviour.”

117

Sonc To Force a Winow To Remarry.
(Song 4 of Milerum series.)
e-e-e-hi! ‘yawureil orla wilgi “bitiar orlu mu’nak: ar
*biti-ma’narki = young man with whiskers

e-e-hei! ‘nawureial ’murogul ‘bitiei orlai 1’gawereial’dorl

wilgi e-e-hei! ‘galuwalnj "jeinda *maimur
‘kalu’wandjeri njinta maimuri
“several years widow” you are widow
‘mantu ‘mangaral ‘jeregal
be careful we are not blind to your wiles

A [‘tuyari] of the type called [’mantu’mangari] of the Tanganekald
people. It was sung by men of the [’Kana’linjeri] = [’Panku’manke] clan
as a threat to a widow [maimuri] who was dallying, and refusing to go to the
properly selected man to whom she had been promised by them.

“Dallying to get a young man, a young man with whiskers; your
widowhood time is over; leave the young lad; you are a “several-years-
widow”; be careful, we are not unmindful of your wiles.”

A widow may remain unattached for a period of not more than three
or four years, usually much less. She is then known as a [’kalu’wandjeri],
and she must begin to look favourably at the man for whom she is intended—
her husband’s brother or an old man of the same clan. “If she is dallying,
trying to attract a younger man, she begins to receive hints. Women will
say [‘’tarndei’al’]—he wants you to come.’ If she disregards the hint the
people begin to sing about her. They say, [‘nawureial orla wilg?], which
has one meaning, rendered in the informant’s English, by ‘hanging out for
a young man.’ If she persists she is told bluntly to go to the proper man.
Further refusal would lead to her ‘getting the bone.’ ”

Sonc CONDEMNING THE ‘TANGANEKALD,
(Song 6 of Milerum series.)

‘Kapin ‘tenua “none’yone masei
Call people women chasing they are
‘tanga’none ’fO% _ ‘kere “weial
mating “one end of tribe to other”
*kapin ‘tenua “none’none mavsei
call people women chasing they are
- ‘kawur ‘gawur "tan ‘y’gindu ’woragan
“altogether again” you are chasing
‘tanga’none ’£01 *kere ‘weial.
mating “all the people.”

This is a [’pele’kawi], or song of accusation and challenge, sung in the
Tatiara language. It was composed and sung originally by [’Tungu’ganinj],
known to the Tangane people as [’Dona’ganinj], a [’Wepul’prap] tribe
native of the Tatiara district.

“We call the [’Tengi] people women chasers; they are mating with them
throughout the tribe; we call the [’Tengi] people women chasers; they are
all chasing and mating.”

118

It is a song condemning the [’Tengi] (Tatiara name for the Tangane)
people of Salt Creek and the Coorong because they were alleged to have
refused to exchange women as wives, according to the marriage rules. ,

The insinuation of the song is that formerly exchanges of women were
proper, but now the [’Tengi] seem to be mating among themselves. My
informant said, “This is a very dirty song; there is a lot of meaning in it;
one word and the actions might make great trouble.”

The song was sung when the informant’s father was an unmarried youth,
and it made a great impression on him.

The people of the Mcintank tribe took up the challenge as it was really
their exchange which had fallen through, chiefly because previous women
who had been sent in marriage had died through sickness, ascribed to boning
and to ill-treatment.

Having heard the song the Meintank people retaliated by making an
answering one (which follows), and also sent a message to Tatiara naming
a place of meeting. They prepared themselves for trouble. The gathering
took place at [’Nunu’kapul|, or Telauri Flat, near [’Matkalat], the present
Marcallot Station, and a short distance from [’Munai’kurai’wan], Minecrow.
“A ‘big talking’ led to a fight, in which several natives were killed. The
Tangane also took part in this quarrel, and composed a song, alsu recorded
below, which embittered the dispute and placed a check on marriage
exchanges for two generations.

Tur MEINTANK ANSWER TO THE TATIARA SONG.
(Song 5 of Milerum series.)

‘Aragu’rarinja ‘thono’ganinj ‘goru’kun "jenjin’ gi
Head-man ‘Dona’ ganin] makes own rules
big man man’s name can make
‘mayge’art’kur ‘aragu’rarinja ‘thoyo’ ganinj
‘Mayge’art’kur head-man ’Doya’ganinj
about woman’s name
‘walmawe’awal ‘‘gaul’mening ‘Japia ‘nungu’ru ‘mandje’art’kur
helps himself frightens her to come to him *Mange’art’kur

m!m!m! wil wo!

This [’pele’kawi], or [’weritjin] song is sung in the modified Potaruwutj-
Tangane language of the Meintank tribe. It is a reply, in the form of a
slander, to the previous song.

“The big man [’Doya’ganinj] makes his own rules about [’Mange-
‘art’kur]. Head man [’Dona’ganinj] is helping himself; he frightens
[’Mange’art’kur| into coming to him.” Then follow expressions of derision.
It purports to expose the behaviour of [’Weri’tjamini| and [’Dona’ganinj],
two of the principal men at Tatiara. “They have altered the marriage rules
so as to retain women for themselves instead of passing them over in
exchange for Mcintank women.” The song particularly mentions the illicit
relationships of the second man with a woman named [’Mange’art’kur], who
belongs to his own tribe. The song was stung to the people of [’Kanara-
*balak], who were her parents. It was expected that the song would lead
to a fight, and that the marriages would then “come right.”

Notwithstanding this hope the women were not exchangcd; not because
they feared that the Meintank women would have been ill-used in revenge,

119

but because the exchange of [’Mange’art’kur] was not considered a fair one.
Both the offending men were speared to death at different times by natives
from Salt Creek. _

[‘Dona’ganinj] was a magician, and had a wooden bull-roarer ['mimikur],
which he kept suspended in a [‘’katal], or “talking tree,” ic., one in which
the branches chafe together in the wind. This bull-roarer spun in the wind
and frightened people away; if [’Dona’ganinj| spoke a man’s name to it, that
person would become ill and might die. In the song it is suggested that
he used his power to frighten the woman and so entice her to him.

“The actions of this song made the trouble.” The men singing it
mimicked the mating habits of dogs. The m! m! m! was an expression of
derision; when they shouted wi! they shook their bodies fiercely and then
shouted wo!, which meant in effect, “Send her back where she came from!
Let the dog have her!” [’Weri’tjamini] took the woman after [’Dona-
’ganinj]; they possessed her “turn and turn about.”

The following song, sung by the Tangane people, added fuel to the flame
and caused lasting bitterness.

TANGANE SONG WHICH EMBITTERED THE QUARREL.
(Song 7 of Milerum series.)

Aia ‘nul’gulun ara ‘dum *mendir ‘ruil
Erect penis (woman) carry swollen testes “maruru”

keimp *pangalar a’tjer Weri’tjamini ‘nul’gulun
“finished that lot” man’s name erect penis

they are exhausted

ara “dum )=s ’mendir = ‘“ru:1 hei! ja! *ku: ri
(woman) carry swollen testes “whore”
“eil’anar *Manei’at’kur ma’nuka‘nar
“bad woman” woman's name hie down
*’Mange’art’kur
“eijin jal’dulnal ‘kornaya ’nendyjer tetjo: nda
any person “we men will have nothing to do with her”

’Weri’tjamini ‘kornana ’nendjer ‘tena’ war

man’s name “men will have nothing to do with her”
’Werl’tjamini ‘powonko’lein angai *’manani.

man’s name whole tribe “are as bad” penis.

This is a [’pele’kawi] song of the Tangane tribe, directed against the
Tatiara tribe. It accused them of the ill-treatment of women given in
marriage.

“We hear that the Tatiara people have erect genital organs and swollen
testes; the women are exhausted with the effort of carrying them. [’Weri-
‘tjamini] has an erect penis and swollen testes that women carry for him.
That bad woman [’Mange’art’kur] lies down for any man; we men will not
have anything to do with her. We will have not to do with [’Weri’tjamini].
[’Weri’tjamini] and his whole tribe are as bad.”

The song insinuates that they (the Tangane) could not send women into
[‘lerami], the inland scrub country, because they had heard that [’ Weri-
*tjamini] mated too much and that his testes were so swollen that women had

120

to make a basket and carry them for him. It was rumoured that he had com-
menced with his own tribe, the [’Kayara’balak], to whom [’Mange’art’kur]
belonged, and having exhausted the women there had gone on to the
[’Wirt’girak] (a group on another “Range’). ‘he further insinuation is that
the Tatiara natives mate so much and so badly that they are killing all the
women. This song and the fight which occurred at [’Nunu’kapul] stopped
all intermarriages between the two tribes for more than a generation.

“Although the trouble was supposed to have started because women sent
to [’lerami] were killed or ‘bruised’ with [‘neiljari], it was aggravated
because the Tangane admittedly killed Tatiara women in revenge. It was
|’Tunu’ganinj] or |’Dona’ganinj]| who precipitated the trouble by taking
|’Mange’art’kur], a woman of his own tribe.”

Vhe barrier to inter-marriage was broken (when Milerum was a youth)
in the following fashion :—

[‘Towon’punji], a man (known to Europeans as Harry Pinkie) of the
Bordertown district, sneaked down and stole [’Latalar] of Salt Creek. She
escaped with him. The Tangane people thereupon took her back. [’Towon-
’punji] avoided punishment by running away, and [’Latalar], escaping from
her people, went back to him twice. The third time the Coorong people
allowed her to remain there.

ADDENDUM.

The titles of two additional Jaralde songs are mentioned here because
they were recorded on wax cylinders at the same time as the ones described
above. Details were not obtained.

SONG OF THE SWALLow [watiari] and
THE RinG-TalLep Mouse [lepidawi].
(Song 3 of Milerum series.)

SONG FROM THE Murray River.
(Song 2 of Milerum series.)
Iam indebted to Prof. J. Fitzherbert for reading through my manuscript
and for his advice on the choice of phonetic symbols.

SUMMARY,

Seventeen songs of the people of the Tangane ‘Vribe from the Coorong,
South-East of South Australia, are given in text, together with translations
and informant’s comments.

The songs have a wide range of subject, embracing traditions, drama,
magic, hunting, fighting and demonstrations of public opinion. The last-
named songs are interesting in that they show how the group may, by the
singing of songs, express its disapproval of those who break with tradition
in matters relating to marriage and the inter-tribal exchange of women.

SOME NEW TENEBRIONIDAE IN THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM;
TOGETHER WITH NOTES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF OTHER
AUSTRALIAN COLEOPTERA.

BY H. J. CARTER, B.A., F.E.S.

Summary

This paper originated through the energy of Mr. Womersley, Entomologist of the South Australian
Museum, in transmitting some 2,170 unnamed specimens, the accumulation of some years and
including many from the Lea Collection. Sixteen new species are herein described; others-probably
new to our records are, for the present, withheld from description, either through being in unsuitable
condition, or through doubt as to their local origin. A few have been sent to the British Museum for
special information.

121

SOME NEW TENEBRIONIDAE IN THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM;
TOGETHER WITH NOTES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF OTHER AUSTRALIAN
COLEOPTERA.

By H. J. Carrer, B.A., F.E.S.
[Read May 13, 1937.]
Prates V, VI, and VII.

This paper originated through the energy of Mr. Womersley, Entomologist
of the South Australian Museum, in transmitting some 2,170 unnamed specimens,
the accumulation of some years and including many from the Lea Collection.
Sixteen new species are herein described ; others—probably new to our records—
are, for the present, withheld from description, either through being in unsuitable
condition, or through doubt as to their local origin. A few have been sent to the
British Museum for special information,

Besides the species new to science, some extremely rare Tenebrionidae were
found here, the determination of which enhances the value of the famous collection
of insects in this Museum.

The new Buprestidae described are chiefly the result of the field work of
two enthusiasts, Mr. A. Goerling, of Marloo Station, and Mr. II. W. Brown (most
famous of our collectors).

To the two artists, Miss N. B. Adams, of the Australian Museum, Sydney,
and Miss J. Cameron, of the South Australian Museum, Adelaide, I desire to
express my sincere thanks for their excellent figures.

BUPRESTIDAE.
Neospades gibbera, n. sp.

Elongate, narrow, attenuate at both ends; dark blue above and below save
for ventral and elytral white pubescence; the former with a white spot at sides
of metasternum and of each ventral segment; the latter consisting of an undulate
preapical fascia, interrupted at suture, and four spots, two premedial near suture,
and two, medial, near sides, besides some less defined pubescence at base and
elsewhere.

Head subconvex.

Prothorax, apex and base bisinuate, widest in front of middle, margins on
apical half much deflexed, the anterior angles unseen from above, lateral carinae
gradually diverging from basal point to apex; hind angles subrectangular; disk
transversely striolate.

_ Elytra lightly compressed behind shoulders, latero-apical margins finely,
closely, spinulose; general surface finely scalose. Longitudinally strongly arched
with a small hump near base. Underside finely punctate.

Dunensions—5 x 2 mm.

Habitati—New South Wales; Mullaly (the author), Gosford and Cessnock
(W. Duboulay), on Acacia leaves.

Three examples examined. ‘The pubescent markings and preapical fascia,
its blue pronotum and longitudinally gibbous form, abundantly distinguish it from
N. simplex Blkb. The typical ‘forked tarsal claws, narrow form, etc., distinguish
it from Cisseis cupricollis Hope. Holotype in Coll. Carter.

©) Ctsseis cupricolis Hope = C. aeneicollis Hope = C, morosa Kerr = C. vicina Kerr.
The last has been so far unrecorded, but is clear from an exhibit labelled “type” by the author.
(In the Kerreman’s Collection in the British Museum, in many cases a long series of a species
were thus labelled.)

122

Neocuris duboulayi, n. sp.

Narrowly ovate, ¢ with head, prothorax, underside and legs green, @ with
head green, with coppery gleams, prothorax dark blueish-green, margins widely
—also underside—fiery coppery; elytra (¢, @) testaceous with suture and
margins narrowly dark blue; legs blue.

ffead with shallow excavation, minutely and closely punctate.

Prothorax more convex than usual, apex and base bisinuate, anterior angles
reflexed and acute, posterior acute: widest at base, thence narrowed lightly to
apex; disk very finely punctate at middle, more strongly on sides; without medial
line. Underside glabrous.

Elytra as wide as prothorax at base, sides lightly incurved at middle,
separately and rather widely rounded at apex, subapical margins denticulate; base
with wide margins of dark green, an obscure, subfasciate, dark colouration near
base in some examples; whole surface dotted with minute black punctures.

Dimensions— 6,5 x 2mm.; ¢, 54 x 24 mm.

Habitat—Western Australia: Three Springs (W. Duboulay), Wurarga (A.
Goerling). Two examples, the sexes, given me by Mr. Duboulay, 10 from Mr.
Goerling, are clearly distinct from its allies, brown: Cart. and doddi Cart., by
smaller size, the yellow elytra narrowly margined with darker colour, and the
marked sexual colouration. Holo- and Allotype in Coll. Carter.

Neocuris ignicollis, n. sp.

Narrowly oval, head and prothorax a fiery copper, elytra dark blue, underside
chiefly violaceous and coppery; appendages blue or violet; glabrous above and
below.

Head flat, eyes widely separated; closely punctate, without sulcus.

Prothorax transversely convex, apex a little produced in middle, anterior
angles deflexed and obtuse, base moderately bisinuate, hind angles acute; widest
at base, sides very feebly narrowed to apex; disk uniformly and closely covered
with round, rather deep, punctures; without medial line.

Elytra as wide as prothorax at base, slightly widened at shoulders and com-
pressed behind them, otherwise sub-parallel; separately rounded at apex; the
margins here very minutely denticulate (this more evident in the 9 example) ;
whole surface uniformly, closely umbilicate-punctate (each larger puncture hav-
ing two minute deeper punctures within it). Prosternum with sparse, large,
punctures, metasternum smaller, close punctures, abdomen with faint, scaley
impressions, apical segment more strongly punctate,

Dimensions— 6, 3-5 mm. long; @, 5 mm. long.

Habitat—Wurarga, Western Australia (Mr. A. Goerling).

Three examples (24 6, 19), sent by their discoverer. This species is a
brilliant addition to the genus. In colour it is very similar to Melobasis
cyaneipennis Boh., the elytra a shade darker blue. Holo- and Allotype in Coll.
Carter.

Bubastes subflavipennis, n. sp.
PI, v, fig. 1.

6. Elongate, subcylindric, subopaque; head and pronotum dark blue, the
sides of the latter brighter green or blue, antennae and tarsi, sometimes part of
head, bronzy, elytra a dingy flavous, with suture and sides narrowly blueish;
undersides and legs peacock green.

9. Sides of pronotum, underside and legs a dingy coppery bronze with
gleams of blue-green; head and pronotum with a tendency to bronze.

123

Head, densely punctate, sparsely pubescent, feebly concave on front, some-
times a short medial channel indicated at base, lateral margins between eyes
narrowed posteriorly ; space between eyes wider in 9 than in ¢ ; eyes moderately
large and rather prominent.

Prothorax convex, apex subtruncate (feebly produced in middle), base lightly
bisinuate ; widest at base, sides feebly sinuate here, thence very lightly, arcuately,
narrowed to apex; anterior angles unseen from above, the posterior produced
backward and strongly acute; disk densely punctate, the punctures smaller near
middle and apex, becoming coarser and alveolate towards sides; basal foveae at
middle and sides shallow; no sign of medial line. Scudtellum small and round.

ELlytra lightly enlarged at shoulders, thence, at first gradually, then more
sharply attenuate to apex; subapical margins serrulate, apices very acute, a little
separated, with an oblique lunation, the exterior angle of this forming a short
triangular tooth. Prosternwm closely rugose-punctate, rest of underside and legs
densely punctate; whole underside with longish, pale, recumbent pile.

Dimensions— 6, 11-14 x 3:5-4 mm.; 2, 15 x 4:2 mm.

Habitat—Western Australia: Wurarga (Mr. A. Goerling).

Again I am indebted to this squatter-naturalist for an interesting novelty.
Eight examples (7 6 ¢,1 2) show a slender species that differs markedly from
any described member of the genus in colour. The sexual colouration is well
defined. The peacock blue-green of the underside of &—as in other instances
of this unstable hue—varies between the extremes of each tint. Holo- and Allo-
type in Coll. Carter.

Melobasis aurocyanea, n. sp.

Oblong-oval; moderately convex, nitid and glabrous; head, pronotum and
greater part of elytra rich, dark blue, the two former here and there with coppery
gleams, elytra with base, narrowly, and sublateral vitta, extending from shoulder
to apical declivity, golden; this vitta nowhere extending to lateral border, widened
and a little diffused near middle. Scutellum golden. Underside coppery purple;
legs blue, antennae green.

ffead glabrous, finely and densely punctate, eyes little prominent.

Prothorax, apex and base feebly bisinuate—especially the former—widest
near middle, sides moderately rounded, subparallel on basal half; anterior angles
deflected and obtuse, posterior subrectangular; disk closely, finely and sub-
uniformly punctate, without medial sulcus, foveae or transverse rugulae.
Scutellum small and round.

Elytra feebly compressed premedially, lightly widened postmedially ; posterior
margins serrulate, apices separately rounded; very finely striate-punctate, with
five fine striae perceptible near middle region, basal and lateral areas irregularly
punctate, the latter with fine transverse rugae; intervals quite flat, without sub-
sutural depression. Underside glabrous, prosternum with close, round punctures ;
metasternum with laevigate central area; abdomen finely punctate, in the 4
apical segment rather squarely excised between two minute spines; in the 9
truncate between two larger spines.

Dimensions—9 x 34 mm.

Habitat—Western Australia: Tammin (H. W. Brown).

A small, beautiful species which must be included amongst the striate-
punctate species of my Group II, Section C, near lauta Macl. and iridicolor Cart.
but differentiated by colour from both. Four examples examined of which two
have been returned to Mr. Brown. Holotype in Coll. Carter.

Var—Four other examples, sent by Mr. Brown from Tammin, are identical
with the above in size, structure and sculpture, but differ in colour as follows :—
Head, prothorax and underside bright metallic green; elytra with medial area
steel-blue or greenish, sides golden-coppery.

124

Melobasis browni, n. sp.

Elongate, navicular; bronze nitid. Head pubescent with short, shallow
sulcus at base, eyes rather prominent; head here as wide as apex of prothorax.

Prothorax, lightly bisinuate at apex and base, the former produced forward
at the angles, these acute; sides near middle very lightly rounded, posterior angles
rectangular; medial channel clearly cut near base, elsewhere lightly impressed;
disk finely, closely punctate. Scutellum small, round and smooth.

Elytra of same width as prothorax at base, widest near middle, thence rather
strongly attenuate behind, apices bluntly, scparately rounded, posterior margins
serrulate; each with a carinate and lightly flexuous costa, extending from near
base to apex, the suture also carinate for the greater part; a short convex impres-
sion inside the costae not extending beyond middle and a short sub-scutellary
convexity forming an elongate triangle at base; area exterior to costae closely
and delicately punctate, and contrasted with medial area by lighter bronze
and silky surface; the sutural region of darker shade with fine, distant punctures,
besides the smooth, wide, less-raised middle half of the costae. Underside
glabrous; prosternum more densely punctate than rest of underside; pro- and
mid-tibiae bowed; apical ventral segment widely, triangularly excised and
bidentate.

Dimensions—9-10 x 3-4 mm.
Habitat—Western Australia, Burracopp (H. W. Brown). On Acacia.

‘Two examples, both ¢, sent by Mr. Brown, of which he has generously given
me one, show a very distinctly sculptured species of my Group IJ, Section A, some-
what allied to M. vertebralis Cart. in form, the darker shade of bronze taking the
place of the blue on the elytra. Holotype in Coll. Cart.

Melobasis marlooensis, n. sp.
Bronze, clongate-ovate, moderately convex.

Head finely, closely punctate, a well impressed sulcus at base, clothed with
short, pale pubescence; eyes not prominent.

Prothorax wider than head at base, widest at middle, apex bisinuate, base
subtruncate, sides evenly and lightly rounded; disk very finely and evenly punctate
over the greater part, punctures larger (but not at all coarse or rugose) near
sides; medial line indicated by narrow, smooth line—in some cases fecbly
carinate—a small basal fovea near scutellum. Scutellum small.

Elytra of same width as prothorax at base, lightly narrowing to apex, apices
separately rounded, subapical margins strongly serrulate; surface with three or
four lightly raised lines, of which that limiting the subsutural area (this scarcely
depressed) rather more prominent than the others; intervals with fine punctures
and transverse rugulae, without a sign of seriation. Underside finely punctate,
pubescent only towards sides; apical segment of ¢ with semi-circular excision,
of @ subtruncale,

Dimensions—13-15 x 5 mm,

Habitat—Western Australia, Marloo Station, Wurarga (Mr. A. Goerling).

Another of Mr. Goerling’s discoveries. Seven examples examined show a
species than can only be confused with M. igniceps Saund. and M. unifornus Cart.
Irom both it is separated by its much finer sculpture. The apex is less sharply
narrowed than in igniceps, In only one example is the apex slightly coppery
(usual in igniceps), while uniformis is without any indication of raised lines on the
elytra. Holotype and Allotype in Coll. Carter.

125

MELOBASIS ABNORMIS Cart.
= M. impressa Cart.
The first example sent was so different from my example of abnormis that I
was deceived into describing it as new. Mr. Gocrling has recently sent me three
examples which convince me of this synonymy.

Stigmodera (Castiarina) goerlingi, n. sp.
Pl. v, fig. 2.

Oblong-ovate, convex; head, medial area of pronotum and elytral markings
obscure blue, scutellum, metasternum and appendages bright blue, prothorax and
elytra chiefly pale yellow, the former with an oblong discal area blue-black, the
latter with two narrow fasciae and the apex (narrowly) blue-black, the premedial
arched from the shoulders backward, widened at the suture, not extending to sides,
the postmedian straight, widened at suture and meeting sides. Underside yellow
(except metasternum).

Head widely and deeply excavate, finely punctate.

Prothorax rather, strongly convex, widest behind middle, apex feebly arcuate,
anterior angles subacute, sides well rounded, scarcely sinuate behind, base
bisinuate, posterior angles acute.

Elytra slightly wider than prothorax at base, sides nearly straight, widely
rounded behind, apices bispinose, the external spine longer than the sutural,
subapical margins finely serrate; striate-punctate, seriate indistinct, intervals
nearly flat, save at apex, and almost impunctate. Metasternum pubescent,
abdomen glabrous.

Dimensions—16-19 x 7-7-5 mm.

Habitat—Western Australia, Marloo Station, Wurarga (Mr. A. Goerling).

A very distinct species, having a thorax suggestive of S. gibbicollis Saund., the
yellow margins occupying two-thirds of its width, besides the prosternum; the
elytral markings are somewhat as in S. fulviventris Macl. In one example of
three sent, the premedial fascia is broken up into three spots. There is also some
variation in the width of the fasciac. Holotype in Coll. Carter. Dedicated to its
captor, an enthusiastic collector in a little explored district.

Stigmodera (Castiarina) palagera, n. sp.

(Pala, a spade; gero, I bear. Lat.)
Pl. v, fig. 3.

Narrowly cblong; head, pronotum and scutellum brassy, underside golden
green, appendages green, elytra testaceous with a narrow sutural mark bright
green and a spade-shaped subapical mark, produced and widened at apex,
blue-black.

Head deeply channelled and excavate, labrum green.

Prothorax lightly convex, widest at base, sides thence arcuately narrowed to
apex, this lightly arcuate, base lightly bisinuate; anterior angles deflexed and wide,
posterior subrectangular; disk finely subuniformly punctate, punctures at sides
larger and closer; a shallow discontinuous medial sulcus indicated.

Elytra of same width as prothorax at base, lightly widened at shoulders and
behind middle, apices finely bispinose; striate-punctate, seriate punctures round
and distinct, alternate intervals rather markedly raised near base, less so near
apex; intervals flat on medial area, lightly convex at sides.

Prosternum strongly punctate in middle, metasternum laevigate in middle,
rest of underside very finely punctate and glabrous. Prosternal process is peculiar

126

in having its carinate margin abruptly narrowed at apex with a lateral branch
delimiting this narrow part.?? Abdomen very fecbly pubescent.

Dimensions—10 x 4 mm.

Habitat—New South Wales; Cessnock (W. Duboulay).

Mr. Duboulay took some six examples in November, 1936, and generously
gave mea pair, both 4. The @ is slightly larger, without colour distinction. It
is very close in pattern to S. fossoria Cart., with the following distinctions.
Prothorax much less convex, sides less widely rounded, base less bisinuate ;
elytral apical margins entire. The dark-green parts of fossoria are replaced by
metallic brassy. On the elytra the subapical spade is produced to apex and the
sutural mark is narrower and continuous throughout; there is no sign of red near
apical margins. Holotype, 4, in Coll. Carter.

Stigmodera (Castiarina) verna, n. sp..
Pl. v, fig. 4.

Oblong, moderately convex; head, pronotum, scutellum, underside and
appendages dark metallic green. LElytra peacock blue-green, with the following
markings yellow ; two large, oval, at base, generally (in six out of seven examples)
connected with humero-lateral mark, narrow medial and preapical fasciae, both
rather widely interrupted at suture, the former with anterior margin, the latter
with posterior margin concave.

Head channelled and widely excavate.

Prothorax rather strongly convex, apex truncate, base strongly bisinuate,
sides lightly rounded, widest at middle; densely and finely punctate—slightly more
coarsely at sides—a fine medial sulcus throughout in ¢, less evident in 9.

Elytra rather flat, lightly compressed near middle, feebly widened behind
this, latero-apical margins entire; apices bispinose with oblique lunation; striate-
punctate, intervals convex near sides and apex, third and fifth at base only, in
general flat, impunctate, with marked transverse wrinkles. Prosternal episterna
and intercoxal process sharply punctate, rest of underside very minutely so and
glabrous. Prosternal intercoxal process widely oblong and truncate at apex.

Dimensions— 8, 10x 3 mm.; 9, 12 x 35 mm,

Habitat—Western Australia, Wembley Park (E. Duboulay).

The species is very like the eastern S. dimidiata Cart. but has both structural
and colour differences as follaws:—The prothorax more convex and bisinuate at
base. In dimidiata the elytra are strongly punctate. The oval basal yellow mark
on the elytra of verna is absent in dimidiata, while in the latter the apical fascia
is continued along margins towards apex. The underside of verna is dark green,
of dimidiata golden-green or coppery. The name is suggested by its prevalent
green colour as well as by its carly spring appearance (vide W. Duboulay, who
has kindly given me a pair). Holotype and Allotype in Coll. Carter.

Curis venusta, n. sp.

Pl, vii.* oe

&@. Head and sculellum golden-green, prothorax more golden than green,
suffused with purple reflections on disk, Elytra purplish-blue, the base, suture and
sides irregularly fiery coppery (these colours not clearly delimited), legs and under-
side green, sides of abdominal segments with white tomentum ; antennae golden.
¢. Head, prothorax, underside and legs a rich blue, elytra blue with base,
suture and sides irregularly fiery coppery ; sides of abdominal segments with large
white plagae, antennae golden.

() This structure will be found to be of service in differentiating species.

* As a mark of appreciation of Mr, H. J. Carter’s contributions to Australian Entomo-
logy, the Council have adopted the unusual course of publishing this plate in colour.—Editor.

127

Head widely excavated, densely punctulate; eyes proportionately larger, also
closer inthe ¢ thanin ¢ (the head clearly wider than apex of prothorax in the 3,
eyes not prominent, head not wider than apex of prothorax in ).

Prothorax widest near base, apex feebly, base strongly bisinuate, sides lightly
rounded in ¢, strongly so in ¢ and here much narrowed to apex; medial sulcus
throughout, more clearly defined on apical third and terminated in a strong fovea
at base.

Llytra shorter than body, wider than prothorax at shoulders, lightly con-
verging to apex in ¢, a little widened behind middle in ¢, apices separately
rounded, subapical margins denticulate. Each with three lightly raised costae
besides a fourth scutellary costa; intervals more or less seriate punctate, three
rows between each pair of costae on hinder half, the rows increasing and more
irregular on basal half; the punctures large and round. Apices of abdomen
bispinose,

Dimensions— 8,9x3°5mm.; 9,13 x 4-5 mm,

Habitat—Western Australia, Wurarga (Mr. A. Goerling).

A pair of this beautiful species has been generously sent me by this keen
observer. It is abundantly distinct from recorded species; the only other one
having abbreviated elytra in both sexes is C. splendens‘) Macl., which has entire
margins. Holo- and Allotype in Coll. Carter.

TENEBRIONIDAE.

Latometus Er.

= Elascus Pasc.

LATOMETUS PUBESCENS Er,

= Elascus crassicornis Pasc. = E. major Cart.

While examining Colyditdae I was struck by the extraordinary likeness of
Orthocerus (Sarrotrium) australis Blkb. to Elascus crassicornis Pasc.“)—as
noted by Blackburn. This led to my own misdetermination of Pascoe’s species
and the consequent synonymy of my E, major. (Erichson described his Latometus
first as a Colydiidid.) I have, therefore, gone carefully through all available
material from various collections, and find that my mistake has occurred else-
where. A further comparison of the figure and description of Latometus
pubescens Er. with those of Pascoe has convinced me of the above synonymy.
The following species is undescribed.

Latometus differens, n. sp,

Elongate-oblong. Opaque brown, clad with decumbent silvery hair, elytra
with three lunate fasciae, the hindmost with concavity towards apex.

Head strongly raised laterally, sides produced downwards and outwards
beneath eye, eyes prominent and subconic; a group of tubercles near base;
antennae wide and ciliate, first segment stout, second small, 3-9 subequally wide,
third twice as long as 4, 10-11 much wider than preceding, 11 rounded, larger
than 10.

Prothorax, apex and base produced in middle, the former bilobed, anterior
angle dentate and directed outward; sides lightly sinuate, widest near base, foliate
margins coarsely fringed; disk strongly raised, depressed in middle, the raised
paris more or less quadri-tuberculate.

©) In C. splendens Macl. the sexes are similarly very unequal in size. Thus a pair in
my collection:— ¢, 10 x 3:5 mm.; 9, 18 x 5 mm.
> Through the courtesy of Mr. Clark I have been permitted to examine the types of

Elascus crassicornis Pase. and E. lunatus Pasc. in the Howitt Collection of the National
Museum.

128

Elytra wider than prothorax, each with three flexuous costae, coarsely seriate
punctate, with three fasciae and the suture (widely) marked by pale pubescence ;
the two anterior as in L. (Elascus) lunatus Pasc.; the hind fascia in reversed
position. Beneath with scaly derm.

Dimensions—5 mm. long.

Habitat—Tasmania (A. Simson and A. M. Lea).

Four examples examined, National Museum. Coll. Carter. Two in Lea
Coll., S.A. Museum, show a close relation to L. lunatus Pasc. The following
comparison will clearly separate them.

lunatus Pasc. differens, n. sp.
Eyes—Round — - - - - Subconic.
Aniennae—Apical segments not wider Two apical segments wider than
than preceding ei 7 - preceding.
Prothorax—-Anterior angles directed for- Anterior angles directed outward.
ward () - - - -
Elytra—Inner costae interrupted a Inner costae continuous.
Apices jointly rounded - - Apices triangulately separated.
Post. fascia straight, suture dark - Post. fascia bent, suture pale.

Holotype in the National Museum.

ByRSAX EGENUS Pasc. ¢.

= B. coxi Cart. é.

With a long series of examples—with a wide distribution in Queensland and
New South Wales—I cannot distinguish the female examples. Pascoe’s type was
a female, In the case of species of which the male is horned it is a mistake to
describe a single female example.

CESTRINUS ASPERSUS Blackb.

is, I consider distinct from C. brevis Champ. by its lighter colour, with its
admixture of pale hairs, and its sub-contiguous seriate punctures. A long series
from Mount Lofty, South Australia, shows, at least, a well-marked variety of
C, brevis.

Mychestes ordinatus, n. sp.

Oval, convex, opaque brown. Head shagreened, eyes prominent, antennae
first segment long and stout, second short and round, third elongate, 4-7 subequal,
8-10 successively widened, 10 largest, 8 intermediate in size between 7 and 9, the
two apical clavate.

Prothorax widest near apex, medial lobe projecting over head, concealing it
from above, this lobe channelled in middle, its highest point forming two rounded
humps; the disk depressed in middle, the raised area around depression formed
by connected tubercles converging behind; a more or less foliate margin, with
irregular, crenulate border, at base forming wide posterior angles; between the
foliation and ridged medial region irregular tubercles scen.

Elyira very convex, narrower than prothorax at base and about one and a
half times longer than it, with tubercles somewhat arranged in two irregular
rows; two larger compound tubercles at base (these may be double or triple or
otherwise, no two examples being quite alike), a single row, more regularly dis-
posed than the rest on each side, sinaller tubercles elsewhere, becoming obsolete
on apical declivity, without evident punctures. Underside uneven, thickly clothed
with velvety derm; prosternum rugose-pustulose, its process produced and pointed.

Dimensions—9-10 x 4-5-5 mm.

©) This character is somewhat exaggerated in Pascoe’s figure (Jour. Ent., 1860, pi. vii,
fig. 8).

129

Habitat—North Queensland, Millaa-Millaa (F. H. Taylor), Cooktown
(Dodd), Little Mulgrave River (Hacker), Cairns (Lea collection).

Twelve examples are under examination. The only other Mychestes that
shows this subseriate arrangement of the tubercles is M. papuanus Cart. from
New Guinea, a rather wider species with the tubercles sub-costate and the larger
tubercles exterior to the costae. The subjoined tabulation will indicate its relation
to others. Holotype in Coll. Carter.

MYcHESTES.
1, Apex of prothorax forming a spherical lobe. masterst Macl.
Apex of prothorax not so. v5
2. Elytral pustules more or less in longitudinal rows, 3
Elytral pustules not so. 4
3. Elytral pustules subcostate, a large tubercle near middle exterior to costae. papuanus Cart.
Elytral pustules subseriate, larger pustules at base. ordinatus, n. sp.
4. Elytral pustules closely crowded, congestus Pasc.
Elytral pustules fewer and sparse. 5
5. Elytra impunctate, larger tubercles two at base, two an apical declivity. pascoet Macl.,

Elytra punctate, larger tubercles two at base, four on transverse line on declivity.
lignarius, Pasc.

Sobas minor, n. sp.

Convex, ovate, reddish-brown, opaque, setose.

Head and pronotum clothed with squamose derm, with minute, sparse
pustules perceptible; epistoma bilobed, suhtruncate in front, border sharply raised
throughout, divided medially by wide cuspidate excision; eyes small and round;
antennae short, stout, the segments closely applied, lightly enlarged towards apex.

Prothorax twice as wide as long, base much wider than apex; apex arcuate,
base feebly bisinuate, sides arcuately narrowed on apical half, subparallel on basal,
anterior angles widely rounded, posterior obtuse, lateral margins explanate,
extreme border finely serrulate and setose. Scutellum absent.

Elytra widely ovate and convex, clearly narrower than prothorax at base,
extreme border scarcely seen from above; striate-punctate, the medial striae (at
least) in fresh examples with subfoveate punctures, these less defined towards
sides, intervals strongly convex, formed by subcontiguous, rounded tubercles;
under a strong Iens a ground system of minute tubercles perceptible, the whole
somewhat obscured by derm and setae, the latter forming a lateral fringe. Apical
segment of palpi oval. Prosternum finely punctate, rest of underside with large,
round punctures; prosternal process, front femora and tibiae very wide, the last
flattened, with large rounded process at middle of exterior edge and smaller teeth
between this and base, its apex also strongly widened and truncate; mid- and post-
tibiae spinose exteriorly and little widened; tarsi short.

Dimensitons—3-7 x 2 mm.

Habitat—Western Australia, Geraldton (the late A. M. Lea).

Tive example in the Lea collection (South Australian Museum) are readily
separated from S. australis Hope,‘ by (a) smaller size, (b) reddish colour,
(c) more convex elytral intervals, (d) more coarsely sculptured under-surface,
inter alia. Type series in South Australian Museum.

Phaennis caelata, n. sp.

Oblong-ovate, lightly convex; testaceous; antennae and tarsi red.
Head narrowing from base to apex, epistoma raised and concave within, its

(*) S$. australis Hope measures from 4+5-5 x 3 mm.,, is of a dingy brown colour; elytra
obscurely striate, intervals scarcely perceptibly raised. See also my note (Proc. Linn. Soc.
N.S.W., 1921, p. 307).

E

130

sides raised, forming a triangular horn in front of antennal insertion, labrum
prominent; antennae long, segments 1 and 2 globose, first larger than second,
3-8 subovate, 3 elongate, 4-8 successively shorter, 9-11 much wider than preceding,
9-10 triangular, 11 ovoid.

Prothorax subcordate, rather convex, apex slightly rounded and advanced in
middie, anterior angles advanced and acutely dentate, sides moderately rounded,
sinuate behind, margins without foliation, closely serrulate; posterior angle form-
ing a short rectangular tooth; base bisinuate, medial part widely rounded and
produced; disk a little uneven, the shallow punctures obscured by clothing of
white, adpressed hairs; medial sulcus well marked near front. Scutellum trans-
versely oval.

Elyirva wider than prothorax at base, sides subparallel for the greater part,
each with ten rows of large, round, deep punctures, more or less connected by
shallow striae; within each puncture a minute dark pustule; intervals—cspecially
near base and from the fifth outwards—clothed with adpressed pile. On apical
third, and more vaguely elsewhere, the surface embossed by pale, lightly raised
humps of irregular form and size—these slightly obscuring the seriate punctures.
Prosternum flat and almost impunctate; metasternum and abdomen with large
shallow punctures and sparsely pilose. Front femora tumid. Post. tarsi with
basal segment shorter than two succeeding.

Dimensions—5 x 2 mm.

Habitat—New South Wales, Forest Reefs (A. M. Lea).

A single 4 example in the Lea Collection differs in the structure of the head
from Ph. fasciculata Champ. (vide my note these Proc., 1920, p. 224), but has
the lateral triangular horns of that species. Holotype in the South Australian
Museum.

Platydema lilliputanum, n. sp.

Ovate, convex, rufo-flavous, clytra with suture, fascia and apex dark
castaneous, all appendages testaceous.

Head densely, minutely punctate, dividing suture truncate in middle, oblique
at sides, eyes large and transverse, antennae extending slightly beyond base of
prothorax ; moniliform, 4-10 nearly round,

Prothorax, apex sub-truncate, base bisinuate, sides well rounded, front
angles rounded, posterior obtuse; widest near middle, whole surface minutely
and closely punctulate, a small fovea on each side near base. Scutellum triangular.

Filytra ovate, moderately convex, base vaguely clouded, the suture, wide
medial fascia and apex widely more or less castaneous, the rest of the elytra
testaceous (in some examples the dark apex with yellow markings); striate-
punctate, the two interior striae rather more strongly impressed than the others;
seriate punctures rather large and close; intervals neurly flat, themselves minutely
punctulate.

Dimensions—3 mm. long.

Habitat--South Australia, Karoonda to Peebinga (G. E. H. Wright); also
Berri (or Perri), South Australia.

Seven examples taken by Mr. Wright, and two others, indistinctly labelled, are
quite distinct from other recorded Australian species. This species is nearest in
general facies to macleayi Cart. which is, however, differently marked. In pattern
it is nearer bicinctum Champ., but is more oval and convex than that species. The
darker markings vary in distinctness, becoming nebulous and ill-defined in one or
two examples, the pronotum also sometimes clouded. Holotype in South Aus-
tralian Museum.

131

Alphitobius hilli, n. sp.
Rather widely ovate, dark brown, subnitid; antennae and legs red.

Head; epistoma evenly rounded to the eyes, a separating depression from the
forehead; finely and densely punctate, antennae not extending to base of pro-
thorax, four apical segments successively enlarged.

Prothorax strongly transverse, widest near middle, apical half arcuately
narrowed to front, basal half subparallel; apex nearly straight (widely and lightly
advanced in middle), anterior angles widely rounded off and depressed, base
bisinuate, posterior angles subrectangular, a narrow horizontal margin, visible
from above only on basal two-thirds; disk without medial sulcus, basal foveae.
represented only by shallow depressions, surface evenly and finely punctate.
Scutellum triangular.

Elytra ovate, of same width as prothorax at base, bluntly rounded at apex;
Sstriate-punctate, the striae rather wide, containing large, close punctures, some-
what transversely oval; intervals convex. Underside coarsely punctate, femora
stout.

Dimensions—3-3°2 x 2 (-) mm.

Habitat—Northern Territory, Darwin (G. F. Hill).

Two examples in the Lea Collection (South Australian Museum) differ
markedly from A. blairei Cart. (also taken by Mr. Hill in this district) in colour
and much wider form. Holotype in the South Australian Museum.

Eulea, n. gen. (Ulominae).
Elongate, narrow, head without distinct neck, without apparent eyes, apical
segments of palpi cultriform; surface above and below granulose; elytra costate ;

fore coxae subapproximate, mid and hind coxae moderately widely separate.
Antennae 11 segmented, with perfoliate, triclavate apex.

Ill

Eulea caeca, n. g. et sp. Legs I, II and III.

132

Eulea caeca, n. sp.

Elongate, narrowly oblong-ovate and subdepressed; red.

Head subquadrate, labrum prominent, clypeus truncate, lateral margin con-
tinuous to near base, surface granulose, antennal sockets widely arched, but little
raised; antennae rather long, segments 1 and 2 oblong, wide, 3 as long as but
narrower than 2, 4-8 moniliform, not closely set, 9-11 forming a loose club,
9-10 cup-shaped, 11 oval.

Prothorax longer than wide, apex feebly arcuate, anterior angles sub-
rectangular, not prominent, sides lightly, obliquely, narrowed from apex to base,
base convexly arcuate, hind angles widely obtuse; whole surface granulose, with-
out a differentiated margin, a fine crenulation at lateral border. Scutellum
triangular.

Elytra elongate-ovate, about as wide as prothorax and twice as long, shoulders
advanced and acute, apices conjointly and rather narrowly rounded; each with
three straight costae, the margins of suture also subcostate, both costae and
intervals granulose without evident punctures. Underside everywhere granulose.

Dimensions—4 x 1 (vix) mm.

Habitat—Swan River (A. M. Lea).

A card of two examples from the collection of the late A. M. Lea bears a
locality label and a note, “Colydien voisin du genre Rhogodera, gen. nov.,” so that
it had apparently been submitted to a specialist. Its tarsi are, however, heteromer-
ous. It is remarkable that with Mr. Lea’s great interest in blind Coleoptera, he
did not describe it, or give more detail as to its habitat. I name the genus in his
honour. Holotype and paratype in the South Australian Museum.

Helaeus subpustulosus, n. sp.

Obovate, dull reddish-brown above, red beneath.

Heud minutely granulose, sparsely pubescent.

Prothorax lightly convex on disk, margins wide, without raised border, the
apical processes wide, subfalcate, the left overlapping the right, bluntly rounded
at extremity, disk finely and sparsely granulose—a little rugose on the processes;
posterior angles acutely falcate, slightly overlapping elytra, lateral margins—seen
sideways—narrow, except near base; base strongly bisinuate; disk unevenly
carinate in middle, the carina not extending to apex or base and somewhat
depressed in middle,

Elytra slightly wider than prothorax at base, widest behind middle; foliate
margins widest in front, not much narrowed behind, its surface finely granulose,
extreme border well raised, seen sideways, as wide as that of prothorax at base.
Each with five rows of small, rounded pustules, irregular in number, rows 1-4
more or less equally spaced, the fifth, near junction with foliate margin; the
second of these contains the larger pustules—about eight in number—in the first
row five are discernible on the right, three on the leit elytron, in the third row
three, in the fourth and fifth four apparent in each, intervening space rather
closely punctate, each puncture with a short, upright bristle. Each sutural margin
also with a line of small tubercles, more closely placed than in other rows; these
continuous with two well raised, subcrenulate costae enclosing scutellum and the
triangular depression. Underside impunctate and glabrous.

Dimensions—l1 x 8 mm.

Habitat—-? South Australia, Naracoorte (F. R. Zietz).

A single example in the Muscum of South Australia is quite distinct from
recorded species, though perhaps nearest H. granulalus Lea from Western Aus-
tralia but without the elytral costae, and wider than Lea’s species. Holotype in
the Museum of South Australia.

133

Pterohelaeus commixtus, n. sp.

Oblong-ovate, brownish-black, subnitid.

Head finely punctate, antennae with third as long as 4-5 combined, last three
rounded and wider than preceding.

Prothorax widest at base, thence arcuately narrowed to front, anterior
angles rounded at tips, enclosing head beyond eyes; foliate margins widely
horizontal, posterior angles acute and subfalcate. Disk finely, not closely punctate ;
medial sulcus fine, but in general distinct throughout; two large depressions at
base extending half-way to apex.

Elytra of same width as prothorax at base, sides parallel for the greater part,
or slightly widened behind middle; horizontal margins about half as wide as those
of prothorax, much narrowed at apex; each with six carinate costae, besides the
raised suture, the third and fifth more sharply raised than the others; between
each pair, double rows of large round punctures, tending to form slight crenula-
tions on the costae. Prosternum subcarinate in middle, abdomen finely strigose.

Dimensions—19 x 9 mm.

Habitat—Queensland, Roma and Watten (F. H. Taylor), Winton (A. M.
Lea). Holotype in Coll. Carter.

Eight examples are before me. A species long regarded by me as
P. alternatus Pasc. until my visit to the British Museum in 1922, when I com-
pared it with the type. Among the Tenebrionidae from the South Australian
Museum were a number of the true alternatus from the interior of South Aus-
tralia (Miller’s Creek, Leigh’s Creek, Prof. Wood-Jones). The following com-
parison may serve to prevent confusion by others.

alternatus Pasc. commixtus, n. sp.
Colour—Nitid coal black - - Dull brownish-black.
Prothorax with small round basal foveae, With two large, elongate depres-
widest in front of base - ~ sions, widest at base.
Elytra—Third, fifth, seventh costae only All costae sharp, third and fifth
well marked, seriate punctures small, more than others, seriate punc-
without crenulations - - tures large and deep with some
crenulation.

Holotype in Coll. Carter.

Pascoe gave eight lines as the length of his type. The examples of
P. alternatus before me vary from 16 to 19 mm. long.

Pterohelaeus ellipsoides, n. sp.

Convex and widely oval, nitid black above, brownish beneath, antennae and
tarsi red.

Head rather flat, antennal orbits little raised, epistoma regularly arcuate, a
few small punctures between eyes, larger and closer punctures at sides; anterior
area impunctate; antennae sublineate, third not as long as 4-5 combined, apical
segments little widened.

Prothorax widest at base, thence sharply narrowed to apex, base thrice as
wide as apex, foliate margins wide behind, narrowing to front; lightly concave;
disk and margins laevigate, medial line feebly indicated on basal half; anterior
angles rounded, posterior narrowly acute; base bisinuate, subtruncate in front
of scutellum.

Elytra wider than prothorax at base and about four times at long; foliate
margins moderately wide in front, suddenly narrowed behind middle and sub-
obsolete at apex; apical declivity steep; striate-punctate, the striae indistinct near
middle, this region irregularly punctate, the punctures small but distinct;

134

intervals flat, the sutural and about three others laevigate, the other with irregular
punctures of the same size as in the series; a line of rather large punctures at
discal margins. Prosternwm flat, not raised between coxac, mid-intercoxal process
widely, post. process narrowly triangular; underside very minutely punctate; apex
of tibiae and tarsi strongly pubescent.

Dimensions—12 x 8 mm.

Habitat—Western Australia, Cue (H. W. Brown), Boulter (A. Bethune).

One of a small Saragus-like group near, but larger than P. thymacloides Macl.
Two examples examined. Holotype in South Australian Museum.

Pterohelaeus orbicularis, n. sp.

Convex and widely oval, very nitid black, underside and legs dark castaneous,
antennae and tarsi red.

Head rather small and flat; eyes closer than in ellipsoides, the margins more
raised, the surface more clearly punctate; antennae sublineate, the four apical
segments enlarged, 9-10 round, 11 oval.

Prothorax very similar to that of ellipsoides, disk rather less convex and
merging more gradually into the foliate margins; almost laevigate, a medial line
feebly indicated.

Elyira wider than prothorax at base and nearly thrice as long; foliate margins
wide, narrowed to about half in apical region ; striate-punctate, the striae distinct,
the seriate punctures small in the sutural rows, larger towards sides, the medio-
basal regions without the irregular punctures of ellipsoides; intervals nearly flat,
each with about four laevigate intervals very slightly raised. Prosternum flat,
lightly granulose; metasternum and first abdominal segment strongly punctate,
second and third strongly strigose, apical segment coarsely punctate.

Dimensions—9-10 x 7 mm.

Habitat—South Australia, Murat Bay,

Two examples in the S.A. Museum are intermediate in size between
ellipsoides and thymaloides Macl., while similar in their widely ovate form; this
being the widest of the three. Though Saragus-like in form, both this and
ellipsoides are definitely winged. Holotype in the South Australian Museum.

Pterohelaeus planior, n. sp.

Oblong, depressed, opaque brownish-black above, nitid reddish-brown beneath,
antennae reddish.

Head very flat, epistoma widely rounded, antennal orbits scarccly raised;
front finely punctate, antennae rather slender and lineate, third = 4-5 combined,
8-10 transverse, 11 oval.

Prothorax flat, foliate margins wide and sub-horizontal, apex arcuate-
emarginate, anterior angles advanced, blunted at tips, base bisinuate, hind angles
acute and falcate; widest behind middlc, sides rather widely rounded, extreme
border wafer-like scarcely raised, except near angles; disk minutely and closely
punctate, a smooth medial line, lightly sulcate on basal half. Scutellum trans-
versely triangular.

Elytra of same width as prothorax at base and nearly five times as long;
sides sub-parallel, horizontal margins rather wide; striate-punctate the striac
lightly impressed, the seriate punctures rather small, intervals very lightly, the
fourth, eighth and twelfth more strongly convex. Prosternum lightly carinate,
glabrous and impunctate.

Dimensions—18-21 x 10:5-12 mm.

135

Habitat—North-West Australia, Fortescue River, Hammersley Range (W.
D. Dodd).

Two examples show a distinct species belonging to Macleay’s Section 11,
Subsection 1. It is nearest to planus Bless and oblongus Cart. but is flatter and
relatively wider than either, with a more opaque surface. Indced, it is the flattest
of all the larger species. Holotype in the South Australian Museum.

Pterohelaeus subsericeus, n. sp.

Shortly oblong-ovate, black, glabrous and subopaque, antennae and tarsi red,
underside and legs nitid black.

Head and pronotum densely and finely punctate, epistoma truncate, front
lightly impressed between the eyes; antennae 1-2 globose, 3 as long as 4-5 together,
4-6 short, oval, 7-11 transverse, 8-10 wider than 7.

Prothorax, apex arcuate emarginate, anterior angles widely rounded off,
lateral margins moderately. wide, subhorizontal, without defined border; widest at
base, thence arcuatcly narrowed to apex; base strongly bisinuate, nearly twice as
broad as apex; disk and margins uniformly and densely punctate, without medial
line or basal foveae. Scutellum large, triangular.

Elytra as wide as prothorax at base, slightly wider at shoulders, thence sub-
parallel (feebly widened behind middle) and bluntly rounded at apex. Surface
without any defined system of striae or scriate punctures; the whole with a silky
roughness, with about three lightly raised and rather wide, subundulate, longi-
tudinal impressions on each elytron, at equal intervals. Prosternum finely
granulose, subcarinate between the coxae; all tibiae denticulate on outside, fringed
with hair on inside.

Dimensions—12 x 6:5 mm,

Habitat—North-West Australia, Fortescue River, Hammersley Range (W.
D. Dodd).

A unique example is allied only to P. sericeus Cart. from Queensland.
These two stand in a group apart, by their absence of the usual striation and the
peculiar silky integument of the elytra and the denticulate tibiae; but subsericeus
is more elongate, the raised lines less clearly zig-zag. Holotype in the South
Australian Museum.

Pterohelaeus teres, n. sp.

Oblong-ovate, convex, subnitid black above, nitid black beneath, antennae
and tarsi piceous.

Head subtriangular, sides narrowed to apex, antennal ridge little raised,
surface rugose-punctate, antennae rather slender, 3 not as long as 4-5 combined,
last four segments transverse, eleventh oval.

Prathorax widest a little in front of base, anterior angles rounded, posterior
slightly falcate, sides arcuately narrowed to apex, foliate margins wide and
concave, border recurved; disk minutely, not very closely, punctate, without sign
of medial line, a small transverse depression on each side at base.

Elyira slightly wider than prothorax at base, sides sub-parallel for the greater
part; very finely striate-punctate, the punctures small and regular, the intervals
flat, with punctures of equal size with the striae; a wide laevigate space at suture,
and less marked, impunctate intervals betwcen every fourth serics, clsewhere
irregular punctures tending to obscure the striae. Prosternum carinate, under-
side almost impunctate, tibiae glabrous.

Dimensions—14-15 x 7:5-8 mm.

Habitat—Western Australia, Mullewa (Miss F. May).

©) The words “wavy costae” in the description of sericeus scarecly describe the widely
raised impressions that take the place of costae.

136

Five examples from the Lea Collection belong to this undescribed species. In
form like P. kellari Br. and cereus Macl., though less nitid and more convex than
the latter. It is distinguished by its flat elytral intervals and fine, somewhat
irregularly punctate, surface. The seriate punctures of P. kollari Cart. (? Breme)
are considerably larger, the prothorax wider, less narrowed in front. Holotype
in the South Australian Museum.

Saragella, n. gen. (Nyctozoilinae).

Body wingless. Head wide, antennae short, mavillary palpi with apical
segment cultriform and abnormally large, labial short with apical segment small
oval and ciliate; mentum very large, flat and subangulate at sides, its surface
closely pitted with round punctures, Eyes undivided, rounded and depressed,
little seen from beneath. Prosternum declivous, its process deflexed, received into
a shallow triangular receptacle of the mesosternum; mesosternum short. ‘J tbiae
each with two apical spines, one long, the other short; without lateral spur. Tarsi
clothed beneath with stout bristly cilia, the fore and post. tarsi with basal segment
long; the former thin (with tibial receptable), the latter as long as the rest
combined.

A species at first suggestive of Adelodemus of the Opatrinae, but the large,
lozenge-shaped mentum, with its strong, horizontal teeth of the submentum, the
large palpi, the notched mesosternum, and the elongate tarsi point to its association
with Dysarchus, though without the spurred anterior tibiae of that genus.

Saragella palpalis, n. sp.
Pl, vi, fig. 1.
Ovate, opaque brown, almost glabrous, antennae and tarsi red.

Head epistoma arcuate and ciliate, its reflexed border extending in an
unbroken line to the raised antennal orbit, this extending laterally beyond eyes;
two converging ridges extending from in front of eyes to meet at base. Surface
finely shagreened. Antennae not reaching to half of prothoracic length, third not
as long as 4-5 together, 4-7 subconic, 8-10 a little transverse, 11 smaller than 10.

Prothorax depressed and widely sub-hexagonal (2:5, 4-5 mm), apex (discal
part) and base truncate, the former with prominent, subacute (apices blunted)
angles, posterior angles well defined but widely obtuse ; a narrow horizontal, foliate
margin—slightly widened at front angles, extreme border sub-crenulate, not
raised; widest at middle, here subangulately widened; whole surface shallowly
alveolate-punctate, the lateral areas finely pusiulose. Scufellum small, transverse.

Elytra rather widely ovate; a narrow horizontal border seen from above and
ciliate ; each with four, nitid, well-raised, sub-crenulate costae, intervals shagreened
and finely pustulose; suture also with geminate costae Icss raised than the others,
Underside coarsely punctate, prosternum a little rugose.

Dimensions—9 x 5 mm.

Habitali—Western Australia, Mullewa (Miss F. May).

A unique example in the I.ea Collection has been difficult to classify as unlike
anything known to me in the Tenebrionidae. With the general aspect of a
Saragus, its unusual mentum, palpi, antennae and tarsi at once separate it from the
Helaeinae, The absence of a pro-tibial spur denies its inclusion under Dysarchus,
with which it seems to be most nearly allied. Holotype in the Museum of South
Australia.

ADELODEMUS (APOSTETHUS) TERRENUS Pase.

There is an example of this in the Simson collection of the South Australian
Museum from the type locality, Bowen, Queensland. The elytral intervals of this

137

are manifestly pustulose-setose, the pustules fine and sparse, though rather
numerous towards apex—each being a fine seta. These were possibly obscured by
the “earthy squamulose crust” of his description, since he makes no mention of
them. This is the first example recorded in Australian collections.

Onosterrhus pustulatus, n. sp.

Ovate, convex, subnitid black above, more nitid beneath, antennae and tarsi
piceous.

Head not perceptibly punctate, labrum prominent, epistoma truncate with
rounded angles, the sides meeting the lightly raised antennal ridge at a wide angle,
antennae slender, 3 as long as 4-5 combined, 4-7 lineate-triangular, successively
shorter and wider, 8-11 narrower and slightly longer than 10,

Prothorax (4x 7 mm.), very convex, apex arcuate-emarginate, angles acute,
base lightly bisinuate; widest at base, sides arcuately narrowed to apex, a little
sinuate at the acute, posterior angles, these pointing diagonally outwards, extreme
border narrowly raised, margins concave within this; disk not perceptibly punctate.
Scutellum widely transversely triangular.

Elytra (12 x 10 mm.) convex and widely ovate, greatest height behind middle,
widest at middle, margins unseen from above, whole surface irregularly rugose-
pustulose, the pustules sharper and more numerous towards sides and apex,
modified and sub-obsolete towards base. Tooth of submentum acute, not much
raised and pointing forward. Prosternum transversely rugose, all coxae glabrous,
abdomen sparsely strigose, fore tibiae very sparsely pubescent, hind tarsi furrowed
beneath.

Dimensions—18 x 10 mm.

Habitat—Australia (Blackburn Collection).

A single example, labelled as above, deserves a name for its unique sculp-
ture. While in some details approaching to the description of O. veternosa Blackb.
the sculpture is at variance with the laconic “leviter reticulatum strigosa.”
Presumably this species came under his eye. Holotype in the South Australian
Museum.

Agasthenes tepperi, n. sp.

Elongate ovate, convex, dull black above, nitid black beneath, antennae and
tarsi piceous.

Head very minutely punctate, labrum very prominent, epistoma truncate, its
front corners obtuse, its sides obliquely widened to meet the ear-like antennal
orbits at a wide angle; antennae long, nearly extending to the base of the pro-
thorax, third as long at 4-5 combined, 4-8 piriform and successively widened,
9-10 round, not wider than 8, 11 oval narrower than 10.

Prothorax (5 x 9 mm) very wide, apex strongly emarginate, the discal part
subtruncate, the angles acutely pointing forward, beyond the eye; base bisinuate,
hind angles acute, produced and closely adapted to the rounded shoulder of elytra;
widest at middle, sides widely sinuate behind, arcuately converging in front;
foliate margins rather wide and concave, extreme border strongly thickened and
rounded; disk impunctate, without medial line or foveae. Scutellum strongly
transverse,

Elytra wider than prothorax at base, elongate ovate, and narrow horizontal
border, visible from above, surface glabrous and impunctate. Submentum
punctate, with a strong conical, horizontal tooth; prosternum rugose, atched in
middle, its process received into a wide triangular receptacle of the mesosternum ;
inside margins of tibiae fringed with tomentum, hind tarsi short.

138

Dimensions—21 x 10-5 mm.

Habitat—North-West Australia (E. Tepper).

Labelled in the handwriting of the late Entomologist of the South Australian
Muscum, the species is quite distinct from A. Championi Cart. by the differently
shaped head and thorax, the former having the outline of the antennal orbit
widened towards the front from the eyes, and sinuately continuous with the
epistoma ; its prothorax is widest behind middle, its front angles pointing obliquely
outward, inter alia. Holotype in South Australian Museum.

Onoglypta rugosa, n. sp.

Oblong-ovate, convex; subnitid castancous, glabrous; antennae and tarsi
pale red.

Head, epistoma arcuate, on a lower plane than the front, its outline not con-
tinuous with that of the widely rounded and raised antennal orbit ; eyes widely
separate, front glabrous, epistoma lightly punctate; antennae not reaching base
of prothorax, third segment one-and-a-half times as long as 4, 8-10 transverse,
11 oval, nearly twice as long as 10.

Prothorax widest behind middle, apex arcuate emarginate, base bisinuate,
sides moderately rounded, all angles acute, the anterior a little blunted at lip, the
posterior about 80°, foliate margins rather narrow, concave within, border
thickened and raised; disk very minutely and sparsely punctate, without sign of
medial line. Scutellum very transverse.

Elytra slightly wider than prothorax at base, just perceptibly widened behind
middle; widely rounded behind; apical declivity very steep, border unseen from
above; whole surface confusedly covered with wide vermiculate rugae, having
large punctures at the depressions. Three longitudinal lines on each form ill-
defined costae, these morc distinct on apical half (consisting of closely placed
humps), the punctures form a series near suture and partly so along the costae;
also a marginal row, obscured in places. Underside finely and sparsely punctate,
the apical ventral segment more strongly so; submentum with a vertical, sub-
conical tooth on each side, prosternum declivous, its process produced and
rounded at apex.

Dimensions—8 x 4:5 mim.

Habitat—Western Australia, Mullewa (Miss F. May).

Two examples from the Lea Collection form an interesting addition to the
western fauna, It is possible that the pale colour denotes immaturity. The
sculpture unique in the group, though clearly allied, I think, to O. octocostata Geb.
Holotype in the South Australian Museum.

Platyphanes subseriatus, n. sp.

Oblong, subnitid above, nitid beneath, head, prothorax and underside black,
elytra obscurely varicolorous, purple, green and blue, the last in humeral region,
the two first indeterminately confused.

Head, epistoma truncate with widely rounded angles, eyes large, separated
by the width of a transverse diameter of an eye. Surface finely and closely
punctate ; antennae short and slender, third not longer than fourth, apical segments
lightly incrassate.

Prothorax depressed, widest behind middle, apex arcuate-emarginate, anterior
angles advanced and obtusely blunted, base strongly bisinuate, hind angles widely
obtuse, but well defined; sides moderately rounded, reflexed border moderately
wide, surface uniformly, finely punctate, without definite foliation, narrowly
sulcate within border; without any sign of medial line or fovae.

139

Elytra wider than prothorax at base, sides sub-parallel for the greater part;
a narrow horizontal border visible from above; feebly seriate-punctate, without
evident striae, the seriate punctures small, round, uniform in size and distance,
intervals flat, themselves sparsely and finely punctulate. Prosternum coarsely,
rest of underside minutely punctate. Legs long, with a metallic gloss.

Dimensions—18 x 9 mm,

Habitai—Western Australia, Mullewa (Miss F. May).

A single. example in the Lea Collection is the only member of the genus
without defined striae, but allied to planatus Cart., chaleopteroides Cart. in general
structure. Holotype in the South Australian Museum.

Titaena minima, n. sp.

Elongate, cylindric, dark bronze, mouth and appendages red, two basal seg-
ments of antennae testaceous.

Head moderately, not closely, punctate, antennal segments cupuliform,
4-10 successively widening, 11th ovate.

Prothorax very convex, anterior angles unseen from above, widest near apex,
thence slightly narrowing to base; hind angles obtuse, margins scarcely obvious
from above, disk uniformly, closely and coarsely punctate, medial sulcus distinct,
but continuous neither to apex nor base.

Elyira wider than prothorax; strongly and irregularly seriate-punctate; the
punctures becoming confused and irregular at base, the two series nearest suture
placed in shallow striae, intervals between series containing a single row of smaller
punctures. Underside concolorous with upper; prosternum closely punctate,
metasternum with larger punctures near sides only.

Dimensions—4 mm. long.

Habitat—Victoria, Melton (F. E. Wilson).

Two examples, bred from stems of Acacia decurrens have been sent for
description. The species is easily distinguished from 7. minor Cart. by its minute °
size and concolorous bronze colour. Holotype in Coll. Wilson.

Adelium davisi, n. sp.

Elongate-ovate, nitid greenish-black above, nitid black below; palpi, antennae
and tarsi reddish, apex of the second paler, underside of tarsi clothed with
yellow tomentum,

Head, epistoma arcuate, strongly punctate, frontal area more sparsely, less
strongly so; clypeal suture arcuate and deeply impressed, antennae long, extending
beyond base of prothorax; third not as long as 4-5 together, apical segments little
enlarged, 11 elongate.

Prothorax, lightly convex, apex arcuate-emarginate, anterior angles blunted,
base subtruncate, widest behind middle, sides widely rounded, lightly sinuate
behind, posteriar angles widely obtuse but defined; without distinct foliation;
extreme border narrow; whole surface uniformly punctate, not at all rugose, a
round fovea on each side, an irregular depression near hind angle, and a few
larger punctures here and there.

Elytra wider than prothorax at base; rather strongly convex laterally, margins
unseen from above; ovate; scutellary and sutural regions depressed, weak striae
discernible near suture, otherwise irregularly scriate-punctate, the scriate punc-
tures in general small and distant, a few larger and elongate, especially on exterior
half; intervals flat and sub-levigate. Underside glabrous and almost impunctate.
Prosternum constricted and convex between coxae; post inter-coxal plate squarely
truncate, intermediate triangular.

140

Dimensions—l14 x 5 mm.

Habitat—Western Tasmania, Pieman Creek (G. and C. Davis).

A single example was amongst the Coleoptera collected by Mr. and Mrs.
Consett Davis in January, 1937. In form and colour somewhat like arboricola
Cart. and flavicorne Cart. Its distinct features are its lightly and regularly
punctate pronotum, its nitid green-black surface and scarcely striate elytra with
its small clear punctures. Holotype in Coll. Carter.

Adelium sinuaticolle, n. sp.

Ovate, subnitid, dark bronze; underside bronze-black, antennae fuscous
towards apex.

Head coarscly punctate, rugose on front; epistomal ridge wide, truncate,
separated from front by curved line; antennae rather short, thick, gradually
stouter towards apex, third not as long as 4-5 together, 11 longer than 10,
elongate ovate.

Prothorax depressed, transverse (4 x 6 mm.), wider at base than at apex,
widest at middle, thence arcuate both ways, anterior angles obtuse, sides strongly
sinuate before the prominent and acute posterior angles, these slightly deflected
and pointing outwards; extreme border reflexed, thickened and crenulated, the
crenulation strongest near hind angles. Disk rugosely punctate, levigate towards
margins, but without distinct separation of margins from disk; medial line wide
and shallow but evident throughout.

Elytra widely ovate, moderately convex, much wider than thorax at base,
shoulders widely rounded, greatest width about half way; seriate-punctate, with
ten rows of large elongate punctures on each (two of these on side), intervals
finely punctate, four alternate intervals raised, forming costae on apical half, the
third of these with sharpest outline and continuous to apex; epipleurae with large,
sparse punctures near base, becoming a single line of punctures towards apex.
Intercoxal process truncate with rounded angles, femora strongly punctate, tarsi
with fulvous tomentum,

Dimensions—16 x 7 mm.

Habitat—North Queensland, Mulgrave River (H. Hacker).

A single example in the South Australian Museum. It is distinguished from
others of Group IT of my revision by the crenulate border, and subdentate hind
angles of the prothorax. In the latter respect it is near 4. hackeri Cart., from which
it is separated by the absence of the pilosity that characterises that species. The
elytral sculpture is nearest that of A. plicigerum Pasc. but the punctures are
longer and narrower, especially on sides. The unnotched margin of the inter-
coxal process marks it as aberrant in its group. Holotype in the South Aus-
tralian Museum.

