VOL. 62 PART 1 22 JULY, 1938

TRANSACTIONS OF
THE ROYAL SOCIETY
OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

INCORPORATED

ADELAIDE

PUBLISHED AND SOLD AT THE SOCIETY'S: ROOMS
KINTORE AVENUE, ADELAIDE

Price - - One Guinea

Registered at the General Post Office, Adelaide,
for transmission by post as a periodical

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 62

PART I

Womerstey, H.: Studies in Australian Thysanura No. 4, Machilidae a

Cooke, W. TeRNENT: An Examination of the Brown Coal of Moorlands Pt. IT

Rocers, R. S.: Contributions to the Orchidology of Australia

FINLAYSON, H. H.: On the Occurrence of a Fossil Penguin in Miocene Beds in . South
Australia

Tinvace, N. B.: Prupe and Koromarange—A Legend of the Tanganek ald, Coorong, S.A.

Jounston, T. H., and CLetanp, E. R.: Larval ‘Trematodes from Australian Terrestrial
and Freshwater Molluscs Pt. AECL Benes

Scuepi, Kart E.: Scolytidae and Platypodidae. ‘No. 49 aA ae

Corton, B. C.: Rediscovery of the Bivalve Psammobia kenyoniana Prit. & ‘Gat., ‘1904, in
South Australia : ina on oh Fe

Prper, C. $.: The Red- browt n Earths of South ‘Australia a

BLACK, J. M.: Additions to the Flora of South Australia No, al

Jounston, T. H.. and Mawson, P. M.: An Account of some Filarial Parasites of
Australian Marsupials St

Mountrorp, C. P.: Aboriginal Message Sticks “from the Nullarbor Plains é

JOHNSTON, si H., and CLeLanp, E. R.: Larval Trematodes from Australian Terrestrial
and Freshwater Molluscs Part IV

Frintayson, H. H.: Ona New Species of Potonate (Marsupialia) from a ‘Cave Deposit

on Kangaroo Island, South Australia ..
Davinson, J.: On the Ecology of the Growth of the Sheep Population in South Australia

Jcunston, T. H.: A Census of the Free-living and Plant-parasitic Nematodes recorded
as occurring in Australia : a
ALDERMAN, A. R.: Augen-gneisses in the Humbug Scrub Area, South Los

PART II

LoveripcE, A.: On some Reptiles and Amphibians from the Central Region of Australia

FENNER, C. A. E.: Australites, Pt. III. A Contribution to the Problem of the Origin
of Tektites

Corton, B. C., and Luperoox, N. H: Recent and Fossil Species of the Scaphopod genus
Dentalium in Southern Australia

Prescorr, J. A.: The Climate of Tropical ‘Australia i in . Relation to ‘possible Agricultural
Occupation

Movuntrorp, C. P.: Aboriginal Crayon Drawings, ee The Legend of Wati Juta and
the Kunkarunkara Women

Mawson, D.: Cambrian and Sub- Cambrian Mocmatens: at Parachilna Gorge fis

Jounston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M.: Strongyle Nematodes from Central Australian
Kangaroos and Wallabies ao _

Asupy, E.: Data showing Rate of Development of Trunk of *Tréc- fern a

Howcutn, W., and Parr, W. J.: Notes on the Geological Features and Foraminiferal
Fauna of the Metropolitan Abattoirs Bore, Adelaide

Cooke, W. Trernent: The Occurrence of Gallium and Germanium in some - Local
Coal Ashes

Prescott, J. A., and SkKEWES, HR: an Examination of some Soils from the more
Arid Regions of Australia ,

Davipson, J.: On the Growth of the Sheep Population ; in TPasurania a

Mawson, D.: The Mount Caernarvon Series of Proterozoic Age ..

Brack, J. M.: Additions to the Flora of South Australia. No. Ra

Grant, Kerr: The Radio-activity and Composition of the Water and Gases ioe the
Paralana Hot Spring

Hosxine, J. S.: Some Recent Volcattic Wanoei ase Volcanic Sale rata New Bata

OBIruaRIEs ee oh th re a ar a :

BALANCE-SHEETS 4

Appitions To LIBRARY "EXCHANGES |

Sir Josepa Verco MEDALISTS

List or FELLows .

INDEX

CorRIiGENDA

STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN THYSANURA
NO. 4 MACHILIDE (BRISTLE-TAILS)

BY H. WOMERSLEY

Summary

The Machilidae or Bristle-tails, together with the Lepismatidae or Silverfish, form the ectotrophic
division of the old order Thysanura. Apart from several primitive characters, however, they have
very little in common with the entotrophic division which includes the families Campodeidae,
Japygidae and Projapygidae. The present tendency of taxonomists is to regard them as two distinct
orders, the Ectotrophi ( Thysanura. str.) and the Entotrophi (Diplura).

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY
OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA INCORPORATED

STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN THYSANURA
No. 4. MACHILIDAE (BRISTLE-TAILS)

By H. Womers ey, F.R.E.S., A.L.S.
{Read 11 November 1937]

The Maclulidae or Bristle-tails, together with the Lepismatidae or Silverfish,
form the ectotrophic division of the old order Thysanura. Apart from several
primitive characters, however, they have very little in common with the ento-
trophic division which includes the families Campodeidae, Japygidae and Pro-
japygidae, The present tendency of taxonomists is to regard them as two distinct
orders, the Ectotrophi (Thysanura s. str.) and the Entotrophi (Diplura).

The two families of the Ectotrophi may be separated as follows :—

Compound eyes large; ocelli present. Abdominal segments I-VII usually with
one or two pairs of exsertile vesicles. Stylets present on sternites IJ-IX and
usually on some of the thoracic coxae. Thorax generally well arched and not
flattened. Body always scaled. Machilidae

Compound eyes small or absent. Abdomen usually with some stylets and

exsertile vesicles. Thoracic coxal stylets absent. Body much flattened and fish-

shaped, or elongate and parallel-sided. Body scaled or not. Lepismatidae

Bristle-tails or rock-jumpers are rare in Australia, but in many parts of the
world they are to be found in large numbers. Such is the case along the coasts
of Europe, where they frequent the sandstone cliffs. In other parts they can be
found on and under stones on hilly woodsides, as on the lower slopes of Table
Mountain, South Africa. Little is known of their food, but it apparently consists
of minute algae growing upon the rocks where they are found.

These insects are moderately large, measuring up to three-fourths of an inch
in body length, fish-shaped and of a brownish colour which often shows remark-
able reflections as the light falls upon the scaling. They are furnished with two
long filamentous antennae composed of from 30 to 40 segments, each of which
may be subdivided into 10 to 14 small parts. Compound cyes are always present,
generally of large size and touching each other in the medial line for more or less
of their length. Below the compound eyes lies a pair of large ocelli of peculiar
form, often being dumbbell-like or triangular with the broadest part near the
middle line. More anterior still is a simple organ which is spoken of as the
single ocellus,

In the head the epicranial suture can frequently be seen, and the labrum and
clypeus are well developed. The mouth parts themselves are cxserted and con-
form to the primitive type as exhibited in the more generalised of the higher

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 62 (1), 22 July 1938

4

insects such as the cockroaches. The mandibles are simple in form, consisting
of a single sclerite furnished with a well-developed molar plate and several apical
teeth. These latter are often much worn by use and are renewed at each ecdysis.
In general the mandibles show much similarity to the corresponding organs in
some of the higher Crustacea. The superlinguae are well developed, each organ
consisting of two lobes and a vestigial palp. The maxillae are conspicuous organs
having a toothed lacinia and a hood-like galea and are furnished with a 7-seg-
mented palp. In the male scx the first and second segments often exhibit
specialised sensory organs. The labium or lower lip has a broad mentum and
submentum, a paired prementum and a 3-segmented palp. Both glossae and para-
glossae are present, each being divided into lobes. The terminal segment of the
labial palp is supplied apically with sensory sctae.

The thorax is comparatively large and considerably convex dorsally, some-
times being even gibbous. The coxal segments of the legs are large, and often
the second and third pairs carry movable stylets, which have been correlated by
some authorities with the exopodites of crustacean limbs. The tarsi are
3-segmented, ending in paired claws and sometimes having ventral scopulae
of hairs.

The abdomen has eleven segments, the last ending in the long tail filament,
while the penultimate segment carries the paired cerci. On some of the sternites
are one or two pairs of exsertile vesicles, and also a pair of stylcts. The median
sclerite of the sternites may be large and triangular or more or less completely
hidden by the coxal plates.

The genitalia are simple, usually consisting of one or two pairs of gona-
pophyses which, in the female sex, form the valves of a long ovipositor, and in
the male are short and accompanied by a short median penis.

Of the life-history of these insects little is known except in the European
genus Petrobius. In this there are at least six instars, each of which closely
resembles the adult except in size. ‘The first two instars, however, are entirely
scaleless and without the thoracic coxal stylets of the later stages. There also
appears to he a subimaginal instar in which the genitalia are developed but sexual
maturation is not attained.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE MACHILIDAE

The following three subfamilies are recognised, of which the first only is as
yet known to occur in Australia :-—
1. Abdominal segments all with median sternal sclerites almost if not quite invisible.
At most each abdominal sternite with only a single pair of exsertile vesicles.
Meinertellinae

Abdominal segments II-VII with relatively large and visible triangular median
sternal sclerites. 2

2. Only a single pair of exsertile vesicles on any one segment. Proaemachilinae

Some sternites with two pairs of exsertile vesicles. Machilinae

5

Subfamily MEINERTELLINAE

Two genera only, Allomachilis Silv. and Machiloides Silv. (= Nesomachilis
Till.) are, so far, known to occur in Australia, while but a single representative
of the latter is found in New Zealand. Careful search in the kinds of localities
indicated above may reveal other genera and species, and for this reason the
following key to the known genera of Machilidae is given :—

1. Exsertile vesicles present on sternites I-VII. 2
Exsertile vesicles only on sternites II-IV. Legs II and III with coxal stylets.
Paired ocelli triangular. Gen. Allomachilis Silv.

2. Coxal stylets on legs II and III. Paired ocelli transverse, elongate. Second scg-

ment of maxillary palp in male with subapical process and sensory setae or rods.
Gen. Machiloides Silv.

(= Nesomachilis Till.)

Coxal stylets only on leg III or wanting. 3
3. Coxal stylets on leg III. 4
Coxal stylets wanting on all legs. 6
4. Eyes large, much deeper than wide. Cerci slightly longer than body. Subapical
process of palp II of male not hook-like Gen. Megalopsobius Silv.
Eyes normal, wider than deep. 5

5. Coxal stylets on leg JIT reduced. Male gonapophyses absent.
Gen. Hypomachiloides Silv.

Coxal stylets on leg ITI normal. Gen. Machilontus Silv.
6. Male sex without tarsal scopulae. 8
Male sex with dense tarsal scopulae. 7
7. Tarsal scopulae present in both sexes. Gen. Meinertellus Silv.
Tarsal scopulae confined to the male. Gen. Meinertelloides Wom.

8. Paired ocelli not elongate, subrotund and almost touching lower margin of eyes.
Gen. Machilinus Silv.

Paired ocelli transverse. 9
9. Eyes large, deeper than wide. Paired occlli transversely oblique. Median sternal
sclerites almost invisible. Gen. Macropsontus Silv.

Eyes normal. Median sternal sclerites visible. Male gonapophyses present or not.
Gen. Machilellus Silv.

Genus ALLOMACHILIs Silv., 1904
Allomachilis froggatti Silv., 1904

Hitherto, this species was the only one recorded from Australia. It was
described in 1904 by Prof. F. Silvestri from specimens collected by the late Mr.
W. W. Froggatt on the coast of New South Wales. All the original specimens,
however, were females.

Through the kindness of Prof. G. E. Nicholls the writer was able, while
working at the University of Western Australia, in 1930, to examine about a
dozen specimens of a Machilid collected by Prof. Nicholls and Mr. K. C. Richard-
son at Herring Cove, Two-people Bay, near Albany, Western Australia, in
January, 1925. This material was labelled provisionally, “Allomachilis, sp. nov.,”
and again all the specimens were females. On re-examination it was possible
to definitely identify the specimens with Silvestri’s 4. froggatti.

6

While holidaying in the Albany district in January, 1932, an attempt was
made, with the aid of a friend acquainted with the district, to locate the spot
where Prof. Nicholls had obtained his specimens, in the hope of finding the
unknown male.

The habitat was found to be a small sandstone outcrop on the eastern end
of Herring Cove; all the rest of the coast thereabouts being granite. About half
a dozen specimens were secn, but owing to their extreme agility only two were
captured. Of these, one was lost on the way back to Perth, but the other, on
examination, proved to be a fully developed male. The following description of
this sex deals mainly with the points in which it differs from Silvestri’s descrip-
tion of the female :—

Description of Male—-Dimensions, eyes, paired ocelli, antennae, thoracic and
abdominal stylets and exsertile vesicles as in the female. Second segment of
maxillary palpi simple and without sensory organs. Penis short; gonapophyses
wanting.

Locality—Herring Cave, Two-people Bay, Western Australia, in January,
1932.

Remarks—This species also occurs in South Australia, where it has been
found by the writer at Marino Rocks and at Yvonne Bay, Kangaroo Island. It has
also been collected on Flinders Island, Bass Strait, Tasmania, by Mr. J. W. Evans.

Genus MAcuHiIvoives Silv.
= Nesomachilis Tillyard, 1924

In 1924 the late Dr. R. J. Tillyard erected the genus Nesomachilis for a
New Zealand species, N. maoricus, In his description and figures there appears
to be no characters by which the genus can be separated from Muachiloides of
Silvestri. That this is so has been confirmed by the writer, who, through the
courtesy of Dr. J. Millar, of the Cawthron Institute, Nelson, New Zealand, has
been able to re-cxamine Tillyard’s type material, as well as fresh material from
Nelson, kindly supplied by Mr. J. W. Evans.

About 1934 Dr. Tillyard informed me that he was making a biological study
of a species of Machilid which he had obtained from the neighbourhood of
Brisbane. Upon request he kindly sent a number of specimens for specific
determination, Study of this material showed that, while closely allicd to the
New Zealand form, it belonged to a new and distinct species.

In the collections of the South Australian Museum was a single carded
Machilid labelled “Stanwell Park, New South Wales,” which had possibly been
‘collected by A. M. Lea many years ago. On dismounting and dissecting, this
specimen was found to be a female of the Brisbane specics. Two other females,
collected by Miss M. E. Fuller at Sydney in 1933, are also of the same form.

7
Description of the new species is as follows :—

Machiloides australicus n. sp.
(Text fig. A-E)

Length of body to 7 mm. Colour in spirit brownish, in life probably dark
fuscous. Antennae thin, except the basal segments, reaching to two-thirds length
of body; basal segment twice as long as broad, distal segments with 9-10 sub-
divisions. LEyes large, round, touching medially for two-thirds of their depth.
Paired ocelli pear-shaped, transverse, widely separated medially. Labial palpi
normal, apical segment with few but large setac or rods (fig. A-B). Maxillary

Machiloides australicus n. sp. (Male)

A, apical segment of labial palp; B, a single sensory seta from apex of above;
C, first and second segment of maxillary palp; D, leg I; E, leg HI.

palpi with the usual triangular and bulbous processes on segment I; II in the
male with a subapical bent parallel-sided lobe, below which are a number of short,
blunt, black rods; below these rods are some black-pointed setae which extend
right across the segment. This structure somewhat resembles that described by
Evans in 1927 for M. maoricus (Till.), but in the latter species the rods are
placed in a distinct pocket formed by the subapical lobe and do not lie free as in
the new species (fig. E). The remaining segments of the maxillary palpi are
simple. The relative lengths of the segments of the maxillary palpi are :—male,

8

17: 20: 23: 20: 32: 25: 20; female, 10: 15: 13: 13: 20: 15: 15;
lacinia shorter than galea. Mandibles normal with toothed apex and well
developed molar plate.

Thorax moderately arched; legs I strong and somewhat raptorial, the
femora and tibia being swollen inwardly, II and III longer and thinner with well
developed stylets on coxae,

Abdominal segments with median sternal sclerites practically invisible,
II-VII with a single pair of exsertile vesicles, I]-IX with stylets, those on IX
twice as long as those on VIII and with the apical seta two-thirds of their length.
Median tail appendage two-thirds of body length, cerci rather shorter.

Male: penis short, gonapophyses absent.

Female: ovipositor short, annulated, scarcely reaching tip of ninth stylet.

The whole body is heavily scaled, the scales arranged in the manner described
by Evans for M. maoricus (Till).

Remarks—tIn the original description of M, maoricus the exsertile vesicles
are given as present on sternites ]-1X. This is a printer’s error, for in no species
of Machilidae so far known do these organs occur beyond sternite VII. ‘The
new species described above is a rare and apparently very local one. It appears
to be an inland and not coastal form and should be searched for in stony woods.

REFERENCES TO LITERATURE
Evans, J. W. 1927 Notes on Nesomachilis maoricus Till., with particulars of
a new sensory organ. Trans. New Zealand Inst., 58, 375-8
SILVESTRI, F. 1904 Nuovi generic specic dei Machilidae. Redia, 2, 4

Tittyarp, R. J. 1924 Primitive Wingless Insects, pt. i, The Silver-fish, Bristle-
tails and their allies (Order Thysanura). New Zealand J. Sci. Tech.,
7, (4), 232-42

WomerstEy, H. 1932 Some South African Machilidae. Annals South African
Museum, 30 (2), 171-8

AN EXAMINATION OF THE BROWN COAL OF MOORLANDS
PART II

BY W. TERNENT COOKE

Summary

The results presented in this paper serve as an extension of the work on Moorlands coal previously
&en in this journal (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1937, 61, 80).

Carbonization-Shaw (6) has made thorough carbonization tests with a charge of 97 lbs. of the coal,
followed by an examination of the products. He used the apparatus of the Geological Survey of
Victoria, following the procedure applied to the examination of the brown coals of that State.

9

AN EXAMINATION OF THE BROWN COAL OF MOORLANDS
PART II

By W. Ternent Cooxe, D.Sc., AVA.C.TI.
[Read 11 November 1937]

The results presented in this paper serve as an extension of the work on
Moorlands coal previously given in this journal (Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 1937,
61, 80).

Carbonization—Shaw (6) has made thorough carbonization tests with a
charge of 97 Ibs. of the coal, followed by an examination of the products. He
used the apparatus of the Geological Survey of Victoria, following the procedure
applied to the examination of the brown coals of that State.

For the sake of comparison, tests have been made with the “Fischer”
aluminium retort, an apparatus of semi-official status, using 50-gramme samples.
The coal, as distilled, contained 16% moisture. Results are tabulated in Table I.
During the tests samples of the gas were collected over varying intervals of
temperature, and analysed for their content of carbon dioxide and sulphuretted
hydrogen, The data relative to these gases have been combined and plotted as a
curve. The large content of sulphuretted hydrogen is noteworthy, and
suggests possibilities of recovering some of the sulphur content of the coal.
Similar results have been obtained by Bone (7) with a sample of South Austra-
lian coal, doubtless from Moorlands.

The Char—The residue from the distillation is a finely divided black powder.
Analyses gave carbon, 64°85%; hydrogen, 2°45%; ash, 24°30%. The ash
contains 8'54% of sulphur as sulphate, equivalent to 2°08% of the 3°49% total
sulphur content of the coal (with 16% moisture), leaving 1°41% “volatile”
sulphur. The analysis then becomes: carbon, 64:85% ; hydrogen, 2°45%; ash,
24-30% ; sulphur, 1-41%. Difference (oxygen and nitrogen), 6°99%.

The ash of the char contains also 26°5% insoluble in acid, and 26°7% of
iron, alumina, titania, besides the 8°54% of sulphate.

Nitrogen Content—A previously found value for nitrogen (1) is 0°4%.
The author’s sample gave 0°45% for the moisture-free coal. This low content
is usual with lignites. Experiments showed that none of the nitrogen is extract-
able with dilute acid.

Chlorine Content--The percentage found for the bulk coal was 0°035%.

Carbonate Content—Calculated as CO,, the value 0°2% was found.

Calorific Value—The official figure (2) given is 7,548 B.T.U. per pound.
Taking the moisture content as given (2) 14°3%, one obtains 8,808 B.T.U. for
the dry coal. Further, taking the value for sulphur 3:7% for moist, or 4°32%
for dry coal, and applying Parr’s formula, (3), the value 12,450 B.T.U. is obtained
for “unit” coal. The corresponding values for Noarlunga (4), and Balaklava~-
Inkerman coal (5), are, respectively, 12,655 and 12,430.

True Mineral. Content—King and others (8) have deduced a formula for
arriving at an estimation of the true mineral content of a coal from a knowledge

Trans. Roy. Soc, S.A., 62 (1), 22 July 1938

10

of the amount and composition of the “ash” and other analytical data. The
values of certain factors in King’s formula are based on a study of black coals,
English mainly, but these factors should in general be applicable to brown coals.
Thus the water content of the air dried shale associated with the black coal has
an average value of 8%; the black clay found above the Moorlands clay has a
water content of 61% (9). King’s formula is :—

Mineral matter = 1:09% ash +- 0°5% pyritic sulphur + 0:8% CO,

+ SO, in coal + 0°5% Cl — 1:1 SO, in ash.

10
60
CO,
7)
fet)
=
c
.*)
ao
=
wu
40 oy
20
H:S
Temperature
290 370 450 g30 S70

Inserting the following percentage figures:—15:°9% ash, 0°91% pyritic
sulphur, 0°2% CO,, 0°965% SO, in coal, 0°035% Cl, 2°81% SO, in ash, the final
value 15-84% is obtained, almost identical with that of the “ash.”

Erdmann and Dolch also have given a formula for calculating the true mineral
content (10). This formula gives a value of 15-6%, which again differs but
slightly from that of the “ash.”

King has also given formulz for calculating the composition of the actual
coal substance, te., on the moisture and ash-free basis. Using the values already
found for the bulk sample (9), the calculated composition is carbon, 65:49% ;
hydrogen, 4:80% ; nitrogen, 0°53% ; sulphur, 3-45% ; oxygen, 25-73%.

11

Effect of Moderate Preheating on the Coal—It is known that a slight
improvement in the quality of a lignite can be effected by heating to a tempera-
ture short of active decomposition; some combined oxygen is driven off as water
and carbon dioxide. The effect was studied by heating portions of air-dried coal,
containing about 13% of moisture, in a stream of dry, oxygen-free nitrogen.
Heating was in two stages, first to about 120° C., and then to about 230° C.; the
water and carbon dioxide formed over each temperature interval were collected
and weighed, and the loss in weight of the coal found. Over the lower interval
the loss is almost entirely hygroscopic water; over the higher, the carbon dioxide
is about one-half of the water. There is no appreciable amount of other volatile
products, as shown by the concordance between the sum of the weights of the
collected products and the loss in weight of the coal. Taking the average figures
of three typical experiments, the weights of volatile products over the two ranges
of temperature are, respectively —carbon dioxide, 0°4% and 1°8% ; water, 13-3%
and 3°2%, giving a total of 18°7%, of which 5% is evolved after loss of hygro-
scopic water. The total loss in weight of the coal was also 18°7%. At about
230° C. there is evidence of the beginning of more pronounced decomposition—
the characteristic smell of heated brown coal is noticeable. ‘Che preheated product
has the composition:—C. 56°70%, H.4:02%, O.18-12%, S.4-32%, and ash
16°84%. That a slight improvement has been effected is shown by a comparison
of the composition of the preheated with that of the original coal, both calculated
on an ash and moisture-free basis (original coal in brackets) :—C. 68-19%

(65-55%), H. 4°83% (498%), O. 21:79% (24-60%), S. 519% (487%).

Taste I,
Final | AS DISTILLED, 16% Moisture ON DRY BASIS
he. | Liquor | Tar | Char “Diff. Tar Char
550 23 6:6 53+2 17-2 7°85 63°3
550 21°'8 7°0 54-2 17-0 8:4 64°5
520 22°6 62 57°8 13-4 7°4 68°8
500* 8-78 55:06

* Shaw, “Mining Review,” 37, 75
REFERENCES
(1) Mining Review 1922 37, 61
(2) Mining Review 1934 60, 29
(3) Jour. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 1922 14, 921
(4) Trans. Roy. Soc. 5S. Aust. 1932 56, 49
(5) Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust. 1936 60, 71
(6) Mining Review 1922 37, 73
(7) Bone and Himus: “Coal, Its Constitution and Uses” 1936 159-160
(8) Jour. Soc. Chem. Industry 1936 65, 277 T
(9) Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust. 1937 61, 80
(10) “Die Chemie der Braunkohle” 97

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE ORCHIDOLOGY OF AUSTRALIA

BY R. S. ROGERS

Summary

A small erect and rather slender species, about 4-8 cn~.h igh. Leaf linearlanceolate, slightly hairy,
usually as long or sometimes much longer than the inflorescence, strongly 3-nerved with numerous
smaller veins. Stem hairy, an acute linear slender bract, about 1 cm near the middle. Flower
relatively large, solitary, yellowish, with dark reddish-brown veinings, about 2.5 cm. in diameter, on
a short slender pedicel subtended by a subulate bract about 1 cm. long. Segments of perianth
similar, about 1-5 cm. long, yellowish with longitudinal reddish brown median nerve, tapering to a
filamentous conspicuously clavate point, dorsal sepal incurved over column, lateral sepals porrect,
lateral petals erect or semipatent.

12

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE ORCHIDOLOGY OF AUSTRALIA
By R. S. Rocers, M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.L.S. (Lond.)
{Read 14 April 1938]

Caladenia sigmoidea n. sp.

Species terrestris, pusilla, circa 4-8 cm. alta. Folium fere aequans vel
inflorescentiam aliquanto excedens, anguste lanceolatum, leviter hirsutum,
vale 3-nervia cum venis minoribus numerosis. Caulis hirsutus, ad medium
bractea acuta gracilis cirea 1 cm. longa. Flos solitarius, subflavus in
diametro circa 2°5 cm.; pedicellus brevis; segmenta similia, aequalia, circa
1-5 cm. longa, angusta, subflava, filamentosa, conspicue clavata, lineis badiis
ornata, sepalo dorsali incurvato, lateralibus porrectis, petalis erectis. Labellum
mobile, unguiculatum, sigmoideum, subflavum; explanatum subanguste-ovatum,
marginibus paene integris, apice obtuse uncinato; lamina cum venis atrobadiis
divergentibus ornata; calli carnosi, atropurpurei, biseriati, Columna clongata,
gracilis, alata, apice leviter incurvata; anthera obtusissima; stigma semilunare,
sub anthera. Anthera obtusa.

A small erect and rather slender species, about 4-8 em. high. Leaf lincar-
lanceolate, slightly hairy, usually as long or sometimes much longer than the
inflorescence, strongly 3-nerved with numerous smaller veins. Stem hairy, an
acute linear slender bract, about 1 cm. near the middle. Flower relatively large,
solitary, yellowish, with dark reddish-brown veinings, about 2'5 cm. in diameter,
on a short slender pedicel subtended by a subulate bract about 1 em. long. Seg-
ments of perianth similar, about 1-5 cm. long, yellowish with longitudinal reddish-
brown median nerve, tapering to a filamentous conspicuously clavate point, dorsal
sepal incurved over column, lateral sepals porrect, lateral petals erect or semi-
patent. Labellum mobile on a distinct claw, sigmoid, yellowish, somewhat
narrowly ovate when spread out with dark red veinings, margins entire or often
bidentate on each side, the tip obtusely uncinate; lamina traversed by dark red
divergent and longitudinal veins, and provided in its proximal half with two
parallel median rows of dark reddish fleshy calli. Column winged, elongated,
slightly incurved at the apex. Anther quite blunt. Stigma semilunar just below
the anther. Anther obtuse.

Locality—Western Australia, Kumarl, 25 August 1937,

I am indebted for this very interesting and distinclive species to Col. B. T.
Goadby, who informs me that it was collected by an observant teacher, Mr.
Horbury, at the above locality near Salmon Gums, on the Kalgoorlie-Esperance
Railway line.

Prerostytis Mircuerriu Lindl.

Locality—Western Australia. Collected by Mr. Horbury at Kumarl and

forwarded by Col. Goadby. New to the Western State.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 62 (1), 22 July 1938

13

PTEROSTYLIS PUSILLA Rogers

Locality—Western Australia. Collected by Mr. Horbury at Kumarl and
forwarded by Col. Goadby. New to the Western State.

PTEROSTYLIS MUTICA R. Br.

Lecality—Western Australia. Forwarded by Col. Goadby. Collected by Mr.
Horbury at Kumarl, 24 August 1937.

Thelymitra Dedmanae sp. nov.

Planta robustiuscula, terrestris, alta 20-40 cm. Folium glabrum, ellipti-
cum vel oblongo-ellipticum, papyraceum, multistriatum, ad basin contractum,
circa 12 cm. longum, 1°5-3 cm, latum in meis speciminibus. Caulis glaber,
bracteae elongatae, acutissimae, 2 vel 3. Flores 3-6, pedicelli graciles circa
6 m.m. longae, majusculi, 3-5-4 cm, in diametro, ordorati, chasmogami. Seg-
menta perianthii patentia, badia fcre iridescentia, non maculata; sepala acuta
circa 2 cm, longa circa 8 mm. lata, multistriata; petala sepalis breviora
angustioraque, inferiori segmentis ceteris multo breviore angustioreque apice
truncata marginibus integris. Columna circa 1 cm. longa, late alata, rubri-
aurantiaca, processu clavato dorsali instructa; cucullus alte pectinatus, conspicue
aurantiacus ; anthera humilis, apice in processum digitaliformem producta; stigma
subquadratum, rostellum in medio marginis superioris.

A rather robust terrestrial plant, about 20-40 cm. high. Leaf glabrous,
elliptical or oblong-elliptical, multistriate, sheathing at the base, about 12 cm. long,
1-5-3 cm. wide in my specimens. Stem glabrous, its bracts elongated very acute,
2 or 3 in number. Flowers racemose, 3-6, pedicels slender about 6 mm. long,
rather large, 3°5-4 cm. in diameter, sweet scented, opening freely. Perianth
segments chestnut coloured almost iridescent, not spotted. Sepals acute, about
2 cm. long, 8 mm. wide, multistriate; petals shorter and narrower than the sepals,
the lower are much shorter and narrower than the rest its apex truncate and
margins entire. Column about 1 cm. long, widely winged, reddish-orange, with a
clavate dorsal appendage; the hood deeply pectinate, conspicuously orange in
colour; anther low and broad, its apex produced into a finger-like process; stigma
subquadrate, with the rostellum in the middle of its upper margin.

A near relative of 7. fuscolutea, R. Br., but with a narrower leaf, unspotted
perianth-segments and very distinctive coloration of the flowers. It also shows
structural differences in the flowers, a differentiated labellar petal and a some-
what different column.

Locality—Western Australia. Toodyay, 11 November 1934. Mrs. and Miss
Dedman, in whose honour the plant has been named,

In general appearance, the plant is strikingly beautiful and worthy of
cultivation.

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF A FOSSIL PENGUIN IN MIOCENE BEDS IN
SOUTH AUSTRALIA

BY H. H. FINLAYSON

Summary

The specimen herein noticed was found by Mr. W. Burdett in the cliffs above Christie's Beach on
the east shore of St. Vincent Gulf, at a point about 16 miles south of Adelaide, South Australia. The
site has been examined by the late Professor Walter Howchin, who has pronounced the beds to be
of undoubted Miocene age, and it is satisfactory that this, the first record of the tertiary
Spheniscidae in Australia, should be free from the chronological uncertainties which attach to some
other of the occurrences of the family elsewhere.

14

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF A FOSSIL PENGUIN IN MIOCENE BEDS
IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By H. H. FINLAyson
Prats |
[Read 14 April 1938]

The specimen herein noticed was found by Mr. W. Burdett in the cliffs
above Christie’s Beach on the cast shore of St. Vincent Gulf, at a point about
16 miles south of Adelaide, South Australia. The site has been examined by the
late Professor Walter Howchin, who has pronounced the beds to be of undoubted
Miocene age, and it is satisfactory that this, the first record of the tertiary
Spheniscidae in Australia, should be free from the chronological uncertainties
which attach to some other of the occurrences of the family elsewhere.

The bone (pl. i, fig. A-B), which is a left humerus, is held in a friable
matrix of calcareous grit. Originally only the proximal surface of the head and
the outer surface of the shaft were exposed, but by careful flakeing with a steel
point, all its margins have been satisfactorily developed without damage, except
in the region of the sesamoid articulation at the distal extremity. Here the matrix
proved harder than elsewhere and, as the bone was weakened by a transverse
fracture, little pressure from a tool could be applied and some slight indefiniteness
of outline has been allowed to persist.

The bone is in excellent preservation and is complete except for the tuberculum
externum, which has been broken away anciently. The outer exposed layers of the
cortex have become somewhat chalky by weathering, but the main mass of the
shaft is strongly mineralized and has a dense flinty texture. Although the shaft
shows four transverse fracture lines, there is no evidence, of crushing or distortion.

In addition to the humerus, some fractured laminae probably derived from
a radius, and another fragment showing a porous cancellated structure, are also
present.

Lowe (1), in his excellent paper on the primitive characters of penguins,
reviews the fossil humeri from Seymour Island, figured and described by
Wiman (2), and singles out five structural characters, of functional significance,
which distinguish the humeri of these and other tertiary penguins from those of
recent species.“ In describing the present specimen, therefore, it seems
expedient to concentrate upon these points, rather than to embark on a detailed
account of its morphology.

1. A more pronounced inturning of the articular surface of the head of
the humerus, than in recent species, was claimed by Wiman. This was doubtfully
conceded by Lowe, who considered that in the fossil birds it might be correlated
with less freedom of rotary movement within the joint.

©) With the partial exception of the primitive Eudyptula

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 62 (1), 22 July 1938

15

In the present specimen the humeral head is somewhat abraded, the can-
cellated tissue being exposed, and its dimensions possibly somewhat reduced.
Making full allowance for this, however, it still supports Wiman’s claim. In a
posterior view, the onsetting of the head to the shaft is appreciably more axial
than in Aptenodytes forsteri, for example. In the present fossil the long axis of the
shaft passes almost through the vertex in this aspect of the head, whereas in
A. forsteri the vertex is displaced about 6° mesiad. (See pl. i, fig. B.)

2. The smaller size of the fossa pneumatica (f. subtrochanterica) in the
tertiary species.

This is strikingly illustrated in the present bone, both as regards width and
capacity, though some allowance must be made for attrition in the fossil. More-
over the cavity is simple, without or at most with slight indications of the
secondary cavity on the internal wall, as in Aptenodytes forsteri. The total
capacity of the fossa (as preserved) is just one quarter that of the cavity in a
rather small A. forstert.

3. In the tertiary humeri the trochlea ulnaris and trochlea radialis occupy
sites upon the lower angle of the preaxial border, rather than upon the distal
margin, and their articular surfaces face outwards rather than downwards as
in the recent genera. ‘This leads to the articulation of the antibrachium at a smaller
angle with the humerus than in recent penguins. Lowe interprets this as evidence:
of inferior natatory specialization.

In the present fossil the facets of the two condyles are confluent, as in the
humerus attributed by Hector (3), to Palaceudyptes antarcticus Huxley (4),.
but the site of the conjoined surface is exactly as in Wiman’s humerus No. 3,
as refigured by Lowe (loc. cit.).

4. The preaxial border is without an angular prominence and the maximum
width of the bone is towards the proximal rather than the distal extremity. Both
conditions are clearly exhibited by the fossil.

5. Wiman (loc. cit.) suggested that in the Seymour Island humeri the
entepicondylar process bearing the sesamoid grooves was less produced than in
recent penguins. Lowe considered that the differences observable were due to abra-
sion of the fossils. But it is quite clear in Hector’s figure of the Nelson (N.Z.}
humerus, and somewhat less so in the present specimen, that the angle is much less
prominent than in Lowe’s hypothetical outline (loc. cit., fig. 12a), or in the modern
Aptenodytes, though it may find a parallel perhaps in other modern genera.

While possession of the above listed structural features satisfactorily allies
the South Australian fossil with others of like geological age from widely
sundered localities in the Southern Hemisphere, the question of generic identifica-
tion remains a difficult one; partly owing to the impossibility of instituting com-
parisons with forms founded on bones other than humeri, but still more to the
uncertainties which, in the Spheniscidae, surround the diagnostic value of the bone.

The activities of Ameghino, Moreno, Mercerat, and Wiman (loc. cit.) have
greatly expanded the list of names of fossil penguins, so that it now includes

16

35 species referred to 22 genera (5-6). The form which is geographically nearest
to the site of the present find is that which was first described, Palageudyptes
antarcticus Huxley, 1859 (loc. cit.), from beds of similar age in New Zealand.
Huxley founded the species on a tarsometatarsus only, but in 1871 Hector obtained
other bones from the same horizon as the first find, which he ascribed to the same
species. ‘he second find included an almost perfect humerus, which is excellently
figured (loc. cil.) pl. viii, figs. 1:2:3). Comparison of the South Australian speci-
men with this figure reveals a very close correspondence both in dimensions and
structural detail, and the few points of difference are of such kind as to be readily
accounted for by differing age of the individual birds, and varying degrees of ero-
sion of the fossils, which is considerably greater in the South Australian specimen.

While such an agreement in macroscopical features might be regarded as a
valid identification in Palaeontology, it cannot be overlooked that in the present
case there are other considcrations, both morphological and zoogeographical,
which introduce an clement of doubt, and these may be briefly noted.

1. While the tertiary genera may be satisfactorily distinguished from
the recent by osteological characters, contemporary recent genera show amongst
themselves a much smaller range of diversity in such structural points. Both
Watson (7) and Pycraft (8) have unequivocally stated that in some recent
genera, which are markedly distinct in external characters and habits, the humeri
may be virtually identical, A similar state of things in the tertiary forms, while
fess probable perhaps, is still possible, and the birds which became fossilized at
Nelson and Christie’s Beach, respectively, may have shown much greater total
differences than can now be found in their humeri.

2. The New Zealand and Australian finds are located in zoological sub-
regions of marked and long-established distinctness ; a distinctness exemplified by
a very large proportion of both the fossil and recent avifauna of the two.

In the existing penguins, the pelagic habit has been so perfected that voyages
of many hundreds of miles are annually made by the migratory species, and on
oceasion these normal distances are enormously exceeded, as is shown by the
records of extralimital occurrences of several species, and the accounts of eye-
witnesses who have observed the birds in the open oceans (9).

Obviously the existence of such pelagic habits in the tertiary penguins would
tend to nullify the zoogeographical distinction by providing the means (though not
necessarily the incentive) for transgressing the boundaries of the two subregions.

3, However, in the case of the tertiary penguins of the Antarctic Archi-
pelago, which lived under temperate or even subtropical climatic conditions, Lowe
considers there is evidence in the tarsometatarsus and humerus of superior
terrestrial and inferior aquatic specialization, respectively. This suggests the
probability that a comparatively sedentary coast-frequenting habit then prevailed
(which has persisted to some extent in one existing species of Aptenodytes), and
that the truly pelagic, deep sea-going habit of some of the modern species was a
much later accomplishment, acquired in response to increasing severity of climatic

Plate I

. 62,

Vol

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1938

Photo, H. H. Finlayson

17

conditions imposed by later glaciation. In this connection, it is significant that
in several existing species it is only the more southerly colonies which undergo
an annual migration.

4. That all conclusions as to relationship drawn from such considerations
as are set out in (2-3) are fallible, unless the original centre of dispersal of the
forms is known, seems to be indicated by the presence of Eudyptula minor in
both New Zealand and South Australian waters; Eudyptula being the most
primitive of the existing genera, and that which in its coast-wise and relatively
sedentary habit seems least adapted to bridge the gap between the two areas.

In view of the uncertainty in the value of the evidence derived from the
humerus and the conflict in the theoretical considerations bearing on distribution,
I have not felt justified in applying a name to the fossil. As the chief object of
the present note is to record the occurrence, it will suffice to point out again its
apparently close relation to Palaeeudyptes antarcticus Hux.

In conclusion I have to thank Mr. W. Burdett for an indefinite loan of the
fossil for purposes of description; and Messrs. J. Sutton and H. Condon, of the
Department of Ornithology of the South Australian Museum, who have made
available material for comparison and assisted in other ways; and the authorities
of the Public Library of Melbourne, and the Australian Museum, Sydney, for
timely Joan of books.

REFERENCES

(1) Lowe 1933 “The Primitive Characters of Penguins and their bearing on
the Phylogeny of Birds.” Proc. Zool. Soc., (2) 513

(2) Wiman, C. 1901-1903 Uber die Alttertiaren Vertebraten die Seymour
Insel,” Wissenschaft Ergeb. Schwed. Stidpol. Exped., 3, (1), 1-37

(3) Hecror 1871 Proc. New Zealand Inst., 4, 341, pl. viii

(4) Huxiry 1859 Quart. Jour, Geol. Soc., 15, 670-677

(5) Lamsrecut, K. 1921 Fossilium Catalogus. Pars. 12 Aves, 43-48 (Ed.
by C. Diener), Berlin

(6) Lamprecnut, K. 1933 Handbuch der Palaeornithologie, Berlin

(7) Watson, M. Zool. Reports on the Voyage of the Challenger, 7, 29

(8) Pycrarr, W.P. 1898 Proc. Zool. Soc., London, (2), 958-989, pls. lix-Ixi

(9) Murpyuy 1936 “The Oceanic Birds of South America”

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I

Fig. A. Left humerus of a penguin from Miocene beds of Christie’s Beach, South Aus-
tralia, Lateral (external) aspect. x 0-81.

Fig. B. Ditto. Postaxial view. x 0-81.

Fig. C. Right humerus of a penguin from the Miocene of Nelson, New Zealand.
Lateral aspect (after Hector, Trans. and Proc. New Zealand Inst., 1871, pl. xviii,
fig. 1). x 0-71,

Fig. D. Left humerus of Aptenodytes forsteri. Posterior view. x 0-71.

Fig. E. Ditto. Lateral view. x 0-69,

PRUPE AND KOROMARANGE
A LEGEND OF THE TANGANEKALD, COORONG, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

BY NORMAN B. TINDALE

Summary

The traditions and beliefs of the Tangane people of the Coorong, in South Australia, seem to belong
to several cultural strata. Some stories relate to the behaviour and adventures of heroic ancestral
beings "who made the country, and prepared it for the present natives." Such beliefs may deal with
the life-story of Ngurunderi ['njurunderi] and other superhuman man-like beings, collectively called
[‘maldawuli]. Other stories are centred around the behaviour of numerous [qaitje] or totemic beings,
most of whom are considered to be birds (e.g., crow, eagle, silver gull, pelican), although when the
events of the stories are taking place they usually are manifesting more of their human attributes
than of their bird-like ones. A further stratum of stories relates to individuals of unequivocably
human origin, who possess [njaitje] like present-day folk and about whom there is no suggestion of
an alternative or subsequent translation into the [njaitje] form.

18

PRUPE AND KOROMARANGE

A LEGEND OF THE TANGANEKALD, COORONG, SOUTH AUSTRALIA
By Norman B. TInpALE, B.Sc.
[Read 14 April 1938]
Pate IT

The traditions and beliefs of the Tangane people of the Coorong, in South
Australia, seem to belong to several cultural strata. Some stories relate to the
behaviour and adventures of heroic ancestral beings “who made the country, and
prepared it for the present natives.” Such beliefs may deal with the life-story
of Ngurunderi [‘gurunderi] and other superhuman man-like beings, collectively
called [’maldawuli]. Other stories are centred around the behaviour of numerous
[yaitje] or tolemic beings, most of whom are considered to be birds (e.g., crow,
eagle, silver gull, pelican), although when the events of the stories are taking
place they usually are manifesting more of their human attributes than of their
bird-like ones. A further stratum of stories relates to individuals of unequi-
vocably human origin, who possess [naitje] like present-day folk and about
whom there is no suggestion of an alternative or subsequent translation into the
[yaitje] form.

The Prupe story belongs to the last-named category. Its elements are
simple :—

Cannibalistic behaviour of an aged blind woman.

The good grandmother and her bad sister.

Exchange of feeble eyes for good.

The leaking vessel which she strives to fill.

Destruction of the bad woman and her camp by a sudden catastrophe.

The site of the present story is connected with a strange circular depression
about thirty metres in diameter and ten deep, of unexplained origin, situated near
McGrath Flat homestead, on Section 24, Hundred of Glyde.

According to one suggestion this may be a meteorite crater; its form being
such as to encourage this view. However, there is no evidence of the presence
of meteoric material on the surface near the supposed crater, and the suggestion
cannot be accepted until confirmation is forthcoming; nevertheless, definite asso-
ciation exists between such a depression and a story of a catastrophic event
accompanied by a blaze of fire. It seems possible that the story, in its present
form, may be the dramatisation of an actual meteorite fall at this spot.

The story was obtained by the writer several years ago, and the phonetic
rendering of the vowels is somewhat broader than in more recent work.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A,, 62 (1), 22 July 1938

19

The phonetic system employed is that adopted at the University of Adelaide
and described by the writer in 1935.

Differences between the series n d t, and the interdentals, n d t, are well
marked in this language. In the text the sounds of the second series are
denoted by black letter type, while on the sketch map they are indicated by
a vertical black line under the letter. In the interdental series the sounds
are made with the tongue protruding about 0°5 centimetre between the teeth.

.Mantaranal 5
a mt Angeason ) Me L
“erage, QF etimeranaray (HUNDRED or BONNEY)
Qerutulumind) / pei agora
re et a Pn nf | en Lt

7 PMTKANGEILINDI ERI

Jangurapulwy A “, M
eae Gi5uNO MLL) aarelran
Vex . rat yay . CLAN The at) yj (AtLEN'S WELL)
kelagt “obi lan, AG Skulunjug ys oe 2
Sak: ulun TwurupsZ SN 3 ron oe * MARNTANDI
“P ‘| : z ee “or
Li from whence Prupe
fetched water) CLAN
“+ se—Prupanjawand (Peupe’s camp) ea

= Jaldainataran ge
Ey = Mulawerea “

ape akorigcln yo
—enerkedie®E% ANA BR Brug Ac core oe

Ry
5, be “ owe ane dante, oh Y
abate : BE. ees
‘pant 2 Sar) Se GUS Neel rou
Wantitjun “ ~
kaijin- Se stabs
~_Parnkan “ts wars

Ngaragar ary: pak Tait Jalta alta

<>
coorane 4 Tarlajan ~~

2 ud A
ord one ‘io
MILES 1 Jramaran ‘YS 5 To OER
pt so § :
+ Punanet jg Pe § Mi uruggu

KILOM'S 0 1 4 wy) (island)

NORTHERN PORTION OF THE HUNDRED or GLYDE COORONG, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

Fig. 1

This feature has been noticed previously by the writer in Jaraldekald texts.
(1937), and since by Miss McConnell among the peoples of Cape Yorke Peninsula,
and by Capell (1937) among the Kurnu.

The following short story is the first Tanganekald prose text to be published ;

>

some songs were given, however, in a recent paper (Tindale, 1937). Prose texts

in several other languages of the South-East of South Australia await collation
and publication.

20

The earliest indication of any element of this story seems to be the bare
mention in Meyer’s Raminjeri vocabulary (1843, p. 57) that brupe means “bad
or old”; the present story gives a fuller meaning to the word.

In several places the translations suggested by the informant do not give the
exact sense. With larger vocabularies and a more detailed gathering of details
of grammar, etc., this may be remedied. Where an informant has almost ceased
to use his own language, owing to Jack of fellows, it is not surprising when he
finds difficulty in explaining his meaning in a foreign tongue, even when it has
been known to him since early manhood.

The accompanying figure (pl. ii) shows Milerum, narrator of the legend
drinking from a human skull vessel [’merikin] similar to the one used by the old
woman of this story. Such vessels are made waterproof by being plastered with
a mixture of red ochre and oil of the emu or whale.

A sketch map shows the northern half of the Hundred of Glyde and records
the positions of places mentioned in this story. Upon it are also inscribed the
names of all other known native place-names in the area, together with some
‘Tangane [’keinari] or clan boundaries. This sketch map is a portion of one of
the many “hundred” maps covering the South-East of South Australia, upon
which have been marked about 1,500 significant native place-names of the
Tanganekald and adjoining tribes. When published in full they will give a com-
prehensive idea of the nomenclature and geographical knowledge of members
of a typical South Australian tribe. The names are of necessity crowded, but if
they are studied in conjunction with the Hundred map, a close approximation to
the location will be obtained.

When recording this information in the field informants frequently had
cause to lament the physiographic changes which have been wrought by the
clearing of sandy ground, the stocking of the Coorong with sheep and cattle,
and its invasion by rabbits, leading to rapid drifting and alteration of old fixed
sandhills, lookouts and other landmarks. As one old man expressed it: “Our
[’maldazeuli] told us, long, long ago, to ‘beware of ants.’ White men must be
the ‘ants’ he spoke of, for they have eaten away all my people, my herbs, my
game, and even my sandhills.”

The Coorong is an example, on a gigantic scale, of a lagoon locked behind
an offshore bar which extends from Port Flliot in the north to beyond Kingston
in the south, a distance of well over one hundred and forty miles. ‘This bar and
lagoon was preceded by an earlier onc, the remains of which form the landward
shore of the present-day Coorong lagoon. This older dune series, the Woakwine
Terrace, was preceded by similar still earlier physiographic features, which
dominate the country further inland in alternating belts of dune and swale, for
as much as sixty miles.

The second sketch map gives a generalised view of a portion of the Coorong
to illustrate six descriptive terms used by Tanganekald people.

21

To Tangane folk the grass-covered sandy limestone slopes of the Woakwine
Terrace, forming the landward shore of the Coorong, were known as [’tengi].
Along this strip were many favourite camping places, all of them exposed in some
degree to the attacks of strangers from out of the inland scrub. Inland from
[‘tengi] was [/lerami], mile upon mile of mallee and swampland, fit only for
hunting. [’Lerami] was literally the “back country”.

The shallow Coorong lagoon itself was [’pandalapi], source of the fish which
formed the staple food of their economic system. [’Parinari], the seaward
shore of the lagoon provided the ideal home of the Tangane. Here, with their
backs to the ocean, a high fixed dune to serve as lookout and a clear view in the

GREAT SOUTHERNOCEAN

Fig. 2

landward direction, they felt safe from their enemies. Behind them was
[’natuni’juru], a continuous belt of dunes, from one to three miles wide and a
hundred miles long, separating them from [‘jurli], the ocean beach. In the
season their womenfolk repaired daily to [‘jurli] to gather cockles, the Donax
deltoides whose remains today are strewn thickly on every foot of old dune from
Middleton to Kingston.

These native terms appear so often in Tangane description and conversa-
tion that it is desirable that they should be on record. Lerami, Tengi, and other
terms are so euphonious, and supply such a want that they might well be used
by the geographer and physiographer as names for these outstandingly interest-
ing features of the South-East of our State.

22

’PRUPE AND “Koro’MA/RANGE

‘Nunap ‘pan:a‘njerei ‘nentara ‘jamp ‘prupuna(’w)ante ‘peker’at
[Koro’ma’range]“) scared was Prupe a-meal
kurupula —_al’porula. Wenjatananam ‘marok’eianam ‘marmar.

eat baby To-her took-to-her fish-(presents of).
‘Nun’:uk = ‘telianu. ‘puntunu = ’wanjal ’nangi im’pakabali. :
She [Prupe] idea-had sneak-down spy on grandmother-true [1e.,K.].
Angalamp? = ‘wanjal ‘plap:ai inang raimurumung. ‘Weniang parlu
Belonging to me spy on inside-“heart” I feel. Come down this time
stomach

ygarelangul ‘kundung ‘kaiparl™)’:angal inal jal lal = ‘kongodapaitj.
she had gonc find fishing gone while out.
Kan’deile® kugu inal ‘ngciral wenjil nang peinpun ‘parenguki. “Mckan ‘ygeir
Gone in fish crying drink water for. What cry for.
*maraparik *pakanu. "Wenjata’nane ‘’peinpu ‘weinjal ’mutung ‘kaijercp-
[said sister] grandmother. To her drink gave drunk it was
‘cung ‘pulu'wuntu ‘wenjatan ‘am:ajg ‘waldarap ‘kaltanguru ‘kapuntu
satished slung her over shoulders carry wentaway — very fast
‘talda’mading. "Malawaijap™ “leawu ‘kuingu ‘jengura enapu_ ‘pulteina’pun.
home arrived. Soon after not very long
‘Onkanap ’pelalamp. ‘’Keiandu ‘puntai ip’:ak:a ’pali. ’Parengu
to take (want to) eyes good. Arrived [then] grandmother good [K.]. Water
‘kan:an ‘pakanu ma! ‘nginteil© ‘palal ‘paka ‘baluntu — inay
get me grandmother go! You go grandmother other [P.] with

’merikin, ‘Wada jau ‘belinjeri ‘ngapun jurukulai.@ "Wanja
skull-dipper. Went smartly walking to bale out [K.] Then

‘ngara ngaratun kaljai ‘anta:anja pereokungar. Nunanil winmanguru wanjil
mnde snare false cry sound for water. Trick played on her then

‘ngarakun ‘nunai ’nelang ‘pultuwapini ‘toro’tuluwia(® ’werukol ilngeril tumu!
snare kicked (?) rushed out strangled [in snare]
‘ngoro’toloni ‘talajarinji ‘enambil ‘jaran ku’rambil. ‘Wenjankol ® 'wandandi-
kicked fire big blaze of fire. [K.] saw across

land ’ngakun ’Jungu’runbar.
[Coorong] looking from Jungurunbar [place].

Notes 1-9

1. Koromarange feared to allow Prupe to come down to her lest she find the child
and eat it or exchange eyes with it.
2. Prupe noticed that K. had started to bring fish up to her; never done this

before, she was suspicious. She said, “Once upon a time I used to go down
to my sister.”

23

3. On one occasion when Prupe went down K. rushed out of her hut to give
her fish.

4, P. pretended that she was K. The word-for-word translation is here doubtful.

5. K. arrived soon after, as P. was preparing to exchange her bad eyes for
those of the child.

6. K. pretended she was tired and sent P. for water. She pierced a hole in
the human skull water-dish so that it would leak.

7. P. baled out water; the skull leaked; she dipped again and again, finally put
her finger in the hole. While she was away K. made a snare to trap her.
P found she had been tricked, rushed out of the hut; was snared.

8. P. kicked the fire, causing a great hole in the ground; she burnt herself to
death. This place is now a large cavity in the ground to the north of the
McGrath Flat homestead, on Section 24, Hundred of Glyde. The original
text here was not completely translated.

9. K. fled across the Coorong with the child and watched the fire from the top
of the sandhill called [’Jungu’run bar. ]

A GENERAL RENDERING OF THE STORY

Prupe and Koromarange were two Marntandi clan sisters who lived near
McGrath Flat on [tengi|, i.e., the landward shore of the Coorong. They had the
same [yaitje] totem. One lived at a place just behind the present McGrath home-
stead, called [Prupa’ynawand]; the narrator was first shown the place when he
was a boy. It is a big hole in the ground. The other sister lived a mile away to
the west along the Coorong, on Rabbit Island, at a place called [’Koro’maray’gul ]
or [’Kuruma’rayk].

At first Prupe had good eyesight, but she began to go blind and became a
very savage person, who ate all the children in the country. Her sister Koro-
marange had a grand-daughter named [’Koa’kangi] who, owing to the depreda-
tions of Prupe, was almost the last child left in the district. To prevent P.
coming down to her camp, K. began suddenly to take her offerings of fish, food,
herbs and grasses. P. became suspicious.

“Once upon a time I used to go down to K. That woman is very good to
me. I will go down and see what she is doing. I feel she has a grand-daughter
down there.”

On one oceasion she went across to [’Koro’maran’gul}], K. saw her and
rushed out of the camp with a present of fish. As time went on Prupe lost her
sight altogether. She wanted more than ever to catch the child.

By exchanging eyes with it she would be able to sce once more. She came
down again; K. was away, fishing with nets. The little girl cried out for water.
P. gave her water, then seized her and escaped to her own camp at [’Prupa’na-
wand]. On her return K, missed the child, and tracked P. to her camp. She
arrived just as her sister was about to operate on the eyes of the child. She

24

pretended to be pleased that P. had found the infant and asked P. to fetch water
for it, as she (K.) was tired from fishing. With a spear she poked a hole in a
human skull water-dish and handed it to her sister. The dish leaked so badly
that P. was a long time obtaining the water. Meanwhile K. prepared a snare
and gave a deceiving cry, pleading for water. P. hastened into her camp with
the water. She found K. had fled with the child and she had been tricked. She
rushed out, was snared and, in her excitement kicked the fire; it blazed up, burnt
her and the camp she was in. A great pit took the place of her camp. K. fled
back to her camp and then away over the Coorong lagoon, by the shallow water-
crossing to [’Jungu’run’bar], a high scrub-covered hill on [jurli], i.e., on the
ocean beach side. She looked back and saw the big fire blaze up as her evil sister
perished.
SUMMARY

A legend of the Tanganekald, of the Coorong, South Australia, is transcribed
and described, together with a sketch map illustrating some of the native place
names recorded for the northern half of the Hundred of Glyde.

REFERENCES CITED

Meyer, H. A. E. 1843. Vocabulary of the language spoken by the aborigines
of the southern and eastern portions of the settled districts of South
Australia, Adelaide

Tinpace, N. B. 1935. Legend of Waijungari, Jaralde Tribe, Lake Alexandrina,
South Australia, and the phonetic system employed in its transcription,
Records of the S. Aust. Museum, 5, (3), 261-274

TINDALE, N. B. 1937 Native Songs of the South-East of South Australia,
Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 61, 107-120

CapreLL, A. 1937 Structure of Australian Languages, Oceania, 8, 34

ol. 62, Plate II

\

S. Austr., 1938

Soc.

ans. Roy.

Tr

LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN TERRESTRIAL AND
FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND E. R. CLELAND

Summary

Specimens of the terrestrial gastropod, Succinea australis (Ferussac), collected by Mr. F. Jaensch at
Elwomple, near Tailem Bend, on June 24, 1937, were examined a month later, and in one a large
pulsating sac which contracted rhythmically for some hours, was found alongside the liver. Upon
dissection the main part of the sporocyst to which the sac was attached was uncovered. It consisted
of a central portion from which arose about six juvenile pulsating structures and numerous knob-
like, club-like and finger-like projections, many of the latter being of considerable length and
ramifying for some distance through the tissues of the snail.

25

LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN TERRESTRIAL AND
FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS

PART III. LEUCOCHLORIDIUM AUSTRALIENSE, N. Sp.

By T. Harvey Jounston, M.A., D.Se., and E. R. Crerann, M.Sc.,
University of Adelaide

[Read 14 April 1938]

Leucochloridium australiense, n. sp.

Specimens of the terrestrial gastropod, Sxccimea australis (Ferussac),
collected by Mr. F. Jaensch at Elwomple, near Tailem Bend, on June 24, 1937,
were examined a month later, and in one a large pulsating sac which contracted
rhythmically for some hours, was found alongside the liver. Upon dissection the
main part of the sporocyst to which the sac was attached was uncovered. It
consisted of a central portion from which arose about six juvenile pulsating struc-
tures and numerous knob-like, club-like and finger-like projections, many of the
latter being of considerable length and ramifying for some distance through the
tissues of the snail.

‘The main part of the sac (fig. 3) was white with distally-situated coloured
bands, separated by slight constrictions. The most proximal of these bands was
‘an incomplete brown ring, the second and third were complete brown bands, the
fourth a pale shade of green, the fifth a complete brown ring, the sixth an
incomplete brown band, and the tip of the sac was brown. Each of these rings
was separated by a colourless band, in the centre of which (except between the
fifth, sixth, and tip of the sac) was an opaque white line at the point of
constriction.

THE CERCARIAEUM

About twenty fully developed cercariaea were found in the large pulsating
sac. Each was enclosed within a thick gelatinous sheath (fig. 2) interrupted at
both the anterior and ventral suckers. In the outer part of the sheath faint
concentric and radial lines were seen.

Each cercariaeum (figs. 1, 2, 4) was capable of much contraction and expan-
sion, and a typical one was 616 » long and 347 uw broad when contracted, and 308 p»
broad when extended. The almost circular anterior sucker, which was surrounded
by an elevated margin more pronounced dorsally, measured 193 » across, and the
mouth was subterminal on its ventral surface just below the tip. A powerful,
almost circular, pharynx, 69 » long, was present, and from its dorsal aspect arose
a very short oesophagus. This divided almost immediately to form the two
intestinal caeca which arched upwards and outwards, and then passed backwards
on either side of the ventral sucker to the level of the genital pore.

Trans. Roy. Soc. §.A., 62 (1), 22 July 1938

26

The ventral sucker lying in the anterior part of the second half of the body
was 154 in diameter. The anterior sucker, pharynx and ventral sucker (figs. 11,
12, 20) were formed of radiating muscle fibres associated with large vacuolate
myoblasts with prominent nuclei. Circular sphincter-l-ke and longitudinal to
oblique muscle fibres were present just beneath the cuticle, while internally to
the radial fibres they were most strongiy developed. At the junction of the anterior
sucker and pharynx the circular fibres were much more numerous, and at the
rim of the two suckers were grouped io form sphincters.

The intestine was lined by cuticle and cuboidal cells, and beyond the latter
a few circular muscle fibres.

The general body surface was covered with a thick cuticle, but no trace of
cilia was seen, though Magath (1920) and Zeller (1874) reported their presence
in other species. Underlying the cuticle were circular, longitudinal and oblique
muscle fibres supported by large connective-tissue cells (fig. 15). Scattered
muscle fibres were seen throughout the body.

The nervous system (fig. 11) was typical and consisted of two lateral brain
masses, one on either side of the anterior sucker and pharynx and connected
dorsally by commissures. A large ventral nerve could be traced backwards on
each side, and the root of each narrow dorsal nerve was seen. The anterior
sucker was supplied by nerves from the brain.

Sense cells (figs. 13, 14, 20) were present on the surface of both suckers
and an occasional minute one was scen in the cuticle of the body surface in the
level of the pharynx. They were specially prevalent at the edge of the mouth
and varied considerably in size, the largest being at the base of the anterior sucker
immediately before its junction with the pharynx. They were cither stalked or
sessile, and consisted of a central clear parenchymatous part (fig. 14), in which
was embedded the nerve fibrils, the whole surrounded by a substance having the
consistency and colour of the cuticle. Dorsally and laterally from the pharynx
a small number of cclls similar to these in size and structure and staining pro-
perties were seen embedded in the parenchyma, but it is difficult to account for
their function in such a situation.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The two oval testes were diagonally placed, the anterior on the right-hand
side (as viewed through a compound microscope) a little distance behind the
ventral sucker; the posterior slightly dorsal to it but on the left-hand side. Above
the posterior testis and slightly dorsal and median to it was the oval ovary, the
three gonads thus forming a triangle (figs. 1,4). Jn some specimens the ovary
was found lying slightly in front of the anterior margin of the anterior testis.
From the posterior testis the vas efferens (fig. 17) passed obliquely upwards
ventral to the ovary and was joined by the shorter duct from the anterior testis.
From this point the vas deferens (figs. 8, 16) travelled backwards, then turned
sharply dorsally and passed through an undifferentiated cell mass to open at the

\ SE ae

Figs. 1-5
Fig. 1, cercariaeum, dorsal view; 2, cercariaeum in sheath; 3, sporocyst and pulsating
sac; 4, cercariaeum, lateral view; 5, excretory system.
Figs. 1 and 4 drawn to scale beside fig. 1; figs. 2 and 3 to scale indicated beside each.

2

gonopore on the dorsal side of the animal (figs. 6, 19, 20) a short distance from
the posterior end, No seminal vesicle or true cirrus could be seen. The undifferen-
tiated cell mass (figs. 1, 4, 6, 19, 20) near the gonopore was large and sur-
rounded the end parts of the uterus and of the vas deferens, and thus could not
be described at this stage as a cirrus sac. It gradually tapered ventrally and
anteriorly away from the gonopore and then became separated into two parts,
one of which surrounded the vas deferens and the other the uterus.

The short oviduct (fig. 10) travelled towards the mid-line, where it was
joined by Laurer’s canal (figs. 7, 8, 9, 19, 20), which passed posteriorly to enter
the excretory canal just before the latter reached the excretory pore. Magath
(1920, 109, 111) reported that a similar condition was present in L. prablematt-
cum, and was described by Looss (1899) for L. insigne. Near the junction of
Laurer’s canal with the oviduct was a slightly swollen part of the canal, probably
the anlage of the fecundarium, The oviduct, after its junction with Laurer’s
canal, turned ventrally and was then joined by a very short vitelline duct (figs. 8,
9) which passed backwards to become widened into a small reservoir receiving
the two yolk ducts. The latter ducts curved ventrally and anteriorly to the
slightly developed yolk glands lying laterally from the intestinal caeca. Surround-
ing the oviduct, yolk reservoir and fecundarium was a large mass of undifferen-
tiated tissue, the albumen gland (figs. 1, 4, 7-10).

After its junction with the yolk duct, the oviduct continued to the mid-
ventral line, where it passed forwards into the ascending uterus (figs. 8, 9).
This travelled upwards and outwards on the inner side of the anterior testis,
formed a loop around the dorsal portion of the ventral sucker (figs. 1, 4) and
descended on the other side, passing gradually towards the median line until,
just behind the sucker, it lay alongside its ascending branch. It then proceeded
posteriorly to the level of the gonopore, turned sharply dorsally, became asso-
ciated with the tissue of the undifferentiated cell mass, and joined the vas deferens
immediately before the latter opened at the gonopore.

EXxcRETORY SYSTEM

The excretory pore (fig. 5) was on the dorsal surface immediately above
the genital opening, and led into a small rounded excretory bladder (fig. 7). The
latter received Lauret’s canal dorsally (figs. 4, 7, 20), while laterally it gave rise
to two main collecting tubes (fig. 6) which passed upwards, external to the
intestinal caeca, to well beyond the base of the anterior sucker. Here these
canals bent backwards until they reached the level of the posterior region of the
sucker, where they became dilated just before giving rise each to an anterior
and a posterior collecting tubule.

The anterior tubule passed forwards and, in the region of the ventral sucker,
gave rise to a dorsal branch and a short ventral branch which appeared to join
the main ascending tube; the main stem then continued to the level of the
pharynx, where it divided into three branches; one of these passed dorsally

cei be : 7 i
a)

Figs. 6-15
Figs. 6-12, Tr. sections of cercariaeum; 7, 8, are consecutive sections; 13, sense cells at
base of anterior sucker; 14, longitudinal section of sense cell; 15, longitudinal section
of body wall.
Figs. 6-12 drawn to scale below fig. 6; figs. 13-15, to scale below fig. 14,

30

below the pharynx, while the second and third travelled forwards, one lateral and
the other ventro-lateral to the pharynx.

The short posterior tubule almost immediately gave rise to several accessory
branches. The first passed upwards alongside the anterior collecting tubule, the
second between the ascending and descending main tubes; the third, fourth and
fifth were terminal, the third proceeding anteriorly to end behind the ventral
sucker, the median fourth lying between the other two and travelling backwardly
towards but below the excretory bladder, and the fifth dorsally towards but
above the bladder. The bladder and the proximal ends of the main excretory
tubes were lined with cuticle.

The correct number and arrangement of the flame cells and excretery tubules
could not be determined owing to the small number of cercariaea available for
study, their thickness, and the small size of the flame cells. The figure and
descriptions of this system, therefore, give only an approximation of their
arrangement.

RELATIONSHIPS

The cercariaeum stage of Leucochloridiwm australiense differs from that of
L. macrostomum (Rud.) and L. problematicum Magath in size, and also in the
absence of cilia on the general body surface. It is slightly smaller than
L. macrostomum which is 0-85 mm. long and 0°45 mm. broad, and much smaller
than L. problematicum which is 2°2 mm. by 0-85 mm. The anterior sucker,
pharynx and ventral sucker also differ considerably and in L. australiense are
almost circular, measuring, respectively, 193 », 69», and 154 in diameter. In
L.. problematicum they measure, respectively, 0-4 mm. long and 0-24 mm. wide;
0-17 mm. and 1°15 mm.; and the almost circular ventral sucker 0°34 mm,

Laurer’s canal in the Australian species opens into the excretory bladder as
in L. problematicum, and not on the dorsal surface as in L. mecrostomum; while
the intestine resembles that of the former species.

The reproductive system differs in the relationships of the ovary and the
two testes from L. assamense Sewell (1922), and is similar to that of L. macro-
stomum and LL, problematicum, except that in our specimens no true cirrus sac
is present as the uterus and vas deferens pass together through an undifferen-
tiated cell mass prior to opening at the gonopore. This condition may perhaps
become altered in later larval development.

Our species appears to come nearest to L. problematicum and L. tmsigne.
In the study of species of Leucochloridium more attention has been paid to the
natural history of the mother sporocysts than to the cercariaeum, with the result
that few of the latter have been adequately described. The first of these,
L. macrostomum (Rud.), was described by Heckert in 1888 under the name ot
L. paradoxum, and an account of its histology, morphology and life history
was given.

In 1920 Magath described a new species, L. problematicum, from North
America, which greatly resembled the marita of L. insigne described by Looss in

31

1899 from European birds. Magath suggested that L. problematicum was the
parthenita stage of L. insigne, although the host of the latter, Fulica atra, was
stated not to occur in the region from which his material was derived, In view
of later data on the host specificity of species of Leucochloridium, Magath’s
suggestion is probably incorrect.

Sewell, in 1922, described the third cercariaeum as L. assamense, which does
not seeni to us to be a typical member of the genus.

loop

100 p

Figs. 16-20.

Figs. 16-19, longitudinal horizontal sections of cercariacum;
20, longitudinal vertical section of cercariaeum.
All drawn to same scale,

Sinitsin (1931, 796) gave a brief summary of investigation on the family
Hatmostomidae, and included a revised classification of the Harmostominae
(thus excluding the Leucochloridiinae) and descriptions of various species. He
pointed out that the parthenita stage of the latter is specific and the marita stage
indiscriminate in regard to host relationship. But such a statement does not apply
to the Leucochloridiinae.

McIntosh (1933) described six new species of Leucochloridinm (marita
stage) and included a key for the differentiation of all known species. This was
largely based upon the distribution of the vitellaria, size of fecundarium, etc.;

32

characters which could not be determined satisfactorily in the larva, and were,
thercfore, not of much assistance to us in placing our new form. An important
deduction from this paper, mentioned by Woodhead (1935), is that species of this
genus are specific in their bird hosts.

Wesenberg-Lund (1931) gave a full account of the biology of L. paradoxum
(i.e., macrostomum) and discussed ihe papers of Heckert, Magath and Monnig.
He believed that Magath had erected his new species L. problematicum on insufh-
cient data, and suggested that the brown sacs described by that investigator in
America belonged to the same species as those found by Heckert and Moénnig in
Europe. But it seems to us possible that sporocysts, apparently similar, may give
rise to different cercariaea. In one of his figures, Wesenberg-Lund (193], 95,
fig. 3) shows a cercariaeum from a brown sac and one from a green sac, and
mentioned a slight difference in regard to the sizes of the suckers. His figure
indicates the ratio of the anterior to the ventral sucker as 5:4 in the case of
the cercariaeum from brown sac, and 1:1 from that from a green sporocyst. In
his later figures (Wesenberg-l-und, 1934, pl. xxxii, figs. 7, 8) a slight difference
is to be observed in the sucker ratio of the two cercariaea assigned to L. para-
doxum. This ratio is 4:3 in the cercariaeum in fig. 8, and 10:9 in the ccrcariaeum
in fig. 7, but Wesenberg-Lund does not state from what kind of sac they were
obtained.

Liihe (1909, 209, fig. 188) has drawn a lateral view of the cercariaeum of
L. macrostomum. Woodhead (1935) gave a description of four new Leucoch-
loridium sacs, one of which is very like, and may prove to be identical with, that
already described by Magath. He remarked upon the specificity of Leucoch-
loridium maritae as regards their hosts, implied in McIntosh’s paper, but this
theory, according to Wesenberg-Lund (1931, 133, 134), is not substantiated on
account of the presence of the maritae of 1. macrostomum and L. insigne in a
number of different bird hosts. In 1936 he referred to an extraordinary case of
multiple infection of Succinea retusa with the sporocysts of Leucochloridium.

Gower (1936) gave a description of a new sporocyst of Leucochloridium
from Louisiana and included a camera-lucida drawing of the cercariaeum. This,
he stated, differed from L. problematicum in the sucker ratio, which was approxi-
mately 2:1 in his specimen, but he gave no account of the anatomy.

Yamaguti (1935, 173) described a new marita, L. sime, which resembled most
closely L. variae McIntosh (1932).

ADDENDUM

Since this paper was accepted for publication, Monnig’s (1922) important
paper on Leucochloridium macrostomum has become available. His account of
the female ducts does not agree with their disposition in our material, and we
would suggest that he has probably confused the ascending and descending limbs
of the uterus in the vicinity of ihe albumen gland. We were unable to find any
connection between the albumen gland and the enlarged part of the descending
uterus such as he indicates in his fig. 21.

33

The sense cells referred to in our paper as occurring in the vicinity of the
mouth and pharynx may perhaps be similar to structures indicated in his pl. v,
fig. 27, and which he has called “epithelial cells” and “pharyngeal pocket epithe-
lium” respectively. The distribution of colouration of the pulsating sacs differs
considerably for the Australian and European forms as figured by him.

REFERENCES
Enicx, K. 1932 Leucochloridium paradoxum in Succinea oblonga, Sitzb. ges.
naturf. Fr. Berlin, 442-444
Gower, C. 1936 New Sporocyst of Leucochloridium from Louisiana. Jour.
Parasitol., 22, 375-378
Line, M. 1909 Trematodes. In die Stisswasserfauna Deutschlands, Heft 17
Macatu, T. B. 1920 Leucochloridium problematicum, n. sp. Jour. Parasitol.,
6, 105-114
McInrosu, A. 1933 Some species of trematode worms of the genus Leucochlori-
diwam Carus, parasitic in birds from Northern Michigan, with a key and
; notes on other species of the genus. Jour. Parasitol., 19, 32-53
_ Moénnic, H. O. 1922 Ueber Leucochloridium macrostomum. Jena.
Bysewert,R.B. 1922 Cercariae indicae. Ind. Jour. Med. Res., 10, Supp., 370 pp.
- Sryitsin, D. 1931 Studien tiber die Phylogenie der Trematoden, V. Revision
of Harmostominae in the light of new facts from their morphology
and life history. Zeitschr. f. Parasitenkunde, 3, 786-835
Wesenserc-Lunp, C. 1931 Contributions to the development of the Trema-
toda Digenea. Part I. The biology of Leucochloridium paradoxum.
D. Kgl. Dansk. Vidensk. Selsk. Skrifter. Naturv. Math, Afd., Raekke,
9, 4 (3), 90-142
Wesenzerc-Lunp, C, 1934 Contributions to the development of the Trematoda
Digenea. Part II. D. Kgl. Dansk. Vidensk. Selsk. Skrifter, Naturv.
Math. Afd., Raekke, 9, 5 (3), 1-223
“Wirenserc, G. 1925 Versuch einer Monographie der Trematoden-unterfamilie
Harmostominae Braun. Zool. Jahrb. Syst., 51, 167-254
“Wooonean, A. E. 1935 The mother sporocysts of Leucochloridium. Jour.
Parasitol., 21, 337-346
ee AN, ER 1936 An extraordinary case of multiple infection with the
_ sporocysts of Leucochloridium. Jour. Parasitol., 22, 227-228
Yamacutr, S. 1935 Studies on the Helminth Fauna of Japan. Part V. Trema-
todes of Birds, pt. ii. Jap. Jour. Zool., 6, 159-182

EXPLANATION OF LETTERING
q All drawings were made with the aid of the camera-lucida, except fig. 5.

x, albumen gland; at, anterior testis; aut, ascending limb of uterus; b, brain; c, cer-
cariaeum; cm, undifferentiated cell mass; dr, dorsal root; dut, descending ‘limb of uterus;
eb, excretory bladder; ec, excretory canal; ep, excretory pore; f, fecundarium; g, gonopore;
, intestine; Ic, Laurer’s canal; 0, ovary; oo, ootype; ph, pharynx; pt, posterior testis;
- $C, sense cells; ut, uterus; vd, vas deferens; ve, vas efferens; y, yolk glands; yr, yolk
reservoir; yd, yolk duct.

SCOLYTIDAE AND PLATYPODIDAE CONTRIBUTION 49
NEW SPECIES FROM AUSTRLIA AND THE FIJI ISLAND WITH SOME
REVISIONAL NOTES

BY KARL E. SCHEDL

Summary

In my first paper on the Australian Fauna” I neglected most of the Cryphalinae and merely
recorded others. Since then the South Australian Museum has kindly placed more types at my
disposition, which now affords me the opportunity to publish more on some of these very difficult
species.

34

SCOLYTIDAE AND PLATYPODIDAE

CONTRIBUTION 49
NEW SPECIES FROM AUSTRALIA AND THE FIJI ISLAND
WITH SOME REVISIONAL NOTES

By Kary E, ScHEDL
| Read 14 April 1938]

In my first paper on the Australian Fauna“ I neglected most of the
Cryphalinae and merely recorded others. Since then the South Australian
Museum has kindly placed more types at my disposition, which now affords me
the opportunity to publish more on some of these very difficult species.

Other material I have received from the Imperial Institute of Entomology
in London, the Dominion Museum at Wellington, New Zealand, and the Museum
Royal d’Histoire Naturelle de Belgique at Bruxelles. Some of the original
descriptions are so brief that determination necessitates a more detailed descrip-
tion, aside from some illustrations. Both shall be given below. From all the more
difficult specimens balsam mounts of the antennae have been prepared.

HYLESINUS CORDIPENNIS Lea
Aside from the type, | have not seen any specimens. Cordipennis is a true
Hylesinus, 3°3 mm. long, 1*7 times as long as wide, widest at the middle, oval
in outline, the apical margin of the pronotum and the elytra broadly and similarly
rounded. Elytral interstices with inconspicuous short and dark scales.

Leperisinus tricolor, n. sp.

A bright coloured species, 3:1 mm. long, 2:1 times as long as wide. Easily
separated from the other Australian species, . bunaculatus m., by its size and
vestiture.

Front opaque, convex, densely granulate punctate, with short, rather dense
and yellow pubescence, a shallow transverse impression just above the epistomal
margin.

Pronotum wider than long (40:32), base bisinuate, postero-lateral angles
rectangular, strongly rounded, sides feebly arcuate, subparallel on the basal
half, strongly constricted in front, antcrior margin moderately broadly
rounded, disc with a strongly developed transverse impression along the anterior
constriction, otherwise feebly convex, densely covered with short, smull and
dark reddish-brown scales, intermixed with scattered larger and pale yellowish
ones, these more numerous along the median line behind and on the postero-
lateral corners on each side of the median line with a dark semi-circular marking.

@) Thirty-fifth Contribution, Records of the South Australian Museum, 5,
(4), 1936, 513-535

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 62 (1), 22 July 1938

35

Elytra wider (49:40) and 2:1 times as long as the pronotum, each elytron
broadly arcuate at the base, sides parallel up to the middle, then gradually
narrowed, apex rather narrowly rounded, declivity commencing at the middle,
gradually and somewhat obliquely declivous; striate punctate, striae very narrow,
punctures indistinct, interstices feebly convex, densely covered with scales of
different colour, each interstice also with a somewhat irregular double row of
larger erect scales, ground colour a deep dark reddish-brown, with three wavy
transverse and brighter coloured bands, the first near the base indistinct, produced
by pale yellowish top scales only, the second more distinct, top and ground scales
of the same colour, the third broad, on the declivital convexity and laterad abruptly
ceasing, of a reddish-brown colour, another patch of similar colouration along
the suture and on the sides behind.

Type in the author’s collection.

Locality—Australia,

Hyleops, new genus

True Hylesinidae of the general shape as in some species of Leperisinus

Reitter, with 7-segmented antennal funicle (fig. 1), large elongate 3-segmented

Fig. 1.
A: Hyleops glabratus, n. sp., antenna
C: Anterior tibia, Leperisinus tricolor, n. sp.
B: Ditto, Hyleops glabratus, n. sp.

antennal club, long oval eyes, finely and uniformly sculptured pronotum, striate-
punctate elytra and ascending abdominal sternites. Characters which do not
permit including it in any of the known genera are: the absence of scale-like
vestiture on the pronotum and elytra, and especially the development of the front

36

tibiae. The latter is widened distally, strongly compressed, with a series of small
equal-sized serrations on the outer margin. All allied genera show at least on
the front tibiae several large teeth on the apical edge. The groove for the
reception of the tarsus is short and subtransverse, the front coxae are moderately
remote,

Hyleops glabratus, n. sp.

Female—Dark reddish-brown, 3°4 mm. long, 2:2 times as long as wide.

Front convex, subshining below, opaque above, with a very shallow semi-
circular impression in the lower half, very densely and very finely punctured,
with fine and inconspicuous pubescence.

Pronotum wider than long (15:10), widest in the basal third, base as in
the allied genera strongly bisinuate, postero-lateral angles rectangular, feebly
rounded, sides parallel on the basal third, obliquely narrowed in front, the anterior
constriction hardly noticeable, apical margin moderately broadly rounded, disc
feebly convex, without distinct impressions, very densely and very finely punc-
tured, pubescence inconspicuous, pale yellowish and hair-like, median line hardly
noticeable.

Elytra feebly wider and more than twice as long as the pronotum, sides
parallel on more than the basal half, broadly rounded behind, declivity commenc-
ing at the middle, very gradually and somewhat obliquely declivous ; dise shallowly
striate-punctate, the punctures rather small, shallow and indistinct on the sides,
the first row moderately the other feebly impressed, interspaces subconvex,
shining, irregularly and rather densely punctured, between the punctures finely
wrinkled, the general appearance rather rough; declivity with the second inter-
space impressed, suture and third interstice elevated, each with a row of four to
five tubercles, those of the third interspace larger; pubescence of the elytra dark
and short, underside of the beetle covered with pale short and stout scales.

Male—Somewhat larger, the front broadly and shallowly concave, below the
centre of the concavity and along the epistomal margin minutely reticulate, densely
finely punctured above; pronotum with the anterior constriction more distinct,
the elytra stouter, the declivity more oblique, the second interstice deeper and
impunctate, the tubercle on the suture and third interstice decidedly larger, the
entire declivity brightly shining, on the interspaces without puncturation.

Types in the Imperial Institute of Entomology and in the author’s collection.

Locality—Nanango, Queensland, 14 September 1936, bred from Hoop Pine,
A. R. Brimblecombe.

Phloesinus australis, n. sp.

Reddish-brown, 2°2 mm. long, 2-0 times as long as wide. The third species
from the Australian Region. Easily recognised by its sculpture.

Front convex, transversely depressed below, finely granulate-punctate, less

dense along the median line above epistomal margin; antennae as shown in
fig 2.

37

Pronotum wider than long (33:26), widest at the base, the latter strongly
bisinuate, postero-lateral angles rectangular, not rounded, sides broadly arcuate
and feebly narrowed on the basal two-thirds, very strongly constricted in front,
anterior margin narrowly rounded, disc
moderately convex, surface shining,
rather coarsely and densely punctured,
median line impunctate on its greatest
part. Scutellum small, hardly noticeable.

Elytra wider (36:33) and 1-8 times
as long as the pronotum, sides parallel,
broadly rounded behind, declivity com-
mencing at the middle, evenly convex;
disc striate-punctate, striae narrow, strial
punctures not well defined, confluent in
part, interstices shining, feebly convex,
each with a row of large somewhat
irregularly placed punctures; declivity
with the striae more strongly impressed,
the punctures more distinct, interspaces higher, the punctures replaced by
good-sized tubercles, the second interstice without such and feebly impressed,
pubescence short and yellowish.

Type in the author’s collection.

Locality—Australia.

Fig. 2
Phloesinus australis, n. sp., antenna.

Pacuycotes Sharp.
(Ent. Month. Mag., 14, 1877, 10)

Redescription of the Genus

General shape long cylindrical, very similar to that in the genera Dendroc-
fonus Er., Hylurgus Latr. and Blastophagus Eichh.

Front convex, more or less transversely impressed, the rostrum short and stout,
antennal funicle 7-segmented, club pear-shaped, not at all compressed, 4-segmented.

Pronotum rather feebly convex, anteriorly with a well-developed constriction,
usually with a well-defined impunctate smooth median linc, sculpture uniform all
over, punctate.

Elytra cylindrical, declivity convex, rather coarsely sculptured, ninth inter-
space carinate and serrate in the posterior half, projecting over the lateral margin,
declivity usually with two types of vestiture, short, stout and densely placed
scales and long stiff bristles. Tibiae triangularly widened distally, with apical
teeth, abdominal sternites II-IV as long as V or II.

Pacuycores (HyLEsiNuS) PEREGRINUS Chap.

= Pachycotes ventralis Sharp
Chapuis’ type is dark reddish-brown, 4-0 mm. long, 2°3 times as long as wide.

Three specimens which I received from Dr. Clark, of the New Zealand State

38

a

Forest Service, and which apparently have been compared with Sharp’s type, are
somewhat larger, 4°8 mm. long, but otherwise agree in all respects with Chapuis’
species.

Front convex, with a subcircular shallow impression between the eyes, the
centre of it and the lower part of the median line polished and impunctate, remain-
ing surface densely granulate-punctate. Epistomal process as in Dendroctonus
simplex Lec.

Pronotum longer than wide (52:45), base strongly bisinuate, postero-
lateral angles rectangular, feebly rounded, sides subparallel, then strongly
narrowed, anterior constriction well developed, dise feebly convex, with a shallow
transverse impression along the anterior constriction and a second one along the
base, the latter more strongly developed on the sides; surface subshining, densely
covered with large but shallow punctures, median line impunctate. Scutellum
very small and shining.

Elytra hardly wider (58:52) and nearly twice as long as the pro-
notum, sides parallel, broadly rounded behind, declivity commencing behind the
middle, evenly convex; disc deeply striate-punctatc, strial punctures small and
elongate, interspaces wide and convex, covered with densely placed transverse
rugae; declivity with the strial punctures larger and more circular, the inter-
spaces narrower, less convex, very finely and irregularly punctured and covered
with very small scale-like hairs, each interstice also with a row of remotely placed
small setose granules, the latter more strongly developed at the commencement
of the declivital convexity.

The type is a male. The female has the front evenly convex, without the
circular depression but with the median line finely carinate on the lower half.

Pachycotes australis, n. sp.

Male—Piceous, 3:7 mm. long, 2:2 times as long as wide. Of the same
general shape as the genotype, but somewhat stouter and with different sculpture.

Front, convex above, flattened and feebly concave below, epistomal margin
developed into an oblique transverse strip, the upper lmit strongly elevated,
especially in the middle, median line narrowly carinate on its lower third, entire
surface subshining, sparingly and finely punctured, the centre of the impression
impunctate.

Pronolum wider than long (50:38), general shape as in P. peregrinus Chap.,
the punctures larger, intermixed with some smaller ones, shallow and disclosing
the bottom, near the apex and along the median line the punctures becoming
smaller, more remotely placed and with the outer margins asperity-like elevated.

Elylra as wide (52:50) and twice as long as the pronotum, opaque, in
outline and general shape as in P. peregrinus Chap., the declivity more strongly
convex; the strial punctures shining and circular throughout, smaller on the
declivity, interstices more coarsely and less densely wrinkled on the disc,
between the rugae with minute irregularly placed punctures, declivity with the

39

tubercles comparatively larger, the interspacial punctation very minute, the scales
very densely placed.

The female is larger, 3-8 mm. long, somewhat more slender, the front dull,
rather coarsely granulate-punctate, without median impression, but with an arcuate
impressed line shortly above the similarly constructed epistomal margin; pronotum
less strongly constricted in front, the sides more evenly rounded; the elytra with
the rugae of the interspaces much coarser and comparatively fewer in number.

Types in the South Australian Museum, the Imperial Institute of Entomology
and in the author’s collection.

Locality—Dorrigo, New South Wales; Gallangowen, Queensland, ex Hoop
Pine log, A. R. Brimblecombe, 18 January 1936.

Pachycotes clavatus, n. sp.

Male—Piceus, 3°6 mm. long, 2°2 times as long as wide. The peculiar frontal
characters, the inseration of the antennal funicle and the sculpture separate this
species easily from its allies.

Front deeply coneave on
the greatest part, concavity
extending from eye to eye,
epistomal margin beak-like
as in the two foregoing
species but more strongly
developed, in the concavity
with four high transverse
carinae, vertex and genae
finely remotely punctured.
Antennal scape (fig. 3)
club-shaped, funicle in-
serted before the apex
antennal club furnished
with long bristles.

Pronotum wider than
long (50:36), base bisinu- Fig. 3
ate, postero-lateral angles Pachycotes clavatus, n. sp. antenna
rectangular, feebly rounded,
sides arcuate and narrowed towards the apex, anterior constriction strongly
developed, disc fcebly convex, anterior transverse depression well developed,
surface subshining, punctures small, remotely placed, rather irregular in size.
Front and pronotum with scattered reddish hairs. Scutellum hardly visible.

Elytra as wide (53:50) and twice as long as the pronotum, with a rather
strongly convex declivity; disc with the striae hardly impressed, strial punctures
extremely small, somewhat larger but hardly more distinct on the declivity,
interspaces subshining, less convex than in the two preceding species, the

40

uniseriate setose granules larger and on the first three interspaces extending over
the apical two-thirds, on the basal third with rather fine and moderately closely
placed transverse rugac, the irregularly placed small interspacial punctures
numerous, the scales not as densely arranged as in P, australis (abraded ?), the
declivital convexity slightly projecting over the apical margin.

Female with the front evenly convex, granulate-punctate, more strongly
and densely so in the middle of the lower half, pronotum with the anterior con-
striction less distinct, elytra with the sculpture decidedly coarser.

Types in the Imperial Institute and in the author’s collection.

Locality—Sydney (Imp. Inst.) and New South Wales.

Hylurdrectonus, n. g.

General shape and outline similar as in Hylurgus Latr. and Dendroctonus Er.,
but with different antennae and rather remarkable sexual characters. Pronotum
feebly convex, not margined behind, abdomen cylindrical, elytral declivity
convex, first visible sternite not much longer than
III, FV or IL.

Antennae with the funicle 5-segmented, the club but
little compressed, with three distinct segments (fig. 4),
fore coxae widely separated, anterior tibiae widened
distally, with numerous teeth on the outer margin,
metepisternum visible on its entire length,

Hylurdrectonus piniarius, n. sp.

Female—Piceus, 1-6 mm. long, 2°5 times as long
as wide.
front rather strongly convex, densely coarsely
granulate-punctate, sparsely hairy. Eyes long oval,
with a small emargination on both sides about in the
middle.
| Pronotum shining, as long as wide, base transverse,
postero-lateral angles rectangular and feebly rounded,
Fig. 4 sides straight and feebly convergent on the basal two-
HACE ECRIRS BUS, SP. thirds, with a distinct anterior constriction, broadly
‘ i‘ rounded in front; feebly convex, with a transverse
depression short behind the anterior margin, moderately coarse and sparsely
(especially along the median line) punctured on the disc, more densely so along
the transverse depression, roughly granulate on the sides, pubescence very sparse ;
scutellum small, triangular.

Elytra wider (21:19) and 1:7 times as long as the pronotum, widest in the
posterior half, sides subparallel, broadly rounded behind; declivity commencing
behind the middle, evenly rounded; disc striate-punctate, the punctures coarse,
closely placed and decreasing in size from the base to the declivity, interspaces

41

shining, moderately wide, each with a row of smaller punctures, puncturation con-
fused near the base, each interspacial puncture bearing a small erect reddish
hair; declivity with the strial punctures obscure, first and second striae indicated
by feebly impressed lines; second interstice feebly impressed, interstices one to
three with a regular row of very fine granules, aside from
these finely densely and irregularly punctured, the
pubescence according to the puncturation very dense but
much shorter than on the disc.

Male—Somewhat stouter and more shining,

Front convex, with a triangular depression below, which
is impunctate along the median line.

Pronotum as in the female.

Elytra with the first striae strongly impressed on the
disc, punctures not visible, the other rows not impressed,
the punctures small and remotely placed, interspaces wide,
each with a few rather irregularly-placed punctures of
varying size, these more regular in arrangement, larger and
deeper on the sides (interspaces 5 to 9); declivity more
oblique, commencing in the middle, suture and third
interstice broadly elevated, each with a row of large but
remotely placed granules, inter-

Fig. 5 spaces polished, each with very
Hylurdrectonus scattered and minute punctures,
dosed aneet ier the second broadly impressed,

strial punctures not recognisable,
pubescence according to the puncturation of the inter-
spaces extremely sparse and short.

Types in the Imperial Institute and in my collection.

Localitty—Queensland, A. R. Brimblecombe, Yarra-
man, February, 1934, from axes of Hoop Pine cones.

LETZNERELLA (CRYPHALUS) TRICOLOR Lea
Redescription of Type—Reddish-brown, 1-4 mm. long,
2°3 times as long as wide. The antennae (fig. 6) and
the sculpture of the elytra refers this species to the '
genus Letgnerella Reitt. The genus Ernoporides Hopkins " Fig. 6
with Cryphalus jalappae Reitt. as genotype is synonymous Letznerella (Cryphalus)
with Letsnerella Reitt. and has to be withdrawn. POR is, aE

Front convex, densely granulate-punctate, subshining above, rather opaque
and nearly black below.

Pronotum wider than long, base feebly bisinuate, postero-lateral angles
rectangular and distinctly rounded, broadly arcuate in front, summit at the middle,

42

anterior margin armed with numerous pointed and recurved asperities, anterior
area asperate, the first asperities arranged in broken concentric ridges, more
crowded and irregularly placed around the summit, posterior area densely
punctured, from each puncture arising a short blunt yellowish scale.

Elytra but little wider and not quite twice
as long as the pronotum, sides parallel on the
basal half, broadly rounded behind, declivity
commencing shortly behind the middle, evenly
convex; striate-punctate, striae but feebly
impressed, strial punctures moderate in size,
interspaces flat, each with a row of large and
blunt pale yellow scales, each such row of scales
bordered on each side by a row of much smaller,
more slender and more hair-like scales, the
development of scale vestiture on the declivity
more distinct than on the disc.

FOS OSN™

Ssovcss

I have seen a good series of this species in
the material of the Imperial Institute of Entom-

Fig. 7 ology, of which the labels say: Queensland, per

Letsnerella (Cryphalus) tricolor Lea p Veitch, on Meliitia
dorsal aspect and clytral detail i on
megasperma, Imbil, on

native Wistaria, R. Brimblecombe, 24 November 1936.

Erioschidias, n. g.

General shape as in most Cryphalinae, antennal funicle
3-segmented (fig. 8), club very large, with the sides
evenly rounded, without sutures or septa on either side
but with scattered pores and setae. Pronotum with the
antcrior margin armed by asperities. Anterior coxae
touching, antcrior tibiae with numerous teeth imbedded
in well-developed sockets. Metepisternum largely cov-
ered by the elytra.

ErtoscHiprAs (CRYPHALUS) SETISTRIATUS [ea

Redescription of the Type—Piceus, 1-4 mm. long,
2°5 times as long as wide.

Fig. 8
Front plano-convex, feebly transversely depressed Erioschidias (Cryphalus)

below, with faint scratches radiating out from the middle s¢#s!riatus Rea, antelitia

of the epistomal margin, very finely punctulate. [Eyes rather large, shortly oval,
with a distinct emargination in front.

Pronotum as long as wide, widest in the basal third, base finely margined
and feebly bisinuate, postero-lateral angles obtuse, not rounded when viewed from

43

above, sides gradually rounded to the apex, anterior margin with two small
asperities medially, summit in the middle, with a distinct transverse depression
behind it, anterior area moderately steeply convex, densely covered with low
more or less tubercle-like asperities, these assume the appearance of granules

SSS

SS

NaN

EDEDEIEVED
BoA AA A,

ye rats =
COV

ys

Bre

i
|

Fig. 9
Erioschidias (Cryphalus) setistriatus Lea,
dorsal aspect of the adult beetle, detail of
elytral sculpture and fore tibia

towards the posterior half of the
pronotum, the entire surface giving
the impression of being densely
coarsely granulate, covered with
small yellowish scales.

Llytra but little wider (47:43)
and 1-6 times as long as the pro-
notum, widest in the middle, sides
subparallel, moderately broadly
rounded at the apex, declivity
commencing behind the middle,

gradually convex; disc shallowly

striate - punctate, the punctures
large, extremely shallow, disclosing
the bottom, interspaces flat, about
twice as wide as the diameter of
the strial punctures, each inter-
space with a row of smaller more
remotely | placed punctures on a

feebly raised line, each puncture with a short stout erect
pale yellowish scale, remaining surface of the interspaces
irregularly reticulate, thus producing a subshining rather
rough appearance of the entire elytra; declivity with the
scaies somewhat larger, first and last visible sternite sub-
equal in length, much longer than the third or fourth, the
second but little longer than the first.

Apart from the types I have not seen any specimens.

Erioschidias queenslandi, n. sp.

Yellowish-brown, 1-7 mm. long, 2*4 times as long as
wide. From E. setistriatus Lea easily separated by the
size, sculpture and general shape.

Front opaque, plano-convex, densely minutely punctulate,
flattened in the median half. Eyes short oval, emarginate
in front. Antennae with the third segment extremely small,
club circular in outline, pubescence rather dense, sensitive
pores numerous.

Pronotum wider than long, base bisinuate, postcro-
lateral angles rectangular, rounded when viewed from above,

Fig. 10

Erischidias
queenslandi, n. sp.,
dorsal aspect

44

sides arcuate and convergent on more than the basal half, anterior margin rather
narrowly rounded, armed with numerous small asperities; summnt behind the
middle, anterior area obliquely convex, densely covered with small asperities
which are not connected at their bases to form concentric ridges, posterior area
densely roughly granulate punctate. Scutellum small.

Elytra shining, but little wider and 1-8 times as long as the pronotum,
humeral angles feebly rounded, sides parallel on the basal half, apex narrowly
rounded, declivity commencing at the middie, gradually declivous; disc with
rows of hardly visible shallow punctures, interspaces flat, apparently uniseriately
minutely punctate, on the declivity these punctures replaced by small very densely
placed granules, from the interspacial punctures and granules respectively arise
short erect yellowish hair-like bristles.

Types in the South Australian Museum and in the author’s collection.

Locality—Cairns district, A. M. Lea.

HypornENeMuS (CRYPHALUS) TANTILLUS Lea

Redescription of the Type—Yellowish-brown, 1-0 mm. long, 2°4 times as
long as wide. One of the smallest species of the genus.

Front convex, feebly transversely depressed below, densely
rugose, sparsely hairy, with a faint median tubercle.

Pronotum wider than long (38:32), base feebly bisinuate,
postero-lateral angles feebly rounded, sides and apex con-
jointly rounded, anterior margin armed with four recessed
asperities; strongly globose, summit at the middle, followed
by a distinct transverse depression,
anterior area strongly convex, with
numerous low asperities, posterior
arca very densely rugosely punc-
tured, pubescence short but rather
dense. Scutellum small, indistinct.

Elytra as wide and not quite
twice as long as the pronotum, sides
parallel, broadly rounded behind,

Fig. 11. declivity commencing behind the
Hypothenemus middle, evenly convex; disc
(Cryphalus) lineate- punctate, the punctures
tantillis Lea,

antenna, shallow and moderately large,

_ separated from cach other by half
of the diameter of one puncture, interspaces flat, finely

punctulate, therefore subshining, not much wider than Fig. 12

the rows of punctures, each puncture bears a small Hypothenemus (Cryphalus)
‘cli itowish fal ; Sent 4 tantillus Lea,
inclined yellowish hair, two rows of similar incon- dorsal aspect and detail of

elytral sculpture

45

spicuous hairs on the interspaces close to the main striae, in the middle of each
interspace with a row of pale yellow erect and rather broad scales, these scales
are inconspicuous on the basal half and become more and more developed towards
the declivity. Apart from the type I have not seen any specimens.

Fig, 13
Hypothenemus (Cryphalus) striatopunctatus
Lea, antenna

HyYPOTHENEMUS (CRYPHALUS)
STRIATOPUNCTATUS Lea
Redescription of the Type—Yellowish,
1-3 mm. long, 2-4 times as long as
wide. ,
Front evenly convex, densely granulate
punctate.

Pronotum wider than long (18:13),
base bisinuate, postero-lateral angles
rectangular, feebly rounded, sides and
apex conjointly broadly arcuate, anterior
margin feebly extended (not visible
when viewed from above) and armed
with two pointed recurved asperities
medially; summit before the middle,
anterior area very steep, perpendicular
below, sparingly asperate on a compara-
tively small area, posteriorly the summit

coarsely and very densely punctured. Scutellum
distinct.

Elytra as wide and more than twice as long
as the pronotum, humeral angles rounded, sides
parallel on more than the basal half, rather
narrowly rounded behind, declivity commencing
behind the middle, gradually declivous; disc
coarsely striate-punctate, the strial punctures
subquadrate near the base, circular behind, inter-
spaces narrow, convex and each with a row of
scale-lke hairs, these are more slender in the
basal half of the elytra, broader and more like
true scales behind.

The specimens recorded by the author in the
Records of the South Australian Museum,
5, 1936, 527, have been misidentified, After
comparison with the type they must be referred
to a new species.

LS

LOQOLROOLD

Pars

Fig. 14

Hypothenemus (Cryphalus)
striatopunctatus Lea,
dorsal aspect and elytral detail

46

STEPHANODERES (CRYPHALUS) MELASOMUS Lea
Redescription of the Type—Piceus, 2°1 mm. long, 2:4 times as long as wide.
Front convex, feebly transversely depressed below, minutely longitudinally
wrinkled, median line shining below, with a low convexity centrally, sparsely hairy.
Pronotum wider than long (41:33), base
bisinuate, postero-lateral angles obtuse and rounded,
sides uniformly and broadly arcuate to the apex,
summit reddish-brown, shortly before the middle;
strongly globose, anterior margin with two pointed
asperities, anterior area with a few similar but
blunter ones below, with some smaller ones which
are partly connected at their base shortly before the
summit, posterior area densely rugosely punctured ;
rather densely covered with hairs. Scutellum very
inconspicous.
Elytra as wide and twice
as long as the pronotum.
sides parallel beyond the
middle, obliquely narrowed

behind, apex narrowly
rounded, declivity com- Y
mencing shortly behind the
Fig. 15 middle, obliquely convex;
Stephanoderes (Cryphalus) disc feebly striate-punctate,
retecasitites Lt, une punctures moderate in size,
as far apart as one diameter of a puncture, the striac
feebly impressed, interspaces four times as wide as the
striae, somewhat irregularly triseriately and finely pune-
tured, the punctures of the median row bear small dirty
yellowish erect scales, each puncture of the lateral rows
a small short inclined concolorous hair; declivity with the ie, 16

striae strongly impressed, the interspaces strongly convex, Seeniatundeids
the scales of the disc replaced by long erect dark brown (Cryphalus)
and stout bristles, the hairs of the lateral rows by short melasomus Lea,
ae, eae dorsal aspect
brown inclined scales.
CRYPHALUS COMPACTUS Lea

Redescription of Type—Pale yellowish-brown, 1-8 mm. long, not quite
twice as long as wide. The cotype Lea mentions from the Upper Ord river is
not a variety but a good species.

Front convex, densely finely granulate punctate, with short yellow
pubescence.

Pronotum wider than long (29:22), widest near the base, apex narrowly
rounded, apical margin armed with several small and low asperities; summit

47

behind the middle, anterior area steep, rather coarsely asperate, posterior area

minutely punctulate.

filytra as wide (30:29) and more
than twice as long as the pronotum,
widest at the base, broadly rounded
behind, declivity uniformly convex,
commencing at the middle, minutely
and very densely punctured, the row
hardly perceptible, vestiture double,
ground scales very small and yellow,
darker on the sides, uniseriate top-
scales longer hair-like and somewhat

darker.

Outside the type series the author
has not seen any specimens.

CRrypHALUS suBCOMPACTUS Lea
Redescription of Type — Piceus,
1-5 mm. long, 2-2 times as long as

wide.
Front plano-convex, subopaque,
Fig. 17 very finely and densely punctured,

Cryphalus compactus Lea
dorsal view of type and detail of vestiture

with a narrow transverse carina

separating vertex and frons.

Pronotum wider than long (23:18), base feebly
bisinuate, postero-lateral angles obtuse, hardly
rounded, sides and apex conjointly broadly arcuate,
apical margin armed with several low aspcritics,
summit short behind the middle, rather strongly
convex, anterior area densely asperate, posterior
area densely punctulate.

Elyira about as wide and not quite twice as long
as the pronotum, humeral angles rounded, sides
parallel on the basal half, broadly and somewhat
angulately rounded behind, declivity evenly convex
and commencing at the middle; vestiture dark and
of similar development as in C. compactus Lea; the
striae feebly but distinctly impressed throughout.

The cotype which Lea mentions as being
immature and slightly different is probably the
other sex. It is somewhat more slender, the pro-
notum more narrowly and angulately rounded in
front and the elytral scales more distinct.

Fig. 18

Cryphalus subcompactus, Lea
dorsal aspect and elytral detail

48

HypocrypHaLus Hopk. and DacrypHatus Hopk.

The generic differences between Hypocryphalus and Dacryphalus seem to
me not very convincing, especially because Hopkins did not say much about the
retuse clytral declivity in the description of the species. Yo use the number of
sutures, more correctly the rows of bristles, indicating the number of sutures for
separating the genera, even in a group where antennal characters are of greatest
importance, will hardly prove of value. Therefore, the question still has to be
settled whether both genera stand or one of them has to be withdrawn, For the
present I unite the species having a 5-segmented antennal funicle, the club more
or less evenly rounded in outline, and with the sutures indicated by rows of
bristles on both sides of the latter under the name of Hypocryphalus Hopk.
When more is known about the variation of the elytral sculpture, etc., and
characters have been found to justify the separation in the sense of Hopkins, it
will be easy to refer corresponding species to the genus Dacryphalus Hopk. again.

HypocryPHALus .(CRYPHALUS) AspeR Broun

The Dominion Museum at Wellington and Dr. Clark of the New Zealand
Forest Service have sent types and metatypes of Cryphalus [Tomicus] asper
Broun to the author, A close examination reveals the fact that this species
belongs not to the genus Cryphalus but to the more
recently described genus Hypocryphalus Hopkins.

Redescription of the Species

Female—Brown, 2'3 mm. long, 2:3 times as long
as wide.

Front subopaque, convex, densely granulate-punc-
tate, cyes short oval, narrowly and shallowly emarginate
in front.

Pronotum wider than long (33:25), widest at the
base, the latter bisinuate, sides obliquely narrowed
from the base to the apex, moderately broadly rounded
in front, summit far behind the middle, anterior
margin with a row of small inconspicuous asperities,
anterior area obliquely ascending, with numerous low
asperities, these more numerous around the summit,
extending to the base at the middle, partly connected
at their base thus forming broken ridges, densely
punctulate on the sides behind, pubescence sparse and

Fig. 19 erect. The asperate portion laterally ceasing on nearly
Dacryphalus asper Broun straight lines, which enclose an angle of about
antenna
60 degrees.

Elytra wider (35:33) and twice as long as the pronotum, humeral angles
broadly rounded, sides parallel on the second and third fifth of the total length,
broadly rounded behind, cylindrical, declivity commencing in the apical third,

49

steeply obliquely convex; disc shallowly striate punctate, strial punctures rather
small and indistinct, striae but fcebly impressed, interstices wide and
shining, very densely and finely punctured; the declivity feebly impressed

along the suture, lateral convexities distinct, first
and second striae impressed and the punctures
indistinct, the suture feebly elevated, all interstices
densely covered with minute, dark and erect scale-
like hairs, additional to the sparingly placed long
hairs.

Male—Of similar size and proportions, the pro-
notum more narrowly rounded in front, the summit
higher, the asperities not so frequently connected at
their bases; elytral disc with the striae more distinct,
the declivity with the lateral convexities higher,
gradually declivous on the first two interstices, the
third abruptly ceasing and more strongly tuberculate,

the others similar but lower towards the sides.

Hypocryphalus spathulatus n. sp.
Reddish-brown, anterior area of the pronotum

Fig. 20 dark brown, 2-1 mm. long, 2:0 times as long as

Dacryphalus asper Broun, rele,
male, dorsal aspect

Front subopaque, feebly convex, moderately finely

regularly and closely punctured, interspaces minutely
punctulate.

Pronotum much wider than long, base bisinuate,
postero-lateral angles hardly rounded when viewed from
above, sides conjointly rounded from the base to the apex,
the latter feebly extended, anterior margin with six well-
developed asperities, summit in the posterior third, anterior
area obliquely convex, with coarse asperities which extend
not quite to the base, postero-lateral areas strongly densely
punctured, pubescence sparse, short and inconspicuous,
Base distinctly margined. Scutellum reduced to a hardly
noticeable puncture.

Elyira as wide and 1°5 times as long as the pronotum,
sides parallel to the middle, broadly rounded behind,
declivity commencing at the middle, gradually convex;
disc striate-punctate, punctures closely placed, striae feebly
impressed, interspaces twice as wide as the striae, very
densely and finely but deeply punctured, in the middle of
each interspace with a more regular row of punctures
which bear short erect hairs, from the other interspacial

Db

Fig. 21

Hypocryphalus
spathulatus, n. sp.,
dorsal aspect

50

punctures arise short fine and more inclined hair-like scales, the double pubescence
more distinct on the declivity.
Types in the South Australian Museum and in the author’s collection.
Locality—Cairns district, A. M. Lea.

Xy.Leporus (Tomicus) acANTHURUS Lea

Tomicus acanthurus Lea has to be transferred to the genus Xyleborus. The
redescription will facilitate the determination.

Female—Pale reddish-brown, 7*2 mm. long, not quite twice as long as wide.

Front convex, densely roughly punctured, eyes large and emarginate in front.

Pronotum wider than long (37:25), globose, base transverse, postero-lateral
angles rectangular but not rounded, sides and apex conjointly rounded, median
portion of apex feebly extended and armed with several low and blunt serrations,
summit behind the middle, anterior area steep,
asperate all over, the asperites larger and more
remotely placed in front, small and crowded on the
summit behind. Scutellum large, triangular and
polished.

Elytra fecbly wider (39:37) and twice as long as
the pronotum, widest in the median third, broadly
rounded behind, declivity commencing before the
middle, broadly sulcate-depressed, the lateral margins
moderately elevated, and armed with numerous teeth,
the fundus deeply striate-punctate, strial punctures
moderate in size, disc-like, interspaces convex, with
numerous minute sctose granules; elytral disc lineate-
punctate, interspaces flat, rather densely irregularly
punctured, punctures of equal size to those of the
striae, therefore the rows hardly perceptible. Mete-
pisternum narrow, densely punctured, the fore coxae
touching, abdominal sternites I and II equal in |
Fig. 22 length, each as long as sternite III and IV together.