Adelium subsulcatum, n. sp.

Ovate, dark bronze, moderately nitid, tarsi reddish.

Head rather strongly punctate, clypeal suture semi-circular, with lateral
branch deeply impressed. Antennae extending to base of prothorax, third seg-
ment as long as 4-5 together, 4-8 subequal, 9-11 gradually enlarged, eleventh
largest and oval.

Prothorax widest behind middle, apex arcuate emarginate, anterior angle
advanced and acute, base truncate, sides widely rounded, fecbly sinuate in front,
strongly so behind, towards the widely dentate, subrectangular, hind angles.
Margins with wide foliation limited by a convex discal ridge, extreme border
narrowly raised. Disk irregularly punctate, with a few ill-defined rugae; a short
lateral fovea on cach side within the above-mentioned ridge. Scutellum triangular ;
sutural region hollowed behind.

141

Elytra broadly ovate-acuminate, considerably wider than prothorax at base ;
shoulders rounded, sides arcuately narrowed to a rather sharp apex; striate-
punctate, the striae deep, the seriate punctures large, increasing in size as striae
approach sides; intervals convex, finely but clearly punctate, the fifth and seventh
more strongly raised on apical declivity. Underside without defined punctures;
post intercoxal process margined and rounded at apex.

Dimensions—13 x 6 mm.

Habitat—New South Wales, Mount Tomah, Blue Mountains. (The author.)

I took a single é example in November, 1934, which has been in my cabinet
awaiting further material. Its clear distinction makes a name desirable. In size,
colour and form of prothorax it is like 4A. geminatum Pasc. and A. reticulatum
Cart, The elytral sculpture is near that of A. wiolaceum * Cart., and it is one of
the few species having the elytra subsulcate, with definitely ridged intervals. It
belongs to Section iiA of my Revision (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1908). Holo-
type in Coll. Carter.

A, reticulatum Cart. is very like A. geminatum Pasc, (a species unknown to
me when describing reticulatum). Two characters, however, clearly separate
them: (1) Elytral foveae narrower and more elongate; (2) Elytral intervals
clearly punctate—in geminatum sublacvigate. A. reticulatwm appears to be limited
in range to the Kurrajong and Mount Irvine district, whereas geminatum is widely
distributed over northern New South Wales and southern Queensland.

Brycopia alpicola, n. sp.

Oval, bronze, appendages red, legs darker than antennae; surface, especially
at sides and apex of elytra, with long upright, silvery hair.

Head coarsely punctate, epistoma evenly rounded, eyes prominent; antennae
stout, third segment much longer than fourth, 4-10 successively more widened at
apex, 8-10 subtriangular, eleventh larger than 10, ovoid.

Prothoray apex and base truncate, widest about middle; anterior angles
widely rounded off, posterior sharply subrectangular; sides feebly rounded on
anterior two-thirds, then abruptly, angulately narrowed and widely sinuate on
posterior third; extreme border lightly crenulated.

Elytra obovate, considerably wider than prothorax at base; coarsely striate-
punctate, the striae irregular, but generally wide and deep; seriate punctures very
large, crenulating sides of intervals; these convex, with a single line of large setose
punctures. Underside coarsely punctate.

Dimensions—6 x 3 mm.

Habitat—New South Wales, Mount Kosciusko, (The author.)

I took a single example in January of the present year, 1937. It is twice the
size of B, minuta Lea, which it somewhat resembles in the form of the prothorax,
but it differs widely from this species in the much coarser sculpture, denser and
more evident pilosity, stouter antennae and the following structural distinction.
In minuta the lateral sinuation of the prothorax commences half way; in alpicola
at the posterior third. My tabulation of the genus will show its distinction from
other species. (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1920, p. 246.) Holotype in Coll. Carter.

Dystalica multilineata, n. sp.
Pl. vi, fig. 2.
Elongate, black, subnitid above, nitid beneath, antennae and tarsi reddish.
Head and pronotum densely crowded with longitudinal rugae, these fine on
head and foliate margins of prothorax, coarse on disk; antennal ridges sub-

@) I recently took a pair of A. violaceum at Eungai, near Kempsey.

142

depressed, clypeal suture deeply impressed; antennae stout, nearly extending to
base of prothorax, third not as long as 4-5 together, 8-11 widened and equal.
Prothorax sub-depressed, apex arcuate-cmarginate, front angles rather
widely acute, base truncate, widest behind middle, sides well rounded, strongly,
abruptly sinuate near posterior angles, these forming a small acute tooth pointing
outwards; an ill-defined horizontal foliation, extreme border narrow; disk with
medial line, somewhat obscured by rugae, but evident on basal half. Scutellum
depressed, triangular. Y
Elyira considerably wider than prothorax at base, and about two and two-
third times longer ; lightly obovate; lateral margins unseen from above, each with
nine sharply raised costae; between each pair of costae two undulate more finely
raised lines—in general the extcrior of these nearly straight, the interior less raised
and more wavy, the undulations leaving elongate, oval depressions; the only
definite punctures on sutural costae and post-scutellary region. Underside, sub-
mentum dentate (pointing forward), with double rows of punctures along its
margin; prosternum with a double row of punctures along its front margin, and
a row on each side of its intercoxal process; otherwise impunctate, meso- and
metasternum strongly punctate, apical ventral segment closely so; post inter-
coxal process truncate with rounded sides, intermediate semihexagonal,
Dimensions—12 x 5 mm.
Habitat—Northern Territory, Port Darwin (G. F. Hill).

Campolene nitidior, n. sp.

Oblong-ovate, very nitid black, antennae and legs red.

Head, epistoma semi-circular, surface closely punctate, coarsely near base,
finely on epistoma; antennae stout, strongly enlarged from the fifth outwards.

Prothorax very transverse, widest at middle, apex advanced medially,
anterior angles widely rounded off and depressed, base lightly bisinuate, sides
lightly rounded, a little sinuate near hind angles, these non-dentate and depressed,
about 80°, extreme border raised, especially near base and narrowly sulcate within;
disk uniformly and finely punctate, two transverse depressions near base.

Elytra slightly wider than prothorax at base and about two and two-third
times longer, rather strongly convex, margins unseen from above, finely striate-
punctate, the striae faint, the punctures much smaller than in C. nitida Pasc., the
wide intervals flat and impunctate. Prosternum with deep transverse ridges, its
flanks with a few large punctures, mesusternum depressed, fincly carinate in
middle, separated from episterna by ridge; metasternwm and abdomen nitid and
impunctate; legs stout, pro and mid tibiae slightly bowed.

Dimensions—12 x 4 min.

Habitat —New South Wales, Dorrigo (W. Heron).

A umique in the South Australian Museum; adds another notable “find” of
the Dorrigo naturalist, Mr. Heron. Its larger size, especially more elongate and
navicular form, with markedly finer sculpture of the upper surface, easily dis-
tinguishes this species from the well-known C. nilida Pasc. Holotype in the
South Australian Museum.

DASCILLIDAE.

Elodes limbatus, n. sp.

Ovate, nitid black, subglabrous, margins of prothorax and of elytra (includ-
ing epipleurae) testaceous; apex of prothorax and base of elytra also tinged with
yellow. Underside opaque brown, tibiae and tarsi red.

Head closely punctate, almost devoid of hair, eyes large, round and pro-
minent, antennae, first segment large, ovoid, 2 and 3 small, 4-11 linear, rather stout.

143

Prothorax, short and wide, apex bisinuate, medial lobe widely produced over
head, anterior angles rounded, little advanced; base arcuate, scarcely sinuate, hind
angles widely rounded off, sides arcuately narrowed from base to apex, with
wafer-like border, the concaye margins yellow, the disk uniformly punctate, wth
round, shallow punctures. Scutellum large, triangular (sides rounded).

Elytra lightly obovate, wider than prothorax at base, widest behind middle,
the yellow margins subvertical near base, subhorizontal near apex; surface
glabrous and punctate, the punctures rather large, shallow, not very close, an
oblique, subobsolete costa traceable from shoulder, and a light depression near
and parallel to suture. Underside impunctate, with short recumbent hair.

Dimensions—5'‘5 x 3 mm.

Habitat—Tasmania, West Coast (G,. and C. Davis).

A single example is allied to £&. cincta Blkb. but is smaller, and without the
three distinct costae and pubescence of that species, besides colour differences.
Holotype in Coll, Carter.

CURCULIONIDAE.,

Talaurinus fergusoni, n. sp.

Oblong-ovate. Black, tubercles nitid, depressed areas densely clothed with
greyish scales, forming longitudinal vittae on prothorax and elytra; underside
wholly black.

é Head lightly convex; rostrum excavate, external ridges wide, slightly
divergent and a little produced over head; internal less raised than external and
convergent; sulci rather wide, confluent across base; scrobes open behind.

Prothorax (6 x 6 mm.), sides well rounded, widest near middle, base feebly
sinuate, with four compound rows of rounded tubercles—two, at sides, forming
lateral crenulations—, intervening depressions forming pale vittae, a fourth vitta
on episterna.

Elytra (15 x 9 mm.), sides lightly rounded, apex in general rounded—with
a tendency to become mucronate in the 9—base arcuate, shoulders produced by
two large tubercles; each elytron with four rows of large, single, rounded
tubercles, the second of these subcontinuous with the internal rows of the pro-
thorax, and containing from 8 to 13 tubercles; the geminate sutural rows with
smaller and generally more elongate tubercles than those in other rows, and
seldom extending on to the declivity, the second and third rows continuous to
apex, near apex a short row of two to four small tubercles near margin, depressed
intervals as on prothorax, without granulations; at extreme sides a row of large
punctures. Underside flat, ventral (especially apical) segments depressed along
middle, with fine, sparse, punctures, coxae more closely and coarsely punctate.
Legs simple, femora rounded and undentate.

¢ wider, ventral segments convex; apices of elytra sometimes mucronate.

Dimensions— 6 , 22-23 mm. x 8-9 mm.; ?, 23-24 mm. x 9-9-5 mm.

Habitat—South Queensland, Stanthorpe (Von Wieldt), Fletcher and
Wyberba (E. Sutton).

Seven examples are before me of this fine, distinct species of the
niveovittatus Ferg. carteri Ferg. group, It is easily distinguished from these,
as from others, by the regular rows of single, large, separate, rounded tubercles on
the elytra. In only one example does the second elytral series show signs of
duplication. The pale vittae tend to become obscure, only one example retaining

©) T. cartert Ferg., hitherto only represented by the unique type in the Ferguson Collec-
tion, from Howell, N.S.W., has also been found, not uncommon, in the Wyberba district,
South Queensland, Like the above, it is subject to discolouration. Both species are excep-
tionally “hard-shelled” and very difficult to pin.

144

the almost white colour. It is fitting to name this in honour of the late Dr. E. W.
Ferguson, whose work so much elucidated our knowledge of the Phalidurinae.
Holo- and Allotype in Coll. Carter.

CERAMBYCIDAE.

Athemistus orbicollis,© n. sp.

Dark brown, subopaque, almost glabrous, antennae red; apices of tibiae with
tufts of pale hair.

Head very lightly pubescent, with sparse, deep punctures.

Prothorax subspherical, more convex than usual, sides widely rounded, the
usual pustules obsolete (two feeble swellings discernible on disk, none at sdes) ;
disk, like head, with sparse deep punctures; patches of very fine pubescence here
and there at sides and apex,

Elytra ovate, apices separately rounded ; seriate-pustulose, the pustules rather
elongate, smooth and subhorizontal, not crenulating the sides nor cristate at
shoulders; almost devoid of hairy clothing, without distinct subapical pustules.

Dimensions—13 x 4°5 mm.

Habitat—New South Wales, Mount Kosciusko. (The author.)

A single example was taken at Sawpit Creek (4,000 feet alt.) by myself in
January, 1937. It is very distinct by its punctate, globose prothorax, almost devoid
of tubercles and the very scanty clothing of its whole surface. On the apical
declivity there are two feeble suggestions of tubercles, in that the fourth series
from stutture terminates in a slightly more tumid pustule than the rest; but these
are indistinct, though just discernible in outline. Holotype in Coll. Carter.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES V, VI. ann VII.
PLate V—1, Bubastes subflavipennis, n. sp.; 2, Stigmodera (Castiarina) goerlingi, n. sp.;
3, Stigmodera (Castiarina) palagera, nsp.; 4, Stigmodera (Castiarina) verna, nsp.
Piate VI—1, Saragella palpalis, n.g. et sp.; 2, Dystalica multilineata, n. sp.
Pirate ViI—Curis venusta, n. sp.

©) Species of the genus are common on Mount Kosciusko, especially 4. puncticollis Pasc.

DESCRIPTION OF TWO NEW SPECIES OF AUSTRALIAN CHITONS
WITH ADDITIONAL NOTES AND RECORDS.

BY EDWIN ASHBY, F.L.S., C.E.A.O.U, ETC., AND B. C. COTTON

Summary

This paper describes two new species, one contained in a collection of chitons received from
Capt. Beresford Bardwell, of Broome, and collected on Augustus Island, Port George IV,
North Western Australia, in 1934, and another collected at Cape Jervis, South Australia, in 1937.
(Reg. No. D 13282, S.A. Museum.) In addition, notes on a second species from the Broome
material and two others from Cape Jervis, one of these being a new record for South Australia, are
given.

145

DESCRIPTION OF TWO NEW SPECIES OF AUSTRALIAN CHITONS
WITH ADDITIONAL NOTES AND RECORDS.

By Epwin Asuby, F.L.S., C.F.A.O.U., etc.,

and B. C. Cotron, Conchologist, South Australian Museum.
[Read August 12, 1937.]

Piate VIII.

This paper describes two new species, one contained in a collection of chitons
received from Capt. Beresford Bardwell, of Broome, and collected on Augustus
Island, Port George IV, North Western Australia, in 1934, and another collected
at Cape Jervis, South Australia, in 1937. (Reg. No. D 13282, S.A. Museum.)
In addition, notes on a second species from the Broome material and two others
from Cape Jervis, one of these being a new record for South Australia, are given.

Cuiton (ANTHOCHITON). EXCELLENS Iredale and Hull.

While the valves of the smaller specimens in the Broome material were
mostly detached, there were two examples of this species each of which had
several valves missing.

Iredale and Hull’s type is in the Macleay Museum, Sydney. It was examined
by Ashby in 1931 and found to have been sent previously to the British Museum,
where it had been identified with Chiton pulcherrimus Sowerby from the
Philippine Islands.

In 1928 Ashby described Chiton excellens capricornensis from a unique
example from the Capricorn Group, Queensland. It was pointed out at the time
that this specimen differed widely from the figure of the holotype as given by
Iredale and Hull. The specimen from Augustus Island differs again in certain
respects from both pulcherrimus and capricornensis, and we would suggest that
excellens capricornensis and excellens s. str. be regarded as subspecies of
pulcherrimus Sowerby from the Philippines, but this can only be definitely
decided by comparison with examples from the latter locality.

Callistochiton augustensis, sp. n.
(Plate viii, figs. 2, 3, 4.)
In the Broome material were six detached valves of this new species.
Description :—

Head Valve—Unusually flat, with eleven knobby ray ribs, the two outer
ones being nearly double the size of the rest and corresponding with the two ribs
in the lateral areas of the median valves; the knobs vary from 8 to 12.

Median Valye——tThe dorsal area is exceptionally well defined for a member
of this genus, is narrow and minutely granulose, the grains being flat-topped, the
net-work sculpture usually so well defined in the southern forms is here obsolete.
The pleural area is decorated with diagonal rows of rather large, raised, flat-
topped grains, mostly touching, the grooves between are deep but no bridging can
be detected; there is a slight pectination. The lateral area is much raised and
occupied by two knobby ribs, the knobs near the dorsal area are small but increase

146

rapidly in size towards the girdle, where they become exceptionally large. The
tail valve is missing.

Girdle—This is clothed with thick, deeply grooved all over, imbricating
scales, a little smaller than in those of C. broomensis Ashby and Cotton; the
latter species has shallow, irregular ribbing on the exposed portion only of the
scales.

Articulamentum.—Glossy white, translucent, slits 1/1, insertion plate smooth-
edged except at the slit where it is turned upward into the rib; this feature is
termed “frilling” by Pilsbry and is typical of the genus.

Measurements—Anterior valve length 2-2 mm., width 4:0 mm.; median
valve length 2°6 mm., width 5-0 mm.

Habitat—Augustus Island, Port George IV, North Western Australia.

Holotype—in the Ashby Collection, South Australian Museum, Reg. No.
D 12952,

Notes.—C. augustensis differs from C. clenchi Ashby and Cotton and
C. occiduus Ashby and Cotton in having in the pleural area wavy sub-diagonal
coarse granulose ribbing, whereas both clenchi and occiduus have longitudinal
minutely granulose ribbing. In the lateral areas clenchi has the nodules widely
spaced, in augustensis they are close together and different in character. This
species differs from broomensis in having in the pleural arca wavy granulose
ribbing, and two lateral ribs instead of long rows of detached mucronate grains,
and in the lateral area many radial ribs. The narrow, well-defined dorsal area and
the coarsely granulose ribs in the pleural area easily separate this specics from
any of the southern forms, C. antiquus Gould and C. mawlet Iredale and Hull.

Three new species of Callistochiton were described from North Western Aus-
tralia in 1934 by Ashby and Cotton,“ so that we hesitated before describing the
above fourth species from that locality. The three earlier species were each
represented by single examples, but the characters of each are so well defined
and distinct from other described Australian species that such action seems fully
justified.

It is extremely interesting that with the addition of this species we now have
as many species described from North Western Australia as from the rest of
Australia, four in each case. ‘The list of species is as follows :—

Callistochiton antiquus Gould with its subspecies periousia Iredale and Hull,

from Queensland.

” meridionalis Ashby, from South Australia, with its subspecies
mayi Ashby, from Tasmania.
sy mawlet Iredale and May (Callistassecla mawtlei Iredale and

Hull), from Tasmania and South Australia.
generos Iredale and Hull, from Queensland.

" broomensis Ashby and Cotton, North Western Australia.
3 clencht u ” y iy % e

” occidwus 7 ” ” ” ” ” ”

7 augustensis, sp. 1.

We cannot follow Iredale and Hull in removing the genus Lophochiton from
the Ischnochitonidae (where Ashby placed it in proposing the genus Lophochiton)
and placing it with the Callistochitonidae, for its insertion plate is entirely Ischnoid
in character and does not possess the least sign of frilling. The type species of
Lophochiton is Callistochiton recens Thiele with Lophochiton johnstoni Ashby
as a synonym and with one subspccies L. granifer Hull.

©) Proc, Roy, Soc. Western Australia, vol. xx, pp. 213-219, pl. 13.

147

Ishnochiton jervisensis, sp. n.
(Plate viii, fig. 1.)

General Appearance Elliptical, when alive the girdle is exceptionally wide,
flat but slightly carinated, dorsal and pleural areas uniformly decussate and lateral
area raised and minutely decussate, the two end valves evenly decussate. Colour:
Warm-buff touched up with Light Ochraceous-buff (Ridg. XV).

Head Valve—Flattish, evenly and minutely decussate except the outer fourth
of valve which shows incipient ray ribbing, often only indicated by a single grain;
the ray ribs would probably be very noticeable in an example twice the size.

Median Valve—The dorsal area is indistinguishable from the pleural area
except for its more minute granulose sculpture, the grains are very small in the
dorsal area and are there arranged diagonally, the granulose character of the
sculpture increases in the size of the granules until the girdle is reached, midway
the sculpture changes into longitudinal ribs which are slightly curved outwards
near the girdle; lateral area raised, rather narrow, the longitudinal arrangement
of the granulose sculpture is here lost, this area is evenly minutely decussate, three
shallow pustules occur on the posterior margin (probably partially developed new
growth ridges).

Tail Valve—The mucro is well raised at the anterior third, the posterior
slope is shallowly concave, the whole valve evenly decussate but the anterior
portion is separated from the posterior by a shallow diagonal depression and the
anterior decussate sculpture is coarser, two shallow concentric growth grooves
are present in the posterior portion,

Girdle —The girdle in life was strikingly broad and clothed with strongly
convex highly polished scales; with the naked eye they much resemble the girdle
scales of the genus Haploplax, but instead of being smooth are deeply grooved.

Measurements—Holotype, not disarticulated, the whole dry shell 11 x
6°5 mm.

Notes —TVhe girdle scales of /. auratus Ashby are very minute, thick, flat,
without grooving and polished; in J. cartosus Pilsbry, juvenile specimens of about
the same size, the scales are thin, twice the size and distinctly grooved; in
I. atkinsoni Iredale and May (= variegatus Iredale and Hull, nec. Angas) the
scales are curved with striae less well marked than in J. cariosus but much less
curved and nothing like so deeply grooved as in the above new species. In
I, atkinsoni Iredale and May (= variegatus Iredale and Hull, nec. Angas) the
soni and equal to those of J. cariosus. They are also nearly as large as the girdle
scales of J. lineolatus Blainville (= elongatus Iredale and Hull, nec. Blainville),
but while that species has up to seven striae on each scale, the above new species
has 10-12 striac. In J. kneolatus Bl. (nec. Iredale and Hull) the scales are only
slightly convex and curved down in front, whereas in I, jervisensis they are
strongly and evenly curved over the whole visible surface of the scale.

Habitat—In a sheltered pool at low tide, at Cape Jervis, South Australia,
January 28, 1937. (Reg. No. D 13282, S.A. Museum.)

NoTorLax sponciaLis Ashby.

Amongst the South Australian chitons in the collection of Dr. Torr is an
exatnple of this species labelled “found in sponge.” This is the first record from
South Australia, and of the four examples hitherto known three were dredged in
“The Channel,” Hobart, and the other off Cape Pillar, Tasmania.

Ashby sent to the British Museum the holotype, which had been given to him
by the late Lewis May and which has minute and slender spicules on the girdle,

148

together with two examples of the fairly common Tasmanian form with coarse
spicules, asking which of these forms corresponded with “H. Adams’ type from
Tasmania dating from 1861.” Mr. Robson replied that the type in the British
Museum has the coarse girdle spicules. As this form was the only one known to
collectors until the four dredged examples belonging to Mr. May were found,
this was the answer expected.

Iredale and Hull have renamed H. Adams’ shell with the coarse spicules
Notoplax subspeciosa and add the following concluding and inexplicable note:
“The series used by Ashby for his types of spongialis were the identical ones
Iredale had compared with the type of speciosa in the British Museum, May hav-
ing sent them to him for this purpose.” Actually May sent one example only to
Iredale in London, and gave Ashby an order to collect it on his visit to London
in 1922, This was done and the specimen forwarded to Mr. May. The example,
however, which Ashby made his type of spongialis was already in his own
collection.

The example from Torr’s collection has evidently at some time been placed
in a formalin solution, causing bleaching and damage to sculpture. It has not
been possible to compare it with the subspecies from Western Australia,
N. spongialis glauerti Ashby, 1923.

CALLOCHITON MAY? Torr.

The occurrence of Callochiton (Icoplax) mayi, as a littorine shell at Cape
Jervis is worth recording; it was taken by the writer on January 28, 1937, in a
sheltered pool.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIII.
Fig. 1. Ischnochiton jervisensis, Ashby and Cotton. x8.
Fig. 2. Callistochiton augustensis Ashby and Cotton, Anterior valve. x9.
Fig. 3. Callistochiton augustensis Ashby and Cotton. First median valve, 9,
Fig. 4. Callistochiton augustensis Ashby and Cotton. Last median valve. 9.

TWO LEGENDS OF THE NGADJURI TRIBE FROM THE MIDDLE NORTH
OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

BY NORMAN B. TINDALE, B.SC.

Summary

This paper records two legends of the Ngadjuri [‘nadjuri] people in the "Middle North" of
South Australia. It is probable that less has been written about this tribe than about any other in
South Australia. The members became dispersed in the early days of white settlement and it is only
recently that a survivor has been encountered. Native words and names are spelled according to a
system in use at the University of Adelaide (1) , but tribal names are only given in full phonetic
form when mentioned for the first time. ["Waria], a middle-aged man, told the following legends
while on a brief visit to Adelaide. Both of them are of interest to us in our study of the relationship
between the natives of the northern areas and those of the densely populated country along the
Murray River.

149

ma TWO LEGENDS OF THE NGADJURI “TRIBE
FROM THE MIDDLE NORTH OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By Norman B. Tinpate, B.Sc,. Ethnologist, South Australian Museum.
[Read August 12, 1937.]

This paper records two legends of the Ngadjuri [’nadjuri] people in the
“Middle North” of South Australia. It is probable that less has been written
about this tribe than about any other in South Australia. The members became
dispersed in the early days of white settlement and it is only recently that a
survivor has been encountered. Native words and names are spelled according
to a system in use at the University of Adelaide (1), but tribal names are only
given in full phonetic form when mentioned for the first time. [’Waria], a
middle-aged man, told the following legends while on a brief visit to Adelaide.
Both of them are of interest to us in our study of the relationship between the
natives of the northern areas and those of the densely populated country along
the Murray River.

The territory of the Ngadjuri people extended from Angaston and Gawler
in the south to Port Pirie and Orroroo in the north. Westward they ranged to
Crystal Brook, but they scarcely touched the coast of Spencer Gulf except when
on visits to the [’Nar:anga] people of Yorke Peninsula. In the south their
boundaries marched with those of the [’Kaurna] between Hamley Bridge and
Gawler. Their eastern boundary was the eastern scarp of the Mount Lofty
Ranges. Their northern neighbours were the [‘Nukunu], who lived on the high-
lands and coast near Mount Remarkable. To the north-east was [’Maraura’']
country. In accordance with the general practice that each neighbouring people
has its own term for a tribe, we find that several names have been applied to the
members of the Ngadjuri tribe by surrounding peoples.

['Wir:a] and [’Wir:a ‘meju], meaning “gum tree” and “gum. tree men,’
were names applied by the people of the Kaurna or Adelaide Tribe; they are
briefly mentioned by these names, in the forms Weera and Wirra meyu, in the
writings of Angas (2), Gell (3), and Wyatt (4). Gell derived his information
from Messrs. Teichelmann and Schtirmann.

[’Manu] and [’Manuri], meaning “back” and “inland people,” were the
names applied to them by the coast-dwelling Nukunu of Mount Remarkable.
This name has been mentioned in the forms Monnoo and Manuley by East (5)
and Valentine (6).

The Ngadjuri people’s own name means “we men” and is derived from
[’nadlu] “we” and [’juri] “man.” This name was first noted by Noble (7) in
the form Alury, and has been heard again by Elkin (8) as Ngaluri, A few
words of the language of the Ngadjuri are recorded by Le Brun (9). The tribal
name there quoted, “Canowie,” is apparently the native name [’Kana: wi] of
Canowie Head Station, at which place the natives became concentrated after the
country was taken over by Europeans.

ta

’

THE OLD WoMAN AND HER Two DINGOES.

There came from the north-west an old woman and her two dogs, one red
in colour and the other black. She came from an unknown place, to which the:

150

Ngadjuri believed that human beings could not return. She arrived at
[’Budajerta].? As the old woman and her dogs, which had the attributes of
men, travelled towards the country of the Ngadjuri, the two savage animals killed
any people they encountered and the old woman assisted in the eating of the
victims. By means of smoke signals and messengers, news travelled ahead of
them, and the people consequently were able, for the most part, to keep out of
their way. They did not care to meet this old woman and her two dogs. The
cannibal woman approached [’Karu:na] (which was one of the main camping
grounds near Blinman), There was plenty of water and game there. The
[’Ganja’mata] people? said, “What is the use of running away and leaving our
country? We must make a stand, and try to kill them.” They selected two of
their men, [‘Kudnu], the Jew Lizard, and his brother, [’Wulkinara], and told
them to encounter the old woman and her dogs. Taking only their hoomerangs
with them, the two men went out to meet the savage trio. When they approached,
Wulkinara told his brother Kudnu to climb into a tree, while he hid behind a
neighbouring bush. Then Wulkinara said, “Make a noise and attract the atten-
tion of the old woman and her dogs.” The dogs did not hear, Wulkinara there-
upon whispered, “Call out louder.” The red dog looked up when it heard the
noise made by Kudnu and came straight towards the tree. When it saw Kudnu
it made a leap at him, Thereupon Wulkinara stepped out from his hiding place,
a boomerang held in his right hand, and threw it at the red dog—it cut it into
halves. Again Kudnu made a noise. ‘This time the black dog heard him and
came directly towards his hiding place. Wulkinara again stepped out with a
boomerang in his left hand, threw it, cutting the black dog also in two. They
then killed and burnt the old woman.

At the place where the red dog’s blood was spilt there was formed a red
ochre deposit.“) The blood of the black dog formed a deposit of black wad,
which is used by Ngadjuri men principally for decorating their bodies during
dances, but it is also placed on the bodies of young men who are undergoing initia-
tion. It serves to indicate that their period of initiation is nearing a conclusion.

One serious result of the killing of the two dogs, and of the old woman, was
that the sun, which had never previously set, went down in the west. Then the
frightened tribespeople began crying and wailing. ‘Their efforts to make the sun
rise again were unavailing. Kudnu was asleep while they were trying to make
the sun rise. Tired with their attempts to make the stn come up again, the people
fell asleep. While they slept Kudnu, wakened and threw a returning boomerang
towards the north; it flew around in a circle without achieving his intention. He
threw another towards the west. also without result. He then threw a third to
the south. He heard it going around and finally settle upon the ground. Then
he threw a fourth boomerang towards the east. He heard it going around in a
circle, and as it came down towards him, from the east, he could see that the sky
was lighting up, and that day was breaking. He shouted to lis tribesfolk, “Come!
Get up and see the sun rise again.”

They surrounded him ; hugged him with delight, and presented him with their
rugs, spcars, clubs and boomerangs, as token of this achievement.

©) [Bu@ajerta] (Mount Patawerta, Flinders Range): in the language of the
Negadjuri tribe the name means “snow country,” recalling the fact that snow soinetimes
lies on the mountain during the winter.

@) [’Ganja’mata]. The Ngadjuri name meaning “Hills-pcople,” used for the
people otherwise known as the [Wailpi]. Wailpi is their own local name, and [‘Anji-
‘watan’a] the [’Kujani] name for the tribe. See Hale and Tindale (10),

@) The ochre deposit which is situated at Parachilna Gorge is much valued, not
-only for its supposed medicinal properties but also for use in initiation rites,

151.

“ Ngadjuri people ‘see; marked as a design on the back of the jew lizard, the
forms of rugs, spears, and clubs. On each side of its jaws are supposed to be

depicted two boomerangs.
EAGLE AND Crow.

In ancient times, when animals and birds were human beings, there was a
camp of aborigines in the Orroroo district,

One day Crow went out hunting with Eagle. Eagle would not give Crow’
a proper share of the meat he had captured. Crow was jealous of Eagle, because
he was so big and strong and was able to crush with ease the twig and stick
mound nests of house-building jerboa rats (Leporillus conditor Gould). Crow
obtained a piece of bone from a kangaroo’s leg. The bone was called [’paija].
He sharpened it with a piece of stone, and placed it inside a rat’s nest with the
sharp point directed upwards. He “spoke” to the bone and said, “When I talk
to you, you must move about, you must make people think there are many rats
hidden in the nest.”

When he met Eagle again he flattered him, saying, “You are a nice, big,
strong man, just the one to crush these rats’ nests. Come and jump on a nest
for me.” He took him to the rat nest he had prepared and said, “Here is one! There
are plenty of rats in it. Sec, the nest is moving.” The sharpened kangaroo bone
began to move about as he had arranged. Eagle thought there were many rats in
the nest. He jumped on to it, and as his foot came down, the bone went right
through causing a terrible wound. Crow ran away, laughing, happy to think he
had ruined Eagle’s foot. Eagle managed to struggle home to his camp.

After a while Eagle, with his foot still sore, started to follow Crow and his
family. He followed them north-eastwards to [’Ti: talpa].“)? He found that they
had moved on, and so he followed them westwards to [’Waru: ni].“) He was on
the hill at [’Waru: ni] when the sore on his foot burst open. The matter from
the wound came streaking down the side of the hill; it can be seen there today in
the form of a white quartz recf. A light rain was commencing to fall, and Crow
and his family went into a cave on one side of this hill to avoid it. Eagle also
looked for shelter, and came upon this cave. Crow saw him approaching and
shouted, “You get away from here, your foot smells bad.” He pushed Eagle out
of. the shelter. Eagle was furious. He went and gathered a pile of porcupine
grass,“ and made a fire at the mouth of the cave. On top of it he piled green
grass,‘7) so as to make a dense white smoke.

After a while he could hear Crow and his family coughing and choking.

He thought, “Ah! They will soon be smothered now,” and went away satis-
fied. Shortly after this he turned into a bird. He still thought badly of the Crow
family. Flying up into the air, he made a swoop down to the ground near the
mouth of the cave where they were sheltering. He saw his father seated there
and spoke to him.

“Where are those blackfellows, I want to eat them.” His father said, “No,
Don’t eat them, eat this.” Thereupon he threw up a piece of meat. The eagle

() Teetulpa, north-east of Yunta on the Broken Hill Railway line.

©) Waroonee or Wurroonie, a few miles north of Yunta Railway Station.

() Triodia, porcupine grass, sometimes erroneously called spinifex,

@) Natives of the sandhills south of the Mann Range, when caught in the rain,,
replenish their firesticks and keep dry by setting fire to piles of porcupine grass, covering
them with piles of green bushes, to encourage the damp grass to burn. They stand in the

white smoke with only their heads above it an attempt to get warm and dry. Smokes for-
signalling are developed by similar methods.

152

caught it with his feet, and flew away. He swooped down a second time, where-
upon his father threw up another piece of meat into the air. Eagle caught it and
flew away. He swooped down the third time, and his father threw yet another
piece of meat into the air. Eagle caught it and, flying away, sat upon a tree and
ate it. To this day the eagle swoops down to the ground after its food.

Thereafter the crow was able to bring his family out of the cave. They all
turned into birds. Because of the “smoking” he received in the cave, the crow
is black today; even his eyes are smoky-coloured.

DISCUSSION,

[’Wir:a’ meju], Kaurna name for the tribe under discussion, means “gum
tree people.” They were inhabitants of the vast gum scrub country that once
extended north of Adelaide. When the known boundaries of the tribe are plotted
on the forest map of South Australia, we notice a surprisingly close agreement
of the eastern, southern and western tribal boundaries with those marking the
limits of the distribution of the Eucalyptus odorata association. Such relation-
ships with the plant ecology appear to be a not unusual feature of tribal dis-

NC
Charleville
Middle of Eclipse at Sunset
in Longitude 164° E.
{Latitude 23'S.

(Brisbane

«Broken Hilf
Parachilna
Adelaide

BS
i

‘
ane

Path of Totality during Total Eclipse of the SUN. March 13° 1793
C.F Doduell ess,

tribution in parts of southern South Australia, and suggests that, over a period
of time, the people have become adjusted and stabilized in their environment. We
are not dealing with a migrating people.

Is it significant that the legends both are concerned with the adventures of
people living in the country? There is a marked difference in the legends of the
people of the Western Desert, which are almost exclusively concerned with the
adventures of ancestors who travelled across the country. The Wati Kutjara,
for example, travelled from sub-coastal Western Australia eastward and north-
eastward to Lake Darlot, to the Warburton Range and then to the Rawlinson
Ranges, a distance of over 800 miles.

In a Western Desert legend, not yet published, the ancestral heroic being is
responsible for bringing back the sun when it has been eclipsed. The second part
cof the cannibal woman legend described above may also have been based on some

153

such event. I am informed by Mr. G. F. Dodwell, Government Astronomer, that
the most recent total eclipse to have passed across the area of the Ngadjuri tribe
and over Parachilna Gorge was on March 13, 1793, in the late afternoon. Any
earlier eclipse is dated before the year 1600. It is quite possible that a local setting
could be established for an old legend by the witnessing of such a rare event as
occurred in 1793.

The throwing of a magical boomerang is a usual feat among Western Desert
ancestral heroes and the story element occurs also in the Crow legend of the
Tangane Tribe of the Coorong in South Australia. Eaglehawk and Crow legends
are characteristic features of Australian mythology and deserve detailed study.

SUMMARY.

Two legends of the Ngadjuri people, who formerly lived in the country north
of Adelaide, are described, and the boundaries of the tribe are defined. The
stories and the tribal distribution are thought to indicate a people who had become
stabilised in their environment, which is the Eucalyptus odorata gum tree scrub
area north-east of Adclaide.

REFERENCES CITED.

1. TinpaLe, N. B. Records of the South Australian Museum, vol. v, 1935,
pp. 262-274.

2. Awoas, G. F. Savage Life and Scenes in Australia and New Zealand,
vol. i, 1847, p. 99.

3. Get, J. P. Tasmanian Journal of National Science, 1841. Reprinted in
Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Socicty, South Australian
Branch, vol. vii, 1904, pp. 92-100.

4. Wyatt, W. Native Tribes of South Australia, Adelaide, 1879, p. 179.

5. East, J.J. Aborigines of South and Central Australia. A paper read before
the Field Naturalists section of the Royal Society, Tuesday, July 16,
1889. Adelaide, separately printed, pp. 1-11.

6. VALENTINE, J. C., in Curr, E. M. Australian Race, vol. ii, 1886, p. 136.

7. Nosvie,in Tarvin, G. Folklore . . . of the South Australian Aborigines.
Adelaide, 1879, p. 64.

8. Exrxrn, A. P. Oceania, vol. ii, 1931, p. 45.
9, Lesrun, S., in Curr, E. M. Australian Race, vol. ii, 1886, pp. 140-142.

10. Hace, H. M., and Tinpace, N. B. Records of the South Australian Museum,
vol. iii, 1925, pp. 45-60.

11. Jurrus, E., and Prncurs, A. L. Empire Forestry Conference, 1928
Handbook. Adelaide, 1928. Map.

12. Tinpate, N. B. Legend of the Wati Kutjara, Oceania, vol. vii, 1936,
pp. 169-185.

NEW SPECIES AND RECORDS OF AUSTRALIAN COLLEMBOLA.

BY H. WOMERSLEY, F.R.E.S., A.L.S.

Summary

Description-Broad, flat species with prominent lateral paratergites. Cuticle strongly and finely
tuberculate. Antennae short, third and fourth segments indefinitely separated, [TV with trilobed
apical knob. Eyes, eight on each side; postantennal organ present, with four peripheral lobes.
Empodial appendage and clavate tibiotarsal hairs wanting. Furca reduced, stump-like; mucrones
absent. Mandibles without molar plates. Supra-anal valve not bilobed.

Remarks-This genus is closely related to Platanurida Carpenter from New Zealand but differs in the
number of eyes, the reduced furca and the form of the post antennal organ.

NEW SPECIES AND RECORDS OF AUSTRALIAN COLLEMBOLA.

By H. Womerscey, F.R.E.S., A.L.S.,
Entomologist, South Australian Museum.

[Read August 12, 1937.]

ARTHROPLEONA.

Genus Tasmanura, nov.

Description—Broad, flat species with prominent lateral paratergites. Cuticle
strongly and finely tuberculate. Antennae short, third and fourth segments in-
definitely separated, IV with trilobed apical knob. Eyes, eight on each side; post-
antennal organ present, with four peripheral lobes. Empodial appendage and
clavate tibiotarsal hairs wanting. Furca reduced, stump-like; mucrones absent.
Mandibles without molar plates. Supra-anal valve not bilobed.

Remarks—This genus is closely related to Platanurida Carpenter from New
Zealand but differs in the number of eyes, the reduced furca and the form of the
postantennal organ.

Tasmanura evansi, sp. nov.
(Text fig. 1, a-f.)

Description—Length, 1°5 mm.; width, 0°8 mm. Dorsally rather flattened
with prominent lateral paratergites. Eyes, eight on each side, in a circular cluster
(cf. fig. 1, b); postantennal organ with four triangular lobes. Antennae short,
segments ITI and IV indistinctly differentiated, TV with trilobed apical knob,
sensory organ on III as in fig. 1c, IV with apparently few differentiated olfactory
hairs. Legs with strong claws with a basal inner tooth; empodial appendage
absent; tibiotarsal hairs not clavate. Furca present but reduced, dentes short
and stump-like with three strong subapical hairs, mucrones absent, tenaculum as
figured. Cuticle strongly granular, with sparse short fine pointed setac. Colour,
bluish.

Lecahty—A single specimen collected by Mr. J. W. Evans in the National
Park, Tasmania, at 3,000 feet, in December, 1936.

ACHORUTES MUSCORUM Templeton, 1843.

I have recently received from Mr. Evans a specimen of this European species,
collected from leaf mould at Hobart, Tasmania, in July, 1937. Although known
to occur in New Zealand, it has not previously been recorded from Australia,

LEPIDOPHORELLA BRACHYCEPHALA (Mz.).
Several specimens collected at Risdon, Tasmania, May 19, 1937, by Mr. V.
V. Tickman.
Tomocrrus vuLtcaRis Tullbg., 1871:
A single specimen of this European species has been sent to me from Tas-
mania. It was obtained by Mr, J. W. Evans in leaf mould at Hobart in July, 1937.

Tomocerus tasmanicus, sp. nov.
(Text fig. 1, g-j.)
Description—Length, 5-6 mm. Colour, brownish; denuded of scales,

yellowish. Antennae nearly three times as long as head diagonal, ratio of seg-
ments I: JT: Wl: WV=1: 24: 4: 34, U1 and IV annulated. Ratio of

155

abdominal and thoracic segments = th.I: II: abd. 1: If: IL: IV: V: VI
= 25:10: 8:8: 29:9: 5: 3. Eyes, 6 + 6; heavily pigmented.
Claws with strong latero-basal teeth and one inner basal tooth ; empodial appendage
long and finely tapering ; tibiotarsal hairs not clavate. Furca long, reaching ventral

tube, ratio of manubrium : dentes : mucro = 30 : 37; 4; dental spines as
figured, mucro with long hairs and dentition as shown. Scaling normal for the
genus.

Locality—Type specimen from National Park, Tasmania, at 3,500 feet, in
December, 1936 (J. W. E.); other specimens from Lenah Valley, Tasmania, May,
1937 (V. V. H.).

Remarks—This species very closely resembles that described by Denis (1928)
as brevimucronatus from the Oregon Caves, U.S.A. It differs, however, in the

Fig. 1,

a-f. Tasmanura evansi, g. et. sp. nov.: a, dorsal entire view; b, eyes; c, claw, d, furca;
e, dorsal cuticle and setae; f, sensory organ of antenna III,

g-j. Tomocerus tasmanicus, sp. nov.: g, lateral view; h, dental spines; i, mucrones of type
specimen; j, claw and empodial appendage.

k, Entomobrya termitophila v. clarki, nov.: dorsal view.

1 Acanthurella halei, sp. nov.: claw and empodial appendage.

m-o. Arrhopalites gloriosa, sp. nov.: m, lateral view; n, furca from side; 0, claw and em-
pod'al appendage.

larger ratio of the mucro to the dentes, in the arrangement of the dental spines
and in the ratio of the antennal segments, especially II] and IV. In the new
species, segment III of the antennae is only slightly longer than IV, while in Denis’
form it is many times longer. In the same paper Denis, under the species
Tritomurus oregonensis, discusses the two genera Tomocerus Nic. and Tritomurus
Frauenfd. and rather doubts the generic separation of. Tritomurus from Tomo-
cerus. It is regarded as differing only in the absence of eyes and of the clavate
tibiotarsal hair. In the new species above described the absence of a clavate tibio-
tarsal hair places it between the two genera and would support the idea of Denis
that separation of the two genera is unnecessary.

Apart from the two introduced European forms, Tomocerus minor Lubb. in
New Zealand and T. vulgaris from Tasmania, this above species is the first
indigenous one to be described from the Southern Hemisphere,

156

ENTOMOBRYA TERMITOPHILA Schott., 1917,
var. clarki, nov.
(Text fig. 1, k.)

Differs from the typical form in that the intensely black bands on abdominal
segments II and ILI extend completely over the latter, while the meso- and
metathoracic and fourth abdominal segments are also strongly but not intensely
pigmented,

Locality—Two specimens from an ants’ nest at Fern Tree Gully, Victoria,
in January, 1937 (H. W.).

ENTOMOBRYA CLITTELARIA Guthrie, 1902.
In garden leaf-mould, Hobart, Tasmania, July, 1937 (J. W. E.).

Acanthurella halei, sp. nov.
(Text fig. 1, 1.)

Description—Length, 1-7 to 2-3 mm. Colour, rather denuded of scales,
yellowish, with dark eye patches and light bluish pigmentation on antennae, tibiae,
base of manubrium and in small patches laterally, Eyes, cight on each side.
Antennae two and a half times as long as head diagonal, ratio of segments
= 10: 20: 18: 27. Ratio of lengths of head: th. I : IT : abd. 1: IL:
TIT: IV: Vi: VI=25: 25: 15:15:15: 15: 50: 10: 5. Claws with
three strong teeth in distal half of inner margin and two basal outer lateral teeth;
empodial appendage pointed, reaching second inner distal tooth; tibiotarsal
spathulate hair fine. Furca long, reaching ventral tube, ratio of manubrium to
mucrodens = 40 : 45, mucro bidentate with basal spine, dentes with a row of
short simple spines.

Locality—Type specimen from Mount Chambers Gorge, Flinders Range,
South Australia, May 30, 1937 (H. M. Hale) ; other specimens from Deep Gorge,
Nepabunna, Flinders Range, South Australia, May 24, 1937 (H. M. H.).

Remarks—This genus has not been previously recorded from Australia.

SrrA JAcoRSONI Borner, 1913,
— Stra tricincta Schott, 1917.

Schott’s Queensland species is undoubtedly synonymous with the Javanese
species described by Borner.

MeEsIRA FLAVocINCTA Schott, 1917.

Several typical specimens from Lenah Valley, Tasmania, collected hy Mr.
V. V. Hickman, May 19, 1937.

LEPIDOCYRTUS NIGROFASCIATUS Womersley, 1934.

Two specimens referable to this species were collected by Mr, H. M. Hale
under stones in Deep Gorge, Nepabunna, Flinders Range, South Australia,
May 24, 1937,

LEPIDOCYRTINUS DOMESTICUS Borner.
A single specimens of this European species, which is a well-known inhabitant
of Museums and Art Galleries, was found by Miss J. Cameron on a laboratory

bench in the South Australian Muscum, Adelaide, South Australia, 1937. Two
other specimens were taken later, also in the Museum.

157

PERICRYPTA LINEATA Womersley, 1934.

As a result of having received a lot more material from Tasmania, it is now
evident that this species is an extremely variable one and that those forms which I
described in 1936 under the name of P. fasmaniae and its varieties are all varia-
tions of the above. In addition to these another colour form is here described.

var. tristriata, nov.

Differs from other forms in that the ground colour is of a bright yellowish
with a dark longitudinal stripe for the whole length of the dorsal surface, and on
each side with another dark stripe running from abdomen II to the apex. There
are no other markings of any kind.

Locality—Risdon, Tasmania, May 19, 1937 (V. V. H.).

The other forms have also been received recently from the following localities
collected by Mr. V. V. Hickman :—

P. lineata Wom., 1934, Risdon, Tasmania, May 19, 1937.

P. lineata v. fasciata Wom, 1936, Risdon, Tasmania, May 19, 1937.

P. lineata v. maculata Wom., 1936, Risdon, Tasmania, May 19, 1937, Lenah
Valley, Tasmania, May 26, 1937.

P. lineata v. tasmaniae Wom., 1936, Risdon, Tasmania, May 19, 1937; Lenah
Valley, Tasmania, May 26, 1937.

SYMPHYPLEONA.

Arrhopalites gloriosa, sp. n.
(Text fig. 1, m-o.)

Description—Length, 0°6 mm. Colour on dorsum and to half way down the
sides orange, below this black; head blackish with yellow patch between the eyes,
antennae dark. Antennae half as long again as head, segment 1V with 7-8 sub-
divisions, III with indistinct peg-like organ. Eyes, eight on each sides on dark
patches. Furca with mucro and dens as figured. Claws and empodial appendage
as in figure 1, 0, latter with short subapical bristle on all legs. Clavate tibiotarsal
hairs absent. Clothing of sparse fine setae, somewhat longer posteriorly.
Bothriotrichiae not observed.

Locality—Collected by the writer from under a log at Fern Tree Gully, Vic-
toria in January, 1937. It differs from all known species in the colouration.

FURTHER REMARKS ON TERMINOLOGY RELATIVE TO THE
GROWTH OF THE FORE WING-SHEATH IN THE LARVA OF
EUSTHENIA SPECTABILIS (WESTWOOD) (ORDER PERLARIA).

BY LOCKHART RAIT, M.Sc.

Summary

In my paper entitled “A Study of the Growth of the Fore Wing-sheath in Eusthenia spectabilis
(Westwood),” read before this Society in May, 1937, I used the terms "hypergonic” and
"bradygonic” for the phrases "positively heterogonic" and "negatively heterogonic.” These new
terms had been suggested to me by the late Dr. R. J. Tillyard in January, 1933. He had employed
them in many letters and lectures as he objected to the terminology then in use. His objection to the
word "heterogonic' was that for over fifty years it had been used quite logically in Botany for a
special case of growth, viz., that in which, on the same plant you find different lengths of pistil and
stamens. Pézard, and later Prof. Julian Huxley, had seized on this term and applied it in a much
wider sense to include all cases of growth comparison in which dy/dx was not a constant. It seemed,
therefore, that the word could not be used in two such widely different senses without serious
confusion arising sooner or later, so Tillyard was determined to suggest the word "hypergonic" for
such cases as come under the general relationship indicated by the logarithmic or exponential
equations. His decision seemed to me to be quite justifiable, for when I looked up the word
"heterogonic” in a dictionary, I found only the Botanical meaning, not Pézard's or Huxley's.

158

FURTHER REMARKS ON TERMINOLOGY RELATIVE TO THE
GROWTH OF THE FORE WING-SHEATH IN THE LARVA OF
EUSTHENIA SPECTABILIS (WESTWOOD) (ORDER PERLARIA).

By Locxnart Rait, M.Sc. (Adel.).
[Read September 9, 1937.]

In my paper entitled “A Study of the Growth of the Fore Wing-sheath in
Eusthenia spectabilis (Westwood),” read before this Society in May, 1937, I used
the terms “hvpergonic” and “bradygonic” for the phrases “positively heterogonic”’
and “negatively heterogonic.’ These new terms had been suggested to me by
the late Dr. R. J. Tillyard in January, 1933. He had employed them in many
letters and lectures as he objected to the terminology then in use. His objection
to the word “heterogonic” was that for over fifty years it had been used quite
logically in Botany for a special case of growth, vig., that in which, on the same
plant you find different lengths of pistil and stamens. Pézard, and later Prof.
Julian T{uxley, had seized on this term and applied it in a much wider sense to
include all cases of growth comparison in which dy/dx was not a constant. It
seemed, therefore, that the word could not be used in two such widely different
senses without serious confusion arising sooner or later, so Tillyard was deter-
mined to suggest the word “hypergenic”’ for such cases as come under the general
relationship indicated by the logarithmic or exponential equations. His decision
seemed to me to be quite justifiable, for when I looked up the word “heterogonic”
in a dictionary, I found only the Botanical meaning, not Pézard’s or Huxley’s.

After Tillyard’s death, in January, 1937, I wrote to Prof. Julian Huxley
suggesting that the word “hypergonic’ be adopted and used for all types of
growth of organs which were related to the normal body growth by a curve of
the type y = ba* + c¢ where b, c, and k are constants, and that the term “hetero-
gonic,” if used at all, should designate all types of growth which deviate from the
normal. In reply, Prof. Huxley sent me a reprint from “Nature,” dated May 9,
1936, in which he had, in collaboration with Tessier, pointed out that serious
diversities of terminology had sprung up in connection with relative growth work,
and in order to avoid any future confusion suggested that the words “dysharmony”
and “heterogony” be dropped and their new term “allometry’ substituted. Un-
fortunately in using the words “hypergony” and “bradygony,” | was unaware of
this publication and wish, here, to accept the priority of Huxley’s and Tessier’s
terminology.

REFERENCES,

Huxtey, J. S. ‘Terminology of Relative Growth,” “Nature,” vol. cxxxvii,
p. 780, May, 1936.
Rat, W. L. “A Study of the Growth of the Fore Wing-sheaths in Husthenta

spectablis (Westwood),” Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. 1xi,
1937, pp. 63-73.

NOTES ON SOME CLAY POTS FROM PANAEATI ISLAND,
SOUTH-EAST OF NEW GUINEA.

BY NORMAN B. TINDALE, B.SC., AND H. K. BARTLETT

Summary

In September, 1935, one of us (H. K. B.) made a selection of eight pots and some sherds from
Panaeati for the South Australian Museum. As this is the first series of Panaeatian pots to be
obtained for the Museum it has been thought desirable that details of them should be placed on
record.

159

NOTES ON SOME CLAY POTS FROM PANAEATI ISLAND,

SOUTH-EAST OF NEW GUINEA.

By Norman B, Trnpateg, B.Sc., and H. K. Bartiert.

Pirates 1X anp X.

[Read September 9, 1937.]

In September, 1935, one of us (H. K. B.) made a selection of eight pots
and some sherds from Panaeati for the South Australian Museum. As this is
the first series of Panaeatian pots to be obtained for the Museum it has been
thought desirable that details of them should be placed on record.

The following series of named pots and sherds have been registered in the

collection :—
A. 19133.

A. 19134.

A. 19135.

A. 19136.

A. 19137.

A. 19138.

Ulubwal. A water pot, made by Laisani Talepu, of Abalomaloma
village. Pl. ix, fig. a. The diameter of the mouth of this pot is
29 cm., and its height is also 29 cm.

Manimo. This is a type of rough pot made for home use and
not for trade. From Nabonapai village. Pl. ix, fig. 6. Diameter,
29 cm.; height, 15 cm.

Delevega or eyonawanawa, <A child’s cooking pot. It is also
used to dip up “soup,” and is sometimes used as a “plate.” Made
by Laisant Talepu, of Abalomaloma, Pl. ix, fig. c. Diameter,
21 cm.; height, 12 cm.

Ulunligaliga. Made by Deisi Buleivana, of Kasuwaruwaru
village. This is the common, every-day cooking pot. PI. ix,
fig. d. Diameter, 34 cm.; height, 27 cm.

Bwana, Made by Ludi Noknok, of Abalomaloma. Pots of this
type are used for “soup” at feasts in connection with planting and
harvesting; also at the launching of canoes. They are used also
in the entertaining of visitors. Pl. ix, fig. e. Diameter, 53 cm.;
height, 31 cm.

Sabaia, Made by Littant Bonoveso, of Sonusonua village. Used
for soup in the feasts held in connection with mourning rites.
This is never put to common use. It is a fair sample, although
others seen have been bigger. Text fig. 1. Diameter, 54 cm.;
height, 40 cm.

A. 19139-19140. Two small old pots were taken from the cave known as

Bintwaga, where many human bones are deposited. Several
small bones were in the larger of these pots, A. 19139, pl. ix,
fig. f. The smaller is shown in text fig. 2, Old men thought
that these pots had at one time contained food placed there for
the use of the dead. They were certainly much smaller than some

pots in the same cave which contained skulls and bones of the

dead.

160

A. 19141-19162. Many sherds (pl. x, fig. 8) were obtained in Biniwaga
cave. There is a similarity in design with modern pots from
Panaeati, although the “embossed” type of design seen in them
is no longer made on the island. Associated with the sherds were
found several shells that had evidently been placed with the dead.
One was a cockle (Cardium elongatum) with serrated edge, such
as is used for scraping coconuts. Three pieces of cowries
(Cypraea tigris) were similar to those used at the present time
to hold food or ground-up betel nut. A small pearl shell
(Meleagrina margaritifera) of the type used as native “spoon”
was also obtained.

SINISE

AAATAARRANG LARA AAAI AT

Figs. 1 and 2.
Fig. 1. Sabaia. A ceremonial pot used for making soup at rites connected
with mourning ceremonies, Sonusonua Village, Panaeati.
Fig. 2. Old pot from a burial cave called Biniwaga, Panaeati.

All the above pots and sherds were obtained from Panaeati. This is a long,
low island, situated at the north-western end of the Louisiade Archipelago. It
possesses one hill which rises to an clevation of about 215 metres above sea level.
‘The remainder of the island 1s a flat coral platform only a metre or two above the
sea, The soil on this island is decp red in the coral pockets. Great trees, known to
the natives as malaur: (a species of cedar, apparently), grow well and form dense
forests. ‘These trees are highly valued by the natives, whose skill at canoe-making
is widely known; the red soil is rich and yields big crops of sweet potatoes
and yams.

On the slopes of the hill, which is densely wooded, there is a place known as
Ulun or “cooking pot.” It is also known as “Werua” (pl. x, fig. a). Here the
women dig the clay needed for pot making, The work is difficult, as heavy trees
mtst be uprooted and removed. There are also many rocks to be shifted. The
only tools are sharpened sticks, The clay is found at a depth of about 0-3 metre

161

under the surface, and is always wet and sticky. It is packed into baskets (egowa)
and carried to the village on the heads of the women. A basket filled with wet
clay weighs from 50 to 80 lbs. avoirdupois.

Pot making is considered to be so important that all other work must wait
while the women are busy with the clay. The men often go hungry at such times,
as the women are too busy to cook food. The men say they do not mind this,
as they know that the taste of food cooked in a pot is much better than that of
food baked on the coals. (Liga—to cook. Gab—to bake.)

On reaching home—the hole is more than a kilometre from the nearest
village—the clay is washed and all small stones and other impurities are removed.
The bottom of a broken pot is taken as a “foundation” for the ncw one. This is
called “kapikapi”’ The next step is to wet the “emutmut,’ the board on which
the clay is rolled. In earlier time a piece of local timber or a smooth stone was
used. Nowadays nearly every house has adapted for the purpose a piece of wood
from a kerosene case. The clay is worked on the board with the palm of the hand
until it is formed into a roll, which is about 3 cm. in diameter and 25 cm. long.
With this the pot is built up. When the required size has been obtained, the
surface is smoothed off, either with the thumb or with a piece of stick, or shell.
The “writing” (“lelele’) is done with an “tgw” or pronged stick. Jgu with various
numbers of points are used, according to the required design. Each woman claims
that she has her own “mark,” although in some houses no two designs seem alike.
Husbands claim that they can pick out their wives’ handiwork even if they find
the pots in a “foreign” land surrounded by hundreds of similar pots, and even
though many years may have elapsed since they last saw them. In an attempt to
test this point, a series of pots were exhibited; not only did the husband know his
wife’s pottery, but it was of interest to note that most of the other folk could also
name the makers by looking at the markings.

When the “writing” is finished, the pot is allowed to stand for a few days
to harden. If the weather is cool it may take a weck for the clay to dry. If the
wind rises and blows strongly, they say the pot is no good because “mana @ lol”
(“the wind strikes it”). If no clay comes off a pot when scratched with the
finger-nail, it is considered fit to “gab” or bake. The pot is placed upside down on
the flat ground. Either very dry sticks, or sometimes pieces of coconut fronds,
are built up around it, completely covering it. The sticks are stood on end, form-
ing a pyramid around the pot. The fire is kindled, and in a few minutes the
blazing sticks fall away and the work is finished. Sometimes air bubbles form
and burst with a loud report during the baking. The pot is thus ruined.

After being successfully “fired” the pot is allowed to cool, and water, or
coconut “milk” is poured into it to a depth of about five centimetres. It is boiled
until dry, after which the vessel is considered fit for use. Pots are carried on the
head ; to make them sit securely, a ring of twisted leaves or bark, called “pwanetu,”
is placed around the crown of the head.

Newly manufactured pots are exchanged for sago with the people of Misima
(who have no suitable clay), Kimuta Island, Ware, Tubetube, and the islands of
the Calvados Chain as far as Sudest.

Tn 1928 the Methodist Mission commenced work on Rossel Island and now
Panaeatian pots are in great demand there, although it seems that Mr. D. H.
Osborne took some clay pots there before that date. From the arrival of the
Panaeatian missionaries in 1928 to the present time, there has been growing up
a trade sitnilar to that carried on from former times between Misima and the other
islands of the Louisiade Archipelago.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

HARD SR

= 8

162

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES IX AND X,

Pruate TX,
Ulubwal, or water pot, from Abalomaloma village, Panaeati.
Manimo. A rough pot for home use, Nabonapat village, Panaeati.
Delevega. A child’s cooking pot, Abalomaloma village.
Uluntigaliga. A common cooking pot, Kasuwaruwaru village.
Bwana. Soup pot used at feasts, Abalomaloma village.
Old pot from the burial cave at Biniwaga, Panaeati.

Piate X,
The clay pit in the forest at Ulin or Werua, Panaeati Island.
Sherds from Biniwaga cave (x4).

A NEW SPECIES OF THYSANOPTERA OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE IN
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

BY H. V. ANDREWARTHA, B.AGR.SC., M.S.

Summary

The species of thrips described in this paper is of importance in that it is known to be a vector of
Spotted Wilt of tomatoes (1) and (4). Specimens collected in South Australia were referred to
Frankliniella insularis Franklin by Morison in 1930 (3). Davidson and Bald in 1930 (2) and
Steele in 1935 (5) have discussed its biology and morphology.

163

A NEW SPECIES OF THYSANOPTERA OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

By H. V. AnprewartHa, B.Agr.Sc., M.S.
[Read September 9, 1937.]

The species of thrips described in this paper is of importance in that it is
known to be a vector of Spotted Wilt of tomatoes (1) and (4). Specimens
collected in South Australia were referred to Frankliniella insularis Franklin by
Morison in 1930 (3). Davidson and Bald in 1930 (2) and Steele in 1935 (5)
have discussed its biology and morphology.

Frankliniella lycepersici, sp. n.
(Text Fig. 1.)
FEMALE,
Length, 1,023-1,606 »; width of mesothorax, 257-335y.

Colour—Brown to greyish-brown, thorax usually shows red subcuticular
colouration ; head darker than thorax and abdomen; antennal segments I and II
grey-brown; remaining segments a lighter grey-brown; III and IV paler at the
base; eyes black; ocelli yellowish-brown; fore-wings faintly tinged with straw or
grey, fringes and spines grey-brown, hind wings nearly colourless, alula clear;
legs with coxae, femora and mid- and hind-tibiae grey-brown, fore-tibiae paler
grey-brown, tarsi pale grey-brown, sometimes yellowish, a dark brown spot near
the distal ends.

Head—Length, 121-126 »; width, 175-194. Dorsal side: cheeks straight;
a strong transverse stria and a few weak striae on the dorsal surface; eyes, 80 p
antero-posteriorly and 58» transversely; ocelli spread over a large part of area
between the eyes; inter-ocellar bristles 27-41 » situated betwcen the two posterior
ocelli; two small bristles in front of the anterior ocellus near the median line; a
small bristle between the anterior ocellus and the eye on each side; six small
bristles on each side posterior to the eye and ocellus, of which the fourth from
the median line is the longest, 27-36». Ventral side: from anterior part of head
to tip of mouth-cone, 247 .; two bristles posterior to base of cach antenna, median
bristle, 39-51 »; outer bristle, 244; one small bristle at inner posterior corner of
the eye and three small bristles posterior to each eye. Two pairs of bristles
anterior to mouth cone, of which the inner, 36-46 yw, is the longer,

Antennae—Eight segmented; respective lengths of antennal scgments,
I, 24-27; II, 36-39; III, 49-56; 1V, 44-49; V, 36-41; VI, 46-53; VII, 9;
VIII, 17-19 4; a forked sense-cone is present on the dorsal surface of IIT, and
the ventral surface of IV near the distal ends.

Prothorax—Length, 121-134 4; width, 194-243 4. Dorsal surface: antero-
lateral angle on each side bears a long bristle, 41-70 », and a small bristle, 15-22 p,
directed anteriorly; the anterior margin bears a row of very small bristles and
one bristle, 41 », between lateral angle and median line; near each post-lateral
angle are two bristles, inner 66-85 w, outer 61-73 »; on each side of median line
near posterior margin is a bristle, 31-41 1; a row of about twelve small bristles on
the posterior margin.

Pterothorar—Mesoscutum on each side, with a short bristle near lateral angle
and two smaller bristles on the posterior margin; metascutum I on each side bears

164

two strong bristles directed posteriorly on the anterior margin, inner 56-63 p,
outer 29-41 »; legs with fine bristles, hind tibiae with a row of stronger bristles
on their distal halves.

Wings—Anterior margin of fore-wing bears 22-24 strong bristles interspersed
with finer, longer bristles; anterior vein bears 15-19 short, strong bristles ; posterior
vein bears 12-15 short, strong bristles; alula bears 6 short, strong bristles.

Abdomen—Abdominal pleurites denticulate on posterior margin; a strong
bristle on posterior margin of each epipleurite with the exception of the first; a
strong bristle at post-lateral angle of each tergite except tergite 1; a bristle about
middle of lateral margin of tergites; posterior margin of abdominal tergite VIII
bears no comb or, at most, a few small teeth on each side; tergite IX bears (pass-

Fig. 1. Head and prothorax of Frankliniella Iycopersici,

ing antero-posteriorly) on each side, one short, strong bristle + 2 long, strong
bristles, inner 97-124 », outer 116-138, + one short, fine bristle near posterior
margin; abdominal tergite X bears (passing antero-posteriorly ) on each side two
long, strong bristles, outer 112-126 p, inner 119-136», + three fine, short bristles.
Sternites II to VII each bear six bristles on posterior margin.

Mate.

Length, 1,026-1,320 2; width of mesothorax, 226-289 p.

Colour—More yellow-brown than the female; sternites ITI to VII each have
a transverse sule-shaped area, lighter in colour than the remainder of the sternite.

Head—Length, 100-112»; width, 153-163»; respective lengths of antennal
segments, 22, 33, 14, 38, 34, 45, 7, 14 ».

Prothorax—Length, 102-109 w; width, 172-194 p.

Wing-—Anterior margin of fore-wing bears 19-21 bristles; anterior vein,
16 bristles; posterior vein, 10-12 bristles; alula, 6 bristles.

165

Abdomen—Dorsal surface of segment IX bears (passing antero-posteriorly)
on each side a strong lateral bristle, 74%, + a strong bristle near median line,
76 », + two short, strong bristles near posterior margin, 25 #; dorsal surface of
segment X bears on each side a strong bristle on the post-lateral angle, 804;
ventral surface of segment EX bears three bristles on each side; ventral surface
of segment X bears 1 strong bristle + 1 weak bristle on each side.

COMPARISON,
This species resembles I’rankliniella insularis Franklin but differs in the
following characters :—

F, lycopersici.

F. insularis.

Size - = smaller. larger.
Colour - greyish brown; brown;
antennal segments III and IV antennal segments III and IV
grey-brown; yellow;
wings faintly tinged with straw wings shaded brown except basal
or grey; fourth;
tarsi grey-brown. tarsi yellow.
Cheeks = - cheeks straight ; cheeks curved;
ratio obtained by dividing width of
head behind eyes by width of
head at posterior margin is
0-96 — 1-02. ratio, 1-07 — 1-19.
Chaetotaxy interocellar bristles between pos- interocellar bristles in front of

terior ocelli;

anterior margin of fore-wing
bears 22-24 bristles;
anterior vein 15-19;

posterior vein 12-15 bristles;

comb on posterior margin of
abdominal tergite VIII either
absent or only partly developed.

anterior margin of posterior ocelli;

anterior margin of fore-wing bears
22-28 bristles;

anterior vein 20-23;

posterior vein 15-18 bristles;

comb usually well developed but

sometimes absent.

LocaLiry AND Hosts.

Description is from 4 9 @ and 2 ¢ é collected from roses in Melbourne,
Victoria; 5 @ @ and3 @ 4 from roses and carnations, Adelaide South Australia ;
3°22 and 3é 6 from tomatoes, Adelaide, South Australia. These were com-
pared with Frankliniella insularis collected from cut flowers from Puerto Rico,
intercepted by Bur. Ent. Plant Quarantine, N.Y.; also from flowers Erythrina sp.,
Mayaquez, P.R.; Erythrina sp., Trinidad; from unknown host, Cuba; and from
flowers of gerbera, Bermuda.

Holotype @ and allotype ¢ in South Australian Museum,

REFERENCES.

Barn, J. G., and SAMUEL, GroFFREY. Coun. Sci. Ind. Res.; Bull. 54, 1931.
Davipson, J., and Baro, J. G. Bull. Ent. Res., 21, pp. 365-385, 1930.
Morison, G. Bull. Ent. Res., 21, p. 11, 1930.

SAMUEL, G. Coun. Sci. Ind. Res., Bull. 54, 1930.

STEELE, FI. V. Coun. Sci. Ind. Res., pamph. No. 54, pp. 25-27, 1935.

on Ba

STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN THYSANURA.
NO. 3. CAMPODEIDAE.

BY H. WOMERSLEY, F.R.E.S., A.L.S.

Summary

Our knowledge of the Australian species of this family of the Apterygota is entirely due to the paper
published by Prof. F. Silvestri in 1931 (Boll. Lab. 2001. Portici.) when he recorded Campodea
fragilis Meinert (a European species) from Victoria, and described Camoodea tillyardi from
South Australia and New South Wales, Campodea froggattii from Tasmania, and Metriocampa leae
from Tasmania.

166

STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN THYSANURA,
No. 3. CAMPODEIDAE.

By H. Womerstey, F.R.E.S., A.L.S., Entomologist, South Australian Museum.
[Read October 14, 1937.]

Our knowledge of the Australian species of this family of the Apterygota
is entirely due to the paper published by Prof. F, Silvestri in 1931 (Boll. Lab.
Zool, Portici.) when he recorded Campodea fragilis Meincrt (a European specics)
from Victoria, and described Campodes tillyardit from South Australia and New
South Wales, Campodea froggaitit from Tasmania, and Metriocampa leae from
Tasmania.

Previously Tillyard (New Zealand, J. Sc., T., vol. vii, p. 242, 1924) had
described Campodea philpottt from Nelson, New Zealand, but in the above paper
Silvestri referred it to the genus Metriocampa, and also recorded C. fragilis Mnrt.
from New Zealand. In 1903 (Boll. Lab. Zool. Portici., vol. xi, p. 170) Silvestri
split his genus Melriocampa into three subgenera and designated M. leae as the
type of the subgenus Notocampa.,

In the present paper two new species of Campodea, C. tonnoiri, C. water-
housei, one of Metriocampa (Notocampa), M. (N.) westraliense, and a new sub-
genus of Metriocampa, Austrocampa, for M. (A.) spinigera from Western Aus-
tralia and its variety wictoriense from Victoria, are added.

The following key will separate the present known Australian and New
Zealand species :-—
1. Claws basally with a long fine lateral seta which reaches the tip of the claws and
is slightly clubbed apically; claws equal or sub-equal, not unduly broadened basally
and without longitudinal striations. Gen. Campodea Westd. 2
Claws basally without the above lateral seta, otherwise the same.
Gen. Metriocampa Silv. 6

2. The posterior pronotal and mesonotal setae fine and tapering, as are the dorsal

setae. 4
The posterior pronotal and mesonotal setae stronger and stouter than are the
dorsal setae, and serrated. 3

3. Mesonotum with two anterior major setae (submedian and sublateral) and one
lateral subposterior major seta; metanotum with anterior submedian and lateral
subposterior major setae. Cerci from 4th to Sth segment with numerous short
setae. Abdominal tergites without anterior submedian major setae; tergite 5
with lateral subanterior, and 6 to 8 with lateral subantcrior and posterior sub-
lateral major setae. Antennae 18-22 segmented, C. fragilis Meinert.

Mesouotum with only one major seta, that anterior sublateral; metanotum without
major setae. Cerci entirely with sparscr longer setae. Abdominal tergites with-
out anterior subimedian major setae, 7 with lateral subposterior, and 8 with lateral
subposterior and sublateral subposterior major setae. Antennae 20-segmented.

C. tonnoiri, sp. n.
4. The meso- and metanotum with a single major seta at the lateral posterior angles. 5

Pronotum with three anterior (submedian, sublateral and lateral major setae) and
three posterior sublateral major setae; mesonotum with two anterior (submedian
and sublateral) and three posterior sublateral major setae; metanotum with one
anterior submedian and two posterior sttblateral major setae. Tergites of abdomen
without anterior submedian major setae, 8-10 with one lateral posterior major seta.
Antennae 25-26 segmented. C. waterhousei, sp. n.

167

5. Antennae 19-22 segmented. Abdominal tergites 8-9 with posterior lateral major

setae. C. tillyardit Silv.
Antennae 14-15 segmented. Abdominal tergite 8 without posterior lateral major
seta. C. froggatit Silv.

6. Major setae of thoracic tergites long and attenuated. Pronotum with 3 -+ 3 major
setae (lateral, sublateral and submedian), mesonotum with 3 + 3 major setae.

Gen. Metriocampa Silv.

Subgen. Notocampa Silv. 7

Major setae of thoracic tergites short, stout, serrated but not attenuated, not more

than twice as long as the dorsal setae which are also stout and not attenuated.

Pronotum with 3 -+ 3 major setae and mesonotum with 2 + 2 or 3 + 3; meta-

notum with 1 + 1. Gen. Metriocampa Silv.

Subgen. Austrocampa s. gen. nov.

7. First abdominal tergite without major setae, second with 1 + 1, third and fourth

with 2 + 2, fifth to ninth with 3 + 3, M. (N.) philpottt (Till).

(New Zealand)

First and second abdominal tergite without major setae, third with 1 + 1, fourth

with 2 + 2, fifth to eighth with 3 + 3. M. (N.) leae (Silv.).
First and second abdominal tergite without major setae, with 1 + J, fourth to
eighth with 3 + 3, ninth with 2 + 2. M. (N.) westraliense, sp. n.

8. Mesonotum with only 2 + 2 major setae (sublateral and submedian),
M. (A.) spinigera, sp. n.
Mesonotum with 3 + 3 major setae (lateral, sublateral and submedian).
M. (A.) spinigera v. victoriense, v. nov.

CAMPODEA FRAGILIS Meinert.
This introduced species can be identified from the above key. It is not
uncommon in garden soil around Adelaide, South Australia, and the writer has
seen numerous specimens from there.

CAMPODEA TILLYARDII Silv.

A very widely distributed species in Australia, and occurring also in New
Zealand. In the South Australian Museum are specimens from the following
localities :-—

South Australia: Glen Osmond, March, 1933, August 11, 1934; Adelaide,
May, 1933; Sellick’s Beach, August, 1937; Nepabuna, Flinders Range, May. 1937.
Western Australia: Armadale, August 1931, June, 1932; Kelmscott, September,
1932; Kalamunda, June, 1931; Lesmurdie, 1930. Victoria: Studley Park,
August, 1931. New South Wales: Tuross River, May, 1936. Tasmania: Risdon,
May, 1937. Queensland: Brisbane, October, 1934. New Zealand, Manurewa,
Auckland, August, 1932.

CAMPODEA FROGGATTIL Silv.

I have not met with any specimens that I can refer to this species.

Campodea tonnoiri, sp. n.
(Text fig. 1, A-K.)

This new species was found in garden soil in Adelaide, South Australia, in
March, 1933, associated with C. fragilis and C. tillyardii. It can be distinguished
from the other species by the key.

Description—@, whitish. Dorsal body setae short, simple and pointed
posterior marginal setae of thoracic segments slightly longer, thicker and serrated
(cf. fig. 1, A, B, J), major setae much longer, serrated and attenuated (cf. fig. 1,

168

A, B, 1). Antennae 20-segmented, setae and sensillae as in fig. 1, IE, sensillae
present on segments 3-6.

Prothorax (fig. 1, A) with 3 + 3 anterior major setae (submedian, stub-
lateral and lateral); mesothorax (fig. 1, B) with only 1 + 1, anterior
sublateral; metanotum without. Claws simple, arcuate, with fine lateral
appendage which is apically slightly clavate as in genus (fig. 1, G). Abdomen:
tergites 1-6 without major setae, 7 with 1 + 1 lateral major setae, 8-9 with 2 + 2,
lateral and sublateral subposterior, 10 with 5 + 5, two anterior submedian and
three subposterior (fig. 1, D). Sternite of first abdominal segment as in fig. 1, f.
Cerci 13-14 segmented, with long sctae, the longer ones serrated (fig. 1, K).
Stylets normal (fig. 1, H).

Length—Body, 2°46 mm; width across metathorax, 0-4 mm.; antennae,
1:35 mm. ; leg III, 0-8 mm.; cerci, 1-O nun. Length of setae: prothorax, ordinary
dorsal, -025 mm; posterior marginal, *037 mm; lateral major, ‘08 mm.; lateral
of seventh abdominal tergite, ‘08 mm.

Habitat—Holotype @ and allotype & from garden soil, Adelaide, South
Australia, March, 1933 (H. W.).

Remarks—This species is near to C. emery: Silv. from Europe, but differs
in the abdominal major setae and the antennal segments. It is dedicated to
Mr. A. L. Tonnoir, Senior Entomologist, C.S.LR., Canberra, F.C.T.

169

Campodea waterhousei, sp. n.
(Text fig. 2, A-J.)

Description—Length, to 3-0 mm. Colour, whitish. Antennae 25-26 seg-
mented; segments 4-6 with the usual sensillae (fig. 2, E). Dorsal setae long,
slender and attenuated; posterior marginal setae of thoracic segments as on the
dorsum.

Prothorax (fig. 2, A) with 6 + 6 major setae, three anterior (submedian, sub-
lateral and lateral) and three posterior; mesonotum (fig. 2, B) with 5 + 5, two
anterior (submedian and sublateral) and three fateral-posterior; metanotum
(fig. 2, C) with 3 + 3, one anterior submedian, and two lateral-posterior.

SN]

Fig. 2.

Abdominal tergites (fig. 2, D) 1-7 without major setae, 8-9 with 1 + 1, lateral-
posterior, 10 with 3 +3, one sublateral subposterior, one submedian subposterior,
and one posterior submedian. Claws normal for the genus. First abdominal
sternite of @ asin fig. 2, F. Stylets normal (fig. 2,1). Cerci 13-segmented with
long setae, a few of which on each segment are bi- or trifurcate (fig. 2, H).
Length of cerci almost 2‘0 mm.; pronotal major setae, lateral, 0-15 mm.;
sublateral, 0:07 mm.; submedian, 0-09 mm.; and lateral posterior, 0°07 mm.;
lateral posterior setae of tergite 8, 0-15 mm.; sensillae of antennae, 0-15 mm.

170

Habitat—A number of specimens from Killara, New South Wales, collected
by Mr. H. Day, April 8, 1936.

Remarks—Yhis species is abundantly distinct in the chaetotaxy. It is named
in honour of Dr. G. Waterhouse, the eminent Australian entomologist of Killara,
New South Wales.

METRIOCAMPA (NOTOCAMPA) LEAE Silv.
I know of no further records of this species other than the original discovery.

Metriocampa (Netocampa) westraliense, sp. n.
(Text fig. 3, A-H.)

Description—Colour, creamy white. Antennae 25-segmented, segments
3-4 with the usual sensillae (fig. 3, D). Dorsal setae long, thin and attenuated,
on posterior-margin of thoracic tergites but little longer than on dorsum.
Pronotum (fig. 3, A) with 3 + 3 anterior major setae (submedian, sublateral and
lateral), mesonotum (fig. 3, B) with 3+ 3 (submedian, sublateral and lateral),
metanotum (fig. 3, C) with 2 + 2 (submedian, anterior and lateral subposterior ).
Claws simple (fig. 3, F), arcuate, without lateral seta. Abdominal tergites
(fig. 3, E) 1 and 2 without major setae, 3 with 1-+1 sublateral subposterior,

bee
Lien
HUET ye
Se!

i

yh tay tat
Wich

f 1
PATTEM
ee au das
Laat ily

ia i
a |

? eae if
vt dah
Mos
H if a iyi
eo AH ot
ip iit
las
Fig. 3.

4-8 with 3+3 sublateral subposterior, 9 with 2+2 sublateral subposterior,
10 with 5 + 5, three subposterior and two posterior. Stylets normal (cf. fig. 3, G).

Length of body, 5-0 mm.; width of metanotum, 0-6 mm.; leg III, 1-5 mm;
pronotal major setae, 17 mm. Cerci incomplete.

Habitat—Type specimen from Kelmscott, Western Australia, September 9,
1930 (H. W.).

171

Remarks—This species can be distinguished from its allies, M. (N.) leae and
M. (N.) philpotts, as detailed in the key.

Austrocampa, subg. n.

Allied to Metriocampa (Tricampa) Silv. but differs in that the dorsal body
setae are short and stout and blunt-ended. The dorsal thoracic major setae are
similarly stout and scarcely attenuated and only about twice as long as the dorsal
setae. The pronotum has three anterior major setae (submedian, sublateral, and
lateral), the mesonotum normally two (submedian and sublateral) (in the variety
also with a lateral one), metanotum with one anterior submedian major setae.
The claws, stylets, etc., normal. In the subgenotype the male cerci are furnished
basally on inside with strong spines.

In the normal chaetotaxy of the mesothorax, the species would fall into
Tricampa Silv., but that of the variety from Victoria would place it in Notocampa
Silv. Evidently then, in this case at least, the mesenotal chaetotaxy is not to be
entirely relied upon, On the other hand, the peculiar nature of the dorsal setae and
the thoracic major setae, would scem to differentiate it as a distinct subgenus.

Metriocampa (Austrocampa) spinigera, sp. n.
(Text fig. 4, A-C, E-N.)
Description—Colour, creamy white. Dorsal body setae short, stout and
apically bluntly pointed; posterior thoracic marginal setae only slightly serrated

G
AWE pL TAA
t

Canty | ra}
arty} !
Tage

Fig. 4.

apically (cf. fig. 4, M); major thoracic setae not very much longer, and apically
serrated (cf. fig. 4, L). Antennae 16-17 segmented, segments 3-6 with usual
sensillae (cf. fig. 4, E). Pronotum (fig. 4, A) with 3 + 3 anterior major setae

172

(submedian, sublateral, and lateral); mesonotum (fig. 4, B) with 2 +2 (sub-
median and sublateral); metanotum (fig. 4, C) with 1+1 (submedian).
Abdominal tergites without major setae on 1-7, 8 and 9 with 1 + 1 medio-lateral,
10 with 6 + 6, three posterior and three subposterior ; abdominal sternites with
the major setae long and attenuated, 1 with 1+1, 2-9 with 3 +3 subposterior,
8-9 also with 1 + 1 lateral, those on 2-7 bifurcate (fig. 4, K), on 8-10 trifurcate.
Sternite l of ¢ (fig. 4, G), 2 (fig. 4, F). Cerci 11-segmented, apical segments
as long as the three basal ones, in é the three basal segments armed on inside with
strong spines (fig. 4,1) 1: 2: 2. Stylets as in fig. 4, J. Claws simple, slightly
arcuate, without lateral basal seta. Length of body, 3:0 mm.; width of metanotum,
0°5 mm.; pronotal major setac, ‘075 mm.; major setac of abdominal tergites,
0-087 mm.; stylets, 0-09 mm. to tip of apical seta.

Habitat—-A number of specimens from under ti-tree bark in a swamp at
Denmark, Western Australia, October, 1930 (H. W.); similarly in the Poron-
gorups, Western Australia, October, 1932 (H. W.).

var. victoriense, v. nov.
(Text fig. 4, D.)
Differs from the typical form only in that the mesonotum is furnished with
a lateral major seta, as well as the two anterior ones.
A we a fallen log at Fern Tree Gully, Victoria, January, 1937

A NEW SPECIES OF MARINE HYDRACHNELLAE FROM
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

BY H. WOMERSLEY, F.R.E.S., A.L.S.

Summary

Amongst the Hydrachnoidea of the Acarina, two families, the Pontarachnidae and
Nautarachnidae, have species which are marine instead of fresh water inhabitants. The first family
contains the two genera Pontarachna Philippi, and Litarachna Walter, of which the latter only has
so far been recorded from Australian coasts. Litarachna denhami (Lohm.) was collected by the
Michaelsen Hartmeyer Expedition from Denham, Shark's Bay, Western Australia, and was
described by Lohman under the generic name of Pontarachna in Fauna Siidwest Australiens, vol. i,
p. 151, 1909. It was later placed by Walter in a new genus, Litarachna.

173

A NEW SPECIES OF MARINE HYDRACHNELLAE
FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

By H. Womerstey, F.R.E.S., A.L.S., Entomologist, South Australian Museum.
[Read October 14, 1937.]

Amongst the Hydrachnoidea of the Acarina, two families, the Pontarachnidae
and Nautarachnidae, have species which are marine instead of fresh water
inhabitants. The first family contains the two genera Pontarachna Philippi, and
Litarachna Walter, of which the latter only has so far been recorded from Aus-
tralian coasts. Litarachna denhami (Lohm.) was collected by the Michaelsen

Fig. 1.

Hartmeyer Expedition from Denham, Shark’s Bay, Western Australia, and was
described by Lohman under the generic name of Pontarachna in Fauna Stidwest
Australiens, vol. ii, p. 151, 1909. It was later placed by Walter in a new genus,
Litarachna,

174

Recently two specimens from the coast of South Australia have been found,
which belong to the genus Pontarachna s. str., and, in fact, are very close indeed
to the European, P punctulum, known from the Bay of Naples. The first
specimen was obtained from the reef at Sellick’s Beach, in sargassum, on May 1,
1936. bv Mr. H. M. Hale, and I have, therefore, pleasure in naming it after him.
The second specimen was obtained by Mr. B. C. Cotton, from Moreton Bay,
Reevesby Island, Spencer Gulf, South Australia, while with the McCoy Expedition
of Melbourne University, December 9, 1936.

Pontarachna halei, sp. n.
(Text fig. 1, A-C.)

General form as in P. punctulum Phil, without colour, but the dorsal surface
with a somewhat lighter cross. Eyes lateral on the front of the body. Capitulum
small. Maxillary palpi (fig. 1, B) not as stout as the front legs, 5-segmented, reach-
ing apex of fourth segment of leg I, second segment about twice as long as first
or third, fourth about two and a half times as long as third, fifth one-fourth length
of fourth, furnished apically with 3-4 pencils, segments with few setae. Mandibles
short, indeterminate. Legs with a few swimming hairs on IV, with strong paired
spines on inner side of segments of other legs (fig. 1, C). Claws three pointed;
epimera of all four legs touching, epimera LV posteriorly with two processes, the
inner ones much more slender than in punctulum, outer ones shorter and thicker
and lateralwards curved, Female genital orifice large and situated between inner
processes of epimera LV. ‘len pores on ventral surface; an anterior row of four,
one between cach pair of processes of epimera IV and one outside of these, which
are all simple ring-like openings with adjacent paired fine short setae; posterior
of these a row of four small rosette-like pores without sctae and posterior of the
lateral ones of this row, two more rosette-like pores. Epimera I with two, I with
one, III with one, TV with three short fine setae; between inner processes of 1V
and posterior of genital foramen, two more fine short setae, and posterior on
venter six more fine short setae arising from four small tubercles, so that the
lateral pairs arise from a single tubercle.

Length, 720 3; width, 650 p.

Remarks—tThe species is very close indced to P. punctulum from the Bay of
Naples, but appears to differ in the minute details of the pores and setae on the
ventral surface.

AUSTRALIAN ACARINA OF THE GENUS MEGISTHANUS THORELL.

BY H. WOMERSLEY, F.R.E.S., A.L.S.

Summary

The genus Megisthanus Thorell, 1882, was placed by Banks (1915) in the Parasitidae (in the wide
sense), but more recently by Vitzthum (1931) in the family Antennophoridae of the subcohors
Sejina of Kramer. The Antennophoridae comprises a group of mites of typical gamasid facies, many
genera of which are associated with ants, while others are attached to beetles. In the forms found
along with ants the habits are to some extent known, but little data is recorded, apart from host, for
those found attached to beetles.

AUSTRALIAN ACARINA OF THE GENUS MEGISTHANUS THORELL.
By H. Womerstey, F.R.E.S., A.L.S., Entomologist, South Australian Museum.
[Read October 14, 1937.]

The genus Megisthanus Thorell, 1882, was placed by Banks (1915) in the
Parasitidae (in the wide sense), but more recently by Vitzthum (1931) in the
family Antennophoridae of the subcohors Sejina of Kramer, The Antenno-
phoridae comprises a group of mites of typical gamasid facies, many genera of
which are associated with ants, while others are attached to beetles. In the forms
found along with ants the habits are to some extent known, but little data is
recorded, apart from host, for those found attached to beetles.

In the case of the myrmecophilous species the mites attach themselves to the
body of the ant, generally arranging themselves in a symmetrical manner so as
not to interfere with the gravity of the host; thus if only one mite is present it
assumes a position on the median line of the head, if two then one on each side
and so on. The mites are said to feed upon the regurgitated food of the ant,
frequently by suitable touching being able to stimulate the process of regurgitation.

‘The anti-infesting species are in general of a more or less circular shape with
short legs; those on coleoptera more pear-shaped with longer and generally
stronger legs. The species of the genus Megisthanus are, as far as observations
go, entirely confined to beetles. They arc rather large, well chitinised mites, of
a somewhat oval shape, usually tapering anteriorly. The dorsum is more or less
covered with an entire shield. The front legs are antennaeform and lack the
caroncle and claws. The ventral plates are well hardened and (except in
M. armigera) the sternal, genital and ventral plates are fused together. The
female genital opening is enclosed in two lateral flaps, while that of the male is
circular and situated in the sternal shield.

The genus Megisthanus is closely related to Macrocheles Latr. of the family
Macrochelidae, which is placed by Vitzthum (1931) in the subcohors Gamasina
of Kramer. In Tierwelt Mitteleuropas, III, 1929, Vitzthum separates the
Gamasina and Sejima as follows :—

1. Mundwerkzeuge (Gnathosoma) von oben immer sichtbar; Ubergang vom Ricken zur
Bauchflache abgerundet; Beine meist lang, besonders I und IV; miannliche Genital-
6ffnung unter der Vorderkante des Sternale. Cantasina.

2. Ganthosoma von oben meist unsichtbar; Ubergang vom Rticken zur Bauchflache meist
scharfkantig; Beine meist ziemlich kurz, besonders I und [IV mannliche Genitaloffnung
inmitten des Sternale.

Sejina,

From this key it would seem to be more natural to place Megisthanus close
to the Macrochelidae in the Gamasina and not in the Sejina. It agrees more
closely with the Gamasina, even the mouth-parts being much more visible from
above than in the families and gencra of the Sejina.

The genus Megisthanus was erected by Thorell in 1882 (Ann. del Mus. Civ.
di St. Nat. di Gen., vol. xviii, pp. 48-62) for M. caudatus, testudo and brachyurus
from Java, and M. doreianus and hatamensis from New Guinea. Up to the
present time the total number of species described numbers 21, and in the present

176

paper two more are added. The genus is confined to the warmer tropical parts of
the world, as will be seen from the following list.

Megisthanus caudatus Thorell, 1882, Java. 9.

# brachyurus ,, » ” g-

Be testudo i ii ” 3.

* jacobsoni Warburton, 1926. Sumatra. $, ¢.

$ doreianus Thorcll, 1882, New Guinea. 9.

» hatamensis —,, ‘4 ” ” g-

id moaifensis Oudemans, 1905, New Guinea. 9.

rf orientalis rs ” ” vy | @.

55 deportatus Berlese, 1904, New Caledonia. ¢, 9.
' coronatus y, 3 ” ” q-

£ sarrasint 7" % i ” é-

4 togatensis Canestrini, Brit, Burma. ¢.
hs modestus Berlese, 1910, New South Wales. 9.

Bs medius & 1903, Central Africa. 9.

3 grandis Pa is i i, a, 9.
i obtusus Kramer, 1894, West Africa. %, 9.

» lamellicornium Oudemans, 1926, Lake Chad. ¢.
i armigera Berlese, 1888, Central America. ¢, 9.
ft gigantodes Stoll, 1889, rr 4 a, @.-
» floridanus Banks, 1910, North America. ?.

Ff ablongus Oudemans, 1926, ?. 9.

" thorelli, sp. nov., Queensland, New South Wales. 4, 9.
3 papuanus, sp. nov., Papua. ¢@.

ue antennaepes (Say.), North America.

Amongst the Acarina material in the South Australian Museum are specimens
of the following species.

MEGISTHANUS DORELANUS Thorell, 1882.
(Text fig. 1, a-f.)

Megisthanus doreianus Thorell, 1882, Ann. del. Mus. Civ. di. St. Nat. di Gen.,
vol. xviii, 60, pl. vi, figs. 36-37,

This species was originally recorded and described from a single female
example from New Guinea. The host was unknown.

Amongst the Museum material are 10 specimens which do not differ in any
essential morphological characters from Thorell’s diagnosis. The specimens
include both sexcs and were collected by the Rev. H. K. Bartlett on Misima
Island, Papua, some years ago ‘The host is still unknown.

The females agree well with the figures and description given by ‘Vhorell, but
there is a slight difference in that the apex of the ventral shield it not quite so
broadened, nor docs it approach the anal shield so closely. The male is generally
similar to the female, except that the body setae are somewhat longer, The
sterno-genito-ventral shield carries the genital opening medially between the third
pair of coxae. Subapically on this shield is a pair of “pores,” but these are very
much smaller than in other species which have these organs in the male sex. The
anal plate is generally of the same shape and proportions as in the female. The
movable arm of the chelicerae carries three fimbiated setae in both sexes. The
length is, approximately, 3-O mm.

Remarks—In 1910 Berlese (Redia, vol. vi, fasc. 2, p. 377) briefly and
inadequately described a species M, modestus from New South Wales which he

177

compared with M. doreianus. The only differences of note were that the sterno-
genito-ventral shield was stated to be more constricted medially than in Thorell’s
species, that the body hairs were longer and that the size was smaller, being

Fig. 1.

2-35 mm. as against 3:0 mm. These differences are so unimportant that one is
inclined, pending a re-examination of the type or the discovery of further material,
to regard Berlese’s species as synonymous with doreianus.

Megisthanus thorelli, sp. nov.
(Text fig. 2, a-j.)
Male—Body subrotund, 3-4 mm. long by 2-7 mm. broad. Dorsal shield almost
covering the entire body, except for a narrow lateral area; with an inner line as
in fig. 2, j; uniformly and fairly densely clothed with short (330 ») hairs.

Venter (fig. 2, a, e): sterno-genito-ventral shield long and narrow, only
slightly constricted on a level with coxac IV, apex rounded with two small pore-
like organs, genital opening rounded, placed between coxae II and III, apex
separated from anal plate by length of latter; parapodial plates only slightly
extending past apex of ventral plate, stigma small on a line between coxae HI
and IV, peritreme long and narrow; anal plate twice as wide as long and somewhat
kidney-shaped.

Legs as in most species of the genus, IV with the femora armed above with
three strong spines on tubercles, below with three blunt teeth (cf. fig. 2, a, d);
leg I antennaeform, long and slender, tarsus without claws or caruncles. Mouth-
parts as in figs. 1, a, b, £; movable finger of chelicerae with three fimbriated setae.

Female—Body oval, only slightly narrower across shoulders than sub-
apically, sides subparallel, 2-9 mm. long by 1:37 mm. wide, inner line of dorsal
shield present as in male, clothing of short hairs as in male interspersed with,
particularly laterally, much longer ones (cf. fig. 2, ¢). Venter with plates as in
males, except for the genital foramen, Otherwise as in the male.

Colour of both sexes, chestnut brown; all plates well chitinised.

178

Locality—Holotype male and allotype female and one other female from
Bunya Mount, Queensland, September 20, 1932 (F. H. S. R.). Other specimens
from Endlo, Queensland, March 24, 1900 (R. J. W.); National Park, Queens-
land, March 10, 1933 (R. H.); Mallaby, South Queensland, November 20, 1915,
on Mastochilus australis (Coleoptera, Passalidae}) (G. L. N.); Upper Williams
River, New South Wales, October, 1926 (A. M. L.) ; Dalby, Queensland, Decem-
ber 20, 1925, on Aulacocyclus tares (H. Geary).

Kemarks—The separation of this species is given in the key which follows.
It is very closely related to M. obfusus Kramer from Africa, agreeing with it in
the inner line to the dorsal plate. In the case of the specimens from Maliaby
and Dalby, Queensland, the hosts are known. They were species of Passalid
beetles as was recorded by Berlese for M. modestus,

Fig. 2.

Megisthanus papuanus, sp. nov.
(Text fig. 3, a-d.)

Female—Bady ovate, slightly tapering anteriorly, 3-1 mm. long by 2:0 mm.
wide. Dorsal plate widely separated laterally, touching at posterior and anterior
ends of hody, no inner line present. Dorsum clothed with numerous short hairs
but laterally on anterior half and subapically with clusters of very long hairs
(fig. 3, a), which reach 1-5 mm. in length.

Venter: sterno-genital-ventral shield (fig. 3, a) square and broadened at
apex, (he posterior edge being slightly sinuate, genital foramen triangular and
placed between coxae IL; parapodial plates apically rounded and reaching well
past ventral plate and close up to anal plate, stigma in a line with coxae IV,
peritreme slender; anal plate large, trapezoidal, with divergent sides, posterior
margin twice as long as anterior; all plates with many short hairs.

Legs much as in other species (cf. fig. 3, e, leg ITI, and fig 3, d, leg IV).
Mouth-parts normal, movable finger of mandible (fig. 3, c) with three strong
fimbriated setae.

Male unknown.

179

Locality—Two specimens from Finschafen, Papua, 1933, Rev. Wagner.
Host unknown.

to M. gigantodes Stoll from Central America.

Remarks—In the large size and shape of the anal plate this species keys near

by the characteristic bunches of hairs on the sides and apex of the dorsum.

tentative one, owing to the inadequacy of many of the earlier descriptions, It has,
for this reason, been found impossible to fit in M. floridanus Banks and Gamasus

Key to Species oF MEGISTHANUS.

Tt may be at once distinguished

The following attempt to key the known species can only be regarded as a

antennaepes Say, 1821, which has been referred to Megisthanus by Oudemans,
1916.

1.

The peritremal plates separated from the parapodia; sternal and ventral plates
also separated. M. armigera Berlese.
All the above plates fused together.

Anal plate Jarge, trapezoidal, with the anterior margin much shorter than
posterior, and the latter twice the width of ventral plate.
Anal plate relatively small, never twice as wide as apex of ventral plate.
Dorsal plate of female not reaching tip of body, clothing dorsally of short strong
setae and six very long setae evenly spaced on each side of plate. Posterior
margin of ventral plate straight. Male with numerous short setae on dorsal plate,
8 long strong setae at anterior end, and a row on the posterior margin of
body. The pores on ventral plate large but separated by half their diameters.
M. gigantodes Stoll.
Dorsal plate of female reaching tip of body, with numerous very short fine setae,
and on each side of body with two clusters or brushes of very long hairs. Male.
unknown. M. papuanus, sp. n.
Females with dorsal plate posteriorly prolonged and drawn out; anal plate long
and narrow and more or less constricted medially. Males of normal build.
Both sexes of normal and similar build without prolongation of dorsal plate im
female.
Apcx of dorsal plate of female widened and square at apex with lateral series of
long setae. Male with very large pores on ventral platé which touch medially
and occupy the whole width. M. jacobsoni. Warbn.

Lo)

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

180

Apex of dorsal plate of female rounded and not widened, without long lateral
hairs or setae. Males unknown.

Dorsal plate posteriorly as a snout-like prolongation. Anal plate medially only
half as wide as anteriorly, Movable finger of chelicerae with only one strongly
fimbriated seta, directed backwards. M. caudatus Thorell,

Extension of dorsal plate only stump-like. Anal plate medially very narrow and
only one-fourth the width of anterior margin. Movable finger of chelicerae with
three fimbriated setae. M. brachywrus Thorell,
With a distinct inner line to dorsal plate.

Without an inner line.

Males without pores on apex of ventral plate. Anal plate only a little wider
than long, slightly narrower in front. Ventral plate with parallel sides and square
end, widely separated {rom anal plate in female; slightly widening beyond
coxae IV then tapering and almost touching anal plate in male. Body pear-
shaped. M. obltusus Kramer.

Males with small pores on ventral plate. Anal plate almost twice as wide as long,
kidney shaped. Ventral plate apically rounded and well separated from anal plate
in both sexes. Body subrotund in male, narrower and more parallel in female.

M. thorelli, sp. n.
Anal plate almost quadrate, scarcely if at all wider than long.

Anal plate wider than long, almost twice, with anteriorly sloping sides.

Dorsal plate evenly clothed with long fine setae which are somewhat longer
apically, but otherwise uniform.

Dorsal plate not so clothed.

Body cgg-shaped, widest behind coxae IV.

Body ovate, widest in line of stigmata. Apex of ventral plate with rounded angles
and slightly concave posterior margin. Anal plate with almost straight anterior
and strongly convex posterior margin. Size, 2-1 mm. M. moaifensis Oude,

Body evenly rounded posteriorly. Anal plate with parallel anterior and posterior
margins, twice as wide as long. Apex of ventral plate evenly rounded with
rounded angles. Size, 3-0 mm. M. modestus Berl,

Body posteriorly bluntly rounded. Anal plate with slightly concave anterior and
very strongly convex posterior margins, two-thirds as long as wide. Ventral
plate apically truncate with sharp angles and slightly concave posterior margin.

Size, 2-46 mm. M. orientalis Oude.
Dorsal plate glabrous, but anteriorly with a marginal corona of long porrect
outwardly radiating setae. Size, 1-65-1:8 mm. M. coronatus Berl.
Not so.

Anal plate widely trapezoidal, much wider (almost twice) than long.

M. doreianus Thorell.
Af. grandis Berl,
M. togatensis Canest.

Anal plate longer than wide. Elongate species, posteriorly scarcely wider than
anterior, maximum body width in middle little more than half body length.

M. oblongus Oude.
M, medius Berl,
M, serrasini Berl.

Apex of ventral plate narrower than front of anal plate; pores of male circular
and relatively small, being separated by their own diameter.

M. lamellicornium Oude.

Apex of ventral plate wider than front of anal plate.
Narrower species, sides somewhat parallel and slightly sinuate between coxae III

and IV. Apex of ventral plate convex. Male unknown. yy. hatamensis Thorell.

Body pear-shaped, wide, Apex of ventral plate slightly concave; pores of male
large, slightly elliptical, separated by only half their diameters. Female unknown.

M. testudo Thorell.

15
10

li
13
12

14

16

THE MOST NORTHERLY OCCURRENCE OF FOSSILIFEROUS
CAMBRIAN STRATA YET RECORDED IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

BY SIR D. MAwson, D.Sc., FLR.S.

Summary
Though much has been written by Professor W. Howchin'” and others on the subject of the
Cambrian strata of South Australia, yet the beds as they occur in the northern areas of the State,
where they are most extensively developed, have not yet been exhaustively examined.
With the object of examining and measuring these beds in detail, many areas in the Flinders Range
have come under my observation. It is hoped that the complete succession of strata will before long
be placed on record.

181

THE MOST NORTHERLY OCCURRENCE OF FOSSILIFEROUS CAMBRIAN
STRATA YET RECORDED IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

By Sir D, Mawson, D.Sc., F.R.S.
[Read October 14, 1937.]
PLATE XI,

Though much has been written by Professor W. Howchin™) and others on
the subject of the Cambrian strata of South Australia, yet the beds as they occur
in the northern areas of the State, where they are most extensively developed,
have not yet been exhaustively examined.

With the object of examining and measuring these beds in detail, many areas
in the Flinders Range have come under my observation. It is hoped that the
complete succession of strata will before long be placed on record.

This paper deals with what, so far as is known, is the most northerly
occurrence of fossiliferous Cambrian strata in the State. Detail of beds recorded
herewith refer to a basin-shaped area in the neighbourhood of and south of Mount
McKinlay, which is located to the east of Mount Serle, one of the well-known
topographical features of the northern part of the Flinders Range. An extension
from this basin continues in a westerly direction across the northern portion of
the Angepena Run towards Patsey’s Hill.

Cambrian fossils were first met with by me in this area in the year 1924. Up
till that date the most northerly recorded occurrence was the famous locality of the
Ajax Mine, 4 miles N.N.E. of Putapa Gap (near Beltana).

The beds exposed in the area now under consideration constitute a phase of
the lowest division of the fossiliferous Cambrian strata of South Australia. On
the south and east side of this Cambrian basin the long quartzite range extending
from Mudlapena Gap through Campbell’s Bald Hill, Hawker’s Hill, on to Italowie
Gorge, and thereafter trending away to the north, is the base of this fossiliferous
Cambrian formation. Considering their great antiquity, the rocks composing
these beds still retain to a marked degree their original characters. Fossils remain
fairly well preserved. Though considerable dislocations in the nature of faulting
and folding are met with in this basin, there are still large blocks preserved free
from faults, which, though steeply inclined, are so little disturbed in other ways
that good opportunities are offered for determining the succession and thickness
of the beds. A critical examination was made in two localities which are situated
some 8 miles apart in a direct air line, though very much further by the road.
The first section crosses the mail road from Mount Serle to Italowie Gorge
at a point about four miles on the Mount Serle side of the Gorge. This will be
referred to as the Italowie section. The second locality is near the Nepubunna
aboriginal settlement, which is on the Mount Serle - Italowie Road, distant about
8 miles from Mount Serle. The result of this latter examination is plotted as the
Nepabunna section. The traverse crosses the road at about three-quarters of a
mile east of the settlement.

@) “The Geographical Distribution of Fossiliferous Rocks of Cambrian Age in
South Australia, with Geological Notes and References,” by W. Howchin, Trans. Roy.
Soc. S. Aust., vol. xlix (1925), pp. 1-26.

182

Tue Iratowi Secrion,

The following details refer to a traverse made across the strike of the beds
from the quartzite of the Italowie Range. The line of section runs in the direc-
tion of N. 34° W. (true).©@? Under their respective numbers as plotted in the
section herewith (page 183), the following short notes refer to the characters of
each of the successive beds.

1. The Italowie Gap quartzite. This forms a high range, which is a striking
physiographic feature. It is of great thickness, probably at least two thousand
feet, judging by its development further to the west; but the true thickness on
this line of traverse was not determined. Though normally constituted of a hard
quartzite, there are also occasional softer bands. Near the upper limit in some
of the softer and slightly argillaceous bands, good examples of worm burrows
were noted. The quartzite in this locality strikes N, 56° E. (true).

2. Above the quartzite come shales of a thickness of about 150 feet. At
the upper limit of these shales is a band of sandstone.

3. <A thickness of 450 feet of argillaceous shales through which are dis-
tributed occasional minor bands of sandstone. In the weathering of these shales
limonite cappings have developed in the case of some of the bands, whilst the
shale below is weathered very white in colour.

4. Calcareous beds, in part sandy (arenaceous), with a thickness of 150 feet.
A faint cryptozodnic“™ structure was detected in some of the calcareous beds.

5. Here are more richly calcareous beds, dolomitic in part. This division
represents a further 150 feet in true thickness Cryptozo6nic texture is clearly
defined. his is quite coarse in one of the lower bands, but very fine in the
upper section.

6. A thickness of 136 feet of calcareous slates with a little dolomite. This
brings the section to the main Mount Serle - Italowic Road.

7. One hundred and forty feet of limestones and dolomites, which, however,
include some calcareous, sandy strata. The coarse cryptozodn structure referred
to in a previous communication’) is located in the lower portion of this belt.
The columnar forms of the cryptozoon are here seen to be disposed vertically, as
if originally growing on a floor of dolomitic mud. At the upper limit of this
belt another type of algal (?) structure makes its appearance. his I have
observed to occur in other localities and in my field notes have always referred
to it as dendriform.

8 Two hundred and fifty feet of sandy calcareous beds in which are to be
met with, though not numerous, good examples of fossil Archaeocyathinac. These
fossils are comparatively numerous in a band not more than 60 feet thick. The
rock is rather crumbly and the best fossils have been found in loose cobbles lying
on the surface. ‘Whe strike at this point was found to be N.51° E. (true); dip,
25° to the N.W.

9. Sandy (arenaceous) calcareous flaggy beds with pteropod remains. The
latter are seen weathered out in relief on the surface of the rock. Archaeo-
cyathinae fossils were not observed in this bed.

@) All bearings mentioned in this paper are “true” not “magnetic,” and all thick-
nesses of strata refer to true thicknesses, not merely the width of outcrop exposed.

@) In field studies of these Cambrian rocks I have frequently made use of the term
Cryptozodnic to indicate seycral related though sometimes indefinite and often faintly-
recorded textures which bear some resemblance to the algal form distinguished as Crypto-
zoon. More will be said of cryptozoén and related structures in a later contribution.

() Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. xlix (1925), p. 187.

Zz
°
—
Kk
O
ia
un
na
=
°
4
i
Lo
_

THE

< QUARTZ}

THE NEPABUNNA SECTION

CAMPBELLS BALD HILL

RANGE

183

10. Flaggy beds of
a total thickness of
135 feet, very similar
to those immediately
underlying them. Very
faint traces of fossil
Archaeocyathinae
were observed in this
belt. A little crypto-
zoonic structure was
also noted.

11, Three hundred
feet of flaggy cal-
careous beds. Ascend-
ing in the series the
flaggy nature is more
definitely developed
with steadily increas-
ing introductions of

more richly argilla-
ceous bands. At the
upper limit of this

section of beds a
striking alternation of
argillaceous and cal-
careous laminations is
displayed. Occasional
pteropods were noted
in this zone, but only
one archaeocyathid
was observed, and
that was noted at
about 100 feet above
the base of this sec-
tion. Dip, 30° to the
N.W.

12. A banded cal-
carcous zone, 450 feet
in thickness, consti-
tuted of narrow bands
of nearly pure lime-
stone alternating with
bands which are richly
argillaceous. The
argillaceous bands
weather to yellow and
chocolate colour. At
the top of this section
is a belt in which the
argillaceous lamina-
tions join to form a
meshwork in which
are pocketed portions

184

of the darker coloured limestone. A similar structure elsewhere has been
observed in the Cambrian strata in the Sellick’s Hill- Carrickalinga Head belt‘?
south of Adelaide,

13. Here comes a section 810 feet thick of flaggy beds in part quite similar to
the beds described immediately underlying them. In their upper extension there
is a steadily increasing relative proportion of argillaceous bands. The only
fossils observed in this section were pteropods. Cuboidal crystals of pyrites (in
the outcrop converted to pseudomorphs in limonite) are frequently to be observed
in the outcrops.

14. Somewhat calcareous slate, irregularly distributed, through which are
occasional thin bands of limestone. Total thickness 225 feet. Near the upper
limit, the slates of this section become very dark in colour. Strike, N. 56° E.
(true) ; dip, 30° W.

15. Very dark coloured, rather soft, calcareous slates of a total thickness
of 195 feet. his is a massive, uniform belt, but sedimentary laminations are to
be detected. This is very similar in general appearance to the dark-coloured slates
of Carrickalinga Head (south of Adelaide), in which alunite is developed as a
product of surface weathering.

16. Dark-coloured, slightly calcareous slates in which are embedded occa-
sional thin bands of buff-coloured dolamite; the thickest of these latter abserved
measured 3 fect. The total thickness of this section is 450 feet. Embedded in
these slates are cubes of iron pyrites.

Reyond this point the rock exposures were not so satisfactory, and as there
was, therefore, no certainty that they continued in true and unbroken sequence,
further record was discontinued. However, before turning back I continued for
another three-quarters of a mile across the strike over what appeared to be very
similar slates.

Observations were made still further afield by J. O. G. Glastonbury, who
was a member of my field party at the time. He crossed the strike of the beds to
the foot of the Mount McKinlay Range, a distance of about four miles from the
face of the Italowie Gorge quartzite at the point of section. This carried him
two miles further across the beds than is shown in my section. In that distance
he observed only banded slates and limestones, until arriving clase to the massive
quartzite of the Mount McKinlay Range. Then some thick bands of dense lime-
stone were encountered. As the dips and strikes recorded by Glastonbury in the
neighbourhood of Mount McKinlay were greatly changed, it is evident that the
sequence of the beds exposed there cannot be accurately related to the section
above recorded.

In traversing this section one could not help being impressed with the marked
similarity of some of the more notable features with the section exposed along
the coast south of Adelaide between Sellick’s Hill and Normanville.

GroLoGIcAL SECTION Across A PorrioN or THE CAMBRIAN FORMATION
AT NEPABUNNA.

The beds in this locality are more steeply inclined and somewhat more
affected by tectonic movements than is the case with the beds at Italowie. In the
thick section of argillaceous limestones a nearly vertical slaty-cleavage is
developed. As slaty-cleavage tends to obliterate and mask the true inclination
of the beds, it is possible, therefore, that in the incompetent beds of this section
there is some amount of contortion or crumpling which has evaded detection.

a) Trans. Roy. Soc. §. Aust., vol. xlix (1925), p. 189.

185

Measuring from the base upwards, the section is interpreted as follows :—

1. A basal quartzite forming the Campbell’s Bald Hill Range. ‘This is for
the most part a hard quartzite and of great thickness. Though no very accurate
estimate was made, a reconnaissance by one of my party, W. B. Dallwitz, indicated
the thickness to exceed 1,680 feet. ‘The strike is approximately east and west;
the dip is 58° to the north.

The details of the section from the upper limit of this basal quartzite to
division 9 of this list were checked by B. W. Warhurst and W. B. Dallwitz.
The beds above division 9 are my own checking.

2. Overlying the basal quartzite comes this belt, 320 feet in thickness, of
passage beds in which are quartzite, sandstones and slate, in proportions about
half arenaceous and half argillaceous. Ripple marks and current bedding are a
feature of this division.

3. Here comes a great thickness of slates with some flaggy sandy beds near
the base. The total thickness amounts to 910 feet. In the middle of thts serics the
dip was ascertained to be 58° to the north. At about this latter position in the
beds an outcrop of limonite was encountered; this is about 3 fect wide and runs
for 80 yards along the strike; it may be the oxidised outcrop of pyritic strata.
In this neighbourhood, and for some distance above, the slates were notably
leached, kaolinised and possibly alunitised in places.

4, Flaggy and argillaceous limestones enclosing some bands of dense massive
limestone. Cryptozcénic textures are evident in the beds of dense limestone.
The total thickness is 875 fect.

5. Flaggy limestones, in part argillaceous, of a total thickness of 1,025 fect.

6. Flaggy limestones in which are two bands of dense limestone with
archacocyathinae, each about 10 feet thick. The total thickness of this division
is 90 feet.

7. Mainly flaggy limestones, in part argillaceous, and occasional bands of
dense limestone with cryptozodnic structure. What appeared to be faint indications
of archaeocyathinae were observed in one place. The thickness of this division is
702 feet.

8, Flaggy impure limestones with a few belts of massive limestone. Thick-
ness of strata 700 feet. Cryptozodnic textures were noted in several places, but
no indications of Archaeocyathinae were observed.

9, Flaggy impure limestones interbedded with which are numerous beds of
massive limestone. Thickness of strata, 680 feet. An observation of dip gave
45° to the north. Cryptozoénic textures are well shown in some horizons. This
brings the section to the Mount Serle - Italowie Gorge road.

10. Nodular, faintly cryptozodnic, argillaceous limestone. Thickness of
strata, 285 feet.

11. Beds of a nature gencrally similar to the foregoing, but somewhat less
calcareous. Thickness, 210 feet.

12. Flaggy beds; alternations of argillaceous and calcareous strata of an
aggregate thickness of 215 feet.

13. Beds of a similar nature to the foregoing, but more richly argillaceous.
Thickness of strata, 170 feet.

14. Tlaggy beds, similar to division 12 above, but more richly calcareous.
Thickness, 210 feet.

15. Calcareous beds, somewhat argillaceous. These beds weather readily,
leaving little outcrop. Thickness, 150 feet.

186

16. A calcarcous formation in which nodules (stromatoliths) of fairly pure

limestone are pocketed in a meshwork of argillaceous material. Thickness,
310 feet.

17. Calcareous slates and argillaceous limestone. Owing to inferior resistance
to weathering, these beds have developed a depression in the local topography.
This belt of comparatively soft beds has a thickness of 660 feet.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI.

Fig. 1. View looking north from the Mount Serle-Italowie Gorge road at a point
about 3 miles west of Italowie Gorge. In the near view the tilted Cambrian limestones
of about the Archaeocyathinae horizon are to be seen. In the far distance is the high
range formed of the basal quartzites. The figure is A. R. Alderman.

Fig, 2, View of calcareous beds of the Cambrian formation at about 34 miles west
of Italowie Gorge. In the middle view are the Archaeocyathinae-bearing beds, and further
afield the overlying flaggy beds with pteropods.

THE BOXHOLE CRATER AND THE HUCKITTA METEORITE.
(CENTRAL AUSTRALIA).

BY C. T. MADIGAN, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S

Summary

The Boxhole Crater, with the largest Henbury Crater, ranks next to the Coon Butte of Arizona as
the world's largest single crater at which there is abundant evidence that it was caused by the fall of
a meteorite. The Boxhole Crater was shown to the author during his last geological expedition into
Central Australia by Mr. Joe Webb, a shearer on Boxhole Station, on June 20, 1937, when it was
first definitely recognised as a meteorite crater, though its true nature was suspected by Mr. Webb,
who is the uncle of the two young men who took up this unoccupied country a few years ago and
established the Boxhole Station. The locality is 170 miles N.E. from Alice Springs, on the edge of
the occupied country, only a portion of Huckitta Station separating it from the desert extending
across 180 miles eastward to the Queensland border. The station is in the Plenty Plain, on the north
side of the Plenty River, that broad sandy watercourse running eastward into the desert along the
front of the Harts Ranges. The country is a peneplain of pre-Cambrian schists and gneisses, with
east-west trend, covered with an open scrub of mulga and gidgee. The surface is broken by a few
ridges of quartz schist which stand up to 50 feet above the general level, and some small scattered
watercourses lined with eucalypts that join the Little Frazer draining the area to the northward.

187

THE BOXHOLE CRATER AND THE HUCKITTA METEORITE.
(CENTRAL AUSTRALIA).

By C. T. Mapican, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S.
[Read October 14, 1937.]
Pirates XII anp XIII,

The Boxhole Crater, with the largest Henbury Crater, ranks next to the
Coon Butte of Arizona as the world’s largest single crater at which there is
abundant evidence that it was caused by the fall of a meteorite. The Boxhole
Crater was shown to the author during his last geological expedition into Central
Australia by Mr. Joe Webb, a shearer on Boxhole Station, on June 20, 1937,
when it was first definitely recognised as a meteorite crater, though its true nature
was suspected by Mr, Webb, who is the uncle of the two young men who took
up this uncccupied country a few years ago and established the Boxhole Station.
The locality is 170 miles N.E. from Alice Springs, on the edge of the occupied
country, only a portion of Huckitta Station separating it fram the desert extending
across 180 miles eastward to the Queensland border. The station is in the Plenty
Plain, on the north side of the Plenty River, that broad sandy watercourse running
eastward into the desert along the front of the Harts Ranges. The country is a
peneplain of pre-Cambrian schists and gneisses, with east-west trend, covered with
an open scrub of mulga and gidgee. The surface is broken by a few ridges of
quartz schist which stand up to 50 feet above the general level, and some small
scattered watercourses lined with eucalypts that join the Little Frazer draining
the area to the northward.

The station homestead is 12 miles north of the Plenty River, and 9 miles east
of Pulpit Rock, the nearest fixed point marked on the official maps.

Granitic rock occurs at various localities in the pre-Cambrian complex, but
there are no volcanic rocks within a thousand miles. The country is a very
ancient peneplain, and this crater, in part disturbing recent alluvium, can have
mo connection with igneous activity. The position of the homestead was fixed
by astronomical observations (with the aid of wireless time signals) as latitude
22° 37’ 30” S., longitude 135° 11'59” E., and the crater is 60 chains north and
10 chains east of the homestead, so that its exact position is latitude 22° 36’ 50” S.,
longitude 135° 12’ 06” E.

The crater lies on the south side of a small quartzose ridge about 30 feet high,
which runs east and west. It is about 300 yards from the eastern end of the
ridge, in the gently sloping alluvial plain. The rim reaches within 50 yards of the
top of the ridge, where, being on higher ground, it is about 19 feet higher than
on the far side away from the ridge. The crater is almost circular in form, and
has no outlet. <A little gutter from the side of the ridge has cut into the north
side of the rim and made a small alluvial fan out on to the floor of the crater,
but apart from this there is no inwash other than from the sides of the crater,
and the shape is remarkably symmetrical, strongly suggesting an old military
mine crater.

Two sections, one north-south and one east-west, were carefully measured
with chain and Abney level. These sections, drawn to true scale, are shown in
fig. 1. From rim to rim the horizontal measurements were 575 feet and 570 feet,
respectively. The natural slope of the ground affects the height of the rim above
the level floor, and this varied from 30 to 52 feet. In the east-west section the
crest of the rim was about 94 feet above the ground level outside the crater.
‘The greater height at the south side of over 16 fect is partly duc to the fall of

188

the ground, which also affects the depth of the floor of the crater below ground
level. This latter averaged 27 feet in the east-west section, across the
fall of the ground. The floor appeared level, but the lowest point was
towards the north-west. Shallow water had lain in a patch between the centre
and the north-west side, and aborigines had dug a shallow soakage in this area,
near a gum tree. ‘Ihe greatest fall measured in the sections across the floor was
1° 30’, The slope of the sides of the crater towards the floor was very gentle,
between 16° and 17° on the west and south sides, but up to 25° on the north side.

A plan of the locality, to true scale, is shown in fig. 2, with the positions of
the section lines across the crater. The narrow ridge beside which the crater lies
is of quartz schist, trending 12° N. of W., and ramified with vertical quartz veins.
It appears to be a much altered quartzite. Laterally the rock merges into highly
weathcred and kaolinized gneiss, with quartz veins still in evidence, and vertical
schistosity, but exposures are few, and the plain is covered with gravelly alluvium.

Scale, Hor = Vere,
490 jo 8 190 29a Feet.

Fig. 1.

The outer slopes of the rim of the crater are almost entirely formed of this alluvium
containing many water-worn pebbles of quartz, giving it a white appearance in
contrast with the browner surroundings. Inside, the slopes are mainly covered
with clay and gravel, and the bottom is entirely of clay, but in places the bedrock
is exposed in the sides. This is particularly the case on the east and west sides,
on both of which the same more resistant band of gneiss is seen as it crosses the
crater. The exposure rises almost to the crest of the lip on the east side. This
band contains narrow vertical quartz veins, which have allowed it to resist
weathering better than the rest of the decayed gneiss.

The quartz veins were much shattered, and this was at first thought to be
significant, but a gutter 50 yards to the east of the crater gave an exposure of the
saine band of rotten gneiss with broken dislocated quartz veins, so this apparent
shattering was merely an effect of weathering and not connected with concussion.
There was a complete absence of any blocks of bedrock in the crater walls or on
the surrounding plain.

The gentle slope of the walls, the deep gutter from the side of the ridge
with its small catchment and the amount of inwash from it, and the whole general
appearance, suggested long weathering in stich an arid climate (ihe rainfall is
about 10 inches). The walls were probably once much steeper and higher. The
floor is almost bare of trecs except for one large dead one and a living eucalypt,
but the sides, both inside and out, are covered with acacias, even more densely
than the surrounding country. The flora has long since become established and
balanced.

Fragments of meteoric material were difficult to find. In the short period of
one afternoon spent at the crater, only two iron-shale balls were found, on the
sides of the crater. These were very typical, about 24 to 3 inches long, oval in

189

outline, reticulated with deep cracks, and composed of brown iron oxide, strongly
magnetic. They are identical in appearance with those found at Henbury and
illustrated by Dr. Alderman.

As soon as news of this crater appeared in the Press, and before arrange-
ments could be completed for a more thorough search, others had visited the

i é “Tp

BOXHOLE CRATER

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locality and secured a hundredweight or so of iron fragments, One piece of iron
only so far has come into the author’s possession, a dish-shaped fragment weigh-
ing a few ounces. This is a medium octahedrite very similar to the Henbury
specimens. The Webb family had been requested to continue the search, and
when more material comes to hand a detailed description of it will be published.
As usual, the iron free of adhering shale appears to have been found far from
the crater itself. The shale balls are completely weathered through, without a
core of iron.

©) Alderman, A. R. The Henbury Meteoric Iron. Records of the S.A. Museum,
vol. iv, No. 4, 1932, p. 563.

190

The Boxhole Crater is most like the Texas Crater) in size and shape, of
those so far recorded and described. Both are shallow and circular, with the
Boxhole averaging 572 feet across, against Texas’ 530 feet. The Texas rim is
18 feet above the bottom of the hole, against 30 to 40 feet at Boxhole, and only
2 or 3 feet above the level of the plain, against 9 to 16 feet at Boxhole. The
difference almost certainly lies in the age. In time the rims must disappear and the
craters become filled. Meteoric iron and iron shale fragments are found at both.

There is, of course, a close resemblance between the Boxhole Crater and the
Henbury Craters,“ The main crater at Henbury is oval in shape, with a
maximum dimension of 660 feet and a minimum of 360 feet. It lacks the circular
symmetry of the Boxhole Crater, which may be due, as Dr. Alderman suggests,
to the simultaneous arrival of two masses close together. The smaller craters
at Henbury are all circular. The iron-shale and meteoric iron at the two places
are similar, with the shale balls weathered right through. The walls of the
Henbury Craters arc, however, very much steeper, and this fact indicates a con-
siderably greater age for the Boxhole meteorite, The Henbury Craters have a
markedly rugged appearance in comparison with the low, smooth symmetry of
Boxhole.

The aborigines of Boxhole have no legends connected with the crater and
take no particular interest in it. This is vouched for by the Webbs, who are in
sympathetic contact with the aborigines and masters of their language. It
seems hard to believe that the crater was formed before the country was occupied
by the aborigines, yet such an explosion would surely have been noticed and
recorded by them, whose lives are so uneventful and who are yet so observant
of natural phenomena, It must have been audible, or visible at night, from a
hundred miles away. This applies even more to the Henbury shower, which
must have been far more disturbing; yet the blacks know nothing of it. It is
time we obtained more exact data about the amount of any given material removed
in a given interval under particular climatic conditions, or in other wards, the
real rates of erosion. There appear to be no standards by which the age of this
crater can be placed between 500 and 50,000 years.

On the same expedition the author was fortunate enough to discover, on
July 6, 1937, a new meteorite on Huckitta Station, about 40 miles north-eastward
of the Boxhole Crater. This is a magnificent coarse-grained pallasite weighing
over two tons. It lay projecting from the surface on a gravelly plain, and has
been secured and brought down to the Adelaide University for complete investiga-
tion. It has been named the Huckitta Meteorite, and it will be fully described in
due course, but, unfortunately, not in time for this volume of the Transactions
of the Royal Society of South Australia.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Pirate XII,

Tig. 1. A general view of the Boxhole Crater from the ridge, looking south-east.
Fig. 2. The eastern half of the crater, showing the gentle slopes of the wall.
Looking south.
Pate XITI.
Fig. 1. The western half of the Boxhole Crater.
Fig. 2. On the floor of the crater, looking north-east. The gum tree and native
soak in the centre.

@ Sellards, I. I. Unusual Structural Feature in the Plains Region of Texas.
Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 1927, vol. xxxviii, p. 149.

@) Alderman, A. R. The Meteorite Craters at Henbury, Central Australia. Min.
Mag., 1932, vol. xxiii, No. 136, pp. 19-32.

LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN TERRESTRIAL AND
FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS.
PART I. ASURVEY OF LITERATURE.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC., AND E. R. CLELAND, M.SC.

Summary

As is well known, molluscs are necessary hosts for the early stages in the life history of digenetic
trematodes. Some of them have great economic importance because of their relation to
schistosomiasis and other trematode diseases of man, and to the fluke invasions of sheep and cattle.
Very little detailed investigation has been carried out regarding the larval stages of Australian
trematodes. Apart from the work of Bradley, McKay and Ross on the life cycle of the liver fluke in
New South Wales, and of Bradley on some other cercariae, no serious investigation has been
carried out. In Europe, North America, Brazil, India, Egypt and South Africa, various investigators
have been engaged in studying such stages and have been successful in tracing the complete life
cycle of many species. Apart from the liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica, there is no trematode whose
life cycle in Australia is known, and there is no Australian cercaria adequately described, according
to present standards, though Bradley's work is much more detailed than that of any other local
investigator of this larval group.

191

LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN TERRESTRIAL AND
FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS.

PART I. A SURVEY OF LITERATURE.

By ‘I. Ilarvey Jounston, M.A., D.Sc., and E, R. CLeranp, M.Sc.,
University of Adelaide.

{Read October 14, 1937.]

As is well known, molluscs are necessary hosts for the early stages in the
life history of digenetic trematodes. Some of them have great economic
importance because of their relation to schistosomiasis and other trematode
diseases of man, and to the fluke invasions of sheep and cattle. Very little detailed
investigation has been carried out regarding the larval stages of Australian
trematodes. Apart from the work of Bradley, McKay and Ross on the life cycle
of the liver fluke in New South Wales, and of Bradley on some other cercariae,
no serious investigation has been carried out. In Europe, North America, Brazil,
India, Egypt and South Africa, various investigators have been engaged in study-
ing such stages and have been successful in tracing the complete life cycle of
many species. Apart from the liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica, there is no trematode
whose life cycle in Australia is known, and there is no Australian cercaria
adequately described, according to present standards, though Bradley’s work is
much more detailed than that of any other local investigator of this larval group.

The stimulus for most of the published results has been the attempt to ascer-
tain the intermediate host of the liver fluke which constitutes an important
economic factor in a country like Australia where sheep and cattle play such a
large part in our national life. The other parasites responsible for a fleeting
attempt to study larval stages, were the human blood flukes introduced into
Australia by soldiers who returned from the South African War and from
the Great War. In the former case, Schistosomum haematobium was the trema-
tode concerned, while in the latter, that species as well as S. mansoni were involved,
Egypt being the source of infection, There were many references to schistoso-
miasis in Australian troops during the war, and subsequently. Most of them
appear in the Medical Journal of Australia and deal with diagnosis and treatment
of the disease. Suggestions for the prevention of infected men becoming the
means whereby local pond snails might be infected and thus lead to the parasites
becoming endemic, were made by Cherry (1917a, 1917b) and, later, by
others. In at least one region in Western Australia local infection occurred, the
original source being South Africa, the case being reported by Nelson (1912).
This fact is proof that there exists in Australia at Icast one species of pond snail
capable of serving as an intermediate host for Schistosomum haematobium.

Fairley and Bahr (1917, 39) in a report on their observations on Egyptian
bilharziasis amongst Australian soldiers, in referring to the possibility of such
men becoming the means of establishing the human blood flukes in the Common-
wealth, drew attention to the need for determining infectivity of Australian
molluscs for these two species of Schistosomum, and for ascertaining the biology
and distribution of the various freshwater snails before any rational prophylactic
measures for the control of the potential molluscan intermediaries in Australia
could be formulated.

192

The earliest reference to larval trematodes in Australia appears to be that of
Whitelegge (1889, 307), who reported that cercariae of a species of Distoma
were very common in Parramatta Park, near Sydney. Ile gave a list of the fresh-
water molluscs recorded as occurring in the Sydney district (pp. 321-322),
mentioning amongst them two species of Limnaea (lessoni and brastert), and
four of Physa, which name is now more usually replaced by Bulinus for Aus-
tralian sinistral pond snails. Seven other gastropods and five lamellibranchs were
also listed.

In December, 1895, Cherry (1895, 183) recorded that he had found the
larval stages of Distomum hepaticum in Bulinus tenuistriatus from the southern,
northern and western portions of Victoria. In view of our present knowledge,
the cercariae must have belonged to some other’ species of trematode.

Vielder now began to examine freshwater molluscs from Victorian localities,
and published three short papers in 1896. Some of the findings by him and other
members (Cummins, O’Neill, McCaw) of the local Field Naturalists’ Society,
were referred to in an account of a meeting of that Society in January, 1896
(Anonymous, 1896, 123-4), the following species of snails being reported as
showing infection :—Bulinus tenutstriatus (rediae, cercariae, and cysts, by Fielder,
Cummins and McCaw); B. inflatus (by Fielder); Planorbis sp. (larval stages,
by O’Neill; forked-tailed cercariae, another type of cercaria, and cysts, by
Fielder) ; Ancylus australicus (larval stages and cysts, by Fielder).

Fielder (1896a, 140) recorded finding in Isidora (Bulinus) tenuistriata, and
in Ancylus tasmanicus, all stages, except the miracidium and cyst, of fluke, these
agreeing closcly with those described by Thomas in 1883 for the liver fluke, In
a Planorbid, Segmentina victoriae, he found cysts in which the larva possessed
a circlet of spines in the vicinity of the anterior sucker [obviously an Echinostome,
J.& C.J]. In Planorbis gilbertt were found sporocysts, rediae and cereariae ; some
of these snails producing cercariae with very distinct pigment spots close to the
anterior sucker, while from others forked-tatled larvae were developed from large
sac-like structures [sporocysts]. From Isidora (Bulinus) gibbosa var. fusiformis,
stylet cercariae were obtained, cysts and sporocysts but no rediae, being seen.
From north-eastern Victoria [. (B.) texturata (called B. inflatus in his earlier
record) (Anonymous, 1896) and Lrutnaea lessoni, larvae in all stages, including
cysts, were obtained. He stated that the form, which agreed with Thomas’
description, was most probably the liver fluke and had “without doubt been seen
in diffcrent species of the genera Ancylus, Isidora (Bulinus) and Limnaea.”

Tn his second note Fielder (1896b) recorded finding larval stages, either active
or encysted, in Isidora (Bulinus) aliciae var. turrita, and in Potamopyrgus sp.
from Ballarat; in Amphipeplea papyracea from Warrnambool; Limnaea brazieri
from Port Fairy; and in Amphipeplea melbournensis from Melbourne. A
Limnaca from New South Wales contained cercariae with pigment spots near the
anterior sucker, the parasite being similar to that found in Planorbis gilberti in
Victoria and now recorded also from Limnaew lessont and Isidora lexturatu
from north-western Victoria, He stated that three different kinds of cysts were
often seen in the same mollusc. Out of thousands of free-swimming cercatiac of
different types, only one or two were observed to encyst away from a snail.

In his third note Fielder (1896c) recorded the finding of larval stages in
Isidora (Bulinus) newcombi and Limnaea brazieri from New South Wales, and
gave a brief description of characteristic larva produced in long “nurse-sacs”
[sporocysts| in Unio australis, his account permitting us to identify this parasite
of the freshwater mussel as Bucephalus sp. He gave a short description and very
diagrammatic figures of seven kinds of cysts which he had mct with in the

193

gastropods. Some were fed to rabbits and ducks, but without positive results.
That shown in his fig. 1, found in Isidora texturata, T. aliciae and L. lessont, 18
obviously an echinostome cyst, but the arrangement of the corner spines in two
pairs on each side does not seem to occur in any Echinostome as yet described
from Australia, except perhaps E. ignavum Nicoll (1914b, 114, unfigured)
described from a spur-wing plover, Lobivanellus lobatus, in North Queensland.
The number of spines (nine) figured in the rest of the collar cannot be taken as
necessarily correct because in another cyst (fig. 2) he indicated 15 such spines,
whereas in his text he stated that there were about 37 large spines. Ilis fig. 2 is.
that of a much larger cyst (obviously an echinostome) from J. texturata and
L. lessoni, about 37 spines being present. We suggest that this cyst was most
probably that of Echinostoma revolutum (Froel.), which is known to occur in
various Australian anseriform birds, including the black duck and black swan.
It may be mentioned that EZ. acuticauda Nicoll (1914, 110) from the Australian
straw-necked ibis, Carphibis spinicollis, has 37 collar spines, but the arrangement
of the corner groups has not been described. There are also a few other species
having the same number, but they are not yet known to occur in Australia. His
fig. 3 and his description of small cysts from Isidora texturata and L. lessoni do
not allow one to make any suggestion as to their relationship except that they are
distomes, unless his remark that there was a circlet of small spines near the
anterior sucker may be taken as a reason to assign them also to the Echino-
stomatidae. His fig. 4 illustrates a small, oval, heavily pigmented cyst occurring
in I. texturata and [. tenuistriata. In fig. 5 he indicated a very heavily pigmented
round cyst from L, brazieri. His fig. 6 is that of a minute cyst of a xiphidiocercaria
from I. texturata, I. gibbosa, L. lessoni, and L. brazieri. In fig. 7 he sketched a
pigmented distomid cyst occurring in Segmentina victoriae, I. tenuistriata, and
Ancylus tasmanicus.

In view of Fielder’s (1896b) remark that out of thousands of cetcariae
observed he had seen only one or two encyst outside a snail, and in view of our
present knowledge of the encystment of Fasciola, we may safely assume that his
remark (1896a) regarding the probability of F. hepatica passing through its larval
stages in species of Ancylus, Isidora (Bulinus) and Limnaea requires modification.
We feel justified in saying that Fielder may possibly have scen such stages of the
liver fluke derived from Limnaea only, since we know that the cercaria shows
some resemblance in form and size to other distome cercariae, and that it encysts
normally elsewhere than in snails and other forms of animal life.

Cobb (1897) wrote an article on sheep fluke and in it gave a figure
(p. 459) of Bulinus brasieri, “the intermediate host of sheep fluke in Australia,”
drawn from specimens “in which the Australian intermediate stage of the sheep
fluke was first discovered at Austermere, Moss Vale, 1893.” He also figured
“specimens of cercariae of sheep fluke found in snails shown in [his] figure.”
Bradley, in 1926, stated that these figures of the larvae were not those of fasciola
hepatica, Next year Cobb published a short note (1898, 182) giving a brief
account and figure of a right-handed pond snail as the intermediate host. “The
form is that of a Limnaea, but the tentacles were more like those of Bulinus.
This brief notice suggests that Cobb had examined both Limnaea bragiert and
Bulinus brazieri, and had confused the two in his figures and in his findings. It
also suggests that he may have seen the cercaria of Fasciola hepatica as well as
those of other flukes such as Echinostomes whose collar spines may not have been
developed at that stage. In one article (1897) Cobb drew attention to the value
of various birds (Grallina, herons) as destroyers of snails, and, therefore, valuable
in connection with control measures against sheep fluke. In 1904 (p. 658) he
stressed the value of ducks for the same purpose.

G

194

There appears to be no further reference to our subject until the presence
of schistosomiasis in returned Australian soldiers awakened interest in it. The
complete life cycle of species of Schistosomum was not made known until early
in the period of the Great War, when Japanese workers ascertained it for
S. japonicum, Leiper carried out his investigations in Egypt in 1915 and pub-
lished his accounts of the life history of S. haematobium and S. mansoni, both of
which had infected many Australian soldiers while stationed in Egypt. The
return of such men awakened deep interest, because of the possibility of the
parasites becoming established in the Commonwealth. The efforts of Cherry
(1917) and the remarks of Fairley and Bahr (1917) have been referred to earlier
in this paper.