Xyleborus acanthurus Lea, Apart from the type, no other specimen seems to
female, dorsal view exist.

-
of
ad
‘
a
‘
A
‘
'
‘
.
.

Xyleborus fijianus n. sp.

Female—-Dark reddish-brown, 3°8 mm. long, twice as long as wide. A
very distinct species within the retusus-gravidus group.

Front feebly convex, dull, rather finely punctured, interspaces minutely
punctulate, impunctate along the median line, sparsely hairy except for a fringe
of densely placed downwards-directed reddish hairs along the epistomal margin.

Pronotum wider than long (54:48), base distinctly bisinuate, postero-
lateral angles obtuse and hardly rounded when vicwed from above, sides and apex

51

conjointly broadly arcuate, side margins acute in the posterior half, apical
margin produced downwards and armed with two pointed asperities; very
strongly globose, summit in the middle, anterior area very steep, covered with

Fig. 23

numerous low and small asperities, summit
transverse, posterior area very finely and
densely punctured, the interspaces reticu-

late. Pronotum and elytra densely cov-
ered by reddish inclined hairs. Scutellum
small. :

Elylra as wide and but little longer
(51:48) than the pronotum, humeral angles
strongly rounded, sides subparallel on the
basal half, broadly rounded behind, declivity
commencing before the middle, obliquely
truncate, apical margin acute up to the seventh
interspace; disc very densely, finely and
irregularly punctured, without indications of
rows; declivital face
with the first striae
impressed, but with-
out recognisable punc-
tures, those striae
corresponding to the
second and third row

Xyleborus fijianus, n. sp.,
dorsal and lateral aspect

similarly impressed in
the posterior half, the entire declivital face flattened on
its greater part, feebly convex on the sides. Anterior
tibiae widened distally and with numerous small serra-
tions on the outer margin. The femur and tarsi yellow,
the tibiae dark reddish-brown.

Types in the collection of the Imperial Institute of
Entomology, and in my own.

Locality—Fiji Islands, Taverne Quilai, 800 feet,
October 18, 1924, Dr. H. S. Evans.

Xyleborus eucalyticus n. sp.
Female—Piceus, anterior half of the elytra and
legs flavescens, 1-8 mm. long, 2°7 times as long as
wide. This species has to be placed near
X, laevies Egg.

a
Tote
:
tos
Avo
hos
Set
Na
NM
aN

e

Fig. 24
Xyleborus
eucalypticus, n. sp.,
dorsal aspect

Front plano convex, minutely punctulate, subshining, with a few shallow
punctures and with sparse pubescence along the epistomal margin.

52

Pronotum as long as wide, base feebly arcuate, postero-lateral angles rect-
angular and feebly rounded, sides parallel on the posterior half, broadly rounded
in front, summit in the middle, anterior area feebly convex, rather densely
covered by small low asperities, posterior area subshining, minutely punctulate and
finely punctured, pubescence very sparse. Scutellum small, triangular.

Elytra as wide and 1-8 times as long as the pronotum, humeral angles feeblv
rounded, sides subparallel on more than the basal half, broadly rounded behind,
declivity commencing behind the middle, uniformly convex; disc lineate-punctate,
punctures very small, one from the other as far apart as the double diameter of
one puncture, interspaces flat, four times as wide as the punctures of the rows,
somewhat reticulate, each interspace with a row of very fine punctures which are
somewhat closer placed than those of the main rows; behind the middle and on
the declivity the interspacial punctures replaced by minute setose granules, the
apical margin acute up to the seventh interspace.

Types in the collection of the Imperial Institute, and my own.

Locality—North Queensland, Geagana, June 15, 1934, ex FE. palmerstoni,
T. H. Smith, per R. Veitch.

NOTES AND EXHIBITS

REDISCOVERY OF THE BivALvE Psammobia kenyoniana Prit. & Gat., 1904,
in South Australia. This rare shell is known only from odd valves from Airey’s
Inlet, Victoria, a solitary valve from Tasmania and a single right valve dredged
from 22 fathoms in Investigator Strait, South Australia, by Sir Joseph Verco
about 40 years ago, but not identified until 1934. It is interesting to record and
exhibit a second valve (left) recently dredged, 1938, by the Fisheries boat in the
same locality as Verco’s specimen.

B. C. Cotron
15 April 1938

THE RED-BROWN EARTHS OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

BY C. S. PIPER

Summary

From an economic standpoint the red-brown earths constitute one of the most important soil groups
in South Australia, the most productive wheat-growing areas being on soils of this type. These soils
assumed considerable importance at an early period in the settlement of the State, both on account
of their geographical situation and the readiness with which they could be brought into pastoral or
agricultural production. However, following the initial period of development, there was a general
decrease in their fertility, and it was not until after the introduction of superphosphate towards the
close of last century, and the adoption of better farming methods, that increased yields were
obtained.

53

THE RED-BROWN EARTHS OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By C. S. PIPER
(Waite Agricultural Research Institute, University of Adelaide)

[Read 14 April 1938]

I. IntTRopUCTION BA Pas je Ry, an a x oe wax 0bS
Il. THe Warrte Institute Paovine ‘ay el fi od als iA aw. 656
III. Lazroratory EXAMINATION OF THE SAMPLES oes me re ace a. 661

(a) Mechanical Analysis .. aa 23 - ee ie = .. 61
(b) Calcium Carbonate .. oe Par it ie es i . 662
fc) Reaction . 4's eon ae - 5 .. 62
(d) Nitrogen and Sreanie “Matter uf ts 34 ar ie 63
(e) Hydrochloric Acid Extracts . tw A a, & 65
(f{) Reactive Manganic Oxide .. 6 - a he a 66
(g) Soluble Salts .. ae) - .. 7. Le = - .. 67
(h) Exchangeable Bases ‘ ate or a 5 we a 67
(i) Composition of the Clay frastion : F bey (he
TV. Tue Position or THE ReEv-Brown EARTHS IN THE Ke Chincerdts
CATION... f as i if a FB

V. AGRICULTURAL PRoute MS ASSOCIATED WITH THE Rev- Brow awn 54 Bing FD

VI. Notes on THE ANALYTICAL METHOpsS UseEp .. 2) a te re 76
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ad - a be t i Hi om a. 76
REFERENCES i sc “3 H - - Bt a wi aa 46
APPENDIX .. ed dis i es in Les hi wg a we AE

I INTRODUCTION

From an economic standpoint the red-brown earths constitute one of the
most important soil groups in South Australia, the most productive wheat-growing
areas being on soils of this type. These soils assumed considerable importance at
an early period in the settlement of the State, both on account of their geographical
situation and the readiness with which they could be brought into pastoral or
agricultural production. However, following the initial period of development,
there was a general decrease in their fertility, and it was not until after the
introduction of superphosphate towards the close of last century, and the adoption
of better farming methods, that increased yiclds were obtained.

The principal occurrence of these soils is along the western slopes of the
Mount Lofty Ranges and on the central highlands of the Middle North of South
Australia. They are developed as a longitudinal belt extending for about 150 miles
north of Adelaide. Most of this country lies between the 500 feet and 2,000 feet
contours. The physiography has been dealt with by Fenner (1930). In the
northern portions of the area the soils are typically developed in a series of wide
and roughly parallel valleys which run for considerable distances in a general
north and south direction. The soils of this group also extend along the coastal
portion of the Mount Lofty Ranges, south of Adelaide. Typical red-brown earths

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 62 (1), 22 July 1938

200 Peterborough @

1990 180 Olt

O17
Jamestown @

270 5Q 6

Port Wakefield

20

ADELAIDE

Fig. 1
Map of portion of South Australia, showing the localities from which the soil
profiles have been collected. The numbers refer to the profile numbers given in
the Appendix. The dotted line represents the 200 metre contour.

55

are also found on the coastal plain, north of Port Lincoln, but so far no samples
from this locality have been examined in the laboratory.

Figure 1 shows the localities from which profiles have been examined, and
this gives an indication of the general distribution of the soils throughout the
central and middle northern districts of South Australia. For details showing
the limits of distribution of the red-brown earths Prescott’s Map of the Soils of
Australia (1931) may be consulted.

The soils under discussion are typically brownish loams to sandy loams in
the surface horizons, becoming redder and heavier with depth. Geologically, they
have been developed on Pre-Cambrian shales, slates and schists, or on alluvial
deposits derived from these rocks, Where the soils occur on alluvial deposits, as
on the plains and in valleys, they are very uniform over large areas and the profiles
are deeper than on the rises of undulating country. The geology of the area has
been dealt with by Howchin (1918), but his Lower Cambrian Series is now
recognised as Pre-Cambrian (Ward 1928). More recent geological information
will shortly be published by Segnit.

While red-brown carths normally occur on the shales and slates in this area,
grey to greyish-brown soils, related to the rendzinas, frequently develop in places
where the parent rock is more highly calcareous. Areas of these grey soils may
be surrounded by typical red-brown earths, and some examples of such occurrences
are included in Table ITI of the Appendix to this paper.

The mean annual rainfall throughout the area varies from 16 to 25 inches
per annum. The seasonal distribution shows a very marked winter maximum,
approximately 75 per cent. of the total falling during the months of April to
October. The average rainfall per wet day is greater than that in the Mallee
areas, varying from 0°19 to 0-24 inches, The Meyer ratio of precipitation to
saturation deficit ranges from 75 to 150. The climatic control of this soil group
has been dealt with by Prescott (1934).

The efficiency of leaching of the rainfall is stich that well-defined soil
horizons have been developed and calcium carbonate has generally been com-
pletely removed from the upper part of the profile. However, cyclic salts have
not been entirely removed from the region as a whole and there is a tendency for
some acctimulation to occur, in isolated cases, under favourable topographical
conditions.

Ecologically, the red-brown earths are clearly distinguished, on the one hand,
from the drier Mallee areas, and, on the other hand, from the sclerophyll forests
which occur on the more highly podsolized soils of the Mount Lofty Ranges.
The vegetation is typically open savannah woodland, peppermint gum (Eucalyptus
odorata) being the most prominent tree. ‘lowards the drier northern limits
this species frequently develops a mallee habit of growth. However, some of
the plains country (e.g., Booborowie Flats) was open grassland in its original
state and never carried timber. The surrounding hills carried blue eum
(Eucalyptus leucoxrylon) and she-oak (Casuarina stricta), Around Jamestown

56

the plains originally carried small acacia and peppermint gum with a mallee habit,
while the hills were covered with she-oak and tussock grass.

Blue gum (Eucalyptus leucoxylon) replaces peppermint gum as the charac-
teristic tree in the wetter portions of the area, while she-oak occurs extensively
in the drier regions as well as on the shallower and more stony soils clsewhere.
The vegetation has been recently described by Wood (1937).

The experimental farms of the Waite Institute and Booborowie have been
established on soils of this group, although experimental work at the latter place
was discontinued in 1930, For the response to various fertilizer and cuitural
treatments, the reports of these centres should be consulted. Statistics showing
the average wheat yields over a period of twenty years for each individual
hundred have been published by Perkins (1936), and Phipps has summarized
the mean yield and its variability for the Agricultural Development Com-
mission (1931).

During 1934 samples representing thirty typical profiles of the red-brown
earths were collected throughout the Lower and Middle North of South Aus-
tralia. ‘Three profiles representing greyish calcareous soils associated with this
group were also sampled. In addition to these, four other red-brown earth
profiles were available in the Waite Institute soils collection, Altogether thirty-
seven profiles, consisting of two hundred and eleven individual samples, have been
examined in the laboratory. The localities from which these profiles were
collected have already been indicated in figure 1. For permanent reference a
more detailed description and the complete analytical data for each profile are
recorded in the Appendix to this paper.

II THE WAITE INSTITUTE PROFILE

Since the soils at the Waite Institute are very typical of the red-brown
earths, two profiles have been sampled and examined in considerable detail (see
Appendix, Table 1). At this locality the soil has developed on an alluvial fan
from the foothills of the Mount Lofty Ranges and the parent material is derived
from the adjacent Pre-Cambrian shales and slates. In one profile (U69)
samples have been collected at each successive inch to a depth of 46 inches, so
that the variations in the profile can be very fully followed.

The surface soils have a characteristic brown colour, due to the presence of
organic matter in this horizon, but as its amount decreases in the profile the
colour of the mineral portion of the soil predominates, gradually changing to a
reddish-brown at 12-18 inches and to red in the deep clay.

Although calcium carbonate has not been removed [rom the lower horizons,
the soil is weakly podsolized and cluviation of the clay has occurred. This change
in the mechanical composition of the profile is very clearly seen in figure 2.
The surface soi! consists of a friable loam: with a very pronounced fine sand
fraction. The proportion of clay decreases somewhat during the first few inches
and then gradually increases to a well-defined illuvial zone of heavy clay. The

57

inch by inch profile (U 69) was not sampled below this zone, but the nature of
the lower horizons can be seen in the second profile (U 151) which represents
a slightly shallower phase, having its clay horizon nearer the surface. Below this
illuvial horizon the amount of clay again decreases, and at this point calcium
carbonate appears in the profile, having been completely leached from the over-
lying A and B, horizons.

There is a remarkable constancy between the relative proportions of fine sand,
coarse sand, and silt throughout the profile, and this is shown graphically in
figure 3. The nearly constant proportion of these three fractions, which together

mp 7A [I
| OAKSH sARU FINK SAN BILE

0

De ba a bh we wWons b ty mf wo sv oo mb do so tom
Fig. 2

Illustrating the mechanical composition of two

Waite Institute profiles
T.eft—Profile U 69-U 111, sampled inch by inch
Right—-Profile U 151-U 157
constitute the non-colloidal framework of the soil, shows clearly the uniform
nature of the original parent material throughout the profile, and it also shows
that the changes in the colloidal fraction (clay) of the different horizons has
been brought about by a process of eluviation. This accumulation of clay in
the B, horizon has occurred as a result of its dispersion and mechanical eluviation
under the slightly acid conditions existing in the surface soil, An examination
of the silica: sesquioxide ratios for profile U 151 shows that there has been only
a small amount of leaching of the sesquioxides from the surface layers into the
lower horizons. The values for the free ferric oxide in the different parts of the
profile (Table I) also show that there has been little actual decomposition of the
clay to silica and sesquioxides, as occurs in podsols.

58

TABLE I
The Humus and Pree Iron Oxide Content of a Waite Institute Profile.

Soil No. Depth Humus Free Fe,O,
- Go Yo
U151 0-4” 1:53 2:14
U 152 49” 1-02 2:46
U 153 9-18” 0-59 4-68
U 154 18-27” 0-41 5+17
U155 27-36" 0-45 4-72
U 156 36-45” 0:34 3-42
U 157 45-54” 0:26 3°34

@) Determination by Mr. A. B. Beck (unpublished).

8

INCHES

a oe
OO hit an Teer or ee ld
ty

NII a ate

FINE SAND
“tay, OOO?
FINE SAND

COARSE SAND
Begs

fy 200, greece 2 O%s,
200 Ota, ge OtO Mgr Srera, Oe,

Q 20 40 60 80 100% 0 2 40 60 80 100%
Fig. 3
Illustrating the mechanical composition of the non-
colloidal fraction of two Waite Institute profiles.
The vertical lines of dois represent the percentage
amounts of coarse sand and coarse sand -+ fine sand,
respectively, in the non-colloidal fraction of profiles
U 69-U 111 (left) and U 151-U 157 (right).

The amounts of organic carbon and nitrogen decrease progressively through-
out the profile, and the carbon: nitrogen ratio changes from about 13 in the
surface horizon to a value of 7-8 at a depth. The humus content of U 151 profile
has been determined by Mr. A. B. Beck and the values, given in Table I, show a
gradual decrease in amount with depth.

59

The amount of potash extracted by digestion with hydrochloric acid is closely
related to the amounts of silt and clay in the profile, and this relationship for
the U 69 profile is shown graphically in figure 4, From this diagram it is seen that

% K,O = 0.0155 * (Clay Percentage + $ Silt Percentage),

Although the soils are somewhat unsaturated with bases in the surface
horizons, the values ranging from 60 to 65 per cent. of full saturation, the per-
ceritage saturation increases progressively with depth and the horizons below
the appearance of calcium carbonate are fully base saturated. The corresponding
values for soil reaction range from pII 6-0 at the surface to pH 8-6 in the lower
horizons. Calcium is the dominant exchangeable base in the surface soil and
accounts for the good texture in the field. The proportion of magnesium, how-

%

12

POTASH (K,0)
2 e
ina] io)

cd
re

1a 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 %
CLAY + 066. SILT

Fig. 4
Illustrating the rclationship between the acid soluble potassium and
the amounts of clay and silt in the Waite Institute profile U 69-U 111

ever, increases considerably in the subsoil. Exchangeable sodium is low through-
out the profile, indicating that the leaching conditions and calcium status of the
soil are sufficiently good to remove cyclic salts, without an accumulation of
exchangeable sodium.

During the course of other investigations a number of the physical constants
have been determined for the Waite Institute soils, and for convenience these
values are recorded in Table I]. Although the various determinations have been
made on samples from different portions of the Waite Institute experimental
fields the soil is of sufficient uniformity for comparisons to prove of interest.

60

Tas_Le II.

Some Physical Constants of the Waite Institute Profile.

| Water Apparent
Depth Moisture Wilting Sticky Depth | Holding Specific
Equivalent 1 Point ? Point # | Capacity 4 Gravity +
%o %o %o | %
0-9” 21°5 6:9 22°6 g-4” 27°3 1-32
9-18” 29-5 17-4 34-8 4-16" § 15-8 1-73
18-27” 35-8 21:2 42-7 16-42” . 1:40
27-36" 31-1 17°6 45-6" below 42” | 29-8 1-44
36-45” 28-2 14-8 —
45-54" | 28-6 15-5 — |
|

Moisture Equivalent and Wilting Point on Profile U 158-U 163.

1)
@)
()
®

Sticky Point on Profile U 151-U 155.

Determinations by H. G. Poole.
Determinations by E. F. Fricke.
Determinations by B. Johns,
Determinations by A, B. Cashmore (1934).

SILT

SAND

Fig. 5

Distribution triangle illustrating the mechanical composition of all
the red-brown earths examined. Open circles represent surface soils,
black circles represent subsoils.

61

III LABORATORY EXAMINATION OF THE SAMPLES

(a) Mechanical Analysis

As already mentioned, the parent material on which the red-brown earths
are developed is such as to give rise, naturally, to soils of medium to heavy
texture. Since the surface soils are generally neutral to slightly acid in reaction,

SILT + CLAY

FINE SAND COARSE SAND
Fig. 6

Distribution triangle illustrating the mechanical composition of all
the red-brown earths examined. Open circles represent surface soils,
black circles represent subsoils.

some downward leaching of the clay has occurred, resulting in a surface soil of
lighter texture overlying a marked zone of clay accumulation in the B, horizon.
This downward leaching of the clay under neutral to slightly acid conditions is
very typical of the group as a whole, although a few profiles have been encountered
in which the accumulation of clay has probably resulted from its peptization and
greater mobility in the presence of important amounts of exchangeable sodium.
Such profiles, however, are not typical and only occur where topographic or
climatic conditions have produced an accumulation of soluble salts.

Figure 5 shows graphically, in the usual triangular diagram, the proportions
of sand, silt and clay in the red-brown earth profiles examined. It will be seen
that the surface soils are generally sandy loams, loams, or clay loams, while the
subsoils are much heavier in texture with a very large proportion falling into the
heavy clay group. Silt is almost always over 8 per cent. and is generally a

62

characteristic fraction amounting to 10-35 per cent. of the carbonate-free. mineral
fraction of the soil. In a few profiles, particularly one from the Booborowie
Flats (3810-3814), the silt fraction is dominant. In the soils examined, all of
the texture classes except sand, sandy clay loam, and sandy clay are represented.

The amounts of coarse sand, fine sand, and silt plus clay are represented
graphically in figure 6, and this triangular diagram shows very clearly the high
ratio of fine sand to coarse sand. In 60 per cent. of the samples examined this
ratio was greater than 3. The mincralogical composition of the parent material,
no doubt, accounts for the low amounts of coarse sand in these profiles.

(b) Calcium Carbonate.

The majority of the surface soils of this group are free from calcium
carbonate, or contain only very small amounts, owing to the leaching of the
carbonate into the lower horizons. The maximum concentration generally occurs
in the B, horizon, immediately below the zonc of clay accumulation. Below this
horizon the amount decreases somewhat.

Table HI gives the frequency distribution of the calcium carbonate per-
centages in the series of soils examined, and shows clearly the enrichment of
the subsoil.

‘Tase IIT

Frequency Distribution of Calcium Carbonate Percentage in
Red-Brown Earth Soils and Subsoils

nil 0.01 0.1 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.6
Calcium Carbonate, % _.... hive to to to to to to to to
0.01 0.1 1.0 2.0 3.0: 4.0 5.0 6.0
Surface Soils ties Me bes 25 16 6 1 3 — — —_
Subsoils Pee shes vee the 17 20 15 3 5 4 3 2

Calcium Carbonate, % .... het mn to to to to to to
7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 200 30.0 40.0

Surface Soils a cg he; enh — — 1 — tse ar ft

Subsoils Pan at. ae ea fs 3 — 1 2 8 6 4

(c) Reaction

The surface soils of the red-brown earths are slightly acid to slightly alkaline
in reaction while, owing to the frequent occurrence of calcium carbonate in the
lower horizons, the subsoils are nearly always neutral to alkaline. Most of the
surface soils with a reaction greater than pH 7 occur in the more northern areas

63

where, owing to the drier climatic conditions (lower rainfall and higher evapora-
tion), leaching has not been so complete.

The presence of small amounts of exchangeable sodium in the lower horizons
of some of the profiles has resulted in values for soil reaction in excess of pH 8-4.
In two or three profiles, in which the larger amounts of exchangeable sodium
were found, values up to pH 9-6 have been recorded.

All determinations have been made on a 1:2°5 water suspension, and the
glass electrode was used throughout. Table IV shows the frequency distribution
of these soils with respect to hydrogen ion concentration.

TABLE IV

Frequency Distribution of the Reaction of Red-Brown Earth Soils and Subsous
(Glass Electrode)

5.6 5.8 6.0 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8 7.0 7.2 7.4

pH to to to to to to to to to to

5.8 6.0 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8 7.0 7.2 7.4 7.6

Surface Soils .... “eh 1 2 3 5 2 4 4 3 3 3
Subsoils LO eo —_ — J _ 1 2 5 3 1
7.6 7.8 8.0 8.2 8.4 8.6 8.8 9.0 9.2 9.4

pH to to to to to to to to to to

7.8 8.0 8.2 8.4 8.6 8.8 9.0 9.2 9.4 9.6

Surface Soils ..., oan 1 3 3 6 4 2 — 1 — —
Subsoils Ses ite 8 6 3 5 21 13 12 5 5 4

(d) Nitrogen and Organic Matter

The typical brown colour of the surface soils is due to the effect of organic
matter in modifying the red colour of the mineral fraction. The amount, how-
ever, is seldom great except in a few profiles. In the latter cases, as a result of
an increase in the water supply to the soil, brought about either by underground
sources or by the topographical features of undulating country diverting the
surface run-off to the lower lying flat areas, there has been an increased growth
of vegetation leading to these particular soils containing somewhat higher
quantities of organic matter than average.

The amounts of organic carbon and nitrogen present in the surface nine
inches have been computed for 33 profiles, for which figures are available and the
following are the mean values :—

Organic carbon - - 0°94%
Nitrogen - - - 0:097%

64

The organic matter decreases rapidly with depth throughout the profile,
resulting in a much redder colour in the subsoils. Tables V and VI show the
frequency distribution of the percentage of nitrogen and organic carbon, respec-

tively, in the soils and subsoils examined.

TABLE V

Frequency Distribution of Nitregen Percentage in Red-Brown Earth Soils

and Subsoils

Q 01 02 03 04 05 .06 07 .08 09
Nitrogen, % to to to to to to to to to to
01 02 03 04 .05 06 07 08 09 10
Surface Soils .... eo 1 — — 3 5 6 4 10 8
Subsoils a Ans — 3 7 16 11 14 12 10 7 2
10 ll 12 13 14 1S 16 17
Nitrogen, % to to to to to to to to over
Al 12 13 14 AS 16 17 18 18
Surface Soils ae ad 9 4 3 3 — 2 os — 4
Subsoils A ae ea 1 — — — — —_ — — —
TABLE VI
Frequency Distribution of Organic Carbon Percentage in
Red-Brown Earth Soils and Subsoils
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Organic Carbon, % to to to to to to to to to to
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Surface Soils .... Ae — — — 5 2 6 7 8 5 4
Subsoils ar ye 3 13 17 13 13 10 8 4 = 2
0 1.1 1.2 13 1.4 1.5 1.6 17
Organic Carbon, % to to to to to to to to over
11 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 17 1.8 1.8
Surface Soils te. ae 8 2 3 1 4 1 — 1 4

Subsoils bs ae Zi a

65

The carbon: nitrogen ratio varies within wide limits, as is seen in figure 7.
The ratio becomes narrower with depth, and a number of subsoils show values
less than 5:1. For the majority of the surface soils to a depth of 9 inches the
ratio lies between 12:1 and 8:1.

The continued cultivation of these soils for cereal production under the older
rotations, in which a period of bare fallow alternates with one of crop, must
inevitably lead to a serious decline in the organic matter reserves. No quantitative
data bearing on this question are available, but the consensus of opinion among
farmers who have cultivated these soils for long periods is that it is becoming
increasingly more difficult to secure a good tilth during cultivation. From this
it would appear that the reserves of organic matter are already being depleted.

NITROGEN (N.)

02 o4 06 D8 10 be V4 16 UB 20 22 24 26 %
ORGANIC CARBON (C.)

Fig. 7
Illustrating the relationship between the organic carbon and the nitrogen
contents of the red-brown earths. Open circles represent surface soils,
black circles represent subsoils.

In order to maintain the fertility and to improve the mechanical condition of these
soils the organic matter content should be built up. A system of rotation which
includes a period under pasture is highly desirable.

(e) Potash and Phosphoric Acid

Only potash and phosphoric acid have been determined in the hydrochloric
acid extracts of these soils. All the soils examined are well supplied with potash,
amounts above 0°5% K,O being general in the surface soils. Larger amounts
are present in the subsoils. While the correlation between the clay and silt
content of the soil and the amount of potash does not hold so closely for this

E

66

group of soils as it does for the Waite Institute profile, the same general relationship
is noticeable and the percentage of potash ranges from 0-015 to 0:029 * (Clay
Percentage + % Silt Percentage), From the values for exchangeable potassium,
which are given in another section, it will be seen that the soils are well supplied
with this element in a readily available form.

Phosphoric acid generally ranges from 0:03 to 0°07 per cent. in the surface
soils, with somewhat smaller amounts in the subsoils. It will be noted that these
soils contain distinctly more phosphoric acid than do the mallee soils, the latter
seldom exceeding 0°03 to 0°04 per cent.

Table VII illustrates the frequency distribution of the potash and phosphoric
acid contents of these soils, while the individual values are tabulated in the
Appendix.

TasBLe VII

Frequency Distribution of the Acid Soluble Potassium and
Phosphoric Acid in Red-Brown Earth Soils and Subsoils

Potash 0 0.21 O41 0.61 0.81 1.01 1.21 1.41 1.61 1.81 2.01
(B20) - % to to to to to to to to to to to
0.20 040 060 O80 100 41.20 140 1.60 180 2.00 2.20

Surface Soils — 2 8 13 12 7 3 2 — —_ —
Subsoils — —_ _ 1 14 17 15 6 3 2 1

Phosphoric 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 006 007 0.08 0.09 0.10

Acid to to to to to to to to to to to

(POs) -% 0.01 0.02 0.03 004 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 O10 O11
Surface Soils — _ 4 9 20 11 9 3 2 1 —
Subsoils -_— 1 9 16 9 6 2 3 _— _ 1

Two profiles (3778-3781 and 3782-3784), collected in the Hundred of Belalie,
show the relatively high phosphoric acid content of 0°16 to 0°18 per cent. P,O,.
Although these particular soils occur in association with the red-brown earths,
they do not belong to the group, having been developed on a highly calcareous
parent material. The soils are greyish-brown in colour and contain considerable
amounts of calcium carbonate in all horizons. In view of the higher phosphoric
acid content of these soils, it is interesting to note that Jack (1919) has reported
the occurrence of small phosphate deposits, in a formation of a similar descrip-
tion, seven miles to the north of this locality.

(f) Reactive Manganic Oxide
The amount of manganese brought into solution by leaching with a normal
solution of ammonium acetate, adjusted to pH 7 and containing 0-2 per cent. of

67

hydroquinone, has been determined for one complete profile (U 151) and for the
surface soils of the remainder, According to Leeper (1934) this gives a measure of
the reactive forms of manganese, which may be considered to be readily available
to plants. The high values obtained, typical surface soils ranging from 160 to
750 parts of manganese per million parts of soil, indicate that these soils are
very well supplied with manganese. The mean value for 32 soils was 345 p.p.m.
In the few cases in which the amounts of exchangeable manganese and manganic
oxide were determined separately it was found that by far the larger portion of
the manganese occurred in the oxidized form. Exchangeable manganese was
absent in the alkaline subsoils, the reactive manganese existing in these entirely
as oxide. Evidence of the occurrence of reactive manganic oxide in these soils
is also furnished by the rapid drift which occurs when attempts are made to
measure their reaction by the quinhydrone electrode.

In the Waite Institute profile (U 151) the reactive manganic oxide decreases
steadily from its maximum concentration of 430 p.f.m. in the surface horizon
to a minimum of 110 p.p.m. in the B, horizon. It then begins to increase again,
reaching 230 p.p.m. at the lowest depth sampled. Since manganese is most
mobile as the manganous ion, it would appear that its concentration in the surface
horizon is connected with the more oxidizing conditions in this layer bringing
about its precipitation as oxide.

(g) Soluble Salts

Accumulations of soluble salts are not frequent in the soils of this group,
although occasionally, where such factors as topography and drainage have led
to their concentration, some difficulties have been experienced. In the samples
examined chlorides only have been determined, and the results are expressed
as sodium chloride. At a few localities appreciable amounts of chlorides were
present in the lowest depth sampled, but only in three profles did the total sodium
chloride content of the top 36 inches of soil exceed 0°10 per cent.

In order that a comparison may be made with the results published for
South Australian and West Australian mallee soils, the amounts of sodium
chloride present in the top 24 inches of soil have been computed for 31 profiles
and the values are set out in the form of a frequency table (Table VIII). From
this table it will be seen that the majority of profiles contain less than 0-02 per
cent. of sodium chloride in the top two feet of soil, and the mean value of all the
profiles examined is 0-025 per cent,

(h) Exchangeable Bases

The exchangeable bases have been determined in twenty-three profiles and
the individual results are tabulated in the Appendix. The values for seven typical
profiles, including that from the Waite Institute, which has been examined in
considerable detail, are represented graphically in figure 8. It will be seen that
calcium is the most important of the exchangeable bases in the surface horizons,
but appreciable amounts of magnesium occur, as is so frequently the case in
Australian soils. The proportion of magnesium increases with depth, and in

68

Taare VIII
Frequency Distribution of the Sodium Chloride Content of
Red-Brown Earth Profiles to a depth of Twenty-four Inches

0 0.01 6.02 O03 604 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
Sodium Chloride % to to to to to to to to to over
(01 0.62 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 G07 0.08 0.09 0.09

Number of Sites... 4 17 5 1 1 — —_— 1 1 1

many of the subsoils it even exceeds the calcium in amount. Significant amounts,
of exchangeable sodium are also present in certain of the subsoils, especially
where soluble salts in excess of the average occur. As already mentioned,
valuable amounts of exchangeable potassium occur in all of these soils and the
proportion is highest in the surface soils, probably as the result of the enrich-
ment by plant residues.

As a check on the values for total exchangeable bases, the amounts of
ammonium absorbed by the soils, after leaching wilh a normal solution of
ammonium chloride, were determined for a number of samples, and the values so
obtained agreed very well with the sum of the individual bases displaced. For
the thirty soils for which figures are available the mean amount of ammonium
absorbed was 16-05 milligram equivalents per 100 grm. of soil, and the correspond-
ing values for the total exchangeable bases was 16°85 milligram equivalents.

The mean values for the percentage composition of the exchangeable bases
in the surface, subsurface and subsoils of twenty-two red-brown earth profiles
are presented in ‘lable IX. For comparison the corresponding values are given
for nine South Australian mallee profiles.

TABLE IX

The Average Percentage Composition of the Exchangeable Bases in
Red-Brown Earth and Mallee Profiles

Surface Intermediate Subsoil
Ca Mg K Na Ca Mg K Na Ca Mg K Na
Red-Brown Earths .... ae 61 24 11 4 52 33 8 7 44 41 +#6 9
(22 Profiles) ;
Mallee Soils .... I. ine 63 25 7 5 41 35 7 17 +27 37 10 26

(9 Profiles)

Average Percentage Base Saturation

Surface. Intermediate. Subsoil.
Red-Brown Earths .... a 78 84 95
(22 Profiles)

Surface soils represent samples to approximately 9”
Subsoils represent samples below about 15”

U 69 Waite Institute- 0’

we
ln Ws
we

4s

QW bo ta
NDOND SPN
Soh
wn

tw
SS

io)
te
NI

”

”

”

” - 12"-
2 24
+ 36"
a Sos YQ.

Hd. Gilbert = 6" (777777 =o

9

2”

ig - 6-15" (LPP PPL TZ} [_ z fa]
note ES-22" = °
wo - 30-42” °
yoo + 54-69% °
. Clare ~ Oe? C2777 /E] °
act - 4-10" EZ7ED 9
o - 10-20 AAP P7727 EE eee °
a - 24-33" [27777777 = °
~ Hanson > OS" ez °
” i An ©2000 TOD ai | °
” - 216% CPF 9
a - 16-32% = [Z2277 7777 = | fc)
. Belalie - 0-4" CLIT PLT iT 7 Ed fo)
» ie een a ———— °
7 ~ 10-24" LEE se °
‘ ~ 24-36" (AEA EET PETA L] °
i
. Anne - ~ Q-6" C2277 7 eT °
Ae - 614" ere 9
» - +1421" Ki27777 pee °
aos = 21-38" LLL. ) ea ra)
a - 38-44" C277 77 7 =| AE fa)
. Bundaleer - 0-6”
5 - 6-187
és - 18-28”
, - 32-44"
C77 °
Ca Mg K_ Na CLAY
OS ee ee
° 10 20 30 40 50% CLAY

0 5 19 15 20 25 30 35 40
EXCHANGEABLE BASES MILLIGRAM EQUIVALENTS PER 100°G. SOIL
Fig. 8

Illustrating graphically the exchangeable bases in seven representative red-brown
earth profiles. The amounts of clay are also indicated by means of the open circles..

70

It will be noticed that the red-brown earths are significantly lower than the
mallee soils in exchangeable sodium, especially in the deeper horizons of the
profile. With the exception of the Parafield profile (3694-3699) which, on
account of impeded drainage, cannot be regarded as normal, the exchangeable
sodium in the subsoils of the red-brown earths never attains the average value
for the mallee subsoils. Calcium and magnesium occur in about the same propor-
tion in the surface soils of both the above groups. However, while the propor-
tion of magnesium increases at approximately the same rate throughout the
profiles of both groups, the proportion of calcium does not decrease so rapidly
in the red-brown carths as it does in the mallee soils.

Exchangeable hydrogen has also been determined in these soils in order to
obtain a measure of their base exchange capacity and percentage base saturation.

100

PERCENTAGE BASE SATURATION

5S 60 65 70 7S 80 85 90 oS 100
SOIL REACTION § (pH.}

Fig. 9
Tilustrating the relationship between the soil reaction and the
percentage base saturation of the red-brown earths

The mean values for the twenty-two profiles are included in Table IX. These
figures show the slightly podsolized nature of the surface horizons, while the
subsoils tend towards full base saturation. The general relationship between
soil reaction and percentage base saturation is shown in figure 9,

By means of graphical methods, the contribution of the clay and organic
matter to the total base exchange capacity of the soil has been determined for
each profile. The values so obtained show that the base exchange capacity varies
in the different profiles from 0°39 to 0-61 milligram equivalents per grm. of clay,
while the soil organic matter has a base exchange capacity ranging from 2:2 to

71

61 milligram equivalents per grm. of carbon (Table X). Figure 10 shows
graphically this relationship between base exchange capacity and the amounts of
clay and organic matter. In the left-hand portion of the diagram the actual base
exchange capacity of the soil has been plotted against the calculated base exchange
capacity due to clay and organic carbon, using the values deduced for each profile
as given in Table X. In the right-hand portion of the figure the same relationship
has been plotted by using the mean values for the base exchange capacity of the
clay and organic matter, namely, 0°48 milligram equivalents per grm. of clay
and 3:8 milligram equivalents per grm. of organic carbon.

‘TABLE X

The Base Exchange Capacity of Clay and Organic Matter
in various Red-Brown Earth Profiles

Base Exch. Cap. Base Exch. Cap.

Profile No. m.e. per grm. Clay m.e. per grm. Carbon
U 69 -U 111 0.40 ' 4.0
U 151-U 157 0.47 2.9
3694-3699 0.41 5.3
3714-3717 0.61 3.7
3723-3729 0.54 3.2
3734-3738 0.48 2.9
3743-3747 0.43 2.2
3748-3752 0.39 3.1
3757-3761 0.44 3.1
3762-3766 0.43 3.5
3770-3773 0.44 2.2
3774-3777 0.49 5.9
3797-3800 0.61 6.1
3801-3804 0.45 3.6
3805-3809 0.40 3.6
3810-3814 0.51 3.6
3819-3823 0.47 3.8
3824-3827 0.57 4.6
3828-3832 0.61 6.1
1854-1857 0.41 2.8
Average for 20 profiles... 0.48 3.8

Range ... 0 eee 0.39 to 0.61 2.2 to 6.1

m.e. = milligram equivalents

72

An examination of the values for the base exchange capacity of the clay
fraction of the red-brown carths shows only a general correlation with the silica:
alumina or the silica: sesquioxide ratio of the clay. The more siliceous clays
tend to have the greater base exchange capacity. This latter is apparently
influenced by other factors in addition to the above, and in this respect it is con-
sidered that the “International Clay” fraction includes too wide a group of
particles. Since base exchange is a surface phenomenon, the smaller particles
in the fraction would tend to contribute more to the total effect than would the
larger particles. A better correlation would probably be obtained with a fraction
of a smaller diameter than “International Clay.”

i
=
s
Fa
&
i
>
s .
G x,
¢ + tee
3 “ ~*~
w ea?
g .*
z ‘
a *
x
a} he
3 at
2 owe
a *
1a -, 2
Ve,
2.
3 «met 9 wv 20 ome
BASE EXCHANGE CAPACITY (CALCULATED) BASE EXCHANGE CAPACITY (CALCULATED),

Fig. 10

Illustrating the relationship between the base exchange capacity and the amounts
of clay and organic carbon in twenty red-brown earth profiles,

In the left-hand portion of the diagram the actual base exchange capacity has been
plotted against the base exchange capacities due to clay and organic matter, using the
appropriate values given in Table X for each separate profile. In the right-hand
portion the average values for clay and organic matter, namely, 0-48 m.e. per grm.
of clay and 3-8 me. per grm. of organic carbon, have been used for all the soils.

(i) Composition of the Clay Fraction

A clay fraction with a maximum settling velocity of 0-O001 cm. per second
(corresponding to the former “British Clay”) was separated from each sample
of fifteen typical profiles and silica, alumina and ferric oxide were determined.
Table XI shows the frequency distribution of the silica: alumina and silica:
sesquioxide ratios in the soils examined, In general these ratios decrease from
the surface horizons to the B, horizon of clay accumulation, at which part of the
profile a small enrichment of sequioxides has occurred and the minimum ratios
are reached. In every case the ratios again become wider as soon as the calcium
carbonate horizon is reached.

73

TABLE XI
Frequency Distribution of the Silica: Alumina Ratio and Silica:
Sesquioxide Ratio in the Clay Fractions separated from Red-Brown
arth Profiles

SiOz 281 2.91 3.01 3.11 321 3.31 341 3.51 3.61 3.71
ratia ae to to to to to to to to to to

AhkbOs 290 3.00 3.10 3.20 3.30 340 3.50 3.60 3.70 3.80

A Horizon ee a 5 2 5 3 6 1 2 —
Bi Horizon Wie see 5 6 2 5 2 1 1 2 = —
Be to C Horizons ... — 3 1 5 1 5 3 6 1 3
SiOz 201 211 221 2.31 241 #251 261 2.71 281 2.91
——__—— ratio to to to to to to to to to to
AbOs + FeOs 2.10 220 230 240. 250 2.60 2.70 280 2.90 3.00

A Horizon nor 2 1 — 4 2 5 9 2 1 =
Bi Horizon wee het 1 4 1 7 5 3 — = 1 —
Be to C Horizons... — 1 — 3 5 4 6 5 4 2

IV THE POSITION OF THE RED-BROWN EARTHS IN THE
WORLD CLASSIFICATION

At the present time it is not possible to define clearly the position of the red-
brown earths in the World-Group classification of soils. They appear to have
certain affinities with the Mcditerranean red earths (terra rossa) and the brown
earths of northern Europe, but it is probable that they will be found to correspond
more closely with the former than the latter when further comparisons can be
made. This resemblance to the Mediterranean type would be expected from a
consideration of the climatic conditions, the South Australian red-brown earths
being developed in a zone of winter rainfall and summer drought. The occurrence
of rendzinas on the more calcareous parent materials throughout this zone also
suggests a further similarity with the soils of southern Europe, where the terra
rossa is associated with the development of rendzinas on the soft limestones. Like
the Mediterranean red earths, the South Australian red-brown earths are typically
slightly unsaturated in the surface layers and contain calcium carbonate in the
lower horizons. Unfortunately, owing to the paucity of good published descrip-
tions of representative red earth profiles, a more detailed comparison cannot be
made at present.

74

The red-brown earths are formed under open savannah woodland, the climatic
conditions being favourable to moderate leaching. The humus, although low in
amount, is well distributed throughout the top soil and shows no tendency to
accumulate either as a peaty surface layer or in the B horizon, as in podsols.
The soils are formed under conditions of free drainage.

The red-brown earths differ from the brown earths in that they show a
marked accumulation of clay in the B, horizon, while calcium carbonate occurs
in the B, and lower horizons. In this accumulation of clay the red-brown earths
show evidence of slight podsolization which may be the result of a smaller return
of bases to the surface soil than occurs under deciduous forest—the typical vegeta-
tion of the brown earth zone of northern Europe. Although mechanical eluvia-
tion of the clay has occurred under the slightly acid conditions prevailing in the
surface soil, the free sesquioxides, which are present in small amounts, have not
been leached out of the surface horizon to any great extent. In spite of the
evidence of incipient podsolization in the surface horizons, the red-brown earths
are more basic than the brown earths in the lower horizons owing to the presence
of calcium carbonate.

The silica: alumina and silica: sesquioxide ratios of the clay fractions of the
red-brown earths differ significantly from those of the podsols, corresponding
more closely with those of the brown earths and the terra rossa soils. A marked
decrease in the ratios on passing from the A to the B horizon, which is so charac-
teristic of podsols, is not observed in the red-brown earth profiles examined.
Although the ratio decreases slightly on passing from the A to the B, horizon,
it gradually widens again to equal or surpass that of the surface soil. According
to Robinson (1936) typical brown earth profiles are characterised by a fairly
constant silica: sesquioxide ratio down the profile, with a value generally
approximating to 2. This value is somewhat lower than that commonly found
for the present soils. Figures for the silica: sesquioxide ratio of the clay through-
out terra rossa profiles are not available, but the average value of 2°43 reported
by Reifenberg (1933) for surface soils agrees well with that found for red-
brown earths in the present investigation.

The red-brown earths differ in many respects from the South Australian
mallee soils. Texturally the former are heavier and contain important propor-
tions of silt. Mallee soils are more alkaline than the red-brown earths, calcium
carbonate generally being present in the surface of all but the sandier types of
the mallee group. The organic carbon, nitrogen, and phosphoric acid status is
also lower in the mallee soils, while the soluble salt content of the latter is greater.
The important differences in the exchangeable bases of these two soil types have
already been discussed. Another significant difference seems to be in the reactive
manganic oxide content of the surface soils of the two groups. The amounts
present in the red-brown earths are very much higher than in the heavier type of
mallee soils, while the mallee sands are much lower again,

75

V AGRICULTURAL PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH
THE RED-BROWN EARTHS

Although these soils as a group are among the most fertile of the South
Australian wheat-growing soils, certain difficulties have arisen in limited areas.
Perhaps the most important is the phenomenon of “setting” after rain, exhibited
by a few soils of this type. When this is severe the top layer of the surface soil
runs together and sets to a hard compact crust when it dries out. This crust is
about half an inch thick and, under unfavourable weather conditions the
germinating wheat plants are often unable to force their way through it. This
leads to an uneven germination of the crop. The badly affected areas are irregular
in shape and occur scattered throughout the more normal soils. They are always
noticeably redder in colour than the normal soils because of their lower content
of organic matter.

In one example investigated near Riverton (Soil Nos. 3701-3708) the surface
soil of the setting type appeared to correspond to a B horizon. Its clay content
was somewhat greater than the normal phase, but the exchangeable sodium was
particularly high for a surface soil and constituted 26 per cent. of the total bases.
The corresponding value for the exchangeable sodium in the adjoining normal soil
was only 2 per cent. The “setting” soil was also much lower in organic matter.
The occurrence of the B horizon at the surface suggests that these soils may have
resulted from the loss of the surface layers by sheet erosion.

The most successful treatment of this condition would probably lie in the
building up of the organic matter content of the soil by a suitable system of crop
rotation and green manuring. Applications of gypsum should also assist in
reducing the proportion of exchangeable sodium and so improving the physical
properties of the soil. However, the effect of the increased organic matter would
probably be the more important since, in addition to its direct effect on the soil
tilth, it would also increase the biological activity in the soil. The carbon dioxide
produced as a result of this increased biological activity would assist in the replace-
ment of exchangeable sodium by calcium. The areas of “setting soils” are slowly
extending, due to the depletion of the soil organic matter as a result of the crop
rotations practised.

A second problem, also of limited importance, is the local development of
salt patches, where the topography is such that the soluble salts tend to accumulate
at the surface. A few such patches were seen, near Riverton, irregularly distributed
over some gently sloping country. Under a bare fallow crop rotation the area
of these patches gradually increases. “This extension can be checked, and the salt
concentration of the surface soil reduced, by maintaining a grass cover on the
land, so decreasing the actual evaporation from the surface soil, If kept under
pasture for a period of years, the salt gradually leaches to the lower soil horizons,
under the influence of the winter rainfall. However, even when the salt con-
centration is decreased, the composition of the exchangeable bases is altered and
the proportion of sodium increases. This change in the composition of the bases

76

adversely affects the soil texture. Here again the use of gypsum and a system
of rotation that increases the organic matter in the soil should be beneficial.

VI NOTES ON THE ANALYTICAL METHODS USED

The analytical methods used were those published elsewhere (Prescott and
Piper, 1928, and Piper and Poole, 1929), although many recent and unpublished
improvements have been adopted. The fractions separated in the mechanical
analysis were those adopted internationally.

The clay fraction separated for silicate analysis corresponded to the former
British clay fraction and had a settling velocity of 10-* cm. per second. Silica was
determined in this separate by the standard methods of rock analysis involving
fusion, double evaporation, ignition and purification by hydrofluoric acid.
Titanium was determined colorimetrically in an aliquot of the filtrate, iron and
titanium in another aliquot by precipitation with cupferron, while aluminium,
iron, and titanium were determined in a third portion by precipitation with
ammonia.

Organic carbon was determined gravimetrically by dry combustion. When
carbonates were present in the soil they were removed in a preliminary treatment
with sulphurous acid. Chlorides were determined by electrometric titration
(Best, 1929). The glass electrode was used for all pH measurements.

The exchangeable bases were obtained by leaching the soils with ammonium
chloride. Calcium was precipitated as oxalate, magnesium as phosphate or
8-hydroxyquinolate, potassium as perchlorate and sodium as a complex uranyl
magnesium acetate. When calcittm carbonate was present, it was necessary to.
determine exchangeable calcium and magnesium in sodium chloride extracts by a
slight modification of the method of Hissink (1923). The method of de’Sigmond
and Iyengar (1935) was tried, but was found to give erroneous results. Exchange-
able hydrogen was determined by the m-nitropheno! method (Piper, 1936), and
reactive manganic oxide by extraction with ammonium acetate and quinol at
pH 7 (Leeper, 1934).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks arc due to Messrs. W. C. Johnston and E. L. Orchard (Agricultural
Advisers of the Department of Agriculture) for their co-operation in the collection
of the soil samples in their respective districts, and also to Messrs. H. R. Skewes
and C. H. Williams for able assistance in the laboratory investigations.

Finally the author desires to express his appreciation to Professor Prescott
for his continued interest throughout this work.

REFERENCES

AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENT CoMMiITTEE, 1931 Report, Government Printer,
Adelaide.

Best, R. J. 1929 J. Agric. Sci., 19, 533-540.

Casumore, A. B. 1934 Coun. Sci. Ind. Research, Australia, Bull. 81.

77

Fenner, C. 1930 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 54, 1-36.

Hisstnx, D. J. 1923 Soil Sci., 15, 269-276.

Howcuin, W. 1918 The Geology of South Australia, Government Printer,
Adelaide.

Jack, R. 1.1919 Geol. Survey of S. Aust., Bull. 7.

Leeprer, G. W. 1934 Nature, 134, 972-973.

Perkins, A.J. 1936 J. Agric. of S. Aust., 39, 1199-1222,

Pirer, C. 5. 1936 J. Coun. Sci. Ind, Research, Australia, 9, 113-124.

Prrer, C. S., and Pootz, H. G, 1929 Coun. Sci. Ind. Research, Australia,
pamph. 13.

Prescott, J. A. 1931 Coun. Sci. Ind. Research, Australia, Bull. 52.

Prescott, J. A. 1934 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 58, 48-61.

Prescort, J. A., and Prrer, C. S. Coun. Sci. Ind. Research, Australia, pamph. &.

REIFENBERG, A. 1933 Zeits. Pflanz. Dung., 31A, 287-303.

Rorinson, G. W. 1936 Soils, their Origin, Constitution and Classification,
T. Murby & Co., London.

pE'SicMonp, A. A, J., and IyENcar, M. A. S. 1935 Soil Research, 4, 217-222.

Warp, L. K. 1928 Geological Map of South Australia, Dept. of Mines, Adelaide.

Woop, J. G. 1937 The Vegetation of South Australia, Government Printer,
Adelaide.

APPENDIX

LocaLity AND DESCRIPTION OF THE Sort PROFILES

1.4 HUNDRED OF ADELAIDE. Sections 268 and 250.

U69-Utli* These samples represent a typical profile from No. 1 Experi-
mental Ficid at the Waite Institute, the profile being sampled in
inch layers to a depth of 46 inches. The surface soil consists of
brown loam or fine sandy loam and overlies a reddish brown clay
loam to clay with heavy red clay at a greater depth. Calcium
carbonate occured below the depth sampled.

U151-U 157 This profile was taken from another Experimental Field about
4 miles west of the first profile.
U 151 04” brown loam.
U 152 4.9" brown loam.
U 183 9-18" brown to reddish-brown medium clay.
U154 18-27" ~— reddish-brown heavy clay.
U155 = 27-36" reddish-brown heavy clay.
U156 36-45" brown medium clay with calcium carbonate appearing.
U157 45-54" — brown to reddish-brown clay with calcium carbonate continuing,

2, HUNDRED OF YATALA. Section 2186. Near west corner of Parafield Aerodrome.
3694* = 0-4” brown loam.
3695 4.9” brown loam.
3696 9-13" brown héavy clay.
3697 13-21” ~— reddish brown heavy clay (very sticky).
— 21-22” calcareous hardpan.
3698 22-30" red-brown heavy clay with soft calcareous rubble.
3699 30-41” red-brown heavy clay with light rubble (calcareous).

t These numbers correspond with the locality numbers on the map (fig. 1). * Sample number.

78

3. HUNDRED OF GILBERT. Section 12. 3 miles north-east of Riverton.

This profile represents a soil which is noted for the manner in which it runs
together and sets on the surface after rain. This setting is so severe that, at
times, germinating wheat seedlings are unable to force their way through the
surface crust. These areas subject to severe setting occur in irregular patches
throughout the more normal soil.

3704 0-1” red clay loam.

3701 04” red medium clay.
3702 4-12" reddish-brown heavy clay with light marl.
3703 12-18" reddish-brown calcareous loam with light calcareous rubble.

Another profile, collected 30 yards away from the above, represents the normal
soil type, which is darker in colour and more friable.

3705 0-6” dark red-brown friable clay loam.

3706 6-18" brown to reddish-brown medium clay with small amount of lime-
stone rubble appearing at 15”,

3707. 18-36” reddish-brown medium clay with light nodular limestone rubble.

3708 3642" reddish-brown medium clay with small amount of limestone rubble.

4. HUNDRED OF GILBERT. Section 1157. 23 miles S.S.W. of Marrabel.

This profile represents the lighter soils in the valley of the River Light.

3709 0-5” grey-brown sand to sandy loam.

3710 5-14” light brown sandy loam.

3711 14-27” = yellowish-brown sandy clay mottled with red.
3712 27-36" yellowish-brown sandy clay.

3713 36-42” yellowish-brown sandy clay.

5. HUNDRED OF GILBERT. Section 504. 22 miles east of Riverton.

This profile represents an area that was said to have been badly affected by salt
40 years ago. Although this condition was considerably improved about 12 years
ago the trouble has recently recurred.

3714 0-6” brown medium clay.

3715 6-12" brown heavy clay.

3716 12-25” brown heavy clay with calcium carbonate appearing at 25”.
3717. 25-42” brown to reddish-brown heavy clay with marl.

6. HUNDRED OF GILBERT. Section 279. Adjacent to main road, 4 mile south-

east of Tarlee.

3723 0-6” brown to reddish-brown loam or clay loam,

3724 6-15" reddish-brown heavy clay.

3725 15-22” reddish-brown heavy clay.

3726 22-30" reddish-brown heavy clay with marl.

3727, 30-42" ~=— reddish-brown heavy clay with marl.

3728 42-54" reddish-brown medium clay with marl.

3729 54-69” reddish-brown light clay with small amount of waterworn quartz
gravel. Clay and mar! continuing.

79

7. HUNDRED OF BELVIDERE. Section 2996. About 1 mile west of Stockwell.

3730 0-6” brown fine sandy loam, inclined to set after rain.
3731 6-16” brown fine sandy loam.

3733 16-24" ~=reddish-brown light clay.

3732 24-36" reddish-brown heavy clay.

A section in an adjacent creek showed a depth of over 25 feet of soil. There
were four clearly defined bands of clay concentration in the subsoil, and also a
layer of waterworn pebbles at 12 feet.

8 HUNDRED OF ALMA. Section 211. On the main Riverton-Balaklava Road,
200 yards east of the River Wakefield road crossing.

3734 0-4” brown to reddish-brown fine sandy loam.

3735 49” brown to reddish-brown fine sandy loam or loam.

3736 9-18" dark reddish-brown heavy clay.

3737. 18-21" dark reddish-brown heavy clay.

3738 21-36" reddish-brown heavy clay with light marl appearing at 21” and
increasing slightly with depth.

9. HUNDRED OF BLYTH. Sections 192, 193, 24 mules east of Blyth, on main
Blyth-Clare road.

This profile is close to the western boundary of the red-brown earths at this
locality and was taken in gently undulating country 4 mile west of the foothills.
Nearer Blyth mallee soils predominate.

3739 0-7” dark brown loam with patches of reddish-brown at 5-7”.

3740 7-14” ~~ brown clay loam with calcium carbonate throughout,

3741 14-30” light brown loam with calcium carbonate increasing.

3742 30-42" light brown clay loam with marl and calcareous rubble increasing.

10. HUNDRED OF CLARE. Section 515. 4 miles east of Clare.
This profile is typical of the gently undulating country slightly above the flats
of the Hill River.

3743 0-43” brown loam to clay loam with ironstone gravel appearing at 4”.

3744 44-10" light brown loam to clay loam with small amount of ironstone
gravel.

3745 10-20" ~=reddish-brown heavy clay.

3746 20-24” ~=brown heavy clay with calcium carbonate appearing.

3747 = 24-33” brown heavy clay with marl and light calcareous rubble increasing.

11, HUNDRED OF HANSON. Section 432. 4 mile south of Farrell's Flat, at the
junction of the Black Springs and Merildin Roads.
3748 0-43” ~=brown to reddish-brown loam.
3749 44-9” brown to reddish-brown clay loam.
3750 9-16" reddish-brown heavy clay.
3751 16-32” ~— reddish-brown heavy clay with marl and calcareous rubble. Heavy
rubble at 21-27”.
3752 32-40" reddish-brown light clay with marl and pockets of decomposed
rock stained yellow and red.

80

122. HUNDRED OF STANLEY. Section 290. 1 mile north of Merildin.
This profile represents the flats in gently undulating country.

3753
3754

3755

3756

13. HUNDRED OF

0-4”
4-14”

14-30”

30-42”

worth.
3757 0-44”
3758 43-14”
3759-14-27”
3760 = 27-39”
3761 39-43”

brown heavy clay.

brown to greyish-brown heavy clay with a small amount of iron-
stone gravel in lower part.

brown to greyish-brown heavy clay with pockets of calcium
carbonate. Light ironstone gravel throughout.

brown to greyish-brown heavy clay with ironstone gravel and
pockets of calcium carbonate increasing.

SADDLEWORTH. Section 2803. 4 mile north-east of Saddle-

brown to reddish-brown fine sandy loam.

brown to reddish-brown fine sandy loam.

dark reddish-brown medium clay.

reddish-brown heavy clay.

brown to yellowish-brown heavy clay continuing.

14. HUNDRED OF YONGALA. Section 96. 44 miles south of Yongala.
The first profile represents flats among slightly undulating country.

3762
3763
3764
3765
3766

0-5”

5-11”
11-24”
24-36”
36-44”

brown to reddish-brown clay loam.
reddish-brown to dark reddish-brown heavy clay.
dark reddish-brown heavy clay.

red heavy clay.

red heavy clay with calcium carbonate appearing.

The next profile was taken from the crest of the hill overlooking the site of the
jast sample.

3767
3768
3769

0-32”
3 4_6”
6-15”

brown sand to sandy loam,

brown to reddish-brown heavy clay.

reddish-brown and grey clay with pockets of sandy clay and
decomposing sandstone showing bright red stains.

15. HUNDRED OF BELALIE. Section 208. 44-miles south-east of Jamestown.
This profile is typical of the soils of the Belalie East valley. The surface soil
runs together and sets badly on top after rain.

3770
3771
3772
3773

0-3"

3-9"

9-22”
22-39”

brown to reddish-brown loam or silty loam.

brown to reddish-brown loam or silty loam.

red to reddish-brown heavy clay.

brown to reddish-brown medium clay with calcium carbonate
appearing. Becoming redder with depth.

16. HUNDRED OF BELALIE. Scction 220. 54 miles south-east of Jamestown.
A heavier soil, representing not more than 10 per cent. of the Belalie plain.

3774
3775
3776
3777

0-4”

4-10”
10-24”
24-36”

brown to reddish-brown clay loam.

dark reddish-brown clay.

dark reddish-brown clay.

dark red heavy clay continuing. A small amount of cafcium
carbonate appears at 30-36”.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

81

HUNDRED OF BELALIE. Section 185. 5 miles north-east of Jamestown.
The two profiles collected on this section were taken from the crest of a hill
and both overlie decomposed shales or slates. The second profile represents a
more calcareous phase. These profiles do not belong to the red-brown’ earths.

3778 0-6” greyish-brown loam or silty loam with calcium carbonate.

3779 6-13” — greyish-brown loam with calcium carbonate.

3780 13-21” — bluish-grey decomposed slate with pockets of greyish-brown loam.
3781 21-36” bluish-grey decomposed slate continuing,

3782 0-5” brown to greyish-brown loam with nodular calcium carbonate.

3783 5-10" = greyish-brown loam with nodular calcium carbonate and pockets
of decomposed slate.

3784 10-18” limestone marl and decomposed slate.

HUNDRED OF BELALIE. Section 306. 4 mile west of Belalie North railway
station.

3785 0-6” brown loam.

3786 6-14” brown to reddish-brown clay loam.

3787 14-24” ~— brown to reddish-brown clay loam,

3788 24-36" reddish-brown medium clay becoming redder and heavier with
depth.

HUNDRED OF APPILA. Section 3. 4% miles south-west of Yarrowie, on
Gladstone-Booleroo Centre Road.

3789 0-4” brown loam.

3790 4-12” brown clay loam.

3791 12-30” brown to reddish-brown light clay with considerable marl and
nodular calcium carbonate.

HUNDRED OF APPILA. Section 508. 5 miles south of Booleroo Centre, on
road between Appila and Booleroo Centre.

3792 0-6” dark reddish-brown clay loam.

3793 6-18" reddish-brown to dark reddish-brown loam.
3794 18-27” ~— reddish-brown sandy loam.

3795 27-33" reddish-brown clay loam.

3796 33-36” ~— red clay with stones at 36”.

HUNDRED OF BOOLEROO. Section 101. 24 miles north of Booleroo Centre.

3797 0-3” dark brown clay.

3798 3-11” very dark brown to chocolate heavy clay.

3799 11-18" = dark reddish-brown heavy clay with occasional stones.
3800 18-24” — reddish-brown heavy clay with marl.

HUNDRED OF WHYTE. Section 16. 1 mile north of Canowie Station, at the
junction of the Canowie Belt and Jamestawn-Canowie Roads.

3801 0-44” ~~ reddish-brown loam.

3802 43-12” = reddish-brown loam.

3803 12-24" = reddish-brown clay loam,

$804 24-36" reddish-brown clay loam with considerable amount (45%) of
small waterworn slate pebbles.

82

23. HUNDRED OF ANNE. Section 478. Booborowie Experimental Farm.

These profiles were collected from Plot No. 5 (No Manure Plot) of the former
Booborowie Experimental Farm and represent typical country on slightly rising
ground above the Booborowie plain. The second profile was collected by
officers of the Department of Agriculture at the time of the closing of the farm
in 1930.

3805 0-6” brown loam.

3806 6-14” reddish-brown loam.

3807. 14-21" ~—sred_ heavy clay.

3808 21-38" red heavy clay.

3809 38-44" ~=red heavy clay with calcium carbonate appearing at 38” and

increasing.

1854 0-4” brown to reddish-brown loam.

1855 4-9” brown to reddish-brown loam.

1856 9-18” reddish-brown loam.

1857. 18-27” ~=red medium clay,

24. HUNDRED OF ANNE. Section 498. 5 miles south of Canowie. 400 yards east

of main road between Canowie and Booborowie.
This profile is typical of the heavier and very silty soils of the Booboorowie flats,
which are extensively used for lucerne-growing. On these flats the water-table
was originally two to three feet below the surface, but following the continued
cultivation of lucerne it has now fallen to 30 or 40 feet.

3810 U5” greyish-brown silty clay.

3811 5-11” greyish-brown silty clay.

3812 11-24" dark brown heavy clay.

3813. 24-30" = dark brown heavy clay with calcium carbonate appearing.

3814 30-42" brown to dark brown heavy clay with calcium carbonate rubbie

increasing.

25. HUNDRED OF WHYTE. Section 515. 1 mile south of Yarcowie.
3815 0-5” red to reddish-brown loam.
3816 5-14" dark red medium clay.
3817. 14-19" red heavy clay.
3818 19-25" red heavy clay with limestone rubble increasing.

26. HUNDRED OF BELALIE. Section 715. 64 miles south of Jamestown, along
Spalding Road.
3819 0-5” brown fine sandy loam,
3820 5-12” brown loam.
3821 912-30" ~=reddish-brown heavy clay.
3822 30-36” dark reddish-brown heavy clay.
3823 36-44” —s reddish-brown clay loam to light clay with a small amount of
calcareous rubble.

27, HUNDRED OF YANGYA. Section 316. 4 miles south of Caltowie, on Caltowie-
Georgetown Road.
This profile represents the soil of the Manatoo plain.
3824 06” = dark brown clay loam.
3825 6-18" dark brown to dark reddish-brown medium clay.
3826 18-26" dark reddish-brown medium to heavy clay.
3827-26-36” ~— reddish-brown heavy clay with heavy calcareous rubble continuing.

83

28. HUNDRED OF BUNDALEER. Section 134. 1 mile north of Abbeville railway

station.

This sample is typical of the Georgetown plain and is said to represent some of
the finest wheat country in South Australia.

3828 0-6” dark reddish-brown self-mulching clay.

3829 6-18” dark brown to dark reddish-brown heavy clay.

3830 18-28" dark reddish brown heavy clay.

3831 28-32" = reddish-brown heavy clay with some calcium carbonate.

3832 32-44” reddish-brown heavy clay with marl and soft calcareous rubble

increasing.

29. HUNDRED OF REYNOLDS. Section 220E. 24 miles north-west of Spalding,
on Spalding-Jamestown Road.
3833 0.3” brown to dark brown self-mulching clay.
3834 3-9” very dark brown medium clay—friable.

At 9” there was a sharp change to heavy calcareous rubble,

A more typical profile was obtained from another site 200 yards away from the
last sample.

3835 0-43” brown to red-brown clay foam.
3836 43-18" dark red heavy clay.
3837 18-30" red heavy clay continuing.
A section in an adjacent water channel showed a total depth of 20-25 feet of soil.

30. HUNDRED OF GILBERT. Riverton.

Samples collected by officers of the Department of Agriculture in 1923.
36 0-8” dark brown clay.

37 8-20" brown heavy clay.

38 20-24" brown to reddish-brown heavy clay with marl.

31. HUNDRED OF GILBERT. Section 294. 1 mile north-west of Tarlee.

This profile represents a heavy dark-coloured soil of the Bay of Biscay type and
occurs in the depressions in undulating country. The surrounding rises are
covered with typical reddish-brown soils overlying limestone at about 4 feet.

3718 0-4” very dark brown medium clay.

3719 4-12” very dark greyish-brown heavy clay.

3720 12-24” = dark greyish-brown heavy clay.

3721 24-36" dark greyish-brown heavy clay with white flecks of calcium

carbonate and occasional nodules of ironstone.
3722 36-54" grey to greyish-brown heavy clay.

84

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au,

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
NO. 36

BY J. M. BLACK

Summary

LILIACEAE

Xanthorrhoea quadrangulata, F. v. M. Grown from seed in Dr. E. C. Black's garden at Magill and
fruiting in second year (December, 1937). Capsule brown, glossy, 1-seeded, rarely 2- or 3-seeded,
about 15 mm. long, on a conical ribbed rigid stipes about 5 mm. long, each of the three valves
ending in a pungent mucro; seed compressed, triquetrous, dull-black, about 10mm long. At this
early stage the plant has no stem, the older leaves lying flat on the ground.

101

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA“)
#8 No, 36

By J. M. Brack, A.L.S.

[Read 12 May 1938]
Piates IIT anp IV

GRAMINEAE
Stipa elatior, Hughes. Near Clare, E. C. Black.

LILIACEAE

Xcnthorrhoea quadrangulata, F. v. M. Grown from seed in Dr. E. C. Black’s
garden at Magill and fruiting in second year (December, 1937). Capsule brown,
glossy, l-seeded, rarely 2- or 3-seeded, about 15 mm. long, on a conical ribbed
rigid stipes about 5 mm. long, each of the three valves ending in a pungent mucro;
seed compressed, triquetrous, dull-black, about 10 mm. long. At this early stage
the plant has no stem, the older leaves lying flat on the ground.

PROTEACEAE

Hakea chordophylla, F. v. M. Fraser River 4 miles E. of MacDonald
Downs, C.A., 1930, J. B. Cleland. Wrongly recorded as “G. chordophylla,” p. 242
of last year’s Transactions.

Grevillea stenobotrya, F. v. M. Between Alice Springs and the Granites,
C.A., Sept. 1936, £. C. Black. The fruit is at first smooth and dark-reddish-
brown; after a time this dark epicarp breaks away in pieces and discloses a pale-
brown pitted endocarp. G. livea, Ewart et Archer, Fl. N. Terr. 84, t. 8 (1917),
is apparently a synonym of G. stenobotrya, F. v. M. (1875).

CRUCIFERAE

Blennodia blennodioides (F. v. M.) Druce in Rept. Bot. Exch. Club, 1916,
609 (1917). Hermannsburg, C.A., Aug. 1929, J. B. Cleland. First record for
Central Australia—Erysimum blennodioides, F. v. M. in Linnaea 25: 367 (1852) ;
Blennodia lasiocarpa, F. vy. M. in Trans. Phil. Soc. Vict, 1: 100, in adnot. (1855).
This last name was adopted by Bentham in the FL. Aust., but is not correct under
the International Rules of 1905 and 1930, which only forbid the use of specific
names “when they exactly repeat the generic name.”

Blennodia brevipes, F. v. M. in Trans. Phil. Soc. Vict. 1: 100 (1855) in
adnot. This small annual, found in all the southern States except Tasmania,
possesses the following synonyms :—Erysimum brevipes, F. v. M. in Linnaea

© Several of these notes refer to Central Australian species which have not so far
been found in South Australia.

Trans. Roy. Soc, 8.A., 62, (1), 22 July 1938

102

25: 367 (1852) ; Alyssopsis Drummondii, Vurcz. in Bull. Soc. Nat. Mosc. 27:2: 291
(1854) ; Sisymnbrium brachypodum, F. v. M., Fragm. 7:20 (1869) ; Hlarmsiodoxa
brevipes (F. v. M.) O. E. Schulz in Engl, Pflanzenr., Heft 86:260 (1924) 3
Blennodia Drummondii (Turez.) C. A. Gardner, Enum, Pl. Aust. Occ. 45 (1930).

LEGUMINOSAE

Cassia oligophylla, F. v. M. Vhe Granites, C.A., Aug. 1936, J. B. Cleland.
First record for Central Australia. Previously collected in north-west of
Western Australia and in western Queensland,

Leaflets silvery with a close appressed pubescence; pods 3-5 em. long, by
12-16 mm. broad. The flowers are in 6-flowered umbels, not in “short racemes.”
C. desolata also has the flowers usually in umbels.

Acacia Kempeana, F. v. M. Neepabuuna, Flinders Range, 1937, J. B.
Cleland. A new locality.

Psoralea pustulata, F. v. M, The Granites, C.A,, Aug. 1936, J. B. Cleland.
First record for Central Australia. The specimen agrecs with Bentham’s descrip-
tion, except that the terminal leaflet is lanceolate-oblong and 4-7 cm. long.

Jacksonia anomala, Ewart et Morrison. Between the Granites and Thom-
son’s Waterhole, C.A., Aug. 1936, J. B. Cleland. The two keel-petals are not
merely separate but are distant from each other and placed immediately against
the inner face of the two narrow wings (pl. iv, fig. 1).

Indigofera Georgei, E. Pritzel in Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 35: 268 (1904) = I. bovi-
perda, Morrison in Journ. Bot. 50: 166 (1912).

Centr. Aust —The Granites; Archibald’s Soak, near Coniston Station; W. of
Brook’s Soak, June 1936, J. B. Cleland.

This grey-tomentose plant, recognisable by its constantly five obovate leaflets
and its small red flowers, was also found on the Lander Creek by G. F. Hill in
1911 and recorded (as /. boviperda) by Ewart and Davies in Fl. N. Terr., p. 142.

Morrison distinguishes his I, boviperda from I. Georgei by stating that “the
leaves and pods are shorter and the racemes attain a greater length.” Neither of
these distinctions appears valid. Both descriptions agree as to the number, shape
and size of the leaflets, Pritzel says the racemes are 2-5 cm, long, his specimens
being in flower, with unripe pods (“legumen submaturum”) 3 em. long. In
Morrison’s specimens the petals had fallen, the pods were ripe and 12-28 mm.
long, and the racemes were 2-19 cm. long. Both these types came from the central
and northern parts of Western Australia. In our specimens from Central Aus-
tralia the leaflets are usually 6-12 mm. long, the long terminal ones rarely reach-
ing 25 mm.; the racemes are short and dense at first, but in fruit become loose
and lengthen to 15 cm. or more. The ripe pods are 2-4 em. long, with a rigid
mucro. The caducous bracts are broad-lanceolate and shorter than the flowers
they subtend.

Indigofera linifolia, Retz. The Granites, C.A,, Aug. 1936, J. B. Cleland.
Already recorded from the MacDonnell Ranges.

103

Indigofera lursuta, L. Pine Hill (north of MacDonnell Ranges and near
Hanson River), C.A., Aug. 1936, J. B. Cleland. The hairs of the stem and of
the leaf-rhachis are less spreading than in North Australian and Asiatic specimens.
Standard pubescent on back and keel pubescent on midrib; bracts about 5 mm.
long, oblanceolate, channelled above.

Indigofera viscosa, Lamk. Coniston Station; the Granites, C.A., Aug. 1936,
fruiting, J. B. Cleland, Recorded by Tate for Hermannsburg,

Crotalaria crispata (F. v. M.) Benth. The Granites, C.A., Aug. 1936, J. B.
Cleland. First record for Central Australia.

Tephrosia phaeosperma, F. v. M., ex Bentham, 20 miles south of the Granites,
C.A., Aug. 1937, J. B. Cleland, First record for Central Australia.

Tephrosia eriocarpa, Benth. The Granites, C.A., Aug. 1936, J. B. Cleland.
First record for Central Australia. In our specimens the flowers are mostly in
racemes, which in fruit become 15 to 20 cm. long.

Ptychosema stipulare nov. sp. Plantula procumbens, omnino (corolla
ovarioque exceptis) patenti-pilosa; caules plures, graciles, 10-20 cm. longi,
dichotome ramosi; folia distantia, 3-foliolata; foliola brevissime petiolulata,
obovata, 4-6 mm. longa; petioli filiiormes, 5-10 mm. longi; stipulae conspicuae,
orbiculari-acutae, circa 4 mm. longae; pedunculi, axillares, 1-flori, 15-20 mm.
longi, prope apicem articulati ct bracteati; bractea linearis, pedicellum brevem
superans; calyx 5 mm. longus, lobis lanceolatis, tubum subaequantibus, duobus
superioribus brevioribus; bracteolae 2, tubum calycis aequantes; vexillum ungui-
culatum, circa 7 mm. longum, cum alis brevioribus purpureo-punctatum; carina
flava, vexilla paulo brevior; stamina in tubum fissum connata; ovarium planum,
glabrum, 6-7-ovulatum, stylo brevi; legumen immaturum pl!anum, glabrum lineari-
oblongum, circa 25 cm. longum, 6-7 mm. latum, conspicue stipitatum (tab. iii, fig. 4).

Near Bundoona railway station, C.A., Aug. 1936, J. B. Cleland,

Resembles P. trifoliolatum, F. v. M., in habit, but differs in its covering of
spreading hairs, instead of being almost or quite glabrous; also in the leaflets,
which are not obcordate, and especially in the conspicuous stipules, which are
orbicular instead of small and linear. The upper lip of the calyx is not almost
truncate-emarginate, as in P. trifoliolatum, but consists of the two upper lobes,
which are lanceolate, like the three lower ones, although united for a short
distance. The colour of the flowers is also different, the standard and wings being
purple-dotted, while in P. trifoliolatum they are yellow, and in the latter species
the keel is longer than the standard.

Piychosema trifoliolatum, F. vy. M. Coniston, C.A., Aug. 1936, J. B. Cleland.
Recorded by Tate from near the James Range, C.A.

Desmodium parvifolium, DC. (pl. iii, fig. 1). The drawing is from a
specimen collected by Leichhardt at Archer’s Station, Queensland, and lent by
the Victorian National Herbarium. Not yet found in Central Australia. The
single leaflets are quite as numerous as the ternate ones; the hairs of the pod are
not hooked.

104

Desmodium Muelleri, Benth. (pl. iii, fig. 2). The drawing is from a fruiting
specimen collected by Dr. Maurice Holtze, probably near Darwin, in 1890, and
kindly lent by the Government Botanist of Victoria, Mr. I’. J. Rae. Another
specimen, from the Upper Victoria River, F. Mueller, also obtained on loan, has
unripe pods and longer leaflets, 14-3 cm. long. The leaflets in both specimens
are conspicuously reticulate and the hairs of the pods are hooked. Not yet found
in Central Australia. The late Prof. Ewart records (Fl. N. Terr. 150) specimens
collected on the Adelaide River, N.A., with pods indented on both sutures, and
which he refers to D. Muelleri, They may be D. neurocarpum.

Desmodium neurocarpum, Benth. (pls. iii fig. 3, and iv fig. 2). Archibald’s
Soak (between Coniston and the Granites), C_.A., Aug. 1936, J. B. Cleland. First
record for Central Australia. In the specimens from Archibald’s Soak the plant
is small and apparently procumbent, the leaflets are more often solitary than three,
mostly broad-oblong, 10-18 mm. long, 5-10 mm. broad. In the type-specimen
(pl. iv, fig. 2), collected by Mueller on the Upper Victoria River and kindly lent
by the Victorian National Herbarium, the leaflets are 15-35 mm. long and
5-8 mm. broad. In all specimens the terminal leaflct is the longest and the reticu-
lation is prominent, especially on the undersurface. The fruiting peduncles are
very slender and attain a length of 10-25 cm. Very near D. Muelleri, Benth.,
differing chiefly in the pod, which has the upper margin indented between the
articles, which are rather more strongly reticulate, and the hairs along the margin

are straight, while in D. Muelleri the upper margin is straight or almost so and
the hairs are hooked at summit.

It is probable that our Central Australian specimens are the same as
D. neurocarpum, Benth. var. queenslandicum, Domin in Bibl. Bot. 89: 768, which
is described as having shorter and broader leaflets than the type and very slender
prostrate branches. The variety is recorded by Domin from the Queensland
coasts and from near Hughenden, on the Flinders River.

MALVACEAE

Hibiscus

The position of Hibiscus brachychlaenus and its immediate allies was in-
correctly defined in the FI. S. Aust. 381 (1926) and an attempt is here made to
place them more satisfactorily.

A. Leaves all undivided, oblong-lanceolate, 3-6 cm. long,
15-25 mm. broad, tomentum dense, of stellate hairs
about 14 mm. across; epicalyx of 7-10 free bracteoles
only half as long as the calyx-tube; calyx 15-20 mm.
long; peduncles swollen below calyx to the breadth of
the calyx-tube; style-branches free . FW, brachychlaenus 1

A. Leaves mostly 3-5-lobed; tomentum less dense, of ‘stellate
hairs about 4 mm. across; epicalyx of 7-10 free
bracteoles about as long as the calyx-tube; peduncles
not swollen below calyx.

B. Leaves all 3-5 lobed; style-branches twisted and connate.

105

C. Leaves almost orbicular in outline, to 5 cm. long and
broad, the lobes ovate, 15-25 mm. broad, coarsely
crenate in upper part, strongly nerved below; calyx
16-25 mm. long ...

C, Leaves ovate in outline, the lobes oblong-cuneate,
narrow (4-10 mm. broad), coarsely toothed; calyx .
20-25 mm. long... . A. Drummondi 3

B. Uppermost leaves undivided, linear-lanceolate, 3-5 em,
long, 8-12 mm. broad, crenate in upper part; other
leaves deeply divided into 3 oblong-cuneate or almost
obovate, more or less toothed lobes 8-12 mm. broad;
calyx about 15 mm. long; style-branches free w. Hf. intraterraneus 4
1 H. brachychlaenus, F. vy. M. Fragm. 3:5 (1862).—H. microchlaenus,
F.v. M. Fragm. 2: 116, nomen nudum (1861).
C. Aust-—The Granites, Aug. 1936, 7. B. Cleland.
N. Aust.—Upper Victoria River.
W. Aust.—Nichol Bay; Fortescue and Fitzroy Rivers; Rawlinson Range.
Queensland—Cape River.
Tate gives this species for Eyre Peninsula, but I have scen no specimen from
that locality.
2 HH. Pinonianus, Gaudich. in Freyc. Voy. Bot. 476, t. 100 (1826).
S. Aust—Between Wynbring and Ooldea, April 1917, 8S. A. White.
C. Aust.—Mount Denison, J. 7. Stuart.

W. Aust.—Sharks Bay, Gaudichaud; Victoria Desert, R. Helms.

3 A. Drummondit, Turcz. in Bull. Mosc, 1, 195 (1858).

S. Aust.—Minnipa, E.P., Nov. 1915, J. M. B.; N. of Murat Bay, Dec. 1917,
B. P, Bowering.

W. Aust—-Murchison and Greenough Rivers.

4H. intraterraneus, J. M. Black in Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 49:274
(1925).

S. Aust—-Everard, Musgrave and Birksgate Ranges, R. Helms, S. A. White,
A. H, Finlayson.

C. Aust.—MacDonnell Ranges, R. Tate.

IH, Pinonianus 2

SOLANACEAE

Solanum phlomoides (A. Cunn.) Benth, The Granites, C.A., Aug. 1936,
J.B. Cleland. First record for Central Australia. Ouly differs from Bentham’s
description in the leaves (5-9 cm. long by 24-34 cm. broad) being all obtuse and
none acuminate. The very large globular or ovoid fruit (3-4 cm. long) is exceeded
by the narrow-pointed calyx-lobes, which are about 4 cm. long, the whole calyx,
including the broad tube, being about 5 cm. long or rather more. The sceds are
very numercus and black. The fruit is (in our specimens) only produced by
the lowest flower of each raceme, the upper flowers being apparently male only
and caducous. The berry is eaten by the natives.

Solanum nemophilum, F.v. M. The type, from Queensland, had no prickles,
and the plant was so described; owing to this error it was re-described by me as

106

S. centrale in Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 58: 180, t. 11, fig. 4 (1934). Almost
all our specimens show prickles, sometimes rather numerous, on the branches.
This species was collected by H. UH. Finlayson in January 1934, 60 miles south
of Ernabella, in the Musgrave Ranges—the only record for South Australia—and
the specimen was compared with the type in the Victorian National Herbarium.

STYLIDIACEAE

Stylidium inaequipetalum nov. sp. Plantula perennis, 7-14 cm. alta; folia
omnia basilaria, crassiuscula, spathulata, obtusa vel subacuta, glabra, 14-3 cm.
longa, apice 2-4 mm. lata, in rosulam densam conferta; scapi 4-7, graciles, crecti,
pilis glanduliferis conspersi, paniculam laxam thyrsoideam 5-9 cm. longam
gerentes, bracteis exceptis efoliati; flores racemosi vel superiores cymosi; bracteae
herbaceae, ovato-lanceolatae, saepe oppositae, 2-3 mm. longae; pedicelli circa
2 mm. longi; receptaculum circa 3 mm. longum, parce glanduloso-pubescens ;
sepala libera, 1 mm. longa; corollac lobi valde dissimiles, duo posteriores crassi,
cuneati, apice truncati, circa 3 mm. longi, duo anteriores minores, circa 1-14 mm.
longi; labellum ovatum, minimum, ad basin bicorniculatum; capsula obconica,
striata, 34-4 mm. longa, 14 mm. lata, fere unilocularis; semina minuta, orbicularia,
circa 15 (tab. iv, fig. 3).

Central Australia—Near Ayers Rock, June 1937, J. B. Cleland.

Belongs to Bentham’s section Spathulatae and in aspect resembles S. assimile,
R. Br., but differs in the very unequal corolla-lobes, the two posterior ones being
two to almost three times as long as the two anterior; in the sparse glandular
hairs of the inflorescence; in the ovate-lanceolate subacute bracts about as long
as the pedicels, and in the shorter capsule. In S. assimile the corolla-lobes are
equal, the inflorescence is densely pubescent, the bracts are linear, obtuse and
scarcely half as long as the pedicels, and the capsule is 6 mm. long.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES

Pate TIT

Fig. 1 Desmodium parvifolium:—aA, flowcring and fruiting branch; B, summit of raceme,
showing flower and bracts enclosing buds; C, leaf; D, pod.

Fig. 2 Desmodium Muelleri:—E, fruiting branch; F, pod.

Fig. 3 Desmodium neurocar pum :—G, two solitary Icaflets and raceme in early budding stage;
H, summit of raceme; J, flower: J, pod. (From Archibald’s Soak, C.A.)

Vig. 4 Plychosema stipulare:—K, plant; L, flower; M, standard; N, leaf,

Pirate IV
Fig. 1 Jacksonia anomala:—A, part of plant; B, flower; C, standard: D, one of the wings:
E, one of the keel-petals; F, one valve of capsule and seed. a

Fig. 2 Desmodin 2 neurocarpum:—C, rulling branch; FT lowes articl oO e-
i WALT COV PUL: G 1 } % 2 nle Pp
5 e] pod (Fr mty

J

Fig. 3. Stylidium inaequipetalum:—I, plant; J, corolla spread open.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1938 Vol. 62, Plate III

1 Desmodium parvifolium 2 Desmedium Muelleri 3 Desmodium neurocarpum
4 Ptychosema stipulare

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1968

1 Jacksoma anumala 2 Desmodium neurocarpum

Vol. 62, Plate

3 Stylidium inacquipetalum

AN ACCOUNT OF SOME FILARIAL PARASITES OF AUSTRLAIAN
MARSUPIALS

BY HARVEY T. JOHNSTON AND PATRICIA M. MAWSON

Summary

The collection of Filarial parasites from Australian marsupials at present under consideration was
obtained chiefly in Queensland, New South Wales and Central Australia. References to recorded
occurrences of these and other entozoan from this order of mammals in the Australian region were
brought together by one of us (Johnston, 1909, 191 1, 1916), but many were listed merely as Filaria
sp. Oldham (1933) gave a list of the entozoa reported from Australian and American marsupials.

107

AN ACCOUNT OF SOME FILARIAL PARASITES OF
AUSTRALIAN MARSUPIALS

By T. Harvey Jounston and Patricia M. Mawson

Zoology Department, University of Adelaide
[Read 12 May 1938]

The collection of Filarial parasites from Australian marsupials at present
under consideration was obtained chiefly in Queensland, New South Wales and
Central Australia. References to recorded occurrences of these and other entozoa
from this order of mammals in the Australian region were brought together by
one of us (Johnston, 1909, 1911, 1916), but many were listed merely as f*ilaria sp.
Oldham (1933) gave a list of the entozoa reported from Australian and American
marsupials.

In the present paper four species of Dipetalonema are described as new
(D, dasyuri, D. rarum, D. annulipapillatum and D. tenue), and an account is given
of D. roemeri (Linstow), D. spelaea (Leidy), and D. trichosuri (Breinl). Brief
relerence is also made to female specimens, listed as Dipetalonema sp., and
Filaria (s.l.) spp., from four different host species. Of the filariae already
described from Australian or New Guinea marsupials, three species have not
been identified amongst our material—Breinlia dendrolagt Solomon, 1933,
described from Dendrolagus inustus (New Guinea); Filaria dentifera Linstow,
1898, from Trichosurus vulpecula (Queensland) ; and Dipetalonema capilliforme
Baylis, 1934, from Dasyurus hallucatus (North Queensland).

The various parasites studied in the present paper are listed under their
respective hosts as follows :—

Macropus major Shaw—Dipetalonema roemeri (Burnett River, Queensland).

Macropus robustus Gould—D. roemeri (Cockatoo Creek and Mount Liebig,

Central Australia) ; D, tenue n, sp. (Cockatoo Creek and Mount Liebig,
Central Australia).

Macropus parryi Bennett—D. roemeri (Burnett River).

Macropus melanops Gould——D, roemeri (North Western Australia).

Macropus dorsalis Gray—D. annulipapilatum n. sp. (Burnett River).

Macropus ualabatus Less. and Garn—D. roemeri (Lower Hawkesbury, New

South Wales).

Macropus welsbyi Longman—D. roemeri (Stradbroke Island, South Queens-

land).
Dendrolagus lumholsti Collett — Dipetalonema sp. (? roemeri) (North
Queensland, from Melbourne Zoological Gardens).

Dendrolagus bennettianus De Vis—D. spelaea (North Queensland, from
Sydney Zoological Gardens).

Petrogale penicillata Gray—D. spelaea (Burnett River).

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 62, (1), 22 July 1938

108

Onychogale frenata Gould—Dipetalonema annulipapillatum n. sp. (Burnett
River); D. rarum n. sp. (Victoria) ; D. roemer: (Burnett River).

Trichosurus vulpecula Kerr—D. trichosurt (Burnett River).

Trichosurus caninus Ogilby—Fuilaria (s1.) sp. (Townsville, Gosford, Lower
Hawkesbury River, New South Wales).

Potorous tridactylus Kerr—Filaria (s.1.) sp. (Dorrigo, New South Wales).

Dasyurus maculatus Kerr—Fuilaria (s.1.) sp. (Brisbane).

Dasyurus viverrinus Shaw—Duipetalonema dasyuri n. sp. (Victoria).

The last-named two hosts belong to the Polyprotodontia, all the others to the
Diprotodontia.

The host name Macropus major has been used instead of M. giganteus, of
which the former has long been regarded as a synonym. The confusion regarding
the correct name of the Great Kangaroo has been discussed by Iredale and
Troughton, who have pointed out that M@. major Shaw is the correct name for it.
M. giganteus of Erxleben and of Zimmermann belongs to the species seen by
Captain Cook in the vicinity of what is now Cooktown, North Queensland, this
species being a much smaller form, in fact, a wallaby, Wallabia cangaru Muller,
1776, whose range cxtends northwards to Cape York Peninsula (Iredale and
‘Troughton, Mem. Austr. Museum, 6, 1934, 55; Rec. Austr. Museum, 20, (1),
1937, 67-71). In our paper we have not utilized the subdivisions of the old genus
Macropus. We take the opportunity to correct an crror im Linstow’s paper (1898)
dealing with some parasites collected in the Burnett River region by Semon: the
name Dasypus hallucatus should be Dasyurus hallucalus, sloths (Dasypus) being
absent from Australia. The parasite referred to by Linstow was a larval ncma-
tode, recorded, perhaps incorrectly, as Ascaris sp.

We des:re to acknowledge assistance in regard to material from the late
Dr. T. L. Bancroft and from his daughter, Dr. J. M. Mackerras, for specimens
trom the Eidsvold district, Upper Burnett River, Qucensland; Mr. A. S. LeSouef,
Director, Taronga Zoological Park, Sydney, for worms from Dendrolagus and
Potorous; Professor O. W. Tiegs, University of Melbourne, for specimens from
Dasyurus viverrinus; and our colleaguc, Professor J. BR. Cleland, for parasites
from Macropus melanops, The remaining material was collected by the senior
author, much of it during the various anthropological expeditions to Central
Australia (1929-1937).

Types of new species have been deposited in the South Australian Museum,
Adelaide.

Wehr (1935, 87) erected the family Dipetalonematidae (Syn. Dirofilariidae
Sandground) to receive two subfamilies, Dipetalonematinae (to include Oncho-
cercinae Leiper as well as Loainae and Setariinae Yorke and Maplestone (in
part), and Dirofilariinae (a new subfamily for Dirofilaria and Loa). Chitwood
and Chitwood (1937) have accepted, in part, Wehr’s classification. We regard
Dipetaloncmatidac as a synonym of Sandground’s family, which has priority.
We follow Baylis (1934) in using Dipetalonema instead of Acanthocheilonema.

109

Dipetalonema dasyuri n. sp.
Figs. 1-7

The specimens occurred in large numbers in the body cavity of a “native
cat,” Dasyurus viverrinus, from Victoria. They are long, slender and much coiled.
The head is the shape of a truncated cone. There is a tapering tail on which are
a pair of sub-terminal papillae. A little back from the anterior extremity are two
pairs of large papillae, 0-008 mm. long in the male.

The male attains a length of 20 to 40 mm., and a maximum breadth of
0:17--26 mm. The head at its widest part is 0°1--13 mm. wide, and the breadth
taken just in front of the cloaca 0-092-:1 mm. The cuticle at about the middle
of the body is 2-7 thick. The nerve ring is 0°16-:22 mm. from the anterior
end. The tail region is coiled in a close spiral of three or four turns. The cloaca
is 0-4--5 mm. from the posterior end, so that the tail is one seventy-fifth of the
body length, Around the cloaca are four pairs of papillae, two pre-anal and two
post-anal. The spicules are unequal, one being 0-12 mm. and the other 0-2 mm.
long. They are of approximately the same shape, cylindrical at the upper or
proximal end, spatulate and curved at the distal end, to terminate in a point which
is more drawn out in the longer spicule. The testis tubule begins in a swollen
portion just posterior to the ocsophagus, and is straight for some distance, then
coiled. The wide oesophagus consists of an anterior narrower portion, 0°29 to
*32 mm. in length, and a longer wider region 1:1 to 1:2 mm. in length, 7.¢., about
one twenty-eighth of the body length. The straight intestine is relatively wider
in the male.

The female dimensions vary considerably with age. The adult is 83 to
97 mm. long, with a maximum breadth of 0°36 to -37 mm. The head is 0°2 mm.
wide, and the cloacal region 0°12-:15 mm. The tail is 0-35 to -7 mm. and bears,
like the male, a pair of subterminal papillae, 0-01 mm. long. The cuticle is
13-19 ». The nerve ring is about 0-21 mm. from the head end. The anterior
part of the oesophagus is about 0°28-:38 mm., and the longer succeeding portion
1:7-2'1 mm., 7.e., about one forty-sixth of the body length. The vagina is much
coiled in the adult, extending forward almost to the anterior end, then bending
' back and curving around the position of the vulva, ending in a muscular enlarge-
ment from which a narrow tube leads to the exterior. The vulva in the adult
female divides the body from head to tail in the ratio 1:15, in young females
the ratio is 1:12. The vagina leads into the uterus and this divides into two uteri
which become continuous with the oviducts towards the posterior end. The
coils of the ovarian tubes extend almost to the tip of the tail. The uterus is
packed with eggs, and among these was found one larva. The eggs are 25 » by
21-5 », and the larva 0:15 mm. long and -009 mm. wide.

The species differs from D. roemeri and Filaria australis in having sub-
terminal papillae, also in the number and arrangement of the anal papillae in the
male, and in the dimensions of the worms; from F. dentifera Linstow in the
absence of a dorsal papilla on the head, in being much shorter (especially the
males), in the position of the vulva, and in the number of cloacal papillae; from

H

110

Figs 1-7

Figs. 1-7 Dipetalonema dasyuri 1, anterior end of female; 2, part of female, con-

tinuous with fig. 1 at AR; 3, lateral view of female, cloacal region; 4, posterior end of

female, ventral; 5, spicules, ventral; 6, head of male, ventral; 7, spicules. Figs. 3, 5 and
7 are drawn to same magnification; 4 and 6 to scale beside 4

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES

References to Lettering—a, anus; ca, caudal ala; g, gland; i, intestine; 1, larvae;
0, ovary; o¢s, oesophagus; od, oviduct; ut, uterus; vy, vagina; vu, vulva; vd, vas deferens;
wut, wall of uterus.

111

D. capilliforme in having the oesophagus longer and differentiated into two parts,
two pairs of cephalic papillae, the nerve ring further back, tail shorter, spicules
relatively of different sizes, the vagina bending forwards and the vulva situated
further back. It differs from Dipetalonema dendrolagi in the shorter length,
relative lengths of two spicules, and the arrangement of the papillae in the
cloacal region.
DIPETALONEMA ROEMERI (Linstow)
Figs. 8-13

Specimens have been examined from Macropus major (knee joint),
M. robustus (knee joint and in body cavity), M. melanops, M. dorsalis (knee
joint), M. parryi, M. ruficollis (tail muscles) and in Onychogale frenata.

These agree with Linstow’s description, but in view of the large number of
specimens examined, his account can now be amplified. As Baylis (1925) has
noted, the larger spicule consists of a cylindrical proximal portion and a needle-
like distal portion with which is associated inrolled alae. The number of cloacal
papillae has been found to be subject to variation, there being usually four pairs
of pre-anal, but we have found some with three pairs, others with four on one side
and six on the other. There have always been found one pair of adanal,
one pair immediately post-anal, and five pairs of lateral papillae, as well as a pair
of small papillae near the mid-line behind these.

In the male there are eight papillae around the mouth, arranged in pairs
laterally, dorsally and ventrally as in the diagram, and in the female four single
papillae in these positions.

In the female the position of the ovarian tubes and oviducts varies with the
age of the specimen, appearing in the older ones in the anterior region, even in
front of the vulva. The oviducts pass back leading to the uteri which travel to
the posterior end of the body, and return, joining near the end of the oesophagus.
The vagina which begins soon after this junction, twists about before entering
the vulva. The position of this varies with the age, the ratio of the total body
length to the distance between the vulva and anterior end varying from 30:1 to
50:1. Females with this difference have been found either together or with the
characteristic male of D. roemeri, and their general anatomy and dimensions such
as the relation of length to thickness, the anterior end, the nerve cord and tail, are
similar. The vulva, moreover, in almost all cases bears the same relation to the
oesophagus, extending forward from the posterior end for one-half to one-quarter
the length of the latter organ.

D, roemeri was described originally by Linstow (1905, 356-8) from material
collected from the subcutaneous tissue of Macropus antilopinus Gould. No locality,
except Australia, was given. The range of this species is the Northern Territory.
Linstow quoted some references to Filaria websteri, but remarked that no descrip-
tion of it had been published.

In the catalogue of the Royal College of Surgeons, London (1830-37), there
is reference to the Filaria macropi majoris, worms found in the capsular ligaments

412

of the knee joint of a kangaroo. Diesing in 1851 altered the name to F. macropodis
gigantet. Cobbold (1879, 433) renamed it F. websteri after its discoverer and
mentioned that Bancroft had also found it in the great kangaroo. The latter
sent much parasitic material to Cobbold from Queensland, and no doubt this
record relates to material from that State. Bennett, in his “Wanderings in New
South Wales” (1, 1834, 293), reported finding long thin white filariae encysted
in the knee joint of M. major in New South Wales. Fletcher (P.L.S., N.S.W.,
8, 1883, 388) found F. websteri in the same species, also from New South Wales.

Other authors (e.g., Molin, Linstow) have referred to some of the foregoing
occurrences. Railliet and Henry in 1910 (C.R. Soc. Biol., 68, 1910, 251) suggested
that the species might belong to Onchocerca. Yorke and Maplestone (1926, 395)
placed it under Dirofilaria. T. L. Bancroft (‘lrans. Inter. Med. Congr. Austr.,
1889, 50; Austr. Med. Gaz., 12, 1893, 258) also referred to the parasite from
kangaroos, undoubtedly Queensland occurrences. Crisp (P.Z.S., 1853, 68)
mentioned the presence of Filaria sp. in the knee joint of a kangaroo. Johnston
and M. J. Bancroft (P.R.5, Queensland, 32, 1920, 45) referred to its occurrence
in the knee joint of Macropus parryi and M. giganteus in the Burnett River
district, embryos having been taken from the blood of the former.

In spite of the numerous refercnces to the parasite, no information regarding
it has ever been published, apart from its location in certain species of kangaroos.
Its specific name is consequently a nomen nudum, D. roemeri is undoubtedly the
same parasite, as our expericnce has shown that it commonly frequents the knee
joint of many species of Macropus, including the type host for F. websteri.
Accordingly, we consider that the valid name should be D. roemeri (Linstow )
instead of Dipet. websteri (Cobbold), which has no nomenclatorial standing.

DIPETALONEMA sp. (? D, RoEMERI)

Specimens from the coelome of a tree kangaroo, Dendrolagus lumholeu, are
all immature females. They are from 6-3 to 9:5 ems. long and 1-38 to 1:69 mm.
in maximum diameter. The rounded anterior and posterior ends taper a little,
the head being about 0-107 mm. broad and the width in the region of the anus
0-15 to -2 mm. The distance from the anterior end to the nerve ring is about
0°42 mm.

The head has no lips or teeth and only two pairs of small lateral papillae.
The walls of the most antcrior portion of the oesophageal tube are slightly
chitinised. The wide oesophagus is 2°7 to 3-1 mm. long, but is not straight. The
intestine is wider, and can be seen by the naked eye as a brown-green line passing
down almost to the anus. It narrows suddenly about 0-2 mm. from the anus,
with which it is connected by a narrow tube. The tail is very short, 0°13 to
*21 mm. long, and bluntly conical.

There is in these young specimens no sign of ovarian tubes, but the uterus
and the vagina can be distinguished in the anterior part of the body. The vulva is
0-54 to 6 mm. from the anterior extremity.

UOIPSY USL DuTeS O} QT PUe OF 66, PUE ZI SST pue TI S/T pue pT ‘ST ‘6 “s8ny
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pus toiiajsod ‘OQ, ‘pula Jollee ‘S[-py uspoyuen) SnBojoapuagy wor ‘ds pmauomjadig7 OI--] ‘sau

pepnajyxe afnoids Jasuo] ‘Mora
[e49}P] ‘a]euUr Jo pus sorsaysod ‘eT ‘yeajuaa ‘ayeur Jo pua sorsajsod ‘zy {Mara yesazE] ‘ayeuray Jo pua sorsaysod ‘TT fayeurey
Sunes jo pua Jolie ‘QT fayeut jo pus sosyue ‘

6 ‘qyeuoy rspjo jo pus doweye ‘g tMamsos pilauopnjedig ¢[-g ‘S317

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114

This must be regarded as an immature form, but its general anatomy, length
and thickness agree most closely with those of D. roemeri, The oesophagus is,
however, wider and somewhat sinuous.

Lumholz in 1884 (P.Z.S., 1884, 409) referred to the presence of parasitic
worms in the subcutaneous tissues of this tree kangaroo, which he discovered in
Northern Coastal Queensland.

Dipetalonema rarum n. sp.
Figs. 17-19

Specimens from Onychogale frenata comprised one whole female, the
posterior end of another, and the anterior end of a male. They were taken from
small subcutaneous nodules.

The worms are relatively thin and elongated, the female being 51-5 mm. long
and 0-187 mm. maximum diameter. ‘The head is rounded, bearing four lips and
four small papillae; it is 0-126 mm. wide in the female and 0°059 mm. in the
male. The tail is tapering, ending in a rounded point, and bears two rather large
subterminal papillae. Across the anus the body width is, in the female, 0°09 mm.
The tail is 0-27 mm. long. The oesophagus is 3:15 mm. long in the female and
2-7 mm, in the male. From the anterior extremity to the nerve ring is 0-252 mm.
in the male, and 0-12 mm. in the female.

The testis tube starts with a bulb-like portion near the posterior end of the
oesophagus and continues to a coiled part about the middle of the body, where it
enters the vesicula seminalis; the rest of the body is missing just beyond this level.

The ovarian tubes extend almost to the anus; the two uteri unite a little
behind the vulva, one of them being much bent just before this junction. The
vagina is slightly coiled, then straight for a short distance before ending in a
muscular bulb from which a narrow tube leads to the exterior. The vulva is
just behind the posterior end of the oesophagus, being 3°55 mm. from the
anterior end.

There is some difficulty in classifying this worm as the posterior end of the
male is absent; the head, and the posterior end of the female, indicate the genus
Dipetalonema; the papillae of the head and the position of the vulva do not agree
with any species so far described.

Plimmer (1912a, 407; 1912b, 137) referred to finding microfilariae in the
blood of Onychogale frenata in the London Zoological Gardens, but originally
from New South Wales. The adult worms occurred in the body cavity of the
mother and of the foetus within the pouch. The species may, perhaps, have been
D, spelaea.

«

DIPETALONEMA SPELAEA (Leidy)
Figs. 20-24
Leidy, in 1875, gave an account of this species from a “whallabee” as
Filaria spelaea, Linstow (1897) described a parasite from a rock wallaby
(Petrogale) as Filaria australis, Breinl (1911) described a worm from the body
cavity of Trichosurus vulpecula as F. trichosuri. Leiper (P.Z.S., 1919, 620) |

115

recorded F. australis from a wallaby in London Zoological Gardens. Walton
(1927, 111-113) re-examined Leidy’s material and found it to belong to the same
species as Linstow’s, hence Leidy’s name should stand. Baylis (1925) described
a filariid from the common opossum, Trichosurus vulpecula, which resembled
F. australis Linstow (or F. spelaea), except that the major spicule was much
shorter and there was a difference in the anal and the caudal papillae, but decided
that his material belonged to Linstow’s species which he placed in Acanthocheilo-
nema. Boulenger (1928) stated that he had examined specimens from Hal-
maturus sp. (i.e., a wallaby) which agreed very closely with Linstow’s, but not
with Baylis’s description. He concluded that Baylis was dealing with a form
closely allied to, but distinct from, Linstow’s species. Oldham (1933, 30) listed
the parasite as Setaria spelaea, as also did Railliet and Henry (1911). Thwaite
(1927, 465) republished Leidy’s account.

In 1934 Baylis published a list of synonyms of Dipetalonema spelaea (Leidy),
including F. australis Linstow, F. trichosuri Breinl, 1913, and Acanthocheilonema
austvale Baylis, 1925. He stated that the most important difference lay in the
length of the major spicule, and he assumed that this feature was variable within
the species.

We have examined numerous worms from Trichosurus vulpecula and from
Petrogale penicillata, and find that in males from the latter host the major spicule
is always long, agreeing with Linstow’s account, but that in .those from
Trichosurus it is short, agreeing with Breinl’s description. The difference in
size, moreover, is so great that we are unable to agree with Baylis in his identifica~
tion, and we agree with Boulenger that there are two closely allied species

(1) Dipetalonema spelaea (Leidy) ; found in the body cavity of Petrogale
penicillata. Synonyms: Fuilaria spelaea Leidy, 1875; F. australis
Linstow, 1897; Setaria spelaca Railliet and Henry, 1911; Acanthocheilo-
nema spelaea Walton, 1927; Dipetalonema australe Boulenger, 1928.

(2) Dipetalonema trichosuri (Breinl); found in the body cavity of
Trichosurus vulpecula. Synonyms: Filaria trichosuri Breinl, 1913;
Acanthocheilonema australe Baylis, 1925; Breinlia trichosuri Yorke and
Maplestone, 1926.

We have also found males corresponding to Linstow’s and to Boulenger’s
description from the subcutaneous tissues of Dendrolagus benettianus, a tree
kangaroo from North Queensland.

Parasites belonging to Dipetalonema. spelaea are long thin worms with
rounded anterior end and tapering tail. The cuticle is marked with definite trans-
verse striations which are. close together. The male is about 11 to 12 cms. long,
with maximum diameter of 0°32 mm.; the female is 23 to 24 cms. long with a
maximum diameter of 0°66 mm. There are two large and four small papillae
on the anterior end; the mouth leads to a short vestibule surrounded by a chitinous
ring. The oesophagus is not divided into two parts; in the male it is 1-9 mm.

116

and in the female 1:55 mm. long. The nerve ring is about 0°246 mm. from the
anterior end in the male, and 0:28 mm. in the female. The intestine is rather
narrower than the oesophagus and is straight. The tail is long, 1-3 mm. in the
female, 0°86 mm. in the male.

The spicules are unequal, the longer, 1-01 mm., is cylindrical proximally,
and then flattened out, the distal half of its length being needle-like, curved and
tapering. The smaller is about a quarter of its length, 7.¢e., 0°25 mm., and has a
massive proximal part and a spatulate distal part rolled at the edges. There is

x

Sy
ed

a

Figs, 20-25
Figs. 20-24 Dipetalonema spelaea 20, male, anterior end; 21, vulva; 22, male, cloacal
region; 23, tip of male tail; 24, female tail
Fig. 25 Dipetalonema trichosuri Cloacal region Figs. 20, 23 and 25; 21 and 24 to
same scale

an accessory piece projecting back from the distal end. Only three pairs of pre-
anal and three pairs of post-anal papillae were distinguished. The tail is in a
spiral of two or three turns.

The vulva is 5-1 mm. from the anterior end, and is associated with a pyriform
muscular bulb from which the vagina leads back, more or less coiled according
to the age of the specimen, to the uterus which divides into the two branches
after a short distance (1°7 mm.). It is opisthodelphous. The ovarian tubes do
not extend to the anal region.

This species is somewhat like Filaria trichosuyi but is distinguished from it by
the length of the major spicule and the position of the vulva, which in Breinl’s
specimens is further forward.

It differs from F. dentifera Linstow in the absence of a dorsal head-papilla,
relative sizes of the spicules, and the position of the vagina.

117

In general anatomy and measurements the present specimens are to be
identified with Linstow’s F. australis, although only three pre-anal and three
post-anal papillae have been detected. The female of F. spelaea, as described by
Walton 1927, agrees with F. australis, so Leidy’s specific name should, as Walton
points out, take precedence. As the specific name is the plural of a Latin sub-
stantive and not an adjective, we have not altered it to agree with the genus.

Eisig (Z. f. wiss. Zool., 20, 1870, 99-102) gave an account of Vilaria sp.
from the pericardium of Halmaturus bennetti in the Ileidelberg Zoological
Gardens. Only females, 90-100 mm. in length, were present. There were stated
to be two rows of papillae, each with six, at the head end, and the oesophagus
was reported to be one-fortieth of the total length. One of us has pointed out
(Johnston, 1909, 518) that the host is a Tasmanian wallaby, Macropus ruficollis
var. bennetiw. The arrangement and number of the head papillae prevent us from
assigning the species to any of the filariids described from Australian marsupials.
D. roemeri and D, tenue seem to be nearest.

DIPETALONEMA TRICHOosURI (Breinl)
Fig. 25

We have examined many specimens of this species from the common opossum,
Trichosurus vulpecula, from Queensland, including a female from Breinl’s type
materia!, and find them to agree with Breinl’s PF. trichosuri in every way except
that there appears to be only one pair of subterminal papillae and the tail ends
in a small median papilla. It is to be distinguished from D. spelaea by the position
of the vulva and the relative lengths of the spicules; and from F. dentifera by the
absence of dorsal head-papilla, in the shape of the spicules, and in the number
of cloacal papillae. The spicules of this species are shown in fig. 25.

Yorke and Maplestone (1926, 400) published figures (fig. 273) and made
the species the type of a new genus Breinlia, but Baylis (1934, 551) and sub-
sequent workers regard the latter as a synonym of Dipetalonema.

Scott (P.Z.S., 1926, 237) reported finding filarial larvae in an opossum,
Pseudochirus lemuroides, in the London Zoological Gardens. The habitat of the
host is north-eastern Central Queensland. Linstow (1898, 460) described
Lilaria dentifera from the body cavity of Phalangista (= Trichosurus) vulpecula,
collected by Semon in Queensland—probably in the Burnett River district. Stiles
and Hassall (Index Cat. Med. Vet. Lit. Roundworms, 1920, 466) have, in error,
quoted the host as Trichiurus vulpecula, The parasite has not been satisfactorily
placed generically.