Cherry’s articles refer also to the presence of trematode larvae in Victorian
pond snails. He gave a list (1917a) of six Australian gastropods known to serve
as intermediate hosts:—Planorbis gilberti, Bulinus tenutstriatus, B. texturatus,
B. sp., Limnaea lessoni and Ancylus australicus; and stated (p. 5) that “in Victoria
the sporocysts and cercariac of Distomum hepaticum have been found in represen-
tatives of both the genera Bulinus and Planorbis, and the vast majority of our
freshwater surface mollusca are included in these two genera.” In the light of our
present knowledge Cherry’s statement, just quoted, must be incorrect. He dis-
cussed the possibility of human species of Schistosomum becoming established in
Australia and mentioned that forked-tailed cercariae, devoid of pharyngeal bulb
and eye spots (pp. 4-11, fig. c), were found near Melbourne in Bulinus
? tenuistriatus. He attempted unsuccessfully to infect species of Bulinus, Ancylus
and Planorbis with embryos of Schistosomum from returned soldiers in Mel-
bourne. His article contains an Appendix (also published separately, 1917b)
giving advice and instructions to returned soldiers affected with schistosomiasis,
this being based on known facts regarding the life cycle of the parasites elsewhere.
In this appendix (1917a, 19; 1917b, 2) he made the following remark: “The
extent to which water may become charged with the larvae of such parasites
(trematodes) may be seen from the fact that in the case of sheep fluke in a
badly affected district, I have, on one occasion, found them in every pint of surface
water taken from a waterhole in a small creek in the month of December.” It was
quite probable that many cercaria other than those of Fasciola would be present
in such a locality in December, cercariae being especially abundant during the
warmet weather.

In 1925 and 1926 special attention was given to the attempt to determine
beyond doubt what species of pond snails served in New South Wales as inter-
mediary for F, hepatica, Bradley and McKay being the two investigators, Bradley
(1925, 690) reported that in the Cooma-Jindabyne district of the Monaro table-
land, New South Wales, about 15% of Limnaea brazieri harboured distome
cercariae, and that abundant eggs of F. hepatica were present in local sheep
droppings. Ile regarded the cercariae as probably those of the liver fluke. He
did not find any, beyond a damaged specimen, from 150 Bulinus brazieri
examined. The local distribution of the Limnaea was consistent with the
hypothesis that it was the carrier, whereas that of Bulinus did not coincide.

Cawston (1925, 64) gave an account of his work in connection with the
transmitting molluse for liver fluke in South Africa, and suggested that a species
of Limnaea would probably be found to act as such in Australia.

Bradley (1926a) published his observations on the water snails of Monaro
and New England, New South Wales, with especial reference to their cercaria-
carrying capacity. He gave brief descriptions and figures of Bulinus bragieri,
B. tenuistriatus, Potamopyrgus sp. and Limnaea bragieri. Cobb’s confusion of
Bulinus brasiert and Limnaea brasieri was referred to. The results of Bradley’s

195

examinations of the two species in regard to parasitism were tabulated, only two,
perhaps three, of 1,098 B. brazteri being found to carry cercaria, whereas in 1,581
L. brazieri 150 (= 9:5%) were infected, some of these with a pigmented type of
larva, but most of them with unpigmented types. Of 116 specimens of
Potamopyrgus sp. and 171 of Bulinus tenuistriatus, none was found infected
with trematode larvae (p. 157). Amongst the unpigmented cercatiae found in
L. bragieri at least two different types were present, one of them with a stylet
(p. 357). He figured the pigmented type which he compared with some of
Cawston’s material from South Africa, the two types (2¢., Cawston’s and
Bradley’s) being apparently the same as those described by Thomas for the
cercariae of Fasciola hepatica. On epidemiological grounds he regarded
L. bragieri as the transmitting agent of the liver fluke in New South Wales.

McKay (1926, 300) considered that Bradley’s evidence did not justify the
conclusions reached, but stated that he himself had proved this species of snail to
be the intermediary. Three types of pigmented cercariae were found in L. bragiert;
one of them agreed with Thomas’ account and figures of the larva of Fasciola
hepatica and was found readily to encyst. The other two, which might possibly
be varieties of the same specics, were less heavily pigmented and did not encyst
on available materials. The first type was fed to experimental animals and
Fasciola hepatica obtained. Fasciolid (probably intended for distomatid) cercariae
were found in Gabbia australis, Bulinus ‘pectorosus (of two varieties) and
B. hainesii; rediae in B. proteus, and B. gibbosus; and sporocysts in B. hainesit
var. pilosa.

Bradicy (1926b, 396) published a letter criticising McKay’s article and
reviewed the epidemiological evidence given in his earlier paper (1926a). A
letter in reply was written by McKay (1926c), and in it he stated that the adult
duke was obtained from laboratory-bred guinea pigs to which had been fed cysts
from cercariae issuing from Limnaea braziert.

McKay (1926b) gave a detailed account of his investigations, in which he
proved by feeding experiments that L. bragieri was an intermediate host for
Fasciola hepatica. A number of molluscs from various localities in New South
Wales were found to harbour trematode larvae :—Bulinus proteus, B. pectorosus,
B. gibbosus, B. hainesii, Limnaea braziert and Gabbia australis—all of them
fasciolid (obviously meant for distomatid). Three types of cercariae were found
in L. brazicri, the commonest (which encysted readily) giving rise to F. hepatica
when fed along with herbage to guinea pigs, while the other two non-encysting
forms did not do so. In B. pectorosus there were three kinds, an echinostome, a
schistosome and another resembling one of the non-encysting forms from
L. brasieri. In B. hainesti and its variety pilosa, two different kinds were seen.
Gabbia australis was recorded as heavily infected with a non-encysting type of
cercariae. Attempts to infect various pond snails and the land snail, Succinea
australis, by using miracidia of Fasciola, were not successful, Miracidia of the
liver fluke were found to hatch in thirteen days in the field and in seventeen
days in the laboratory, in Sydney. Unfortunately there is no indication of the
general temperature conditions nor the time of the year, ‘The term ‘“‘non-
encysting” as used by McKay is misleading, as experiment would almost certainly
have proved that many of such cercariae would have encysted readily in other
molluses, insect larvae, fish, ete.

Bradley (1926c) gave an account of Cercaria pigmentosa (i.¢., the larva of
the sheep liver fluke) in L. bragieri bred in an aquarium in which eggs of the
fluke had been placed, 40% infection being found, due in all probability to
infestation by miracidia from such eggs.

196

Later in the same year Bradley (1926d) described some larval trematodes
from New South Wales, chiefly from the Monaro district. One of these, a stylet-
bearing type, he named Cercaria pellucida (p. 574), its hosts being L. brazieri
and, less frequently, B. brazieri, but he stated that two very closely related forms
might be included under this term. This xiphidiocercaria was said to be closely
related to C. polyadena, Another, an echinostome named by him C,. catellae
(p. 574), was found in the same two host species and an account of its various
stages (cercaria, sporocyst, redia and cyst) was given. Its cysts were especially
abundant in B. bragieri. The parasite resembled the cercaria of Fascvola at first
sight, and as Bradley had never found the latter in B, brazteri, he suggested that
Cobb’s record of liver fluke cercaria from that snail may have been related to
C. catellae instead. LEchinostomes were found in the mountain duck, grebe and
coot in the locality from which the infected snails were taken by Bradley. He
also gave a short account of a third species which he called C. greert (p. 576), a
furcocercaria, from B. brazieri, but cysts were tot seen. He also figured
C. pigmentosa, which he regarded as probably the larva of Fasciola (p. 576) and
which he found in about 16% of Limnaca brazieri in spring. He stated that two
or more species of closely related cercariae might possibly have been included by
him under this term, A form which he called Cercaria nigracystica (p. 577) from
“black snakes” is not a cercaria and is referred to later in the present paper.
Cysts, from which tailless larvae emerged, were recorded as taken from Segmen-
tina australis.

Ross (1926) intervened in the dispute between Bradley and McKay, but did
not add anything to our knowledge of the subject under review,

McKay (1928) read a paper before the Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science in 1926, but it was not published till 1928. It covered
more or less the same ground as (but in much greater detail than) his earlier
account (1926). The same species of snails and their trematode parasites were
referred to, as also were the feeding experiments, using several types of cysts.
The cercariae which developed in Limmnaea brazieri and which encysted readily on
herbage, etc., were proved to be the larvae of Fasciola, He would not accept as
conclusive Cherry’s statement that B. tenuistriatus was a host for the liver fluke,
since it was based apparently on the morphology of the cercariae and not on
experimental infections of the snails, or on producing the adult stage from
naturally infected snails.

Bradley (1927) discussed the probable life cycle of Cercaria catellae, which
he found in Limnaea brazieri and Bulinus bragieri, the cyst stage also occurring
in these two molluscs. The various stages of this echinostome larva were
described. Some local birds were scarched for parasites and echinostomes were
found in mountain ducks, grebes and the coot. Different stages in the growth of
these trematodes from the duck and grcbe were figured and these flukes were
recorded as probably the adult condition of C. catellae, though Bradley stated
that more than one kind of echinostome might have been included under the term.

The parasite of the mountain duck,’Casarca tadornoides, was, without doubt,
Echtnostoma revolutum, since Bradley reported that there were 35 to 37 spines,
this species having been recorded from several species of Australian ducks, His
figures support such a view, The parasites from the grcbe and coot are different,
but the account and figures do not permit of definite identification. In view of
the abundance of C. catellae and its characters as indicated by Bradley, we regard
it as very probable that it represents the larval stage of E. revolutum, and possibly
other species as well.

Bradley ,and McKay are the only two investigators who have, as yet
attempted to give a satisfactory account of any Australian larval trematode from

197

freshwater molluscs, McKay’s detailed work being confined to that of Fasciola,
while Bradley gave a great deal of attention to other forms as well and is the
only local author, so far, who has attempted to name and describe any of our
forms. He endeavoured to give information regarding the excretory systems
whose study is of considerable importance in connection with classification.

In 1928 Ross (p. 6) referred to L. brazieri as the only snail in Australia
proved to be able to serve as the intermediate of the liver fluke. Seddon (1928,
25) mentioned the habits of this snail and its relation to fascioliasis, as also did
Edgar and Rose (1929, 374).

Ross and McKay (1929) published a very important paper on the bionomics
of Fasciola hepatica, and of its intermediary, L. brazieri, in New South Wales.
The length of time required for the egg to hatch at named temperatures was
ascertained, also the longevity of the miracidium and its relation to Limnaca and
Bulinus. The developmental stages in artificially infected Limnaea bragiert were
described. Attempts to infect B. bragieri, B, hainesii, Gabbia australis and
Segmentina australiensis, were unsuccessful (p. 17). In regard to L. lessont
they stated it was not found possible to keep specimens alive in the laboratory
sufficiently long to determine whether their attempts to infect that species were
successful. The cercaria and the cyst were also studied and the completion of
the life cycle brought about experimentally by feeding the cysts to rabbits and
guinea pigs, from which specimens of Fasciola hepatica were obtained later. The
habits of LLimnaea were described. Ross and McKay (p. 14) stated that they
found other trematode larvae in L. brazieri to be much more common than those
of Fasciola, and amongst them were Cercaria pellucida and C. greert, described

Wales.

In 1933 Bradley published some observations on Australian human trematode
endemiology based on local sheep fluke investigations, The etlvironment
necessary for L. brazieri and B. brazieri was referred to. He mentioned that
L. brazieri was the host for Fasciola and that B. brazgieri harboured Cercaria
catellae, C. greeri and C. pellucida. Since C. greert was a schistosome larva,
B. brasieri might prove to be a suitable agent for transmitting one form of human
bilharziasis. L. lessoni was stated to inhabit deep pools and running creeks and
to be attached especially to water weeds quite close to the surface.

The following is a list of Australian freshwater molluscs from which
trematode larvae have been reported. The name Bulinus (Bullinus) is here used
to include Jsidora.

LIMNAEIDAE—

Bulinus aliciae Reeve, var. turrita Tate; B. aliciae Reeve; B. gibbosus
Gould, var. fusiformis Nelson and Taylor; B. gibbosus Gould; B. tex-
turatus Sowerby; B. tenuistriatus Sowerby; B. newcombi Adams and
Angas; B. braszieri Smith; B. inflatus Adams and Angas (but recorded
later as B. texturatus); B. hainesiit Tryon; B. hainesiu var. pilosa
Ten. Woods; B. proteus Sowerby ; B. pectorosus Conrad (two varieties).
Limnaea brazieri Smith; L. lessoni Deshayes.

Amphipeplea melbournensis McCoy; A. papyracea Tate.

PLANORBIDAE—

Planorbis gilberti Dunker; Segmentina australis (?= australiensis
Smith) ; S. victoriae Smith.

198

ANCYLIDAE—
Ancylus tasmanicus Ten. Woods; A. australicus Tate,

BirityNIIDAE—
Gabbia australis.
Potamopyrgus sp.

UNIONIDAE—
Unio australis Lamarck.

Smith in his Freshwater Shells of Australia (Jour. Linn. Soc. Lond., 1881,
pp. 255-316) used the term Physa for Bulinus, and included Amphipeplea under
Limnaea, A, melbournensis being quoted as a synonym of L. lessoni, Cotton and
Godfrey (1934) placed Amphipeplea papyracea (1.¢., Limnaea papyracea) under
Myxas, and considered Ameria to be the valid generic name for B, tenwistriatus
(with B. texturatus as a synonym), B. pectorosus and B, aliciae. To Isodarella
are assigned B. newcombi and I. bragieri, the latter stated to be very closely
related to the former. Mr. Cotton has informed us recently that he considers
Limnaca brazieri to be a synonym of L. lessoni and that Smith’s figures of the
former was based on a juvenile specimen. L. lessoni has a very wide range in
eastern Australia.

In order that this survey of literature may include all references to larval
trematodes in Australia, a few additional papers relating to occurrences in marine
molluses or in vertebrates, may be mentioned.

Haswell (1902) described two larval trematodes which he regarded as
Echinostomum sp. (p. 497) and Bucephalus sp. (p. 511) from the New Zealand
marine mussel, Mytilus latus, The reference is mentioned here only because the
paper was published in an Australian periodical, The parasite regarded as an
Echinostomumt does not belong to the Echinostomatidae, but to the Azygiidae.
Odhner (1911, 529) assigned it to Tergestia in the latter family.

Nicoll (1914a, 349) described briefly a tetracotyle larva (T. tiliquae) from a
blue-tongued lizard, Tiliqua scincoides, in North Queensland, The parasites were
found encysted in the subperitoneal portion of the abdominal wall.

Bradley (1926, 577) gave a brief description and figures of a young trema-
tode under the name of Cercaria niyrocystica. His material was found in mixed
bowel contents from two “black snakes” in the Monaro district. He considered
that the parasites had emerged recently from cysts. He was in doubt regarding
the identification of the snakes, so it seems probable that they were not the
common black snake which he would know. We suggest that his specimens may
have been copperhead snakes (Denisonia superba) which frequent swampy areas
in south-eastern Australia. His flukes were obviously not cereariae, but young
distomes, the adult of which is Dolichopera macalpini described (but not named)
by Macalpine (1891) from the copperhead snake in Victoria, and more fully
described and named by Nicoll (1918), The location of the adult is the lung.
It is a fairly common parasite of the tiger snake, Notechis sculalus, from which
host, as well as the copperhead, we have specimens collected in New South Wales,
Victoria and South Australia, It occurs also in the venomous snakes on the
islands of Bass Strait. C. migrocystica is thus a synonym of Dolichopera
macal pint,

Roughley (1933, 325) mentioned that during the examination of several
thousand individuals of the common rock oyster of New South Wales, Ostrea
commercialis (more commonly known as O. cucullata, a name which should
apparently be reserved for the Indian species), he had found the gonad in five
cases infected with Bucephalus, the cercaria of Gasterostomum. Two of the
pysters were taken from the Hunter River, one from the Hawkesbury, and two

199

from Cape Hawke. He also stated that he had previously found the parasites
in the gonad of Ostrea angasi from the Pambula River.

Hickman (1934) described a remarkable metacercaria, Cottocaecum
anaspidis, which exhibits progenesis, eggs being developed while the organism
is still encysted in the tissues of its host (presumably the second intermediate host),
Anaspides tasmaniensis, in which it occurs commonly in the vicinity of Hobart.
Another freshwater crustacean, Gammarus sp., also serves as host.

Financial assistance granted by the Commonwealth Government to the Uni-
versity of Adelaide has allowed us to undertake research on the larval trematode
fauna of Australian molluscs, and an area of Tailem Bend, Murray River, South
Australia, has been selected as a suitable site for our work, Mr. G. Jaensch
affording us every assistance. To him, as well as to Mr. B. C. Cotton, Con-
chologist to the South Australian Museum, our sincere thanks are due. We hope
to be able to link up various stages in the life cycle of trematodes found in the
local molluscs, fish, frogs, reptiles and birds.

SUMMARY.

A survey is made of the literature recording the occurrence of trematode
larvae in Australia. Most of the references relate to larval stages of the liver
fluke, Fasciola hepatica. A list of recorded Australian freshwater molluscan
hosts is given.

Cercaria catellae Bradley is considered to be the larval stage of Echinostoma
revolutum, which is now recorded (on the basis of Bradley’s figures and account)
for the first time as a parasite of the mountain duck, Casarca tadornotdes.
Cercaria nigrocystica is considered to be a very young stage of the trematode,
Dolichepera macalpini.

REFERENCES.
Awonymous. 1896. The intermediate host of the liver fluke. Vict. Naturalist,
vol. xii, 1896, pp. 123-124.

Brapiey, B. 1925. Preliminary note on the occurrence of distome cercaria
in Limnaea brasieri. Med. Jour. Austr., 1925, vol. i, p. 690.

Braviey, B. 1926a. Observations on the water snails of Monaro and New
England, New South Wales, with especial reference to their cercaria
carrying capacity. Med. Jour. Austr., 1926, vol. i, pp. 147-159.

Brapiey, B. 1926b. The intermediate host of Fasciola hepatica. Med. Jour.
Austr., 1926, vol. i, pp. 396-397.

Braptey, B. 1926c. Note on the presence of Cercaria pigmentosa in Limnaea
bragieri bred in an aquarium in which sheep fluke eggs had been added.
Med. Jour. Austr., 1926, vol. i, pp. 519-520.

Brapiry, B. 1926d. Notes on larval trematodes from New South Wales.
Med. Jour. Austr., 1926, vol. ii, pp. 573-578.

Braptey, B. 1927. Notes on the probable life cycle of Cercaria catellae, an
echinostome cercaria from New South Wales. Med. Jour. Austr., 1927,
vol. i, pp. 673-676.

Braptey, B. 1933. Some observations on Australian human trematode

endemiology based on local sheep fluke investigations. Med. Jour. Austr.,
1933, vol. i, pp. 245-251.

Cawston, F. G. 1925. Fluke disease: a consideration of those freshwater
mollusca which serve as intermediate hosts for Fasciola hepatica and
Fasciola gigantica. Jour. Austr. Vet. Assoc., vol. i, 1925, pp. 64-66.

200

CHERRY, T. 1895. Note on a Victorian host of the larval stages of the liver
fluke, Distomum hepaticum. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. viii, 1895,
p. 183.

Cuerry, T. 1917a. Builharziosis and the danger of the disease becoming endemic
in Australia, Commonwealth Defence Dept., Melbourne, 1917. 30 pp.
(Cherry, pp. 1-20).

Cuerry, T. 1917b. Bilharzia disease. Advice and instructions to men of the
Australian Imperial Forces returning from Egypt. Commonwealth
Defence Dept., Melbourne, 1917. 4 pp. (appears also as an Appendix
in Cherry 1917a, pp. 17-20).

Cops, N. A. 1897. The sheep fluke. Agr. Gaz., N.S.W., vol. viii, pp. 453-481.

Cops, N. A. 1898. Notes on pests and crops. Agr. Gaz., N.S.W., vol. ix, 1898,
(The intermediate host of the sheep fluke, pp. 182-183.)

Coss, N. A. 1904. The sheep fluke. Agr. Gaz., N.S.W., vol. xv, 1904,
pp. 658-669,

Corron, B. C. any Goprrey, F. K, 1932. South Australian shells, pt. v. South
Austr. Naturalist, vol. xiii, 1932, pp. 127-176. Limnaeidae, pp. 156-
161; Planorbidae, pp. 162-163; Ancylidae, pp. 163-165.

Engar, G., anD Rosz, A. L. 1929. Black disease in sheep, etc. Agr. Gaz.,
N.S.W. vol. xl, 1929, pp. 365-376.

Fairvey, N. H., anp Baur, P.H. 1917. Observations on Egyptian Bilharziasis.
Commonwealth Defence Dept., Melbourne, 1917, 42 pp.

Frevper, W. 1896 (a). Intermediate hosts of fluke. First note. Vict. Natura-
list, vol. xii, 1895-1896 (1896), pp. 139-140.

Frecper, W. 1896 (b). Intermediate hosts of fluke. Second note, Vict. Natura-
list, vol. xii, 1896, pp. 146-147.

Frevper, W. 1896 (c). Intermediate hosts of fluke. Third note. Vict. Natura-
list, vol. xiii, 1896, pp. 24-28,

Haswei, W. A. 1902, On two remarkable sporocysts occurring in Mytilus latus
on the coast of New Zealand. P.L.S., N.S.W., vol. xxvii, 1902.
pp. 497-515.

Hickman, V. V. 1934. On Coitocaecum anaspidis, sp. nov., a trematode
exhibiting progenesis in the freshwater crustacean, Anaspides tasmaniac,
Thomson. Parasitology, vol. xxvi, 1934, pp, 121-128.

McAtrine, D. 1891, Remarks on a fluke parasite in the copperheaded snake.
Proc. Roy. Soc, Vict., vol. iii, 1891, pp. 40-43.

McKay, A. C. 1926a. A note on the intermediate host or hosts of Fasciola
hepatica in New South Wales. Med. Jour. Austr., 1926, vol. i, p. 300.

McKay, A. C. 1926b. An intermediate host of Fasciola hepatica in New
South Wales. Jour, Austr. Vet. Assoc., vol, ii, 1926, pp. 9-14.

McKay, A. C. 1926c. The intermediate host of Fasciola hepatica, Med. Jour.
Austr., 1926, vol. i, pp. 505-506,

McKay, A. C. 1928. An experimental determination of the intermediate host
or hosts in relation to the incidence of the parasite, Fasciola hepatica,
in sheep in New South Wales. Rep. Austr., Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol, xviii,
1926 (1928), pp. 794-805,

Netson, W. H. 1912. Notes on three cases of Bilharzia haématobia. Austra-
lasian Med. Gaz., vol. xxxii, 1912, pp. 482-483.

201

Nicott, W. 1914 (a). The trematode parasites of North Queensland, [.
Parasitology, vol. vi, 1914, pp. 333-350.

Nicott, W. 1914 (b). The trematode parasites of North Queensland, II.
Parasites of birds. Parasitology, vol. vii, 1914, pp. 105-126.

NicotL, W. 1918. Dolichopera macalpini, n. sp., a trematode parasite of Aus-
tralian poisonous snakes, Parasitology, vol. x, 1918, pp. 290-293.

Opuner, T. 1911. Zum natiirlichen System der digenen Trematoden, IV.
Zool, Anz., vol. xxxvili, 1911, pp. 513-531.

Ross, I. C. 1926. Larval trematodes in New South Wales. A letter to
Editor. Med. Jour. Austr., 1926, vol. ii, pp. 783-784.

Ross, 1. C. 1928. Liver fluke disease in Australia: its treatment and preven-
tion. Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Melbourne,
Pamphlet 5, 1928, 23 pp.

Ross, I. C., anp McKay, A. C. 1929. The bionomics of Fasciola hepatica in
New South Wales and of the intermediate host, Limnaea bragieri Smith.
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Melbourne, Bull. 43,

1929, 62 pp.

Roucutry, T. C. 1933. The life history of the Australian oyster, Ostrea
commercialis. P.L.S., N.S.W., vol. Iviil, 1933, pp. 279-333.

Srppon, H. R. 1928. The control of liver fluke in sheep. Agr. Gaz., N.S.W.,
vol. xxxix, 1928, pp. 25-40.

Wurtetecce, T. 1889. List of the marine and freshwater invertebrate fauna
of Port Jackson and the neighbourhood, J. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., vol. xxiii,
1889, pp. 163-323,

LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN TERRESTRIAL
AND FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS.
PART II. CERCARIA (FURCOCERCARIA) JAENSCHI, N. SP.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC., AND E. R. CLELAND, M.SC.

Summary

One specimen of the pond snail, Ameria pyramidata, collected at Tailem Bend, River Murray,
South Australia, on June 24, 1937, gave off in an aquarium numbers of ocellate forked-tailed
cercariae which remained on or near the surface of the water. They were positively phototropic,
crowding to that side of the glass dish nearest the light, and did not remain free swimming for long,
but soon attached themselves to floating weed or to the side of the receptacle, where they remained
motionless for the most part and were difficult to detach. Movement through the water might be
with either head or tail foremost, and the appearance when in motion is indicated in fig.
A. Decaudation took place readily.

202

LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN TERRESTRIAL AND
FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS.

PART II. CERCARIA (FURCOCERCARIA) JAENSCHI, N. Sp.

By T, Harvey Jounston, M.A., D.Sc., and E. R. CLELAND, M.Sc.,
University of Adelaide.

[Read October 14, 1937.]

One specimen of the pond snail, Ameria pyramidata, collected at Tailem
Bend, River Murray, South Australia, on June 24, 1937, gave off in an aquarium
numbers of ocellate forked-tailed cercariae which remained on or near the surface
of the water. They were positively phototropic, crowding to that side of the glass
dish nearest the light, and did not remain free swimming for long, but soon
attached themselves to floating weed or to the side of the receptacle, where they
remained motionless for the most part and were difficult to detach. Movement
through the water might be with either head or tail foremost, and the appearance
when in motion is indicated in fig. A. Decaudation took place readily.

Measurements of formalinised specimens were:—length of body, 1464;
breadth, 77 »; length of tail stem, 416; breadth, 384; length of furcae, 116 ,.

The tail stem was almost three times as long as the body. Its two short fureal
rami were separated from the stem by a definite constriction and each was flattened
dorso-ventrally, while around the margin there was a delicate fin-membrane sup-
ported by fin rays (fig. 1). The body and tail were covered with fine spines and
there was a definite ring of them around the acetabulum, those on the anterior
organ being slightly larger than the remainder.

The large, well-defined anterior organ (figs. 2, 3) was 50 long and 35
broad in a body of length 200%, and the extreme anterior end may be retracted
into a shallow pit. A mouth opening was not seen, unless it was represented by
a very minute depression at the tip bounded by a few rather large cells (fig. 6).
In transverse sections of the anterior organ no definite oesophagus could be dis-
tinguished, but in living and stained material a median cord of cells, perhaps the
remnant of the digestive system, leading from the anterior end continued for a
short distance behind the antertor organ into the body where it faded out. These
cells possessed rather small, deeply-staining, nuclei, and in the posterior part of
the organ a group of large pyriform cells, which were probably glandular, were
contained within a distinct globular structure at the hind end of the anterior
organ (figs. 4,2). A distinct head gland was not recognised, unless represented
by these cells. No trace of a definite pharynx or intestine could be seen.

A well-developed muscle layer surrounded the anterior organ laterally and
posteriorly (ig. 4) and was especially marked in the swollen region where the
gland ducts entered the anterior organ on either side of, and slightly ventral to,
its central globular portion. The ducts expanded considerably, curved upwards,
then downwards, narrowed and proceeded forwards, to open just helow and on
each side of the extreme anterior end (figs. 2, 3). Several minute papillae were
associated with these openings and were seen best in living specimens.

The gland cells were of two kinds. An anterior coarsely granular group of
two pairs ” situated just in front of the ventral sucker and smaller than those of
the second group, were chromophohbic (Miller, 1926, 34). They were arranged
in a dorso-ventral and a lateral pair. The posterior, more finely granular group
consisted of three pairs of very large cells staining deeply with Best’s carmine.

203

18

16

—_1 30

rene 7

204

They were situated behind and above the ventral sucker and there were an anterior
dorsal, a posterior dorsal, and a ventral pair. The glands were lobed, and ducts
leading from them pursued a characteristic course. Commencing dorsally above,
and on each side of the upper anterior gland (figs. 8, 15), they proceeded down-
wards and inwards at the level of the eyes, then upwards, then slightly down-
wards and outwards at the level of the brain, while from that point onwards they
travelled in a somewhat wavy course (figs. 2, 3) to enter the anterior organ,
becoming constricted while passing through the muscle layer of the latter.

The very protrusible ventral sucker, 354 broad and 28 » long, lay in the
posterior part of the second third of the body, and had a ring of fine spines.

The nervous system consisted of an H-shaped mass immediately in front of,
and below, the eyes. The latter consisted each of an aggregate of dark granules,
cup-shaped, surrounding a small spherical lens in the anterior part (fig. 16).

The reproductive elements consisted of a triangular mass of cells lying
ventrally behind the ventral gland cells, and covered by the posterior gland cells
(figs. 2, 3, 10, 16).

The excretory bladder was small, rectangular, and often difficult to sec.
From its anterior end arose two coiled main excretory ducts passing upwards
and outwards to the level of the posterior border of the acetabulum, where cach
divided into an anterior and a posterior collecting tube. The anterior gave rise
to three short accessory tubules, each ending in a flame cell, one just in front of
the level of the eyes, the second just behind the cyes, and the third near the level
of the anterior margin of the acetabulum. The posterior collecting tube passed
backwards until about midway between the acctabulum and the posterior end of
the body, where it gave rise to three accessory tubules, each ending in a flame cell.
One of these passed forwards towards the acetabulum, the second posteriorly

205

until it ended just in front of the bladder, while the third terminated in a large
flame cell in the base of the tail (figs. 17, 18). On a level with the acetabulum
two large ciliated areas of the tubules were seen. We were unable to determine
with the limited amount of living material available whether these were the
dilated terminal parts of the anterior and posterior collecting tubules, or the
coiled end portion of the main collecting duct which has two ciliated areas. Cort
(1917) and Helen Price (1931), in their descriptions of C. douthittt took the
latter view.

An island of Cort was present, and the main excretory duct bifurcated near
the end of the tail stem to enter the furcae at whose extremities it opened.

The cercariae developed in elongate sporocysts, which were present in a
tangled mass in the liver and extremely difficult to unravel. A fragment measured
was 3:6 mm. long, with a maximum width of 327 » (fig. 19).

Each sporocyst consisted of alternating narrow and expanding parts, the
latter filled with germ balls and developing embryos. No very young sporocyst
was seen. In the younger stages the cuticula, muscle layers, and inner epithelial
cells were typical (fig. 21), but in older sporocysts these layers became thinner
and were represented by little more than an enveloping cuticula and occasional
flattened epithelial cells. At both ends of the sporocyst the epithelial cells were
several layers deep, and were sometimes reinforced by loose cellular tissue.

All sections of cercariae, indicated in the accompanying figures, are from
specimens contained in sporocysts.

Cercaria jaenschi belongs to the brevifurcate apharyngeate distome cercariae
of Miller (1926, 65), and to group D of this classification (based upon the number
of flame cells). C. yaenschi agrees with C. douthitti in having an excretory
formula of 2 X 5 (+ 1), thus separating this group from the human schistosomes
on the one side, and C. ocellata (with one more flame cell) on the other. These
groups all belong to the family Schistosomatidae. The adult of C. douthitti is
Schistosomatium douthitt (Cort) Price, 1931, to which genus C. jaenschi pro-
bably belongs.

From C. douthitti (Cort, 1915; 1917), C. jaenschi differs in the character of
the anterior organ and absence of digestive system, as well as in other minor
details. The penetration gland cells are the same in number and character as,
but differ in arrangement and relative size from, those of C. douthittt and the
allied forms, C. elzvae (Miller, 1926, 33) and C. ocellata (Wesenberg-Lund,
1934, 105). The unicellular glands staining with gentian violet in living cer-
cariae, and the single pair of anterior glands found only in cereariae in the
sporocyst or but recently emerged (Price, 1931, 714), have not been recognised
in preserved material. They may be represented by large granular cells lying
just ventral to and in front of the anterior penetration glands (fig. 13, r).
Unfortunately, the snail host remained alive in the aquarium for a few days only
and additional fresh material for these studies was not available.

Outbreaks of dermatitis in bathers caused by penctration into the skin of
cercariae of human schistosomes in Japan, and of non-human schistosomes in
Europe (Wesenberg-Lund, 1934, 136) and the United States (Cort, 1928, a, b)
have been reported. In Europe C. ocellata causes such effects, and in America
C. elvae and C. douthitti (Cort, 1928, b). As C. gaenschi is closely allied to the
latter it will be interesting to discover whether dermatitis of this type occurs in
South Australia.

Two furcocercariae have been reported from Australia: one by Cherry

1917, 4,11) from Bulinus ?tenuistriatus near Melbourne, and Cercarta greert by
Bradley (1926) from B. brasieri in the Monaro district of New South Wales.
The latter was also found by Ross and McKay (1929, 14) in Limnaea brazieri

206

in the latter State. From both of these species C. jaenschi differs in the relative
proportions and characters of the body, tail stem and furcal rami.

The only adult schistosome known from Australia, apart from the two
species, Schistosoma haematobium and mansoni (with which Australian soldiers
became infected in Egypt), is Austrobilharzia terrigalensis S, Johnston (1916)
from the gull, Larus novaehollandiae, {rom New South Wales.

The specific name of ? Schistosomatium jaenschi is given in recognition of
the very generous assistance afforded us in our investigation by Mr. G. Jaensch,
of Tailem Bend.

REFERENCES.

BraoLey, B. 1926. Notes on larval trematodes from New South Wales. Med.
Jour. Austr., 1926, vol. ii, pp. 573-578.

Cuerry, T, 1917. Bilharziosis and the danger of the disease becoming endemic
in Australia. Commonwealth Defence Dept., Melbourne, 1917.

Cort, W. W. 1915. Some North American larval trematodes. Illinois Biol.
Monogr. 1, (4), 1915, 86 pp.

Cort, W. W. 1917. Homologies of the excretory system of the forked-tailed
cercariae. Jour. Parasit., vol. iv, 1917, pp. 49-57.

Cort, W. W. 1928a. Schistosome dermatitis in the United States (Michigan).
Jour. Amer. Med. Ass., 1928, vol. xc, pp. 1,027-1,029.

Cort, W. W. 1928b. Further observations on schistosome dermatitis in the
United States (Michigan). Science, vol. lxviii, p. 388.

Jounston, S.J. 1916. On the trematodes of Australian birds. Jour. Proc. Roy.
Soc. N.S.W., vol. 1, 1916 (1917), pp. 187-261.

Miuver, II. M. 1926. Comparative studies on furcocercous cercariae. Illinois
Biol. Monogr. 10, (3), 1926, 112 pp.

Price, H. F. 1931. Life history of Schistosomatium douthitti (Cort). Amer.
Jour. Hyg., vol. xiti, (3), 1931, pp. 685-727,

Ross, I. C., anp McKay, A. C., 1929. The bionomics of Fasciola hepatica in
New South Wales, ete., C.S.I.R., Melbourne, Bull. 43, 1929, 62 pp.

WESENBERG-LuNn, C. 1934. Contributions to the development of the Trematoda
Digenea. Pt. tt. D. Kgl. Dansk Vidensk. Selsk. Skrifter, Naturv.
Og, Math. Afd., 9. Raekke v. 3, 1934, 1-223 (pp. 104-109, 135,140).

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.

All drawings were made with the aid of the camera-lucida, except fig. A and the
details of figs. 17, 18. The ducts of the antcrior penetration glands did not stain and
could not be seen in preserved material, and so have not been drawn. Figs. drawn to
scales indicated.

ag, anterior gland; ao, anterior organ; b, brain; c, central globular portion of anterior
organ; ce, cercaria; d, ducts of posterior gland cells; e, eyespot; ec, epithelial cell;
g, gonad, gc, germ cell; mgc, mature germ cell; ps, pear-shaped cell; pg, I, II, III, first
second and third pairs of posterior gland cells; r, granular cells below anterior glands;
8, ventral sucker.

Figs. 1-21, Cercaria jaenschi: 1, body not extended; 2, anatomy; 3, anatomy,
lateral view; 4, oblique section through anterior organ: 5. ‘I'r. Sect. extreme anterior tip;
6, Tr. Sect. posterior portion of anterior organ; 7, Tr. Sect. through region of eyes and
brain; 8, Tr. Sect. showing anterior glands and ducts of posterior glands; 9, Tr. Sect.
through region of acetabulum; 10, Tr. Sect. region showing genital anlage. A, appearance
when in motion, 11-15, successive longitudinal horizontal sections; 16, longitudinal vertical
section; 17-18, excretory system; 19, sporocyst; 20, portion of sporocyst more highly magnified ;
21, Tr. Sect, sporocyst with cercaria.

THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF THE SO-CALLED DIORITE INCLUSIONS
IN THE GRANITE OF GRANITE ISLAND.

BY A. W. KLEENMAN, M.Sc.

Summary

The granite at Victor Harbour was first described in detail by W. R. Browne (1919). In that paper
Browne gave petrographic descriptions of the main types and variants of the granite and of its
associated differentiates. Rocks of similar composition and appearance occur at Cape Willoughby
on Kangaroo Island and have been described by Tilley (1919, 1920). As Tilley points out, there is
little doubt that the two granites are not only related but part of the same bathylith.

207

THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF THE SO-CALLED DIORITE INCLUSIONS
IN THE GRANITE OF GRANITE ISLAND.

By A. W. Kveeman, M.Sc.
[Read October 14, 1937.]

INTRODUCTION,

The granite at Victor Harbour was first described in detail by W. R. Browne
(1919). In that paper Browne gave petrographic descriptions of the main types
and variants of the granite and of its associated differentiates. Rocks of similar
composition and appearance occur at Cape Willoughby on Kangaroo Island and
have been described by Tilley (1919, 1920). As Tilley points out, there is little
doubt that the two granites are not only related but part of the same bathylith.

At Victor Harbour the main outcrops of the granite are to be found on
Granite and West Islands and at Port Elliot (see map, Browne, 1919), At
Rosetta Head the granite is present to only small extent on the seaward face of
the Bluff. The top of the hill and the landward slope are composed of altered
sedimentary rocks and exhibit many interesting contact features. At Port
Elliot the contact cannot be observed, but there is reason to believe that the sedi-
mentary rocks are less than half-a-mile inland. Most of the foreshore between
Port Elliot and the Bluff is obscured by Permo-Carboniferous till (see Howchin,
1929, p. 126).

The granite is met with in several islands off the coast. Seal Island lies
some distance off the coast and is rather difficult of access. Wright Island was
visited by the writer in 1935, The granite there is similar to that typical of
Granite Island and needs no further description. West Island has extensive
quarries, from which the granite for the extension to Parliament House is being
obtained (1937). This island and Granite Island apparently occupied the same
relative position in the bathylith and both display the same characteristics. At
Port Elliot Browne recognised three types, the Porphyritic Granite, the Even-
grained Granite, and the Red Aplite. At Granite Island he described the
Porphyritic Granite and two parallel dykes of Quartz-Mica Diorite. In the present
paper the writer proposes to describe more fully the Quartz-Mica Diorite and its
relations to the granite.

The granite has been described by and analysed by Browne and his paper
should be consulted for fullest details. The rock is a granite in which the
plagioclase and orthoclase are present in about equal proportions. The other
essential minerals are quartz, biotite and the accessories zircon, apatite and
ilmenite. The rock is notably porphyritic, and Browne has called it the Por-
phyritic Granite to distinguish it from the Even-grained Granite of Port Elliot.
The phenocrysts are of both felspars and to a lesser extent of quartz. Many of
the plagioclase phenocrysts are zoned in an irregular fashion. That some of the
outer zones are less sodic than those they enclose is evidence of varying conditions
in the crystallising magma best explained on the theory of a contamination of the
granite by the ingested country rock.

In his paper Browne has described outcrops of a dark blue rock of variable
texture and extending in a narrow belt across the island. ‘his rock he called
the Quartz Mica Diorite, and described six varieties, which, on examination, fall
into three main types. In the first two types the rock is practically aphanitic, the
only difference between the two types being the presence or absence of horn-

208

blende. The third type Browne called an Adamellite Porphyry, and he suggests
that the larger crystals are “derived in some manner from the magma of the
porphyritic granite.”

Stripping of the soil cover has shown that many of the outcropping blocks
of diorite or of the adamellite porphyry are entirely surrounded by granite. One
of the two main localities for collection is a small quarry on the north side of the
island; for many years a tramshed stood near this spot and it has become known
as the Tramshed locality, although the tramshed has been replaced by a smaller
structure, The other locality is near a rather notable wave-cut pot-hole known
locally as Nature’s Eye. The top of the island, above the reach of storm waves,
is covered by soil and outcrops are few.

It is the writer’s opinion that the Quartz-Mica Diorite and its hornblende
bearing equivalent are sedimentary rocks that have been “stewed” in aqueous
liquor from the granite, and that the adamellite porphyry is a later phase of the

Same process.
PETROGRAPHY.

In the descriptions given below the colours of the minerals have been
defined according to Ridgway’s Colour Standards (Ridgway, 1912). The writer
has used the normal colour naming for describing colour, but has added the index
letters of Ridgway’s system in order to more nearly define the colours, many of
which are difficult to describe in the combinations of the seven spectrum colours.
The igneous rocks have been named and classified according to Johannsen’s
system (Johannsen, 1935). The numbers under which the rocks are described
refer to the Rock Catalogue of the Geological Museum of the University of
Adelaide, where the rocks are housed.

Toe Hornrets INCLUSIONS.

There are a few inclusions that have not been notably affected by metasomatic
processes, although they have been metamorphosed.

3470 is a specimen taken from the centre of a large block high up in the
face of the Breakwater Quarry on Granite Island, Coming, as it does, from the
heart of a huge included block, it is almost certainly unaltered by the metasomatic
processes attendant on the intrusion. It was thus considered worthy of analysis
as representing one of the types in the country before the intrusion. Later
detailed examination showed that it contained slightly less biotite than some of
the other similar inclusions.

It is a dark grey rock in which quartz and biotite can be seen with a pocket
lens. ‘The biotite is unorientated but there arc occasional flaggy partings along
which the mica is parallel to the bedding. The micro-structure is granoblastic and
the average grain-size is about 0°15 mm. The quartz contains some small included
grains of biotite, The felspar is untwinned, and except where cleavage can be
observed is identical in appearance with the quartz. A few crystals are twinned
on the Albite Law and show the composition to be Ab,,An,,. It is impossible
to determine the presence of potash felspar, but the mineral composition calculated
from the analysis gives 5°6% orthoclase. The biotite is dark and has X = very
light yellow (25” g), Y = Z = dark brown (18’n). It is in short, stumpy flakes
with ratio of elongation 2to 1, It is negative and appears to be uniaxial. There
is some muscovite associated with the biotite, and where intergrown the muscovite
is always idioblastic against the biotite. The accessories are the original detrital
minerals of the rock, of which the most common is apatite. There are two large
crystals of tourmaline, pleochroic from dull greyish-grecn to bluish-green.

The rock, although of simple composition, is not quite so simple in structure,
The quartz contains many inclusions of very small grains of biotite and plagioclase.

209

The plagioclase has a slight dustiness, probably due to incipient metamorphism.
The structure and mineralogical composition are those of a quartz-biotite hornfels.

The analysis is given in Table I. From it the mineralogical composition in
weight percentages was calculated :—
Quartz - 40°3% Biotite - 16°6%
Orthoclase - 5°6% Apatite - 04%
Plagioclase - 37°1%
The calculated plagioclase, Ab,;,An,,, agrees well with that in the rock,
Ab,,Any,.
The Rosiwal mode in volume percentages is:
Quartz - 45:1% Biotite - 15-4%
Felspar - 39°3% Apatite - 02%
1921, another hornfels inclusion from the breakwater quarry, is richer in
biotite than the previous specimen. In all other respects it closely resembles 3470.
1924 is again richer in biotite than 1921 and is much finer in grain. It is
notable in containing several large grains of tourmaline, obviously of metasomatic
origin,

THe “HornaieNpve Diorire.”

This rock is Browne’s “Diorite Type 3.” It is more common than the type not
containing hornblende and is found in all localities from which the diorite has
been obtained. Nos. 3492, 3494, 3495 came from Nature’s Eye; 3480, 3476, 1912
from the ‘[ramshed locality; and 3489 from midway between the two localities.

3492 was chosen as being typical of the group and because it most nearly
represents the mean of the mineralogical and chemical composition.

In appearance it is a dense black aphanitic rock with occasional rounded
phenocrysts. These megascopic phenocrysts are of blue opalescent quartz, plagio-
clase and microcline. Quartz is the most abundant, and the felspars each about
half as abundant as the quartz.

The microscope reveals a rock of fine but uneven grain-size. The average
apparent grain-size is about 0°20 mm., but the hornblende and occasional quartz
and felspar crystals range up to 0°5 to 0°6 mm. in length. The section did not
cut any of the megascopic phenocrysts which atiain a length of some 8mm. The
structure is neither the allotriomorphic structure of a typical igneous rock nor
the granoblastic structure proper to a metamorphosed rock of that composition.
It more nearly approaches the granoblastic structure in appearance but differs in
that the leucocratic minerals often enclose each other poecilitically and in that
the order of crystalloblastic strength for metamorphic minerals (Harker, p. 38)
does not hold.

The quartz is clear and free from cracks and strains. It contains very few
inclusions of dust and liquid, but there are some large inclusions of zircon and
apatite. The larger phenocrysts are optically continuous and have not re-
crystallised into a mosaic of smaller grains as one would if they had been allotho-
gcnic. The plagioclase is untwinned and is only distinguished by its elongated
habit and its refractive index, which is above that of quartz. ‘The crystals that
are twinned on the albite law have a composition of Ab,,An,,. A few larger
crystals are zoned, but the range in composition is but slight. Potash felspar is
fairly abundant, but owing to the absence of twinning it is impossible to judge
its amount. It is clear but has a very slight pinkish tinge which, with its low
refractive index, distinguishes ii from quartz.

Biotite is the more common of the two ferromagnesian minerals and is more
evenly distributed than the hornblende. It is a green variety in which X = light

210

greenish-yellow (24 f), Y= Z= dark brownish-green (23” in). It is biaxial
negative with a low optic axial angle, It contains as inclusions small crystals of
sphene and much less commonly crystals of zircon. The flakes are rather
irregular and are not much elongated.

The hornblende is in irregular individuals without crystal form and is often
intergrown with the biotite. It is pleochroic from X =light greenish-yellow
(29” e), Y = dark green (32” n). Z = greenish-blue (43'” k), X<Y¥<Z. The
extinction angle Z/\c = 22°. The mineral is a true hornblende with a considerable
proportion of sodic and ferric molecules.

Sphene is present in greater amount than a true accessory. It is in irregular
crystals of which few show their true shape. It is darker and redder than typical
sphene and is notably pleochroic,

The accessories are magnetite, pyrites, zircon and apatite. The magnetite is
in small crystals scattered through the rock. Pyrites is not so well dessimated
but is in crystals visible to the naked eye. The zircon is in small subidiomorphic
crystals, water clear, and with a high refractive index. Apatite is quite common
as clear crystals of moderate relief.

‘The analysis and norm are quoted in Tables I and II, respectively,

The other specimens of the class are but variants of this main type and do
not warrant detailed description.

3489 shows in hand specimen a large crystal of microcline 20x 20x10 mm.
Microcline is moderately abundant, making up 4 of the felspar. There are
several large grains of sphene with magnetite or ilmenite cores.

3488 is of a somewhat coarser grain-size (0°35 mm.) than the type: It con-
tains also poecilitic crystals of quartz and microcline which are crowded with
plagioclase crystals of normal size. This structure is not obvious except when
crossed nicols show the optical continuity of the host. In other respects the
structure is normal. Hornblende is less common and microcline more common
than in 3492. There are several large zoned phenocrysts. ‘he differences in
composition of the various zones is not great and the average composition is about
Ab,,An,,. The inner zones contain a great number of minute inclusions, so
plentiful as to produce a cloudiness. [ven at 420 diameters these inclusions
appear as irresolvable specks,

3476 contains larger flakes of biotite with a great number of granular sphene
inclus‘ons. There are also a considerable number of sphene grains, many with
magnetite cores.

3480 is similar to 3492 but contains rather more microcline than normal.

1919, although obtained only a few fect from 3480, veers to the other extreme
and contains more plagioclase.

3495 and 3484 are alike in containing less hornblende than 3492. There is
a corresponding increase in the amotnt of biotite, so that the amount of [ferro-
magnesian is about constant,

3494 is a specimen which gives a clue to the relation between the “Diorite”
and the “Adamellite Porphyry.” It has the appearance of the typical “diorite”
but has running across it a vein about an inch wide, in which the rock more nearly
resermbles the “adamellite porphyry.” This narrow vein can be traced for some
fect but, owing to debris cover, cannot he traced down into the granite surrounding
the block of diorite. There is little doubt that it is formed by the passage of acid
felspathic liquids through a weak plane in the rock.

When viewed under the microscope a striking fact is established. The
groundmass of the vein is diorite, and the apparent coarseness is due entirely to
a great incrcasc in the number of phenocrysts of quartz and felspar. The vein
has no definite walls but passes into the diorite by a sudden though graduated
decrease in the number of phenocrysts. There is little doubt that the material

211

of the phenocrysts was introduced along a channel and that the solutions have
penetrated to a distance of about a centimetre on each side. The work of the
solution, however, was not confined to those narrow limits. It is a significant
fact that the vein itself contains no hornblende and that near the vein the ratio
of hornblende to biotite falls from the 2 to 1 ratio of the normal diorite to 1 to 4
near the vein. It is more than probable that the entering solution reacted with the

hornblende to form biotite.

Tue “Quartz-Mica DioritE.”

This is Browne’s “Type No. 1” and was considered by him to be the pre-
dominant variety. In hand specimen it is impossible to distinguish this from the
hornblende-bearing variety.

3486 was chosen as the average of the class and closely approximate to ©
Browne’s type No. 1. Browne quotes an analysis made by ‘Tilley, and this analysis,
for all practical considerations, can be taken as an analysis of 3486.

The phenocrysts are few in number, rarely more than one to every four
inches of face. They comprise quartz and plagioclase in about equal proportions
and a few microcline crystals.

The rock is seen in thin section to be very fine-grained, the average apparent
grain-size being about 0°25 mm. The quartz is mostly interstitial around and
between the felspar. The plagioclase is hypidiomorphic and elongated parallel
to the “c” axis. Some of the larger crystals are round and equidimensional ; these
are transgressing the general structure of the rock and represent the early stage in
the formation of phenocrysts, The composition of the plagioclase is the same as
in the hornblendic rock. There is a small amount of microcline present more than
in Browne’s specimen, but less than 10% of the total rock. Both felspars are
for the most part untwinned. The microcline has the slight pinkish colour seen
in other specimens when the illumination is cut down by means of the substage
diaphragm.

The biotite is greenish and pleochroic from X = light greenish-yellow (24 f)
to Y= Z=—dark greenish-brown (21%n). It is in hypidiomorphic crystals in
which the width across the cleavage is about equal to the length.

Of the accessories sphene is the most abundant. It is in small granules, often
enclosing crystals of magnetite. It is scattered throughout the rock but is most
often included in the biotite. Pyrites is rare but can be seen in hand specimen.

The analysis and the norm are quoted in Tables I and I, respectively.

3493 is a specimen of this type from near Nature’s Kye. It is essentially
similar to 3486 and needs no further description, It is of interest only when
considered in conjunction with 3492. The specimen from the centre of the block
of diorite, 3492, contains hornblende, whereas 3493 from the edge of the block
contains only biotite. ;

3487 is again similar to 3486 but with the important difference that in the
microscope slide there is a large rounded crystal of garnet. The garnet is
probably almandine, but neither its appearance or its mode of occurrence give
any clue to its genesis or composition. However, it seems likely that it was formed
in the metamorphic aureole of the granite prior to the onset of metasomatic
conditions. It can be taken as a reliable indication that the rock is largely, if not
solely, of sedimentary origin.

3481 differs in that it contains allanite. This mineral is of irregular distribu-
tion and occurs in aggregates that can be seen in hand specimen as light brown
patches resembling limonite. The unaltered mineral as seen in thin section is
pleochroic from light brown to sepia and has a double refraction of 0°025. ‘The
allanite is appreciably radioactive, as evidenced by the notable pleochroic “halos”

212

in the biotite with which it comes in contact. Some flakes of biotite which are
completely enclosed by allanite are pleochroic [rom light yellow to dark brown
instead of the greenish-brown in other parts of the rock. At the immediate
contact of the two minerals the biotite is quite opaque in the darkest position.
The allanite is in places altered to a yellow isotropic mass, lighter in colour and of
lower relractive index than the normal! allanite. In all other respects the rock is
quite normal.
THE “ADAMELLITE PoRPHYRY.”

Intermediate in character between the “diorite” and the granite comes the
rock which Browne has described as an Adamellite Porphyry. he type is a grey
rock consisting of a fine holocrystalline groundmass of average grain-size about
0-4 to 0-5 mm. and of numerous phenocrysts of plagioclase, microcline and quartz.
‘he phenocrysts of quartz and plagioclase are normally about 5 to 10 mm., but
the microcline may range up to 3 to 4 cm.

Although the various speciinens of the rock are similar in appearance there
are considerable variations in mineral composition. In some types microcline
phenocrysts are subordinate or absent, whereas in others they are abundant to the
point of excluding all others, The biotite crystals are in most instances larger
than in the diorite, and this helps in giving a coarser appearance to the rock.

Taste I,
Rock Analyses.

No. I, IL. Ii. IV. Vv. VI. VIL.
SiO, - - - 68:20 69°56 69:06 67:10 68:60 63-55 72-90
TiO, = - - 0-58 0-79 0-70 0°89 0-59 0-86 0:56
Al,O, - - - 15°99 13:98 14:28 14:32 14°30 16°55 13-74
Fe,O, - - O89 0-60 0-71 1-51 0-79 0:97 0-04
FeO - - - 2°58 3°75 3°23 2°84 4-70 4-67 3°29
MnO - - - 0-04 0-05 0°05 0-06 n.d. 0-09 n.d.
MgO - 2 - 0-80 1:76 1-46 1-50 1-24 3°12 1:85
CaO - - - 2°61 1°92 2-11 3:26 2°88 3-11 2:12
Na,O- - - ~ 2°85 2°65 2°69 3-05 3°40 3°33 3°02
K,O - 7 - 460 4-27 4-59 4°23 2°28 3°24 1:99
H,O+ - ss - 0°64 0:66 0:46 0-56 0-87 0-50 0-46
H,Q- - = - 0-21 0-10 0-11 0-04 0:24 0-10 0-11
P,O, - - - 0-14 0:07 0-13 O-17 tr. 0-19 0-15
ZrO, - - - p.nd. O-10 0-17 0-12 — tr. n.d.
BaO 4 - - 0-04 0:08 0:12 0-07 — 0-05 nd.
S - - ¥ - O11 O-15 0-14 0-25 fs 0-19 n.d.
Cr,O0., - - - nd. abs. tr. abs. — abs. —

100-28 100-49 100-01 100-07 99-89 100-52 100°23
Less O for S - e — 0-07 0:06 0-10 — 0-08 a.

100-28 100-42 99°95. 99-97 99-89 100-44 100:23

I. Porphyritic Granite, Granite Island. Anal. W. R. Browne.
II. “Adamellite Porphyry,” from Inclusion on Breakwater. Anal. A. W. Kleeman.
Tit. “Adamellite Porphyry,” from 90 yds. east of Tramshed. Anal. A. W. Kieeman.
IV. Quartz-Mica-Hornblende Diorite, Nature’s Eye. Anal. A. W. Kleeman.
V. Quartz-Mica Diorite, ‘'ramshed locality. Anal. C. E. Tilley.
VI. Hornfels Phase from Inclusion on Breakwater. Anal. A. W. Kleeman.
VII. Sedimentary Inclusion, Breakwater Quarry. Anal. A. W. Kleeman.

C) FeSs, not S,

213

3477 was chosen from the many varying specimens because it appeared to
represent the general average. It was obtained from a band of rock 90 yards east
of the Tramshed. Browne observed that the rock here is “rather more coarsely
crystalline and richer in large felspar and quartz crystals (than the diorite),”
and it is this outcrop that supplied the specimens, on which he based his types
5 and 6 of the diorite.

In hand specimen it is seen to be a dark grey, rather fine-grained rock in
which the average graiti-size is increased by the presence of many phenocrysts of
felspar and quartz. Plagioclase and quartz phenocrysts are in approximately
equal amount and together make up about 20% of the rock. The plagioclase
crystals are about 20 to 30 mm. in length and the quartz somewhat smaller. The
microcline in this rock is almost all confined to the groundmass. Biotite appears
both in small flakes less than a millimetre in length and in larger crystals 2 to
3 mm. long. The real groundmass of the rock is as fine as that of the diorite,
about 0-25 mm., and the coarse appearance in the hand specimen is entirely duc
to the phenocrysts. In addition to the large macroscopic crystals there is a
smaller generation in which the size is slightly above a millimetre. In this group
is about 10% each of the quartz, felspar and the biotite.

The quartz is clear and unstressed. It contains very few inclusions even of
the gas-liquid type but occasionally encloses round, clear grains of microcline.
The plagioclase of the groundmass has a composition Ab,;An,,. The larger
phenocrysts are zoned; the innermost zone is more calcic than Ab,,An,., the outer-
most more sodic than Ab,,An,,, the average is more sodic than Abg,. The
microcline in this specimen is twinned more conspicuously than in other rocks of
the type. There are a few phenocrysts of microcline but most of the crystals.
are interstitial to the other minerals. One large crystal contains an inner zone in
which the microcline, though slightly clouded by alteration, is free from inclusions
and an outer zone which is poeciloblastic and contains large crystals of quartz and

TasLe I],
Norms of Rocks.

No. I. Il. III. IV. V. VI. VII.
Quartz - - 26°28 28:98 27°30 24:18 28-86 18°36 38:76
Orthoclase - 27°24 =25°58 = 27-24 25°02) 13:34 18-90 «1168
Albite - = 24:10 22°53 23:06 25:15 28:82 28:30 25-15
Anorthite - 11°95 8:90 9°73. 13:07 1446 14-18 9°73
Corundum - 1:94 1°63 1°22 —— 0:92 2°35 3:06
Zircon - = — 0-18 0-18 0°18 — et _—

( Wo - 0-93 — — —
Diopside - ¢ Fs — — 0-26 — — —
( En 0-60 or —_
Hypersthene ( Fs 3°04 4-62 4-09 1°85 7°00 6°07 5:15
« En 2-00 4-40 3°60 3:20 3-10 7°80 4-60
Magnetite - 1-39 0-93 0-69 2°09 1-16 1°39 —
limenite 4 1-06 1:37 1-37 1-67 1-06 1°67 1°06
Pyrites M, 0-11 0-30 0:18 0-43 at 0°38 ss
Apatite i 0-34 0-17 0-34 0:40 4 0-44 0:34

Position in C.I.P.W. Classification :-—
T. 1’, 4, 2, 3. Toscanose.
Il. I (II), “4, 2, 3. Adamellose-toscanose.
Ill, I (11), 4, 2, 3. Adamellose-toscanose.
IV. I (IT), 4, 2°, 3. Adamellose-toscanose.
V. -T (I), 4, (2) 3, 4. Tonalose-ycllowstonose,

214

plagioclase. Some of this quartz is moulded on the inner zone of the microcline
in such a manner as to suggest that there was a considerable interval of time
between the crystallisation of the two zones. The two zones are in perfect optical
continuity and are crossed by the composition plane of a Carlsbad twin.

The biotite is pleochroic from light brown (21’f) to dark brown (17'n).
It contains many pleochroic halos surrounding grains of zircon.

The zircon is in small elongated grains with sharp pyramidal terminations.
Apatite is commonly associated with the biotite as small rounded grains. Mag-
netite in small hypidiomorphic grains is intergrown with the biotite.

The analysis and norm of this rock are given in Tables I and II, respectively.

1917 contains many more microcline phenocrysts than does the type. These
crystals are 20 to 30 mm. in diameter and are usually rounded. ‘They contain
many flakes of biotite, often arranged concentrically in “growth lines’’ parallel
to the outer edge of the crystal. Plagioclase phenocrysts are not abundant, but
smaller crystals of the composition Ab,,An,, are quite common in the mass of
the rock. The structure of the groundmass differs from that of the diorite in that
the plagioclase is cquidimensional and not elongated.

1916 is a slightly coarser variety in which microcline is the dominant felspar
in the phenocrysts. The plagioclase phenocrysts have the composition of
Ab,<An,, and the plagioclase in the groundmass is slightly more sodic. Some of
the larger microcline crystals are perthitic.

‘These specimens, without field evidence, can give no clue to the origin af
the rock, but in several places small or large blocks of the “adamellite porphyry”
were seen entirely surrounded by the granite. In these specimens the rock has
the samc properties and characteristics as those previously described. One
specimen, 3482, comes from a large block six feet high and four feet wide entirely
surrounded by granite; it differs from the type only in a few minor respects.
Another, 3490, was chipped from an inclusion in the granite only a foot in
diameter It shows a clear cut boundary between the two rocks but, as Holmes
has pointed out in a recent paper (1936), this is the normal relationship. This
rock has two unusual accessories in allanite and apatite. The apatite is unusual
in that it has a centtal zone which is blue-grey with inclusions,

An interesting inclusion occurs in a block forming part of the breakwater.
Although the rock was not observed in situ, it is certain that it came from the
quarry on Granite Island immediately behind the breakwater. The core of this
inclusion is composed of a hardened sedimentary rock referred to as hornfels.
The core is surrounded on three sides by a zone of adamellite porphyry. The
whole is surrounded by granite which is in contact with the hornfels on one side.
The granite of this specimen (3475) is similar to that described by Browne and
is not in any way modified by its proximity to the inclusions, The composition
of the plagioclase is about Ab,,An,g, and many of the crystals are clouded with
sericite. The microcline is perthitic and has a well-developed cross-hatching.
The biotite is brown with X = hght straw yellow (22’¢) Y = Z= dark brown
(20’n). Many of the larger crystals of biotite have a fringe of smaller crystals
hanging upon them.

The adamellite porphyry is also similar to the type 3477. An analysis was
made and shows the similarity in chemical as well as in mineralogical composi-
tion (see analysis and norm, Tables [ and Il).

The sedimentary rock was examined both from the centre of the block and
from the immediate contact with the adamellite porphyry.

In the first specimen (3473) the rock is seen to be banded and apparently has
not been greatly affected by metamorphism. The banding is duc to layers rich

215

in biotite alternating with layers composed almost entirely of quartz and felspar.
The structure varies from band to band; in the leucocratic bands it is granoblastic
and the average grain-size about 0°10 mm.; in the band rich in biotite the grain-
size is smaller and the biotite has a parallel arrangement at an angle to the
lamination. The biotite is of two sizes, a set of flakes about 0°25 mm. long and
a smaller generation less than 0-02 mm. long.

The quartz contains very few dust inclusions but contains small rounded
grains of felspar. There is no shadowy extinction. The felspar is almost entirely
plagioclase with a composition of Ab,,An,,. It is usually in small equidimensional
grains but occasionally there is an irregular crystal which grows to a much larger
size and includes grains of quartz and biotite. The biotite is greenish-brown X —
light greenish-yellow (25’f) Y—=Z= dark greenish-brown (23’n) to opaque.
It is biaxial negative with a low optic axial angle. Apatite is particularly common
in clear grains with a moderate relief. Zircon is not common and when present
is in clear rounded grains.

Specimen 3474 shows the contact of the hornfels and the adamellite por-
phyry. The junction of the hornfels and the adamellite is at first glance a plain
intrusive contact, but inspection under the microscope shows that there are relics
of the hornfels in the adamellite and that the hornfels has been modified. The
inequalities in the size of the biotite noted in the specimen at a distance from the
contact are absent in this specimen and the rock shows the aspect of a biotite
hornfels. The biotite is arranged parallel to the contact. ‘The quartz and felspar
grains are the same size as in the other specimen but the biotite is much larger
and averages 0°5 mm. long and has a ratio of elongation of about 2 to 1. The
biotite differs from that in 3473 in that it has lost the greenish tinge. The other
minerals have not changed appreciably in appearance.

From this it can be seen that the hornfels near the contact has not been
demonstrably changed in mineralogical composition, but the porphyry can be
seen to have grown at the expense of the hornfels which it replaces.

3496 is a specimen from Nature’s Eye in which the diorite merges into the
granite through an intermediate zone of adamellite porphyry. The thin section
was cut from this intermediate zone in a place where the rock is rich in pheno-
crysts. The average grain-size is about 0°40 mm., exclusive of the larger pheno-
crysts. In mineral composition it is substantially the same as 3477. but microcline
is more abundant and now constitutes half of the total felspar.

In this rock the adamellite porphyry appears to be a transition between diorite
and granite, but from its microscopic appearance it does not seem ever to have
been liquid. The microscope reveals its true position as the end phase in the
metasomatic alteration of the diorite.

3484 shows the contact of the granite with the diorite. The junction of the
two has all the appearance of a normal intrusive contact in which the granite
intrudes the diorite. There is no wide transition zone to be seen in hand specimen,
but thin veinlets of granite intrude several inches into the diorite. Near the
diorite the granite appears to he contaminated. The microscope shows this con-
taminated zone to be diorite, which has been invaded by the granite and greatly
enriched in porphyritic crystals of felspar and quariz. In the interstices between
these phenocrysts the fine-grained dioritic groundmass is preserved intact. Further
away from the contact this residual material has been all absorbed into the granite.
It is noticeable that in the residual material the biotite has been selectively
absorbed before the quartz and felspar.

The diorite preserves its characteristics right up to the contact, but near the
contact the biotite has become browner in colour than that typical of the diorite
and similar to that of the granite.

216

3497 was taken across the contact between the slightly modified diorite and
the contaminated granite. The microscope shows more fully the contamination
of the granite and reveals the fact that the junction is by no means sharp. The
diorite is more like a sedimentary rock than the other specimens. he grain-size
is even and suggestive of a fine-grained sandstonc, but some few porphyritic
plagioclase and quartz crystals show its affinities to the diorite. Plagioclase is
the dominant felspar almost to the exclusion of the potash felspar, and the rock has
a mineral composition similar to that of 3470. ‘There is little doubt but that it
represents a rock of similar composition to 3470 recrystallised and “stewed” in
granitic liquors. The plagioclase has attained hypidiomorphic shape and the
biotite has recrystallised into bigger flakes. Another fact that suggests meta-
somatic rather than metamorphic conditions is the fact that the plagioclase is
idiomorphic against the biotite, a relationship that cannot hold under true meta-
morphic conditions.

The granilic phase in contact with the diorite is really diorite into which
magmatic material has penetrated until only about 30% of the total rock is of
sedimentary origin. In this rock the process is not that of dissolving the diorite;
the magmatic material is introduced along the cracks and between the grains and
forces the fragments of rock apart and floats them apart in the magmatic liquid.
Thus the microscope shows many large rounded grains of plagioclase, quartz and
microcline with areas of fine-grained diorite between. The contrast is very
marked because the size of the grains in the diorite fragments is about 0-2 mm.,
whereas that of the introduced quartz and felspar exceeds 3 mm, There is no
doubt that this finer material is eventually incorporated in the granite, but there
is a very appreciable interval between the stage described above and the final
stage of complete solution.

3479 shows the later stages of the assimilation of a fragment of biotite
schist. This fragment was apparently much richer in biotite and of a coarser
grain than the other inclusions preserved, and thus the more readily attacked. The
fragment is about 10 cms. long, 6 cms wide, and about 1-5 cm. thick. In the
original inclusion the mica flakes were all parallel and the magmatic material has
thus easily penetrated along these lines of weakness. The outer layers of biotite
are forced further apart and, finally, all that remains of some of the outer layers
are a few disconnected larger flakes of biotite. ‘he quartz and plagioclase that
have crystallised inside the inclusion have the same properties as those minerals
in the granite in contact with the inclusion but are of a much smaller grain-size.
The intruding felspar is almost exclusively plagioclase of composition Ab,,Anas.
It is often fattened with the “b” face parallel to the foliation of the biotite, That
assimilation of the biotite from the inclusion into the granite takes place is shown
by a zone in the granite near the contact which is notably enriched in biotite.
In other respects the granite preserves its usual appearance right up the contact.

DIscussion.

The granite was intruded into a large areca of hornfels of fairly uniform
composition. These rocks are well exposed in hills just north of Rosetta Head
and to the north of Victor Harbour itself. Micro-sections of the rocks from
various outcrops show that the rocks are of a remarkably uniform composition
similar to the inclusions in the granite. There is little doubt but that the rocks
that have been replaced by the granite are of a similar composition to those near
the immediate contacts. Some of these rocks differ from 3470 in that they
contain a small amount of calcite.

Two processes have been involved in the alteration and digestion of the
country rock. The first process, taking place at a distance from the contact, is

217

one in which the aqueous liquors from the granite, rich in various oxides, have
permeated the sedimentary rocks. By this means, first recrystallisation, and then
reconstitution of the rock have been effected. The process works toward an
equilibrium with the granite, in which first the properties and then the proportions
of the minerals approach those of the granite. The second process takes place
at the immediate contact by the invasion of the sedimentary rock by the magma
itself, no doubt assisted in a great measure by the much increased activity of the
aqueous liquors at the contact.