Dipetalonema annulipapillatum n. sp.
Figs, 26-29

Only males of this species were found; specimens being obtained from the
knee joint of Macropus dorsalis, the coelome of M. ualabatus and the sub-
cutaneous tissue of Onychogale frenata.,

118

It is a long thin worm, 5 to 7 cms. long, and with a maximum breadth of
0-2 to 0-3 mm.; the tail is coiled in a tight spiral of four to six turns; the anterior
and posterior ends are rounded, the anterior having two lateral epaulette-like
structures, and the posterior with a median terminal and two subterminal papillae.
The tail is about 1-1 mm. long. The papillae on the anterior end are difficult to
distinguish, but there appear to be two large laterals and four smaller ones around
the mouth. The nerve ring is about 0°25 to ‘27 mm. from the anterior end. The
mouth is situated in a depression at the anterior end; the oesophagus is 1-6 to
2 mm. long, and the intestine, starting with a slight bulge, is narrower.

iB

26

ERENT Et

Figs. 26-29
Figs. 26-29 Dipetalonema annulipapillatum 26, male, anterior end; 27, shorter spicute;
28, longer spicule; 29, cloacal region. All figs. to same scale

The testis tubule begins just posterior to the commencement of the intestine.
The vas deferens can be traced to the beginning of the cylindrical proximal end
of the larger spicule. The latter is about 0°4 mm. long, and the distal part is
spatulate with rolled edges, and ends in a blunt point. The shorter spicule is
0-3 mm. long and is broad and spatulate, forming a groove for the longer. The
cloacal region is somewhat elevated and with it are associated several papillae
arranged in a ring, consisting of three pairs of peri-anal, one pair of post-anal, and
one pair of pre-anal. This is a different arrangement from that in any species
of Dipetalonema described hitherto.

Dipetalonema tenue n. sp.
Figs. 30-33
Some female filarial worms not agreeing with any previously described
species were found among the viscera of two specimens of the euro, Macropus
robustus, They are exceedingly long and thin, 20 to 30 cm. long and 0°59 to
“65 mm. wide. The head is rounded, bears one pair of large lateral and four (?)
smaller papillae, and is 0-086 to ‘(069 mm. wide. The nerve cord is about 0°27 mm.

119

from the anterior end. The oesophagus is simple, 2 to 2-9 mm. long, and is
followed by a straight intestine of about the same width, though the part imme-
diately following the oesophagus may be somewhat dilated. The anus is 0:75
to 1:25 mm. from the posterior end. The tail tapers and is curved, the end being
bluntly pointed; there are two very small subterminal papillac.

The ovarian tubes do not extend to the anal region. The two uteri pass
forward to the region of the vulva, where they are united into a single uterus

-05 mm

i

;
iH

A
A

EE FEEL
a

d

et

FEE

TT eR

Figs. 30-33

Figs. 30-33 Dipetalonema tenue 30, female, anterior end; 31, region of vulva;
32, female, posterior end; 33, female, anterior end. Figs. 30-32 to same scale

which passes forward almost to the beginning of the intestine and then enters
the vagina which leads back to the vulva. The distance from the anterior end to
the vulva is one twenty-seventh to one thirty-fourth of the total body length.

The larvae are not enclosed in shells; as they grow older they elongate and
uncurl in the uteri. The younger are 0:07 by ‘OL mm., the older 0-246 by
*225 mm.

This worm differs from D. spelaea and D. trichosuri in the position of the
vulva, which is much further back, and in the position of the nerve ring.

120

It differs from Filaria dentifera in the absence of a dorsal head-papilla; from
D. capilhforme in the position of the vulva which is much further back, and in
the arrangement of the papillae on the head (D. capilliforme does not appear to
have ihe two large lateral papillae); and from D. dendrolagi Solomon in the
length of the body and the size of the larvae.

Fivaria (s.1.) spp.

The following specimens have not been fully examined because they could
not be cleared sufficiently:

(1) A female from the coelome of a “native cat,” Dasyurus maculatus,
short and thick, 65 mm. by 0°963 mm. The head is rounded, 0-154 mm. wide,
and has four peri-oral and two large and low lateral papillae. The intestine
narrows a short distance before the anus. The tail is short and bluntly pointed,
0-154 mm. long, and ends in a narrower part like a huge papilla (figs. 34-35).

(2) From the peritoneum of Trichosurus caninus: two worms were found
which, judged by the absence of specialization in the anal region, are females.
They are about 7 cm. long, 0-88 mm, in thickness, There are four to six peri-oral
papillae. The head is 0°15 mm. across (fig. 36). The tail is short, in one
specimen ending in an elongated portion, like the one described above. The anus
lies between two papillae, 0-099 mm. from the tip of the tail (figs. 36-37).

‘1mm

Figs: 34-36
Figs. 34-35 Filaria (s.1.) sp. from Dasyurus maculatus
Figs. 36-37 Filaria (s.1.) sp. from Trichosurus caninus

(3) From the liver of Potorous tridactylus: a single worm was found, 7 em.
long and 1:5 mm. wide—though the width may be less as the worm was split.
The head is rounded, 0:12 mm. across, and followed by a constriction 0°09 mm.
from the anterior end. ‘The tail is bluntly pointed. No peri-oral papillae can be
seen, nor can any details of the anatomy be distinguished.

We record the occurrence of Dipetalonema sp. in the knee joint or in the
coelome of the rock wallaby (Petrogale xanthopus Gray), euro (Macropus
robustus Gould), and kangaroo (Macropus major Shaw) of the northern
Flinders Ranges and adjacent regions in South Australia, but, unfortunately,
specimens are not now available to determine whether they belong to D. roemeri
or D. spelaea, or to both.

121

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bancrort, T. L. 1893 Entozoal Parasites. Austr. Med. Gaz., 12, 258-260

Bayuis, H. A. 1925 Notes on some Australian Parasitic Nematodes. Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 9, 15, 112-115

Bayiis, H. A, 1934 On two Filariid Parasites of Marsupials from Queens-
land. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 10, 13, 549-554

Boutencer, C. L. 1928 Report on a collection of Parasitic Nematodes, mainly
from Egypt. Part v, Filarioidea, Parasitol, 20, 32-55

Breint, A. 1913 Nematodes observed in North Queensland. Austr. Inst.
Trop. Med. Rep. for 1911, 39-46

Coppotp, T.S. 1879 Parasites, a Treatise on the Entozoa of Man and Animals.
London.

Jounston, T, H. 1909 The Entozoa of Monotremata and Australian Mar-
supialia, pt. i. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 34, 514-523

Jounston, T. H. 1911 The Entozoa of Monotremata and Australian Mar-
supialia, pt. ii. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 36, 47-57

Jownston, T. H. 1916 A Census of the Endoparasites recorded as occurring
in Queensland, arranged under their hosts. Proc, Roy. Soc. Qld., 28,
31-79

Letpy, J. 1875 On some Parasitic Worms. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 27,
17-18

Linstow, O. 1897 Zur Systematik der Nematoden nebst Beschreibung neuer
Arten. Arch, Mikr. Anat., 49, 608-622

Linstow, O. 1898 Nemathelminthen von Herrn Richard Semon in Australien
gesammelt. Semon’s Forschungsreisen in Australien (v). Denk. Med.
Nat. Ges., Jena, 8, 469-471

Linstow, O. 1905 Helminthologische Beobachtungen. Arch. f. Mikr. Anat.,
66, 355-366

Otpnam, J. N. 1933 The Helminth Parasites of Marsupials. Jour. Helm.,
1i, 195-256

Puimmer, H. G. 1912 (a) On the Blood Parasites found in Animals in the
Zoological Gardens during the four years 1908-1911. P.Z.S., 406-419

Prrmmer, H.G. 1912 (b) On certain Blood Parasites. Jour. Roy. Micr. Soc.,
133-150

Sotomon, S. G. 1933 Note on a new Species of Breinlia from a Tree Kan-
garoo. Jour. Helm., 11, 101-104

TuwaiTe, J. W. 1927 The Genus Setaria. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit., 21,
427-466

Yorke, W., and Mapresrone, P. A. 1926 The Nematode Parasites of
Vertebrates. London

Wer, E, E. 1935 A revised Classification of the Nematode Superfamily
Filaricidea. Proc. Helm. Soc., Washington, 2, 84-88

ABORIGINAL MESSAGE STICKS FROM THE NULLABOR PLAINS

BY C. P. MOUNTFORD

Summary

This brief paper places on record the description of six message sticks, five from the Nullabor
Plains and one from Eucla. The significance of three out of the six sticks, i.e., figures 1, 6, and 7, is
also given.

I am indebted to Mr. Allen Musgrave for having, at my request, collected from the natives of the
Nullabor Plains the sticks shown in figures 1, 5, 6 and 7, and having obtained the meanings of the
above-mentioned three; also to Mrs. J. White, and Miss A. Lock for the loan of those shown in
figures 10 and 3 respectively.

122
ABORIGINAL MESSAGE STICKS FROM THE NULLABOR PLAINS

By C. P. Mounrrorp, Acting Ethnologist, South Australian Museum
[Read 9 June 1938]

This brief paper places on record the description of six message sticks, five
from the Nullabor Plains and one from Eucla, he significance of three out of
the six sticks, i.¢., figures 1, 6, and 7, is also given.

1 am indebted to Mr. Allen Musgrave for having, at my request, collected
from the natives of the Nullabor Plains the sticks shown in figures 1, 5, 6 and 7,
and having obtained the meanings of the above-mentioned three; also to Mrs. J.
White, and Miss A. Lock for the loan of those shown in figures 10 and 3

respectively.
P J DESCRIPTION

Figure 1 pictures a message stick, which was a communication from the
Karonie to the Ooldea tribe. The following is the meaning obtained from the
possessor of the stick.

Column 1 (fig. 2) The small dots are the “spinifex” natives“ who are
travelling towards, and expected at Cook before many days. The con-
centric circles, H, J, K, and L indicate the water-holes on which the
travelling party will depend. H is called Mulgeru; J, Nilida; K,
Mulunga; and L, Wadiga.

Column 2 A group of natives who are camping at Tarcoola.

Column 3 The aborigines at Ooldea.

Column 4 A second party of “spinifex” natives, who are expected to arrive
at Cook in advance of those indicated in Column 1. M, N, O, P
probably refer to water-holes, although this was not specified.

It is interesting to notice that only those natives who are obliged to travel
over the practically waterless desert of the Nullahor are associated on the message
sticks with the water-hole symbols,

Column 5 A small party of both sexes who have already arrived and are

temporarily camping at Cook.

The stick was 21 cm. in length and 2 cm. major diameter. It was circular in
section, tapering down to a blunt point at either end. When received it was
wrapped in a fragment of old clothing, and bound with’ European string. The
pattern had been incised with an engraving tool about 2 mm. in width.

bed

Q) ‘Atorteines who live in the inhospitable and unexplored novtheed enre et the
Nullabor Plains,

@) The natives, unaffected by European contact, used the front incisor toath of the
opossum, still in place in the skull of the animal, as an engraving tool. This is used in a
similar manner to that employed by a European craftsman, except that the aborigine,
not having a handle on his tool, that can be rested against the palm, has to exert the
necessary engraving force with his finger tips. The writer has observed an aborigine of
the Ngada tribe of the Warburton Ranges of Western Australia, whilst he was engraving
a design on the back of a spear-thrower, and the regularity of the design and the skill
displayed in the handling of the small awkwardly-shaped engraving tool was remarkable.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 62 (1), 22 July 1938

123

Figure 3 was collected by Miss Lock while in charge of the Ooldea Mission
Station. The engraved design, the meaning of which was, unfortunately, not
obtained, is shown in figure 4. The stick was 20 cm. in length, somewhat cigar-
shaped, with a major diameter of 21 mm. Mr. N. B. Tindale showed me an
aboriginal drawing from the above locality which was almost identical with O,
figure 4. The meandering line in this case represented the ancestral snake, Kanba,
and the dots, placed symmetrically on either side, the eggs of that reptile.

The message stick depicted in figure 5, had been engraved with a spiral
pattern of transverse marks which started at the three cuts at C, and terminated
at the two cuts at O, X. When received, the design was completely obscured by

PA 4 é
¢ re
i 3.03:
aN sem
fy y@sss
F coisks
tha ° ©}
Tey 2 3 ‘+
all m2
all J se ek
bosid e P 3°
33) ; oe aS
Ls
PE Sit $ ° ce
3 = anos 8
ed xO 32°33
es : 23 iy
fe fi.
B 4 is
a?* e
L@ iiss
oe @ 6
4

Ww ~

a wrapping of woollen thread of European manufacture. This example was
11 cm. in length, 6 mm. maximum diameter and had been cut and smoothed from
a twig of circular section by means of a steel tool.

Figure 6 was obtained from a locality on the Trans-Australian Railway
Line approximately on the border of South and Western Australia. Three
tribal groups are indicated: one’ from Laverton, a town some 200 miles north,
one belonging to the Muramul tribe, and the other, the people whose territory
is adjacent to the Karonie Mission Station, which is situated adjacent to the rail-
way line and some 60 miles east of Kalgoorlie.

124

The meaning, as obtained from the sender of the stick, is as follows :—

B, figure 7, is the sender of the stick, and A the Karonie railway dam. (The

use of the U-shaped symbol for a dam is noteworthy.) The line of dots, 1 E,

represents the aborigines who reside permanently at the Mission Station; line

D, the end of which terminates at one limb of A, those who “sit down along

railway line,” i.e., camp beside the railway line. The group of natives from

Laverton is indicated by the line C, while G refers to the Muramul tribe,

which sometimes visit the Karonie Mission Station. M symbolizes the above

Mission.

The stick (fig. 6) is circular in section, 25 cm. long, and 13 mm. major
diameter, tapering to a blunt point at both ends. ‘The lines of dots, which are
arranged spirally, had been burnt in, probably by a heated piece of metal, although
the glowing end of a small fire stick is used for a similar purpose by the tribalized
natives who live to the north in the Mann and Petermann Ranges. When collected,
the stick was carefully wrapped in a discarded piece of clothing and bound with
string.

In figure 8 the cuts above F (fig. 9) are the aborigines at Ooldea. The long
incision F is the Ooldea soak,“ while those below this symbol indicate unspecified
individuals, as do the marks above symbol G. The latter rciers to the Mission
Station at Ooldea, and the symbols below that point are a message to the recipient
of the stick that the missionary at Ooldea only gives one meal a day, and that
only of wheat porridge.

This stick is of circular section, and slightly curved, and is 25 cm. long
and 17 mm. diameter. The cuts forming the pattern had been made with a
steel knife.

Figure 10 originally belonged to an aborigine whose tribal country was
adjacent to the now deserted Eucla telegraph station. The stick resembles those
collected on the Trans-Australian railway line, and for that reason is included.

This specimen is somewhat longer than the other examples described and has
a mass of spinifex gum attached to one end of the stick. The length is 25 cm., and
the diameter 16 mm, The design consists of more or less parallel engraved lines,
and rows of dots, which extend the wholc length of the stick. A steel tool had
been used to produce these marks.

Discussion

Message sticks are known over the greater part of Australia. Roth (1)
figures fourteen message sticks obtained from the aborigines of north-western
QOucensland. The associated meanings were given for the majority of those
figured.

Love (2) writes of the message sticks of the Worora tribe of North-West
Australia. He mentions that the sticks are crudely made and appear to act more
as passports than actual conveyors of messages.

@) The present camping place of the aborigines of this district. The name “soak” is
an outback term for a water catchment filled with sand.

125

The writer has been shown carved message sticks by the aborigines of
Melville Island which, according to the aborigine possessing them, figure
the locality from which the stick originated, a request for provisions, and the
mark of the sender himself.

*° eo.
a 2%
ele on
oe ee # =o
E355 s-
s =o @ at
=» oe Cd
-8: 4% he
-
»*- - m= @
ba 0 . = &
e . F
s* 2 - 7
= Se = o-
eee = a pe
“>. ec -= =
e ~
°
eso <=
aeE @ -~ =
- 2. - - @®
oe a ® a ae
es» @ baal
oie 2 - «a
Gt se = > «a
© @. es x» *
e® *e ~ ie
a 2
= oe oo a =
oe Se = «=
e "a ©“
ee apie ‘eo a =
= oa os -
sos a @ - ao @*
= p= a -
= Se yet =-
- =
* Se = 2
eee Fi >
=>
eed o GS e
ee? oe ——_— +o
eft = ae
«2-3 = ~
ea @ a
2 = Sec =
»
se ta oe -
ee a @ @
4
<2) Se *
ces ¢ =
et 2 = 8 r
2° =
“2c e -
elt a o
eo 2.

$

“

Spencer and Gillen (3), however, claim that message sticks of the type
described in this paper, and also by Roth and Love, are not used by the aborigines
of Central Australia. The extent of the area in which message sticks are not
used is unknown, but it seems likely that Spencer and Gillen’s observation would
only apply to the Central parts of the continent.

Although one often hears of cases where natives have received and deciphered
message sticks, conveyed to them by Europeans who themselves were unaware

I

126

of the significance of the symbols, the writer has been unable to locate any one
such case, even after considerable correspondence. Roth describes in detail the
methods in use in his area for the transmission of the message, and both Love
and Roth agree that the engraved design is no more than some kind of mnemonic
aid, or form of passport.

It is likely, however that certain standard designs are used for specific pur-
poses, such as notifications or invitations for forthcoming ceremonials. The sig-
nificance of such sticks, even when presented without a verbal message, would be
apparent to the recipient.

SUMMARY
This paper places on record the details of six aboriginal message sticks, five

from the Nullabor Plain, adjacent to the Trans-Australian railway line, and one
from Eucla.

_ REFERENCES
(1) Rotu, Watter E. 1906 North Queensland Ethnology. Bulletin No. 8, 9,
pls. i-iv
(2) Love, J. R. B. 1936 “Stone Age Men of Today,” 189
(3) Spencer AND GILLEN 1899 “Native Tribes of Central Australia,” 142

LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN TERRESTRIAL AND
FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS
PART IV CERCARIA (FURCOCERCARIA) MURRA YENSIS N.SP.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND E. R. CLELAND

Summary

Cercaria mutrayensis was one of the commonest larval trematodes present in Limnaea lesson;
gathered from the River Murray near Tailem Bend. In May, 1937, fourteen of 119 specimens gave
off these cercariae in the aquarium; in June only five of these snails, all uninfected, were obtained;
in early December eight out of 135 were found infected ; in March, 1938, eight out of 41 ; and in
April six out of 48. In early December, during an excursion to Swan Reach, River Murray, under
the auspices of the newly-formed Tate Society, we collected 439 specimens of the Limnaea, 200 of
which gave off these cercariae in the aquarium.

127

LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN TERRESTRIAL AND
FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS

PART IV CERCARIA (FURCOCERCARIA) MURRAYENSIS n.sp.

By T. Harvey Jounston M.A., D.Sc, and E. R. Creranp, M.Sc.,
University of Adelaide

[Read 9 June’ 1938]

Cercaria murrayensis was one of the commonest larval trematodes present
in Limnaea lessoni gathered from the River Murray near Tailem Bend. In May,
1937, fourteen of 119 specimens gave off these cercariae in the aquarium; in June
only five of these snails, all uninfected, were obtained; in early December eight
out of 135 were found infected; in March, 1938, eight out of 41; and in April six
out of 48. In early December, during an excursion to Swan Reach, River
Murray, under the auspices of the newly-formed Tate Society, we collected 439
specimens of the Limnaea, 200 of which gave off these cercariae in the aquarium.

The parasites could be recognised easily when the tube containing them was
held against the light, the greater number maintaining a characteristic resting
position (fig. A), suspended in the water. In this the tail stem was usually per-
pendicular and the two furcae were separated by an angle of about 120°. The
proximal part of the tail stem was bent and in line with the body, making a con-
siderable angle with the rest of the tail. By far the greater number of cercariae
were motionless at any one time, and the resting period usually varied between
five and thirty seconds. This inactivity was broken by short bursts of movement,
and the cercaria would move rapidly tail foremost (fig. B) twisting itself spirally
and varying the rate of speed. As the greater number were hanging with the
tail stem more or less perpendicular, the general movement was upwards, but
could occur in any direction, the latter sometimes changing.

In measuring cercariae, the method outlined by Cort and Brackett (1937)
was followed and the material killed by adding to it an equal volume of boiling
10% formalin. Specimens were examined and the following are the measure-
ments of 30: length of body 1384-185 », average 158 4; breadth of body across
ventral sucker 32-46, average 37; anterior tip of body to centre of ventral
sucker 77-131», average 100,; length of tail stem 161-208», average 188 p;
width of tail stem 24-34», average 27°54; length of furcae 154-200 p, average
173 4; length of anterior organ 45-60 p, average 544; length of posterior sucker
22-29 p, average 25-9; breadth of posterior sucker 22-27°5 », average 25°7 u.

The body was finely corrugated, and thus it was extremely difficult to see
the body spines clearly. The large anterior organ showed no differentiation into
two parts, and the well developed ventral sucker lay just behind the middle of

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 62 (1), 22 July 1938

«

gs stay z

na ww
LURE

Fig. A, cercaria in resting position; B, cercaria moving; 1, body of cercaria; 3, tail;

3, excretory system, spination; 4, entire cercaria; 5, lateral view of cercaria;

6, portions of a sporocyst; 7, cercaria emerging from sporocyst; 8, T.S. sporocyst.
Figs. 1, 3 drawn to same scale

129

the body. Yellow pigment granules were present scattered throughout the body,
and concentrated into two groups lying near the junction of the intestinal caeca.

About twelve large forwardly directed spines occurred on the highly con-
tractile anterior tip in front of the mouth (fig. 3). Surrounding this region was
a flattened spineless area on which opened the mouth and the ducts of the gland
cells. This was succeeded by a collar of spines of varying sizes arranged some-
what irregularly in from five to seven rows, with the largest spines in front.
Another spineless area separated these from the much smaller spines of the general
body surface. These latter, larger on the ventral than on the dorsal surface,
were arranged irregularly just below the collar, with a tendency to form rows
on the ventral surface, and behind this they were grouped in nine double rows,
the last being on a level with the middle of the ventral sucker. The spines posterior
to this were arranged irregularly on the ventral surface, and were much more
numerous at the posterior end near the tail. Two irregular rows were present
on the ventral sucker. We were unable to ascertain whether there were any
minute spines on the tail stem, but they appeared to be present on the furcae.

The mouth was subterminal, the pre-pharynx short and the pharynx well
developed. The oesophagus bifurcated just in front of the ventral sucker into the
well-defined caeca, which were characteristically bent and reached almost to the
bladder. hey were filled with a clear refracting substance which was not con-
tinuous but separated into masses, so that the intestine appeared at first sight to
be composed of a few large cells. It stained well with netitral red.

The four gland cells (figs. 1, 5) stainable with nile blue sulphate lay
behind the acetabulum, ventral to the caeca. They were coarsely granular and
slightly lobed with large clear nuclei, and arranged in two pairs, those in the first
pair being somewhat tandem, and those in the second opposite. The ducts passed
forwards in two pairs, following the course indicated, and in all but fully extended
specimens were twisted in the region of the pharynx. After entering the anterior
organ they became much enlarged, then narrowed before opening dorso-laterally
on the circumoral spineless area.

The genital primordium consisted of a mass of undifferentiated cells lying
between the ends of the caeca and the bladder. The nervous system was repre-
sented by an H-shaped mass of tissue lying posterior to the pharynx. Longi-
tudinal and circular muscle fibres were present in the tail stem, and there were
about forty caudal bodies of varying size with a tendency to become arranged in
indefinite groups.

From each of the antero-lateral borders of the small bladder, mushroom-
shaped when fully distended, arose a main excretory duct. Each was slightly
coiled and proceeded upwards and outwards to about the middle of acetabulum,
where it doubled back and, on a level with the posterior margin of the ventral
sucker, gave rise to an ascending and descending branch. The flame cell formula
was 2 X (6 + 2) = 16. Of the three flame cells connected with the anterior
tubule, one lay alongside the anterior organ, the second near the pharynx, and

130

the third just in front of the acetabulum. Of the three connected with the
descending branch, one was just posterior to the ventral sucker, the second about
midway between this and the posterior end, and the third alongside the bladder.
The descending tubules passed into the tail stem, each bearing two flame cells.
The island of Cort was small, and the main excretory tube passed down the
centre of the tail stem to divide into two just before reaching the furcae. Each
branch opened on the edge of the furca (fig, 2) about half-way along its length.

The sporocysts present in tangled masses in the liver were very hard to
separate. They were attenuated, one end being pointed with a birth pore just
behind the tip, and the other end bluntly rounded. They contained numerous germ
balls and developing cercariae. Older sporocysts had a thin wall formed of
cuticle and sparse, flattened epithelial cells (fig. 8), the latter being several layers
deep at the end of the sacs. Germ masses and mature germ cells were typical.

Figs. 9, 10, consecutive longitudinal horizontal sections of cercaria; 11, longitudinal
section of cercaria; 12, 13, 14, Tr, sections through a cercaria

Cort and Brackett (19374) gave a bricf resumé of the Strigeid cercariae
obtained from Douglas Lake, Michigan, and of these our specimen resembles most
closely C, flexicauda and C. yogena, The behaviour in free life of our species
was almost identical with that of the former (Cort and Brooks, 1928), and its
average lengths of body, tail stem and furcae respectively were 158 », 188 », 173 p,
compared with 170 yw, 254 » and 226 in C. flexicauda, and 173 », 236 pand 221 p
in C. yogena. Our species was considerably smaller than both the American forms
and the furcae and tail stem both approximated more nearly to the length of the
body. The spination resembled most closely that of C. yogena, and the pigmen-
tation charactcristic of the American form was almost identical with ours, though
as yet no pigmentation has been seen in the tail stem. The caudal bodics and
excretory system resembled those of C. flexicauda, while differing from those
of C. yogena, There was no ciliation of the main collecting tubes as in the latter

131

and the position of the flame cells differed. The anterior organ was the same
length as in C. flexicauda, but the ventral sucker was smaller, being 26 » long
in our form and 35 in the American.

Cort and Brackett (1937b) published a paper on the identification of
Strigeid cercariae, utilizing differences in their behaviour during free life. Before
receiving their article we had already noticed such behaviour in our specimens,
and were able to distinguish the species with the naked eye from amongst a
collection of cercariae.

Wesenberg-Lund (1934) drew attention to that group of Strigeid cercariae
characterised by the presence of four penetration gland cells behind the ventral
sucker, which had been mentioned by Cort and Brooks (1928). ‘To this Proalaria
group of pharyngeal, longifurcate, distome cercariae of Miller (1926) our species
belongs, and appears to us to be a typical member, having for its intermediate
stage a Diplostomulum present in the eyes of certain freshwater fish.

We suggest the name Cercaria murrayensis for this Proalaria larva and
propose to give an account of experimental infections of various fish in a later
paper.

REFERENCES
Cort, W. W., and Brackett, S. 1937 (a) Two New Species of Strigeid
Cereariac from the Douglas Lake Region, Michigan. Jour. Parasitol.,
23, (3), 265-280
Cort, W. W., and Brackett, S. 1937 (b) Identification of Strigeid Cercariae
by Differences in their Behaviour during Free Life. Jour. Parasitol.,
23, (3), 297-299

Cort, W. W., and Brooks, S. T. 1928 Studies on the Holostome Cercariae
from Douglas Lake, Michigan. Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., 47, (2),
179-221

Mitter, H. M. 1926 Comparative Studies on Furcocercous Cercariae. III.
Biol. Monogr., 10, (3), 1-112

WEeESsENBERG-LuNn, C. 1934 Contributions to the Development of the Trematoda
Digenea, pt. ii. D. Kgl. Dansk. Vidensk, Selsk. Skr. Naturv, Math. Afd.
(9), 5, (3), 1-223

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES
All drawings were made with the aid of the camera lucida, except figs. A and B, and
the details of fig. 3. Figs. drawn to scale indicated.
Ag, anterior gland cell; b, brain; c, cercaria; d, duct of gland cell; g, genital rudiment;
gm, germ mass; i, intestine; 0, opening of ducts of gland cells; pg, posterior gland cell;
ph, pharynx; vs, ventral sucker; yg, yellow granules.

ON A NEW SPECIES OF POTORUS (MARSUPIALIA) FROM A CAVE
DEPOSIT ON KANGAROO ISLAND, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

BY H. H. FINLAYSON

Summary

To the generosity of the late Dr. A. M. Morgan, the South Australian Museum owes a collection of
mammal bones taken in the so-called Kelly's Hill caves on Flinders Chase in the south-western
portion of the island. While the collection is an interesting one as indicating the former presence on
the island of mammals which are now either absent or excessively rare, all the species represented,
save one, are identical with, or closely related to, those indigenous to the adjacent South Australian
mainland. The exception is found in a single skull of a rat-kangaroo, which is clearly an
undescribed species of Potorus, allied to the West Australian P. platyops.

132

ON A NEW SPECIES OF POTOROUS (MARSUPIALIA) FROM A
CAVE DEPOSIT ON KANGAROO ISLAND, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By H. H. FInLtayson
Hon. Curator of Mammals, South Australian Museum

[Read 9 June 1938]
Piates V, VI and VIT

To the generosity of the late Dr. A. M. Morgan, the South Australian
Museum owes a collection of mammal bones taken in the so-called Kelly’s Hill
caves on Flinders Chase in the south-western portion of the island.

While the collection is an interesting one as indicating the former presence
on the island of mammals which are now either absent or excessively rare, all the
species represented, save one, are identical with, or closely related to, those
indigenous to the adjacent South Australian mainland. The exception is found in
a single skull of a rat-kangaroo, which is clearly an undescribed species of
Potoroiis, allied to the West Australian P. platyops.

On searching other collections of Kangaroo Island material in the Museum,
a second skull of the same animal, with a part skeleton, has been found. This
was forwarded to the Museum from the same cave in February, 1926, by Miss
Edith May.

CRANIAL CHARACTERS

Both skulls are damaged and that from the Morgan collection is without a
mandible. By a fortunate chance, however, the damage has not affected the same
areas in both skulls, so that taken together they give an almost complete version
of the cranial anatomy of the animal. Both skulls are from mature or even aged
aninals, with the secator and M+ in place, and in both the molar crowns show a
considerable amount of wear, One is appreciably larger than ihe other (see
table), and for purposes of comparison with the British Museum specimen of
P. platyops, measured by ‘Vhomas (1), this has been assumed to be a male also,
though, of course, it is by no means certain that such was the case.

The skulls are very small and delicate, and the animal evidently shared with
P, platyops the distinction of being the smallest member of the subfamily, and,
indeed, of the whole of the Macropodidac, with the exception of Hypsipymnodon.
In general shape the skull is quite Bellongia-like, roughly comparable to B. peni-
cillata for example; the shortened muzzle, smooth outlines and absence of crests
making it very unlike an adult of its congener, P. tridactylus. That its place is
with Potoroiis, however, is plainly attested by the characters of the dentition
and by the structure of the muzzle region, of the zygomata and of the mandible.

The nasals are relatively shorter than in tridactylus and much more expanded
posteriorly, though less so than in platyops. Their maximum breadth goes but

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 62 (1), 22 July 1938

133

2-2 times into their length, and their minimum breadth along their junction with
the premaxillae, 5-8 times. The general shape of the nasals is similar to that of
platyops, but both postero-internal and postero-external angles are more acute
than in the West Australian species. ‘The posterior portion of the muzzle region
is greatly expanded from side to side, but at the maxillo-premaxillary suture is
suddenly constricted, and from that point to the anterior nares the nasal chambers
are narrow and tubular, with their vertical and transverse diameters about equal.
This is a good distinction of Potoroiis from Caloprymnus, Betiongia and Aeyp-
prymnus, in all of which the anterior nares show a more or less marked deepening
from above downwards, as in the typical Macropodinae. The relative areas of
premaxilla and maxilla on the walls of the nasal chambers are about as in
tridactylus, but the sharp procumbent spur on the anterior margin of the pre-
maxillae in the latter species is absent or only slightly indicated.

The frontal and interorbital region is quite parallel-sided and remarkably
broad; even more so than in platyops, In the larger oi the two skulls the inter-
orbital width is nearly half the maximum width of the skull across the zygomata.
The supraorbital margins are smooth and rounded, but in the larger skull there
is a slight tuberosity at the site of the post-orbital process, The brain case is
deeply vaulted and very smoothly rounded, the temporal ridges but slightly
indicated, the sagittal crest absent and the lambdoids very slight. The contours
of this part of the skull are practically those of a very young tridactylus at the
M? stage.

The plane of the occiput is less oblique to the basi-cranial axis than in
tridactylus, and does not differ notably from that in some Bettongia. There is a
thin crescentic interparietal. ‘The paraoccipital processes scarcely exist as free
projecting elements, but are bent forward and closely applied to the posterior
border of the bullae, as in some Peramelidae. The alisphenoid bullae are much
more expanded than in tridactylus, but variably so in the two skulls—the smaller
having considerably the larger bullae. In this example the antero-posterior
diameter of the expanded portion is 9 mm., the transverse diameter 5:6 mm., and
its projection below the level of the lower margin of the tympanic annulus 4-2 mm.

The zygomatic arch is curiously shaped in a lateral view, The anterior root
of the malar is broad and powerful, but rapidly narrows to a thin weak infra-
orbital bar. The upper margin of the squamosal portion is feebly concave and
it slopes down to the posterior root, though much less steeply than in tridactylus.
The squamosal makes a wide contact with the frontal.

The posterior palate has been damaged in both skulls, but the pterygoid
fossae seem to have been shallower than in tridactylus and, therefore, much
shallower than in the rest of the subfamily. The palatine vacuities are longer,
extending forward to the front of M? in one skull and the middle of M! in
another, Anterior palatal foramina very small, as in platyops.

The mandible shows the typical Poterois characters of slenderness, compara-
tively straight inferior border, a weak coronoid process meeting the alveolar

134

border at a wide angle, and a condyle relatively large, expanded from side to side,
and with its antero-internal angle produced to a spur.

DENTITION

All the teeth of the adult dentition are represented in either one or other of the
two skulls, except the upper second and third incisors, All the teeth are consider-
ably worn, and the finer detail of crown pattern in most cases lost. In the upper
series the first incisor is a comparatively short broad tooth, showing none of the
exaggcrated styliform specialization of iridactylus; it projects beyond the
alveolar margin only about 3 mm., as against 8 mm. in fridactylus, but resembles
its larger ally in that its anterior surface is nearly vertical and lacks the more
or less marked recurvature of all the other genera. In platyops this tooth is stated
to be “very long” (Thomas}. The alveoli of the missing second and third
incisors indicate minute teeth,

A single detached canine is a fairly strong functional tooth of about the same
relative proportions as in tridactylus. The secator is a reduced version of that
of tridactylus; the anterior lobe strongly developed into a subconical cusp pro-
jecting well below the general level of the blade; the outer surface strongly
emarginate and bearing two broad shallow grooves; the long axis parallel to the
basi-facial axis of the skull. The molar rows are less straight than in tridactylus,
converging gently towards M+. M? >> Mt>M&>M¥#4. ‘The crowns of all the molars
are squarer and less elongate antero-posteriorly than in fridactylus; their surfaces
smooth through wear, but originally quadri-tubercular and their pattern very
similar to tridactylus and the primitive species of Beftongia. M* a relatively
smaller tooth than in tridactylus; its crown area little more than that of the
posterior lobe of M*. The posterior lobe of M* reduced, but distinctly bifurcate.

In the mandible the incisor is a broad, somewhat round-pointed tooth, more
spatulate than in most of the Potoroinae and without the upward phalangerine
curvature of tridactylus and platyops. P4, 3-9 mm.; obscurely 2-grooved. M4,
quadricuspid, M? > M% > Mi > M4,

In comparing the skull characters of the present form with those of
P. platyops, T have had to rely entirely upon the first description of Water-
house (2), of Thomas (loc. cit., 121) and the supplementary remarks of
Bensley (3) upon the dentition. These notices, together with the single figure of
Thomas, leave the skull of platyops still very imperfectly described, and many
details which would have amplified the comparison are lacking. The chief
differences which have been brought to light may be summarized as follows:
1, the nasals in the South Australian animal are longer, less expanded posteriorly,
and with slightly different conformation of their posterior margins; 2, the inter-
orbital region is wider; 3, the palate is longer; 4, the molar rows are longer;
5, the first upper incisor is shorter; 6, the lower incisor is more specialized and
lacks some of the phalangerine characters of platyops.

135

While it is obvious that the Kangaroo Island form is closely allied to the
West Australian platyops, and possible that the first four differences might dis-
appear if adequate series of both could be measured, five and six appear to be
true structural differences indicating differing degrees of specialization. More-
over, the two localities (Kangaroo Island and Albany) are over 1,000 miles apart,
and while platyops is (or was in 1840) a living species, the circumstances of the
present find necessitate one regarding it as a fossil or subfossil form, with the
possibility of a considerable antiquity“ in post-Pleistocene time. For these
reasons I propose to distinguish it under the name Potorotis morgani with a part
skull without mandible, registered number P. 3413, and a part skull with mandible,
registered number P.168, as cotypes of the species, in the South Australian
Museum.

Associated with the larger skull is a part skeleton forwarded at the same
time. With the exception of three fragments evidently derived from a larger
animal, possibly Trichosurus, these bones arc in the same condition of preserva-
tion as the skull and show the same characteristic surface spattering (since
removed). They exhibit, moreover, morphological characters which place them
unmistakably with Potoroiis, and that they are derived from the same animal that
furnished the skull, I believe to be beyond reasonable doubt. Though I propose
to found the species, so far as diagnosis is concerned, upon cranial characters
alone, some account of the rest of the skeleton may be of interest, as those of
gilberti and platyops have never been examined, and the osteology of Potorots
as recorded, thus rests entirely upon the existing species, tridactylus, regarded by
Bensley as a comparatively specialized form.

The bones, like the skull, give evidence of considerable age in the animal
furnishing them, and in the examination which follows they have been compared
with a skeleton of a similarly aged male of tridactylus from ‘Tasmania, and with
skeletons of three other Victorian examples at varying stages of immaturity.
Wherever dimensions are given for tridactylus, however, they are derived from
the aged male alone. All dimensions in millimetres.

The fore limb

The clavicle, scapula, humerus, radius and ulna of both sides are present, but
the manus is represented only by a carpal element and some phalanges.

The clavicle has a maximum length across the are of curvature of 14:3, as
against 24-1 in tridactylus. It is of the same general form but more strongly and
suddenly expanded at the sternal extremity, and wider also below the attachment
to the acromion.

The scapula—Maximum length, 34-3; maximum breadth, 12-4. Somewhat
narrower than in tridactylus, the ratio length/breadth 2:7, as against 2:3. The

“ The appearance of the bones does not encourage this idea so far as the present
specimen is concerned. They are quite unmineralized and, when cleaned from some surface
spatterings, quite unstained and have a very “recent” look. It is possible that the animal
may have persisted on the island till quite recent times, or even still be extant there.

136

supra-scapular border more rounded, its angle with the glenoid border less acute,
and the anterior border approaching the coracoid, less decly emarginate.

The humerus—Maximum length, 31-1; distal breadth, 8-1; proximal breadth,
6:7. Agreeing closely with immature bones of tridactylus in structural features
and proportions, but the shaft relatively more slender than in the adult of that
species, and less expanded distally, The proportion of distal expansion to length
is 3:8, as compared with 3°3 in the larger animal.

The radius—tength, 38-1. Much as in tridactylus, in which the length is 51:8.

The ulna—Maximum length, 45°8. Tridactylus 64 (ca.). The shaft more
slender. somewhat rounder in section, and less flattened from side to side; taper-
ing rapidly distally to a very delicate styloid process. The anconeal process
appearing massive in comparison with the distal part of the bone, but its propor-
tion to the bone as a whole much the same in both species. Immediately distad
to the coronoid process of the notch, its lateral surface is conspicuously hollowed
out over a space of 6 mm., beyond which the surface is distinctly ridged for a
like distance—neither feature marked in the larger animal.

The proportion which the length of scapula, humerus and ulna individually
pear to the limb as a whole is exactly the same in both species.

The pelvis—The following figures give the chief dimensions of this bone in
morgani and tridactylus, respectively. The number in brackets is the quotient
obtained by dividing the maximum length by the value in question. This arrange-
ment is adopted in the succeeding sections as well. Maximum length, 54:1, 83-8;
ischial breadth, 31-9 (1-7), 54:9 (1°5); acetabular breadth, 30°5 (1-7), 50:0
(1:7); illiac breadth, 33-2 (1:6), 56°0 (1'5); length of pubic symphysis,
21°9 (2°5), 34:0 (2:5).

The pelvis presents several minor points of distinction. It is proportionally
longer and narrower, the ischial tuberosity is more developed, the illiac wing tapers
to the extremity, and the pubics along the symphysis are much narrower and more
fragile, with a corresponding alteration in the shape of the obturator foramen.

‘The epipubic of the right side has been preserved (detached) ; in shape and
relative size much as in fridactylus; its maximum length 10°7, and width 3-3.
The hind limb

This is represented by femur, tibia and fibula of both sides, quite undamaged,
and by a number of pedal elements.

The femur—The chief dimensions of this bone in morgani and tridactylus
are as follows: greatest length, 56°3, 85:4; proximal breadth across the
trochanters, 10°5 (3-3), 16:2, (5°3); diameter of head, 4:3 (12-0), 8:3 (10:3);
distal breadth, 9°6 (5°8), 14:0 (6:1); minimum (antero-posterior) diameter of
shaft, 4°0 (14-1), 7-8 (11-0).

The femur is thus in close agreement with that of the larger species in its
main proportions, but is more slender; the minimum diameter of the shaft going
2'6 times into the maximum breadth across the trochanters, as against 2:0 in
tridactylus. The disproportion between the antero-posterior and transverse

137

diameters is also greater in morgani, the bone being more distinctly compressed
from side to side.. The head is less developed, and so also is the tuberosity on
the posterior surface of the shaft.

The tibia—Maximum length, 64:1, 95-6; proximal breadth, 9°8 (6:5),
14:8 (6:5); distal breadth, 6°8 (9-0), 10-5 (9°1); minimum breadth, 2°8 (23),
5-5 (17). The structural features concerned with articulation and muscular
attachment are practically those of tridactylus in miniature. As with the femur,
however, the shaft is more slender in comparison with the extremities. Its medial
outline, as scen from behind, is slightly less sigmoid, and on the anterior border
the notch below the tubcrosity is deeper.

The fibula—In this bone the agreement in proportion is less exact, but no
considerable differences can be made out. Maximum length, 62-0, 92:7; proximal
breadth, 4:5 (13-7), 7:5 (12:3) ; distal breadth, 3-6 (17:2), 5°8 (16).

The pes—Twenty elements derived from both left and right feet are repre-
sented. Neither extremity can be reconstructed from them, but the main axis
of the left foot can be laid down sufficiently accurately to give the approximate
length of the pes.

Length of pes, 58-0, 90°5; calcaneum, 11°6 (5:0), 17°2 (5:2); second meta-
tarsal, 21:5 (2-7), 26-9 (3-4); fourth metatarsal, 25:0 (2:3), 32-7 (2:8); first
phalanx of fourth digit, 11-7 (4°9), 15-8 (5-7). In morgani the fourth meta-
tarsal makes a larger contribution to the length of the foot than in tridactylus,
presumably with a corresponding reduction in the astragalus and second and third
phalanges, and the metatarsals of the syndactylus digits also show a similar
elongation.

The changes in the appendicular skeleton, which occupy a prominent place
in the evolution of the Macropodidae from the Phalangeridac, are somewhat less
important in Potorotis than in the other genera, owing to the early adoption of
comparatively sedentary, and in the case of (ridactylus, partially fossorial habits.
Nevertheless, the specialization of the hind limb has already gone so far that
careful comparisons of the proportional dimensions of the limbs and their seg-
ments might well be expected to bring to light any considerable differences in the
phylogenetic standing of the two species under consideration. The most important
of the relationships which can be deduced from the figures are:

(1) The proportional contribution of each of the three segments to the total
length of both fore and hind limb. Under this head five out of the total
six sets of segments have been tested, and the agreement between the two
species found to be very close. The greatest divergence is in the pes,
where it amounts to no more than 3%.

(2) The length of the fore limb in relation to the general bodily size of the
animal, In assessing this relationship, I have taken the length of the
vertebral column from atlas to sacrum (inclusive) as a rough index of the
size of the animal, and expressed the length of humerus, plus antibrachium,
as a percentage of it. This gives 50% for morgani, 46% for tridactylus ;
a relative superiority of about 8% in the fore limb of the smaller animal.

138

(3) The length of hind limb in relation to the general bodily size of the animal.
Here the agreement is almost exact, the percentages being: morgant,
115% ; tridactylus, 116%.

(4) The relative disproportion in length of fore and hind limbs. It follows,
from (2) and (3), that the ratio of fore to hind limb in morgani is as
1:2°3, and in fridactylus 1:2°5. In the Phalangeridae the subequal or
superior fore limb is the rule, and the sole evidence of the retention of
primitive characters in the limbs of P. morgant is, therefore, this 8% reduc-
tion in the superiority of the hind limb, as shown by the most “advanced”
species, iridactylus.

Ribs—Twenty are represented, of which 11 are from the left side, the
absentees being the eighth and thirteenth.©? The maximum length across the
are of the first and sixth are 9-9 and 31-9, and in tridactylus 14°8 and 49-2,
respectively. They agree closely with those of the larger species.

Vertebrae—Thirty-seven elements are present, representing 4 cervicals, 12
thoracics, 6 lumbars, the sacrum, 5 precaudals, and 9 caudals. As a disarticulated
column of a sufficiently aged tridactylus is not available, comparison of a single
accessible dimension of one vertebrae in each of five groups has been made.
(The figures in brackets are the quotients of the values for tridactylus divided by
those for morgant.)

Maximum transverse width of atlas, 14-1 (1:0), 23:3 (1°6); maximum
height of first thoracic, 17-3 (1:0), 33:2 (1-9); maximum transverse width of
sixth lumbar, 6°8 (1:0), 31:2 (1°8); maximum transverse width of sacrum,
18:9, (1:0), 32°6 (1:7); maximum transverse width of second precaudal
16°3 (1:0), 28-7 (1°7).

The disproportion between the two species is greatest in the thoracic series
and is due chiefly to the exaggerated development of dorsal spines in tridactylus.
This is, no doubt, correlated with a heavier nuchal musculature, which, in turn,
is a response to the much longer and heavier head and to the greater develop-
ment of the habit of rhinal excavating.

Slernum—This is represented by the manubrium, intact. It agrees exactly
in form with the same segment in two immature skeletons of fridactylus from
Victoria, but differs from the aged Tasmanian example. In the manubrium of
this specimen two pairs of lateral processes are developed—possibly as an
abnormality, however, as the bone is warped and unsymmetrical, Maximum

breadth, 12-0 (1-0), 19-1 (1-6).

Bensley (loc. cit.), from a study of the dentition of P. platyops, P. gilbertt,
and P. tridactylus, was lead to a belief in the much more primitive position of the
former, as “a form which shows an interesting approximation in many of its dental
and cranial characters to Petaurus, suggesting an affinity with Gymnobelideus,”
etc., etc.

@?) Assuming 13 to be the normal number as in tridactylus.

139

While an intimate comparison of the skulls of morgani and platyops has not
been possible, enough has been done in this direction to suggest that the two are
upon much the same evolutionary level. It is somewhat surprising, therefore, on
extending the comparison to skeletal characters, to find a relatively close
correspondence between morgani and the much larger, (and in cranial anatomy)
more specialized tridactylus, Though there are definite minor structural differ-
ences to be seen, and minor differences in proportion have been demonstrated,
these are mostly of a kind to be associated with inferior size, weight and muscu-
lature, and surface, rather than subsurface feeding habits. The attempt to
disclose a greater residuum of primitive phalangerine characters in the smaller
animal by systematic mensuration, has served chiefly to emphasise the close detailed
correspondence of bone for bone; a correspondence which might well be further
increased if the range of individual variation could be taken adequately into
account.

On the whole (if morgani can be taken as representing platyops), it would
appear that the osteology of Potorotis as a genus is at least as stereotyped as that
of Bettongia, and that the differentiation of tridactylus from the smaller species
is a comparatively superficial and perhaps very recent change.

SKULL DIMENSIONS or Potorous morgani sp, Nov., IN COMPARISON
WITH THOSE OF P, PLATYoPs (GOULD)

Columns 1 and 2.) Skull dimensions of the cotypes of P. morgani (in m.m.s.)

Column 3 Skull dimensions of the type (4) of P. platyops (in m.m.s.)

Column 4 Mean skull dimensions of the cotypes of P. morgant expressed as
percentages of the basal length

Column 5 Skull dimension of P. platyops as percentages of the basal length

1 2 30) 4 5
Dental condition 0.0... P*M* PY‘M* PYM*
Greatest length 2... 0.0... 57°4 61-3 —_— —_— ~
Basal length ow. ek 47°8 51-5 (ca.) 50 100 100
Zygomatic breadth .... .... 32-3 (ca.) 35-1 35 67°9 70°0
Nasals: length 0 ow... — 25-0 24 50°4 48-0
Nasals: greatest breadth .... 11-5 (ca.)} 11-0 13 22:6 26°0
Nasals: least breadth .... 4-3 (ca.) 4-3 46 8-6 9+2
Depth of anterior nares _.... 8-9 —_ as 17-9 ret
Interorbital constriction ... | 15-0 162 14-6 31:4 29-2
Palate: length ie Adds 30-5 (ca) | 34-7 (ca.) 30 657 60-9
Palate: breadth inside M? () 8-8 9-4 10 18°3 20:0
Anterior palatine foramina 2-0 — 2+1 4-0 4-2
Diastema sora Serle ® tae sare 8-1 — 7°8 16°3 15-6
Basicranial axis 000.0 w.. 15:0 (ca.) 15-1 — _ =
Basifacial axis a. 33-0 36°5 _— _— —_
Facial index 00 we 220 241 — 230-5 =
Ms? length 20. ke 9-8 9-8 8-9 19:7 17:8
P* length Vee wae eer — 5-0 4-9 10-0 9-8
M* length 00. 2-0 2-0 21 4-1 4:2

@) Ex O. Thomas
() Anterior lobe

140

REFERENCES
(1) Tuomas, O. 1888 British Museum Catalogue of Marsupials and
Monotremes
(2) Warertouse 1846 “Nat. Hist. of Mammalia, 1, 231
(3) Benstey 1903 Trans. Linn, Soc, London (2), 9, 147-150

EXPLANATION OF PLATES V, VI, VII
illustrating the osteology of Potorous morgani sp. nov.
All figures approx. x 1-2

PLATE V
Figs. Aand B Superior views of the skulls Fig. G. Outer aspect of a left mandibular
of the cotypes ramus
Figs. Cand D Palatal views of the same Fig. H Inner aspect of a right mandibular
Figs. E and F Lateral views of the same ramus
Piate VI
Fig. I Posterior view of right femur Fig. S Ventral view of right epipubic
Fig. J Anterior view cf right tibia Fig. T Lateral (outer) aspect of right
Fig. K Anterior view of right femur scapula
Fig. L) Outer (lateral) view of right tibia Fig. U Anterior aspect of right humerus
Fig. M Outer (lateral) view of right fibula Fig. V Lateral aspect of right radius
Fig. N Dorsal view of calcaneum of right Fig. W Latcral aspect of right ulna
pes : Fig. X Antero-dorsal aspect of right
Fig. O Dorsal view of fourth metatarsal scapula
of right pes Fig. Y Postero-lateral aspect of right
Fig. P Dorsal view of first phalanx of humerus
right pes Fig. Z Medial aspect of right ulna
Fig. Q Dorsal view of pelvis Fig. A Medial aspect of right radius
Fig. R Ventral view of pelvis
Pirate VIT
Figs. B to L Ventral aspect of the ribs of Fig. P Anterior view of the sixth lumbar
the left side; the eighth and vertebra
thirteenth (?) absent Fig. Q Anterior view of the first thoracic
Fig. M Dorsal view of a caudal vertebra vertebra
Fig. N Dorsal view of the first precaudal Fig. R Ventral view of the presternum
vertebra i Fig. S Anterior view of the atlas

Fig. O Dorsal view of the sacrum

Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Austr., 1938 Vol. 62, Plate V

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1938

—

8

oe
— . . — =

-

.

_

Vol. 62, Plate VI

ee

Photo, H. H. Finlayson

Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Austr., 1938

Vol. 62, Plate VII

Photo, H. H. Finlayson

ON THE ECOLOGY OF THE GROWTH OF THE SHEEP POPULATION IN
SOUTH AUSTRALIA

BY J. DAVIDSON

Summary

Considerable attention has been focussed, during recent years, on the biology of animal populations.
Several investigators have studied, quantitatively, the influence of various factors affecting the
growth of populations. For each species of animals in an area, the number of individuals varies from
time to time, according to the intensity of the struggle going on between the forces which enable the
species to reproduce and the physical and biotic forces in the environment; the latter may favour the
birth rate and survival rate during certain periods and depress them during other periods. In order to
make a quantitative study of the growth of natural populations it is necessary, therefore, to obtain a
census, from lime to time, of the individuals composing the population. In a natural environment
great difficulty is experienced in obtaining reliable samples representative of the population in a
given area at the time the samples are taken. It has been shown by several experimenters, notably by
Raymond Pearl and his associates, that in the "closed" system of a laboratory experiment, the
growth of a population follows a definite course, which appears to be clearly represented by the
Verhulst-Pearl logistic curve (5). Pearl and Reed (6) applied this curve in order to interpret the
course of the growth of human populations; Belz (1) applied the same principles to the population
of Australia.

141

ON THE ECOLOGY OF THE GROWTH OF THE SHEEP POPULATION
IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By J. Davipson, D.Sc.
Waite Research Institute, University of Adelaide

[Read 9 June 1938]

I INTRODUCTION

Considerable attention has been focussed, during recent years, on the biology
of animal populations. Several investigators have studied, quantitatively, the
influence of various factors affecting the growth of populations. For each species
of animals in an area, the number of individuals varies from time to time, according
to the intensity of the struggle going on between the forces which enable the
species to reproduce and the physical and biotic forces in the environment; the
latter may favour the birth rate and survival rate during certain periods and
depress them during other periods. In order to make a quantitative study of the
growth of natural populations it is necessary, therefore, to obtain a census, from
time to time, of the individuals composing the population. In a natural environ-
ment great difficulty is experienced in obtaining reliable samples representative
of the population in a given area at the time the samples are taken. It has been
shown by several experimenters, notably by Raymond Pearl and his associates, that
in the “closed” system of a laboratory experiment, the growth of a population
follows a definite course, which appears to be clearly represented by the Verhulst-
Pearl logistic curve (5). Pearl and Reed (6) applied this curve in order to
interpret the course of the growth of human populations; Belz (1) applied the
same principles to the population of Ausiralia.

The growth of a sheep population is subject to the controlling influence of
the sheep farmer. The position in South Australia is of interest, since the genial
climate permits of the sheep leading a comparatively free life, and a century of
annual records of the sheep numbers are available. Prior to 1836, when the
Province of South Australia was founded, the inhabitants of the country were
aborigines who did not practise agriculture. Therefore, the natural vegeta-
tion was undisturbed, except for light grazing by marsupials and occasional bush
fires. The early settlers imported sheep from Tasmania and elsewhere to form
the beginnings of the sheep industry. At the end of 1838 there were 380,000
sheep in the Province. The pastoralists aimed at increasing their flocks, so as
to occupy the expanding area of grazing land which was gradually being opened
up in the virgin country. Jt was necessary to protect the sheep from natural
enemies such as wild dogs (dingoes)}, and later on from foxes and blowflies. The
introduced rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) increased rapidly in numbers after
about 1870; an Act of Parliament was passed in 1875 “to provide for the
suppression of the rabbit nuisance.” It is not possible from the data available

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 62 (1), 22 July 1938 J

142

to assess, quantitatively, the effect of these biotic factors on the growth of the
sheep population.

When all the areas in the Province suitable for sheep-raising had been
occupied, it would be expected that the sheep population would attain a saturation
density. The number of sheep would be determined primarily by the “permanent”
fecding value, or “carrying capacity” of the pastures; the latter would depend,
to a great extent, on the management of the pastures in this respect. Economic
factors, associated with supply and demand of the products of the sheep industry,
would also exert an influence.

The object of the present paper is to examine the annual records of sheep
numbers for South Australia, and interpret the growth of the population in terms
of the Verhulst-Pearl logistic curve.

Il Fittinc tHe Data To THE VERHULST-PEARL Locisric CURVE

The annual numbers of sheep in South Australia since 1838 are given in the
published livestock statistics prepared by the Government Statist. Records were
not taken for the eleven years 1841, 1851, 1855, 1885-8, 1893-5 and 1906, but
reliable estimates are available for these years. The number of sheep for each
year is plotted in figure 1. The average annual number for each five-year period
since 1838 is given in Table I; in each case the number is allotted to the mid-year
for the period.

Taste I
Showing the Average Annual Sheep Population in South Australia for
Five-year Periods, commencing 1838; and the Calculated Values

Mid-year POSSI Ee ageatts | Mid-year ee ae ae
(x) aus is (x)
Observ. Calc. | QObserv. Calc.
1840 77 303 1890 =| 6926 6921
1845 527 6 520 1895 | 6314 7014
1850 1095; 1031 1900 5162 7063
1855 1835 1769 1905 6170 7087
1860 2887 2795 1910 6250 7108
1865 4033 3913 1915 4512 7111
1870 4628 5057 | 1920 6297 7113
1875 6029 5888 1925 6908 7115
1880 6432 6429 1930 6714 7115
1885 6588 6746 1935 7918 7115
The data given in Table I have been fitted to a logistic curve, having the
formula: K
y =d-+——
a—bx

Let €

143

where y= population; x=time (year); d=0; K—=distance between the

upper and lower asymptote; @= 2°71828 (base of Naperian logs); a and b are

calculated constants. The value K == 7115-3 (thousands) was calculated from

the average sheep numbers for 1850, 1865 and 1880. For each of the observed

values for y, and the appropriate values for x from 1845 to 1880 (Table I), the
K-y

values of log

were calculated. These values were fitted to a straight line
¥

by the method of least squares for eight observations. The formula for the line

is y==a-+ bx where a = 1°351005 and b = —0'29031.

Ke
Taking the values for log ‘ when x == 1845 and 1875 respectively, and
¥
changing these values into Naperian logarithms (N), the constants @ and b in
a— bx
1+e were calculated, by substituting the appropriate values for x and N
in the formula: N = a—bx
This gave a = 249°106686; b = 0°133693. Substituting these values in the
formula: K
y=d+
a — bx
i-+e
we obtain the calculated logistic curve 7445.3

eS
249. 106686 — 0-133693x

1+e
The curve is shown in figure 1; the observed and calculated values for the popula-
tion (y) are given in Table I.

The curve illustrates the trend of the population up to about 1890, when the
density approximates to its upper asymptote (7115-3 x 1000). This is the
theoretical saturation density for the sheep population under the environmental
conditions obtaining up to that time. It might be expected, with a stable environ-
ment, that the future population would oscillate about this density, but the exten-
sive fluctuations after this date (fig. 1) “show that profound changes must have
taken place in the environment. These changes and their influence on the popula-
tion are discussed in the next section.

ITI Procress of TIE SHEEP POPULATION
South Australia has an area of 380,000 square miles, of which 83%, con-
sisting of the northern portion of the State, has an annual rainfall of less than
10 inches. The characteristics and distribution of the native vegetation are
primarily related to rainfall; apart from economic considerations, the availability
of food (pasture) and water are the major factors affecting the progress and
distribution of the sheep population (8).

144

The gradual opening up of the savannah woodland and sclerophyll forest
by the early settlers afforded excellent pasturage for sheep; the clearing of the
mallee lands came later with the development of wheat farming. The flocks
gradually progressed northwards into the saltbush steppe and by 1866 had
extended to about the thirtieth parallel of latitude, a northern limit determined

GROWTH OF SHEEP POPULATION IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

aa ras F T Aa ae T ar T T T T T T T T + 1 v
8000] oF on
7S
70" ea
°
es" Ru
6c" te
Cc
<
55* oO
m
a
50 »
+
a5 eee enn _lo
5
40% |
“
as FHSS |
fo @ 249 0569 — 013309 an
_| 9
a ae
ba [asa
sis
| oOo
Cc
wv
—| >
Z
g
4 0
of
PPS Ps ako
30]
25
20"

a8,

ANNUAL RAINFALL

aw
Fig. 1
The sheep numbers taken from official records are shown for each year (small
black circles); the average number for 5-year periods, since 1838, are also shown
(larger, open circles). The rainfall for the years 1839-60 on the Adelaide Plains
is shown; from 1860 onwards the rainfall data are for the Lower North (Central)
districts. The shaded area shows the years in which rainfall was below the average

by rainfall and distance from the occupied areas (7). With the proclamation of
the first counties in 1842, the area under cultivation, particularly for wheat,
gradually extended; by 1891 approximately 24 million acres were under cul-
tivation (3, 7).

145

Rainfall plays a dominating part in producing fluctuations in the number of
sheep from year to year, due primarily to its effect on the pastures. In figure 1
is shown the annual rainfall for 1839-60 over the Adelaide Plains; and for 1860-
1931 over the Lower North (Central) district of South Australia. The rainfall
figures were taken from the official publication of the Commonwealth Bureau of
Meteorology, “Results of Rainfall Observations made in South Australia and
the Northern Territory,” by H. A. Hunt, 1918, 17; additional data were kindly
supplied by Mr. E. Bromley, Government Meteorologist for South Australia.
The shaded portions of the graph indicate the years and amount in which the
rainfall was below the average of 18-4 inches and 18°6 inches, respectively. The
rainfall for these restricted regions does not give a complete picture of the annual
march of precipitation over the whole of the State; but the chart shows those
years in which the State received adequate rains, and those in which it experienced
dry conditions. There is considerable agreement between dry years and thd
reduction in sheep numbers; for instance, during the periods 1895 to 1902, 1911
to 1915, and 1926 to 1930,

(a) Period 1838-1891

The population follows closely the trend of the calculated curve throughout
this period. The sheep numbers for 1838 and 1839 are dominated by importations
and fall below the calculated curve. From 1840 to 1868 they follow the curve
closely, and the dry years appear to have had little effect in reducing the popula-
tion. This may be attributed to the extensive, unoccupied country available for
grazing during this carly period. For this reason, cattle, which attained their
maximum numbers of 375,000 in 1860 and rapidly fell away again, do not appear
to have entered seriously into competition with sheep for pasture. The fall in
the population during 1869-72 is associated with the dry years, 1868, 1869, and
the economic depression which obtained during this period (3). The persistent
fall in the population during 1884-89 is related to the dry years of the 1880's;
under the influence of good rains in 1889-90 the numbers again rose rapidly. At
the end of 1891 there were 7,646,239 sheep in the State, a density which was not
attained again until forty years later. Adequate feed (pasture) appears to have
been available about 1891 to support this density for a time. Considering the
rapid fall of the population in the following years, it is evident that the pastures
could not support this density permanently. The saturation density which might
be expected from the calculated curve is 7,115,300. It is seen from Table I that
the values of the five-year averages for 1895, 1905, 1910 and 1920, lie about a
straight line drawn through the average value (6285-75 thousands) for these
four periods (the mid years 1900 and 1915 have been excluded, because they
represent the population during severe periods of drought). The average value
6285-75 (thousands) for the above periods is 856-55 thousands less than the upper
asymptote of the calculated curve. It may be concluded that the conditions
obtaining throughout these years tended to keep the population about this lower
level, whereas we would expect from the trend of the growth of the population

J2

146

up to 1890 that the ultimate density would oscillate about a value of 7115-3
thousands. The maintenance of the population about this theoretical value would,
however, depend upon the stability of the environment, particularly with regard
to the food factor; but the amount of feed available in the pasture areas fluctuates
considerably, owing to the character of the rainfall (2,8). The following features
associated with the development of the sheep industry appear to have played an
important part in keeping the population at the lower level after about 1890.

(a) By 1890 practically all the suitable grazing areas in the State had been
occupied. In certain areas, particularly in the more arid districts, the
sheep had heavily grazed much of the perennial native vegetation, and
regeneration was slow owing to the arid conditions; this reduced the
sheep-carrying capacity of these areas. In the regions having more reliable
rainfall, certain of the earlier grazing areas were gradually taken up
for cultivation with the development of agriculture.

(b) The marked increase in the number of rabbits after about 1870 intro-
duced an additional factor which assisted in reducing the carrying
capacity of the pastures,

(c) The pastoralists developed an improved type of sheep by means of
selection and “culling,” which grew a heavier fleece, so that fewer sheep
could be carried on the pastures, for an cquivalent weight of wool, com-
pared with the earlier types.

(b) Period 1891-1902

With the exception of a temporary rise in 1899 and 1900 the sheep numbers
show a persistent decline during this period, which continued, notwithstanding
good rains in 1893-4, The whole decade of the 1890’s appears to have been a
period of great economic stress in South Australia (3). The situation was
accentuated by the succession of dry years from 1895 to 1902 which resulted in
the most devastating drought in the history of the State. Agriculture was push-
ing out into the lesser rainfall areas and the difficulties of climate and agricultural
practice were becoming more pronounced.

(c) Period 1902-1908

Under the influence of a succession of good seasons, the population steadily
increased during this period to 6,898,451 in 1908, This approximates closely to
the calculated saturation density, and notwithstanding the continuation of good
rains in 1909 and 1910 the population declined after 1908. It would seem that,
under the conditions of agriculture and pasture management obtaining in the
State up to that time, the country could not permanently support the density of
population which might be expected from the course of the growth curve.

(d) Period 1908-1915
There was a steady fall in the population during this period, which was
accelerated during the dry years leading up to the severe drought of 1914.

147

(e) Period 1915-1936

During the war years, in the early part of this period, the population increased
rapidly to 1919, under the influence of good rainfall in 1916 and 1917 and
sustained prices for wool. The temporary fall in 1920 is associated with the dry
years 1918, 1919. After 1920 the sheep numbers steadily increased to 1927, due
to a succession of years with good rainfall and sustained satisfactory wool prices.
The pronounced fall in the population from 1928 to 1930 is associated with dry
seasons and the drop in wool prices, due to the econcmic depression of this period.
With a return to good seasons after 1930, and the gradual lifting of the depression,
the sheep numbers rose rapidly to a record density of approximately 8 millions
in 1933, which density has been maintained in subsequent years.

The post war period of agricultural development in Australia is noteworthy
for the improvements in pastures and their management. These developments
have raised the sheep-carrying capacity of the pastures in South Australia. It
will be noted that the reduction in sheep numbers during the adverse years of
1928-30 is less pronounced than in the 1890’s and in the years about 1914. This
is due to pasture improvements, particularly by the marked increase in the applica-
tion of artificial manures to natural pastures. The area of top-dressed pastures
increased from 250,000 acres in 1928-9 to 900,000 acres in 1936-7. The areas
under sown grasses in 1921-2 were practically nil; there were 28,000 acres of
lucerne. By 1936-7 there were 250,200 acres of clover, 63,900 acres of sown
grasses and 51,700 acres of lucerne. With the development of mixed farming
methods during recent years, a greater number of sheep is being carried in
association with wheat-growing.

In the arid pastoral regions improvements in water storage and in the manage-
ment of pastoral properties enable the pastoralist to carry his sheep through
drought years more successfully. It should be noted, however, that the increase
in sheep numbers during recent years is particularly due to pasture improvements
in the agricultural areas. The arid portion of the country north of the 10-inch
isohyet carries approximately 21% of the sheep of the State (8).

The first cultural epoch in the pastoral industry, which consisted primarily
in stocking the natural pastures, is being replaced by a second cultural epoch,
the main features of which are illustrated by the pasture developments referred
to above. Under the influence of this new epoch the sheep population is tending
to a new growth curve having a higher upper asymptote. It is not possible to
predict the trend of this curve at present, owing to the incompleteness of the
pasture developments which are in progress.

SUMMARY

The number of sheep present in South Australia, cach year from the founda-
tion of the Province in 1836, is given in the published livestock statistics.

148

These data have been analysed and fitted to the Verhulst-Pearl logistic curve,
illustrating the course of the growth of the population. The formula for the
curve is:

7115-3

y=
249 .106686 — 0.133693x

l+e

The progress of the sheep population during the past 100 years is discussed
with reference to this curve. It illustrates that the saturation density of the sheep
population, which a natural pasture area can permanently carry, is determined
primarily by the feeding value of the pasture, and the regrowth of plants eaten
by the sheep. When the density exceeds this value, the balance is upset and the
carrying capacity of the area will decline. The effect on the area in this respect
will depend upon the degree of overgrazing and the power of the pasture to
recover. In the arid climate of South Australia, the recovery is mainly dependent
on rainfall and may be considerably delayed.

REFERENCES

(1) Betz, M. H. 1929 “Theories of Population and their application to
Australia,” Econ. Record, 253-262

(2) Davivson, J. 1936 “On the Ecology of the Black-tipped Locust
(Chortoicetes terminifera Wlk.) in South Australia,’ Trans. Roy. Soe.
S. Aust., 59, 142-8

(3) Fenner, C. 1929 “A Geographical Enquiry into the Growth, Distribution
and Movement of Population in South Australia,’ Trans. Roy. Soc.
S. Aust., 53, 79-145

(4) Gause, G. F. 1934 “The Struggle for Existence,” Baltimore

(5) Peart, R., and Reep, L. J. 1920 “On the Rate of Growth of the Popula-
tion of the U.S.A. since 1790, and its Mathematical Representation,”
Proc. Nat. Acad, Sci., 6, 275-288

(6) Peart, R. 1925 “The Biology of Population Growth,’ New York

(7) Ricwarpson, A. E, V. 1937 “Agricultural and Pastoral Progress,” Cen-
tenary History of 5. Aust., Roy. Geogr. Soc. of Australasia, S, Aust.
Branch, Adelaide, 136-149

(8) Trumsie, H.C. 1935 “The Relation of Pasture Development to Environ-
mental Factors in South Australia,” J. Agric. S. Aust., 38, 1,460-1,487

A CENSUS OF THE FREE-LIVING AND PLANT-PARASITIC NEMATODES
RECORDED AS OCCURING IN AUSTRALIA

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON

Summary

The outstanding contributor to the study of Australian free-living and plantparasitic nematodes was
the late N. A. Cobb, who was for many years associated with the Department of Agriculture in New
South Wales. Most of his work relating to our subject appeared in the Agricultural Gazette of that
State (1890- 1902) ; the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales (1890- 1898) ;
and in the Macleay Memorial Volume (1893), published by the latter Society. Many of Cobb's
articles in the Gazette were re-issued as Miscellaneous Publications by the Department, as also was
his important paper on “Nematodes, mostly Australian and Fijian” from the Macleay Volume
(Misc. Publ. No. 13).

149

A CENSUS OF THE FREE-LIVING AND PLANT-PARASITIC NEMATODES
RECORDED AS OCCURRING IN AUSTRALIA

By T. Harvey Jounston, M.A., D.Sc., University of Adelaide
[Read 9 June 1938]

The outstanding contributor to the study of Australian free-living and plant-
parasitic nematodes was the late N. A. Cobb, who was for many years associated
with the Department of Agriculture in New South Wales. Most of his work
relating to our subject appeared in the Agricultural Gazette of that State (1890-
1902); the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales (1890-
1898) ; and in the Macleay Memorial Volume (1893), published by the latter
Society. Many of Cobb’s articles in the Gazette were re-issued as Miscellaneous
Publications by the Department, as also was his important paper on “Nematodes,
mostly Australian and Fijian” from the Macleay Volume (Misc. Publ. No. 13).
It was in the publications of the Department that Cobb made known his “nematode
formula” (1890, 1893, 1898, 1902), and described his differentiator (1890, 1898)
which has since been used so extensively as part of a technique for staining,
dehydrating and clearing minute and delicate objects, including free nematodes.
His papers included several in the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New
South Wales dealing with free nematodes, chiefly marine, from Arabia, Ceylon, the
Mediterranean and Western Europe (1890, 1891, 1894). Iis main article on Aus-
tralian marine species appeared in 1898. In some of his accounts of plant-parasitic
forms (Agr, Gaz. N.S.W.; Macleay Volume), information is given regarding
many species which were not then known to occur in Australia.

In the Agricultural Gazette, New South Wales, for 1898 (296-321, 419-454,
figs. 1-127), there appeared his “Extract from M.S. Report on the Parasites of
Stock.” This abundantly illustrated article devotes a great deal of space to free-
living species, but, unfortunately, though well figured, there is usually no indication
of locality regarding them. Many are known to occur elsewhere than in Aus-
tralia and, consequently, in the present census there are included only references
to the figures of stich as are known from information published elsewhere to
belong to Australian free-living or plant-parasitic species. Cobb’s report was re-
published as Miscellaneous Publication No. 215, Department of Agriculture, New
South Wales (62 pp.), under the same title, but the cover bears the legend,
“Nematode Parasites, their Relation to Man and Domesticated Animals.” Two
new figures were interpolated and numbered 40 and 47; consequently there is an
alteration in the numbering of all figures from figure 40 onwards, when compared
with that of the original article. In this census, the original pagination and
numbering of figures are quoted.

In 1917 (1918) Miss Irwin-Smith published an excellent anatomical paper
dealing with some species of Chaetosomatidac from the coast in the vicinity of

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 62 (1), 22 July 1938

150

Sydney. Allgen (1927) described a number of Tasmanian marine species from
the Derwent River, near Hobart (Brown’s River), from material collected during
the visit of Larsen’s Antarctic (Ross Sea) whaling expedition of 1923-4.
Michaelsen and Hartmeyer, in their collecting trip to south-western Australia in
1905, obtained very few free nematodes, judging from Steiner’s brief account of
them (1916). Most of the remaining references relate to observations by various
workers concerning a few species of great economic importance, ¢.g., some of
those belonging to Tylenchus or Heterodera or allied genera.

Many parasitic nematodes (e.g., Strongylata) have a free-living larval stage,
while certain others, such as Rhabdias and Strongyloides, are heterogamic and
have a free stage represented by males and females. Reference is made to the
few Mermitidae recorded from the Commonwealth, since maturity is attained in
the free-living stage. Though the Gordiacea are regarded as only distantly
related to true nematodes, the few references to the occurrence of representatives
in Australia are included. Plant-parasitic nematodes have received considerable
attention from Goodey in his recent book on the group (1933).

The classification utilized in this paper is based mainly on the recent contribu-
tions of Filipjev (1934) and of Chitwood and Chitwood (1937). The earliest
reference to the presence of free-living nematodes in Australia appears to be that
by Whitclegge (Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 23, 1889, 307), who in his “List of the
Marine and Freshwater Invertebrate Fauna of Port Jackson and the Neighbour-
hood,” stated that numerous species of Anguillulidae occurred in the local fresh
waters. The earliest records of plant-parasitic species in the Commonwealth seem
to be that of Crawford (1881) relating to car cockle of wheat in South Australia,
and that by Bancroft, whose account of a nematode attacking roots of grape vines
and bananas in Queensland, led Cobb (1890, 166) to state that the figures seemed
to represent Tylenchus arenarius. The latter is a synonym of T. radicicola (of
authors), more correctly known as Heterodera mariont.

Some changes in nomenclature have been made in this paper. Anguillulina
(Fergusobia) temifaciens Currie 1937, pre-occupied by A. tumefaciens (Cobb
1932) Goodey, is renamed A. (F.) curriei; Rhabditis allgeni is proposed for
R. australis Allgen 1932, nec Cobb 1893; Monhystera pactfica for M. australis
Cobb 1893 (1894), nec Cobb 1893; Monhystera gracilior for M. gracillima Man
1921, nec Cobb 1893; M. kreisi for M. gracillima Kreis 1929, nec Cobb 1893, nec
Man 1921; Dorylaimus steinerianus, for D. steineri Thorne and Swanger 1936,
nec Micoletzky 1921; Chromadora cobbiana for C. dubia Cobb 1930, nec Butschhi ;
Epsilonematina for Epsilonema Steiner 1931, nec Steiner 1926 (a renaming of
Rhabdogaster pre-occ.), with type E. steineri (Chitwood 1935) ; Prochactosoma
Baylis and Daubney 1926 is pre-occupied by Prochaetosoma Micoletzky 1921, and
accordingly is replaced by Epsilonema Steiner 1926 nec 1931, and the family name
Prochaetosomatidae is replaced by Epsilonematidae; Drepanonematidae nom nov.
replaces Chaetosomatidae; Chaetosoma haswelli lrwin-Smith and C. falcatiuim
Irwin-Smith are transferred to Tristicochaeta.,

151

RHABDITIDAE

Anguillula aceti (Mueller), the vinegar eel-worm. Peters (1927) proposed
Turbatrix to receive it, but Filipjev (1934) doubted the propriety of the change.
Though apparently unrecorded from the Commonwealth, it occurs in Brisbane,
Sydney, Melbourne and Adelaide, and probably in other parts of Australia.

Rhabditis australis Cobb, Macleay Volume, 1893, 278, from grass, Sydney,
New South Wales. Micoletzky, 1921, 252. In 1932 Aligen described FR. australis
n.sp. (Nyt. Mag., Oslo, B, 70, 1932, 192-4), from Campbell Island; but as the
specific name is pre-occupied, R. allgeni is now proposed for it.

Rhabditis cylindrica Cobb, Agr. Gaz., N.S.W., 9, 1898, 448, fig. 125. No details
are given other than those indicated in Cobb’s formula and figure. No locality
is mentioned, but it is presumably New South Wales. Micoletzky (1921, 258)
stated that Cobb’s species was possibly only a variety of R. strongyloides Schn.

Rhabditis filiformis Bitschli? Cobb, Macleay Vol., 1893, 276-7, pl. 36, from
grass, Sydney; Agr. Gaz., N.S.W., 4, 1893, 832-3, fig. 46, from soil around moss
roots, Clarence River. Micoletzky (1921, 263) included Cobb’s two queried
identifications under R. filiformis, but pointed out that the figure in the former
publication apparently belonged to the species, whilst that in Agr. Gaz., 1893,
fig. 46, is that which Cobb had utilized in the Macleay Volume to illustrate
R. monhystera. Man (Cap. Zool., 1 (1), 1921, 32) stated that Cobb’s species was
probably distinct from, though closely related to, Biitschli’s, because of differences
in the sizes of the eggs and of the genital ducts in the two cases. The Australian
species requires re-examination.

Rhabditis minuta Cobb, Agr. Gaz., N.S.W., 4, 1893, 831-2, fig. 45, from
roots of sugar cane, Clarence River, New South Wales. Micoletzky, 1921, 257.

Rhabditis monhystera Biitschli. Cobb, Macleay Vol., 1893, 278-9, pl. 38, from
grass and celery, Australia, Micoletzky, 1921, 253 (syn. R. simplex Cobb), 263
(pointing out that Cobb had in error used his figures of this species to illustrate
another species, J. filiformis, in Agr. Gaz., N.S.W., 1893, fig. 46).

Rhabditis pellioides Biitschli. Cobb, Macleay Vol., 1893, 277, pl. 38, from
fresh grass and dead sheaths of banana plants, Australia and Fiji. Micoletzky,
1921, 257.

Rhabditis simplex Cobb, Agr. Gaz., N.S.W., 4, 1893, 830-1, from. soil,
Clarence River. Micoletzky, 1921, 253, syn. of R. monhystera.

Rhabditis sp. Cobb, Macleay Vol., 1893, 256, from celery. See R. monhysiera,

Rhabditis spp. Heydon and Green, Med. Jour. Austr., 1931, (1), 626, from
cultures made from human faeces, North Queensland; one of these coprophilic
species was stated to be near R. hominis.

RHABDIASIDAE
Some Australian frogs, especially Hyla aurea in New South Wales and
Victoria, harbour lung worms, Rhabdias sp., which pass through a free-living
generation with distinct males and females.

152

STRONGYLGIDIDAE

Strongyloides stercoralis (Bavay) has been reported from Australian
localities, especially in coastal Queensland, the references having been collected
in a recent paper by Johnston and Cleland (Tr. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 61, 1937,
276). S. papillosus (Wedl.) has been recorded from sheep, etc., in New South
Wales by Ross and his colleagues, and in Queensland by Roberts. It occurs
also in sheep in South Australia. The free-living generation of these two species
has not received particular attention in the Commonwealth. Heydon and Green
(Med. Jour. Austr., 1931, (1), 626) pointed out the probability of the earlier
published infection rates for humans in North Queensland being inaccurate
because of the common presence of coprophilic Rhabditis spp. in stale faeces.

DIPLOGASTERIDAE

Diplogaster australis Cobb, Macleay Vol., 1893, 269, from grass, Sydney.
Perhaps synonymous with D. graminum. Maicoletzky, 1921, 406.

Diplogaster graminum Cobb, Macleay Vol. 1893, 270, from grass, Sydney.
perhaps synonymous with D. australis, Micoletzky, 1921, 406.

Diplogaster irichuris Cobb, Macleay Vol., 1893, 271-2, fig. 3, from grass,
Sydney; p. 256, from celery, Sydney. Cobb, Agr, Gaz., N.S.W., 9, 1898, 311,
fig, 28, no locality. ‘Vidswell and Johnston, Rep. Bur. Microbiol., N.S.W., 1909,
71. ? D, trichuris, banana, N.S.W. Micoletzky, 1921, 405.

CYLINDROGASTERIDAE
Myctolaimus pellucidus Cobb, Contrib. Sci. Nematology, 9, 1920, 276, from
sheep dung, Moss Vale, N.S.W.; genus stated to be near Cephalobus; no speci-
mens preserved. Micoletzky (1921, 209-10), as well as Baylis and Daubney
(1926), placed the genus in Cylindrolaiminae, Filipjev (1934) regarded it as a
synonym ot Auleolaimus (Diplogasterinae). Chitwood (Jour. Wash. Acad.
Sci., 1933, 512) placed it under Cylindrogasteridae,

CEPTIALOBIDAE

Acrobeles sp., found in garden soil, Reedbeds, Adelaide.

Cephalobus cephalatus Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.5.W., 9, 1901, 115-7, fig. 1, roots
of passion fruit, Sackville, New South Wales.

Cephalobus mudllicinclus Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 829-30, fig. 44,
about roots of sugar cane, Clarence River, New South Wales. Micoletzky, 1921,
272, probable syn. of C. oaryuroides Man.

Cephalobus similis Cobb, Macleay Vol., 1893, 288-9, lettuce, Sydney. Mico-
letzky, 1921, 273.

Cephalobus sp. Heydon and Green, Med. Jour. Austr., 1931, (1), 626, from
stale human faeces, North Queensland.

153

ANGUILLULINIDAE (ANGUINIDAE syn. TYLENCHIDAE)

Anguillulina tritici (Steinb.), more commonly known as Tylenchus tritici,
q.v., also T. scandens. Chitwood (1935) has indicated that Anguina Scopoli has
priority over Anguillulina, but Stiles (Nature, 138, 1936, 34; Zool. Anz., 115,
1936, 110) has suggested that in this case priority should be waived.

Anguillulina dipsact (Kiihn), more commonly known as Tylenchus devas-
tatrix, q.v. Millikan, Jour. Agr. Vict., 33, 1935, 563-6, bulbs, Victoria. Vulipjev
(1934) has assigned the species to Ditylenchus, Syn., Tylenchus dipsaci, q.v.

Anguillulina radicicola Greef, more commonly known as Heterodera radici-
cola or Tylenchus rad., q.v. Goodey (1932; 1933) has indicated that the specific
name should be restricted to the eel-worm known as Tylenchus hordei, whereas
the species generally called T. radicicola should be known as Heterodera marion
q.v.

Anguillulina (Fergusobia) tumifaciens Currie, Pr. Linn. Soc., N.5.W., 72,
1937, 158-163, figs. 26-28, pl. 6-7, from Eucalyptus galls, associated with an
Agromyzid fly, Fergusonia carteri, N.S.W. Type of subgenus. Currie has given
an excellent account of the nematode, which passes through a free-living stage,
with males and females, in leaf galls of Eucalyptus Stuartiana and E, macro-
rhyncha in the vicinity of Canberra. Then there follows a parasitic female
generation in the body cavity of the gall flies. Currie also referred to this
“symbiotic association between flies and nematodes in galls of eucalypt trees” in
Nature, 136, 1935, 263. Unfortunately, the specific name (which should be
amended to tumefaciens) is pre-occupied in the genus by A. tumefaciens (Cobb,
1932) Goodey, 1933, syn. Tylenchus tumefaciens Cobb, from galls in the grass,
Cynodon, in South Africa. Dr. Currie’s attention was drawn to this fact, but he
has requested the author to undertake renaming, if considered necessary. In
recognition of the excellent account of the biology of the species, the latter is
here renamed A. (f*.) curriet.

Anguillulina (Fergusobia) curriei nom. nov. Type of subgenus. See
A, (F.) tumifaciens.

Aphelenchoidées fragariae (Ritzema-Bos), the cause of “cauliflower disease”
of strawberry, “red plant,” or “strawberry bunch” (Cobb, 1891). Cobb, Agr.
Gaz., N.S.W., 2, 1891, 390-400; unnamed nematodes reported as the cause of
the disease in New South Wales, the species being described in the same year by
Ritzema-Bos as Aphelenchus fragariae. Goodey (1933) transferred it to
Aphelenchoides, The disease occurs in South Australia.

Aphelenchus fragariac. See Aphelenchoides fragariae,

Aphelenchus microlaimus Cobb, Agr. Gaz., N.S.W., 2, 1891, 395; Macleay
Vol., 1893, 302-3, fig. 10, common in grass, Sydney. Micoletzky, 1921, 588, 590,
591 (synonym of A. parietinus).

Aphelenchus spp. Cobb (Jour. Parasit., 8, 1921, 95) referred to the presence
of twenty-six species of nematodes, including four new (unnamed) species of
Aphelenchus, collected from material about the roots of Kentia palms.

134

Aphelenchus sp. Samuel, Jour. Dept. Agr., 5. Ausir., 32, 1928, 43, wheat
and oats, South Australia. See Heterodera schachti.

Entylenchus setiferus (Cobb 1893) Cobb 1913. Originally described by
Cobb, Agr. Gaz., N.S.W., 4, 1893, 813, figs. 32-33, as Tylenchus setiferus, from
soil, Clarence River; transferred by him to Entylenchus in 1913 (Jour. Wash.
Acad. Sci., 1913, 437). Micoletzky, 1921, 577. Baylis and Daubney (1926)
regarded the genus as a synonym of Anguillulina, but Micoletzky (1921), Goodey
(1933), Filipjev (1934) and Rauther (1930) considered it valid.

Caconema radicicola (Greef). Pittman, Jour. Agr. West. Aust., ser. 2, 6,
1929, 436-46 (many host plants in W.A.). See Helerodera radicicola.

Heterodera marioni (Cornu). Goodey (1933) indicated that the eel-
worm referred to by authors as H, radicicola is not Grecf’s species, but belongs to
Cornu’s. Pittman, Jour. Agr. West Aust., 14, 1937, 289, potatoes, W.A.

Heterodera radicicola (Greef). See H. marioni, Caconema radicicola and
Tylenchus radicicola, Tryon, Queensl. Agr. Jour., 11, 1902, 406; 13, 1903, 463;
banana roots, Cairns ; 22, 1909, 100-2, various plant roots, presumably Queensland ;
also in Ann. Reports Queensland Dept. Agr. Wood, Qld. Agr. Jour., 27, 1911,
38-40, root gall, soil treatment, North Qeensland, Laidlaw, Jour. Agr. Vict., 12,
1914, 370-7, potatoes, onions, Vict.; Harris, Jour. Agr. Vict., 20, 1922, onions,
Vict.; Noble, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 39, 1928, 546-8, N.S.W.; Manuel, Agr. Gaz.
N.S.W., 35, 1924, 581-8, grape roots, N.S.W. Johnston, Rep. Bur. Microbiol.,
N.S.W., 1909, 57, tomato roots, N.S.W. Darnell-Smith, ibid., 1910-11, 1912,
169, passion vine roots, N.S.W. It occurs on the roots of garden plants in light
soils in Adelaide.

Eggs of Oxyuris incognita Kofoid have been recorded as found in human
excreta in North Queensland. Sandground showed that such eggs belonged to
H. radicicola ingested along with vegetables. Heydon and Green (Med. Jour.
Austr., 1926, (2), 42) referred to these occurrences and reported finding
H, radicicola in carrots and radishes grown in Townsville.

Heterodera schachtit Schmidt. Spafford, Jour. Agr. 5S. Aust., 26, 1922-3,
535, cereals, S.A. Davidson, [bid., 34, 1930, 378-85, cereals, S.A. Hickenbotham,
Ibid., 34, 1930, 386-92, “no growth patches” in wheat fields, Roseworthy, S.A.
Garrett, [bid., 37, 1934, 984-7, S.A. Spafford, Ibid., 35, 1932, 836; 39, 1936,
1006, eelworms attacking cereals, S.A. Johnston, W., /bid., 37, 1934, 705-6, eel-
worms attacking cercals and grasses, S.A.

Tylenchulus senipenetrans Cobb, Jour. Agr. Res., 2, 1914, 218-30, roots of
citrus trees, Gosford, N.S.W. Goodey, 1933, 123, citrus roots, Australia and
elsewhere.

Tylenchus arenarius Neale. Cobb. Agr. Gaz., N.S.W., 1, 1890, 121-2, roots,
Glen Innes, N.S.W.; 1, 1890, 155-184, figs. 1-8, pl. 4, “root gall” in N.S.W.,
-—~p. 166, from Queensland, based on Bancroft’s published account of worms
attacking roots of grape and banana—p. 166, worm may be T. (Het.) radicicola or

155

T. (H.) javanicus. Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 1901, 1041, identified it as T. (or
Heterodera) radic. q.v.

Tylenchus davainti Bast. Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 1, 1890, 175, Australia.

Tylenchus dihystera Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 814-5, about roots of
sugar-cane, Clarence River. Micoletzky, 1921, 551.

Tylenchus dipsaci Kithn. Noble, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 36, 1925, 827, lucerne,
Hunter River; ibid., 39, 1928, 548-9, lucerne, N.S.W. Edwards, Agr. Gaz.
N.S.W., 43, 1932, 305-14, 345-56, bulbs, lucerne, etc, N.S.W. See Tylenchus
devastatrix, Anguillulina dipsaci.

Tylenchus devastatriv Kiihn. Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 1, 1890, 173,
T. dipsaci quoted as syn.—“there is reason to believe that [the species] exists also
in Australia”; Macleay Vol., 1893, 299-300, fig. 9, no localities mentioned ;
Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 812, fig. 31; [bid., 13, 1902, 1031-3, “from various
parts of Australia,” Richmond River, N.S.W.; Ibid., 9, 1898, 425, fig. 86; Ibid.,
2, 1891, 678-82, quoted a report by A. N. Pearson (p. 678-9) on the presence
of eel-worm in Victorian onion fields, specimens determined by Cobb (p. 679) as
T. devastatrix ; Yearbook U.S. Dept. Agr., 1914 (1915), 485, Australia. Johnston,
Pr. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 34, 1909, 417, N.S.W., Tasmania. Tidswell and Johnston,
Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 20, 1909, 1011-12, N.S.W.; Farmers’ Bull., 31, 1909, 22-25
(Dept. Agr. N.S.W.) ; Rep. Bur. Microbiol. 1909, 62-3. Darnriell-Smith, Rep. Bur.
Microbiol. N.S.W., for 1910, 1911 (1912), 168, roots grape vine (apparently an
error for T. radicicola), Laidlaw and Price, Jour. Agr. Vict., 8, 1910, 163-171;
onion, Vict. Laidlaw, ibid., 8, 1910, 87-90, 508-11, potato, Vict. Holmes, ibid.,
8, 1910, 570-82, potato, Vict. Seymour, ibid., 8, 1910, 360-4, Vict. Editor, ibid.,
9, 1911, 845, onions, Vict. Harris, ibid,, 20, 1922, 104, onions, Vict. Noble,
Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 39, 1928, 549, daffodils and jonquils, N.S:W. Editor, Jour.
Agr. West Austr.; 18, 1909, 351, extract from Kirk’s N.Z report on T, devastatrix
in potatoes. Pittman, ibid., ser. 2, 14, 1937, 289, potatoes, W.A. See also
T. dipsaci, Anguillulina dipsaci,

Tylenchus emarginatus Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 814, soil, Clarence
River. Micoletzky, 1921, 551.

Tylenchus minutus Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 815, roots of sugar-cane,
Clarence River. Micoletzky, 1921, 552.

Tylenchus radicicola Greef (of authors). Cobb, Macleay Vol., 1893, 297-9,
gallworm, “a veritable pest in many parts of New South Wales, Queensland and
Victoria,” also long list of host plants; Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 8, 1897, 235-244,
figs. 48-55, Bundaberg to Adelaide, in all parts of Australia, except Tasmania;
ibid., 12, 1901, 1041-52 (T. arenarius Cobb 1890 is syn.) ; ibid., 13, 1902, 1031-33,
fig. 1. Magee, Agr. Gaz., N.S.W., 42, 1931, 429, tomato root-gall, N.S.W.;
Magee and Morgan, ibid., 43, 1932, 431, tomato eel-worm galls, N.S.W. Editor,
Jour. Agr. S. Austr., 1, 1897-8, 142, Port Augusta, S.A. See also Tylenchus sp.,
Heterodera radicicola, H. marioni and Caconema radicicola.

156

Tylenchus scandens Schn. Nicholls, Tasm. Jour. Agr., 4, 1933, 104-7, wheat,
Tasmania. Syn. of T. tritict.

Tylenchus setiferus Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 813, figs. 32-3, soil,
Clarence River. Transferred to Entylenchus by Cobb in 1913.

Tylenchus sp. Tryon, Queensl. Agr. Jour., 11, 1902, 406; 13, 1903, 463;
Ann. Reports Queensl. Dept. Agr., banana roots, Cairns. Lea, Agr. Gaz, Tasm.,
13, 1905, 136; 16, 1908, 15, potato gall-worm, Tasmania. Kirk, Agr, Gaz. Tasm.,
17, 1909, 189, potato, no locality, reprint of New Zealand report.

Tylenchus tritici (Steinb.), the cause of ear-cockle of wheat. Crawford,
Proc. Roy. Agr. Hort. Soc. South Aust., 1881, 190-11, Koolunga, S.A. Cobb, Agr.
Gaz, N.S.W., 1890, 173, referred to its presence in Europe, but was apparently
unaware of its recorded occurrence in Australia. Editor, Jour. Agr. S, Aust., 3,
1899, 273, 407, 431-2, 477, wheat, Murray Flats, S.A. Helms, Producers’ Gaz.,
W. Aust., 1898, wheat, W. Aust.; Jour. Agr., W, Aust., 1, 1900, 22-30; 7, 1903,
190-4; 10, 1904, 34, wheat, W. Aust. Carne, Jour. Agr., W. Aust., ser. 2, 3, 1926,
508-11, W. Aust.

Tylenchus uniformis Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 815-6, soil around
roots, sugar-cane, Clarence River. Micoletzky, 1921, 551.

PLECTIDAE

Plectus agilior Cobb, Pr. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 23, 1898, 398, on grass, Sydney.

Plectus cephalatus Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 828, fig. 42, from soil,
moss roots, Clarence River; Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 9, 1898, 423, fig. 84, no
locality. Micoletzky, 1921, 214, 241-2, synonym of P. (Wilsonema) auriculatus
Biitschli. Baylis and Daubney (1926, 56) quoted P. cephalatus as type of
Wilsonema, apparently an error for P. capitatus, a species from the United States.

Plectus insignis Cobb, Macleay Vol., 1893, 38-9, from soil, Moss Vale, N.S.W.
Micoletzky, 1921, 217,

Plectus mtermedius Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 827, from soil at roots
of sugar-cane, Clarence River. Micoletzky, 1921, 216.

Plectus minimus Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 826, from soil, Clarence
River. Micoletzky, 1921, 217.

Plectus parietinus Bast. Cobb, Macleay Vol., 1893, 256, from celery stalks,
Sydney; Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 826 (apparently from the Clarence River
district) ; Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 9, 1898, 436, fig. 93, no locality, Micoletzky (1921,
216, 219, 221) regards it as a variety of P. cirratus Bast.

Plectus parietinus var. australis Cobb, Pr. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 23, 1898,
397-8, from grass and celery, Sydney. Micoletzky 1921, 216 (synonym of
P. cirratus var. parietinus).

Plectus pusillus Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 826-7, from soil around
moss roots, Clarence River. Micoletzky, 1921, 216 (probably only a form of
P. cirratus),

157

CAMACOLAIMIDAE

Bastiana (i.e., Bastiania) australis Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 824,
irom soil, Clarence River. Micoletzky, 1921, 141 (possibly syn. of B. longicaudata
Man).

AXONOLAIMIDAE

Araeolaimus spectabilis Ditl, Allgen, Zool. Anz. 73, 1927, 197-8, fig. 1,
irom low tide zone, Derwent River, Tasmania.

Axonolaimus sp. Man, in his account of the free-living nematodes of
Zuider-Zee (1922-232), stated that a species of the genus had been described
from South Victoria, Australia. He must have confused Cobb’s species, A. polaris
(1914) from Cape Royds, South Victoria Land, collected by Shackleton’s
Antarctic Expedition. The same species was identified by Cobb (1930) from
material obtained by the Australasian Antarctic Expedition from Commonwealth
Bay. Coninck and Stekhoven (1933) transferred the species to Odontophora.

COMESOMATIDAE

Comesoma heterura Cobb, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 23, 1898, 386-7, Port
Jackson.

Comesoma jubata Cobb, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 23, 1898, 389-90, Port
Jackson.

Comesoma similis Cobb, Proc. Jinn, Soc. N.S.W., 23, 1898, 387-9, Port
Jackson.

MONT YSTERIDAE

Monhystera australis Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 824, from soil,
Harwood, Clarence River; nec M. australis Cobb, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 18,
1893 (1894). 408-9, marine, Port Jackson. According to Steiner (Zool. Anz.,
47, 1916, 63) and Micoletzky (1921, 170, 181) the former is a synonym of
M,. villosa Biitschli. The latter is renamed in the present paper as M. pacifica.

Monhystera brevicollis Cobb, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 18, 1893, 403-4,
Port Jackson.

Monhystera diplops Cobb, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 18, 1893, 401-3, fig. 8,
Port Jackson. Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 1898, 318, fig. 40, no locality. Micoletzky
(1921, 169), who did not know of the original account, stated that Cobb’s 1898
figure of M. diplops indicated the species to be a synonym of Af. stagnalis Bast.
Cobb’s early account (1893) relates to a marine species, but in 1904 (Proc.
Cambridge Philos. Soc., 12, 1904, 366) he recorded a species under the same name
from fresh water in New Zealand.

Monhystera filiformis Bast. See M. rustica.

Monhystera gracillima Cobb, Proc. Linn, Soc. N.S.W., 18, 1893, 406-8, Port
Jackson; nec M. gracillime Man, Capita Zool., 1 (1), 1921, 5-6, from soil in
Holland; nee M. gracillima Kreis, Capita Zool., 2 (7), 1929, 63-4, marine, from
the north-west coast of France. Man’s species is here renamed M. gracilior, and
Kreis’ species as Mf. kreisi,

158

Monhystera insignis Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 823, from soil around
roots of sugar-cane, Harwood, Clarence River. Micoletzky, 1921, 172.

Monhystera lata Cobb, Proc, Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 18, 1893, 404-5, Port
Jackson.

Monhystera pacifica, nom. nov. for M. austrahs Cobb, 1893 (1894), 408,
nec Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 824. Sce M. australis.

Mouhystera pratensis Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 823-4, from soil
about roots of sugar-cane. Harwood, Clarence River. Micoletzky, 1921, 172.

Monhystera rustica Butschli. Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 822-3,
fig. 40, from moss roots, Clarence River; Macleay Vol., 1893, 279-80, pl. 37, from
“many parts of Australia.” Micoletzky (1921, 178) placed the species as a
synonym of M. filiform Bastian,

Monhystera sctosissima Cobb, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 18, 1893, 405-6,
Port Jackson. ‘The name was mis-spelt as sesotissima by Micoletzky (Kgl. Dansk.
Vid. Selsk. Skr., 10 (2), 1925, 228).

Monhystera tasmaniensis Allgen, Zool, Anz., 73, 1927, 198-200, fig. 2,
Tasmania.

Monhystera villosa Bitschli. See M. australis.

SIPHONOLAIMIDAE

Chromagaster purpurea Cobb, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 18, 1893, 417-9,
fig. 12, North Arm, Port Adelaide. In a footnote to the same paper (p. 419)
Cobb stated that the genus (which he had just erected) would probably have to
be united with Siphonolaimus. Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 1898, 318, fig. 41 (no
locality given). Steiner (1921), Allgen (1930), Rauther (1930), and Vilipjev
(1934) regarded the genus as a synonym of Siphonolaimus. It may be men-
tioned that Allgen in 1932 and 1933 described new species from Norway and
Sweden, apparently regarding the genus as valid.

Siphonolaamus purpurens (Cobb, 1893) Allgen, 1930; see Chromagaster
purpurea.

].INHOMOFIDAE

Cryptolaimus pellucidus Cobb, Jour. Parasit., 20, 1933, 86, from mud, North
Arm, Port Adclaide.

Siphonolaimus purpureus (Cobb, 1893) Allgen, 1930; see Chromagaster
Port Jackson.

Terschellingia exilis Cobb, Proc, Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 23, 1898, 392-3, Port
Jackson,

CHROMADORIDAE ()
Chromadora conicaudata Allgen, Zool. Anz., 73, 1927, 208-10, fig. 6

Tasmania.

’

() In 1930 Cobb described Chromadora dubia from marine material collected by the
Australasian Antarctic Expedition, The specific name is pre-occupied by C, dubia Biitschli,
1873. The name C. cobbiana is now proposed for the former.

159

Chromadora macrolaima Man. Allgen, Zool. Anz., 73, 1927, 204, Tasmania.
See Chromadorina macrolama,

Chromadora macrolaimoides Steiner. Allgen, Zool. Anz., 73, 1927, 204-7,
fig. 5, Tasmania.

Chromadora microlaima Man. Allgen, Zool, Anz., 73, 1927, 208, Tasmania.
See Chromadorina microlaima,

Chromadora minima Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 820-1, fig. 38, from
soil around roots of sugar-cane, Harwood, Clarence River, and from Moss Vale,
New South Wales. Micoletzky, 1921, 378 (= Cyatholaimus minimus). Cobb,
(Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci., 1913, 441) made the species the genotype of
Achromadora q.v. (under Cyatholaimidae).

Chromadora minor Cobb, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 18, 1893, 394-9, fig. 6,
Port Jackson. Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 1898, 299, fig. 9 (no locality).

Chromadora wallini Allgen, Zool. Anz., 73, 1927, 210-12, fig. 7, Tasmania.

Chromadorina macrolaima (Man) Coninck and Stekhoven, 1933, syn.
Chromadora macrolaima, q.v.

Graphonema vulgaris Cobb, Proc. Linn, Soc. N.S.W., 23, 1898, 406-7, coast
of New South Wales and Victoria. The genus has been regarded as a synonym
of Chromadora, but Filipjevy (1934) listed it as valid. Cobb (1935) has stated
that it is a synonym of Euchromadora, hence its genotype, G. vulgaris, becomes
EF. vulgaris (Cobb).

Graphonema pachyderma Cobb, Proc, Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 23, 1898, 400.
Nomen nudum. Cobb stated that the species would be described later, but
apparently did not do so. Some features contrasting it with G. vulgaris were
mentioned. No locality was given, but was presumably Australian.

Euchromadora vulgaris (Cobb, 1898). Syn. Graphonema. vulgaris, q.v.

Euchromadora pachyderma (Cobb, 1898), Syn. Graphonema pachyderma, q.v.

Hypodontolaimus minor Allgen, Zool, Anz., 73, 1927, 212-14, fig. 8,
Tasmania.

Spilophora (or Spiliphera) loricata Steiner. Allgen, Zool. Anz., 73, 1927,
200-2, fig. 3, Tasmania.

Spilophorella tasmaniensis Allgen, Zool. Anz., 73, 1927, 202-3, fig. 4,
Tasmania.

CYATHOLAIMIDAE

Achromadora minima (Cobb, 1893) Cobb, 1913. Syn. Chromadora minima,
qv. Cobb (1933) and Tilipjev (1934) placed the genus in Cyatholaiminae.
Micoletzky (1921, 378) considered the genus to be a synonym of Cyatholaimus
in 1921, but later (1925) placed Cobb’s species as a synonym of A. ruricola
(Man).

Achromadora ruricola (Man). See A. minima.

Cyatholaimus brevicollis Cobb, Prac. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 23, 1898, 403-4,
Port Jackson.

160

Cyatholaimus exilis Cobb, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 23, 1898, 400, Port
Jackson.

Cyatholaimus heterurus Cobb, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 23, 1898, 400-2,
Port Jackson.

Cyatholaimus minimus (Cobb) Micoletzky. See Achromadora minima,

Cyatholaimus minor Cobb, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 23, 1898, 402-3, Port
Jackson.

Cyatholaimus proximus Bitschli, Allgen, Zool. Anz., 73, 1927, 214-5, fig. 9,
Tasmania, Genus quoted, in error, as Cyatholaismus,

Cyatholaimus trichurus Cobb, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 23, 1898, 398-400,
Port Jackson.

Halichoanolaimus australis Cobb, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 23, 1898, 404-6,
Port Jackson.

Neonchus longicauda Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 819-20, fig. 37, from
soil at roots of sugar-cane, Harwood, and at roots of moss, Maclean,
Clarence River. Genotype. Micoletzky (1921, 419) and Cobb (1935) placed the
genus as a synonym of Odontolaimus, the former (p. 420) regarding the species
as O. chlorurus Man.

Odontolaimus chlorurus Man. Syn. Neonchus longicauda, q.v.

TRIPYLOIDIDAE
Bathylaimus australis Cobb, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 18, 1893, 409-10,
Port Jackson; Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 9, 1898, 432, fig. 91, no locality.

DES MObDORIDAR
Laxus longus Cobb, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 18, 1893, 415-6, fig. 11, Port
Jackson.
Spira similis Cobb, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 18, 1893, 390-2, Port Jackson.
Perhaps the same as S. parasitifera Bast. See Spirina similis.
Spirima similis (Cobb, 1898); syn., Spira similis, q.v.

Eps1LONEMATIDAE

In 1926 Steiner erected Epsilonema to replace Rhabdogaster Metchnikoff
(pre-occupied), basing its characters on a species which he believed to be the
genotype, A. cygnoides. Baylis and Daubney (1926) had, a few months pre-
viously, proposed Prochaetosoma for it. Steiner (1931) recognised the latter as
valid, gave a diagnosis, and named P. holocricum Steiner, 1931 (an Antarctic
species which was not an original member of the genus) as type. He reported
that the diagnosis given in 1926 was based on a species distinct from Metchni-
koff’s and that, consequently, he retained Epsilonematidae rather than Prochaeto-
somatidae as the family name, In addition to P. cygnoides, he referred to many
new species or varieties fotind in Antarctic and Subantarctic waters by the
“Gauss” Expedition (1931, 312, 316-7, etc.). Ep. cyrtum Steiner, which was not
an original species, was named as type.

161

Steiner (1931) indicated in his key, as also did Cobb (1935), that
Prochaetosoma and Epsilonema Steiner, 1931, were not congeneric because of
differences in the structure of the cttticular annulations. Numerous species or
varieties were described as belonging to the latter genus. Chitwood (Proc. Helm.
Soc., Wash., 2, 1935, 54) designated Lp. stemneri, a new name proposed for
Rhabdégasier cygnoides Steiner nec Metchnikoff, as type of Epsilonema Steiner.

From the foregoing it is obvious that Steiner’s generic name has been applied
to two different groups. In the first place it was a renaming of Rhabdogaster
(Steiner, Jour. Parasit., 14, 1927, 65), as also was Prochaetosoma B. and D.,
the type of this group being XR. cygnoides Metchnikoff. Then, later, the name was
deliberately retained for an allied group, including R. cygnoides Steiner nec
Metchnikoff, renamed Ep. steineri by Chitwood. The second group is admittedly
not congeneric with the former and should be renamed. Epsilonematina is now
proposed for it, with Ep. stemer: (Chitwood) as its type, all the species described
by Steiner in 1931 as belonging to Epsilonema being included under it. As
Prochactosoma B. and D., 1926, is pre-occupied, the name having been used by
Micoletzky (1921, 416), Epsilonema Steiner, 1926, remains as the valid generic
nates for the species included by Steiner (1931) under Prochaetosoma
B. and D.

Epsilonematina spp. Species occur in the littoral zone near Adelaide and
Port Willunga (South Australia) ; Portland and Port Phillip (Victoria) ; Derwent
River (Tasmania); Port Jackson, Broken Bay and Long Reef (New South
Wales).

DREPANONEMATIDAE nom nov,

The new name, Drepanonematidae, is given to the group of nematodes to
which the following terms have been applied :—Chaetosomatiden by Schepotietf
1908 ; Chaetosomidae by Southern 1914, Chaetosomatidae by Steiner 1916, Mico-
letzky 1921, Baylis and Daubney 1926, Allgen 1932, and by later authors generally ;
Chaetosomatinae by Rauther 1930; Draconematidae by Cobb 1929, Steiner 1931,

@) Under Epsilonematina would be included the following species and varieties described
under Epsilonema by Steiner :—Epsilonematina ateles, allohystera, antarctica, aphana, brachy-
craspedota, colobathrophora, cyclophora, cyrta, camptocrica, campta, corynodes, dictyotacrica,
dichotoma, dicrocrica, desmocrica, eucraspedota, frigida, homalocrica, herpeta, homoicrica,
hexastoicha, hetcrocrica, ilyspastica, leptothorax, leptomercs, leptotricha, metchniko fi, mixta,
nana, oligechon, oligoschista, poicilothrit and its varieties strongylota and macra, primitivas
polycrica, philopsychra, pnewmatica, rhogmacrica, rhabdota, simoloma, signatoides, sphalera,
symbiotica, semeionoides, trachelogaster, thinophila, trachelota, thyridocrica and tricola, as.
well as steinert (Chitwood),

Under £psilonema should be included the following species and varieties described by
Steiner under Prochactosoma:—Ep. apionipherum, aschistocricum, atechnum with varieties
heterocrica and lophocrica, cosmetocricum, charactocricum, docidocricum, dynatocricum,
cumecum, eucalobates, eustegum, gcometroides, glaphyrum, glottocricum, hygrum, holocricum,
hadrocteum with varieties asymmetrica and epstlonoides, leptatrachelum, labidurum, monadicum
and varieties conaccphala, microclenum, oligistocricum, oligostequm, placipherum, polyschistum,
penionoides, pachymeriun, EPhenostenaih, striatum, stenocricum, sterrurum, stolidotum, tenue
and fegocricum, as well as cyynoides (Metchnikoff nec Steiner).