Specimen 3470 exhibits the starting point in the assimilation of the sediments,
in which metamorphism has altered the structure but not the mineral composition
of the rock, Metasomatism has not yet begun to be apparent. In 3497 the sedi-
ment has not been much altered, but felspathic liquids have begun to invade the
rock and form porphyritic individuals. The idiomorphic form of the plagioclase
against the biotite shows that the equilibrium is that of igneous conditions rather
than that of metamorphism. In this instance the rock was not subjected to the
felspathic liquids long before it came into contact with the granite and the rock
was digested faster than it could reach equilibrium with the granite.

In the next stage the rock has lost its crystalloblastic structure and begun to
absorb microcline from the granite. The calcite has reacted with the biotite to
form hornblende, and the plagioclase has recrystallised. It was only the rock
containing calcite that formed hornblende, but the absence of hornblende is not
proof that it was not formed at an earlier stage. This is shown in the behaviour
of specimens 3494, where a hornblendic rock loses much of its hornblende in the
immediate vicinity of a vein of adamellite porphyry, and finally is converted by
metasomatic processes into adamellite porphyry without any hornblende visible.
The principle is further illustrated by two specimens, 3492 and 3493, in which
the specimen more remote from the granite (3492) contains hornblende and the
specimen at the contact contains none.

The metasomatism proceeds with the introduction of felspar, particularly
microcline, and the elimination of hornblende. This is not attended by any
notable increase of grain-size. It secms at this stage that potash, soda and alumina
are the chief oxides introduced into the rock. Soda takes up the calcium fram
the hornblende to form plagioclase, and the potash is introduced either with or
without alumina to form the microcline. There is no apparent diminution in the
amount of the biotite, thus discounting the suggestion that the alumina for the
microcline comes from that source. The facts observed are in keeping with the
conclusions of Miss Reynolds (1936), who states that in the Colonsay occurrence
potash alumina and soda are three most diffusable oxides, Holmes (1936) shows
that in the specimens described by him potash is the most diffusable of the common
oxides.

There is no doubt that the diffusion increases greatly at the immediate contact
and that it is of great assistance in the penetration by the more viscous fractions.
However, in these later stages the effects of the diffusion are masked by the more
obvious effects caused by the intrusion of the magmatic liquids,

This first process produces the typical diorite which, in its later stages,
does not contain hornblende. The diorite, however, although in equilibrium with
the granite insofar as the properties of their minerals correspond, contains more
biotite and plagioclase than the granite. Continued reaction with thesc aqueous
liquors from the granite results in the formation of more microcline and in the
recrystallisation of the other mincrals. In the typical adamellite porphyry, as
represented by 3487, much of the felspar and quartz is in these porphyritic
crystals and all of the biotite has recrystallised to bigger flakes. It is probable
that much of the felspar in these phenocrysts has been introduced from the magma.

218

Assuming that there is no real decrease in the amount of biotite present, it appears
from the apparent decrease in percentage of biotite that the bulk of the rock has
been increased by about one-third its volume during the formation of the adamellite
porphyry from the diorite. The biotite is very similar to that in the granite, both
in form and in colour.

In some instances the adamellite porphyry has been produced without the
intermediate stage of diorite. Such has been the case in 3474, where the
adamellite porphyry has been formed from hornfels. The diorite is thus not a
necessary phase in the alteration but rather a variant. The available evidence
suggests that the diorite is formed where metasomatic action is of long duration
but low intensity, and that the adamellite porphyry is formed wherever and when-
ever the metasomatism becomes more intense.

In the adamellite porphyry these has not been any actual invasion of the rock
by the granite magma. It has been formed solely by the diffusion of aqueous
liquids carrying the oxides, and all of the processes of alteration have taken place
in the solid phase. This is most obvious in 3494, where the mobile liquids have
penetrated along a plane of weakness in the diorite and the oxides have diffused
out for a distance of about 5 cm. on each side. Moreover, there are no instances
where the adamellite porphyry shows intrusive relations to the other rocks such
as has been described by Miss Reynolds in the true hybrid rocks in the Colonsay
area,

That actual invasion by the granite, per se, has taken place is shown by
specimens 3497 and 3484.

In 3497 (q. v.) a block of practically unaltered country rock has been
brought into contact with the granite. The inclusion has been recrystallised but
there has not been any notable introduction of soda or potash. There is now only
a small nucleus of unaltered rock Icft, but the width of the hybrid zone surrounding
it shows that it was originally of quite large size. In this instance the granitic
magma has penetrated along cracks between the grains and along channels opened
up by the more mobile aqueous liquors. These cracks were widened by stoping
and the fragments prised off. These detached fragments were floated away from
their original positions but were not actually assimilated until a much later stage.
These inclusions comprise about 50%-60°% of the hybrid rock near the contact,
but the proportion quickly drops to about 10% and then gradually decreases until
the rock merges into contaminated granite without the sedimentary inclusions.

In 3484 the granite is attacking the diorite, and the same processes were
operative.

3479 illustrates the invasion by the granite of an inclusion of a fairly coarse
mica schist. Tlere the original foliation of the rock has greatly assisted the
splitting of the rock by magmatic liquids. Only one specimen of this type was
found, but in many places there are clots and streaks of biotite in the granite
which appear to be the final stages of the breaking down of such an inclusion.

The amount of alteration of these inclusions points to the conclusion that
there must be a great number of these inclusions that were completely absorbed
in the granite. ‘The absorption of such a quantity of sedimentary rock has inodified
the composition and characteristics of the granite, chiefly by the introduction of
lime magnesia and iron. These have caused a great increase in the amount of
biotite and have increased the percentage of the anorthite molecule in the plagio-
clase. It is most probable that the original intruding granite was an Aplo-Granite
with a considerable percentage of albite. The rock that most nearly corresponds
to this conception is the Even-grained Granite of Port Elliot (Browne, 1920,
pp. 19-20), although it is unlikely that that rock represents the original magma.

The three types of inclusion bear a striking resemblance to the inclusions
described by Grantham (19) from the Shap Granite. He draws attention in

219

that paper to the abundance of sphene in some of the inclusions and accepts it as
evidence of action of the metasomatic liquids upon the inclusions. He states that
the dark vari-coloured sphene was formed in the solid phase and did not crystallise
from a liquid magma. This supports the writer’s observations in other places
(Kleeman, 1937) that sphene, when it is zoned or enclosing magnetite, is of
metasomatic origin and always formed in the solid phase.

It is difficult to name the rock types of the inclusions because they are neither
igneous nor metamorphic in origin. However, they present closcr affinities to the
igneous rocks, although in most instances they have been formed in the solid by
metasomatic process, and for that reason they will be treated as igneous rocks.
The “Diorite” has none of the appearance of a true diurite, but its composition
varies from that of a Quartz-Diorite to that of a Granodiorite, according to the
classification of Johannsen (1932). The “Adamellite Porphyry” more closely
resembles a granitic rock and, being on the border-line between Granite and
Granodiorite, may be most easily described as an Adamellite.

Throughout the descriptions the rocks have been treated as igneous rocks,
and the igneous term “phenocryst” has been used when the metamorphic “por-
phyroblast” would be more correct. This was done because in all but a few
instances the mutual relations of the mineral were those of igneous conditions
rather than metamorphic.

SUMMARY.

There are three main types of inclusions in the granite of this locality. The
inclusions of the first type are blocks of country rock, unaltered save for a slight
degree of thermal metamorphism. The rocks of the other two types are derived
from the sedimentary rocks and differ in the degree of metasomatism. The less
altered type, referred to as the “Diorite,” is a black aphanitic rock and corre-
sponds in composition to a Granodiorite, The more altered rock, referred to as
the “Adamellite Porphyry,” is of a coarser grain and has the appearance and
composition of an Adamellite.

There is no doubt that these inclusions represent only a fraction of the whole
and that many have been completely absorbed. The granite itself has internal
evidence to support the theory that it has been contaminated. Many of the
plagioclase crystals are zoned, a circumstance which Bowen (1928) considers a
clear proof of contamination,

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The writer is indebted to Sir Douglas Mawson for drawing his attention to
this area and for much practical help, and to the Department of Geology,
University of Adelaide, for facilities in the execution of this investigation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY,

Bowen, N.1.. (1928) “The Evolution of Igneous Rocks.” Princeton Univer-
sity Press, 1928.

Browne, W. R. (1920) “The Igneous Rocks of Encounter Bay, South Aus-
tralia.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. xliv (1920), pp. 1-57.

GarRTRELL, H. W. (1903) “The Victor Harbour Granite.” ‘Trans. Roy. Soc.
S. Aust., vol. xxvii (1903), p. 256.

GrantuAm, D, R. (1928) “The Petrology of the Shap Granite.” Proc. Geol.
Assoc., vol. xxxix (1928), p. 324, et seq.

Harker, A. (1932) “Metamorphism.” Methuen & Co., London, 1932,

Hotmes, A. (1936) “Transfusion of Quartz-xenoliths in Alkali-basic and
ultrabasic lavas, South-west Uganda.” Min. Mag., vol. xxiv (1936),
No. 155, pp. 408-421,

220

Howcuin, W. (1929) “The Geology of South Australia.” Second Edition.
Adelaide, 1929.

JoHANNSEN, A, (1932) “Petrography,” vol. ii. Chicago, 1932.

Kureman, A. W. (1937) “Schists and Gneisses from the Moraines, Cape
Denison, Adelie T.and.” Aust. Ant. Exp. Sc. Rep., Series A, vol. iv,
pt. 6.

Reynotps, D. L. (1936) “Demonstrations in Petrogenesis from Kiloran Bay,
Colonsay. I The Transfusion of Quartzite.” Min. Mag., vol. xxiv
(1936), No. 155, pp. 367-407.

Ripeway, R. (1912) “Colour Standards and Nomenclature,” Washington,
1912.

Tittey, C. E. (1919) “The Occurrence and Origin of certain Quartz-Tour-
maline Nodules in the Granite of Cape Willoughby.” Trans. Roy. Soc.
S. Aust., vol. xliii (1919), p. 156, ef seq.

Tittey, C.E. (1919) “The Petrology of the Granite Mass of Cape Willoughby,
Kangaroo Island, Part I. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. xliii (1919)
pp. 316-342.

NOTES ON THE FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
NO. 5.

BY ERNEST H. ISING

Summary

Eragrostis polymorpha (R. Br.) Druce, Rep. Bot. Exch. Club Brit. Is. 621 (1917).-Poa polymorpha
R. Br. Prod. 180 (1810); Eragrostis Brownii Nees in Steud. Syn. PI. Glum. I, 279 (1855); Fl. Aust.,
VII, 647 (1878) ; Flora of South Australia, Part I, 78 (1922). This alteration is necessary as Brown's
specific name is the earliest.

221

NOTES ON THE FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
No, 5.

By Ernest H. Isrne,
[Read October 14, 1937.]

GRAMINEAE.

Eragrostis polymorpha (R. Br.) Druce, Rep. Bot. Exch. Club Brit. Is. 621
(1917). —Poea polymorpha R. Br. Prod. 180 (1810) ; Eragrostis Brownti Nees in
Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. [, 279 (1855); Fl. Aust., VIL, 647 (1878) ; Flora of South
Australia, Part 1, 78 (1922). This alteration is necessary as Brown’s specific name
is the earliest.

Stenotaphrum compressum (Beauv.) Druce lc. 648.—Rottboellia compressa
Beauv. Agrost. t. 21, £. 8 (1812); Stenotaphrum americanum Schrank ex Benth.
Fl. Aust. VII, 500 (1878) or S. glabrum Trin. Fund. Agrost. 176 (1820).

Stipa Muelleri Tate. In the Flora of South Australia™ the only locality
given “stringybark forests, Uraidla, apparently very rare.” I can now record it
in a similar habitat at Mount Lofty, where several plants were flowering in
November and December, 1936. The plants have many diffuse stems and form
an open mass spreading to one metre across. ‘The identification was made by
Mr. G. H. Clarke.

LILIACEAE.

Stypandra glauca R. Br. I have received some specimens (No. 3,222) from
Wudinna, Eyre Peninsula, C. W’. Johns, with blue flowers, and others with white
flowers (No. 3,223). No descriptions that I have seen of this species mention
the occurrence of the white form.

Thysanotus tuberosus R. Br. Karoonda, January, 1937. First record for
Murray Lands.

LorANTHACEAE,

Loranthus pendulus Sieb. Waterfall Gully, near Eagle-on-the-Hill, February
7, 1928. On Eucalyptus cosmophylla F. v. M. Not previously recorded on
this host.

POLYGONACEAE,

Muehlenbeckia diclina (F. v. M.) Druce, Rep. Bot. Exch. Club Brit. Is.,
636 (1917); M. diclina (F. v. M.) J. M. Black, Flora of South Australia, pt. ii,
177 (1924). The transference of this plant to Muehlenbeckia was made by Druce
seven years earlier than Black, and so must take preference,

CHENOPODIACEAE.

Kochia crassiloba R. H. Anderson, Wudinna, Eyre Peninsula, C. W. Johns
September, 1936. First record for Eyre Peninsula.

AMARANTHACEAE,

Amaranthus grandiflorus J. M. Black. South Australia: Ooroowilanie,
north-east of Marree, G. Scobie, July 26, 1936 (No. 3,243); Central Australia:
Horse Shoe Bend, August, 1931 (Nos. 2,453 and 2,949),

C) J. M. Black, pt. i, p. 65. (1922).

222

CRUCIFERAE.

Stenopetalum sphaerocarpum F. v. M. Karoonda, Rev. M. T. Winkler,
September 28, 1934, First record for Murray Lands.

Blennodia blennodioides (F. v. M.) Druce Rep. Bot. Exch, Club Brit. Is., 609
(1917)—Erysimum blennodioides F. v. M. in Linn., xxv, 367 (1852) ; Blennodia
lasiocarpa F. v. M. in Trans. Phil. Inst. Vict., ii, 100 (1855); Fl. Aust., i, 76
(1863); Flora of South Australia, pt. ii, 247 (1924). This specific name
(blennodioides) must stand as Mueller used it three years earlier than lasiocarpa.

Menkea australis }.ehm. Karoonda, September 28, 1934, Rev. M. T. Winkler.
The first record for Murray Lands.

CRASSULACEAE.

Crassula Sieberiana (Schultes) Druce, Rep. Bot. Exch. Club Brit. Is., 485
(1917) ; C. Sieberiana (Schultes) Ostenfeld (1918) (vide Flora of South Aus-
tralia, pt. ii, 259 (1924). As Druce made the new combination one year earlier
than Ostenfeld the former’s name must be used.

LEGUMINOSAE.

Acacia acanthoclada F. v. M. Barmera, August 24, 1937. This is a rare
species, as the only records in Black’s Flora of South Australia, pt. ii (1924) are
near Renmark and Eyre Peninsula. It is an intricately branched shrub of about
50 cm. in height and with a very rigid habit. It was flowering freely and was
growing on a sand ridge, Canegrass Station, 45 miles north of Morgan, Sep-
tember, 1937. Growing in black oak (Casuarina cristata) country on sandy soil
and somewhat localised.

Acacia Prainii Maiden. This rare species has only been collected at one
locality (Barton) in our State and only recorded once in Western Australia,
from which State the type was described. The pods, however, were not found,
but as I have collected pods from a specimen growing in the former locality I can
row supply this deficiency, although no seeds were seen as the pods had shed
them, Barton, August 3, 1925 (No. 3,245) ; plant in bud, young racemes 5-8 mm.
long and some still enclosed in the ovate, obtuse, ciliate, brown involucral bracts
which are 1 mm. long—Barton, September 17, 1926 (No. 3,244); shrub at least
2 metres in height; old pods up to 8 cm. long, 6 mm. wide but only 4 mm. wide
where it is constricted between the seeds, almost straight, glabrous, edges with a
distinct rim and undulate, dark red-brown, thin texture, peduncles 10-20 mm. long,
pedicels 4-6 mm. long; seeds not seen, but the seed-hollows are Jongitudinal and
give evidence of an oblong seed, some funicles (? incomplete) still attached to
the valves and 3 mm. long and filiform.

Dillwynia uncinata (Turez.) J. M. Black. A specimen was collected at Arno
Bay, Eyre Peninsula (No. 3,225), August 29, 1935, and this makes the second
locality from which it is known from the Peninsula. It is evidently a rare species
as the only other record is by Black © as occurring in the Murray Lands on both
sides of the river.

Dillwynia retorta (Wendl.) Druce, Rep, Bot. Exch. Club Brit. Is., 620
(1917) —Pultenaca retorta Wendl. Hort. Herreub. t. 9 (1788-1801) ; Dillwynia
ericifolia Sm. in Koenig and Sims Ann. Bot. 510 (1805) and Trans. Linn. Soc.,
ix, 262 (1808); Exot. Bot. t. 25 (1804-5); FI. Aust., ii, 148 (1864); Flora of
South Australia, pt. ii, 303 (1924). As Wendland’s specific name was given at
least four years earlier than that of Smith’s it takes priority and is the valid name
for the plant.

©) Flora of South Australia, pt. ii, p. 303 (1924).

223

Swainsona phacoides Benth. Near Finke Railway Station, August 22, 1931
(No. 2,597) ; Horse Shoe Bend, August 23, 1931 (No. 2,340). These collections
represent the first record of its occurrence in Central Australia.

Daviesia brevifolia Lindl. Black’s Flora of South Australia, pt. ii (1924),
297, describes the leaves as “few, distant, resembling short, stout thorns, 2-6 mm.
long, continuous with the branches.” This applies to mature plants, as I have
observed a striking difference in juvenile leaves on plants which came up after a
bush fire at Mount Lofty in the locality where the plant grows freely. ‘The
juvenile leaves are oblong to lanceolate, about 20 mm, long and 4-6 mm, wide,
obtuse, mucronate, sometimes cuneate at the tip, entire, glabrous, thick, erect or
spreading and vertically placed on the stem, margin thickened; abruptly passing
into the mature leaves about 5 cm. from the base.

RUTACEAE.
Phebaltum bullatwm J, M. Black. This is not a common species and on Eyre
Peninsula it has only been recorded from Wudinna, but I can now add Darke’s
Peak, August 30, 1935, and Butler and Arno Bay, August 29, 1935.

EUPHORBIACEAE,

Beyeria ledifolia (Klotzsch) Druce, Rep. Bot. Exch. Club Brit Is., 609
(1917).—Calyptrostigma ledifolia Klotzsch in Lehmann Pl, Preiss I, 176
(1845) ; Beyeria Drwmmondii Muell. Arg. in Linn., xxxiv, 58 (1865-6). This
species has, however, been reduced to var. Drummondii of B. Leschenaultii
(DC.) Baill. by Gruning in Engler’s Pflanzenreich.

Amperea xiphoclada (Sieb.) Druce, Rep. Bot. Exch. Club Brit. Is., 604
(1917). Leptomeria xiphoclada Sieb. in Sprengel Syst. Cur. Post., 109 (1827) ;
Amperea spartioides Brongniart in Duperr. Voy. Coquelle, 226, t. 49 (1829);
FL. Aust, V, 841 (1873); Flora of South Australia, pt. ii, 357 (1924). Sieber’s
specific name being the earlier by two years must take precedence to Brongniart’s.

RITAMNACEAE,

Spyridium subochreatum (F. v. M.) Reissek. Brimpton Lake, 10 miles west
of Karkoo Railway Station on the Port Lincoln-Thevenard line, Eyre Peninsula,
September, 1933, E. Wannan. Specimen in the Tate Herbarium, Adelaide Uni-
versity, and appears to be the only record for Eyre Peninsula. I can now record
it from two other localities, viz, Darke’s Peak, August 30, 1935 (No. 3,237),
and Rudall, August 30, 1935 (Nos, 3,238 and 3,239), which are much further to
the east.

. THYMELAEACEAR.

Pimelea stricta Meisn. Darke’s Peak, Pastor H. Freund, August, 1935, and
Rudall, E. H. I. (No. 3,236), August 30, 1935; these localities are on Eyre Penin-
sula and they form the first record for this part of the State.

LYTHRACEAE,

Lythrum Salicaria L. This is a handsome shrub of about 1 m. in height
which I found growing in the Jervois Swamp at Tailem Bend and was in flower
on January 15, 1937 (No, 3,235). This is the first time that it has been recorded
from the River Murray in our State.

MyRTACEAE.

Calythrix involucrata J. M. Black. Collected by G. H. Clarke and myself
at Kangaroo Flat, near Roseworthy, October 10, 1936 (No. 3,224). It was
originally described from’ specimens collected at Cummins, Eyre Peninsula, and
it is now recorded for the first time on the mainland. Strangely enough only one

224

plant was seen, while its congenor, C. tetragona, was very plentiful and associated
with it; both were growing on sandy loam ridges.

Micromyrtus ciliata (Sm.) Druce, Bot. Exch. Club Brit. Is., 636 (1917).
Imbricaria ciliata Smith in Trans. Linn. Soc., ili, 259 (1797). Micromyrtus micro-
phylla Benth. Fl. Aust., iii, 64 (1866). It is the Stereoxylon ciliatum of Poiret,
the Escallonia ciliata of Roemer and Schultes and the Baeckea. ciliata of Sieber.
Micromyrtus ciliata (Sm.) J. M. Black, Flora of South Australia, pt. iii, 425
(1919). Druce made the correct combination two years earlier than Black.

Lhotekya alpestris (Lindl.) Druce, Rep. Bot, Exch. Club Brit. Is., 633
(1917) ; L. alpestris (Lindl.) J. M. Black, Flora of South Australia, pt. ili, 426
(1926). Druce was earlier than Black by nine years in using the above combina-
tion, so Druce’s name must be used in connection with it.

EPACRIDACEAE.

Styphelia adscendens R. Br. Since recording this species definitely for this
State, I have received a number of specimens from R, G. Neilson, Penola
growing in its native habitat (September 20, 1936, No. 3.214). When
T visited Penola in October, 1935, | saw a number of plants growing in the scrub
which I regarded as belonging to this species, but as it was not in flower I could
not then identify it. On receipt of the above specimens I was able to confirm my
first impressions and the species can now be confidently placed in the record of
the flora of this State. Plants were growing plentifully in the flat, low-lying
country subject to flooding in wet seasons, and were found amongst the red gum
(Eucalyptus rostrata) forest in sandy scrub,

Acrotriche affinis DC. Beachport, January 13, 1925. The nerves on the
lower surface of the leaves are often 8 or 10, and some of the smaller leaves are
ovate or cordate obtuse and only 3 mm. long.

Leucopogon Clelandii Cheel. Penola, South-East, November 14 (No. 3,268)
and November 15, 1935 (No. 3,269). These collections constitute the first record
for the South-Eastern district. Some of the plants had just finished flowering
and others were fruiting.

VERBENACEAE,

Dicrastylis exsuccosa (F. v. M.) Druce, Rep. Bot. Exch. Club Brit. Is., 619
(1917).—Pilyrodia exsuccosa F. v. M. Frag. i, 60 (1858-9); Dicrastylis
ochrotricha F. v. M. Frag. iv, 161 (1863-4); Fl. Aust., v, 42 (1870); Flora of
South Australia, pt. iii, 480 (1926). The first name given by Mucller in 1858
must give place to the later one published in 1863.

SOLANACEAE,
Solanum orbiculatum Dunal. Barton on the East-West line, September,
1920. The only record in Black’s Flora of $.A., pt. iti, 497 (1926) is Eucla in
our State, and Western Australia.

ScROPHULARIACEAE,

*Dischisma capitatum (Thunb.) Choisy. Hope Valley, September, 1935,
Ww. A. Stow. Eden, September 11, 1937, Field Naturalists’ Excursion. These
are inland localities, whereas Black’s Flora of S.A., pt. ii, 511 (1926) only gives
the coastal district, “chiefly in sandy soil near sca, Lefevre’s Peninsula to
Reedbeds.”’ : .

225

GOODENIACEAE,

Scaevola albida (Smith) Druce, Rep. Bot. Exch. Club Brit. Is., 644 (1917) ;
Goodenia albida Smith Trans. Linn. Soc., ii, 348 (1794); Scaevola microcarpa
Cav. (1801); Flora of South Australia, pt. iv, 565 (1929). Druce’s combination
is the valid one as it was seven years earlier when the specific epithet “a/bida”
was used by Smith.

STYLIDIACEAE,

Stylidium majus (Smith) Druce, Rep. Bot. Exch. Club Brit. Is., 649 (1917);
Ventenatia majus Smith, Exot. Bot., ii, 13, t. 66 (1805); Stylidium gramini~
folium Swartz (1807); Flora of South Australia, pt. iv, 569 (1929). Smith’s
specific name is two years earlier than that given by Swartz, so the priority rule
must be observed in this case.

CoMPOSITAE,

*Soliva sessilis Ruiz and Pav. National Park, Belair, October 26, 1935.
This alien is a small plant and has been evidently established for some time but
has been overlooked on account of its size. It grows close to the ground and is
often stemless, the sessile heads being situated within the radical leaves.

Pluchea rubelliflora (F. v. M.) Druce, Bot. Exch. Club Brit. Is., 640 (1917) ;
P. rubelliflora (F. vy. M.) J. M. Black (1924) (vide Flora of South Australia,
pt. iv, 616 (1929); LEyrea rubelliflora ¥. v. M. in Linnaea, xxv, 403 (1852) ;
Pluchea Eyrea F. v. M. in Rep. Babbage’s Exped. (1858), 11 and 12. Druce made °
the correct combination seven years earlier than Black.

Athrixia athrixioides (Sond, et. F. v. M.) Druce, Le. 607—Panaetia
athrixioides Sond. et F. v. M. in Linn. Soc., xxv, 506 (1852) ; Athrixia tenella
Benth. Fl. Aust., iii, 600 (1866); Flora of South Australia, pt. iv, 642 (1929).
Sonder and Mueller’s name is earlier than Bentham’s and must, therefore, stand.

*Crupina vulgaris Cass. (Cynareae-Centaureinae). Hope Valley, W. A.
Stow, October 24, 1936. Annual, stems slender, erect, pubescent, striate, to
30 cm. high. Radical leaves spathulate, minutely toothed, 2 cm. long; stem leaves
pinnatisect with linear mucronate segments, ciliate, becoming shorter towards the
top. Heads terminal, solitary or few, conical, ovoid, 20-25 mm. long, florets 5-9.
Phyllaries in several rows, scarious, lincar, acuminate ; corolla purple, 12 mm. long,
lobes 4, linear, tube slender, pubescent in lower half, longer than lobes, swollen
at base; pappus bristles numerous, unequal, finely denticulate, shorter than corolla;
anthers with short, fine tails; achenes black, glabrous, cylindrical, thick, 4 mm.
long —Dict. Se. Nat., xu, 68 (1818). Centaurea Crupina I..; C. acuta am.;
Serratula Crupina Vill.; Crupina pauciflora Kar et Kir—Mediterranean region
and Western Asia. This is the first record for our State and possibly for Aus-
tralia. It was found around the margin of the Hope Valley Reservoir where it
has possibly been growing for years, and seeds may have been brought here from
Europe in machinery packing at the time the Reservoir was being built. It was
seen only in a small area of about 100 square yards.

ABORIGINAL CRAYON DRAWINGS. II.
RELATING TO TOTEMIC PLACES IN SOUTH-WESTERN
CENTRAL AUSTRALIA.

BY C. P. MOUNTFORD

Summary

This paper describes a suite of nineteen crayon drawings that relate to totemic places of the tribes
who inhabit the eastern Petermann and Musgrave Ranges of Central Australia (fig. 20). They are
the work of four men, i.e., Nukitjilpa, a Kangaroo man, whose tribal area is adjacent to the eastern
end of the Petermann Ranges; a Wild Turkey man, associated with the area near Ernabella (fig. 20);
a Snake man, Wiljidi, and another native whose totem was unknown. Both of the latter claimed
Ayers Rock as their country. These aborigines, with the exception of Wiljidi, were working on the
various cattle and sheep stations visited by the author while travelling on official duties in Western
Central Australia in 1935.

226

ABORIGINAL CRAYON DRAWINGS. II.
RELATING TO TOTEMIC PLACES IN SOUTH-WESTERN
CENTRAL AUSTRALIA.

By C. P. Mounrtrorp,
Honorary Assistant in Ethnology, South Australian Museum.

[Read October 14, 1937.]

This paper describes a suite of nineteen crayon drawings that relate to
totemic places of the tribes who inhabit the eastern Petermann and Musgrave
Ranges of Central Australia (fig. 20). They are the work of four men, i.¢.,
Nukitjilpa, a Kangaroo man, whose tribal area is adjacent to the eastern end of
the Petermann Ranges; a Wild Turkey man, associated with the area near Erna-
bella (fig. 20); a Snake man, Wiljidi, and another native whose totem was
unknown, Both of the latter claimed Ayers Rock as their country. These
aborigines, with the exception of Wiljidi, were working on the various cattle and
sheep stations visited by the author while travelling on official duties in Western
Central Australia in 1935.

The method of obtaining the drawings was similar to that used at other
localities (Mountford, 1937 and 1937B). Sheets of brown paper, about 50 by
30 cm., and red, yellow, black and white crayons were distributed. No sugges-
tions regarding subjects were given, the natives being asked only to “make
marks.”

On the completion of the drawings, the meanings of the designs, and, when-
ever time allowed, any relevant legends were obtained and recorded. Figs, 1-19
are direct tracings of the above drawings. Mr. T. G. Strchlow assisted the
writer, and without his help much of the information here recorded would not
have been gathered. The descriptions are necessarily bricf, the only time avail-
able for the collection of the drawings, and the obtaining and recording of the
data, being the short period after the completion of the day’s journey. ‘The
details secured, nevertheless, represent the first published record relating to the
totemic places, designs and legends associated with the area under consideration.

The drawings relate to totemic centres and exploits of nine mythical
ancestors, 7.¢., Kangaroo, Ice Man, Woman, Wild Cat, Emu, Bell Bird, Mulga
Seed Man, Yellow Goanna and Snake.

Woman Totemtc CENTRES.

Three sheets of drawings refer to mythical Women ancestors. Two were
drawn by Nukitjilpa, 2.¢., figs. | and 2. Vig. 3 was the work of the Wild ‘lurkey
man.

Trig. 1 is associated with the Women ancestors at Mantabailka, a native water
supply in the Petermann Ranges. (Fig. 20.) This area is the tribal country of the
artist’s mother. A, b, C, and 1D represent the camping places of the ancestral
Women, while H is a long trough-shaped rock hole situated at the top of an
extensive stony outcrop. J, K, TI, and M are small rock holes“ scattered about
the surrounding hills. Although not specified, the lines connecting these figures

supplics would be uscd by the natives after heavy rain, for the position of each one would
be well known.

227

Fig. 2 belongs to a place in the Petermann Ranges (fig. 20) called Tjukurun-
kartana, the property of Nukitjilpa’s mother’s brother. One woman, a member
of the group who lived at Mantabailka (see fig. 1) is depicted in fig. 2.

This is an unusual drawing of a seated pregnant ancestral woman. A is the
imprint made in the sand by her buttocks, B and C are her breasts, E. and IF her
arms, and the black U within U designs D, within the ovals G, the unborn child
within her body.

The U within U design is used extensively by the Aranda to depict a seated
aborigine (Mountford, 1937, p. 93). It may be that like symbols are employed
in this case to show the “camping place” of the child.

RS Back
FIG. | MB WHITE

Williams, 1931, p. 147, pl. ix, fig. 3, records similar designs which he calls
“Nests of Us” from the Sogeri district of Papua,

Tig. 2 is largely diagrammatic, the arrangement of its details having little
relationship to the actual parts of the body. Mountford, 1937B, p. 7, records a
drawing of an ancestral man in which the abdominal scars, and footprints, are
dissociated from the body of the individual.

Another point of interest is the rcsemblance of the place name, Tjukurun-
kartana, to the Kaunkarunkara women of the Ngadadjara tribe of the Warburton
Ranges of Western Australia, who later were transformed into the Pleiades.
(Mountford, 1937B, p. 21.) The women indicated in figs. 1 and 2 undoubtedly
belong to the same ancestral group.

Fig. 3 is the work of a Wild Turkey man from Culatta Wells, and pictures
an area adjacent to Ernabella Station (fig. 20).

In the long distant past. equivalent to the Aranda Altjeringa, a number of
Women ancestors camped at waterholes A, E, F, K, N and R. By means of the
U within U symbols at B, O, P and Q, the women are shown as seated around
Anilila Soak, A. Other symbols associated with E, F, R, K and N have similar

228

meanings. The two concentric ovals, K, refer to one of the dry water courses
that run out from Ayers Rock (fig. 20). A is Anilila Soak?) some distance west
of Ernabella; C, Undala rock hole; R, Webuda Soak; while J and N are un-
specified waters,

Kancaroo Toremic CENTRES.

Six drawings, i.e., figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9, have reference to the totemic Kan-
garoo. These were sketched by Nukitjilpa, himself a Kangaroo man. Four
relate to ceremonial centres adjacent to Bitula, an unlocalised place in the Peter-
mann Ranges, and two to Kunbuna, some distance west of Piltardi (fig. 20).

Figs 4 to 9 are of more than usual interest, in that they depict three more or
less naturalistic and three conventional drawings of similar objects. Thus

MWHITeE
B BLACK

figs. 4 and 5 are variants of ceremonial body decorations, figs. 6 and 7 naturalistic
and symbolic representations of a wanigi, while figs. 8 and 9 illustrate two methods
of depicting a ceremonial ground, the latter much more conventionalised than the
former.

Tig. 4, which belongs to the Kangaroo and Euro totem place of Bitula,
delineates the body decoration used by the ancestral Euro when he visited this
place, during mythical times, in company with the Kangaroo. Since then, when

@) This term is applied to a water catchment filled with sand, situated in the bed
of a creck. Water is obtained by digging a hole in the damp sand and allowing the
water to soak in. Tn some places the aborigine intentionally fills small waterholes with
sand, both to minimise evaporation and to prevent the contamination of the water by
small animals and birds. This practice was observed at the Warupuju Springs of: the
Warburton Ranges, Western Australia.

229

the natives dance at the Kangaroo and Euro ceremonies of Bitula, they decorate
themselves in the same manner as the Euro, and sing the same chants as the
Kangaroo.

The author made a rough sketch, B, on which Nukitjilpa, at the author’s
request, indicated the position of the body decoration, in chalk. The artist
specified particularly that the symbol A was always placed on the shoulder.

Fig. 5, which relates to the same locality and ceremonies as fig. 4, is a sym-
bolical representation of similar body decorations. Here again the artist speci-
fically mentioned that the concentric circle, A, should be placed on the left
shoulder, B, of the performing native. C, D, E, and like symbols, have the same
meaning as those in fig. 4. The body decorations consisted of strips of white
down surrounding and connecting patches of charcoal.

Fig. 6 is a somewhat naturalistic drawing of a wanigi®) used in the Kan-
garoo ceremonies at the totem place of Nultana. This spot, the property of the
artist’s maternal uncle, is adjacent to Bitula. (See figs. 3 and 4.) A indicates the

GM YELLOW

framework of light wooden sticks on which a considerable length of hair or fur
string is wound (shown stretched between the framework at B). D, E, F, G,
and II are balls of down attached to the ends of the framework. Mountford,
1937, p. 92, fig. 17, illustrates an aboriginal drawing of a similar object used
during the Kangaroo ceremonies of the Northern Aranda people.

Fig. 7, on the other hand, is a much conventionalised drawing of a wanigi,
and bears little or no resemblance to the real object. H, J is the framework of
sticks on which the hair or fur string, K, is wound, while A, B, C, D, E, F, G
indicate the masses of down attached to the wanigi.

This wanigi is used in the Kangaroo totemic centre of Waltarknga, a place
west of Piltardi (fig. 20).

If the full interpretation had been secured, there is little doubt that this
drawing has a topographical significance.

Fig. 8 is associated with Kumbuna, near Pillardi and adjacent to fig. 7
locality, It depicts a ceremonial ground used during the circumcision of a boy.

@) Spencer and Gillen, 1899, p. 307, fig. 57, give a description and illustration of a
‘waninga as used in the Kangaroo ceremonies at Undiara. Waninga is the Aranda name.

230

A is a breakwind of bushes, B a space in which a fire was burning, and the four
parallel lines the area where the ground had been swept.
While attached to the Adelaide University Anthropological Expedition to

Mite
SSvetLow

a

A \
MBwaite SSE OOO

FIG.6. H

FIG.8&. BSSvEvtow
the Warburton Ranges of Western Australia in 1935, the author witnessed the
circumcision of two young men of the Ngadadjara tribe, and fig. 8 could easily
be the plan of the ceremonial ground used on that occasion. During the night

231

the men cleared the grass, bushes, and the prickly and much disliked burrs of
Tribulus from a patch of ground some forty yards long and six yards wide. At
one end of this clearing two tribal groups chanted the ceremonial songs connected
with the initiation, the members of each group in turn dancing down the cleared
space, while the other men sang. It is likely that the parallel lines in fig. 8
indicate those made by the dancing men.

At the appointed time one of the men, lighting a dry bough from a fire
adjacent to the singers, danced backward down the cleared space to the opposite
end. This bough was used to kindle another fire, which, as the circumcision
usually takes place at midnight, provided the light for the operation. The initiate,
who up to this time had been lying face downward beside the group of singers,
was then carried to the opposite end and circumcised.

In this figure, then, A would be the area in which the singers were seated ;
the parallel lines, the marks made by the feet of the dancing men, and B the space
in which the circumcision took place. Spencer and Gillen, 1899, p. 219, fig. 36,
show a sketch of a circumcision ceremonial ground which bears a strong resem-
blance to fig. 8. C, fig. 8, is a copy of this sketch. This refers to the circum-
cision of a youth at the Kangaroo totemic ground of Undiara, on the Finke River,
an important centre of the Aranda tribe.

Fig. 9 is similar in design to fig. 8, and it is more than probable that the
drawing is associated with circumcision, although this was not specified by the
artist. The story obtained related to the doings of the Kangaroo and Euro
ancestors at Bitula. (See figs. 4 and 5.) A and B are described as rock holes,
while the parallel lines are the tracks of the Kangaroo and Euro as they travelled
from one water hole to another, The tracks of the Euro are indicated at C,
those of the Kangaroo from D to E. The straight line between the tracks at E
is the mark made on the ground by the tail of the Kangaroo as the animal feeds.

The natives of the Warburton Ranges described a similar sign as that of
a wallaby, which, they said, struck the ground with its tail when travelling,
whereas the kangaroo did not, A rock painting at Windalda (Mountford, 19378,
p. 431, fig. 7) was interpreted according to this information. It is evident, how-
ever, that this symbol has more than one meaning, for, since that time, the author
has personally examined the tracks made by kangaroos when feeding, and the
resultant mark was similar to both those at Windalda and E. The different shape
of the footprints of the Euro at C, and those of the Kangaroo at D to E, corre-
sponds to the actual difference in the footprints of the animal themselves. The
Euro (Macropus robustus) is in reality a hill kangaroo who spends its life entirely
among the stony ranges. It is shorter and more sturdily built than the Kangaroo
(Macropus rufus), which, though taller, is much slighter. Macropus rufus
inhabits the plains, and is rarely ever seen in the hills,

Referring again to fig. 9, the similarity of the designs between figs. 8 and 9
suggests that had the full details of the latter drawing been obtained it would
depict a circumcision ground used by the legendary Kangaroo and Euro. As
explained in an earlier paper (Mounttord, 1937, p. 85), natural features such as
erecks, water holes or hills were created where the ancestors made a ceremony,
camped, rested or walked about. “This hypothesis suggests that A and B were
formed at some time when the Kangaroo and Euro took part in a circum-
cisional rite.

Wito Car Totem CENTRES.

Fig. 10 is a ceremonial map of the country adjacent to Ernabella Station
(fg. 20). This area belonged to the Wild Turkey ancestors (the artist himself
is a Wild Turkey man), but the drawing relates particularly to a group of Wild
Cat (Atjilpa) people, who rested for a while at Undala water hole, E. A, B, C, D

232

so
RED
Mwrite

———
———

OP]
<4/
SONS

—

SIA
cy VO

FIG IL

233

are the Wild Cat men seated around their camp, which camp was later trans-
formed into a water hole. G and N picture a water supply and hill, respectively,
near to Ernabella. Groups of similar concentric circles with attached U within
U designs, such as F and II indicate, in all probability, further groups of Wild
Cat ancestors, or other mythical beings seated at their camps.

It is of interest to note that the most westerly group of the Wild Cat (Atjiulpa)
men, whose route of travel is shown by Spencer and Gillen, 1899 on a map facing
page 386, came from the direction of Ernabella, passing a little south of Ayers
Rock (fig. 20) before entering the Aranda country. Mountford, 1937, p. 89,
fig. 4, records an Aranda drawing relating to the same group at a time when they
passed near to Mount Hay.

Map of CEREMONIAL CENTRES,

Fig. 11 is the work of an aborigine from Lindavale Station whose tribal
country is adjacent to Ayers Rock (fig. 20). His totem is unknown.

This particularly decorative drawing is in reality a map of the ceremonial
centres of the area extending from Ernabella to Ayers Rock. A is the Ernabella
rock hole; B, Erinjuna rock hole; C, Tjunju soakage; D, Wimajana (Ayers
Rock) ; E, Pitjunaru rock hole; F, Undala rock hole and soakage (see figs. 3 and
10); G, “Sadie” rock hole, associated with a lizard being; H, a rock hole which
is a Kangaroo and Crow totem centre; and J, Aununama rock hole, and Kan-
garoo and Euro locality.

K is a fragment of a drawing belonging to the Kangaroo ceremonies asso-
ciated with Erinjuna rock hole, B. This place, as well as H and J, is evidently
allied with the Kangaroo totem.

A comparison between this drawing and figs. 3 and 10 is of interest. In the
latter case entirely circular designs are used to illustrate the local topography,
whereas in fig. 11 a series of rectangles, squares and straight lines convey a
similar meaning. As Uluru is the aboriginal name in general use for Ayers Rock,
it is likely that Wimajana, D, refers to one of the many water holes at the base
of the Rock itself.

Fig. 11 was obtained by Mr. W. L. Pearce from a native at Lindavale Station.
The writer is indebted to this gentleman for the opportunity of recording this
example.

SNAKE TOTEMIC CENTRE,

Fig. 12 refers to Ayers Rock, a striking natural feature in the western desert
country of Central Australia( fig. 20). This drawing is the work of a Snake man,
Wiljidi, a member of the Jankundjara tribe, and is one of the many gathered in
1933 by Mr. N. B. Tindale while journeying in the Mann Ranges.

The central spiral, A, pictures a water supply at Ayers Rock (Uluru), one
of the camping places of the mythical Carpet Snake (Koneia). B is the track of
the snake as it travelled between its various camps (Nguru), C, D and E.
Although not specified, G, H, J and L undoubtedly have similar meanings. F is
a waterhole (Kapiti).

In a fragment of the legend obtained in conjunction with this drawing it
states that at one time a large number of snakes, black snakes, little snakes and
the carpet snake lived at the main water hole at Mortitjulu, at Ayers Rock, The
carpet snake (Koneia), however, chased all the other inhabitants away, and since
that time has lived by himself at the waterhole, The ancestral snake is repre-
sented at M as a circle with short radiating lines. ‘his circle encompasses the
main waterhole, A. Such a representation is unusual, although the natives of
the Walpari tribe of the Granites Gold Fields depict various forms of serpents

234

in this manner, the short lines at right angle to the main design being the ribs of
the snake.

In the extensive collection of drawings in the author’s possession the snake
is almost always connected with water, the majority of the rivers, creeks and
water-courses having been created by his agency, while almost every permanent
waterhole is the home of one or the other of the serpent forebears.

Mutea SEep ToTemMic CENTRE,

Tig. 13 is a complex drawing belonging to the Mulga“™) Seed men of an
unlocalised place, Pankupiri. Nukitjilpa, the artist, explained that a design
similar to fig. 13 was painted on the backs of the young men at the completion of
the initiation ceremony. When thus decorated the initiates paraded singly before
the women, This parade, a common occurrence among the Central Australian

tribes, indicates to the women that the boys have passed the final test, and arc
now full members of the tribe. On a rough figure sketched by the author, Nukit-
jilpa indicated the position of the body decorations. D was painted across the
shoulders as at b, B and C on either side of the spine as at c, and A across the
lower part of the back. M was painted on the portion of the back where the body
hair forms a whorl, The intersecting lines were drawn on the back in pipe-clay.
Their exact position was not indicated,

Further questioning revealed the fact that apart from the first superficial
meaning a mythological story was associated with the drawing. In this explana-
tion A, B, C and D portray some of the many Mulga Seed men resting on the
ground at Pankupiri. When these men died the places where they entercd the
ground, «¢., M and N, were transformed into the Tukula water holes. The
circular designs, E, F, G, H, J, K, L, R, P and O, show the camp fires of the

©) The seed of the mulga (4caciad ancura) is used by the natives as a food.

ws
<
\\

236

mythical ancestors, and the intersecting lines their paths between the various
camps.

The first explanation given to the author would be similar to that told to the
young initiate. The deeper significance of the body decoration, and the legendary
stories connected with it, would be withheld from him until he had reached a
more mature age.

Emu Torem CENTRE,

Fig. 14 is associated with the Emu totem locality, Mintulknga, some
distance north-west of Mount Olga (fig. 20). This is the country of Nukitjilpa’s
father.

The large circular designs, A, B, are the permanent resting places of a
number of ancestral emus, the concentric circles, D, E, F, G, H, J, the nests and
eggs, while C is a curiously drawn female Emu. The fragment of the legend
obtained stated that when the eggs in the outer nest were hatched, the female
Emu, C, travelled to spots A, B, and called the chicks to her. The series of foot-
marks record the fact that the chicks answered her call, and from that time
onward both old and young dwelt at A and B, i.e., Mintulknga.

Bett Biro Torem CENTRE,

Fig. 15 is a Bell Bird totem drawing of Bilatalknga, a water hole south-
west of Piltardi (fig. 20). This is also the tribal country of Nukitjilpa’s father.

A is the camp of the ancestral Bell Bird,@) (Oreoica gutturalis), which as
time went on was transformed into the main water hole in that locality. B and C
are rain symbols.

These symbols suggest a connection between the Bell Bird and rain. Although
there is no evidence of this, it may be that the bird, which has the euphonious
onomatopoeic native name of ‘Pan'pan’ palal’a, calls more freely at the outset of
the rainy season than at other times.

Ick Men Totem CENTRES.

Three drawings produced by Nukitjilpa depicted ceremonial spots associated
with the mythical Ice Men.

When Ice ancestors were mentioned it was thought that the interpreter had
misunderstood Nukitjilpa, but further questioning revealed the [act that a cold
substance (Ninja), hard like a stone, that came only in the winter time, was the
particular object in question. The word Ninja is apparently the general name for
winter, cold, and, apparently, ice. It is certain that in the winter the water holes
would be frozen, for during one night while travelling in the area under dis-
cussion, the author experienced a temperature of 17 degrees below freezing point.

Fig. 16 relates to an Ice ancestor at Munwinja, Tjarkupapingua, some
distance west of Ayers Rock (fig. 20). Dlere the mythical person speared an emu
at N. He then cut up the bird, leaving the head at M and portions of the fat at
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, I, J, K and L.®

Interpreting this drawing in the light of other figures in the suite it is most
likely that the designs have a topographical significance, the various series of con-
centric squares indicating hills or water holes, probably the latter.

©) Spencer and Gillen, 1912, pp. 24-28, mention the Bell Bird beings of the Unabunna
tribe of Lake Eyre. These people assisted in the extermination of a man-eating ancestor
called Wantu-Wantu.

(*) The fat of the emu is much prized by the aborigines. (Spencer and Gillen, 1889,
p. 197.)

237

Fig. 17 is associated with Thakatupungunta, in the Petermann Ranges (fig.
20). In the long distant past a number of Ice Men lived in this locality. After
making various natural features they entered the ground at B, C, D, E and BE.

These places today are unspecified natural features. Ais a kuntangka
(similar to the Aranda tjurunga) that was deposited by the mythical men in an
adjacent cave.

Fig. 18, in common with the locality associated with fig. 16, is the property
of Nukitjilpa’s father. This drawing is connected with the Ice totem centre of
Kanabiurata, an unlocalised place west of Ayers Rock (fig. 20).

The series of squares, A, indicate the spot where a left-handed Ice Man
speared an emu. This hunter is shown alongside A in a highly conventionalised
manner. B is the head, C the chest, D the abdomen, F the left hand, and E the
feet.

As the legend refers to the killing of an emu, it is possible that D may
represent a stomach distended with food. This condition has been frequently
observed by the writer when the natives have had an abundance of flesh foods.

The depicting of the human figure in crayon drawings is unusual, this.
example of the Ice man being the only one so far published from Central Aus-
tralia, although Mountford (1937B, p 7, figs. 1 and 2) records drawings of the Wati
Kutjara from the Ngadadjara tribe of the Warburton Ranges. Numbers of
rock paintings of the human figure, however, have been examined by the author
at Ayers Rock (fig. 20), but none resemble that of the Ice man of Kanabiurata.

(") The legendary custom of the ancestors “entering the ground” after they had
completed their ceremonies or journeys is common in Central Australian mythology.
(Spencer and Gillen, 1899, chap. 10.)

239

YELLOW GOANNA TOTEMIC CENTRE,

Fig 19 belongs to the country of the Yellow Goannas, and is another of the
totemic places of Nukitjilpa’s father. This locality, Numartara, is south-west of
Piltardi (fig. 20), and adjacent to the Woman totemic centre, Tjukurunkartana
(see fig. 2),

The central design A, as well as D, E, I, G, IT and J, are the holes in which
the Goanna lived in mythical times. B and C are his tracks. Nukitjilpa, when
making this drawing, mentioned that the Goanna, while living in this place, stole
a kuntangka (1.¢., tjurunga) from a neighbouring group.

Me .
a M® Currie,

cra
j, ‘cH Piltardi,

M! Olgai* LY Ayers Rock. td
MiGonnor. Ant

Bag Mgt
re tds sw tenga Rae
‘ 7 7
mi aie iced
ae a “hie ren ge ahaa
ares ‘aa ame 2)
‘Ss,

(sy
PAVE Rance.

Fig. 20.

DISCUSSION.

A comparison between the present suite and the Aranda drawings recorded
in a previous paper (Mountiord, 1937) shows several striking variations.

(1) The general form of the Aranda drawings, with the exception of fig. 17,
resembles the tjurunga of that area; whereas none of the designs recorded in this
series are like these sacred objects, either in form or arrangement. These charac-
teristics, however, cannot be over-stressed as the aforesaid Aranda drawings were
all the work of one individual, while a series produced by another Aranda native
might not show the same features.

(2) The concentric circle, so common in Aranda art and in the crayon
drawings of the Ngadadjara tribe (Mountford, 1937 B), tends to change into the
concentric square design. Examples of this are present in seven out of the
nineteen drawings recorded in this suite, z.¢., figs. 1, 11, 15, 16, 17, 18 and 19.

The concentric square symbol appears to have a limited range. It is not used
by the Aranda to the east, by the Walpari to the north, or by the Ngadadjara to
the west, although in the latter case lozenge-shaped figures were carved on one
of their sacred, tjurunga-like objects.

Mr. N. B. Tindale, when travelling at the eastern end of the Mann Ranges
in 1933, collected three tyurunga marked with a series of concentric squares. The
objects were not indigenous to the locality, but had been handed down from the

240

people of the north-west in the vicinity of the Rawlinson Range. These tjurunga
are now in the collection of the South Australian Museum (A.21633-5).

In general the meanings of the symbols in the several figures are similar to
those previously recorded from the Aranda and Ngadadjara tribe, the concentric
squares taking the place of the concentric circles.

SUM MARY.

This paper places on record a suite of nineteen crayon drawings that relate
to totemic centres in South-western Central Australia:

The interpretations and legends as received from the artists are recorded,
and the designs and relevant literature discussed.

LiTERATURE.

SpeNcER AND GILLEN, 1899: Native Tribes of Central Australia.
SPENCER AND GILLEN, 1912: Across Australia.
Mountrorp, C. P., 1937: Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. lxi, pp. 84-95.
Mountrorp, C. P., 1937 A: Oceania, June, vol. vii, No. 4, pp. 429-435.
Mountrorp, C. P., 1937B: Records S. Aust. Museum, vol. vi, No. 1, pp. 5-28.
‘Wiuiams, F., 1931: Journ. Roy. Anth, Inst., vol. lxi, Jan.-June, p. 147, pl. ix,

fig. 3.

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
NO. 35.

BY J. M. BLACK, A.L.S.

Summary

A. Outer glumes subequal, the lower one 3-5 mm. long, the upper one 4-6 mm. long; spikelets
4-7-flowered.

Flowering glume ending in 3-4 short obtuse unequal teeth, the nerves not reaching the summit, awn
12-24 mm. long .... A. Necsii 1

Flowering glume ending in four acute equal teeth, into which the nerves are produced; awn 10-15
mm. long.... .... A. recurvatus 2.

A. Outer glumes unequal, the lower one 4 mm. long, the upper one 7 mm. long; spikelets
2-4-flowered; flowering glume ending in 2-4 long bristle-like teeth into which the nerves are
produced; awn about 15 mm. long.... .... .... A. Archeri 3.

241

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
No, 35.

By J. M. Bracs, A.L.S.
{Read October 14, 1937.]
Piate XIV.

GRAMINEAE.

Amphibromus.

A. Outer glumes subequal, the lower one 3-5 mm. long, the upper
one 4-6 mm. long; spikelets 4-7-flowered.

Flowering glume ending in 3-4 short obtuse unequal tecth, the

nerves not reaching the summit, awn 12-24 mm. long .... A. Neesii 1
Flowering glume ending in four acute equal teeth, inte which
the nerves are produced; awn 10-15 mm, long ise w. A. recurvatus 2.

A. Outer glumes uncqual, the lower one 4 mm, long, the upper
one 7 mm. long; spikelets 2-4-flowered; flowering glume
ending in 2-4 long bristle-like teeth into which the nerves
are produced; awn about 15 mm. long ot 8 a. A, Archeri 3.

1. A. Neesii, Steud. (1855).—P. F. Morris in Vict. Nat., Oct., 1934, p. 4,
fig. 4; J. M. Black in Trans Roy Soc. S. Aust., 59: 253 (1935); pl. xiv, fig. 3, in
this volume.

2. A. recurvatus, Swallen (1931) —P. F. Morris, lc., p. 7, fig. L; J. M.
Black, l.c., 252, pl. v, fig. 4.

3. A. Archeri (Hook. £.) P. F. Morris, Lc., p. 6, fig. 2—Danthonia Archert,
Hook. f., Fl. Tasm. 2: 122, t. 1638 (1860).

Var. papillosus, P. F. Morris, Lc., p. 7, fig. 3; pl. xiv, fig. 4, in this volume and
fig. 18 in Fl. S. Aust. The variety has four bristle-like teeth at the top of the
flowering glume, which is about 8 mm. long and scabrous-papillose on the back,
the two inner bristles 3-6 mm. long, the outer two usually shorter. The back
sometimes splits below the two long bristles down to the base of the awn, which
then appears terminal instead of dorsal.

South Australia—Belair; Meadows. The species belongs to Victoria and
Tasmania, but only the variety has so far been found in this State. The type of
the species has only two long teeth on the flowering glume.

Ichnanthus austrahensis (Domin) Hughes—Panicum pauciflorum var.
fastigiatum, Benth. Near the Granites, C.A., Aug., 1936, E. C. Black and J, B.
Cleland. This short grass, which appears to be always dry and straw-coloured,
is used by the natives for lighting fires. Prof. Cleland reports that the natives
eat the grain,

Aristida biglandulosa, J. M. Black. Alice Springs, C.A., E. C. Black, Aug.,
1936. These specimens have the outer glumes about 12 mm. long (equalling the
flowering glume) ; the central awn is only about 23 mm. long and the lateral ones
about 18 mm.

Triodia procera, R. Br. Near the Granites, C.A., Aug., 1936, E. C. Black.
Leaf sheaths viscid, blades subpungent; panicle 30-40 cm. long, with erect
branches ; spikelets 8-10 mm. long, 2-3 mm. broad, mostly 5-flowered ; outer glumes
5-7 mm. long; flowering glumes about 5 mm. long, the three equal lanceolate teeth
much shorter than the entire part. First record for Central Australia.

242

Aristida echinata var. nitidula, Henr, In sandy soil at Aldinga, May, 1937,
G. H, Clarke, Typical of the variety, the flowering glume glabrous except near
the summit, where it is faintly pubescent ; stems stiff, erect, 80 cm, high.

Astrebla lappacea (Lindl.) Domin, Italowie Gorge, Flinders Range. Outer
glumes very unequal, the first 5-8 mm. long, 1-3-nerved, the second 8-12 mm. long,
7-13-nerved. In the lower spikelets the central awned lobe of the flowering glume
often scarcely exceeds the two lateral lobes—4. triticoides (Lindl.) F. v. M.;
Danthonia lappacea, Lindl. in Mitch. Three Exped. 1: 313 (1839) ; p, triticoides,
Lindl. in Mitch., Trop. Aust., 365 (1848).

Danthonia semiannularis (Labill.) R. Br. var. Browniana, Domin. Panicle
loose, 8-20 cm. long; outer glumes purplish, 15-20 mm. long; palea entire or
notched,

Mount Lofty Range, Nov, 1936, G. H. Clarke; also Eastern N.S.W.

CYPERACEAE,

Fimbristylis oxystachya, F. v. M. Twenty miles south of the Granites, C.A.,
Aug., 1936, J. B. Cleland, First record for Central Australia,

LILIACEAE,

Lomandra micrantha (Endl.) Ewart, which has been collected at Reynella,
Mount Compass and Monarto, is recognisable, in the male plant, by the loose
panicle, 10-16 cm. long, with spreading branches bearing small distant flowers,
single or twin, and drying brown or black, the segments spreading or recurved.
(Pl. xiv, fig. 2.)

PROTEACEAE,

Hlakea macrocarpa, A. Cunn. Between Coniston H.S., and the Granites,
C.A., Aug., 1936, E. C. Black; between Hann Range and Prowse’s Gap, J. B.
Cleland, Aug., 1936. Previously recorded from Finke River by Ewart. Fruits
pubescent.

Hakea Ivoryi, Bailey, nov. var. glabrescens. Variat perianthiis adultis fere
vel omnino glabris.

Central Australia—Sandhills near Crown Point, Finke River, Aug., 1913,
S.A. White; Fraser River, near MacDonald Downs, Sept., 1930, J. B. Cleland.

Grevillea eviostachya, Lindl. Twenty-five miles north-east of Ayers Rock,
C.A., June, 1935, J. B. Cleland. The specimens seem scarcely to differ from
Bentham’s description, except that the dense spike-like raceme is cylindrical (not
secund) all round the white-silky rhachis and the leaf-seyments are pungent. The
gland is cup-shaped and membranous round the base of the sessile ovary.

G. chordophylla, F.v. M. Fraser River, four miles east of M acDonald Downs,
C.A,, Aug., 1930, J. B. Cleland.

(7. oleaides, Sieb. Wilpena Pound, Flinders Range, June, 1937, FE. C. Black.

First record for South Australia —S.W, Victoria; N.S. Wales,

SANTALACEAE,

Anthobolus exocarpoides, F. y. M. South-east of the Granites, C.A,, Aug.,
1936, J. B. Cleland and F.C. Black, Male flowers shortly pedicellate, solitary or
in clusters of two and three, 3-4 mm. long, with four, rarely three, spreading lobes,
sometimes with a female flower among the males, so that this plant appears to be
submonoecious. Some specimens from the same locality have the pedicels shorter
than the fruits and seem to be A. leplomerioides, F. v. M., if these two species
are really distinct.

243

LORANTHACEAE.

Loranthus Murrayi, F. v. M. et Tate. Pine Hill Station (north-west of Alice
Springs), C.A., Aug., 1936, J. B. Cleland, First record for Central Australia.
Leaves flat, or almost so, 13-3 mm. broad; perianth 20-25 mm. long; calycle

6-toothed; berry ovoid, blackish-red, 8-10 mm. long. On Acacia aneura.

MENISPERMACEAE.

Tinospora smilacina, Benth. The Granites and 100 miles south-east thereof,
C.A., Aug., 1936, J. B. Cleland. First record for Central Australia.

CRUCIFERAE,

Fairly numerous specimens of Blennodia filifolia (F. v. M.) Benth., collected
from Flinders Range to Musgrave Ranges, show that the typical form with un-
divided leaves is very rare, the leaves being mostly bisect or trisect. The type
came from Crystal Brook and I have seen only one specimen, from Apoinga, with
undivided leaves. The only real distinction between B. fiifolia and B. trisecta
(F. vy, M.) Benth. lies in the fruits. B. filifolia has pedicels more or less spreading,
8-20 mm. long; pods about the same length and 2-24 mm. broad in the middle
and narrowed towards summit; seeds almost or quite in two rows, and a style
1-14 mm. long. B. trisecta has very slender, almost erect pedicels, 7-10 mm. long;
natrow-linear pods, 15-25 mm. long, or even longer, 1 mm. broad, sometimes
curved; seeds almost in one row, and the style sessile or almost so. The flowers
are alike; petals white, about 7 mm, long, sepals boat-shaped, oblong, about 4 mm.
long. Both species have seeds, when moistened, exuding a distinct but narrow
mucus, not a broad and radiate mucus as in the other species of Blennodia. They
are so closely allied that it is difficult to understand how the late O. E. Schulz, in
Engl. Pflanzenreich, Heft 86 (1924), has transferred them to two new widely
separated genera as Pseudarabidella filifolia and Arabidella trisecta.

The genus Blennodia, as arranged by Bentham, has been divided by Schulz
into no less than eight genera, of which seven are new, on very slight characters,
such as the surface of the testa of the seed, the greater or lesser breadth of the
filaments, the thickness of the fruiting pedicels and the number (sometimes
erroneously given) of seeds in the pod. The only species left by him in Blennodia
is B. canescens R. B., which is separated on account of its erect sepals. The
sepals of B. canescens open to a considerable extent before they fall off, and in
any case erect and spreading sepals are admitted in some other genera such as
Diplotaxis and Dithyrea,

In the description of B. pterosperma, J. M. Black (1925) it was erroneously
stated that the seeds are not mucose. The examination of ripe seeds proves that
they exude a radiate mucus when moistened.

It seems impossible to decide the generic position of Erysimum Richards,
F. v. M. (Sisymbrium Richardsii, Blennodva Richardsii) until we have ripe fruits
and seeds. The type, collected at Eucla and described by Mueller, Fragm. 10 : 105
(1877), has been kindly lent by the Director of the Victorian National Herbarium.
It is a plant, apparently annual and about 20 cm. high, beset with 2-branched
almost centrifixed hairs and a few simple ones; leaves oblanceolate, 3-5 cm. long,
8-15 mm. broad, with 34 rather distant, obtuse or acute lobes along each margin,
becoming glabrous, tapering into long petioles; stem 3 mm. thick but weak, leafy;
pedicels spreading-erect, 3-4 mm. long in flower to 12 mm. long under the hali-
ripe pod; sepals oblong, pubescent, 2-3 mm. long, persistent for some time; petals
4-5 mm, long; ovary oblong, hairy, slightly notched at base of style, which is
about 1 mm. long; ovules pendulous, apparently about eight in ovary. From the

notched, laterally compressed ovary it appears to be a Phlegmatospermum rather

244

than a Blennodia and is perhaps only a form of Ph. cochlearinum. Helms’s
specimen from Arkaringa Creek, identified as Sisymbrium Richardsii by Mueller
and Tate, is certainly Ph. cochlearinum.

The seeds of Stenopetalum, a genus which searcely differs from Blennodia,
except in the length of the petals, exude a radiate mucus.

Two new genera described by Schulz (Cuphonotus and Phlegmatospermum)
seetn worthy of acceptance as an attempt to settle some long-standing difficulties
in Australian taxonomy.

Curnonotus, O. E, Schulz (1933),

(Greek kouphos, light; nétes, back : the pod-valves are rounded on the back).

Sepals finally spreading ; petals very small, shortly clawed, about 2 mm. long;
anthers minute, reniform; ovary with 6-12 ovules; stigma almost sessile; pod
4-5 mm. long, laterally compressed, ovate, rounded at summit and base; valves
boat-shaped, rounded on back, with a faint midnerve; seeds ovate, exuding a
radiate mucus when moistened; cotyledons incumbent. Annuals with slender
stems 3-15 cm. long; flowers in naked racemes; leaves narrow, the basal ones
petiolate, entire or pinnatipartite.

Schulz says the cotyledons are stipitate (.@., arising behind the bend in the
embryo). This is true of C. humistraus, and may be true of C. antipodus, but
plate 4 in-Hooker’s Flora of Tasmania does not show this character.

Differs from Phlegmatospenmum in the less compressed pod, not notched
below the stigma, and the almost complete absence of a style ; also in the very short,
broad anthers.

Plant pubescent with 2-branched or 3-branched hairs; petals

white; seeds 6-10 in pod... iat es nen nf . Cy antipodus 1.

Plant glabrous; petals yellow; seeds 2-4 in the pod re: we C. humistratus 2,

1. C. antipodus (F. v. M.) nov. comb, = Capsella antipoda, F, v. M. in
Trans. Phil. Soc. Vict. 1:34 (1855); Hutchinsia australis, Hook. £. Fl. Tasm.,
1: 23, t. 4 (1860) ; Cuphonotus australis (Ilook. f.), O. E. Schulz in Engl. Bot.
Jahrb. 66 : 1: 92 (1933),

Central and southern Victoria; Tasmania.

2. C. humistratus (F. v. M.) O. E. Schulz (1933) = Capsella humistrata,
F. v. M. (1875) ; Hutchinsia humistrata (F. v. M.) J. M. Black (1924),

Western New South Wales. Recorded for our Trans-Murray region, but I
have seen no specimen from there.

Capsella procumbens (L.) Fries (Hutchinsia procumbens (L.) Desv.)
becomes Hymenolobus procumbens (L.) Nuttall, the latter genus being dis-
tinguished from Capsella by the pod rounded at summit and from Hutchinsia by
6-12 seeds in the pod instead of only 4, and from both by the moistened seeds
exuding a radiate mucus. Hymenolobus is very near to Cuphonotus, from which
it differs chiefly in its smaller, more numerous seeds and the cotyledons not
stipitate.

The only species of Capsella growing in South Australia are the introduced
C’. Bursa-pastoris (L.) Med. and the small native C, pilosula, F. v. M., which has
all the characters of the genus except that most of the Howers in the raceme are
subtended by a small Icafy bract.

PHLEGMATOSPERMUM, O, E. Schulz (1933),
(Greek phlegma, mucus; sperma, seed.)

Sepals finally spreading; petals with orbicular lamina and conspicuous claw;
anthers ovate-oblong, about 14 mm, long; pod laterally flattened, sharply notched
when ripe, the notch being caused by the gradual separation of the more or less
winged tips of the keeled valves from the base of the short style; ovary with

245

6-12 ovules; seeds comparatively large, compressed, mucose when moistened, the
cotyledons obliquely incumbent or obliquely accumbent, very shortly stipitate.

Ph. cochlearinum (F. v. M.) O. E. Schulz in Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 66:1: 93
(1933). Annual 10-30 em. high, beset with appressed hairs centrifixed or
2-branched on a very short stipes; leaves petiolate, ovate-oblong, 2-7 cm. long,
entire or bluntly or sharply toothed or lobed, becoming almost glabrous, the basal
ones at first forming a rosette; fruiting racemes 4 to over 20 cin. long; sepals
ovate-oblong, obtuse, spreading, 3-4 mm. long; petals white, 6-8 mm. long,
purplish at base of lamina; pedicels spreading-erect, 10-20 mm. long in fruit;
style 2-3 mm. long, protruding beyond the notch; pods pubescent, ovate, 5-12 mm.
long, 3-9 mm. broad; seeds 4-8 in pod, rarely only 2, ovate or almost orbicular,
2-3 mm. long—Eunomia cochlearina, F. v. M. in Linnea 25: 369 (1852) ; Thlaspi
cochlearinum F. v. M., Pl. Vict. 1:51 (1860); Capsella cochlearina F. v. M.
Ist Cens. 6 (1882) ; Hutchinsia cochlearina, J. M. Black, FI. S. Aust., 254 (1924).

Var. ochranthum, nov. comb.—Capsella cochlearina var. ochrantha, Maiden
et Betche Cens. N.S.W., pl. 84 (1916); Thlaspi ochranthum Benth. (1863) ;
Capsella ochrantha F. v. M. (1878) ; Phlegmatospermum ochranthum (Benth.)
O. E. Schulz (1933). Appears to differ only in the yellow petals. Mueller united
C. ochrantha with C. cochlearina in his Fragm. 2: 137 (1881).

Both forms occur from the Flinders Range to the Far North and Diamantina
River and westward to the Everard Ranges and Nullarbor Plain, Also in western
New South Wales.

Var. eremdea, nov. comb. Style scarcely exceeding notch of pod; racemes
often paniculate ; petals shorter —Hutchinsia eremaea, J. M. Black in Trans. Roy.
Soc. S. Aust., 47: 369 (1923) —Only one specimen in the Tate Herbarium with-
out locality.