162

Allgen 1932, Schuurmans-Stekhoven 1935, and by Chitwood and Chitwood 1937;
and Draconematinae by Filipjev 1934. The correct name is, of course, linked
with that of the type genus, originally Chaetosoma Claparéde, 1863 (pre-
occupied). Tristicochaeta Panceri, 1878, is commonly regarded as a synonym,
and if so, would be the valid name, but Southern (1914) pointed out that they
were distinct. Irwin-Smith (1917) grouped the two under the former name.
In 1913 Cobb erected Draconema. Micoletzky (1921, 416) listed the latter as a
synonym of Chaetosome, considered Notochaetosoma Irwin-Smith as valid, and
proposed Prochaetosoma, with P. primitivum (Steiner) as type, as an additional
genus in the Chaetosomatidae. In 1929 Cobb regarded Draconema as distinct
from Chaetosoma and stated that the latter name should be replaced by Noto-
chaetosoma, which he regarded as synonymous, and that if the family be con-
sidered as containing only one genus, then the name of the latter would be
Draconema, family Draconematidae. In 1933 Cobb proposed Drepanonema to
replace Clapartde’s name, the Zoological Record incorrectly quoting the date as
1922. In 1926 Baylis and Daubney (1926) regarded Tristicochaeta and perhaps
Draconema, as synonymous with Chaelosoma, Rauther in 1930 considered
Draconema a synonym. In 1934 Filipjev erected Claparediella to replace
Chaetosoma, and referred to the differences between Draconema and Noto-
chaetosoma. In 1935 Cobb quoted Draconema as synonymous with Tristicochacta,
and listed Notochaetosoma as valid. Schuurmans-Stekhoven (1935, 100) con-
sidered Filipjev’s name to be the correct one, and placed Chactosoma tristi-
chochacta Panceri under Draconema (p. 101).

From the foregoing discussion it will be seen that the correct name for
Chaetosoma is Drepanonema Cobb, with Claparediella as a synonym, and that the
family should be known as Drepanonematidae nom. nov. (or Drepanonemiatinae,
if only subfamily rank be accorded).

Chaetosoma falcatum Irwin-Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 42, 1917
(1918), 766-782, figs. 1-24, pls. 44-45, Port Jackson. See Tristicochaeta falcata.

Chaetosoma haswelli Irwin-Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 42, 1917 (1918),
782-798, figs. 25-47, pls. 46-47, Port Jackson and Broken Bay, New South Wales.
Cobb (Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci. 19, 1929, 260; Contrib. Sci. Nematol., 22, 1929
418) regarded the species as a synonym of Draconema cephalatum. See Tristi-
cochaeta haswelli,

Tristicochacta falcata (Irwin Smith). Syn. Chaetosoma falcatum, qv.

Pristicochaeta haswelli (Irwin-Smith). Syn. Chaetosoma haswelli, q.v-

Notochactosoma eryptocephalum Irwin-Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 42,
1917 (1918), 808-811, figs. 57-9, pl. 50, Port Jackson,

Netochaetosoma tenax Irwin-Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 42, 1917
(1918), 798-808, figs. 48-56, pls. 47-49, Port Jackson.

Drepanonema spp. Drepanonematids occur in the littoral zone at Marino

and Port Willunga, South Australia; Portland and Port Phillip, Victoria; Derwent
River, Tasmania.

163

DES MOSCOLECIDAE
Desmoscolex spp. occur in the marine littoral zone in South Australia, Vie-
toria, New South Wales and Tasmania.
Tricoma sp. occurs sparingly in the marine littoral zone in South Australia,
Victoria, New South Wales and Tasmania.

GREEFFIELLIDAE
Greeffiella sp. occurs very sparingly in the marine littoral zone in South
Australia, Victoria, New South Wales and Tasmania,

: ENOPLIDAE

Anticoma lata Cobb, Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 23, 1898, 384-5, Port Jackson.

Aniticoma similis Cobb, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 23, 1898, 383-4, Port
Jackson.

Anticoma trichura Cobb, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 23, 1898, 385-6, Port
Jackson.

Leptosomatum australe Linstow, 1905. Stiles and Hassall (Index Cat. Med.
Vet. Zool. Roundworms, 1920, 564) stated, in error, that Linstow in 1907 had
recorded the presence of the species at Hut Point, Australia. The locality is in
South Victoria Land, Antarctica (Linstow, Nematoda, Nat. Antarctic Exp. Nat.
Hist., 3, Zool. Bot., 1907).

Oxystoma pellucida Cobb, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 23, 1898, 395-7, Port
Jackson. Man (1907) stated that it was probably a synonym of O. elongata
Bitschli. See Oxrystomina pellucida,

Oxystomina pellucida (Cobb). Syn., Oxrystoma pellucida, qv.

ONCHOLAIMIDAE

Enchelidium sp. Cobb, Misc. Publ. No. 215, Dept. Agr. N.S.W., 1898, 22,
fig. 40; no locality. The figure does not appear in the original paper in Agr. Gaz.
N.5.W., 1898, The reference may not be to an Australian species.

Monocholaimus elegans Kreis var. tasmaniensis Allgen, Zool. Anz., 73, 1927,
215-6, fig. 10, Tasmania. Kreis (Cap. Zool., 4, (5), 139-41, fig. 81) regards it as
a species, M. tasmaniensis,

Mononcholaimus tasmaniensis Allgen. Syn. M. elegans var. tasmaniensis,

Oncholaimus pellucidus Cobb, Proce. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 23, 1898, 394-5,
Port Jackson, Kreis (Cap. Zool., 4, (5), 1934, 168, 169) to Viscosia,

Oncholaimus viridis Bast. Allgen, Zool. Anz., 73, 1927, 216, fig. 11, Tas-
mania.

Symplocostoma longicolle Bast. Allgen, Zool. Anz., 73, 1927, 217, Tasmania,

Viscosia pellucida (Cobb) Kreis, Syn., Oncholaimus pellucidus, q.v.

IRoNIDAE
Cephalonema longicauda Cobb, Agr, Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 825, fig. 41, from
soil around roots of sugar-cane, Clarence River. Genotype, generic name pre-

164

occupied and replaced by Nanonema Cobb, 1905 (in Stiles and Ilassall, Bull. 79,
U.S.D.A., B.A.1., 1905, 122). Micoletzky (1921, 323) placed Cephalonema as a
synonym of Jronus.

Cephalonema sp. Cobb, Agr. Gaz, N.S.W., 4, 1893, 825, Moss Vale, New
South Wales, not described.

Nanonema longicauda (Cobb, 1893) Cobb, 1905. Syn., Cephalonema longt-
cauda, q.v. Micoletzky (1921, 325) stated it was a synonym of J, ignavus Bast.

Ironus longicauda (Cobb, 1893). Syn., Nanonema longicauda, qv.

Tronus ignavus Bast. See Nanonema longicauda.

TRILOBIDAE

Tripyla tenuicauda Cobb, Macleay Vol., 1893, 285-6, from “mud of a brook,
Sydney.” Micoletzky (1921, 150) called it T. tenutcaudata Cobb.

Prismatolaimus australis, Cobb, Macleay Vol., 1893, 287, about roots, Moss
Vale, New South Wales. Micoletzky (1921, 197, 198) regarded it as a synonym
of P. dolichurus Man.

MoNONCHIDAE

Mononchus intermedius Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 817-8, about roots
of sugar-cane, Clarence River. Micoletzky, 1921, 341.

Mononchus longicaudatus Cobh, Macleay Vol., 1893, 256, 261, fig. 2, from
celery stalks, Sydney; Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 818, fig. 36. Micoletzky (1921,
355) stated that it was a synonym of M. macrostoma,

Mononchus macrostoma Bast. See M. longicaudatus.

Mononchus major Cobb, Macleay Vol., 1893, 260-1, damp soil, Moss Vale;
Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 9, 1898, 319, fig. 44, no locality given. Micoletzky, 1921, 341.

Mononchus similis Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 818-9, about roots of
sugar-cane, Clarence River. Transferred to subgenus Jofonchus by Micoletzky,
1921, 343—Not M. (M.) similis Cobb, 1917, renamed M. cobbi by Micoletzky,
1921, 344.

Mononchus sp. Cobb, Macleay Vol., 1893, 256, from celery stalks, Sydney.

Mononchus sp, Tidswell and Johnston, Rep. Bur. Microbiol., N.S.W., 1,
1909, 71, in diseased bananas, New South Wales.

ALATMIDAE

Alaimus minor Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 824, soil, Clarence River.
Micoletzky (1921, 136) regards it as a synonym of A. primitivus Man.

Alaimus tasmaniensis Allgen, Nyt. Mag., Oslo, 67, 1929, 212-4, fig. 1, from
moss, ‘lasmania.

DorYLAIMIDAE

Dorylaimus bastiani Butschli. Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 9, 1898, 427, fig. 88;
no locality, Steiner, Zool. Anz., 46, 1916, 326-7, fig. 7, from moss roots, Boorabin,
South-western Australia. Micoletzky (1921, 446, 449, 468) regarded it as a
variety of D. filiformis Bast., and considered (p. 475-6) Steiner’s form from
Western Australia to belong to a distinct variety which he named steineri. The

165

latter invalidates the name D. steineri Thorne and Swanger (1936, 116), which
is here renamed D. steinerianus nom nov. Thorne and Swanger (p. 65) included
Steiner’s figures of the Australian nematode under D. bastiant.

Dorylaimus gracilis Man. Steiner, Zool. Anz., 46, 1916, 326, fig. 6, from
moss roots, Bridgetown, South-western Australia.

Dorylaimus latus Cobb, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 16, 1891, 150-1, from grass
roots, Sydney. Micoletzky, 1921, 451, probable synonym of D. carteri var. brevi-
caudata forma minuta, Thorne and Swanger, 1936, 110-111, pl. 25, fig. 148.

Dorylaimus minimus Steiner, Arch. Hydrobiol. u. Planktonk., 1914, 437-8,
renaming of D. minutus Cobb nec Biitschli. Thorne and Swanger, 1936, 117,
pl. 27, fig. 158.

Dorylaimus minutus Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 810, around roots of
sugar-cane, Clarence River, Name pre-occupied by D. minutus Bitschli, 1873,
and renamed D. minimus by Steiner, 1914.

Dorylaimus pusillus Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 810-11, around roots of
sugar-cane and moss, Clarence River. Micoletzky, 1921, 446, 459, syn. of
D. longicaudatus Bitschli. Thorne and Swanger (1936, 39) regard it as a valid
species (pl. 5, fig. 24).

Deorylaimus spiralis Cobb, Macleay Vol., 1893, 293-4, from base of carrot
leaves, Sydney. Micoletzky, 1921, 453, 519-20. Thorne and Swanger, 1936,
125-6, transferred to Aporcelaimus; D. spiralis Cobb of Micoletzky, 1921,
regarded as a different species and renamed D. paraspiralis,

Dorylaimus subsimilis Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 810, about roots of
sugar-cane, Clarence River. Micoletzky, 1921, 455, Thorne and Swanger, 1936,
120.

Dorylaimus spp. Cobb, Macleay Vol., 1893, 256, from celery stalks, Sydney.

Aporcelaimus spiralis (Cobb) Thorne and Swanger, 1936, 125-6, pl. 28,
fig. 169. Syn., Dorylaimus spiralis, q.v.

Brachynema obtusuen Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 811, from soil,
Clarence River. Genotype, generic name pre-occupied, renamed Brachynemella
by Cobb, Jour. Parasit., 20, 1933, 81. Micoletzky (1921, 131) stated that it was
probably related to Tylencholaimus.

Brachynemella obtusa (Cobb, 1893) Cobb, 1933. Syn., Brachynema obtusum,
q.v. Filipjev (1934) regarded the genus as a synonym of Tylencholawmus, but
Cobb (1935) and Thorne (1935) considered it valid.

DIPHTHERGPHORIDAE
Chaolaimus pellucidus Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 1893, 821, fig. 39, about
roots of sugar-cane, Clarence River. Genotype. Micoletzky (1921, 421), Baylis
and Daubney (1926) and Filipjev (1934) stated that the genus was a synonym
of Diphtherophora, the first-named author (p. 422) listing the species as
D. communis Man. Cobb (1935) accepted the generic synonymy.
Diphtherophora pellucida (Cobb). Probably syn. of D. communis Man.

166

MERMITIDAE
Australian members of this family have not been studied. The adults are
free-living, and the young stages parasitic. Wheeler (Psyche, 40, 1932, 20-32)
referred to Mermis parasitism in some Australian ants. I have seen adults of
Mermis sp. collected from a claypan in the Bordertown district of South Australia.

MISCELLANEOUS REMARKS

Cobb (Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 1898, 421, fig. 65) illustrated the anterior end of
a nematode, apparently a free-living form, “Labyrinthostoma n, gen.,” but gave
no description, nor did he mention any species or locality. It must be regarded
as anomen nudum. The figure stiggests an Enoplolaimus near E. caput-medusae.

In the same publication Cobb (p. 320, fig. 45) figured Streptogaster
papillatus n. gen., n. sp. without any information regarding habit or locality.
Baylis and Daubney (1926) quoted the habitat as “not mentioned (presumably
free-living)” and placed the genus in an appendix to Rhabditidae. Travassos
(1919) allotted it to Hystrignathinae. Artigas stated that the species was based
on the male of Heth and was, therefore, a synonym of the latter, If this be
correct, Streptogaster must be a parasite of a millipede, and since Cobb in the
same article (1898, 299, fig. 10) figured Heth juli (female) from Julus sp., from
Moss Vale, New South Wales, S. papillatus probably came from that locality and
perhaps from the same host species. Artigas and Travassos (1929) both placed
the genus in Ransomneminae (Atractidae), as also did Filipjev (1934). Cobb
(1935) did not mention the genus in his key to the genera of free-living nematodes.
The species can be placed definitely amongst the parasitic forms.

GORDIACEA

The Nematomorpha may be referred to in this paper, though they are not
true nematodes. Only a few species have been described from Australia. The
group is represented in all Australian States. Though some of the following
references relate to the parasitic stage, they are included, since the worms pass
through a free-living adult phase. No attempt has been made to allocate species
to their proper genera or families.

Chordodes undulatus Linstow, Arch. Naturg., 1906, (1), 257-8, fig. 20,
from Mantis sp., Sydney.

Chordodes caledoniensis Villot, 1874, from Mantis, New Caledonia, was
stated by Camcrano (1897) to have been taken in New Caledonia, ‘New Olanda,”
the latter being a misplaced locality.

Gordius incertus Villot, 1874, Tasmania, Camerano, 1886; 1897,

Gordius flavus Linstow, Mitt. Zool. Mus., Berlin, 3, 1906, 243, fig. 1, from
New Britain and (?) Adelaide.

Gordius tuberculatus Villot, 1874, from Rockhampton, “New Holland.”

Gordius spp. Whitelegge, Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 23, 1889, 307, swamps,
Botany, New South Wales; Bailey, Vict. Nat., 1, 1884, 2, from Carabus (pre-
sumably from Victoria); Cobb, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 2, 1891, 213-4, Glen Innes,

167

New South Wales; Tryon, Ann. Rep. Dept. Agr. Queensland, 1910-11, 73,
Eudlo, Beaudesert and Rockhampton, Queensland; Froggatt, Proc. Linn. Soc.
N.S.W., 1909, 216, from stomach of trout, along with larva of a water-beetle,
Cooma, New South Waies.

Parachordodes annulaius Linstow, Mitt. Mus. Berlin, 1906, 246, Queensland.

REFERENCES

Aticen, C. 1927 Freilebende Marine Nematoden von der Ktiste Tasmaniens.
Zool, Anz., 73, 197-217

Baytis, H., and Dausney 1926 A Synopsis of the Families and Genera of
Nematoda. Brit. Mus.

Cuitrwoop, B. G., and Currwoon, M. B. 1937 An Introduction to Nematology,
sect. 1, pt. 1. Baltimore

Cops, N. A. 1890 Tylenchus and Root Gall, Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 1, 155-184

Cops, N. A. 1893 Nematode Worms found attacking Sugar-cane—In “Plant
Diseases and their Remedies,” Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 4, 808-833

Coss, N. A. 1893 Nematodes, mostly Australian and Fijian, Macleay Memorial
Volume, Linnean Soc. N.S.W., 252-308. Also in Publ. 13, Dept. Agric.
N.S.W., 59 pp.

Cops, N. A. 1893 (1894) Tricoma and other Nematode Genera, Proc. Linn.
Soc. N.S.W., 18, 389-421

Coss, N. A. 1898 Australian Free-living Marine Nematodes, Proc. Linn. Soc.
N.S.W., 23, 383-407

Coss, N. A. 1898 Extract from MS. Report on the Parasites of Stock, Agr.
Gaz. N.S.W., 9, 296-321, 419-454

Cops, N. A. 1935 A Key to the Genera of Free-living Nemas, Contrib. Sci.
Nematology, 26, 451-490 Proc. Helminth. Soc., Wash., 2, (1), 1-40

Finrejev, I. N. 1934 The Classification of the Free-living Nematodes and their
Relation to the Parasitic Nematodes, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 89, (6),
1-63

Goopey, T. 1933 Plant-parasitic Nematodes and the Diseases they Cause,
306 pp. London

Irwin-SmityH, V. 1917 (1918) On the Chaetosomatidae, with Descriptions of
New Species and a New Genus from the coast of New South Wales,
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 42, 757-814

Micoterzky, H. 1921 Die freilebenden Erdnematoden, Arch. Naturg., 87, A,
(8), 1-320; (1922) (9), 321-650

STEINER, G. 1916 LBeitrage zur geographischen Verbreitung freilebenden
Nematoden, Zool. Anz., 46, 311-335, 337-349

SCHUURMANS STEKHOVEN, J. H. 1935 Nematoda Errantia. Die Tierwelt der
Nord- und Ostsee, 5b, 1-155

THorne, G., and Swancer, H. H. 1936 A Monograph of the Nematode
Genera Dorylaimus, etc., Capita Zool., 6, (4), 1-223

K2

AUGEN-GNEISSES IN THE HUMBUG SCRUB AREA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA
BY A. R. ALDERMAN

Summary

The interesting occurrence of a large area of augen-gneiss in the neighbourhood of the Humbug
Scrub has been noted by a number of writers, particularly Brown and Woodward (1885). Howchin
(1905 and 1925 1 , Benson (1909) and Hossfeld (1935). These gneisses constitute an important part
of the Older Pre- Cambrian (Barossian) rocks of the Mount Lofty Ranges in this area.

168

AUGEN-GNEISSES IN THE HUMBUG SCRUB AREA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By A. R. ALpERMAN, Pu.D., M.Sc., F.G.S.
(Department of Geology, University of Adelaide)

{Read 9 June 1938]

Prares VIII ann IX

CONTENTS
{ Iwrropyvction .. = oe) a is Se et oa 5 a. 168
I] AUGEN-GNEISSES AND INJECTION-GNEISSES ed at AC a .. 169
Ili Yue Scuists .. 8 de Lh 3 ae AS 4 3, w. 174
TV PrematizATION or SCHISTS .. ass 44 wo Pe as wu. 176
Vo Meramorruic History anp CoRRELATION 4 nt i: a a. 178
VI SUMMaRY mn Ae =; i a ve ss en aA w. =180
VIL List or Works TO WHICH REFERENCE 1s MADE .. a he 3 w.. 180

IT Intrropuction

The interesting occurrence of a large area of augen-gneiss in the neighbour-
hood of the Humbug Serub has been noted by a number of writers, particularly
Brown and Weodward (1885), Howchin (1906 and 1925), Benson (1909) and
Hossfeld (1935). These gneisses constitute an important part of the Older Pre-
Cambrian (Barossian) rocks of the Mount Lofty Ranges in this area.

Howehin (1906, 258) has shown that the adjacent metamorphosed pelitic
sediments pass gradually through a stage of pegmatitic impregnation into the
typical augen-gneiss. He suggests, therefore, that the augen-gneisses have been
derived fram the injection of pegmatite along the cleavage planes of the slaty
sediments. Hossfeld (1935, 24-25), on the other hand, although agreeing with
the field observations of Howchin, “believes that the augen-gneisses may represent
an altered igneous intrusion, changed partly while still in the plastic condition,”
and cites a contact between augen-gnciss and the surrounding injected schists in
Section 3,279, Ilundred of Para Wirra.

Over a large part of the arca in which the augen-gneisses occur the Barossian
rocks are obscured by overlying Tertiary gravels and drift, and the few exposures
consist of rock much altered by weathering. The gorge of the South Para River,
however, gives an excellent section through the northern extremity of the Humbug
Serub region, and the present writcr’s observations are based largely on this
section.

Some years ago the writer, in the course of making chemical analyses of a
number of South Australian rocks, analysed a specimen of a typical augen-gneiss
(S.P.1) from the bed of the South Para River near Section 3,779, Hundred of
Para Wirra. This analysis gave grounds for suspecting that the rock was not

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., €2. (1), 22 July 1938

169

of purety igneous origin. The analysis is shown in Table A, column i, where
its composition may be compared with those of typical igneous rocks of this
region.

It will be seen that the augen-gnciss bears no very close chemical resemblance
to any of the analyses quoted. Analyses ii and iii in Table A are typical of the
great majority of granites“) from this part of South Australia. It will be noted
that the K,O and Na,O are approximately equal, One of the rare exceptions
to this is shown by analysis iv, in which K,O exceeds Na,O by 2%. This
analysis has some resemblance to that of the augen-gneiss, but the similarity is not
a close one. Analysis v is representative of the dioritic rocks of Houghton type
which W. N. Benson (1909) and H. N. England (1935) have shown to be of
widespread occurrence in the Mount Lofty Ranges.

Considered alone the chemistry of the South Para augen-gneiss shows no
convincing signs that it may be in part of sedimentary origin, although the
presence of nearly 5% of corundum in the norm and the considerable excess
(34%) of K,O over Na,O may give some slight suggestion of this. However,
the composition of this rock, as will be shown later, is perfectly typical of many
undoubted injection gneisses. It has been shown by the field work of Llowchin
(1906, 258), of Benson (1909, 108), and of Hossfeld (1935, 24), and by the
present writer’s own observations that the augen-gneisses pass outwards through
a region of banded-gneisses and pegmatized schists into pelitic schists which have
undergone a varying amount of pegmatitic injection. The field evidence seems
to support very strongly the idea that the augen-gneisses are the result of a period
of intense injection-metamorphism followed by a period in which the meta-
morphism was of dynamic type. The main object of this paper is to consider
the chemical and mineralogical changes involved in these processes.

Il AUGEN-GNEISSES AND [NJECTION-GNEISSES

The occurrence and limits of the augen-gneisses along the South Para
section have been very well shown by Llossfeld (1935, 23), whose map shows
the South Para River cutting through the northern extremities of the Mumbug
Scrub encisses. The augen-gneisses, which lie within the fringing zones of banded
injection-gneisses and pegmatized schists are of extraordinarily constant com-
position. This constancy of chemical composition is illustrated in Table B. The
three rocks whose analyses are given in columns i, ii and iif in that table were
collected at well-spaced intervals along the South Para section.

A typical hand-spetimen of the augen-gneiss has “augen” of light grey or
pale pink felspar and quariz in a fine dark grey micaceous groundmass. ‘The
quartz may be colourless or slightly blue. The felspar and quartz have obviously
been subjected to extreme granulation. The average size of the prominent felspar-.
quartz augen is about 24 x 3 cm., although a few are much larger than this figure
indicates. Occasionally the augen are so drawn out that the rock consists of light-

() These rocks should more strictly be referred to as adameilites

170

coloured strings of felspar-quartz separated by darker bands of the fine micaceous
material. Such a rock may be referred to as a “banded augen-gneiss.”

Under the microscope the augen are seen to consist of strained quartz and
felspar, generally microcline or microperthite (pl. ix, fig. 5). These are the
dominant minerals of this group of rocks. Acid plagioclase, which usually has
the composition of oligoclase, is generally present but in subordinate amount and
myrmekite is sometimes developed in the potash felspar. The edges of both the

TasBLlE A
i ii iii iv v

SiOe2 ds La ie 66°89 77°05 73°96 70-77 59-93
TiO: a yer abe 0-80 0-36 0:37 0-72 0°79
AkOs th an ay 14-96 12-24 13-67 13-69 14:07
Fe:Os .- hy As 2-53 0-47 1-22 1:97 0-75
FeO Mors Mile nen 1:73 0-54 1-03 0-97 2:87
MnO ron sh da 0-01 0-06 0-04 0-28 0-06
MgO bes as - 1-57 0-10 0-56 0-34 5-02
CaO ae jess Ba 1-59 0-20 1-58 0-94 11-77
Na:O Me, Uy 2-13 4-24 3-01 3°70 3°72
K:O ads sage age 5°54 4-86 3°36 5-68 0-36
POs ne stor ett 0-17 0-02 0-16 0-11 0-76
H.O + ae 1°23 0-21 0-29 0-45 0-15
H:.O — , abi beh 0-22 0-10 0-04 0-36 0-06
COz att An, ae 0-89 n.d. 0-22 — n.d.
ZrOz oa uk =f nil 0-10 — tr. n.d.
Ete. be af, he —_— 0-01 0-27 0-17 zee,

100-26 100-56 99-78 100-15 100-33

Norms } 1

Quartz me oh par 30:36 33-30 39°72 25°32 11-76
Orthoclase drys af 32-80 28°91 20-02 33-36 2-22
Albite art ses am 17-82 35°63 25°15 31:4 31-44
Anorthite .... wiles Be 1-67 — 7°23 3-89 20°57
Corundum Liat wah 4-90 — 2:45 ae —
Diopside —.... fest en — 0-89 — — 26-34
Hypersthene ie st 3-90 — 1:53 G90 3°49
Maenetite .... sue wii 3°25 0-70 1-86 2:09 1-16
Elaematite ues aes 0-32 —_ — 0:4 a
Ilmenite .... alee ak 1-52 0-76 0-76 1-37 1:52
Pyrite ay, sich a = — 0-25 0-17 =
Apatite abn hod pl 0-34 0-03 0:34 0-34 1-68
Calcite Mi S eat 2-00 — 0:50 — —

i Augen-gneiss (S.P.1), South Para River Anal. A. R. Alderman
ii Granite, Tanunda Creek P. S. Hossfeld (1925, 195)
iii Granite, Palmer Anal. W.S. Chapman R. L. Jack (1923, 68)
iv Granite, Mannum B. F. Goode (1927, 127)
_ v Diorite, Sect. 257, Hundred of Barossa H. N. England (1935, 14)

felspar and the quartz are frequently granulated, and these two minerals may
show sutured junctions. This fact, with the varying sericitization of the felspars,
usually more advanced in the plagioclase, gives evidence of the dynamic meta-
morphism to which the rocks have been subjected. The augen are set in a
groundmass of fine sericite in which wisps of biotite and chlorite show very
clearly the foliation direction. Strings of fine granules of sphene are often asso-

171

ciated with this biotite. Occasionally small nests of biotite flakes, most of which
may be transverse to the foliation direction, are apparently the results of retro-
grade changes on some former component. There are no relics to indicate with
certainty the nature of the pre-existing minerals, Iron ore in spongy masses is
common and is frequently associated with sphene and sometimes with biotite.
Accessory minerals which may be present are epidote, muscovite, calcite, orthite
and tourmaline (pl. viii, fig. 3).

The above general description may be applied to the rocks of which analyses
are given in columns i-iii in Table B. For comparison there is given in column iv

TABLE B
Analyses of Augen-gneisses
i ii ili iv

SiOz i fore mA 66:89 71:19 69-69 66:52
TiO:z bn ir. Mes 0-80 0-50 0-90 0-55
AlbOs se sous 4, 14-96 15+26 15-51 14-86
FeoOs Bo, fist oo 2:53 1-66 2-22 1-92
FeO a ett Be, 1-73 1-05 1:29 3:96
MnO (4 Os nit 0-01 — — 0-09
CaO abe Ass Pe 1-59 0-56 0-44 1:82
NazO a t ee 2-13 2-64 2°84 3-29
K:O we ait ra 5°54 5-87 4-91 5-42
HeO + _ ao a 1-23 0-96 1-12 0-95
11.0 - on te bes 0-22 0-20
COs. anne ee sap 0-89 —_— —_ tr.
ZrOz am as e, nil — — (S = 0:02)

100-26 100-47 100-02 100-39

Norms

Quartz nt i! ie 30-36 31-02 31-80 19-98
Orthoclase Ae thoes 32:80 34:47 28°91 31:69
Albite ea sig ia 17-82 22°53 24:10 27°77
Anorthite .... ve iF 1-67 2:78 2:22 8-62
Corundum ue Aes 4-90 3-57 4-69 0-31
Hypersthene oak oan 3-90 2-00 2:80 6:56
Magnetite .... A ke 3°25 2-04 1:62 2°78
Haematite 3: was 0-32 0-16 1-12 —
Timenite ... ibs a. 1-52 0-91 1:67 1:06
Apatite ads _ ee Q-34 — —_— 0-34
Calcite a 2-00 — — —

i Augen-gneiss (SP. 1) South Para River, near section 3,779, Hundred of Para
Wirra Anal. A. R. Alderman

ii Augen-gneiss (BA.3) South Para River, quarry at ford near east end of Sect. 178,
Hundred of Barossa Anal. A. R. Aldevinan

iti Banded augen-gneiss (BA.17) South Para River, near west end of Sect. 178,
Hundred of Barossa Anal. A. R. Alderman

ivy Mica-rich-augen-gneiss, Bru, Norway Anal. O. Roer. V. M. Goldschmidt (1920,
93)

of this table the analysis of an augen-gneiss from the island of Bru, near
Stavanger. This rock has been shown by Goldschmidt (1920) to have been
produced by injection-metamorphism, and further reference to it will be made at
a later stage in this paper.

172

In general the central mass of augen-gneiss passes outwards into fringing
zones of banded injection-gneiss and veined schists. Occasionally, however, near
the edge of the true augen-gneiss occur small exposures of a massive rock, of
fine to medium granularity, which does not appear to be of purely igneous
parentage. For convenience the name “‘soda-hybrid” is applied to these rocks.
‘Typical examples occur in the South Para River near the southern corner of
Section 179, Hundred of Barossa (e.g., BA. 21), and near the southern extremity
of Section 183, Hundred of Barossa (e.g., BA.52). In form these small masses
of hybrid rock seem to be in irregular bands or lenses, a few feet in thickness,
which are paralle! to the foliation direction of the augen-gnciss and the surround-
ing gneisses and schists. ‘lhe exact shape of the hybrid masses is, however,
difficult to determine.

Under the microscope a typical soda-hybrid (BA.21) is seen to consist of
porphyroblasts of quartz and microperthite in a finer granoblastic groundmass
of oligoclase, quartz, orthoclase and biotite with a gocd deal of scricite. Spongy
iron ore, apatite and muscovite with small quantitics of epidote and sphene are
also present (pl. ix, fig. 4). The sutured margins of contiguous quartz grains
and the general marginal granulation of the larger minerals mdicate the strong
dynamic-metamorphism to which the rocks have been subjected. A chemical
analysis of this rock is given in Table C. Other examples of this type (e.y.,
BA. 52) have less prominent porphyroblasts but are mineralogically similar to that
described above.

Tarte C

Soda-hybrid (BA, 21) ©
SiQe ‘ a 59-26 Nerm
Tide bide i 0:49 Quartz he ae 2:10
ALO» ante bias 22-94 Orthoclase sete 20°02
Fe:Os ae Peat 2-41 Albite ae ane 60-26
FeO a fy 1:49 Anorthite Lat 3-06
MgO “438 Ieee 1-00 Corundum ob 6°43
CaO ers Free 0-63 Hypersthene 2-30
NaeO hes _ 7°13 Magnetite ste 3-48
K:0 hi Aree 3-42 Ilmenite , 0-91
H:O ve nd 1°33

100-10

It will be seen from the analysis that silica, alumina and the alkalis comprise
over 90% of the rock, also that soda is in considerable excess over potash. In the
norm these points are reflected in the absolute dominance of alkali felspar over
the other normative minerals. The bulk analysis of the rock cannot be very
different fram that of a soda-rich perthite. The genetic relationship between this
soda-hybrid and the associated augen-gneisses (see Table B) appears, at first
sight, to be obscure.

@y Anal, A. R. Alderman

173

In a number of places in the section along the South Para River the augen-
gneisses are seen to merge outwards into fine banded-gneiss and thence into schists
(of sedimentary origin) which contain a few bands of felspathic material. The
banded-gneisses appear from their field relations to be directly related both to the
augen-gneisses and to the schists, and this relationship appears to be confirmed
by the texture and mineral composition exhibited by specimens of the rocks
themselves. Mineralogically the banded-gneisses resemble the augen-gneisses,
as fine bands of pinkish quartz-felspar, occasionally swelling into small augen,
are separated by equally fine bands of grey sericitic material. Texturally they
appear to be related to the slightly pegmatized grey sericite schists, the chief
differences being in the greater number and size of the quartz-felspar layers in
the banded-gneisses.

The chemical analysis of a rock which can be taken as typical of the banded-
gneisses (BA. 49) is given in Table D. This is im situ in the bed of the South
Para River, near Scetion 3,279, Hundred of Para Wirra, and fringes a great
“enclave” of schist in the augen-gneiss. With a decrease in the number and size
of the quartz-felspar bands the banded-gnciss merges into the slightly pegmatized
schist. With an increase in the prominence of the quartz-felspar the same rock
passes into typical augen-gneiss.

The average thickness of the light quartz-felspar layers and of the dark
sericitic layers in a typical banded-gneiss is about the same, cach being slightly
more than 1 mm. thick. Under the microscope the felspar is found to be essen-
tially microperihite. Flakes of pale brown to greenish-brown biotite are arranged
in the direction of foliation. Spongy iron ore, much of it showing the change
to leucoxene, is plentiful. Also present are small grains of epidote, an occasional
grain of orthite and a sprinkling of calcite (pl. viii, fig. 2).

TasLe D
Banded-gneiss (BA, 49)

SiO. dass a 68-31 Norm.

Tide He vas 0-82 Quartz nie eh 31-68
AlsOz re sar 15-12 Orthoclase ae 31-14
Fe0Os ve Se 2°32 Albite i _ 20-44
FeO Lens me 1:46 Anorthite _ 1-39
MgO ae Arig 1-22 Corundum 4-90
CaO 42) me 0-91 Hypersthene 3-10
Nas:O ‘eas sh 2:41 Magnetite _ 2-55
K2O of bes 5-33 Haematite 0-80
H:.O Ase stn 1-11 Ilmenite 1-52
COz mai Sw 0-55 Calcite ‘1-10

99-76
If the composition of the banded-gneiss (BA.49) is compared with that of
any of the augen-gneisses given in Table B (columns i, ii and iii), it will be seen

@) Anal. A, R. Alderman

174

that the closest relationship exists between them. It has also been noted that in
its field relationships and texture the banded-gneiss is closely related to slightly
pegmatized schist of sedimentary origin, the main apparent difference between
these two types lying in the greater size and number of the quartz-felspar bands
possessed by the banded-gneiss. It would appear, therefore, that these two rock
types, the banded-gneiss and the schist, were originally similar and that they now
differ only in the degree in which they have been pegmatized.

The banded-gneisses thus seem to provide a most interesting link between the
augen-gneisses and the sedimentary schists, and in order to investigate this
suggestion the composition of the latter rock types will now be discussed.

Tl] THe Scuists

The broad field relations between the main body of augen-gneiss and the
surrounding schists in the South Para section have been excellently shown by
Hossfeld (1935, 23). The more intimate relations between these two rock types
have already been mentioned in this paper,

The schists which are to be seen in the section seem to be of very uniform
type and composition. In some localities, ¢.g., the southern corner of Section 180,
Hundred of Barossa, definite bands of extreme granulitization may be recognised.
The trend of these granulitic bands is north-south, this being in conformity with
the direction of foliation of both the schists and the augen-gneisses. On the
whole, however, the schists which are adjacent to the augen-gncisses exhibit a
great uniformity of texture and appearance. They are, for the most part, fine-
grained grey rocks in which very fine bands of light-coloured quartz and felspar
are often to be seen parallel to the foliation (pl. viii, fig. 1). These rocks are also
intersected by comparatively coarse veins of pegmatite or of quartz, the veins
measuring up to an inch or so in thickness. These coarser veins may cut across
the direction of foliation and seem to belong to a later stage in the rock’s meta-
morphic history.

Analyses are given in Table E of two rocks which may be taken as typical
of the grey schists. Of these, BA.23 occurs in the gorge of the South Para
River a few yards from the augen-gneiss near the north-east corner of Section 289,
Hundred of Para Wirra. S.P.3, which was collected and incompletely analysed
a few years ago, occurs in a similar situation but near Section 3,279, Hundred of
Para Wirra. Under the microscope these rocks are seen to consist largely of
fine sericitic mica containing small flakes of biotite. The direction of foliation
is strongly marked in these micaceous minerals, and is also well shown by the
plentiful micro-augen of quartz and of microperthite. In this same direction the
rock is sometimes strongly granulitized in narrow bands. Of the same general
size and shape as the micro-augen of quartz and microperthite there may be seen
lenticular aggregates of fine chloritized biotite with fine flakes of muscovite,
powdery iron ore and some exceedingly fine needles which may be rutile. In
these aggregates the mica flakes do not follow the direction of foliation of the

175

rock, and the aggregates themselves seem to represent some former mineral on
which retrograde changes have acted. The usual accessory minerals in these
rocks are iron ore, tourmaline, apatite, epidote and occasional grains of rutile.

The analyses stated in Table E indicate several points of interest. Firstly,
that the grey schists have a very constant composition, The analyses in columns i
and ii are of rocks occurring approximately a mile apart. Secondly, a comparison
of columns i and ii with columns iii and iv indicates that the South Para schists
have a composition which is quite usual for rocks of that type. Thirdly, a com-
parison of the norm in column i with the norms of any of the augen-gneisses
shown in Table B, shows that the only important points of difference in the
normative compositions of these two very different rock types lie in the greater
amount of corundum and smaller amount of albite in the schist. It will be seen
that if more soda and silica were to be added to the schist, thus converting its
corundum into albite, a rock very similar in composition to the augen-gneiss would
be produced.

TABLE E
Analyses of Schists

i ii iii iv

SiO: 8 a been 61-53 60-02 58-32 60-70
TiOe ao ah a 0°75 0-98 1-32
AkOs ae a es 20-70 21-84 20-00 19-79
FesOa x, a: = 2-96 4:67 2-01 3-63
FeO a bs _ 2-35 4-98 3-63
MgO wm se ce 1-69 2-11 1°85 0-98
CaO i peed im 0-26 0-43 0-66 0-68
NazO ca ‘atta ib, 0-71 1-09 1°26 0-42
KO “tg ahh ie 6:24 6°25 4-49 6°44
H.0 sat fd am 2-87 n.d. 4-10 1-88
Etc. _ As, a 1-32 0-68
100-06 99-97 100:15

Norms

Quartz st tat oe 30°42 28-26 31-02
Orthoclase a 332 36°70 26:69 37°81
Albite me yh aia 5°76 10°48 3-14
Anorthite .... Tad doe 1-39 0-28 1-67
Corundum 7 13 12-34 12-95 11-63
Hypersthene au eas 4-86 10-54 4-12
Maegnetite .... at am 4-4] 3-02 5-34
Ilmenite.... nth ar 1-37 1-98 2:93
Ete. a3 tu ee 1-36 0-84

i Sericite-schist (BA.23), South Para River, near Sect. 289, Hundred of Para Wirra
Anal. A. R. Alderman

ii Sericite-schist (S.P. 3), South Para River, near Sect. 3,279, Hundred of Para Wirra
Anal. A. R. Alderman

iii Quartz-muscovite-chlorite-phyllite Stavanger district, Norway Anal. O. Roer
V. M. Goldschmidt (1920, 58)

iv Mica-schist, Portnockie, Banffshire Anal. E. G. Radley E. M. Guppy (1931,
120)

©) Total iron as FesOs

176

TV PEGMATIZATION OF THE SCHISTS

The above description of the Humbug Scrub augen-gneisses and of their
field relations is believed to indicate the following points:

(i) The chemical and mineralogical composition of the augen-gneisses suggests
that these rocks are not of entirely igneous origin. Further, they differ
materially from the known igncons rocks of the region (Table A) and
resemble rocks whose origin is recognised as being due to injection-
metamorphism (Table B).

(ii) The augen-gneisses merge outwards into banded-gneisses, which in turn
pass, with decreasing pegmatization, into grey schists. The banded-gneiss

has been shown to be chemically identical with the true augen-gneiss
(Table D).

(iii) If banded-gneiss is formed by pegmatitic injection of the grey schists it
would then appear that the augen-gneisses owe their origin to the same
process.

lf an examination of these rocks was based on field evidences alone the
injection-metamorphism would appear to be a comparatively simple process cou-
sisting of the lit-par-lit injection into the schists of quartz-felspar pegmatite.
The textural properties of the augen-gneisses and their associates would have
developed in a subsequent period of dynamic metamorphism.

A comparison of the chemical composition of the schists with that of the
banded- and augen-gneisses shows, however, that the injecting material cannot
have been quartz-felspar pegmatite. On the other hand, it will be seen that by
adding to the schist a mixture consisting largely of sodium silicate the product may
have a composition identical with that of average augen-gnciss, if some water is lost
in the process. ‘lable F shows the effect of adding to an average South Para schist
(column i, average of two analyses in Table E) a mixture of 35°7 parts of silica,
2-7 parts of soda, 1-3 parts of potash and 0°8 parts of lime. Water in the propor-
tion of 1°2 parts is subtracted (column ii). Column iit gives the resulting mixture
and column iv the composition of average augen-gneiss taken from the threc
analyses in ‘Table B.

Taste TF

Average Additive Resulting Ayurited
Schist | Mixture Mixture Augen-pueiss
(by Analysis) (Calculated) (Calculated) (by Analysis)
SiOs Lot, eh say 60+27% 35-7 parts 68-99% 69-26%
VWiOe Rink we eee 0-75 0-5 0-73
ALOs shes ess a 20°89 15-0 15-24
FeO (total iron) mst 4-60 3°3 3°28
MgO iss en 1-90 1-4 “x15
CaO ify von ar 0°35 0-8 0-8 0-86
Na:O et} ahs a 0-90 2:7 2-6 2°54
K:0 a Leb tae 6°25 1-3 5-4 5-44
H:.O 2°87 (-1-2) 1:2 1-18

177

It will be seen that an adequate explanation of the chemistry of the injection-
metamorphism can be offered if it is assumed that the added material consisted
of alkali-lime-silicate. It is interesting to compare this explanation with that of
Goldschmidt (1920), who showed that the augen-gncisses of the Stavanger region
were probably produced from phyllites by the addition of a mixture consisting
of SiO, 34 parts, CaO 2 parts, Na,O 3:3 parts, K,O 2:3 parts, and the loss of
2°6 parts of H,O.™> Goldschmidt’s conclusions were based on a very complete
series of analyses. The same writer has also shown in a later paper (1922) that
if the concentration of such alkali-silicate solutions—‘a kind of water-glass”—
is greater than a cerlain minimum they constitute highly potent metasomatic
agents.

The close correspondence between the apparent mctasomatic reactions in the
South Para and the Stavanger regions is very notable. ‘here is also a striking
similarity between the calculated compositions of the incoming alkali silicates in
both localities. Another locality where a similar action may have taken place is
Cromar, Deeside, Aberdeenshire, where, it has been suggested by Read (1927),
oligoclase-porphyroblast-schists may owe their origin to a similar type of injection-
metamorphism,

The injection-metamorphism in the South Para region may thus be pictured
as a lit-par-lit injection into the sericite schists of alkali-silicate solutions. This
would be accompanied by a certain amount of permeation from the main narrow
channels of injection and a metasomatic change of the sericitic mica, alkali-
felspar being the main product of this metasomatism. The chemistry of this
change may be simply reptesented by the following equation:

(OH), Al, [Al Si,O,,]K 4+ Na,SiO, + 5SiO,

sericite “water-glass” solution
K[AI S1,0,]
= 2Na/ Al Si,O.] + I1,0
alkali-felspar water
(microperthite)

The type of metasomatism displayed by such a reaction is that in which
excess alumina—im this case in the sericite—is bound by the incoming alkalis.
Goldschmidt (1922, 120) has shown that in such metasomatic processes a
minimum concentration of the alkali silicate is necessary, at a given temperature
and pressure, to cause the separation of felspar at the expense of mica. If this
minimum concentration of alkali silicate does not exist, the circulating solution
can only leach the mica, but not deposit any felspar.

Jt is thus evident that where the alkali solution is of low concentration it will
gradually become saturated with alumina, and with falling temperature will
eventually solidify as a rock or pegmatite largely composed of felspar. In
Table G the calculated composition of such a felspar rock is given. ‘This is
obtained from the calculated composition of the “water-glass” solution by adding
enough alumina to saturate the alkalis and lime.

©) Analyses of the Stavanger augen-gneiss and phyllite are quoted in Tables B and E

178

TARLe G
Composition of Silicate Soluticn
arts Per cent. ' wk

SiOe ney See 35-7 88-1 Manseay Como sie ot
CaO i tts 0-8 2:0 Anorthite aw. 1L1-7%
NaO ais oe Fis 2-7 6:7 Albite sae wee = 0672
K:O ial ae eh 1:3 3-2 Orthoclase we 2204

Calculated Chemical Composition Chemical Composition of

of Felspar Rock Soda-hybrid (BA. 21)

SiOe a) sys iwi 63°0 59-26
TiOe T wA shad 0-49
AkLOs ae e wih 21-2 22-94
FeO (totalirou) .... 4 3°66
MgO I ns am 1-00
CaO 2-3 0-63
NazQ 7°8 7°13
K.0 ae Ar leaf 3°7 3-42
H:O 4a nrg . 1-33

It will be seen that the calculated chemical composition of the felspar rock
—formed by the solution of alumina in “water-glass”—has a surprisingly close
correspondence with that of the soda-hybrid (BA. 21) previously described
(Table C). The addition of about 7% of iron, magnesium and water to the
felspar rock would make the two compositions almost identical. This comparison
thus seems to provide an adequate explanation of the genesis of the soda-hybrids,
as well as a confirmation of the activity of the water-glass solutions.

Vo Meramorpuic History AND CORRELATION

In a review of the processes of injection-metamorphism Read (1931, 146-
150) concludes that the conditions necessary for such injection are ‘‘activity of
stress and prevalence of high temperatures in the country-rock of the complex.”
In mountain-building movements accompanied by intrusion of magma these condi-
tions are provided immediately after a tectonic maximum, In the Loch Choire
complex in Sutherland Read has shown that the metamorphic grade of the
injected rocks is raised, and sillimanite occurs only within the injection complex.

In the South Para section sillimanite and other high-grade minerals have
not been detected. This may be due to one or both of two factors: (1) The
South Para gneisses having apparently been produced from a process of injection
combined with permeation, the formation of sillimanite and allied minerals may
have been prevented by the presence of alkali-silicate solutions; or if such
minerals had already developed in the schists, these solutions may have converted
them back to mica. Read (1927, 333) has described the change of sillimanite,
andalusite, garnet and staurolite to micaceous “shimmer-aggregates” in the injec-
tion complex of Cromar, and suggests that these changes are due to the passage
through the rock of alkali-silicate solutions; (2) minerals of high metamorphic
grade may have been changed by retrogression during the subsequent stage of
dynamic metamorphism. In such a change mica would again be the main product
of the retrograde processes.

179

Occasionally some rounded inclusions and other enclaves of schist occur in
the augen-gneiss. These seem to be blocks of country rock which have resisted
or been protected from injection. They may resemble the rounded inclusions of
eclogite which occur in the injection-gneisses of Inverness-shire (Alderman, 1936,
527) and thus be residual kernels of the country-rock which have escaped injec-
tion. It would appear that the contact between augen-gneiss and schist mentioned
by Hossfeld (1935, 25) is of this nature, the country-rock forming a promontory
or large enclave which has not been injected.

The source of the alkali-silicate solutions is as yet indefinite. At Stavanger
the source has been convincingly traced to an igneous intrusion of trondhjemitic
composition. At Loch Choire and at Cromar the parent igneous rock is not
obvious, but it would appear that one of trondhjemitic composition is again the
most likely. In the Barossa district intrusive igneous rock may be hidden in the
Humbug Scrub region to the south of the South Para River, but information
and evidences on this point are very vague. Hossfeld (1935, 52) mentions the
possibility of the pegmatization of the Barossian schists being contemporaneous
with the intrusicn of the igneous rocks at Houghton and Mount Kitchener. The
diorite described by England (1935) from Section 257, Hundred of Barossa,
would also be included in this possibility. The other large igneous masses of this
region, the Tanunda Creek and Palmer adamellites, seem to be of later date than
the period of injection-metamorphism,

Following or perhaps partly contemporaneous with the injection-period the
augen-gneisses, and the other rocks of the South Para section, were subjected to
strong dynamic metamorphism, This may have immediately followed on the
injection stage and produced the final effects of the single tectonic period. With
falling temperatures the kind of metamorphism would change from an injection
type to conditions in which shearing stress was dominant. The presence of
granulitized bands with a north-south trend in the schists, and particularly in the
region to the south and west of the South Para section, seems to indicate strong
thrusting movements from the west (pl. ix, fig. 6). These were evidently of
later date than the injection period.

That the rocks within the injection complex must have been subjected to
strong internal stresses produced by the injection is evident from a consideration
of the mineralogical changes. It will be seen from Table F that about 100 parts
by weight of schist react with about 40 parts of “water-glass” to produce augen-
gneiss. However, it will be seen from the following equation that, theoretically,
scricite and water-glass can react in approximately equal amounts to form felspars.
Molecular weights are given beneath the empirical formulae.

sericite water-glass
(OH), A1,Si,0,,K + Na,Si O, ak 5Si O,
398 422
felspars water

K Al Si,O, | 2Na Al Si,0, + HO
278 524

180

From these considerations it would appear that about % of the schist was
effected by the metasomatic change. The increase, produced by this meta-
somatism in the volume of the rock is shown by comparing the volumes of the
constituent minerals before and after the reaction. The sizes of the molecules
of muscovite, orthoclase and albite are given by the volumes of each mineral in
cubic Angstrom units per oxygen atom. These figures are for muscovite,
19-2, orthoclase 23, albite 21-6. The volume change of the solid constituents is,
therefore:

muscov.te orthaclase + albite
192x122 — 23x8 2x21:6x8
230°4 529°6

This shows that at normal temperatures and pressures about two-fifths of
the rock would increase to about two and a quarter times its original volume as
a result of the metasomatism. The whole rock would, therefore, nearly double
its volume.

Although these calculations cannet give an exact idea of the volume changes
produced under natural conditions and under high temperatures and pressures,
they at least indicate that the metasomatism will cause a great increase in the
volume of the rocks concerned. ‘This volume change would, undoubtedly, set up
great internal stresses in the augen-gneisses and may thus account for much of
the retrogressive change and granulation exhibited by these rocks,

VI SuMMARY

The Humbug Scrub augen-gneisses, which are an important feature of the
Rarossian (Pre-Cambrian) series in South Australia, are w ell shown in the gorge
ot the South Para River. They appear to have been developed during a period
of injection-metamorphism in which alkali-silicate solutions reacted wil the
seticite-schists of the complex. This process normally produced augen- gneisses
and banded-gneisses, but when the concentration of the metasomatic solutions fell
below a certain level hybrid rocks rich in soda were formed. One of the results
of the injection and metasomatism would be a large increase in volume, to which
may be ascribed many of the effects apparently due to subsequent dynamic-
matomorphism.

VIL lust or Works to witrcu REFERENCE 1s MAbrE

Apperman, A. R. 1936 Eclogites from the Neighbourhood of Glenelg,
Inverness-shire, ©.J.G.S., 92, 488

Benson, W. N. 1909 Petrographic Notes on Certain Pre-Cambrian Rocks of
the Mount l.ofty Ranges, Trans: Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 33, 101

Brown, IL. Y. L., and Woonwarn, H. P. 1885 Geological Map of Barossa and
Para Wirra, Parliamentary Paper, No. 178, South Australia

Encianp, H. N. 1935 Petrographic Notes on Intrusions of the Loughton
Magma in the Mount Lofty Ranges, Trans, Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., 59, 1

Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1938 Vol. 62, Plate VIIT

fig. 1

: Pg ' - >

Photos by 1, E. E. Brock

Traus. Roy. Soc. 8, Austr., 1938 Vol. 62, Plate 1X

fig. 5

Photos by H. E: BR. Brock

181

GoLpscHMiIptT, V. M. 1920 Die Injectionsmetamorphose im Stavanger-Gebiete,
Vid. Selsk. Skr. Mat.-Naturv. KL, No. 10, 1921

GoLpscHMipt, V. M. 1922 On the Metasomatic Processes in Silicate Rocks,
Economic Geology, 17, 105

Guppy, E. M. 1931 Chemical Analyses of Igneous Rocks, Metamorphic Rocks,
and Minerals, Mem. Geol. Surv., Gt. Brit.

Goovg, B. F. 1927 The Mannum Granite, ‘Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 51, 126

Hossretp, P. S. 1925 The Tanunda Granite and its Field Relations, Trans.
Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 49, 191

Hossretp, P.S. 1935 The Geology of Part of the North Mount Lofty Ranges,
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 59, 16

Howcuin, W. 1906 The Geology of the Mount Lofty Ranges, pt. ii, Trans.
Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 30, 227

Howcnin, W. 1926 The Geology of the Barossa Ranges and Neighbourhood
in Relation to the Geological Axis of the Country, Trans. Roy. Soe.
S. Aust., 50, 1

Jack, R.L. 1923 The Building Stones of South Australia, Bull 10, Geol. Surv.
o. Aust.

Reap, H. H. 1927 The Igneous and Metamorphic History of Cromar, Deeside,
Aberdeenshire, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 55, 317

Reap, H. H. 1931 The Geology of Central Sutherland, Mem. Geol. Surv. Scot.

Pirate VIII
Fig. 1 Schist BA.23 x25 Small grains and micro-augen of quartz and felspar in the
sericite base indicate slight pegmatization of the schist
Fig. 2 Banded-gneiss BA.49 x25 Definite bands of quartz-ielspar in scricite
Fig. 3 Augen-gneiss BA.27 x25 Microcline-microperthitc augen in sericite base

PLaTe IX

Fig. 4 Soda-hybrid BA.21 x25 The rock consists largely of microperthite and quartz
in a finer groundmass of oligoclase, quartz, sericite, etc.

Fig. 5 Microcline-microperthite in augen-gneiss, BA.3 x33

Fig. 6 Granulite BA.29 x33 Lenticles of quartz and granulitized quartz and felspar
in a fine granulitic base

The microphotographs were made by Mr. H. E. E. Brock in thd Department of Geology, University
of Adelaide

VOL. 62 PART 2 23 DECEMBER, 1938

a it
Mh
Ras A

TRANSACTIONS OF
THE ROYAL SOCIETY
OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

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ADELAIDE

PUBLISHED AND SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S ROOMS
KINTORE AVENUE, ADELAIDE

Price - - One Guinea

Registered at the General Post Office, Adelaide,
for transmission by post as a periodical

ON SOME REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS FROM THE
CENTRAL REGION OF AUSTRALIA

By ARTHUR LOVEREDGE,
MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLCGY, CAMBRIDGE, MAss, U.S.A.
(COMMUNICATED BY H. H. FINLAYSON)

Summary

In view of the relative poverty of our knowledge concerning the ecology and distribution of the
herpetofauna of the central area of the continent, it seems advisable to publish the following notes
based on part of the collection gathered by Mr. H. H. Finlayson during some of the journeys which
he made through that region in 1933-1935.

183

ON SOME REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS FROM THE
CENTRAL REGION OF AUSTRALIA

By Arrucr Loverince,
Museum of Comparative Zodlegy, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A,

(Communicaied by H. H. Finlayson)
| Read 12 May 1938]

In view of the relative poverty of our knowledge concerning the ecology
and distribution of the herpetofauna of tie central area of the continent, it seems
advisable to publish the following notes based on part of the collection gathered
by Mr. Il. I. Finlayson during some of the journeys which he made through
that region in 1933-1935.

Most of the material comes from Officer Creek, which lies midway between
the Everard and Musgrave Ranges in the far north-west of South Australia;
others [rom Palm Creck in the Mucdonnel Range. The homogeneity of the fauna
throughout “his area is emphasised by noving that of the twenty-two spectes taken,

no fewer than thirteen were also collected at [Icrmannsburg on the Finke River,
Northern Territory, in 1931, by Mr. W. E. Schevill on behalf of the Museum
of Comparative Zoology.

In the following notes the letters H.H.F. denote that the specimen is still in
the Finlayson collection, while M.C.Z. precedes the catalogue number of those
presented to this Museum. Scale counts, or other pertinent matter likely to be
of use to future investigalors, are given as a check on my determinations. Anno-
tations as to the aboriginal name, colour in life, ete., made by the collector are
included, together with some observations on breeding and dict. Attention is
particularly directed io the voraciousness displayed by the gecko, Nephrurus lacvis,
as well as the discovery of the adult skink, Egernia imornata.

TYPHLOPS BITUBERCULATUS (Peters)

Onychocephalus bituberculatus Peters, 1864, Monatsb. Akad. Wiss., Berlin,
p. 233; near Adelaide, South Australia.

1 (H.H.F. 21), Officer Creek, 5S.A., Jan., 1934.

Midbody scale-rows, 20; nasal cleft joining the second labial; head trilobed.
Diameter, 3°5 mm., included in total length 49 times. Total length, 2/1

(268 + 4) inm.
RHYNCHOELAPS BERTIUOLDL (Jan)

Flaps bertholdi Jan, 1859, Rev. et Mag. Zool, p. 123: Australia.
1 (H.H.F. 19), Inindi, N.T., 14 Jan., 1935.
Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 62, (2), 23 December 1938

A

184

Midbody scale-rows 15; ventrals 117; anals 2; subcaudals 21, paired,
except for the anterior four; labials 6, the third and fourth entering the orbit.
‘Total length 200 (178 + 22) mm.

The top of the head presents a very different appearance from that of the
example figured by Kinghorn (1929, p. 155), it is wholly black except for a light
area in the centre of each of the scales anterior to the frontal and eye. There

are 24+ 5 annular rings on body and tail, “the interspaces are orange in life.”
(H. H.F.)

NEPIURURUS LAEVIS De Vis

Nephrurus laevis De Vis, 1886, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (2), 1, p. 168;
Queensland.
$ (M.C.Z. 43113) Owellinna, Musgrave Range, S.A.

g (M.C.Z, 43114) Officer Creck, S.A., Jan., 1934.

These agree closely with a Hermannsburg specimen (M.C.Z. 35106), The
larger, a @ with a complete tail terminating in a semi-sphere, measures 126
(86 + 40) mm., and holds two developing ova measuring 11 x 6 mm,

In her stomach is a young gecko (hyuchocdura ornata), a large scorpion,
and many parasitic nematodes (Psysaloptera sp.).0? The smaller $ has an
apparently regenerating tail of a more granular and less spinose appearance.

HETERONOTA BINOEL Gray
ITeteronota binoei Gray, 1845, Cat. Liz. Brit. Mus., p. 174: Houtman’s
Abrolhos, Western Australia.

2 (M.C.Z. 43115) Officer Creck, S.A., Jan., 1934.

Dorsal tubercles in 13 rows. Total length 88 (40 + 48) mm.

DIPLODACTYLUS ELDERT Stirling and Zictz

Diplodactylus elderi Stirling and Zietz, 1893, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr.,
16, p. 161, pl. iv, fig. 1: Barrow Range, Northern Territory.

2 (M.C.Z, 43116-7), Officer Creek, S.A., Jan., 1934,

These handsome little geckos, with a network of black uniting the pure white
tubercles on the dorsum, exhibit on the underside of the original tail numerous
flat white tubercles like those on the back, but each forming the centre of a circle
of black granules. Larger gecko measures 68 (42 + 26) mm.

> Tam indebted to Dr. D. G. Davey for this identification.

185

LIALIS BURTONIS Gray
Lialis burtonis Gray, 1834, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 134: New South
Wales.
1 (H.H.F. 20), Officer Creek, S.A., Jan., 1934,

Preanal pores 4; preanal shields 3. ‘Three darker stripes on the grey dorsum,
two lateral and two ventral. Total length 327 (167 + 160) mm.

AMPIIIBOLURUS MACULATUS GULARIS Sternfeld

Amphibolurus maculatus gularis Sternfeld, 1925, Abh. Senckenberg Naturf.
Ges., 38, p. 231: Hermannsburg Mission, Upper Finke River, Northern Territory.

4, 2 (M.CZ. 43118-9), Officer Creek, S.A., Jan., 1934.

Native name, Chunpis, but applied te many other small lizards.

Femoral and preanal pores of é total 62 in all. Neither specimen exceeds
60 mm. from snout to anus, yet the ? holds three small spherical ova about 6 mm.
in diameter. Her stomach was filled with finely masticated ants.

AMPIIIBOLURUS SCUTULATUS Stirling and Zietz
Amphitolurus scutulatis Stirling and Zietz, 1893, Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Austr.,
16, p. 165, pl. vii, figs. 1-2: between Queen Victoria Springs and Fraser Range,
Western Australia,

Q (H.LH.F. 16), Officer Creek, S.A., Jan., 1934.

Native name, Pusu.

This specimen exceeds in dimensions those I have previously (1934, p. 319)
examined, with which, however, it has been carefully compared. The arrow-like
marking on the head is light buff in this alcohol-prescrved individual. Total
length 345 (105 + 240) mm. Gravid with 5 eggs, each measuring approximately
20 x 10 mm.

AMPIUIBOLURUS RETICULATUS INERMIS (De Vis)

Grammatophora inermis De Vis, 1888 (1887), Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., (2),
2, p. $12: Central Queensland.

$.3 9 (M.C.Z. 43120-3), Officer Creek, S.A., Jan., 1934.

Native name, Linga,

Femoral and preanal pores of @, 23. Total length of &, 246 (102 + 144)
mm; largest perfect @, 172 (82 +90) mm; youngest (H.H.I*. 13) measures
87 (37 + 50) mm.

186

AMPILIBOLURUS DIEMENSIS (Gray)

Gramma‘ophora muricata var. diemensis Gray, 1841, in Grey, Journ. Exped.
Western Australia, 2, p. 439 : Tasmania.

6 (H.H.F. 15), Officer Creek, S.A., Jan., 1934.

Apparently the first record of the occurrence of this species in Central
Australia.

Keels on the snout very strong and tending to form ridges extending back
to the interorbital region; the adpressed hind limb reaches to between tympanum
and eye; femoral and preanal pores 15 in all. ‘Votal length 142 (51 +91) mm.

PHYSIGNATIIUS LONGIROSTRIS (Boulenger )
Lophognathus longirosiris Boulenger, 1883, Ann, Mag. Nat. List. (5), 12,
p. 225: Champion Bay and Nicol Bay, Western Australia.

@ (ILL. 17), South’s Range, N.T., 20 Jan.. 1935,

Keels of the upper dorsal series obliquely directed towards the vertebral line;
nostril a little nearer the orbit than to the tip of the snout; tail roundish. ‘This
identification is made with the same reservation as regards the raidity of
quatinorfasciatus Sternfeld as T (1934, p. 329) have already made. No lower
hight streak on the flank is discernible. Mr. Finlayson, however, states than ‘“‘an
area of blue is present on the sides during life, though it is now absent.” Te
adds that the species is very conimon over most of Central Australia, is readily
tamable, and is a good fly-catcher,

VARANUS GOULDIT (Gray)
Hy drosaurus gouldit Gray, 1838, Ann. Nat. ITisi., 1, p. 394: Australia.

Young (M.C.Z. 43124), Officer Creck, S.A., Jan., 1934.

This individual agrees with our long series of gouldii as defined (1934, p. 332),
except that it is immaculate bencath, apart from some obsolescent dusky streaks
on the throat. In this respect alone it would appear to conform to giganteus
(Gray). It is the smallest example of this monitor which | have scen, measuring
only 272 (112 + 160) mm.

VARANUS GILLENT [aucas and Frost
Varanus giuleni lucas and Frost, 1895, Proc. Roy. Soe. Victoria, 7, p. 266:
between Glen [Tcdith and Deering Creek, also Charlotte Waters, Northern
Territory.
6 (H.H.T. 18), Scuth’s Range. N.T., 20 fan., 1935.

Total length 282 (120 + 162) mm.

187

EGERNIA TNORNATA Rosen
E-gernia inornata Rosén, 1905, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), 16, p. 139, fig. 3:
Western Australia.
Eegernia striata Sternfeld, 1919, Mitt. Senckenberg, Naturf. Ges., 1, p. 79:
Hermannshurg Mission, Upper Finke River, Northern ‘Territory.

8 (M.C.Z. 43125-6), Officer Creek, S.A., Jan., 1934.
@ «ond embryos (M.C.Z, 43749-50), Pundi, S.A., 8 Jan., 1934.

Skin (LLH.F.), Toonunnya Water, Rawlinson Range, W.A., 27 Jan., 1935.

Native Names: Moatinga for the spotted or striata type; fuleeri for the
uniform or inornala type; tcharcoora for the handsome adults.

For reasons stated below, the scale counts, ete, of the two feharcoora are
discussed independently of the series from Officer Creek, which are:

Midbody scale-rows 36-44; length from snout to anus, alter elimination of
those with regenerated tails, is included sn length of tail from 1:01 in the largest
to 1:2 in the smallest. ‘Uhese two skinkg measured 95 (43 + 52) and 208 (103 +
105) mm., respectively.

The teharcoora (M.C.Z. 43749) is the specimen which formed the subject of
the photograph facing page 62 of Mr. Finlayson’s book, “The Red Centre.” In
life its dorsam was a rich shining cupreus red, the flanks were banded alternately
with red and yellow (possibly also with bluish-green, according to Mr. Finlayson’s
recollection); the undersurface was a very clear, bright Iemon-ycllow. These
colours have faded in the alcoholic-preserved reptile, but are present to some
extent in the salt-prepared skin from Toonunnya water; this is particularly the
case with the belly, which has retained its bright Icmon-yellow hue.

The midbody scale-rows are 46 or 48 in these two big skinks, whereas the
range shown by the twenty-four examples from ITermannsburg and Teatree Well
(Loveridge, 1934, p. 337) was only 38-46, those from Teatree averaging higher
than the more westerly :lermannsburg series. As none of these skinks exceeded
228 mm. in length, I dissected several but without finding signs of enlarged
gonads in any, so that I was Iead to the conclusion that both they and the Officer
Creek series listed above are immature individuals. On dissecting the 376 mm.
Pundi tcharcoora, however, she was found to be a gravid female bearing four
embryos when killed on 8 January, 1934. These embryos varied a good deal in
tail length, onc, a @, measured 78 (43 + 35) mm. and had 46 midbody scale-rows.
It is interesting to compare its length with that of an active juvenile from Ofhcer

Creek as given above. ‘The length from snout to anus of mother and embryo is
included in the length of tail 1:005 and -81 times, respectively.

Mr. }Inlayson, not unnaturally, concluded that the feharcoora represented
a distinct species, but in the absence of any scale characters which serve to separate

188

them, and for the reasons stated above, I conclude that he has secured the first
adults of imornata, a species with a midbody scale formula of 36-48; whether
striata may eventually be recognised as a race remains to be seen.

TILIQUA OCCIPITALIS OccIPITALIs (Peters)

Cyclodus occipitalis Peters, 1863, Monatsb. Akad. Wiss., Berlin, p. 231:
Adelaide, South Australia,

2 (M.C.Z. 43747-8), Officer Creek, S.A., Jan., 1934.

Coming, as they do, from the far north-west of South Australia, these skinks
assist in bridging the gap between the nominate form and the race which is
common in central and north-west Australia.

Midbody scale-rows 40; supraoculars 2; supraciliaries 5; frontonasal

separated from frontal. Bands on body 4, on tail 3. Larger skink measures
405 (275 + 130) min.

TILIQUA OCCIPITALIS MULTIFASCIATA Sternfeld

Tiliqua occipitalis multifasciata Sternfeld, 1919, Mitt. Senckenberg Naturf.
Ges.. 1, p. 79: Tlermannsburg Mission, Upper Finke River, Northern ‘Territory,

1 (M.C.Z. 43128), Sandhills south of Koonapandi, Musgrave Range, S.A.

Native name, Culameer, ie., differing from that in use at Anningie.

Midbody scale-rows 40; auricular lobules 4; frontonasal separated from
frontal. Transverse bands on body 12, on tail 10; in life these “were orange,
the intermediate areas olive green” (H.H.F.). My colleague, Dr. P. J. Darling-
ton, could only detect the remains of ants, though of several species, among the
masticated mass which distended the stomach and enormous intestinal tract.

TILIQUA CASUARINAE PETERSI (Sternfeld)

Lygosoma (Lygosoma) miilleri Peters (non Schlegel), 1878, Sitzber. Ges.
Naturf. Freunde, Berlin, p. 191: South Australia,

Lygosoma (Homolepida) petersi Sternfeld, 1919, Mitt. Senckenberg
Naturf, Ges., 1, p. 81: Hermannsburg Mission, Upper Finke River, Northern
Territory.

1 (M.C.Z. 43127), Officer Creek, S.A., Jan., 1934,

Midbody scale-rows 26; supraoculars 3; digits 5; toes 5; agreeing in all
respects with our topotypical material (vide Loveridge, 1934, p. 366). Total length
175 (95 + 80) mm.

1&9

While the finding of this skink in South Australia removes my doubts as to
muilleri and petersi being syonymous, the status of miillert is unaffected by its
transfer to the genus Vuliqua, for the name remains preoccupied in Lygosoma.

This species, the length of whose hind limb equals the distance between the
centre of the eye and the fore limb, differs in this respect from the definition of
Section I (Sphenomorphus, inc. Hinuli«) of Lygosoma as given by Boulenger
(1887, p. 212). In 1934 I followed ‘Sternfeld in referring it to Omolepida.
Recently Malcolm Smith (1937, p, 233), in studying the status of many skinks
formerly included in the genus Lygosoma, found that in dentition, as well as in
having the parietals completely separated by the interparictal, casuarimae agrees
with Tiligua. We also transfers to that genus branchiale, gastrostigma and
woodjonesi. While the two c. casuarinae and three topotypical c. petersi have
the parietals completely separated, in the Officer Creek specimen they are just in
contact behind the intcrparietal.

It might be as well to invite attenlion here to the fact that Dr. Malcolm
Smith (1935, p. 279) has also shown that certain oriental species so bridge the
alleged gap between Lygosoma (sensu strict) and Sphenomorphus that it is
impossible to retain the latter as a distinct genus, and considers that it should be
treated only as a section. If this vicw is accepted, then the Australian species
referred to Sphenomorphus and Leiolopisma must revert to the older name of
Lygosoma, which will involve some radical changes in their nomenclature.

LycosomMa (LEIOLOPISMA) TRILINEATUM (Gray)
Tilique trilincata Gray, 1839, Ann. Nat. Hist., (2), p. 291: Australia.

1 (LHL. 12), Officer Creek, S.A., Jan., 1934.

Midbody scale-rows 24; frontoparietal single; supraciliaries 6; adpressed
hind limbs do not nearly meet, pentadactyle; lamellae beneath fourth toe 20.
Total length 117 (47 + 70) mm.

ABLEPTIIARUS GREYII (Gray)
Menetia greyii Gray, 1844, Zool. Erebus and Terror, Rept., pl. v, fig. 4:
Western Australia.

1 (H.H.F. 14), Officer Creek, S.A., Jan., 1934.

Midboidy scale-rows 22; supranasals absent; frontoparictals single; inter-
parietal disiinct; digits 4; toes 5. Total length 62 (30 + 32) mm., but the tail
is regenerated.

LIMNODYNASTES sp.
3 (M.C.Z. 22386 and H.H.F, 24), Ernabella Creek, N.T., 28 Jan., 1934.
2 juveniles (M.C.Z. 22384-5), Palm Creek, N.T., 30 Dec., 1934.

190

The largest measures 43 mm., a juvenile only 26 mm. Two of the adults
were in embrace, the pale yellow male superimposed on the duller brown female.
All exhibit the more extensive webbing of the toes characterising a new species
being described by Mr. H. W. Parker (in press) as distinct from ornatus. Shere
is, however, remarkable divergence in the extent of webbing as between the frogs
from Ernabella and Palm Creeks, not more so, however, than is to be observed
in a series from [lermannsburg or than has been figured by Spencer under the
name of ornatis.

Tt might be remarked here that the Mermannsburg material (M.C.Z. 18530-
46) which, following Spencer, I erroneously referred to ornatus, and of which
examples were sent to most Australian museums under that name, was sub-
sequently studied by Parker, who has designated them paratypes of his recently-
described species.

HYLA CAERULEA (Shaw)
Rana caerulea Shaw, 1790, in White. Journ. Voy. N.S.W., App., p. 248:
New South Wales (presumably, not stated).
FAisla gillent Spencer, 1896, in Rep. Horn Sci. Exped., 2, p. 173, pl. xv,
figs. 14-17: Alice Springs, Central Australia.

1 juvenile (M.C.Z, 22383), Palm Creek, N.7.. 30 Dee., 1934.

This young frog, only 24 mm. in length, undoubtedly represents gilleni,
which I (1935, p. 39) tentatively referred to the synonymy of caerulea, Unfor-
tunately the shrivelled condition of this specimen makes it impossible to reach a
decision as-to whether my action was justifiable. It does exhibit a light ante-
brachial patch, and apparently the whole upper lip as far as the tympanum was
pale blue in life.

HivLA RUBELLA Gray

Lyla rubella Gray, 1842, Zool, Miscellany, p. 57: Port Essington, Northern
Territory.

2 juveniles (M.C.Z. 22381-2), Palm Creek, N.T., 30 Dec., 1934.
I juvenile (M.C.Z. 22380), South’s Range, N.T., 20 Jan., 1935.

The largest of these three young frogs is only 19 mm. in length, but they are
obviously specifically identical with our Lake Barrine, Queensland series (M.C.Z.
18051-2). The dorsum of the young is greyish while the limbs and lateral line
on the flanks are finely punctate, thus presenting a somewhat different appear-
ance from that of the adults. Spencer (1896, p. 170) has already recorded this
species from Palm Creek and other localities in Central Australia.

1

Of this and the two preceding species Mr. Finlayson writes: “T took these
frogs in midsummer during heavy rain; an hour after the storm commenced the
rocks were swarming with them. The dark ones were rich green; the others red-
brown, I think.”

BIBLIOGRAPLLY

3ouLENGER, G. A. 1887 “Catalogue of Lizards in the Dritish Museum,” 3,
i-xii + 1-575, pls. i-xl. T.ondon

Fintayvson, H. H. 1935 “The Red Centre. Man and Beast in the Heart of
Australia,” 1-146, 52 pls., map (giving all localities mentioned in this
paper). Sydney

Krneworn, J. R. 1929 “The Snakes of Australia.” 1-200, 137 coloured figs.
Sydney

Loveripce, A. 1934 “Australian Reptiles in the Museum of Comparative
Zoology.” Bull. Mus. Comp. Zodl., 77, 243-383.

Loveripcr, A. 1935 “Australian Amphibia in the Musctum of Comparative
Zodlogy.” Bull. Mus. Comp. Zodl., 78, 1-60,

Suitu, M. A. 1935 “Reptilia and Amphibia,” in “Fauna of British India,” 2,
i-xti + 1-440, figs. 1-94, maps 1-2, pl. i. Icondon

Smiru, M. A. 1937 “A Review of the Genus Lyyosoma (Scincidae: Reptilia)
and its Allies,” Rec. Indian Mus., 39, 213-234, figs. 1-5

Spencer, B 1896 “Amphibia,” in “Report on the Work of the Horn Scientific
Expedition to Central Australia,” 2, 112-152, pls. xili-xvi. London and
Mcelhourne

AUSTRALITES, PART I11
A CONTRIBUTION TO THE PROBLEM OF THE ORIGIN OF TEKTITES

By CHARLES FENNER, D.Sc., UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE

Summary

I INTRODUCTION
This is the third of a series of papers dealing with investigations into the characters and origin of the
peculiar glassy objects called australites, found widely and almost universally distributed over the
greater part of the southern two-thirds of the Australian continent, including Tasmania and
adjoining islands.

192

AUSTRALITES, PART III

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE PROBLEM OF THE ORIGIN OF TEKTITES
By Cuartes Fenner, D.Sc., University of Adelaide
[Read 4 July 1938]

Piares X Ann XI

CONTENTS Page

I Ixtrropucrion ., i te oe me ore nes Be Pi ww. 192
Il Lr present Status or tue TeKtite Proviem oh ing ‘ we 193
HI AppirronaL Facts coNCERNING THE Disrriputtan or AUSTRALITES .. 195
IV Nores on SMoxe Bomegs rrom Locomotive ENGINES .. =e ee .. 196
V Tue vossrpte EvoLturion oF VARIOUS TYPICAL AUSTRALITE ForMs .. ... 197

(a) Origin of the glass blobs, 197; (b) Predominance of round
forms, 198; (c) Characteristics of round forms, 199; (d) Graph
of diameter ratios, 199; (e) Suggested evolution of round forms,
201; (f) Relations of forms and sizes, 205: (g) Comparison with
stony meteorites, 206; (h) Conclusions, 207.

VI SPECULATIONS CONCERNING THE THEORY or Cosmic OrIcIn .. “4 w. =206
VII Starmtary or Hyporuests .. se an *, *, ae ap .. 209
VIII BrsriocrapHy or TEKTITE Papers .. 4, rs iv nt os a =210

Ll INTRODUCTION

This is the third of a scrics of papers dealing with investigations into the
characters and origin of the peculiar glassy objects called australites, found widely
and almost universally distributed over the greater part of the southern two-thirds
of the Australian continent, including Tasmania and adjoining islands.

Part J of the serics (103) dealt with the classification of the Shaw collection,
a representative series of forms numbering 3,920 pieces. Part IL (112) con-
sisted of an enquiry into the numbers, forms and distribution of australites, with
some speculations as to origin.

In this paper additional facts concerning the forms and distribution of
australites are set down, and evidence is presented concerning the probable
sequence of development of the “round” forms of australites, together with
speculations concerning probable methods of cosmic origin.

During 1937 the writer was privileged to examine the chief tektite collec-
tions of the world, and to discuss the associated problem with authorities on such
matiers in Europe, North America, and South Africa. Further, by the courtesy
of Professors von Koenigswald and H. O. Beyer, a considerable amount of new
tektite material from Java and Philippine Islands was placed at his disposal.
Professors 1. A. Cotton and H. C. Richards generously lent their complete
collections of Darwin Glass. With this and other material the writer is at present
engaged upon a comparative study of the internal and external structures of
tektites.

Trans. Roy. Soc, S.A., 62, (2), 23 December 1938

193

Warmest thanks are due to Mr. W. Baragwanath, Director of the Geo-
logical Survey of Victoria, for his continued assistance. Tor the photographic
work acknowledgment is made to the Director of Lands, Mr. E. J. Field, and to
Mr. M. FE. Sherrah; and for the microscopic photographs of smoke bombs to Mr.
R. A. L. Laughton, of the S.A. School of Mines. The kindly assistance and
encouragement of Dr. L. J. Spencer is deeply appreciated.

The australite problem can be adequately considered only when viewed as
a part of the greater tektite problem. To assist Australian workers in this’
direction the attached bibliography has been compiled, and it is, for the most part,
limited to those papers that are likely to be accessible to and necessary for Aus-
tralian workers. These references are set out in chronological order, indicating
to some extent the development of scientific opinion upon the question.

II THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE TEKTITE PROBLEM

While there may be some truth in the statement that the geologist, petrologist,
and mineralogist have done all that they can towards the solution of the tektite
problem, and that the work of the physicist, mathematician, and astronomer are
now required, it scems likely that the majority of workers in this field will con-
tinue to be geologists and mineralogists.

Nevertheless, as instanced by the work of Kerr Grant (41), ‘Tilley (72),
and La Paz (122), the contributions from the physical and mathematical points
of view are decisive and important. ‘he next significant move probably les with
these methods of study.

The unfolding of the tektite story has taken place over 150 years, slowly at
first, but with accelerated pace during the present century. Bits of green glass
found in Moravia were analyzed by Dufrenoy (1) in 1787. German and French
travellers, in the early 1800’s, referred to various glass balls occurring in nature,
but these were possibly of volcanic origin.

Moldavites thus appeared in the picture in 1787, 151 years ago. Australites,
not under that name, first came into literature with Darwin’s reference and figure
in 1844 (2), 57 ycars later, Billitonites were first described by Van Dijk (8)
in 1878, another 34 years onward, quoted by Beyer (109). Thus, in the first
century of this account, there had been no more than three simple descriptions,
with no suggestion of correlation, and no important efforts to discuss the question
of origin.

Meantime, in Australian geological and mineralogical literature, there had
been numerous records of specimens and localities, usually with an acknowledg-
ment of the mystery of their origin and distribution. At the same time a con-
siderable literature grew up around the moldavites. mostly in the German and
Czech languages. Makowsky (quoted by Beyer, 109), conrpared billitonites and
moldavites in 1881, and in 1893 Wichmann discussed and compared moldavites,
billitonites, and australites.

194

The really significant initial papers on the various tektite groups appear to be
as follows:

3illitonites - - - Verbeek 1887 (15)
Moldavites - - ~ Lares 1889 (16)
Australites - - - Walcott 1898 = (30)
Tektites - r 4 - Suess 1900 (31)
Darwin Glass - - - Hills 1915 (59)
Indo-Chinites - - - Lacroix 1932 (88)
Tektites - - x - Spencer 1933 (90)
Ivory Coast Tektites - Lacroix 1934 (106)
java Tektites - - - von Koenigswald 1935 (108)
Philippine Island Tektites - Beyer 1935 (109)

By the year 1900, despite the bias given towards volcanic theories by Darwin
and others, there had grown up a conviction that an extra-terrestrial origin was
indicated. The number and ingenuity of the suggestions put forward then and
since are well known. Throughout the story the remarkable shapes and distribu-
tion of the australites have exerted a special influence upon the investigations.
It seems likely that Streich (18) was the first to advance a meteoritic theory of
origin; that was in 1893, in a private letter to Professor A. W. Stelzner, of Frei-
berg (ref. 18, p. 112).

In 1898, Suess (27) clinched the idca of cosmic origin, and grouped all the
known series together as “tektites”. This theory has been generally accepted on
the Continent, in south-eastern Asia, and in Australia. Although no accepted
tektite groups have been reported from the Americas, there are at least six
localities in those continents from which claims have been put forward for the
existence of tektites.“

Since 1900 the outstanding suggestions, from the Australian point of view,
have been Dunn’s bubble hypothesis, which has proved to be quite unacceptable,
the “burning light-metal meteorite” hypothesis, and T.. J. Spencer’s theory of
meteoritic impact. While the latter cannot be accepted for the australites, nor for
any of the major groups of tektites, it has given a powerful stimulus to discussion
upon these matters, and is favoured by some workers as the explanation of the
less widely distributed silica glasses.

In a recent paper (122) La Paz discusses the Great Circle theory of dis-
tribution of the tektites, from the point of view of the probability of their
occurrence along such great circles under the varying conditions attached to
voleanic, fulguritic, meteoritic, and other theories. His investigations deal
primarily with the David—de Boer Great Circle (77, 80). Since The Ivory Coast
Tektites of Lacroix (106) and the Jibyan Silica Glass of Spencer (104) both

@) A curious statement is made as a foutnote to la Baz's paper (122), to the effect
that “Tektites are exhibited occasionally in placer mining camps in the United States.
However, it is the author’s experience that persistent questioning discloses always that
such specimens come originally from the tektite-sprinkled goldfields of Australia.’ There
may be some association between this fact and the Australian goldficld superstition that
where tektites abounded the gold was richer.

lie outside that Circle, he postulates a second, the Lacroix-Spencer Great Circle,
and suggests that further discoveries of the alignment of tektite areas and
meteorite craters might thereon be anticipated.

‘Yhe theory of a burning light-metai meteorite, shedding blobs of contained
siliceous material, was put forward and elaborated by Lacroix (88), and
Suess (87), having been developed from the somewhat different cosmic theories
of Goldschmidt (74) and Michel (75). This hypothesis overcomes many
difficulties of age, composition, distribution, and form that were not reconcilable
with terrestrial theories, and may be regarded as being at present the most
acceptable that has been put forward. Hardcastle (76) produced a very interest-
ing theory on somewhat similar lines.

Eyen with the acceptance of a cosmic theory of origin there still remains
considerable doubt as to the precise manner in which the tcktites were brought
to the earth, were melted, and were distributed. Most of the references published
since 1900, 94 of which are given in the attached bibliography, are cither descrip-
tive of the properties and distribution of different groups, or are efforts to more
clearly define an acceptable cosmic theory for the tektites as a whole.

Hl ADDITIONAL FACTS CONCERNING THE DISTRIBUTION
OF AUSTRALITES

In a previous paper (103, pp. 127-8) cxampies were given to show how
widely and generally australites were distributed, On the accepted figures, there
must have been at least one to every two square miles, and while in some areas
they are mach more abundant (vide Dodwell’s collection of 250 pieces on one
square mile), it seems possible that there are few regions within the known strewn-
field where australites did not fall.

Two interesting examples should be added to those already quoted, one
reported from a locality near Port Campbell, Victoria, and the other from near
Moonta, South Australia. Neither of these places, so far as { know, had hitherto
been recorded as australite localities.

In 1936 George Baker published a paper (115) telling how he had collected,
near Port Campbell, a representative series of 83 tektites, spread over an area of
three square miles, mostly resting on the surface. Like most specimens found
by “collectors,” as coutrasted with those found by gold-miners or tin-miners, the
pieces were relatively fresh and unweathered in appearance. Later, Mr. Baker
found 52 additional specimens on the same area, [A further account by Mr.
Baker states that he has since increased his finds to 250 specimens, all of them
to the east of Port Campbell, and none to the west, vide “Walkabout,” July,
1938, p. 36.|

‘The Moonta area in South Australia was equally unsuspected for the
presence of australites until Mr. J. KE. johnson commenced to take an interest in
these objects. Le commenced his search among the Moonta sand-dunes, adjoin-
ing the coast of Spencer Gulf. Tle found one in July, 1937. Since then, in less

196

than a year, he has found 72 pieces. It should be mentioned that these dunes were
the sites of aboriginal camps. Australites are known to have been used by these
people, both for magic purposes, and as material for cutting-tools. Mr. Johnson
is of the opinion that many of the specimens collected had not been carried by
the blacks. Most of the picces were found exposed after wind storms, and the
whole arca where they were collected was but a few acres in extent.

These two instances support the examples already published as evidence of
the general distribution of australites throughout southern Australia, as indicated
in the map of distribution (114) ; but they emphasise the fact that some localities
are rich in specimens and others very poor.

IV NOTES ON SMOKE BOMBS FROM LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES

In a previous paper (103, p. 72) the writer has referred to the valuable
information to be garnered from a study of the smoke bombs (also called slag
bombs) ejected from the chimneys of locomotive engines.

By the courtesy of Mr. E. H. Shapter, of the South Australian Railways,
the writer has been enabled to study this material further. Samples were obtained
of the cinders deposited, (a) on the rear of the tender of a locomotive of the RX
type, (5) on the front of the tender of a mountain type engine, 47 feet from the
chimney, (c) on the rear of the tender of a mountain type engine, 73 feet from
the chimney.

There proved to be no outstanding differences in the samples. In each case
about 99 per cent. of the material collected consists of cellular coke fragments,
etc., and about one per cent. (by bulk) of the beautifully-shaped and many-
coloured tiny glassy blobs that show regular forms. Sample (b) naturally con-
tained more large specimens than sample (c), but the richest in these bead-like
forms was that from the RX engine, sample (a).

The separation of the material is easily carried out, first by running water
which takes off the lighter coke fragments, and then by a cautious “panning off”
process similar to that of the alluvial (placer) gold-miner. The photographs
shown in pl. x illustrate a sample obtained in this way, as well as scleeted
specimens of the oval, dumbbell, and teardrop types.

As the photographs show, the dominant forms are very beautiful and almost
perfect spheres, perhaps cighty per cent. of the total. These are of various
colours: dead black, china white, amber, green, vellow, etc. Some of them are
tubercled, by the attachment of smaller spheres, and many of them contain gas
bubbles, both spherical and drawn out. Ovals and flat discs are fairly common,
and the dumbbells and teardrops least common; the more fragile teardrops and
dumbbells are casily broken by rough treatment of the sample.

The microscopic examination of smoke bombs is a matter of exceptional
fascination. Despite the limitations of form and colour, already mentioned, there
is remarkable variety and beauty to be found. The forms vary considerably in
size. The largest I have seen, a veritable “giant,” almost a hand specimen among

197

these tiny forms, was a flattened spheroid, the greater diameter of which was one
millimetre. Below this there are forms of all sizes, and as one increases the
magnification, particularly by micro-photography, smaller and smaller forms
appear, quite perfect in shape, among the particles of fine dust that accompany
the material.

Similar forms to these smoke bombs have been recorded from volcanic
sources, as well as from the sites of meteoritic impact. Moore (65) records some
among Pele’s tears from Hawaii, while Spencer (91) figures related shapes
from Henbury and Wabar. In both cases the objects are similar to smoke bombs,
not having suffered any subsequent ablation, as the australites have done. The
dumbbell forms figured from Billiton (48) and Java (108) appear also to be
quite similar to forms found among smoke bombs.

‘The significant facts to be considered in connection with the bearing of smoke
bombs on the australite problem are: (aj the remarkable similarity of the chief
form-types to those of australites, and the relative abundance of cach type;
(b) the fact that while smoke bombs and australites secm to be so much alike.
there is not one form among the slag bombs which is exactly paralleled among
the australites. ‘That is to say: each australite has undergone some secondary
alteration of form.

The suggestion is inevitable that both series were born from burning material
that contained a proportion of siliceous glass, and that blobs of incombustible
silica glass were generated, instantly attaining their primitive forms of sphere,
oval, dumbbell, and teardrop, the first-named of the series being by far the
commonest.

The smoke bombs, however, entered cold air just beyond the engine chimney,
and consequently cooled and fell. he australites, born under conditions that
gave rise to much larger forms, some thousands of times larger, sped through
the air on their spinning flight, wearing by ablation, and thus taking on the
secondary forms that are characteristic of the australites, which are reduced in
size and “flattened’ compared with the smoke bombs (see pl. xi).

This evidence for the dominance of the sphere among the smoke bombs,
combined with the abundance of “round” forms among the australites, is an
important part of the foundation upon which is based the discussion contained
in Section VI. The photographs shown in the accompanying plates support ihe
evidence brought forward in this section.

V. THE POSSIBLE EVOLUTION OF VARIOUS TYPICAL
AUSTRALITE FORMS
In 1934 the writer advanced a theory (ref. 103, p. 132) that all the “round”
australite forms (i.e., round in plan) had been developed from spheres. Effort
will be made here to claborate that theory.
(a) Origin of the Glass Blobs—There was a time in the early stages of
development of the cosmic theory when a belief was held that the tektites had them-

198

selves entered the atmosphere from outside space as a swarm of glass blobs.
Speculation was even made as to the cosmic or lunar origin of such blobs. But
Fletcher Watson (107), Ernst Opik (121), and others have shown that the
amount of heat that could be generated by the passage of such bodies through
the air, considered in conjunction with the heat conductivity of the material, is
not sufficient to melt them to the extent that they obviously have been melted
during the period immediately preceding their arrival on the carth’s surface.

It is clear, therefore, that whatever the actual mode of origin may have been,
it involved the generation of these blobs within the atmosphere in a molten con-
cition, with their instantaneous adoption of the regular forms of spheres, ovoids,
dumbbells, ete. The two sets of internal flow lines, one set associated with the
original spherical form, and one set associated with the frontal melting and How,
are clearly to be seen in the sections shown in plate xi.

We are compelled to assume that, whatever their origin, the sphercs of silica
glass sct cut upon their short, swift journey through the atmosphere as molten
bodies. Moving through the upper air, rotating in a plane normal to the direction
of flight (ref. 121, p. 36), the front and sides of each sphere would be re-heated
by friction, while the rearward surface would cool. At the rear of each flying
sphere would be a space of low pressure and low temperature. ‘he fused material
from the front of the sphere would flow backwards round the body of the object,

evaporating or being swept away, but in special cases adhering to the circum-
ference of the dimimishing sphere, forming the “flange” of the well-known
“button” forms (see sections, pl. xi). During the last portion of the flight the
mass would rapidly cool, after the manner of meteorites generally, arriving on
the suriace of the earth as a solid glassy body. Both internal and external
evidence supports this general hypothesis.

(b) Predominance of Round Forms—The predominance of round forms
among australites is notable. In the Shaw collection (103) there were 1,993
periectly preserved specimens; of these no less than 1,369 (over 68 per cent.)
were round; among the 1,583 fragments in that collection, over 60 per cent. were
derived from round forms. Inspection of other collections of australites confirms
this proportion, It may be significant also, as shown elsewhere in this paper,
that the great majority of silica-glass blobs (smoke bombs) formed in the
chimney gases of locomotives are spheres.

The evolution of the various australite forms is here being considered purely
from the evidence available from “round” forms, for the following reasons:

(7) round forms (lenses, buttons, cores, bungs) predominate to the extent

of two-thirds of all forms;

(ii) round forms present the most definite and clear-cut material upon which

to carry out a series of measurements; and

(1) since the remaining forms (ovals, boats, dumbbells, teardrops) are

gencrally accepted as being derived from the round forms, the con-
clusions based cn a study of the round forms could readily be applied
to the others.

199

There is a very small number of rare aberrant forms that would perhaps
justify special enquiry, such as those known as large bubbles, air-bomhs, peanuts,
coins, pine-seeds, and crinkly-tops; all these can, I think, be explained as examples
of variation from the more common types.

(c)

Characterislics of Round Forms-—Careful examination and measurement

of a considerable number of the round ferms of australites leaves one with a clear
impression of several characteristics :

(t)

(ii)

(iit)

(d)

The general outline of complete forms is bounded by two main suriaces,
each of which is part of a sphere; this has been noted by several
observers from Walcott (30) onwards. (See also pls. x and x1) ;

there is a general harmonious relation between the major diameter
(width) of such australites and the minor diameter (depth); for
instance, the writer’s first effort to establish this connection suggested
that the relation in flanged buttons (neglecting the flange in the measure-
ment) could be expressed by a ratio of 16 to 10, while the ratio for
lenses averaged 24 to 10. ‘This approximate result was sufficiently
encouraging to justify a more complete series of measurements. ;

there seemed indeed to be a third general fact concerning the sizes of
these forms. The largest were always of the large core (“bung”) type,
the smallest were always lenses. while the flanged buttons were always
of intermediate size between these two series;

finully, there was the question of number. Bungs were not only the
laryest of the round forms, but also the rarest, while lenses were not
only the smallest, but also the most abundant. In the Shaw collection,
80 per cent. of the round forms were lenses. Possibly 50 per cent. of
all australite forms are or were lenses.

Graph of Diameter Ratios—lt was decided to investigate these points

by measurement of a number of the most perfect specimens of the round types

available

From the South Australian Museum collection (including the Shaw

collection), by the courtesy of Sir Douglas Mawson and the Director, Mr. H. M.
Hale, and irom my own specimens, the following were selected:

1.

4,

Thirty-eight large cores (bungs), being every complete specimen avail-
able;

Twenty-seven small cores, being all the specimens of this type of which
reliable measurements could be made; these forms are relatively common,
but have a characteristic strong tendency to flake away at their margins;
Forty-two flanged buttons, all the specimens available (the width of
flange neglected in the measurements ) ;

Eighty-two lenses, being a selection of the different sizes from the
largest to the smallest.

In the case of the lenses, however, so abundant are they that another 800
forms were available for measurement, but were not considered necessary. The

200

remarkable preponderance of the lens type will be recalled later as evidence
concerning the development of australite forms.

The range of measurements was as follows:

: Major Diameter Minor Diameter
(1) Bungs, largest - - : 4-18 cm. 3°34 em.
7 smatlest - - - Zel2as 1:58,
(ti) Small cores, largest - - 2°30 1-70,
3 % smallest —- - 1°63, Ae ee
(iit) Buttons, largest — - - - 1693" 5) sa as
. smallest. >) 2 (eo eeu Ye oe
(iv) Lenses, largest - - - 1-60, 1-00,
" smallest - - - ‘60, “300 5,
, 1 0 ! o
c LARGE CORE (BUNG) TYPE. |
3-00 4 SMALL CORE TYPE. q val
o BUTTON TYPE. | pe a
* LENS TYPE. | a
Q
2:50 cee : cai Oris a wg
| | colt ose
: f { 0
| Oo an: 3 10
2:00 > ~ : a Baie ora ee a 7
: ; a
| fe oad >
4 1 bd |
: : 4 lag Q as q ‘at a
50 mar aa ree SN
| 2 PRET N,
a4c ae ‘ F i
° oe i ‘ J
!
|
| \ Ps Fs or
_
“50cm. ‘1-00 1-50 2:00 2-50 3:00 3-50 4-00

Vig. 1
Graph showing the ratio of major diameters (width) to minor diameters
(thickness) of 189 selected well-preserved round australite forms. These
ranged from the smallest lenses, through the buttons and small cores, to the
largest type, called bungs. The smallest lens approaches one-third gram
in weight, the largest bung is over 100 grams: this embraces almost the whole
range of sizes. The ratios preserve a remarkable and significant relation to
the forms, and to the relative sizes of these forms, and suggests an evolu-
ticnary development from spheres, through bungs, small cores, flanged
buttons, and lenses.

201

Upon graphing the whole of these measurements, major diameters against
minor diameters, there emerged the very interesting arrangement shown in fig. 1.
It will be seen that the graph bears witness to the truth of the generalization
suggested earlier in this section concerning the progressive development from
sphere to lets, and it also suggesis a great deal more concerning the probable
mode of development of round australite forms.

The graph indicates that throughout the whole scrics of forms a gencral
ratio of measurements is preserved, and that this ratio tends to become greater as
we move downward from the larger “bungs” to the smaller “lenses”. The
relative cventess and unbrokenness of the series, as testified by the graph,
suggests that the specimens available were representative of all the various sizes
and types that occur. ‘here is, moreover, a striking suggestion of an evolutionary
progress in the way the bungs merge into the smaller cores, the latter into the
buttons, and these in turn into the extremely abundant final product, the lenses.

(e) Suggested Evolution of Rowand Forms—Starting from the assumption
that all these “round” forms were developed from spheres, and this is practically
undoubted, we may further develop the series of events suggested by the actual
australite forms and supported by the graph.

The preliminary evidence for the assumption of spheres as the starting point
of all the round forms is:

(i) The abundance of spberes among smoke bomhs ;

(ii) the spherical nature of the remaining “rear” surfaces of round

australites ;

(iii) the evidence of the graph, which suggests an approach to a 1:1 ratio

at a diameter of about 54 centimeters (see fig. 3).

In figure 2 is set out a serics of six progressive stages, intended to represent
the evolution cf the commonest and best known of the australite forms. These
are to be corre'ated with the graph, figure 1.

Stage 1 represents the original glass sphere. Whether shed from a burning
light-metal meteorite (T.acroix, 84; Suess, 87), or swept from the sides of some
more common cometary visitor (Michel, 75; Hardcastle, 76), or shot out from
some other hot siliceous centre, these spherical forms took their shape at the
instant of their separation from the parent body. From the known facts con-
cerning the temperatures and the fusion of meteorites, these spheres must have
commenced their journey through our atmosphere from somewhere less than
70 miles above the carth, at a temperature close to their melting point. On account
of atmospheric ablation none of these spheres, as such, reached the earth’s surface.

Stage 2 represents the development after perhaps one or two seconds of
atmospheric flight. The “back” (upper) surface is often pitted by the bursting
of small gas bubbles that came to the surface in that low pressure area. ‘Vhe
“front” (lower) surface has re-melted under the heat gencrated by atmospheric
friction, some part of this’ material has flowed backwards along the sides of the
sphere, and a considerable part of the front and sides of the material within the

202

sphere itself has re-melted and developed “strain” lines. (See also pl. xi.) With
the rapid cooling of the hotter portions of the bodies that reached the carth while
at this stage an unstable condition of the glass resulted, so that they tended to
lose much of their material by cracking and flaking, leaving the more stable portion,
the centre and back (that had cooled less quickly), to be preserved in the
characteristic shape known as the bung (see the upper dotted line in stage 2).
This is the general shape of all the larger round unworn australites,

Stage 3 represents the next development, no more than a progressive ablation
and back-flowing of the material in the front of the spinning blob. The facts

~ - ~ oa

7S At ~e -- ~

Stage 4. Stage 5. Stage 6.

lig, 2
Sketches of cross-sections of a series of six stages in the development of
australites. Stage 1 (the sphere) is hypothetical, but it cannot be doubted
that it was the initial form in the great majority of cases, Stages 2 and 3 are
hypothetical in part, being drawn to represent the probable shapes between
stages 1 and 4; but the central more stable portions of these forms are well
known, that of stage 2 as the bung, and that of stage 3 as the small core.
Stages 4, 5, and 6 are representations of actual common forms. The sketches
should be correlated with figure 1, and compared with the photographs in
plates x and xi,

suggest that at this stage there is an even more marked instability of the
“equatorial” portions, so that cracking and flaking of the solid specimens are more
common, and from this stage we get the smaller cores. These. though they have
usually well-preserved back (upper) surfaces, are much more deeply and more
irregularly flaked on their sides and fronts than any other australite forms. The
shape of the cores at this stage is suggested by the upper dotted line. The

203

assumption in the figures of a flange for stages 2 and 3 is pure speculation, based
on analogy with the flanged button (stage 4). Stages 2 and 3 may have had no
flanges at all: there is no positive evidence available. Indeed, the evidence quoted
in reference 112, pages 130-131, suggests that in some cases at least there was no
flange present in the large cores and bungs.

There is clear evidence in the transition from flanged button to unflanged
lens, to prove that the backward-flowing melted material did not as a rule procced
beyond a certain line. Here apparently the molten material was affected by the
probable intense cold of the sheltered rear low-pressure zone, so that the glass
material solidified. As later suggested, there may have been some exceptional
cases where the conditions permitted matcrial to flow farther back.

Opik (reference 121, page 47), speaking of the liquid that flows backward
from the front and sides of a speeding meteorite, remarks that it “is collected in the
portions less exposed to aerodynamic pressure (reat side, especially rear pole of
rotation).” This may be so for meteoritic irons or stones, but it is clearly not so
in the case of glassy blobs, as witnessed by the external form of the flanged
buttons (pl. x), and more definitely by the photographs of thin sections of
buttons (pl. xi).

Stage 4 represents an actual, characteristic cross-section of a flanged button.
At this stage more than half the material of the sphere has disappeared. It is only
at or before this stage that the conditions permit of the development of the
beautiful flange that forms the most arresting feature of the button type. At
earlier stages this material was either swepl away or has flaked off; at later
stages (5 and 6) only the rear portion of the sphere is preserved, as a lens.
It is at this stage that a more stable condition of the whole mass is reached, and
though flaking and fracturing due to internal tension are testified to by numberless
button fragments, there are still numbers of flanged buttons perfectly preserved,
while all such larger forms as cores and bungs are invariably diminished by flaking.
Flanged buttons are the largest forms that preserve the regular waves of flow
upon their forward surfaces.

Stages 5 and 6. These are two successive stages in the final development of
the round forms. Thus are formed the Icnses, larger and smaller. The largest
lenses have major diameters that are just cqual to the zone beyond which the
backward-flewing glass of the flange did not normally advance.

‘The smallest known lenses are so tiny that only the acute vision of the
aborigines would ever have detected them among the sands and rubble that cover
the carth’s surface where most of them were picked up. Doubtless there were
smaller lenses that have never been found, or that have been too fragile to resist
fracture. Doubtless also many spheres went beyond this stage of devclopment
during their journey, being completely consumed. Eighty per cent. of all the

©) There are a few rare examples of australites in which the backward-flowing
material appears ta have advanced beyond the poiuts shown in stages 2, 3, and 4 of
figure 2. Among these T would place the “crinkly tops” (ref. 103, type A2g, 69, pl. ixF)
and the curious forms figured hy Dunn (ref. 67, pl. xxiii).

204

original spheres were ablated down to the Iens stage, so far as the evidence of the
Shaw collection is concerned.

(f) Relations of Forms and Siges—Some natural speculations follow this
analysis. If all the original spheres had been of the same size, of the same
temperature, composition, and speed, and had the same distance to travel through
the air, there would have been one similar type of final product: lens, button,
core, as the case may be.

We know them to bave kad approximately the same chemical composition.
It is reasonable to asstime equal temperatures within certain limits. Measure-
ments oi the residual spherical surfaces show, however, that the primary spheres
were of many sizes, up to about five centimetres diameter. The chief causes of the
difference in the stages at which these glass spheres reached the earth, it is sug-
gested, were variations in the distances travelled, and in the speed of travel, both of
which factors must have varied according to the direction in which the objects
moved relative to the earth’s surface and to the moving body from the surface
of which they are presumed to have been swept. We must remember, also, that
the parent meteorite was probably rotating, thus giving a variety of speeds and
directions to the glass blobs.

A special effort was made to determine the actual sizes of the original spheres
of the five separate australites shown in plate x. These proved to be as follows,
and give some idea of the actual range of sizes of the original spheres:

(i) The bung type - - - - 4-7 mm. diameter
(ii) The core type - - - - 31,
fut) The button type - - - 16, 4
(iz!) The large lens type - 4 ~ TK oy hi
(v) The small lens type - - - ASO 4g f

These measurements correspond with and support the theories elsewhere
put forward in this paper concerning the spherical origin of “round” australites,
and also the range of sizes. The original glass sphere from which the “bung”
was derived was somewhat over 100 times as large as the original sphere that
resulted in the “small lens.” It will be noted also that, although the button looks
larger than the Jens (pl. x), on account of the flange, it was actually derived from
a somewhat smaller original sphere.

In figure 3, curves A and B, there appear to be two conclusions which support
cach other. Though arrived at from a basis of fact, the conclusions are equally
hypothetical. In A, a median curve, drawn from the data of figure 1, is con-
tinued upwards; the sphere type is found (ratio of diameters 1:1) at about
53 cm. ‘This may be interpreted to mean that the largest original spheres were
of this size. ‘The graph confirms the harmonious relations that suggest the
development from spheres of the forms measured, but is valuable more for its
suggestiveness than for any definite numerical implication; the value of the upper
part of the curve is lessened by the fact that the measurements are of specimens
that had undergone flaking since their formation.

205

In the second curve, figure 3 B, the numbers of specimens are sct out in
groups according to size. First group, up to 1 cm. diameter; second group,
1 to 2. cm. diameter; and so on, The latter part of the curve is quite clear, and
indicates the rapid decrease in numbers of the larger specimcus, with a suggestion
that there were few or no specimens larger than 54 cm. diameter.

In the first part of curve B, however, there is some uncertainty. The actual
numbers of the smallest group are less than those of the sccond group. But there
is reason to believe that there may actually be much higher numbers of the small
specimens, most of which have not been found owing to their size or have been
destroyed because of their fragility. ‘the part of the curve marked Q is based

oie - \ ~ |
i; \
amen -- yr —-——f— B20 -———- has
| A. CURVE OF in ML, \ B. CURVE OF
' DIAMETER RATIOS. 7 ° a . ‘ . SIZE DISTRIBUTION.
4- Sete Ya (he A ru =
i 00S SoM
rom} are
° | 500 — Q =
<p = /
& 400 4
ia |
2S ~~ tagq —L =
209 - :
|~ “4,
Op =F we
; DIAMETERS (Centimetres) S16 EREUFS as. a
0 ; 2 3 4 5 C-iem. e2em. 2-Bem. Sem. Bem.
Fig. 3

A (left side) is based on the same information as is contained in fig. 1, but
the probable curve represented is shown, and is continued to a point where
the ratio of diameters is 1:1.

B (right side) is a curve of size distribution of australites based on the
specimens available for measurement. It indicates the overwhelming abund-
ance of specimens under two centimetres major diameters, and the probability
that there are no specimens much above 54 centimetres diameter.

on the known facts of collected specimens, and agrees with the graph of weight-
distribution given previously (reference 103, page 78). ‘The part of the curve
marked P is an alternative interpretation, suggesting that the great majority of
forms were very small and remain uncollected.

(g) Comparison with the Stony Metcoriles—An idea of the possible manner
of the shecding of the glass blobs may be gained from a microscope study of
the fused surface of a stony meteorite. There the thin skin of fused vitreous
residue bas the appearance of a scries of irregular waves and wrinkles. In places
the material is arranged in long sub-parallel wave-like ridges, probably formed
at right angles to the direction of movement. The ridges rise higher at some

206

points than at others, and one could imagine the “knobs” or crests becoming
large enough to be swept off from the meteorite surface as independent blobs.
(h) Conclusions—Summing up the evidence of this section we have these
tentative conclusions:
(7) most of the original australite blobs were spheres ;
(ii) during their spinning flight they were reduced in size in a regular way,
developing ultimately to the button and then to the lens stages ;
(iii) a small percentage never developed beyond stages 2 and 3;
(iv) somewhat more than 5 per cent. reached the stage of flanged buttons;
(v7) the majority (80%) remained in the air long enough to be ablated away
to stages 5 and 6, the lenses.
(zi) possibly others were completely evaporated during flight.

VI SPECULATIONS CONCERNING TITE THEORY OF
COSMIC ORIGIN

Every theory of terrestrial origin that man’s ingenuity has becn able to put
forward during 150 years of discussion having now been elaborated, discussed,
and for the most part rejected, there remains the theory (or theories) of cosmic
origin.

Many workers, themselves inclined by the facts of their experience towards
the cosmic theory, have expressed an opinion that the only method of proving
this theory would be the witnessing by man of an actual shower of glass
meteorites. That would indeed be an excellent confirmation, devoutly to be
wished, but it is unlikely. Meantime, other workers are steadily moving onward,
selecting fresh criteria, and endeavouring to discover positive evidence to prove
from the available material that tektites are of cosmic origin,

Even if we accept the meteoritic or cosmic theory, on the grounds that it is
the only one that satisfies all the known conditions, we are still far away from
an ultimate solution of the problem.

Let us take, for example, the most popular of the cosmic theories that have
lately been entertained and discussed, namely, that of a burning, light-metal
meteorite (or a “swarm” of such meteorites) passing above the earth and shedding
its content of silicous material in small glassy blobs. We may endeavour to apply
this theory to the australite problem, but it seems clear, from the numerical facts,
that we must postulate a swarm of meteorites, and not a single meteorite.

The strewnfield of the australites (114, page 134) covers over 2,000,000
square miles of land; it is over 2,000 miles from south-east to north-west, and
about 1,500 miles in width. It is generally agreed that the “shower” travelled
from south-east to north-west, though there is no actual evidence that it did sO;
the direction of travel might even have been at right angles to this.

In the case of the moldavites there is a narrowing of the strewnfield from
west to east, as well as an accompanying change in physical characters (125).
With the australites, Summers (52) suggested that there was a variation in

207

density towards the west, and Hardcastle (76) stated that more of the larger
forms fell towards the west. But these suggestions have not been followed up,
and there is no extensive evidence of appreciable difference in average composi-
tion, density, or size across the area.

We may first try to form a mental picture of a meteorite swarm travelling
for over 2,000 miles through the air, relatively close to the earth’s surface (within
70 or 80 miles), and continuing to burn throughout the passage. ‘Uhis brings up
questions of speed, path, weight, friction, heat, and so on, as well as of the manner
in which the glass blobs were swept off the parent body. First, we shall consider
temperatures and conductivity.