Ph. Drummondii (Benth.) O, E. Schulz (Thlaspi Drummondti, Benth.) has
not yet been found in South Australia. The specimens from the head of the Great
Australian Bight, Mrs. Richards, 1879, so named by Mueller, have not the stellate
hairs on very short fruiting pedicels (2-4 mm. long) or the obovate almost
truncate pods of the typical Western Australian plant. They appear to be
Ph, cochlearinum.,

Phlegmatospermum differs from Cuphonotus in the pod notched at the base
of the style, the valves keeled, not rounded on the back, and in the broad cotyle-
dons; from Lepidium in having more than two ovules in the ovary, the pod less
conspicuously notched and in the broad cotyledons; from Capsella in the pod not
obcordate, and from Hutchinsia by the pod-valves not rounded on back and by
more than four ovules in the ovary, ftom both by the mucose seeds; from
Hymenolobus by the notched pod, fewer ovules and the presence of a style; from
Thlaspi by the stem-leaves petiolate, not sessile with stem-clasping auricles and by
the mucose sceds; from Blennodia by the pod compressed laterally, not dorsally,
and the sharply keeled valves; from all by the irregularly oblique cotyledons,

Schulz transfers Menkea villosula (F. v. M. et Tate) J. M. Black to
Phlegmatospermum, an error probably due to insufficient material. See Trans.
Roy Soc. S. Aust. 16:335 (1892) ; 39: 830, t. 70 (1915); 40:62 (1916). The
specimens collected on the Arkaringa Creek by R, Helms in May, 1891, on which
Mueller and Tate founded Capsella villosula, were without ripe pods, and this
is probably the reason why the number of seeds was wrongly described. An
examination of the ovaries of the type-specimen shows that they contain 50-60
ovules The hairiness of this species renders inapplicable that portion of Schulz’s
key, Nat. Pflanzenfam., ed. 2:17b:290 (1936), where Menkea is placed among
the “quite glabrous” genera.

*Brassica Tourneforti, Gouan. Barton, East-West Railway, Sept., 1936,
J.B. Cleland, Galga (Murray lands), March, 1937, H. C. Threadgold. Dis-

246

tinguished by its long rosulate lyrate basal leaves, the stem-leaves few and small,
the uppermost linear and entire; beak 8-13 mm. long, nearly half as long as the
l-nerved pod; stem and leaves beset with stiff spreading hairs; flowers very pale
yellow.—ltaly, Spain, North Africa and eastward to Asia Minor and India.
Apparently the first record for Eastern Australia. he plant has been known in
the south-western districts of Western Australia as a weed for several years; Mr.
C. A. Gardner thinks it appeared first about 1916.

LEGUMINOSAE,

Swainsona microphylla, Gray. Rumbalara railway station, C.A., Aug., 1931,
E. H. Ising; Aug., 1936, L, C. Black. The Central Australian specimens have
often larger and fewer leaflets than in the typical farm (7-11 mm. long by 5-6 mm.
broad and 9-13 in number).

S. cyclocarpa, F. v. M. has a similar tuft of hairs behind the stigma, but the
tip of the style is abruptly incurved, instead of straight, as it is in microphylla,
and the ovary is densely appressed-pubescent instead of glabrous. The type of
cyclocarpa, kindly lent by Mr. F. J. Rae, Government Botanist of Victoria, has
only about seven flowers in the raceme, the pedicels are about 4 mm. long and the
bracts ovate-mucronate and only about one-third as long as the pedicels. The
hairs are basifixed.

Acacia oncinocarpa, Benth. (1842). South-east of the Granites, CA., Aug.,
1936, FE. C. Black = A. oligoneura, F. v. M. (1859). First record for Central
Australia.

Acacia lysiphloia, F. v. M. Near the Granites, C.A., Aug., 1936, E. C. Black.
Pods 5-7 cm. long, Previously found by H. Kempe near Hermannsburg.

Acacia xylocarpa, F, v. M. Near the Granites, C.A., E. C. Black. First
record for Central Australia.

Acacia myrlifolia (Sm.) Willd. Specimens in young bud, collected by
H. H. Finlayson on Fleurieu Peninsula, show that the very young flowerheads
are enclosed in small almost orbicular ciliolate caducous bracts about 2 mm. long.
This character might be discovered in many other species of Acacia, if they were
examined in the earliest flowering stage. The phyllodes are broader than usual
—1-4 cm.

Acacia Kempeana, F. v. M. Specimens grown at Broken Hill from seed
collected at Arltunga, C.A., have pods mostly 12-20 mm. broad and quite glabrous.
Specimens from other places sometimes show microscopic papillae, especially near
the summit of the pods, which differ from those of both the narrow- and broad-
leaved forms of A. aneura in absence of hairs. The pods of A. aneura always
show clothing of small appressed hairs.

Acacia monticola, nov. comb, Jervois Range, C.A., April, 1937, R. L.
Cracker, Also collected at Haast’s Bluff, MacDonnell Ranges, by G. F. Hill in
1911; the type specimens came from North Australia. = A. impressa, F. v. M. in
Journ, Linn. Soc. 3:133 (1859), non Lindl. in Bot. Reg. t. 1115 (1827),
A, impressa, F, v. M., cannot stand, according to Art. 61 of the International Rules
of 1935, which says :—‘Even if the carlicr homonym is illegitimate, or is generally
treated as a synonym on taxonomic grounds, the later homonym must be rejected.”
A. impressa, Lindl., is a synonym of A. penninervis, Sieb. (1825).

Zornia diphylla, Pers. Twenty miles south of the Granites, C.A., Aug., 1936,
J.B, Cleland, First record for Central Australia.

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE.

Tribulus Solandri (R. Br.) F. v, M. The Granites, C.A., Aug., 1936, J. B.
Cleland, Fruit sometimes of only one carpel. First record for Central Australia.

247

Tribulus occidentalis, R. Br. Between Flinders Range and Lake Frome,
April, 1937, E. C. Black. A more southerly station than any yet recorded.

EUPHORBIACEAE,

*Euphorbia Paralias, L.. Sea Spurge. Coast opposite Wardang Island, Y.P.,
J. B. Cleland. A perennial, distinguished by its many short erect stiff imbricate
leaves, rugose capsule and smooth seeds almost without caruncle, Apparently the
first record for Australia——Western Europe and Mediterranean region.

SAPINDACEAE.

Dodonaea cuneata, Rudge. Near the Granites, C.A., Aug., 1936, E. C. Black.
First record for Central Australia.

STERCULIACEAE,

Waltheria indica, L. Creek at Coniston Station, C.A., Aug., 1931, J. B.
Cleland.
Commersonia crispa, Turez. Mareeni Plain, MacDonnell Range, Feb., 1935,
H. H. Finlayson; 100 miles S.E. of the Granites, C.A., Aug., 1936, J. B. Cleland.
First record for Central Australia.
MvyrTacEAE.

Eucalyptus pachyphylla, F. v. M., var. sessilis, Maiden —E. sessilis (Maiden)
Blakely. Near the Granites, C.A., Aug., 1936, E. C. Black.

Calytrix longiflora, F. v. M. Archibald’s Soak, near the Granites, C.A., Aug.,
1936, E. C. Black. The flowers are large and bright red, the leaves triquetrous-
ciliate and 2-4 mm. long, the bracteoles connate near base and 5 mm. long.

Callistemon pinifolius, DC. (?). Wilpena Pound, June, 1937, E. C. Black.
The specimen, in fruit only, has the subulate leaves narrowly 1-grooved on the
upper face, and the fruits, crowded in a dense spike, are globular-truncate and
9-10 mm. in diameter. Only known hitherto from eastern New South Wales,
Dubbo being the most westerly place of collection in that State.

BoORRAGINACEAE.

Heliotropium diversifolium, F. v. M. Twenty miles south of the Granites,
C.A., Aug., 1936, J. B. Cleland. First record for Central Australia.

Heliotropium strigosum, Willd. The Granites, C.A., Aug., 1936. J. B,
Cleland. First record for Central Australia.

SOLANACEAE,

Solanum ferocissimum, Lindl. Pine Hill Station (near Lander Creek), C.A.,
Aug., 1936, J. B. Cleland.

Solanum nemophilum, F. v. M. (1861). The Granites, C.A., Aug.,
1936, J. B. Cleland. In the thick soft leaves this species resembles S. Oldfieldu,
F. v. M., but the latter differs in its broader, more ovate leaves, much shorter
anthers (Mueller says only 3 mm, long) and globular fruit. The berry of
nemophilum appears to be globular at first, finally ovoid, yellow and edible, on a
refracted pedicel 10-12 mm. long. The ovary is 4-celled, as against 2-celled in
Oldfieldii. Professor Cleland’s note on plant says:—"Fruits yellowish, rather
oval, 15 mm. long by 11 mm. wide.” = S. centrale, J. M. Black (1934).

Solanum petrophilum, F.v. M. Ernabella (Musgrave Ranges), J. B. Cleland.
Leaves to 8 cm. long by 4 cm. broad; flowers to 10 in the raceme; fruiting calyx
to 20 mm. long. Native name, “djilka djilka.”

248

Nicotiana Benthamiana, Domin in Bibl. Bot. 22: 591, t. 37, fig. 1 (1929),
The Granites, C.A., Aug., 1936, J. B. Cleland, = N. suaveolens var. cordifolia,
Benth., Fl. Aust. 4:470 (1869), The distinguishing feature is that the bracts of
the inflorescence are large and leafy, the panicle occupying the greater part of
the plant, which, in our specimens, is 20-60 cm, high; stem usually branching,
rarcly simple in small plants; leaves ovate to almost orbicular, the lower ones
petiolate and usually cordate at base, the middle and upper ones or bracts becon-
ing gradually smaller, sessile and more acute, but always conspicuous and often
much longer than the flowers; pedicels 2-3 mm. long in flower and 3-8 mm. long
in fruit; calyx 8-12 mm. long, the lobes about equalling the tube; corolla-tube
25-40 mm. long, about 14 mm. in diam., tapering downwards; fifth stamen
inserted slightly below middle of corolla. ‘The hairs are short, spreading and
mostly tipped by a spherical gland.

The type, with apparently rather larger flowers, came from the north-west
coast of Western Australia. Two small specimens were, according to Dr. Wheeler,
collected by Winnecke in some part of Central Australia in 1883, Professor
Cleland notes: “flowers white, very fragrant; leaves chewed by natives as
narcotic.”

Nicotiana rotundifolia, Lindl. Slopes of Mount Gillen, C.A., Aug., 1936,
J. B, Cleland; between Alice Springs and the Granites, C.A., Aug., 1936, FE. C.
Black. Corolla-tube from 15 to 28 mm. in length, and sometimes reaches 38 mm. ;
14-24 mm. in diam., tapering towards base. The inflorescence occupies the greater
part of the plant; the basal rosette is conspicuous.

SCROPHULARIACEAE,

Adenosma caerulea, R. Br. Twenty miles south of the Granites, C.A., Aug.,
1936, J. B. Cleland. First record for Central Australia,

BIGNONIACEAE,

Pandorea doratoxylon, nov. comb. “Shrub 2 m. high.” Capsule ovoid-oblong
4-34 em. long, acuminate at summit, on a stipes 5-10 mm. long, with woody valves
and over 30 flat brown winged seeds (7-10 mm. broad, including the wings) in
each of the two cells—Mount Gillen, MacDonnell Ranges, C.A., Aug., 1936,
E. C. Black-——Tecoma doratoxylon, J). M. Black. Has the characters of Pandorea,
but is not a climbing plant, This is the first time the capsules have been collected.

RUBIACEAE.

Spermacoce auriculata, F. v. M. Twenty miles south of the Granites, C.A.,
Aug., 1936, J. B. Cleland, Small very scabrous plants, 7-12 cm, high. TVirst record
for Central Australia.

Anotis pterospora (TF. v. M.) Benth. et Hook. (1873). Twenty miles south
of the Granites, C.A., Aug., 1936, /. B. Cleland. Virst record for Central Aus-
tralia, Flowers mostly twin, one on pedicel of 2 mm.,, the other on pedicel of
5-10 mm.; capsule with 3-5 ripe seeds and about as many abortive spongy ones;
seeds subovate, 2-24 mm. long. The two flat lateral extensions of the seed are
not wings in the ordinary sense, for they contain much-compressed albumen,
the terete embryo being contained in the prominent central ridge. = Hedyotis
pterospora, F. v. M. (1864) ; Oldenlandia pterospora, F. v. M. (1882).

GOODENIACEAE.

Goodenia calcarata, F. v. M. Chambers’ Creek, Flinders Range, June, 1937,
E.C. Black. The corolla is not yellow, but white, with purple streaks in the lower

249

part; most of the peduncles have two small bracteoles some distance below the
flower.
COMPOSITAE,

Brachycome lyrifolia, nov. sp. Plantula forsan annua, pilis minutis
glandulosis conspersa, 8-12 cm. alta; culmi gracillimi, foliosi; folia obovato-sinuata
vel lyrata, in petiolum angustata, 10-15 mm. longa, circa 10 mm. lata, lobis segmen-
tisque oblongis, subobtusis ; pedunculi capillares, 2-4 cm. longi; involucri bracteae
lanceolatae, apicem versus denticulatae, 3-4 mm. longae; ligulae florum radi 30-40,
violaceae, 6-7 mm. longae; achaenia subcompressa, oblongo-cuneata, fusco-
brunnea, 2 mm, longa, crasse marginata, exalata, ea disci ‘} mm. lata, margine
pilis crispis ciliata, ea radii angustiora, glabra, pappo in ambobus minuto vel nullo.
(Tab. xiv, fig. 1.)

South Australia—Chambers’ Creek, Flinders Range, June, 1937, E. C. Black;
Central Australia—Mount Gillen, Aug., 1936, E. C. Black.

There is a specimen in the Tate Herbarium, without label in a folder of
B. ciliaris, which may be that mentioned by Max Koch’in Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A,
22: 112 (1898) as “B. ciliaris, Less. No. 346, stems and leaves glabrous; leaves
few, broader with short lobes; flowers blue,” and growing on Mount Lyndhurst
run, in the Flinders Range.

Belongs to Bentham’s section Paguerina, differing from B. microcarpa,
F. v. M., in the achenes less flattened and narrower, those of the disk with curled
hairs along the margins. It differs from B. ciliaris in obovate or lyrate leaves with
broader lobes and in the wingless achenes; from B. Tafei in the thin leaves with
longer petioles, the disk achenes distinctly ciliate with curled hairs, the acute
involucral bracts and the peduncles at least twice as long as the leaves.

*Soliva sessilis, Ruiz et Pavén. National Park, Belair, Oct., 1935, J. B.
Cleland. This small hairy plant is a native of Chile, recorded in Victoria in 1894
and adventure in California. First record for South Australia. In foliage it
resembles Cotula australis, but the flowerheads are sessile.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XIV.

1. Brachycome lyrifolia:—flowering stem; A, ray achene; B, disk achene.

2. Lomandra micrantha:—male plant; C, bract and twin flowers; D, open perianth.
Fig. 3. Amphibromus Neest:—spikelet and flowering glume spread open.

4. Amphibromus Archeri var. papillosus:—the same. details.

A SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE RELATING TO THE OCCURRENCE IN
AUSTRALIA OF HELMINTH PARASITES OF MAN.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC., AND J. B. CLELAND, M.D.

Summary

The present contribution is to be regarded as a continuation of a paper entitled "The Helminth
Parasites of Man in Australia” by the same authors. read before the Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science, in January, 1911, and published in the report issued in 1912
(pp. 301-314). Records relating to Queensland were brought up to date and published by one of us
(T. H. J.) in a census of the parasites recorded as occurring in that State (Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 28,
1916, pp. 31-79). Some records omitted from our earlier paper (1911) are being included in the
present one.

250

A SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE RELATING TO THE OCCURRENCE
IN AUSTRALIA OF HELMINTH PARASITES OF MAN.

By T. Harvey Jomnston, M.A., D.Sc., and J. B. CLeranp, M.D.,
University of Adelaide.

[Read October 14, 1937.]

I. INTRODUCTORY.

The present contribution is to be regarded as a continuation of a paper
entitled “The Helminth Parasites of Man in Australia” by the same authors.
read before the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, in
January, 1911, and published in the report issued in 1912 (pp. 301-314). Records
relating to Queensland were brought up to date and published by one of us
(T. H. J.) in a census of the parasites recorded as occurring in that State (Proc.
Roy. Soc. Qld., 28, 1916, pp. 31-79). Some records omitted from our earlier
paper (1911) are being included in the present one.

As one would expect, the bulk of the published work relating to our subject
appears in the Medical Journal of Australia. In order to save space, a literature
list is not included and authors’ initials are omitted, but the year, volume and page
of the Journal are given, so that ready reference may be made to the article and
to the author concerned. The term “Editor” is used to indicate leading articles,
comments or unsigned communications. The pages of the Journal contain certain
papers relating to human helminthological work elsewhere, and some of these
are indicated in the appropriate place. Others give a great deal of information
regarding parasitism in some of the Pacific Islands, such being the reports by
O’Connor (1923, vol ii, p. 76); Lambert (1926, vol i, p. 623; and 1929, vol. i,
p. 45), on conditions in the Cook Islands and Rotumah, respectively; Ritchie
(1927, vol. i, p. 480; vol. ii, suppl., p. 397), on Samoa; Hetherington and Steenson
(1929, vol. 1, p. 856), on hookworms in the Solomon Islands; Hermant and
Cilento (reviewed in 1930, vol. i, p. 724), on Mclanesia generally; Baldwin (1932,
vol. i, p. 543), on Norfolk Island; Grant (1933, vol. i, two articles), on Nauru;
and Clements (1936, vol. i. p. 451), on Papua. In the Australasian Medical
Gazette, June, 1911, p. 356, there appeared a summary of a paper by Jones
(Tr. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., Jan., 1911) dealing with diseases in New Guinea.

Most of the papers relating to Australian human helminthology refer to a
particular species or to a particular human case, but sume deal with a much
wider aspeet. ‘This remark refers more especially to communications hy the Hook-
worm Campaign Medical Officers, Waite (1918, vol. 11), Lambert (1921, vol. i),
and Sweet (1924, vol. i), by Charlton (1924, val. i), and by Heydon (1926, vol. ii;
1931, vol. i).

Articles of particular biological value have been published by H, N. Fairley,
on schistosomiasis ; by H. N. Fairley, K. D. Fairley, Dew and others, on hydatids ;
Clunies Ross, on the relation between human and dog infestations with hydatids
in country districts of New South Wales; and by Heydon (1927), on the biology
of hookworms in Northern Queensland. Recently Penfold (1935, 1936, 1937)
and his associates have studied the biology of the cestode, Taenia saginata, and
its larva, Cy'sticercus bovis, in Victoria. Bradley (1925 to 1933) published several
papers dealing with trematode infection of pond snails in New South Wales.

As one would expeci, the parasite which has received most attention in Aus-
tralian medical literature during the period under review, is the hydatid,
Echinococcus granulosus, followed in importance by the two hookworms,

251

Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus, whose distribution in Australia
has been specially studied by the staff of the Hookworm Campaign and that of the
Australian Institute of Tropical Medicine.

Il. TREMATODE INFECTIONS.

SPECIES OF SCHISTOSOMUM (BILMIARZTA),

On account of Australian soldiers having become infected with schistosomiasis
during the South African War, as well as in Egypt during the Great War, the
blood flukes Schistosomum haematobium (Bilharz) and S. mansoni Sambon,
were responsible for many reports in our medical journals. Johnston (Proc.
Roy. Soc. Qld., 1916, p. 35) mentioned that soldiers from Queensland had
become infected with S. haematobium during the Boer War. In the report of
the Government Statistician (Mr. Fraser) of Western Australia for the year
ended December 31, 1911 (quoted in the Australasian Medical Gazette, July 27,
1912, p. 104) there is a reference to a case contracted in Africa and notified to
the Health Department in Perth, while two further cases, said to be undoubtedly
infected from the first, were subsequently notified. These cases are presumably
those referred to by Nelson (A. Med. Gaz., 1912) as having occurred at Green-
bushes. Reference was made to a case by Deakin, who found abundant ova in
the urine of a man infected outside Australia (Brit. Med. Meeting, Perth, ;
A. Med, Gaz., April, 1912).

In 1915 the Medical Journal of Australia came into existence, and in its
second volume there appears an account by Chenhall (p. 359) of bilharziasis
complicated by adenocarcinoma of the bladder in a stewardess engaged in a Java-
Singapore steamship service. The parasite was S. haematobium.

In 1917 (M. J. A., vol. i, p. 79) Walton Smith referred to cases amongst
returned soldiers in Randwick Hospital, Sydney, S. haematobium and S. mansoni
being present. An editorial note on Bilharziasis (p. 80); a report of a demonstra-
tion by Poulton and Rice (p. 90) of eggs of S. haematobium, from a returned
soldier in Adelaide; and a letter by Moreau (p. 113) on the mode of infection,
all appear in this volume. In the second volume for the same year, Lawton
(p. 247) described the early symptoms following invasion by S. mansoni, his
cases being Australian soldiers in the Australian Military Hospital in Egypt
in 1916.

In 1919 (M. J. A., vol. i) Fairley wrote on some recent advances in our
knowledge of bilharziasis and dealt with the life cycle. He referred to many
cases of infections of Australian soldiers by both species of blood flukes. The
pathology of the disease was indicated. He went on (p. 274) to deal with its
complement fixation reaction; and in vol. ii (p. 528) published a report on further
cases of Australians infected in Egypt with both species, and their treatment with
tartar emetic.

In 1920 (M. J. A., vol. i) there appears, under the title “The Control of
Malaria and Bilharziasis,” a review of the steps being taken by the Common-
wealth Department of Public Health to deal with these diseases (p. 104). It was
staied by Cumpston that approximately one hundred members of the A.LF. had
returned infected with schistosomes. Cases amongst returned Tasmanian soldiers
were referred to by Clarke (p. 204, abstract from Ann. Rep. Chief Health Officer,
Tasmania, for 1918-1919). An editorial on “Bilharziasis” (p. 497) referred to
the plans adopted with a view to controlling the disease amongst returned men in
Victoria, where the Commussioner of Public Health, in July, 1920, had declared
it to be a notifiable disease (p. 104).

In 1921 (M. J. A., vol. i) appear several references. Summers and Irving
(p. 83) published observations on the treatment by tartar emetic in Melbourne,
cases of infection by both species being mentioned, A radiological note on these

252

cases was presented by Cross (p. 85), and the cystoscopic appearances described
by Shaw (p. 85). McWhae (p. 87) referred to the disease amongst more than
twenty returned men in Western Australia and their treatment with tartar emetic.
The parasite appears to have been S. haematobium. Fairley (p. 206) dealt with
bilharziasis in his paper on observations and reflections on the toxicity, the
immunity response and the treatment of certain helminthic infestations, and
referred to his earlier work published in the Journal of the Royal Army Medical
Corps, 1919, p. 449, as well as to the work of Christopherson in the Lancet,
1918 (2), and British Med. Jour., 1918 and 1919. Lambert (p. 333) in his report
on the intestinal parasites of man in North Queensland, stated that ova of
Bilhargzia, though expected and looked for, were not detected during the hook-
worm investigations in that region. Dew and Fairley (p. 460), in their account
of dysentery infections, referred to bilharzial dysentery due to S. mansoni and,
occasionally, S. haematebium, met with amongst Australian troops in Egypt. A
letter from Christopherson (p. 507) dealing with the treatment of the disease
relates to results which are not Australian.

In M. J. A., vol ii, of 1921, Pavy (p. 155) referred to the treatment with
antimony tartrate, in Adelaide, of men infected in Egypt and exhibiting both
rectal and urimary bilharziasis, S, haematobium being recognised in the latter.
MecWhae and Jagger (p. 217) dealt with Western Australian returned soldiers
with both types of the disease.

In 1922 (M. J. A., vol. ii, p. 441) Milton discussed the possibility of
schistosomiasis becoming established in Australia, and referred to the range of the
three human species of Schistosomum and of the various genera of fresh-water
molluscs, species of which are known to serve as hosts for larval stages. He
pointed out that Australia lies in the zone which is open to invasion by these flukes,
that many cases of infection have already been introduced, and that species of
Planorbis, Bullinus and Limnaea occur in the Commonwealth. He regarded it
as “almost certain that some of the fresh-water molluscs indigenous in Australia
will be found suitable for the development of the parasites,” but that apparently
there is some inhibiting factor present which prevents the worms from gaining a
permanent footing. In the following year, 1923 (vol. i, p. 166) Milton returned
to the subject, mentioning that S. mansoni could utilize the snail, Bullmus, in
South Africa, hence the greatly increased possibility that species of Schistosomum
might adapt themselves to Australian molluscs.

In 1923 (M. J. A., vol ii, p. 623) it is stated that a case of bilharziasis had
been notified in Queensland, and one in Western Australia, for the year 1922.

In 1924 (M. J. A., vol i, Supplement, p. 325) Charlton referred to the
introduction of the parasites into Australia by returned soldicrs and stated that
possibly S. japonicuan had been introduced by Chinese and Japanese into North
Australia. In vol. ii (p. 606) Holland and Woodward drew attention to a case
endemic in Australia, the patient being a child, aged three, who had never been
away from Grafton, N.S.W., but whose urine exhibited the presence of typical
S, haematobium, while a lateral spinal egg was also detected.

In 1925 (M. J. A., vol. ti, p. 509) there appeared a review of an article by
Cawston, “Bilharzia, a paper for the practitioner,” which had appeared in the
Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene of that year.

In 1927 (M. J. A., vol. ii, p. 811) Fairley and Williams published a pre-
liminary report on an intradermal reaction in schistosmiasis, dealing with S. haema-
tobium, the antigen being derived from dried powdered livers of Planorbis infected
with S. spindalis, which infects goats in India. The tests were applied to returned
soldiers in Melbourne.

The subject was referred to again by Fairley, Fairley and Williams in 1929
(M. J. A., vol ii, p. 324) when dealing more particularly with the intradermal

253

test for hydatid disease. In the same year (vol. ii, p, 597) Fairley and Fairley
referred to the Australian cases associated with the South African War and the
Great War, and reported the presence of both S. mansoni and S. haematobium
in Jewish immigrants into Victoria from Palestine.

In 1933 (M. J. A., vol. i, p. 245) Bradley, after a study of the larval trema-
tode fauna of some Eastern Australian pond snails, discussed the possibility of
flukes like Paragonimus and Schistosomum becoming endemic in Australia. In
1937 (vol. i, p. 432) Bateman gave a survey of twenty years of medical practice
in the valley of the Nile, and referred to the presence of both species there.

In our original paper in 1911 we otnitted reference to an exhibit of bilharzial
growths from the bladder, together with microscopic sections from them, shown
by Syme (Austr. Med. Jour., 15, 1893, p. 464), but there is no indication whether
the case was Australian or not.

In a publication issued by the Defence Department (1917), Cherry referred
to earlier cases, to the geographical position of Australia, and to the presence
of various kinds. of trematode larvae in Victorian pond snails. He went on to
draw attention to the danger of bilharziasis becoming endemic in the Common-
wealth (pp. 1-20). In the same pamphlet there is a report by Lawton dealing
with the early clinical features of the disease caused by 5S. mansoni as seen amongst
Australian soldiers in Egypt during 1916 (pp. 21-30).

In a subsequent pamphlet, also issued apparently by the Defence Department
(Melbourne, 1917), Cherry published advice and instructions for men of the
A.LF, returning from Egypt. He pointed out that the risk of introducing the
disease is greatest in the dry season of the year-—October to March in the southern
part of the continent, and March to October in the northern portion—and that
those parts receiving a heavy rainfall, or else cities with a proper sewerage system
should be selected by patients as a place of residence, whereas irrigation settle-
ments should be avoided.

Fairley and Bahr in their account of observations on Egyptian bilharziasis, as
seen amongst our troops in the Australian General Hospital, Cairo (Defence
Department, Melbourne, 1917, 42 pp.), referred to some cases reported in 1912
from Western Australia as evidence that some molluscan species in the Common-
wealth must be capable of serving as an intermediate host for S. haematobium at
least. They also pointed out the necessity for studying the biology of our pond
snails and their relation to possible infection by schistosomes (p. 39).

In “Health,” vol. vi, 1928, there appeared articles by Holmes (p. 70) and
Fairley (p. 75) on bilharziasis in returned Australian soldiers.

Fairley, in the Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps, 1919 (p. 449),
and in the Quarterly Journal of Medicine, July, 1919 (p. 391) also dealt with
cases amongst Australian soldiers in Egypt and with the complement fixation test
for the disease. Holmes (‘‘Health,” vol. vi, May, 1928, p. 70) discussed measures
for the control of malaria and Bilhargia introduced into the Commonwealth by
returned soldiers. Turner (J. Path., Bact., Edinb., 29, 1926, 307) dealt with
complement fixation.

CLonorciis stIneNsts (Cobbold).

The Chinese liver fluke has been collected in Australia on many occasions,
but in every instance from Chinese immigrants. Sheldon, in 1921 (M. J. A,
vol. ii, p. 520), referred to finding hundreds of the parasites in the bile ducts
and in an abscess below the diaphragm, but bursting into the pericardium (Sydney
ease), This author had reported a similar case in the Australasian Medical
Gazelte of June 22, 1912 (p. 663).

In 1924 (vol. i) Sweet recorded finding it in North Queensland (p, 406), as
also did Charlton (p. 324), amongst orientals who had become infected elsewhere.

254

Jeremy and Jones (1935, vol. ii, p. 351) referred to finding it in a Chinese in
Sydney Hospital some years previously. In 1937 (vol. i, p. 881) there appeared
an editorial article on Clonorchiasis evoked by a Chinese report relating to condi-
tions in Canton, where over eleven per cent. of the population was estimated to
be infected,

Nicoll (Parasitology, 1, 1914, p. 334) referred to the occurrence of this
fluke in Chinese in Port Darwin. In the report of the Director-General of Public
Health, N.S.W., 1924 (p. 176), there is a reference to the finding of the parasite
in the liver of a leprous Chinaman at the Coast Ilospital, Sydney. Cilento,
McIntosh and Charlton, in their bulletin on bowel diseases (Commonwealth Health
Dept., Tropical Publ., 5, 1924, p. 8), recorded this fluke from Chinese in Port
Darwin and in Ingham, North Queensland,

FASCIOLA HEPATICA [.inn,

The common liver fluke of sheep has been recorded from a man from the
Illawarra district of New South Wales by Jeremy and Jones (M. J. A., 1935,
vol. ii, p. 351), the diagnosis being confirmed by Dr. Heydon. The administration
of carbon tetrachloride apparently eliminated the parasites. Ross and McKay
(Bull. 43, C.S.1LR., 1929, p. 19) referred to the risk of human infection by
Fasciola hepatica as a result of drinking water, or, more likely, by ingesting water-
cress containing encysted cercariae.

Arnold in 1927 (M. J. A., vol. i, p. 65) exhibited in Newcastle the liver
removed post-mortem from a patient who had suffered from a “liver fluke infesta-
tion.” There is no indication of the species of parasite or of the race of the
patient. Since Newcasile is an important shipping centre he may have been a
Chinese, and the parasite Clonarchis sinensis.

PARAGONIMUS.

In the Medical Journal of Australia for 1927 there are several refcrences to
the occurrence of the lung fluke, Paragonimus, in the Territory of New Guinea.
Cilento and Backhouse (vol. i, p. 79) reported that it was first seen at Kavieng
in 1919 and that its presence was associated with many deaths. It was found
again in 1926 during a post-mortem in New Britain, and it was remarked that
the local villagers were very fond of crabs, which were possibly intermediate
hosts of the parasite. The latter was determined as P. westermanni, this name
now being regarded as a synonym of P. ringerit. The matter was referred to
again by Cilento (p. 481), when the latter name was applied to the trematode.

In vol. ii, Supplement, Heydon (p. 204) dealt with the same occurrence,
referred to the parasite as P. ringert, and stated that Melania truncata occurred
in the streams of the infected regions. Species of this molluscan genus are
known to serve as the primary intermediate host in Eastern Asia. Cilento
(p. 400), in the same Supplement, referred to trematode infestations in Northern
Melanesia, dealing more especially with Paragonimiasis in New Britain. Bradley
in 1933 (M. J. A., vol. 1, p. 245) discussed the possibility of the parasite becoming
endemic in Australia,

Il THE CESTODE INFECTIONS.

DIPIYLLOBOTHRIUM LATUM (Linn.).

The presence of the broad tapeworm Diphyllobothrium latum in Australia
has been reported occasionally, but in all instances from immigrants. Sweet
(M. J. A., 1924, vol. i, p. 407) found it in two Finns in North Queensland,
Charlton’s record (1924, vol. i, Suppl, p. 325) being probably of the same

255

occurrences, Heydon (1926, vol. ii, p. 43) stated that this cestode was unlikely to
be found in Australia except in immigrants from certain countries. Penfold and
hig associates mentioned its presence in two Finns in Victoria, both infected
before arrival in that State (1936, vol. i, p. 317, p. 284).

Cilento, McIntosh and Charlton (Commonw. Health Dept., Tropical Publ.,
5, 1924, p. 80) mentioned finding it in two Finns at Nambour, and in a Swiss
in Cairns.

Dibothriocephalus parvus was recorded in 1908 by Stephens (Annals of
Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Feb., 1908) from a Syrian in Tasmania
(Elkington, Trans. Austr. Med. Congr., 8 (2), 1908, p. 337), but the species has
since been shown by Zschokke (1917) to be a synonym of Diphyllobothrium
latum.

SPARGANUM Sp,

There is only one record since 1905 relating to the occurrence of this larval
Diphyllobothrium in humans in Australia, one of us (J. B. C.) exhibiting a
specimen taken from the knee of a man in Sydney (M. J. A., 1915, vol. ii, p. 83),
an account of the occurrence being given in 1918 (M. J. A., vol. ii, p. 239). The
parasite was regarded as probably distinct from Sperganum mansoni, known from
Eastern Asia.

TAENIA sotium (Linn.).

Atkinson (1915, vol. i, p. 144) reported the presence of abundant degenerated
cysts in the musculature of a pig near Perth, Western Australia, but hooklets were
not found. He stated that the appearance suggested Cysticercus cellulosae.

Sweet (M. J. A., 1924, vol. i, p. 407) recorded finding six infections amongst
248,721 persons examined by the Hookworm Campaign Staff, The cases came
from one or more of the following States: Queensland, New South Wales, or
South Australia, according to the table published on page 406, but there is no
more precise indication, It was absent from examinations made in the other
States. Charlton (M. J. A., 1924, vol. i, Suppl., p. 325) referred to its rarity
during the Hookworm Investigations, as also did Heydon (1926, vol. ii, p. 43).

In 1934 (M. J. A,, vol. ii, p. 407) attention was called to the fact that
T. solium was added to the list of infections ta be notified in Victoria; and in
1935 (vol. i, p. 55) an editorial on Cysticercus appeared referring more especially
to C. cellulosae and its occurrence in Great Britain. Penfold and Penfold (1936
vol. i, p. 31) reported that from 86 patients examined in Melbourne between
January, 1933, and July, 1935, for cestode infection, T. solium was not
encountered.

Griffiths, in his “Studies in pulmonary tuberculosis” (Sydney, 1911, p. 94),
stated that a female patient had passed segments of 7. saliwm. In 1869 Iffla
(Austr. Med. Jour., 1869, p. 247) exhibited one of three specimens of T. solium
voided by a woman in Melbourne. From our present knowledge, we can state
fairly definitely that the parasites were much more likely to be 7. saginata.

Rudall (Austr. Med, Jour., 4, 1859, p. 161) described a case of cysticercus
in the brain. Perhaps he was dealing with an infection by hydatids and not by
Cyslicercus cellulosae.

TAENIA SAGINATA (Gocze).

Although widely distributed, this large tapeworm is not common in any part
of the Commonwealth. Its presence in North Queensland was mentioned by
Nicoll (M. J. A., 1914, vol. i, p. 245; 1916, vol. ii, p. 256). Sweet (1924, vol. i,
p. 407) referred to its absence from faecal samples examined in Papua and New
Guinea, and its rarity in Australia, the parasite being found on eleven occasions
from 248,721 persons examined. The localities were not mentioned beyond a
statement that one or both of the species of Taenia were found in Queensland,

256

New South Wales, and South Australia. Charlton (1924, vol. i, Suppl. p. 325)
referred to its rarity in the Ilookworm Campaign examinations. as also did Heydon
(1926, vol. ii, p. 43).

In 1929 (M. J. A., vol. i, p. 871) Paton mentioned removing the parasites
with filix mas from a Melbourne patient who had suffered from epigastric pain,
In 1934 (vol. ii, p. 500) the species was placed on the list of notifiable infections
in Victoria. In 1935 (vol. i, p. 55) the Editor remarked that the worm was
uncommon in the latter State.

In an address on “Medical Research in Australia,” Penfold (M, J. A., 1935,
vol ii, p. 713) referred to infestation of cattle at the Melbourne and Metropolitan
Board of Works Sewage Farm with beef measles (Cysticercus bovis) and the
acquisition of immunity against further invasion by the parasite. Next year
Penfold and Penfold (1936, vol. i, p. 317) discussed the diagnosis of Taenia
saginata infestation, and stated that from 86 persons treated in Melbourne between
January, 1933, arid July, 1934, 186 specimens were obtained, the infrequency of
infection being noted, he growth in length was studied. As a remedy
filix mas was used. The complement fixation and skin tests were regarded as of
doubtful value in diagnosing the presence of the parasite.

Penfold, Penfold and Phillips (M. J. A., 1936, vol. i, p. 283) surveyed the
incidence of infestation in Victoria during the period referred to above, and
found 90 cases as a result of an offer of a bonus; of these 42 were Syrian born
and were infested prior to their arrival in Australia. Beef measles were reported
as rarely met with in cattle, though they were detected in September, 1933, in
cattle from the Melbourne Sewage Farm. These same authors (p. 417) also
demonstrated experimentally the development of an acquired active immunity in
cattle to further infection arising from ingesting eggs of Taenia saginata.
Penfold (p. 385) referred at some length to treatment of infested patients, and
pointed out that though filix mas gave the best results, certain precautions were
necessary.

In 1937 (M. J. A., vol. i) Penfold gave an account of the signs and symptoms
due to infestation with this cestode (p. 531). In another paper (p. 579) he dealt
with the life history of the larval stage in the tissues of the ox, ascertaining that
under Victorian conditions its maximum life was nine months, that most of the
cysticerci were dead in four months, and that the cysts degenerated and became
absorbed in about two years.

Quite recently (M. J. A., 1937, vol. ii, p. 1) Penfold, Penfold and Phillips
discussed the criteria of life and viability of mature T. sagimata ova, and stated
(p. 5) that eggs remained viable on dry pastures under summery conditions in
Victoria for at least 144 weeks, and that the maximum life there was probably
not many months.

Though T. saginata does not seem to have heen recorded from South Aus-
tralia, we have received, from time to time, specimens from patients in the Adelaide
Hospital, and others sent by private practitioners in this State.

Hypatips, Ecuinococcus GrAnucosus (Batsch).

The literature is very extensive and its adequate survey would exceed
the Jimits set for this summary. As most of it deals with discussions of particular
cases, little more than the name and date of the author will be quoted here. Our
earlier paper did not deal with hydatids, and it is not intended here to remedy
that omission. Unless otherwise stated, the following references occur in the
Medical Journal of Australia.

Nicoll (1914, 1, p. 245, uncommon in North Queensland) ; Corlette (1918,
2, p. 83, lung; 1919, 1, p. 168, lung) ; Gill and Bullock (1919, 1, p. 336, vertebrae) ;
Mackay (1920, 1, p. 6, operative drainage) ; Editorial (1920, 1, p. 106) ; Corlette

257

(1920, 1, p. 73, important paper on bone hydatids) ; Shaw (1920, 1, p. 311, liver) ;
Editorial (1920, 1, p. 317, embolism) ; Morton (1920, 1, p. 517, lung); Fairley
(1921, 1, p. 207, complement fixation) ; Marten and de Crespigny (1921, 1, p. 287,
heart); Gill (1921, 2, p. 190, heart) ; Corlette (1921, 2, 220); Owen (1921, 2,
459) ; Kilvington (1921, 2, p. 555); Beckett (1922, 1, p. 27); Fairley (1922, 1,
p. 94, failure with tartar emetic; p. 341, complement fixation test—a very
important paper); Fairley (1922, 1, p. 346, analysis of 33 cases, jung) ; Graham
* (1922, 1, p. 362, children); Bull, Sewell, Stephens (1922, 1, p. 363); Cleland
(1922, 1, p. 192) ; Fox (1922, 1, p. 364) ; Troup (1922, 1, p. 369) ; Fairley (1922,
2, p. 209, analysis of 25 peritoneal cases) ; Bird (1922, 2, p. 289, pelvic) ; Sharp
(1922, 2, p. 671); Syme (1922, 2, p. 313, pelvis) ; Dew (1922, 2, p. 381—a very
important illustrated paper on the development of brood capsules and scolices) ;
Griffiths (1922, 2, p. 658, lung).

In 1923 many reports appeared. Those in vol. i are by de Crespigny and
Cleland (p. 151); Ross (p. 372) (Echinococcus multilocularis); and Stephens
(p. 593). In vol. ii, Fairley (p. 27—immunity reactions—an important paper) ;
Aspinall (p. 370, kidney) ; Patterson and Williams (p. 467, antigen) ; Cameron
(p. 541, staining reactions of cyst); Dew (p. 604, diagnosis, serology) ; McKay
(p. 604) ; Zwar (p. 604); Lendon (p. 604) ; Hamilton-Russell, Morton, Kilving-
ton (p. 604).

In 1924, vol. i, articles were supplied by Nott (p. 72, lung) ; Fairley (p. 177
—liver, survey of large number of Victorian cases); Gardiner (p. 578, optic
nerve); Major (p. 601, lung). In the Supplement to vol. i—Anderson and
Patterson (p. 41, heart, emboli) ; Dew and Williams (p. 113, laboratory tests in
diagnosis) ; Zwar (p. 119, surgical factors); Lendon (p. 122, tibia) ; Hamilton-
Russell, Morton, Kilvington (p. 123, treatment). In vol. ii—Gardner (p. 1],
orbit): Crisp (p. 18, brain); Abbott (p. 150, lung); Craig (p. 154, bladder).

In 1925, vol. i—Harvey (p. 71, lung); Dew (p. 101—histogenesis of the
eyst in the pig—a very valuable paper) ; Goldsworthy (p. 110, myocardium) ;
Ross (p. 153, survey of infestation of dogs and humans in districts in New South
Wales); Bird (p. 258, liver); Kellaway (p. 417, Casoni reaction) ; Douglas,
Fitzpatrick, Holmes (pp. 436-437); Kellaway (p. 436—Kchinococcus alveolaris
not a scparate entity but a particular form of the ordinary hydatid); Dew,
Kellaway and Williams (p. 471—important serological paper); Corbin (p. 697,
lung). In vol. ii—Thomas (p. 56, lung); Dew (p. 58, recurrent, liver); Dew
(p. 497, formation of daughter cysts discussed). In_ vol ii, Supplement—Dew
and Williams (p. 113—diagnostic methods) ; Bird (p. 505, lung).

In 1926, vol. i—Mackay (p. 7, lung); Edwards (p. 21) ; Storey, Humphrey,
Corlettc, Aspinall (p. 22); Lidwell, McKay (p. 23); Ross (p. 96—survey of
incidence in stock and dogs in country districts in New South Wales); Griffiths
(p. 144, lung) ; Stephens (p. 306, children) ; Dew (p. 45l—very important paper
on development of daughter cysts). In vol. ii—Dew (p. 83, liver) ; Dew (p. 301,
Echinococcus multilocularis and E, alveolaris discussed, incidence of hydatids in
Victorian cattle and sheep) ; Hurley (p. 327, liver) ; Dew (p. 328); Bell (p. 361,
innominate bone) ; Stokes and Shearman (p. 386, lung) ; Editor (p. 463, control) ;
Burke-Gaffney (p. 804, bile duct).

In 1927, vol. i—A symposium, diagnostic and surgical (p. 479, by Kellaway,
Cameron, Russell, Barnett, Hercus, Syme, Craig); a symposium on medical
aspects (p. 470, by Stawell, Dew, Guthrie, Sewell) ; Cleland (p. 737, found post-
mortem in 2°3% of unsuspected cases). In vol. ii—Griffiths (p. 121, lung) ; Dew
(p. 70); Waddy (p. 189, orbit); Devine (p. 234, thigh muscles and liver) ;
recommendation that Commonwealth Department of Health investigate prevalence
of hydatids with a view to control (p. 594); Barnett (p. 878, colossal cysts, New
Zealand); Craig (p. 718, iliac). In vol. ii Supplement—Dew (p. 319,

I

258

anaphylaxis) ; Stawell (p. 323, 326, 327); Guthrie (p. 324, X-ray); Barnett
(p. 326, p. 327) ; Sewell (p. 326) ; Kellaway (p. 388, diagnostic tests) ; Cameron
(p. 392, X-ray); Syme (p. 393, surgical aspects); Ackland, Russell, Craig,
Barnett (p. 397).

In 1928, vol. i—Grieve (p. 786, calcified cyst); Bell (p. 319, subphrenic).
In vol ii—Cowen (p. 155, gas in liver cyst) ; Willis (p. 306, spine) ; Grieve (p. 481,
multiple) ; Edye and Ross (p. 594, review of Dew’s book, “Hydatid Disease, its
pathology, diagnosis and treatment,” Sydney, 1928, 429 pages); Burnell (p. 602,
psoas); Fairley and Penrose (p. 640, survey of incidence in sheep, cattle and
pigs in Victoria) ; Editor (p, 659, problem of hydatid disease) ; Harvey (p. 695,
lung).

In 1929, val. i—Sutherland (p. 61—possible danger from feeding raw liver
in pernicious anaemia) ; Harvey (p. 458, lung); Fairley (p. 472, critical analysis
of intradermal tests); Editorial (p. 491, prevention); Grieve (p. 567, lung) ;
Halford (p. 683, lung) ; Editorial (p. 746, review of Claessen’s book “Hydatid
Disease in Iceland,” 1928); Holmes (p. 704); Robertson (p. 758, preventive
measures in Victoria).

In 1929, vol. ii—Hurley (p. 139); Dew (p. 173, Echinococcus alveolaris
from patient who had never left Australia; this form regarded as not belonging
to a distinct species of hydatid cestode) ; Fitzpatrick (p. 214—heing analysis of
17 cases); Dew, Hurley, Fitzpatrick (p. 238); Fairley, Fairley and Williams
(p. 320, fallacies in the intradermal test discussed) ; Gardiner (p. 418, p. 611,
pancreas).

In 1930, vol. i—Bridge (p. 162, kidney); Willis (p. 810, difficulties in
diagnosis). In vol ii—Hurley (p. 103, lung) ; Editorial (p. 307, hydatid registry,
refers to infection rate in each Australian State).

In 1931, vol. i—Lee (p. 288). In vol. ii—Callose (p. 53, spleen),

In 1932, vol. i~Kellaway and Fairley (p. 340, laboratory tests and diagnosis) ;
Kneebone (p. 418, lung). In vol. ii—Hurley (p. 461, kidney) ; Long (p. 701,
heart); hydatid registry (p. 723).

In 1933, vol. i—Plomley (p. 295, lung). In vol. ii—Goulston (p. 711,
pelvis, refers to case in England); Maunder (p. 759, huge abdominal cyst,
41 pirts of cysts and fluid removed).

In 1934, vol. i—Nelson and Dew (p. 564, brain). In vol. ii—Harvey
(p. 235, lung); Bullock (p. 764, lung).

In 1935, vol ii—Frank (p. 65, spinal cord); Dew and Money (p. 223);
Griffiths (p. 391, lung and liver); Hurley, Penington (p. 391); James (p. 391,
lung); Dew (p. 449); Kilvington, Jones, Poate, Fitzpatrick Fairley (p. 450,
discussion) ; Carrodus (p. 714, intrabiliary rupture) ; Coppleson (p. 797, lung).

In 1936, vol. i—Harvey (p. 565, lung). In vol. ii—Cowen (p. 64, spine).

In 1937, vol. i—Graham (p. 206, survey of incidence in Melbourne Child-
ren’s Hospital, 1900-1936) ; Kneebone (p. 201—survey of 60 cases) ; litzpatrick,
Pairley, O'Donnell (p. 224); Barnett (p. 266, New Zealand statistics) ; Barry
(p. 267, New Zealand statistics relating to stock) ; Powell (p. 449, brain) ; Bell
(p. 563, liver and lung); Penington (p. 545, pelvic). In vol. ii—Sutton (p. 205,
refcrs to range of hydatid disease in Australia).

In the Australasian Medical Gazette the following references are to be found.
In 1911, vol. xxx—Davis (p. 90, eye). In 1912, vol. xxxi—Cleland (p. 534, biblio-
graphy of hydatid cysts of the pelvis and urinary organs) ; Thane (p. 380, treat-
ment). In vol. xxxii (1912)—Griffiths (p. 254, lung) ; Elkington (p. 350, cases
in Queensland). In vol. xxxiii (1913—Hall (p. 171); Poulton (p. 263, lung);
Ramsay (p. 587, Tasmania), In vol. xxxiv (1913)—O’Hara (p. 1); Abbott
(p. 76, bile duct obstruction); Cameron, Turner and Gibson (p. 436, Queens-
land cases). In vol. xxxv (1914)—Magarey (p. 412, pelvis).

259

The following are references to hydatids in man in Australia -—Cleland,
Report Bureau Microbiology, N.S.W., for 1915. Dew, “Hydatid disease, its
pathology, diagnosis and treatment,” 429 pages, published in 1928 by the Aus-
tralian Medical Publishing Co.—a very important work. Dew, Lancet, vol. ccxxix,
1935, p. 844 (alveolar hydatid). Cameron, Australian Journal of Experimental
Biology and Medical Science, 3, 1926, p. 11 (enzymes of hydatid cyst). Cleland
and others, Medical and Scientific Archives of the Adelaide Hospital, 1922-1937,
vols. i to xv (numerous references to hydatids). Dew (Vet. Jour. Lond., 91, 1935,
pp. 481-492), a general review of hydatid disease. The development of the adult
in the dog has been studied by Ross (Journal C.S.I.R., 9, February, 1936, p. 67).

In the Australian and New Zealand Journal of Surgery, vol. iv, 1934,
pp. 99-117, there appears a translation of Déve’s article (Ann. Anat. Pathol.,
Paris, 10, 1933, pp. 1,155-1,178) dealing with intermediate and transitional forms
between hydatid echinococcus and alveolar echinococcus.

In the Transactions of the Australasian Medical Congress, vol. x, 1914, Ryan
dealt with hydatid of the brain (p. 400); Harris, in his notes on X-rays and
radium, referred to their use in diagnosing living hydatids (p. 612) ; and Barnett
(p. 391) gave an account of treatment (New Zealand cases).

Kellaway (Health, 3, 1925, p. 164) wrote on recent Australian researches in
hydatid disease. Fairley and Wright Smith (Jour. Pathol. Bact., 32, 1929,
p. 309-335) gave an account of hydatid infestation in sheep, oxen and pigs, with
special reference to daughter cyst formation.

Clunies Ross’ survey of the incidence of the parasite in New South Wales,
published in M. J. A., 1926, vol. i, p. 96, appeared _also in the Journal of the
Australian Veterinary Association, vol. ii, 1926, pp. 56-67.

HyMENoLEPIs NANA (Sicbold).

‘The first recorded finding of this tiny cestode in man is that by Waite
(M, J. A., 1918, vol. ii, p. 508), who reported it in 51 cases out of 14,577
examined in North Queensland. In 1920 (vol. ii, p. 394) Maplestone referred to
its presence in the same region and mentioned that it had been found in 27 out
of 2,420 persons examined (1:1%) in Townsville (Half-yearly Report of the
Australian Institute of Tropical Medicine, July-December, 1918), while at the
Townsville Orphanage the infection rate was 3°6% in 1919, and 18-0% in 1920.
Over 1,000 of the worms were obtained from a girl after a single treatment with
filix mas. He also teferred (p. 395) to an unpublished statement by Breinl that
the latter had encountered mixed infections of Hymenolepis nana and
Ancylostoma duodenale in Italians in North Queensland.

In an editorial relating to “Medical information in the lay press” (M. J. A.,
1921, vol. i, p. 273) reference is made to these occurrences. In the same volume
(p. 332) Lambert recorded finding it in 0°29% of examinations in the coastal belt
of North Queensland, and in 1°11% of children in Townsville schools. He
referred to its distribution according to race and age groups of persons examined.

In 1923 (M. J. A., vol. ii, p. 405) Cilento, in discussing some problems in
hookworm disease at the State Orphanage, Townsville, referred to Hymenolepis
nana infection as being 5°6°% at that institution. Sweet (M. J. A., 1924, vol. i,
p. 407) stated that 616 out of 248,721 persons examined in Australia and Papua
harboured the parasite. The percentage (0-4%) was highest in New Guinea. It
was found in Papua and all Australian States cxcept Tasmania. Pearson in
1925 (M. J. A., vol. i, p. 315) referred to the finding of this parasite as well as
others during hookworm investigations. Heydon (1926, vol. ii, p. 43) reported
that oil of chenopodium and thymol were better anthelminthics than filix mas
for use against this cestode.

260

HYMENOLEPIS DIMINUTA (Rud.).

This species is much larger than Hymenolepis nana and is not uncommon
in rats and mice, having been recorded from various rodents in Australia by one
of us (T. H. J.), from 1909 to 1918. It has, on a few occasions, been reported
from human beings in the Commonwealth.

The first record was that by Badham (M. J. A., 1920, vol. ii, p. 138; 1921,
vol. 1, p. 344; 1922, vol. i, p. 388), who found it in an infant at Kendall, New
South Wales. The next was that by Burnell (1922, vol. i, p. 236, p. 337) who
reported three cases amongst children in 1921, one from Brisbane and two
from Rockhampton, He also referred to specimens in the possession of one of
us (T, H. J.) determined as Hymenolepis diminute. This latter material also
caine from Rockhampton in 1920, but owing to pressure of other work its finding
had not been recorded.

Swect (M. J. A., vol. i, p. 407) mentioned that the Hookworm Campaign had
revealed the presence of five infections with the parasite, four of them in residents
of Queensland (Burnell’s three were apparently included), and one in Northern
New South Wales.

IV. NEMATODE INFECTIONS,

The Hookworms, ANcyLostomMa DUODENALE Dub. and
NECATOR AMERICANUS Stiles,

In the Annual Reports of the Commissioner of Public Health, Queensland,
occur the following references to the presence of Ancylostoma duodenale in that
State :—Ham, in 1908-9 (1909, p. 3—increasing especially in North Queensland) ;
Elkington, 1909-10 (1910, p. 5), 1910-11 (1911, p. 7, in the Ingham district),
1911-12 (1912—not reported as found) ; Booth-Clarkson, 1912-13 (1913, Innisfail
and Ingham).

The Australasian Medical Gazette contains a number of references to hook-
worm disease in the coastal region of Queensland. In vol. xxx (1911), short
mention is made by Breinl (p, 88) and Croll (p. 522), the latter reporting (p. 586)
that the parasites were not completely eliminated by thymol or beta-naphthol.
Macdonald (p. 370) reported that Necator americanus and Ancylostoma were
present in North Qucensland, the former being the more common; he also
described the symptoms and treatment of ankylostomiasis (p. 371) and stated
that aborigines (on the Herbert River) and kanakas were infected. He also
mentioned that the disease was known to have occurred in Mackay as carly as
1886, Elkington (p. 88) reported that no obvious mental effect on infected school
children had been observed, but said that systematic examination would be
necessary to decide the matter. Jones (p. 356) stated that Ancylostoma had not
been observed in British New Guinea (i.e., Papua), but was present in German
New Guinea (now the Territory of New Guinea). In 1912 (vol. xxxi),
Elkington referred to 79 cases, most of them from Ingham (p. 282—abstract
from the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Public Health, Queensland, for
1910-1911). This same author (vol. xxxii, p, 350) mentioned the value of
laboratory work in connection with diagnosis of infections with hookworms and
other parasites. In 1913 (vol. xxxiii, p. 285), Cameron, Croll, Turner, Love,
Gibson and Buchanan each made remarks concerning hookworm infections in
the coastal districts of Southern Queensland.

Numerous references to the disease or to the nematodes appear in the
Medical Journal of Australia, Nicoll (1914, p. 244) mentioned that the com-
monest human parasites in North Queensland were Ancylostoma and Necator.
Breinl (1915, 1, p. 551) referred to the prevalence of both species in that region
as well as in Papua, Necator being the commoner, Nicoll (1916, 2, p. 256)

261

stated that four out of sixteen suspected cases admitted to Townsville Hospital
were found to be positive.

In 1917 (M. J. A., vol. i) appeared two editorials, one (p. 209) mentioning
the presence of the parasite in Queensland, and the other (p. 424) referring to
the initial exploratory survey of the northern part of that State, and also of
Papua, for ankylostomiasis by Dr. Waite. Intensive work on the disease and its
control was undertaken by Waite on behalf of the Rockefeller Health Foundation,
and a preliminary report on the disease in Papua was published by him in volume i1
(p. 221). He referred to Strong’s finding of Necator in a native at post-mortem
and in 50% of hospital patients at Port Moresby. Waite found an infection rate
of 65% in plantation labourers and 8% in village natives, the total rate being
55%. The degree of infection was definitely intensified with the increased length
of service of natives as labourers. An editorial (2, p. 229) suggested that a
similar survey should be carried out in North Queensland, while another (2,
-p. 361) referred to the financial co-operation established between the Rockefeller
Foundation and the Queensland Government to organise a survey from Thursday
Island to Brisbane. Another editorial (2, p. 297) mentioned the spread of hook-
worm infection by troops (coming from infected areas) in camp in the United
States.

In 1918 (M.J.A., vol. ii) there appeared several articles. One editorial
(p. 33) refers to Waite’s report of his survey in Papua, issued by the Rockefeller
Foundation. Another (p. 411) mentioned Waite’s findings in North Queensland,
where nearly 21% of persons in the region between Cooktown and Townsville
were reported infected, the rate amongst children being 40-50%, while out of
400 aborigines examined, 75° were found to be infected. Waite published his
report (1918, 2, p. 505), In it he referred to earlier data regarding infections
in the region traversed, to the technique of the Campaign’s work, and to the
ascertained infection rate. The relation of infection to climatic conditions was
indicated, and the incidence in age groups and in various races represented in
the region, was studied. The infection rate was—British, 18-9°% ; Italian, 43-9% ;
Chinese, 5:°5°%; and aboriginal, 75-96%. The significance of Waite’s report was
stressed in an editorial (p. 513).

‘There are no less than five references in the volumes for 1919. Waite and
Nelson (vol. i, p. 1) studied the effects on mental development of school children
in North Queensland, the resulting retardation being estimated and tabulated, the
degrce of infestation being ascertained by the reduction in haemoglobin content
of the blood. An editorial “retrospect” followed (p. 29). In volume 1 (1919)
there appeared an abstract of the International Health Board’s report, reference
being made to the work in Queensland (p. 80). Goldsmid (p. 231) referred to
his finding hookworm disease in the Tweed River district of New South Wales,
while Lawes (p. 298) drew attention to his previous record (in the Australasian
Medical Gazette, 1895) of the condition in that locality.

In 1920 the references in M. J. A. were more numerous. In volume i,
Hughes (p. 97) reported Ancylostoma to be very common in natives from planta-
tions ncar Rabaul; an editorial (p. 138) announced the extension of the hook-
worm survey to include Broken Hill, New South Wales; and mention was made
(p. 378) of a reference in the Report of the Commissioner of Public Health,
Queensland for 1918-1919 (Dr, Moore), to the campaign, In volume ii tt was
announced (p. 104) that ankylostomiasis was declared to be a notifiable diseasc
in Victoria. Sawyer, who succeeded Waite, stated (vol. ii, p. 277) that the
malady was confined principally to irregular areas with fairly sharp boundaries
in those regions of tropical and subtropical Australia which were associated with
high rainfall and soil pollution, He exhibited some cases from Southern Queens-
land (p. 285) and referred to treatment. An editorial (p. 345) dealt with the

262

pig as a factor in the spread of hookworm disease, reference being made to
O’Connor’s report of Ancylostoma duodenale, or a closely related species, in pigs
in Funafuti where 91% of the people were infected. “O’Connor’s report also
appeared in that volume (p. 337), An exhibit from the Campaign was made
before the Medical Congress in Brisbane (p. 305), various stages in the life cycle
of both human hookworms being shown. Maplestone (p. 394) referred to a
case at Townsville in which a heavy infection with the cestode, Hymenolepis nana,
was also present, and mentioned that Breinl had met with similar mixed infections
in Italians in North Queensland (p. 395),

In 1921 (M.J.A., vol. i, p. 148) Sawyer gave a brief history of the disease
in Queensland as recorded by various medical men. He dealt with the climatic
factor, pointing out that though the infection was very high at Ingham, there was
none in the region on the western side of the adjacent Kangaroo Hills, practically
none in Thursday Island, very little in Bowen, but the rate was 10% in the
Nambour-Landsborough region, just north of Brisbane. Infection was high
along the coast from Cooktown to Ingham, low from Townsville to Bowen, but
high from Proserpine to Mackay, the prevalence being associated with high
rainfall, In Papua, plantations and villages were highly infected, except in the
case of villages built over the sea, these being almost free from infection, The
mines at Broken Hill and Bendigo, as well as those in South Australia, were
found to be free from the disease (p. 149). Both species of hookworms were
found in Papuans and also in whites and aborigines in North Queensland, both
kinds often occurring in the same patient, though Ancylostoma was much less
abundant than Necator. From 45 patients, 876 worms were collected, and of
these 174 were Ancylostoma and 702 Necator. In a later paper (p. 285) Sawyer
stressed the value of team work in sanitation, as indicated in the hodkworm
campaign. Lambert (vol. i, p. 332) published statistical data regarding infection
of man by various intestinal helminths in North Queensland (Cooktown to
Proserpine). Of 19,745 persons examined, 18°8% were found to harbour some
species of worm parasite, hookworms being present in 16°5%. He compared
his results with those available regarding conditions in other tropical countries
(p. 333). The relation of hookworm infection to rainfall was emphasised ; those
regions receiving over 50 inches per annum showed an infection rate of 249%,
while in areas with a lower rainfall the average rate was only 2°5%. Males
(18°85, ) and females (17:8°4) were found to be almost equally infected (p. 324).
A study of infection in relation to the ages of patients showed that it occurred
in 29-9% of those in the age group 6 to 18 years: 14-6% between 0 and 5 years;
and 15:3°% in those between 19 and 40 years of age. In the area investigated,
aboriginals had an infection rate of 77°1%, whites 15-9%, orientals
73%, and kanakas 22°3%%, while the few Indians examined showed
83% to be infected,

In M. J. A., vol. ii, for 1921, there appear accounts by Maplestone (p. 20),
Willis (p. 375), Lege and Rhenben (p, 398), as well as a short editorial (p. 552).
Maplestone reported that, in view of O’Connot’s findings in Funafuti, he and
Rheuben had examined 182 pigs at the Townsville Abattoirs, these animals
coming from areas where human hookworms occurred, but they failed to find any
of these parasites, and the authors stated that, on the evidence available, pigs
were of no practical danger as factors in the spread of ankylostomiasis. Willis
described a simple levitation method for detecting hookworm ova, this procedure
becoming subsequently used in most regions as a routine method of faecal
examination for nematode eggs. Legg and Rheuben reported finding Ancylostoma
duodenale in three pigs from Cromarty (North Queensland). The Editor
(p. 552) gave a short reference to the report of work of the Hookworm Campaign
in Australia, published in the Report of the International Health Board for 1920.

263

In 1922, M. J. A., vol. i, the Editor referred (p. 415) to American experience
with carbon tetrachloride as an anthelminthic, as ascertained experimentally by
Hall who used dogs. Sawyer (p. 141) pointed out some directions in which
advances in preventive medicine (with special reference to ankylostomiasis and
sanitation) could be made in Queensland. He suggested a hookworm index for
the population for a district, such to be based on the known percentage infection
of a group of children of a particular age, a multiplying factor (for each age
group) being given (p. 142). This factor was based on the result of an examina-
tion of nearly ten thousand people in two districts, one in Northern Queensland
(Bowen) and the other in the southern portion (Nambour). The special nature
of the problem amongst Papuans (p. 143) as well as the Australian aborigines
was mentioned. Sawyer and Rosenthal (1922, 1, p. 164) referred to the absence
of hookworm infection amongst the 3,800 mine workers examined in Broken Hill,
this being correlated with the absence of soil pollution in the mines. This work
was carried on in association with the Commission inquiring into pulmonary
disease amongst Broken Hill miners, its report being issued in 1922. In a dis-
cussion which arose from Sawyer’s paper (p. 164), Gibson referred to the early
history of the disease in Queensland and his own association with it (p. 165),
while Croll mentioned cases in the Children’s Hospital, Brisbane (p. 165).

In M. J. A., volume ii, 1922, Albiston (p. 173) reported the result of a re-
examination of the specimens from pigs, recorded by Legg and Rheuben as
Ancylostoma duodenale. These were submitted to American authorities (Cort
and Darling) and identified as Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus.

In M. J. A., volume i, 1923, there appears (p. 138) an abstract from the
Annual Report of the Rockefeller Foundation for 1921, mentioning the adoption
of the Willis flotation technique, devised in Queensland, as a standard method
for examination of faecal samples. Sutton (p. 254) stated that an infection rate
of 6% was found amongst children in the North Coast region of New South
Wales, infection being greatest in aborigines and in barefoot persons in the age
group 5 to 18 years, The southern limit of the disease was near Kempsey, New-
castle being practically free.

In the second volume for 1923 several articles were published. In a summary
(p. 337) of O’Connor’s report on filariasis in the Pacific Islands, reference is
made to the presence of hookworms in Samoan pigs, the author suggesting that
the parasite referred to as Ancylostoma duodenale may have been A. ceylanicum.
Sweet (p. 327) gave the result of an investigation into hookworm disease in
Australian Mines. Of 10,288 miners examined, 6°3% were found infected, all
of them from Queensland and New South Wales. No infections were found
amongst miners in the remaining four States, nor in the metalliferous mines of
New South Wales. Newcastle and Maitland coal miners showed a very light
infestation, whilst in those of Ipswich and Burrum in Southern Queensland. it
was very heavy. He contrasted the satisfactory sanitary conditions in Broken
Hill mines with those in the coal mines of the two States mentioned. Cilento
(p. 404) discussed the hookworm problem at the State Orphanage, Townsville,
where Breinl in 1918 found an infection rate of 43:-4%, while Willis in 1920-1921
reporied it to be 64:9%. Cilento in 1923 found it to be about 50%, infestation
inercasing very considerably in children after the second year of residence there,
this being due to heavy soil infection consequent on gross faecal pollution. In an
abstract (p. 622) of Sweet’s paper on hookworm disease, read before the Medical
Congress in Melbourne, the infected area is indicated—Myall Lakes (N.S.W.)
northward to Tweed River and thence to Cooktown; the vicinity of Beagle Bay
in North-western Australia; Darwin, Melville, Bathurst and Goulburn Islands,
and the coast from Cape Arnheim to Anson Bay. Of 250,000 people examined,
19-4°/ were found infected, while in Papua and the Territory of New Guinea

264

the rate was 59% and 79%, respectively. The disease was usually endemic in
areas with an annual rainfall of 45 inches, and was not endemic south of 32°S.
Under the heading “Public Health,” it is stated (p. 623) that 107 cases of
ankylostomiasis with seven deaths had been notified in Queensland, and one death
from the disease in Western Australia.

In M. J. A., vol. i, for 1924, there is reference to an exhibit by Johnston
(p. 150) of infective stages in the life history. Eleven cases were notified in
Queensland (p. 172), the very marked decrease in number being due io the work
of the Hookworm Campaign (Abstract from the Annual Report of the Depart-
ment of Public Health, Queensland, for year 1922-23). In Sweet’s account
(p. 405) of the occurrence of intestinal parasites in man in Australia and its
dependencies, as found by the Hookworm Campaign, there are recorded the
number of persons examined and the number found infected in each State, Papua
and the Territory of New Guinea. In Queensland the rate was 9-2°4, Northern
Territory 16°7°%, Western Australia 10°8%, New South Wales 3°3%, South
Australia nil, Victoria nil, Tasmania 01%, the Australian total for 16,704 persons
being 8-2%. The Papuan figure was 99°2% of 17,905 persons, and New Guinea
Territory 74-2% of 18,234 persons. The grand total of examinations was 248,721
with an infection rate of 19-4°%/,

In the Supplement to M. J. A., vol. i, 1924, Sweet discussed the activities
of the Campaign (p. 319) and gave information similar to that contained in the
reports just quoted. Charlton (p, 324) gave a resumé of the incidence of
intestinal worm parasites, covering much the same ground as Sweet in his earlier
paper in 1924.

In M. J. A., vol. ii, 1924, Duhig (p. 640) referred to the occurrence in a boy
in Brisbane of the two kinds of hockworms, together with Trichuris and Strongy-
loides, In 1925, M. J. A., vol. i, Pearson (p. 314) referred to the work of the
Hookworm Campaign; and in vol ii, Lambert (p. 699) gave an account of his
experiences with tetrachlorethylene as an anthelminthic, his results being similar
to those obtained with carbon tetrachloride,

In M. J. A., vol. ii, 1926, Heydon (p. 39) mentioned that both kinds of hook-
worms were met with in Northern Queensland, Northern Territory and Western
Australia, but that sometimes pure infestations with Ancylostoma were secn
amongst recently arrived southern Europeans (Spaniards and Italians) in the
canetields. Necator was introduced into the Commonwealth by kanaka labourers
from the Pacific Islands. and Ancylostoma by Chinese and southern European
immigrants. The former species was less harmful and more easily eradicated
than Ancylostoma, The effects of the chief anthelminthics on the two hook-
worms, as well as on Ascaris, was indicated (p. 40-2). Amongst the infective
diseases notified in Australia during the year (p. 62) were one case and two
deaths in Queensland, and one death in New South Wales, from ankylostomiasis.
It was stated (p. 29) that only two cases of the disease were identified by practi-
tioners in Queensland during the year 1924-5 (abstract from Report of the Com-
missioner of Public Health of that State),

In M. J. A. 1927, Heydon published some important papers on the biology
of the infective larval stages of the two human hookworms. In one (volume i)
he gave an account of the differenecs between them (p. 531) as well as the larvae
of Ancylostoma caninum and Ancylostoma braziliense (p. 535), and mentioned
the possibility of the latter occurring in Australia, though not yet recorded
(p. 537), In vol. ii (p. 611) he reported the results of his observations relating
to the effect of light and of drying on these larvae, stating that daylight rapidly
destroyed them, whereas they could withstand drying in soil for some days, the
larvae of Ancylostoma surviving longer than those of Necator. He also tested
the effect of urine on the eggs and larvae (p. 64), reporting that its decomposition

263

to form ammonia had a destructive influence (p. 645) especially on the larvae,
those of Necator being less resistant than those of Ancylostoma. Unhatched eggs
of the latter were found to be able to survive for more than a week the high
temperature and abundance of urine found in the privy pans as used in Queens-
land. Heydon also dealt with the difference in pathogenic importance (vol. ii,
p. 206) of the two species, and suggested that culturing the larvae would give a
more satisfactory assessment of the degree and kind of infection than that based
only on an examination of the eggs.

The next series of references occur in M. J. A., 1931. In vol. 1 Cumpston
(p. 685) stated that the Chinese almost certainly introduced leprosy, hookworm
and perhaps Filaria into Australia during the period 1850-1880. Heydon and
Green (p. 625) referred incidentally to some infections with Ancylostoma
duodenale in the Atherton district. In vol. ii Ileydon is reported (p. 61) as
having given at the British Medical Association Meeting in Sydney (May, 1931)
4 demonstration of the flotation method and of the larvae of cat and dog hook-
worms which are able to produce the condition known as creeping eruption or
“cand worm” in Northern Australia. In the same volume (M. J. A., 2, 1931,
p. 65) Bearup dealt with the intensity and type of infestation in the Ingham
district. The faecal samples were cultured and the larvae identified. The intensity
of infection was indicated according to race, sex and age. Ancylostoma was found
(p. 72) in 95% of the southern Europeans examined in that district, in 66% of
all other whites examined, and in 90% of the specimens from all races examined.
He remarks (p. 73) “The older preponderance of Necator, brought about by the
importation of Pacific Islanders, seems to be giving way to the newer invasion
of Ancylostoma due to southern Europeans, though the use of anthelminthics,
more potent against Necator, may possibly contribute to this result.

In an account of a medical survey of Norfolk Island (M. J. A., 1932, vol. 1)
Baldwin stated that, though hookworm infested people, associated with Missions,
were constantly arriving from Melanesia (p. 546) ova of the worms were not
fotind in 143 persons examined.

In 1933 (M. J. A., vol. i, p. 645) Vattuone gave an account of a new intra-
dermal reaction in ankylostomiasis used in the Cairns district, Grant (p. 733)
dealt with the history and eradication of hookworm in Nauru, where an imfection
rate of 41% ta 89% (according to the district) in 1925 and 1926 was reduced
to such an extent that only one case was observed in the recent survey.

Tn 1935 (M. J. A., vol. i, p. 383) Nimmo referred to hookworm being endemic
in the Batavia River district. In his medical survey in Papua in 1935, Cilento
(1936, 1, 456) stated that hookworm was not found, and referred to the readiness
with which all faeces were eaten by the village pigs. In an epidemiological study,
Sutton (1937, 2, p. 206) reported that the incidence of hookworm had been
reduced in twelve years to at least one-third. He referred to the effect of climate
on its distribution (p. 208) and published a map of the Australian coast from
Cooktown to Taree, indicating the percentage infection in the various towns.

In the Transactions of the Australasian Medical Congress, eighth session,
1908, O’Brien discussed anaemia associated with Ancylostoma in Queensland
(vol. i, p. 241), while he dealt with ankylostomiasis and other tropical discases in

@) In this connection the following extract [rom the Report of the Uncinariasis Com-
mission to the Orient, 1915-1917, by Darling, Barber and Ilacker (International Health Board,
Publication No. 9, 1920, p. 55) is of interest. It refers to the hookworm investigations in
Fiji where Necator was found but Ancylostoma duwodenale was entirely absent in those
regions remote from contact with Indian sources af infection. “This leads to the conviction
that Necator americanus is a natural parasite of the Fijians, and that very likely Polynesians
as well as Melanesians will be found to harbour this species cxclusively, except in places where
the people may be living in contact with Asiatics who harbour Ancylostoma duodenale.”

266

another paper (vol. ii, p. 324). In the Transactions of the Ninth Congress, 1911
(published in 1913) there appeared an article on hookworm disease by Breinl
(vol. i, p. 536), who referred to it again in another paper in which he discussed
the object and scope of tropical medicine in Australia (p. 524), The volume for
the eleventh session, 1920, contains a. report by Sawyer on the disease in the
Commonwealth (p. 290), mentioning its prevalence in various regions in North
Queensland, the infection rate in many towns there, the relation to rainfall and
the absence of infestation in the metalliferous mining areas in South Australia,
Broken Hill and Bendigo (p. 292). Necator was reported to be four times as
abundant as Ancylostoma.,

In the Proceedings of the Pan Pacific Science Congress (Australia), 1923,
vol. ii, there are several papers and abstracts relating to ankylostomiasis. Two
of them, by Manalang, refer to conditions in the Philippines. There is a very
important article by Sweet on hookworm disease in Australian nines (pp. 1,436-
1,447), but the information given is similar to that published by him in the
Medical Journal of Australia (1923, vol. ii). Sutton (p, 1,493) dealt with district
incidence of disease in children in New South Wales, and referred (p. 1,494) to
hookworm in the coastal region of that State, from Taree and Dungog northward
to the Queensland border, 4°6% of children being infected, a re-survey indicat-
ing 34% infection, but aboriginal children showed an infection rate of 75%,

In the Bulletin of the Northern Territory there are the following references
to the occurrence of the disease in that region:—No, 1 (1912, p. 40); No. 6
(1912, Health Report, p. 21) ; also in the Report of the Administrator, 1913, p. 53.
In the reports of the Government Bureau of Microbiology, New South Wales,
from 1909 (1910) onwards, there are sundry references, and some appcar
occasionally in the Annual Reports of the Commissioner of Public Health,
Western Australia. The Queensland Government in 1918 issued a pamphlet by
Waite, written especially for school children in connection with the work of the
Mookworm Campaign,

The Australian Hookworm Campaign issued a number of reports. Robertson
(1920, 31 pages) surveyed the mining and agricultural area in the vicinity of
Bendigo, Victoria, in 1920; Willis (1920) dealt with the Kangaroo Hills mining
field in North Queensland; Lambert (1920) with the Bowen district; Baldwin
with Western Australia (1922) ; and Charlton (1922) with Western Queensland
and the Gulf region.

The presence of tuberculosis and hookworm amongst’ Bendigo miners
was mentioned in the Lancet, 1920, vol. i, p- 1331. Breint referred to the
disease in his report on a journey to the northern portions of Queensland,
published in the Report of the Advisory Committee of the Tropical Diseases
Research Fund (1910), 1911 (p. 126). The Commission appointed by the New
south Wales Government to inquire into the health of miners in Broken Hill
issued several reports; in the second and third, published in 1919, there are several
references to ankylostomiasis there; and in 1920 was published a special report
by Sawyer and Rosenthal giving ihe result of the hookworm investigation, These
reports were referred to in the Medical Journal of Australia, 1920, vol. i, p. 138;
1921, 1, p. 149; 1922, 1, p. 164.

In “Health” there are a few articles relating to ankylostomiasis. The work
of the Hookworm Campaign was dealt with in vol, i (1923) by Sawyer (p, 11),
Longley (p. 139), and Swect (p, 158). The last-named published a map indicat-
ing percentage infections in different parts of Australia, tabulated the infection
rate in various States, and gave figures showing the marked decrease in infestation
observed in re-surveys of infected areas which had received anthelminthic treat-
ment. The same subject was treated in vol. iii, 1925, by Holmes (p. 45) and
Elkington (p. 141); and by the latter again in 1928 (vol. vi, p. 100). Baldwin

267

in 1927 (vol. v, p. 5) gave a short account of the incidence of the disease in
Australia, Papua and the Territory of New Guinea, reporting the percentage
infection of persons in ten districts covering the greater part of Queensland, the
rate varying from nil in the central region to 3-4°% in Rockhampton, the rate for
a total of 14,362 persons examined in that State being 2°6%. In the Northern
Rivers district of New South Wales it was 2°9%. Infestation was not found in
Northern Territory and Western Australia, though it undoubtedly occurred there.

In the Monthly Bulletin of the Public Health Association of Australia, vol. i,
No. 7, July, 1923, p. 2, there is reference to the campaign at Bulli, New South
Wales, where three infected miners were found amongst 1,152 examined, these
men having received their infection elsewhere. In No. 8 of the same volume,
August, 1922, p. 6, the result of the examination of miners in Ipswich, QQucens-
land, is given, 31:7°%/ being positive.

In the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland (abstract of meeting
held June 30, 1924), Duhig is reported to have exhibited Ancylostoma duodenale
from North Queensland where, he stated, the common hookworm was Necator.

In the Report of the Australian Institute of ‘Tropical Medicine for 1911
(published in 1913), Breinl referred (p. 44) to the human hookworms, Necator
and Ancylostoma, ‘he incidence of the disease at the Townsville State Orphanage
was reported on by the same investigator in the halfi-yearly report for the period
July-December, 1918, The discase was also mentioned in the Report for 1910
(pp. 12-15)—summarised in the Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 15
(1912, pp. 13-15) ; 1917 (p. 4, p. 8); 1918 (p. 3, pp. 8-9) ; 1919 (pp. 6-8).

‘The Journal of Hygiene contains two papers relating to the disease. Nicoll
(1917, vol. xvi, p. 285), in his account of the conditions of life in tropical Aus-
tralia, referred to it, In 1923 (vol. xxii) Sawyer, Sweet and Shaw published an
article on endemic hookworm disease in a non-endemic region, their investigations
relating to the Goodna Hospital for the Insane, Southern Queensland.

In the Archives of Internal Medicine, vol. xxxiii, January, 1924 (pp. 35-46),
Sawyer and Sweet published a comparison of certain methods of treatment and
diagnosis of hookworm infection, their work being carried out at the Sandy
Gallop Hospital for the Insane, North Queensland.

Nicoll (Parasitology, 9, 1917, pp. 155-189) published his observations on the
snfluence of salt and other agents in modifying the larval development of
Ancylostoma and Necator, He showed that, though salt and the more commonly
used disinfectants, if thoroughly employed, could render faecal material com-
paratively innocuous, the costs and effort are not less than those associated with
a proper system of house sanitation and nightsoil removal and treatment. He
reported that exposure to direct sunlight of sufficient intensity soon killed hook-
worm eggs and larvae.

In the Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 15, 1927, p. 49, Breinl
dealt with the Arneth count in hookworm-infected children in North Queensland.
Gordon (16, 1922, p. 295) reported the occurrence of both species of human
hookworms in a pig in Townsville, but it should be remembered that Goodey
failed to infect pigs with Necator americanus, such result tending to support the
view of Payne and Ackert that pigs in tropical countries harboured a distinct,
but closely related, species, Necator suillus. Macdonald, in the Journal of Tropical
Mcdicine and Hygiene (1908, pp. 25-29), referred to the prevalence of
Ancylostoma duodenale in North Queensland. (See also Transactions Socicty
Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 1908, vol. 1, pp. 68-75; and summary in Lancet,
1908, 1, 102.) Cheyne, in the Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 26,
1923, p. 76, dealt with Filaria, Ancylostoma, and Necator in his discussion of
white settlement in North Queensland, his information being derived obviously
from that published by officers of the Hookworm Campaign.

268

The ravages of ankylostomiasis in Queensland were referred to in the Journal
of the American Medical Association, vol. Ixxii, 1919, p.1,692; and in vol lxxtii,
1919, pp. 1,877-1,879; Waite and Nelson's report on the effects of infection on
school children in North Queensland was published (it appeared also in the
Medical Journal of Australia, 1919, 1, pp. 1-8, and was summarised in the
Lancet, 1919, 1, p. 476; and in Tropical Diseases Bureau, 14, 1919),

In some of the Annual Reports of the International Health Board (Rocke-
feller Foundation), there is brief mention of the discase in Australia. In the
Seventh (for 1920, p. 60) the relation of the infected areas to rainfall is men-
tioned, In the Eighth (for 1921, p. 72) it is stated that hookworm was not found
in Victoria; that two cases, originally from Fiji, were seen in Tasmania; that
percentage infections in named localities in Western Queensland varied from
0 to 12%, and in Rockhampton was 1-03%; and that labourers in Papuan
plantations showed an infection rate of 62:2°% to 845%. In the Review of the
Foundation for 1918, Australian conditions were referred to (p. 19), and a map
indicating the infected area in coastal North Queensland was published (p. 20).
In the Review for 1920 (p. 35) reference was made to the extension of the Cam-
paign work to Papua and the Territory of New Guinea. The Foutdation
published in 1922 a “Bibliography of Hookworm Disease,” many Australian
references being given on pp. 128-129 (Australia generally, Northern Territory) ;
pp. 212-213 (Queensland) ; p. 204 (Papua) ; pp. 306-307 (New South Wales).

There is a record in the British Medical Journal, 1889, vol. i, p. 792, of a
death in Australia from Ancylostoma. This relates to the case from Goodna
Asylum, Queensland, reported by Hogg in the Australasian Medical Gazette of
February 15, 1889,

Sawyer (1925) dealt with factors that increase the rate of increase of hook-
worm infection (Amer. Jour. Ilgy. 6, 1925, pp. 790-817); and with the advan-
tages of a nation-wide and international organisation for disease control, with
special reference to hookworm disease and beri-beri (Tr. Filth Bienn. Congr.
Far East Assoc. Trop. Med., Singapore, 1924, pp. 183-192).

CREEPING DisrasE (“SAND WORM”).

In 1927 Cilento (M. J. A., 1927, 2, p. 614) reported the occurrence in a
European child in Rabaul of “larva migrans (myiasis linearis),” the causative
organism being regarded as a Rhigoglyphus mite. Hamilton (1927, 2, p. 875)
recorded a similar case seen in Sydney in 1921 in a girl from Port Moresby, Papua,
but no parasite was found. Ferguson (p. 877) commented on this latter case
and suggested as possible causative organisms, cither Gnathostoma or Agamone-
matodum migrans, the latter being related to the hookworms. Tleydon, in a
footnote (p. 878) to the account, suggested that the common creeping eruption
seen in North Queensland and popularly known as sand worm, was due to
invasion by larvae of Ancylostoma, In 1929 (vol. i, p. 583) Heydon investigated
the conditions, producing it experimentally in humans by using infective larvae of
Ancylosiomu brasiliense obtained by culturing eggs obtained from Townsville
dogs and cats. He also proved that Aneylostoma caninum larvae could cause
definite tracks, but these were neither long nor conspicuous (p. 588). In 1931
(vol. ii, p. 61) Heydon exhibited larvae of these two ankylostomes as causative
agents of creeping cruption in North Queensland.

TRICHOSTRONGYLE WORMS.

In 1924 Sweet (M. J. A., 1924, 1, p. 406) reported the presence of sundry
parasites other than the more common nematodes and cestodes as having been
found in man in Queensland (eight cases), Western Australia (three), and New

269

South Wales (one). This group (p. 407) included three cases of Haemonchus
contortus, the common stomach worm of sheep, cattle and goats, the parasite
(whose presence was determined from ova) being found in aborigines of the
Moore Range settlement in Western Australia. Charlton (M. J. A., 1924, 1,
Supplement, p. 325) stated that the parasite probably occurred occasionally in
man, his remarks being, no doubt, based on the same data as Swect’s statements.

Heyden and Green (M. J. A., 1931, 1, 619) referred to the finding by the
Hookworm Campaign officers of eggs resembling those of Trichostrongyles, and
stated that in the final (unpublished) report of the Campaign there was a report
of the occurrence of eggs, probably of Trichostrongylus orientalis, but adults
were not recovered. Similar eggs were seen by later observers in the hcokworm
surveys in North Queensland, including the Atherton Tableland. ‘The faecal
samples from the latter locality were sent to Heydon, who recognised that the
eggs belonged to trichostrongyles and fed them to experimental kids, since he
knew that goats in Townsville harboured several species of this group of strongyles.
From the experimental animals were recovered Haemonchus and Tricho-
strongylus spp., including Trichostrongylus colubriformis (synonym Tricho-
strongylus instabilis), These authors remarked (p. 620) that “from these experi-
ments it would appear probable that the human infestations (boys from Atherton)
consisted of Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Trichostrongylus extenuatus, and
Haemonchus contortus.” Some of the eggs from the boys were ‘certainly those
of Trichostrongylus colubrifromis (p. 621), but Heydon and Green were doubtful
regarding the infection by the other two species, They referred to Sweet’s record
of Haemonchus contortus and pointed out that in the original report of Baldwin
who found the ova in Western Australia, it was stated that the stools were
collected on the ground and were probably contaminated with faeces of sheep.
These authors examined by the Willis method faecal samples from 6,983 persons
on the Atherton Tableland, and found 24, i.2., 0°36% to 0°-4%, infected. They
reported finding these trichostrongyles in 9 out of 2,114 persons from Lake
Eacham district, and in 13 out of 1,186 from Mareeba. From the faeces of sheep
from these regions they obtained eggs of Trichostrongylus, while from goats eggs
of Haemonchus were found in addition (p. 622). Three cases of trichostrongyle
infection of man were found amongst 5,263 persons in the Gordonvale-Babinda
area.

Cilento, McIntosh and Charlton (Commonwealth Health Dept., Tropical
Publ., 5, 1924, p. 82) referred to the possibility of IZaemonchus or Tricho-
strongylus instabilis occurring in humans in Northern Queensland and North-
western Australia, their observations referring to some of the instances discussed
above.

Ross (M. J. A., 1937, 1, 122) has drawn attention recently to two cases of
human infestation by sheep trichostrongyles in Sydney. The men were engaged
in laboratory work with infective stages of these nematodes. Ova found in their
faeces were fed to lambs and Trichostrongylus colubriformis was recovered.

WUCHERERIA BANCROFTI (FILARTA BANCROFTI Manson).

The name Bancroftosis has been suggested by Froes (Journal Tropical
Medicine, London, 37, 1934, p. 183) for the disease caused by Bancroft’s filaria,
the name being a tribute to a prominent Queensland medical man and pioneer
parasitologist whose early work on the parasite was mentioned by his son, Dr.
TT. L. Bancroft. An obituary of the latter appeared in the Medical Journal of
Australia, 1934, vol. i, p. 512, where reference is made to his investigations into
the life history of the worm. ,

In the Australasian Medical Gazette there appeared a number of references
since the writing of our earlier survey. Breinl (1911, p, 88) mentioned the

270

parasite. Croll (1911, p. 585) stated that the larval stage, Microfilaria nocturna,
was found in 5% of children and in 11-5% of adults in hospitals in Brisbane,
Jones (1911, p. 356) said that 3% to 6% of natives in British New Guinea
harboured the worm. Bancroft (1912. 31, p. 80) suggested preventive and control
measures in Queensland. Butler (1912, pp. 181-185) dealt with the life cycle
and with control measures, and mentioned that 10% to 17% of patients in the
Brisbane General Hospital harboured the parasite, Salter (1912, p. 196) believed
that the restricted distribution of filariasis in Australia (Queensland to the
northern rivers of New South Wales—the sugar-producing regions) pointed
suspiciously to the Polynesian sugar-worker as being responsible for its original
introduction, Elkington (1912, p. 350) referred to the value of the laboratory
in the diagnosis of filarial and other parasitic invasions in Queensland. Harris
and Elkington (1912, p, 430) wrote on the control of disease-transmitting insects,
and stated that 10°8% of the 1,200 patients admitted to the Brisbane General
Hospital were infected with Filaria bancroft.

In the Medical Journal of Australia there appear many references. Nicoll
(1914, 1, p. 244) said that it was one of the commonest human parasites in
North Queensland. Breinl (1915, 1, p. 550) stated that total admissions to the
Brisbane General Hospital showed an infection rate of nearly 17%, whereas at
the Townsville Hospital it was 3-4%. Nisbet (1920, 1, p. 327) reported that 1°5%
to 2% of the population of Townsville district was infected. He referred to the
possible value of tartar emetic. Bancroft (1920, 1, p. 403) discussed preventive
measures, advocating mosquito control and the use of mosquito nets in view of
the probability of the adult filaria dying within five years. Croll (1920, 2, p. 286)
referred to 11°5% of patients in the Brisbane General Hospital, and 5°, of those
in the Children’s Hospital, being infected. In 1922, vol. i, appeared an editorial,
“Periodicity of filariasis” (p. 329), in which attention was drawn to Breinl’s
statement that infection was three times as common in patients admitted to the
Brisbane General Hospital (up to 15%) as amongst those admitted to Towns-
ville Hospital, In 1922, vol. ii, Trinca referred to a case in Victoria regarded as
filarial clephantiasis, but filariae were not found. A summary of O’Connor’s
report on filariasis in the Pacific Islands appeared in 1923, vol. ii, p. 76. Cilento
and Richards (1923, 2, p. 622) referred to the very high infection rate in
Brisbane and Ipswich, and to the occurrence of the disease in the coastal region
from Rockhampton to Cape York and Normanton, as well as in the Northern
Territory. Sweet (1923, 2, p. 340) mentioned that Iilaria was found by the
Hookworm Campaign staff in 6% of persons examined in Brisbane, 10% in
Rockhampton, nil in Maryborough, 6% in Townsville, and nil in localities in
New South Wales. Dick (1923, 2, p. 340) stated that 10°%4 of 1,200 admissions
to the Brisbane Hospital and 3-45% in Townsville were infected. They remarked
on its absence in Queensland west of the coastal region. Cilento and O’Ncill
(1924, 1, p. 462) referred to a Queensland case of fifteen years’ duration, of
filariasis of the leg. Paradice (1924, 1, p. 225) dealt with a case which he con-
sidered filariasis with bubo,

Cilento and Richards (M. J. A., 1924, 1, Supplement, p. 325) reviewed the
literature on filariasis in Australia and mentioned the various districts in Queens-
land where it occurred. They reported it as present in 5°7°% of hospital cases in
Brisbane, 3% in Ipswich, 7% in Bundaberg, Rockhampton about 3°, Mary-
borough 2°5%, Proserpine 3-5%, Bowen 15%, Ayr 1:4°%%, Townsville Hospital
0 to 9% according to the season, Ingham 4%. Cases occurred occasionally in
Lismore and Grafton, New South Wales, The transmitter was Culex fatigans
(= C. quinquestriatus). Sweet (1924, 2, p. 4) gave tabulated differential blood
counts of 216 Brisbane residents with filariasis, and of 698 free from it, arranged
in age groups, and found little difference in the two cases, the percentages of

271

polymorphonuclear and mononuclear leucocytes in the filariated and non-filariated
people being 63°9% and 36°1% as against 60-99% and 30°0%, respectively, there
being a small increase in the percentage of eosinophile cells and a decrease in
the percentage of lymphocytes in the infected persons.

Humphrey and McIntosh (M. J. A., 1925, 2, p. 165) published some notes on
cases with various types of filariasis in North Queensland, Iunter (1928, lL,
p. 320) referred to a possible case in Sydney, the patient having exhibited filariae
while in Queensland, but their presence could not be detected in Sydney.
Hamilton (1928, 2, p. 656) reported a case from Sydney Hospital, originally
from North Queensland, in which unsuspected filariae were detected in the serum.

Cumpston, in an address on public health in Australia, stated that the
Chinese perhaps introduced filaria into Australia between 1850 and 1880, and
that the Kanakas probably did so (M. J. A., 1931, 1, p. 685). Heydon (1931, 2,
p. 61) demonstrated stages of the filarial larvae in human blood and in the
mosquito, Anopheles amictus, from North Queensland. In an editorial (1931, 2,
p. 143) reference was made to the possibility that Microfilaria malayt was but a
variety of Microfilaria bancrofti. Grant (1933, 1, p. 114, p. 733) reported the
presence of Filaria bancrofti in 36% of the inhabitants of Nauru; and in the same
volume (p. 623) appears an editorial on filariasis, based an recent work published
by investigators in India, An editorial dealing with filarial periodicity appeared
in 1934 (vol. ii, p. 790). Nimmo (1935, 1, p. 383) referred to the disease in
Queensland. Meyers (1935, 2, 406) stated that filariasis appeared to be much
more infrequently met with amongst the patients admitted to the Brisbane Hos-
pital than was the case some years previously. Heydon (1935, 2, p. 565) discussed
both Filaria bancrofli and Filaria malayi. The former was transmitted by
Anopheles punctulatus at Rabaul, where Finlaya kochi was shown experimentally
to be able to serve as a host. Clements (1936, 1, p. 456), in his medical survey
in Papua, found filariae in the blood of all natives examined over 45 years of
age, and reported that elephantiasis was seen occasionally.

Several papers relating to filariasis in Australia have appeared clsewhere.
Cilento published in 1924 an important summary entitled “Filariasis” as
Tropical Bulletin 4 (78 pages), Commonwealth Department of Health. Filariasis
amongst Australian troops was referred to in letters in the British Medical
Journal by Nesbitt and by Lilley (November 23, 1918, p. 573) and by Croll
(January 4, 1919, p. 28). Yorke and Blacklock (Annals of Tropical Medicine and
Parasitology, 11, 1917, p. 127) made observations on the larval periodicity as
seen in an infected soldier from Queensland. In “Health” there appeared an
important article by Sweet (vol. ii, 1924, p. 42) dealing with the periodicity of
the larva in Brisbane, Cilento adding a note (p. 46); Baldwin (vol. v, 1927, p. 9)
wrote on filariasis in Australia, Papua and the Territory of New Guinea; while
Heydon (vol. v, 1927, p. 133) dealt with filariasis in Cairns. Mavis Walker
published some observations on its transmission in Queensland (Australian Journal
of Experimental Biology and Medical Science, 1, 1924, p. 39).

In the Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene there appear a few
references. Jackson (1911, p. 280) mentioned that Filaria, transmitted by
Culex fatigans, affected 10% to 17% of the population as judged by the examina-
tion of 2,000 patients at the Brisbane Hospital. Young (1914, p. 241) published
a study of nitrogenous metabolism in chyluria (North Queensland). Breinl and
Priestley (1917, p. 253) referred to two unusual cases in North Queensland.
Cheyne (1923, p. 77), while discussing white settlement in Tropical Australia,
metitioned the occurrence of filaria in 15% of admissions to the Brisbane Hospital
and in 58% of those to Townsville Hospital.

Mackerras (British Medical Journal, 1933, 2, p. 36) referred to the meta-
morphosis of the parasite. In the Reports of the Australian Hookworm Survey

272

(1922) are accounts of investigations regarding filaria by Baldwin in Western
Australia, and by Charlton in Western Queensland and the Gulf territory.

In the Report of the Commissioner for Public Health, Queensland, are
references to Puaria bancrofti in that State—Ham, 1908-9 (p. 16, its relation to
the mosquito problem) ; Elkington, 1911-12; Booth-Clarkson, 1912-13 (Innisfail
and Ingham, Abstract in Australasian Medical Gazette, 35, 1914, p. 191).

In the Report of the Australian Institute of Tropical Medicine for 1911
(1913, p. 18) Breinl gave an account of human filariasis im Queensland and the
morphology of Microfilaria bancroftt. He mentioned it also when writing in the
‘Transactions of the Australasian Medical Congress, 9, 1911 (vol. i, p. 528) on
the object and scope of tropical medicine in Australia, and stated that chyluria
and occasionally elephantiasis were scen in North Queensland, where the disease
was common,

O’Brien (Trans. Austr. Med. Congr., 8, (2), 1908, p. 328) had previously
referred to the presence of filariasis from Brisbane to the [ar north of that State,
though very infrequent in Western Queensland.

In the Proceedings of the Pan Pacific Congress, 1923 (p. 1480) Ferguson
referred to the various mosquitoes concerned in the transmission of Filaria
bancrofti in Australia and the Pacific region.

References omitted from our earlier paper (1911) are J. Bancroft, Inter-
colonial Medical Congress, 1899, 2, Melbourne, 49-54; Goldsmith, ibid, 1899,
p. 107 (elephantiasis of female aborigine; and a case of chyluria); T. L.
Bancroft, Proc. Roy. Soc. New South Wales, 33, 1899, p. 48-62; p. 120 (filarial
metamorphosis in mosquitoes); Pincott, Austr, Med. Jour., 4, 1882, p. 339
(chyluria in a native from New Hebrides),

A very carly reference to elephantiasis appears in Wilson’s narrative of a
voyage round the world, 1835 (Appendix, p, 307). On Murray Island, Torres
Straits, in 1822, “during our rambles we observed several men labouring under
elephantiasis, who were apparently confined in a space.”

Loa Loa (Cobbold,).

In the British Medical Journal of January 13, 1913 (p. 82) there is reference
by Stones to a case of Calabar swelling, seen in a patient on furlough in Australia,
contracted in Southern Soudan.

DrAcuNcCULUS MEDINENSIS (Linn.).

Paterson in the Medical and Surgical Review, Australasia, 1863, p. 142,
mentioned obtaining from an Indian in Sydney a specimen 18 inches long from
a swelling above the tibia.

ASCARIS LUMuRICOIDES Linn.

In the Australasian Medical Gazette, vol xxxiii, 1913, Kelly (p. 594) referred
to a case in Sydney in which round worms caused symptoms Icading to a diagnosis
of appendicitis.

The following references occur in the Medical Journal of Australia. Nicoll
(1914, 1, p. 241) stated that the parasite was quite uncommon in North Queens-
land. Waite (1917, 2, p. 221) found it in 7% of plantation natives in Papua.
An editorial (1918, 1, p. 132) referred to the parasite as causing “pseudo-
appendicitis” elsewhere than in Australia. Edwards (1918, 2, p. 11) recorded
the recognition by skiagraph of a round worm which had become impregnated
with barium in the colon. Waite (1918, 2, p. 508) reported its presence in
18 cases out of 14,577 persons examined during seven months of the Hookworm
Campaign in Queensland. Sawyer (1921, 1, p. 150) mentioned its occurrence in

273

natives in Papua. Lambert (1921, 1, p. 332) found it in 0°1% of 29,745 examina-
tions in the coastal region of North Queensland. Farmer (1923, 2, p. 9) men-
tioned incidentally obtaining an Ascaris passed by a case of appendicitis in Perth.
Sweet (1924, 1, p. 406) reported finding it in 376 out of 202,582 persons
(= 0°2%) examined by the Hookworm Campaign staff in Australia, the infection
rate in Papua being 12°3%, and in New Guinea 11:3%. The highest infection
rate occurred in Cape Yorke Peninsula, where most of those examined were
aborigines. In Papua the rate varied from almost nil to 54%, while at Rabaul
post-mortem findings showed 18°8%. Charlton (1924, 1, Supplement, p. 326)
stated that the parasite was infrequent in Australia, but up to 12% infection
occurred in New Guinea and Papua. Duhig (1924, 2, 640) referred to heavy
infestation of a boy in Brisbane. Pearson (1925, 1, p. 315) mentioned the finding
of ova during the hookworm investigations in Queensland. Heydon (1926, 2,
p. 42) reported that santonin was the most efficacious drug against the parasite,
and that oil of chenopodium was also effective. J-awrance (1936, 1, p. 173)
found specimens in the base of the appendix and in the caecum of a boy in
Lismore.

In the Transactions of the Australasian Medical Congress, 11, 1920, Sawyer
(p. 294) referred incidentally to the presence of Ascaris in Papuans.

Duhig (Proc. Roy. Soc, Queensland, Abstract for June 30, 1924) referred
to its occurrence in a boy in Brisbane—presumably the same case as that men-
tioned above. We may mention that the parasite is met with occasionally in
patients in Adelaide Hospital.

ENTEROBIUS VERMICULARIS (Linn. ).

The presence of the pin worm, more commonly known as Oxyuris vermi
cularis, hag been noted on many occasions in the Medical Journal of Australia.
Nicoll (1914, 1, p. 244) stated that it was not infrequent in North Queensland.
Welch (1917, 2, p. 234) referred to finding in a child at Maitland an appendix
packed with thread-worms. Wood (1918, 1, p. 234) gave an account of seven
cases of “appendicopathia oxyurica” in Melbourne Children’s Hospital, and the
Editor (p. 132) referred to pseudo-appendicitis caused by this and other
nematode parasites in other countries. Waite (1918, 2, p. 508) reported finding
it in 75 out of 14,577 examinations during the hookworm investigation in
Queensland. Lambert (1921, 1, p. 332) recorded 0°43% infections amongst
29,745 persons examined in the coastal region of North Queensland, the highest
(p. 333) being 1°31% at Mossman, and 1:17% at Cooktown, while the highest
infection rate in the whole region occurred in the age group 6 to 18 years
(= 0°86%). The species was found (p, 334) in aborigines (0°19%), as well as
in whites (0-48%). Sawyer (1921, 1, p. 150) referred to its presence in North
Queensland. Charlton (1923, 2, p. 622) reported it as common in children in
Rabaul. Sweet (1924, 1, p. 406) tabulated the findings and percentages in the
various States: 1:2% in Queensland, 2°5% in Northern Territory, 4:7% in
Western Australia, 2°8% in New South Wales, 1°4% in South Australia, 0-8%
in Victoria, 0-9% in Tasmania, making a total of 1:4% for Australian examina-
tions of 202,582 persons; in Papua the rate was 0°8%, and in New Guinea 1°2%.
Charlton (1924, 1, Supplement, p. 325) stated that the species occurred in most
Australian children. Pearson (1925, 1, p. 315) mentioned its finding during the
hookworm investigations. Heydon (1926, 2, p. 42, Queensland) referred to its
presence, as also did Fairley, Fairley and Williams (1929, 2, p. 324, Victoria).
Baldwin (1932, 1, p. 546) found it in Norfolk Island, Penfold, Penfold and
Phillips (1936, 1, p. 284) mentioned its occurrence associated with Taenia
saginata in a Victorian case.

274

Humphreys (1936, 2, p. 734) referred to the presence of oxyurids in rabbits
and in those engaged in trapping them in Victoria. He thought that the two
worms were identical and that rabbits were a possible main source for human
infestations, but this view was shown to be untenable by Ileydon (1936, 2, p. 899),
who pointed out that the two parasites were quite distinct. The latter suggested
as a possibility that both of these species of oxyurids might be able to multiply
from some of the eggs laid in the intestine and reach maturity within the appro-
priate host. Fraser (1937, 1, p. 286) referred to finding oxyurids in the appendix
and stated “the discovery of thread-worms in an appendix makes operation
justified, as T am convinced that these patients develop ultimately an acute infective
appendicitis.”

Sawyer (Trans, Austr. Med. Congr., 11, 1920, p. 294) said that the species
was often found during the hookworm surveys in Australia. Cilento, McIntosh
and Charlton (Commonw. Health Dept., Trop. Publ. 5, p. 81) reported its
presence in Queensland and Papua.

Morgan, in the Report of the Microbiological Laboratory (Director-General
Public Health, N.S.W.) for 1930 (p. 126) referred to the presence of the parasite
in an abscess in the broad ligament, an unusual site for invasion. Sawyer and
Sweet (Archives Internal Medicine, 33, January, 1924, pp. 35-46) reported finding
this species in 2°7% of inmates examined in one hospital for the insane in Queens-
land, while Sawyer, Sweet and Shaw reported its presence in 4:°2% (Jour.
Hygiene, 22, 1923, p. 79) in another similar hospital in that State,

We have identified it occasionally in material from the Adelaide Hospital.

Oxuris INcOGNITA Kofoid and White.

The first record of this parasite, identification being based on the eggs, was
made by Burnell (Med. Jour. Austr., 1921, 2, p. 374), who stated that it was
found by Sawyer in September, 1920, in the faeces of some persons in Brisbane
and, later, in other people in Rockhampton and in Papua, Burnell recorded it
from 57 out of 12,539 persons examined by the Hookworm Campaign staff during
January-April, 1921.

Sawyer, Sweet and Shaw (Jour. Hygiene, 22, 1923, p. 79) found it rather
frequently in the inmates of the Goodna Hospital for the Insane, South
Queensland.

Sweet (Med. Jour. Austr., 1924, 1, p. 406) published percentage infections
found in Queensland (0°5%), Northern Territory (0-2%), Western Australia
(0:07% ), other States (nil), the total being 0-4% for Australia. It was found
in Papua, but in the Territory of New Guinea the infection rate was 0-02%.
lle pointed out that these figures were not reliable because earlier methods of
faecal diagnosis were not suitable for the very light ova of this worm. ‘The true
rate of infection in Queensland was said to be probably between 1% and 2%,
the maximum rate occurring during the summer months. ‘This seasonal incidence
was referred to by Charlton (M. J. A., 1924, 1, Supplement, p. 325). Pearson
(1925, 1, p. 315) mentioned the finding of the parasite during the hookworm
surveys.

Teydon (1926, 2, p. 42) pointed out, as had been done previously by Sand-
ground in America, that the eggs were really those of Heterodera radicicola,
which at certain times heavily parasitised radishes, celery, lettuce and other vege-
tables which were eaten raw, the egg being swallowed at the same time. He found
it in carrots and radishes grown in Townsville,

TRICHINELLA SPIRALIS (Owen).
A case was reported by Palmer, Cleland and Ferguson (Austr. Med. Gaz., xxxv,
1914, p. 546), who found the skeletal muscles of a Frenchman who had been in

275

Australia for twenty years, heavily infected. In an editorial (Med. Jour. Austr.,
1931, 1, p. 667) on trichiniasis, it is stated that no authentic cases of indigenous
infestation were known from Australia, and that the parasite was not known to
occur in rats in the Commonwealth. Bearup (M. J. A., 1937, 1, p. 504) searched
cadavers from the three Australian medical schools for the presence of the worm,
finding calcified cysts in three out of 94 from Sydney, but not in any of the 14
from Adelaide and 11 from Melbourne; the positives were all aged people, not
Australian born, and were undoubtedly infected elsewhere. He also pointed out
that a very early reference (Austr. Med. Jour., 16, 1874, p. 224) to the presence
of the parasite in a pig at Richmond, New South Wales, was based on an error,
the worm being the kidney worm, Stephanurus dentatus. In an editorial
(M.J.A., 1937, 2, p. 104) reference is made to the report of a recent outbreak in
Ohio, U.S.A.
TricHuURIS TRICHIURA (Linn.).

The whipworm, often known as Trichocephalus dispar, has been reported
many times in the Medical Journal of Australia, Nicoll (1914, 1, p. 244) stated
that it was not infrequent in North Queensland. Waite (1917, 2, p. 221) found
it in 6% of natives examined in Papua, and (1918, 2, p. 508) in 183 out of 14,577
persons examined in Queensland. Lambert (1921, 1, p. 332) found it in 1-13%
of persons examined in the coastal region of North Queensland, being most
common (p. 333) in Cooktown (2°81%), Innisfail (3'20%), and Townsville
schools (2°43%) ; the infection rate was highest (1-84%) in the age group 6 to 18
years; and aborigines (448% ) as well as whites (0°87%) harboured the parasite.

Shearman (1923, 1, p. 604) found it in one patient in Kalgoorlie Hospital.
Cilento (1923, 2, p. 405) recorded an infection rate of 22°2% at the State
Orphanage, Townsville. Sweet (1924, 1, p. 406) tabulated the results obtained
by the Hookworm Campaign staff and recorded the following infection rates :—
Queensland 1%, Northern Territory 1:9%, Western Australia 2°3%, New South
Wales 3:1%, South Australia 0°03%, Victoria 0°08%, Tasmania 0:04%, a total
for Australia 1°3% (from 202,582 persons) ; the rate in Papua was 12°7%, and
for the Territory of New Guinea 17-9%; and most of the infected persons in
New South Wales resided in the Northern Rivers district.

Charlton (1924, 1, Supplement, p. 325) referred, as did Sweet (1924), to its
infrequence in Southern Australia, the infection increasing northwards, reaching
1% in whites in the tropics and sub-tropics, up to 16% in asylums and aboriginal
settlements, 12°7% in Papua, and 17-99% in New Guinea. Duhig (1924, 2, p. 640)
mentioned finding it, along with several other species of nematodes, in a boy in
Brisbane. Pearson (1925, 1, p. 315) also referred to it. Heydon (1926, 2,
p. 42) stated that this parasite was often removed by using oil of chenopodium.
Heydon and Green (1931, 1, p. 625) found an infection on the Atherton Table-
land. Baldwin (1932, 1, p. 546) found the parasite in one person on Norfolk
Island.

Cilento, McIntosh and Charlton (Commonw. Health Dept., Trop. Publ., 5,
1924, p. 82) referred to its presence in Queensland, especially in the north.

FHIABRONEMA.

Bull (Med. Jour. Austr., 1922, 2, p. 499) described a habronemic conjunc-
tivitis producing a “bung eye,” the patient being a baby. The resulting tumour
was sectioned and on microscopic examination showed a picture like that in
granulomata produced in horses by the larva of species of Habronema, especially
Habronema megastoma. He regarded the condition in the infant as having been
caused by one of these larvae, carried by a fly, and probably the bush fly, Musca
vetustissima, He suggested that the Australian condition known as “bung eye”

276

might be due to a similar cause. The human case was referred to again by him
(1923, 2, p. 263). It may be pointed out that Sutton (1937, 2, p. 206) stated that
“bung eye” was due to Koch-Week’s bacillus and was spread by the bush fly.

STRONGYLOIDES STERCORALIS (Bavay),

In the report of the Australian Institute of Tropical Medicine for 1911
(1913, p. 39) Breinl referred to the presence of this tiny nematode in man in
North Queensland, where Nicoll (Med. Jour. Austr., 1914, 1, p. 244) stated that
it was not uncommon. Waite (M. J. A., 1917, 2, p. 221) found it in 0-5% of
plantation labourers in Papuan examinations, and next year (1918, 2, p. 508)
reported its occurrence in 19 out of 14,577 persons examined in North Queens-
land during the Hookworm Campaign. Willis (1920, 2, p. 379) stated that 60 out
of 223 people examined in the lower Burdekin district were infected and that
ofl of chenopodium was an efficient vermifuge. Tambert (1921, 1, p. 332)
reported it from 0°36% of examinations in the coastal region of North Queens-
land, the infection being highest in Townsville schools ; it occurred in 0°39% of
persons in the age group 6 to 18 years, and was found in aborigines (0°389%), as
well as whites (0°19%).

Sweet (M. J. A., 1924, 1, 406) gave the infections rates as 02% in Queens-
land examinations, Western Australia 0-2%, New South Wales 01%, South
Australia 0°5%, Victoria 0-4%, Tasmania and Northern Territory nil, the per-
centage for all Australian examinations (202,582 persons) being 0°2% ; in Papua
it was 0°1%, and in the Territory of New Guinea 0-2%. He pointed out that
the Willis salt-flotation method was not very efficient for the diagnosis of infec-
tions with this parasite. Johnston (1924, i, 551) exhibited specimens obtained
in the Adclaide Hospital from a patient who had resided previously in the Gulf
of Carpentaria region. Charlton (1924, 1, Supplement, p. 325) stated that it
occurred in 0°25% of examinations by the Hookworm Campaign staff. Duhig
(1924, 2, p. 640) mentioned its presence along with several other parasites in a
boy in Brisbane. Pearson (1925, 1, p. 315) included it in his list of parasites
likely to be found in examinations for hookworm, Heydon (1926, 2, p. 43) stated
that it was met with occasionally in all States of Australia.

In 1931 Heydon and Green (1931, 1, p, 624) referred to Sweet’s earlier find-
ings in Queensland (0-22%), but queried their correctness since later methods
of examination showed the common presence of coprophilic nematodes in stale
faeces. Persons in selected portions of North Queensland were examined, and
though Strongyloides was found in some cases, it was not detected in others, but
coprophilic nematodes were present. ‘These samples were cultured and species
of Rhabditis (referred to elsewhere in this survey) were obtained. These atthors
pointed out that the eggs were similar to those of Strongyloides (whose eggs are
found only occasionally in faeces), but the worms had transverse cuticular striae
which could be readily seen, thus differentiating the coprophiles from the free-
living stages of Strongyloides, Their work (p. 628) indicated that the infection
rate in the Atherton district was 003% in whites, while the rate for all races
examined was about one-quarter of that previously recorded, this discrepancy
being due to the presence of the coprophiles, Rhabditis spp. in stale faeces,

Sawyer, Sweet and Shaw recorded (Jour. Hyg,, 22, 1923, p. 29) the finding
on one occasion of Strengyloides in the Hospital for the Insane, Goodna (Queens-
land). Sawyer and Sweet (Archives Internal Medicine, 33, 1924, p. 35) found
it along with other parasites in inmates of the Sandy Gallop Hospital for the
Insane (Queensland).

Dr. D. Robertson, Director of the Division of Industrial Hygiene, Common-
wealth Department of Health, in a letter to one of us (T. H. J.), dated June 2,
1924, stated that during his hookworm survey in Bendigo, April to June, 1920,

277

he found seven infections there, most of them in miners. These would be included
in Sweet’s records (1924). He also stated that eight cases were found amongst
3,788 miners during the hookworm survey of the Broken Hill mines (Report of
the Technical Commission of Inquiry, 1921).

RUABDITIS spp.

Heydon and Green (Med. Jour. Austr., 1931, 1, p. 624-8), when discussing
the reported infection rate for Strongyloides stercoralis in Queensland, pointed
_ out that a good deal of uncertainty attached to the figures given by the Hook-
work Campaign staff because of the possibility of confusion with free-living
coprophilic nematodes. As a result of culturing faeces such coprophiles were
obtained from most samples (p. 626), and these included about four species of
Rhabditis and one of Cephalobus. One of them was closely related to, though
probably distinct from, Rhabditis hominis found by Kobayashi and by Sandground
elsewhere. As a result of their investigation they considered that the real
infection rate with Strongyloides was only about one-quarter of that previously
recorded.

MERMIS sp.

Baylis (Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 1927, p. 203) gave an account
of a Mermis worm about 56 centimetres long, forwarded by Dr. Heydon from
Mackay, North Queensland, and said to have been passed by a woman thought
to be suffering from uterine cancer.

Parasite (?).

McLeod (Med. Jour. Austr., 1916, 1, p. 373) referred to a urethral discharge
due to a “worm about two inches long, grey, with large round head and a striated
body.” After its discharge the condition cleared up. The case came from the
Monaro district.

The various papers of the Australasian Medical Congresses (Brit. Med.
Assoc.) which appeared in Supplements of the Medical Journal of Australia,
were published with the same pagination in the separate Transactions of the
respective Congresses: First Session, 1923, Melbourne; Second, 1927, Dunedin;
Third, 1929, Sydney; Fourth, 1934, Hobart.

ABSTRACT OF THE PROCEEDINGS

Summary

278

ABSTRACT OF THE PROCEEDINGS

OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
(Incorporated).

FOR THE YEAR Novemper 1, 1936, ro Ocroner 31, 1937.

Orpinary MEETING, NoveMBer 12, 1936.

The President (Mr. H. M. Hale) in the chair, 23 members and 4 visitors
present.

A cordial welcome was extended by the President to Mr. 1. McCubbin,
Director of the National Art Gallery; Mr. L. Stach, of Melbourne University ;
and Mr. T. Barnard, of the Commonwealth Council for Scientific and Indus-
trial Research.

Parrrs—“A Supplementary Catalogue of the Australian Gammaridea (1909-
1936),” by K. Sheard; “Examples of Aboriginal Art from Napier Broome Bay
and Parry Harbour, North-western Australia,” by C. P. Mountford; “Descriptions
of Tertiary Plant Remains from Central Australia, and from other Australian
Localities,” by F. Chapman.

Exurpits—Sir D. Mawson exhibited a fine specimen of Archaeocyathinae
from the Flinders Range; Dr. W. Christie showed some pebbles embedded in a
chalky material from Yorke Peninsula, which Sir D. Mawson thought might be
alwmite. On behalf of Mr. I. Ashby, Miss C. Eardley exhibited a specimen of
Mycrocybe pauciflora in flower from the Murray Scrub.

In a letter Mr. Ashby suggested a “fauna and flora reserve” in the Mallee,
in a locality where the Mallee Hens were known to breed. The meeting viewed
this suggestion sympathetically, and it was referred to the Council for forward-
ing to the Flora and Fauna Board.

OrpInary MEETING, Apri 8, 1937,
The President (Mr. H. M. Hale) in the chair, and 24 members present.

Nominations As FELLows—William Lockhart Rait, M.Se., St. Peter’s
College; Beryl Stoddart Barrien, B.Se., Adelaide University; George Lewis
Amos, B.Sc., 233 Cross Roads, Cabra.

Parers—*The Climatic Control of Agriculture in South Australia,” by H. C.
Trumble, D.Sc., M.Agr. Sc.

Exuisirs—Mr. G. H. Clarke exhibited two recently introduced weeds,
Dactyloctenium aegyptinm (L.) Rieht. from ballast dumps at Port Pirie and
Brassica Tournefortii Gouan. from Narridy, and probably introduced from
Western Australia. lle also showed a collection of 20 native grasses from
Beltana Station, near Copley, illustrating the luxuriant growth following the
excellent rains in the Far North,

Orvinary Mrerinc, May 13, 1937.

The President (Mr. H. M. Hale) in the chair, and 13 members present.

ELECTION OF FELLOws—William Lockhart Rait, M.Sc., St. Peter’s College;
Beryl Stoddart Barrien, B.Sc., Adelaide University; George Lewis Amos, B.Sc.,
233 Cross Roads, Cabra.

279

Parers—‘‘Some New Tenebrionidae in the South Australian Museum,” by H.
J. Carter; “A Study of the Growth of the Fore Wing-sheaths in Eusthenia
spectabilis Wd.” and “Some Observations on the Immature Stages of Eusthenia
spectabilis Wd.,” by W. L. Rait; “An Examination of the Brown Coal of Moor-
lands, Pt. I,” by W. T. Cooke.

Exuisits-~ Mr. G. H. Clarke exhibited specimens of the following:
Argemone mexicana (Prickly Poppy) from Walloway near Orroroo; Trifolium
Wormskjoldu, a native of Hastern North America, characterised by having under-
ground stems and involucrate heads, found at Beaufort, Victoria; Threlkaldia
proceriflora, and Swainsona microphylla, from Wentworth, N.S.W. The last was
suspected of causing photosensitisation of stock.

+ Spe)
Orpinary MEETING, JUNE 10, 1937.
The President, Mr. If. M. Hale (in the chair), and 20 members and 6

visitors present.

Parers—“Native Songs of the South-East of South Australia,” by N. B.
Tindale; “Aboriginal Crayon Drawings,” by C. P. Mountford; “Studies in Aus-
tralian Thysanura, No. 2, Lepismatidae,” “On Some Australian Coleoptera of
the Subfamily Cossoninae,” and “A New Marine Chironomid from South Aus-
tralia,” by H. Womersley.

Exnisits—Mr., E, H. Ising exhibited a specimen of Native Poplar (Cedono-
carpus cotmifolius) from Canegrass Station, 70 miles east of Burra. It was a
comparatively rare tree in this State.

Mr. B. C. Cotton showed his film of the last surviving Toolach Wallaby,
Macropus grey. The distinctive features of the species, cheek stripes, blunt snout,
short fore limbs, well developed hind limbs and tail were clearly seen. A slow
motion depicted the peculiar, swift, hopping action of the animal.

Orpinary MEETING, Juty 8, 1937.
The President (Mr. H. M. Hale) in the chair, and 26 members present.

ADDRESSES—
Mr. R. J. Best delivered an address, illustrated by specimens, on “Plant
Viruses and the Concept of Living Molecules.” After outlining the general

properties of plant and animal viruses and bacteriophages, the lecturer dealt with
the association between plant viruses and insect carriers, the serological behaviour
of plant viruses, the occurrence of mutations and problems of immunity. It was
pointed out that the difference between animal and plant virus diseases in regard
to the development of the immunity was probably due to fundamental differences
between the hosts and not to any fundamental difference in the nature of the
viruses.

Some properties of a fluorescent substance produced in practically large
quantities by some plants as a result of infection by tomato spotted wilt virus
were illustrated, and the probable role of the substance was outlined.

The results of chemical investigations of plant viruses were reviewed.
‘Tobacco mosaic virus is undoubtedly a nucleo-protein of high molecular weight.
The molecules of this virus have the power of linking up to form aggregates which
are visible and exist in a state of organisation known as mesomorphic or para-
crystalline, which is intermediate between the amorphous and truly crystalline
states.

The viruses of yellow tobacco mosaic, cucumber mosaic and rabbit papilloma
and a bacteriophage have also been shown to be proteins.

280

Even the simplest of the viruses, tobacco mosaic virus, has many properties
which have heen considered as characteristic of living things, and yet it is a well-
defined though highly complex chemical molecule, a nucleo-protein which exists
in the paracrystalline state. The propertics of viruses as a class lead to the con-
clusion that they form a series of living molecules of graded complexity of
structure and organisation which cover the transition between the organisation
of the more complex non-living protein molecules and that of the simplest living
cell. Mutations among viruses receive a ready explanation on this basis as result-
ing from slight non-lethal changes in the structure of the molecule. The possible
methods by which multiplication of the virus takes place were discussed, and the
possibility of chemical attractive forces acting through a distance like organisers
was considered.

Finally, it was pointed out that the absence of free-living viruses may be
more apparent than real because, even if fully autonomous viruses exist, there
are at present no means of detecting or finding them. It is also quite possible that
conditions of the type which result in spontaneous mutations amongst the viruses
might give rise occasionally to a new virus from perfectly normal cellular material.

Dr. Keita Warp then delivered a short talk on “The Geology of the
Tennant Creek Goldfield.”

The area dealt with was the large goldfield, comprising about 1,200 square
miles, and situated almost midway between the extremities of the constructed
sections of the North-South railway, on the Overland Telegraph Line.

The field, which was opened up only a few years ago, has produced already
gold valued at over £150,000, and the future production will certainly be very
much greatcr.

The ore bodies exhibit, in their general geological relationships, many features
that are normal. The veins occur scattered sporadically or grouped in zones
about granite outcrops, but do not occur within the granite masses. The rocks
enclosing the ore bodies are predominately old Pre-Cambrian sediments, many of
which have been rendered schistose. With these schists are subordinate igneous
rocks—thyolite, lamprophyre and websterite (serpentinized). The granite and
related quartz porphyry outcropping at Tennant appear to be older than the
granite which outcrops farther south. The older magma was responsible for the
introduction of iron ore, jasperoid quartz, gold and bismuth. The younger granite
magma to the southward is associated with tin and tungsten veins.

The details of the character and structure of the gold-bearing lodes at
Tennant are quite exceptional. Much, if not all, of the gold mined hitherto is
secondary and oceurs chiefly in crush zones bordering lenticular masses of iron-
stone, chiefly haematite but with subordinale magnetile and a certain amount of
jasper. In some cases the ironstone has become involved in the crushing and
gold has been introduced into the crevices and pores of the shattered and
recemented ironstone, in association with bismuth carbonate.

A geological sketch map and a diagrammatic geological section of the field
were shown as lantern slides, together with a number of photographs illustrating
the geology and topography of the area.

Orvinary Mretine, Aucust 12, 1937.
The President (Mc. II. M. Hale) in the chair, and 40 members and 1 visitor
present,

The President extended a cordial welcome to Mr. Frank Tose, Chief of
Exhibits at the Californian Academy of Science, San Francisco.

281

Resotution—The following resolution, proposed by Sir D. Mawson and
seconded by Prof. J. A. Prescott, was carried -—

“That in view of the few and small areas set aside in this State as Flora
and Fauna Reserves, this meeting of the Royal Society of South Australia
urges the Commissioners not to permit any further interference with virgin
portions of the National Park, such as would result from the construction
of the proposed 18-hole golf course. Such a golf course will render some
160 acres of the most natural part of the Park useless as a flora and fauna
reserve, and will alienate this portion for the benefit of a small section of the
community, rendering it inaccessible to the majority of the people. Rarities
in animal, bird and plant life, will be eradicated. The suggested small area
to be enclosed within the links, because of its smallness, and its surrounding
links, will not be a satisfactory reserve. We urge that the whole area in
question should be reserved for all time as a Natural Sanctuary.”

Paprers—‘“Description of Two New Species of Australian Chitons.” by E.
Ashby and B. C. Cotton; “Two Legends of the Ngadjuri Tribe from South Aus-
tralia,’ by N. B. Tindale; “New Species of Australian Collembola,” by H.
Womersley.

Exurpirs—Mr. R. W. Segnit exhibited and described the features of his
new geological map of the northern part of the Hundred of Macclesfield. The
investigations leading up to the construction of the map had cofnmenced in connec-
tion with the water supply for Mount Barker. The results were incorporated in
Geological Survey Bulletin No. 16. The outstanding features of the map were
outlined and further explained by means of cross sections.

ORDINARY MEETING, SEPTEMBER 9, 1937.

The President (Mr. H. M. Hale) in the chair, and 17 members present.

NOMINATION AS FreLttow—Robert Langdon Crocker, B.Sc., Research Officer,
CS.LR., Waite Institute, proposed by Sir D. Mawson, seconded by Dr. A. R.
Alderman.

Parers—'‘Notes on some Clay Pots from Panaeati Island,” by N. B. Tindale
and H, K. Bartlett; “A New Species of Thysanoptera of Economic Importance
in South Australia,” by H. V. Andrewartha; “Further Remarks on ‘Terminology
Relative to the Growth of the Fore Wing-sheaths in Eusthenia spectabilis (Wd.),”
by W. L. Rait.

Lecrurette—Dr. C. T. Madigan delivered a short talk, illustrated by slides,
photographs and specimens, on “Some Meteorites in Central Australia.”

The lecturer’s remarks dealt with his recent two months’ trip to Central
Australia, Pictures were shown of the Mound Springs round Lake Eyre,
including Blanche Cup, the Coober Pedy opal fields, the Granites and their
weathering between Tieyon Station in South Australia and Kuljara in the
Northern Territory, Henbury Station and meteoric craters, Christopher’s Pinnacle,
Boxhole Station, Mount Sainthill, The Arthur, Marshall, and Hay Rivers, Tarlton
Range, Goyder’s Pillars, and Simpson Desert.

Dr. Madigan made a preliminary announcement about the discovery of two
new meteorites, the Boxhole, and the Huckitta, and showed specimens of each.
The Boxhole crater, he said, was a single crater nine chains across, situated on
Boxhole Station, three-quarters of a mile from the homestead, on the north side
of the Plenty River. Highly weathered fragments of meteoric material were found
in and around the crater, which was first visited on June 20, 1937. It was shown
to him by Mr. Joe Webb, who suspected it of being a meteorite crater. The
Huckitta meteorite was discovered on July 6, 1937. A fragment was shown to
Dr. Madigan, three weeks before, by a half-caste, Mick Laughton, and the

282

locality was later visited on camels. The meteorite was found on the plains on
the north side of the Dulcie Range.

It consisted of a main mass weighing over two tons, half iron and half silicate
minerals, of very coarse grain. This mass rested on a large quantity of shaly
material buried in the ground, the weathered products of the original meteorite,
of which the portion on the surface could be regarded as a kernel, ‘he iron
shale extended down over seven feet. There was practically no visible crater.

A polished slab of this meteorite, and some of the weathered shale, were
exhibited. The meteorite had now been brought into Alice Springs and was on
its way down to the University.

Dr. Madigan said that soon after reports of these discoveries by him had
appeared in the press, a party with a lorry visited the localities, without any
reference to him, and had removed some material. This present announcement
was in order to secure priority of description. A paper on the meteorites would be
offered to the Society at its next meeting, to be followed by a petrographical
description by Dr. Alderman.

Exuisits—Mr. B. C. Cotton exhibited a specimen of the South Australian
Baler Shell, Melo miltonis, and one of the North Australian Baler Shells, Afelo
flammeus, demonstrating the comparatively larger size of the protoconch in the
former species. Also a sinestral specimen of Melo flammeus. A possible new
species of Ephippodonta from Reevesby Island, which is apparently not commensal
with a crustacean but lives on the undersurface of rocks, was also shown. The
habitat is extraordinary in the South Australian genus Ephippodonta, as the only
other two species, macdougalli and linata are said to live commensally with the
burrowing prawn.

Prof. Harvey Johnston showed copies of the first published reports of the
B.A.N.Z.A.R.E., especially the very fine first volume on the Birds, by Falla,

Mr. E. H. Ising showed a specimen of Phebalium bullatum Blk., one of the
daintiest of the Mallee flowers, from Monarto South.

ANNUAL MEETING, OcToBer 14, 1937,
Present: Dr. J. Davidson (in the chair) and 24 members.

BaLitot For FELLow—Robert Langdon Crocker, B.Sc., Waite Institute, was
ballotted for, and unanimously elected.

NoMINATION AS FELLOw—Leslie Wedgewood Parkin, student, University
of Adelaide.

The Annual and Financial Reports were read and adopted, and thanks
expressed to the Treasurer and Hon. Auditors.

ELection or Orricers ror 1937-38-—Dr, J. Davidson, president; Mr. H. M.
Hale, Dr. H. K. Fry, Vice-Presidents; Dr. C. A. IX. Fenner, Editor; Dr. W.
Christie, Treasurer; Mr. H. Womersley, Secretary; Dr. A, R. Alderman, Mr,
R. W. Segnit, Members of the Council; Messrs, O. Glastonbury and W. Champion
Hackett, Hon. Auditors.

REPRESENTATIVE ON Boarp oF Governors, Public Library, Museum and Art
Gallery—Sir D. Mawson was re-clected.

Papers—The following papers were read :—‘“‘Additions to the Flora of South
Australia, No. 35,” by Mr. J. M. Black; “Notes on the Flora af South Australia,
No. 5,” by Mr. E. H. Ising; “The Most Northerly Occurrence of Fossiliferous
Cambrian Strata in South Australia,’ by Sir D. Mawson; “The Nature and
Origin of the So-called Diorite Inclusions in the Granite of Granite Island,” by

283

A. W. Kleeman; “The Boxhole Crater and the Huckitta Meteorite, Central Aus-
tralia,’ by Dr. C. T. Madigan; “Larval Trematodes from Australian Terres-
trial and Freshwater Molluscs, Pt. I: A Survey of Literature,” by Prof T.
Harvey Johnston and Miss E. R. Cleland; “Larval Trematodes from Austra-
lian Terrestrial and Freshwater Molluscs, Pt. U1: Cercaria (Hurcocercaria)
jaenschi, n. sp.,” by Prof. T. Harvey Johnston and Miss E. R. Cleland; “A
Survey of Literature Relating to the Occurrence in Australia of Helminth Para-
sites of Man,” by Prof. T, Harvey Johnston and Prof. J. B. Cleland; “Studies in
Australian Thysanura, No. 3, Campodidae,” by Mr. H. Womersley; “Australian
Acarina of the genus Megisthanus Thorell,” by Mr. H. Womersley; “A New
Species of Marine Hydrachnellae from South Australia,” by Mr. H. Womersley ;
“Aboriginal Crayon Drawings, No. 2: Relating to Totemic Places in South-
western Central Australia,” by Mr. C. P. Mountford.

ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL, 1936-37.

PRESENTED AT THE ANNUAL MEETING ON Ocroser 14, 1937,
During the year eight ordinary meetings have been held, with an average
attendance of 22 members,
Thirty-one papers, on a very wide range of subjects, have been contributed.
They were :—
Ethnology - - - Mr. C. P. Mountford, 3; Mr. N. B. Tindale, 3.
Agriculture and Climate Mr. H. C. Trumble, 1.
Palaeontology (Botany) Mr. F. Chapman, 1.

Botany - - - Mr. J. M. Black, 1; Mr. E. H. Ising, 1.

Mineralogy - - Sir D, Mawson, 1; Mr. A. W. Kleeman, 1;
Dr. C. T. Madigan, 1.

Entomology - - Mr. W. L. Rait, 3; Mrs. Andrewartha, 1;

Mr. IT. J. Carter, 1; Mr. IT. Womersley, 5.

Carcinology - - - Mr. K. Sheard, 1.

Conchology - - - Messrs. E. Ashby and B. C. Cotton, 1.

Acarology - - - Mr. H. Womersley, 2.

Parasitology - - Prof, T. H. Johnston and Miss E. R. Cleland, 2;
Profs. T. H. Johnston and J. B. Cleland, 1.

Chemistry - - - Dr. W. T. Cooke, 1.

Three general addresses have been given: Mr. R. J. Best, on “Plant Viruses
and Concepts of Living Molecules”; Dr.tKeith Ward, “The Geology of the
Tennant Creek Gold Fields”; Dr. C. T. Madigan, “Some Meteorites in Central
Australia.” Amongst the exhibits were Mr. B. C. Cotton’s film of the last surviv-
ing specimen of the Toolach Wallaby in South Australia, and Mr. R. W. Segnit’s
“Geological Map of the Northern Hundred of Macclesfield.”

Tour new Fellows have been elected during the year, but it is with regret
that the Council has to record the loss by death of five Fellows of long standing:
Messrs. W. Ham, J. Glover, W. H. Selway, W. J. Kimber, and Dr. C. Chewings.
[Professor Walter Howchin also passed away on November 27, 1937, after same
weeks of illness, at the age of 92-—Ed.] Three members have resigned, and the
membership now stands as follows: Hon, Fellows, 5; Fellows, 147; Associate, 1.

The Council was pleased to note that the high honour of knighthood had
been bestawed upon Professor R. W. Chapman by His Majesty the King, and
the Society’s congratulations have been conveyed to Sir Robert Chapman.

284

At the close of the year the Council has learnt, with deep regret, of the
death of Lady Verco, whose husband, the late Sir Joseph Verco, was prominently
associated with our Society over a long period of years.

Mr. N. B. Tindale and Dr. C. Fenner, having received Carnegie Visitors
Grants, were granted leave and were away for most of the year. Mr. Womersley
has acted as Editor in Dr. Fenner’s absence. Prof. J. G. Wood and Dr. T. D.
Campbell, were also granted leave for most of the year.

The Council has considered and in general approved of the Report to the
Government by Dr. Grenfell Price on the State Libraries. The resulting Govern-
ment Bill was also considered at a joint mecting of representatives of your
Council with those of the Royal Geographical Society and the Astronomical
Society, and on one or two points directly affecting these societies and their
libraries amendments have been suggested.

The question of a second and 18-hole golf course in the National Park has
been brought before the notice of the Council and Fellows, and a strong protest
against such a proposal was forwarded to the Park Commissioners.

The proposal for a Sir Joseph Verco Memorial has been revived and your
President is a member of the Provisional Committee which has drawn up an
appeal for funds, and will probably be a member of the committee which will
consider the allocation of the funds irom time to time.

Signed,

Herpert M. Hate, President.

H. Womerstey, Hon. Secretary.
October 13, 1937.

ANNUAL REPORT

Summary

285

THE SIR JOSEPH VERCO MEDAL.

The Council, on August 23, 1928, having resclved to recommend to the
Fellows of the Society that a medal should be founded to give honorary distinction
for scientific research, and that it should be designated the Sir Joseph Verco

Medal, a motion was submitted to the Society at the evening meeting of October 11,
1928, and at a later meeting, held on November 8, 1928, the recommendation of
the Council was confirmed on the following terms :—

REGULATIONS.

XI—“The medal shall be of bronze, and shall be known as the Sir Joseph
Verco Medal, in recognition of the important service that gentleman has
rendered to the Royal Society of South Australia. On the obverse side of
the medal shall be these words: ‘The Sir Joseph Verco Medal of
the Royal Society of South Australia.’ surrounding the modelled
portrait of Sir Joseph Verco, while on the reverse side of the medal there
shall be a surrounding wreath of eucalypt, with the words: ‘Awarded
PO. nrareherema sie. Aeeeedhovah enka sserealltphalbee ollidE sls oeyslace aes for Research in Science,’ the
name of the recipient, and the year of the award. The Council shall select
the person to whom it is suggested that the medal shall be awarded, and
that name shall be submitted to the Fellows at an Ordinary Meeting
to confirm, or otherwise, the selection of the Council, by ballot or show
of hands. The medal shall be awarded for distinguished scientific work
published by a Member of the Royal Society of South Australia.”

AWARDS.
1929 Pror. WALTER Howcnrn, F.G.S.
1930 Joun McC. Brack, A.L.S.
1931 Pror. Str Doveras Mawson, B.E., D.Sc., F.R.S.
1933 Pror. J. Burton Crerann, M.D.
1935 Pror. T. IlArvey Jonnston, M.A., D..Se.

BALANCE SHEETS

Summary

286

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ENDOWMENT FUND

Summary

THE ENDOWMENT FUND.

1902.—On the motion of the late Samuel Dixon it was resolved that steps
be taken for the incorporation of the Society and the establishment of an
Endowment and Scientific Research Fund. Vol. xxvi., pp. 327-8.

1903.—The incorporation of the Society was duly effected and announced.
Vol. xxvii., pp. 314-5.

1905.—The President (Dr. J. C. Verco) offered to give £1,000 to the Fund
on certain conditions, Vol. xxix., p. 339.

1937.--The following are particulars of the contributions received and other
sources of revenue in support of the und up to date :—

SUMMARY OF THE ENDOWMENT FUND (30/9/37).