In considering these aspects of the problem I have had the privilege of many
discussions with Mr. G. F. Dodwell, B.A., Government Astronomer of South
Australia, and he has kindly supplied the following statement, with permission
for its inclusion here:

“The mechanics of meteor phenomena are not easy. Opik, of Tartu Observatory
(Esthonia), has a very interesting and long paper on it, containing a great deal of helpful
information and calculation (ref. 121). In his Table VI he gives the characteristics of
fusion for a stony meteorite. In this, R is taken as the radius of the solid nucleus,
AR the effective thickness of the liquid layer (a liquid surface condition being the result
of friction in the carth’s atmosphere), T is absolute temperature, AT is the temperature
difference between the surface of the liquid film, and the bottom of the film (taken as
constant at 1800°, the temperature of fusion, which, he says, is effectively the same as
for iron); M is the apparent stellar magnitude of the meteor, and W its velocity. The
table then is:

R=1cm. R=0:lem., R = 0-02 cm.
| AR AT M | AR AT M | AR AT M
W. Cm. | Cm. 4 | Cm.
16 Km./Sec. 0-035 (24,000°) —-1 0-011 sone 7 | 0-005 70°) 13
40 ‘fale 0-054 (92,000°) —-5 0-017 (3,100°) 5 | (0-008) 270° 10
90 fy wt 0-081 (320,000°) -9 | 0-026 (10,000°) 2 (0-012) 870° 7

“We might take 1 centimeter radius as representing a medium-sized australite. Then
for R=1 cm. the values of AT are enormous; this means that the layer never reaches
the computed thickness AR, but starts boiling when its thickness is of the order of

1,000
; such a thin layer sticks to the surface by reason of viscosity.

ARx

“Thus for R= 1 cm. the substance of the nucleus is practically vaporized, so to speak,
on the spot, the thickness of the liquid layer being of the order of 0-001 cm. only; most
of the solid nucleus remains cold inside. This case evidently resembles the phenomena
obseryed in large metorites reaching the ground.

“Opik concludes that stone meteors brighter than the seventh apparent magnitude
are vaporized from the surface of a thin liquid layer, the nucleus remaining solid. This
agrees with what Nininger says in ‘Our Stone-pelted Planet, page 29, where he gives
his belief that owing to the brief flight of a meteorite through the air, only a few seconds
(in general 3 to 6 seconds), the surface heat for ordinary-sized meteorites is unable to
penetrate into the interior, which remains cold. On page 89 he says that the envcloping
crust of fused material is, in most cases, about five-tenths of a millimeter in thickness.
This motten Alm is being constantly swept off and dissipated by currents of air sweep-

208

ing across the face of the meteorite at the rate of several miles per second. On page 89,
also, he gives the upper limit of visible meteors as approximately 70 miles above the earth.

“On page 24 he gives the average heliocentric velocity of meteorites as 26:2 miles
per sccond, As the carth’s velocity is 18-5 miles per second, this gives the range of
velocity of meteorites, according as they are travelling with or against the earth’s direction,
26°2— 18-5 = 7-7 miles per second, up to 26-2 + 18:5= 44-7 miles per second. This
agrees with the data in the Von Niessl-Hoffmeister Catalogue of 611 great meteors, and
analysed by Maltzev. The range of geocentric velocitics is given there as from 6 to 43
miles per second (Popular Astronomy, April, 1937, 213).

“In view of Opik’s calculations, it seems to me difficult to reconcile the occurrence
of australites with the disintegration of a large meteorite, weighing many tons, and
travelling over the required distance. Is it possible for such a large meteorite to travel
such a distance, say 3,000 miles, at only 70 miles or less from the surface of the Earth,
without being drawn in by gravitation within a small fraction of that distance? Examining
this with reference to say an 8-inch globe, the moving body, reduced to scale of the model,
would have to traverse a circular path, parallel to the globe and only one-tenth of an
inch above it! On the other hand, of course, one thinks of the exceptional case of the
‘great meicorite procession of 9 February, 1913’ (See P. Astr., Feb., 1938, 109.)”

Nininger’s reference to the meteorite procession of 9 February, 1913 (“Our
Stone-pelted Planet,” pages 85-86) includes the following: “This great procession
of meteors was witnessed along a course of 5,700 miles. It consisted of six to
ten groups of fireballs, four to six in each group. ‘They procceded across Canada,
to the south-east, growing more brilliant as they went; they seem to have plunged
into the sea somewhere south-east of the Bermudas.” C. P, Olivier (“Meteors,”
page 242) says that the procession seems to have consisted of “ten groups, with
20 to 40 members in each group. In Canada it is said to have taken 3-3 minutes
to pass a given place.” See also La Paz (122, page 227).

We see, then, that the track of the hypothetical australite meteor swarm, so
far as distance is concerned, is within the bounds of what a meteorite group has
actually been observed to do.

We have now to account for the width of the area over which the blobs have
been scattered. This, as already stated, is about 1,500 miles. We may assume, as
is commonly done, that the australite shower was derived irom a group of
meteorites travelling from the south-east to the north-west. The problem is
somewhat similar whatever direction we assume. If, however, the direction were
from south-east to north-west, the period of travel across the strewnfield would
possibly oceupy no more than 45 seconds; if from north-west to south-cast, this
period would be nearer five minutes.

Tt must perhaps be emphasised, for the information of those unfamiliar with
the strewntield of the australites, that there can be no doubt that their widespread
distribution is associated with the manner of their coming. It is not something
done subsequently either by man, or birds, or winds, or glaciers. All these
theories have been advanced and rejected. When the australites arrived at the
surface of the earth they were spread over the area shown, approximately, in the
map on page 134 of part If of this series of papers,

This means that the hypothetical parent meteorite swarm, something less
than 70 to 80 miles above the earth, travelling at from cight to forty-five miles

209

per second, according to direction, must have flung blobs of glass, broadcast
fashion, over 750 miles to either side. There was nothing comparable to this in
the Great Meteorite Procession of Canada. Nininger says, “Detonations and
earth tremors were caused along their pathway to a distance of 20 to 70 miles on
either side.’ So far as we know, no actual blobs were shed from these meteorites,
and the observations suggest a very narrow range of influence. We must recall,
however, that this was a meteoritic “procession,” presumably a long line, one
behind the other; we may conceive a meteorite swarm that moved with a wide
and irregular front.

In order that we may better discuss the problem of distribution, let us con-
sider the question of the total size of our hypothetical meteor swarm, ‘The total
number of australites is estimated at from one to ten millions. The average weight
per specimen is one gram, and the average w eight for each original blob, say,
three grams. This gives a total of from 3,000,000 to 30,000,000 grams, approxi-
mately, and involves a minimum of three Lons of silica- glass up to a maximum of
thirty tons.

There is no means of knowing with what amount of combustible metal this
had been associated, but it may net be unreasonable to suggest the siliceous
content at 10 per cent. This gives 30 to 300 tons of material in our meteor swarm.
This is necessarily a very approximate and tentative estimate, just to give some
definition to this aspect of the discussion.

Tt is difficult to form a satisfactory mental picture of this hypothetical meteor
swarm, shedding its silica content across 750 miles on either side. Moreover,
although there are possibly few parts of southern Australia that did not receive
some of the australites, specimens are very rare over some areas and very
abundant over others. The areas of abundance are not along the central
axis of the strewnfield, nor in any regular arrangement.

So far as width is concerned the T.eonid swarm of meteorites, in its most
densely packed part, is from 100,000 to 120,000 miles in diameter (estimates by
Sir Robert Ball and C. P. Olivier); there are also cometary bodies with com-
parable size. It is thus not inconceivable that the particular meteorite swarm
that gave rise to the australites should have extended over a path some 1,000
miles or more in width, and we shall assume this to have been the case.

VIL SUMMARY OF HYPOTIILESIS

Following upon this account of the tektite problem, as viewed from a study
of the australites, it may be worth while to formulate a specific hypothesis as a
basis for further discussion.

The suggestion is therefore put forward that, in the case of the australites, at
a time “geologically recent but historically remote,” the earth was visited by a
large and widespread swarm of combustible metallic meteorites. The swarm was
not less than 30 tons, and possibly 300 tons, in total weight, containing (say)
ten per cent. of siliceous material. The component bodies travelled across Aus-
tralia in a wide and irregular formation on a front of 1,000 miles or more, at a

210

height of 80 miles or less, burning as they went. Possibly some were burnt up
relatively early, while others entcred the atmosphere later and farther on. The
period of transit of the swarm across Australia occupied at least 45 seconds and
at the most five minutes... Their residual incombustible siliceous content was shed
in molten glass blobs, these being for the most part swept backwards by the rush
of air from the rotating parent bodies, and thence shot outward in many direc-
tions. The glassy blobs, to the number of from one to ten millions, averaging
about three grams in weight, sped to the carth, rapidly rotating and undergoing
ablation and flow from their forward parts, reaching the earth’s surface in from
three to six seconds, having been chilled to solidity during the last portion of
their flight. The blobs, as they formed, instantly assumed the shapes of spheres
and allied forms common to rotating liquid bodies, and these by ablation were
reduced to the lens, button, and other form-types known as australites, They
were thus distributed in an irregular way over the southern portion of the Aus-

tralian continent.
VITT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE TEKTITES

(With particular reference to those papers that deal with or specifically refer to australites.
In two or three instances the exact reference could not be discovered, but the work was

?

of such critical importance that it could not be left out.)

(1) Durrenoy, A. 1787 (Analysis of Moldavite glass), 4, Treatise on
Mineralogy

(2) Darwin, Cuartes 1844 “Geological Observations on Voleanic
Islands,’ 1851 ed., reprint 1890, 190-191

(3) Crarke, W. B. 1855 “On the Occurrence of Obsidian Bombs in the
Auritcrous Alluvia of N.S.W.,” Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., 11, 403

(4) Crarke, W. B. 1857 “Additional Notes on the Occurrence of Vol-
canic Bombs in Australia,” Quart. Jour. Geol, Soc., 13, 188

(5) Urricn, Grorce H. F. 1866 “Mineral Species of Victoria. Essay ;
Notes on the Physical Geography, Geology, and Mineralogy of Vic-
toria,” Melb. Intercol. Exh, Catalogue, 65

(6) Setwyy, A. R. C. (and others) 1868 “Descriptive Catalogue of the
Rock Specimens and Minerals in the National Museum, collected by
the Geological Survey of Victoria,” 79, 80

(7) Ubrren, Groras TH. F. 1875 “A Descriptive Catalogue of the Speci-
mens in the Industrial Museum (Melbourne ),” illustrating the Rock
System of Victoria, 35

(8) van Digk, P. 1878 (Described Billitonites from Alluvial Tin Deposits
of Billiton)

(9) Scourar, Gavin 1879 “The Geology of the TTundred of Munuo Para,”
Trans. Phil, Soc., Adelaide, S.A., 2, 68

(10) atx, Rate 1879 Anniversary Address of the President, Trans. Phil.
Soc., Adelaide, S.A., 2, 66-70

(11) Cranpiur, J. 1880-81 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 4, 149

(12) Makowsky, Atexanper 1881 Compared Billitonites and Moldavites

(13)

(14)
(15)

(16)
(17)

(18)
(19)
(20

(21,

(22

(23)

(24)

(25)

(26)

211

Wreoiumann, A. 1882 Added Australian Specimens to Makowsky’s
Lists

Ruriry, Proressor 1885 Quart. Jour. of Geol. Soc., 12, 154, 155

VERBEEK, R.D. 1887 “Over Glaskogels van Billiton,’ Kon. Acad. van
Weten., Amsterdam, 5, 421

janes 1889 Described Czechoslovakian Tektites

Brown, H. Y. 1. 1893 Catalogue of South Australian Minerals,” ete.,
25

STREICH, VicToR 1893 Elder Expedition, Geology, Trans. Roy. Soc.
Ss. Aust., 16, 84 and 112

WretrMann, A. 1893 (Discussed Billiton, Australian and Bohemian
occurrences together )

STELZNER, A. W. 1893) “Supplementary Notes on Rock Specimens,”
Trans. Royal Soc. S. Aust., 16, 112

STELZNER, A. W. 1893) “Ueber Eigenthumliche Obsidian-Bomben aus
Australien.” Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft, 45,
299

Mouuven, J. Cottetr 1896 “Petrographical Observations upon some
South Australian Rocks,” Trans. Roy. Soc 5S. Aust., 19, 77

Tack, Raven, and Wart, J. A. 1896 “Report on the Work of the
Horn Scientific Expedition to Central Australia,” pt. ili, Geology and
jotany, 70, 71

StrpHeNsS, T. 1897 “Notes on a Specimen of Thasaltic Glass (Tachy-
ute) from near Macquarie Plains, Tasmania, and Remarks on
Obsidian Buttons,” Papers and Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., 54-56

‘Twevverrers, W. TH. and Perrerp, W. FP. 1897 “On the occurrence
of Obsidian ‘Buttons’ in Tasmania,’ Trans. Roy. Soc. ‘Pasm., 39-46

Verperk, R. D. M. 1897 “The Geology of Bangka and Billiton.”
Read before Konmklijki Akademie van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam ;
Jaarbock van het Mynwezen in Nederlandsch Oost-Indie, Amsterdam,
235-272; Nature, 13 May

Sunss, Franz E, 1898 “Ueber den Kosmischen Ursprung der Molda-
vite,” Verhande, dk.k. Geol. Reichsanst., 387

Carp, G. W. 1898 Annual Report of the Curator and Mineralogist,
Ann. Rep. of Dep. of Mines and Agr. for N.S.W. for 1907, 190, 197

Keiuse, P. G. 1898 “Obsidianbomben aus Niederlandisch Indien,”
Sammlungen des Geologischen Reichsmuseum, Leiden, Series 1, 5,
237-252

Watrcorr, R. If. 1898 “The oceurrence of so-called Obsidian Bombs
n Australia,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Viet., 11, CN.S.), pt. i, 25-53

Sunrss, Franz E. 1900 “Die Herkunit der Moldavite und verwandter
Glaser,” Jahrb. d.k.k. Geol. Reichsanst., 1, 193-382

Simpson, E. S, 1902 “Obsidianites,” Bull. No. 6, Geol. Surv. Western
Australia, 79-85

212

Strerugens, TF. 1902 “A further Note on Obsidian Buttons,” Proc.
Roy. Soc. Tas., 42-44

Baker, R. J. 1902 “Note on an Obsidian ‘Bomb’ from New South
Wales,” Jour. and Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., ed. 34, 1900, S. 118-120,
Ref. N. Jb., 1902, Bd. 1, 5. 370

Perrerp, W. F. 1903 The Minerals of Tasmania, 6

Carp, G. W. 1904 Mineralogical Notes, No. 8, Rec. of Geo. Surv. of
N.S.W., 7, pt. ii, 218

Aristipes Brezina, 1904 “Ueber Tektite von beobachtetem,” Fall.
Anzeiger dk. Akad. d. Wiss., Vienna, 41

TwELVErREES, W, H. 1905 “Record of Obsidianites or Obsidian
3uttons in Tasmania,’ Ann. Rep. of the Soc. for Mines, Tas., 20

Armirace, R. W. 1906 “Natural History Notes—Obsidian Bombs,”
‘The Victorian Naturalist, 23, No. 5, 100

SumMers, H. S$. 1908 “Obsidianites—their origin from the chemical
standpoint,” Proc. Rov. Soc. Vict., 21, (N.S.), pt. u, 423-443

GRANT, Kerr 1908 “Obsidianites—origin from a physical standpoint.”
Proc. Roy. Soc. Viet., 21, (N.S.), pt. it, 444-448

WeEINSCHENK, Fi. 1908 “Die Kosmische Natur der Moldavite und
Glaser,” Centralblatt f. Min. Geol. u. Paleontologie, 15 Dec., No. 24,
737-742

Dunn, FE. J. 1908 Rock and Mineral Analyses, Ann. Rep. of the See.
for Mines, Vict., for 1907, 63

Dunn, E. J. 1908 “Obsidian Buttons,” Ree. of Geol. Surv. of Vict.
2, pt. iv, 202-207

Scrivenor, J. B. 1909 “Obsidianites in the Malay Peninsula,” Geol.
Mag., 5 Dec., 6, 411-413

Pertrerp, W. FF. 1910) “The Minerals of Tasmania” (Obsidianites or
australites; acid meteorites, 125-128)

Jezex, B., and Wocpricu, J. 1910 “Beitrag zur losung der Tektit-
frage,” Bull. internat. de l’Acad. des Sciences de Boheme, p. v

Merritt, G. P. 1911 “On the supposed origin of the Moldavites and
like Sporadic Glasses from various sources,” Proc. U.S. Nat. Museum,
40, 481-486

Dunn, E. J. 1911 “Pebbles,” 34, 64, pls. lvii and lviti

Dunn, E. J. 1912 “Australites,” Bull. Geol. Surv. Vict., No. 27, 1-23,
pls. i-xvit and map

Thorp, C. G. 1913 “A Theory of the method of the formation of
Australites.” Read before the West. Aust. Natural History and
Science Society, 9 Dee.

Summers, H.S. 1913 “On the composition and origin of Australites,”
Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 14, 189-199, pl. vit

Micuer, H. 1913 “Zur Tektitfrage,’ Annalen der K.1K. Naturhistori-
schen Hofmuseums, Band 27, Wien

213

Duny, E. J. 1914 “Further Notes on Australites,” Rec. Geol. Surv.,
Viet., 3, (3), 322-326

Sugss, Franz E, 1914 “Riickschau und Neueres tber die Tektitfrage.”
Mitteilungen der Geologischen Gesellschaft, Wien, 7, 51-121, pls. in

Yuorp, C. G. 1914 “A Contribution to the Study of Australites,’
journal of the West. Aust. Natural Ilistory and Science Society, 5,
20-43

Hintts, Lorrus 1915 “Darwin Glass. a new Variety of Tektites,”
Geol. Surv. Ree., No. 3, Dept. of Mines, Tasmania, 1-14

Comazzr, Rrcarpo Ll. 1915 “Contribucion al estudio de los minerales
ce Colombia,’ Bogota, Colombia, 22 pp.

Sxrats, E. W. 1915 “Notes on the so-called Obsidian from Geelong
and from ‘Varadale, and on Ausiralites,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Viel. N.S.,
27, 333-341

Sxuars, E. W. 1915 “Description of three unusual forms of Aus-
tralites from) Western Victoria.” Proc, Roy. Soc. Vict.. N.S., 27,
362-366

Murtier, F. P. 1915 “Tektites from British Borneo,’ Geol. Mag.,
206-211

Surss, Franz E. 1916 “Konnen die Tektite als kunstprodukte gedeutet
werden?” Centralblatt Min., 569-578

Moore, E&. S. 1916 “Pele’s Tears, and their bearing on the origin of
-Australites,’ Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 1915, 26, 51-55

Gotpscnmipt, V. 1918 “Ueber erosion und lésung,”” Beitr. Kryst.
Min., 1, 183-198

Dunn, E. J. 1916 “Additional Notes on Australites; Darwin Glass,”
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., N.S., 28, 223-227

Mixcaye, J. C. H. 1916 “Analysis of Obsidianites from the Uralla
District and Charlotte Waters.” Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 9, 170-171

Scrivenor, J. B. 1916 “Two large Obsidianites from the Raffles
Museum, F.M.S.”

Berwertu, F. 1917 “Konnen die Tektite als kunstprodukte gedeutet
werden?” Centralblatt Min., 240-254

Easton, N. Wine 1921 “The Billitonites. An attempt to unravel
the Tcktite Puzzle,’ Verhand. K. Akad. Wetens., Amsterdam, sect. 2,
22, No. 2

Tirrey, C. E. 1922 “Density, refractivity and composition relation of
some natural Glasses,” Min. Mag., 19, (96), 275-294

Surss, Franz FE, 1923 “Zu Wing Easton’s versuch einer losung des
Tektitratzels,’ Centralblatt Min., 227-232

Gotpscumipt, V. 1924 “Ucber Meteorglaser, ihre hildung und ge-
stalt,” Beitr. Kryst. Min., 2, 148-155

Micuet, H. 1925 “Die enstehung der Tektite und thre oberflache,”

Annalen Naturhistorischen Museums, Wien, Band, 38, 1924, 153-161

214

HarncastLe, H. 1926 “The origin of Australites. Plastic sweepings
of a Meteorite,’ New Zealand Journal of Sci. and Tech., 8, No. 2,
65-75

Davip, T. W. EncewortH; Sum™MeErs, H. S.; and Ampr, G. H. 1927
“Vhe Tasmanian Tektite—Darwin Glass,” Art. xvi, Proc. Roy Soc.
Vict., 39, (N.S.), pt. ii, 167-190

Hanus, F. 1928 “Les Moldavites (Tektites) de al Boheme et la
Morayie,” Resumé, Rozpr. If, Tridy ceské Akademie Roc., 37 Bull.
internat. de Academie des Sciences de Boheme

Jeans, J. H. 1928 “The Configurations of Rotating Liquid Masses,”
Astronomy & Cosmogony, chapter vitt, Cambridge University Press

De Boer, Kk. 1929 (Great Circle distribution of Tektites), Astr. Nach.,
234, 135

CHAPMAN, FrepericK 1929 “Open-air Studies in Ausiralia,” Dent and
Sons, London, 144-149

Panetu, F.; Urry, W; and Koc, W. 1930 “Zur frage des ursprunges
der Meteoriten,” Zschr. f. angew. physikal chemic., 36

Seca, Micuret 1930 ‘Meteorites in the Philippines,” Pub. of Manila
Observatory, t.1., fase. 9, 50

LACROIX, A, 1931) “Les Tektites des Philippines,” C. Rendus, t. cxciii,
265

AbberMAN, A. R, 1931) “The Meteorite Craters at Henbury, Central
Australia” (Addendum by L. J. Spencer), Min. Mag., 23, No. 136,
19-32

SwuirH, T. Hopcr 1932 “Obsidianites in the Philippine Islands,”
Philippine Journal of Science, 48, 581-587

Surss, Franz IE, 1932 “Zur Beleuchtung des Metcoritenproblemes,”
Mitteil. d. Geol. Ges. in Wien, Bd. xxv, 115-143

Lacrotx, A. 1932 “Les Tectites de l’Indochine,” Arch. Mus. Nat.
Hist., Paris, 6 serie, 8, 193-236

Suess, Franz [. 1933 “Wie gestaltet sich das gesamtproblem der
Meteoriten die cinrecihung der Tektite unter die Meteorischen Korper,”
Die Naturwissenschaften, 21 Jahrg., Heft 49, 857-861

Spencer, [.. J. 1933 “Origin of Tektites,’ Nature, 28 Jan., 131,
117-118

CiapMan, PrepertcK 1933 Letter to “Nature,” 17 June, 131, 876

Spencer, L. J. 1933 Note in “Nature,” 17 June, 131, 876

VFeNNER, C. 1933 Letter to “Nature,” 7 Oct., 132, 571

Spencer, L. J. 1933 Note in “Nature,” 7 Oct., 132, 571

Fenner, C. 1933 “Bunyips and Billabongs; An Australian out of
Doors,” Angus & Robertson, Sydney, 39-46

Dusery, V. S. (Benares Hindu University) 1933 Letter in “Nature,”
28 Oct., 678

215

Scrivenor, J. B. 1933 Letter to “Nature,” 28 Oct., 132, 678

Spencer, L. J. 1933 “L’origine des ‘cktites,” Compt. Rend. Acad.
Sci., Paris, 196, 710-712

Puirry, H. Sr. J. B. 1933 “The Empty Quarter,” London, Con-
stable & Co., 157-180, with appendix by L. J. Spencer, 365-370

Spencer, L. J., and Izy, M. H. 1933 “Meteoric Iron and Silica-glass
from the Meteorite Craters of Ilenbury (Central Australia) and
Wabar (Arabia),” Min. Mag., Sept., 23, No. 142, 387-404

Dirrier, E. 1933 “Beitrag zur chemischen systematik der Tektite,”
Zentralblatt fiir Min. ws.w. Abt. A

Fenner, C. 1934 “Australites, Part I. Classification of the W. H.C.
Shaw Collection,” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 58, 62-79

Crayton, P. A., and Spencer, L. J. 1934 “Silica-glass from the
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JanoscieK, R, 1934 “Das alter der Moldavitschotter in Mahren,”
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Lacrorx, A. 1934 “Sur la découverte de tektites a la cote d’Ivoire,”
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Fenner, C. 1935 “Australites, Part LI. Numbers, forms, distribution
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Fenner, C. 1935 “The Forms and Distribution of Australites,”
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DESCRIPTION OF PLATES

PLATE X

Upper: Three views of typical specimens of round australite forms: (a) bung,
(b) small core, (c) button, (d) large Jens, (c) small lens. The first row shows the top
(rear) view, the second row shows a side view, and the third row shows an oblique view.
These are the form-types dealt with in figures 1 and 2. (The largest specimen shows
the sub-radial groovings that are found occasionally on the upper surfaces of the largest
australites.)

Lower: Photograph of the characteristic types of smoke bombs. Spheres pre-
dominate in the material collected from railway engines, as shown in the photograph on
the left side. In the right-hand photograph a selection has been made to show various
fess common forms that occur. The range of specimens in the latter photograph varies
irom one “giant” round form of 1 mm. diameter, down to a tiny specimen of bent dumb-
bell type that was apparently blown on to the slide as a dust fragment; left side x 4;
right side x 7. Microphotos: R. A. L. Laughton.

PLATE XT

Upper: Two photographs of thin median section of flanged buttons, x 4, repro-
duced from negatives made for E. J. Dunn, Bull. 27 (ref. 50), and lent by the Mines
Department of Victoria. These photographs show the internal flow lines in two series,
as postulated in this paper, and also show certain characteristics of the upper (rear) and
lower (front) surfaces of australites. The secondary frontal melting and flow towards
the equator into the flanges is well shown; in the lower specimen part of the flange has
been lost and a new one is in process of formation.

Lower: Magnifications of the smoke bomb (slag bomb) forms, x 20, to emphasise
the differences between (a) the primary forms of the molten blobs, and (b) the ablated
and diminished forms characteristic of australites, the latter x 3. When seen “side on”
the smoke bombs are the same as they appear from a top view; the side-on views
of australites show the results of ablation and the development of flanges and rims.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1938 Vol. 62, Plate X

Ba @.

Round Australite specimens

Top, side, and oblique views of bung, core, button, lens, and small lens types
Natural size

Smoke bombs. Average sample, x 4 Smoke bombs. Selected types, x 7

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1938

Vol. 62, Plate XI

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Smoke bombs, x 20

Australites, x 3

RECENT AND FOSSIL SPECIES OF THE
SCAPHOPOD GENUS DENTALIUM IN SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA

By B. C. COTTON AND NELLY HOOPER LUDBROOK, M.A.

Summary

I INTRODUCTION
Even a casual survey of the specimens of South Australian Scaphopoda, and of the literature upon
them, reveals much confusion and haphazard identification of species. The following short account
is, therefore, submitted as an attempt to point out discrepancies to those students who find difficulty
in the correct naming of already known forms.

217

RECENT AND FOSSIL SPECIES OF THE
SCAPHOPOD GENUS DENTALIUM IN SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA

By B, C. Corroy and Netty Hoover Luprrook, M.A.

[Read 14 July 1938]

Piare XI

Sy NOPSIS
I IxtTRopucTION ra : = 7 as ww. 217
JL Recenr Species, with Desekiption of. eke Sarties aie ap Zid

111 Fossi. Species, with Description of one New Species and ists of

Localities not previously recorded an at ss as ne sind 2222
IV AcKNOWLEDGMENTS it ny ach ae Pe 22 rf Ss Nie Det
V_ BIBLIOGRAPHY Ss : oe he oe 44 - +3 i wa. 227
VI EXPLANATION OF Poatie re 7 an oh ~ = fe we 228

IT INTRODUCTION

Even a casual survey of the specimens of South Australian Scaphopoda,
and of the literature upon them, reveals much confusion and haphazard identifica-
tion of species. The following short account is, therefore, submitted as an
attempt to point out discrepancies to those students w ho find difficulty in the
correct naming of already known forms.

Both recent and fossil specimens have been examined, the latter chiefly from
the Tate Museum, Adelaide University (including the Abattoirs Bore material),
and the Commonwealth Palaeontological Collection at Canberra, The recent
shells are well represented in the South Australian Museum in the Verco Collec-
tion, which has provided data for the elucidation of numerous errors in previous
accounts of the Scaphopoda.

TI RECENT SPECIES

‘The majority of the recent South Australian Dentaliwm species form a fairly
distinctive subgenus, Paradentalium (subgenotype D. bednall: Pilsbry and Sharp,
1898), introduced for shells with six to fourteen intercal ating ribs, usually con-
tinuing to the aperture or becoming obsolete, the intervals apparently smooth but
microscopically concentrically and longitudinally striate ; apex small; orifice simple,
without terminal pipe, slit or notch,

In this subgenus can be included D. bednalli, D. octopleuron, D. hemuleuron,
D. francisense, PD. flindersi sp. nov., and D. lasmaniensis.

In the second subgenus Eudentalium (genotype D. quadricostatum Brazier )
Cotton and Godfrey, 1933, we place D. beachportensis sp. nov.; the subgenus
being distinguished by the small, solid, square tube, serrate primary ribs and

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 62, (2), 23 December 1938

218

smooth interstices. The two specics D. bordaensis sp. nov. and D. hyperhemi-
leuron probably belong to the subgenus Episiphon Vilsbry and Sharp, while
D, verconis sp. nov. and D. jaffaensis are placed in the subgenus Fissidentaliuim
Fischer,

Class SCAPHOPODA

Family DENTALIIDAE
Genus DentaALium Linne, 1758

Subgenus PArapeNTALIUM Cotton and Godfrey, 1933
The South Australian recent species grouped under Paredentalium may be
distinguished by the following key:
1 Ribs persistent through entire length of shell:
(1) Interspaces wide, ribs 7-12:

(a) Ribs 7, increasing to 10 7 _ ae daa .. DD. bednalli
(b) Ribs 12... “4 or fae eh vs ws dD, flindersi
(c) Ribs 8, remaining constant in number and size .. .. DD. octopleuron
(2) Interspaces linear, ribs 14 .. am rer ig . .. D, francisense
2 Ribs obsolete or absent at the anterior end a, - sod -» D. hemileuron

DENTALIUM BEPNALLI Pilsbry and Sharp, 1898

YD, bednalli Pilsbry and Sharp, 1898 Tryon’s Man. Conch., 17, 248, pl. xxxix,
figs. 1-3; Cotton and Godfrey, 1933, S.A. Nat., 14, (iv), 142

£. intercalatum Cotton and Godfrey, 1933 id., 140, non Gould, 1859

D. decemcostatum Cotton and Godfrey, 1933 id., 143, non Brazier, 1877

DY. katowense Cotton and Godfrey, 1933 id., 141, non Brazier, 1877

Tvpe Locality—Gulf St. Vincent, S. Aust.

This is the correct name for the shell previously known in South Australia
as D. intercalatum. Cotton and Godfrey, in introducing the subgenus Paradenta-
fit, based it on the South Australian species D, bednalli Pilsbry and Sharp,
but D. intercalatuin Gould was quoted as genotype following Verco’s incorrect
identification of the South Australian shell. The South Australian species had
already been described as D. bednailli Pilsbry and Sharp, and that was the species
under discussion. ‘The latter should now be regarded as the subgenotype.

D. katowense and D. decemcostatum have also been incorrectly used for
some South Australian specimens of this species. The nearest allied species is
D. tasmaniensis T. Woods (north-west coast of Vasmania) which has been
recorded from Port Adelaide, but is not represented in our collection from South
Australia. Subfossil specimens so named from the Port Adelaide River are
somewhat intermediate between D. bednalli and DD. tasmaniensis; mature
specimens show the typical intercalate ribbing of the so-called South Australian
“mtercalatum,

219

Dentalium flindersi sp. nov.
Pl. xii, fig. 4
D. duodecimcostatum Cotton and Godfrey, 1933. S.A. Nat., 14, fig. 4, 141,
non Brazier, 1877

Holotype—S.A. Mus. Coll. Reg. No. D. 13,338.

Shell medium size. solid, white, rather well curved towards the posterior ;
aperture regular and circular, displaying the twelve longitudinal ribs; apex fairly
large, orifice small, oval, longer than wide, walls thick; sctlpture of twelve narrow,
rounded ribs, separated by deep, concave, decidedly wider intervals; ribs becoming
wider anteriorly with a tendency to splitting by progressively deepening sulci,
but not reaching the decidedly intercalate condition of D. bednalli.

Dimensions—Length, 21 mm.; breadth, 2°9 mm.

Recent. Flindersian, shallow water.

Type Locality—Gulf St. Vincent, 22 fathoms.

Observations—This is a shell previously listed from South Australia as
D. duodecimcostatum Brazier (type locality, Darnley Island, Torres Strait,
30 fathoms), an entirely different species.

DENTALIUM ocrorLEeuRON Verco, 1911
D. octegonum Angas, 1878 Proc. Zool, Soc., 868, non Lamarck
D. octopleuron Verco, 1911 Trans, Roy. Soc. S.A., 35, 206; Cotton
and Godfrey, 1933 S.A. Nat., 14, (iv), 143

D. cheverti Cotton and Godfrey, 1933 id., 141, non Pilsbry and Sharp

D. robustum Cotton and Godfrey, 1933 id., 143, non Brazier.

D. thetidis Cotton and Godfrey, 1933 id., 142, non Hedley

This species is closcly related to 1), bednalli. It was misnamed D. eclogonum
by Angas, and South Australian specimens labelled D. cheverti, D. robustum,
D. thetidis are this species.

Recent, Flindersian, shallow water,

DENTALIUM TASMANIENSIS ‘Jenison Woods, 1877
D. tasmaniensis ‘LY. Woods, 1877 Proci. Roy. Soc. Tas. for 1876, 140;
Cotton and Godfrey, 1933 5.A. Nat., 14, No. 4, 144
Type Locality—North-west coast of Tasmania.
Recent, Flindersian, ‘asmania and Victoria only.
This species is allied to D. bedualli from South Australia ; subfossils from the
Port Adelaide River approach very closely to ). tasmaniensis.

DENTALIUM FRANCISENSE Verco, 1911
D. francisense Verco, 1911 Trans. Roy Soc. S.A., 35, 207, pl. xxxvi,
figs. 1, 14; Cotton and Godfrey, 1933 S.A. Nat., 14, No. 4, 143,
pl. i, figs. 1, la

220

Type Locality—Petrel Bay, Francis Island, S.A., 15-20 fathoms.
Recent, Flindersian, shallow water.

This species is also closcly related to D. bednalli.

DENTALIUM HEMILEURON Verco, 1911

D, hemileuron Verco, 1911 ‘Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust., 35, 208, pl. xxxvi,
fig. 2; Cotton and Godirey, 1933 loc cit., 144, pl. i, fig. 2

Type Locality—Cape Jaffa, 300 fathoms.

Recent, Flindersian, deep water.

Subgenus Evupenratium Cotton and Godfrey, 1933
(Genotype D. quadricostatum Brazier)
Dentalium beachportensis sp. nov.
Pl. xii, fig. 2
D. quadricostatum Cotton and Godfrey, 1933 loc. cit., 145, non Brazier
Holotype—S.A. Mus. Coll., Reg. No. D. 13,339,

Shell almost square, opaque white, very slowly increasing, four-angled, with
a wide, distinct rib at cach angle; interstices sunken, obsoletcly longitudinally
striate; apparently the ribs are obsolctcly serrated; apex perforated, narrow,
entire; aperture square, narrow, peristome very thick. The unique specimen is
broken and eroded, but it is apparently distinct from D. quadricostatiam.

Dimensions—length, 17 mm.; breadth, 2-5 mm.

Recent, Flindersian, deep water.

Type Locality—RBeachport, S.A., 110 fathoms.

Subgenus Episipuon Pilsbry and Sharp, 1897
(Genotype D. sowerbyi Guilding)
Dentalium bordaensis sp. nov.
Pl. xii, fig. 3
PD. virgula Cotton and Godfrey, 1933 Joc. cit., 145, non Iledley
Holotype-——S.A. Mus. Coll., Reg. No. D. 13,340.

Shell of medium size, very slightly curved and very gradually tapering,
circular, polished, white; accremental striae fine and regular; aperture round,
peristome thin; apex large with a narrow tube projecting from the centre of the
disc, closing the posterior end; this appendix is visible in very early life, when
the shell is extremely narrow. In the still carlicr stages of growth, when the
appendix is absent, the shell resembles J). jaffaensis, but has straighter sides, as
it does not widen so rapidly; the present specimens have more marked concentric
striations.

Dimensions—Shell: Length, 19 mm.; breadth, 2 mm. Appendix: Length,

1 mm.; breadth, -3 mm.

Recent, Flindersian, deep water.

Type Locality—Cape Borda, S.A., 60 fathoms.

Observitions—This shell is much larger, thicker and straighter than the
Peronian D. virgula.

DENTALIUM HYPERHEMILEURON Verco, 1911
D. hyperhemileuron Verco, 1911 Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., 35, 217, pl. xxvi,
figs. 3, 3a; Cotton and Godfrey, 1933 loc cit., 146, pl. i, figs. 3, 34
Type Locality—King George Sound, W.A.

Recent, Flindersian, shallow water.

Subgenus FissipenTALruM Cossmann, 1888
(Genotype Dentalium ergasticum Fischer )
Dentalium verconis sp. nov.
Pl. xii, fig. 1
D. zelandicum Cotton and Godfrey, 1933 Joc. cit., 145, non Sowerby

Holotype—S.A. Mus. Coll, Reg. No. D. 13,341.

Shell large, white, very solid, slightly curved towards the posterior end;
aperture irregular, dorsally produced; peristome thin and sharp, displaying the
numerous longitudinal ribs; apex fairly large, orifice small, walls thick; a simple,
short, ventral fissure about 2 mm. in length; sculpture of numerous (about twenty )
primary, narrow, rounded ribs at the anterior end, of subequal strength, with
only two cr three in all minor intercalations; interspaces wider, both ribs and
interspaces crossed by regular, fine, cblique, growth-striac.

Dimensions—Length, 47 mm.; breadth, 6 mm.

Type Locality—Beachport, S.A., 200 fathoms.

Recent, Flindersian, deep water,

Observations—This species has been recorded as D. selandicum Sowerby
(type locality, New Zealand) from South Australia, but differs in having only half
as many primary ribs which are subequal, not unequal; the maximum size of the
species is less than the average adult selandicum.

Dentalium jaffaensis sp. nov.

Pl. xii, fig. 5
D. lubricatum Cotton and Godfrey, 1933 loc. cit., 145, pl. i, figs. 4, 4a, non
Sowerby
Holotype—S.A. Mus. Coll., Reg. No. D. 13,337.

Shell of medium size, smooth, polished, white, gradually increasing in
diameter, slightly curved; aperture regular, peristome thin, easily broken; apex
small, with no slit in the early stage of growth but a central posterior aperture ;
protoconch an elliptical bulb with a very short, slightly contracting, round, tubular
posterior prolongation set somewhat obliquely to the axis of the bulb and directed

222

towards the convex side of the shell; opaque transverse rings appear in the first
1-5 mm. of the shell, and the adult has a slit at the posterior end on the convex
or ventral side.

Dimensions—Length, 24 mm.; breadth, 2-7 mm.

Tvpe Locality—Cape Jaffa, S.A., 90 fathoms.

Recent, Flindersian, deep water.

Observations—Related to the Peronian LD. lubricatum Sowerby and D. virgula
Hedley, but more slender, straighter, and less rapidly expanding than
D. lubricatum.

WI FOSSIL SPECIES

For the most part, fossil species have provided little difficulty. Almost all
were described by Tate in 1887 and 1899, lists of localities being published in each
case. Further localities have been recorded by Chapman in his work on the
Mallee and other Victorian bores, including (with Miss I. Crespin and R. A.
Keble) the Sorrento Bore, and by Howchin in papers upon bores in the Adelaide
basin. Additional localities are here listed, specimens from which, unless other-
wise stated, are in the Commonwealth Palaeontological Collection at Canberra.

Class SCAPHOPODA
Family DENTALITIDAE
Genus DentAtium [.inne, 1758

Subgenus FissipeENTALTuM Fischer, 1885
(Genotype D. ergasticum Vischer, 1882)
DENTALIUM BIFRONS Tate
Dentalium (2) bifrons Tate, 1887 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 9, 192, pl. xx,
fig. 5; Harris, 1897 Cat. Tert. Moll. Brit. Mus., 295; Tate, 1899
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 33, 261
Type Locality—Lower Pliocene, Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Locality not previously recorded—Abattoirs Bore, S.A., Lower Pliocene
(Howchin, Upper Pliocene), in Tate Mus. Coll, Adel. Univ.

DENTALIUM MANTELLT Zittel

Dentalium sp. nov, Mantell, 1850 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 6, 331, pl. xxvii,
fig 15

Dentalium mantelli Zittel, 1864 Novara-Exped., Neu-Seecland. Abth. Palae.,
45, pl. xiii, figs. 7A, 72

Entalis mantelli Zittel: Tate, 1887 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 9, 190

Dentalinm mantelli Zittel: Pilsbry and Sharp, 1897 Man. Conch., 17, 208;
Harris, 1897 Cat. Tert. Moll. Brit. Mus.. (i), 293; Tate, 1899 Trans.
Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 23, 261

D. fEntalis) mantelli Zittel: Howchin, 1935 id., 59, 74, 75

223

Type Locality—Oligocene, The Cliffs, Nelson, New Zealand.

The very lengthy synonymy of D. mantelli is here reduced to references con-
cerning Australia only; those relating to the occurrence of the species in New
Zealand are listed by Suter, N.Z. Geol. Surv. Pal., Bull. No. 2, (4), 32.

This is a very variable species, common in both Australia and New Zealand.
It presents difficulty in that the early references do not properly designate the
type. Both Zittel and Suter place The Cliffs near Nelson first in the list of
localities, thus apparently excluding Mantell’s Onekakara shell. It seems that
one must accept Zittel’s figured specimen from The Cliffs as the holotype, which
Suter states is in the K.K. Héfmuseum, Vienna.

The type locality, morcover is a poor collecting ground, so that it is difficult
to obtain specimens of true mantelli, Tate (1877) states that a comparison of
authentic specimens was made by him; Suter’s figures of plesiotypes agree with
Australian specimens, in view of which we here retain the identity of the Aus-
tralian with the New Zealand species.

Localities not previously recorded:

Outcrops—Bird Rock, Torquay, Vic., Tower Miocene; 3 miles west of
Gellibrand R., Vic., IL. Miocenc; Clifton Bank, Muddy Ck., Vic.,
L.. Miocene; Skinner’s, Bairnsdale area, Vic., L. Miocene; “Good-
wood,” Hawkesdale, Vic., 1.. Pliocene (Kalimnan).

Borings—P. of Colquhoun No, 1, lakes Entrance Devel. Co., 1. Bunga,
Vic., 903 ft., Upper Oligocene; P. of Nindoo, Gippsland, Vic., 208 ft,
I.. Miocene; P. of Meerlieu, Gippstand, Vic., 570 ft., 1. Miocene;
New Shaft, Altona, Vic., 226 ft., T., Miocene; Mamilton Bore, Vic.,
20-25 ft., T.. Miocene; Oil Search Steam Drill, P. of Coolgulmerung,
Gippsland, Vic., 300-334 ft., L. Pliocene (Kalimnan).

Subgenus ParapentraLiom Cotton and Godfrey, 1933

(Genotype D, bednalli Pilsbry and Sharp)

DENTALIUM ARATUM ‘Tate
Dentalium aratum Vate, 1887 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 9, 192, pl. xx, fig. 8;
Tate, 1899 idem, 23, 265
Type Locality—Lower Miocene, River Murray Cliffs,
Localities not previously recorded :
Outcrops—3 miles west of Gellibrand R., Vic., L. Miocene; Clifton Bank,
Muddy Creek, Vic., L. Miocene.
Borings—No. 1, P. of Bumberrah (Metung), Vic., 180-190 ft., 1.. Pliocene
‘Kalimnan); No. 1, P. of Bengworden, Gippsland, Vic., 470 ft.,
I.. Pliocene (Kalimnan).

224

DENTALIUM LATESULCATUM Tate
D, latesulcatum Yate, 1899 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 23, 262, pl. vill, fig. 9
Tape Locality—Lower Pliocene, Grange Burn, near Hamilton, Vic.

Locality not previously recorded:
Boring—No. 3, Lakes Entrance, Vic., 90 ft., L. Pliocene (Kalimnan).

DENTALIUM SEMIARATUM Chapman and Crespin
Dentalium semiaratum Chapman and Crespin, 1928 Rec. Geol. Surv. Vic., 5,
(i), 105, pl. vi, fig. 28
Type Locality—Lower Pliocene, Sorrento Bore, 719 ft.

Localities not previously recorded:
Borings—-P. of Meerlieu, Gippsland, Vic., 260 ft., Middle Miocene; No. 14,
P. of Stradbroke, Gippsland, Vic., 245 ft., Lower Pliocene; No. 15,
P. of Stradbroke, Gippsland, Vic., 440 ft., Upper Oligocene.

Dentalium howchini sp. nov.
Pl. xii, fig. 6
D. elephantinum Tate, 1890 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 13, (ii), 177, non
Linne

DD). octogonum Tate, 1890 id., non Lamarck

D. sectum, Tate, 1890 id., non Deshayes

D. intercalatum Howchin, 1936 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 60, 16, non Gould

D, intercalatum aratum Howchin, 1936 id., non Tate

DY. intercalatum francisense Howchin, 1936 id., non Verco

D. intercalatum var. Howchin, 1936 id., 17

D. sp, Howchin, 1936 idem

Holotype—Tate Mus. Coll., Adel. Univ.

Shell large, white, boldly sculptured with intercalating ribs numbering in the
holotype 13; interstices average about the width of the ribs or a litt'e narrower;
the ribs split towards the anterior end by gradually deepening sulci; accremental
striae irregular and rather coarse in places; aperture rounded, peristome regular,
fairly thick, undulated on the exterior by the section of the ribs; posterior open-
ing small.

Dimensions—Length, 45 mm.; breadth, 7 mm.

Type Locality—Ahbattoirs Bore, S.A., Lower Pliocene (Howchin “Ade-
laidean,’’ Upper Pliocene).

Paratypes—In various specimens, the number of primary ribs varies from
7 to 16; splitting of the ribs towards the anterior by gradually deepening sulci
frequently doubles the number of ribs.

Observations—This is a very variable species, related to D. mantelli, from
which it differs in being much more boldly sculptured and in having a dominant
intercalating system of ribs. It is somewhat like the common New Guinea fossil
species D. subrectumm Mart., which has narrower ribs.

225

Subgenus GrapTacmeE Pilsbry and Sharp, 1897
(Genotype D. semistriatum Turton)

DENTALIUM SECTIFORME ‘late
D. sectiforme Tate, 1899 ‘Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., 23, 262, pl. vil,
figs. 6, 6A
Type Locality—Lower Pliocene, Muddy Creek, Vic.

Subgenus LArvipENTALIUM Cossmann, 1888

(Genotype D, ticertum Deshayes )

DENTALIUM suUBFISSURA (Tate)

Entalis subfissura Tate, 1887 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 9, 191, pl. xx,
figs. 44, 4B
Dentalian subfissura Tate: Harris, 1897 Sat. Tert. Moll. Brit. Mus., 296 ;
‘Tate, 1899 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 23, 263
Type Locality—Lower Miocene R. Murray Cliffs, S. Aust.
Localities not previously recorded:
Outcrop—Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Vic., Lower Miocene.
Borings—New Shaft, Altona, Vic., 226 ft., Lower Miocene; No, 8 P. of
Glencoe, Gippsland, Vic., 570 ft., Lower Pliocene (Kalimnan); No. 1,
P. of Bumberrah, Gippsland, Vic., 239 ft., Lower Pliocene (Kalimnan ).

DENTALIUM PICTILE Tate
Entalis subfissura Tate: ‘Tate and Dennant, 1896 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust.,
20, (4), 134
Dentaliitim pictile Tate, 1899 id., 23, 263, pl. vill, fig. 8
Type Locality—Lower Miocene, Table Cape, Tas.
Locality not previously recorded:
Boring—New Shaft, Altona, Vic., Lower Miocene.

DENTALIUM LARGICRESCENS Tate
D. largicrescens Tate, 1899 Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., 23, 264, pl. vill,
figs. 10, 10a
Type Locality—Lowcr Miocene, Beaumaris, Vic.
Localities not previously recorded:

Outcrops—Skinner’s, Bairnsdale area, Vic., Lower Miocene; 3 miles west
of Gellibrand R., Viec., Lower Miocene; Rose Hill, Vic., (7) Upper
Miocene; Old Bunga, east of No. and Bore, L. Entrance, Vic., Lower
Pliocene (IXalimnan).

Borings—No. 1, Kalimna Oil Co., Rigby Is., L. Entrance, Vic., 30-50 ft.,
Lower Pliocene (Kalimnan); No. 1, Kalimna Oil Co., Rigby Is.,

226

L. Entrance, Vic., 70 ft., Lower Pliocene (Kal.); Signal Hill, P. of
Dulungalong, Vic., 300-650 ft., Lower Pliocene (Kal.); P. of Wulla
Wullock, Vic., 432 ft. Lower Pliocene (Kal.) ; Darriman, No. 3, Vic.,
66-76 ft. Lower Pliocene (Kal.}; P. of Glencoe, No. 7, Vic., 170 ft.,
Lower Pliocene (Kal.); No. 1, P. of Bumberrah (Metung), Vic..
160-170 ft. Lower Pliocene (Kal.); No. 1, P. of Bumberrah
(Metung), Vic., 170-180 ft., Tower Pliocene (Kal.); No. 1, P. of
Bumberrah (Metung), Vic., 190-200 {t., ower Plocene (Kal.).

DENTALIUM LACTEOLUM Tate

Dentaliuin lacteum Tate, 1887 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 9, 193, non
Deshayes

D. lacteolwn Tate, 1899 id., 23, 264

Type Locality—Lower Miocene, Muddy Creek, Vic.

Localities not previously recorded:
Outcrop—3 miles west of Gellibrand R., Vic., Lower Miocene.
Borings—Hamilton Bore, 25-30 ft., Lower Miocene; Hamilton Bore,

114-119 ft., Lower Miocene.

Subgenus Fustraria Stoliczka, 1868
(Genotype D. circinatum Sowerby)

DENTALIUM AcRicULUM (Tate)
Entalis acriculwim Vate, 1887 Trans. Roy. Soc., S. Aust., 9, 192, pl. xx, fig. 11
Dentaliuim acriculum Tate: larris, 1897 Cat. Pert. Moll. Brit. Mus., 296;
Tate, 1899 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 23, 264

Type Locality—Lower Miocene, Muddy Creek, Vic.

DENTALIUM AUSTRALE Pilsbry and Sharp

Entalis annulatum Tate, 1887 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 9, 191, pl. xx,
fig. 64-68

Dentalium australe Pilsbry and Sharp, 1898 Tryon’s Man. Conch., 17, 192,
nom. mut. for 2. annulatum Tate (preoce.); Tate, 1899 Trans. Roy.
Soc. S. Aust., 23, 264

Type Localitvy—lower Miocene, Muddy Creek, Vie.

Locality not previously recorded: Bird Rock, Torquay, Vic., Lower Miocene.

Subgenus Episipon Pilsbry and Sharp, 1898
(Genotype D. sowerbyi Guilding)
DENTALIUM TORNATISSIMUM Tate

D. tornatissimum Tate, 1899 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 23, 265, pl. viii,
fige. 7-7A

227

Type Locality—Lower Pliocene (Kalimnan), Gippsland Lakes, Vic.
Localities not previously recorded :

Zorings—No. 1, P. of Bumbecrrah (Metung), Vic., 90-100 ft., Lower
Pliocene (Kal.) ; No. 1, P. of Bumberrah (Metung), Vic., 110-130 ft.,
Lower Pliocene (Kal.); No. 1, Kalimna Oil Co., Rigby Is., Lakes
Entrance, 30 ft., Lower Pliocene (Kal.); No. 1, Kalimna Oil Co.,
Rigby Island, Lakes Entrance, 50 ft., Lower Pliocene (Kal.).

Subgenus GApILInA Foresti, 1895
(Genotype D, triquetrum Brocchi)
DEN’rALIUM TATFI Pilsbry and Sharp
Dentaliium (?) triquetrum Tate, 1887 Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., 9, 193,
pl. xx, fig. 3, non Brocchi
D. tatei Pilsbry and Sharp, 1898 Tryon’s Man. Conch., 17, 218, nom. mut. ;
Tate, 1899 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 23, 266

Tvpe Locality—-Lower Miocene, Adelaide Bore, 5. Aust,

IV ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writers are indebted to Sir Douglas Mawson for permission to examine
material in the Tate Museum Collection, University of Adelaide; to Miss 1.
Crespin, Commonwealth Palaeontologist, for permitting examination of the
Commonwealth Collection at Canberra, and to Dr. J. Marwick for kindly supply-
ing very detailed information regarding the New Zcaland occurrence of
D. mantelli,
V BIBLIOGRAPITY
(1) Brazter, J. 1877 “Continuation of the Mollusca collected during the
Chevert Expedition,” Proc. Linn, Soc. N.S.W., 2, (4), 55-60
(2) Crarman, F. 1916 “Cainozoic Geology of the Mallee and other Vic-
torian Bores,” Rec, Geol. Surv. Vic., 3, (iv)
(3) Crapman, F., Crespmn, I, and Kepre, R. A. 1928 “The Sorrento
Bore, Mornington Peninsula,” Ree. Geol. Surv. Vic. 5, (i)
(4) Corron, B. C., and Goprrry, F. K. 1933 “South Australian Shells,
pt. viii,” S.A. Nat., 14, 135-150, pl. i, figs. 1-4a
(5) Dennant, J., and Kitson, A. FE. 1903 “Catalogue of Described Species
of Fossils (except Bryozoa and Foraminifera) in the Cainozoic Fauna
of Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania (with locality plan),” Rec.
Geol. Surv. Vic., 1, (ii), 89-147
(6) Harris, G. F. 1897 Catalogue of Tertiary Mollusca in the Department of

Geology, British Museum (Natural History). Pt. I Australian
Mollusca, 290-297

(7)

(8)
(9)

(10)

(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)

(17)

(18)

(19)

(20)

228

Howcuin, W., 1935 “Notes on the Geological Sections obtained by
several Borings situated on the Plain between Adelaide and Gulf
St. Vincent, Part I,” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 59, 68-102

Howcuin, W. 1936 IJd., (i), Cowandilla (Government) Bore, Trans.
Roy. Soe. S. Aust., 60, 1-34

Hutton, F. W. 1873 “Catalogue of the Tertiary Mollusca of New Zca-
land,” (1)

Manteti, G. A. 1850 “Notice of the Remains of the Dinornis and other
Birds, and of Fossils and Rock-specimens, recently collected by Mr.
Walter Mantell in the Middle Islands of New Zealand, with additional
Notes on the Northern Island,’ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 6, 319-342,
pis. XxXVili-xxix

Pirspry, H. A., and Starr, B. 1898 Tryon’s Manual of Conchology, 17,
1-280, pls. i-xxxix

Suter, H. 1914 “Revision of the Tertiary Mollusca of New Zealand,
Part 1,” N.Z. Geol. Surv. Pal., Bull. No. 2

Tate, R. 1887 “The Scaphopods of the Older Tertiary of Australia,”
Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., 9, 190-194

Tate, R. 1890 “On the Discovery of Marine Deposits of Pliocene Age
in Australia,” Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., 13, (ii), 172-180

Tate, R., 1899 “A Revision of the Older Tertiary Mollusca of Aus-
tralia, Part [,” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 23, 261-266

Tare, R., and DennaAnt, J. 1896 “Correlation of the Marine Tertiaries
of Australia, Part III,” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 20, (1), 134

Verco, J. C. 1911 “Notes on South Australian Marine Mollusca, with
Descriptions of New Species, Part XIV,” Trans. Roy. Soe. S. Aust., 35,
204-215

Woops, J. E. Textson 1875 “On Some Tertiary Fossils from Table
Cape,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas. for 1875

Woons, J. E. Tenison 1876 “Notes on Fossils referred to in R. M.
Johnston’s Article entitled ‘Further Notes on the Tertiary Marine Beds
of Table Cape’,”’ Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas. for 1876

ZITTEL, K. A. 1864 “Fossile Mollusken und Echinodermen, Novara-
Expedition, Geologischer Theil, 1 Band, 2 Abt., Palacontologie von

Neu Seeland (i1}, 15-68, pls. 6-15

Vl EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII

Fig. 1 Dentalium (fissidentahua) verconis, sp. nov. x 1-6
Fig. 2) Dentalinm (Eudentaltum) beachportensis, sp. nov. x4
Fie. 39 Dentalium (Episiphon) berdacnsis, sp. nov. x4

Fig. 4 Dentalinum (Paradentalium) fliuderst, sp. nov. x4°5
Fig. 5) Dentalium (Fissidentaliuim) jaffaensis, sp. nov. x 3-6
Fig. 6 Dentalium (Paradentalinm) howehini, sp. nov. x1°5

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1938 Vol. 62, Plate XII

THE CLIMATE OF TROPICAL AUSTRALIA
IN RELATION TO POSSIBLE AGRICULTURAL OCCUPATION

By J. A. PRESCOTT.

Summary

INTRODUCTION
The stndy of agro-climatology has received considerable impetus during recent years owing to the
concept of climatic factors which simultaneously take into account rainfall, temperature and relative
humidity and which can be related to soil moisture. Reference may be made to the recent summary
of the principles involved (Prescott, 1938) and, as regards the practical application of the method to
an agricultural problem in South Australia, to the work of Trumble (1937).

229

THE CLIMATE OF TROPICAL AUSTRALIA
IN RELATION TO POSSIBLE AGRICULTURAL OCCUPATION

By J. A. Prescorr
[Read 14 July 1938]

INTRODUCTION

The study of agro-climatology has received considerable impetus during
recent years owing to the concept of climatic factors which simultaneously take
into account rainfall, temperature and relative humidity and which can be related
to soil moisture. Reference may be made to the recent summary of the principles
involved (Prescott, 1938) and, as regards the practical application of the method
to an agricultural problem in South Australia, to the work of Trumble (1937).

The purpose of the present contribution is to analyse the factors, principally
those relating to moisture conditions, that are likely to determine the trend of
agricultural and pastoral occupation in those parts of Australia which lic north
of the Tropic of Capricorn, with particular emphasis on the areas receiving
seasonal rainfall typically monsoonal in character. For purposes of comparison,
a similar analysis has been made of the climate of Nigeria, using the data of
Brooks (1916, 1920), which data have been amplified by personal access to the
records of tie London Meteorological Office, through the courtesy of Dr. Brooks
himself

The parallel between tropical Australia and West Africa is only complete for
the strictly monsoonal areas; the east coast of Australia is a trade wind coast,
whereas the wetter parts of West Africa have an equatorial climate. A comparison
with the French territories of Senegal, Upper Niger and Upper Volta would
possibly be more instructive as lying in latitudes more similar to those of tropical
Australia, but the data for these territories are not so complete nor so readily
accessible as those for British Nigeria.

In the analysis of the data, use has been made of the ratio of the mean
monthly rainfall to saturation deficit, the first expressed in inches of rain and the
second in inches of mercury. No data for evaporation are available for the Aus-
tralian area under consideration except for Boulia, which is on the desert margin.
An evaporimeter tank has only recently been installed alongside the aerodrome
in Darwin.

Monruty Rarios oF RAINFALL TO SATURATION DEFICIT

Two critical values for the ratio cf rainfall to saturation deficiency have been
adopted. The first, a monthly ratio of 5, is based on the previous work of
Prescott (1936, 1938) and Trumble (1937) and represents the limiting ratio
required to keep the surface soil above the wilting point of plants. Where this
value is not reached for any of the twelve months of the year, desert conditions
may be expected to prevail; the length of the agricultural or pastoral season can
be regarded as the period during which this value is exceeded.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 62, €2), 23 December 1938

230

‘The second monthly ratio is that of 35, which is based on the evaporation
from a saturated soil or from an actively growing dense crop under ideal condi-
tions. Under either of these conditions the evaporation from the soil or crop
tends to a value of about 1°6 to 1-7 times that from a free water surface, and
it is obvious that more rain will be required than that just sufficient to balance
the evaporation from a water surface if the native vegetation or the crops grown
are to be vigorous.

These ratios of the rainfall to saturation deficiency have therefore been
calculated for the tropical stations of Australia from the data published in
Pamphlet No. 42 of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research and the
isologs of the ratio mapped from the values so obtained and by interpolation on
maps on which were successively superposed altitude, temperature, humidity,
saturation deficit and rainfall. The maps showing the values of this ratio for the
twelve months of the year are shown in figs. 8a, 8b, and 8c, in which the march
of the monsoon into tropical Australia can be readily observed. The possibility of
agricultural or pastoral occupation will be determined, so far as climate is con-
cerned, by these monthly trends.

This series of maps reveals that the greater part of tropical Australia is
subject to seasonal drought for cight months of the year, and that the very wet
conditions corresponding to a ratio of P/s.d. of 35 prevail only for three months
of the year along the northern coast line, and with small areas along the east
coast with up to eight months as at Innisfail in North Queensland.

During the driest months a narrow belt which is practically completely rain-
less moves westward, starting in August from the south-west coast of the Gulf
of Carpentaria, moving along the coast of the Kimberleys, finishing in October,
and continuing in November at Onslow in Western Australia. A further feature
indicated in fig. 1A is the small area, including Townsville, Charters Towers and
Ayr, which has the benefit of the “lesser rains” for a brief period in mid-winter,
the prevailing low temperatures enabling a relatively low amount of rain to be
efficient in maintaining soil moisture. This period cannot be regarded, however,
as a reliable feature of the local climate.

LENGTIE OF SEASON

The essential facts with respect to the length of the season are indicated in the
maps of fig. 1, where the number of months during which soil moisture condi-
tions may be considered to be satisfactory (P/s.d. being greater than 5), and
where conditions of real wetness prevail (P/s.d. being greater than 35) are
indicated as isochrones. This pair of maps may be compared with the tropical
part of the bioclimatic map of Davidson (1936), the principles employed in their
construction being essentially similar to those employed by Davidson.

These maps reveal that the characteristic feature of the climate over most
of the area is its extreme seasonal character, the length of the seasonal drought
being as important as the length of the wet season and determining to a con-
siderable extent the character of the native vegetation. The geographical limits

231

of the grasslands and open savannahs on heavy soils correspond approximately
to the seasonal isochrones of three and four months. With a scason of from four
to six months in length, savannah woodlands prevail. Where the middle months
of the rainy season are very wet, local swamps become important in low country
and sclerophyll forests are encountered on the higher ground. The true rain
forests of the Queensland coast are associated with short seasonal droughts and
with several months of very wet conditions. Many so-called rain forests in the
monsoonal belt are essentially “corridor” forests along the banks of permanent
rivers, and the trees and palms growing in them are usually capable of with-

Fig. 1 Maps of tropical Australia showing isochrones of the length of the season:

A. Length of the wet season in months (the ratio of precipitation to satura-
tion deficiency is greater than 5).

B. Length of the very wet season in months (the ratio of precipitation to
saturation deficiency is greater than 35). The isochrone for three months
in all probability crosses Melville Island.

standing a considerable degree of atmospheric dryness. The trees of the savannah
woodlands and savannahs are also adapted to the dry conditions of the winter
and many of them, typified by the Bauhinia, lose their leaves at the end of the dry
season.

An excellent comparison and contrast for two localities having semi-hunid
climates with seasonal rainfall is afforded by that between Adelaide and Darwin.
Both are near the coast of a large gulf protected by a large island. The rainfall

si)

252

in Adelaide falls in winter, that in Darwin in summer, the length of the wet
season being in each case 6°6 months. It is the drought period which is of some
significance—the mean saturation deficit for the winter six months at Darwin is
0-40 inches, and in Adelaide for the summer six months it is 0°42 inches, so that
evaporation in the dry season is probably the same in both places. The mean
temperature for the winter six months in Darwin is, however, 81° F., while in
Adelaide for the summer six months it is only 70°F, Adelaide is in the heart
of a thriving agricultural community based on the cultivation of Mediterranean
annual crops and drought resisting perennial trees and pastures. Any possible
agriculture in the vicinity of Darwin must similarly be based on specialized crops
suited to monsoonal conditions.

AGRICULTURE AND SEASONAL RAINFALL
Betore proceeding to a further discussion of possible agricultural develop-
ments in tropical Australia, it would be well to define the climatic requirements
of an agricultural system based on the acceptance of a period of seasonal drought.

Experience at the Waite Institute, near Adelaide, may be taken as affording
some evidence. The crops successfully grown are wheat, barley and oats, the
principal grasses and all the clovers are Mediterranean annuals. Perennial grasses
and forage plants are limited to Phalaris, perennial rye grass selected for drought
resistance, the native grasses such as Danthonia and Themeda, and lucerne, The
climate ts too cold in winter and too dry in summer for cocksfoot or for red and
white clover. Both peas as a crop and subterranean clover as a pasture plant
need to be selected for earliness, so as to set seed before the beginning of the
summer drought. Being shallow rooted they are not able to rely on reserves of
subsoil moisture. The monthly trends of the ratio of rainfall to saturation
deficiency at this centre are indicated in fig. 2, in which the relationship of
these ratios to the agricultural season for different crops is also shown
diagrammatically.

In the same diagram is set out information regarding two centres in Nigeria,
Nano and Ilorin, for both of which cropping records are available in the Bulletins
of the Nigerian Agricultural Department (1930, 1931). Kano is typical of the
true monsoonal belt and, as will be noted later, the seasonal rainfall js equal in
amount to that of Katherine in the Northern Territory. The crops that are
possible are strictly limited to those suitable for short seasons. Kano is the most
important Nigerian centre for the cultivation and export of the peanut. Lorin
is transitional in climate between the monsoonal and equatorial regions. Both
early and late sown maize are possible at this centre, although the latter is rare,
yains become important as a crop. The most important tropical grain crop is
guinea corn (Sorghum vulgare). Where the seasons are shorter and the rainfall
less, guinea corn is replaced by bulrush millet (Pennisctum typhoides). It is to
be noted that farming is practised to the northern boundary of Nigeria and for
some distance beyond, into French territory. In the far north-east, Geidam, with

233

a rainfall of 14-3 inches and a season 2°4 months in duration, is on the extreme
boundary of agricultural occupation.

A grcat assortment of crops has been listed for the West African territories,
and an equally great variety for any one crop. Reference in this connection may

20

SEEGING pa STURE HAY. _
~————- 0A TS ———>
————— PEAS —

——— WHEAT———>
e——— BARLEY

Climatic characteristics with
respect to the monthly ratio of
rainfall to saturation deficit
for agricultural localities with
marked seasonal rainfall.
Adelaide is selected as repre-
sentative of the Mediter-
ranean climate. Kano is re-
presentative of a long estab-
fished centre with a short
monsoonal climate, and Torin
as a centre transitional in

€— GUINEA CORN-——?

— PEANUTS —~ climate between the mon-
© MILLET 7 :
COTTON Sets ay soonal and equatorial types.
The monthly ratios of 5 and
ILORIN 35 are indicated by heavy

horizontal lines, the length of

which corresponds to the wet

season and very wet season,
respectively.

MAIZE — MAIZE

YAMS ’ <—
Bs sh ey «———- ca TTON ——
¢——- PEANUTS —>

<—— GUINEA CORN ——>

JCF AUMLALMI JULI LALS.OLNLD,
Fig. 2

234

be made to Meniaud (1912), Sampson (1936), Dalziel (1937), and to the
Nigerian Year Books, [rom the crop maps of the latter the following list of
principal crops and natural plant products has been drawn up, together with a
rough estimate of the climatic requirements of cach.

Annual Rainfall Length of Season

Crop or Product Inches Months
Millets (Pennisetum typhoides) - - 20-40 3°4-5:-4
Ground nuts (drachis hypogaea) - - 34 4:7
Cotton (Gossypium spp.) - - - 40-48 5°5-7-0
Ginger (Zingiber officinalis) - - - 45 5°8
Shea nuts (Butyrospermum parkii) - 48 6'5
Cassava (Manihot wutilissima) - - 20-91 3°0-11-3
Guinea corn (Sorghum vulgare) - - 40-47 5°9-6°7
Yams (Dioscorea spp.) - - - - 40-110 7°2-12-0
Maize (Zea mays) - - - - 42-72 8-0-11:°0
Beniseed (Sesamutm orientale) — - - 50 7°8
Palm kernels (Elacis guineensis) - 90-140 11-0-12-0
Cocoyam (Colocasia antiquorum) - 70 9-0

As the whole of Nigeria with the exception of the region of Lake Chad is
potentially agricultural, a detailed comparison between the climates of selected
stations in tropical Australia and in Nigeria may next be attempted. ‘he
isochrories of the length of the agricultural season in Nigeria are shown in the
map of fig. 7, which is also a guide to the localities discussed in the text, The
comparison between the pairs of stations has been done diagrammatically in
figs. 4and 5. Three aspects are to be compared; these are: (1) seasonal rainfall,
(2) length of season, (3) temperature. The differences in latitude and the
proximity to the Sahara make the Nigerian stations hotter than Australian stations
in the dry season, but in the wet season the temperatures more nearly compare
with those of Australia. Another feature which the diagrams bring out is that
the dry season is virtually rainless in Northern Nigeria. Each of the pair of
stations has approximately the same rainfall. The agricultural season has been
defined as the period during which the monthly ratios of rainfall to saturation
deficiency exceed the value of 5, and the very wet season the period during which
the value of 35 is exceeded.

For cultivated crops adapted to seasonal rainfall and capable of high yields,
the agricultural season should probably exceed six months, one month of which
should be very wet in terms of the above ratios. Where the agricultural season
is shorter, crops especially adapted to these conditions are required, the most
important of which will be millets and peanuts.

The data relating to the above-mentioned pairs of stations are summarised
numerically in Table I.

235

Taste |
Coutparison of Stations in Australia and Nigeria
with respect to Rainfall and the Length of the Agricultural Season.

AUSTRALIAN STATIONS NIGERIAN STATIONS
Length Length
of Agri- T.ength of of Agri- Length of
Annual cultural Very Wet Annual cultural Very Wet
Rainfall, Season, Season, Rainfall, Season, Season,
Inches Months Months Inches Months Months
Tennant’s Creck 14°7 1:2 0-0 Geidam ... ... 14:3 2-4 0-0
Hall’s Creek .... 20°8 3-0 0-0 Maiduguri wee weere 3-6 0-2
Daly Waters ... 26°58 4-1 0-0 Sokoto ... ... 25°2 4-1 0-0
Normanton ... 38-7 4:7 0-4 Yola wae Ayes. Od. 6:3 1-1
Herberton wn 43-0 9-5 3-1 Zaria vee ee 448 5-8 23
Atherton wae SEB 9-9 3-6 Llorin vee ae 4903 7°9 2:0
Cairns... ... 88:4 12-0 4-2 Benin a ae §=90°8 11-3 7:2
Innisfail ... .... 142°6 12-0 8-8 Forcados . 142:2 12-0 776

Generally speaking, from the diagrams and from the tables, it will be seen that
for equal rainfalls in the more arid regions the moisture conditions with regard
to both the length of the season and the efficiency of the rainfall are in favour of
Nigeria. The temperatures at Atherton and Herberton do not compare with the
corresponding stations, Zaria and llorin, owing to the position of the Australian
stations on the Atherton tableland.

RELIABILITY OF SEASONAL RAINFALL

A very important factor making for the permanent agricultural occupation
of Nigeria is the reliability of the rainfall, anda comparison between West African
stations and Australian stations is instructive in this respect. Tor this purpose
the rainfall records at a number of selected stations have been examined and the
rainfall for each season determined, winter rains being excluded. In the case of
Katherine the monthly rains were excluded at the beginning and end of the season,
which were below the values required to give a value of 5 to the ratio of rainfall
to the assumed average saturation deficit for the particular month.

The data for a group of stations are given below, the variability of the
seasonal rainfall is expressed as the standard deviation.

Mean Seasonal Rainfall and Standard Deviation (Inches)

AUSTRALIAN STATIONS Wesr AFRICAN STATIONS
Darwin - - - 596 +4 10°3 Bathurst (Gambia) 46°7 + 12-4
Normanton - - 37°04 139 Kano - - - - 344+ 5:5
Katherine - - 34°5 + 10°4 Sokoto - - - 290+ 4:0
Georgetown - - 32:1 + 10°8 Maiduguri - - 25:84 6:3
Donor’s Hill - 26:14 12:0 Hadeija - - - 209+ 39
Wyndham - - 25°06 + 86
Daly Waters - - 24:94 8:7

Hall’s Creek - - 19°44 7:2

236

The variability at Bathurst is seen to be of the same order as in Australia,
for the Nigerian stations the variability is only half that of the Australian stations.

An instructive comparison is available in the two stations Katherine and Kano.
The seasoral rainfall in each case is 34°5 inches, and both are centres for the
cultivation of the peanut. The standard deviation at Katherine over the 65 seasons
from 1872 to 1937 is + 10°44 inches, the effective length of the season has varied
from 3 months to 6 months, with a mean of 4:45 months, while the lowest seasonal
rainfall has been 16°7 inches and the highest 70°7 inches.

a)
oO

6.)
e)

SNOSV3S JO gre NaoH ad
) e)

10 20 30 40 50 60 70
SEASONAL RAINFALL - INCHES

Fig. 3

Frequency distribution curves of the seasonal rainfall at Kano and Katherine.

Both stations have the same seasonal rainfall, but the proportion of years likely

to receive within 5 inches of the mean is over 70 per cent. for Kano and less than

40 per cent. for Katherine. The differences in the range between the lowest and
the highest likely seasonal rainfall should also be noted.

At Kano, over a period of 17 years, the standard deviation of the seasonal
rainfall has been + 5°48 inches, and the range has been from 26°6 inches to
45°7 inches,

The distributions are sufficiently close to normal to justify a comparison of
the theoretical frequency distribution curves (fig. 3). The essential facts regard-
ing the comparison are well summarised in these curves. Reliability of rainfall

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238
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239

CoNCLUSION

The climate of the greater part of tropical Australia may thus be said to be
characterised by its seasonal character. Any system of agriculture suitable for
this region must seek its counterpart in other parts of the world where such
systems have been developed. West Africa has been selected for comparison as
having a long tradition in this respect and of affording numerous parallels with
respect to soil and climate. ‘The areas suitable for such systems in Australia are
restricted to those of fig. 1 B, in which for some period of the year the monthly
ratio of rairfall to saturation deficit of 35 is exceeded, with a marginal fringe
along the southern boundary. These areas will be seen to be restricted to the
Kimberley coastline, to the northern part of Arnhem [and and its western settled
extension and to the Cape York Peninsula. In these arcas a season of five months’
duration includes one month of very wet conditions, this combination probably
representing the ideal conditions for high yields of most tropical crops adapted to
short seasons.

Apart from these areas, the coastal belt of Queensland should be noted. The
conditions here are entirely different and the length of season is much greater.
‘The map, moreover, reveals the reason for the necessity for irrigating sugar-cane
in the Burdekin delta at Ayr. An important factor which is to be noted is the
great variability of the seasonal rainfall in tropical Australia. No attempt has
heen made to map this variability—examples only have been given. The subject

is suggested as one for further study by a statistician. VF urther limitations to the
scope for agricultural development are likely to be imposed by soil conditions in
these areas. More information is required, however, before any quantitative
assessment of this factor can be attempted.

REFERENCES
Brooks, C. E. P, 1916 Q. J. Met. Soe., 42, 85
Brooks, C. E. P. 1920 ©. J. Met. Soc., 46, 204
Brooks, C. E, P. 1920 Q. J. Met. Soc., 46, 289
Datzret, J. M. 1937 “The Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa,” Colonial
Office, London
Daviwson, J. 1936 Trans. Roy. Soc, S. Aust., 60, 88
Menxtaup, J. 1912 “Haut Senegal—Niger (Soudan Irancais), 2 vols, Paris
Nicerra 1930 9th Ann, Bull. Agr. Dept.
NicertA 1931 3rd Spec. Bull. Agr. Dept. (by C. J. Lewin)
Prescott, J. A. 1936 Trans, Roy. Soc. 5. Aust, 60, 93
Prescott, J]. A. 1938 J. Aust. Inst. Agr. Sci., 4, 33
Sampson, H.C. 1936 Bull. Misc. Information, A.S. 12, Kew
TrumBie, H.C, 1937 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 61, 4]

APPENDIX
In the appendix are given two maps to the same scale: one of Nigeria and
one of the area of tropical Australia under consideration. These are intended in
part as keys to the localities mentioned in the text.

240

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ABORIGINAL CRAYON DRAWINGS III
THE LEGEND OF WATI JULA AND THE KUNKARUNKARA WOMEN

By C. P. MOUNTFORD ACTING ETHNOLOGIST, SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM.

Summary

In August, 1935, the author was afforded an opportunity to accompany an expedition to the
Warburton Ranges of Western Australia under the auspices of the Board of Anthropology of the
University of Adelaide, assisted by funds from the Rockefeller Foundation. These were
administered by the National Research Council.

241

ABORIGINAL CRAYON DRAWINGS _ III
THE LEGEND OF WATI JULA AND THE KUNKARUNKARA WOMEN

By C. P. Mountrorp, Acting Ethnologist, South Australian Museum
Piates XIJT anp XIV
[Read 14 July 1938]

INTRODUCTION

In August, 1935, the author was afforded an opportunity to accompany an
expedition to the Warburton Ranges of Western Australia under the auspices
of the Board of Anthropology of the University of Adelaide, assisted by funds
from the Rockefeller Foundation. ‘These were administered by the National
Research Council.

While stationed at the base camp at Warupuju—a native water on the
junction of the Elder and Warburton Creeks—the writer was able to collect
drawings [vom the aborigines of these parts. Some of these drawings, which
were exected on sheets of brown paper with red, yellow, black and white crayons,
are described below.

As explained in a previous paper (Mountford, 1937C), special care was
taken to avoid influencing the choice of either subject or colour. Until the
aborigines became conversant with the author’s wishes, the only direction given
them was to make zealka (marks) on the paper. In a few days, however, such
a request was not necessary; the natives became so cager to “make marks” that
the author was unable to gather all the relevant information, The supply of
paper and crayons had then to be curtailed accordingly. The significance of the
various symbols and the relevant legends were recorded on a sheet, together with
the registration number of the native and the date. K is the symbol for the
Warburton Range expedition and precedes the number of the particular native.

‘The drawings relate to the wanderings and exploits of the aborigines’
ancestors who inhabited the surrounding country in far-off mythical times. The
aborigine referred to these beings—of which there were many—as tjukur, or
people of the dream time. A suggested parallel of this “dream time” would be
that of the Creation as recorded in Genesis. The drawings obtained were, for
the most part, of a sacred nature, and were not seen by the women, children, or
uninitiated youths. This applies particularly to the suite under review.

In a previous paper (Mountford, 1937C) the author dealt with drawings
which related to the travels and adventures of two ancestral beings, the Wat
Kutjara (IVati—men, Kutjara—two). Those recorded in this paper tcll of a
human ancestor, Wati Jula, and a number of Kunkarunkara women. (Kunka
or Kunkawara—fully developed woman).

Trans. Roy. Suc. S.A., 62, (2), 23 Decemher 1938

242

The Ngada tribe of the Warburton Ranges, amongst whom the members
of the expedition worked, is divided into two divisions, the Tjindulakalngurit
(tjindu—sun, nguru—camp) (literally, those who camp or sit in the sun), and
the Wiltjalanguru (wiltja—shade, nguru—camp) (those who camp in the shade),
(Tindale, 1935, 171). The Watikutjara belong to the anccstral beings of the
former class, and Wati Jula to those of the latter.

According to ‘Tindale, both ancestors came from the cast and travelled
towards the west. The Wati Kutjara passed close to the north of Warupuju,
visiting Telele (Mountford, 1937C, fig. 2), a waterhole some ten miles north-
west. In fig. 7 of this suite, Wati Jula is associated with the same locality.
Similarly, the Wati Kutjara visited Julia in the distant north-cast (Mountford,
1937C, fig. 12). In fig. 3, the man Jula stayed at Kapi Jukata, which was close to
Julia. In fact, the place name Julia suggests some connection with the,
ancestor Jula.

Again, both the Wati Kutjara and Wati Jula possessed a group of women
called the Kunkarunkara; with, however, the distinet difference that whereas the
Wati Kutjara were the protectors of the women (Mountford, 1937C, 20), Jula
seems to have always been their pursuer.

In both cases the ancestors, as well as their women, were transformed into
stars, the Wati Kutjara becoming the Gemini; of which a Gemini is Mumba, the
younger, and 8 Gemini, Kurukadi, the elder.

Jula, on the other hand, is represented in the sky by a series of stars forming
part of Orion; the a and y, i¢., Betelgeux and Belectrix, being the knees, and
Orion’s belt, the toes. Between Jula’s knees are three red stars, which represent
the Kunkarunkara women whom Jula pursued with such pertinacity.

In the interpretation of the drawings, Jula’s women were always referred to
as the Kunkarunkara. Tater on, when discussing the women depicted in the
Wati Jula drawings with Pitawara, our interpreter, he said that, although they
were called the Kunkarunkara, they were not the real Kunkarunkara, but only
resembled them. As the Wati Kutjara were Pitawara’s totem ancestors, it is quite
understandable that he would not consider the women belonging to the ancestral
human being of the other moiety of the tribe—even though they bore a similar
name—to be the same as those of his own totemic being.

The drawings of the Wati Kutjara (Mountford, 1937C) and the Wati Jula
suites have several points in common. In the Wati Kutjara legend Mountford
1(1937C), in fig. 16, depicts an almost identical object constructed and discarded
under similar circumstances by the Wati Jula. Fig. 8 (1937 C) is the mark
made by the dragging of the wanigi by the Wati Kutjara; while fig. 4 of the
present series is almost identical. ‘The Wati Kutjara left two nose bones behind
which turned into hills (see Mountford, 1937 C, fig. 3, R and S). Wati Jula
did the same thing (see fig. 9 of this paper), and two similar natural features
arose. From these comparisons it is evident that each moicty of the tribe has a

248

similar legendary story which relates to the doings of their own particular human
ancestors. In both the Wati Kutjara and Wati Jula legends, the men had women
who bore the same name, and were later transformed into stars; the men also
becatne stars, and both ancestors travelled from east to west, visiting similar
waterholes, all of which lie to the north of W arupuju. In many other ways,
recorded in both the Wati Kutjara and Wati Jula drawings, these people had
adventures in common.

A point worthy of note is the eastward direction of travel of both the Wati
Kutjara, the Wati Jula and the Kunkarunkara. These routes may be those taken
by the first inigrating group of aborigines. Such an aspect requires further study.

DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1 illustrates Wati Jula and the Kunkarunkara women (Kunk
young woman) at Kapi Kurubalqua (kapi—water). This was drawn by K 36,
a young aborigine about 20 or more years of age. Six drawings in this suite

Fig. 1

were his work and all referred to the topography and legends of his tribal area.
Wati Jula is shown at A, lying on his abdomen, watching the women prepare their
camp at K. OP, OR and N indicates his arms, legs and head, respectively. A is
now a long hill that resembles Jula’s body. From this place he walked to C, where
he urinated, thereby creating the waterhole Kapi Kurubalqua. Some drops of
Wati Jula’s urine were responsible for the small waterholes at D. B, Jabu Muarlili
(Jabu—hill or rock) was made where the ancestor sat down for a rest. T, and
EF are the hills that rose up where his buttocks and feet rested, respectively.

é er The colours used in this and other drawings of the present series are indicated
on fig. 2.

244

The next stage in Jula’s journeyings was from Jabu Murlili (B) to Jabu
Inbunda (U). The footmarks are indicated at G. At U, the man again rested,
and a similarly shaped hill appeared, U representing the depression made by the
buttocks, and L and M those of the legs.

Wati Jula still had in mind the capturing of the women, and with this object
in view approached them from the direction of their windbreak, J, He was un-
successtul, however; the women, seeing him coming, ran away towards the north-
west, closely pursued by Wati Jula.

A point of interest in connection with fig. 1 is the dissimilarity of the two
symbols, B and U, both of which are used to denote the same thing, /.e¢., the

RED ||
BLACK ASS
YELLOW
WHITE Co

Fig. 2

impression in the sand made by the seated Wati Jula. B, is represented entirely
by rectangles, and U, by more or less circular markings.

Among the Aranda (Mountford, 1937 A, 93), the U within U design has
a similar significance, /.¢., a man’s camp, or where he was seated on the ground.

Fig. 2 was also the work of K 36, and depicts the natural features created
by three animal ancestors, i.c,, Wali Jula, Nurlu, a large mouse (unidentified)
and Nuna, a snake. Starting from the upper hight-hand corner are the tracks,
M, N, of Nurlu, which, judging by those shown at O, is one of the indigenous
marsupials. The animal-being passed through the semi-permanent waterhole,
Kapi Widjul (indicated by the large spiral H), only a short distance north of
our base camp. Continuing on his journey, Nurlu travelled through rock holes,
F and A to R; the former waterholes being named Kapi Ningaru. © indicates
the hind feet and tail tracks of this small ancestral animal, and the small ovals
at G its tracks.

245

Nurlu apparently gave birth to young at R (although the artist did not say
so), for S, 1, V and W are the young Nurlus, which, at the present day are
small hills situated in the middle of a stony plain. R is now a totemic stone that
represents the body of the mother Nurlu. The ground around this place is
tended by the natives of that totem, who erected the wind break P, Q to
assist in keeping the stone clean. R was described as a “pretty stone,” similar
to another totemic stone adjacent to Warupuju. In order to give some idea as
to the probable appearance of R, the wallaby or /awalpa, totemic stone is
illustrated on pl. xili, fig. 1.

ZZ PR a oa +4

a | RY
rage cat ae

Fig. 4

X is a tali, sandhill, Y is a windalka, mulga tree, and W is a semi-permanent
waterhole, Kapi Kaldura, all of which features were the work of the mythical
snake, Nuna.

Ancestral Wati Jula passed through this country; starting at A, Kapi
Ningaru, he travelled to H, Kapi Widjul. His tracks are shown as C. D and F.
While at the latter locality Jula made the waterhole and camped for the night.
Here he constructed a wanigi,“@) which he left at J. It is now a large. stony hill.

Tig. 3 depicts a wanigi made by Jula. The artist, Mungalo (K 14), did
not say whether it is the same as that shown on ,fig. 2. The middle stick T is
made of a spear, on which cross pieces A, B, are fixed. String made of fur is
wound in the manner shown in the drawing. W, X, and Y are the footmarks of
Jula, and V a waterhole, Kapi Jakuka, adjacent to Julia. Fig. 3 is similar

a wanigi.

246

Tig. 4 refers to a large hill, X, called Jabu Wiraruba, situated north-east
of our base camp. I 14, the middle-aged artist, said that Jula came from the
west dragging a wanigi with him (see fig. 3). The broad red line outlined with
white across the centre of fig. 4 signifies the mark made by this object.

Although the significance of Y was not obtained, it no doubt refers to some
part of the topography of the country, probably a deep valley. In fig. 9, Kapi
Wiraruba is again figured, the large hill having, apparently, been created from
a portion of Jula’s genitalia.

Fig. 5 was the work of a young aborigine (K 52), aged about 25, called
Ndanundja. The drawings illustrate some fourteen water catchments in the
country north of Warupuju. Jula entered this territory—indicated on the left of
the page—in company with the Kunkarunkara women. At every place along
the route where the women camped for the night a waterhole appeared, i.c., at
P, O, M, L, Kk, J and I. The parallel lines that connect these places indicate
the ranges of hills that rose up under the feet of Jula as he walked along in
company with the women. Reading from the left, the waterholes are named thus:
P, Kapi Elagudjara; O, Kapi Wunan; M, Kapi Muriga; L, Kapi Murumbal;
Kk, Kapi Jurimba; J, Kapi Kunkarunkara; and I, Kapi Kunjunura. Wati

Jula and the women left these parts in the direction indicated by the arrow. ‘The
meaning of the circles at QO was not given.

The upper group of concentric circles is symbolical of a line of waterholes
ercated by Tjakobari, a mythical emu. Entering this part of the country at I,
a waterhole was created at every camping place, i.e., at H and G, both called Kapi
Ewari; F, Kapi Nurien; E, Kapi Tinkulmungata; D, Kapi Watundja; C, Kapi
Widjul, a place north-west of our camp (see H, fig. 2); and B, Kapi Nulungari.
The parallel lines connecting these localities are hills that rose up from the tracks
of the emu.

247

A comparison between this drawing and that in fig. 2 shows that Kapi Widjul
was created by two ancestors, 7.e., Jula in fig. 2 and the emu Tjakoberi in fig. 5.
As the routes of the wanderings of the totemic ancestors cross the country in
many directions, it is not surprising that more than one totemic group would
claim that some more important waterhole or natural feature was the work. of
their particular forbear.

The particularly decorative sheet, fig. 6, was produced by an aged aborigine,
K 3, named Tolaru. The numerous symbols with which the old man laboriously
filled the sheet represent a number of Kunkarunkara women travelling from
Kapi Lelele, A, B. These waterholes, created by the Kunkarunkara, were situated
some ten miles north-west of Warupuju. The women were all moving toward

ee
a

==

a

a

the west, carrying their digging sticks, wana, with them. IK 3 was not aware of
their destination, but only knew that in far-off mythical times they had travelled
through the sandhill country north of our camp. The figures, such as C, D, E, F
and so on, are the women who, as they travelled, trailed their digging sticks in
the sandy soil; W, X, Y and Z signify these marks. At F, the details of the
women themselves are shown. S, is the head; [., the body; M, the buttocks;
and K, the hair string bound around their hair. Tolaru made no reference to
Wati Jula. Mountford (1937 C, fig. 2) records a drawing, also the work of K 3,
that relates to one of the Watikutjera at Lelele.

An elderly, one-eyed aborigine named Jandjibalana (K 24) made the draw-
ings of fig. 7, These illustrate a number of waterholes, hills, creeks, and springs

E

248

made by Wati Jula. The latter is indicated at B. Entering this area in the direc-
tion of the arrow on the lower left-hand corner, the ancestor made C, Karu Wanba
(Raru—creek), In this creek there is good spring water. From there he travelled
through F, G, H, J, K, 5, L, M. He created the large hill N, Jabu Pukuna,
and the three waterholes P, Q, and R. Starting from F, the names of the
localities in which water can be found are: F, Kapi Dudina; D and H are
unnamed, H being only a small catchment; J, Kapi Widjul (see fig. 5); K, Kapi
‘Lyjilida. L, M and P and Q were unnamed, except that Q was specified as a
large waterhole situated in a northerly direction. R was called Kapi Tarkulkura.
The departing tracks of the ancestor appear in the upper right-hand corner at O.

The significance of the groups of concentric circles in the lower part of the
sheet was not obtained, but it is reasonable to suppose that these have a similar
meaning to those already indicated. Wati Jula did not meet anyone whilst in
this locality.

Tig. 8 was drawn by Mungalu (K 14), an elderly aborigine who produced
several unusual drawings, particularly those dealing with the Wati Kutjara
(Mountford, 1937 C, pl. i). In this case the drawing shows the waterholes made
by three beings, t.¢., the Kunkarunkara women, Tjidowri, a snake, and Nirunba,
a small unidentified bird. The bird itself does not appear to have travelled about,
but created the hills R, 5S. G. H, O, J, and C. Q, Kapi Wilkurul, a large rock

hole, is also his handicraft. This ancestral bird lives at the present day in the

249

hills.) Vhe Kunkarunkara created hills D, K and P, but Mungalo, the artist,
was not aware of the women’s destination. A mythical snake, Tjidowri, made
Kapi Kamina, E, and Kapi Ngunduluga, L and M.

Tig. 9 was the work of K 36 and depicts an area of his own tribal country.
Its natural features were created when Wati Jula came across the camp of the
Kunkarunkara women, with whom he wished to co-habit. IJlis advances, how-
ever, were repulsed.

‘The series of small circles at U and W, which are now low rises, are repre-
sentations of the women. A large hill, A, Jabu Wilraburuba, is the transformed

wibu (phallus) of Wati Jula. F are the pubic hairs, and G a hill called Jabu
Wiraruba (see fig. 4).

Some of the symbols shown to the right of A (Jabu Wilraburtuba), in the camp
of the Kunkarunkara, are of intercst. “Phe A-shaped marks at T, superficially
resemble T and W of fig. 1; and, being associated with a camping place, may;
represent a seated aborigine. The semi-circular figures adjacent to U, the enclosed
circles, and the parallel straight lines at X, are somewhat like sketches of camps

@) This particular belief regarding ancestral beings living in waterholes was met
with repeatedly during our work with this tribe. Spencer and Gillen (1904, 252) give
details of an ancestral snake who lived more or less permanently in the waterhole. The
bird menticned in fig. 8 is the first case observed by the author in which an ancestor
still lives in the hills,

250

made by the natives of these parts. In this case the semi-circular lines represent
the windbreak, the circle within, the woman, and the parallel straight lines, the
sticks of firewood laid in readiness for the evening fires.“ A number of natural
features was created by Wati Jula. R, one of Jula’s camps, is now a large hill.
By the same agency S, Kapi Wunan (see fig. 5), was created. O and Q are hills,
Jabu Ngenga, previously the nose bones left behind by the ancestor.“ D is
recorded as Windulka. This is the aboriginal name for the mulga tree (Acacia
aneuris), but whether D represents such a tree, or is a natural feature bearing
that name, was not ascertained.

Fig. 9

Concentric circles, H, J, K, and M, are hills created by the mythical women,
and L a waterhole.

Jula entered these parts from the lower right (see arrow), and after the
escape of the Kunkarunkara followed them in the direction of the north-west.
The arrow on the top indicates the direction.

Figs. 10 and 11 are of particular interest in that they show, to the aborigines’
satisfaction at any rate, how the parallel lines of sandhills, which are so charac-
teristic a feature in the western desert country of Central Australia, came into

©) A copy of an aboriginal sketch of a native camp is drawn in miniature at E.
T, in this example, is the windbreak behind which the natives sleep. R, are those people
on either side of the fires U V, across which a log of wood is laid. The spare firewood,
by which the fire would ibe replenished at night, is indicated by the straight lines at S.

© A similar incident happened in the Wati Kutjara legend (Mountford 1937 C,
R. and S, fig. 3).

251

being. ‘The area depicted in fig. 10 belonged to K 36, and the drawing is his
work.

The groups of small circles at A are the Kunkarunkara women camped behind
a windbreak, R. Parallel lines, E, are the tracks made by the women as they
approached their camp at A. These tracks are now a thick growth of trees.

y

Ze
Lillia

LLL

252

While at this place, which is close to a waterhole called Mamai, the ancestral
women played and danced from A to B, the gutters produced in the sand by their
feet forming the spinifex covered flats between the present lines of parallel sand-
hills. The white outer lines of the long rectangles, C in fig. 10, are those flats, and
the inner yellow or black lines, the intervening sandhills.

Ry good fortune, the author, while at Warupuju, witnessed a similar dance
to that performed by the mythical Kunkarunkara women. At the commencement
of the circumcision ceremony the women perform a short dance, nangbi,
in which they move along abreast, shuffling their feet in a peculiar manner (pl. xiii,
fig. 2). The resulting marks made in the sandy soil resemble, in a remarkable
manner, the alternate swales and ridges of the sandhill country. A photograph

Fig. 12

of the tracks made on this occasion (pl. xiv, fig. 1), compared with an aerial view
of the actual parallel sand ridges“) (pl. xiv, fig. 2), illustrates the similarity
between the tracks of the women and the sandhills,

A similar legend to fig. 10 is connected with fig. 11. In this case the
Wunkarunkara made the hill, A (Jabu Jenabunda), and then danced away back-
ward toward the west. The white lines are the marks made by her feet, now the
crests of fali (sandhills), while the space coloured yellow, i.c., B, C, D, and so on,
the bila (spinifex covered flats), between them.

lig 12 was also the work of K 36, and the incidents here depicted centre
around the waterhole, Meitika, situated in the artist’s tribal area.

©) This photograph, kindly lent by Dr. C. T. Madigan, was taken over the Simpson
Desert, Central Australia, from the height of 4,000 icet,

253

At this place the ancestral women camped; the series of circles adjacent to
Q indicating the place where they seated themselves. R is a long hill, Jabu Meitika,
that rose out of the ground to form a windbreak for the resting women.

lt was in the bulba (cave), at Meitika, that the ancestral women prepared a
cake by grinding grass seeds. Previous to this the floor of the cave was level,
but since that day a hole exists, worn by the women in their efforts to reduce the
grass seed into flour. This depression is now filled with water, and forms Kapi
Meitika, one of the well-known supplies of the neighbourhood. T is the outline
of the cave. When the women had roade the damper (or cake), they placed it
at N. From notes provided by Mr. N. B. Vindale, it appears that Wati Jula
surprised the women at this place, and was successful in catching one while she
was preparing the cake for cooking. Ie crept towards another sleeping woman,
but, being too eager, slipped and took the skin off his shins. This misfortune
allowed the woman time to escape. Possibly all the women fled at the same time,
for the damper, the bottom grinding stone, and the wooden dish that contained
the grass seed were left at N and D. The grinding stone and dish were trans-
formed into a large hill at the back of Mcitika, the bottom portion being the
grinding stone, the upper the wooden dish, while the damper is now a hill that
slopes downward toward the waterhole.

The women entered this country from the direction of U (lower right-hand
corner) and travelled in a south-easterly direction, V. Various other natural
features are depicted on this sheet. K, M, O, P are hills. 5 is a mulga, and 1. an
unidentified tree called Pulguru. F, G, and Ho are small waterholes, while Ff,

Kapi Purdi. is a large rock hole inside of a cave.

Discussion

The drawings of the Wati Jula legend are somewhat similar in design and
general meaning to those of the Wati Kutjara, and, as in the case of the latter,
the designs, colours used, meaning of the various symbols, and the ages of the
artists, were analysed and fully discussed, no good purpose would he served in
repeating that discussion.

Of the present material, six out of the twelve drawings were the work of
one man, K 36, who was of the Wati Jula totem. The drawings executed by this
aborigine, figs. 1, 2, 3, 9, 10 and 12, most of which relate to his own tribal area,
contain much more detail and interest than those produced by other men, who
were obviously not as conversant either with the legend of Wati Jula or the
topographical features created by him. All the drawings of K 36 referred to
his country, and the doings of his ancestor. It is difficult for the average person
to appreciate an aborigine’s intense interest in and knowledge of his country;
but when we consider that every hill, every creek, every large Uree, every water-
hole is, in the mind of the native, created by semi-human beings who were the
ancestors of his tribe, we can better understand the intimate association between
the native and his country. This understanding and affection for his tribal arca
was strongly exemplified in Pitawara, our interpreter.

254

While on our outward journey we passed through an area of drifting sand-
hills and spinifex-covered flats, which, from the European’s viewpoint, could
hardly be less inviting. Yet Pitawara, turning to one of the members of the!
expedition, remarked, “This good fellow country, this my country.” Here he
pointed out, with obvious pleasure and pride, the creeks made by the Wati
IWutjara, his own forbears, and told us of the doings of his and other ancestral
beings who created the few natural features that the country possessed. To him,
this barren, uninviting area was full of interest because of the adventures and
exploits of the mythical progenitors of his tribe.

A remarkable example of the association in the native’s mind of incidents
of the present day with those of the “dream time” is shown in the legend that
explains the existing parallel lines of sandhills as the marks left in the ground
by the mythical women when they performed the ceremonial dance (see pl. xiv,
figs. 1 and 2). Similarly, in text fig. 12, the likeness of the hill at Mecitika to a
wooden carrying dish resting on the lower grinding stone (a common enough sight
in any native camp), no doubt suggested the first part of the myth. Subsequently,
the other details would be built up concerning the spot, until today we meet the
legend in its present form.

SUMMARY

This paper records twelve crayon drawings that relate the exploits of a
mythical human being, the Wati Jula, and a group of women, the Kunkarunkara.
The similarity between this legend and that of the Wati Kutjara, as recorded
in a previous paper, the aborigine’s relation to his own totemic area and the
possible source of such legends are discussed.

REFERENCES
TinpALE, N. B. 1936 Oceania, 7, (4), 481-485
Mounrtrorp, C. P. 19374 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 61, 84-95
Mountrorp, C, P. 19378 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 61, 236-240
Mowuntrorp, C. P. 1937c Record of S. Aust. Mus., 6, (1), 5-28
SPENCER and GitteN 1904 Northern Tribes of Central Australia, 252

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1938 Vol. 62, Plate XIII

Fig. 1
Totemic Tawalpa (Wallaby) Stone, Warupuju, Warburton Ranges, Western Australia

Fig. 2
Women dancing Nangbi dance at circumcision ceremony, Warupuju,
Warburton Ranges, Western Australia

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1938 Vol, 62, Plate XIV

Fig. 1
feet of women when performing Nangbi dance at
Warburton Ranges, Western Australia

Gutters made in ground by
circumcision ceremony,

Ing. 2
arallel sand ridges, Simpson Desert, 4,000 teet

CAMBRIAN AND SUB-CAMBRIAN FORMATIONS AT
PARACHILNA GORGE

By D. MAWSON D.Sc., F.R.S.

Summary

The occurrence at Parachilna Gorge of Cambrian limestone with well preserved Archaeocyathinae
fossils has long been known [Howchin, 1922 and 1925]. In the papers cited, Howchin has accepted
as of Cambrian age a great thickness of beds underlying the fossiliferous Cambrian horizon. The
evidence available appears to indicate that Archaeocyathinae of our beds are indicative of a Lower
Cambrian age. This assignment is in accordance with David's views [Sir Edgeworth David, 1932],
which are based on the findings of Dr. F. W. Whitehouse. As there is in the Flinders Range an
immense thickness of unfossiliferous strata below the Archaeocyathinae horizon, it would appear
probable that such are all Pre-Cambrian with the exception of a very thick arenaceous series which
immediately underlies the Archaeocyathinae — containing limestone series, and with which it
appears to be conformable wherever I have examined it. I am adopting this interpretation, which
seems the most reasonable unless, and until, definite Cambrian fossils are discovered at a lower
horizon. For the present, the beds lying immediately below this quartzite will be referred to as sub-
Cambrian.

255

CAMBRIAN AND SUB-CAMBRIAN FORMATIONS AT PARACHILNA GORGE
By D. Mawson, D.Sc., F.R.S.
[Read 11 August 1938]

The occurrence at Parachilna Gorge of Cambrian limestone with well-
preserved sirchacocyathinae fossils has long been known {Howchin, 1922 and
1925]. In the papers cited, Howchin has accepted as of Cambrian age a great
thickness of beds underlying the fossiliferous Cambrian horizon. The evidence
available appears to indicate that Archaeocyathinae of our beds are indicative of a
Lower Cambrian age. This assignment is in accordance with David’s views [Sir
Edgeworth David, 1932], which are based on the findings of Dr. IF. W, White-
house. As there is in the Flinders Range an immense thickness of unfossiliferous
strata helow the Archacocyathinae horizon, it would appear probable that such
are all Pre-Cambrian with the exception of a very thick arenaceous series which
immediately underlies the Archacocyathinae-containing limestone series, and with
which it appears to be conformable wherever I have examined it. [ am adopting
this interpretation, which seems the most reasonable unless, and until, definite
Cambrian fossils are discovered at a lower horizon. For the present, the beds
lying immediately below this quartzite will be referred to as stb-Cambrian.

Howebin [1925, 22] states that “no occurrence of fossiliferous Cambrian
age is known to exist between Wilson and Parachilna, a distance of 65 miles.”
Nevertheless, outcrops of Archaeocyathinae limestone do occur over the greater
part of this length. Wherever I have examined outcrops of Archaeocyathinae
limestone in the Flinders Range area, it is found always to overlic with apparent
conformity a great quartzite horizon, which | am accepting as the basal formation
of the Lower Cambrian of South Australia. This is the quartzite of the range
to the west of Wilson, of the Elder Range, of Wilpena Pound, of the Aroona
Range, and of the Chase Range. It is, in fact, the greatest single feature of the
Flinders Range. As this quartzite is responsible for the physiographic feature
known as Wilpena Pound and other pound formations in the Flinders Range,
I propose that it be designated the “Pound Quartzite.” Thus the Pound Quartzite
is accepted as the base of the true Cambrian of the Flinders Range.

I have made many traverses in the Flinders Range establishing the above
contention, but only one, that across the strata at Parachilna Gorge which
illustrates the relation of the beds, is included herewith. Other sections and an
account of the Cambrian and sub-Cambrian beds as far down as the Sturtian
tillite horizon will be published shortly.

Ilowchin [1922] has shown that the Flinders Range in the neighbourhood
of Parachilna Gorge is composed of a thick series of beds arched over Blinman,
which is located in the centre of the Range, and, on either flank, dipping down
steeply beneath the plains bordering Lake Torrens on the west and Lake Frome

‘Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 62, (2), 23 December 1938

256

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257

on the east. He thus explains the location of Archacocyathinae limestones skirt-
ing the Range on either flank but absent in the central region. However, though
fossils were absent, he regarded all the formations of the central area as Cambrian.

The sections submitted herewith, completed in 1936, traverse the fossiliferous
Cambrian formation on the west flank of the Range and extend some distance
below. The arst section was selected over suitable ground to illustrate the nature
and sequence of the fossiliferous Cambrian beds. The second section is a traverse
across a belt of sub-Cambrian strata lying immediately below the fossiliferous
Cambrian.

Marble, rich in Archaeocyathinae, occupies a limited area at the entrance
to the Gorge. but at that point the succession of the beds is disturbed by faults.
Accordingly, the section of the upper beds, illustrated herewith, was run across
the line of strike (which trends about 10 degrees west of true north) at a point
about a mile north of the Gorge entrance. There the main body of the quartzite
and the overlying limestones are not seriously disturbed by dislocations. How-
ever, in this section the sub-Cambrian beds are badly shattered and dislocated.
Consequently, only the upper portion of these is included ta show general relation-
ship with corresponding beds well tilustrated in the second section.

This second section was run across the strike on an approximately east to
west line at about one mile to the south of the Gorge entrance. Actually, the
castern extremity of the section was close to the Blinman road at a point about
four miles bv road towards Blinman from the Gorge entrance. At this spot the
beds immediately underlying the Pound Quartzite are undisturbed by dislocations
until the eastern limit of the section is reached.

The tabulated data below give details of 54 divisions recorded in the upper
section, and 21 divisions in the lower section. It will be seen that two horizons
of chocolate-coloured tuffaccous shales are recorded in the sub-Cambrian included
within this purview.

In the limestones immediately underlying the Pound Quartzite a band
characterised by what is referred to as micro-cryptozoGn structure, is recorded
in both sections, This is a fine mesh-like fossil or pscudo-fossil structure, which
will be discussed in another publication dealing with algal fossils and pseudo-
fossils of the Cambrian and Pre-Cambrian of the Flinders Range.

A feature of the Pound Quartzite is, that at several horizons in the forma-~
tion the weathered face is studded with nodules as a result of the superior hardness
of the cementing material in clots distributed through the stone. The nodular
or “clot” feature of this quartzite has been observed at widely separated localitics
in the Flinders Range.

The Cambrian calcareous series in this area has been extensively re-
crystallized and partially dolomitised in some places. As a result, the fossil
forms have been largely obliterated. Silicification, usually in irregular patches, is
evidenced in these limestones. Jn one horizon it is in the form of large chert
nodules. Elsewhere, it is in small branching or honeycomb-forms ramifying
through the marble.

258

The upper limit of the Cambrian beds is not reached in this section, being
lost to sight beneath the alluvial accumulations of the plains. The total thickness
of Cambrian strata illustrated amounts to about 3,500 feet of a calcareous forma-
tion, and 1,500 feet of a basal quartzite. This latter, however, is intersected in
its lower portion by crush and faulting, and may, therefore, be short of the true
thickness of the Pound Quartzite.

The sub-Cambrian beds shown are merely a portion of a more extensive
series which stretches away towards Blinman. Included here is a total of about
3,800 feet, which represents only the topmost formations of this series.

SEcTION Across LOWER CAMBRIAN Beps at PARACIIILNA GORGE

Lower Cambrian Limestones

54 230 ft. of calcareous sandstone and sandy limestone. The sand grains are
well rounded. Archacocyathinae fossils noted.

53-115 ft. of flaggy, siliceous, arenaceous beds, ranging from sandy limestones
to greywacke. Shallow water features exhibited, including current
bedding.

52 = 333: ft. of dolomitic limestone of a granular texture. The rock has sutfered
re-crystallization. To a minor degrce also it has been subjected to
silicification. Traces of Archaeocyathinae still recognisable.

51 172 ft. of granular, dolomitic limestone. Traces of Archaeocyathinac
observed at intervals throughout this section. Near the upper limit
is an horizon much richer in these fossils.

50 =. 213 ft. of massive, granular, dolomitic limestone through which Archaco-
cyathinae are distributed.

49 180 ft. of limestones with abundant Archacocyathinae., — Silicification
appears in small, irregular, disseminated patches.

48 336 ft. of re-crystallized, granular, dolomitic limestone ; indefinite markings.

47 22 ft. of granular, re-crystallized limestone with some faint indications
of Archacocyathinae, Dark-coloured chert nodules are sporadically
distributed through this bed. Dip, 50° to the west.

46 138 ft. of granular (part sandy) limestone. No <Archaeocyathinae

observed.

45 Al ft. of massive limestone with traces of Archacocyathinac.

44 57 {t. of granular, dolomitic limestone with some silicification, Faint
traces of Archacocyathinae,

43 12 fit. of limestone with eryptozodnic banding and minor silicification

distributed through it.

42 267 ft. of re-crystallized, granular limestone with traces of Archaco-
cyathinae, Dip, 50° to the west.

41 121 ft. of re-crystallized, dense limestone. Some bands of intraformational
conglomerate. Dip irregular in part, due to wavy folding.

259

40 192 ft. of buff-coloured, dense limestone, oolitic in part. A faint trace of
Archaeocyathinae noted in one place. Rounded sand grains
embedded in the limestone of some beds.

39 918 ft. of massive, flaggy and colitic limestones.

38 32 ft. of argillaceous limestones and shales.

37 7 {t. of coarse oolitic limestones. Diameter of oolitic spheres about
6 mm.

36 34 ft. of impure limestone.

35 2 it. of silicified oolite.

34 30 ft. of sandy limestone.

33 3 ft. of coarse oolitic limestone.

3,435 {t. total thickness of exposed beds.

Passage Beds
32 23 ft. of flaggy, impure limestone.

31 23 ft. of calcareous shales with abundant worm burrows.

30 3 it. of ferruginous flaggy sandstone.

29 21 ft. of sandy limestone.

28 34 ft. of chocolate-coloured, sandy shales with well-preserved worm casts.

~ 104 ft. total thickness.

Lower Cambrian Basal Quarisite

27 123 ft. of saccharoidal quartzite, for the most part coloured white and of
medium grain size. Fossil impressions resembling brachiopod or
bivalve form, but probably merely impressions of clay galls. Dip,
50°, and strike 10° to the west of true north, For the most part
massive, but with some indication of bedding planes and with occa-
sional current-bedding. In thin section, this bed is scen to be
composed almost entirely of angular quartz grains.

26 50 ft. of faggy sandstone. Dip, 45° to the west.

25 157 ft. of soft reddish sandstone with worm burrows.

24 252 {t. of reddish-coloured, flaggy sandstone, Grains well rounded in
some beds. Current-bedding noted.

23 55 ft. of softer sandstone with more firmly cemented nucleii distributed
through it. These “clots” stand out in relief on the weathered face.

22 15 ft. of chocolate-coloured sandstone, composed mainly of very fine
grains in which are embedded scattered grains of a larger size.

21 90 ft. of chocolate-coloured beds. More massive beds of hard quartzite
of several yards in thickness alternating with softer, thin-bedded
sandstones.

20 7 ft. of chocolate slates exhibiting very fine laminations.

19 23 ft. of hard chocolate-coloured quartzite.

18 13 {t. of thin-bedded chocolate sandstone. These beds are crumpled in

places.

17 78
16 78
15-108
14. 252
13 40
12 27
11 54
10 19
9 114
8 81
7 11

it.
ft.
{t.

ft.

260

of hard quartzite with “clots”. Some current-bedding.

of reddish, thin-bedded, soft sandstone with “clots.”

of very fine, even-grained, chocolate-coloured sandstone. Com-
posed of angular quartz particles with some felspar grains and
mica flakes.

of repeated alternation of bands of hard reddish quartzite and soft
chocolate-coloured slates. Current-bedding and ripple-marks. In
micro-slide the constituents are seen to be angular quartz grains,
lots of muscovite, some felspar, and brown iron-stained material.

. of hard quartzites,
. of soft, laminated, very fine-grained, chocolate-coloured, somewhat

argillaceous sandstone.

. of very hard (strongly cemented) quartzite,

. of red sandstone in part finely laminated. Dip, 65° to the west.
. of hard, red sandstone.

. of a crushed zone in soft, red sandstone.

ft.

of hard, red quartzite. Dip, 75° to the west.

1,524 ft, total thickness.

Passage Beds

6 22 ft. of thinly laminated, sandy shale, somewhat calcareous; mainly

5 202 ft.

4 31 ft.
255 ft.

chocolate-coloured.

of impure, calcareous beds, considerably crushed. Dip, 75° to the
west.

of reddish-coloured, calcareous sandstone.

total thickness,

Sub-Cambrian Limestones

3 222 ft. of a flaggy series of impure limestones and calcareous slates,

traversed by a fault line. Dip, 65° to the west.

2: 76 ft. of impure flaggy limestones with a band of micro-cryptozoén

limestone.

1 150 ft. of impure flaggy limestones and calcareous slates. Faulting and

448 ft. total thickness.

crushing very obvious. In one belt, beds are reduced to a herring-
bone crush. At the base of this block is a general shatter zone.

SECTION ACROSS SUB-CAMRBRIAN BEDS AT PARACILILNA GORGE

Tuffaceous Series
1. An extensive series of chocolate shales, in which bedding planes are, for

the most part, absent. The petrological character of this rock, as.
revealed in microscope slide, indicates a tuffaceous origin.

261

2 300 ft. of very fine-grained, chocolate-coloured, flaggy beds. Some bands
harder than others. In thin section seen to be composed of minute
angular grains of quartz and some felspar with a large proportion
of detrital mica flakes. Chloritic and serpentinous material is
present in notable proportion. ‘This is obviously tuffaceous in origin.
These beds are intersected by veins of baryta with some micaceous
haematite.

300 it. in partial thickness.

Arenaceous Series

3 720 ft. of flaggy greywackes, from grey to brown in colour. Dip, 50° to
the west. In the hand specimen of some bands detrital particles
of micaceous haematite are visible. In microscope section, the con-
stituents are seen to be angular quartz grains, mica flakes and
brown turbid products from the alteration of more basic particles.

4 42 ft. of laminated sandstones and some beds of massive quartzite.
Current-bedding and ripple-marks. Some pseudo-fossil impressions
of the clay gall type.

5 10 ft. of massive white quartzite forming the crest of the ridge. Dip,
65° to the west.

6 124 fr. of flaggy sandstones, mostly light brown in colour.

806 f:. total thickness.

Tuffaccous Serics

7 912 f:. of massive, chocolate-coloured beds. Dip, 45° to the west. Bedding
planes not obvious in hand-specimen, but in microscope slide a sedi-
mentary lamintion is revealed. It is clay-shale-like in fineness of
grain, A great abundance of detrital mica flakes are revealed in
the slide. These beds have every appearance of being tuffaceous
origin. Copper-stained outcrops which have been opened up by
prospectors were observed in this section.

8 138 ft. of fissile chocolate shale, alternating with harder bands. Under the
microscope the harder bands are seen to be coarser-grained, but
otherwise similar to the softer strata. Abundance of mica frag-
ments present.

9, 237 it. of thinly laminated beds of very fine silty material. ‘This rock is
certainly tuffaceous.

1,287 ft. total thickness.

Flaggy Shales, in Part Calcareous

10 57 ft. of faintly laminated and in places curreni-bedded, chocolate-
coloured, somewhat calcareous shales. Dip, 45° to the west. A
baryta vein crosses these beds.

262

ll 70 ft. of flaggy, calcareous beds showing changes from a chocolate colour
to grey.

12 310 ft. of laminated, hard, flaggy shales.

13 144 ft. of thin-banded, flaggy shales only slightly calcareous. These beds
are somewhat wavy and buckled.

14 50 ft. of somewhat calcareous, thin flaggy shales. Dip, 45° to the west.

631 ft. total thickness.

Calcareous Series

15 114 ft. of flaggy shales, with occasional calcareous bands.

16 125 ft. of calcareous, flaggy beds with vague markings.

17 296 ft. of limestones with micro-cryptozoén structure. Dip, 45° to the west.
18 106 it. of calcareous beds, buff-coloured above.

641 ft. total thickness.

Passage Beds
19 54 ft. of somewhat calcareous, hard, chocolate-coloured, silty shales. Tine
laminations are a feature of portion of this section.
54 ft. total thickness.

Basal Cambrian Quartzsite

20 596 ft. of quartzite. Dip, 45° to the west.

21 1,120 ft. of quartzite seen to extend west to and beyond a crest Jine some
500 yards further in that direction.

1,516 it. in partial thickness.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES

Howcnin, W. 1922 “A Geological Traverse of the Flinders Ranges from the
Parachilna Gorge to the Lake Frome Plains,” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust.,
46, 46-82

Howcuin, W. 1925 “The Geological Distribution of Fossiliferous Rock of
Cambrian Age in South Australia, with Geological Notes and Refer-
ences,” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 49, 1-26

Davin, Sir T. W. EncewortH 1932 “Explanatory Notes to Accompany a New
Geological Map of the Commonwealth of Australia,” Sydney, 38

STRONGYLE NEMATODES FROM CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN
KANGAROOS AND WALLABIES

By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON and P. M. MAWSON, University of Adelaide

Summary

The senior author took the opportunity, whilst accompanying anthropological expeditions to Central
Australia between 1928 and 1936, to examine for the presence of parasites many of the larger
marsupials shot in order to supply meat for the aborigines assembled at the various camping places.
Generally, only the stomach was searched because of the lack of time and the prevalence of very
persistent muscid flies. In those cases where the intestine was examined, nematodes were not found
in it. This accounts for the absence of trichostrongyles amongst the material studied. In spite of the
long periods of dry weather and the low rainfall of the regions visited, the very heavy infestation of
nearly all stomachs examined was remarkable. No doubt the scanty soil in the vicinity of the few
springs and rockholes becomes heavily contaminated with eggs and larvae. The great number of
different species and of individual worms to be found reminds one of similar conditions often
encountered in the digestive tract of other herbivores such as the horse, ox, sheep, elephant, etc.

263

STRONGYLE NEMATODES FROM CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN
KANGAROOS AND WALLABIES

By T, Harvey Jounston and P, M. Mawson, University of Adelaide
[Read 11 August 1938]

The senior author took the opportunity, whilst accompanying anthropological
expeditions to Central Australia between 1928 and 1936, to examine for the
presence of parasites many of the larger marsupials shot in order to supply meat
for the aborigines assembled at the various canrping places. Generally, only the
stomach was searched because of the lack of time and the prevalence of very
persistent muscid flics. In those cases where the intestine was examined, nema-
todes were not found in it. This accounts for the absence of trichostrongyles
amongst the material studied. In spite of the long periods of dry weather and
the low rainfall of the regions visited, the very heavy infestation of nearly all
stomachs examined was remarkable. No doubt the scanty soil in the vicinity of
the few springs and rockholes becomes heavily contaminated with eggs and
larvae. The great number of different species and of individual worms to be
found reminds one of similar conditions often encountered in the digestive tract
of other herbivores such as the horse, ox, sheep, elephant, ete.

The iwo main animals searched were the rock wallaby, Petrogale lateralis
Gould, which has a wide distribution in Central Australia and adjacent parts of
South Australia, though restricted to the very rocky areas; and the curo,
Macropus robustus Gould, occupying the less rocky parts of the hilly country in the
same regions. The local subspecies was M. r. erubescens Sclater. Occasionally
a kangaroo. Macropus rufus, Desm., was taken on the great plains. We have
included in our examination some material from M. isabellinus Gould, a species
(or perhaps a subspecies of M. robustus) inhabiting a part of North-western
Australia, the actual host specimens having died in Sydney Zoological Gardens,
the material having been received through the kindness of the Director, Mr.
A. S. Le Souef.

The localities mentioned in this paper are Mount Licbig, now included in the
northern partion of the Aboriginal Reserve in Central Australia; Cockatoo Creek,
lying further to the northward; Ilermannsburg, in the Macdonnell Ranges; also
the following localities in northern South Australia: Ernabella in the Musgrave
Ranges, and Nepabunna in the northern Flinders Ranges. The types of all new
species described in this paper have been deposited in the South Australian
Muscum.

Hosts AND ParasiTes REFERRED TO IN THIS ACCOUNT

Macropus robustus erubescens Sclater.

Labiostrongylus macropodis,; L. longispicularts Wood; L. grandis.
Cloacina minor; C. parva; C. communis; C. frequens; C. macropodis;
C. dubia; C. australis; C. magna; C. curta.

Trans, Roy. Soc, S.A., 62, (2), 23 December 1938

F

264

Macropus isabellmus Gould.
Labiostrongylus longtspicularis Wood.
Macropus rufus Desmarest.
Labtiostrongylus longispicularis Wood.
Cloacina minor; C. petrogale; C. hydriformis; C. liebigi; C. inflata.

Petrogale lateralis Gould.

Pharyngostrongylus alpha; P. beta.

Labiostrongylus longispicularis Wood; L. petrogale.

Cloacina minor; C, parva; C. macropodis; C. petrogale; C. hydriformis;
C. ernabella; C. elegans.

Unless otherwise indicated, all species of nematodes mentioned above are
considered new. The absence of species of Macropostrongylus and the abundance
of species and individuals of the related genus Cloacina are noteworthy.
Pharyngostrongylus was found only in rock wallabies (Petrogale). Labio-
strongvlus was represented in all host species examined.

Of the species found in Macropus robustus, Cloacina minor, C. parva and
C. communis were by far the most common; C. frequens and C. macropodis very
common ; C. australis, C. magna and C. curia not uncommon; C. dubia was recog-
nised only once; and a few Labiostrongyles were found in nearly all examinations.
Only one stomach from Macropus rufus from Central Australia was searched,
most of the parasites being species of Cleacina, but worms obtained many years
ago from a red kangaroo from the western plains of New South Wales were
identified as L. longispicularis, as also were worms from Macropus isabellinus
from North-western Australia.

The commonest parasites of the stomach of Petrogale lateralis were Cloacina
manor, C. parva, C. petrogale, C. hydriformis, Pharyngostrongylus alpha, P. beta,
and Labiostrongylus petrogale, C. ernabella was fairly common. The remainder
were much less frequently met with.

All parasites described in this paper were collected from the stomach.

Pharyngostrongylus alpha n. sp.
Figs. 1-5

Host—Petrogale lateralis, Mount Licbig.

Short, thin, 6-7°5 mm. long in both sexes. Cuticle with very fine striations.
Anterior end with six small rounded papillae, inwardly from these are six rounded
inner lips surrounding narrow mouth, 5 diameter. A short passage, 7 » long,
with slightly chitinised walls, leads into a vestibule, 0-04 mm. long, 0-012 mm.
wide, with strongly chitinised striated walls. Ocsophagus differentiated as in
succeeding species. Excretory pore behind nerve ring and lying at junction of the
two oesophageal regions. Cervical papillae thread-like; about 0°12 mm. from
anterior end. Anterior end of intestine with thick sacculate walls.

265

Male—Ventral lobes of bursa quite separated from each other and almost so
from the long lateral lobes; dorsal lobe well defined with slight median cleft.
Inside wall of bursa with small rough papillae of various sizes, very small on
dorsal and ventral lobes, largest near bursal edge, most abundant on lateral lobes.
Ventral rays close together, parallel, passing into apex of ventral lobes; externo-
lateral short like externo-dorsal, both forming projections on lateral wall of
bursa; lateral rays run together to bursal edge in longest part of lobe; externo-
dorsal arises separately; dorsal ray bifurcates just beyond half its length, each
part giving rise to a short lateral branch, none of these branches reaching bursal
edge, Genital cone, small, rounded; accessory cone with two finger-like processes
on each side; spicules 1-36 mm. long, straight, with striated alae extending for

References to lettering—a.c., accessory genital cone; b.p., prebursal papilla; b.r., chitinous
ring in buecal capsule; c.p., cervical papilla; di, dorsal lip; dx, dorsal ray; ec. moulting
cuticle; e.d.., externo-dorsal ray; clr. externo-lateral ray; ep. excretury pore; g.c., genital
cone; i., intestine; Le, leaf crown; 11, lateral lip; o., oesophagus; s.l, submedian lip; s-p.,
spicule; t.p., tail papilla; v.r., ventral ray.

Figs. 1-5. Pharyngostrongylus alpha—t, head, antero-lateral; 2, antcrior end, lateral view ;

3, bursa, ventro-lateral; 4, head, lateral; 5, female, posterior end. Figs. 6-8
Pharyngostrongylus beta—6, bursa, dorsal; 7, head, atttero-lateral; 8, female,
posterior end. Figs. 1 and 7 to same scale; 6, 3 and 4; 2, 5 and 8.

almost their whole length, tips curved; gubernaculum heart-shaped when viewed
dorsally.

Female—Uteri parallel, joining near vulva; vagina straight, rather short
and, except in very young specimens, projects through vulva and sometimes is
rolled back like a cuff. Anus 0°3 mm. and vulva 0-082 mm. from tip of thin tail.

266

This species differs from P. beta in the characters of the head, position of
excretory pore, relative length of oesophagus and of spicules, and in total length
of body. It resembles P. australis in many features, but differs in dimensions of
vestibule and in possessing no leaf crown. Neither Wood nor Monnig noted the
presence of an accessory genital cone, and the continuation of the dorsal ray noted
by them was not observed in the present species.

Pharyngostrongylus beta n. sp.
Figs. 6-8

Host—Petrogale lateralis, Mount Liebig.

Short, thin, more or Iess straight when preserved. Male, 3-9-5 mim.; female,
7-8 mm. long. Cuticle very finely striated. Mouth collar with six small papillae,
each with an antero-lateral projecting portion, bearing a delicate process 7 » long.
Inwardly from the collar arises the smooth dome-like anterior extremity surround-
ing the circular mouth. No leaf crown. Buccal capsule 18 in diameter, 9p in
length, with chitinous ring at its base. Vestibule about 0-04 mm. long in young
specimens, with annulate chitinous wall. Oesophagus long, narrow, with longer
anterior region and shorter narrower posterior portion widening into a bulb before
joining intestine. Cervical papillae bristle-like, about 0-08 mm. (in young
specimens) from anterior end. Excretory pore just anterior to junction of the
two regions of oesophagus. Nerve-ring just in front of level of excretory pore.

Male—Inside of bursa with numerous, very small, papillae, fewer and smaller
on dorsal lobe. All lobes separated by deep clefts; dorsal lobe with short median
cleft. Externo-lateral and externo-dorsal rays give rise each to a lateral projec-
tion on bursa. Medio- and postero-laterals extend almost to edge of bursa.
Dorsal ray bifureates just beyond half its length, each part giving off a shorter
lateral branch; no part of dorsal ray reaches edge of bursa. Genital cone short;
accessory cone with two finger-like projections. Spicules straight, 1-4 mm. long,
with striated alae and curved tips. Gubernaculum not seen.

Female—Uteri parallel ; vagina straight; distance from vulva to anus about
equal to that from anus to tip of tail. Body narrows from level of vulva to form
a thin tail.

P. beta differs from all described species in the absence of a leaf crown
and in the character of the head papillae. The anterior end suggests that of
P. australis in general form, but the latter has a narrower vestibule and its anus
and vulva are much nearer to each other. The oesophagus and dorsal ray of the
bursa resemble those of P. brevis, but the new species differs from the latter in
having longer spicules, papillae on the bursa and in the absence of a leaf crown.

Labiostrongylus macropodis n. sp.
Figs. 9-14
Host—Macropus robustus, Mount Liebig, Cockatoo Creck.
Males, 21-30 mm. long; females, 24:8-31-2 mm. Maximum breadth, 1-1 mm,
Long stout worms with anterior end prolonged into eight lip-like processes—four

267

of them large bilobed submedian, two rather shorter simple lateral, one short
simple dorsal, and one short simple ventral. Each submedian with long conical
papilla, each lateral with small rounded papilla. Buccal capsule 0°08 mm. long,
0-15 mm. wide, lined by cuticle. Oesophagus long, about one-fifth body length,
straight. Anterior end of intestine surrounded by granular mass forming two
pairs of lateral lobes. Nerve-ring at about 1 mm, from anterior end, and just in
front of excretory pore. Cervical papillae not observed.

Male—Spicules long thin striated, sometimes much curved, 9°4-11:1 mm.
long, about 1-2°5 of body length. Bursa large, lobes well differentiated, ventral
lobes separate. Ventral rays reach almost to bursal edge. Externo-lateral rays

13

Figs. 9-14. Labiostrongylus macropodis—9, female head: 10, female, posterior end; 11,
anterior end, lateral; 12, female, tail; 13, bursa, lateral; 14, bursa, ventral.
Figs. 15-17. Labiostrongytus lengispicularis—15, head, male; 16, bursa, flattened,
posterior view; 17, female, posterior end. Figs. 9 and 12 to same scale; 11 and 17.

short, close to medio-latcrals; medio- and postcro-laterals long, reaching almost
to bursal elee; externo-dorsal arises from same root as laterals, is thick, inter-
mediate in length between medio- and externo-laterals. Dorsal ray relatively
narrow, dividing at about half length, each branch terminating in two short
rounded processes reaching almost to bursal edge.

Female—Uteri parallel, uniting at some distance from vulva; ovejectors
0-8 mm. long; vagina 3 mm., narrow. Anus about midway (0°94 mm.) between
vulva and tip of tail. Tail long, narrow, tapering, with rounded extremity.

The species differs from L. labiostrongylus and L. longispicularis in dimen-
sions, structure of the dorsal ray, and length of spicules.

268

LABIOSTRONGYLUS LONGISPICULARIS Wood 1929
Figs. 15-17

Wood’s unfigured account was based on a male specimen from Mecropus
robustus var. woodwardi, a race living in the Murchison district of Western
Australia. Our material was taken from J. robustus var. erubescens, from
Nepabunna, Northern Flinders Ranges, South Australia.

Long stout worms; male, 4-4 cm.; female, 5°6 cm.; slightly tapering
anteriorly, Six lips, four submedian, two lateral, submedian lips broadened,
slightly bifurcated at tips and bending inwards over mouth; each submedian with
short bristle just behind its midregion; each lateral with small rounded papilla
near tip; no leaf crown. Buccal capsule 0-115 mm. long in male, slightly longer
than broad, walls thinly chitinised, cavity as wide anteriorly as posteriorly.
Oesophagus 8-7 mm. long in male, 9 mm. in female (1:3 and 1:6°2 of body
length respectively), narrow, without definite bulb, though wider near base than
anteriorly. Nerve cord about 1°6 mm. from anterior end; excretory pore about
2mm, from head end. Cervical papillae not observed.

Afale—Bursa stout, lobes definite, ventral lobes distinct from laterals and
separated from each other ventrally. Ventral rays parallel, arising near laterals
but soon bending ventrally to the corner of corresponding ventral lobe, Ventro-
lateral ray short, bending outwards to form slight projection (5) on side of
bursa. Medio- and postero-laterals much longer, travel together, the correspond-
ing part of the lateral lobe forming a horn-like projection when seen dorsally or
ventrally. Externo-dorsal ray short, ariscs with laterals, and projects like the
ventro-lateral. Dorsal lobe separated from lateral by deep fissure. Dorsal ray very
stout, giving off a lateral branch on each side midway from its origin, the branch
extending almost to bursal edge at lateral termination of dorsal lobe; main ray
divides into two parallel branches. Dorsal lobe long, its posterior edge forming
two or three lappets, the two outer (which contain the ends of the dorsal ray)
rounded; between these may he a third more or less devcloped, sometimes con-
taining an abortive median continuation of dorsal ray. Genital cone short, conical
with small button-like papilla at tip. Accessory cone wider, not quite so long,
with several elongate processes laterally. Spicules 17-8 mm. long (1:2°5 of body
length), stout, fairly straight, striated, with striated alae.

Female—Uteri joint about 3:8 mm. from vulva; vagina narrow, coiled; anus
1-4 mm. from tip of short narrow pointed tail; vulva 2-5 mm. from tip of tail.

A male Labtostrongylus was found in the stomach of a rock wallaby,
Petrogale lateralis, {rom Mount Liebig, Central Australia, agreeing in its head
characters with L, longispicularis, The position of the nerve cord was similar,
but the excretory pore was posterior to the oesophagus instead of being near the
nerve-ring, the oesophagus was about one-seventh of the body length, and the
spicules 1: 5-6 of body length instead of 1:2°5. The specimen was only 24 mm.
long. The bursa was asymmetrical and the dorsal ray differed somewhat from
that described above.

269

As there was only one specimen available, we deem it unwise to erect a new
species for it. It seems to be most closely related to L. longispicularis.

A number of specimens taken from Macropus rufus from western New
South Wales and from M. isabellinus (which is probably a variety of M. robustus)
from North-western Australia (from Sydney Zoological Gardens) also belong
to L. longispicularis.

Labiostrongylus grandis n. sp.
Figs. 18-20

From Macropus robustus, Mount Liebig. Male, 4to4°5 cm.; female, 6°8 to
7-5cm. Very large worms, resembling L. longispicularis in general proportions.
Maximum diameter of female, 2°5 mm. Anterior end with eight prolongations
characteristic of genus; submedian bilobed; lateral lips larger than dorsal and

-05 mm

Figs. 18-20. Labiostrongylus grandis-—18, male head, lateral; 19, anterior cnd, male,
ventral; 20, junction of oesophagus and intestine. igs. 21-22. Labiostrongylus
petrogale—21, head, young female, submedian view; 22, bursa, flattencd, posterior
vViCWw.

ventral. shorter than submedians. Laterals, ventral and dorsal lips simple, conical.
Submedian and lateral lips cach with papilla, conical on submedians, small and
rounded on laterals. Apparently small rounded papillae about 0-2 mm. from
anterior end, two of them lateral and perhaps one ventral and one dorsal. Cervical
papillae long, thread-like, arising from cuticular depression 1-1 mm. from anterior
end. Buccal capsule shallow, 0°12 mm. wide, with chitinised portion 0°08 mm.
long; from tip of lips to floor of capsule 0°15 mm. Nerve-ring 1-3 mm. and
excretory pore 1:8 mm. from anterior end. Ocsophagus long, straight,
0-8-0'9 mm. (one-fifth body length) in male, one-sixth in case of female.

270

Male—Bursa with well-defined dorsal, lateral and ventral lobes; ventrals
quite separated from each other and smaller than laterals. Ventral rays equal,
parallel. Externo-laterals, laterals and externo-dorsals arise from same root, the
first shortest, the other two reaching nearly to bursal edge. In posterior view of
bursa externo-lateral and externo-dorsal rays appear to form projections on
lateral walls. Dorsal ray stout, bifurcating at beginning of second half of its
length, each branch subdividing at half its length into an inner club-shaped and
an outer short ray, neither reaching bursal edge. Spicules 12-4 mm. long, 1: 3-3
of body length, fairly straight, striated, with alae extending nearly to the rounded
tips. Accessory genital cone not observed.

Female—Body narrows suddenly after vulva; tail long, thin, with rounded
end bearing two small lateral subterminal papillae, 0-2 mm. from tip. Vulva
2°6 mm. from posterior end. Uteri wide but narrowing greatly into ovejectors
just before the two join about 4 mm. from vulva; vagina narrow, twisted, Eggs,
0-145 by 0-11 mm.

The species differs from L. labiostrongylus in its spicules; from L longi-
Sspicularis in its lips; and from other species in the structure of the dorsal ray.

Labiostrongylus petrogale n. sp.
Figs, 21-22

From Petrogale lateralis, Mount Liebig. Male up to 4:4 cm., female up to
6 cm. Four submedian lip-like prolongations bilobed at distal end, almost meet-
ing over buccal capsule. Lateral lips shorter, conical, with small rounded papilla
near tip; submedian lips each with thin pointed papilla arising from slight bulbous
cuticular enlargement. No dorsal or ventral lips. Buceal capsule with thick
chilinous lining (0°11 mm. long) continuous at its base with lining of ocsophagus ;
floor of capsule 0-195 mm. from anterior end of lips. Oesophagus 6°66 mm.
long in male, te., one-sixth body length, narrow, surrounded by mass of dark
cells at junction with intestine. Cervical papillae thin, about midway between
nerve-ring and anterior end. Nerve-ring and excretory pore at about level of
end of first quarter of oesophagus.

Male—Bursa large; ventral lobes separated from each other, distinctly
marked off from laterals; dorsal lobe with short median cleft. Ventral rays long,
parallel, reaching bursal edge. Externo-lateral shorter than laterals, which extend
almost to edge and are cleft for nearly half length; externo-dorsal thick, arises
with laterals, and longer than externo-laterals. Dorsal ray very thick, bifurcat-
ing at two-thirds length, each branch giving off a lateral, all final branches
slightly bulbous and extending almost to bursal edge. Genital cone long, conical ;
accessory cone with two short thick processes, each ending in one or two finger-
like projections. Spicules about 7°25 mm., i.¢., one-fourth to one-sixth body
length, curved, with striated alae along most of length. Gubernaculum present.

Female—About 0-2 mm. in maximum diameter. Anus about midway
between vulva and tip of tail; latter rather short, tapering, with rounded end
terminating in button-like structure. Vagina long, narrow, twisted.

271

The species resembles 1. longispicularis in its head region, but differs in the
length of spicules and the character of the dorsal ray.

Croacina Linstow (emend.)

Linstow's original diagnosis (1898, 287) indicated that the genus ditfered
from all known nematode genera in having the vulva and anus united into a
female cloaca. Railliet and Henry (Bull. Soc. Path. exot., 6, 1913, 506) stated
that the two apertures were distinct and that the genus was synonymous with
Zoniolaimus. York and Maplestone (1926) gave a much more satisfactory
diagnosis based on Linstow’s account and figures of the type C. dali, as also did
Baylis and Daubney (1926). The original material came from Macropus brownt
Ramsay, from Ralum, New Britain. The genus has been placed in Strongylidae ;
Cloacininac; Cloacinidac; Trichoneminae; and amongst the Strongyloidea “in-
sufficiently known.”

Amongst our material from Australian marsupials we have found numerous
species which we have been able to assign to Linstow’s genus as amended by us.
A revised diagnosis is now given.

Trichoneminac—Mouth directed straight forwards. Mouth collar with
6-8 lips, four of them submedian and two lateral, with in some cases a dorsal
and a ventral: each submedian lip with a prominent papilla; on lateral lips usually
an insignificant papilla. Buccal capsule cylindrical, broader than long; leaf crown
of six elements arising from its internal surface and projecting through mouth
opening. Ocesophagus with more or less developed swelling at its posterior end.

Male—Well developed bursa; ventral lobes joined in front; ventral rays cleft
distally ; externo-dorsal may or may not arise with laterals, medio- and postero-
laterals lying side by side; dorsal ray bifurcates after an half to one-third of its
length, and the two branches subdivide further back. Spicules usually long, thin,
with striated alac. Gubernaculium present or absent.

Female—Body tapering behind vulva; tail usually pointed; distance between
vulva and anus usually about equal to that between anus and tip of tail, Uteri
parallel,

Parasites of the stomach of marsupials. Type C. dahli Linstow.

he chief distinctions between this genus and Macropostrongylus are the
presence of lips and the relative sizes of the lateral and submedian papillae.

Cloacina elegans n. sp.
Figs. 23-27
From Petrogale lateralis, Hermannsburg. Male 6:2 mm. long, 0-5 mm.
maximum breadth; female 6-11 mm. long, 0°6 mm, maximum breadth; rather
thick body forming at least one coil. Six very low lips; the two laterals each with
minute rounded papilla; four submedians each with conical papilla consisting of
longer proximal and small button-like distal portion. Buccal capsule with stout
chitinous ring, 0°014 mm. long, 0-025 mm. diameter, continuous with chitinous

272

floor; six elements of leaf crown arise from base, extend inwardly and then for-
wards to surround mouth aperture, free end of elements projecting beyond lips.
Cervical papillae thread-like, about 0-1 mm. from head end; nerve-ring at
0-17 mm., and excretory pore at 0-37 mm. from anterior end in female. QOecso-
phagus short, 0°52 mm. long, straight, anterior part slightly wider and extending
beyond nerve-ring, bulb in region of excretory pore. Anterior end of intestine
thickened, without lobes.

Male—Spicules 2°2 mm., 1:3 of body length, not straight, with narrow
striated alac extending along almost whole length, tips rounded. Gubernaculum
heart-shaped in dorsal view. Bursa large, lobes distinct, laterals longest. Ventral

+05 mm,

Figs. 23-27. Cloacina elegans—23, female head; 24, female head, optical section;
25, bursa, dorso-lateral; 26, female, posterior end; 27, head end, female, lateral;
Figs. 28-31. Cloacina hydriformis—28, head, female; 29, anterior end, male, lateral;
30, female, posterior end; 31, male, posterior end, dorsal Figs. 23, 24 and 28 to
same scale; 25 and 31; 26 and 30; 27 and 29.

rays thin, straight, almost reaching bursal edge; externo-lateral and externo-
dorsal project slightly on lateral wall of bursa; laterals long, slender, almost reach-
ing edge. Dorsal ray stout, soon dividing, each branch passing postero-laterally
and then giving off a lateral ray extending outwards, then bending to run parallel
with main branch; none of the dorsal branches reaching bursal edge. Genital
cone fairly large; dorsal lip of cloaca without processes.

Female—Body narrows suddenly in region of vagina; tail thin, pointed,
bending dorsally. Uteri parallel; ovejectors 0-49 mm. long; vagina 2-6 mm. long,

273

straight: vulva about 1-3 mm. in front of anus; anus about 1-3 mm. from tip of
tail. Eggs 0-035 by 0-16 mm.

Cloacina hydriformis n. sp.
Figs. 28-31

From Fetrogale lateralis, Mount Liebig; Hermannsburg; Ernabclla.

Short; males, 4°4-5-1 mm. long, 0°29 mm. broad; females, 5-8-6°5 mm. long,
0:36--45 mm. broad. Four submedian lips each with long “two-jointed” papilla,
projecting characteristically from head; two lateral lips. Buccal ring long, thin,
with upper cdge turned outwards; elements of leaf crown relatively thick, arising
from base of capsule, with free ends bending inwards around mouth opening.
Cuticle inflated in oesophageal region. Oesophagus 0°26-0°4 mm. long, 1: 12-17
of body length, narrow, straight, with slight enlargement. Cervical papillae bristle-
like, O-O8 mm. from head end. Nerve ring at mid-oesophagus, about 0-2 mm.
from anterior end. Excretory pore at posterior end of oesophagus, 0-45--49 mm.
from head end.

Male—Spicules stout, short. 1°14-1-4 mm., 1:3°6-3°8 of body length, with
alae on sccond half of length and ending near tips, tips curved slightly, Guber-
naculum more or less heart-shaped in dorsal or ventral view, larger (thicker) at
anterior than at posterior end when viewed laterally. Small prebursal papillae
at about 0°25 mm. in front of anterior edge of bursa. Bursa lobes hardly distinct,
ventral lobes joined. Ventral rays long, thin, reaching bursal edge; externo-
laterals short, projecting on side of bursa; laterals reaching bursal edge; externo-
dorsals short, equal to externo-laterals; dorsal ray very short, bifurcating after
half length, each branch giving off rather short lateral stem. Genital cone long,
rounded.

Female—Uteri parallel; ovejectors 0-4 mm. long; vagina short, straight;
vulva 0°3--36 mm, from posterior end. ‘Vail narrows sharply beyond vulva and
is bent back to make angle with body. Anus at 0-2 mm. from tip of tail. Eggs,
0-17 by 0-08 mm.

Specimens also assigned to this species were taken from the stomach of
Macropus rufus from Mount Liebig. They agreed in all particulars except in
having relatively shorter spicules which were only one-fiith body length.

Cloacina frequens n. sp.
Figs, 32-34

From Afacropus robustus, Mount Liebig; Cockatoo Creek.

Male, 6-11°5 mm. long, 0-4 mm. broad; female, 14°7-18 mm. long, 0°72 mm.
broad. More or less straight, tapering towards ends. Six lips; four submedian
each with a “two-jointed” papilla bent inwards over mouth in most specimens ;
lateral lips with very small papilla. Cuticle ridged behind anterior end. Buccal
capsule with chitinous ring from which arises leaf crown of six elements; ring
wider at top (0°055 mm.) than at base (0-045 mm), and 0°013 mm. deep. Oecso-
phagus commences at about 0-05 mm, ‘from anterior end of lips, 0-9-1-13 mm.

274

long in male (1:7-10 of body length), 1°03-1-27 mm. long in female (1: 13-17
of body length); almost straight, narrow except for slight enlargement near
posterior end. Nerve ring at second quarter of oesophagus length and 0:3-
0-43 mm. from anterior end. Excretory pore in region of third quarter of
oesophagus and 0°55-0-8 mm. from anterior end, distance varying with length of
worm. Cervical papillae long, thread-like, about one-eleventh body length from
anterior end in male, and one-twentieth in female.

Male—Ventral lobes of bursa joined. Ventral ray long, thin; externo-lateral
short ; medio- and postero-laterals joined except at tips, latter ray slightly longer,

Figs. 32-34. Cloacina frequens—32, head, female; 33, female, posterior end; 34, bursa,
flattened, posterior view. Figs. 35-37. Cloacina australis—35, head, female; 36,
female, posterior end; 37, bursa, dorso-lateral. Figs. 32 and 35 to same scale;
33 and 36.

both extending almost to bursal edge; externo-dorsal short, stout, arising from
same root as laterals; dorsal ray dividing into two, each branch bifurcating near
distal end, no branch reaching edge. In many specimens each of the first two
branches of the dorsal ray gives off a short narrow stem laterally, just before
bifurcation. Spicules short, 0°86--89 mm., 1:7-13 of body length, tapering to
tips, alae extending nearly to tips. Gubernaculum small, irregular; genital cone
long; pair of accessory processes present.

275

Female—Uteri parallel; ovejectors 0°32 mm. long, uniting near vulva; vagina
very short, 0-4 mm.; vulva 0°22 mm. in front of anus. Tail more or less straight,
body tapering rapidly to vulva and ending in sharp point. Anus at about 0.27 mm.
from tip. Eggs, 0-17 by 0°08 mm.

Cloacina australis n. sp.
Figs. 35-37

From Macropus robustus, Mount Liebig; Cockatoo Creek.

Body rather long, curved, tapering towards anterior end; 10 mm. long,
0:5 mm. broad in male; 9:5-11°5 mm. long, 0°6 mm. broad in female, Cuticle
in vicinity of level of anterior end of oesophagus standing out from underlying
tissuc, and though seen in.all specimens the condition may be an artefact as it
was more marked in some than in others. Head with 4 shallow wide submedian
lips; perhaps a pair of narrower lateral lips between them; submedians each with
large “two-jointed” papilla. Buccal capsule with chitinous ring 0:017 mm. long,
0:04 mm. diameter (in female); distance from floor of cavity to tip of lips
0-02 mm. Leaf crown of six elements arising from lower inner edge of ring
and projecting inwards; outer edge of each element appearing to be continuous
with corresponding lip; free end of cach clement bent backwards. Nerve ring
around oesophageal bulb and 0°32-0-4 mm. from anterior end. Cervical papillae
long, hair-like, 0°39 mm. from head end, each arising from button-like out-
growth. Ocsophagus 0°64-'75 mm. long, narrow, straight in anterior half, then
bulbous, fol’owed by a constriction and then by a club-shaped end leading into the
narrow intestine whose anterior end surrounds the end of the oesophagus;
oesophagus 1: 14-16 of body length.

Male—Lateral lobes of bursa distinctly separated from dorsal and ventral
lobes; ventrals joined to, but distinct from, each other; dorsal lobe with median
cleft. Ventral rays long, reaching bursal edge; laterals long, not reaching edge;
externo-lateral and externo-dorsal project on side of bursa; externo-dorsal arising
separately. Dorsal ray subdivides near its base, each branch soon dividing into
inner long thin branch and a lateral short thicker branch, neither reaching edge.
Spicules long 4°4-4-8 mm. 1:2-1-2°3 of body length, narrow, with striated alae,
fairly straight. Genital cone well developed, conical; dorsally to it are two small
projections which may be associated with an accessory genital cone.

Female—Uteri long, parallel, uniting about 0-8 mm. from posterior end of
body ; vagina passing forwards, then turning back to vulva lying 0°3-0-4 mm. from
tip of tail. Tail straight, tapering; tip directed backwards. Anus 0°2 mm,
from tip.

Cloacina communis n. sp.
Figs. 38-41

From Macropus robustus, Mount Liebig; Cockatoo Creek.

Maile, 11 to 13 mm. long; female, 15-45 mm., generally 20-25 mm. long,
stouter towards anterior end, tapering markedly in posterior third, with slight

276

prominence in region of vulva. Anterior end suddenly narrowed in buccal region.
Six lips, four submedians each bearing elongate papilla with marked constriction,
two laterals each with small conical papilla. Nerve ring 0°32-0-42 mm., excretory
pore 1:2-1-4 mm., and cervical papillae 0°09-0-11 mm., from anterior end.
Maximum breadth 0-55--63 mm. in male, Q°6-"7 in female. Buccal ring longer
and wider than in most species of the genus; chitinous ring thin, 0-04 mm.
diameter, 0-021 mm. long in male; leaf crown of six elements arising about half-
way along ring. O0csophagus 1°25 to 1°77 mm. long, 0-07 mm. wide, length
1:7-5-13 of body length, usually 1:8-9; first and second thirds slightly wider
than last third which ends in a spherical bulb 0°22 mm. in diameter. Anterior
end of intestine surrounded by mass of granular tisstic arranged in paired lobes.

38, head, female, ventral; 39, female, posterior end;
40, bursa, dorso-lateral; 41, female, anterior end. Figs, 42-46. Cloacina petrogale
—42, dorsal ray of bursa, genital cone. accessory cone; 43, head, female, ventral;
44, bursa, flattened, posterior view: 45, female, posterior end; 46, young female
undergoing ecdytis. Figs. 39, 41 and 45 to same scale; 42, 40 and 46; 38 and 43.

Figs 38-41, Cloactna communis

Male—Spicules 3:47-4:13 mm. long, 1:2*7-3°7 of body length, slender, with
striated alae. Gubernaculum appearing in dorsal view as heart-shaped structure
between spicules. Genital cone short, directed dorsally; rudimentary accessory
cone formed of two button-like processes on dorsal lip of cloaca. Ventral lobes
of bursa not clearly marked off from each other or from lateral lobes. Ventral
rays long, reaching almost to bursal edge, cleft at tip. Externo-lateral short,
thick; medio- and postero-laterals together, longer than externo-lateral, but not

277

reaching bursal edge; externo-dorsal thick, from same root as laterals, but
shorter. Dorsal ray bifurcating after half its length, each branch subdividing
into two equal rays after half its length, none reaching edge of bursa.

Female--Body narrowing rapidly beyond vulva; tail conical, short, pointed.
Intestine narrowed before reaching anus, latter 0-2 mm. from tip of tail. Uteri
parallel, joining some distance before vulva; vagina long, narrow, nearly straight ;
vulva 0°15 mm. in front of anus. Ripe eggs, 0-17 by 0-08 mm.

Cloacina magna n. sp.

From Macropus robustus, Cockatoo Creck.

Male 10 :mm., fairly stout; female 30 mm., anterior region stout, posterior
much thinner and curved. Anterior end with six low lips; four of them sub-
median, each with large papilla constricted into two parts; two laterals each with
or without very small papilla. Buccal capsule very wide, with chitinous ring
0:07 mm. diameter, 0°02 mm. long, bearing leaf crown passing anteriorly and
bending inwards. Ocsophagus long, narrow, 1-4 mm. in male (1:7 of body
length), 2°02 mm. in female (1:15); anterior two-thirds wider, 0°08 mm.
broad in male at anterior end, 0-15 mm. wide at base where it widens into a bulb.
Excretory pore at 0-9 mm. from anterior end, and just in front of oesophageal
bulb; nerve ring at 0°26--28 mm. from head end.

Male—Bursa rather longer than usual, with ventral lobe distinct from laterals
but not deeply separated from them. Ventral rays long, narrow, parallel not
separated, reaching almost to bursal edge. TExterno-dorsal arising from same
root as laterals and of same length, none of these reaching bursal edge. Medio-
and postero-laterals separated for about half length. Dorsal ray divides after
one-third length, each branch dividing into an inner and a rather shorter lateral,
neither reaching bursal edge. Genital cone short, conical. Spicules 3-7 mm.,
1:2°8 of body length, fairly straight, with wide striated alae ending near tips.

Female-—Sudden narrowing beyond vulva; tail short, pointed, and strongly
curved. Anus 0-2 mm., and vulva 0°25 mm. in front of tip of tail. Vagina rather
long, about 2-1 mm., ovejectors directed forwards, 0°55 mm. long, leading into
parallel uteri. Eggs, 0°17 by 0:08 mm.

The species closely resembles Cloacina commutis but differs in size, positions
of nerve ring and excretory pore, relative sizes of spicules and oesophagus, and
form of the anterior end.

Cloacina petrogale n. sp.
Figs. 42-46

From FPetrogale lateralis, Mount Liebig; Hermannsburg; Ernabella.

Male 7:5-8 mm. long, 0-48 mm. broad; female 10-21 mm. long, 0°75 mm.
broad; body tapering more markedly anteriorly in both sexes. Tight lips arise
inside moutl collar, cach of the four submedians with long “two-jointed” papilla,
dorsal and ventral lips represented by very shallow bilobed folds. Buccal capsule
surrounded by chitinous ring, 0:031 mm. long, 0°6 mm. diameter (in female) and

278

10t reaching oesophagus; floor of capsule with thin chitinous plate. Leaf crown
of six clements arising from about half-way up chitinous ring and bending
inwards over mouth aperture and recurved at anterior edges. Cervical papillae
0-08 mm. from anterior end in female. Nerve ring at 0°24 (male), -0:4 mm.
(female) from anterior end; excretory pore near oesophageal bulb, 1:14 mm.
from head end in male. Ocesophagus 1-06-1°4 mm. long in male, 1: 6-7 of body
length; 1°65-1-7 in female, 1:6 of body length in young specimens, 1:12°5 in
large females; long, thin, with bulb at posterior end. Anterior end of intestine
with distinct lobes.

Male—Bursal lobes not deeply separated from each other; two ventral lobes
united. Ventral rays long, cleft for almost hali length, reaching nearly to bursal
edge. T’xterno-ventral, ventrals and externo-dorsals arising from same root; first
longest and almost reaching edge; ventrals long, stout, not reaching edge; externo-
dorsal almost as long as externo-ventral. Dorsal ray divides after half its length,
each branch bifurcating into more or less equal rays, none reaching bursal edge.
Spicules 3°3-3°88 mm., 1: 2-2-4 of body length, with alae striated almost to tips,
curved in body. No gubernaculum.

Female—Tail short, conical; vagina long, almost straight; uteri parallel;
ovejectors about 0-45 mm. Anus at 0-3 mm. and vulva at 0°5 mm. from posterior
end in large females. Eggs, 0°19 mm. by 0°08 mm.

Cloacina macropodis n. sp.
Figs. 47-50

From Macropus robustus and Petrogale lateralis, Mount Liebig; Cockatoo
Creek,

Rather short slender worims tapering at each end. Male 7-7-55 mm. long,
0°28 mm. maximum breadth; female 8°2-10°6 mm. long, 0°38 mm, maximum
breadth. ‘lwo lateral lips; four submedian lips each with small conical papilla
of two parts, larger basal portion and smaller conical tip. Buccal capsule broader
than long, with chitinised ring around base, 0-01 mm. Jong, 0°026 mm. diameter
at bottom, wider in anterior part. Leaf crown of six elements apparently. Nerve
ring around middle of cesophagus, at 0°23 mm. in male and 0°24-0°35 mm. in
female from anterior end. [Excretory pore just in front of posterior end of
oesophagus and about 0-43 mm, from head end in female. Cervical papillae
thread-like, at 0-065 mm. from anterior end in female. Ocesophagus 0-4-'54 in
male (1: 14-19 of body length), 0°49--58 in female (1:17-18 of body length),
narrow, widening at posterior end.

Male——Lobes of bursa not separated by deep clefts; bursa longer dorsally
than ventrally. Ventral rays long, slender, almost reaching bursal edge; externo-
lateral shorter, stouter; medio- and postero-laterals separated near tips, latter
ray slightly longer; externo-dorsal arising apart from laterals, not reaching edge.
Dorsal ray dividing soon after origin, cach branch ending in short bifurcation,
none reaching bursal edge. Variation in the final branches of the dorsal ray was

279

noticed, these being sometimes short and close together, at other times longer and
more divergent. Spicules 2°83-3°87 mm. long, 1:2-2:4 of body length, slender,
with wide striated alae extending nearly to tips. Genital cone short, blunt; rudi-
mentary accessory cone present.

Female—Long pointed tail, somewhat dorsally directed. Uteri parallel,
uniting near vulva; vagina more or Icss bent; vulva 0°35-'4 mm. from tip of tail;
anus at 0:23-'25 mm. from end of tail. Eggs, 0°14 by-06 mm.

Some specimens were found resembling closcly those described above, but
having the oesophagus and labial papillae relatively longer.

ES

Ks

A

J A
Hieadatts

Figs. 47-50. Cloacina macropodis—A47, bursa, dorso-laicral; 48, female, posterior end:
49, female head; 50, female, head, lateral. Figs. 51-54. Cloacina curta—51, head;
52, female, head, lateral; 53, bursa, dorso-lateral; 54, female, posterior end, Figs.
49, 51 to same scale; 47, 53; 50, 52.

Cloacina curta n. sp.
TVigs. 51-54

T'rom .Wacropus rebustus, Mount Lichig; Cockatoo Creek,

Short, rather stout (especially females), slightly curved, tapering towards
each end. Male, 6:5-7-4 mm. long; female, 7-7-12 mm. Cuticle striated with
striations 5 apart anteriorly (in male). Four large submedian lips each with
clongate papilla of two stout “joints’’; two small bilobed lateral lips each with
very small conical papilla. larger papillae project 0-01 mm. and lateral papillac
0-001 mm. from surface. Buccal capsule about as long as wide, with chitinous
ring 0-02 mm. in diameter surrounding lower part. Leaf crown with six elements

G

280

arising from base of ring and projecting inwards. Cervical papillae hair-like,
0:02 mm. long, on small button-like outgrowths, 0-08 mm. from anterior end of
worm. Nerve ring 0°2--25 mm. in male, 0°23--28 in female from anterior end;
excretory pore at 0°28 mm. from head end, Ocsophagus 0°45--5 mm. long,
1: 13-16 of body length.

Male—Three males which agreed in length, oesophagus, positions of nerve
ring, excretory pore and cervical papillae, length of spicules, general shape of
bursa and general arrangements of rays, were found to differ in regard to the
dorsal ray which in two was asymmetrical and unlike, while in the third it was
regular, as figured. Bursa lobes distinct but not deeply separated. Ventral rays
joined, parallel, bending forward into ventral lobe; externo-lateral short; medio-
and postero-laterals separate at tips, reaching nearly to bursal edge; externo-
dorsal arising separately, not reaching edge, being more remote from it than end
of externo-lateral is; externo-lateral shorter than externo-dorsal and bursa wider
in its vicinity. Dorsal ray bifurcating after about one-third length, in regular
type each branch subdivides aiter the half length into two equal rays, none reach-
ing bursal edge. Spicules 2°35-2°97 mm long, 1:2°3-2-9 of body length, curved,
with striated alae terminating near tips, with spoon-like ends. Gubernaculum not
seen. A pair of lateral prebursal papillae.

Female—Uteri long, parallel; ovejector 0°45 mm. long; vagina wide, bending
forwards for about 0°5 mm. before passing back to vulva lying at 0°32 mm. from
posterior end of worm and 0°12 mm. in front of anus. Body tapering suddenly
from level of anus, 0-2 mm. from tip of short pointed tail, Eggs, 0°19 by -08 mm.

Cloacina dubia n. sp.
Figs. 55-57
From Macropus robustus, Mount Liebig.

Only one male and one female examined. The species is assigned to Cloacina
only provisionally, since the head characters are not typical of that genus. Male
8-1 mm. long, maximum breadth 0°38 mm., female 8°67 mm. long; slender,
tapering towards cach end. Cuticle with annulations 0-015 mm. apart. Six low
lips. No leaf crown. Buccal capsule with chitinous ring. Oecesophagus 0:57-
-58 mm. long, 1: 14-15 of body length, posterior region swollen. Nerve ring
0-29 mm. from head end.

Male—Spicules 3°42 mm., 1: 2-3 of body length, with narrow striated alae not
reaching tip. Ventral lobes of bursa united. Ventral rays separated at tips;
externo-lateral slender, shorter than other laterals; medio- and postero-laterals
joined, the latter being longer and neither reaching bursal edge; externo-dorsal
long, stout, arising separately, extending towards bursal edge as far as docs
externo-lateral; dorsal ray bifurcated near base, each branch giving off short
lateral stem after two-thirds length, inner main branch incurved and not reaching
edge of bursa. Genital cone short, blunt.

281

Female—Body narrows suddenly at level of vulva, ending in fine point bent
dorsally. Ovaries in second quarter of body; uteri long, parallel; ovejectors
0-45 mm. long; vagina 0-4 mm.; vulva 0-4 mm. from tip of tail; anus 0-2 mm.
from posterior end.

Figs. 55-37—Cloacina dubia—55, male, head; 56, female, posterior end; 57; bursa, dorso-
lateral. Figs. 58-62. Cloacina ernabeffa—S8, anterior end, lateral; 59, head,
anterior view; 60, head, lateral; 61, bursa, flattened, posterior view; 62, female,
posterior end. Figs. 55, 59, 60 to sane scale; 56, 58; 57, 61.

Cloacina ernabella n. sp.
Figs. 58-62

From Petrogale lateralis, Mount Liebig; Hermannsburg; Ernabella.

Short, stout, males tapering at both ends, females narrowing more markedly
from oesophageal region forwards. Male 8-4-8°6 mm. long, 0°34--38 mm. in
maximum breadth; female 13-4-14:7 mm. 0°58--66 in maximum breadth. Cuticle
finely striate transversely; at anterior end inflated as far back as nerve ring.
Mouth collar prolonged into six low lips, four submedian each with large “two-
jointed” papilla whose upper “joint” is ovoid and rather larger than lower. Buccal
capsule with ring 0°011 mm. long, 0°035 mm. in diameter; floor 0:02 mm. from
tip of lips; leaf crown of six elements arising from base of ring; elements bending
inwards to surround mouth, with anterior ends bent outwardly. Cervical papillae
thread-like, 0°14-0°15 mm. from anterior end. Exeretory pore posterior to
oesophagus; 1:1 mm. from anterior end. Nerve ring at mid-oesophagus,

282

0:27--3 mm. from anterior end. Oe¢esophagus rather long, 0:7-0-76 mm. in male
(1: 11-12 of body length), 0°9--94 in female (1:15 of body length), narrow
anteriorly, slight swelling in posterior third followed by bulb. Anterior end of
intestine with several lobes.

Male—Bursa with ventral lobes joined, lateral lobes distinct from ventral
and dorsal lobes. Ventral rays long, parallel, separate for about two-thirds length;
externo-lateral long, thin; laterals long, cleft for about half length ; externo-dorsal
arising from root of laterals, thin, rather shorter than laterals; dorsal ray wide,
soon dividing into two branches, cach sending out a lateral, rather shorter than
main branch. No ray reaches bursal edge; laterals and ventrals longest. Spicules
straight with wide alae almost to their curved tips; 1°8-1-85 mm. long, 1:4°6 of
body Jength. Gubernaculum not chitinised but represented by large irregular
mass of cells. Genital cone short, rounded; dorsal to opening at base of cone are
two small conical structures probably representing an accessory cone.

lemale—Body narrows posterior to region of vagina, and very suddenly
after vulva to form straight pointed tail. Uteri parallel, uniting near posterior
end; ovejectors about 0°5 mm, long; vagina 1-1 mm. long, curving forwards
before passing back to vulva. Vulva about 0-45 mm. from posterior end and
0-15 mm. in front of anus. Eggs, 0:17 by 0-07 mm.

Cloacina parva n. sp.
Figs. 67-72

From Macropus robustus, Mount Liebig; Cockatoo Creek; Hermannsburg.
Irom Petrogale lateralis, Mount Liebig; Hermannsburg; Ernabella.

Slender, short, size varying with age, male 5-10°6 mm. long, female 8-20 mm.
Mouth collar with six rather large lips (four submedian, two laterals) and two
smaller (a dorsal and a ventral) ; each submedian with short “two-jointed” papilla;
each lateral with small conical papilla. Inwardly from lips six rounded lobes
surrounding mouth. Buccal cavity narrow, 0-04 mm. long in large specimens,
with chitinous ring forming capsule 0-041 mm. diameter, 0-1 mm, long, thin
anteriorly, with plain margin, thicker at base where leaf crown arises to pass
forwards closely applicd to inner surface of lobes surrounding mouth and project-
ing beyond them. Ocsophagus 0:45-0:65 mm. long, 1: 10-16 of body length in
male; 1:20 in female; with wider, more muscular anterior portion about 0°15 mm.
long, tc., nearly half oesophageal length; posterior part with elongate bulb.
Cervical papillae about 0°12 mm. from anterior end; nerve ring at about mid-
oesophagus, 0°27-"34 mim. from head end; exerctory pore near base of oesophagus,
0:46-°52 mm. from anterior end.

Male—Spicules 1:4-3-3 mm. long, 1: 3-3-2 of body length; slender, with
striated alae extending almost to curved tips. Genital cone small; gubernaculum
present. Bursa large; dorsal, ventral and lateral lobes distinct. Ventral rays
almost reach bursal edge; externo-lateral, lateral and externo-dorsal arise from
same root and subequal. Dorsal ray bifurcating just after half-length, each part
dividing into two equal branches at mid-length,

283

Female—Body narrowing behind vulva, tail pointed. Vagina commencing
0-4 mm. above vulva, then passing forwards for ahout 0-3 mm. before returning.
Vulva 0:16--18 mm. in front of anus; latter 0-16 mm. from tip of tail.

Cloacina minor n. sp.
Figs. 63-66
From same hosts and from same localities as Cloacina parva. Also from
Macropus rufus, Mount Liebig.
Closely resembling C. parva in size, form and general anatomy but differing
in the following respects: buccal capsule longer, greater length from top of lips

Figs. 63-66. Cloacina minor—63, antcrior end, lateral; 64, head, submedian view; 65,
bursa, dorso-lateral; 66, female, posterior end. Figs. 67-72. Cloacina parva—
67, head, oblique front view; 68, head, optical section; 69, head of young female ;
70, anterior end, lateral view; 71, female, posterior end; 72, bursa, dorso-lateral.
Tigs. 64, 67, 68, 69 to same scale; 63, 70; 66, 71.

to floor of capsule, chitinous ring with lobed anterior end; anterior muscular part
of oesophagus short, about twice length of buccal cavity; cervical papillae just
in front of posterior end of muscular part of ocsophagus; spicules 2°12-2°63 mm,
long, 1: 2°3-2°8 of body length; final branches of dorsal ray much shorter, outer

284

branch of each pair short and stout, inner slender and rather longer. Males,
about 6 mm. long, maximum breadth 0°24--31 mm.; female 15 mm., maximum
breadth 0°57 mm.; oesophagus 0°5-0°56 mm. long, 1: 10-12 of body length in
male, 1:29 in female; nerve cord at 0°25--3 mm. from head end; excretory pore at
0-46-"52 mm.; cervical papillae 0°11--12 mm. Buccal capsule 0-048 mm. long
in male, 0-056 mm. in female. Female: anus at 0-2 mm. and vulva at 0-4 mm.
from posterior end.
Commonly present along with the preceding species.

Cloacina liebigi n. sp.
Figs. 73-76
From Macropus rufus, Mount Liebig.
Fairly stout; male 14:75-17:6 mm. long, 0°55--64 mm, maximum breadth;
female 23-24 mm. long, 0°6 mm. broad. Cuticle inflated behind head. Four sub-

Figs. 73-76. Cloacina liebigi—73, female, anterior end, lateral; 74, female, head;
75, bursa, dorso-lateral; 76, female, posterior end.

median and two lateral lips, also shallow bilobed process dorsally and ventrally;
submedian papillae “two-jointed,”’ slender. Nerve ring about 0:3 mm., and
excretory pore at 0°65--8 mm. from anterior end. Cervical papillae at 0-19 mm.
from head end. Buccal capsule 0-02 mm. diameter, walls thin, rather high; leaf
crown of six elements arising from base. Oecesophagus 0:55 mm. long in male
(about 1:30 body length), 0°6 mm. in female (about 1:40 body length), with

285

slight swelling in mid-region immediately in front of nerve ring; gradually widen-
ing behind nerve ring, widest just before junction with intestine; anterior end
of intestine with thickened walls forming lobes.

Male—-Spicules 3-62-44 mm. long, 1:4 of body length, slender, with striated
alae extending almost to tip. Pair of prebursal papillae. J.obes of bursa not
deeply separated from each other, ventral lobes united. Ventral rays parallel,
reaching bursal edge; externo-lateral and externo-dorsal equal, long, slender, not
reaching edge; laterals parallel, separate for most of length, almost reaching edge;
externo-dorsal arising separately. Dorsal ray bifurcates at one-third length, each
branch giving off at mid-length a shorter lateral before passing on almost to bursal

‘05 mm

Figs. 77 -80. Cloacina inflata—77, female, head, lateral; 78, bursa, dorso-lateral; 79,
female, posterior cnd; 80, anterior end, lateral. Tigs. 79, 80 to same scale.

edge, Genital cone long, rounded; with two rounded processes on dorsal lip
of cloaca.

Female—Body narrows suddenly in region of vagina; tail pointed. Uteri
parallel; ovejectors 0-4 mm. long; vagina long, looped forwards; vulva at about
04-45 imm. from tip of tail; anus at 0-2 mm. from end of tail. Eggs, 0-1 by
‘07 mm.

Cloacina inflata n. sp.
Figs. 77-80

From Macropus rufus, Mount J iebig.

Male 6:7 mm.; female 9-10 mm. Cuticle inflated around anterior end. Two
lateral lips; four submedian, each with two-jointed papilla with upper joint larger.

286

Buccal capsule shallow, with chitinous ring 0-01 mm. long, 0-045 mm. diameter.
Nerve ring at 0°27 mm. from head end and surrounding end of first third of
oesophagus. Excretory pore and cervical papillae not observed. Oecesophagus
0-8 mm. in male (1:8-4 body length), 0-9 mm. in female (1: 10-5 body length),
with rather elongate terminal bulb in front of which is a slightly swollen region.

Male—Spicules very long, 4-6 mm. 1: 1-4 of body length. Lobes of bursa
large, well defined. Ventral rays long, slender, not reaching bursal edge, separate
for almost entire length; externo-laterals and externo-dorsals shorter, thicker ;
laterals long, not reaching edge. Dorsal ray bifureating very soon, each branch
dividing near distal end into two short subequal processes not reaching bursa!
edge. Genital cone long, rounded.

Female—Body narrows suddenly behind anus: tail short, pointed, directed
somewhat dorsally. Uteri parallel; vagina wide, straight ; vulva 0-35 mm. from
tip of tail; anus 0-19 mm. from tip. Eggs large, thick-shelled, 0-17 mm. by
0-09 mm.

DATA SHOWING RATE OF DEVELOPMENT OF
TRUNK OF TREE FERN
On 15th November, 1921, close to the foot of Mount Dandenong, Victoria,
in company with Mr. A. G. Campbell, of Kilsyth, Victoria, I collected a young
tree fern, Alsophylla australis, which I brought back and planted in my “brush
house” at Blackwood. The tree was found in swampy ground and had a few
fronds of only slightly over 3 inches in length.
In November, 1937, the following measurements of this specimen were
obtained :
Trunk: Circumference at ground level, 33 inches; at 3 feet above ground,
28 inches; at one foot from crown, 27 inches; height from base to crown,
51 inches.
Fronds: One of the larger ones, 7 feet 3 inches long; thus, when fully
expanded, the expanse was nearly 14 feet.
Average annual growth, 34 inches.

14 July, 1938 E. Asusy

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGICAL FEATURES AND FORAMINIFERAL
FAUNA OF THE METROPOLITAN ABATTOIRS BORE, ADELAIDE

By the late WALTER HOWCHIN, Emeritus Professor of Geology and
Palaeontology, University of Adelaide, and WALTER J. PARR, F.R.M.S.

Summary

The above bore was sunk on the ground of the Metropolitan Abattoirs Works, situated six miles in a
direct line, north by east direction, from the Adelaide Post Office, and rather more than a mile from
the Dry Creek Junction. As the sediments passed through proved, at certain levels, very
fossiliferous, the Museum and University authorities undertook jointly to secure and bring to
Adelaide a drayload of the fossiliferous material for detailed examination. The late Sir Joseph
Verco and the senior author spent some time together in passing the loose sandy material through
sieves and collecting the fossils so separated.

287

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGICAL FEATURES AND FORAMINIFERAL FAUNA
OF THE METROPOLITAN ABATTOIRS BORE, ADELAIDE

By THE LATE WaLTER Howcuin, Emeritus Professor of Geology and
Palaeontology, University of Adelaide, and Wacrer J. Parr, F.R.M.S.

{Read 8 September 1938]

PLATES XV-XLX

CONTENTS Page
I InTRopUCTORY be bn aes as a aod es ar ef . 287
II Conrracror’s TABLE OF STRATA Be wu a pe! i . wo §=288
TLE SrrarieraPuiIcAL Divistons—

1 Recent to Pleistocene: Freshwater .. ri ae i be .. 289
2 Upper Pliocene: Marine, Fossiliferous .. = in 13 w. 289
3 Miocene: Marine, Fossiliferous . at ia ae Be . ~6289

IV Systematic ACCOUNT OF THE FORA MINIFERA-—
1 Upper Pliocene Species .. is ws at is ne ie w. 290
2 Miocene Species .. ne 4 ae ig oh ie i . ©6304
VV BIBLIOGRAPHY ae nt Le he ay, a Sy ae oe .. 6313

L INTRODUCTION

The above bore was sunk on the ground of the Metropolitan Abattoirs
Works, situated six miles in a direct line, north by cast direction, from the
Adelaide Post Office, and rather more than a mile from the Dry Creek Junction,
As the sediments passed through proved, at certain levels, very fossiliferous,
the Museum and University authoritics undertook jointly to secure and bring
to Adelaide a drayload of the fossiliferous material for detailed examination.
The late Sir Joseph Verco and the senior author spent some time together in
passing the loose sandy material through sieves and collecting the fossils so
separated,

It was agreed between Sir Joseph and the senior author that the former
should deal with the Mollusca and that the geological features, together with the
foraminifera and other fossils, should be described by the latter. It became a
matter of deep regret that in consequence of ill-health Sir Joseph had to relinquish
this work, but he generously placed his notes on the fossils he had examined at
the disposal of Miss N. H. Woods, M.A. (now Mrs, Ludbrook), who had pub-

@) This paper was begun by the senior author, but, owing to his death, was not
completed by him. The plates, with the exception of two or three figures, had been drawn
and most of the paper up to the end of the section dealing with the Upper Pliocene
foraminifera had been written. At the request of the Director of the South Australian
Museum, to which the late Professor Howchin bequeathed his collection ot fossils,
Mr. Parr undertook the completion of the paper. In doing so, he has revised, as far as
possible, the earlier determinations and utilized Professor Howchin's notes, and accepts
joint responsibility for the work.—-Epiror.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 62, (2), 23 December 1938

288

lished some original observations in the determination of new species in the
Transactions of this Society.

It is unfortunate that a scientific examination was not made during the
course of the boring operations, but the main geological horizons are so well
defined lithologically and palaeontologically that it is an easy matter to classify
the section into three main geological ages.

Phe thanks of the authors are due to J. H. Horwood & Co. Ltd, the con-
tractors who carried out the work at the Abattoirs Bore, and especially to Mr.
W. J. Barker, Managing Director of the company, who in response to the senior
author’s request, courteously supplied the boring log which follows.

Il CONTRACTOR’S TABLE OF STRATA

Thick Thick
TLESS ness
Total of Total of
Ft. Strata Ft. Strata
Bored Ft. Nature of Strata Bored Ft. Nature of Strata
26 =26 Clay 450 20 Sandy clay, some cemented
30 4 Sand rock 470.20 Sandy clay and fine sand
8050 Stiff sandy clay with small shells
110 = 30 Light brown clay 481 11 Stiffer clay and fossils
120 «10 Sticky clay 490 9 Stiff clay and fossils, with
161 41 Stuff swelling clay 5 ft. of grey sand
180-19 Sandy clay 500 = 10 Clay, turning to “cliff rock”
190) 10 Swelling clay (fine - grained calcareous
196 6 Yellow sandy clay sandstone)
208 12 Coarse yellow sand & gravel 545 45 Yellow fossilized “sand rock”
222 «14 Stiff reddish clay to “cliff rock”
225 3 Sticky red clay 555 10 Yellow “cliff rock,” getting
235 «10 Fine red sand lighter
242 7 Coarse sand 575 20 White fossilized “sand rock”
250 8 Fine and coarse sand 610 35 Soft dark blue fossilized
255 5 Sand rock “sand rock”
300 0 «45 Stiff sandy clay 635 25 Soft white fossilized “sand
310 10 Stiff yellow clay rock”
320 =—-:10 Stiff yellow clay, getting 640 is Blue clay
darker 656 16 Stiff blue clay
323 3 Stiff green clay 673-17 Very sticky blue clay
333-10 Black clay with particles of 705 32 Fossilized blue clay with
decaying wood layers of fossilized rock, get-
341 8 Black sand and pebbles ting lighter in colour
368 27 Fine grey sand 710 5 Yellow fossilized sand rock
381 13 Grey sand, showing fossils to sticky yellow clay
3902 «11 Fine white sand and fossils 730 = 20 Yellow fossilized sand rock
397 $ Grey to white sand and 810 80 Alternate layers of hard and
fossils soft yellow fossilized sand
410 13 Grey sand and fossils rock
430 ©6620 Grey sand and shells, which 820 10 Yellow fossilized sand rock

(Note—The word “fossilized,”

are smaller and not so plenti-
ful

BOTTOM OF BORE

used in the above table, evidently indicates

that fossils are present—W. J. P.)

289

IlI STRATIGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS

Section 1. Recent to PueisroceNe: From surface to 341 ft. Alluvial
sand and gravel, some very coarse, representing the superficial deposits of the
Adelaide Plains.

Section 2. Upper Priocrne: From 341 to 500 ft. Mostly a clean white sand
with a shallow-water marine fauna, generally of Recent aspect. It was from
this horizon that the large quantity of material to which reference has been made
was obtained.

Section 3 Mtocene: From 500 to 820 ft. (bottom of bore). Geologically
uncomformably related to the overlying sediments, carrying a distinctive fauna
which is comparable with that of the lower portion of the Miocene of Victoria.
‘Two horizons are represented in the material examined, the upper, between 575
and 620 feet, and the lower, which carries a number of species characteristic of
the Lower Miocene of Batesford and Muddy Creek, in Victoria, between 710 and
820 feet.

The geological section revealed in the present bore agrees essentially with
others which have been obtained by borings within the great Adelaide sunken
basin, antecedently described in the Dry Creek and Croydon Bores, and, lately,
from the Brooklyn Park, Glanville, and Cowandilla Bores (Ilowchin, 1935 and
1936), in which the geological features of the group have been under discussion.

Note—The senior author has previously recognised a geological stage of Upper
Pliocene age, in the Adelaide Basin, to which he gave the name of Adelaidean. This
consists of fussiliferous marine beds occupying a limited area along the western and north-
eastern sides of the city of Adelaide, following the direction of: Cowandilla, Brooklyn
Park, Lockleys, Croydon, Glanville, the Metropolitan Abattoirs, Dry Creek, and Salisbury.
The occurrence of these beds in the Brooklyn, Glanville, and Cowandilla Bores is dealt
with at length and an explanation of their origin given in Professor Howchin’s' papers
published in the Transactions of this Society for 1935 and 1936. The beds now recorded
from the Abattoirs Bore as of Upper Pliocene age belong to, the same stage.

Mrs. N. H. Ludbrook, M.A. (née Woods), who has examined the pelecypods irom
the Abattoirs Bore and the mollusca of the Hindmarsh Bore, recently (Rept. A.N.Z.
Ass. Adv. Sci., 1937 Meeting, pp. 444-446) expressed the view that the beds assigned by
Howchin to the Upper Pliocene (Adelaidean) are all of Lower Phocene (Kalimnan) age.
She states: “In no case are the “Adelaidcan’ beds proved either to underlic or overlic
the Lower Pliocene, though Howchin (1936) has suggested that they may overlie the
Lower Pliocene in the Cowandilla Bore. Accumulation of evidence made possible by
the extensive boring operations in search of water in the neighbourhood of Adelaide during
recent years has shown that faulting has taken place on a large scale, details of which it
is hoped will be available in the future; it is no longer completely improbable that such
faulting could account for the position of the ‘Adelaidean’ beds, while they may be
synchronous with other beds of Lower Vliocene age in Southern Australia, Further-
more, it is suggested that sufficient attention must be given to the change in the fauna,
due to varying conditions, at different localities along a coastline; this can be demon-
strated along any coastline today.”

On the evidence of the foraminifera and with knowledge of ‘the foraminiferal
faunules occurring in the Lower Pliocene (Kalimnan) at Kalimna, and at McDonald’s
and Forsyth’s, near Hamilton, in Victoria, I am in agreement with Professor Tlowchin’s
reference of the upper marine beds of the Abattoirs Bore to the Upper Pliocene, It
might be suggested, as Mrs. Ludbrook has done in regard to the mollusca, that facies

290

may account for the differences between the assemblage of foraminifera in the Abattoirs
Bore and those of the Victorian Kalimnan localities. This does not, however, appear
a satisfactory explanation, as the beds at the Victorian localities mentioned are all shallow-
water, more or less sandy clays and facies alone would not account for the differences
between the foraminifera of the present bore and those of the Victorian localities. The
Victorian beds contain certain restricted species such as Flintina intermedia (Howchin),
which occurs at Kalimna as well as in the Hamilton district and elsewhere, and Mabularia
howehini Schl, (Hamilton district only), and the assemblages otherwise differ in many
respects from that in the Abattoirs Bore. On the other hand, we have in the Bore very
distinctive forms such as I’lintina triquetra (Brady) and Nubecularia lucifuga Detr., var
lapidea Wiesner, which have not been previously recorded fossil and have not been met
with in the Kalimnan of Victoria. The presence of several genera of the family
Peneroplidae also gives the faunule a strong Recent aspect. Still further evidence is:
provided by the record by Professor Howchin of the occurrence, in the Adelaidean of the
Brooklyn Park, Glanville, and Cowandilla Bores, of Cribrobulimina polystoma (BP. & J.),
hitherto known only from the Pleistocene and Recent seas of southern Australia.

Mr. F. Chapman has informed me that he is also in agreement with Professor
Howchin’s opinion that the Adelaidean beds are younger than Kalimnan. He has kindly
furnished the following note.

“The Adclaidean series of the Abattoirs and Hindmarsh Bores show a molluscan
fauna similar to that of Hallett's Cove, largely of a Recent aspect and with such
older species as Neodiastoma provisi (Tate) (not Kalimnan). The Eucrassatellae I
examined for Howchin were not in every case typical of the Kalimnan forms, many
showing annectant characters between the Upper Muddy Creek and the Jemmy’'s
Point, Kalimna, forms, whilst others again were non-typical of cither.

“In the present case the position in the vertical scale appears to be better
indicated by the comprehensive series of the foraminifera, which comprise so many
species new to the Kalimnan of the type locality and the Muddy Creek area.”

It will be noted that Mr, Chapman disagrees with Professor Howchin’s reference
(1935, p. 85) of the Hallett’s Cove beds to the Kalimnan.

In the Abattoirs Bore no beds of Kalimnan age have been recognised. [t is possible
that they may be represented between 500 and 575 feet, but fossil evidence on this point
is lacking, the foraminifera examined coming from between 341 and 500 feet and irom

575 feet downwards, : W. J. P.

IV SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT OF THE FORAMINIFERA
Part 1 UPPER PLIOCENE SPECIES
Family VALVULINIDAE
Genus CLavuttna d’Orbigny, 1826
CLAVULINA PAcIFIcA Cushman
Clavulina pacifica Cushman, 1924, p. 22, pl. vi, figs. 7-11; 1937, p. 25, pl. ut,
figs. 17, 18.

This species was described irom Pago Pago Harbour, Samoa, and is well
distributed through the warmer portions of the Indo-Pacific region in shallow
water. It has not been previously recorded as a fossil. Australian Recent
occurrences are at Murray Island, Torres Strait, Port Denison, Queensland, and

Geraldton Harbour, Western Australia. It is rare in the Abattoirs and Cowandilla
Bores.

291

CLAVULINA DIFFORMIS Brady
Clavulina angularis VOrbigny, var. difformis Brady, 1884, p. 396, pl. xlviii,
figs. 25-31.
C. difformis Brady Cushman, 1921, p. 156, pl. xxxi, figs. 2 a, b; 1937, p. 23,
pl. iii, figs. 4-10.

Like the preceding species, this is widely distributed as a living form in the
Indo-Pacific region and is frequently associated with C. pacifica. lt may be
distinguished from C. pacifica by its coarse-textured shell-wall; the test is also
polygonal in transverse section, while that of C. pacifica is triangular. There is
one example, not quite perfect but otherwise typical, from the present bore. The
junior author has Recent specimens from the coast of Victoria.

CLAVULINA MULTICAMERATA Chapman
(Pl. xvi, fig. 12)
Clavulina parisiensis d’Orbigny var. multicamerata Chapman, 1909, p. 127,
pl. ix, fig. 5.
C. multicamerata Chapman: Parr, 1932, p. 4, pl. i, figs. 4, 5. Cushman, 1937,
p. 24, pl. ili, figs. 13-16.

This was described by Chapman from Shoreham, Westernport, Victoria,
as a varicty of C. parisiensis, and was later given specific rank by Parr. It is
common in shallow water on the southern coast of Australia, and also occurs as
a fossil in the Upper Beds (of Lower Pliocene age) at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Verco dredged some fine examples off the Neptune Islands (South Australia).
In the Abattoirs Bore the species is moderately common. A noteworthy feature
is that some of the specimens are limited to the triserial portion of the test, when,
but for the presence of the adult form, they would be referred to the genus
Valuulina. The figured specimen is a slender, delicate one, the remainder being
perfectly typical.

Family MILIOLIDAT
Genus QuringueLocuLtna d’Orbigny, 1826
QUINQUELOCULINA AGGLUTINANS d’Orbigny
(PL xv, fig. 1)
Ouinqueloculina aggliutinans d’Orbigny, 1839, p. 195, pl. xii, figs. 11-13, Cushman,
1929, p. 22, pl. i, figs. 1 a-c.

This species is represented by four very typical examples, one of which
measures 1:7 mm. in length. It is a common form in shallow water in the West
Indian region.

QUINQUELOCULINA AMMOPHILA Parr
(Pl. xv, figs. 3, 4)
Quingucloculina ammophila Parr, 1932, p. 8, pl. i, figs. 10 a, b; text fig. 1 E.
Chapman and Parr, 1935, p. 3.

There are five examples of this species which was described from shallow

water in Westernport Bay, Victoria. Like Q. agglutinans, the test is coarsely

292

arenaceous, but it is much compressed, with strongly depressed sutures, and the
aperturs has a single plate-like tooth, so it may readily be distinguished from the
older species.

QUINQUELOCULINA SEMINULUM (Linné)

Serpula seminulum Linné, 1767, p. 1,264.
Quingueloculina seminulum (Linné): Cushman, 1929, p. 24, pl. ii, figs. 1, 2.

This is represented by a few fine examples.

QUINQUELOCULINA vuLcaris d’Orbigny
Quingueloculina vulgaris d’Orbigny, 1826, p. 302, No. 33. Schlumberger, 1893,
p. 207, text figs. 13, 14; pl. ii, figs. 65, 66, Cushman, 1929, p. 25, pl. ii,
figs. 3 a-c.

This is closely related to the previous species but is more rotund in outline,
being about as wide as long and with well-defined sutures. It is rather scarce in
the bore, but is a common form in Recent shore sands from Victoria and South
Australia.

QUINQUELOCULINA BoscIANA d’Orbigny
(Pl. xv, fig. 15)
Quinqueloculina bosctana d’Orbigny, 1839, p. 191, pl. xi, figs. 22-24.
Miliolina bosciana (d’Orb.): Chapman, 1900, p. 177, pl. i, fig. 7.

‘The test of this species is comparatively long and narrow, as in Triloculina
oblonga, but the chambers are arranged on a quinqueloculine plan and the sutures
are oblique. The types were from shore sand, Cuba, and it is common on the
Victorian coast. The three examples from the Abattoirs Bore are typical.

QUINQUELOCULINA LAMARCKIANA d’Orbigny

er

Quingueloculina lamarckiana d@’Orbigny, 1839, p. 189, pl. xi, figs. 14, 15.
Cushman, 1929, p. 26, pl. 11, figs. 6 a-e.

The present specimens are not typical, being intermediate between this species
and Q. vulgaris, but are nearer the former. In its typical form, QO. lamarckiana
has the chambers triangular in transverse section, the margins to the test being
subacute. The bore examples are poorly developed and have much blunter angles.
The two forms occur together in shallow water on the coasts of South Australia
and Victoria.

QUINQUELOCULINA POLYGONA d’Orbigny
(Pl. xvi, fig. 14)
Quinqueloculina polygona d’Orbigny, 1839, p. 198, pl. xii, figs. 21-23. Cushman,
1929, p. 28, pl. iii, figs. 5 a-c; 1932, p. 25, pl. vi, figs. 5, 6.

This species is common in the bore material, the examples being similar in
form to that figured by Cushman from off Levuka, Fiji (1932, loc. cit., fig. 6).
The types were from the West Indies and the species is common in the tropical
Pacific and also on the southern coast of Australia, in shallow water.

293

QUINQUELOCULINA LIMBATA d’Orbigny
Quingueloculina limbata d’Orbigny, 1826, p. 302, No. 20. Fornasini, 1905,
p. 66, pl. iti, fig. 9.
Miliolina limbata (d’Orb.): Wiesner, 1923, p. 45, pl. vi, fig. 51.

Fornasini’s figures of this species, based on the drawings by d’Orbigny in
the “Planches inédites,” show it to be nearly three times as long as broad, with the
chambers flattened and the periphery somewhat truncate, The outside margin
of cach chamber is ornamented with five or six strong, longitudinal costae, The
aperture is produced and a little flared, with a simple tooth. The types were
from the Red Sea. The example figured by Wiesner from the Adriatic is pro-
portionately shorter, being about twice as long as broad, and the chambers are
rounded in transverse section. The five specimens from the Abattoirs Bore are
about twice as long as broad, but otherwise agree fairly well with Fornasini’s
figures, except that the number of costae to a chamber varies from five to two.

Quinqueloculina adelaidensis sp. nov.
(Pl. xv, figs. 5, 7)

Description—Test elongate, slender, quinqueloculine ; chambers rounded ;
sutures slightly depressed; apertural end extended into a long cylindrical neck ;
aperture circular with a phialine lip and simple tooth; wall thin, with a rough
surface, coniposed of minute quartz grains on a base of porcellaneous shell
material. Length, 1-1 mm.; breadth, 0-3 mm.; thickness, 0°25 mm.

Holotype in Howchin Collection, South Australian Museum.

Seven samples of this species were found in the material from the bore.
We have not previously met with anything closely resembling it in any of the
Recent or fossil Australian material we have examined nor is it figured by
Millett, Heron-Allen and Earland, or Cushman in their papers on Indo-Pacific
Recent foraminifera. Cushman (1932, p. 23, pl. v, fig. 12) has figured, under
the name of Quinqueloculina cf. gracilis d’Orb., a specimen from the tropical
Pacific which is perhaps nearest to the present form, but differs from it in having
a polished porcellaneous test with slight traces of longitudinal markings.

Genus Sprrotocurina d’Orbigny, 1826
SPIROLOCULINA ANTILLARUM d’Orbigny
Spiroloculina antillarum d’Orbigny, 1839, p. 166, pl. ix, figs 3, 4. Cushman,
1929, p. 43, pl. ix, fig. 3. Parr, 1932, p. 9, pl. 1, fig. 11.

‘This species was described as a Recent form from the West Indics and is
widely distributed through the Indo-Pacific region, particularly fine examples,
similar to the one figured by Parr, occurring on the South Australian coast. As
a fossil, it is found in the Lower Beds, of Lower Miocene age, at Muddy Creek,
Victoria.

294

Spiroloculina lapidigera sp. nov.
(PI. xv, fig. 10)
Spiroloculina sp, cf. arenaria Brady: Parr, 1932, p. 220, pl. xxii, figs. 41 a,b,
Howchin, 1936, p. 4.

Description—Test irregularly elliptical ; periphery broadly rounded ; chambers
comparatively few, oval in transverse section, evenly curved and each larger in
diameter than its predecessor, resulting in the central portion of each face being
depressed, the final chamber embracing its predecessor at each end and with the
apertural end produced into a short neck, with a phialine lip; the aperture is
rounded and with a simple tooth. The wall is composed of agglutinated sand
grains, mostly of comparatively large size; the larger grains are strongly defined
and highly coloured as black, saffron, and transparent, which show conspicuously
on the white cement background. Length, up to 1:8 mm.; breadth, 1°5 mm.;
thickness, 0°52 mm.

ITolotype from Upper Pliocene, Cowandilla (Government) Bore, 420 feet,
in Howchin Collection, South Australian Museum. ‘There are three examples
from the Abattoirs Bore.

This striking species was recorded by the senior author (loc. supra cit.) as
being one of the most remarkable objects in the Upper Pliocene of the Cowandilla
Bore, from which the holotype has been selected. Parr has also recorded and
figured it, also under the name of Spiroloculina sp. cf. @renaria Brady, as a Recent
form from Westernport Bay, Victoria. It is, however, very distinct from
S. arenaria, from which it may be distinguished by the much larger aperture,
shorter apertural neck, depressed sutures, and the concave centre of the test.

Genus Haverina d’Orbigny, 1839

TIAUERINA ORNATISSIMA (Karrer)
(PI. xv, figs. 8, 9)
Quingueloculina ornatissima Karrer, 1868, p. 151, pl. iii, fig. 2.
Hauerina ornatissima (Karrer): Brady, 1884, p. 192, pl. vii, figs. 15-22.

This beautiful species is represented in the bore by a single example measur-
ing about 0-4 mm. in diameter. It is very well defined, both by its unique
ornamentation and its cribrate aperture. Its usual Recent habitat is in shallow
waters of tropical seas, its range extending from the West Indies through the
tropical Pacific to the Kerimba Archipelago, off Portuguese East Africa. It
occurs on the Great Barrier Reef and in Northern Australian waters, but has not
been previously recorded either as a living form or as a fossil from South Aus-
tralia. It is, therefore, interesting to note that, in addition to the specimen from
the Abattoirs Bore, a similar example was met with in the Upper Pliocene of
the Cowandilla Bore. Figures are given of both specimens,

295

Genus Trtocunina d’Orbigny, 1826

TRILOCULINA OBLONGA (Montagu)
Vermiculum oblongum Montagu, 1803, p. 522, pl. xiv, fig. 9.
Triloculina oblonga (Montagu): Cushman, 1929, p. 57, pl. xiii, figs. 4, 5.

Test long and narrow, of a porcellaneous white, showing three visible
chambers and a simple or bifid tooth, are the fundamental characters on which
considerable variations of a minor kind have been based, resulting in numerous
synonyms. According to the published records, it is very widely distributed.
In the present bore it is moderately common.

TRILOCULINA TRICARINATA d’Orbigny
Triloculina tricarinata d’Orbigny, 1826, p. 299, No. 7; Modeles, No. 94,
Cushman, 1929, p. 56, pl. xii, figs. 3 a-c.

The test, like the preceding species, has three visible chambers, very distinctly
triangular, with a sharp periphery. It 1s common in shallow water on the coasts
of South Australia and Victoria. In the Abattoirs Bore examples are scarce, and
whilst distinctly tricarinate, the segmental angles are a little more rounded than
is generally the case. It occurs also in the Cowandilla Bore.

‘TRILOCULINA CULTRATA (Brady)
Mitiolina culirala Brady, 1881, p. 45: 1884, p. 161, pl. v, figs. 1, 2.
Triloculina cultrata (Brady): Parr, 1932, p. 10, pl. i, figs. 14 a, d.
The records of this species. with the exception of that by Parr from off
Black Rock, Victoria, are from tropical shallow water. It is here represented
by a single example, which appears to be the first occurrence as a fossil.

Genus Frrxtina Cushman, 1921
TFLINTINA TRIQUETRA (Brady)
(Pl. xv, figs. 11-13)
Miliolina triquetra Brady, 1879, p. 268; 1884, p. 181, pl. vili, figs. 8-10.
Flintina triquetra (Brady): Chapman and Parr, 1935, p. 4, pl. i, figs. 2 a, d.

This species has hitherto been krown only as a Recent form and is one which
has been rarely recorded. In the bore it is, therefore, remarkable that it is very
common, over 200 fine examples having been obtained, the largest measuring
4-2mm. The average diameter of the bore specimens is about $°3 mm., or more
than three times the dimensions given by Brady. Brady’s records were from
Bass Strait, 38 fathoms; Vorres Strait, 155 fathoms; and Humboldt Bay, Papua,
37 fathoms.

It will be noted that, in the figures we give, the aperture is much larger and
at the end of a shorter neck than those figured by Brady. ‘This is merely due to
the much larger size of our specimens, as we find, in a series of specimens from
Bass Strait, the largest specimens (larger than those figured by Brady) have an
aperture similar to that of the bore examples, the apertural neck and aperture

H

296

becoming respectively shorter and larger with the increase in size of the test.
Besides the bore specimens, the senior author has had the species from Pliocene
beds to the south of Hallett’s Cove, South Australia.

Genus Pyrco Defrance, 1824

Pyrco sp. cf. nuLLomeEs (d’Orbigny )
(PL xv, fig. 6)

There are three specimens which, in external characters, bear a considerable
resemblance to the European Eocene species, P. bulloides. The example figured
has since been accidentally broken, showing the shell to be megalospheric, with
a large proloculus, 0°6 mm. in diameter, followed by three chambers added in
planes 180° apart.

Family OPHTHALMIDIIDAE
Genus NopopacuLarieLtA Cushman and Hanzawa, 1937

Nodobaculariella cultrata sp. nov.
(Pl. xv, fig. 14, a, 6)

Description—Test strongly compressed, periphery subacute with a thin keel ;
chambers in the early portion consisting of an ovoid proloculus, directly followed
by a planospiral chamber extending half way round the proloculus, remaining
chambers roughly triangular in outline with the aboral end recurved, inflated in
the middle, not generally involute, the centre of each face of the shell being
depressed and showing portions of the earlier whorls, three chambers to the adult
whorl; wall ornamented by numerous, fine costae which are parallel to the out-
side margin; aperture elongate, narrow, terminal, with a slight everted lip.
Maximum diameter, 0°65 mm.

Holotype in Howchin Collection, South Australian Museum.

This genus has only very recently been described, and it is therefore of much
interest to find it typically represented in the Abattoirs Bore. Until its early
stages were studied by Cushman and Hanzawa, it was identified with the genus
Vertebralina, which has a different plan of growth, the early chambers being
arranged in a trochoid spiral.

N. cultrata is represented by a single example in the bore material, but the
same form is common in the Lower Beds (of Lower Miocene age) at Muddy
Creek, Victoria, so we fecl justified in dealing with it here as new. The only
specics resembling it is N. aflantica, described by Cushman and Hanzawa (1937,
p. 42, pl. v, figs. 7, 8) from the eastern coast of United States, The chambers
of this are proportionately shorter and it lacks the knife-like keel of N. culirata,
which also differs in having a long, narrow aperture of even width.

Genus Nupecutarra Defrance, 1825

NUBECULARIA LuctFUGA Defrance
Nubecularia lucifuga Defrance, 1825, Dict. Sci. Nat. (Strasburg, 1816-1830),
vol. xxv, p. 210; Atlas Zooph., pl. xliv, fig. 3. Brady, 1884, p. 134, pl. i.
figs. 11, 13-16, ?9, 10 (non 12).

297

This species, which is so common and finely developed in shallow water in
Gulf St, Vincent, is well represented in the bore material. The protean forms
assumed by it in present-day seas are here present and both free and attached
specimens occur. In one case, a colony of seven individuals exhibiting a
Placopsilina-like plan of growth was found attached to a sand grain measuring
5 mm. x 3 mm.

NUBECULARIA LUCIFUGA Defrance var. LAPIDEA Wiesner
(Pl. xv, fig. 2; pl. xvi, figs. 1-3)
Nubecularia lucifuga Brady (non Defrance), 1884, pl. i, fig. 12. Millett, 1898,
pl. v, fig. 7.

N. lucifuga Defrance var. lapidea Wiesner, 1923, p. 94, pl. xix, fig. 282.

Normally the test of N. lucifuge is wholly porcellaneous, although Brady, in
the “Challenger” Report, noted that the shell at times shows a tendency to
agglutinate sand grains, as in the Miliolidae. ITis fig. 12, on pl. xv, represents
one such example. According to Brady (1884, p. 134), the examples of
N. lucifuga figured by him were from the coast of Tripoli and from the beach
near Melbourne, Australia, but he did not give the locality for each specimen.
Nuttall (1927, p. 211), in his paper giving the localities whence the foraminifera
figured in the “Challenger” Report were derived, states that figures 13-15 repre-
sent specimens from the Gulf of Bombah, Tripoli. Tt is probable that the remain-
ing figured specimens were from Australian waters. The locality given, “beach,
near Melbourne,” suggests that the material was some of that studied by Parker
and Jones (1865, List No. 30) and which Parr has stated (1932, p. 1) was almost
certainly from the coast of South Australia. We have seen nothing like the
specimens under discussion in any Victorian material, although they can be
matched in almost any shallow water gathering from Gulf St. Vincent.

The agglutinated form of N. lucifuga, to which Wiesner has given the name
of var. lapidea, is common in Gulf St. Vincent, and Parr has found it to be
frequent in shore sand at Port Fairy, Victoria, where it occurs to the exclusion
of the typical form. Outside Australian waters, it seems to be of very rare
occurrence, the only records of it appearing to be the two given above. Millett’s
was from the Malay Archipelago, and that of Wiesner, who named the variety
on a single specimen, from the Adriatic.

Specimens occur fairly commonly in the Abattoirs and Croydon Bores, the
best examples being obtained from the latter. Most of them have been attached
during life, but one, apparently free, specimen, which is figured (pl. xv, fig. 2)
was found, This shows an irregular slit-like aperture, which has not been
observed ir, any of the adherent examples. The shell of var. lapidea is more
strongly built and generally larger than is usual in the typical form of N. lucifuga.
In the bore, incomplete specimens 5 mm. in length were met with. The sand
grains incorporated in the wall consist of clear quartz and, in cross sections, are
seen to be embedded in the cement but have an even face at the surface.

298

Family LAGENIDAE
Genus Dextatina d’Orbigny, 1826

DENTALINA opLigua (Linné)
Nautilus obliquus Linné, 1767, p. 1,163; 1788, p. 3,372, No. 14.
Nodosaria obliqua (Linné): Fornasini, 1902, p. 36.

There is one incomplete example, 3 mm. in length and agreeing closely with
the figure given by Gualtieri, on which Linné based this species. We are indebted
to Dr. J. A. Cushman for a photograph of Gualtieri’s plate on which the species
is figured.

Family POLYMORPHINIDAE
Genus GUTTULINA d’Orbigny, 1826

GUTTULINA PROBLEMA d’Orbigny
Gutlulina problema d’Orbigny, 1826, p. 266, No. 14, Modéles, No. 61. Parr and
Collins, 1937, p. 191, pl. xii, fig. 1.
There are two examples of this widely-distributed species, the larger of
which is 0°95 mm. in length.

GUTTULINA REGINA (Brady, Parker, and Jones)
Polymorphina regina Brady, Parker, and Jones, 1870, p. 241, pl. xl, figs. 32 a, 0.
Guttulina regina (B., P., & J.): Parr and Collins, 1937, p. 193, pl. xii, fig. 5;
text figs. 1-7,
This costate form is a well-known Australian species, the type locality of
which is Storm Bay, Tasmania. In the Upper Pliocene of the Abattoirs Bore
it is rare and small.

Genus SIGMOIDELLA Cushman and Ozawa, 1928

SIGMOIDELLA ELEGANTISSIMA (Parker and Jones)
Polymorphina elegantissima Parker and Joncs, 1865, p. 438. Brady, Parker, and

Jones, 1870, p. 231, pl. xl, figs 15 b, ¢ (non a).
Sigmoidella elegantissima (P. & J.): Parr and Collins, 1937, p. 206, pl. xiv, fig. 9.
Like the preceding, this species was described from Australian coastal waters,
in which it is common. It is also found in Australian Tertiary deposits from
the Lower Miocene upwards. In the present bore one good-sized specimen and
several smaller ones were obtained.

SIGMOIDELLA KAGAENSIS Cushman and Ozawa
Polyvmorphina elegantissima Brady, Parker, and Jones, 1870 (pars), p. 231,
pl. xl, fig. 15 a.
Sigmoidella kagaensis Cushman and Ozawa: Parr and Collins, 1937, p. 207,
pl. xiv, fig. 10.
This species was described from the Pliocene of Japan. It is widely dis-
tributed in the Western Pacific, in moderately shallow water, and occurs

299

frequently on the Australian coast. Its geological range in Australia is the same
as that of S. elegantissima, It is rare in the bore material,

Family NONIONIDAE
Genus Erpuipium Montfort, 1808
EvpHiprum ADVENUM (Cushman)

Polystomella subnodosa Brady (non Robulina subnodosa Minster), 1884, p. 734,
pl. cx, figs. 1, a, b.

P. advena Cushman, 1922, p. 56, pl. ix, figs. 11, 12.

Elphidium advenum (Cushm.): Cushman, 1930, p. 25, pl. x, figs. 1, 2.

The types of this species were from the Tortugas region, off southern
Florida, U.S.A. Brady’s specimens, with which those from the Abattoirs Bore
are in close agreement, were from two “Challenger” Stations between Papua and
Australia.

Elphidium rctatum sp. nov.
(PI. xvii, figs. 1, 2, 4)
Elphidium (?) macellum (Fichtel and Moll): Howchin, 1936, p. 3.

Description—Test strongly compressed, slightly umbonate, sides sloping
evenly in most cases from the umbo to the subacute periphery, occasionally the
sides are slightly depressed near the margin; chambers very numerous, up to
56 in the adult whorl, not inflated, of nearly uniform height throughout; sutures
distinct, limbate and raised, recurved at the outer end, except in the last quarter
whorl, when they are straight; retral processes extending as cross bars across
the full width of the chamber, 30 or more in the adult chamber, towards the
outer end of the chamber the retral processes are crossed by one or more ridges
running parallel to the sutures and so forming a delicate, cross-lines meshwork
on the marginal surface of the chamber; umbo with numerous small irregular
pits, aperture a series of small rounded openings at the base of the sharply-
triangular apertural face. Diameter, up to 2°9 mm.; thickness, to O-7 mm.

Holotype from shore sand, Kingston, South Australia, collected by Dr. W. G.
Torr and in Howchin Collection, South Australian Museum.

In Part IT of the senior author’s series of geological notes on the deep
borings in the Adelaide Basin (loc. supra cit.), he drew attention to the occurrence
of a species in the Cowandilla Bore which he doubtfully referred to Elphidiuim
macellum. Subsequently, on examining some shore sands from Kingston, South
Australia, collected many years ago by Dr. W. G. Tort, the same form was Tound
to be very common. When further examples of a like kind were met with in
the Abattoirs Bore, it was decided to give them specific distinction. The slinmness
of the test, as well as the sharp peripheral edge, renders the shells liable to injury
by weathering, which is seen in the Recent specimens in part, as well as the fossils.
Under such circumstances, it has been deemed advisable to select a Recent example
as the holotype.

300

As already noted, the species is common in the shore sand from Kingston.
As a fossil, it appears to be limited to the Upper Pliocene in the Adelaide Basin,
where it is of rare occurrence, one example having been found in the Abattoirs
Bore and another in the Cowandilla Bore. The former is 2:0 mm. in diameter,
and the latter 1-80 mm,

Elphidium adelaidense sp. nov.
(PI. xvili, fig. 7; pl. xix, figs. 5, 6)

Description—Test strongly compressed and umbonate, periphery acute, but
not keeled; chambers very numerous, 40 or more in the adult whorl, of about
uniform height throughout, low and slightly recurved; very slightly inflated ;
sutures indistinct; retral processes numerous, up to 22 in the adult chamber,
extending across the surface of the chamber, or occasionally only a little forward
and backwards from the suture line and so forming a double series of shallow
pits bordering each chamber, the large umbo with numerous, very shallow,
irregular pits; aperture a series of small, obscure, rounded openings at the base
of the sharply-triangular apertural face. Diameter, up to 2-9 mm.; thickness, to
1-1 mm. Usually the specimens do not exceed 1-7 mm. in diameter.

Holotype in Howchin Collection, South Australian Museum,

This species is not uncommon in the Upper Pliocene of the Abattoirs Bore
and appears also to occur in the Miocene of the bore. ‘The most closely related
species is possibly 1. chapmani, described by Cushman (1936 (2), p. 80, pl. xiv,
figs. 6 a, b) from the Miocene of Neumerella, Victoria and herein recorded from
the Miocene of the bore. ‘his is a much smaller form, with fewer chambers
(25-30), a proportionately thicker test, and a different development of the retral
processes.

Genus PoLtystoMELLINA Yabe and Hanzawa, 1923
POLYSTOMELLINA HowciiNnr (Chapman, Parr, and Collins)
Rotalia papillosa var. compressiuscula Howchin (non Brady), 1889, p. 15.
RK. howchini Chapman, Parr, and Collins, 1934, p. 566, pl. ix, figs. 20 ac.
Howchin, 1936, p. 9.

Small examples of this species, which was described from the T.ower Miocene
of the Altona Bay Coal Shaft, near Melbourne, are common in the Upper
Pliocene of the bore. It was also recorded from beds of similar age in the
Cowandilla Bore by the senior author, who noted its wide distribution in the
Australian Tertiaries. While it has hitherto been referred to the genus FRolalia,
it appears to be a trochoid form related to Elphidium and is accordingly trans-
ferred to the genus Polystomellina,

Family PENEROPLIDAE
Genus PENERorLis Montfort, 1808

PENEROPLIS PERTUSUS (Forskal)
(PL xvii, fig. 8)
Nautilus pertusus Forskal, 1775, p. 125, No. 65.
Peneroplis pertusus (Forskal): Brady, 1884, p. 204, pl. xiii, figs. 16, 17.

301

Examples of this widely-distributed species are common but are frequently
badly eroded.
Genus Sortres Ehrenberg, 1840
SorITES MARGINALIS (Lamarck)
(PL. xvii, fig. 9)
Orbulites marginalis Lamarck, 1816, p. 196, No. 1.
Sorites marginalis (Lam.): Cushman, 1930, p. 49, pl. xviii, figs. 1-4.

This is known, for the most part, as a Recent form, inhabiting the shallow
margins of warm seas. It is common in the Indo-Pacific region under such
conditions, and is also known from the West Indies. Two specimens were
obtained from the bore, the larger measuring 1-9 mm, in diameter.

Genus AmMpuHisorus Ehrenberg, 1840
AMPHISORUS HEMPRICHH [Ehrenberg
(Pl. xix, fig. 7)
Amphisorus hemprichii Fehrenberg, 1838, Abhandl. K. Akad. Wiss., Berlin,
p. 134, pl. iti, fig. 3. Cushman, 1930, p. 51, pl. xviii, figs. 5-7.
Orbitolites duplex Carpenter, 1883, p. 25, pl. iti, figs. 8-14; pl. iv, figs. 6-10;
pl. v, figs. 1-13. Brady, 1884, p. 216, pl. xvi, fig. 7.

This species is better known as Orbitolites duplex, under which name it
was described by Carpenter in his work on the Orbitolites of the “Challenger”
Expedition. Cushman, however, after an examination of the types of Amphisorus
hempriciii in the Ehrenberg colleciion in Berlin, considers that Carpenter’s
species is a synonym of the older form.

A. hemprichii occurs on the Great Barrier Reef and elsewhere in the warmer
seas of the Indo-Pacific region, as well as in the Mediterranean and the West
Indies. Two specimens, both very characteristic, have been obtained from the
Upper Pliocene of the Adelaide Basin; the larger, from the Croydon Bore, has
a diameter of 5 mm. The other is from the present bore. When these are
mounted in fluid and examined by transmitted light, a clear distinction is seen
between the single layer of chambers around the centre and the duplex arrange-
ment of chambers in the latter portion of the shell.

Genus Marcrnopora Blainville, 1830

MARGINOPORA VERTEBRALIS Blainville
Marginopcra vertebralis Blainville, 1830, Dict. Sci. Nat., vol. Ix, p. 377 (Quoy
and Gaimard M.S.). Quoy and Gaimard, 1833, Voyage de l’Astrolabe, fide
Blainville, 1834, Man. d’Actinologie, p. 412, pl. Ixix, figs. 6, 6 a-c. Cushman,
1933, p. 67, pl. xix, figs. 11, 12.
Orbitolites complanata Carpenter (non Lamarck), 1883, p. 29, pl. v, figs. 14-18;
pls. vi-viii. Brady, 1884, p. 218, pl. xvi, figs. 1-6; pl. xvii, figs. 1-6.

302

This species frequently occurs in great numbers in shallow water in the
warmer parts of the Indo-Pacific, often attaining a large size. its most southerly
record appears to be that by Chapman and Parr (1935, p. 3) from the Great
Australian Bight, off the coast of Western Australia. In the Lower and Upper
Pliocene of South Australia it is a frequent fossil. In the present bore material
fragments occur in the fine sand, and in one of the sandy nodules which occur
in the “white sand” horizon, an impression measuring 20 mm. in diameter
was seen.

Family ROTALIIDAE
Genus Discorpis Lamarck, 1804

Discorsis GLoBULARIS (d’Orbigny)
(PI. xvii, fig. 10)
Rosalina globularis d’Orbigny, 1826, p. 271, pl. xiii, figs. 1, 2; Modéles, No. 69.
Discorbis globularis (d’Orb.): Chapman, Parr, and Collins, 1934, p. 562, pl. viii,
figs. 7 a-c.

There is a small example which measures 0°55 mm. in diameter. It is inter-
mediate between the typical form of this species and Discorbis australis Parr,
which has heavily limbate sutures. It also bears some resemblance to
Tretomphalus concinnus (Brady), when the balloon chamber of the latter is
missing. 7. concinnus attains a diameter of 0°25 mm. only and the shell is very
thin and transparent, with the perforations much smaller and less conspicuous
than those of D. globularis.

Discorris DIMIprATUS (Jones and Parker)
Discorbina dumidiata Jones and Parker, 1862, p. 201, text fig. 32 b.
Discorbis vesicularis (Lamarck) var. dimidiata (J. & P.): Parr, 1932, p. 227,
pl. xxi, figs. 27-29,

This species has been dealt with at length by the junior author (loc. cit.)
in 1932 as a variety of the European Eocene D. vesicularis. He now considers
that the Australian form should be given specific rank, and it is here treated
accordingly.

D. dimidiatus is perhaps the most distinctive foraminifer occurring in
shallow water on the southern coast of Australia reaching its finest development
in Gulf St, Vincent. In the present bore a few examples were found, one measur-
ing 1-2 mm. The species also occurs in the Lower Pliocene of the Muddy Creek
area, near Hamilton, Victoria.

Discorbis cycloclypeus sp. nov.
(PL xvi, fig. 11; pl. xviii, figs. 5, 12; pl. xix, fig. 13)
Description—TLest trochoid, almost cireular in outline, biconvex, the central
portion of the superior face dome-shaped and surrounded by a flattened border,
inferior surface only slightly convex; periphery subacute; chambers 10 to 11 in
the last-formed whorl, increasing gradually in size as added, not inflated; sutures

303

on dorsal side barely visible unless the shell is moistened, oblique, flush, gently
recurved on the ventral side and very much depressed; wall smooth and not
distinctly perforated in the earlier whorls, coarsely perforated in the last-formed
whorl; wall thickened at the centre of the inferior face; aperture an arched slit
at the base of the last-formed chamber. Diameter up to 1°5 mm., height to 1 mm.

Holotype in Howchin Collection, South Australian Museum.

This species is one of the D. vesicularis group and appears to be quite
distinct from any previously described form. It connects /). balcombensis
Chapman, Parr, and Collins, from the Miocene of Victoria, with D. dimidiatus
var. acervulinoides Parr, from Gulf St. Vincent, but has consistently a larger
number of chambers to the whorl than these two species. It may also be dis-
tinguished from D. balcombensis by its strongly-depressed sutures on the ventral
side, and from the other form by the shape of the upper side of the shell, which
recalls a rounded, convex shield, thickened in the centre. Examples are fairly
common in the Upper Pliocene of the Abattoirs Bore and the species also occurs
in the Lower Pliocene of the Muddy Creek area, in Victoria.

Genus Rotaria Lamarck, 1804
Roratra BEccARIL (Linné)

Nautilus beecarii Linné, 1767, p. 1,162; 1788, p. 3,370.
Rotalia beccarii (Linné): Cushman, 1931, p. 58, pl. xii, figs. 1-7; pl. xiii,
figs. 1, 2.

This is the commonest foraminifer in the Upper Pliocene of the bore, several
hundred examples having been obtained. The largest is 2°5 mm. in diameter.

Genus Errsromarta Galloway, 1933

(?) EpIsfoMARIA POLYSTOMELLOIDES (Parker and Jones)
(PL. xvii, figs. 5-7, 11-13)
Discorbina polystomelloides Parker and Jones, 1865, p. 421, pl. xix, figs. 8 a-c.
3rady, 1884, p. 652, pl. xci, figs. 1 ace. Heron-Allen and Earland, 1915,
p. 698, pl. lit, figs. 19-23.

This rarely recorded species was originally described from “Australian coral
reefs,” and, with the exception of some fossil specimens attributed to it by
Heron-Allen and Earland from Selsey Bill, Sussex, England, it appears io be
confined to the warmer parts of the Indian and south-western Pacific Oceans
and the late Tertiary of Australia. It is here doubtiully referred to Galloway’s
genus LEpistomaria, the genotype of which is Discorbina rimosa Parker and
Jones. The characters of this genus are defined by Cushman in the second edition
of his book, “Foraminifera. Their Classification and Economic Use” (1933,
p. 240), as follows: ‘lest trochoid, dorsal side with regular chambers, ventral
side with supplementary chambers or alar projections toward the umbilicus,
which is covered; wall calcareous, finely perforate; apertures ventrally at the

304

periphery of the secondary chambers, with supplenientary apertures dorsally at
inner edge of chamber along the suture between it and the preceding chamber,
narrow, elongate.” These do not accord with the structure of the present species,
which has been worked out by Heron-Allen and Earland (1915, p. 698) in their
Kerimba Monograph. The junior author, who has devoted a considerable
amount of time to the investigation of the position of the species, is inclined to
the opinion that it represents a new generic type, but, pending the examination
of the type specimen of Discorbina rimosa, this cannot at present be decided.

Eight examples of this form were met with in the Abattoirs Bore material,
and it occurs also in beds of similar age in the Glanville Bore. There is one
very large specimen from the Glanville Bore measuring 4 mm. across, the whole
of the shell wall being extremely thick and with the surface largely covered by
undulose ridges of imperforate shell material (pl. xvii, figs. 5, 6). Those from
the Abattoirs Bore are typical except one or two which are similar to Discorbis
dimidiatus, except that they have the second aperture in the septal face, which
is a feature of the present species (pl. xvii, figs. 11, 12).

Family ANOMALINIDAE
Genus Crbicipes Montfort, 1808

Cipicibes LopaTULUS (Walker and Jacob)
Nautilus lobatulus Walker and Jacob, 1798, p. 642, pl. xiv, fig. 36.
Cibicides lobatulus (W. & J.): Cushman, 1931, p. 118, pl. xxi, figs. 3 a-c.

This common species is rare in the bore samples.

Family PLANORBULINIDAE

Genus Gvypsina Carter, 1877

GYPSINA GLOBULUS (Reuss)
Ceriopora globulus Reuss, 1847, Ilaidinger’s Naturw., Abhandl., vol. ii, p. 33,

pl. v, fig. 7.
Gypsina globulus (Reuss): Brady, 1884, p. 717, pl. ci., fig. 8.
There is one example. This species occurs in Australia in deposits from

Miocene to Recent.

PART II MIOCENE SPECIES

Note—Material of Miocene age was examined by Professor Howchin from the
depths specified below, and lists of the foraminifcra identified prepared by him. As the
specimens on which the identifications were based, with the exception of those species
dealt with later in the systematic portion, have not been located in the Howchin Collec-
tion, it has been deemed advisable to give the lists as Professor Howchin left them,
with such alterations as are necessary to bring them into line with present nomenclature.
This course is followed in preference to omitting all reference to the species which have
not been seen, so that a better idea of the foraminiferal assemblage at each of the depths
mentioned may be obtained-—W. J. P.

575-620 FEET
The matrix is a light-coloured calcareous sandstone with a limited number
of bryozoa.