(Capital... .. £5,150 11s. 1d.)
Donations—
£ s. d £ s. do £ 8s. do
1908, Dr. J. C. Verco saa 1,000 0 0
1908, Thomas Scarfe host 1,000 0 0
1911, Ne Verco ie , 150 0 0
1913, Verco tet cost 120 0 0
Mrs. ea, Peterswald 100 0 0
1934, Prof. Walter Howchin,
iiketce het . 40 0 0
“Anonymous” .... es ais we 005s 0
Small Sums ats %., 6 0 0
1934, J. M. Black, ALS. Bs 20 0 0
2,441 5 0
Bequests—
1917, R. Barr Smith ath 1,005 16 8
1920, Sir Edwin Smith eh 200 0 0
1935, Sir J. C. Verco wath 322 17 6
1,528 14 2
Life Members’ Subscriptions .... _ .. 24015 0
— 4,210 14 2
Total Subscribed Capital begs £4,210 14 2

Additions from the Current Account have becn made at various dates. These,
together with the redemption of Stocks and the purchase of others for less than their
face value, have enabled the Saciety to purchase Government Stocks to the face value of
£5,130. Cash in the Savings Bank on account of the Endowment Fund amounts to
£20 11s. ld. The total capital of this Fund is, therefore, £5,150 11s, 1d.

GRANTS MADE IN AID OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH.

fos. d
1916, G. H, Tardy, “Investigations into the Flight of Birds” ths an 15 0 90
1916, Miss H. A. Rennie, “Biology of Lobelia gibbosa” t2 ! Mes 22 0
1921. H. R. Marston, “Possibility of obtaining from Azine precipitate
samples of pure Proteolytic Enzymes”. 30 0 0
1921, Prof. Wood Jones, “Investigations of the Fauna. and Flora of Nuyts
Archipelago”. . ate os ee 4416 7
1934. H. H. Finlayson, “Mammals of ‘Central Australia” 10 0 0
1934. T. T. Colquhoun, M.Sce.. “Regeneration of Vegetation after Bush-fires” 5 0 0
1935. H. H. Finlayson, “Mammals of Central Australia” oh : ns 5 0 0

W. CHRISTIE, Hon. Treasurer.

LIBRARY EXCHANGE

Summary

289

ROYAL SOCIETY LIBRARY.

List of Governments, Societies and Editors with whom
Exchanges of Publications are made,

AUSTRALIA.

Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne.
Bureau of Census and Statistics, Canberra.

Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Melbourne.
Library of Commonwealth Parliament.

SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

Botanic Gardens, Adelaide.

Mines Department, Adelaide.

Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery of South Australia.
Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (S.A. Branch).
South Australian Institutes Association, Adelaide.

South Australian Museum, Adelaide.

South Australian Naturalist, Adelaide.

South Australian Ornithologist, Adelaide.

South Australian Parliamentary Library.

University of Adelaide.

Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond

NEW SOUTH WALES.

Australian Museum, Sydney.

Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

Department of Agriculture, Sydney.

Geographical Society of New South Wales, Sydney.
Linnean Society of New South Wales.

Mines Department, Sydney.

Public Library of New South Wales.

Royal Society of New South Wales.

Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales.
School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Sydney.
Technological Museum, Sydney.

University of Sydney.

QUEENSLAND.

Department of Agriculture. Brisbane.
Geological Survey, Brisbane.
Queensland Museum, Brisbane.

Public Library of Queensland, Brisbane.
Royal Society of Queensland, Brisbane.
University of Queensland, Brisbane.

TASMANIA.
Government Geologist, Mines Department, Hobart.
Public Library of Tasmania, Hobart.
Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobart.
University of Tasmania, Hobart.

290

VICTORIA.

Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria, Melbourne.
Government Botanist, National Herbarium, Melbourne.
Mines Department, Melbourne.

National Museum, Melbourne.

Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne.

Royal Society of Victoria, Melbourne.

University of Melbourne.

WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

_ Geological Survey Department, Perth,
Public Library of Western Australia, Perth.
Royal Society of Western Australia, Perth.
University of Western Australia, Perth.

ENGLAND.

British Museum Library, London.

British Museum (Natural History), South Kensington.
Cambridge Philosophical Society.

Cambridge University Library.

Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland,
Geological Society of London.

Geologists’ Association, London.

Imperial Institute, South Kensington.

Imperial Institute of Entomology, London.
Linnean Society of London.

Liverpool Biological Society.

Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society.
National Physical Laboratory, Teddington,
Rhodes House Library, Oxtord.

Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden.
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

Royal Empire Society, London.

Royal Entomological Society of London.
Royal Geographical Society, London.

Royal Microscopical Society, London.

Royal Society, London.

Science Museum, South Kensington.

Zoological Museum, Tring, Herts.

Zoological Society of London.

SCOTLAND.
Edinburgh Geological Society.
Geological Society of Glasgow.
Royal Society of Edinburgh.

IRELAND,
Royal Dublin Society.
Royal Irish Academy, Dublin,

CANADA.

Canadian Geological Survey, Ottawa.
Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.
National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa.

291

Nova Scotian Institute of Science, Halifax.
Royal Canadian Institute, Toronto.

Royal Society of Canada, Ottawa.
University of British Columbia, Vancouver.

CEYLON.
Colombo Museum, Colombo,

FEDERATED MALAY STATES.
Royal Asiatic Society, Malayan Branch, Singapore.

INDIA.

Government Museum, Madras.

Geological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Royal Asiatic Society, Bombay Branch, Bombay.
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,

NEW ZEALAND.

Auckland Institute and Museum.

Dominion Museum, Wellington.

Royal Society of New Zealand, Wellington.

Otago University Museum, Dunedin.

Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, Christchurch.

SOUTH AFRICA,

Albany Museum, Grahamstown.

Geological Society of South Africa, Johannesburg.

Royal Society of South Africa, Cape Town.

south African Museum, Cape Town.

South African Association for the Advancement of Science, Johannesburg.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

Academia Nacional de Ciencias, Cordoba.
Universidad de Buenos Aires.

AUSTRIA.

Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna.
Geologische Bundesanstalt, Vienna.
Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna.
Zoologisch-Botanische Gesellschaft, Vienna.

BELGIUM.
Académie Royale de Belgique, Brussels.
Institut Solvay, Brussels,
Musée Royale d’Ilistoire Naturelle de Belgique, Brussels.
Société Entomologique de Belgique, Ghent.
société Royale de Botanique de Belgique, Brussels.
Société Royale des Sciences de Liége.
Société Royale Zoologique de Belgique, Brussels.

BRAZIL,

Instituto de Biologia Vegetac, Rio de Janeiro.
Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro.
Museu Paulista, Sao Paulo.

292

CHINA.
Geological Society of China, Nanking.
Geological Survey of China, Peiping.
National Research Institute of Biology, Nanking.
Peking National University, Pieping.
Science Society of China, Nanking.
Shanghai Science Institute, Shanghai.
Sun Yatsen University, Canton.

CZECHO-SLOVAKIA.
Ceskoslovenska Botanicka Spolecnost, Prague.

DENMARK.

Conseil Permanent International pour l’Exploration de la Mer.
Dansk Naturhistorisk Forening. Copenhagen.

Kobenhavn Universitets Zoologiske Museum.

K. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. Copenhagen.

EGYPT.
Société Royale de Geographic d’ Egypte, Cairo.

ESTHONIA.
Universitas Tartuensis, Tartu (Dorpat).

FINLAND,

Academia Scientiarum Fennica, Helsinki.
Societas Entomologica Helsingforsiensis.
Societas Scientiarum Fennica, Helsingfors.

FRANCE,

Ministére de l’Agriculture—Centre National de Recherches Agro-
nomiques.

Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris,

Société Bourguignonne d’Histoire Naturelle et de Préhistoire, Toulouse.

Société des Scicnces Naturelles de l’Quest de la France, Nantes.

société Entomologique de France, Paris.

Société Géologique de France, Paris.

Société Linnéenne de Bordeaux.

Société Linnéenne de Normandie, Caen.

Société Scientifique de Bretagne, Rennes,

GERMANY.

Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Munchen.

Berliner Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte.
Botanischer Garten und Botanisches Museum, Berlin.

Deutsches Entomologisches Institut, Berlin,

Deutsches Museum fiir Landerkunde, Leipzig.

Fedde, F.: Repertorium specierum novarum regni vegetabilis, Berlin.
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Goltingen.

293

Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde zu Berlin.

K. Leopoldinische Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher, Halle.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Freiburg.

Naturforschende und Medizinische Gesellschaft, Rostock.
Oberhessische Gesellschaft fiir Natur- und Heilkunde, Giessen
Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin.
Senckenbergische Bibliothek, Frankftirt a. M.

Stadtisches Museum fiir Volkerkunde, Leipzig.

Zoologisches Museum, Berlin.

Zoologisches Staatsinstitut und Zoologisches Museum, ‘Hamburg.

HAWAIIAN ISLANDS.

Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu.
Hawaiian Entomological Society, Honolulu.

HOLLAND.
Musée Teyler, Haarlem.
Rijks Herbarium, Leiden.

HUNGARY.

Hydrological Dept., Hungarian Geological Soc., Budapest.
Musée National Hongrois, Budapest.

ITALY.

Laboratorio di Entomologia, Bologna.

Laboratorio di Zoologia Agraria, Milan.

Laboratorio di Zoologia Generale e Agraria, Portici.

Roma, R. Universita di Societa Adriatica di Scienze Naturali, Trieste.
Societa di Scienze Naturali ed Economiche, Palermo.

Societa Entomologica Italiana, Genova.

Societa Italiana di Scienze Naturali, Milan.

Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Pisa.

JAPAN.
Hiroshima University.
Kyoto Imperial University.
Ohara Institute for Agricultural Research, Kurashiki.
Osaka Imperial University, Osaka.
Taihoku Imperial University.
Tokyo Imperial University.

JUGOSLAVIA.
Musée Ethnographique de Zagreb, Zagreb.

LATVIA.
Latvijas Universitat, Riga.

MEXICO.
Instituto de Biologia, Chapultepec.
Instituto Geoldgico de Mexico,
Sociedad Cientifica “Antonio Alzate,’’ Mexico.
Sociedad Mexicana de Ilistoria Natural.

294

NORWAY,
Bergen Museum, Bergen,
Botanisk Museum, Oslo.
Kongelige Norske Videnskabers Selskabs, Trondheim.
Tromso Museum, ‘l'romso.

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
Philippine Journal of Science, Manila,

POLAND.

Société Botanique de Pologne, Warsaw.
Société Polonaise des Naturalistes “Kopernik,” Lwow.

PORTUGAL
Sociedade Broteriana, Coimbra.

RUSSIA.

Académie des Sciences, Leningrad.

Comité Géologique de Russie, Leningrad.
Institut des Recherches Biologiques de Perm.
Institute of Marinc Fisheries, Moscow.
Institute of Plant Industry, Leningrad.
Leningrad University.

Société des Naturalistes de Moscow.
Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, Kieff,
Université de L’Aise Centrale, Tachkent.

SPAIN.

Academia de Ciencias y Artes, Barcelona.
Instituto Nacional de Segunda Ensenanza de Valencia.

SWEDEN.
Entomologiska Féreningen i Stockholm.
Geologiska Foreningen, Stockholm.
Lund University, Lund.
Stockholm’s Hégskolas Bibliotek, Stockholm.
Regia Societas Scientiarum Upsaliensis, Upsala.

SWITZERLAND.

Geographisch-ethnographisch Gesellschaft, Ziirich.

Institut National Genevois, Geneva.

Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Basel.

Naturforschende Gesellschaft in Zitrich.

Société de Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle de Genéve.
Société Neuchateloise des Sciences Naturelles, Neuchatel,
Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles, Lausanne.

UNITED STATES.
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
Academy of Science of St. Louis.
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston.

295

American Chemical Society, Columbus, O.

American Geographical Society, New York.

American Microscopical Society, Manhattan, Kans.
American Midland Naturalist, Notre Dame University, Ind.
American Museum of Natural History, New York.
American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.

Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass.

Biological Survey of the Mount Desert Region, Bar Harbour, Ms.
Boston Society of Natural History, Boston, Mass.
Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences.

California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco.
Californian State Mining Bureau, San Francisco.
California, University of, Berkeley, Cal.

California, University of, at Los Angeles.

Chicago Academy of Sciences.

Citrus Experiment Station, Riverside, Cal.

Connecticut State Library, Hartford, Conn.

Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.

Denison Scientific Association, Granville, O.

Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IIL.
Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania, Philad.
darvard Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.
Illinois State Natural History Survey, Urbana, IIL.
Illinois University Library, Urbana, Lil.

Indiana Academy of Science, Indianapolis.

Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.

Johns Ilopkins University, Baltimore, Md.

Kansas University, Lawrence, Kans.

Marine Biological Laboratory, Wood’s Hole, Mass.
Maryland Geological Survey, Baltimore, Md.

Michigan University, Chicago.

Missouri Botanical Garden Library, St. Louis, Mo.
Missouri, University of, Columbia.

National Academy of Science, Washington, D.C.
National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C.

New York Academy of Sciences, New York.

New York Public Library.

New York State Library, Albany, N.Y.

New York Zoological Society, New York.

Ohio State University Library, Columbus, O.

Princeton University, Princeton, NJ.

San Diego Society of Natural History, San ‘Diego, Cal.
Smithsonian Institution and Bureau of Ethnology, Washington.
United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C,
United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.
United States National Muscum, Washington, D.C.
Wagner Free Institute of Science, Philadelphia, Pa.
Washington State College, Pullman, Washington.
Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.

West Virginia University, Morgantown, W. Va.

Yale University Library, New Haven, Conn.

URUGUAY.

Museo de Historia Natural, Montevideo.
Sociedad de Biologia, Montevideo.

LIST OF FELLOWS, MEMBERS, ETC.

Summary

296

LIST OF FELLOWS, MEMBERS, ETC.

AS EXISTING ON NOVEMBER 30, 1937.

Those marked with an asterisk (*) have contributed papers published in the Society's

Transactions. Those marked with a dagger (+) are Life Members.

Any change in address or any other changes should be notified to the Secretary.

Note—The publications of the Socicty will not be sent to those whose subscriptions

are in arrear.

Date of =

Election. Uoworary FELLows.

1910. *Bracc, Sir W. H., O.M., K.B.E., M.A, D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Director of the
Royal Iustitution, Albemarle Street, London (Fellow 1886).

1926. *Cuarman, F., A.L.S., “Crohamhurst,’ Threadneedle Street, Balwyn, Vict.

1898. *Meyricx, E, T., BA, F.RS., F.Z.S., Thornhanger, Marlborough, Wilts, England.

1894, *Witson, J. T., M.D. Ch.M., I-R.S., Professor of Anatomy, Cambridge University,
Iingtand.

FELLows.

1935. Anam, Davin Bonar, B.Ag.Se. (Melb.), Waite Agricultural Research Institute,
Glen Osmond, S.A.

1925. Apvrey. W. J. C.M.G., 32 High Street, Burnside, S.A.

1927, *ALvperMaAN, A. R., D.Se, I.G.S., West Terrace, Kensington Gardens, S.A.

1937, Amos, G. L., B.Sc., 233 Cross Roads, Cabra, S.A.

1931, Awnprew, Rev. J. R., Methodist Mission, Salamo, via Samarai, Papua.

1935, *ANvREWArTHA, Herexrt Grorce, M.Ag.Se. Waite Agricultural Research Institute,
Glen Osmond, S.A.

1935. *AnprewartitA, Mrs. Harrie Vevers, B.Ag.Sc., M.Sc. 29 Claremont Avenue,
Netherby, S.A.

1929. AwNceEL, Frank M., 34 Fullarton Rd., Parkside.

1895. }*Asuny, Epwin, F.L.S., M.B.0.U,, Blackwood, S.A—Council, 1900-19; Vice-
President, 1919-21.

1902. *Baxer, W. H., Ningana Avenuc, King’s Park, S.A.

1933. *Barnes, T. A. B.Sc., 13 Leah Street, Iorestville.

1936. Barrien, Miss B. S., B.Sc., University, Adelaide, S.A.

1932. Beco, P. R., D.D.Se., L.D.S., 219 North Terrace, Adelaide.

1928. Best, R. J., M.Sc. A.A.C.L, Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond.

1928. *Best, Mrs. FE. W., M.Sc., Claremont, Glen Osmond,

1931. Biren, H, Mcl., M.R.C.S., M.R.C.P., D-P.M., Mental Hospital, Parkside.

1934. Brack, E. C., M.B., B.S., Magill Road, Tranmere.

1907. *Biack, J. M., A.L.S., 82 Brougham Placc, North Adelaide—Sir Joseph Verco Medal,
1930; Council, 1927-1931; President, 1933-34; Vice-President, 1931-33.

1936. Bonyruon, Tur Hon. Str Lancpon, K.C.M.G., Montefiore Hill, North Adelaide.

1923. Burnon, Roy $., D.Se., University, Adelaide, S.A.

1921. Burron, R. J., Ward Street, Box 190, Kalgoorlie, W.A.

1922, *Camvue.t, T. D., D.D.Se., Dental Dept., Adelaide Hospital, Frome Road, Adclaide~
Rep.-Governor, 1932-33; Council, 1928-32, 1935; Vice-President, 1932.34; Presi-
dent, 1934-35.

1907, *CHapman, Str R. W., Kt, C.M.G,, M.A, B.C.E,, F.R.A.S., 23 High Street, Burn-
side, S.A.—Cecounceil, 1914-22.

1929. Curistizr, W., M.B., B.S. Education Department, Flinders Street, Adelaide—
Treasurer, 1933-.

1933, Crarxr, G, H., B.Sc., Waite Institute, Glen Osmond, S.A,

1895. CreLann, Jonn B, M.D., Professor of Pathology, University of Adelaide, S.A.—
Sir Joseph Verco Medal, 1930: Council, 1921-26, 1932-37; President, 1927-28
Vice-President, 1926-27.

1929. CLELAND, W. Paton, M.B., B.S., Dashwood Read, Beaumont.

1930. *CoLtguHoun, T. T., M.Sc., University, Adelaide.

1907. *Cooxe, W. T., D.Sc. A.A.C.1, University, Adelaide, S.A.

1929. *Cotron, Bernarp C., S.A. Museum, Adelaide.

1924. nr Cresprony, C. T. C., D.S.O., M.D., F.R.C.P., 219 North Terrace, Adclaide,

1937. Crocker, Ronert L, B.Sc, Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond, S.A.

*Davipson, Proressor James, D.Sc, Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen

1929,

Osmond, S.A.—Council, 1932-35; Vice-President, 1935-37; President, 1937-.

1928.
1927

1930.
1915.
1932.
1921.
1931,

1933,
1902.

1925,

1917.

1927.
1931.
1923.

1932.

1935.
1919.

1927,
1935,
1925.
1880.
1910.
1933,

1930.
1933.

1904

1934,

1916.

1927.

1922.

1916.
1924,
1927

1933.
1930.

1924.
1928.
1928.

1918.
1918.
1910.
1934.

1921.

1929.
1920.

1933.
1915.
1922.
1930.
1931,
1922.

1923.
1928.
1933.
1932.

297
Date of
Election.
Davies, J. G., B.Sc. Ph. D., Waite Agricultural Research Institutc, Glen Osmond.

*Davies, Proressor FE. Harotn, Mus.Doc., The University, Adelaide.

Dix, E. V., Glynde Road, Firle.

*Dopp, ALAN P., Prickly Pear Laboratory, Sherwood, Brisbane, Q.
Duwnstoneg, H. E., M.B.,, B.S., J.P., 124 Payneham Road, St. Peters.
Durron, G. H., B.Sc., 12 Halsbury Avenue, Kingswood.

Dwyer, J. M., M.B., B.S., 25 Port Road, Bowden.

Earpiey, Miss C. M., B.Sc., 68 Wattle Street, Fullarton, S.A.

*Epguist, A. G., 19 Farrell Street, Glenelg.

*EncLann, H. N., B.Sc., Commonwealth Research Station, Griffith, N.S/W.

*Fenwner, C. A. E., D.Sc., 42 Alexandra Avenue, Rose Park, Adelaide—Rep. Governor,
1929-31; Council, 1925-28; President, 1930-31; Vice-President, 1928-30; Secretary,
1924-25; Treasurer, 1932-33; Editor, 1934-.

*Fintayson, H. H. University, Adelaide—Council, 1937-,

Frewin, O. W., M.B,, B.S., 68 Woodville Road.

*Fry, H. K., D.S.C., M.D., B.S., B.Sc., Glen Osmond, Parkside—Council, 1933-37;
Vice-President, 1937-.

*Ginson, EF. S. H., B.Sc., 297 Cross Roads, Clarence Gardens.

Giastonseury, J. O. G., B.A., M.Sc., Dip.Ed., 4 Mornington Road, Unley, S.A.

+Griastonspury, O. A., Adelaide Cement Co., Brookman Buildings, Grenfell Street,
Adelaide, S.A.

Goprrry, F, K., Robert Street, Payneham, S.A,

+Goipsack, Haroun, Coromandel Valley.

+Gossr, J. H., Gilbert House, Gilbert Place, Adelaide.

*Goyver, Grorce, A.M., B.Se., F.G.S., 232 East Terrace, Adelaide, S.A.

*Grant, Kerr, M.Sc., Professor of Physics, University, Adelaide, S.A.

Gray, JAMES H., M.B., B.S., Orroroo.

Gray James T., Orroroo, 5.A.

Greaves, H., Director, Botanic Gardens, Adelaide.

Grirritu, H. B., Dunrobin Road, Brighton, $.A,

Gunter, Rev. H. A., Woodside, S.A.

Hacxerr, W. Cuampion, 35 Dequetteville Terrace, Kent Town.

*Hacxert, C. J.. M.D., c/o Bank of Adelaide, London,

*Hate, H. M., The Director, S.A. Museum, Adelaide—Council, 1931-34; Vice-
President, 1934-36, 1937-; President, 1936-37,

+Hancock, H. L., 66 Beresford Road, Bellevue Hill, Rose Bay, Sydney, N.S.W.

Hawker, Captain C. A. S., M.A., M.H.R., Dillowie, Hallett, South Australia.
Ho.pen, E. W., B.Sc., Dequetteville Terrace, Kent Town, S.A.

Hosxixe, H. C,, B.A., 24 Northcote Terrace, Gilberton.

*Hoskinc, J. S., B.Sc., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond.
*Hossretp, Pact S., M.Sc., Office of Home and Territories, Canberra, F.C.T,
Hurcomee, Miss J. C., 95 Unley Road, New Parkside, Adelaide, S.A.

Iroutp, Percy, Kurralta, Burnside.

*Istnc, Erwest H., c/o Comptroller’s Office, §.A. Railways, Adelaide—Council, 1934-.

*JeENNISON, Rev. J. C., Yankalilla, S.A.

*Jounson, E. A., M.D., M.R.C.S., Town Hall, Adelaide.

Jounston, J., A\S.A.S.M., 32 Fisher Street, Norwoad.

*Jounston, Proressor T. Harvey, M.A., D.Sc. University, Adelaide—Sir Joseph
Verco Medal, 1935; Rep.-Governor, 1927-29; Council, 1926-28; Vice-President,
1928-31; President, 1931-32.

Jounston, W. C., Manager, Government Experimental Farm, Kybyhbolite, S.A.

*Jonrs, Proressor F. Woon, M.B., B.S., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., D.Sc., F.R.S., University,
Melbourne—Rep.-Governor, 1922-27; Council, 1921-25; President, 1926-27; Vice-
President, 1925-24,

*KieemAn, A. W., M.Sc., 46 Byron Road, Black Forest.

*Laurte, D. F., Agricultural Department, Flinders Street, Adelaide.

Lenpon, Guy A., M.D,, B.S., M.R.C.P., North Verrace, Adelaide, S.A.
Louwyck, Rev, N. H., The Rectory, Yankalilla.

*Lupproox, Mrs. N. H., M.A.,- Elimatta St. Reid, F.C-T.

*Manican, C. T., M.A, B.E., D.Sc., F.G.S., University of Adelaide—Council, 1930-33;
Vice-President, 1933-35, 1936-37; President, 1935-36.

Marswatt, J. C., “Darroch,” Payneham, S.A.

*Marcrairi, B. G., M.B., B.S., Magdalen College, Oxford, England.

Macarey, Miss K. de B., B.A., B.Sc., 38 Winchester Street, Malvern, Adelaide, S.A.
Mann, E. A., C/o Bank of Adelaide, Adelaide.

298

Date ot

Election.

1929. Martin, F. C,, M.A., Technical High School, Thebarton,

1905. *Mawson, Sir Douctas, D.Sc., B.E., F.R.S., Professor of Geology, University, Adelaide
Sir Joseph Verco Medal, 1931; Rep.-Governor, 1933-; President, 1924-25; Vice-
President, 1923-24, 1925-26.

1919. Mayo, Heren M., M.D., 47 Melbourne Street, North Adelaide.

1920. Mayo, Herpert, LL.B., K.C., 16 Pirie Street, Adelaide.

1934. McCroucury, C. L, BE, A.M.LE, (Aust.), City Engineer's Office, Town Hall,
Adelaide, S.A.

1929. McLaucuiin, E., M.B., B.S., M.R.C.P., Adelaide Hospital,

1907. Metrosz, Rovert T., Mount Pleasant.

1930. Murer, J. 1, 18 Ralston Street, Largs Bay.

1925. fMircuect, Professor Sir Witttam, K.C.M.G., M.A,, D.Sc., The University, Adelaide.

1933, Muircuert, Prorgssor M. L., B.Sc., Fitzroy Terrace, Prospect, S.A.

1924. Morrson, A. J., Town Clerk, Town Hall, Adelaide, S.A.

1930. . Morris, L. G., Beehive Buildings, King William Street, Adelaide.

1936. *Mounrrorp, C. P., 52 West Street, Townsville, Adelaide, S.A.

1925, fMurray, Hon. Sm Georce, K.C.M.G., B.A, LL.M., Magill, S.A.

1930, OckrEnven, G. P., Public School, Norton’s Summit, S.A,

1913. *Oszorn, T. G. B, D.Sc. Professor of Botany, University, Oxford, Eneland—
Council, 1915-20, 1922-24; President, 1925-26; Vice-President, 1924-25, 1926-27.

1937, Parxin, Lestte W., 311 Melbourne Street, North Adelaide, S.A.

1929. Pauri, Avex. G, M.A, B.S., Box 145, Port Lincoln, S.A.

1924, Perxins, Proressor A. J., Marlborough Street, Brighton,

1928. Putrrs, Ivan F., Ph.D., B.Ag.Sc., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen
Osmond, S.A.

1926. *Prrer, C. S., M.Sc., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond,

1936. Prarr, Avert E., M.B., B.S., D-T.H. (Syd.), Dip.Bact. (London), Adelaide Hos-
pital, Adelaide, S.A.

1925. *Prescotr, Proressor A. J., D.Sc. A.LC., Waite Agricultural Research Tustitute, Glen
Osmond—Council, 1927-30, 1935-; Vice-President, 1930-32; President, 1932-33.

1926. Price, A. Grenrett, C.M.G, M.A, Litt.D., F-R.G.S. St. Mark’s College, North
Adelaide.

1937, *Rart, W. L., M.Sc., St. Pecter’s College, Adelaide, S.A.

1925. Ricuarvson, Professor A. E. V., M.A., D.Se., “Urrbrae,” Glen Osmond, S.A.

1911. *Roacu, B. §., 81 Kent Terrace, Kent Town, Adelaide, S.A.—Treasurer, 1920-32,

1925. Rosers, L. S., B.D.Sc., 192 North Terrace, Adelaide.

1905, *Rocrrs, R. S., M.A.. M.D, D.Sc., F.L.S., 52 Hutt Street, Adclaide—Council, 1907-14,
1919-21; President, 1921-22; Vice-President, 1914-19, 1922-24.

1934, SninxeteLp, R. C., Meteorological Bureau, West Terrace, Adclaide.

1933. Scunemer, M., M.B., B.S,. 175 North Terrace, Adelaide.

1924. *Secnitr, RatpH W., M.A., B.Sc., Assistant Government Geologist, Flinders Street,
Adelaide—Secretary, 1930-35; Council, 1937-.

1925, *Suearp, HaArory, Nuriootpa.

1936. *Suearp, Kerra, S.A. Museum, Adelaide, S.A.

1928. Snowe, H., 27 Dutton Terrace, Medindie, Adelaide, S.A.

1920. Simrson, A. A. C.M.G., C.B.E, F.R.G.S., Lockwood Road, Burnside.

1924. Simpson, Frep. N., Pirte Street, Adelaide.

1925. +Smrri, T. E, Barr, B.A., 25 Currie Street, Adelaide.

1936. SourHwoon, Arnert R., M.D., M.S. (Adel.), M.R.C.P. (Lond.}, Wootoona Terrace,

St. Georges, Adelaide, S.A.

1935. Strickiaxu, A. G., M.Ag.Se. (Melb.), 14 Sterling Street, Tusmore, Adclaide, S.A.

1922. Sutton, J., Fullarton Road, Netherhy.

1932. Swan, D.C. M.Se., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond, S.A.

1924. Symownns, Ivor G., Church Street, Highgate, S.A.

1929. *Tavyror, Joun, K., B.A., M.Sc., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond.

1923. *Tinparr, N. B., B.Sc, South Australian Museum, Adclaide—Secretary, 1935-36.

1935. . Trice, F., Government Printing Office, Adelaide, S.A.

1937, *Truware, H. C, DSe, MAg Se, Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen
Osmond, S.A,

1894. *Turner, A, Jerrerts, M.D,, F.R.E.S., Wickham Terrace, Brishane, Q.

1925, Turner, Duptry C., National Chambers, King William Street, Adelaide.

1933. Watrxtey, A., B.A., B.Sc, Ph.D. 20 Urrbrae Avenue, Myrtle Banik.

1912. *Warp, L. Kriru, B.A. B.E., D.Sc. Govt. Geologist, Flinders Street, Adelaide—
Council, 1924-27, 1933-35; President, 1928-30; Vice-President, 1927-28.

1936. WaterHouse, Miss Lorna M., 35 King Street, Brighton, S.A.

299

Date of
Election.
1930. Wuuirtecaw, A. J., B.Sc., High School, Mount Gambier,
1931. Wuson, Cuas. E. C, M.B,, B.S., “Woodfield,” Fisher Street, Fullarton.
1935. Wixxter, Rev., M. T., B.A, 20 Austral Terrace, Malvern, S.A.
1930, Womerstry, H., F.R.ES., AILS. S.A. Museum, Adelaide, S.A—Secretary, 1936-.
1923. Woon, J. G., D.Sc. Ph.D., Professor of Botany, University of Adelaide, 5.A.
ASSOCIATES.
1935. *FEnNrER, FRANK JoHN, 42 Alexandra Avenue, Rose Park.
1936. Spricc, Recinatp Craupe, Lanor Avenue, Goodwood.
PAST AND PRESENT OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY.
PRESIDENTS.
1877-79 Pror. Ratpu Tarte, F.G.S., F.L.5. 1924-25 Str Dovuctas Mawson, D.Sc. B.E,
1879-81 Cuter Justice [Sir] S. J. Way. . FLR.S.
1881-82 [Sir] Cartes Topp, C.M.G., FRAS. 1925-26 Pror. T. G. B. Osnorn, D.Sc.
1882-83 H.T. Wrtrrett, M.A., M.D., F.R.M.S. 1926-27 Pror. F. Woon Jones, M.B., B.S.,
1883-84 Pror. H. Lams, M.A., F.RS. MR.CS., L.R.C.P., D.Sc. F.R.S.
1884-85 H. E. Mats, M.I.C.E. 1927-28 Pror. Joun B. Crevanp, M.D.
1885-88 Pror.E.H. Rennie, M.A,, D.Sc. F-C.S. 1928-30 L. Kerra Warp, B.A., B.E., D.Sc.
1888-89 [Sir] Epwarp C. STIRLING, C.M.G., F.G.S.A,.
M.A, M.D. (Cantab.), F.R.CS., 1930-31 Cas. Fenner, D.Sc.
E.R.S. 1931-32 Pror, T. Harvey Jomnsron, M.A,
1889-91 Rev. THomas Biacksurn, B.A. D.Sc.
1891-94 Pror. Ratpu Tate, F.G.S., F.LS. 1932-33 Pror. J. A. Prescott, D.Se., ALC.
1894-96 Pror. Watter Howcuin, F.G.5. 1933-34 J. M. Bracx, A.L.S.
1896-99 W. L. Cretanp, M.B. 1934-35 T. D. Camezett, D.D.Sc.,
1809-03. Pror.E.H. Rennie, M.A., D.Sc. F.C.S. 1935-36 C. T. Mantcan, M.A., B.E, D.Se,
1903-21 Sze Josera C. Verco, M.D,, F.R.C.S. F.G.S.
1921-22 R.S. Rogers, M.A., M.D. 1937-37. H. M. Hate
1922-24 R.H. Puruetne, M.3., Ch.M. 1927- Pror. J. Davinson, D.Sc.
SECRETARIES.
1877 W. C. M. FINNIss. 1896-09 G. G. Mayo, C.E.
1877-81 Watter Rutt, C.E. 1909-12 R. H. Purrerne, M.B., Ch.M.
1881-92 W. L. CLeLanp, M.B. 1912-24 Watter Rutt, C.E.
1892-93 W. C. Grasry. 1924-25 Cas, Fenner, D.Sc.
1893-94 W. B. Poo er. 1925-30 R. H. Purrrine, M.B., Ch.M.
1894-95 § W. L. CLetanp, M.B. 1930-35 Ratepu W. Szenit, M.A., B.Sc.
UW. B. Poote. 1935-36 Norman B. Trxpare, B.Sc.
1895-96 W. L. Creranp, M.B. #936- Tlerpert WOMERSLEY
TREASURERS.
1877 J. S. Luoyn., 1909-20 W. B. Poorer.
1877-83 Tuomas H. Smeaton. 1920-32 B. S. Roacuw
1883-92 Watter Rutt, C.E. 1932-33 Cuas, Fenner, D.Sc.
1892-94 W. L. Creranp, M.B. 1933- W. Crreistie, M.B., B.S.
1894-09 Watrer Rutt, CE.
EDITORS.
1877-83 Pror. Rateu Tare, F.G.5., F.L.S. 1894-95 Pror. Ratpi Tate, F.G.S., F.L.S.
1883-88 Pror. Watter Howcnuinx, F.G.S. 1895-96 Pror. Watter Howcnin, F.G.S.
1888-93 Pror, Ratpn Tate, F.G.5., F.L.S. 1896-00 Pror. Ravpu Tate, F.G.S., F.L.S.
1893-94 { Pror. Water Howcurn, F.G.S. 1901-33 Pror. Warter Howcuin, F.G.S.
Pror, Rapa Tate, F.G.S., F.LS, 1934- Cuas. Fenner, D.Sc...
REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNORS.
1877-83 [Sr] Caartrs Toon, C.M.G,F.RA.S, 1922-27 Pror. F, Woop Jones, M.B., etc.
1883-87 TT.T. Warrrect, M.A. M.D.,F.R.M.S. 1927-29 Pror. T. H. Jounsrton, M.A., D.Sc.
1887-01 Pror, Rater Tate, F.G.S., F.L.S. 1929-31 Cas. Fenner, D.Sc.

1901-22 Pror. Water Howcuin, F.G.S. 1932-33. T. D. Campzery, D.D.Sc.

1933- Str Doucras Mawson, D.Sc., F.R.S

GENERAL INDEX

Summary

300

GENERAL INDEX.

[Generic and specific names in italics indicate that the forms described
are new to science.]

Aboriginal Art; Examples from Napier
Broome Bay and Parry Harbour, N.W.
Australia, C. P. Mountford, 30

Aboriginal Crayon Drawings, Relating to
Totemic Places belonging to the Northern
Aranda Tribes of Central Australia, C. P.
Mountford, 84

Aboriginal Crayon Drawings, II, Relating to
Totemic Places in South-western Central
Australia, C. P. Mountford, 226

Acacia acanthoclada, Prainii, 222;
carpa, lysiphloia, myrtifolia,
thonticola, nov. comb., 246

Acanthonotozomatidae, 21

Acer subproductum, 11

Achorutes muscorum, 154

Acrotelsclla producta, devriesiana, s.sp. per-
spinata, 98; splendens, westralis, 99

Acrotriche affinis DC., 224

oneimo-
Kempeana,

Adelium davisi, 139; aboricola, flavicorne,
smuaticolle, hackeri, plicigerum, sibsul-
calum, 140; genicalatum, reticulatum,

violaccum, 141
Adelodemus (Apostethus) terrenus, 136
Adenosma cacrulea, 248
Agasthenes tepperi, 137; Championi, 138
Agricultural Areas; Zonation of; in terms of

Vegetation, Soil and Climate, 56
Agriculture; The Climatic Control of; in

South Australia, 41
Allochestes compressus, humilis, 26
Allometry, 158
Alphitobius fall’, blairei, 131
Amaranthus grandiflorus, 221
Amaryllis macrophthalma, brachycephala, 18
Amathillopsidae, 23
Atathillopsis australis, 23
Ampelisca acinaces, australis, pusilla, 19
Ampeliscidae, 19
Amperea xiphoclada, 223
Amphibromms Neesii, rccurvatus,

v. papillosus, 241
Amphilocidae, 20
Amphilocus scjuamusus, marionis, 20
Ampithoe cinerea, (indersi, australiensis, 27
Ampithoidac, 27
Ancylostoma duodenale, 260
Andaniotes corpulentus, 19
Andrewartha, H. V.. A New

Archeri,

aft

Species

Thysanoptera of Economie Importance in |

South Australia, 163
Angiospermac, 3
Anotis pterospora, 248
Anthobolus exocarpoides, leptomerioides, 242
Aora typica, 26
Aoridae, 26
Apherusa laevis, 22

Apocynophyllam Mackinlayi, 10: herwickense,
11

Apocynum, 10

Aristida biglandulosa,
nitidula, 242

Arrhoplites gloriosa, 157

Artocarpidium Stuartii, 4

Artocarpus rigida, 5

Ascaris lumbricoides, 272

Ashby, E.. and Cotton, B. C., Description of
Two New Species of Australian Chitons,
145

Astrebla lappacea, 242

Atelura disjuncta, similata, 100

Athemistus orbicollis, puncticollis, 144

Athrixia athrixiodes, 225

Atopatelura — hartmeycri,
michaelseni, 101

Atylidue, 22

Atyloides serraticauda, gracilis, 25

Austvocampa, 171

Austrocampa spinigera, 171: var. vieforionse,

241; echinala v.-

100;

kraepelini
T I

n

Banksia marginata, 5, pl.i, fig. 6; fhraegrandis,

6, pl. i, figs. 7, 8, 9

Bartlett, H. K., and Tindale, N. B., Notes on
some Clay Pots from Panaeati Island,
South-cast of New Guinea, 159

Bercenna nichollsi, 21

Beyeria ledifolia, 223

Biogenctic Law, 63

| Black, J. M., Additions to the Flora of South

Australia, No. 35, 241
Blennodia blennodivides, 222
lennodia filifolia, 243
Botubax mitchelli, 9
Bovallia monoculoides, gigantea, 22
Roxhole Crater, The. Madigan, C.
Brachyeome lyrifalia, 249

“Payy

| Brassica Tournefortii, 245

Brown Coal of Moorlands; An Examination
of, Dr. W. Ternent Cooke, 80

Bruzelia australis, 22

Brycopia, alpicola, minuta, 141

Bubastes subflavipennis, 122, pl. y

Buprestidae, 121

Byrsax egenus, coxi, 128

a

fig. I

,

Callopiidae, 22

Callistassecla mawlei, 146

Callisternon pinifolius, 247

Callistochitunidae, 146

Callistochiton augustusit, 143; antiquus,
mawlei, tmeridionalis, mayi, generos,
broomensis, clenchi, occiduus, recens, 146

301

Callochiton mayi, 148

Calythrix involucrata, 223; tetragona, 224;
longiflora, 247

Cambrian Strata: The most Northerly
Occurrence of Fossiliferous, yet recorded
in South Australia, Mawson, Sir D., 181

Campodea philpotti, 166; fragilis, tilyardii,
froggattii, tonnoiri, 167; waterhousei, 169

Campodeidae: Studies in Australian Thy-
sanura, No. 3, Womersley, H., 166

Campolene nitidior, nitida, 142

Carter, Hl. J., Some new Tenebrionidae in the
South Australian Museum, 121

Ceradocus rubromaculatus, 24

Cerambycidae, 144

Cerapus abditus, 27

Cercaria (Furcocercaria) jaenschi, 202

Cestrinus aspersus, 128

Chapman, Frederick: Description of Ter-
tiary Plant Remains from Central Austra-
lian and from other Australian localities, 1

Cheiriphotis australiae, 26

Chelura terebrans, cambricans, 28

Cheluridae, 28

Chiltonia australis, subtcnuis, 26

Chironomid: A new Marine, from
Australia, Womersley, IT., 102

Chiton (Antochiton) excellens, capricornensis,
pulcherrimus, 145

Chitons; Description af Two New Species of
Australian, Ashby, T°., and Cotton, B. C,,
145

Cinnamouum Tatei, 9, plu, fig. 15, pracvirens,
polymorphoides, 10

Cleland, E. R., and Johnston, T. H., Larval
Trematades from Australian Terrestrial
and Freshwater Molluscs, pt. 1, A Survey
of Literature, 191

Cleland, E. R., and Johnston, T. H., Larval
Trematodes from Australian Terrestrial
and Freshwater Molluscs, pt. ii, Cercaria
(Furcocercaria) jacnschi, n. sp., 202

Cleland, J. B., and Johnston, T. H.: A Survey
of the Literature relating to the Occur-
rence in Australia of Helminth Parasites
of Man, 250

Clonorchis sinensis, 253

Collembola: New Specics and Records of
Australian, Womersley, TT., 154

Colomastigidae, 21

Colomastix brazieri, 21

Commersonia crispa, 247

Cooke, Dr. W. Ternent, An Examination of
the Brown Coal of Moorlands, 80

Coprosma Baueriana, 14

Coprosmacphyllum Edmondsi, 14, pl. iii, fig. 27

Cordia sp., 14

Corophiidac 27

Cossoninae; On some Australian Coleoptera
of the Subfamily, Womersiey, H., 104

Cotton, B. C., and Ashby, E.: Description of
Two New Species of Australian Chitons,
145

Crassula Sieberiana, 222

South

Crupina vulgaris, 225

Creeping Disease (“sand worm’), 268

Cuphonotus antipodus, nov. comb.,
stratus, 244

Curculionidae, 143

Curis venusta, pl. viii, 126

Ctenolepisma longicaudata, lineata v. pilifera,
99

Cyclotelson purpureum, 20

Cyproidea ornata, 20

Cyrtophium minutum, 27

humi-

Danthonia semiannularis, v. Browniana, 242

Dascillidae, 142

Daviesia brevifoha, 223

Dexamine micrsi, 25

Dexaminiidae, 25

Dicotyledones, 3

Discrastylis exsuccosa, 224

Diltwynia uncinata, retorta, 222

Diorite Inclusions; The Nature and Origin
of the so-called, in the granite of Granite
Island, Kleeman, A. W., 207

Diphyllobothrium latum, 254

Dischisma capitatum, 224

Dodonaea cuncata, 247

Dracunculus medinensis, 272

Dryopoides westwoodi, 27

Dulichella spinosa, 24

Dystalica multilineata, 141

-Echinococcus granulosus, 256

Ectotrophi, 6

Edapho-climatic zones, 59

Elascus crassicornis, 127

Elasmopus subcarinatus, diemenensis, viridis,
rapax, suensis, boecki, crassimanus, 24

Elodes, 142 :

Elodes imbatus, 142; cincta, 143

Endevoura mirabilis, 19

Endiandra Mitchelli, 9, pl. ui, fig. 16; prae-
pubens, 10, pl. iii, fig. 17

Enterobius vermicularis, 273

Entomobrya termitophila v. clarki, 156

Fophliiantinae, 21

Eophliantis tindalei, 21

Epippiphera kroyeri, 18

Eragrotis polymorpha, 221

Eucalyptus Diemenii, 12, pl. iii, figs. 22, 23;
longifolia, 12; Houtmanni, 13, pl. iii, fig.
24; Kitsoni, 13, pl. iii, fig. 25; Mitchell,
14, pl. ili, fig. 26

Fucalyptus pachyphylla, v. sessilis 247

Eucrangonyx, 24

Eulea, 131

Eulea caeca, 132

Euonyx normani, 19

Euphorbia Paralias, 247

Eurystheus atlanticus, crassipes, thompsoni,
dentifer, persotus, maculatus, 26; cry-
throphthaima, melanops, 27

302

Eusiridac, 22

Eusiroides monoculoides, crassi, lippus, 22

Eusthenia spectabilis (Wwd.); A Study of
the Growth of the Fore Wing-sheaths of,
W. L. Rait, 63

Evaporation and Saturation Deficiency
Relation to Effective Soil Moisture, 43

Evaporation of Water from Soil, 44

Evaporimeter Factor, 48

Exoediceros fossor, maculosus, 22

in

Fagaccae, 3

Fagus Moorci, Risdoniana, 3; Wilkinsoni, 4

Fasciola hepatica, 254

Ficus Stuarti, 4, pl. i, fig. 4; infectoria, Cun-
ninghami, 4

Fimbristylis oxystachya, 242

Flindersia Mackinlayi, 10, pl. iii, figs, 18, 19;
australis, 10

Flora of South Australia, No. 5, Notes on;
Ising, E. H., 221

Flora of South Australia, Additions to the,
No. 35, J. M. Black, 241

Foreword, by R. J. Tillyard, 63

Frankliniclla insularis, lycopersict, 163

Gammaridae, 23

Gammaridea: A Catalogue of Australian,
Sheard, Keith, 17
Gammarus mortoni, antipodens, ripensis,

australis, haasci, barringtonensis, 24
Gitanogciton sarsi, 20

Gitanopsis squamosus, antarctica, marionis, ;
pusilla, 20

Glyecrina tenuicornis, 19

Goodenia calcarata, 248

Grevillea criostachya, 242; chordophylla,

oleoides, 242
Growing Season; Length of, 46
Grubia setosa, filosa, variata, 27

Habronema megastoma, 275

Tlaemonchns contortus, 269

Tlakea ambigua, 7, pl. i, fig. 12

Tlakea macrocarpa, 242; Ilvoryi,
rescens, 242

Tlaplocheira barbimana, 26

Harpinoides dreponocheir, 22

Haustoridae, 19

Hedycarya latifolia, 8, pl. ti, fig. 4

Helacus subpustulatus, granulatus, 132

Heliotropium diversifolium, strigosum, 217

Helminth Parasites of Man: A Survey of
the Literature relating to the Occurrence
in Australia of, Johnston, T. H., and Cle-
land, J. B., 250

Hetervgonic Law, W. L. Rait, 65

Heterolepisma stilivarians,
kraepelini, hartmeyeri, 98

Heterophlias, 21

Hippomedon geelongi, 19

v. glab-

michaelseni,

Huckitta Meteorite, The, Madigan, C. T., 187

Hydrachnellae: A New Species of, from
South Australia, Womersley, H., 173

Hyale maroubrae, crassicornis, nigra, rupicola,
26

Hymenolepis nana, 259; diminuta, 260

Ichnanthus australiensis, 241

Icilius australis, punctatus, danai, 28

Iphimedia ambigua, discreta, stimpsoni, 21

Iphiplateia, 21

Ischnochiton jerzvisensis, 147; auratus, cariosus,
atkinsoni, variegatus, lineolatus, clongatus,
147

Ischnochitonidae, 146 :

Ischyrocerus anguipes v. longimanus, 27

Ising, E. H.: Notes on the Flora of South
Australia, No. 5, 221

Ttalowic, 182

Jassa falcata, pulchella, 27

Jassidae, 27

Johnston, T. H., and Cleland, E. R.: Larval
Trematodes from Australian Terrestrial
and Freshwater Molluses, pt. 1, A Survey
of Literature, 191

Johnston, T. IL, and Cleland, FE. R.: Larval
Trematodes from Australian Terrestrial
and Freshwater Molluscs, pt. ii, Cercaria
(Furcocercaria) jaenschi, 202

Johnston, ‘fb. H., and Cleland, J. B.: A
Survey of the Literature relating to the
Occurrence in Australia cf Helminth
Parasites of Man, 250

Kleeman, A. W., The Nature and Origin of

the so-called Diorite Inclusions in the
granite of Granite Island, 207

Kochia crassiloba, 221

Lactmatophilus hystrix, 27

Latometus differens, 127; pubescens, 127;

lunatus, 128
Lauraceae, Y
Laurus werribecnsis, 10
Leipsuropus parasiticus, 27
Lemboides australis, 26
Lembos philacanthus, 26
Lepidocyrtinus domesticus, 156
Lepidocyrtus migrofasciatus, 156
Lepidophorella brachycephala, 154
Lepisma saccharina, 98
Lepismatidae: Studies in Australian, No. 2,
Womcersley, H., 96
Lepismatinae, 96
Leucopogen Clelandn, 224

! Leucothoe spinicarpa, miersi, trailli, tridens,

brevidigitata, antarctica, commensalis, gra-
cilis, diemensis, furina, 20
Leucothoidae, 20

Lhotzkya alpestris, 224

303

Liljeborgia aequalibus, brevicornis Chilton,
dubia, 21

Liljeborgiidae, 21

Litarachna denhami, 173

Loa loa, 272

Lomandra micrantha, 242

Lomatia Mawson, 6, pl. ii, fig. 10; perspicua
Deane, 7, pl. ii, fig. 11

Lophochiton johnstoni, grinfer Hull, 146

Loranthus pendulus, 221; Murrayi, 243

Lysianassa nitens, australiensis, affinis, 19

Lysianassidae, 18

Lythrum Salicaria, 223

Madigan, C. T.: The Boxhole Crater and the
Huckitta Meteorite (Central Australia),
187

Maera inaequipes, hamigera, tenclla, mastersi
24

Magnolia Brownii, 7, pl.. ii, fig. 13; micro-
phytla, 8

Magnoliaceae, 7

Mawson, Sir D.: The most Northerly
Occurrence of Fossiliferous Cambrian
Strata yet recorded in South Australia, 181

Megisthanus Thoreil: Australian Acarina of
the Genus, Womersley, H., 175

Megisthanus caudatus, brachyurus, testudo,
jacobsoni, doreianus, hatamensis, moai-
fensis, oricntalis, deportatus, coronatus,
sarrasini, togatensis, modestus, medius,

grandis obtusus, lamellicornium, armigcra,
gigantodes, floridanus, oblongus, anten-
naepes, 176; thorelli, 177; papuanus, 179

Meliaceae, 10

Melicope, 8

Melita fresneli, festiva, 24

Melobasis aurocyanea, browni, marlooensis,
124: abnormis, impressa, 125

Menkea australis, 222

Mermis sp., 277

Mesira flavocincta, 156

Meteorite, The Huckitta, Madigan, C. T., 187

Metriocampa leae, 166, 167

Microdeutopus haswelli, 26

Micromyrtus ciliata, 224

Monimiaceae, 8

Moraceae, 4

Mountford, C. P.: Examples of Aboriginal
Art from Napier Broome Bay and Parry
Harbour, North-Western Australia, 30

Mountford, C. P.: Aboriginal Crayon Draw-
ings, 84

Mountford, C. P.: Aboriginal Crayon Draw-
ings, IJ, relating to Totemic Places in
South-Western Central Australia, 226

Muehlenbeckia declina, 221

Mychestes ordinatus, 128

Myrtaceae, 11

Napier Broome Bay, 30
Native Songs of the South-East of South
Australia, ‘Tindale, N. B., 107

,

Nautarachnidae, 173

Necator americanus, 260

Neobule gaimardii, 26

Neocuris duboulayi ignicollis, 122

Neoniphagus thomsoni, montanus, spenceri,
fulton, obrieni, branchialis, exiguus,
alpinus, niger, tasmanicus, wellingtoni,

yuli, 23

Nepabunna, 184

Neospades gibbera, 121

Ngadjuri Tribe: Two Legends of the, from
the Middle North of South Australia,
Tindale, N. B., 149

Nicoletinac, 96, 99

Nicotianum Benthamiana, rotundifolia, 248

Niphargopsis, 24

Niphargus australicnsis, putchellus, 24

Nothofagus Moorci, 3, pt. i, fig. 1; Ris-
doniana, 3, pt. i, fig. 2; Wilkinsoni, 4, pl. i,
fig. 3; Leuchmanni, 4

Notiomimetes pascoei, 104

Notocampa leae, 170; philpotti, 167; westra-
liense, 170

mene spongialis, 147; subspeciosa, glauerti,
14

Nototropis homochir, minikoi, 22

Ochlesidae, 21

Ochlesis innocens, 21

Oediceroides ornatus, apicalis, pirloti, 22
Oedicerotidae, 22

Onesimoides carinatus, 18

Onoglypta rugosa, octocostata, 138
Onosterrhus pustulatus, veternosa, 137
Orchestia marmorata, pickeringii, platensis, 25
Oxuris incognita, 274

Palinnotus thomsoni, 21

Panaeati Island, South-east of New Guinca;
Notes on some Clay Pots from; Tindale,
N. B., and Bartlett, H. K., 159

Pandorea doratoxylon, 248

Paracalliope fluviatilis, indica, 22

Paraceradocus mieramphopus, 24

Paracorophium cxcavatum, 27

Paracyproidea lineata, 20

Paradexamine pacifica, flindersi, 25

Paragonimus westermanni, 254

Paramoera fontana, japonica, aucklandica,
fasciculata, austrina, megalophthalma, 23

Paraleucothoe novae-hollandiae, 20

Paraorides unistilus, 26

Parapherusa crassipes, 23

Paraphinotus, 21

Parawaldeckia kidderi, 18

Pardalisca australiensis, 21

Pardaliscidae, 21

Parelasmopus suluensis, 24

Parry Harhour, 30

Pasture Development; Relation between, and
Length of Rainfall Season, Trumble,
H. C., 52

304

Pericrypta lineata, tristriata, fasciata, macu-
lata, tasmaniae, 157

Perioculodes aequimanus, 22

Persoonia cuneata, 5, pl. i, fig. 5, salicina, 5

Phaennis caelata, 129; fasciculata, 130

Phebalium bullatum, 223

Phlegmatospermum cochlearinum, v. ochran-
thum, v. eromaea, Drummondii, 245

Phliantidae, 21

Phliantinae, 21

Pholidae, 26

Photis brevicaudata, dolichommata, 26

Phoxocephalidae, 19

Phoxocephalus bassi, 19

Pimelea stricta, 223

Platanurida, 154

Platydema = llliputana,
130

Platyischnopus mirabilis, capensis, 19

Platyischnopidae, 19

Platyphanes subseriatus, 138; planatus, chal-
copteroides, 139

Pluchea rubelliflora, 225

Podoceridae, 27

Padocerus inconspicuus, lobatus, 27; cristatus,
laevis, hystrix, 28

Polycheria antarctica, atolli tenuipes, brevi-
cornis, 25

Pomaderris Banksti, 9

Pontarachna, 173; halet, punctulum, 174

Pontarachnidae, 173

Pontharpinia pingtis,
villosa, 19

Pontogeneia tasmaniac, simplex, danai, 23

Pontogeneiidae, 23

Pontomyia cottont, 102

Proteaceae, 5

Protocrangonyx fontinalis, 23

Psaldus liosomoides, 104

Pseudomoera gabrieli, 23

Pterohelaeus commixtus, alternatus, ellip-
sotdes, 133; thymaloides, orbicularis,
planior, 134; planus, oblongus, subsericeus,
scriceus, terres, 135

macleayi, bicinctum,

rostrata; barnardi,

Quasimodia womersleyi, capricornis, barnardi,

Quercus Greyi, 3; Wilkinsoni, 4; Darwinii, 7 |

Rachotrapis platycera, 22

Rainfall, 42

Rainfall, Influential, 54

Rait, W. L.: A Study of the Growth of the
Fore Wing-sheaths in Eusthenia spectabilis
(Wwd.), 63

Rait, W. T..: Some Observations of the Im-
mature Stages of FEusthenia spectabilis
(Wwd.), pt. i, 74

Rait, W. L.: Further Remarks on Termino-
logy relative to the Growth of the Fore
Wing-sheath in the Larva of Eusthenia
spectabilis (Wwd.), 158

Rhabditis spp., hominis, 277
Rhytidotheca Lynchii, 11; major, 11
Rock Paintings, 31

| Rock Scratchings, 38

Rubiaceae, 14

Sancho platynotus, 22

Saragella, 136

Saragella palpalis, 136

Seaevola albida, 225

Schistosomum haematobium, mansoni, 251;
japonicum, 252

Schraderia serraticauda, 23

Seba typica, antarctica, 20

Sebidac, 20

Sheard, K.: A Catalogue of Australian
Gammaridea, 17

Siphonoecetes australis, sellicki, smithianus,
2

Sira jacobsoni, tricincta, 156

Sobas minor, australis, 129

Solanum ferocissimum, nemophilum, petro-
philum, 247

Solanum orbiculatum, 224

Soliva sessilis, 225, 249

Sparganum sp., 255

Spermacoce auriculata, 248

Spyridium subochreatum, 223

Stegocephalidae, 19

Stenopetalum sphaerocarpum, 221

Stenotaphrum compressum, 221

Stenothoe vallida, miersi, dollfusi, 21

Stenothoidae, 21 i

Sterculia sp., 11

Sterculiaceae, 11

| Stigmodera (Castiarina) goerlingi, 125, pl. v,

fig. 2; palagera, 125, pl. v, fig. 3;
125, pl. v, fig. 4
Stipa Muelleri, 221
Strongyloides stercoralis, 276
Stylidium majus, 225

UTR,

Stypandra glauca, 221

Styphelia adscendens, 224

Swainsona phacoides, 223; microphylla, cyclo-
carpa, 246

Symlestes weyerri, 63

Synopia ultramarina, 22

Synupiidae, 22

Syrrhoe semiserrata, 22

Taenia solium, 255; saginata, 255

Talaurinus fergusoni, niveovittatus, carteri,
143

Talitriator, 25

Talitridae, 25

Talitrus sylvaticus, kershawi, 25

Talorchestia pravidactyla, novae-hollandiae,
quadrimana, 25; limicola, diemenensis,
spinipalma, 26

Tasmanura, evansi, 154

Tenehrionidae, 127

Tenebrionidac; Some New, in the South Aus-
tralian Museum, H. J. Carter, 121
Thermobia domestica, aegyptica, 99
Thysanoptera: A New Species of, of
Economic Importance in South Australia,
H. V. Andrewartha, 163
Thysanotus tuberosus, 221
Thysanura; Studies in Australian,
Lepismatidae, H. Womersley, 96
Thysanura; Studies in Australian,
Campodeidae, Womersley, H., 166
Tillyard, R. J.: Foreword by, 63
.Tindale, N. B.: Native Songs of the South-
East of South Australia, 107
Tindale, N. B.: Two Legends of the Ngad-
juri Tribe from the Middle North of
South Australia, 149
Tindale, N. B., and Bartlett, H. K.:

No. 2,
No. 3,

Notes

on some Clay Pots from Panaeati Island, |

South-east of New Guinea, 159

Tinospora smilacina, 243

Tironidae, 22

Titaena minima, minor, 139

Tmetonyx miersi, 19

Tomocerus vulgaris, tasmanicus, 154; minor
brevimucronatus, 155

Trematodes, Larval; from Australian ‘lerres-
trial and Freshwater Molluscs, pt. i. A
Survey of Literature, Johnson, T. H., and
Cleland, E. R., 191

Trematodes; Larval, from Australian “Terres-
trial and Freshwater Molluses, pt. ii,
Cercaria (Furcocercaria) jaenschi, mn. sp.
Johnston, T. H., and Cleland, E. R., 202

Tribulus Solandri, 246; occidentalis, 247

Trichinella spiralis, 274

Trichostrongylus orientalis,
extenuatus, 269

Trichuris trichiura, 275

Trinemura novoe-hollandiac, excelsa, 101

colubriformis

305

Triodia procera, 241

Tristania angustifolia, 11, pl. iii, fig. 20;
laurinia, 11; praeconferta, 12, pl. iii, fig. 21

Tristanites angustifolia, 11

Tritomurus oregonensis, 155

Trumble, H. C.: The Climatic Control of
Agriculture in South Australia, 41

Tryphosa camelus, sarsi, 19

Uroctena westralis, setosa affinis, yellandi, 24
Urohaustorius halei, vercoi, 19

Waldeckia chevreuxi, obesa, zschaui, kroyeri,

' Waltheria indica, 247

Wollastonicis miutus, 104

Womersley, H.: Studies in Australian Thy-
sanura, No. 2, Lepismatidae, 96

Womersley, H.: On some Australian Coleop-
tera of the Subfamily Cossoninae, 104

Womersley, H.: A New Marine Chironomid
from South Australia, 102

Womersley, H.: New Species and Records.
of Australian Collembola, 154

Womersley, H.: Studies in Australian Thy-
sanura, No. 3, Campodeidae, 166

Womersley, H.: A New Species of Marine
Hydrachnellae from South Australia, 173

Womersley, H.: Australian Acarina of the
Genus Megisthanus Thorell, 175

Wucheria bancrofti, 269

Xenocheira fasciata, 26

Zornio diphylla, 246

CORRIGENDA.

Page 83.
Page 97.
Page. 97.

In Table III, last column but one, instead of “1-13” read “0-8.”
In captions 7 and 8, both pars. of each, for “male” read “fcmale” in each case.
In caption 4, second par., for “stilivarius’ read “‘stilivarians.”

Page 98. Line 8, for “stilivarins” read “stilivarians.”

Page 137. Line 2, for “being” read “bearing.”

Page 247. Line 20, for “Calytrix” read “Calythrix.”
Plate V. The dimension lines shown should be reduced by 25% to conform with text.

PLATES I TO XIV

Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soe. S. Austr., 1937 Vol. LXI, Plate I

Photo by F. Chapman Gillingham & Co, Ltd., Adelaide

Trans. and Proc. Roy, Soc. S, Austr., 1937 Vol, LXI, Plate II

Photo by F. Chapman Gillingham & Co, Ltd,, Adelaide

Trans. and Proce. Roy. Soe. S. Austr., 1937 Vol, LXI, Plate III

Photo by F. Chapman Gillingham & Co, Lid., Adelaide

Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1937

Vol. LXI, Plate IV

Gillingham & Co. Ltd., Adelaide

LXI, Plate V

Vol.

‘Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1937

Gillingham & Co. Lid., Adelaide

‘Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1937 VolLXI, Plate VI

J Cameron del.

Gillingham & Co, Ltd., Adelaide

‘Trans; atid: Proc::.Roy. Soc. S:; Austr., 1937 Vol. LXI, Plate VII

Curis venusta, n. sp.

Gillingham & Co. Ltd., Adelaide

Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1937 Vol. LXI, Plate VIil

|
Gillingham & Co, Ltd., Adelaide

Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1937 Vol. LXI, Plate Ix

—Ee

Fig. a. Ulubwal, or water pot, from Abalomaloma village, Panaeati,

Fig. b. Manimo. A rough pot for home use, Nabonapai village, Panaeati,
c. Delevega. A child's cooking pot, Abalomaloma village,

Fig. d. Ulunligaliga. A common cooking pot, Kasuzvaruwaru village.
e. Bwana, Soup pot used at feasts, Abalomaloma village.

Fig. f. Old pot from the burial cave at Biniwaga, Panaeati.

Gillingham & Co. Ltd., Adelaide

Trans. and Proc. Roy. So

S. Austr., 1937 Vol. LXI, Plate X

Fig. a. Clay pit in the forest at Ulun or Werua, Panaeati Island.

Fig. b. Sherds from Biniwaya cave, Panaeati.

Gillingham & Co. Ltd., Adelaide

Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S$. Austr., 1937

Vol. LXI, Plate XI

Fig. 1. Cambrian rocks outcropping south-west of Italowie Gorge.

Fig. 2. Cambrian archaeocyathinae-bearing beds at 34 miles south-west

of Italowie Gorge.

Gillingham & Co. Ltd., Adelaide

Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1937 Vol. LXI, Plate XII

A general view of the Boxhole Crater from the ridge, |
looking south-east.

Fig. 2, The eastern half of the crater, showing the gentle slopes

of the wall, looking south.

Gillingham & Co, Ltd., Adelaide

Trans and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1937 Vol. LXI, Plate XIII.

Fig. 1. The western half of the Boxhole Crater.

Fig, 2. On the floor of thie crater, looking north-east.
The gum tree and native soak in the centre.

Gillingham & Co, Ltd,, Adelaide

Vol. LXI, Plate XIV.

Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1937

Gillingham & Co. Ltd., Adelaide

iit

CONTENTS Page
Opituary NovIcks: oe Walter Howchin, with portrait —~.. =e ae iv—vili
Mr. W. H. Selway, with portrait .. x—xi
5 ‘5 Mr. W. Ham, Mr. C.-R. J. Glover, Mr. W. 43 ‘Kimber,
Dr. Chas. Chewings i xi
CuapMan, F.,: Descriptions of Tertiary Plant Remains from Central ‘Australia and
from other Australian Localities .. = neers a ~ 1
Suearp, K.; A Catalogue of Australian Gammaridea a 17
Movnrorp, C. P.; Examples of Aboriginal Art from Napier Broome Bay and i Party
Harbour, North- western Australia mi 30
TruMsLE, H. C.: Climatic Control of Agriculture it in South Australia x 41
Rart, W. L.: A Study of the Growth of the Fore Wing-sheaths in Eusthenia
spectabilis (Westwood) ; 63
Rarr, W, L.: Some Observations on the Immature Stages of Eusthenia spectabili
(Westwood), Pts 5 ; i 44
Cook, W. T.: An Examination of the Brown Coal of Moorlands : 80
ee Mountrorn, Cc. P.: Aboriginal Crayon Drawings Relating to Totemic Places belong-
ge ing to the Northern Aranda Tribe of Central Australia ic i BE
¢ Womers.tey, H.: Studies in Australian Thysanura, No. 2, Lepismatidae as eo = 96.
WomeERrsLey, H.: A New Marine Chironomid from South Australia .. 102
Womersiey, H.: On some Australian Coleoptera of the Subfamily Cossoninaé
(Curculionidae) = So .. 104
Tinpate, N. B.: Native Songs of the South- East of South Australia .. 5c: 107
CARTER, HL. jJ.: Some New. Tenebrionidae in the South Australian Museum, together
with Notes and Descriptions of other Australian Coleoptera .. i21
Asupy, E., anp Cotron, B. C.: Description of Two New Species “of Australian
Chitons, with Additional Notes and Records... 145

TiInpALE, N. B.: Two ao of the Ngadjuri Tribe from the Middle North of
South Australia a Fe =
Womerstey, H.: New Species and Records of Australian Collembola Sei 154
Rait, W. L.: Further Remarks on Terminology relative to the Growth of the Fore
Wing- sheath in the’ Larva of Eusthenia spectabilis (Westwood) (Order Perlaria) 158
TinpaLe, N. B., anp BArtietr, H. K.: Notes on some Clay Pots from Panaeati

Island, South-east of New Guinea .. 159
AnprewartHa, H. V.: A New Species of Thy sanoptera of Economic “Importance i in

South Australia = eS see eh
Womerstey, H.: Studies in Mastraliaa T hysaniira, ‘No. cf Campodeidae. potas $055
Wowmerstey, H.: A New Species of Marine Hydrachnellae from South Australia Rae
Womenrstey, H.: Australian Acarina of the Genus Megisthanus Thorell..— ., 175
Mawson, Str D.: The Most Northerly Occurrence of Fossilifereus Cambrian Strata

yet Recorded in South Australia .. 181

Manvican, Dz. C, T.: The Boxhole Crater and the Huckitta Meteorite (C. Aust.) 187

JOHNSTON, Pror. T..H.,-Anp Ciecanp, E. R.: Larval Trematodes from Australian
Terrestrial and Freshw ater Molluscs, Pt. I. A Survey of Literature .. 191

Jounston, Pror., T. H., anp Cretanp, E. R.: Larval Trematodes from the Aus-
tralian Terrestrial and Freshwater. Molluscs, Pt. Il, Cercaria (Furcoecercaria)

ser RESP: 202
KLEEMAN, A. W.: The Nature and Origin of the s so- 5-called Diorite Inclusions in the ~

Granite of Granite Island .. : Be = te Q0r
Istnc, E. H.: Notes on the Flora of South Australia, No, 5g ce 221
Mounrrorp, C. P.: Aboriginal Crayon Drawings, II, Relating to Totemic Places in
: South-western Central Australia .. = Hp see 745
Buiack, J. M.: Additions to the Flora of South Australia, ‘No. 35 : 241
Jounston, Pror. T. H., anp CLELAND, Pror. J. Be: A Survey of the Literature Relat-

ing to the Occurrence in Australia of Helminth Parasites of Man .. : ie A
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS S is ae = nf = es Pe -< 278
ANNUAL REPorT .. < 2 Re ss a3 oe =e i eee
Sir JosepH VeERco MepaL S = = a Ps = as = Poy soni
BALANCE SHEETS .. Re: = 2 Fs = = ni RS = 286-287
EnpowMent Funp = es = ss 2 = = = ee .. 288
Lrprary EXCHANGE =e 43 ec SS re A “a = i: 289-295
List oF FELLOWS, ETC. .. a i = es = 8 = =A 296-299
Past OFFICERS es as = a = vs 5 re aS = .. 299
INDEX a ee ‘ = rs = < =< EA ee = 300-305

CoRRIGENDA aA = = = z= = a = = = +s 00S