Species JDENTIFIED—
Textuluria sagittula Defrance

Quinqueloculina agglutinans VOrb. - E - 5 specimens
QO. venusta Karrer - - - - - - Rather scarce
Q. adelaidensis sp. nov. - : - - - 2 specimens
Spiroloculina (?) lapidigera sp. nov. - - - 1 specimen
Triloculina trigonula (Lamarck) - - - il do.

T. circularis Bornemann- - - = - Very rare
Dentalina obliqua (Linné)

Guttulina problema d’Orb. ‘ - a - 2 examples
G. wregularis (d’Orb.) - - - - - 1 specimen
Globulina gibba d’Orb.

Sigmomorphina subregularis sp. nov. - - 6 specimens
Sigmotdella elegantissima (P. & J.) - - - Common

S. kagaensis C. & O. - - - - - Common
Elphidium adelaidense sp. nov.

E. chapmani Cushman 7 + - + - Frequent
EE. sp. nov. - = - - - : - 1 specimen

(?) Operculina umbonifera sp. nov.
Discorbis sp. cf. vesicularis (Lam.)
D. cycloclypeus sp. nov.

Miniacina miniacea (Pallas)

: 710-775 FEET
Species IpDENTIFIED—

Textularia agglutinans VOrb. — - - - - Rather scarce
Gaudryina rugosa VOrb

Pyrgo sp.

Dentalina obliqua (Linné) - oe - - Rare

D, soluta Reuss - - - = - = - Very rare
Lenticulina rotulata (1am.) - - - - Rare

Robulus cultratus (Montfort) - 7 = - Rare

Guttilina problema @Orb. - 4 - - - Rare

Sigmoidella elegantissima (P. & J.) - Fi - Moderately common
Nonion depressulus (W.& J.) - - - - Rather scarce
Elphidium crispwm (Linné) : - - - Small and rather scarce
E. craticulatum (F. & M.) - - - - - Small and rare
Opercalina victoriensis C&P. - - - - Very common
Rotalia verriculata sp. nov. 3 3 - - Very common
Epistomina elegans (d’Orb.) - - - - Small, rather scarce

Amphistegina hanerina VOrb. - - - - Rather scarce

306

Planorbulina mediterranensis d’Orb. - - - Rather scarce
Gypsina vesicularis (P.& J.) - - - - Rather scarce
G. howchini Chapman

Planorbulinella plana (H. - A. & FE.)

800-820 Fret
Species IDENTIFIED—

Textularia agglutinans d’Orb., var. porrecta Brady Rare
T. gramen VOrb,

TY. concava (Iarrer) - - - - - - 1 specimen
Gaudryina (Siphogaudryina) victoriana Cushm, 4 specimens
Dorothia parrt Cushman - - - - - Rare

Ouingqueloculina venusta Karrer
Pyrgo depressa (d’Orb.)

Pentalina obliqua (Linné) - - - - 2 large specimens
D. obliquestriata Reuss - - - - Rare

Sigmoidella elegantissima (P. & i ) - - - Moderately common
Operculina victoriensis C.& PL - - - - Rather scarce
Gyroidina soldanti d’Orb. - - - - rare

Rotalia verriculata sp. nov. = - - - - Very common and large
Globigerina bulloides d’Orb. - - - - 1 example

Cibicides lobatulus (W. &. J.)

Gvpsina wesicularis (P.& J.) - - - - Rather scarce

G. howchint Chapman - - - - - do.

G. globulus (Reuss) - - - - - - do.

- Rare

l
1
1

Miniacina iminuta (Chapman)

Family LAGENIDAE
Genus Denratina d’Orbigny, 1826
DENTALINA OBLIQUA (Linné)
(PI. xvi, fig. 5)
For references, see this species under Part I.
There is one large example measuring 4°5 mm. in length. Similar specimens
are common in the Miocene of Victoria.

DENTALINA sp. cf. VERTEBRALIS (Batsch)
(PI. xvi, figs. 6, 7)

There are four specimens, one curved (pl. xvi, fig. 6) and three straight,
which may belong to this species. Batsch’s type-figure (cde Cushman, Contr.
Cushman Lab., vol. vii, pt. 3, 1931, pl. viii, fig. 20, where it is reproduced)
represents a broken specimen, almost straight, and increasing rather quickly in
diameter, with fairly numerous costae which are continued throughout the length
of the test. Cushman’s second figure (in the same work) of an example from
the type locality, Rimini, on the Adriatic, shows another straight shell, with well-

307

defined suture lines of clear shell material and only about eight costae. The
dentaline specimen we figure is, in the earlier portion of the shell, fairly close to
Cushman’s second figure, but additional costae are developed in the latter portion.
The three nodosarian examples are short, with a maximum of six chambers, and
the number of costae is respectively 8, 12, and 16. The sutures are somewhat
depressed.
Genus FronpicuLaria Defrance, 1826
FRONDICULARIA LORIFERA Chapman
(PI. xvi, fig. 4)
Frondicularia lorifera Chapman, 1913, p. 171, pl. xvi, fig. 6.

One typical example was found. This very distinct species was described
from the Miocene of the Mallee bores in Victoria and does not appear to have
been since recorded. The junior author has, however, specimens from the
Lower Beds at Muddy Creek and from Neumerella and Torquay, all in the
Miocene of Victoria. The shell varies considerably in outline. Normally it is
lanceolate, but may be rhomboid or spatulate. The surface is flat and occasionally
depressed along the median line. ‘he most characteristic features are the thick
shell-wall and the exceptionally heavy, raised, strap-like layers of clear material
on the suture lines. The proloculus bears, on each side of the test, two raised
costae of similar material.

Family POLYMORPHINIDAE
Genus PseupopoLyMorrimiNa Cushman and Ozawa, 1928

PskEUpOPOLYMORPHINA RUTILA (Cushman) var. PARRI Cushman and Ozawa
(PI. xvii, fig. 14)
Pseudopolymorphina rutila (Cushman) var. parri Cushman and Ozawa, 1930,
p. 100. Parr and Collins, 1937, p. 201, pl. xiv, figs. 4 a-c.

This species has hitherto been known only from the Miocene of Rocky
Point, Torquay, Victoria, where is was collected by the junior author, so it is
noteworthy that a typical example has been found in the Miocene of the
Abattoirs Bore.

Genus PotyMorPHINA d’Orbigny, 1826
PoLyMoORPHINA MYRAE Parr and Collins
(PL xvi, figs. 9, 10)
Polymorphina myrae Parr and Collins, 1937, p. 203, pl. xv, figs. 4 a-c.

‘The presence of this species in the Miocene of the bore calls for special
remark for, as far as we are aware, it does nut occur elsewhere in beds older
than the Lower Pliocene. The types were from the Upper Beds at Beaumaris,
Victoria, to which it has previously been confined. There are two specimens
from the bore, one, which is immature and with the initial end bearing a short
spine (pl. xvi, fig, 10), and another which is a mature, typical example measuring
2°35 mm. in length (pl. xvi, fig. 9).

308

Genus SIGMOMORPHINA Cushman and Ozawa, 1928
Sigmomorphina subregularis sp. nov.
(Pl. xviii, figs. 2, 11)

Description—Test comparatively large, oval or sub-rhomboidal, about 14
times as long as wide, and thickness half the width; a median sigmoidal longi-
tudinal ridge on both sides, margin of shell subacute; chambers numbering about
16 in the adult, compressed, long, arranged in a clockwise sigmoid series, each
chamber removed much farther from the base, those on the right hand side with
a pronounced median ridge; sutures on the right hand side of the median line of
the shell much depressed, on the left hand side slightly depressed; wall smooth
and comparatively thick; aperture radiate. Length of holotype, 2:55 mm.; width,
1:5 mm.; thickness, 0°78 mm.

Holotype in Mowchin Collection, South Australian Museum.

This very distinct species is represented by six examples. It may be com-
pared with S. pseudoregularis Cushman and Thomas (1929, Journ. Pal., vol. iii,
p. 178, pl. xxiii, figs. 5 a-c), from the Eocene of Texas, U.S.A. This is one-
third of the size of the present species; while the shell has a similar median fold,
the chambers are arranged in an anti-clockwise sigmoid series and the centre of
each chamber on the right hand side of the shell is not ridged.

Family NONIONIDAE
Genus Noniron Montfort, 1808

NoNioN NovozEALANDICcUS Cushman
(PI. xviii, fig. 15)
Nonion novogealandicum Cushman, 1936, (1), p. 66, pl. xii, figs. 6 a, b.

‘The types of this species were from the Upper Oligocene of Motutara Point,
Kawhia Iarbour, New Zealand. One typical example, 0°90 in length, was found
in the bore material.

Genus ErpHipium Montfort, 1808
Elphidium sp. cf. adelaidense sp. nov.
(Pl. xvii, fig. 3)

There is one specimen which may belong to this species which we have
described from the Upper Pliocene of the bore. It is more compressed than
those from higher in the bore.

ELPHipIUM CHAPMANT Cushman
Elphidium chapmani Cushman, 1936 (2), p. 80, pl. xiv, figs. 6 a, b.

Four examples were found. They measure about 1:2 mm. in diameter and
otherwise agree with Cushman’s description and figures, except that the edge
of the test is slightly keeled. The species was described from material forwarded
to the author by Parr from the Miocene of Neumerella, near Orbost, Victoria.

309

ELPHIDIUM sp.
(PI. xviii, fig. 8)

The figure represents a unique example of what is probably a new species.
The test is stout and umbonate, the thickness being one-half of the diameter in
side view. ‘There are 16 chambers in the outside whorl; these are of nearly
uniform size and shape and are slightly inflated. The sutures are rather indistinct
and depressed. The chamber walls are covered closely with raised cross bars
of shell material parallel to the periphery and, with the beads on the umbones,
giving an ornate appearance to the test. The diameter is 1-2 mm., and the thick-
ness O°6 mm. In the absence of further material, it has been deemed inadvisable
to make a specific determination.

Family CAMIERINIDAE
Genus OpercuLina d’Orbigny, 1826

(2?) Operculina umbonifera sp. nov.
(PI. xviii, figs. 3, 4, 6, 18, 14)

Desecriplion—Test a little longer than broad, slightly asymmetrical, periphery
rounded or subacute, rarely faintly lobulated in the last two or three chambers,
the central half of each side of the shell strongly umbonate, the umbo composed
of laminated shell material, finely perforate; whorls numbering usually three,
each whorl added obliquely so that the axis of the test in vertical section is curved ;
12 to 13 chambers in the last-formed whorl, of uniform shape, increasing slightly
in size as added; sutures indistinct or invisible, very slightly recurved; wall thick,
laminated, closely and distinctly perforate in sections of the shell; canal system
present but weakly developed, apparently consisting of interseptal canals and a
few tubular passages in the “marginal cord” in the plane of coiling; aperture a
narrow, curved slit placed a little to one side at the hase of the triangular face
and next the preceding coil, Length of holotype, 1-3 mm.; breadth, 1-1 mm.;
thickness, 0°75 mm.

Holotype in Howchin Collection, South Australian Museum,

It is difficult to place this species satisfactorily with the material available.
There can be little dowbt that its affinities are with the Camerinidae, near the
genus Operciulina, but the test of this genus and of related genera is invariably
bilaterally symmetrical. Possibly we have a new generic type, but, as there are
only five specimens, three of which have been used to make sections, further
specimens are required before the position of the species can be satisfactorily
ascertained.

OPERCULINA VICTORIENSIS Chapman and Parr
(PI. xviii, fig. 10)
Operculina victoriensis Chapman and Parr, 1938, p. 284, pl. xvi, figs. 3-8; text
fig. 2.

This species, which has just been described from the Miocene of Victoria,
is represented by three typical specimens, the largest of which measures 2°3 mm.
Its range in Victoria is from the Lower to the Middle Miocene.

Family ROTALIIDAE
Genus Rotatia Lamarck, 1804

Rotalia verriculata sp. nov.
(Pl. xix, figs. 8, 9, 11, 15)
Rotalina calcar Chapman (non Calcarina calcar d’Orbigny), 1910, p. 289, pi. hii,
fig. 2.
Rotalia caleay Weron-Allen and Earland (non Calcarina calcar d’Orb.), 1924,
p. 180.
Calcarina defrancii Weron-Allen and Earland (non d’Orbigny), 1924, p. 182.

Deseription—Test trochoid, plano-convex to biconvex, the ventral side always
the more convex, periphery lobulate, broadly rounded to subacute, sometimes with
irregular spinose projections on the later chambers, umbilical area with a coarsely-
beaded plug or closed and bearing one large rounded bead of shell matcrial;
chambers usually 12 or 13. in the last-formed whorl, increasing gradually in size
as added, strongly inflated on the ventral side, only the later chambers well
inflated on the dorsal side; sutures much depressed on the ventral side and
frequently in the last quarter of the outside whorl on the dorsal side, slightly
recurved on both faces; wall thick, closely covered on the ventral side with an
ornament of raised cross bars parallel to the periphery and sometimes numerous
large raised beads in the centre of the test and along the median line of the earlier
chambers, dorsal side thickly studded and at times completely covered with
tubercles of exogenous shell-growth; septa double; aperture an elongate slit at
the inner margin of the ventral side of the last chamber. Diameter up to 2-8 mm.;
height, to 1 mm.

Holotype in Howchin Collection, South Australian Museum.

This species is very common in the Lower Miocene limestone of the Filter
and New Quarries at Batesford, Victoria, and occurs elsewhere in Victoria in
beds of a similar facies and age. Chapman (loc. supra cit.), in his paper “A
Study of the Batesford Limestone,” has given photographs of four specimens
which illustrate well the variations found in the species, particularly in the gradual
loss of the umbilical plug. The specimens from the Abattoirs Bore alsa show
the transition from a form with a solid umbilical plug to one in which it is absent.
dieron-Allen and Earland have referred their Batesford specimens to two species,
those with a strongly biconvex test, solid umbilical stud and projecting spinous
processes to Rotalia calcar, and those with a plano-convex test, almost devoid of
spinous processes, and studded all over with beads of exogenous shell-growth to
Calcarina defrancu. From our material, however, it appears that none of the
features on which these authors have relied for their identification of the two
forms is constant, as, apart from the presence or absence of the umbilical plug,
the Fr. calcary form is frequently almost plano-convex and more often than not
without any peripheral spines, while the C. defrancit form may have a biconvex
test with peripheral spines (vide pl. xix, figs. 8, 9 and 15, and also Chapman’s
bottom left-hana figure). Reference to the original figures of Calcarina calcar

311

and C. defrancii and also C. gaimardii d’Orb., with which Heron-Allen and
Earland compared the present species, will show that the latter is quite distinct.
It appears to be confined to the lower part of the Miocene of Victoria and South
Australia.
Family AMPIISTEGINIDAE
Genus AMPHISTEGINA d’Orbigny, 1826
AMPHISTEGINA HAUERINA d’Orbigny
(Pl. xvi, fig. 1)
Amphistegina haucrina d’Orbigny, 1846, p. 207, pl. xii, figs. 3-5.
A, lessonii Chapman (non d’Orbigny), 1910, p, 294, pl. liii, fig. 6. Chapman and
Crespin, 1932, fig. 3.
This compressed, lenticular form of Amphistegina was described from the

Miocene of the Vienna Basin. Typical examples occur in the bore, and it is
frequently very common in the Lower and Middle Miocene of Victoria.

Family CHILOSTOMELLIDAE
Genus SpHAEROIDINA d’Orbigny, 1826
SPHAEROIDINA BULLOIDES d’Orbigny
(PI. xviii, fig. 9)
Sphaeroidina bulloides d’Orbigny, 1826, p. 267, No. 1; Modeles, No. 65.
Brady, 1884, p. 620, pl. Ixxxiv, figs. 1-7.

There is one example 1-3 mm. in diameter.

Family PLANORBULINIDAE
Genus Pranorsutina d’Orbigny, 1826
PLANORBULINA MEDITERRANENSIS d’Orbigny
(Pl. xix, fig. 12)
Planorbulina mediterranensis VOrbigny, 1826, p. 280, pl. xiv, figs. 4-6; Modeles,
No. 79. Brady, 1884, p. 656, pl. xcii, figs. 1-3.

There are two examples. This species was recorded by Heron-Allen and

Earland (1924, p. 173) from the Lower Miocene of Batesford, Victoria.

Genus PLANORBULINELLA Cushman, 1927
PLANORBULINELLA INAEQUILATERALIS (ITeron-Allen and Earland)
(Pl. xix, fig. 2)
Planorbulina larvata Parker and Jones var. inaeguilateralis Heron-Allen and
Earland, 1924, p. 174, pl. xii, figs. 83-90.

Planorbulinella inaequilateralis (H.-A. & E.): Crespin, 1936, pl. i, fig. 6.
There are two specimens, the larger measuring 1-4 mm. in diameter. This
form was described from the Lower Miocene of Batesford, Victoria, as a variety
of Planorbulina larvata characterised by a convex superior surface and a concave

I

312

inferior side. Heron-Allen and Earland also recorded P. larvata in the same
paper, this representing the flat form of inaequilateralis. We agree, however,
with Miss I. Crespin, B.A., the Commonwealth Palaeontologist, that P. larvata
does not occur in the Tertiary of Victoria and that the variety inaequilateralis
should, therefore, be given the status of a species. In P. larvata the chambers in
the outside ring are separated from one another by the chambers of the preceding
ring, while in P. inaequilateralis they are contiguous.

The present species has not been found outside the Lower Miocene of Vic-
toria and South Australia.

Genus GYPSINA Carter, 1877

GyYPsINA GLoBULUS (Reuss)
(PIL. xviii, fig. 16)
For references see this species under Part I.

One specimen was found. This widely distributed species is common in the
Lower Miocene of Batesford (vide Heron-Allen and Earland, 1924, p. 183,
pl. xiv, figs. 117, 118).

GYPSINA HOWcIlINI Chapman

Gypsina howchint Chapman, 1910, p, 291, pl. lii, figs. 4 a, b; pl. liii, figs, 3-5.
Heron-Allen and Earland, 1924, p. 183. Crespin, 1936, pl. i, fig. 8, ? fig. 7.

Miss Crespin’s fig. 8, which represents an example from the type locality,
Batesford, shows the surface features of this species very well. The test is dis-
coidal and the faces are slightly convex in the smaller specimens becoming flat
or slightly concave in the larger examples. ‘The surface of the small specimens is
sometimes pustular, but typically the chamber surfaces are flat and surrounded
by a raised limbate margin to each chamber. These margins form a reticulate
surface to the test, the intervening areas being coarsely perforate.

G. howchint has hitherto been known only from the Lower Miocene of Vic-
toria, so it is interesting to meet with a large typical example in the Abattoirs Bore.
This is 2°7 mm. in diamcter.

Family RUPERTIIDALE
Genus CARPENTERIA Gray, 1858
CARPENTERIA ROTALIFORMIS Chapman and Crespin
(Pl. xix, figs. 3, 4)
Carpenteria proteiformis Goés: Chapman (pars), 1913, p. 171, pl. xvi, fig. 7.
C. rotaliformis Chapman and Crespin, 1930, p. 98, pl. v, figs. 7, 8. Chapman,
Parr, and Collins, 1934, p. 572, pl. xi, fies. 44 a-c.
Two typical examples were found in the bore material. his very distinct
species was described from the Lower Miocene of Victoria, in which it is widely
distributed. The present record is the first from outside Victoria.

313

Family HOMOTREMIDAE
Genus Mrntacina Galloway, 1933
MINIACINA MINUTA (Chapman)
(Pi. xix, fig. 10)
Polytrema minutum Chapman, 1910, p. 292, pl. li, figs. 3 a, 6. Heron-Allen and
Earland, 1924, p. 184.

There are three typical specimens of this species, which was described from
the Lower Miocene of Batesford, Victoria, and occurs elsewhere in beds of the
same age in Victoria.

V BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brapy, H. B. 1879 Notes on some of the Reticularian Rhizopoda of the
“Challenger” Expedition. Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. (London), 19, 20-63,
pls. iti-v ; 261-299, pl. vii

Brapy, H. B. 1881 [bid., 21, 37-71

Brapy, H. B. 1884 Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S.
“Challenger,” Zool., 9,

Brapy, II. B., Parker, W. K., and Jones, T. R. 1870 A Monograph of the
Genus Polymorphina, Trans. Linn, Soc. (London), 27, 197-253,
pls. xxxix-xli

CarPeNnter, W. B. 1883 Report on the specimens of the genus Orbitolites
collected by H.M.S. “Challenger” during the years 1873-1876. Repts.
Voyage ”Challenger,” 7, (21), 1-47, pls. i-vili

CARPENTER, W. B., Parker, W. K., and Jones, 1. R. 1862 Introduction to
the Study of the Foraminifera. London, Ray Society

CHapman, F, 1900 Foraminifera from the Lagoon at Funafuti. Journ, Linn.
Soc., London (Zoology), 28, 161-210, pls. xix-xx

CuapmMan, F, 1909 Recent Foraminifera of Victoria: Some Littoral Gather-
ings. Journ. Quek. Micr. Club, ser. ii, 10,, (for 1907), 117-146, pls. ix, x

Cuapman, F, 1910 A Study of the Batesford Limestone. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict.,
22, (2) (for 1909), 263-314, pls. It-lv

CuapMAn, I’, 1913 Deseriptions of New and Rare Fossils obtained by Deep
Borings in the Mallee (1). Ibid. 26, (1.s.), (1), 165-191, pls. xvi-xix

CuapMan, F., and Cresprn, I, 1930 Rare Foraminifera from Deep Borings
in the Victorian Tertiaries, (2). Tbid., 43, (1s.), (1), 96-100, pl. v

Cuapman, F., and Crespin, I, 1932 The Tertiary Geology of East Gippsland,
Victoria, Pal. Bull. No. 1 (Dept. of Home Affairs)

Crap an, F., and Parr, W. J. 1935 Foraminifera and Ostracoda from Sound-

ings made by the Trawler “Bonthorpe” in the Great Australian Bight.
Journ. Roy. Soc. W. Aust., 21, Art. 1, 1-7, pli

314

CiApMAN, F., and Parr, W. J. 1938 Australian and New Zealand Species of
the Foraminiferal Genera Operculina and Operculinella. Proc, Roy. Soc.
Vict., 50, (n.s.), (2), (for 1937), 279-299, pls. xvi-xvii

CHapMan, F., Parr, W. J., and Cortins, A. C. 1934 Tertiary Foraminifera
of Victoria, Australia—-The Balcombian Deposits of Port Phillip, pt. iii.
Journ. Linn. Soc., London (Zool.), 38, 553-577, pls. viii-xi

CresPINn, I. 1936 ‘The Larger Foraminifera of the Lower Miocene of Victoria,
Pal. Bull., No. 2 (Dept. of the Interior, Canberra)

CusuMAN, J. A. 1921 Foraminifera of the Philippine and Adjacent Seas,
Bull. 100, U.S. Nat. Mus., 4

CusHMAN, J. A. 1922 Shallow Water Foraminifera of the Tortugas Region.
Publ. 311, Carn. Inst., Washington

CusiMan, J. A. 1924 Samoan Foraminifera, Publ. 342, Carn. Inst., Washington

CusHMANn, J. A., 1929 The Foraminifera of the Atlantic Ocean, Bull. 104,
U.S. Nat. Mus., (6); 1930 bid. (7)

CusHMAN, J. A, 1932 The Foraminifera of the Tropical Pacific, Collections
of the “Albatross,” 1899-1900. Bull. 161, U.S. Nat. Mus. (1)
1933 Ibid., (2)

CusHMaANn, J. A. 1936 (1) Some New Species of Nonion. Contr. Cushman
Lab., 12, (3), 63-69, pl. xii

CusHMAN, J. A. 1936 (2) Some New Species of Elphidium and Related
Genera, Ibid., 12, (4), 78-89, pls. xiii-xv

CusHMAN, J. A. 1937 A Monograph of the Foraminiferal Family Valvulinidae.
Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Spl. Publ. No. 8

CusuMANn, J. A., and Hanzawa, S., 1937 Notes on some of the Species referred
to Vertebralina and Articulina, and a new Genus, Nodebaculariella,
Contr. Cushman Lab., 12, (2), 41-46, pl. v

CusuMan, J. A., and OzAwa, Y. 1929 A Monograph of the Foraminiferal
Family Polymorphinidae, Recent and Fossil. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 77,
Art. 6, 1-185, pls. i-xl

Fornasint, C. 1902 Sinossi metodica dei Foraminiferi sin qui rinvenuti nella
sabbia del Lido di Rimini. Mem. R. Acc. Sci. Ist., Bologna, ser, v, 10,
1-70, 63 text figs.

Fornasini, C. 1905 Ilustrazione di Specie Orbignyane di Miliolidi Istituite nel
1826 J/bid., ser, vi, 2, 59-70

Forskar, P.. 1775 Descriptiones Animalium, etc. Copenhagen

Gartoway, J. J. 1933 A Manual of Foraminifera. Bloomington, U.S.A.

315

Heron-Atcen, E., and Earranp, A. 1915 On the Foraminifera of the Kerimba
Archipelago, etc., pt. ii. Trans. Zool. Soc. London, 20, 543-794, pls. xI-lni

HERoN-ALLEN, E., and Earianp, A. 1924 The Miocene Foraminifera of the
“‘ilter Quarry,” Moorabool River, Victoria, Australia. Journ. Roy.
Micr. Soc., 121-186. pls. vii-xiv

Howcurx W. 1889 The Foraminifera of the Older Tertiary of Austraha
(No. 1, Muddy Creek, Victoria). Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 12, 1-20, pl.1

Howcuix, W. 1935 Notes on the Geological Sections obtained by several
Borings situated on the Plain between Adelaide and Gulf St. Vincent,
Pt. 1. Tbid., 59, 68-102; pt. ii, Cowandilla (Government) Bore, /bid.,
60, 1936, 1-34, pl. 1

Warrer, F, 1868 Die Miocene Foraminiferen-fauna von Kostej im Banat. Sitz.
Akad. Wiss., Wien, 58, (i), 111-193, pls. i-v

Lamarck, J. P. B. 1816 Histoire naturelle des Animaux sans Vertebres, 2.
Paris

LInNE, C. von 1767 Systema Naturae, etc. Edn. 12, Leipzig

Linnt, C. von 1788 Ibid. Edn. 13 (Gmelin’s), Leipzig

Monrtacu. G. 1803 Testacea Britannica, ete., London, Supplement (Plates),
1308

Nurratt, W. L. F. 1927 The Loealities whence the Foraminifera figured in
the Report of H.M.S, “Challenger” by Brady were derived. Ann. Mag.
Nat. Hist., 9, 19, 209-241

Orpicny, A. D. d’ 1826 Tableau Méthodique de la Classe de Céphalopodes.
Ann, Sci. Nat. (Paris), 245-314, pls. x-xvii

Ornicxy, A. D. d’ 1839 Foraminiféres, In Ramon de la Sagra: Tlistoire
Physique, ete., de "lle de Cuba. Paris

Orpicxy, A. D. d’ 1846 Foraminiféres Fossiles du Bassin Tertiaire de Vienne
Paris

Parker, W. K. and Jones, T. R. 1865 On some Foraminifera from the North
Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, etc. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (London), 155,
325-441, pls. xii-xix

Parr, W. J. 1932 Victorian and South Australian Shallow Water Foraminifera,
Ft. i. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., 44 (ms.). (1), 1-14, pl i. Pt. ii, 2rd, 44
(n.s.), (2), 218-234, pls. xxi-xxit

Parr, W. J., and Cottrns, A. C., 1937 Notes on Australian and New Zealand
Ioraminifera. No. 3: Some Species of the Family Polymorphinidae,
Ibid., 50, (ns.), (1), 190-211, pls. xii-xv

Scutumpercer, C. 1893 Monographie des Miliolidées du Golfe de Marscilles.
Mém. Soc. Zool. France, 6, 57-80, pls. ti-iv

316
Wa ker, G., and Jacon, E. 1798 In G. Adams, Essays on the Microscope.
I, Kanmacher’s (2nd) Edition, London,

Wiesner, H. 1923 Die Miliolideen der dstlichen Adria. Text and 20 plates,
Prag-Bubenec

EXPLANATION OF PLATES

(Except where otherwise stated, the specimens figured are from the Abattoirs Bore.)

Pate XV
Fig. 1 ? Quingueloculina agglutinans d'Orb. (immature example). Upper Pliocene, 341-500ft.
x 31
Fig. 2 Nubecularia lucifuga Defrance, var. lapidea Wiesner Upper Pliocene, 341-500 ft.
x17

Figs. 3,4 Quingueloculina ammophila Parr. Back view. Upper Phocene, 341-500 ft. x 28

Figs. 5, 7 Q. adelaidensis sp. nov. 5, Holotype, front view; 7, apertural view of another
specimen. Upper Pliocene, 341-500 ft. 5, x41; 7, x61

Fig. 6 Pyrgo sp. cf. bulloides (d’Orb). Upper Pliocene, 341-500 ft. x 19

Figs. 8,9 Ifauerina ornatissima (Karrer). 8, Upper Pliocene, Cowandilla Bore. x43.
9, Upper Pliocene, Abattoirs Bore, 341-500 ft. x41

Fig. 10 Spiroloculina lapidigera sp. nov. Holotype, side view. Upper Pliocene, Cowandilla
Bore, 420 ft. x20

Figs. 11-13 Flintina triguetra (Brady) 11, side view; 12, section; 13, edge view. Upper
Pliocene, 341-500 ft. 11, 12, x11; 13, x25

Figs. 14 a, b Nodobaculariella cultrata sp. nov. Holotype. a, side view; b, apertural view.
Upper Pliocene, 341-500 ft. x 34

Fig. 15 Quinqueloculina bosciana d'Orb. Upper Pliocene, 341-500 ft. x 46

Pratt XVI
Figs. 1-3 Nubcewlaria lueifuga Defrance, var. lapidea Wiesner. Upper Pliocene, Croydon
Bore, 400-410 ft. 1, 2, x16; 3, x12
Fig. 4 frondicularia lorifera Chapman. Lower Miocene, 710-775 it. x19
Fig. 5 Dentalina obliqua (Linné). Lower Miocene, 710-820 ft. x19
Figs. 6,7 D. sp. cf. vertebrelis (Batsch). Lower Miocene, 710-775 {t. 6, x17; 7, x 27
Fig. 8 Foraminifer indet. (? Valvulina sp.). Lower Miocene, 710-820 ft. x19
Figs. 9, 10 Polymorphina myrac Parr and Collins. Lower Miocene, 710-775 ft. 9, x25;

10, x 18

Fig. 11 Discorbis cycloclypeus sp. nov. Holotype, basal view. Upper Pliocene, Cowandilla
Bore. x14 ;

Fig. 12 Clavulina multicamerata Chapman, A very slender example. Upper Pliocene, 341-
500 ft. x 32

Fig. 13 Valvulina sp, cf. triangularis d’'Orb. Tertiary. At head of Hallett’s Cove, S. Aust.
x15 (This figure has been inadvertently included on the plate.)

Fig. 14 Quingueloculina polygona d’Orb. Upper Pliocene, 341-500 ft. x 29

Pratt XVII

Figs. 1, 2, 4 Elphidium rotatum sp. nov. 1, Side view of holotype. x20. 2, Portion of
outer surface of holotype, showing nature of ornament. x110, 4, Edge view of
another example. x20. All from Kingston, S. Aust.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1938 Vol. 62, Piate XV

.
:
ee

XVI

62, Plate

Vol.

S. Austr., 1938

Soc.

Roy.

Trans.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1928 Vol. 62, Plate XVII

ae
YS

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1938 Vol. 62, Plate XVIII

XTX

62, Plate

Vol.

938

S. Austr., 1

Soc.

Trans. Roy.

317

Fig. 3 E. sp. cf. adelaidense sp. nov. Miocene, 590-620 it. x16

Figs. 5-7, 11-13 (7) Epistomaria polystomelloides (Parker and Jones). 5, 6, Opposite sides
of specimen from Upper Pliocene, Glanville Bore, 385 ft. x9 7, Upper Pliocene,
Glanville Bore, 480%-485 ft. x13. 11,Upper Pliocene, Cowandilla Bore, 470-485 ft.
x20 12, Another weakly-developed specimen from Upper Pliocene, Ahattoirs Bore,
341-500 ft. x21. 13, a worn, typical example from Abattoirs Bore, 341-500 ft., show-
ing she double septa. x 13

Fig. 8 Peneroplis pertusus (Forskal), Upper Pliocene, 341-500 it. x 32
Fig. 9 Sori‘es marginalis (Lamarck). Upper Pliocene, 341-500 ft. x 23
Fig. 10 Discorbis globularis (d’Orb.). Upper Pliocene, 341-500 ft. x 27

Fig. 14 Pscudopolymorphina rutila (Cushman), var. perri Cushman and Ozawa. Lower
Miocene, 710-820 ft. x 26

PiLate XVII
Fig. 1 Amplhistegina hauerina d’Orb, Lower Miocene, 710-775 ft. x 20

Figs. 2, 11 Sigmomorphina subregularis sp. nov. Holotype. Miocene, 590-620 ft. 2, front
view; 11, apertural view. x 17

Figs. 3, 4, 6, 13, 14 (2) Operculina umbonifera sp. nov. 13, 14, Side and edge views of
holotype. x19. 3, 4, side and edge views of another specimen. x cir. 20. 6, Sec-
tion of another specimen. x25. AI from Miocene, 575-620 ft.

Figs. 5, 12 Discorbis cycloclypeus sp. nov. Upper Pliocene. 5, Cowandilla Bore. 141%
12. Abattoirs Bore, 341-500 ft. x18. Dorsal view in both cases

Fig. 7 Elphidium adelaidense sp. nov. Specimen ground down to show shape of chambers
and thick dividing walls. Upper Pliocene, 341-500 [t. x 19

Fig. 8 E. sp. Miocene, 575-620 ft. x18

Fig. 9 Spheeroidina bulloides d'Orb. Miocene, 590-620 ft. x 24

Fig. 10 Operculina victoriensis Chapman and Parr. Miocene, 590-620 {t. x 13
Fig. 15 Nowton novosealandicus Cushman. Lower Miocene, 710-775 ft. x 23
Fig. 16 Gypsina globulus (Reuss). I.ower Miocene, 710-775 ft. x 24

Pirate XTX
Fig, 1 Glauconitic cast of ? Gypsina sp. attached to polyzoan. Lower Miocene, 710-820 ft.
x 20
Fig. 2. Planorbulinella inaequilateralis (Heron-Allen and Earland), Lower Miocene, 710-
820 ft. x28

Figs. 3, 4 Carpenteria rotaliformis Chapman and Crespin, Lower Miocene, 710-820 it.
3, x18; 4, x23

Figs. 5, 6 Elphidium adelaidense sp. nov. Holotype. Upper Pliocene, 341-500 ft. 5, edge
view, x 15; 6, side view, x 17

Fig. 7. Amphisorus hemprichti Ehrenberg. Upper Pliocene, 341-500 ft. x18

Figs. 8, 9, 11, 15 Rotalia verriculata sp. nov. 9, Holotype. 11, 15, dorsal views, x 16; 8 ,9,
ventral views, x14. Lower Miocene. 8, 11, 710-775 ft.; 9, 15, 710-820 ft.

Fig. 10 Miniacina minuta (Chapman). Lower Miocene, 710-775 ft. x17

Fig. 12 Planorbulina mediterranensis VOrb. Lower Miocene. 710-820 ft. x19

Fig. 13. Discorbis cycloclypeus sp. nov. Edge view. Upper Pliocene, 341-500 ft. x19

Fig. 14 (?! Rotala sp. Miocene, 590-620 ft. x13

Fig. 16 Elphidium sp. Miocene. This specimen has been mislaid, and other particulars are
not available. It appears to be the same species as that figured on pl. xviii, fig. 8

THE OCCURRENCE OF GALLIUM AND GERMANIUM
IN SOME LOCAL COAL ASHES

By W. TERNENT COOKE, D.Sc., A.A.C.I.

Summary

The frequent occurrence of traces of gallium and germanium in coal ash has been pointed out by
Ramage ( I ), Goldschmidt (2), and others (3), and more recently Morgan and Davies (4) have
shown that these elements may become concentrated in certain flue dusts to the extent of one per
cent. or more, so that their profitable extraction becomes possible. The previously known
occurrences of notable concentrations of these elements have been restricted to some very rare
sulphide minerals such as argyrodite and germanite, and therefore the recognition of their
apparently widespread occurrence in appreciable amounts in flue dusts from coal is a matter of
some theoretical and practicable importance. It has seemed of interest therefore to examine some
flue dusts from Australian coals for their content of gallium and germanium.

318

THE OCCURRENCE OF GALLIUM AND GERMANIUM
IN SOME LOCAL COAL ASHES

By W. TERNENT Cooke, D.Sc., A.A.C.L.
[Read 8 September 1938]

The frequent occurrence of traces oi gallium and germanium in coal ash has
been pointed out by Ramage (1), Goldschmidt (2), and others (3), and more
recently Morgan and Davies (4) have shown that these elements may become
concentrated in certain flue dusts to the extent of one per cent. or more, so that
their profitable extraction becomes possible. The previously known occurrences
of notable concentrations of these elements have been restricted to some very
rare sulphide minerals such as argyrodite and germanite, and therefore the recog-
nition of their apparently widespread occurrence in appreciable amounts in flue
dusts from coal is a matter of some theoretical and practicable importance. It has
seemed of interest therefore to examine some flue dusts from Australian coals
for their content of gallium and germanium.

The procedure followed was that advocated by Morgan and Davies, in which
the dust is distilled with hydrochloric acid of about 6°25 normal (20%). The
germanium was recovered from the distillate as sulphide, after separation of
arsenic, which is invariably present; the gallium was extracted from the residual
liquor by ether, after reduction of the iron to the ferrous state.

In the samples examined considerably less amounts of either element have been
found than those reported by Morgan and Davies for many English coal dusts,
but the presence of both elements has been noted in most of the samples examined.
By working with samples of the order of 100 grammes the analytical results give
a reasonable approximation to the actual amounts of gallium and germanium
actually present in the dusts.

The majority of the dusts available have been from black coal of permo-
carboniferous age, from Newcastle, New South Wales. Those supplied by the
courtesy of the South Australian Gas Company have been the richest so far
examined. Dust from the waste gas flues in the vertical retort house yielded
0-034% GeO,, and 0°084% Ga,O,, while corresponding dust from the horizontal
retorts showed 0°041% GeO,, and 0°073% Ga,O,. Dust from the flues of a
Lancashire boiler burning gas coke contained 0-004% GeQ,.

A sample of spent liquor from a still operating on ammoniacal liquor was
kindly provided for us in a concentrated form by the Gas Company; this liquor
was found to be practically free of germanium,

A sample of dust from the base of the chimney stack of the South Australian
Brewing Company, and derived from Newcastle coal, yielded only 0-002%
Ga,O,, and 0:007% GeO,.

Trans. Roy. Sac. S.A., 62, (2), 23 December 1938

319

Dust from a Tasmanian coal of mesozoic age, from Stanhope, supplied by
the Tasmanian Cool Storage Company of Launceston, was found to contain
0-005% GeO),, but showed only a trace of gallium.

Three dusts, supplied by the courtesy of the State Electricity Commission of
Victoria, from boiler flues at Yallourn were examined, These dusts from brown
coals of tertiary age yielded only traces of both germanium and gallium. This
relative deficiency of these elements in dusts from brown as compared with
those from black coal agrees with the observations of Tuchs (5), concerning
German lignite.

It has been found possible to effect a concentration in some cases by screen-
ing the dusts; for example, after screening through a 100-mesh sieve the fine
material is sometimes about twice as rich as the original dust.

The possibilities of selectively leaching the dusts with acid or alkaline
reagents with a view to concentration have been examined, but the results do not
indicate that such methods are applicable to this class of material. Germanium
can be leached from the dust by hot concentrated caustic soda, but gallium remains
for the most part in the insoluble residue. Subsequent extraction of the
germanium from the alkaline lye was difficult on account of the large amount of
sodium silicate present. The success achieved by Sebba and Pugh (6) in leach-
ing gallium and germanium from the mineral germanite by sodium hydroxide led
to the hope that their process might be applicable to flue dusts, but the fact that
germanite is a sulphide combination is evidently a factor in the success of the
operation. Apparently the gallium and germanium compounds present in flue
dusts are not in a very reactive form, and in view of the high temperatures to
which these dusts have been subjected, it seems probable that the elements are
present not as simple oxides but possibly as complexes analogous to alumino-
silicates.

Acknowledgment is here made of the courtesy of the several Companies who
supplied and forwarded the samples examined.

REFERENCES
(1) Ramace 1927 Gallium in Flue Dust. Nature, 119, 783

(2) Goxtpscumiprt 1935 Rare Elements in Coal Ash. J. Indus, and Eng. Chem.,
27, 1,100

(3) Reroxwr Furr Researcu Boarn, D.S.LR., 1933, 35

(4) Morcaw and Davies 1937. Germanium and Gallium in Coal Ash and Flue
Dust. Jour. Soc. Chem. Indus., 56, 717

(5) Fucus 1935 Rare Elements in German Brown-Coal Ashes. Indus. and
Eng. Chem., 27, 1,099

(6) Sessa and Pucw 1937 The Extraction of Gallium and Germanium from
Germanite. Jour. Chem. Soc., 1,371

AN EXAMINATION OF SOME SOILS
FROM THE MORE ARID REGIONS OF AUSTRALIA

By J. A. PRESCOT and H. R. SKEWES, Waite Agricultural Research Institute

Summary

During the course of the last few years the opportunity has been taken of securing for the reference
collection of soils at the Waite Institute a number of samples from the more inaccessible and arid
regions of Australia through the courtesy of the members of expeditions of exploration into these
regions. Prominent amongst these collectors have been Mr. Michael Terry, Dr. C. T. Madigan and
Mr. N. B. Tindale. The anthropological expeditions from the University of Adelaide have also
afforded a number of opportunities for securing such samples. Material has been received in all
from some fifty localities, and in some cases from several sites in each locality. These localities
may be grouped as representing the following areas: (1) the southern margin of Gibson's Desert
between the Warburton Ranges and Laverton, (2) the Warburton Ranges, (3) the Musgrave Ranges
and adjacent country, (4) the country between the Granites and Lake Mackay and east thereof, (5)
scattered samples north and south of the Macdonnell Ranges, (6) the north-east pastoral country of
South Australia, (7) the Lake Eyre basin, and (8) the southern part of Nullarbor Plain. The localities
are indicated on the map (fig. 1) and in the accompanying key.

320

AN EXAMINATION OF SOME SOILS
FROM THE MORE ARID REGIONS OF AUSTRALIA

By J. A. Prescotr and H. R. Skewes,
Waite Agricultural Research Institute

[Read 8 September 1938]

During the course of the last few years the opportunity has been taken of
securing for the reference collection of soils at the Waite Institute a number of
samples from the more inaccessible and arid regions of Australia through the
courtesy of the members of expeditions of exploration into these regions.
Prominent amongst these collectors have been Mr. Michael Terry, Dr. C. T,
Madigan and Mr. N. B. Tindale. The anthropological expeditions from the
University of Adelaide have also afforded a number of opportunities for securing
such samples. Material has been received in all from some fifty localities, and in
some cases from several sites in each locality. ‘These localities may be grouped
as representing the following areas: (1) the southern margin of Gibson’s Desert
between the Warburton Ranges and Laverton, (2) the Warburton Ranges, (3)
the Musgrave Ranges and adjacent country, (4) the country between the Granites
and Lake Mackay and east thereof, (5) scattered samples north and south of the
Macdonnell Ranges, (6) the north-east pastoral country of South Australia,
(7) the Lake Eyre basin, and (8) the southern part of Nullarbor Plain. ‘The
localities are indicated on the map (fig. 1) and in the accompanying key.

TasLe [
Key to Locality Plan
Site Number Soil Samples

1. Paratoo ... . . .. 4588; 4589; 4590, 4591, 4592; 4503
2 Melton 2. 2... 4594, 4595, 4596, 4597; 4598, 4599, 4600; 4601; 4602
3. Koonamore 00... 4... 1851; 216, 217; 218, 219; 220; 221, 222: 223
4. Teetulpa wine okie ity sete 4606
5. Glenorchy eee ee ee §=6©4603, 4604, 4605
6. Eringa Park 2. 0. wn. 4608; 4609, 4610, 4611; 4612
7. Angorichina 2... 0. 0... 1356
8. Beltana 2. 4585: 4586; 4587
9. Marree we, 1305, 1306, 1307, 1308, 1309, 1310, 1311
10. Lake Eyre, Muloorina » 1316; 1317, 1318, 1319, 1320, 1321, 1322, 1323, 1324
ll. Koonibba hel cane ate tee L001
12. Nullarbor dim ee Sak ane APE APB
13. Nullarbor Plain (Gune-

warra) 476

14. Gibson's Desert. 247 miles

from Warburton Range... 2299, 2300, 2301
15. Gibson’s Desert. 178 miles

from Warburton Range... 2303, 2304, 2305
16. Lake Throssell ... ... ... 2311, 2312, 2313

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 62, (2), 23 December 1938

Site Number

17,

18.
19.

20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29,
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39,
40.
41.
42.
43,
44,
45,
46.
47.
48.
49,

50.

Gibson’s Desert. 80 miles
from Warburton Range ....

Jarata (Narratha) ;

Gibson’s Desert. 14 miles
frora Warburton Range

Warburton Range

Rawlinson Range seed

Poka. Mann Range ... ...

Wala! Soakage. Mann Range

Mount Kintore

Ernal.clla

Ayer’s Rock ....

Lambina

Rumbalara

Henbury

Tempe Downs

Missionary Plain ....

Alice Springs

Macdonald Downs

Simpson Desert ....

Mount Liebig

Connor’s Well

Napperby Creek ....

Cockatoo Creek

Home Creek

Kunajarai Soak ae

Surprise Reck Hole ....

Lake Mackay

Alec Ross Range

Brookman Waters

False Mt. Russell

Wyckham Well ....

The Granites ae,

Thompson’s Rockhole

12 miles from Archibald’s
Soak pee teal Set

40 miles east of Thomp-
son’s Rockhole ....

321
Soil Samples

2307, 2308, 2309; 2295
4842, 4843

2297, 2298

2302: 2315, 2316, 2317; 4845; 4846; 2950; 2951; 2953
2950

3433, 3434

3436, 3437

3432, 3435

3431

2713

5191, 5192, 5193
2712

5194, 5195

2714

5196, 5197, 5198
3419

1804, 1805, 1806, 1807
5199, 5200, 5201
2711

3421

3422

2347, 2348, 2349
3425, 3430

3428

3420

2949

3426

3427

3423

3420

3424

4996

2973, 2974, 2975

4995

The soils are of such diverse origin and so widely scattered geographically
that it is not possible to group them very effectively, and no attempt will be made
in this account to do more than extract the major generalisations.

For a number of sites carefully sampled profiles are available, and the
analytical data for some of these are quoted in full.

MECHANICAL ANALYSIS
Soils from che Desert Interior

A characteristic feature of the samples from the interior proper is the
absence of marked differentiation in the texture of the several horizons. This
is especially so in the more sandy soils. It has proved possible, therefore, to treat

~ aver zi moe i ri

QLPAIGIP®ZH NATIT FTAWH
SATIICNVS TIiOS HOIHM WOE SNOLITH
QIHY THOW FHL NI SAILITVIOT INIMOHS

a: gon = |
SUTIN 40 TIVOS

VITVULSA

323

the samples from each site to a depth of 40 inches as one sample and to average
the mechanical analyses to this depth, where such a series was available. Fig. 2
represents, ou this basis, the mechanical analyses for all the sites in the central
and western desert areas and range country apart from one very heavy profile at
Lambina, which is not included.

The range of texture is small and the silt content is very low, the textures
falling into the range of sandy loams with the sands of the sandhills at one
extremity of the range and a few sandy clay Joams at the other. That soils from
such a wide geographical area should have such uniform textural characteristics
indicates some common process of mechanical sorting of the weathered parent rock.

CLAY

SILT SAND
Fig. 2
Triangular diagram (clay + silt + sand = 100) repre-
senting the mechanical analyses of soils from the western
desert areas and central range country of Australia.
Each dot represents the average composition of samples
toa depth of 40 inches or less. Samples from the sand-
hills are indicated by the hatched area.
Soils from the North-East Pastoral Areas of South Australia
In marked contrast with the true desert soils, the group from the north-
eastern pastoral area of South Australia may be noted. The mechanical analyses
of this group of soils are summarised in fig. 3. The distribution of these analyses
within the texture triangle shows approximately equal proportions of clay and
silt. Most of these soils are calcareous, and there is also evidence of profile
development so far as the occurrence of heavier textures in the subsoils may be
regarded as an index of such development.

Desert Sandhills and Drift Sands
A considerable proportion of the arid interior is covered by sandhills, and
reference in this connection may be made to the work of Madigan (1936). These

324

sandhills are in most cases fixed by desert grasses belonging mainly to the genus
Triodia; mulga is also characteristic of the sandhill country.

The sandhills extend into the less arid regions to the north-west, where they
are fixed by a low tree savannah woodland known as the “pindan,” and to the
south by the dwarf sclerophyll woodland known as the “mallee.”

In all such areas the removal of the native vegetation by stocking or cultiva-
tion results in drift taking place. A series of such loose drifts from the pastoral
areas of South Australia has been specially collected, and a comparison is possible
with samples from the sandhills of the less accessible parts.

CLAY

SILT SAND

Fig. 3

Triangular diagram representing the mechanical analyses
of soils from the North-Eastern and adjacent pastoral
districts of South Australia. Circles represent subsoils
and are linked to the letters representing the correspond-
ing surface soils. The letters indicate the localities
represented: P, Paratoo; M, Melton; B, Beltana;
A, Anegorichina; K, Koonamore; T, Teetulpa; E, Eringa
Park; G. Glenorchy.

A selection of these samples has been examined in some detail, and the sand
fractions have been subjected to special analysis by means of sieves. Details
regarding these samples are given below; the mechanical analyses and relevant
data are given in Table IT.

Loose Drirrs—
Soil Number: 1316 South shore of Lake Eyre
4587 Beltana—recent drift in pastoral country
4601 Melton—drift on fence
4608 Eringa Park—drift on fence
4612 FEringa Park—drift round homestead

Fixep SANDHILLS—
2712
2299

Soil Number:

2300
2301
2297
2298
2950
5199

325

Rumbalara—flat between hills: 0-12 ins.
Gibson’s Desert—red sand carrying mulga and spinifex (Triodia)
and mallee: 0-9 ins.
Gibson’s Desert—red
5 5 red
a ¥ red sand: 0-9 ins,
” 5 red sand: 9-36 ins.
Rawlinson Range, one mile north of west end of range: 0-42 ins.
Simpson (Arunta) Desert. North end. Top half inch of sand—
light red sand, carrying stunted desert mallee and spinifex
(Triodia)

sand: 9-27
sand: 27-43

ins,
ins.

5200 Simpson Desert—-red sand: 3-16 ins.

§201 5 i red sandy loam: 16-30 ins.

218 Koonamore. Botanical Reserve. Sandhill carrying mulga.

0-9 ins.
Taste II
Mechanical Analyses and associated Data for Sandy Drifts
and fixed Desert Sandhills
Soil number 1316 4587 4601 4608 4612 2712 2299 2300
Depth in inches 0-6 0-2 0-2 0-2 0-2 O12 0-9 9927
% Yo Yo % Yo. You Go Ge
Coarse sand 56°6 28:7 67-1 31:5 36:5 38-8 62-0 59-8
Fine sand 39:2 63-9 23-3) 57-5 48-9 55-0) 29-5 30-3
Silt... 0-1 1-6 2-1 1:7 2-4 0-7 0-6 0-4
Clay Pee as 3°5 4-5 5-5 7°0 «10-2 5-4 77 9-4
Loss on acic treatment .... 1-0 1-0 2-2 1-9 1:8 0-2 0-2 0-3
Moisture 0-4 OS 0-5 0-7 1-0 0-2 0-4 0-3
Calcium carbonate 0:07 0°37 1-66 1:25 1-05 tr. 0-00 tr.
Total salts 0:46 0-03 0-03 0-05 0-04 ti 0-01 0-01
Sodium chloride 0-27 tr tr. 0-01 0-01 0-00 tr 0-00
Reaction .... (pH) 9-3 +3 9+2 963 9-2 70 5-6 5°5
Soil number 2301 2297 2298 2950 5199 5200 5201 218
Depth in inches 27-43 0-9 9-36 0-42 Q-4 416 16-30 0-9
9 Goo Go % % Go G% %

Coarse sand 55-6 52:3 SO-6 35-8 42-3 25-0 23-6 52:8
Fine sand 33-3. 38-3) 39-3 53-4 52-2 64-0 64-2 37-6
Silt... 0+5 1+2 0-9 1:2 0-6 0-5 1-0 1-8
Clay ees PY 10°5 8-1 8-6 9:6 4-1 9-4 10-2 7°8
Less on acid treatment .... 0-2 0-4 0-5 0-1 0-2 0-2 0-2 1-0
Moisture 0-3 0-2 0-3 0-5 0-4 0-9 1-0 0-7
Calcium carbonate tr. O-OL 0:03 tr. tr. 0-00 tr. 0-41
Total salts 0:01 6:02 0-07 0-02 tr. tr. 0-01 0-05
Sodium chloride tr 0-01 0°04 tr. tr tr tr 0-02
Reaction .... (pH) 61 6°9 6:9 7°8 7-0 6-6 6°5 8-9

326

The most characteristic feature of the table is the low content of silt and the
invariable presence of clay, varying in amount from 4 to 10 per cent. Even the
loose drifts show this clay, some of which is in the form of aggregates, no doubt
broken up during the course of mechanical analysis. The sandy soils of the
South Australian and Victorian mallee areas show similar characteristics. The
amount of salt present and the reaction is a regional characteristic. The drifts
from the north-east pastoral areas of South Australia are markedly alkaline and
contain calcium carbonate. Those from Gibson’s Desert in Western Australia
are distinctly acid. Gibson’s Desert is characterised by extensive rolling plains
of ironstone gravel, and the parent material from which the sandhills are derived
is undoubtedly acid in character.

logV| 3 ae ae Oo | | aa
D, 0.002mm 0-02 mm O:2mm 2mm
sss | FINE SAND |COARSE SAND |
Fig. 4
Summation curves based on separations by means of sieves of the mechanical

analyses of drift sands. The virtual absence of silt is to be noted. The samples
in addition contain a small proportion of clay uot indicated in the above.

These samples were also subjected to mechanical analysis without a pre-
liminary acid treatment. The samples were dispersed by boiling with water to
which was added a small amount of sodium carbonate. Silt and clay were
removed by gentle rubbing and subsequent decantation. The clean sands were

327

then dried and separated by means of sieves. The summation curves obtained
in this way are indicated in figs. 4 and 5. In the case of the five drift samples,
the mean curve was determined and analysed to determine the frequency distribu-
tion of particles of each of a series of dimensions allowing of eight groups for
each of the standard fractions. The frequency curve of fig. 6 emphasises the
character of these sands which have a modal frequency near the conventional
separation between the coarse and fine sand. The virtual absence of silt in these
soils is also easily to be explained in terms of these distributions.

bev 8 2 | O | 2

Fig. 5
Summaticn curves representing the mechanical analyses of the non-colloid
fracticn of samples from the fixed sandhills. The average cumposition of the
loose drifts represented in figure 4 is superposed.

Two cf the samples (Nos. 2950 and 5199) show anomalies which can be
interpreted in terms of a mixture of two groups of sand grains. The latter sample
is the surface mulch subject to the combined sorting effect of wind and of the rare
heavy rains.

REACTION

All the samples have been examined for reaction (pH), using the glass

electrode. They form an interesting range, with the calcareous soils of the salt-

328

bush steppe of the north-eastern pastoral areas of South Australia as the most

alkaline.

from the
Granites t
significance

Samples from the Nullarbor Plain have the same character. The soils
range country are in general neutral to alkaline, and those from the
rack and Gibson’s Desert are neutral to acid. It is of some possible
e that these two latter groups of soils are representative of the great

Australian Peneplain. Presumably the acid conditions are an index of former
wetter climatic conditions thus confirming the evidence provided by the abundant

ironstone gravel.

The distribution table for the pIl values of these soils given in Table III

summarise

%

s the information available.

20

10

log V

2.54 "0-54 2-54
FINE SAND | COARSE SAND |

Tig. 6

Distribution curve of the average mechanical composition of the non-colloid
fraction of drift sands, allowing of eight subdivisions for each of the standard
fractions: fine sand and coarse sand. The absence of silt and the fact that the
modal frequency is about the conventional division between coarse sand and fine

sand at a diameter of 0-2 mm. are again emphasised.

TaAsLe III

Illustrating the Range of Values for the Reaction of Soils and Subsoils

in Five Groups of Soils

pH 5.10 56 61 #66 71 #76 81 85 O91 499.6 101
5.5 -6.0 -6.5 -7.0 -7.5 -8.0 -8.5 -9.10 -9.5 ~10.0 -10.5
North-East Pastoral Areas, South
Australia:
Surface scils .... at ne 2 4 7 2 1 I
Subsoils uk sek _ 2 3 3 I
Central Western Range Country:
Surface soils... ae “fe, 1 2 3 1 j 1 1
Subsoils aes EA A fs 2 1 2
Macdonnell Range Country:
Surface soils... aan pe 1 4 z 1
Subsoils an san hate 1 3 2 2 1
Granites Track and Lake Mackay:
Surface soils .... ae pees | 2 4 3 1
Subsoils ae bd wee 1 1 1

Gibson’s Desert:
Surface soils... he wan 3 3 1 1

Subsoi

s ea sa domi 1 2 2

329

SoLuBLE SALTS
The vast majority of the samples examined are relatively free of salt with
the exception of the South Australian samples from the pastoral areas and from
the regions of Lake Eyre and the Nullarbor Plains. None of the remaining surface
soils contains as much as 0:05 per cent. of total soluble salts, and few of the sub-
soils contain as much as 0°10 per cent.

The saltbush country shows, however, much higher amounts, and reference
may be made to the data given later relating to individual soil profiles. Some
exceptionally saline soils may be noted, however—these have usually been asso-
ciated with bare patches and wind-swept areas. It is apparent that many such
bare areas are not duc so much to erosion and loss of vegetation by stocking as
to inherent infertility through the natural presence of soluble salts.

Some examples of these more saline areas are tabulated below.

Depth Salt

Soil No. Locality in Lnches Content (%) Vegetation

4606 Tectulpa 0-6 0-12 wind swept; sandalwood
4602 Melton 0-8 0-14 wind swept; mulga floodplain
4585 Beltana surface 0-20 wind swept area

1316 Lake Fyre surface 0-46 bare sandhills near Lake
4588 Paratoo 0-32 0-68 no growth

1851 Koonamore 0-7 Q-91 saltbush

216/7 Koonamore 0-12 1°38 sandalwood

4593 Par2too 0-12 2:29 no growth

1305/6 Marrec 0-9 2:60 bare ground

Reference may also be made here to the nature of samples from the immediate
vicinity of salt lakes and from the bed of the lakes themselves. Madigan (1930)
has already reported upon the muds from Lake Eyre. Samples have been
examined during the course of the present work from Lake Throssell, 200 miles
south-west of the Warburton Range, and from Lake Mackay. These results
are quoted in the following table.

Tate IV
Mechanical Analyses and relevant Salt Data for Soils from
Lake Mackay and Lake Throssell

Lecality Lake Throssell Take Mackay
Sample number re ae fae 2311 2312 2313 2949
Depth in inches aie ner sat 0-18 18-27 27-43 0-36
Coarse sand... oh eg ae 4-2 4-0 34-0 19-5
Fine sand 1s via a 43 5-0 18-0 34-7
Silt 1 ok i ie atts 1:8 1-6 1-9 2-2
Clay = an Bes .. sh 10-5 8-1 13-6 9-9
Loss on acid treatment __.... be 64-5 65-3 25-2 28°5
Moisture _ (es re a: 16-6 16°8 7-7 5°55
Calcium carbonate .... vad 004 0-01 0-77 0-004
Gypsum Pas pa chee tots 66°9 67-0 23°8 25-4
Sodium chloride ae ‘a eis 0-53 0-72 0-95 4-90

330

CHEMICAL ANALYSES

As a measure of the fertility level of these soils analyses have been made on
representative samples using the standard hydrochloric extracts for phosphate
and potash, the method of dry combustion for carbon, and the Kjeldahl estima-
tion for total nitrogen. These data are given in Table V, together with correlated
information such as the clay content and total salts,

Two ratios have been calculated—those of carbon to nitrogen and of potash
to the clay as estimated by the international method of mechanical analysis. ‘Ihe
ratios of carbon to nitrogen tend towards the low side, with three very low values
for samples No. 5200, 5192 and 1306. ‘The phosphate levels are variable and
show some relation to the native vegetation. The outstanding feature in this
respect is the high level of phosphate in the soils of the north-eastern pastoral
region of South Australia—a level which is higher than that generally encountered
in the wheat belt further south.

The ratio of potash to clay shows again two outstanding generalisations—
the acid soils of the Granites country and of Gibson’s Desert showing low ratios in
this respect, further evidence of leaching during a former geological cycle, while
the alkaline soils of the pastoral region mentioned above show uniformly high

values.

This region has a high reputation amongst stock owners for the production
of healthy sheep, and from the point of view of soil fertility must be regarded as
one of the outstanding areas in South Australia.

Sample No. 3431 shows a very high level of fertility—this sample is taken
near the native waterhole at Ernabella in the Musgrave Ranges and is associated
with an aboriginal camping ground,

The native vegetation of these semi-arid and arid soils covers a range which
includes two main associations of Triodia, those of the desert sandhills and those
of the sand plains of Gibson’s Desert and of the Tanami country; the associations
including mulga and grasses, the low tree savannahs of the plains between the
ranges and the shrub steppes of saltbush or bluebush.

From the native vegetation recorded with many of the samples received, a
tentative scale of fertility may be attempted. Yriodia (spinifex or porcupine
grass) is an index of low fertility, while saltbush appears to be associated only
with the highest level of plant nutrients.

In general the level of phosphate is the main index of fertility, and on this

basis the following generalisations may be derived.
a

Vegetation Range of Phosphate Content (P,O,)
Porcup-ne grass _ ma ced 0-006 — 0-023%
Mulga with grass _.... core vat 0-023 — 0-053%

Low tree savannah .... reap nee 0-041 ~— 0-060%
Bluebush at - me ad 0-032 — -058%
Saltbush =f reed ies an 0-065 — 0-098%

The table suggests three levels of fertility, the first up to 0-023%, the second
from 0-023% to 0-060%, and the third above 0-060% P,O,.

331

TABLE V
Chemical Analyses of Sotls Ratios

Total Organic C/N K,O per
Sample Deyihin Site Saluble Potash Phosphate Nitrogen Carbon 100 gm.
No. Inches No. Clay Salts K,O PLO; N Cc Clay

Yo Jo Yo Yo Fo

Lake Mackay—-—Granites:
3424 (}-42 47 14-6 0-01 0-18 0-021 0-015 0-13 8-9 1-23
3426 0--34 43 30:3 0-02 0-54 0-031 0-024 0-20 8:2 1-79
3429 0--26 46 14-6 0-01 0-16 0-015 0-015 0-15 10-2 1-10
4995 surface 50 7°2 0-01 0-09 0-016 0-011 —_ 1:25
4996 surface 48 12-9 0-02 0-26 0-069 0-035 — — 2:01
2973 (0-6 49 11:7 0-01 0-11 0-015 0-015 0-21 13-7 0-94
Macdonne’l Range Country:
5200 1-16 34 9-4 0-01 0-18 0-016 0-024 0-08 3-4 1-92
1804 surface 33 7°83 0-02 0-32 0-033 0-021 — — 4-10
5192 2-14 27 43-2 0:05 0-65 0-053 0-029 0-14 4-9 1:51
5194 0-26 29 10:5 0-01 0-23 0-023 0-014 0-11 voy 2-19
5197 2-10 31 11:5 0-01 0-32 0-027 0-024 0-24 9-8 2:79
3421 0-42 36 11-4 0-01 Q-16 0-015 0-004 0-12 8-9 1-40
2712 0-12 28 5-4 0-01 0-14 0-021 0-010 0-08 8-0 2-59
2711 surface 35 13+5 0-02 0:41 0-042 0-038 —_— —_— 3-04
Central ard Western Ranges:
2713 surface 26 0-9 0-02 0-24 0-023 0-027 — — 2:20
3431 0-12 25 6-8 0-22 0-47 0-196 0-048 0-53 11-1 6-91
3436 C-6 23 8-6 0-01 0-23 0-041 0-029 0-21 7:1 2-68
2315 C-9 20 9+6 0-05 0-22 0-015 0-026 0-21 8-2 2°29
3432 0-6 24 7-7 0-02 0-09 0-006 0-020 0-22 10-8 1:17
3433 C-6 22 13-8 0-02 0-26 0-060 0-022 0-21 9-4 1-87
Gibson's Desert:
4843 1-18 18 15:8 0-05 0-12 0-037 0-023 _— — 0-76
2299 0-9 14 7-7 0-01 0-09 0-012 0-007 0-10 14-4 1°17
2297 (-9 19 8-1 0-02 0-11 0-019 0-011 0-11 10:5 1°36
2295 0-6 17 9-2 0-01 0-09 0-027 0-022 0-26 11-6 0-98
2307 0-9 17 17-0 0-01 0-15 0-045 0-023 —_ — 0-88
2303 0-9 15 11°5 0-01 0-09 0-024 0-022 0-29 13-1 0-78
South Australia—N.E. Pastoral District:
4591 0-12 1 37°8 O11 1:55 0-085 0-136 1-20 8:8 4-11
4589 Q-9 1 16-5 0-06 0-80 0-049 0-044 0°33 7-6 4°85
4595 0-11 2 24-4 0-08 1-34 0-098 0-080 0-65 8-1 5-50
4599 )—9 2 20-9 0-08 0-87 0-058 0-045 0-30 6-7 4-17
4610 )-12 6 30:0 0-07 0-92 0-067 0-057 0-47 8:3 3-06
4604 (-12 5 15-2 0-05 0-52 0-032 0-030 0-24 7°9 3-43
1851 7 3 16:1 0-91 0-87 0-065 0-065 0-52 7-9 5-40
221 +10 3 11-0 0-05 0-56 0-038 0-031 a _— 5:09
Miscellaneous (South Australia):
1356 surface 7 18-5 0-09 — 0-076 _
476 surface 13 28-0 0-09 1°22 0-069 0-164 — — 4-36
1306 3-9 9 41-3 3-08 0-99 0-071 0-021 0-09 4-4 2-39
1317 0-9 10 8-3 0-14 0-16 0-031 0-007 0-062 8-8 1:93

332

SOME CHARACTERISTIC PROFILES

Profile development in desert and semi-desert areas is little understood, and
much field work will be required before a full interpretation is possible. Field
estimates of structure and texture are not usually available owing to the conditions
under which the samples have been collected, but a selection of samples represent-
ing twelve profiles has been taken and the analytical data relating thereto are
given below.

The leaching factors responsible for the development of horizons in soil
profiles are not common in the desert environment, so that marked structural
differences in the successive depths of soil are not to be expected. Attention may
be called, however, to the lamination that occurs in soils from the semi-desert
regions of Western Australia (Teakle, 1936). The type of structure described
by Teakle can only occur in the closed basins of the areas of internal drainage,
characteristic of arid regions, and represents a process of accumulation and
cementation rather than of leaching and deflation. Gautier (1928) has called
attention to the importance of water as the main geological factor responsible for
erosion in desert regions—wind plays a subsequent part mainly in the modelling
of the surface features. No cases of lamination have been met in the samples
under present consideration.

One feature, however, of the desert grassland and of the shrub steppe is the
accumulation of a loose drift with plant debris round the base of the grass clump
or of the bush. This drift may be considered as a super-surface or Ao horizon
and is usually of loose texture and forms an admirable sced bed for the ephemeral
and seedling perennial vegetation. The destruction of the perennial grasses or
bushes which constitute the nurse plants, with the consequent loss of this charac-
teristic horizon, may be considered to be a major source of difficulty in the re-
generation of the vegetation of these areas.

The selected profiles will be dealt with individually, and the complete data
relating to them recorded as a source of reference material for other workers in
this field. The site numbers quoted are those given on the map of fig. 1..

Site No, 31—Missionary Plain, Central Australia, 12 miles south-west of
Alice Springs. Native vegetation—a low tree savannah wood-
land dominated by ironwood (Acacia estrophiolata) and
mulga (Acacia aneura), with Aristida and Eragrostis species
as the principal grasses. Collected by R. L. Crocker.
Samples: 5196: O-2 ins. Brown sand

5197: 2-10ins. Brown sand
5198: 10-46 ins. Red-brown sand loam; no gravel
in the profile,

333

The analyses below do not reveal any marked separation of horizons in the
soil. The reaction is neutral and the fertility level moderate in terms of phosphate
and potash.

Sample number ne ss =f atk 5196 5197 5198
Depth in inches oe pred rs fog 0-2 2-10 10-46
Mechanical Analysis:
%o Yo Yo
Coarse sand 32°7 29°6 27-0
Fine sand 54°3 53-9 53-0
Silt aa tA 3:6 2-0
Clay oe oe aa 7°6 11-5 15-7
Loss on acid treatment 0-4 0-3 0-3
Moisture 0-8 1-0 1-7
Chemical Analysis:
Calcium carbonate -_. mf Ataf 0-01 0-00 0:00
Total soluble salts sa = A 0-01 0-01 0-01
Sodium chloride dese waa ae tr. tr. tr.
Organic carbon as a thes 0-49 0-24 —
Nitrogen ford a Abs Ss 0-05 0-02 —
Phosphate _ gs (P20s) 0-05 0-03 —
Potash —.... 4 an (K20) 0°26 0-32 —
Reaction ‘ae “ (pH) 71 7-0 72

Site No. 27—Lambina Station, South Australia, 100 miles north-west
of Oodnadatta, Samples collected by R. 1. Crocker. Native
vegetation: An association dominated by mulga (Acacia
aneura) with Eremophilas and Cassias. Stony gibber plain.
Samples: 5191: 0-2 ins. Brown sandy loam containing

31 per cent. of gravel.
5192: 2-l4ins. Brown sandy clay loam to clay
loam with 4 per cent. of gravel.
5193: 14-18 ins. Red-brown medium clay, with-
out gravel.

This profile represents a heavy type of soil frequently associated with gibber

country.

The surface two inches differs markedly in texture from the soil at greater
depth. Surface wash and the removal of the finer particles by wind, rather than
leaching, no doubt contribute to this change. The absence of gravel or stone in
the lower horizon is noteworthy.

The reaction is neutral in the surface to markedly alkaline at the lower
depths. ‘Ihe fertility level is moderately high.

334
Sample number has ba ue ~ 5191 5192 5193
Depth in inches os —, Sas tA 0-2 2-14 14-18
Mechanical Analysis:
%o %o Yo
Coarse sand a = Lake A. 40-8 23-1 20°0
Fine sand wat a a ae 42-5 23+7 21-0
Silt a, ne = 49 7-0 3-3 2-2
Clay n. tet "4 no Ane 8-4 43-2 49-2
Loss on acid treatment 0-3 0+7 1-4
Moisture 1-2 6°4 7°3
Chemical Analysis:
Calcium carbonate — vet As tr. tr. 0-11
Total soluble salts... Bo mm 0-01 0-05 0-09
Sodium chloride 25 a. des 0-00 0-02 0-04
Organic carbon a ae he 0-15 0-14 —
Nitrogen shed or Mi om 0-02 0-03 —
Phosphate ae ™ (P:0s) 0-06 0:05 —
Potash... 2 a (K:0O) 0-24 0°65 —
Reaction — As. (pH) 7-1 8:1 8-9

Site No, 49—Archibald’s Soak, Central Australia. From an area typical
of the flat desert country, about 12 miles from Archibald’s
Soak and 290 miles from Alice Springs on the Granites
track. Collected by C. T. Madigan. ‘This area is a high
level peneplain characterised by a vegetation association
which includes Triodia as the dominant grass, with Acacias,
Mallee, Eucalypts and Hakeas.

The analyses reveal little evidence of profile development except possibly a
moderate leaching of the surface soil. The whole profile is, however, acid in
reaction, suggesting survival from a period when rainfall was heavier than at the
present time. The fertility level is low,

Sample number ie 8 PY tabs 2973 2974 2975

Depth in inches Ae. ie whe eo 0-6 6-12 12-18

Mechanical Analysis:

Jo Go Jo

Coarse sand a Se ees ah 51-7 51:3 48-4
Fine sand 35-8 34-7 36°3
Silt Je ah sae hus 1-2 1:0 1:9
Clay ahd Lm ae ack Dis 11-7 13-5 13-8
Loss on acid treatment Ae nh 0-0 0-1 0-1
Moisture 0-4 0-5 0-5

335

Chemical Analysis:

ec
Sa S
‘aks
SO) iss he
eon
Ss
ae
oo
oa -=_

Calcium carbonate
Total soluble salts
Sodium chloride

oooecocos

Organic carbon 21 —_

Nitrogen ve ef ae ee 01 — aad
Phosphate res x4 (P2Os) 02 ae _
Potash .... Me a (K20) 11 4S —
Reaction i, oa (pH) 5°5 6:0 6:3

Site No. 20-—-Warburton Range, Western Australia. Collected by Michael
Terry. Camp 25 on expedition of 1931, 300 yards from
Warburton Creek.

The sample is collected from a travertine rise on the west bank of the creek.
The flood waters, in overflowing on the hot dry banks, deposit calcium carbonate,
giving rise to travertine or “opaline” rises which are specially characteristic of the
rivers of the Murchison and Gascoyne districts and of the north-west of Western
Australia,

The differences in the three horizons sampled are associated principally with
the differences in the content of calcium carbonate. ‘The fertility level in terms
of plant food is low.

All tae samples are very gravelly, the proportion of gravel in the three
original samples being successively 27, 55 and 51 per cent. This gravel was cal-
careous in character.

Sample number ie Ba: os _ 2315 2316 2317
Depth in inches... ead 43, A 0-9 9-18 18-27
Mechanical Analysis:
Jo Yo Yo
Coarse sand Lag Mee ee Pad 10-2 7-4 7°9
Fine sand Pi. ae ae sh 75-2 69-6 58°5
Silt ae me us Ya. Af 2-0 2-3 2-1
Clay Lm | er mu 9-6 11-4 12-2
Loss on acid treatment 2°5 9-7 19-0
Moisture 0-6 0+7 1:°3
Chemical Analysis:
Calcium carbonate 1:73 8-66 17°71
Total soluble salts 0-05 0-04 0-04
Sodium chloride a. ie a tr. tr. tr.
e
Organic carbon nbd a ae Q:21 —_ —.
Nitrogen es a — a 0-03 — —
Phosphate hb ay (P:0.) 0-02 — ces
Posh: doe Pe Oe (K20) 0-22 Ws a

Reaction ee lee (pH) 8:9 9-2 9-2

336

Site No. 17—Gibson’s Desert, Western Australia, 80 miles from Mazlett’s
Well, in the Warburton Range. Collected by Michael Terry.

The samples are taken from an ironstone gravel flat—the gravel repre-
senting, successively, 32, 41 and 37 per cent. of the original samples. The soils,

to a depth of 18 inches, are acid.

The fertility level with respect to phosphate is moderate, with respect to
potash it is low. The gravel has been found (Prescott, 1934) to contain 49-0 per

cent. of iron oxide (Fe,O,).

Sample number
Depth in inches

Mechanical Analysis:

Coarse sand

Fine sand

Silt

Clay coh inf
Loss on acid treatment
Moisture

Chemical Analysis:
Calcium carbonate
Total soluble salts
Sodium chloride

Organic carbon
Nitrogen
Phosphate
Potash

Reaction

Site No. 15—Gibson’s Desert, Wes

2307
0-9

0-004

0-011

0-002

a ae 0-023

(P2Os) 0-045
(K20) 0-15
(pH) 5+2

2308
9-18

5°3

2309
18-27

6°6

tern Australia, 178 miles from Hazlett’s

Well. Collected by Michael Terry.

undulation in ironstone gravel country.

The lower slope of an

As in the previous

group of samples the proportion of gravel is high and the soils
are acid. Fertility level is low.

The gravel content of the three horizons is 40, 70 and 71 per cent. of the
original samples. The composition of the gravel from this profile has been dis-
cussed previously (Prescott, 1934)—it was found to contain 30-8 per cent. of

iron oxide (Fe,O,).
Sample number
Depth in inches

Mechanical Analysis:
Coarse sand
Fine sand
Silt
Clay pine hits
Loss on acid treatment
Moisture

2303
0-9.

mee
Oe Ske MSTA

oR on th ca ee

2304
9-18

SeohouG.s
wn
mg ee ee we “eS

ANOwA

2305
18-26

%

uw on

3
4

1

DAROBAA

2eowrsr

337

Chemical Analysis:

Calcium carbonate ee hgh feed 0-012 0-006 —_

Total soluble salts hind ne eek 0-014 0-027 0-015
Sodium chloride an _ he 0-002 0-002 0-002
Organic carbon a aay cash 0-289 0-290 0-222
Nitrogen a ihe are salt 0-022 0-026 0-025
Phosphate ae f. (P20s) 0-024 0-024 0-022
Potash... ohh ay (K.0) 0-09 0-11 0-13
Reaction ait rect (pH) 5-9 6:0 6:2

Site Nc. 10-——Muloorina Peninsula, South Australia; south of Lake Eyre,
5 miles from the Lake. Collected by J. A. Prescott.

This series of soil horizons is representative of the consolidated sandhills
characteristic of the immediate vicinity of Lake Eyre. The surface of the country
is relatively loose and, when eroded away, reveals a firm subsoil with a wide
polygonal pattern of gentle domes. No cracks were to be observed between them
at the time of sampling (Madigan Expedition, Camp 1, Bore 9, December, 1929).
The only vegetation was dead cotton bush (Kochia aphylla) and saltbush, with
occasional ncedlebush (Hakea).

In the vicinity of the Lake gypsum is very comrnon. The mud of the Lake
itself consists of a saturated solution of brine with crystals of gypsum and common
salt, some calcium carbonate and much sand. Reference may be made to Madigan
(1930) for further details. he mean annual rainfall at Muloorina is 4 inches,
so that leaching is restricted to the most soluble constituents. Calcium carbonate
is present throughout the profile but has been leached down to a certain extent,
reaching its maximum in the fourth nine inches. Sodium chloride is at its
maximum in the third nine inches, while gypsum becomes prominent at 54 inches.
For such light soils the phosphate content (0°039%) is fairly high. The samples
are all markedly alkaline.

Sample number bie .. 1317 1318 1319 1326 1321 1322 1323 1324
Depth in inches i .. OG 918 18-27 27-36 36-45 45-54 54-63 63-72

Mechanical Analysis:

% % % Jo %o %o % %
Coarse sand ma .. 4555 36-0 35:6 35-0 33-6 33-8 39:4 36-4
Fine sand .... sks i. 41-2 44-8 43-2 42-4 45-5 45-0 35-1 37-9
Silt . — 0-3 0-6 1-3 1-2 1-0 0-9 0-9 0-6
Clay aeek 4,4 we 83 9-2 8-4 9-1 8-6 8-7 84 8:3
Loss on acid treatment ... 4:4 7-1 10:0 10-7 10:4 11-2 14:4 14°1
Moisture 1-1 1+5 1-7 1-4 1-1 1-3 2:2 2-4
Chemical Analysis:
Calcium carbonate .. =©3+40 616 809-871 802,769 7-70 5-83
Gypsum a8 be . 0°08 0-20 0-23 0-27 0:25 2:13 8-80 7:90
Sodium chloride .... uw. ~=022 0-23) «037. 0-29 0-22) 0-19 018020

Reaction hs (pH) 9-7 9-6 9-5 8-7 96 8-3 8-2 8-2

338

Site No. 5—Glenorchy, South Australia. Springs paddock. Collected by
J. A. Prescott. Country carrying saltbush and bluebush, with
mulga in immediate neighbourhood.

The first sample represents the super-surface horizon (Ao) round the
bushes which act as nurse plants—this drift provides a favourable seed bed, and
it is the loss of this horizon by wind erosion which gives rise to the major soil
problem in relation to pasture regeneration in these areas.

The horizon is measured from the general surface of the soil upwards, and
not downwards. Soils at Glenorchy are affected by the neighbourhood of granite
outcrops. They are light in texture and not particularly rich in plant foods. The
samples contained 1 to 2 per cent. of quartz gravel.

Sample number i nh Pes a0 4603 4604 4605

Depth in inches te, av ane 125 2-0 0-12 14-26

Mechanical Analysis: % % %
Coarse sand “th is _ ly 51-3 52-0 33-5
Fine sand ray v4 a ae 38-0 27-1 22°8
Silt one a9 a a. wh, 2-2 2:8 2:2
Clay aes a - 71 15:2 24:3
Loss on acid treatment ite iat 0-8 2:2 15:7
Moisture 0:7 1-8 3-3

Chemical Analysis: :
Calcium carbonate ns A: laos 0-11 1-30 14-16

Total soluble salts ial it ws 0-027 0-053 0-33
Sodium chloride om we Bid 0-002 0-011 0-21
Organic carbon 0-188 0-237 0-206
Nitrogen oe. 23 Ah: oh. 0-024 0-030 a
Phosphate Ree bee's (P:0s) 0-029 0-032 —
Potash... Lae A. (K:0)} 0-37 0+52 =
Reaction Cs yeh (pH) 9-2 965 9-3

Site No. 2s—Melton, South Australia. Collected by J. A. Prescott.

From Round Hill, near the boundary of Koonamore. Country carries salt-
bush and bluebush. The samples resemble in many respects those from Glenorchy
quoted above, They are better supplied with plant foods, however.

Sample number gus Leal a mn 4598 4599 4600
Depth in inches sta Hf, fic Tfs 2-0 0-9 9-20
Mechanical Analysis:
%o Jo %o
Coarse sand 47°8 37-9 26-4
Fine sand 30-2 28-2 23°5
Silt 6:2 8-4 5-9
Clay suds fe 13-0 20-9 28-9
Loss on acid treatment 1-5 3:2 13-2
Moisture 1-3 2:3 3°7

339

Chemical Analysis:

Calcium carbonate... a ek 0-45 2:08 11-65
Total soluble salts 7 a hd 0-032 0-076 0-36
Sodium chloride ie ps, t 0-005 0-029 0-23
Organic carbon am Apes ae 0-322 Q)+299 —
Nitrogen past oe ae 18 0-043 0-045 —
Phosphate oa Bi (P2Os) 0-057 0-058 —
Potash... me hs (K2O) 0-69 0:87 Lt
Reaction me Eee (pH) 9+] 9-0 8-9

Site No. 26—Melton, South Ausiralia. Collected by J. A. Prescott.

From the Woolshed paddock. The vegetation is young saltbush. The
characteristics are similar to the soils from the preceding sites, but the level of
phosphate is high. The soil is more calcareous and the profile bottoms on parent
slaty and calcareous rock. In this and following cases the mechanical analyses
are reported by a method in which the dispersion is carried out by means of
sodium hypobromite without a preliminary treatment with acid, so as to give a
more correct representation of the texture in view of the presence of much
calcium carbonate. Sample No. 4596 contained 15 per cent., and No. 4597, 16 per

cent. of calearcous gravel.

Sample number... me a ri 4594 4395 4596 4597
Depth in inches _... ages rk fess 2-0 0-11 12-20 20-27
Mechanical Analysis (1lypcbromite M ethod):
%e Yo Jo Jo
Coarse sand... gS. Bed — 22-5 26:3 17-9 10-0
Fine sand en ae a ay 50-8 33+9 39-0 53°2
Silt oe . oe oe _ 16:9 21-8 24-2 21-0
Clay _ 5 — Bz 9-8 18-0 18-9 15-8
Chemical Analysis:
Calcium carbonate... She ‘ade 1-60 217 17-16 18-00
Tctal soluble salts... = aes 0-056 0-080 0-53 0-56
Sodium chloride ai se nal 0-007 0-033 0-38 0°39
Organic carbon tae, ae 4 1-128 0-650 0-489 —
Nitrogen le _ es 0-112 0-080 _ -—
Phosphate 7" My. (P.03) 0-094 0-068 — —_
Peiaah|ee ee ate (K:0) 1-12 1-34 ee =
Reaction me: it (pil) 8-9 8-9 8:2 8:6

Site No. 1—-Paratoo, South Australia. Collected by J. A. Prescott.

The profile was sampled in the mustering paddock on a saltbush flat. The
samples show the same characteristics as the previous ones from the North-East
pastoral country. They are calcarcous and well supplied with plant foods.

340

Sample No. 4592 contained 2 per cent. of slaty gavel. Exchangeable bases were
determined in this particular profile. The results are given below.

Sample number sda Af ae a ties 4590 4591 4592
Depth in inches ca as ee Ce ve 2-0 0-12 12-24
Total Exchangeable Bases (m.e. per 100 gm.) .... 25°51 25-74 19°35
Proportion as Calcium =n sth gr 64-5 68-8 65:6
Magnesium ae: x ae 15-1 17-9 25-0

Potassium 15-7 8:2 2:3

Sodium 4-7 5-1 71

The soil shows no evidence of solonisation. The relatively high potassium
in the super surface horizon is probably duc to plant remains.

Sample number the ov, 7, Pace 4590 4591 4592
Depth in inches ep me ar. a 2-0 0-12 12-24
Mechanical Analysis (Hypobromite Method):
Fo Go %
Coarse sand sae cust a * 1-6 2-4 1-7
Fine sand 1a my oe — 22-0 27-7 19-9
Silt Se “a _ ae che 54-9 37-6 33-3
Clay zs mi hl es ov 21-5 32:3 45-1
Chemical Analysis:
Calcium carbonate Nee ,! ih 3°50 3-43 36°14
Total soluble salts fae _ ed 0-233 0-112 0-069
Sodium chloride tans kets 7 0-067 0-033 0-020
Organic carbon of; ae fe 2-353 1-200 0-492
Nitrogen *“. Le Ps, 7 0.242 0-136 —
Phosphate Pes ne (P2053) 0-120 0-085 —
Potash... fat nh (K20) 1-65 1-55 —
Reaction ed ed (pH) 8-3 8-8 9-2

Site No. 6—Eringa Park, South Australia, Collected by J. A. Prescott.
The samples come from the Warwirra Paddock and from a
typical saltbush plain. The soils are similar in character to the
preceding ones and are calcareous. Sample No. 4610 con-
tained 2 per cent., and No. 4611, 12 per cent. of calcareous

gravel.
Sample number we oe Fon an: 4609 4610 4611
Depth in inches bd. mt rch saa 1-0 0-12 12-25
Mechanical Analysis (Hypobromite Method):
% Yo %
Coarse sand as ae a ied 0-7 8-0 7°2
Fine sand 2 A. a4 Ls td 37-0 31-6
Silt sake sei it wae am 18-1 25-5 23-1
Clay 4. 29°5 38-1

341

Chemical Analysis:
Calcium carbonate
Total soluble salts
Sodium chloride

Organic carbon

Nitrogen _ _ bene a
Phosphate _ _ (P2Qs)
Potash _.... a a (K20)
Reaction _ (pH)

REFERENCES

Gautier, E. F. 1928 “Le Sahara” (Paris)
Manican, C. T. 1930 Geog. Jour. 76, 215
Mapican, C. T. 1936 Geog. Rev. 26, 205

2°80
0-063
0-012

1-129
0-114
0-087
1-08

9-1

13-33
0-071
0-013

0-473
0-057
0-067
0-92

9-7

Prescort, J. A. 1934 Trans. Roy. Soc. 5S. Aust., 58, 10

TEAKLE, L. J. H. 1936 J. Agric. W. Aust., 13, 480

ON THE GROWTH OF THE SHEEP POPULATION IN TASMANIA

By J. DAVIDSON, D.Sc, Waite Agricultural Research Institute, University of Adelaide

Summary

Tasmania has an area of 16,778,000 acres, of which 47 percent consists of unoccupied country. A
relatively small area is cultivated; the area under crop in 1936-7 was 263,251 acres, together with
45,060 acres of fallow land. The land utilization regions of the country have been analysed in a
recent publication (Lowndes and Maze, 1937).

342

ON THE GROWTH OF THE SHEEP POPULATION IN TASMANIA

By J. Davinson, D.Sc.

Waite Agricultural Research Institute, University of Adclaide
[Read 13 October 1938]

J. Iwrropuction

Tasmania has an area of 16,778,000 acres, of which 47 per cent. consists of
unoccupied country. A relatively small area is cultivated; the area under crop in
1936-7 was 263,251 acres. together with 45,060 acres of fallow land. The land
utilizaticn regions of the country have been analysed in a recent publication

(Lowndes and Maze, 1937).

The first European settlement in Tasmania was established by Lt. Bowen
at Risdon Cove, in September, 1803. Colonel David Collins moved the settlement
to the present site of Hobart, in February, 1804. In 1804, also, Colonel Paterson
formed a settlement near the mouth of the Tamar; it was removed to the present
site of Launceston two years later. ‘The northern and southern portions of
Tasmania were administered from [Launceston and Hobart, respectively, until
1812, when the colony was united under one administration with headquarters
in Tlobart. During the first 20 years of its development Tasmania was an
appendage of New South Wales; it was proclaimed a separate colony in 1825.

The native inhabitants of the island had not practised any form of agricul-
ture, so that the European settlers entered upon a country whose native vegetation
had been undisturbed except for occasional bush fires. A system of grants of
free lands to settlers was introduced within the first ten years of settlement; the
system remained in force until 1864, at which time the area of approved grants
amounted to 14 million acres. The early selections of land were naturally made
about Hobart and Launceston. Development extended from these centres along
the Derwent and the Tamar. The direction and rate of progress of the advance
of settlement was determined largely by the physical features of the country and
the native vegetation.

Il Frrrinc tue Speer Dara To THE VERHULST-PEARL Locistic CURVE
The annual records of sheep numbers in Tasmania from 1816 onwards were
obtained through the courtesy of the Deputy Commonwealth Statistician, ITobart.
Complete returns are not available for 1816, 1817, 1820 and 1822-26. The annual
records are plotted in fig. 1, The mean annual number of sheep for five-year
pericds is given in Table I; in each case the number is allotted to the mid-year of
the appropriate five-year period.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 62, (2), 23 December 1938

343

Taste I

Showing the Mean Annual Sheep Population in Tasmania for the I’ive-year
Periods 1819-1924 (Mid-years), and Values calculated from the Growth Curve.

Population in Thousands Population in Thousands
Mid-year y Mid-year y

By Observ. Calc. x Observ, Cale.
1819) 161 187 1874 1625 1660
1824 — 327 1879 1837 1665
1829 574 534 1884 1731 | 1667
1834 795 793 1889 1562 1669
1839 1050 1068 1894 1612 | 1670
1844 1278 1288 1899 1646 1670
1849 1867 1447 1904 1629. | 1670
1854 1901 1546 1909 | 1764 | 1670
1859 1702 1603 1914 1720 1670
1864 1726 1635 1919 1691 1670
1869 1500 =| 1652 1924 1631 1670

@) Only three years are available for this period.

The sheep numbers for the five-year periods given in Table I have been fitted
to the Verhulst-Pearl logistic curve, having the formula:

1670

tae Le ee 780r8l245 - 018125
The upper asymptote, 1670, was obtained by taking the average population for
the five-year periods 1859-1924. The calculated curve is shown in fig. 1; the
observed and calculated figures are given in Table I.

The curve shows that, under the conditions of development of the sheep
industry up to 1846, the expected saturation density on the natural pastures of
the State would be 1,670,000 sheep. This density was attained towards the end
of the 1840’s. From the beginning of the 1850’s onwards the population oscillated
about this value for about 70 years. Compared with South Australia (Davidson,
1938) the rate of growth is slower. his is related to differences in the physical
features, climate and early political history of the two States. The marked
temporary fluctuations in sheep numbers found in South Australia, due to drought
periods, are less pronounced in the case of ‘Tasmania,

III Procress or THE SHEEP POPULATION
(a) First Period, 1804-1846
In the first decade of settlement, development was necessarily slow. Sheep
raising for wool production really began in 1820, when 300 merino rams were
imported into Tasmania from Capt. McArthur’s flocks in New South Wales. The

K

344

settlers placed their flocks on grazing lands along the Derwent and the Tamar
and extended into the Midlands. The savannah country of the Midlands afforded
excellent pasturage and the climate favoured the production of fine quality merino
wool. In 1843 the system was started whereby prisoners were hired out to
settlers on probation, at low rates of pay; this provided labour for pastoral
developments, and by 1846 the ordinary leased lands from the Crown amounted
to 337,000 acres. It was during this period, in 1836, that the two sons of Thomas
Henty went over from the Tamar and established a settlement at Portland Bay.
This was the beginnings of the foundation of Victoria, which became a separate
colony in 1850. Tasmania supplied rams with high quality fleece to the Victorian
graziers during these early years, which was a useful source of income for the
Tasmanian sheep farmer.

(b) Second Period, 1847-1858
The rapid rise in sheep numbers during this period suggests the influence of
environmental factors differing from those of the first period. These factors are

GROWTH OF SHEEP POPULATION IN TASMANIA
a DD (CS De GT

BIGNON

o
6
ish so EOE hw
r
al
mn
v
1
18 oe 42
O40 8245 -OtNH2SL
fee 4 4
o
c
4
500 | | >
i Zz
| 6
if 44a
of
ol ! 1 1 i !
s a + bd a v a a a t Dal a n a a t an 3 n v na t a a ht
r] = nN oF " 5 7 T ) ” 0 oO is nN o o oO n 2 ~ = nN nN y oN

YEAR

Fig. 1
Calculated growth curve for the sheep population of Tasmania. The sheep numbers
obtained from official records are shown for each year (small’closed circles); the
average numbers for five-year periods are also shown (larger open circles).

associated primarily with a marked expansion of grazing areas and heavy stocking
of sheep runs. Whyte (1871) states that, owing to the poor market for fat sheep
in Tasmania, the sheep farmer concentrated on wool production and sheep runs
were heavily overstocked. It appears to have been the practice of contractors
to supply the meat requirements of military and prison establishments in Tasmania
by importing sheep and bullocks from the mainland; the net imports of sheep
during 1849-54 were 290,400. With the marked extension of grazing activities

©) Tam indebted to Professor S. M. Wadham and Professor G. L. Wood for help-
ful information about this period.

345

the area of ordinary leased Crown lands rose suddenly in 1847 to 1,063,000 acres ;
by 1853 the area had increased to 2,314,000 acres.

In the latter half of the period the sheep numbers decreased rapidly and
finally came to rest about the calculated curve. The conditions which led to the
temporary increase in sheep numbers were evidently unstable. The occupied
natural pastures could not carry permanently this high density of population.
This is clearly shown by the lower average level of saturation (1,670,000) which
obtained for the next 70 years.

Several factors were associated with this fall in sheep numbers. The area
of ordinary Crown lands held under lease decreased after 1853, and was 536,000
acres less in 1858. The sheep farmer was also learning from experience that it
was more profitable to stock his pastures with proper regard for their sheep-
carrying capacity ; a smaller number ot well nourished sheep carry more wool than
a larger number of impoverished shcep on overstocked pastures.

After 1851 there was an increased demand for fat sheep in Tasmania; the
importation of sheep declined from 65,089 in 1851 to 11,786 in 1858; the price
of mutton in Hobart appreciated from 3d. per Ib. in 1851 to 6d. in 1852 and
84d. in 1853. These factors revived the interest of the sheep farmers in fat sheep
for local markets, which would bring about a reduction in the number of sheep
carried on certain pastures.

The export of rams to the mainland declined as the graziers in Victoria and
the Riverina developed their own stud flocks, which considerably reduced the
income available to the Tasmanian graziers from this source.

The supply of labour available for pastoral pursuits was directly affected by
the discovery of gold in Victoria in 1851 and the cessation of the transportation
of convicts to Tasmania in 1853.

(c) Third Period, 1859-1924

The events which occurred during the latter part of the previous period
tended to produce a more stable sheep population. With the election of the first
Parliament in Tasmania in 1856 the country settled down to steady development.
The sheep numbers oscillate about the calculated curve throughout this period,
the short-term oscillations being duc to the temporary influence of various factors.
The decrease in numbers about 1870 is associated with (a) the prevalence of
sheep scab, which necessitated the passing of the “Scab Act of 1870”; (b) the
prevalence of fluke in certain pasture areas; (c) the development of the rabbit
pest, which necessitated the passing in 1871 of “An Act to Provide for Destruc-
tion of Rabbits in Tasmania’; (d) the persistent fall in the price of wool which
dropped from 22d. a pound to 15d. a pound between 1862 and 1870.

(d) Fourth Period, 1925-1936
The upward trend in the population in this period is associated with the

improvernent in pastures and their management, together with the expansion of
the market for fat lambs. The area of top-dressed pastures has steadily increased.

346

In 1923/4 the total agricultural area manured with artificial manures was 193,453
acres; it had increased to 412,468 acres in 1936/7 with an increase of 14,000 tons
in the amount of artificial manures used. The area of top-dressed pastures
increased from 52,077 acres in 1929/30 to 191,928 acres in 1936/7. Improve-
ments of the natural pastures have increased their sheep-carrying capacity,

CoRRIGENDA

In my previous paper (Davidson, 1938, p. 141) the sheep population at the
end of 1838 should read 28,000.
REFERENCES
Davipson, J. 1938 “On the Ecology of the Growth of the Sheep Population in
South Australia.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 62, (1), 141-8
Lownpes, A. G., and Maze, W. H. 1937 “Land Utilization Regions of Tas-
mania,” University of Sydney, Geography Pubn. No. 4
Whyte, J. 1871 “Report of Chief Inspector of Sheep for 1870-1,” Tasmania,
House of Assembly (No. 13), 8 Nov., 1871

Wuyte, J. 1876 “Report of Chief Inspector of Sheep for 1875,” Tasmania,
Legislative Council (No. 27), 12 Sept., 1876

Woop, G. L. 1929 “The Tasmanian Environment,” Melbourne, 1929

THE MOUNT CAERNARVON SERIES OF PROTEROZOIC AGE

By D. MAWSON, O.B.E., D.Sc., B.E., F.R.S.

Summary

Mount Caermarvon is the highest point of a bold range of hills which forms the eastern flank of the
Flinders Range in the locality lying due east-south-east of Oraparinna Head Station. In that locality
exists a large unbroken block of Proterozoic sediments. Differential weathering has there brought
into strong relief the hard and soft members in the succession of strata, resulting in a series of
parallel ridges marking the hard beds. Mount Caernarvon is on the crest line of the most westerly of
these ridges which, as the beds dip regularly to the east, is the lowest (oldest) in order of deposition.
Looking eastward from the summit of Mount Caermarvon, other parallel ridges extend athwart the
view until, at a distance of about 5 miles, the low and nearly level plain leading to Lake Frome is
reached.

347

THE MOUNT CAERNARVON SERIES OF PROTEROZOIC AGE
By D. Mawson, O.B.E., D.5c., B.E., F.R.S.
[Read 13 October 1938]

Mount Caernarvon is the highest point of a bold range of hills which forms
the eastern flank of the Flinders Range in the locality lying due east-south-east
of Oraparinna Head Station, In that locality exists a large unbroken block of
Proterozoic sediments. Differential weathering has there brought into strong
relief the hard and soft members in the succession of strata, resulting in a series
of parallel ridges marking the hard beds. Mount Caernarvon is on the crest line
of the most westerly of these ridges which, as the beds dip regularly to the east,
is the lowest (oldest) in order of deposition. Looking eastward from the summit
of Mount Caernarvon, other parallel ridges extend athwart the view until, at
a distance of about 5 miles, the low and nearly level plain leading to Lake Frome
is reached.

Throughout a section meastired across the strike of these beds, as detailed
below, there was found to be a remarkable regularity in the dip of the beds and
no evidence of faulting. The average dip is about 28 degrecs, whilst the high
and low extremes of dip recorded are, respectively, 31 and 25 degrees. The
strike of “he beds, where undisturbed, is about 10° east (true).

At Jess than 3 miles northward from the Mount the beds are faulted and
twisted almost at right angles to their former alignment. To the south, the
undisturbed character of the block continues only for a few miles.

In view of the favourable features presented by this block, it has been
selected as an area for special study in connection with our investigations of the
Pre-Cambrian succession in the Flinders Range, which is the outstanding area
for Proterozoic rocks in South Australia.

In the following list of strata encountered in this section, the beds are dealt
with in order, from below upwards, and the thicknesses given in feet are the
reduced yalues of true thicknesses. The full thickness of the Mount Caernarvon
ereywackes at the base of the section was not ascertained for those beds extended
further west than the summit of Mount Caernarvon, which was the western limit
of the section. ‘he fact that the number 1 item on the list does extend beyond
the 100 fcet measured is indicated in the list by the plus sign attached.

The upper Hmit of the section was determined by the fact that beyond the
beds listed no outcrops appear near the line of section above the alluviated plain.
There is, however, no reason to suppose that the sequence does not continue below
the surface accumulations of the plain.

The accompanying line block illustrates the relation of the individual beds
to the surface topography.

Trans. Roy Soc. S.A., 62, (2), 23 December 1938

348

Fa

SHE a >
saan SE S3LIWOT00 SSWWHS ABHO 7 JLVIODOHD SINOLSINIT ENOSDWITIONY SatvHE S3NOISINT “D3 SANOLSGNW SNOZDVNaUY

|
1
ds

pike aim ar rr od JIVHS @ 3NOLSIIS S3NOLSONW AMDVMAZND & BUIZLUWNd

SS
SS

S25 _TWINOZINOH
Oe a
ScuvA CO avy 008 °

SalY¥S3S NOAYVNYSVD LW Seren

349

Section Eastwarp From Mount CAERNARVON
Mount Caernarvon Greywackes
1 100+ ft. of greywacke-quartzite at the summit of Mount Caernarvon: very
fine-grained, buff and grey coloured. Dip, 26° to the east.
2 154 ft. of a series of somewhat argillaceous, flaggy, greywacke sand-
stones and quartzite with occasional harder, more quartzose bands
and, in the upper section, some sandy, flaggy slates.

614 + feet in total thickness.
Shale, Mudstone and Siltstone Series
3 413 it. of very fine-grained, grey laminated siltstones and flag-stones ; in
part slightly calcareous.
4 411 ft. very thin-bedded, grey shales, somewhat calcareous, and flag-stones
of a similar nature but somewhat arenaceous. Dip, 26° to the east.
5 503 ft. of massive, fine-grained, grey mudstones. Evidence of a small cal-
careous content.
6 29 ft. of a light-grey coloured, fine-grained greywacke-sandstone.
7 105 ft. thin-bedded shales; beds of a more sandy nature alternating with
those of a more argillaceous character.
8 85 ft. thin flaggy, argillaceous shales becoming increasingly more calcareous.
9 135 ft. of dense, thick-bedded calcareous shales, including, in the upper
section, a band of dolomitic limestone.

10 35 ft. of somewhat calcareous shales enclosing thin, arenaceous bands and
culminating above in an 8 feet thick bed of sandstone.

11 276 ft. of thin-bedded, hard, grey shales with occasional intercalations of
thin, arenaceous bands.

1,992 feet in total thickness.

Greywacke-Quartzite

12 220 ft. of light-grey, evenly-grained, greywacke-quartzite, constituting a
ridge line in the local topography.

220 feet in total thickness.

Flaggy Shales

13 438 ft. of flaggy shales, somewhat calcarcous; for the most part thin-bedded.
Dip, 31° to the east.

438 feet in total thickness.

Flaggy, Caleareous Beds

14 236 ft. of flaggy, impure limestones.

15 73 ft. of a dolomitic limestone series, for the most part flaggy.

16 147 ft. of flaggy, calcareous beds. Near the base, this section is composed
of thick-bedded, dense, somewhat calcareous shales with occasional
richly-caleareous bands. The upper division is in part a fine-
grained, argillaccous, conglomeratic, pellet limestone of unique
character, the latter a kind of intraformational conglomerate.

456 fect in total thickness.

350

Arenaceous Mudstones, etc,
17 137 ft. of grey, calcareo- argillaceous mudstones which, at several horizons,

18 299 ft.
19 15 ft.
20 284 ft.

become notably arenaceous. Shallow-water phenomena evidenced.
of a light-grey sandstone in the lower section, composed of rounded
grains. Upwards, this passes into blue-grey shales with sandy bands
recurring at intervals. A shallow-water formation, current-bedded.
of chocolate-coloured shales, somewhat calcareous.

of grey mudstones with some richly arenaceous bands, Somewhat
calcareous throughout and increasingly so towards the upper limit.
Flaggy below, but massive above.

735 feet in total thickness.

Limestones
21 = 110 ft.
22 289 ft
23 =183 ft

of massive, impure limestones, Dip, 30° to the east.

. of massive, impure limestones, in part cryptozdonic.
. of massive, sandy, shallow-water limestones.

582 feet in total thickness.

Shales and Argillaceous Limestones

24 62
25 139
26 «124
27 220
28 300
29 «161
30) 146
31 155
32 15
33-180
34-108

ft.
. of impure limestones with shallow-water features.

. of grey shales.

. of impure limestones; massive below and flaggy above.

. of chocolate-coloured shales and grey shales.

. of calcareous flagstones. Dip, 28° to the east.

. of impure dolomitic limestone with shallow-water features.

. of shales, mainly chocolate-coloured, with some thin calcareous

of calcareous shales,

bands.

. of impure limestones of a somewhat purple colour.
. of shales,
ft.

of impure limestone.

1,610 feet in total thickness.

Chocolate and Grey Shales
35 395 ft. of grey and chocolate-coloured shales, weathering at the surface

36-223 ft.
37-989 ft.
38 120 ft

1,727 feet in total thickness.

into small chips. Capped by a bed of buff-coloured dolomite 2 feet
thick,

of chocolate shales, weathering to chips on the surface. Inter-
bedded are several seams, 2 to 3 inches thick, of limestone.

of grey shales, breaking down to fine chips on exposure at the
surface. At the upper limit are several inter-bedded, thin (up to
6 inches thick) seams of dolomite. Dip, 29° to the east,

. of shales with dolomitic bands increasing in number and thickness

towards the top.

351

Dolomite (hieroglyphic) Series

39 319 f+. of dolomitic beds. Bands of chocolate-coloured dolomite alternat-
ing with softer beds of flaggy chocolate shales. Most of the
dolomite bands exhibit a very remarkable and characteristic “hiero-
glyphic” structure.

40 291 ft. of a dolomite series with softer, shaley partings. Some of the
dolomite beds exhibit “hieroglyphic” markings, others feature a thin
laminated (2 mm. thick) texture.

4] 291 ft. of beds composed of massive, buff-coloured dolomite below, becom-
ing more friable and chocolate-coloured and impure above. Some
“hieroglyphic” markings in this division.

901 feet in total thickness,

Chocolate Sandstone and Shales (Tuffaceous ?)

42 238 it. of sun-cracked, chocolate shales.

43 148 it. of beds, mainly reddish-coloured sandstones.

44 550 ft. of a chocolate-coloured series, chiefly shales with some thin beds
of sandstone, mainly near the base. The nature of some of the
sandy bands suggests water-sorted tuffs. A 10-feet thick band of
sandstone forms the top of this section.

45 500 “t. of chocolate-coloured beds. This division is largely hidden beneath
soil but appears to be mainly chocolate shales. At 30 feet from the
base there are intercalations of thin (4 to 5 inches thick) bands of
dolomite. The upper 100 feet is reddish-chocolate-coloured and
becoming increasingly sandy above, finalising in thin-bedded, sandy
flagstones. Dip, 29° to the east.

These beds all lie at a lower stratigraphical level than those detailed in a
recent paper“ dealing with formations cxisting some 25 miles to the north-west
of Mount Caernarvon. No attempt will be made in this place to relate these
formations to those of the Parachilna locality or to discuss their significance, for
stich will come better at a later stage when the details of further critical areas
under review are published. It may be mentioned, however, that the deposition
of the lowest beds in this section was contemporaneous with some part of the time
occupied in the laying down of glacial and fluvio-glacial sediments in other parts
of South Australia.

The nature of the cryptozdonic and “hieroglyphic” markings of the dolomitic
limestones will be dealt with elsewhere.

The 10,711 feet of strata accounted in this contribution represents only a
portion of the depositions laid down in the Flinders Range geosyncline during
late Proterozoic time.

@) “Cambrian and Sub-Cambrian Formations at Parachiina Gorge.” Proc. Roy,
Soc. S. Aust., July, 1938.

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIAN © NO. 37

By J. M. BLACK, A.LS.

Summary

SALVINIACEAE
Azolla filiculoides, L. var. rubra (R. Br.) Diels. In water at Glencoe, S.E.; July, 1938; E. S. Alcock.
A new locality.

352

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA (1)
No, 37

By J. M. Brack, A.L.S.
[Read 13 October 1938]
Pirate XX

SALVINIACEAE

Azolla filiculoides, L. var. rubra (R. Br.) Diels. In water at Glencoe, S.E.;
July, 1938; E. S. Alcock. A new locality,

GRAMINEAE

Perotis indica (1..) O. Kuntze (1891). Macdonald Downs, C.A., March,
1936; Miss Jean Chalmers —Anthoxanthum indicum, L. (1753) ; Perotis latifolia,
Ait. (1789) ; P. rara, R. Br. (1810).

In our specimens the spikelets, including the awns, are only 15-18 mm. long;
the leaf-blades are 3-4 mm. broad.

Sporobolus pulchellus, R. Br. Macdonald Downs, March, 1936, Miss Jean
Chalmers. First record for Central Australia,

Brachiaria Gilesii (Benth.), Chase. Macdonald Downs, C.A., March, 1936;
Miss Jean Chalmers.

Our specimen is about 20 cm. high and the two terminal spikes (or panicle-
branches) are exserted, sometimes for a considerable distance, from the sheath
of the uppermost leaf.

Enneapogon pallidus (R. Br.) Beauv. = Pappophorum pallidum, R. Br.;
P, nigricans, R. Br. var. pallidum, Domin.

South Australia—Finniss Springs, near I.ake Eyre, December, 1926; Kulpi,
near Musgrave Ranges, January, 1934, H, H. Finlayson; Alberga Creek, July,
1920, H. W. Andrew.

Central Australia—Macdonald Downs Stations, March, 1936, Miss Jean
Chalmers.

Domin recorded it in 1915 for Northern Australia, Queensland, and South
Australia.

A grass 8-30 cm. high, the leaves and outer glumes with rather long spread-
ing hairs; panicles pale-coloured, dense, cylindrical, 4-6 cm. long; first outer
glume 5 mm. long, 7-9-nerved; second 6 mm. long, 7-nerved,

Enneapogon, Desvy., differs from Pappophorum, Schreb., in having always
more than l-nerved outer glumes and constantly 9 awns at the summit of the
flowering glume.

© Some records of Central Australian species, collected by recent travellers, have
been included.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 62, (2), 23 December 1938

353

Iseilema

The discovery by C. E. Hubbard that Anthistiria membranacea, Lindl.
(1848) is the same as /seilema actinostachys, Domin (1915), necessitates the
following changes in the naming of our species as published in Trans. Roy. Soc.
S. Aust., 57: 143 (1933).

1 I. eremacum, S. T. Blake in Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 49:82 (1938) =
I membranacea, J. M. Black in Trans. Roy, Soc, 5S. Aust., 57: 143 (1933), not
Anthistiria membranacea. Lindl. Awn 12-15 mm. long (not 20 mm.). The
racemes arc finally exserted from the floral leaf-sheaths (or involucral bracts)
almost as much as in the next specics.

South Australia—Far north. Queensland--As far west as Birdsville.

2 I. membranaceum (Lindl.) Domin (only as to the name, not the descrip-
tion) = Anthistiria membranacea, Lindl. and /, actinostachys, Domin.
3 TF, vaginiflorum, Domin. Awn, 16-23 mm. long.

There are now 11 described species of Iseilema, of which three have so far
been found in South Australia.

Zoisia Matrella (L.) Merrill (== Z. pungens, Willd.) This small grass,
resembling Distichlis spicata, and collected by Prof. J. b. Cleland in damp places
near the Rocky River and Karatta, Kangaroo Island, has been provisionally deter-
mined as above by Mr. C. E. Hubbard, of Kew.—Coasts of Malaya, South India,
China, and the Philippines. Spikes about 1 cm. long; spikelets 25-3 mm. long.

The larger species, found in the eastern States of Australia, is Z. macrantha,
Desv. Spikes 24-5 cm. long; spikelets 33-5 mm. long.

ORCHIDACEAE
Orthoceras strictum, R. Br. Vivonne Bay, December, 1934, J. B. Cleland.
First record for Kangaroo Island.

CENTROLEPIDACEAE
Centrolepis glabra (F. v. M.), Hieron. Swamp at mouth of South-West
River, Kangaroo Island, December, 1934; J. B, Cleland. Some of the smaller
specimens (1-2 cm. high) have only three flowers in each head, with 4-5 carpels.

POLYGON ACEAE

Polygonum prostratum, R. Br. Edge of swamp at mouth of South-West
River, Kangaroo Island, December, 1934; J. B. Cleland. “Quite prostrate.” First
record for the island. Leaves smaller than usual, only 5-12 mm. long; racemes
denser, shorter, broader.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Stellaria filiformis (Benth.), Mattf. in Fedde Repert., Betheft C, 148, t. vii,
figs. 1-8 (1938), instead of Drymaria filiformis, Benth. The change is made by
J. Mattfeld, on the ground that this plant has the characters of Stellaria (3 free

354

styles, a 6-valved cylindrical capsule and no stipules), whereas Drymaria, which
is almost entirely an American genus, has a single style surmounted by three
branches, a capsule usually ovoid or globular and opening in three valves, and
stipules.

This very slender little plant has only been found on the Murray and near
Ardrossan, Yorke Peninsula, in South Australia, and appears to be very rare,
but may have been overlooked on account of its insignificance. It is found
throughout temperate Australia,

CRUCIFERAE

Lepidium halmaturinum nov. sp. Planta annua, fere glabra; caules tenues,
plus minusve ramosi; folia inferiora lyrato-pinnatipartita, petiolata, 2-5 cm. longa,
lobis dentatis, sparse ciliolatis, terminali ovato, 5-20 mm. longo, lateralibus 3-7,
multo minoribus; folia superiora oblongo-cuneata, in petiolum brevem angustata,
5-20 cm. longa, 3-7- dentata; racemi fructiferi 3-5 cm. longi, pedicellis directi-
angtle patentibus, 2-4 mm. longis; sepala cymbiformia, 3 mm. longa; petala alba,
perminuta vel nulla; stamina 2; silicula ovata, 3 mm. longa, 24 mm. lata, breviter
emarginata, incisura stigma sessile parum superante; semina mucosa.
(PL. xx, fig. 1.)

Ravine des Casoars, Kangaroo Island, December, 1934, J. B. Cleland.

Nearest to L. pseudo-ruderale, Thell., but differs in its stems shorter and
more slender, its lower leaves lyrate, with the lateral lobes very short and the
upper leaves cuneate ; also in the pedicels spreading at right angles to the peduncles.
The locality is also quite different.

Cardamine hirsuta, L. Ravine des Casoars, Kangaroo Island; December,
1934; J. B. Cleland. Very small specimens. First record for the island.

LEGUMINOSAE

Cassia curvistyla nov. sp. Suffrutex humilis, 10-45 cm. altus, omnino
breviter pubescens ; folia 2-3 cm. longa, stipulis linearibus, persistentibus; foliola
6, raro 4, lanceolato-oblonga, plana, mucronulata, 8-16 mm. longa, 3-4 mm. lata,
glandula inter quidque par subulata; flores bini trini vel solitarii ad apicem
pedunculorum axillarium folia subaequantium, bracted lineari pedicello fere
aequilonga, caduca; sepala 2-3 mm. longa, obtusa; petala flava, sepala parum
superantia; stamina 10, omnia perfecta, septem 14-2 mm. longa, tria minora;
ovarium pubescens, stylo brevi, crasso, curvo; legumen immaturum breviter
stipitatum, planum, tenue, puberulum, septatum, circa 3 cm. longum ct 1 em.
latum ; semina 3-6, transversa. (Pl. xx, fig. 2.)

Central Australia—20 miles south of the Granites, August, 1936, J. B.
Cleland; west of Mount Davenport, Treuer Range, 1938, Ben Nicker.

Belongs to section Psilorhegma, and seems nearest to C. Chatelainiana,
Gaudich, but that species is glabrous, has 6-10 larger leaflets, has the subulate
gland only between the lowest or two lowest pairs and has larger flowers.

355

Cassia concinna, Benth. On sandhills near Mount Cockburn (between the
Treucr and Ehrenberg Ranges, C.A., 1938, Ben. Nicker.

Pultenaea trifida, J}. M. Black. North end of Flinders Chase, Kangaroo
Island, December, 1934, J. B. Cleland. The bracteoles are sometimes bifid instead
of trifid, one of the two lateral lobes apparently aborting.

SAPINDACEAE
Diplopeltis Stuartii, F. v. M. South-east of Thomson’s Rockhole, Central
Australia, August, 1936, J. B. Cleland; west of Mount Davenport, Treuer Range,
C.A., 1938, Ben. Nicker, “18 inches (45 cm.) high, on burnt spinifex sand plain.”

THY MELEACEAE

Pimelea dichotoma, Schlechtd., in Linnaea 20: 581 (1847). Flowers white;
leaves coriaceous, often spreading, 4-8 mm. long—P. parvifolia, Meisn, in
Linnaea 26: 345 (1853) ; P. diosmifolia, A. Cunn. ex D, C. Prodr. 14: 510 (1857),
non Lodd, Bot. Cab. t. 1708 (1831); P. flava, R. Br. var. diosmifolia, Meisn., in
Mohl et Schlechtd. Bot. Zeit., 1848, p. 396.

Along most of our coastline and on the Adelaide foothills and in the Murray
lands. It is distinguishable from the following species, both in the field and the
herbarium.

P. flava, R. Br. Prodr. 361 (1810). Flowers yellow; branches more erect;
leaves thinner, 6-14 mm. long.

Collected in our State only on Kangaroo Island, near Vivonne Bay.—Eastern
States and Tasmania.

EPACRIDACEAE

Acrotriche fasciculiflora, Benth. Breakneck River, Kangaroo Island, March,
1919; Bull’s Creck, Flinders Chase, Kangaroo Island, December, 1934; J, B.
Cleland. The Kangaroo Island specimens appear to have the fruiting clusters
less numerous and the sepals more hairy than those of the mainland,

UMBELLIFERAE

Hydrocotyle comocarpa, F. v. M. Ravine des Casoars, Kangaroo Island,
December, 1934, /. B. Cleland,

BorkAGINACEAE

Halgania erecta, Ewart et Rees in Proc, Roy. Soc. Vic., ns., 23:58, t. 12
(1910).

Central Australia—On sandhills 60 miles north of Kintore Range, Central
Australia, 1938, Ben. Nicker. First record for Central Australia. The type-
specimen was collected by R. Helms in the Victoria Desert, Western Australia,
Camp 38, September, 1891.

H. solanacea, F. v. M. 60 miles north of Kintore Range, C.A., 1938
B, Nicker.

356

RUBIACEAE
Asperula euryphylla var. tetraphylia, Shaw et Turrill. Rocky River, Kan-
garoo Island; between Kingscote and Vivonne Bay, Kangaroo Island, 1924 and
1934, J. B. Cleland. Only found so far on Kangaroo Island. The type, with
6-leaved whorls, is Victorian, (Pl. xx, fig. 3.)
*Galium divaricatum, Lamk. Vivonne Bay, Kangaroo Island, December,
1934, J. B. Cleland. First record for Kangaroo Island.

CAMPANULACEAE

Wahlenbergia quadrifida (R. Br.), A. DC. Rocky River, Kangaroo Island,
December, 1934, J. B. Cleland.

W. mutticaulis, Benth. Rocky River, Kangaroo Island, December, 1934,
J.B, Cleland. Small specimens with mostly simple stems. New records for
the island.

GOODENIACEAE

Goodenia asurea, F. vy. M. About 50 miles north-east of Kintore Range,
Central Australia, 1938, B. Nicker. “Grows on stony ridges.” Also collected
35 miles north-west of Lander Creek in 1911 by G. F. Hill.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XX

Fig. 1 Lepidium kalmaturinum:—A, the plant; B, flower with two sepals removed; C, sum-
mit of fruiting branch.

Fig. 2 Cassia curvistyla:—D, flowering and fruiting branch; E, ovary and style; F, one
valve of pod.

Fig. 3) Asperula curyphylla var tetraphylla:—G, the plant: H, corolla and ovary.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1938 Vol. 62, Plate XX

1 Lepidium halmaturinum. 2 Cassia curvistyla. 3 Asperula euryphylla var. tetraphylla.

THE RADIO-ACTIVITY AND COMPOSITION OF THE WATER AND
GASES OF THE PARALANA HOT SPRING

By KERR GRANT, M.Sc.

Summary

The general and geological features of the Paralana Hot Spring, which is situated on the eastern side
of the Flinders Range about 400 miles north-east of Adelaide, have already been described in a
paper presented by Sir Douglas Mawson to the Royal Society of South Australia (Proc. Roy. Soc. of
S. Aust., 51, 391, 1927). The present paper reports only the results of observations on its radio-
activity and gaseous content. These observations were made, in the first place at the spring, by an
expedition consisting of the writer (K. G.) and Messrs. Iliffe and Thompson, members of the staff of
the physics department of Adelaide University, which visited the spring in May of this year, and,
subsequently, in the physics laboratory of Adelaide University, upon samples of gas and water
collected at the spring and brought back for further examination.

357

THE RADIO-ACTIVITY AND COMPOSITION OF THE WATER AND GASES
OF THE PARALANA HOT SPRING

By Kerr Grant, M.Sc.
[Read 13 October 1938]
Pare XXI

The general and geological features of the Paralana Hot Spring, which is
situated on the eastern side of the Flinders Range about 400 miles north-east of
Adelaide, have already been described in a paper presented by Sir Douglas
Mawson to the Royal Society of South Australia (Proc. Roy. Soc. of S. Aust., 51,
391, 1927}. The present paper reports only the results of observations on its
radio-activity and gaseous content. These observations were made, in the first
place at the spring, by an expedition consisting of the writer (IK. G.) and Messrs.
Iliffe and Thompson, members of the staff of the physics department of Adelaide
University, which visited the spring in May of this year, and, subsequently, in the
physics laboratory of Adelaide University, upon samples of gas and water
collected at the spring and brought back for further examination.

The expedition left Adelaide by car on the afternoon of Monday, 23 May,
1938, and arrived at the old and now abandoned homestead of the Paralana Sheep
Station on Thursday, 27 May. The next three days were spent in collecting
samples of gas and water from the spring, which is about 24 miles distant from
the homestead, and in making such observations as were possible on the spot with
apparatus which had been brought for that purpose. This apparatus included
two electroscopes, each mounted on an ionisation-chamber with necessary
apparatus required for measurement of the amount of radium emanation con-
tained in the spring water (vide Appendix), and a Geiger-Muller electron-tube
counter which could be used for the detection of feeble sources of radio-activity
by means of their gamma ray activity.

As described by Mawson, the gas rises in a fairly continuous stream of bubbles
from a number of points, perhaps twelve or more in all, in the sandy bottom of
the pool. These points appear to be fairly definite in location, though the escape
of gas from any one may cease for a time and resume after an interval which
may range from a few seconds to several minutes. The gas was collected in
screw-top bottles by the usual device, namely, by inverting a wide-mouthed tin
funnel under water over the point from which the stream of bubbles issues and
inserting the upward-pointing neck of the funnel into the neck of a bottle which
had been previously filled with the spring water, the bottle being also supported
in an inverted pasition, The gas-bubbles entering the bottle gradually displace
the water, and when the bottle is nearly but not quite filled with gas, it is lifted
from the funnel and the screw-top mserted without permitting the mouth of the
bottle to rise above the surface of the water. The bottle is kept and carried

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 62, (2), 23 December 1938

L

358

always in an inverted position, so that it is continually water-sealed. Even with-
out the water-seal there is no reason to think that any appreciable amount of gas
would enter or leave a bottle in which the top is screwed tightly home and, with
the water-seal, such escape is certainly impossible. These bottles had a capacity
of approximately one and one-third pints (760 c.c.) and the time taken for a
bottle to fill from a single stream of gas-bubbles was approximately half-
an-hour, though very variable. Assuming that twelve vents had this same produc-
tivity we get a daily (24-hour) output of gas of the order of twenty cubic feet
per day. It is possible, of course, that this output might be very greatly increased
by cleaning out the sand from the bottom of the pool and removing the huge rocks
which have fallen into it from the overhanging cliff. Judging by the sound of
bubbling, there was an issue of gas from a vent beneath the largest of these rocks
with an output larger than any of those in the open pools.

Radio-activity had previously been reported in the gas, though not in the
water, of the pool by Dr. C. Fenton, and confirmed by Mr. R. G. Thomas in a
sample sent by Dr. Fenton to Adelaide. The strength and character of the
radio-activity have not previously been definitely determined. Tested at the
Paralana homestead on the evening after collecting, the bottles of the gas showed
strong, those of the water much weaker but still definite radio-activity. The Geiger-
Muller tube counter was used for this first test. This instrument, which counts
the individual electrons liberated within the counting tube by gamma-radiation
passing through it, the number of these electrons liberated per second being
proportional to the strength of the gamma-rays, has always a natural or back-
ground count which has to be subtracted from the total count when a radio-
active source of gamma-rays is placed near the tube to give a figure determinative
for this latter.

This background count is due partly to the slight radio-activity always
present in the earth, in the air, and in the metal and other materials of tube and
accessory apparatus, partly to electrons liberated by cosmic rays. The count must
always be taken over a considerable interval of time in order to reduce the varia-
tions due to statistical fluctuations in the strength of the radiations. On a count
of 100 this fluctuation averages ten per cent., on 10,000 one per cent., ete. Only
when the count exceeds the background by a fraction definitely in excess of these
values can sound inference of the presence of radio-activity be made.

The background count of the counting-tube used on this trip was determined
in the physics laboratory and found to lie between 10 and 20 per minute; that
in the old Paralana homestead lay within the same range, though possibly some-
what higher than in Adelaide. ‘Lhe count at the spring itself, however, was
unmistakably higher, possibly three or four times as high. This high activity
was probably due to the continuous escape of radon from the spring and the
deposit of the products of its disintegration on the surrounding rocks, trees, etc.
When a bottle of gas from the spring was held within a foot of the counting-
tube the counts were invariably increased to a figure exceeding this background
by more than fifty per cent. The approximation of a bottle filled with the spring-

359

water to the same distance gave a smaller but still definitely significant increase
in the count. The radio-activity of the water thus put in evidence was such as
might be expected to result from radon gas (radium emanation) dissolved in the
water in consequence of the active gas bubbling through it. More accurate
measurements made next day at the spring indicated an activity in the water of
1,050 “Eran” units per litre (one “Eman” unit is 107° curie); in the gas of
7,800 “Emans” per litre.

An attempt was made to separate out any helium gas, which the spring gas
might contain, from the nitrogen and other common gases on the spot, by heating
the gas in contact with metallic calcium contained in a silica tube, a procedure
which has been successfully used for the purification of radon at the Adelaide
University. The attempt failed because it was found impossible in the open air
to heat the tube and its contained calcium with a plumber’s blow-lamp—the only
means available—to the temperature (600° C. or higher) at which it will combine
with nitrogen to form the nitride.

On return to Adelaide, Mr. ‘thompson undertook a series of systematic
measurements on the radio-activity of the gas dissolved in the water with a view
to ascertaining the rate of decay of its radio-activity, from which rate the nature
of the active constituent could be inferred. The measurements were made with
an ionisalion-chamber combined with an clectroscope, The apparatus was
standardised, in order to reduce these measurements to absolute value, by means
of solutiors prepared from standardised tubes of radium chloride solution supplied
to the writer by the Physikalische Technische Reichsanstalt, Charlottenburg,
Germany. ‘Lhe results of these measurements are as under:

Time (Day and Hour) Activity (in Arbitrary Units)
2320 - 7.6.38 - - - 262
1003 - 8.6.38 - - - 240
1402 - 8.6.38 = “ - 236
1737) - =—8.6.38 2 - - 226
1104 - 9.6.38 - - - 202
1615 - 9.6.38 - - - 185
11442) - 10.6.38 - - ~ 168

If the alpha-ray activity—which is what is measured by the method
employed-—is due only to a single species of radio-active element, then the law of
radio-active decay with time is exponential, i.c., the activity decays by the same
fraction in the same time—and the plot of the logarithm of the activity against
the time is a straight line.

As the graph of Fig. 1 shows, this relation is obeyed very closely by the
measurements here recorded. ‘he slope of this graph gives the so-called “half-
period” o/ the radio-active element in question, and this half-period as obtained
from the graph is 3°82 days, agreeing very well with the accepted value 3°825
days for radon (radium emanation). This close agreement makes it improbable
that any active element other than those belonging to the radium series occurs in

360

the spring water. Nevertheless, the extrapolation of the graph back to the time
at which the observation was made on the water at the spring would give an
activity considerably less (by over 20 per cent.) than the value actually obtained
there, and this discrepancy could conceivably be attributed to the presence of the
short-lived thorium emanation. It is much more likely, however, that it arises
merely from variability in the radon content of water drawn from different places
in the pool and at different times, and hence there is little risk in assuming that
the only active constituent of the spring water is radium emanation and that this
is present to the extent of approximately 1,000 Eman units per litre of water.

Los, Activity

8+6-38 9-638 10-6°38

TIME
Fig. 1

The graph shows the relation between the activity of the gas contained in
the water of the spring and the time. The logarithm of the activity is plotted
(on an arbitrary scale) in order to exhibit, from the strictly linear character
of the graph, the law of geometrical decay (i.e, that the activity decreases in
the same ratio in equal intervals of time) characteristic of a single species of
radio-active element. The slope of the graph indicates that the activity is
reduced to one-half (logarithm by 0-30) in 3-82 days, this value agreeing
satisfactorily with the accepted value of 3-825 days for radon gas
(radium emanation).

Although the waters of most thermal springs, in which, presumably, the water
has ascended from considerable depths, contain more or less dissolved emanation,
few contain so much as the Paralana Spring. In a list of fifty European Spa-
watcrs given by Professor Stefan Meyer in his authoritative work on Radio-
activity, there are only seven of which the radio-activity exceeds a value of
1,000 Emans per litre. This unusually high radio-activity of the Paralana Spring

361

is probably not unconnected with the fact that in the rocks of the area in which the
spring is situated there are frequent occurrences of uranium-bearing minerals.

THe NAruRE or THE SPRING GASES

No complete analysis of the gas which bubbles up through the spring appears
to have hitherto been made. The most usual constituents of gases collected from
bore waters in Australia are nitrogen, carbon-dioxide, methane, hydrogen and
oxygen, w:th the first of these usually greatly exceeding all the others.

The Department of Chemistry of the South Australian Government very
kindly undertook to make an analysis for these gases, the result of which is as
follows: Nitrogen, 88:1% ; carbon-dioxide, 11-9%.

Since, however, the inert gas, helium, commonly, and, in lesser quantity, its
congener, neon, occasionally, are found in the gases associated with thermal
springs, and since in this case the probable occurrence of helium is also indicated
by the radio-activity of the spring—tfor alpha-rays are nothing but electrically
charged helium atoms—an analysis for helium or other inert gas was undertaken
in the physics laboratory.

The problem to be solved in this analysis is to get rid of all gases other than
the inert by chemical action or absorption. After trying with very little success
three different modifications of a method involving the passage of electrical dis-
charge between electrodes of magnesium in the vessel containing the gas the
method first described by Soddy (Proc. Roy. Soc., London), viz., by heating
metallic calcium in a pyrex or silica tube was resorted to. The calcium combines
with the nitrogen at temperatures above 600° C., with the hydrogen at about 250°.
This method proved very successful, although to obtain a complete “clean-up” of
all active gases, and especially of the hydrogen, it was found advantageous to
supplement the calcium process by absorption in charcoal cooled with liquid air.

The apparatus and details of procedure employed in this analysis are more
fully described in the Appendix. After the “clean-up” was accomplished the
residual gas was forced into a small glass capillary fitted with electrodes and the
spectrum produced by an electric discharge between these examined, in the first
place usually with a direct-vision spectroscope, and subsequently by photography,
using a larger spectroscope and camera (pl, xx1).

Provided complete clean-up had been accomplished, not a single line could
be seen in the spectrum other than those characteristic of helium; with a less
perfect clean-up, hydrogen, especially the strong red line (Ha), was seen to he
present and, at a still earlier stage of the cleaning-up process, the bands of
nitrogen were also in evidence. Only on one of the many spectra examined could
any lines be seen which, though very faint, might possibly indicate the presence
of a trace of neon. If present at all in the spring gases, the percentage is less
than one-hundredth of one per cent, and such an amount might well be due to
contamination of the sample by atmospheric air.

Precise measurement of the percentage of helium was not easy because of
its very small amount—the volume extracted from 200 c.c. being little more than

362

one-tenth of a cubic centimetre. Three separate determinations made with the
gas collected in the 4-gallon iron drum gave the following values: 067, °053,
‘047, with a mean, therefore, of 0-056 per cent.

MINERAL CONTENT oF SPRING WATER
An analysis of the water for its mineral content has been made by the Assay Depart-
ment of the School of Mines. The results are as given in the table, in which, for the
sake of comparison, the figures given for the analysis reported in Mawson’s paper are

also given.
Grains per Gallon

(Present) Mawson (1927)

Chlorine, Cl... ner ae ens ches 23°26 22-83
Sulphuric acid (radicle), SO* Le ais 10-41 10°67
Carbonic acid (radicle), CO* 3h ay 9-90 9-30
Nitric acid (radicle), NO* .... he! tr nil —
Sodium, Na ait we me ie vat 19-44 21-50
Potassium, K_.... ne aes us ae 2-14 2°35
Calcium, Ca... Mes 4 we ne 3-43 3+29
Magnesium, Mg is. or. oh aw 1-59 +19
Silica, SiO? ds hie tte ae ree 4-60 5-60
Total saline matter, grains per gallon _.... 74°77 75°73

“s " » ounces per gallon... 0-17 0-17

Tt will be seen that the only significant difference in the two analyses is in respect of the
magnesium, and even this is little more than one grain in the gallon.

Since the above analysis was confined to salts of the alkali and alkaline earth metals
and small quantities of the heavy metal might possibly have been present—though
improbably, because the presence of hydrogen sulphide which would have precipitated
these as sulphides was perceptible by its odour—I asked Dr, Allan Walkley, of the Waite
Institute, who has recently been using the “Polarograph” method of detecting zinc,
copper, and other heavy metals in solution, if he would be so good as to examine the
Paralana water by this method, This he has done and his report on the analysis is as
follows:

“Residue on evaporation oe se 0-1
Chlorides sh ate sty ve 0-03%
pH (glass electrode) ies Ny 6°8
Copper, zinc, nickel, cobalt, iron and

manganese —— less than 1 p.p.m.
Bismuth, lead cadmium — less than 3 p.p.m.
The brown precipitate present in the original sample was not examined.
The average figures for the heavy metals in 3 Bohemian spas, Marienbad,
Karlsbad and Joachimsthal are, in Y per litre.

Cu Bi Pb Zn Ni

0-2-30 0-2-0°6 0-1-1 0-7-65 0-02-8,”

It will be seen that Dr. Walkley’s determination of the total solid dissolved, wiz.,
0-1. per cent., agrees perfectly with that made in the assay department of the School of
Mines, and that the total amount of all heavy metals from jron and zine onwards amounts
to less than four parts per million, a practically negligible content.

The temperature of the water in the spring pool was given by Mawson as 144° F.
Numerous measurements made at different places in the spring by the present party
gave valucs as a rule much below this figure, but varying from place to place, and

363

especially with the depth to which the thermometer bulb was immersed in the water or
underlying sand, The highest temperature (140° F.) was recorded in the sand beneath
the large overhanging rock underneath which the outflow of water and gas seemed to be
greatest.

The depth of sand in and surrounding the open pool and the dense growth of
bulrushes in the creek below it rendered quite hopeless the intention af measuring the
amount of water issuing. Our opinion was that the amount issuing in the open pool
was today probably much less than the figure given by Mawson, vis., 1,000 gallons per
hour, The apparent diminution may well be duc to the decrease in size of the open pool
which Mawson gives as 20 yards but which is now not more than 5, so that the majority
of the vents and fissures in the bed-rock by which water and gas issued in 1927 are today
covered by sand and debris.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The expenses of the expedition to Paralana were met by the Paralana ITot Spring
Syndicate, Melbourne.

I also acknowledge the valuable assistance I have received from Messrs. M. Iliffe
and A. H. Thompson, members of my staff; Mr. H. R. Oliphant, technician of the
Physics Department; also Mr. Dalwood, chief assayer at the School of Mines; Mr.
Chapman, Government Analyst; and Dr. Walkley, of the Waite Institute, for assistance
given in making analyses of the gas and water.

Lastly, I tender my warmest thanks to Mr. and Mrs. J. Goss, of Wooltana Station,
who offered generous hospitality to the party on their journey to Paralana,

APPENDIX

Metiuop AXpd Resu.ts or MEASUREMENT or RADIO-ACTIVITY OF
Sprinc WATER AND GAS

The a-ray activity of samples of water and gas from the spring were measured with
an ionization chamber and gould leaf electroscope.

APPARATUS

A

if
if

; I

i 364

The electroscope A consists of a small brass cylinder, the gold leaf being attached
to a polished brass support projecting into the interior of the cylinder and insulated from
it by a sulphur bushing, The ends of the cylinder are provided with two small glass
windows for observation. The electroscope is supported immediately above the ionization
chamber B, a large well-sealed tin having a central rod insulated from it by a sulphur
bushing and provided with two side tubes for the circulation of gas through the chamber.
C is a calcium chloride drying tube, D a glass “bubbler” and E a rubber bulb provided
with valves allowing gas to pass in one direction only.

PROCEDURE

100 c.c.s of the spring water were introduced into D and the air in the chamber
circulated through the apparatus—bubbling through the water sample. This circulation
was continued for some minutes and a reading of the a-ray activity taken with the
electroscope, This procedure was repeated over a period of an hour or more, until the
electroscope gave a constant reading indicating that the system had reached equilibrium.
The rate of discharge of the electroscope was determined as follows: The gold leaf was
observed with a telescope having a micrometer eye-piece with a scale 100 divisions in
length. A suitable positive voltage (180 volts) was placed on the gold leaf which is
connected to the rod of the ionization chamber, the case of the electroscope being con-
nected to the chamber and the negative terminal of the H.T. battery. The telescope was
then adjusted so that one edge of the gold leaf was just beyond one end of the scale, The
battery connection to the rod was broken and the time for the gold leaf to traverse the
scale determined with a stop-watch.

The gas from the spring was measured in the same way, 100 c.c. being introduced
into D by displacement of water, D being inverted and the stopper with each outlet tube
closed by a piece of rubber tubing and a clip inserted under water.

STANDARDIZATION OF ELECTROSCOPE
A standard solution containing 4-00 x 10° grms, radium was prepared and intro-
duced in a flask similar to D. The side tubes were sealed and the flask left for at least
seven days to ensure that the radio-active disintegration had reached equilibrium. The
flask was inserted in place of D and the a-ray activity measured as before,

CORRECTIONS

Although the ionization chamber was large compared with the rest of the apparatus
it does not contain all the gas, and the volumes of the variotts components must be
measured in order to find what fraction the ionization chamber represents. The volume
of water is equivalent to an amount of air equal to its volume x the solubility of the
radio-active gas at the temperature at which the readings were taken. The gas was
shown to be radon (see below), and its solubility was obtained from tables.

Since the ionization chamber represented 93% of the total volume and the volume
of the rest of the apparatus varied only slightly, this correction reduces to a constant’
multiplier (variation <1%), and may be neglected in the calculations for relative
activities.

The electroscope readings have to be corrected for natural leak, #.¢., the rate of dis-
charge of the electroscope in the absence of radio-active material, Since this was at least
several hours and the normal reading at most a few minutes, this correction is quite small
and can be measured accurately.

The electroscope was tested for linearity, i.c., as to whether the time of discharge
was proportional to the radio-activity as follows. Readings were taken on a 10 mgm.
and 1 mgm. standard radium tube, placed in exactly the same position some two feet from
the chamber. After correcting for natural leak, these indicated a departure from linearity

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1938 Vol. 62, Plate XXI

Pp
is
3
Y
bos
a
a
a
=
I
a
vo
a

¢— Purified Gas
le— Hydrogen

He. 6678 —
H. 6563 a

strong
due to
to residual

fin
o's
Do
ae
nm &
wa

He 5875 i.

He. 5169-90 —

ystem,

Hg. 5461 —-

He 5015 —_

shows the spectr

365

of <4%. These readings covered a range at least four times that of the measurements
of radio-activity, so that an error of <1% could be expected from the lack of linearity.
All readings of the rate of discharge could be obtained to within 1%.

Standardizations with two separate standard solutions agreed to about 79%, and con-
stitute the main source of error. (Maximum error, < 10%.)

RESULTS
Time of discharge of electroscope for 100 c.c.’s of spring water:
86
84 ) Mean, 85 secs.
85 \
8
Time of discharge of electroscope for 100 c.c.’s of gas:
11:3
11-2
11:5 Mean, 11-4 secs.
11-4
11-5
CALIBRATION
Time of discharge of electroscope for 4-00 x 10° (M.M.) gms. Ra.
1 3 mins. 46 secs. Natural leak, 30 divs./hour.
BE, ode 5
Sraphis ge 47! Bs,
Average (after correction for natural leak), 3 mins, 51 secs.
II 3 mins. 30 secs. Natural leak, 25 divs./hour.
Be Fe NEO,

Average (after correction for natural leak), 3 mins. 35 secs.
Mean time of discharge for 4-00 x 10° (M.M.) gms. Ra = 3 mins. 43 secs.

= 223 sec.
ic. Radio-activity of the water is equivalent to—
4-00 x 223 x 10° = 10-5 x 10° [gms. Ra]/litre.
85

= 1050 Emans/litre.
Radio-activity of the gas is equivalent to—
4:00 x 223 x 10 = 78 x 10° gms, Ra/litre.

11-4 = 7,800 Emans/litre.

Thus a solubility of about 13% of the gas in the spring water would account for all of
the radio-activity of the water. -13 is the solubility of radon in water at 60° C.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XX1
The photograph shows the spectrum of the purified gas from the spring (central),
with comparison spectra of helium plus mercury (top) and hydrogen (below).
The most prominent lines in the Paralana gas spectrum are those of helium (notably
6563 AU. and 5875 A.U.). The hydrogen lines (notably the strong red line
6563 A.U.) are also present. The mercury lines fie., 5461 AU. and 5769-90 A.U.)
are duc to the mercury present in the collecting tube. There is also a faint band
system, probably due to residual nitrogen. There is no trace of the neon spectrum.

SOME RECENT VOLCANIC DEPOSITS AND VOLCANIC SOILS FROM
THE ISLAND OF NEW BRITAIN IN THE TERRITORY OF NEW GUINEA

By J. S. HOSKING, Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Adelaide, South Australia

Summary

A suite of volcanic deposits resulting from the recent eruptions at Rabaul, the capital of the
Territory of New Guinea, together with a series of soils developed upon similar parent materials,
from the Island of New Britain, has been examined.

All the samples examined fall within a characteristic grouping with respect to the mechanical
composition of the mineral fraction.

While the recent deposits may contain up to 5 per cent. of soluble salts, the soils, despite their
possible proximity to continuous solfataric or fumarole activity are particularly free from salt owing
to the intense leaching effects prevailing under the heavy rainfall conditions.

The deposits and soils vary from slightly acid to neutral in reaction, and the latter are notable for
their natural fertility.

366

SOME RECENT VOLCANIC DEPOSITS AND VOLCANIC SOILS
FROM THE ISLAND OF NEW BRITAIN IN THE TERRITORY OF
NEW GUINEA

By J. S. Hosxina,
Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Adelaide, South Australia

[Read 13 October 1938]

SUMMARY

A suite of volcanic deposits resulting from the recent eruptions at Rabaul,
the capital of the Territory of New Guinea, together with a series of soils
developed upon similar parent materials, from the Island of New Britain, has
been examined.

All the samples examined fall within a characteristic grouping with respect
to the mechanical composition of the mineral fraction.

While the recent deposits may contain up to 5 per cent. of soluble salts, the
soils, despite their possible proximity to continuous solfataric or fumarole activity
are particularly free from salt owing to the intense leaching effects prevailing
under the heavy rainfall conditions.

The deposits and soils vary from slightly acid to neutral in reaction, and the
latter are notable for their natural fertility.

INTRODUCTION

New Britain, the largest of the islands of the Mandated Territory of New
Guinea, is a long crescent-shaped island about 300 miles long and averaging about
60 miles wide lying about 4° to 6° south of, and roughly parallel to, the equator.
With the exceptions of the Gazelle and Willaumez Peninsulas the Island is little
known and remains practically unexplored, since, apart from the low-lying
coastal regions, it is mostly mountainous and heavily forested. Alienated land
seldom extends for more than 10 miles inland from the coast, and the greater
part of the settlements occur on the low coastal strip extending between the aforc-
mentioned peninsulas.

A considerable proportion of the cultivable soils of the island of New Britain
is of volcanic origin, and a number of these soils have been received from time
to time for examination in this laboratory from the Department of Agriculture
of New Guinea.

The recent eruptions in the neighbourhood of Rabaul towards the end of
May, 1937, permitted of fresh volcanic material being collected by the Department
for comparison with the soils derived from similar materials.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 62, (2), 23 December 1938

367

The soils received have been from Talasea on the Willaumez Peninsula, and
from Rabaul and Kokopo on the Gazelle Peninsula, The volcanic deposits were
all from Rabaul from the two craters of Vulcan Island and Matupi Island in
Blanche Bay, on which the harbour of Rabaul is situated.

The rainfall at Talasea is 171 inches, of which 78% falls in the summer six
months, while at Rabaul it is 88 inches and at Kokopo it is 86 inches, with
summer proportions of 71% and 63%, respectively. At no time of the year are
drought conditions likely to prevail, and leaching of the soil may be expected to
be active during at least six months of the year.

The staple industry of the island is the cultivation of coconuts and the manu-
facture of such coconut products as copra, desiccated coconuts and coir fibre.
Apart from the establishment of a small coffee industry and the successful grow-
ing of kapec, little has been done in the cultivation of other crops. The Depart-
ment of Agriculture is, however, investigating the possibilities of growing cocoa,
tobacco, cinchona, peanuts and other tropical crops.

Reference may be made to the report of Stanley (1922) for an account of
the geology and vulcanology of the island.

DESCRIPTION OF THE RECENT DEPOSITS

Seven samples of the recent deposits were collected from in and around
Rabaul shortly after the recent eruption, hey represented two samples of dust,
one of which had been protected from rain, from Vulcan Island; four samples
of mud and ash, two of which were hardened or compacted, while a third had been
considerably washed and sorted by the action of torrential rains, from Matupi
crater; and finally a composite sample of the total depth of deposit at Rabaul.

The deposits are fairly uniform in colour; those from Vulcan Island being
of a grey-white shade, while those from Matupi are somewhat darker and vary
from slate-grey to grey-black.

They are extremely light and floury, being composed mainly of particles of
the dimensions of fine sand and silt. From their mechanical analysis they appear
to vary in texture from sandy loams to loams bordering on clay loams. The dust
deposits from Vulcan Island and the washed and sorted material fall within the
former class, while the hardened mud and compacted ash from Matupi belong
to the fatter class; a mud layer from Matupi is intermediate in texture. From
their general physical reactions and a comparison with similar deposits from New
Zealand, however, they may more correctly be described as silty loams and
silty clays.

Only in the sorted sample is there any appreciable concentration of pumiceous
gravel and coarse sand; all the samples are, however, highly abrasive.

Analytical data for the deposits are given in Table I.

368

Taste I
Analyses of Volcanic Deposits and Soils from Rabaul and Kekopo

An Air Dry Sample

Carbon to
Depth of Nitro-
Sample Stone Organic gen
Sample in in Nitrogen Carbon Ratio P,O, K,O Silt Clay Reaction
Deposit or Soil No. Inches Sample

% % % (N=1) % % %e % pH
Volcanic dust sin 5202 2 0 — 0.06 _ 0.11 0.17 28.1 4.7 7.3
Volcanic dust ws. ane 5204 2 0 — — — 0.11 0.10 29.0 4.6 7.7
Volcanic dust and mud 5205 6 0 — _ — o.11 0.26 30.7 8.5 §.1
Volcanic mud a. a 5203 4 0 — 0.06 _ 0.11 0.40 29.5 9.6 5.0
Volcanic mud. 5206 — 0 _ 0.06 —_ 0.13 0.48 30.8 21.0 7.1
Volcanic ash wuts, vahie 5207 — 0 — _ _— 0,13 0,50 23.5 16.5 $.8
Volcanic mud & ash (1) 5208 4 8 — — _ 0.11 0.06 26.1 4.8 7.9

Soils from Rabaul... 4796 0-9 0 0.66 10.38 15.8 0.31 0.17 24.5 14.0 5.8
4797 9-21 0 0.15 1.58 10.5 0.10 0.19 23.9 9.9 5.8
4798 21-33 0 0.02 0.23 10.5 -— — 34.0 9.1 6.3
4799 48 0 0.01 0,12 10.5 0.06 0.32 42.4 6.7 6.6
4800 0-10 0 0.59 7.31 12.4 0.27 0.18 27.5 16.0 6.4
4801 10~20 0 0.09 0.89 10.3 0.10 0.27 33.9 11.8 5.9
4802 20-32 Q 0.01 0.09 10.0 — = 35.7 8.2 6.6
4803 48 20.0 0.01 0.11 10.0 0.06 0.26 23.3 3.7 6.9
Soils from Kokopo .... 5382 0~12 oe 0.42 4.37 10.5 0.21 0.26 30.1 28.9 6.9
5383 12-24 _ 0.20 2.11 10.5 0.10 0.27 33.0 21.2 6.9
5384 24-42 _ 0.08 0.91 10.8 0.03 0.14 26.4 22.3 6.9
5385 0-12 - 0.36 3.81 10.6 0.21 0.35 29.3 22.7 7.1
5386 12-24 _ 0.08 0.78 10.2 @.15 0.34 25.0 11.0 7.0
5387 24-36 3.4 0.03 0.27 10.20 — — 16.2 4.8 7.4

5388 36-42 2.4 0.01 0.08 10.6 0.13 0.28 14.3 5.8 7.4

GQ) Washed and sorted by thunderstorms.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SOILS

Thirty-nine soil samples, representing two profiles from the vicinity of
Rabaul, two profiles from the subdistrict of Kokopo, and five profiles from the
district of Talasea, have been investigated, and the analytical data are given in
Tables I and II. Apart from the Rabaul profiles, one of which is from under
virgin forest and the other from under a Kunai grass cover, the soils have been
taken from plantations either under or cleared for cultivation.

The soils have developed on geologically recent deposits consisting of
volcanic showers of ash and mud and andesitic, rhyolitic or pumiccous sand, and
despite the high leaching effect of the rainfall are still extremely immature in
their development. From an examination of the stone within the profiles and
from a consideration of the mechanical analyses of the soils, it is apparent that
a number of showers have been deposited one on top of the other in each of the
areas. At least three distinct layers, in which the material varies from distinctly
pumiceous to andesitic or rhyolitic in character, are to be observed in the profiles
from Talasea. In the profiles from Rabaul and Kokopo, the layering is by no
means as definite, but, nevertheless, apparent. The pumiceous type of parent
material dominates the soils from Rabaul and Kokopo while the vitreous andesitic

369

Taste II
Analyses of Volcanic Soils from Talasea

On Air Dry Soil

Depth of Carbon to
Sample Stone Nitro-
Sample in in gen P,O, K,O Silt Clay Reaction
Locality No. Inches SampleNitrogen Carbon Ratio
% % % (N=1) % % % % pH
Site: Da. cee) es 5065 a-12 0.0 0.51 §.20 10.1 0.33 0.18 18.9 24.5 6.6
5066 12-24 5.3 0.04 0.41 98 0.09 0.31 15.9 4.1 6.8
5067 24-36 30.1 0.00 0.04 10.0 _ _ 6.2 1.7 7.1
5068 36-48 24.2 — — _— —_ —_ _ _ 7.3
5069 48-72 19.3 —_ _ _ 2 “Tt ese _— 7.2
ea a 5074 0-12 0.0 9.32 3.34 10.3 0.26 0.13 17.5 13.2 6.4
5075 12-24 §.2 0.05 0.50 10.2 0.14 0.18 18.5 20.7 6.8
5076 24-48 2.6 0.00 0.06 10.0 = ae — —— 6.8
5077 48-72 10.2 — —_ _ — _ _ = 6.9
Gite: 3- cvs ana ee 5078 0-6 0.0 0.47 4.94 10.5 0.31 0.15 18.2 25.1 6.2
5079 6-12 1.4 0.15 1.53 10.0 0.16 0.15 19.3 36.0 6.6
5080 12-24 5.8 0.06 0.60 10.0 0.19 0.23 18.6 33.1 6.7
$081 24-36 29.3 0.01 0.08 10.0 —_ — 6.5 2.1 6.2
5082 36-48 18.1 _ — _ 0.07 0.16 3.5 1.1 6.7
5083 48-72 18.2 0.01 0.06 10.0 —_ —_ 3.8 2.4 6.8
Site 4 wn. ce tee 5088 0-12 2.3 0.28 2.76 9.9 0.17 0.11 19.1 19.5 6.6
5089 12-24 8.3 0.12 1.26 10.6 0.11 0.13 16.0 8.8 6.5
5090 24-36 15.2 0.01 0.10 10.0 _— — 2.1 1.4 6.5
5091 36-48 28.3 _ _ — = am = a“ 7.0
5092 48-60 12.5 0.00 0.03 10.0 —_ — _ — 6.9
Site Snes ate 5097 0-6 0.0 0.53 5.73 10.8 0.18 0.14 18.4 17.1 6.9
5098 6-24 1.9 0.06 0.64 10.7 — — 19.8 18.2 6.7
5099 24-48 8.2 0.02 0.24 10.8 6.08 0.13 9.0 3.8 6.5
5100 48-72 0.0 0.01 0.12 10.8 _ _— 14.8 7.0 6.9

or rhyolitic types are more pronounced, particularly in the lower layers, from
Talasea; gravel and stone are a very characteristic feature of the latter profiles.

The soils from the two centres, while showing little variation in their
chemical characteristics, show some marked differences in their physical and
mechanical composition, and the general profile from each district is best described
separately.

The profiles from Rabaul and Kokopo (see fig. 1) consist of from 9 to
12 inches of a dark grey-brown (black under virgin conditions) light clay to clay

Black to dark grey-brown or grey- —-9” Light clay to clay loam, rich in
brown 12” organic matter
Light grey-brown to yellow-brown [—18” Clay loam to loam
24”
Grey-yellow, grey or grey-white Loam, sandy loam, or sand
4a" +
Fig. 1

Soil Profile from Rabaul or Kokopo

370

loam surface layer, rich in organic matter, overlying a light grey-brown to yellow-
brown clay loam to loam to a depth of 18 to 24 inches. Below 24 inches the
colour varies somewhat from grey-yellow to almost white, the lightening in colour
becoming more pronounced with depth, and the texture is more definitely sandy.
There is only a small concentration of pumiceous stone in the profile, although
it may become somewhat pronounced in the lower and more sandy layers.

Layering is a much more definite characteristic of the soils examined from
Talasea ; there is a very definite break from the loamy textured layers to extremely
coarse sands at about 24 inches. ‘he soil profile, which is illustrated in figure 2,
consists of a 12-inch surface layer of very dark brown to grey-yellow-brown clay

Clay loam to loam, rich in organic

Very dark brown to brown —_____ 12” matter
Grisaydlid to elton iris clay to clay loam or sandy
" oam
24
Sand
Grey-yellow to yellow
36”
Yellow to grey-white (specked) Sand
72" 4.
Fig. 2

Soil Profile from Talasea

loam to loam, rich in organic matter, overlying a light brown to grey-yellow,
medium clay to sandy loam. Below 24 inches the soil consists of extremely sandy
deposits of volcanic ejectamenta, somewhat variable in colour although a yellow
shade, increasing in intensity with depth, predominates.

While the surface layer of the soils to a depth of about 12 inches is practi-
cally free from stone, about 6%, principally pumiceous, occurs in the second foot.
Pumiccous and other stones reach a maximum concentration (up to 30%) in the
third or fourth foot, where lumps of pumice, up to several inches in diameter,
may be found. Below 36 inches the lumps of pumice decrease in size and
amount, and their place is taken by less scoreaceous and smaller fragments
of more vitreous material. In the lower layers these latter fragments together
with glassy material and large grains of heavy minerals are present, to the virtual
exclusion of pumice within the gravel fraction.

Like the fresh deposits all these volcanic soils, apart from the most sandy
samples, have a distinctly silty feel and may similarly be described as silty clays
and silty loams.

371

MECHANICAL COMPOSITION
The samples of both the volcanic deposits and the soils have been mechani-

cally analysed, and while the individual figures for clay and silt are given in
Tables I ard II, the complete results are summarised in Tables III and IV.

TABLE II]
Mechanical Analyses of Deposits resulting from the Volcanic Eruption
at Rataul in May, 1937. (The figures have been recalculated to the
basis, Sand + Silt + Clay = 100%)

Fine Sand
Very Fine
Sand,
0.2 mm. 0.04 mm.
Crater Sample Coarse to to
Source No. Sand 0.04 mm. 0.02 mm. Silt Clay
Jo Ge Go Ge Go
Vulcan Island ... 5202 8 25 34 28 5
Vulcan Island .... 5204 13 21 32 29 5
Composite ... ... 5205 7 21 31 32 9
Matupi ae 5203 5 22 30 32 il
Matupi Primes 5207 15 19 22 26 18
Matupi ue = 5206 3 14 27 33 23
Matupi ye Be 5208. 33 15 21 26 5
Taste ITV

Average Mechanical Analyses of Soils formed on Volcanic Deposits. (The
figures have been recalculated to the basis, Sand + Silt + Clay = 100%)

Fine Sand

Very Fine
Sand
0.2 mm. 0.04 mm.
Depth in Coarse to to
Locality Inches Sand 0.04 mm. 0.02 mm. Silt Clay

Rabaul and 0-12 5 9 21 38 27
Kekopo ...0 12-24 14 14 24 33 15
24-36 18 16 25 30 Il
> 36 23 19 25 28 5
Talasea oe 0-12 14 17 18 24 27
12-24 24 17 16 22 21
24-36 65 20 7 6 2
> 36 78 13 3 4 2

The major characteristic is seen to be a high very fine sand plus silt content,
which amounts to from 50% to 60% in the deposits and soils from Rabaul and
Kokope. The change in the sandiness of the soils with depth reflects the nature

372

of the deposition of the parent materials; the coarser deposits having settled first
and being covered in turn by medium and finer-grained materials.

In figure 3 the mechanical analyses of the samples have been plotted on a
distribution triangle. In addition the area of the triangle within which the compo-
sition of soils developed on similar parent materials from Mount Gambier in
South Australia‘) and from New Zealand (Grange et. al. 1932) may be found,
has been shown for comparison. All the deposits and soils fall into a charac-
teristic grouping with respect to the mechanical composition of the mineral

CLAY

o-12" @ Rabaul
12-24" @
R4-36" ©
>36" Oo
Hecent Depostis +

DeO8

SILT % SAND

Fig. 3
Triangular diagram illustrating the mechanical analyses of the
volcanic deposits and soils from the Island of New Britain.
Shaded areas represent those within which soils from South
Australia and New Zealand formed on similar parent materials
occur. Vertical shading—pumiceous and rhyolitic types. Hori-
zontal shading—andesitic and basaltic types.

fraction, with those of an essentially pumiceous or rhyolitic origin showing
a definitely more pronounced silt content in relation to the clay, than those of a
more basic, andesitic or basaltic, origin. The pumiceous nature of the deposits
from the Vulcan Island crater and soils from Rabaul and Kokopo and the more
basic nature of the soils from alasea are indicated by their position in the
triangle. There is a very much more marked scatter in the case of the former
than the latter soils which lie practically on a continuous curve.

(2) From the Waite Institute records.

373

A more detailed analysis, by sieving of the sand fractions, was carried out
for a number of the samples and the summation curves and probable frequency
distribution curves derived therefrom, down to the lower limit of the silt fraction,
are shown in figure 4. A maximum concentration of particles with a grain size
around the fine sand-silt limit is characteristic of all the samples, and most pro-
nounced in the deposits and soils from Rabaul. Further maxima, within the fine

100

454 254 054 254 454 254 O54 254 454 254 054 254
LOG SETTLING VELOCITY

Fig. 4
Summation curves of the mechanical analyses and the probable
frequency distribution curves derived therefrom, to the upper limit
of the clay fraction, of typical samples of the volcanic deposits and
soils from New Britain; ten intervals are allowed to each of the three
fractions silt, fine sand and coarse sand in the latter curves. The high
frequency of particles around the silt-fine sand limit is to be nated,

374

sand fraction, and just above the lower limit of the coarse sand in the sandy sub-
soil layers, are also prominent,

In Table V the mean values for certain physical properties as determined
by the method of Keen and Raczkowski (1921) are given. The low values for
the weight per unit volume (apparent specific gravity) of the surface soils, and
dust samples from Vulcan Island, emphasise their powdery nature, while the high
values for the water-holding capacity of the pumiceous samples are indicative of
their extreme porosity.

TABLE V
Some Physical Properties of the recent Volcanic Deposits and Volcanic Soils

Total Volume
Weight of Water Expansion
Deposit or Soil Depth in Organic Unit Holding oO
Inches Clay Matter Volume Capacity 100 ces.
. Ye To % %
Vulean Island Deposits |... = 5 0-1 1-1] 51-3 1-6
Matupi Deposit so A — 16 0-1 1-22 44-7 0-0
Matupi Deposit —.... ae — 5 0-1 1-23 47-1 8-8
Soils from Rabaul and 0-12 20 11-1 0-82 115-4 22:2
Kokopo _.... oh an 12-24 13 2:3 0-9] 93-0 17-4
> 24 9 0-5 1-07 65-0 15-0
Soils from Talasea .... a 0-12 21 7-0 0-94 97-7 22-2
> 24 2 0-1 1-07 43-2 12:2
* 7 0-2 14-2

0-76 107-8

* Sample 5100 extremely soft hydrated pumiceous material.

The very low to negligible volume expansion of the recent deposits shows
that the fraction determined as clay represents in reality the final stage in
mechanical disintegration of the original material rather than a final stage in
chemical weathering, and should strictly speaking be included with the. silt.
Following the operation of soil-forming processes, however, true mineralogical
clay species, with the normal property of swelling, are formed.

CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

The deposits and soils have been examined by the usual standard methods
of chemical analysis, and the values, for the various constituents determined, are
given tn detail in Tables 1 and 11 and summarised in further tables of the text.

SOLUBLE SALTS

The recent deposits were examined for soluble salts by extracting 200 gms.
with one hitre of distilled water. Owing, however, to the approximate saturation
of the aqueous solutions obtained from the deposits containing the larger amounts
of calcium sulphate, it was necessary to determine the total calcium sulphate by
extraction with standard hydrochloric acid. The results are given in Table VI.

375

TABLE VI

Analyses of Soluble Salts in the Volcanic Deposits from the
Eruption at Rabaul in May, 1937

Source of Deposit Vulean Island Both Matupi Crater
Crater Craters
Dust
Pro- Dust Composite Washed and
Nature of Deposit tected Under- Sample Mud Hard. Com- Sorted by
from lying of Dust Overly- ened pacted Thunder
Rain 5203 and Mud = ing5204 Mud Ash Storms
Sample Number... = 55202, 5204 5205 5203 5206 5207 5208
Ions ... %o Go Ge Go Ge % 9o
Calcium Bc sail waa 0-22 Q+15 0°97 1-18 1-01 1:21 0-009
Magnesium .... ah we 0°03 0°03 0-07 0-09 0-04 0-15 0-001
Sodium sa wid iste 0-22 0-17 0-25 0-32 0-08 0-28 0-018
Potassium... ob Ane 0-02 0-02 0-03 0-04 0-03 0-05 0-006
Manganese... i su 0-001 6-002 0-005 0-006 0-004 0-013 0-000
Sulphate bas rd ve 0-42 0-35 2-14 2-70 2:22 3:12 0-020
Chloride wale fing ae O46 0-34 0-49 0-69 0-13 0-49 0-035
Carbonate... tees vee 0-001 6-000 0-000 0-000 0-001 0-000 0-001
Total _ 1:37 1-06 3-96 5°03 3-52 5°31 0-090

Salts expressed as:

Gypsum—-

CaSOuw2H20 a we O75 (63 3-83 4°83 3-97 5-59 0-036

(Ca, Mg, Mn) Ch6H2O .... 0-23 0-16 0-50 0-50 0-42 0-67 0-007
Sodium Chioride—

(Na,K) Cl bikes Avs 0-60 ()-47 0-70 0-89 0:26 0-81 0-058
Reaction mA .. pH 73 7:7 5-1 5-0 7-1 5-8 7°9

The salt content is seen to vary from 4% to 5% in the more acid deposits,
to about 1 % in the slightly alkaline Matupi mud layer. The rapidity with which
the salts may be leached from the deposits is indicated by the very low content,
less than 0°19, in the sample which has been subjected to the action of water.

Calcium sulphate (gypsum) and sodium chloride constitute the bulk of the
soluble salts, although potassium and magnesium salts are also present. While
the calcium sulphate is a natural result of the fumarole action during volcanic
activity, the high content of sodium chloride is undoubtedly due to contamination
with sea-water. At the bottom of Table VII the ionic concentrations are expressed
in terms of the probable salt species present.

Despite the close proximity of solfataric and fumarole action the soils are
particularly free from salts, due to the intense leaching under the prevalent heavy
rainfall conditions.

376

REACTION
The reaction of the samples was determined by means of the glass electrode,
using a ratio of sample to water of 1 to 5, and the results are summarised in
Table VII.
TABLE VII
Distribution Table for the Reaction of the Volcanic Deposits and Soils
from the Districts of Rabaul and Talasea

Depth of Reaction Value pH Variation
Soilin 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7 5

Inches to to to to to to Mean Max. Min.
5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 pH pH pH
Deposits .... 7 — 2 1 — as 2 2 66 7°9 5-0
Soils ot ted 0-12 — 1 3 4 1 — 6:6 71 5-8
12-24 — 1 1 6 1 — 66 7°0 5-8
24-36 — — 2 2 2 —~ 6:7 7-4 62
36-48 — — 1 5 3 — 6:9 774 6°5
48-72 4 1 — 7-0 7°2 6:8

Despite the presence of sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide in the gaseous
emanations during the volcanic activity the deposits contain no free acid, but it
may be observed that the deposits containing the larger proportions of calcium
sulphate show a slightly acid reaction. With a removal of the salts there is a
change to slight alkalinity.

The soils themselves all show slightly acid to neutral reactions. There is
little more than 1 pH unit variation from profile to profile, and within the indi-
vidual profiles there is generally a change from slight acidity in the surface layers
to neutrality or faint alkalinity at the lower depths.

NirrRocen, ORGANIC CARBON AND ORGANIC MATTER
The mean values and range for the nitrogen and carbon contents and the
carbon !o nitrogen ratio for the various soil layers are given in Table VIII.

Taste VIII

Mean Value and Range for Nitrogen and Organic Carbon Contents and
Carbon to Nitrogen Ratio in the Volcanic Soils from Rabaul and Talasea

Depth of

Number Nitrogen “Carbon : Carbon : Nitrogen
Soil in fo) 2 (C) (N = 1)
Inches Samples Mean Max. Min. Mean Max. Min. Mean Max. Min.
Yo Jo Jo Ye Go Yo

0-12 9 0-443 0-660 0-277 5-13 10-38 2°76 11-2 15-8 9-9
12-24 9 0-094 0-200 0-042 0-97 2-11 O-41 10-3 10-7 9-8
24-36 9 0-021 0-078 0-004 0-22 0-91 0-04 10-3 10-8 10-0
> 36 6 0-008 0-012 0-003 0-09 0-12 0:03 10-3 10-8 10:0

The soils are particularly well supplied with organic matter down to a depth
of from 12 to 24 inches, but below the surface the content falls off markedly and
progressively in descending the profile.

A remarkable uniformity in the value of the carbon to nitrogen ratio through-
out the whole range of soils is to be observed. Only in the two surface samples

377

from Rabaul, where ratios of 15-8 and 12°4 are found, does the ratio vary more
than about 0°5 unit from a mean value of 10-3.

A small proportion of organic matter, about 0°1%, derived no doubt from
contact with the atmosphere, is present in the volcanic deposits.

PHosPuoric Acip AND POTASH
TaBLe IX
Mean Value and Range of Acid Soluble Phosphoric Acid and Potash in
the Volcanic Deposits and Soils from Rabaul and Talasea

Depth of Number Phosphoric Acid Potash
Soil in of (P,0,) (KO)
Inches Samples

Mean Max. Min. Mean Max. Min.

Jo Fe fo Ga %e %

Deposits a wa — 7 O12 QO-13 Q-11 0-28 0:50 0:06
Soils... iss wae 0-12 9 0-23. 0-33 0-17 0-19 0-35 11
12-24 8 0-11 09 0:24 +34 13
> 24 6 0:07) 0-13 0-03 0:22 0-32 13

The contents of both phosphoric acid and potash, as determined in the
standard hydrochloric acid extract (see Table 1X), are very satisfactory from
the point of view of plant nutrition.

The deposits and subsoil samples show a fairly uniform content of phos-
phoric acid, about 0-1%. In the surface soil samples the content is much higher
and the excess amount, over and above that extracted from the recent deposits,
appears to bear a close relationship to the organic matter content.

Some variation is seen to occur in the content of potash, not only of the soils
but also of the deposits, which in general show somewhat higher concentrations
than the former. Within the soil profiles there is no general variation with depth,
a similar range in the content of potash being experienced in each layer.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to express his thanks to Mr. G. H. Murray, Director of
Agriculture, New Guinea, for his permission to publish the results of the analyses
of these deposits and soils, which were sent officially from the Department of
Agriculture to the Division of Soils; and also to Mr. B. G. Challis, an officer of
the Department, for detailed information regarding the recent eruption.

REFERENCES TO LITERATURE
GRaAncE, T.. I., Taytor, N. H., Rica, T., and Honason, L. 1932 N.Z. Dept.
Sei. Ind. Res., Bull. 32, pt. si
Keen, B. A., and Raczxowsxi, H. 1921 J. Agr. Sci., 11, 441-449
STANLEY, E. R. 1922 Report to the League of Nations on the Administration

ot the Territory of New Guinea from 1 July 1921 to 30 June 1922
Appendix B

OBITUARY NOTICES

WALTER CHAMPION HACKETT

Summary

Mr. W. C. Hackett (74), formerly of Dequetteville Terrace, Kent Town, who died at a North
Adelaide private hospital on 25 May 1938 after a long illness, was one of Australia's most widely
known horticulturists. Born at Norwood, Mr. Hackett was educated at St. Peter's College. Leaving
school, he entered his father's business in 1880 as a seedsman and nurseryman, and followed that
calling for 40 years. He was a foundation director of the firm of E. & W. Hackett.

378

OBITUARY NOTICES

WALTER CHAMPION HACKETT

Mr. W.C. Hackett (74), formerly of Dequetteville errace, Kent Town, who
died at a North Adelaide private hospital on 25 May 1938 after a long illness,
was one of Australia’s most widely known horticulturists. Born at Norwood,
Mr. Hackett was educated at St. Peter’s College. Leaving school, he entered his
father’s business in 1880 as a seedsman and nurseryman, and followed that calling
for 40 years. He was a foundation director of the firm of E. & W. Hackett.

Greatly interested in floriculture, he was secretary of the S.A. Horticultural
and Floricultural Society for 35 years. He was also a member of the executive
of the Royal Agricultural and [lorticultural Society of -South Australia and
acted as one of its judges for many years.

One of Mr. Hackett’s greatest interests was the Royal Society, to which he
was elected in 1916 and which he served as Honorary Auditor until his death.
He was Chairman of the Field Naturalists’ Section. He was a great supporter
of the Fauna and [lora Protection Committee which, with the Royal Society,
was responsible for the National Park and Flinders’ Chase being secured for
the people.

He was elected a Fellow of the British Royal Horticultural Society in 1888,
and was a Life Member of the Royal Colonial Institute.

EDWARD MEYRICK, B.A., F-R.S.

Edward Meyrick, who was the world authority on the Micro-lepidoptera,
passed away at his residence at Marlborough, Wiltshire, England, in his eighty-
fiith year. From an early age, Meyrick took an interest in the Lepidoptera and
soon made the smaller forms his particular study, his first published note appear-
ing in 1875.

In 1877 he took up a scholastic post at Sydney, and a few years later a
similar post at Christchurch, New Zealand. During these years he found an
astonishing variety of micro-lepidoptera, and made thorough and intensive
collections. On his return to England in 1887 he became assistant master at the
public school at Marlborough, and from thence came a great succession of papers
dealing with these smal! moths from all regions of the world.

During his active work it has been estimated that he described some 20,000
species, besides many genera and families. ITis outstanding work was probably
the “Handbook of British Lepidoptera,” in which he placed the classification on
a sound basis.

He was clected an Honorary Fellow of this Society in 1898, and our Trans-
actions contain many papers dealing with his own groups.

379

Not only the Society, but entomology in general and Australian entomology
in particular, are poorer by the loss of this authority, for there are few younger
workers of his calibre to continue the much-needed work still to be done.

CHARLES ALLEN SEYMOUR HAWKER, M.A., M.ELR.

The late Capt. C. A. S. Hawker was born on 16 May 1894 at “Bungaree,”
Clare, South Australia, which estate was established by his grandfather, the
Hon. G. C. Hawker, M.P., who came to Australia in the “Lysander” in 1840.

Capt. Hawker was educated at Geelong Grammar School and Trinity College,
Cambridge, where he took his M.A. degree.

He erlisted in 1914 in the Somerset Light Infantry and saw service in
France and Belgium. Thrice wounded, he was invalided with the rank of
Captain and returned to Australia, where he took up pastoral pursuits. Me was
Vice-President of the Returned Soldiers’ Association in 1921, and a member of
the Commonwealth Board of Trade in 1927. In 1929 he was elected to the Com-
monwealth Parliament for Wakefield, which seat he retained until his untimely
death. During this time he held the position of Minister of Markets, of Repatria-
tion, and became the first Minister of Commerce.

He was elected a Fellow of this Society in 1924, and although he did not
take a very active part in the mcetings of the Society, his loss will be deeply felt.
The worst air tragedy of this country, on 25 October, has not only deprived us
of a valued member, but the country is the poorer for the death of a great
statesman and patriot who has carried on the highest traditions of a distinguished
family.

JOHN SUTTON

The late Mr. John Sutton was elected a Fellow of the Society in 1922. He
passed away on 22 November in his seventy-fourth year after a short illness.

Mr. Sutton took up the study of birds seriously at the age of 53, and after
the death of Mr. F. R. Zietz, when Dr. A. M. Morgan became Honorary
Ornithologist at the S.A. Muscum, he joined him as Assistant Honorary
Ornithologist. During his 15 years work in this position he put the large collec-
tions of birds on a sound and efficient basis of cataloguing, personally registering
about 15,COO specimens.

On the death of Dr. Morgan he became Honorary Ornithologist.

From 1922 until he retired in March last he was Honorary Secretary of the
South Australian Ornithologists’ Association. In 1927 he joined the editorial
committee of the “South Australian Ornithologist,” and to his enthusiasm and
ability the success of this publication was largely due.

Mr. Sutton was the author of many scientific publications on birds and their
habits, printed in the “Emu” and the “South Australian Ornithologist.”

Until recent years Mr. Sutton was a frequent attender at our meetings.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA (INCORPORATED).

Receipts and Payments account for the Year ended September 30, 1938.

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ROYAL SOCIETY LIBRARY

Additions to List, as published in Vol. 61, 1937, of Governments Societies, and Editors with whom
Exchanges of Publications are made.

Jugoslavia -- Société de Science Naturelle, Ljubljana.

Geelong Free Library.

AWARDS OF THE SIR JOSEPH VERCO MEDAL

The last award of the Medal was made by the Society at the Annual Meeting in October, 1938, to
Prof. J. A. Prescott in recognition of his researches on soil problems, which work was carried out
mainly at the Waite Institute, Glen Osmond, and the results largely published in the Transaction of
the Society.

LIST OF FELLOWS, MEMBERS, ETC.
AS ON 30 SEPTEMBER 1938

Those marked with an asterisk (*) have contributed papers published in the Society's Transactions.
Those marked with a dagger (+) are Life Members.

Any change in address or any other changes should be notified to the Secretary.

Note - The publications of the Society are not sent to those members whose subscriptions are in
arrear.

382

ROYAL SOCIETY LIBRARY

Additions to List, as published in Vol. 61, 1937, of Governments, Societies,
and Editors with whom Exchanges of Publications are made.
Jugoslavia—Société de Science Naturelle, Ljubljana.
Geelong Free Library.

AWARDS OF THE SIR JOSEPH VERCO MEDAL

1929 Pror. Water Howcnrn, F.G.S.

1930 Journ McC. Brack, A.L.S,

1931 Pror. Str Dovciras Mawson, O.B.E., D.Sc, B.E., F.R.S.
1933 Pror. J. Burton Cirranp, M.D,

1935 Pror. T. Harvey Jonnston, M.A., D..Sc.

1938 Pror, JAMrs A. Prescotr, D.Sc., A.LC.

The last award of the Medal was made by the Society at the Annual Meeting in

October, 1938, to Prof. J. A. Prescott in recognition of his researches on soil problems,
which work was carried out mainly at the Waite Institute, Glen Osmond, and the results
largely published in the Transaction of the Society.

LIST OF FELLOWS, MEMBERS, ETC.
AS ON 30 SEPTEMBER 1938

Those marked with an asterisk (*) have contributed papers published in the Society’s

Transactions, ‘Those marked with a dagger (7) are Life Members.

Any change in address or any other changes should be notified to the Secretary.

Note—The publications of the Society are not sent to those members whose subscriptions

are in arrear.

Date of

Election. Honorary Pretiows.

1910. *Bracc, Sir W. H., O.M., M.B.E., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Director of the Royal
Institution, Albemarle Street, London (Fellow 1886).

1926. *CrapMan, F., A.L.S., “Crohamhurst,” Threadneedle Strect, Balwyn, Vict.

1894. *Wixson, J. T., M.D. Ch.M., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy, Cambridge University,
England.

FELLows.

1935. Apam, Davin Bonar, B.Ag.Sc. (Melb.), Waite Agricultural Research Institute,
Glen Osmond, S.A.

1925. Avry, W. J., M.A., C.M.G., 32 High Street, Burnside, S.A,

1927, *AtperMAN, A. R., Ph.D., M.Sc., F.G.S., University, Adelaide—Council, 1937-.

1937. Amos, G, L., B.Sc., 233 Cross Roads, Cabra, S.A.

1931, Anprew, Rev. J. R., Methodist Mission, Salamo, via Samarai, Papua.

1935. *Anprewarrua, Hersert Grorcr, M.Ag.Sc., Waite Agricultural Research Institute,
Glen Osmond, S.A.

1935. *ANpREWARTHA, Mrs. Hattie Vevers, B.Ag.Sc., M.Sc., 29 Claremont Avenue,
Netherby, S.A.

1929. ANGEL, FRANK M., 34 Fullarton Road, Parkside, S.A.

Date of

383

Election.

1895. +*Asupy, Enowin, F.LS., M.B.O.U., Blackwood, S.A.—Council, 1900-19; Vice-

1902.
1936.

1932.

1928.
1928.
1931.
1934.
1907.

1936,

1923.
1922.
1907.
1929.
1933.
1895.

1929.
1930.
1907.

1938.

1929,
1924,
1937,
1929.

1928.

1927.
1930

1915.

1932.
1921.
1931.
1933.
1902.
1925.
1938.
1917.

1927.
1931.
1923.

1932.
1935.
1919,

President, 1919-21.

*Baxer, W. H., Ningana Avenuc, King’s Park, S.A.

Barrien, Miss, B.S., M.Sc., University, Adelaide.

Becc, P. R., D.D.Sc., L.D.S., 219 North Terrace, Adelaide.

Best, R. J., M.Sc. A.A.C.L, Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond, S.A.

*Best, Mrs. E. W., M.Sc., Claremont, Glen Osmond, S.A.

Breet, H. Mcl., M.R.C.S., M.R.C.P., D.P.M., Mental Hospital, Parkside, Adelaide.

Brack, E. C. M.B., B.S., Magill Road, Tranmere, Adelaide.

*Biacx, J. M., A.L.S., 82 Brougham Place, North Adelaide—Sir Joseph Verco Medal,
1930; Council, 1927-1931; President, 1933-34; Vice-President, 1931-33,

BoxytHon, THe Hon. Six Lancpox, K.C.M.G., Montefiore Hill, North Adelaide.

Burpon, Rov S., D.Sc., University, Adelaide, S.A.

*Camrnett, T. D., D.D.Sc., Dental Dept, Adelaide Hospital, Frome Road, Adelaide—
Rep.-Governor, 1932-33; Council, 1928-32, 1935; Vice-President, 1932-34; Presi-
dent, 1934-35.

*CHAPMAN, Sir R. W., Kt, CM.G., M.A, B.CE, F.RAS., 23 High Street, Burn-
side, S.A.—Council, 1914-22,

Curisne, W., M.B., B.S., Education Department, Flinders Street, Adelaide—
Treasurer, 1933-8.

Crarae, G. H,, BSc. Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond, S.A.

Crerann, Joun B., M.D., Professor of Pathology, University of Adelaide, 5.A.—
Sir Joseph Verco Medal, 1930; Council, 1921-26, 1932-37; President, 1927-28;
Vice-President, 1926-27.

Cretann, W. Paton, M.B., B.S., Dashwood Road, Beaumont.
*CoLounoun, T. T., M.Sc., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond, S.A.
*Cooke, W. T.. D.Sc., AA.C.L, University, Adelaide—Council, 1938-.

Connon, H. T., S.A. Museum, Adelaide.

*Cotton, Bernarp C., S.A. Museum, Adelaide.

pe Crespiony, C. T. C, D.S.0., M.D., F-R.C.P., 219 Nerth Terrace, Adelaide.

Croc<rr, Ropert L., B.Sc., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond, S.A.

*Davioson, Proressor James, D.Se., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen
Osmond, §.A.—Council, 1932-35; Vice-President, 1935-37, 1938-; President,
1937-38.

Davias, J. G., B.Sc. Ph.D., Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Box 109,
Canberra,

*Davres, Proressor E. Harotp, Mus.Doc., The University, Adelaide.

Drx, E. V., Glynde Road, Firle.

*Door, ALAN P., Prickly Pear Laboratory, Sherwood, Brisbane, Q.

Dunstonr, H. E., M.B., B.S., J.P., 124 Payncham Road, St. Peters, Adelaide.

Dution, G. H., B.Sc., 12 Halsbury Avenue, Kingswood, Adelaide.

Dwyer, J. M., M.B., B.S., 25 Port Road, Bowden.

Earotey, Miss C. M., B.Sc., University, Adelaide.

*Enovrst, A. G. 19 Farrell Street, Glenelg, S.A.

*Enaianp, H. N., B.Sc. Commonwealth Research Station, Griffith, N.S.W.

*Evans, J. W., M.A., Government Entomologist, Hobart, Tasmania.

*Henner, C, A. E., D.Sc., 42 Alexandra Avenue, Rose Park, Adelaide,—Rep. Governor,
1929-31; Council, 1925-28; President, 1930-31; Vice-President, 1928-30; Secretary,
1924-25; Treasurer, 1932-33; Editor, 1934-7.

*Frntayson, H. H. University, Adelaide—Council, 1937-.

Frewin, O. W., M.B., B.S., 68 Woodville Road, Woodville.

*Pry, H. K, D.S.0., M.D., B.S. B.Sc. F.R-A.C.P., Town Hall, Adelaide—Council,

1933-37: Vice-President, 1937-38; President, 1938-.

*Grrsow, E, S. FL, B.Sc., 297 Cross Roads, Clarence Gardens, Adelaide.

Giasrongury, J. O. G., B.A, M.Sc., Dip.Ed., 4 Mornington Road, Unley, S.A.

+Giastonrury, O, A., Adelaide Cement Co., Brookman Buildings, Grenfell Street,
Adelaide, S.A.

Goprrey, F. K., Robert Street, Payneham, $.A.

+GoLrsack, Harotp, Coromandel! Valley.

+Gosse, J. H., Gilbert House, Gilbert Place, Adelaide.

*Govrer, Grorce, A.M., B.Sc., F.G.S.; 232 East Terrace, Adelaide, S.A.

*Grant, Kerr, M.Sc., Professor of Physics, University, Adelaide, S.A.

384
Date of
Election.

1933. Gray, J. H., M.B., B.S., Orroroo, S.A.

1930. Gray James T., Orroroo, S.A.

1933. Greaves, H., Director, Botanic Gardens, Adelaide.

1904. Grirritu, H. B., Dunrobin Road, Brighton, S.A.

1934. Gunter, Rev. H. A., Riverton, S.A.

1927. *Hacxerr, C. J., M.D., c/o Bank of Adelaide, I.ondon.

1922, *Hare, H. M., The Director, S.A. Museum, Adelaide—Council, 1931-34; Vice-
President, 1934-36; 1937-8: Treasurer, 1938-.

1924. Hawker, Captain C. A. S., M.A., M.H.R., Dillowie, Hallett, South Australia.

1927. Horpen, Tur Hon. FE. W., B.Sc., Dequetteville Terrace, Kent Town, Adelaide.

1933. Hosxine, H. C., B.A., 24 Northcote Terrace, Gilberton, Adelaide.

1930. *Hoskine, J. S., B.Sc, Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond, S.A.

1924. *Hossreitp, Pau S., M.Sc., Office of Home and Territories, Canberra, F.C.T.

1928. Irourp, Percy, Kurralta. Burnside, $.A.

1918. *Isinc, Ernest H., c/o Comptroller’s Office, S.A. Railways, Adelaide—Council, 1934-.

1918. *Jennison, Rey, J. C, 7 Frew Street, Fullarton, Adelaide.

1910. *Jonnson, E, A, M.D., M.R.C.S., 8 Victoria Avenue, Unley Park, Adelaide.

1934, Jounston, J., AS.A.S.M., A.A.I.C, A.A.CI, Sewage Treatment Works, Glenelg, S.A.

1921. *Jomnston, Proressor T. Harvey, M.A. D.Sc., University, Adelaide—Sir Joseph
Verco Medal, 1935; Rep.-Governor, 1927-29; Council, 1926-28; Vice-President,
1928-31; President, 1931-32; Secretary, 1938-; Rep. Fauna and Flora Board,
1932-.

1929. Jounston, W. C., Manager, Government Experimental Farm, Kybybolite, S.A.

1920. *Jones, Proressor F. Woop, M.B., B.S., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., D.Sc., F.R.S., University
of Manchester—Rep. Governor, 1922-27; Council, 1921-25; President, 1926-27:
Vice-President, 1925-26; Rep. Fauna and Flora Board, 1922-26.

1933. *KLEEMAN, A. W., M.Sc, 46 Byron Road, Black Forest, S.A.

1922. Lennon, Guy A. M.D., B.S., M.R.C.P., North Terrace, Adelaide, S.A.

1930. *Louwycx, Rev. N. H., 85 First Avenue, St. Peters, Adelaide.

1938. Love, Rev, J. R. B., M.C. D.C.M., M.A., Kunmunya Mission, cia Broome, Western
Australia.

1931. *Lupproox, Mrs. N. H., M.A., Elimatta St, Reid, F.C.T.

1938, Manprrrn, C. B., B.D.S.. D.D.Sc., Shell House, North Terrace, Adelaide,

1922. *Manican, C. T., M.A, B.E., D.Sc, F.G.S., University of Adelaide—Council, 1930-33;
Vice-President, 1933-35, 1936-37: President, 1935-36.

1923. MarsHat., J. C., Mageppa Station, Comaum, S.A.

1933. Macarry, Miss K. de B., B.A., B.Sc., 301 Unley Road, Adelaide.

1932. Mann, E. A., C/o Bank of Adelaide, Adelaide.

19290, Makgtrn, F. C.. M.A., Technical High School, Thebarton, S.A.

1905. *Mawson, Str Dovcras, O.B.E., D.Sc., B.E., F.R.S., Professor of Geology, University
of Adelaide—Sir Joseph Verco Medal, 1931; Rep. Governor, 1933-; President,
1924-25; Vice-President, 1923-24, 1925-26,

1938. *Mawson, Miss P. M,, M.Sc., University, Adelaide.

1920. Mayo, Herzerr, LL.B., K.C., 16 Pirie Street, Adelaide.

1934. McCroucury, C. L, BE, A.M.LE, (Aust.), City Engineer’s Office, Town Hall,
Adelaide, S.A.

1920.) McLavucuiin, F., M.B., B.S., M.R.C.P., 2 Wakefield Street, Kent Town, Adelaide.

1907. Metrose, Ronerr T., Mount Pleasant, S.A.

1925, eines Proressor Sir W., K.C.M.G., M.A, D.Se., Fitzroy Terrace, Prospect,
elaide

1933. MuircHent, Proressor M. L., M.Sc., University of Adelaide.

1938. Moornousr, F. W., M.Sc., Chief Inspector of Fisheries, Flinders Street, Adelaide.

1924. Morrison, A. J.. Town Clerk, Town Hall, Adelaide, S.A.

1930. Morkis, L. G., Beehive Buildings, King William Street, Adelaide.

1936. *Mountrorp, C. P., 25 First Avenue, St. Peters, Adelaide.

1925. +Murray, Hon. Sir Georce, K.C.M.G., B.A,, LL.M., Magill, S.A.

1930. OckENvEN, G, P., Public School, Norton’s Summit, S.A.

1913. *Osrorn, T. G. B., D.Sc, Professor of Botany, University, Oxford, England—
Council, 1915-20, 1922-24; President, 1925-26; Vice-President, 1924-25, 1926-27.

1937. Parkin, Leste W., University, Adelaide.

1929. Pautr, Atex. G., M.A., B.Sc., Box 145, Port Lincoln, S.A,

1924. Prrxins, Proressor A. J., Marlborough Strect, Brighton.

385

Nate of

Election.

1928. Putrrs, Ivan F., Ph.D., B-Ag.Sc. Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen
Osmond, S.A.

1926. *Prpre, C. S., M.Se., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond, S.A.

1936. Pravr, Proressor A. E., M.D., BS., D.T.M., D.T.H. (Syd.), Dip.Bact. (London),
E.R.A.C.P., Adelaide Hospital, Adelaide, S.A.

1925. *Prescort, Proressor J. A., D.Sc, AL.C., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen
Osmond, S.A.—Sir Joseph Verco Medal, 1938; Council, 1927-30, 1935-; Vice-
President, 1930-32; President, 1932-33.

1926. Price, A. Grenrett, C.M.G., M.A., Litt.D., F.R.G.S., St. Mark’s College, North
Adelaide.

1937. *Rarm, W. L., M.Se., St. Peter’s College, Adelaide, S.A.

1925. Ricnarvson, A. E. V., M.A., D.Sc., Council for Scientific and Industrial Research,
314 Albert Strect, East Melbourne.

1905. *Rocmxs, R. S., M.A., M.D., D.Sc. F.L.S., 52 Hutt Street, Adelaide—Council, 1907-14,
1919-21; President, 1921-22; Vice-President, 1914-19, 1922-24.

1933. Scunemer, M., M.B., B.S,. 175 North Terrace, Adelaide.

1924. *Sranit, R. W., M.A, B.Sc. Assistant Government Geologist, Flinders Street,
Adelaide—Secretary, 1930-35; Council, 1937-38; Vice-President, 1938-.

1925. *Surarp, Haroip, Nuriootpa, S.A.

1936. *Suearp, Keirn, S.A. Museum, Adclaide, S.A.

1934, Sminxrrerp, R. C., Salisbury, S.A.

1928. Suower, H., 27 Dutton Terrace, Medindie, Adelaide, S.A.

1920. Simpson, A. A., C.M.G., C.B.E., F-R.G.S., Lockwood Road, Burnside.

1938. Simrsox, Mrs. Ef. R., University, Adelaide.

1924. Simeson, Frep. N., Pirie Street, Adelaide.

1925. +Smiru, T. E. Barr, B.A., 25 Currie Street, Adelaide.

1936. Sournwoon, Arnert R., M.D., M.S. (Adel.), M.R.C.P. (Lond.), Wootoona Terrace,
Glen Osmond, S.A.

1938. Steryens, C. G. M.Sc., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Gien Osmond, S.A.

1935. SrrickLanp, A. G., M Ag.Se. (Melb.), 11 Wootoona Terrace, Glen Osmond, Adelaide.

1922. Surron, J., Fullarton Road, Netherby.

1932. Swarx, D. C., M.Sc., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond, S.A.

1934. Symons, Ivor G., Murray Street, Mitcham.

1929. *Tavior, Joun, K., B.A., M.Sc., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond.

1923. *Tirnvare, N. B., B.Sc., South Australian Museum, Adclaide—Secretary, 1935-36,

1935. Triac, F., Government Printing Office, Adelaide, S.A.

1937. *TrumpBie, H. C., D.Sc, M.Ag.Sc., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen
Osmond, S.A.

1804. *Turner, A. Jerreris, M.D., F.R.E.S., Wickham Terrace, Brisbane, Q.

1925. Turner, Duptey C., National Chambers, King William Street, Adelaide.

1933, Wavkiry, A. B.A, B.Sc, Ph.D. Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen
Osmond, S.A.

1912. *Warn, L. Keir, B.A. B.E.. D.Se., Govt. Geologist, Flinders Street. Adelaide—
Council, 1924-27, 1933-35; President, 1928-30; Vice-President, 1927-28.

1936. WarterHouse, Miss Lorna M., 35 King Street, Brighton, S.A.

1931. Wiurson, C. E. C., M.B.,B.S.. “Woodfield,” Fisher Street, Fullarton, Adelaide.

1938. Wuson, J. O., Nutrition Laboratory, University, Adelaide.

1935. Wrxx er, Rev. M. T.. B.A., D.D., 20 Austral Terrace, Malvern, Adelaide.

1930. TSOP, H., F.R.ES., A.L.S., Museum, Adelaide—Secretary, 1936-37; Editor,
1937-.

1923. *Woon, J. G., D.Se., Ph.D., Professor of Botany, University, Adelaide—Council, 1938-.

ASSOCIATES.
1935. *Fenner, F. J., M.B., B.S., 42 Alexandra Avenue, Rose Park, Adelaide.
1936. Sprrac, Reainatn C., Toddville Street, Seaton Park, Adelaide.

386

GENERAL INDEX.

[Generic and specific names in italics indicate that the forms described
are new to science.]

Ablepharus greyii, (2), 189

Acacia Kempeana, (1), 102

Achromadora minima, ruricola, (1), 159

Acrobeles sp. (1), 152

Acrotriche fasciculiflora, (2), 355

Alaimidae, (1), 164

Alaimus minor, tasmaniensis, (10), 164

Alderman, A. R., Augen-gneisses in the
Humbug Scrub Area of South Australia
(1), 168

Allomachilis froggatti, (1), 5

Amphibolurus scutulatus, maculatus galaris,
reticulatus inermis, (2), 185; diemensis
(2), 186

Amphisorus hemprichii, (2), 301

Amphistegina hauerina, (2), 305, 311

Amphisteginidae, (2), 311

Anguillula aceti, (1), 151

Anguillulina (Fergusobia) currei, (1), 153

Anguillulina tritici, dipsaci, radicicola, (1),
153

Anguillilinidae, (1), 153

Anomalinidae, (2), 304

Anticoma lata, similis, trichura, (1), 163

Aphelenchoides fragariac, (1), 153

Aphelenchus fragariae, microlaimus, (1), 153

Aporcelaimus spiralis, (1), 165

Araeolaimus spectabilis, (1), 157

Ashby, E., Data showing Rate of Develop-
ment of Trunk of Tree-fern, (2), 286

Asperula eurypgylla var. tetraphylla, (2), 355

Augen-gneisses in the Humbug Scrub Arca
of South Australia, Alderman, A. R.,
(1), 168

Axonolaimidae, (1), 157

Axonolaimus sp., (1), 157

Azolla filiculoides var. rubra, (2), 352

Bastiana australia, (1), 157
Bathylaimus australis, (1), 160

Black, J. M., Additions to the Flora of South |

Australia, No. 36, (1), 101
Black, J. M., Additions to the Flora of South
Australia, No. 37, (2), 352
Blennodia blennodioides, brevipes, (1), 101
Brachiaria Gilesi, (2), 302
Brachynema obtusum, obtusa, (1), 165
Brown Coal of Moorlands; an Examination
of Cooke, W. T., (1), 9

Caconema radicicola, (1), 154

Camacolaimidae, (1), 157

Cambrian and Sub-Cambrian Formations at
Parachilna Gorge, Mawson, D., (2), 255

Camerinidae, (2), 309

Caladenia sigmoides, (1), 12

Cardamine hirsuta, (2), 354

Carpenteria rotaliformis, (2), 312

ce curvisiyla, (2), 354; concinna, (2),

Cassia oligophylla, (1), 102

Centrolepis glabra, (2), 352

Cephalobidae, (1), 152

Cephalobus cephalatus, multicinctus, similis,
(1), 152

Cephalonema longicauda, (1), 163; sp. (1),
164

ea (Furcocercaria) murrayensis, (1),
1

Cibicides lobatulus, (2), 304, 306

Chaetosoma falcatum, haswelli, (1), 162

Chaolaimus pellucidus, (1), 165

Chilostomellidae, (2), 311

Chordodes undulatus, caledoniensis, (1), 166

Chromadora conicaudata, (1), 158: ma-
crolaima, — macrolaimoides, microlaima,
minima, minor, wallini, (1), 159

Chromadoridac, (1), 158

Clavulina pacifica, (2), 290; difformis, multi-
camerata, (2), 29]

Cleland, FE. R., and Johnston, T. H., Larval
Trematodes from Australian Terrestrial
and Freshwater Molluscs, (1), 127

Climate of Tropical Australia in Relation to
possible Agricultural Occupation, Prescott,
J. A. (2), 229

Chromadorina macrolaima, (1), 159

Chromogaster purpurea, (1), 158

Cloacina elegans, (2), 271; hydriformis,
frequens, (2), 273; australis, contmunis,
(2), 273; mayna, petrogale, (2), 277;

macropodis, (2), 278; curta, (2), 279; dubia
(2), 280; ernabella, (2), 281; parva, (2),
282; minor, (2), 283; licbigi, (2), 284;
inflata, (2), 285

Comesoma heterura, jubata, similis, (1), 157

Comesomatidae, (1), 157

Contributions to the Orchidology of Austra-
lia, Rogers, R. S., (1), 12

Cooke, W. T., The Occurrence of Gallium
and Germanium in Local Coal Ashes, (2),
318

Cooke, W. T., An Examination of the Brown
Coal of Moorlands, pt. ii, (1), 9

Cotton, B. C., and Ludbrook, N. IL, Recent
and Fossil Species of the Scaphopod genus
Dentalium in Southern Australia, (2),
217

Crotalaria crispata, (1), 103

387

Cryphalus compactus, (1), 46; subcompactus,
(1), 47
Cryptolaimus pellucidus, (1), 158
Cyatholaimidae, (1), 159
Cyatholaimus brevicollis, (1),
heterurus, minimus, minor,
trichurus, (1), 160
Cylindrogasteridae, (1), 152

159; exilis,
proximus,

Dacryphalus, (1), 48

Diplopeltis stuartii, (2), 355

Davidson, J., On the Ecology of the Growth
of the Sheep Population in South Aus-
tralia, (1), 141

Davidson, J., On the Growth of the Sheep
Population in Tasmania, (2), 342

Dentalina obliqua, (2), 298

Dentalium, Recent and Fossil Species of the |
Scaphopod Genus in Southern Australia,
ies B. C, and Ludbrook, N. H., (2),
21

Dentalium bednalli, (2), 218; fliudersi, octo-
pleuron, tasmaniensis, francisense, (2), 219;
hemileuron, (2), 220

Dentalium obliquestriata, soluta, (2), 306

Dentalium obliqua, (2), 298, 305, 306

Dentalium vertebralis, (2), 306

Desmodium parvifolium, (1), 103; Muelteri,
neurocarpum, (1), 104

Desmodoricae, (1), 160

Desmoscolecidae, (1), 163

Desmoscolex spp., (1), 163

Dipetalonema dasyurt, (1), 109; roemeri, (1),
ltl; rarwm, (1), 114; spelaea, (1), 114;
trichosuri, asnulipapillatum, (1), 117;
tenue, (1), 118

Diphtherophora pellucida, (1), 165

Diphtherophoridae, (1), 165

Diplodactylus elderi, (2), 184

Diplogaster australis, graminum, trichuris,
(1), 152

Diplogasteridae, (1), 152

Discorbis globularis, dimidiatus, cyclo- |

clypeus, (2), 302
Discorbis vesicularis, evcloclypeus, (2), 305
Dorothia parri, (2), 306
Dorylaimidae, (1), 164
Dorylaimus, bastiana, (1), 164; gracilis, latus,
minimus, minutus, pusillus, spiralis, para-
spiralis, subsimilis, sfeincrianus, (1), 165
Drawings, Aboriginal Crayon, III, The
Legend of Wati Jula and the Kunkarun- |
kara Women, Mountlord, C. P., (2), 241 .
Drepanonerna spp, (1), 162
Drepanonematidae, (1), 161

Fegern’a inornata, (2), 187

Elphidium adelaidense, (2), 300, 305, 308;
advenum, (2), 299: chapmani, (2), 305, |
308; crispum, craticulatum, (2),
rotatum, (2), 299

305: |

Enchelidium sp., (1), 163

Enneapogon pallidus, (2), 352

Enoplidae, (1), 163

Episiphon, subg. of Dentalium, Dentalium
bordacnsis, (2), 220; hyperhemileuron,
(2), 221; tornatissimum, (2), 226

Eutylenchus setiferus, (1), 154

(?) Epistomaria polystomelloides, (2), 303

Epistomina elegans, (2), 305

Epsilonematidae, (1), 160

Epsilonematina, spp., (1), 161

a oe setistriatus, (1), 42, queenslandi,

),
Eudentalium beachportensis, (2), 220

Fenner, C. A., Australites, Pt. IIT; A Con-
tribution to the Problem of the Origin of
Tektites, (2), 192

Tilaria (s.1.) spp., (1), 120

Filarial Parasites of Australian Marsupials;
An Account of, Johnston, T. H., and
Mawson, P. M., (1). 107

Finlayson, H. H., On the Occurrence of a
Fossil Penguin in Miocene Beds in South
Australia, (1), 14

Finlayson, H. H., On a new Species of
Potorous from a Cave Deposit on Kan-
garoo Island, S.A., (1), 132

| Fissidentalium verconis, jaffaensis, (2), 221;

biirons, mantelli, (2), 222
Fliintina triquetra, (2), 295

| Flora of South Australia; Additions to,
No. 36, Black, J. M., (1), 101
Flora of South Australia: Additions to,

Na. 37, Black, J. M., (2), 352
Frondicularia lorifera, (2}, 307
Fustiaria acriculum, australe, (2), 226

Gadilina tatei, (2), 227

Galium devaricatum, (2), 355

Gallium and Germanium in some local Coal
Ashes: The Occurrence of, Cooke, W. T.,
(2), 318

. Gaudryina rugosa, (2), 305; victor:ana, (2),
06

Geological Features and Foraminiferal Fauna
of the Metropolitan Abbatoirs Bore: Notes
on, Ilowchin, W., and Parr, W. J., (2),
287

Germanium, The Occurrence of Gallium and;
in some local Coal Ashes, Cooke, W. T.,
(2), 318

Globergerina bulloides, (2), 306

Globulina gibha, (2), 305

Goodenia azurea, (2), 356

Gordiacea, (1), 166

Gordius incertus, flavus, (1),
166

Grant, Kerr, The Radio-activity and Coimpo-
sition of the Water and Gases of the
Paralana Hot Spring, (2), 357

tuberculatus,

388

Graphonema vulgaris, pachyderma, (1), 159

Graptacme sectiforme, (2), 225

Greeffiellidae, (1), 163

Grevillea stenobotrya, (1), 101

Guttulina problema, (2), 290, 305; reg:na,
(2), 290; irregularis, (2), 305

Gypsina globulus, (2), 304, 306, 312; how-
chini, (2), 306, 312; vesicularis, (2), 306

Gyro.dina soldanii, (2), 306

Hakea chordophylla, (1), 101

Halgamia erecta, solanacea, (2), 355

Halichoanolaimus australis, (1), 160

Hauerina ornatissima, (2), 294

Heterodera marioni, radicicola, schachtii, (1),
154

Heteronota binoei, (2), 184

Homotremidae, (2), 313

Hosking, J. 5S. Some Recent Volcanic
Deposits and Volcanic Soils from New
Britain, (2), 366

Howchin, W., and Parr, W. J., Notes on the
Geological Features and Foraminiferal

Fauna of the Metropolitan Abattoirs Bore, ,
' Ludbrook, N. H., and Cotton, B. C., Recent

Adclaide, (2), 287
Hybiscus brachychlaenus, pinonianus, Drum-
mondi, intraterraneus, (1), 105
Hydrocotyle comocarpa, (2), 355
Hyla caerulea, rubella, (2), 190
Elyleops, (1), 35; glabratus, (1), 36
Hylesinus cordipernis, (1), 34
Fylurdrectonus, (1), 40; piniarius, (1), 40
Hypocryphalus asper,
(1), 49

Hypothenemus tantillus, (1), 44; striato-
punctatus, (1), 45

Hypodontolaimus minor, (1), 159

Indigofera Georgei, linifolia, (1), 102;

hirsuta, viscosa, (1), 103
Ironeus longicauda, ignavus, (1), 164
Tronidac, (1), 163
Jseilema ercmacum, membranaceum, vagini-
florum, (2), 353

Jacksonia anomala, (1), 102

Johnston, T. H., Larval Trematodes from
Australian Terrestrial and Freshwater
Molluscs, Pt. IT, (1), 25

Johnston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M., An
Account of some Filarial Parasites of
Australian Marsupials, (1), 107

Johnston, T. H., and Cleland, E. R., Larval
Trematodes from Australian Terrestrial
and Freshwater Molluscs, (1), 127

Johnston, T.
living and Plant Parasitic Nematodes
recorded as occurring in Australia, (1),
149

H. A Census of the Free- |

(1), 48; spathulatus, -

Johnston, T, H., and Mawson, P, M.,
Strongyle Nematodes from Central Aus-
tralian Kangaroos and Wallabies, (2),
263

Labiostrongylus macropodis, (2), 266; longi-

spicularis, (2), 268; grandis, (2), 269;
petrogale, (2), 270
Laevidentalium subfissura, _pictile, longi-

crescens, (2), 225; lacteolum, (2), 226

Lagenidae, (2), 298

Laxus longus, (1), 160

Lent.culina rotulaya, (2), 305

Leper:sinus tricolor, (1), 34

Lepidium halmaturinum, (2), 354

Leptosomatum australe, (1), 163

Letznerella tricolor, (1), 41

Leucochloridium australiense, (1), 25

Lialis burtonis, (2), 185

Limncdynastes sp., (2), 189

Linhomoeidae, (1), 158

Loveridge, A., On some Reptiles and Amphi-
bians irom the Central Regions of Aus-
tralia, (2), 183

and Fossil Species of the Scaphopod
Genus Dentalium in Southern Australia,
(2), 217

Lygosoma (Leiolopisma) trilineatum, (2), 189

Machilidae: Studies in Australian Thysanura,
No. 4, Womersley, H., (1), 1

» Machiloides australicus, (1), 4

Marginopora vertebralis, (2), 301

| Mawson, Sir D., Cambrian and Subcambrian

Formations at Parachilna Gorge, (2), 255

Mawson, P. M., and Johnston, T. H., An
Account of some Filarial Parasites of
Australian Marsupials, (1), 107

Mawson, P. M., and Johnston, T. HL,
Strongyle Nematodes from Central Aus-
tralian Kangaroos and Wallabies, (2), 263

Mermithidac, (1), 166

Message Sticks; Aboriginal, from the Nulla-
bor Plains, Mountford, C. P., (1), 122

Miniacina miniacea, (2), 305; minuta, (2),
306, 311

Monhysteridae, (1), 157

Monhysteria australis, brevicollis, diplops, fili-
formis, gracillime, gracilior, pactfica, (1),
157; insignis, lata, pratensis, rustica,-
setosissima, tasmanicnsis, villosa, (1), 158

Mononchidae, (1), 164

Mononcholaimus elegans, tasmaniensis, (1),
163

Mononchus intermedius, longicaudata, macro-
stoma, major, similis, (1), 164

Mountford, C. P., Aboriginal Crayon Draw-
ings. pt. iii; The Legend of Wati Tula and
the Kunkarunkara Women, (2), 241

389

Mountford, C. P., Aboriginal Message Sticks {
from the Nullarbor Plains, (1), 122
Myctolaimus pellucidus, (1), 152

Nanonema longicauda, (1), 164

Nematodes: A Census of the Free-living and
Plant Parasitic; recorded as occurrimg in
Australia, Johnston, T. 11, (1), 149

Nematodes, Strongyle; from Central Aus-
tralian Kangaroos and Wallabies, John-
ston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M., (2), 263

Neonchus longicauda, (1), 160

Nephrurus laevis, (2), 184

Nodohaculariella cultrata, (2), 296

Nonion depressulus, (2), 305

Nonionidae, (2), 299, 308

Nonion novozealandicus, (2), 308

Notochaetosoma cryptocephalum, tenax, (1), !
162

Nubecularia lucifuga, (2), 296; var. lapidea,

(2), 297

Odontolaimus chlorurus, (1), 160

Oncholaimidae, (1), 163

Oncholaimus pellucidus, viridis, (1), 163

Qperculina umbonifera, (2), 305, 309; vic-
toriensis, (2), 305, 306, 309

Ophthalmidiidae, (2), 296

Orchidology of Austraha; Contribution to
the, Rogers, R. S. (1), 12

Orthoceras strictum, (2), 353

Oxystomina pellucida, (1), 163

Pachyectes peregrinus, (1), 37; australis,
(1), 38; clavatus, (1), 39

Parachordodes annulatus, (1), 167

Paradentalium aratum, (2), 223; latesulca-
tum, semiaratum, howchini, (2), 224

Paralana Hot Spring; The Radio-activity and
Composition of the Water and Gases of,
Grant, Kerr, (2), 357

Parr, W. J., and Howchin, W., Notes on the
Geological Features and Foraminiferal
Fauna ot the Metropolitan Abattoirs Bore,
Adclaide, (2), 287

Pencroplidae, (2), 300

Peneroplis pertusus, (2), 300

Penguin: On the Occurrence of a Fossil
in Miocene Beds in South Australia,
Finlayson, H. H., (1), 14

Perotis indica, latifolia, rara, (2), 352

Pharyngostrongylus alpha, (2), 264; beta,
(2), 266

Phiocsinus australis, (1), 36

Physignathus longirostris, (2), 186

Pimelea dichotoma, flava, (2), 355

Piper, C.S, The Red-brown Earths of South
Australia, (1), 53

Planorbulina mediterranensis, (2), 306, 311;
inaequilateralis, (2), 311

Planorbulinella plana, (2), 306

Planorbulinidae, (2), 304, 311

Platypodidae, Scolytidae and; New Species
ot; from Australia, and the Fiji Islands,
(1), 34

Plectidae, (1), 156

Plectus aguilior, cephalatus, insignis, inter-
medius, minimus, parietinus, pusillus, (1),
156

Polygonum prostratum, (2), 353

Polymorphina myrae, (2), 307

Polymorphinidae, (2), 298, 307

Polystomellina howchini, (2), 300

Potorous; On a New Species of; from a
Cave Deposit on Kangaroo Island, Finlay-
son, H. H., (1), 132

Potorous moryani, (1), 132

Prescott, J. A., The Climate of Tropical Aus-
tralia in relation to possible Agricultural
Occupation, (2), 229

Prescott, J. A., and Skewes, H. R., An-
Examination of some Soils from the more
Arid Regions of Australia, (2), 320

Prismatolaimus australis, (1), 164

Prupe and Koromarange : A Legend of the
Tanganekald, Coorong, South Australia,
Tindale, N. B., (1), 18

ara rutila var. parri, (2),
30

Psoralia pustulata, (1), 102

Pterostylis Mitchelli, (1), 12; pusilla, mutica,
(1), 13

Ptychosema sfipularc, trifoliatum, (1), 103

Pultenaea trifida, (2), 355

Pyrgo bulloides, (2), 296; depressa, (2), 306

Quinqueloculina agglutinans, (2), 291, 305 ;
seminulum, vulgaris, bosciana, lamarckiana,
polygona, (2), 292; limbata, (2), 293;
adclaidensis, (2), 293, 305; venusta, 305

Radio-activity, The; and Composition of the
Water and Gases of the Paralana Hot
Spring, Grant, Kerr, (2), 357

Red-brown Earths: The, of South Australia,
Piper, C. S., (1), 53

Reptiles and Amphibians ; On some, from the
Central Region of Australia, Loveridge,
A., (2), 183

Rhabdiasidae, (1), 151

Rhahdites allgeni, (1), 151

Rhabdites allgent, autsralis, cylindrica, fili-
formis, minuta, monhysteria, pellioides,
simplex, (1), 151

Rhabditidae, (1), 151

Rhynehoelaps bertholdi, (2), 183

Rogers, R. S., Contributions to the Orchi-
dology of South Australia, (1), 12

Rotaliidac, (2), 302, 310

Rotalia beecarii, (2), 303; verriculata, (2),
305, 306, 310

390

Robulus cultratus, (2), 305
Rupertiidae, (2), 312

Schedl, K. E., Scolytidae and Platypodidae.
New Species from Australia and the Fiji
Islands, (1), 34

Scolytidae and Platypodidae. New Species
from Australia and the Fiji Islands, (1),
34

Sheep Population: On the Ecology of the
Growth of the; in South Australia, David-
son, J., (1), 141

Sheep Population in Tasmania; On
growth of the, Davidson, J., (2), 342

Sigmomorphia subregularis, (2), 305, 308

Sigmoide'la elegantissima, (2), 298, 299, 305,
306; kagaensis, (2), 298, 299, 305

Siphonolaimidae, (1), 158

Siphonolaimus purpurcus, (1), 158

Skewes, H. R., and Prescott, J. A. An
Examination of some Soils from the more
Arid Regions of Australia, (2), 320

Soils from the more Arid Regions of Aus-
tralia; an Examination of; Prescott, J. A.
and Skewes, H. R., (2), 320

Solanum phlomoides, nemophilum, (1),

Sorites marginalis, (2), 301

Sphaerotdina bulloides, (2), 311

Spilophora loricata, (1), 159

Spilophorella tasmaniensis, (1), 159

Spira similis, (1), 160

Spirina similis, (1), 160

Sporobolus pulchellus, (2), 352

Spiroculina apidigera, (2),
antillarum, (2), 293

Stellaria filiformis, (2), 353

Stephanoderes melasomus, (1), 46

Stipa elatior, (1), 101

Strongylcididae, (1), 152

Strongyloides stercoralis, papillosus, (1), 152

Stylidium inaequipetalum, (1), 106

Symplocostoma fongicolle, (1), 163

the

105

294, 305,

Tektites: A Contribution to the Problem of
the Origin of, Fenner, C. A., (2), 192

Tephrosia phacosperma, eriocarpa, (1), 103

Terschellingia exilis, (1), 158

Textularia sagittula, (2), 305; agglutinans
var. porrecta, gramen, concava, (2), 306

Thelymitra Dedmanae, (1), 13

Thysanura: Studies in Australian; No. 4,
Machilidae, Womersley, H., (1), 1

Tiliqua occipitalis, multifasciatus, casuarinae
petersi, (2), 188

Tindale, N. B., Prupe and Koromarange. A
Legend of the Tanganekald, Coorong,
South Australia, (1), 18

Tree-tern: Data showing Rate of Develop-
ment of Trunk of, Ashby, E., (2), 286

Trematodes; Larval; from Australian Ter-
restrial and Freshwater Molluscs, pt. iti,
Johnston, T. H., (1), 25

Trematodes; Larval; from Australian Ter-
restrial and Freshwater Molluscs, pt. iv,
Cercaria (Furcocercaria) murrayensis,
Johnston, T. H., and Cleland, 1. R.

Tricoma sp. (1), 163

Trilobidae, (1), 164

Triloculina oblonga, tricarinata, cultrata, (2),
295; trigonula, circularis, (2), 305

Tripyla tenuicauda, (1), 164

Tripyloididae, (1), 160

Tristicochaeta falcata, haswelli, (1), 162

Tylenchus semipenetrans, arenarius, (1),
154; dovainii, dihystera, dipsaci, devasta-
trix, emarginatus, minutus, radicicola, (1),
155; scandens, setiferus, tritici, uniformis,
(1), 156

Typhlops bituberculatus, (2), 183

Varanus gouldii, gilleni, (2), 186

Viscos'a pellucida, (1), 163

Volcanic Deposits and Volcanic Soils from
New Britain; Some Recent, Hosking, J.
S., (2), 266

Wahlenbergia quadrifida, multicaulis, (2),
356

Womersley, H., Studies in Australian Thy-
sanura, No. 4, Machilidae, (1), 1

Xanthorrhoea quadrangulata, (1), 101
Xyleborus acanthurus, fyianus, (1),
cucalypticus, (1), 51

50;

Zoisia Matrella, macracantha, (2), 353

CORRIGENDA
Page 154, line 3, and page 156, line 4, for Zntylenchus read Eutylenchts.

Wholly set up and printed in Australia by Gillingham & Co. Limited, 106 Currie Street, Adelaide

CONTENTS

PART I

Womersiey, H.: Studies in Australian Thysanura No. 4, Machilidae ..

Cooke, W. Ternent: An Examination of the Brown Coal of Moorlands Pt. il

Rocers, R. S.: Contributions to the Orchidology of Australia

FINLAYSON, H. H.: On the Occurrence of a Fossil Penguin in Miocene Beds ii in | South
Australia a

TINnbDALE, N. B.: Prupe and Koromarange—A Legend of the Tanganekald, Coorong, Ss. A.

JouNsTon, T. H,, and Creranp, E. R.: Larval Trematodes from Australian Terrestrial
and Freshwater Molluscs Pt. 100 eae a fe i ais

Scuept, Kari E.: Scolytidae and Platypodidae. "No. 49 :

Corton, B. C.: Rediscovery of the Bivalve Psammobia benyoniana P Prit. & ‘Gat, "1904, in
South Australia... 5 :

Pirer, C. S.: The Red- brown Earths of South ‘Australia Z

Brack, J. M.: Additions to the Flora of South Australia No, tes

JounsTon, T. H., and Mawson, P. M.: An Account of some Filarial Parasites of
Australian Marsupials 2 +4

Mountrorp, C. P.: Aboriginal Message Sticks from the Nullarbor Plains =

JoHNSTON, Tr H., and CLeranp, E. R.: Larval Trematodes from Australian Terrestrial
and Freshwater Molluscs Part IV

Fin.tayson, H. H.: On a New Species of Patoroiis (Marsupiaha) from a Cave Deposit

on Kangaroo Island, South Australia ..
Davipson, J.: On the Ecology of the Growth of the Sheep Population in South Australia

Jounston, T. H.: A Census of the Free-living and Plant-parasitic Nematodes recorded

as occurring in Australia
AvpEeRMAN, A. R.: Augen-gneisses in the Humbug Scrub Area, South Australia

PART II :
Loverince, A.: On some Reptiles and Amphibians from the Central Region of Australia
Fenner, C. A. E.: Australites, Pt. III. A Contribution to the Problem of the Origin
of Tektites
Corron, B. C., and LupgRoox, N. H.: Recent and Fossil Species of the Scaphopod genus
Dentalium in Southern Australia
Prescort, J. A.: The Climate of Tropical ‘Australia in | Relation to ‘possible Agricultural
Occupation
MountrForp, C. P.: Aboriginal Crayon Drawings, Il. The Legend of Wati Jala and
the Kunkarunkara Women 5
Mawson, D.: Cambrian and Sub- Cambrian Formations at Parachilna Gorge Ka
Jounston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M.: Strongyle Nematodes from Central Australian
Kangaroos and Wallabies RS me 3
Asupy, E.: Data showing Rate of Development of Trunk of Tree- fern a
Howcuin, W., and Parr, W. J.: Notes on the Geological Features and Foraminiferal
Fauna of the Metropolitan Abattoirs Bore, Adelaide
Cooke, W. Trrnent: The Occurrence of Gallium and Germanium in some Local
Coal Ashes
Prescott, J. A., and SKEWES, H. R: An Examination of some Soils from the more
Arid Regions of Australia a = na a
Davipson, J.: On the Growth of the Sheep Population ; in Tasmania.
Mawson, D.: The Mount Caernarvon Series of Proterozoic -
Brack, J. M.: Additions to the Flora of South Australia. No. 37 .
Grant, Kerr: The Radio-activity and Composition of the Water and Gases ‘of the
Paralana Hot Spring...
Hosxine, J. S.: Some Recent Volcanic Deposits, and Volcanic Soils from New "Britain
OBITUARIES 4 ay a tie * és ig ie He ae a
BALANCE-SHEETS
AppiTions To Liprary ‘EXCHANGES -
Sm Josep VErco MEDALISTS
List oF FELLOWS ae ae
INDEX... ar a4 ae
CorRIGENDA